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MEMOIB,

-"A

DESCRIPTIVE AND EXPLANATOBY,

or THB

NORTHERN

ATLANTIC OCEAN;

AND COMPRI8INO

INSTRUCTIONS, GENERAL AND PARTICULAR,

FOR

THE NAVIGATION OF THAT SEi^;

BY JOHN PURDY.

ELEVENTH EDITION ; MATERIALLY IMPROVED,

BY ALEXANDER G. FINDLAY,

Frihw of the Rojfol Otofraphieal Soeitty,

r"\

LONDON:

PRINTED BY AND FOR RICHARD HOLMES LAURIE,
63, FLEET STREET, E.O.

1861.

. 'V J. , ill.:)' 1

;r::;f-r'?

J .

a!^t?"; -^t>:-Ne:!:, -^'^

O'br the glad wutera of the dark blue Sea,
Our thoughts as boundless, and our souls as free,
<r Far as the breeze can bear, the billows foam,
Survey our Emfihb, and behold our Homx."

(Zonf -Byron.)

" M

.-f;j*v,

[ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HAIX.]

, r '■•

t ■/ -'. ... V.

• ; .. ! ' • A

V . !.<:!

« , V

P K E F A C E.

; present Work haa been before the Public for half a century , — a period that baa
lesaed a total change in the aapeot and requirementB of Hydrographyi as in most
^er aepartments of knowledge.

Professing to deal with the subject in its present condition, this Edition bears no.
emblance to the Work in its original form, except in the title it bears : every topic
. every page has been changed by the gradual or sudden accession of facts which
lern industry and refinement bring to bear upon every branch of inquiry.

lere has been no greater advance made during any portion of the long-time that

I elapsed since its first appearance, than has taken place during the last ten years ;

. to represent that advance this Edition has been entirely remodelled, and may be

^sidered rather as a new Work upon the former arrangement, than as a revised

luction.

The great distinction between modem progress and that .which the various
itions in former years had to record, is, that each branch of Science is now elabo-
Bly investigated by Oovemment, and to these labours the painstaking individual
scarcely hope to add anything.

lie most refined and exact Surveys of the shores and banks, vrith all their
endant features, have in many coses been completed and publishfsd within these

years. In the subject of Meteorology vast progress has been made in the same
erval ; and the United States' Government claim the gratitude of every sailor for
I labors in this department.

examination of the bottom of the oceau, almost a new subject, and yet in its

kancy, has already dispelled many of those dangers which were formerly believed to

st. The .beantiftd Lighthouse systems; the various features which have been

ainated in the Wind and Current systedis, and their bearing upon the best routes

' traversing the Ocean ; the more exact acquaintance with the magnetical condition

Ithe Earth, and the most important connexion this haa with the increasing number

[iron ships, with many other subjects, will be duly discussed in the ensuing pages.

To enumerate the authorities to which we are indebted would be to offer a long
; ; we have duly acknowledged them throughout the Work : and we trust that this
sv«nth Edition may do good service to the mariner in ito quiet utility, as has been
by those which have preceded it.

A. 0. FiNDLAT.
iLoMDON, I'Scpt. 2, 1861. ' ' . ' ' i

PBEFACE TO THE EIGHTH EDITION.

-■,/• **f(ff

This work is designed to impart to the Navigator the Means of Safety over the
Atlantic ; to develop the silent and imperceptible Causes of Ehkok and Ship-
vrvLECK ; to point out tl le Best Routes to the numoroa<) Ports of this Ocean; and to
communicate useftil Uints on General Nautical Practice.

Seven editions have already been honoured by the public approbation ; and, stimu-
lated by such encouragement, no attention has been spared in rendering an Eighth
still more wortiiy of acceptance. ^, y^fe i^'' w'^f %

A comparison of the latter Editions ^ith those that preceded them, will show how
much we have been indebted to numerous friends for lecent and important informa-
tion. We have had, aorain and again, to thank Captain Livingston, of Liverpool,
for his numerous and valuable communications. In like manner have we been
indebted to Lieutenant John Evans {a\ R.N., and to Commander Edward
Uunsterville, whose information more fully appears in another work.*

To the subject of Currents, in particular, it will be found that our attention has
been directea. These currents hare at length excited that inquiry into their naturo
and causes which the importance of the subject demands. This has been especially
evinced by the curious and elaborate work composed by the late Major Bennell;
which has confirmed, generally, all that we had previously stated, and luis, moreover,
explained several essential particulars before unknown. Further investigations have
been promised ; so that we may expect, ultimately, an accurate view of all the
Athntie Currents, as they predominate in the different seasons, .^y, ■ --.■ v.-

We enlarge the more especially upon the Currents, because, as now treated on,
they are to seamen almost a new subject. To the majoi-ity it is, at least, ono on
which they particularly require information. If this position be doubted, consult the
melancholy events produced by them, which are deacriiied in the present volume, and
take into considcitition the inconiparablo number of similar cases wliich must neces-
sivrily have escaped our noticed ; and of which many have been the indubitable efiects
eflects of a conHdence arising from iijnorance and self-conceit.!

, • " The Colombinn Navigntor," Editions of 1839. ' ', ;: " »/ ;>< j .•■ ' >>•

t The numerous wrecks that formerly occnrred on the rocks and islands of Soilly, from
ignorance of the tides and currents, are notorious. Add ' > these the wrecks, still more
numerous, which have occurred on' the coasts of Spain, Portugal, and Africa ; upon which
side of the ocean the currents have uniforndy produced more mischief than on the opposite
coasts. Among these were the British frigate Apollo, and about forty ships under her
convoy, on the coasts of Portugal, as described hereafter, p. 275 ; of the vessel with M. de
Hrisson, in 1787, on the coast upon which, in 1810, the American ship Charles vtaa wrecked,
lis noticed and described in a succeeding page ; of the Montezuma, of the Eliza and Olymphe,
both in 1827 •' of the brig Commerce ; of the Oswego; and of the Medusa; and about thirty
other vessels lost on the African coast, of which, according to the respectable authority of
Mr. Jackson, about seventeen were English, and five American ; twenty-six others wrecked
on the Bar of Senegal, at different times, according to M. Golbcry.

Many ships, also, have been lost by the currents, &c., on AUograuisa, Graciosa, imd Santa
Olarii, of the Canaries ; the Hartwe/f, East Indiiiman, on the roefe of Bonavista, the
C'l/iithin, Geortjr, Cora, &c., on the South shore of Barbadocs ; and, by similar causes, several
others, on the Ilotia8,1^c,, off the Biasiliun coast. Many are recorded as being wrecked

PKEFACE TQ THE EIGHTH EDITION.

ij»-»

AFETT over the

LOR and Ship-

Ocoan} and to

sn ; and, stimu-
ringau Eighth

, will show how
toi'tant informa-
', of Liverpool,
have we been
1DER Edward
k.*

ir attention has
ito their nature
been especially

LJOR ReNNELI.;

. has, moreover,
stigations have
iew of all the

w treated on,

least, ono on

1, consult the

volume, and

ch must neces-

ibitable effects

bf Scilly, from

pks, still more

upon which

|n the opposite

lips under her

|el with M. de

I was wrecked,

r and Olymphe,

about thirty

authority of

Ithori) wrecked

ha, and 8anta

|ouaviNta, the

tuses, several

ling wrecked

In prc'onting the former Edition, we had to return our thanks for thoir valuable
communications, to John Mackellar, Esq., since Uear-Admiral of the White ; and to
the Moroantilc Captains, James Wallace Monteath, of Liverpool ; John Wihon and
ThomoB Hamlin, of Greenock ; Wm. J. Capes, then of the iadf/ Mackteorth : John
Steele Park, of the Oarthaitim Park,- and Thos. WiUon, of the Henry WeUetley.
To several of thrae gentlemen, to the late Captain Midgleu, and to CiMptain Oeorge
Cheveley, we have t^ain been obliged for important ana valuable additioBB, now
incorporated in the work. '

To Lieutenant Charles Hare, K.N., we are indebted for the route described by him
for shi[)s bound to New Brunswick, &c. ,jn the 8Ucoeedin|y pages 437, 4.39. This route
is so evidentlv andsreatly advantageousfU UVUry UUliibiauder ana merchant in that
trade, as to aemand particular notice. To the MeUdship of Mr. Wm, Heron, of
Greenock ^since deceased), we have been indebted for several matters of importance {
among which will be foiwd some explanation of the omrent'S about the southern coast
of Newfoundland ; currents which, while unknown, have probably been tlie caiise of
so many wrecks on that coast.

The important communications of an accomplished officer. Lieutenant Oreevelink,
late of the Dutch Royal Navy, which have added so considerably to a due knowledge
of the West Indian Seas, have been incorporated and acknowledged in the " Colom-
bian Navigator ;" and so much of a general nature, as the subject required, has been
re-introduced in the present volume.

In the Tables of Positions and Directions, many additions have been made from
the Observations and Surveys of the officers appointed to the surveying service by
their Lordships of the Admiralty, as well as by other scientific men. The new docu-
ments more especially include the Memoir and Surveys of the Baron Houssin, of the
French Navy ; with those of Captains Wm. F. Owen, Jlichard Owen, Edward Belcher,
Thos. Boteler, Wm. Mudge, A. T.E. Vidal, John Washington, and H. W. Bayfield,
of the British Navy ; Colonel Sabine, of the Royal Artillery ; with many articles irom
the " Nautical Magazine, &c., as noticed and acknowledged hereafter.

The Directors of the " Deposito Hydrografico" of Madrid have done us the honour
of translating for, and inserting into, the " Den'otero de las Antillas" all that we had
heretofore collected on the subject of Currents, and have superadded thereto some
additional and valuable remarks, which we have incorporated in this work.
Numerous facts, of late date, illustrating the general sot of currents, will be found
described under their proper heads.

' The summary descriptions of all the Liohthouseh on the different coasts, will, we
trust, be considci-ed as an important and useful uddition ; inasmuch as they will, if
attended to, prevent those accidents which ha\ e so frequently happened from mis-
taking one light for another, examples of which will be noticed hereafter.

Our ardent wishes are, as our strenuous efforts have been, devoted to the improve-
ment of Hydrography ; and we therefore, again, earnestly solicit communications for
futui-e correction, &c. Such communications are pai-ticularly acceptable, because
ouiGTNAL and authentic ; and, therefore, more to be depended upon than the im-
perfect statements ccmmonly given in newspapers and other publications, as we have
ah'eady had occasion to notice. The great importance of the latter has, however,
been admitted ; and we may here repeat the observation, that " A scries«of such
notices, proverly authenticated, announcing the discovery and position of
dangers, new deteiminations of the sitnations of places, &c., with the particulars of
the observations, and names of the observers, would be very beneficial to the public
service. Had such a measure been adopted years ago, many fine ships which, and

about Newfoundland, including the Tweed, the Comm, the Harpooner, the Drake, and the
Spence ; and to these may be added the Lndt/ Sherbrooke, from Londonderry to the River
8t. liawroiico, lost near Port-au-Bawquf, East of Cape Race, Newfoundland, in July, 1831,
when 300 persons perished !

PREFACE TO THE EIGHTH EDinON.

bnve lailon who, have been lost, might still have been in exitttenoe." We have
urged thie ai'gument repeatedly, and have hod the pleasure of seeing that, to a certain
denee, tiie suggestion has been adopted.

The Volume lately published, entitled " A Sailing Direotory for the Ethiopic or
Southern Atlantic Ocean," may be considered as a continuation of the present work.
It describes, in a similar manner, the Islands and Dangers of that Ocean, the Coast of
Africa from Sherboro' Island to the Cape of Good Hope and Algoa Bay, and the
Coasts of Brasil, &c., from the River Marafion Southward, to Cape Horn, including
the Falklaqd Inlands, South Shetland, &o.

John Pubdt.

f The First Edition of thiH work appeared, without prefkoe or apology, in the year

I -ipi2» a second was soon required, and, during the kfetime of its origmal composer,

tigid editions were called fur, to the laat of which the foregoing preface was affixed. ,

Before submitting a Ninth to public notice, the present Editor felt some diffidence
in attempting to improve that wmch had employed ho much of the time and talent of
the late Mr. Purdy ; but, as Hydrogi-aphy, and the many branches of science there-
with connected, are continually recuiving fr^tih accessions, from the seal and activity
of the numerous observers that are at present labouring in the wide field of research,
some revision was rendered alwolutely necessary.

In the performance of this task, many redundances were to be removed, many
important points to be dilated on. It is hoped that nu source of authentic informa-
tion has b^n overlooked, and that the work, as it is, offers a correct picture of the
state of our Hydrographical knowledge at the present tinie.

Our thanks are due to many kind contributors, whose names and observations are
recorded throughout the work, and we hero tender them our acknowledgments.

Alex. O. Finolat.

.V^f:

@;*:

1 1

CONTENTS.

8EGTI0H X

GENERAL REMARKS, WITH TABLES OP DETERMINED POSITIONS,

AND THE AUTHORITIES, ETC., INCLUDING THE VARIATION OP
THE COMPASS, ETC.

PAGE

Genjsral Remarks 1

Limits of the Atlantic, 1 ; Remarks on the Charts, 2, 3 ; Leng^ tit Coast
Line, 0, 6.

1. England and Waales — ^Positions of Places, 7 j notes , 10

2. Islands a,nd Coasts of Scotland— Positions, 11 ; notes 13

3. Coasts of Ireland, &c. — ^Positions of Places, 14 ; notes 18

4. Norway and Sweden— Positions of Places, 17 ; notes 20

5. Denmark, Germany, and Holland — Positions of Places, 21 ; notes 24

6. Coasts of France, &c.— Positions of Places, 25 ; notes 27

7. Spain and Portugal — Positions of Places, .28 ; notes '. 31

8. Coasts of Africa — Positions of Places, 33 ; notes 38

9. The Azores or Western Islands — Positions 40

10. The Madeira and Canary Islands — Positions 42

11. The Cape Verde Islands — ^Positions ...; 44

12. The Feeroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, Labrador, and Newfoundland —

Positions 46

13. Gulf and River of St. Lawrence, with Breton Island — Positions 53

14. NoTu Scotia, &c., Southern Coasts — Positions, 61 ; New Brunswick 62

15. The United States— Positions, 64 ; notes 69

16. The Bermuda Islands — ^Positions 73

17. The Bahama and Passage Islands — Positions 74

18. Cuba, Jamiuca, &c. — ^Positions 79

19. St. Domingo or Hayti, Porto Rico, and the Virgin Islands — Positions 84

20. The Caribbee and Leeward Islands — Positions 89

21. The Coasts of Guyana, Colombia, &c., to the Mexican Sea, inclusive —

Positions.... 92

sEcirioir n.

DESCRIPTION AND LIST OF LIGHTHOUSES.
Lighthouses and theie Illumination

Lighthouses and Light-vessels, 97 ; Lamps, 97 ; Catoptric or Reflector
System, 98; latermittiAg light, 99; Dioptric or Lens System, 99;
Dia-catoptrio Prisms, 101 ; Fixed and Flashing Light, 101 ; Holophotal
System, 102 ; Orders of Lens Lights. 102 ; Range and Character pf
Lights, 103 ; Description of Tables, 104.

TUl

CONTENTS.

List of Lighthouses

England, Thames Mouth, 105 ; South Coast, 106, 7, 8 ; West Coast, 109 ;
Woha, 110 ; England, North- West Coast, 111, 112 ; East Coast,
113—115.

Scotland, East Coast, 116, 7 ; Orkney and Shetland Isies, 118, 9 ; Hehrides
and West Coast, 119—121.

Ireland, South Coast, 122; East Coast, 123; North and West Coa.st,
124,125.

Xorway and White Sea, 126 — 129 ; Sweden, West Coast, 130 ; Denmark,
West Coast, 130 ; Hanover, Netherlands, 131—133 ; Belgium, 134.

France, North Coast, 135—137 ; Channel Islands, 188 ; West Coast,
140—143.

Spain, North Coast, 144, 145 ; Portugal, 145; Spain, South Coast, 146-

Britiah America ; Newfoundland, 147 ; Gulf of St. Lawrence, 147, 148 ;
New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, &c., 149, 150.

United States, Maine, 153; New Humpshiro and Massachusetts, 155;
Rhode Island and Connecticut, 158, 159 ; New York, &c., 160 ; New
Jersey and Virginia, 161 ; Maryland, 162 ; North Carolina, 164 ; South
Carolina, 165; Georgia and Florida, 167 ; Gulf of Mexico, 168—170.

West Indies, Bahamas and Cuba, 171 ; Jamaica, &c., 172; Guayana, 173;
Tierra Firme, 174.

Atlantic Isles, 175; Africa, Went Coaat, ili'i.

PAGE
. 105

SECTIOH m.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS, TIDES, AND CURRENTS,
AND ON THE DIFFERENT PASSAGES OVER THE NORTH ATLANTIC
OCEAN.

L— Of the Winds 176

General Remarks, 176; Halley and Hadloy's Theories, 177, 8; Wind
System, 179, 180; Force of Winds, 180, 1; Table of Force and
Velocity, 182 ; Land and Sea Breezes, &c., 1H3.

The Trade Wind, 184; N.E. Tmdos, 184; North Limit, 185; South
Limit, Table, 186; Prevalence, 187, 8 ; Summary, 189.

Winds on the Atlantic Isles, 189; at Jamaica, 191 ; West Indies, in
general, 190; Bahama Islands, 192; Greater Antillas, 191 ; the Bay-
amos, near Cuba, 102.

Guyana, Cumana, &c., 193 ; Gulf of Mexico, 196 ; the Norths, 194 ;
Florida Kays, 196, 7.

Equatorial Winds and Calms 198

Limits Defined, 198; Table of Extent, 199; the Cloud-ring and
Rains, 200.

Winds on the Aftican Coast, 200; Winds and Seasons by Captain
Midgley, 201 ; Coast of Guinea, 202 ; Windward Coast, 203 ; the
Harmattan, SiC., 20-3— 206.

Winds and Calms on the Tropics, 206 ; at the Bermudas, 207.

MEMOIR, ETC.

='^«s*'

%* Throughout this work the given longitude is the longitude

{from GREENWICH. In THE SAILING DIRECTIONS THE BEARINGS AND COURSES
ARE THOSE BT COMPASS, UNLESS WHERE OTHERWISE EXPRESSED; BUT THOSE
GIVEN THUS [ TF.jS. W.'] SIGNIFY THE TRUE ; AND THE GIVEN DIRECTION OF WIND,
TIDE, AND CURRENT, IS GENERALLY TO BE CONSIDERED AS THE TRUE.

..■>^-»iif.if-' SECTION I. Vif^itA ,rit»

I REMARKS ON THE CHART, WITH TABL'^^ts OF DETERMINED POSI-
TIONS, AND THE AUTHORITIES, ETC., WITH THE VARIATION OF
THE COMPASS. ,- -,

The North Atlantic Ocean is the smaHest of all the great diviuona of the
I Ocean, but it has ever been of far greater importance to man than all others
Icolleotively. It owes this great maritime superiority to the great proportionate
[length of its varied coast line, which perhaps nearly equals all other navigable seas,
land to the vast area drained by the rivers &lling into it, which give ready access
land intercommimication to seats of dense and inland population. It is from these
I causes that the inhabitants of its maritime countries, have, in all ages, applied them-
selves to navigation ; and it is more than probable that the facilities afforded by it
for commerce and travel, that the nations who inhabit the vicinities of those vast inland
seas and bays which distinguish the Atlantic, have made greater progress in civiliza-
tion than in any other part of the globe.

The area of the North Atlantic, does not comprise more than about one eleventh

I part of the entire ocean. From its having been the great highway for so many

agoB, its history, features, and phenomena, are better known than any other, and

we are now enabled to give a far more perfect view of it — ^in every aspect — than of

I the rest of the world of waters.

It may be important in some mercantile questions to define the boundaries of the
I various divisions of the Ocean but this has not been authoritively done for the whole
I of the world.

In 184A, the Royal Geographical Society of London, appointed a committee to
define the limits of the various oceans ; and their report defines :-—

" The limits of Arctic and Antarctic Oceans, respectively to be the Arctic and
Antarctic Circles \ that the limits of the Atlantic os the north and south, be the
Arctic and Antarctic Circles t that its western limit be the coast of America, as far
south as Cape Horn, and thence prolonged on the meridian of that cape, until it

w u

mTBODTJCTION.

meets the Antaretic Circle ; that its eastern limit be the shores of Europe, and Africa,
as fiur south as the Cape of Good Hope, and thmoe prolonged on the meridian of
Cape Lagulhas, till that meridian cuts the Antarctic Circle."

Our present work deals exdusiTely with the northern portion of the area thus
defined, or that part which is separated fix>m the southern by the Equator.

The length of the coast Unes which bound the North Atlantic and its chief bays,
(except the Mediteiranean,) measured around their principal sinuosities, is not less
than 62,000 miles ; if more minutely estimated it would amount to much more. A
table is given presentiy, which will shew the numbers which make up this sum, and
' which are relativjely equal. Of these coaste about 7,000 miles, or one ninth, remain
unsoireyed ; but they are the Arctic regions, unfrequented by commerce. Of the
remainder, two-fifths have been surveyed by the British Government, and three-fifths
by foreign powers.

The coasts of the Atlantic are now represented with the most minute accuracy in
nearly all places of interest to the sailor. The elaborate surveys which have now
nearly approached completion, have been in progress during a greater portion of the
present century ; and in some cases, as the coasts of Spain, and aame parts of our
own shores, at the latter part of the last century.

The first portion of this volume consists of a selection of the principal geogra-
phical points established in these operations, and appended to them are some notes,
which will suiBciently explain their nature. In former editions we were led to dis-
cuss the merits of various authorities and the discrepances between them, which were
often considerable in amount ; but now these difibrences have been so removed, and
snch minute exactness attained, that whatever notes there may be on this topic, must
be rather taken as subjects of curiosity, than of practical utility.

It is therefore manifestly impossible that the seaman in the ordinaiy pursuit of
his calling can hope to improve what has cost so much labour, and such refined ap-
pliances. Almost every point in the geographic tables which follow may be
taken as a point of departure by which he may correct his reckoning or rate his
chronometer i and the explanatory notes appended, will serve to give him confidence,
and afford information upon this important section of hydrography.

The first chart of the Atiantic upon a large scale, was published in Amsterdam
by the predecessors in the still existing and respectable hoiise of Van Kculen, in
the middle of the last century. It was issue;), nnder the title of the Spani$h or
Weti Indian Sea : it contained some useftil detaib, amidst a thousand errors. The
second, entitied a Chart of tht Atlantic Oeean, was engraved at London, on the cir-
cular projection, invented by'Mr. Murdoch, but was found to be extremely inaccurate j
and ihb eonatniotor added to the Archipelego of Cape Verde, two islands, under the
names of 8t Philip and St. John, neither of which existed ) these names being
jKunetinMS ffiven by the Portugnese to the Islands Fogo and Brava.

Hie next, which was the first of the kind published in this country, was eon-
•atruotfld br M. de la Roehette. a nainstakinar and talented hvdntamtnhfir. in 1 779 ,
and was published by the hovso whence the present work issues, in that year. It was

ISTWODUCTION. 3

drawn npon the iNwfo ^ the p1k>«>«t 4t» of M. Fleurien, and teat manj yean wan in
large demand ; of which acnne degniu cf j^oof may eriae from ita hating been dnring
the period repeatedly copied, and illegally republished. la the ooitne of time many
improvements were obtuned, and it was saperseded in 1812» by another of the same
scale and size, oonstmoted by Mr. John Furdy, a name well known to maxinen for
many yean. Has ehart, in its various editions, did good service to seamen tat a long
period, and stUl is deserving of confldenoe, as representing niost of the 'ftatorea re-
quisite, with sufficient accuracy, to ensure the salMy of navigation.

These charts in their turn, having required many improvements, from the great
acquisition of exact knowledge which charaoteiiies the presmt day, it was deemed
necessary to supersede them by the new charts before alluded to, which have lately
been published by the proprietor of this work, as compiled firmn the now nearly per>
feet geographical data. They moreover eadbit, at one view, a summary, in a gnq^iio
I form, of all that range of phenomena with which hydrography has of late been en-
jriched.

But there is one drawback to the great increase of observation. Each department
[of hydrography is overloaded for practical every day use, and the seaman would
■ waste much time in endeavouring to elicit some system from the multifiuious authori-
Ities he has now before him. A system of mean results has therefore been adopted'
|as will be hereafter explained, under the various sections which follow.

Hydrography, as at present understood, commenced with Captain CJook, in his
celebrated first voyage to the South Seas, in 1768. Previous to this, our coasts
rere represented and corrected by the rude draughts and imperfect reckonings of
istaking mariners, in the pursuit of their profession ; but the extended practice
[>f lunars, and the use of chronometers, soon made great improvements in geographic
eprcsentation. Captain Cook, prior to his appointment to the great Exploring Expedi-
^on, was employed in survejring portions of the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; and the
work which he published was a series of charts of the south and west coasts of
Newfoundland. It is very interesting to know that the great circumnavigators' ear-
liest works have outlived all their contemporaries. His charts, published by the pre-
SecesBor of the proprietor of this work, are still in demand, as the only fisdthftil
epresentations extant.

Our present object is not to give a history of the progress of charts, or we might
kere present a long catalogne of those worthy observers, who, by patient investiga
Ion, and multiplied observation, made the geography of the ocean nearly as good
or the mariner's use, as the far more elaborate public surveys which have superseded
liem. These last have the -exclusive merit of being connected, and each portion
llaced in exact relation to every other portion — a feature which is owing to the mag^
ifloient systeias of triangulation, which are now extended over the the most impor-
it portions of the civilised world. The degree of accuracy, and the extent of these
kay be understood, when it in xaserted that the whole of the positions hereafter given
the coasts of Europe, between Norway and Spain, do not vary tnau the oisoMe
jruth, more than a few fset.

It is the defect of detached observations that they do not exactly acccord with

^ OnHODUCTiOK.

thoOT by dUflteokt indiTiauida. Utraith6diMrigi»d9ii anting finnitliksos^
n o o— it a Ui d tiia diMmniagui formerlj given on Atlantio ffiognfbj. Bat itill thsre is
mvditlMtiirMaMfydwhidiisnoweoUpwdintheworlnofthepgredeoes^ modam
■nrrajnn. Towaid the end of hurt century, these were seyanl niunee which dewrve
eepeeial mentiaii h^re, b$ their wmrks will bear every odrnpariaon with thoae of their
more Ikvored ■ocoeaeon. Among theae waa Mnrdoch Maekeaxie, who surveyed a
large portion of the western shores of Scotland) and all the coasts in the nmrth of
Ireland. Gneme Spenoe, an admirable surveyor, whose labors have even yet not
been entirely superseded, surveyed the southern coasts of England, between 1772
and 1812.

The coasts of Spain and Portugal laid down in accordaaee with the valuable Sur-
veys of Toflilo, Fnuudni, &o., and in the delineation of the African Coasts, with the
islaiids off the same, the positi<ms afibrded by Messrs. Fleurieu, Verdun de la Cr^nne,
Borda, Pingrt, and Rouasin of France, were the aathoriiiies for our charts.

The American Coasts were origioally exhibited according to the observations and
anrveya of our illustrious countryman, Captain Cook, as befwe mentioned i those of
Lieutenant Michael Lane, of Mr. Des Barrea, of Captain Holland, of Messrs.
Wright, Mason, Dixon, and De Mayne, rectified with the observati<ms of Dr. Bit-
tenhouse, Mr. Ellioott, Mr. Hassler, and other astronomers. Sec, of the United
States. *'

For the correct delineation of the West India Islands, much of our earlier infor-
mation was derived firom the labor* of Messrs. Puysegur, Verdun, Borda, Pingr6,
and other foreign officers, whose names will be for ever entitled to respect. They
were the pioneers who were followed by the skilM observers acting under the orders
of the Hydrographic Directors of Madrid ; particularly the Captains Joaquin Fr.
Fidalgo, Coame de Churruca, and Jose del Rio; to whom, and to the Baron
von Humboldt, Measrs.01tmanns, &c., we were indebted for the proximate situations
of many points of Spanish America. These have again been a^usted by British
Officers.

The numerous surveyors who have seconded these scientific leaders in the com-
pletion of our hydrographic representions, will be alluded to in connection with
their respective labors hereafter.

While we can refer with confidence to the charts ot the varioua coast linea, aa
being ao perfect, that no poasible alteration will be made in the fixed fieatures of
the land, that could be rendered applicable upon a general chart, there is one branch
that ia not ao aatisfitotory. This is the list of detached dangers, as rocks or shoals,
which have been ttom time to time reported, and which, disproved, are a constant
and daily source of great anxiety to those who have to pass their vicinity. To deal
with the conflicting and ambiguous statements recorded, ia most perplexing. Still
it is most eaaential that no danger should remain vjunarked, idthough its existence or
situation may be involved in great doubt. It ia of the utmost importance to the
fiudlity and safety of navigation, thai theae dangers should be correctly placed and
charaetafiaeu, and in the case cf a fresh discovery-, 9Qm« tMt, m by the sounding
lead, ought to be applied, to determine its absolute existence. This ia not? most im-

nfTRODUCTIDir. 6

pmrntiTe ; without raflh fpaanatieet % vof mieh annonnflHiiMrtit in B«zt to warthkwi «■
being antlientio» «nd most mifchievotu, as leading to dirtnut and anxiety. All that
yn know of this Bolrjeet is reoorded In a later part of this worki and in I3ie chart, hot
it may be stated that of late the extended practioe of deep sea soundings, has actually
disproved the existence of many apparently well-authenticated dangers, and thrown
very great doubt upon many others.

It has been above stated that tha length of the ooast line of the North Atlantic
Ocean, between tbe Arctic Circle and the Equator (excluding the Mediterranean), is
about 62,000, miles more or less. This estimate is higher than has been usually at-
tributed, but it is the result of a measurement around the present surveyed coasts
omitting the minor sinuosities and smaller islets. If these were taken into the »joount
the sum would be much greater, as may be supposed, upon an examination, for ex-
ample, of the vast range of islets which front the coasts of Norway and FiuJand,

' but it is the length of line over which the patient marine surveyor has had to toil
in the execution of his arduous but most important duties. These nimiben, however,
but fldntly express, as indeed anything we could say here would Ml short of telling
how much has been done to bring the hydrography of this ocean to its present c(»i-
dition. It is Plough here to draw the seaman's attention to a few of the results of

I those costly and laborious surveys which he benefits by.

Of the 62,334 miles ot sea coast, the English Oovemmwit have surveyed about
1 23,600 miles ; foreign governments about 81,600 miles, the remaining being unsur-
veyed.

Of the coasts of Europe, the English Admiralty and Ordnance have only snr-
I veyed about one fourth, or 6000 miles out of 20,000 miles.

The following table of the details of the length, &e., of each country, is theie-
I fore given rather as a matter of curiosity, than material utility, and will form a
I fitting introduction to the Oeographic tables which follow.

COTOTOT.

I England; South Coast and

Qiannel Islands

„ East Coast

„ "West Coast

Scotland t East and North

Coasts, and Islands

„ West Coast and Islands

I Ireland

Total British Isles

I Norway; East and South Coasts
Denmark; East Coast and Isl.

Mecklenburg

Prussia

I Kiuaia mnA Finland

sxrainTiD n.

Brit. Ordnce.
& Admiralty.

Ditto.

Ord.&Admlty.

Dan.&Nor.Gt8.
Danish Govt.

Ditto
Pnui.&Dan.Qt.

S...- P.a rn.

Extent

DAT! or BVBVBT.

of Coast

a. miles

1792-1852.

488.

1830-18d0.

470.

1772-1860.

748.

1815-1850.

810.

1750-1860.

400.

1828-1858.

1320.

1585.

05.

530.

2720.

TOTAL G.
MiUl.

5236.
2900.

IMTBODUCnON.

oovurm.

Sweden , , ^

Total Baltic, &o

Denmark i Wert Coart and

Fnrfie lalandi

Hanover

Holland

Belgium

Franoe

Spain (to Gibraltar)

Portugal

Total C!oabts of Exjbope

Marocoo See.

Agadir to Equator

Total Africa

Total Atlantic Islands . .

Iceland

Greenland

Hudson's Bar, &c.,

liabrador ; Eart Coart

Total Abctic Islands ..
Newfoundland; E.and S.Coarts^

Gulf of St. Lawrence

Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, and

New Brunswick

United States Eart Coart ....
„ South Coart. . . .

Total United States . .
Mexico, and Central America

Colombia and Guayana

Wert India Island, (British)

Haiti, and Cuba

Various Islands

Total West Indies

TOTAL EUROPE

AFRICA

ISLANDS

AMERICA

svsnmn sr.

Swedish Gov.

Danish Govt
Dutch Govt.

Ditto.
French Govt.

Ditto.

Spanish Govt.

Various.

Fr.&Brit.Gts.
British Govt.

British Govt.
Danish Govt,
not surveyed.

Ditto.

British Govt.
Ditto.

Ditto.

U. S. Govt.

Ditto.

Span.&Brit.Gt.
Span.F.&Brit.

Various,
not proply. sur.

DATB OV JUBVBT.

Gztent
of Ooart
O. miles

2360.

1841-1806.
1816-1890.

1835-1858.
1826.

1783-1846.
1826.

1765-1834.
1766,1819,1840.

1824-1860.
1817

1808.

460.
4430.

1500.
2000.
4000.
1140.

3735.
2770.

2947.

2350.

685.

TOTAL Q.

Ifiks.

7290.

730.

180.

540.

64.

1687.

915.

540.

20,082.

4890.
2990.

7140.
2765.
2820.

1765.

6505.
3295.
4100.

5982.
20,082.

4890.

2990.
34,372.

Total Length of the Coasts of the North Atlantic Ocean .... 62,334 Geo. Miles.

tent

TOTAL Q.

CoMt

Ifiks.

xnileB

KM).

7290.

730.

180.

540.

64.

1667.

915.

540.

20,082.

160.

130.

4890.

2990.

500.

POSITIONS OF PLACES, ETC.

I. ENGLAND AND WALES.

Qeo. Miles.

%* 1%0 FioVBES tin BraeketM refir to the Notes ni^foi$nd to each ieetim.
The Yabiationb of the Compash &o., follow these Notes.

StREENWICH \ Royal
Obsektatobt — ri]

DMDON; Cupola of St.

Paid's Cathedral

aveaend { Church

|heemeas ; Flagstaff

irwidi i Lighthouse

fordness; North light-
honse

owestoft Lighthouse

.omer Lighuiouse

Dum Higu Lighthouse. .

lamborough Lighthouse

Jartlepool Heugh Liffht.

lundenand LighwouseNo.
1

^ aemouth Lighthouse . .

^am Idand ; ». W. Light-
house

lerwick Lighthouse

porth Foreland; Light-
house

outh Foreland { High
Lighthouse

)over Castle; the Keep. .

[olkstone Church

few Romnev Church ....

Lydd Chnren

vun^ness Lighthouse . .

kexull Church

leaohey Head Lighthouse

|righton Church

Horeham Church

elsey Church

'lichester Spire

-Ower L^ht-vessel . .

Drtamouth College ....

abridge Light-vessel . .

Duth-sea Cartle

ilahot Castle

Duthampton Pier

(urst Castle; East Light
e; Station in the

1^ Survey

. Catherine's Lighthouse,
lisle of Wight

LATrrcDi.

i.ONorrvDB.

/ //

e / II

51 28 40

51 30 49

6 47W.

51 26 39

22 10 E.

51 26 47

44 50 —

51 56 38

1 17 25 —

52 5 36

1 35 12 —

52 29 12

1 46 28 —

52 55 27

1 19 5 —

53 34 41

7 11—

54 6 58

4 51 —

54 41 47

1 10 27 —

54 55 5

1 21 37 —

55 1 5

1 24 52 —

55 36 55

1 39 15 —

55 45 53

1 68 57 —

51 22 30

1 26 48 —

51 8 23

1 22 22 —

51 7 46

1 19 23 —

51 4 45

1 11 6 —

50 59 7

56 22 —

53 57 5

54 29 —

50 54 46

58 18 —

50 50 45

28 48 —

50 44 15

12 58 —

50 49 32

7 40W.

50 50

16 19 -

50 45 19

46 56 —

50 50 11

46 43 —

50 39 41

39 52 —

50 48 2

1 6 15 —

50 41 40

1 1 40 —

50 46 39

1 5 14 —

50 49 7

l 18 6—

50 53 42

l 24 23 —

50 42 26

1 32 6 —

50 3? 8

1 11 50 —

50 34 30

1 17 47 —

▲VTHOBmSS.

The Astronomers Royal.

The Qkano Tbioono-
METBicAL or Ordnance
SuuvET, one of the great
works of which our country
ought to feel proud. It was
conunenced with a view to
ascertain the difference of
longitude between the Obser-
vatories of Paris and Green-
wich, under General Roy.
The principd triangulation
was gradually extended un-
der the successive directions
of Colonel Williams, General
Mudge, General Colby, Col.
Hall, and Col. Sir Henry
James. It was completed and
the account of it published
in 1858. The bases upon
which it is constructed were
measured on the shore of
Plain, and upcn Salisbury
Lough Foyle, Ireland, and the
refinement attained may be
j udged of when it is stated that
the difference between the cal-
culated and measured lengths
of these bases was less uian
21 inches. The mean lengtii
of the sides of the great tri-
angles is 35*4 miles, of which
1 1 exceed 100 miles in length ;
the Ipngest is 111 miles, t. «.
from Sueve Donard in Ire-
land, county Down, to Sea
Fell, Cumberland.

[1] OaaairwiCH. — ^From 720
observations of the Pole Star,
made during eighteen months
of 1825 and 1826, the latitude
of tiie Royal Obworvatory ifas
deduced as 51* 28' S8* By a
later oorreotion it is plaoed
51* 28' 40*. 16.

POSITIONS OF PLAG£S.
ENGLAND AND WALES— contucubo.

Needles Liehthoiue

Chriatchurdi Head

Poole Church

Portlaod Upper lighthoiun

L^e Gabb

Hob's or Bob's nose

Beriy Head; Flagstaff . .

Start Point; Lighthouse..

Bolt Head; Signal Station

Eddystone Li^thouse . .

Mewstone, near Plymouth
Sound

Plymouth New CSiurch . .

Plymouth Old Church . .

St. Nicholas' or Drake's Is-
land, Plymouth Soimd. .

Lighthouse, on the Break-
water

Meridian Tablet, on the
Breakwater [2]

Penlee Beacon

Bame Head ; Flagstaff . .

Dodman or Deadman Point ;
Fkgstaff

St. Anthony's Head ;
Lighthouse

Pen^nnis Castle; Flagstaff

St Kevem Steeple

Blackhead ; Flagstaff ....

Lizard East Lighthouse . .

St. Michael's Mount

St Paul's Steeple, Mount's
Bay

St. Leven's, or Guethens-
bras Point ; Flagstaff . .

Wolf Rock ; Beacon

Land's End Stone

Longships Lightiiouse

SciLLT Islands ; St.
Agnes' Lighthouse . . [3]

; ; St. Mary's

Windmill

■ 5 St. Mary's

Flagstaff at the Fort . .

• ; St. Martin's ;

Day-Mark

Bishop Bock Lighthouse

St. Agnes' Beacon, Cornwall

Godrevy Island Lighthouse

TreyoscHead; Lighthoiise

Hortland Point

LuNDT Island; Light-
house

Minehead Steeple

Bfftunt'On Bonds: Lower
Lighthouse ,,^,.^.^^.

LATinmx.

I.ON. W.

e / if

o » »

50 30 40

1 34 32 —

50 42 38

1 44 31 —

50 42 51

1 58 55 —

50 31 18

2 27 18 —

50 43 11

2 56 29 —

60 27 50

3 26 43 —

50 24 2

3 28 14•--

50 13 18

3 38 28—

50 13 15

348 —

50 10 49

4 16 53 —

50 18 31

4 5 33 —

50 22 22

4 7 16—

50 22 15

4 7 32 —

50 22 4

4 18 18 —

50 20 22

4 9.27 —

50 19 59

4 8 62 —

50 12 25

4 10 40 —

50 18 53

4 12 29 —

50 13 20

4 48 l —

50 8 35

4 69 31 —

50 8 49

6 2 46 —

50 3 7

5 6 8 —

50 27

5 6 36 —

49 57 34

6 12 4—

50 7 3

6 28 37 —

50 5 26

5 32 43 —

50 2 16

5 40 46 —

49 56 45

5 48 14 —

50 4 8

5 41 31 —

50 4 4

6 44 43 —

49 53 30

6 20 40 —

49 54 32

6 16 69 —

49 55

8 18 13 —

49 58 2

6 16 63 —

49 52 29

6 26 39 —

50 18 28

5 12 57 —

50 14 32

5 23 56 —

50 32 55

6 2 8 —

51 1 21

4 31 21 —

51 10

4 40 20 —

51 12 42

3 28 4 —

51 4 17

4 12 19 —

AVTuonrras.

Tbe Grand trioonome-
TRio or Ordnance Survey
of England, &c., described in
the preceding page.

Bbuaiiks.

As a matter of curiosity
it may be mentioned that by
liieae elaborate compntatitnis
the Equatorial radius of the
Earth is foimd to be 20,926,600
feet; and the PoUr radius
is 20,856,400 feet, and a mean
degree of the meridian oontaos
364,616 feet. The elliptioi<y of
the earth i8a8293to294, and the
mean density is 6.316.

In the public journals of
1834, it was stated that Dr.
TiASKs, had ascertahied, in the
summer of 1822, by the oom>
pariflon of sixteen excellent
chronometers, carried back-'
ward and forward between
Greenwich and Falmouth, that
the western longitude of the
latter had been given at 4.4
seconds of time, or 1 minute
and 6 seconds too Uttle, by the
first Trigonometric Surrey. Li
consequence, 29 of the best
chronometers belonging to the
Admiralty were subseiquently
committed to the care of the
doctor, and a vebsel was ap-
pointed wherein he was to sail,
backward and forward, between
Dover and Falmouth, until the
longitude in time, between these
stations, and between tiiem and
Portsmouth, as an intermediate
station, was settled beyond any
doubt. The result was, as to
all places on the South Coast of
England, between the meridians
of Greenwich and Falmouth, if
1 second be added to every 4
minutes of longitude, as given
by the original Survey, the
exact longitude, accorung to
the chronometers, will be ob«
tained. These differences have
since been entirely settled by

UM) iti-ojuuuuuiuuu ui mv ui*

angloa, now completed.

.^.^..-

. POSITIONS OF PLACES.
ENGLAND AND WALES— CoNTimrBD.

LA.T1TUUB.

Bornham (or Bridgewater)
Lighthouse

Usk Lighthouse

Bridgewater Spire

Avon Lights

Bristol Cathedral

Flatholm Lighthouse .....

Swansea Castle

Mumble's Liehthouse

Worm's Head

Nash Point, E. Lighthouse

RosiUy Barrow

Pembrea Steeple

Tenby Spire

Caldy Island; Lighthouse

MiLFORD Steeple

Hulberton Church

St. Anne's High Lighthouse

The Islet Gnunholm

Smalls lighthouse

St. Davi^ Cathedral ....

Ramsey Idand } highest
point

Bishop and Clerks ; nor-
thernmost

Cardigan Isle ; highest
point

Cardigan Steeple

Aberystwith ; Lighthouse

Aberystwith ; Station

Holyhead Lu:hthouse

Skerries Light

Bardsey Lighthouse

South Stack Lighthouse . .

The West Mouse

Amlwch Station

Great Onne's Head ; Signal

Abergel6 or Abergali Stee-
ple

Air Point Lighthouse

Leasowe Lighthouse ....

Bidstone Lighthouse ....

Blackrock Lighthouse ....

Liverpool } St. Paul's
Church

Formby Lighthouse

Formby N.W. Mark

Bossal Point Luidmark . .

Fleetwood New Lighthouse

Wyre Lighthouf e

Lancaster Steeple

Wabey I. Light

St. Bees Head ; Lighthouse

Whitehaven ; Pier-head

Lighthouse

Lee Scar Lighthouse . . , .

61
61 30
51 27

61 14 54
61 32 24
7 41
2
6

61 22 30
51 37 13
61 33 59
61 33 56
51 24 13
51 34 36
61 41 18
51 40 20
51 37 52
51 42 43
61 42 56
61 40 66
61 43 56
51 43 14
51 52 56

61 61 43

51 54 10

LOM. W.

a ' k

2 60 62
2 59 33
2 59 39
2 42 16

2 35 29

3 7 28
3 55 32

3 68 12

4 18 56
33 3
16 51
16 28
41 51
40 69

39
3 11
10 28
28 40
40 86
14 53

3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
6

62 7 54

4 41 26

52 4 59

4 39 17

52 24 48

4 5 24

52 26 49

4 3 19

53 18 50

4 37 76

63 25 15

4 36 25

62 44 58

4 47 55

63 18 23

4 41 54

63 26 4

4 33 11

53 23

4 19 17

53 20 6

3 61 7

53 17 8

3 34 67

63 21 24

3 19 16

63 24 46

3 7 28

53 24 2

3 4 23

53 26 38

3 2 2

63 24 30
53 32 11«
53 32 32
53 55 15

53 55 35

63 67 12

64 3

54 2

4
54
54 30 48

64 33 10

54 51 46

6 20 44
5 23 6

AUTHOuiras.

2 69 30

3 3 55

28
66
22
46

48 14
10 33
38 8

3 35 50
3 24 43

The Orakd Tbioonometbio
or Obdnancb Subyet of Eng^
land, &o.

*.<-

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
ENGLAND AND WALES— Contimtod.

LATrrvDi.

lOM. W.

AUTHOHtriES.

Skinbnmess Lighthouse . .

O 1 *

54 02 46

-0 » 3

3 2^ 46

Workiiigtoii Chapel

04 38 28

3 34 11

The Grand Trigonometbic

SouthemeM ; Lighihouse

64 02 22

3 30 37

or Ordnance Survey of Eng-

CriffiBll t Station in the Sor-

land.

\ey, 1 ,831 ft. above the sea

64 06 44

3 36 66

Isle of Mam.

Point of Ayre Light

North Berule ; Station,

54 24 06

4 22 1

1304 feet high

04 17 27

4 23 32

SneaFell; Stat. 2,400ft.

04 10 00

4 27 36

Calf of Man, Upper

Lighthonse

04 3 14

4 49 37

Peel; Lighthouse

04 12 40

4 42 33

NOTES.

1. The Maritime Surveys of our coasts are now so complete (with some partial
exceptions,) that little can be desired for the use of the navigator. These works,
based diiefly upon the Ordnance Survey, would occupy too much space here to
enumerate, but it would seem to be somewhat uiyust if no allusion was made to the
predecessors of our present government survevors, who, with very limited means
and great personal labour prra^ced such excellent charts, that even in the present
day uiey would be most trustworthy ffuides. The names of the two Murdoch Mac-
kenzies, Grteme Spence, and Joseph Huddart, deserve all gratitude.

2. On the innae of Plymouth JSreakwater is a landinff-pier, and on the East end of
this, which is about eqv ' -distant from either end of me breakwater, is a granite
piUar, with a brass plate, on which is engraved its correct latitude and longitude,
60° 19' 69", and 4° 8'^52" W. Here ships of war, by Admiralty Order, rate their
chronometers before proceeding to sea.

Admiral FitzBoy has remarked in his voyage of the ' Beagle,' that the longitude of
this station, by the Ordnance Survey, would be 4*^ 7' 41"-7 ; but, by applying a por-
tion of the error detected by Dr. Tiarks, in his clironometric observations between
Greenwich and Falmouth, viz. 47"09", or 1' 1"'36, the corrected longitude of the sta-
tion will be 4° 8' 52". " Our chronometers made it 0' 40'-2 to the eastward of the
corrected longitude, and 0' 19'"'6 to the westward of the original determination by
the Ordnance Svarvey "—Captain FitzJtotf's Appendix, p. 320.

3. St. Agnes' Lighthouse, Scillt. — The observations riiade for determining
the situation of St. Agnes' Lighthouse, at the commencement of the third voyage of
Captain Cook, proved to be incorrect. It appeared from these observations, to be in lati-
tude 49° 66', longitude 6° 46'. This error, of more than 25 minutes of longitude, was very
injurious ; inasmuch as many Charts were subsequently regulated by the deduction.
For, the Lizard Point having been previously determinea by Dr. Bradley, these
islands were, in consequence, placed that distance too far from the Land's End. Not-
withstanding this great error, however, it does not appear that it was the cause of
any serious disaster to shipping.

VARIATIONS OF THE COMPASS, 1861.

In the latter part of this volume, some observations on the general subject will
be found, among which, the secular change, which has now increased to a consider-
able amount, smce many of the surveys were made, and which therefore requires
attention, the more especially since the introduction of an improved class of instru-
ments, and the care demanded in the navigation of iron-ships. We here give the
S resent variation, reserving such remarks upon former results, for the section specially
evoted to the subject.

The variation is now decreasing on the south-east Coast of England at the rate of
about 6' 27" per annum ; on the noith-eaet of England about 6' per annum, and on

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

the west coast, about 6'-120".

The Weaterfy Vanatkm at Oraeitwich is 21" 20'. In 1868 it was 28* 8' j in 180S,
21° 46' ; in December, 1858, 21° 29. In the Thames mouth, at the Nore, 20° 3' { off
the North Foreland, 20° 30'. When Orseme Spence made his survey in 1790, it was
22° 50' ; it went on increasinj^ till 1818, and has since decreased. Off Hastings, it
is now 21° 0' i at Spithead, m 1813, it was nearly 25°, and at Portsmouth Obsorta-
tory it was stated to be 24° 15' ; it is now 21° 45° ; at Poole, Dorsetshire, it is 22° 0' ;
at I)artmouth, 22° 40' ; At Plymouth, 23° 0' ; at the Scilly Islands, 24°.

At Bristol it is 22° 35'; at Cardiff, 23° 0'; at Milford Haven, 24°;;at Lundy
Island, 23° 50' ; at Bardsey Island and Holyhead, 24° 10 \ at Liverpool, about 23° 83'

I (in 1838, it was 26°) ; in the fairway of the Irish Sea, 24° 40' ; the Isle of Man,

I 24° 50'.

On the Eastern Coast, it is at Yarmouth, 20° 50' ; Cromer, 21° 0' ; Lynn Deeps,^

! 21° 30' ; Hull, 22° 0' ; Hartlepool and Tees Bay, 23° 0' ; the Tyne, 23° 25' ; Berwiok-

I on-Tweed, 24° 0'.

2. ISLANDS AND COASTS OP SCOTLAND.

EDINBURGH ; the Ob-

' servatory [1]

I Inchkeith Liehthouse . . [2]
I Isle of May Lighthouse . .

East Lomond 1471 ft

Fifeness

Bell Rock Lighthouse

Dundee Law

Buddon-ness; High Light
Arbroath ; the Abbey ....

Red Head

IMONTKOSE: Round Tower

Spire

Girdleness Lignthouse —
I Aberdeen ; Marischal

.College

I Aberdeen lighthouse

[Old Aberdeen; Northern

blunt Spire

[Belhelvie or Orrock; Dove-
cote

iBuchanness Lighthouse . .
IPeterhead) Old MiU ....

JRatteiT Head ; Pile

IFraserburgh Lighthouse . .
IKinnaird Head Lighthouse

iTroup Head ; Staff

iMacduff ; Spire

ICovesea Skerries ; Light-
house

Tarbetnesb ; Lighthouse
f 088 Head ; Lighuouse . .
)uncan8bv Head ; Station
)unnet Head ; Lighthouse
)RKNEY.— PenSand
Skerries; Upper Lt[8]
Stromness ; Cnuroh ....

Hoy;'.WartHiU

Cantiek Head ; Light . .

lAT. N.

LON. W.

o • # //

e > //

55 57 23

3 10 46

56 2 1

3 8 6

56 11 8

2 33 21

56 14 31

3 13 10

56 17

2 34 40

56 26 4

2 23 7

56 28 41

2 68 26

56 28 7

2 44 63

66 33 45

2 34 63

56 36 55

2 29 24

56 42 5

2 26 6

56 42 31

2 27 61

57 8 16

2 3 2

67 8 67

2 5 42

67 8 33

2 4 6

67 10 11

2 6 3

57 16 62

2 3 67

57 28 14

1 46 22

57 30 44

1 47 32

57 36 62

1 50 39

57 41 51

2 6

67 42

2 1

67 41 38

2 17 38

57 40 5

2 30'

57 43 16

3 20 20

67 61 65

3 46 31

68 28 38

3 2 6

68 40 22

3 1 7

58 40 19

3 22 29

68 41 26

2 66 23

58 67 49

3 23 41

68 42 2

3 20 19

58 47

3 31 60

AUTHOlUTISS.

The Grand Tbioonometbi-
CAL or Ordnance Suevet of
Great Britain, at present under
the direction of Colonel Sib
HeNrt James.

j-iji

ISLA.

POSITIONS OF PLACEB.
J COABTi OF SCOTLAND— CiOKTiKCED.

StMit ^ottt of Sandat
Uai^^Amm i

NmOt Konaldi^y ;
l.ittiMut^0^

StropuaytiiMU^ wSm-

vey

Fair luand ; Summit ....
Fool Idaiid i summit (1,860

feet)

North Bona Island

SHETLAND.— Sumbuiwh
Head Lighthouse . . [4]

Brassa Island ; summit

Lekwick ; the Fort
Flagstaff

Oardie House on Brassa

Whalser Island ; snmmit

BruryMe,Out Skerries

Yell Isle; BeafrithKirk

Strandburg Ness, Fetlar

Fetlar Isle ; summit . .

Haaf Oruna } summit . .

Balta Island ; summit . .

Saxavord; Stn.in Survey

Lambness, on Unst ....

Burraford Holmes ....

Ramna Stacks

Ye Skerries, off Saint
Magnus Bay

Fugloe Skerry, near Pa-
pa

Scalloway Castle

Western Coasts

Holbum Head

Cape Wrath; Lighthouse
LaxfordjN.W. Point ..
Ru Stoer, Liglit Building

Butt of the Le^*'

RuRea ; Station in Survey
Stomoway Lighthouse, in

Lewis

Cleisham in Lewis

GlashorScalpa; Lighthouse

Storr Hill, in Mull

St. Kilda ; Peak at N.E.end
Ben More, S. Uist ; Statn.
Barra Head ; Ligl^'^'ouse
Skerryvore Lightliou.
Ardnamurchan Pa. ' '

Lighthouse

Tobermorey, Mull; ll o.u

Rxma Oal Rock

Lismore Lighthouse; Sou:ad

of Mull

Ben Tartevil, on Tart-a-

bhaiie, Islay Island ....

tAT. M

59 16 42

69 23 5

69 6 88
69 32 64

60
69

8 28

7 16

69 61 17
60 7 61

22
9 24
1
41

60
60

60 20
60 2
60 86 66
60 33 61
60 37 12
60 39 44
60 46 3
60 49 39
60 49
60 61
60 39 36

60 22 30

60 20 16
60 8 31

68 37 30
58 37 33
58 24 40
68 16 62
68 31
67 60 8

58 11 30
67 67 49
57 51 26
57 30 26
57 49 2
67 15 31
56 47 8
56 19 24

G6 •?!; id

5/. 38 36

66 27 20

56 43 32

LUH W.

2 22 SO
2 22 10

AtrrsoBinxs.

2 32 34

1 37 60

2 6 40

6 48 47

1 16 23

1 6 49

1 8 41

1 7 40

1 22

46 2

1 3 46

33 36

61 66

60 24

47 IT

60 20

46 40

63 30

1 18 40

1 49 10

1 46

1 16 25

3 31 60

4 9 62

6 8 20

5 22 12

6 15 36

6 46 63

6 22 10

6 48 38

6 38 3

6 10 52

8 35 30

7 17 35

7 39 9

7 6 46

6 13 30

r; "■> 40

5 36 23

6 26 32

The Oband Tbioonovktsi-
CAL or Ordnance Survek, as
before stated.

The Observations of Mr.
Geo. Thomas, R.N., on his
Survey of Shetland, &c., 1826
to 1833.

The Admiralty Survey,
based on the Ordnance Trian-
gulation.

■4 ■

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
ISLANDS AND COASTS OF SCOTI.AND-Comtinvxd.

iKhynnsof Iday lighihonie
iJora Mand; North Pap,

I 2659fi9et

IMull of Cantyro} liglrt-

I house

ISaada Island; Ship Rock

I light

ICampbelltown { DoMiar Lt.
iGoat Fell, Aiw^ T iund .
iBen Lomouf' : '^'tJi-iivc h>

Survey

{Troon Li^hf: oiiw

f Fladr^f. Lighttiou^.- , Arran

Ish-iii

iLifil' Oombrae 5 New

Lighthouse

iTowutlFoint; Lighthouse

Ayr Lighthouse

Corsewell Point ; Light-
house

MuU of Galloway; Light-
house

Southemness Lighthouse . .

lAT. Wi

LOW. W.

' *

1 It

65 40 23

6 80 44

56 64 8

6 6

66 18 38

6 48 8

66 16 30
65 25 45
55 37 62

6 34 66
5 32 16
5 11 24

56 11 24
55 34 37

4 87 52
4 41 39

65 26 30

5 7 2

55 43 16
45 61 44
55 28 9

4 67 67
4 68 43
4 38 11

55 25

5 9 SO

64 38 6
55 52 22

4 61 22
3 35 37

Ai'TROsnim.

The OEiv ANCE SURYST, &c.

NOTES.

1. Edinburgh. — ^The geographic position of the Astronomical Ohsenratory km
the Calton Hill, was given by the Ordnance Survey, in 1816, as 3° 10' 54,*^ W.
But this result appears to have been affected by a singular cause, which demonstrates
the refinement to which these operations have been carried. It has since been found
that the attraction of the mass of Arthur's Seat, (a hill to the southward of it,) has
drawn the plumb-Une (or zenith sector) towards it, and thus produced an error of

I several seconds in the calculation. This error was established in 1839, by Professor

I Henderson, who made the longitude 3" 10' 45". Some very intorestinff experiments
were made on this curious pomt, during the late Ordnance Survey, by which, not
only the effect of mountainous masses on surveying operations was ascertained, but
also the density of the earth was established.

Since the completion of the triangulation of the Ordnance Survey, a new priu'
ciple for ascertaining the difference of longitude has come into operation. The ex-
tension oi' the f^k tnc telegraph has placed Greenwich Observatory in direct connexion
wit} X other important observatories ; and in April, 1857, a series of instantaneous
signals was transmitted between it and Edinburgh, imder the direction, at the latter
place, of Professor Fiazzi Smyth, the worthy son of the excellent Admiral Smyth,

[well known to all sailors. 'These eicperimento definitely settled its longitude at
12"43'.048in time, or 3° 10 45".72 in arc, confirming Mr. Henderson's previous

[result.

2. Eastern Coasts of Scotland.— The Eastern Coaste of Scotland have all
I been well surveyed by our Admiralty, upon the basis of the Ordnance triangulation.
I The off-shore soundings, however are not yet completed.

3. Orkneys., &c. — Tht Orkney Inlands were originally surveyed by the elder
I Mackenzie. Murdoch Mackenzie, F.R.S., was the first surveyor of our coaste who
I conducted his operations on right principles. His first work, Orcadia ; or the Orh-
\tiey Islands, with part of Lewis, was done at his own expense. Ite accuracy is great,
land its utility is still unequalled. It was publitihed in 1750. He was afterwards em-
[ ployed by the king in surveying the coasts of Ireland, &c. Later in life, lus

POSITIONS OF places:

works were attaeked, moat ui^iurtly, bj Dr. Anderson, which called forth suitable
replies, and justification from John Clark, of Eldin, in 1785. . This work maybe
said to have commenced the Admiralty Surveys.

lliey have since raaployed very many years of examination under the late Com-
mander Thomas, R.N., and others.

4. West of Scotland, and the Hebrides. — ^Up to quite a recent date, the charts
of the whole' of this portion of our shores remained^ nearly in the same state that they
were left by Murdiich Mackenzie. Notwithstanding their imperfections, however,
statistics have shewn that no great detriment to navigation arose from tiieir " ^s-
gracefiil " condition, an epithet which will take 25 years of organized surveying par-
ties, and £250,000 to remove. We may here add that they were examinee^ and
partially surveyed, by Captain Joseph Huddart, whose chturts were long of good
service.

3. COASTS OF IRELAND, ETC.

The Nobthern Coast.

Tory Island; Lighthouse
Fannet Point ; Lighthouse
Innistrahul ; Lighthouse . .
Inishowen Head ; Light-

o house

Magilligan Tower, L. Foyle

Port Rush

Bengore Head [1]

Rathlin Isle ; Church

Lighthouse

KnocklaidMountn. (1600ft)
Fair Head

The Eastern Coast.

Tor Point

Oarron Point

llie Maidens t South Bock

Light

Hunter Bock (9 feet) ....

Black Head

Carrickfergus Castle ....
Belfast ; Mouth of the

L(wan

Divis Mount (1800 ft.)

Bangor Castle

Copeland Lighthouse ....
Donaghadee ; Pier Head

Ballyhalbert ; Fort

South Bock, Lighthouse . .
St. John'sPoint; Lighthouse
Slicve Donard, (2797 feet)
Carlingford Lighthouse . .

Hifl (1580 feet)

Cloghcr Head

Drogheda i Centre

Balbrig^an Li^ht

Si. Patnok's Island

Bockabill Lighthouse . .
Lambay Island ; summit .

lat. ».

ION. W.

e 1 11

o ' *

55 16 27

8 15

55 16 34

7 37 52

55 25 56

7 13 37

55 13 38

6 55 38

55 11 32

6 57 58

55 12 30

6 50 15

55 15

6 28 35

55 17 35

6 12 2

55 18 10

6 10 40

55 9 43

6 14 57

55 13 30

6 9 30

55 11 50

6 4 10

55 3

5 58 30

54 55 54

5 43 5

54 52 45

5 45 .30

54 46

5 42

54 42 35

5 49 15

54 36

5 56

54 36 40

6 1

54 39 20

5 40 40

64 41 45

5 31 80

^ 38 38

5 32 25

54 29 30

5 28 10

54 23 56

5 25 4

54 13 t

5 39 30

54 10 48

5 55 9

54 1 11

6 4 4

54 2 39

6 13 9

53 47 40

6 14

53 42 50

6 22

53 36 46

6 10 53

53 34 45

6 5 20

53 35 45

6 30

53 20 20

6 2

AVTHORITIIS.

• The Surveys of Captain Wm .
Mcdoe, B.N., F.B.A.S., made
in co-operation with the Grand
Trigonometrical Survey of Ire-
land, 1828-52.

:-, iiU'>

"i *',■ -.1

- -•»• ■^. • <

-;..- ^f.-i

led Ibrtli suitable
is work may be

ler the late Com-

POSmONS OF PLACES.
COASTS OF IBELAND, ETC.— Cootiitoed.

LAT. W.

Hcwth ffill? peak (66fi ft.)
Howth Bailey; Lighthouse

Poolbeflr Lighthouse

DUBLIN ;Nel8on'B Pil.[2]
Kingstown ; Liehthouse . .
Wicklow Head Upper Light

iTaraHill

Forth Mountain

Boslare Sand HiU

Tuskar Lighthoune

The Southern Coast.

Saltees Light-vessel

Coningmore Bpck

Hook Lighthouse, near

Waterford

Helwiok Head

Mount Knockmeldown
Roche Point; Lighthouse

Robert Head

Kinsale ; Southern Light . .

Stags of Castlehaven

Cape Clear; Old Light-
house [3]

Fastnet Rock, Lighthouse
Crookhaven ; Lighthouse

Mizen Head

Mount Gabriel

Sheep Head

Hungry Hill; Station in

Survey

RoanharricR.in BantiyBay
Signal Tower, Bear Island

The Western Coast.

Durscy Inland, South Point

Bull Rock [4]

SkcUigfl ; Lighthouse ....
Valentia Isle ; Fort Crom-
well

Feaghmaan

Station at West end [4]

I Doulus Hfad

Dunmore Head, Dingle Bay

I Fose Rock

I Inishtuiskero Island

I Mount Brandon, Station . .
I KilcradanlleadiLiffhthouse
I Scattery I., Round Tower
I Loop Head, Ligrhthoune . .
\ Muttcn iBland, ijighihouse
lArran Island, Lighthouse
Slyne Head, N. Lighthouse
Inishgort Lighthouse

53 22 23
53 21 4
53 20 31
53 21
53 18 5
52 67 54
52 41 56
52 18 57
52 19 45
52 12 9

LON. W.

52
52

2 18
4 45

52 7 24
52 3 6
52 13 33
61 47 33
61 43 55
61 36 11
51 28 16

51 26 2
61 23 18
61 28 36
61 27 15
51 33 30
51 32 66

61 41 13
61 41 6
51 37 43

51 35 5
61 36 60
61 46 6

51 56 50

61 66 22
61 57 6

6 4 3
6 3 6
6 9 1
6 16 45
6 9
6 6
6 12 68
6 33 39
6 22 21
6 12 22

6 38 15
6 37 49

6 55 43

7 32 40
7 56

AVTHoarriBS.

The Grand Trigonomet-
rical Survey i' Ireland, and
the Surveys of the late Captain
MUDGE and other Officers,
1828-52.

8 31 68

9 13 46

8 16
8 20

62
52
62
62 14
62 34

20
6
4

62 36 42

52 13 38

63 15 14

53 7 38
63 23 59
63 49 35

9 29 30
9 36 26
9 42 31
9 60
9 32
9 61 40

9 47 27
9 47 6
9 63 40

10 14 10
10 18 30
10 32 20

10 19 16

10 20 41

10 19

10 29

10 39 40

10 34 30

10 16 10

9 42 34

9 31 16

9 65 56

9 3

9 42

10 14

9 40

10
6
1

■n;M -■■■:•

i'i^ •:'t

(■ .-i-,^

. I . . ; ,
• -,» • -

-.-,1

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
COASTS OF IBELAND, ETO.— Continued.

Clare Island, Lighthouse . .

Achil Head

Slieve More, Achil Island
Eagle Island; Lighthouse
Tawnaghmore, Station . .
Telling or Teelin Head . .
BathlinO'Bime Lighthouse
St. John's Point, Lighthouse
Ballyshannon Church ....
Slieve League {summit

1979 feet)

Bloody Fai'land {summit

1060 feet)

MuckishHill; Eastern pai-t

LAT. N.

d3 49 38

53 58 20
64 3d

54 16 59
54 17 39
54 40 30
54 39 47
54 34 8
54 30 11

54 39 5

55 8 14
55 6 21

LON. W.

9 58 58

10 16

10 3 26

10 5 32

9 35 47

8 46 10

8 49 52

8 27 33

8 11 47

8 42 38

8 15 41
7 59 49

AUTHOaiTIBS.

The Grand Trigonomet-
rical Survey, &c.

NOTES.

1. The positions of places on the Irish coasts depend upon the observations made
in the Trigonometrical or Ordnance Survey. The principal triangles, commenciag
with the measurement of the hasp on the east side of Lough Foyle, in 1826-8, have
been extended over the whole area, between that period and 1832, and give results
which may be practically taken as absolutely correct.

Since that period, the minute surreys of the land on a very large scale, have
also been completed ; and upon this basis our Admiralty surveyors have constructed
our present charts, b^ adding the soundings and maritime features outside the low
water-line. This series has only recently been completed for the use of the sailor, as
shewn on our charts. The names of Mudge, Bedford, Wolfe, Beechey, Frazer,
Church, and other officers, should be mentioned in connexion with these operaticms.

2. Dublin. — The Astronomic Observatory, 3- miles N.W. of, Dublin, in latitude
52° 23' 13", and longitude 6° 20' 30", ia a point verified by triangulation as well as by
observation.

3. South-West Coasts. — ^The surveys by Mackenzie, for many years the only
guide to the mariner, placed all the south-west part of Ireland several miles too far
to the south, an error, however wliich has been corrected a long period.

4. Valentia. — One of the most important geodctical operations in connexion with
the Ordnance Survey, was the chronomctric determination of the difference of lon-

K'tude between Valentia and Greenwich, in December, 1845. This arc, one of the
rgest that could bo measured ia the British Isles, has been of very great importance,
as well in verifying the accuracy of the Trigonometrical Survey, as in determining
the true figure of the earth. It was canied on by Professor Airy, the Astronomer
Royal, assisted by Mr. Sheepshanks, Mr. Hartnup, Mr. Hind, and several other ob-
servers, by means of 30 pocket chronometers. The stations were Greenwich, Liver-
pool Observatory, a temporary observatory at Kingstown, and Fcaghmoan, at Valentia.
The final determination of the longitudes chronometrically, were — Liverpool, 12™
0'.05j Kingstown, 24™ 31".20 ; and Valentia, 41™ 2.')'.23. By the Ordnance Survey,
these longitudes were made, — Liverpool, 12™ 0*.35; KingstowUi 24™ 31*.48{ and
Valentia, 41™ 23".07.

VARIATIONS OF THE COMPASS, 1861.

Dublin, 25° 26' W. ; Wicklow and the Tuakar Rock, 26° 0' W. ; Waterford,
25° 12' W. 5 Cork, 26° 60' W. ; Kinsale, 26° W. ; Fastnet Rock, 26° 25' W. ; Valen-

«:» oa° AiV> \xr

n«i,

haven, 27° 35' W. ; Donegal Bay, 27" W. ; Lough Foyle, 26° 46' W. j Raghlin
Island. 26' W. ; Belfai^t, 26' 42' \V. ; Lough Strangford, 26'' 30' W.

POSITIONS OF PLACES
4. NORWAY AND SWEDEN.

!, and give results

large scale, have
9 have constructed
es outside the low
le of the sailor, as
Beechey, Fraaer,
these operatimis.
Dublin, in latitude
ation as well as by

ly years the only
veral miles too far
iod.

in connexion with

difference of lon-

lis arc, one of the

W.| Waterford,
• 26' W.J Valen-
/ 45" W. ; Broad=
13' W.» Raghlin

Trsenen Island ; 8ummit[l]

Mangvardkua ; conical bea-
con

Donnses de » Chui'ch at N.
end

Eiom Market-pl. . .

— Donntes Fjela . . . .

Alstcn 6e ; Syv Sostre Mts.
S. one

SkiiBrvser I ; Klep harbour

Sola Island; summit ....

Vegen Island; Oulsvaag-
fjeld Mountain

Vegtinden Mt. . .

Sjelva beacon, off Minland

Hoiholmtindeme Mt., S.

pe'a

And.' I ' wtten Mountain . .

S.Ta'v)e { summit

Velf?;c]imd Oflissen beacon,

on Kvaloe

Hciihornet ; remarkable

Mountain

I Lekoe ; summit

Vigten Islands ; outer Is-
land, N.E. point

Sulafjeld Mount.

Indi-e or Inner Id.,

Rorvig on E. side

I Folden Fjord ; Grinna bea-
con on North side

iKvocmholmen beacon ....
jProDstoe Light, near Nueroe

lOjoen ; Brakstad

letter oen; Findanger Fjeld
iHalmoe ; Villa Lighthouse
lOxbaasheia ; Village at

North end

Ilhtholmenc, cone beacon . .
|\igs Sjelcn ; summit ....

Isen, Church

Uminding oe j Hvalhov-

den or S. point

yro oerne ; Haltcn Inland j

centre

[.eikua beacon, off Lym . .
^uuIh Fjord ; Sulcn ^Ifower
ii'i-oicn Inland j Titterml-
den, or Went point ....

Jlv 6 i centre

Jrcat Koppcren Hill; on

Miiiiilttna

flittorcn Island ; W. point
-OmduBfjelu on N. nidc
rrondhjom Channel ; Tor-
iiingoii LighthouHO ...

LAT. N.

66 30 20

66 18 30

66 12 5
66 5
66 2

65 5o
65 46 45
65 40 20

65 39 15
65 37 45
65 42 25

65 36
65 33 32
65 13 30

65 13 10

65 4 32
65 4 43

64 58 25
64 54

64 51 30

64 45 10
64 47 25
64 43 35
64 40 20
64 36 25
64 32 46

64 32 30
64 25
64 15 30
64 17 43

64 10

64 10 35
63 55 40
63 30 45

63 40 A
63 40 30

63 48 4
63 20 36
(53 33 35

63 20 35

LON. B.

12 4 30

12 41 20

12 36 30
12 33 30
12 24

12 32
11 35 40
11 45

11 51

11 54

12 19 50

12 26
12 26
12 1

11 54 30

12 9 12
11 37 30

11 11

10 49

11 15

10 69 20

11 9 30

10 46 45

11 13 40
11 7
10 41 56

10 25 60
10 26 20
10 24
10 31 30

10 1 30

9 28
9 57 30
8 33 10

8 22 10

9 10

9 43
8 25

8 38

9 9

At'THOBITIES.

The TBIOONOMETRICAIi SUR-
VEY, made by order of the Nor-
wegian Oovemment, by Capt.
Vibe, &c., as explained in the
Note?.

u ,,m

' ' ' ■:.'■< r':

.'•: :■) <;;-.^-..

. ' ■<

POSITIONS OF PLACEfl.
NORWAY AND SWEDEN— Continued.

Tnmdl^jeiii Channel; Agd-
densBS Lighthouse. . i . . .

Tbondhjem; Munkholmen
Liffht

Cathedral [2]

Smoelen Island; Maaberg
Tuva on North side

Eddd; Trondl\jem S. chan-
nel, Light on Bingholm

Grib Islands, centre . .

Stavenees lighthouse ....

Aver o, N.E. point.

Meeknokkeu Mt. . .

Christiansand ; Light on
Leerrig Island

Frey oen ; Frey Kollen Mt.

Qvitholm ; Lighthouse

Stevshest ; summit

Boesund; Boevceret church

Sando; Church

Romsdals Oeme; Harr o
church

Harams 6; Church

at W. end

-Lepso ; Light-vessel

LAT. N.

on reef
Waldero; Light, on S point
Ood-o ; Light on Hogstein

Point

Lt. on Halnsea Tang

Hessd ; Su^r Loaf

Rondo ; Lighthouse

Svino ; centre

Stadtland ; QuiteneDs at

North end

Fureness

Bremanger Land; Older-

veggen Point

Froe Soen ; Smor Haven . .

Battalen ; summit

Kind 6 ; siunmit

Alden ; summit

Bue Land ; Yststoen

Udveer ; Anchorage

Feye Oosen ; Light on

Helliso

Beiven North Channel ;

Holmengraa

» Houeno; Light on

Sktcllanger

Bergvn ; Cathedral

Light on Nord-

nees

liCcru ; Light on W. side . .
Kora Fjord ; Marstoon bea-
con

63 38 10

63 27 10
63 25 49

63 26 38

63 18 45
63 14
63 7 20

62 59

6 30
2 30
2 15

62 49 31

63
63
63 2
62 59
62 55

LON. B.

AUTHOBIXIBS.

62 47

62 39 40

62 35 30
62 30 5

62 28
62 30
62 27 60
62 35
62 19 35

62 12 15
62 5 30

61 60 20
61 45 30
61 38
61 32 60
61 29
61 17 30
61 2 30

60 45

60 50 40

60 36 30
60 23 30

60 24
00 14

60 7 45

9 49 30

10 24 50
10 23 45

8 30

8 13 25
7 35
7 38 15

7 32 30

42
44

12 30
12

6 64 15

6 35

6 28 10

6 10 50

6 14 30
6 7 25

6 1 20

5 58 10

6 4 50
6 35 10
5 16 10

5 14 15

6 8 5

4 46 40

The TuiooKOMETEiOAL Sub-
VET, made by order of the
Norwesian Government, by
Capt. vibe, &o., as explained
in the Notes.

4 68
4 49 3i)
4 45 25
4 48
4 36 10
4 30 30

4 43

4 40

4 67 20
6 21

5 18 42
11

5 2

'....'It. '(,.:

'^;--.,;t

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
NORWAY AND SWEDEN— Contimukd.

[ETBICAL SUB-

order of the

Fiir holm Light ....

Selbd ; Oxhammer Lt. on
East end

Selbo Fiord j Furren ;^bea-
con

SlotterG Light ..

Stoksund; Light on Fol-
ger 6e

Bommel Fiord) Ryvarden
Light

Roeyaer Island; Light on
Gletta

S&rhougsund; N. entrance
Light

Ucbdre Island s Two Light-
houses

Karmoj Skudesnees Light-
house

Bukkesnnd ; Light on Buk-
ken

Hviddings 5; Liffhthouse

Stavanger ; Church

Tungenees ; Lighthouse . .

Botd ; Anchorage

Egefield ; sumnut

Jedderen Beef; W. extreme

Warhoug ; Church

Ekersima ; Yibherodden

Lighthouse [3]

I Vamees Lighthouse

Lister Lighthouse on Gun-

■arshoug

I Lindesnoes or Naze ; Light-
house

I Ryringen beacon

iHlelleo ; beacons

I Christiansand; Church ..
lOdderd ; Lighthouse ....

|0x6 ; Lighthouse

[UIto ; Outer beacon

I Justo beacon on Reiersl^eer
|Homborgo; beacon at E.

end

iesnees ; beacon

I'orungen ; Iimer Light-
house

khdvigodden Lighthouse

'liscrO; Outer Lighthouse

I'romo ; Church

rrotno Sund ; Bonden bea-
con at Entrance

^and<3 ; cone beacon at N.E.
point

/HteiTiBof ; Sionghoimen
liighthouse

londclov i Church

UlT. v.

LOK. X.

60 d 15

5 12 20

59 59 15

5 14

59 58
59 54 30

5 4 50
5 5

59 48

5 20

59 31 40

5 14 40

59 25 40

'Ji 8

59 25 15

5 15 30

59 19 30

20 20

69 9 10

5 17

59 13 15
59 3 57

58 58 12

59 2
58 55 30
58 51 30
58 45 30
58 37 18

5 29
5 23 6
5 45 15
5 36 45
5 31
5 36 45
5 29
5 37 50

58 25 20
58 10 35

5 59 35

6 37 20

58 35

6 34 10

56 58 48

57 58 10

58 3 5
58 8 4
58 8 10
58 4 25
58 6 50
58 11 50

7 3
7 30

7 51 5

8 3 2
8 3C
8 3 35
8 13 5
8 23 45

58 15 20
58 20 20

8 31 30
8 41

58 24 50
58 26 20
58 24 5
58 27 10

8 48
8 47 25
8 47 45
8 52 15

58 31 30

8 59 40

58 36 10

9 5 5

58 42 40

58 46

9 15

9 5 28

AVTHOBrmS.

The Tbioonouetbioal Sub-
TET, &c., as before stated.

■W: ■ ' >•!,<

•■, . '.- ■■.,■1'

i .. :(-'■■■. ;''

^;t\;:i

.«.'*s. ;■>

■,t =**n'

. POSITIONS OF PLACES.
NORWAY AND SWEDEN— Continubd.

Kraserds S. end of Town

Jonmuland Lighthouse . .

Laneotangen ; Lighthouse

Frederiksyeem ; Stevsemso
Lighthouse

Little Feerder Lighthouse

Fulehuk Lighthouse ....

<Jhristiania ; New Obser-
vatory

Torbiomskiter ; beacon . .

North Roster Lighthouse

Segelskieer

Stromstad ; Church

Great Wadero

Hallo Lighthouse

Karingo beacon

Marstrand ; Carlsten Light

Winga Lighthouse

Ootheborg town

LAT. K.

58 52
58 52 10
58 59 45

58 59 10

59 2 5
59 11

59 54 42
58 59 15
58 54 10
58 46 35
58 56 18
58 34 65
58 20 30
58 6 25
57 53 30
57 38
57 41

LOM. ■.

9 25 20
9 36 15
9 45 50

10 4 30
10 32 5
10 36 45

10 43 'iS
10 49

40
12 25
6

11
11
11
11

11 56 40

11 13
11 20
11 35
U 36

AUTHOKITIE8.

The Trigonometrical Sur-
vey, by Lieut. Schie, and
Messrs. Diriks and Wille.

1 -Mv.

i:.i.lS' ..

■Ik

NOTES.

1. Coast of Norway. — The Trigonometrical Survey of the Western coasts
of Norway to the northward of Tron&jem, was commenced by Lieut. Vibe, assiijitcd
by Lieuts. Paludan and Hagerup, in June, 1828, by order of the Noi'we«?ian Govern-
ment. It was continued by those officers, under the direction of Captain Vibe,
to the frontiers of Russian Lapland, till 1849. Their elaborate charts, published at
intervals, between 1835 and 1849, shew the extraordinary features of this coast, a
complete labyrinth of islets and rocks, which all written description must utterly fail
in giving any notion of. We have given the positions of the more prominent land-
marks, but there are few points which can be made available for the mariner's use,
except the information afforded by their valuable charts.

2. Trondhjem, &c. — ^The ancient cathedral of TrondI\jem or Drontheim, once
one of tb<^ finest in Europe, lies as stated in the table, and was the northern limit of
the survey carried on by the Danish Government, prior to the transfer of the courts
to Sweden.

The coasts to the south were trigonometrically and astronomically surveyed by
Commissioner N. A. Vibe, before mentioned, assisted by Lieut. D'Aubert, and Captain
C. F. Grove, as far as Stavanger and Egcfield. The charts issued under Admiral
Klint, (a well-known name,^ leave little to be desired, and the nature of the country,
the geological formation bemg of primary gneiss, granite, and other very hard rocks,
will prove thnt but little change can arise from the wear of the sea.

3. Ekersund or Egqersund, &c. — The charts of the south coast of Norway, be-
tween Egletield and Jedd?ren and Christiansand, were published in 1800. The trian-
gulation was earned on by the same officers as befora mentioned. Captains Grove and
Vibe, and Lieut. D'Aubert.

This section of the coast is dependant on the positions of Stavanger and Christ-
iansand Churches. Lindcrsnics, or the Naze of Nortray, as it is grncrally called,
was made by the triangulation to be in latitude 57° 58' ON. By the Astronomical
observations of Messrs. Rich and Vibe, in 1781, 67° 58° 48" N.

Between Ekersund and ChriHtiansand; the trianffulation was re-cxumiiied in 1855-6,
by Lieut. Schie, asHistt'd by Hcrr C. Diriks and Lieut. H. Wille ; between Arcndal
Jomfnilund, these opcrationn wore carried on by the same officers in 1803-5. The portion

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

)rontheim, onoe
lorthcm limit of
fer of the courts

ally sui-veyed by
lert, and Captain
under Admiral
; of the country,
very hard rocks,

t of Norway, be-
800. The trian-
)tains Qrovo and

nger and ChriBt-
rrnorally called,
\e Asti'onomical

imined in 186fi-6,
between Arcndal
j3-3. The portion

of coast between Arendal and Christiansand was examined in 1804-fi, by Herr Dirilu
I and Lieut. Wille, under Major Vibe.

VARIATIONS OF THE COMPASS, 186L

At the Treenen Islands, 16° W. (It was observed as 19° in 1837) ; at the Vigten
Islands, between 17° and 18° W.; at Trondhjem, 17° 40' W.j Christiansand W 42'
W. ; at Stadtland, 21° W. ; at Bergen, 20° 35^W. ; at Stavanger, 20° 0' W ; at Eker-
Bund, 19° 46' W. ; at the Naze, 19° 10' W. 5 at Arendal, 18° W. ; at Christiania Fjord,
17" W. ; at Gotheborg, 15° 40' W. .

These variations ai-e now decreasing at the rate of 6' to 6' 30" per annum. ;

5. DENMABK, GEEMANY, AND HOLLAND.

LAT. N.

West coast of Den-
mark.
Skagen or Skaw Point ;

New Lighthouse

Hirtshals ; extreme point
Loibierg 5 Home Church
Venneberg ; Church ....
Lokken ; Life-boat house
I Borglum Kloster ; mansion
Bolbierg Bluff (380 feet) . .
I Hantsholm ; Lighthouse . .

Klitmolle

1 Blokkenbierg

I Agger Channel ; Light-ves-
sel in entrance

I Husby ; Chm-ch

1 Holmsland 5 New Sogns

Church

I Rin^kiobing ; Church, 5

I miles inland

Nymind Gab; Entrance
I Blaavands Huk ; extreme
I Horn Reef ; Outer patch,

16 feet

iHjerting; Landing place
iFano ; Nordby N. beacon

IMand ; Church

JRoino ; St. Clemens Church
ISylt Island ; Lighthouse on
List, or north end ....

Ilode Klif, or red

Cliff Light

— Hornum Odde ; Sta-
tion in Survey

lAmrum ; St. Clemen's

Church at Nebel

— Lighthouse at S.end

?artrapdyb ; entrance

Smalldypt ; outer buoy . ,
^ohr Island ; Wyk Church
DagebUll harbour light . .
Vcw Hever Channel j outer

buoy , , , ,

lusum j Church

)rding ; Church

57 44 9

57 35 25

57 35 15

57 27

57 22

67 9

56 49 45

5
7

6 60
2 55

LON. E.

56 45 30
56 7 45

66 16 56

66 6 30

55 47 40

56 33 30

55 30
51 31 36
66 27 30
55 16 25
66 6 55

55 3 10

54 57 42

54 46 68

54 39 22
64 38 28
64 36
54 30
64 41 25
34 43 40

64 28 46
61 20 15

AUTHOKITIES.

The Chart published by the
Danish Goyebnment 1841.

10 37 56
9 66 30

10
9 49 30
9 42 40
9 47 40
8 59 30
8 36 10
8 30
8 14 56

8 12 15
8 10 45

8 10 65

8 16
8 11 26
8 4 15

7 41 5

8 21 10
8 23 30
8 31 40
8 32 30

8 23 40

8 20

8 16 32

8 21 35
8 22 32
8 13 30
8 17
8 34 12
8 41 20

{) 3 10
H m 26

.1,. ■!!;-.;! ■.

•a; *

-'-■)

93 POSITIONS OF PLACES.

DENMARK, GERMANY, AND HOLLAND— Contiicubd.

Eider Channel ; Lwhtyessel

Eiderstedtt Hitz Bank bea-
con

Tonning; South Church . .

BUsum ; Harbour

Helgoland ; Lighthouse . .

Bdsch Sand beacon [1]

^Ibe River; Light-vessel,
Nol.

Scharhom beacon . .

Light-vessel No. 3. . .

Hanoveb, Oldembubo &c.

Neuwerk High Lighthouse

Kugel or BeJl beacon

Cuxhaven Lighthouse

Gliickstadt ; Pier Light . .

Altona; Observatory. . .

Hambui^ ; Observatory . .

Weser River ; New Chan-
nell^htship

Ever Sand beacons

Bremer beacon Light-
house

Longwarden ; Church

Bremerhaven { Church . .

Bremen j Observatory. . . .

Jade River; Minsener Olde
Ooge beacon

Hooluiel ; Windmill ....

Heppens; Navy Harbour
Entrance

Waterworks tower

Wangeroog; New Light-

LAT. N.

54 10 40

45 17 10
54 18 55
54 7 40
54 10 49
54 5 30

54 10
53 57 16
43 58 30

53 55 3
53 53 20
53 52 28
53 47 25
53 32 45
53 31 59

53 48 25
53 4 15

53 42 50
53 36 20
53 32 48
53 4 36

53 46 45
53 38

house

Church

53 45
53 45

Spikeroog, centre . ^

Langeroog; beacon on Os-

terende

'Osterende village

Baltrum; Village at W.end

Nordemey beacon

; Conversation House

Juist; Eastern Village

Coast op Holland [2]

Borkum ; Light tower . .

Rottum ; House | 53 32 20

Delfeyl ; Church . .
Emden ; Church .
Sohiermonnik-oog ;

Lighthouse
Ameland ; HoUum church

Tower .

53 31
53 31

63 47 28
53 47 32
53 45 30

53 44 5
53 43 20
53 42 25
53 40 40

53 35 10

High

m i._ii«

xvrBvuvirng i

Lighthouse

rtranaans

53 19 58
53 22 2

53 29 19

63 26 12

53 21 40

LON.

8 34 35

8 39
8 56 30
8 51 50

7 53

8 37 50

8 18 11
8 24 35
8 31 50

8 29 50
8 41 18

8 42 20

9 25 50
9 56 39
9 58 31

8 8 20
8 21 30

8 14 40
8 18 32
8 34 15
8 42 48

1 22

9 20
7 43

7 53 59
7 51 6
7 42

7 35 55

7 29

7 22 50

7 9 50

7 8 36

6 40 16

6 31 46

6 66 38

7 12 15
6 9 42
5 38 31

6 12 54

AVTHOaiTIES.

The Survey made by the
Prussian Admibaltt — 1858-9.

'5'

The GreatTRiANGULATiON by
Baron Krayenhoff, and the
Surveys of Admiral Ryk, Capts.
Keuchenius, and Van Rhyn.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
DENMARK, GERMANY, AND HOLLAND— CoOTiHUBi).

made by the
lEALTT— 1858-9.

LAT. N.

iHarlinffen j W. Ch. Tower
Iviielan^; Lighthouse near
Ea<3t end

Posthnis near West

end

iFroneker ; Steeple

iMakkum; Church tower
iBolsward ; church tower. .
Hindeloopen ; tower ....
Stavoren; Church tower
Urk Island; Church tower
VollenhoTen ; station ....

iMuiden Church

I Amsterdam; West tower

of Cathedral [3]

I Monnikendam

lEnkhuisen ; Church tower
I WieringenOosterlandtower
lEyerland ; beacon at N.E.

I point

JTexel; Oostereind Tower

-Hoom; Church tower

IWillemsoord; Time ball

on the palace [6]

I Kykduin Lighthouse

I Calandsoog ; Steeple ....
jEgmond aan-Zee; Light-

nouse

jZandvoort; Lighthouse ..
I Nordwyk ; Lighthouse . .
IKatwyK ; Lighthouse ....
I Leiden ; Observatory [4]
IScheveningen Lightnouse
IVoome Island ; Brielle

Lighthouse

Hellevoetsluis ; time

ball on the hospital

lOoedereede; Church Tower

Light :......

Stone beacon Light,

on North side

iSchouwen Island ; Brou-

wershaven Mill

Renisse ; East Light

Lighthouse at W.

end

Zierikzee ; Great

Tower

IWalcheren Island ;' Veere

great Tower

^West Kapelle; Lt.

on Church Tower

[■ Middelburg tower. . . .

Flushing orVlissingen;
time ball at the Arsenal

63
53

37
55

53 10 29

53 17 48

53 14 44
53 11 14

52 56 37
52 52 57
52 39 46
52 40 53
52 19 54

62 22 32
52 27 29
52 42 15

52 65 65

53 9 50
53 6 5
52 38 30

52 57 50
52 57 5
52 60 10

I.0N. B.

52
52
52

37 10
22 28
14 35
52 12 2
52 9 28
52 6 17

51 54 11

61 49 25

51 49 S

51 48 54

51 43 32
51 44 32

51 42 33

51 39 2

51 32 52

51 31 46
61 30

61 26 20

AVTHOBrriBS.

6 24 45 .
6 3 31

4 59 3
6 32 42
6 23 59
6 3 35

5 23 57

6 21 39
5 35 38

5 57 4

6 4 11

4 5 2
6 2 3
6 17 35

5 40

4 60 10

4 63 40

5 3 32

4 46 36
4 43 20
4 41 35

4 37 20
4 31 38
4 25 43
4 23 28
4 29 9
4 16 4

4 10 40

4 7 44

3 58 32

3 56 22

3 64 32
3 47 62

3 34 30

3 64 62

3 40 2

3 26 49
3 35 31

3 35 16

The Great Trianoulation
by Baron Krayenhoff, and
the Surve3rB of Admiral Ryk,
Capts. Keuchenius andTVan Rhyn .

♦■^-^

i:»%d^-

('*-;

■iv/:; ^! ;i

..•)

'"'

,ii ■ ■;•? j)

■:'-.;

'; -v^'f

._;'?)kiv-

,.,

^,'

." ■ *

; Vr

- h '

• ■* • . ■ f-A'-

»■;■ ■

•'

■"*!'

Yi* j4

•;

■■ - ;!■"'■

'•

,, V

•?•--

,.1 wi' ;.( <H

24 POSITIONS OF PLACES.

DENMARK, GERMANY, AND HOLLAND— Continued.

Belgium.

Brussels ; Royal Obser-
vatory [5]

Paard Markt Lightvessel

North Hinder Lightvessel

Heist ; Lighthouse

Blankenberg ; Light on
Fort

Ostende; New Light ..

Nieuport; Light at En-
trance

LAT. N.

LON. K.

o ' //

50 51 11

51 23 40
51 36 40
51 20

4 17 IS
3 20

2 34 35

3 14

51 18 55
51 14 25

3 8
2 55 57

51 8 25

2 43 50

AUTHoarriES.

The Great Triangulation
by Baron Krayenhoff, &c.

. .1

•liVTf-i.V

»''»£i)-.>*

NOTES.

1. Elbe and Weser Rivers. — The details given in the table, are taken from
the New Survey of these entrances, made by the Prussian Admiralty, and published
in 1859. The longitudes are dependant on that of the well-known Observatory at
Altona.

2. Holland. — The charts of the Coasts of Holland, are based upon the great
triangulation of that country, by the Lieut-General C.R.T., Krayenhoff, the account
of which was published in 1813. Upon the points thus established, the coasts and
channels about Vlieland, Amelahd, &c., were surveyed by the late C^tain-Lieut. S. J.
Keuchenius, published in 1831-34 ; the Texel Channels by Lieut. A. Van Rhyn, 1840;
the Zuider Zee, by the same in 1841 ; the Schelde Channels, by the lato Vice- Admiral
J. E. Ryk, 1841 ; Goeree and the Maas, by the same, ra 1827 ; and Brouwershaven
Gat, by Captain Keuchenius, 1826. These fine surveys are deservii^i; of all con-
fidence.

3. Amsterdam. — The triangulation of the Baron Krayenhoff was dependant on
the position of the western tower of the Cathedral of Amsterdam, which was consid-
ered to be in longitude 4° 53' 16".86 E. Its true longitude, by electric signal, appears
to be as shewn 4° 53' 2'.55 E. By a Government notice, dated August 1st 1826,
Greenwich is named as the first meridian for Netherlands hydrography.

4. Leiden. — The National Obser\'atory of Leiden was established in 1854, under
Professor Kaiser. Its longitude was obtained by electric telegraph time-signals, be-
tween Palis and Leiden, and is fixed at 17™ 56».60 in time, or 4" 29' 9".0. E. in arc.
From this longitude, that of Amsterdam, and all others have been regulated.

4. Time Signals have been established at Willemsoord for the Nieuwe Diep, at
Hellevoetsluis, and at Flushing. They were placed in electric connexion with the
Observatory at Leiden, in September, 1859.

6. Brussels. — The Observatory at Brussels was considered by the observations
conducted therein, to be in latitude 50° 51' 10".7, longitude, 0'' 17'" 29".0 in time, E.
of Greenwich. Although this position may not affect those of the coast, which were
obtained by an independent process of triangulation, yet the change in the assuiued
longitude of the Observatorv of Paris, with corresponding alterations in the relative
connexions between that and other obsei-vatories, will affect the longitudes of places
on the coasts, in such a minute degi-ce, it is true, that it is perfectly inappreciable by
the means at the ordinary sailor's command ; yet it is noticed here to shew to what re-
finement these operations are canied on. It will also demonstrate the almost insuper-
able diificultv there is in arrivinget an exact conclusion. This subject has been alluded
to in connexion with the Edinburgh Observatory, and ^vill be hereafter with that of
Paris.

In 1859, a series of instantaneous electric signals was made to connect the obser-
vatories of Brussels, Berlin, Altona, &c., ond the longitude of Brussels, as given by
M. Quctelet, comes out as 17'" 28».9, or 4" 17' 30 ",50, East of Greenwich — a very
close approximation to the independent nssiunption.

lUED.

LITIES.

Triangulation
yenhoff, &c.

POSITIONS OF PLACES. 25

VARIATIONS OF THE COMPASS.— 1861.

At the Scaw Point, 16" 25' W. ; at Hantsholmen, 17° 43' W. ; at the Horn Reefs,
17" 46' W. ; at Hambuig, 16° 0' W. 5 Bremerhaven 17° 0' ; Helgoland, 17° 40' W. j
Emdcn; IT 50' W.

At Terschelling, 18° 46' W. ; at the Texel and Amsterdam, 19° 0' W. } at Urk,
&c., 18° 30' ; Brouwershaven, Walcheren, &c., 19° 20' ; Oetende, 19° 46' W.

These variations are decreasing at the rate of 6' 30" per annum.

6. COASTS OF FRANCE.

B, are taken fi-cm
ty, and published
n Observatory at

1 upon the great
nhoff, the account
ed, the coasts and
iptaiii-Lieut. S. J.
Van Rhyn, 1840;
lato Vice- Admiral
d Brouwershaven
rviuj? of all con-
was depeadant on
vhich was consid-

ric signal, appears

August 1st 1826,

)hy.
din 1854, under
time-signals, be-

59' 9 .0. E. in arc.

egulated.
Nieuwe Diep, at

nnexion with the

the observations
29".0 in time, E.
coast, which were
in the assuiued
ms in the relative
ttgitudes of places
inappreciable by
shew ix) -what re-
le almost insuper-
_ has been alluded
after with that of

•onnect the obser-
Lssels, as given by
reonwich-

NoBTBERN Coast.

I PARIS ; Imperial Obser-
vatory [1]

I Belgian Frontier? Corps de

Card [2]

I Bergues ; great Spire

iDluudrk ; great Tower . .
— Leugfuenaard Tower
ICassel; Western Mouut . .
[Gravelines ; Church Spire
lOye ; Station in Survey . .

[Calais ; Spire

New Lighthouse . .

jueUes ; WestMill ....
}lanc-Nez>; Guard-house . .

[ont Couple ; summit

}ris-Nez Lighthouse ....

ableteuse ; "Windmill . .

Boulogne; Colonne de la

Grand Armge

Cathedral ....

!!!ape d' Alprecli Lighthouse

jomel Pt. Light

^taples

Touquet ; S. Light

)erck ; Light on Haut-

Banc ~

payeux Lighthouse

[rlport. Steeple

Dieppe; St. Jacques Ch.

iilly Lighthouse

It. Valeryen Caux; Chapel

Ncamp; Abbey

I. d' Antifer

p. La H^ve; N. Lighthouse
e Havre; Steeple of

Notre Bame

fonfleur; Western Light

^estreham Church

Iierville

. Marcouf Is., Lighthouse

Hougue Lighthouse . .

fcpe Barflem- Lighthouse

lierbourg ; Foi-t Central

jon the jjigue

LATITUDE. LONGITUDB.

o ' //

48 50 13

61 4

60 58

61 2
51 2
50 48
50 59 10
50 68 43
60 57 33
60 67 46
60 66 41
50 66 33
60 62 17
60 62 10
50 48 45

50 44 81
50 43 38
50 41
60 33
60 30 62
60 31 43

67
38

60 23 52
60 11 42
60 3 39
49 65 36
49 66 7
49 63 12
49 56 22
49 44 17
49 30 46

or//

2 20 9 E.

31 13
26 20
22 33
22 41
15 48
7 44

AVTHOaiTIKS.

51
61

32
9

48 63
43 34

33 11

34 66
37 34

37
m 63

33 41

34 36

38 30

1 36 11 —

33 24

30 41

31 21
4 38

67 30
42 47
21 50
9 46
6 4 4

49 29

49 25

49 16 38 1

49 22

49 29 66

49 34 27

49 41

49 4r

6 24 —
.13 38 —
16 33 W.

44 21 —

1 8 62 —
1 16 36 —
1 16 2 —

1 37 14 —

Originally from the triangles
intencfed merely for the admea-
surement of uie degrees of
the meridian in France, but
ultimately carried on through-
out the kingdom. These were
commenced by M. Picard, who
effected an actmeasurement be-
tween Paris and Amiens in
1669, and finally completed by
Messrs. Mechain and Delam-
bre, in 1798 ; after having ex-
ercised the abilities and indus-
try of M. Cassini the elder, his
son, and grandson ; and of MM.
Mii-aldi and De la Caille, with
other of the most eminent
French astronomers, &c., to
the present time. "' ;' -^ '

■:m.L

• '• i :

•*.. '■* 1

i$^-'

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
COASTS OF FRANCE— Continued.

Qucrqueville ; Spire

Cape La Hague ; Light-

louse

Aldemey ; East Mill

Caaquets ; S. Lighthouse . .
Guernsey 5 St. Pierre Pier

head

Jersey; St. Helier, Victoria

Pier

Chausey Island } Light-
house

C. Carteret ; Lighthouse . .
Granville; Lighthouse . .
Cape Frehel ; Lighthouse

Le Rohinet ; Islet

Cape d'Erqui

Les Comtesses ; Western

Hock

Grand Lejon (Rock)

Harbour Isle, off St. Quay
Isle Brehat ; N. E. Point
HSaux de Brghat; Light-
house

Les Sept lies ; Lighthouse

He de Bas ; Lighthouse . .

near the "West end

OUESSANI or USHANX J

Lighthouse

The Bat of Biscay.

Lampaul

Kermorvan ; Lighthouse . .
St. Mathieu; Lighthouse

Portzic ; Lighthouse

Brest ; St. Louis

Crozon ; Church

Bee du Ras ; Lighthouse . .
He de Sein ; Lighthouse . .
Penmarc'h ; Lighthoiise . .

Penfret ; Lig[h3iouse

He de Groix; Western

Lighthouse

Port Louis ; St. Pierre . .
Belle He ; Lighthouse on

S.W. Point ..........

; Borderun Signal

He Hocdic ; Lighthouse . .
Le Four ; Lighthouse ....
Aiguillon ; Lighthouse . .

Pilier ; Lighthouse

He d'Yeu ; Lighthouse . .

St. Gilles sur Vie

La Chaume; Lighthouse

house

U KJk\ItXAkV f

LATIUUX.

49 39 55

49 43 21
49 42 52
49 43 22

49 27

49 10 33

48 52 13

49 22 27
48 50 7
48 41 5
48 40 33
48 38 45

48 38 58
48 45
48 40 2
48 51 54

48 54 33
48 52 46

48 44 45

48 28 31

48 33 40
48 21 44
48 19 49
48 21 29
48 23 20
48 14 48
48 2 22
48 2 35
47 47 53
47 43 17

47 38 55
47 42 31

47 18 43
47 21 1
47 20 32
47 17 53
47 14 33
47 2 36
46 43 5
46 41 46
46 29 42

LOMOIXVDE.

1 42 OW.

1 67 21 —

2 22 7 —
2 22 42 —

2 33 —

2 7 18 —

1 49 40 —

48 31
36 52
19 15

28 53

29 24

2 34 36 —
2 39 58 —
2 48 35 —

2 59 21 —

3 5 17 —

3 29 33 —

4 1 42 —
6 3 31 —

38 6 —
47 31 —
47 57 —
32 10 —
28 14 —
28 38 —
44 3 —
52 9 —
22 36 —
57 21 —

3 30 41
3 20 34

13 43
13 65
62 11

1 55 14

1 47 50

38
16

21 56
23

AUTHoanixs.

The Survey by Capt. Mar-
tin White, R.N.

The excellent Surveys of
the Coast by the French Engi-
neers, under the direction of M.
Beautemps BeauprS, 1830-31.
The account of the operations
has been drawn up by M.
B6gat.

■i.-„ ,i,,>».j~-

' . . . ■:''"■'■'■. **«''

46 29 28 1 47 35 —

The Hydrographic Sur-
veys of the Western Coasts
of France, made under the
direction of M. Beautemps
Beaupris; an Exposition of
which, by M. Daussy, was
published at Paris, by author-
ity, in the years 1829 and

Remabks.

It is to be remarked, that the
longitudes, as given in the Con-
ttausance dea Tetnps, compared
with those in the Charts of the

,';!,'i'-;: iitiii"' <

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
COASTS OF FRANCE— CoNTiNUBto.

nede Hki Baleine Light-
house

^Port of St. Martin

Bocheile; Harhour Light
Oleron; Chassiron Light-
house

Isle of Aix ; Harhour Light
Point de la Couhre ; Light
Port of Ro^an ; Light . .

Cordonan Lighthouse

Pauillac; Harbour Light
Bordeaux; West Point

of St. Andr§

Point de Grave ; Lighthouse
Beacons East of Caphreton

La T^te de Buch

Signal Tower of the Biver

Adour

Bajonne

Biarits ; Lighthouse
Socoa; Hanwur Light ..

LATITTTDB.

LONOrtTTDE.

1 //

> «

46 14 44

1 33 48 W.

46 12 20

1 21 67 —

46 9 21

1 9 30 —

46 2 52

1 24 47 —

46 36

1 10 48 —

45 41 30

1 15 26 —

46 37 8

1 1 54 —

46 36 14

1 10 30 —

46 11 66

44 46 —

44 50 16

33 55 —

45 34 29

1 3 39 —

43 39 26

1 26 44 —

44 37 57

1 8 13 —

43 31 36

1 30 6 —

43 29 26

1 27 67 —

43 29 38

1 33 40 —

43 23 44

1 41 19 —

AtTTHOBrriKS.

PihU Frpmeaii, constructed be-
tween 1816 and 1827t under the
direction of M. Beautempa £eatt-
pre, show a difference amounting
to, at the least, 61.6, Ijhe former
Survey beine^o niuch less; which
is occasioned by the latter deter-
mination of the geogra^cal
position of Crozon, near Brest,^
as explained in the Note. The
corrected longitudes ore given
in the Table.

The HydkogJiaphic Sur-

■•v*'*--^****'-*^^'

NOTES.

-kH

Paris. — ^The grand operations, in point of accuracy, fox the determination of the
length of the degrees of the meridian, have taken place since 1783. In that year, a
tnemorial was transmitted by M. Ca^ini de Thury to the Bight Hon. Charles James
Fox, then Seoretar^ of State, This application caused the operations by General
Boy, already e^lamed, which afterwards extended into a General Survey. This
gentleman, in England,' acted in conjunction with Messrs. Cassini, Mechain, and
Legendre, in France ; but it imfortunatel^ happened that the results of the two par-
ties did not exactly agree ; that of the British officers being, for the difference of lon-
gitude, 2" 19' 61 ", wMle that of the French was 2° 23' 16',

In order to determine this question, the subject was resumed in 1821, on the sugges-
I tion of the French authorities. The operations were consequently repeated under
the direction of commissioners, nominated, respectively, by the Academy of Sciences
and the Boyal Society. An account of the operations and results have been given
in the " Transactions of the latter, and the determination was that 2° 20' 22" is the
! difference between the meridians of Paris and Greenwich. It was also attempted in
1825, by the respective governments on a plan suggested we believe by Mr. (now Su*
jJohnHlerschel,^ and Captain (now Gener^) Sabine, and Colonel Bonne, of simulta-
jneous observations of rocket signals at a chain of stations ; but they failed on the
I French side, and the result, 2° 20' 22", was not considered satisfactory.
I Notwithstanding the immense labour and consummate skill employed in these
Imeasurements, the results obtained were doubtful, and it was reserved for the private
[means of a commercial association to settle the question by means of the electric
[telegraph. The death of M. Arago, delayed the French preparatious which were
jorganized when M. Le Verrier became Superintendent of the Paris Observatory, and
several thousand signals were transmitted in 1864, so many, in. fact, that a large por-
tion were rejected, leaving 1700, or nearly 2,000, which were thought unexceptionable,
^ach observation is probably as accurate as the mean of all former observations, and
he means of all shew previous results to be in error nearly a second of time (a large
quantity in astronomy,) and which, corrected, is nearly certain to its hundredth

DOl-t.

The mean result of these final electiic observations, is that the D.L. between

" 20' 9".4a in arc.

ObBei'vatorieB, i» w- z\f'.o'6 oi tune, or 2"

POSITIONS OF PLACES

We have been more diflbse, perhaps, than necessary on this point, but it is perhaps
the most iniiportant geodetical operation ever undertaken.

2. The re-examination of the northern coasts of France and the triangulated
Survey of the Western Shores was originated in 1814, by a memorial addressed to
Louis XVIII. by Admiral Rosily, and Admiral Bossel, but from political events it
was not commenced till 1816, and then M. fieautemps BeauprS started the Survey
from Brest. The triangulation was based upon the carefiilly observed position of thuel
Tour de Crozon, and carried out by M. Daussy down to the frontiers of Spain. The
noble Atlas, since completed, is the best eulogy that can be presented for these im-
portant works.

VARIATIONS OF THE COMPASS— 1861.

.*■

At Dunkirk, 19° 60' W. ; Calais, 20' 0' W. ; Dieppe, 20° 25' W. ; Le Havre, 20'
42' W. ; Cherbourg, 21° 36' W. ; Aldemey, 22° 0' W. ; Jersey, 21° 46' W. ; St. Malo,
21° 16' W. ; Brest, 22° 26' ; Ushant, 22° 60' W. ; BeUe Isle, 22° 0' W. ; Mouth of
the Loire River, 21° 0' W. ; He de Re, 20° 20° 26' W. ; Corduan Lighthouse, 20° 18'
W. } Bordeaux, 19° 56' W. } Bayonne and Socoa, 20° 0' W.

7. COASTS OP SPAIN AND POETUGAL.

North Coast of Spain

Cape La Higuerai Light-
house

Fuenterrabia

Port Passages; Cape La
Plata Li^thouse

San Sebastian ; Mt. Igual-
do Lighthouse

Ouctoria ; Atalaya or tower

Motrioo ; Atalaya

Cape Machiohaco; Light-
house

Puntb Galea; Lighthouse

Portugalete

Bilbao ; Bridj^

Castro Urdiales ; Santa
Ana Castle Light

Santona; Light Building
on Mount

Cape Ajo ; extreme ;

Santander; Monro Island
Lighthouse

Cape Mayor; Lighthouse

San Martin de la Arena ;
Suancos Church

Cape Oyambre ; extreme

San Vicente dela Barguera

Llanes ; San Pedro Point

Capo Prictro ; extremity . .

Bella R. ; E. point near
Rivodeaella

Cape Lostres

Qilnn I Rtn. Cnia\{nn Point

liighthouBO

———Cape Torres

I^TIIUUB.

LON. W.

O 1 II

O ' H

43 23 35
43 21 46

1 46 68
1 47

43 20 21

1 59 33

43 19 28
43 18 50
43 20

2 26
2 12 30
2 24 25

43 28
43 22 36
43 20
43 15 10

2 49 26

3 4 2
3 3
2 65 26

43 24 10

3 16 6

43 27 30
53 32

3 16 40
3 26 25

43 28 37
43 30 16

3 45 43
3 47 6

43 26 10
43 25 30
43 23 60
43 27 30
43 28 48

4 36
4 20 6fi
4 24 46
4 45 40
4 60 40

43 31
43 33 20

6 6
4 17 45

43 35 13
43 37

5 38 2

6 39

AUTUOUrilBS.

The valuable Surveys of Don
Vicente Tofino, and Don Jo-
sef Varela, of the Spanish Ma-
rine, and of M(yor Franzini, of
the Portuguese Royal Engineers,
corrected by later observations of
M. Saulnier de Vauhello, Capt.
Florez, Capt. W. H. Smyth,
R.N., and others.

-■"f •

tut it ia perhaps

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
COASTS OP SPAIN AND PORTUGAL— CoNTlifUED.

|CapePe&a8{ Lighthouse..
JAvJes R.; For!?ada Point
ICttdillero ; Rerdlera Point

Light

ICape Bidio ; extreme ....
ICape Busto; Lighthouse
bUa de Navia ; Campel Pt
gOrrio de Tapia Islaiid;

Liffhthoose

livaleo ; Fancha Island

Lighthouse

Fozi Point de los Cairos
?ort Vivero } Socastro Pt.
Bstaca Point; Lighthonse
Sape Ortegal ; extreme . .
Cardelaiia Point; Tower
Cedeira ; Point Pantin ....
Cape Prior ; Lighthouse . .
Cape Priorino ; Lighthouse
on the Little Cape ....
ferrol; West Mole . . . . [2]
Conma ; Tower of Hercules

Light

St. Antonio Castle

^isargas Is. ; Lighthouse

I on I. Mayor

bape Villano; Lighthouse
Pamarinas ; Mole

West Coast of Spain.

pape Tori&ana ; extreme . .
pape Finisterro ; Light-
on S. extreme

urcubion ; Light on Cape

cmedioB Point; extreme
[uruB Bay ; Lourp Mt. on

North side

upo Corrobedo ; Light.

lalcociro Point; extreme

roHa Bay ; Sta. Eugenia

Church

■ ; Sdbora Island ;

[ Light on South Point . .

; Carril Church

; Arosa Island ;

I Light on North Point . .

ti^iiza iHland ; Oalera Point

Diitevi'dra Bay ; Capo

I Udra

■Pontevedra; centre

Jtvona or Cies Islands;

M'aballo or North Point

■ ; Middle iHlund )

iLight on Mount Faro , .

LAT. N.

LON. W.

AUTHOKITUS.

o / //

43 42 20
43 38 30

6 60 20
6 56

The Charts published by th
Spanish Goyebnment, &c.

43 36 10
43 38
43 36 10
43 34 30

6 9 3
6 16
6 28 48
6 44 20

44 36 36

6 68 26

>.:V'',,-.,;

43 34 40
43 35 26
43 43 28
43 47 30
43 46 10
43 41 66
43 40 48
43 33 40

7 4 16
7 16 0,
7 37 40
7 43 24

7 66 60

8 3
8 6 6
8 19 9

48 27 60
43 28 36

8 20 33
8 14 26

43 23
43 22

8 24 8
8 22 6

43 21 60
43 9 60
43 8

8 60 13

9 12 68
9 10 40

:-,. , :.ii>t v^rv .:^,:

' f ■ - , .

43 4 30

9 17 16

'■" " ' ' ,",'.- — „

42 62 39

16 24

'^'l' ' .>

42 64 60
42 47 46

9 10 8
9 7 35

42 44 30
42 34 38
42 31

9 3 30
9 4 48
9 1 3

42 33

8 67 66

• ' -,.'■. r"

42 27 60
42 36 40

9 23
8 45

42 34 8
42 20 7

R 61 68
8 64 30

■•:,.■ .i,,r.-«'.r,!

42 20
42 26 30

42 14 50

8 48 60
8 37 20

8 63 26

* '♦..■.
i

42 12 2

8 01

■ -^.iVi..

*^-

POSITI(»fS OF PLACES.
COASTS OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL— Cowtinued.

Bayonals;; Boeiro Island,

off S. end

Vigo Bay; Cape Hombre,

rock off

Viffo ; Castro Castle

^N.S. de la Guia 5 Cas-
tle Light ^

Cape Sentoulo ; Mt.

Ferr o

Bayona Church

Cape Silleyro ; extreme •
Orullada Point; extreme
Minho River; Mount St.
Tecla Chapel

Coast of Portugal.

River Minho; Castillo..

Point

Viana; Castellode Santiago
River Neiva; Entrance..

Esposende

ViUa do Conde

River Douro; Light at

N.8. de Suz .[3]

Oporto ; San Joao de Foz

Aveiro ; Town

Cape Monde^ Lighthouse
Peniahe ; Lighthouse on

Cape Carvoeiro

Berlengas ; Light on great

Island

Farilhoens ; centre

Cape Roca ; Lighthouse . .
Tagus River; Bugio Fort

Light

LISBON; Ob8ervatory[4]
Cape Espichel ; Lighthouse
Setuval or St. Ubes ; Light

on Fort d'Outew

Cape Sines ; Fort

Cape Sardao

Cape St Vicente ; Convent

Light

Lagos ; principal Church . .

Piedodo Point

Villa do Nueva do Pontiiiao

Balicru Point

Capo Santa Maria ; Light.

South Coast of Spain.

Ouadiana River; Ayamonte

Mouth '

Odiol lUvcr; Lights for
Huelva

LAT. N.

42 10 12

42 14 45
42 13 35

42 15 6

42 8 50

42 6 45

42 6

42 1

41 5 50

., •»-.,.
K (

41 60 6
41 41 25
41 37 30
41 31
41 21 30

41 9 9
41 8 46
40 38
40 12

39 21 8

39 25
39 29
38 46 6

38 39
38 42 25
38 24 9

38 31
38
37 31

37
37
37
3«
37

2 54
8 40

6 54

7 30

36 56

37 U
37 13 22

LON. W.

8 52 66

8 50 40
8 41 30

8 41 2

8 49

8 52 7

8 53

8 49 25

8 48 30
8 43 45
8 42
8 39 30
8 36

■>A (tl 5-i' ,.■■■•• ■

■; Si , .. MSiv

8 37 10
8 37
8 39 30

8 55 12

9 24 16

9 30 17
9 31 56
9 30

9 18 9
9 8 15
9 13

8 53
8 51 30

8 49

9 64
8 37 46
8 37 30

8 31
N 14
7 46

i f... -

7 16
6 61 34

AUTHOBITIBS.

The Qiarts published by the
Spanish Goyebnment, &c.

nism^ti

h -w y v»^

*i s

. ».--. *iri

'Captain Sir Edward Belcher,
R.N., 1833,

&*• . ,^.-, . s , , Of.'..

Si- ■. i/tTJTTiro :;;.5i,-}.*:itvT ^
f:J' ; ........ 'itn-r-.rt'i .? no

IV \ '<»0

^M , ■■■ .

l^i« t .•;»•?'/'> iJiiRi'I uii;*-
: 2t 'dy-.ijiiO

I ( R-T';Ur .Ttndio^S ; ■.— -

• M

• 1:1

I jjifjtf'rl bv.iizA { '■ ■! "■

■ '. TiliU

•) • t .-I'M } jjihu / ai/Ki'i. ■ —■ ■■ • •
! tbunM ri'O 10 lUJOY^ii
Jni'i'l iliiiiA Ta oiiflJi^
■Juuil.l uJLMl.!-, •-

{OBITIXS.

< Edward Belcher,

2r,

..*;.'-0 7*S*?'

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
COASTS OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL— Continued.

«l

IGaadalquiver River; Pta.
de Malandar Light

I San Lucar de Barrameda ;
great Church

IChipiona; Church tower

I Light

I CADIZ ; San Fernando

Observatory JS]

San S«ba8tian Cas-
tle; Light

I Cape Trafalgar ; Tower on
West side

iPta. Gracia ; Tower

iMt. Sella del Papa, summit
(1567 feet)

iPt. Paloma

JTarifa; Lighthouse on S.
point

IPta. Acebuche

ICamero Tower

lAlgesiras ; Verte I. Lisht

IGibraltar ; New Mole

Light [6]

Suropa Point i Victoria
Lighthouse

LAT. N.

LON. W.

o f v

' II

36 46 20

6 21 53

36 45 5

6 22 10

36 44 15

6 25 46

36 27 45

6 12 16

38 31 10

6 18 54

36 10 45
36 5 5

6 2 12
5 49 58

36 6 16
36 36 20

5 46 20
5 42 40

35 59 47

36 2 48
36 4 30
36 7 15

5 36 45

5 28 15

6 25 50
5 26 Id

36 7 20

5 21 32

36 6 22

5 21

ATTTHOKITIXS.

The Charts published by the
Spanish Goveknment, &c.

1.;

if,X^:

w\ ■'«; -^ ^R tit* ■r-::v^ '-fip.
ui ■-*.«* W-' ''^.t' •:'.: ■.' ,■■■•

NOTES.

1. The North Coast of Spain. — ^The whole of the North ooaats of Spain were
excellently surveyed and delineated by Don Vicente Tofifio de San Miguel in the years
1787-81 ; at the same period that our hydrography was being enriched by the talent
iind labours of Mackenzie, Spence, and others. The Spaniui Charts, stul most uae»
ml, exhibit the minute details of this iron-bound coast with such fidelity, that but
little change has been found necessary upon a re-amination. This doubtless is in
pome degree owing to the geological stnicture of the countiy, which, devoid of
■loping beaches, presents a ipuch more efieetive barrier to the degrading action of
jthe Hca, while the South-West Coast of France, at the bottom of the Bay of Bibcay,

I embarrassed by those immense collections of sand, &c., the debris of the coasts to
lie west of it, which is carried thither by the prevalent wind-waves and cut rents.

But while the details of this Survey are so excellent, later, and more correct
Observations show that there are some great errors in the relative position of the
principal pomts. This was detected, among other operations, by the early observ'ations
pf M. Uory. and perhaps by the Spanish suiveys, which were taken possession of by
he French, at tiie investment of Madrid. Later, the Survey mode by M. 8aulni£r
)E Vauhello, of the French Marine, shewed that Cape Machicnaco was placed
Avarly 10' too far eastward, and other points from 4' npwards, alw) too far to the cast.
ihese great errors are now, if not entirely n>moved, so nearly ailjuHtod, that the dis-
^rc]>ances are too small to atfoct navigrtion. The positions, esiivcuilly the longitudes,
iven in the table, are in accordance with tlie charts published by the Deposito Hi-
ogr&flco at Madrid in 1846.

2. CuAST of Galicia. — The North-wost coast of Spain was re-examined by

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

Capt. Don J. F. FloreX, of the Spanish Navy, in 1835-86. His Surrey seems to
shew the acciiracy of his predecessor Tofino. The positions of Captain Florez have
been followed.

3. River Douro. — ^This river was surveyed by Commander (now Sir Edward)
Belcher, R.N., in 1833. His determination^, which coincide with those made by Ad-
miral W. H. Smyth, when a lieutenant, in 1811-12, serve to correct the positions pre-
viously given by Tofino. In former editions of this work, we had to acknowledge
our obligations in this, as in man^ other instances, to Admiral Smyth, for his im-
provements in hydrography. It is sufficient here to repeat them.

4. Lisbon. — The longitude of Lisbon had been previously assumed as 9° 8' 40",
being a mean result of observations mode by the astronomers De la Caille. Piii^£,
and Messier, according to a great numbc)- of eclipses of tlie fii'at satellite of Jupiter.
The occultation of a star by tlie moon, October 5, 1753, with a corresponding one
at Paris, gave one minute more. Captain Fitzwilliam Owen, in the mcnmir of his
important expeditions to Portugal and Africa, assigns to the Arsenal of Lisbon 38°
42 18" N., and 9° 8' 54" W., from obserrationg made in H.M.S. Zeven, in 1819 and
1822.

5. Cadiz. — ^The position of the Observatory in the city of Cadiz is established as
36° 32' 0" N., and 6* 17' 30" W. The New 0'bser^'atory {Heal Observatorio) of Sail
Fernando, iu the Isle of Leon, is in 36 37' 43" N., and 6* 12' 16' W.

6. Gibraltar, &c — Mr. Charles Rumker gives the position of Europa Point,
Gibraltar, as 36° 5' 15" W.— {Edinburgh Phil. Journal, vol i. p. 322.) The late Cap-
tain Bauza, of the Hydrographic establishment at Madrid, gave Tarifa in 36° 0'.
This accords with Mr. Rumker ; but Captain Livingston made the latitude of Europa
Point, by sextant and artificial horizon, in 1820, 36° 6' 10'", and c.vnctly the same on
another day, by the sea horizon. Captain Symth has given Gibraltar in 36° 6' 30",
and 5° 21' 12".

It is to be observed that Lieutenant Raper adopts 5° 21' 17", as the longitude of
the Mole (or Europa Point in 5° 22° '), and this is from the observations of Captain
Smyth ; Captain Shirreflf, 5° 20' 16" ; and Captain Vidal, 5° 21' 42. This position is
important, as it affects the longitudes of the West Coast of Africa.

The Hydrographic features of the important Strait of Gibraltar appear to have
been very imperfectly known, and a single sounding made by Captain Smyth, which
brought up water containing three times the ordinary quantity of salt, has served as
material for speculation ever since. It is singular, that amongst the thousands of
ships which have passed through this channel, not one should have recorded an at-
tempt to verifjr such an important point. The depth, too, appears to have been much
misunderstood, and overrated, the greatest being about 500 rathoms, instead of above
1000 fathoms, as was argued from one imperfect experiment. These facts have been
brought to light by the Survey made by the French Government, by M. C.A. Vincen-
don Dumoulin, underthe orders of the indefatigable Capt. Ch. Philippe de Kerhallet in
H.I.S. Phare, in 1854-5.

■■■' !

5 1 t. ';•-■.

VARIATIONS OF THE COMPASS— 1861.

At Fuenterrabia. 20° W. ; Bilbao, 20° 36' W. ; Santandor, 21° 0' W. ; Cape Pe-
fias, 21° 45' W. ; Cape Ortegal, 22° 40' W. ; Coruiia, 22° 3' W. ; Corcubiori and Cape
Finisterrc, 22° 50' W. \ Vigo, 22° 45' W.; Minho River Entrance, 22° 30' W.

At Villa do Conde, 22° 15' W. ; Lisbon, 2V 60' W. ; Coi)e St Vincent, 21° 26' W.
Cape Sta. Maria, 21° W. ; Cadiz, 23° 25' W. i Cape Trafalgar, 20° 10 W. Tarifa. 19"
62' W. J Gibraltar, 19° 48' W.

coast.

These variations are decreasing at the rate of from 2' in the S.W. poilions of the
Ht, to 4' per annum in the Eastern parts.

*,■..-

1 )

*J i.* ,:-:'*-

"^AIm

8 Survey seems to
iptaln Flores have

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
8. COAST OF AFRICA.

lumed as 9° 8' 40",
! ia Caille. PiiigrS,
itellite of Jupiter,
corresponding one
the memoir of his
enal of Lisbon 38°
teven, in 1819 and

iz is established as
bservatorio) of Sail

is the longitude of
vations of Captain
i. This position is

tar appear to have
ain Smyth, which
salt, has served as

the thoiisands of
fe recorded an at-
o have been much

instead of above
se facts have been

M, C.A. Vincen-
pe de Kerhallet in

^ poilions of the

Ceuta; Ahnina Pt. Light
Sierra Bullones or Apes

Hill ; (summit)

Tangier ^ay ; Cape Mala-

bata, tower

Tangier ; N.E. part of town
Cape Spartel ; Piteh . . [1]

Arzilla

El Araiche

Old Mamora

Mehedia

Faz or Fez

Meldnez

Slaa or Sake

Rabat

El Mansoria [2]

Point Fidallah

Dar-el-Beida

Azamor

Mazagan

Cape Blanco j North ....

El Waladia

Cape Cantin

Asfee or Saffi

Marocco I Centre [3]

SUERRAH, or MOOODOR . .

Cape Tefelneh

Cape Gbir or Geer

Jtaa Aferni [4]

Agadir, or Santa Cruz

Cape Agiiluh

Cape Nim, or Inoon

PortoCausado; Entrance[4]

Cape Juby

I False Cape Boiador

Cape Boiador, or Bojador
j Penha Grande; summit . .

Seven Capes ; Central Cape
I Angra dos Cavallos

Rio do Ouro, or Gold River ;

Entrance, North Point . .

i Cintra Bay ; North Point

) South Point

I Capo Barbas [6]

Peora da Gall ; Centre . .

Capo Corvooiro [6]

Cape Blanco

Cape Mirik ; the Down . .

Tanit Bayi the Down

Anj^d'H Hillocks I Southern
ITho Two Palm Trees of

Portnndik [7]

I Down of VUmI Sand

jScpond ditto

IHuts of Inguiaghcr

LAT. N.

LON. W. •

o * //

o » I

3d 53 38

6 17 3

35 53 35

5 25

35 48 fO

5 15 12

35 47 6

5 48 40

35 47 .0

5 56

35 29- 30

35 12 50

6 9

34 52 30

6 25

34 18

6 36

34 6 3

4 58 15

33 58 30

7 30

34 2 45

6 45 30

34 2 30

6 46

33 46 10

7 20

33 44

7 23 32

33 36 30

7 35 24

33 17 37

8 15

33 15

8 29

33 8

8 38

33 48

8 48

32 32 27

9 14 50

32 18 15

9 12

31 37

7 36

31 30 30

9 46

31 4

9 47 30

30 38

9 63

30 37 30

9 62

30 26 35

9 35 66

29 49

9 48

28 45 45

11 4 10

28 2

12 14

27 57 60

12 61

26 25 15

14 12 30

26 7 2

14 30 34

25 7 6

14 60 63

24 41 12

16 30

24 8 12

16 36 18

23 36 18

15 58 30

23 7

16 9 15

22 66 36

16 14 10

22 19 30

16 39 12

22 12 30

16 48 4

21 46 44

16 66 40

2(» 47

17 4 36

19 26

16 32

10 3 48

16 12 20

18 29 30

16 2

18 18 54

10 2 12

17 25

18 12

10 6A

16 25

10 'Ji 24

16 30
I"

AUTUOaiTIBS.

Capt. C. P. de Kerhallet and M.
C. A. Vincendon Dumoulin.

Captain Washington and Lieu-
tenant Smith, R.N., 1830.

Captain T. Boteler, R.N., 1828.

Captain "Washington, R.N., 1830.

Don Juan Badia y Leblich, othei-
wise called AU Bey, 1804.

Captains Boteler and Washington
1828 and 1830.

Captain Washington and Lieu-
tenant Smith, R.N., on tho
Mission to Marocco, 1829, 1830 ;
and the Survey of Lieutenants
William Arlett and H. Kellett,
in 1835.

Captain T. Boteler, R.N., 1828.
Don Juan Bafdia and Captaui

Washington.
Lieutenant Arlett.
Captain T. Botele ', 1828.
The Chevalier de Borda, 1776.

ObservationsofLieutenantsArlett
and Kellett, R.N., 1836.

Lieutenant Arlett, &c., 1835.

The observations of Captain W.
Fitzwilliam Owen, and those
of M.le Baron Roussin, compa-
red with those of tho Chevalier
Borda. {See Note 4.)

*«• In 1830, Captain Belcher,
by repeated obacrvations, found
CaiK) l}lanco in latitude 20" 46' 26',
longitude 17° 4' 10'.

H.M.S. Esk, Captain Purchaa,
1820.

Latitudes, Captain RousNin ) Lon-
gitudes infcn-cd by Chart, and
uncc (ain.

, POSITIONS OF PLACES.
COAST OF AFRICA— Continued.

te'

St. Louis, Senegal ; Light-
house on Govt. House . .

Bar of the Senegal ; North
Point

Little Paps, near Cape
Verde ; Northern one . .

Cape Veede; extremity

Ahnadia Ilock8,off C.Verde;
Highest and Westernmost

Goree; the Lighthouse [8]

Cape Naze

Portudal ; Village

Point Serine

Joal ; Town

RIVER GAMBIA:—

Bathtjest Town j Flag-
staflf

Bird Island ; Flagstaflf . .

Cape St. Maey ..[9]

James Fort

Tankrowell

Elephant Isle : VTest
Point

Yamamaroo Town ....

M'Carthy's Isle; Fort
George

Pisania, or Pisaneea. . , .

Bald Cape

Point St. Pedro

Rix'er Souta ; Bird Islet . .
River Casamanza ; North

Point of the entrance . .

Cape Iloxo

Breakers of Falulo 5 "West

Point

Isle of Cayo ; South Point
B18BAO i Portuguese Fort

BIJOOGA ISLANDS, &c.

Papakawa Islet

Areas Isle ; Centre ....

BololaTown; RioGrande

Bulama Island; East End

Bossessam^, or Tombelly ;
North Point

S.W. Point

Gallinhalsle ; WestPoint

N. E. Hog Island; E.
Point

Kanyabac; N,E. Point
.: L.W. Point

Orango ; S.E. Point . .
. ; West Point ..

LAT. N.

16 48

15 55 18

14 56 24
14 44 30

14 44 29
14 39 50
14 31 30
14 27 18
14 18
14 10

LON.

16 31 1

16 30

17 4 30
17 32

17 33 30
17 24 30
17 7 20
17 3 12
16 56 30
16 49 45

AVTHOBmES.

13 28

13 39

13 30

13 ,9 40 1

13 25

13 26 30

13 42

13 33

13 31

13 22 30 1

13 7

12 43 30

12 35 20

12 21

12 5

11 49 50 1

11 51

36 30

41 15

84 42

19 24

27 42

18 4

10 12

3 12

16 35 18

16 40 30

16 41

16 22

16 3 48

15 20 36

14 58 80

14 45 30

14 34

16 49 20

16 48

16 49

16 48

16 44 40

16 38 30

16 20

15 37

15 54

15 39

15 2

15 30 24

15 30

15 32

15 46 30

15 40 42

15 43

15 48

15 55

16 15

Captain (afterwards Admiral and
Baron) Roussin, in the years
1817 and 1818.

Captain Rousbin, and M. Givry.
Captain Fitzwilliam Owen.

Captains Owen and Boteler.

Captain W.F. Owen, R.N., 1824.
Captain T. Boteler, 1829.
Captains Owen and Boteler.

Survey of the River Gambia, from
its Entrance to Pisania, by Cap-
tain Richard Owen, R.N., as-
sisted by Messrs. E. O. Tudor
and S. M. Mercer, 1826.

Survey of the River Gambia, &c.

Captain Thomas Boteler, in H.M.
sloop Hecla, 1829.

Captains Roussin and W. F.
Owen, 1818, 1821, 1826.

I i

Survey of the Bijooga Islands,
and the acyacent Coast of Afri-
ca, by the officers of H.M. ship I
Leven, Captain W. F. Owen,
1826.

•,* In 1830, Captain Seleher/val
H.M.S. 2;YNa, from his observatione,
made Pullam Island, Bonth end, in
10» 51 ' 5.3 " V,. and 16" 43' «- W. ; I
^e North end of Alcattci, iol
10» 38' 1" N., and 15- 20' 30* W.

ards Admiral and
lain, in the years
8.

n, and M. Givry.

illiam Owen.

L and Boteler.
Owen, RN., 1824.
teler, 1829.
1 and Boteler.

River Gambia, from
toPisauia, byCap-
i Owen, R.N., as-
lessrs. E. O. Tudor
tiercer, 1826.

Bivcr Gambia, &c.

as Boteler, in H.M.
1829.

ussin and W. F.
, 1821, 1826.

le Bijooga Islands,
icent Coast of Afri-
Hlcers of H.M. ship I
•tein W. F. Owen,

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
COAST OP AFRICA— CoNTiNinED.

South Breaker

Fullam Island; South Point
1 Alcati-as Islet ; Centre . .

] Conflict Reef ; Centre

I Rio Nunez ; Entrance, Sand

Isle

; Rebucko Town

I Cape Versa ; Summit

IPongaa River; Entrance
iMount Kakulimah

llSLES DE LOS:—

Crawford Isle Establish-
ment.

Tamara ; AiDthusa, or

North Point

; West Point

latacong Island ; Centre
f elleboa Island ; Centre . .

?arrot Island; Centre

:}afb Sierra Leone ;

Extremity ,lighthouseriO]

Sierra Leone ; King

Tom's Point

Freetown Citadel

S'alse Cape ; Extremity . ,
[7ape Chilling or Shilling
ianana Isles; Highestpeak

; West Point

plantain Islands ; Gill-
morris ,

— ; Bengal Rooks. .

Extreme Point . .

tie Isles ; North Isle ;

Centre

ipe St. Anne ; Extremity
bioals of St. Anne : — ■
Northern Extremity . .
Southern Extremity . .

Western Limit

tork Isle, in Sherbro' Ri-
ver ; Huts

biebar, Sherbro' River . .

loom Kittam River; Forks

^iver Galinhas; Entrance

ape Mount, (1,046 feet) ;

Western Bench

. Paul's River ; Entrance
iPE Mescrado ; Ex-
tremity (Lighthouse) . .
lonrovia ; Govt. House . .
ink River ; Marshall, an
American Settlement ;

Agent's House

lossa ( Director's House . .

lAT. »r.

10 56 18
10 51 i2
13 37 12
10 30

10 36 87
10 67
11 40

10
10

9 45

27 24

9 81
9 26

30
9 14
8 55 42
8 53

8 30

8 30 6
8 29 42
8 25 48
8 9 30
8 5 48
8 5

7 55 12
7 54 36
7 55 30

7 40 48
7 34

7 56
7 81 80
7 38

7 32
7 22 48
7 14 24
7 1

low. w.

6 43
6 22

6 19 16
6 19 6

6 8
5 54 50

15 67 40

16 45* 6

15 26 30

16 11

14 42
14 21 48
14 28 6
14 6
13 28

13 48 30

13 40 30
13 61 30

13 26 30

14 17 46
13 16

13 17 46

13 14 30
13 14 18
13 17 48
13 10 12
13 16 12
13 16 12

AXTTHOHITIBS.

13
13
13

3 12
2 48
2 12

13 4
12 67

(Not ascer-
tained.)
13 29

12 20 42
12 31 30
12 8 36
11 38 6

11 21
10 37

10 49
10 48 66

10 22 45
10 4 5

Sandy Me in 10° 86' 87* N, and 14"
42' 19" W.-~Oeog. Jotmua, vol u.
pp. 284, 291, 295.

Captain (now Sir E.) Belcher.
Lieut.Au8tin,inthe.4^tcan, 1827 .

Captain Bolcher.

Captain W. F. Owen, in the
Leven, 1826 ; confirmed by him-
self in the Eden, and by Captain
^'urchas in the Eak, l827.

>> .J,-j;m*f;

'i'>;:'\.:JV. 'fin ;,'',

Captain W. F. Owen, in the Z«-
ven, 1826.

Capt. A. T. E. Vidal, in H.M.
ships Etna and Raven, 1) 6
tc 1839.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
COAST OF AFRICA— Continued.

River Sestros, or Grand
Cestos; South Entrance

Baftbu Point

Bloo Bara, or Barbarra
Factory ; Sinou

Middle Neefoo, or Niffou. .

Cape Falmas ; Lighthouse

Tahou

Grand Berebj

St. Andrew's River, King
George's Town, within
Swartou Comer

River Fresco, or Rio de'^La-
gos ; off the Mouth

Grand Lahou

Jack Jaques

Assinee River ; Anchorage
S.E. of the Mouth, ....

Apollonia

Fort St, Anthony

Cape Three Points

Acquidah

Dixcove

Ehnina, or St. George del
Mina

Cape Coast Castle, j
Southern Turret ; Time-
baU

Maurec, or Moree ; Flag-
staff

Annamaboe ( Flagstaff . .

Cormantine ; Flagstaff . .

Tantumqueiry 5 Flagstaff

Extreme Point

Devil's Hill } summit ....

BaiTacoe 5 Point

Accra 5 British .Flagstaff

Ningo 5 Fort

Volta River ; Entrance

Cape St. Paul

Quitta ; Flagstaff . . . .

Padiana j Town ...
Little Popoe ; Road.
Gmnd Popoe ; Road

Whydah, or Ajudah

Appee

Porto-Novo 5 Hill .,
Road . .

Badagry ; Mount

— - ; Road

Lagos Kiver; JSntrance

Beach .

; End of the Sandy

LAT. N.

# '

6 26 25

6 9 10

4 59 15

4 45 3

4 22 9

4 24 47

4 39 3

4 57 8

5 18

5 8 3

5 11 8

5 3 5

4 68 45

4 62 18

4 44 30

4 45' 27

4 47 45

5 5

5 5 25

6 7 30

5 10 12

5 10 30

5 13 30

5 12 30

5 18 36

5 29

6 32

5 32

5 45

5 47 18

6 44 30

6 54 36

5 66

5 67 42

6 13

6 19

6 16

6 19 30

6 22

6 20

6 19

6 24

6 20

6 24

LONOrrUDB.

9 34 45 W.

9 17 30 —

9 2 5 —

8 32 2 —

7 44 16 —

7 21 30 —

6 54 30 —

6 3 47

5,32 6
4 67 40
4 26 8

12 7
35 5
14 45
5 45
2 8
66 40

1 22 30 —

1 12 6

12
7 12
5 36

46 48 —

39
24
11
18
1
42
52
54
66
67
36
16
43
6
25
34
34

2 43

3 47 48 —

4 27 —

AVTHOaiTIES.

Captain A. T. E. Vidal,in H.M.
ships, JEtna and Baven, 1835
to 1839.

4: .f.»-,» JJ*.*;. .;: >:^f ■

*^ef^ V5i,4yi ; ;itt!{

George Maclean, Esq.

Captain W. F. Owen, in the
J&<fe»,1827; andCapt. Pur-
chas, in the Eak, same year.

Zon. of Accra, by 4 good chro-
nometers of H.M. slup Dryad,
Captain Hayes, in Feb., 1832,
0° 16' 20" W., lat. 6° 32' 27' N.
Captain Vidal.
Captain Purchas.
Captains Owen and Purchas.
Captain Kelly, in the Pheasant.
Captains Owen and Purchas.
Captain B. M. Kelly.
Captain Purchas.

Captain B. M. Kelly.

Captain Purchas, in H.M.S.
Eak, 1827.

i');ftl'

POSITIONS OF PLACER.
COAST OF AFRICA— Continued.

OSITIES.

E.Vidal,uiH.M.
and Jtaven, 1835

Benin River ; N.W. Point

Bio dos EsclayoB

Terra Formosa ; West point

:- ; Eastern point

Biver Nun or Qnorra } the
BaT(2/o<A<wM)....|;il]

Bio Bento, or Second River

Bio St. Nicolas, or Third
River

New Calabar Biver j Foche
Point

Bouny River j Rough Cor-
ner

Old Calabar River; Tom
Shot's Point, West of the

Entrance

Backasey Gap; East of
the Entrance

Bimbia Isle

Cape Camaroens

Camaroens Mountain ; peak

Bumby Mountains ; High-
est peak

Qua Mountain

Corisco Island; N.W. Point

Cape Esterias

Pomt Clara

ICape St. John

I Gaboon River ; Round Cor-
ner

[Cape Lopez

AFRICAN ISLANDS.

IFernando Po: —

Clarence Peak

Cape BuUen; Northern
Extremity

Adelaide Islet

Point William ; Flagstaff

Cape Horatio; N.E. Ex-
tremity

CapeVidal ; E. Extremity

Cape Barrow ; South
Rock

Cape Eden J ' S.W. Ex.

Cape Badgley ; West Ex.

Charle8'Folly;N.W.Ex.

Ooat Isle ; Centre ....
Princes' Island ; the

Brothers near

8t. Thomas's Island :—

Cabrita Isle

Anna de Chaves • Read

Rolas' Isle {On the Line)

Vnnobon ; East Point . .

LATITUDB.

6 43 ON.
6 34 —
4 28 —
4 19 24 —

4 16 —
4 17 —
4 18 0—
4 22 40 —
4 23 40 —

,4 36

4 29 —

8 32

3 67 0—

9 13 48

3 63 —

4 13 0—

9 12

4 67 —

9 18

6 16 0—

8 61

66 64 —

2 19 46

37 48 —

9 21

30 30 —

9 20 30

1 9 40 —

9 21 35

Iff 6—

9 20

36 12 S.

8 45 17

LON. B.

AUTHoarriss.

6 4
6 6 48
6 41 30
6 64 33

6 66
6 16

6 24

7 7

8 19

3 36 ON.

3 47 26 —
3 34 48 —
3 45 38 —

3 46 15 —
8 39 18 —

11 30 —
15 so-
lo 42 —
26 48 —
31 —

1 23 —
27 —

n ox QA _--

1 26 OS.

8 46 30

8 39 24
8 47 17
8 47

8 54 24
8 56 18

8 40
8 26 6
8 24 42
8'27 42
8 32 48

7 19 48

6 46

6 36 30

6 42 %.<

Captain Vidal.

Captain Purchas

Captain A. T. E. Vidal, in

H.M. sloop Barraeouta, 1826.

(LongituoB of the Bar of the

Quorra, Captain WiUiam

Allen, 1833.J

Captain Vidal, in the Etna,
and Captain Purchas, in the
Esk, 1857 ; and Captain Vidal
and Boteler, 1826.

Captain Vidal.

Captain W. F.
Eden, 1327.

Owen, iu the

Captains Purchas and Kelly.

H.M.S. NoHh Star.
Captain Purchas.

#■

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

NOTES.

1. Capb Sfartel. — ^In the Cemnaiaaanee dea Tenyta this cape is stated to be in
latitude 35" 48' 40% and longitude 6° 53' 1". In the Requisite Tables it is stated to
be in lat. 35° 46' 0', Ion. 5" fPl' 12". The remarks of the late Mr. William Chapman,
master of H.M.S. lUtutrioua, appear to confirm the longitude of Tofi&o, from -whom
he differs only 40 seconds in latitude, which he represents as so much more to the
southward. The observations of Captain Smyth give the lat. 35° 47' 15", and the
Ion. 5° 55' 45", by chronometer and lunars, as shewn in the table. The coast, from
Cape Spartel to Cape Bojador, was surveyed in the Etna and Haven, under Lieuten-
anto Anett and KdQett, 1835, as afterwards noticed.

2. Empire of Marocco. — ^The points determined by Captain Washington we
owe to an excellent paper, entitled " OeograpMcal, Notice of the Em^'i^e of Morocco ;
by Lieutenant Wasmng^ton. R.N.," given in the first volume of the " JourtMlofthe
Moyal Qeographical Society" 1831 ; a commimication replete with interesting and
useftd information. Captain Washington is now the Hydrogr'apher to the Navy.

3. City of Marocco. — ^The scientific traveller, Don Juan Sadia y Leblich, com-
monly called Alt Bey, from his observations in 1803-4, gave the centre of Marocco as
in 31 37', and 7° 35 30". On reference -to the Astronomical Journal of Captain
Washington, there appear upwards of 100 sights for determining the longitude of
the city. Distances between moon and suu ; moon and stars East and West of her ;
and altitudes of the moon when in tho^ prime vertical, — ^the mean results of which
give the longitude of a gai-den at the S.W. angle of the city : Ion. 7° 36' W., lat.
31° 37° 20" ; mean of about 20 mer. alts, of the sun. Variation, from numerous
observations by Schmalcalder's compass, 20^° W. — Geographical Journal, vol. i. pp.

i^M4i. ■' ;..'i^v

4. Cape. Geer., &c. — M. le Chevalier Jean Chas. de Borda was charged, in 1776,
by Louis XVI., with a commission to the Canary Islands and the coast of Africa, for
the express purpose of making observations, and deteimining the chief points of the
Canary Islands, &c. He was furnished vnth timekeepers, by which he ascertained
the positions, as they have appeared in different Charts and Tables. On this expe-
dition, M. de Borda, in the ship La Bousaole, was accompanied by the Eapiegle, M.
le Chastenet Puysegur, who afterwards composed the Pilot for St. Domingo ; also
by Captain Don Josef Varela, and another intelligent officer of the Spanish marine ;
all of whom assisted in the operations. The results proved to be numerous and im-
portant ; and they served for the general rectification of the coast as far to the south-
ward as Cape Verde.

But in the years 1817-18, Captain (afterwards Baron) Eoussin was emplored by
the French Government in surveying the coast between Cape Bojador, in 26 7' N.,
and the Isles de Los, in 94° ; and this officer has ' given, most satisfactorily, many
points not before ascertained.

Again, in 1820 and 1821, Captain William Fitzvdlliam Owen, in H.M.S. Leven,
was commissioned by the British Admiralty to examine and settle the coast from
Cape Noon southward : and his observations have still further, and in a much more
important degree, tended to perfect the hydrogi-aphy of Western Africa. To Captain
Owen's work, therefore, we refer most particularly in the Tables ; and have only to
add that there is a remarkable coincidence, iu general, in the results of the two com-
manders ; and that even in comparing either with those of M. de Borda, the differ-
ences, practically considered, are of little moment. SI f-iji

A survey of the Canary Islands, and the continental coast thence northward to
Cape Spartel, was made by Lieutenants William Arlett and H. Kellett, commanders
of the Etna and Eaven, in 1835 ; the particulars of which are given in the " Journal
of the Royal Geographical Society," vol. vi., 1836, and from these we derive the cor-
rected positions given in the Table, as more fully shown hereafter.

5. Cafe Barbas.-
v^

I'liV il^lltCA('U«AV t^A V/U

Captain Owen, 16' 30' 12 ; as in the Table.

-In the Admiralty ti^onslation of M.Roussin's Memoir (page 17,)
Barbas is niis])s-intcd 17''30'.— M. de Boi-damade it 16 39' 45';

.s>

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

itisfactorily, many

6. — Cape Couvoeibo. — We assume as Cape Corvoeiro a point in 21° 46', accor-
ding to M. Roussin, and not 21° 13', as given by Captain Owen. The lon^tude, in
the translation of M. Roussin's Memoir, is misprinted as 19° 14' 65', which is, we
presume, the Paris longitude — 16° 64' 46" from Greenwich.

7. PoBTANDlK. — The two palm trees are the first seen in sailing hither from Cape
Bojador. Portandik is supposed to have been situated about a mile to the southward
of this spot, but not a vestige of it remained in 1818, when it was visited by Cap-
tain Roussin. It has recently been ceded to France, in exchange for Albreda, on tine
QamLl w — See the description in Section III. hereafter.

8. GoREE.— The position formerly given was 14° 40' 10" N., and 17° 24f W.,from
the observations of M. Fleurieu, 1769, and of M.M. de Verdun, Borda, and Pingr§.
Coptain Boteler, in 1829, made it the same. The Argo frigate. Captain Hallowell,
1802, gave the lat. 14° 30', and Ion. 17" 24° 68".

9. Cape St. Mart. — From observations in H.M.S. Esk, Captain Purchas, in
1826, the position of Cape St. Mary has been given at 13" 29' N., and 16° 45' 12' W.;
Bird Island, at 13° 40' NT, and 16° 64' 12" W. The results shew that the points Ue at
least as far to the West, as shewn by the Survey.

10. Sierra Leone, &c. — In preparing the former editions of this work, we col-
lected a large number of observations, whflih had been made, from time to time on
the coast of Guinea, &c., between Sierra Leone and Cape Lopez ; they included those
previously given by the officers of H.M. ships Argo, Amelia, Inconstant, Tartar, and
others, and we finally appended to such as we selected for the tabular statement
the following remarks : — " Although we have paid the utfliost attention in the com-
parison of different results, charts, and descnptionB as shewn in the Tables and
Notes, we are by no means satisfied with the conclusions as to mtny points eastward
of Cape Palmas and St. And:' ^w's Bay. Indeed, all that has yet been done by the
naval officers, and others, prove only the necessity of a new seiies, in oi*der to estab-

I lish so much as may be coiTect, and to rectify so much as may not be so." Happily,
I such rectification has taken place, and many doubts, even on the most important
points, have recently vanished.

We give a specimen, on the longitude of Cape Sierra Leone. Many years ago, the

[late Sir George Young gave the longitude of this cape as 12° 33' 47" ; the French

Tables afterward, as 12° 34' ; the Requisite Tables, 13° 9' 17" ; H.M.S. Argo, 1802, as

13° 12' ; the Inconstant, 1816, the same ; the Amelia, in 1812, 13° 17' 30" ; the Leven,

(Captain Owen), in 1826, 13' 18' 0" ; the Eden, (Captain Owen), in 1827, 13° 01' 10";

Captain Sabine, Royal Artillery, in 1822, 13° 19' 0*; and Captain Purchas, in 1827,

1 13° 19' 12". Hence we adopt Captain Owen's longitude as given in the 'Table. It

Imay be added, that Lieutenant Raper assumes the North Battery to be in 13° 14' 30"

|or nearly as in the Table. .ijj

By 318 lunar distances ^23 sets), taken in tlie West Bastion of Fort Thornton, at
Freetown, Captain Sabine, in 1822, made the longitude of that spot 13° 16' 11" W.;
md in 1827, Captain Owen in the Eden, made that of the Victualling Office 13° 14' 30"
Latitude of the latter, 8° 30' 6" ; of Fort Thornton, by Captain Sabine, 8° 29' 21".

Fort Thornton stands on the highest ground in its own immediate neighbourhood,
excepting a small hill on which a martello tower is built, at a distance rather exceed-
ing a quarter of a mile. The situation of Freetown, however, may be more generally
stated to be at the foot, on the northern side of the range of mountains, which, coining
irom the interior, finds here its termination in the sea, and gives the name to the
cape, harbour, and colony of Sierra Leone : the general height of the range, eo far
as it has yet been explored, is from 2,000 to 3,000 feet. 'The principal geological
ieatm'e in the neighbourhood of Sierra Leone, is a red granite, of easy and rapid de-
pmposition." — Captain Sabine's Notes.)

COAST OF GUINEA, between Cape Three Points and Cape Lopez, in-
klucUng the Islands. Although we described this portion of coast in the " Direct-
ory for ^e Ethiopio or Southern Atlantic Ocean," we have considered it proper to
outinue the series of points in the Table ; and for a description of the coast, and
emarks upon the positions, we refer the reader to the above work.

POSITIONS OF PLACES

11. RlYSB Qttoraa. — ^This important river is described in the Directory men-
tioned in the preceding note. In tne beautiful Chart of it, by Captain William Allen,
published in 1857, the East point of the entrance, formerly given by mistake in
6° 4' E„ is laid down in lat. 4° 20' N., and Ion. 5° 55' E. The bar, with 2 to 4 fathoms
over it, extends two leagues southward tvom the mouth of the river, which demon-
strates the strengUi of the ebb tide. Within the bar, in an extent of 4 miles, the
depths are 6 and 7 fathoms, but diminishing thence upward.

VARIATIONS OF THE COMPASS, 1861.

At Ceuta, it is 12° 50'; (in 1811, the variation was found to be 221° W.) At
Cape Spartel, 20°. Between Cape Spartel and Sa£B Bay, it is, at present, from 20° to
20*10' W.> atMarocco, in 1804, it was found to be 20° 38'40"^W.; between Saffi
Bay and the Canary Islands, it is now 20° 25'. In 1835, at Mogodor, it was 19^° W.
it is now 20° 20' 5 and at Cape Nun, 20° 25'. Near Cintra Bay, in 23" 6'; it was
19|° in 1817 : near Cape Blanco, it is 19° 20' ; Bar of the Senegal and Qoree, 19° 40';
Cape Boxo, 17° 20'; Bissao, and mouth of the Rio Grtmde, 19° 20' ; Isles de Los, in
1856, 18° ; at present. 19° 5' ; Off Cape Palmaa, in 1820, 18° 60' (it is now 19° 60') ;
in the neighbourhood of Cape Mesurado, in 1839, 19° 30' ; off Cape Three Points, and
thence to Benin Bar, 20° W. ; mouth of the Quorra, in 1833, as at present, 20° W.

9. THE AZOEES, OE WESTEEN ISLANDS.

FoRMiOAs, or Ants :
Formigao, or Hermigon;

highest Rock

Dollabarats Shoal, 11 ft.
Santa Mabu, or St.

Maey:
Punto do Castellcor S.E.

Point

Villa do Porto

Maldebarca Rock, off the

N.W. Point [1]

Pta. dos Mates

San Miguel, or St. Mi-
chael's :
Ferraria, or West Point
City of Ponta Delgoda ;

Castle

Villa Franca ; Island . .
Pta. Retorta ; S.W. Pt.
Punta de la Marquesa,

or East point [2]

Pta. da Ajuda

Morro da Kibeira Grande
Porto Capellas ; Morro

Pta. de Bretanha

Tebceira :
Monte del Brasil, near

Angra

Praya ; Pta. de Malma-

renda

Pta. de Serrata, or W. pt'.
St. Geouqe:

Pta. del Topo, or Island
off S.E. point

LAT. N.

37 16 44
37 14 30

36 6 30
36 66 30

36 59 31

37 60

37 51 40

37 44
37 27
37 44 26

37 48 15
37 51 50
37 60 32
37 50 30
37 54 40

38 38 33

38 44 10
38 46

38 33 6 27 46 27

LON. W.

AVTH0BITIE8.

24 47 6
20 43 26

25 1 30
25 9 46

25 12 3
24 4 50

25 52

2,-> 41 15
25 42
25 10 45

25 8 25
25 19 30
25 29 40

25 41 45

26 47 35

27 14 10

27 3
27 23 50

The Survey made by Capt.
A. T. E. Vidal, 1842.

.■:&v-.,<i-

;>(,..,-:

'^>St'l»*

.r;,;^„. u^v.

.•p:

rHOBITIES.

POSITIONS OF PLACES
THE AZORES, OR WESTERN ISLANDS— C!ontinced.

Pta. de Rosalee, or N.W
Point

Graciosa:

Fort at Praya

Pta. do Fozo; do Porto,
or W. point

Pico:

The summit of the peak

Pta. da Ilha or E. point

Magdalena Rocks, ofip W.

point

Fayal : The S.E. point, or
Mprro de N.S. dela Quia
Caldeira ; summit 3351 ft.
Pta. da Negra ; W. point

FLoaES : Sta. Gnus Fortf 3]

CoRVO : the Southern pomt,
or Pta. del Perqueiro-alto

lAT. N.

38 U 6
32 3 5

39 i 10

38 25
38 25-

38 32 5

«8 31 20
38 34 30

38 36

39 27 3

39 40 7

LON. W.

28 20 16

27 68 46

28 4 43

28 28 12
28 2 45

28 34

28 38 5
28 44
28 60 40
31 8 37

318

ATTTHOHinXS.

The Survey by Captain A. T.

1 ne Burvey by uaptaii
E.Vidal, in 1842-44.

V" -" NOTES. .^:i2^, I '*''"•' ■^«^**-*"":"°'

1. AzoBES.— The voyag|e of M. Fleurieu, in the Isis frigate, made in 176S-69,
I and published in L773, furnished several observations of the points of the Azores, as
{shown by the marine clocks of M. Ferdinand Berthoud, andverified, in great measure,

by more numerous observations of Don Vicente Tofino, made in 1788. The difference
I in the results of these two observers was generally inconsiderable ; so small, indeed,
I that it may rather be considered as an agreement.

M. Fleurieu ascertained the position of the Mount of Brasil, near Angra, in Ter-
Iceira, to be 38' 38' 37" N., and 27" 12' 27" W 1 otiii.. d result was 38° 38' 10," and
|27°14'40'"; a remarkable coincidence, .considc: ,g the distance of time at which the
■observations were made. The longitude of this root was, therefore, assumed by the
ISpnish commander, as the meridian reforn d to from the points subsequently aeter-
Imined. The summit of the mount, as given by Captain FitzRoy, R.N., is in 38° 38' 35,
ad 27° 12' 64".

Captain Alexander T. E. Vidal, R.N.. who re-surveyed these islands, makes the
Fort at Villa do Porto, in St. Maiys, in lat. 36° 66' 30, and Ion. 26° 9' 46" W.

2. St. MicnAELS., &c. — In our former statements we noticed the erroneous posi-
jtions of St. Michael's Terceira, &o., which had, from time to time, appeared in the

equisite Tables and Connaissance des Terns ; but, as the doubts have vanished it
Should be no longer usefiil to repeat those remarks. Captain FitzRoy gives St. Bras
Tastle, near Porta Delgada, as 37° 43' 58' and 26° 40' 16 .

3 .Flores and Corvo. — The longitudes of these islands were piven according to
Ihe results of Tofino j they differ slightly from those of Captain Vidal as now stated.
liPtefe the Chart of the Azores, Cunary Islands, and opposite coasts, with the harbours,
PC, constructed by the editor, and published by the proprietor, of this work.

VARIATIONS OF THE COMPASS.

At St. Michael's, in 1826, the variation was 24° 15' W. At Flores, 19° W. Cap-

ain Livingston, by means of many observations, near Ponta Delgada, found it about

85° W., in 1818. This gentleman properly observes, that differences may be ascribed

I the volcanic commotions and fenoiginouB nature of the country. See Note on the

[Variation at Tenerife, herenf^pr.

The present variation (1861), as estimated ly Mr. F. J. Evans, R.N., is from 34° 50'
I % Southern Eastern part of the group, to 37^
tarintion is slightly tnrrcrt^ni/. ,. ;... ,.

37* in the North-western portion. T^s

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
10. THE MADEIRA AND OANAEY ISLANDS.

Madeira:
Town of Funohal, British
Consul's Garden . .[1]

Camera de Lobos

Punta del Parga, the

West Point

Tristoo, or N.W. Point..

S. Jorge point

Cape Qardoo, or Brazen

Head ;. S.E. extremity

Pta. de S. Lourenzo, the

East point

Pico Kmvo ; summit, 6056

feet

Porto Santo: Villa Bal-
eira on the South 8ide[2]
Baixo Island, South pomt
Dezertas :
Chao Island $ Sail Rock
Bugio Island ; Agulha

point , . . . .

ITie Salvages:
Middle of th? Great Sal-
vage [3]

LANZAROTE, orLAN^EROTE:

Allcgranza Isle, oS the

North end

Port de Naos

FUERTAVENTCRA :

Isle of Lobos, Pt. Mar-

tino

Point Jandia, the S.W
point

Canaria, or Grand Ca-
nary:
The Islcta, or N.E point
Point Arguiucguiii, or

South point

Point Aldea, the West
point

Tenerifk, or Teneriffe :
SiintaCruziMoleLt.[4]
Pico do Tcide ; summit
Orotava (N.W. side) . .
Pta de Anag E. point
Pta. de la Ranv u, S. point

Oomera :
The Port

Pta. de Colera, W. point . :

Palma :
Sta. Cruz, on the E. aide
Taxacorto, on the W. side

Ferro :

Port^e Hierro

P<nntOrchUla,8.W.Pt.

Pttt.dc laRestingator S.Pt.

LAT. N.

LON. vr.

AUTHOEITMS.

» 1 II

O 1 II

Captain Matt. Flinders, H.M.
ship Inveattaator, 1801 $ Gen.
Sir Thomas Brisbane, 1821.

32 38 22

16 54 45

32 38 36

16 59

32 48 7

17 16 20

32 51 25

17 12 7

35 49 40

16 51 40

Captain W. FitzwilliamOwen,

32 37 18

16 51 42

1820, 1827.

32 43 34

16 40 12

35 45

16 57

33 3 30

16 20 3

Captain A. T. E. Vidal, 1844.

32 59 10

16 18 60

32 35 45

16 33

■ ■v.--;.*i-'.j*'i-t>.---wf*i'.-' ^^...'.•'•t--- -.j^ -

32 24

16 28 20

30 8 30

15 55 36

29 25 30

18 30 30

28 58 30

13 32 30

28 45 30

13 48 30

28 3

14 31

28 11

15 25

''.M.T ■' ■ ■

27 44 55

15 40 10

-U'.rVivl . .,

28 1

16 30

:■■■ ...:^ •^,iix ;^'

28 28 33

16 14 56

28 16 35

16 38 2

■ •rt^:.'f^,nyu'

28 25

16 33

•• ■ «^3.''^

28 33 50

16 6

vit 'u

28 30

16 41

•«..,. ..-.1 -1)' :ti \! ■

28 8

17 5 56

■ ■.!'l/^'/ '' '

28 6 45

17 22

28 40 30

17 44 28

',.>''.'■■

28 38 12

17 35 55

t l,M'

27 46 30

17 64 22

27 42 20

18 45

I lSl'i;|4^

27 37 3

17 60 50

- j./.'-ij^ii ,it' ..-.,

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

itarmlliamOwon,

E. Vidal, 1844.

NOTES.

1. FUNCHAL. — ^The latitude of Funchal is well ascertained. The longitude was
estimated by M. Bory, in 1772, at 16° 66', as it has since stood in the French Tables.
It is unnecessary to repeat itie varying results of other obser^'ers, the differences
having been decided by our respected coiuitryman, Captain Flinders, from whose obser-
vations, in H.M. ship Investigator, 1801, the latitude of the road appeared to bo
32° 37' 44", and the greatest longitude, by any of six timekeepers, 16° 64 26.

His Excellency Sir Thomas Brisbane, on his Vovag« to Now South Wales (1821),
obtained lus time at the house of Mr. J. \V. Ooraon, at Funchal, by four excellent
chronometers, by which the mean longitude was concluded as 16° o4' 36". At the
same time the latitude of the tower, on Mr. Gordon's house, was found to be 32° 38'
19-7', and that of the Loo B«ck, 32° 37' 63-8'. The longitude given by Sir Thomas
Brisbane was confirmed by ten Admiralty chronometers, under tne care of Dr. Tiarks,
in 1823, which gave for the longitude of the British Consul's Garden, 16° 64' 46' (in
time 1'' 7" 39'), the position given in the Table.

Captain Fitzwilliam Owen, from observations in H.M. ship Leven, in 1820, gives
the landing-place, near the Loo Qastle, in 32° 37' 42' N., and 16° 66' 30' W.

Desertas. — Captain Flinders states the southern end of the Bvjio to be in lati-
tude 32° 24' 20", wmch differs less than a mile frt>m its position as previously given
on the charts ; and he discovered a small ledge of rocks projecting from uinacr tho
cliffs at the S.W. part of this island. Captain Owen gives tho North end of tho
Noi-th Deserta in 32° 36' 30" N., and 16° 33' W. The South end of tho Southern
Isle {Btyio) ho gives in 32° 28' 30" N., and 31° 18' W. It may probably be rather
more eastward, but certainly not more West.

2. Porto Santo. — A plan of this island, from a survey by Lieutenant-Colonel
Roberts and Captain Thomas WoUey, of H.M. ship Arethusa (1802), states, in general
terms, the latitude of the town_ to be 33" 2', ana its longitude 16° 35', which is only
twenty minutes East of the meridian of Funchal. But, in the former edition of this
work, upon a comparison of this statement with the different Tables and Charts, it
was considered that the difference should be at leaut 37 minutes, and it was assumed
in the Table. This has been in a measure confii-med by the recent observations of
Captain Vidal, whose position is that given, the difference being 34' 42'. See the
Chart of the Azores ana Canary Islands before mentioned. Tho Requisite Tables and
Connaisaanct des Terns give the li itudc of the middle of the isle 36° 6', and the lon-
gitude 16° 14' 61 ', and 16° 17' 34 . Captain Owen gives the governor's house in 33° 2'
64' N., and 16° 18' 48' W.

3. The Salvages.— The longitude of the Great Snlvago, as furnished by five
British East India Journals, differs from 16° 34' to 16° 1'. The mean result of these is
16° 48' W. Yet we hn\ i> not deemed this evidence sufficient to cause a deviation from
the position assigned in the Table.

M. La Pfirouso has observed : " Wo were emjiloyed on tho 18th of August, 1786,
in taking observations off the Salvage, and I think its longitude may be fixed in 18° 13',
(15° 63' from Greenwich), and its latitude 30° 8' 16."

Captain Wm. Mudgc, R.N., who, with Captain Vidal, surveyed the Great Salvage
in 1820, places its South side in 30° 7' 39; N., and 16° 66' 18' W. : and he says of it--
" This Island is obviouslv of volcanic oriy;in, and consists principally of a dark-coloured
black rock, the dotaehca parts of whicli, as well as the wliole, exhibit strong marks
of fixed magnotio polarity. Even the dust of the roads, and of the floors of the eot-
tofi^oB, has the same character as tho rock itself, and may bo gatliorcd up, liko steel
filmgs by moans of a bar magnet.

" The compass was singularly derangped at tho thtce stations taken on the survey,
and tho extreme difference in its variations amoimted to about 72° at a less distance
than a mile. At the first station, one morning, Mr. Dumford, one of the party, laid
down his watch, and on returning to tho same place again it was found that tho watch
had fjfnined two hours in the interval, an acceleration due to the magnciio action of th«
rock upon the balance." ■ .-■-.-,-

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

4. TEiVBBiFB.-r-The position of 6ta. Gnu in the Table is that given by Qapt. Vidal
in his oompletiou of the survey of these islands (1844.) The previous observations
have placed the longitude generally one or two minutes more, or to the westward of
those in the Table.

M. La Pfirouse says. " Several observations were made at Santa Cruc, in Teneriib,
which we thinkmay be fixed at 16° 36' 30" (W 16' 21* from Greenwich), and 28" 27' 30'
N." InjIlSlT, the Baron Boussin, of the French Navy, placed the Mole Head of Sta.
Gnu in 28° 27' 68" N., and 16° 19' 0'" W. ; and from this meridian he deduced, by chro-
nometers, the longitudes of all the eoast between Cape Boiador and the Isles de Los,
whidi have already been described.

Captain Fitzwilliam Owen, from his observations in the Leven, 1820, gives the
Mole Head in 28» 27' 54'N., ard 16' 16' O'W. The Peak he gives in 22° 16' 24"N.,
and 16' 39' W.

The general mean of the longpitude of the Mole of Santa Cruz, from the observa-
tions of Captains P^rouse, Bligh, Vancouver, and Krusenstem, of M. Quenot, and the
Baron Alexander de Humboldt, is 16° 16' 16'.

VARIATIONS OF THE COMPASS.— 1861.

Between Porto Santo and Madeira, the mean variation is about 22°. In the road
of Santa Chruc, Tenerife, it is rather leas, if we may conclude that it has been cor-
rectly ascertained ; but M. de Humboldt bos noticed that the variation differs several
degrees, according to the place where the observation is mode, at the Mole, or at
severed points to uxe North, along the shore ; and, he adds, we must not be surprised
at tiiese deviations ia a place surrounded by volcanic rocks. " I i*emarked, with M.
Oay Lussac, that, on the declivity of Vesuvius, and the inside of its crater, the inten-
sity of its magnetic forces is modified by the proximity of the lavas."-— (Pcr«ona/
JVarr., vol. i. p. 117.) Captain Owen gives the variation at Porto Santo at 23^° W.
Mr. Evans estimates it at 22° W. in 1861. The same authority makes it about 21°
at Tenerife, and 20° 30' at Fuerteventura. It is slightiy decreaaing.

11. THE OAPE VERDE ISLANDS.

Sal or Salt Island [1]

The North point

The bouth point

BONAVISTA :

The N.W. point

The N.E. point

The New 'Town

The South pouit

Lcton Rock

Mayo, or Isle of May : [2]

The North Point

English Road

Soutii point

Island of St. Iaqo :

Bighude, or North point

East point

Porto Praya, Quail l.[3]

S.W. point

Island of Foao :

North point

Town of N.8. da Lua . .
Brava :

Itoad on tho Wc»t Hido

LAT. N.

LON W.

< •

' '/

16 51
16 34

22 64 34
22 56 4

16 13 20
16 11
16 7
15 57
15 48

22 65 44
22 42 34
22 56 34

22 48 44

23 9 4

15 12 30

15 7 30

16 6 40

23 12 4
23 13 4
23 10 4

15 10 30

16 30
14 53 40
14 68 30

23 46 34
23 25 66
23 30 34
23 44 60

15 1 15
14 53

24 22
24 31

14 48

24 43 34

AVTUORITIXB.

ITie Survey of the Capo Verde
Islands, by Lieutenants (after-
wai-ds Cantains) Vidal and
Mudgc, R.N. ; taken by order
of the Lords Commissioners of
the Admiralty, in the years
1R19, 1820, and 1821, compared
with the obnervations of Cap-
tains King, Foster, Owen, &e.

•(j •■i ni

deduced, by ohro-

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
THE CAPE VERDE ISLANDS— CoirrwuED.

I St. Xioholas :

East Point

North point

West point

Southpoint

IRaza : East point

I St. Lvci\'.

East point

North point

ISt. Vincent:

Porto Grande

|St. Antonio: [4]

North point . . . . ,

West point ,

South point

East point

LAT. IT.

16 84 80
16 42
16 38
16 28 30
16 38

16 46
16 49

16 04

17 12
17 4

16 65

17 6 30

LOH. W.

24 21

24 38 30

24 27
24 19

24 42

24 47 30

25 1

25 6 45
25 23 10
25 19 25
25 5

AUTBoarnxb.

The Snrvevi by Lieuts. Vidal
and Mudge, 1819-21.

lORITISB.

NOTES. ^ --..-- — -.^»^~

1. Sal. — A particular rtion of Sal, and all the other islands, will be found

> our Third Section, heretuttr. *

2. — Mayo. — In the coufse of the year 1819, while surveying the Island Mayo,

tiicutenonts Vidal and Mudge found the hills upon which they were carrying on

pcir operations so strongly magnetic, that the needle belonging to the theodolite be<

borne wholly useless | the dip increasing so much that the needle could not traverse, in

onscquenoe of one end of it being drawn down to the face of the instrument, &o.

3. PoBTO Prata. — ^The lonjrftude of this place appears to be well determined i
icular attention having been oirected to it by many of our most skilful navigators.

[Captain FitzRoy places the West point or landing-place on Quail Island (called also
■)un Point), at Porto Praya, in Ion. 23" 30' 0' W. Captain P. P. King had made it
[3' 30' 17" I Captain Vidal, 23' 31' 28"? and Captain Owen, 23°3r3"{ therefore
kS" 30' 34*, the longitude formerly assigned to it by Mr. Purdy. in previous editions of
^is work, cannot be far fkx)m the truth. This was deduced nom the observations of
icBsrs. Fleurieu, Borda, Verdun, &c., of Mr. R. Keilor, Captains P. Heywood,
lortlock, &c.

4. St. Antonio. — Admiral Von Krusenstem, in the relation of his voyage round
be world, nays, " On the 6th of November, (1803), at day-break, we perceived the
Island of St. Antonio, at the distance of from 25 to 28 miles. As the wind was
podcrate, I held directly to the westward, to keep still more away from the land, as

Ims are very frequent in the neighbourhood of lofty islandH. At roon wc had an
■ lat 17* 66'. Tho S.W. point of the island bore, at the time, S. 24" E.,

I now steered W.8.W. , and as the wind froHhcncd toward the

bscrvation in lat.
«tant about 46 miles.

hening, S.W. by W. The next day, at noon, tho S.W. niu t of the Island of St.
Vutonio bore 86\ distant about 54 miles i and I again held S.S.W.

" The mean of a variety of lunar observations, taken this morning, mode our lon-
8t\KU<, reduced to mid-day, 26' 17' 7'. fly the watches it was 2<r 24' 20'. I reo-
fcned tho longitude of tho S.W. point of St. Antonio, by Arnold's large timepiece,
[o. 128, the Dost of our chronometers, 25" 24' 0'." — (Mr. Hoppner's IVatuMtwn,

.53.)

aptsin Ptinderit, la the relation of his voyage (vol. i. p. 26), said that he found
^0 variation near the wehtern side of St. Antonio, on tho evening of 14th August,
101, before making the land, 13' 61' ) and tho next evening, 13' 3, when 4 leagues

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

to ihe weeftward' He had not an opportanit;f of making obserrations to deteimine
the sitttation of the Lland, but, according to his estimationi it would appear to be even
more to the eastward than the situation now assigned ; as he supposes the high land
near tlie S.W. point to be in 26' 1 '2' W.

Captain King made Terra&l Bay, at the S.W. end, by ebyen chronometers, ia I
Ion. 25° 20' 1" ; Captain Owen made it 25° 21' 42% and Captain Foster, 25° 22' 56*:
therefore, from these it will be about 25° 21' 8' ' { end the West point, 25° 23' 10".

For farther informat '., eee the Chart of he Ca]^ Verde Isiandu, published 1)y|
the proprietor of this wuv c { and see, also, the description cf St. Antonio hereafter.

\ ABLATIONS OF THE COMPASS— 1861.

In 1826, the variations of the compass near St. Antonio were found to be near j
16°; at Porto Praya, St. Ipsto, 15° W. The tnean variation allowed by Captainal
Vidal and Mudge, in 1819-21, is 14°. It is now (1861), 17° in the Western, and 18°
W. in the Eastern portion of the group. It is increasing at the rate of 3' pet|
annum. .

12. THE F.aaaOE isles, ICELAND, GREENLAND, LABRADOR

AND NEWFOUNDLAND.

THE F^ROEISLANLS.

Munken Islet . .

Sudero, Porkeiji

Sand 8 ; Village

Waag 6 5 Sorwaag ,

Myggenns j West point . .
Stromo s A "^orshavn ....
Oster o ; Rib. ng N. point
Fugld ; East point

ICELAND.

LAT. N.

Cape Reikianoos

Fugle Skieerene { G jna-
Bcer Huen

Hci'discrvig; Strand church

Skalholt

Mount Hekla ; summit . .

Westman5eme ; Biamercyo
church

Portland! S. point of Ice-
land

Ostcr Jokel

Ingolfs Hofde

Home Fiord ; Entrance , .

Hvalsbak Islet

Rode Fiord ; Krosntcs ....

HomnsDB ; East point of
Iceland

LanganoDB ; N.E. point . .

Tiomtcs

Qrimaoy ; church

Holar cnurch

Skagcn ; Skagataa

61
61
61
62
62
62

23 40

31 32

52 30

6
2

40
62 22
62 18 40

Rcikiavik 64

63
63
64
63

9 20

48 35

40 15

58 40

63 26

63
63
63
64
64
65

65
66
66
66
65
66

23 45

24
48 50
15
37

1 30

10 50
23
13 40
33 30
40 30
R

ION. W.

6 37 30
6 42

6 46

7 12 30
7 38
6 43
6 56
6 10

21 42 10

22 42

23 9
21 38
20 30

19 38 30

20 15

19 6
19 35
16 35
15 8
13 21

13 32 50

13 28

14 28

17 7

19 5

20 3 30

AUTHORITIES.

The Survey by Capt. BoenJ
of the Danish Navy, 1790-8,1
published in 1806, subsequently |
corrected.

The Danish Survey, 1845, ;&c.

sn ,:j-

',(,>•

■•• i'

I ■:'■>

^v-m! ,*

vaftions to detennine
Id appear to be even
ppo8es the high land

en chronometen, ia I
Foster, 26» 22' 66'
jint, 26° 23' 10".

ilandBijtublished by I
Antomo hereafter.

ere found to be near!

lUowed by Captaiml

be Western, and 18° [

the rate of 3' petj

D, LABRADOR,

ITH0RITIE8.

reyby Capt. BosnJ
anish Navy, 1790-8,1
n 1806, BUDscquentlyl

a Survey, 1845, &c,

POSITIONS OF PLACES 47

THE F^BOB ISLES ICELAND, GBEENLAND, &r.— CoKTiNUEa

i orth Cape

Staalbierg Huk ; W. point

Jndverdaxnees

Sneefields Jdkcl

OBEENLAND.

ape Danell [1]

)annebrogs Oe or Isle . .

Dape Lowenom

.olberflrer Ileide

Dape Mosting

[)ape Juel

"larbic

ape BiUe

ape Tordenskiold

[Jape Discord . ,

"ape Valloe

Btatenhuk, otherwise Cape

Farewell [1]

Jape Christian

?nedrichsthal

^ennortalik ; Commercial

Establishment

^ulianeshaab ...

Dape Thorraldseu : ,

Dape Desolation

[^ape Absalon

Frederikshaab

Lichtenfels

kemtes

}odthaab . .

lolsteiuborg ,

LABBADOB.

Button's Isles ; Middle

Por* Monvers; Entrance[2]
Mn, a Moravian Settlemt.

cveret Islet, at the En-
trance of Netsbuktoke,
or Sandwich Bay . JS]

7olf Island; North End
^potted Island ; N.E. end

ound Ilill Island

lawke Island ; S.E. point

pape St. Michael

tape St. Francis [4]

pint Spear

NEWFOUNDLAND.

leHe-Isle \ N.E. point. . . .

|- Lighthouse on 8. pt.

»Bpo St. Xicwisi Small pen-
■ uuttla on S.E. point . .

LAT. N.

66 29
65 30 25
64 53
64 48

65 37
65 18
64 30
64 8
63 40
63 15
62 47
62 1
61 24
60 53
60 38

61
62
63
63

LON. W.

ATTTHOBITIXS.

59 49 12

59 49 30

60 10

60 7 45
60 42 64
60 44
60 48
3
2
5
8
64 10 5
66 6b 32

60 35
67
66 24

53 50 40
5?' 46
53 30 30
53 25 20
63 4
52 47
62 37
62 32

52
51

1
53

22 25 30
24 30 16
24 1

23 43 30

36 10

38 30

39 30

40 7
40 16
40 50

41
41

42
67

42 15
42 26
42 40

43 63 40

44 6
44 37

45 16

46 10 44

47 56

48 10
48 23

60 2
51 31

61 21
61 42 15
63 34 28

66 20
61 65
61 48

66 32
65 37

52 21 16

66 26 30

66 21

65 26

65 27

56 31

66 28 18

65 15 30

65 22 18

66 38 28

The Danish Suktet, 1845.

The Chart of Greenland,
published by authority^ at Co-
penhagen, in 1832, to illustrate
the voyage of Captain Oraah,
&c., and which also exhibits
Scoresby's Land to the N.E.,
and the coast to the N. W., from
various authorities, up to the
paraUel of 73° N.

:tmli A:-

Connaissance des Terns, &c.
Captain T. Mauby, B.N., 1808.
Inferred from Fort Manvcrs.

The Admiralty Surveys, by
Lieutenant Michael Lane, &c.,to
1790.

The Survey by Captain Fredk.
Bullock, K.N.

'-.cd iiaO

['/^\

48 POSITIONS OF PLACES.

THE F^ROE ISLES, IC5ELAND, GREENLANT, &c.— Cootinued.

Battle Islands; N.E. ex.'

treme of S.E. Island . .
Henley laland; middle of

North side

York Point ; East extreme
Bed Bay ; Harbour Island,

S.E. point

Loup Bay; Flagstaff at

head ot Bay

Fortean Bay; S.Wi extreme

point

Amour Point; Lighthouse
Bradore HiUs ; N.W. hill,

1,264 ft.,the Notre Dame

of Cook and Lane ....

South HiU, 1,133 ft.

Middle, or N.E. hUl

Greenly Island » . .

Cape Norman [6]

Cape Bauld

Gnguet Bay ; East point . .
"White Cape, near St Lu-

naire Bay

Needles Kocks, near Braha
Br§hator BrahaShoal {6ft.)

Cape St. Anthony

Crlmaillidre Cove ; En-
trance, East point . , . .
Goose Cape ; S.E. point . .
How Harbour ; Entrance,

West point

Fishot Isles; Northern Isle
Croque Harbour; Entrance
Groais Isle; N.E. point . .
Southern Belle-Isle; N.E.

Point

Bouge Isle ; North point . .
Canada Bar ; Entrance . .
Hooping Harbour; Entr.
• Fourchet Harbour ; Ent.
Orange Bay ; Entrance . .
Little Harbour-deep Head
Cat Head ; Extremity. . . .

Coney Arm Head

Partridge Point

Fleur de Lys Harbour ;

East Point

St. Barbe, or Horse

Isles ; South-east poir "^
Paquet Harbour; Entrance
La Scie Harbour; Entrance
Promontory of St. John :

North Bill

Middle Cape

South Bill

St. John's Gull Isk

T.A.T. X.

LOK. W.

AUTUOUITIES.

» //

52 19 36

o ' //

55 32 23

1 c

55 50 23

51 57 53

55 52 33

1 ^

51 43 47

56 25 53

Captain (now Rear- Admiral) H.

1 ^

51 31 27

66 48 58

W. Bayfield.

51 25 29

66 66 33

61 27 36

66 50 56

51 35 3

57 11 58

1 1'

.1 33 54

57 11 43

■;

1 ^

51 34 40

67 10 58

51 23 11

57 10 43

The Admiralty Surveyft, by
Lieutenant (since Captain^ Fred.
Bullock, R.N.,andhiH assistants,

1 ^'

51 38 5

55 53 28

1 ^

51 38 10

55 26 53

61 32 30

55 27 50

Messrs. T. Smith, &c., 1823,
1824, 1825, and 1826. The lon-

1 ^

51 30 25

do 27 63

gitudes adjusted by the Obser-
vations of Captain H. W. Bay-

I ^

51 26 6

55 29 5

I ^

61 25 40

56 26 20

field, &c.

I ^

51 21

55 31 35

Rbmabxs.

1 ^

51 18 30

55 6 50

By these excellent Surveys, a

I F

51 17 20

55 37 40

very important desideratum has
been obtained ; for before they
were executed, the coasts whicn

1 ^

51 20

65 67 30

1 ^

61 12 30

56 40 60

they display were comparatively
unexploied, although frequented

I ^

61 2 30

55 47 62

B ^

60 58 30

55 33 30

more or less by the fishers. — Bri-
tish Anmiean Ifavigator.

1 1'

60 48

65 29

1 ^

50 64

66 48 30

1 ^

50 42 30

66 8 30

1 \

50 36

66 14

1 ^

60 31

66 17 30

' !■ T .'Ji'j !4 ..'

60 22

66 27 30

. -, >vJu»^iTifc;.;-u/ '

1 ^

60 14

60 33 30

1 ^

60 7

55 40 50

:.. ;.',), t''

H c

40 67 30

26 46 30

f*^ }(i'J_',» - ' :

■

50 9 20

66 9 60

i'-*^' i^\'

I i

50 6 40

66 8 30

1 -. ' K ' * £

'■ j.v-,.M:!-- .

60 11

55 43

. , . .... \f^\

I I

4fl 68 30

65 51 38

H ]

46 68

54 36 60

1 .(■//uKi^UOH.v;...

■

49 69 30

65 31 20

!l' ■ ■'■

49 67 30

66 29 20

H 1

49 56 6

66 29 50

;■/... ■u«'3ki.-i9J,!i«|«j.

B 1

49 69 .30

55 22

:i- 1 . ■'■: -: ui.v w aisnm.

■

-COMTINXTED.

UOIUTIES.

POSITIONS OF PLACES
COASTS OF NEWFOUNDLAND— OoNTiifUED.

Rear-Admiral} H.

Bishop's Hock

Nippers' Isles; S.E. point

Cutwell Harbour ; E. point

Triton Hturbour ; Entrance

Fortune Harbour j N.W.
point

Toulinguet Harbour } N.
Entrance

Change Isles; N.E. Islet

Fogo Harbour ; Eastern
Entrance

Cape Fogo ; S.E. extremity

Offer W adbam Island ;
Lighthouse ....

Ireland Rk. (always breaks)

Inspector Rock (sometimes
breaks)

Snap Rock, of 10 feet ....

Fimk Island ; Escape or
East point

Green Island, in Rocky Bay

Bagged Point

Deadman's Point

Outer Cat Island

Freels' Gull Island.... [7]

Charge Rocks (6 feet)

Stinkmg Islands

Fool's Idand, off the N.W.
Arm

Shoe Cove Point

Offer Gooseberry Island . .

Malone's Rook

Great Black Island; cen-
tre of

Little Denier Island

Western Head

Southern Head

Young Hany Reef

Cope Bonavista ; Light-
house

Bonavista Gull Island

North Head Catalina

Catalina Harbour; Green
Island Light

South Head, Catalina

Horse Chops

Entrance of Trinity Har-
bour

Bonaventure Head

Bacalieu Island ; Light on
North point

Harbour Grace; Light on
Outer Island

Cape St. Francis

St. JOHN'S; Fort TownR=
end [8]

lAT. N.

ION. W.

AUTHOKITIEfl.

o » »

t II

49 05 30

55 27 30

Th3 Admiralty Surveyors,
Messrs. George Holbrook and

49 47

55 52

49 37

55 40

WiUiam BuUock, 1819 to 1826,

49 33

55 37

adjusted by the Observations of
1- . 3. Jones, 1828, Admifal

49 32

65 17

Bayfield, 1859, &c.

49 36

54 7 30

■

49 41 3d

54 24

49 44 20

64 17 36

49 39 30

64 1

. '■ . .^ r-

49 36

63 46

49 01 45

54 4

49 47

54 6 40

49 54

63 43 43

49 44 21

53 13 20

49 29

64 14

49 30

49 22 18

63 43 30

49 63 55

53 36 20

49 19 6

63 26 68

49 18

63 32 8

". .>'?-.

49 13 40

63 22 20

49 9 15

53 36 30

'■■h^'.'.-^ :

49 4 4'>

63 67 30

I ■',-,' - : . . -

48 58 20

53 30

48 53 30

63 27 40

■•

48 50 8

53 38 3

- 1

48 40 50

63 36 38

r . . 10 ^r-i

48 37 15

53 27 48

■ ■'-"■■ .

48 37 16

63 21 48

'■■ '^'/'"'-'"^-^- '

48 48 5

63 7 15

x*-- "■■<■',

48 42

53 8

>r, * ■•, m\H:.'rx(m

48 42 40

53 8

[ . , . ■ It

48 32 28

63 1 54

'•^ ' Bemabks.

48 30 45

63 6 18

In former editions the longi-

48 27 38

63 6 40

tv des of the S.E. and South coasts

48 21 30

53 14 18

^ere deduced from the observations
and Surveys of Captain .Tames

48 21 30

53 20 25

Cook, Lieutenant M. Lane, Messi-.i.

48 16 30

53 23 5

Caasiri, Verdun, Borda Pingro,
and Owen; and these wore, gon-

18 9 1

52 48 44

eriiUy, from 10 to 15 minutes eatt-
tcard of those now given in tho
Table but tho longitude of the

47 42 40

63 9 20

Burgoo Isles \^F.clipse /.] remaina

47 48 4

62 47 29

asgivmhy CaptAn Cbol; and that
of St. Pierre may, also, bo consid-

47 33 67

52 42 21
II

ered as tho same.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
COASTS OF NEWFOUNDLAND— Continued,

St. John's ; Light on Fort
Aaiherst, S. entrance . .

Cape Spear ; Lighthbuse

Biill Head

Cape Brovle, N. point of. .

Cape Ballard

Cape Race ; Lighthouse

Virgin Hocks, on the Great

' Bank of Newfoundland

Trepassey Harbour ; Shin-
gle Neck

Cape Pine ; Lighthouse . .

St. Mary's Cape ; Light-
house

Placen+ia Harbour

Little Southern Harbour

Extremity of Placentia Bay

Bordeaux Harbour

Great Burin Island ; Light
on Dodding Head ....

Cape CHArEAURouoE . .

St. Pierre ; Lighthcuse on
Galantry Head

Cape Miquelon

Connaigi-e Shoal

Pfcss Island

Cape La Hune

Outer Penguin Island ....

Burgeo Islands ; Eclipse
Island

Cape Rat; S. extreme [9]

Cod Roy Isle 5 S. side

Cape St. George

Red Isle ; S.E. point

South Head of the Bay of
Islands

Cow Head

Port Saunders ; Entrance
N.E. point

Point r.ich; "West extremity

Point FeroUe 5 Cove Point,
N.E, extremity

Anchor Point

Green Islet ; N.E. Extrem-
ity

Cai>€ 1 XX

LAT. N.

47 33 60
47 30 53
47 18 1
47 3 52
46 46 46
46 39 12

46 26 30

46 43 32
46 37 4

46 49 25

47 15 11
47 43 32
47 49 46
47 45 28

47 1 30
46 54 19

46 45 30

47 8 11
47 23 57
47 29 2
47 31 55
47 22 9

47 36 6
47 37 2

47 52 38

48 28 54

48 33 50

49 6 12

49 55 12

50 38 36

50 41 39

51 2 14
51 14 30

51 24 18
51 38 5

I.ON. w.

52 39 55
52 36 40
52 44 33
52 50 40

52 56 57

53 2 43

50 55 20

53 22 3

53 31 48

54 9 33
53 50 3
53 49 38
53 52 14
52 53 30

55 5 14

55 19 20

56 6 54
56 17 30

AUTHORniSS.

55 57

50 11

56 50 23 i

56 58

57 36 15

59 18

59 23

59 11

52 13 26

58 20 50
67 48 25

57 18 53
67 24 23

56 2 48

57 42 40

66 33 63
55 53 28

The Admiralty Surveyors, as
before.

A Survey of Anf 8t. JPierr*, by
lieutenant Da Petit Thooan, gives
the Government House, N.E. of
the town, in 46"' 46' 30* N., and
66" 9' 46" W. The French astro-
nomers, Messrs. Yerdun, Borda,
and Pingre, in the voyage of la
Flore, 1771, gave the town of St.
Pierre in 46° 46' 30" N., and 66° 10'
W., and thus confirmed the pre-
vious dL.«rmination of the Burgee
Islands, by Captain Cook, from a

solar eclipse, m August, 1766

PhU. Trans., 1767.

Captain (now Rear-Admiral)
H.W. Bayfield, 1827 to 1860.
and Captam James Cook..

.''T,J ..til

'.- '■■--,• ■ '• ■ ' NOTES. -V -,^;.:,l • :,-.:l>\r

\. Cape Farewell. — In the Maps and chai-tfl in general, the name of Cape
Farewell is attached to the southern point of the continent of Greenland. In the
Dutch chains, which have been republished in London, the same name is applied to
an island, at the assumed distance of 46 leagues N.N.W. from that point. Hence;,
one point has frequently been mistaken for, or blended vtith another ; and this affords,

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

:oBrri£8.

ilty Surveyors, as

Fbri St. Tierrtfhy
Petit ThouazSysiTes
Dt House, N.E. of
t6' 46' 30* N., and
The I^nch astro-
8. Verdun, Borda,
a tiie voyage of la
ive the town of St.
r30*N.,aiid66'»10'
confirmed the pr6-
ation of the Burgeo
iptain Cook, from a
in August, 1766.—
'67.

*;f^- "^i

•..V;.>.;.'i'.i!t/

>w Bear-Admiral)
d, 1827 to 1860.
ames Cook..

>''■ ' Hi

•: ■-■

he name of Cape
reenland. In the
ame is applied to
at point, Henoftj
i and this affordsi

therefore, one reason for the discotdant accounts of longitade, &c. Such mistakes
are not likely again to occur, as will be seen from the following statement.

In the first volume of the " Journal of the Royal Geographical Society " is given
an account of Discoveries on the Eastern Coast of Greenland, by Captain Qraah, of
the Danish Boyal Navy, in 1829, who proceeded uong the coast from Staten Hook,
to the parallel of 65|% and who has disproved the existence of any ancient European
colony upon it. In a single boat, amid difficulties almost insuperable, vntii only two
Greenland men and four women, M. Graah reached an island, in latitude 65° 18' ;
longitude, eon^iuted, 38° 27' ; he proceeded onward until stopped by an insurmount-
able barrier of ice, and was forced to return to the S.W,

All the coast appeared to be colder, more barren, and miserable, than the western
coast. " It may be said to consist of one uninterrupted glacier, exhibiting oiUy a
few patches of vegetation, generally on the banks of the nvers, and elsewhere, often'
advancing into the sea and forming promontories of ice, which are passed with so
much the more danger that they fi^quently fall in avalanches."

During the whole summer of 1829 there was not one day which could be called
warm ; and, before the 14th of June, the thermometer had never risen above 53°. At
Ekolumim in lat, 63° 30', the vegetation appeared to be superior to that of any other
part of the coast, even of Julianeshadb, on the S.W., reputed to be the most favored
part of that coast. Bu' the vegetation appears to consist only in a flue g^tass, which
withers quickly when exposed to the warmth of the sun, and in some anti-scorbutic
plants, as sorrel and scurvy grass, vrith one or two kinds of flowers, and low bushes
of willow and birch, not exceeding two feet in growth.

The food of the natives is principally the dried flesh of the seal, with » little gpame
and fish. Captain Graoh makes mention of bears, hares, birds, and salmon ; but he
says that, " even at the latitude of 63° 36', reindeers, and hares are known only by
name." The people, in their moral oharaeter, he describes as very estimable ; " and
the reported good nature of the husbands, the submission of their wives, the obedience
of the children, and the mutual affection and confidence of rhe whole community,
make it difficult £o remember that they are pagans." It was tlie good faith, the hos-.
pitality, the kind and generous dis^sitioas, of these children of nature, that enabled
M. Graah to overcome the difficulties by which he was surrounded.

On the 3rd of November, 1831, Captain Graah returned to Copenhagen from a
second voyage along the coust of Greenland, but without having passed much to the
northward o£ his former limit. The Geographic Society of Paris subsequently pre-
sented their gold medal to the captain, accompanied by tne diploma, for nis perseve-
ring and inde&tigable attempts in exploring this coast.

During his last stay, Captain Graph determined the lengitudes of the two southern
Danish settlements, Julianeshaab ' Nennortalic, with great precision, by means of
occultations of fixed stars, &c. ; j-u^ we also gaiit, by his observations, the positions
of Cape Farewell, never before ascertained, and Cape Christian, another promontory
of the same island : Cape Farewell, lat. 69° 49' 12", Ion. 43° 53' 40" : Cape Christian,
lat. 69° 42' 30", Ion 44* 46' 0".

The eastern coast, is disting^shed by the name of the late excellent King Frede-
rick VI.

2. Port MaNyerb, formerly called Saltpetre Haven, was visited and explored
by the Thalia and Medusa frigates, which wooded and watered here, in August, 1808.
Of the mode in which the longitude was determined, we have not been informed.
The coast, as well as that of Greenland, now appears more to the westward than it
was formerly represented.

Of Port Monvers a particular plan is given on our Chart of the Northern Ocean.
Without the entrance, on the East, are two groups of small isles, and near it is a
closter of dangerous rocks. The entrance itself is less than a mile broad, but the
and within opens into a fine basin, on the shores of which are wood, water, and
winged game, in abundance. At about 2 leagues, true South, fr>om the entraQce, is
j Moum fnoreby, 2,733 feet in height.

3. Sakdwich Bay. — This fine harbour was surveyed by Lieutenant Michael Lone,

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

in 1771> but not the different entranoea. The defect, waa, however, remedied b^
Lieutenant Robert Pearoe, of H.M.S. .Fbrotin%«, in 1820. A range of mountains,
called Mealy Mountaim, atand on the N.W. side of the harbour, and, beinff 1,482
feet high, uways coTered with snow, may be .seen from without Wolf jjHaaa, a dis-
tance of 17 leagues.

4. Capb St. Fbakcis. — The coast in the vicinity of Cape St. Francis was sur*
veyed by Mr. J. L. , Roberts, of H.M.S. Favourite, in 1820. At half a mile W.S.W.
from the cape is St, JFVancia Harbour ; and at 1^ miles north-westward from the same
is SeaUng or Seal Bight, St. Francis Harbour is snug and secure, but very small,
and generally filled with vessels, during the fishing season, as a considerable fishery
is carried on in its vicinity. Sealing Bight is moie commodious ; and here water may
be conveniently had, but no wood.

6. Caps Noiuun. — ^This cape is placed by Rear-Admiral Bayfield in 51° 37' 57'
North, and 25" 63' 28*, or 6' 20' to the West of the former surveys } and the longi-
tudes of the whole of the N.E. coast, as far as Cape Freels, have been made in accor-
dance with this, — See Note 8.

6. Capb Freels. — In the valuable survey northward of Cape Freels, by Lieut.
Frederick Bullock, 1823-24, this cape is placea £' 10" South of the same, as given in
the survey southward, by Messrs. Holbrook and William Bullock, in 1817 : to connect

his with the southern parts, we have given the latter authovity. .

7. Cape Bonayista. — The assigned positions of this cape, is an evidence of the
uncertainty which exists in the longitudes of this survey. The first sheet of the
survey by Messrs. Holbrook and Bullock, made the longitude 52° 59' 15" In the re-
issue, shortly afterwards, of the same sheet, it was shifted to longitude 53° 8' 20", or
8' 35" f^-ther west, nearly as it now stands.

8. St. John's — ^The longitudes of all the places on the eastern coast of Newfound-
land are given weatimtrd of those assigned in the early editions of this work, and as
also reported in the British American Navigator.

The longitude of St. John's, as deduced from the observations of Captain James
Cook, Lieutenant Michael Lane, Messrs. Cassini, Verdun, Borda, Pingr6, and Owen,
woidd be generally from fifteen to ten minutes eastward of the longitude in the
Table ; Fort Amherst, at the entrance of the harbour, having been given in 52° 29'
W., or 13' 45' eastward of the later observations.

In the years 1828, 1829, and 1830, the ofiicers of H.M.S. Hussar, under the
orders of Rear-Admiral Sir Charles Ogle, made many observations in this poi-t of
the world ; and the result given by Mr. John Jones, for the longitude of Fort Towns-
end, is 64° 46' 22 " W., and latitude 47° 33' 42", and which position was recorded in
the fort itself.

The last determination by Admiral Bayfield as given in the table, removes this
longitude 3' 8' to the eastward. The coasts to the northward appear to have been
been given much more to the westward. It is neccssaiT to notice tncse discrepances
here, althougt the amounts of differences as now settled, ore not important to the
general na'vit.ator.

9. Cape Rat, &c. — The South and West coasts of Newfoundland are still repre-
sented according to the surveys of the circumnavigator, Captain James Cook and
Michael Lane, at the latter part of the last century. The original charts, published
by Mr. Laurie's predecessors, are still in request, and it will be seen, upon comparison,
that the positions given in Cook's first work are still found to be near the truth.

NEWFOUNDLAND. — The description of the coasts and harbours of this island
with ample directions for the navigation, &c., will be found in the " British American
Navigator," ■pubhiHied.hj Mr. Laurie.

VARIATIONS OF THE COMPASS, 1861.

Iceland. — At the East end of Iceland, the present variation is- 38° W. ; at Ingolfs
Holdc, 39" W.; at Portland, or the South Point, 41° W.; at Fugle Skiterene 41° 30'
\\'. ] at Reikiavik, 43" 40 } at Staolbierg Huk, or the Westpoin^ 47°; at the North

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

Cape, 46** ao* W. Inortatmg at the rate of 2' 25' per anntim.

GBEENLAND.>^At Owe Farewell, at present it is about 02° SO'; at Gape Mcetteff, on
the East coast, about 67^ W. { at Nennortalic, on the South coast, about 53° 7Xf\ at
Frededkshaab, 5d° W. These variations have inereated about 2° 30' once 1831.

Newfoundland, £ast Cba«<.— -Belle Isle, Lark Harbour, 37* 30' W. (aocordinff

to Mr. Evans, R.N., it is 39°) i at Cape Norman, it is 38" W. i at the entrance m

Canada Bay, 36° W.| St. Barbe, or Horse Isles, 35° { Cape St John, 34° 60' W.{

Wadham Isles, 35° 0' ; Cape Freels, 34° 30' W. } Cape Bonavista, 33° 30' W. ; St.

John's, 31° 30' W. j Cape Race, 30° W.

Sotah and West Coasta.—Cape Freels, 29' 50' W. { Cape ChapeauKouge, 29° 40' "W.
St. Pierre 5 28' 25' W. ; Burgeo Islands, 29° 0' W. ; Cape Ray, 28° 0' W. ; (it was 27°
37' in 1856) j Cape St. George, 29° 0' W. ; Cow Head, 33° 32' in 1859 j Flower Cove,
West entrance of Belle Isle Strait, 36° 52' W. (in 1859.)

These variations are increa»ing at the rate of 7' per annum in the southern, and
8' to 10' per annum in the northern parts of Newfoundland and Labrador.

13. GULF AND ETVER OF ST. LAWEENCE, WITH OAPE BRETON

ISLAND.

LAT. N.

liON. W.

AT7TE0BITIBS.

THE GULF. [1]

/ »

» II

Island of St. Paul. [2]

The Observations of Captain
(since Rear-Admiral) Henry
Wolsey Bayfield, F.R.A.S., of

Northern Ext~ Lightho.

47 13 50

60 8 20

Eastern side of Neck ....

47 13 9

60 8 30

H.M. surveying vessel, Oul-

.ji-'' . i

nare, 1827 to 1834.

Magdalen Islands. [3]

:„- - .: \ '■' ■- -';■' ■'■'n-i*'-':

Entrv Isle 5 N.W. point, .
Deamnan Islet ( W. point
Amherst Harbour; Entr.

47 17 1

61 43 2

47 16 3

62 12 28

/ '■ ..:!.»— *-.';» . ^^^,.i-

47 15 28

61 42 29

Coffin's Island ; N.E. point

47 17 30

61 23

',' -' . .- - 1*^ .t ■- 1 ; , J ■

Northern Bird Islet

47 61 2

61 9 18

Bryon or Crass Isle ; E. pt.

47 47 53

61 23 40

ANTICOSTI. [4]

\/i- '\

1 :W-Ife .7■f^ i

East point ; Extreme ....

49 8 17

61 40

South point

49 3 36

62 16 33

r'7.>.l\, / ^ili\t*-:* * _' *'*/,»K.t

Heath point ; Jjighthouse

49 5 20

61 31 51

8.W. pomt ; Lighthouse . .
Cape Henry ; S.E. Extr. . .

49 23 45

63 35 49

■ -^ ■• '•'

49 47 42

64 23 44

■ ■ • » . )* .-X-^-t f::-Vi^iy'.

West point 5 Extremity . ,

49 62 12

64 33 8

North point ; Extremity . .

49 67 32

63 9

<.'■'• f - ■ r ,:>.-;¥.* i '.i. t,. .;*Ti^i, r.

Observation Cape ; W. side

Bear Bay j Entrance of

the River

49 38 51

62 41 27

■ " '■'" .'";•' '' "'J'-" **- "■■

49 30 22

62 24 32

LABRADOR, &c. [5]

■ '^ . ;,

'. . • ! .*"■ ■*'

•

Bradore Harbour 1 Flag-

■ , i.- a

i 7^ •' V. <-.

staff on Jones House . .

61 27 30

57 14 15

Bdles Amours point. 5 S.E.

Extreme

51 26 34

57 25 53

^;! -V-,^i;f^ . ^i-r-' . ..-■. ■■>^'.

M POSITIONS OF PLACES.

GULF AND EIVER OF ST. LAWBENCB, &c.— OoxTuruw).

LAT. M.

Lion Idandi latiimiu ....
Mistuioqiis I. ; E. povit of

Cove in N. side Island. .
Meoattina Harbonr { S.

point of Dead Cove

Oiand Mecattiti" pt. Ex.
Antrobns Point i Nortb.pt.

of Island

Hare Harbour ; East side
Wapitag^ Harbour { East

point of Islet

Cape Wiiittle; South-west

Extreme of Lake

Coacoacho B^j S. point

of Outer Met ....

Kegashka Say ( Islet at S.

end of Beaoh

Natashquan River; S. point

of Entrance

Little Natashquan Har. ; N.

pt. Islet at nead of Bay
Nabesippi Elver { S.E. of

Entrance

Appetetat Bav ) E. point . .
Betcheween Harbour { S.E.

point of Low Isle

Clearwater Point ; S. Ex.
Mingan Harbr. i Sandy pt.
Mingan Island ; Sununit . .
St. John Biver ; E. point of

Entrance ,

Manitou Point; Extreme
St. Charles Pt. ; S. Extreme
Moisie River ; S.W. point

of Entrance

Carousel Island; S. Extreme
Seven Islands Bay ; Store

House, East side

St. Maraaret's Bay ; Exty.
Cawee Islands ; W . point

of Little Island

Effg Islands ; West pt. of

North Island

Trinity Bay; S."W. point
Point de Monts ; Lightho.
South extreme . .

RivEB St. Lawrence ; N.
Shobe.

GoodboutR; Trading post
St. Nicolas Pt. S. Extreme
ManicouagonPt. ; S.E. Ex.
Bersimia River; S. point of

Entrance"

Fersimis Point; S. extreme

fil 24 1

01 15 43

50 46 44
50 44 2

50 33 12
50 36 24

50 11 40

50 10 3d

50 4

50 11 19

50 6 57

50 11 41

50 13 52
50 16 35

50 14 13
60 12 27
50 17 24
50 12 48

50 17 3
50 17 34
50 15 17

50 11 16
50 5 21

50 13
50 2 25

49 29 21

49 38 13
49 23 39
49 19 35
49 18 41

49 18 25
49 15 47
49 6 5

48 63 67

lOH. W.

57 38 33

58 12 8

58 59 23

59 5 13

59 16 48

59 17 23

60 1 23
60 7

60 18 13

61 15 38
61 47 58

61 50 33

62 13

62 58 13

63 10 32

63 27 6

64 1 66
64 7 31

64 23 16

65 14 8

65 48 48

66 4 38
66 23 33

66 24 4

66 44 43

67 1 63

67 10 6
67 18 8
67 21 58
67 23 18

67 36 4

67 50 4

68 11 55

68 36 54
68 38 29

▲vTHoamis.

The Surveyiby Admiral H.W.
Bayfield, 1827-1860.

■jij,}!./,.,^-

HjfJ,-

-\<i'':'t4rM<:''i!tMm..

7-^fli'H '?

. . - - . ■ ■ , vf*5Mfe<»^'=r'=*iTiA

r Admiral H.W.

POSITIONS OF PLACES. \

OULF AND RIVER OP ST. LAWRENCE— Ooktinubd.

fiB

Jeremiei Trading Poet ..

PortNeufj Church ......

Tadousac (Saguenay River);
Store on Beach

Chicotttimi (Saguenay Ri-
ver { Tracung Post

Isle aux Coudres; West
point of Laprairie Bay

QUEBEC; N. Bastion [6]

.. ; Wolf Monument

; Flagstaff, King's

Bastion, Citadel

RlYEB St. Lawremoe;
ABOVE Quebec.

I St. Jean des Chaillons ; R.

C. Steeple

I Cap Madeline; R.G. steeple
Three Rivers; E. steeple
I Point du LacR. C. Steeple
I Sorel ; Epiflcopal Church
Repentigny; K.C. steeple
I Montreal; Oate Island

N. end Lighthouse

; R. C. Cathedral[7]

IRiver St. Lawbence S.
Shore.

|Dauphin River ; Orleans

Isle, S. W. pt. of entrance
iStone Pillar I. Lighthouse
iKamouraska ; N.E. pt. of

Crow Island

JrandyPots ; S. pt. of S.Rk.
" oup River; N. pt. of Ent.

ed Island ; Lighthouse . .
jreeu Island ; Lighthouse

azade Rocks ; N. E. one
}icquette Island ; Lighl^o.
JicL5N.E.Ex. ofS^E.Rf.
3amaby I., North-east pt.
Damille Mt. ; sumt. 2,036ft.
letifl ; Reef off Little Metis

latan R.; S.W, point, of

Entrance

Cape Chatte ; Extreme . .

It. Lewis R. ; E. pt of Ent.
Jreat Fox Bay ; Centre of
Cape Rozier ; Lighthouse
yapeOaspfi ; Flower-pt. rk.

fEW BRUNSWICK, &c.

|ape Despair > Extreme . .

LAT. N.

48 52 45
48 37 17

48 8 32

48 26 a

47 24 40
46 49
46 48 38

46 48 32

46 33 23
46 22 -6
46 20 43
46 17 21
46 2 42
45 44 28

45 30 22
45 30 24

48
48

46 58 4

47 12 25

47 36 9
47 52 28

47 50 67
4 20
3 17

48 12 27
48 26 18
48 25 9
38 29 86
48 28 36
48 41 10

48 51 35

49 6 62
49 14 29
48 59 57
48 51 37
48 45 2

48 25 22

LON. W.

68 46 46

69 5 S3

69 42 52
71 4 61

70 24 62

71 12 49
71 12 31

71 12 33

72 7
72 30
72 32

72 41

73 6 50
73 26 49

AXTTHOBITISS.

73 33 5
73 33 18

70 50 44
70 21 39

69 62 39
69 40 39
69 33 41
69 32 59
69 26 6
69 8 3
68 53 3
68 68 23
68 31 66
68 12
68 1

60
34

67 31 24
66 45 16
65 43 34
64 22 55
64 12 3
64 9 26

64 8 32

T&e Surveys hy Admiral H. W.
Bayfield, 1827-60.

.............. .;.«

:.■',_ r 'it)-. ": ; ■

•m- - -•: . . .. / ii-siii? ■- ■■ ."'•^
h&l :. . .,

t.rt.'.iisy.ni*j % ?*fe>::>iE siitPt

«6 , POSITIONS <W PLACES.

GULP AND RIVER OF ST. LAWRENCE, &o.— OoNTiinrED.

Kaoooereau Pt ; N.E. Ex.

Portl)aiiiol ; N. side W.^t.

PaBpebiac ; Episoopal Oh.

Bonaventiire Pt. ; 8. Extr.

Carlton, or Tnusadigash
^pPoint J N.W. Extreme . .
//JMOumms Island ; E. point
// Black Rock ; Station on . .
/ j Bathnrat Har.; Cteou Pt.
*/ Micsenette Point ; Station
/ Caraquette Island ; S.E. ex-
treme of Sandy Spit . .

Shippigan Harbour} Fall's

Miacou Island ; Lighthouse
Shippi^^ OuUy i N. Ent.
Miranuchi ; Bai du Vin Is-
hmd, N.E. Extreme —
Escuminao Pt> i Lighthouse
Richibucto RiTerj N. bea-

, con at Entrance

I BuctoucheRiT.} Sta.atEn.

■ Coca^e Head} Ex. of Cliff

8hed!AC I Episoopal Church

k Cape Tormentine } N.W.

^^exfaeme of Jouremanls.

llffnlak Head, Bay Verte }

Station

Pugwash } Episcopal Ch.
Amet Island} East Extreme
Picton Harbour} Lightho.
Piotou Is. } Lightho. E. end
Cape George} Station in

Ballantine Coyo

Antigonish Har. ; N. beacon
Pomquet Island } S.E. Ex.
QutofCanso} Light N.Ent.

PRINCE EDWARD IS-
LAND.

North Point Extreme ofCliff
W. Pt. } High Water Extr.
Cape Egmont Stn. on Extr.
Bedeque Harbour t Green's

Wharf

CapeTraverte i Ex. of Cliff
StTeter'sIs.} Station S.W.

Extreme

Charlottetown } FlagHtaff

on Fort [8]

Prim Point Lighthouse . .
Panmure Island } Lightho-
£. Pt. } Stn. on ex. of oiiff
St. Peter's Harbour i Sand

Hill, E. side of entrance

LAT. N.

48 12 18
48 9 10
48 1 47
48 17

48 fi 9
48 4 16
47 fil 04
47 39 19
47 00 2

47 49 19

47 44 52

48 1
47 43 24

47
47

6 19
4 32

46 43 4
46 26 6fi
46 21 31
46 14 Ifi

46 10 6

46 28
45 51 14
45 50 15
45 41 25
45 49 50

45 51 40
45 41 49
45 89 17
45 41 42

47 3 41
46 37 14
46 24 11

46 23 32

48 13 17

46 6 59

46 13 55
46 3 10
46 8 47
46 27 id

46 26 44

LON. W.

64 46 14

64 56 55

65 15 6

65 26 26

66 7 10
66 21 26
65 45 30
65 36 59
64 58 43

64 61 45

64 42 12
64 29 28

64 39 36

65 4 21
64 47 17

64 47 32
64 37 45
64 31 41
64 33 32

63 42 7

64 1
63 30 18
63 9 40
62 39 10
62 29 54

61 64 32
61 52 56
61 44 5
61 28 42

63 59 3

64 23
64 7 39

63 47 10
63 38 51

63 11 29

63 7 7
63 1 50
62 27 24

61 67 42

62 43 56

AVTHOHITIXS.

The Surveys by Admiral H.W.
Bayfield, 1827-1860.

•m'

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
GULF AND BIVER OF bT. LAWRENCE, &c. ComrmuEO*

Tnusadie Harbour; Eastern
point of Entrance

Orenville Harbour; High
Sand Hill near Entrance

Bichmond Ba^; Station on
Boyaltj point

Cascumpeqne Har.; Ligbt.

Cape Kudare ; Extreme . .

CAPE BBJBTONISLANli

Bear Head ; Extreme

Plaster Core; N. end of

Bridge

M' Keen Point ; Extreme
Fort Hood ; Harbour Lt.at

South Entrance

Sea Wolf Island ; Lightho.

on summit

Chetican Point ; S. extreme
Cape St. Lawrence ; N. ex.
Gape North ; N. extreme . .
CapeEsmont; E. extreme
Ingani'Q ; Archibald point
St. .\nne Harborr ; Beach

Point

Carer Point ; W. ride of

entrance of Gt. Bras d'or
Cunet Point ; Extreme . .
I Sydney Harbour ; Light-
house on Flat Point

Table Head ; Extreme . .
Flint Island ; Lighthouse

on North-«ast end

Scacari Island; Lighthouse

Menadou Harbour

Cane Breton ; Extreme . .
1 OaWus Bay ; Church on

Cape

I Louisbure ; Lighthouse . .
I Michaux Point ; Station on

Extreme

iL'Ardoise; R. C. Church

Steeple

jSt.Pctcrl8land;S.W.Ex.
I St Peter Bay ; Old Fort on

West side of Haulovcr . .

MADAME ISLAND.

iGrando-digue Lennox I'os-

save ) Station

uriohat Harbour ; Jersey-
man island, N. extreme

( Lightho. Marachc

Point . ,

LA.T. tf.

46 24 fil

46 30 50

46 33 65
46 48 22
46 52 57

43 33

45 38 56

45 38 51

46 21 30

46 36 22

47 2 54
47 3 35
46 51 1
46 41 81

46 17 41

46 11 41
46 20 32

46 16 12
46 13 14

46 11 5
46 2 13
46 20
45 57 14

45 42 7
45 54 34

45 34 11

45 36 45
45 35 54

45 39 21

low w.

45 35 49
45 30 25
45 20 2

63 1 44

63 27 29

53 1 50

64 2
63 57 44

61 17 5

61 23 36
61 29 54

61 31 40

61 15 33
61 2 58
60 35 36
60 24 56
60 18 3
60 21 18

60 32 25

60 24 50
60 17 16

60 7 22
59 57 4

59 45 50
59 40 18
59 49 58

59 47 3

60 5 3

59 57 15

60 41

60 45 50
60 48 39

60 52 4

AUTBonrriBB.

1
I

The Surveysby Admiral H.W.
Bayfield,1827-60.and Command-
er Olebar, R.N.

POSITIONS OF PLACES

NOTES.

1. GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE.— Among the difficulties of the navigation in tho
Oulf of St. Lawrence are the fogs and ices. In spring, the entrance and eastern
parts of the gulf are frequently covered with ice, ana vessels are sometimes beset for
many days. Being unfitted for contending with this danger, they often suffer tram
it, and are occasionally lost ; but all danger from ice, is far less than that which
arises from the prevalence of fogs ; these may occur at any time during the open or
navigable season, but are most frequent in the early part of summer ; tney ?.▼«' rare,
and never of long continuance, during westerly winds, but seldom fail to accompany
an easterly wind of any strength or duration. This observation is, however, subject
to restriction, according to locality or season. Thus winds between the South and
West, which are usually clear weather winds above Anticosti, are frequently accom-
panied with fog in the eastern parts of the gulf. Wiiids between the South and East
are almost always accompaniea with rain and fog in everypart. E.N.E. winds above
Cape de Monts, at the mouth of the river, are often E.S.E. or S.E. winds in the gulf,
bemg changed in direction by the high lands of the South coaut, and have, therefore,
in veneral me same foggy character. This is said of winds of considerable strengtii
and duration, and which may extend over great distances. Moderate and partial fine
weather winds may occur without fog at any season, and in any locality. In the
early part of the navigable season, especially in the months of April and May, with
clear weather, N.E. winds are of frequent occurrence, and they sometimes occur at
other seasons, and ui every part of the gulf and river.

The fogs sometimes last several days in succession, and to a vessel either running
up or beating down, during their continuance, there is no safe guide but the constant
use of the deep-sea lead, with a chart containing coirect soundings.

Thefoga which accompany eaaterly galea extend high up into the atmosphere, and
cannot be looked over from any part of the rigging of a ship. They, however, are
not so thick as those which occur in calms after a strong vdnd, and which are often
so dense as to conceal a vessel within hail ; whilst the former frequently admit the
land or other objects to be distinguished at the distance of half a mile or itioro, in the
day time.

The denaefbffa which occur in calms, and even in very light winds, often extend
only to small elevations above the sea ; ho that it sometimes happens, when objects
are hidden at the distance of fifty yards from the deck, they can dc plainly seen ny a
person 50 or 60 feet up the rigging. In the months of October and November, the
logs and rain that accompany easterly gales, are replaced by thick snow, which cauttcs
equul embarrassment to the navigator. — Admiral Jiayfield,

2. The Island of St. Paul lies N. 52° E., true, 10 miles from Cape North) it
is about 1 \ miles in length from North to South, and inclining to the eastward at
the North end. Its average breadth is about a quarter of a mile. The margin iti
rocky and precipitouM almost all ronnd, indented on the North-enst and North-wcat
sides by two coves, in both of whii-t. .tiford shelter during the prevalence of certain
winds. The cove on the N. W. affords a small and bold beach, about 1 50 feet lon^,
where a landing may be effected, but generally with difficulty, by reason of the
continual swell of the sea.

There is good anchorage all round the island, and close in-shore, which circumstance
enables vessels to lie there with any winds, by shifting their stations as the wind and
weather require. Tlie current runs generally about 4 miles an hour, and nearly S.8.K.

St. Poul's lias been noted for the great number of wrecks which have l»een found
on itM shuix's, arining from the frequiMit fogs und tempeHtuoiiN weutlior, the uncertain
eurrcntH, and abrupt nature of its coast, &'c. : but on this island are now two light-
houses, one near its northern, and the other near its southern extremity; of which,
one will always be open, unless to a voiwel near the central rocks. The northern
light, brilliant and fixed, is about 130 feet above the level of the sea ) it can be
seen to the southward on any bearing excepting between N. bv E. ond E. by N., when
it Ih oWurod by the hillH to the southward of it. The Houtnem light may be soni

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

navigation in tho
ance and eastern
metimes beset for
r often Buffer firom
thui that which
uring the open or
er ; they t»T»' rare,
fail to accompany
I, however, suoject
een the South and
frequently accom-
he South and East
.N.E. winds above
winds in the gulf;
nd have, therefore,
laiderable streneth
ite and partial fine
r locality. In the
ril and May, with
rametimes occur at

he atmosphere, and
rhey, however, are
md which are often
lequently admit the
UUe or U'or?, in the

ch have been found
thor, the uncertain
are now two lij^ht-
trcmity; of which,
ks. The northern
the sea > it con be
jnd E. by N., when
liKht nuiy bt' hc(ii

from the nortiiward on any beating except between S.^.B. atid Went, when it is
obscured by the hills to the northwurd of it. Ran^ of light from each tower, six
leagues. Boats to render assistance, and guns for signals.

3. The Magdalen l!3LANDS.^-These islands have been surveyed bv ZieutenatU
P. E. ColUtu, in 1833, and a beautiful chart of them has been published by the
Admiralty. They form an irreg^ar group, and are named respectively^ Entry Island,
Amhertt, Orindatone, Alright, Wolfe, Oroaae, and Cojtn lalanat ; ezclusive of Bryon
or Cron Itland, and the Bird Islets, which lie more to the North. Of these, Amhertt
is the most southern and principal island, but Entry Island is the highest, and is
560 feet above the sea ; visible from 8 to 9 leagues off.

It often happens, ftom. the prevalence of westerly gales, in the &U of the year,
that ships bound to Quebec, after entering the gul^ have been driven out again, or
they have contended until their crews were worn out, and have gone to the low ports
for carpfoes, when, by taking an anchorage, they would have secured their passage.
These islands may be approached, generally, by the lead, to 7 fathoms of water.

Bryon or Cross Island.— The North side has steep cliflPs of red sandstone, f^m
j which reefs extend 2 or 3 miles. Approach no nearer than in 8 fathoms. On 'Jtho
South side there is good shelter, with North and West winds, in 6 fathoms, sa^y
I bottom, the East end of the island bearing E. by S., and the reef to the westwaM
I beaiing West. In this road is a strong underset, which makes a ship at her anchors,
I roll heavily.

These islands are ftilly described in the British American Navigator, pp. 87 — 89.

4. Anticosti. — ^This island, with one exception, has no bay or harbour capable
of affording shelter to shipping in ^neral : it is uncultivated ; yet, rude ana un-

I hospitable as its aspect may he, it is not absolutely unprovided with the means of
I succouring the distress of such as suffer shipwreck on its coasts, there being govem-
Iment agents who reside upon it, (and, with the lighthouse keepers, are uie sole
linhabittuits,) at different stations, all the year, furnished with provisionb for the use
■of those who have the misfortune to need them. Boards are placed in difierent parts,
Idescribing the distance and direction to these friendly spots ; these establishments were
{first made in the year 1809.

" One of these provision posts is at two leagues to the S.E. from the West end of
Ithe island, in Ellis s Cove or Grand Bay i the second at the lighthouse at the S.W.
■point ; the ^ird at Shallop Creek, otherwise called Jupiter River ; and the fourth at '
■the eastern lighthouse on Heath Point."

The South shore of the island is dangerous t but, to modify its character, four bca-
onshave been erected — 1. With a BmalT triangidar head, 40 feet high, on the South
point. 2. At PaviUon River, large triangle, with cross over. 3. Six miles East of
^alt Lake Bay, large triangular head. 4. On Cape St. Mary, with a cross (18dl).

5. LABRADOR. — The Descriptions and Directions by Captain Bayfield, of
jthis hitherto but little-known region, are given in the " British American Nangator,"
p. 91, &c.

6. — QUEBEC. — In the early editions of this work, the longitude of Quebec was
&ted to be 71° 10', " according to the observations of M. le Marquis de Lotbinidrc,
. B(dard, Director of the Seminarv of St. Louis, and Captain Holland, M. Mechain
tomputcd tho longitude to be 71° 10', bv several eclipses of Jupiter's first satellite,
pbHorvcd by Messrs. Lotbini^rc and Holland; and the passasre of Venus that Captain
Holland observed in 1760. All the observations, made at different times, have given
pery coherent results." — Vide American IVans., vol. i., &c.

The almvo passage, from " Analysis of a General Chart," &o., Paris, 1786, showi
nc position in which Quebec was laid down in the Charts j and it agreed with that
Hvcn in tho " Connaissance des Tcnis." But Quobec was afterwards exhluiteu con-
nucrabiy more to the castword. Mr. Wright, in his chart of 1807, made it 70" 27'.
Tho Hpquisitc Tables, of 1802, gave latitude 40-48' 38 , longitude 71' fi' 22'. Colonel
1)ouclH<tU<, in his work on Canada, 1810, gives 46" 48 49 N:, and 7r 1 1' W. In th«

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

yean 1819, 1820, and 1821, the officers of H.M.S. Neweaath, provided with tow
chronometers, made many observations in the river; and these observations may be
judged of by the longitude they placed Quebec in for three successive years, assuming
HiSfex as in 63» 33' 40" j July 16th, 1819, 71" 12' 48' j June 19th, 1820, 71" 13' 14" ,
July 5th, 1821, 71" 12' 25'. The greatest difference is 49^', and the mean of the Tvhole
is 1 farther West than longitude given in 1819.

From these and other observations combined, the late Mr. Purdy placed Ctuebeo
in longitude 71' IS', in the charts, &c., which he constructed, as they still remain.

When the eharts of Captain H.W. Bayfield were published' in 1837, they were
baaed upon a longitude of 71° 16' W. for Quebec. 11118 has been shown to be in
error nearly 8| minutes of are, by electric telegraphic signals transmitted between
Quebec and Cambridge Observatory, in Massachusetts, by Lieut. E. D. Ashe, R.N.,
in September and October 1867. '

The position of Cambridge, as will be seen in the Note on that longitude on a
■ubsequent page, is definitely settled as 71" 7' 58"'55, and the mean difference between
that observatory and the Observatory in Mann's Bar^tion in the Citadel of Quebec,
as determined by Lieutenant Ashe, is 0' 4' 34''-17, which places Quebec in 71" 12' 32 "•72.

7. MoNTHEAL. — ^The longitude of Gate Island, opposite the Cathedral, and the
Hotel Dieu, is given by Captain Bayfield in 73° 34' 38'" (erroneously on Admiralty
Charts, as 68" 54' 88").

Lieutenant Ashe, R.N., as stated above, in continuation of his work on electric
time-signals, obtained the difference of longiitude between Quebec and Viger Square,
630 feet west of Gate Island, on March 12tb, 1857, as 2" 20' 45"-5, which makes it in
longitude 73" 33' 18 ''12, as shewn in the Table.

8. Charlottetown and PnljIrcE Edward's Island. — ^The position of the flas-
staff in the Fort of Charlottetovm, has recently been given by Rear- Admiral Bayfield
as 46" 13' 55', Ion. 63° 7' 23" W. It had been before placed 3' more to the West, but
the exact difference of longitude between this point and Quebec, has lately been de-
termined by the electric telegraph, as 8" 5' 26"

VABUTIONS OF THE COMPASS.— 1861.

There is no part of tho world where the secular change in the magnetic variation
is prooeedmg at a greater rate than in the vicinity of Labrador, and the N.E. portion
of Newfoun ilond. This fact is very important in connexion with the fine surveys
which have been made at periods of from 30 years since to the present time, inasmuch
as the variations given at their completion, will vary from one-third to half a point
from what it is at the present period.

At St. :. aul's Island, it is about 26° &0' W. ; at the Magdalen Islands, 25" 16' W.i
East point A Antioosti, 2r 12' (in 1862) j at the West Point, 27° 0' W. i at Wapita-
gun Harbcrir, in Labrador, 32' 17' (in 1850) i at Kegash^ca Bay, 31° 0' ; at the Bay
of Seven Islands, 25° W. i lk: Point do M.ont8, 24° 0' W.

Jtiver St. Lawrence. — At the entrance of the Saguenay River, 19" 0' W. ; at Qve- 1
bee, 1 -' 22' W. I at Montreal, 1 0° 0' W.

At Cliarlottetowii, Prince Fd card Island, 22" 50' W. { Miscou Island, entrance of I
Ciialour Bay, 23° 10' W. : at cjydney Harbour, Capo Breton Island, 24° 18' W.)f
Louisbourg Harbour, 24° 21' W. ; at Oabarus Bay, 23" 40' W.

These variations aro now increating at the rate of 6' or 6' per annum.

Mr, Bain, u: his " Ba»ay on the Variation of the compaaa," noticed a frequent and j
remarkable aberration wmch has been found on appi*oachinp the vicinity of Can
Chatte. Ho says, " In the Kivet of St. Lawrence, the -hangc m tho variation should |
ho moat pfirticulnrly attended to, as it leads a ship, both in going up and comi ig down,
on the coast most to be avoided." Mr. B. has shewn that, in coming down, in May,
181 3; he found it ncco««ftry to ntccr a different course from tho oppoBite one followNJ
in going up, uiulcr very similar circumstanced, a few days before.* ~ Tho difference ex-
oecded a point. Both in going up and down, there was a breeso of 8 and 9 knoti,|
weather uncommonly fine, ana every circumstance extremely favourable for remark). |

POSITIONS OP PLACP*^.

Sulwequent to the above period, thcj Seahu$, shipof war, had a yeiy narrow escape
in going up the river, the compaeses in the binnacle, being bo much aflboted bj lo<»l
attractions, tiiat, had the fog uot cleared away at the moment it did, the ship mnst
have run on shore, not iax from Cap«. Chatte, she -being in 12 fiEithoms. But in a sub-
sequent part of this work, will be found some remarlu which demonstrate that this
aberration only occors when the vessel is close in diore.

37, they were
liown to be in
itted between
I. Ashe, B.N.,

longitude on a
irence between
lei of Quebec,
.7ri2'a2"-72.

edrol, and the
on Admiralty

ork on electric

Viger Square,

Loh makes it in

tion of the flag-
dmiral Bayfield
) the West, but
lately been de-

gnetic variation

he N.E. portion

the fine surveys

dme, inasmuch

to hiedf a point

0' W. I at Qufr

and, entrance of

nd, 24'18' W.i

14. NOVA SCOTIA, ETC.— (Southeen Coasts.)

SABLE ISLAND : [I]

West Flagstaff

West extreme of Grassy

Sand Hills

East Extreme

The MAINLAND : [2]
Cranberry Is. ; Lightho.

Canso Harbour 5 Cutler Is-
land, S.E. Extreme ....

; Steeple of Church

I White Head island ; Light.

White Haven; Observation

station in Marshall Cove

I Borry Head; Extreme . .

Mew Harbour Head ; Nob

1 Harbour Island ; N.E. Pt.

I Isaac Harbour ; Red Head,

I summit

Country Harbour ; Station
opposite Window Point

I HoUms Head ; summit . .

j Wedge Island ; Beacon . .

St. Mary River ; above
Epiicopal Church

Liscomb Harbour; Spanish

\ ship Point

Mary Joseph Harbour ;

I Lobster Point extreme . .

Beaver Island ; Lighthouse

Sabnon Riv. ; W. of wharf

I Sheet Harboiir ; \ mile
N.W.flfomWaterinpCove

[Taylor Head : summit. . . .

I Pope Harbour; Harbour
Island, N.E. Extreme . .

|Ship Harbour; Islet near
Salmon Point

^w Tglond; Centre

I Jedore Harbour; Marsh Pt.

I Jodore Reck ; Centre

I Jedore Head ; Point

3raham Head ; summit . .

Jevii Island; Lighthouse

lalifax Harbour; Lisht-

hooae, Maugher Beaoi . .

LAT. N.

43 26 24

4*^ 66 44

43 68 57

45 19 45

45 20 42
45 20 10
45 11 58

45 14 37
45 11 87
45 7
45 8 25

45 9 39

45 14 41
45 4 19
45 36

45 6 12

45 28

44 57 62
44 49 33
44 54 32

44 54 11
44 47 24

44 47 50

LOW. W.

A 46 59
44 39 55
44 43 19
44 39 40
44 40 22
44 'X7 44
44 34 48

44 36 6

60 8 15

60 8
59 V.

56
58

AUTHOBITIBS.

60 55 64

60 59

61 59
61 8

61 11
61 18
61 28
61 36

27
25
27

43
68
21
43

61 88 62

61 47
61 44
61 22

61 58

62 1

62 4
62 20
62 23

62 30
62 33

6
57
47

38
33

37
8

9*^ 39 10

62 49

62 62

63
33
63 3
63 17
63 27

18
9
30
67
14
on

61
03 32 18

The Surveys by Admiral H.W.
Bayfield, anaCommanders Short-
hand and Orlebar, R.N., 1827-60.

■•-V ,-tr*f e*,"j;;

I ,' » '.- \.

*i\i,

I POblTIOKd Cl< PLAGES.

1SQV4 SCOTIA, &C.- OOMTMf UBD.

Orahams Head ; sonumt. .
LaurencetoaHead; suniinit
HALIFAX ; Dockyard Ob-

Bervatory [3]

Holdemeas Island, on the

S.W. Bide of Marirarot's

Bay

Green Island ; off Mahonc

Bay

Croflsisland; ol 'T.upenbnrf;

Harbour ; L.^;^itkon8e . .
Cape Le Have ; Irorbouiid

Island; Li^hi^i/nse

Medway Hr..fl ; ao jiiraltj

Head, Lights i?3e

Coffin's Island Lightiiouso,

near Liverpool Ilarbcur
Moutou or Matoon Inland
Shclbume or Cape lit tse ^:s.y

Lighthouxo on Madiait

Island ....

Baccaro Point; Light on i

East side of Port Latom-

Brasil Rock

Sv>i.'! Island i Lighth(jU';r j

hto!f mill' from S. poiu*
Cape '''ourcliu, near Yar-

mox.lh ; Li«,-hthouBe ....
Bi-yei'sb'.irdj Liplithouse
Point Prim ; Lii^htlio. (En-
trance of An '.^[ioUb Basin)
BlackRockPo). ; Lightho.
Horton Bluil'; li-jhtliouse
Partridge Island Liffht, in

the Mines Channel ....

iJk.T. N.

44 aV 44
44 38 34

44 39 38

44 34 20

44 27
44 20
44 15 40

i'i ^?

LOW. W.

AlTTHORrmS.

Capo Chfj^Aecto

•OfEW BRUNSWICK.

/ Cape EnragS; if iigh< house

I Quako Head] Lighthouse

I Partridge Island ; Lightho.

I City of St. John

\ Point Leprciu; Lighthouse

i>7 b

37 31

•13 26 54
43 24 15

43 23 34

43 47 30

44 14 57

44 40 50

45 10 48
45 6 15

43
45

23
22

45 36
45 19 36
45 14 2
45 15 30
45 3 uO

63 17 23
63 2i 35

63 35 S5

63 58 48

64 18

64 7

>yl 17 2

bt 34 32

'^i 36 :>i!
m 43 aa

65 )7 2

65 29 11

65 23 48

66 1 50

66 10 18
66^3 2

65 ;.7 49
64 48 30
64 2 30

64 8 30
64 51 18

64 47 to

65 22 34

66 4
66 4 18
66 27 33

The surveys by Admiral .Bot
field 1853.

Thenarviiv made nyMr. Jospph
F. W. 3)tt Barres,"ir;j, with
rubsequcut 'vmendations.

V*.;.

■1!

The surveys by Cot/ mander
Shortland, R.N., Admii-ai Bay-
field &c.

i-f'^r., .ti -_■)•:■ ■•■: ■

Licuts. Harding and Kort-
Wright, R.N.

NOTES.

H.n/i<^

1. S.\BLE Island. — On this islanc'^ '\cre is an establiHhmcnt f ■^ *iu \.l of
ahip-wrceked mariners. — Nova Scotia J . The establishment was fov> v.:' >' 1803,
by the Provincial Legislature ot Nc'\. - otia, at the rccommcndat> .?.• oi 't)j late
Sir John Wentworth, then Lieutenant-Uovemor ) and has since proved iV, v&eans of
savinir many lives. To the annual grant is now added an equal sum fri-vv :. : 'impe-
rial Oovernmont. "

The house occupied by the superintendent stands on the North sidr

POSITIONS OV PLACES.

by Admiral Bay

[arding and Kort-

ftithoma from the West end of fhe Oraarjr Sand Hills, ir 1803. N6av.it is the W«tt
Flamtaff i the E<ut Flagstaff is 2,280 fkthoms from the •forth-east end of the Orassy
Sand Rills, and the middle Flagstaff is on the South ide ef the Island, llbere are
residents at each flagstaff to afford assistance. There ^ire several fr<38h-water ponds,
,'i.s nhowu on the jparticular chart ; but, wherever the surface is moist, fresh water
Dift f be '('A/';ained by digging fit>m 1- to 3 fecit deep.

TJte 'ih':)r^h established, and used to communicate with the island, by any vessel
visitink o: -x^saing, are explained in the Colombian Navigator, 1832, vol. i. pi xviii.
?' mvg n^ a^n>be island is red, white, and blue, horizontally. A gan find, par-
acuiar}^ ''\ Juaiy weather, will draw the attention of the inhabitants, .

2. NOVA SCOTIA.— The coasts of Nova Scotia have been heretofore laid down
fix)m the surveys of Mr. Des Barres, with emendations by Mr. A. Lockwood, R.N.,
and various corrections in position by Admiral Owen and others. Since the oomple-
finr. of the «v rvey of the Canadian coasts, our Admiralty Surveyors, Admirals Bayfield
and J. W. Owen, with Captains Shortland and Orlebar, have been proceeding with
the k^-i>xainination of the S.E. shores of Nova Scotia, and those of part of the Bay of

vmdy, the results of which, as fiir West as Halifax, as shewn in the table.

-We have noticed, in a former work, that the bulk and price of the diowy work

of M. Des Barres, never suffered it to come into general use ; and, oonsemiently, the

new names which he assigned to different points and places have remainea generally

unknown. Mr. Lockwood says, — " The original names of the places are restored, by

which only they are known to the inhabitants and fishermen. M. Des Barres, xc

aLtaching to them the names of noblemen, and men of power, has made his charts of

I less value ; and, in one or two instances, has created serious blunders. Inquire of the

people of Jedore for Port Egmont, or those of Sheet Harbour for Port North, they

know them not ; nor would they ever be induced to adopt them. Jestico, a harsht

unpleasant, and unmeaning name, is preferred to Port Hood, although the latter is

[more pleasing to the ear, and pronounced and recollected with ease : all attemptb to

I change the rude Indian names for others of a finer texture have fiuled ; even New

jjenisalem and Acadia have expii-ed. " This complaint was also repeated by French

I authors. In till ii^tlflmnmBjTiowever, the name Port Howe is made to supersede

I Raspberry Harbour.

3. Halifax. — ^In foimer editions of this work the following appears : — " The
Iktitude of the Naval Yard of Halifax, " "
lofficcrs of H.M.S. Niemen, in 1822,\va8 '
laltitudes with the artificial horizon,

noon at small intervals ; the mean true altitudes being computed from the hour

tngles. The longitude, 63" 33' 43 ", wus olxalned as the mean ref^ult of more than 30

^%t8 of lunar distances. We formerly gave the longitude of M. pes Barres, &c., as

f33° 32' 40', and therefore presume that a stateiiient of 63" 37' 48", which has lately

api)eared, is 4' too far West."

Cuytnm Bayfield, as above stated, assumed the longitude of the Dockyard, in his
kurvey to be 63° 37' 48 '. The late Admiral W. F. Owen, in H.M.S. ship " Columbia,"
^n 1844, made it 63' 35' 28 " W. The late respectrrl Lieut. Eaper, takes it as a second-
lirj- meridian as 63" 37' 26", or, as Captain Baytifc^<L

Recent observations shew th'i 'J. . L-t > 3asTe.>' longit'ido i»» as near the truth, acci
[Icntally perhaps, as that ren* ' .lig from the rt '. t-^d operations of Admiral Bayfield,
imeau between thu two r '"uons being that wli'ch must now be adopted.

In the determination of Uiis, and of other longitudes, the 7 icotrio Te^cgrapn ^as
lecided the question beyond controversy.

The difference '>f longitude between Cambridge Observatory, Massachusetts, and

Btof Halifax ■ \>okyara, has oee?' determined, electrically, by Professor Bond, and

to be 0'' 30™ 9" in time, or 7=" 32 23 "-45 in ti. . This meriil-

as shewn iu the
lote, or 7 ' ' 7' 58 '" 66 \ moke-? Halifax Dockyard Observatorv to \hi in 63" 85 36'* W.

paptain Shortland, R.l'j

i! diuerence applied to the dctemtined longitude of Cambridge,
B, or 7 ' " 7' 58 66", make-? Halifax Dockyard Observatory to \ki i

Oi"eenwich.

•-^xX'

\f.

;.'C

""^c^..H-

C*--'

jl.A-ww

POSITIONS OF PLACES

i. ScAli IsiiAifD. — ''M. Dm Banes places tho southernmost point of the soathem
Seal Isle in lat. 43' 25' 25% and Ion. 66° 0' 35 ". Later charts have itin lat. 43° 26' 35" ;
but our correspondent, Lieut. Hare, gave the latitude of tJie South point 43° 22' 23",
tit four tmlet mor« to the totUhward. This result, since confirmed, will account for so
many ships having been je»xlj cast away, on coming out of the Bay of Fundy. A
Tery strong in-draught, ooth on the ebb and flood, sets toward the isles, and m the
viomity, equal to 4 V^ots an hour, and they should ttot be approached without a com-
numdii^ IrMxe"

VAHUTIONS OF THE COMPASS— 1861.

At Sable Island, 21° 40' W. ; at Cape Canso, 22° 30' W. 5 at Coi
' 40' W. ; at Indian Bay, 20° 35' 5 Mane et Joseph Bay, 20" 40' W. ; at "Sheet Har-

30' W. 5 at Country Harbour'
21° 40' W. ; at Indian Bay, 20° 35' ; Marie et Joseph Bay, 20" 40' W. ; at Sheet Har-
bour, 20° 15' W, J at Jedore Head, 20° 10' W. } at Halifax, 19° 36' W. ; at Liverpool
Bay, 18° 0' W. j Cape Boseway, 17° 0' W. j Cape Sable, 16° 6' W. ; Basin of Mines,
aC^C W. ; St. John's, New Brunswick, 18° 6' W. ; Great Manan Island, 17° 0' W.

15. THE UNITED STATES.

/^ Maine.

I Fassamaquoddy Bay; Light

y on Quoddy Heaa

\Little Blver ; Light at ent.
Machias Seal Islands ;

Lightho. on E.one(Brit.)
Machias Bay } Light on

libby Island /

Moose a-bec or Moose peak ;

Mistake Island Li«it . .
Petit Manan) Lighuiouse

on S. end

Mount Desert Island;

Station at S.E. end

Mount Desert Bock; Light.
Isle auHaut ; Light on sad-
dle Back Islet

Matinicus Rock ; Lightho.
Penobscot Bat; PUigged

Mountain on W. side . .

{Owls Head Lightho.

Manheganlsland; Li^tho.
Gape Small ; Station 5

miles North of Cape . .
Portland Head; Lightho.
Cape Elizabeth ; E. Light
Fletcher's Neck; Light

on Wood Island

Cape Porpoise Harbour ;

Light on Goat Island . .
Cape Neddook ; Station . .
York Harbour; Light on

Boon Island

New Ham?8HIKE=
Ag^menticus Hill ; station

on summit

LAT. V.

44 49
44 39 22

44 30

44 30 4

44 28 62

44 22

43 69 30

41 1 47

43 61 16

44 12 44
44 6 10
43 46 16

43 46 42
43 27 22
43 36 66

43 27 23

43 20
43 10 1

43 7 15
43 13 23

LON. W.

AVTHOBITIEfl.

66 57

67 10 35

67- 5 30
67 21 12
67 31 43

67 52

68 4 41

68 3 49

68 47 58

69 9 12
69 69
69 18 26

69 60 64

70 12 38
70 12 10

70 19 54

70 28 14
70 36 7

70 28 44
70 41 41

The surveys by S. Holland,
Esq., with subsequent correc-
tions.

The Trianoulation modr
for the United States' Coast
Survey, imder the superinten-
donce of Professor A. D. Bachb.

*»* The Stations of tho pri-
mary triangulation aro distin-'
guished by small capitals.

"iife^'ifffiS^*/-

POSITIONS OF PLACES

THE UNITED STATES— Coktotobd.

S. Holland,
uent correc-

LAT. K.

Portsmouth Har. ; Whales

Back Light

Isles of Shoals ; Station
near Ho^ Island harbour

; White Is. Lightho.

Massachusetts.
Newbury Port ; East Light

on Plum Island

Cape Ann ; N, Light on

Thatcher Island

) Light on E. point - .

Baker's Island ; Lignthouse
Marblehead ; Light at Ent.

Nahant ; Hotel

BOSTON} State House[l]

< ; Cunard Wharf j

Flagstaff

CAMBRIDGE Observa-
tory Dome [2]

Boston Bay; Light on Lit-
tle Brewster Island ....

jMinot's Ledge ; Light

Scituate ; UnitarianChurch
Plymouth Harbour; Pier

Head

Sandwich ; Church Spi):« . .
Barnstaple; Beach Point

Light

Billinsgate Point Lightho.

Cape Cod; Provincetown,

Orthodox Church Spire

:Race Point; Light.

; Highlands Lightho.

; Nausett centime Light

Monomoy Island ; Light

at S. end

Nantucke"" Island; Cltff

W. of Harbour

• ; S. towered Church

; Light on Great or

N.E. Point ..

• ; Sankaty Head Light

; Tuckanuck ; Tele-
graph atW. end

Davis South shoal, Light-
vessel, about

Muskeget Island ; N.E. pt.
Martha's Vineyard; Cape

Poge Lighthouse

— ; Edgartown ; Spire

■ ; Hounes' Hole ; spire

— jWestChov, North

point Light

— — i Inbiaj? Hill on
N.W. side

LON .W.

43 3 30

42 59 13
42 59

42 48 25

42 38 19
42 34 47
42 32 10
42 30 18
42 25 7
42 21 28

42 21 48

42 22 51

42 19 39
42 16 9
42 11 59

41 58 44
41 45 26

41 43 19

41 61 37

42 3^ 2
42 3 42
42 2 21
41 51 36

41 33 33

41 17 33
41 16 54

41 23 22
41 16 15

41 18 12

40 56 30

41 20 12

41 2.: ;

41 2"
41 27 -3

41 2S 55

41 %- H
41 20 /4

AUTHOKITAS.

70 42 3

70 37 4
70 37 39

70 49 15

70 34 39
70 40 28
70 47 25
70 61 5

70 64 34

71 4 6

71 2 40

71 7 58

70 63 40
70 45 48
70 46 36

70 39 27
70 30 14

70 17 7
70 4 34

70 11 31
70 14 51
70 3 63

69 67 18

69 69 53

70 7 7
70 6 1!

70 2 69

69 68 10

70 15 13

69 52

70 18 13

70 27 20
70 31 20
70 36 34

70 36 26

70 40 56
■70 80 23
K

The Great Triangulation
made fur the United States'
Coast Survey, under the su-
perintendance of Professo^A.D.
Bache.

i_k I ti?f;>*T/

*»* For the puiposos of the
Survey, the coast of the United
States is divided into eleven sec-
tions, (nine of which are on the
Atlantic Coast) in p2\ of which the
work is carried on simultaneously,
the Survey being in different stages
of progress in the several sections.
Those several sections are defined
as follows: — Poction I. From Pas-
samaquoddy Bay to Point Judith.
Section II. From Point Judith to
Cape Henlopen. Section m.
From Cape Henlopen tc Cape
Henry. Section iV. From Cape
Henry to Cape Fear. Section V.
From Cape Fear to the St. Mary's
River. Section VI. iVom the
St. Mary's River to St. Joseph's
Bay. Section VII. From St Jo-
seph's Bay to Mobile Bay. Section
VIII. From Mobile Bay to Ver-
milion Bay. Section IX. From
Vermilion Bay to the Rio Qrando.
Section X. Coast of CaUfbmia,
San Diego Bay, to 42nd panllel.
Section XI. Coast of Oregon, 4'2nd
to 49th paiullel. The Tables
give the latitudes and lon^j^tudes
of ^no trigonometrical points in
each section. The manner in

i^hich thesa data have been obtain-
ed may bo briefly explained here.

•i

Ml'"-J^4L

POSITIONS OF PLACES
THE UNITED STATES— Continubd.

No Man's Land; Station
on centre

Cuttyhunk; Light on S.W.
Point

Nashon Island ; station . .

Nobska LigLthonse

Mattapoiset ; Lt. on Ned's
Point

New Bedford ; Fort

Secoimet Point , East Bock
Rhode Island.

Newport ; Spiie

5 Beaver Tail Light

Quaker Hill, near N. f^v^

Bristol ; Court House . . .

Providence ; Unitarian Cii.

Point Juditii; Lighthoti>:e

Block Id. ; Lighten N. point

; BeaconHill at 3. end

Watch Hill ; Lighthouse . .
Connecticut and New

YOEK.
Long Island Sound

MontaukPoint; Lightho.

Plum Id. Lighthouse . .

New London; Presbyte-
rian Church spire. . . .

ConnecticutRiver, Light
on Savbrook Point . .

Falknei's IsIandLightho.

Newhaven ; EpiscopaiCh.

• ; Light <m Five

MiU Point.

Stratford Point; Light.

Throg's Neck ; Lightho.

Lands Point Lighthouse

Eaton's Point ; Lightho.

Old Field Pt., Lightho.

Horton's Point Lightho.
Long Island, South side ;

Smnneooik Bay N. point
Fire Island ; Lignthouse . .
NEW YORK, City Hall
;Navy Yard Flag-

■taff [3]

New Jersey
S«ndy Hook; Lighthouse
Highlands of Nave^ink ;

Lighthouse

B<irnegat Inlet y JLightho. .
Little Egg Har.; Boarding

House at North end of

Tucker Island

Absecum Inlet ; Light on

South side

Cape May ; New Lightho.

LAT. H.

41 15 9

LOM. W.

TO a:

41 24 :.^ ,

70 :; ii>

41 29 23

70 44 48

41 30 oJ

70 39 36

41 39 1

70 48 1

41 37 25

70 54 25

11 27 2

71 11 63

41 29 12

71 19 6

41 26 54

71 24 15

41 34 55

71 15 31

41 40 10

71 16 46

41 29 26

71 24 35

41 21 28

71 29 10

41 13 27

71 34 48

41 10 30

71 36 27

41 18 12

71 61 48

1
41 4 13

71 61 42

41 10 24

72 12 58

41 21 16

72 6 5

41 16 15

70 20 52

41 12 41

72 39 30

41 18 11

72 65 49

41 14 54

72 54 5^

41 & 5

73 6 29

40 48 17

73 47 36

40 51 55

TS 44 :

40 67 12

.3 23 51

40 58 34

73 7 24

41 6

72 26 51

40 51

7i: 30 36

40 37 53

73 12 61

40 42 43

74 39

40 42 2

73 69 6

40 27 39

74 24

40 23 42

73 59 25

39 45 49

74 6 41

39 30 48

ay 22 U
38 66 60

AVTHOIUTIES.

74 18 12

74 25 36
74 67 61

The Great Trianoulation

lie for the United Sates'

OoAST Survey, under the su-

e^rintendance of Professor A.D.
ACHE.

■>^-n

In each section a base Ime of
^m five to ten miles in length is
measured with all possible accu-
racy. A series of triangles, deri-
ving the length of their sides from
this base, is then establiahed along
the coast, by the measnreiuent
of the angles between the intervis-
ible stations. In this primary
series the triangles are made as
large as the natiuw of the country
will permit, because the liability
to errorincreases with the numbw
of triangles.

On the bases furnished by the
sides of the primary triangles, a
secondary tnangulation is next
e'-tablished extending along the
cop.st, and over the smaller bays
and ^ unds, and determining a
largi umber of ])oints at distan-
ces ol t few miles tipart.

The distances between the points
thus determined, us given m the
Tables, are liable t r .in average
error r about one foot in six miles,
until a final a<]ju8tment betwpfln
the base Va«8 shall have oeen
tiiade.

\^s, on the completion of the pri-
y triingulat^on in each section,
;ev al series form one con-
u'cted lain, the diffei-ent baaei
iiiford verifications of each other,
and of the triangulation connect-
ing them. The first three sections I
are thus connected at present.

Little

POSITIONS OF PLAGB8.

THE UNITED STATES— Conti. an.

IBS.

lANQULATlON

riTED Sates'
mder the bu-
*rofe88or A.D.

a. a base line of
ilea in length is
U possible accu-
P triangles, deri-
; their sides from
istablished along
le measuieiuent
reen the intervis-
[n this primary
'les are made as
:e of the country
.use the liability
with the numbor

himished by the
ary triangles, a
;uiation is next
iding along the
the smaller bays
, determining «
points at distan-

apart.
etweentbe points

as given m the
Le t f an average

fool insix nJlefi,
itment betwron
lall have oeen

pletionofthepri-
i in each section,
form one con-
1 diffei-ent bases
1 of each other,
_ation connect-
Bt three sectioM
I at present.

IiA"f N.

Delaware Bar and Biver ;

Egg Islana Lighthouse
Cohonsey Lighthouae ....
Fhilaoelphu; QirardCol-

lege

; Navy Yard ....

Delaware.
Wilmington ; Light at

Christiania River

Bombay Hook ; Lightho.

Cape Henlopen; High

Lighthouse

Indifua BiVer ; Salt

Works ...

ViBOINIA.

Assateague 7'i. ; Lightho.

at Southenu

Hog Island; Lighthouse at

South end

Cape Charles; Li^^^hthouse
Chesapeake Bay
Sandt Point; station

on E, side

Tangieb Island; sta-
tion on t;. "^ide

Sharp(;'sleiian< Lightho.
Baltunore ; Le retto . ,
WASHINGTU ; Cap-
itol Dome :

5 National Obs' •-< '^4]

Potomac Biver ; biiiiii''s

Point Light

Cape Henry; Lighthouse

NOBTH CaBOLINA.

Entrance to Pamlico Sound;

Body Island Light

Stevenson's Point; North

side Albemarle Soundfd]
Cape Hatteras ; high Light.

; Extremi^

Ocracoke Inlet ; Light on

West end of Island

Cape Lookout) Lighthouse

^{ Extremity

Beaufort Inlet; S. Light

near Fort Macon

Bogue Inlet ; Entr., about
Cape Fear Biver; Light on

Federal Point

Cap Fear ; Lighthouse on

Bald Head

— ; ■ ; South Extreme. .

Little River j Entrance

South Cabolina.
George Town; Light at

Entrance of Pedce River

LOW. w.

39 10 31
39 20 18

39 58 23
39 65 47

39 43 16
39 21 46

38 46 38

38 35 36

87 64 87

37 23 18

37 7 48

37 88 38

37 47 64

:j« ;;7 44
:5" 16 39

38 63 20
38 63 39

'7 63 14
56 29

36 47 21

36 6 18
36 15 11
85 14 50

35 6 31
34 37 20
34 31 60

31 41 43
34 38

33 68 4

33 62 18
33 49 66
33 41

33 13 31

75 8 37
75 21 45

75 10 30

76 8 50

75 81 32

76 30 65

75 5 19
75 8 60

75 21 40

75 42 12

75 52 48

76 66 64

75 69 32

76 22 31
76 35 14

AVTBOjosaa.

77
77

51
3 23

76 14 34
76 48

76 31 20

76 10 43
76 30 33
75 30 40

75 58 28

76 30 41
76 31 10

76 40 )

77 6

77 64 53

77 59 49

77 67 30

78 34 -W

79 6 44

Hie Great Triamoulatiov
made for the United States'
Coast Surybt, under the sa-

Sirintendenoe of Profeasopr A. D.
ACHE.

^ %^kh^

■«■#■<; a.ii-.

POSITIONS OF PLACB6.
THB UNITED STATES.—CtoNWHUBD.

Cape Bomain; light on
Raccoon Key

Ball's Bay) (Uefiige liar-
bonr) Light at N. end of
Bull's Island

Charleston ; Lighthouse on
Morrislsland, at W. Ent.

5 St. Michael's Ch.[5]

North Edisto Biver ; East
end of Base Une 1| miles
W. of Entrance

St. Helena Sound ( Light-
ship at Entrance

Savannah Biver ; Tybee
Lighthouse

Savannah; Exchange Spire

Sapclo Bar ; Blackbeard
Island, East Point .,. .

St. Simon's Sound ; Light-
house on N. side

St. Andrew's Sound ; Light
on Little Cumberland Id.
Florida.

St. Mary's Biver ; Light on
N. end of Amelia Island

Femandina; Railroadwharf

St. John's Biver ; Light-
house [6]

St. Augustine Inlet ; Light
on Anastasia Island. . . .

Cape Canaveral ; Light. . .

Jupiter Inlet ;' Lighthouse

Cape Florida ;', Lighthouse
on Biscayne^Key . .[7]

Florida Beefs f Lighthouse
near Coffin's Patches .

J Sand Key Lightho.

Key West J Lt. on S.W.pt.

5 Tifts Observatory

Marquesas } S.E. point . .

Dry Tortugas ; Lighthouse
on Bush Key

Cape Sable ; Fort Poinsett

Cape Bomano

Sauibel Island, East ....

Tampa Bay ; Egmont Key
Lighthouse

Anclote Keys ; Inlet ....

Cedar Keys ; Lighthouse on
Seahorac Key

St. Marks Harbour Light.

Dog Id. ; Lt. near W. end

Cii])e St. George ; Lightho. ■

Cape St. Bias; Lighthouse

Pcusacola Bay ; Lighthouse

LAT. M.

S3 1 4

32 55 42

32
S2

41 55
46 33

83 17
24 44

32
32

30
30

29
28
26

24
24
24
24
24

24
25
25
26

27
28

29
30
29
29
29
30

1 21
4 53

LOK.

o ' «

79 17 5

79 30 S3

79 52 29

79 55 38

60 13 20

80 21 31

80 50 33

81 5 14

AUTHOaiTUU.

30 10

81 16

3 46

81 32 29

6i 32

81 32 25

39 26

40 17

81 30 54
81 27 42

21 42

81 27 30

50 48
27
55 26

81 19 11
80 33
80 5 5

80 3

37 46
26 30

32 32

33 31
32 54

81 6 43
81 51 12
81 49 20

81 47

82 5 32

37 20

27 30

82 53 40
81 9

81 57

82 10

36
17

82 45 45
82 54

6 45

4 24

36 10

41 41

83 4 50

84 10 37

84 34 42
, 84 58 38

85 24 -34

87 17 24

The Great Tbianovlation
made for the United States'
Coast Survey, under the su-

Sirintendence of Professor A.D.
AOHE.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
THE UNITED STATES^^-CoirnKDaD.

Alabama.

Mobile Point} Fort Mor-
gan [81

Dauphin Island; Westena
Station of base

Mobile ; Episcopal Spire. .

Horn Island ; East Point . .

Mississippi & Louisiana.

Ship Island { Lighthouse
on W. point

Chandeleur Island; Light-
house on North Point . .

Entrance of the Mississippi ;
PassiLoutre Lighthouse

; S.W.PassLightho.

New Obleans ; City
of [9]

TimbaUier Bay t Light-
house on W. side of Ent.

AtchafiEilaya Bay; Point au
Per

Sabine Biver ; Lightho. on

Brant Point ,

Texas.

Galveston Bay; Lighthouse
on Bolivar Point ......

Galveston ; Court House. .

: Matagorda Island; Light-
house on E. Point

I Aransas Pass ; Lightho. on
North side

I Brazos Santiago ; Lightho.
on Isabel Point

■LhX. H.

LOW. tr.

30 13 48

88 25

30 14 27
30 41 26
30 13 21

88 13 53
88 1 29
88 30 58

30 12 55

88 57 1

30 8 22

88 51 49

29 6 36
28 58 38

89 1 30
89 21

29 57 30

90 2 18

29 4

90 16 80

29 19 30

91 S3

29 43 55

93 50 19

29 22 35
29 18 14

94 45 40
94 46 33

28 20 58

96 23 57

27 23 53

96 56 30

26 4 52

97 11 4

AinuoBrruB.

The Great Tbiangulation
made for the United States'
Coast Subvet, under the su-

E3rintendance of Professor A.D.
ACHE.

NOTES.

GENERAL NOTE.— In the year 1807, the United States' Legislature determined
lupon the survey of the coast. Tms was not properly commenced until 1817, when
iBome base lines were measured, and triangles taken. In 1832 the operations were
iresumed, under its original superintendent, Mr. F. R. Haaaler.

In 1842, a plan was drawn up by Congress for its further organization, imder
vhich it has smce continued under the able superintendance of Professor A. D,
lache. In the conduction of this extensive survey, every refinement and appliance
9 ensure accuracy is employed, and many new and importjEint discoveries in geodetic
science have been made.

The latitudes and longitudes of the points between Mount Desert Island, in Maine,
iind the Chesapeake, are connected together in the triangulation. South of this, the
burvey has only been carried on in detached portions, as stated in the respective notes,

nd their points given are dependent on the accuracy of the position of the primary

tation in each section. .

As shown in the Note on page (53 the whole of the coasts of the United States, is
ivided into eleven sections, of A^Iiich two are composed of the Pacific Coasts, and the

70 POSITIONS OP PLACES.

geograpUo oonnezioii between AmeruA and the rest of the world, is mainly depend-
ant on the ■poeiifan. of the Obaervatory of Cambridge near Boston.

The positions given are taken from a list of nearly 4,000 points, established in the
ooiirse of the survey, as published in 1851-3, with a slight subsequent correction.
But each place may now be taken by the mariner as absolutely accurate, as the amount
of probable error is so small, as to be totally beyond his means of detecting. There-
fore each lighthouse, cape, &c., will equally well serve to correct his reckoning, or
ra^e his chronometer, as the primary observatory.

1. BOSTON. — ^Dr. Bowditch, from six astronomic observations, viz., two transits
and four tolar eclipses, made the longitude of Boston as 4i> 44' 16" .6 ; and it was the
opinion of Dr. Bowditch that this longitude was more accurately ascertained than
tnat of any other place in the United States. The State of Massachusetts was surveyed
trigonometrically, by Simeon Borden, and Robert Treat Payne^ Esqrs., and the survey
was based on the pobitiou of Boston State House. " From observations in 1829 and
1830," says Mr. Borden, " I made the longitude of the Stats House, as 4'' 44' 14 .6' j
and by the great solar eclipse, May Idth, 1836, 4>' 44' 19".6 : mean of the whole, 71°
4' 13".5, or only/8" more than in the Table. The latitude deduced an 42° 21' 22".7,
was from 636 observations.

2. Cambridoz Obsebvatout. — ^The longitude of the' Observatory of Cambridge
near Boston, is the primary meridian of the greater portion of N.W. America, inas-
much as the longitudes of most other places have been referred to it by trianfilation,
or by electric signal. Its relation to Greenwich has also employed years of assiduom
7ibour and consummate skill, and may now be considered as entirely estabUshed,
within probably an insignificant amount of error.

Prior to the year 1849, the astronomic observations systematically carried on
there had resulted in a longitude assumed as 71° 8' 0".0 West of Greenwich. When
the positions of the United States' Coast Survey stations were published in 1851, it
was assumed as 71° 7' 22".5, from the following data : — Moon culminations at variona
observatories referred to Cambridge, 4'> 44'° 28'.4 ; by eclipses and occultations in tlie |
same manner, 4'' 44'™ 29'.6, and by chronomelric differences to that date 4*' 44" 30'.1.
This latter determination was anerwards assumed by Professor Bond to be very
nearly the true longitude.

But in 1855, the chronometric operations were again resumed early in January,
and the first meridional distance was carried by the steamer America, June 5th, and I
the last by the return of the Africa to Boston, October 26th, 1855. 'There were six
voyages across the Atlantic, between Boston and Liverpool, and the total number of
chronometers used was fifty two, and the final longitude determined is as foUows :- 1

b ' ''

Voyagfes from Liverpool to Cambridge 4 32 31.92

Voyages from Cambridge to Liverpool 4 32 31.76

"' Mean 4 32 31.84

Liverpool West of Greenwich 12 0.06

Resulting longitude .... 4 44 31.80 or

Cambridge 71* 7' 58''.55 West of Greenwich, which is here assumed. This longitndt I
which is 1* 79 in excess of the longitude of 1851, is a very close approximation tt I
that established by Dr. Bowditch and Mr. Borden for BoHt«>n as in the previous note, I
and is also nearly'identical with that of New York, as obtaii:cdby Mr. ifcnts chrouom-l
cters in 1839. For these reasons the result of 1866 has been preferred, ond 36' htij
been added to the longitudes given in the cxtcnflivo tables puDlished by the United I
States' Coast Survey department in 1851, above alluded to. * I

The longitudes in Sections I, II, III, and V, of the United States' ^lurvu^ treu'l

{lunuaut on tiiia.

5. NEW YORK.— In th» Ladiea and Oetttleman'ii Diwy, or TN* UUt' A^\

POSITIONS OP PLACES.

18 mainly depend-

manae, fat 1820, Mr. Nash, the Editor, having the repvtatiain of an ezoeUent obfler-
ver, gives particulars of a great many meridian and cdrcum-meridional observationa
taken at his school, Broadway, New York, from which he infers the latitude of No.
331, Broadway, as 40° 42' 58'. The difference of latitude, trigonometrically found,
between Mr. Nash's and the City Hall, was somewhat less than 1,300 feet, which,
ossumed as 13", nves the latitude of the. City HaU 42° 42' 46', t. e., allowing 40° 42'
58". as the latitime of of No 331, Broadway. By observations of a solfur eclipse, which
Dr. Bowden observed at New York, he found the difference of longitude between
Greenwich and Colombia College equal to 47° 0' 4d"W. On the 29th of May, 1818,
at a few minutes past noon, the longitude of No. 331, Broadway, by the mean of three
distances of the sun and moon, appeared to be 74° 0' 42 ", and Mr. Nash adds, '* I am
inclined for the present, to place the City Hall in 74° W."

By seventy lunar distances, forty of Pollux East, and thir^ of Aldebaran West
of the moon, m December, 1822, and January, 1823, Captain Sabine gave the longi*
tude of the cupola of Colombia College, New York, as 74° 3' 27", and the latitude
which he assigns to it is 40° 42' 43 . Mr. De Witt, on his survey of the province,
gave the longitude as 74° 3'.

The chronometers of Messrs. Arnold and Dent, however, appear to have decided
the longitude of New York. Four of them were embarked m the British Queen
steam-vessel, under the care of Captain Roberts, on her first voyage from En^and to
America in July and August, 1839, and gained the longitude of the City Hall in
New York, as 4-' 66' 3''.35 (=74° 0' 49"). A second expeiiment was made on the
next voyage of the some vessel, ia October and November of the same year, by
another set of four chronometers, and by this the difference of longitude between the
Observatory at Greenwich and the City Hall, New York, appeared to be 4** 56' 0.24".
Say 74° 0' 10". M. Daussy, the French Hydrographer, had previously given it in

I the Connaiaaance dea Terns as 4>< 56' 0.72, or 74° 0' 11" — (See Atheneeum, Nos. 621

I and 629, September and November, 1839.)

By the determination of the United Coast Survey, from data up to 1851, it was
I in longitude 74° 0' 3*. 09 ; but, by the subsequent correction of the Cambridge longi-
tude as shewn above, it is in 74° 0' 39", as in the Table, very nearly identical with tne
I determination of M. Daussy and Mr. Dent

4. WABHiNaTON. — In our former editions, the Dome of the Capitol is placed in
llongitudo 77" 0' 20", from the State Survey of 1816. This is shown to oe nearly
I correct.

Seatom Station in the City of Washington, is the point to which all tolegraphio
IdifPerences of longitude ore rofcn-cd, and which have now placed i», in connexion
Iwith most of the important places on the coasts of Noi*th West America, and estab-
llished beyond controversy, their true relative longitudes.

6. North Carolina. — The longitudes of the coasts South of Cape Henry, at the
iChesapeakc, as far as Cape Fear, or Section IV, of the United States Coast Survey,
Bre dependant on that of Stevenson's Point, the West point of Little River, on the
'Jorth side of Albemarle Sound. The BaMc line upon wnich the triangulnfion was
established, was measured upon Body's iNland, on the Coast of ramlico S(>und, and
|the South end of it is near the Lighthouse. The positions arc given, subject to Mura
porroctions, both for the longitude of the primary point, and for that of the great
ngles not yet obtained.

6. Charleston. — The longitude of Charleston was obtained from Seoton Station,
n Washington, by Electric Telegraph, in 1850, by Professor Walker and Lieutenant
Hbbcs. Section V. of the United States' Coast Survey system is tlius connect k1 with
lie rest of the series, but the triangulution has not yet been extended along tho

Roasts of South Carolina. The longitude of Clmrleston Lighthouse now givev is
lentionl with that we assumed in former editions luid in the Colombian Navigator
'. 1., as obtained by Mr. James Elford, a mathemuticinn of CharU'Hton.

7. Cape Fi^orida, &c. — In 1845, Captain Edward Bamett, F.N., maJo a
unning survey of tho Coast of Florida and the adjouent banks. Iv'f longitudes

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

Tireire found W dfrht dmmometera by meridian distance from Havana, and iu othet
portions of tnis region have been found very consistant. He places Cape Florida in
longitude 80° 3° " W. as shewn in the Table.

But the United States' Surveyors make this position a primary point for the lon-
gitudes in Section VI. of the Coast Survey, and they make it, according to their esti-
mate of 1861,80° 6'0", and in 1859, 80° 9' 29", or 6|' further West than Captain
Bamett. Yet Sand Key is placed by the United States' authorities, in November,
1852, in 8r 52° 43', while Captain Bamett's lon^tude is 81° 51' 12", a difference of
only 1^'' We have adhered to the British authority, but it is nncessary to point out
the doubt which exists, which will be remedied when this part of the survey shtdl be
brought into connexion with the remainder.

8. MoBii r: Fort Morgan, on Mobile Point, is made the primary station of Sec-
tions VIII aad IX of the United States' Suivey, or between it and the Mexican fron-
tier, llie triangulation is yet very incomplete.

9. New Orleans. — The position of New Orleans is given approxiraatively from
the sketch published by the llnited States' Coast Survey. The tnangulation was not
entii-ely completed from Mobile.

The longitude of New Orleans is of some interest. The United States' Coast
Survey has assumed a considerable degree of importance from its extent, and these
results being extended lo the other portionH of the territory, render the consideration
of a primary meridian for the western world one necessaiy to be determined in the
early state of the operations.

The capitol of Washington would naturally appear to be the fittest starting point;
but as the mtroductiou of greater diversity in astronomic and other tables than at
present exists is certainly not desirable, the United States' Survey Department com-
missioned Professor Bache to report on the subject. Impressed with the incon^ enience
attached to the introduction of a fresh mode of rcckoninp^ meridional distances, and
at the same time to give due importance to the geodetical operations carried on in
America quite independent of any in t)»' eastern liemisphere, he recommended, if any
transatlantic meridian were to bo assumed as a primary, that that of JVeto Orleam
wo Jd be the fittest.

'iTie progress of the survey ha\'ing shown that New Orleanc was in Ion. 90° 0' O'l
or necriv so, it became manifest that one objection to a new fractional elenieitt being
introduced was in so»ne degree removed it this were taken. With this view, if any
meridian were to be assumed for the United States, that of 90" We>st of Greenwich,
wherever it may fall, is the fittest. If in the course of the operations any correction
be found necessary to this meridian, as marked in some pavt of New Orleans, let it bo
removed accordingly. Thus, the first meridian of tlie United States, would be one-
foui'th of the cii'cumference, or six horns iii time West of that of Green \vi(!h.

VARIATIONS OF THE COMPASS— 18G1,

The question of Magnetic Variation or Declination, has received much attention
fW)m the SuiTcy department under the superintendence of Professor Bache, who, with
Mr. J. E. Hilgard, have reported on the subject.

The exact observations at present collected, have not been sufficient to establish
the exact amount of secular change which is necessary to bring the observed rosult of
former years in accordance with the existing Variation. As the amounts given in
Professor Bacho's and Mr. Ililgard's tables are for various eiM)ehH between 1844
and I85fl, we have taken tht; secular change at the amounts estimated by Mr. F.J.
Evans, R.N., in 185H, and added them to those quoted in the Anierieun list, to bring
them down to the epoch 1861.

Near Great Manan Island, 170' W. ; Mount Dowrt Island, 15' 0' W. ; West nide
of Penobscot Bay, 11.) .'{' W. ; Capo Small, Kennebie llivei, 12' 67' W. ; Portland,
Maine, 12" 18' W. ) FU't<;her's Neek, 12" 14' W. j Isles of Shoals, off Portsmouth,
ir46'W. ; Ncwbuiv Port. 1 T 0' W. , Annis Squani, near Cape Ann, 12" UN' W; :
Miiihlohead, 12° 3H tV.; liuston, Harbour; 11" 0' \V. ; Cr.po Codj \V 2o W. ; Nun- i
tucket Island, 10" 30 W. ; Martha's Vine>-ard, 1(» 0' W. ; Point Judith) Pi-ovidencr,

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

Bhode Island, 10° 2' W.

New London, Connecticut, 8° 49' W. ; New Haven, T 33' W. ; New York City,
7° 10' W. ; Sandy Hook, 6° 42' W. ; Girard College, Philadelphia, 6° 2' W. ; Little
Egg Harbour, 5° 42' W. ; Cape May, Entrance to Delawnre Bay, 4° 16' W. j Cape
Henl^n, 3°67"W. 5 Entrance to Chesapeake Pay, 2° 10' W, ;' Washington City,
2° 0' W. ; (much aflfected by local attraction) ; Albemarle Sound, East part, 14° 6' W.
Pamlico Sound, 1° 0' W. 5 Cape Hatteras, 1° 30' W.

The line of No Variation intersects the coast to the Westward of Cape Lookout,
in about longitude 76° 60' W.

To the North-westward of this line, the Westerly Variation is increasing about
3'.6 per annum in the vicinity of Cape Hatteras ; about o.O per anuiuu near New York,
and 6'.3 per annum on the Coast of Maine.

The lines of eqtial variation run about N.W. and S.E. true on the Coast of Maine;
N.W. bv W. ind S.E. by E. about New York, and N.N.W. and SS.E. on the Coast
of Carolina and Georgia.

At Wilmington and Cape Fear the Easterly Variation is about 1° 0' ; at Cape
Romain, Cape Fear, 2° 0' E. ; Charleston, 2°50' E. ; &<. Savannah, 3° 30' E. ; at Darien,
4° 0' E. ; St. Augustine, 4° 15' E. ; Capes Canaveral, and Florida; 4^ 10' and 4° 15'
E. ; Cape Sable, Florida, 6° 0' E. ; Key West, 5° 30' E. ; Tampa Bay, 6° 7' E. ; Apal-
achuola Bay, 6° 0' E. ; Mobile, 7° 0' E. ; Mouths of the Mississippi, "" "'

I Orleans, 7° 46' E,
0.6 per annum.

7° 30'; New
Galveston, 9°. These variations are increasing at the rate of

16. THE BEEMUDA ISLANDS.

■Ireland I^^aild ; FlagstaflfTl ]

IWreckHiil [2]

IOibb's Hill LiouxnovsG,
light revolving every
minute, (362 feet) ..[3]
fount Laiigton ; Signal
Station North of the
Town of Hamilton ....
[ilostle Island ; Entrance of

Castle Harbour

St. David's Head

fort Cunningham ; at the
Entrance of St. George's

Harbour

lill's Breaker ; Eastern

Extremity of thclleef. .

Iforth llock [ Northern

limit of llcef

m\a Bi>,r, N.W. end ; the

Western Extremity of

the Hurroimding Iteef . .

|.W. Breaker ; Southern

Extremity of Roof ....

LAT. N.

O I II

32 19 30
32 16 45

32 16 4

32 21
32 22 60

32 23 13
32 23 48
32 30 30

32 16 40
32 13 30

LON. W.

1 If

64 61 40
64 64 40

64 61 36

64 48 12

(v' 40 30
64 38 4S

64 30 37

64 41

64 46 65

66 2 20

64 63 30

AUTHOKIT1B8.

The Trigonom- 'rical Survny.
by Cip<inii ThoinuHHurd, R.N..'
undc • the ordora of the British
Admiralty, between the years
1783 and 1797, adjusted by the
observutions of Crptain Edward
Barnett, R.N., 1846.

NOTES. /

1. Between tho yeam 1783 and 179?, Taptain T. Hu.d. K.N . was omjiloypd in tlie
rvf^ of thew beautiful iMlands, llie oiilliiie of whieli Mu-vey is puhlished hy the Hi'tiHh
anmahy. Captain Ilurd drdmed his longitiu' 1 iVoni VVtvek Hi'), wlu<h. fton. il

POSITIONS OP PLACES.

fosition, as recently ascertained, may be taken as 4' or 5' E. of the correct longitude,
n the chart of the Bermuda Islands, as published by Mr. Laurie, we have plaml the
islands in the longitudes, which, from the accuracy or Captain Bamett's observations,
we may suppose to be finally settled.

laELAjST Trland. — The position of Bastion C, which serves as as a groundwork
for the rest, was determined by meridian latitudes ; and the longitude, we presiune,
is by chronometer, from the West Indies. The detail of these operations is given by
Captain Edward Barnett, R.N., in the Bermuda Royal Oazette, August 2dth, 1826.

2. Wreck Hill. — As we have mentioned. Captain Hurd considered this to be in
lat. 32° 15' 20", and Ion. 64° 50' ; but, according to the corrected position of Ireland
Island flagstaff, this is 1' 25" South, and 4° 40' E. of its right place.

3. Gibb's Hill Lighthouse. — The jrasition of this was obtained by triangulation
from Ireland Island ; but, on applying these calculations to Captain Hurd's sm'vey, we
find some small discrepances ; but as they arc not of sufficient magnitude to afi'ect
navigation, wo have not attempted to adjust them.

The lighthouse is an important structure, composed of iron, constructed in Lon-
don, from the designs of Mr. Alexander Gordon, E.C., and erected under the Bupe^
intendence of Mr. George Grove, in 1845. Its total height is 133 ft. 9 in., and the
light was first shown May 1st, 1846. The tower is painted white, and in the day
time will appear like a sail. The light revolves, and shows a bright glare every
minute, but a fainter continuous light is visible within 15 or 20 miles off It is 362
feet above the sea, and may be seen from a frigate's deck 7 or 8 leagues, but has been
Been quite bright at 33 miles off. The light apparatus is dioptric, or fi-om lenses of
the first order. The light is mtercepted between N. 43° 24' E, true, or N.E.^ E. by
compass, and N. 47° 34^^., trite, N.E. by E. mag., and N. 57° 35' E., true, N.E. by
E. f E. mag., by the hills on the South side of the island.

Vci-iation, 7° 1' W. — October, 1846, and as at present.

17. THE BAHAMA AND PASSAGE ISLANDS.

LIITLE BAHAMA
BANK.

Matanilla, or Mat«millo
Bank; N.W. end of [1]

Matunillo Shoal, 12 feet . .

Outer part of the Western
Reet

Memory Rock

Settlement Point ; W. end
of Grand Bahama Inland

B.E. pt. of Grand Bahama

Hole in the Wall; Light-
house [2]

N.E.Pt. of Abae&(»o«i//f'r/)

Elbow Reef; Outer Point

GREAT BAHAMA
BANK.

The Southern Kays:
The Brothers; East Rk.

The Jumkntoh :
Little Ragged Isle ; Boa-

LAT. N.

27 23
27 22

27 5
26 67

26 41 30
20 20

25 61 30

26 30
20 33

22 3 30

22 30

LON. W.

o ' //

76 8
79 4

79 12
79 G 40

79 35

78 41 30

77 10 45
76 67
76 50

75 44

75 44 30

AUTHORITIES.

Captain Edward Barnctt,
R.N., 1846.

The SurveyH of Mr. Anthonjl
Be Mayue, ll.N.

The OWrvuticmH of Captiii«j
Richard Owen, R.N., 183142.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
THE BAHAMA AND PASSAGE ISLANDS— Oomtintjed.

Ragged Island; Flagsta£f
Racoon Kay ; Beacon . .

Channel Kay

Jamaica South Kay ....
Man of War Kay ; N.end
Flamingo Kay ; Hill . .
Water Kay; S,W. point
Yuma or Long Island:
Sonth Point of the Isle
Great Har. ; Entrance . .
Michael Bank ; 12 fa-
thoms

Whale, or North point . .

ExUMA ; the Beacon

Galliot Cut, on the Bank . .
Eleuthera ; S.E. Point ..

■ ; Govenor's Harb.

; James' Cistern

; Harbour Island

; Egg Island

Reef; Extremity . . [3]
The Isles, &c., on N.W. :
Flceming Channel ; Bea-
con

Douglas Chan. ; Entrance
Nassau, New Providence

Lighthouse [4]

Joulter Kays ; N. Exty. . .

Andkos Isles: Morgan's

Bluff, or N.E. Point....

High Kay, on the E.Coast

Oolding !K.ay

Green Kay, in ihe Gulf
Berry Isles :
S. Stirrup Kay; N.W. pt.
Great Stirrup Kay; E.

Point

Holmes' Kay ; Centre . .

Great Isaac ; Lighthouse[5]

Western Side ^ the Great

Bank :

Moselle Bank ; Bernini

InIcs

Gun K ay ; Lighthou8e[6]

Brown's Kay

South Ridung Rock ;

Beacon

Orange Kuys; Middle. .
Southern Part of the Hank :
Guinc'ho, or Ginger Kay
LnboH, or Wolf Kuy . .
Muoarns, or Diamond
Point [7]

Cayo Verdo, o> On^cn
V —

«»rty

Kuj of St. Domingo [8]

LAT. S.

LON. W.

a 1 »

o > «

22 11 40
22 21 50
22 32 15
22 42 56
22 47 20
22 62
22 58

76 47 17
75 49 39

75 62 60

76 64 46
76 64
76 63 6
76 45 3

22 50

23 7

74 52
74 62 30

23 9 15
23 41 37
23 31 53

23 65

24 37

25 11 15

25 21

26 30

74 45 30

75 20

75 49 21

76 16
76 9 23
76 14 53
76 23
76 39

26 34

76 65,30

25 16 45
25 7 30

78 66 3

77 2 45

25 6 10

26 19 80

77 22 4

78 8 30

26 10 24
24 39 30
24 13 40
24 2 12

78 1 30
77 42 50
77 37 20
77 10

25 25 5

77 65 30

25 49 40

25 37 40

26 2

77 63 45
77 44
79 6 30

25 49 10
25 34 35
25 23 40

79 17 30

79 18 50
79 13

25 14
24 66 30

79 10
79 9 24

22 46
22 22 50

78 M
77 ;j(i

22 10

77 19

22 1 10
21 42 20

75 10
70 44 45

AVTHOBITIXS.

The Obsenrations of Captain
Richard Owen, B.N., 1831-32.

Bbmabks.

A description of, and directions
for, these isles andpassages, accor-
ding with the New Surveys, are
given in the copious Notes pre-
fixed to the second volume of the
Colombian Navigator, edition of
1848, pages 212, 213.

The Surveya of Captain
Richard Owen, Captain E. Bar-
nett, Lieutenant T. Smith, R.N.,
&c., 1836—1842.

76 POSITIONS OF PLACES.

THE BAHAMA AND PASSAGE ISLANDS— CONTINUED.

THE PASSAGE IS-
LANDS.

Little St. Salvador j W.

Point

St. Salvador ; Colombus or

S.E, Point

— — ; Hawk's Nest, or

S.W. Point
— :N.W. Point

Conception. T.-^^imd ; S. end
Southampton P^ef ; Exty.
Rum Kay; S.E. ^liite

Cliffe

-; West End.... [9]

Watlinj»'s Island ; Large

Wi 1 Rock at ♦he N.end

TK. W. Point

Hinchiubroke Rock

Samana or / , ood K&ys :

East Low -K-ay

Westernmost "Reef 5 Ex-
tremity

Southern Reef

Planas or Flat Kays ; Centre
Crooked Islands, &c. :

The N.E. Breaker ....

N.E.Reef;Exut;iuity..

Mount Pisgah

Bird Rock, ofifN.W. Pt.

Fortune Isle, or Long
Kav ; S. Point

Castle Isle [10]

Miraporvos : •

North Rock

South Kay ; Sand-hills j

Hobart'sBi-eaker's} S.E. I

End

Dianu, or Monkey Bank ;

Centre

Mariguana, or Mayaguana ;
S.W. Point

Eastern End of E. Reef
The Caycos :

Cape Comet,N.E. Pt.[ll]

Large House near the
Booby Rocks

The Three Maries

West CaycoH ; South End

T.\r ■ ' ^nciales; N.W.pt.

We.'., or Little Cayco;
South Point

Wcht Siind Spit

South Slior.l

SwiinmtT Shoal

The Hogrtics; N.W.Kuy

LAT. N.

24 36 22

24 8 30

24 8 SO
24 41 10
23 48 46
23 65 15

23 38 40

23 39

24 10 15
23 66 27
23 56 40

23 6

23 6 60
23 4 45
22 35 10

22 43 30
22 47
22 44 10
22 61

22 32
22 7

22 7 60
22 5

21 68 30

22 31

22 21 46
22 18

21 42 60

21
21

LON. W.

21 49
21 67 30
37 .^0
52 40

21 37 30

21 22

21 2

21 5 15

21 41 30

76 68

1C 16 48

76 32 30
76 46 30
76 6
76 7 3

74 47 20
74 56 35

74 28 30
74 34
74 28 33

73 30 43

73 52
73 45
73 33

73 47

73 49 45

74 7 33
74 22 15

74 23
74 18 45

74 32 40

74 32 15

74 27 30

74 47 30

73 9 ,30
72 38 16

71 27 S8

7J 41

TI 2 30

71 44 33

72 20 3

72 28 33

72 5
71 44 3;j
71 29

73 6C

AUTHORITIES.

The Surveys of Captain
Richard Owen, R.N., 1831-2.

■ \

, ^}.--i':,i

;.,!• ,„>.f.

• The MinAPOBVOs Bank and
Kays were surveyed by Mr. De
Mavne, in 1827. The Bank is
elovoD and a half miles in estent
from S.S.E. to N.N.W., and the
shoals upon it are very dangerous,
porticidarly to those advanciiw
from the S.E. With the wind
blowing strong from the northward
they break heavily, and at all times
thore is a heavy swell upon thom.
The current genorallv sets from
the N.E. over the shoalfl at Uiu
rate of 1 mile on hour.

POSITIONS OF PLACES
THE BAHAMA AND PASSAGE ISLANDS.— CoifTiNTJED.

3S.

of Captain
I.N., 1831-2.

, ,'.-1--;

IV08 Bank and

od by Mr. Do

Tho Bank is

_leB in extent

"n.W., and the

ery dangerous,

lose advancing

Tith the wind

the northward

[and at all times

rell upon thorn.

:a"y sets from

shoalB at the

lur.

GEEAT InaoUA:
The N.W. point.... [12]

Middle Point

S.W. Point

Mathew Town

Lantern Head (82 feet

high)

S.E. Point

N.E. Point

I Little Inagua ; East Point

; N.W. Point

I TuEKs' Islands :

Edymion Reef

Sand Kay ; Centre

Salt Kay ; Centre

GrandKay 5 Roadsd. [13]

Sqniare Handkerchief ;

N.E. detached Breaker

S.E. Extremity

Western Extremity ....
iSiLVEK Kat, or Plate
Bank:
East End {lO/athoms) . .

S.E. Point

N.W. Point

5.W. Point [14]

Jajo de Navidad, or Ship
Bank :
Northern Extremity[16]

Eastern

South-West

LAT. N.

21 7 30
21 1 45
20 65
20 58

20 56 30

20 57 45

21 20 30
21 29 15
21 30 40

21 7 15
21 11 12
21 20
21 28 10

21 6 30
20 47 30
20 56

20 35 20
20 13
20 55
20 17 20

20 14
20 2
19 51 50

LON. W.

73 39 30
73 41
7? 39 3
73 39 30

73 19 24
73 9 48
72 69 30

72 66 33

73 4 33

71 18 18
71 14 33
71 12
71 7 30

70 27 20
70 27
70 57

69 21 63
62 35 48

69 66 13

70 63

68 61 18
68 47 33
68 68 16

AVTUOBITIES.

Bbhabks.

TuBKs' Island Pabsaob. — ^Near
the S.E. end or Elbow of the Cay-
cos Btmk, is a shoal in lat. 21o 4',
Ion. 71° 31' 32", having over it, in
some parts, only 6 feet of water,
and lying with a bushy kay on the
bank bearing N. by W. (by com-
pass) 6 or 7 imles. Lat. by meiid.
alt. : Ion. by two good chronome-
ters, made by Barraud : one giving
71" 31' 6" ; the other, 71° 3!? 0*—
Edwd. Dunateiinlle H.M.8. Car-
nation.)

The Snrvoys of Mr. Anthony
De Mayne, &c.

,. >, , ^. . NOTES. . ,-. ,,.,--._

1. Matanilla Bank. — The Matanilla Bank, to the northward of tho reef, is
kot represented in Mr. Do Mayne's Chart, althoiigh given in that of the Spanish sur-
rcyors. It has been examined by Captain Edward Banictt, R.N., in 1846, and the

ositions corrected accordingly. — See, further, Colombian Navigator, 1848, vol ii.
203.

2. Abaco Liqhthottse. — Of the light-tower near the South end of Abaoo, or
j Hole in the Wall,^ the base is 80 feet above liigh water, and the tower is 85 feet
Yv;\\. It is painted red and white. The light revolves once in everjr minute, and
|uiy be seen m all directions, except where the high parts of the land intervene, and

L'ing 160 feet above the level of tho sea, it will l)c visible in clear weather, at the
Kstanci! of 15 miles, to an eye elevated 10 iect ; 17 miles to one elevated 20 feetj 19
]iile8 from 40 feet ; and 21 miles from 80 feet.

During ordinary winds there is good anchorage in 10 and 11 fathoms, with tho

jflithouHc bearing E. by N. about half a mile from shori-. The edge of the bonk,

the eastward of the lighthouse, is nearly If miles from shore, with 23 to 16

kthoms, extending out to the S.S.E. in u tongue of soundings, with quite clear

found. — " Colombian Navigator," vol. ii., pp. 199, 201.

3. Eoo Island Reef,— The Lorton Rt-ck clcseribcd in the Colombian Navigator,
|»1. ii., p. 162, does not exiat ! Captain KicLard Owen has nhown that thu vessel

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

really straok on JEgg Island Beef, just to the northward of Ro^^al Inland and not
more than amile from GouldingKay. — ^For particulars, see " Colombian Navigator," vol.
ii. p. 209.

4. Nassau. — ^The position appears to be finally settled as in the fable. The Spanish
Surveyors gave the town as in 26' 4' 33° N., and 77° 19' 30" W. Mr. De Mayne as
25° 6' 18" N., and 77° 19' W. The lighthouse, showmg a harbour light, since improved,
and similar to that on Abaco, is 70 feet abo\e the level of the sea; it is on the West
end of Hog Island, and therefore to be left on the port or Noi-th side, when entering
into the harbour.

5. Great Isaac— .This islet is described in the Colombian Navigator, vol. ii. p.
217. It is moderately high, has several wells of fresh water, and abundance of large
shell-fish. The Providence droggers water here. Tt is now remarkable for the very
fine iron lighthouse erected on it in 1859; it is 145 feet higii, painted in broad red
and white bands, and shows a fine revolving light from reflectors every half minute.

6. Gun Kay.— Tlie important lighthouse on this Kay shows a brilliant revolving
light every minute all round the compass, at an elevation of 80 feet, visible 12 to ^u
miles off.

7. Diamond Point of the Mucaras. — The Mucaras, Lavanderas, and Lobos,
with the dangers on the bank in the vicinity, have been surveved, vrith great care, by
Captain Edvoard Barnett, whose positions are those given in the Table. This portion
of the bank was formerly represented, as in the Spanish Charts, rather more to the
Sotfth, and 6' more to the East.

8. KIat of St. Domingo. — ^The eputhem part of the Great Bank, on which this
kay is situate, is very dangerous by night. The kay had formerly the appearance of
a sail, but, in 1835, me crew of the Thunder erected a beacon of stones, about 15 feet
high, upon the centre of it ; the other part of the kay is about 5 feet only above
water. It is a rocky, arid spot, producing nothing but a little samphire and wild
grass. — " Colombian Navigator," vol. ii. p. 214.

9. Rum Kat. — This island was formerly very erroneously represented on the
charts, both as to magnitude and position. The white cliffs at the S.E. end are re-
jnarkable, and may be seen 6 leagues off". — See " Colombian NaAigator", vol ii. p. 228,

10. Castlk Isle. — ^The point appears to be finally settled. Former observatiom |
gave 22° 7' 45" N., and 74" 17' 30" W. .; ,. ^ ^ ^ ^ , . .,

11. Caycos. Captain Livingstone's Remarks on the Northern Reefs of the Caycos,
aud the danger of approaching them without great caution, may be found in the
" Colombian Navigator," vol. ii. p. 245. Captain Livingston says — " L am perfectly
satisfied that any vessel shaping a course from off the rocks, to weather the N. W.
point of the Caycos by any cnart hitherto published, will infallibly get entangled I
among the reefs on the West side of the Watering Bay. When a vessel once gets I
embayed among them, it must be next to impossible to beat out ; as the reefs exteniSng
from the land to the eastward, hook suddenly round, at their outer extremity, to tbe
southward. Thus a vessel may be in blue and deep water while the hcok of the reef
is outside her. I have three times examined the appearance of these reefs from the I
mast-heads of different vessels, and each time they appeared to me more dangerous
than they had previously done." — [This was written in 1848.)

12. Great Inaoua.— This island has been surveyed by Lieutenant LaAvrcncc
R.N. : Mnthew Town, a new settlement, lies 3 miles northward of the S.W. point.
On the South-cast coast of Inagua arc several detached coral reefs about, and at xoinc I
distance from, the S.E. point. On one of these H.M.S. Statira vif\» \o»i ; and mi I
another, if not the same, the bai'k Emerald, Captain Nockelis, struck, at 6 p.m., lltbl
June, 1834, on her pas>>aro from Jamaica to London. The bark was on itforlffof
hours, while the small islet off' the S.E. point bore Wei-t. distant 4 miles, and the i
nearest shore was 6 miles off. The depth of water was about 18 feet. The captain I
observes that, as broken reefs may extend a .ong wry out, vessels in passing shonldj
not advance within 10 miles of the shore. The Emerald was so inuoli damaged tbiii

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

ind and not
dgator,"vol.

The Spanish
3e Mayne aa
ce improved,
on the West
hen entering

tor, vol. ii. p.

Lance of large
for the very
in broad red

alf minute.

ant revolvins?
isible 12 to ^u

I, and Lohos,

great care, by

This portion

sr more to the

on which this
appearance of
, about 15 feet
set only above
)hire and vrild

it became necessary to abandon her 5 and on the next day, at seven p.m., her ra-ew were
saved in a Spamsh schooner, bound for Philadelphia, being then, -with 9 feet of water
in her hold, in lat. 20° 36', Ion. 73" 10', 24 miles to the souths rd of Inagua.

13. Grand Turk. — An iron lighthouse, 400 yards wii.niu the North point.

14. Silver Kay Bank. — It seems that f; Fletcher See/, said to have been dis-
covered near the S^W. extremity of the Sih- > Yay Bank, in 1833, really exists on
the S.W. part of that Bank, the true form of wnich has, for the first time, been as-
certained by Captain Owen and assisting officers, as now exhibited on the chArts. Its
North-east side is extremely dangerous, naving a cluster of rocky heads, extending
18 miles, and even with.the* water. There are also detached patches on the Nor£
and North-western parts.

15. The Bajo de Navidad has been described as a fine clear bank of an oval
form : its greatest length 22 miles North and South, and 1 1 in breadth ; the least
water on it 11 fathoms, which is on the South-east edge. The general depths 16 and
17 fathoms, veiy even bottom, coral and sand ; the water being of a darkish hue, the
bank is not easuy distinguished.

VARIATIONS OF THE COMPASS.— 1861.

The present variation at the head of the Matanilla Bank is about 4" E. At Nas-
sau, in Providence Island, it was found, in 1 836, to be 3^° E. At Gun Kay, on the
western side of the Great Bank, 4° 30' E. ; at the Jimientos and Eleuthera, 3° ; at
the Crooked Islands and Watling's island, nearly the same ; at the Caycos it was 3°
10'; and at Turks' Islands, 2" 64', 1836. There is but Uttle secular change in the
variation hereabouts, and therefore the amounts given above are still correct.

18. CUBA, JAMAICA, ETC.

sented on the
E. end are re-
, vol u. p. 228.

r observation! I

of the Caycos,
|e found in the

am perfectly
[ther the N.W.
iget entangled
!ssel once get!

(efs extending
iremity, to tbe
;ok of the reef

reefs from the
lore dangcious

int Lawrcnci'
lie S.W. point,
tt, and at some
la lost; ami™ I
fit 6 p.m., 11'
on it for two I
lilcs, and the i
ThccaptaiB
|)aH8ing shonWj
damaged thii I

SE. and East of Cuba.

Cape de Cruz

Peak of Tarquino [1]

St.Iago de Cuba, Mono at
j the ent. ; Lighthouse [2]
1 Port Guantanamo ; Entr.

— Escondido; East point

— Baitiqueri ; Entrance

i Cape Maysi, or Maize[3]

Port Mata ; Entrance ....

Baracoa ; Entrance [4]

— Maravi ; Entrance . .

— Navatt ; Entrance ; .

— Cayaguaneque ; E. pt.

— Taco; West Point ..

— Jaragua j Entrance . .

Putta de Guarico

I Port Cayo Moa ; Kayj

East Point

I Yaguancque; Entrance

— Cananova ; Entrance

— Cebollas Entiance . .

I Tanumo ; Entrance . .

I Cabonico ; Entrance. .

— Nipe ; Entrance

j Banes } S.E. Point..

LAT. N.

19 50 11

20 3

19 67 29
19 55 10

19 55 30

20 1
20 14
20 17 20
20 21 36
2C 24 30
20 29 36
20 30 30
20 32 20
20 32 40
20 39

20 42
20 41
20 42
20 42 20
20 44 10
20 42 20
20 4.5 40
20 53 30

LON. W.

77 45 15
76 51

75 58 48
75 20 25
75 12 20
75 1 10
74 7 37
74 31 41
74 29 31
74 27 35
74 29 50
74 31
74 34
74 36 40
74 40 45

74 47
74 58

75
75

5
25
2 35
76 11 60
75 21
75 26
75 34

ATITHOUiriES.

Spanish Sui V <yors, &c.

■•■*.-),:

POSITIONS OF PLAC3ES.
CUBA,- JAMAICA, &c.— Continued.

Funta de Mulas

NoBTHEBN Kays and
Coast of Cuba.

Fort Sama ; Entrance

^Naranjo ; Entrarce . ,

^Vitaj Entrance

— — Bariay ; Entrance
— — Jururu; Entrance ....

— — Jibara ; Entrance

——<lel Padre ; Entrance

Malagueta; Entrance

— — ^Manati ; Entrance . .
— NuevitasOrandes; En-
trance ,. . .

Pnnta Matemillos [5]

Cayo Romano; S.E. PtJ6j
Cayo Verde, or Green Kay
Cayo Confites ; North Pt.
Double-Headed Shot; N. W.

Kay [7]

Cayo de Sal, or Salt Kay . .

Cayo Cruz del Padre

Matanzas; Castellode S.

Severino

; Pan or HiU

HAVANA, Morro j Light-
house [8]

— — } Engineer's Post

near the Steam Wharf
Port del Mariel ; Entrance
Port Cavanas ; Entrance
Bahie Honda ; Entrance . .
Guaijabon ; Pan or Hill . .

S.W. Coast of Cuba.

Cape Antonio; Roncali

Lighthouae [9]

Cape Corrientes [9]

Liana or Mangrove Point
Isle of Pines; CapeFranc^

; Exta*eme S. point

; Indian Riv. Entr.

Bahia de Jagiut, or Cienfiie-

gos ; Lighthouse [10]

Tbinidau ; City of

Puerto Casilda; Entrance
Cayo Blanco de Saza ; W*

Point

; East

Point

Cape Larza de Tierra ; East

Point ^. . . .

Cayo Breton; East Point

'Ul'£. N. ' TOK w.

o ' //

91 4 46

21 5 45
21 5 25
21 5
21 5
21 6
21 5 20
21 15 45
21 17
21 23 45

21 35 40
21 40

21 51 20

22 7

22 12 25

23 56 '28
23 39 8
23 17 20

2.?

2 48

1 3«

9 i3

8 53

3 15

2 20
45

22 49

23
23
23
23

21 51 40
21 45 20
21 51 20
21 36 30
21 22 30

21 42 30

22 1 10
21 42
21 38 15

21 22 30

21 31 20

21 31 30
21 2 25

Q I II

76 30 45

75 53
75 49
75 55
75 57

75 58

76 2
76 24 37
76 29 28
76 43

77
77

4 45
8
77 35
77 36 30
77 37 50

80 27 38
80 16 38

80 53 15

81 32 40

81 40 20

82 22 4

82 20 43
82 46 40

82 58 30

83 12 30
83 23 20

84 58
84 31 3
83 54
83 13 30

82 59 45

83 1 20

80 40 18
80 3 25
80 2 30

79 42 30

79 43 35

79 40 20

AUTHOKITIES.

The OflScers acting undoc the
orders of the Spanish Goveni-
ment, for the purpose of ascer-
taining by chronometers, &c.,
the Positions of all the principal
Points in the West Indies ; with
emendations, by Captain Foster,
Captain R. Owen, &c.

KEMAItKS.

We have here given the situation
of aU the harbours in Cuba, which
have been surveyed by the Spanish
officers. The longitudes have been
subsequently rectified: those of
the North coast are more to the
eastward, and agree with the large
general Chart of the Bahama Old
Channel, published by the Direc-
cion Hidrografica of Madrid, and
since in London.

The greater part of the harbours
are singularly formed, having a nar-
rowentrance mostly borderedwitha
reef or shoal, but opening into a
fine basin inward, which afford
shelter from every wind. Of such
are, St. lago, Guantanamo, Escon-
dido, Baitiqueri, Mata, and Bara-
coa; but the entrance of the latter
is bold-to ; again, laco, Yaguan-
eque, Oebollas, Tanamo, Cabonico
and Liviaa, Nipe, Banes, Naranjo,
Vita, Jururu, Del Padre, Mala-
gueta, Manati, Nuevitas, Havana,
Mariel, Bahia-Honda, and Jagua.

The Spanish Surveyors, &c.

Captain R. Owen, R.N.
Lieut. J. Murray, R.N., 1858.

The Spanish Surveyors, &c.,
OS before. ^ *

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
CUBA, JAMAICA, &c.— Continued.

Boca Grande ; Entrance . . 20 58

The Grand Cayman :
S.W.Bay,Ft.George[ll] 19 17 45

JAMAICA and Isles Ad-
jacent. [12]

Morant Kays; N.E. Kay. .

; S.W.Kay..

Morant, or East point of

Jamaica; Lighthou8eri2]

Yallah's Point

Plum Point

Port Royal Dockyard . .

Kingston ; Church

Portland Point

Portland Rock (13

Pedro Kays; N.E. Kay(14

Pedro BluflF

Black River ; Entrance . .

John's Point

South Neml ». .

Montego Bay Point

Galina Point

Annotta Bay ; the Town . .
Port Antonio ; Navy Id.

Formigas; N.E. Part

;S.E. Part ....

;S.W.Part ....

Navazaj Centre of the

Isle

BaxoNuevo; Sandy Kay(15)
SerraniUa ; S.W. Kay (16)

LAT. N.

LON W.

79 23 45

81 24 3

17 26 30

75 55

17 23 45

75 68

17 56

76 11 19

17 51 45

76 36 30

17 65 15

76 46 65

17 65 51

76 50 45

17 57 57

76 47 35

17 43 60

77 7 24

17 8 30

77 28

17 6

77 46

17 81 30

77 45 24

18 1 10

77 53 16

18 11 30

78 17 30

18 15 45

78 25 30

18 31 30

77 69

18 27 30

76 68

18 19

77 49 46

18 14 40

76 31

18 34 30

76 41 .30

18 27

75 42

18 26

76 61 30

18 24 45

75 3

16 53

78 38 30

15 47 45

79 50 43

AUTHORITtHS.

Latitude, Caidniu Hi Owen,
R.N. ; LoTip^'tude, Cft]itain Har-
nett.

The mean oi numerous Ob-
servatiotis, taking into account
those of Messrs. Leard, Robert-
son, DeMayne, andDunsterville,
of Mr. F. Owen, and Captain
Edward Sabine ; adjusted by
the meridian of Port Royal
Dockyard, as ascertained by
Captain Richard Owen, in 1830.
— For particulai-8, see the " Co-
lombian Navigator," vol. ii., page
xviii., and the Chart of Jamaica,
with its Harbours, published by
Mr. Laurie.

-i tSxH-

The Survey of Captain
Richard Owen, in 1835.

'f.

NOTES.

CUBA _ in General. — ^It may be observed that the Coasts of Cuba, with some par-
tial exceptions, has not been hydrogi-aphically surveyed, consequently that many of
the positions given, especially on the South Coast, are not to be depended on. "For
example, the South Coast of the Isle of Pines, it is said, is shown too far to the
j northward on the Spanish Charts ; while the coast about Puerto Casilda, and to the East
; of it, is 7 miles too far South. We are imable to state positively as to the relative
j con-ectness of the positions, and therefore they must be received with caution.

• ^n?*^^^ *^^ Tarquino. — We have given the Peak of Tarqnino according to Cap-
tain Bird Allen, who determined the position of the peak from the ship, by obser\'a-
tion dnring three days' calm, after leaving Port Royal, as lat. 20° 3', Ion. 76° 51', or
4^ minutes beyond that given by the Spanish authorities. The peak is about 5,600
|teet high above the level of the sea.

2. St. Iaoo de Cuba .—Mr. Nichclls, Master of the Sheervoater brig of war, in 1819,
jconimunicated the situation of the Morro Castle of St. lago, from observations made
|i? tj^tt* Bhip, as follows :— Latitude observed, 19° 57 60" : longitude by lunars,
|70 2 46" : bj chronometer 76° 0'. The Spanish Chart of the harbour represents the

as in 76' 68' 33' W. In the last C^art it

is given as 70° 0'.

.0^

^•

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT.3)

nil 10 ^KilSi

■tt Uii 12.2

I.I

lli2ilUi4l^

^:>'

^.^
^

'-^

Hiotographic

Sciences

Corporation

%% WfST MAIN STRUT

W8MTW,N.Y. MSM

(7U) •73-450)

-6^

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

A lighthouse has been erected on the table-land, about 300 feet to windward, or
East of, the Morro, to point out the entrance to the harbour, and prevent vessels run-
ning to leeward of it during the night. The light revolves in 1 minute at 223 feet,
and is visible at 20 miles.

3. Cape Matsi. — Captain Foster places Ca^ Maize in 74° 6' 18"
Chagres as 78° 57' 19". Captain Owen makes it 74° 8' 0". It may be observed that
Captein Foster's longitudes appear to be about 3 minutes easterlv (2' 56"), and this
corre<;tion applied to bis positions will properly a^ust them ; this will place Cape
Mayd, in accordance with Captain Owen s determination.

4. Post Babacoa. — Captain Foster found the difference of longitude between
this and Cape Maysi to be 21' 54", which gives the position in the Table. The point
of observation is the Fort of Point Barlovento, ou the weather point of the harbour.

5. NuEViTAS. — The channel into this harbour is to the S. by E., 4 miles from
Point Matemillos. On Point Maternillos a lighthouse showing a revolving light a\;
170 feet above high water is constructed. It has <' Colon " painted on it. Besidel
this there are lighthouses constructing at the Cayo Paredon Cfrande, Cayo Lobot, and
Cayo Confttea.

• At Caedenas Bat, also on the North Coast of Cuba, there is a revolving li^ht
shown on Piedras Kay (lat. 23° 14', Ion. 81° 7'), and a red and white or revolvmg
light on the Cayo de Ana.

6. Cato Romano, &c. — ^In theyear 1781, M .le Marquis de Ckabert, when proceed-
ing firom St. Domingo to the Chesapeake, had an opportunity of obeerving, by chro-
nometers, tiie longitude of Cayo Romano, Port Matanzas, and the Pan of Matanzas;
and his results were for the first, 77° 39' 45" W., and for the last, 81° 36' 30", being,
in the mean, only 2 minutes to the westward of the late determinationB.

7. Double-Headed- Shot. — ^The position, according to the last edition of the
Spaiush Chart, of the Mexican Sea &c., edited by Admiral Don Joe6 de Espinosa,
first Director of the Hydrographic Establishment at Madrid, is Utt. 23° 26° 28', Ion.
83° 21' 0". In the first edinon, published (by order of the Minister of Marine, Don
Juan de Langara) ia 1779, the N.W. Kay was represented in lat 23° 53', Ion. 80° 14'.
Mr De Mayne places the N.W. Kay in 23° 55' N., and 80° 26' W.

This is not the only variation to be found in the different editions of the Spanish
Charts, even on points marked as determined ; although the observations of the
Spanish officers are generally admitted, by those who have given them an examination,
to be excellent. It may not be superfluous here to notice, that the eastern extremity
of Florida, in kt 26° 35', appeared in the first edition of these charts in 80° 5^' W.j
bat, in the last edition, it Lb placed in 79° 64|', or 11' more to the eastward.

On the north-westernmost and highest of the narrow ridge of detached barren
rocks, known as the Double-Headed Shot Kays, a lighthouse has been erected by the
British Government, in lat. 23° 56' 28" N., Ion. 80 27' 38". The light is fixed, and
100 feet above the sea ; the tower being 54 feet high, it is visible tmm 14 to 20 mile*,
•coording to the height of the observer, in all directions, except S.S.W. | W., where,
at 9 nules distant, it will be hidden by Water Kay.

8. Havana And Liohthouse.— The position formerly given was lat. 23° 8' 18'
N., Ion. 82° 22' 4" W. The longitude bcinj^ the mean of twenty results from ston
eolipeed by the moon, by Don Josef Joaolura de Ferrer, 1808, 9, 10, 11, 12. Tldi
place, which is taken by Lieutenant Ila])er as a secondary meridian, is ponsidered by
him as in Ion. 82' 21' 57" W. The difforeiicc, 17% between this and Mr. Pmdy'a
podtion, as given in our previous editions, is but trifling.

The Lighthouae on the Morro upon the eastern Point of the Harbour, exhibits i
brilliant rcvolvinjj; light, which appeai-M in itu full luHtrc onoe in a minute. Although
ap inferior light, it may be distinctly seen, in clear weather, between 3| and 4 leaguet
off.

9. Cape Antonio, Ible of Pines, &c.— -On the 12th of August, 1817, Ci^taiD
Livingston came to an anchor off Cape Antonio, in 7 fathoms i and by an excellent
ohtiervBtion, found his latitude to bo 21'' 53' M" t thiH coufiitni* that which *"" beSB

POSITIONS OF PLAGES.

«8

given by the Sponiflh omen. The bngitode ie woU eetabluhed between 84* 67' and
84 68 . The Baron von Humboldt mw 84" 0T i Captain Owen, 84" 08' i the ftianuli
officer had prerioady given it a» 8^ 67' 30 , now confirmed.

A hMhihoute called the BoneaU Tower, and having that word painted on it* 117
feet m height, stands on the cape. It exhibits a brilliant revolving light eveiy
minute, at an elevation ofno feet above high water, and is consequently visible at 14
mUes distance. Is was first shown in 1860, and must prove exceedingly servioeable
to navig&tioa. i

10. Jaqua.— A lighthouse, showing a brilliant fixed light at 82 Ifeet above high
water, has been built (1860) on the East point of the entrance, Point Coloradoe. Ihe
tow^r is 46 feet high, and has « Villanueva" painted on it.

11. Oband Catman.— The latitude of the S.W. Kay of the Grand Cayman, as
observed by Captain Livingston, August 6th, 1817, appeared to be 19° 14', not 19' 11',
the parallel formerly assigned : the longitude was communicated to us by the late
Captain Hurd, as a aeternunation to be relied on, and it appears to have been con-
firmed by Captain J.W. Monte^th, as shown in the " Colombian Navigator," vol. ii.
page 93.

The S.E. point, as communicated by Mr. Dnnsterville, lies in lat 19° 16' N., and
Ion. 81" 6' 40'^W. The village on the West, formerly the Sbgttie*, is now called
Qeorg^oum, but the most populous village is JBoddetUown, on the South.

12. JABfAICA in general. — ^"In his outline of Jamaica, 1821, Mr. De Mayne
gives Morant, or the eastern point, in longitude 76° 12', and South Negril, or the
western point, in 78° 26' W. By reference to the Table it will be seen tmit we give
tLe one m 76° 11' 19% and the other in 78° 26' dO\

" Mr. Leard, in his Survey of 179i, save Morant Point in 76° 3', and South Negril
in 71° 33' ; consequently he represented the island more than 16' longer then it has
since been exhibited ; and there is reason for believing that the leng& is rather leas
than greater than that which we have given. The northern coast, it also appears,
has been placed too for North fix>m 1 to 2 miles. We have attempted to adjust these
differences, still adhering to the safe side, on the New Chart of Jamaica and its Har-
bours, published by Mr. Laurie } and we give, with confidence, from several commu-
nications. Point Morant more, and South Negril less, to the West, than as shewn on
former Charts." — J. Purdy. — See farther, the Note on Port Boyal and Kingston, in
vol. il. of the " Colombian Navigator."

It may here be remarked, that Lieutenant Kaper assumed Port Royal as 76° 60' 64*,
bat considered that it was not satisfactorily settled. From subsequent calculations
from data supplied by Commander Bamett's chronometric differences, he has arrived
at the conclusion that it is 76° 61' 47", or 1' more than his former I nigitude, or than
that given in ova "Table } we have still adhered to the safe side.

Morant Point LigKthouee. — On November Ist, 1842, a bright light, revolving
once in every minute has been shown fitim an iron light-tower on this point, at 103
feet above tne level of the sea, and can be seen at 7 leagues. It is invisible to the
eastward of N.E. by E. by compass.

lluB iron tower was made in London, in little more than two months, and weighs
100 tons ! ditimeter at the base, 18^ feet ; at the top, IH feet ; iron I inch thick } the
tower 106 feet high, 16 of which are sunk in the g^und. Is is painted white.

13. Portland Rock. — The Portland Rock is a single Kay, 16 to 20 feet above
the sea, and covered with small bushes. It has been variously lopresented in from
latitude 17° 7f to 17° 13, and fivm Ion. 76' 32' to 77° 31'. It Mr. De Mayne's
Chart it appears in 1 7° 7^' N., and 77° 20' W. The position given in our Table cannot,
wo think, be far from the truth. — See "Colombian Navigator," vol. ii. p. 84.

The officers of II.M.S. Wtvhetter, in 1834, by numerous altitudes, &c., gained
the latittide of the rock as 17' '5", and Ion. 77° 27' 4".

14. Pedbo Kays, — These Kays have boon laid down from a late survey, as shown on
the Chart of Jamaica i thty are described ui the " Colombian Navigator," vol. ill.
IHi|^ 246.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

10, Baxq Nvbvo.— Aooordmg to ttie Spanish offimn, 1804, ttententflltUs
ahoal is about 7 miles from North to South, and 14 miles from East to Wart. All tiie
eaBtem '^urtis a reef, very Bte6p-to} but, on the West, the depth diminishes grad-
ually. Atli miles from the northern extremity is the Sandy Kay, given in the Ta-
ble, The Baxo del Cohbot, irhioh is repMsenfed on the charts to the E.S.E. at the
New Shoal, baa been particularly searched for, but could not be found.

The ahoal tras examined by H.M. surveying shAp I%umltr, March, 1635 { the
small kay, given in the Table -wm fbund to be 4 feet high, and a cable's length East
and West, at 6 miles N.E. from the southern breakers ; it presents no appearance of
vegetation, and is composed of coarse coral, sand, and sttmes. — Oohmbian Navigator,
vol. ill. p. 248.

16. Sbrbamilla. — ^This bank, with its kays, formerly much misrepresented, lie
between the parallels of 15' 35' and 15° 55' N., and the meridians of 79" 41' and
80° 5'. On its eastern and southern sides are several kay3 and reefi. On the North-
east side is a detached patch of rocks, on which the sea cozustantiy breaks ; it is just
awash, but, in fine weather, a rock will show about 2 feet out of the water. Between
it and the main bank is a safe passage, of not less than six &thoms, bordering closiB
to the western side of the reef. In clear weather, by day, all the rocky patches axe
eesily avoided, but it is very dangerous to approach oy night.~^Cbi(Mnftta» Naviffator,
vol. ui. page 2i48.

VABIA-nONS OF THE COMPASS— 1861.

At the West end of Cuba, and about the Isles of Pines, the uresent variation is
about 6° E. Near the East end, about 4 degrees. At the Qrand Cayman, 5° 45' E.
At Port Royal, Jamaica, Mr. Leard in 1791, gave it as 6° 50' E. ; but there is reason
to believe that, for a long time pa4t; it has not exceeded 5°. In 1824, Mr. De Mayne
gave it as 4° 40' only. At Morant Point, 4° tO' E. 1861. These variations are very
uowly thcrtantijf^

18. ST. DOMINGO OB HAYl^T, POETO-EICO, AND THE VIEGIN

ISLANDS.

ST. DOMINGO.

Isle of Monai the Mi^e

Hobero ) Bight Bank

Punta Macao; ranchos ..
Isle of Saona ; Sandy beach

near W. Point

Boca de Quiabon, or Cha-

boni ; Punta Barlovento
Boca de la Romana i Com-
mandant's house

Maooris Point

Isle of Santa Catalina i W.

Pohit

CiTT of Santo Dominoo i

Cathedral, W. portal (1)
J Signal Tower on W.

Point

Baraona ( Village in Neiba

Bay

Alta-Velo, or the High

Sail (2)

LAT. N.

I<OK. W.

o > »

o t */

18 6
18 58 50
18 48

67 49
69 3 37

68 29 50

18 10 18

68 46 53

18 24 20

68 58 23

18 27 82
18 25 50

68 58 37

69 19 25

18 10

69 2

18 28 17

69 52 26

18 28 22

69 52 10

18 12 2

71 5 45

18 28 50

71 39 44

At.'.i.jjaTm.

Sir Robert H. Schomburgk,
F.R.G.S., 1852.

Captain Rich. Owen, R.N.,
and Edw. Dunsterville, Esq.,
R.N., 1820, 27, 32.

POSniONS OF PLACES.
ST. DOMINGO, PORTO-RICO, &o.— Comtinved.

IiAT. M.

Cape Jocquemel, or Jacmel
Pta. Ajogas, or Falie Cape

Prayle Book

AouinBay; the Diamond

St. Lotiis i tiip Old Fort . .
Anx Cayea ; the Town . .

Isle i Vaohes E. point

Pdnt Abaoou

Point & Gravois

Cape TiBUBOM { Extremity
IroiB Bay I House on tlw

Beach

Isle of Navaca) Middle . .
Cape Dame Marie, or Don-
na Maria

: Port Jeremie

Pirogues, on the Rochelois

Reef

I Hummock of Petit Gonave

I Isle of Gonave ; West point

Post au Pbince} Fort

I Biffithon

JArcaoins } Northernmost
[St. Marc, or St. Mark's pt.

[Port Piment

|St.Ni3holasMole,Ft.George

IPort A 1' Ecu

iPort Paix ; Carenase Point
iTortae or Tortoga Islei W.
Point

, East

Point

]ITT of CapB HaTTIEN;

Watering Place

Grange Point ......

Point IsaMUca

abella Bay; Islet

Port Plata ; E. point ....

)ld Cape Fran^aiB

Dape Cabron

"ape Samana

Cape Raphael

Uape Enga&o

f omt Eepada

Island of porto-ri-
co.

ape St Juan, or N.E. Pt.
loRRo Cabtlb of St.

Juan (3

Point Bruguen, or N.

f^ Point. 7...!

plo Desocho, or Zacheo

LON.

AXTTHOBrmS.

^Ruadilla Town

18 10 20
17 46

17 39

18 13 48
18 14 27
18 11 10
18 4
18 1
18 1 20
18 22

18 23 48
18 24 46

18 36 30
18 38

18 37 20
18 26 61
18 66 26

18 32 12

18 48

19 2 10
19 37
19 49 30
19 66 10

19 68

20 8 20

20 1

19 46 40
19 64 46
19 68 40
19 63 60
19 49
19 40 30
19 21 30
19 16 40
19 2
18 34 30
18 19 48

18 24 20

18 29

18 31 18
18 23 48
18 2d 10

72 83 16
71 42
71 41 46

73 20
73 31
73 44
73 44 30
73 46

73 66 30

74 27 32

74 29 33
76 3

74 27 13
74 6

73 12

72 63 39

73 18 33

72 22 26
72 38

72 61

73 1
73 27 33
73 6 30
72 48 46

72 67 30

72 36

72 10 42
71 40
71 6 30
71 4
70 42
69 66
14

6 16
68 63 30
68 20 30
68 8C

66 39

66 7

67 7
07 27 40
07 7 17

00
69

Captain R. OwEir, R.N., and
Commander E. DuMBTEiTUXB,
R.N.

The Observations of the Boun-
ish Officers i particularly taose
of Captains Don Cosmfi de Chnr-
Pica, and Frandaoo Fidalgo,
&c.

For aomo important remaiks
on the NaTrigation about Porto-
Rico, -with al^blo of Observations
on 'Uie Oaribbee Island, tec, by
detain Harhtmann, Hydrographer
of the tho Danish K^yalNavy.
ses Oakftibisn Nmtigator, vol. iU.
pp. xiz., XX.

POSITIONS OF PLAC3E8.
PORTO-RICO, VIRGIN ISLANDS, &c^-:Contikued.

Point Alganobft ,.)

Puerto Gnumica; East point

Caxa de Muertos, or Coffin ;

S. W. Point

The VIRGIN ISLANDS.

Anegadaj West point. .

{East point (6)

Soldier, or North point . .
; Horse Snoe Reef;

S.E. End

Herman Reef, 16feet; S. pt.
Virain Qorda; Pajaros, or

'East point

Ginger Isle ; Oentre

Tortola; Road Town, Fort

Bnrt

St. Jolin's ; S.E. point

Sta. Monica Rock, (9 feet)
St. Thomas Habboub;

Fort Christian (6)

The Bergantin or Carvel . .

St. Cboix or Santa Cbuz :

Eastern Extremity of the

Island (1)

The Lang ObservatoryJS)
■Harbour of Christians-
tted ; Flag8ta£P of the
Outer Point Battery,
called Fort Louisa Au-
gusta (9)

Fort Christiansweem, in
the Town of Christian-
steed; Flagstaff ....
Salt River Point .... (10)
Hams or N.W. Bluff (11)
Fort at Frederioksteed or
West End {Flagstaff (12)
Sandy Point 5 the 8. W. Ex-
tremity of thel(>land(13)
Buck Isle ; East Extrem-

^-^V North-west

Extremity

Its summit, about 360
feet above the level of
the sea

LAT. N.

18 14

17 67 44
17 60 SO

18 60
18 43 48
18 46 46

18 36 30
18 33 30

18 30 42
18 23 45

18 25 3
18 19
18^9

18 20 27
18 18

17 45 30
17 44 32

17 47 15

LOK .W.

67 7 80
66 62 46

66 86

64 26 12
64 16 20
64 20 20

64 11
64 14

64 19
64 28 41

64 37
64 44 20
64 39 30

64 55 40

65 7

64 34
64 41 6

17 45 28

64 41 42

17 44 69
17 47 12
17 46 24

64 41 58
64 44 45
64 62 3

17 43 10

64 52 48

17 40 30

64 53 48

17 47 18

64 36 40

17 47 30

64 37 37

64 37 3

AUTHOBrmS.

The Spanish Surveyon.

The Survey by Lieut. O.B.
Lawrence, R.N., 1848.

'Wf

A communication made to Mr. |
Dunsterville, by Sir A. Lang,
of St. Croix, Jan. 21, 1832.

Th6 general height of the topi I
of the hills in St. Croix is tml
800 to 860 English feet above tb I
level of the sea, excepting towdl
the northern side of 'the jawtk-j
western district of the island; I
where they ascend higher, and tin I
highest of which, called JVM I
EoffU, is 1,166 feet above the levjll
of the sea. Its summit is in lit |
17° 46' 62", and Ion. 64° 48' 31'

.Along the greater part of thil
South side of &e island a lodgerf I
reefe lines the coast, at a diatanotl
from shore, in some places, «|
nearly 2 miles. There are fe»I
channels through these reefe, ia»|
ticablo for Bmall vessels only.

■*t:

posrnoNs of plages.

NOTES.
1. Santo Domingo. — "We preriously eave the longitude of the Gty as 60° 68',

|f.K.O.S., on his appointment to the Dominican consohite in 1849, to be too tof West,
land he accordingly made many observatianB, and collected others of authentidfy, and
[places it as stated iu the Table. See Navt. Mag., August, 1852, pp. 412, 418.

2. Alta Vela, or the High Sail. — ^This is a high rooky islet, which serves as a
Igeneral point of departure to aU ships bound from the eastwardrto Jamaica, &c. It
Iu peaked, and appears to the northward, at a distance, like a dome, emerging above

, mist or fog. — See, farther, the Book of Directions above mentioned.

On the authority of the respected and scientiflc Admiral Espinosa, of the Spanish
^avy, we formerlv gave Alta- Vela in Ion. 71" 22' W., instead of a more westerly
osition, which had previously been assigned : but it is now fully proved that this u
rrong, and that the true longitude is alMut 71° 40'. Mr. Dnnsterville, from the mean
of observations in 1826 and 1829, made it 79° 39' 25" W. Captain R. Owen as in the
Table, makes the summit in 71° 39' 44* W.

3. MoRKO of St. Juan — ^The Harbour of St. Juan, was surveyed by Don Cosme
le Churraca) in 1794. The position given in the Table is from the statement of Don
fosef Cerquero, director of the Royal Observatory in the Isle of Leon, near Cadis.
rhe particulars are given in the " Colombian Navigator," vol. ii. page xyii. ; «nd
^he longitude, as liiere noticed, is considered as one of the best established in

America.

4. AouADiLLA. — ^The situation of Aguadilla,. as given by the Spanish Officers, is
(8° 25' 53" N., and 67° 6' 20* W. Admiral MackeUar gives it as 18* 24' 67* N., and
(7° 8' 26"^ W. In this, as in some other instances, the mean of the two is the position

iven in the Table.

5. Aneoada, with its reefs, were surveyed by Mr. (since Sir) Robert Herman
jehomburgk, the distinffuished traveller, in 1832. We formerly enumerated, in the
lescription of the Caribbean Isles, the number of vrrecks that lay upon the reefii in
[Sll ; and Sir R. Schomburgk has noticed that, between 1811, vnd 1832, twenty<one
Imerican, seventeen West-Indian, fifteen Spanish, nine British, two French, two Swe*
ush,' and one Portuguese were wrecked here ; and this is attributed, chiefly to the
^sensible operation ot the currents, as will be shown hereafter.

6. St. Thomas's. — ^With the position of Fort Christian, as given in the Table,

tan a Danish Survey, compare the communication of Captain J.W. Monteath, " Co-

bmbian Navigator," vol. iu. note 3, p. xz. - But upon this point, wo have received

lie following communication from &ligor Sir Andrew Lang : — " "The beurings of the

gstaff of. CoweFt BaUery, from my observatory (see note 8, hereafter), N. 21° 64' 27"

., from tile true meridian, were determined by myself with a Trouffhton's altitude,

Bimuth, and transit circle. Notwithstanding the distance, (37^ mues), the flagstaff

^as diHtinctly ueen with the telescope of the circle, aud intersected with the vertical

Vire. Considtiring the latitude of the flagstafi*, 18° 19, 32" N., which must be near it,

lien its longitude is as stated, 64° 56' 45' W., as deduced from my position ; but I

low strongly suspect that it u a little more to the North, sav iu 18° 19 45" ; if so, its

bngitude, as deuced from my station, will be 64° 55' 50' W., and the latitude and

bgitttde of Fort Christian would, on the same data, be lat. 18° 20' 39" N., longitude

H" 65' 39" W. (This is now confirmed). Fort Cowel is on the very top of an emi-

ence (275 feet aoove the level of iha sea) which rises at the southern extremity of a

Ingue of land which forms the western side of the entrance, as also the western

Jiore of St. Thomas's Harbour."— Signed, Andrew Lang.

A lighthouse has been erected at Muhlenfeldt's Battery, on the East point of the
^trance of the Hai-boui* of St Thomas. The light is red, the lantern having rod panes

S.E., 8., and S.W., and is erected at 96 fecti first shown, August, 1844. 'to go
Dsr West of the Triangkt, the East angle of the lighthouse is brought to bear in a

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

line, N. by W. ^ W., -with tlie S.W. corner of a whitewashed kitohen, lying 67 feet
North of the tower, and is visible by night from the refleofion of the lamp ; this will
clear the Tricngles by a cable's length ) the more the kitchen is covered tbe greater
the distance from these rocks.

At the king's wharf, in' the town (West of Christiana Fort) a lamp with a red
^ass towards we harbour, will at the same time be seen West of Point Muhlenfeldt )
xbaa being free, ships safely bear away for the harbour.

Prince Rupert's Rock, near the middle of the entrance to the harbour, wiL alwayi
be kept whitewadied, and thereby be visible at night.

7. ST. CROIX. — ^Fully 9 nautic miles from the eastern extremity, N.E. by £.
I E. {true)t and about 11 miles Et by N. from the East point of Buck Island, oom-
menoes Hie eastern extremity of an extensive bank or shoal, the northern limit of
whidli rounds off from thence to the N.W., and soon after stretches westerly, inclinuu|>
to the South of a westerly direction toward Buck Island Shoals and reefs, vnth whicn
it may be considered as connected. The northern edge of the shoal is a coral ledge,
■everal miles in extent, on which 6^ fathoms of water is the least depth yet found ;
the more common depths beins 6, 6| and 7 fiithoms. The sea has been observed to
break on the whole line of the northern edge, and to the very extremity of the
bank, in an alarming manner, during a northerly ground swell in the winter
months.

8. Obsbbvatost of Sib Amdbew Lang. — " The height of the observatory above
the sea is 440 English feet. The latitude is true to within one second. The longi.
tude is the result, I may say, of the labour of years, and the present assumption of
84° 41' 0" in arc, or 4>> 18' 44 in time. West from Greenwich, I consider to be dete^
mined with almost such absolute certainty, that I do not think the error in the dete^
mmation can exceed four seconds' in time, or one minute in arc, and I tru^t is le»i.
On that datum the longitudes of the other stations are accurately determined. All
the latitudes are certain to one or two seconds." — Andr. Lang.

JUrom th« observatory eomtnuntoation by signal, according to Captain Marryt^s code,
I be attended to. The observatory is situated eibout 1 mue to the E.8.E. of the torn
<^ Christiattrimd. In dear tceather the shoals are distinctly seen. — B. DunsterviUe.]

0. CHBI8TIANSTJBD.>-Nearly 1 mile due North from the entrance of the harboni
of Christianstffid is the western extremity of a reef called the Scotch Reef, which
stretches srom thence, with its shoals, frdly 1^ voiles to the E.N.E., rendering theap-
piXMtch to the harbour very dangerous to strangers.

10. Salt Riveb. — Salt River Point is comparatively a low point, and one of the j
most northerly in the island. About one fourth of a mile to the North of it is a dan-
gerous sunken rock, called the White Horse, on which the sea generally breaks.

11. Hams Bluff, along its northern part, is bold-to.

12. Fbedbbickstad, or West-end Bay, is an extensive and beautiful bay, affordinc I
excellent and smooth anchora^, except where the wind has westing ; but like iD
anchorages of that open kind, it then bieoomes dangerous.

13. Sandt Poimt. — ^Tothe South of this low and deceiving point, at nearly 1 1
mile, there extends a dangerous reef to which a good berth should always be given.

14. Buck Island. — ^This island, except on its southern side, is surrounded witk
dangerous raefs and shoals, extending fiilly 1 mile to the W.N.W. of the N. W. poiit
of the island ; ftilly two miles to the eastward of its eastern extremity, ; and aboot
1 mile to the North of the island ; forming, in the intervening bearings, a circuitotii j
connexion of the greatest dangers, which ul prudent persons will avoid approaching-

VARIATIONS OF THE COMPASS.— 1861.

At the East end of Santo Domingo, it is about 2° 32' E. { at the City of Santo I
Domingo, 3" 0' E. ; at the West end, 4" 0' E. At Porto Rico, about 2' 0' E. } aboit |
Tortola, V 30' E. ; at Anogada, about V 10' E.

POSmONS OF PLACES.
20. THE OAEIBBEE AND LEEWARD ISLANDS.

Caribbeb Islands. [1]

Sombero [2]

Do^ Isle} Landing on 8.

nde

AngniUat Cuatom House

on North ride

St. Mabtdi's i Fhilips-

borgh, Fort William . .
J Wert Point

LAT. M.

tON.

Fort

Saba; the middle..
St.. Bartholomew;

Ghurtam

St. Enstatitu ; OraageTown
St.Chbistofheb's; Basse-

Terre [8]

Nevis I Cbarlertown

Bedonda ; the Pinnacle,

600 feet

Montserrat; Plymouth on

South ride

Antigua; St. John's Road,

Fort James [4]

Ft Byham onN.'E. side

Dockyard Flagstaff, En-

gUui Harbour

Desinde or Deseada ; N.E.

Point [fi]

Quadaloupe'; Baase-Terre

[6j :

Mane-Galante

iThe Saintes ; St. Paul,
Bolt Head, S.W. Point

[ Aves Islet [7]

Dominii!a;Rd. of Roseau '8]
Maetinique; Ft.Iloyal[9j
I St. Lucia; Pt. Moulacique

or South Point

I St. Vincent ; Kingston . .
[Babbaoob I Briqjetown ;
FortBeokwith ....[10]
[Grenada ; Fort St. George

iTobago; N.E. Point
urmnroudi Port ;

George Fort

;S.W.End

rBnriDAD ! ri3]
Point Oabra; N.E. Pt.
Point Galeota ; S.E. Pt.
Boca de Navios, or Ship

Channel

Poet Spain > Water

Batterr

restigoB ; Centre

Iarqaeita:
Pnmpntnr CnHtlo

king

18 3d 4d

18 16 15

18 13

18 1 25
18 3 25
17 88

17 53 50
17 29

17 18
17 8 50

16 55

16 43

17 6 40
17 7 20

16 22

15 59 30
15 57 50

15 51 20
15 42
15 18 30
14 36 7

13 41
13 12

13 5 30

12 2 54
11 20 13

11 10
11 7 35

10 50 20
10 9 30

10 41 45

10 38 42

11 23 15

10 59 15

63 27 45

63 16 10

63 4 40

63 4 24
63 10
63 14

62 51 30
62 59

62 42 30

62 36 50

63 19

62 43 30

61 51 21
61 46 17

61 45 42

60 58

61 45 38
61 17

61 37 30

62 37 45
61 25 15
61 4 38

61 1
61 15

59 36 46

61 48 30

60 32 30

60 45
60 51 30

60 54 5

60 58 20

61 45 30

61 31 45

63 5 60

03 48 30

avthobitim.

Captain E. Bamett, RJST.,
Lieut E. Lawrance, R.N«, Mr.
Parsons, RJN^., &o.

Captain E. Columbine, R.N.
1803.

im POSITIONS OF PLACES.

THE GAAIBBEE and LEEWARD ISLANDS.— Comtwubd.

Margarita; North Point

Pta. de Arenas, or Sandy

Point ,

Blanqnilla; NorthPoint..
Tortojra; East Point ....
OrchiUa ; N.E. Breakers. .
Shoal of Two Fathoms . .
Los Boqnesor Bocoas :

N.E. Islet

Islas de Aves {Birds* la.) :

Windward Isle

Leeward Lde

Buen-Ayre ; N.E. Point . .

■ — ; S. Point Light

CuBAyAO ; North Point .
Bay of St. Anna ; Entrance
Little Corafjuo ; N. End . .
Oruha } S.E. Point

LAT. K.

o » »

11 10 30

10 69

11 54 30

10 54 45

11 52 45

12 9 15

11 58 40

11 57 30

11 59 SO

12 14

12 2 30

12 24

12 6 20

12 23 45

LOW. W.

63 53 30

64 24 30

64 41 50

65 13 50

66 6 30
66 6 20

66 39 20

97 28 20

67 42 35

68 18 30

68 22 30

69 9
68 55 43

68 37 13

69 57 30

AVTHOBITUW.

The admirahle Surrey of the
Coasts of Venezuela, &c., by Don
Joaquin Frandsco .Fidalgo, and
other Spanish Officers. Publish-
ed by tne < Direecion Hidrogra-
fieof at Madrid, in 1816 and
1817. The longitudes a^usted.

NOTES.

1. WiNDWABL and Leewakd TsLands. — Under the denomination of Wiudteard
lahnda, tiie navigators of France and Spain include the whole ran^e from the Virgins
to IVinidad; and, under that of Leeward Islands, the range which exists between
Trinidad and the Gulf of Maracaybo. This distinction is natural and proper, and
we have adopted it, in preference to the former distinction in the English charts,
which includes, under the name of Leeward Islands, those from Porto Rico to Dom-
inica only { and, under that of Windward Islands, those from Martinique to Tobago.

The observations of the Spanish officers for determining the respective situations
of ihe Caribbee Islands were very numerous and important, and our late charts have
been regulated chiefly thereby. Some later corrections have, however, been made,
particularly in the northern part of the range, and in the Virgin Isles.

2. Sombrero. — ^This solitary islet ia a flat and rocky eminence, 2^ miles in length,
N.N.E. and S.S.W., without any hummock, having neither quadruped nor vegetable
upon it, excepting grass, and that generally dry, with a few weeds, '&c. It is even
destitute of water. It has been surveyed by oior Admiralty, but see ' Colombian
Navigator" voLiii. p. 64.

3. St. Christopher's. — ^In January, 1782, the Marquis de Chabert took nine
meridian altitudes, whence he concluded the latitude to be nearly as in the Table.
The longitude by bis marine clocks, previously examined at Martimque, appeared as
62^ 52' So". Mr. Zsthrtmann made the (Ufference of longitude between it and St.
Thomas's 2° 13' 27", or in 62° 42' 13" as in the Table.

4. AntiottA. — Our former position was a close approximation to that of Captain
E.' Bamett, R.N., whose fine survey of 1848, gives a perfect picture of ihe Island.

0. Desiradb.— From observations made by the Chev. de Borda, he computed the
latitude of the N.E. point as 16° 20' 30.

Captain Monteith, in lat. 16° 58', by three observations. Longitude of a ship bj
chronometer, 61° 9' 45" ; by lunars, QV 14' 38"; mean, 61° 12' 12". Bearing of Desi-
rade, S. 5° E., distance, 36 miles, which gives 3' of departure — Ion* 3' 5 . Hence
longitude of the centre of Desirade, 61° 9' 7".

6. GVADALOUPE. — ^The latitude of Basse-Terre has been confirmed {torn obserra*
tions of M. de Verdun, &c. The longitude ( assuming Fort Royal, Martinique, as in
61° 9') appeared to be 61° 48 15' ; but if Martinique is 4° 50' East of this, it will place

POSITIONS OF PLAC£8.

Ooadaloupe in 61° 43' 20*. The difference of longitude between Oundaloape and St.
Thomas (64" 66' 40') was found by Bfr. Zahrtmann to be 3° 10' 2% and anothmr mea^
snrement makes it 40° 3d' West of Guadaloupe { these combined will place it in 01°
44' 16% nearly as in the Table.

A lighthouse on Ttrre de Bat Itiet (or Petite Terre) at the eastern extremity of
the island of Guadaloupe, shows a fixed light at 108 feet above high water, and is
visible in all directions for 6 leagues. A rock, called the JStUein* dm Sktdt bears 8.
19° W., 2,920 feet from the lighthouse. Ships coming from the eastward will find
from IS to 20 &thoms water, at the distance of 2 miles North or South of the light,
and should not approach it nearer. M. Tondu, in 1783, concluded the longitude, by
three immersions and two emersions of the first satellite of Jupiter, to be 61° 48.
The latitude of Pointe des Cheteauxt the eastern porut, was observed by M. de Borda
as 16° lU' 30*.

7. AVBS IsLBT. — ^The position of this small kay was ascertained by Lieutemini
Lawranoe in 1850. It has been lately much visited for a stratum of guano which
covered it, and which vras the subject of some dispute. When removed, it will prob-
ably leave the place but a bare reef.

8. Roseau. — 'The latitude of thb place, according to the result of observations by
Messrs. Verdun, &c., is 16° 18' 23". But the French officers have given the longito^
9|' to the westward of that shovm in the Table, which cannot be correct.

9. Mabtiniqce. — ^The latitude accords with that resulting from the observations
of Messrs. Verdun, Borda, &c., who concluded the longitude as 61° 0'. Mr. Ihmster>
ville gives the longitude of the Diamond Bock as 61° 6 .

In the Survey of Martinique, executed by order of the French Qovemment in
1824 and 1825, as shown in tmrd volume of the Colombian Navigtdor, the longitude
of the flagstaff of Fort St. Louis, on^which all the other longitudes depend, is assumed
by M. Monnier as 61° 1' 25". This vras arrived at by measurements from Rio Janei-
ro, &c., and is 3' less than that now given. See Note 10, in that volume, page xxi,
and the Table in page 91 ; which may be compared with the Notes hereto annexed.

The longitude in the Table is assumed from a mean of chronometric measurements
by M. Zahrtmann and M. Lartigue, between this and the observatories of St. Croix
and St. Thomas, positions which may be considered as finally determined. These
differences of longitude are taken as 3° 36' 58 ' East of St. Croix, and 3° 51' T from
St. Thomas.

10. Barbados. — ^The late Dr. Nevil Maskelyne communicated the latitude of St.
Michael's C9iuroh, in Bridgetown, as 13° 5' 30". The longitude has since been ^ven
as 59° 43' 40" and 59° 41' 15". From foiur sei>arate measurements of the meridional
difference between Port Royal and Barlmt^oe, it may be taken as 17° 13' 10", which
will give 59° 37' 35" as the longitude of I'avbados.

In 1850, Lieutenant G. B. Lawrance, by a careful measurement from St. Thomas
with 17 chi-onometers, made Fort Beckwith as in the Table, in longitude 69° 36'
46".6 W.

11. Gbenada. — ^In 1779, M. de Chabert concluded the latitude of Fort St. Geoige
as 12° 2' 64", and its longitude 42i West of Fort Royal, Martinique. This varus
only 20" from the statement in the Table. Captain G. Daniell, of H.M.S. Ftcfor, m
1833, made the longitude 61° 48' 90". It was surveyed by Mr. James Young.

12. Tobago.— M. de Chabert. 1781, made the longitude of the S. W. Poini 20' to
the the East of Fort Royal, Martinique : this places the point in only 60° 7^' W. The
position formerly given in the Connaisaance dea Tetna was 1 1° 6' N. and 60° 49' W.
The Baron Alex, de- Humboldt, in his ' Peraonal Narrative' (Engl. TransL), gives it
as 10° 20' 13" N., and 60° 27' 30" W. The latter is evidently a groat error, as it would
place Tobago directly East of the body of Trinidad. Wc presume that the N.E. end
was intended, and that in 11° 20' 13" N., not 11° 10' 13", as given in the Connaiaaane^
dea Tetna. But if, upon conjecture, we take M. Humboldt^ long^itude thus, we sha^

Cce Tobaffo too tax to the East : for it is allowed that the situation of Trinidad Ium
n scttlel by the Spanish surveyors, and it is well known that the high land of

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

Trinidad ia aeen flrom the ships at anchw in Courland ^y, over toe land of Sandy
Pointt which could not be the case if the former authorities were oorreet. See the
Chart oi the CSoasta, &g., from Tobago to Barcelona, published by Mr. Laurie. Cap-
tain Daniell, in H.M.S. Vietor, 1833, made the longitude of Great Courland Bay
60* 61' 15'.

A JmtMAonm od BaodeC Point, at the Fort of Soariorowiht shows a brilliant fixed
light at 126 feet} first shown August 1st, 1844. The lifinister Book bears E.SJB.
flrom tha Ught, distant 1| miles.

18. FoBT Spaim in Tbikidad.— Captain Foster

makes Fort

16° 19' 0* East of Port Royal, or 61° 31' 46", which is adopted by Lieutenant Baper;
^is is 2* 80' West of the position quoted in the former edition ; it has, therefore been
snbstraoted flx>m tiie longitude of Trinidad. The longitude, aocording to Lieutenant
Lawrence, is 61° 31' 0".

Captain (now General) Edward Sabine R.A., has, from agreat number of obser*
vatiohs, giyen the position of the Protestant church in Port miiain, as 10° 36' 66* N.,
and 61° 86' 0" W. This new and beantifoi church is said by Captain 8. to be one of
the many improvements and decorations for which Port Spain is indebted to its late

gtvemor, Sir Ralph Woodford, and which have rendered it one of the handsomest
wns in the British colonies.

VARIATIONS OF THE* COMPASS— 1861.

In the channel between Porto-Rico and the Virgin Islands the variation is about
r 40' East; but on the East of Anegada it diminishes to 0° 40' East. At Antigua
and Guadalome it is 1° East ; and nearly the same thence to Barbados. At Gnuooda
&c., 1° 30' East! and Tiinidad, 2° East, llxese Easterly variations are slowly

21. THE COASTS OF GUYANA, COLOMBIA, ETC., TO THE
MEXICAN SEA, INCLUSIVE.

Capb Nobth

Mount Mayec, a landmark . .

Cape Orange

St. Luis of Oyapok ; Fcnrt. .

Cayenne [1]

Isles du Saluti I. Royale . .
Riv. Marowyne; Dutch post

Poet Orange [2]

Mot Creek

Cameron's Plantation

Bram's Pomt, Surinam

Pabamabibo I Church

River Corentyn; Nickerie

Battery, on the East

Mary's Hope, on the West
Berbicet Crab Isle, light ..
Corobana Point, Demerary;

the lighthouse

River Euequibo; extremity

of the L^iuan Bai^ ....

LAT. N.

66 16
16 10

66
1
1

56 30
66 20
43 30

5 67 33

6 3 30
6 24 30

6 49 20

7 20

^ov. w.

61
61
62

49 50 OP
60 55 OP
25 OP
27 OP
14 36

52 32 8

53 66 20
64 33

54 37 41
54 56

9 48
10 30

55
55

56 52 24

67 2
47 22

68 11 30
58 18

AUTHORirnS.

M. De la Ck>ndamine and
the French Engineers i inclu-
ding Lieutenant Roman Des-
foss^s, who surveyed the "IIm
duSalut"inl834.

Capt the Baron Roussin, 1820'

The Observations of Lien-
tenant Bissohop Gieevelink,
ktfe of the NetherlandishNavy,
in the brig Echo, 1833--37.

Sir R. Sohomburgk.

The Topographical Surveys,
adjusted by the longitude ti
Demerary, as given by Cbptain
Owen, &o.

Sir R. Sohomburgk.

pmi

POSITIONS OF PLACEfl.
THE 0OA«TB OF GUYANA, COLOMBIA, liO.->-OoxnxuED.

Boca do Gnayma

lAT. w.

RlVEB Obinioo:
Punta or Point Barima
Ide CangrdM) N.E. pt.

Trinidad. See the prece-
ding Section page 89.

Penas Point

Cape Three Points

Cape Malapasqua

CuMANA, the City of . .[3]

Puerto de Mochimai En-
trance

Isla Borracha ) N.E. point

Barcelona, Moro of ... .

Piritu Isles i Centre

Isle Unare ; Centre

Cape Codera

Qiaspa; Point

LaOuayra; Road .,

City of Caracas (St. logo
ae Leon)

Puerto de Toriamo

Puerto Cabello t Ent.

Punta Tucaoas { South Kay

Punta de San Joan

Punta del Ubero

Punta del Mauzanillo ....

Vela de Coro

Cape S. Roman

Punta de la Marcolls ....

Santa Anna de Coro

Fort or Castle of Zapara

Maracatbo ( Town

Punta de Espada

Bahia Honda} Entrance. .

Cape la Vela

Bio de la Haohat Town . .

Cape 8. Augostin

Cape B. Juan de Quia ....

Cape de la Aji^a

I Banxa Mabta [4]

I Rio Magdalena :

BocodeRio Yi^o ....

Boco de Ceniaa

Pueblo de Barranquillas

I Punta de Savanilla

Monro Hennoaa*
Cascabel Rock

iPahnaritaShoal

iPunta de la Oalera

iPunta de Oanoas

CARTAGENA t Popa ..
Salmedina Bank (2 m».) . .

iBoco Chica { Entrance . .
bias del Rosaiio } hu^r I.

8 M

8 44 80
8 ffl

10 44
10 46 10
10 42 fiO
10 27 87

10 24
10 le 40
10 13 16

10
10

10 36 64
10 39. SO
10 37

10 80
10 29 10
10 20 46

10 43

11 9
11 19 80

11 31 16
U 26 30

12 11
12 6

11 24
10 68 80

10 89

12 4
12 20
12 11

11 83 80
11 16
11 20 46
11 18 80
11 16

toir w.

11
U

6
6

10 61 46

10 47

10 34

10 26

10 28

10 60
U 2
10 68
10 66

69 68

60 40
60 23

61 61 26

62 40 J6

63 1

64 10 28

68 21
64 44 46
64 43 46
64 66
66 16
6

10
10

66
66 20
66 id

AVTHoamis.

66 66 20

67 61 46

68 2
68 17 6
68 28 36

68 47 16

69 22 6

69 40 6

70 6 86

70 19 20
69 47 60

71 88 80
71 48
71 60

71 48 36

72 13 86

72 66 66

73 38 6

74 2 20
74 14 20
74 16

74 46 86
74 63 46
74 48

27
26
10
10

10 30

76 16 26

76 26 80

76 33

76 33 16

72 40 46

76 36 17

76 46 46

The Spaaiah SarrejB of tha
GoaaU of Veneauela, &o., by
Don Joaquin Frandsoo Fidalgo,
and other SpaniriiOlBcerii. Pub-
lished by tne Direecion Hidrth
grafleo, at Madrid, an 1816 and
1817.

The whole of the ColomUan
coaitt, from the Inland of Trinidad
to Chaoros has been so finely and
accui-tttoly surveyed by Don Joa«
qi^ Fidalgo, and other Spanish
oiBcen, as to leave nothing more
to wish in. so fiir as the survey
extends: the South side of the
OiUf of Vetteattla <mly excepted.
Some trifling variations in the
hmgitndes have been made. See
Notes.

Tho Spanish Surveys of the
Coasts of Venezuela, &c.

RaiiAaKs.

* Tho Moaao Hbbxosa, In lat
10" 68', is a hill which constitutes
a usefhl landfall westward of the
Hagdalona, and is noticed as such
in the Cehmbitm Navipitter, ToLiiL

There is sold to be a rock, at
five andahalf miles totheW.S.W.
of the Monro, in Ion. 76" 10*, and,
at about three andahalf miles from
the nearest land, notUdd down on
the Spanish Chart It has 6 &-
thorns of water around it, with
only 11 feet on its centre. The
CkueMLot Oateevtl, lies within it,
off the Bio Oolmenes, at only half
a leagne from shore, and cannot,
thflvMorabe the same.

, POSITIONS OF PLACES.
THE COASTS OF COLOMBIA &c.— Cohtinubd.

Islas de S. Bernardo; Tin-
tipan or North I. ......

Santiago de Tolu

Puerto deCi8pata;Ent. ..

Isla Fnerte

Pnnta Arenas; Entrance
of G. of Darien

Cape Tiboron

Puerto Carreto

lala de Pinofl ; N. point of

Puerto Eacocea ; site of
Fort St. Andrew

Caledonia Harbour ; Scor-
pion Kay [6]

C^yo Ratones

Punte S. Bias ; E. Point, .

Punta del Manzanillo ....

Puerto-Velo, or Porto-
Bello; Town

Chaores; St. Lorenzo Cas-
tle

Esoudo or Shield of Vera-
gua s Centre

Boca del Toro ; Entrance

Boca del Drago ; Entrance

Monkey Point

Point Blanco

S. Juan de Nicaragua, or
delNorvo; Sandy Point

Islands, &c., in the Bay

of Guatemala.
Serranas ; S.W. Kay ....
Quito Sueno ; 8.E. Point
lloncador Kay, on N.W.

Reef

Providence Island ; Sta,

Catarina

St. Andrew's Centre ....
Courtown, or E.S.E. Kavs
Albuquerque, or S.S.W.

Kays

MOSQUITIA or MOSQUI-
SdORE.

Blewfteld Bluff

Punta Gorda

Parrot Isle (135 feet liich)
Man of War Kay; N.E.Kay
Bragman Bluff ; N. part. .
Mosquito Kays; S.E.Kays
Cape Goacias a Dios . .
Carataska Lagoon ; Ent.

Point Patook

Foyais Peak (3,A00 feet) . .
Cape Comoron ; £. cxtrmty .

LAT. K.

9 46
2 30 45
2 25
9 23 30

8 S3
8 41 15

8 47 15

9 1 30

8 51

8 54 52
2 23

9 34 36
9 39 33

9 32 30

9 19 39

LOX. W.

9 6
9 22
9 26
9 39

10 1 40
10 56 45

14 16
14 7

13 34 80

13 23

12 35

12 24

42 10

11 19 20

11 28

11 30 38 1

13 1

14 3

14 21

14 59 30

15 23 40

15 49

15 46

16 30

75 51 SO
75 36 50

75 48 5

76 11 15

76 56 15

77 22 45
77 34 45
77 46

77 38 16

77 42 1

78 16 15

78 57 40

79 32 12

79 39 la

80 15

33 42
15
82 22

82 40 42

83 5 42

83 42

80 22

81 8

80 5 15

81 22 SO
81 43
81 28

81 51

83 40 18
83 47
83 42 30

82 58 50

83 31 40

82 45 50

83 12

83 43

84 17 7

84 53 30

85 2 40

AUTBomms.

Mr. J. Parsons, K.N., 1854.
Captain B. Bamett, 1840.

The Observations and surveys
of Captain liichard Owen, in
H.M.S. BlotHom and Thunder,
between 1828 and 1837.

Bkmabxs.

Tho whole of the coasts of the
Bay of Honduras, from Oape Ora-
cias a Dios to Capo Catoche, inclu-
ding tho Isles and shoals between
the Pedro Bank and Oosta Rica,
have boon surveyed under the able
direction of Captain Owen ; Lien-
tenant now Captain BirdAlUn;
Lieutenant, now Captain £dwr4
Bamett ; Lieutenant Jm. Cannm,
and othor skilful officers of the
Biitish Navy. These important
surveys woro the means of coxrect-
ing onormous orron in tho ropi»
sentation of the Gtdf of Hondums,
and they have uIho given a true
roproBontation of tho Rio and Qol-
fo Dulce, the coasts of which woro
novor before oxplorod. — OolottMtn
Nwigator, vol. iil. p. 24.

POBinONS OF PLACES.
TKB COASTS OF COLOMBIA, &o.— CotmHTBD^

JJlT. X. LOH. W.

Cape HondanMi

Bonaoca; N. Extremity . .

Roatan ; Port Bqval

Utilas highest hi^ (296 ft)
Swan IsUuicb ; East Point
Misterioaa Bank ; N.E. part

Thb Coast continued :
Peak of Congrehoy (7,600

feeti

Cap9 Tritunfo \ Point

Omoa ; Low West Point. .
C-ipkTheee Points; Ex.
Rio Dulcfi ; Entrance ....

Point Icaooe

Point Placentia

Colson'a Point j N.E. Extr.

Balize ; Fort Islet

OuTBB Kats and Reefs :
Glover's Reef; N.E. Extr.

; S.W. Kay

Half-Moon Kay; Lightho.
North Kay on Lighthouse

Reef

Tumeff; Kay Bokel ....

; Maugher Kay . .

Rendesvous Kay

English Kay ; Flagstaff . .

GoffsKay

St. George's Kay i Anoho-

rai

Nor

em Trtangle ; S. End
; North Kay

Shamrock Bay

Ascension Bay

Kilhride Ch£b ; Stone

Buildings

CoBumel ; South Point . .

; N.E. Point ....

Mugere Isle ; South Point

Punta Brava

Cape Catochb

Yalahau Sprinff

Lagartos ; Vigm

Sisal Port

MonteNo-te-perderas; 80 ft.

Jaina

CahpechA ; Plasa

Morros Point

Alacran Shoal; Whale

Rook, N.W. End

Fort Alacran; Huts on Po-

res Island

East Triangle ; Beacon ..
Arenas Kay

16 1 30

16 ao

16 23 46

16 7 46

17 24 30

18 66 16

16 38 66
16 48 46
16 47 10
16 47 46
16 49 46
16 14 16

16 30 63

17 4 16
17 29 20

16 66

16 42 20

17 12 11

17 28 20
17 8 30
17 36 16
17 16
17 10 26
17 20 66

17 33 16

18 23 30

18 46

19 17 30

19 36 16

20 11 46
20 16

20 36 30

21 12 16
21
21 33 60
21 27 30

21 36 16
10 6
10

6
19 60 46

22 46

21
21
20

86 69 30

86 47 37
86 19
86 63 30
83 62 60
83 11 38

23 27

22 23 6
20 64 64
22 7 10

86 64

87 27 66
4 40

38 60

88
88

AOTHOBITIBS.

88 46 32

88
88

64
30
88 16
88 11 30

87 43 60
87 60 67
87 32 24

87 27

88 66 68
87 46 40

46
20

88
88
87 69 16

88 4 64

87 28
87 26 16

87 23
87 19

87 26 60
86 69 39
86 44 34
86 43 16

86 44

87 66

87 26

88 10
2
6

90 40 16

90
90

90 30
90 33

The ohaenrationB and Surreys
of Captain Richard Owen, &o.

RmiABKS.

The tovn of Balise Is the only
regular establishment which the
English settlers have formed in
this country. It is immediately
open to the sea ; and tiiough the
situation is low, the groups of
lofty cocoa-nut trees, with the
thickly interspersed and livdy
foliage of the tamarind, contribute
to give a very picturesque and
pleasing effect to the dwellings of
(he inhabitants, independent of
the advantage that is conferred hv
their grateful shade. The reen
and kays off the coast are those
named Olover's Xeef, the Luht-
hmue Beef and Kays, Tumef, or
the Drovmed Island, and the Ifor-
thern Triangle. The Lighthouse
Reef has been generally known
under the name of the Sattem
Beef; it is 8 leagues in extent
from N.N.E. to 8.8. W., and is
steep-to, excepting the S.E. point,
nowdistinguished byits lighthouse.

The Observations and surveys
of Captain Richard Owen, &o.

89 48

The Surveys of Cnntoin Edw
Barnctt, R.jf., of H.M.S. Thun-
der, 1837.

24 30

it »i»:>!#^ < '-'•cj^^Jr * ''iT';i v

i POSITIONS OF PLACES
THB OOASTB OF COLOMBIA, ftc— CoNTiirtrED.

JstuiaI Point

Pnnta de Xioalango. .....

Bam de S. Pedro ......

Bam de Tabaaco

Barra d CSultq^ne

BioTapiloho; Entranoeof
Bam OB Ooaaaooalca —

La Barilla

Pnnta de 8. Joan

Rooa Partida, or C^fl Bk.

Babba de Altabado

VERA CRUZ I The Light-

hoUM .. ..

Xalapa

Cofre de Perote

Peak of Oriiaba or Oricava

PueUa de lot Angeles

Tohica

Teaonoo

Mbxigo

Cape Roxo

Babba de Tampico

Baira de Santander

Boqnillas Cerradas

Rio Grande del Norte, or

Rio Bravo, Mouth of;

Boundary

LAT. V.

19 12
18 41
16 40
18 34 30
26 SO

I.ON.

18
18 26
18 10
18 10
18 18
18 43
18 4A

19 12 15
19 30 8
19 32 64
19 2 17
19 15
19 16 19
19 30 40
19 25 45

21 16

22 15 56

23 40
25

25 56

90 53

91 00

92 35
92 35

92 59

93 21

94 17
94 30

94 33

95 2
95 42

▲uTHomms.

96 7
26 55

97 8

12 15

98 2 45

99 21 45

98 51

99 5
97 18
97 50 18
08 2
07 45

97 11 30

The Spanish Surveys of the
Mesdoan Sea, 1806—1814, with
emendatums hv Admiiral Bfoe^
kdlar, of th« British Navy, and
by the Baron Alex, von axm-
boldt,&c.

NOTES.

1. Cayenne. — ^The rituation of this town was given by M. De la Condamine, in
1774, frtnn four eclipses of the first Mitellite of Jupiter, as in 52" 16' 30" ; but the lon-

S'tude ia the Table is inferred from Maranham : the differonoe of longitude between
em having been ascertained by MM. Roussin and Lartigue.

2. Coast between the Marowtne and Beam's Point. — To Lieutenant B. Orte-
wUnk, late of the Netherlandish Navy, the public is indebted for that valuable descrip-
tion of the ooastsof Gu^ma and its several ports, which is in vol. iii. of the Colom. Nov.

3. CuxAMA. — The Baron von Humboldt gives the longitude (as calculated by M.
Oltmanns) as 64° 9' 38" ; iLe chronometric dmerenoe between it and St. ThomoH, as
asoertained by M. Zahrtmann, is 0° 44' 18', which makes it as in the table, 64° 10' 28*.

4. Santa Marta. — The meridional distance between Fort Royal and Santa Mur-
ta, by several mr jurements, is 2° 35° 45*, which arives the longituae in the table.

5. Caledonia Harbour. — The position of Scorpion Kay, in this harbour, vm
ascertained by Mr. Parsons, R.N., in H.M.S. Scorpion in 1854. It is important, »<
correcting the Spanish surveys of this coast, used in determining the practioability
of forming a navigable canal between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

VARIATIONS OF THE COMPASS.— 1861.

Aooording to the Chart of Lieutenant F.J. Evans, R.N., which, however differs in
some respects from previous authorities, the line of No Variation passes within the
coast of Guyana, from the entrance of the Amasons to near Cayenne.

The variation is thus at Cape North, about 0° 30' Weitint Suiinam,about 1* 30'J8!iu^

atDemerara, &o., 2° 5' Easti Trinidad, 2° 30' East; Caracas, 3** 50' East} Curavno,

4* 0' Easi { Santa Marta, rt" 25' East t Gulf of Darion, 6° 30' Kast ; Chogres, 6° 50' K.

Caw Graciss a Dios. 6° 35' East > Balise, T 20' 'East \ "

These variations appear to be very slowly deereating.

xmaMU

SECTION IL

LIGHTHOUSES,

AND THEIR ILLUMINATION.

The Lighthouse Systems at present in operation on the shores of Ihe Atlantic
Ocean are well worthy of far greater attention than they generally receive, both for
the regalarity and perfbction of their arrangements, and for the beautiftil adaptations
of science wnich they exhibit. A few remarks on their nature will therefore he an
appropriate introduction to the lists and descriptions of the lights which follow.

It is of the utmost importance to the sailor, that one light should be readily and
clearly distinguished from another ; the melancholy effects or mistakes on this point
are too familiar. Every means, therefore, of so distinguishing a light, should be made
use of; and one point in furtherance of tiiia, is the system employed in the illumina-
tion of the lighthouses, between the various methods of which it will be seen that then
are some weU-marked or minor features, which serve to give a distinctive character to
lights which may have, otherwise, the same general app^iranoe.

L^hthouaea consist of two classes ; those built on the land, which do not differ, in
the principles of their construction, from ordinary buildings; and those erected on
isolated rocks, such as the Eddystone, and that on tne Heaux de Brehat, which have
demanded the most refined Judgment and skill to combat with the enormous force of
the waves. Another description of erection consists of iron piles, either secured to
the rocks, oi on a large screw forced into the sand, which support the lighthouse.
An example will be found in the Maplin Lighthouse, in the mouth of the Thames.

Lwht-vesseh, employed where buildings have been hitherto impracticable, are of
peculiar construction, and always painted re(j, with their name, in conspicuous white'
letters, on their sides, and carry at their mast-heads one or more skeleton balls, as
described, which, in cases of the vessels driving, are lowered, in indication of such an
occurrence. During fogs or snow storms, from each of these vessels is sounded at

I regular intervals a Chinese gong, the very peculiar and powerful sound emitted by
wfiich is not to be mistaken for anything else. Light-ships are very strongly moorea,

I either with a single mushroom ancnor, or with a span and bridle.

The lanmg used for the illumination of liRhthouses are upon the principle invented
I W Argand, about 1780. The smallest of tnem consists of a single cylindrijid wick, '
lor nearly an inch in diameter, and the air is made to ascend through the tube to the'
jcentre of the flame, by means of a glass chimney placM around it, and does not differ^
jftom that in universal use. This sinsle wick lamp is used for the parabQlio reflectors ; '
and there are usually several of them In a lighthouse. Where a single and more powerftil '
light is required, a lamp of more complicated cunstruction, though of the seme prin-
ciple, is employed. The largest has four ooncentrio wicks, the outside or largMt
Semg S^ inches in diani,etcr, and the central or smallest flve-sizths of an ineh.^
!^rom_ the great heat which this ^werftil lamp evolves daring its buming, which is
puffloirot to char the wicksi the oil is made to flow copiously over tham, so that tha
hutntityjupplied to them is about four times more thim is consumed at the time..
~ is effected either by means of small pumps, moved by clockwork, or by springs

• N

LIGHTHOUSES AND tHElK ILLUMINATION.

or weightt preadng on the reservoir, or by the prewore of conlnned air. Th^ lamp
with four wioka is of the first order; for the second it has thrst wicks, for the third
two, and the fourth one wick.

The oil now employed both in the English and French lighfbonses is called colia
oil, and is ezpresed firom the seed of a species of rape or wild cabbage. Formerly the
best sperm oil was used in the English ughts till 1862.

The eflJBct of a lamp in issuing rays, is to fill a sphere whose dliineter is double that
of the distance to which such alight can be seen. But as only tlktse rays are service-
able which are visible in a horizontal or nearly horizontal direction, those which pass
b^irond these limits must be turned into it. To do this we have two alternatives,—
one to r^eet the %ht by iwlished mirrors, the other to refract it by glass lenses placed
before the Ught.

When polished silver reflectors are used behind the lightt it is Mlled the Catoptric
system, and is that most generally in use in England.

Where glass lenses are used he/ore or around the light, it is ealled the Diqptrie
^stem, and is that most generally in use in France. Hence these two systems are
frequently known by the names of the respective countries.

The Catoptric or reflecting system is dependent upon the peculiar properties of the
parabolic curve, to which we reflectors are formed. The parabola is a conic section
which has within it a point called the focus fwhich is the situation of the flame in the
reflector), and if a line be, drawn from the focus to any point on the parabolic curve,
another line drawn from that jpoint parallel to the axis of the parabola, will form an

anal angle on either side of it. Now the reflector, composea of copper Uned with
ver, is formed by the section of the revolution of a parabola, and if a part of light
firom the focus be reflected firom its polished surface, it is thrown off, or reflected m a
direction mrfectly parallel to its axis. The point of liffht in the focus thus sends
forth a cvlinder of ught, whose diameter is equsi to the aouble ordinate or opening or
moutli of the reflector. Supposing, then, that we wished to produce a complete circle
of light all aroimd the hrison, it is evident that it could not be done with any number
of such instruments ; there would be dark intervals between the direction of their
axes, if thejr were placed in a circle. But here another ciroimistance occurs. The
flame used is not a point of light, but is nearly an inch in diameter, and this subtends
an angle at the vertex (or bottom of the reflector) of 14° 22', in the reflectors ordinarily
used in the l^inity House lights, which are 21 inches in diameter and 4 inches in
focal length. Therefore, combined with other circumstances, about 15° or 17° of
divergence may be considered effective, and it would take from 26 to 33 of such
reflectors to maJco a complete circle of light.

^ The brillianoy of the ray firom this reflector is considerably stronger in the direc-
tion of the axis, that is, wnen viewed directly in fix>nt, than it is for some distance on
either side of that direction ; and at great distances, in Jkeed lights, when you are in
the direction between the axis of the adjoining reflectors, the lignt is fluently glim-
merinff and feeble, but a small change in the position of the ship brings ^ou again
into the brijjhter beam of the reflector, one of which, it will be imderstood, is only in
sight at a time. This is an important obHervation to the sailor, in distinguishing one
fixed light firom another, of different descriptions of apparatus.

When a revolving light is required, a number of these reflectors is fixed to the
rides of a triangular or quadrangular iron fitunet and the whole caused to revolve in
rvgnliur periods, by means of clockwork. The reflectors on each side of the revolving
fnune, from four to eight in number, are thus successively directed to every point of
the horizon ) and the combined result of tiieir rays forms a flash of greater or lea
duration, according to the rapidity of their revolution.

From the amount of divergence the period during which such a light will remain
visible is firom 12 to 16 seconds, the light graduaUy increasing, and as gradually
diminishing. And as the action of the reflector is only in the diroction to wnioh it u
plaoad, the intervals between the flashes will be quite dark, for a shorter or loncer
ptilod, aooording to the distance firom which it is viewed, whether it is beyond that to
which the unasnsted flame will reach.

LIGHTHOUSES AND TH^R ILLUMINATION.

Hie light from a revolving catoptric or reflectiiig lysteui ii much brighter thaia from
a, fixed l&ht on either pHiiciple, as you have the combined effect of Mveral reflectors,
each of wnich gives an equal amount of light, it is calculated, to 360 to 400 siUsh lights
without any rraectors.

In floating light-yeaseUi the light is always slurwn firom parabolic reflectors. These
are snumer than those uiied in lighthouses, being 12 inches in diameter. For fixed
lif hts, eight lamps and feflectors, each suspended on ^vnbals, or on ball and yooket-
jomts, so that they alwtys maintain their perpendicularity, notwithstanding the
rolling of the Tessel, are arranged in -an octagonal lantern, which goes round the
mast, and is hauled up to the mast-head when on service, and is let down on the dedc
during the day, or whilp the lamps are trimming. Revolving lights for floatins
light-vessels haye four lipps, and similar reflectors, and the lantern revolves around
the mast.

An apparatus for producing an intermitting light, of the only appearance to which
Buofa a term is applicable, is in use in three of the Scottish lighthouses, th') invention
of Mr. Robert Stevenson, It is an arrangement by means of which the light is sud-
denly obscured by an eoUpser, and as suddenly appears again at ite full brilliancT.
This feature distin^ishes it completely fit>m revolving lighto, which come gradually
to their greatest brightness, and as gradually decrease, and tiiis either firom the re-
flecting or rcftacting apparatus.

There ia yet another sort of reflector in use in France for harbour lighte, called the
Bordier Marcet apparatus, from ite inventor, or the sideral lamp. It is used with a
single lamp, and consists of a circular reflector, about 13| inches diameter, formed by
the revolution of a parabola around its focus in a horizontal plane ; the centre of this
is taken out to acbout the lamp, which thus has all around it, above and below, a re-
flecting sur&ce, which sends its upward and downward rays in a horizontal direction.

The lights in the ensuing list, which are upon the catoptric or reflecting system,
are cUstingnished by this mark •. Their magnitude, or order, is not intucated, as
only one reflector is usually visible at a time ; the class of the light is to be inferred
from its importance.

The first notice we have of the use of parabolic reflectors is given by William
Hutchinson, in his '* Practical Seamanship," published in 1777, as having been used
in the Liverpool lighthouses, erected in the year 1763. The formula for me parabolic
curve now used was given by Captain Josepn Huddart.

The Dioptric or lenticular system is next to be considered, and depends for ito
action on tne refiracting propertiea of glass. In this the apparatus is placed before the
flame, and derives ito name, dioptric, froin a Greek word, signifying anything looked
through ; or lenticular, from ito being composed of lenses. Ito principle may be thus
explained : —

When a ray of li^ht passes out of a rarer into a denser medium, as firom air into
glass or water, or vtce veraS, it is reflracted, or bent, out of ito original direction. Of
course, thia new direction is dependent upon the direction in which it enters into, ox

I emerges fh>m, this second medium. This is familiarly explained in the burning-glass,
in which it will be seen that a cylinder of parallel rays of the sun entering one side
of the lens, arc so deflected, that upon their issuing from it on the other, they form a

[tone of rays whose apex is at a certain distance, dependent on the curved side or sides

I of the lens, called the focal distance.

In the application of plano-convex lenses of 3 feet focus, to the controlling of two-
I fifths of the entire sphere of light, they must be 2 feet 6 inches in diameter, and if
Iconstniotod of the usual form of smaller lenses, would be several inches in thidcness
lip the middle. This would occasion serious inconveniences : a large portion of the
■light would be abaorbed in ito passage i there would be great difficulty in procuring
Much ft mass of glass of anything approaching to uniform density, whion is necessary
|to ittproper action { and it would oie also of very great weight, and oonsequentiy, b«
lof diflionlt management.

To obviate these difficulties (for a burning-glass), it occurred to Sir David Brewster

100

I4QHTH0ySES AND THEIR ILLUMINATION.

in 1611, and to M. Augurtin Fre^nel in 1$19, thfit the same optical effeotfi might he
pieflenwd if a large portion of the solid part of the lens were removed { heoanae the
tjefhietivei properties of the lens depend upon the relative direction of its Rorfhoet.
Ihey therradre' prbposed the lens now in use for lighthouse purposes. It is called the
polyxonal or an""''" lens, because it oonsists of a series of Eones or rings, instead of
Deing'^. one uiiifbrm curve or surfkoe. It is a plano-convex lens, having the curved
surfitoe cut into rings, which are brouffht into one plane, and the relative direction of
the outer curved surfSeuw to the inner flat one is preserved in the separate rings of
which tile lens is built. There is one neat advantage in this method, that the lens
may he built to any size, and yet not oe thicker, and may be made square, so as to
economise every portion of light which may be thrown on the zones of tne breadth of
^ir diametw. The dioptric system was perfected by the late M. Augustin Fresnel,
the director of the Frenon lights, and is sometimes called by his name.

For a revolving light of the first order, or largest size, eight of these lehses are'
f<Kniied into an octangular belt of 6 feet 0*5 inch in ^ameter, having the flame of the
j^amp 19 their common focus. Therefore as the action of these lenses is the reverse of
that of the burning glass, by sending forth parallel rays of light, which enter the lens
m the form of a cone from the focus within ; this part of the apparatus will send forth
eight beams of light in the direction of their axes, or the lines between the lamp and
their centres; between these directions the light will not be seen. The apparatus
being made to revolve, say, in eight minutes, by means of machinery, it follows that
a bright beam, gradually increasing in intensity, and then diminiuningj will be pre-
sents to the eye each time that one of these lenses passes before it, that is, once every
minute.

The duration of these flashes is dependent on the power of divergence in the lens.
If the light were a mathematical point, as supposed in the case of the reflector, the
fladi would last but a single instant, but the bi-eadth of the flame being 3-30 inches,
this, at the focal distance of 3 feet, subtends an angle of 5° 9', and consequently the
duration of the flash is while this angle is passing, or about seven seconds. These
separate lenses form the principal or most powerful portion of a revolving dioptric

For Ajixed light on the dioptric principle, another adaptation of it is used. As tho
object is now omy to bend those ra^s, which would pass upwards or downwards into
a nosizontal direction, and not to interfere with the direction of those which pass
laterally, the central portion of the apparaus is formed into a continuous belt, or
rather series of belts, whose section is identical with that of the polyzonal lens. It
will be evident that such an arragement distributes the Ught evenly all round the
direction in which it is placed, and thus affords a means ofdistinction for the sailor,
to discriminate such a fixed light from one on the catoptric or reflecting principle,
when the light is not quite even all round, but is strongest when immediately in mnt
of the reflector.

The central portions of the apparatus which we have been describing economiae
about two-fifths of the whole rays issuing from the central lamp, but does not afibct
those which pass above or below their action, and which would therefore bo lost for
useful effect without some additional controlling apparatus. This is of two kinds:
either reflecting, being formed of numerous silvorea glass mirrors, or else of rejkei'
ing and reacting glass prisms.

The upper series of this additional portion, in the original form of the larger appa-
ratus, consists of a series of seven lings, covered with mates of looking-glass, wmch
are inclined towards the fiamo at such an angle, that tnoy reflect tiie light in a hori-
sontal direction, and thus add their effect to tne power of the central portion of the
lenses. The same reinarks apply to the lower series, or the four beneath the flame i
and they may be considered, as each of the taeea, forming a portion of tiie parabolic
curve, whose focus is in the flame of the lamp. In a nrst order light apparatus on
this system there are 264 separate mii-rors in the 11 zones. But this portion of the
apparatus is now in course of change for the following, in all the Enghsh and French
Hgnts.

In the earlier period of the it troduction of tlie dioptric system, a more beautiful

LIGHTHOUSES AND TH^IR ILLUMINATION'.

adaptation of aoienoe ytM akme uaed for the imaller apparatus, in the fonn of catai*
dioptric or totallv reiBeoting prismatio fflaas boiim, aoove and below the principal
lenses. It has oeen intnxluoed into uie largest appcuratus, upon the soggestion.oz
Mr. Alan Stevenson, the ensineer of the Scottuh lighthouseB, and has most materially
increased the efficiency of the whole system.

When a ray of light is thrown on a glass surfiMse at a more aoate angle than
41° 49', instead of passing oat again it is totally refketed from that point, imd it ia.
of no importance whether it is within the body of we glass or on its external surfiwie.:
The prismatic cones are so arranged in the form of a cupola over the flame, that the
upper and curved surfiEices of each of them shall be at sucn an angle to the focal flame
that the rays issuing from it shall, after beins refiucted from the undier side, be re-
ceived upon the inner surface of the upper side, be again refracted, and issue from the
outer side in a perfectly horizontal dimstion.

This is one of the greatest refluements of practical science, and so perfectly does it
fiilfil its office, that the only loss of light is tnat which is absorbed oy the glass of
which the prisms are comjKwed. These cata-dioptric zones are necessarily very much
more costly than the ordmary catoptric or reflecting zones, but they increase the
powei of this part of the apparatus more than in a corresponding degree, though
their general effects are not otherwise distinguishable frt)m one another.

The distance to which the light from these zones is visible is about 10 or 8 sea miles,
according as the apparatus is or the first or second order.

In a revolving lenticular light, therefore, the upper and lower portions of the appa-
ratus, affording a constant and steady Ught, are visible in the intervals between the
flashes from the central lenses, and tms sabordinate light will serve to fix the position
of a li^ht during such interval, if it is seen within the diutance of 8 or 10 miles.
This distinguishes a lenticular revolving light most clearly from one on the catoptrio
principle, or from parabolic reflectora, the intervals between the flashes of which are
generally total beyond the distance of 2, 3, or 4 miles.

There is a more complicated system in use for dioptric revolving lights, which,
although there is no example of them in the English Channel, as mey are in use in
the two finest lighthouses in the world, the Cordouan, at the mouth of the Oironde,
and the new Skerry vore, off the West coast of Scotland, we will here describe. In-
stead of the bands of parabolic mirrors, or cata-dioptric zones, above the central and
principal lenses, the apparatus is dia-catoptric, being composed of eight smaller lenses
of 19| inches of focal oistance, inclining mwards towards the fiiame, and forminff an
octagonal fnistrum of a cone of 60" inclination. These are surmounted by plane
mirrors, placed so as to reflect horizontally the beams transferred by these lenses.
This upper apparatus is fixed at an angle of 7" from that of the eight great vertical
lenses. The whole of the apparatus is caused to revolve in eisht minutes, and the
following is its distant effect. Within 8 miles a constant steagfy light is seen f^m
thelower zones, and once in every minute a small flash is seen for a few seconds,
caused by the upper portion of the apparatus. Soon after this smaller flash, tibe
principal lens gives the brightest beam, which may be seen more than 30 miles ; this
having passed, the smaller flash, after a period, succeeds, and thus in each minute a
smaU and a largo flash are visible.

Among the French system of lights is an anparatus which shows a fixed light
varied by a bright flash at regular intervals. Tne apparatus consists of the ordinary
fixed dioptric light with the refracting belt, which is composed of horizontal cylin-
drical elements. Round this central belt one or more panels of vertically cylincuical
elements is made to revolve. This revolving panel causes the horizontally divergent
beams to be parallelized in azimuth, and thus the appearance of the light fivm the
entire apparatus will be a fixed light, then a short echpse caused by the deflection of
the section of Ught by the revolving panel, then the bnght flash from the panel, ^en
another short eclipse, and then the steady light again. The same appearance is also
more effectually produced by constructing the apparatus of alternate segments of
horizontal cylindrical elements and polysouai ienijss. SomvtimCB the flash is of a red

103

LIOHTHONSES AND THEIR ILLUMINATION.

Colour, tlii revolving panel bebv itained for that pnrpoae, as in the case of the new
li^t on CSianaejr in tne Channel lalands, and several others.

The only means of cUstin^niahinff one light from another is that of causing it to
revolve or flash at different intervau, as is almost exdnsively used in the French
Urhta, at by means of colour, as is more in use in our own harbour and tide lights.
l£e cdouF which alone seems adapted fbr this purpoee is red, and this .is appliol to
di<mCxio lamps by a cylinder rf ruby-coloured glass, stained with, a nre^ration of
gold, plaoed around the lamp ; or if to the ordinary reflector, a pane of this coloured
glass 18 placed before the rraeotor. The use of colour is olgectionable on the score
of the griiiatly diminished powter of such a light. In a bright liffht, revolving
and showing alternate red flashes, these last will not be visible so far on as the bright
light, and give the mtpearance of longer or unequal intervals in its appearance.

There is soitte waste of light in both the systems. In the catoptric it is that angle
comprised between the' angle ibrmed by the Ups of the reflector and the flame and die
horiiontal ray whioh strikes the outer edge of the reflector. That portion of the light
which paasee upwards is, of course, lost for useAil effect : the otber portions may be
considraed as serviceable, In the year 1849, Mr. Thomas Stevenson, son of Robert,
brother of Alan Stevenson, proposed some arrangements which obviate this loss, upon
what is termed the holophotal system.*

The ordinary paraboloidal reflector is rendered holophotal as follows ; — A small
portion of the back of the reflector is cut off; for this is substituted a portion of a
apherieal mirror of the same focus. In front of the flame a lens witb three diaca-
.foptiic rings is added. The action of the spherical reflector is to return all the rays
impinged on it back through the flame, anclthus on to the posterior sides of the lens
and diacatoptrio rrngs. l^erefore, ,al^ the rays which emerge from the lens, &c., will
be horicontal, and the remainder, those impinging on the paraboloid, will also be re-
flected in tbe same direction. Peterhead fight ^1859) is on this principle. The Hors-
burgh Lighthouse, in the strait of Singapore, is fitted with 9 such liolophotal re-
flectors ! three on each face of a revolvug frune, each side of which, it is said, gives
as much light as five reflectors of the ordinary kind. This was completed in 1851.
Another one, on a la^e scale, is at Hoy Sound, Orkney. A similar apparatus, a red
light, was plaoed at Wick,, in Caithness, in 1861.

' Dioptric lights are divided into 4, or rather 6 orders, according to their magnitude :

1. ThsHret order apparatus is 6 feet 0*5 inch in diameter, and is illuminated by a
lamp withfonr wicks, of 3-39 inches, 2*52 inches, 1'69 inches, and '83 inch ^ameter,
reflectively. It is indicated in the following list by the figure 1.

' 2. The second order ai>paratus is 4 feet 7'13 inches in diameter, and is illuminated
by a lamp with three wicks of 2*6 inches, 1*8 inches, and *9 inch in diameter, re-
spectively, and is indicated by the figure 2.

8. The third order ik subdivided into two siaes, larger and smaller. The first appa-
ratus fgrand meddle) is 3 feet 3*38 indies in diameter j and the second (petit modSe)
1 footT'69 inches in diameter. They are each illuminated by a lamp wiu two wicks,
the larger of 1*61 and '807 inches diameter respectively, and tiie smaller of 1-20 and
•589 inches in diameter. They are shown in the list by tiie figure 3. All the lights
of this order in the English Cnannel are of the larger sice.

' 4. Thefaurih order, or harbour light, is also subdivided into two sizes, the larger
(grand meddle)! foot 2'77 inches in diameter, the smaller (petit module) 11'81 inches
in diuneter. They are illuminated by a single cylindrical wicked lamp of '94 inch or
•85 inch in diameter. As the sub-division of this order is unnecessary to the sailor
it is distinguished in the list by the figure 4.

In addition to the magnitude of the apparatus, the description of it will also serve
usefolly to distinguish one light from another. Therefore, the different systems em-

• "

Holophotal :" from two Oreek words, signifying " whole light"

LIGHTHOUSES AND THRlR ILLUMINATION.

10»

pl6jred, M described in the foregoins paragraphs, are derignated by the letten a, b, c, 4^
attached to the figures indicating tneir sizes, as follows : —

a. AJbetd ^Uoptrio light apparatus, having a dioptric belt and catArdioptrio prb-
matio cones. This is the most perfect system for fixed light apparatus.

b. A rtvohing li^ht apparatus, condsting of eight polyzonal lenses, surmonnted by
the oata-dioptric pnsms. The appearance of this light, beyond the distance cHf Sor
10 miles, according to the size of the apparatus, is that of a brilliant flash of 7 to 9
seconds^ duration. Within that distance the fiunter light between the flsishes is
visible.

e. KJixtd liffht, varied by ,/fo«A«a. Its appearance, which distinguishes it from any
other, upon close attention, is, 1st, the intensi^ and duration <n the fi:fed Imbt;
and, 2nd, by the Bhort duration of the eclipse whicn precedes and fi^ows eachbri^^
flasL

d. A holophotal apparatus, described as above.

The range (port^e) of the dififerent lights, as given in the table, xepresefets this
element yvtj incompletely, inasmuch as uie distance there ^ven is dependent on tlie
elevation of the light, and consequent distance of the horizon. The flashes of the
principal revolving dioptric lights may be, and have been, seen 50 or 60 miles bfi",
when they are above the horizon, and it may be taken for granted that, should the
atmosphere be favourable, any of the larger lights may be seen fi*om whatever dis-
tance they may be sought for from the greatest attainable elevation.

The height of the lights above the seaplevel is ^ven in the tables from the level of
high water at spring ti£u, and consequentiy is their minimum height. This will cause
the distance to which they are visible to be increased (with the exception of floatiiig
lights) when it is low water, by an amount equivalent to the depression of .the sea
sur&ce at that period.

Atmospheric changes, of courses, have the most important efiect on the range, visi-
bility, and appearance of lights. In a very clear transparent atmosphere tiiey will
have nearly a white appearance ; during fi^gy weather, particularly the ^y haze
sometimes predominant on soundings, they will have more or less of <>. yellow or
reddiih tinge.

Lights may be divided into three classes according to their nautical importance :—
1. CoMt lufhtt, those which serve for the mariner to recoenise the land on approach-
ing it, and are thus of the greatest power ; they are mariced in the follovring lists in
capital letters, thu»— USHaNT, LIZARD, &c.

2. ffarbour and Leading Lights. — These, of less importance than the former in thii
general system, are used to indicate a port or narrower channel. Some of these,
though mora limited in their immediate object, may be as important as the first class.
Thus the Gull Stream light-vessel, though of limited approaches, is most nseftil in
marking the centre of the Goodwin ; it is therefore placed among the first class.
The second class is shown in small capitals, as — Shoeehau, Chebbocxq, &c.

3. Tide Ughtt show when a harbour has a certain depth of water and is accessible.
They are freqnentiy red, and, consequently, are of less power. They are mariced in
itahos, as Banugate, Boulogne, &c.

Farther details aro given and alluded to in our recent Work, " A Description and
List of the Lighthouses of the World, 1661," to which the reader is referred.

:}-^'' ,vy.-

'i*^a3;wi.;^';«f?^- ^i^ip'-

I )

EXPLANATION OF THE TABLES.

NAME AND CHARACTER OF LIGHT— First Column.

IbB jprindpal OOMt lights are given in oaj^tala, m K. FORELAND. Secondary lights in
- naallw oapitalB, as SBonBaAH EUaAotrB. Tide lights in italics, as Sanugatt. The
dumeter «r fhe l%^t loUowB its name.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION— Second Column.

The latitudes and longitadee here given are nresomed to be aooorate, within less than IV
fur all the coasts of tiie Atlantic Ocean and its Seas. In other parts of the world it may
yvtj somewhat more ; but there is no great disorqiancy, such as would lead to serious
cooaequenoes, by takuog any one of them as a p(nnt of departure.

DESCRIPTION OF THE LIGHT, &c.— Third Column.

£& fhla, any neouliarity of the light, or period of a Tide light, is noticed ; and also the
direction o7 double lights, la. many cases the bearing of two lights when in one will

' lead dear of a danger, as the 8. Foreland in one, W. by-K., dears S. end of the Goodwin,
fto. Special directions will ezplaitf this.

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS— Fourth Column.

Sa this, tlie signs ' ed to indicate the sort of light apparatus in use in eadi case:—
• signifies a catoptric, or reflector light. (See page 14, £0.)
la, 2. 8d, &c., indicate dioptric, or lens Ughta, the figure showing the order or'
size, 1st, 2od, 3rd, to 6th order. (See page 26.)

a, a fixed lenticular light. (Page 22.)

b, a revolving lenticular light. (Page 21.)
0, a fixed andflashing li^t (Page 23.)
d, a holophotal light. (Page 26.)

These figures and letters will serve to explain the peculiarities of the Lenticular System, as
in operation therein.

HEIGHT ABOVE HIGH WATER- Fifth Column.

This ^ves the height of t^e JIatM in feet above the highest tide level, consequently it is its
minimiiin height, and is increased by the tidal range of the dace. The height of tiia
Lighthouse itself, firom base to summit, is given sometimes in tne third odumn.

VISIBLE IN MILES— Sixth Column.

This gtvM the minimum distance to which the light can be seen, in clear weatiier, firom »
height of 10 feet above the sea level. But in the case of the prindpal lights this but im- '
penectly represents their nmge, as they could be seen at any di-:'tanoe attainable by
moniased devation. In the use of «oloured lights this range is given according to their
pxeisfumed power.

YEAR.ESTABLISHED— Seventh Column.

The date of the first exhibition of the light is usually given ; but its diaraoter, &o., may
have been frequently changed in the interval.

LIGHTHOUSES.

y light! bl
igatt. Vm

leas fhaa IV
rorld it may
tdtoattioua

and alsotlia
I in 006 will
)he Goodwin,

the order or'

r System, as

lently it is its
lieight of the

lithfil^l ttom A"
y this bat im-'
LttainaUe ly
■ to their

er, &c., may

nOLAXD.

ThMiM Vonfli.

Nhm and Ohaneter of Ui^

Lone. B.

DCMllptloiLi Ao.

BrVBB THAMES
Novthfleet

Hope Point Fort

UncUng Pkt, File light
Houae

GhapmaaHead

Southend Pierrhead

Shflemen -

KOBE LIOHT-YESS.
One br. rev. It imjn, .

OnDum Lr.-yBuai.
One br. rev. It. i min.

PaoTcn Chahit. Lt. Vn.
One fwf rev. It 20 seca.

UnUUhglitia fairway; rtdovm
aadiorage in QvaTeaoad Beach
and BTondncm t>»i«««it<ttt

t ...... I A aingle lamp fijr CoUiera | .. |

Bright East of N.E. by E., red 2a | 40
to W. ; also r»d ray toward
BIyth bnoy, and red N. of
flunray inSea Beaoh

Bright in fidrway ohannol, rnf | 2a | 40
toN. Afbg-beU

SI a

« 7-

ToMom LiOHT-YnMiL. I 51 19.
Upp.br., low rMffF.lta. I 1 19.

HemeBayPier I ....;.

Margate Pier \ st 2^

One rMJ fixed light | i 13.

Uov8i LiOBT-YiasBL 151 33.

One bright fixed light | 1 o.

MaPLIN PiLB LlOHTHO. I Jt 35-

One f«f fixed light | i 3.

SwiN MioDU Lt.-Yess. 151 39.

One br. rev. It 1 min. | i 7.

GCNFLUT FiLB Lt. Ho. 'i JI 45.8

One red rev. It 2 min. | i ao.

8V!rKLlOHT-YE8BBL. I 5I 46.7

One bright fixed light | r a8.

I EnrriBHEifoOKLT.-Yia. I 51 40.8
One br. rev. It,. 1 min. | i 40.5

I GALLOPER LT.-YES. I 51 45.

Two br. fixed light* i \$6.

I JZ«if fixed light

I Sed gaa-lig^t on Oairison Ft . .

In 3 fifithoma at Eaat end of the
NoreSand

In 8| fitthoms W. Oirdler Sand at
W . entxance of princes Chan.

In Si fina. N. aide of Channel,
between GUidler and Tongue
light- Yeasela

In 10 fikthoma atK Tongue Sand
one red balL lighta at. on-
eqnalheighta ..............

I Fixed light at Pier-head ......

At West end of Pier, alao a amall
light on Jarvia landing-place

In 4 fftthoma, at W. end of Sand

Painted red, light not vis. over the
sand ; a bright ray to S. f W.

In 4 fiiithoms at West end of
Sand

I On S.E. side of Sand ; keep i mile
I off and do not pass to N. ....

In 10 fikthoms in fidrway of East
Swin

Haa two red balls vertically. In
11 fins, on E. side of Sand . .

In 20 fins, on E. side of Sand;
lights horizontal ; .

|..) 82

I • I 38

• i 38

• I 38

38
14

• I 8S

• I 38
2a I 36

• I 38
•I 41

• I 37

• I 36

.. |18«9

;. 11803
11 1 184a

1 11 1 1849

., 1 1840

S I 1869

10 I 1734

10 I 1848

10 I 1856

10 I 1848

« • I • •

.. 11857
10 i 1829

10 I 1838

10 1 1838

10 I 1837

9 I 1860

10 I 1802

10 I 1840

10 I 1808

Turn

MGHTHOUSES.

fovHiOoMt

X«tto> ,«4€huMt«r • . 4M.

Lony. E.

JTO^TH FOBBLAND i 51 »-5
Ovbrijl^t fixed Ugkt 1 a6.8

White towor 78 A hifi^ ▲ atrip
of rNf It to £. ond of Margate
Soad

GOODWIN LT.-VES8.
niree la\ fixed li|^ta

5»
f

sa
a6.

5»
I

aXJIX 8TBEAH LT.V. 1 51
One lir. rer. It., 20Moe. f i

80.8ANDHD.LT.YES. t 51
One bright fixed light | 1

80TITH FORELAND I 51
Two br. fixed lights | i

DOVEit 51

OneerNnlight 1

MtilUULitkU
Mm Ughton Admiralty
Pier

IMIit»tim$ TUe Light 1 5|

'9.
IS-

»7-
so-
lo.
s8.

M-4

7-
«9-

While 10 iMt The low^TMN It
is diiiMf* tO! tW. with 10 feet
arMf tik d»ll by oaf . • .,

Off the N. end of the Goodwin I
Sands, in 9 fathoms |

On the W. edge of the Goodwin I
Sands, in Sf&thoms |

Off the S. end ef the Goodwin I
Sands, in 18 fiithoms |

In one W. by N., 1,847 foot
apart

N. ner : one red\t. while 7 feet
8. Pier: one red It while 7 to
10 ft ; two ml Its. while 10 to
IS feet The grtm light only
^ward the entrance

la 1 184 1 19 i lase

4a I 87 I O]....

• I 28 1 10 1 1703
t I 14 I 7 J 1809

• I 88 I 10 1 1832

la r 372 I 25 I 1763

• I 276 I 22 I 1842

• I .. I .. I 1842
.. .. .. 1862

VAB^ LT-YESSEL | 50
One red, qidek revoL It | 1

DUNGENE8S
One bright flx»d light

M^ TUkliahU ' J 50

Two bright fixed Its. 1 b

5-
II.

56.
18.

I io 54.« I
I 5S-3 1

One fixed rMf light, whUe 10 feet | • | 90 | < 1 1810

• I 86 i 10 I 1860

la I 92 I 14 1 1789

In 16 fethoms at Ti^. evd. of the |
Shoal..... I

57.

Hastotos 1 50 i%.

One bright, one rf# It I 036.

A rti tover on the point Fog
bell

[ On N. aide o£ the entrance while

10 ft; in one N. by W. 640

I feetapait ..................

In one, N.N.B., 608 fiset apart, to

direct the fiaheiteen (September

I 29 and March 26)

26| 4| ....

\\\

■■\Z\V-'

Eastt< me

BEACHT HEAD
A br. rev. light, 2min.

Kbwhatxh
Abr.fixedltftTiAK.

5045-
o 17.

50 44.»
o ia.9

5047-
o 4.

A lamp in the fishing season.... I .. I 10 | S | ....

A white lighthouse, 47 feet high, I « | 286 { 22 1 1828
on sommit of Belletout Cliff. . '

On the W. per. The tide It rft* ;

between 10 and 18 fieet; brigl ' !

I above 18feet...»*»t*«i*t*««> I

-1 *?i f}:..

LatN.
LoDf.W.

J«47
o 4.

BuosTOM Ci ^^if«. I ^o ^4! I Onepvmfixed%ht t .. | 86 ] 10 1 1824

8KOBBHAK'xT<l>i >.% I W JO.

A br. fixed vi \r«f] c 15.
TUe Liff^

On central pier, bright 2V»lis^t I 4a I 42I10|182(
while 11 feet, but rwlat H. W. .. ~

"SJ

littlehamptoa

\^lft\ I A fixed fMf light on R pier ....]•! 80| 9 1 1848

OW
Oj

BiMI

ST. (
Oa

Wak

r.,

f^^ ox
One

SoUTb

Tw<

CaL8B(

One
li

Tarmo
One:

NEED]
Onel

HrHST J
Two!

Pooix
IVoi

Onore

PORTLi
High.
Low It

POHTIAJC:

Onefis

Shamblb
One fix

Onerw

IIOBTllOUftBi.

1 19 1 liise

I M

; 1 10 1 1798

\\ 7118W

5 1 10 1 1832

2 I 2ff 1 17»S

6 I 22 I 184'it

,.|..|lW2

961 611810
86 1 10 1 1860

92 I li 1 1789

6| 41 ....
el 8|

601 71 ...«
so) 4|

10| 2| ••••

86 I 22 1 1838

85 1 10 1 1624
4allO|l83S

K«M w^ Okanwtar or Light

i;4wc.w.

DcMiiptkniy 4e0«

OWEBS LT.-VE88BL I 50 39.7 i On t 8.B. «id o tlw Owen | • | 88 | 10 1 1768
One bright flzed ligkk | o 39.9 | Shoai, ia 19 l!irtlioaui »«#..,..

BiMfmiD«a Lr'-VitBUb I 50 41.7 I Near fhe Knb Itock, off Bern-
Two bright fixed liglitoj I 1^1 bridge Point, in 6 fitthonui....

ST. CATHERINE'S
One brilliant &(ed It

▲ haadione atone tower, 106 feet I la
high

50 34-1
I 17.8

-Vmmu I 50 43.8 I In 18 fiitiionM. on the Eaatem
tlmin. I I 4. I partof thoSnoal... ,j.

'Z.rny.r'VmnML
r.dV,

TvvoM i\M

SoOlil.VACARTLB

One »%4 flii»d lifl^t

Soi)niA.iinoNPnB
Two fixed rMffighto

CaUHOT lilOHT-YEABn.

One bright rovol. light
1 min.

Tabmooth Castlb
One fixed light

NEEDLES OuTRB Rock
One fixed Gght

I ....4. I A bright fixed light | 6a

150 46.6 ] A Btrong r«f light on Ortitle.
I 5.1 1 Showi frem from W. of the
1 SfdtBuogr...

150 53.7 I Li one, lead op the Channel. Alao I
I a44l tworHflta.attheI>oduinonei
I If^V I

5048. 4 0ffObUhotOMtle,in8|flithonui
. t 16. I

I I

50 39-7
« 34-5

HVRST Bbacr
Two bright fixed lights

Foou
Two m) light*

Swanage Pier

Wktmojth
One reil fixed light

PORTLAND
High It., br. and fixed
Low It, br. and fixed

50 4S.4
I 3»-9

50 41-
I 58.

SO J7'
2 a6,

50 31-3

» 17.3

JM lUht la centre load* in;
bfifit or green, outride

Show* Ran (except between W.
and W.N.W.), when it ahowi
Wam. Showi Wain alio to
N,E.byE. iE. Afidntlt. hiride
WordeuLedge Roojr. Fog belL

In one, N.S. by i E., 766 feet
aikurt. Another lifllhtin the low

I In one, K, | MT. ; 786 feet »part 1
on It. ride of eptraaoe. Alio I
ftmrlightafiuide..^.... {

I One fixed light intended

On the 8. t^or head

9t<«6t I ••

• #•••#•••• I • •

White towert, 82 and 86 ft. htffh
near the Bm. In one, N.N.W.
f W., 1609 fbet apart..

PoBTLA^ Bobakwatsb 1...... I On the end of the Btogo. .......

One fixed rMfUght

Shamblbs Shoal Lt. Vie. | »»....
One fixed light

Lffme Regie Tide Lighte | 50 43.5
One red, one green light | a 35.9

On E. end of GHioal, In 16 feu.

From half flood to half obb. In
one, N.W. \ N., 826 tt. apart

66 I 10 I 1812
28| 8|

178 I 18 I 1840
88 I 8 I 1864
21 I 12 I 1852

ai I 9 1 \%n.

.. I .. I 1641

82 t 9 I 1842

12| .. I 1837
80 I 9 I 1869

66 I 12 I 1812
29 9 1786

37 I 6 I 1848
16

.. I .. I 1861
28 I 21 I 1863

222 I 19 I 1716
146 16 1769

80 I 9 i 1861
88 I 10 I 1869

11 I . . I 1868
21 4

MS mKfi^.A3n,

LIGHTHOT78ES.

UomkOmH.

yuM and Ounetar of Light.

LM.N.
Long. W.

DomiptloOf co«

TmOltMOVTR

Two mf fixed lights

Bbixhak
One rMf fixed light

Torqtiay Pier Head i

Dajliuovtb
One TMi fixed Ugbt

STABT POINT
One brilliant lerolTing
li^ht, Tinble every
minute

Fltmoutr Bbsakwatui
One bright and one red
light .. .

Pltkovtr Harboub
One bright fixed light

EDDYSTONE
One brilliant fixed It

so 24.

3 SO-
SO ?7J

3 3«-

50 ao.
3 33-

50 13.3
3 38.3

50 ao.4
4 9-5

50 aa.

4 7-

50 10.8
4 i5'9

Oneona limeaioiiietoweron8.W. I • | 81 1 61 1 184d
and of Denn ; other on a honae |

I On aa Iron itaad on the pi» I • i 20 | 6 1 1889
I head... — I

One fixed fwf light h'll^l ff i 1852

W.aideofentamoe |«1 80 1 10 1 1867

A white tower, 94 feet hig^ A
fixed It., 102 ft. high, is alao
vis. from tower, when it bears
8. of W.8.W. A bell in fogs

On W. end ; bri^t to seaward,
but red E. of N.E. i E. from
it. A lower br. It is seen when
the channel is open. A bell
during foga

A tower, 20 feet bigh, on the W.
Barbican pier head .

la I 204 I 19 I 1886

68
48

9 I 1844

»••••• tee*

FAUtOTTTR

One rev. It in 20 sees.

LIZARD
Two brilliant fixed Its.

WOLF ROCK
One light, proposed

Unuanet Tide light
A fixed red light, while
16 ft inside; freen
while less

L0NG8HIP8 •■ "•
One brilliant fixed It

8EV. 8T0NESLT.VES.
Two bright fixed li^ts

SCILLT '

One br. reTol. It ereiy
minute

BISHOP ROCK
One fixed bright light

SO 8.6

4 595

49 J7«

5 ».i

49 5«.7
S 48.a

50 7.
5 3«.

An admirable red and tehUe stone
tower, 89 ft above foundation
on the rook, which covers 14 ft
at high water. Bell in fogs

A white tower, 62 feet high, on
8t Anthonjrs Point

Two white towan, each 61 fbet
high, W. f N. and E. f 8., 223
feet apart, on the Liiard Cliff

(Proposed, on the sock.)

A V7hite bulldlnar, 22 fbet h%h,
on the 8. pierhead. By day,
a ball whih} 16 feet

• I 29 I 6 I 1829
2a I 72 I 13 I 1769

• I 72 I 12 I 1836

232

20
20

1751

I ..|.. 11861

6a I 83 I I 1866

SO 4.1 I A white square tower, 61 feet I • | 79 | 14 | 1796
SS4-7| Ugh I

20 I 10 I 1841
88'

4J53.I

ao.7

• I 138 I 16 I 1680

so 3a. I On the E. «do of the rocks, in 40
6 7.3 I fethoms. Two red balls

A white tower, 74 feet high, on
the summit of St Agnes'
Island ,

40 s>-5 I On the 8.W. rock. A noblo I la { 110 | 16 | 1868
6 16.6 I stone tower, 147 feet high. . . . |

to^i r

■■ i'.

< i

A fii^ V,

UElHTSOVSES;

H^ap^OoMfc^ lot

I «1 1 18^

1 6|1889

1 5 1 1852

> 1 10 1 18S7

1 1 19 1 1836

8 1 1844
8

0| 8 11822

2iia

769

waAObantAmUUgbt.

UX.V.

DcforiptkN^ vo»

8\'Im$ Tid$ Zifkt
One bright fixed Ught»
while 10 lb«t

jBktffc TUkLkhU
Two flzad bright Itt.

OODBSYT
One flaahinglt, 10 sees.

TBEYOSE HBAD
Two bright fixed lights

Briitol OhaaneL

LUNDY ISLAND
Upper It, rev. in 2 min.
Lower fixed lifl^t

Bidefori Earhomr.
Two bright fixed Iti.

IlFBACOMBB

One r$d fixed light

BcBN pAV, or Bbidoiw.
Upper light, intermit-

ting
Lower light, fibnd

Avon
One bright fixed light

Em OLUK USD WCUR

Oroumm Lt.-Yimbj.
One br. rev. It 1 min>

FLATHOLM
One bright fixed light

Uax RivBR
One bright, one rtdli.

CAHDirr

NASH POINT
Two bright fixed Itf.

SWANBKA HAllBOirm

Ontrtdjlxtd light

MUMBLES
One bright fixed light

HitwTCK Liout-Virbbl
Ono br. rev. It 1 inin.

UmuUff
Two fixed lightii

I On the iner head. Li^^ted from I • | 28 | 7 | 1881

I 1st S^tember to SOth /^ '^ I

I N. 25* E. and 8. 26" W., 207 ft. I •

I apart, while 12 fisel water.,.. I

50 r4. I On flie Island. A bell in fogs.. I Ic
5 a4. I I

50 32.9 I Hie lower light is 80 fieet to sea- I la
5 s.i I ward of ihe upper | la

In one tower, 96 feet high. Low I lb
light visible to W. between | •
N.N.W.andW.8.W. |

In one, S.E. i S., lead over bar ;
from i fiood to i ebb. A rtd
ball by day , , ,

From the Lantern Hill (Michael-
mas to Lady-day) ...,,.....

Upper tower white; lower with
black streak, E. by 8. i S.,
1,600 feet apart Upper light
bright, 8| mm., obsowred ^min.

10.0 1

4 40-3

S»

IS.

J«

»3-

14.9

59-9

5» 300
a 42.3

»58.

51 ai.s

3 7-

51 3>-
3 o.

51 at.

3 10.

Ji 14-
3 33>

5» 37-
3 J«-

5' 34-

3 58»

5» 3»-

4 «4'

51 40.
4 104

White tower, 66 fiaet, on the E.
side. A rtd ray to N.W. | N.

On S. side of Bristol Channel, in
6 fethoms; a rtd ball, gong,
gmi, &0.

A white tower, 80 feet high, on
the 8. point

W. side of entr., the red It 20 ft
I below ; ^ light also to N.E.

On the pier (intended)

White towers, 1 ,000 ft apart, S.E.
byE. iE., &i;.W. byW. iW.

While 8 ft., black ball by day.
Also two rtd or green Its. on
new S. Docks

A white tower, 60 feet high, ad-
Joining the Fort

In 10 fkthoma, off the W. end of
Stmd, a red ball, gong, gun, &c.

One on 8. end of Breakwater, one
on Whitafbrd Point, from \
flood to i ebb

81 1 6 I 1840
69 1 I

120 1 1< i 1869

204 I 90 I 1847
129 17

540 I 81 I 1820
470 1

86 1 14 I 1820
40 11

100 I 15 I ....

91 I 16 I 1882
23 9

70 1 18 I 1840
38 I 10 I 1838

156 I 17 I 1889
.. I .. I 1839

89 I 10 I 1821

.. I .. I 1860

167 I 18 I 1832
122 I 16 I

28 I 9 I 1808

114 I 16 I 1798
38 I 10 I 1846

86 I 7 I 1860
.. I .. I 1864

^i» gmum.

UGHTHOTTSBS.

«r light.

UtN.

DitoriptMif 4vB«

One fixed Ught
8*min'$foot, 8. Pier

CALDT ISLA17D

One briglit fixed light

ST. ANN'S POINT.

15141. I While 10 liMt ««ter |«i M| •

|, lOnerMfltorydLhallwhileSft.

I I Oneriif<Mfcl^A(,foriteamen,fto.

51 37.9 I A white tower, <6 feet high, S.
441. I portofld.

51 40.9 I Two white lowen, IS and 89 ft.

I •• I 16 I .. I *«••

I .. I U I 8 i 1M6

• I 210 I 10 1 1«20

Two bright fixed liechta I 5 10,5 | ]dish,610ft.apart,N.byW.iw!

SMALLS
One bright fixed Ufl^

WalMk

S. BISHOP BOCK
One br. rev. It. SOaeca.

51 43.2 I Timber, painted rtd, Anewgra-

5 40.1 I nite tower, 141 ft. high, boild-

I ing, 1861, fcr a seoond lij^t. .

S »s.

A white tower, 86 feet high ....

Cardioam Bat Lt.-Yms. I I Between South Bishop and Bard-
One rev. rMf It, 80 aeoa. | I sey Id. lighthouses

BARDSET ISLAND
One bright fixed l^t

CAKBNARVOIf

One rtd and one bright
fixed light

SOUTH STACK ROCK
One br. rer. li S min.

I t Two fixed lights occasionally . . |

A iquare white tower, 09 feet
high

HotTHKAD HaRBOVH

One bTi({ht fixed light

3« 4J.
4 47-9

53 «.

4 »4-7

S3 i«-4
4 4«-9

53 »8.8
4 37' »

• I 102 I 10 1 1841
la I 159 I 17 i

• I 70 I 18 i 1778
la 126 16 1861

lb I 144 I 18 I 1880
• I 40 I 91 18ff0

U i 120 I 17 I 1821

JM light on Llanddwvn Point ;
bright light on pier head ....

White tower. 84 feet. During
foge a rev. light is shown at 40
feet Bell, gun, fto.

On the old pier head ; a fwl light
also to N.N.E. ; a bell and gun
in fogs. Also two temporary
rtd %hts on jetty

— — Breakwater Lt-Vea. | | One nd It near E. end of works

• I 60 I 61 1846
1868

SKERRIES
One bright fixed light

AwtwcH PokT

LYNU8 or ELIAN PT.
Ouo intermitting light

MlMAI

AIR POINT
One br. or rtd fixed It

53 at.a I A white tower. 76 feet high, on
4 30.4 I the highest island

One br. light when practicable

A white building, 30 foot high.
Lt vis. 8 sees. ; oclipsod 2 socs.

LIVERPOOL N.W.LT.

SHIP

Three br. fixed lights

53 »5-
4 »o-

I 53 «5.
I 4 •7-3

53 18.9 I One rtd flxod light on Trwyn-
4 a.3 I Du Point

53 a 1.4 I A pilo lighthouso; It. in rml only
3 19.2 I within Hoyle Sand ; fog bell

53 a7. In7}finB.offthoHorseandHelbro
3 17.4 ChAnnflli;bumsai/N« It. every
2 hours ; a black ball. In fogs,
a bell and gong alternately . .

• I 201 I 10 I 1809

• I 44 I 11 I 1820

I • I 20 I 4 I 1860
I la I 117 I 16 I 1803

I • I 26 I 11817

• I 128 I 16 I 1836

la I 61 I 10 I 1837

• I 42 I 9 I 1844

• I 36 I 10 I 1814

LEOHTHOITBSS.

Ill

Kmu Md <;ihWMl«r of Ucht.

Lat.N.
LoBf.W.

DitcriptloBy 98*

HOTLAU I Si *i-l

Two br. fixed light! | 3 10.7

BIDSTON I 53 34.

Oiwticight fixed light | 3 4.4

LiAMwa I 53 34.8

One height fixed Hght i 3 7.5

BLACK ROOK 53 a6.6

One rer. It 1 niniite 3 a.
br. twioe; rMf onoe

OxosBt Light- Vnna. 1. I

One yellow fixed light | |

FoKMBT Lioht-Vessil I 53 31.7

Two fixed lights | 3 10.8

W. Cbosbt LiOHTHorss 1 53 33.3

One red fixed light | 3 3.9

BiBBLi RiTKB I 53 44.6
Upper, br.;lower,r«f It | 3 i.i

In one, B.W. by 8., 1,200 feet
apart, near the Ohurch

A •tone tower, 68 feet high, on
the hill

I On the shore, between the Mer-
I seyandDee ,

A white tower, 04 ft. high. Also
Ajbetd 'igkt, while II It., down
liook Chaanel and up Morsey

In 44 feet off the N.E. elbow of
the Burbo Bank ; a ml ball . .

At the elbow of Crosby and
Queen's Channels, in 2fi feet

NearthePoint

• I Ml 18 11768
I 81 I" I

• I 228 I as I 1771

• I 94 I 14 I 1768

• I 61 I 14 I 1830

• I 29 I 8 I 1840

• I 80 I 6 1 1834

• I 95 I 18 I 1806

In the same tower, on Stanner I 4a
Point ..

72 I 12 I 1848
35 9

XytAom JJorietN*

Fleetwood
Two bright fixed lights

Wtrb Kivbb
One bright fixed light

Lu«e Siver
Two bright fixed lights

Clabk Wharf Spit
One fixed red light

POVLTON PlBE

WALNEY I8LAVD
One br. tdv. It 1 min.
One red fixed light

I" JtJ I *^ **•*"*** |«| ..|..| ....

53 44.*
3 J8.5

33 S5.«
3 04

53 57«
3 i«

53 59-

« 53-

N. and 8., 850 tiset apart; shown | •
while 9 feet

90 I IS I 1841
SO 9

A pile lighthouse, on N.E. of N. I . . I 80 I 10 I 1840
Wharf Bank; fog beU 1 • • •

On Cookerham Point and Plover I •
Boar Rock, while 8 feet water | •

54 I 9 I 1847
20

54
3

»-3
o.

On red piles. A ball by day ; a I • I 30 I 6 1 1854
^«m Ught whUe 8 ft. Fog beU f

544.3
» 5»-5

One fixed bright light | 6a |

54
3 «o

0.6

48 I 8 I 1851
70 I IS I 1790

8T. BEE8 HEAD I 54 30.8

One bright fixed light | 3 38.

Whitihavbn 54 33.3

1. One rer. It, 2 min. 3 35.8

2. TveJUeod lifhtt

Eanlttffttm Tide Light I 54 37.

One fixed light | 3 34.

WtrkinffloH Tide Lights I 54 39.

Two fixed lighto I 3 35.

On the 8. point Inone,N.W.by • I
W. f W., 340 yards apart. A
red It also on Railway Viaduct

A white tower, 43 feet high .... I • | 333 | 23 | 1821

I 47 I 11 I 1828

1. A white tower, 87 ft high, on
W. pior. 2. Bed It. on Old
Quay while 9 feet BIm It. an
N. pier

On the pier head, while 8 feet I • | 44 | 11 | 1848
water. Red ball while 8 feet I

On the ends of 8t John's and
Wooden pien, E. and W., 330
ie«t apart, while 8 feet water

.. I 53 I 11 il82«

ua siraiAXD.

UGHTHOnSBS.

WiaftOoMt

Md ChMWfttWf of licht.

tkt.V.
Long. W.

DcMilptloii, *o.

Maxtfobt
One br., one tid$ Uaht
One fTMM, one ntf uiglii

So&WAT LlOnT-TlBBIL

OnerwfUe^t

Ln Soak
One bright fixed light

SKINaVBirBM

One nrf light

54 43. FixMl It on Outer pier head. TitU
3 30-3 'V^» while 8 ft., on Inner pier.
Std It on Starboard side, and
grtm It on North Tongue. . . .

54 48. I Ih4^finB.inBobinBiffgOhanneL
333. I Blackball; a bell in fogs ....

54 51.8 I Onpikaontherodka. A bell in
3 14.71 *«•

54 5S.5 I A white wooden building, 82 ft.
333. I high, on Silloth Point

4»| 61

Carliih Ftrt TUk L%§U | ...... | Alamponthepier head ...... | ..

IileofMan.

A stone tower. 90 fiaet high, i •
mUe S.W. of the Point

POINT OP AYR
A reT. It, br. and r«d,
Smin.

54 »4-9
4 »»•

FtdSarhom

CALF OF MAN I j4 3.

Twobr.r9y.lt8.,2nun. | 4 50.

I Bii^t It on E. Bide of entrance |

Two stone towers, 060 feet apart, I
N.B.iE.,and8.W. )^ .. |

PoBT St. Mabt

. . I One bright light on pier head . . | •
Oastlrowii Hakbovb I ..... . ) One fixed It on New jfist head | . .

54 |.
4 36-

Dbrbt Hatbit

Two fixed lights

DOUOLAB I 54 <|.

One bright fixed light | 4 ii.

On Fort Island, and S.W. end
of Breakwater

A brown stone tower, 65 feet
hig7i, on Douglas Head

DovoLAB HABBpvB | | One fixed It on the N. pier head | . .

Bambit Hakbottb I I One fixed r«i( It on 8. pier head (•

BAHAMA BANK L.V. I 54 so. I In 11 fiithoms, on the S.E. part of I •
Twobright fixed lights I 4 is. -l thoBank | ..

1 26

•1

1 26

«l

1 *o|

»l

1 ..|

..I

|103

16 1

1 21

1 8|

376
282

26
23

1 26

»l

1 82

60
U

6
2

|104

16 1

1 84

«l

1 28

10 1

•ill* 1^. [ iJ-ef. i'l [

»1

20
88

la I 1796
10 1866

1841
1841
1841
1841

1818

1811
1818

1812
1849
1860

1832

1796
1846
10 t 1848

M Ma X

/»^^ .ff 1^4,1 t

,ik

^iu.:*'i%m. M V<

'. ii:-

*•

, W I

.tl w

-.1. *1 1

n i i

-4< i 1

-. Mitt '=*l'

SRCHLIKDi

LIOHTHOTTSES:

XiltCOMt 118

M MM and Chanetw <u tit/hi.

Long. E.

Deieriptloii, fte.

iii^

Habwiok
Two fixed Its. ; in one
N.W.byN.

DoTutoomiT
Two lighfhonsei

Landgoatd Fort

OoBX Ltoht-Ybssbii I
One br. rev. It i min, |

SnivwASB Lx.-Ybbsbi.
One bright fixed light

OBFOBDNESS
Two brij^t fixed lights

51 56.6 I A lower red It. in high tower vis.
I 17.4 I 8. of entrance, b««omes white
I in &irway (see Directions).

...... I Building on the extreme point, to

I supersede present Harwich Its.

5» 56.
I 13.

5» 1-5

I 38.

I 3S»

Pakefield |

LOWESTOFT
Two brightfized lights

Stanfobd Lioht-Vxsssl I 5
Two bright fixed lights |

St. Nicholas Gat Lt.-V.
One bright, one nd It

Tamteuth or Oorletton
One rtd fixed light

GooKLB Light Vissil
One brt rev. It I min.

WINTERTON NESS
One blight fixed light

Nbwabp Lioht-Vissbl
Three br. fixed lights

HABBOROUGH
Two bright fixed lights

Hasborocoh LT.-Vissn I 5
Two bright fixed lights i

LniAN & Own Lt.-Vis. I 53
Upper revol. I rain., low j
fixed light I

CROMER
One br. revol. 1 min.

19.3
45-5

A red light outside, white within
the entrance

In 4 fiithoms, near the Cork
Ledge

In 0^ &thoins, off N.E. end of
the Sand .-

Towers red; ia one S.W. by W. \
and N.E. by E., 1489 yards
apart High light to Sotath. . . |

I JMIight; only shows to 8. f E. | •

Towers white; in one N. ^ E. I •
wd S. iW., 1018 ^axds apart j •

High light to N(

39. I Near Mid channel in 6 fathoms ;

47. 3 I lights horisontal ; two r«rfbaUs

35.5 I In 6 fins, at N. end of Kettle

47. I Bottom Sd. ; one red ball; Its.

I at unequal h^hts

34.4 I A M flag by day, and the light I •
44-3 I shown during the flood tide . . |

41-5
47- I

43- I

4»-5l

45- I
53. I

49.
3».

58.
3«.

8.6
t.

55-4
19.1

HUNSTANTON j 5a 56.

One bright fixed light i o 39.

In 6^ fiithoms at E. side of N.
entrance of Cockle Gat

An octangular red tower 61 feet I
high

Lts. triaiurular. In 10 fins, at N.
ekdofSand. Three rvd balls

In one N. W. i W. (i mile apart)
leading Its. for Hasboxo' Gat

In 15 fitthoms near N. end of
Sand ; lights horimntal

In 16 fins, between the Sands;
Its. at unequal height^ ; two red
balls ?

Near the Oliff, a white tower 69
foet high

The light is red to S.E. by E. ^
E. over the Roaring Middle

!•

69
25

88
68

119
45

40
12

86
62

88
28

187
100

S8
27

274
109

18
10

1818

.. I 1861

.. I 1848

10 1 1840

10 I 1887

14 I 1792
18 1

9 I 1882

16 I 1609
"I

9 I 1802

10 I 1827

a 1 1852
10 I 1844
14 I 1790
10 I 1791

17 I 1791

15 I

10 1 188^

10 I 1840

23 I 1719
I 1838

16 i 1665

1*^^ iflftt

lU XMtAlft

UOfBTBOUaW,

BsifeOpMl*

MtaimA QuuMtw «f iJgiit.

Lonf. E.

DcMulptioiit 4kOa

XiTim Wiu. Lr.-YnsBi, 1 53 1.7 | In 87 fitthomoff the hook of the I • | 84 1 10 1 1828
One qvkk ?eToL Ijghl | o 35. | LongSand ,. (

DoDOioir LiOHT-Yxi.
On« hrightflssedlighl

^rVUS LxQBT-YuSBIi

Chie hr. ter. It. i mis.

I 51 15. I In 9 Mhoms near 8. ride of the | • I 88 1 10 1 1736
\ •S6. I Shoal I

LaO&ihomsoffthePoint |«| 38110(1820

53 34- I
o 13. I

1776
18«1

8PUBN POINT I 53 34-7 I In <«« N.W. i N. (158 yards I la I 93 1 16 I

Two bright fixed lights | o ^.»\ (.part). The low light to K.W. | 4a | 64 1 12 1

Iw.Loa. I I

StaningboronghFeny | .,..,. | One bright fixed It to W.S.W. | • | .. t .. 1 1849

53 39. I Lights in one N.W. lefid up the • I 68 1 11 I 1836
o la. I nver, and when S. by W. lead I 36 | | 1862
[, dowa

I I One bright fixed light !•( 86 | 7 | 1886

53 44
o 16.

Sillisffhobn
Three br. fixed Its.

Taxia.

Sebblea Light Yessel
One rtd flxedligkt

One ^ht fixed light

FLAMBORO' HEAD
One ^Tol. lighti. 2 niin.
bright, ' bright and
rtd alternately

One fixed light, rtd to
seaward

HIGH "WHITBY
Two bright fixed lights

"WhITBT HA.&BOTrK

0IM grtm tide light
On^ r«i or green light

TEES BAT

Bhan Sand
High br., low rtd It

In '6 fins, on S. side of Channel, I • I 16 | 6 | 1839
near Holl |

54 5.9 I On the North Pier-head while 9 I .. | 24 | 8 | 1862
o 11.7 I feet water. ,....,

54 <
P 4-

54 «7.
o %3.

A white tower 87 feet high. Blear-
ing N.N.E. dean N. end of
Smithio

While 10 iiBot water; on Yinpent I
Pier. A ball by day........

54 98.7 I In one S. 1^ E. i E. (268 yards

o 34.2

54 30-
o 37-

apart). A red light firom N.
tower over the Scar

Orten tide light on W. Pier trom.
8 hours flwid to 2 hours ebb.
E. Pier light rtdto S. butfmw
toN. of Book buoy

• I 214 I 20 I 1806

I 68118)1806

la I 840 I 28 i 1868

83 I IS I 1831
64 10 1866

54 38. I Wooden towers shifted occasion- 1 • I 63 I 11 I 1839

I 13. I ally. In one lead over the bar | | 38 | 10 |

Care Sand Lt-yeiis. I I One fixed light. There are 8 I • | 20 | 7 | 1836

I I small lights up the Tees . . . . |

SiATOH t 54 40* I lu one N.W. by W. (118 yards I • I 89 I 13 I 1839

HARTLEPOOL I 54 41.8 I On the Hengh. The rtd Hie It. I la I 84 I 16 I 1847

High bright, low rt4\ 1 10.4 ^mhalf flood to half ebb.... I 4a 62 I 4|
TtdtUgM I >

u«

MiOteMtetrUght

Ut.N.
Iioaff. B.

DMai^tUBtte.

HarUepodOUHaitNiur | ...... I JMUjAtMPfar, tnorNlBgfati

I ouQiiay

.. I .. i Its*

WlutSarhmr I I Grwult o&N. Flw, two f«ilM. | .• | .• | #« | llM

I I

SlAHAX I

Upper Iwight fixed It,
low mfxvv.tt. imiB.

Stakam Harbour

SVHDUOAin)

One bright, one r$d It
on N. Pier, on$ tright
Mb Ufkt on S. Pier

in one lead in while 10ft. water I

boiMftaM tower M ftet h%^
on Bed Acre Point

tel Ml 1411848
6 I 49 1 11 1 1857

I I JM tide light, when practicable I • I .. | .. 1 1846

S4 55-;

I SI.6

TUb lifht tma. i flood to i ebb,
a grmt light below it ahowB
danger ...

8a I 73 I 14 I 1803
«a 68 4 18«7

TTNEMOUTH 155 t.i I ▲•fun white tower 79 ft )iigh, I • | 184 1 18 1 1803

One br. rev. It 1 min. | i 24.9 | nearPrioryBqinaintheOartle |

TtrnTUtLighU I 55 o. I At N. ShieUs, from i flood to i • 1 138 1 16 1 1808

I a6. I ebb: in one W. bjr IT., 340 | 77 | IS i
I I jraidaapart

BWtk,twtirightTii$lU.\ I While 8 ft. water ; in one N. by I • | 11 1 48 | 1788

I W.f W. «.

CoqqbtIbijmd
One bright fixed Ui^t

55 sa. I A rMf ray toward Hanxley Ft
I 3s. I bnoVfUidnNfoTertheBoiilmer

la I 88 I 14 I 1841

WarhoortkrtdTiiilt. | | WhOe 10 ft. water. OnB.Pier|..| .. | 111848

• I 87 1 16 I 1776

FABN ISLAND
Upper light rev. i min.,
lower fixed

55 3<-9
I 58.9

Two white towen in one N. by
W. i W., 187 yards apart ..

liONGSTONB 1 SS 39* I Bed tower on the Book ,

One br. rer. It ( min. | 1 37. |

• t 76 1 14 1 1836

BuwiokomTwud 1 55 45.9! Low r«r It while 10 fset on Bar. I • I 44111! ••
UFp«rbr.,J^«MrrMrM. I 1 58.9 ) On tlie Pier-head | I 38| 8|

18 1

1831
1866

11
10

1839

1836

1839

1847

«i*^»t» ii'

-rtti

; 1

rhiu^Jb

...... I

. "* 1 C » >■ i

ffSfyt-^.'-ij',

im'

NXa fc:

iM M0KUV9.

UaHTBOUBES.

Btil0QMl»

Nam* tad OhaiMlir of Ilfht

UX.V.

DtMriptHBi M>

Sywnouth

\Vt

|5« a.
I 3 i-

55 59-

3 lo.

ST. ABB'S mSAD
One bright fixed ligbt

DmnuBOMJSbrfowr 156 o.
■■ FMefMiJETarioNr | a 30.7

INOHEEITH
One br. tev. It 1 min.

FlSHBUtOW

One fixed light

ItUk
B*i light on E. pier
7F%t<«light on W. pier

NtwKavm
Gbahtoit

GllANOSMOtTTH

One fixed light

Imtxiixsithino

Burntithmd Eatt Fitr

Fnrff Fier

A fixed light on each

ElBKOAlDT

One fixed light

BuckhaTen

St. Mom ah
One nd, and one hr. It

Prri'BMWBBM

Three fixed fMllifl^ts

!•

J« 4.
3 14.

S6
3

OnarMf fixed light ..>.»».*.*..
I Building (1860)

I One fixed br. light at each, firam
Jnlj to October

A white tower, 45 feethigh .... I 2b

On flie ider head ; all night, ex-
cept in mooolifl^t

A frmt It under the vhU4 one on
W. pier while 8 ft. ; the othh
changed to r$d when Dodc
gatei are open

One bright lij^t on the pier. . . .

One niiflie^t on pier head ....

At the entrance of the Biver
Oatron

Two rMflights on W. Qoay ....

Also a nnall r«d It at Newhalla,
and a whit* one atQueenefeny,
for paaaage boats only

OuE. pierhead. J2wf to seaward;
whiU when Harbour is open. .

I..

I , I A lehiU light on E. pier head . . | a

56 ia.j
3 46.3

56 13-
a 43-5

Anstrvthvs I 56 13.3

OnerMfandoneffimlt | a 41.8

CBLLABDTXa

One fixed rnf light

ISLE OP MAY
Two brilliant fixed Its.

BELL BOCK
One rev. light, bright
and red alternately,
every 2 minutes

ST. ANDREWS
Two fixed lights

5«

II. I

33-3

36.1

a3'

56 ao.

a 47-

One on pier head ; the other on
a house

Two on pier head, and one on a
building, Not lighted between
May 15 and July 15. In bad
weather a br. eas It, 60 feet
high, vis. 7 mues, is shown
whileOfeet

N.E. i N. and S.W. i S. from
each other. Aug. to April . .

On a house, in W. of Harbour;
only while boats are out ....

On the summit of the island,
N.E. side; N.N.E. i E., and
S.S.W. i W., 760 feet apart

A tower, 117 feet high; on the
Bell Bock, at 10 feet below
high water. A bell is sounded
every half minute in fogs ....

On the pierhead, and a turret in
Cathedral wall

220
20

20
83

13
28

17
20

.. 1867
.. 11860

c. I 1867

18 I 1804

6 1 1889

10 1 1829

«l

6 I 1846
10 I 1847

.. I 1866

8 I 1846
.. 11863

9 I 1864
.. I 1866

.. i 26 1 6 1 1863
.. 72 6

I 20 I 4 I 1848

la I 240 I 21 I 181S

• I 110 I 16 I 1844

• I 00 I 14 I 1811

• I SO I 6 I 1826
6a I 100 I 6 1849

Ill

•"4

.. |1M

t •

|1M

lOOlUflfB.

UOHTHOTJSES.

Stit OoMb lit

.. I I8ff7

18 1 1804

\ 6 1 1889

1 10 1 1829

I «l

I 6 I 1845

I 10 1 1847

I ..|1856

8 I 1846
1853

l.'l

I 81

9 I 1854
.. I 1865

6 I 1853
6

1848

21
15

181G
1844

14 I 1811

6 1 1825
5 1849

Xaat oA OhUMtn of Urlkt.

UILV.
LoBf.'W.

Dimiri|ittiiii| te«

BUDDONKESBorTAT I 56 aS.i
Two teilliaat flzad Ito. i a 44.9

FoBT <m Obaio
Twotudlighti

56 *7'
a 49.

Kiwyon
Twoflzedlifl^to

56 a6.

a 57

DvHDn Habsovb
Tiroflz0dr«ll|gliti

Absboath
One rMf fixed light

5^ 33-
a 35.

Two fixed rMTlights

56 4«.

a a7.

SroMiKA-nar 1 56 58.

Onebr.,oiier«fflxedltt | a la.

GIRDLENESS 1 57 8.a

Two bright fixed ligHto I a 3.

Aberdtm
One bright fixed liffht
Two rtaCotgrttn) fixed
lights

BUCHANKESS
One fluhiog It, 6 Nos.

PmBHIAD

One br.| and one rtdlt.

FBAaiBBVBOK

Two fixed r«)lij^ts

EINKAIBD HEAD

One brie^t fixed light

Macduft
One fAf fixed light

BAMn
Two whiU, one rtd, Its.

The Ita. in one, N.N.W. f W.,
and 8.8.E. f E., 874 yavda
apart, lead into the T»7 ....

Leadinfflta.iiptheT»T. W.K.W.
Northerlv, and S.8.B. Sonth-
erlT, 1,700 yardf apart A bell

On the W. Ferry idar, N.N.B.
and S.S.W., 63 yards apart . .

On Mid. and E. jfLtm, N.W. f W.,
and S.E. f E., 180 yards apart

On the "S. pier, when Teasels |
enter. An oooadonal brigfU
JUuk is a waning to keep m.

On the N. side of entraaoe, K.W.

SI W. i W., and 8.E. by E. \
., 808 yds. apart •

W. by N. i N., andE. by 8. i 8. ;
on the inner aide of HaxboTir

In one tower

57 8.5
a 4.1

57 *8.»
t 4^.1

57 3«>-
I 46.

57 4«.5
a 0.

57 4a.
a .<•

57 40-
a 30.

57 40-
a 31.

On N. pier head, from half flood
to high water. When entrance
is safe the two Its. are rtd: when
ships cannot enter, ;r0*N ....

A stone tower, on the Ness ....

WhiU on elbow of W. Pier in S.
Harbour; and fMf, on W. Pier,
in N. Harbour

On uer head, and Middle Pier ;
SiE. by E., and N.W. by './.,
228 ft apart, from July to April

A stone tower, 76 feet high, on |
theHead

• I 71 MO I 1820

• I 46 I 8 I

• I 80 11611820

• 85 11 1846

101 71 ....

16 8

.|,.|7|..«
• I 24 I 8 I 1826

• I 60 I 10 I 1818
85 11

• I 18 I 6 I 1880
24

la I 185 I 19 I 1888

• I 116 I 16 I

1842

• •

• »

• •

.> . f: Sf tV> '■'■vsA',

Blfin and Lmtmouth

OOYESEA SKWRRTB8 I 57 43.1
One rev. It 1 min. \ i ao.3

• 1 130 I 16 1 1827

at 24 I 10 I 1834
a I 26 1 10 I 1849

.. I 86 I 6 I 1841

la i 120 i 15 I 1851

• I 25 I 6 I 1829

One «>A»<« light on N. pierhead, .. ( 28 | 8 1 1851
and one high white It, with
lower fAf It in the upper part ■, ^ . .^.o'a

of the New Harbour •

I One ^rwnlig^ton 8. pierhead.. ) .. | 80 | .. ( 1858

On Craig Head. It is rtd from | lb I 160 I 18 I 1846
B. E. by E. i E., to 8 J!, i S. I
The rest is bright j

On the W. pier head ,

'»*>'! •" fc*<*

M18 MOVtAll).

LIQHTH0U8ES.

LoB(. W.

DCMnptMHf SCa

OaAiroHaT Poim
Abrisbtilzfldlifl^

Oboxaxtt Ponrr
OnatwIizedUi^

TABBET KESS
OiM Mtnw. It, Sniin.

Two find wMtlii^ti

XathtroHwhttl
One flx«dwA(«« light

WlOK or PU JU T JMI I Towx

K0S8HEAD
-One rer. It l^Jf min.

DUNNET HEAD
One bright fixed light

FENTLAND SKEB.
Two bright fixed lights

BoUUBK

One fixed lifl^t

57 34.5

i 4 5-

1 57 41.

I 4 *.

57 5».
3 4«-

57 56.
4 0.

58 16. 1
3 "9

5«a<.
3 5-

58 a8.6
3 3-t

1A towei^ 48 Ibet hk^ on the |
Pdnt \

I A tower, 48 fbet hig^ on xne
Point....

Bririit 2| ndn., edimed i min. ;
within Moray lUth it U visible
alwiiyi

Two LaatemB; one on Point;
N.W. i K, and S.E. i 8., 150
bet apart

I On 8. Head, attheendof flihing I
I aeaBon |

40.3
aa.3

■ i

41.4
55-4

I ^' 37-5 I
I 3 318 I

On the N. ptar head, dozing July I
aadAof^ut |

Prom N.R | N. to W.N.W. the I
It is r«f; the rest, to seawmd, I
i« bright I

A stone tower on the northern* |
, meet ptnnt of Scotland |

Two stone towers, 118 and 88 ft.
high, N.N.E. and 8.8.W., 100
feet apart <..

Building on the Head

t..%l«4» i

Orkney Idaadi.

Caiitiok
Onebr. rer. It, 1 min.

Hot 8ovxi>
Highlt, mforioAtlf
Iiow lig^t, bright

ElBKWAIX

One bright fixed Bght

STABT POINT
One fixed bright light

N. B0NALD8HA
One br.flash.lt 10 1

I A whitetower, 78 ft hi^ onihe
Head,HoyId.

The low It (br.) is on N.W. Pt
The high It is rMltoward Hot
Sound ; wMU between S.S.B.
andW.8.W. The towers stand
8.K i K, and N.W. i W.,
2,287 yards apart

58 59.1 1 On the jder head, from August I •
« 57-5 I toApril I

59 16.6 I A stone tower, on E. Point of | 4a
'9 33.4 I Banda Island

59 13.1 1 A brick tower, 189 feet high, on
313.6 I N. Point

8h«tluid Iilaods.

SUMBUBOH HEAD
One bright fixed li^t

BBESSAT
One rev. red and tohiU
It, 1 min.

585;.
I 16.

<o 6.1

» 7-5

A stone tower, 65 feet high, on
the 8. Point of Zetland

Tower, 88 fiset high, on E. dde
of entrance to Lerwick

40 I 11 1 1848

«0| 8 11846

175 1 18 1 1880

19 I 4 1 ....

I ..1.. I 1852

85 I 8 1 1851

175 ( iO 1 1849

846 I 28 I 1881

170 I 18 I 1794
140 16

..]..) I860

116 1 16 I 1858

115 I 10 j 1851
55 7 1861

20 I 9 I 1854

100 1 15 I 180«
140 i 18 I 1854

800 I 22 I 1812
105 1 15 1 1858

UOtBTBOVBEa.

W«ptCob

[0 I 10 j 1851
(6 7 1851

Hum aaA Ohanetir of Ucht.

Lat.M.
Long. W.

DcMription, 4m.

One br. rev. It, 1 min.

NOBTH UNST
Onfl bright or rtg It

Catb Wkatk
One r«ToL It, 2 min.

8. Bona
On« flaah It, 13 iwsb.

Ktlb Axik, Loch Alsh
One Ivight fixed Ught

Obonsat Island
One Ivight fixed Ug^t

Hebrides Islands.

BvTT or LbW!"!

Stobkowat
One fixed, 1 rev. light

MONACH or HT8Ki>BB

GLASS ISLAND
One fixed bright light

USTBENISH

One bright or red It

BABBA HEAB
One iatermitting light

SKEBBTVOBB
One rev. light, 1 min.

ABDNAMUBCHAN
One fixed bright light

SOVND OF MrLL

One fixed light

LISMOBE
One fixed bright light

LOCH EIL
One fixed bright light

Ob«a ■

Phladoa Island
Grinan Canal > ' }

6p 35.4 I A white tower, 98 feet high, abl 1 lb
I Bound Skerry |

o 44.

I «o 51.3
053-

58 375
5 o-

57 32-
5 5«-

57 »fi-5
5 45-

57 9-
5-47.

« 10.
5« "5

57 3»$
7 4«-6

57 5*-

6 33.

57 15-

7 10.

56 4*-
7 3«.

56 193
7 6.5

56 43-6

6 13s

5<5 38.
6 4.

56 >7-3

5 36.3

JRtd between S.8JI i E., and
S.E. by £. i B. A white tower
on N. part of lalaad ..%•••..

White and red alternately ,

!•

N.B. Point of Island I 2o

S.W. Point of Gillean Island .. I ..

S.E. part of Sleat Sonnd I ..

Building on N. Point | ..

200 3rarda apart ; rev. every i I . .
miiu, on Ami«h Point ...... | 2b

Building on W. Island | la

N.E. Point of Island, . Harris I la
Isles I

E.BideofS.T7i8t. Jtrnf vis. between I la
S.S. W. and N.E. by the S. & £. |

Vis. 2} min. and dark i min. On
top of Bemera Island

OntheBodc .....lie

OnthePoint I la

Bedlt. N. to Sea ; gnem, towards
Bocks ; tehiie, towards Mull Sd.

On Musdile Island ,

5<5 190
5 39-5

On Corran Point Lt. is rw' be-
tween N.E. by E., and S.W.
byW.fW.

I A Lantern on the Pier | . .

Onefixedbr.It,showsr«(ffromN. | ..
I One mf light on E. side .,....(..

14«|18 18H
285 t 21 1 18fi4

400|23

222 I 20

63 I 11

68(12

• • f • t

271
66 I

• • ^ • »

130 I 17
176 I 18
680 I 33

150 I 18
180 I 18

66 I 12
103 I 16

86 I 10

42 I 11
26| 4

1828
1867
1867
1867

1860

• • • •

1862
1800
1789

1867

1833

1844
1840
1867
1833

IS60

1868
1860
1861

m MOfLm.

UGHT&OtJSlB.

Hum wd Clumet* of liffbt.

Ut.V.
LoBff. W.

DoMriptlMit 4ko*

Ibom Book or SoueI
lUona I

BhoYaii
One fixed r«f or

55 5*-5 I Fkopoeed, on the Book
5 5o- I

■••••t* •

M'AnTHm'e Hbad

BHTNN8 OF I8LAT
One flaah. It, 5 Mot.

Port Ellen
One fixed bright lifl^t

MULL OF OANTTBE
One fixed bright light

8ANDA ISLAND
One fixed nd light

"DA-rAMlULkim
One br. nr. It, i min.

Oampbelltoa

Axdriehaig

FLADDA

Two fixed bright Ita.

CLYDE BIVEB

OVMBBAB

One fixed bright It

TOWABD

One br. rev. It, 1 m.

Clock
One fixed bright It

Obbbhock
Two red, and 1 whiU
light

PortGlaagow

Cabdbosb
One fixed fMf light

Bowling Bay

Donald'aQoay

Broomielaw

Auchenleoh

Oarmoyle Light

Dioldes Light .^., ^. .,

55 5<«

« 7-5

'i'il

55 40-3
6 30.

55 3<-

6 11.

55 19.
5 49-

55 «<.5
5 34-9

55 *5-7
5 3».»

N. Point of IdayUIand

BnUding t«<*i*««*««*»**(i<»>
Orenay Idand, off 8. W. Pobxt

hrenaT la
(tfluay.

On Caxraig Fadda Poini^ W.
entrance

8.W. Headland of Oaalyxe ....
On the Sh^ Book •

I Stone tower, 66 fleet hifl^ on
E. put

...... I On Old pier head. JM, when

I ,beaiingN.W.

I A fixed wAftf light on Pier head

55 16.0 I One 62 ft above the other. On
5 7.1 I Id. off S.E. Ft of Axran Id.. .

55 43>3 I ^' Bide of Little Cnmbrae Id. . .

4 5S- I
55 51.7 I On tlie Point

4 S9» I
55 56.6 I On the Point

4 5».«

55 57'
4 45-

The rtd ItB., 1 mile N.N.W. of

CoBtom House, 140 yds. apart

W.S.W. f W., and E.N.B. |

. E. The white light in front of

Custom House

I One fixed red light on W. Quay

On the Pillar Bank

I Small It at Firth of Clyde Canal

I A red light, 200 feet from end . .

jABudelight

I Au>AtY«lt,}m. above Pt. Glasgow

A floating It, 3 miles above Ft.
Glasgow

A white It, 1 mile above Dum-
barton

la
2b

1 ..I

.. r

|1*7|

161

1 -I

..I

|160|

171

1 «l

111

12971

22|

|166|

161

il20|

17 1

1 18

1 26

180
77

17
14

|116

16 1

1 66

11 1

1 76

..I

I860

1869

1860
1826

1863

1787

1860

1864

1860
1790

1793

1812

1797

1834
1829

1 18 1

1 22|

1 12 1

1 26 1

* * 1

f -1

* * 1

1 ..|

• a 1

1 ..|

* * 1

I .-I

1849

1849
1849
1844

ICNIKLA9SL

WMlOOMt HI

Kmm wd OhanMtw of U«ht.

Loiif. W.
o t

AxdroMMi
SidtcMti

Tboox Habbovs
One br. reroL and 1
fixed rwf%bt

AtrHabbovr
Two white, 1 rtd iHt,
' fixed Uglits

IioorRtaw
One fixed bxight %lit

COnSEWALL
One rti and ¥)MU rer.
2nun.

Port Patrick
One fixed bright light

HITLL of GALLOWAY
One intennittingbr. It

LITTLE ROSS
One fiaah. light, 5 kcs.

SotTTHiitNma
One fixed bright light

AtuMH Xiver
One fixed whit0 light

55 3«^ I
4 49-5 1

55 37.9

4 47*4

55 33'

4 4«.

55 **'3.
4 3».4

Cm MtfUfl^ on Bnakwater .. | » | 2S\ < 1 18M

I Bright boll'a eye in ml gUua | .« j 26 ( 6 1 1840
I pUte,onPiflr «• .•

BeroWei 40 iieea. bright, 20 mm.
hidden. N.E. |N.,andS.W.
i 8., 850 yaida apart

A rti and a br. It. In ono bnild-
283:

.. , 35 1' 011827
.. , 35 I 6 I 1848

I 54 577 I
I 5 *'0\

55 0.5
5 9-5

54 503
5 7.0

54 3«.«
4 5»-3

54 4^.
4 5'

54 5«-4
3 35-5

54 57.7
3 16.

Ing. 8.E.bvE.iE.,andN.W.
bjr W. i W., 283 raida apart
JM light while 8 Iset on Bar

On CklxnBjran Point |4a| 46 1 10 1 1847 '

12
35
53

4
10

1700
1826

A white tower, 110 ft. high, on I • 1 112 1 15 j 1817
W. aide of entianoe to JLoch I
Bjran , |

S.E. angle of Harbour ....k... I .. I 37| 8|1858

On 8. Point Tiaiblo, 2} min. ; I • | 325 | 23 1 1880
invieible, } min. |

Onthaldand I lo ( 175 1 18 1 1848

On the Point I .. ( 50 1 11 1 1805

On Annan Foot, from half flood I .. I .. I .. 1 1841
tobalfebb

toi

*. I .tu.

in mssLAjm

UGHTHOUSES.

SomiidtftH

Knw «Bd Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Doaeription, fto.

PASTNET
One rev. light, 2 min.

KINSALE
One bright or red light,
and one bright l^ht

CORK HARBOUR, or
QUEENSTOAVN

BOCRI POIKT

* One nd or br. It.

Spit Bakk
One fMf light

Mrklouoh Spit
One red light

BALLTCOITIN

Flashing light, 10 sees.

YOVOHAL

One bright light

MINEHEAD
Intorm. light, 1 min.

DcNOAnVAN

Jied, jfreen, and br. It«

WATERPORD
Hook Tower
One bright light

DvNMoBB PisR Head
One red light

DvircA!rKO!f Pobt
Two fixed lights

DCNCAXXON S.

Ono fixed light

BALTEES LT. TESS. I
Two fixed bright lights |

TUSKAR
Xed and br. rev. light

East Coast

BLACK WATER BANK
LT. VE88.
One fixed light

ARKLOW LT. ^^SS.
One br. rev. It., 1 min.

St at.j I On the sununit oi the l(pok
9 86.4 I

lb I 148 I 18 I 18«4

51 41.8
8 15.2

The It. on 8. Point of Old Head
is red over the Horso Rook, and
br. to seaward. Br. It. on Ft.
Chfurles, £. side of Harbour . .

la I 236
• 98

185S
1804

51 47.6 I Sed to Seawttrd ; br. towonU the
8 15.1 I Harbonr. (Bevblr. in 1861 F).

5 1 50.7 I Off Queenstown, on piles, in 9 ft
8 16.4 I water, on £. elbow of Baqk . .

On piles, 100 ft. from the Channel i ft

51 49-5
7 59-

51 56.5
7 50-5

5» 59-5
7 35- «

5* 4.4
7 33- »

5» 7.4
< 55-9

On the Outer Island . . ,
On W. side of entrance.

On S. side of Head. Br. 50 sees. ;
suddenly dark, 10 sees

On Ballinaoonrty Pt Jied over
Carriokapane Kock ; tfreen, over
Rocks from Ballinncourty Pt. ;
and bright in other directions

E. side of entrance. Fog bells

51 9. I W. side of entrance. It is bright
6 59.5 I N.ofPier

5a 13.1 I In one tow«r. The lower is a
6 56. I tide light

Half mile N.N.E. i E. of the
Fort

5s 9.4 I In 32 fathoms, off ConingVg

6 38.] I Rock

53 13. 1 I A flanh of 10 sees, overt' 2 min. ;

6 13.3 I Inight, br. and red ultcruHtuly

5* »9 5
6 7.

In 10 fathoms, on N.E. port of
Bank

WICKLOW

^ •««/ »•«

153 43. I In 22 fathoms, on 8. end of I
6 o. I Bank |

I 58 57.8 j In ono, N.W. by W. f W., 180

Ic
3a
la
8a

92 I 4 I 1817
32 I 8 I 1808
25| S| ....

195 I 18 I 1850
78 I 6 I 1853

285 I 21 1 1S50

52 I 10 I 1858

152 I 16 I 1859

53 I 10 t 1808
128 I 16 I 1838

10 1824

38
28

101 I 15 I 1815

33 ( 9 I 1860
89 I 10 I 1860

• I 250 I 31 I 1860
lai I 16 I 1818

1 /

LiQat&otJdiss.

is^^mm m

N am* tad ChttHtar of Uglit

Ut.V.
Ung.'W.

Deaorlptka, fte.

DUBLIN BAT
KISH LT. YESS.
Three bright ligliti

Xinftoum JS. 1^
One' rev. It, imin.

Mttfttoum tTf Utr
(me fixed rMfli^t

Footsia
Two bright lights

BAiunr
One bright light

EmthB.Titr
Oaer«rf light

Balbuooait
One bright ligtii

BOGKABILL
One br. and mf flaah. It.

DnOOHIDA

Three fixed br. lighti

DVMDAUL

One fluh. It, 15 leot.

CABLINOFOBD
Hattlbowliiti Book
Two bright lighti

Obbxnobi Point

DUNDBUM BAY
One intermit, red light

Ardglaaa Harbour

SOUTH BOOK
One rev. br. It, \\ m.

Donaghadee Pier Head
One rtd or br. fixed It

COPELAND
One fixed bright lig^t

BELFAST BAY
One r«d It, and othera

! 53 »9-
i5«.3

In 10 ftna., off K. of Eish Bank.
The Its. ate set triangularly . .

88 t 10 I 1811
20

53 i8. I iFkHe and ted light alternately.
6 9. } AfogboU....

53 »«-7
* 33

At Mouth of R. Lifiy. Lower It.
from half flood to half ebb . .

On 8.E. Mint of Howth PeninB.
A fog bell

f 53 35-7 I
I 6 o.j|

I On Pier fieod

On Pier, 8. of ontranpe ,

S* 43*
6 15.

n ft'

• 5-

54 13.1
5 40.

Flash every 12 sees. ; bright fiea-
ward, r«(f to Weitward

On SandhiUa, 8. of B. Boyne.
Changeable, as sandbanks shift

Std towards W. side of Dundalk
Bay. WhiU to seaward ....

In same tower. Zowtr It. from
half flood to half ebb. Fog
beU

I One revolTing light, 40 sees.

Std 45 sees.,

On 8t John's Pt
dark 10 sooa. .

Lame Lough

MAIDENS
Two fixed bright Its.

BATHLIN
Cue iniorm., 1 fixod It.

I One fixed rN( light

54 33.9 I A white tower, 60 fiiot high, on
5 aj.i I the Rock •

54 38.6 I Std to seaward ; bright towards
5 3a. I Harbour and Belfast Bay ....

A white tower, 52 feet high, on
Small Copeland Island

Red It on Holl3rwood Bank ; (ffvm
It also on the Bank : 3 more
ftttH Its. towardg Boluist ; and
a red It S.W. of Stone Boooon

One bright light on Farros Point

54 55.8 I Towers white, with red belt. In

5 4j. I ouo,N.W.byW.,640yd8.«pttrt

jj 1 8. a Uppor It intormt, br. 50 sooa.:

6 10.7 dnrk 10 bocs. Lower It. fixed.
jR(x/lt. ovor Cunickvurkun Rock

54 4I-7
5 3».

54 39-
5 53-

• I 41

• i 88

• I 68

• I 134

• I 43

• I 42
lb I 148

• I ..
4b I 88

• I 101

|«| 29
I lb I 62

!•! 18

• I 52

• I 56

• I 131
5a

12
15
11
10
18
6
»
15

6
12

27 5 1818

1822
1845
1768
1813
1818
1769
1860
1842
1805
1823

1830

1844
1860

1801

1707

1826

1706

I • I 42 I 11 I 1839

•I S}|1S|»"8
ib j jg2 I 2i I 1806

UOHTHOUBEB.

VorlllOotit

I uA OuoMUr of light

Ut.ff.
Lone. W.

DcMriptioo, fte.

LOUGH FOTLE

XmSBOWBH

Two fixed bright Its.

BedOaatle
One fixed Intiglit It

White Outle
One fixed bright It.

Tore
One fixed bright It

CnnnybfliTr
One fixed bright It

OnlmoraPdnt

CnDceeragh

Boom Hall

Bom Bay Lt Veaael

BockMiU

INNISTRAHITL
One br. rev. lt,2i mia.

LOUOH 8WILLT
One r»4 or bright light

TOBTISLAin)
One fixed bright light

Amuntou IstANO
One fiaahing br. light

BATHLIN-0-BIBNB
One flaah. It, 20 aeoa.

KILLTBEGS

St John'a Point

BottenlaUnd

8LIQ0
Blade Book

Oyatar Island

BnoADRAVRir
One br. or fW fixed It

• JJ.6

On Dnnagree Point In one, K
and W., 158 yaidii apart ....

I Onpika^ on outer edge of Bidge I

I On pilea, E. aide of Ohaonel

... . I ..

On {ilea, S.B. side of OhaiuMl ••
On piles, N.W. side of Ghannel

...... I ALaotamonalfast..*......* | .•

I Bright light E. aide of enbrance | ..

(OneflxedrMfli^t......'', | ..

I One fixed bright light | ..

...... I One fixed rwf It, near the Mill | ..

55 35.0 I A white tower. 41 feet high. On
7 13.6 I N.B. part of Idand

56 16.6 I On Faonet Point; rkl seaward,
737.91 bright towards the Lough....

55 16.4 I On the ]^.W. Point of Island . .

8 15.

55 0.9 I BnOding (1861) on N.W. Point
8 33.'

54 39*
8 49-9

JMtowatds Mainland and Sound.
To be a fixed light after Aran-
more is lighted

54 34.1 I One fixed bright lic^t

8 27.6 I

I One fixed bright light |

54 18. I Onefixed bright light in the Bay I

|Twofixedbr.lts.,inl8.S.E.|E. I

la
2b
8b

54 ««.
9 53-

EAGLE ROOK
Two bright fixed lights

BLAOK ROOK |

One light in(oa4«4 |

54 »

On Gubaoashel Pt Whih to sea- I
ward ; fwl townrds W. side of
Harbour , . . . . |

S mQes fifom Erria Hd. In one
E. by N., RQd W. by S., 188
yards apart

M 4. I BuUding (1861) j

IP 19. I I

671

18 1

S6|

..I

86|

..i

25 1

..I

8ff|

..I

4»

..1

..I

|..|

Iff

..I

181

18 1

126

116]

|..|

116

16)

1*1

18 1

79 1

ISi

40 1

11 1

8/1

181

220 1

20 1

..i

..1

1887

186S

18M

1860

1848

1848
1861
1869
1869
1869
1812

1816

1882

••*•

1866

1881

1888
1836

1887
1866

UGEfHOXTBBS.

Vofftfloifl; iw.

KHM aad OkMMter of Ught

UtN.
Lone. W.

e I

OLEWBAT

QUkMM. IbLAMD

ImiBooBT Iinuui0

BLTNE HEAD
Ona zev. mi «ad Inriffht
liglit, 2inin., and 1
flzed bright lifl^t

OALWAY BAY
Ebbaoh Iblamd
One rev. bri£^t light

IxvkVMxa.
Onelrifl^itrrwllt.

If ntton Idand *

Oiw fixed bright It

SHANNON, BIVEB
LOOFHEAD
One fixed bright It

ElLOBADAV

One bright or milt

Tarbnt
One bright fixed It

Beevee
One bri^t oir rti It

Tbalii
One bright or mf light

VALENTIA
One fixed bright light

SKELLI08
Two fixed bright lights

OalvRook
One light

Bantst Bat
One fixed bright light

ClOOKHATIM

One bright or ni light

53 495 1
9 59- 1

1 53 49<
1 9 4«>-»

53"»3.9
lo 14.

538.9
9 51-5

53 »-7
931.5

VVVA

1 5» «3.<
I 955.9

5» 34.8
9 4a.6

5» 35.5
9 ai.S

5» 39-
9 «.3

51 16.3
9 53.*

51 5*.
ID 19.3

51 46.»
10 33.7

5« 34.»
10 15.

51 39.*
9 44.«

51 38.6

9 41.6

One fixed bright light on N.
Point «

On* fixed brightlie^t | •

N. light rev., with one mi and
two br. fiioei; the rev. and
fixed Its. in one N.}E. end 8.
f W., 142 yard* apwt

On W. Point Bright flaah every I lb

8 min, ., ....|

iM in direction of Finnis Bock i la

On centre of Idand, off Qalway

600 yards fW>m ^atxemity of I la
Head |

On the Point Btd to Beaward ; | •
bright to River

OntheBock r

BedtoN.ofBook I 8a

On Little Samphire Id. JM It i 4a
seaward fr. W.N.W. to N. i B. |

On Cromwell's Fort I •

On highest Book, 7} miles from
shore. One It wUl be discon-
tinued when Galf B. is lighted

Building (IMl)

>**%%*%%%%»»%»% I ••

E. entrance to Bearhaven ,

On Book Island Ft JM across | •
Books to Shuk Head

.* .■ ^ . - «i

ji'i*' ' « *'«!(**;_ *!*'■

- ^ **-j~

841 I 87 i 1806

86 1 10 1 1887
1; 1 1886

126
116

116 I 16 1 1867

110 I 16 I ..»«

S3 I 10 1 1817

377 I 82 1 1868
188 I 16 I 1824
68 1 18 I 1884
40 1 10 I 1864
66 I 9 1 1860
64 1 12 { 1841

872 t 26

176 18

1826

66 I 12 I 1847

67 i IS I 1860

LIOHTHOUSES.

AHD tmiWKt,

Mmm nd dumatar of Ugbt.

ut,v.
Lang. B.

l)ewriptiati« fte.

WHITE SEA.

JUGINSK
Oiw fixed bright light

MOUDIUOA
One fixed Inight light

MOBJOVBTS
One fixed bright light

ORLOV
One fixed bright light

V0BWA7.

Eolckiiigon,
Malang Fiord

AyrtwKJBS
One fixed and flash. It

Elopen, or Oloppen
One fixed bright light

LOFOTEN ISLANDS
8vin6
One fixed red light

HENNINGSViEB
One filed & flash. It.

^feiien, or Kie I., S. Point
One flxed bright light

Sjaabolmen
One fixed bright light

Stamsund
One flxed bright light

Hanunerfost
One fixed bright Ught

Vaag, or N. Helllg Vmr
One fixed bright light

PILSSTd, Folden Fiord
One flxed bright light

VILLA
One flxed and flash. It

Hunk Holm
One flxed bright It

Agdenils
One flxed bright It

Tomingen I 63 ao.6 I

Cos fixed bright Ught ! 9 9. |

S5 la.a
36 5''

64 55.5
40 16.

6645.7
4» 30«

67 ii.a
41 10.5

69 36.
«7 53-5

69 19.5
16 9.

67 53-5
«3 4-5

68 3.
»3 34-5

68 8.5
14 14-5

68 13.1

»4 37'

68 9.5
14 4'-5

68 ^.'.
«3 53-

70 4o.a
«3 40.

67 a6.
14 1.7

64 43-4
10 46.1

64 3»-7
10 41.7

63 a7.a
10 14.8

63 3«-a
9 49-5

»••• I ••

On the N. hmght of Island

On a sandy Hillock on ika Id., I ..
at entamoe of B. DvinA .... |

640Tarda in shore of N. W. Pdnt I . .
ofLdand |

N.E. Point of 0. Orlov, 1,200 I ..
yards from Beaoh »...'. |

N. side of Hokldng Id. Ftom I 4a
Ang. 16 to May 1 |

From Aug. 16 to May 1. Flash I 2d
every 8 min. |

SSrraagon, 8. of entrance. IVom I 6a
Sept 1 to April 14 |

Neax Balstad. September 1 to | •
AprilU

Quitverdon. Flash every 8 min.
August 16 to May 1

Svolvser. Soptombor 1 to April I •
1* I

Skraaven's Harbour. Sept. 1 to I . .
AprU14 I

Tomholm, S. Point Sept I to
AiunlU

Weit

Extremity of Fuprlonms Islimd.
Aug. 26 to April 20

N.E. fPoint of Island. Aug. 16 I 6a
to May 1 I

On the Islet August 1 to May I 6a
16 I

On the Island. A flash every I 2d
4 min. August I to May 16 |

On the Fortress. August 1 to I 6a
May 16

On the Point.
May 16

August 1 to

On the Island. Augiut I to I 6a

"*y »" I

140
140
160
S2S

148
1S4

196

118

81
66

127

116
100

17 I 1842
16 I ....
14 I 1842
17|lBa

Ck»ft

14 I 1869

20 I 1869
1111867

11 I 1867

16 1 1867

4 I 1866

7 I 1860

11 I 1860

12 I 1869
12 i 1841
20 I 1869
10 I 1840

9 I 1881

•

12 t 1849

90&WAT.

i4iuiiTliOUS]SS.

WwiCoaK. 127

NUM aad Ghuaetcr of Ugbt.

Long. E.

DewriptioD, fte.

ttii

•8

TRONDHJEM
One fixed bright light

Leenig
One fixed liriglit light

CHBI8TIAK6UND
One fixed bii^t lif^t

QVTTHOLM
One fixed aad fiaah. It

Walderhong
One fixed bright light

LiFflo Essv Lt. Ynsxi.
One fixed bright light

HoosTBir
One fixed and flash. It

rond6

One fixed bright light

HELLESO ISLAND
One fixed and flash. It.

BKJELLANOER
One flxed bright light

Bbrosw
One fixed bright light

LearBen Island
One flxed bright light

Kir Holm

One fixed bright light
•«
Oxhammer

One fixed bright light

BLOTTERS, SELB<J
FIORD.
One flxed bright It

FolgerSen
One flxed bright light

Midtholmen
One fixed bright light

Langevaad
On^ fixed brighMight

Eapevfir
One flxed bright Ught

Ryravden
One flxad Mcht Uaht

63 18.7

8 13.4

«3 *-5

7 4*-

63 7 3

7 3«a

63 1.3

7 "5

6s 30.1
6 7.4

6a 35.5
6 14.J

6a a8.
6 1.5

6a *S-
5 35-1

60 45.
4 43»

60 36,5

4 57-3

60 14.

5 «8-7

60 14.
5 ".

60 5.1
5 «a-3

59 59»
5 >4.

59 54-5
5 5-

59 48.
5 »o.

59 4».
5 »4-7

59 37.
5 16.

59 35- «
5 10. 1

I 59 3«7

On the Ringholm Rock, half mile
from £. Ft. of Eddo. Ang. 1
to May 16

On H. side of Island. Ang. t to
May 16

On 8tavn8B8,N.E. Point of Averd.
Aug. X to May 16

On TS.W. Ft of Id. A flash of
12 sees, every minute. Aug. 1
to May 16

On 8. Ft. of WfllderS. Ang. 1
to May 16

In 3 fins, on S.E. part of Reef.
Aug. 1 to May 19 t.i

Flash every 3 min. On S.E. of I
Qod.o Id., Bred Sound. Aug. 1
to May 16 I

W. Ft. of Id., Bred Sd., Ang. 1
toMayl6

Flash 12 sees, every min. ; at 8
m. dist 'dark between flashes

N.W. side of Holientt Id. July
15toMayl6

On Nordnns Foint. Aug. 16 to
April 30

W. side of Island. July 15 to
May 16

Bagholm Sound. July 15 to
May 16

E. side of Selb». July 15 to
May 16

On the Island. South entrance | 2a | 152 | 18 | 1859

5a I 51 I 14 I 1840

■'■;-■ :. .■■ A
- — .-~~-<,' w

.. I .. |.. 11833
5» I 65 I 12 1 1842
2d 1 134 I 19 I 1842

.. I 41 I 4 I 1860
.. I 25 I 4 11858
4d| 41|12| ....

.. I 161 I 22 I 1858
2d I 154 I 19 1 1865
5a I 58 I 13 I 1853
.. I 41 I 4 I 1889
.. I 57 I 4 I 1855
.. I .. I 4 1 1849
.. I .. i 4 I 1860

On Island at Stokspnd. July 15 | .. | 51 | 4 | 1855
toMay 16 |

Mosterhavn. July 15 to May I .. | 8» I 4 1 1855
16 I

Lille Blegan. E. side of Bom- 1 . . | 16 | 8 | 1855
melii Id. J'lly 16 to May 16 |

8. entrance of Harbour. Oct. 1 I .. | .. | 4 | 1849
toAprill I ,^,,_

On Foint leading into Bommel I .. | .. ( 4 j 1840
»» , 3 -.^f , Fiurd. JaljT 15 to M»y 16 .. j

m IQKWAT.

UOHTHOTTSES:

Seul&edMt

Kama and ChaiMter «r Ucht.

Lat. N.
Long. £.

Dtaeriptton, fto.

OitterS I 59 a6. I Bemoved bam Gletta. Yis. from i .. I ..I 41 i860

One fixed bright li^t | 5 8.5 | N. to S.W. i W., by the K . . |

^iSJSSdbri^tli^t p|;j:j|onBoc>k»tN.enttMioe |Sa| 72|13|1846

0^r&[edbri^t light 1*5 JJijlE-rideofKamB | .. | 66 | 6 1 1M8

XTDSntE I 59 19.6 I W. side of Id. N.'V. and B.E. I 2a 1 256 | 21 | 1844
Two fixed bright lights { 4 51.1 | 220 yards apart |

BnkkeSnnd I 59 13.2 I E. side of Bnkken bland. Otot 1 I . . I ..I 411849
One fixed bright light | 5 >9. 1 toAprill |

FieUoUknd | | Oneflxedbr.lt Oct 1 to April 1 1 .. | .. | 4 1 1849

Bkode Noes Havn { ; Oneflxedbr.lt. Oct 1 toAprill | .. | .. | 4 1 1849

Sknde Ness I 59 9.1 1 S.E. Point of KarmS. Oct 1 to I .. I 77 1 81 1840
One fixed bri^t light | 5 17. | April 1 |

^'^told bright li^t pJjSiJOctoberltoMawhSl ........ |..| Sf | 6 1 1840

2d I 149 I 21 I 18<8

HVIDINGSO
One fixed and flash. It

59 4-
5 »3't

Fiked It 2m. Sfiseos. ; then short
eclipse ; then br. flash 10 to 16
teos.; then eclipse. Only flashes
seen 16 m. dist Bevs. in 4 m.

LiLU Fntmir
One flxedfMf light

EOERd

OnuinMimD Houc
One flxed br. %ht

W. Po»T or Island
One fixed br. li^t

YiBBnooonr
One flxed br. light

YabhXb
One fixed bright light

LI8TEB
Three flxed br. lighti

NAZE OF NORWAY
orLINDBBNJ&8
One flxed A; flash. It

0DDEB5 ISLAND
One flxed rtd light

0X5 ISLAND

I ^]^;^ I On the Island •vMa| 68(131 1869

I ^1 *J;' I On If.W. Point | ffa | 48 (11 1 18M

15816. I I la I 154 I 24 I 1864

58 S5.9 I 8.E. Pointof Yibber Odde .... | 5» | 78 1 12 1 1856
i 59-6

58 10.6 I 8. Point of entrance to lister I .. | 90 1 12 1 1886
^ 37'3 I Vioti I

'58 6.5 ^nuree white towers bnilt in a
6 34.a triangle, on W. Pt of Lister

57 59. I White and red tower, 88 ft. high,
7« 3. I ontheOape. Flash of 12 sees.

I every minnte

58 8.1 1 In Christiansand Fiord, on6.W. | .. | 27 1 10 | 1882
8 0.5 ] Point of Island

2a 1 180 1 19 I 1858
Id i 164 I 24 i 1858

CO ISLAND I 58 4.a I Bound white tower on 8. of Id.. I 2a 1 189 1 19 | 1858

One flxed bright light | 8 3.6 | entranceofChristiansandFiord |

I58 S6.3 I YellowboUdingonSandvigPt, |6a| 43 I 11 I 1844
i$hi!i^l ! I4?4i W. side of^annel I

ABBIDAIi

Qss fu.'j^ bfi'M tight

BTOftWAT.

LtGHTHOTTSES.

SOQtllOoMt. ISO

IMO

1846

IMS

1844

1849

1849
1849
1840

1840
18<8

1869

1866
18M

18M

1886

18£8

1868

Mama ud ChtiMter of Light.

LatN.
Long. E.

DeaerlptlOB, fto.

TORXJNGElf mS.
Two fixed bright lights

Btangholnu Idand
One fixed rvrflig^t

JOMFBULAND
Onefixedandflash.lt

liAvoHTAyonr
One fixed bright light

Eiedeiikiyem
Oie fixed ^TMtt light

OHBISTUmA FIOBD.
One fixed brifllht It.

ToilOAVTte TsUkXD

One fixed bright It.

FULKUUK ISLAND
One fixed ft fiuh. It

TorgersS Island
One fixed bright It

MossHavn
One fixed r«f light

Babt5 Iblahd
One fixed bright It

BedPdnt
One fixed bright It

FQtvedt
One fixed bright It

Steilmie Island

HegHoIm

58 24.1
847.7

On Outer Torungen, and Inner
Tomngen, N.N.E. 1,200 yds.
apart........

58 43.7 I Yellow building on E. Point . . | 6a
9 «5- I

5« 5**
9 86. J

58 59-7 I
■ 9 45-» '

58 59-5
10 4.5

59 *'
10 31.1

59 9-5
10 50.3

59 ".
10 36.7

59 '5 5
10 30.9

59 »^-4
10 39.8

59 *3-3
10 33.

5? 31.9
16 16.3

59 34-7
10 37,7

White tower, 86 ft. high, on a
low Island. Flash every ^ min.
Dark between flashes at 8 m.

Yellow tower on S. Point of I
Langtt Island |

otaTaemsS, 8. Pt, E. sido of
Channel July 16 to June 1

Bed tower, 184 ft. high, with
'white belt, on lit Fserder.
Fogbell

On 8. Point

White ower, 41 feet high. Flash | 4d
every 8 minutes

On N.W. Point July 16 to
June 1 «...

E. side of Oanal. October 1 to
March 31

Yellow building on N. E. Point | 6a

E. side of entrance to' -Drams
Fiord. July 16 to May 31 . .

On W. shore. July^ 16 to May
81

One fixed light. July 81 to
May 81

One fixed light on "Sf. Pt July
16toMayl6

1 184

20|

1 84

10 1

|134

20 1

1 41

111

|101

|164

24 1

1 87

112 1

1 «7

|14|

i 10

1 10

1 88

12 1

1 86

«l

1 24

«l

1 22

«l

1 23

1866
1889.

1889
186;

1867

1969
1860
1861
1867
1848
1840
1840
1837
1826

1882 m

nm i

,■♦•

1863 1

1844 ■

•^u.

.'• •',- •>

i^ IXEVKABK,

MGHTHOXTSES.

B. Elbe, t^

Name and Character of Ught.

LatN.
Long. E.

Defloriptian, fto.

SKAGEN.orSOAW
One fixed bright light

HAN8TH0LM
One rev. hr. It. ^ nun.

AooBS Ohav. Lt. Ybssbl
One fixed bright light

SYLT

Two fixed lights
One fixed and flaajL
light

57 44-1
lo 37.9

57 6.8

56 45-5
8 10.S

55 3-5

8 34.

Ice Bignalii ahown. Bed baU on la | U4 | 16 i 1869
the Old Lt H. if the l4»85 Lt
. Yew^l i« not at her station ..

m.W. Ppi^tof Jntland I .. | 218 ( 18 | 1843

Nov. 15 I 6a i SO I 10 I 1860

Within the Channel,
to March 20

Two fixed Its. (the Western red-
mA) on List or N. end pf Id.
B.E. by E. f E., 2,910 yards
apart. The fixed It will fiash
every 4 m., in village of Elamp,
and changes to red when over
the Bar

« •

• t

206

Dagebiill
Two fixed bright Vfl.

Fohr Island 154 4i

Two fixed bright Its. I 8 34

I 54 43-7 I On the Dyke
I 8 41:3

34.3

AMRUM ISLAND, I 54 385
One rev. br. It, i n^n. [ 8 22.5

MDER LT. VE93EL
One fixed bright lig)it

Riyer Elbe.

J. Outer Light Vessel
Three fixed br. Its.

Loots Galliots Lt Yea.
One fixed bright It

II. Middle Light YesMtl
Two fixed Ught«

ni. Inner Light Yessel

NEUWERK

Two fixed bright U&

Kusyel Baak
One fixed brigbt light

CUXHAVEN
One fixed and flash. It.

54 IO-7
8 34.6

54 0.1
8 18.1

53 55-

8 30-

53 535
8 41.7

53 523
8 43-

B8Bch I 53 53-7

One fixed bright light | 9 15.

Storena I 53 50.

One fixed r«<i light | 934.3

OUicksfatdt j 53 47.!

Onu fixed red light 1 9 24,5

Wyk Harbour. In one lead in

On the Island

In ii fins, at Mouth of River.
Has two masts and flag ,

In 11 fiooB. Three Masts ; a li^ht
on each, and red fiag at Main

Pilot Yessel* 1} miles from Onter
Yessel

Three Masts ; blue and white flag
at Main, f m. firom Pilot Yess.

One fixed br. It. Vf^^ Masts;
red fiag, with wh. square at M.

On Id. at entrance tq River. S.
by E. i £., 686 yards apart . .

Shows inside the Beacon, from
N.W. f N., and N.W

Brick tower, 66 ft. high, W. side
of ontranco. It is a fixed It. up
the River

On E. side, whon River is free
froai ice

N. Pier, at entrance of River
Stor

On N. Pier

1862

.. I 1 1854

.. I 6 1 1852

140 I 14 I 1853

34 I 10 1 1806

• •I, o|»t«*

31 I 8 I 1839
29 I .. i 1857

120 I 16 I 1814
60 12 1816

.. I .. I 1863
80 I 12 I 1863

32 I 6 I 1806
24 I 8 I 1846

HAVOYUAVB

UaHTHOITSBa

131

) I IS I 1814
) 12 1816

irioM and ChaiMter of Light.

L*t.N.
Long. E.

Deiorlptlan, *o.

Liihe light YesMl
Sohulan Light Veasel

I IJnlOfB^ I^ed bright light

I I la 2| ^thonia. J2»llight

|>a| ••|tt|«<l«

HfiLiaOLAND
One fixed bright light

HAITOVSS.

WESEB BIYER,
WssBB Light Vbssil
One fixed bright It.

HOHE WEQ FLAT
One fixed bright It
One fixed red and br.

Bremerhaven
One br., one r«i lb

54 10.8 I (Britiah). A oiroular white tower, | .. | 221 { 20 1 1811
7 53.1 1 60 feet high, on W. side ....

53 49. I Jii entrance in 8 £mfl. Two Masts | .. } 30 | 8 | 1818
8 8.3 I and ball at the Fore

4>.8
14.9

ta one tower. Lower It. from K.
by W. * W., to E. by 8. : it
fsuows rM^ to tiie Dwasgatt . .

Bright light at 10 fe ot at new
Maxb, ; fviltb on old Port Mole

2a I 112 I 16 I 1856
44 7 18»7

.. I .. I 10 I ....

Heppens

l^AKGKROOa
One rev. br. It., 2 min.

BOBKUH ISLAITD
One fixed bright light

EmsBitbb
One fixed bright light

I ....•• ^t A smalllight near new Harbour | .. | .. | .. | .,

53 47.4 I E. of Idand; tow«r white, 60 | .. | 100 | 12 1 18^
7 54.2 I feet high; a beacon to E. by N.

53 35>5 I A red briok tower, 110 ft. high,
40.4 I at entrance of River Ems ....

53 S0.3 I On the Dyke of the Knock, at
7 3. I entrance

2a i 142 1 18 I 1817
6ft I 29 I 8 1 1856

IBIREBIANDS.

ZUIDEB ZEE.

HABUNQBir

One fixed bright It.

Stayokiw
One fixed bright It.

UuK Island
One rev. br. It. 2} m.

BoROyiAND IbLAITD

One fixed bright It.

I 53 10.6 [ On Bampart.
t 5 *5'

52 25.2 I N.W. of side of Harbour

j 5» 39-7 I
I 5 35-8 I

On the S.W. Point.

5a 37.2 1 On S. Point of tbe Island

5 40.7 I

HoBK,near Amstordam I 52 22.3 I
One fixed bright It. | 5 t.i \

Mabken Island I . . .

At tiie angle of tKe Biver f . . . .

I One fixed br. It on S.E. Point. . |

52 44.6 I A stone tower on the Dyke . , . . I

52 53.4 I On W. of Id., N. and S., 448
4 56.3 I yards apart .. <

There are also small Harbour lights in ihe Zuider Zoo at
Workum, Hindelopen, De Lemme, Blokcyl, Oenemuiden,
Kampon, Elburg, Harderwyk, Nykerk, Muiden, Edam,

Geldbbscbe Hobk
One fixed bright It.

Wieringen
Two fixed bright Its.

.. I 66 I 10 I ....

.. I 30 110 1 ....

4b I 69 I 10 I ...

I 34 I 8t ....

I 61|10| ....

I 62 I 10 I ....

I 66 I 10 I ....

39 1 61 ....
16 4 ....

'ii.-v .Tv^JiirTimv

in WMBMBLAMM,

'IQBTROVSES.

W. OoMl A idftodi.

H MM ud Chanwtor of light.

UtN.
Long. £.

DcMsilptioiii tea

SOHIEBMONNIEOOa I 53 38.8

Two fixed bright Its. | 6 10.

TEictSCHELLINa I 53 31.7

' One rev. br. It., 1 min. | 5 13.1

VLIELAND I 53 17.8

One fixed bright light | 5 3.8

Nnrwa Dncp 53 58.

One fixed bright light 4 47.
One fixed r«f light

KTKDUIN I 53 s^.t

One fixed bright lig^t | 4 43.5

EGMOND-AAK-ZEE 53 37.3

Two fixed bright Its. 4 37.6

ZandTOort 153 33.5

One fixed li|^t | 431.5

Koordw^-aan-Zee I 53 14.6

One fixed bright light | 4 35.9

On the North side of the Id.,
S.E. by S., 1,102 yds. apart . .

On the Brandaris tower, near the
W. endoflsland

On the Weirhoofd, N.E., 51 yds.
ajMurt

On the Fort on the high white
Sandhill

8.S.E. f E., 408 Tds. apart. N.
Lighthonae, called Van Speyk's

Ifi
2b I

147
139

177

.. I 151

t • I • •

la 161

Tower

Katw^>aan-Zee

BOHEVENINOEN I 53 6.3
One fixed bright light | 4 16.3

N. of Village, a coal fireP for
fishenmen .....•■• ....••• ....

For fishermen. On a scafibld . .

I Light for fishing boats | ..

A stone tower, 8. of town ; half I 3a
mile S.W. of Church |

VOORNE ISLAND. "
Brielle Harbour |

Steenen Baak |

Oostroome
One br. and one rtd
fixed light

Hbllivoktslvis
One fixed bright It,

OOEREE ISLAND.
Hiddelhamis

QOEDEREEDE or
OOEREE
One fixed light

Kwaden Hoek |

Steenen Baak |

SCHOUWEN ISLAND.
Ossenhoek |

51 54-8
4 4-5

51 49*
4 7-9

358.8

I Fixed bright light on E. Mole . . | . .

I One fixed bright light | . .

Half mile W. of ViUage ; S.E.
I S., 457 yards apart

W. end of Harbour !•

BROUWERS HAVN. 151 44-5
Two fixed br. light* | 3 47 -5

I F{xed bright Harbour light .... | ..

On Church tower. Bed towards 2a
E.N.E. to N.E. by E

I One fixed bright light • | . .

I JZnflttoW., onN.sideofld. | ..

I One fixed bright light | . .

At Renease, on N. side of Id., I 3a
E.S.E. i E., 800 yards apart | 4a

Vcrklikkcr, or guido It. | ..... . | N.W. of Id., to show Anchorage | . .

120
126

82
95

« •

59
46

148

148
82

15 11854

20) ....

8 1 1848
8 1848

.. 11822
20 1858

16
18

1834

4 I....

5 I ...»

6 I .•..
16 I 1850

4 I 1858

• • I • • • •

7 1 1857

8 I 1858

.. I 1857
18 i 1856

.. I 1857
10 I 1858

8 I 1859

16 I 1848
12 I

6 I ....

kUftadi.

Ull'H'HItTiAWDB.

UQHTHOTTSBS.

ZdaiidtftBivan. isa

47
39

Iff 1854

i 20 1 ....

i 12 1 ....

8 1848
8 1848

• •

.. 1822
20 1868

20
26

\l 1834

1 4|....

1 fi|....

1 «|....

)ff

16 1 1860
4 I 1868

• • I • • • •

7 1 1857
81

8 I 1868

.. (1867
18 i 1866

.. I 1867
10 i 1868

8 I 1869

16 I 1848
12 I

6 I ...t

Naaio Hid Chataotor of Light.

Lat.N.
Long. E.

Deaorlptioii, fto.

SCHOUWEN
One zev. bright It '

51 4a-5
3 41-8

A fine tower, 166 ft. high, on W. I lb I 171 I 20 I 1744
endofI(LBright268eo8.eTei7| | [ 11840
li min. 1

WALCHESEN ID.

Sloe

YsaBB

One fixed bright It

WEST CAPPEL

One fixed bright It

FLTISHINa
One fixed blight It

8. BETELAND ID.

BOBSBLlir

Batha
One fixed bright It

Goes Harbour
One fixed bright It

Tib Nbvbb, Axbi. Id.
One fixed bright light

THOLEN ISLAND.

Gorishoek
One fixed bright It

Stavenisse

ZnHixzBa
Two fixed brig!it lights

Zupi
Two fixed bright Its.

Ooltgensplaat
One fixed bright light

WiLLEHBTAD

One fixed bright light

Stryen-Sas
One fixed bright light

DOBDSOHB Kill

One fixed bright light
Krab
Maas BrvBB

St 3* 9

3 40-5

St 3».8
3 »?•»

St a6.4
3 34-7

5« »5-

3 44-

St' a3-7

4 13.8

51 3a.8
3 55-8

51 20.5
3 50.

51 3»«

4 4.8

5» 37-9
3 55-4

51 39-3
4 6-3

51 409

4 33.x
51 418

4 ><-7

51 4a.7
4 356

51 43-4
4 37-5

Light S. of Middelbnrg Harbour
8. side of entrance

On old Cihurdi Tower

On Westhaven Bastion ........

One fixed bright light

S.E. ofFort.

On N. side of entrance ........

On W. Jetty
N. of Ferry .,

Bright It at E. Angle of Haven

One at S. Angle, near Zieriksee;
the other on W. Haven Heads

One on Outer Dyke of Stooff
Polder ; th^ other on Land side
ofDyke

End of Hrjrbonr Dam, River
Yolgerak

In flront of Bastion. ...•..«..••

W. Heads of Outer Haven .. . •

W. extremity of Dordt Channel

In Old Maas. One bright light

Small Harbour lights at Schie-
dam. Perms, and Vlaardingen

83 i 81 ....
38 1 10 I 1847

144 I 16 I 1818

49 I 10; ....

36 I 9 I 1847
32 I 5 I ....
81 I 6| ....
43 1 10 I 1845

361 4| ....

27| ff| ....

311 41 ....
43 6

61 •••.

161 6| ....
41 I 10 I ....
48| 6| ....
48 I 10 I ....
31| 2| ....

IS4 ncannc

IlOiBXEOXJfSBS:

WwlOoMt

Nhm aad Chusetw of Ugbt

LtitN.
Lonff. E.

e /

Dewiiirtkaii, fte.

NORTH HINDEB LT.

VESSEL
One fixed br. ligbt

Faabob Mabxt Lt. Vi8.
• One fixed red light

HoTBt

One fixed bzight light

Blankenberg
One fixed bright light

OSTENBB

One fixed bright It

S.JPi»r

5* 3«-7
1 34.6

In 14 fitthoma, on the E. aide . .

• I 40 1 11 i 1868

51 33.7 |S.W.paTtofBank ( • | .. | .. 11849

3 ao.

|5jm IK.ofTown | .. | 48 | 8 1 1842

I 3 »4- I

51 1S.9 I Li amall Fort
3 8.

I 44 I 6 1 1888

.51 14^ I Tower, 170 feet high, 820 yards I la 1 189 | 20 | 1860
a 55.9 I E. by N. of old fight. <. |

I Sed light, while 8 to 14ft., and I .. I 2S | 6 1 1849
t brightlt;,whilel4fi;.,onBar| .. I 40 | 7

W.Pier

I Ortm light all night

I .. I 25 I 7 I ....

Nieuport Tide Light
One fixod bright light

51 8.4 I E. side of Port, firom half flood | .. ^ 32 | 6 1 1825
343. t tohalfebb

'■■?.:?*■

. »■« *tt. .,-«•««

'^vi%.^^^ f i^^-f t, f<; f

i'%

■■'Sftr'

'.mt ■

r-iii

l-fi,th^(^.-_,un.->^ ^^.^,J. '.W.' -i

:fmii.''dh'

iS'^-!: .' -JS

'M- •-

'ii^'^^ft'- '' f-^^--':^ v:3i/

iBJjnnL

IIOUTU0USB8.

VttrthOoMt. IM

If UM uA OhazMtw of Ucht.

LatN.
LoBf . K.

DMorlptioB, *«.

«►

DUNEEBQTTE 1 51 3. I Briuk tower, 180 ft. high, on

One rev. hr. It. 1 min. \ * »2.\ Pier Head

DinnuutaoB Poet I

' One blight and one rtd
' fixedUght I

OBAYELINES
Three fixed br. lighta

St 0.3
a 6.5

e| liww

Waidb PoniT
One fixed and flash. It

to 11860

CALAIS
One fixed and flaah. It

6 1849

Calais Habbovs
' ISro Its. and one Tidelt.

7| ....

8 \ 182ff

•1APB GMSNEZ
B One rev. br. It, i min.

Bright It on Hoiigaohar Tower;
rtd Ught on W. Mole Head . .

One It on Fort Philippe ; 2 Its.,
66 yds. apart, on S.W. Mole of
FortPhiUppe

50 59.7 I Br. It, with red flash every 20
I 55.1 I sees. ; no eclipse

50 57.7
X 51.1

Fixed It, with flash every 4 min.; |
in tower, 167 ft. high, on Old
Fortiflcations

Sti It on W. Jetty ;' jfriiti It, in
&ir weather, on E. Jetty ; and
br. tidt Ught on Fort Bouge
while 8 feet

lb 1 194 I 24 I ....

5a I 85 I 9 1 1845

• I 28 I 3 I ....

3a I oS I 15 I 1848

• I 20 I 6 1 1854

.. I 34 I 10 I 1859
Id I 190 I 20 I 1848

16 I 2 I 1842
6a I 33 9 ....

JBouloffru
Two fixed bright Its.,
and one fixed rtd It

ALPEECK POINT
One fixed and fiash. It

Staples ot canche

RIVER
Two fixed br. Its.

50 53.S I Tower, 46 feet Ug^, i mile 8. of I lb 1 194 | 22 { 1842
I 35.1 I Cape. Eclipses not total at 12m.

50 43.9 Two br. Its. in one tower ; higher
I 35.1 It while 9f ft.: lower It, from
high water to 9 ft. ebb. Std It.
on K.E. Jetty while 9H«et . .

50 41.9 I A br. It, with r#i flash every 2

I 33.7 I min. Tower. 33 ft. high, 2^

I milonS.W. ~ "

50 V t

At Tonqnet, 8. side bf Mouth of
River, in towers 171 ft. high,
N.N.E, and 8.8. W., 273 yards
apart

Lomel Point | ....... | One fixed It on K. side of Mouth

Pt. Havt-bakoofBbbck I 50 14. I N. side of Mouth ot rAuthie
One fixed bright Ugkt { i 33.5 | Bivar..,. ,

1835

•

4d 1 161 1 12 1 1842

1174

1852

•I 52 I 6 I ....
4a I 66 I 10 I 1836

SOMME BIYER.

Crotoy
One fixed bright It.

Sowrdel Point

One fixed bright It

CAYEUX

One fixed and flash.lt.

Cayeux
One fixed bright It.

Treport
One fixed brii^t. light

50 13.9 I On K. side of entrance. IMi I • I ..I 4 1 1851

I 37.3 I ;^A« while 8 feet |

• I .. I 4 1 1852

3d I 92 I 15 I 1835

I 50 13.9 I On 8. Mde of entrance. Tide
I I 33-9^1 /i^A< while 2 feet

50 It. 7 I Oa 8. side of entraaee. Fixed I
I 30.7 [ light, with flash every 4 nin. |

812 yards S.W. of Oayeus light,
from 3} hours flood to \\ ebb.

• I .. I .. I 1856

50 3

I 33

.9 I Tide Ught on W. Mole, while 6} | 5a | 36 | 10 | ...
.1 I fNtiatheChaniiel..........

m IPEAHOB.

LIGHTHOUSES.

HolrOiOiiiil

KOM and Chuaoter of Light

Dewsrlptfon, Ao.

JUtppt, W. Mole

One fixed bright It
B.M0U
Three fixed br. Its.

AILLT POINT
One ray. br. It. 1 min.

8t. VAUUiT-iir-GAinc
Onebr. IrMf fixed It.

f£gamp

One fixed bright light
Ftounp Harbour

Tide light while 10| feet

«•••••

On a "KTast. Lowest It. all night ;
highest light from 2i hears be-
fore to 2 hours after high water ;
middle It. from 2 hours before
until high water

49 55.1 I Tower, 66 ft. high, on the Point,
o 57.5 I Eclipses not total at 10 miles

49 53.1 I Bright tide light on W. Jetty I
o 41.7 I while 8i feet. JiM^lt-onE. Jetty {

49 46.1 I On Faji^Tiet Point, aboYO the chalk I
o 31.3 I diff. Sometimes obscuredbyfog |

Fixed and flash. Bed tide light on
N. Jetty while 10 ft; Fixed r«;
li^tonS. end of Jetty

• •

10 1

•

• •

• ••I

teat

• • • •

lb I 805 I 27 I

20 I 6
24 8

1857
1857

la I 426 I 18 I' 1836
5a

KIVER SEINE.

LA h£:ve

Two fixed bright Its.

HAVRE
' One fixed bright It.

HOO
One fixed bright It

Hode Point

TancarviUe

Yillequier '

Caudebecquet

NeuTillo

49 30.7 I Two towers, 66 ft. high, on the
o 4.3 I Cape, S.W. i S., 60 yds. apart

49 »?•
o 6.3

On N.W. Jetty. An Orange It
also on S.£. Pier, vis. 1 mile ;
and a Lantern, %ith coloured
glasses, on the Quay

la I
5a I

80 I 10
29 3

307 I 20 I
30 i 10 I

• • • •

• • t •

1848

49 38.8 I On Point, N. Bank of River I 5a | 39 | 10 |
o 11.3 Seine

Yaquerie

Airier
Courral

I One bright light on the Point . . | • |

I One blight light on the Point . . | • |

One br. It 1 m. W. of Yatteville I • |
Church I

One br. It f m. E. of Caudebec I • |
Church I

One br. It If m. below Vatte- I • |
-viUe Church |

One br. It li m. above Airier I • |
Church

I • . . . . . I One bright It near the Church | • |

• I

• • • • • a

Qros-li^ourt

QviiiLBBOtur
"^ One fix^ bright It

LaRoque

Bervilla

One br. It. 2} m. above Quillo-
boeuf light |

One br. light \ m. above Point I • |
Quilleboeuf |

49 38.^ I N. end of Quay, 8. Bank I 5a |

o 31.6 I I

I One bright light on the Point . . j • j

,,r. . . I One bright light N. of Church. . | • |

I 8|
I 8|
I 8|

i 8|

I S|

I 4}
I 8|

I 8|
88 I 10 I

..I 81
.. I 81 .

1847
1847

XEAlO&i

USfBTBOUfSBS,

StelMlMtt 187

V«me wd Chaneter of Light.

Lat.N,
Lon(. E.
L(niC..W.

. , ^^-ATOUVILLB .

One fixed had flaah.
light

HOKFLfiTJB
Two fixed br. lights

TOVQVM BiTSK '

Two fixed bright lights

L'OionBiTBK
Two fixed bright Its.
One fixed r«f light

Comrsenlles
One fixed blight light

POINTE DB VER
One fixied and flash. It.

Pobt-im-Besbxn
Two flied bright light*

OrandcAiftp
One fixed bright light

PoH* D'liiojnr
Two fixed bright ligbts

Bt. Masooitp
One fixed bright light

MoRSAinia '
One fixed bright light

LaHovovb'
One fixed bright light

Batiib Point
One fixod bright light

BARPLEUR
One roT. br. It. \m.,k
Two fixed bright Its.

LsYi Capi
One flxsd and flash. It.

CHERBOURG
. Port do Commerce

Pbl^:r IstANn
One fixed bright It,

Ia Dioii

One tixed k flnsih. U-
Ono fixed pr*tH light
Quo rtd li jht *

49-44'9
o 19.4

49 aS-5
o 13.6

49 ai.7
o 4.5

lOBg.'W.

49 16.6
o 15.6

49 »o-3
o »7S

49 »-5
o 31.3

49 »«•;

P 4J-fi

Slower, 196 fiset high, on the I
Heights. Br. light, with rti
flash, every 3 minutes |

On Hospital Jottr, N.W. ond of I
Tower; and Tidt light on E. {
Jetty, while 6) flset ........

W. side, 163 yds. apart Lotperlt.
while 7 foet o^ Bar. Itt one
lead in

Br. Its. on Chnrch and Redoubt
of Oyestreham, ,W. side of entr.
Jted Tide It. on N. end of W.
Jetty, 3 homrs before and after

' high water

On W. Jetty Head .

Id 1 420 I 20 1 1940

8a I 82 I Iff
6a 29 6

• ••••• •••••• ••••

•

• •

800 yards from the shore. Fixed
light, with flash every 4 min.

N.E. by E, and S.W. by W.,
. . .7.9 yards i^art JRiffh tid* U.
wmle 12 feet oh Bar

...*••••

49 *VA\ B76 yards West of Olinrcti
I a.o I

Vt?,\

49 »9 9
I 8.9

49 34-3
I 19.4

49 M-i
1 16.4

N. by E. iE. and6.byW.i
W., 306 yards apart

I On the Fort, E. of Sand-fly
I Island

I On the Mound. Bluch higher
I than La Hougue light ......

At 8. end of Fort

• I SO I •

8d I 188 I 15

5a I 131 I 8
6a i 921 6

• 1241 8
46 1 10

1857
1848

}

• ••«

••••

1855

|iS57

1854

1 1888

49 3^-4
I 139

49 4«-9
I 16.

49 4»«
M a8.5

On Revili<^ Redoubt

•••••• ••••

«•' 23 I 8
5a I 56 I 10

5a I 282 I 10

5a I 86 I 10

5a I 80 I 10

Rot. It. on the CapiB. ftright U«.
on S. side of entmnco, 8.W.
by W. i W., and N.E. by E.
i £., 808 yards apart

Tower, 103 foot hipch. Lt. br.,
with rtd flash evcy 3 min. . .

1853
I 184G

I 1836

I 1886

(1836

• n->

1836
. « * .
...I

4d I 115 I 12 I 1868

230

] , I JtMflight on E. Jotty | 4a | 33] S | 183ft

149 40.3 1 Oh Fort Imperial
.134.9 J.

49 40- «

Brig^ht flxml, with flash evrry S
mis., on (Jentml Foft. Grccii
light on Eastern Hond. Toiu-
porary red light ion W. Haud

6a I 86 110 1 ....

6d| 80
• 89

18.19
1863
1858

lit

UOHTHOUSBS.

OOMt

Hum and CharMtwr of Ucht.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

QoiaavariiXB FoBT | 49 40.3 I On the Goud'houae I fo | W|10|«»..

Oaa fixed bright It. | i 49.1 | i

CAFE DE LA HAGUE I 49 43.4 I Ontlietopof GrMduBasBook, | U 1 1«7 1 18 1 18S7
One fixed bright Uf^t | i 57.3 | half mile from Oqpe

CASKETS 49 43-4

Three ret. he, lights, a aa.j
• SOaeoi.

118 1 18 I 172S
1886

(Britiah). Fkoedtriangolariyon
the hJgliMt Bode, £. } N., 62
yacda: 8.W. | W, 46 7BkU;
•ad K.W. i W., 24 yds. aput

(British). BuOding .......... I .. | •. | .. 1 1881

HANOIS or HAKO- 49 aj.S
VBAUX BOOKS i 43.3

One lifl^t hnOding

OcBBXsxT I 49 37. I (British). On Si nerre, a Pier I • I 40 1 11 1 1882

Onefixedbri^tUgliH s 32- r Hewl. 1 • 1 1

JEB8EY

TcBCLOT Bbbaxwatu I 49 13.3 I (British). On the Onter end, in t 8a I 80 1 11 1 1887
One fixed bright It | a i.a | St Catherine's Bay

St. Hilisb
One fxed bright It :
One fixed rtd ». ; and
One fixed bine Ught

Gkraray Pier Head

Didette
One fixed br. and »Wlt

a I.a

49 »0S

a 7.3

Bright light on Vietoria or S.
Pier ; red light on Albert at
N. Pier; Mm light on Old
K. Pier

81
18
17

1888
18«9
1886

t • I One fixed bright light | .. | .. |..|1887

49 33«

I 51.7

On Jetty Head. Bed It at head
of Harbour. N.W. and S.E.,
160 yards apart ,

38
78

1888

CAPE CABTERET 1 49 **'4 I Tower, 40 fiset high, <m Capo .. | 2b I 283 1 18 I ....
One rer. br. It, i min. | i 4S.5 | |

Portbail | 49 ao. I On Ohnroh Tower and Point I .. I .• I .. 1 1880

Two fixed fwl light* ) 143-1 I>«b«i 8W.iS., 988 ydi. apart |

Sto«q»«t C«l»| . |*;35:{|Bnilding,188l | .. | .. I .. | ....

BCoHXTiuB I 49 0.5 I On Agon Point ...tM*«« |8a| 8811011888

One fixed bright light | i 34.9 | 1

CHAU8EY ISLANDS I 48 ja.a I On S.E. Point A br. It, with I 8d 1 181 1 18 1 1847
One fixed and fiash. it I 1 49-4 | rmf flasherery 4 min. .|

48 50.1 Bright It on Granville ^>ek, or

I 34.9 Cape LihoQ. Med It on Mde

Head, W. rids of entranoe . ,

On the new Mole des Koires ..|8a| 88 1 10 1 1848

8a I 184 I 18 1 1680
36 8 ....

GRANVILLE

One fixed bright It, ic
One fixed »wf light

St. Mau) I 48 39. I

One fixed bright Ught | a 1.7 |

CAPE FBEHEL I 48 411 1 Tower, 72 fbet high, on the I lb I 280 I 22 1 ....
One rev. br. It, I min. I a 19.3 | Cape..... |

L<ovaPoRT I 48 3a.a I On Point Aigle I 8a I 4011011887

One fixed bright light I a 43> I | 1 1 I •

IusSaimtQuat 14840- I On Harbour laUnd |8a| 4811011880

Onenxedbng&tiight I a4«6) ,^,^^,..,,^,.^ , .^ \ ' ' '

tSiQfSHBOVB'Ba.

voHkecNMt i9d

Hhm ai ChHMlir or light.

Ut.N.
Umg. W.

e *

DcMriptlMi, An.

On PanthMTTo Hole I^a

I4S3M

QnendofPier {•

B~tqF«>BT I4I 36.1

Fovtrieaz
..QnfcflMdfMni^t

BsteAT laui I 4ft 51.9.1 On tWm Book and Bosedo Hill,

..XwoilxtdiWlighto 1x59.3 W. 1 8., and £. | N., i mile

I I •*«* "***

SkAVX DE BBtoiit 1 4S 54-5 I N.E. aide of Booka | la

. On4i>M1»i|;htUglit I 3 5-3 1 I

SEPT ILEB — I4S. 52.7 I Tower, Si feet high, on E. end I 3d

Onefizedaodflaah.lt I 3 29.5 I oflleaazlloinea. Fized,withl
I I flaah evety 8 nin. .......... |

TBlomh Bim
One fixed nrf It, and
One fixed Mi^t light

FEBB08 BAT
Nantcmar Bridge
One flxt4 hright It

IFropoaed (1861). JM tt. ou MiB ] '. .
of St Antoine, and br. It on t
HaihonrMiU mJ

■ ;4 ■*■■■■:

4S 4^. 1 1 On B.B. ahofo of Bay. .•«.^....
3 »3.9 I

FIzfld br. light, 750 yds. 8.K of I . .
Nantooar Light |

I I

I .tk.M I Bright light on 8. Hhore of Bay | ..

I 4I 4«.7 I Near llie MiU, 8,133 yarda S.W. I ..
I 311I.4I of Pigeon House Light |

I 4I 50.3 I On the Point I

Pigeon HooM

One fixed bright U.

Fletunanao'h Pott
One fixed fMf light

HOBLAIX
Ili Noina
One fixed ft flaah. It | 3 ja.i | minutes

TovB LA LAima I 48 38.S | ^ere is also a small rwl It on I fia
One fixed bright It i 3 53<a 1 the (Mteau du Taureau for i
I I the anohonge.) |

Oit.ti uf

48 40.4 I Fixed light, with flash erety 2 I 0d

ILE DE BAS
One rer. br. It, 1 min.

ILEVIEBOE
One fined and flash. It

ABERVBACH
1. One bright and 1

frten light ; also
8. One rtd Mid 1 br.

Ught

88 1 10 I IBM
29 I 811858

S|!|'»~

148 I 18 1 1885
184 1 15 I 1835

.» I .. I ...»

' SS 1 10 ] 1800

258 1 14 ) I860

89 1 12 I 1860

259 I 14 I 1860

69 I 5 I 1860

46 I 10 I ....
285 I 121 ....

JaidinorLonetld. | | One fixed light bnUding, 1861 .. t ..

48 44.7 I Tower, 181 feet high, on W. I lb
4 «.7 I PMft I

48 38.4 I On E. Point Br. fixed It, with I 8d | 108 | 15 | 1845
4 34.S I rti fiaah erery 4 min.

1. Br. It at Head < f St Antoine
Creek, and fr*m It on E. of
Falue Beach. 2. Bed It. on
Flouguerneau Steeple, and br.
It on Ue Vrac'h, £. side of
entrance

4i 35-7
4 33-5

238 I 24 I 1836

1845
1845

•

226

•

0UE88AKT, or
U8HANT
One fixed bright It

CoNaviT Font
One fixed bright light

la I 272 I 18 I ....

48 18.5 I N.E. Point of Id. A second It

c i.c I on 8.W. Point is proposed

I (1861)

48 S1.7 I On Kermorvon Foint I 4a | 72 { 12 | 1849

4 47'J

m BUXCOIL

LI0H!!rHOI7SB8i

Ibateta^AChuMtar of Light. ;

Lat.N.
Long. W.

DeMiIptkm,4ke.

.^.

i43 ,iQ.S|Tower, 82 ftet bifl^ cm tixe] 2b 1 177 1 jA 1881
One NT. br. It t ndn. f 4 40.4 1 ' '

BT.MA!rni£n

Foiat

SSEST

Ifnrov

ixov Ponrr 1 48 io.a t Tim % 79 Iwt liifi^ ra, tbe I S« 1 105 1 1< | .t**
One fixed brigl^t. I 4 37- I Pc-t *. I

VovmoTnis^ | 4S si>5 | Toww, 108lbet U|^, 4 niles E. 1 2d 1 18i 1 18 | «k.*

One flzxl and fladu.

light

GamAretBey

Totft3x6vwt PoniT
One fixed fMf light

4.3>'9

i.8..af Minoaldght |laili|
creiySnun. tttK^*.*** )

i ...... |IJ«^t1n>ilding(l881}<m.B.Oa. |.. I «. | .. | ....

48 16.8 I 8.W. ride of entshmee I 4a 1 101 ( 10 1 1849

437-9! I

DovABioarss Bat .148 6.a I OnI^j>tanne.... I 4a | lU 1 10] 1887

.One fixed. 1iri$ht light \ 4 si*5 I I

ILBDESEIN US a.7 IN. Point of Id. Fixed It, with I Id 1 148 | 20 i 1848
One fixed and flaidill. [ 4 5a. | fiosh every 4 min. |

BBO DIT RAZ I 48 a.4lTower,49Jfoethighontliehigheet|la|2J9|l8|1848
One fixed bright lifl^t I 444. | part |

Andierne Pert
One fixed rti It, and
One fixed bright lig^t

48 0.6
4 3«-5

StdlK on Baonlio PHnt ; br. It
near Capaofain OfMod ; N.E.
I N., and S.W. | S., 1,203
yaida apart ,««•«••••••

ffa

86 1 6
69 [12

1856

PENHABCTH POINT I 47 47.9 I On the Vdai, on the Chnroh of I lb 1 185 i 22 | ....
Onerer. bi. It i min.. .1 4 sa.4 j 8t Piene t|

LtK *^7 1 ...... J. Building (1861) on Pont rAbb« i .. | .. | .. | ....

• I » I A I 1848

.3 I On Coq Point, N. f E., and S. f
.8 I W., 291 yd*, apart In one

ODirrhirxB I 47 5a

Ouo fixed rMf light, and 4 6.
One bright light |

PENFBET I 47 43.3 I N. Point of Id. Fixed It, with | 8d 1 118 j 16 1 1888

One fixed and flash It | 3 57.3 | fiaah every 4 miu.

OOMCABNIAV *

Two fixed bright tie^to

Lanrieo

Douelan Port

ILE DE GBOIX I

One fixed br. It, and
One fixed and fiaah. It

L'OnmiT

1. Two fixed br. lights

2. Two fixed br. lighta

147 5a.a I On Croix Battery, and between
3 55-^ 1 Con(Huneatt_and Beuzeo, ia

46 1
177 12

1849

one, N.E. i E., 2,052 yds. apart

I ...... I jB«f It on E. of ConcameauPort | • 1 185 | 9 1 1867

I ...... iTwolts.bnUdingB.&W.ofentr. | .. | .. | .. | 1861

47 38.9 I Fixed It on N.W. part; the other

3 30.7 I on Fort on E. part Dr. It,

I with rM flash every 8 miu. . .

47 44-9
3 -0.8

1. One It on Church Towor, the
other at Lape}'riftre, N. 83" £.,
1,826 yards apart 2. Two Its.
in Port Louis, E. side, £. i N.,
and W. i 8., 481 yards apart

1194

118 1

6d 1 171 1 10 1

1850
1850
1854

Etol niver

Onu flxod r*d Uvhl

I 47 3*-7 I At entrance of lU\'«r I Oa | 20 | 3 | 1859

^ I >%*, ts(,frt^t!(»#IMt<>

WtiXSfM.

IMBTBOVfSM,

141

Name ft :;tti««ct^ of Light.

Lat.N.
Long. W.

o' *

BELLE ILE
Sauion Fort
.... One fixed r«>Hght

VvM» Port
One fixed 1ir.]%lit..

GOULFAS UAt
.... One rev. ht. It, 1 m.

IIuiDio Id.

.. One fixed bright light

.dUIBEBON BAT

La Teiorovsb
*-" One fixed and flaah.
light

• • ■Htligfuen

One fixed bright lb

1 47 tt.4 I On the end of Mole. ».k..*.»<i* I4a| 28 | .. 1 1S69
I 3 i3-a I I

47
I

47
3

M.9|MoIeHead,&iideofentniio» )6a| SO | 9 1 18SS
9-34 I

18.7 I Tower, ISl feet hSgb, on 8.W. of I lb | 276 | 27 1 1836
13.5 I lalaad j

30.5 I Tower, 89 feet high, 600 vda. W. | 5a | 85 1 10 j 1836
S». I frcKdiE. Point of Jdudxt... | <^r{^tl^>

374 1 On the Book, S.E. of Qidbescon 1 4d ] 89 1 12 | ,.••
a.8j F^eninBula. I^ed light, with |

I flash every 8 min.

39.S I Tower, on Nt Jetty
59!

I 40 I 9 I 1856

•Lft Crac'h | 47 34.1 I On left Bank of Biver, K. by E. I .. I 29 I .1 lam

Oner««landlbr.lt.[ 3 04] end S. by W., 674 yd«. apart \^\ 69 | * | »««

32.9 I On the 8. Point of entrance to | 6a | 72 1 10 1 1840
54. I Morbihon .<

Navalo Port I 47

One fixed bright It | a

FenlanPoint [47 31* I On the Point ....|5a| 52 1 10 | ....

Onefixedbrightligjit i a.3?,»i . ».; ^Al^rt-^V,

LE FOUR I 47

Cue rev. br It, i min. | a

CtOiric Port
Two fixed bright Itl.

LOIRE RIVBB
Point 'lEve
One fixed >^ light

AlOVIIXOM TOWXB

ComiiKOi TowxB

8t Naaaire ; . . . .

Poimboouf Fort
One fized bright It

Pierre h I'OSil

Bt. Nichoiaa I.

Mindine Tower

Fomio Port
One fixed bright light

PILIER ID.
One fixed and flaah; It

47
i

17.9 I A round atone Tower (^ the I 2b | 79 ( 18 1 182S

37.9I Book I

18. I Kea/ the Chnrch, N. and 8., 50 I 6a ! 13 ] . j 1888

30.9 1 yards apart |.. | 33| ''|....

14.5 I Marks the channel to the town | 6a 1 102 | 6 1 1850
lO.j 1 of St Martin |

... i One fixed bright light | 8a 1 112 ] 12 | ....

... I One fixed and flash. It, flash 2 m. | 3d 1 128 j 14 { ....

... I One fixed br. light, on Mole Head 1 6a | 26 | 8 1 133(

174 I End of Mole I 6a | 26} 8 1 18M

° a

ILE D'YEU,

....- IhJ T>^~A
UOCU "~

|46
One fixed bright k. |

,... I One fixed light proposed (1861). | .. | .. | .. | ....

,,,, I iZMf light proposed (1861) | .. | .. | .. | ....

,... I One fixed light proposed (1861). | .. | .. | .. | ....

6:6 I On £TovoilIard Point I 6a | 59 | 9 11816

7- I I

1.6 I On N.W. loint Flash every i 2d { 105 | 18 | ....
ai;7 I 4 min |

43.1 Tower, 108 feet high, on Mound, i la 1 177 1 18 I ....
aj. xrom m. jrout i,aov yarns .. j

142

JtMWHSiOliBM,

MdOteMlMrflr light

UtV.
Long. W.

Dtmi; ijfte.

Bbiton Pobt
ThiM fixed Ir. lib.

46 43<
• a. at.

One on Outer Jetty, N. nde of
•Btnmee ; one (praposed, 1861)
on Point CorbeMin; luid one
atHeadofHturbonr ....*•••

6a|

* * I

Bt GOleaHmr-'Vie
One fixed tWlij^

LA OHAUMB

4<4>-6|N.iideof Jetty

"-I*

1 46 ifjj. I Tower, M fcet higik, en W. iide 1 4a
One fixed bright Ii|^ | 147.4I of entrance to Okone |

SaUei d'OIoiuM . l-i.i*.« | Fixed te.lt,E.idde of enttanoe | 5a

Babom n'OiAMin | | Elaahing lig^t, building (1861). | ..

'Bodte Bonne Lt TeMeL | • | Fkopoaed (1861) | ..

PSBTUiB BBET^N
QnotriM Dv Oov Pqimt l.ifi ?o.8 | K., 82* E.» 7 miles from the I ffa
Oneflxedbrig^lt | 1 28.3 | Tour dee Baleuus t

jLtavuxoK Ponrr I 416 16.3 | Bearing 8. by E., lead* on to I 6a
One fixed bright tt. 1 i ia.8 | Mid. Channel ..., |

ILE DE BIe

BAIiEINES M i4<7 1 Qp|r.W. Point Fladieeof «!• I lb

One xer. br. li, I m. I i 33.8 | eqoal brilliancy ............ |

HAVT-BANO DU I 46 15.8 I On the Shoal i 3a

NOBD I 35.ao

Oneflxedbr.lt | | I

8t Martin Port I 46 ia.4 I On Demi-Bastion, E. of en- | 6a

One fixed bright It | i ai.9 ) ttanoe

Fort de la Flotte
One fixed bright It

Cbaotbav PomT

46 1 1.3 I On the Mole | 6a

I 19.4

SAOTBAV POIMT 1 46 8. 1 S.B.

One fixed bright It ,' | 16.5 |

Pdntof Island I 6a

Boohelle Harbour I 46 9.4

One bright and one fMi i 0.3
fixed Bght I

Upper br. It. on E. Quay ; lower
It rtd, W. } 8., and E. f N.,
267 yards apart • . <

Ili d'Aix
One fixed bright light

ILB D'OL^RON
CHAaSIBON
One fixed Iwight It

LaP^rotine
One fixed bright It

Caiitean Pott
Two fixed br. Iji.

BIVEB OIRONDE
CORDOUAN

I46 0.6
I I 10.8

I On Fort at 8. Point of Island .. | 6a

i6 a.8 I Tower, 141 Uset high, N.W. | la
I »4.^ I Point of Island

45 jS.a I End of Jetty
I 13.9

45 53. I Building, 1861. When in one
iii.a| will lead in

i 4J 35-> I ^ Jiandsome structure on the I lb

281 8
1« 10

• •••
1860

OnO rov. br. it,, 1 m. I t 10.5 j Itock ••«• |

to I 611862

US 1 12 1 ....

2Si 8| ....
•• I *■• I ••••
t* I •• I ••••

69il0|....

SS 1 10 i ....

164 I 22 I 1864
72 1 16 I 1864

62 I 6 I ...,

80 I 9 I 1849
72 I 14 I 1842

66|10fV...

141 I 18 I 1836
88 I 4 I 1868
• • I .. I ....

207 I 27 I 1727
I I 1864

xsAum

w9BXBfxmwi*

wmemt 143

hH OhMMter of Ught

Ut.N.

[Alff. W.

e #

filVEB GXBONDE

OOUBBB POINT (45 4<'5 t Toww,100fc«tIiiKh,QnK.poiBt I to| 131 i /^ ) 1880
One flzfld Mc^t It | i 15.4! ofBiTar,N. pwitofentnaoe |

Falaub AMD Tbbbi I 45 38.9 I Std ligkt at Ftlidae, 600 Tudi ffa I 46 I 71
Nboui I I 6.9 I *- m bright hf^ oa Tetie 4a 1 118 ^2 |

Oii0»wf4bl1nr.tt.

^dgra Tower

18<2
1842

Fontaillae 1 45 38.x j Wooden Tower, 105 ft high, on I 8b i 177 1 15 1 18M

One rer. mf aadbr. I i 3>7 I the Table land. JM ana irAtto |
light I I altaniately, for 20Mcs...r.*. I

I Bright light 00 Jetty | •

4536. lOnBaitbaokofBiTer ••....#• I ••

45 35*4
058.9

4 1 Oa flie Bandhilli at Bono on
Baatbaak

Boyaa

St. Gtoorge
One fxedfwf light

SVfAC

One iaedrvil light

DiObatb
One fixed bright It

Tallam Bank Lioht
Ynan

Tonr de Bv Li Veaael
Ono fixed bright It

Miq[K>n light VeiNl

Ho de Patiras '
One fixed bright It

Trompelonqp

Bichard
Gaet

Paoillao

Blayo ^

Hourtin '

ABCACHOK BASIN
One fixed bright Us^t

C0NTI8
One rev. ni and br. It

ADOTjaBmn
Onft fixed bright light

BIABBITZ
One TOT. br. It k min.

Baenk Pomr i 43 %y; \ W. Folat of St Jesn de Lus j 5a { 115 { 18 i ....
One fixed bright light | 1 41M Bay .t«..M |

45 34-3 I Oa Am Point
« 3.4 1

45 30.7 I One fixed bri^ light, in four I 5a
o 59.1 1 fkthoma, on W> noe •......• |

45 97.6 lOnWeatBaakofUfor I 5a

o 45-3 I I

45 i7.6|OaWeitBuikofBiTer ...... | 5a

o 45<9 I

4S is4|OntheNorthpartoftheIdaad
04a. I

,„,f, I lixed It, OB old Chapel, oa W.
I Bank..

(FixedMltiOnW. rideofBiTerl 4a

...... IFixedtWlight | ..

45 >>-9 I Two man Itf, on landiog>plaoe | ..
* 44'9 I

...... |B.rfdeofBhrer. Lightatland« I ..

I ing-phoe I

|TwoU|^ta,piopoaed(1861).... I ..

On Fenret Oapo,
traaoe

I*ropoaed (1861),

44 38.7 I On Fenret Oapo, N. aide of en- 1 la
I 15.1I traaoe

44 4*
I ao.

43 31.8 I OaJetty,8.did«ofentraaoa .. I ..
I 31-5 I I

41 10.6 I Tower, 144 foot high, oa Point I lb
133.61 StMartin |

ISl
85
88

88
88

..
56

167
*•

88
340

6 I .*..
711860

12 1 1860

15 1 1828
1 1860

9 I 1845
10 1 1860
10 1 1860
12 I 1860
15)1860

8 I 1845

• • I •• • •
«9 I ••••
•0 I ttto

• • I • e e t

18 I 1840

«. I •• ..

6 I 1861

22 I ....

ilQiHTBffQMBl

mMtm^

Sum aad ChorMtor of Ligbt.

Long. W.

Dcwniirtiaii, ^

FVENTEUUABIA.

One fixed bright light

Pasaoks Pout
Oue iSxed bright light

S.VN SEBASTIAN .
One fixed and fla^. It.

MACHICHACO CAPE
One fixed and fladi. It

BILBAO
One fixed bright light

' « ' t » r

Saotoma.

Castuo TTbdialkb
Oue fixed and flash. It

BANTANDER

MOVBO ISLASD

CAPE MAYOR
One rev. br. It, 1 min.

lianea

BiTAOBSELLJi

OUON

, , ' bm-

PENAS CAPE
One rev. br. It i min;

Atiljbs

CCDILLERO

- One fixed bright light

CAPE BUSTO

One fixed and flash It.

pRRIO DE TAPIA ID.
One fixed dud flush.' It

PANCHA l6tAND

One fijr.ed bright light

CAPE ESTACA

One rev. br. It., 1 'min.

CAPE PRIOR

One fixed bright light

<iA'eK PuioaiNO
Oue fixed ioid floah. -It.-

CORUNNA

One fixed and iiash.Iiv

43 23.6 I On Cape la Higpiera, W. side of I 6a
147.71 BidudiaBivier .......j

43 10.3 I Cape la Fbta, near W. entinnce I 4a
« 56s I I

43. 19.4 I.Mount Igueldo, W. ride. Flash! 3d
a 0.4 I every 2min... j

43 28. I Bright fixed light, with flash I Id
a 49.4 I evetyimin. |

43. 22.6 I Fort, on Poitit Oale», ^..side of I 4a
3 4. I entraice *....... •••••!

*l j2;^ I Bmlding (1861) 1.... ( ..

43 >f s I On Castle. Bright light, wiOk | ffd
3 lo.i I r«i flash every 3 min |

...... I One fixed bright light ..c... |5a

43 30-3 i 1} miles from Port entrance.. •• I 2b

43 a?. I Light building (1861) ........ 1 . .

43 3^- I Building (1861) ,.... | 3<i

43 3|-3 I Kear Sta. Catalina Hermitage . . | 4a
43 42.3 ( On the Cape., .....tuv....... lib

13 4»-3 I
5 49-8 I

*c ^!- I Bmlding (1861) ...'.;.'...:.... | ..

43 36.3 I Bevallera Point I 6a

6 9.1 I I

43 36.2 I Bright, with r«d flash every 2 I 3d
6 28.8 I min '.'.'.'.. |

43 35-6 I Fixed, with flash every 2 min. . . I 8d
6 58.4 1 1

6a
lb

43 34:7 J ^^^ Ribadeo
7 4^»l

43 47:51
7 33-4 I

43 33.7 I On N. part of the Cape | 3a

8 19.9 I I

43 27.8 I Bright fixed, with r«i flash every | 4d
8 20.5 I

■2 min.

I 43 23. I On Tower of Hercules. Fixed, I 3d
I S' 14:1 y ■ with noM ever/ 3 mini ...... {• <vi

286 I 7
486 I 14
431 t 16
260 1 18
380 I 10

131 I 7

141 I 12
298(24

'if'f ,\k 'i
.. I ..

*. I ..

167 1 10
838 I 21

• • I • •

94 110
307 I 12

93 1 16

79 I 9
807 i 20
448 i 16

92 1 11
331 I 12

1868
1S66
1866
1862
1862

• • • •

1863

1860
1839

1866
1863

• • • •

1868
1868
1869
1869
1860
1864
1864
1847

.(;.j{4«u^,4.>Y,Af .fO)^ ■:

SPini * VOKTUOAI.

XIGHTHOU&ES.

WMtCOMt MS

Xaat «ia Chtnetar of Ught

Lat. N.
Long. W.

o #

DswniptioOt 4n»

Sri

0(»imna,8t Antonio Oaa. | \ Fixed lighi^bailding (1861) .... | 6a

OISABOAS ISLANDS
One fixed and flaah. It

Oafb Yxllakos
One fixed bright light

CAPE FINIdTERRE
One rev. br. It, i min.

Capi Oi
One TMf fixed Eght

CAFE OOBBOBEDO
One fixed bright light

Saitoka. Island
Ona fixed and flaah It

Abosa Ibland
One Jxed bright light

BATONA or CIE8 ID.
One rev. br. It, 1 min.

VIGO
One fixed and' flash. It

POBTUOAL.

PaToa de Yaxzim

OPOBTO
One rev. br. It, 6 min.

CAPE MONBEGO
One fixed bright light

BEBLEKGAS
One rev. br. It, 3 min.

CAPE OABVOEIRO
One fixed bright light

CAPE BOOA
One rev. br. and rtd
light, li min.

BIVEB TAGUS

GVIA

One fixed bright It

San Jvlian
One fixed bright It

BUOIO
Onerev.br.lt, If m.

Belem
One fixed rMl light

ai.8
5o.»

43
9

9.8
i».9

4» 5»-6
9 >5-4

4*54.8
9 IO.I

4»
9

34.^.
48

4» >7-8 1
9 o-4J

4* 34-1
8 5».

4*
8

11.4
54.1

«5.i
41.

i 1

41 9.1
8 37-»

40
8

11.

554

39 »5-
9 31a

39 "•'
9 »4-3

38 4*5
9 30-

38 41.

9 >7»

38 39-7
9 ao.

38
9

3?-
18.1

38
9

40.8
17.6

On Ida Mayor, N. Peak. Fixed I 4d
br. It, with r«i flaah every 4 m. |

Oamarinas ........|4a

S.F(nntoftheCape lib

Octagonal Tower, 25 feet high, I 5a
on the Oape |

OntheCape I 3a

S. Point Bright, with red flash | 4d
every 2 min..... {

On the N.W., or Oaballo Point | 4a

Monnt Faro, Middle Island «... I 2b

OnCa8tleofLaGuia,lim.N.E. | 4d
of Vigo. Flash every 3 min.

Fishing Its., 15 m. N. of OporLo | . .

At Nossa Sonhora da Luz. (Bad I •
light.) I

Sqnare tower, 100 feet high, on
Great Berlenga Island

Tower, 94 foet high, on highest I •
part I

Light red and white alternately.
Bound tower, 62 ft. high, i
mile N.E. of Oape

Sijnare tower, 96 feet high, at I •
xTossa Sonhora da Guia |

Sqnare tower, 120 flaet high, in I •
theFort {

Tower of Lorenso, 70 feet high I •
In Fort, near Oastle ,. I •

1 ..

|..i

1358

l"l

|225

l,io|

|468

|20|

1 82

1 8|

|103

|12|

1 821

10 1

1 88

18 1

|595

20 1

|102

10 1

1 ..

..!

1 220

20 1

|330

20 1

|365|

25 1

|182

15 1

|598

21 1

1207

12 1

1128

12 1

|110|

16 1

1 88|

fl|

1853
1854
1858
186»
1853
1853
1851
1853
1844

•

1857
1834

1837

1848

1700

1772

1771
1848
1775
1847

CAPE ESPIOHEL I 38 14.9 I Sqnam toww, 100 Atet high, on j Is | 527 i 25 |

One flxed bright light j '9 13.' | 'the Oape

■?

148 TOlSOOAl^ftSPAIV. UOHTHOUSES. W. 4 Soitlk OiMi

Nmm nd CkUMlar of Ucht.

lAt.N.

Long. W.

DcMiiptlaii, to.

•^^a

One fixed bright |ic^t

OAFE ST. YTSapST
One NT. br. It, 2 min.

OAPESAirrAHAiaA

One fixed bright light

38 31.1 1 Cm Fort, at W. entrance of F-^r- | • | 490 | 6 1 1776
8 53. I boor

37 3. I On the OonTent

36 56. I On the Cape
7 46.

8PAI1I'.

OTTADIANA BIYEB
Fow fixed lights

OPIBIiBIVEB

Haelva
Two fixed br. Its.

Oariaya

OUADAiaiTIVIB B,
Chiidona

Bs|^ta Santo

Ifalandar Point
One fixed bright It.

Salmedina Books

BoiiaaEft

CADIZ
Onexey. It, 1 min.

OAFE TBAFALGAB

TABIFA
One fixed bright light

Algedras
One fixed green light

OIBRALTAB

LOROPA POINT
One fixed bright It.

Old Mole, 8.

New Mole Head

Bagged Staff

Old Mole Head, N.

MAAOCOO

CEUTA
One nr. bright It

37 "•
7 18.

Building, 1861, at Ayamonte.
Two Its. at Bivsr Mouth ; and
two on Christiana or Hignerita
Id., E. Hide of entrance .«.«•«

• I 220 I 20 I 1846

• 1 109 I Iff I 1860

Sonfh Coast

••I ••|««|*««t

37 13.4 I On the Bar. In one lead over I • | .• | 8 J 1863
6 51.6 I .the Bar |

I Fixed It in BiTor,building (1861) | 3a | ., ] ,. | ,...

I Temporary It on Church Tower 1 6a | 72 | 8 1 1866

...... I Fixed fwf light •(••I •• | .. | 1864

364^.31 I .. I 36 I 6 I 1864

6 21.9 I I

^5}*; I Fixed bright It buflding (1861) | .. | .. | .. j ....
{Fixed bright light | .. | 62 | 7 | 1864

36 3i.a I W. Tower of San Sebastian, 127 | lb | 146 | 20 | 1866
6 1^.9 I feet Br. & r«i flash alternately |

3j 'J; I Building onthe Cape (1861).... I .. I .. j .. | ....

36 o. I On the Island, S. of town I la I 132 I 20 1 1813

5 3«-6 1 I I I I 1866

36 7.3 I Isla Verde, not shown from N. | . . I 46 I 6 1 1860

5 a6.i| toW

36 6. I On Victoria Tower, 60 feet high I la j 160 1 16 1 1840

5 ai. I I -

I ffrMHtoN. ;br. toW. ;r«itoS. I .. I .. | .. | 1867

I Ji«i light at end of works | .. | .. | .. | ....

I Green light at landing place . . . . | . . | . . | . . | . . . .

I Fixed r«f light | .. | .. | ., | I860

35 53-7 I Tower, 88 ft. his^, on Mosqueros I lb I 483 I 23 I 1866
J17.5I HiU, AkninaPoiiit.. | ' '

BBITHK AXEBIOA. LIGHTHOUSES. HEWFOVKHLAXO. i*1

Vttw BBd Chmelar of Xitlit.

LatH.
tone. W.

i)Moriptionf oko*

«^.

BELLB ISLE
One fixed bright light

AMOTJB POINT
One fiseclboright light

Qpnnt Wadbax Islamd
One fixed bright light

CAFE BONAYISTA
One rev. tt,br. aad rtd
alternately, 2 min.

GBmr Island
One fixed bright light

BAOALHAO, or BAG-
CALXEU n).
One rev. br. It, 20 s.

HAEBOTJB GBACE
One fixed bright light
Two fixed Its. on Beaoh
beacon

St. John's
One fixed bright light

CAPE SPEAR
One rev. br. It, 1 min.

GAPE RACE
One fixed bright b'ght

CAPE PINE
One rev. br. It, ^ min.

CAPE ST. MARY
One rev. It., br. and red
idtemately, 1 min.

GREAT BURIN ID.
One rev. br. It, 20 sees.

ST. PIERRE ID.
Two fixed bright lights

J» 53-

55 a»-3

5« >?•*
5* JO-9

49 3«-
53 4«-

48 43.
53 «.

48 30.7 I
53 6.3!

White tower, 62 feet high, on
8. Point of Id., Straits of Belle
Lde. Gun in fogs

White tower, 109 fbet high, on
the Pt, S.E. side of Foztean
Bay. Whistle or gun in fogs

Circular brick Tower, on the
Island

Tower, 86 feet high, striped rtd
and white vertimliy, on Cape.

gjtamiaratBs fitom BdlRook,
. of Scotland.)

S. dde of Oatalina Harbour, in
Trinity Bay

5»

47 4*;7 1

9-3

On N. end of Island,
photal apparatus

Holo-

One light on Id. at entrance, 4
miles from the town. 2 Its., 11
yds. apaft, on Point of Bmch
Entrance t

47 33.8 I On Fort Amherst, 8. entrance of
51 39.9 I Harbour. Gun in fog

■•••«•

47 30-9
5» 3fi-7

I 4^ 39a

153 *-6

4« 37- 1
53 31.8

46
54

49.4
9-5

Square tower, 38 ft high, striped
red and iokite horizon 'Ally, on
Cape

Tower on Cape, with 8.E. oide
striped red and wAtt« vertically

Round iron tower, 66 feet high,
with red and white bands, on
theCape

Light building (1861)

47
55

»-5
5-

On Dodding Head

46 45-5
56 6-9

(French). OneonGalantryHd. ;
the otner on Canon Point, St
Pierre Harb.jfromMayto Deer.

i» J 470 I 28 I
2a|16fi|18|
a i 99 1 12 I

• I Ko 1 30 ;

#1 86 1 15 I
lb I iO I 80 I

• I 150 t 20
60 10

4a I 110 1 12 I

• I 276 1 30 I

.. I 180 1 171

• I 314 I 30 I

lb I .. |.. I
2b I 410 I 30 I

2a I 210 i 18
• ..3

1868

1868
1843

1867
1868

1836
1863

1862
1836

1856
1861

1858

• « • •

• • • •

/•; ... ;

Gulf of St. Lawrence.

ST. PAUL ID.
One fixed br. It, N. end
One br. rev. It. 1 min.,
on S.W. Point

:,»n

47 138
60 8.3

Fixed It, on a Rock ; revol. light
on S.W. Point. At the latter
a fog bell and gun

1 '■'KT"^xd>s'4

.. 1144 120
.. 140 20

1830
1831

MAODAIiBN IDS. I 47 50,9 I Light on Bird P.ocTis, proposed |

61 9.3 I (1861)

I • !

I •• I

n» vamm UDBBJOk, lighthouses. oiiir«f stutiMiioe.

Haa* Md Ohttwtw of Ught.

LatN.
Loof. W.

DtMriptiaii, fte.

OAFS BOZIEB
One fixed bright light

ANnOOSTI ID.

HEATH POINT
One ilzed bright li

S.W. : OINT
One rev. br. li, Im.

W. POINT
One fixed bright It.

POINT DB MONTS
One fixed bright light

Biver St. Lawrence.

Fatbbb Ponrr
One fixed red light

BICQUETTE ID.
One rev. br. It, 2 min.

BED ISLET BANE
One fixed red light

OBEEN ISLAND
One fixed bright light

8tr. Tratsbbb 1/s. Vssa.
Two fixed bright Its.

STONE PILLAR
One rev. br. It., li min.

S 8 51.6 I White tower, 112 feet high, on | la
41a. I the Cape

49 5.3 I Onyoonioaltower, 90 (thig^; I •
01 4t.l I firam April to Deoember |

49 S3.7 I Conkal gny tower, 7ff feet high I •

^ '51.5 I Bound white tower, 109 feet I 2a
64 3a. I hifl^ I

49 19.6 I Bonnd white tower, 76 feet high, I . .
67 aa. I linuleN.E. of Point

48 3«-4
68 37.4

68 53.S I

48 4.3

69 33.1

48 3-3

69 a5.a

47 aa.a

70 15. 1

47 "-4
70 31.8

Bimonskr. From April 10 to | . .
December 10 |

On, Ty. Point. Honr gun, dnring I . .
fogs and snow |

On S.W. Point | . ..

On N. Point. From April 15 to I . .
December 10 J

N.E. part of St. Bocque Shoals I . .

100 yards from S. Point of Islet | . .
From April 15 to December 15

186 I 20

110 I 15
103 i 15
112 I 15

109 I 15

43 I 10
112 I 16
75 1 12
60 I 13
.. i 9
68 I 13

1858

1881
1881
1858
1830

1869
1844
1848
1809
1830
1843

-.;:.<'-„ v.. vr.-^..-.^ . '^YJ.je^X

Note.— The Lights on the npper part of the Biver St Lawrence, and those
on the Great American Lakes are omitted, as not being of service to
oversea vessels.

BBimK UnBUOA. UGHTHOUSBS. lEW BBUVIWIOK, fto. 149

HoM taA Ohanctir of Ucht.

Ut.N.
Loof t W.

« /

DMNHptfoOt to.

HEW BBUUBWXOK.

MISOOTJ ISLAND
One fixed rwl light

MIBAlIACan BAT
One fixed Inifl^t It

Shediao

One fixed light

|||S I. I White towwr, OB Birdi Point .. | .. | 79 | IS
,7 4.5 I White towwi OB BMntmeDM | • | 70 ( 14

I ^4 47^^ I PoiBt

I the BwBittiMf

I46 14.61 Alaatem, OB dhOBO Whai^inl *• I lf| 6
I6431.J " ^

VOVA SCOTIA.

PiCTov Habbovs
One fixed br. It., and
one red light

HOTOTJ ISLAND
One fixed In^t It

CANSO OUT
N. Entbaxob
One fixed bright It

8. IiirmAiTOB
Two fixed bright lie.

45 4»4
6* 39.5

I 45 49*
I 6s 30.1

I 61 S8.9
01 14.0

Frinee Edward Idaad.

Bedeqne Harbour
One fixed bright light

Charlotte Town
One fixed bright light

«3-5
3 47-5

I 46 11.6
I 63 74

Towen ttr. red and white, rot- 1 • | 66 | IL
tical 8. Point of enteanoe. I
LowfrUghtrMf |

White tower, OB E. Point I .. | 62|12

White tower, on W. irtde, 120 I • 1 110 1 18
yards in diore..... |

Tower white, with bliiok dia- 1 .. | 2^ | ^
mond, on Eddy Point, 8 yda. 1
apart. .,,•.•••« ••«.... |

A lantom, on Chreen'i Wharf, I .. | 16 ( 7
when praotioable |

Blookhonae Pt, W. tide of en- 1 . . | 86 | 9
trance to Harbonr

HILLSBORO' BAY
One fixed bright light

CARDIGAN BAY I ^ 8.8

One fixed bright light | 6a 17.7

Richmond Bay | 46 34.7

One fixed bright light | 63 42.8

Caaonmpemie
One fixed bright light

White brick tower, on Prim Pt,
S.E.ofBay

I 68 I 18

|J5i;t

Breton Idand.

On Panmnre Head, S. entrance I • | 80 1 14
of Oeorgetown Harbour .... |

On Bill Hook, or Fifhir^r Id , I .« { 20 | 8
N. entrance • |

White tower, on Sandy Idaad, | • | 32 ] 8
onN.aide «*«*«t(<t»i«<i*«

.'*r/'.

1866
1841
1660

1834
1863

1861

1866
1866
1846
1863
1866
1866

}&T Hood | 16 o. I White tower, S. entmnce. Lig^t I .. | 64 1 10 1 1864
Oneflxedbr. orfAflt | 61 31.6 | r«i to N., and br. to 8 ..I

Port

Note. — The lighthooMi of Nova Scotia and Mew Bmiuwiok, where necetraary, are palntcd\ \
with black or red itripei, to., to diatiaguifh the towen from the land ; as, after the | I
•now is gone off the land, the accumnlatloiie afftintt the fenoca, which generally run at I I

im I I

right angles to the coast, and which continue tat Mmw time after it has disappeared from
the fields thcmscWes, hare exactly the nntiguud of • white tower, and freanimt!
uiliivud eren ihoae acqnainted with the ooaete.

■• / I

160 BBIIIBH AHIBICIA.

LIGHTHOUSES.

VOTASCOfU.

uA Ohanetar or tight

Lat.N.
Long. W.

Daieiiptioli, to.

6b& W01.F, or Maboabib
Iblamb
One fixed t>right It.

STDNXT

OOB fixed bright light

FLINTI8L*J?I)
One zevolvlng light

80ATABI ID.
One iQT. bright light

LOmSBUBa
One fixed bright light

a 1.5
I IJ.J

J 59 45-8 I

VOVA SGOTU-

Ouvsboro Harbour
One fixed bright light

Arichat Harbour
One fixed bright Ught

CAPE CAN80
Two fixed bright Its.

i6.i

7-3

46 II

59 45-8

46 a.a
59 40-3

45 54-6
59 57->

I 45 a».8
I 61 29.1

61 1.8

I 45 19-8
60 55.4

White tower, on Smnndt* or I ••
Middle of iBland

Tower, red and white, yert Plat 1 •
Point, E. aide of Spaniah Bay |

FUah every 15 sees.

I. ••«•••••#! I ta

WHITE HEAD ID. I 45 la.
BeTolving It., 20 bocs. | 61 8.

BEAVEB IDS. ' | ^

One rev. br. It, 2 uin. 6a

49.6

ao.a

HALIFAX
Devil Island
One fixed »'«f light

Sherbrook Tc wer
One fixod luight light

bambro id.

One fixed bright Ug^t

MALAQUASH, or LU-
NENBUBO BAT
One rev. light, 1 min.
One fixed bright light

CAPE LE HEYE
One rev. It, i nun.

Mbtwat, or MmwAT

HiAD

One fixed bright It.
LIVERPOOL BAY

CoFPHf laiiAND

One rev. br. It, 2m.
Fort Point

34«
3 27.9

44 36.6
63 31.9

44 a6.a
63 33.6

Sao.

fi»5•7

S6.
. 34.

White tower, on Trap Rock, N.E. I -•
Ft Bright, 1 min.; Jark, im. |

Tower, wh., with bl. vert stripe | ••
on S.E. Point of entrance ....

W ^de of entranee ; near Peart
Point, Ghedabuotoo Bay ....

Tower, white, 8. entrance; on
Maradhe Ft., Madame Island

In one tower ; str. red and white

■hari*. : on N. part of Gran-

, beny Island

White tower, on S.W. extremity

Towv, white, with 2 black balls,
on S.E. mrt of S. BeaTer, or
Williamlsknd

Tower, red, with white belt, at 1
B. entrance j

Tower, white, with red roof, on
Mauger Beach, K side of entr.

White tower, on middle of Id.

Tower, red. Upper It br. 46 sees.,
dark 10 sees. ; 83 feet above
lower lic^t c.

White tower, on 8. side of
Ironbound Island

44 3-

64 36.

)tt Point I A4 3.7 I

One fixed bright It. | 64 39. |

Tower, white, with black square,
on W. ride of entrance

Tower, striped red and white I
horiaontaUy, on B. Point , , , . |

3-7 I Whita tower, on Furt Point

• • • • I • t

298 I 21 i 18M

70 1 14 1 1882
65 1 12 I 1856
90 1 15 I 1889
85 1 16 1 1842

*
80 I 6 I 1846

84 I 8 I 1851

75 I 15 i 1815
40| 9i

05 I 11 ! 1858

70 I 12 I 1846

45 I 8 I 1852

58 I 10 I 1815

115 I 20 I 1758

»« ' " I 1882

56| 8

70 I 18 1 1855
44 1 10 I 1851

80 I 10 I 1812
30 I 7 I 1855

BBXTHK AXIRICA. UaBTHOUBES. IKOTLWO/rUL m

VuM Md CimMtw of Light

Lat.N.
Long. W.

Detoilption, fto.

BooQBD IilAin) Habb. I 43 36.
One fixed brifl^tl^ght | 65 6.

White tower, on the Ooll Bock I .. | 01 | 10 | IMS

SHELBiUBNB .
Two fixed bright Iti.

43 375
65 16.5

FOBT LATOVB I 43 36.9

One MT. It, 40 sees. | 65 aS.7

Pnbnioo Harboor [43 35.7

One fixed rti lig^t | 65 47.

BayofFondy. '

SEAL ISLAND I 43

One fixed Inight light | (6

YARMOUTH, or CAFE
FOtJROHXJ
One rev. br. It, If m.

BRTSR ISLAND

One fixed bright light

PETBB ISLAND I

Two fixed bright lights

DIOBT, or ANNAPO-
LIS

Marshall Core, or Port
Williams
Onefix.br.(or jTMn) It

Margaretrille
One fixed br. (or rtd) It

BLACK BOOK POINT
One fixed bright light

HORTON
One fixed bright light

Basow op Mihm
One fixed bright light

PorsboTongh
One flxdl bright light

*i.6

47-5
9»

14.9
*3S

'55

ao.9

40.8
47-3

56.8
16.

10.8
48.

6.3
a.

46.9

Tower, striped bl. and wh. rer-
ticalhr,on Cape Roseway, Mao-
nut Id. Lts. vert., 38 n. apart

Tower, white, with black ball, I ..
on Baccaro Point, E. side . . . , |

White tower, on Beacb Point, | . .
S.E. Bide of entrance

White tower, i mile inland off •
S.Point

Tower^ striped red and white
verticaUy, on S. Point of E.
Cape ,,..-,,,»

White tower, on W. Point ....

White tower, S. entrance to | . .
Grand Passage. Lts. horizontal |

Tower, striped yerticalljr, on S. | •
Point of entrance |

Appears grtm within four miles I . .

Appears rtd within four miles .

White tower, on S. Shore I ..

White tower,. on the BInff .... I ..

Afpt i: RiTBB I 4S

Twu fixed bright ItM. \ 64

GuMniiToNS Island | 45

One fixed bright Ufht | 64

a6.

50.

43 »

37 4

White tower, on Burnt Coat I . .
Head I

White tower, on Partridge Id., I . .
on W. side of River |

White tower, on Cape Capstan. I . .
Horizontal lights, 34 ft apart |

I White tower, on W. part of I . .
Island ., *•!. •••.•«... I

100 I 18

62 I 10
49 I 12
28 I 8

98 I 18
117 I 20

66 115
40 I 10
76 I 18
.. I 6

..I 6
45 I 12
90 I 20
70 I 13
80 I 9
40 I 10
60|ia

1808

1800
1804

1880
1839

1883
1800

1817
1809

1809
1848
1801
1809
1802
1848
1809

Hi BBITI8H AJfERIGA. UGHTHOnSES. VEW BBT7V8WICK

IImim and Chanwter of Lifht.

lAt. N.

Long. W.

o *

Deaoription, 4ke.

qykPE ENRAO^

/ One fixed bright light

jbuAGO

One MT. br. It, 20 sees.

I ST. JOHN'S HABB.

Paktkidoi Island
Om fixed bright It

Beaoon Tower
One fixed bright light

LEPBEAU
Two fixed bright Ii,~^ts

OAMPOBELLO ID.
One fixed bright light

PoBT St. Andbxw
One fixed bright light

OBBAT MANAN ID.
One fixed bright light

MAOHIAS ISLANDS
Two fixed bright lighta

OANNET BOCK
One rer. light, 20 aooa.

6 3^' I Square white tower, on the
4 4A.7 J Cape

45 19.6 I Tower, red and white horizontal
65 31.9 I bands, on Bock off the Head

45 14-
66 3.5

66 27.1

44 57-7

66 53.9

45 4->

67 4-

44 45-7

66 44.

44 30«

67 5-5

ti ^i

Tower, striped vertically red and
white. Steam whistle every
min. in fogs. Bell buoy near

I Striped vertically, white and
red

I Tower, striped horizontally, red
and white Its. vert, 28 ft. apart

I Tower, white, with red cross, on
N. Point

• I Iffl I 16 I 1640
..I 70 115(1848

• I 119 I 20 1 1882

• i 35 1 10 i 1828

"I 58|"l""

• I 64 I 15 1 1829

N. Point of entrance ( .. | 85 { 10 1 1888

.. 1 148 1 17 I ....

"I "h«|l882
.. I 66 112 I 1881

Swallow's Tail, J7.E. part, build-
ing, 1861 ,

OnE.Id. Guninfogs. Lt8.E.S.E.
and W.N.W., 56 yards apart

Tower, half blk. half wh.,vertic., I
ouS. port Fliwih every 20 sees. {

.,-«^«?

lii «'?u, .(VwWftii M'aV*' 1 t

'"f.) J'b'^J

■ # . ...*•■

«•.«•.

<*-! '(fT»»*ri- M i^-^-

> . , i .tMSH.1

■3^ •■J?.

..suttf

1 ^ f *«(i«4tti.t»*i**.tfl» i^iiiUri (

mraiBD STATES.

UGHTHOtrSES.

168

Name and Ohaneter of light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

DMCriptton, *e.

^^.

WEST QUODDY
HEAD
One fixed bright It.

Iimu Kivut
One fixed and flaah It.

Bound Idand

LiBBT Island
One fixed bright light

MOOSE PEAK
One TOT. br. It, 30 •.

KASHES ISLAND
One fixed & flash, red It

Narbaovaous
One fixed bright light

PETIT MANAN
One fixed and flash. It

■WiNTKR HaUBOVB

One flxed bright light

MOUNT DESERT
One fixed bright light

BAKERS ISLAND
One fixed and flash. It

BEAR ISLAND
One fixed bright light

Bass Hahbovr Hiad
One flxed and flaJi.
rtdUght

Spoon Idand

PENOBSCOT BAT
Fly, or Qrbkn Id.
One flxed bright It

SADDLEBACK
LEDGE
One flxed bright It

IIerox Nrck
One flxed and flash.
rtd light

Widow Island

Dim Inland
One flxod bright It.

Eaolb Island
One flxed bright It.

Pumpkin Iniand
One flxed bright It.

44 49-
6657.

44 39-4 I
67 10.6 I

Near East Port, S. side. Fog
beU

1 1

34. »

ii.a

38.9
3»-7

28.7
44-5

44»9-4
67 49-5

44".
67 5a.

31.8

5.6

59-5

4-7

15-7
14.1

19.

'7-5

On Island, at entrance. Flash I fid
eyery 1| min |

InMaohiasBay. Proposed (1861) | ..

In Machias Bay. Qroy tower, I 4a
85 feet high. Fog bell |

White tower, 40 feet high, on I 2b
Mistake Isknd |

E. side of Pleasant River I 4d

Red tower, 29 feet high, on S.E. I 5a
Point of Pond Island |

Grey tower, 109 feet high, on 8. I 2d
toad, of Island |

On S. Point of Mark Island. I 5a
Frenchman Bay |

Grey tower, 60 feet high, on the I 3a
Rock. Fog bell |

Off Mount Desert Id., French- I 4d
man's Bay. Flash every li m. |

Cranberry Islands I 5a

44 >6-5
68 33.6

15.8

68 37.7

J I t.8
8 43.8

44 >»

68 51.

44 9>
68 41.5

44 >3»
6845.

44 »9
68 45-

E.side I ..

Isle au Haul Bay. Bmlding, 1861 | ..

Edgemoggin Reach. On S.E. | 4a
Point

S.W. end of Isle au Ilaut Island | 5a

S. Point of Green Island | 5d

Proposed (1801) | . .

Mark Island, Isle au Ilaut Bay I 4a

On Point of Island, Isle au Haut I 4a
Bay I

Guide to Buck Harbour I 5a

1 133 1 17 1

1 40^21

i ..i

..I

i fi2{

181

1 65 1

1*1

1 471

12 1

1 45

12 1

1125

171

1 37

11 1

1 75

|14|

1 105

17!

1 97

15 1

1 56

18 1

1 *"*

|..|

1 26

1 »l

1 SI

|13|

1 92

110 1

1 ' *

|..|

1 52

|W|

1 106

|16|

1 27

1 »l

1808
1855

• • « •

1856
1866
1868
18/y6
M55
1856
1867
1855
1856

1868

• • ■ •

1866
1366
1868

t • ■ t

1867
1887
1854

154 UNITED STATES.

LIGHTHOUSES.

HAIHE.

Niune and Charncter of Lljjht.

Lnt. N.
Long. Vf.

o /

Description, Sco.

0*=

•S .
ill

^1
8

PENOBSCOT BAY

MATINICUS EOCK
Two fixed br. Its.

43 5'a

68 48.

N.N.W. and S.S.E., 60 yai-ds
apart. Fog bell

M »« ^^^"^

Whitehead Island

44 0.3
69 6.

Foe bell

70 1 13 1 1866

Oho fixed bright It.

^ ^'0 UwA* •••■•••• 4«Sf«vV« f***

OWLS HEAD
One fixed bright It.

44 6.2
69 I.

W. entmnco. Fogr bell

4a 1

100 1 16 1 1856

Brown's Head |
One fixed bright It. j

44 6-5
68 J4.

S. Head of Fox Island

5a 1

39 1 12 1 1866

Neomo Island 1
One fixed bright It. |

OuiNDEM Point
Oue fixed bright It.

Dice's Head
One fixed bright It.

FORT POINT
Olio fixed bright It.

44 "-7
69 0.4

44 16.
68 53-3

44 a3-4 1
68 48.3 1

44 28.3
68 48.7

S. sido of entrance to Cnmden
Harbour

4a 1

62 1 12 1 1866

N. side of GUkey Harbour, Long
Island ....•••• >.•••••• ••.•

6a 1

39 1 11 1 1856

Near Costine, W. side of en-
trance

4a 1

130 1 17 1 1868

Entrance of Penobscot River • .

4a 1

103 1 16 1 1867

Tknaxt IlAnnorF
Ono rev. br. It., 1 min.

43 58-7
69 10.7

N.E. side of S. Island

6a 1

66 1 13 1 1867

Marshall's Point
One fixed bright light

43 55-6
69 14.7

Entrance to Horring-gut Harb.

•

6a 1

31 1 10 1 1867

ir ANHEIGIN ISLAND
Ono rev. br. It., 1 min.

43 4f-3
69 18.4

Fog bell, on Monana Island ....

2a 1

176 1 19 1 1866

Franklin Island

One fiN d and fiash. It.

43 55-
69 23.3

N. end o^* Island. W. of entrance
to St. George's River

4d|

64 1 12 1 1866

T'ENJIAQUID POINT
. )ne fixed bright light

43 50-4
69 28.5

8.W. cntranco to Bristol Bay . .

4a 1

76 1 14 1 1867

Burnt Island
One fixed br. light

43 49-

69 37-^

W. side of Townsend Harbour. .

4a 1

61 1 18 1 1868

T'jNimicK's Head
Ono rev. br. It, J min.

43 5:. a
69 40.5

E. aide of SUoopscot River

4b 1

40 I 12 1 1861

Pond IfAL/.ND
One fixed brif^htl/ht

43 44- »
69 ^6.

W. ontr.ince of Kennebec River,
Fog boll

6a 1

64 1 13 1 1866

SEGTIIN ISLAND
One fixo.l bright li^:);*

43 4»4
69 45a

Oflf Kennebec River. Fog bell

la|

180 1 20 1 1857

rORTLAND,orCAM(V>D

C. ELIZABETH
Ono roT. br. It., 1 m.
Ono fixed br. liglit

43 33 9
70 1 1.7

800 yards apart. I'i)g boll ....

ul 17 1868

PoillLAND ilARllOtU

Ono iixod br. liglit
Broiikwntor |

43 37 4
70 ia.6

On the Head, S. sido. Fog
boll

4a 1

81 1 14 1 1855

R»i light on N.E. part |

rta|

23 1 8 1 1855

Wood Island • ,
Ono rev. red It, I min.

« a? '4
70 19.4

Near eaco nnrbotir

4b i

62 j

13 1

two

mnXBD STATES. LIGHTHOUSES. HEW HAMFSHIIIE, fto. 155

17 1858
14 I 1855

8 I 1855

lO I IBM
AU I «<7VO

Kaine tnd Choraeter of LigUt.

lAt. N.
Lonjr. W,

Description, fto.

§5
8^

Goat Island
One fixed bright light

BOON ISLAND
One fixed bright light

NEW HAMPSHIBE-

WHALE'S BACK
Out) fixed aud flash It.

PORTSAfOUTH

One fixed bright light

WHITE ISLAND
One rev. br. It., ^ min.

KA8SACH\i'SETTS.

Newbukt Port
Two fixed bright Its.

Ifswich IIahhour
One fixed A: flash It., &
Cue fixed bright light

Wigwam Point
One fixed bright light

Straitsmouth Harbour
One fixed eright light

CAPE ANN
Two fixed bright lights

Gloucester Harbour
One fixed bright light

Ten T oitkd Island
One fixed bright light

Bakkr's Inland
Two fixed bright lights

Mariilehead Hariiour
One fixed bright light

Egg Rock
One fixed red light

BOSTON BAY
OUTER MINOTS
LEDOK
One fixed br. V.

v>aetliir>h. br.lt., im.
W. onil of Spit
LONG ISLAND HD,

41 48.4 I 6. (tide of entrance to Port, Mor-
70 49.3 I rimack River, 167 yds. apart

4> 4>.i
70 46.2

4* 39-7
70 4i.a

4> 39-7
70 35.5

4» 38- 3
70 34.6

4> 34-6
70 40.1

42 36.1
70 40.2

42 I", 2

70 47-5

4» .10-3
70 jti

42 26.
70 54- «

4a 16. 1

70 4J.8

42 19.6

70 537

Flash every H min. Lts. E. ^ S.,
and W. i N., 173 yda. apart

6d
6a

E. of entrance to Annisquam I 5a
Harboui- |

On Island, N. of Cape Ann .... I 6a

On Thatcher's Id., N. by E. J E., I . .
& S. by W. i W., 298 yds. apart | . .

On the Point, E. side. Fog I 4a
boU I

Gloucester, or Capo Ann Har- 1 6a
bour

43 20. I N. aide; Mouth of Cape Per- I 5a I 38 I 11 I 1833
70 28.2 I poise Harbour . « | | | | 857

43 7.3 I W. part; off York Harbour ... I 2a I 133 I 17 I 1812
70 28.7 I I 1 I 1 1864

43 3-J I ^•'E. side of Portsmouth Har- I 4d I
70 42.1 I bonr. Flash every l^nun. .. | |

43 4.2 I S.W. side of Inner entrance of I 4a
70 42.8 I Harbour |

42 58. I S.W. Id. of Isle of Shoals | 2b

70 38.2

58 12

1829
18J5

70 U

1R04
1854

87 15

1821
1858

S. side of N.E, entrance to Salom

Hurb. 13 yds. apart. Fog bil'
S. side uf entrance ............ - 6a

54 I 13
20 I 5

40 I 12
20

50 I 12

33 I 11

98 I le
98 I 16

60 1 13

49 I 12

87 I 15
64 13

1. ».ii.'. - '
2n|

Grey granite tower, on T. thnRsot
Rocks

N. entrance of Harbour i 2o

1809
1857

1837
1856

1801
1857

1850
1857

1841
1849

1837
1857

1831
I80G

1707
18.57

1s;m

l.S.)(i

43 12
Off Niihant I 5a | 87 | 8 | 1856

84 I 14 I 1800

1'84

) 8()9

I One fixed red light | 6a |

One fixed bright light | 70 57.7

1 4* !9.8 I N=E> ond of Island ,

I i.. I

1 A

a •*

1856

l»Oi

m unXBD BlvfiTBB.

LIGHI^HOtrSES.

XjiBtAGHuranni.

Naioe and Chanetw ^^ Ught.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Deioriptton, tea.

SCRUATB

One fixed bright light | 70 43.1

CAPE COD BAY
PLYMOUTH I 4a o.a

Two fixed trtight its. | 70 36.3

Eacb Point I 41 3.7

One fixed & flash. It. | 70 14.8

4a X2.2 I On Cedar Point, K of entrance i 4a 1 49 | 12 I 1812

liO.vo Point
One fixed bright It.

3kJ *yo'£ Beach
Gv.g dxed bright It.

BO.TWCSGATB IhLAKD

Ciij ixed blight It,

One flxeu briah' I' .
CAPE con HIGH-

la:^'Jjs

One flxfd brijl.t Hgbt

, Navj?et BEA.r-. *

Tk o-i flxbd bv'jijht Its.

42 1.9
70 10.3

0>imet Point, N. side of Harb.
N.W. and S.E., 10 yds. apart

N. W. Point of Cap^;- Cod. ilash
every li mi- Fcig bell ....

On 8hoal, S.'W. snttance to j 6ft
Pioviaoetown Ha'lwur j •

1 I i lfi««

V? j 16 I 1/69
; I 1856

U\ \i I »t. 8
i il866

28 1 11

1826
1866

41 55.8 I Head of Wellfleet Bay I 6a

70 3.2 I I

41 5r.6 j N. side ci entrance to >*'.''ell- 1 4a
70 4 9 I fieet i

41 43. i i W. side of entrance to Bui-n-

6 ! 1858

40 i 12 ; 1822
I .''58

■n- I 4a j

11 I 1836
1867

vo n.i 1 stable

4* :i,-ii I

T-t 3.9 I Capo Truro \ la | 196 | 20 | 1797

41 51.6 I A! Eostham, E. of Cape Cod; | Oa
H S7-i I ^- A'^d S., 60 yds. apait . . . . ;

CHATHAM HA?tB. | 41 40.3 I W. Sid a; N. and S., 23 yards I la
Two ^xou br?ji,ht lights j 69 57.2 | apart |

MoNOMOY Point I 41 33.6 I Cape Malabar, S. end of Cape I 4a
Ono ^ed brigl 1 3{ght | 69 59.8 | Cod |

l'>oi.;.i)RK Bir Lt. Yssa. | | Ono fixed br. It., off Chatham . . { •

BUO TEVITVL LlOHT VkSS.

O. .< -ixed bright light

10 1837
1866

14 1808
1867

11 1823
1867

12 1 18i9

4> 34-
69 57 ■<

• • • fl • •

4» 34-3
70 '5 9

Handkp,?chisp Lt. Vf.88.
One fixed bright light

Bn«s Riv-3r I 41 39.1

Ono fixed bright light | 70 8.3

BISHOP AilD CLERKS
BHOAL

One rev br. It., im.

8VCC0NN£S8ET ShOAL Lt.

Vfsbel

One fixed bright It.

C' ^1 J fixed bright light

SANKATY HEAD
One fixed and flash, j 69 58.2
light, j

2\ milos S,S.W. } W., from I • ; 40 | 11 | 1862
Monomoy Point |

In 6i trra., 1^ min. fh>m 8. part I • t 40 I 10 I 1866
cfS\oal I

N. of Vineyard Soond | 6a | 40 | 8 | 1864

69 I 14 I 1868
40 1 10 I 1864

4» a:4|
70 3- I

41 17.

*-,,M 'J-i.-. ,>ij|fi <./•■;. ■,;- 1,-., • a,'

N.part. Fogboll | 4b

Tn 6 fhiR. Between Sucoonnesset
and ElJridge Bhoals. Fog bell
and horn

White tower, on N.E. Point of I 3a ' 70 I 14
lalaud I

17«9
1867

SOUTH SHOAL LT.
VESSEL

Two fixed bright Its.

40
69

Tower, wh., red, wh., on E. part
of Nantucket Isliiud. Flush of
10 sees, every min

In 14 fms. 2 miles 8. of S^
Fog bell, horn, and gun

: «e0 I 20 I 1849
I 44 I 12 I 1860

Kune

XmrHBD flIATBB.

LIGHTiaOtrSEg. MASaAC aUBKlW . 157

6 I 18*^8

I 1853

13 ; J 822

8 I 1864

14 I 17rt9
I 1867

20 I 1840

2 I 182G

Nune and Churuter of light.

Lat.N.
Long. W.

DCMiiptlOB, *o.

VmEYAED SOUND

OAYHEAD
One flash, br. light

Hyannis Harbour
One fixed bright It.

Tnokannck Shoal Lt.
Yesael
One fixed bright It.

Nantucket Cliff
Two fixed bright Its.

Srant
One fixed bright It

Nantucket Harbour
One fixed bright It.

CAPE POGE
One fixed bright It.

EOOABTO'WN

One fixed bright It.

HotMBB Hou
One fixed bright It.

NonsQVB Poorr
One fixed br. light

TASPAiinr CoYB
One fixed br. light

VnfETAKD SOVMB Lt.

Yesbbl
Two fixed br. Its.

BUZZARD'S BAY

CXTTTTHWNK

One fixed bright It.

DuMrtr-.u Rook
One fixed bright It.

Cl\iik's Point
One fixed bright It.

Ftdmer's Island
One fixed bright It

Ned'8 Tnnrc
One iixed lir. • igiii

CiRnl! - -u
One /. br.lt, IJnr

"WiNo's Nkck
One fixed bright It

i'oint of Rook*

4« ao-9 I
70 50.4 1

41 3f-
70 18.6

41 16.7
70 17. 1

T. Point, Ifartha'a Vineyard I
Sound. Flash every 10 sees. |

Inside the Harbour I

41 17.4
70 5-8

41 16.4
70 5-

41 35.3
70 a7-3

41 »3-4
70 30.4

41 38.9
70 36.4

41 30.9
70 40.5

41 aS.i
70 43-7

41 23.
70 57.6

41 34.8

70 57-3

4« 3a-3
70 55 5

4« 35-5
70 S4-3

I 4« 37-^
I 70 3+S

! 4' I J

1 7'-' 4«-

I 41 40.]
I 70 43-3

In 8 fins. On Cross Rip, N.W.
of Nantucket Fog bell, and
horn

On the Beach, N.W. of Harb.,
N.W. and S.E., 100 yds. apart

Red tower, on the Point

From a window, on S.E. side . .

N.E. Point of Martha's Vine-
yard Sound .'

W. side of entrance to Har-
bour

lo I 170 I 20 I 1806

6a I 36 1 8 1 1856

• I 39 t 71 1828
1865

8 I 4 I 1838
10 I I 1866

4a I 46 I 11 I 1794
1866

W. Chop of Harbour

E.S.E. of entrance to Wood's
Hole Harbour

W. side.

In 13^ fathoms, near Sow and
Pigs Rocks

S.W. Point of Island
Off Round Hill ....

W. side of entrance to New Bed-
ford Harbour

N.E. end, in New Bedford ....

|N. :^de of MattapoiNtt Har-
bo-jj'

' E. side of entrance to Sippican
I Harboui - . . ,

I Head Oi Buzzard's Bny, in .Sand-
I wi'jh

I Building (i860 on \7. sine of
I entrance to Woit.port Harb. . ,

I 5 I 1820
I I 1866

4a I 66 I 13 1 1801

I I I 1867

4a I 87 I 12 I 1828

I I I 1866

4a I 60 I 13 I 1817

I I I 18fi7

6a I 80 I 13 I 1828

i I 1 1866

6a I 80 I 13 I 1817
1866

34 I 9 I 1847
23 1855

6a I 42 I 12 I 1823
I I I 1867

5a I 42 I 12 I 1828
1867

5a I 57 i 12 I 1800
I I I 1866

5a I 32 I 9 1 1849
1866

6a I 43 I 11 I 1849
I I I 1866

6b I :i6 I 10 I 1819
I I I 1857

i^i. I 44 I 10 I 1849
1866

U8 TfmiD 8TATI8. tlGHTHOUSES. BliodA Iilaad, in,

Hum and ChaiMter of Ught.

Lat.N.
Long. W.

Deaoription, &o.

Si
I

BHODE ISLAND.

Vwaw.
Tw«»ixed bright lt8.

B^^AVER TATT.

. One fixed Inight light

41 26.9
71 24.3

IiDO Bocx
One fixed bright light

KABBAGANSETT BAT

OOAT ISthXD

One fixed bright It

41 29.6
71 19.9

DUTCH ISLAND
One fixed bright It.

41 29.8
71 24.5

PovLAR Point
One fixed bright It.

41 34.*
71 26.5

PnXTDEMCE ISIAKD

One fixed bright It.

41 364
71 18.3

Bristol Ferry-
One fixed bright It

41 38.7
7» 15-

Watiwick
One fixed bright It

41 40.
71 22.9

Nayat Point
One fixed bright It

41 43-5
71 20.5

POINT JUDITH
One rev. It., IS sees.

41 21.5
71 29.2

BLOCK ISLAND
One fixed bright light

4» 134
7» 34-8

\VATCH HILL
One fixed bright light

41 18.2
71 51.8

CONNECTICUT.

• ,■ •X-

LONG ISLAND SOUNI

Stoxinotow
One fixed bright It

41 196
7» 54-6

Eel Grass Lt. Vessel
One fixed bright It

41 18.4

7» 57.3

Moroan Point
One fixed bright It

4r 18.9

7' 59-7

If. DuMFLiNO Island
One fixed red light

41 16.

72 3.6

NEW LONDON
One fixed bright It

41 19.

7> 5-7

Bafitlkt's Reef Lt. Vs.
Two fixed bright Ita.

41 16.
7» 11.6

In 13 fin8.» E. side of entrance
to Newport

50
40

12 1853

S. Pt. of Connecticut Id., on- I 8a | 96 J 15 I 1793
trance to Newport Harbour . . | | I | 1856

S. side of Newport Harbour. . . . | 6a | 30 | 11 | 1854

On Breakwater, Newport Har- 1 4a
bour I

S.end |4a

NearWiddbrd I 5a

East side, on Sandy Point I 5a

N. side of entrance to Mount I 6a
, Qope Bay ,... \

S.eLdofNeck I 4a

Entrance to ProTidonco River . . I 4a

8. extremity of Narragansett I 4a
Shore i

N, Point of entrance to Long I 4a
Island Sound |

3 miles 6.E. of Stonington .... I 4n

' ■ ■ ■ ■ ii 'Mi^:

E. side of entrance ... 4 •••••• •> I 6a

OntheShoal I •

N. side of Fisher's Island Sound I 6ft

Fisher's Island Sound. Fog I Ca
bull I

W. side of untranco to River I 4a I
Thiiincs. Fcfj; whistle | |

On Reef, off New London | ^

182a

1857

182S
1867

1831
185u

30 1

1 1852

851

11855

^.4

1826
1856

1828
1856

1810
1857

1829
1857

1808
1867

60 I 12 I 1823
1866

32 I 10 I 1836
1867

44 I 11 i 1831
1866

70 I 12 I 1868
I I 1866

})6 I 14 I 1800
I 1867

9. < I ,f. I 1846
.?5 I '^ 1887

TnriTEB STATES.

LIGHTHOUSES.

CONNEOnCUT- 159

Knmc nnd Charnoter of Light.

Ut. N.
Long. W.

Description, &o.

LONG ISLAND SOUND
LITTLE GtTLL ID. I 41
One fixed bright It. 172

Gardiner's Island | . . .

Pldm Island I 41

One rev. br. It., | m. | 73

Cednr Island
One fixed bright It.

12.3
6.7

R.vYimooK Point
One fixed bright It.

Calves' Island
One fixed bright It.

Brockways Beach

Devil's Wharf

CoiiNPiEti) Pt. Lt. Ves.
One fixed bright It.

IIORTON'8 POINT
One fixed bright It.

FAULKNER ID.
One fixed & flash. It.

10.4
13-6

a.4
ii-9

16.3
"•5

7»

13-5
234

27-3

S. side of Long Island Sound.
Fog ben

Fixed bright light, on N. Point

W. end; N.E. extremity of Long
Island

Sag Harbour, Long Island ....

"W. side of Mouth of Connecticut
Biver

2 miles beknr Essex Town, E.
side >

Fixed br. It. , 2 m, above Essex Tn.

Fixed br. It., 4m. above Essex Tn.

In 7V fms.,'on middle of S. s?de
of Long Sand Sboul

On the Point

3a I 74 I 13

6a I 29 I 6
4a I 63 I 12

NEW HAVEN HAR. I 41
One fixed bright It. 172

STRATFORD POINT I 41
One rev. br. It., ^ m. [73

SxttATFouD Pt. Lt. Ves, I 41
Two fixed bright Its. | 73

Bridgeport 1 41

One fiixed red light | 73

Otn Field Point I 40

One fixed bright It. | 73

Black Bock Harii. | 41

One fixed bright It. (73

Eaton's Neck 40

One fixed bright It. 73

Lloyd's IIaiibour | 40

One fixed bright It. | 73

Xohwalk Island 41

One rev. red and br. 73
It, li min.

Great C.iPTA ."•/"'■■ j 40

One fixed br -•'■!:. | 73

Execution Bock.s | 40
One flxod hri<rht U.

12.7
39-5

15-9
545

4-
4.6

10.5
11.7

586

7-4

8-5
13a

57->
243

54.8
26.2

2.9
25.4

Off Guilford Harbour. Flash I
every 1 J niin |

On Five Mile Point, E. side of I
entrance ,

W. entrance to Bivor.

In 11 fins., on Middle Ground . .
2 miles S.W. by W. of town. . . .
S. side of Long Island Sound . .
On Fairwoather Island

E. side of entrance to Huntington
Bay

N. side

■i »-?? ':i\.J

W. end ; at W. entrance of Nor-
walk Biver

6a I 34 I 10

4a I 80 I 13

Ga| .. I 3

6a I .. 1 3
6a I . . I 3
• I 40 I 10

3a I 110 I 18

4d I 98 I 15

4a I 93 I 1'

4b I 63 I 12

6a I 23 1 6
4a I 67 I 13
6a I 62 I 12
3a I 138
6a I 48 I 10
4b I 40 I 11

589

37-7

Near Greenwich Point ........

52. I Off Sancki rpint. Fog bull ....

"J- ii-i.

4a I 62 I 12

I 4a I 64 I 12
I I I

1806
1867

1865

1827
1866.

1839
1865

1803
1857

1866

1856
1856
1856

1857

1801
1856

1305
1856

183:

1837
1855

1861
1854

1823
1855

1808
1854

lita7
1867

1826
1867

1829
1858

1848
1856

160 TJVITED STATES.

LIGHTHOUSES.

HEW TOBX, fto.

Name ud Character of Light.

Lnt. N.
Long. W.

Deseription, fto.

»rtS

.9 .
1^

■i

LONG ISLAND SOUND

SANDS POIKTT
One rev. br. It, i m.

Thhooo'b Neck
One fixed bright It.

40
73

5 1.9 I E. entrance to Cow Bay
44 ' I

... I 4b

4~ vS-.i S- '< Point; atN.W. of entrance I 6a
73 47/ J toEast Jiiver

OTEW YOllK AND

NEW JERSEY

MONTAUK POINT
One fixed and flash. It.

GREAT WEST, or
BHINNECOCK, BAY
One fixed bright It.

FIRE ISLA^TB
One rev. br. 't, 1 min.

NEW YORl BAY
SANDT nOOK Lt.V.

4»

7«

40
7a

40
73

4.2 I E. end of Long Island. Flash
51.7 I evory 2 min

51-
30.

N. side ; ;i,v. or, i6ii ft. hig^, on
Pondquogae Point

37.9 I S. side of Long Island. Yellow
13.3 I tower, 150 feet high

40 28.
Two fixed bright Its. | 73 53.

raOHLANDS OP
NAVE8INK
One fixed br. It, aad
One rev. br. It, i m.

SANDY HOOK
Three fixed br. Its.

If AiN CiiAmriL
Two fixed bright Its.

OsDMBT'S CHAVrXEL

Two fixed bright Its.

Swash Chaxnel

Two fixed bright Its.

PRINCES BAY
One fixed & flash It

Fort Tohfkins
One fl^ed bright It.

BoBBixn Rkef
Oae fixed bright It.

NEWARK BAY

BiROKN Point
One flxed bright It.

Oc"i n- Stake

Passaic River ,

Elbow '■ "'

*3-7
59-4

40 27.6

74 0-4

40
74

25.2
4-

40 27.
74 8«

•3-

40
74

3^:

4-4

40 39.4
74 4-a

6 miles ^m Sandy Hook and
Nave.dnk lights

S. of Sandy Hook, 100 yards
apart

I S. entrance to New York Harb.
E. It. is N. by W. J mile, and
W. It N. W. i m., from main It

One near the Beach, the other on
Chapel Hill, half mile apart . .

Near Point Comfort

On Stateu Id. ; nenr Elm Tree
Station, and Vew Dorp

3a
6a
6a

2a
8a

2a
3a

S.E. end of Siuten Id.
every 2 min. .......

Flash I 3d

<-.'n Statcn Island, W. sido of
Narrows . . ,

N.W. part of No'^, York Har-
bour. Fog Iv

I On a R.'!. . • lit ' ICO to Newark I
Bay. \ og bell |

I Fixed It. It., opposite Eliz. Port |
I Fixed br. It, at Mouth of River |
I Fixed br.U.jim.N.ofPasJwicLt |

6a
6a
6a

53 1 15
C6I 10

160 I 20
160 I 20

166 I 22

45 110

248 I 21

CO ; 16
35 10
35 10

60
224

40 I 12
76 14

1809
1866

1826
1855

1796
1860

1867

1826
1858

1823
1864

1828
1840

1762
1857

1866
1856

189
106 I 16

89 1 15

6r> I 13

40 1 10

40 I 10 I

.. I .. I

14 1856

1828
1857

1839
1855

1849
1853

1867

1849

1864

X, fte.

mmXD STATES.

LIGHTHOUSES^ HEW JXB8ET, fto. 161

.a .

15 1809
1866

10 1826
1865

1796
1860

20 I 1857

22 I 1826
1858

1"!

M21

1823
1854

1828
1840

16
10
10

1762
1867

12 1856

\l 1866

U 1856

16 1828
1857

15 1839
1855

13 1839
1855

10 1849
1863

.. 11867

10 1 1849

1 1854

Name aaoA Charaoter of Light

Lat.N.
Long. W.

Oeaeription, *c.

P
'%

«^

HEW JEBSKT.

BABNEOAT SHOALS
One rev. br. It, 10 aeos.

ABSEOOM
One fixed bright light

CAPE MAY LT. VE8.
Two fixed bright Its.

CAPE MAY

One fixed and flash, br.
light, li min.

CAPE HENLOPEN

Two fixed bright lights

DELAWARE BAY AND
BIYEB

Bbbaxwateb
One fixed & flash. It.

BHANDTWINE ShOAL

One fixed bright It

Maurice River

Eod Island
One fixed bright It.

Upper MiDP ^hoal,
or CuosB ■ . uQC, Lt.
Ybssei.

M ■■>» RnrsB

. fixed bright It

GoHANzsr
One fixed

'ht It

Bombay Hook
One fixed bright It

RXBDT IsLAm)
One fixed bright It

Chbistiana Rivbb .
One fixed bright It

FortMi£Sn

vntoiiinA.

FENWICK ISLAND
One fixed and liash. It

ASSATEAQUE ID.
One fixed bright light

Hoo IstAMD

One fixed bright light

39 45-8
74 6-7

39 21.
74 a5-6

38 53-5
74 39.5

1 38 55.8
74 57.8

38 46.6
75 5-4

38 47.9
75 6.1

1 ..

59-
7-3

... 1

10.5
8.6

ro.3
»3-7

ao.3
ai.7

39 ai.8
75 30-9

39 80.
75 34-4

39 43-3
75 314

I..

• •••

38 il-
ls 4-1

37
75

54-6

ai.7

a3-.T
42.2

Red and white tower, 169 feet | lb
Ugh ; S. side of Inlet

166 I 22 I 1831
1868

Tower, 150 feet high, on S. side I la | 167 | 22 1 1856
oflnlet

In 12 fathoms, on Five-Fathom
Bank, 16 miles from 0. May. .

N. side Delaware Bay. (A tower. Id
150 ft. high, with la rev. br. It.
1 m., is to replace the present)

S. side Delaware Bay. Lower It I la
f mile N.W. of Higher | 4a

Fl. ii every 45 sees. Fog bell

Iron screw pile tower. Fog
beU

Fixedbr. It., S. W. of Haystack Id,

N. Bide of Bay ..,,,»,..

One fixed br. It., "W. side of main
Ship Channel. Fog bell and
horn

4d.|

3a I

6a I
6a

40 .
84 1 14

180 I 20
33 10

47 110
46 1 13

46 I 10
45 1 11

39 1 9

S. side of Buy

W. side of Creek, N. side of
Bay

N.W.end

S. Point Fog bell ,

At Wilmington, N. side

1 Fixed br. It., on Pier. Fog bell

6a I

5a I
4a I
4a I

I ^'' I
|6a|

30 1 9
46 1 11
46 111
55 1 12
48 j 11
28| 7

1839
1865

1823
1858

1792
1865

1840
1866

1860
1867

1849

1837
1866

1846
1854

1831
1855

1838
1856

1831
1855

1839
1866

1835

1855

I 1849

White brick tower, fixed It.with I 3d | 86 | 15 | 1858
fiash every 2 min. |

Between Chesapeake and Dola- [ 3a
ware Bays, 2 m. from 8.W. Pt

W. Pbint

80 114
60

1833
1856

13 I 18>i2
1866

162 ITNITED STATES.

LIGHTHOUSES.

VntGINTA, ftff.

Name and Character of Light.

Lnt. N.
Long. W.

Dcaeription, fto.

S "

CHESAPEAKE BAY
CAPE CHABLE8
One rev. br. It., 1 m.

CAPE HENRY

One fixed br. light

HAMKrON BOADS

WUXOTTOHBT SPIt

Lt. Vksbkl
Twofizedbr.lto.

OLD PT. COMFORT
Two fixed br. Its.

Okakbt IsLAin) Shoal
One fixed bright It

37 7-8
75 5«.8

56 55-5
76 0.8

N.E. of Smith Id., N. entrnnce. lb | 69
(A new tow«r, 160 ft. high,
building.)

S. side of entrance I 2a I 129

14 I 1827
1U8

17 I 1791
1857

S, of entrance to Hampton
Roads

One on N. side of entrance to
James' River; the other on
S.W. Point

W. aide of entrance to Elizabeth
River, near Norfolk. Fog bell
and horn

48
36

1847
1867

4a I 48 I 11 I 1802
6a 21 6 1866

62 I 12 I 1820
1869

Naval Hospital

I...

* • •

JAMES RIYEB

"White Shoal

I...

t • •

Point of Shoals

I...

t • t

Deep Water Shoals

|...

• • •

Jordan's Point

|...

• ••

Ohikhtstomi Inlbt
One fixed bright It

15-5
3-

Back Rivb&
One rev. br. It., f m

5-
21.

I Fixed bright Ught, on the ^VhaTf | 6a | , . | 6 | 1867

I Fixed br. It, below Sandy Point | 6a | 27 | 9 1 1864

I Fixed bright Ught, on the Shoal | 6a | 27 | | 1864

I Fixed bright light, on the Shoal | Ga | 27 | 9 | 1854

I Fixed bright Ught | 6a | 36 1 10 | 1864

W. sideofenitrance I 4a | 36 | 10 | 1869

IS. side of entrance I 4b I 36 I 10 I 1829

I : I I I I 18"

York Spit Lt Vessel | | Fixed br. It, in 4 fins., off Spit |«| 40 | 9 | 1865

Nbw Point Comfort
One fixed bright It.

WoLFTBAF Shoals Lt.
Yf.sbel
Two fixed br. Its. .

Stingray Point
One fixed bright It

Windmill Pt. Lt.Vbs.
One fixed bright It

Watts Island
One fixed & flash It

37 18.
76 17. 1

37 33-6
^6 14.7

37 46 ?
75 53-8

N. side of MobjackBay I 4a I 60 I 13 I 1804

1866

E. side of Shoal, between York
and Rappahannock Rivers . .

30 I .n I 1821
38 *" 1864

S. side of Rappahannock River I 6a | 36 | 7 | 1869

S.E. part of Shoal, N. side of I • I 84 I 10 I 1834

Rappahannock River | | | | 1864

S. end ; £. entrance to Tangier I fid I 46 I 12 I 1833

Sound 1867

HABYLAim.

Jan B Island Lt. Yes. I ,...,•
One fixed bright It. |

j^w^^T^jfvtt.i' -Silts -tf

-:;«3-:*--'i'-i

Off end of Bar, Tangier Sound. • i • i 30 1 10 { 1863

USITED fTAHiB.

UaHTHOtrSES.

Ki^taOtD. 163

VtxBM and OharMter of Ugbt

Ut.N.
LoDf . W.

DMori|^tloil» ft*.

CHESAPEAKE BAY
AND BIVEB8

Smith Ft. Lxoht Vbs.
Two fixed bright Its.

Foa Ponrr
One fixed bright It.

Glat Iblawd
O^efl^ed blight It.

Lookout Poixt
One fi<ed bright It.

Hoorm'i StBins Lt.
YassBL
One fixed br. It.

CovB PonjT
One fixed & flaah. It

Shabf Island
One fixed blight It.

Thomas Point
One fixed bright It.

GBEtNBtTtiT Point I
One fixed bright It. ]

Samdt Point
One fixed & flash. It

PATAPSCO BIVER

Seven Foot Knoll I
One fixed br. light |

Korth Point I

Two fixed br. Its. |

FoBT Cabboll
One fixed br. light

liAzAaBTTo Point I
One fixed br. light |

Poole Island
One fixed br. light

SUSQUEHANNA E.

TuBKEY Point
One fixed br. light

Fishing Battbkt
One fixed br. light

Havre de Grace
One tixod br. light

POTOMAC RIVER

PixEY Point
Quo fixed br. light

8.B. entnmoe of Piotomao Biver

Smith Island, mtranoe of Po-
tomao Biver

Entraaoe of Naqfioolw Biver , .

Ca
6a

8« I 10 I 1821
*" 1857

80 I 10
36 1 10

1827
1855

1832
1855

38 ».1

75 a.8

38 13.9

75 5**1

38 S.3 I v. tide of entrance to Potomac I 4a I 87 1 10 I 1831
7619.6I Biver I I I |1857

B. of Hooper's Island |«| 84 1 10 1 1827

38 83.1

70 23.2

38 37-7 1

76 aa.5 I

38 54-4

76 »7.6

70 26.9

4 miles N. of Fatuzent Biver. I 4d I 46 I 11 1 1828

Flash every li min | | | 1 1857

N. Point : entrance of Choptank I 5a | 41 1 10 j 1838

Biver I I I \VM

4 miles 8. of entrance to Anna- I 4a I 63 I 12 I 1825

polls I I I 11857

N. side of Annapolis Harbour . . I 6a I 50 I 11 1 1848

I I I 1 1866

Flash everjr 1} min. Appears as I 5d | 50 1 12 1 1868
fixed It. only within 10 miles

9-3
139

1 1.6
26.3

39 "8
76 s6.6

^1 ^^i
76 34.6

Entrance to Fatapseo Biver .... I 4a | 48 1 11 1 1955

N> side of entrance •••'«.• •••••

OntbeFort. FogbeU |8a| 87 1 10 1 1854

39 17-4
76 15.7

33 I 10 I 1824
42 11 1866

N side of Bfiltimore Harbour .. I 4a I 36 1 10 1 1831

I I I I 1865

Off QmutmifiK Biver.. Fog bell 1 4a | .85 1 10 1 1825

39 26.9 I N. side of entrance to Elk and I 4a I 65 1 12 j 1833

76 0.2 1 Susquehanna Bivers | | | 1 1855

39 29.6 I On the Battery | 6a | 36 1 10 1 1853

39 32.4 1 Concord Point, entrimce of Sns- I 6a I 40 1 10 I 1825

76 4.8) quehanna Biver | | | 1 1857

38 7.6 I E. side, about 14 miles N.W. of I 5a I 85 t 10 | 1836

76 32.5 I Mouth I I I 11856

164 UVXTBD STATES.

UOHTHOUSES.

MABTLAKD,fte.

Kama aad Chanettr of light.

Lat. M.
Long. W.

Deieiiptioiif *o.

5 .

FOTOMAO BIYEB

Blakibtokb Island I 38 ti.3 j Enteanoe of Clement Bay ,
One fixed br. light | 76 43. [

Lower Oedar Ft Lt.
Vessel
One fixed br^ It

Between Cedar and Tates Points t

Upper Cedar Ft Lt I I 0£F tiie Foint, opposite Tobacco

vessel I I ' Biror

One fixed br. It. ] |

Fort Washington | ...... | Fixed bright light, on the Wharf j

JoMu FoiMT I 38 47.5 I Kear Alexandria

One fixed br. light | 77 3.2 |

Bowler Bock Lt Vessel | | Fixed bright light i

HOBTH CABOLIHA.

BODY'S ISLAND I 35 47.3

One rev. br. It, 1| min. | 75 31.3

li oiile S. of new Inlet >

CAFE HATTERAS

One flash, br. It, 16 s.,
and one fixed br. It

FAMLICO SOUND
OCRACOEE ID.
One fixed bright It

35 15a

75 30-5

35 <-5

75 58.5

Flash, light, 2 milcB N. of high
water; fixed light, 600 yards
fromPoint .....'

W. end.

Royal Shoal Lj;. Vis. | | One fixed br. It, on S.W. Fbint |

BoTAL Shoal | | Fixed and flash. It, on N. W. Ft |

Hauboub Io. Lt. Vxs.

Br. It on Bar, between Famlico
and Core Sos

Bbamt Id. Shoal Lt.V. | | Br. light, S. part of Famlico Sd. |

Nkusi R. Lt. Vessel | | Bright light, off Marsh Foint . . |

Pamlico PoiKT I 35 19.4 t 8. side of Famlico River I

One fixed bright It | 76 31.3 | |

LoNO Shoal Lt. Vis. | | Fixed br. lt,on E. Point B«]l,&o. |

I Pile lighthonse, betwoAn Pamlico
and Croatan Sounds. Foghorn

Between Pamlico and Albemarle
Soundi Fog bell and horn.. I

White Pile lighthouse, on end of
Shoal, W. side of Pasquotank
R., Albemarle Sound

RoANAKi RrvBB Lt. Vk8. I I Fixed bright It., near entrance . . j

Roanoke Mabrkbs
One fixed bright It.

RoANOKW Id. Lt. Vbk.
One fixed bri^^ht It

Wade Point
Oue fixed bright light

CAl'E LOOKOUT
Uiio fixed briRht litrht

34 37.3 I Red tower, 00 feet high, near the
76 10.1 I ond of Cape

4a 46

• 1 22

1 81

• 28

,..

6a t ..

6a 1 36

|10|

• 1 ..

1 01

3b 1 90

|i<|

lo 160

8a 26

4a 76

• 1 43

ini

4d| 88

111

• 1 84

10 1

• 1 46

111

• 1 38

11 1

6a 37

•1 46 1

111

4a 38

• 81

6a 1 81 1

10 1

0| 41|

11 1

1.' I T.66

22 1

1861
1866

1826

1861
1866

1867
1866

1885

1867

1708
1867

1828

1864

1826
1867
1836

1861

1828

1828
1860

1864

1826
1867

1886
1864

1866

1836

1812
I ioov

tWniD STATES.

UGHTHOUSES. V- * S. OUEtOLDIA, ie»

Hum Md Chanetar of XJglit.

lAt.N.

Long. W.

DMMptiaa, fte.

BOOUE BANKS
Two fixed bright Its.

Fbtikopah SboauLt.V.
Two fixed bright lights

CAPE PEAK
One fixed bright light

FEDERAL POINT
One fixed bright light

CAPE FEAB BIYEB

Oak Island
Two fixed bright Its.

Prics's Cbxix
Two fixed bright Its.

HOBSE-SHOELT.y.
One fixed bright It

Campbell's, or Big. Id.
One fixed bright It.

Orton's Point
One fixed bright It

Upper Jetty Range
Two fixed bright Its.

3441.7
76 40.

33 35.

77 50.

33 5«-3
77 59-8

33 S*»
77 54-9

33 S«i
77 59*

33 5<'3
77 55-4

34 <-9
77 $6.

Beanfort Harbonr, near Fort 4a
Macon. In one, N.W. i W., 6a
and S.B. i E., imile apart . .

In 10 fi»<3ionu, 1 mile firom Outer I •
Shoal I

White tower, 92 feet high, on 8a
Bald Head, B. side of Cape
Fear River, 4 a. firom Cape . .

K. side of Tnlet, N. of entrance I 4a
of Cape Fear River

8m.below\l<niniington,N.f K, I <;.
and S. f W., 267 yards apart | °"'

I Entrance of Creek, W. bank of I «.
River. !••

34 3-4

77 56*

34 1*8
77 J«-3

I Between New Inlet and Price's I •
Creek j

On S.W. comer .,,.. I 6a

W. Bank of River ............ I 6a

E. side of River, 3 miles below I 6a
"Wilmington, 267 yards apnrt |

SOUTH CABOLIHA.

GEORGETOWN
One fixed bright light

Fort Point

CAPE ROMAIN
One rev. br. It., 1 min.

Bull's Bat
One fixed bright light

Rattlbsw AXB Shoals Lt.
Ybssbl
Two fixed bright Its.

CHARLESTON

6.7

White tower, 82 ft. high, at E.
entrance to Pedee River ....

i.t
17.1

55-7
30.5

43.6

3»

Two fixed bright lights | 79
CHARLESTON HARB.

MoRKIS ISLAMD

41.9

ti 1 .:,J'

| Fixed bright light

Raccoon Key. Striped red and
white tower, 160 feet high . .

White brick house, N. end of
Island

In 6 fathoms. Opposite N. end
of Sullivan Island. Fog horn
and bell

One on Id., W. of Ship Channel ;
the other in iront of main It

|Sa
lb

•

SuixrvAK
Two fixed br. Its.

FORT SUMTER
Castle Pinckney
iJitUory BuHCon

3»

46.9
5«-3

Two fixed br. Its., 300 yds. apart
E. end of Battery on Island. . . .

One fixed bright light

One filed r«d light

Gas light on E. end r<f Battery

I 4a

|0a

60 i 18 I 18M
80 I 10

40 1 12 1 1854

107 1 16 1 1818

1865

46 I 12 1 1816
1855

871
27 1

1849
1855

1850
35

48 i 16 I 1851

25 I 9 I 1849
I I 1855

25 I 9 I 1849
I 1 1855

42 1 811855
65 I I

85 I 14 I 1801
I 1 1854

84 I I 1858

160 I 28 I 1827
I I 1867

86 I 11 I 1862
44 I 12 I 1854

133 I 20 I 1830
60 10 1867

JJ I 10 I 1887

1848
1857

67 I 10 I 1855
60 j 10 ! 1866
46 I .. I 1857

m mnixD stATES.

LiaHTHOUSEBi

QBOSfllA. iko.

Nam* *Bd Ctumotar of Light.

Lntlf.
Long. W.

DeioriptioB, fto.

9 B-

— S

On N. Point ; and on W. side of
entrance to St. Helena IsUmd

L^ I ^22 I " I 185^

HUNTnra island 31 34.5

OnereT.br.lt.i'min.,^ 80 24.5
One fixed bright light

Oambahee Bank Lt Yeas. I ...... | Intended, 1861 .* | .. j .. | «. | ....

OAXiBoavB Lt. Yissvl
V

I I Fixed br.lt., in 4i fins., in Sound | • | SO 1 10 1 1865

GEOBGIA.

Martui's Industbt Lt.

Two fixed bright Its.

TITBBE ISLAND
Two fixed bright Ite.

SAVANNAH RIVER
Ttbu Knoll Lt. Vis.

Cockspnr Island
One flxod bright It.

Oyster Beds

Fig Island
One fixed bright It.

llie Bay

sapelo island

One fixed and flash. It.,
One fixed bright light

WOLF ISLAND

5-5

35»

50J

Iff miles E. of Tybee Light. Fog
horn and bell .«........>...

N.E. end, 6. side of entronee to
Savannah River ; beacon It. on
Pt. of Tybee Id., J mile E. of
" Ught

2a I 108
4a 62

80 (2.8

3> 5-

81 3.6

mainligii

Fixed bright Ught. N. of Id. | •
Bell ana horn

On a Enoll, E. end I Sa I 25

Fixed red It., opp. Cockspor Id. I 6a I 85

On E. end, in Savannah River. | 6a | 26

.?og bell

12 I 1889
1865

16 I 1793
12 1866

10 I 1848
1867

9 I 1840
I 1866

9 I 1849
I 1856

9 I 1843
1866

j I Oa J light, in Savannah city . . . . | . . | 77 | 9 | 1858

31 ai-i
81 24.

Tower, striped rod and wh. ; flash
oveiy 40 sees. 8. end of Id. ;
N. side of Doboy Sound. Fixed
light in front of former

4d| 74
6a 50

14
11

1820
1854
1858

Two fixed bright lights | 81 ao.3

18. a I Near N. end

25
16

ST. SIMON ISLAND
One fixed bright light

LITTLE CUMBER-
LAND ISLAND
One fixed bright It.

FLORIDA.

AMELIA ISLAND

1. One rev. br. It.^ !( m,,
and 1 fixed bright It.

2. Two fixed bright Its.

f WW j j

ST. JOHN'S RIVER
One fixed bri({ht light

Ji 38
81 3»-5

30 539
81 31.4

30 394
81 30.9

S. end, on N. side of St. Simon's I 3a I 80
Sound

I .

S. side of entrance to St. Andrew
Sound, and Santilla River . .

1. Rev. It., with fixed It. in firont
of it, on N. end, and S. side of
entrance to St. Mary's River.

2. Two fixed Its. on N. side of
Id., loading into Femandina
Harbour

3a I 70

I 1822
" I 1866

14 I 1811
I 1856

14 I 1838
1866

104

60
36

17
6

12
9

1838
1866

1868

■,!;■( i«i-':»i

30 SI. 7 I 8. side of entrance I 3a I 75 I 14 I 1820

81 37.5 I I I I I 1369

Dame's Point Lt. Vessel t | Small It. off Point, St. John's R. I a |

6 I 1867

TTHITED 8TATS3.

UQHTHOUSES.

FLOBIBA. 167

Name ud Chanoter of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Deaoriptlon, Sco.

5^.

.3 .
« s

ST. AUGUSTINE
Oae fixed and flash It.

OAPB CANAVERAL
One rev. br. It., 1 miu.

JUPITEE INLET
One fixed & flash, br. It.

OAPB FLORIDA
One fixed bright light

CARTSFORT
One rev. br. It., i min.

DRY BANK
One fixed bright light

SAND KEY
One fixed and flash. It.

KEY WEST

S.W. Point of Island
One fixed bright It.

N.W. Passage
One fixed bright It.

TRY TORTUGAS

LOGGERHEAD KEY
One fixed bright It.

GARDEN, or BUSH
KEY

One fixed bright It.

EOKONT

One fixed bright It.

CEDAR KEYS
One lixed and flush. It.

St. Mark's Harbour
One fixed bright light

DOG ISLAND
One rev. br. It., I min.

CAPE ST. GEORGE
One fixed bright light

CAPE ST. BLA8
One rev. br. It., U ^•

PENSACOLA
One rev. br. It, 1 min.

29 50.8
81 19.2

28 27. j

80 33. I

I 26 55-4 I
I 80 5.1 I

I 25 41-
I 80 3.

I 25 13-3
I 80 6.2

24 37-6

81 6.7

24 26.5
81 5i»

N. end of Anastasia Id., S. en- 4d I 68 | 14
trance to St. Augustine. Flash
every 1^ min

White tovrer, 65 feet high, on
N.E. part

Tower, 10 feet high. Fixed It., I Id
with flash every i min |

White tower, 96 feet high, on S. I 2a
Point of Key Bisca^iie |

Dark tower, 112 feet high, on I lb
the Reef

I ed pile It. ho., 149 ft. high, near
Cofi&n Patches and Sombrero
Key

Flash every 2 min. Dark tower,
121 ft. high, 7i miles S.W. of
Key West Lt

I 65
I 146
I 100
I 106
I 144

14 I
18 I
18
18
18

Id I 110 I 18

J4 33. I White tower, 60 feet high .... I 3a I 60 I 13
81 49-3 I III

24 37.1 I On iron screw Piles, in 6 feet
81 55» I

Round tower, 150 feet high, on
centre of W. Key

H 37-3
82 55«

27
82

37-3
53-7

On Jofirrson Fort

I »7 3«-
! 82 4J.7

'9 3 7

83 4"

30 44

84 10.6

J9 46.

84 34-7

29 %(>.i

84 58 6

39 41.7

85 H-6

to 19.

87 17.4

Entrance of Tampa Bay, en the
Koy

Flash every min (Jn E. Mound
of Seahorse Koy

E. side of ontrance ,

White tower, 44 ft. high, on E.
sidf of Middle entrance to St.
George's Sound

White, ♦ower, 70 feet high, on
the Cape

Whito tower, 60 feet high, 2
miles from S. Point of Cupe . .

White tower, 160 K nigh, on 8.
side of antranoa to Hay^ nea;
Baraacua

4a I 40 I 12

la I 152 I 20 I
4a I 70 I 14

4a I 46 I 12

4d I 75 I 16

4a I 78 I 14

4b I 48 j 13

3a I 77 16

8b I 96 I 16

lb I 210 I 21
I I

1823
18d4

1847'

1860

1825
1856

1852
1867

1857

1826
1853

1825
1868

1838
1854

186 i

1825
1858

1848
1867

1864

1829
1866

1838
1866

1847
1867

1847
1868

1824
xovo

168 UVITED gTATES.

LIGHTHOUSES.

ALABAMA, fte.

Name and Charaeter of Ught.

Lat.N.
Long. W.

Deiorlption, *o.

■9^

AT.AWAMA .

SAND ISLAND

1. One Sxed br. light

2. One red and br. fixed

Hght

MOBILE BAY

MOBILE POINT

1. One fixed br. It.

2. One fixed & flash.

red light, and 1
fixed br. light

Choctaw Point
One fixed bright It

Choctaw Pass

2? "-3
88 a.

30 13.8
88 0.5

30 40.a
88 3.

1. Brick tower, 160 ft. high, 3 m.
S.S.W.ofMobilePt. 2. Beacon
Its. ; red It. on E. Point, br. It.
on 8. Point of Sand Id. Light-
house, with red vertical stripe

1. White tower, 63 feet high, on
'JL side of enL-ance to Bay.
2. Beacon lights

White tower, 43 feet high, a little
8. of MobUe city

« •

I i Two small beacon lights ......I..)

162
20

19
9

1838
1868
1864

68
20

13
9

1821
1868
1864

11 1831
1867

16 1

1866

XISSISSIPFI AVB '
LOTJISIAH A.

MISSISSIPPI 8D.
Bound Island | 30

One fixed br. light | 88

£. Pascaoovla R. I 30
One fixed br. light | 88

Ship Island I 30

One fixed br. light | 88

BrLoxi I 30

One fixed br. light | 88

Cat Island I 30

One fixed br. light | 89

Pass Christlak I 30
One fixed br. light | 89

MiaaiLL Shell Bk. | 30
One fixed br. light | 89

9t. Joseph's Island | . . .

Fboctoravillb I 19

One fixed br. light | 89

LAKE PONTCHARTRAIN

Plbasantona Island
One fixed bright It

»7-5
34->

31.
331

ia.9

57-

23-7
53>

»3'9

8.7

18.9
14.

«4-3
13.9

5»2
39-4

RtOOLITB

One fixed bright It.

Bon Fouca
One fixed bright It.

Port Pontchartrain
One fixed & flash. It.

30
90

1:1

OffFascagoulaBay t 4a

AtFasoagoiila,.i,,t«« tit I 6a |

OnW.end I 4a |

W. entrance to Bay I 4a t

W.Foint |4a

6^ miles N.W. of Cat Island I 4a
Light I

A pile lighthouse, between Cat i 4a |
Island and Grand Island . . . . |

Building, 1861 | .. |

Lake Borgne .....|6a|

E. entrance of Lake, near Pearl I 4a I
River ) |

E. entrance of Lake I 6a |

Near Mouth of Bay on Bon I 6a I
Fou<ia j I

Near B. end of Railroad. Flash I 6d i
every 1| intn .,....,,, I j

61 I 12 I 1833
I I 1866

.. {10 11864

61 I 13 I 1863

62 i 13 I 1848
I 1866

12 I 1831
I 1867

42 I 12 I 1831
I j 1867

46 I 11 I 1860
89 I 10 I 1860

60 I 13 I 1838
80 I 10 I 1866

89 I 11 I 1813
1867

|..|

1838

IRAA

TJVITED STATES.

LIGHTHOUSES. KISSISSIFPI, fto. 169

•t

1838
1868
1864

1821
1868
1864

1831
1867

10 I 1866

il I 1813
I 1867

lO I 1838

I IRXA

Vame and Chanwter of Ught.

Lat.N.
Long. W.

-.j^^vj Description, fto.

LAKE PONTOHAETEAIN
Batou St, John
One fixed bright It.

Kew Canal |

JO a.
90 4.

Toheftmcta Biver

Pass If ahchao
One fixed bright It.

CHANDELEUR ID.

30 17.8
90 12.7

30 3-4

One fixed bright light | 88 51.8

MOUTHS OP MISSISSIPPI

PASS 1 L'OUTRE I 29 8.6
- £ One fixed bright It | 89 1.5

GORDON ISLAND I 28 59.7
One rev. br. It, 1| m. | 89 7.4.

Deer Island I ......

One fixed bright It |

SOUTH WEST PASS I 28 58.5
One fixed bright It [89 21.

TntBALLiBB Bat I 29 a.

One fixod bright light | 90 16.5

SHIP ISLAND SHOAL I 28 55.1
One fixed and fiash. It | 90 55.9

B.W. REEF
One fixed red light

BreixEbtb
One fixed bright light

»9 >5-
91 30.

29 20.
91 49.

SABINE PASS I 29 43.9

One fixed and flash. It 93 50.3

6 miles N. of New Orleans .... I 6a

Fixed bright light, at entrance . . | 6a
Fixed br. It., near Madisonville | 6a

S. side, between Maurepas and I 4a
Pontchartrain Lakes |

White tower, 60 feet high, on I 4a
N.end

Black tower, 69 ft. high,on Middle I 3a
Ghx>undId.,N. side of entrance |

S. Point of Id. South Pass, S.W. I 3b
side I

At junction of S.W. and N.E. I 6a
Passes I

White tower, 68 ft. high, on W. I 3a
side of entrance of ]^Ter . . . . |

W. side, Grand Pass I 4a

Brown pile lighthouse. Fixed It., j 2d
with flash every | min |

On the Reef I 4a

Pile lighthoTise, 81 feet high, on | 3a
S. extremity

White tower, 76 feet high, on
Brant Point, E. side of River.
Flash every 1| min.

33
38
45

77
60

70
60
110
49
71

3d I 86

10 I 1811
I 1866

10 I 1838

11 I 1837

10 I 183f
I 1867

13 I 184E
186f

15 I 186{
1866

13 I 1831
I 186f

6 I 185!

16 I 1831
I 186f

13 I 186f

17 I 186(

12 i 186{

13 I 185£
16 I 1856

TEXAS.

GALVESTON BAT

BOLIVAR POINT I 19 12.6 I Red tower, K9 feet high, N. side I 3a I 100 ( 10 I 1862

One fixed bright It | 94 45.7 | of entrance to GalAostonHarb. | | | | 1868

Galveston | | 2 fixed br. Its., in range of Chnn. | 6a | . . | 10 | 1860

Galveston Beacons | | 2 fixed bright Its., in the city .. | 6a | 44 | .. | 1866

Half-moon Shoal | I Botweon Pelican Id. and Dollar I 6a | 36 | 10 | 1864

One fixed bright It j | Point Fogbdl j

Bed Fish Bar | | Fixed bright light FogboU .. | 6a | 86 | 10 | 1864

Clopper'H Bar - | . c . . . I Fixed bright light. Fog boll , . i 6a ! 35 | 10 | 1854

170 innXED STATES.

MGBtTHOUSES.

TEXAS.

Mame and Cluntctcr of Light.

I-!>t. N.
lA>Ug. W.

Do8o;^ption, fto.

§1

J3^

■s

•3 .

:2 a

MATAGORDA BAY

MATAGORDA ID. I sS ii. I Tower, with bands, 79 feet high, I 3b I 06 t 16 I 1852

SUuria I I Fixed bright Ught, on N. side . . | 6a | 33 | 6 1 1858

Half-moon Beof | ...... | Fixed br. It., ou Rend. Foghorn | 6a | 40 | 6 | 1&53

Swash I j Fixed br. It, opp. Alligator Hd. I 5a I 38 | 6 | 1858

ARANSAS PASS | 37 53.4 | Brown tower, 55 feet high, on I 4a | 60 | 13 | 185«

One fixed bright light | 96 56.5 | Low Island, on N. side |

lfil=Lv:08 SANTIAGO

Padki Islakb j 36 6. I S. Point, N. side of entrance . . I 5a | 85 1 10 1 1858

C.)ne fixed bright It. | 97 13. | )

ISABEL POINT I 36 4.9 I Flash every min. White tower, I 3d I 82 1 16 I 1859

Onb 2^ed & flash. It. | 97 ii.i | 57 feet high, on the Point. . . . | j | | 1857

!lio 0-ande

I I Building, 1861 | .. | .. | .. | ....

•.) ■*'K'|; , , . . .,

^ A , '.:•• .V/

■ .'. ;r i>\

- ■ ^y >

)'i''>r:%i^4^'W^ %/4'r<-'-,?v>'i.;.; ,. ". ;.!s ^ : - ^.

'■1 ■: -I.

■'.■jUk

f: .,.,.. •■

5>;r.i!;- -V I .** Jii.-i.-\ ^-v?fi

3^'#' '. Zy.'^ ■ i

. • J

■■?-■ j'f-'i ^'?t !

, • • ..-.,..

..;■,' ■ ;/. r ..t1 1

-.+. !$,' ; s..i; ■

./ *' ♦■* v.* »f%^,rti

?'*

v> a: lif

^.v 1

'■ I-' ii •&«•':

I * 1 1 «

^' •V;M.;.il,--

WBSTIVSIES.

LIGHTHOUSES. TH|B BAWAlTAg, *o. 171

Kama and Chanwter of light.

Lat.N.
Long. W.

Description, &e.

5^.
§1

.S .

ABACX) 45 5>-5

One TOT. br. It., 1 min. 77 10.7

NASSAU HABBOIJB 1 15 5.6
One fixed bright light | 77 22.

GREAT ISAAO I 6 3.

' Onexev. br. It, |mm. | ',9 6.5

GUN KAY I 25 34.6

One rev. br. It., 1} m. | 79 18.8

EAT SAL BANK I 23 56.

. One fixed bright light | 80 28.5

XAYLOBOS 12222.8

One fixed bright light \ 77 35.8

TUBES ISLAND I 21 31.

One fixed and flaah. It. I 71 7.7

(British). White and red tower,
85 feet high, on S.E. Point, or
Hole in the Wall

(British). Stone tower, 68 took I
high, on W. Point of Hog Id. |

(British). Bed and white tower,
145 foet high, on Island . . . .

(British). Tower, 70 teet high,
near S. Point

I 160 I 16 I 1848

I 68
1158
I 80

(British). White and red tower, I . . | 96
68 feet high, on N. Elbow Kay |

(British). Bod and wUte iron | la | 146

.. I 103

tower, 150 feet high, on Kay |

(British). White tower, 60 feet
high, 400 yards from N. end.
Flash every |miB. ..,*

I 10 I 1847
I 16 I 1659
I 12 I 1836
I 14 I 1839
I 16 I 1860
I 15 I 1862

CUBA (Spanish).

ST. lAGO DE CUBA
One rev. br. It., I m.

CBUZ CAPE
One fixed bright It

Jaova, Xaova, or Ci>

BNFUBOOS HaBB.

One rev. br. light

Batabano I

One fixed br. light |

ISLE OP PINES
One rev. bright light

SAN ANTONIO
One rev. br. It, 1 m.

JU8TIAS
Onefixedftfla8h.lt

GOBERNADORA
One rev. bright light

HAVANA
One fixed & flaah. It

19 57-5
75 S«-«

19 50.2
77 45-3

22 1.2

80 40.3

22 41.4

82 18,

21 26.

83 6.

21 51.8
85 J-3

E. side of Monro Castle I 4b i 223 | 20 | 1842

BuUding, 1861 I 2a | 106 | 16 | ....

Colorado Point, E. of entrance. .

3b I 81 1 14 I 1S61

Lantern, on a Mast I .. | SI] 3 | 1847

I Proposed, 1861, on Cape Pepe . . I 2b | 111 | 16 | .

I Boncali Tower, 117 fbet high, on | 2b | 107 | 20 | 1850
I the Cape

22 43.3 I Proposed, 1861, on the Eay .... | 2d | 129 | 16 ] . . .t
84 6.5 I

2J o.
«3 »3»

>3 93
82 21.1

¥&

Proposed, 1861, on the Point .. I 2b | 111 | 15 | ...»

On Iforro Castle, E. entrance. | Id | 144 | 21 | 1847
ITuuth every ^ min

Fort Santa Cnu

I...

• ft

1 FUed bright light

•I

1858

GUANOS
One rov.

br. It,

Im. 81

4a.

Proposod, 1861, on

the Point . .

3b 1

02 1

..|

• •.•

Note.-

-The latitude* aiul kmgUudea on the CoMt of Cuh« are uncertain,
conaidvrablc amount.

probably to

•

■.. /

•" "

•

m ITEBT nroiES.

LIGHTHOUSES.

CUBA, fte.

Name ud Chaneter of JJght.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Dewriptlon, fto.

I?
^8

CABDENAS BAY
One fixed & flash. It
One fixed r«j& br.lt

BAHIA BE CADIZ
One »▼. br. It, 1 m.

Angoila
One fixed & flaab. It.

KAY PAREDONE
OBANDE
Onefixed& flash. It

NUEVITA8 HARB.
One rev. bi. o., 1 m.

LUCREZIA
One rev. bright It

CAPE MAYSI , .
One fixed bright It.

23 14.4 Flash. It, red flash ev iy ^min.,

81 7.5 on Piedras Kay. Fixed red

and br. It on Anas Kay ....

33 13. I I^wposed, 1861, iron tower, 169
80 30. I feet high, on the Kay

33 39. I Fkoposed, 1861, on S.E. Kay ..
79 3«- I

4d I 66 I Iff I 1807
I 48 I 9 I 1846

23 39.4
78 9.7

Iron tower, 128 feet hi^h, on N.
part. Flash every mm

31 39.6 I Colon tower, 170 feet high, on
77 10.9 I Matemillos Point

21 10. I Building, 1861, on the Point . .
75 38- I

20 16. I Biul<Ung, 1861. [There is a tem-
74 7- I porary It. at 63 ft., vis. 10 m.]

lb
4d
Id

lb
2a

JAMAICA (Engli^)..

MORANT POINT
One rov. br. It, 1 m.

!''"■"
Plum Point

One fixed red or br. It.

Fort Augustji
One fixed red or br. It.

SANTO DOMINGO
One fixed bright light

PUERTO RICO
One rev. br. It, 2 min.

SANTA CRUZ, or ST.
CROIX ISLAND
One fixed bright It

ST. THOMAS

' One fixed bright light

SOMBRERO

St. CHHisTorHXR
One fixed bright light

17 5^-
76 11.2

»7 55-7
76 47.

I »7 57-
I 76 53-

I 18 28.1

18 29.

66 7.1

17 42.7
64 53.7

18 ^9.4
^4 55- 1

18 35.8
63 37.7

17 18.
63 43.5

White tower, 96 feet high

I Red between "W.N.W. i N. & N.
I ^E. Br. from N. ^ E. to S.E.

I Bed to E. ; bright to S. & W. ..

Tower, 100 feet high, on San
Jose Fort

Fort San Joan, on the Morro , . I 2b

(Danish).

t. t{ ^fj.fe

Montsenrat

Antigiia
Two fixed br. lights, &
One red light

16
63

43-

12.

>7
61

4S-7

(Danish). E. entrance, on Moh-
lenfels Point

(British). Proposed, 1861, on
the Island

(British). On the Beach, at
Basse Terre

(British). 2 fixed br. lights for
Mail Steamers, on the Beach
at Plymouth

(British). Fixed triangularly,
upper It. red, for Moil titeamers

175 I 20 |....

* * I ^ I ••••
159 I 20 I 1859

174 I 23 I 1849
112 I 15 I ....
124 I 15 I ....

115 I 15 I 1842

68 i 12 I 1854

40| .. I ....

113 I 9 I 185/'

171 I 20 I 1846

.. I i\ 1853
95 I 12 I 1844

37 I 12 I 1846

** I ** i ****

62 I 8 I 1843*

wx8inn>iB8.

LIGHTHOnSES. CASIBBBB 18., «o. 173

Hamt ud Chanoter of Ught

latN.
Long. W.

Dwociption, *e.

•id

■3

GUADALOUPE (French).

MouledePort I i6 23.7 i rPoniion imoertain] ...» I .. I ..I 71

One fixed bright It. ,1617' } I

.Fd&te&Pitre '| | ]baxiteni,S.oftowii | .. | .. t •>

Muronlalet | | Laatem | .. | ..I*.

Groner Islet | jj JJJ | One fixed bright Ught .., I .. | .. | ..

Fbhtb Tbb&b I 16 lo.c I Tower. 76 feethinrh I 3a 1 108 | 15

1868

xnTB Tbb&b I 16 10.5 I Tower, 76 feet high

One filled br. light | 61 4.9 |

Dominica

MARTINIQUE
One fixed rM^t&lbr.U.

8t. Lvcia
Three fixed bright Its.

15 18. I (Britiah). laght on Fort Young I .. | .. | ..
61x5. I flagataff. |

(French). Bed It. on Polnte de I .. f 62 I 11 I 1850
mgrea, in Fort. Br. light in 1 131 ( 6 | ....
Fort Boyal, S.W. part |

»4

36.1

4.<S

(British). 2 Its. on Tapion Bat- ..i 801
teiy, S. entr. of Castries Harb. ; I |
1 light on Wharf. For MaO
Steamers

8 I 1843
1850

TonAoo I II 10. { (British). Scarborough, on Ba- I .. | 128 | 12 1 1842,
One fixed bright light | 5o 44. | colet, or Bed Point {

Uutrt t

BARBADOS (British).

Carlislo Bay I '3 4- I Bright to^ S. of '^. ; fwl to N. ) . . | 34 | 6 | 1866
Ouefixedbr.orr«flt 159 37.a I otE > |

S. POINT I 13 3.7 I Bed and ^hite striped tower, I .. 1 146 1 18 1 1852
One rev. br. It, 1 m. l59 33-5| 90feethigh

OTTATAITA.

)ne fixed bright light | 52 14.8 | racks ,

Cayenne ^ . , \ ^ 5^* I (^^^^h). On Ijofiuitry Bar- | . . | 69 | 8 | 1850

Surinam LiOBT VxRssi. I 6 4. I (Dutch). In 4 &thomB, off Bram | . . j 30 | 7 | 1858
One fixed bright light | 55 9-5] Point

berbice harbour
lt. vessel

One fixed bright light

6 19.3
57 aa-S

(British). Near E. Point of en-
trance ,

I .. I 16 I 1850

DEMERARA (British).
LiOHT Vkssbl I 6 SS'S \ In 4 ftns., 10 miles N.N.E. i E. I . . | . . ) 12 | 1844

One fixed bright It | 58 1.5 | from River entrance .....<.

E. Biui

One fixed bright It | 58 11.5

6 49.3 I Redandwhlte^wer, 100ft hiffh, ] .. | 103 | 14 | 1829
° -- - ' on E. Ei-^lo "'verontranco.. I

UQHTHOTTSES. TIEBBA TIXIOB, fto.

NaoM and Chataotar of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Desoriptlon, fto.

(Is

*^•*

TIEBRA FIRME

Or Aoco Biy^r Lt Veaael

Fnerto CabelV>

Taeaoas

One fixed bright light

BUBN AYBJaS
One fixed bright light

LlTTLB OUBA9OA ISUUID

One fixed bright light

Great Ooraooe Island
One fixed bright light

Bio de la Haoha
One fixed teightlight

Ltxov, or Navy Bat,
One fixed bright light

HALF-MOON KAY
One fixed bright light

Belize
Three fixed bright Its.

TVKNXFP KaTS

Three fixed bright U^

auLF OF mssjco

Sisal
One fixed bright light

Terminos de Lagnna
One fixed bri^t light

Coatsacoalcos Biver
One fixed bright light

09.49'

I 10 39.

I 68 o.

10 47.
68 34.

13 3.5

.68 ^?.S

11 5*'

68 44.

13 6.

6859.

II 33.
7* 59-

9 »3-8
79 53-

17 12.3
87 3»-4

I 17 19.6

i^S 4.

'17 j6.
' 87 46.

31 10.
90 3.

18 38.^

9» 54-

18 13.

94 »7-

VEBACBTJZ
One rev. bright light

Tamploo

iJt":

33 IS.

9746.

) Sunk in 1859. Not likely tobe | .. | .. | .. | ...•

(Yenemelan). Tto^ppaei, 1861 | . ,
(Yenesudsn). Brava Point .. I ..

(Dutch). Lacre Point, 8. Point I •
(Dutch). OnS. dde (•

(Dutc^. St. Ann Harbour, on
BifFort

(New Granada). On the Church

(New Granada). N.W. part of I
Manzonillo Island |

(British). On S.E. Point

(British). S. side, on English
Kay

(British). Fixed triangularly, on
Mauger Kay, N.W. Point. . . .

(Mexican). On the Castle ....

(Mexican). In Indian village . .

(Mexican). [Temporanr light is
shown while lighthouse is
building, 1861.]

(Mexican). Fort San Juan de
Ulloa

(Mexican). Small light on N.
Point, for Mail Steamora ....

V I • • ••

12 I ....

10 I 1850
.. I 1850
6 I 1857
10 I 1852
18 I 1848

3 I 1846
13 I 1846

69
60
88

95
76

I 60 I 10 I 1852
i 75| .. I 1856
I ..|.. I,....

I 80 I 15 I ....

I •.|..|....

pi^ii ;.*;..!

.'Miim^'-k.

\ \

H^sitiyfir ^'•v-:'^i^fjMi■:'M''m | ? A' tf|. ; '-ii J4:?'*W fedStiioj*)'

IB, fto.

AFRICA.

LIGHTHOUSES.

West Coast. I7u

3 .

•« I ••••

. • I ••••
9 \ • • ••

12 I ....

10 I 1850
I .. I I860
I 6 I 1857
I 10 I 1852
I 18 I 1848

8 1846
I 13 I 1846

10 I 1852
.. I 1856

• • I ••# •

15 I ....
. . I ....

Name and Chanoter of Ught.

Lrt. N.
Long. W.

Description, See.

a .
^1

•2

Senegal
One fixed bright light

Oor^e Island
One fixed bright light

SIERRA LEONE
One fixed bright light

MONROVIA
One fixed bright light

CAPE PALMAS
One fixed bright light

CAPE COAST CASTLE
One fixed bright light

i6 0.8 I (French). Hede St Louis .... I .. | .. | fi | ....
i6 31. I I

14 39.9 I (French). In the Fort | .. | .. | 6|.,..

17 24/

8 30.
13 i8-5

(BritishV Whitf! town, 69 feet
high, or the ' -o. Gn It.
at landi , p

. . I 96 I 18 I 1849
fe^^n .. I 240 1 16 I 1855

6 19. I (Liberian). .ed
10 50. I high, on Car ^ -xo

4 22.1 I (Liberian). luwe-

7 44.3 I on the Cape . .«.

5 6.3 I (British). White tower, 46 feet I . . | 192 1 20 | 1847
I 13.9 I high, in Fort William [

high,! .. I 110 I 13 I ....

ATLANTIC ISLANDS.

BERMUDAS-

One rev. br. It., 1 min.

04 51.6

A white iron tower, 106 ft. high,
on Gibbs Hill, on S. side. Seen
all round, except between S.
48" W., and S. 52° W. ; and
also 8. 53° W. to S. 62» W. ..

• I 362 I 24 I 1846

CANARY ISLES. t; ' ?

Santa Cruz f 28 28.6 | (Spanish). Tenetifib Island ; on | .. | 36 | 5 | 1857
One fixed bright light | 16 14.9 | Mole Head

27 35.2 I Tenerifila Island. Proposed light I .. | .. | .. | ....
16 5.7 I on the Islet, 1860

Grand Canary Island | 28 7.1 I On the Mole, Pahna town...... | .. | «. | .. { 1859

15 24-8 I

Anaga

^rand
One fixed bright light

AZORES, or WEST- *

ERN ISLANDS.

St. Michabl I 37 44. I (Portuguese). At Santa Clara I .. | .. | .. | ..,,
Proposed fixed light | 24 41.2 | Fort. PuntoDelgada

•;•:■'>;«?: Wis

>» . \ ■ ,'

•'-^. s

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

'Mi

1.0

I.I

11.25

ttilSl 115

ut Biii& 12.2
Sf HA ■—
£? U£ 12.0

1.4 11.6

,*?,;,

■#■"*'■

^ ^

«?

PholDgraiAic

Sciences

Corporation

4^' ^N

,'•*'•
"^

^ %

4[^ <<^.

U WIST MAIN ITRIBT

WIUTM.NY. I4SM

(7U)l7a-4S03

» *.» • *, * • f » *>.«

■> ^ -i-vM"

4-,?-

iVjax .}^:

>-t

•^t

'!? V

SECTION in.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS, TIDES, AND CUR-
RENTS; AND ON THE DIFFERENT PASSAGES OVER THE
NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN.

1.— OF THE WINDS.

OEHEBAL BEICABKS.— (10 The stndy of the winds is the most important
branch of Marine Meteoroloff^. It has ever lieen a fovourite subject for speculation,
but man's finite powers and umited views have hitherto fiuled to ^ve us a complete
and satisfactory view, in all respects, of that vast system of aerial circulation by which
this fflobe is made fit for an habitation. Within the last ten years, however, the sub-
ject has assumed a new form, and more definite results have been arrived at ; so that
much that was before difficult to be understood, is now made perfectly demonstrable.
Still, however, doubts may be permitted as to whether the data hitherto collected and
arranged are of that exact natuia which will allow those certain deductions necessary
for a scientific axiom, and therefore, even now, we arp not in a position to assert that
thfa circulation of the atmosphere is carried on in all particulars under the systems
which are now reoogniced as correct.

But as the sailor deals not with speculation, but applies the &cts of nature to his
use, the mode in which the whole mass of the atmospnere is interchanged and mingled
is im^rtant to him only as a field of observation which he enjoys with the rest of
mankind. The present object being practical utility, the theory of the winds will be
very briefly alluded to here, leaving the reader to those numerous and voluminous
works now extant on these subjects for a more ftill elucidation of them.

(2.) As a broad and primary principle, it may be affirmed, the complete cinmlation
of the atmosphen.' by which any particle of the air has in its course, passed over every
portion of the earth's surfooe, is demonstrated by the fact tbat the air is composed
of precisely the same elementary constituents in every part of the wcrld. This fact
was expenmenially demonstrated by the French Academy of Sciences many yean
since, who had bottles of air most careftilly collected in all regions and submitted to
the most rigid analysis, which foiled to discover any difference whatever. It is mani-
fest in a natural sense also, by its Eupporting animal and vegetable life universally in
the Bome manner. If it were not so, tne air over a special region would, in the course
of ages, have become sul^ect to the emanations and mfluences of the earth it covered.
The Mune remark holds good also with the water of the ocean, equally universal in its
definite chuacteristics, and firom the same cause, as. will be shown hereafter. Tho
manner in which this is carried on is still involved in some mystery.

(3.^ In the year 1686, Edmund Halley* proposed the Theory of the Trade Winds
and Monsoons, which is now generally received as an approximation to the true
solution. He afterwarls altered his views, which were revised and extended by
George Hadiey in 1730. f The following is a brief summary of them : —

• ■ 1 yn

* Philosophical 1 aMctions, xvi. 163.

t Ibid., 1735, p. M.

176

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS, ETC.

(4.) The 8un is con8tantIy vertical over some part of the earth between ^e tropics,
and uus acne is consequently maintained at a much higher temperature than the
Kwions nearer the Poles, this heat on the earth's sur&ce is imparted to the air,
which is, therefore, displaced and buoyed up firom the surface, and the colder, and
therefore heavier, air from without glides in, on both sides, along the sur&ce; while
the displaced air, thus raised above its due level, and unsustamed by any lateral
pressure, flows over, as it were, and forms an upjper current in the contrary direction,
or towards the Poles ; which being cooled in its course, and also sucked down to
supply the deficiency in the extoi-tropical regions, keeps up thus a continual
dreulation.

Since the Equator revolves much more rapidly than the portions nearer the Poles,
it follows, that a mass of air flowing towards the Equator must be deficient in rotary
velocity, and, therefbre, unable to keep up with the speed of the new surftice over
which it is brought. Hence these currents from the Nortii and South must, as they
glide along the surface, at the same time lag or laaut back, and c/rogr upon it in the
direction oppotUe to the earth's rotation, •'.«., from East to West. Ilius, from simple
•northerly and southerly winds, they become permanent north-eatterly and amdh-
eafterkf teinth.

The lengths of the diurnal circles increase very slowly near to the Equator, and for
several de^prees on each side of it hardly change at all. It follows from this, then, that
as these winds approach the Equator, their easterly tendency must diminish ; and at
the Equator must be expected to lose tlieir easterly character altogetJier. And not
only this; but the northern and southern currents, here meeting and opposing, will
mutually destroy each other, leaving only the actions of local causes, which may lie in
one region in one way, and in another a diflbrent one.

The result of this, then, is the production of two great tropical belts of north-
easterly and south-easterly winds, while the winds in the equatorial belt which sepa-
rates {he two former should be free from any steady prevalence of an easterly
character, and should also be oomparativeiy calm. All these ooiisequenoes are agree-
able to obsMved &ct, and constitute the system of the regular treide windt.

(^6.) The constant friction of the earth upon the air near the Equator, it may be
objecterl, would, by degrees, destroy the rotetion of the whole mass \ but it is com-

Psnsated in this manner. The heated equatorial air, ritipg and flowing off toward the
oles, carries with it a rotetory velocity much greater tlum .hat of me surface over
whidi it passes in its northward and southward progress. Hp"' it will gain more
and more on the sur&ce of the earth, and assume more and x . wctterly relative

direction ; and when, at length, it necessarily returns to the ft v in its circulation,
which it must do, more or less, in all ita course, it will act on it by its friction as a
powerftd S.W. wind in the northern hemisphere, and a N.W. wind in the southrm,
and thus restore the e<|uilibrium. This is the origibi of the S.W. and westerly gales
■0 prevalent in our latitudes, and of the almost universal westerly winds in the North
Atlantio.*

■ > ' ■ ■ ■ ■■ '■ --'■ ■ ■ .1 . — — .— ...-i.l....,,.,,. ■ .1— — . I. ■■■ .1 II. I -I , .Ml 11 I

* Sir John Htrtehel gives the following note in his work, upon the origin of storms, which,
as it is most feasible, we give here ; it must be observed, that it was written before the views
and obBervationJ of Beid, Bedfield, and others, had been publiBhed. We shall advert to it
hereafter.

" It seems worth inquiry, whether humoanes in tropical climates may not arise from

Grtions of the upper ourronts prematurely diverted downwards before their relative velocity
8 been sufficiently reduced by friction on, and gradually mixing with, the lower strata ;
and so dashing upon the earth with that tremendous velocity, which gives thran their de-
structive chamctor, and of which hardly any rational account has yet beau given. Tboir
course, generally speaking, is in opposition to the regular trade wind, us it ought to be, in
conformity with this idea — ( Young' a Letturet, i. 704.^ But it by no moans follows, that tlvis
must always be the case. In general, a rapid transier, either way, in latitude, of any miiss
of air which local or temporary causes might carry »hov$ tht mnudiate reaeh of tk« frietUm
of the eartk'i turfiee, would give a fearful exaggeration to its velocity. Wherever such a
mass would strike the earth, a hurricane might aiise ; and should two such masses encounter
in mid-air, a tornado of any degree of intensity on record might easily result from their
combination." — Attronomy, p. 132. Tlie more recent views of Sir John Hcrschol will be
found in their place hereafter.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS, ETCf.

(6.) Now it will be seen, thiat by this theory the trade windg mMt near the-Eqtiator,
leaving a belt of cahns of Tarious breadth between them. According to Commander
Maury, the winds here being neutralized rise up and cross eadi other i tiie wind
bi:ougat by the S.E. trade pasnng over N.E. trade as a S.W. upper oorrent} and,
haying passed the c^dms or variables of the Tropic of Cancer, it appears.as the ordi-
nary anti-trade or S.W, prevalent wind. The chief physical &ct upon whidi this
theory is bseed is the red dust, found i^uently to tul on vessels near the Cape
VerdoB, and in the Mediterranean, where it is called scirocco dust (as ooining fix>ni the
South). This red dust was found by Ehrenberg to consist of microscopic infusoria
and organisations, whose habitat, as far as teas knotvn, is in South America. But this
arp^nment may be demurred to from the limited extent this dust fidls upon compared
with the vast area firom which it is said to be derived.

(7.^ There is another grtat di£BiCulty in the reception of this theory, in the great
breadth, in some parts, of that intervening band of calms that these supposed currents
are to cross each other. In the eastern part of the Atlantic, it is firiun 300 to. 600
miles in breadth. If this great interchange of directions were continually going On
with such a vast amount of atmosphere, we may safely conclude that the lower strata
would not be chamcterized by the calms or " doldrums" they are known by.

(8.) The more reasonable aignment, in the present state of our knowledge, is, that
the trade winds reaching this belt of calm, by Ceut the greater part of this mdi-aught
will rise on its own side, and revert towards the vole of its own denomination m a
precisely opposite direction to that by which it arnved. In the parts of the equatorial
regions, where this intervening oidm belt is much narrower, as on the East coast of
America, this crossing may take place, and the upper currents pass on towards the
poles of contrary names. At all events, this view of tiie oiroulation of the atmosphere
will satisfy our first proposition, — ^that every particle of air has been so commingled
with the rest that it produces the universality of character which is demonstrated
to exist. These theories are practically tmimportant to the stulor in his profession,
but are highly interesting* to him as a stibjept of observation and reflection.

It has been held by many that the solar heat, cimibi'^'^ with the revolution of the
eai'th, is sufficient to account for the geneit<l pnenomena of the winds ; but there are
still some difficulties in thf way of accountmg for some of the periodical winds which
are found to recur with great reg^rity. This has been reasoned for by Mr. Hop-
kins, who argues that the Trade wind at times blows towards areas of great conden-
sations t in other words, that a great rain-fiiU occasions a corresponding indraught f.
Another agent in giving the easterly direction to the Trade winds, suggested by
Commander Maury to be Magnetism ; but this subject, of the magnetism of the aur
and the influ'^^nce of the solar heat on it, is as yet hidden too much in obscurity to
draw any certain deductions therefrom.

(9.) There is one feature of the atmosphere which has been involved in some
obscurity, or, at least, has been the subject of controversy. It is the condition of
aqueous vapour, at all times present in tne air. It is a very impoi'tant question, as
upon this water-bearing property of the air, evaporation, condensation, and rain
depend, and consequentfy climate and fertility to the earth. The doubts may be
briefly stated. The eminent chemist, Dalton, demonstrated that one gas (and
aqueous vapour is such) could permoate or exist in connexion with another gas with-
out displacmg its buUi, and that water was thus difiUaed through the atmosphere
without increasing its volume. Therefore, in estimating the height of the barometer, .
account must be taken of the amount (or weight), and elasticity (or tension) of the
vapour, aud subtraetsd from the height of the mercmy, to give the true weight of the
dry air. With a dew point temperature of 87° 35' me pressure of moisture is equal

.III ■ ji -II n . .1 *Mi _ ■ II ■■■ ^ ^m T III- I

* Sao further on these subjects, Maury's " Physical Qeography of the Sea, 1800." pp. 149,
175. Sir John F. W. Hersohel, Enoy. Brit.. 18A0, xviiL 677. Captain BasU Hall, ^< Frag-
monts of Voyages and Travels," 2nd series, i. 162.

t Mr. Hopkins : " The atmospheric changes that produce Raio and Wind :" also see
•Tonmal R. Geog. Soo. 18A0, pp. 168, et seq. ^s also D. Vaughan, U.S., in Brit. Association
Ropwt, 1860, p. 41.

oEKBRAt 0Bfl«RVAisnnfl aM vmmtk ma

totiMwdgliLtof 1.^ iiidiM<tf meNorr.aDd miirtbe MiMrafllMllhnn flie 1^

ly tke barometer, u above vtated. T)iu ia the view held by Dalton,Ure,Regii«oltt

Ikniell, Sir Houy Jamea, &o.

In Ofipoaitioii to tbia, Profeaaor ?atton, of .Bombav, maintained tiiat nMnatnre ^
iutpbiee an e^nalur equivalent volvme ot air, and tinat therefbre it -wtm only ibe du^
ferenoe of their amoont whidi ahoald be applied aa a correetion, and he esiwnated Wfi
amoimt of vapour above stated to be eonaf to a nreaanre of only 0.018 of an iack oi
morcniy. But the ftnrt theory ia thougnt to'be uie moat fieaaibfiB.*

(10.) Leaving the field ct ocn^eotnre, vra ocnne to the actual oondition of the
atmosphere which covers the North Atlantic Ocean in particular, and generally the
whole earth. Itt elevation or weight is ascertained dt the buonueter, as is wd)
known. According to the decrease in t^ height of tne mercury on ascending to
flmat elevation, it la calculated that at 15 miles the air is rarefled to about 25,000
times, and at 80 or 90 a perfect vacuum exists. It presses with a mean force I4.73lbs.
per square inch, and forms one l,I25,000th part of the mass of the whole earl&. The
- Trade winds do not reach more than to 3 miles in height, and it is probable that all
the phenomena of clouds and vapours occur beneath the height of 4 to 5 miles.

(11.) If the Burfoce of the earth were evenly covered with land or water, or a com-
bination of both, the phenomena of the Trade and Anti-Trade winds would foim
i^metiical sones around the globe ; but the relative proportions are very different
in the two hemispheres, being 100 land to 150 water in the northern, and 100 to 628
in the southem.f There is a still greater contrast, if we take the horizon of London
a« a grwt circle dividing the earth into two hemispheres. It will be ihea seen, that
London is in the centse of that half which includes all the land, except Australia ;
and the other half all the water of our slobe. From this cause the line of meeting
between tiie N.E. and S.E. Trades is in uL seasons northward of the Equator in the
Atlantio ; and, from the land inflikelices on the Trade winds to the N.E. of Africa,
there is a wide space of calms, or doldrums, whose base lies against that continent,
and ito apex stretchinff toward the coast of Brazil, as is readily seen by the illustrar
tion of the Trade winds diagram, which vrill explain far better this peculiarity than
« verbal description.

(12.) The farce with which the wind blows is the chief consideration of the sailor,
in connexion with the study of the subject. This force is readily measured in a fixed
observatory, or on board a ship at anchor ; but not so when she is under sail, as it is
manifest tnat she is then apparentlv feeling less wind than is actually blowing, from
being drifted before it. mt have nad some singular accounto of some of wa fine
clipper ships scnddinff at an immense rate before a gale which has been marked as of
no extraordinary violence, while other ships, dull sailors, have been dismasted or
disabled by the niry of the same gale, from their not being able to bear away before
its great velocilr^. Therefore the recorded force of the winds met with at sea should
be subject to this qualification, — ^what are the sailing powers of the ship which has
recorded them. We have no ttandard of sea-rates for the wind as yet. Perhaps it
would add to the value of such observations if the sailing powers of all ships engaged
in adding! to our knowledge were tested when both cloae hauled and running free
upon a vnnd of known velocity.

In former times the vague terms of breeae, gale, hurricane, &c. sufficed to describe
the relative character of the wind. Tho late Sir Francis Beaufinrt devised a system
of simple notation which more exactly defined these forces, and which is now in
noivwMl usejat sea. The figures prefixed indicate the estimated character of
the wind : —

* Bee " Abstraota of Meteorological Observations by tiie Boyal Engineers, 1858, 4," by
Sir Henry James, R.E., F.R.8.

t The drv land, as £u as it is known, ia estimated to,oconpy 49,806,000 square statute
miles. If this is increased to 51 millions for the unknown pouur regions, it will allow 148
millions of square miles to be covered by tho o(svtn.—8ir J. HencM.

GENERAL 0B8ERVA110NS OK WDIDS, ETC.

BegitsDU*

(nvtnre did

^iiMtedtfa!»
tn. fandi m

aon ci the
inerallythe
, as is •wtH
scendingto
tout 26,000

larih. the
blethtttftll
dies.

r, or a com-
irould fonn
17 different
L 100 to 628
1 of London
n seen, that
b Australia;
of meeting
iiatorinthe
i. of Afdoa,
A continent,
theillustra-
iliarity than

f the sailor,

din afixed

saU, as it is

>winff, from

of the fin*

larked as of

ismasted or

kway before

sea should

-which has

Perhaps it

OGalm.

Idteeraseway.
Sf desa-ftill from 1 to2 knots.
9 Ditto 8to4knoU.
« Ditto Ato«knots.
6 With royals (" dose haul-
ed").

{Bea^fitH NbtattoH.)

6 Top gallant soils over single

reeft.

7 Two reefe in topsails.

8 Three reeft in top suls.

t Close reefed top sails and
courses.

10 Close reefiad main top safl

and reefed fore saiL

11 Storm stay sails. V

12 Hntricane. ^ '
BVom 2 to 9 being su ppose d *

" dose hauled.^'

(18.) The toind over the landw found to be generally of much less force and yelodty
than at sea, so that the Beaufort notation was found inconvenient for land purposes ;
Mr. Qlaisher, therefore, has proposed another notation for this use, whidi u now
adopted at Greoiwich, Liverpool, and indeed at most of the principal observatoiiee.
It divides the force into the numbers 1 to 6, which have been proportioned to the
Beaufort scale as foUowt : —

{Olaiaher Notation.)

1. Moderate

2. Fresh
8. Strong

Beaufort scale.

1-2J
8—4)
fi— 6)

Heavy .. (Beaufort scale

Violent. . . . (

Tremendous (

... 7-«)
-.. 9-10)
-.. 11-12)

(14.) The actual force and velocity of the wind has been calculated by Sir W. Snow
Harris, by an improvement of Lind s Anemometer, by which he foimd air moving 20
feet in a second presses on 1 square foot with a force of about 13 oz. avoirdupoiae, or
at 60 feet per second it would support a column of water 1 inch high, the pressnre
force increasing very nearly with the square of the velocity. Wiu these data the
table on the foUowing page has been calculated :—

* In addition to Qkejtffurea, showing the force of the wind, the state of the weather in to
be understood by httert, as follows : —

letttn indicating the atateofthe Weather {Beatffort XotatumS.

b
e
d
f

Blue Sky.

Clouds (detached).

Drissling Bain.

Foggy,

Oloom.

HaU,

Lightning.

m Misty (haiy).

Overcast

p Passing Showers.

q Squally.

r Bain.

s Snow.

t Thunder.

Ugly (threatening) ap-
pearance of Weauier.

Yuilnlity. Objectn at a
distance unusually vi-
able.

Wet (Dew).

Perhaps^ ■ "Son.— A bar (— ) or dot (.) under any letter augments its idgnication :— thui

ps engaced ■ f yary foggy, r heavy rain, r heavy and oontmuing rain, Ac, &o. .
mninirftee .......

ps
inning

o describe
)d a system

is now in
laracter of

8fi8,4," by

oare statute
11 aUow 148

1«2

OEN^IAL OBBBRVATIONB ON WINDS, ETa

TABLE, ikowinff the Ibfce and Velocity of the Windjivm Vght Aire to heavy Oalee,

nnd Tempeata.

Fressqre

Velocity.

in lbs. on

Square

Foot

Feet per

Miles per

Popular BescriptionB.

Second.

Hoar.

. •

0*002
0K)04

1
1*47

0-68

) Gentle airs (unappreoiable by sratiae).
{BeaufM$eale,ly ^ ~ f

O'OIS
0KW2

3
8-9

2
2-66

\ Light airs (just appreciable by ga'utt^yt
would flu the lightest nil ^ a

0043
OOM

4*5
5-28

3-8

yxiht{2).

0-071

5-87

0-090

6.6

4-6

0-100
0*112

6*98
7*34

4-75
5

Liffht breezes ; such as would fill the
lightest sails of a large ship (3).

0-130

7*89

5-38

0-162

8-8

0-228

10*4

0-200

7*6

•" ■ ^ ..'.-^ ^.

0*291

11-8

■

0*364

13-2

0-390
0-452

13-6
14-7

9*27
10

Modierate breeises, in which ships c«^

0-621

15-8

10-77

carry aU sail (4). .

0.551

16*2

0-650

17*66

0*780

19-3

0-830

20-

13*6

0-884

20-6

0-910

20-9

14-25

1-042

royals (6).

1-170

23-6

1-250

24-2

16-5

1-302
1-470

25
26-5

17
18

1 Fresh winds ; reefs (6).

1-563

27*39

18-67

1-630

Strong winds { treble reqfed tpp-

1-790

29-36

"ailaC^)*

2084
2-600

31-15
36-32

21-47
24

Oales; close reefed topsails and reefed
courses (8).

3-126

38-73

26-40

3-647

41-83

28-52

(strong gales; close reefed topsails, and

4-168

44-83

30-56

( stay sails (9).

4-689

47-44

32-34

1 ¥ \ /
/

5-200

7-800

61-18

Heavy gales and storms (10).

10-400
13-000

70-72
7907

48-2
53-91

20-800

100

68-18

26-000
31-200

111-74
122-62

76-18
83'6

Very heavy gales; great storms; tem-
pests (11).

41-600

141-30

90-34

52000
62-400

157-98
173-06

107-7
120

Tornadoes ; cyclones ; hurricanes (12).

GENERAL (WSERYATIONR ON VIia)8, STC.

%9»

Thsre u no doubt that these flg^oxes may hb open to tsoiQie doubt, at the m1ije<^ is a
difficult one, and they are siven independent of the dilferent forces exarted by aquMU»
vapour and by air. Sir Henry James has also given a table, more oom^ioatM, but
which does not very materially difier from the above, which will suffice, for the
sailor's use.

(15.) In estimating the diminiahinff pressure on the barometer during the progress
of a gale, it ir rather difficult to tmaerstand how the force which must, m some
degree, compres$ the air, and therefore make it more dense and heavy, besddes the
idea that such a force mar tend to heap up the atmosphere in some part of the area,
can riiotv a leu vtrdght oi air. There is oire view 1^011 has not been made prominent,
— ^that the horizontal force exerted by the progress of the wind may lessen its down-
ward Tertioal force or pressure in the same way tiutt a railway train in quick motion
does not deflect a brid^ as the same train would do if going slower ; or as a skater
can pass swiftly over ice that would infallibly break with nis weight when quiescent }'
or as the apparently anomalous loss of gravity in. the gyroscope when in motion.
However, these considerations have no effect on toe phenomena of a falling barometer
with a rising wind.

(16.) The alternation of the sea and land breezes in warm latitutes is an important
feature in coast navigation. Its cause is generally well understood. It is owing to
the different powers of radiation and absorption of heat poBsessed by land and water.
So that, generally, when the day temperature is highest on the land, the strongest
will be the alternating breeees. During the day the radiation of the sun's heat on
the land causes the air to expand and rise fh>m the surface, and then the sea air
rushes in to fill the void. It frequently occurs that the sur£eu» of the soU will show
a temperature of 120* under the meridian sun, and sinks to 60" or 60° during the
niffht ; while the sea, rarely havinff a h^[her temperature than '80°, and, from D(Bing'
a bad radiator, fluctuates but very little, it follows that it is alternately warmer and
coldrar than the land, and hence tke phenomena in question. The minimum tempera-
ture of the 24 hours being a little before sunrise, and the maximum about 2 p.m., the
change of these breezes occurs generdly at some little time after ^ose hours.

(17.) The windldecidedly veers round the compass according to the sun's motion,
i.e., from N. through X.E., E., S.E. to S., and so on, often maKing a complete circuit
in that direction, or more than one in succession, (perhaps occupyme many days in so
doing,) but it rarely veers, and very rarely or never makes a complete circuit in the
contrary direction. This has been shown by Professor Dove to be the direct con-
sequence of the rotation of the earth ; and, although the observation was recorded by
Lord Bacon in 1600, it is now known as Dove's Law of Oyration*

(18.) Professor Co£Bn, trova. his elaborate discussions, thinks him J authorized to
lay down, as a general description of the veinds of the northern hen Isphere, — 1st.
Tnat from high northern latitudes the winds proceed in a southerly direction, but
veer towards the west as they approach e limit ranging from about lat. 66° on the
western continent to about lat. 68 on the eastern, .whwe they become irre&ular and
disappear. The area of this zone is about 11,800,000 square miles, aid. That
farther south there is a belt of westerly vrinds, less than 2,000 miles in breadth
entirely encircling the earth ; the westerly direction being clearly defined in the
middle of the belt, but gradually disappeanng as we approach the limits on either
side. The area of this zone is estimated to oe about 26,870,000 square miles. 3rd.
That south of the zone last named the mean direction of the wind is easterly. Thb
area is estimated to contain 60,760,000 square iniles.t Professor Dov6 coutenda that
there are but two Systems, the 1st and 3rd of the foregoing.^

* When speaking of the wind veering with the sun, of coarse the shifting of the oydonio
winds in the northern hemisphere is not included.

t " Winds of the Northern Hemisphere ;" by Proftsnor Coffin, A.M. Fennsylvuiia, U.S.
" Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge," vd. vi. 1864.

t See Report, Brit Asso., 1845. See also Professor Mitchell in American Journal of
Science and Arts, vol. zix. p. 2A4. A great amount of infavmation will be found on the

GBKBBAL aBSBRVATIONS ON V/mHB, ETC;

(19.) tlM wmd rwMMM of tlw North Atlutio may be thoa doflnod t— To the noirth
of the Trapteof Caaeer u« the AnH-lhidit,* or Paamigt Wwd$, wbioh, tboodi
▼•riable, have % general N JS. tendency. South of theie ia a belt of calms and Yariaole.
winds, disliagtmihed by a high barometer, called by Commander Manry the
** CeUm itf Cancer,^ known to saUors as the <« horse latitudes." This belt variea
between 30' and 36° north, aocording to the season. South of this, and extending to
about' 8° to 5" north, but varying in its southern as in its northern limits, is the great
region of the N.B. Traikt, In the i^aoe between the Equator and this region of
Trades axe the •< IMdrumt," or calms, of the Equator ; and upon the African coast
there is a r^pidar alternation of th« winds,* similar to the Monsoons in other parts.
Ea^ of these regions will be treated of separately.

(iiO.) In the apaoes whioh seiMiate these wind systeoM those hurricanes, tornados,
typhoons, or oyuones occur, which are caused by the action of currents of air moving
in ompoaite directions } their phenomena are fiuruier controlled hv the influence of Ihe
land they wproaoh or pass over. Tbb important braaeh of tne present subject is
fidly oonsidered hermfter, but the occurrence of storms is an exceptional case in the
vast system of of atmospheric circulation we have been considering.

THE TBADE WIND.

(21.) The region of the Trade winds occupies nearly one-half of the entire sur&ce
of the globe. Item their constancy and regularity, they form by tat the most
important' part of tiie oirculatorv nrrtem of the atmosphere, although generally their
strength is inferior to manv of tuMe smaller but compensating currents which are
es^enenced in extra-tropioai regions.

(22.) The source fttnn which the ensuing ttatUUea of the various winds described,
is the extensive collection of observations recorded in the Pilot Charia oi Lieut.
M. F. Maury, U.S.N., published in 1849. This immense mass of figures has been
analyzed and placed in a graphic form by the Meteorological Department of the
Boara of Trade, under the direction of Bear-Adml. FitsBoy (Aug. 1855^. It has also
been done by the Boyal Netherlandish Meteorological Institute, which has been
foremost in advancing the eood cause oi this invertig^on. On onr Chart of the
North Atlantic Ocean, in four sheets, to which this Work especially refers, these
wind records are also arranged in a simple and comprehensive graphic form. The
observations on the Trade winds of the globe, collected in Maury s Chart, amount to
l,lfi9,S53 1 Ibr those of the North AtiantiiB, 220,000.

(23.) The Horth-MUrt Ttade ^Hnd blows over the tropical region between
lat. 3e* N. and the Equator, seldom, however, reaching these extremes. When
nniutetrupted by ff^es or hurricanes, caused bv the disturbing influences of
land or nun, it is a rair weather region that procurea for it the term of " The Lady's
QnlT* by the old Spaniards. From the difference 0.055 inches in the observed mean
baromemc pressure by the Dutch in the N.E. and S.E. Trades, between the parallels
of 0° and ^, which is 29.968 inches 'or the former and 30.023 for the latter, it is
inftixed by Capt Maury that the greater pressure in the S.E. Trades in^cates a greater

general subject in the works of Elamtz and Romme, who have also laboriously studied and
generalised the phenomena of the winds, and to whose labours much that is here said is
owing. But by far the largest collection of observations, amuured in order, is contained in
Capt Maury's " FUot Charts " before alluded to, which are weU known to all sailors.

* lliis tana, Anti-Trades, is adopted by Sir John Hersohel : it is expressive and appro-
priate. By others they have been nsmed OouHter-TViidtB, which designation may more
exactly define the upper currents o90r the Trade Winds. They have also been vasudy
eaUed " llie Variables," a term whioh is best confined to the characteristic of the huts of
oahn or shiflang winds about the Tropics.

i theBMth
th, thondi
idYsriaDle
tMxary tlw
belt vaxiM
lendiBg to
■ the great
I region of
Hcaacoaai
ttlier ports.

ijtomadoef
air moving
enceof tiie
i sdbjeotiB
caw in the

tiresur&oe

r the most

erairjrthdr

which are

! described,

ta of Lieut.

haA been

lent of the

It has also

has been

of the

ifers, these

Form. The

amount to

between
When
fluences of
rhe Lady's
irved mean
\e parallels
attier, it is

a greater

;udied and
lereaaidis
ontaiaedin
hilors.

and appro-
may more
en vagudy
e huts of

*7^^

n M'-'^'-.v ,

•i'. .. ^

i I

," . ' f

THE TRADE WIND.

:...,.S\iU

tome and ydocity* titan the N.E. Tnidea. Thia, as iaTeatigatsd bf Commander
Mamy, has heen indicated by the rate of Teaaela daily paaaing taroii^ thwn.
He has compared the sailings of 2,235 Tessels, and' finds that the nomewMd bonnd
vessels eross the Trades of the North Atlantie with the wind abeam at an average
rate of 5.6 knots per honr^ and across the Trades of the South Atlantic at an average
of 6 knots. As the latter is with the wind generally dead alt, be argues that tms
rate would be increased 2 or 24 knots with the wind on the beam, and make the
differenoe still more evident. The comparative duratimi ot each of these winds in the
Atlantic is thus given by Capt. Mauty : —

Between

N.E. Tbades.

S.E. Trades.

latitudes.

Mean
Direction.

Annual
Duration.

Mean
Direction.

Annual
Duration.

d and 5

5 10

10 15

15 20

20 25

N. •& E.
N. 46 E.
N. 47 E.
N. 46 E.
N. 43 E.

76 days
118 „
208 „
1»7 „
167 „

£. 34 8.
E. 41 8.
E. 37 8.
£. 34 S.
£. 34 8.

308 days.
329 „
305 «

258 „
163 „

Means

N. 46 E.

153 days

E. 36 8.

272 days-t

(24.) The N.E., like the S.E., Trade wind, blows over a wider area in the eastern
part of the Atlantic than on the American side, as at the meridian of 10° W. they
extend from 35° or 38° N. to 25° or 28° 8. ; while on the American side the N. limits
is 28° or 30° N. to 23° or 25° 8. : but on the Eastern side the intervening space of
calms is mudi wider. The extent and limits will be best comprehended by an in-
spection of the diagrams acyoining, which axe formed firom the tabulur statements .
drawn up by Commander Maur^ and by the Dutch Meteorological Institute. Tluy
will expuin better the various lines and fluctuations than would be done by a long
series of words.

(25.) The Northern limit of the N.E. Trade wind, as will be seen, extends on the
eastern side of the Atlantic, that is off the coast of Africa, to lat. 35° a« a mean, in
August and September, beinff then at its greatest northern extent { but it is fre-

auentiy encountered when in lat. 38°, or sometimes even at 40°. To the westward of
lie meridian of 30° the northern ed^ seldom extends northward of 33° or 34°, while
toward the Bahamas the northern luilit is 30* N. This extreme northern decimation
appears to be attained in August and September, as has been said above, when fol-
lowing the sun in its southward course it reaches its southern limits in March or
April. In January its mean limit on the eatitem side is about the Canaries ; over the
eastern half of the Atlantic m about 25° N. ; in the centre about 22° N., and on the
Bahamas it seldom vibrates to any great extent throughout the year.

* It is generally argued, that less barometric pressure indicates increased ibrce of wind,
and not the reverse, as is here argued ; but from the following note It will be seen thai
tiiese pressures are more nearly a£ke thui is stated above.

t As this table is founded on the assumption that the Equator is the divialon between
the two wind systems, instead of the parallels of 6° to 9" N., as is really the case, it cannot
be taken as a nir comparison of their rdative duration, If the parallel of A** N. be taken as
a division, the mean barometric pressure in the N-¥)« Trades is 30.057 in., and in the 8.E.
Trades 30.034 in., making the latter the least. If the winds recorded between (f ana 5* N,
be added to the B.E. I^es, it will give a mean duration of 339 days, and make the N.E.
Trades 3S0 days.

' 2 A

186

OBSEHVATIONS ON WIN

(26.) The eJLtbUt of valiiifioii btstweeii the norlheni edge of the Trade winds when
flnt enooontbred, as shown hy Maniy's Trade Wind Chuts, seems to be as mndi as
10 degrees of latitude, — a wid^ range of probability, — and in many cases thet«
Appeen from these Charts to be as much chance of meeting them in one latitade as
another. Of course this is taking into account the belt of calms and variable winds
usually (btit not always) found ou the edge of the Trades, which will be spokoi of
presently.

(27). The Southern edge of the N.E. Trade wind is limited in the eastern part by
that broad region so embarassing to the sailor known as the " doldrums," or espe-
cially during the northern summer months by a set of winds blowing towards the
(Boast of Africa, known of old as the West African S.W. Monsoon. This wedge-
shaped area, whose apex reaches in July to 40" or 45° W., extends on the African
coast at that period from 60° N. tp 16° or 17° N. To the west of this there is still a
belt of almost constant rain, " under the equatorial cloud ring," which, however, is
much narrower, and, perhaps, at times may not be encoimtered, called the Equa-
torial calms. The TVade wind is at its southerly limit in March and April, reaching
in mid ocean sometimes to 3° 8., but seldom so far as 3° N. on the E. side. It remains
there for two or three months, and then advances northward till August and Sep-
tember, when it ia seldom found south of the parallel of 9° N. ; indeed this parallel
may be taken as the mean liniit of the N.t2. Trades. This northern division of the
Trade wind is owing to the imequal distribution of land in the two hemispheres (11).

The following usefrd Table is that drawn up by the late Capt. Horsburgh, as the
limits usually found in the track gbnemlly pursued by the East Indiamen : —

TABLE, showing the Equinoctial 'Limits of the N.E. and 8.E. Trade Winds, between
the Meridians of 18 and 26 degrees West.

N.E. TRADE WIND.

S.E. TRADE WIND.

INTEBVAL
BETWEEN.

riD • area General

CEx.SES. Extremes.

In January at 3° to 10° N.

February 2 to 10 N.

March 2 to 8 —

April 2| to 9 —

Mlay 4 to 10 —

June 6^ to 13 —

Joly citoH —

AtlgUBt 11 to 15 —

September 9 to 14 —

October 7jtol4 —

November 6 to 11 —

December 3 to 7 -

Probable
Mean.

6° N.
4 —
4i_

a —

13 —

IH-

10 —

8 —

Gfeneral
Extremes.

;i=

St'

1
1
1
1
1
1

to 4° N.
to3 —
to2J —
to2J —
to4 —
to« —
to6 —
tofl —
tofi —
tofi —
tofl —
to4|~

Probable
Mean.

2f N.
ij

3 —
3 —

H -

Mean
Breadth.

(28.) The direction of the N.E. Trade wittd is an important nautical consideration.
Its mean direction in the circuit of the earth is estimated at N. 47' E., but it varies
considerably under the influence of tho land, and especially so in the N. Atlantic.
As mentioned above, the Trade wind blows much more frttm the northward to the
eastward of long 2fl°, — that is, within 400 or 600 miles of the Afirican coaat,— than it
does in the open ocean. Between the Canaries and Cape Verdea, during the northern
summer months, it blows from N.N.E. and N.E. for 66 days out of every 100.

Durinff the winter months, from January to March, the wind in the neighbourhood
of Cape Verde draws very much toward the land, or from N.W. and W. This point
will be more discussed in a later part of this Work.

(29.) In order more ftiUy to exemplifr the duration and direction of the Trade
wind the acyoining diagrams have been lolocted from tho Chart of tiie North Atlantic

) vnnda when
leas nmdias
f cases thet«
ne latitade as
ariable winds
I be spoken of

istem part by
ms," or espie-
f towards the
Thw wedg6-
1 the African
there is still a
I, however, is
led the Equa-
ipril, reaching
le. It remains

rflt and Sep-
this parallel
livision of the
[iisphere8(ll).

sburgh, as the
len: —

i|.'

,..£

n^inth, between

INTEEVAL

BETWEEN.

Mean

Breadth.

2^ degrees.

»>

»»

•1

\ "

I 11

consideration.
S., but it varies
|e N. Atlantic,
rthwru^ to the
coast, — than it
the northern
py 100.

leighbourhood
' This point

of the Trade
forth Atlantic

Diaqrams Wvsifiih'ruf //*#■ difei-h'nn of

THE N. E. TRADE WIND,

/-i.V p IXI

' . !

FIC. I

ihinit the
(ttfifVrrdf H o

F 16. 2.

Lon:.^L40"W.

V CAUdS •.■-■•-'•
'i^ Win.- li /«f »t:.

r- Sum.-8« .^

* ^ kuL 4 7 •" -• ^

.■■fj. yy

•"=;•. *»t-»

FIG. 3.

/^
M'

.^''

'-' CALMS •;•■■'■"
A \Wb._ I t^ V ,

'■>. .•'<% •

^.- ... ,,« '. ,-r

FIG. 4

J-, Stun- 1 I ^

\. A.t. 3 . ^'"^v^

nc. 6.

J- c A L n 5 ',:■:>■

" w.n_i- /r» :. r:rr—

^. Sipr .. • 7 . J :|;'-':"'.ri.i;. ."".■;.:

Sum . 1 . .^

»ut_4i •'■>>-^-.^

FIC. 6.

Si'Ut/l ••t'.hlUiiUitl,,

CALMS V- ■ '
. 1, " Win.. « 7 y«» t — --— —

Sum ,10 . .r.- .

<■#•- r

Clir ittn'tt/i r*i>resnil wi'icK /'/fiiiiuf fiit'ifl Mi iftihi
.laii Aui

(«l»r ' • .I.I.W

»(.«ii/i'C Aut

4* >9 M '« M W iM

>«!.' '..^^—wLiI I II I I Hi

if 10

M '0

H H kAvi*" . tor I',

T^^ TE^BE ymsip.

Ocean. They will sb'^ ^lie particulars of the wind between the parallels of 10° and
20' N. ; that u, iu it ua ati-ength of the N.E. Trades. They have been adapted
from Mavry^R Filoi. .uarts, as appeared before (22), and will show the per
oentage of windd from ^ny quarter in each of the four calendar seasons ; and also the
afnpunt per cent, of calms enccuntered. The plate will explain the different arrows,
indicatinig the seasons, whiclT are supposed to represent winds blowing toward the
centre of the circle, because the winds take their name from the quarter ^om whence
they come. Their length is proportioned to the duration or frequency, according to
the scale attached ; so that by ajmlying the compasses to any one of the apows it
will give, according to the aoale, the amount of wind per cent, for that, direction.
These arrows are given for 16 points of the compass, omitting the "by" points; and
in each season these arrows altogether make up ^ length of 3 incites, l^t of the
scale giTen.*^ In the centre of each diagram is given the amoimtper cent, of ealmt
encountered in the respective seasons. As the /orc« of the winds is not given in thf
Pilot Charts this register of the calms is the more important, as it is thjB only scale
we can apply to the force of this wind; as, by analogy, we may arg^e that where
calms preuominate there also do light and baf&mg winds, and the reverse.

_ (30.) An analysis of the wind-roses in Capt. Maury's Chart, from which these
diagrams are constructed, will give the following figures as the prevalence and
direction of the winds along the main strength of the nTE. Trades in tne N. Atlantic.
It must be preniised, however, that these figures, as well as the data from 'v^ch they
are derived, will give only a general view of the phenomena likely to be encoimterea,
and the chances per cent, that a ship will have of meeting with similar winds or
calms. The figures in these columns give the number of days (or observations) thj9
wind blows in each hundred, from the respective directions : —

Fig. 1. — In the neu/hhourhood of the Cape Verde Islands.

Between

N. &E.

E. &S.

S.&"W.

W.&N

Mean.

Frequent.

"Winter
Spring
Hummer
Autumn

73
76
70
63

12
18
U
22

10
4
4
6

N.E.

N.N.E.

N.E.

E.N.E.

N.E., N.N.E.

N.N.E.

E.N.E.

1.1
1.8

8.5
4.7

Fig. 2.— Between Lots. 10* and 20* N., and Lottos. 30° and 40° W.

"Winter

E. bvN.JN.

E.N.B.

East

2.6

Spring

East

Suuimer

E.N.E.

N.E. to E.

6.8

Autunm

L B. by N.

East

fi.

* Thoro is one remark which it is nooessary to make here renpccting these wind observa-
tions (220,000 in number). They have been taken from a vaat quantity of different loa-
boolcH, whoso remarkB are not made with that definite accuracy necessary for aoientino
procision. A nlight inspection of the fiffures given on tlio dia^am, or of the Board of Trade
Chiirta, will show Uiat ui those data the direction of the wind is looHely and indefinitely
givun throughout. ThuH, a wind between N. and E. is set down as a N.E. wind, &c., &o.,
and not ho often as a N.N.E. or E.N.E. as roust really occur. Consequently, the arrows
roproHonting those principal or curdinid pointn are longer than they ought to be, and the
intormiidiuto ones shorter ; in fact, they form a zig-^ng or irregular curve around the centre i
whereas it is mnnifost that this curve should bo soniowhat syrnmotrical, and that the wind
blows from the intermodiato points in some regular ratio to those on either side of it. Until
wo got more exact recuiHls atldod together in great numbers, as has been done in the Riot
Chtuis with these -.mperfoct logs, it is pkinly Uttile to draw any precise ov rofined conclusions
from their tonohinR. This is not said to underrate thoir value. To the ■idlor, who only
requires ». Kouerolly exact knowledge of the subioct, they teach as much almost as he
roquiros to know us to the direction of the wind. Tho/orM is still a dosidorutum.

188

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

-Af^^: -fj^A

Txg. 3.—JBetween Latt. 10° and W N., and Longt* 40° and SfiKW.

V,S*f.l7'-'

Between

N. & B.

E> ok St

S.&W.

W.4N

Mean.

Frequent.

Oalntf.

Winter

oimuQer
Autuinn

60
70
63
fiO

;^6

26
29
34

4
4

6
A

4
2

N.E. 1 E.

N.E. by E.

N.E.byE.fE.

N.E. i E.

x7>E«
N.E.
N.E.
N.E.

1.7
0.6
0.
3.1

Fig. A.— Between Lata. W and 2<f N., and Longs. 5(f and W Wi *^*^'- *•*

Winter

N.E.byE.
N.E.by£.iE.

E.N.E.

N.E.

1.6

Spring

N.B.

Autumn

N.E., E.N.E.
N.E.

1.1

Summer

N.E.byE.fE.

Fig. 5. — In the East part of the Caribbean Sea^ near the Windward Islee.

Winter

^^u^-

East.

• 1.

Spring

0.7

Summer

East.

0.3

Autumn

E. by N.

»»

4.1

Fig. 6. — In the West part of the Caribbean Sea, South of Jamaica, 8^0.

Winter

E. by N.

N.E., E.

6.7

Spring

E. by N.

E.N.E.

2.9

Summer

10.

Autumn

E.N.E.

N.E., E.

9.6

(31.) In examining the figures in these tables, and the illustrative diagrams, it will
be seen by Fig. 1, that the wind about the Cape Verde Islands, or that part of the
Atlantic most frequently crossed by vessels from Europe, that the mean oireotion gf
the Trade wind is to l^e northward of N.E. ; and further, that calms and light ojrs
are more prevalent than fiuther to the wMtward, especially in the summer |md
autumn months, July to December, in the former season. It has always been
held that the wind draws more to the eastward as you get to the westward of the
usual crossing of the Equator, and this an inspection of Pig. 2 will verify, when it
u seen that the mean direction is South of E.N.E., and tuit the oolnUf yidng the
year round, are less frequent. . ;, :,> .,.,, .. ',., ,

Whether the Cape Verde Archipelago has on influence in thus oavfaig the Trade
to assume a more easterly direction to the westward cannot very well be determined ;
but it is certain that this E.N.E. direction is not maintained oetween longitude 40^
and the West Indies, as Figs. 3 and 4 show that winds hold persistently to the N.E.,
or a little to the S. of it, although winds to the northward of N.E. are very rare. It
is probable, also, that the winds recorded ftom. the other directions are exceptional.^

The easterly direction of the Trade wind in the Caribbean Sea will oe readily
noticed. It will be further remarked on in the observations on the winds of the West
Indies hereafter.

(32.) The calendar seosons of northern latitudes are hero taken as the quarters of
the year. In the American Charts these seasons are made to include the month
before the usual reckoning : thus, Winter begins with December ; Spring, with March,
&c. Perhaps the latter mode of division would be rather more applic^le to the tro-
pical phenGinena than that here choien, because it appears that ttie changes in the
inter tropical seasons (to which, however, the terms Winter, Spring, &c., arc not

rOE TRADE WIND.

Oalmfl;

1.7
0.6
6.
3.1

r. 'mm

1.6
2.
1.1
3.

• 1.

o.r

0.3
4.1

6.7
2.9
10.
0.6

abplicable) seem rather to coincide with the American calculation. But as theie
changes are certainly^ not simultaneous in the northern latitudes, and, as including
such a difference would involre some conftision, tho ordinary terms used to desiffnate
European seasons is here adhered to as being readily comprehended and sufficiently
exact.

(33.) The foUowiuffsummary of Trade winds was given by Commander Mauiy in
connexion with his "Wind and Current Chart" :—

*' There is a marked diffarence in the prevailing direction of the wind, not mly
according to the season of the year, but also occorcung to Afferent parte of the ocean,
including even those parte wmch are between the same parallels of latitude, but in
different longitudes.

" As a general rule it may be remarked, Ist, that in the North Atlantic the nearer
to the coast of Africa and the Equator, the more the so-called N.E. Trade winds haul
to the South.

" 2nd. That to the West of Ion. 46», between 20° and S(f N., the N.E. Trades blow
much more steadily in May, June, July, and Sepliember, than they do the rest of the
year ; and that during the other months, particularly in March, ^hey blow between
these parallels nearly alike from all pointe of the compass.

" 3rd. That between lat. 15" and 20" N. they are most variable ; West of Ion. 36°
in the months of September, October, and November ; while to the East of 30°, between
the parallels, they are most variable in February, March, April, and October.

« 4th. That between lat. 10° and 15° to the West of 35°, they are steadily between
E.N.E. and S.E., except in July, August, September, October, and November, when
they are more variable, being most variable in the three montes first named. To the
East of 35° W., between these pandlels, they may be said to lose their trade character
during the months of July, August, Septemoer, and October, particularly in August
and September, when they blow Nearly dike firom the four quarters. Calms, too, ar«
more frequent here in these months.

" 5th. That between the Equator and 10° N., to the East of Ion. 30°, the winds
assume a new feature. It may be said, almost literally, that in this part of the ocean
they uniformly blow, when they blow at all, during the months of July, August, and
September, ftt>m some point between S.E. and W. They blow most between S. and
WTS.W., and very rarely from any point between N. and E.S.E. To the West of this
meridian, during the same months, they blow most between S.E. and N.E., inclining
more and more to the North as you go West. These arc the months in which the
winds vary most in this part of the ocean." ' , , .> . >

T'T'JIO 1»'" <»l;

To the foregoing general remarks the following, respecting particular localities
witUn the scope of the Trade wind, are added. Further appucation of them will
occur in the Instructions for making passages, &e.

(34.) WIHDS OV THE ATLAHTIC ISLES. — ^The winds upon and near the
different islands in the Atlantic Ocean are verr variable and uncertain, especially
where the land is high and irregular. In general, regular sea and land breeses alter-
nately prevail ; the sea-breeze by day and the land-breeze by night, as the land is
alternately heated and cooled : but tne direction of these breezes is varied by the
quality and figure of the land, and other local circumstances. If the land be very
high, it generally intercopte tiie prevailing wind, and so affecte the air as to produce,
on the lec-Hidc, cither a calm, a gentle breeze in an opposite direction, or a Kind of
eddy, which is sometimes very tit)ublesome to shipping. Such is the case under the
western part, of Madeira, and to leeward of the Canary Islands ; the Orand Canary
being so nigh as to stop the current of the N.E. wind, which prevails there ; and on
the eastern side there is a calm, or a gentle breeze from S.W.

The calms and eddy winds, occasioned by the figure and height of the Canaries,
extend from lU to 3a leagues beyond them to the S.W., according to the height of

isa

OBSEBVATIQNS GJf Wm>».

liie respsctive island The hwadaxy of the oalnw may be sera: fw, within them,
the water is smooth } without them ia the regplar nnduktion of the sea, cavaed by ihe
general wind} and, at the edge of them, the winds, by setting in opposite 4ixectionB,
pDoduee a breaking of the waves, 'With a fpam, like the billows on a rocky s1um4> jupf^
beneath the sorfioce of the ocean.

From a conddevation of the partioolara now described, the cause of those opnioas
dews which &11 in the night, on the islands, &o., situated with^ the tnmics, wul be
amarent. For, as the great power of the son b^ day causes an extxaordinwryerapo-
saaon of Ihe ocean, so, m the night, the exhalation, ceasing to retain the same de^Vf
fit levity acquired ttcm. the heat of the* sun, becomes, by the absence of the power
which produced it, so dense and heavy as again to fall back to the earth. The air, at
the same time, cooling, b^ the same cause, is also a£fected by the descending moisture,
4ild thqs acquires an {^ditional tendency to increase the laud-b^wjse.

(35.^ WEST nraiES IN GENERAL.— The following description of the winds
prevaiiinff over th»w regions, in the different seasons, has heea extracted chie^y fix>m
Captain Livingston's translation of the Derroterode laa Anttilastor Spanish Directory
ibr the West uidies, now included in the Coiomlnan Navigator.

On the eastern coasts of America, and an^ong its islands, the course of the general
easterly or Trade-wind is \minterrapted, though subject to some mo'lificatlons in
direction and force. At a short distance from the land the sea-breeze calms at night,
and is replaced by the land-breeze : this variation happens every day, unless a strong
wind prevails from the northward or southward ; the first of these being experienced
from October to May, and the second in July, Auffuat, and September,

The general easterlv wind, of the tropical renons, is felt on the coast of Ouyani^
and on the coasts of the Colombian fndMexioan Beas, but with variations which may
be daiominated diurnoff and annual. The diurnal period is that whidi the aea-breete,
causes, and which strikes the coast usually at an angle of two points, less or more
aocoirding to the locality and other circumstances i and then the land-wind, which,
coming from the interior, always blows off shore. The sea-breeze comes on at about
nine or ten in the forenoon, fmd continues while the stm is above the horizon,
increasing its force as that luminary augments its altitude, and diminishing in a
similar proportien, as the sun's altitude decreases. Thus, when the sun is on the
meridian, t^ sea-breeze is at the maximum of its strength ; and at the time that the
sun rMiiches the horizon this breeze has, perceptiblj, c^ised. The land-breeze com-
mences before midnight, and continues until the rismg of the sun \ sometimes longer.
A space of some hours intervenes between the land-breeze ceasing and the sea-breeze
commg on, during which there is a perfect calm.

The annual ]»eriod of the Trade- wind here is produced by the proximitv or distance
of the sun, which occasions the only two seasons known in the tropics, tne rainy and
the dry seasons. The first is when the sun is in the tropic of Cancer, and heavy rains
with loud thimder are prevalent. In this season the wind is generally to the south-
Wiurd of East, but interrupted by frequent calms, yet it occasionally blows with force,
and obscures the atmosphere.

When the sun removes to the tropic of Capricorn the dry season commences, and
then the Trade-wind, which is steady at N.E., is cool and agreeable. At this season,
N. and N.W. wiitds are sometimes found, blowing with much force ; and, indeed, in
some degpree, they regularly alternate with the general wind, as they are more fre-
quent in Novebiber and December than in February and March.

In the change of the seasons there is a remarkable difference :^ for in April and May
no change is experienced in the atmosphere, and the weather is, in general, beanti-
JhiUy fine ; but in August, September, and October, there are usually calms, or very
light winds : and dreadful hwiioanes, in these months, sometimes render the naviga-
tion perilous. From these perils, however, are generally exempted the Island Trini-
dad, the coaata of Colombia (lato Terra Firma), the Bays of Darien and HonduraB.
and the Bight of Vera Cruz, M'hich the hurricanes seldom reach. In the space of sea

;%.

THE TRADE WIND.

3f»l

between the neater AntiUas* and the cdast of Colombia, the general N.E. or Trad^
-wind regfularly prevails ; but near the shore local peculiarities are found.

(36.) It has been remarked, by Captain F. Chamier, of the British Navyj that
*' about Babbados and the Windwabd Islands, from Tobago to Barbuda, the wind
will be found to Veer more to the northward in the early part of the year, than in the .
months of June, July, and August. In the mtnie northerly islands, as Dominica,
Montserrat, Antigua, Xevis, &c., the wind, in the erenings of January, February, and
Mairch, T#ers round to about N. or N.N.E. ; blows fremi in squalls ; and« (rom the
extensive space of ocean, over which it travels, becomes cool and very refreshing. Thb
thermometer, even in English Harbour, Antigua, in the above months, at eight o'clock
p.m., I never saw above 76°. In this season of the year the sickness of the hot
months is no longer experienced ; the general lassitude of the mornings and noons of
JiUy and August seems forgotten ; and no man who visited these isluids during the
first three months of the year would believe that the change of seventy or eighty
days could make such an amazing difference in the look, as well as in the energy, of
atie inhabituits of the Windward Islands. In the chan^ of seasons, from wet to dsft
a great difference is experienced ia the winds. In April and May tiie atmosphere is,
in general, clear, and fine weather prevails ; but in August, September, and October,
calns, or very light winds, are not uncommon, and strong hurricanes blow in theM
months.

At the Obeater Antillas the sea-breeze constantly prevails by day, and the
land-breeze by night. These land breezes are the freshest which are known, and
assist much in getting to the eastward or remounting to windward, which, without
tiiem, would be almost impossible. At the Lesser Antillas, as Dominica, Martiaique,
St. Luda, &c., theie are no land-breezes.

(37.) JAMAIOA. — At JAMAICA the air is, in most places, hot and un&vouraUe
to European constitutions } but the cool sea-breezes, which set in every morning,
render the air more tolerable : and that upon the high grounds is temperate, pure,
and cooling. It lightens almost every night, but wimout much thunder : neverthe-
less, when the latter happens, it is very terrible, and>roars tremendously.

On the northern side of the island the sea-breeze from the south-eastward comes on
in the morning and gradually increases until noon, when it is strongest : at two or
three in the anemoon its force diminishes ; and, in general, it entirely ceased by five
o'clock. About eight in the evening the land-breeze begins : this breeze extends to
the distance of four leagues to the southward from the island. It increases until
midnight, and ceases at about four in the morning.

The sea and land-breezes are more r^ular than oti|erwise from the latter part of
January until May. In the middle of May the sw-breeze generally prevails filnr
several days and nights, especially about the time of roll and change of^ the moon ;
and thus tney continue throughout June and part of July ; frt)m tlmt time the sea-
breeze diminishes, varies, and veers roimd to S. by W., or S.S.W., with frequent
calms. August, September, and October, are the hurric^e months, in which there
generally are strong gales of wind, with much rain.

In December, January and Februarv, when the North winds predominate, their
force checks the sea-breeze. The southern coast is that which, of course, is least
exposed to these winds, being sheltered, in a great measure, by the mountains. When
combined with the land-breeze they render the air very cold and imheolthy.

During the months of July and Augiist the sea-breeze about the island generally
blows impetulously, and in frequent squalls. At this season vessels bound hence to
Europe would have the most advantageous passage through the Strait and Stream of
Florida ; but in October northerly winds frequently extend over all the Bahamas,
Cuba, and, for some time, on the North side of Jamaica ; but the current of air ii
forced upward by the mountains of the latter, and its strength is spent in the heights.
In seasons when it is more impetuous, it rushes through the windings and defiteiB of

* Cuba, Jamaica, Hajrti, and Porto^Rioo.

192

OBfiERVATIONS ON WINDS.

fhe monntainfl upote the northern cottst, particularly in the neighboarhood of King-
■ton, and has been known to oontinne for some days.

Durii^ th;:) winter, the land-breese is nunre general off the shores than in sonuner:
it sometunes continues throughout the day as well as night} and westerly winds |^m-
▼ail over all the space between Jamaica and Cuba, and even to the Island of Hayti or
St. Domingo. They have been experienced fh>m Port-Boyal, through Hbe Wiimward
Channel { but this is not generally the case.

In November, southerly >/inds prerail on the South side of the island, and have
been known to extend firom the Mosquito shore, whence vessels have arrived in five
or six days that might, at other times, have been as many weeks, when bc«ting against
the sea-breeie. The southerly winds are generally fiaint ; nor do they come upon the
land until it be heated by the sun, and are often expelled by a firesh land-breese so<m
after mid-day, which abates in a few hours.

The return of the'sea-breese, filling sooner or later in Autumn, is gradual ; first
approaching at the East end, then advancing a little ; and, in some years, it reaches
Morant Pomt fourteen or twenty days before it is felt above Kingston. It also blows
for a week or two later on the East end of the island than at Kingston ; and has been
known, in some years, to prevail there in the day time during the whole time it was
nnfelt at the foomer place.

(38.) The lU^ba^wff ft Tf1fr fi<l f are all within the influence of the Trade-winds.
Tnieir lowness, of course, exempts them ficom the regular land wind, but in the
mmuner season a light breese fraquently comes firom the Florida shore in the nif^t,
and reaches the wMtem side of the Little Bahama bank, but no fiurther. At this
period the wind genendly prevails to the southward of East, and the more so as their
north-west extreme is approached ; the weather is then very variable, and squalls
rush down with great violence, accompanied with heavy rains and an oppressive
atmosphere. They are within tiie sone of hurricanes, and a year seldom passes with-
out their being visited by a heavy gale at least, from the S.r^., which iimicts serious
damage both on shore and at sea.

In the winter months, from about November to the middle of March, t]ie Trade
wind is frequently interrupted by N.W. and North winds. In December and January
this may .be expected almost weekly. Previously to this change the wind ¥^11 draw
round to the South and S.W. About 24 hours after, or less, dark masses of clouds
will be seen rising firom the westward, and in a short time the wind will rush down
suddenly from that quarter with the force of a double or triple-reefed top-sail breeae.
It will soon veer round to the N.W. and North with clear weather, and remain
between these points two or three days. It will then haul gradually to the N.E.,
perhaps with increased force, ijboompanied by heavy squalls, and wear itself out at
East in the course of a few days. The barometer is scarcely any guide.

(38.J Among the local winds are to be ranked the Batamos, violent gusts which
blow nom the land on the South side of Cuba, and are so termed firom being felt more
severely off the Bight of Sayamo or Buena E$peranza, than off any other part of the
coast.

When heavy and dense clouds gather over the mountains, a Bayamo blast may be
expected : after this, the surest prognostic is the thunder, which invariably precedes
the gust : it is, therefore, advisable to take in all sail with the ^7«atest expedition, so
soon as the first or most distant clap of thunder is heard, the wind following it almost
immediately. Fortunately, however, these dreadfiil squalls are of short duration ;
but, as a repetition of them firequently occurs at intervals of half an hour or an honr,
great attention is necessary, especially during the night, to prevent the ship's being
unprepared ; as it is almost certain tliat, if she were overtaken by one of these squalls
whilst under sail, she would either upset or lose her masts.

These sudden tempests are attended with sheet and forked lightning, vivid in the
extreme; and the flwshes, following each other in quick succession, have the mo-
mentarr effset of illuminating every object, and leave behind them a sort of blue
indescHbabie aupesfaucei the sea is wuiteneu wiia lOoin, and the rain fails m
toirents, lurpasting any, perhaps, witnessed in other regions ; for it appears as if the

THE TRADE WIND.

Vf9

clotids had opened their atore of waters to deluxe the earth : in foot, we cannot betUrir
ddsotibe the extreme heaviness of the shower, man by giyinffihe sailor's observation
on it, natnely, that it " oomes down by buckets full. The^ayamo sqnall, however,
Although the most awAil c^ any in the Caribbean Sea, and oreatinff much anxiety to
those eaAosed to his fiiry, is^ grand and sublime.* — Lieuieimnt £van8, " Revisi<m Of
Oeographio Terms," p. 107.

(40.) On the C!oasts of Guyana, the Derrotero a^ain continues, there are no land-
breezes, nor more wind than is generally experienced between the tropics. In
January, February, and March, the winds here blow fix»m North to E.N.&., and the
weather is dear. In April, May, and June, the wiads are from E. to S.E. In July,
Augttst, and September, there are calms, with tornadoes firom Solith and S.W. ; and
in Ootobei*, -November, and December, there are cbntinued rains, while the sky is, in
general, obscured by clouds. In the dry season, which is firom January to June, the
heat is very great ; and in the wet season, from August to November, rains and
thtmder'are constant and violent.

On the Coasts of Cumana and Caraccas, to Cape la Vela, the breeze follows the
regular course ; but from that cape to Cape San Bias the general wind alters its
d£ecti<« ; for it blows from N.E. or N.N.E., excepting in the months of March,
April, May, and June, when it comes to E.N.E., and is wen so uncommonly strong
as to render it necessary for vessels to lie-to. These g^les, which are well known to
mariners, extend frtmi about mid-channel to within 2 or 3 leagues of the coast, where
they become weak, especiallv at night. On this coast, about the Bat of Nioaraoda,
are westerly winds, which the pilots, of that country call Vendavalea (rainy vdnds),
in tlus months from July to December ; but these wmds never pass the parallel of 13*
N., nor do they blow constantly, but alternate with the sea-breeze.

Upon the Mosquito Shore, Honduras, and Eastern Coast of YucataK, the
' general winds or breezes prevail in February, March, April, and May ; but, during
the fii-st two of these months, they are occasionally interrupted by Norths. In June,
July, and August, the winds here are from the eastward and westward of South, with
tornadoes and calms. In September, October, November, Decembei, and January,
they are from the northward or southward of West, with frequent gales from W.S.W.,
and North.

On the TfoRTHERN and Western Coasts of Yucatan, between Cape Catoehe and
Point Fiedros or Desconocida, and thence to Campeche, there is no other than the
N.E. or general wind, interrupted by hard Norths m the season of them ; and, about
the end of April, tornadoes commence from N.E. to S.E. These tornadoes ^nerally
foim in the afternoon ; continue about an hour; and, by nightfall, the serenity of the
atmosphere is re-established. The season of the tornadoes continues until September,
and in all the time there are sea-breezes upon the coast, which blow from M.N.W. to
N.E. It has been remarked that, as the breeze is more fresh, the more fierce is the
tornado, especially from June to September. The sea-breezes come on at about eleven
of ^ iisky ; and at night the wind gets round to E.N.E., E.S.E., or S.E., so that it
may be, m some degree, considered as a land-breeze.

On the Coast of the Mexican Sea, from Vera Cruz to Tampico, the breeze firom
E.S.E. and East prevails in April, May, June, and July; and at night the land-
breeze comes off from South to S.W. : but if the land-breeze is from the N.W., with
rain, the wind, on the day following, will be from North, N.N.E., or N.E., particu-
larly, in August and September : these vrinds are denominated, in tiie cotmtry, Vientoa

*' fl Pi!^ ■ ■ ' ..III

* The winds on the S. coast of Cuba, when the Trade is not blowing steadilv, have a
remarkable rotary motion following the course of the sun, according to I3ove s Law of
Gyration (17). lliuB, in the evening, the wind comes off the land about North; by day-
light it wiU be N.E. ; at 8 a.m. E.N.E. ; at noon E.S.E. ; at 2 p.m. South ; at 4 p.m. S.W. ;

steady, eRpocially in th« night.

^fl

194

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

de Cabeza o Vendanaka (head yriaia or rainy winds) ; they are not strong, nor do they
raise the sea : with thenii therefore, a vessel may take an anchorage as well as with toe
general breeze ; but they impede ji^tting out, for which the land-breeze is required.
The Viento8 de Cabeza, or h^id-winds, reach to about 20 or 30 leagues from the coast*
at which distance are found those at East and E.S.E.

(41.) From the middle of September imtil the month of March caution is necessaij
in making Vera Cruz, for the Norths are then very heavy. The narrowness of this
harbour, the obstruction formed by the shoals at its entrance, and the slender shelter
it affords from the Norths, render an attempt to make it, during one of them, ex-
tremely dangerous, for it will be impossible to take the anchorage. The following
description of the winds here has been written by Bon Bemar io de Orta, a captain
in the Spanish Navy, who has been captain of the port, a,pd who surveyed it.

Although in the Mexican Sea it cannot be said that there is any other constant
wind than the general breeze of this region, yet, from September to March, the North
winds interrupt the general course, and, in some degree, divide the year into two
seasons, wet and dry, or of the Breeaea and Northa : the first, in which tne ^breezes are
settied, is from March to September ; and the second, in which the Norths blow, is
fivm September to Mai-ch. For greater clearness, we shall explain each separately.

(42.) The Norths. — The first of the Norths is regularly felt in the month of
September ; but, in this month and the following one, October, the Norths do not
blow with much force. Sometimes it happens that they do not appear ; but, in that
case, the breeze is interrupted bv heavy rains and tornadoes. In November the
Norths are established, blow with much strength, and continue a length of time,
during December, January, and February. In these months, after they begin, they
increase fast ; and in four hours, or a little more, attain their utmost strength, witn
which they continue blowing for forty-eight hours ; but afterward, though they do
not cease for some days, they are moderate. In these months the Norths are obscure
and north-westerly, and they come on so frequently that there is, in general, not
more than four or six days between them. In March and April they are neither so
fluent, nor last so long, and are clearer, but yet they are more fierce for the first
twenty-four b'^urs, and have less north-westing. In the interval before November, in
which, as we ^u,\e said, the Northa are established, the weather is beautiful, and the
general breeze blows with great regularity by day ; the land-breeze as regularly by
night.

There are various signs by which the coming on of a North may be foreseen :
such are, the wind steacty at South ; thf> moisture of the walls, and of the pavements
of the houses and streets ; seeing clearly the Peak of Orizaba and the Mountains of
Perote and Villa Rica, with the cloud on those of St. Martin, having folds like a white
sheet ; the increase of heat and of dew ; and a thick fog, or low scud, flying with
velocity to the southward : but the most certain of all is the barometer ; for this in-
strument, in the time of the Norths at Vera Cruz, does not vary more, between its
highest and lowest range, than 0*8 ; that is to say, it does not nse higher than 30*6
inches, nor fall lower than 29-8 inches. The descent of the mercury predicts the
Norths ; but they do not begin to blow the moment it sinks, which it always does a
short time before the Norm conies on : at these times lightnings appear on the
horizon, especially from N.W. to N.E. ; the sea sparkles ; cobwebs are seen on the
riggring, if by day : with such warnings trust not to the weather, for a North will
in&lliDly come on.

This wind generally moderates at the setting of the sun ; that is, it does not retain
the same strength wmch it had from nine in me morning to three in the afternoon,
unless it commence in the evening or at night, for then it muy increase. Sometimes
it happens that, after dark, or a little before midnight, it is found to be the land-
wind, from the noithward and westward ; in which case, should it get round to the
southward of We&t, the North will be at an end, and the general breeze will, to a
certainty, come on at its regxilar hour : but, if that does not happen at the rising of
the sun, or afterward, and at the turn of the tide, it will return to blow from the
North, with the same violence as on the day before, and then it is called a Norte de

GULP OF MEXICO, &c.

The Norths also sometimes conclude by taking to the northward and eastward,
ivhioh is more certain ; for if the wind in the evening sets to N.E., although the dn^'
remain covered the day following, but by night the hind-breeze has been firom the
northward and westward, the regular breeze will surely ensue in the evening, good,
weather succeeding and continuing for four or six days ; the latter period being the
longest that it will last to, in the season of the Norths : but, if the wind retrograde
from N.E. to N.N.E. or North, the weather will be still unsettled^

Examples are not wanting of Norths happening in May, June, July, and August*
at which times they are most furious, and are cafied Nortes del Htteao Colorado ; the
more moderate are called Choeolateroa, but these are rather uncommon.*

(43.) The Wet Season, or Season of the SreezeSf is firom March to. September ; the
breezes at the end of March, and through the whole month of April, as already
explained, are, firom time to time, interrupted bv Norths, and are fixnn E.S.E., very
firesh ; the sky sometimes clear, at other times obscure. At times these touch firom
8.E., and continue all night, without giving place to the land-breeze, which prevails,
in general, everr night, excepting when the North wind is on. The land-breeze id
fireshest when the rains have begun.

After the sun passes the zenith of Vera Cruz, and until he returns to it, that is,
firom the 16th of May to the 27th of July, the breezes are of the lightest deacriptioh,,
almost calms, with much mist or haze, and slight tornadoes. After that time the
pleasant breezes firom N.W. to N.E. sometimes remain fixed.

From the 27th of July to the middle of October, when the Norths become esta-
blished, the tornadoes are fierce, with heavy rains, thimder, and lightning : those
which bring the heaviest winds are fi'om the East, but they are also those of the
shortest duration.

In the Season of the Breezes the total variation of the barometer is 0*4 ; the greatest
ascent of the mercury is to 30-36 inches, and its gn^atest decent to 29*96 inches. The
thermometer in July irises to 87°, and does not fall to 82|° : in December it rises to
BOf °, but never falls below 66|°. This, it must be understood, was ascertained in the
shade, the instrument being placed in one of the coolest and best ventilated halls in
the castle.

In the mpnths of August and September, rarely a year passes without hurricanes
near Florida and the Northern AntiUas ; but to Vera Cruz, or any part of the coast
thence to Campechfi, they never arrive ; all that is felt being the heavy sea, which
has arisen in the higher latitudes. Hurricanes begin to the northward and eastward ;
and, although they do not always g^ round the same way, yet, in general, they next
go to the southward and eastward, with thick squally weather and rain.

* From the late Lieut. John Evan* (a), B.N. (a gentleman to whom we were indebted for
many valuable commtmications), we received the following description of a N^orth in the
Mexican Sea, which occurred in March, 1828 : —

" We had observed, during our run over the Catoohe Bank, a very extraordinary white
hazy-like appearance, very distinct from the common fog, haze, or mist ; this was seen prin-
cipally in the ncrthem quarter, and attracted much notice ; the air, at the same time,
' breathing gently at SouUi,' and the sympiesometer falling unusually low, gave us strong
indications of an approaching North. On the 15th there appeared on the sky only a few
small cumuli and dark strati; in the morning the air was very light frova. the South, and was
BO warm, or rather hot and oppressive, that, like the sirocco, it affected the breathing of some
of us. At ten a.m. it changed to the N.E. with fine weather, the wind gradually freshening :
at sunset the cumuli changed into dark nimbus, of a deep purple, edged with a bronze colour :
from these clouds proceeded squalls with rain, the wind veering from N.E. to N.N. W., after
which it cleared up, the clouds aU dispersed, and at eight p.m. a fresh North came on, with
a rapidly rising sea (which a short time before had been perfectly calm and smooth). The

ripiesometor fell to 29.80, which was lower than it had ever done before. It blew a gale
night, widi a heavy sea ; no clouds ; the stars bright and large. The same white haisy-
like appearance took place before the North set in. Early in the morning oS ths IStu tne
wind died awuy suadenly, almost to a calm; and at eight a.m. became, a moderate
brcozo." >» ;

199

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

Wfom "^'MPfHttiilit Bat of San Bebnabdo, breeses, from the touthward <tad
eutwa " :Ady attd //letMwnt from April to Augiut; but, in the remainiiig-

monthfe ■• xi» much ex^jMii *o gales from East anid E.S.E., which blow, with*

#f llieiiiuo^tt^. fur two or thr " 4aya, before a North oomes on. In about latitude
2^ . there are iuti^ hrtwiM, in the summer, which blow fit>m midnight until nine in
tW forenoon.

J 44.) OULF of MEXICO, Vorth Ctoail — A Heriea of obserrationB on tl^e winds
I tiam were made bv the officers of the U.S. Coast Survey,.between Jnu«, 1847,
Mgi. July, 1852. The rorce and direction of the wind were noted at three Stations t
Jtt 'Mlveston in Texas, lat. 29° 18' N. ; long. 94° 46' W. : at Fort Morgan, Mobila
B»/, ^,m'*. the middle of the North coast. '«»» lat. 30° 13' N. ; lonj^88° 0' W. : and at
Key WeM, t/m of the Florida Keys, in lat. 24° 38' ; lon^. 84° 48' W. These observa-
tions, however, have the same imperfection as that noticed in the note {*) on page
187, — wat the winds are not recorded equally for all points of the compass. How-'^
ever, the fbllowing general remarks are useful and interesting as derived from these oh-
servations, and are arranged in the form of diagrams, which need not be repeated here.

(a) Winds from some northern quarter prevail from September until FelHuary,
both inclusive, and southwardly winds from March to August, inclusive. Winds
fit>m the eastward prevail throughout the year, except at Fort Morgan in May, Jvne,
July, and August, when the sea-breeze is urom the south-west. In we whole year the
winds fivTn tiie same queurter north and south balance each other nearly, while Hom
eastwardly wind greatly predominates over the westwardly.

(b) As remarked in my former paper, the months may b^ classed, accorrimg to the
prevailing winds, into the following classes : — The winter, consisting of December^
and January ; the spring, of March and April ; the summer, of May, June, and July ;'
of preparation for change, August; the autumn, of September, October, and
November. ' '

The winter and summer types are extremely distinct. ^ At Key West, in December
and January, north-east and north are the prevailing winds ; at Fort Morgan, north»
east-south-east and east ; at Galveston, north and north-weut, then east-norui-east and
south-east. I suppose the general course of the north-east Trade wind to be dis^
turbed by local action at Foil Morgan ar^d (>alveston, the local position of greatest
warmth being the Gulf.

The summer type. May, June, and July, gives south-east as the prevailing vnnd at
Key West ; the south-east, south, and south-west (sea-breeze) at Fort Morgan } the
south, south-east, and east at Galveston, blowing towards the land.

August resembles July, vrith the appearance of winds which prevail in the
autuinn.

In September, October, and November, at Key West, east-north-east prevail j at
Fort Morgan, north, north-east, east ; and at Galveston, north, north-east, east, and
north -'"est.

In Mu'ch and April, the spring period, south-east, south-south-east, and east winds
prevail at Key West ; north, south-south-east, and east-south-esf'" :\t Fort. Morgan }
and north, south-east, and south at Galvest<on.

February resembles Janua^ with a preparation for the sp' n.; tj, -i^ and like
August, it is characterized at Fort Morgan and Galvesten by a ^ "..i<.x diiuinution in
the quantity of vdnd.

January presents the Aill winter type of the winds on the Gulf, and June and July
ths fiill D^r>mer type. The changes are quite gradual and tolerably regular from one
extreme ti. vo other.

(c) The foi. -mp deductions are made from these observations in regard to the
least and (j ^' t> i<uui.t:!l':j of vriud in the principal directions in different portions
of the year.

The nortli yihm. is a minimuijii ai the three places in July, and a maximum in
January, it is a wy remarkable fcatui*c at all three places in Janunry, The north-

GULF OF MEXICO.

vent almost dies out at all three fi in May to September, first gaining strength at
GalTeston; in October, and reaching itH maximum in all the places in December. Its
quantity at Key West and Fort Morgan is small when at the maximum.

The northers and north-westers bo 1i appear in force in April, at Galveston. There
is very little west wind at either place, but more at Fort Morgan than either of the
others, and chiefly during tiie months of Jqne uik^ July.

South-west wind is of rare occmTeuce except at Fort Morgan, where it oonstitutea
the sea-breeze of summer, and reaches itu maximum in June uiid July, suddenly
diminishing in September.

There is but little south wind at Key West ; at Fort Morgan it increases in amoimt
iu the sprifi^ and is the greatest in June. It is decidedly a marked feature as one of
the itre^'iiUug spring winds at Galveston, reaching its maximum in May and
hecn.vir.g ]mto small in August, re-appearing in the winter, and rapidly increasing

Tiienoith-eost wind is a minimum at the three places in July and August; is
)nr'x<38t in quantity in September, October, November, and December, at Key West j
iu i'vjptember and October at Fort Morgan; and in S^tember, Decemoer, and
January at Gkilveston. The sudden increase of this wind in September, after its
small quantity in August, is remarkable at all three places.

The winds intermediate between north-east and south-east occur during the
changes from north-east to south-east, and it would be of little value to refer to the
greatest and least quantities.

The south-east wind is a minimum in_ December and January at Key West; in
January and February at Fort Morg^ ; iu December and January at Galveston. It
is a maximum at Key West in July, but, being replaced during the summi i' to a great
extent by the sea-breeze (S.W.) at Fort Morgan, makes its maximum in November,
and at Galveston in May, doubtless from the disturbing effect of the knd ; it is again
large in July. This is tilie sea-breeze of Key West, and, as well as the south wind»
that jf Galveston.

(d) The movement of the prevailing wind at Key West, where the disturbing
causes of the land ate the least, is very instructive.

The prevailing wind in April, May, June, and July is the south-east, hauling to
the eastward in August, and becoming east-south-east. In September and Oc ober it
passes further north to east-north-east, and in November and December becomes
north-east; in January it reaches north; returning southward in Februar^^ it is
norUi-north-east, in March east, and reaches the south-east in April. The local
action is thus seen to prevail for the greater part of the year over the generaL
For the whole year the south-east wind exceeds any other from an east-n ardly
point.

The eastwardly wind at Fort Morgan reaches no further south than east-si ith-
east, in the spring and summer. In September the prevailing wind is north-r-adt,
passing to east-north-east in October, and back to east-south-east in the winter md
spring The general tendency for the year is then east-south-east.

The changes at Galveston resemble those at Key West, the general absence
of east-north-east and east-south-east winds being due to defects in the ob>
servations.

In the Strait of Florida the breezes are the prevailing winds, but they are inter-
rupted by Norths in the winter, and by calms in the summer. Although tLe
northern limit of this channel is within the boundary of the Trade-wind, it is necet*-
sary to remember that, in winter, or from November to April, the variable winds
from the south ward and eastward, and southward and westward, are met with in lat.
27°, and even before : and in summer, from May until September, the winds in the

whole channel are variable from the southward and eastward, and ecuthward and
.♦„ J

i«,TTIUU.

ovatTTIUU.

EQUATORIAL CALMS AND WINDS.

(45.) The N.E. and S.E. Trade, blowing toward each other, meet and are neutraV
iced near the Equator (6.) This neutral une of calms and varying winds is some-
times known by the name of the " Doldrums" an uncouth term, which, we think, has
had unmerited authority given to it of late. It is, perhaps, a corruption of the
Spanisl»c{b^ro«o, or old Portuguese dolorio, " tormenting."

Commander Maurr says, " It has a mean average breadth (around the globe) of
about six degrees of latitude. In this region, the air which is brought to the Equator
by the north-east and south-east trades ascends. This belt of calms always separates
these two trade wind none, and travels up and down with them. If we liken this
belt of equatorial calms to an immense atmospherical trough, extending, as it does,
entirely around the earth i and if we liken the N.E. and S.E. trade winds to two
streams discharging themselves into it, we shall see that we have two cun'ents per-
pstually running in at the bottom, and that therefore we must have as much air as
the two currents bring in at the bottom to fl«w out of the top. "Wliat flows out at
the top is carried back north and south by these upper currents (6.), which are thus
proved to exist and to flow counter to the trade wmds." *

This belt of calms follows the sun in his annual course, though the limits do not
range so much in latitude as the sun does in declination, and, generally, they pass
from one extreme of latitude to the other in about three months. The whole system
of wind and calm belts move northward from the latter part of May till some time in
August : ti^ey then remain almost stationary till the approach of winter, when they
commence to go southward, and proceed in that direction ftom December till
February or March.

" The great ' sun awiny' of this calm belt," says Capt. Maury, <' is annual in Its
occiirrence ; it marks the seasons and divides the year into wet and dry for all those
places that are within the arc of its majestic sweep. But there are other subordinate
and minor influences which are continually taking place in the atmosphere, and
which are also calculated to alter the place of this calm belt, and to produce changes
in tile thermal status of the air which the Trade winds move. These are, unusiuuly
severe winters or hot summers ; remarkable spells of weather, such as long continuous
rains or draughts over areas of considerable extent. Either within or near the Trade-
wind belts it IS tremblingly alive to all such influences, and they keep it in continual
agitation ; accordingly we And that such is its state, that, withm certain boundaries,
it is continually changing place and limits. This fact is abundantly proved by the
speed of ships, whose log-books show that it is by no means a rare occurrence for one
vessel, after she has been dallying in the Dolcmims for days in the vain efibrt to
cross that calm belt, to see another coming up to her, ' hand over fist,' with fair winds,
and crossing the belt after a delay in it of only a few hours instead of days." f

(46.) These remarks of Capt. Maury, coupled with the experience of most sailors
who cross the line, will demonstrate mat the limits of this calm belt cannot be very
exactly defined, and it is only the doctrine of chances that can determine whether any
particular ship will lose the trades and encounter these doldrums. On page 186 (27;,
IS given the table drawn up by Capt. Horsburffh as the probable eauinoctial limits of
the N.E. and S.E. Trades, and consequently or the intervening belt of calms. This
applies to that port of them, between 18^ and 20" W., which was usually traversed by
the East India Compar.^ 's ships ; but, ns a more westerly crossing is now advocated

te of the breadth of this calm belt is
given by Dr. Van Galen : J —

by many, the following appiuximutc estimate of the breadth of this
derived from Maury's Irade Wind Chart, and

. • " Sailing Dii-cctions, 18«8," vol. i. p. 40.
/ f " FnvBicjii i+eopnrnphy of tho B«a, 1860," p

3;)8.

oil, Wind en Htioomkntuton Toogplicht," door Dr. 1*. van Oulon, Iloiloi-dam, 1860,

EQUATORIAL CALMS AND WINDS.

IMf

TABLE of the Average Patent of the Equinoctial Calms.

Month

Limita.

50° to 46° 46' to 40"
W. W.

40' to 35'
W.

36° to 30'

30° to 25°
W.

26° to 20'
W.

20° to 15°
W.

Jan.

( N.

a-N.

3»N.
3

2'N.
2

2°N
2

3°N.

3°N.
1

6°N.
1

Feb.

( N.

3
3

2
2

1
1

1 S.

March.

1 s.

2
2

2N.
2S.

4
1 S.

April.

1 s.

2
2

IS.

2N.
2S.

3N.

1 S.

May.

( N.

4
4

3N.
1

3
1

4N.
1 S.

6N.

June.

( N.

6
4

8
2

9N.

8
1

July.

i s.

9
6

11
4

11
2

12
2

Aug.

( N.
S.

12
6

12
4

12
2

13
2

Sept.

( N.
8.

12
6

10
4

12
2

12
1

Oct.

1 S.

10
6

10
4

10
2

11
1

Nov.

f N.

! s.

6
6

6
3

6
2

8
1

Dec.

i N.
S.

4
4

3
3

4
1

6
2

This table 'will show that, dijring the winter months, and in the western part of
the ocean, the limita of the Trade winds (which is that given in the table) approxi-
mate, and leave no interval of calm. In the northern summer months, however, the
calm belt is much more distinctly marked, although its mean breadth in not one-third
or one-half what it is in the eastern side. This fact is also graphicallv explained by
the diagram facing page 185. As was said before on page 1K6 (26.), the limits of the
Trades vary to the extent of 10" of Intitiide, and therefore the flgfurcn given above
can only be taken as a possible approximation.

There is one remark, which it may be as well to urge hero : that, as this belt of
calms runs cast and west, the navigator will clear them soonest by making a direct
Southern or Northern course, as far as possible, as he thus runs directly across them |
by beating too much East or West he is retarding himself in their direction.

- (47.) The Trade winds are essentially evaporating winds. From their high tem-
perature, in nassing over a large extent of ocean, they become loaded with aqueous
vapour, whieti becomes evident when they meet and neutralize each other in thia cone
of equatorial calms.

200

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

The result is the formation of the <* cloud ring" of Capt. Maury, which he likei^s to
the rings of Saturn or the belts of Jupiter. Under this oppressive and constant com:
panion of the equatorial calm the rain fells in torrents, and oy the progress of the sun
m the ecliptic it causes the phenomena of the tropical seasons, divided, as is -well
known, into the wet and dry. A consideration of the chart and the shiftfn^ of tWi
belt will explain how it is that some places have two rainy seasons and others onlj^
one, by the passing of this cloud ring over them.

" It is broader than the belt of calms out of which it arises. As the aur, with its
vapours, rises up in this calm belt and ascends, these vapours are condensed into
clouds, and this condensation is followed by a turgid intumescence which causes the
clouds to overflow the calm belt as it veers both to the north and to the south. The
air, flowing ofi* in the same direction, assumes the character of winds that form the
upper currents that are counter (5.) to the Trade winds. These currents carry the
clouds still farther to the norti' and south, and thus make the cloud ring broader. At
least, we infer such to be the case, for the rains are found to extend out on to the
Trade winds, and often to a considerable distance north and south of the calm
belt."

^ (47.) This oppressive region, most tedious to navigators, is, however, not at all
times subject to this great amount of deposition, which has procured for it the app^-
lation of " The Rains ;" and especially during the winter months, when its extent is
more limited, it may be crossed without encountering either those torrents of rain, or
almost unbearable calms. This compensating belt to the evaporation of the trades ■a
course is subject to squalls, and especially to thunder-storms, the natural result of tV ■
conflicting elements. Altogether, its effect on the health and spirits, its enemati-g
influences, its oppressive and damp heat, make it one of the most unpleasant Tiuris of
the globe. *

Winds on the African Coast. T^J^'^i^

(48.) The influence of the land upon the Trade winds, and the intervening calins,
is very powerful on the eastern side of the Atlantic ; and the peculiar configuration of
the coast of Guinea, trending as it does along the very axis or line of division of the
northern and southern wina systems, causes a diflcrent set of phenomena to arise.
During that pail; of the year when the sun is in the southern heniisplierc, the Trades
and calms follow the noimal or usual course, as it is then exerting its maximum force
on the sea with its low absorptive and radiative powers ; but when, during the
northern summer, it is raising the temperature of the land of the Guinea coast, a new
phase arises from the heated atmosphere over the land drawing the wind towards it,
and instead of a S.E. or N.E. wina we have a South and S.W. wind occurring with
great regularity. Major Rennell says, " in the space lengthwise, between Cape Verde
and Cape Mesurado, and in certain places to the extent of 70 leagues off shore, (50 off
Sierra Leone,) a regular change of winds and currents takes place, according to the
seasons : that is to say, a N.E. or North wind ond S.E. current, from September to
June; and in the rest of the year, S.W. wind and N.E. or northerly currents, in effect
a monsoon ; and this extends, in respect of the wind, nearly through the whole space
between the two continents, f
. Liiia,'

• Attention to personal cleanliness is very important during the detention caused by
these calms. Dnmpier gives a (juaint descriirtion of the ill effects of his men not drying their
clothes and lying down on their hammocks while wot, which caused all to become offensive
and open to attacks of disease. Capt. Maury says, " The emigrant ships from Europe to
Australia have to cross it. They are often bafilcd in it for two or throe wccka ; tliou the
children and passenprors who are delicate in health suffer most. It is a frightful grave-yard
on the way Hide to that golden land."

t The existence and character of this S.W. African monsoon was thus early recognised
and named (at the latter end of Ijsst csatur%). The tsnn " tKuly-di
to thom by our American friends, is therefore not quite applicahle.

*..3 tSiut " nvivijf'-diivvvervn llloiMUOns, given

^QUATOIUAL CAIMS AKD WIKDS.

lot

(40.) In Dampier's Diaconne on the Trade Winda, and hia iUnetrative Cluurt
(1697), we find a solution of the ori^ of theae S.W. winda, which ia that alUl hrid
to he moat feaaible. It is, that they are derived from the S.E. Tradea, and not from
a diveraion of the N.B. l^adea. 'Ihia alao haa been soffgeeted in the *' Mercantile-
Marine Maffaslne" of 1856,* the data being derived L-om Maury'a Charta. '* An
imiKntant element in determining the rieaUty or otherwise of this anggeation ia the,
poaition of the calms. Are th^ interpoaed between the N.E. trade ana monaoon, or
Detween the monaoon and S.E. trade P But this consideration may not have great
weight in thia region of calms, and besides the probability of this origin U increased
by the data for the direction of the 3.E. trade, which is shown not to blow with
regularity to the cast of a line joining Cape Palmas and Angola.

(50.)^ There is another conclusive evidence of the westerly extension of theae mon>
scons in the tuUrly current that ia met vrith almost constantly during the seasona
of their prevalence. These are very persistent as fiir as longitude 40° W., and are
times encountered as fai- north aa lat. 1G°; but more usually between 6° and IT N.
Thia origin of the anomalooa Guinea current was indicated in our Chart of the
Atlantic, published in 1858. A similar current is shown to exist in the Pacific Ocean
west of Panama Bay. This feature will be frrther dilated on when we come to the
Section on Currents. ■""'

(01.) These South, S.S.W. and S.W. winds prevail, according to Maury'a Pflot
Charts, chiefly during the months of July, Auffost, September, aim October, and are
then felt as far to the westward as 35" or 40" W ., between the parallels of 5' and 8*
N. In the western tract of this area they diminish in frequency as the sun proceeds
to the S., and are soai-cely felt in the Norm Atlantic during the months of December,
January, and February. The chances of encountering thu adverse wind must have
an important bearing on the choice of a route for crossing the Equator during these
montlu. Between December and April, which is the season most visited by calms,
the wind has still a southern tendency ; but during the season of the monsoon the
calms aie at a minimum near the coast. It \a difficult to explain in words the relative
duration, force, or frequency of, the winds in this changeable locality, without an
appeal to the Chart. The reader ia referred to that facing page 185, and to the Chart
of the North Atlantic, in 4 sheets, before alluded to.

(52.) Winds and Seasoni. — The following remarks, by the late Capt. Midghy,
who had great experience on the African coast, will be found of service in explaining
the character of the wind and seasons : —

I will here offer a few remarks on the general variable winds and weather which
prevail between the parallels of 4° and 10° N., and the meridians of 18° and 25° West,
or between the N.E. and S.E. trade winds.

The winds gonerall} incline from the southward, between the trades, and few veeaela
pass from one trade wind to the other without meeting with very unpleasant weather,
m the shape of calms, light baffling winds, squalls, and rain, particularly when the
sun is much to the -northward.

In June, Juljr, and August, heavy squalls seem to prevail from the S.W., with a
great deal of rain, and the wind often blows hard from this quarter for several hours
together, and then falls calm, leaving a heavy and confWd short sea, which cause a
vessel to labour and strain more than she would do in a gale of wind.

When the sun is far to the southward, the weather ia comparatively fine, with li^ht
southerly and S.E. winds, occasionally, however, interrupted by squalls and rain i
and the calms are of shorter duration, owing, probably, to the limited breadth of the
space between the trade winds at this aeaaon.

In this part of the ocean, when much lightning is seen in a heavy dense cloud, in
any quarter of the compass, the wind may be expected to come out suddenly from that

• Mot. Mar. Mng., Feb. 1850, p. 47.

2 C

20t

OBSERVATIONS 0|f WINDS."

qiuurfer, especially if tiiere U any rain, even though the rnnd may be blowiiq; al fto
same' tinje with moderate force ficom an opposite quarter.

Forked or ehain lightning is the almost sure forerunner of a heavy squall i it is a
monitor whose warning should not be neglected.*

Whenever there ip much lightning, and. the wind is unsteady and bafBing about,
prepare for a change. A heavy dense cloud, having a squally appearance, may rise
and pass slowly over the vessel directly to leeward, with perhaps little or no increase
of wmd ; and when the danger may lie supposed over, the vessel is suddenly taken
aback with a smart squall. This, I presume, arises from the cloud which has just,
gone over the ship, being opposed in its progress to leeward by a stronger current of
air from the opposite quarter. On this account, when clouds are in motion from'
opposite quarters of the compass, a better look-out, if possible, should be kept to
leeward than to windward.

Keeping a g^ood look-out upon the surfoce of iJie water is an excellent method of
Judging of the force of wind in an approaching squall ; but on account of the heavy',
rain which invariably accompanies the squalls alluded to, very little sound judgment
can be exercised with respect to their strength ; they are generally, however, tolerably
heavy, and require sail to be considerably reduced.

. In June, July, and August, the weather is very wet and squally. Sometimes
dense masscH of clouds are seen in rapid motion tvom the S.E., southward, and S.W.,
quarters of the homon : these clouds have a bulky and conftised appearance, as if
tumbling or rolling over each other ; are of a dirty, dark di-ab colour, with ragged
edges, and inky-looking Kmnll clouds living about the edges of them. In their
approach towards the zenith thcv gradually appear to unite and form the apex of an
angle, and thus united blow witfe incredible violence from the S.W. quai-tcr (veering'
about two or three points or more) for upwards of two hom's, during which time the
rain descends in torrents, perhaps accompanied by a waterspout or wliirlwind.

Ships should bo well prepared for these dangerous visitors ; for they come with a
similar violence to the arched whi^ squall of the West Indies. I have experienced
two squalls of the above description (both in the month of July), and in one of them
lost a good fore-topsail, after the reef tackles, inc., were hauled out snug, and the ship
had b^n for some time running directly before the wind. Upon both occasions my
barometer fell three-tenths of an inch very suddenly, which enaoled me to take in sail
in time ; for the squalls did not look particularly alarming until about eight or ten
minutes before they reached the ship

To the inexperienced in this part of the ocean, I would beg to remark, that mucA
sheet lightning is always suspicious, and forked or chain lightning universally so ;
and the latter is, in some degree, indicative of a change, as well as of an increase of
wind.

After the wind has blown steadily, x^nth fine weather for a few hours, and it then
begins to be variable,, and fly suddenly about, squalls and rain may be expected.

The moon has great influence on the weather ; for it is mostly squolly and unsettled,
with much rain, about the full and change.

' I perfectly agree with Captain Chcveley, that the month of July is, perhaps, the
worst in the year for making southing between the trades. I have made two home-
ward passages in July between the meridians of 22" and 26° West, and met upon each
occasion with the same weather as described by that gentleman ; namely, strong
S.W. winds, hard squalls, and torrents of rain, with a heavy short sea, and northerly
ourrenta.

(53.) Between Cape Blanco and the entrance of the Bimr Oamlia, during the
months of November, December, January, Februaiy, and March, the winds from the

* In those parts of ths North Atlantic Ocean which nro not in the general influenco
of the trades, I have vor^' froquentiy ruuitu-ked that ligbtning is indicutivu of u chnngo ut
mrind. . . , / .

EQUATORIAL CALMS AND WINDS.

2031

East and N.E. are prevalent. In this time the nights are cool ; but acarcely has th»
sun arisen above the horizon, when-the air becomes dry and parching. Neverthd»M»
these, five months are the winter in this part of Africa, and this is the most healthy
season. Between the Gambia and Cape Palmas the inland winds, daring the same,
season, are variable.

, In June, July, August, September, and October, the country situated between CSape
Vcrga and Cape Mount id much exposed to hurricanes or tornadoes. These, however,
do not occur in any part of the eoast northward of Cape Verga.

From the 20th degree of North latitude to the environs of the line, the monthfl of
July, August, Septcmbef, and October, are those of the rainy season, when the
atmosphere emits its waters to the earth ; the only d£8Perence is, twenty days sooner
or later in the arrival of these torrents. During the other eight months in the yeai'
there does not fall a single drop of water.

Between the Cape Verde Islands, and in their neighbourhood, southerly and
jS.W. winds generallv blow in July, August, September, and October. These isLeuids,
when the sun is in their zenith, are generally surrounded by thick fogs.

From SiERBA Leone to Cape Palmas the oi-dinary course of the winds on tlM
boast is from W.N.W., and beyond Cape Palmas, fixnn W.8.W. to S.W. and S.S.W.

Although, in the Gulf of Guinea, the wind blows generally from the southward^
dud S.S.W. towai*d the coast, they take, in South latitude, a more westerly direction
near the land, and then prevail from S.W. and W.S.W. between Cape Lopez and
Bepgucla. ' But they veer proportionally more southerly as the distance inoreasei^
from the coast.

... Windward Coast, &c.— Tlie name of Windward Chaat has been given by our
navigators to the whole of that coast which extends from Cape Mount to the Kiver
Assinec, where the Gold Coast commences : it includes the three particular coasts
called, Ittt, Grain, or Pepper Coast ; 2nd, Ivory, or Teeth Coast ; 3rd, the Coast of
Adou, or Quaqna.

From January until May the weather here, along-shore, is commonly fair and
clear, vnth coolmv breezes, and gentle southerly winds. But, about the middle of
May, South and S.£. winds begin, accompanied not only wish hurricanes and stormy
guHts, but also with thunder, lightning, and great rains, which continue, more or less,
imtil the conclusion of the year. „•,,,. ,.-. . ,. . i

On the Gold Uoost, frem Assinee to the River Volta, the wind, in January, begins
io blow from the S.W. quarter, and becomes stranger in February, bringing wiw it
sometimes rain, and sometimes a humcane. About the cud of Mareh, and beginning
of Apiil, those heavy tempests, called by the Portuguese tornadoes, aiise, accompaniea
.with a deluge of rain, thunder, and lightning ; these continue to the end of May, and
are announced by the darkness of the sky in the S.E.

During the rainy season, that h, in May and July, little or no land-winds ore felt ;
but, from the seo, it blows from the S.W. and W.S.W., making a veiy gi-eat swell,
which continues even in August, although the rains begin to cease in that month.

The weather becomes fair in September, and the air clear, with gentle South winds;
and this continues till January, the hottest days being in December.

(54.) The HABMATTAK. — On the Gold Coast, as well as the windward ooast,
an easterly wind, called the Jlartnattan, prevails dmin^ the months of December,
January, and February. This wind comes on indiHcrimmately, at any hour of the
day, at' any time of the tide, at any period of the moon, and continues sometimes only
a oay or two, sometimes five or six days, and it has been known to last fifteen or
sixteen days. There are generally three or four returns of it in every season ; it blows
with a moderate force, not quite so strong as the nea-brocze, which every day sets in,
during the fair season, from the AVest, W.S.W., ond S.W. j but somewhat stronger
than the land-wind, at night, from the Noilh uuu N.N.W. In the " Philosophical
Transactions," vol. Ixxi., for the year 1781, au account of the Jiarmattan was fli-st

0B8BRVATI0N» ON WIND8.

tfiven by MaUhew pob$on, HiD., FJLQ., from the inquiriw and obtfervaticnu of Mr*
Ifarri$f of which the following is the robstanoe :— ' i^ j tm-nvw^m

Qh that pibrt of the coast of Africa which lies between Cape Verde and Ctmi'LaplAt
a singnlar periodical easterly wind, named, by the natives, the Hermu^rtn',' prevdle
during the months of December, January, and Fehnuuy. Cape Lopes lie* t6 tho
southward cf the line. At the Isles de Los, which lie to the northward of Sieini
Lecme, this wind hlows firom the S.S.K i on the Gold Coast, from the N.E.{ and at '
Cape Lopes and the River Gaboon, from the NJY.E.

' The Harmattan comes on as above described. A fog or haze always accompanies
it, and the gloom is sometimes so great as to render near objects obscure. The sun is
thus coooeiJed the greatest part of the day, and appears onfy a few hours about noon,
wad then of a mUd red eolour. At 2 or 3 miles from shore the fog is not so thick as on
the beach; and, at 4 or fi leagues distance, it is entirely Imt, though the Har>
mattan is felt for 10 or 12 leagues, and blows fr«sh enough to alter the course of the
etirrent.

' Extreme dryness is a property of this wind. No dew fidls duitoig its continuance,
nor is there the least appearance of moisture in the atmosphere. Ail vegetables are
mudi injured, and many destroyed. The seams in the sides and decks of wipe beeooie
very leunr, though the planks are 2 to 3 inches thick. Iron-bound casks require the
hoops to be frequently driven tighter, and a cask of mm or brandy can scarcely be
toreserved ; for unless kept constently moistened the hoops fly off. The Hannattan
has, likewise, very disagreeable effects on the skin, lips, and nose, which be-
come sore.

The effects of the Harmattan in evaporation are great ; as will appear by the
follovnng comparative statement : — ^At Liverpool^ the annual evaporation is about 36
inches ; at Whydah, 64 inches ; but, under toe influence of the Harmattan, at the
rate of 133 inches.

This vnnd, though so prejudicial to vegetable life, is highly conducive to health ; so
that fluxes, fevers, small-pox, &c., generally disappear in spite of the doctor ; and it
contributes to the cure of ulcers and cutaneous eruptions. The banefril effects which
have been said to arise from the prevalence of this wind proceed firom the periodical
rains, which fell in Mareh, April, &c., and are ushered in D|T the tornadoes from the
N.E. and E.N.E., accompanied with violent thunder and lightning, and very heavy
showers. The earth, drenched by these showers, and acted upon by an intense solar
heat, so soon as the storm is over, sends forth such noisome vapours as are the ooea-
sion of putrid fevers and other diiseases. . v^ -fV-''^^

On this coast, from the middle of February to the first week in Mareh, a wind up
the coast, from S.S.W. to S.S.E., prevails for about three weeks. The tornado season
is port of Mareh, all Apiil, and the greater part of May, about twelve weeks. The
ramy season is from the latter end of May, all Jtme, and to about the 20th of July,
about eight weeks. Hence, high wind, and squally, with very heavy rains, to the
middle of August, about three weeks. The rain ceases, and then, for the first three
weeks in Reptember, the weather is foggy and close, without any breece. From this
time, for about six weeks, the wind blovrs fresh down the coast ; the tornadoes and
southerly wind then succeed, with some rain, generally called the latter raint, about
four weeks, to the beginning of December, when the Harmattan season commences.

(55.) Jtemarkt by Baron Jfottsain. — Cape Bqf'ador to the I»le$ de Lo$. — On the
whole extent of the African coast there are but two seasons i nomelj, the Raint and
Drt Seasons. The division of the two is connected with the periods when the sun
crosses from one hemisphere to the other, and is modified as he advances to, or recedes
ttom the EquQtor.

The Raint Season commences at each place on the coast to the northward of the
Equator, at the time when the sun passes the zenith of that place in his course to the
nerthwu^. It is, usually, during tne month preceding this^event, that the change of
weather takes place. It may, therefore, be calculated, tiiat, at the Isles de Los, the
first point exposed to the rainy season, and which lie in 0|° N., tiie first violent
oquaiii do aO( occur before the lOth or Idth of May : their arrival seems to be offiBotod

EQUATORIAL CALMS AND WINDS.

305

by tho medn ; fat they olmoBt always oommenoe, and are most violent, on the daya oi
the new and fbll.

The Rainy Season encls in very violent squalls with intervals of calm, of whieh
thdre are at least two, and flvquently more, during the twenty-fonr honrs; and we
remarked, that thcr^ generally nappen on the I'ising or setting of the son or moon.
In the country, these squalls are generally called Tomadoea ; nut, according to the
best information, the tornado, properly speaking, is to be met with only to the south-
ward of Cape Yerga. They generally begin to form themselves in the^M.E. or E.N.E.
qnorter of the horizon, wmcn seems completed on fire during an hour or more. The
storm then gradually shifts round to K and IB.S.E., becoming darker in the horison.
Having arrived at S.E., it attains its full vigour, when thunder and lightning become
incessant. A moment of absolute calm then takes place, which is caused by the ob-
struotion which the usual winds from tibie N.W. meet with from this immense mass ai
clouds. Shortly after, a small arch is formed at the horizon, which increases and
rises rapidly. The more defined the edge of this arch appears, the more violent will
be the storm, as it is a proof that the CMumn of air has divided much heavier clouds,
and is more confined, when the summit of this arch has attained an altitude of about
46*, the hurricane bursts forth, and torrents of rain immediately follow. The crisis of
its greatest violence generally lasts from 15' to 20' ; it afterwards gradually becomes
weaker ; and finally nothing remains but rain, attended with very little wind. It
then shifts round from S.E. to W.S.W., then to the quarter from which the usual
winds blow, to exhaust itself to the northward in another squall frt>m the S.E.

Hie Raint Season, at any place, continues ftom four to six months, aooording to
its proximity to the Equator, and the tornadoes continue to decrease, both in fs9'
quency and violence, during the two latter months of the season. In ten days or a
tbrtnight after the sun has passed the zenith of any place on his way to the South, it
is considered as firee from bad weather. On the Idtn of November a gun is fired at
Goree, which announces the return of the fine season.

The squaUs here spoken of, and the winds which proceed or follow them, generally
occupying so very small a portion of the year, may be considered as momentary con-
vulsions m a state of climate almost unchangeable } a sky nearly always seiene, and
generally clear. ^«, ■. .h; /-,*•,'•;; ;rtrv.-ii . -^■,j..-i-jt^:>:m^x

On the greater part of the African coast, iW>m Cape Bojador to the Isles de IjOi^
regular winds blow, and no rain ever falls dming eight months. The prevailing
wmds in this country blow from N.E. to N.W. ; it may, therefore, be said, that they.
foUow the direction of the coast from North to South, and that they seldom vary from
the limits here assigned.

The Dbt Seasou commences in the latter part of October at Senegal ; a little later
at Goree i and at each intermediate place toward the Equator it becomes gradually
later. It is not till the beginning of December that its return is observed in the
parallel of the Isles de Los.

(56.) RemarlcB on the Harmattan, by Baron Roustin. — Although the winds tcom
N.£. to N.W. prevail on the N.W. coast of Africa during the dry season, that is, from
November to May, they arc, nevertheless, occasionally mterrupted between the 1st
of December and ihe 1st of February by the land-wind, which dIows from E.N.E. to
E.S.E., and sometimes with violence.

- - > . -

It is this wind which the inhabitanta of the country call the Harmattan. It comes
on at different periods in the above interval, and blows during one, two, and some-
times five or six successive days. This continuance, however, is rare, as it is genei*ally
interrupted by the sea-breezes, which commence about noon, after a calm of one or
two hours. These alternate land and sea-breezes generally last till the end of
February, when the usual winds entirely prevail. The Harmattan, which passes over
the moKt arid country of the globe, is of an extremely dry nature, and would probably
become insupporteble, were it not frequently allayed by the sea-breezes above men-
tioned. Notwithstonding the salutary efRect of those breezes, the drought is astonish-
ing, ao long as the Harmatian lasts. Mankind are inconvenienced ; vegetables suffer
80 much as to be nearly killed t the sun loses ite brilliance, and is only to be seen

2oe

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

when ne&t noon y the sand, bnmght with it from the desert, pervades the atntospherer
and prevents objects from being distinguished at the distance of a qiiarter of a mfler
Nevertheless, the eiBfect of Ihe Harmattan u not really iiy Orious to health ; it is
Tonarked, that it even purifies tlie atmosphere, by destroying the noxious vap(Mm»
with which it is replete on the conclusion of the rainy season. It- is usually on U19
return of the Harmattan, that recovery commences from disorders which are inc^d^enl
to the climate.

Ti/rt

The fog which accompanies the Harmattan loses nothing of ■ its density when- S
leagues out at sea. On tne ed^e of the Bank of Arguin, which is 10 leagues froitt the^
land, it prevented our distinguishing the horizon during three successive days. This
state of the atmosphere is not permanent, but varies with the winds which produce
it ; and, in general, independent of the Harmattan, the African coast, from Cape Bo-
jador to Cape Verde, is continually covered, duiing the whole dry season, with a
white mist, which is seen from the sea much t>ooner than the land, of which it is a
sure indication. This mist, which is nothing but sand, the extreme fineness of whidi
allows of its being supported by the least agitated air, is particularly rcmarkaUe on
that part of the desert between the parallel of 22° and Senegal. We have seen it at
the (ustauce of 6 leagues, when the coast could scarcely be seen at 3 leagues. This
dust, alluded to on page 179, is farther remarked on at the end of this Volume.

-^ (57.) JRemarks, hy Capt. T. Boteler, of JI.JH.8. Hecla, 1829.— The HarmaTTAN
Season sets in with November, or About a month earlier than off the Gambia, and
prevails through December and part of January, but not quite constantly ; for occa-
sional intervals of clear weather, accompanied by the refreshing sea-breeze from the
N.W., sometimes afford a respite to its oppressive effects. Nor does the Harmattan
blow uniformly, either in the same direction, or with the same strength ; for it ranges
through eight points of the compass, from NJi.E. to E.SJB. ; and, however fiery at
the commencement, declines, after the first month, to a comparatively light breeze.^

The PECULIAR HAZE which more or less envelopes the coast of Africa at ell times;
is at its maximum during the influence of the Harmattan ; and, though partially dis-
persed by the tornadoes and the rainy season, returns with increased density when
they cease. Strangers should, therefoi-e, be on their guai'd when estimating their
distance fi-om the land, as the deceptive effect of this haze makes it appear much
farther off than it really is ; for the contrast which the coast present to the eye,, in
different states of the atmosphere, is very gi'eat. In clear weather the view of the
fertile shelving hills in the lules de Los, ^e stupendous features of the distant moun-
tains, the plains covered with trees, and the beautiful little Island of Matacoiu;
(described ncreafter), are highly interesting j while, in hazy weather, nothing is
visible but a low mangrove coast, enveloped in mist, with aA indistinct opening of a
river here or there, or perhaps a column of smoke rising tvom a native village.

The Rainy Season continues for four months, from May to September 5 but the
tornadoes, which invariably accompany its commencement and termination, generally
cease between those periods. They blow from the E.S.E., and with great mry j but
they seldom last moi-e than three houra. The prevalent winds, during the rest of the
i-ainy scaHon, are from southward and westward, and are n^ually so light as to give
way in the afternoon to the N.W. sea-breeze.

- ''■!': '^Ti\mti\ khx:: imhir ■

y.'f.l'.-'-ii**

WindB and Calms on the Tropic.

.n. (08.) Between the N.E. trades, and the westerly winds which prevail more or Ichs
to the northward of them, tliere is a belt of variable and light winds, which have,
perhaps somewhat vaguely, been called the Calina of Caneer, — a term which will not
express its characteristics. -„■,,,,»■,.,■, --.,?;•,. ^,;'*t/, ? .^(VfA;. ■;;i^;■^;f/'v

It is called, nlHo, the JTorae Latitudes, from the fact thot vessels in former years,
employed in carrying horses to the West Indies, were frequently obliged to throw
them overboai*d curing the embarrassment candied by the continual changes, sudden
gusts and calmH, rains, thunder and lightning, whicH are general in it (19.^ p. 184).

TROHCAL CALMS ANP WINBS.

,- (S9.) TIms zoneig caused by ihe uniting, or interohangingi of those upiMr Imt oon^
traiy currents which pass nortiiwards over the N.E. toi£s in conaeq 'se of the
heat acquired under the tropical sun having reached the nortiiem e^i ie of this
superheating influence. They here meet the currents passing southwards to feed the
trades from the polar regions, and thus pressing against them cause the high ba-
rometer peculiar to this belt, standing as it does at a higher level than either to the
north or south of it. Capt. Maury iiuers that the mean height of the mercury in this'
belt b 30*21 in., and at tne Equator at 29*93 in. Admiral Fit^^R^ states uie mean
hneht of the bctrtHneter in the latitude of Eng^land to be 29-95'. This greater height
of the mercury, showing inci-eased pressure, 'mil be an index to the snUor that he has
reached this intervening belt between the Passage and Trade winds.

From the lower part of this zone pass out two cuiTents of air, one to feed the N.E;
Trades, as before described, and the other to form the Anti-Trades, or Passage winds }
and it is fed by the polar and tropical coimter cuiTents which flow over these different
wind systems.

(60.) The mean latitude of this belt is from 30° to So" N., but varying with the
motion of the sun in the ecliptic, as explained in ^25.) on p. 185. In fact, the northern
edge of the Trade wind may be taken as the axis over which this belt moves, some-
times of gi'eat breadth, as 10° ; at others not felt at all. The mean position of these
tropical calms, &c., will be best comprehended by an inspection of the diagram facing
p. 185. As is well known, this belt is the line upon which the dreaded cyclones turn ;
they pass to the W.N.W., to the south of it ; and to the E.N.E., to the north of it ;
showing the origin of the struggle between the polar and ti'opical currents, which is
evident in their tremendous phenomena. r; d ii&M^'i.-'M.

(61.) As was said in (26.), p. 186, the range over which the northern limits of the
N.E. trade is met with seems to be, from Maiiiy's Chart, about 10° ; but as this chart
is apparently not quite perfect, or, at least, is not derived from sufficient data to pro-
nounce absolutely upon, it may be said that' the mean position of the tropical calms in
the various season? of the year cannot Mrith certainty be predicted ; but as it does not
o£R9lr the same obstacles to navigation as those of the equatoiial regions, it is of less
importance to the sailor, who, by his usual sagacity and prudence, may guard against
the squalls, thunder-storms, and calms which characteiize it.

(62.) To the westward of the meridian of 50° W., — that is, the western half of the
X.E. trade in the Noii;h Atlantic, — ^tho trade is very light during the months of Sep-
tember and October ; perhaps at other times of the summer and autumn. They wul
be most felt between the parallels of 15° and 25° ; but not with any certainty near
the American coast. This region may therefore be added to the tropical calms
during these months.

As examples of the winds, as observed upon the lands lying in this belt, we select
the remarks upon the Bermudas : —

(63.)' BEBMITDAS. — The winter, or cold season, at "^ennudas, is the most agree-
able, and lasts froi i November to March, — the mean temperature being 60° : tiie pre-
dominant winds are then from the westwai'd ; if to the northwai*d ofthis, fine, hard
weather, with a clear sky, accompanies them. This is the favourable time for refit-
ting ship, painting, &c. The close of this is often a very fine, bright day, with little
wind and partial calms, when the wind is certain of going round to the S.W. j the
weather becoming hazy, damp, subject to heavy rains and gales. The thermometer
immediately attams 60° to 70°. These alternate north-westerly and south-westerly
winds prevail through nine months of the year, the wind remaimng at no other point
for any length of time. This change is exhibited by a diffci*ence of 14° in the tem-
perature. At this season, it seems advisable for ships bound to the southward to wait
ond toke the first set-in of the north-westerly winds. In most cases, it will ensm*e a
quick run to the Variables, and often to the Trades. — Mr. IT. Davy.

In the latter part of Februaiy spring commences, and the weather usually con-
tinues mild, with i-efreshing showers of rain and gentle breezes from the South and
West, until the end of May. In June the summer sets in, and the weather becomes
hot. Calms now succeed to the gentle breezes of May; the air is sultiy and op-

OB8RRVATIOK8 OHX WIIIBS.

pTCMive, and l«nig icbmiglita «i« oommoii, whitli are often broken up l^lieaTy'thimAnr-
•toms. In September the iveather changes its oharacter, and beoumes again mild'
•nd agreeable.

The dew-point in Bermuda usually ranges high. The climate, htSng therefore
moist, is &TouraUe to vegetation at all seasons, except during the oroughts of
summer, and ihe storms of winter.

Hurrioanesand tempdsts are T«ry frequent, as is to he expected from the {wozimity
of the isles to the Taiiable limit of the Trade uid other prevailing winds. Few
autumns pass without hurricanes of more or less violence.

The Bbbmuda Sqvaixs are sudden and violent tempests, occurring particularly in
the winter season.

According to the observations registered at Her Majesiys Dockyard, in 1833, 4,
the easterly winds, or those to the E. of N. or S., prevailed for a mean of 139 days,
and westerly winds for 186 days ; the remainder being made up of calms and variaole
winds.*

THE ANTI-TBADES, or PASSAGE WINDS.

(64.) In a previous page, 184 (19.), the reason is given for applying the term Anti'
Iradea to the variable, but westerly, winds which j^revail to the northward of the
Tropic of Cancer. In the consideration of these winds, which only extend over an
area, compared to that of the Trade winds, as 5 is to 12, (thus showing their vastly
inferior importance in the atmospheric economy,) it will be found that it is impossibk
to accurately define their direction and character at any particular season. The great
difference which exists between the winds and seasons of f\f''erent years, which, now-
ever, when combined with a series, show a well marked e.nd consistent average, will
demonstrate that it is only the doctrine of chances which cwn determine whether a
single ship will encounter a particular wind at a particular time uid place. There-
fore this Section will be less definite in its teachings than that on the Irade Tinds.

(65.) The most accurate and extensive observations, — extensive becaiise con-
tinuous, — ^which have been'made upon the direction and force of the wind in these
latitudes, are those made upon land, and especially by self-registering instruments,
which have been in operation for a series of years, which give absolutely the quantity
and path of the wind passing over the observatory during their operation. But, as
will oe shown presently, these observations, however excellent, are fidladous; they
do not give the correct normal direction of the wind, but that of the wind under the
powerful influence of the adjacent land and its con^gurations. In future years tins
ii:ay be obviated by the erection of these anemometers on isolated qpots, as has been
done at Bermuda, m our latitudes, as at St. Kilda, or any other poaiuon distant fnnn
any great mass of land, f

(66.) The we$terfy predominance of Anti-Trades will be more manifest from an

* The tables are given in Admiral Fitzlloy's First Number of " Meteorological Papers —
Board of Trade," 1857.

t On page 180 (12.), the question offeree, as encountered by ships in motion, is alluded
to as not giving a correct estimate, as it ought to be the real amount without the effect of
the ship's driving before it. The land observations also are modified by the above-men-
tioned mfluenoe. A plan bas been proposed by Professor Piaszi Smith, in conjunction with
Oapt. H. Toynbee, to have the wind recorded from the matt-htad, as the only part of a ship
nnt sflActed b'" the eddies ft^"» her sails i the direction ssd force to be commusicatsd
electrically to the cabin and tiiere recorded. See " Report, Brit. Association, 1865," p. 45.

Diagrams UiiMbrUin^ the AirecEone of

- lit YYCt' .

i, iusga e. ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS

^^ ■</ C A L n s •^-:«

^.-Y-'iP'' *«t-3-7 , /Sir

Zai.52
Loru.K'

CALMS '.<*:-<

i-^ w»._«?y«.» v:!^

Syii...8-4 . ;-— -

•A^N.N?

6 / ii ''VV

.\^\ -.

Lot. 47 "N.

.Lon..20''W. ,' VV'\ll?!;«

Zab.5Z''N.

^^^^§^ CALM S •r-;-"

S#r._5-6 . i::f

Sum-*' • J!><

Ant -I 7 . .%-o''

1 rt'---.. X'

'"i-;/ CALMS
, I:: Win._l-6/>'c!-'

Suin.-8-5 .

— •

i i

lecause con-
ind in these
ngtruments,
lie quantity
m. But, as
icioas; they
d under the
« years this
as has been
listantfirom

est firom an

IaJtAT>N.
Zon,.:iO'>W.

Zai,.47'>S.

fe-

CALM S
Win _4 jt't
Spr_5' ,
Sym..4-7 .
Aut..a'5 .

V'i

Ion.. 45" W.

' . ' >{ ijo; A-o,'

CALMS

o..

I ~:: Win. at ^'«* v.

■*".:.:: Spr_4« . •-<:>

~~\ Sum- 5 . i^^

♦:••?;:•;. Adt.Ji . .•.■-'

>*»■

^tliil'%"

.\">'

^>*^

O' '3

CALMS
Win _8t/e*

Suiii..5'2 .
.,, > A»t._8 6 ,

-„">/ -'4 V .

*-^;^ CALMS ''':k.

^■•••-•--•••; Sr-4-7 . r;v.s'
i Su«i_7« . .:^

Z7(/- 'irn>»« ivprciv/if winds hlotfint) hmnni Hir rmtrr

HWtir fr<U ) liln-uiaMh.^ 0- itUM/iuv Au«f. I JiiAoti/i, Nov

>lai-. '^ • {.tiirw I Sep. lUoc.

Tltf } tuidi I'f tlif iimiifs IS fiifpovtiotuitr h< Hiffrriftimcy cf'tliiil ivtiu}

so 60 70 ao

• .-.I ■ _

80 100

K H ^«.iif*i«. L?ndii"

i }

the ^

THE ANTI-TRADES, OH PASSAGE WINDS.

S09

examination of the quantity (or force) of the winds, rather than its prevalence, fix>in
those quarters ; so that mere numerical preponderance g^ves an imperfect notion of
the real proportion of westerly or easterly winds. Thus, as has been before remarked
on p. 187, the Pilot Charts of Capt. Maury, though the result of vast labour and of
the first importance as one grand repertory of facts, are deficient in this respect. A
perfect Wind Chart is yet to be constructed.

(67.) LiyerpooL — At the Liverpool Observatory, an anemometer, the invention of
Mr. A. Follett Osier, F.R.S., registered the force, or rather the motion and direction
of the air, for the years 1852, 3, 4, and 5 ; and the lines thus drawn bv the machine
itself are reduced on the diagram- shown. The lines represent the actual direction and
distance, according to scale, travelled by the wind over the instrument. Upon look-
ing at these lines, except the general tendency to the eastward, there is no simi-
lanty between the years ; yet, oy taking the abiwlute motion throughout the year of
the wind from any quarter, and forming a single diagram, there is seen to be a
remarkable identity in them alL

Thus, the main direction of the wind in 1854, was rather to the southward of
West : in^ 1852, it was to N.W. } and in the other two years, although to the West,
yet the wind was very devious.

Notwithstandiug the wide difference in the line formed in these different'years, yet,
if the whole amount of wind in each year b arranged graphically for eacn point of
the compass, they are very similar to each other, showing that a fixed law prevails {
which is still more evident if the duration of their prevalence were taken instead of
their quantity or velocity. This is shown on the wind-star^ on the diagram.

These diagrams will demonstrate the uncertainty there is in predicting from past
experience what will be the character of the wind at any time, and at the same time
will show that the mean of the chances will be contracted within vi^rj nnrrow
limits.

(68.) The total amount of the horizontal motion of the air at Liverpool, as regi-
stered by the anemometer, is also exceedingly alike in different years, as is diown by
these figures: —

Wind in Miles.

Calms.

Rain.

Duration.

1852
1853
1854
1855

114,276
105,989
128,283
103,405

19 hours.
27 „
4 „
12 „

31*59 inches.
22'47 „
2211 „
22-57 „

683 hours.
625 „
637 „
540 „

Mean.

112,989

15-5 „

2469 „

597 „ or
24 davB 21 hours.

The $easona have an influence in the velocity of the wind; thus these observations
show, that in Winter (Dec. to Feb.), the mean rate is 15-6 miles per hour ; Spring
(March to May), 12*1 miles per hour ; Sumtner (June to Aug.), 11*8 miles per hour ;
and Autumn (Sept. to Nov.), 11-5 milcK per hour. The day winds are stronger than
at night: thus, at midnight, it travels 11*2 miles per hour; 6 a.m., 11*8 miles per
hour; 9 a.m., 12-9 miles; noon, 15*2 miles; 3 p.m., 14*6 miles ; 6 p.m.. 12*7 miles }
and 9 p.m., 11*6 miles per hour.

.IJ- ■' -

• 7

,*T, ,, «»!•> ^;

210

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

Diteotion.

MUes
per*Hour,

N.N.E

N.E

E.N.E

6.2

6-6

7-8

110

E.S.E

S.E

S.S.E

9-6

11-6

11-4

10-3

S.8.W.

S.W

11-8

16-7

W.S.W

16-6

18-9

W.N.W

N.W

N.N.W

190

17-4

12-7

7.R

But the more important general deduction to be
derived from these observations is the &ct, as before
alluded to (67.), tiiat all winds having a wetterly
bearing travel very much the fiurtest ; those from
south to east proceed at a much slower rate : while
such as come from the north and east average but
little more tilian a third of the rate of the westerly
winds. All this is made clear by a glance at the
a(^oining column of figures, which gives the mean
rate in miles per hour of the winds maa. the various
directions ; and will show further, that the wind-
roses and figures of Maury's and other charts do
not give an accurate knowledge of this zone of
wincb, as the westerly winds, though by them made
greatly to predominate; do not show the actttal
amount of those winds by, perhaps, one-half or
two-thirds tiieir real quantity. All the strongest
gales recorded in those years come frx)m western
quarters.

(69.) Notwithstanding that the results shown bv the Liverpool anemometer are of
the utmost value, and great labour and skill have been exercised in reducing them to
a comprehensive form by Mr. Hartnap, the able suDerintendent ; yet they contain
evidence of the interference of land influences, as alluaed to in (66.J, on page 208. By
his last dissertations,* as here shown, the winds from N.N.W. ana S.S.E. were moNt
prevalent, whereas the prevalent Section in England is from the west, with the
polar current from the N.E. ; showing that the form of the valley of the Mersey has
much to do with diverting the normal direction of the wind. Still these observations,
as before stated, are most mstructive and important.

no.) There is one remark respecting land observations, which is important ; —
" All the synoptic charts hitherto advanced at the Board of Trade exhibit a marked
diminution of force on land compared with that on the sea coast. Indeed, the coast
itself offers similar evidence in its stunted, sloping trees, and comparative barren-
ness." t The trees in many localities form excellent wind-vanes, as, by their grow^th,
they show exactly the du-ection from whence the most powerfiil and persistent
winds come. . , .

It would seem, also, that the land has a tendency to draw the wind towards it, so
as in some mcasiu'e to make it appear that the prevalent direction is more across the
line of direction of that coast than is really the case. Looking at the simultaneous
observations now daily collected and published for a great extent of coast, this is very
apparent. All thctsc arguments tend fx) lessen the value, in some degree, of those
extended and accurate records of tho winds on land. The mean direction of the wind,
derived from land observations, however, as given by Kamtis and Dovci is as
followa:— ••-— — — •• • •_

England S. 66° W.

France and Holland . . S. 88° W.
Germany S. 76° W.

Denmark S. 62° W. 4*

Sweden S. 77° W. ...»

N. part of United States . . S. 86° W. utf

(71.) English Channel. — The following are the results of fifteen consecutive years'
observations upon the wind taken by M. Nell de Briautt, at the Chupelle, near Dieppe,
at an elevation of 410 feet above the sea : —

• " Boport, BritiHh Assoointion, 1856," p. 137, &c. ; and also " Report of the Dirocfion
and Strength of the Wind at the Liverpool Observutory, 1862— I8A7." It is fh)m tUeiio
■ourcoB that the above facts and H^res are derived.

t Third Numbw, Motuui. raponi, by Admiral FitaRoy, 1858, \i. 00. ,

THE ANTI-TRADES, OR PASSAOB WINDS.

311

Dirootion of the
Wind.

Mean number of
Days.

Maiimnn^.

Minimnm.

South.

S.W.

West.

N.W.

North.

N.E.

East.

S.E;

37
93
48
62
36
41
23
31

In 1828— 64 days.
1823—121 „
1830— 72 „

1825— 72 „

1819— 66 „

1826— 64 „

1820— 41 „
1818— 46 „

1820 and 1825—28 days.
1831—67 „
1829—31 „
1832—38 „
1821—21 „
1828—22 „
1821—12 „
1827—19 „

Total, 361 Days.

,. , -.r.-r,,.

From this table the following conclusions may be drawn : —

In the 365 days of the year there are about 361 of wind, and 4 or 5 of dead calm.

If the horizon is divided into four equal parts, there will be

135 days with the windbetween South and West, *

94 „ „ between West and North,

7j __ __

II
II

between North and East,
between Eaiit and South.

And consequently there are : —
The maximum of wmds between South and West takes place in November and December,
The minimum „ „ May and June. ,

The maximum of winds between West and North takes place in July and August. *

The minimum „ „ October and December. ;.

The maximum of winds between North and East takes place in May and June. !<

The minimum „ „ October and November. «

The maximum of winds bctw aen East and South takes place in December and June. \
The minimum „ „ June and July.

Moderate winds from North and N.E. are those which bring fine weather. In
summer the N.E. wind blows more particularly in the afternoon ; in the morning the
wind is S.E., a slight breeze, and towards noon it changes quicklv to N.E. ; then it
freshens, and towards the evening it sinks ; at night it iti calm, and the coolness con-
denses the vapours. When this condensation does not take place, it is a sign of a
change of wind.

Dead calms are of rare occurrence, and do not last long, except during summer.
When they occur in winter, it is regarded as the precursor of bad weather. It is
always, in reality, an indication of a change in the airoction of the wind.

(72.'| The fore^ing remarks will be ample for the purpose of giving the sailor an
idea of the relative duration, force, and direetion of the wind m that part of the
Atlantic. Reverting to the observation made on page 209, it may be re-statcd, that
from the variuble nature of its changes and the great difference that is found to occijr
between one period and another, yet when theHO are combined in a long series of ob-
servations there is great similarly, yet it cannot be predicted cr asserted with cer-
tainty that (. particular wind wul occur at a certain time ; but what has been said
will show what the chances are of such wind occwring. For the ftirther service of
the mariner, in foretelling what weather is approachii^, he is referred to Admiral
FitzRoy's •• Barometer Manual."

(73.) In the open ocean, between Europe and America, we have only the numerical

• Upon comparing this direction of W. to 8. with the Liverpotol obsorvationH, as given in
the diagraniB, &c., on p. 209, the distiirbiug action of the land will be evidont.

219

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

resalts collected in Copt. MatuVs Pilot Charts, as a souroe from whence to deduce
emj exact system. These, an the foregoing remarks -will show, are in some degree
fallacious, in not giving the force or quantity of wind, as well as its frequency, in any
direction, — a very important consideration to the sailor in making use of " these
%rave west winds." However, they are very valuable in enabling lum to form a con-
clusion as to the chances he may have of meeting with any wind.

The diagrams adjoining have been drawn up from the Pilot Charts in the same
manner as those given on page 187, to illustrate the Trade winds. The^ are selected
fix>m those parts of the ocean most generally traversed by ships crossmg it in the
strength of these westerly winds. Their localities are mown by the latitude and
longitude assigned to such diagram, which thus represents the wind in the region for
150 miles around that position. But, as will be seen at <a glance, there is a great
similarity in the general features of them alL

The principle upon which these wind-roses are constructed is explained on page
187 (29.) ; and the six examples there given are analyzed in that page. The remark
in the note (*) diould be particularly attended to in connexion with the observations
on these Anti-Trade winds, as it is clearly futile to endeavour to lay down any refined
rule for their practical application. As were certainly is a doubt as to the accuracy
of the recorded direction of the wind to tiie extent of two points, — ^to lav down rules
for sailing over any area with a course limited to a few degrees, certainly appears to
be a neemess refinement with such data to argue upon.

(74.) In comparing these observaticHis, recorded by Mr. Osier's self-registering
wind-guage at Liverpool, as shown in page 209, with the second diagram adjoining, —
that for lat. 52° N., long. 15° W., or off the West coast of Ii-eland, where we might
expect to find some degree of similarity, there appears to be soarely any accordance

apparent discrepancy exists. If the arrows on the west (or windward)
these diagrams were enlarged in proportion to the relative force, and the easterly
arrows diminished in like manner, there would be a much nearer approximation.
This comparison will demonstrate how the direction of the valley of the Mersey, and
the line of docks and walls at Liverpool around the Observatory, have diverted the
true direction of the winds. For the purpose of still frirther exemplifying this, the
mean of the observations recorded at Birmingham for 4 years, by another anemometer
of Mr. Osier's, is given. Although this is inland, and necessarily subjeet to land
influences, the south-westerly preponderance is most clearly marked, and would pro>
bably be much moi-e like thusc in open ocean could the latter be registered by similar

means.

The diagprams, ns we give them, or the figures in Maury's Chart, must be studied
should any ^ater exactness in the relative duration of any wind be required than
can be acquired at a cursory glance ; and in the former case, as was before explained,
the length of the award applied to the scale at the bottom of the plate will give the
exact ratio per cent, of the wind represented by that arrow. n; , ;, ^ , /:

One general remark only need be ^iven : it is, that about the Azores the gfreatest
irregularity in the direction of the wind appears to occur in these latitudes ; during
the summer months the wind is frequently from northern quarters, driving before it
the cooler water from the polar regions, and thus abnormally reducing the tempera-
ture. Besides this, there appears to be a conflict between this southern and western
tendency, and the Trade which is established to the west of them.

(75.) AMEBIOA.— OuLF AND KiVEft OP St. Lawrence.— Rcar-Admiral Bayfield
states that, during the navigable season, the prevailing winds are either directly up or
directly down the estuary of ^f. Lawrence, following the course of the chains of high
lands on cither side of the great valley of the river. Thus a S.E. wind in the gulf becomes
E.S.E. between Anticosti and the South coast, E.N.E. above Point de Monts, and N.E.
above Qreen Island. The westerly winds do not appear to be so much guided in direction
by the high lands, excepting along the South coast, where a W.S.W. wind at the Isle
— ' ' ' ■ — ^^^ N.W., on running down along the

Pic has been

".x to become West, W.N.W^.

high and curved South coast, until it became a N.N.W. wind at Cape Oasp^. These

THE ANTI-TRADES, OR PASSAGE-WINDS.

213

winds frequently blow strong for three or fonr days in succesmon : the westerly winds
being almost always accompanied with fine, dry, clear, and sunny weather; the
easterly winds as frequently with the contrary, cold, wet, and foggy. In the spring
ths easterly winds prevail most, frequently blowing for several weeks in succession.
As the summer advances, the westeny winds become more frequent, and the B.Yt.
wind ma^ be said to be the prevailing wind in simmier, in all parts of the river aajd
^;ulf. Light South winds take place occasionally ; but North winds are not common
in summer, although they sometimes occur. Steady North winds do not blow fre-
quently before September, excepting for a few hours at a time, when they generally
succeed easterly winds which have died away to a calm, forming the commencement
of strrnig winds, and usually veering to the S.W. The N.W. wind is dry, with bright
clear sky, flying clouds, and showers. After the autumnal equinox, winds to the
northward or West become more common, and are then often strong, steady winds of
considerable duration. In the months of October and November the N.W. wind fre-
quently blows with great violence, in heavy squaUs, with passing showers of hail and
snow, anu attended with sharp frost. ^a"-'^j

Thundernstorms are not uncommon in July and August ; they seldom last above an
hour or two, but the wind proceeding from them is, in general, violent and sudden,
particularly when near the mountainous part of the coast ; sail should, therefore, be
fully and quickly reduced on their approach.

Strong winds seldom veer from one quarter of the compass to another directly or
nearly contrary ; in general, they die away by deg^es to a calm, and are succeeded
by a wind in tbe opposite direction. It is not here meant, that they ma}' not veer to
the amount of several points. N.W. winds seldom veer round by North and N.E. to
East and S.E. ; but they do frequently, by degiees, to the S.W., after becoming mo-
derate. S.W. winds seldom veer by tne N.W. and North to the eastward, but some-
times by the South to S.E. and East. Easterly winds generally decrease to a calm,
succeeded by a wind from the opposite direction.

In the fine weather westerly winds of summer a fresh top-^llant breeze will often
decrease to a light breeze or calm at night, and spring up agam from the same quarter
on the following morning : under these circumstances only may a land-breeze off the
North coast be called for. The same has been observed of the South coast also, but
not so decidedly, nor extending so far off shore. Admiral Bayfield adds, " I have
occasionally carried the North land-wind nearly over to the South coast just before
daylight ; but have never observed the South land-wind extend more than 6 or 6
miles off, and that very rarely. Under the same circumstances, that is, with a fine
weather westerly wind going down with the sun, a S.W. land-breeze will frequently
be found blowing off the North coast of Anticosti at night and during the early part
of the morning. If, however, the weather be not settled fair, and the wind does not
fall with the B\m, it will usually prove worse than useless to run a vessel close in
shore at night in the hope of a breeze off the land. Such is tbe usual course of the
winds in common reasons, in which a very heavy gale of wind will probably not be
experienced from May to October, although close-reefed top-sail breezes are usually
common enough. Occasionally, however, there are years, the character of which is
decidedly stormy. Qales of wind, of considerable strength, then follow each other in
quick succession, and from opposite quarters.

NovA-ScoTiA. — The prevailing winds on all the coast are from W.S.W. to S.W.,
nearly as steady as trade toindn ; excepting that, during the summer months, they are
rather more southerly, accompanied with but little intermission by fog, which requires
a north-westerly vnnd to disperse it. It is, therefore, recommended not to leave an
anchorage wivhout making arrangements for reaching another before dark, or the
appearance of a fog coming on, which, with a S.W. wind, is so sudden, that you aro
unawares enveloped in it ; nor to keep at sea during the night, if it can be avoided.
Whenever the wind blows directly off the land the fog is soon dispersed.

Rnnnor ana summer

uSuno

fog-

ur rum almost

Saht-e Inland. — In tho ^^ „ „

always accompany all winds from the sea, from E.N.E., round south, to W.S.W.^ In
winter, the rain h fi'cqurntly replaced by snow. During the autumnal and winter

214

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

months, 'winds frdm between North and West become more freqnentt wd, being oflF
the land, are alwajra accompanied with clear weather.

Strong gales of wind do not often occur in May, June, or Julv ; but, alter the
middle of August, they are often of great strength, and it becomes the more neoessary
to attend careftilly to the indications of the barometer. Strong winds ttom East,
round South, to W.S.W., ai-e always accompanied by a foiling barometer. When,
therefore, these winds begin to abate, and the barometer at the same time ceases to
fall, a change of wind, more or less sudden, to the op^site direction may be expected,
witJi a rising barometer and fine weather ; and if it be winter, with intense frost,
coating the vessel, her sails and rigging, with ice.

Again, a high barometer, stationary or beginning to tall, indicates that a S.E. or
S. W. wind, with accompanying rain and fog, is not far distant ; and if, at the same
time, there be a bank of clouds rising above the north-western horizon, the indication
is certain.

South Cakolina, Sec. — About this coast, if the wind blows hard from the N.E.

Saarter, without rain, it commonly continues so for some time, perha^ three or four
ays ; but, if such winds are attended with rain, they generally shift to the East,
E.^.E., and S.E. S.E. winds blow right in on the coast ; but they seldom blow dry,
or continue long: in six, eight, or ten hours after their commencement, the sky
begins te look dirty, which soon produces rain. When it comes to blow and rain very
hard, you may be sure the wind will fly round to the N.W. quarter, and blow hard
for twenty or thirty hours, with a clear sky,

N.W. winds are always attended with clear weather ; they sometimes blow very
hard, but seldom for longer than thirty hours. The most lasting winds are those
which blow from, the S.S.W. and W.N.W., and from the North to the E.N.E. The
weather is most settled when the wind is any of these quarters.

In summer time, thunder-gusts are very common on this coast ; they always come
from the N.W. quarter, and are sometimes so heavy that no canvas can withstand
their fiiry : they come on so suddenly, that the greatest precaution is necessary to
guard against tne effects of their violence.

.^^^r

HUBBICANES.

(76.) Among the most extraordinary phenomena of natm'e, may be classed those
tremendous meteors, the hurricanes and tornadoes of the tropical regions. Until
within a recent period they were very imperfectly understood, and were only re-
garded as terrible convulsions of the aerial system, when all order seemed to be broken
up. But these, like many other apparent anomalies in nature, have been found
reducible to system ; and their various seemingly capricious motions all sul^cct to
general rules, which, in this case, have been aptly denominated " The Law qf
Storms."

The discussions on the progressive nature of liunicanes appear to have originated
in a paper, entitled, " Remorks on the Prevailing Storms of the Atlantic Coast of the
North American States, by William C. Redfield, of the City of New York j" which
has proved to be a vciy important and valuable addition to nautical literature. The
Bubii?c't, adopting the «• Redfield Theory," has since been amplified and illustrated by
thelite Lieutenant-Colonel (afterwards Sir) William Rcid, R.E. and C.B., Governor
of the Bermudas and of Malte, in his beautiful volume, bearing for the title, " An
Attempt to Develop the Law of Storms by means of Facts, aiTanged according to
Place and Time, and hence to point out a Cause for the Vaiiablc Winds, with a view

HURRICANES.

815

to pittctioal use in NaTiffation," &o. As connected with this subject, the names of
Redfield and Reid wul be imperishable.*

We say that the discussion appears to have originated in the before-mentioned
works s but, without deciding on the claims of {niority, it must be mentioned that,
besides the names of Reid and Redfield, those of Mr. Piddington, at Calcutta ; Dr.
Thom, in the Indian Ocean ; of Mr. Espy, in America, and of Professor Dovi, at
BerUn, must be enrolled with them, as the primaiy instigators of the inquiry into the
origin and nature of storms.

There are various names applied to these storms : Revolving storms, Hurricanes,
Tornadoes (Spanish and expressive " turned"), Cyclone, Typhoons, &c. ; but all are
meant to desmbe the same thing.

In the fore^ing remarks on the winds, on pages 178, 179, the general theory of
atmospheric circulation is described ; and in (19.) and (20.), page 184, is a reaumS of
the whole, wbicb will show the localities in which these phenomena occur. The
subject is also illustrated by the plate at the commencement of this Volume.

(77.) Although the " Law f Storms" is now ftiUy recognized, yet opinion i" still
divided as to me real character and condition of these remarkable meteors. Tleid,
Redfield, and others, contend that they are real vortices — currents of air revolviiuf
round a progressing centre ; others, as Thom, contend that the wind blows in spirals
around this centre ; Espy, that the wind blows toward the centre : others, again, con-
sider that vertical motion of the air will explain many of the phenomena. It is also
argued, that, instead of a circle, the form of the storm is elongated, ellipsoidal, or even
straight, moving broadside onwards. Jinman considers that, as the air is blowing
away firom one area another cuirent necessarily blows towards and into that area,
caufflug the peculiar features of these hurricanes. It would be out of place, and
for too discursive for this Work, to discuss these various propositions. They may
readily be found in the numerous works extant.

One remark may suffice. Is it not possible, na\, probable, that each of these
theories may be correct as to individual cyclones, wmcn may be (and are) of such
varied character as not to be reducible in all cases to a fixed rule P However, it is
certain that in many examples the true revolving storm is the proper appellation, and
the rules now applied will give the means of avoiding their fury.

In our description of the Winds, &c., page 184, we gave the theory that has been
universally received as the cause of the Trade-winds and their attendant phenomena
in the general atmospheric currents.

(78.) From all the investigations on the subject, the following conclusions have
been arrived at. The hurricane, or rotary storm, commences within the tropics, on
either side of the E'xuator ; those in North latitude, the motion of the revolving circle it
from right to Mt, past the North, or against the sun : while the storm progresses to
the W.N.W., N.W., North j forming a cycloidal curve in about 30° N. tat., and runs
oflftotheN.E.

South of the Equator, or in the southern hemisphere, this rule is reversed, the storm
revolving from left to right, and passing onwards in a S.W., and finally in a S.E.
course.

The diameter of these circular vortices varies from 40 to 50 or even 1,000 mileo,
probably increasing in size in their onward progress. Their rate of travelling varies
from 3 to 60 miles per hour.

There are numerous minor peculiarities connected with these Cyclones, which will

* " My attention was first directed to tho subject from my having been employed at Bar-
badoes in re-establishing the Government buildings blown down in tho hurricane of 1831 ;
when, from the violence of the wind, 1,477 persons lost thoir lives in the short space of
seven hours. I was induced to search overywlioro for Recounts of pFeviouM storms, in the
bopo of looming something of their causes and mode of action." — Rtid, " Law of Stornu,"
p. 1. This work is illustrated with ton largo charts, besides other engravings, . , , ^

216

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

be gatiiered from the subsequent remarks. But the great point with the mariner is
to avoid their fiuy, and, having ascertained their character and his relative position
on the meteor, to make the best course for getting away from it. Colonel Sir William
Reid's " Law," is simple, and will be best given in his own words.

(79.) Colonel Sir W. Reid'a Rule for laying Ships to in Hurricanes. — ^That tack on
which a ship should be laid-to in a hurricane Ims hitherto been a problem to be
solved, and is one which seamen have long considered important to have explained.

In these tempests, when a vessel is lying-to, and the wind veers by the sMp's head,
she is in danger of getting stem-way, even when no sail is set ; for in a hurricane the
wind's force upon the mairts and yards alone will produce this effest should the wind
veer ahead, and it is supposed that vesseb have onen foundered from thistause.

When the wind veers aft, as it is called, or by the stem, this danger is avoided, and
a ship then comes up to the wind, instead of having to break off from it.

If great storms obey fixed laws, and the explanation of them in this Work be the
true one, then the rule for laying a ship to follows like the corollary of a problem
already solved. In order to define the two sides of a storm, that side will be nailed
the ri^ht-hand semicircle which is on the right of a storm's course, as we look in the
direction in which it is moving, just as we speak of the right bank of a river.

The rule for laying a ship to will be, tchen in the right-hand semicircle to heave-to
on the starboard tack, and tolten in the left-hand semicircle to heave-to on the port tack
in both hemispheres.*

(61.) Mr. Bedfield says : — " At stations within the tropics, the changes of wind,
during the passage of the hurricane, are sometimes k^^own to exceed those which per-
tain to the passage of a regular circuit of wind; these changes sometimes running
through the entire circuit of the compass, and even more. Again, they have been
known to shift backtoard andfonaam, in alternate and fitfrd^faanges, when near the
crisis of the storm. These phenomena, so far from disproving the rotative character
of these gales, only prove something more, and afford, at least, probable evidence in
support of one or both of the following positions, viz. : — 1. That high land and other
obstouctions often produce sudden and fitfol gusts and changes in these violent winds.
2. That, in accordwce with onr observations of minor vortices, the axis of rotation ie
often impelled, excentrically, around a smaller circuit, in the interior of the ad-
vancing storm.

" In the northern intertropical latitudes the recession or departure of the south-
eastern limb of the storm appears to be followed, not unfrequently, by strong squalls
or gusto tram S.E., this bemg the true course of the general trade-wind that deter-
mines the track of the storm. Tliese gusts, or squalu, if mistaken for the regular
action of the hurricane, may occasion erroneous deductions in reg^ard to the course
of the storm.

** At stotions apparently within the re^ar track of the storm, there will sometimes
be an absence of violent wind ; or the violence will pertain to only one of the phases,
which the storm presents, in its regular course over such locality.

« Some storms are interrupted in their development by the near approach of
another storm. Care must be taken, therefore, not to mistake the N.E. wind of a
storm whose north-western limb is Uius intercepted by a bordering storm, and which
hence is som, -times followed by the natural current of air fivm the S.W. quarter, for
the changes that pertain to the centre of the gale."

Mr. Redfield says, in conclusion, " That courses and developments of the storms
which pass over the Island of Great Britain are believed Lo be more complex than on
the shores of the United Stetes. It is not improbable that the course of many Eu-
ropean storms is in a south-eastern direction. A comparison of marine reporto has
shown me that, while a storm was blowing at West or W.S.W. in the English

• " An Attempt io Develop the Law of Storms," Srd edition. I8«0j p. 609 ; and " The
Frogress, sc, of the JLaw of Storms and of Variable Winds," 1849, p. 25.

HURRICANES, ETC.

217

Channel, it \ra8 blowing S.E. at ELdnore ; at N.E. on the East coast of Scotland ;
and at North and N.W. in the Irish Channel ; thus exhibiting, plainly, a rotation to
the left : but it is on cai-eful investigations, herea^r to be nwde, that we must rely
for a proper development of the system of European storms." *

(82.) The Season which is m" liable to these visitations is between July and
October; they are comparativelj rare during other months, though not entirely
unknown. The following is a list of 113, arranged in the months they occurred in
the West Indies, taken fi-om Mr. Birt's Hand-Book :—

Jan

Feb.
1

Mar. I Apr.
2 I

May

June
4

July
15

Aug. Sept
36 25

Oct.
27

Nov.
1

Dec.
2

Total.
113

y C^^n>*<.'<C^^ /ifn£ ^fc<'-^-->-t.-tf--«--rt^ .<t^Bi-«.-^-77 .^--/-^Tt^--/

•^"■a*

ch of these
1 law, the
lent of the
n after it
las bcgnn.

t^TL^ eL.^*~C^ <n.'*^ 4,,.TU^ yf>dS€ yt^'A^ /(■%<^C^

' ■ ^ - ^ •^- * ff^ y6f-'n^ fTL-'-^-r-n^ ^ .^m^ •s'^t-^-z^ )re slowly,

.tc-rru^ a^ -<fe^t^ 'fn-^ri'^^ ^i^-tz^ fffaati^^^f* rise, and

Ln' J -'^.'t^.tf^ f-TL^Cy. d't^-rt' -TL-iL-p-tS-^w.-^^^t'^i^ 4^ y6>/^-c^ ieor to pass
J,«A-*^f^-'>ic'^-^-/-i5V'-<Bc-^</€>^^^^^ -A€ M<.t.f^ic9^ atmosphere

\ti M^-n.'^-u/ '^Tz,*-^-*^ a,S-^-n,*^ A^, ' upper sm*-

.——-.... „ V . > variations

in the barometric column. It by no means follows that, piuctically, this will alwava
be found : a ship may only skirt the exterior of the storm, and, consequently, tne
mercury will only rise, or oscillate, according to the relative position of the hurricane
and the ship ; bat it .nay be taken as an indication, when the barometer begins slowly
to rise after being depressed, that the greatest danger has passed over, or that the
s'hip is steering away from it. Therefore, should there be any sudden change in the
barometer, either rismg or falling, its indications should never oe neglected, especially
daring the period, and in the regions, subject to these storms. % The barometer some-
times sinks two inche$ during the progress of a hurricane. — (See Aeid, pp. 268, 271.)

One great advantage in the Aneroid barometer is, that its variations occur simul-
taneously with their causes. In the mercu-4al barometer, the friction of the mercury
on the tube, and other reasons, concur to make the column r'se or fall at some time after
the change has occurred. In this the Aneroid barometer possesses great advantage,
and it has another veiy great claim to notice, — that it clearly shows very minute
changes, which the oscillation or pumping motion of the mercury in bad weather will
not tulow to be estimated.

(84.) The main object of the navigator, when assailed by a hurricane, should be to
keep his vessel clear of the centre of rotation, a» there the strength of the wind con-
centrates, sudden shifts take place, and heavy and confused seas break. It is obvious,,
that the nearer the vortex is approached the quicker the shift of wind will be, and
vice versd, t "wtsr -.-■-• -: .■■,,«■ -....j ., -»,,-...:> ■;:. ., .,,»'• ■ -,.-.■ v

♦ " American Journal of Science and Arts," vol. xxxv. f " Reid," p. 421.

X In connexion with barometric changes, we may here advert to the constitution of the
atmos^^ere, as mentioned on p. 180. To that statement we will add the oonclusious arrived
at by Professor Dov6, of Berlm, from his observations. In the northern bomisphore, the
baronuter fells during E.S.E. and E. winds, passeE from falling^ to risiug during S-W., riHes
with W.N.W. and N., and has its maximum rise with N.E. wind.

The thermometer riites with E.S.E. and S. winds, has its maximum with S.W., fulls with
W.N.W. and N., and its minimum at N.E.

The tkutieity of vapour increascr, with E.S.E. and S. winds, has its maximum at S.W.,
and dimiidshos during the wind's progress by W. and N.W. to N ; ut N.E. it has 4
minimum,

2 K

216

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

%<'^^f^0--97 ^{?

^2««>tV* i^kf-^-9-

J?^^«-*-.«^

at^y^^-tf

be gatbered firom the subsequent remarks. But the great point with the mariner is
to avoid their fiuy, and, having ascertained their character and his relative poflition
on the meteor, to make the best course for getting away from it. Colonel Sir William
Beid's " Law," is simple, and will be best given in his own words.

(79.) Colonel Sir W. Reid'a Rule for laying Ships to in Hurricanes. — ^That tack on
which a shi^ should be laid-to in a huiTicane mis hitherto been a problem to be
solved, and is one which seamen have long considered important to have explained.

In these tempests, when a vessel is lying-to, and the wind veers by the ship's head,
she is in danger of getting stem-way, even when no sail is set ; for in a hunicane t^e
wind's force upon the masts and yards alone will produce this effect should the wind

veer ahead " ^ '^ "~ '~'~'"'""»«' ♦!»«•♦ waooola Kavo often fennrlorod &nm tliiat>iiiiiia. tv.ftfi

Whentl -

a ship thex

If great!
true one, t]
already sol
the ri^ht-h
direction u

The rule
on the star\
in both herl

(81.) Mi. ,

during the passage of tfie hurricane, are sometimes k\iown to exceed those which per-
tain to the passage of a regular circuit of wind; these changes sometimes running
through the entire circuit oi the compass, and even more. Again, they have been
known to shift backward andfortoara, in alternate and nt^^lunges, when near the
crisis of the storm. These phenomena, so far from disproving the rotative character
of these gales, only prove something more, and afford, at least, probable evidence in
support of one or both of the followmg positions, viz. : — 1. That high land and other
obstructions often produce sudden and fitful gusts and changes in these violent winds.
2. That, in accordwce with our observations of minor vortices, the axis of rotation is
often impelled, excentrically, around a smaller circuit, in the interior of the ad-
vancing storm.

« In the northern intertropical latitudes the recession or departure of the south-
eastern limb of the storm ap^ars to be followed, not unfrequently, b^ strong squalls
or gusts fit>m S.E., this bemg the true course of the general trade-wind that deter-
mines the track of the storm. These gusts, or squalls, if mistaken for the regular
action of the hurricane, may occasion erroneous deductions in regard to the course
of the storm.

** At stations apparently within the re^ar track of the storm, there will sometimes
be an absence of violent wind ; or the violence will pertain to oitly one of the phases,
which the storm presents, in its regular course over such locality.

** Some storms are interrupted in their development by the near approach of
another storm. Care must be taken, therefore, not to mistake the N.E. wind of a
storm whose north-western limb is tiius intercepted by a bordering storm, and which
hence is sometimes followed by the natural current of air fivm the S.W. quarter, for
the changes that pertain to the centre of the gale."

Mr. Redfield says, in conclusion, " That courses and developments of the storms
which pass over the Island of Great Britain are believed to be more complex than on
the shores of the United States. It is not improbable that the course of many Eu-
ropean storms is in a south-eastern direction. A comparison of marine reports has
shown me that, while a storm was blowing at West or W.S.W. in the English

• " An Attempt to Develop the Law of Storms," .3rd edition, 1850> p. 609 ; and " The
Progress, &c., of the Law of Stomu and of Variable Wiuda," 1849, p. 25.

HORRICANES, ETC.

217

Channel, it was blowing S.E. at Elsinore ; at N.E. on the East coast of Scotland ;
and at North and N.W. in the Irish Channel ; thus exhibiting, plainly, a rotation to
the left : but it is on cai-eful investigations, hereafter to be made, that we must rely
for a proper development of the system of European stiorms." •

(82.) The Season which is most liable to these visitations is between July and
October; they are comparatively rare during other months, though not entirely
imknown. The following is a list of 11 C, arranged in the months uey occurred in
the West Indies, taken fiom Mr. Birt's Hand-Book : —

Jan

Feb.
1

Mar.
2

Apr.

May

June
4

July
15

Aug.
36

Sept.
25

Oct.
27

Nov.
1

Dec.
2

TotaL
113

;■ I

(83.) The Barometer will be found an unerring indicator of the approach of these
meteors, pi-ovided proper attention be paid to its monitions. As a general law, the
Ebllowiag will be its. usual vibrations: — Just previous to the commencement of the
hurricane, the mercuiy will suddenly rise above its oi-dinary level ; f soon after it
will begin to fall, and the wind probably rises, showing that the storm has begun.
The merciuial column then begins to descend, rapidly at first, and then more slowly,
till the centre of the hurricane has passed over, when it begins gradually to rise, and
the reverse of the commencement ensues ; it attains a higher level, and then as sud-
':jdenly falls to the mean height. This is supposing the whole of the meteor to pass

"'over, and the centre to be crossed; the mercury snowing the quantity of atmosphere
above. Upon a little consideration, it will be evident that the form of the upper sm*-

i face of the revolving storm, or the section of the voi-tex, is described by the variations
in the barometric column. It by no means follows that, practically, this will aiivays
be found : a ship may only skirt the exterior of the storm, and, consequently, tne
mercury will only rise, or ossUlate, according to the relative position of the hurricane
and the ship , bat it may be taken as an indication, when the barometer begins slowly
to rise after being depressed, that the greatest danger has passed over, or that the
ship is steering away from it. Therefore, should there be any sudden change in the
barometer, either rismg or falling, its indications should never be neglected, especially
daring the period, and in the regions, subject to these stoims. % The barometer some-
times sinks two inches daring the progress of a hurricane. — (See Beid, pp. 268, 271.)

One great advantage in the Aneroid barometer is, that its variations occur simul-
taneously with their causes. In the mercuiial barometer, the friction of the mercury
on the tube, and other reasons, concur to make the column rise or fall at some time after
the change has occurred. In this the Aneroid barometer possesses great advantoge,
and tt has another very great claim to notice, — ^that it clearly shows very minut«
changes, which the oscillation or pumping motion of the mercury in bad weather will
not allow to be estimated.

(84.) The main object of the navigator, v/hen assailed by a hurricane, should be to
keep his vessel clear of the centre of rotation, as there the str.3ngth of the wind con-
centrates, sudden shifts take place, and heapy and confused seas break. It is obvious,.
that the nearer the vortex is approached the quicker the shift of wind will be, and
vice verad.

• " American Journal of Science and Arts," vol, sxxv. f ♦' Reid," p. 421.

X In comiexion with barometric changes, we may here advert to the constitution of thfi
atmosphere, as mentioned on p. 180. To that statement we will add the oonclu8ioq.s ayrivod
at by Professor Dov6, of Berhn, from his observations. In the northern hemisphere, the
barometer fells during E.S.E. and £, winds, passes from fulling to rising during S.W., rises
with W.N.W. and N., and has its maximum rise with N.^. wind.

The thernumeter rises with E.S.E. and S. winds, has its maximum with S.W., falls with
W.N.W. and N., and its minimum at N.E.

The ekuticity of vapour increases with E.S.E. and S. winds, has its mnximnm at ^.W.,
and diminishes during the wind's progress by W. and N.W. to N ; at N.E. it has a
minimum,

2 K

218

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

The centre of the atorm is most likely to be different at varioiu times : but it m
certain that, in Rome cases, a certain intervid occurs, and this of considerable extent ;
while in others it has been thought that there is no calm or open space free from its
impetuosity. At all events, it must naturally be supposed, that the nearer the
proximity of the centre the greater must be the danger from the force of the wind,
and its more quickly shifting its direction.

Lieutenant Ecana remarks that, " When fairly under the dominion or power of the
storm, and in any part of the area, except in tlie immediate 'V'icinage of the oenti-e of
rotation, a ship will not be liable to be taken aback ; because, if scudding, she would
not intersect the wind ; and if she be lying-to, it will either break her off or draw aft
gradually, according to the tack she is on : but the case may be different under cer-
toin circumstances. Most ships are dismasted at the crisis ; that is to say, at the time
the wind blowe etrongeat, whicn is always on the nearest approach from the centre to
any given position. ' The point at which the wind of the hurricane cotnmencea, if
observed, will make known to the observer the verge under which he is placed.

J 85.) Prognoatica. — With that threatening aspect of the sky which generally pre-
es all stoitns, — such as the greasy halo round the sun or moon, tne rolled and
tufted forms of the clouds, with their lurid streaks of light and extraordinary colours,
and the heavy bank clinging to the hoi*izon with its darting forks and threads of pale
lightning, — every seaman is acquainted. The best and surest of all warnings 'will,
however, be found in that invaluable and seldom-failing monitor, the barometer ; the
language of which, in the torid zone, is unmistakeable, because there it is usually so
tranquil and undistmbed. When any such warning ka mptoms are obsen^ed in any
quarter of the wocld it may be supposed that no time will be lost in making all due
preparation, and especially if to such menacing appearances be added the conftised
and troubled agitation of the sea which often precedes these revolving storms, and
always shows that they are at no great distance. But if these combined prognostics
should occur within the limits of those regiona in which these cyclones occur, let the
seaman immediately consider the possibiUty, at least, of his being about to encounter
a storm of that revohing type of which we have been treating.*

(86.) Acting under this anticipation, his first care should be to discover the position
of the storm with respect to the vessel, or, in other words, to ascertain its bearing.
Fortunately this is a prablem of extreme facility, for, as we have already stated, it is
one of the remarkable laws of these storms that in opposite hemispheres they revolve
in opposite directions — in North latitudes against the course of the sun, that is to say,
tcom. right to left, or in a direction contrary to the movement of tibe hands of a watcn,
and in South latitudes tcom. left to right ; and, secondly, it is knovra that, no matter
how ^at or how little may he the size of the storm-field, the wind continually blows
in a circular course round and round a centre or vortex. It therefore necessarily and
demonstratively follows that this centre must always be at right angles to that cir-
cular course ; or, in other words, that the bearing of the centre lies 8 points of the
compass from the direction of the wind. Now, these two considerations are quite
enough for our purpose, for they enable us to answer the question instantly and cer-
tainly by the following general rule : —

• Although it is true that the prognostics of a commor. coming storm nre, in genorul,
BuflSciently plain to bo understood liy a spectator, from the an^Ty appearance of the firma-
ment, yet it is also true that there is no jMirticular indication in any one quarter of the
horizon sufficiently maikod, like the space occupied by the B'.ack squall panoply of tlie
Caribbean Sea ; — so that an acuto seaman shall say, " thence wiL the blast come. On the
contrary, the clouds gather together (we speak from experience) in dense masses, of a
cinereous hue, in every direction, until the whole canopy of heaven is overspread, and tlio
gloom at last becomes bo intense that, even at mid-day, to speak within bounds, beyond a
quarter of a mile no object can be even indistinctly seen. There are, however, some degrees
of variation in the intensity of the obscurity ; but we all know that the measure of distance
by the eye upon such an exciting occasionis not likely to be very exact ; at one period in a
hurricane, just as the ship was dismasted, at the cnsig, near noon, v,'ei ooubl riot elcftrly dis-
tinguish the end of the bowHprit from the quarter-deck. — Jjietitenaiit Eratis.

HURRICANES, ETC.

219

; but it is
)le extent ;
ee from its
aeurer the
the 'wind,

wer of the
,e centre of
she would
}r draw aft
under cer-
at the time
le centre to
nmences, if
aced.

lerallv pre-
rolled and
iry colours,
;ads of pale
mings 'n-ill,
^meter; the
9 usually so
ved in any
dag all due
he conftised
storms, and
prognostics
3cur, let the
o encounter

the position
its bearing,
stated, it is
hey revolve
it IS to say,
of a watcn,
;, no matter
lally blows
ssarily and
;o that cir-
>ints of the
s are quite
y and cer-

in general,
the firma-
rter of the
oply of tlie
/• On the
lasses, of a
lad, and tho
beyond a
>me degrees
of diBtnnce
peiiod in a
rlcmi'lv clis-

(87.), Rule. — Look to the wind's eye, — set its bearing by the compass, — ^take the
8th point to the BIGHT thereof — and that will be the oearing of the centre of the
storm if in noi-di latitude ; or, if in south latitude, the 8th point to the LEFT of the
direction of the wind. For example : suppose the vessel to be in 14° N. latitude, the
wind from E.S.E., and the barometer and sky indicating a coming gale, — then, look
at the compass, take the 8th point to the right of E.S.E., and S.S. W. will infallibly
be the bearing of the brewing storm, if it be of a revolving type. Or, under simihur
appearances oi the weather in 14° S. latitude, yrith the wind S.W., take 8 points to
the left of S.W., and S.E. will consequently be the direction of the centre of the im-
pending gale. In the foi-mer case, the vessel will be on tb'^ northern edge of
the storm-field; and in the latter, she will be somewhere in its north-western
segment.

figi

'^S/i In order to simplify'this subject, and render it perfectly clear, a copy of the
'urc annexed (obligingly communicated to Mr.Purdy by the late Lieutsnant Evans,

220

OBSERVA'nONS ON WINDS.

who wrote on this subject imder the name of " Stormy Jack"), may be drawn on thick

Eaper or card-board. The outer circle to be fixed, representing the points of the
orizon ; the inner circle, with index, to be moveable, and attached, with a button in
the centre, so as to revolve on the outer or under circle : thus the inner circle may
rejpresent the phases of the wind, as it gyrates round a centre ; the arrows showing
the revolution of the aerial current from right to left. The moveable circle is sub-
divided into four quadrants, for the purpose of fieudlitating the mode of operation.

Here (says Lieutenant Evans) it will be obvious that, if a vessel be caught under
the N.N.W. verge of the hiuricane, the wind; as shown by the arrow annexed to that
point, will be, apparently, from E.N.E., and the changes will be seen as they occur
progressively. On the N.E. verge of the hurricane the wind will appear to come from
the S.E. On the North verge the wind will be East ; and if on the West, it will be
northerly, as shown in the %ure.

The subject, when considered, will be readily understood : only bearing in mind
that the shifts of wind will appear, in moat eases, to be from left to right, while the
general teind is actually pursuing quite a contrary direction.

S)9.) To use the instrument, formed as above, place the moveable circle upon the
er one. East, in juxtaposition with the North point of the horizon. The vessel's
position may be marked as a stationary spot on the outer or under circle — say under
the N.N.W. verge, where the wind is at E.N.E. ; then move the upper circle in the
line of progression to the N.W., which is the general line pursued, and the changes of
the wind will be seen as they occur on the object marked.

The direction of the wind is independent of the progression of the storm ; and as
the current of air, whilst sweeping round the centre, pursues one unvaried path, it
follows that, under every point of the horizon, there will be experienced a wind blow-
ing at right angles to it, unchangeable in its direction ; thus, under the North point
of the horizon, there will be an East wind ; under the South point, a West wind ; and
under the East point, a South wind. So that, were the storm stationary, a ship
scudding round the entire circle, from any given position, would experience the wind
firom every jwint of the compass, in regular succession ; but this, as the fact is, can
very rarefy, if ever, happen, on account of the progressive movement of the entire
meteor.

As these storms do not pursue a uniform velocity, the rate of their actual pro*
gression can be arrived at only after they have ceased to act on any two or more sta-
tionary spots J or upon two ships, by noting the exact time each experienced the first
shock of the hurricane, and also the time of its departure, respectively. Some cause
or causes operate to accelerate the rate at one time, and retard it at another.

On reference to the preceding diagram, it will be seen, that if a ship first encoun-
ters a htu-ricane with the wind at E.N.E., she will be under the N.W. verge ; and as
the progression is (generally) to the N.W., the changes of the wind will bo to the
eastward, going round to the S.E. and South, and ending with it at about S.W. by S.
Ajtparently these changes will be from right to left.

It becomes necessary here to observe, that, although the general medium coume of
the hurricane in the West Indies has been found to be N.W., yet in two or three in-
stances we have reason for believing that either a deviation in particular parts of its
course, or otherwise a vibration of oscillation of the entire mt'toor, has taken nlace.
Any deviation, however, from the general course pursued by the storm to the N.W.
can easily be detected, from the veering of the wind ; as that ought to be regular,
wh( ' the progressive path of the stoim is regular, except at or near the vortex. For
insti. tee, if the hurricane commences at E.N.E., and tne wind docs not follow the
regular successive changes, as noted above, we may be assured thut the storm is not
pursuing a course to tlie N.W. ; and the true lino of progix-ssion may be ascertained
by the circle, so as to gain the corresponding points of oliange to those which occur.

Again, if the storm commences at North, the wind ought to veer (under the same
nrogressive direction of N.W.J to the N.W., West, and. end with it about W. bv S. or
w.S.W. Hat if, after the wind has got to West, the storm should end with it at
bouth (as it did at Antigua in 1804), we shall be assured that a deviation had taken

HURRICANES, ETC.

321

wn on thick
nnts of the
a button in
r circle may
wa showing
ircle is sub-
eration.

aught under
exed to that
is they occur
o come from
it, it wUl be

ing in mind
bit, while the

cle upon the
The vessel's
! — ^say under
circle in the
ke changes of

arm ; and as
ried path, it
I wind blow-
North point
it wind ; and
tnary, a ship
nee the wind
e fact is, can
>f the entire

actual pro-
>r more sta-
iced the first

Some cause

rst encoun-
; and as

bo to the
S.W. by S.

courae of
three in-
arts of its
jkcn place.
\o the N.W.
I bo regular,
jrtex. For
follow the
jtorm is not
I ascertained
lioh occur.

ST the same
bv 8. or
with it at
hud taken

place at the westward in the progression, or otherwise a vibration or oscillation to the
southward.

The uncertainty q{ these aberratioas should not deter the navigator from placing
confidence in the general remarks here {riven, as these phased on Mr. Redfield's theory)
have been arrived at from experience, from &cts which are incontrovertible, and from
a careful study of the subject ; and besides, should these variations not happen, and to
a certainty they do not uways occur (at least on the ocean), he may benefit by them ;
whilst, under a case of their occurrence, no rules can possibly be given for his
gruidance ; he must place his veasel in the best position his judgment points out, and
passively await the result. t^c-, .,

We shall now endeavour to explain, in the plainest manner we can, the operation
of the wind, and its effects on a vessel in each of the quadrants, when tiie progression
is to the N.W.

(90.) First, or N.E. Quadrant — ^Wind from South to East. The changes of wind,
if rt vessel be lying-to, will appear to take place from left to rwht throughout : as the
wind will seem to draw round them from the eastwwd toward the Sout^, although it
is in fact proceeding the contrary way, or from right to left.

The navigator's attention is particularly directed to this apparent paradox ; for,
whilst he notes the wind down m his journal as veering with the sun, it is all the
time, as remarked before, going the contrary way ! The delusion is occasioned by the
progression of the hurricane to the N.W,, which, bv receding from the vessel's posi-
tion, has the effect of bringing up the more southerly phases of the wind in succession,
and, consequently, impairing to these an apparent contrary direction to that which
the whole current of air is actually pursuing. This deceptory process is somewhat
similar to the well-known astronomical illusion every day before our eyes : we allude
to the apparent cotirse of the great luminary. Not only can we imagine, from the
evidence of our sense of seeing (not at all times to be depended upon), that the sun is
moving from East to West, nut, in common parlance, such idea is invariably ex-
pressed ; yet everybody knows that this is only apparent, and that the delusion is
occasionea by the diurnal rotation of the earth round its axis from West to East.

This point, however, once clearly understood, will no longer perplex us ; and the
best mode to adopt, in order to avoid being puzzled, is, to use tho moveable circle
with the phases of the wind marked on the run, placing it over the fixed circle with
the points of the horizon marked to represent the ocean.

We note proceed with the first quadrant. If a ship scuds to the northward, the
direction of the n > > orations of the wind will in a great measure depend upon her ve-
locity, as she is crossing obliquely the course of the progression : if she Keeps pace
with the northerly advance of the storm, the wind will remain the same ; ii she
exceeds it, the wind will draw round to the eastward ; and if the progression out-
strips her, the changes will be to the southward. In either of the latter coses the
vanatioiis will be few, in all probability ; and the westerly progress may be expected
to cauHO the ship to bo speedily thrown out of the circle of operations.

A ship is likely to enter this quadrant only under the northern verge from the
North to the N.E. point : if she happens to be standing to the southward, vnthin the
limits of the trade- wind, she will bo liable to be taken aback ; but if standing to tk»
northward, of course she will not.

(91.) Second, or S.E. Quadrant. — Wind L-om West to South. A ship lying-to,
with tne wind from any point between South and S.W., the shifts will be from the
southward toward the "West, apparently {torn left to right. If the wind be between
the S.W. and West, there will bo few if any changes, as the ship will be near tho
posterior line of the progression; what changes mav happen will probubly bo from
West towards tho South. The vessel will soon be clear of tho commotion. It seems

gretty evident that a vessel will not, in the firwt instanec, bo liable to fall under tho
w.E. verge in this quadrant, for this reason — that she cannot overtake the hurricane,
as its velocity, in all probability, at any time would exceed her rate of sailing. She
may, however, just touch litci-ally about the southern verge, where sh« would get the

222

OBSERVATIONS ON Wl^DS.

wind fimm the West. To eater this quadrant, therefore, a ship must pons througl^
some other.

(93.) Third, or S. W. Quadrant.— Wihd finom North to West. A ship lying-to, the
wind from the noi-thward (as the storm progresses) will draw rouftd to the weMtward,
firom right to left, truly as apparently so.

As a ship scuds to the southward and eastward, the wind will draw round in
the same manner as mentioned above. It appears obvioTis, that a vessel falling into
the ctorm, under any point in this quadrant, would merely feel the " bnuh," but she
will be liable to be taken aback if standing to the northward or north-eastward on
first entering the scene of operation, supposing her to be within the limits of the
trade-wind.

(94.) Iburth, or If. W. Quadrant ^Wind from East to North. If a ship lies-to

witili tne wind at any point between East and N.E., it will a^aear to draw round firom
left to right, or ftata. N.E. by E. to East. If she lies-to with the wind between
N.E. and North, the shifts will be from right to left, or fix>m N.E. by N. to North.
Under the N.W. verge (where the wind is at N.E.), a ship, being there in the line
of the anterior progression, will drift, probably, into or very near to the centre of
the circle, whicn, on account of the sudden shifting of tne wind there, should,
if possible, be avoided, as there the greatest danger may correctly be considered as
existing.

If a shin scuds, under the same circumstances of winds, the changes will appear the
same as above given ; but slower in the first instance, and quicker in the second, for
these reasons : that in the one case, the points of change are receding from her as she
advances ; and in the other, they draw toward her approach, her velocity through the
water accelerating the alterations; and this difference is occasioned by the progression
to the N.W.

Within the limits of the trade-wind, if a ship be standing to the southward, she wiU
not be liable to be taken aback, or striking the storm in tms quadranti but she would
be so if steering to the northward. • .Vn . . ih-ik^t^^

It should be constantly held in remembrance, that, under atl circumstances, the
wind remains the same; or, in other words, that under any given point of the horizon,
the wind will be found to blow from a particular direction unchangeable, so that there
is actually no shifting ; the changes observable being occasioned by the progression of
the storm to the N.W., and the movements of a vessel.

From this peculiar character of the tempest, the course which a ship will pursue
through the circle of operations, as also the successive changes of the wind, as these
appear to take place, become an easy problem to solve, after having noted the point
finom which the first wind or the first shift, is felt, provided no £vergcncy in the
course, or vibratory motion of the meteor, takes place.

Although a ship in most cases, we imagine, may be more likely to fall into the oirale
of operations under the north-western verge of the storm than in any other part, as
that is the anterior advancing section, no general mles can be laid down for the
guidance of the mariner for placing his ship in such a position so as to ensure her
not being taken aback when the storm shall be first felt, oeoause until thiit moment
aiTives, when the direction of the first blast is to become his " polar star," ho cannot,
with unerring certainty, anticipate his position with resjiect to the particular verge
of the hurricane that is approaching him.

Under such unavoidable circumstances, he must use his best judgment in prepara-
tion for meeting the woi-st, and be ready to lay his vessel to, or to scud, according to
the direction of the wind flrHt exiwrienccd. To be quite sui-e of what he is about to
do, perhaps the safest plan would bo to wait until the first sh^ takes place after the
commencement of the storm } by which measure, his {rasition would bo confirmed, a
point of material consequence to arrive at.

I'.vor^ experienced scamnn, after having given the theory his best attention, and
made himself familiar with the whole worKing of the wonderful meteor, will of cdiii-ho
follow the dictates of his own mature judgment, upon an occasion that will assuredly

HURRICANES, ETC.

22ar

call forth the flill exercise of it. Withont, therefore, presnmiiig or desiring to obtrude
upon him the manner we ooraelves should act under a case of such uncertainty,
which would demand all the resources of mind of the individual commander, for the
first time placed in such a dilemma, we shall nevertheless offer it here a mere
'llustration.

Let us, then, buppose that we are steering to the northward in our ship, within the
limits of the trade-wind (call it E.N.E.), and that certain prognostics appear, which
our judgment informs us forbode a storm. If it happens to be the hurricane season,
we are bound by prudence to prepare the ship for encountering a tempest of that
nature, even though appearances may induce us to think that such would not eventu-
ally happen ; for, whether a mere common gale or a hurricane should follow, every
sensible person will admit that, during that season, it is the wisest, as it is the safest
plan, to be prepared to meet the worst that may happen under such appearances. It
must be recollected, that nature herself proclaims the warning, and her admonitions
are not to be disregarded with impunity.

Without loss of time, we make the ship snug, hatches battened down, &c. This
done, we should bring her to the wind on the starboard tack, with her head to the
northward, with a fore and a mizen storm stav-sail. We cannot, as we said before,
anticipate under what verge of the storm we shall enter, but 'Vi e shall have done all
that prudence can dictate, oy lying-to tcithout square sails, and of course making our
minds up to have the fore-and-aftors blown to shreds by the new wind, come from
whatsoever quarter it may. In this position we must wait patiently until the first
shift of wind takes place. If this shoild be from E.N.E. to E. by N. and East, we
should make ourselves easy in the position obtained, with reference to the particular
vergo >: storm, as well as in that we had placed the ship ; having the assurance

(from ft of wind) that the anterior verge which had struck us, would be now

runni ^y at the rate of from 15 to 20 miles an hour, whilst our drift to the

westward would not exceed 3jt miles in the same time ; so that every point that the
wind drew round toward the South, would tell as plainly as if a map of the whole
operations were suspended in the heavens overhead, for our consolation, that our exit
from the commotion was i-apidly drawing nearer and nearer ; and that, if the ship
proved equal to contend wiui the crisis, and no vibration occurred, we should escape
the centra.

This may sound, in the style of the celebrated Francis Moore, of predicting memory,
very like " taking a peep into ftiturity." We are not, however, studying the doctrine
of probabilities. As far as we at present know of the matter, and (thanks to Mr. Red-
fleld) we have sained a pretty general insight into it, there appears but two circum-
stances at all likely to upset our calculations and foresight of wnat is to hap])en, and
there are, as intimated before, a divergency in the line of progression, or a vibration
of the entire meteor j and here we are taught, thi>t, with all the wide and searching
capacity of our minds, there is a point beyond which it is not permitted man to peer.
We have been allowed, however, to glean enough of the economy of this wonderful
phenomenon, to excite our unfeigned gratitude to Him "who rules the whirlwind aud
the storm." We proceed : —

On the other hand, if the shifL of wind was to the N.E., or even a point on cither
ride, we should immeidiately know that we were in the " very jaws of the lion ;" ond
to escape being overwhelmed in the vortex we i .ust run for it.* On this uccasioii,
every moment is of importance, when we bear in mind that we are now in the path
which the centre will follow. To the S.W., therefore, we start away, not without an
impressive dread, as the wind comes veering round aud round towara the North, of a
too close approximation to the vortex, toward which cui-ve the ship makes inclines.
If we coulu tell the exact diameter of the hurricane, and its precise rate of progres-
sion, we could calculate pretty occurately whether, and ot wnat distonce, we should

* Whon iho iino of pron:roR8ion is to tho W.N.W. (a dirertion which soinp of the most
Houtliorn Htoims hnvo purnu(i<l), it would bo wrong to scud with tho wind at Nil.; but n 'u
ftt N.N.K., it would bo jiropor to do so.

224

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

pass the centre ; but tm them data can never be obtained, we have nothing other-
'wise than prudence, to gude ub in this pai'ticnlar case, the most perilous that can
occur.

There is a very nice point to be determined upon at this juncture, and one, although
there will be but a few minutes for decision, that should not be rashly fettled j a sort
of choice between the scalpin^knife and the tomahawk — a very forlorn hope, take
which measure you please ; it is ^bis : to scud under square sail, or to run with bare
poles ? Now, however desirable i is that top-sail should be carried in a storm where
the waves rie to a great height, c d break in heavy surt; and a ship's way is lessened
as she drop .nto the trough, to prevent her £rom being pooped, yet, we say, although
it shovld be practicable to set a close-reefed main-topsau, the propriety oi so doing is
questionable until the wind has drawn round to the westward of North (and then it
might as well be left alone), for not before tlutt will the dreaded centre have been
passed ; and as th^re can be no certainty of a ship's safety until that " consummation"
has been accomplished, the chance of being taken aback with square soil deserves the
most serious consideration of the commander. The danger in both cases is imminent ;
but, in determining for ourselves, we should run with bare poles, until finally thrown
out of the storm. Indeed, after al' the judgment, care, anxiety, and apprehension
which may be displayed and felt on so trying an occasion, our pproximation, not-
withstanding the vessel's dash of 12 or 13 knots, may be so near the vortex as
that every stick shall be blown out of her. And we unpreseivelv declare our con-
viction, tnat hitherto the majority, if not all, the vessels that 'have been lost in
hurricanes and typhoons, have foundered by foiling into the centre with square sail
Mt whilst scuddmg. On lying-to, no sail woAd stand the disruptive puffs for five
seconds !

We have ourselves, in utter ignorance of the oi.erations as they occur, and are here
stated, been scudding in a ftigate, partly dismasted, with reefed main-sail (the only
sail available), before the rurious blast of a hm-ricane, after the wind had veered to
the S.W. As it happened, we had fortunately dropped into the second quadrant, and
were drawing near our exit, but we knew nouiing of that ; and if it had happened in
the fourth quadi-ant, ai:d we had got into the centre, there is no doubt but that the
ship mu^ have foundered ! But to proceed : —

No other resource is available to us under such circumstances as described above ;
and no other alternative remains except the desperate one of bcaving-to, defying the
iary of the storm, and takins the chance of being thrown directly into the centre of
commotion ; where, if the ship should not founder, she would, there is scarcely a
doubt, lose her masts, and be ptherwise complete^ assailed at all points by the ragmg
elements! ^ . _• ^ ..^ ■;,,,-.,Kk.- .■.. .. .. ,.:]■ ua.>\.:^ .: (,.-:,? ,• ilj^h Tr '.i ,,>;si^*.

The N.W. V rge of the hurricane, whilst it advances in that direction, is the *• very
head arid ^ront' of the danger, the nucleus of which follows, in a direct line, the
advance of that point. The consequences, be they the foundering of the ship, or the
loss of her masts, &c., are inevitable. If prompt and active measures are not taken .^o get
out of that position.

Should the wind, at first, keep steady at E.N.E, for some time, which it would do
(if the storm is of preat extent) when a ship enters under the N.N.W. ver^, the
navi^toi may be a httlo puz/.led how to act, as anticipating a shift, to determine his
position ; he need be under no apprehension ; the shift will come in due time (accord-
ing to the extent of the circumrerencc) from the V,. by N., and so gradually round
(but quickening as he approaches the centro) to the southward : he may, however,
expect to loose some of his spars when the a-isia anives.

We have dwelt longer upon the action of the wind in the fourth or N.W.
quadrant, because under this anterior verge the greatest peril may follow ; and we
may now be permitted to express a hope that mariners may derive some little
advantage ftt)m the perusal of mis paper, as the writer has devoted his best attention
to the subject with tnc sole view of rendering them, as brother sailors, a service.

John Kvans.

(Oft.) W« will close this portion of our remarks wivi. some general observations on

HURRICANES, ETC.

ing other*
B wat can

;, although
led ; a sort
hope, take
L 'With bare
:onn where
is lessened
f, although
BO doing is
ind then it
have been
lunmation"
Leservcs the
imminent ;
illy thrown
tprehensiou
nation, not-
! vortex as
ve our con-
leen lost in
square sail
iffs for five

nd are here
itY (the only
d veered to
adiant, and
mppencd in
ut that the

bed above }

lefying the

centre of

Hcarcciy a

the raging

the *' very
t line, the
fhip, or the
iken >*o get

would do

ver^, the

termine his

le (accord-

lally round

\, however,

or N.W.
and wo
:)me little
attention
k-vice.

KVANS.

Ivationa on

♦He siibjeot by Captain Richard Leighton, of Montrose, to whose kindness and talent
WP : .. :r«lebted for numerous additions to hydrography: —

" '.st. Outward-bound ships. As the S-E. storm-wind is generally nearly directly
in fi'ont of the storm, on meeting with that wind and a failing barometer, &c., you
should bear off freely to the north-westwai'd, thet is, nearly at right angles with the
route of the gale, and all that you run that way will increase your distance from the
centre when it passes you ; whilst, if you run westwarc, you will pass so near to
the centre that you will be taken aback by the wind flying into the north-west-
ward ; the object is to skirt the gale, and ham more westerly as the wind veers to the
eastward.

" 2nd. When the wind is to the southward of S.E., it appears that you must pass
through the right-hand semicircle, and should haul to and hold all the soutaem
that you can ; lay down the bearing and distance of the centre, and as soon as
practicable, by a second bearing and al':tance, estimate the route of the gale and its
progress.

" 3i*d. Estimate your distance, and the course that you arc likely to make, clear of
leeway, and some veering in the wind, and this will give you an idea at what distance
you are likely to pass the centre, and what is likely to occur. Knowledge is power.
Most cany soil long enough, but many don't set it soon enottgh.

" 4th. The fcrther the wind is to the southward, the nearer you must pose to the
centre, and as the wind veers and breaks her off, she will lay in the trough of the sea,
and is most likely to get damage that way, so that if the wmd gets loose, it is time to*
be upon the right tack (that i«, the starboard tack, with westerly winds, in the At-
lantic, being in the rignt-hand semicircle). Every one knows best what his own
ship will mar, and what she will perform; however, if you tcill go ahead till the
last minute, when the barometer stops falling, it is high time, to have her round
upon the rij>ht tack, as there is generally a tremendous gust shortly after the baro-
rieter stops JPalling : or, when she has made a slight rise, an 1 the ship should be upon
the st&iboai-d tack, that she may come tip and bow the sea when she takes it,

" 5th. To wait for ' the lull,' or the ' sky to the westwai-d lighting up, to indicate
the shift,' will often be too late.

" Gth. Eight miles per hour, I think, is a fair medium for the rate of progress of
rotatory gales in the Atlantic anC Southern Indian Oceans. The regular West
India cyclone l;ravcls generally much quicker, and some Mauritius cyclones have
a very slow movement ; that which the Charles Heddle scudded three and a half
times round, only progressed about 2} fiilles per hour. — At Sea, August, 1851,—
R. Leighton."

(96.) EZAKPLES — ^To illustrate the pi-eceding remarks and directions, accounts
of a series of re^-olving storms is given. They are illustrated by the map before alluded
to at the commencement of the work.

Routes on the Chart — No, I. Trinidad to Yucatan, over the middle of the Caribbean
Sea, June 24 to 28, 1831.

No. II. Barbadoes to the Mississippi, August 10 to 17, 1831.

No. Ill Ouadaloupe to the Bank of Newfoundland, August 17 to 29, 1827.

No. IV. Ouadaloupe and Antigua to Charlestown, and thenoe to the Buy of Fundy,
September 3 to 10, 1804.

No. V. Antigua, passing over Cuba, to the coast of Texas, August 12 to 18, 1835.

No. VI. Barbuda to Chai-lestown, and thence to the Bank of Ne^vfomidland, August
12 to 19, 1830.

No. VII. From ihe intersection of 20" North and 60^ West (N.E. of Barbuda), pass-
ing to the Weet of Bermiula, and thence N.E. to the parallel of 42 J", September 29
to October 2, l8oJ.

No. VIII. From the parallel of 22° (North of Porto-Uico) to Cape Ilnttcras, to the
coast of Maine, Septemocr 1 to 5, 1821.

2 V

226

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

>( No. IX. From near the some spot as No. YIII., on a similar route, but more' to the

eastward, Aagust 22 to 27, 1830.

No. X. From the paitillel of 30° North, on the East side of the Florida Stream, to
Cape Sable of Nova Scotia, January 13 to 16, 1831.

No. XI. Inland storm, over the lakes, and thence to the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
November 10 to 12, 183a.

The route designated aa No. I. is that of the hurricane which visited the Islands of
Trinidad, Toba^, and Grenada, on the 23rd of June, 1831. Pursuing its course
through the Caribbean Sea, it was subsequently encountered by H.M. schooner Minx,
and other vessels, and its swell was thrown with great force up>'n the south-eastern
shores of Jamaica on the 2dth, while passing that island, where the wind at this
time was light from the noi-thward. " After sweeping through the Caribbean Sea,
the hurricane entered upon the coast of Yucatan, on uie night of the 27th, having
moved over the entire route from Triridad to the western shore of the Bay of Hon-
duras, in a little mora than 100 hours, a distance of nearly 1700 miles, equal to 17jniles
an hour.

Track No. II. is that of the hui-ricane which desolated Barbados in the night o^
the 10th of .lugust, 1831 ; and which passed Porto-Rico on the 12th; Aux Cayes, in
Ilayti, and S. lago de Cuba, on the 13th ; Matanzas on the 14th ; was encountered
off the Tortugas on the loth; in the Mexican Sea on the 16th, and was at Mobile,
^Pensaccla, and New Orleans on the 17th; a distance of 2,000 miles in about \50
hours, exceeding 13^ miles an hour. Its course, until it crossed the tropic of Cancer,
wus nearly W.N.W. Mr. Rediield adds — " in pursuing its northern course, after
leaving the ocean level, it must have encountered the mountain region of the Alle-
firanies, and was perhaps uisorganized by the resistance opposed by these elevations.
It api>ears, however, to have caused heavy rains in a large extent of country north-
eastward of the Mexican Sea."

Track No. HI. is that of the destructiue hurricane which swept over the Wind-
ward Islands, 17th August, 1827; visited St. Martin and St. Thomas on the 18th;
passed the N.E. coast of Hayti on the 19th ; Turks' Islands, on the 20th ; the Bahamas
on the 21st and 22nd; was encountered on the coast of Florida and South Carolina
on the 23rd and 24th ; off Cape Hatteras on the 25th ; off the Ddaware on the 26th ;
off Nantucket on the 27th, and off Sable Isle and Bank on the 28th. Its asceitained
coui'se and progess were nearly 3,000 miles in about eleven days ; or at the average
rate of about 11 miles an hour. The direction of its route, before crossing the tropic,
nearly N. 61° W., and in lat. 40°, while moving eastward, N. 58° E.

Track No. IV. An extensive hurricane of September, 1804, which swept over the
Windward Islands on the 3rd of that month ; the Virgin Islands and Poi-to-Rico on
the 4th ; Turks' Islands on the 5th ; the Bahamas and the Strait of Florida on the
6th ; the coast of Geoi-gia and the Carolinas on the 7th ; Chesapeake and Delaware,
with the continuous portions of Virginia, Maryland, and New Jersey, on the 8th ;
and the States of Massachusets, New Hampsliire, and Maine, on the *9th ; bcin" on
the high lands of New Hampshire a violent snow-storm. The destructive action of
this stonn was widely extended on both sides of tlie track indicated upon the chart,
and the same fact pertains in a greater or less degree to the other storms herein men-
tioned. It api)ears to have ^)assed from Martinique and the other Windward Islands
to Boston, by the usual curvilinear route, in about six days ; a distance of more than
2,200 miles, at an average pro<^ress of about 15^ miles an hour.

Tr'-i'k No. V. The route of the hurricane which ravaged Antigua, Nevis, and St.
Kitt's, in the afternoon and night of AugUNt 12th, 1835 ; St. Thomas, St. Croix, and
Porto-llic* , on the 13th ; Hayti and Turks' Islands on the 14th ; the vicinity of Ma-
tanzas and Havana on the 15th; was encountered off the Tortugas, on the Bank of
Floiida, on the 16th ; in lat. 27' 21', long. 94°, and other points on the 17th and 18tb;
and at Matamoras, near the Mexican shore, lat. 26° 4', on the 18th, where it was
most violent during the succeeding night. It also^ passed over Golvcston Bav, in
TexttH, and there blew with violence fi-om the SS.K. ; while at the mouths oi' the
^liMsiKNippi ond along the northern shores of tlie gulf, the galp \yuh not felt. This

HURRICANES, ETC:

<,>*/

287

storm is remarkable, as moving more diractly and farther to the West, than is usual
for storms which pass near the West Indian Islands, it having reached the Mexican
shores betbre commencing its sweep to the northward. Course, ah^ut N. 73° W. :
progress more than 2,200 miled in six days ; nearly equal to 13| miles an hour.

Track No. VI. The memorable rale of August, 1830, described hereafter, which,
passing close by the Windward Islands, visited St. Thomas on the, 12th was near
Turks' Islands on the 13th ; at the Bahamas on the 14th ; eastern coast of Florida on
the loth; coasts of Georgia aud the Carolina^ on the 16th; off Virginia, Maryland,
New Jersey, and New York on '' e 17th, off Oeovge's Bank and Cai)e Sable on the
18th ; and over the Newfoundland Bank on the 1,9th ; having occupied about seven
days in its ascertained coui'se fi-om near the Windward Islands, a distance of more
than 3,000 miles ; the rate of its progress being equal to 18 miles an hour. K, aA<*a
Mr. Redfield, we suppose the actual velocity of the wind, in its rotary movement, to
be five times greater than this rate of pi'ogresH, which iS not beyond the known ve-
locity of such winde, it will be found equal, in this period, to a rectilinear course of
15,000 miles. The same remark applies, in substance, to all the storms which are
now passing under review.

Track No. VII. was encountered to the northward of the Caribbee Islands on the
22th of September, 1830 ; its route was to the eastward of all those previously de-
scribed, and was found on the Grand Bank of Nev^oundland, October 2, having caused
great damage and destruction, on its widely-extended track, to the many vessels which
fell in its way. The ascertained route may be estimated at 1,800 miles, and the
average progress 25 miles an hour.

Track No. VIII., experienced in September, 1821, as more fully shown hereafter.
Thift hurricane was extremely violent ; it was enoountered to the north-eastward of
Turks' Islands, on the 1st of the month ; to the northward of the Bahamas and near
the latitude of 30" on the 2nd ; on the coast ox the Carolinos early in the morning of
the 3rd ; and from thence, in the course of that day, along the coast of New York and
Long Island ; and it is vepi'esentcd to have contmued its coui'se across the States of
Connecticut, Massachusets, New Hampshire, and Maine. The diameter of the stonn
appears to have exceeded 100 miles ; its ascertained route aud progress about 1,800
miles in sixty hours, equal to 30 miles an hour. ;/, <«im'fip f .''Jit 1> is^n'

A similar bat less violent stwm swept along the same portion of the coost of the
United States on the 28th of April, 183ii.

Track No. IX. The route of a violent and extensive hurricane, which was en-
countered to the noi-thward of Turks' Islands, August the 22nd, 1830; northward of
the Bahamas on the 23rd ; and off the coast of the United States on the 24th, 2oth,
and 26th of the same month. It produced much damage, but scarcely reached the
American shores. Its duration was about forty hours, and progress more tardy than
some others.

Track No. X. A violent hurricone and snow-storm, which Hv*ept along the American
const from the parallel of 30° North, on the oth and 6th of December, 1830, This
track corrcsiionds to another storm of similar character, which swept along the coast
on the 13th, 14th, and 15th of January, 1831. These violrnt whiter storms exhibiteil
nearly the same phases of wind and general characteristics as those which appear in
the summer and autumn.

Track No. XI. The violent inland storm which passed over the Lakes Erie ond
Ontario on the 11th of November, 1835. This storm was veiT extensive, spreading
from the sea-coast of Virginia into the Canadas, to a limit unknown. The anterior
portion of this gale was but modeiately felt, and its access was noted chiefly by the
aireetion of the Mind and the great fall of the barometer ; the violence of the storm
being exhibited chiefly by the posterior and colder portion of the gale, as is common
with extensive overland stoims. The r;>g^lar progression of the storm, in an eosterly
direction, was established by facts collected by Mr. Redfleld, from the borders of
Lake Michigan to the Uulf of St. Lawrence ind the coasts of New England and Nova
Bcotiu.

228

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

In perusing the deaci-iptiona above, it is to be noted that the lines on the Chart
representing the routes, are given by Mr. Redfield as but approximations to the centre
of the track or course of the several storms ; and the gales are to be considered as ex-
tending their rotative circuit from 50 to 300 miles or more, on each side of the de-
lineations ; the superficial extent of the storm being estimated both by c«tual infor-
mation and by its duration at any point near the central portion of its route, as
compared withi its average rate of progress.

The circular fig^ure which appears upon the Chart, on Tracks Nob. I., V., and VII.,
will serve, in some degree, to illustrate the course of the wind in the various portions
of the superficies covered by the storm, and also to explain the changes in the direc-
tion of the wind, which occur successively at various points, during the regular
progress of the gale.

(97.) HURRICANES of 1780.— From want of adequate information on the subject,
it was formerly assumed that the me.noi-able hurricane of the year 1780, which dis-

gjrsed and desti'oyed nearly all the llritish fleet in the West Indies, took its course
om W.N.W. to E.S.E. ; out from aathentic documents, acquired by Colonel Reid,
it has been shown that two great storms occurred nearly at the same time, and these
have been frequently confounded together, and considered but as one. The fli-st de-
stroyed the town of Savanna-la-Mar, on the »i-d of October, 1780. The second, and
by mr the gi eater one, passed over Barbadocs on the 10th and 11th of the same month,
as will be ^own hereafter.

The first or Savanna Hurricane appears to have progressed from the S.E. to the
western mrt of Jamaica, and thence passed in a N.N.E. dii-ection over Cuba, the Great
Bahama Bank, and Island of St. Salvador, continuing nearly in the same direction to
the parallel of 35° N., in long. 69° W., whereabout its ravages probably ceased. Be-
tween the 5th and 7th of October,' it annoyed the squadron under Rear- Admiral
Rowley, between the parallels of 28° and 29i°, long. 72^° to 75°,* previous to which,
at half-past five in tne morning of the 4th, the Phoenix frigate, under Sir Hyde
Parker, was diiven on shore and wrecked at about 3 leagues to the eastward of dape
Cruz, Cuba. At eleven p.m. of the. 2nd, the ship was off Poi-t Antonio, Jamaica, when
the wind began to blow, with a stormy appearance to the eastward, and she then
close-reefed her topsails. At eight a.m. of the 3rd, the wind was E.N.E., with occa-
sional heavy squalls ; and Sir Hyde remarked that the weather had the aatm appear-
ance as he had observed in the commencement of a hurricane in the East Indies. He then
ordered the topsails to be taken in, and wore the ship, in order to keep mid-channel
between Jamaica and Cuba.

At two p.m. the Phoenix lay-to, with a storm mizen staysail, and her head to the
northward. When night set in, the storm increased with great violence. At mid-
night the wind ^a» S!e., and the ship drawing upon Cuba, the captain proposed to
wear her, but no canvas could withstand the wind at this time, and under the direc-
tion of the first lieutenant, Archer, she was wore by sending 200 of the crew into the
fore-rigging. When about io cut away the masts, the ship took the ground, and if
bhe had not been driven on shore she must have foundered. All the sm^'s company
were saved, excepting twenty, most of whom were lost with the main-mast, and
V ashed overboard.

Of the ships in Rear-Admiral Rowley's squadron, above mentioned, on the 6tli and
7th of October, the Hector, Berwick, Bristol, Trident, and Ruby, wei*e disabled, and
mostly dismasted. They had been sent by the Admiral, Sir Peter Parker, to convoy
a fleet part of the way to Europe, and had subsequently the misfortune, in the same
month, to meet the great hurricane, next described.

The Savanna hurricane seems to have originated within the Caribbean Sea, and
■Mi to have passed over the Eastern Antillas, nor touched on the continental coast to
the southward. The Scarborough frigate, which was lying a few days before in

* Murkud • in the Chart.

HURRICANES, ETC.

229

Montego Bay, was lost, and it is supposed that she foundered near the western endof
Jamaica.*

The Great Hurricane, which commenced at Barbadoes on the lOth of October,
1780,t with preceded in the evening of the 9th b;^ weather remarkably caun, but tlie
sky surpi-isingly red and fiery, and during the night much rain feU. Thn storm ap-
proached from the S.E., and the ships of the sqiiadron stationed here experienced the
hurricane, each in turn, according to the place she was in. A letter from Dr. Blane,
dated from the Sandwich, Sii- Geo. Rodney's flag-ship, stated that it was not pre-
viously apprehended that there would be anything more than such a gale as they ex-
perience, from time to time, at that season ; but, on the evening of the 10th, the wind
rose to duch a degree of violence as clearly to amount to what is called a hurricane.
At eight p.m. it began to make impression on all the houses, by tearing off the roofb,
and overtnrowingi some of the walls. As the inhabitants had never been accustomed
to such a convulsion of nature, they remained for some time in security, but they now
began to began to be in the utmost consternation. * * * * It was thought to be at itd

S-eatest height at midnigh'., and did not abate considerably until eight next mornings
uring aU this time, most of the inhabitants had deserted their houses, to avoid being
buried in the ruins ; and every age, sex, and condition, were exposed in the fields to
the impetuous wind, incessant torrents of mn, and the terrora of thunder and
lightning. Many were overwhelmed in the ruins, either by clinging tor shelter too
lone in the buildings, or attempting to save whas was valuable, or by i.aavoidable
accidents in the fall of walls, roofs, and fiii-niture, the materials of which were pro-
jected to great distances. Even the bodies of men and cattle were lifted off and
carried above the ground. From an estimate of the nmnber of deaths reported to the
governor, they amounted to more than 3,000. All the fiiiits of the earth were de-
stroyed ; most of the trees torn up by the roots, and many of them stiipped of their
bark. The sea rose so high as to destroy the fori, cairying the great guns many
yards from the platfoim, and demolishing^ the houses near the beach. A ship was
driven on shore against one of the buildings of the naval hospital, which, by this
shock, and by the impetuosity ol the wind and sea, was entirely destroyed and swept
away. • • • ♦ The molc-ncad was swept away; and ridges of coral rock were
thrown up to above the suiface of the water : but the harbour and roadstead were,
upon th& whole, improved, having deepened in some places six feet, in others many
fathoms. The crust of coral, which had been the work of ajjcs, leaving a soft oozy
bottom, and many shells and fish were found ashore which had been previously
miknown.

The hurricane passed, in succession, over the Islands of St. Vincent, St. Lucia,
Mariinioue, and Dominica, and included within its area those of Guadaloupe, St.
Christoplier, St. Eustatius, &c. At St. Vincent, every building was blown down, and
the town destroyed. At St. Lucia, which was near the centre of the hm-ricane, all
the ban-acks and other buildings were blown down and the ships diiven to sea. At
Martinique, likewise, all the ships that had brought troops and provisions were blown
off the island. On the 12th, four ships with their crews foundered in Fort Royal Bay.
The other ships were blo^^Ti out of tne roads. In the town of St. Pien-e, on tlie N. W.
coast, every house was blo\tTi down, and more thu.. i,000 people perished. At Fort
Royal, the cathedral, seven churches, other religious edifices, inony public buildings,
ana 1,'00 houses, wei-e blown down, as was the hospital of Notie Daine, in which
1,600 sick and wounded, the greatest part of whom were buried in the ruins. The
number of persons who peiished in Martinique is said to have been 9,000. Dominica
likewise suffered greatly, and Guadaloupe was within the northern verge of the
hurricane.

At St. Eustatius, although not far within the N.E. verge, the loss was very gi-eat.

* Colonel Roid, " Law of Storms," pp. 276—278, and Chart ix. The colonel, as in other
cases, adds copious details, which plainly show where the hurricane did not operate, either
to the East or to tiiQ Wesl.

t The track of this liunicunc is shown on the Cliart comraencing between No. i. and ii.

230

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

On the 10th of 06tober, at eleven a-m., the sky on a sudden blackened all round t it
looked as dismal as night, attended with the most violent rains, thunder, lightning,
and wind. In the afternoon the gale increased; seven ships were driven on shore
near the North point, dashed to pieces on the rocks, and tb'^ir crews perished. Nine-
teen vessels cut their cables ano went to sea. In the niplit every house to the north-
ward and southwai'd was blown down, or washed away with the inhabitants into the
sea, a few only escaping. The houses to the East and West were not so much hurt
till the afternoon of lie 11th, when the wind, on a sudden, shifted to the eastward ;
and at night it blew with redoubled fury, and swept away every house; but the forts,
barracks, nospital, cathedral, and four churches, remained. Here between 4,000 and
5,000 persons are supposed to have lost their lives.

Advancing north-westward, the centre of the hurricane on the 14th had reached to
the Mona Passage, on the West of Porto-Rico. Here the Ulysses and Pomona, with
a fleet under their convoy, sufiered greatly, and here the l)eal Castle frigate was
' wrecked. Another frigate, the Diamond, fell within the western verge of the storm
pn the 15th, but happily escaped by passing Alto- Vela, on the South side of Hayti.
Above the parallel of 20° the Stitliny C'lntle, 64, was lost on the Silver Kay Bank,
and most of her crew perished. On the I8th we find, in about 22| N., and 69" W".,
the IVident, Ruby, Bristol, Hector, and Grafton, men-of-war, on the S.W. verge of
the stonn. The ship last mentioned, on the 16th, at noon, was in lat. 261°, long, (by
estimation) 71° 30'; heavy gales and cloudy ■i eather ; lying-to under trysails; the
gales split the sails to ribands. On the 18th, lying-to; strong gales and heavy
squalls. — 17th to 18th, cariied rapidly to the south-eastward, when the Trident,
Ruby, and Hector, came in sight as above. At eleven a.m. spoke the latter, in great
distress. I; ?.

The Ruby, Trident, and Bristol, on the 15th, were as high as 27| N., and they, too,
from the westera border of the hurricane, were driven to the southward, until they
joined company.

Here the detail becomes imperfect, until we reach the Bermudas; but to the N.E.
of these isles we find the Berwick, 74, on the 19th, which had fallen, on the 17th,
within the border of the hurricane from a position to the W.N.W., near the latitude
of 35°. This ship had previously been one of Rear-Admii'ai Rowley's squadron ; she
was pi'oceeding to England under jury -masts, and had reached to the North of the
latitude of the Bei-mudns when the hurricane overtook her. On the 16th, at eleven a.m.,
during calm, there Avas a great swell from the eastward. On the 17th, at one p.m.,
she was taken aback ; wore ship and handed topsails : at three, squally, with rain ;
loosed the topsails ; six to eight, wind E. by N., fresh gales. On the 18th, winds
vaiiable from the eastward, E. by N. to E.b.E. ; after midnight, strong gales and
heuAy squalls. At noon, by estimation, Bermudas S. 53° E. 31 leagues. — 19tli, at
one a.m., weather moderate, and the shii) ijroceeded en her course.

^* On the 18th about fifty vessels were driven on shore at Bei-muda. •* j *" -^^

We have been the more particular in giving these details, from having formerly
Veen misled by imperfect data. In the delineation of the " Great Hurricane," given
by Colonel Reid, he first assumes a circle ha%ang a radius of about 170 miles, which
gradually expands, on its N.W., North, and N.E. course, to 270, with, we may pre-
sume, a diminished and proportionate momentum, on the parallel of Bermuda. The
colonel observes that, on reading the logs and the various accounts of this hurricane,
and comparing the different reports of the wind, it will be found that no storm yet
described, more strongly than this proves the rotatory nature of hurricanes.

(98.) Trinidad, June, 1831. — {No. I. on the Chart.) — It will not readily bo forgotten
that, on the 23rd of June, 1831, Trinidad, in the parallel of 10^° N., experienced one
of the most awiul storms of wind and rain ever remembered by the oldest inhabitant.
The gale commenced at five o'clock on Thursday morning, and continued till eleven ;
the wind, after shifting fi'om East, North, West, and South, finally settled at S.W.,
end blow without intermission until three in the afternoon. Eleven or twelve vessels
were driven on shore, and several of them severely damaged.

It wa.i .subsequently stated that the hurricane was felt at all the Houthcrn islands,

HURRICANES, ETC.

2Sl

i round ; it
lightning,
1 on ehore
ed. Nine-
the north-
its into the
much hurt
eastward ;
it the forts,
1 4,000 and

reached to
mono, with
frigate was

the storm
I of Hayti.
Kay Bank,
ind*69" W.,
V. verge of
% long, (by
rysails ; the

and heavy
be Ti-ident,
:er, in great

d they, too,
, until they

to the N.E.
tn the 17th,
the latitude
I'ldron i she
orth of the
eleven a.m.,
one p.m.,

with rain ;
18th, winds
gales and

.— 19tli, at

ig formerly
Line," given
dies, which
re may pra-
luda. The
hurricane,
Btorm yet
s.

10 forgotten
ienccd one
inhabitant,
till eleven ;
;d at S.W.,
live vessels

irn islands,

where the loss it occasioned was very great. Such a storm, had not happened at
Granada since the year 1780 ; the devastation was extensive and dreadful ; and the
loss in that colony was estimated at £80,000. Its course to Yucatan is described
hereafter.

(99.) Sarbadoes, August, 1631. — (JVo. IL on the Cliart.) — ^In the night following
the 10th of August, or.t of the most devastating hurricanes that had ever been ex-
perienced visited Barbadoes. Not a single house was left uninjured, and the greater
part were levelled with the ground. On the 11th it passed over the Islands of St.
Vincent and St. Lucia, extending a portion of its influence to Martinique and islands
to the N.W., and to Granada on the South, but exhibiting its pnncipal violence
between 1 2^° and 14° N., or tho paralleb of Barbadoes and Martinique. On the 12th
it arrived on the southern coast of Porto-Rico s from the 12th to the 13th it swept
over the South side of Hayti, and extended its influence as far southward as Jamaica.
On the 13th it raged on the eastern portion of Cuba, sweeping in its course c er large
districts. The town of Aux Cayes, m Hayti, was almost desla-oyed by its force, and
that of S. lago de Cuba was very much damaged. On the 14th it was at Hav'anna,
and toward the West end of Cuba. On the loth it pi-oceeded north-westward, and
on the 16th and 17th it arrived on the northern shoies of the Mexican Sea, in about
the 30th degree of latitude, raging simultaneously at Pensacola, Mobile, and New
Orleans, where its effects were continued till the 18th. At New Oi'-^ans, on the 17th,
it came on in dreadful gales, from N.E. to S.E., accompanied with <,orrents of rain.
Almost all the shipping in the river were driven on shore, and very few of the smaller
craft escaped total wreck. The back part of the city was completely inundated.
The sugar-canes, above and below the' city, were laid flat, and the loss was enormous.
The gale was felt at Natchez, 300 miles up the river; and hereabout it spent itself in
heavy rains, after having occupied a period of six days in the cycloidal course fi'om
Barbadoes.

At most of the islands, dm'ing the hurricane, the winds in the earlier pai-t of the
storm wer'e from a northern ^uai-ter, and in its later periods from a southern quarter,
of the horizon ; from which it results, that the gyratory action was from right to hfty
as in the storms which pass to the northward of th? great islands, and along ue
western coast of the ocean, -l -spv rr ,yv'i >{»**:■. i msri

The distance passed over by the storm, in its passag'e from Barbadoes to New
Orleans, is equal to 2,100 nautic miles. The average rate about 14 miles an hour.

Th^ details of the storm in August, 1831, as it affected Barbadoes, St. Vincent, and
St. Lucia, were given in the Times newspaper of the 10th of October, in the same
year. In the despatch of his Excellency <Si<V James Lyon, governor of Barbadoes, it
is noticed that, on the evening of the 10th, the sun set on a landscape of the greatest
beauty and fcitility, and rose on the following morning over an utter desolation and a
waste. The prospect at daybreak on the 11th was that of January in Europe — every
tree, if not entirely rooted up, was deprived of its foliage, and of many of its branches ;
every house within vkw was levelled with the ground, or materially damaged ; and
every hour brought intelligence of the most lamentable accidents and of very many
shocking deaths. . - ,^ / „ ,-.

The evening of the 10th was not remarkable for any peculiarity of appearance;
hut in the night it began to rain, accompanied ^^^th flashes of lightning and high
wind, which appeared to come from the North and Eas;t ; toward midnight the wind
increased, and was more to the westward and S.W. ; the rain fell in torrents, and the
lightning was vivid in the extreme ; at one o'clock the hunicane had commenced,
and from two until daybreak it is impossible to convey any idea of the violence of the
stonn ; no language can sufficiently express its horrors. The noise of the wind, the
peak of thunder, and the rapidly repeated flashes of lightning (more like sheets of
fire), and the impenetrable darkness which succeeded them, the crash of walls, roo&,
and beams, were all mixed in ai)palling confusion, and every house shook to its
foundation.

The tempest did not entirely cease, nor the atmosphere clear up, until about nine

232

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS,

o'clock in the moruing of the 11th, when many families wero found to be buried in
the ruins ; and the few ships in Carlisle Bay were di'iven high on the strand.

At an early hour on the morning of the 12th, the storm" commenced from the north-
ward on St. Vincent, but was not much felt at Kingstown and the shipping on the
West until about half-past eight, when its violent effects were excessively destruc-
tive. Every vessel at the anchorage, with the exception of one, was cast on shore,
and every plantation sustained damage, more or less, by the total destruction of crops
and provisions, buildings, works, and negro-houses.

St. Lucia, it appears, did not suffer so much as St. Vincent ; but even here the de-
struction was immense. In the night of Wednesday, the 10th, the same night on
which the hunicane commenced at Barbadoes, the sky had a very heavy, lowering
ap] \.>ai-ance ; and early on the next morning, with the wind at North, it began to
blow very fresh^ which continued increasing, accompanied with rain, untu five
o'clock ; and by seven, or half-past seven, the prognostics of a hunicane appeared ;
by a little after eight the harbour presented a most awful appearance, the sea ran
mountains high, and broke on the South side with the '^most violence, and the vessels
in the anchorage became ungovernable. In this co. tion the town was situated
from half-past eight to twelve o'clock, when the wind, which had prevailed in frequent
and violent g^ts, became more moderate, and before two o'clock it was comparatively
calm. During the continuance of the stoi-m it rained unceasingly, but not violently,
and the wind seemed to vary very little from its ordinary du-ection.

(lOO.J Hurricane of 1830. — ^The storm which passed the city of New York, on
the nth of Auyuat, 1830, was there, and along all the coast northward of Cape Hat-
teras, considered as a north-east storm. — {See Chart, Route VI.)

It appears that this commenced at the Island of St. Thomas, in the West Indies, on
the night between the 12th and 13th of August. On its progress, in the afternoon
of the 14th, it commenced at the Bahama Islands, and continued during the succeed-
ing night, the wind almost round the compass during the existence of the storm. On
the 15th, in the Florida Channel, its effects were verj' disastrous. Without the strait,
in lat 26° 51', Ion. 79° 40', the gale was severe from N.N.E. to S.W. Late on the
same day, off St. Aug^tin, it was equally so. At 20 miles North of St. Mary's, from
eight p.m. on the loth, to two a.m. on the 16th, it was from an eastern quailer, then
changed to S.W.

Off Tybee and at Savanna, on the night of the Idth, it changped to N.W. at nine
a.m. on the 16th, and blew till twelve. On the 18th, at Charleston, the gale was
from S.E. and East, till four p.m. ; then N.E. and round to N.W. At Wilmington
(N. Carol.) the storm was from the East, and veered subsequently to the West. In
the vicinity of Cape Hatteras, at sea, the storm was very heavy from S.E., and shifted
to N.W,

Early in the morning of the 1 7th, the gale was felt severely in the Chesapeake,
from the N.E. Off the capes of Vh-ginia, on the 17th, lat. 36° 20', Ion. 74° 2', « a
perfect hurricane," fi-om South to S.S.E., from five a.m. to two p.m., then shifted to
N.W.

Off Cape May, lat. 32°, Ion. 74° 15', in the afternoon of the 17th, a heavy gale from
E.N.E. Coast of New Jersey, same afternoon, heavy at N.E. Again, m lat. 39°,
Ion. 73°, at E.N.E. In the same latitude, Ion. 70° 30', a " tremendous gale," com-
mencing at S.S.E., and veering to North.

Afternoon and evening of the 1 7th, at New York and in Long Island Sound, gale
pi N.N.E. and N.E. Off Nantucket Shoals, at eight p.m., severe at N.E. by E. In
the night of the 17th, off Nantucket, and in the Gulf Stream, lat 38° 15', Ion. 67° 30',
" tremendous," commencing at South, and veering, with increasing severity, to S.W,,
West, and N.W. Peninsula of Cape Cod, in the night between the 17th and 18th,
severe at N.E. ; 18th, at Salem and Newbury, heavy gale from N.E. In lat. 39° 51',
Ion. 69°, severe from S.E., suddenly shifting* to North. In lat. 41° 20', Ion. 60" 25',
" tremendous hurricane," from N.N.E.

. Off Sable Ishind, in the night of the 18th, lat. 43\ Ion. 591°, *' tremendous he

HURRICANES, ETC.

233

Ion. 58", a Hcvere

galo

shifted to

gftle," from South and S.W. to West and N.W. In lat. 4i\
*om the South ; the manner of change not reported.

This remarkable storm appears to have passed over the whole route above described
in about six days, at an average of about 16 miles an hour ; the duration of its most
violent portion, at the several points over which it passed, may be stated at from seven
to twelve hours $ and the widtn of its track is supposed to have been from 150 to
200 miles.

" On the- western ^art of the Atlantic Ocean, between the parallel of New York
and the northern limit 6f the trade-wind, the prevailing winds, for a bonsiderable
period, both previously and subsequently to the occurrence of this storm, were south-
westerly, or from the southern (Quarter ; and over the whole breadth of the Atlantic,
on the route frequented by ships in the European ti-ade, fresh south-western or
westerly winds also prevailed at the same period, for many weeks. These facts are
well established by numerous marine journals, which have been consulted in rielation
to this subject.

Of the vorticular or rotative character of the storm, striking evidence has been
afforded by the journals of two ships, the Britannia and the Illinois, both bound fit)m
America to Europe ; the particulars of which are ftiUy given in the Exposition by
Mr. Redfield.

(101.) In about a week after the storm last described, another occurred, wluch passed
New York on the 26th and 27th of August, and which was, also, .i this cr; st, a
N.E. storm, of about three days' duration. From the eastward of the Bahai as it
appears to have passed northwardly between the Florida Stream and the Bf I'j.udas ;
and touching the American shore near Cape Hatteras, raged with great fury i,,r about
forty hours at each locality, as it swept the great central curve of ♦he coast ; and

Sassing from thence, continued its course over George's Bank, ir i ^lorth-easterly
irection. It was evidently of greater compass, and slower progri ss, tlian the pre-
ceding stonn, as is proved by a collation of the various reports of mariners ; and its
long duration, and its effects were almost equally violent.

The next remarkable series of hurricanes appear to have originated in the vicinity
of the Windward Islands, near the close of September, 1830, and which, passing
westward of the Bermudas, on a course nearly North, assumed thence a more easterly
course, toward the southern edge of the Grand Bank of Newfoundland. — {See tlte
Chart, Route VII.)

This storm was very disastrous. In lat. 201", Ion. 63°, it commenced, on September
22, at one p.m., and continued till half-past six p.m., from N.E. and S.W. alternately.
On the same day it passed through lat. 22' 46', Ion. 65\ At night, on the 30th, in lat.
26° 7', Ion. 66 J , " very heavy," for five hours and a half. On the 1st of October it
arrived at lat. 30° 38', Ion. 63'; severe at S.E., shifted to N.W. : thence it was found
in lat. 33°, ion. 66 J° ; lat. 34° 9', Ion. 66° 12': lat. C j\ Ion. 68°} lat. 38°, Ion. 63°;
lat. 38|°, Ion. 57°; lat. 40°, Ion. 61° ; lat. 40° 25', Ion. '-^ \>A' \ lat. 41°, Ion. 65°, and
very severe. By an average estimate of rates and distances, it appeara to have pro-
ceeded at the rate of about 27 miles an hour.

The extensive hurricane of 1804, which swept c'. er most of the Windward Islands
in the West Indies, commenced at Martinique, on the 3rd of September, reached
Savanna on the 7th, Boston on the 9th, and br same a snow-storm on its airival in the
interior of New Hampshire.

The great ^le of 1815 commenced at St. Bartholomew's on the 11th of September,
and reached Rhode Island on the morning of the 23rd, where it was awfriUy destruc-
tive firom the S.E., while in the south-eastern ^urts of Mo^sachu^ets, it was then
blowing at South ; at New London from East to S.E. ; and at New York from North

toN.NrW.

(102.) A S. E. storm, in September, 1821 — {see Chart, Track VIII.) — was expe-

iouH. heavy

rienced in the central parts of Connecticut, commenced blowing violently from E.S.E.
i p.m. on the 3rd_of September, having been preceded by a fresh

and S.E., at about six ^

wind from the southern quarter, and flying clouds.

It continued blowing m heavj'
2 o

234

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

gusts, and with increasing fiiry, till about ten p.m., when the wind suddenly subsided.
A calm or lull, of perhaps fifteen minutes' duration, ensued, but was terminated by a
violent gust tram tne N.W., which continued till about eleven p.m., and then gradually
abated. Much damage was sustained, and firuit-trees, com, &c., were uniformly pros-
trated toward the N. W.

At New York the same storm was experienced, with at least equal violence, abouiii
three hours earlier than in Connecticut, but blowing from a more eastern quarter.
In the noith-eastem parts of Massachusets it was experienced some hours later ; and
at Providence, in Rhode Island, the storm was felt m the south-eastern^ quarter, but
not severely ; as Mras, also, the case in the south-eastern parts of Connecticut. In the
N.W. portions of the latter state, and the adjacent towns of Massachusets, the gale
blew wi^h its chief violence from the N.W. quarter, and the trees and com were
uniformly prostrated toward the S.E.

At New York the gale was from N.E. to East, and commenced blowing with
violence at five p.m., continued with great fiiry for three hours, and then changed to
West. More damage was sustained in two hours than was ever before witnessed in
tiie city, the wind increasing daring the afternoon, and at tunset waa a hurricane. At
the time of low water the wharfs were overflowed, the water having risen 13 feet in
an hour. Previous to setting in of the gale, the wind was from &uth to 8.E., but
changed to the N.£. at the commencement of the storm, and blew with great fury till
evenmg, and then shifted to the westward.

ON MAKING USE OF HURRICANES.

(103.) It has been proposed by Mr. Piddington to make use of these storms, by
takinff advantage of the favourable wind which some portions of their circumference
offer for expediting the voyage. This has also been proposed by Sir W. Reid, ^r his
" Law of Storms.' Mr. Piddington has given rules for this, in the regions he has
made more particularly his study — the Indian and China Seas ; but here the hurri<
oanes do not appear to travel at so great a speed as those of the Atlantic.

In order to benefit by the hurricaQe, several conditions are necessary ; and it need
not be again insisted on, that any error or ignorance of the centre of rotation may be
iifttal. Of course the first consideration is, in what part of the circumference is the
ship, and in what bearing is its centre P — then, at what rate, and in what direction,
is it travelling ? — and is it so violent that the ship cannot weather it P All these
things must be weighed well by the mariner, before he endeavours to lay his ship r>n
that tack which will appear the best to forward his voyage. Should the •siarm. be
advancing in the same airection as his course, and the position of the ship be u{)ou
the anterior verge, should it travel at a rate above that which he can keep up with
it, it \a evident that it will pass over him, and the consequences need not be re-
marked upon. Should the vessel be upon the posterior verge of the hurricane, it,
vrill, if travelling at 20 or 30 miles an hour, soon leave it, and then n» advantage can
follow. , .

Thus, to " make use of a hurricane," several conditions arc absolutely necessary :
these are — " 1. llic ship must get into the storm precii«ely where the wind blows
fair for prosecution of the voyage — which is quite a matter of chance. 2. If she
happen to do so, she must, to derive benefit, regiilate her speed exactly to that of the
meteor. Can she do that at pleasure P There would be no difficulty in ascertaining
the fact of her jprcsorvinj^ Lor station, or not, by the wind remaining sti'ady, or veer-
ing J but there is a necessity that would bind her, and whicli cannot be evaded with
impunity whe.i a high sea follows ; — she must carry a certain proportion of sail to
prevent her from being pooped. Now tliis sail may give her a greuter velocity than
the meteor at the time : hence nhe would run ahead of it. Again, the rate of the
meteor may be greater than her utmost speed ? hence she would be ejected."*

"NHUtiml Mngarine," 1843, p. 301.

WATERSPOUTS.

V, or vccr-

(104.) The well-known phenomenon, called a Waterspout, which is frequently
seen on the Atlantic, proceeding from black dense clouds, always appears in warm
weather, generally in calms, or with little wind ; but they have been seen during a
fresh gale. It has been shown, by the celebrated Dr. Franklin, and other writers,
that a whirlwind on land, and a waterspout at sea, aiise tram the same gefieral causes,
and may be considered as one and the same. At sea they are commonly harmless,
unless shi^ happen to be immediately under them ; but if, in the progre»<si vo motion
of the whirl, it passes from the sea over the land, and there suddenly breaks, violent
and mitichievous toiTcnts arc the consequence. At sea, after the spout breaks, the
water descends in the form of veiy heavy rain. In the vicinity of a spout, the wind
commonly flies round in sudden gusts ; and tdl ships should therefore take in their
square siuls.

That a waterspout and whirlwind are identical, has been amply demonstrated by
those who have seen this meteor pass frt>m the sea to land, and the contruiy. They
have both a progressive as well as circular motion ; they usually appear aner calms
and great heats, and mostly happen in the warmer latitudes.

(105.) Marine waterspouts, therefore, are caused by the action of atmospheric
currents. Malt§-Brun thus describes them : — " Underneath a dense 'iloud, tne sea
became a^tated with violent commotions, the waves dart rapidly toward the centre
of the agitated mass of water, on arriving at which they are dispersed into aqueous
vapours, and rise whirlinfi; round, in a spiral direction, toward the cloud. This
conical ascending column is met by another descending column, which leans ix)ward
the water, and ^oins with it. In many cases the marine colnmn is fr<«m 50 to
80 fothoms in diameter near its base. Both columns, however, diminish towai'd the
middle, where they unite ; so that here they do not extend more than 3 to 4 feet in
diameter. The entire column presents itself in the shape of a hollow cylinder, or tube
of glass, empty within. It glides over the sea without any^ wind being felt ; uideed,
several have been seen at once following different directions. When the cloud and
the marine ba»u of the waterspout move with unequal velocities, the lower cone is
often seen to incline sideways, or even to bend, and finally to burst in pieces. A noise
is then heard, like the noise of a cataract falling in a deep valley : lightning fre-
quently issues from the ver}' bosom of the waterspout, particulai'ly when it breaks ;
out no thunder is ever heard."

In order to prevent the danger which a vessel would be exposed to by coming in
contact Mrith these tremendous colums, it is the practice to discharge upon them a
cannon-ball, which, passing through them, causes them to burst, and consequently
removes all chances Injury connected with them. This phenomenon is accounted for
in the following manner : — Two winds meet — a vortex ensues : any cloud which
happens to lie between them is condensed into a conical form, and turned round with
great velocity; this whirling motion drives from the centre of the cloud all the par-
ticles contained in it ; a vacuum is thereby produced, and water, or any other body
lying beneath this vacuum, is carried into it upon the usual and well-known principle.
The cannon-ball, breaking tliis cylinder, whion is always partly hollow, causes it to
full to pieces, in the same manner as a touch upon the surface or a bubble reduces the
resplendent mass to a di-op of coiumon water.

(106.) The following description of a Waterspout, seen during a fresh gale upon
the coast of North America, was written by the late Mr. Murdo Downio.

" Upon the forenoon of the Uth of October, 1 705, while cruising in his Miyesty's
^liips Jteaolution, of 74 gunii (thou Injaring the iiiig af the late Auiaiml Murray), in
ron'ipany with H.M.S. AJHca, of (H guns, comnumded by the late Admiral, then
Captain, Home, in lat. 32 , and long. 00|* W., having the wind at N.N.W. blowing a

236

WATERSPOUTS,

fresh gale, and the ship Bteering hy the wind East for the Itilandti of Benuudas, W0
were surprised with a waterspout/foimed in an Instant, directly to leeward, at about
2 miles, or little more, distant. Both the j^fiiioa and we fired several 18-pound shot
at it, which fell a little shoi-t ; and, although some of the shot fell very near, yet thev
had no visible effect upon it. Its appearance was that of a long slender pillar, with
the upper end spreadins into a lar^ dense cloud, of which it seemed to form a pait,
and the lower end reached to withm about 20 or 30 feet of the sea, where it was ob*
Bcured from the sight W tiie water's being violently thrown up and agitated, so as to
resemble a number of rountains or water-engines playing perpendicmarl^ round the
lower end of the spout. The pillar became more transpai-ent in proportion as it de-
or«ued in size from the cloud downward, until at the lower end, where it was almost
perfectly so ; and a small column, of an equal diameter, and more transparent than
the rest, appeared up through the middle, so that about the lower end it resembled
an emp^ glass tube m appeaitince; from thence the transparent column in the middle
became gi-adually obscured, the higher up, by the opacity of the outside, until it alto-
gether msappeai-ed near the cloud. The spout appeared at its full size, or nearly so,
when first seen, and began to decrease shortly ancr, and tui-ning gradually smaller,
it in a short time vanished in a slight shower.

" We were too intently gazing at this extraordinary phenomenon to mark the exact
time it lasted, but supposed it to continue ten or tiileen minutes ; and its distance
from the ship ^-as pretty accm-ately asceiiaincd by the 8hot fired at it nearly reach-
ing ; but what appeared most remarkable Avas, that, although the wind blew so
strong a gale, that the ohip could carry only reefed topsails (from which the velocity
of the wind cannot be estimated at less than 30 or 40 miles an hour), yet the water-
s^raut seemed to move but ver^ little fi'om the place where it was first seen. The ship
was g^ing at the rate of ok miles an hour, and increasing her .distance from the spout ;
yet, after continuing the above-mentioned time, it was considerably within the verge
of the visible horizoii, as Kcen from the quaiier-deck, when it vanished (as upon the
quarter-deck the eye was elevated 28 feet above the sui-fuee of the sea, the horizon
would therefore be seen about 6 miles distant) : now, allo>ving the ship to have in-
creased her distance from the spot half a mile during its continuance, and that it
vanished a mile within the verge of the visible hoiizon, which, together with 2 miles
it was difetant when first seen, will make in all 31 miles, which, taken ft-om 6 miles
(the distance of the visible horizon), leaven 2j miles for th(.- spout to move in ten
minutes ; whereas the wind must have gone at least 5 mile; '!> that time, and conse-
quently 2| miles faster than the waterapout. Indeed it is very probable the water-
spout did not move so much, in proportion to the wind, as the aoove calculation gives
the least difierence between their motions that could have been allowed from the ob-
8er\'ations : the intention of this calculation being principally to prove that the water-
spout in some measure rcristcd the force of the wind.

" I have always observed, that waterspouts, lightning, and other electrical phe-
nomena, are far less freoucnt toward the middle of the ocean than they are upon the
land, or near it ; and wncn they happen upon the sea, the cloud that contains them is
generally obt.evvcd to liuvc come from on the land ; from which reason we find that
electrical phenomena arc more frequent, a. id are found to reach to a greater distance,
upon the sea borderini; he East coast of North America, than upon that bordering
the West coast of Euiupo ; because of the prevailing westerly winds cari'ying tJie
clouds charged with electric fiuid off the land upon the sea near the American coast;
whereas upon the Euroi)ean coast these winds confine the clouds upon the land. It is
also a known fnct, that within the limits of the N.E. trnde-winds, and hiilf-way be-
tween the Cape Verde and Windward West India Islands, more cspccinllv in the
latitude of these islands, scarcely any of these electrical ap]K>uraiicos ever iiappeii ;
whereas upon the shores of Africa and America, in tlie same climate, they frequently
ruge with great lury."

(108.) DetcripHon of Jfatempouta by the late Mr. Qeorge Muxwell.— There can be
no doiiht that watcrpouts have, in most eases, been accompanied with electrical phe-
noinoiia: and it is cmiHlly foilain that the Bpiirii und ascending motion of the water
has been produced oy a gyratory movement in the air, arising from the meeting of

WATERSPOUTS.

237

two opposite winds. Mr. Maxwell bad opportimities, during several voyages to th«
Cong^, of frequently witnessing thb interesting phenomenon ; and in a drawing, from
which the subjoinea Agtare has been made, he has represented the different states of a
waterspout, as they most commonly occur.

At their first formation, Mr. Maxwell says, they appear as nt A, where the black
cloud drops from a level surface into a conical form, Dcfore the disturbance at the
surface of the sea, as showni at J), is observed. The effect produced at 1) is like that
of a smoking furnace. The black conical cloud now continues to descend, as shown
at B, till it alm}8t reaches the sm-fuce of the sea, and the smokc-likc appearance
rises higher and higher, till it forms an union with the cloud from which the spout
a])pcars to be suspended. lu this condition it is said to put on its most ten'iflo
appearance to the mariners who have the misfortune to be in its neighbourhood.
Wncn the spot begins to disperse, it assumes the appearance shown at C. The
black cloud geuerallv draws itself up iu a ragged lorm, but leaves a thin ti'ans-
parent tube, U E, wnich reaches the woter, where the smokc-likn commotion still
prevails. Mr. Maxwell observed, at this time, in the upper part of the tube, a vciy
curious motion.

This singular fact, of the existence of a transparent tube, confirms a description,
by Mr. Alexander Stewart, of waterspouts which he saw in the Mediterranean, in
1701. " It was obseiTuble of all of them, but chiefly of the large pillar, that toward
the end it bei/an to appear like a hollow canal, only block in the oorders, but white in
the middle ; and though at first it was altogether black and opaque, yet one could
\t:\y (liiitinvfli/ i>erceh'e the Hen-wafer to fti/ up along the middle of this 'itnal as smoko
(hen lip a chimney, and that with gi'cat wwit'tncsH, and a very i)orceptible motion j and
then, 8o<m after, the spout or canal burst iu the middle,' and disapiieared by little
and little ; the boiling up and the pillar-like form of the noa-water continuing always
tlie last, even for some coiiHidciablc time after the spout tlisappeared, and peni;ips till
the spout apiKHired a|{.iin, or re -formed it^ielf, which it commonly did in the same
place a.H before, breaking and forming itself again seveiul times in a «iuartcr or half
an hour."--" IMiil. Trans.. !70'2."

Captain (now Admiral) William H. Smyth, in hii interesting volume on Sitily and

238

WATERSPOUTS.

the Sicilian Islant, has noticed, that " waterapouta and varions rinarular meteoric phe-
nomena occur in that neighboarhood. Among the latter, on a warm, cloudy, and
hazy day, t^e 14th of March, 1811, it began to ndn in large drops, that appeared
muddy, and they deposited a very minute EMUid of a yellowish red colour. The wind,
on the day before, had been blowing strongly from the S.S.W. to the N.E. ; and,
during the time tJie rain fell, was trvm the o. W., which leads to the 8up^K>sition that
it was transported from the deserts of Africa." — This remark accords with a number
of others on the sand from the Sahara or Desert, which is carried by th« wind over
the Atlantic, to an almost incredible distance from the western coast.*

(108.) To the preceding descripidons we now annex another, as given by the
Honourable Captain Napier, II.N., F.R.S.E., in 1814.

" On the 6th of September, 181^, in lat. 3C° 47' N., and Ions. 62° 40' W.,t at half-
past one p.m., the wind being variable between W.N. W. and N.N.E., the tmip steer-
ing S.F., an extraordinary sort of whirlwind was observed to form aboTit 3 cables'
length from the starboard bow of H.M.S. Erne. It carried the water up along with
it in a cylindrical form, in diameter, to appearance, like that of a water-batt, gradually
rising in height, increasing in bulk, advancing in a southerly direction, and, when at
the distance of a mile frpm the ship, it -continued stationary, for sevei-al minutes, boil-
ing and foaming at the base, dischar^njf an immeu^ column of water, with a rushing
or hissing noise, into the overhanging clouds ; turning itself with a qmck spiru
motion, constantly bending and straightening, according as it was affected by the
variable winds, wnich now prevailed from all points of the compass. It next i-etnmed
to the northward, in direct opposition to the then prevailing wind, and right upon
the ship's starboard beam, whose com'se was altered to East, in hopes of letting it pass
astern. Its approach, however, was so rapid, that we were obliged to resort to the
usual expedient of a broadside, foir the purpose of avertinjj any danger that might be
apprehended ; when, after firing several snots, and one, m particuW, having passed
right through it, at the distance of one-third from its base, it appeared for a minute
as if cut horizontally in two parts, the divisions waving to and fro in different direc-
tions, as agitated by opposite winds, till they again joined for a time, and at last
dissipated in an immense dark cloud or shower of rain.

" The near edge showered in large heavy dixjps on the ship's deck, until the cloud
was quite exhausted.

" At the time of its being separated by the effect of the shot, or more probably by
the agitation occasioned in the air by the discLnrge of several guns, its base was con-
siderably within half a mile of the snip, covering a portion of ute surfiuw of the water
at least half a fbrlong, or 300 feet m diameter, m>m one extreme circumference of
ebullition to the other ; and the neck of the cloud into which it discharged itself
appeared to have an altitude of 40° of the quadrant, while the cloud itself extended
overhead, and all around, to a very considerable distance.

*' Allowing, then, from the ship, a base of little more than one-tliird of a nautic
mile, say 2,050 feet, and an angle of 40° to the top of the neck, we shall then have,
for the perpendicular height of the spout, about 1 ,720 feet, or very neai'ly one-third
of a statute mi l'^ A little before it burst, two other waterspouts, of an infeiior sLse,
were obsei ved r' the southward, but their continuance was of short duration.

" When danger was no longer to be apprehended, I observed the brometer, and
found it at 30*1 oiclies, with the surface of the mercury very convex ; an appearance
whiuh it had net . Bunicd when at the same height at noon, about two hours before ;
the thermometer stood at 82', having risen 1° since that time.

" During the continuance of the watcrapout, and the subsequent rain, which might
be a little more than half an hour, the wind blew from all ][)omt« of the compass ut

• Colonel Reid has givon, in his " Lawo/ Btormn," a cliaptor (xl.) on " Wntorspouts and
the Hmiillor Whirlwinds," with sovonil beautiful flgures of the sumo, which have been ro-

poiitt'd in the " N;iuticJil Majj'iz

t About a leagues S.£. from the Dermudus. — lu.

THE TIDES.

980

different times, geneially shiftiiig s' opposite points, never longer than a fresh breeze
for a moment, but in most instances quite light. It was unattended with any thundMr
or lightning, and the water that fell from the cloud was perfectly fresh.

" Having witnessed this extraordinary phenomenon, I endeavoored to ascertain itii
cause.*

" Although this phenomenon was rather terrific in (ippearance, yet I am not ndinod
to think it would have been attended with any serious calamity to the ship, had even
the whole quantity fallen on board, allowing the loftier saib to have been taken in,
the hatches battened down, and scuppers open. The cylinder or spout coming in
contaet wf.th the masts and rigging, would naturally be destroyed ; and the air rash-
ing in, ins'Antaneously, to restore the equilibrium, the torrent would thus be checked
in its fall to the mere weight or force of a tropical descent. I Imve heard many reports
of ravages committed by these aqueous meteors, but never yet met a person who had
actually witnessed or ezperienoed any such distressing efiects." „

n.--OF THE TIDES.

il the cloud

(109.) As introductory to a General Table of the Tides, we shall give a few
passages from M. MaUi-Brun, explanatory of the subject ; and also the results of the
recent extensive observations and profound researches of Professor Whewell and Sir
John Lubbock.

The water of the sea yields to the slightest impression ; and, although its density
and weight combine to retain it in a constant equilibrium, it is agitated to a certain
depth by rapid and varied motions, 'iliese motions may be classed according to the
maimer in which the particles move, and according to the nature of the agento which
cause the motion.

Three kinds of motion may be distinguished in the sea, considered in reference to
their causes. The Tides are siderral motions, because they depend upon the influence
of the heavenly bodies. General Currents, and the greatest number of Particular
Currents, have their causes in the very element that is agitated by them ; tiiese, then,
are motions of the sea itself. The third kind comprehends atmospheric motions, pro-
duced by the action of the winds.

The Tides are reeular and periodical oscillations, which the seas undergo fix>m the
attraction of the celestial bodies, principally those of the moon nnd sun.

(110.) Action of the Moon. — Let us first consider the sinni: action of the moon
upon the sea ; "supposing ihii luminary to be in the plane ol the Equator. It is
evident that, if the moon exerted upon all the particles of the sea an equal attraction,
and parallel to the earth's centre of gravity, the entire system of the globe, and of
the waters which covrr it, would ho mfluenced by a common motion, and their rela-
tive equilibrium would not suffer any ^-hange. The equilibrium is disturbed only by
the difference between the attraction.i which the moon exerts, and the inequality of
tlicir directions. Some parts of the globe are are di 'thj attracted by tneiT>'>onj
others only obliqutsly. The former are in conjunction ^^itll the moon; anu ine
drawn from the ceiitro of the two j^Janets would pass through their zcniti. The
latter »»»*e in quadrature virith the moon — that is to say, a line drawn from the tcrres-
t- "ai centre to their zenith would make an angle of 90" with the line which co)inects
the centres of the two planetH. The attracting force acting obliquely is decompoHcd
by the obliquity of its angle of incidence : thus the parts in conjunction being more

• Bee " Edinburgh Phil. Joumal," vol. vi. p. 97.

"-iijp^" Jim*.'!'

240

THE TIDES.

*:.■•

Nvrongly attracted tlion ttiose i>; quadrature, the weight of their pai-ticles ia duniniiihed.
It is necessary, then, to there Iv. ing an equilibrium in all pai*ts of the sea, that the
water; shoiv I rise under the moon, in order that the excess of weight of the particles
in qu'td; ut:u3, ubove those in conjunction, may be compensated by the greater height

of the J. 'ex.

The waters, however, lise, not onb" on the side where the attisv-t* ig' pJoiut is, but»
also, on the opposite side ; because, if the planet attract the supt dor watf^i-s tJiorethnn
it attracts the centre of the e£ vtli, it also attracts this centre riAore tlum it atuact* U\o
inferior waters in the opposite hemisphere. These waters vDl ^Lfr-. approach lesji
toward the attracting planet, tUnn the centi'e of the earth apptcuche; ti it. They ^vjl
remain as far off, from a>id behind the centre, as the siinerior wt'tej-s au'-.^acu fiwn u.
on the side of the moon.

Two piomontories, or eminences of water, will therefore be foi jed by the action of
the moon spon the earth; — one o^ the side t^w ird the iuoon ; tr.e other on the side
opposite to it ; which gives the sen sia appcjui' ue of an elongated spheroid, w-inso
great axis will pass through the centre of the ir.<,oa and of the earth. It is hiffh tide
Tiaiior the moon and in the opposite point at 180 dtan-es of distance 5 coiis .'.jue .tlv,
in the two intermediate points, or at 90 degrees of ai>.!unco Ji-ora the moon, tiic* Jiie
will be lotc.

Til earth, H its rotatoi v motion, siiccessively presents to the nv'.>on, in t .e spact'^
cif t-w enty-four U(i.irflj all ii • meridians, which, consequerifely, are fou'iO. by turns, and
at an iiiten&i • J^iy. hiurs-, sometimes uader under the moon, and Hometimes at a dis-
tunes ol 90 de, v't'.^ ff Ti it; hMce it follows that, duiing the time which passes
between the depar*ujre ;i' thf; mo<»ri from one meridian, and its return to the same
tneiiiliur., that is. Ir '^ •: apivce af a lunar day, which exceeds the solar day by about
fllty minvfcK and a Ji&'l', the waters of the sea will ebb t\vice, and flow twice, in every
part of ;!)c o?rth. a;though in mannei almost insensible in those places which are
'.'istant irom tht pulk or orbit of tho moon. ■ . -.i .1 >

(111.) Action of the Sun. — If we now imagine the sun to l)e in the plane of the
Equator, it iw evidejit that, as its action is similar to that of the moon, it snould excite
in the ov 'vu an agitation similar to the lunar tides. Thus the sea would ebb twice
and flow iv, ire during a solar dav 1 but, on account of the in\mei\ne distance from the
sun, those solar tides \viU be much smaller than those which result from the action of
the moon.

Dn account of the inequality ^vhich exists between the solar and lunar days, the
(^rtioii of the sun will sometimes change the position of the lunar tides, and at other
i-mes will unite its influence with that of the moon. In the syzigies, or cornunctions,
tho action of the moon concurs with that of the sun to raise the waters, llxis is the
rc-ason why the highest tides happen at new and ftiU moon ; or when the moon is in
its first or third quarters. In the quadi-atures, the waters of the sea are depressed by
the action of the sun, at the same point where the action of the moon raiuf's them, and
n»ciprocally. Tims the tides of the quadratures ought to be letis.

The height of the tidal wave produced by the moon is as that produced by the sirn
as 100 to 33, -vfhen combined, of course, they produce the sprngtide, as above statxi;
opposed, they make neaps, the range of them being as 138 to 02, or nearly as 7 to 3.
Newton (from the Severn tides) made it 4*48 to 1, which is far too large. Laplace
fiom the Brest obsei'vations, makes it 2"90 to 1, and Sir John Lubbock and Dr. Whe
well about 2-66 to 1 . Of course, these relations are very much controlled in action
by the oonflgm-ation of the coast or channel.

(112/) What we have already explained regards the positicv- ''f he sun and moon
in the Eauator. Let us now eonsiaer these he&venly bodies i^ > ir various declina-
tions, ana we shall see the elevation vary in the inverse rati* ' e cube of the dis-
tance of the water.

Without entering into li Jills, which would require ii 'i'...*' tical demonstrations,
we shall remark omy, tl; • '.'iS proximitv of the sun ai;;i ax.a-i- 'jcems to be the cause
to which we must relt» tne extraordinary eqiunoct?..-.! '"»*"«, which happen most
frequently ; tho one before the vernal equinox, and the ot't^ • 'V?" the autumnal; that

diminuhccl.
a, that the
he particles
later height

inet is, but'
3 siorethnn
ata-iicts thn
preach Jes;.

' They^vjl'
ncB from it

he action of
on the side
Toid, wl'oso
is high tide

i!isi/.iue .tlv,
ion, tiio }^iae

!i t'.e spac*
T turns, and
les at a dis-
hich passes

the samo
ly by about
ce, in every
i which are

lane of the
lould excite

1 ebb twice
ze from the
^e action of

,r days, the
lid at other
injunctions,
l^his is the
moon is in
'pressed by
1 them, and

by the sirn

Dvo stat aI ;

as 7 to 3.

Laplace

Dr. Whe

iu action

and moon
us declina-
of the dis-

nstrationH,
3 the cause

jp6n uiGsb

nnal', that

THE TIDES.

241

is, both of them at the time when tho sun, passing through the meridional signs, is
nearest us. But this does not happf a every year, because there are sometimes varia*
tions produced by the situation of .t ae orbit of the moon, and by the distance of the
syzigies from the equinoxes.

(113.) This, then, is the ^nervi theory of the tides, and from these obser\*ations
their general laws may be inferred; but it has been resented for later times to pursue
the inquiry into detail, and to uevelop the minor effects which modify, and in some
places totally change, the character of the tides. It is chiefly to the Itcv. Dr. Wlie-
well, now !M!a6ter of Trinity College, Cambridge, and to Sir John Lubboek, that our
present knowledge of the tide laws is owing, and from their observations we will give
some extracts.

(114.) In the Rev. Dr. Whewell's papers on the subject of the Tides, he com-
mcnoes : — " Ever since the time of Newton, Ws explanation of the general phe-
nomena of the tides, by means of the action of the moon and the sun, has been
assented to by all philosophers who have given their attention to the subject. But,
even up^ to the prent day, this g:eneral explanation has not been pursued into its
results in detail, so as to show its bearing on the special phenomena of particular
places, — to connect the actual tides of all the different parts of the world, — and to
account for their seeming anomalies. With regard to this alone, of all the conse-
quences of the law of universal gravitation, the task of bringing the developed theory
into comparison with multiplied and extensive observation is still incomplete ; we
might say, is still to be beg^n."*

(116.) The Ttdal Wave. — The tidal wave is not owing to the transfer of the body
of water, which would be a current, but to an elevation of its surface. This motion
is, OS readily conceived, compatible with immense velocity ; and it may be taken as a
iTile, that the broader the wave, the greater will be its velocity. If the earth were
in equilibrium, and its surface entirely covered with water, and under the influence
of the moon's attraction, it would assume the form of an ellipsoid, having the semi-
axis directed towards the moon longer by about 58 inches than that transvci'se to it ;
that is, the water would become higher by that amomit. This is merely adduced to
show what may be the amount of tne luni-tic"
considerations.

-tidal wave, without entering into any other

(116.) Velocity of the Tidal Wave. — As the whole of the tidal wave must circulate
around the globe in twenty-four hours nearly, the velocity must be very great ; but it
is greatly modified. In the middle of the Atlantic it would appear to travel at the
rate of about 700 miles an hour, but on the coast it is widely different ; hence its
velocity along the eastern coast of England varies from 3d miles to 160 miles per
hour.

In the open ocean, where nothing intervenes to obstniet the couree of the tidal
wave, it traveiii proLubly with regularity ; and it may be presumed that its height is
alao inconsiderable. But when tiiis wave, from an open ocean, approaches a narroMi
channel, such as the Briscul or English Channel — from being hemmed in, as it were,
it forms a tide-current. Now, along the centre of such a channel the tidal wave would
travel with much greater speed than on the sides. Hence the distances at which the
hour-marks representing hi^h woter will be wide apaii, in the centre, and transverse
to its general direction ; while, on the shores, the direction of the wave would be
altered, and it will ap} ronch parallel to the sliore ; hence the hour-marks will be close
togciher, eumI pi>v"l|pl to '.. ; general direction of the main tide-current.

tf ' .I'ttve, advmcing th;uugL the contracting channel, towards the end
iji great height, _;id, as at Bristcl, and in the Bay of Fundy, sometimes

The
becoT I

rise o the enormonslieight of fiO or 7^' fee'
ruur lip a shelving beach.

The variation in the height of the tide (as is found to be tiio case in some |)arts of

just in the same manner that the surf

* * El say Inwards a First. Approximation to a Maji of CotiJul Linos ;' PliiioTOphitMl
Transai'tious ol' tho IJoviil Society, liua, p. 147.

2 H

2ia

THE TIDES.

the coast of France), between places near each other, and having high water at the
same time, is to be accounted for by the convex form of the tidal wave.

^ In some parts of the world, as in Australia, Kamtschat^ &c., the tides offer very
singular anomalies. At Adelaide, in South Australia, it ia high water only onoe in
the twenty-four hours, and that during the uight. This arises from what are called
interference, whereby two distinct sets of tidal waves, in their combination, produce
appare-^t *est.*

(il7.) One of the most important circumstances of this subject is, that, in an open
channel, ike Jhod current (the current which runs till high yrater) will continue run-
ning for three hours afterwards, or till half ebb: and the ebb current, which then
begins, will run after low water till half flood. The time of slack water is interme-
diat* between the times of high water and low water. In proportion as the channel
is olwtructed at the further eud, the flood current runs for a shorter time after flood ;
and in a closed creek, the flood current ends at high water.f

^ Another error to correct is this : — ** That the time of the change of ciirrent, or the
time of alack water, as it may be termed, never coincides with the time of high water,
except close in-shore, and within its influence i the interval is generally consider-
able. Great confusion has arisen from these two times not being properly distin-
guishdd."— ' Phil. Trans.,' 1833, p. 162.

(118.) . The Establishment of the Port. — The vulgar establishment of the poii is
the interval of time by which the time of high water fo' .ows the moon's transit on
the day of the new and fill moon.' This is, corrected, the mean value of the interval,
freed from the semi-menstrual inequality. Its value at the London Docks is one
hour twenty-six minutes, by the mean of all the observations. — * Phil. Trans.,' 134,
p. 19.

The Corrected Establishment.— Vhe mean luni-tidal interval, or corrected esta-
blishment of each place, differs from the vulgar establishment, or time of high water
for new and full moon ; for the time of high water at syzig^ is affected by the semi-
menstrual inequality belonging to the moon's position one or two day's earlier, and is
therefore later by about thmy minutes than the mean interval would give it.^

(119.) The Semi-monthlp Inemiality. — The interval of tide and moon's transit is
affected by a considerable inequality, which goes through its period twice in the spacb
of one month ; it may he considered as dei)endin^ upon the moon's distance from the
sun in right ascension, or, which is the same thing, on the solar time of the moon's
transit. The difference of the greatest and least intervals at London is one hour
twenty-eight minutes.§

(120.) The Age of the Tide. — The tide does not depend upon iLe passage of the
moon upon that particular day or hour, but from some previous tr&nsit ; hence the
tide is observed to take place at London at two o'clock on the days of new and fuU
moon ; therefore, as the tide of London is found to be determined by the position of
the sun and moon upon two days and a half before it occurs, one hour twenty-ciix
minutes is the corrected establishment for London, as stated above.^

(121.) Difference of the Two Diurnal Tides. — It has been remarked in various
places by separate observers, that the evening tide is higher than the morning tide in
one part of the year, and lower at another. This is thus explained by Newton. From
the vernal to the autumnal equinox, the sun has North declination ; and as the moon's
orbit is never much inclined to the sun's, a line drawn from the earth's centre to the
moon would meet the earth's surface, on the side towards the sun, in North latitude.
Now, such a line is the axis of the tide-spheroidt supposing the tide to be always
under the moon ; and the tide taking place when the moon in the meridian is higher,
as the place is nearer to the vertices or pf^ints where the axis of the tide-spheroid
meets the earth's surface. Hence, in this case, the tides which occcir on the side of

* " Phil. Trans. " 18S3 •». 154.

X '< PhU. Trans." (WheweU)7i836, p. 292.

% " Phil. TrttUH.," 1831, p. 163.

f "PhU. Trans.," ISi^'.p. 19.

ln.wmi^''''

THE TIDEB.

the earth next the sun, or the day tides, would be larger tar a place in North latitude
than the tides on the o^KNUte nide. For a similar reason^ the ni^t tides would be
higher in winter.

(122.^ Height of Mean Water. — The mean between high and low water is found to
be eonstant and permanent, however much may be the diflbrence of his^ and low
water. It has been found, from a great number of observations on theBonth coast
of England, not to vary more than 2 or 3 inches ; therefore all heights ought to be
referrM to the mean level of the sea, instead of the vague and uncertain data of high
or low watwr.*

The refined surveying operations which have of late been completed have demon-
strated one singular &ct, which could only have been elicited in the laborious and
exact processes carried on during the Ordnance Survey. It is, that the mean level of
the sea, as we assume it, is not a level, from whatever cause it may arise, and it is diffi>
cult to assiffn one. It is found that the mean level of the sea around Lneland is lower
on the South than it is on the North coast. Taking Courtown in Wicklow as the
standard — a spot remarkable as the node or axis ot the great tidal wave of the St.
Oeowe's Channel, and when there is Utile w no rise or fall, that at Ballycastle on
the North, the mean sea level is higher by 0-881 foot, and lower on the South at
Castle Townsend by 0*938 foot than it does at Courtown. Thus the mean level is
nearly 1 foot 10 inches higher on the North than it is on the South of Ireland. Of
course this fact has no bcMtring upon the seaman's application of tidal phenomena,
but is curious.

(123.) It has been found that a low barometer causes a higher tide and the reverse.
This element, in the disturbance of the regular tides, the effects of atmospheric
pressure, has been estim.ated by different observers, and its amount has been ascer-
tained with considerable accuracy. Thus, at Liverpool, there is a difference in the
Itetffht of high water of 10-1 inches for a variation of 0.91 in the barometer ; and at
London it has been calculated by Mr. Dession that the water rises 6*3 inches for -90
depression of the barometer. M. Dausi^ has ascertained that, at Brest, the ocean
rises *223 metre, or 8*78 inches, for a depression of '0158 metre, or '61:2 inoh in the
barometer.-f These results are nearly identical with those ascertained oy Sir James
Ross in thd Arctic regions in 1848 by means of the steady level of the wint^'- jcc.
These refinements in tidal calculations are, perhaps, of little value for the ^ -ol

mariner when at sea; they may be useAil in entering a doili.', but they ar\ jt the
utmost service in genemlising the phenomena cf the tides, upon which so uttle, it may
be said, is known that may oe applied.

(124.) The foregoing are the pnnripal effects of tlie causes which produce the tides,
in reference to their rise and fall. There is another branch of the subject, however,
which is of great importance to the navigator ; that is, the currents formed by the
alternate elevation and depression of the ocean. As before mentioned, in the open
sea it may be considered that there is no tidal current, and that the tidal wave is pro-
pagated without any actual displacement in the particles of the water. But wnen
this wave approaches the coast, the case is widely different, and the wave must neces-
sarily form a current, sometimes flowing in one direction, and at others in the opposite
one. This variation in the progress of the flood and ebb-tide wuve i. ' •^•y with
every locality, and is influenced by the particular conflguration of the > , *..i) xc, by
which it passes. The question of the form and transmission of waves is so comph-
cated, and involving mathematical analysis of so high an order, that it cannot be use-
fully dwelt on here.

Upon the direction in which the great tidal wave is pntpagated, we at present have
mach to learn. It has been supposed by Sir J. Lubbock, that it travels from the
Cape of Good Hope to Gibraltar in twelve hours ; from Gibraltar to Edinburj^h in
about twelvf !r -.rs; and from Edinburgh to London in about twelve hours,^ which is
in accords ?ith Bernouilli's theory. Passing north-eastward from the South

* " rhil. Trans.," 1839, p. 164.

t " PhU. Trans.," 1836, pp. 220, 221 ; and " Conn. deS Terns.," 1834.

t " Phil. Trans,," 1836, p. 218.

244

THE TIDES.

Atlantic, it strikes the south-weet shores of Great Bntain and Ireland, and becomr^
divided by these lands ; one portion of the ^at wave passes northward to tha west
of Ireland, a portion of it enters by the North Channel, and meets a large portion
from the south which has passed up the St. George's Channel ; another passes up the
English Channel passing on to the North Sea along the Dutch and German coasts,
and with another portion of the western branch which enters the North Sea between
Norway and Scotland, oau^: • r" "Motion of tides which is still involved in some
obscurity, but which is i,«.vi' v U-i. i c^twhere; the remainder passes north-eastward
along the Norway cr ou t<' ♦' 'c Tolar basin. Along the American coast the great
wave passes from soutL to uurtn, making high water at a later hour continually, and
entering the varioa: bays and outlets in the same manner. It may at once be men-
tioned mat in low latitudes the rise and fall of the tide is very inconsiderable, and
therefore comparatively unimportant.

(125.) In 1834, from the recommendation of the Rev. Professor Whewell, a series
of tide observations were made, during r< foi .' > m the month of June, at the
coast-guard stations in Gi'eat Britain and Ireland -, and in tiie following year a much
much more extensive series was taken simultaneously between the 8th and 28th of
June. " Thu chain of places of observation extended from the mouth of the Mis-
sissippi rr)\]nd the Kays of Florida, along the coast of North America, as far as Nova
Scotia ; find from the Straits of Gibraltar along the shores of Europe, to the Noiih
Cape of .-Torway. The number of places ot observation was twenty-eight in
America, wven in Spain, seven in Portugal, sixteen in France, five in Belgium,
eight'ien in the Netherlands, twenty-four in Denmark, and twenty-four in Norway ;
and cbservations were made by the crast-guard of this country at 318 places in Eng-
land and Scotland, and at 219 places in Ireland." This large niunber of observations
was also undertaken at the instigation of Professor Whewell, and their reduction was
made by Mr. Drsdou and assistants, under his directions. The details and results
are given in the *' Philosophical Transactions," 1836, p. 289, et sev.

These observati ma have given ns a far greater insight into the natu'^ of the tidal
progress than was had heretofore. A still more refined series was cft- -jd on for the
English Channel by Adm. Beechey as heretofore shown.

(126.) In the enruing tide table for the North Atlantic the vulgar establishment
(118) is given as the tidal hour at full and change, except in some cases, which are
noticed as being the corrected establishment of the pori. These figures are taken
chiefly from the Government Nautical Surveys and the special observations which
have been made in various places. They are given, also, in the Admiralty Tide
Tables for 1860.

The height of the tide is lirre quoted as the rauffe — that is, the difference of level
between high and low v\ter l)»)tH as sprin|,'^> and neaps; so that the figures giving
neaps do not represent : •■ • amoir above tl low watcv spring tides, but the higher
level generally of one-fouiih of the difference of range.

Attached to the table are some brief remarks on peculiarities of the tidal phe-
nomena, in the form of notcf. ,

u,^. .|,._,.

K ' ' ■■'■- ■*":*

/^ ;fV.1fti,?.ii'i If

• ■■i

f^^.^

n tii'f

I becomes
1 ths west
^e portion
ies up the
an coasts,
1 between
I in some
-eastward
the great
lally, and
e be men-
■able, and

11, a series
le, at the
ar a much
d 28th of
r theMis-
ir as Nova
the Noiih
'-eight in
Belgium,
Norway ;
Bs in Eng-
iservationa
iction was
nd results

f the tidal
on for the

ibliHhment
which are

are taken
ons which

alty Tide

of level
res giving
the higher

tidal phe-

TIDL TABLE.

ITte IKgurea in Sraeketa (1.) refer to the tubjomed Notes.

Place.

High

Water,

Full and

Change.

Range.

Sps.

Nps.

England — Thames and South Coast.

London Bridge (1.)

London Docks

Gravesend

Nore

Margate

KaniHgate

Deal

Dover (2.)

Folkstone

Dungeness

Rye Bay

Hjostings

Beachy Head

Newhaven

Shoreham

Littleha: i.ion

Selsea " i ......

Portsmouth Dock
Yard

.^O'ithampton (3.) .

West (* es

Hm-st, aber . . .
Needles Point . . .
Christchurch . . .

Poole ,

Portland Break-
water

Dridport

Exmouth

Torbay

Dartmouth ....

Devonport Dock
Yard

Plymouth Break-
water

Fowcy '

Falmouth

Lizard

I'cnzancc

Scillv InltS ....

h. m.

ft.

2 7

19^

1 67

1 10

12 30

16^

11 40

15J

11 44

1-.

11 16

)

11 12

18|

11 7

10 45

213

11 20

10 63

11 20

11 51

11 34

11 86

11 46

16|

11 41
10 30

12 46
10 46

10
12

9 46
9 ,0

11 30
9 10

12 45

7 1
6 6
6 21
6

6 1«

5 43

5 37

5 14
1 57
J

4 ;}(i

12J
13
12|
7|

13J
14

16i

151
15
16
141

16
'20

ft.
141

111

101

121

81
61

2
6i

n
n

Place.

High

Water,

Full and

Change

Range.

Sps.

Nps*

England and Wales,

St. Ives 4

Padstow 6

Lundy Island (4.) . . 6
Barnstaple (Bar) . . 5

Bideford 6

llfracombe 6

Bridgewater Bar . , 6
Portishead . . . i . . 7
Bristol (King Road) 6

Chepstow 7

Newport 7

Cardiff 6

Swansea 6

Llanelly Bar . 6

Tenby 6

Milford Haven (en-
trance)

Pembroke Dk. Yard
Cardigan (6.) . . . /
Abeiystwyth ....
Bardscy Island ....

Caernarvon

Holyhead

Beaumaris

Chester

Liverpool

Formby Point

Ribble Lighthouse

Fleetwood

West Coast.

Lancaster

Poulton-lc-Sands . .
Piel Harbour (Pier)

Whitehaven

Workington

Maryport

Southerncss

Annan Foot

Port Carlisle

5
6

7
7
7
9
10
10
10
11
10
10
11
II
11
11
11
11
U
11
11
11
12

Isle of Man.

Douglus I 11 12

Ramsey i 11 15

ft.

20|

27i

60?

10?

24?

■a

1 jt

ill
22

13*

13f

21}

261

27i

231

20?

201
191

ft.

9|
12|
13

14i
18
21J
22

21
16
14
13

iij

14|

10
16
141

16
14
12J
10

8
8?

121

■*■ ■:*;
:*'

246

TIDE TABLE.

Place.

Feel

Calf Sound ...
Port, St. Mary.
Castletown . . .

High

Water,

Fall and

Change.

h. m.
11 8
11 17
11 10
11 10

Range.

Sps.

ft.

m
m

Npe.

SeoOand, Wnt CoatL

Kircudbright ....

Troon

Fort Patrick

Loch Ryan

Campbcllton

Ayr .'.

ArdroDBan

Largs

Greenock

Port Glasgow ....

Dumbarton

Glasgow

Burnt Isles, Kylet

of Bute

Ardrishaig, Loch

Fvne

Gigna Sound . .
Jura, E. Coast . .
Easdale Sound . .

Crinan .

Loch Aline ....

Oban

LochEil

Tobermory, Mull
Portree, L of Skye

Kyle Akin

Ullapool, Loch

Broom

Poolewe, Loch Ewe
Bemeray, Island of

Harris

Stomoway

Cape Wrath

Thurso

Stroma, 8. side ....
Swona,E. side

„ W. side . .

Great Skerry, East

side

11 10
11 fiO
11 10
11 12
11 45
11 50
11 45
11 50
8
18

1 25

11 50

11
2
4
5
4
5
5
5
5

53
22
56
25
49
33
45
15
36

6 32
6 16

6 40
6 20

6 11

6 46

7 30

8 28

9 47

10 24
9 35

11 4

Orkneys.

23
10
16
11

8^
8f
10
10

9
9
2

9
4
31
10-12
6

13|

14J
14J

13
13
15i

14!

Stromness . .
Kirkw.-ill ,
Deer Sound

10 9

10 30

10 1

ft.

9i
12
12

5
9

4
5
6

6
1

7
5
5i

5
6!

6
4

Place.

Widewall .
Otterswick

High

Water,

Full and

Change.

h. m.
9 3
9 13

Range.

Sps.

ft.
10
11

Nps.

ft.

Shetland lakt.

Balta

Lerwick ......

Scalloway

Sumburgn Head
Fair Isle

£ 45

10 30

9 30

9 45

. ,..-.'::

5
6*

3
2
3*

Scotland, JEa»t Coast.

Dnncansby Ness ..

Wick

Cromarty

Inverness

Peterhead

Aberdeen

Montrose

Arbroath

Tay Bar

Dundee

Leith

Dunbar

10 14

11 22

11 56

12 18

1 25

1 35

2 6

2 32

41
16|

2 17

2 8

England, East Coast.

4
5

«l

71
9

'AhiyA'.

Berwick

Tyne River Bar
„ Newcastle . .

Sunderland

Tees River, Bar

Whitby

Scarborough ....
Flamborough Head
Httmber River,
Spurn Point . .
„ HuU...
Lynn Deep, Sand

Cromer

Yarmouth Haven

Lowestoft

Orfordness ....
Woodbridge Haven

Bar

Harwich Harbour
Orwell River, Ips-
wich

Gun.fleetS.ind,N.E,

2
3
4
3
3
&
4
4

5 26

6 29

7
9 15
9 56

11 15

11 45

12 6

12 .35

14f

lOi

14|

15i

end : .1 11 40

20i

141

6i
8

12
111

13i
12

10|
llf
23

2
4
5

6
8

TIDE TABLE.

Range.

Sps.

Nps.

ft.
10
11

ft.
5

6
6

3
2
3*

102

«f

15|

pj.T, ■!!«(;., T

Place.

High

Water,

Full and

Change.

Range.

Sps.

Nps.

Ireland^ South and Etui Coaatt.

Cape Clear

Baltimore

Kinsale

Queenstown

Ballycotton

You^hal

Ballinaoourty , Dun
garran

Waterford (Dun-
cannon Fort)

Wexford (6.) ..

Arklo'w

Wicklow

Dalkey Island . .

Kingstown

Dublin Bar

Harbour

Balbriggan

Dundaik

Carlingford, Bar

Ai*dglass

Strangford, Bar
M Portaferry

h. n.

ft.

4 23

4 43

6 1

4 04

5 14

12t

5 12

12|

6 20

12}

7 21

8 45

10 29

10 45

11 10

11 12

11 9

10 40

10 30

ft.

6
61

4
9

10
9

8
8
9

Ireland, North and West Coaats.

14|

183

lOi

20i

llf

141

111

13*

4 1

Donaghadee

Belfast

Lough Lame . . ,

Tor Point

Ballycastle Bay .

Port Rush

Coleraine

Londonderry , .
Rathmullen, Lough

S>viUy ......

Sheephaven .....

Gweedore Bay . .

Inishkeel

Killibega

Ballyshannon (Bar)

Sligo Bay

KillalaBay

Broadhavcn Har'

hour

Achillbeg

Westport

Inishbofin

Roundstone

11 13
10 43
10 30
9 40
6 8
6 8
6 24
8 1

vjrreatman iiay. . . .
Killeany, Arrau Is,

5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5

5
5
4
4
4
4
4

42
25
32
10
31
30
11
22

14
57
34

28
39
28

9|
10
9
4
H

m
12

11
11
111
10

10|
101

121

13*1

1«*
13*1

6j
6

2
2

5
4

4f
4

6i
6

Place.

Galway

Liscanor Bay . .

River Shannon,

Limerick

„ Foynes Isd.
„ Talbert . .
„ Kilbeha . .

Valentia Harbour

Kenmare River,
(West Cove) ....

Bantry Harbour . .

Castletoym, Bear-
haven

Black Ball Harbour

Dunmanus Harboui-

Crookhaven ....

SkuU

Cape Clear

High

Water,

Full and

Change.

h.
4
4

6
5
4
4
3

3
3

4
3
3
4
4
4

m.
35
23

20
35
67
16
42

52
47

Range.

Sps.

ft.

13i

17
15|

13
11

10
10

n
n

Nps.

Norway.

Lofoten Islands

Voero

Tree Islands

Romdals Islands
Bergen

11 45

10 45

1 30

North Sea, East Coast.

Skagen or the SkaW
Blaavand Point .

Hiertinff ,

Eider, Tonning ,
Elbe, Hamburg ,
„ Cuxhaven ,
„ Entrance..

Helgoland

Weser, outer Ught

vessel

Ems (outer buoy)
Ameland Gat . .
Terschelling (West)
Amsterdam . . ". .
Nieuwediep ....
Texel (outside shls.)

Brielle

Hellevoetsluis . .

Flushing

Ostend

Nieuport

5 66

1 44

2 45

2 1

6 29

1 8

11 33

11 30

;

>:M^i.

8 40

7 27

6 30

2 30

1 20

12 25

12 18

12.

Dunkerque
Gravelines

D'ance, North Coast.
12 8

ft.

8
7
6*

6
6

12 19

16f

12 >
11

248

TIDE TABLE.

Place.

Calais

Cape Grisnez . . . .

Boulogne . . '.

Cayeiut

Dieppe

Fecamp

Havre

Honfleur

Cherltourg

Aldemey

Guerasey

Goury

Jersey, St. Aubin . .

Carteret

St. Germain

Ilfigneville

Granville

He dc Chausey . . . .

Cancale

Lea Minquiers . . . .

St. Malo

Brfehat

Heaux Lights . . . .

TrSguier

Ploumanach

Morlaix Road

Isle de Bas

Abervrac'h

U8hant(7.)

High

Range.

Water,
Full and

Change.

Sps.

Nps.

h. m.

ft.

11 49

19|

115

11 27

11 25

11 6

15|

10 44

9 51

121

9 29

8 51

7 49

6 46

6 30

7 6

6 21

6 25

6 20

6 13

6 9

6 20

6 6

6 5

5 51

5 45

5 32

5 15

4 53

4 49

4 14

3 32

lOi

8.1

France, Vest Coast.

Brest

Isle de Sein

Concameau

Prt. Louis, L'Orient

St. Nazaire

He de Noirmoutier

Iled'Oleron

Bordeaux ....
Cordovan Lt. house

Arcachon

Roucaut, Adour R.
Bayonno

3 47

3 21

17*

3 12

3 11

3 40

3 2

3 50

6 60

3 37

4 37

3 39

3 45

S^Htin and Porttu/al.

Port Pnsaage . .

Bilbao

Suiitander . . . .

Corunna

Cape Finistcnc
Oporto

12 I

3 20

3 30

16 1

15 1

2 30

111

•

High

Water,

Full and

Change.

Range.

Place.

Sps.

Nps.

Peniche

Lisbon Bar

Setubal

Lagos

h. m.

1 64

2 30
2 30
2 7
1 45

, ft.

16
8

13
9i

ft.

Cadiz

Gibraltar, old Mole

(8)

Malaga

2 20
12

Atlantic Isles.

Funchal Bay, Ma-
deira

St. Michael, Azores
Terceira „

Fayal „

Beimudos, Irelanu
Island Dock Yard

Porto Praya

Sal, Cape Verde Is

Puei-to de la Luz,

Gran Canaiia

12 48

12 30
12 32
11 46

7 4

6 0?

7 46

4
5

12 62

Africa.

Ceuta (9.)

Tangier

Mogador

Cayye Bojador . . . .

Cape Blanco

Portendik

Senegal

Cape Verde

River Gambia ....
Bijou^alds., Or-

angu Cliannel . .
River Nuacz . . .

Isles do Los

Mellacoree T*

Scarcics Rivers . .
Sierra Leone ....
Banana Islands . .
Gallinas River

Monrovia

Capo Palnias ....
Gmnd Lahou ....
Cape Three Points
St. George d'El-

mina

Cape Coast Cattle
Uiver Logos

„ Forva(' •

„ Benin .

1 10

1 42

11 46

10 30

7 46

8 10

6-9

1ft

6 30

7 40

7 10

7 65

8 16

6 46

4 30

4 20

4 30

4 22

t 16

TIDK TABtK.

249

Place.

Niger, Nun (en-
ib'ance

Bonnv and New
Calabar Rivers. .

Cameroons River ..

Fernando Po

Princes Id.

St. Thomas Id, ..

Anno Bom Id. . .

High

Water.

Full and

Change

h. m.

4 8

4
3 45
3 25
3 45

Range.

Sps.

ft.

9
6

7
H

Nps.

ft.

Newfoundland (10).

Little Mecattina . .

New and Old Fe-
roUe

Bays of St. Ge-
nevieve and St.
Barbe

Isle Verte, or
Green Island . .

Bay of Pistolot . .

Croque Harbour . .

Triton Harbour in
Notre Dame Bay

St. John's

Placcntia Harbour

St. Pierre and
Miquelon

Between Cape Cha
pcau Rouge and
Cape Ray gene-
rally

Beyond Cape Ray,
northward, the
tide is inconside-
ablc*

Labrador and Gulf St. Lawrenct.

10 30

11 45

11 30

9
6 45
6 30

5
^

7 30
9 15

6-7

9 3

6-7

7-8

St. Lewis Cape . .
Clmtcivu Bay ....

Hid Bay

Bradoro Bay ....
BolloH Amiurs Bay
Kcf^ashka Bay . .
('loiirwator Point
Mina;anHarlM)ur. .
Biiv of Seven

Islands

Antic(wti Island,

VVoHt Point

I'oinr. do Monts . .
Capo Chatto

6 30

7 35

7 45

8 45

10 45

11 30
I 16

1 40

12
12

3*
3*
4

5
5
7

12
13

IJ
2

2i
3
3
4

Place.

St. Nicholas Har-
bour

Bersimis River . .

Bio Island

Saguenay, Tadou-
sac

High

Water,

Full and

Change.

h. m.

1 55

2
2 15

2 45

Range.

Sps.

ft.

12
12
14

Nps.

River St. Latorence (11).

Green Island

Brandy Pots

Isle aux Coudres .

Pillars

Quebec

2 45

4 25

6 38

Oulf St. Lawrence.

Magdalen Islands

Gaspg Basin

Point Macqucreau
Campbell Town,
Ristigouche It. . ,
Mii-amichi Bar . .
Richibucto River
Point Eseumcnac

8 20

1 60

3 30

4 10

Prince Edward Island.

Cardigan Bay ....
Hillsborough Bay
Bcdequo Har])our
Cascumpeque Hr.
Tracadio

8 40

5 1

10 45

91.

10 15

5 40

CajK Breton Island.

Sydney Harbour . ,
St. Anne Bay . . . .

ft.

■If

10 »^

10'

7 '•
3f

2*
2k

New Brunswick and Nova Scotia,

Shodiao Harbour

Bay Verte

Pictou Harbour .
Out of Canso . . .
Canso Harbour ,
llurboiir iHland .
Ship Ilurbotir . . .
Jedorv HaflM)ur .
Halifax Harbo* ••.
Sabie Island, 8. side
„ N. sido
Shelbuiiio . . .

( 1

7 48

6Jb

7 40

7 54

7 I't

7 49

({

8 :t(t

10 30

8 30

5
4

250

TIDE TABLE.

Place.

High

Water,

Full and

Change

Range.

Sps.

Nps.

Bay of lytndy, Nova Scotia.

E. side, Cape Sable
Island

Cape Sable

Cape Sable, Seal
uland

Pubnico

Tusket River . .

Jebogue .......

Yarmouth ....

Cape St. Mary

West Port, Grand
Passaffe ....

Sandy Cove, East

Annapolis ....

Gulliver Hole . .

Digby Gut . .

Young Cove Point

Port George

Isle Haute ,

Black Rock Light-
house

Spencer Anchor-
ago

Parsborough West
Bay, Basin of
Mines

Horton, do

h. m.

ft.

8 30

9 3

12*

9 47

16|

10 11

16*

10 30

10 47

21i

10 39

22*

30?

10 51

11 2

28 jt

11 14

11 22

11 27

3d|

11 36

37J

11 50

401

12 4

431

12 5

ft.

Cumberland Basin,
Sackville ....

CapeChignecto(12)

Quaco

St. John

Campobello ....

West Quoddy . .

Passaniaqucddy

Grand Harbour,
Grand Manan .

Machias, Seal Is
lands

11 48

11 31

li 24

11 20

11 3

11 30

11 1

10 58

26|

22|

171

4
6

10
12

13J

m
m

19|
20

25
27i

Bay of lyindy, New Brunawick.

12
lOJ

lU
10

United Stuiet. — Portland to New York.

Mount Desert

land n 3) ...

Portland*

la-

11 10
11 25

13
10

7*?

Place.

High

Water,

Full and

Change.

Range.

Portsmouth*

Newburyport* . .

Salem*

Marblehead ....

Boston Light* . .

Boston (Charleston
Yard)*

Plymouth

Barnstable

Cape Cod

Monomy Point. .

St. George Shoals

Nantucket (14)

Edgartown*

Holmes Hole*

Gay Head

Tarpaulin Cove* . .

Bird Island Light*

New Bedford, en-
trance*

Newport*

Point Judith* ..

Montauk Point*

Sandy Hook* . .

New York* ....

h. m.
11 28
11 22
11 13
11 30
11 12

11 27
11 30
11
11 30

11 30

10 30

12 24
12 16

11 43

7 37

8 4
7 59

Sps. Nps

57
45
32

8 10

7 29

8 13

Long Island Sound.

ThrogsNeck*
Sands Point*
Oyster Bay* . .
Bridgeport* . ,
New Haven*
New London*
Stonington* . .
Watch Hill*..

Delaware Bay and River.

Philadelphia* .
New Castle* . . .
Mahons River*
Cape Henlopen
HigbecB, CapoMov*
Delaware Break-
water*

Chesapeake Bay and Bivere,

1 18

11 53

9 52

3-4

8 33

Ri.-'hmond* ,
James River*

4 28
2 14

8?
8?

11 20

11 13

11 7

11 11

11 16

9 28

9 7

6JP

• From tlm Ftnport of the TI- 8 f^OMt Burvey,
reeled and not the Vulgnr Estnhlislunont.

tlio >i

... ...,i,.. ....... .■• ...,^ ....■ •^••.

TIDE TABLE.

2111

Range.

ps.

NpB.

ft.

7JP

10|

11 8?

»1

'^t

'i^

eil 6

8
6|

6
4

f 2

;«r.

6J?

3 4

I 4

1 3

}er»

Place.

Baltimore* ....
Cape Henry ....
Annapolu* ....
PointLookout*
Cape Charles . .
Old Point Com-
fort*

High

Water,

Full and

Change

h. m.
6 33

Range.

Sps.

12 58

7 45

8 17

ft.

1*
4

Nps.

ft.
1

United Statet. — North Carolina to Texai

Hattenw Inlet*
Cape Hatteras . . . .
Ocracocke Inlet . .

Beaufort*

Smithville*

Cape Fear

Georgetown

Charleston*

Savannah*

Cape Florida* . . . .

Sand Cay*

Cay West*

Tampa Bay*

Pensacola

Mobile

Misaiasippi S. W,

pass

Galveston

7 4

7 26

7 19

7 13

3 13

8 31

8 40

9 25

11 21

2i?
3[

51?
U
I

i
1

Oulf of Mexico.

Vera Cruz
Triangles .

2 I

Place.

Campeche

Cape Catoche . . . .

Cozumcl

Royal Harbour, Ra

atan

Cape Gracias Harb
Man of War Cay . .

Blewtields

Greytown

High

Water,

Full and

Change.

h. m.
1 42
9 30
8 30

7 45
10 30

8 10
1 50

Range.

Sps.

ft.

21
1

31
2
2
4

Nps.

ft.
11

West India Islands.

St.

Havana, Cuba
Cape Haytien,

Domingo

Gun Cay

Abaco

Nassau, New Provi'

dence

Guinchos Kay ....
Clarence Harbour,

Long Island

Exuma

Crooked Islanu

Inagua

8an Juan, Porto

Rico ...
Chrit uanstadiSanta

'Jrua . . .
Ah :'gada .

6
8 30
8

30
40

8 30

8 2

30
30

3
3
3

3-4
3

n
u

2§

REttfARKS ON THE TIDE TABLE.

(1.) River Thames. -During Ntrong north-westerly gales, the tide marks high
water earlier in the River Thames than otherwise, and does not give so much water,
'vhilst the ebb tide riuis out later, and marks lower ; but, upon the gales abating niid
Iho weather moderating, the tides 'mt in and rise much higher, whilst they oIho iiiii
longer before liigh water is markea, and with n)ore velocity of current, nor do they
run out so long or so low.

(2.) English Channel. — The tides of the English Channel were but impovfictly
understood till Rear Admiral Beechey, ll.N., investigated a mass of obscrvutions
which had Ixn-n made about the year 1847, and which demonsf rated that there wus a
great resemblance in the characteristics of the tidal phenomena of the English and

• From the lloport of the U. S. Coast Burvey,
rp<u>d and not the Vulgar IjJsUtb'ishincnl

the timey of High Water being Cor-

REMARKS ON TIDE TABLE.

Iiish Channels,^ and tbia investigation led to a more extensive series of observations
tbroughout the English Channel, which were also discussed by Admiral Bccchey.
From his valuable contribution to science and the mariner in the " Fhilosopbical
Transactions " for 1851,* we make the following extract : —

Instead of th« pi'ogressive changes of stream turning progressively later as the tide
advances up the strait, they cease at a certain point, which is in the English Channel,
between the Start and Guu of St. Malo ; and in the North Sea, between the Texel
and the Estuary of Lynn ; and between these spots there is a 'tide peculiar i» the
Channel, quite distinct from that of the seas on either side of it, which are always
running in contrary directions.

When these streams meet, the tide is ever varying in its' direction, according as the
strength of one stream pi'evails over that of the other, giving to the water a rotatory
motion, without scarcely an interval of slack water j wmle in the space between them
tho tide sets steadily towards Dover, while the water is i-iaing there, and away from
it while it m falling at that place. This " true Channel stream " b about 180 miles
in extent in cither direction, from the point of union of the tides in the Strait of
Dover to the region of rotatory tides oflF Lynn, and oflF the Start and St. Malo.

As the true Channel streams are always running in opposite courses, there is neces-
sarily a point where they meet and separate, and this occurs in the strait of Dover.
But in tliis strait the stream, although it first obeys one tide and then another, does
not slack with the Channel streams, but is found to be still running at high and low
water on the shore, at which times those streams are at rest, so that the Strait of
Dover never has alack water throughout its whole extent at any time. I have in
consequence called this an intermediate tide.

The limits of neither of the streams appear to be stationary, but range to and fro
as the tide rises and falls at Dover, travelling to the eastward on both sides, and at
high and low water suddenly shifting 60 miles to the westward to recommence their
easterly course with the next tide ; and although so far apart, they possess the re-
markable peculiarity of shifting together ; so that the Channel streams preserve, as
nearly as possible, tnc same relative dimensions.

In the Strait of Dover this line of meeting and of separation oscillates between
Beachy Head and the North Foreland, a distance of about 60 miles- When the
water on the shore at Dover begins to fall, a separation of the Channel streams
begins off Beachy Head. As the fall continues, this lino creeps to the eastward ; at
two hours after high water it hat reached Hastings ; at three hours, Rye ; and thus
it travels on until at low water by the shore it has on-ived nearly at the North Fore-
land on one side of the strait, and at Dunkirk on the other. At this time the Channel
streams on both sides slack, but in that portion which I call the intermediate stream,
in the Strait of Dover, the water is still running to the westward ; and when the
new Channel streams niake, as the water rises on the shore, this intermediate portion
is found tu unite with, or to oppose, one or the other of these streams, according as it
was before the reverse ; so that, as before mentioned, the line of meeting at low water
appears otf Beachey Head to recommence its easterly course. This intermediate
stream fornm a remarkable feature in the tidal system of the Channel ; it is well
establisliod, us the line of meeting and of separation occupies ti very limited bpacc, and
it Hucms to bo entirelv due to the contracted form of the Channel in this immediate
locality preventing tne free escaiie of the water.

Captain Bullock, in order to test the point of sejiaration, anchored two vessels a
mile apart between Beachy Head and Dungeness; and fcund both vessels at the same
time to ride with their Jieads in opposite directions in obedience to the stnums, which
were then ninning oppposite ways.

The Channel Stream, which I have described as running between the intermediate
stream and the rotatory or mixed streams at the outer extrtniitios of the Channel,
[inrsut'H n steady course along the niM ill trunk of the Strait, slacking only towards

times.

• i>k;i '!Vi

iruub,, to'to, Jip. iVJ— 110 i HUa 1001, pp. Tit*, OtkWl.

REMARKS ON TIDE TABLE.

259

high and low water at Dover, when it is preparing to invert its courBe ; and, con-
trary to the generally received opinion of a progressive slack water in a etrait having
a progressive establishment, this stream has the peculiarity of slacking throughout
its whole extent at nearly tiie same time ; and this time, as was anticipated in my
former paper (" Phil. Trans.," 1848), corresponds nearly with the time of high and
low water on the shore at Dover, the site of the combined wave, and the virtual head
of the tide.

A simple rule thus su£Eices to guide the sailor up the main Channel stream. It is
that the stream runs toward Dover while the water is rising there, and away from it
while falling. The tidal hours for Dover, therefore, answer for the whole of the
Channel.

(3.) Southampton, &c. — This ^ort has the singular advantage of having two high
waters, which adds not a little to its dock fttcilities. The same phenomena is also
found at other places within the Isle of Wight, and is owing to the Channel tide pass-
ing roimd either end of the Isl? of Wight, and arriving at the point at different
times.

It will be observed that at Poole the rise and fall is insignificant, while on the op-
posite side of the Channel we have the gigantic tides of the Bay of St. Malo, a
similar feature to that which is found in the St. George's Channel. 4^

(4.) Bristol Channel. — The tides of the Bristol Channel are remarkable for
their magnitude and rapidity. There are few places in the world where tluy arc
exceeded. The Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, and the Bay of Mont St. Michel, on the
French coast, are somewhat analogous. The effect of these rushing waters is to alter
the channels and shift the banks in the upper portion of the Bristol Channel in a most
extraordinary manner. Some idea is given in our Directions for the Bristol Channel,
page 24.

Without the Bristol Channel spring tides rise from 22 to 24 and 26 feet ; but as
that channel narrows, or contracts in ite breadth, the velocity and vortical rise increase
in proportion ; and so much that, in King Road, it rises to the 'leiglit of 8 fathoms.*
Between Nash Point and Bridgowater Bay, past Hiu'lstone Point, &'c., the tide sets
with great velocity over the Culver Sand, into Bridgewator Bay and Iliver.
Through Caldy Sounds the stream from Cacrmurthtn Bay makes westward nearly
two hours before the Jh>od has done running without the island ; and the stream
makcii eastward through the Sound, as well as between the Helwick Sand and
Worm's Head, nearly two hours before the channel ebb ceases.

At Lundy Island ordinary spring tides rise 27 feet, equinoctial springs 31 feet, and
neaps 13 feet. In Barnstaple Bay, ordinary springs rise 25 feet, equinoctial 28 feet,
andjieaps 15 feet. In this bay, at from two to three miles fi-om shore, a gentle
stream sets to the eastward, from tho time of low water to four hours' flood, and then
to the westward until low water again. In niid-channcl between this bay and Lundy
Island, the streams of flood and ebb set tide and tide each way, according to tho time
of flowing on the shoie, at the rate of thi'ce miles an hour on springs and two upon
the neapj, allowing half an houi' slacking and veering out.

It should be understood that, within the range of Swansea Bay aiid its offing at
about five miles west of the Skarweathcrs, the first quarter-flood seta directly toward
them ; after which and until half-flood, it sweeps one mile outside, nearing the west
end of the Nash Sands j and idtimately setthig, till high water, S.S.E. by eonqiaits,
which points well outride of all. It averages a rate of 4 and o knots on springs, and
3 upon neaps, and changes exactly at the same time that it ceases to rise on tho
shore ; but slack water always lasts half an hour.

* Ciipt. And. Livingston, of Liverpool, a gontlonmn to whom we havo boon much iudobted
fi)r many viihiuhlo and ustfnl cojiimunicationR, has informed us that ho actually indasnn'il
I'uliy 60 fot'trisc yf water, in Novcmbor, IHl.'J, at King's UoHd, in a spring title. At Clioj)-
btow, abovn, ou tho (.'pjvjsitc liidc, tlu. Vvrticiil rii^o ur' u spring f ido is not nnconifiiouly 60
loot, uutl <;VL'n 7'i foil.

i6i

REMARKS ON TIDE TABLE.

It has been bb:iei'vcd, that over the nhoals, and through the different channeh),
the velocity of the tides is greatly increased, and there is reason for believing that on
springs the rate is nearly six knots.

There is always a strong tide tinder these shoals, which is, of course, increased or
decreased according to the vertical rise. This is of consequence when working up
near them, as some advantage may, in the daytime, be taken of it, by keeping on the
proper side. Its influence will be manifest to any vessel thus situated, as she would
nearly make her course good when imder their lee, but swept away furiously on
opening the different passages. Should it be desirable to have the true tide it will
therefore be requisite to keep on the north or south side of all the shoals, ax^cording to
the ebb or flood.

(5.) St. Oeoboe's Channel. — Much {hat has been said of the English Channel
tides is applicable to those of the St. George's Channel.

In the St. George's or Irish Channel, experiments havp shown that, notwithstand-
ing the variety of times of high water throughout the Channel, the turn of the stream
rver all that part which may be called the nur navigable portion of the Channel is
nearly simultaneous ; that the northern and southern streams in both channels com-
mence and end in all pai-ts (practically speaking) at nearly the same time ; and that
that time happens to correspond nearly with the time of high and low water on the
shore at the entrance of Liverpool ana of Morecambe Bay,* a spot remarkable as
^injj the point where the opposite tides, coming round me extn^inities of Ireland,
tern^mate. So that it is necessary only to know the times of high i.ad low water at
either of these places to determine the hour when the stream oi either tide mil com-
nence or terminate in any part of the Channel. For this purpose the Liverpool tide
table may be used, pubtracting 16' from the times there r,iyen, in consequence of the
Canning Dock being later in its high water than the point which is considered as the
head of the tide.

The tide from the Atlantic enters the Irish Channel by two channels ; of which
Camsore Point, tiiie S.E. point of Ireland, and St. David's Head, the S.W. point of
Wales, are the limits of the southern one ; and Rathlin and the Mull of Cantyre the
boundaries of the northern.

, The central portion of the stream of flood, or ingoing stream inms nearly in a line
from a point midway between the Tuskar and the Bishops, to a position IG miles duo
west of Holyhead ; beyond which it begins to expand eastward and westward ; but
its main boay preserves its direction straight forward towards the Calf of Man and
on towards Maughold Head. Here it is arrested by the flood or southern stream from
the North Channel coming round the Point of Ayr, and is first tmiied round to the
eastward by it, and then goes on with it at an easy rate direct for Morecambe Bay ;
tJiUs changir.g its direction nearly eight points.

'• The outer tmrtions of the stream are necessarily deflected from the course of the
groat body of the water by the impediments of banks on the Irish side of the Channel,
and by the tortuous form of the coast on the Welsh. 'Wie eastern portion rushes
with great rapidity between the Smalls, Grassholm, and Milford Haven towards the
Bishops, which it passes at a rate of between 4 and 5 knots ; sets sharply round those
rocks 1:1 an E.N.E. direction, right over the Bass Bank, and into Cardigan Bay ;
makes the circuit of that bay, and sets out again towards Bardscy, at the other ex-
tremity of i' ; the stream still continuing outside towoi'ds the South Staek, which it
rounds, setting towards the Skernes at a rate of upwards of 4 knots ; and, finally,
turns sharp round those rocks for Liverpool and Morecambe Bay ; completing in its
way the high water in the Menai, und filling the Dee, the Mersey, and the Ribl;le.

'IhG wedern portion of the tttrtam, after passing the Saltees, runs nearly in the
direction of tho Tuskar,uets sharply round it, and then takes a N'E. ^ N. Direction,

• The ciitrnnccs oi Liverpool and ofMorpcRnibe Ffiy (Rio Li^hthoum*, Fleetwood) arc,
as before wtatod, Ifi iniuules earlier in their times of high water thun thobc Riven for Livcr-
jwol in the tide tabies.

REMARKS ON TIDP: TABLE.

25S

setting Burly along the coast, but over the banks skirting the shore ; so that vessels
tacking near the inner edge of the sands on the flood, and on the outer edge on the
ebb, have been carried uyon them and lost, especially upon the Arklow and Codling
Banks. Abreast of the Arklow is situated that remarkable spot in the Irish Channel,
where the tide scarcely rises or &lls. The. stream, notwithstanding, sweeps past it at
the rate of 4 knots at the springs, and reaches the parallel of Wicklow Head. Here
it encounters an extensive projection of the Codling Bank ; and while the outer por-
tion takes the circuit of the bank, the inner stream sweeps over it, occasioning an
overfiall and strong rippling all round the edge, by which the bank may generally be
discovered. Beyond this point the streams unite and flow on towards Howth and
Lambay, growing grv. lually weaker as they proceed, until they ultinmtely expend
themselves in a Urge space of still water situated between the Isle of Man and Car-
lingford. There we have not been able to detect any stream ; for there another
remarkable phenomenon occurs — ^the water rising and mlUng, without having any
perceptible stream. This space of still water is marked by a bottom of blue mud.
Such IS the course of the flowing water at the Southern Channel.

In the North Channel the stream enters between the Mull of Cantyre and Rathlin
Island simultaneously with that passing the Tuskar into the Soathem Chaimel, but '
flows in the contrary direction. It runs at the rate of 3 knots at the springs, increas-
ing to 6 knots near the Mull, and to 4 near Tor Point on the opposite side of the
channel. The main body sweeps to the S. by E. taking nearly the general direction
of the channel, but pressing more heavily on the Wigtonshire coast.

The central portion midway between the Mull of Galloway and the Copeland
Islands presses on towards the northern half of the Isle of Man ; and while oite por-
tion of it flows towards the Point of Ayr, the other makes for Contrary Head, and is
there turned back to the N.E. at a right angle nearly to its early couisc. Passing
Jurby Point, it re-unites with the other portion of the stream, and they jointly rush
with a rapidity of from 4 to 6 knots round the Point of Ayr, and directly across all
the banks lying off there, and catching up the stream from the South Channel off
Maughold Head, they hurry on together towards that great point of union, More-
cambe Bay. This bay, the grand receptacle of the streams from both channels, is
notorious for its huge banks of sand, and also remarkable for a deep channel scoured
out by the stream, and known as the Lune Deep, which is the great beacon to all
vessels boimd to tiiat place.

Such is a general description of the streams in the Irish Channel, which are pro-
duced by the flowing of the water, or which, for the pm-pose of distinction, we may
designate the ingoing streams.

The ebbing or outgoing streams do not materially differ from the reveree of those,
except that in the southern channel they press rather more over towards the Irish
coast.

(6.) The North Sea. — The complicated tidal eystim of the North Sea was first
developed by the Rev. Dr. Whewell in 1833, and although there may be some diffe-
rence of opinion upon various points m-ged by the author in the " PLilos. Trans," for
that yar, still the main features seem to be establii^ed. The the following is the
abstract : — " It appears that we may best combine all the facts into a consistent
scheme by dividing the German Ocean into two rotary systems of tide waves ; one
occupying the space from Norfolk and Hollond to Norway ; and the other the space
between the Netherlands and England. In the former space the cotidal lines, or those
on which the tides are at the same time, revolve around a point where there is no
tide ; for it is clear that at a point where all the tidal lines meet, it is high water
at all houi-s, that is, the tide vanishes. In the latter space we may suppose similarly
a tidelcss centre, about which tho cotidal lines revolve.

A further collection of exact observations having been made in 1850-51, and dis-
cussed by Admiral Beechey, as before alluded to in tho English Channel, a still
further insight has been given, and the following summary wis drawn up by Mr. Jno.
Murray, C.K., 1801;

' The great stream of flood from the Atlanf ic. after travertin*

the ■wpsf.prr! r.iasf

u.-^. A. Vt/

Scoiiimrt, appi-oachcs the Orkney and Shetland Isles from the north-west, passing

236

REMARKS ON TIDE TABLE.

eastward through these noups, and after combiniag with the stream through the
Fentland Frith, ran southward along the east coast of Caithness. The same great
stream of flood also reaches the coast of Norway, and in latitude 62° separated, one
branch running to the north, and the other south. The latter stream impinges upon
Kinnaird Head and Rattray Point, throwing a br. nch into the Moray Fiith. The
eastern branch of this stream continues its course southward, until checked by St.
Andrew's Bay and the shoals off the coast of Fife, passing fix>m tiience into the Friths
of Tay and Forth. In consequence of the Bell Rock, and other jiatches north of it,
the stream of flood ia divided; and as the flood in the deep water is pressed forward
with greater velocity than the streams which traverses the more shallow water of the
coast, the main stream arrives sooner, and splits off Dunbar and St. Abb's Hcntt,
entering the Frith of Forth in a north-westerly direction, and penetrating a conside-
rable distance within it, before the other streams which run parallel with the coast.
Southward fix>m St. Abb's Head the stream of flood is uninterrupted, untU it en-
countered the projecting coast from Redcar eastward ; and the tidal waters are in
consequence heaped up in Tees Bay. This stream continues its course, and off
Whitby joint) the main stream coming due south from the deep water. The united
< streams cou jnues their course to Fkmborough Head, sending a b*"\nch suddenly
round this point to the westward, which sweeps Bridlington Bay and the low coast
of Holdemess. Another branch makes for the mouth of the Humber ; but the main
stream takes a south-easterly direction, and as the depth of the sea is reduced, by an
extensive shoal off the coast of Norfolk, the stream of flood is forced forward, scooping
out in its passage the Inner Silver Pit. From thence it runs into Lynn Deeps and
fills the Great Wash. Another branch was scoopt out the channels called the Coal
and Sole Pits, and continues its course between numerous long narrow banks, which
much retar'ls the velocity of the tidal stream. The stream. The stream of flood off
Yarmouth resumes its southerly coui^c, hugging the coasts of Suffolk and Essex, until
it fell into the estuary of the Thames.

Returning now to the great flood stream off Flamborough Head, the main set ran
almost due east between the shoal ground off the coast of Norfolk, and the Outer
Well Bank, scom'irg out a channel called the Outer Silver Pit, between it and the
shoals. Continuing onwards to the Texel, it threw off a branch southward, which
made for th^ mouth of the Thames and the Schelde ; and this current met with the
flood issuing through the Straits of Dover, the one neutralizing the other. Obse/va-
tions made by the late Ca^t. Hewett, R.N., in lat. 62"' 27' 30' N., long. 3" 14' 30 E.,
showed, as had been previously pointed out by the Rev. Dr. Whewell, that no rise
and fall of the tide could exist in that part of the North Sea ; and that, therefore, the
surface between the two opposite coasts must assume a con^'^ex form at low water by
the shores, and a concave one at high water. The great stream of flood made for the
mouths of the Weser and the Elbe, sweeping the coast of Friesland, and being forced
in a northerly direction along the coast of Denmark, it impinged on an extensive reef
off the extreme point of Jutland, which altered its course. It then took the name of
an ebb-tide, and after uniting with the constant outset from the Baltic, ran in a north-
easterly direction, meeting the flood entering the North Sea between Norway and
Scotland, to renew the race it had just run.

(7.) Bay of Biscay. — On the coasts of the bay, the tidal wave advancing from the
westward, makes high water almost at the same hour all around its shores ; and the
range also does not vary greatly.

(8.) Strait of Gibraltar. — In the middle of the Strait of Gibraltar, the current
mostly and generally sets to the East : but, on each side, the flo*)d tide sets to the
westward. On the European side. West of the Isle of Tarifa, it is liigh water at eleven
o'clock, but the stream without continues to run until two o'clock. On the opposite
shore of Africa, is is liigh water at ten o'clock, and the stream without continues to
run imtil one o'clock : after which periods it changes on either side, and runs east-
ward with the general current. Near the shores are many changes, ouunter-currents,
and whirl-i ools, caused by, and varjang with, the winds.

(9.) Africa.— The currents on the Africa)i coast (hereafter explained) render the
«rivnn tinicH of Hiffh water uncertain.

REMARKS ON TIDE TABLE.

25?

der the

Between Cape^ContLi and Cape Blanco they are strong, and set aa shown on the
Chart.

In the road>without the Senegal, the cunent sets chiefly to the S.W. From the
bar, strongr freshes come down after the ' ins, and a powerful current of fresh water
sets from uie river to some distance cat *o sea.

^ In the Bay of Yoff, to ^^«i N.E. of Cape Verde, the currents set rapidly, and some-
times in very dangerous ^^rls. V ..■.,./«

At the mouth of the Gambia the greatest rise in the dry season is not more than
6 feet. Here the tide continues to i-un on the surface for an hour and a half after it
ceases flowing on the shore.

The level of the sea, in the vicinity of Cax>e Coast Castle, is higher, by at least
6 feet, in the rainy season (which is the season of the strong S.W. and southerly
winds, between April and September), than in the more serene weather of the dr^'
season.

In the rainy season, or S.W. monsoon, trunks of trees are frequently carried on
shore, and foimd at 6 or 8 feet above the level of the sea, of the other season ; and the
tides ebb and Jlow regularly in the several rivers ; but, in the dry season, the same
rivers run ebb constantly ; tne level of the sea being then too low to allow the tide-
waters to enter the mouths of the rivers.

Some Remarks on the tides about Cape Blanco, the Channels of the Bissagos, &c.,
are given in the Description of the Coast hereafter.

(10.) Newfoundland. — On all the coasts of Newfoundland the tides are very irre-
gular ; being greatly influenced by the prevailing wind. On all the eastern coast
they have nearly the same rising ; springs about 6 feet ; neaps 4. At the entrance
of St. John's they set in .a bore.

Between Capo La Hune and Cape Ray the flood sets io the westward ic the
offing, very irregularly, but generally two or three hourc. after high water on shore.
See more particularly our " British American Narigator, Hic." published by Mr.
Laurie.

(11.) River St. Lawrence. — At 3 leagues below Tadoust^c, or the Saguenay, is
the eddy of the flood, and the stream on the surface always sets thence downwai'd.
Off Tadousac, the tide ebbs six hours eight minutes. Both streams h^re run three-
quarters of an hour after high and low watrv. At Green Island, it ebbs six hours
twenty-four minutes, and flows six hours.

At the Isle aux Coudres, it ebbs six hours t , 'enty minutes, and flows six hours.
Here the ebb stream continues an hour and a quaiter after lov water, and the flood
three-quarters of an hour after high watex". Within the Pillars, off St. Jean, the tide
ebbs six hours fifty minutes, and flows five hours twenty-five minutes. Both streams
continue to run an hour after high and low water by the shore, but they are influenced
in duration by strong winds.

At the Isle of Orleans, the stream ebbs seven hours, and fiows five hours twenty
minutes. At Quebec, it flows four hours fori}' -Ave minutes only, but an hour longer
as above.

From Green Island to Quebec the tides rise irregularly, but vary considerably.
From Coudro to Quebec the water falls 4 feet before the tide makes down. At the
Isle of Coudre, in spring tides, the ebb runs at the rate of 2 knots. The next strongest
ebb is between Apple and Basque Islo« ; the 'bb of the River Sayuenay uniting
here, it runs lull 7 knots in spring tides ; yet, b.though the ebb is so strong, the
flood is scarcely x^erceptible ; and below the Isle of Bic, there is no appearance of a
flood tide.

(12.) Bay of Fundy, — Off Cape Sable the tide runs at the rate of 3, and some-
times 4, milen an hour } and in the Bu « of Fundy the tides are voiy rapid. Capo
D'Or and Cnpo Chignccto are high lands, w'th very steep clifl's, and deep water close
under thtin. The same kind of shore <-». •- s to the head of Chignccto Bay* where
vtfy extensive flats of mud and quiclf l .. *ro left to dry at low water. Here the

'1 K

est

REMARKS ON TIDB TABLE.

tidea come in a boriB, cushingr in with mat rdpidit^r : they are known to flow »t the
ej^ninozes from 60 to 70 feet perpendicular ; and it is remarkable that, at the same
-: tame, they r be in the Bay Verte, on the northern side of the istbmns, only 8 feet.

(Id.) KouNT DErar. . I^^a^. — At Mount Desert Rook the stream ai flood divides
to run eastwaid and yrcHUfatd. With the Skuttook Hilk aboot N.N.E., and within
4 or ^ lemues i>f those Qjf Mount Desert, the flood stream set* V,. p!JE., and the ebb,
W.S.W. ; but, at the distance of 9 or 10 leagues from the land, ti^- -.trrent, in general,
fiets to ibe S.W. and more westward. From the Mount Desert Rock to the Fox
islands, at the entrance of the Bay of Penobscot, the flood stream seta W.S.W. along
shore ; but it, nevertheless, runs up to the northward into Isle Haute Bay, &c.

(14.) Nantucket, &c. — OS this this island and its vicinity is that remarkable,
hut ^-ingerous collection of shoals, which are so well known to all who navigate
thepe waters. Their form and situation, and idso the peculiarities of the Cape Cod
peninsula lead to the inference that there is some singular effects of tiie tides and
currents hereabout to which these peculiarities are owing. This subject has been par-
tiallv investigated by the United States Coast Surv^, but a complete report has not
yet been issued.

*' The region about Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard is the dividing^ space between
the cotidal hours of xii. and xv., and in this locality the combination of two
apparenthr distinct tide-waves is observed. This combination presents the most
nngular rorms, giving at times four high tides in one day near the junction of Nan-
.tucket and Martha's Yinevard Sounds, and distorting the tide-wave generally, not
only in these sounds, but also on the open sea coast of Nantucket and Mai'tha's Vine-
yard Islands, and in Mustkeget Channel.

" The great disturbance of the ocean level thus produced gives rise to those re-
markable currents so peculiar to this neighbourhood, and so disastrous to commerce."

(15.) Florida, &c. — ^Near Kay Westj on the Florida Reef, the tides are, in some
measure, regular within the reef: the flood setting to the westward, and the ebb con-
trary. To the w otw.lrd, between the Toitugas and Cayo Marques, the flood sets
variably througli to the northward, and ebbs to the E.S.E.

It is remark', 'e thai;, on the South side of these kays, the flood comes ft-om the
south-enstwai , hue oa the North side of them, all the way from Kay West, the flood
runs to the eastward, along the edge of the bank, and to the southward, through the
little channels, in order to fill up the intermediate bays and lagoons, with the assist-
ance of the flood from the southward.

Westward of Kay West there is a general current to the south-westward, along
the reef, and to some distance to the South side of it.

In Chatham Bay it runs tide and half-tide ; viz., three hours flood, then three
hours ebb : next, nine hoiurs flood, &c. Hero, in some places, it is a mere fiill ; but
in some of the channels it is as much as four men can do to stem the current with a
boat

During a S.E. ^le or stonn the water in the bays and rivers of We':;t Florida has
been known to nse 7 feet perpendicular, and vessels of burden have been driven in,
among th« pine trees, at some distance from shore.

From Cape Roman, northward and westward, the tide seems to ebb and flow only
once in the twenty-four hours ; but it is irregular, and much governed by the winds.
Yet the effects in a dry season are very peroeptible in the rivers at a distance from
the sea.

(16.) Bahamas, &c. — Although, at the Bahamas, tiie rise and fhll are inconside'
rahle, the tide of flood sets an indraught on the northern part of the Little Bahama
Bank from every point of the compass, which renders an approach very dangerous.
The tide sets with some force directly on.and off the western side of the Grand Bank
of Bahama; particularly at the full and change of the moon. High water at half-
past seven or thereabout. Rise, 3 to 4 feet. On the Middle Ground of this bank the

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DESCRIPTIOl* OF THE CURRENTS.

25»

In Providence N.W. Channel the current runs generally to the eastward, hhout
2 miles an hour.

Near Eog Island, to the N.W. of Eleuthera, it is, however, uncertain, and great
attention should he paid to the lead. In the passaKe within Egg Island the tide runs .
at the rate of 4 miles, and rises ahove 4 feet ; the flood setting eastward, and strongly
over the reefs.

Ahout the Berry Islands and Providence the water rises 2 feet higher when the
sun comes to the northward of the line, than it doe«i when the sun iM to the south-
ward, and its strength is in a similar proportion. Hete and at the Bernini Isles the
flood sets to the N.E.

m.-0 F THE CURRENTS.

(127.) GEHERAL BEICABKS.— A Current is at present to be understood to
be a stream on, or a particular set in the direction of, the surface of the sea, occasioned
by winds and other impulses, exclusive of (but which may be injluenced by)
the causes of the tides. It is an observation of Dampier, that Currents are
scarcely ever felt but at sea, and Tides but upon the coasts ; and it is certainly an
established fact that currents prevail mostly in those parts where the tides are weak
and scarcely perceptible, or where the sea, apparently little influenced by the causes
of the tides, is disposed to a quiescent state. This will be obvious by an attentive
consideration of the following descriptions. The necessity of attention to the silent,
imperceptible, and therefore dangerous operation of currents, will be equally
apparent.

(128.) The usual method of estimating the existence, direction, and velocity of a
current, as is well known, is the comparison between the observed position of a ship
and that obtained by dead-reckoning. It may be as well to observe in the outset,
that this only method of observations involves some amount of fallacy, as a current
will be the general receiver of all errors or inperfections of observation, and beyond
doubt the strength of cun-ents has been frequently exaggerated from this very cause.
Now, as the latitude is attained far more cosily and accurately than the longitude, it
follows that this exaggeration has been chiefly shown in those currents supposed to
move to e^st and west. Still, by combiniuff a large number of observations, we may
safely conclude that they will neutralize oacn others errors, and aflTord something like
an accurate conclusion.

(129) We have an excellent respository of >>. vast number of current obser^'ations in
the elaborate charts of Mi^or Rennell, still the great mine for facts in surface current
theory. Commander Maury's charts likewise word a great addition to our stock of
knowledge. Thie is also increased by numerous detached observations scattered
through many works. All these, as far as attainable, have all been int<?grated at a
great expenditure of labour, in the Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean, which this
work pai'ticularly elucidates. In pursuing these calculations it was found that id
many localities the currents were represented as most devious and erratic, fireqnently
of great strength, and yet on a mean, showing that there was no continued set of the
waters in any special mreotion. The diagrams of the direction of the wind at the
Liverpool Observatory, page 209, in their more complicated parts, give a good notion
of their motions, as their paths, when traced, resemble each other much. In other
parts, as in the great Equatorial Current, the motion, as estimated, is remarkably
uniform, and this demonstrates that these observations generally are entitled to
confidence.

(130.) In founding any theories of circulation or movement of th« ocean waters

260

PESCRIPTION 0£ THE CURRENTS.

upon the basis of these, acknowledged to be, imperfect obseryations, it may hd ob-
jected that many of them are now old, and therefore still less trustworthy. To this
it may be repUed, that they were mostly taken in wooden ships by careful navigators
in an age when great pains was taken with the dead-reckoning. A doubt may very
fairly be expressed whether the observations of an equal number of modern ships
would give as trustworthy results. Modem speed, less attention to D.R., more refined
astronomy superseding it, and, above all, the greater quantity of iron in modern ships,
which acting on the compass, will inevitably tend to invsJidate the most carefully ■
kept log, will all tend to give confidence in these old observations.

(131.) Bottles. — It has been a well-known practice for many years to send these
floating messen^rs as indicators of currentH. In 1843, Captain A. B. Becher, R.N.,
drew up a very interesting chart of the North Atlantic with the points of "despatch
and amv^ " oi a very large number of tlicse current bottles. The practice and the
accuracy of the teaching of these bottles led to a long controversy, which however
certainly did not tend to overturn their authority, so it need not be longer adverted
to here than to say that the principal objection to them was, that they were rather
impelled by the prevailing wind than drifted in the current. But this is also a
demonstration of what can be otherwibe proved , that the wind and surface currents
of the Atlantic and other oceans obey the same law, and move very much in the same
circuits. These bottles, then, will form an important part of the subsequent demon-
strations of the direction and rate of currents. The chart of Captain Becher's
alluded to, bears intrinsic evidence of its trustworthy character, as in each region the
bottles obey precisely the law which would, a prion, be laid down for them.

Further speculations as to the causes of the currents, and the general view of their
circulation and character, is reser\'ed for the end of this section.

(132.^ It may be obsen-ed that this section deals chiefly with the surface currents
of the Atlantic, as that is the only feature which affects navigation. But this super-
ficial action is not the only point to be considered in relation to ocean currents, as it
will not explain many phenomena known to exist, and the few experiments and
facts we have of the movement and condition of the lower strata of the ocean do
not as yet afford us the means of judging accurately of what is the real system of
circulation.

(133.) That the water of the ocean does circulate over and intermingle with every
portion of the water-surface of the globe is certain. Its composition and character is
everywhere, in every region, exactly the same. This universality of character can
only be accounted for by inferring that the ocean-waters are continually being inter-
mingled, as is the case with the atmosphere, as before described (2.) page 177.

It maybe objected that the specific gravity of the surface water varies considerably
in different regions, and that is therefore an argument against this intermingling of
the sea waters. But it will bo found that there are local causes which affect the wit-
ness of the surface-water. In the Arctic regions, where it is fi:«quently found of
great density or increased saltness, it is doubtless caused by the formation of ice sub-
tracting the fresh water from the surface. Again, in the equatorial regions, it is
usually found of low specific gravity, or containing less salt, which may also be
accounted for by the great rain-fall which, by intermingling the light fresh water
with the surface, lowers its density. Very much speculation has been used on this
variation in the surface density and en ?ts dynamic effects, in producing currents and
other phenomena.

But it is deferentially urged against this reasoning, that almost all the experiments
upon the density made upon the water at any considerable depth (above 20 or 30
fathoms) show a remarkable uniformity in the density in all regions (1*0027), as will
be shown in a later part of this book, and that, therefore, the real character of sea
water, bekno local influences, is everywhere neurly the same.

(134.> But we have a remarkable proof, lately obtained, that not only the upper
fitrata, mit also the whole ocean to its bed is of one universal character. During the
voyagoof H.M.S. JinlMoff, in the nummer of 18B0, for the purpose of obtaining the
deep NCR Houndiugs between England and Labrador, for the electric Iclcgrnph cable.

GENERAL REMARKS.

26t

when nearly midway between Ireland and Greenland, they brought up from the
depth of 1,260 fathoms, that is nearly 1| statute nule, several live atar/iafi, which had
clasped their slender arms round that part of the soundine line which lay on the
bottom. Now, as the process of winding this line in woum occupy upwards of an
hour, and these delicate animals having passed through all the strata still cMached
and {dive, it follows that had the water varied in character even in a slight degree,
that they would have loosened their hold and have died. . ^ ri

Besides this, immense quantities of microscopic animals have been brought up from
their living places at greater depths, disproving the idea that these minute creatures
had lived on the surface, and when dead had sunk to the bottom. All this goes to
prove that sea water is everwhere and at all depths alike.

It is needless to pursue this subject farther now. It will be found more amplified
hereafter, when the question of the depth of the Atlantic is discussed. It is only here
cited in order that should the mariner in the course of his voyage be able, from his
observations, to add to the knowledge of this interesting but new subject, it will afford
him great interest, and be beneficial to the rest of the world.

(135.) The subject of the temperature of the ocean will be treated of specially at
the end of the work. It is of importance in some localities, as it will indicate the
changing from one current to anomer, as from the Gulf Stream into the cold Arctic
current within it, or the reverse. It was foiinerly thought that a decrease of tempe-
rature was a sure indication of approaching shoal water, and its study was therefore
inculcated as a precautionary measure. This point, however, has been shown to be,
in general, fallacious. It arose from the fact tnat vessels crossing the Gulf Stream,
on attaining soundings on the American coast, experienced a very sudden decrease of
heat in the water, fhis is now accounted for in a very different way, therefore
this topic is not of so much importance in the practice of navigation as was formerly
thought.

(136.) Of Coeeents there are two distinctions : — 1. The 2)rj/55 Current: 2. The
Stream Current.

The Deift or Deift Cueeent is the mere effect of a constant or vert/ prevalent
wind on the surface water, impelling it to leeward until it meets with some obstacle
which stops it, and occasions an accumulation and consequent stream of current. It
matters not whether the obstacle be hind, or banks, or a stream of current already
formed. The drift current is generally shallow, and at a mean, perhaps, of no more
than half a mile an hour, when the wind is constant and a good breoKe. Such a
current, from a predominance of westerly winds, occupies the northern region of the
Atlantic, from the N.W. and West to the E.N.E. and S.E. ; and such, likewise, is the
central portion of the ocean under the influence of the trade wind.

The Steeam Cueeent is formed by the accumulated waters of a drift current. It
is more limited, but it may be of any bulk, or depth, or velocity. Of such is the
temporary stream setting at times from the Bay of Biscay to the West of Ireland ;
and of such is the Florida or Oulf Stream, setting from the Mexican Sea to the Banks
of Newfoundland, and terminating to the West of the Azores.

In some pai'ts the current is compounded of drift and stream ; for a stream, already
formed, may pass through the rc^on of a prevalent wind, in a direction according with
that of its artft current, and receive an acceleration of motion from it accordingly. Of
such is the Equatorial Current, which will be presently noticed.

(137.) Of the currents and regions of the Athmtic, the fii-st in order, from the
Land's End of England, is Rennell's Cueeent, a temporary but extensive stream,
which sets at times from the Bay of Biscay to the westward and N.W., athwart, the
entrance of the English Channel, and to the westward of Cape Clear.

Second.— The Easteelt and S.E. Deift Cueeents to the coasts of Europe and
Africa, and southerly to the Coast of Guinea.

Third.- The Afeican or Guinea Cueeent, an Eahtkely stream across the
Atlantic between 5° and 8' N., and continuing along the coast of Africa, into the
Bigiits of Benin and BiatVu, with u westerly outstt from the huiuc.

263

DESCRIPTION OF THE CURRENTS.

Fcnirtil. — ^The Sargasso Sea or ccnti^I area; between the Azores, Canaries, and
Bemnidaet, &c., in which it seems that there is no particular current, and is covered
with the Well-known Sargasso or Oulf Weed.

FIM. — The Equatorial Currents, the vast streams caused by the trade winds.
That of the N.E. Trade running firom between the tropic and Cape Verde, on tha
fetotem side, towards tiie Carribee Islands, having a general westward tendency, and
that from the S.E. Trade, which is usually found to the N. of the equator, passing
ctroagly to the westwiurd, south of the counter or easterly current, number thr. e
above, and then strongly to the W .N.W. along the Colombian coast, joining the N.E.
Trade current in the Caribbean Sea.

Sixth. — The Currents of the Colombian or Caribbean Sea, and the Mexican
Stream, a continuation of the Great Equatorial Streams into the Mexican Sea, from
the south-eastward and eastward.

Seventh. — The Florida or Oulf Stream, an outset from the Mexican Sea, setting
thence to the north-eastward, through the Strait of Florida, and thence eastward
toward the jN'ewfoundland Bank and Azores, &c.

Eighth. — The Arctic or Labrador Current, passing southwards from Davis
Strait down the coast of Labrador, round Newfoundland, and thence south-westward
past NoA'a Scotia and the coast of the United States inside the Oulf Stream.

In explaining this subject, we shall endeavour, in the first place to establish the
facts which prove the existence of these currents, and then attempt to deduce the
causes, according to the given description.

1.-

-OF RENNELL'S CURRENT 5 OR THE CURRENT ATHWART THE
ENTRANCE OF THE ENGLISH CHANNEL.

(138.) This current, which, is occasionally of considerable breadth and strength,
frtM^uently sets athwart the entrance of the channel to the N.W. and W.N. W. at
some distance to the westward of the Isles of Ushant and Scilly. As it apparently
depends on temporary circumstances, it is considered as a temporary stream ; and,
although a certain quantity of northerly indraught is always to oe allowed for, vrith
the tide of flood, on approaching the SciUy Islands, the current, unless with particular
winds on the ocean, wul be scarcely, if at all, perceptible.

The general causes of Currents, so far as they depend upon the state of the winds,
&c., are generally known to seamen ; and that a long-continued wind, in one par-
ticular dnection, will either produce a stream where no obstruction exists, or causes
an accumulation of the water against an opposing coast, until a reverberation takes
place, needs no demonstration. The latter appears to be the case in the present in-
stance. A lon^ and continual prevalence of westerly and south-westerly winds, in
combination with a current that commonly sets into the southern part of the Bay of
Biscay, occasions an accumulation of water in the Bay, which seeks a an escape, by
setting to the N.W. or W.N.W., within the limits described by the half-arrows in the
accompany Chart.

It would be very difficult to understand how that the great preponderance of winds
from the westward of North and South, which prevail in the latitudes of Cape Finis-
terre, should not have some effect in forcing the wat«r toward the coast ; and if so,
what can become of it, unless it forms some current, which we should very naturally
expect to find would follow the trend of the coast against which it is propelled.

That such a cun-ent does actually prevail is too well known to be longer doubted.
Mr. Kellt, the author of a treatise on Navigation, in two volumes, published in
1733, has given a particular instance of it;* by which he shows that a ship becalmed

• 8ce Vol. i. p: 434. '^ »":>>m;-«!v^ :Airfiirw.i*Be«M

RENNELL'S CUBRENT.

263

with her sails Airled for forty-eight hovn, was in that time carried bjr the .current
46 miles to the northward ; and we have many 6ubsequcnt examples of vessels which
hare heen set, by the coarse of the stream, to the northward, or upon the rocks, of
$cilly. But the writer to whom we are more particularly indebted for an elucidation-
of tile subject, is the late M(^or Bennell,^ who has given an illustration of it,
which places it beyond all controversy ; and from whose paper, published in the
"Philosophical Transactions" of the year 1793, we extract tne following obsen-a-
tioos: —

" In crossing the eastern part of the Atlantic, the Hector, East India ship, Captain
Williams, in 1778, encountered, between the parallels of 42° and 49', very strong
westerly gales ; but particularly between the 16th and 24th of January, when, at in-
tervals, it blew with uncommon violence. It varied two or more points, both to the
North and S.W., but blew longest bora, the northern point ; and extended, as subse-
(juently appeared, from the coast of Nova Scotia to that of Spain.

«' WitMn 60 or 70 leagues of the meridian of Scilly, on the 30th of January, be-
tween the parallels of 49° and 50% the effect of the current was first experienced,
which set the ship to the North of her intended parallel, by nearly half a degree, in
the interval between two observations of latitude ; namely, in two days. The wind.

* From the name of this gentleman, the current is now generally denominated BknmsWs

CuEEBNT.

The currents of the ocean appear to have attracted the attention of Major Rennell at an
early Period, and they continued to occupy the attention until the luRt ebb of his honourable
life. The results have appeared T' afore the world in five large charts, with a descriptive
volume, dedicated to his late Majesty, William the Fourth, under the editorship of Mr. Jno.
Furdy, the original author of this volume.

The Major's firs^Chart and Remarks on the Agulhns or South African Current appeared
in the year 1778, and the impoi-tant tract on the Scilly or 'thwart Channel Current, in the
year 1793. In tiie mean time, and subsequently, some cursory remarks on the same subject
were introduced in the " Ulustration of the Geography of Herodotus," the Philosophical
Journals, &c. In or about the year 1810, on th suggestion of a friend (Mr. Purdy), who
expressed a wish to see all his writings on this subject combined and republished, he com-
inenced his Current Chart$ of the Atlantic Ocean, and collected fr<om the journals of his nu-
merous friends a gleaning of information which, at length, from repeated accumulations,
presented a most beautiful and singular instance of successful perseverance, on a subject
never before attempted upon a plan so comprehensive. To an ordinary mind such a topic
would have been regarded a^dull, uninviting, and impracticable; by the author it was appre-
ciated according to its importance and usefimxess to mankind, and ho treated it accordingly.
He had long lamented the general ignorance prev^ent on this sub^ and which had, from
time to time, produced so much loss of life and treasure, OHpecially m /ciation to his native
country. It is true that, in later times, practice and experience have taught the mariner,
in many cases, how to shape his course to the best advantage ; but still he was deficient in
theory, and knew not the rationale, the vhy and wherefore, of the courses which he adopted,
and the variations which might be most advantageously made in his outward or homeward
passages, according to thefiuctuations of season and circumstances. Such knowledge is now,
m a great measiue, supplied.

Among the names of the contributors to the work on the ouxrents, that of Cteneral Xihvard
Sabine is conspicuous; and were any apology required for the undertaking, his words might
be quoted with propriety. In the year 1826, this gentleman published his Account of £s^-
rimente to determine the Figure of the Earth by meam of a Fmdulum vibrating Seeonde in
different Latitude!, as well as on various Subjects of Fhilosophical Enquiry; and in that
volume he has given his testimonial of the necessity of the " uivestigations in the following
terms.

" On a general i-eview of the currents particularized on the Pheasant's progress (in 1822) bi'
her voyage, commencing at Sierra Leone and terminating at New York, it was found that
she was indebted to their aid, on the balance of the whole account, and in the direction of
her course from port to port, not less than sixteen hundred geographic miles, the whole distanee
being nine thousand ; affording a very striking exemplification of the importance of a correct
knowledge of the currents of the oceiin to persons engaged in its navigation : and con-
sequently of the value of the information in the acquisition and arrangement of which Mt^or
Rennell has passed the latter years of his most useful life."

264

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

ever afterwardi prevented the ship from regaining the parallel ; for although the
northern set was trifling, from the 31 st until she arrived near Scilly, yet the wind,
being scant and light, never enabled her to overcome the tendency of the current. It
is alM to be observed, that the direction of the current was much more westerly than
northerly ; the ship crossed it on so very oblique a course as to be in it a long time,
and was cbiven, as it appears, nearl^jr 30 leagues to the West by it ; having soundings
in 73 fathoms, in the latitude of Scillv, ana afterwards ran IfiO miles by the log,
directly East, before she reached the length of the islands : mnning, in effect, 120
miles, and shallowed the water only 9 fathoms.

« The current was not only sensible by the observations of latitude, but by ripplings
on the Rurfiice of the water, and by the direction of the lead line. In consequence of
all, the ship was driven to the North of Scilly, and barely able to lay a course through
the passage between those islands and the Land's End.

** There being no timekeeper on board, the longitude was imcertain ; but it was
concluded that the current, at times, extends to 60 leagues West of Scilly, and runs
close to the West of the islands. The breadth of the stream, where the Hector
crossed over it, was supposed to be about 30 leagues. ^

" A journal of the Aiku, East India ship, Captain Cooper, ftimishes much clearer
proofs, both of the existence of the current, and the rate of its motion. This ship, out-
ward bound, in January, 1787, had advanced 55 leagues to the westward of Ushant,
when violent gales began at South, and for four days continued between that point
and W. by S. ; during which time the ship was lying-to, with her head to N.W. On
the 5th day the wind abated, but was S.W. ; stoi-my weather then ensued for nine
days, the wind blowing from all points between South and S.S.W., but chiefly, and
most violently, from W.S.W. and S.W ; and when the ship then proceeded south-
ward on her voyage, she was, by the reckoning, only 2\ degrees of longitude West
of Cape Finisterre ; but, by timekeepers, more Hhaafour degrees and a half.

" On the day the gales commenced, the reckoning was within fourteen minutes of
that b;^ the timekeepers ; the latter being more westerly, owing to the current. On
the third dav after, the difference was about twentv-four minutes, when the. ship was
25 leagues S.W. from Scilly, in soundings of 70 fatnoms. The ship, in Ion. 8" 28', had
entered into the stream ; and, its course being opposite to that of the Hector, it facili-
tated her progress, and carried her clear of the S.W. coast of Ireland.

" After this, in the course of fifty-one hours, the ship had set two whole degrees to
the westward of her reckoning ; and in the forty-five hojirs following, she had a
farther set of twenty-three minutes ; so that, in four days only, she had been carried
bv the current no less than 2 degrees and 23 minutes ; and, since the gale began, 2° 32'
of Ion., or 93 nautic miles.

*< It consequently appears, that the Atias experienced a westerly current, from about
24 leagues W.S.W. of Scilly, to near 4 degrees of longitude West of the meridian
of Cape Clear, where its effect was imperceptible. It may, therefore, be inferred,
that the stream goes off to the N.W. in the parallel of 51° ; between long. 14" and
15', and the S. W. coast of Ireland. ' - T ~^-. . /

*' No northern set is indicated in the journal of the AtUu. This would have been
remarkable, had the weather permitted nice attention to the reckoning ; but it is to
be remarked, that observations on the latitude were not regularly made ; and besides,
that the great distance of 36 miles was allowed for (mly twenty hours' drift to the
N.W., when the ship was lying-to.

" From the nature of this current it must be obvious that its velocity will always
be proportionate with the strength and direction of the wind, by which its direction
will also be regulated, and that the middle of the stream will preserve its original
course in a greater degree than its borders. The direction of this appears to be N.W.
by W., the eastern border more North ; and the western more West ; so that tke
northern current is stronger dose to the West of Scilly than more to the westward.

« From the foregoing observations may be deduced the following inferences: —

*' let. That ships, which cross the current obliquely, steeling a ti'ue E. by S. course

RENNELL'S CURRENT.

263

or more southerlj, will continue longer in it, aiid be more affected by it, than those
which Bteer more directly across it. In crossing it with light winds, the effect will
be the same. Allowance must be made for the more northerly direction of the eastern
edge of the current.

" 2nd. That, after a continuance of westerly gales, even should a good observation
of latitude be made, it would be imprudent to run eastward firom the Atlantic during
a long night. For a ship might remain in the current so long as to be drifted from q
parallel, deemed a very safe one, to that of the Rocks of Scilly. It is, therefore,
recommended, that vessels, at such times, should keep, at the highest, 48'° 46', because
in 49° 30' the whole effect of the current may be experienced in the worst situation.
But from the current in 48° 46', a southerly wind will set the ship into the Channel.
In time of peace, coming from the Atlantic, it woidd be still better to make Ushant.

« 3rd. That ships, bound to the westward from the Channel, with a south-westerly
wind, so that it may appear indifferent which tack they go on, should prefer the
port tack, as they will then have the benefit of the current."

In a Supplementary Paper on the Effects of Westerly Winds in raising
the Level of the English Channel, dated 2,2nd June, 1809, Major Bennett has
stated .' —

Cfurrent that_often jyrevails to the Westtoard of
Society many years ago, 1

^139.) « In the Observations on
SetUy, which I had the honour to lay before the Royal

slightly mentioned, as connected with the same subject, the effects of strong westerly
winds m raising the level of the British Channel ; and the escape of the superincum-
bent waters, through the Strait of Dover, into the tlien lower level of the North Sea.

« The recent loss of the Britannia, East India ship, Captain Birch, on the Good-
win Sands, has impressed this fact more strongly on my mind ; as I have no doubt
that her loss was occasioned by a current, produced by the running off of the accumu-
lated waters ; a violent g^lc from the westward then prevailing. The circumstances
under which she was lost were generally these : —

" In January last she sailed from the anchorage between Dover and the South
Foreland (on her way to Portsmouth), and was soon after assailed bv a violent gale
between the West and S.W. The tmck weather preventing a vie-w or the lii/hts, the
pilot was left entirely to the reckoning and the lead ; and when it was concluded that
the ship was quite clear of the Goodwin, she struck on the north-eastern extremity of
the southernmost of those sands ; and this difference between the reckoning (after due
allowance being made for the tides) and the actual position I conclude was owing to
the nortberly stream of current, wliich caught the ship, when she dr^d to the hack
or eastern side of the Goodwin. ' ,yf t^l , wrtRrtv -;

" The ftust of the high level of the Channel, dm-ing strong winds, between the
West and S.W., cannot be donbted ; becatise the increased height of the tides in the
southern ports, at such time&, Is obvious to every discerning eye. Indeed, the form of
the upper part of the Channel, in particular, is such as to receive and retain, for a
time, tne principal part of the water forced in, as may be seen by the Chart ; and as
a part of this water is continually escaping by the Strait of Dover, it will produce a
current, which must greatly disturb the reckonings of such ships as navigate the
Strait, when thick weather prevents the land, or the lights of the Forelands and the
North Goodwin, from being seen.

" I observe, in a new publication of Messrs. Laurie and Whittle, entitled Sailinff
Directions, SfC.,of the. English Channel, that, throughout the channel, it is admitted
by the experienced persons whom they quote, that strong S.W. winds ' cause the
flood tide to run an hour, or more, longer tnan at common times ; or, in other words,
that a current overcomes the ebb tide a full hour ; not to mention how much it may
accelerate the one, and retard the other, during the remainder of the time.

" It is evident that the direction of the current under under consideration will be
influenced by the form and position of the opposite sl^ores at the entrance of the
strait ; and, as these are materially different, so must the dii'pction of the stream be
within the influence of each side respectively. For instance, on the English side, the

2 L

206

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

current, having taken the dii'ectioa of the diore between Dungeneta and the Sottth
Ibrekmd, will »et ffeaerally to the N.E., through thutt aide of the strait. — (See the
Chart.) But, on the French side, circumstances must be very di£Perent $ for the shore
of Boulogne, trending almost due North, will give the current a like direction, since
it cannot turn sharp round the point of Ghritnet, to the uMth-eastward, but must pre-
serve a^reat proportion of its northerly course, until it mixes with the waters of the
North 1^ ; and it may be remarked, that the Britannia, when driven to the eastward
of the Goodwin, would fitll into this very line of current.

"There ia another circumstance to be take . into the account, which is, that the
$hor9i(f Boulogne, presenting a direct obHtaele to the water impelled by the westerly
winda, will occasion a highei* level of the sea there than elsewhere ; and, of course, a
stronger line of the current toward the Goodwin. — (See the Chart.)

" It must, theref(»«, be inferred, that a ship passing the Strait of Dover, at the
back of the Goodwin Sands, during the prevalence of strong West or S.W. winds,
will be carried many miles to the northward of her reckoning ; and, if compelled to
depend on it, may be subject to great hazard, from the Goodwm.

" It will be undei*stood, of course, that although the stream of current alone haa
been considered here (in order to simplify the subject), yet that, in the application of
these remarks, the regular tides must also be taken into the account. But, from my
ignorance of their detail, I can sav no more than that I conceive the great body of the
tide from the Channel muHt be suoject to much the same laws as the current itself.
The opposite tide will, doubtless, occasion various inflections of the current, as it
blends itself with it ; or may absolutely suspend it ; and the subject can never be
perfectly understood without a particular attention to the velocity and direction of
the tides in moderate weather, to serve as a good ground work."

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON RENNELL'S CURRENT.

(140.) After the publication of the first paper on the current of the Channel, and
the supplementary paper immediately preceding, Major Rennell published some
further important observations upon it, which were i-ead before the Royal Society,
April 13, 1813, and from which we have the following extracts : —

•< During the interval of twenty-one years, since the Society did me the honour to
receive my Ohservationa on the Current to the Westward of Scilly, more facts relating
to that current have been collected, as well as observations on its effects, in different
parts of its course, between Cape Finisterre and Scilly i the whole tending to confirm-
ation of the general system set forth in 1793 ; and, in one instance, affording perhaps
a clearer proof of the strength of the stream, in respect to its northerly direction, than
any of those adduced on the former occasion.

" In pursuing the detail of these facta and observations, I shall begin the neigh-
bourhood of Cape Finisterre, and proceed with the course of the current, along the
Bay of Biscay ; ahd thence across the mouth of the English Channel to Scilly, and
the entrance of St. George's Channel.

" The first three fiiets regard the current from the open sea, setting into the South
ride of the Ba^ of Biscay, and along the North coast of Spain ; which current has
been supposed in the former paper to be occasioned by the prevalent westerly windf,
which force the water near the shore into the bay, and along the southern coast of it.
The water so displaced would be followed, of course, by the adjacent water behind it,
in the open sea ; and so on successively, to a certain extent. This cause must surely
be refeired to as the origin of the SciUy Current.

" I. The first case is that of the JEarl Comwallia, East India ship. The circum-
stance occurred on her outward passage ; she was well provided with timekeepers, as
most of the India ships are. .

" On the 12th of March, 1791, between the parallels of 43' and 44", and at 3° 45' of

BENNELL'S CURRENT.

267

longitude West of Cape Finisterre (about 53 leagues), this shin ezpenenced an easterly
current, equal to 26 marine miles. Her jMmtion being direotly opposite to the line of
the southern coast of the Bay of Biscay, it is a fair conclusion, that the current was
occasioned by the cause above mentioned, or, as seamen oftU it, the indraught ot the
bay ; which, it appears, extends to at least 53 leagues from . the shore. And as the
rate, in this place, extends one mile per hour, it may be supposed that the effect
extends to a still greater distance.

" It may hero bo remarked that the same ship, in coming out of the ehopa of the
Channel a few days befbre, was set 24 miles to the westwara, 16 to the northward, in
tho course of tweuty-four hours ; that is, 38 miles, in a direction of N.W. by W.
Thiii may be supposed to be the same str^un of current in its. course from the ftay
toward Scilly.

" n. The second fact is that of the drift of a bottk, which was thrown out of a
Danish ship (I believe sent on discovery), since the publication of the former paper.

" The bottle was thrown out in lat. 44|°, long. 12° West from Greenwich, that is,
about 48 miles to the N.E. of the Comwallis's station, at the time she began to feel
the current, on the 1 1th of March. It was taken up by a sentinel on duty, near Caj^
Ortegal, and, as was supposed, at the moment of its driving into the surf. If this
was really the fact, the irattle, according to the date of the le^r contained in it, must
have been carried, at the rate of half a mile per hoar, in the direction of about K fay
S. I S. ; the distance was about 64 leagues.

" The report of this circumstance was transmitted, by the French Consul at
Corunna, to the Academy of Sciences at Paris.

" It may be observed that the drift of the bottle was much to the South of East,
whereas thi^t of the Cornwallw was East ; that is, both pointed toward Cape Ortegal
or its vicinity : as if the main stream of the current was concentrated there.

"'With respect to the velocity of the current in the present case, all, of course,
depends on the time of the anival of the bottle at the shore. It might have bpcn
thrown up long before it was seen, and washed off again by the tide, or surge, of the
sea. The direction, the most important point, cannot be questioned.

<' III. The third fact is very simple, and perfectly conclusive. Off Cape Ortegal,
at a considerable ofBng, Admiral Knight found the current, at the rate of one mile
per hour, setting to the E.S.E. ; that is, nearly along shore.

" The reader will immediately perceive that these three facts converge, as it were,
to one point ; that ia, in the proof that the waters of the Atlantic flow into the Bay
of Biscay, along the North coast of Spain.

'• It would seem that the north-westerly current, by Scilly, did not, at least in many
cases, balance the easterly current round Cape Oi'tegal ana the land of Finisterre.**
The loss of his Majesty's frigate Apollo, with most of her convoy, may surely be
attributed to the operation of this current. Captain (afterwards Commissioner)
Wallace assured me, that after having made as he supposed, ample allowance tor
clearing Finisterre, yet, in the night, he had a very narrow escape from shipwreck.
Very many others have been brought into the same kind of danger ; so that the land
of Finisterre, were it not discernible at a considerable distance, and its offiug clear of
rocks and shallows, and, moreover, situated in a finer climate, would prove a kind of
Scilly to mariners. , ,

" I have not been able to obtain any proofs on record concerning tiie course of the
current round the Bay of Biscay. ' I formerly collected some information from a
French commander respecting it. He said, that the setting of the current along the

* Nor, admitting an equal rate, in both places, could it well be. For the current enters
the Buy of Biscay, in an East direction, but goes c^ from it i^. W. ; so that, if a ship was
(^iuried SO miles to the N.W. from Ushant, she would only have made about 35 westing ;
but, ill the other cii.se, she would be carried the whole 60 eastward, toward the Bay and
Capo Finisterre.

268

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CUB NTS.

coast of France, to the North and N.W., was a fact well understood ; and even acted
on by many in die choice of the tack, on which the current gave the greatest advan-
tage, with dead winds.

*' One circumstance, and that a very striking one, in recpect to this particular, is
that the soundings in the Bay of Biscay show little or no muddy bottom to the south-
ward of the Gtronde River ; out everywhere to the twrthward. This seems to show
that the mud of the Oironde, Charente, Loire, &c., &c., is all earned to the north-
ward ; and by what cause but a northerly current P Had the motion of the sea been
variable, lie mud would surely have been distiibuted to the South, as well as to the
South, of the mouth of the Oironde. llie alluvial embouchurca of the rivers in

S moral here, and the positions of the banks formed by them, in the sea, point to the
orth or N.W. ; apparently the effect of the same sea-current.* y^r**; t^i'AJ.ti

^ " IV. In continuation of this current along the Bay of Biscay, I shall next men-
tion that Captain (afterward Admiral) John Payne assured me. that, being in H.M.S.
Russell, in a severe gale of wind at S.W., and with the ledge of rocks called tho
Saintes, not far to leeward, he was under apprehensions for the safety of the ship
during the whole night, but, to his surprise, found himself carried clear of the danger
by a current, which set the ship, in all, about 70 miles to the N.W. .jj^^t „• ,j,,}

♦* V. The flowing of the tides, on the West of Scilly, cannot well be accounted for,
on afty other supposition, than that the flood is prolonged by a southerly current.
The flood tide is known to run nine hours to the northward ; but the ebb, in the oppo-
site direction, only three hours. This particidar had not come to my knowledge when
the paper of 1793 was written.

" VI. Our navigators, in earlier times, appear to have entered the English Channel
on a more southerly parallel than they have done in later times. For, although they
might have been ignorant of the real cause of their disturbance in their course, yet
many of them believed that there was an indraught, as they called- it, into tho St.
George's Channel j so that one effect of the em'rent, that is, the northern set, had not

Eassed unobserved, although the cause was not understood ; nor, of course, could it bo
nown when to expect. But I have also hoard it remarked by sea-officers as long
a^o as I 3an remember, that ' it was unaccountable what should occasion their ruu-
ntng down so much distance, in coming in with the land from the westward.' I never
heard, however, that there was any suspicion of a cuirent setting westward.

" The idea of a northern indraught into St. George's Channel (but which applies
equally to the current West of Scilly) is clearly set foi-th in a publication by Captain
Joseph Mead, in 1757 5 but which came to my knowledge only very lately, by the
favour of Mr. Purdy. Captain Mead flrst relates the case of the ship Hope, of
Liverpool, bound from tho coast of Guinea to that port, in November, 1735. (Pre-
face, p. iii.)

• " ' Having had a jfood observation, by which they found they had the Irish Channel
oi>cn, the wind continued to blow strong from between the South and West, but
mostly from the foi-mer. Having no other observation [of latitude] for six days, in
which time they carried sail constantly, they by reckoning expected to fall in with
Cape Clear j but in the following night they fell in with tne Slasquets.' These
islands and rocks are situated in lat. 52° lU', or about 48 miles to the North, and one
degree of longitude to the westwai-d of Cape Clear.

" Again (page 10) he says, that the Bristol merchant-ships, wiiich fall in with Cape
Clear, on their homeward passage [from the West Indies, &c.], shopo their course

• From a view of the Chart of Soundings botwoon Spiiin nnd Ireland, ono might bo Iwl
to HUppoM) that tho deep water and steop shore along tho North Vonni of Hpain lunl beon
piirtly occaoioncd by thowater driven in from the Atlantic, in wosturly Btomis, along that
niaMt ; and which had gradually worn away tho matter there, and depoMitcd it on tho Imnk
which uxtondHfrom Bayonno to tho w«gtw!ird of IrcLiJid. For ths; Jwijik serinn to (Xpand,
us it gwH northward, in like manner an tl»o currunt ; and tho water is «hiiliowor than might
Ik? uxpcctod, in proportion to tho duplhs farthur in,

RENNELL'S CURRENT.

268

from thence, with a lacae wind, to the high land near Padstow : which is the land
thoy choose to make to lead them to the entrance of the Bristol Channel. That, in
estimating this coarse, they allowed 4 or 5 degrees in the bearing, to compensate for
the indraught int2 St. George's Channel. This angle would g^ve about 13 or 14
nautic miles ; and is probably what they found by experience to be the general
amount of the northern set,

" He goes on to say that, in like manner, the safety of ships, after they come into
soundings, until they reach Scilly, depended on their making no less allowance than
Bristol men do in the other Channel. For, says he, ' experience informs me that,
from the commencement of soundings, in lat. 49" 30' N., to the length of Scilly, in
fair tpeathet'f I had found the northern indraught to he 6 or 8 miles in the twenty-
hours.'"

Here, then, the fact of the northern set is a second time recognised, though without
any suspicion, any more than before, of there being a westerly set also.

Here it may be proper to state, what appears to me to be a very important fact ;
although pernaps not connected with the current in question, but materially affect-
ing the safety of the navigation between the English Channel and Dublin. It was
communicated to the author by Captain Evans, a gentleman who superintends the
harbour-works at Holyhead, and who has had much experience in the navigation of
the Irish Sea.

" All navigators (says he) in t^?ir voyage from the Land's End to Dublin, find

themselves more or less carried +0 the eastwai-d, while running up St. George's

Channel ; which is the cause of so many vessels finding themselves in Cardigan Bay ;

where in tempestuous weather and westerly winds many have been lost.* And tnis

■ he justly supposes to be occasioned by a current setting to the north-eastward."

From subsequent communications, it has been shown that the water sets into the
Bay of Biscay from the N.W. as well as the West, at times as high as the parallel of
iV ', and it is supposed that a whirl is sometimes formed by the outer part of the
water; that the ba^ discharges to the N.W., tuminv to the west, ana round the
South and S.E., while the inner part shoots to the N.W. and W.N.W. Henf^o it
may be concluded that, when the volume of water received, and, of course, the
velocity, is very great, the whirl to the left or West is farther removed to the N.W.,
and the contrary.

Of this current Captain Livingston says : — " I have seen, in a late magazine, some
onu alleging that Rennell's Current, athwart the channel, is imaginary. I know the
contrary from experience, and perfectly remember, that in 1813, while master of
the Lark sloop, I was set one day twenty-four minutes North of dead reckoning,
equal to one mile an hour, but can say nothing as to the westing. On coming lately
from Bordeaux, 1819, we were set by it seventeen minutes North in twenty-four
hours ; but, as a passenger, I had, at this time, no opportunity of keeping a
reckoning."

On the 13th July, 1826, the ship Carshalton Park, Captain 3. S. Park, entered upon
the Bank of Soundings on the parallel of 49", and between the meridians of IT and
9' W., RenncWa Current was then found to bo Hctting with dangerous strength. The
Hhip crossed it rapidly ; running all the time at the rate of 7 knots, but wus swept 14
or Id miles to the N.W. by W. It had boon previously ascertained tliat no cun'cnt
excited, nor was any found eastward of 0° W. The wind was between S.W. and
N.W., flying about in squalls.

At nine a.m., on the 14th. Captain Park made the Lizard, bearing N.E., and had
the satisfaction to find his chronometer perfectly correct.

(111.^ Further Demonstration. — To the preceding development, by Major
Uenuell, wo may with propriety add a notice of the loss of La Jeune Emina, of Cher-
bourg, eummanued by Chaeelot do Chatillon, in the night of November 28, 1828 \ an

A'light-voMHvI liitely placed horo, it is hoped, will avert thiii iniiichiof.

"""W.

270

OBSERVATIONS ON THF CURRENTS.

extraordiaary niid memomblo uuitan«o of the operation of tho current. This veweU
of about 400 tons, from Martiniq^uc, was bound to Havre de Grace, with colonial
produce. She had, in her passage, encountered several severe gales (we pircsume from
the S.W.) and had 8hip})ed two heavy seas. On advancing toward the Englidi
Channel, the weather was hazy, and thus continued for several daxf«, so that no obser-
vation could be taJccn, and tho reckoning consequently became erroneous. At kngth
a Ughthouso was seen, supposed by the captain to be that of Uahontt and a courRo
was shaped accordingly ; but this unhappily brought the vessel ,to the Cefn Sidan
Satula, witliia the Bar of Cacrmarthcn Harbour, and tho next day became a total
wreck, 'fho captain and passengers were drowned, and from a crow of nineteen only
six were saved.

The narrative states that there is not, perhaps, a beach of this kingdom, where
there is a more ftuious sea running, during the prevalence of south-westerly winds,
than Cefn Sidan Sands, nor any which has proved moie eminently disastrous to those
who have been so unfortunate as to have been driven on them.

The event proved that the lighthouse, which had previously been supposed'tol'be
that of Unlumt, on tho French coast, was really that of Lundy Island, in the Bristol
Channel ; The latitude of Lundy Lighthouse u 51° 10' ; that of Ushant 48' 28'. The
difference of latitude between the two is, therefore, 2' 42', or 102 miles ; a difference
surely too great to have been effected by merely ordinary circiunstances, but which
may, in tho absence of positive infunnation, be assumed as a presumptive proof of tho
operation and strength of RenneW a Current. This case is not cited as exhibiting any
circumstances which proper precaution could not have avoided, but is here quoted
from a multitude of othei*s where the error is on tho same side, and all of which tend
to confirm the previous remarks.

■ : EXPERIMENTS ON THE CURRENT. v *

(142.) Inhet into the Bay of Biscay. — ^A bottle from the Ladt/ Louisa, bound to
St. Michael's, in lat. 45', lung, l.'i' 4u', 2nd February, 1830, found on the coast of Lit,
in the province of Bayoniic, 14th of October, in the same year.

Channel SoUNDlNoa into the Bay. — Bottle from the brig Hope, tram Havannah,
Stst March, 1838, in lat. 60" 10', long. 9' 43' ; wind strong fivm the eastward for three
days ; found on tho 1st of June, 1838, on the coast of Rochefort; having probably been
first impelled to the S.W. by the ebb tide and prevalent wind, and thence following
the general inset to the South and East.

Query. — " Why should the sea bo higher, or more dangerouH, in the Bay of Biscay
than it is in the middle of tho Atlantic or elsewhere ? Is it really so P are questions
often asked.

" I believe tY it thei-e is a shorter, higher, ond conKoquently worse Hca, in and near
the Bay r-f Biscay, than is often found in other Mhiees, uiid attribute it to tlie effect of
immense Atlantic waves rolling into a deep bi^iit, where they close upon ench other,
and receive vibratory undulations from each shore; augmented, }H-rhups, by the
peculiar formation of the bottom of that bay, the variation in depth, and the effects of
currents, which, when running over uneven ground, or against the wuid, nloiie cause
a heavy swell t a striking exemnlitication of which may lie seen on the Bank of
Agulhas, near the Cape of Good Hope." — VajUain Jf'itzlitiy, vol. ii. p. 45.

From CiiANNKL Soundings to tho West of Scotland. -.\ bottle thrown from
the ship Dnkt of Marlboiim/h, Captain Jeffcry, by Mr. George Thoni, near the Solo
Bank, in lat. 43' 38', long, tt"* W. ; found on the shore of Cnrwiig, near tlie middle of
the South side of the Island Mull, 14th April, 1821, and made known by Mr. Hector

•insv tiiis buttie wss thrown into the sen, the ship was on its pussH^e

to Loiuloi) fmm llie Cape of GimmI Hoih', and an alUiwaiiee wni inttde for eiiiient to
the N.W. of 12 luilci to the twenty-lour hours. From the siwt iu which it wa:>

RENNELL'S CURRENT.

271

inquaBdonable that the bottle was carried by the current to the
"rela

dropped, it em:-,

West and Norr\ i' Ireland, and thence between Ilti and Mull, to the place in which
it was found. It has, therefwe, well answered Mr. Thorn's purpoMU of coitfinmug
RennelVa Current.

Bay of Biscay to the North of Scotland. — A bottle, enclosing a sone com-
posed on board, from the OretA We«tern steamer, on her voyage to New York, at
midnight of September 10, 1838, in lat. 48" 3' N., Ion*. 9° 52 W. ; picked up bv
Captain Thornton, of the Cores, in passing through the Pentland Frith, on the IGtn
of the same month. It must, therefore, have drifted to the north-westward and north-
ward, oflf the western coast of Ireland, and thence to the N.E. and East, by the general
drift from the Greenland Seas.

St. George's Channel. — A bottle from the shin Osnreu, of Glasgow, Alexander
M'Gill, master, which sailed from Greenock. Tliis bottle (No. 310.) was thrown into
the sea 1st March, 1822, on the ship's return ftora. Calcutta, in lat. 49° 54' N., and
long. 12° 20' W. It was found on the shore, upon the South side of Milford Haven,
on the 6th of the following month, April.

Easterly Current to Bristol Channel. — A bottle from the brig Albert,
R. L. Robertson, master, lat. 47° 20' N., long. 22° W., 24th Janiiary, 1822, on the
passage from Virginia to England, the wind then about W.N.W., and had so pre-
vailed for two or tlirce days. Found in Rockham Bay, about 4 miles West fi-om
Ilfraoombe, 29th July, 1822, and attested by the agents to Lloyd's.

Bay of Biscay, North Side. — A bottle ttom the ship Oraham Moore, 6th of
July, 1821, in lat. 47° 47' N., long. 7° 51' W. ; found, 16th of September, 1821, on the
coast of St. Jean de Mont, arrondissement of Sables d'Olonne, department of La
Vendee ; and made known by the Journal de Paris. This bottle was imiielled in an
E.S.E. direction, the north-westerly current not then prevailing, and was within the
influence of the tide.

By Captain Livingston's Journal, 28th November, 1820, " It appears that in twenty-
four hours, ending at noon of yesterday (on the passage fram Gibraltar), we made
about 15 miles North hj current ; and in twenty-four hours, ending at noon this day,
about 13 North; and m the two days rather more than 20' £. Therefore about
N. 40f E. 37 miles in the forty-eight hours."

Inset to, and orTSET from, the Bay of Biscay. — A bottle from the Iris,
Captain Skinner, in lat. 47°, long. 21°, 9th Soptomber, 1802 ; found at the Isle of Skye
(lat. 67° 15', long. 6° 20), 22nd February, 1803. (Probably carried intt) the bay on an
eastern direction, subsequently northwai*d by licnnell's CuiTent, and thence by the
eastern drift to Scotland.)

The ship Jessie, Bevan, master, left London for the Bahamas, about the 13th of
November, 1833. She was struck by lightning and abandoned by her crew, in lat. 45°,
long. 14", and on the 6th of February, 1834, drove on the Isle Oroix, near L'Oriont,
and was immediately dashed to pieces.

Inset ; Bay of Biscay. — A bottle from the Carshalton Park, Lieutenant J. Stctlo
r.u>k, 27th July, 1827, in lat. 48" 39', long. 10° 21' ; taken up, 2l8t Debcmber, 1H27,
on the shore of Pembron Road, near the Loire, in the Bay of Biscay, lat. 47' 19',
long. 2° 30' W.

A bottle from H.M.S. Arrow, in lat. 48° 30', long. 9° 26', 14th July. 1838;
wuid from S.W. for five days, a fresh gale, and then 8.W. Another bottle fnmi
the Maitland, transport, in lat. 49° 6', long. 18° 19', 10th March, 18.')8. Both found,
on the 2dth of February, 1830, on the shore of Arcachon, in the bay, lat. about
44° 40' N.

A metal cylinder, cast from H.M.S. Chanticleer, Captain H. T. Austin, 3rd of Mny,
1831, ill lat. 44° 381', long. 11° 4' W. ; found near yivero, on the North coast of Spain,
l?th of September following, at about 150 miles from the spot where it was dropped
into the sea.

A bttttlt' from the bark Man/, of London, Abyah Locke, master, 12th of April,

272

OBSBRYATIONS on the CURRENl'S.

1832, in lat. 48° 30', long. 16' 56' ; found on the coast of Jart, lat. 36° 25', 4th March,
1853.

Another bottle, from the same vessel, 1th April, 1832, in lat. 46° 15', long. 17° 58' 5
found near Cape Feret, 44° 38 , 2l8t Febi-uary, 1833.

A bottle thrown 07er from the Wellington, August 23rd, 1837, in lat. 46° 10' N.,
long. 12° 58' W. ; thrown on the South coast of the Isle of R6, probably about the end
of February, 1838 ; found March 2nd, 1838.

Tide Wateb on Soundings.— A bottle from the bark Wallace, of Alloa, bound
to Van Diemen's Land, 12th of April, 1835, in lat. 52° 13', long. 15°. Picked up at
5 miles from Ushant, 21st of August. 1835.

A bottle tram the Kent, troop-ship, in lat. 50° 20', long. 19° 0' W., August 19th,
1836. Picked up near Cape Blancnez, a few miles from Boulogne, December 20th, in
the same year.

Bay of Biscay, South Side.— A bottle from the schooner Morning Star, of
Liverpool, Captain Andrew Livingston, 7th of October, 1821, lat. 42° 45' 39' N.,
long. 13° 3' 21" W. Found about 29 miles to the northward of Bayonne, in the
arrondissement de Dux, lat. 43° 68' N., long. 1° 20' W., and made known by the di-
rection of the Minister of the Marine and Colonies of France in the Moniteur of,
January 24, 1822.

One of the most singular routes of the kind that we have met with was a bottle
covered with barnacles, picked up at the Mizcn Head, on the S.W. of Ireland, Oct.
19, 1837. Its enclosed note stated that it was dropped off Cape Horn, from the Salem,
R. Crukers, master, of the United States, in lat^ 53° 3' S., and long. 67° 5' West, on
the24thof June, 1830.

(143.) The daily rate of the inset into the Bay of Biscay, as estimated from the
drift of the bottles quoted in Captain Becher's Chart (131), is as follows : — The num-
bers refer to the Bottle Chart in the " Nautical Magazine for November, 1852 —
No. 2 (drifted 250 miles), 4-8 miles per day ; No. 3 (230 m.), 3-3 m. ; No 3n, (270 m):
4-5 m.; No. 3 (420 m.), 1-8 m. ; No. 11 (160 m.), 0-7 m. ; No. llo (100), 3 m.;
No. 16 (200 m.), 1-2 m.; No. 28 (700 m.), 4'5 m. ? No. 28a (700 m.), 2-2 m. ; No. 33
(660 m.), 4-1 m. ; No. 37a (680 m.), 2 m. j No. 40 (980 m.), 3-1 m. It will be seen
that the longest courses have the quickest rates, so that we may suppose that when
the bottles become entangled in the shore tides and devious diifts, tuat they do not
travel so fast in direct distance. The mean rate of all these bottles is 3-26 miles per
day. The rate at which those travel up the English Channel is very much greater,
averaging 11 to 14 miles per day.

The foregoing are the principal arpunionts and facts upon which the existence of
the thwart-channel current is inferred. That there is some cause for the drifting of
the various vessels, &c., in a northward and westward direction, there can be no
doubt ; nor can there be any doubt that the stream varies both in strength and in
direction. Without inquiring into the sufficiency of the cause to produce these
effects, or of the correctness of the views promulgated by Mojor Ilcnnell, the fore-
going remarks have been repeated, as originally given ; and here we would add that
uiey were formed long before any correct knowledge of the tides or of the tidal
onrrents was acquired, and also that a very just estimate of the amount of derange-
ment of the regular tides, or of the set of tne current across the mouths of the Eng-
lish and St. George's Channels, is formed from his dlHsertntions. The remarkable
revolution of the tidal streams at the entrance of the English Channel caused by the
cross action of that wave proceeding up the English Channel with that of the wave
coming northward, has been well developed in the observations discussed by Admiral
Beechcy as stated on p. 252.

. -1 tf a -«F

BETWEEN EUROPE AND AFBICA.

273

2.— THE EASTERLY AND S.E. DRIFT-CUBBENTS TO THE COASTS OF

EUROPE ANI AFRICA.

(144^ The currents on the shores of the Atlantic seem to have different teodencifiB
to the South ai^d North of the English Channel. They are certainly very devious
and uncertain ; but idong the West Coast of Irdand and Scotland, as well as on the
oAnst, the general set is to the northtcard. Off ^e southern part of tiie Bay of
the Say of Biscay tiiere is a well-marked current to the S.E. and aouthteardf not mly
during those periods when the westerly winds ha,ve been prevalent, and causing the
Rennell's Current last described, but it appears to be constantly n^et with *, and,
therefor^, in sailing southward from British ports, this tendency of the waters i^Quld
be carefully consiaered, especiaUy when the shores are neai«di for there they nm
strongest.

(145.) By a careftil calculation of the currents experienc9d by the ships oite4 in
Maury's and RennellV Charts, they appear to set with great regularity, and constantly
to the south-eastward. The experience of 82 shuts for the year gives a mean diree^
tion and rate of 9-1 miles per day to E. 34° S. for the offii^ of 3S0 miles off Cape
Finisterre and the northern part of Portugal. Tlie average of the montJis is greater
than this :-^a&uary, 9-4 miltes to S. 4^ East; February. March, April, 11-, 16-9,
12-8 miles per day to E. 24° S. ; May, July, 12'8, 10* mil^s^r d^y S. 25° E. ; A^.,
October, November, 20-2, 10'5, 16-7 nules per day to S.S.E. T^ew, compared with
the drifts of bottles, show that the latter must be affected by surmoe causes, as their
rate of travelling is much less.* All these observations are integrated on the Chaijt
of the North Atumtio refeired to previously.

(146.) In addition to these remarks we give, as in previous editions, the partieuUirf
of various bottles and other experiments, which tre very interesting, and ^^rill be
serviceable in estimates of what amount of current may be expected in this part of
the voyage.

South-Eabtbrlt Curbbnt off Channel Soundings.— In Amnwrt;, 1886, Ci^^
Livingston, in the Jane, between lat. 48° 03', long. 16° 7', and Cape Clear, had a set of
I" 14' 8. and 1° 54' E. So that in four days the vessel was set, by a counter current.
74 miles 8. and 65 E., or nearly S. 41° E. about 99 miles ; equal to a daily average of
24f ndles.

Toward the Bay of Biscay. — The ship CarahaUoH Park, Captain J. Ste«I«
Park, on returning from Jamaica to London, m July, 1824, in Jat. 48 , and long. 13^,
got into a stream setting to the southward, and which thence operated so strongly
against the ship, that some difflculbhr was found in getting sufRcientlyfar to the north-
ward for a good Channel track. Tne wind shifted suddenly from S.W. to North ; th>
vessel immediately hauled up E. by S. ( and althou^ the weather was fine, ajid thv
water quite smooth, she maae no lietter than a true E. by N. course.

Captain Park says, " The moon happened to be near the ftill about this time ; and
I had opportunities for ascertaining the latitude bv her meridian altitude three or
four nights in succession before we made the land ; therefore I could not be mistaken
as to tM strength and direction of this current ; for the interval between the observ-
ations of sun and moon was only ten or eleven hours ; and the greatest attention wa*
paid to the Bteerage."t

* Estimating the set of the current by Captain Becher's bottle-cbart mentioned on
pnge 260, we set the following :— Bottle No. 7 (drift 500 mil^), 3-2 miles per day ; No. 8,
the oaraaae of a dead whale, (220]nil«B), 8 miles; No. 9 (300 miles), 12 miles; No. 18
(250 milea) 4-1 miles ; No. 18 (1,000 miles), 3 miles ; No. 13i (550 miles), 5-5 miles per day,
givins an average of neuiy 6 ndles per day.

t Ths same snip, on the 10th of July, was on Channel soundings, the latitude by m«ri»
dian altitude of the sun, 48<><53' ; the longitude, by chronometer and lunar, 9* 44' aad 9<> 50',
reqpeotively. " Kept the s^^ E. | S. and generally East till li.Al p.m.. when, hj^i
iuoo&'a meridian altitude, it was found that the latitude was id** 11'. We had gone, during

2 11

274

OBSERVATIONS ON TBE CURRENTS.

On THB OOASf OF PoKTVOAL.— A bottle from the brig Hr«eland, Captun T.
Midgley (from lirerpool to Africa), in lat. 41° dO' N., loner. 14* 23' W., 11th of
Febnunr, 1833. Picked up doae to the shore, off the Harbonr of Vigo, on the
lit of March following ; having traversed, in a troe E. | N. direction, abo^t 80
leaguM.

*St. Obokge's Channel to Cape St. Vincent.— On the 14th of Angnst, 1823,
Captam Livingston, in the sloop limorite, on his passage from Liverpool to Oilnultar,
took his departure firom the Smattt lAgMhoute, and thence he regularly made observa-
tions <m the current, &c., so for as adverse vroather pemutted. On tne 23rd he had
arrived on the parallel of 48° 23' ; previously to which the course seems to have been
materially aflfeoted by the tide, but liere the differences amounted to fil' 50* southerly,
and only 4' 39* N. From lat. 46° 23*, August 23, lib lat. 36° 52', August 31, the cur-
rent invariably predominated to the southward, and between these parallels amounted
tp 89 miles in the eight days.

At 4>> 53" of August 31, with Cape St. Vincent bearing true North, an excellent
meridian altitude of the planet Saturn gave lat. 36° 52' 8". The total southing to
this point gave 2° 18', and the difference of longitude between dead-reckoning and
that by hmdiiai gave 1° 42* T of easting.

In the brig Friendt, of Olas^ow, 24th August, 1820, Captain Livingston states —
** The current set us round Cape St. Vincent witiiout our having seen the cape,
though we steered courses for the purpose of seeing it, and we were looking out for
it, when I got a lunar, and ascertained that we were then past it. Immediately after
this the sea became smooth, being broken off by the cape."

Between Cape Finistebbe and the Azobes, the general drift of the surfooe of the
•qa appeals to be to the south-eastward ; varying, however, to the East and West, and
even to the northward, as the winds operate, eiuier one way or the other, more espe-
cially during winter, as already noticed.

H^M'S. Paetolut, in May, 1816, experienced a current south a little East, at the
average rate of 30 miles a day, ft^ tne English Channel to St. Michael's.

Captain Charlea Hare, in the brig Ward, fiY>m New Brunswick, Sept., 1823, with
westerly urinds, which had prevailed for fourteen days, between lat. 43° 40' and
45* 20', Icmg. 22|* to 16°, found the current E.S.E. 1^ miles in the hour.

Between Pobtuoal and the Westebn Islands. — Captain Oeorge Cheveley, June,
1830, lat; 44* to 27°, long. 11° to 21°, current S.E., three quarters of a mile an hour.

Captain W. J. Capet, on his passage in the Lady Mackworth, tnm England to the
West Indies, in Angnst and September, 1823, found the currents as follow, taking the
diip's posituMi at noon :—

Aug. 27 Lat. 43* 36' Lon. 12* 40' Current easterly.

19 17 f By good chronometric observation, the our-
''I rent had set 30 miles to the eastward.
Current, 10 miles E.S.E.
( Current, 25' easting and 11' southing, by
I good observation.
Current, 9' to the S. and 14' to the E.
No current perceptible in the 24 hours.
Current, 26 miles to the southward.
Current southerly, 3 or 4 miles.
Porto Santo, distant 4 or 5 leagues.

. 42

43 .

. 12

17,

89 .

. 43

41 .

. 12

28,

30 .

. 41

42 .

. 12

28,

SI .

. 30

3 .

. 18

23,

Sept. 1

. 38

5 .

. 14

17,

2 .

. 35

59 .

. 15

. 34

8 .

. 15

55,

4 .

. 33

1 .

. 16

. 32

22 .

. 16

49,

this interval of lib. 51m., 68 miles by the log, oareiullv attended to, in smooth water. Now,
allowing 3| points of variation, we ought to have quuie 26' of nortiiing ; whereas, in point
of foot, we inade 18' only."
Influenced, probably, by tUe Channel «bb, the current appeared also to have a tendency

i^ tl... Ufa**

BETWEEN THE CANARY ISLANDS AND AFRICA.

270

6 Lat.

31«

16' Lon. ir

i»'

7 ..

28 .. 17

38,

8 ..

48 <. 17

26,

2 ..

32 .. 17

17,

9 .. 18

10,

4 .. 19

41,

12 ..

46 .. 21

43,

44 .. 93

52,

Sept 9 Lat. 31* 16' Lon. 17* ^' Corrent, 7 miles to the aoutliinurd.

Corrent, 10 miles ditto.
Current, 17' S. and 13' E.
No observation on current.

Current, 16' to the southward.
Current, 15' to ditto. <

Current, 4' to the S. and 13' W.

8th April, 1823. — Captain JSamlin, in the ship Oeorae IV., on the passage from
Qreenock to St. Thomas's, found that thev were much to the southward at dead-
reckoning on several days, and during the last twenty-four hours not less than 45
miles. Lat. at noon, 38*. 50', long. 19°, or more than 300 miles E. by N., <rtM, fhim
St. Michael's.

The CuBRENT along the Coast of Portvoal appears to set nearly in the direc-
tion of that coast. On the 25th of October, 1810, a gun-boat far the service of Cadiz,
being in tow of the JZeftu^gun-brig, broke adrift in a gale of wind, in lat. 39* 44',
and lon^. 9" 38' W. On the 19th of November foUowinx, his Majes^r's sloop of war
Oolumbtne, when cruisine 8 or mileif to the westward of Cadiz Lighuiouse, observed
a gun-boat to leeward, vniioh proved to be the identical boat that twenty-five days
before had broken adrift bom the Bebuff. The distance traversed by the boat was
about 350 miles, or 14 miles a day, chirafy by tihe current, the wind in the meantime
being so vaiious as nearly to render the drift negative, or, if anything, against the
set of the current.

On the currents setting toward the Bay of Biscay and the Strait of Gibraltar,
Captain, afterward Admiral, Sir Eratmut Omoer made observations in five passages
to Madeira, firom which he concluded the most general dL-ection to be to the S.E., and
the mean velocity about 11 miles in every 50 let^es.*

In proceeding to Tenertfe, Sir Eras. Gower observed a constant current setting to
the southward at the rate of a mile an hour; equal to 22 miles in the distance be-
tween Madeira and that island.

Captain Mackintosh, of the Jtindjetan, who had made twenty passages in this
route, g^enerally experienced a current fi-om the 391ii degree of latitude to that of the
Canaries. In this part of the ocean he generally founcC from repeated and accurate
observations, that tnis current set to the E.S.E. He found it strongest opposite to
the entrance into the Mediterranean or Strait of Gibraltar ; and, in one voyage, the

* The effect of a current setting to the south-eastward, and the necessity of a compe-
tent knowledge of cuixents in general, cannot any way be more forcibly shown than by
noticing the melancholy catastrophe of his Mtyesty's smp Apollo, Captain J. W. T. Dixon,
and the merchant ships under her convoy, on the 2nd of April, 1804. The ApoUo, with
sixty-nine ships for the West Indies, sailed from the Gove of Coric on the 26th of March.
With a &ir wind, blowing strong, tiiey steered about W.8.W. until the 3Ist, when the
wind changed more to ue westward. At noon, on the Ist of April, latitude observed
40<> 61' N., longitude, by aeeouHt, 12° 20'. At ei((ht p.m. the wind shifted to S.W., and in-
creased to a gue, with a heavy sea. The convoy stwxl to the 8.S.E., and, at half-past three
next morning, struck on the coast of Portugal, m about 40° 22' TS., 3 leagues to the north-
ward of Cape Mondego. Captain Dixon, and about sixty men of the Apollo, perished^ in
their endeavours to reach the shore ; the other part of the crew remained two aays clinging
to a fixed part of the wreck, without nourishment. About forty sail of merchantmen were
wrecked about the same time ; some sank with tdl their crews, and most of them lost several
men. This lamei^table event has been attributed to want of chronometric observations,
and the consequent ignorance of the set of the current, which must certainly have been
very strong.

" The immediate cause of the loss of so many of the Apollo'i convoy appears to have
been the blind confidence with which the commanders followed their cmnmodore ; either
keeping no 'reckoning themselves, or believing his more accurate than their own. Beverul
ships wore saved by leaving the convoy, and it is said that the commander of a Clyde ship
^^Mtied the sosuncdcrs of uis uHuEer lu time io hi

I have avoided it."' — A, L>

d7«

OBSERyATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

ennentwMeoapMed,bi^hJseliioiioiiMter, toaeialx>ift40 o^ ThoMtvf-

rent inclines more eontlierly u it apptoacliM the Oanariee. It itnkM on the oout of
Marooco, and takes, abeut Cme Bcriador, a ctiff nvnt dkeotion. Nearly in-shore, from
an indefinite point, one part of the stream sets ntnrthward towaid the Strait of Gib-
raltar, and the other part sets to the southward.

M. le BaroH le Souuin, in the corvette Bayadere, bound from Rochefort to firasil,
in February, laiO, after passine Cape Finisterre, found the pre-vaQuig winds from
noon to noon and currents as follow :—

Feb. 22 .

. 42» 43' 38

23 .

.40 3 28

24 .

.37 3 49

20 .

. 34 13 11

26 .

.31 9 17

Longitude.
IV 40' 6"
13 44 17

13 35 30

14 .10 30
16 14 40

Wmde.

N.— W.N.W.
N.— N.E.

N.E.

N.E.— S.E.

N. and N.E.

CStrretU.
S.S.E. 24 miles.
S.S.E. 12 —
S.S.B.12 —
S.E. 6 —
S.10*E.12 —

But on arriving at the Canaries, with the wind N. and N.E., the current had
clianged.

On the coarse of the same vessel, from Brest toward BrasU, in October, 1821, the
current had set on the last twenty-four hours (October 6), lat 40°. 24' 86", long.
14" 29' 30% S. 15' £. 20 miles } on the three following days, nearly in the same direc-
tion, but with less than half the strength. In lat. 35° 20' 50% long. 12' 54' 40' , 15
miles 8. E. In lat. 33' 54', Ion. 12° 4^, it had set only 6 miles 8. 5^ E. ; but, on the
next day, in 34° 18' 24' N., and 12° 21' W., 25 miles S. 25° E. ; and again in
34° 14' 34', and 12° 13', South, 20 miles. Off the African coast, lat. 32° 56' 20',
long. 13° 16' 20", it had set 32 miles to the S.W., or in a direction nearly parallel with
the shore.

At about 74 leagues W. | 8. frem Cape Mondego, on the 9th of June, 1790, M. de
Humboldt, in the uoop Pizarro, was on his voyage to the West Indies ; and, on this
day, in lat. 39° 50', and long. 13° 50', he says that they began to feel the effects of the
current setting toward the Strait of Gibraltar, &c. From' the parallel of 37° to that
of 33° the vessel was sometimes carried, in twenty-four hours, from 18 to 26 miles to
the eastward. The direction oi the current was, at ,first, E. by S. ; but nearer the
strait it became due East, and it assumed a more southerly direction on the passage
toward Tenerife. '< Several pilots, who freouent the Canary Islands, have found
themselves on the coast of Lanzarote, when they expected to make good tiieir land-
ing on Tenerilb.''

Thefrioates Sta. Maria de la Cabeza and Lucia sailed from Cadis, 12th April, 1795,
and on l£e 17th, at six a.m., they made Point Naga, in Tenerife, when they found,
by a comparison vrith their chronometers, that the current had carried them sixty-ttro
minutes to tiie eastward.

Don Vincente TqHno had, ten years before, proceeded in the Lucia, from Cadiz, for
Mogodor s he sailed on the 27th of April, 1785, and on the Ist of May, before mid-
day, arrived at the last-named port. On the 6th he sailed from it, ond on the morn-
ing of the 8th anchored again in Cadiz. On his voyage out, he found that the cur-
i^ent, in four days, luid set him 21| miles S. 18° E., and on his return S. 49° W. 39
miles. This variation of the current shows, that the waters throughout all this ex-
tent do notalwaysrun to the S.E., but that they vary, with the line of coast, to the
south-westward also.

Admiral Don. Oosme de Ckurruea sailed from Cadiz on the 15th of June, 1792, for
the purpose of surveying the West Indian Islands and Spanish Main. He took his
departure at half-past tluee p.m., in lat. 36° 29' 25 ", and long. 0° 6' 40" W. of Cadiz.
In his Journal he says, " It is well known among our seamen, that in the Biffht of
Cadiz (that is, the coast comprehended between Cape St. Mary and Cape Tramlsar)

there is a current setting constantly to the eastward ; but as, near the shore, the effect
of the tide must necessarily be felt, it may also modify the direction of the current.
When we established our point of depa^^re, the strength of the ebb had already
begun to decrease ; but as, during the early part of the night, we were unable to get

BETWEEN THE CANARY ISLANDS AND AFRICA.

»J

•njr oojMidttalile dktaiioe from tba dboret we comeqaetitljr felt all th* fone of the
flood tide setting to the northward t and thia appeara. to hare heen the reaaon wkj
we ezperienoed a oonent to the N.E. } tu the cutrent whieh oommonlT aeta hito the
Strait of Oibraltar, eomhined with the ttood tide, onght nearly to give that N.E.
durectidn. ^ After our departure, and from middaj of the 16th, we sailed with variable
winds until the 2lBt, when the wind beoame Axed at N.N.E., and we found that, in
tlwtWeBtjr-fbur hours, fWnn the 21gt to tha 22nd, the current had set S. 42° E. 9t
miles I though in consequence of uncertainty in tiie dead reckoning, and the Tariabk*
ness of the wind, it is possible the error was oontraeted without any cunent { the*
situation at midday of the 22ttd being in lat. 30° 18' 61" N., and long. 16° 17' West.
The intention was to ascertain the position of the Salvages, which were seen the
same evening, and .he then makes uie foUowu^ reflections : — *' The whole enor of
lengitade by dead-reckoning was 34' 6'' East ; the sum of aU the errors in latitude,
alter various compensations, was about 3' 46' to the North; therefore, the total emnr
mads during the voyage was 34' 6 ' to the Eastward, and 3' 46 ' to the Southward i
and as if we had expmenced a daUy set of 4 miles S. 82° 36' E."

H.M.S. Pimte was once set to the S.E., 98 miles in five days, between Cape Finis-
terre and Madeira. B.M.S. Raleigh, August, 1826, found the current from off Cape
St. Mary, toward the Strait, to set W. 34'^S. 26 miles in the twenty-four hours.

(147.) The following observations on the currents between the Canary and Cape
Verde Islanda, have been selected from Commander Maury's " Sailing Directions,"
1869, vol. ii. The experience of all the ships whose logs are there recoraed, is nearly
unanimous in stating the southerly and eastcitrly drift. Of course the vibration of the
Trade winds with the seasons has much to do with the southern limit of this southerly
set, as will be seen below : —

ShipJ'««ny Pitta, Captain J. L. Snow, December, 27, 1853, lat. 30° 3' N., long.
20° 0' W., current 8 mUes S. by W. ; 28th, 28° 62' N., 18° 10' W., 6 miles S.S.wTj
30th, 26° 26' N., 18° 26' W., 8 miles S. by E. ; January 1, 186^, 19° 51' N., 22° 65' W.,
8 itiiles S. by E. ; 2nd, 16° 42" N., 21*23' W., 10 miles S. ; 3rd, 13° 42' N., 22° W.,
8 miles S.

Ship Margaret Mitchell, Captain T. Jameson, January 11, 1864, lat. 30° 16' N.,
long. 17° 35' W., 22 mUes R by S. ; 13th, 26° 7' N., long. 20° 24' W., S. 39° W.
14 miles ; 14th, 24° 16' N., 20^ 11' W., 12 miles E. by S. ; 16th, 20° 18' N., 20° 34' W.,
18 miles S. } W.

Ship Romance of the Sea (W, W. Henry), February 18, 1866, lat. 30° 10' N., long.
18° 10^ W., 14 knot N.E. ; 19th, 29° 20' N., 19° 0' W., li knot N.E. ; 20th, 26° 0' N.,
19°28'W.,l\notE.N.E.

Ship Ohriana, Captain Henry Toynbee, from London to Sydney, April 22, 1856,
30° 18' N., 19° 20' W., 121 nules g. 6° W. ; 24th, 26° 8' K., 2V 32 W., 8| mUes
N. 26' E. J 26th, 23' 38' N., 22° 60' W., 4* miles N. 12° W. ; 26th, 20° 37' N.,
24° 22' W., 6* miles N. 16° E. j 27th, 17° 22' N., 26° 4' W., 9* miles S. 67° W. } 28th,
14° 6' N., 26' 23' W., 16 miles S. 60° W.j 29th, 11° 12' N., 26° 36' W., 30 miles
8. 9° W.

Ship Resolute CD. McKemde), June 17th, 1864, lat. 29° 64' N., 21° 12' W., 12 miles
8. 60° E. ; 19th, 26° 1' N., 24° 2' W., 12 miles, S. 13° E. ; 21st, 21° 44' N. , 26" 22' W.,
12 imles W.S.W.

Ship Orion (H. Libbey), July 3, 1866, 29° 6' N., 23° 30' W., 12 miles S.

Ship Panther (N. G. Weeks), August 10, 1864, lat. 28° 9' N., 22° 30' W., 12 mfles
W.S.W. ; 12th, i3° 32' N., 26' 38' W., 16 miles W.S.W., &c. Note.— The ship was
at this time in the N.E. Trades, which have during the summer reached to the higher
latitude.

Ship Hurricane (St. Very), August 22nd, 1865, lat. 30° 31' N., 18° 0' W., 12 miles
S.W.r23rd, 27° 11' N., 19* 15'AV., 8 miles S. | W. ; 24th, 23° 60' N., 19° 25' W.,
11 miles S. by W.; 26th, 21' N., 19|' W., 6 miles S. * W. : 26th, 18" 4' N.,
10" 4o W., 7 miles S. J W.

278

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

milMS.;

BuqiM Mea (B; Buxton), August 17, 1869, lat. 26° 41' N., 21* 14' W., 12
18th, 23° 16' N., 22° 64' W., 8 ^les S.

Barque AtOer (E. Thiel), October, 27, 1849, lat. 26° 17' N., 23° 33' W., 27
8. 31° v., two days; 30th, 18° 13' N., 26° 49' W., 18 milM 8.W. \ 31it, 16° 46' N.,
26° 36' W., 12 miles S. W. i ^. (trade wind).

Ship Colorado (Bicker), October 19th, 1866, lat. 31° 16' N., 16° 49' W., 12 miles
S.E. I 20th, 28° 33' N., 18° 47' W., 24 miles S.S.E.i 21st, 26° 16' N., 20° 11' W.,
12 mUes S.W. ) 24° 22' N., 21° 16' W., 6 miles, S.W.

(1470 Mr. James Grey Jackson, in his valuable <' Account of the Empire of Ma-
rocoo,"* has stated, that the coast, between the latitudes of 20 and 32 degrees North,
is a desert country, interspersed with immense hills of loose sand, which are, ttaok
time to time, driven by tJw wind into various forms, and so impregnate the air with
sand, for many^ miles out to sea, as to give the atmosphere an appearance of hasy
weather) navigators, not aware of this circumstance, never suroeet, during sucn
appearances, that they are near land, until they discover the breakers on the coast,
which is, in some parts, so extremely flat, that a person may walk a nule into the sea
without being over the knees ; so that ships strike when at a consideteble distanojB
finnn the beadi ; added to this, there is a current, which sets in firom the West toward
Afirica with inconceivable force and rapidity, with which the navigator being sene-
ndly unacquainted, he loses his reckoning, and, in the course of a mttht, pernaps,
when he expects to clear the African coast, in his passage southward, he is alarmed
with the appearance of shoal water ; and, before he has time to recover himself, finds
his ship aground on a desert dkore, where neither habitation nor human being is
visible, fa this state his fears are soon increased by a persuasion that he must either
perish in fighting a horde of wild Arabs, or submit to become their captive ; for soon
after a ship strikes, some wandering Arabs, strolling from their doar in the desert,
perceive the masts from the sancUulls ; and, without coming to the shore, repair to
their horde, perhaps 30 or 40 miles off, to apprise them of the wreck, when they^ im-
mediately assemble, arming themselves with daggers, guns, and cudgels. Sometimes
two or three dajrs or more elapse before they nuke ueir appearance on the coast,
where ^ey await the usual alternative of the crew either deuvering themselves up*
rather th* perish with hunger, or throwing themselves into the sea.

(148.) But to resxune the description of the currents : — ^M . de Flburiec, in his
illustrations of the voyage of Etienne Marchand, states, that in a run which ho him-
self made, in 1768-69, in the Isis frigate, from Cadiz to Tenerife, by a direct course,
and with a steady breeze firom N.E. to E.N.E., he had an opportunity of ascertaining
the constant effect of the current, which sets to the eastward so long as a ship sails in
the tract of sea situated to the westward of the Strait of Gibraltar, and at a little
distance firom it, during the four davs employed in this run. On the first day, the
current had set to the eastward llf ; on the second day, 12f ' ; on the third, 9|' ; on
the fourth, 1' ; when the current ceased, in lat. 31°, to be perceptible.

Therefore, during the first three days, the movement impressed on the ship to the
eastwEurd, carried her toward that sicDe 33|', or 37f miles ; and, by a mean, e.bout 8
miles in twenty-f^ur hours. — ( Voyage de Plats, en 1768 et 1769.)

The ship of 3f. Marchand, named the Solide, left Cape Spartel, bearing South, on
the 29th of December, 1790, and made the Peak of Tenertfe, bearing S. 6|° E. about
36 leagues distant, on the dth of January, 1791. In this time it was found that a
current had set the ship 39 miles E. 13° S., equal to a mean drift of 6*8 miles per day
of twenty-four hours.

From the 6th to the 9th of January, inclusive, when the ship, on the latter day,
was in lat. 21° 24', long. 19° 26° (firom Greenwich), it was found that the current had

* London, quarto, 1800. See, also, the affecting " Narrative of the Shipwreck and Cap-
tivity of M. de Brisson," in 1787 ; and that of Robert Adams, wrecked in the American
ship CharUt, John Horton, master, 1810. The latter is noticed move particularly, with
others, in the Description of the Coasts of Africa, hereafter.

BETWEEN CAPE FINISTERRE AND THE CANARY ISLANDS. S79

set her fiO| miles E. ISf" S., being at a mean rate of 12} milea in twenty-fom" hours.

Between lat. 21° 24', long. 19° 26' ^as above), and the l8le of Mayo, during an in-
terval of five days, the ship was earned, by the current, 35^ miles W. 30}° 8., or at
the mean ratn of 7*1 miles in twenty-four nours.

In July, 1702, the Sonde returned to the westward and northward of the Azores ;
and, on uie parallel of 41° 42', at the distance of about 2° North of Corvo, she had a
set in one day of 9 miles S. 29°. E. Proceeding thence toward Lisbon, she appeared
to have a set, in three days, of 27 miles W. 19 S., equal to 9' per day in that direc-
tion ; but, in the following six days, from the N.E. of the Azores to Cape St. Vincent,
the current set 74 miles £. 2fi|° S., equal to 12*3' per day ; and between Cajpe St.
Vincent and Cape Spartel, in forty-two hours, she found an indraught of 30 miles £.,
equal to 17|' per day, setting toward the Strait of Gibraltar.

Africa. — ^The ship Monteeutna, of Liverpool, Knubley, master, sailed on the 26th
of October, 1810, for Brazil, but was wrecked on the 23rd of the next month, at
three a.m., on the Afiioan coast, somewhere between Capes Noon and Bejador.
Among the crew, who were taken and sold by the Arabs, was Alexander Scott, an
apprentice : this person was detained in the country for nearly six years ; and a very
interesting account of his captivity, drawn up by Dr. Traill, with ffeographical ob-
servations on his routes, and remarks on the currents which produced the catastrophe,
by Migor Rennell, were given in the fourth volume of the Edinburgh PhUotopniectl
Journal. As these remarks give a very clear notion of the movement of the waters,
derived tram observation, which have not since been contradicted or superseded, we
repeat them as heretofore.

Majob. Renn ell's Remasks on the Currents between Cape Finisterrb

AND THE Canary Islands.

(149.) '< I should consider myself highly culpable, if I neglected to state, by way of
caution to navigators, the result of my inquiries respecting the currents which appear
to have caused the shipwreck of the Montezuma, and of a g^reat number of other snips
of our own and other nations, on the western coast of Barbary ; having examined a
multitude of journals of ships that have sailed in that track, with timekeepers on
board, and which have also, when opportunities presented themselves, had their rate
checked by celestial observations.

" The general result is, that navig^ators, who depart from the parallel of the southern
part of t£e Bay of Bengal (or say 45°), and sail in the usual track southward, will be
assdled first by a 8.E. current, and then by an easterly one, until they have passed
the parallel of^Cape Finisterre ; when the cuirent will again turn to the South of
East, and gradually become a S.E. current, till, having passed Cape St. Vincent, it
becomes easterly again ; owing, no doubt, to the indraught of the Strait of Gibraltar ;
and this easterly current is pretty general across the mouth of the bay, between Cape
St. Vincent ana Cape Cantin.

** Beyond this bay (which may be termed the JUnnel, of which the strait itself is
the ^tout) the current again becomes S.E., or rather more southerly (as it is more
easterly toward Cape Finisterre), and continues as for as the parallel of 2d°, and is,
moreover, felt beyond Madeira westward; that is, at least 130 leagues from the coast
of Africa ; beyond which a S.W. current takes place, owing, doubtless, to the opera-
tion of the N.E. trade-wind.

" The rate of motion <tf this current varies very considerably at different times ;
that is, from 12 to 20 or more miles in twentv-four hours. I consider 16 as rather
below the mean rate. I have one example or 140 miles in eight days, in one of his
Migesty's ships, equal to 171 miles per day; and. in another, of only 12. And in a
very well kept East India ship's journal, 170 in nine days to Madeira, or 19 per day.
The direction of the stream likewise varies, but commonly more toward the South
than the East, after passing the mouth of the strait.

" Near the coasts of Spain and Portugal, commonly called the VTall, the current is
[ways very much southerly, owing
of the great mass of water brougt

always very much southerly, owing, perhaps, to the falling in, obliquely on the jhore,

lught by me S.E. current; whicu can

run on only

MO OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

0^ ^' Sott<fi, uiA ronnd Cape St. Vincent toward the straifs month. And
m ^ « Canary liittmiM, and between them and the coast of Barhary, the currents

an ,^ , alar.

" It ma^ ui takfti ff>r grant«d that the whole surfoce of that part of the Atlantic
Ocean, from the parallel of 40° to ili°,»i least, and to 100 to 130 leagues offshore, is
in motion toward the mouth of the Straii >>f Gibraltar.

" According to what has been said, in the course of the above remarks, it must be
exported that a riiip i><ti1ing in the usual track to Madeira or the Canaiies will be
carried to the Bouth-eaatward, at the rate of 18 milee per day, that is, even if she has
I ^I'r wind, she will be carried by t#^ current 160 or 160 miles to the soutii-eastwao^,
ui t||« Morse of her Voyage to Maddit^ or the Canaries ; and, consequently, on a 8.E.
hy 8. coarse will be carried 80 or 90 to the eastward of her intended ^rt. If we
suppose a S.H. course, the error in easting wiU be no lees than 100 ; which distance,
if toey are bound to Tenerife, would carry them to Allegransa or Forteventura; and,
if intend i ng to make AUegranza, would place them on ^more on the coast of Barbary.
The French and Spaniards report that their ships have often made AUegranza when
they supposed themselves on the line toward Tenerife. It must be added that, if %
ship had a long passage, the error would be g^reater in proportion, and might possibly
amount to 200 miles of easting.

" It would seem advisable, therefore, that every ship going to tiie Canaries v in-
tending to sail between those islands and the main land of ./mica, and being without
timekeepers, as that class of merchant ships commonly are, should, to every day's
reckoning, adli^en miles of eaating. This would, in the first instance, prevent them
from deceiving themselvea 9»iheY went forward ; in like manner, as it is better to set
a clock forward at once, than to charge one's memory continually with its being too
slow. Ten miles do not seem too much as a cautionary measure, as a ship has very
lately been carried 99 miles to the Hast in eight days in that track. 'Wnat would
not have been the error had she had even a moderately long passage P

" It is this current which has furnished the roving Arabs of the Desert with their
victims from every nation, and the good Mr. Willshire* with objects of benevolence."
—27th February, 1819.

The Wiza, commanded by John S'uarchwell, sailed from Cork for Rio Janeiro, with
settlers, on the 12th of August, 1827, And ran ashore on the coast of Africa, during a
fog, on the 2oth of the same month. Whilst making signals of distress, three flsh^
ing-boats from Canary came to her assistance, and succeeded in savins all the lives on
board, consisting of 18 mariners, 244 men, 46 women, and 42 chil£:«n ; in all, 350
persons, who arrived at Canary on the 3rd of September.

About the end of October, in the same year, the Olymphe, from Havre for Buenos
Ajres, with colonists, was cast away on ue same part of the African coast. Hie
passengers, about 300 in number, consisting of French, English, Germans, and Swiss,
'< s >)re token from the shore, saved from captivity by Cananan fishing-boats, and oon-
v«yed to the Grand Canary, where they were landed on the 7th of mvember. Sudi
have been, even within a few years, the effects of the current !

The preceding description of the cTUTcnts between the £.,;;:!;?? Chft juel and Canary
Islands was corroborated, in 1826, bj Japtain R. H. Newb-.7t\ t''*' V '.raleon sch .,
which left Dartmouth on the 2l8t of July, and was set tf ■ "• ■•■ ». if", :?' ' ll of l«ckuuing,
while crossing the Bay of Biscay, 1" 2r'of longitude in ioi.,y-oight hours. On Mon-
day, the 2dtii of the same montii, the entrance of Ribadeo bore S.W. by compass,
about 1 5 miles, and the vessel was then in about 6° 55' West.

menu
schc inci"

ffect of the easterly current was proved by the bearing of a remarkable

*-i7and. and some whitish cliffs on the shore ; and Captoin Newby says, the

. 1 ' X\"3n^ to the eastward as fast as I have noticed a ship to lose ground

* WCliotn Willshire, Esq., 'im English Consul at Mogodor, to whose active goodness
Scott and man^ otiiersoved ttieir deliverance from slavery. — Eo.

BETWEEN CAPE FINISTERRE AND THE CANARY ISLANDS. 281

to the eastward while standing innshore off Beaohey Head daring a atrong flood tide
and moderate westerly breeze. At about five p.m. the wind veerod to the N.E., and
even then, although tne vessel was going at the rate of 3| knoto through the water,
she made vei^ litue way to the westwuid till toward aim-down, when the breeze
freshened to 7 or 8 knote.

During the n^^ht, passed C'n.ne Ortt.>gul and the next morning, at mx a.m., the
light-tower at the entrance ol tbrunna bore South.

It didnot app^ that the current relaxed in strength betwoen the time of observ-
ing the inland objecto, and that when the wind freshened. Mr. N. adds, that is the
third time he has experienced its effect, without ever perceiving it to set at all to the
westward. The last time previous was on the 9th and 10th of September, 1835.

At thr^e p.m., July 27th, 1836, Cape Finisterre bore E.S.E. by compass [true Eaaf],
<lif Ifiut about 12 miles. A fresh breeze frvm E.N.E. prevailed up *o the following
r >, when the current had set to the southward about 14 miles, as frequently found
on the Portuguese coast at this season of the yeai'.

July 28 to August 1, inclusive, variable weather and north-easterly windft to lat.
29° 15°, long. b}r aooount, 19" 52' W. On the 1st of August it was found that the
schooner had missed Madeira in her attempt to make and pass the West end of that
island, and at one pjn. the dark, bold, northei-n end of Falma came in sight tcova.
under a dispersing cloud, and bearing by compass about W.S.W., distant 7 leagues.

Upon g^ing over the last two days' work, it appeared that, ir ^tead of passing, as
supposed, to the westward of Madeira, the Napoleon was actually without a signt of
the island to the eaattoard, and had the vessel been involved in fog, or have been bound
to Lanzarote or Forteveutura, and steering, by reckoning, a fair course for them, the
consequence must have been that she womd have fiidlen mto broken water when least
least expected, or have grounded on the main shore, somewhat betwt en Cape Ghir and
Cape Noon, and property, if not life, would have been lost. It is, moreover, to be
observed, that the sea had been, for the most part, comparatively smooth ; had there
been a stix)ng N.W. swell, such as is commonly felt toward the mouth of the Strait
of Gibraltar, then the vessel must have been set farther to the eastward of her
reckoning.

After making the North end of Palma, the breeze continuing rather light at N.E.,
the vessel hauled on a W.N. W. course, in order to get the westward of the island,
and so as to avoid the risk of getting into the calms or eddy winds to leeward of it ;
but up to sunset she made very slow progress westward ; the swell was short and
cross from the northward, and there appeared to be a sti'ong current fr'um the N.W.
toward the island, and the captain round it necessary to steer N.W., but still the
vessel was found to be approachmg the North side of tne island. At nine p.m. he
beg^ to be alarmed at his proximity to land i braced up the yards and trimmed sails
by the wind, but the breeze died away so light, and the swell kept up m cross, that
at ten it was thought the vessel must be driven upon the island, unless a Bp<}t could be
found for the anchor to take hold of; but, in about half an hour after, it was found
that they had gained a different stream of current, and the vessel was visib y set frx>m
a S.S.E. to a S.W., or to the westward of a S.W., direction ; and after passing ahead-
land which appeared in the night to be the N.W. part of the island, and sloping
toward the sea, the breeze again freshened, and the vessel increased her distance from
the black and inaccessible-looking shore of Palm.

Captain FitzBoy, in H.M.S. Beagle, January 13, 1842, says : — " In consequence of
a thick haze, ver>- prevalent about the CaJM Verde Islands, land was not distinctly
seen until we were within three miles of it, and we then found ourselvefe rather
too far westward, owing to a current setting toward the West, at the rate two knote
an hou( ; this was close to the North point of St. lago. Next day we anchored in
PortPrava."

•- **!■

.'A.^'iiV ■>'^->-**^ .

. *i:. S»-#^<;**/4

•:; k.

2 y

282

0BS1??IVAT10NS ON THE CURRENTS.

-,.. .\}

(150.)— The Babon Rovssin's Remarks on the Cvrbbmts between Cape
bojadob and the isles de los.

The ^neral currents on the African coast, between Cape Bojador and the Isles de
Los, with the exception of some }>laces subject to a more or less resnilar tide, are uni-
form during the eight months which comprise the fine season. They follow e? ictly
the trend of the coast from North to South.

JVwfi Cape Bojador to the Bau of St. Cyprian (lat 22° 20) they therefore set to the
S.S.W., from that bay to Cape Blanco ; and along the whole extent of the Bunk of
Arguin to its western point, which is in the parallel of 20° 6' 20" N., they set S. by
W. To the southward of tiiis point the waters, being no longer guided by the edge
of the bank, which turns abruptly to the S.E., do not follow in a body, within a
certain space, any fixed or determined direction. One part of their mass experiences
a number of irregular windings, until, finding itself in the active body of the general
current, which Left the bank at its most salient point, it rejoins it, and is carri^ on as
before.

In the vicinity of Tanit Bay, in the parallel of 19° 10' N., it again resumes its
foimer direction, (tnd follows the trend of the coast, thus setting to the southward as
far as the two Palms, near Portandik, and from thence S.S.W. tothe Marigot of Mus-
quitoes. It then sets S. \ W., till abreast of the Bar of the Senegal, where, in a
space of 4 leagues in circumference, it is diNturbcd by the stream of that river. This
stream is so strong as to oblige vessels at the anchorage off the bar to tend to it, in
spite of the strongest winds. The current, joined by the waters of the Senegal, pur-
sues its course along the coast, which trends to the S.W., observing a very gentle
curve, which forms the Bay of Yof, and which terminates at Cape Verde. The strong
currents hitherto pretended to set into the Bay of Yof are, therefore, merely chime-
rical, and the depth given to this bay in all the charts is no less so. Cape Verde being
the most western point of AfHca, and hence forming an obstruction to the genenu
direction of the waters which flow along that coast, must occasion a great variety of
currents in its vicinity. It is, in fact, wnat takes place, and it would, therefore, be
difficult to define a pai'ticular one. This only appears certain : vessels passing in
sight of Cape Verde are not cirried on it, as is generally supposed j but, on the con-
trary, they are swept off by the prevailing tendency which the watei-s have to flow to
seaward. In running close to the Almadic Rocks, this repulsion is sensibly felt
during the eight months which I have mentioned : it appears that the current rushes
between the rocks, and spreads itself in different directions.

Immediately to the southward of Cape Verde the current is almost imperceptible,
and it is scarcely possible to assign any particular direction to it as far as Cape Naze.
The whole of tne coast lying between this cape and Cape Manual forms a well-
defined bay, totally free from current, and in which there is not a single river. The
same is observed with respect to the roadstead of Gorcc, although, according to the
observations of Mr. Adunson, a i-cgular tide exists there, with a rise and fall of 2 feet
6 inches. In the ofllng of Cape Verde the current has been always found to set to
the southward. From Cape Naze it again follows the direction of the coast, inter-
rupted only at the mouths of the principal rivers, which lie between this cape and
Cape Roxo. From this point, localities of a very different nature pi'oducc particular
effects in the current. The Arciiipelago of the Bissagos here succeeds the straight
coast which extends to the nortnward. Large rivers empty themselves amongst
these islands, fon""ng various channels, more or less encumbered with sand-banks.
These obstacles cause a variety of currents, which will be explained when treating on
the Bissagos.

Strenyth of the General Current. — The rnte of the general current on the Africnn
coast, dcdticed from numerous ob8cr>ations, has never exceeded a mile and five-tenths
per hour on the coast itself, and on the outer edge of the banks : and morfi frannpntl\-
it has been found from seven to nine-tenths of a mile. This is dimiiiished one-third,
and frequently one-half, at a distance of 4 leogiies from the const. Siiould u vessel

THE AFRICAN OR GUINEA CURRENT.

28^

have ron past her ^rt, there is no fear of her stemming this current, and, lay long
boards, easily regaining her destination.

In the rainy season, which is from the commencement of June to the end of
October, as the winds blow from various directions, the currents are no longer
regular, and it is impossible to establish any positive law respecting them; but,
even under these circumstances, their strength is not so great, but that it may be
surmounted.

3.— THE AFRICAN OR GUINEA CURRENT;

BEING AN EASTERLY STREAM ACE08S THE ATLANTIC, AND ALONG THE COAST OF
AFRICA, INTO THE BIGHTS OF BENIN AND BIAFRA.

(151.) In the description of the winds (6.) p. 179, and (49, 60.) p. 201, it is shown
that between the N.E. and S.E. trade-winds there is a belt of calms and variable
winds, which on the African coast assume the character of monsoons, as during the
Hummer months especially the wind blows more or less toward the African coast.

In the currents there appears to be an analogous system, as there is an easterly
current flowing with considerable velocitj eastward, in an opposite direction to the
great equatorial drifts on either side of it. Its existence and chuacter along the
Guinea coast has been long known, hence the name applied to it ; but the origin of
the current does not appear to have been well luderstood hitherto. It has been sup-
posed that it is a continuation of that current which we have just described as pass-
ug southward from Western Europe.

(152.) But in tracing the currents of the Pacific Ocean,* we fiod that there exists
a precisely similar current in that great ocean setting into the Bay of Panama, in the
same latitude. This current is traced very far to the westward — m fact, nearly across
the ocean.

In a similar way it can be shown that this Guinea current, instead of being limited
westward by the Canary Islands, has its origin, or a portion of it, nearly over on
the coast of South America. This is almost certain as regards the summer and
autumn months, as this easterly drift is almost always encountered between latitudes
4° and 8° N. over the whole breadth of the Atlantic.

This, therefore, is the origin of the main body of the Guinea current, which is
doubtless increased by the southcrlv curi-ent before alluded to, and which in itself is
but a continuation of the easterly urift from the gulf stream.

We are not yet quit© in a position to speculate on the cause of this seeming
anomaly, becouse the current is strong and persistent, not weak and variable as the
winds which blow over it. As we as yet know very little of those subsurface actions
which must play a very important part in the great circulation of ocean waters ; it
must be reserved for more extended experiment to enable us to pronounce absolutely
un its real character.

(
ing

f'HCtS

(154.) Cupt. 11. T. Walter, barque P/mwtom, says : — In July, 1853, between lat.
b" and 8" N., and about long. 36" and 38" W., the current set us fast to the eastward.
Again, in August, 1854, about the same latitude and longitude, the current set is 110
rnUes N.N.E.m three davs. Capt. Millet writes :— Dec. 25, 1855,^^4" N., long.
'ISV W., have experienced an easterly current these last two days. I have always
noticed such along these latitudes, sometimes more to the northward than this, and
in lat r N., and long. 44".

153.) Commencing with the ordinrrj' westernmost part traversed by vessels cross-
tho equator, we select from Commander Maury's Sailing Directions the following

Sec Pacific Diroctory, by A, 0. Findlsy, Part 11, p. 1213-1247.

284,;'

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS. '

We have here examples at opposite seasons of this current in tlie western ciXMssing
of ^the Atlantic.

Ship James Brown (Capt. C. W. Kerlin), Jan. 12, 1856, lat. 8° 43' N., long.
31" 37' W. : current 20 miles East. 13th, lat. 6° 30' N., lone. 30° 21' W. : 28 miles
East. Crossed the equator on the 16th, and experienced norm-westerly current.

Ship Margaret Mitchell, Jan. 23, 1854, lat. 4° 36' N., long. 22° 25' W. : 13 miles
E. by S. 24th : lat. 3' I' N., long 22° 30' W., S. by E. 20 miles.

Ship Oravina (C. Sprague), March 4, 1856, lat. 2° 48' N., long. 26° 46' W., S. 34»
East, 17 miles. 6th : lat. 1° 22' N., long. 27° 43' W., 12 miles N. by E.

Barque Eglantine (Gleason), April 7, 1855, lat. 11° 28' N., long. 24° 25' W. : current
setting to eastward, though tne ship was steering S. by W. ^ W.

Ship MaryL. Sutton (P. E. Rowland), AprU 24, 1866, lat. 16° 4' N., long. 33" 30'
W. : current E. 45 miles. _'5th, lat. 12' 40' N., long. 32° 32' W. : East 10 miles.
26th, lat., 9° 22' N., long. 31° 20' AV. : East 10 miles. (This is more to the northward
than usual.)

Ship ^cto« (D. McLaughlin), May 18, 1856, lat. 5° 43' N., long. 24° 44' W. : 24
miles E. by N. 19th, lat. 3° 39' N., long. 24° 44' W. : 14 mUes E.N.E. 20th, lat.
2° 56' N., lone. 24° 0' W. : 15 miles E.N.E. 2l8t, lat. 2° 16' N., long. 23° 34' W. :
15 miles E.NTE. 22nd, lat. 1° 20' N., long. 25" 15' W. : 10 miles N.E.

Ship Edwin Flye (W. Flye), June 27, 1856, lat. 5° 38' N., long. 26° 17' W. : 'H H°
E., rate 1-2 miles per hour. 28th, lat. 4° 6' N., long. 27° 29' W. : N. 18° E., v • uo
per hour. 29th, lat. 3° 52' N., long. 25° 12' W. : N. 22° E., rate 1-3 mile per h')Ui\

Ship Paw</<er (N. G. Weeks), Aug. 19th, 1854, lat. 7° 57' N., long 25° 64' W. : 24 ,
miles E. by S. 20th, lat 6° 55^ N., long. 23° 28' W. : N.E. f E., 48 mUes. 2l5t, lat.
6° 41' N., long. 20° 30' W., 48 miles N.E. by E. f E. 22nd, kt. 4' 66' N., long.
18° 7' W. : E. by N., 12 miles per hour. 23rd, kt. 2° 41' N., long. 20° 4' W. : 1 mile
per hour S.E. by S.

Barque Mea (B. Buxton), August 27, 1849, lat. 5° 57' N., long. 19° 32' W. : | knot
N.E. 28th, lat. 4° 12' N., long. 17" 33' AV. : i knot N.E. 29th, lat. 4° 0' N., long.
19°47'W.: 6milesE.N.E.

Brig Director, Capt. Skinner ■WTites : — " You perceive that I hod a strong cunent
between lat 7° and 5° N. on Sept. 7 — 10. Not getting an obHcrvation for 4 days, I
found the brig nearly 3° farther East than I exi)ected ; whether I had it in one, two,
three, or the fourth day, I cannot say, but suppose I hnd some each day. I was speak-
ing with several captains, and they say that they have always found a strong current
about them going to the eastward. '

Capt. Maury adds — " An eastwardly ciirrcnt is often found north of the line in
summer and fall ; and at those Honsons it may be counted on with some degree of
certainty." (This refers to the western crossing of the equator recommended by
Capt, Maury,)

Ship FU/inp Dntrhmnn (A. Hubbard), Oct. 12, 1854, lat «° 55' N., long. 40° 62' W.
— " I notice for the last two days (from lat. 1 1° 28) the lines of agitated waters, pre-
viously noticed, appear all to run nearly E.N.E. and W.S.W., and follow each other
at regular intervnls of some four or five miles ; the motion of the waves running at
right angles to the line of rip. Oct. 14, lot. 6° 46' N., long. 39° 4' W. : current East,
1 knot, 15th, lat. 6" 60' N., long. 37° 26' W, : current East 1 J knots. One year ago
last July I experienced a similar current in the some latitude, but some 10" further
Ea«t. Oct. 16th, lat. 6° 49' N., long. 36 25' ^\ . : current Ea^t U knots. 17th, lat.
«° 20 N., long. 35° 18' W. : current 8. 79' E., 2 knots. IHth, lat. 6" 69' N., long.
36° 19' W. : current east, northing li knots. 19th, lot. 5° 43' N., long. 33° 33' W. :
current east, southerly l:j knots, slight current rips. Oct. 20, no current. All these
(lays generally calm, or light variable airs."

oriip naran \o , v.forKlng;. \ic\. ^i, ip»,io, mr. o i« ix,, long. I'n >)\t w,

currpnt

N.E. 1 mile. 28th, lot. .V 21 N., long. 29^ .W W. : ciment N.K. 1 mile. 29tli, Int.

THE AFRICAN OR GUINEA CURRENT.

28ff.

6"10'N.,long. 80'0'W.
N.E. 2 miles.

current N.E. 2 miles. 30th, lat. 4« 40' N., long. 30^ 0' W.

Ship Rahert Patten (G. S. Paine), Oct. 30, 1866, lat. lO" 14' N., long. 33<» 50' W. :
" tiremendouB tide rips, the strongest I ever saw." Oct. 31, lat. 8° 26' N., long.
32° 28' W. : current cluinges to eastward | knot per hour.

Ship Scargo (N. CroweU), Oct. 4, 1856, lat. 6" 53' N., long. 26" 13' W. : 24 miles
East. 6th, lat. 6° 26' N., long. 24° 42' W. : 18 mUes E. by S. 6th, lat. 6° 36' N.,
long. 24° W. : 18 miles E. by S. 7th, lat. 4° 48' N., long. 23° 29' W : 18 miles E.
by S. ,

Schooner Thomas A. Ward {J. D. Hoff), Oct. 12, 1856, lat. 6° 6' N., long. 27° 40'
W. : the last twenty-four hours have been the most calm that ever I saw, not a
breath from any quarter, and a terrible rolling sea. We drifted S.E. 36 miles.

Ship Colorado (Ricker), Nov. 1, 1855, lat 6° 61' N., long. 21° 64' W: current 20
mUes S.E. 2nd, lat. 6° 22' N., long. 20° 56' W. : 29 miles S.E.

Barque Chra (E. Cook, jun.), Dec. 9, 1864, lat 6° 48' F., long. 26° 66' W. : 1-3
knots per hour N 36° E. 10th, lat. 6° 9' N., long. 27° 67' W. : 1 knot N. 62° E. 11th,
lat, 6° 10' N., long. 26° 46' W. : 0-8 knot N. 37° E. r- • ^ ' ■ '

The foregoing are the principal notices of this easterW current as recorded in Capt.
Maury's Sailing Directions, vol. ii., eighth edition, and, In fact, is nearly all that is
mentioned on currents, as but very few, if any, of the abstract logs quoted in that
work mentioned any westerly or other currents, the only exception being that in some
very few cases a northerly set is noticed. Besides this, there is frequent mention of
current or tide rips, often of a very formidable character, denoting great activity and
change in the currents of this troublesome region.

(155.) The easterly current thus passing across the Atlantic strikes the coast of
Africa about Sierra Leone and the coast of Liberia. Of course, when near the shore,
it assumes its direction to the S.E., and runs with great velocity. As is shown by
the Chart of the Currents at page 259, its mean annual velocity is between 14*1
miles and 26'6 miles per day, strongest in the summer months.

Its mean direction off Cape Palmas and Cape Coast Castle is E. 12° N., and its
calculated velocity from Major RennoU's and Maury's observations is — for January,
17"4 miles to 27"6 miles; February, 26 miles to 32 miles; April, 11'6 to 33.7 milep*
May, 22-7 miles to 36 miles ; June, 30 miles ; July, 18-2 miles ; August, 15-7 miles
to 26'4 miles per day. These are from the records of 75 ob8cr>'ations.

(166.) Its southern edge appears to be in about 2^" to 2° N. up to the head of
Bight, and as the southern streams set in an opposite direction, they are serviceable in
making a return passage as presently explained.

The temperature of the Guinea current is high, and demonstrates its equatorial
origin, although the bronch of it which comes from the northward past Cape Verde
has probably a lower temperature as coming from a higher latitude. The equatorial
current to the southward of the Guinea current is also of a lower temperature, coming
direct along the African coast from the southern polar regions. The mean summer
temperature is about 78°, but in our winter and autumn months it is higher, being
from 82"6'' to 83" as a mean, and sometimes it is found higher than this.

(167.) At the distance of about 60 leagues South of Cape Palmas (long. 7^" W.)
the outer border of the Guinea current settt to the East; and the same direction of it
continues to a similar distance South of Cape Three Points (long. 2° W.) ; we thence,
at T North of the Line, find it take a more northerly course, toward the Bight of
Benin and the Bight of Biafra ; in the latter it mixes with the waters of the South
African Current, which, coming from the South, set thence to the North and N.VV.,
and both, uniting, form a head in the bight. From this h'\aht and southward of the
Equator the currents thus blended set to the S.W., W.N.W., and NW., in one ex-
piuKling and united streuni, wliich grentlj- facilitates the passage of ships from Fer-
nando I'« to Sitrra Lcinic.

Tlif prevalence of the lluinmttun wind, which hus been described (p. 203), mu^t

286

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURKENTS.

interrupt the course of this current ; but its existence, at other times, nearly as
described, has long been confirmed, and is incontestable.

(158.) Near Cape Mount the cturent sets in toward the shore as above stated.
The ship Charles, a French whaler, in 1833, was wrecked on the coast of Liberia, at
about 30 leases to the S.E. of Cape Mesurado, probably on the reefs near the River
Sestros. Thw vessel had left the poi-t of Havre for the fishery near Triatan da
Cunha, in the Southern Ocean, but the captain, while intending to run along the
coast beyond Cape Palmas, in the hope of falling in with whales, unfortunately lost
his reckoning, by being deprived, for forty-eight hours, of all means of taking ob-
servations : and was moving at the estimated rate of 7 miles an hour, when he foimd
himself close on shore in the midst of breakers, which in the course of the night
forced him on the reef and dashed the ship to pieces. The captain and crew got mie
to land, but were soon stripped by the blacks, and the captain himself left without
covering. In this condition they made their way along the shore to the N.W., until
they reached Cape Mesurado, where they were received with all kindness by the
colonial agent of Liberia, who sent them m a small government schooner to the Isle
Goree. The catastrophe is e^'idently attributable to this easterly cuiTent.

On the western side of Cape Palmas it sets along shoi'e with such force to the
S.E., that ships which do not steer a point nearer than the true course will be carried
from the land!. About Cape, Three Points, likewise, the stream runs strongly to the
eastward, and frequently sets directly in upon the reefs about that cape. Eastward
cf this cape the current has carried many experienced mariners, bound to Cape Coast
or Annamaboe, to leeward of those ports, and occasioned much trouble, with delay,
in beating up again. About Terra Formosa, in July and August, the current has
also been found to set strongly to the eastward.

(169.) The Equatorial Current, which sets from the Bight of Biafra, and then
westerly to the southward of the Line, has been illustrated, as already explained, in
our " iJirectory for the Ethiopic Ocean," by Mr. Jas. Finlaison. That gentleman
has shown how, by taking advantage of it, ships may efi'cct, without difficulty, a
passage from the bight to Sierra Leone, His instructions are as follow : —

" Ships bound from the Bight of Biafra to Sierra Leone, if from Calabar River,
when the wind does not permit them to proceed by the N.W. of Fernando Po, may
pass between that island and Camaroens River, when they will find a strong current
setting to the southward, out of the River Del Rey. After they have advanced to the
southward of Fernando Po, they nust endeavour to make all tno southing and west-
ing they can ; passing either to the eastward or northward of Prince's Island, as
winds will peimit. On the East side of this island the current sets strongly to the
southward, at the rate of a knot and a half; westward of Prince's Island, it gene-
rally sets strongly to the N.E. at the same rate.*

" Having arrived to the southward of Prince's Island, if the ship will lie no higher
than W.N. W., tack immediately, and try to cross the Line j for by so doing you will
keep out of the strong N.E. current that sets toward the Bights of Benin and Biafra.
After you have crossed the Line, j'ou will find that you arc nearly out of the easterly
current. In the ;parallel of V South you will find tne current set to the westward, at
the rate of one mile an hour. In the month of May or June, when the sun has a high
declination, the trade-wind is far to the southward, and you will not gain the regular
breeze nearer than in 3° South. This breeze commences from S. by W. As you make

• In the last edition of the Denotero de la^ Antilla* tho following remarks are said to
have been found among the piipors of tho docoiisotl Admiral Don Josef Varola. " At
Prince's Ifllund, and in itiivi, unity, the waters g«mprHlly run to the North, which cirruin-
Btiinco ought to bo kopt in mind in making tho Jslunu and stoering for tho anchoriigo.
There aro also currontn to tho South, but thoy are not ho strong, or of so long duriition.
The pilots of tho placo lay that the currents dopond on tho phiiHus of ♦ho moon, but we
fouiulthat thoy worn irrogular." From this wo may infer that, thi'ro is somo irrogularity
in tho outset or revolving current ; for which, coMNoqUoiiiiy, tivtiry precaution shouid be
taken.

THE AFRICAN OR GUINEA CURRENT.

287

westing, the wind will be found to haul more to the southward and eastward, and
the current increases to the rate of 1| knots in an hour, until you arrive as far to the
westward as 15" West. On proceeding hence to Sierra Leone, come no &rther to the
eastward than 15° West, untu you are as £bt to the northward as 8° 30' N. ; then you
may steer boldly in for the cape. You will strike soundings in that parallel in
14° 40' W. ; and as you approach the cape the soundings will be found very irregular,
from 20 fathoms to 12 at a cast. You will then be 7 leagues from the cape, and in
the fair track of the river.

" Having given these directions to our prize-master, they generally made the
passage from Fernando Po and Bonny in five weeks ; merchant vessels have frequently
been three months, by keeping in shore."

(160.) In his investigation of the Guinea Current, Major Rennell says : " I have
now brought vou to the Cape Verde Islands, by what is called the Outer Passage, and
which is to be preferred, at all seasons, for ships bound to the southward ; because,
even when the S.W. monsoon prevails,* between lat. 15° and the Equator, and you
are compelled to go to the eastward (between June and September, you will be farther
to windward, and will have a more steady wind, and favoiirable current to the S.E.,
than near the coast of Sierra Leone, &c. But if you are bound to Sieri'a Leone you
will of course keep a southerly course from the Canary Islands (Palma and Ferro),
and you will find a favourable current the whole way to that place.

Although yon will, at this season, carry a fair wind with you to Sierra Leone, yet
it may be proper to inform you that, within the space, lengthwise, between Cape
Verde and Cape Mesurado, and in certain places to the extent of 70 leagues off shore
(50 off Sierra Leone), a regular change of winds and currents takes places, according
to the seasons ; that is to say, a N.E. or North wind and S.E. current from September
to June ; and, in the rest of the year, S.W. wind and N.E. or northerly currents, in
effect, a tnoiuoon ; and this extends, in respect of the winds, nearly through the whole
space between the two continents.

The current in the offing, in the parallels South of Cape Roxo, \2\' N., continues
its course, gradually bending more and more to the south-eastward, till about the
latitude of 5° N. it turns decisively to the East; and running with considerable
rapidity, sometimes at the rate of 2 knots, it ranges along the whole coast of
Guinea until it is partly dissipated in the Bight of Benin, &c. The Ouinea Current
may be taken at 60 leagues in breadth ; its greatest rapidity is dming the season
of S.W. winds in the sea lying West of Sierra Leone and South of the Capo Verde
Islands.

(161.) Bottles. — We have not many bottle experiments on this current. One is
curious. A bottle from the ship Kinnear (Captain Kelsall), thrown over May 15th,
1843, in lat. 6" 1' N., long. 24° o W., was picked up near the River Nunez on the
58th July, following ; the direct distance is 650 miles, which in 74 days shows a daily
rate of 9 miles. Another bottle from the same ship thrown over a week before 127
miles due north (lut. 8° 8' N.), was picked up 86 days afterwards on August 12, 1843,
at Poraiba, on the Braziliap coast, the direct distance would give it a daily rate of
above 14 miles per day, but as it went probably to westward and thence southward
its rate was greater. These two bottles show the limits of the Equator and Guinea
Currents.

A bottle from the Windermere, thrown over in lat. 4° 6' N., long. 20° 0' W., on
August 20, 1850, was picked up at Lahou, on the Ivory coast, on March 6, 1851. A
direct course would make its rate 4*5 miles per day, but as it was probably curried by
the Equatorial Current till caught in the Guinea Current, we cannot argue muuh»
except that it is an evidence of the direction of the Guinea Current.

• The term Monsoon, or rather Moitaoon, among the native mariners in the Imliim
Ocotin, iu said to mean notliing moro than setuoit ; that is, tho vicisBitudoa or changes of

80I18OI1.

Bv a partial mnmonn is meant a periodical wind, or stream of uir, which doon not extend
all the way acrbss the sen, as on the coats of Brazil, Africa, &c.

288

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

lat. V 13' S.,

Grand Cestros, lat.

bnd forwarded

to England by Captain Penrice, of the brig Meg MerriUea, belonging to the same
owner. This was probably carried on a circuitous route to the westward by the stream

South of the Line ; and thence to the North and N.E. by the in-shore current.

..?;■

4.— THE SARGASSO SEA.

(162.) The central portion of the Atlantic, that is comprised between the Trade
wind and Anti-trade wind systems (19), p. 184, also boimaed on the south by the
westerly drifts of the Trade winds, and to the north by the easterly current, presently
described, appears to be a different physical condition to the other portions of the
Atlantic Ocean, and indeed from any other portion of the globe.

Its apparently chief characteristic is well expressed by the name now usually
applied to it — the Sargasso, or Weedy Sea. The well-known gulf-weed, which is
found more or less over its whole area, seems to be quite peculiar to it. There may
be a somewhat analagous physical condition in the North Pacific, but this is not so
easily defined. This gulf-weed is constantly found, in greater or less quantity, scat-
terea oyer its whole area, and when it is found on places not its usual habitat, it may
be safely inferred that it has drifted out of this extensive area by the action of the
current.

^163.) It is very difficult to define the limits within which this gulf- weed is found.
It IS more than probable that the fluctuations of the season, greatly affects them as it
doe<« the limits of the Trade winds and intervening calms, the more particularly as
it is to the varying currents caused by these winds that the weed is retained in its
locality. Consequently we may look for its N. and S. boundaries more to the south-
ward during the northern winter months, and the reverse during the summer. The
tropic, or about the parallel of 23" N., may be its southern edge in the longitude of
the Azores, from whence this limit extends to the Virgin Islands and the Bahamas.
Its northern edge runs from the Azores to the outer edge of the Gulf Stream off Cape
Hatteras. It is not so abundant to the westward of the meridian of the Azores. This
will give a breadth of 1,000 miles in its eastern part, and a length of 3,000 miles from
E. to W. As before stated, its limits may change greatly at different times, but it
may always be looked for within this area, that is, between the southern edge of the
Ouu Stream and the northern limit of the Equatorial Current.

(164.) There has been much speculation as to the causes and conditions which have
made and retained this peculiar area in its integrity.

Major Rennell says : — " It has .been observed that the waters of the Atlantic have
a greater tendency toward the middle of the ocean than otherwise, and this seems to
indicate a reduced level, forming a kind of hollow space or depressed surface. It is
certain that the setting of the currents is such as might be expected to take place if
such a hollow existed ; for the currents do really set into, the Sargasso Sea from the
North and from the South ; whilst in the middle part, although within the region of
the Trade wind, the currents arc not regular, but indicate a kind of vortex.*

By others it is considered as an immense eddy or whirlpool, formed by the inclina-
tion of the water to the westward, caused by the influence of the Trade winds and
the Gulf Stream.

Others, again, argue that it is a raised surface, maintained in a quiescent condition
by the suri-ounding currents, and I'ctaining all that is poured into it by the surround-
ing influences.

* Rcunoll's " Investigfitiou," p. 72.

THE SARGASSO SEA.

280

It is also considered as the grand receptacle of the Ghilf Stream, which receiving at
the Asores, here turns into tms space all that it has transported throogh its long

course. ^>.;... -,v. .-., <-•.- ^,;^■..i.; ,jm a..: ,, v: ; ], ^l ^:, ■

All these theories have some facts io bekr '^din lip ^tJ&mA60^, i>Ut titk^ft iki
be adduced to show their futility.

(165.) It is here urged that a simple explanation can be given of this curious iregioui
in the analagous condition of the atmosphere, so powerful an agent in the production
or alteration of ocean drifts and currents.

By referring to Maury's Trade Wind Charts, cited on page 186 (26.), it will be seen
that there is an uncertainty about meeting with the northern edge of the N.E. trade
winds through an extent of at least 10" of latitude ; add to this the vibration of this
zone of trade winds consequent on the motion of the sun in the Ecliptic, which
amounts to from 5° to 8° in latitude, as exemplified in the diagram of the limits of the
trade winds at page 185, we have a range of 16° to 18° of latitude over whi£h,
during some portion of the year, and over a large section of it throughout the year,
that there is nothing but light airs and variable winds, being, in feet, the " horse
latitudes," see pages 206-7 (58 to 61.).

Under this zone, therefore, the sea is subject to no conlinued or regular drift, and
consequently whatever is thrown on to its sur&ce will remain for a long time, and
the Sargasso, or gulf-weed being one of the few marine plants which lives when broken
from its rocky bed, it may exist here for a very long period, and thus accumulate by
the fr«sh additions constantly making by the outer or eastern edge of the Gulf Stream,
as well as that drifted around the northern part of the Atlantic, and passing by the
S.E. Current by the Azores (144.) into tiiis quiescent -zone. That the uulf Stream is
the primary feeder to this weedy sea will be shown presently.

(166.) There is another condition also which fevours the maintenance and growth
of this peculiar plant. The temperature of this water is very equable, less wai-m than
that under the more vertical sun, and not varying more than 6 or 7° Fahr. through-
out the year in the eastern part, or 8° or 9° in the western part. This temperature is,
as said, lower than that of the southern part of the gi-eat equatorial streams to the
south of it, but it is higher than that of the current, which sets S.E. and S. between
the Azores and Spain, and lower than that of the surface of the Gulf of Mexico and
the early course of the Gulf Stream. It may, therefore, be considered that it approxi-
mates to the water-climate of the bottom of the Gulf of Mexico, that of the sea
around the Bahamas, &c., where it is known that this weed g^ows naturally.

(167.) The Sargasso, or guljj-weed, which is its peculiar characteristic, is one of the
few plants, aquatic or terrestiial, which will live and flourish when separated from its
native stem. Its appearance is too well known to require any detail. The sea was
called Sargaqao by the early Portuguese navigators, from the weed bearing berries
like grapes, " sarga." This term ma thus been corrupted into Sargaaao, and been,
applied to the plant itself instead of the place it grows on. There are more than one
species of it known to botanists, as aargassum vulgare, &c. It is frequently called
fticua natana — floating sea-weed ; and is known to sailors as gulf-weed^ that famous
stream being always more or less marked with it.

The old story of Columbus, who had much difficulty with his men, when they de-
clared that even the sea changed its nature into terrestrial to prevent his proceeding
on his discovery voyage to America, has been oft repeated.

The sea is commonly studded over, like an inundated meadow, with the bushes,
which are in some places very abundant, and in others more dispersed. " If we could
imagine the surface of a wide extended moor, covered with water, the ftirze and heath
bushes would appear something like the clustera of fucus scattered over the thickest'
part of this sea.

The fhictification of all sea-weeds is peculiar, but they i ec[uire a fixed basis to
vegetate. Although apparently flourishing in vast areas in this Sargasso Sea, they
can only be looked on as cat flowers rather than as eompifcte planiB, although their
constitution enables them to Uve a long period without oeing fixed to their parent

% o

290

OBSEKVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

rock like most other alg». They are found in every state of decay, and when old
they become covered with minute and beautiful parasitic growths, which deserve
much atteution to those who have the leisure and taste to examine them, especialhr
with the microscope, which in this re^on reveals avast and little known world.
Besides this, too, the tufts afford protection and shelter to a vast quantity and variety
of minute fishes, crabs, and other Crustacea and animalculee, wnich wUl afford an
inexhaustible fund of interest to the observer. Naturally enough, there is a limit to
its separate existence, and when subjected to any change of temperature, or difference
of locality unsuitable, by a continuous wind or current, large areas become decked,
die, and sink to the bottom, to be renewed by the continual fresh importations from
the Gulf of Mexico.

It is sometimes drifted on to the shores of the British Isles and Western Europe,
and appears among the other sea-weeds in the works on algolog^, but it is accepted
as a shipwrecked stranger, not as a native of our shores.

^168.) The gulf of Mexico abounds with the native growths of the Sargasso-weed.
It IS found attached to the rocks, at the bottom, in most parts of it. The soundings
on the CampechS Bank, Chiriqui, the Andros Islands, on the Bahama Banks, New
Providence, &c., all furnish the supply of g^rowing plants. The spores (or ii^eeds) of
these become attached to these rocks in the manner usual with all algee, and the young
plant grows, not from a root, because the attachment to the rock is not of that nature,
till it attains some size, when offering greater resistance to the progress of the con-
tinual current than the stalk is able to bear, it becomes detached, rises to the surface,
and then is borne onward bv the stream till it emerges through the Gulf of Florida
by the Gulf Stream. As will be shown hereafter, ^s stream has a tendency to throw
atl floating bodies off to the right hand of its course, it follows, that this weed is
gradually cast off into this central area, aided probably by the westerly prevalence of
the winds which at times occur in' this part.

One opinion may be safely controverted, that which assigns the depths of the
Atlantic over which it is found as its native place. The great depth and consequent
cold disproving the possibility of a plant living in such extremes of temperature, v^ ,

We give a number of examples and opinions on this subject, as in previous editions,
but any new light which can be thrown upon the physical condition of this peculiar
region, would be well worth the study of any one who will undertake it. But little
has been added to our stock of knowledge for many years.

(169.) Captain Livingston, in his way from New Orleans to the Strait of Florida,
saw laige quantities of it ; and every one who has navigated the Gulf Stream has
remarked the weed in it, or along its borders. Sir Fhilip Broke and the Baron
Alexander von Humboldt say, that the stream contains a great deal. Sir Philip
says: " We were always surrounded with gulf-weed." Major Rennell adds, "He
spoke of that part of the Gulf Stream out in the Atlantic ; the others might speak of
other parts,"

In the second volume of the " Colombian Navigator," 1848, p. 220, is a description
of the Andros Isles, as lately surveyed, and it is there ahown, that in the great spong-
ing district, upon the Bahama Bank, West of Andres, vast quantities of the gtii^-
weed are produced ; and this is one of the beds irom which the ocean has been
isupplied."

■Oo the weed found in the ocean, we have the following remarks, by Captain
XAioingtton, whose name has so frequently occurred in the preceding pages : —

'" Many persons suppose that the gulf- weed {Jwus natatu) grows upon the rocks
about the Bermudas ; others, that it originates among the Florida Reefs ; and a third
party, that k grows upon the water, without ever a&ering to anything fixed.

" All these positions seem to me equally wide of truth. Neithet on the Bermuda
Rocks, nor among the Florida Reefs, has a single branch of gulf- weed ever been
found growing upon the rocks ; and, among all the gulf- weed met on the ocean, no
person haa ever found a single tuft with roots, or that, on mature examination, could
bi< suppo«ed« by any person of sound judgment, io jiuve grown on the surface of the

THE SARGASSO SEA.

291

On the contrary, every stalk of the weed seems to have been broken off short
nethine to whicn it firmly grew, and all the encb of these st'-^ks are uniformly

•water.

from somet4ine

decayed, or dried up, from the encl to a short distance.

" It has been stated, as a well-known fact, that the fttcus natana ^ws on the rocks
along the Onlf of Paria, and on the coasts of Caraccas, &c. If this be the case, it is
rather strange that it should not rather grow on other rocks and coasts of the West
Indies. It has also been stated, that in the whole sea of floating bushes. Mar do
Sargasso, not a withered plant is ever discovered. This is not true, as I have seen
abundance of thefucus natans in a state of gi-eat decar. I note the following from
my journal of the Brilliant, from Gibraltar towards Havanna: 8th February, 1819,
' the weed much decayed ;' 9th. ' weed passed through, a.m., much decayed ;' 10th,
p.m., ' passed throu&;n much decayed weed ; I remark, that the farther we run to the
westward, the more decayed is the gulf-weed ;' 13th, ' the gulf-weed begins to look
fresher.'*

" These particulai-s have been g^ven, in order to show that I have not spoken at
random ; on the contraiy, actually made my remarks on the-spot. Some of the weed
was quite brown, and in small fragments, evidently separated into such by its state
of decay. It is tiue, that the weed soon decays when it is taken otit of the water, as
I have often tried the experiment. The weed is never of a verdant green colour, but
seems as if blanched ttGta. having been, in some degree, hid from light : I suppose
from vegetating under water."

(170.) Mr. Turner, who has so well made known the family of the sea-weeds, and
many other celebrated botanists, think that the greater part of ihefuci (weeds) which
we gather on the surface of the ocean, and which, from the 23rd to the -Sdth degree
of latitude, and 30th of longitude, appear to the mariner like a vast inundated
meadow, grow primitively at the bottom of the ocean, and float only in their ripened
state, when they are torn off by the motion of the waves.

To the North of the Cape Verde Islands, we met with great masses of floating sea-
weeds. They were the tropic grape, ^cu« natans, which grows on submarine rocks,
between the £quator and lat. 40", both North and South. I am assured from the
comparison of a great number of journals, that, in the basin of the Atlantic Ocean,
there exist two banks of weeds, very different from each other. The most extensive
is a little to the West of the meridian of F^yal, one of the Azores, between lat. 25^
and lat. 36". The temperature of the ocean, in these latitudes, is from 61° to 68° ; and
the North winds, whicn sometimes reign there very tempestuously, drive floating isles
of weed even to the parallels of 24° and 20°. The* vessels which return to Europe,
either from the Rio Plata or the Cape of Good Hope, cross these banks, which the
Spanish pilots consider as at an equal distance frova. the Antillas and Canaries. The
second bank of fuci (weed) is but little known ; it occupies a much small space be-
tween the 22nd and 26th degrees of latitude, 80 leagues East of the meridian of the
Bahamas. It is found on the passage from the Caycos to the Bermudas. In the
latitudes just described, the fuci, far from being Lxed to the bottom, float in separate
masses on the surface of the water

" It were to be wished that navigators would heave the lead more fr^uently in
the latitudes covered vdth weeds.

" The causes that unroot these weeds, at depths where it is generally thought the
sea is slightly agitated, are not sufficiently known. It has been said, that if the
fucus adhere to the rocks with the gpreatest firmness before the display of its fructifi-
cation, it separates with gi'cat facility after this period, or during the season which
suspends its vegototion, lilce that of the terrestrial plants. The fish and the molluscis

* On the 8th of February, the Brilliant was in 24" 17' N., and 66" 1' W. On the 9th, in
24° 34' N., and 66» 59' W. On the lOth, in 24" h\' N., and 68" 39' W. On the 12th, in
25° 34' N., and 71° 5' W. On the 9th, the ship passed the meridian of Porto Rico, and was
hcnco proceeding toward Providence Channel, Bahama, The decayed weed, ws have no
doubt, had diiftod from the central bed of the ouoan. — Eo.

^■:--

292

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

that gnaw the sterna of the sea-weeds do doubt contribute also to detach them from
their roots.

<• On proceeding hence, toward the West Indies, from the 22nd degree of latitude,
we found the surfisuse of the sea covered with flying fish, which threw themselves up
into the air 12, 15, or 18 feet high, and fell down on the deck. I do not hesitate to
speak of an object, of which voyagers discourse as frequently as of dolphins, sharks,
sea-sickness, and the phosphorescence of the ocean. Ncne of these objects can fail
of affording interesting observations to those who make them theii study."

{i^l') Citptotii ^ourA;«, in the brig Arch^ald, December, 1815, found large quan-
tities 01 the weed near the parallel of 20°, to the northward of the Island Porto
Rico, and of the eastern part of Hayti ; but on the passage through the Bahama
Channel, eastward of the meridian of 70% and on the North sides of Hayti and
Cuba, none of the weed was seen. This may be accounted for on the supposition
that it was drifted by the current from the great bed of weed to the NE., as before
explained.

Xteu^. /oAn ^van«, R.N., states : — "In November, 1810, 'H.M.S. Belvedere, ia the
centre of the Atlantic, lat. 33° 20', long. 41° 37', passed through prodigious quantities
of fucus .^ataru, in line North and South, as Ceu: as the eye could see ; and notwith-
stuiding that there prevailed a very heavy swell from the North, their position was
not altered. The quantity of this weed met with between the 30th and 36th degrees
of latitude is really astomshing ; at times you may sail for leagues th ;ough it, cover-
ing, as a mantle, the surface of the sea. I have often seen it in Imss about 300 or
4(K> fathoms in length (sometimes only a few ^ards^, and frequeutlv in large and
small patches of irregruar shape, but generally in a circular form. The deep-sea line
shoula be put over the side frequently in this particular part of the AtUintic."

On the 17th April, 1828, at noon, in the Mexican Sea, a vessel under the conmumd
of Lieut. John Evans was in lat. 26° 52', long. 89° 17'. On this iayfttctta natana, or
gulf-weed, was seen, in parallel lines, S.S.E. and N.N.W. It was in flower, and com-
pletely covered with young barnacles. " From the lat. 25° to 28° in this sea we met
with the fucus in paraUel lines S.S.E. and N.N.W. ; it flowers like fern and other
crt/ptoffamia." In calms the fuci float near the surfac: some of the leaves appearing
above water ; the patches seen in the Florida Stream, bud the bunches examined, were
old, brown, and covered with young barnacles.

In the year 1825 the brig Erin, from the Pacific Ocean to Liverpool, when to the
westward of the Azores, passed compact parallels of fucus natana ir lat. 39° 59',
long. 33° 46'. The weed was less broken than any they had before seen ; the nodules
large and of a deep yellow-brown colour, and the lines extending, as fiir as the eve
could reach, in a curection about S. by E., being nearly at right angles with tne
vessel's line, which was E. by N. The wind was S.E. by S., strong gales and a
heavy sea.

(172.) The/uctw natana is found in localities to the eastward of the Sargasso Sea.
For Ihe following communication we are indebted to the late Captain Thomas
Midgley, and it is a g^eat acquisition to our knowledge of the wide range that this
plant has : —

" On my outward passage to Africa in a perfect calm, at daylight of the morning
of 18th of January, 1841, in lat. 6° 46' N., and long. 14° 66' W., I found the ship
amongst a number of small bunches of weed, and many cuttle-hsh shells.

" On carefrdly examining some of the bunches of weed, I was surprised to find it
the tmefucua natana, or Sargasso or gulf-weed, being, in every respect, precisely the
same as that found in the N.E. trades, but apparently much fresher, having exactly
the same kind of oblong, narrow, serrated lea^ same stem, same nodules, and just the
same pale yellow colour. The pods were also sui-rounded with a very fine kind of
net-work {Jlustra), and there were a very few minute barnacles attached to the stem,
which scarcely showed any marks of decay ; indeed, the two bunches brought on
board (which were each about 4 inches in oiameter) appeared to have been but very
recently separated from Uie parent stem, and they each contained a small, but very
lively, t-rab.

THE SAIiOASSO SEA.

*' The lively fresh appearance of the weed, and the two orabt, induced me to try
for soundings, and, as the weather was perfectly calm and the water smooth, I was
enabled to get a perpendicular oast of 112 fathoms, with a well-armed heavy lead,
but found no bottom.

" The weed was in detached and small bunches, and could only have extended
over a comparatively limited space ; for when a breeze of wind sprang up, and the
vessel had sailed 20 miles to the eastward, there was not a single sprig or bunch to be
seen. if :,,

'*^ This weed appears to be unknown upon the Krou coast, for I had two intelligent
natives of Sang^win and Grand ^estros on board at the time I picked tiie weed up,
and they severally declared they had never seen it upon any part of l^e coast.

" The vessel had been perfectly becalmed for fourteen hours previous and two
hours subsequent to the time of picking up the weed, so that she g^:«dual]y drifted
amongst it by a current, which I found, by good observations and carerally-kept
reckoning, to set E. by S. by compass, very nearly three-quarters of a mile per hour.
Temperature of water, when weed was picked up at da^ight, 79°, and at noon, 81°
Fahrenheit."

(It had evidently been drifted out of the area by the current described on p. 283.
Its not being known farther East is probably owing to the difference of temperature
of the sea, which kills the weed before it arrives there.)

(173.) Mr. Luccoch in his Notes on Brasil, has likewise described the Green or
Weedy Sea. He states that it extends from 11° to 35° of North latitude, and from
30° of longitude to on indefinite distance westward. " Here," he says, " the ocean
is covered oy nodules of sea-weed, from 3 to IB. inches in diameter, somewhat resem-
bling in form a cauliflower when stripped of its leaves. They float lightly on the
water, in parallel lines, at a very few yards from each other, and have a yellow-brown
colour, like the long stringy fibre which is sometimes seen fioating in the EngUsh
Channel, and which I suppose to be the natural colour of all marine phmts, growing
deeply beneath the surface of the water. These nodules, or spherules, are composed
of a vast number of small branches, about half an inch long, which shoot from each
other at an angle of about 40° ; hence they multiply continually toward the super-
ficies of the sphere ; find each extreme point produces a round seed-vessel. This is
little more than one -tenth part of an mch in diameter, is hollow, and contains a
small reddish-brown need, scarcely occupying one-fifth part of the husk. The leaf of
the plant springy frtm the joints of the branches, is oolong, indented at the edges,
about 1| inches long, and a quarter of an inch broad.

" When the nodule is dexterously taken up, all the branches may be traced to one
principal stalk ; and this invariably shows a fracture, the part by which it has been
joined to some larger stem. This fracture is frequently qmte fresh, and, in large and
vigorous plants, shows distinctly a woody part and a cortex. On the edges of the
latter, the first symptoms of decay appear. They become brown, and separate them-
selves tram the wood. This also men assumes a darker colour, and exhibits the
reg^ular process of disorganisation, just in the same manner as does a slip from a cur-
rant or gooseberry bush. In process of time, the whole of the plant assumes a darker
hue ; and, ae it decays, floats considerably lower than it did. When kept out of the
water for a few hours, it becomes harsh and brown, and acquires the peculiar smell of
marine vegetables in a state of putrefaction

" A great number of very minute barnacles are found upon the leaves and stalks.
The seed-pod is usually enveloped in a sort of honeycomb work, which may be taken
from it, and, when examined by a lens, resembles m appearance the net-work in a
fly's eye. (This is called Jlustra.) Among other inhabitants of the plant, is
frequently a number of small crabs, perfectly formed, and evidently young, yet
vigorous and active ; and when a nodule, taken fresh from the water at night, is
hung up in a small cabin, it emits phosphorescent light enough to render objects
visible.

" The singular arrangement of the plants, in parallel lines, is evidently owing to
the wind, wnosc direction they alwaj's observe. E-ach nodule pla

294

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

lee of its more windward neighbour, and thus observes the law of floating bodies
when exposed to a current of air. Should the wind suddenly change, as it sometimes
does, a point or two, in this part of the Atlantic, and blow strong, these lines become
broken, and form what are commonly called Jielda ^ weed. These, however, are
generally small, and seldom, I suspect, yemain long so disarranged.

" In the month of October, I have run with a fine schooner, due North, through
the N.E. trades, in the longitude of 26°, and found no weed, being perhaps to the
East of it. In the month of March, on board a different vessel, we formed a diagonal
line, from 26° to 44° West, across the parallels from 11° to 44°, and saw a great quan-
tity of it. In May, of another year, along the same track, there was much less ob-
served ; yet I dare not say that these dates are sufficient to point out the season of
ripening, maturity, and decay of the plant, although I have never taken up a nodule
wnioh was not full of seed-pods, and never heard of a person who had noticed one
destitute of them. It is said, that whales come down to the vicinity of Bermuda at
a particular season, and feed upon these plants ; yet I do not recollect ever seeing an
inaividual of that species in the Weedy Sea ; but, on the contrary, have noticed a
deficiency of fishes in general ; and most, if not all, of those which I have seen
opened on board, appeared to live, not upon vegetable food, but their fellow-inhabit-
ants of the waters. It is probable, however, that none but such will take a bait or
approach a vessel."

Captain Martin White, R.N,, says : — " It is certainly remarkable that the loci
natalea of ihefucua natana (spread, as it is, among the other rejectamenta of the sea,
so profusely over the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans), should have remained so
long undiscovered ; we are informed, however, that two varieties have been found in
the Red Sea, and a solitary specimen has been produced by Dr. Wright from the
West Indies, another by Guinani ^om the Mediterranean ; but without any remarks
as to the aoil it grew upon, or the depth of water where taken, both of which are very
important. It is stated, also, to have been received from Bermuda, and to have been
seen on the rocks alon^ the Oulf of Paria, and on the coast of Caraccas ; but, if the
latter were so, would it not be also found on the coasts contiguous ? I do not pre-
sume to question the fact of the /ucu« natana having been received from Bermuda ;
nevertheless, I have often heard surprise expressed at not finding this weed growing
among the rocks at that island, and still more at its absence from the anchorage east-
ward of New Providence, where, to my knowledge, the water is so clear as to render
it quite possible to distinguish the varieties, even under the ship's bottom." — Remarka
on the Winda, the Tides, and the Currenta of the Ocean, p. 144.

6.— THE EQUATORIAL CURRENTS.

(174.) The name which is usually given to the great drifts of the trade winds, hav-
ing as wide a range or latitude as 50 or 60°, is scarcely expressive. The Equatorial
Current, strictly speaking, is the counter-current we have just described. However,
the drift which is mtended passes to the S.W. and West or the Azores and Canaries,
and from the coast of Africa to the Gulf of Mexico, northward of the easterly
counter-current in the North Atlantic ; while the great drift of the S.E. trade wind,
crossing the Equator, southward of the coimter-current, and running strongly to the
N.N.W., along the coast of Guayana, joins its strength to the northern portion, and
thus, together, passes through the Caribbean Sea.

(175.) The drift of the N.E. trade is not so powerfiil probably as that of the S.E.
trade, as the interference of the land causes such a great change in the regularity of
the winds which certainly must be taken as the greatest cause in the production of
these currents. The mean rate has been over-estimated in former times by many
observers. In its northern limits in the open ocean its annual average, from a careful
calculation, amounts to from 8-2 miles to 11*6 miles per day; in its southern and
stronger portion it is from 16 to 22*4 miles per day. Westward of the Cape Verd«

THE EQUATORIAL CURRENTS.

29ff

Islands, its mean direction is nearly due West, which is remarkable, considering the
northing of the trade wind. It would seem scarcely necessary to enlarge much upon
the rate and extent of this well-known current ; but, as it may be interesting to com-
pare individual experience with that of preceding voyages, we give aa heretofore a
series of examples by which the ordinary rate and circumstances may be reckoned on.

(176.) EXAMPLES. — Captain J. W. Monteath ; on his passage firom Liverpool to
Norfolk, in Virginia, in February, 1816, between the Island of Teroeira, Azores,
and lat. 32% lon<;^. 45°, in a run of eight days, by lunar observations, found the current
had set the vesuel three degrees to the W.S.W. of the reckoning ; but from this posi-
tion, until his arrival in the Florida Stream, little or no current was fou&d.

In 1823 the corvette Bayadere, Captain Rous8in> on approaching and passing the
Azores, upon her return from Rio Janeiro, Nov. 20 to Nov. 25, found the prevailing
Winds and Currents as follow : — ; , ,.,- , . ■■ ,,^). . , .... ^^^ ,.,,

Latitude. Longitude.

MTinds.

Current.

Nov. 24, 26 48 12 .33 24 50 E. by S. to W. S.46 W. 23

\ Equatorial

3..31 16 15N.N.N.tp:W.S,W.byW.S.10W.24 ^Swa?d''of

S. 8 U,. 24 j ^^^ j^^^^

S. 65 E. 28 V S.E. CuR-

S.50 E; 13 (rent, easi-

S. 75 E. 10 ( ward of the

S.70 E. 11 ; Azores.

21, 37 42

22, 38 13 56.. 27 43 40

23, 39 36 28.. 25 3 15

24, 40 16 0..23 29

25, 40 25 50.. 22 53 20

26, 41 41 50.. 19 15 50

N.N.W.

North.

East.

S.S.W.

Here, therefore, the line of distinction between these currents was experienced in a
very sensible degree.

In June, 1816, H.M.S. Pactolua experienced a southerly and south-westerly current
of 10 miles a day between St. Michael's and lat. 36°, long. 42 i°. This must have
been on the tail of the Oulf Stream and in the Weedy Sea. The Pactolua felt no
other current on her way to the Bermudas until she came within 70 miles of those
islands, and then had a current of 13 miles a day W.S.W.

Captain W. J. Capes, in the Ladg Mackworth, in September, 1823, from the 14th
of that month to the 8th of October, pursued his direct course to Barbadocs, from
lat. 24° 0', long. 25° 1', his situation at noon on the 14th. He says that, from leaving
the Island Fcrro, wc found the current setting us at the rate of from 3 to 5 miles a
day westward, and generally a little southing. The weather was remarkably fine all
the way to Barbadoes, and always fail-, so that I never took in a royal ; the log-
glasses well adjusted, as well as the log-line ; but, on making Barbadoes, we found
the chronometer to be remarkably correct, and that the ship was 112 miles a head of
dead-reckoning.

To the south-westward of Madeira, between the island and lat. 28° 0', long. 18° 24',
Captain Livingston found the set to be 14' 38" S.,and 37' 5" W., 10th and 11th April,
1826.

Proceeding south-westward, fi*om the spot last mentioned, to lat. 14° 7', long.
44° 6', in fifteen davs the sets were 14' 40" N., 1' 11" S. ; 11' 15" E. ; and 2' 6" W.—
Sui-plus effect, 56' 20' S., and 1' 64" W.

7th Dec., 1810. — H.M.S. Belvedere sailed from Bermuda, and proceeded toward the
Azores. On the 21st (fourteen days' run to the eastward), lat. obscn'ed 36° 22' N.,
long, by account, 34°9' W., by lunar, 35° 5', by chron., 35° 0' ; leaving 51' for westerly
current.

25th of Novemder, 1790. — The merchant ship Rosalia sailed from Cadiz for Vera
Cruz, having, as passengers on board, Don Josef de Espinosa and Don Ciriajo
Cevallos, officers of the Spanish navy, who had two good chronometers. This chip
made Cape Cabron, on the N.E. side of Hayti, after a voyage of twenty-three days,
and it was then found that the ciuTents had carried them four degrees to the west-
ward of dead-reckoning ; and that, consequently, the daily drift averaged alout 1
miles.

296

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

In 1770, a small vessel laden with corn, and bound firom-the Island of Lanzarote,
<me of the Canaries, to Santa Cruz, Teneiiffe, was driven to sea, while none of t|ie
crew were on board. The motion of the waters, to the South and West, carried it to
America, where it went on shore, at La Quayra, near Cai-accas.

By the Jane, Captain Livingston, toward Demerary, between lat. 14* 7' N., long.
44° 6', and lat. 6° 53', long. 57^ 18', in six days, ending 30th April, 1826, the sets of
current were 33' 10' N., 21' 25' S.; 0' 0' E., 3" 16' 50' W. Surplm effect (ftr Equa-
torial Current), 11' 45' N., and 3' 13' 60' W.

In November, 1825, between Maranham, on the North coast of Brazil, and lat.
6° 8' N., long. 4r 17' W., Captain Livingston was set 1° 12' 35' N., and 1° 65' 28' W.,
without any southerly or easterly differences.

(177.) It will be scarcely necessary to recapitulate the evidence upon which the
mean rate is set down in tne Chart of the Atlantic Ocean before referred to (see (22.)
p. 164). Suffice it to say that the rate which may be anticipated when going south-
ward outside the Cape Verdes to 8" N. will be from 12 to 20 miles per day. In longi-
tude 40° the westerly set reaches frequently to the Equator, and avemfjfes 15 to 22
miles per day. The General Chart of the Currents at page 259, will aufficiently ex-
plain this part of the subject. As the current is well established, we need not
extract the numerous observations given by Capt. Maury as they almost all tend to
the same conclusion. But the drift of bottles is so marked an evidence that we give
a number of instances which will be very instructive.

(178.) Bottles. — The following have been selected from Captain Becher's list, ex-
plaining his bottle chart in the " Nautical Magazine," of November, 1852. It has
been before quoted from (131.), page 260 : —

Ship.

Thunder

Osprey

C. Dunmore . .

Kate

Wellington ....

Echo

Stratford]

Osprey

Wm. Lockerby

Osprey

C. McCarthy . .
Harlequin ....

Calliope

Two Brothers . .
D_. of Marlboro'

Nisus

Mary

Enterprise ....
Investigator . .

Rapid

Sophia

Raoe-horse ....
Raoe-horse ....
Jiace-horse ....

Signature.

Owen

Robei'tson,,
CresHwell ,
LiddcU . . .
Belcher . . .
Locke . .

Parker . . ,

Field . . ,
Cunningham
Kuper .

Thorn .

Rey ...

Locke

Collinson

McClure

Mossum

Saxon

Home

Where left.

Year

Latitude.

Long.
W.

1833

28-4

26-5

1822

13-3

39-2

1828

27-4

280

1826

240

190

1830

17-9

290

1837

17-3

36-6

1836

14-5

34-4

1820

24-3

1838

141

25-2

1820

5-2

24-7

1822

6-2

15-6

182"!

220

53-5

1861

24-7

30-4

1843

19-2

30-8

182(!

C. Verde

Ids.

1820

C. Vcrdc

Ida.

1842

14-5

34-4

1830

14-3

34-4

1850

26-8

1850

12-4

26-1

1852

0-5 S.

22-8

184H

5-2

40-3

1835

8-6

52-0

1836

1-3

47-8

1836

11-5

61-5

Where" found.

Bahamas . .
Bahamas . .

Cuba

Musquitia . .
Abaco ....
Antigua
Jamaica ....
Barbadoes . .
Grenadines
Martinique
Trinidad . .
S. Salvador
TurkH laland
Caicos ....
Crooked Island
Hayti ....
Martinique
Barbudu
Honduras . .
Ambergris K.
Martinique
Grenada
St. Vincent
Tobago ....
Maracuibo. .

■3

506
216
437
519
265
196
278
139
169
322
192
226
300
376
382
283
277
278
307
186
155
151
35
50
17

2750
2610
2530
3300
4000
1410
2460
2220
2110
2300
2920
1200
2300
2250
2800
2610
2100
1700
3800
3610
2430
1320

610
1000

240

M.
5-4

12-1
5-8
6-3

151
71
8-9

16-

12-4
71

15-2
5-7
7-6
6-
7-1
9-2
7-6
6-

10-3

20-

15-6
8.7

17-4

20-

14*

THE EQUATORIAL CURRENT.

swr

The mean rate of travelling of%l these bottles is 10'6 miles per da^. But this
average requires several qualifications which will make it considerably higher. The
distances are measured direct, but it is most probable that these messengers pursued
a more or less devious course. Again, it will be seen that the bottles thrown^ out on
the northern part of this trade wind drift have travelled much slower to their desti-
nation than those which started from near the equator.

(179.) Besides the above we add the following examples of bottle drifts fix>m our
former editions.

Westeelt Drift to St. EustAtius. — A bottle from the ship Wm. Miles, Cap-
tain James Pike, bound to Jamaica, lat. 18° 28', long. 57° 20' (date omitted). Picked
up on the beach of St. Eustatius, 26th of February, 1839.

Central Drift to the Virgin Isles A bottle from the Emerald, Captain

Nockells, bound to Jamaica, 17th December, 1631, in lat. 36° 40', long., by chron.,
12° 32'. Found on the North side of Anegada, 8th January, 1833. The y^ ads for
the last three days, previous to the 17th of December, were from North and N.W. to
S.W. For eight days preceding these it blew a continued and heavy gale from S.W.
and W.N.W. ; the bark lying-to the whole time, and drifting from lat. 41° 28', 227
miles to the northward.

A bottle from the ship Isabella, of Leith, 2nd April, 1835, in lat. 23° 19', N., long.
87° 50' W. Having lost the N.E. trade in the morning. Wind then E.S.E. Found
by Cooper's Island, near Tortola, 13th September, 1836.

Equatorial Current to Tobago. — A bottle from the schooner Julia, Wm.
Davidson, master, in lat 6° N., and long. 40° W., Nov. 6, 1821. Found 7th of March,
1122, near the shore of Little Rocky Bay, Tobago.

Central Drift and Equatorial Currents. — A bottle from the ship Oambia,
in the River Oambia, lat. 13J° N., in the latter part of 1831. Picked up on the
southern side of Virgin Oorda, lat. 18° 30'.

Central Drift and Equatorial Currents. — A bottle from the Two Brothers,
of Baltimore, in hit. 17° N., long. 26° W. (oflf St. Antonio), 21st of November, 1826.
Found at Acklin's or South Crooked Island, in lat. 22° 12' N., long. 74° 18', on the 8th
of December, 1827. Hence it appears to have di-ifted, in a W. by N. direction, from
the vicinity of the Cape Verde Isles to the West Indies, under influence of the Drift
from the N.E. and the Eqimtorial Current, probably in the first instance W.S.W. and
thence W.N.W.

Madeira to the West Indies. — A bottle from the ship Symmetry, of Scar-
borough, Captain Smith, on her way from Leith to Buenos Ayres, off Madeira, 0th of
June, 1825. Picked up at Salt Kay, Turks' Islands, after a lapse of ten years, 9th of
June, 1835.

Guyana to St. Vincent's — A bottle thrown into the sea on the 20th of May,
1835, in the latitude of Demerary ; picked up in Sable Bay, St. Vincent's, on the 24th
of June. At the same time several large trees were washed anhore, among them a
Spanish cedar, and which, from their appearance (being covered with a coat of
barnacles and sea-weed), must have b6en a long time in the water ; these were,
no doubt, driven out to sea by the overflowing of the Orinoco, occasioned by the hea^'y
rains.

Some years back a very large cedar came on shore at Sable or Sandy Bav, bringing
with it a large female hna constrictor, which took to the neighbouring wood, and when
shot, some days after, was found t« contain many young ones, nearly ready to escape }
and which, but for the destruction of the old une, would have taken up their abode in
the woodti.

A bottle thrown from the Osjirei/ at noon, on the 1st of April, 1820, in lat,
12° 56' S., lonff. 29° 10' W., woh found, 10th of June, 1820, on the Barra Grande^
coast of Brazil, latitude about 9° 20' S. ItH true direction seems to have been N.W-.
by W. \ W. Attested by Messrs. Low and «Jo., of Maqaio, in the province of
Pernambuoo.

ii r

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

Cape Verde Isles to Brazil.— The Hatard, of Oreei)pck, Aueust 4th, 1812,
lost the N.E. trade, in lat. 11° N., long. 25° W. ; and the wind, until the 12th, varied
iSrom West to S.W.j from the 12th to the 17th it generally blew from South, never
exceeding one point easterly. Gained the S.E. trade on the 17th, in lat. 2° N., long.
27° 30' W.; the trade kept southward between Penedo de S. Pedro, or St. Paul's
Islets, and the coast of Brazil (at Rio Doce), and experienced a westerly current
amounting to nearly /our degrees. Attested by Captain J. W. Moneath.

Between Madeira and Brazil. — In the Jane, Captain Livingston, April and
May, 1824, found a surplus effect of currents, between Madeira and Brasilian Trinidad
in thirty-nine days, equal to 1° 19' 47 ' S., and 6° 3' W. ;

Finally, Captain Sabine has shown, that in 1822, after H.M.S. Pheasant sailed
ftom Maranham, she entered the current, the Ml strength of which she had quitted
, to go to that place, and it was then found to be running with the astonishing rapidity
of 99 miles in twenty-fours hours. On the 10th of September, at ten a.m., while
proceeding in the fiill strength of the current, exceeding 4 knots an hour, a sudden
and very g^at discolouration of the water ahead was announced fr^m the mast-head ;
the ship Miuff then in 5° 8' N., and 50° 28' W. (both by observation), it was evident,
that the discoloured water could be no other than the stream of the Maranon, pursu-
ing its original impulse at no less than 300 miles from the mouth of the river, its
waters not being yet mingled with the blue waters of the ocean, of greater specific
gravity, on the surface of which it had pursued its course. It was running about
68 miles in thirty-four hours.

(180.) The foregoing is a sufficient elucidation of the features, velocity and limits
of the N.E. trade wind drift of the Atlantic, but, as has been before mentioned, par-
ticularly in (27 to 33.), pages 186 — 189, the division between the the northern and
southern systems of wind, and consequently of current, being to the northward of the
equator, and consequently that tlie South Atlantic Current, enters the Caribbean Sea,
and increases the force of the Gulf Stream.

(181.) The SOUTH EQUATORIAL CURRENT, which passes over thejequator
in its northern portion, has a mean velocity of about 20 to 26 miles per day m the
open ocean, and its direction is, like that of the Northern Equatorial Current, nearly
due ^t. Setting upon the northern coast of South America, it runs with great
velocity close in-shore at times, sometimes reaching 100 miles per day, and not un-
usually 60 miles. It is scarcely necessary to dilate on this current, as it appears to
be re§fularly and constantly met with. Its progress through the Caribbean Sea, &o.,
will be dealt with in the next section.

(182.) It will be seen that throughout the breadth of this ocean that the set of the
stream is not to S.W. or N.W., as might be expected from the direction of the
trade winds, which may be taken as the prime mover of tiiese mighty drifts, but
0a»ttoard,

This fact would seem to indicate that the rotation of the earth on its axis has more
to do with its motion than has usually been attributed to it. But our present know-
ledge of the subject is not sufficiently extensive or accurate to define what amount of
action is due to that nource, or how much to the wind, lunar influences, or tempera-
ture, all of which combine to produce the phenomena we are considering. Theoretical
■peculations, however, are not necessary m a practical work, although they may be
interesting.

(183.) Arrived at the Barrier formed by the line of the AntiUas, a »arge portion of
the stream is necessarily arrested, the remainder pouring through the openings,
which between Barbuda and Trinidnd are not in the aggregate 230 miles in width, or
not one-half of the range. From this, or other causes, the westerly drift through the
Caribbean Sea is not so persistent, probably, as it is in the ocean to the eastward, as
, will be presently described.

(184.) Of the current* in the vicinity qf Anegada and Virgin Itlanda Sir Bobert
Schomburgk says :— ,^ ^ i% v^*

" It is well known that the tropical current, caused by the earth's mtation, sets to

THl EQUATORIAL CURRENT.

the westward, and its grand movement in these latitudes is directed through th»
Caribbean Sea; bat it is probable that a branch of it, turned aside by the north*
eastern coast of South America, sweeps along the Caribbean Islands to the N.W.
till it reaches the Bahamas; and it is this branch which, at present, attracts my
particular attention, and in proof of the existence of which I adduce the following
remarks : — *

" Vessels bound from America to the West Indies, and chiefly to St. Thomas's,
fi^quently find themselves to the Nortihi of the Virgin Islands ; and this deviation
from their intended course has proved but too often fatal, having brought them
on the reefs of Anegada when mey thought themselves far to the Southward of.
that dangerous island. Nor can repeated occurrences like these be attributed ex
clusively to errors in the observations for determining the latitude, or to false
reckoning."

The American brig William and TJiomas left New York 28th of October, 1829.
Made Bermuda on the seventh day after departure, when, contrary winds retarding
her course, land was discovered m the morning of November Idth : according to
reckoning, it wcw supp<wed to be St. Martin's ; but it was fortunately known, on
approaching, to be Virgin Oorda, or probably, in the night, the vessel would have,
gone on the reefs of Anegada.

The English bri^ Drancia, bound tram Nassau, in New Providence, to Trinidad,
cloudy weather havmg precluded an observation for several days, was supposed to be-
far distant from Anegacui, but making land in the evening, supposed to be St. Martin's,
was wrecked at eleven p.m. on llie ree£s of Anegada.

The American brig Zetoia, bound bom. PL iladelphia to St. Thomas's and Maraoaybe»-
and supposed on the day previous to be on the parallel of St. Thomas's, was wrecked
on the south-eastern reef of Anegada, 9th or April, 1831.

During his continuanoe at Anegada, Mr. Schomburgk acquired additional proofti of
the existence of a north-westerly current. He found on the south-eastern reef several'
buoys with tyer [ooir] ropes attached to them, which appeared to come from St.
Martin's. On the 24th of September, 1831, after a severe gale, two buoys were found
on the same reef, which had probably been attached to anchors on some ground to
the S.E.

On sounding between Virgin Oorda and Anegada, Sir R. Schomburgk threw the
log every thirty minutes, and taking bearings of some remarkable objects, the drift
was found to be always westerly : and the result appeared to be the same whether the
tides set North or South. On one day he left his anchorage, and sailed 10 miles to
the northward of Anegada, where the boat was lowered, and rendered stationary by
means of a kettle filled with stones, it being then southern tide ; in spite of which the
lop^ was carried N.W.. by W. A similar experiment was made in the waters between
Virgin Gorda and Anegada, vHith the advantage of anchoring ; and the set was always
the same, the drift being nearly one knot.

The north-western or ebb tide between Anep^ada and Tortola is much stronger than
the flood to the S.E. ; undoubtedly from the circumstance that tide and current work
the same way.

On these circumstances Sir R. Schomburgk observes, that the wind, fW>m March to
June, f^quently blows from the South and S.E., and the velocity of the N.W. current
will be thus increased ; in consequence of which, vessels bound during that time for
these islands are more subject to error in their course than at any other period ; and
lighter bodies being more influenced by currents than heavier ones may be taken as
the specific cause of the last remark.

(ISA.) EXCEPTIONS.— The equatorial drift is not alway$ encountered. As will

* A great quantity of cork shaTings arc washed annually ashore on the N. side of
Anegndn; thsy are diiftad by the Equatorial Cunsut uum ihs coasts of Spain and
Portugal. -' - ,...j^^. ..^ ■ ... ^„, „,,... r. ,. ,-. . ., ^T , , ,.: ,,,;j> '

ado

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

be seoi it is not si Ter^ rapid motion of the waters, and therefore other causes wilt
readily alter or revenw its action.

'Migor Rennell has said t-^" Experience most fully proves, that although nature
effects all her opetations^ in such a manner as that, ultimately, the whole system is
balanced and preserved, yet that, in detail, she often appears irregpilar, according to
our limited conmrehension. The trade winds- and the currents of the ocean partake
of these iiregularftiea, although the general qrstem is upheld. The trade winds in
the Atlantic are often unsteady, even to 5° or 6 within their northern bounda^ ; and
instead of N.E. winds, there are found N.W., and even S.W. winds, for many days
consecutively ; and this state of iMngs prevents the drift current from being so regular
there, as in the heart of the trades.

" Anomalies also take place in the great Equatorial Current, and in that of the
S.E. trade. The former has been known, at one time, to run to the eastward, or
directly opposite to its general, and as is commonly understood, perpetual cohree ; and
at about tne same rate, and with it, the whole mass of water from 5° N. to 12° S.
At another time, a like anomedy took place between the parallels of 2° N. and 7' S.
This latter was observed to take place at 6° or 7° to the eastward of Cape St. Roque ;
but the other about midway between the two continents. In e third case, nearly in
the middle, the current ceased aUogether ; or rather there was neither an easterly nor
a westerly current. This happened in February ; the otiier twp in July and August.*^
-(pp. 66, 67.)* .

^ The instance as given in the Spanish Derrotero, is as follows : — * uiii -vi. ^S

The deceased Amiral Don CosmS de Churruca sailed from Cadiz on the 15th June,
1792, for the pui'pose of surveying the West India Islands ahd Spanish Main. On the
6th July he crossed the Tropic of Cancer in 28° 56' West of Greenwich, without
having- oiscovered any error in thp dead reckoning ; neither did they find any on the
8th: the trade wind was then fresh, and it was remarked that it attained the greatest
strength when the sun was on the meridian, by night as well as by day.

" On the 10th of July they found a current of 1 and 1-lOth miles per hour, setting
N. 49° £., reckoned for two days : care had been taken to heave the log very fre-
quently, and alwajrs on any alteration of the sail carried. Their course was S. 64° W.
From the 10th to the 12th they also found a current setting N. 31}° E., nearly a
mile an hour ; from noon of the 12th to noon of the 14th the current had carried the
vessel to the N.F. 441 miles out of her course ; and at noon of the 15th, 17 miles
N. 21° W.

*' At noon of the 17th they found that in the preceding forty-eight hours the vessel
had been carried 43 miles to the N.E. of her reckoning. On the 18th, in the
evening, they saw the Island Tobago bearing S. 55° W. By making this island,
they found that the reckoning by account was 2° 13' 45" afuad of the ship; equal,
in this parallel, to 43^ leagues: and Don Cosm^ thereupon made the following
reflections : —

after

about Wlf a mile an hour, where a current in a south-westerly direction is fj^eiierally sup-
posed to prevail ; this continued until they reached the latitude of Bonavista. Captain
Wilkes says :— " We hove-to and tried the current morning and evening, always found the
same result." The current log used, was two kegs, with a distance-line of 6 fathoms
between them, the lower one being just loaded sufBoiently to sink tho air-tight one under
the sur&co of the water, with the usiial log-lino attached to the centre of the distanco-line,
precluding the posaibility of its being a surface current : btsidos which, the dead-reckoning
of the ship, and our observations, gave the same result.

On the 29th of Soptomber the squadron passed into coloured water, quite as groen in
appoarunco as that of 5 ) fethoms in depth on soundings. On entering it, the temporaturo
decreased 1}°, and rose 2" on leaving it. The vessels continued in it until the 2nd of
October, having then run a distance of 430 miles. Tlioy repeatedly sounded with from 100
to 300 f.ithcsir, of line, but no bottom wa" found. — " AthoniDum," 2l8t of Heptoniber, 1859,

This disooloured water is ftoqiiently mentioned by other navigators.

THE EQUATORIAL GUKRENT.

301

« In ten days, between the pftrallels of 21° 46' and 11° 44', and the meridians
(West of Greenwich) of 33° 30' and 00° 50', the yeasel was set 2° 48' 27" to the Nortii,
and 2° 27' 45' to the East, of dead-reckoning, or 711.1fiwue8, as if they had ex-
perienced a daily current of 21^ nules, setting N. 38° jB. This ffretkt error cannot
be attributed to any carelessness in making up the dead iieckomng, nor to its in-
sufficiency, for it is known that a log-line marked to 60} English feet, between knot
and knot, ought not to measure distances greater than those sailed : fad, ccnsequentiy,
it must be concluded that they had a constant and powerful onfrent settimr them
totheN.E. — o

" There can be no doubt," Don Cosm6 says, " of tiie existence of a oorient to the
westward in the tropical zone : the action of the moon must necessarily produce
it; and the '^xperiecce of navigators, who have generally found«their vessels ahead
of their dead-reckoning on making the coast of America. The constant action
of the tvade wind must also co-operate, and it would be temerity to oppose an
opinion so satisfactorily established, and so generally adopted. My own observa-
tior "I are, however, certein ; my dead-reckoning was most circumspectly and prolixly
made up, and there can be no possibility of a doubt that we experienced a current
to the N.E." *- . -^ *~

The BoLLEBS, or Heavy Obound Swell, of the north-eastern portion of the
Antillas, which has, from time to time, prodiiaed so much mischief, was first described
by Mr. R. H. Schomburgk, as shown in tl|e Journal ^x>f the Royal Geographic So-
'ciety, 1835, and copious extracts firom the same are given in the' third volume of the
'<^ Colombian Navigator," to which the reader is referred for a more complete explica-
tion of the subject.

The phenomenon appears to be caused by the meetins and combination of the drift
from the N.E., and the Equatorial Current from the S!E. or S.S.E. It rises, rafr:s,
and subsides, says Mr. Schomburgk, when the air is cilm, w^n there has been no
indication whatever of a previous gale, or even when light airs have, for a consider-
able period preceding, come from uie southward of East. The waves approach in
gentle undulations, but suddenly swell against the shore, and break with the greatest
imnetuosity. The rise takes place sometimes gradually, but more frequently quit«
onexpecteoly, the wa^es reachmg an uncommon height.

A heavy " Ground Sea " is distinguiBhed by something grand and sublime. The .
sea approaches in undulatinff masses, which si'ddenly rise to large ridges, crested with
foam, and form billows that ourst upon the beach with the greatest impetuosity ; the
spray flying, where the waves dash against cliffs, often more than 100 feet hi^h,
attendea with loud roarings resembling thunder, which subside into a rumbling none,
caused by the nodules and fragments of rock with which the breaker was charged
when advancing, which on its retreat roll backward, and are again driven forward by
the next surge. Wave then follows upon wave in quick succession, there being
apparently only a short interval after the third. The sea, for maay miles from shore,
assumes a peculiar aspect, different tints of blue, from the lightest to the darkest,
forming a strong contrast with the snowy foam of the breakmg waves, when they
strike against a nidden rock, or with the white line visible along the whole coast.
The Eastern Bahamas, the north-eastern coast of Jamaica and Hayti, but chiefly
Porto-Rico and the Virgin Islands, and, in a less degree, the northern Caribbee
Islands, are subjected to this ground sea.

It may be considered as a rule that, whenever the wind gets to the northward of
East for a day or two, there will be a ground tea on the noithem side of the islands.
The friction of the wind on the surface of the water causes little elevations or ridges,
vhioh by continuance of the force gradually increase, chiefly when the wind sweeps
over p great extent of water. Finding no resistance, and having sufficient depth to
sink directly down, they proceed with tne direction of the wind and remain natural,
waves, until they meet repercussion from dashing against the shore, when they rise to
an elevation much above their natural state.

The period when the ground sea sets in is generally Octobw, and it continues
inouf^n witn somo inierminsion, uu /\pni nnci miij. ine wina accompanying or pre-

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

oediOK a ground sea is, ^nerallj, from the East of North ; the winds ore, therefore,
propelled, more or less, in a western as well as southern direction, and the Bahamas,
ana even Bermuda, may escape, whilst the islands from Barbadoes to Porto Rico, but
more particularly the latter and the Virgin Islands, receive its first impulse.

A southern sale will likewise produce a heavy swell on the southern side of these
islands ; and, during the eale of the 30th and 3Ist Augist, 1833, this was felt with
great violence on the souuem shore. But generally speaking, neither in force nor
duration are these surges to be compared wiui those of the noraiem side ; the group
of the Virgin Islands being protected, in this direction, by the Carribbean Islands or
by the Coiombiam coasts, and not exposed to the swell of the main ocean.

To one who crosses, during a severe g^uud sea, from the southern side of Tortola
to the northern, where the breadth of the island is inconsiderable, the singpular
spectacle is afforded of the sea, which, on the southern side is perhaps " as smooth
as glass," on the northern shore tossing, foaming, and roaring, as if agitated by a
severe gale. The effect is most curious, and if it were not for the warning that is
heard long before the cause becomes visible, one might fancy the wand of a magician
in action.

The northern eoaat of Porto Rico is subjected to a ground sea, of scarcely less forc^,
and which has had the same effect on its coast as that of the Virgin Isles. The ' Old
English Pilot" observes that the sea along the North coast oi Porto Rico "beats
sometimes very raginvly." The force of the waves that batter against the clifl^ on
which the Moro stands is amazing ; aud any observer will admit that the spray is
sometimes carried more than 100 feet high. It has been said that, several years ago,
a brig, in consequence of carelessness, here became unmanageable, and was soon dashed
to pieces against the cli£b, but few of the crew escaping.

6.— THE CURRENTS OF THE COLOMBIAN OR CARIBBEAN SEA, AND

THE MEXICAN GULF.

(186.) " On the Colombian coast, from Trinidad to Cape la Vela, the current sweeps
the fix>ntier islands, inclining something to the South, according to the straits which
it comes trom, and running about 1| miles an hour, with little difference. Between
the islands and the coast, and particularly in the proximity of the latter, it has been
remarked that the current at times runs to the West, and at others to tiie East. From
Cape le Vela the princinal part of the current runs W.N.W.; and, as it spreads, its
velocity diminishes. Tnerc is, however, a branch, which runs with the velocity of
about a mile an hour, directing itself toward the coast about Cartagena. From this
point, and in the space of sea comprehended between 14° of latitude and the coast, it
nas, however, been observed, that, in the dry season, the current runs to the west-
ward, and in the season of the rains, to the eastward.

" On the Mosquito shore, and in the Bay of Honduras, no rule can be given for the
alterations of the current. All that can be said is, at a good distance from land, it
has generally been found setting towards the N.W.

" In crossing fh>m the coast, or teom Cartagena, to the islands, it has been dis-
covered that firom La Guayiu to the eastern part of Hayti, on a voyage made in
December, a difference of 106 miles to the westward was found dunng the seven
days the voyage lasted.'^ — Derrotero de Uu Antillaa.

(187.) The Baron Alexander von Humboldt, in describing his passage from Cu-
mana, westward, to La Guayra, said : — " The general motion of the waters between
the tropics toward the West is felt strongly on the coast during two-thirds of the

J ear only. In the months of September, October, and November, the current often
ows toward the East, for fifteen or twenty days in succession. Vessels on their way
fl*om La Guayra to Porto Cabello have been known to be unable to stem the current
that runs from West to East, although they had the wind astern. The cause of these
anomalies is not yet discovered. The pilots think that they are the effect of some

CURRENTS OF THE WEST INDIES.

303

galea of wind from the N.W. in the Oulf of Mexico ; vet these gales are much more
violent in spring than in autumn. It is also remarkable, that the current to the East
precedes the change of the wind. It begins to be felt, at first, during a calm ; and
after some days the wind iteelf follows the current, and becomes fixed in the West." —
Personal Narrative, vol. iii. p. 378.

(188.) Captain C. S. Cochrane, R.N., in his Journal, 16th March, 1823, says—" In
the afternoon we perceived high land through the haze, and hauled up for it, wishing
to make a point about 50 miles to the windward of Santa Marta ; but, on getting in-
shore, we found that we were 7 miles to the leeward of that place, the current from
the eastward having been running for the last twenty-four hours upward of 2| knots
an hour ; which agrees with Baron Humboldt's account, that the carrent runs from
1^ to 4 knots an hour, according to the force of the wind and season of the year.
The natives say, that the moon likewise has a considerable effect on this current,
which, at the changes of new and full, runs to tiie eastward for 24 hours.

" Here 1 must caution all captains of ships navigating on this line of coast to allow
for the current, in general, at least 1\ knots per hour, on an average, with an increase
in proportion to the str i> fth of the breeze, and an abatement at the new and full
moons 5 otherwise vessek heavily laden, overshooting their ^rts, may lose as much
as three weeks by having to stand away nearly to the Antilks before they can get
sufficiently to windward to gain the port they have missed ; and even men-of-war run
a risk of carrying away spars and masts in beating up." — ^Vol. i. p. 62.

(189.) In the third volume of the " Colombian Navigator," 1839, may be found
" Remarks on the Currents of the Atlantic and West Indies made by Lieut. A. H.
Bisschop Greevelink, in the Echo, a brig of the Dutch Royal Navy, during four years
of service, 1833 — 1837," and which describe the route of that vessel from England to
Surinam, in August and September, 1833. On the evening of the 13th of the latter
month, the Echo, having arrive ' inlat. 17° N., and long 36^ W., lost the trade-wind,
and the wind then shifted to the N.W., vrith a strong breeze, gloomy weather, and
much rain, during the twenty-four hours. The <bllowing day the wind, diminishing,
passed to the S. W. and S.S.E., and terminated in a calm ; currents weak and variable
to the S,W. and eastward.

On the morning of the 16th, in lat. 14° 40', and long. 36° 20', a light breeze sprung
u^ from the S.E., and from that time till we reached the coast we had to struggle
with a never-ceasing variety of wind and weather, continual rains with squalls, and
scarce a day passing without lightning in one or other quarter of the horizon. On
the 18th we passed by several npplings or eddies, being then in lat. 12°, and long.
39°- 30' W. They usually stretched from East to West, and were often seen to cover
the whole surfiioe, everywhere boiling and bubbling as in a cauldron. Current always
weak, and during the last forty-eight hours to the West and W.N.W. at a rate of
half a mile an hour.

After losing the trade-wind we had to creep over more than 900 miles, as the wind
had left us, in every appearance, for ever ; the rates were copious and continual in
this space, and lightning was seen very frequently. On the Ji8th (lat. 11° 52', long.'
39° 25'^, we passed through a number of eddies ; and on the 24tn (lat. 8° 3', long.
45° 37'), the first indication of a change in the colour of the sea became visible : yet
it was sUght, and may be attributed to a branch of the noi*therly current observed in
the succeeding day. On the 27th (lat. 5° 62', long. 48'* 38'), we received a gentle
S.E. breeze, which brought us, though slowly, toward the coast. In the night of the
28th (lat. 5° 7', long. 49° 66'), we crossed the edge of meeting currents from the
Ethiopic Ocean and Brazilian shore and from the Maraiion ; after which we entered
the boundary of the tides. In the evening of September 30 came to anchor in 5|
fathoms. In the night observed longitude by chronometer, 64° U' 46".

Although we had not seen land since we lost sight of the Lizard, by which to ex-
amine our timekeepers, I felt not the least doubt about their rate (the one a Knebel
and the other a Parkinson and Frodsham), by their reciprocal conformity, corrobo-
rated by my lunar observations (which, by-the-by, 1 think are never to be neglected^ :
and as i was desirous to obtain some observations about the currents, so peculiarly

304

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

remarkable in these seas, I took every opportunity which cironmstanoM allowed to
satisfy my curiosity.

On the 22nd of September and subsequent days the ripplinn became leas in
number ; and on the 24tii, in the afternoon, about the 8th degree of latitude and 46th
of lonntude, we perceived the first change in the colour of the water fix>m the com-
mon blue to a somewhat darker hue, and, as this was a somewhat uncommon case, I
attributed it to a branch of current observed the following day at noon, setting due
North, at the rate of more than a mile an hour, straight across a south-easterly cur-
rent observed during the preceding days, mingling the muddy waters of the Marafion
and other rivers with those of the ocean. From uie 24th till the 28th nothing par-
ticular occurred ; we were always steering to the S.W. with light, variable winds,
and a' continuance of rain sufficient to penetrate our very bones. Currents weak and
changeable, being lastly observed to have run N. by W. 18 miles in twenty-four
hours. This at present I call weak, being afterward accustomed to fall in with a
velocity of twice and thrice that number of miles. At noon we altered our course to
W.S.W., being then in lat 6° T, and long. 49" 56' 66".

In the night, however, having a lunar altitude, we were not a little surprised at
finding the ship thrown 36 miles to the northward of her supposed situation, although
I may s^ to Imve been prepared for this occurrence by Capt. Edw. Sabine's relation
in the Memoir, whose track we were crossing just then, in the same month.

At break of day we saw the water totally altered in colour, and thickly mingled
with mud, as if we were sailing in a flood of ochre ; hove the lead, and found 46
fathoms, fine sand, white and black. At seven in the morning, by chronometric ob-
servations, I found the westerly ofiiset 33' 38" ; and finally, at noon, in lat. 5° 21' 49",
Ion. 61° 46' 16", it appeared evident that the current, in tiie last twenty-four hours,
had been running with the ra^i^ty of 67 miles to the N. 30° W. In the afternoon
we perceived the land toward the S.W. by S., beinf the Family Islands of Cayenne,
and at the same time we entered the boundary of the tides.

This, indeed, seems to confirm the opinion of those seamen who attribute the prin-
cipal sti'ength of currents hereabout to the waters of the Maranon, &c., predominat-
ing over those of the ocean ; but this is to be admitted in a partial degree only ; for,
as operating on the general direction of the Equatorial Current, I esteem it as of no
influence at all.

(190.) The numerous voyages made by the Echo in the West Indian Seas, with a
particular detail of each, more especially in regard to the currents, are given in the
volume above mentioned ; and from these voyages and experiments the general* in-
ductions are, that between the Caribbee Islands and the coast of Guyana, in the
months of August, September, and October, the current veered to the northward of
North-west, and in other months more westerly, or even to the southward of West, as
in November and December, 1834 ; but we Icam, also, that the greatest velocity of
current has been observed in August and September, when the Mara&on is at its
lowest level, as well as in Decem^r and March, when this river begins to increase
and attains its greatest height ; even on examining the details, in order to discover
any reg^arity m its force, we find an irregularity reconcileable only with that of the
wind ; and, more generally, by applying the theory of trade-winds, and tiieir influence
upoa the sur&oe water of the ocean.

After having once rebounded from the Brazilian coast, the united Equatorial and
Ethiopic CuiTcnts are again compelled to retire westward by influence of the S.E.
trade-wind (apparently, also, by the disposition of tbe waters in these regions to re-
tire westward) ; and, although at pressing the Mara&on, which disembogues toward
the N.E., the combined cun-ent may, in some degree, and according to its variable
form and strength, derive an impulse to the northward, vet it soon yields to the force
of the N.E. trade-wind, and the south-westerly drift thereby produced, which sets
toward the Caribbee Islands.

In proportion to the force and extent of these winds, the general current is pressed

toward the shore of Uuyana, as in December, 1836, and NovenibdF and DeoiouibeF,

CURRENTS OP THE WEST INDIES.

900

tUowed to

ae lew in
e and 46th
I the com-
aon case, I
letting due
sterly our-
e Maranon
>thing par-
ble winds,
) weak and
wenty-four
in with a
ir coarse to

i^rprised at
a, although
e's rehition

dj mmgled
i found 46
lometric ob>
. 5° 21' 49",
■four hours,
le afternoon
)f Cayenne,

Lte the prin-
predonunat-
e only ; for,
it as of no

eas, with a

iven in the

general* in-

yana, in the

orthward of

of West, as

t velocity of

lon is at its

to increase

to discover

1 that of the

eir influence

uatorial and
of the S.E.
gions to re-
[^ues toward
its variable
to the force
, which sets

!nt is pressed

I T\ V._

1 Ajvwunmit

1934 { or allowed to expand freely to the North, as in Auffust, September, and
OotolM3r{ yea, even to the N.E„ as m March, 1837, especially vnien preceded by long
and violent indraughts, and followed by calm weather.

By influence of the Maraiion waters, the general current is prevented from swee^
ing t he c oast to the westward of Cape North ; as the stream of this great river, being
unobstructed, seems to gather ' 1 Its strength, and force the western ooundary of tbrat
gigantic drift to an uncertain distance bom shore. In this manner we may account
for the weak westerly current, creeping^ along that part of the coast comprehended
betweoi the Mara&on and Oulf of Pana, caUed the reffion of the tidtt, and wUch is
produced bv the remaining effluxion of the Marion, confined between the western
border of tne general current and the muddy banks of Gujrana. It is incorrect to fix
Miis bMder in 9 fitthoms of water) as I have found it in twice and thrice that depth ;
but on the other hand, I think tiiat, if what has been supposed by Admiral Cosmg
de Churruca should ever again happen, — I mean tiie destroying of the Equatorial
Current by the aotion of the rivers, — ^the Atlantic will be found of a whitish hue, so
fta as these currents shall reach, because their thick muddy waters never mingle with
those of the ocean until they have been subdued by, and are at rest with, them.

The direction of currents in the Atlaniie is reconcileable with the force and direction
of the trade-wind, but not without excrotions ; because the height of the water-level
in the Caribbean Sea wiU sometimes baffle every calculation both within and without
the raoge of islands, as shown indubitably by experiments foimded, not only upon the
method of ascertaining currents at sea, but also within sight of land, and olMerva-
tions made on shore uong the coasts. It has also been found that during calm
weather, even with strong easterly winds, the currents have sometimes been running
for days together to the eastward, especially in the latter parts of January and July,
when, by the then prevailing strong winds, the water is heaped up in a very uncom-
mon degree, and the inner part of the Caribbean Sea, most probably overcharged,
succeeds in re-establishing its equilibrium by forsaking the power of its wrathAd
driver. In this manner, I think, we ought to reconcile those circumstances men-
tioned by that illustrious Spanish commander.

In the Caribbean Sea the force and direction of currents are more distinctly modi-
fied by the direction of the wind. With continual light winds and smooth water the
currents are generally weak, augmenting only in proportion to the increasing wind.
This may serve as a proof that, among other less perceptible causes, under which
they are governed here, wind is the most powerfid agent ; for the indraught through
the channels appears plainly to proceed from the force and extent of the trade- winds.
Inthis sea, from l^e Windward Islands westward, .i 72° of lonGntude, the general
direction of currents, observed during our four years' cruise, was N.W. and westerly ;
the weakest in October, November, April, and May , the stron^t in December,
January, February, and March, along the coast of Venezuela, and in July a'^d Atwust
in the northern parts ; but, in genertu, so much always always depended ou *he force
of the wind, that, witii few exceptions, almost everv voyage was affected by a force qf
current corresponding to that of the prernTiiUng mnd.

(191.) EXTBACTB FROM THE JoUaNALS OF LIEUTENANT GkEEVELINK. — « In

January, 1834, tiie 'Echo, in crossing the Caribbean Sea, from Cura<^ to windward,
experienced a drift of 40 miles to the West, and escaped only by running straight for
the coast of Hayti, beating to windward along that and the coast of Porto Rico, with
the best success, and oven assisted W weak easterly currents when near the shore.
Wind from the E.N.E.. sometimes blowing a gale ; but, when sheltered by the land,
tile water was tolerably smooth.

" 7m December, 1836, the Echo, then on her passage from Surinam to Cura^^ao, with
sharp breezes, found the current sweeping through the channel between Tobago and
Qranada, and farther on, alons; the Leeward Islands, with a velocity of more than
2 miles an hour to the W. by N. ; but, m October, 1836, on the same route, with light
winds and calms, the water ran for days together to the northward, at the rate of
only half a mile an hour.

" Jn March, 1836, the name vessel, from Cura(;ao to La Ouayra with very strong

2 Q

306

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

winds, spent six days in beating up against a current of 40 miles mean daily strength ;
and on tne 8th of April left La Guayra for Porto Cabello, in the bight to the west-
ward, when, instead of making this passage in some hours, she had, during three
days, to contend with light, variable, and even westerly winds, and currents to the
N.E. 15 miles daily.

" The Baron von Humdoldt's remark about the increase of the currents near the
Testigos proved true on our approach to the same islands, in December, 1835.* In
the mdmmg of the 12th, the longitude observed was 62° 45' 15", and the difference
West in twenty-four hours appeued to be 32' 15' ; shortly after, that cluster of rocks
came in sight ; and at noon, at the very moment that the sun passed the mt'^.dian,
the S.W. island, placed by Don J. F. Fidalgo in 63° 12', bore East, distance one
mile, having run by log 20 miles to the W. | N. ; so that, during tiiese last four
hours, the westerly difference amounted to 8 miles, whereas, in former watches, it was
only 5| miles.

« A similar circumstance, we have reason to believe, also takes place at other groups
of this range of sunken islands, and near such capes as are low and reaching far out,
so as to obstruct the motion of the water beneath, and thereby redouble the force of
the surface current ; as denoted by the many instances of shipwreck and carcases of
vessels (sad admonishers of pi'Qcaution) spread among these flat, barren rocks, and
produced solely by the irregularity of currents, which baffle every calculation, even
those of the coast traders.

" But this variety in the westerly currents here is not the only cause of danger.
The total change in the setting of me currents from West to East is of a nature which
requires the utmost care and attention, as they not only occasionally happen with
oauns, but also sometimes with fresh breezes from the eastward. One of the first-
mentioned instances, particularlv remarkable, we observed during our passage, in
October, from Surinam, through the Channel of Granada, toward Curasao. On the
7th and 8th, between the Island of Tobago and Cape Malapasqua, the water flowed
to the N. by E. and N.hy W., with a trifling foroe ; when sudaeiUy, on the 9th, we
had a difference of 17' 54" North, and 34' West ; and on the following day, at the
new moon, we were driven 11' 12' to the North, and 35' 54" to the eastward of our
supposed situation. This case was too singular not to excite our attention, as the hi^h
moimtains of Caracas showed us almost hourly the East or westerly direction m
which we were driven ; the weather being ^rfectly calm, and the water constantly
smooth, by which means we were able to verify our chronometrical observations, and
to remove every doubt respecting the truth of so extraordinary a circumstance, the
result whereof was as follows : —

'* By the westerly current we drifted in sight of the high land near La Cfuayra,
and kept working up against the strong easterly set in the whole following day. On
the lOtn, from seven in the morning tifi four in the afternoon, we had 14 miles differ-
ence West, agreeing with the bearing of Monte Avila. From that time till six in the
evening, when that mountain^ of which we had lost sight for a moment by drifting
to the westward, a^aiu became visible, the water flowed again to the eastward ; and
on the 11th, at six m the morning, with an observed latitude, and the said mountain
bearing S.E. by S., we were in long 67° 21' ; and this by calculation being 67° 47', we
found a difference of 26 miles to the eastward in sixteen hours. ' From this time till
four in the afternoon, again 10 miles to the West ; and from thence until the follow-
ing morning, 22 miles easterly difference. During the night we hove-to, to the south-
ward of Caracas Bay, Curasao, and were obliged to keep Little Curasao in mind, as
the current was setting strongly to the eastward.

" Whether this flux and reflux were caused by the moon (then new), or by any
other agent, I shall not attempt to determine. Indisputably there occasionally

* The remark is as follows. The Baron, on approaching the Testigos, 14th July, 1709,
says — " During a calm, the current drew us on rapidly toward the West. Its velocity was
3 miles an hour, and increased as we approached tho meridian of the Testigos, a heap of

■ \.!-i : ;j i.1. j._„ »» . a t r

CURRENTS OF THE WEST INDIES.

307

appear satisfiEiotoiy reaaons for ascribing to that luminary some infloenoe over the
carrents in these regions, and the above-mentioned case is probably one of them ; but,
as Captain Livingston says on the 8ub)ect, ' the winds have a still more powerfol in-
fluence.' Indeed, when roving in these seas, studying the Memoir and the CotunMan
Navigator, and enjoying the pleasure of reading all uiat science and skill have ever
produced in the description of these regions, we always meet with Captain Living-
ston's remarks as so many illustrations, and feel a continusd increase of respect for so
accomplished a navigator.

" The reflux of the current to the eastward, for some hours daily, we had also occa-
sion to observe, in January, 1834, near the coast of Hayti, Porto Rico,' and evea in
the Atiantic, while working up with smart breezes, and even with very strong winds ;
and once, in May, 1836, a merchant vessel, steering for Curasao, with her mainmast
broken, passed in the night to the southward of Buen-ayre and Little Curasao, with-
out seeing the land, being totally unacquainted with any existing current, and conse-
quentlv ydth her real situation. At daybreak, finding herself oppodte the eastern
part of Curasao, and supposing it to be the Island of Buen-ayre, she stood to the
West for Curasao, as she thought ; but on her passing the harbour of St. Anna, she
guessed her error, and tried to gain the entrance, in which phe succeeded toward
sunset, after hard struggling with a strong wind and a rough sea, but assisted by a
current to the easttcara.

" It should be borne in mind that the captain of this vessel was unprovided with a
time-keeper, from want of which he knew nothing about easterly or westerly
currents ; and if, on his approaching Buen-ayre, he had accidently stood a few miles
to the N.W., so as to make its northern coast, he would have found a watery
grave, designated, perhaps, only by some piece of floating timber, a splinter, or
broken spar.

" The uninterrupted easterly currents alluded to have already been mentioned by
Baron j\ von Humboldt; and, whenever I witnessed them, I found them just as de-
scribed by that celebrated traveller. It may, however, be remarked that although
this change in the general motion of the water is most common in the three months
quoted, and chiefly along the Colombian coast, yet sometimes it also happens in other
months, and in other parts of the Caribbean Sea ; as we, in fact, once experienced it
in Decembar, once in April, near the coast above mentioned, and once in March, oh
our passage (torn Guadoloupe to Barbadoes, during which vessels from St. Yineeiit's
made their way toward the same islands in a few hours."

(192.) Mr. Town, in his "Directions for the Colombian Coast,"* has said:—
" Althcogh between the Island of Jamaica and the Spanish Main westerly currents
are most frequent, yet they do not always prevail ; for ships have been known to
be driven by the current from 60 to 60 miles to the eastward in four or five days.
From the beginning of May till November ^the rainy season), the sea-breeze seldom
or never blows home to the main ; end ships going there should never go to the
southward of the latitude of 11°, until they ore at \east 40 or 60 miles to the
westward of their intended port ; after whidi they may make a South course, as the
land-breeze, which is generally from the S.W., ana the strong easterly current, will
set you to the eastward of your intended port, if great care be not taken. When to
the eastward, if li^ht winds prevail, you must stand to the northward imtil you meet
the sea-breeze, which will be between the latitudes of 10° and 11°, and then run to
the westward.

" Being off Porto Bello, in H.M.S. Salisbury, on or about the 12th of August, 1816,
and being a little to the eastward of that port, with light variable winds for several
days, the ship was to the eastward, at the rate of 30 miles per day ; and, having been
afterwards placed in the same situation, I found it necessary to make the land well to
the westward, and to keep close to it. From November until May (the dry season)
you should endeavour to make the land well to ^ he eastward, and run along shore ; as

* See the " Colombian Navigator," vol. ill., p. 231.

-Zii^rSfiym. ■'i'-

306

OBSBHVATION8 ON THE CURRENTS.

the sea breezes generally blow very strongly, and the current sets to the wecrtwiM^ at.
the aate of about 2 or 3 miles an hour.

" Between Chagre and Porto Bello, during the rainy season, there is generally a
northerly current, at the rate of from 1^ to 2| miles an hour. After the end of the
rainy season the current sets to the southward and westward, and strong southerly
and easterly winds prevail here. From November imtil May (the dry aeaton) the
southerly and westerly are very light winds, except in squalls, which end with
heavy rain. In sudden squalls you will often have the wind from all points of the
compass.

" If at Chagre at any time during the rainv season (May till November), and
bound to the eastward, endeavour to get 4 or 6 leagues from the land so soon as you
can ( foa the winds are, in general, very light, and the current very strong. The
latter sets fi«m Chagre directly os ike rocks of Porto Bello, and thence along the
land from E. by N., E.N.E., E.S.E., and according as the land lies; its general rate
being from 1| to 2^ miles in an hour. Great care should be taken when near the
land, if a heavy squall and rain appear to be conting on. During this von will have
the wind from all points of the compass, and often so strong that all sail must be
taken in.

« In crossing the Qulf of Darien, little or no current will be found : wherever there
is any, it sets about South, S. by W., or S. by E., up the gulf.

"Near Cartagena the current generally goes with the wind ; but off the Islands of
Rosarito it sets to tiie N.W. and N.N.W., from 1 to 2 miles an hour.

** Between Cartagena and the Magdalena, in the rainy season, you cannot put any
dependence on the winds or currents; but, from November to May, the trade wind
blows home.

" I should recommend, if turning to. windward, with strong trade winds, to keep
the shore close-to; whereas, by going off from the land, you will not only have
a heavy sea, but also a strong N.W. current. If you have light variable winds,
approach no nearer to the land than 4 or 5 leagues, as you may be certain of easterly
current."

Captain Livingston says : — "During five weeks in which I remained at Cartagena,
in June and July, 1817, the current in-shore set constantly and strongly to the north-
wurd, at a rate, I am convinced, of not less than 1^ miles an hour, or nearly as strong
as the Mississippi at New Orl^ns : I have seen tne Eak sloop of war, current-rode
i^ainst a very free^ sea-breeze, when at anchor, nearly West from the city, distant
about half a mile."

(193.) Upon the Cubkent between the Grand Cayman and Cape Antonio, Cant.
Monteath had said : " In the months of May, 1814 and 1815 ftwo voyages in which I
was chief mate of the ship Prince Hegent, fivim Kingston) ; in June, 1817, in the
ship Fame ; and in April and December, 1820. in the ship Mary, befween Grand
Cayman Island and Cape Antonio, I invariably found the current setting strong to
the eastward, or E.S.E. ; and I have heard it pfenerallv remarked that vessels shaping
a course from the' Caymans for Cape Antonio have round themselves off, or even to
tlie eastwa,rd of. Cape Corrientes : this has, in the above cases, invariitbly happened
to myself."

Farther on,"In my passage from Kingston toward Campech6, in the ship ^m«, June,
1817, between Cape Antonio and Cane Catoche, I fo^.^nd the current to set due North,
27 nules, in a run of eighteen hours.

We have already given, in a preceding page, the remarks of the Spanish navi-
gators on the Currents of the Mosquito Shore and Bay of Honduras. We now add
those of our friends Captains W. J. Capes, of London, and John Burnett, of Port
Glasgow.

* Captain Capes says : — " Between Jamaica and Bonacca the current generally sets
to the northward and westward. Here, in May, 1816, 1 was set 60 miles to the west-
ward by the current, and found that it set rather northerly, from one quarter to half
H mile au hour." .. . j ■

CURRENTS OF THE WEST INDIES.

309

istward at

lenerally a
end of the
; Bontherly
teauon) the
end 'with
tints of the

nber), and
son as you
'oag. The
along the
ineral rate
a near the
1 will have
dlnrast be

rever there

) Islands of

iOt put any
trade wind

Is, to keep
only have

able winds,
of easterly

Cartagena,

thenorth-

y as strong

orrent-rode

ity, distant

ONio, Capt.

in whioh I
817, in the
reen Grand
I strong to
els shaping

or even to
Y happened

Fbm«,June,
due North,

onish navi-
e now add
Btt, of Port

nerally sets
o the wcst-
rt«r to halt'

'* If a ship be lying-to, under Rattan, it will not be amiss to trv the current. It i»
my opinion that the current about Bonacca takes two different oireotions ; one part
setting to the N.W., and the other part branching to the S.S.W. I have found it
so on several trials, which ia the reason that I prefer taking a departure (for the
bay) from the middle or East end of Rattan : for, if a ship take her departure fh>m
the West end, her course will be N.N.W. ; but it very fi^quently happens that sUps
get down on those reefs when they take their departure from the West end. The
reason is this : a ship steering N.W. from the West end has more of the current on
her beam, which sweeps round the end of Rattan very strong at times; consequently,'
ships that take their departure from the East or middle part rio not fieel so much of
the current."

Captain Burnett, in his directions for sailing from the Bay of HoNDUBAB, says : —

« When the trade wind prevails, a current, often very strong, sets down between
Mauger Kay and the Northern Triangle ; there, dividing itself, it sets to the south-
ward, between Tnmeff and the maia reef, and to the northward between the Triangle'
Reef and Ambergris Kayi It is most advisable, with the wind from East to E.S.E.,
to sail to leeward of Htxe Triangle, as you will have a strong current in your &vour so'
soon as you bii^g it to the eastward of you.

. *' In the channel between the Island Cosumel and the shore, the current along shore
runs at the rate of nearly 2| miles an hour, till lost in the Mexican Sea."

In the ship George IV., 14th of March, 1824, Captain Hamlin fooud the inset into
the Mexican Sea, uong the coast of Yucatan, E.E. 42 miles in the twenty-four hours.
Lat. at noon 19° 24', long. 87° 7'. On the next day it set toward Campech6 Banki
northerly 50 miles.

In the brig Becovery, 6th of September, 1822, the same commander found the
current on tiie N.E. si^ of the Yucatan or Campech^ Bank setting about 1| miles to
the northward. Next day, on proceeding toward the Mississipi, weather oaJm and
very sultry, at five p.m. saw two very large waterspouts to the N.W. At half-past
seven a smart squall came on suddenly. At eight cleai^d up ; light winds with much
l^htening. At ten, next morning, severe squalls, which spUt uie main top-gallant-
sail and m>om mainsail. Lat. at noon 26° 42', long. 86° 63'.

(194.) Bottles.— Caribbean Sea to Yucatan. — AhotaBtcomU.M.8. Chanticleer,
in lat. 16° 29', long. 7^" , at uuon on the 63rd of February, 1831 (the ship being to
the southward of Jani iica), was picked up on the 20th of the next April upon the
eastern coast of Yucatan, after having traversed over a distance of nearly 700 miles,
at the rate of 28 uuIom per day.

Serbanilla to Yucatan. — ^A bottle tram a boat belon«ng to H.M. surveying-
ship Thundei-. at anchor under Serranilla West Kav, 10th of March, 1834 ; picked up
at Half-Motm Kay, in the Bay of Honduras, on tne 23rd of the next month, April \
rate 10 miles per day.

ToBAOO TO THE Cathan. — ^A bottle from the American brig Emma, on her way
from Philadelphia to Berbice, 17th of June, 1838, in lat. 11° 4', long. 68° 60'; picked
up on the 27th of the following Aug^ust, upon the eastern shore of the Grand Cayman,
2000 miles, at tho rate of 28'6 miles per day.

Windward Channel, between Jamaica and Hayti. — ^A bottle from H.M.S.
Thunder, in lat. 18° 66', long. 74° 66', 7th of April, 1839 j current then setting S.W.
by S. half a knot ; picked up in the Grand Anse, near Jeremie (long. 7° 1'), on the
24th of the same month.

Hayti to Florida. — A bottle, some years ago, from the ship Behert, Captain
Coulter, eastward of Alto Vela, on the south coast of Hayti ; picked up about thirteen
months afterward on the shore near St. Mary's in Florida.

Fr.->m bottles enumerated in Captain Becher's list: — Ship Race-horae, Captain
Home, thrown over in lat. 12° 12', long. 66° 80', 17th April, 1836; piekedup April
22nd, 'xi Boncdre, 160 miles in 6 days. Ship Chanticleer, Captain Austen, thrown
over February, 23rd, 1831, in lat. Id' 30', long. 76'; picked up on the east coast of

310

OBSERVATIONS ON THB CURRENTS.

Yucatan, April 80th, 680 miles In 06 days. H.M.S. Thunder, Captain Bamett,
thrown over at CliagTes, April 29th, 1840; reached Belize, October Ist, 1840.
H.M.S. Thunder, March lOui, 1834, started at Serranilla Bank; picked up near
Belize, April 23rd, 576 miles in 44 days.

(195.) On the northern coast of Hayti, and in the Windward Passages, there does
not appear to be any general current. Ou the North side of Cuba the case is nearly
the same ; but in the channel here is a regular tide throughout the year, subject, how-
eyer, to certain variations.

The currents of the Caribbean Sea appear to be varied by the influence of the moon
and change of seasons, and combine, in some degree, with the tides ; especially about
Cuba, Jamaica, and Hayti.

In the Cahama Passages the currents are devious ; both weather and leensurrents
having been found. These, also, appear to be influenced by the tidal causes ; for the
tides are operative on the banks, and sometimes set strongly.

(196.) Bahama Islands, &c. — ^The following is extracted from Captain Maury's
<* Sailing Directions," eighth edition, vol.. ii. Captain Wm. C. Berry says : —

" Having had long expecence in the trade between New York and New Orleans, I
herewith furnish you with a few remarks on winds and currents. For the last six
years I have commanded the ship Vickaburgh, constantly trading between ^ese two'
ports. In making the passage out, after passing the llole-in-the-Wall, I have fre-
quently found a current from one to three miles per hour, settine to the eastward
through the north-west channel of Providence, particularly after the wind has pre-
vailed from the eastward a few days. This no doubt has been the cause of putting a
number of vessels on shore among the Berry Islands. I have latterly made it a pomt
to take the last bearings of the light on the Hole-in-the-Wall, and either haul up or
keep off as I found the current ; generally running on a west course until quite down
with Little Stirrup Keys, then steering W. by N. | N., by compass, if in the night,
until I was up witn the Great Isaacs. The last three voyages, having reached the
the vicinity of the Little Isaacs in the day time, I have hauled in on the baak between
the western Little Isaacs and the east Brother Rock, and steered S.W. by W., by
compass, which has brought me out in good passing distance from the MoseUe Shoal.
During one of my summer passages out, after passing the above shoal, I was com-
pelled to anchor, and remained there for six days. The wind during all this time
was light from the southward, and I could not help remarking the regularity of the
current setting along the Bemini Islands, ebb ana flow, about two miles per hour.
This continues as far as Gun Key, when close in little or no current is experienced,
except the ebb and flow, which is directly off the bank. In crossing the Santaren
Channel, the current is governed greatly by the winds ; with strong southerly winds
the current sets about N^N-W., two miles per hour ; on the other hand, with strong
northerly winds, little or no current is felt. After leaving the Double-headed-Shot
Key, I hove generally hauled over for the Florida Reef, and in the day time kept
close-in, when I have frequently found an eddy current setting to the westward from
one to one and a half miles per nour. After passing the Tortugas, I have invariably
felt a southerly current until I had reached the longitude of 84° 30' W., and even
further than this at times, as will be seen by referring to my journals, particularly in
November, 1848.

" Returning from New Orleans, I have always made it a point to keen to the west-
ward until I nad reached the longitude 86°, latitude 28°, ocfore keeping off. My
object in doing this is, that the wind here generally prevails from the northward and
eastward, and that the current generally seta to the southward and eastward, which
generally facilitates the passage. After rounding the Tortugas, with the wind from
tne eastward, 1 have generally beat down on the Florida side, knowing that the
strongest current jjrevails on that shore, unless too close-in. From Carysfort Reef to
Matanilla, I have always endeavoured to keep in the centre of the stream. During
all my voyages, I have made it a rule to steer from Matanilla to latitude 22°, N. by
iV., uiid tiicn noFiii lO t&tiiUuc 3i'\ u€-»ore iiaUiing sip N.E. by N. » by so doing ^
have, with a few exceptions, kept the strongest current. On some other orcasionR, I
have hauled up on n N,K. by N. coursi', whi-n in latitude 30'. longitude 70' 40', and

CURRENTS OF THE WEST INDIES.

311

Bsmett)
Let, 1840.
i up near

there does
) is nearly
jeot, how-

' the moon
Eilly about

e-currents
8 ; for the

I Maury's

Orleans, I
le last six
these two'
have fre-
! eastward

has pre-
puttin^ a
I it a point
aul up or
[uite down
the night,
ached the
k between
by W., by
me Shoal,
was com-
this time
ity of the
per hour,
pcrienced,

Santaren
rly wiads
th strong
aded-Shot
time kept
yard from
invariably

and even
eularly in

the west-
off. My
ward and
rd, which
vind from
tliut tlie
it lleof to
During

N.by
i„j. — >

'OHHionfl) I
10", and

have soon found myself on the eastern edge of the gulf. After rounding Cape
Hatteras, it is advisable to keep to the westward, especially in the winter season, on
account of the prevailing westerly winds."

(197.) The FOLLOWING is an additional DETAIL of the best information we have
been able to collect of the currents in the Ctuibbean and Mexican Seas, from the
Derrotero de las Antillas, 8fc.

In the Channel between Trinidad and Grenada the current has been found to set
nearly West ; on the South side half a point southerly, and on the North side half a
point northerly. Its velocity from 1 mile to 1^ and 2 miles per hour.

Between Granada and St. Vincenfa, among the Oranadines, the currents are devious ;
but the general inset appears to be W. by N.

Between St. Vincenfs and St. Lucia the current, from the eastward, sets in more
northerly ; end within, on the West, it has been found setting to the N.W. Between
these islands it seems to be as strong as in any other part of tbe range.

Between St. Lucia and Martinique it has been found nearly North. Very variable
on the western side of the latter.

The current sets nearly in the same manner between Martinique and Dominica.
Northward of Guadaloupe, it sets W. \ S. ; and between Montterrat and An-
tigua, N.W.

At the distance of about 1°, within the range of the Caribbee Islands, and to the
Virgin Islands, the current has been found setting, in general, to the W.N.W. from
1 to 1| miles an honr.f

In the Mona Passage, between Porto Rico and Hayti, the cuiTcnt has been marked
as frequently setting to the N.W., and we have instAuces of a set through to the
S.W. 5 but Captain Monteath, in February, 1816, when proceeding southward toward
Porto Rico, in from lat 23|° to 22°, long. 64° to 65°, found the current setins N.N.E.
at the rate of 20 miles in the twenty-four hours : and he says, that off the N.W. point
of Porto Rico it invariably set from the Caribbean Sea to tne North and N.N.E. On
the western side of the passage it set North, 2 miles an hour : but there have been
instances of an inset from the N.W.

From Trinidad, westward, apd off the North side of the Spanish Leeward Isles, the
current has been found setting West and S.W. to the Qulf of Maracaybo ; thence
S.W. also to Cartagena : but it varies, as already described.

From Cartagena toward tbe Channel of Yucatan it has been found N.N.W., N.W.,
W.N.W., n 'I'N.W. by N., from 1 to nearly 2 miles, and then decreasing to 1| miles
per hour, it has also been found setting to the eastward, as shown in the present
pages.

(198.) COTUlter Currents. — From the foreg^oin^ it will be seen that the great drift
which, passing from the Atlantic tiurough the Caribbean Sea into the Qulf of Mexico
to feed the Oulf Stream, is not nearly so constant nor so strong as might be argued,
« priori, from the apparent magnitude of that mighty current. Not only is it incon-
stant even in the mid-channcl, but it is diverted by local causes und land configurations
into opposite directions, as is shown to be the case in the great Bays of Guatemala
and Honduras, as described below.

Upon referring to the description of the Equatorial counter-current, as recited in
(151 to 161.) pages 283 to 288, it is shown that it extends much farther to the west-
ward, during the period when the sun is in northern signi*, than had been before
attributed to it. This western extension of the Guinea Current, coincident with the
increase of the belt of Equatorial calms (45.) page 198, and (50.) page 201, may owe

* On the leeward side of the Virgin IrIos devious currents are found, frequently to the
Routh-oMtward. The wimo hsvo beon observed on the western side of St. ChriBiCpuer'i,
&e. ; but see, hereafter, the Particular Directions for Navigating among the windwora
Islands.

312

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURBENTS.

its origin to the same causes, hitherto almost unexplained, as that to which this
uncertainty of the great westerly drift across the Caribbean Sea is owing.

Whether it is owing to the influence of tide, the eflTect of distant and local winds,
or of teniperatnre, or of some hitherto unexplained effect of the earth's rotation, has
yet to be argued. It is probable that hereafter a systematic examination of these
apparently contradictory phenomena will lead to some important conclusions in the
general subject of meteorology.

(199.) In the Bats of Guatemala and Honduras, as above said, the currents
are frequently found to be running rapidly from toeat to east, especially near the
ahores. This counter-current is seldom encountered outside the lines which join their
outer points. From Cape la Vela, or northward of the Qulf of Venezuela, the current
generuly si'ts to the N.W. toward the Channel of Yucatan, as has been before
remarked.

" In the space between Cape Qracias a Bios and Cape de la Vela offiihoots
and eddies from the great Equatorial current arc found. This assertion is not merely
groimded on those oi former navigators, or on the examination of the coast outline,
but on actual experience.*

■ " A writer worthy of great respect. Captain Mackellar, R.N., has stated — ' The
current between the island of Jamaica and the Spanish main, or coast of Colombia, is
not always to be depended upon as setting to the westward, as is gfenerally supposed ;
for, in crossing from Jamaica to the main, ships have been known to be cuiven to the
eastward by the current.' This circumstance must be of rare occurrence at the
northern part of the passage, and is here mentioned to make known its possibility. I
myself have made the runs across between Jamaica and the opposite main at many
times and seasons, and tar., therefore, governed by practice as well as theory in the
following remarks. ,,. {^

1st. Local Current betwetn the south side of Jamaica, the Morant Kays, and Pedro
Shoals. — This is very uncertain, both in rate and direction. Its rate may be from
to 1| knot per hour ; and it direction either north, east, or west, according to existing
circumstances.

At the Morant Kays, the current is known to be variable. Over the Pedro Shoals
it is supposed almost ever to run in a westerly direction. Between these two dangers,
therefore, it behoves a ship at night to be full of precaution, and not to rely on the
continuance of any cun-ent she may have ascertained, wheh cither to the northward
or southward of her then situation.

2nd. Current southward of the Morant Kays and Pedro Bank, or between the
parallels of 17° and 15°. This current runs, perhaps always, true West to N.W. by
W. from 20 to 55 miles per day.

Among the Mosquito Shoals the currents are equally strong and more uncertain.
Between latitude 15° and a line extending from Cape do la Vela and Cape Gracias a
Dies, including some of the Mosquito Kays, the direction is W.S.W. to ri.W. 20 to
40 miles per day.

3. Southward of the imaginart/ line between the Capes de la Vela and Chaeias a
Dios and to the distance of 30 miles from the coast, the sets are so very variable as to
as to baffle all system. Sometimes no current whatever is felt ; at other periods it
may run north, south, cast, or west, 35 miles a day. Let it be borne in mmd, how-
ever, that their direction is very seldom toward the east, but generally toward the
west. St. Andrew's Isle and the frontier rocks of the Mosquito Bank are equally
bepct by changeable currents, of velocities amounting \jo fifty miles a day.

4. Inshore or Land Current, between Cape Manzanillo, near Porto Bello, and San
Juan do Nicaragua. ThiH rurront sotB from westward to eastward. It is an eddy,
striking out from the Caribbi-an Current at Cape Gracias a Dios, and eventually re-
turning into it, with a broken and divided force, to the north of Cartagena. Tlio

• Remarks byCupt. W. 8. Smith, R.N., II.M.S. fMrns, 1833.

CURRENTS OF THS WEST INDIES.

313

which this

ocal 'windB,
)tation, has
>n of these
lions in the

le currents
y near the
h join their
the current
)een before

a offiihoots
not merely
ast outline,

atcd— « The
:;!olombia, ia
fr supposed ;
riven to the
ence at the
ssibility. I
in at many
leory in the

(, and Pedro
J be from
I to existing

edro Shoals

wo dangers,

rely on the

J northward

between the
to N.W. by

uncertain.
« Oracias a
I^.W. 20 to

Oraeias a
triable as to
it periods it
mmd, how-
toward the
are equally

lo, and San
is an eddy,
cntually re-
igena. Tlio

breadth of this current extends from the land to a distance of about 30 miles in the
offing. Its rate is from one to two knots, and its direction parallel to tb«i curvature of
the coast and capes.

The streams out of numerous rivers, entering this current, seems to increase its
rapidity ; for close in shore, between the rivers, the rate is seldom less than two
knots i at nx miles off the land it runs about one knot ; and at a greater distance the
same.

(200.) From Cape Antonio the current sets, at times, to the E.S.E., past the Isle
of Pines. Captain Livingston has informed us that, in March, 1818, he found the
current between the Great Cayman and Isle of Pines to set in that Erection, at the
rate of fully 2| miles in an hour, or 60 miles in the twenty-four hours. In August,
1817, he found the set nearly the same, but the current 'not half so strong. The
S^niah Directory says : — " From Cape de Cruz, on the South side of Cuba, it is
noticed that there is a constant current to the westward, with some inclination to the
southward or northward, and which has been known sometimes to set 20 miles in a
single day." In opposition to this, the exact words of Captain Livingston are — " I
have twice experienced a strong current, setting about E.S.E., between the Caymans
and Isle of Pines ; and on the lattei of these occasions both my mate and myself
separately calculated it to set about 60 miles per day, or 2\ miles per hour. This,
however, I incline to think a very particular case, such as may but seldom occur.
The winds at this time were light and westerly. On the other occasion, so &r as I
recollect, it set about 12 or 14 miles per day only. All my papers on these subjects
have been lost ; but the first instance was too remarkable to be forgotten."

(201.) Off the South side of Cuba the current has fr«quently been found setting to
ir. >ward when the moon is increasing, or in her first two quarters ; and thus it
K- u\ .T ' )s from Cape Antonio to Cape Maize. It is represented that it runs to the

-'- > <i for a fortnight, and then to the westward about the same time. Coasters
trom the Caymans commonly take the advantage of the easterly current for making
their passages to Jamaica.

From this information we may conjecture that the current, which has been de-
scribed as setting to the E.S.E. fh>m Cape Antonio to, is not permanent, but, at
times, on the contrary, imperceptible, according to the age of the moon ; and this
has, we believe, been verified, in several instances, while the cause has remained
unknown. . , ■,

Captain Manderson had stated, that when a strong easterly wind has been blowing
between Cuba and Florida, vessels heaving-to off the South side of Cape Antonio, at
about 2 leagues from shore, have, in the course of one night, been carried against a
strong sea breeze, nearly as high as Cape Corrientes, being a distance of 10 leagues.
Our friend Captain Rowland Boorke, when once lying-to in the Archibald for the
night off Cape Antonio, foimd himself next morning off Cape Corrientes.

Mr. Dunsterville has said, " I am firmly established in an opinion, fh)m twelve
years' observation, that not only ere the winds and weather on the West India
station influenced by the changes of the moon, but the currents also j and it is fre-
quently found that, if the waters run to the eastward, it is at the change and full of
tne moon." ;,

In an old book, already noticed {Kelly's Navigation, vol. i., 1733|, is an abstract
from a journal, which contains the following pasnage : — " Between tne West end of
Hispamola and tlie Island of Jamaica, if I took my departure upon a ftiU or change
of the moon, I found that I made many leagues rouro than I did at the quarters of
the moon. At the f\ill and change I was looking out for the land long befurc I saw
it ; i\nd at the quarters, I was down upon it long before I looked for it. The reuHons,
as I found afterward, were, that the fiiU ana change made a strong windward
current, and the contrary on the quarters. This has been exemplified in many
instances."

On this subject Captain Livingston says, " It is a prevailing oninion with many,
that the moon governs entirely the currents among the West India Inlnnds. No

314

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

doulit the moon has soine effe9t on them, but the winds have a still more powerful
influence.

" It is rarely, Indeed, on the North side of the Island of Jamaica that there is &
westerly current when the North and N.W. winds prevail ; the current then always,
or almost always, setting to the eastward.

'■* On the South side of Cv' la, when the wind is westerly, which it often is, you
are alwys certain of a r. Howing current rv/und Cape Antonio. This is easily
account'!ufor J as when the iresh trade- wind ceases, and the westerly winds set in,
the barrier is, in some degree, removed, which confined the waters in the Mexican
Sea, and they seek to regain thair level as well by the channel of Yucatan as by the
Strait of Florida."

Between +he Isle of Pines and main land of Cuba is a strong north-easterly in-
draught, generally running from 1 to 1 ^ miles an hour, and which has caused the loss
of many vessels on St. Felipe Kays and the dangerous bank stretching therefrom to
the westward.

In the Windward Channel rv' Jamaica, the current generally sets with the wind to
leeward or S.W. ; yet both here and at Jamaica it is variable. Some have affirmed
that, when a current runs to leeward, on the South side of Jamaica, there is frequently
one setting eastward on the North side ; and, at other times, no current is to be per-
ceived i afio that, when a lee current runs on the North shore, the same circum-
stances may be perceived on the South shore as were before observ'ed on the North.

^ (202.) Channel of Yucatan. — The principal entrance from the Caribbean Sea
mto the Gulf of Mexico is 110 miles in width, between Cape Antonio, marked by its
fine lighthouse, ani Cape Catoche, the N,£. point of Yucatar. The current most
usually sets with considerable rapidity to the northward through it.

According to the calculation of all fttainable observations derived from Major
Rennell, Commander Maury, S^c, the following is the mean rate of the cun'ent in the
various months : — January, 33 miles per day ; February, 34 miles per day ; March,
36 miles ; April, 33 miles ; May, 17 miles ; June, 26 miles ; July, 39 miles ; August,
31 miles ; September, 30 miles ; October, 38 miles ; November, 36 miles ; December,
48 miles per day. These velocities are much inferior to what might be supposed
from the magnitude of the outset as formerly calculated, but this, as will be seen pre-
sently, has been over-stated.

(203.) At times the current is very strong, and every precaution should be taken
against i' ,

Th ; iip Carahalton Park, Captain J. Steele Park, sailed for Jamaica for London
Cii iie 20th May, 1824. At noon on the 27th she was off" the S.W. side of Cuba, in
lat. 21°. 26', long, (by chronometer and lunars) 84° 47' W. Here was dicovered a
current setting to the N.W, at the rate of 2 miles an hour. At half-past seven Cape
Antonio bore N.W. 5 or 6 miles. " The current to the N.W.," says Ciintain Pane,
" swept us into the Gulf of Mexico ; and there we were beating about t^ree or four
days, making northing and westing in spite of our teeth. All this time the wind was
easterly, and we might have cruised about there till Christmas, had the wind not got
a little to the southward of East, which enabled us to get over to the N.E. .lide, where
we found the current running directly opposite to the former," being now in the
Florida Stream.

At about 40 miles northtonrd of Cape Catoche the current has been found N.W. by
W. I changing thence to S.S.W. off the N.W. point of Yucatan, nearly at the same
distance from the coast. Rate, something less than half a mile an hour.

(204.) Gulf of Mexico. — The Mexican Sea appears to be the receptacle and
terminus of all the waters flowing westward, and although we are not perfectly
acquainted with all the featares of tlie curionts, yet suffipiont is hnown to warrant the
afflrmatif>n, fbiit the current through the Yuctttnn Cliannol divorginir to ooHtword and
westward, the western branch oirciilatoH i.-ound the w'.olo of tlie sRoroH of the Gulf
to westward northward, and those flowing eastward and south-eastward joins the

CURRENTS OF THE WEST INDIIS.

315

powerful

there is t;
en always,

an 18, you

is easily

ads set in,

) Mexican

as by the

lasterly in-
led the loss
lerefrom to

he wind to
re affirmed
frequently
1 to be per-
me circum-
le North.

ibbean Sea
rked by its
Trent most

rom Major
Tent in the
ly J March,
s; August,
December,
e supposed
)e seen pre-

i be taken

for London
[)f Cuba, in
dicovered a
seven Cape
)tain ParK,
iree or four
lG wind wa3
nd not got
ide, where
low in the

id N.W. by
it the same

ptaclo and
)t perfectly
warrant the
sf vviird and
xf the Gulf
•d joins the

e&atern, and perhaps principal, branch of the Yucatan current, forming the mighty
uuiT Stream.

On the Chart of the North Atlantic before mentioned the observations gfivcn in
Repnell's and Maury's Chart having been integrated, it plainly shows that the circu-
lation stated above does exist, and that it follows the main trends of the coasts of
Yucatan 4ind Mexico, and thence along the coast of Texas, at rates varying from 14
to 31 miles per day.

_ (205.) The mean temperature of the water of the Gulf of Mexico is probably as
high as any part of the ocean, from several manifest causes, and hence it is, in the bed
of the sea, that those nurseries of the Sargasso weed exist f 168.), which, torn from
their habitat by the force of the current, are drifted into tnat great central area of
the Atlantic, to which they give the characteristic peculiarly.

It is also probable that animal life is peculiar and abundant in these tepid waters.
" The phospnorescent lights observed in the Mexican Sea shine with greater bril-
liancy (Apiil^ than I hud noticed elsewhere : some of these were very large, and
flashed like tne priming of a gun, sometimes at a long distance from the 6hip. I
observed that the little shing spiracles were confined to the sides of the vessel and her
wake, and that the waves, when they broke into foam, did not (as in other parts of
the ocean) sparkle.

" The colour of the water in the Sea of Mexico is of a dai'k indigO; darker or more
intense than that of the ocean generally ; the colour of the sea in the Florida Channel
is a fine blue, not so dark as that of the Sea of Mexico, or of the ocean generally.
Phosphorescent lights are equally abundiint in the Florida Stream, some uuuoually
large and brilliant ; and some of the small lights appeared to spring out of the water
with a sweep motion, which I had never before observed ; the temperature of tiie
water was 79*, that of the air 76°."— J. E.

(206.) The following exemplification of the currents of the Mexican Gulf is taken
from the eighth edition of Maury's " Sailing Directionfi," vol. ii., p. 17 : —

There is a constant set from tht Carribbean Sea into the Mexican Gulf to find the
Gulf Stream. Vessels passing up to the northward may take advantage of it. It is
bifuricated just after entering '"he Gulf. The bottle paper of the Heimes followed
this Yucatan current to the " iork," and then took the western branch.

» H.M.S. Hermes, 15th AfH, 1858, lat 17" 69' N., long. 78° 60' W., H. Congton,
commander, J. E. Solfleet, master. This bottle thrown over at the West end of
Jamaica, was found on the South point of Pad'^e Island, lat. 26° 6' N., long. 97° 10' W .,
Aug. 23, 1857, and forwarded by Mr. J. R. Baker, Avho saye, ' The di-ift shown by
the course of this bottle confinus my own observations since I have been here, viz.,
that the current divides between Cape Antonio and Ciipe Catoche, the western part of
it keeps a westci-ly course until it reaches this coast between San Femandiuo on the
coa^t of Mexico, and Corpus Christi on Texas, where it meets the south-westerly
current from the coast of Florida and Louisiana. And it is strango to remark the
mixture of floating objects thrown on the beach of this coast by tins meeting of the
currents. Flat boats, oars, saw-lfgs, clap-boards, old skifis, &c., from the Mississippi
mixed up with branches of the mangrove, mahogany, bay cedar, young cocoa-nuts,
caTioe paddles of mahogany, JScc, from the Carribbean Sea and coast of Honduras.'

" It may be remarked on this that the eastorhr winds may have something to do
with the westerly drift from the Mississippi of objects which float high out of the
waters.

" Another bottle, from the ship Admiral, S. Pioken, commander, tl'»-own over on
the Equator, long. 30" W., 17th February, 1856, came ashore at Aransas Pass, Texas,
Oct. 24, 1856, 260 days afterwards, ha ing drifted 4,300 miles, or 16 miles per day."

(207.) It is difficult to define the separation between the currents which pass east-
ward and westward to the North of the Yucatan Channel. It is certain that they
set with cv-asidcrable velocitv to the southward and south-eastward over the Tortugas
Bank, and also to the S.E. from the Mississiiipi. Perhaps a line might be drawn
from the centre of tlio strait to the mouth of the Miswissippi, to the west of wliich it

316

OBSERVATIONS ON TEE CURRENTS.

-will usnally be found that the streanui nave westing in them, and to the east of it
that they set towards the Gulf of Florida.

In the strait between Cuba and the I ida ReeJb, that great stream which is de~
scribed in the next section, ht^s r^^ly its sommencement.

.^..mi-':xit)

;t;;l

7.— THE GULF STREAM.

(208.) The Florida or Gulf Stream has received more attention — ^has been the sub
ject of more speculation— end has served as the basis of more tiieories, than all the
other currents of the ocean collecti^ ely. Although modern research, conducted with
all refinement, in contradistinction to the imperfect observation of the passing seaman
in former yean, has shorn it of much of the grandeur and magnitnae it has been
invested with, still it is a mighty uad majestic current, well worthy of all the laborious
investigatioD which the philosopher or mariner have bestowed upon it.

In the prfcedinff pages we have traced the course of the waters firom the shores of
Europe down to the great set or tropical drift, and thence through the Channel of
Yucataii to the entrance of the narrow channel between the north shore of Cuba and
the Florida Kays. Here may be said to be the commencement of the Gulf Stream as
an independent current, as it flows swiftly hence to the eastward in opposition to its
previous course, and then northward through the narrows between Cape Florida and
the Bemini Isles. Keeping this direction vrith its high velocity and temperature, it
is deflected to the N.E. by the form of the American coast, and assimiing a more
easterly direction, and gradually spreading its warmer waters over a broader area, it
pursues its course with a gradually decreasing rate, though still much warmer than
the sea on each side of it, it reaches the southern part of the banks of Newfound-
land. At this part it encounters the southern Arctio Current, which, crossing its
track and importing into it the influences of an artic temperature, and the counter-
acting effects of an adverse current upon its diminished force and much decreased
volume, it ceases to maintain its character as a Gulf Stream or an independent
current. Its effects, however, in bearing the tepid water of the Gulf of Mexico with
all the floatable objects collected in its progress, are still drifted onwards by the pre-
vailing westerly and W.S.W. winds, which it has been shown (73.) page 212, pre-
dominate over the ocean between this part and the western face of the Old Continent.
It transports its influence and attaibutes over to the shores of Europe, the southern
shores of Ireland, past Norway, and into the Arctic basin.

Inside, or to the West of the Gidf Stream, along the eastern face of the United
States, there >'s a cold, counter-current setting southwards from the Arctic regions,
which will be described in its place hereafter. A similar counter-current, though of
a different origin, nms to westward between the Gulf Stream and the Florida Kays.

(209.) History. — The Gulf Stream was known by its present name, and in its now
known form, from very ear.y times. Probably it was recorded and discussed at the
first voyage undertaken by the discoverers and colonisers of North America, whr
passed out by this Channel on their idtum voyage to Europe. As an example, John
White, who went a voyage thither in 1590, says : — " July 30, 1690, lost sight of the
coast of Florida, and stood to sea, for to gain the help or the current which runneth
much swifter afar off than in sight of the coast ; for Irom the Cape [Florida] to Vir-

S'nia all along the shore arc none but eddy currents setting setting to the S. and 8. W."
ere we have not only the Gulf shown, but the inner counter-current alluded to, as
V ^11 be dilated on hereafter.

Agr^in, that excellent observer, William Dampier, in his " Discourses on the Trade
WindL," &o., published in 1699, page 105, gives the following observations: —

" And 'tis as probable, that the Current, which sets to Leeward on all the coast
from Cane St. Atigustine to Cape Catoch, never enters the Bay of Mexico, but bends
Btill to tnc Northward, till 'tis check'd by the Florida shore ; and then wheels about
to the East, till it comes nearer the Uulph's Muuth, and there joyning with the soaking

THE GULF STREAM.

317

I the Trade

Current that draws down on the North aides of Hupaniola and Cuba, passes alto-
gether 'with great strength through the Gulph of Florida, which is the most remark*
able Gulph in the World for its Currents, because it always sets very strong to the
North. Yet near the shores on each side this Gulph there are t: les especially on the
Fiorida shore ; and Ships may pass which way they please, if they are acquainted.

" It has formerly been accou.ited very dangerous to meet with a Jforth in this
Gulph ; and for that Reason our Jamaica ships, to avoid them, have rather chosen to

So to the Eastward and pass through the Cacusea in the season that the Norths do
low. The Cactuea ate sands that lye off the N.W. end of Hispaniola. Those that
went firom Port Boyal in Ji lica had good reason for this ; for if a North took them
at their going out, it would help them forward in their way, which, should they have
been going towards the Gulph, it would obstruct them. Then besides, if a North
take a ship in the Gulph, the Wind blowing against the Current makes an extra-
ordinary Sea, and so thick come the Waves one after another that a ship can't possibly
live in it, yet of late they go through at all times Ox the Year, and if a North takes
them in the Gulph, they put away right betbre the Wind and Sea, with a small heed
sail ; yet the Current is then as strong or stronger thaji at other times, and forces
them hack, stern formost against both Wind and Sea ; for tho' the surface of the Sea
is raised in Waves and driven violently with the Winds to the southward, yet the
Current underneath runs still to the Northward ; neither is it any strange thing to see
two different Currents at one place and time, the superficial Water running one way,
and that underneath running a quite contrary : For sometimes at an anchor, I have
seen the Cable carryed thus by two different Streams, the under part having been
doubled one way, and the upper pait the contrary."

It is, therefore, somewhat surprising that a claim should of late years have been
made for Dr. Franklin as the real discoverer of its nature and its warmth in 1770.
The tale is this : BeiiTg in London in that year he was consulted by the Treasury as
to why the Falmouth packets were generrilya fortnight longer to New York than
common traders were from Loadon to Providence, Rhode Island ? He, therefore,
consulted a Nantucket whaler, who explained that the Rhode Island captains being
acquainted with the Gulf Stream, avoided it, while the Falmouth commanders being
ignorant of it, were set back 60 or 70 (! !) miles a day by it. The Nantucket captain
laid its course on a chart, which is also stated to have been followed almost without an
alteration. Without 8top|^ing to refute this altogether, which may be done by Dam-
pier and Lis predecessors, ? t will be evident that something else than the Gulf Stream
must have retarded them 00 or 70 miles a day in that latitude, if they were thus
delayed.

(210.) Causes. — ^There have been very many speculations as to the cause of this
great stream, but they have been promulgated before any increase of knowledge upon
which to foimd arguments, and as has been said above, recent investigations have over-
turned most of those which have been advanced. It has been supposed that it runs
out of the Gulf of Mexico from the superior level of that soa, but facts are wanting
for such an assumption. Captain Manderson, R.N., promulgated an opinion in his
" Examination as to the true course of the Florida Stream," that it was owin^ to the
Mississippi and the floods from the other rivers falling into the Gulf of Mexico. It
was still further argued that the velocity of the Gulf Stream might be determined by
the flood from these rivers. But Captain Andrew Livingston, in our former editions,
overturned this hypothesis by showing that what is poured into the sea by the river
Mississippi is not a three thoutsandth part of 'he volume of tho Gulf Strca u. He
thought that it might be accounted for by the motion of the sun in the ecliptic, and
itA influence on the Atlantic waters.

The effects of temperature is also advanced as the prime mover, by increasing the
heat of the water it expands, ind thus becomes higher than the cooler waters beyond
it, and as the Gulf of Mexico has tho highest temperature here is the head water of
the Gulf Stream on that account. Sir •» ohn Herschel says on this point : — " Let us
see what this declivity, formed by unequl temperature, would amount to. The equa-
torial surface-water has a tciunoraturo of 84": at ?-,200 feet; the temperature is 39°,
the level of which temperature nma to ihe surface in lat. 56 \ Taking the dilatabilitv

318

OBSERVATIONS ON THP CURRENTS.

^^'i

^'■4-;

of sea-water to be the same aa fresh, a uniform increase of temperature from 39" to
84° would dilate a column of 7,200 feet hj 10 feet (or 9971 feet more exactly), at
which height, tiierefore, above the spheroid of equilibrium ^or above the sea level in
66°), the equatorial surface is actually raised by this dilatation. An arc of 56° on the
earth's sur&ce ia 3360 geograpical miles, so that (were the water to run direct north)
we have a slope of l-28th of an inch per mile for the water so raised to run down. As
the accelerating form, corresponding to such a slope (of 1-lOth of a second, 0*1" of
arc) is less than the two-millionth part of gravity, we may dismiss this, as a cause
capable of creating only a very triflmg surface drirt, even were it the proper direc-
tion to form, by concentration, a current from east to west ; which it would not be, bttt
the very reverse."

Evaporation has been assumed as another cause, but it can be shown that the lines
of maximum evaporation are near the tropics, that is near to the point where the Oulf
Stream removes and flows away from, instead of running towards, if this be taken as
a sole cause. But the line of greatest precipitation is near the equator, and therefore
the surface-water of the ocean is lighter, or of less specific gravity than under the
evaporating tropical influences to wnich line this source of instability will cause the
waters to flow directlv towards, throughout the whole circuit, and not in the form of
partial stream. Besides this, it may be shown by the few experiments hitherto re-
corded, that the density of sea-water, at some fathoms below the surfieuse, is ^ery
nearly the same all over the ocean, so that suiface experiments afford but imper-
fect data upon which little or nothing can be grounded in our present state of
knowledge.

(211.) There have been so many objections raised to the plain fact that the trade
and anti-trade winds will accoimt for many or most of the phenomena of oceanic
circulation, that it would be far too dietursive for a practical work to enter into such
a field speculation. As has been stated before (2.) 177, the 'winds and water of
the Atlantic seem to follow much the same law, as far as their different natures
will alluw, that is, they circulate more or less around a central axis or area —
the calms of Cancer in the one case, and the Sargasso Sea in the other. All
Airther theory must be sought for in those works which deal with speculative
science.

Captain Maury has adduced arguments against the theory of assuming the trade
winds as the prime cause of the Gulf Stream, in opposition to the line of reasoning
followed by Sir John Hcrschel. He has drawn up several tables to show that the
S.E. Trades have a greatly preponderating force over the N.E. Trades in the Atlantic,
but throughout he proceeds on the assumption that the equator is the division between
the two systems. This basis, which he elsewhere disproves, will very inadequately
explain the relative force and dm-ation of the two trade winds, as is shown in (23.),
on page 184. In fact from arguing in this way, he endeavours to prove, that from
the much greater force, (nearly twice) of the southern trades, from their much greater
constancy, and still farther, that ft'om the g^reater preponderance of westerly winds
within the tropica, on the north side of the equator, that the North-East Trade Wind
scarcely blows at all in the North Atlantic. A position which is amply disproved by
his pilot charts, and by the experience of all sailors. It need scarcely be argued
against that the S.E. trades have quadruple the force, and nearly double the duration
of the N.E. trades, making them eiyht times as important.

But besides this, the wind and current charts demonstrate that the S.E. trades, and
their consequent drift, are almost always felt throughout nearly the whole year, to
the north of the equator, and in fact send a large proportion of the water into the
Caribbean Sea (11.), page 180. The trade winds may therefore be held to be a great
cause of the Oulf Stream.

(212.) The Gulf Stream has had from very early times a very bad reputation among
ship-masters for its dangerous character, and the hundi'cds of \vi'ccks and millions of
property which have bestrewed its margin have given good occasion for such a cha-
racter. For not only is it to be dreaded for its stormy character, but also its violent
streaTii renders a ship quit« unmanageable during a calm, arid at these times shuuld
hazy weather occur, and the sameness of the sliorcs mislead the stranger, ho is open

THE GULF STREAM.

to many difficulties and dans^ers. But the excellent system of Wconage alon^ the
Florida Reefs, as presently described, and the important lights which direct by ni^ht,
have very much reduced its bad chncater, and diminished the employment of Smt
enterprising race, the wreckers of Key West and the Florida Keys. StiU the high
rates of insurance for ships which navigate it, and which are yet maintained,
although not so entirely as formerly, show that the reputation was not quite
gproundless.

(213.) CharacteHstics. — ^The indications of the stream are the appearance and the
temperature of the water. The stream, in its lower latitudes and usual course, in
fair water, where it flows uninterrupted, may be known by ita smooth and clear
blue surface; for, without the line formed by a ripple on its edge, the water in
some places appears like boiling water of a olue colour ; and, in other places, it
foams like the waters of a cataract, even in dead calms, and in places which are
fathomless.

in greater quantity and larger clusters than within it.

It has been said that the water within the stream does not sparkle in the night.
We are assured by Captain Livingston that, thoueh this is a common, it is a
misconceived, idea. " I have frequently seen it sparkle much ; even last night it
sparkled considerably, when we were in about 25° N., and 80° or 79° 40 W. ;
and off Cape Roman, Cape Fear, Cape Hatteras, and the entrance of the Deleware,
I have seen the water sparkle pretty much, though I think not equal to what
it does in many other parts of the ocean.' — In the Stream, 10th of September,
1818. A. L.

" It has been mentioned by Dr. Franklin, that the water of the Gulf Stream

does not sparkle in the nijht. This, so far as my observations go, is incorrect : I
saw little or no difference between that and the other water on the coast; but,
if there waf< any, that of the Gulf Ftream was the most sparkling and luminous. It
may, however", be observed, that the same water is very different, at different times,
in this respect.

"■ The same ingenious writer and philosopher likewise observes, that the gulf-weed
is a sign of being in the stream. This is in part true, but by no means to be considered
as a general rule, because the water on the borders of the stream is constantly mixing
with the adjoining water, and leaving some of the weed behind, which consequently falls
into the eidy currents, and is carried off many leagues."

(214 ) Extent. — The Gulf Stream commences its great career between the Tortugas
Bank and the coast of Cuba, therefore the line joining the Dry Tortugas and Havana
may be taken as ita stia-ting point. It is here 96 miles wide. At the channel between
the' Kay Sal Bank and Somorero Kay it is only 48 miles wide; off Cape Florida, its
narrowest (and shallowest) part, it is 46 miles. Between the edge of soundings off
Jupiter Inlet and the MataniUa Reefs it is ». miles. This part of the Gulf Stream,
which confines it, before it shoots off uncontrolled into the Atlantic is 330 miles
long.

Pursuing its way northward, its warmest waters and strongest current keeps near
to the edge of the bank of soundings which fronts the coasts of Georgia and tue Caro-
Unas, following the general curve very strictly, and in its mitin strength keeping
60 miles off Cape Hatteras. This portion of its course from the channel within the
Matanilla is about 690 miles further.

To the northward of this it still follows the edge of the banks of soundings, and
being diverted more to the east by the obstacles lying off it, gradually winds more

or, ho is open

Journal of Commissioner Andrew Ellicott, Philadelphia, 1803.

S20

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

eastward towards the parallel of 40% and skirting the southern edse of the Grand
Banks of Newfoundland, it proceeds with diminished velocity and temperature to
about the meridian of 40° West, when its further drift; to the westward cannot be dis-
tinguished from that to the north and south of it. T^is Airther course may be taken
«t about 1,600 miles. The total distance we have thaa gone over will be about 2,500
lailes, throughout the whole of which its characteristics may be distinctly traced,
although its lateral boundaries are not so easily defined. It has been usual to extend
its independent existence some 1,200 or 1,500 miles further to the shores of Western
Europe, as before stated, but when its volume in the outset, or in its narrowest part,
is considered, it will be no great sacrifice of previously formed opinions to curtail it of
its more extended features.

(215.) Throughout its latter course its left-hand margin carries the greatest
streng^. In the Gulf of Florida its southern side is the most poweiful. Nor^-
ward of the gulf its eastern and south-eastern side is difficult to define, as it is found
that the Gull Stream may be said to consist of several longit^dinal bands of water,
as presently described. To the southward of British North America its force
gradually disappears till it is lunt in the central still water of the Sargasso Sea.
The diagram of the currents which elucidates this section will give a clearer
idea of ite relation to the great circulatory system, than any long description
can do. -

f 216.) Depth. — ^Deep-sea sounding has of late years been conducted with such pre-
cision and certainty that any doubto which were rormerly held on this topic ought to
be abandoned. It is true that the labour and appliances can only be at the command
of Government vessels in their extended use ; but the United States' Government
officers have done well to maintain their national honour in their endeavours to eluci-
date their famous current.

We are now made intimate with the former hidden mysteries of the commencement
of the Gulf Stream, through the observations conducted by the United States' Coast
Survey between 1866 and 1859. In the first named year, Lieutenant-Commander
Craven obtained soundings and temperatures along the bottom of the stream in its
narrowest part, 45 miles wide, between Cape Florida and the Bernini Isles, which are
so remarkable as to overturn all preconceived notions. The next sestion is from the
Carysfort Reef Lighthouse to the Bahama Bank, about 50 miles southward of the
former, and was examined by Lieutenant-Commander Craven in May, 1859. The
next, by the same officer, and in April of the same year, is between Sombrero Kay
on the Florida Reefs to the West point of the Salt Kay Bank, and thence to the
coast of Cuba, near Cayo Piedras; and the fourth is at the point where the Gulf
Stream, as a stream, may be said to commence, between the Dry Tortugas and the,
Havana. This was examined by Commander Sands in 1858.

In the section between the Tortugas and the Havana, 13 stations were observed,
the distance across being about 96 miles. The stations are not quite equally dis-
tributed in distance over the whole interval ; but the following figures will give the
common results. The stations commence frt>m the northern side : —

33 35 65 130 200 330

620 610 710 770 fathoms.

It will be seen tnat the deepest water, about 800 fathoms, is on the Cuban side,
being within five miles of Havana. This characteristic is followed all the way along
the Cuban side and that of the Great Banks, lliis effect seems to have been pro-
duced by the action of the sub-current in wearing a deeper channel upon the concave
side of the stream. At the Havana, as above shown, there is an abrupt descent of
nearly a mile within five miles of the shore, while, on the side of the Tortugas and
Kay West the water is comparatively shallow and the descent gradual.

This fact goes to confirm the conclusion that the strong current of the Gulf Stream
makes the circuit of the Gulf of Mexico (204.), since if it impinged directly upon
the land of Kay West and the Tortugas, we should find its efiects in the wearing of a
deeper channel on that side.

(217.) The next section is about 120 miles farther East, from the Sombrero Light-

THE GULF STREAM.

321

house to the Salt Kay Bank, and 4 stations were obaerred in the distance of forty-five
miles.

60 130 600 376 fathoms. j ^f ^ noItSir

The last being within 5 miles of the Salt Kay Bank, the descent from the Florida
side being more g^dual.

(218.) The ne!£t section is between the Carvsfort Lighthouse and the Great Bahama
Bank, a line bearing about E. by S. and W. by N. true, distance 63 miles. 6 stations
were observed, commencing from the Florida side ; they were as follow : —

120 380 P 600 P 470 P 370 P 213 fathoms. "*•'•'

The steepest descent is that on the eastern side of the stream as before noticed.

(219.) The next is the most important because the most remarkable — that across
the narrows of Cape Florida, a distance of 45 miles. It was taken nearly East and
West true, and at equal distances 6 miles apart. The depths were as ftilow : —

72 170 170 260 300 315 326 300 100 fathoms. n

320 370 '^^•

(220.) The shattoweat and narrowest part of the stream is therefore here. From
hence westward there is a rapid descent of the bottom from 360 to 800 fiithoms, or
2,700 feet, in a distance of 200 miles ; and the temperature siuVs from 80° on the sur-
face to 40' at the bottom. At this last section, also, instead of ^^e even curve which
the bottom seems to have as in the southern sections, it is here somewhat irregular,
and hence northward there are some curious variations of temperature discovered in
crossing the axis of the stream which are not found to the south-westward, as will be
presently explained.

The fact of the shoalest part of the bed of the Gulf Stream being on the Florida
side will account for the existence, on that side almout exclusively, of a counter or
westward current, which will be more fully dilated on hereafter.

(221.) The same process of deep-sea soimding and gaining the temperature has been
carried on at various points to the northward on lines perpendicular to the axis of the
stream, extending from the shore to beyond its outer hmits.

It is difficult to explain the nature of these soundings and their results without the
accompanying diagrams ; but they are, of coursv->, of more utility to the physical
geographer than to the sailor. What follows on thlK head is mainly derived from the
Ileports of tiie United States' Coast Survey.

The general plan of exploration of the Gulf Stream, laid down in 1846, was to
observe the phenomena on sections perpendicular to its axis from well-determined
points on the coast. In pursuance of this design, sections were run from near Mon-
tauk Point, Sandy Hook, Cape Henlopen, Cape Henry, and Cape Hatteras, previous
to 1848. Lieut. Comg. Craven was directed m 1853, in returning from the Florida
Reef, to run four sections across the stream from near Cape Canaveral, St. Augustine,
St, Simons, and Charleston ; and Lieut. Comg. Maffit, after closing his work at
Georgetown, South Carolina, tonm three sections respectively from Charleston, Cape
Fear, and Cape Hatteras.

On the Charleston section, bottom was carried from ten fathoms, thirty-eight
nautical miles south-east from Charleston Light, to one hundred fathoms, sixty-five
miles south-east from the light. The bottom was not reached at five hundred
fathoms, nor in 600 fathoms in the stream. At 97 miles from Charleston Light,
after crossing the wannest water of the Gulf Stream, bottom was struck in three
hundred fathoms in the main strength of the current, and was kept at variable depths
from five hundred to three hundred and seventy fathoms to two nundred and scicu
miles fivm the coast, or eighty miles beyond the outer limit of the stream. The
bottom was brought up in every case, and has been presei-ved, showing some ^'^ry
interesting results.

After crossing the Gulf Stream on the Canaveral section, Lieut. Comg. Craven
gtniRk aniinflin''" at f"ur hundred fathoms at sixty-nine miles ftv»m ths oruse* if

. V#UA & A

2 s

322

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

appears thus that the ezigtence of soundings of from three hundred to four hundred
fatnoms, after crossing the Gulf Stream at these two points of our coast, was dis-
covered independently by the two officers nearly at the same time. In the subsequent
sections run by the Cormn, soundings were struck one hundi-ed and twenty-five miles
off St. Simons in five himdred fathoms, and off Charleston in four hundred and eighty
fathoms.

The form of the bottom on the Charleston and Canaveral sections shoals gradually
from the shore to fifty-three and thirty-six miles respectivelv, then suddenly falls off
to below the depth of six hundred fathoms. On the Charleston section, ninetv-six
miles from the coast, is a range of hills steep on the land side, and having a height of
eighteen hundred feet and a base of about eleven miles on the seaward side ; a second
range one hundred and thirty-six miles from the coast, fifteen hundred feet high and
twenty-eight miles base towards the shore, and six hundred feet high, with a base of
about seventeen miles, on the outer side. Beyond this is a more gradual rise. On
the Canaveral section the inner range b sixty-eight miles from the coast. In factj on
the Canaveral section, aft«r sounding at the depth of one thousand and sixty fathoms,
the steamer drifting about a mile and a quarter, line showed bottom at four hun-
dred and sLcty fathoms. Both are stated to have been good up and dovm casts.
These first observations, while they are merely a foundation to build upon,_ are un-
doubtedly in the highest degree, interesting and important in their connexion with
the phenomena of the Gulf Stream.

On the sections from Cape Fear and Cape Hatteras, after leaving the shoals near
the shore, the depths increase very rapidly.

Lieut. Comg. Craven noticed ripples in connexion with the irregularities of the
bottom on the Charleston section. Similar lipples were observed on the Sandy-hook
section and on the Montauk section in 1845, and were compared to the " rips " on
the Nantucket shoals. These are, however, probably a secondary effect of the irregu-
larities by the changes of current produced. ^ ii i .

(222.) As far, then, as Cape Hatteras the bed of the Gulf Stream has been found
not to exceed 600 fathoms in depth, and is in many parts very irrep^ular. We know
but little as yet to the northward of this ; but infer that the ocean is here very deep,
as at 100 miles N.E. of Cape Hatteras Lieutenant Lee, U.S.N., in the Dolphin, foimd
it to be 1,460 fathoms ; and at 225 miles south of Nantucket, Lieutenant Berryman,
in the same vessel, found the depth to be 2,920 fathoms. South of Sable Island, in
lat. 40° i N., 2,750 fathoms were found. South of the Grand Bank, from 1,700 to
to 2,710 and 3,130 fathoms were found by the Dolphin, These are depths to which
the Gulf Stream can have no influence, as it will be shown that even in its
narrowest part it does not reach to the bottom. Although thus deprived of a large
portion of the magnitude with which it was formerly believed to be invested, it is
not the less a wonaerful stream, as it is able so expanded and thinned out to main-
tain its course and character unimpaired over the counter-currents of a totally differ-
ent origin and nature which flow beneath it.

(223.) Breadth- — As has been stated before, it is difficult to define the exact
boundaries of the Gulf Stream, which is, in fact, but one out of a series of several.
But whilst the more minute examination which has been made has added something
to our knowledge of its features, it has not hitherto been sufficiently extensive to fix
its limits, either by an average, or, if it is more exactly defined, to give us the posi-
tion of its margin in different seasons. However, as numerous observations have
been given on its drift, we may give a rude approximation to its extent from the

nitions where the drift has been found to be appreciable. In the narrowest part it
bout 40 miles broad — a breadth it maintains to abreast of Cape Canaveral. Off
Charleston, it is about 70 miles ; off Cape Look-out, 100 vailea ; off Cape Hatteras,
120 miles ; while off Nantucket, it is probably expanded to 300 miles, so that it has
widened to more than seven times the extent it commenced with. This fact ought to
direct attention to its physical condition, more particularly as its warm waters could
not be, arguing from this, more than 10 to 20 fathoms deep, if, as is shown, it does
not extend, as warm water, to one-half the depth of the narrows of Capo Florida, or

r hundred
, was dia-
ubsequent
-five miles
md eighty

gradually
y falls off
ninety-six
i heigbt of
; a second
t high and
1 a base of
. rise. On
In fact> on
y fathoms,
t four hun-
own casts,
n, are un-
»xion -with

ihoals near

ties of the
>andy-hook
" rips " on
the irregu-

becn found
We know
very deep,
phin, found
Berrymon,
i Island, in
m 1,700 to
8 to which
ven in its
of a large
rested, it is
lit to main-
tally differ-

the exact
of several.

something
isive to fix
18 the posi-
itions nave
it from the
west part it
iveral. Off
i Hatteras,

that it has
ict ought to
(waters could
iwn, it does

Florida, or

THE GULF STREAM.

150 fothoms. Some explanation of this anomaly may be found in the tact of the
N. W. current along the North side of the Bahamas as shown on page 299 ; and
there is little doubt but that this drift is also the parent of some of those warm belts
which have been encountered outside the main stream.

^ (224.) Velocity. — Our knowledge of the velocity of the Gulf Stream is not suffi-
ciently extensive to pronounce absomtely at what rate it flows as a mean rate. It is
very irregular in all parts, and there has been no systematic collection of observations
recorded on the subject. The results of a large number are given in our Chart of the
North Atlantic ; but, as will be seen from the following summary, there are more
variations than can he reconcileable with the change of the seasons.

Between the Tortugas and Florida, it has been found to run at the following rates :
— January, 40 to 60 miles per day ; March, 64 miles ; April, 36 miles ; May, A miles ;
June, 24 (?) miles; July, 26 (P) miles; August, 65 miles; September, 28 miles;
October, 48 miles ; November, 30 miles ; December, 31 miles.

In the narrows off Cape Florida — January, 54 miles; March, 112 miles; June,
60 miles ; July, 96 miles ; August, 78 miles ; October, 42 (P) miles ; NovenAer, 76
miles.

Farther north these rates are diminished, as we find tlwt in the parallel of 30* N.
the mean rates are — For January, 58 miles ; April, 33 mUes ; May, 97 miles ; Sep-
tember, 84 miles ; October, 50 miles.

Off the Chesapeake, the mean daily rate is 45*5 miles ; off Nantucket, 55 miles ;
South of Sable island, 36 miles ; South of Newfoundland, 28 or ^<i miles ; ..nd South
of the Grand Bank, not more than 15 miles per day.

(225.) The latter part of the month of August and beginning of September is the
period in which the Gulf Stream runs in its greatest strength and hi^^iiest tempei &-
ture. Its weakest and lowest is in February. In October the >J: . im is consideral^l^
weaker ; and it fluctuates in all seasons according to circumst( nces . The strength of
its western and northern borders, in its entire and vast extent, is much greater than
those on the East and South, which have invariably a tendency to spread over the
ocean in whirls or eddies, and which are, therefore, comparatively weak.

The winds are found to affect the position of the surface considerably. Between
Cuba and Florida northerly winds press it southward toward the shore of the former j
southerly winds have a contrary effect. When turned to the North, easterly winds
press it to the Florida side, and westerly winds nearer to the Bahamas. Southerly
winds cause it to spread, and so may those from the North.

In the Strait of Florida, within the Bahamas, when a northerly g^le, increased to
a storm, opposes the stream in its course, this adverse power causes it to fill all the
channeLs and openings amongst the Martyr Isles and Reefs, and to overflow all the
low coast. Shipping have even been carried over the low kays, and left dry on
shore.

In the month of September, 1769, theie hapr:;r>f.t an inundation, which covered
th^ tops of the highest trees on the Cayo Largo, u'j., and during which the Ledbury
snow, John Lorain, master, was carried over the reef by the N.W. current of the
stream, caused by a gale from the N.E. The vessel bilged in shallow water, but an
anchor was thrown out, and the next day tho vessel was found to have grounded on
Elliot's Kay, with its anchor among the trees.

The water is supposed at times to have risen to the height of 33 feet ; and to have
been running against the fury of the of the winds at the rate of 7 miles an hour.
During these times the Strait of Florida exhibits a scene beyond description.

Besides the effect which different winds have upon the stream, it is subject to
another power that also directs it toward or frx)m the coast ; and that is, the moon,
which, according to her position, has different effects upon it, not, however, in equal
power with those of tbe wind ; but the disposition of the stream is increased to its
extreme, if the effect of both the wind and the moon are combined ; for, at this time,
the ocean rising highest, this regulates tho flood and ebb, and divides them in propor-
tionate times ; consequently it £rects and increases them, with an easterly moon and

324

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

wind to the West, and with a westerly moon and wind to the East ; bo that the West
and East shores are at times deprived of, and at other times overflowed by, tides, occa-
sioned by these vicissitudes.

The boisterous East, N.E., and North winds which affect the Gulf Stream, gene-
rally begin in September, and continue until March ; when, if the moon happens ,^ast
at the tune to be on the full or change, they commonly end with a hurricane.

(2;?6.) Lieut. J. C. Walsh, of the U.S.S. Taney, in 1849-60, made several irlerft-
ing experiments on the temperature and ertent of the Oulf Stream, the first in
October, 1849. On the 31st of that month he first encountered the Gulf Stream, in
lat. 37° 22' N., long. 71° 26' W., the temperature of the water suddenly rising from
66° to 76\and 77", Uie air being at 53° and 64° ; by making a S.S.E. course good,
they got out of it, judging from the water getting back to 70°, in lat. 36° 16' N.,
long. 70° 67' W., the bretwth being 71 miles ; the velocity being about 3*6 knots per
hour.

Re-crossing the stream, on his return. May 30th, 1860, he entered it in lat. 36° 30'
N., long. 72° 35' W. ; the temperature at eight a.m. being 71*8° ; at 60 fathoms,
71-8°; at 100 fathoms, 67°; the air, 70°. At noon, the surface was 78'6°; at .60
fathoms, 77-6 ; at 100 fathoms, 72-6° ; tHe air 76°. Its velocity was 2-6 knots per
hour, setting N. 77° E. He left in lat. 36° 42' N., long. 72° 10', bearing from the pomt
of entrance N. 16° E. 78 miles, which, therefore, appears to be the breadth at this
time. When on soundings next day, June Ist, in mt. 39° N., long. 70° 30' W., the
wat«r showed as low as 61° at the surface, and maintained an average temperature of
63° until he reached New York. This was a difference of 28° from the adjoining
Gulf Stream. Shoals of porpoises and black fish were seen in the hot waters of the
stream ; but little gulf weed m it, but much at its outer edges.

(227.) Captain Livingston has said : — " The calculations of the velocity of the Gulf
Stream are not to be depended on. I have found it setting at the rate of 6 knots, and
even upwards. Thiswas on the 16th and 17th of August, 1817. On the 19th and
20th of February, 1819, it seemed to be almost imperceptible. In September, 1819, it
set at much about the rate described in the charts.

One remarkable instance of iU diverging from the usually supposed velocity is
given in a communication of Captain Giles, of the barque Cfwrlea, who found it to
run 5 and 6| knots, in January, 1843. " The first day I began to make any material
progress was with the Tortugas bearing about S.E. ; the foUowing day I had a cur-
rent of 63 miles S.E. by S. ; the next oay, 60 miles S.S.E. ^ E. I was then in lat.
24° 10', long. 83° 0' W. The weather would not permit our sighting the Tortugas,
though we passed them very closely. The next iax we made, by very good observa-
tions, 76 mues of due easterly current, which, with the ship's work, placeu her in
lat. 24° 12', and long. 81° 33''W. The succeeding day, towards dark, oie wind being
strong from E.S.E., and considering myself in the vicinity of the indraught of the
Great Inlet, I put the ship's head to the southward, under cioae-ree/ed topsails, and
nothing more set, and reached her to till daylight, that being twelve hours good ;
towar£ noon it fell calm. 1 then found that we had been set nearly in the direction
that the elbow of the land trends, one hundred and ten miles, we being at noon in
lat. 26° 16' N., long. 79° 46' W. The following day we had light, variable airs and
calms, heavy rain, much thunder and lightning, and very thick weather (as it had
been the day prjviouslv). We picked ourselvs up at noon, lat. 27° 20' N. and long.
79° 30' W., having haa the current N. by E. one hundred and twenty miles. I in-
tended to pass through the Providence N.W. channel, but the current sweeps us past
the mouth of it in the light airs which we hod on the lost two days of our passage."

(228.) Captain (now General) Sabine, F.R.S., soys : — '• There can be Uttle hesita-
tion in attributing the uniisual extension of the stream in particular years to its
greater initial velocity. It has been computed by Migor Rennell. from the known
velocity of the stream, at different points of its course, that in the summer monthn,
when its rapidity is greatest, the water requires about eleven weeks to run from the
outlet 01 tne iuexicuu oeu vu uitj azuivb, uc-iug uuuut tj,ynn> gL-ugi-upiuviu niufd.

" July and August ar« generally the months of the greatest initial velocity of the

THE GULF STREAM.

325

the West
destocca-

im, gene-
»penB,^ust

I ir/i«rt'>t-
i first in
stream, in
}ing from
rse good,
(6° 16' N.,
biota per

t. 35» 30'
fathoms,
5"; at .60
knots ^r
I the pomt
th at this
)' W., the
erature of
adjoining
ers of the
i, . .' , ' "'

»f the Gulf
knota, and
I 19th and
er, 1819, it

velocity is
9und it to
y material
lad a cur-
len in lat.

Tortugas,
d observa-
>eu her in
nnd being
^ht of the
)sail8, and
>urs good{
e direction
it noon in
le airs and

(as it had

and long.
ilea. I in-
}ps us past

passage."

ttle hesita-
ears to its
the knovm
er months,
[n from the

stream, and the period when the levels of the Caribbean and Mexican Seas are most
deraltiged. <'--^>;v:> ,s':r '';.':•*■■ •

" The initial velocity in November, 1822, was 70 miles in the twenty-four hours.
The temperature 80° 8 to 80°-6. After passing Cape Hatteras, 77 miles.

" In the summer months the stream issues from the outlet with a velocity nearly
one-third greater than at the period of the Pheasanfa voyage; or the latter part of
November, 1822.

" On the 5th of December, 1822, the Pheasant, bound to New York, quitted the
northern boundary of the stream in lat. 36|*, long. 72|°. In the stream, in lat.
36° 14', long. 72° 26', the temperature of the surface water was 74°, aad of the air,
65°. Between ten a.m. and noon the temperature had fallen from 74" to 62-4°, being
a difference of 11*6. The surface water on which the ship entered was in motion to
the westward, at the average rate of 16 miles in the following twenty-four hoiu«, and
generally to the West and S.W. between the northern side of the stream tod the
J^ftpks on the coast of Maryland. This motion roay be more properly characterified
'■''' as a drift current, occasioned by the prevalence and strength of recent northerly gales,
than as a counfor-ourrent. In approaching the bank (or soundings), the sm'face water
at eight a.m. and at noon, on the 7th of December, was 59-5" ; at thice p.m. it had
fallen to •54-2° ; on which, upon sounding, bottom was found in 33 fathoms ; on the
following morning, in 30 fathoms, the surface was 63*6°, and at eight a.m. on the
19th, in 12 fathoms, but still with no iand in sight (being 20 miles ofiP the coast),
41 ■d'". In the afternoon of tho same day, when about 2 miles d'stant from Sandy
Hook (New York Harbour), the water had finally lowered to 46°. Thus, in a space
of the ocean scarcely exceeding 200 miles in direct distan':e, the he&t ox tlie sunaoe
progressively diminished from 74° to 46°."*

Remarks on the Stream, by Captain W. J. JJfonteaiA.— Between lat. 25° 40'
and 28° 20', Captain Monteath found tne current in the strait bad set 80 miles in the
twenty-four hours of June 27, 1820. On the southern border of the itream (north-
ward of the parallel of Cape Hatteras), 6th July, 1820, lat. 35° 20' to 36° 30', long.
72° 30' to 71° 3', Captain Monteath found the cuirent setting N. 45° E. 76 miles in the
twenty-four hours. Next day, July 7, to lat. 37° 40', long. 69°, he found it N. 53° E.
86 miles in twenty -four hours. On the following day, July 8, to lat 38° 38', long.
6*7°, it ran N. 58° E. 30 miles. July 9, to lat. 39° 10', long. H6° 10', westwaid only 10
miles. The observations were continued each day, by chronometer, which agreed
within a few miles.

In the stream, on the 21st ot March, 1824, lat. at noon, 29° 4', long. 79° 22' Captain
Hamlin found the stream had set North 83 miles ; on the next day, lat. at noon,
31° 8', long. 79°, N.N.W. 63 miles.

Remarks on the Stream, &c., by Captain J. Steele Park. — We have given on a
preceding page (314.) Captain Park's description of the north-westerly inset into the
Mexican Sea, and his notice of tho outset from the same. After rounding Cape An-
tonio, the land of Cuba was not seen. At this time (the latter days of May, 1824) the
stream along the Florida side, and even in the strait, was by no means so strong as it
is generally found. In the narrowest part, where, of course, we have a right to ex-
pect the greatest velocity, it was running at the rate of only '2| miles an hour. This
was correctly ascertained by meridian altitudes of sun and moon, and an excellent
chronometer. •

" When we cleared the gulf," Captain Park adds, *• I was anxious to keep in the
influence of tho stream, and pass near tho toil of the Bank of Newfoundland, but it
came on to blow hard from the northward, in lat. 34° 35', and long. 72° 20' (E. by S.
from Cape Hatteras). This, of course, drove us away to the eastward, out of the
favouiite track, and we pansed about 300 miles to the northward of the Bermudas.
During this gale for several days a current was found to proceed from the eastward to

:ity of the

• Remarks made in H.M.S. PhMumt, 1822.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

the W.S.W. ; but in lat. 38% and long, about 59% the ship was in the Gulf Stream,
setting finely to the N.E.

'< On June 33rd, at noon, Uit. 37" 51', long. 61° 54' ; June 24th, lat. 39" 56', long.
57° 26' (by altitudes and chronometer). Here the ship really made 4° 28' of easting
in the twenty-four hours' run, and the log gave only 8° 16'. In the same time much
northing was made. The true difference of latitude was 125 minutes, but the log
gave a1x>ut 80 only. The vessel had been running all the time £. by N. by compass,
and went through the water 173 miles. Allowing half a ^int of variation, gives the
true course N.E. by E. | E. Subsequently, on making Scilly, there was not an error
in the watch of a single mile,

(229.) Temperature. — The high temperature of the Oulf Stream is one of its chief
characteristics; and has attracted from very early times almost as much attention
as its velocity. A work was composed on this subject, entitled " Thermometrical
Navigation," written by Colonel Jonathan Williams, and published at Philadelphki,
1799, firom which the following extracts are given.

Commodore Tnueton says : — " In the stream the water is much warmer than the air ;
indeed, I have known it 10° warmer; but as soon as you g^et within the stream (that
is, between it and the coast), the water becomes colder than the air ; and the more as
you get on soundings, and approach the shore. If mariners, who have not the oppor-
tunity of determining their longitude by celestial observations, will only carry with
them a good thermometer, and try the temperature of the water, and compare it with
that of the air every two hours, they may always know when they come into, or go
out of, the Gulf Stream. Indeed, I have always made a practice, wnen at sea, of com-
paring the temperature of the air and water daily, and often very frequently, during
the d^y, throughout the voyage : whereby I immediately discovered anything of a
current that way going, and anerward found its strengtn and directions by observa-
tions for the latitude and longitude. It is of the utmost consequence, in making a
passage to and firom Europe, to be acquainted with this Gulf Stream ; as, by keeping
in it, when bound eastward, you shorten your voyage ; and by avoiding it, when
returning to the. westward, you facilitate it inconceivably : so much so, mat I have
fi«quently, when bound from Europe to America, spoke European ships, unacquainted
with the strength and extent of it, off the Banks of Newfoundland, and been in port
a very considerable time before them, by keeping o-it of the stream ; whereas they
lengthened their passage by keeping in it. The gincral course of the Gulf Stream
being marked on the chart, I would advise those who make the northern passage froni
Europe never to como nearer the inner line it, by choice, than 10 or 15 leagues ; and
then the probability will be that their jpassage will bo assisted by the help of a
counter-current, which often runs within it. ui coining off a voyage firom the south-
ward, be sure to steer N.W. when approaching the stream, if the wind will permit
you ; and continue that course until you are within it, which may be easily Known
DT the temperature of the water, as before mentioned. I have always considered it
01 the utmost consequence, when bound in, to cross the stream as speedily oh possible ;
lest I should be visited by calms or adverse winds, and by those iiioiins driven for
out of my way, which would prolong the voyage considerably, especially in the winter
season."

By the joumui of Captain W. Billings, of Philadelphia, it appears that, in June,
1791, Uie water on the coast of America was at the tcmi>oraturo of 61°, an'U in the
Gulf Stream at 77. By those of Mr. Williams, it appcai-s that, in November, 1789,
the water on the coast was 47°, and in the Gulf Stream at 70°, viz. : —

1791, June, Coast 61°
Stream 77

Stream warmer 16

1789, Nov. Coast
Stream

47°
70

Difference between ( Coast 14°
June and Nov. ( Stream 7

The difference of heat is, therefore, gh>ater in winter than in summer.

In thu Anwrica of 500 tons, Captain flcth, for Hiehmond, Virginia, 2nd May, 1817.
' After a sorien of bufHing winds and bulHtorous weather, we nnd ourselves on the

THE GULF STREAM.

327

Stream,

J6', long,
r eastins
me much
; the log
compaas,
gives the
tan' error

f its chief
attention
HETRICAL

ladelphia,

a the air;
earn (that
le more as
he oppor-
arry with
re it with
nto, or go
a, of com-
ly, during
tiing of a
Y ol}serva-
makin^ a
y keeping
f it, when
at I have
cquainted
n in port
Teas they
Lf Stream
tsagefrofn
meat and
help of a
the south-
ill permit
ly known
isidered it
possible ;
driven far
the winter

in June,
nil in the
lK>r, 1789,

fcast 14'
ream 7

lay, 1817.
CB on the

western, or in, side of the Gulf Stream, and, of course, not far from oar destination.
Yesterday the temperature of the air was 66°, and of the water 71°. To-day, the
air remams at 65° but the water has fallen to 50°. We have, therefore, crossed this
warm ocean river, which flows from the Gulf of Mexico." — " Notes" of Maurice
Birhheck.

" On my voyi^e from Philadelphia to Kingston, Jamaica, on board of the Schqoner
Young Dasher, October, 1817, 1 particularly attended to the thermometer. Close off
the mouth of the Delaware, in about 16 fathoms, it stood at 60° ; on the inner edge of
the Golf Stream, it rose pretty rapidly, to 66°, and, in the course of an hour, to 76° ;
next morning, 78°, which heat continued till we were to the southward of Bermuda ;
whence it gpradually increased, until between Cuba, Hayti, and Jamaica, it was 82°,
which appears to me to be the mean temperature of the sea water about Jamaica."—
From memory, 26th August, 1818. Andrew Livingston.

By the advantage of knowing how near to the coast a ship may venture, and how
to disting^uish the Gulf Stream from the water between it and the coast, we can be
sure of a favourable current either way, and a small vessel might make a short voyage
from Halifax to Georgia, which is thought by some a longer one than to Europe.
Suppose you had the wind ahead all the way; take your departure and stand for uie
stream ; so soon as you find the water increase in heat, about half as much as you
know it would when in the stieam, heave about, and stand for the coast ; you vrill
infallibly discover the edge of the soundings by the cooling of the water ; then stand
off again, and so on to the end of the voyage; when it is almost certain that the
distance would be run in a shorter time thau if there were no stream ; for you would
have a favourable inside current. On the return passage, take your departure, and
run off till you get into the warmest water, which will be middle of the stream, and
taJce the advantage of its current.

The following fact may serve to illustrate the propriety of these directions. In
June, 1798, the mail packet for Charlestown had twenty-five days' passage in going,
but returned in seven. The captain accounted for this oy having calms, or very light
airs, and a northerly current. This was the true cause. He was in the middle of the
stream, where there generally are calms or light winds ; the edges, only, which come
in contact with colder regions, being tempestuous. After being in the latitude of
Cape Hatteras, he found himself in that of Cape Henry (37 leagues to the northward).
The vessel, however, arrived at last ; and on the return voyage the captain steered
the same course back again, and with the same light airs he performed the voyage in
seven days. Had the captain known the use of the thermometer, need he to have
been much longer in going than in coming P

(230.) From the fact that whin crossing the Gulf Stream from east to West, that
the temperature suddenly fell when itH western edge was puHHcd, that is, coincidt ru!y
with obtaining soundings, it was argued by Colonel WiltiamH, and long maini.',i;ed
that the thermometer would certainly indicate the approach to soundings by a full in
the temperatpre of the water in any part of the ocean.

" In June, 1791, Captain W. Billings, of Philadelphia, in lat. 39°, long. 66°, abreast
of the Banks of Newfoundland, found that the mercury in the thermometer fell 10°.
It was near the same place that a similar obervation was made by Dr. Franklin, In
November, 1776 ; and another by Mr. Williams, in November, 1789, who from thee
and other facts infers that, " By the coincidence of these three jouinalH, at so great a
diHtance of time, and without any connexion with each other, this important fact
Bccms to be established : — A tuii'iyator may discover his appmnch toward objects of
danger, when he is at such a distance as to be able easily to avoid them, by attentively
examining the temperature of the sea ; the water ovrr banks and shoals, in these
regions, being colder, in general, than that of the deep ocean."

Now although this remark holds good as to this portion of the American coast, and
in some other porta of the world, under similar influences, yet it is founded on a fallacy,
and certainly nas not that universal a])])lieation which former obsei vers endeavoured
to olajin for it. This question is now generally well-understood," ond it is only neces-
sary thus to refer to it, as a memorial of past times. When it was first promulgated,

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

the extension of the Arctic Current to the southward in such a remarkahle manner
inside the Gulf Stream was not suspected. And although Mr. "Hedfield's views, given
hereafter, are now ftiUy maintained, yet the more extended observations of the United
States Coast Survey, have revealed such singular facts, that even now we must
confess that our knowledge of the compensating system of the ocean is exceedingly
imperfect.

(231.) The mean mr/ace temperature of the Gulf Stream, in the early part of its
course may be ascertained from the vast and confused mass of figures contained in
Captain Maury's Thermal Charts. The temperatures there recorded, however, show
lai^ variations between themselves in the same periods. This may arise from two
causes — ^the one from the variation known to exist in the stream itself (234.), and
which is frequently considerable ; and the other frt)m the imperfection of the ther-
mometers used, and this, as many of the observations appear to have been derived
from voyages made before standard thermometers were employed, may include a
considerable portion of the discrepancies which exist.

The following are the result of the calculations for the temperature of the main
strength of the current from the narrows of the Little Bahama Bonk to the meridian
of Hali&x. To the eastward of t lis, or longitude 60°, the temperature, especially in
winter and spring, becomes rapid.y lower aud very irregular, as will be presently-
alluded to, and therefore our comparison will now be limited to this section, which
comprises a distance of about 1,200 miles, and which is traversed by the stream in
about 25 to 35 days. The degrees are Fahrenheit.

Winter.— OS the Matanilla Beets, 77°-2; off Charleston, 75°'9; off Cape Fear,
73°-6 ; off Cape Hatteras, 71°-0; off the Capes of Virginia, 7rO; S.E. of New York,
"JO'S ; S.E. of Nantucket, 67'"-9 ; south of Halifax, 62*-5. It has thus cooled 14''-7 in
its passage.

Spring.— In the Florida Channel, 77''-6 ; off Charleston, 76°-5 ; off Cape Fear, 74'*-7 ;
off Cape Hatteras, 72''0 ; off the Capes of Virginia, 72'0; S.E. of New York, 70°-5 ;
S.E. of Nantucket, 67'''4 ; south of Halifax, GS^-S, In the latter part of its course it
is cooler in the spring than its ratio to the earlier part, owing to the higher velocity
of the Arctic Current, which flows under and mixes with it.

Summer.- In the Strait of Florida, 83°-2 ; off Charleston, 82''-4; off Cape Fear,
8r-2 ; off Cape Hatteras, 79"-8; off the Chesapeake, 79°-8 j S.E. of New York, 79'''2 j
S.E. of Nantucket, 80°; south of Nova Scotia, 77'''9. Here the water preserves
its heat without much diminution being only S^'S colder than when it leaves the
gulf.

Autumn— In the Florida Strait 8r-7 5 off Charleston, 8r-6 ; off Cape Fear, 78"" ;
off Cape Hatteras, JS'-S ; off the Chesapeake, 75''-5 5 off New York, 73''-0 ; off Nan-
tucket, 71°-5 J south of Nova Scotia, 69''-2.

(232.) Upon comparing these temperatures, which are carried so many miles un-
impaired hy the Gulf Streem with tne inner Arctic Current between the stream and
the shores of Virninia, New Jersey, New York, 8:p., a surprising difference will be
seen es|>^';ially in the spring months, when the difference is at a mean 30°, and at
other seaoons from 15° to 23°. This will be more fully entered into in the next
section.

(233.) it has been found that the temperature of the stream varies in a greater
degree thau could be accounted for by the climates it had passed through, being
sometimes warmer to the north, and cooler to the south, of any particular position.
This seems to be accounted for by the variability of the source of the stream in the
Odlf of Mexico and elsewhere, which it would be very difficult to follow up to
aiiv specifiic determination ; but this, practically, is of minor importance to the

PMlOT.

(234.) The Gulf Stream was fouiid, in the early operations in its investigation in
1845-48, to consist of a series of alternations of cold and warm wnter, a fact whi'-h
was very surprising at the time, but the results of the later explorations in in53,
entirely confirm the former ones in this respect. In fact, the Gulf Stream is merely

THE GULF STREAM.

329

oae of a number of bands of ^ vnn water aeparated by cold water. The observations
on the Hattoroa, Cape Fear, and Charleston sections, show a counter-current where
the oold streaks are found ; and as these observations and those for temperature are
entirely independent of each other, the coincidence in result is very striking. This
fact is of too great importance not to be very carefully followed up. It would appear,
from genei-al reasoning, that this was not unlikely to be the ease." — TTnited States'
Report. . '

On the land side the division between the cool and warm water is very distinct.
It is now concluded that this separation into distinct belts is owing to the form of the
bottom, as they appear to be strongest north of the section of Cape Canaveral, where
the lang? of submarine hills and dales (221) is foimd very much to coinc'de with the
position of these cool and warm belts ; and this conclusion is strengthened by the
fact, that south of Cape Florida, where the bottom is even, they disappear altogether.

(235.) Submarine Temperatures. — It was formerly held that the Gulf Stream
flowed on in one majestic curient of wann water from its surface to ito bed. The
magnitude of its "flfects and the extent of its area seemed to leave room for no other
conclusion. But the first observation of ice-cold water at a small depth in its
narrowest and strongest part overturned all these hypotheses, and left a most per-
plexing condition in which we are at a loss to know where to look for an explanation.*
How this cold water, flowaig directly contrary to the course of the upper strata,
should preserve its polar characteristic almost unimpaired to such an enormous dis-
tance from its origin, and under such apparently adverse circumstances, cannot be ex-
plained with our present views. Agam, by what power, or source of action, are
these lower strata made to move in an opposite direction to those superincumbent
upon it, and which, it might be supposed, would be acted on by the same laws and
move in the same manner ? It is one of the most i-emarkable evidences of that grand
compensating system by which the Great Creator has commanded that all the har-
momes of the universe shall be maintained — which keeps the atmosphere and ocean in
a perpetual condition of interchange, and thus makes them fit for the sustenance of
his creatures.

"We have alluded to this universal intermingling of the ocean waters before (133).
Of the presence of polar water in these tropical regions there can be no doubt. The
following extract from the Report of the Superintendent of the U.S. Government
Survey will place it beyond question : —

" The southern sections present, on a small scale, the same phenomena which we
formerly traced over a large expanse in the more northern ones. Examining the
Canaveral section, which is the fmthest south, we see the cold wall almost as pin inly
as on that from Sandy Hook j the curve, showing the mean results betwee^i. 70 and
100 fathoms, riijes some 17 degrees, from 67^° to 74 J" Fahrenheit, in the distance of
23 nautical miles, Tbe warm water, overlying the cold, is deeper in its overflow to-
wards the shore — that is all. After pasHing through th? warmest water, which, in
June, 1853, was only 80J^" Fahrenheit at two fathoms >;. d a half, there is a fall of
temperature of sevc:^! degrees, followed by a rise. On liie St. Simons section the
cold wall is again well shown, and is the first of those distinct bands of minimum
temperature dividing four maxima, of which the greatest body of warm water of the
Gulf Stream is the second fiom the shore. Near the surface the first and fourth
maxima are the highest ; at 15 f><thoms, the first and second) at 150 fathoms, the suc-
cessive maxima rise as they rec< J.o from the shore. The Charleston section presents,
as a general feature, between 25 fathoms and ? fathoms four minima and three

• In the exporimonts made by the United States* Coast Survey the temporaturo was
pfiiinoil from pfl depths, from the Hurfiico ilown to 600 fathoms. At groat depths a pe< ' ir
thermometer was used, consfructod for the purpoao, wlioao principle of action dtpo •»

tho diftnring expaneiiori of two motals. It is a spiral coil, oompoMed of two atripH of siivor
and platinum soldered togothor, which, from thoir unoqual contraction and ixpansion by
the effects of tomjwraturc, act on an indox, which regiflters the extreme temperature uscei--
tained, and was found to an.iwer excendingly well.

2 T

i -f^^'^^M]

330

OBSl }WATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

maldma. Within the cold wall minimmn is a deoided toarm belt, and probably
f>-:< JVr ',-0. in-shore is a cold one. The rise in the mean of the temperatures at 20
urd no C ahoms is 11° Fahrenheit, naiiely, from 64° to 75°. The advantage of not rely-
irg i i^vi-face temperatures, or t/hose near the surface, where the distribution is so
tavust I'^M regular and marked than below, will be recognised in all these results, and
was early provided for in my instructions.

" The underlying cold water from the northero region/^ Is 63 plain in ik@ Biixiheva
sections OS it was in the n.nre northern. 400 fathoms verticol' / ~«low the vravraest
water of the Gulf Stream, on the Cape Henlopen section, in Aui^'Uf t, 1846, th« tn,ipe-
rature was 49° Fahrenheit, and in the same position off Cape C,^:^avFr'll,, it. ,i.-!3,
1853, it was 48F The latitude corresponding t: the fi: .i tcnipcrctvie wti;? :■ mi
Sr 20', and to the last abouf 28° 20'. laen+, Charles H. Davis, in October, (MS,
found a temperature of 40° .it 1,000 fathfivns, in lat, 39» 25 , iad long. 69° 01', and
Lieut. George M. Bache 40° r.x 2.160 fBtlnaw, in lat, M" 13', long. 68" 05'. licnt. S.
P. Lee, in August, 1847, found 57° belo .y ±e Gulf Stream, at the depth of 3 ,000
fathoms, in lat. 35" 26', long. 7i> 12'; and agair 48" beyond th*. Gulf St'-epra, ft*, the
same depth, in lat. SO" 10', and long. 68° 9'. Li- ' r. Ki /iard Bache, m Jidy, 1^8,
found a tempci-oture of 42' at 1,00 » fathoms, in. lat. 35« 6', atid long. 74° 7', Wlcw the
surface of the (ijjf "iream. •

' "The mot th-itthi; Me limits of the polar current recede iVom th^' shore as the
5epth i:LV--«hse8, is rlearly marked on all the set-rions. Dii-ettly down below the
me^imui Mrfnc* < . sn peratrt. p we soon plunge into this cold current, the warmer
water recodi'tK- C - .ri tbe shelve and at 400 fathoms reach temperatures, the differences
brtwoen wL!< :■ ">.th- iKTth and south are of an order corresponding to the variations
of tlio ocean Tah re in dlSerent years and at different seasons. For example, at the
d( pth of 400' fathons, on the Sandy Hook section, in 1846, vertically below the crest
of the Gvlf Stream the temperature was 51° Fahrenhpif ; on the Henlopen section, at
the corresponding point, 61"* ; m the Cape Henry sectioa, 541" ; in 1848, on the Cape
Hcury section, 521°; and on the Hattoras section, 02^ ; in 1853, on the Hatteras
section, 61"" ; and on the Cape Fear section, 64" j all the foregoing observations being
rami?, in July and August of the several years. In Jtmo, 1853, the temperature at
the point and depth before noted, on the Charleston tiectio/i, was 65", and near Cape
Florid V, 14 miles E.N.E. from the light, was 51", varying fi-om 64"' to 46" in the in-
termeckiatc localities. The low temperature of 46" was observed on the Canaveral
section. The temperature at 400 fathoms, near Cape Florida, is the same as was
observed on the Sandy Hook aoction in July, 1846, viz., 48".

" I remarked that these differences came within the annual changes near the sur-
face. Not to complicate the examination with surface irregularities, if we compare
the maximum temperatures it 12 or 15 fathoms below the surface of the different
sections, in the same year, we shall find, as a general rule, an increase of temperature
in passinp: southward, as 81", 83% 82", from the Sandy Hook to the Cape Henry sec-
tion; in i846, 75|°, 76", 77 i", 79^", from the Charleston secti Cape Canaveral.
But in successive years we have for the highect temperature at 12 fathoms, on the
Cape Henry section, higher than that of Hatteras ; and the temperaturr in July,
1846, on the axis of the Gulf Stream, higpher at Sandy Hook than in JuTie, 1853, at
Canaveral, by a decree and a half, and higher than Charleston by five and a half
degrees. It is obvious that here an interesting field of inquiry opens, requiring care-
ftif re search."*

(236.) The CoW Wall. — The separation between the warm, deep, blue waters of the

Oulf Stream and the inner cold counter-current is sot
" one end of a ship is sometimes seen in the one, and *:
rent." Although it does not follow that this line > ■
Captain Maury says as above, yet a remarkable fea: i
United Ste.tes' C.f t Survey so often quoted h' - 1
the two currentr ■; > well marked beneath the .« ivs s,

times BO well marked that

ti:cr end in the other ci.''

»: arcation is as distinct as

M been eliminated by the

tnat the separation between

and to the greatest depths, as

♦ Fro£saw>r A. D. Bache, Report U. 8. f >;

vfty, 1863, pp. 48-9.

* See
n. 25P

probably
res at 20
! not rely-
tion is so
isolts, and

3 Bivathevn

< warraest
hi' t'.fape-

,, it; i'iiTB,

KCH ? .. iiiV;
bw, lrt46,
1° 01', and
Licnt. S.
h uf 1,000
p.-Q, ftj. the
!>ily, i<l48,
Wlcw the

ore as the
below the
[le wanner
differencea
! variations
iple, at the
w the crest
t section, at
1 the Cape
e Hatteras
tions being
r>erature at
near Cape
in the in-
Canaveral
me as was

sar the sur-
ire compare
le different
emperature
Henry sec-
Canaveral,
ms, on the
in July,
ne, 1853, at
and a half
iiring carc-

aters of the
larked that
! other cti'-

distinct tis
ated by the
ion between

depths, as

THE GULF STREAM.

331

to have obtained for it the title of 'Jie " Cold Wall," being, in fact, an upright divi-
sion between them. This peculi* nty has been found to exist almost aloug the whole
coast of the United States, whe? e the stream skirts the bank of soundings. Without
diagrams the features cannot b' made quite intelligible ; but the main fact, so inte-
resting to the physical geogripher, is as above stated — that there appears to be a
marked non-affinity between the waters flowing in opposite directions.

It was at first supposed fixe cold wall was cut off at Cape Hatteras, but the subse-
quent researches have qualified this notion. The cold water has been traced as far as
the Tortugas. Off the Sombrero Key the existence of the cold wall was strongly
marked at depths varying from 70 to 100 fathoms, while everywhere the warm water
overflows the cold wall, and reaches quite to the shore.

The shallowness of the stream in the Strait of Florida, connected with the fact that
that the bottom falls off rapidly to the north and south, afforded an excellent oppor-
tunity for testing the question whether the cold water of the under polar current is
forced upwards by the change in depth — as, should this be the case, the cold water
would appear in tne shallow part of l^e strait ; and this has actually been foiind to
be the case, as the warm surface water of the temperature of 80° ana the cold water
of the bottom of the temperature of 49° nearly approach each other. It does not
follow by this that the " waters run up hill," as aas been stated.

(237.) CpiniTEB CTJBBENTS-— Besidto the great arctic current which flows
southward inside the stream to bo described in the next section, there are some other
counter currents on each side of the stream which require notice here. The appear
in the first part of its course in the Gulf of Florida, where they have been known to
flow from the earliest times, as has been alluded to in (200.), page 316.

(238.) The Counter Current along the Florida Beefs is marked on all the old
surveys of these reefs, and is, during the summer months especially, frequently met
with. It may be readily accounted for. On page 320 (216.) it will be seen that tlie
main strength of the Oulf Stream, after passing the " Great Whirlpool " • of the
Mexican Gulf, runs with the greatest swittness past the coast of Cuba, and that the
channel is by much the deepest close to the south side, slopes more gradimlly from the
north. On the shallower water, but not within the reefs, this counter current runs,
by which a vessel may with ease and knowledge work to westward. It may be taken
as an eddy, aided by the trade wind, which may give it an additional impetus. It
has been well elucidated by Lieutenant E. B. Hunt, En^jineer, U.S.A., who, having
stayed in the neighbourhood for some time, obtained some particulars from the welf
intbrmcd residents of these Kays.f

(239.) Captain Oeiger, who for some thirty years, has been observing the waters of
thu vicinity, most of that time having acted as a pilot off Kay West harbour, and
who is, pernaps, better acquainted than any other person with the currents there pre-
vailing, gives the following statement of facts : —

A strong uorth or north-east wind keeps the Gulf Stream back, and makes a
westerly current uear the shore. During June, July, and August, the westerly cur-
rent prevails more than the easterly current from 5 to 15 miles from the reef. The
direction of the current depends mostly on the wind. The westerly ciUTcnt prevails
for from one-third to two-fifths the entire time from year to year for from 2 to 15
miles outside the reef off the west. He has known it 25 to 30 miles off Sand Kay.

When the Gulf Stieam is strongest on the Cuba shore, the westerly current is
strongrest (^u tha at th «ide ; and when it is weakest along the Cuba shore, the Gulf
Str f 'n <<':'■. I loan ikiHtg thr reef. He has found the westerly current as far up as
r"' ■ » i-iort, out !:"t frequently, p.;id not brood or strong. This current broadens from
: 'aiysfort to the wt.t rard, and continues about constant along its course.

The tide;; on the two sides of ^^e rcjf ar« abotit six hours apart on an average, but

* 8eo Dr. Lorimer, April 2!, 1769, " Trans. Amer. Phil. Boo., Philadelphia," vol. i.,
p. '25P
t rtilUman'sAmoricaa Journal, March. 1859, vol. xxvii., pp. 207— 214.

332

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

8ct, on the 'whole, as much one way as the other over the reef. Sometimes there is a
narrow easterly current for a mile from the reef, then a westerly cuirent, and then
the Gulf Stream. A considerable number of the Gulf traders know of, and make use
of, this current in going westwardly. After nortiiers the westerly current may be
expected. Sometimes in crossing to Havana no Gulf Stream indications are found,
and sometimes a westerly current is found along the north shore of Cuba.

Nocwithstanding Captain Geiger's long observation of these currents, he says that
lie is quite unable to reduce them to nde, or in any way to know beforehand how the
current will be found to set.

Captain Richardson, pilot of the United States' Coast Survey steamer Corwen,
says : — " The westerly current appears irregularly chiefly in winter, but sometimes
duringthe prevalence of the regular trades. It extends from 10 to 15 miles off from
Sand J&ay, and runs sometimes 2 miles per hour. It never prevails over the reef
proper. It spreads flirther from the reef as it goes west. Off Indian Kay it some-
times extendi 7 miles from the edge of the reef; at Bahia Honda, sometimes 10
mUes ; and at Sand Kay, from 10 to 15 miles. Some years (as in the winter of
1866-7) there was very little of this current. The Gulf Stream usually runs stronger
on the Cuban side. In one case, in 1852, two vessels bound east passed Tortugas
which separated about 100 miles in twenty-four hours, by one captain knowing this
current and the channel, while the other kept in the westerly or counter current.
The tide below the Quicksands and Tortugas sets flood N.N.E., and ebb S.S.E., differ-
ing from the Charts."

(240.) But this counter current, also, is felt on the Cuban side sometimes, probably
all the way from the Bahamas Old Channel. Of this we have several instances from
the communications of Captain Livingston and others ; the most singular of these,
however, is that of Captain Loudon,. of the brig Perry, on returning, in the latter part
of November, 1827, from Ne^ Orleans to Liverpool. Captain Loudon had made the
Iron Hilh in Cuba ; shortly after noon he tacked ship to the northward and west-
ward about 8 or 9 miles eft shore ; next day he kept beating to windward, as near to
the middle of the strait as he could judge, and, witnout sighting the land on either
side, the wind then blowing a fresh gale to the northward ; and he continued beating
in the same manner until about eight a.m. of the second day, when, b^ reckoning, he
ought to have been near the Salt Kays ; but obtaining a lunar observation, it showed,
to his astonishment, his longitude to be to the westward of 83°. Supposing his
observation to be erroneous, he took a second set of lunar distances, which gave a
similar result. Still, however, doubtful, he stood on, and in a short time afterward

Sained soundings on the Tortugas Bank ! The northerly gale had now abated, and
e worked his vessel in, on sounding^, to the northward of tLr Dry Tortugas. With
a favourable wind he ran through the Tortugas Channel; '^ax as light and bafAing
vnnds succeeded, he made for the stream as it became dusk, and with such wind got
through the strait in the two following days, having, on his way, found the eurrent
very rapid along the Martyra.

Captain Loudon justly remarked, that so extraordinary a circumstance, of which he
ispositively certain, ougnt to be generally known.

" Masters of vessels from Vera Cruz, &c., to Havana, often lengthen their voyage
by keeping away too much to the southward after rounding the Diy Tortugas, fearful
01 being carried away to the eastward of Havana by the strength of the Florida
Stream T Some have fetched in about the Port of Honda, the Cock's Comb, and one
vetsel even as low as Cape Antonio!" — Lieut. John Evans.

(241.) Off-set or Easterly Drift from the Gulf Stream, on the North
AND N.E. of the Bahamas, &e. — The Gulf Stream about the Bahamas appears to
have a drift or tendency to the eastward ; and there is reason to believe that an off-
set of the stream, from without the Matcmillo Bank, sets, if not generally, very
frequently, to the eastward and S.E. With the usual set of the currents along the
eastern range of the Bahama Islands, we arc not accurately at quainted ; but with a
N.W. wind we have no doubt that it is in a S.E. direction. Ihe Eutopa, a sJuu f
war, returning to Jamaica by this passage from a cruise off H.r,'ana, in '1787, steered

Iiere is a
md then
make use
i may be
re foiind,

says that
how the

Corwen,
ometimes
I off from

the reef

it Bome-
stimps 10
■winter of
) stronger

Tortufl

wvag

current.
E., differ-

probably
nces from

of these,
.atter part
made the
and west-
as near to
on either
id beating
ioning, he
t Fhowed,
osing his
;h gave a
afterward
ated, and
18. With
d baffling

wind got
le eurrent

which he

ir voyagfe
as, fearful
e Florida
and one

E North
appears to
mt an off-
ally, very
alon^ the
mt with a
, a sJ'Jp f
}7, steered

THE GULF STREAM.

333

East on the parallel of 30° N. with a westerly wind, until the run was suppoeed to
have brought her on the meridian of l\irks' Islands, by which it was intended to pass
southward ; but an eastc r'y current had swept her along as high as that of the Mona
Passage. Captain Manderson, of the Royal Navy, who first noticed this event, ob-
serves, « If it were once ascertained that a current was common in that part of the
ocean, might it not be favourable for vessels bound from Jamaica to the Caribbee
Islands, especially in the summer months, during the prevalence of the sea breezes P"

Our respected friend, Captain Livingston says : — " I have no doubt that there is a
cuiTent, or rather off-set, from the Gmf Stream to windward, between Bermuda and
the Bahamas. In the Brilliant we found ourselves retarded very much in making
westing when running for the Hole in the Wall, one day, about 30 miles of 1 -ng^tude,
by excellent observations, the truth of which was confirmed by our land-fall. In the
JDispatch, we got out of the gulf on the 13th of March, 1819, when we were at noon,
by observation, in lat. 28° 0', long., by account, 79° 12' ; on the 20th of March, at
noon, we were, by meridian altitude, in lat. 29° 48', and long., by account, 72° 32'.
Observations by sun and moon, a good lunar of three sights, iutitudes and distances,
and worked tl^e times, gave '71° 18' 30'.

" In the schooner Younff Dasher, January, 1818, I spoke an American vessel, out
five days from the Chesapeake, in lat. 24° 40 , or thereabout ; my longitude by lunars
was then about 69° 60' ; his, by dead-reckoning, was 72° 20'. On the 11th of February,
1819, in lat. about 25° 10' N., we spoke the schooner Heater, Captain Lawrence, out
five days from Bermuda, bound to Jamaica ; his long, was 69° Id' ; ours, by observa-
tion, 68° 39'.

" In the ship Fame, Captain J. W. Monteath, a good lunarian, assured me that he
had been earned 3° and upwards to the eastward, between the time of his departure
from the American coast and making the Windward Passages ; but this may have
been partly occasioned b/ the Gulf Stream, which he may have crossed too obliquely
in proceeding from Norfolk." The Fame, above mentioned, was bound from Norfolk,
in Virginia, to Kingston, Jamaica, in May, 181S ; and in a run of thirteen days, until
in the lat. of 29°, and long. 61°, it was found that the current had "et the vessel 3° 10'
East.

Captain Livingston adds, that " Captaiu Hall, in the brig Lowland La»f passed to
windward of Porto Rico, when he ttiought that he had run thro%;i . ^ Mona
Passage. Captain Patterson, of the brig Clyde, as I cm informed, pas, I Jown the
Anegada Passage, when he intended to Imre made the Mona. I have heard of two
vessels falling to leeward, but both were commanded by men whose names, as seamen,
are not entitled to notice.

" In addition to the above notices, I have been assured, by an intelligent Spanish
navigator, that about thirtv years since, vessels bound from Havana to Europe used
generally to cut off 3° of longitude from their reckoning, on account of this set,
which he said was considered then as certainly existing. At that time the charts
were about a degree wrong, which would reduce the Spaniard's allowance to 2 de-
grees, or thereby.

" These notices tend to prove that an easterly off-set from the Gulf Stream sets to
the northwiird of the Bahamas ; of this I am so firmly convinctv i ,;' in charge of
a ship from the Havanna, or even New Orleans, bound to Jai;^uica, I should, if
allowed to follow my own plan, run out the Strait of Florida, and attempt making
my passage with the aid of this off-set. This is to be understood, in case I should not
have westerly winds in the southern parallels $ for such winds are, I am told, mure
frequent than formerly \ and I know that they are by no means of rare occurrence on
the S.W. of Cuba."

Captain Thomas Hamlin, in the brig Recovery, then in the Gulf Stream, was set to
the m ;•<' yard 104 miles, in the twenty-four hours of the 20th March, 1820. The
shi); . « at noon, 28" 4' N., 79° 50' W. To the north-eastward, on the next dav,
witnu M the stream, iu lat. 29° So, long. 77° 25', the current was found to have set only
11 miles Noith, but considerably more to the eastward.

On the 16th February, 1811, the ship Mars, under the same commander, wa« at

334

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

the back of the Matemillo Bank, and no northerly current was found i and nearly 2'
further eastward, in 28° T N., and 76" 68' W., the cuiTent in twenty-four bcurs nad
Bet 3° S. and 14° £. The ship was, therefore, evidently in the off-set fro^n the Gulf
Stream.

(242.) The last remark is one that would be adduced bv man3- to prove that the
surface of the Gulf Stream is roof-shajted, and that any floating body remaining in-
active on it has a tender) r-' *o drin to its margins, especially to the eastward and
south-eastward. I> i' ; \.'\i.-i ■^ amption will be borne out by more exact observa-
tion, it is difficult ifi jn«V s fit there certainly seems to be some ground for the
opinion, as itt • if^e> . ;^cially are marked by a larger collection of Gulf weed and
other drift matter than are found in the centre. Again, there seems to be a tendoncy
for vessels to be doated to the East and S.E. without their knowing it. It has been
argued by Captain Maury that this may be owing to the effect of the earth's rotation,
which nms the current from under the ship, and as, as he says, the tendency of a rail-
way train g^ing north or south, is to run off the rails to the eastward of its route.
This has been made the subject of fiiyrw ■ > ling experiments by M. Foucault and
others ; but we know so little thut it were futile to aigae on it.

(242.) In the northern regions of the stieam, when the cold upon laud is in win);er
most intense, which is generally between December and March, heavy and continuLi
gal. :i very frequently prevail, which commonly proceed from between the north and
we t across the course of the stream, from Cape Hatteras until past George's Bunk,
and oend its direction to the eavtward ; being aided at the same time by the dis-
obai'gc of the great bays and rivere, increased by the force of the wind blowing down
ihum, and the constant supply of stream that passes along the coast of the Carolinas,
the whole produces so strong a rarrent to the eastward as to render it impossible for a
ship to approach the coast until a change of wind commences.

During tb^ prevalence of a southerly or easterly wind, which is not so common
here, it has been found that the current is forced close to, and in some partb upon, the
edge of souidings ; being thus bent in between the wind and the shoal grounds near
the shore, the breadth is greatly diminished, and the velocity .>roportionably t
creased. This circumstance has been in particular observed from libout the longitude
of Block Island, along ^he edge of the Nantucket Bank, thence beyond George's
Bank, and al:*o along the coasts of Georgia and part of South Carolina. In the nrst
instance, that the southerly winds forced the current to the edge of soundings, where
it then ran from 1^ to 2 knots; and in the latter instance, that the easterly wind
forrad the current upon soundings. With West and N.W. winds, the stream would
be removed some leagues further off.

From what has been said, it, is 'Aeta that the eddies about the edges of the stream
must vary according to the circumutanr(>s abo'?e explained. Along these edges, but
more particularly Jong tho f-^uter edgi there is generally a current in a mfferent
direction, which it celera -d by the \ ad in proportion to its strength, blowing con-
trary to the stream, and retarded, or perhaps altogether obstructed, by the wind mow-
ing m the direction of the stream, in the latter case the limits of the stream vnllbe
eirtended.

(243.) Physical ijyooRAPHT of " us Channel of the Gulf Stream. — The
peculiar and dangerous character of the shores of the Gulf, rnd tLe necessity which
existed for the establishment of some m» i i-' of averting the mischief it annually occa-
sioned, led to a minute examinatici of 2 features so geologically and geographically
interesting, which has been mad racticnUy useful by the erection of a fine line of
beacons and the necessary light" tuy u the Florida Reefs.

Professor Agassiz, who investiKited th subject, has shown that the Florida Kays
and Reefs are essentially of con i formation in various sta^s of existence. At Kay
West, the basis of tliis of this is showti to be a coarse oolitic rock with cross stratifi-
cations, and dipping at various angles in different directions. The formation of coral
upon this ruck extends not only over the Kays, but also to the main land of Florida,
and by a careful process of inquiry and reasoning it may be inferred that a very
.i:«p,.r»nf r-vAfv of thiRgs existec at no very remote period ot the world's history.

\AA«AV«V1«V \/a«*V'A

TF-^ GULF STREAM.

B35

We have a peninmila — a narr< dat strip of land, projecting for about fire degrees
from the main land, between the tlantic ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, and forming
an effective barrier between the waters of the two seas, which otherwise, even by the
change - f a few feet in the relative level of the intervening peninsula, would commu-
nicate Leely with one another ; and this peninsula we now know to have been added
to the continent, step by step, in a southerly direction.

We know that the time cannot be far behind us when the present reef, with its few
kays, did not exist, and when the channel, therefore, was broader, and the Gulf
Stream flowed directly along the main range of kays. We know, fiirther, that at
some earlier period the kays themselves were not yet formed, and that the channel
between Cuba and Florida was wider still, wasmng freely over the grounds now
known as the mud flats, between the kays and the main land, and that there was then
nothing to impede a fr«e communication between the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic
ocean.

If it istrue that the Gulf Stream and the south-west winds have an influence in
determining the course of the isothermal lines upon the two sides of the Atlantic,
and of raismg beyond their normal altitude the mean annual temperatures of north-
west Europe, then we may look to the physical changes which have occurred on the
south-eastern extremity of the North American continent for the ca\ise, or at least a
partial cause, of those changes of temperature which have taken place in the begin-
ning of the present period, in those very north-western portions of Europe which are
now so much warmer thai ^he corresponding latitudes on the American continent,
and which, itoon after the . ccumulation of the glacial drift, had as low mean annual
temperatures as the coasts of Labrador, Nova Scotia, and New England in our day.

The present condition of the Florida country then is this ; — On the outer edge we
have " the reef" a submerged line of danger to the navigator, which rises nearly to
the surface of the water, on which every variety of coral life is developed. It follows
the line of Kays within it in a perfectly parallel curve, and forms tne boundary to
the Ship Channel inside it for hundreds of miles. Upon this line and space are small

SatchpH w?iich rise above the surface, of course of dead coral, and upon these is gra-
nnlly heaped the e^irtis of the reef, in the from of sand and broken coral till it
atl us a permanent level above the surface. Within this reef is a channel which has
a depth of from 2 to 7 and 8 fathoms, which, with care and some knowledge, may be
navigated, and which has various openings to it through the reef.

These Kays consist geneiuUy of coral boulders and the fragments of coral and shells
heaped up by the action of the waves, and which have become agglutinated by some
111 are process, till they become firm land, not by the upheaval of old coral growths,
L by the action of a stormy sea and tremendous waves. They are generally level,
an I it is only at times that the water rises sufficiently to occount for their elevation.
We have noticed on page — an instance long recorded of an extraordinary rise in
the waters.

In the year 1846, the water rose eight and a half feet above high- water mark at
Key Vacaa. Key West was entirely inundated during the same gale ; and though
that island is somewhat protected by the reef, even at present fhe rashes, driven upon *
it by the flood, may be seen among the trees and bushe;., at a l.eight almost equal to
its loftiest summit. In 1841 the water rose ten feet ahove high-water mark at Cape
Romaine, on the western shore of the peninsula.

This brief notice must suffice on this head. Proceeding still further northward, we
find an important result of the operation of the Gulf Stream, in the formation of the
rauge of the Sea IsIh da of Georgia, so famous for the growth of its peculiar cotton.
These low alluvial deposits are the results of gradual accretion still going on, which
afibids a genial soil for the cotton plant, while the tepid woters of the Gulf Stream,
which rush past them, tempers the easterly winds which blow on this seaboard, and
add their important influences to the peculiar growth of this cotton plant.

(244.) Although its shores afford many living wonders, the bed of the Gulf Stream
is still more the suiiipot of marvel. The bottom has been brought up in considerable
quantities from thp ^leatest depths, and has been found to consist almost entirely of

336

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

minute animal forms, covered with or having skeletons oT a oiM*. vreor.i or silioeoos
nature. The following is the account given of them by Mr. 1 F. Pourtales, U.S.
Coast Survey; they were procured by Lieutenant Craven, U.S. Navy, as before
stated: —

Lat. 26' 12', long. 79** 54' (off Hillsborough Inlet), depth fiOO fathoms. This speci-
men consists almost entirely of foraminifersB with a very small proportion of quartzose
sand, estimated at about 10 per cent, in bulk. Okibigerina rubra forms the mass, with
a pretty large proportion of Rotalina cultrata, Orbulina univeraa, and TextuUtria
turbo. It also contains minute gasteropoda (natica'hassa ?) and fragments of the shell
of a crab. The whole is of a chalky white colour, only a few of the globi^erinie
being pink.

_Lat. 27° 37', long. 79° 19', depth 600 fathoms; has the api)earance of fine white mud,
mixed with yellow sand. It is composed entirely of foraminiferee and their Augments,
in the form of a fine powder. No silex.

Lat. 28° 24', long. 79° 13' (on the outer eflge of the stream off Cape Canaveral),
depth 1,050 fathoms. Composed of foraminiferee ; silicious sand in almost impercep-
tible quantity. A small portion taken from the lower part of the specimen, after
shaking it with water, only showed one or two per cent, of silicious sand after disso-
lution m acid. Globtgerma rubra (white, yellow, and pink — the two first colours
predominant) forms the greater bulk. Also, Orbulina univeraa, Rotalina cultrata,
Rayleyi and Ehrenbergii. Of other animal remains there were found pieces of coral
(cariophillia — ? — some white and worn, and some brown, and in better condition), a
piece of a large Gasteropod, old; and worn pieces- of Anatifa, and very small pteropods
(spiratella).

Lat. 29° 48' 0', long. 79° 31' 0' (in the strength of the stream off St. Augustin),
depth 560 fathoms. Globigerina rubra and Rotalina cultrata, in about equal propor-
tions. No quartzose sand or other material.

Lat. 29° 48' 0', long. 79° 17' 0% depth 450 fathoms. Globigerina, Orbulime, and
Rotalina (R. cultrata). No quartzose sand. It contains, also, considerable numbers
of very delicate shells of pteropod molluscs, belonging to the genera Hyalsea, Spinalis,
and Spiratella ; also, small pieces of coral.

Lat. 31° 32', long. 78° 20' (in the centre of the stream off Savannah), depth 600
fathoms. Consists in foraminiferee and small shells, and in fragments of shells and
corals. The foraminifcra) are chifly larger specimens of a kind of Rotalina, of a
rough ard heavy appearance. The other kinds found among them present also a
similar appearance. The fr-agments of shells and corals are worn and rounded, and
seem to indicate an agitation of the water near the bottom.

The scientific names attached to these minute creatures can be explained in other
works. But some interesting questions arise on this unexpected discovery. The first
is, did these creatures live and die in their present position? or were they living on the
surface, and when dead have fallen to the bottom ? At first it was considered that
the latter was the true solution of the difficulty, but later researches have made it
almost certain that their natural locality is in these vast depths, and that here they
grow and accumulate, perhaps forming vast deposits similar to those of our chalk and
marl formations, which, as it is well known consist for the most part of the calcareous
coverings of* microscopic animalculte. In the changes which have occurred in the
geological history of the crust of our earth, there are but few animals which have
passed through several epochs. But the Foratninifera, the Globigerina, so abundantly
found as above, is also most abundantly met with fossilised in the chalk. 'They are
met with in this apparently light-brown mud brought up by the sounding machine, of
all dimensions, from less than one-thousandth of an inch in diameter up to more than
one-sixteenth of an inch. They are very beautiful objects in the microscope, and as
quoted above, are found to be coloured pink, S^c, showing that light does penetrate
to these vast depths, and they also contain the animal tissues, which demonstrate
that they are, or hav^ been, recently alive. This latter point was not believed to be
possible beyond 300 or 400 fathoms a few years since, but the important discovery of
lire itar-fUh brought wn from the denth of 1260 fathoms, between Greenland and

THE GULF STREAM.

937

Iceland (as quoted on page 261) show thia opinion to be onfoonded. Kworm stem
also brought up firom 726 fathoms at 180 miles E.N.E. of Trhiity Bay, Newfoundland,
by Lieutenant Dayman, in 1867.

§i46.) It is shown above that the bottom at the greater depths of 1,000 fathoms
upwards consisted almost excltmvely of these minute organisms, and that the tem-
perature at these depths is about 40° Fahrenheit. The same circumstances and con-
ditions are found to exist in a very remote part of the ocean ; that above alluded to,
between the British Isles, Iceland, and Greenland. In the operations of sounding
for the Atlantic Telegraph Cable by Lieutenant Dayman, in 1867, and Sir L. M'Clin-
tock, in 1860, the bottom was plentiftilly brought up fi-om these high latitudes. In
an examination, by Professor Huxley, of these deposits, he found them almost in the
same condition as they had been found by Mr. Pourtales in the Gulf Stream.

" The soundings which present most attraction to the naturalist are those obtained
firom great dcn>ths. Those which I have examined ranee from 1,700 to 2,400 fathonur
(taking the depths marked upon the labels of the bottles), that is to say, from
depths equivalent to heights between that of the Peak of Teneriffe and that of Mont
Blanc.

^ " A singidar uniformity of character pervades these soundings so far as I have
hitherto gone. As they he undisturbed they form an excessively fine, light brown,
muddy sediment at the bottom of the bottles in which they are preserved ; but in this
mud a certain slight erittiness can be detected, arising from the intermixture of
minute hard particles (Hardly any exceeding l-60th of an inch in diameter), in larger
or smaller, proportions, and, as might be expected, always existing in much greater
quantity towards the bottom of the deposit.

<< When a little of this mud is taken out, and thoroughly dried, it )jecomes white
or reddish white, and (though less white) closely resembles very fine chalk.

« Fully nine tenths, as I imagine, by weight, of this deposit consists of minute
animal organisms, called Foranunifera, provided with thick skeletons composed of
carbonate of lime.

" When a little of the mud is diluted with water, and spread out under the micio-
scope, the first thing that strikes the eye is the immense number of exceedingly
minute granules and fragments which strew the field of vision.

« Memy of these particles have a brownish colour, and are insoluble in strong hydrcH
chloric and nitric acids ; many are simply fragments of the organisms contained in
the deposit, and siliceous or calcareous, as the case may be.

<' The comparatively heavy and solid calcareous organisms to which I have above
referred, are those wmch, by their larger forms, are the chief source of the grittiness
of the deposit. They are nearly opaque, and appear white by reflected light. I have
estimated their proportion as nine-tenths of the whole ; of these nine-tenths I am
certainly under the mark in saying, that eight and a half tenths, or 86 per cent, of
the whole, consist of one genus, and, as I beUeve only one species of Foraminifera —
Olobigerina, in all its various and multiform stages of growth. I have traced this,
Foraminifer through a complete series of gradations from less than one thousandth of
an inch in diameter, when it consists of only one or two cells, up^ to more than one-
sixtieth of an inch ; but, except for the marked peculiarties in the structure of its
skeleton, I shotdd hardly have ventured to incluoe all its protean varieties under one
head.

" The other five per cent, of the calcareous orgamsms are Foramin\fera, of, at most,
not more than four or five species.

" The remaining five per cent, of the whole deposit consist partly of the g^nular
matter above mentioned, partly of animal and partly of vegetable organisms, provided
with siliceous skeletons and envelopes."

These two regions, so remote from each other, under such opposite climates, and
yet having such remarkable indentity in some particulars, are thus brought here
together to suggest to the sailor, who passes unheedingly over these microscopic and

2 u

i;5

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

hitherto hidden worlds, ft l^eme of wonder and enqnirjr, upon which volumes may he
composed. , ;v:i3«iii.>.^,r,',N».<'. i^i.-!v;v..-j^t ju^i,- -..-.;>

■■f 9£^J ■ 1,--*. *

(246.) There is another singular point of resemblance, too, which would lead to the
supposition that our theories of the internal heat of the globe, of the law of heat at
ffreat depths in the ocean, or that of the sub-surface circulation, may be at fault.
It has been shown that 1,000 fathoms beneath the surface of the Gulf Stream,
with a temperature of 83° and upwards, the water at its bed^ is not above^40'".
Lieutenant Dayman found the temperature at 1,000 fathoms, in latitude 02" N.,
longitude 30» W., to be 40''-8 ; and in latitude 61' N., longitude 40°, at the same
depth, it was 32'-7, the surface temperature being M'-S. The bed of the ocean,
the habitation of the minute animalcule has the same clitnate in both inatances.

These considerations must conclude this topic. /

THE QULF STREAM SOUTH OF THE NEWFOUNDLAND BANKS.

(247.) The Gulf Stream, in the course described, has flowed with a gradually decreas-
ing rate and temperature, and with a well defined north-western margin, the " cold
wall." It brings its tropical character almost unimpaired up to the Nantucket Banks.
These are almost the first outlying obstacles it encounters in its onward course, and
their position and character would lead to the supposition, that their existence was
in some degree owing to the matter carried northward by tlie Gulf Stream, and that
transpoi-ted by the arctic current from the north-eastward, which here meet and pass
each other on opjMJsito courses. The very peculiar coi. figuration of the Cape Cod
peninsula will point to current-action in some former geologic era for its character.

The Gulf Stream appears to be diverted to the E.N.E. by the obstruction presented
by the Nantucket Banks, and it then bears away past the banks which front Nova
Rcotia and Newfoundland, skirting the lower edge of the Grand Banks. The main
body of the stream still proceeds with considerable velocity from 28 to 16 miles per
day, and its southern limit is gradually lost in the quiet water or varying drifts of the
Sargasso Sea.

(248.) The northorhf edge of the stream, if such it can be called, between the
meridians of 70° and 40° W. presents a very singular aspect, as it seems to be a per-
petual struggle between the icy waters of the arctic regions and these tepid waters
of the tropics. They here interlace and intersect ench other in the most extraordi-
nary way, " in the manner of the fingers of the clasjHjd hands," and no definite limit can
be assigned at any time for either of these streams. It would be impossible by mere
words to explain the entanglement of these two currents. The Thermal Charts of
Maury will be the best exemplification, and the confusion they show in this part will
tell how hopeless it must be to reduce them to an exact system.

The late respected and eminent Dr. Scoiesby has left us some observations on this
point, partly derived from his own experience and portly from rcnuirks supplied to
him by Captain Jas. Delano. They were read by him at 'Hull, ui 1853, and as they
bear ujjon our subject wo hero repeat a portion of them. It may be premised that
Dr. Storeaby divides the ocean traversed, as usual in the voyagje between the English
Channel ana I^ong Island, U.S., into 6 sections of 10° of longitude, the first three of
which, from longitude 12° to long. 42° W., exhibit a strikiug unilbrmity of chococter
as regards the sui'face temperature.

" In the fourth section, 42° to 52"' W., however, the indications respectively of the
two great currents of the North Atlantic liecome striking and characteristic. Be-
yonu the meridian of 42°, where the cold current fr-m the nortli becomes first decided,
an increase of its provnlency, gradually becoming more and more conspicuous, is
tibserved. Thus in the two aegreCH' space, from 42° tr 44° W., the somewhat low
temperature of 44'' was only obscrvoa in one out of thirteen passages ; but in the
next two degrees a Hkc modorate fall of temperstur.^ fubout 7° oelow the mean)
•loeurrrd in thrrp or four of the pasHOges ; in the mxi v . idi'^nal stripe, cold water

mnl' Vt'ltn 111 mfihi /i4* fKo t\nMunn<>a (fr\%\^ a«« fl*

iIISm*-*. #w .

>a <>«•« s xr

•\t\Q 4-A lAO 1«««1^«** 4^li«

\iKt a^w

trVtUTT M»V

TUB QULF STREAM.

839

IICUOUH, U

mean) i in the next, the cold water ocoorred in nine or ten passages (six falling l(f to
24° below the meaii) ; in the next stripe, longitude 50" to 62° W., the cold water met
with in eight passages (five foiling 12° to 22° below the mean).

" Within the same section, 42° to 52» W,, very perceptible marks of an ascending
tropical current occui-red, yielding, in alternations Mrith the cold water from the north,
an occasional wpvmth of 66" to 68°. The prevaloncy, however, of the occurrence of
warm water in this position of the Atlantic appears from the observations tabulated
to be in reverse order (when sailing westward from longitude 42°) to t^t of the cold
current j the first two-degree stnpe presenting a rise of from 63° to 68° in six
passages ; the next, a rise of similar extent in five ; the next, a smaller rise in four ;
the next, less marked in three ; and the last, 50° to 52° W., in four, but still less
marked. Hence from the observations it appeared, that the greatest prevalence of the
polar currents (betwixt 42° and 52° W.) is within the merimans of 46° and 62°, and
of the warmer current in 42^ to 46° W.

" It is within this meridional section mainly, corresponding in its central part with
the eastern edge of the great bank of Newfoundland, in which the icebergs and drift
ice from the north are usually met with ; so that the prevalence of a descending polar
current obtains actual demonstration.

The Jtjth section, reaching from 52° to 62° W., is found to be equally characterised
by pecuhor phenomena as the one preceding it. The general prevalence of the de-
scending polar current is shown by the minimum temperature of each meridional
space of 2°, ranging betwixt 32° and 42°, with a mean of the five minima of 37°'2.
'rhe prevalence of an ascending current from south-westward is, in like manner, shown
by the occurrence of a maximum surface temperature ranging betwixt 63° and 74°,
with a mean of the five maxima of 6S''-d.

" But the characteristic features of this fifth deciiuute section were found to consist
in the suddenness of the changes of the surface temperature and the various alterna-
tions, indicative qf singular interiacings of warm and cold water.

" In a passage in the Patrick Henry, in May, 1844, made by Dr. Scoresby, them
sudden and alternating changes were remarkably prevalent. Thus when in longi-
tude 57° 0' W. (lat. 41' 31' N.) the surface temperature, et 8 a.m. of May 17th, w.^i
found to be 60<"5 1 but after sailing W.N.W. (true) 10 miles, it was found to be 50°,
at noon 16 miles further on the same course 46°. At 2 p.m. of the same diy, longi-
tude 57° 55' W. the sea was still at 46° ; but at 4 p.m., after 15 miles' sai'ing
W.N.W., it had risen to 57°, and in 15 miles ftirther in the same direction it was
found to have fallen to 42° ! The next da^, May 18th, presented further remarkable
changes. At 8 a.m., longitude 50° 52', latitude 42° 8' N., the surface temperature waa
46° I out at 10 a.m., 15 miles W. | S., it haa risen to 61°, a change of 15° in two
hours ! At midnight, again, of the 10th-20th the sea was at 50" ; four hours after-
wards, 26 miles to the 8.W. by W., it was 63°.

Within this section the cold or polar current was found to be chiefly prevalent in
the firitt and last of the two-degree spaces, but the most most so in the lost, that is, in
longitude 60° to 62° W. ; and tno most prevalent examples of the Oulf Stream ap-
peared within the meridians of 58° and 62°. W.

" The relations of the polar current and Gulf Stream, as thus indicated by the
analyses of thirteen transatlantic passages generally, change, it should be observed,
materially with the seasons of the year. Thus the desocuuing polar current, which
appears so prevalent within the western half of the belt of waters referred to in the
discussion of the whole of the voyages, is found to be of comparative small impoi-t-
anco in the summer and autumn passages, whilst the Oulf Stream is then the most
predominant. Hence the shifting of the upper margin of thtf Gulf Stream north-
ward at these seasons, as popularly understood, obtains very decided confirmation."*

• Report of ths Brit*^ Assodatioa, 1853.

340

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

(2490 It has been stated, from the informatlou of AnlericativoaBters, that tiie northern
edtfe of the stream ezteads to the latitude of 41° 20' or 41° 30', on the meridian of
Sable Island (60° W.) ; but this assertion has been controverted by others, who have
averred that its northern edge never ascends beyond the parallel of 40°. Tbe latter
is erroneous ; for many instances prove the contrary. Colonel Williams, in his
" Thermometrical Naviffation" (Philadelphia, 1799), states that the whirlpools of the
eddy' on the nortliexsi e^e of the stream nave been seen in lat 41° 57', long. 65° 1'.
He also observed great quantities of weed, supposed to be on the northern edge .of the
stream, in lat. 41° 53'. long. 15° 33' It has subsequently been ascertained by Lieut.
Charles Hare, R.N., that on the meridian of 57° W. in the summer season (the rainy
aeaaon of the West Indies), the northern edge of the stream ranges up to 42}° N. ;
and even in the winter months to above 42° N. ^ r . r .

(250.) There is one special feature in the irreg^arity of the temperature south of
the Grand Bank : it is, that the arctic stream seems to set farther to the south by 2°
or 3° on the meridian of the Bank, or 48° to 60* W., than it does either east or v, ■ st of
it. Thia is doubtless owing to the effect of the Baak in raising the cold lower stratum
to the surface, and rendering it cooler than it would otherwise be from the latitude,
and also that the southward current may be somewhat stronger here than it u on
either side of it.

The ice which is annually drifted from Baffin's Bay, Greenland, and Labrador
passes over the Bank, perhaps, in the greatest quantity in this tongue of cold water,
which protrudes so far in to the Gulf Stream, and which is such a terror to navigation
in this parf of tlic route — a danger not diminished by the constant haze which over-
hangs it from the unequal temperature of the warm sea and the cool atmosphere.

(251.) Referring to tho peculiar character of the land and shores in the neighbom--
bourhood, the opinion was alluded to in (247.), page 238, which made the existence
and formation of the banks of Nantucket and Nova Scotia, as owing to the irans-

def>ri« of tho

porting influcncoH of the Gulf Stream, bringing to the northward the d(^f<
shores and ibottom of the ocean which it passos m its course, and depositing the matter
when it encounters the adverse arctic current from the northward. The t ime argu-
ment may be held as to the Nowfoundlan(' Banks, which probably owe « portion of
their formation te the same origin. Besides this, there can bo no doubt but that the
icebergs which come down from the north in such enormous quantities in the spring
and early summer bring large quantities of earth and rocks from the land where they
are formed, and here deposit them as they melt. It might, therefore, be expected
that these banks, in the quality of the bottom, will have a mixture both of tropical
and of polar additions — a question of great interest to the geologist. But there is
another opinion which may also be partially correct : it is, that they are natural
plateaux upon which the marine deposits are laid and increase their elevation.

M. BeautemjJS-Beaupre (son of the famous hydrographcr) procured fragments of tho
rock at the bottom in lat 45° 16', SO" 35' W., 37 fathoms — a piece of rock containing
shells and broken shells. It was brought hv Captain Miliner, of the ship La Jeune
Agathe, in June 6, 1844. In June, 1846, tno same commander procured other and
similar pieces in 46° 18' N., long. 6° 31' W., in 38 fathoms ; and again, in 1860, in
45° 15' N., long. 66° 8' W., in 38 fathoms. Ho never found this rock but in tlus neigh-
bourhood. It conHisted of layera of a grey ooloan'ous sandy stone, containing shells
similar to the tertiary deposits on the sub-Apalaehiun IiUIh of the Southern States ;
and, according to M. Elie de Beaumont, it verifies a conjecture of his, that these
bankH are but a submarine prolongation of the tertiary plateaux of Georgia, tho
Carolinas, and Maryland.*

A special section oil this important subject in connection with transatlantic naviga-
tion in given hereafter.

* Comtea Rondua : AoadamlA do* Hnionnoa. Anril. IMtn. n. gOA

THE OULF STREAM.

northern
;ridian of
7ho have
lie latter
B, in his
oUi of the
g. 66" 1'.
igcofthe
by Lieut,
tne rainy
42}» N. ;

) south of
uth by 2°

>r T.' st of
)r stratum
) latitude,
I it is on

Labrador
jld water,
lavigaiion
kich over-
iliere.

eighboiu'-

existence

the irans-

'm of the

the matter

>me argu-

portion of

: that the

10 spring

'here they

expected

' tropical

it there is

natural

nts of the
ontaining
La Jeune
other and
1850, in
UH neigh-
ng sheila
n States ;
hat these
>rgia, the

c naviga-

MORTH-fiABTEBLT DBIFT BBTWESN THE NEWFOUNDLAND BANKS AND

EDBOPE, &0.

(252.) The Gulf Stream, as an independent current, seems to be neutralised by the
counter-effect of the arctic current ana its own diminished powers about the Banks of
Newfoundland (257.). In its greatest strength, that is, when the sun is in a northern
latitude, of course its strength is maintained to a greater distance eastward. It is
singular to say that we have no very perfect or extended series of observations on
record of the orift-ciirrents which unquestionably extend from this longitude to the
shores of Western Europe. Not that there is any doubt of the fact, because nume-
rous climatorial and natural effects render it certain, and we have, moreover, the
evidence of numerous bottles which have been drifted by its current to its shores, as
will be quoted presently.

But from some cause or other shipmasters have not so carefriUy recorded their
observations on the drift betweeii Europe and Newfoundland as in other parts of the
ocean. Perhaps one reason of the absence of any marked drift being announced is,
that ships, in passing east and west, are alternately affected by the Gulf Stream drift
and the arctic current, which thus neutralise each other's eflfects, and leave the im-
pression that no current, has been encountered.

(253.) As before said, we have many evidences of the extension of the tropical
waters to our own shwes. The gulf weed is not imfrequently encountered in the
English Channel or on its shores. Many articles, too, are annually thrown upon the
shores of Portugal, as mahogany logs, &c, Aeain, the coasts of Norway show
every evidence of the effects of warm water di'irted up to its shores. The great
Lofoten fishery is a good example.

(254.) It is true that some observations on the temperature of the sea about the
Scottish Islands made by Dr. Stark, has thrown doubt as to the actual presence of
tropically-heated waters ; yet it must be confessed that as yet we know so little of sub-
surface action that it may be quite possible that some under-set may be coming down
from the northw-»rd, and rising on the bank of soundings lower than the sea tempe-
rature in the bays and hart>ours of our shores. That his important observations in
some degree negative the opinion that the Gulf Stream reacuoy thus far unimpaired
in its charactei-istics, need not be a subject of surprise, since we have shown that the
volume of the Gulf Stream ii'. its greatest strength is ulmost insignificant when com-
pared with its hitherto supposed effects. The climate of the northern countries of
Europe is more ameliorated by the pre vailing S- W. winds which have passed over
the waiT^er waters in lower latitudes.

By referring to pages 299, ?10 (67.) ani (68.) and the illustrative diagrams, it will
be seen ho»' the westerly and south-wc .: erly winds prt dominate, not onb' in a nume-
rical proportion, b xt also n greater amount of force. It is to this that is to be attri-
buted so large an a)nount of that amenity of climate which distinguishes the eastern
from the western shores of the Atlantic in high northern latitudes.

(255.) But while the wind thus tempers the climate in its passage
N.E., it also drives the water before it, and, beyond all question, eaui

to the North and
lauses the surface of
the ocean to be of a higher temperature, even "up to the Sea of Spitzbergen. Many
well-known instances of its effects might be cited, as that of the nords and inlets of •
Norway, even as far north as HammerfeKt and the North Cape, ne ver freezing over in
the winter, the climate of Norway rillowing the cultivation of corn, &c., in such
marked con tiast to the countries on the American wde in the some latitude, only
ada])ted for the habitation of the Esquimaux and tlic arctic am mals.

(256.) Wo are indebted to Captain Tmiinger, of the Royal Banish Navy, for a
collection of observations an.l experiments on tlu currents of higli northern latitudes,
which lie has published in a work in tJic Danish language. Tliese ol)servationH stand

almost iilone, and have still farlher increased our knowledge of this interesting

Hr riHs also wvii explained how it is that Iceland is in-

brsRch of !net«oiviu||fy

912

OBSEKVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

habitable, and possessed of a comparatively mild climate to what would be argued
from its latitude and position. It is to the effect of the warm waters brought to the
East of the Newfoundland Banks bv the Gulf Stream, which are drifted as far north
and west as the west side of Iceland by the prevalent winds as before described.

(257.) Some of the data supplied to Commodore Irminger were collected
by Captains HolboU and Ulrich, and others, in the voyages between Denmark
and Iceland, Greenland, &o., in various men of war. Between Shetland and
Iceland, the mean of the observations give a daily rate of current of 2*4 miles to
N. 52° E. ; but it was very irregular. It was strongest near the Shetlands, 4-7 miles
per day N. 72° E. ; and Iceland, 3-1 miles N. 47° E. true. A northerly current was
also foimd to run from G'2 to 5 miles per day between Iceland and GreeuWd in
April and September. /f^';r .-,.,./ ;.,(.f •

As regards the temperature, which is a sure test of the origin of the stream, it is
found that between the Tueridian of Fair Island and 30^ W. there is no great varia'
tion in temperature,* but the ocean to the westward of 30° W. is found to increase in
coldness as Greenland is approached. Again, it is foimd that the temperature of the
ocean in spring is as high at South Iceland as it is at the Shetlands and Foeroes,
although lyine several degrees more north. The observations for temperature between
Iceland and Shetland show that there are stripes of warmer and cooler water, with a
difference of temperature of 2°'5 to 4°-d Fahrenheit, in a similar way to those noticed
in (248.), pap^e 339. These lines follow the direction of the current, but are not con-
stant in their position.

« The current runs in a north-westerly direction from long. 18° W. toward Reikia-
ness, th ^ south-west cape of Iceland. Commodore Irminger found it in a mean of
five days in May and June, 1846, to run in a N. 15° W. direction, at a mean rate of
4*3 miles per day. This northerly current on the west side of leland is well known
to the fishermen, and in evidence of it the temperature of the water in Keikiavik
Harbour nmy be cited. In May and June it has been found to be 47°'4 ; in July,
53°-3 ; and in August, 51°6 ; while on the coast of Greenland abreast of it tlie ipean
varies between 28" and 34° Fahrenheit. This warm current runs still farther north-
ward till it is stopped by the southern drift, which sets south-westward from Spitz-
bergen down towards the south coast of Greenland and Davis Strait, and wnich
approaches the N.W. point of Iceland.

(258.) There is, as has been stated, abundant proof that tropical products reach the
shores of Portugal and Western Euit>pe. But they are also found much to the north-
ward. Several species of Mimosa (mimosa scandens, &o.) are found on the coa«ts of
Norway, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, &c., among other drift-wood frequently thrown
ashore. In some cases this drift-wood is very abundant and serviceable to the in-
habitants for fuel. On the Faroe Islands one ^lacc (Ku'kcboe) used to afford the
owner an annual revenue of 60 or 60 dollars, which, however, was diminishing. The
wood seemt to be fir, probably from America. One trunk was 6^ feet in circumfer-
ence. On the north coast of Iceland very considerable quantities are found, among
which is larch, thought to be cedar by the inhabitants. This probably comes from
Siberia. c -

(259.) As a general summary, then, it may be said that the anti-trades drift the
waters Drought by the Gull Stream to the meridiaii of the Ncwibundluud Bunks in a
north-westerly, westerly, and northerly direction, at a moderate rate, towards the
coostM of Portugal, the Uritish Isles, Norway, and to Iceland. The further progress
of this diift on to the arctic basin, around wliich it circulates, and finally emerges
around the coast of Greenland, and thence down Iiabrador, and finally is lost in uio
Gulf Stream as before explained.f The finul evidence of its action which will bo
here adduced is the drift of bottles, to which we have before referred (131.).

• See tJ»«t ' >lH*Hiv.»n.>nH of Dr. 8coro«by (261), page 338.

t See TnuuaotiooB of Britiob Awtociation, Livurpoo), 1864 ; 8«)ottoQ £,

THE GULF STREAM.

1)6 argued
ipht to the
far north
bed.

collected
Denmark
land and
: miles to

4*7 miles
irrent was
enland in

ream, it is
reat Taria*
Qcrease in
ire of the
1 Foeroes,
e between
er, with a
ie noticed
e not con-

d Reikia-
1, mean of
!an rate of
ell known
Heikiavik
; in July,
the ipean
ler north-
om Spitz-
nd wnich

reach the
the north-
! coasts of
T thrown
the in-
Lffurd the
ng. The
ircumfor-
d, among
mes from

drift the
xnks in a
rards the
progress
emerges
at in the
will be

(260.) Bottlefl. — ^The following statement of the drift of bottles is derived from
Captain Becher's Bottle Chart. Many of the particulars contained in it have been
given in our former editions, but they are here given entire, in order that an estimate
may be formed of the strength of the current in which they have drifted. It may be

f remised that the length of their courses is given in the shortest or direct distance,
t therefore underrates their progress, as they have doubtless not generally pursued
the shortest track to their destination : —

Ship.

}^''

Osprey

Wallace

Tyne

Kent

Niger

BoUvar

Mary

Ibbctson

President . . .

Virginia

Persian

Albert

Ardent

Superior

Enterprise . .

Mary ,

Orbit

Romulus ....

Helen

Sandwich . .
J. Cropper . . ,

Seine

British Queen
Royal Union
Elizabeth . .
Victoria ....
Alexander . .
Alexander . .
Newcttstle . .
J. Esdailo . .
R. de Holland
Jerey

Delia ..'..'.'..
Normandie . .
Graham ....

Signature.

McGill....
Robertson .
R. Hope..

W. L

Merret . .

Lock ....
of Stockton
Scott ....

Mallard . .
Robertson .
Duncan . .
Munson . .

Godfrey . .
Boot ....
Crawford . .
Butman . .
Squire^ ....
MarHhall . .

Hamilton .
Grant ....
J. E

Poxry ....
Parry ; . . .
Napier ....
King ....
Groeneld . .
Cook ....
Johnstone .
Adey ....
Spalding . .
Beach ....

Where left.

Year.

1822

1835

1834

1836

1839

1840

1832

1826

1836

1838

1834

1822

1824

1842

1833

1840

1811

1819

1834

1821

1824

1811

1838

1822

1819

1834

1818

1819

1821

1850

1846

1847

1842

1844

1847

Lat.

49-6

52-2

46-6

50-3

48-2

46-9

44-2

65-5

48-5

42-2

47-1

47-3

67-0

63-8

46-1

47-3

46-8

67-8

47-3

60-3

48-3

60-7

43-9

48-2

47.0

45-0

691

620

38-9

36-9

46.0

50-6

47-3

500

67-1

611

Long.

12-5

16-0

16-9

19-0

18-9

18-6

18-0

18-3

19-6

19-3

20-4

21-9

24-5

24-0

24-3

27-4

270

30-7

33-6

36-4

38-1

40-3

44-6

46-2

49-2

600

52-3

540

640

71-8

20-5

ao-5

21-7
26-0
33-2
46-fi

Where found.

Wales

Ushant

Devon ....
Boulogne . .
Quiberon . .

France

France ....
Killala ....
France ....

Cork

Ireland

Somerset ....

Lewis

Dunnet Head

France

Clare I

Ireland

Shetland ....

Scilly

Hebrides ....
Mounts Bay . .

Kerry

Newport . . . .

Scilly

Rathlin Isle . .
Lauds End . .

Staffa

Donegal . . . .

Ireland

Lancashire . .
Glandore . . . .

Brest

Ireland

Norway

Barnstaple . .

130

126

177

310

128

113

186

171

175

316

111

330

110

179

184

398'

274

311

215

437

416

356

495

345

206

138

228

233

270

460

600

890

700

300

650

750

600

820

610

800

980

850

860

1000

1150

1100

1230

1130

1700

1460

1600

1760

2400

2600

2700

3000

680

480

700

1400

1560

7-6
4-2
8-4
70
4-8
7-0
2-2
6-0
41
17-0
41
4-3
3-6
50
3-1
7-7
2-7
91
6-4
6-3
2-4
4-5
25-7
19-9
6-0
8-2
6-5
6-2
7-3
70
20
8-0
3-6
4-6
61
6-7

ThcBO bottles taken from Captain Becher's Hat in the" Nautical Magaaine," 1 852, have
been selected from those wbii ii have iiiadr the ordinary dritt,. The ehart which shows
their direction, points most dearly to tbo westward and north-westward drift, although
the rote is not high, bying for the above 6-6 miles per day, which, as is said above, is
probably bi'low tiieir actual rate. It wiH uIho be observed that their vidocity varies

344

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

^[reatly, a long ooune having beeu perfonned at a mile an hour and upwards, while
in other cases their progress would be inappreciable in the navigation of a ship.

(261.) The effect, then, of this extension of the waters of the Gulf Stream will not
have much iiifluence on the course of a ship passing through it, and its general effect,
it is believed, is properly represented in the diagram of the currents, at page 259. Its

Smeral direction in its main strength will be a little to the north of east, between
e latitudes of 43° and 60°, and its main mean velocity from 9 to 11 miles per day,
but at times, as shown above, rising to above three times that rate, especially during
and succeeding heavy westerly gales. Further to the north, that is. between latitudes
60° and 60°, ito mean direction will be about E.N.E., bearing more northward as it
approaches the coa^t, and its rate from 5 to 8 miles per day. Still further northward,
our scanty knowledge will only lead to the inference that it drifts irregularly to the
N.N.E., and partially to the N.W. at times, but is then probably very feeble, and
intermixed with the veins of cold water drifted by the N.E. winds which prevail in
the latitudes above liibi-way, &c.

Lastly, although its relation to navigation is not of very hi^h importance, its effects
in the great economy of the oceavi are most important. By its influences the North
Polar Basin is annually opened to navigation, and its shores made habitable to the
wandering and scattered Esquimaux tribes, who flourish under the terrific winter
temperature. It makes the north a marked contrast to the Southern Polar regions,
where no warm gulf stream penetrates, and where, in a constant deposition, those
amazing ice fields are formed which cover the whole of the region in perpetual ice of
many hundreds of feet in thickness. Were it not for this intlux of warmer waters into the
Arctic regions, where the mean annual temperati-re is beneath the freezing point, the
whol<i of the Arctic circle would be like Antarcti.;, one solid mass of ice, sea, land, and
everything being solidified into one immense mass, whose varying margin would pro-
trude over the northern coasts of America and Asia, alternately dissolving with the
summer, and increasing during the winter.

8.— THE ARCTIC, OR LABRADOR CURRENT.

(262.) The last section treated of the warmer tropical waters which passed into the
northern regions, carrying with them the ameliorating influence on the Arctic climate.
The present deals with the same waters as they emerge, at a minimum temperature from
these frY)zen regions, and bring their ice and cold into the grand system of circulation
and compensation.

The limits of the N.E. drift about Iceland has been mentioned in p. 242 (267.). To
the west of this, then, we may place the great drift which comes down from beyond
Spitzbergen, and transports the immense quantities of ice upon the eastrrn shores of
Greenland, which has generally rendered this, one of the most inrlcmcnt regions of
the world, unapproachable by ships. Several instances of this drift could be recited,
but as it is not interesting to navigation, they need not be dilated on. The ice this
cun ent brings into the low latitudes is an important considerpt'on in the navigation
of the Atlantic as is well known. This branch of the Arctic dnrt, however, does not

Srobably furnish many of those gigantic icebergs, which, drifting down Davis Straits,
oat over the Newf<nindland Banks, and far into the northern margin of the Gulf
Stream.

The estimated rate of this drift from Spitzbergen, calculated from the rate of
vessebi in tlie pack-ice is from 8 to 14 miles per day.*

• See Findliiy on the Course oi' Sir John Franklin's
Oeoipnphical 9<Jcioty." xxvi., 18fi6, p. 33.

Expodition, "Journal Royal

«£■./•

THE ARCTIC CURREJTT.

(263.) It was formerly considered that this S.W. Stream after passing the Cape
Farewell, the south point of Greenland, made direct for the coast of Labrador, and
thence over the Nevdbundland Banks. But Commodore Irming^r, of the R. Danish
Navy, has demonstrated that it does not do so, but that it passes around Cape
Farewell to the westward, and thence passes northward along the shores of West
Greenland.

" If the current existed, which the beforenamed writers state to run in a direct line
' from East Grpenland to the banks of Newfoundland, then the ice would likewise be
carried with t. .at current from East Greenland ; if it were a submarine current, the
deeply immersed icebergs would be transported by it ; if it were only a surface-
current, the immense extent of field-ice would indicate its course,* and vessels would
consequently cross these ice-drifts at whatever distance they passed to the southward
of Cape Farewell. But this if not the case : experience has taught that vessels coming
from the eastward, steering theii' course about 2° (120 nautic m.) to the southward of
Cape Farewell, seldom or ever fall in with ice before they have roimded Cape Fare-
well and got into Davis Strait, which is a certain proof that there does not exist even a
branch of the Arctic Current which runs directly from East Greenland towards the
hanks of Newfoundland."^

The limits of this Spitzbcrgen current, as it may be termed, is therefore indicated
by the distance to which the ice it transports is found to extend, and the examples cited
may bo taken, as above, to a distance of 120 miles south of Cape Farewell, and to
150 miles of the Danish settlements of S.W. Greenland.

(264.) In the space of ocean between the southern limits of this current and the
known south-easterly drift down the Labrador Coast, an anomalous condition seems
to exist, we have no notice of the set of the streams, if any within it, but its cha-
racteristic seems to be the drift-wood Avithin its area. These floating relics have
evidently a southern origin, and point also to the truth of the statement that a warm
current sets toward and past Iceland (255.)

" Another proof that the current from East Greenland does not run in a straight
line towards the banks of Newfoundland, is also derived from the observations of the

temperature of the surface madb on many voyages to and from Greenland.

" Supposing that the Arctic Current from East • Greenland pursued its course in a
straight line towards tho banks of Newfoundland, it would be crossed, on the voyages
from Copenhagen to the Danish colonies in Greenland, between 38" and 46° W. Or.,
and so high a temperature in the surface of the ocean as from 4° to 6° R. (4r to
45°-5 Fahdr.), as is found on this route and marked in the plan, would, according to
my opinion, be impossible only 1° or 2° to the southward of tne parallel of Cape Fare-
well ; as it is a well known fact that the principal ocean-currents maintain their
temperatures through very considerable distances of their courses.

" This comparatively high temperature of the surface of the ocean so near to the
limits of that current which curries enormous masses of ice from the ocean near Spitz-
bcrgen round Cape Farewell, warrants my opinion that the waters of the Atlantic
Ocean move in a north-westerly, or northerly direction, towards the eastern and

nl Roy»l

• " An observation which it is interesting to mention here, and which gives a proof of the
very little difference between the temperature of the surface and that at some depth, ia
mentioned in the Voyage of Captain Graah, p. ?,1. Ke »tys, 'The 5th of May, 1828, in
lat. 57° 36' N., and 36» 36' W., Gr., the temperat ire of the surface was found 6°-3 (46°-2
Fahrenheit), and at a depth of 660 feet b'b plm R. {AV-5 Fahrenheit).' Tliis proves that
there is no cold suhtnarino current in tlie place alluded to, to the S.E. of Cape Farewell.
A still more conclusive experiment is recorded by Sir Edward Parry in the account of his
first voyage, June 13, 1819 : in lat. A?" 61' N., long. 41'" 6', with a very slight southerly
current, the surface temperature was 401* Fahrenheit ; and at 236 fathoms 3S^, a difference
ofoitly 1J».— En."

t "Journal of the Royal Qoographical Society, vol, xxvi., 1866, pp 40, 41." '

2 X

ij^'..

346

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENl'S.

Bouthem coasts of Greenland,* and that this in-draught towards the land is un-
doubtedly the cause of the ice being so closely pressed on to these parts of the coast
as it is so frequently on the S. coast, and almost constantly on the E. coast, rendering
the eastern coast entirely inaccessible iron, the seaward.t

"From the foregpoing it seems to me to be demonstrated that the current from the
ocean around Spitzbergen, which carries so considerable masses of ice, after it has
passed along the E. coast of Greenland, tmns westward and northward round Cape
Farewell, toUhont detaching any branch to the south-westward, directly towards the <
banks of Newfoundland.

« This current afterwards runs northward along the S.W. coast of Greenland until
about lat. 64° N., and at times even up to Holsteinborg, which is in about 67° N." —
Captain Irminger.

(265.) This cun'cnt, then, after drifting over the Atlantic, passes up the eastern
" shore or Davis Strait to and beyond the entrance of Baffin's Bay, between Cape Wal-
jsinp-ham and Holsteinborg. It here encounters the southern set which passes down
BtuJn's Bar, especially on its western side, transporting those immense icebergs which
are annually launched from the glaciers of West Greenluuii and other parts, as
described by Dr. Rink. This current, which enters Baffin's Bay, especially by Lan-
caster Sound, is the grand outlet of the waters which nm from west to east through
the labyrinthine Archipelago, of late the scene of the exciting search for the cxpem-
tiou of Sir John Franklin, and is unquestionably the continuation of that drift past
Spitzbergen, described in (262.).

It thus brings into warmer latitudes all the ice which remains from the melting
iniiuences of the Arctic summer, and also is continually floating southwards that
which collects in Baffin's Bay and its inlets. Its southward drift is constant, winter
and summer, as has been demonstrated by the drift of several vessels of the Arctic
searching squadrons — as the Grinnell Expedition, Sir James Ross, H.M.S. Resolute,
Sir L. M'ClintGck, in the Fox, &c.

About 10 miles per day may be taken as the drift down Baffin's Bay, a*- estimated
by the author in the " Journal of the Royal Geographical Society," quoted above.

(266.J The Baffin's Bay Current and the Spitzbergen Current thus ,^oined in the
strengtn, set with great force down the coast of Labrador, the westwrxd tendency
being probably owin^ to the earth's rotation, which here rapidly inrreases south-
wardly in these parallels. It is probable that it sets at from 1| to 2 miles per hour
close ashore on tne Labrador coasts. But its chief interest to the sailor are the masses
of drift ice and tremendous icebergs which it flouts southward across his track, and
constitutes one of the most formidable dangers of the Transatlantic navigation. As

agaui,

• " Graah says in his Narrative (p. 23, English translation) : — ' In the mouth of Davis
Strait I found the temperature of the surface of the ocean from 4° to 3°-l P. (41° to 39°
Fahrenheit), though we were in the proximity of the ice. From this I concluded that a
current from the South predominated here, because I never before in the vicinity of ice had
found the temperature of the water exceeding l^-S R. (36° Fahrenheit), and this concluHion
was confirmed when, coming to the northward of the ice, J found the temperature of the
water l°-l plus R. (34°-6 Fahrenheit).' "

t " Besides the evidence afforded by the ice-drifts and the temperature of the ^'ater, as
cited by the author, conclusive proof of a northerly set is found in the driftwood wluch has
been so frequently met with around Cape Farewell and off the W. coast of Greenland. A
few examples will suffice. A plank of mahogany was drifted to Disco, and formed into a
table for tbe Danish governor at Holsteinborg (' Qtiarterly iJeview,' No. xxxvi.). Admiral
L&wenom picked up a worm-eaten mahogany log off the S.E. coai^t of Greenland. Those in
all probability were transported from the S.W. by the Gulf Stnmm. Captain Sii Edward
Parry, in his second voyage, September 24th, 1823, picked up a piece of yellow pine quito
sound, in lat. 60° 30', long. 61° 30' W. ; and on his third voyage sev^n pieces of driftwood
were found in the vicinity of Cape Farewell. Again, Captain Sir John Robs found much
driftwood around Cape Farewell ; and Captain Sir George Back saw in lat. 66° 60', long.
36° 30', a tree with the roots and bark on. Those instances might be multiplied, but their
character indicates a southern origin. — fid."

M H

d is un-
;he coast
endering

from the
ar it has
ind Cape
rards the »

md until

iT N."~

e eastern
ape Wal-
ses down
:>gs which
parts, as
r by Lan-
t through
le expeoii-
irift pant

e melting
ards that
at, winter
he Arctic
Meaolute,

estimated
above.

.ed in the
tendency
les south-
I per hour
he masses
rack, and
tion. As

of Davis
Hi" to 39"

ed that a
of ice had
BoncluHion
ure of the

water, as
which has
aland. A
ne<\ into a
Admiral
Those in
ii Edward
pine quite
driftwood
und much
60', long.
hut their

THE ARCTIC CURRENT.

347

this 18 tlie most imp<niant feature it has, it will be dilated on more Ailly hereafter, as
the limits within which tfaisse ioe-drifte are encountered ai'e also the limits of th&
current now being discussed.

(267.) These ioe-drifta are jeilom met with to the eastward of the meridian of 40°,
that is, about 300 miles beyond the limits of the Grand Bank. Nearer to the Banks
thev become mo ' amorous, and some years the sea appears to be covered with them,
ana vast numbero ; : berg^ ground on the banks.

To the southward the extent of this ice-drift is uncertain, as it depends upon two
causes : — ^the one, the force and extent of the Arctic Current from the northward j
and the other, the depth to which the ice-bcrgs are immersed. As before mentioned,
(248.) p. 338, there appears to be a perpetual struggle between the opposing forces of
the Arctic Current and Gulf Stream to thb southward of the banks. This process,
invisible at other seasons, is made apparent during the season of the ice-drifts by the
deeply immersed bergs passing quite into the course of the Gulf Stream under the
influence of which they rapidly disappear. As vnil be seen presently, the view now
accepted of this phenomena is that tne Gulf Stream ovemms the cool wateis proceed-
ing southward and south-westward ; and although the northern edge of the warm
waters of the stream are met with in the summer montiis over the southern end of the
Newtbandland Banks, or as high as 45" N., yet these bergs are found drifting as far
south as 39°, and even to 36° 10', or 420 miles southward of the tail of the BanKs, and
beyond the limits of the Gulf Stream. This latter circumstance, however, is of rare
occurrence. .. >

As this debateable groimd for the currents is peculiarly interesting, we give, as
heretofore, the account of a passage during the ice season across this portion of the
Atlantic. It may not dificr from me ordinary experience of any seaman, but it points
to some facts heretofore discussed.

(268.) Remarks from the journal of Lieutenant J. Steele Park. — " On Monday, 7th
of July, 1827, our latitude at noon was 40° 29' N., and the long. 53° 30' W., hy lunars
and chronometer. The temperature of the water 73°, and the air 75° ; the wmd S.E.
by E., a light breeze : the ship close-hauled on the starboard tack, lying N.E. by E.,
and going 2 knots (she was now in the Gulf Stream). At five p.m. tried the water
agaw, and found tne temperature down to 67°! Hove the ship to immediately to
sound, but got no bottom with 100 fathoms of line, right up and down. Nothing to
be seen from the mast-head ; no ice ii;>i danger of any kind, and the temperature of
the air not affected (a cold vein of • c.ter from the north). Took altitudes for the
chronometer at the same time, which uiace the long. 53° 18'. We then filled and made
sail again. At half-past five the W8^;v-r was 1° warmer, viz., 68° ; at six it was 6P° ;
at seven, 69° ; at eight, 70° ; at ten, 70° ; and at midnip^ht it was 71°. On Tuesday
morning, at four o'clock, the water was 72° ; at eight it stood at 74° ; and, at noon,
74° ; when the latitude and longitude were 41° 16' N., 62° 24 W.

"Had the atmosphere not heen perfectly clear when we hove the ship to, I should
have suspected that we were in tho vicmitv of an iceberg, but it was serene and
beautiful ; therefore the sudden fall <■>( 6° of the thermometer, in this part of the
ocean, must be attributed to some other cause. There is a danger of some kind laid
down about this spot, by Captain Watson, of Liverpool (to s"-y nothing of our old
friend ' Daraith'). We have sailed over the very place where it appears in Purdy's
Chart of the Atlantic. However, the water has been so remarkably smooth and
unruffled, that we may have passed wit'iin a ship's length of a 'rock even with the
water,' without perceiving it.

" I am inclined to believe, that we should have found the temperature of the sea
below 67°, if it had been tried an hour or two sooner. We have a right to presume
that it was rising when I first discovered the change ; for, half-an-hour afterward,
it watt 68', and it went on jrogressively, getting warmer and warmer, until it
mounted up 74°, and thoi-e it 'jpped: thus famishing a beautiful illuatratiou
of the susueptibility, and, t'' . • •;, the usefulness, of this most simple of all
iustruiucuts.

MS-

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

' ''The latitude of the ship (at five p. m. Monday) may be called 40° 3C iong.
d3 13 •

" Wednesday ^i^l^ 1 tth. — ^The temperature of the water I try every four houni on
ordinary occasi?". ,* und every hour, or every half hour, in approaching soundings or
•VigisB. Now, the temperature of the water was 74" ,p't«rday morning at eight
o'cloc^; and it continued nearly the same till midnight. H->i-a I found it cooling a
little; it was then 71°. During the night it was neglected, and I can say nothing
with certainty about the temperature; but I felt a very sensible chtuige in the
atmosphere this morning when I went on deck; and when I plunged the thermometer
into the sea, I was surprised to see it down to 68°.* We hove the ship to again, and

Eossed the lead forward, but there was no bottom with 100 fathoms of line. As I
_ new we were only about the parallel of 42°, I did not expect soimdings, but I thought
it right to try, ana make quite sure of the thing. The weather very nne, and nothing
in sight from the mast-head. Thermomrter in the shade 63°, with a southerly win^
and yesterday it was upwards of 70°. Altitudes for the chronometer were taken,
when we hove-to, which made the long. 50° 20' ; and the observed latitude at noon
was 42° 7'. The ship made 5' of northmg in the interval between noon and the time
we tried the lead, so we must have been in 42° 2' N.> and 60° 20' W., at eight o'clock
this morning, when the water was down to 68°. At nine it was 67° ; at ten, 60° ; at
eleven, 56° ; at noon, 66"; at two p.m., 57° ; at four, 68° ; at eight, 69 ; and at mid-
night, 60°.

" Sunday, July 15th. — ^There was very little change in the temperature of the
water, from midnight of the 11th till this day at noon, m lat. 44° 17', long. 46° 4'. The
cold has beer diminishing gradually and very slowly (the atmosphere as well as the
S'oa), but the water is now up again to 70°, and the air to 74° (the ship had again got
into Gulf Stream water).

" I presume the great diflPerence in the temperature of the ocean-waffer, discovered
on Wednesday morning, must be ascribed to tiie proximity of the Grand Bank of
Newfoimdlond ; but if the generally received opinion be correct, that *the water is'
only ' 5° crld« r at the etfoe of the bank than the deep ocean,' how are we to accoimt
for a fall of i4" .tr 16° when we were unquestionably m very deep water, and 30 or 40
miles at Vi; I, fiom. the nearest soundings on the very tail of the bank? This is a
probL.f i ilo iv.'t pretend to know much about.f

" By-thc hyc, I may notice here again (en passani) what I have had occasion to
remark more than once before ; that is, tue northerly set which I have uniformly
encountered near the tail of the bank. Now, on the lltn, last Wednesday, the weather
was beautiful ; but the next day a fog, with all the density so peculiar to this part of
the ocean, closed round us, and we were left to grope about in the dark, or by dead
reckoning, which is the same thing. We never g^t a glimpse of the blue sky until
this morning, when, by chronometer and excellent lunar distance, together with the
sun's meridian altitude, we find out that a current has swept us N. 10° E., 54 miles
in three days4 The latitude to-day, at noon, is 44° 17' longitude, by chi'onometer
and lunars,' which go hand-in-hand uncommoiily well, 46° 4'.

" During the three days' fog the wind was southerly ; we, of course, were standing
to the eastward, and I could not understand why the temperature of the sea continued

* " She had now entered that peculiar toDjopie of cold water, very often encountered and
spoken of which extends far the southward of the ordinary range of the Arctic Current. It
has been alluded to on (250.) page 340."

t " It may probably be accounted for by the effect of the banks in raising the cooler
water of the Arctic Current nearer to the surface, and thus sending southwaras a stronger
current of colder water than is found to the eastward or westward of it."

X "Another example of this northerly set, see (256.) page 341, which demonstrates how
uncertain the cunents are hereabout, is given by Lieutenant Evans, in describing his nm
HI roHS the Atlantic, from Newfoundland, in June, 1828, says, ' We experienced a current
setting to the northward, sometimes as much as 2) miles in the twenty-four hours ; this
cucunuitauco, so contrary to the goncrully received opinion of a permanent cm'rcnt from

THE ARCTIC CURRENT.

349

so low and so nearly in the same state all the time ; for, aooordiing to our calculation,
vre were making a great deal of easting, consequently increasing our distance from
the bank: but, when it brightened up, the mysteiy was explained : we then discovered
that the northerly current had carried the ship round the tail, on a course almost
parallel to the edge of soundings; therefore the change was slow and gradual until
we got beyond its influence." •

(269.) The waters of the arctic ocean are thus brought again into that system of
circulation which ffives to sea water a iversai character (133.). In former years it
was not thought that its effects extended further than this, and the cool S. W. current
inside the Gulf Stream wa8 considered to ue an eddy of that great current, whose,
temperature was dependent or 'he '^ownp^ ^ the soundings, in contradistinction

,10 v^

to the supposed unfathomable op»
earlier editions of this work, hud
drift past Newfoundland, and tl >
eddy from the Gulf Stream com

Its true character was first arg>
to science. He drew up a summui v
the United States' Exploring Expeiiti.

Stream. Captain Pornton, in the.
3en led to conclude that the southward
1 the Gulf of St. Lawrence with the

counter-current in question.

Hr. W. C. Redfield, a name well-known
ks and suggestions for the observers of
iider Captain Wilkes, iu 1838, and which
Society in May, 1843. From that

was read before the American Philosuphical
jjaper we will make a few extracts : —

" . . . . From what source is that south-westerly current derived, which com-
monly prevails along the coast of the United States, in the dii-ection which is oppo-
site to the Gulf Stream P

* I am aware that it is usually considered by seamen as an eddy current derived
from the Gulf Stream ; but from this view I am compelled to dissent. For, in the
first place, this current never assumes the gyrating form of an eddy ; but continues
its course, when unobstructed by gales, in a direction which is generally parallel to
the coast. But, secondly, in case this current be derived from the Guu Stream, it
must necessarily partake of the same elevated temperature ; whereas the reduction of
temperature which occurs on crossing the north-western limit of the Gulf Stream is
most remarkable, and is almost without parallel in the Atlantic, except in the imme-
diate vicinity of ice.

" It appears vain to allege the proximity of soundings or shallows as explaining
this extraordinary change of temperature, for this cannot avail if the waters of the
counter-current be derived from the Gulf Stream, to say nothing of the erroneous
character of the position here noticed.

" From the evidence which is afforded by numerous facts and observations, it
appeai-s that the current in question is neither more nor less than a mere sluggish pro-
longation of the Polar or Labrador Current, which sweeps along the north-eastern
shores of this continent and the Island of Newfoundland ; and this current, if I mis-
take not, may be traced in its gradations of temperature, by the thermometer, from
off the southern coasts of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, through the entire distance,
to Cape Hatteras, if not to Florida.

" An eddy current, off-setting to the Gulf Stream, would nowhere be so likely to
be met with as at the point of intersection of this stream vnth the extremity of the

0.1

the North, may be accounted for from the circumstance of the winds being principally from
the South and iB.W. A long continuance of southerly winds would have the effect of turn-
ing the fluent waters of the Florida Stream, east of the banks, to the northward and
eastward, sufficient to produce the superficial current we experienced, and to check the
general flow of the waters from tiie northward. We met no ice of any description, nor any
mdicution of its^cinity, unless when crossing the tail of the bank ; the constant southerly
wind, of course will eabily account for our not seeing any of these formidable dangers ; but
it is remarkable (and the instance is a proof of our imperfect knowledge of the theory of
winds), that an American brig, making a similar run at the same time, but being about a
degree or two farther Nor^h than our parallel, had to contend with strong northerly galea
and to encounter numeroas icebergs."

*<t^

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

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^Sciences

CorporatJon

91 WIST MAIN STRMT

WniTIR.N.Y. MSM

(7U)in-4S03

"i*
f

3dO

OBSERVATIONS ON THB CURRENTS.

Ghrand Bank of Newfoundland, and sweeping fi*om thence upon the southern shores of
the ishmd of that name ; and yet the Harbour of St. John's, in the southern part of
Newfoundlaad, is Imown to have continued ice-bound, in 1831, so late as the month of
June, althoT gh in the latitude of Paris. This fact is a convincing proof of the unim-
peded oontinaation of the Polar Current to the southward, in this regioA, notwith*
standing the near proximity of the Gulf Stream."

(270.) The velocity of the current over the Banks and to the southward of New-
foundland is very variable, but at times is graat. We can rather argue from its
effects than from direct observation ; for one result of this influx of warm water into
a cold region is the production of dense fogs so peculiarly characteristic of the Banks.
** Bank weather" is not fitvonrable to astronomic observation, and hence the paucity
of them.

f2710 Upon a survey of the Virgin BocTu, in July, 1629, the current at about 80
miles E. b;,- 3. firom Cape Race, was found setting over them to the W.S.W. at the
rate of a mile an hour.

To different currents must be attributed the loss or the sloop Chmut, the transport
Harpooner, H.M.S. Drake, and the brig Spence, all of which were lost, at different
times, upon one spot ; the little bay, called St. Shofs Say, on the South coast of New-
foundland, and lying between Cape Freels and St. Mary's Bay. The particulars of
all these melancholy events have been nven in our " British American Navigator,"
1861, and therefore need not be repeated. The Comtu was from the West, and was
lost in the night of the 24th of October, 1816, after having soxmded, as supposed, on
the inner edge of the Green Bank. The Harpooner, a transport, witli troops, was
from Quebec, and bound for London. She struck at 9 p.m. of November 10th, 1816.
The Drake sailed from Halifiix for St. John's, 20th June, 1822, under veiy favourable
circumstances, upon a direct course, for Cape Race; but on the 23rd the weather
became thick, and at noon she was supposed to be 90 miles from Cape Race, but at
half-past sevijn p.m. breaken* were reported ahead, and the ship was soon after a
total wreck. The Spence was from Riohibucto, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, with
lumber, bound to Liverpool, and was totally lost at St. Shot's, at four p.m., 16th July,
1822. Another vessel, the George Canning, from Chaleur Bay to Aberdeen, was
wrecked here, during a dense fog, on the 17th of June, 1829.

The five vessels, it may be seen, were all from the tceatward, and all, it may be pre-
sumed, were set to the northward as well as to the weatward, of the situations which
they were supposed to occupy, and the route which each intended to pursue. They
can be accounted for only by the supposition of currents winding round the coast,
opposing each other, and operatiuR as above explained ; for it seems clear that the
westerly current from the Grand Bank so opposes the easterly one as to limit its
operation eastward, and give it a northern inflection i thus producing the indi«ught
into the southern bays of the island.

It appears that the south-westerly current, over the Grand Bank, sets over the
whole of Uie northern part of that bank. In a summer voyage, 1826, lat. 46" 24',
Lieutenant Hare (30th Sentember) sounded on the outer edge of the bank, with thick
blowing weather from S. W. j and, on the next day, in 45° 56' N., and 48° 6' W., had
no bottom at 120 fathoms, with a very heavy swell from W.S.W., although he found
that a current had carried him S. 67° W. 34 miles. Thus appeared, in close conjunc-
tion, a south-westerly current, with another from W.S.W., where the edges of the
two eptered into colubion with each other.

(272.) The current which sets out of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, between New-
foundland and Breton Island, also adds it'* effect to the current setting to the S.W.
It is composed of the stream of fresh water which constantly sets down the river, and
the water which enters firom the Labrador current through tne Strait of Belleisle.

The current usually sets into the Strait of Belleisle, between the island and the
coast of Labrador. It transports immense quantities of ice in some years into the
Gulf, if they are not too large to be intercepted by the moderate depth of the strait,
although this feature varies very much indeed in different years. This current has
been observed to run two miles au hour with the wind from N.E., while at other

THE ARCnC CUREENT.

3fil

shores of
n part of
month of
iieunim-
notwith'

of New-

ttom its

rater into

le Banks.

9 paucity

about 80
IV. at the

transptHrt
different
t of New-
iculars of
ivigator,"
and was
tpoeed, on
oops, was
Qth, 1816.
i&vourable
i weather
Be, but at
n after a
jnce, with
I6th July,
cleen, was

ly bepre-
>ns which
le. They
the coast,
that the
limit its
indraught

over the

46* 24',

mth thick

W., had

he found

conjunc-

es of the

ten New-
the 8.W.
iver, and
eisle.

and the

into the

he strait,

rrent has

at other

times it is almost insensible, and it is stated sometimes to rdn in the opposite direction,
especially during the ebb tides with S.W. winds. After it enters tne Gulf, it runs
30 or 40 miles further, when it becomes dispersed and merged into the general
streams.

^ The outset fh)m the Gulf is very frequently of some considerable strength, espe-
cially with westerly winds or in calm weather. But its streng^ is reduced, or it even
is retarded altogether, with opposing winds, which have a powerfhl effect on it at all
times.

Both these currents are modified by the tides, but in a way directly contrary ; for,
wliile the Strait of Belle Isle current is ameliorated by the ft)od, and retarded by the
ebb, the other is increased by the ebb and checked by the flood tide which enters
the Gulf from the southward. The tidal hour is therefore important in estimating
the probable set of these currents, which, however, it may be said to be said to be
exceedingly difficult at ail times to estimate and allcw for correctly.

(273.) Sabk Island has been famous for its wrecks, which greater knowledge and
consequent caution have rendered less frequent. Its position and formation are re-
markable, as it lies apparently in the strength of the Gulf Stream. Its dangerous
character is greatly increased by the prevalent fogs, which are dense and veir con-
stant. As is well known, it is a mere sand bank, with two parallel ridges of sand
blown above the sea level, and forming a curve convex to the southward, uiowing liie
direction of its principal growth. From each end extend long " bars " or shoals :
that to the west extends 17 miles, and that to the east 14 miles, the whole extending
over 50 miles. The westerly winds and current tending in the same direction are
constantly wearing away the west end, and adding to the east, by drifting the sand
of which it is formed and that which it brings to leeward.

The wrecks, which now average two annually, have usually occurred from the
effects of the S.W. current which we are now considering, and which, though irre-
gular in its action, has usuaUy some effect on a ship's course ; added to this, as has
been previously shown, the Uulf Stream is here found with much diminished force,
and consequently there are some anomalies in the immediate neighbourhood of Sable
Island. Tae best account we have of the streams is that given by Mr. Darby, who
was superintendent of the establishment here.

Mr. Darby has said, " On the south side of Sable Island, the current, in shoal
water, with prevailing south and S.W. winds, sets rapidly eastward until it reaches
the end of the N.E. Bar. It then imites and blends with the iSt. Lawrence Stream,
which passes the bar in a S.S.W. direction, and runs strongest in April, May, and
June. I have sufficient reason for believing that the Gulf Stream, on the parallel of
42^ 30% running E.N.E., occasions the St. Lavn«nce Stream, then mnning s.S.W., to

Srlide to westward. The stron^rth of this stream has never been noticed, and three-
ourths of the vessels lost o>' Sable Island have been supposed to have been to the
eastward of the island, when, in fiEict, they were in the longitude of it."

" Easterly, southerly, and S.S.W. winds set a rapid current along shore in shoal
water, to W.N.W. ana N.W. ; that is, along the shore of the western end of the
island, but not the eastern nor middle, as there the current, with southerly and S.W.
winds, sets to the eastward. The natural tendency of the flood-tide is toward tlie
coast. When it strikes the island it flows to the eastward, over the N.E. Bank, and
to the westward, over the N.W. Bank, and passes the west end, in a N.W. direction,
so rapidly that it carries the sand with it ; and the hills of the west end being hi^h
aqd narrow, they are undermined at their base by it, and tumble down some thousands
of tons of sand at a time. This the current beneath catches, and sweeps away to the
N.W., increasing the bauk. So soon as this current passes the extreme point of the
dry bar, it tends more across the bank to the N.E. ) the motion of the sea contribut-
ing to keep the satid in motion i the current carries it to the N.E.. and spreads to th«
N.W."

(274.) In following the course of this current along the coast of the United States,
wo have no very clear notion of its mean velocity ; but that it does run to the sonUv^
waid, we have many evidences, besides the temperature of its waters. It is probable

OBSERVATIONS ON THfi CURRENTS.

that the rarftuw, at least, 1b obedient to the Taiying of the idndi, whleh blow over it,
but it preserves its oonrse almost unimpaired and quite appreciable on the sorfiaee as
far south as Cape Hatteras, after which its presence does not appear so manifest, ex-
cept asasubmanne current. In (220.) &c., the presence of the coot water it transports is
shown to exist, in a great degree, even dose beneath the wannest and strongest parts
of the Gulf Stream.

There is neat evidence of onrrent action all filing the coast of the United States
beyond the Cape Cod peninsula, itself of remarkable formation. The long straight
lines of low aUuvial shores, fronting extensiye shallow lakes, senarated from the ocean
by narrow beaches thrown up by the sea, ail bespeak the work of the ocean and its
drifting waters.

There is another singular feature, too, in the more southern portions of its course.
The long lines of shotus which project seaward from the Capes Hatteras, Fear, Look-
out, &c., that is, in t!:e section where its surface action is not so maniiEBst, indicate
some process going on which as yet has not been entirely explained.

In a nautical sense the allusion to thu current is sufficient to guard against its
effects in approaching the coast, or in taking advantage of it to work against the
current of the Gtdf Stream. No particular instructbns have been issued respecting
it, and tharefore this will dose our notice of it as an inner current of the Qua
Stream.

(270.) But there is another part of the ocean in connection with this where the
currents are not stronjr or regular, but is peouUar. It is the part between the Ber-
mudas and the coast of Georgia. There seems to be some connection with the fact of
Cape Hatteras cutting off a ^rtion of its southern progress and the very irregular
temperatures that are me^ with to the sonth-eastwardTof that Ca^. The cold veins
alluded to on page 328 (234.^ are, perhaps, a portion of this ; but it certainly seems as
if the cold water, after passmg under the Gulf Stream, api>ears on the sumce inter-
mingled with the warmer waters of the Equatorial Current, and cause a slight dbrift
to the south-eastward, and have something to do with that eastward tendency of the
Gulf Stream (242.) in throwing off its floating objects to the eastward of its course —
a fkot which has been attributed to itn being " roof-ahaped," a form owing to the
greater force and velocity '-f its centre which causes the water along the middle of its
course to be higher than the ?<t^*val portions.

In the southern part of tV rent its influence on navigation, as said above, is of

minor consequence. Its prii. .^.u feature is its ice-transporting powers in the more
northern portion of its career ;' and as this has a most important bearing on the navi-
gation between Europe and America, some noti'^e on this point foUowa.

ICEBERGS. ICE ISLANDS, AND DRIFT ICE IN TUE ARCTIC

CURRENT.

(276.) Although we have noticed the annual floats of ice which descend from the
northern regions, it may not be inapposite to recall to the seaman's mind the necessity
of guarding ainst these tremendous and dangerous objects — more dangerous than
permanent rocks, because unfixed, and more dreadftd, because frequently obscured in
snow and fog.

The ice which is thus met with is of two descriptions : that which is found on the
surlkce of the sea during the polar winter — the field and floe-ice ; and that which is
formed in the course prooabl^ of many years upon land, and is periodically launched
into the sea in the form of gigantic bergs of enormous height and dimensions.

Of the first description of ice no spedal mention is necessary, as its production
and presence in the regions under consideration is very readily comprehended.

(877.) Ie0-h«rg$ are a much more interesting subject, and their m^cstio proportions

ICEBERGS, ICB ISLANDS, &0., IN THE ABGTIC CURRENT. 3da

at onco attract attention and invite inquiry aa to their formation ; conaeqiientiy wo
find many accounts and speoulationa ha.ve been advanced to account fSnr them» and
variouB localities pointed out as their birth-place.

Captain (afterwards Dr.) Scoresby, whose opinion is invaluable, observes, " that,
however dependent the ice may have been on land, from the time of its first appear^
ance to its gaining an ascendancy brer the waves of the ocean, sufBdent to resist
their utmost ravages, and to arrest the progress of maritime discovery at a distance!
of, perhaps, from 600 to 1,000 miles from the Pole, it is now evident that tho
proximitr of land is not essential, either for its existence, its formation, or its
ucrease.* '

Dr. Sooreby's acquaintance with ice-bergs in process of formation was confined to
Spitsbergen and portions of Greenland, where they do not form so marked a feature
as has been found by others. It is to Dr. R^, a resident in Greenland, that we are
indebted for the most complete account of these marvellous phenomena, and in mak-
ing a few extracts from his work,* we may draw attention to the parallel condition
of thesouth pole in producing these icebergs on a fiir more stupendous scale than is
found in the northern region ; for while in me norOi their dimensions are confined to a
few hundred yards, in the south they are very frequentiy miles in extent, and from
2,000 to 3,000 feet in thickness— a magnitude owing to tne vast extent of country in
which they are produced as explained on page 364 (281.). Their protrusion into the
sea involves the same considerations as the " glacier theory " of uie land, so very in-
teresting and important in geological ^liestions.

(278.) The larger icebergs in the northern regions rise above the surfiuse of the sea
to the heidbt of from 100 to 150 feet and upwaros. and some are 4,000 feet in circum-
ference. The part tdtove can scarcely be considered more than one-eighth of that
helote the surfiioe of the water, so that the cubic contents of the iceberg may amount
to 100,000,000 of cubic ells, or about 60,000,000 cubic yards — a fragment of ice, which,
if we suppose it to be fairly landed, would form a mountain about 1,000 feet in
height. All agree ^t the icebergs of these arctic seas are originally formed on
terra firm : from the snow and rains which, from the severity of the climate, are never
able to reach the ocean in a fluid state, but which, in the course of years, are trans-
formed into a moss of ice, and are then, through some physical agency, thrust forward
into the 8ea.t

The ice thrust forth into the sea, in the form of massy mountains, is originally
formed over an enormous extent of country, from whence it, by an agency similar to
that by which the progress of glaciers is effected, is thrust forward to and brought to
a [/oint at the place from which the icebergs proceed. For the formation of icebergs
accordingly a tract of land of a certain extent is necessary, in which the sea forms so
few and small creeks or inleta that rivers or watercourses of some magpoitude must
necessarily be present.

(279.) Where the above-mentioned condition exists, in conjunction with the neces-
saiy temperature of the climate, the formation of ice does not proceed fit>m certain
mountain hcighls, but the whole country is covered with ice to a certain elevation ;

* Dr. Rink " On the Origin of Icebergs," &o., Journal Royal C^graphical Society,
vol. xxiii., 1868, p. H3, et uq.

t It is a vnll-known fiict that all the ice formed from snow u^n the surihce of land,
where the heat of summor is incapable of melting and preventing its p;radual incmose, has
a tendency to extond and move downward, as water would do, according to the same laws,
in case ram instead of suow had fidlen upon the surface. Those masses of snow accumu-
lated in high regions of mountain chains, even in the hottest parts of the globe, gather in
the valleys, which thus fonn the natiural drainage for the highlands, and being congealed
into a compact body of ice, move slowlv down into lower and warmer regions, till ue in-
creasing heat, by thawing them, 8<its a limit to their fiirther spread. These massen of com-
pact ice spreading down through the valleys or clefts, and constantly furnished farther
MuppUes by the snow accumulated in the surrounding highlands, are, in Europe, seen on the
largest scale upon the Alps, where they are known under the name of " Oletcher," or
glaciers.

2 Y

iiiiil

mmmm

mmm

0BSEBVATI0N8 ON THE CURKENTa

mouMamlnm4 mliejfM ar* UteUed to a uniform phiu t the rivtr-betia are eoneeahd,at
¥>ett 09 everjf ve$tig« of the oriffAnit farm of the covniry. A morement, commencing
far inland, thrusts the outer edge of- this mass of ice forward towards the sea ; and
when it reaches the' frith, it nay be seen to mnkKand to divetge and even extend out
several miles. There the a^^enoy of the oUUeraied rivers may be observed in the
neater or lesser rapidity with which the matter in a solid state is carried finrward to
uie ocean. The massy omstt etiU preeerving itt continuity, proceeds from the shore,
liofneliy the sea, oniil some circumstance or other destroys the equilibrinln, and
iMealu some fitigments off the outer edge, which is again tnrust fbrward, and again
detaches new fragments, thus continually renewing the supplies from the interior.

^280.) A tract or body of land of the requisite sise is, in the northern hemisphere,
oniff to be found in Oreenhnd, and more especially in that part which Ues to the north
of the Arctic Circle, where in the interior, beyond the inlets of the sea, the country
inoreases in breadth from east to vest, and affords space for the original birth-place
of these lar^ icebergs. Neither Spitsbergen, nor tne narrower parts of Greenland,
nor the pemnsnla nor the islands wnich surround it, are adequate in site to produce
the yearly excess of indissoluble ice which, yh>m that large and unknown eof^tinent, ia
very slowh protruded ; and, as it seems, in a lesser degree toward the eastern shores of
Greenland, along which the icebergs are driven past Uape Farewell, the greatest
quantity going to the west, into Baffin's Bay. The friths or fiords, which, pierdng
tar into the country, receive and transmit tne icebergs, are called ieefrithe,

(281.) From November to June the water, in which the icebergs are to p>roceed to
the ocean, is so covered by tlie ocean ice, that they are shut up in the inner ice fiithe ;
but in July, and especially in Au^st, they are carried in mass by the current to the
open nea. This is called the ahoottng out of the ice fiiths, which lasts till late in the
autumn, when the continual easterly storms finally clear out the inner waters, unless
the icebergs are intercepted by certain banks, on which they sometimes remain long
aground.

(282.) Icebergs consist mostly of hard, brittle ice, of which th^ white colour origi-
nates ftt)m very fine lineal pores, uniformly divided through the whole mass, all beinp
of the same sise, equi-distant, and parallel throughout the whole iceberg. This nni-
fctm structure may have arisen at the time it was formed in the interior of the
country from corned snow — perhaps repeatedly thawed and ftvuen. The white ice-
berg is in many directions crossed oy broad stripes of intense blue-coloured ice, which
is quite clear, and either contains no air bladaers, or, at all events, very irregular
These blue stripes are several feet in dimension, and in them are generally

ones.

found " dirt bands" of foreign matters, such as stone, gravel, and clay, which the
icebergs carry off embodied in them. The blue ice is, by thawing, dissolved into
regular large grains, which is not the case with the white ice that forms the main
mass of the iceberps. It seems probable that these blue stripes are formed by a filling
up of the flasures in the inland ice with water — perhaps mixed with snow, gravel, and
stones ; and such a refrigeration of the water in the fissures may be supposed to be
an important agency in setting in motion these great mountains of ice.*

Is would be out of place to enter into detail upon this subject, but firom the above-
mentioned notice, as well as the works of Dr. Scoresby and others, much interesting
matter may be gleaned. We must, therefore, consider them here as only affecting
navigation.

* Transparent ice, free from interior spaces or bubbles, is one of the purest substances
in nature, and it is not possible to detect the presence of Uie minutest portion of air, or
any sabstaBOs that may have been held in solution hj the water from whieh it ia ftmnsd.
The steongest poisons, or oolonrtng matter of any description, are most effectually separated
from water by the process of ft«ering it. This most, of course, only be understood to refer
to those mMsen which are quite clear and transparent, or the spaces or vaoanoiee left in tho
ice irill natumlly contain portions of the adventitious matter. Ice, therefore, is one of tho
best souroes from which a supply of fresh and wholesome water can be obtained, and if
theae hollowa \m wnnhed in firesh water, ice water will be found ptaferable to, and purer
thnn, any other.

\eeahd, a$
amendngr
sea; and
xtendout
ed in the
(ffward to
;he shore,
rioln, and
and again
tenor.

imisphero,
the north
le country
»irth-p)ace
JreenJand,

produce
mUnent, ia

1 shores of
le gfreatest
I, piercing

proceed to
ice Mths ;
■entto the
late in the
ters, unless
'main long'

(lour origi-
s, all being
This uni-
rior of the
white ice-
ice, which
irregular
generally
which the
solved into
the main
)y a filling
pravel, and
rased to be

the above-
interesting
affecting

snbstaaees
of air, or

is ft>mied.
y separRted
ood to refer
B left in tho

one of tbo
nsd, and if

and purer

ICEBERGS, lOB ISLANDS, &«., IN THB ARCTIO CURRENT. 3f0

(288.) Mr, W. C Mid^ttdt to whom tho w<irld ii so Itegaty bidebted fi» his le*
searches in meteorology and physical ge6graphy, has publiuiea a pamphlet, aocomi!
panied by a chart, upon the ices of tho North Atlantic. In this he uas cleuly shown
that the Oulf Stream jmmms ov0r the cold Arctic Current, which transports the deeply
immersed icebergs into and across it. " No impulsion but tiiat of a vast current, setr
ting^ in a south-westerlv direction, and nassing beneath the Gulf Stream, could havo
carried these immense oodiee to tiieir observ^ positions, on routes whioh cross the
Gulf Current, in a region where its average breadth has been found to be about 250
miles." Other observations on thif sul^ect have beeii |^ven on pages 838 to 340. The
same influence will also cause the presence of floating loe in the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
by carrying it thi-ouffh the Straits of fielle-Isle ; but the depth of this would prevent
the progress of the larger icebergs (272.).

It need scarcely be mentioned, that great circumspection is necessur in passing near
the regions where these dangers may reasonably be expected. Tne following in*
stances, selected from many others, may operate as sufflcient cautions i—

(284.) On the 21st of June, 1794, in lat. 45° 18', on the eastern steep edge of tha
Grand Bank, in a thick fog, H.M. fHgates DtBtUUua and Cere$ -were suddenly involve4
amidst some very hish and dangerous islands of ice. The weather was so thick thai
objects were not visible at 50 yoids distant. The Dadahu, commanded by Sir Chas,
H. Itnowles, hauled up and passed close to the stem of a ship that lay stranded upoll
one of the ice islands, and sailed to windward of it throoff h a great quantity of caUt
ice, and to leeward of another ice island. The Oeret, Captaim Thomas Hamilton,
passed in the same track, and saw the wreck a quarter of aa hour alter the Dadalut.
The course was east, the wind S.W., the sea very high, as the wind blew hard, the
night preceding, firom the southward.

Again, on the 16th June, 1810, the Dmdaltu, commanded by Captain Inglefield*
with a fleet from Jamaica, in lat. 41° 33', and long. 51° 17', to the southward of the
Grand Bank, passed two icebergs, and the next day another ; providentially, the fog^
which had been very dense, cleared up for an hour, and«Uowed the fleet to clear w»
dangers.

On the 2nd of August, 1813, H.M.S. Bee(fitrd, 74, then bearing the flag of Vice*
Admiral Stirling, accompanied by the Oyana,, 20, Captain Forrest, and ^awn, 18,
Captain Fellows, with a fleet of 105 sail from Jamaica, at eight a.m., just as the fog
cleared away, tell in with an extensive ridge of ice, having an iceberg at each ex-
tremity, and about one mile in extent, even with the water, over which the seas broke
with considerable violence. Had the fog not cleared up as it did, about thirty ships
must luive struck upon it, as that numl^r were steering directly for this formidable
reef, and were within the extent of it its sweep. The thermometer was at this time
ranging from 63° to 65°, the lat. 45% the long. 44° 30'.

On the Slst of August, 1816, Captain Ghx>day, in the ship Jones, on his passago
fh)m St. Petersburg to New York, in Ut 46" 50*, long. 47° 54', saw ah island of ice,
from about 1 mile to 1^ miles long, and from 64 to 70 feet high. When first seen, it
appeared like a white cloud.

In January, 1818, the brig Anne, of Poole, W. Dayment, master, left the harbour
of Greenspond, Newfoundland, in the morning, and m the evening of the same day
got among ice ; proceeded thus about 40 miles, and at daylight next mominff was
completely beset, and no opening to be seen in an^ direction from the mast-heacL In
this state the vessel continued for fifteen days, drifting with the ice about 60 miles
S.E. by E., or about 4 miles in every twenty-foujf hours. The ice was now become
very heavy, high above the sorftuje, and about 20 large bergs were in sight. With
this ice the vessel drove until die was in 44° 87' N., and about 800 miles to the south-
eastward of Cape Race, when, on the 17th of February, she got dear through the
only opening that appeared L^ the horiaon firom East to S.E., all the rest of the circle
forming one compact bodv of ice, as far as the eye could reach. The vessel had been
shut in for twenty-nine oays, in the last fourteen uf whioh she drifted from lat.
40" 57' to lat. 44° 37', about 280 miles, or 20 miles a-<lay, S.E. by £., tremendous galea
of wind blowing the whole time {h>m the west to the N. W. . In the course d' tUa

OBSBKVAttONB ON THB OtlHREIKTS*

pasBBge tbie master declared that he mW more than 100 large lalands of the solid blue
ioe» known to traders by the name of Oreenland let.

On the 17th day of the same month, January 1818, the brig JPStnchalt of Greenock,
soiled from St. John's, Newfonndland. At about IS miles to me westward of this port
idle fell in with a field of ice coming down from the northward, about 8 miles in
breadth;' and extending to the nortiiward beyond the reach of sisht. Having cleared
this, Imd proceeded westerly about 260 miles, on the 20th, in lat. 47|°, she encoun-
tered ti still more eztensiTe field, floating to tJie westward, in the midst of which was
an iceberg { she cleared this, though not without ^fficulty, and brought with her a
gale of wmd, with snow, sleet, aim rain, the whole way to Scotland.

On the 6th of May, 1823, the Mountttone, of and firom Plymouth, was lost on an
iceberg, on her passage to Newfoundland. The master and crew, with passengers, in
all ten persons, took to the boat, without provisions, from which three only of the
number were tidcen by a passing ship, on the 14th of the same month, the remainder
Jiaving died of hunger !

Our next case is that of the jUtue, of Wisoasset, New England, on the passage
toward London, March and April, 1826. The following is an extract of a letter
from William 8. Shaw, the commander, to his owners, on the subject. His means of
protecting the vessel, under pdrilons circumstances, are worthy of especial notice.

*' On the 12th of March, at four a.m. (sea account), between lat. 42° and 44° North*
weather thick and olondy, with squalls of hail and snow, we ran the brig in between
two reefis of ice, jamnied together apparently in a solid mass, the sea oeing much
smoother than usual, which did not alarm us ; we knew we were for from land or
breakers, until we felt the ice alongside of us ; as soon as we perceived which, we
hove-to until daylight, when we found we were surrounded by a solid body of ice.
Around ua were 30 icebe^^gs about 100 feet high, and nearly the siie of Seg^wine
Island. Finding the ice chafed us badly, we got out fenders. As we had run into
the ice before the wind, it was impossible to get out the same way. At sunrise dis-
covered a narrow opening to- leeward, for which we steered under easy sail, and firove
her through. We were now in a bay, about Ij^ miles wide, the reefs on either side,

■ and large cakes of ice in contact with us.

" The wind still blowing fresh at N.W., we kept her before it about 3 miles, but
could not discover an oi>ening to the southward and westward ; tacked, and steered
N.E. about 12 miles, it bemg very difficult to avoid the large cakes of ice that
crowded thickly around ust

" Finding there was no opening in this direction, and that the two reefe extended
as far as we could see ; that there were numerous large islands of ice north of us, and
an almost innumerable collection of small ones ahead, we concluded, at 10 a.m., to
crowd her through the ice ; and having prepared fenders of every kind, such as old
junk, spars, cordwood, bales of cotton, and part of one cable, we drifted her into it.
'We were now in the midst of the ice in a severe gale, accompanied vrith a thick snow-
storm ; and had it not been for our precaution, in preparing fenders, the ice must have
soon made a hole through us. At mid-day, old Sol deigned to show his brazen face,
and laughed at our comical situation. This circumstance enabled us to take an ob-
servation, by which we foimd oui-selves in lat. 44° 30' North, and long. 43° West
(between the Azores and Newfoundland).

<< As our fenders were nearly destroyed, we were compelled to out up more of our
cable, wooden fenders not sinkinar deep enough for the purpose of defence under
water. You may judge of the diSSculty of crotvdinff the brig through by our pro-
gress, which was but half a mile an hour, under two reefed topsails and foresail, the
wind blowing heavily. ^ At one o'clock p.m., we suspended two bales of cotton under
our chains, tnat they might not be carried away by rolling against the cakes of ice
which we occasionally met, some of which were 100 feet circumference, and 6 feet
thick.

■ " At one time wo were so completely enclosed, that I got out, vnth part of ths
crew, and walked on the ice — a walk that few mariners have probably ei\joyed at that
distance from land on the Western Atlantic Ocean. At 8h. in the evening, found the

ICEBEROS, ICB ISLANDS, &o., IN THB ARCTIC CURRENT. 307

solid blue

Greenock,
»f this port
) miles in
lig cleared
^e encoun-
wbich was
nfh her a

lost on an
isengers, in
nly of ihe
remainder

ihe passage
of a letter
is means of
notice.

44° North,
in between
leing mnoh
)inland or
which, we
3ody of ice.
of Begwine
ad run into
Bonrise dis-
l, and drove
either side,

) miles, but
and steered
I of ice that

& extended
1 of us, and
10 a.m., to
such as old
her into it.
thick snow-
9 must have
>razen face,
take an ob-
43" West

nore of our
ience under
>y our pro-
bresail, the
ttton imder
akes of ice
and 6 feet

Murt of th9

yed at that

found the

Mirrounding ice much thinner, and the islands less frequent ; handed all sails except
the dose-reofed main-topsail, which we hove to the mast to keep her from ranging
ahead on the islands.

'< At daylight, finding ourselves dear from the great body of ice, though not from
the islands, we made sail, and steered E.S.E. and E.N.E. for three days, with a
good breeze, and under short saU during the night. It was the opinion of^ all hands,
that we sailed three hundred tnilea before we were clear of the large islands of ice f

' In July and August of the same year, 1826, H.M.6. Mngdaee was on her passage
from New York, and fell in with an immense iceberg off ue' Banks of Newfound-
land, drifting to the southward, the magnitude and sudden appearance of which
iutonished every person on board. For the description of an iceberg seen by Captain
4. S. Park, 29th June, 1826, see page 359.

In the month of March, 1828, several vessels arrived at New York, which had
fallen in with islands of ice in lat. 43' to 44°, long. 47° to 49°. This was considered
as unusually early in the season for such dangers to be met with. In this season, the
briff Catharine and Hannah, Captain Lumsdsn, which afterwards arrived at Cork,

Jacked up, on the 4th of May, in lat. 46° 11', long. 56° (near Banque-reau), a boat be-
ong to the Superb, of and teom Bristol, for Quebec, which ran foul of an iceberg on
the 2lBt of April, that stove her forwuxl. This mifortunate occurrence obliged all
hands to take to take to the pumps, at which the^ continued without intermission for
two days and a night, when a schooner hove in sight { and the captain proceeded in
the jolly-boat to tocat with them to take the crew. While the captain was so en-
gaged, the vessel being quite in a sinking state, the crew left the pumps to get the
boats out to leave her. They succeeded m getting out a boat (the one subsequently
picked up), and seven men got into her ; upon which they unhooked the taokl^
slipped from the ship, but comd not regain her, and it coming on thick weather, they
could not find the schooner; thus the unfortunate men were left without provisions,
water, mast, sail, or anything that would enable them to struggle for existence, save
and except two oars! In this state they were buffeted about for eleven days, when
they were fallen in with by the Catharine and Hannah. Of the seven men only two
were alive ; and one of these survived only twenty-four hours. It is almost superfiu-
ouB to say, that the only food which they nad taken was from the bodies of deceased
companions.

Captain Barclay, of the SriUiant, for Leith, from Quebec, which he left on the 5th
of June, 1829, and narrowly escaped shipwreck, having fallen in with a heavy body
of ice, about 20 miles east of the entrance to the Strait of Belle-Isle, in foggy
weather. The vessel ^t clear r^n the 19th of June, after being three davs and ni^ts
amongst them, and bemg obUg V> proceed Ij^ degrees to the southward..

On the 11th of May, 1833, betw .-en the Outer and Grand Banks of Newfoundland,
the brig Ltidy of the JLake, John Grant, master, from Belfast, with 230 passengers, in
lat. 46 50', long. 47° 10', fell in with ice, and while endeavouring to pass between two
lar^ pieces, a tongue under water in the ice struck the port bow, and stove it
entirely in. It is not requisite here to repeat an afflicting detail ; the consequence
was, that the brig soon foundered, and only the captain, with fourteen other persons,
were ultimately saved.

The barque Perthshire, R. Simpson, flrom Pictou, Nova Scotia, fell in with a field of
ice, in lat. 46° 19', long. 46° 40', on the 8th of June, 1845. It was about thirty miles
in extent, and on its north end there was a ship, high and dry on the ice, with the
crew on board ; but could not render them any assistance.

(285.) The following are from Mr. Redfleld :— On the Ist day of January, 1844,
Captain Burroughs, in the ship Sully, met vrith an iceberg in the Atlantic, in lat. 45°>
long. 48° This is earlier in the winter than any other case which we have met with*
Captain B. States, that he had met with ice near this position on the Ist of February!
on a former voyage.

In September, 1822, Captain Couthguy say an iceberg aground on the eastern c^^
of the Grank Bank, in lat. 43^ 18', long. 48''^ 30'. Soundings 3 miles inside of it, t£e

96B

OBSBBTATIONS ON THB CUBRBNT8,

dqrtii, WM found to be 100 hl^bema. In die month of Anfftut, 1827, the Bune ob*
aerrov while crowinff the banks, in lat. 46° 30', long. 46° W., passed within less than
a mile of a large iceoerg, which was stranded in between 80 and 00 fatiboms. He
waa BO pear as to peroeiTe distinctly large fragments of rocks, and quantities of earthy
matter imbedded m the sides of the iceberff ; and to see, from the fore-yard, that the
water, for at least a mile round it, was fhlTof mod, stixxed up from the bottom by the
violent rolling and crushing of the mass.

On the 27th of April, 1829, Captain Conthonj passed, in lat 36° 10' N., long.
99* W. (probably south of the Ouu Stream), an usebeiff, estimated to be a quarter of
a mi)e long, ajd from 80 to 100 feet high. It was much wasted in its upper portion,
which was worn and broken into the most &ncifrd shapes. In 1831. at daylight <n
tiie nth of August, lat. 36° 20' N., long. 67° 45' W., upon the southern edge of the
Gulf Stream, he fell in with several sdoaII icebergs, in such proximilr to each other
as to leave little doubt of their bdnv fragments of a large one, which, wedcened by
the high temperature of the surrounding water, had fallen asunder during Ibe strong
galewnich had prevailed from the S.E.— -(<SliWmo»'« Journal, vol. xliii., 1842.)

Ship St. James, Meyer, July 12th, 1844, lat. 44°, long. 47* 12*, passed twelve large
icebergs ; July 20th, passed 25 ditto; and July 21st, passed 30 ditto, lat 43° 50', long.
62" 26 , saw the last of it.

Ship Formosa, Crawford, June 18th, 1842, kt. 38° 40', long. 47° 20', saw an iceberg
100 feet high, and 1 70 feet long.

' (286.) A very interesting item in our enumeraticm of ice-floea is that of those met
with in April, W61, on which were the wrecks of two ships, which had the {^ppear-
ance of, and from all probabilities were, the ships of the unfortunate Arctic es^iedi-
tion under Sir John Pranklin. The particulars have been so extensively detailed
Elsewhere, that we shall merely give the original announcement, which will st^ce
for the present purpose. Much more extended particulars vrill be found in the pnblio
newspapers of April 9th, 1832, and subsequently ; the NatU. Mag., May, 1852,
p. 265, etseq. ; and the Parliamentary Paper on the Arctic expedition.

. The brig Benoinition, of Shields, Captain E. Coward, boimd to Quebec, on April
20th, 1851, when near the east edge of the bank, in lat. 45° 30', wind N.E., fresh
breezes, clear weather, as much as they could carry fore-topmast studding-sail, fell in
with ice-floes, one of which was very large, with field-ice attached, on which there
were two three-masted ships, having their masts struck and yards down, and all made
snug ; to all appearance they had passed the winter together on the ice. Took the
spying-glass, and carefrilly examined them to see if there was any one on board, but
could see no one, &c., &c. A farther statement says they were apparently two full-
rigged ships (one about 500 tons, the other 350), on an iceberg high and dry, the
hirger one on ner beam-ends, &0. Singularly enough this statement had been pub-
lishied in the Limerick Chronicle, May 28th, 1851, ajrr nr pvMffrwiii.

In our minds there is no doubt but that these were the ill-fiited shipB which had
been drifted out of Melville Sound and Baffin's Bay ; and thus eluded all the elabo-
jrate and anxious searches that have been made. The incident is a sing^ar one in the
•histcny of arctic ices*

Ttie Carh Mauran, commanded by Mr. Tillinghors, passed on May 23, 24, 29,
' 18^1, between lata. 44° and 45°, and tongs. 49*-54° large quantities of ice.

On Tune 27, 1851, the Tra«Atfl^ton steamer, firom New York to Southampton, passed
10 very larg^e icebei^ between longs. fi0°-45° in lat. 47°.

(287.) Lieutenant Emm, the intelligent officer to whom we are indebted for a part

■ • See Journal of the Bojal Geographical Society, vol xxvi., pip. 28 — 86, " On the Pro*
'bable Course punned by Sir John Franklin's Expedition," by A. O. Fittdlay.. Notwith*
Mtandiug that this great mystery haa been partially cleared up by the expeditions of Dr. Bae
aivd Sir L. M'CUntock, yet no vestige of the ships themselves have been seen by Europeans.
"That portion, as well as others, is still invnlvod m mystery ; and the mnuion is still tenable,
and mainttdnoi by inany, that these dereUct ahipa wore the Sreitu and TVrrar.

ICEBERGS, ICE ISLANDS, ftO., IN THE ARCTIC CURRENT. $S9

me ob«
sMthan
18. He
? earthy
bhattha
L by the

r., long,
lartor of
portioii.
^htof
3 of the
3h ofhier
cened by
le strong

Ive large

JO', long.

lioeberg

:hoBemet
B appear-
5 expedi- •
detoiled
II suffice
he public
»y, 1862,

on April
IE., fresh
m, fell in
ich there
all made
rook the
)ard, but
two full-
dry, the
>een pub-

rhiohbad
heelabo-
me in the

3, 24, 20,

>n, passed

tor

apart

the Pro*

iNotinth*

fDr. Bm

luropeans.
11 tenable,

of these extraetsj says, " There Is scarcely a doubt but that most of tiih Tesseh ftonr
the West Indies and America, that have been misring, perished in the same manner
as the MotmMone, icebergs having been met with some degrees to the southward of
the Banks of Newfoundland in June and July. The commanders of vessels, there-
fore, who have occasion to pass between the parallels of 36° and 60" N., cannot be too
cautions ; a look-out man should be placed on the fbre-yaid during the night, and in
fbgg^y or hazy weather, also in the daytime ; in additi(m to these, there should be one
OB each bow ; and during a fog, the fbrenul diould be hauled up, especially in cross-
ing the banks, where icebergs have been met with aground. Carenil attention, too,'
should be paid to the thermometer, as ezperienoe has shown that it is an indicator of
the vicinity of ice. Captain fitmUin oMerves that tho epproach to ice would be
evidently pointed out in tiiose parts of the Atlantic where the snrfiuie is not con-
tinnually chilled by the passing and melting of ice, as in the Arctic Sea ; and he
strongly recommendi a ^riet f^rfy attention to the thermometrical ataU of the water
at the surface, in all parts where ships are exposed to the dangerous concussion of
floating icebergs, as a principal means of security. There would be very littie
trouble attending such a point of duty ; yet, we believe, there are many masters who
would not under^ it, but trust to chance the safety of their vessel, tfaieir own lives,
and those of their crew and passengers. Many have made repeated voyages across
the Atiantio without having seen floating ice, and, thwefore, become incautious. It
is to these we would particularly recommend the perusal of this paper. The follow-
ing extract Ailly corroborates C«ptiun Franklin's assertion :— ^ The morning of the
1st of August (says Captain Lyon) was thick and foggy, with rain ; at 10 a.m. we
discovered, through the haze, our m«t pice of ice, a snuJI ber^, of about 70 feet ; we
soon passed this and several others, but saw no floe or hrtuh tee, although there was
every reason to suppose that a. pack was near, from the sudden smoothness and change
of temperature in tne water, now at 32°, while the air was at only 34° Repeated
observations of this kind have now brought to a certainty the assertion, that the ap^'
proach to ice from an open sea may be ascertained by the sudden change of the
thermometer ; and, acting from past experience, I caused the most active look-out ia
be ke^t, on observing it to fall suddenly this morning ; yet this change first took
place m a very thick fog, and we ran about 10 miles before the ice was seen.'

Cautions. — " Captain Weddell recommends that, with a free side-wind, an iceberg
or ice island should be passed on the windward side ; as by this mean the loose ice,
which always drifts ferthest, is avoided."

We may sum up the admonitions which have bem given by the following
remarks: — .

The INDICATIONS of an iceberg are — 1. A natural e£Palgence, or ice hUnk which
frequently renders them visible at some distance, even in ue darkest night. At a;
short distance this effulgence may appear like a white cloud, extending over, or nearly
over the vessel's masts.

2. A considerable decrease in the temperature of the water, as shown by the
thermometer, in comparison with the heat of the adjacent sea, and with the air'
above.

3. The roaring of the sea at the base of a ber^, which, excepting in a steamer with
its paddles in action, may be heard by an attentive listener, yman afar otL

(288.) Lieutenant J. Steele Parke, whose ioumal we have given extracts from
elsewhere, recites the following incident whidi will speak fbr itself an inculeatory
caution : — ■

"June 29th, 1826. — A light breeze from the southward, with foggy ' Bankweather!
as the sailor? call it. Steering E. by S. At eight o'clock this morning it cleared
away, and I took altitudes for my chronometer, which made the longitude 40° 42' ;
and, at the same time, we discovered an island on the starboard beam, 3 or 4 miles ofi';
Shortened sail, hove the sldp to, and sent the mate to see what it roally was ; for,
although I had no doubt of its being an ioeberv, yet it certainly looked something
like land ; and I did not wish to leave it in any kind of imcertainty. The fog, which
had cleared away at eight o'clock, and left a beautiful blue sky, returned suddenly

iiPiiiii

3G0

, OBSERVATIOlfB ON THE CURRENTS.

wlm the boat was about half-way from the ahlp. The mate, an aothre, sldlAil sea^
man, had a compeas with him, and he apprehended no danger, but pushed on for the
island, instead of returning, when he saw the fog spreading. Hour after hour passed
away, and no appearance of the boat. Night came on, dark as the graye, with a cold,
benumbing dri»ue, and a fog so dense that we coidd scarcely see across the deck.
Mripaiid oMeot was to keep the ship as near the same spot as possible. All day and
an mght we kept the bell t(Mling, and fired a great gun occasionally : a tar barrel was
also Uaaing at the main-yard arm, but all was unavailing. I shall never forget the
terrors of that night. I reproached myself as the cause of their destruction ; and I
prayed most earnestly for daylight and clear weather. I thought daylight would
never come ) but it came at last, and the fog was thicker, if possible, than the day
before. The most sanguine now began to despair. About five o'clock something was
heard, like the blowing of a conch shell, but so foint and indistinct that we thought
it was only the echo of the great noise we were making on board. However, it was
soon discovered that the sound was coming nearer ana nearer : but, as no person on
board knew that they had a shell in the brat, we were still in a sad state of anxiety :
for it might, perhaps, be a ship sounding her shell in the fog, as usual at sea. In a
few minutes the plash of oars was heard, and in five minutes more the boat was
alongside, with all hands safe and sound, thank Ood ! but cold and hungry enough.
The mate tells me he rowed round the iceberg, which he thinks was about 3<D0 feet in
length, 150 feet in breadth, and 40 or 50 feet above tiie surface of the water. It was
melting away rapidly : streams of water were gushing down its sides, and they had
only got a few yards from it, on their return, when (to use his own words) 'it took a
sally and fell over on its beam ends.' Our last sight of the ice, when bearing S.W.
3 or 4 miles, was in lat. 42» 13', long. 49° 44'.''*

These may be of service to vessels crossing the Atlantic, during the season of these
floating dangers, between March or February and July.

9.— GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

Remakks bt Lieutenant John Steele Parke, R.N.t — Sailed from Falmouth
(Jamaica), May the 23rd, 1826, and bore away for the " Strait of Florida.

Maj/ 30th. — Rounded Cape Antonio with a gentle breeze at E.N.E. In May, 1824,
I found a current here setting with considerable strength into the Mexican Sea. This
voyage there is none. I have perceived no current ratween the Grand Cayman and
the S.W. end of Cuba ; but there was a little easterly set between Jamaica and the
Grand Cayman (200.)4 The day we called there for turtle (the 27th) it was going
to windward at the rate of a mile an hour.

June 1st.— In lat. 23° 50', long. 84° 20' — ^This day we first began to feel the influ-
ence of the current from the Mexican Sea.

It is well and truly remarked, by a skilAil and a very intelligent navigator, in
Purdy's " Memoir of the Atlantic," tiiat, « the calculations of the velocity of tiie Gulf
Stream are not to be depended on." In the early port of June, 1824, it was running
at the rate of 2| miles an hour between the Bernini Isles and Florida : in July,

* On the 18th of June, 1839, an iceberg was seen, supposed to be about a mile in length,
and from 60 to 70 feet high, bi lat. 40° 60' N., and long. 48° 39' W.

t On board the Cdrthalton Park, on her passage from Jamaica to London, 1826. They
are repeated here, from our former editions, as they afford a good example of the application
of the preceding description.

X The figures, thus (200.), refer to the sections in the preceding pages.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

1825, its velocity was 4 miles nearly ; and this voyage it u ntbet more than 4i
This has been ascertained by sidereal observations, made repeatedly during tiM
night.

Let us now pursue our voyage. On the 7th of June we cleared the " Straiti" and
stood to the northward with an easterly wind. It was laid down as an established
^and I believe an vnoontroverted^ position, that a rippling of the water is never se«i
•n the Onlf Stream, but only on its outer ethe. I have no olj^eotion to reoeive this
doctrine as a general rule j out it is certainfy not an infidlible Ujidication of the edge )
for I have seen it more than once in the very heart of the stream. To-day, for instance,
June 9, we are in lat. 32° 10', long. 78° 2', and I never saw tha ocean more agitated
by a current in my life, see (221.) page 322.

^ Every now and then we get into an extraordinary boiling, like the race of a spring
tide over a shoal, and by a reference to the chart it will be seen that we are very hx
from the outer edge. It is true, the boundaries of the Gulf Stream cannot be laid
down in a chart as fixed and unchangeable : the stream will be affected, both in its
breadth and velocity, by causes that we know nothing of— causes that operate to-day,
and may cease to-morrow : but there cannot be a doubt that these ripplings I roeak
of are in the strength of the stream, for the ship has been swept 60 nules X^. 40° E.
by the current in the last twenty- four hours.

June 10th. — ^Wind westerly ; a moderate breese ; lat. 33° 61', long. 7fi° 4'. — ^The
current has carried us 58 miles N. 56° E. in the last twenty-four hours, and we have
passed through four or five ripplings to-daf i.<% well as yesterday (222.).

June 11th.— Wind fix>m S.W. to N.W. ; a gentle breeze ; lat. 34° 38', long. 73° 23'.
— Current has set us N. 76° E. 9 miles in the last twenty-four hours. No npple seen
to-day.

June 12th. — ^Wind westerly; a nice little breeze. — To-day and yesterday very little
gulf-weed has been seen. A spring now and then. Yesterday the current was very
weak, and to-day there is none at all. On the 9th and 10th the sea was almost
covered with weed, and we h«id then a beautiM current. It would {dmost appear
that the weed (as well as the ripple) is but a fallacious test of this stream of
streams. The truest indication is the temperature of the water. Compare the tempe-
rature of the water every four hours hours, and the rise or &11 of the quicksilver will
be a useful guide.

June 13th. — Wind from N.E. to East; a strong breeze and hazy weather; lat.
35° 34'. — ^No altitudes for chronometer — ^the sijn was not out at a proper time from
moon. There seems to be northerly current. The dead reckoning agrees with tlie
observed latitude.

June 14th. — ^Wind veering between North and East ; a moderate breeze ; lat.
36° 10', long. 70° 55'. — ^A few sprigs of weed seen now and then, and we find a little
current to the N.E.

June 15th. — Light wind and very variable ; between N.E. and W.N.W. — ^In the
last twenty-four hours the current has set N. 66° E. 26 miles ; a few sprigs of weed
have been seen occasionally ; lat. 36° 34', long. 70° 7'. At one p.m. got mto a pro-
digious quantity of gulf-weed : the ocean covered with it for 2 or 3 miles. Passed
through it in about half-an-hour, and during the remainder of the day saw ve;:y
little : a cluster here and there, now and then (on the outer edge of the stream).

June 16th. — ^Wind between N.E. and East; a fresh breeze. — ^The courses and
distance, by compass and log, give the same easting and noiihing as the ship has made
by celestial observations. Lat. 36" 52', long. 68 45' : we still pass sprigs of gulf-
weed (still on the eastern margin).

June 17th. — We have been standing to the northward since yesterday morning at
eight o'clock, with the wind about East, and are now in lat. 37° 50', long. 68° 50', at
noon. The log gives a true North course, and the chronometer gives five minutes of
westing, therefore we may presume there is little or no current, for the latitude, b^
dead reckoning, affrees wiuiin a mile of the observation. P.M. — I 4m^|^y alti-
tudes, taken this anemten at five o'clock, that the ship has made seventeen minutes

2 z

862

OBSx^HVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

of eaatbg by duonometer once the sights I took in the mornuiff at nine. We
must be getting into the stream again, for the ship has not vaaiie a single mile
of easting, by fair calculation, according to dead reckoning. A few spngs seen
to-day.

June 18th. — The wind has been steady at East all the last twenty-four hours, and
we have been standing to the northwara all the time. These currents of the ocean
are puuling phenomena ! The true course and distance by log is N, i^ W. 50 miles ;
and what course do you think we have really and truly mack by celestial observa-
tions P By the ineriaian altitude of the sun, our latitude is 38° 7', and the longitude,
by chronometer and lunar. 67° 46'. So we have made seventeen minutes of northing,
whereas Ihe run by log rives fifty minutes ; and we have made sixty-four minutes of
easting, when the most skilM seaman, without a knowledge of lunars or chronometer,
would say we have made five dr six minutes of westing. This sweep of the current I
fitncy we must attribute to the combined action of two streams : one, the Gulf Stream,
pursuing its ordinary course to the eastward ; the other, perhaps, from the St. I^aw-
renoe, running to the South. — ^Perhaps there may have oeen a southerly set occa-
sioned by the proximity of the Nantucket Shoab (247.).

June 19th. — Southerly wind, with foggy, miserable weather. No altitudes for
chronometer or latitude. By the log we are in 38° 45' N., and 66* 6' W., at noon.^
Effects of the Arctic Current (250.)

June 20th.— The same sort of weather as yesterday, with a moderate breeze from
the S.S.E. By log we are in 39« 59', and 63° 16'. P.if.— Passed some weed; long
and stringy ; not gulf-weed.

June 21st. — ^The wind drew round to the eastward last night, and we stood to the
north\rard. At one a.m. the sky brightened, and I was lucky enough to get an alti-
tude of the moon, when shct was just on the meridian, which made the latitude 4r 15';
being 36 miles frulher north than the latitude by account, since the observation on
the f8th. Tacked and stood to the S.S.E. There has been very little current to the
eastward since the longitude was ascertained on the 18th : the log gives nearly as
much easting as the chronometer. Lat. 40° 69', long. 62° 40'. We have seen a good
many clusten of gulf-weed to-day. As we approach the usual northern limit of the
stream, I am watcning the weed particularly to see how &r we shall carry it. — See
(248.) for the northern edge.

June 22nd. — ^The wind E.N.E., blowing hard, with a high sea and dark dismal
weather (250.) ; but we got the meridian altitude of the sun ; and also sights for the
chronometer tbis morning at nine o'clock. The longitude was then 61° 52', therefore
we are decidedly in a fine easterly current. The log cannot possibly give a single
mile of easting, for «e have been lying-to, under the main-topsail, in a heavy vale of
wind, all the twenty-four hours, with our head to the southward and eastwutl. The
ship has also been carried to the North by the current : our latitude is 40* 45'. So
that she has really made forty-eight minutes of eastinff, and only fourteen minutes of
southmg : and the log gives thirty-eight minutes of southing, and six minutes of
westing. Making every reasonable allowance for the inaccuracy of dead-reckoning,
we may safely say the current has set us upward of 40 miles in a N.E. by E. direc-
tion (2ol.). iNo one con have less faith in dead reckoning thin I have ; but still it is
necessary to attend to it, in order to compare it with the ship's true position : for I
am not aware of any other means to determine the set and velocity of a current, in a

Sile of wind, but bv comparing the common calculation bv log with the true place of
e ship, indicated oy celestial observations. P.JH, — At nve aclock, by chronometer,
we have still a fine current. No weed seen all day.

June 23rd. — ^Wind E.N.E. Still blowing hard ; but less sea, and wind abating.
Ship's head to the S.E. Lat. 40° 1'. P.JU:— Fine weather again. Made sail. At
hall-past four got altitudes for chronometer, and I am sorry to find we have
lost the current, llie longitude is 61° 57'. Tacked diip immemately, and stood to
the northward. We have passed some weed to-day, both in large clusters and small

5|»«gS.

June 24th. — The wind oame round to the S.S.E. in the night, and wo shaped a

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

363

me. We
a|^le mile
ngs seen

loun, and
he ccean
fiO miles;
I observa-
ongitnde,
northing,
dinutesof
onometer,
current I
If Stream,
St. Iaw-
Bet ooca-

Ltndes for
t noon.—

eeze from
eed; long

oodto the
et an alti-
de 41= 16'}
Tation on
■ent to the
nearly aa
ten a good
Ut of the
kr it. — See

rk dismal
ita for the
, therefore
I a single
ry gale of
utC The
P 46'. So
ninutes of
linutes of
"eckoning,
• E. dii-ec-
still it is
on : for I
Tent, in a
le place of
onometer,

abating.

sail. At

we have

I stood to

and small

shaped a

eourae E. hv N., with a light breeze. The lonfttnde, by chronometer, this morning
at dght o'clock, disappointed me very much: at naif-past font p.m., yesterday, it was
61° oi', and we have been standing to the eastward almoet all nisht. The log makes
it 61° 18', and the chronometer, 61° 45' ! We have had a westeny set, imdom)tedly t
and a southerly one too, for the latitude is 40P 9', and by the los it should be 40" 16'.
A few^ sprigs of weed in sight to-day. P.M. — Chronometer (at five o'clock) givea
five minutes of easting more tnan the run by log, since the altitudes in the morning at
eight (the Arctic S.W. current felt).

June 26th.— Wind South: a gentle breeze and fine weather. Lat. 46° 18', long.
60° 8'. No perceptible current these last twenty-four hours. Passed several sprigs
of weed.

June 26th. — ^Wind southerly, a steady 6-knot breeze and fine weather. Steeriiig
E. by S. Lat. 41° 3', long. 66* 46'.— Ship has gone 138 miles by lo^, and 166 by
chronometer. The difference between chronometer and dead-reckomng must not
alwa^ be attributed to a current. Some allowance must be made for the carelessness
of sailors ^especially in the night watches) at tJie helm, and other circumstances re«
tating to the run by log. However, I think I am warranted in saying we have benefited
something by a conent I make it N.E. by E. 10 or 12 mites. P.Jf.- The chro-
nometer tells me (at six o'clock) that we have an easterly current.

June 2'7th.— A moderate breeze at S.W. Running E. by 8. Lat. 41° 27', long., by
lr..i9rs and chronometer, which differ very little, 63^ 41' at noon. Current has set us
li 02° E. 26 miles in the last twenty-four hours. P.M. — ^Two sprigs of gulf-weed this
afternoon, in lat. 41° 29', long. 63° 8'.

June 28th. — Steering E. by S. with a gentle 4-knot breeze at S.W. — ^The longitude
by ohronometer was 62° 11' tnis morning, and we made eleven mindtesby log between
that time and noon. So we shall call uie longitude 62° 0', and the latitude 41° 60'.
We have had a little northerly set these last twenty-four hours, 8 or 9 miles North,
and 2 or 3 miles East. I have observed, in my last tnree voyages firom Jamaica, that
we have always felt a northerly current of some strengUi in this part of the ocean,
setting toward the Bank of Newfoundland, in JuT^e ana July. This, if I mistake not,
is contrary to the generally received opinion (26b). Some weed in sight to-day ; a
few sprigs decidefUy gulf-weed : they had all the well-known characteristics of the
regular gulf-weed ; but there was some of a different kind, with long string^y stems.

June 29th. — Long. 49° 42', at 8 a.m., saw an immense iceberg, which I sent the
mate to see, as related on page 369. v;

June 30th. — Light breeze firom the westward. When the boat returned this morn-
ing, made sail again on the same course, E. by S. At noon, atmosphere thick as
melted butter. JNo sights for chronometer or latitude, and I was in too much distress
to attend to latitude or longitude by dead-reckoning.

Julu 1st. — ^Westerly wind, with thick fog generally, but clearing away now and
then during the day, so that I got a_ glimDso of the sun this morning for the chro-
nometer, and also a good meridian altitude fur the latitude. I was even lucky enough
to get three sets of the lunar distances. I worked them all separately, as well as by
the mean of the three sets, and they differed only 2 miles. The lunar is sixteen
minutes to the eastward of the ohronometer, but I rely more on the chronometer than
the lunar. Lat. 42° 46', chonometer, 47° U', at nine a.m. Immediately after noon
the fog returned with all its density.

July 2nd. — Wind westerly. Light breeze ; 3 or 4 knots. — In confirmation of my

Soflition, that a ship makes more northing than the log will give, near the Bank of
fewlbuudluid, in this seasonof the year (my remarks nave b^n made in June and
July only), I find we have made 28 or 30 miles of northing more than the dead-
reckoning can account for satisfactorily since noon yesterday. The water is amooth,
and we have been steering one course, £. b^ S. | S., with a &ir wind : by log we have
gone 82 miles, and I think the ship has been attended toss carefiiUy as cue can expect
in a merchantman. The chronometer also gives more casting than the run by a very
great deal. It cleared up about twelve o'clock, and gave me the meridian altitude { *

9AA

OBSERVATIONS OS THB CURBENTS.

kt. 43^ SI*'. And It brightened mAh at three p.m., when mT> ehronometer gsv"
44" 6'.^ The oorrent ia unqveitionaUy gain to the northward ana eastward f264.).
make it N. 61* E., 48 or fiO miles, sinoe nine o'clock yesterday, when the longitua
was (bond by chronometer.

Jufy 3rd.— Steering E. by 8. |8. Wind westerly, a nice Httle steady breese.-^
Longitude, by chronometer, this morning, at twenty-four minutes past eight, was
41" 44' ; and the hititude 43* 68'. Current had set us N. 78" K 17 or 18 miles in the
last twenty-four hours.

JW/y 4th. — ^Wind westerly, a beantiM breese. Running E. by S. f S. — ^It is my
constant practice to take sight for the longitude two, tluee, or four times a day,
according to circumstances, as well as sidereal observations, for the latitude in the
night watohesi and by thesct means I think it is a foir conclusion, that I can discover,
generally, the set and velooity of a current very soon after the ship begins to foel its
influenoe. Now, the current has been setting altogether to the eastirard during the
last twenty-four hours (N. 86" E. 10 miles), the lonsitude only will be disturbed,
therefore toe chronometer will be our truest guide, ana she tells me that the current
oeased in 44" 16', loitf . 38" 32'. This I call the eastern boundary, or rather the termir
nation, of the Vlotiak Stream (214.). I saw some bunches of weed to-daV ; it was
decidedly what is commonly called vulf-weed, the same kind that we met with in the
Florida Stream, along the coast df Morth America, but it had not the same flourishing
look. I eall them bimches, in ocmtradistinotion to sprigs i for the sprigs that we faU
in with to the southward float liffhtly on the surfoce, but those to tne northward are
more like bunches of oakum— bunches of oakum saturated with water, and almost
stinking.

Jiiltf 6th.— Wind W.N.W. A fine steady breese. Running E. by S. | 8. Lat.
41* '63', long. 36" 46'. I have no doubt that the weed mentionra yesterday was at the
eastern end of the stream, for we have seen none since, and none was seen for two
dars before ; and the run, by log, gives now as much longitude as the chronometer.
I l»ny we may presume that the vreed was carried there by the Florida Current, un-
less, indeed, we adopt the hypothesis, that the current has nothing to do with it :
that it grows and ru>ens at the bottom of the sea \ and, when in a state of decay, the
stems are broken off bv the agitation of the water, or some other accidental cause,
and then it comes to tno surfoce. Be that as it may, the weed, in this part of the
ocean, I have invariably found in a perishing state j and I have generally found it
fivsh and healthy in the stream sweeping along the coast of America.

[From the 6th to the 14th of July, when the ship arrived at the lisard, the Journal
preHents nothing remarkable, excepting a current setting N.W. by W. on the edge of
soundings. The current on other oays was scarcely perceptible^]

Majob Rennell says : — <* It is well known how easily a current may be induced
by the action of the wind, and how a strong S.W., a N.W., or even a M^R. wind, on
our own coasts, raises the tide to an extraordinary height in the English Channel, the
River Thamt>s, the East Coast of Britain, &c., as those winds respectivelv prevail.
The ingcniouH Mr. Smeaton ascertained, by experiment, that in a canal of 4 miles in
length, the water was kept up 4 inches higher at one end than at the other, merely
by the action of the wind along the canal. The Baltic is kent up 2 feet at least by a
strong N.W. wind of any continuance ; and the Caspian oea Is higher, by several
foet, lit either end, as a strong northerly or southerly wind prevails. It ia likewise
known, that a lar^ piece of water, 10 miles broad, and generally only 3 feet deep,
has by a strong wind, had its waters drived to one side, and sustained so as to become
6 feet deep, while the windward side was laid dry. Therefore, as water j^zat up so
that it cannot esoapo acquires a higher level, so, in a place whore it can escape,
the same oiieration produces a current, and this current will extend to a greater

aBSERVATIONS ON THB CUBRENTS.

300

Journal
edge of

or leM duitanoe, ■coording to the flme by wbi6h it i» produced or kept up by tbs

Thflw ftujta are m> well asoertained, that it may generally be taken for granted, a
certain degree of current will obtain on the Alantio, after a continuance of any unifianB
wind, whrae the sea wonld be otberwiae in a placid ttate, and nnaffacted by other
caoses. For it is mippoaed that the winda, where uniform and permanent, produce
currents equally unifbrm and permanent. Hence it is that the winds between the
tpopios, having a general course wastward, protrude the water of the Atlantic in the
sanie direction, ma cause the flow of a current the same way, ^ess where it meets
with land, islands, or shoals^ to obstruct its course or change its direction, or where it
runs through channehi which draw it a diffierent way.

There is reason for beUeving that the great currents within the torrid aone are
increased by the influence of the moon, which draws them on tmm East to West (201.).
One instance that currents are affected by this cause is, that in the Faro, or Strait of
Messina, between Sicily and Oalabria, in the Mediterranean Sea, where there i*
neither rite ttor/att, a current sets to the northward and southward alternately, for
six hours, having every appearance of being governed solely by the lunar inflpence.
Other instances might be given ; and there is little doubt but tbe power of the winds
is blended with the attraction of tiie moon in forming the currents whidbt set westerly
from the Atlantic into the West Indian Sea.t ,

(289.) SuBMABiMB CvBBBirra. — ^Another feature of ocean currents has been elicited
in the experiments made under the direction of the hydrograpfaic department of tha
United States' Coast Survey (to whole labotirs we have had occasion to allude in other
places), and that ia, tiiat tiie set of the submarine currents doet not eorretpond eitker
m velocity or direction with those of the surfiuse. Uow far such a singular fiwt will
overturn our preconceived notions, it must be lelt for more extended remprks to elicit.
The following is the account given by Lieutenant Walsh, of the U.S. bng Taney, the
officer alluded to : —

*' The Bur&ce current was first tried by the usual mode (a heavy iron kettle being
lowered firom a boat to the depth of 80 fothoms) ; then, for the trial of the under
current, a large eh^hlog, of the usual quadrantal form, the arc of it measuring fiill
4 feet, and heavily loaded with lead to make it sink and keep upright, was bwered
by a light but strong cod line to the depth of 126 fathoms (the length of the
line) I a barrega ynm attached as a float, and a log line fastened to this barren i and
the rate of motion of this float, as measured by this log line and glass, as well as the
direction, as shown by a compass, were assumed as the velocity and set of the
under current. No allowance was made for the drag of the barrega, which was
always in a difibrent direction firom the surface current. It was wonderftU, indeed,
to see this barrega move off against wind and sea, and surfatce current, at the rate
of over one knot an hour, as was generally the case, . and on one occasion as much

induced
wind, on
nnel, the

prevail,
miles in
, merely
tby a
Y several
Ukewiso
«t deep,

become

greater

* Mi^r Bennell, on the Thwart Ohannel Onirent It has Airthermore been noticed,
that the effect of wind in altering the level of the surfiuse of water is strongly exemplified in
the reach which forms the sumimt-level of the Forth and Clyde Oanal in Scotland. This
each is about 18 miles long, nearly in a straight line, ISaat and West. When a westerly
gale has blown for some time, the action of the wind sweeps away the water from the West
end, linking its surfiftoe, and aooumnlating it at the East end, where it escapes over the
look-gates, m a stream sometimes 10 indus deep.—" Ed. Ph. Joum.," vol. vi. p. 71.

In a gale of wind, in 1823, a part, or rtaek, of the Ormnd Junction Canal, was raised 21
inches.

The eilbct of S.W. and loutherly winds, on the level of the sea upon the coast of Ouinea,
has been shown on page 267.

t Particular convulaiona in thd interior of the earth Bometimes occasion an extraordiniiry
derangement of the tide, &o. After a late oocurrence of this nature in the Meditenranoan
Bea, called by the Italians a iM-tarthquak9, the course of the tides in the Gulf of Spessia
was totally deranged for the seven or eight suooesding days. But the ebb sna gcod •rsrs
sensibly ssusireu nt inwrtais of a quarter of an hour, ludf an hour, and an hour, during
that whole space of time.

360

OBOEkVATlONS ON TfiB CURRflNTS.

as If ktioto. The men fat the boat oonld not r o pr o a s flKdamationa of mupriae,
for it really appeued aa if oome monster of the deep had hold of the weight below,
and waa walkug off with it. I will cite from the log aereral inatanoea of these
ocperiments.

«*On Maj/ 11th, 1800, in lat. 24* 43' N., long; 65" 25' W., we Ibnnd % sorfkoe
current of one-third knot per honr, setting to the w'est, and an onder enrrent, at the
depth of 126 Ihthoms, of the knot, setting W.S. W. j tempcamtote of water At sniilMse,
77° 3' ; 'at 50 fitthoms, 77° 5' ; at 100 &thonu, 73* 5'. The current fblt by the vessel
on that day (as dedaeed fSrom the comparison of the tme poaition obtained by astzo-
nomomicaf observations and chronometers, with those bv dead re(^<ming^ agreed witii
this trial of the sorfiuse current, being the same witbin a fraction, vu., 0*3 knot
westerly. On this day the sea was corored with a speoiea of medusip, of a durk red
oolonr, spherical in shape, iiNmi one-eighth to three-eightha of an inch in diameter.

** On May 12th, at fonr n.m., in kl 25* 55' N., long. 64* 43' W., the surihoe enrrent
was fbnnd to be one-third knot, setting N.N.E., and the under onirent (at 126 Jbths.)
If knots, setting 8.E., being the strong under enrrent I have alluded to ; tius was
well ascertained by serenu trials; temperature of water at surfiuse, 75°; at 50
jhthoms, 76* ; at 100 fiithoms, 69*. From this time, four p.m. to eight a.m. the fbl-

lowing morning, we experienced a strong cnrrrent of 1*3 knots per hour, setting
N. 14 £., as determined by the observations. While trying the currents in the boat,
all hands reniaining on boud the schooner were employed sounding with 500 fiithoms
line, but fidled to ^ the temperature at that depth, there being at that time too much
awell.

<• On May 13th, at half-past five p.m., in hit. 26* 42' N., long. 64* 4"W., the suiftuie
currents was found to be one-third knot, setting E. by S. ; the under current (at 126
fiithoms) \\ knots, setting W.S.W. ; at the same time obtained the following tempe-
ratures: at surface, 77* 5'; at 50 fitthoms, 76* 5'; at 100 fiithoms, 75* 5'; at 500
fkthoms, 53*. The current felt by the schooner, in the interval between eight a.m.
and (bur p.m., was easterly 0'4 knot per hour, agreeing with tiie trial in the ooat.

" On May 14th, in lat 26° 46' N., long. 63* 53' W., fonnd a slight sur&ce drift, too
small to be measured, setting to the westward, and an under current (at 126 fathoms)
of 1| knots, setting N. by E. No current had been acting on the vessel for the pre-
ceding sixteen hours, and dead reckoning agreeing with observations. On tiiis day
the sea being pretty smooth, we tried sounmngs with the wire, and vot 1,050 fiithoms
without bottom, and we succeeded in getting, by one of Six's settregistering ther-
mometers (which came up uniigured by the umiense pressure) the temperature at that
great depth, which waa at 49*, while at the surfisM» it was 77*.

" On May 18th, at nine a.m., in lat. 36* 6' N., long. 67* 56' W., found a sur&oe cur-
rent of one-third knot setting N.W. by N., and a very slight under-current (at 126
fathoms) not more than one-sixth knot, setting N.E. "So current was felt by the
vessel during that day, but during the preceding night one-fourth knot per hour, set-
ting N.W. Being calm and preUy smooth, we sounded during this day to the deptii
of 2,050 fttthoms, when the wire mroke without reaching bottom. The temperature,
at the surface, 70* ; at 100 fathoms, 65*. The trial of currents on this day was one
of Ihe two occasions which I have alluded to, on which we fonnd a leas under current
than that above it.

" On May 20th, at eleven a.m., in kt. 33* 58' N., kmg. 72* W., fbund the surfiuse
current one-third knot, setting S.E., and an under current (at 126 fhthoms) of one
knot, setting W.N.W. Temperature at surfJMw, 71°; at 50 fbthoma, 70*5°; at 100
fathoms, 67 . We were set during this day, as determined by the afternoon observa-
tions, to the eastward, at the rate of one-faialf knot per hour. On this, which hap-
pened to be the last occasion of these experiments, I tried the current at the depth to
which the kettie was lowered (80 fathoms), which it would have been better always
to have done. I founded it tended in the same direction as that at 126 fathoms
(counter to the surfkoe current), but at so small a rate that it could hardly be
measured, not more than one-tenth knot per hour, the float moving at only this small

Mia haini* jjnf nnn-fAnih n9 ths Vslccit'" at whlch It hsd BSCVcd {sst l^fcrC whvR

trying it at 126 fathoms. This indicates that the kettle had juit penetrated the under

OBSEBTATIONS ON THE €URIIENTS.

it below,
(^ theae

i surfiMW
it, at the
t sorflioe,
heveMei
by asteo-
wedwith
0*3 knot
dark red
meter.

leoarrent
26Jhths.)
tiiia -was
}'i at 00
0. thefbl*
X, wttiiig
I the boat,
Ofothoms
I too much

lieBOifitce
nt (at 126
ng tempo-
s' { at 000
eight a.m.
leDoat.

e drift, too
B fathoms)
brthepre-
I this day
fbthoms
Ing ther-
atthat

cnr-

it (at 126

"by the

hour, set-

the depth

iperatnre,

was one

ieroiurrent

rarfiuse
) of one
10° I at 100
In obsenra-
}hich hap-
depth to
Iter always
16 fitthoma
jhardly be
I this small
fere, when
^e under

oureati and thus, by this means, it would appear practicable to measure tlia depth of '
the rarmoe ca Tent, or its pdnt of contact with the counter under current. Such
ezptrinents in the Oulf Stream would be particularly interesting."

Cavtain Irminger, of the Boyal Danish Navy, has ako recorded some experiments
tm snomarine motion. They were made with an instrument inTented by M. Aimi, and
desoribedin the ** Annales de Chimie et de Physique en 1840" : —

« March 17, 1849.— Weather cahn, lat. 20" 4' N., long. 68" 41' W ; the current in-
dicator and self-registering thermometer lowered 2,034 feet, o^ nearly 000 fbthoms,
when the current was found setting N.W. true ; surfuie temperature, 78.8% and at
000 fiithoms 46*0*.

" In another part, insight of Madeira, lat, 31' 08' N., long. 17" 12' W., Sept. 14,
1847 ; no surfiice current { at 1,980 feet, or 330 fiftthoms, the current was running
W.S.W true ; temperature of surfiuje, 76*1" } at 330 &thoms, 01*8'. The surfece cur-
rent here usually seta to S.E."

With our present imperfect aoquaintance witii this important branch of the subject
of currents, it would be use^?« to bidld up any argument. We shall, thererore,
dismiss it for the present, leaving it for the seaman to add to our store of knowledge
hereafter.

f 290J In the year 1804, Captain James Manderson, of the Royal Navr, published
" An Examination into the True Cause of the Stream of Florida," &e. In this
treatise he conriders the floods of the Misdssippi as the '< prime mover of the Florida
Stream ;" and he presumes that it is caused by the waters which fall into the Gulf
from that and other rivers. Captain Livineston, on the subject, says — ^" From the
best information I could obtain, relative to ue quantity of water discharged into the
sea by the Mississippi, Rio Bravo, &c., there seems no probability that, in the aggre-

Ste, tbey exceed a three-thousandth part of the water which is disdmrged through
9 Strait, between the Florida Raefii and the Bemini Kays, or the narrowest part of
the strait"*

Upon the hypothesis of Captain Manderson it was subseqnentiy stated, in an Ame-
rican work, that the velocity of the Oulf Stream might be calculated by the rite and
fall of th«Jlood$ in the Mianuippi. Thus is one error propagated upon another ! " I
nave," ados Captain Livingston, *' experience of the contra^. In August, 1818, the
River Mississippi was uneommonly low, and I never saw the Oulf Stream run with
greater velocity. The trade-winds raising the level of the Oulf of Mexico seem to
me the principal cause of the Oulf Stream.

" I am of opinion that its velocity depends on the motion of the sun in the ecUptic,
and the influence he has unon the waters of the Atlantic { as, when the sun's declina-
tion M north, the N.E. traoe-wind blows fresher, and extends fiurther to the north-
ward, tfajm when the sun's declination is south. This causes a greater pressure of
water toward the Caribbean Sea, and a superior elevation of the surfeee of the gulf o f
Mexico, tiie superfluous water of which escapes by the Strait of Florida, where it is
.least opposed by the trade-wind, which only aflfeots it laterallv (except in the short
distance Detween the Dry Tortugas and the Salt Kay Bank), ana even tnere the effects
of the trade-wind must De very much diminished oy the Bahama Bank, with the
islands and kays thereon.

" There can be little doubt that the attraction of the sun, while in the northern
hemisphne, influences the current which generally prevails about Madeira, and causes
it to set with greater velocity toward the southwara and eastward. One well-known

* Gsptain Whit* has srgued,At considerable length, against attributing the origin of the
Oulf Stream to the Miasiaaippi. But it would aeein to ua to be decided in very few woidr.
The turbid anAfi^h waters of the river, its volume, and its fluctuations, are all Incompatible
with the &ota of the Oulf Stream. Again : arguing from analogy, hi what part of tite
world do we find a rivtr preserving an Independent cnrrent across sn cccaa, asu wuivo oaa

be focogniaed at 6,000 mit—finm it$ lomrct }
cant when compared with thia.— Eo.

The elfoots of all rivera are utterly insignifl-

868

OBSERVAtlONS ^N TiiE CUftRENtd.

Hut leenuito ooitobate thii idea, namely, that the above-mentioned ciitrent is alirays
much stronger in tiie sunmer than in the 'winter months. On a refercnoe to my
joomals it appears, that although tre were A considerable time in the limits over
whieh the influence of the Qvu Stream oenerally extends, in the finrenoon of Friday,
the IMh, and on tlo whole of the 20th of Febmary, we iblt its effisots in a slight de-
gree only, the water appearing during that time to have been perfSeothr stationary.
It may also be remarked, tnm the Journals of my voyage tlmragh tne Strait of
Florioa, in September, 1818, in the sup Ana, and in Maroh, 1810, m the brig Di»-
patch, how very little we gained, in md latter instance, from the assistance of the
■bream, when comnared with the manner in which it hurried us to the northward on
the former. All tnis tends to confirm me in the opinion that the velocity of the Oulf
Stream depends almost antirsly on the sun's place in the eoliptio." — A. L,

It may here be remarked, that the Oulf Stream is augmented during the rainy
season of the West IncUes, and reaches its highest paraller(about 43° N. between 56°
and 57* W.) in the summer only. In that season it there spreads over a vast extent
of oceanic water. It is also to oe recollected thi^t in the same rainy season the waters
of the Caribbean Sea, which is then surcharged, seek an escape alonff the Colombian
ooast to the ta^nDord, as well as by the Channel of Yucatan to the llVeet.

(2910 The Easterly Cushents in the Northern partt of the Atlantie, and which
in the Bay of Biscay exert their tremendous e£Rects so as to be proverbiai, originate
in the north, as we nave described, and then conform to the winds, which in these
regions are, as already tkawa, mostly team the "N.W., and violent diuing a great part
of the year.

The more general prevalence of westerly vrinds off the coasts of the United States
operate to produce a depression of the water off tiiose coasts, and of course contri-
bute to an easterly tendency in the waters of the ocean.

The indraught into the Strait of Oibraltar is attributed to the evaporation of the
Mediterranean Sea, which appears to be the cause of the currents setting immediately
in that direction, and of biassing the water from the West.*

These circumstances, combined, must indisputably produce the set or drift of a great
portion of the Atlantic to the east, E.S.E. and S.E., which, however, varies wiw the
winds, with the seasons, and local circumstances.

The auxiliary winds on the African coast are the means of continuing and carrying
it down that coast in the manner in which it has been described.

To the prevalence of westerly winds and easterly currents is to be attributed the
shorter period of voyages from America to Europe than from Europe to America j a
fiust established by general experience.

At antf eonsiderable dittancefirom the eoaet of Amerieo, the easterly current caused
by the action of violent west or N.W. winds is seldom felt to the southward of lati-
tude 36^* ; consequently, the sea about the Bermudas, and thence southward, is free
ttom the influence of this current. The currents here, though slow, aro produced in
tile direction of the wind, particularly when it is of long continuance. These cur-
rents are found stronger near the islands and rocks of Bermuda than at a distance,
because the obstruction which the water meets with from tilie islands causes it to run
proportionably fiwter past their sides. In<ft hrisk gale the current here has been ex-
perienced from 12 to 18 miles in the twenty-four houn, m the direction of the wind {
at other times, when the wind was not settled, no current has bean found.

Mqfor BenneU is of opinion that those transient and contradictory currents that

* This was the opinion of Dr. Halley, which has been oootroverted by those who rap-
pOBO that the effect may be accounted for by the motion of an under onrront, setting out-
wnrd. The flood tide, on either side of the strait, does certainly set outward, but we ebb
sets inward with the general current. The easterly indraught appears to commence ut
abont 100 leagnes weat from the month of the etrftit. — See, U
Directorv for'the Mediterranean Sea."

— — V- —

to fha

OBBBRVATIOlfB ON THB OUBBBNTS.

•re met with in the mid-ocean are owing to galee of wind, which ■ometimee ue hnt
narrow in their column of air, but afieot tuB eorlhce very rtr on giy so fiur as they
extend.

The syBton of ocean currents having, firom the numerons obsenratimu befiare
rekted, amidst a crowd of others, become tolerably weU arranged and understood,
mav be readily comprehended, although it must not be consuUred that we have
nothing more to learn upon the subject.

(292.) A great addition to Hydrogmphv has been laid before the world by the
United States' Oovemment, the resuU of tne Exploring Expedition, under the orders
of Captain Charle$ WUket. From that work we extract the views of its author oon«
ceming the Hydrology of the North Atlantic.

" The approach of the Gulf Stream to our shores (United States) has been ascribed
to the influence of N.E. winds. These are known to aflRsct the tides in our bays and
harbours ; but I am unwilling to admit that these are an adequate cause for the change
in position and velocity of so great a body of water. The action is ihr too trivial to
account for such an effect. It is certain, on the other hand, that the Oulf and La^
brador Streams both owe their existence to the unequal distribution of temperature
on the earth's sur&ce ; there must be a difference in the intensity of the causes that
act to produce these effects at different seasons of the year ; and it may be inferred
that tnie changes of the seasons act unequally upon the two streams. The force of the
portion of the Labrador Current which follows the coast of the United States will,
when superior, carry the Gulf Stream outwards, and when that force diminishes, the
Gulf Stream will approach more nearly to the coast, and most nearly when its own
relative force is the greatest. Whatever be the ultimate causes of the streams, it
would appear that their anproximate causes are influenced by temperature, the Gulf
Stream being increased in mass and velocity when the temperature is highest, and tna
Labrador Stream when it is lowest } and in conformity we find it a general impression
that the former is broader and more rapid in the summer of our climate than in
winter. I must, however, state that I have been unable ftma my own personal ob-
servation, either by the thermometer or the set ot the vessel, to distingmsh this in-
crease of the Gulf Stream in siunmer. Thus, in my passage to England, in August,
1846, from the time we passed to the east of St. George's Bank, in a latitude about 1'
to the south of it, we experienced a low temperature m the water, and the vessel was
retarded. We were, therefore, in the Labrador Current.

" After the squadron had crossed the Gulf Stream we experienced little action
from current tiU we reached Madeira, the whole difference between our dead-
reckoning and the true place of the ship being no more than 176 miles in twenty-six
days.

« Before leaving this part of our subject, it may be as well to refer to fiusts fismiliarly
known, but which did not come within the scope of our observations. The stream
known on our coast by the epithet of g^ may often be traced upon the surlhce, but
with dimimshed velocity, entirely across the Atlantic ; throwing, at some seasons, the
seeds and drift of tropical climates upon the British Islands, even as far north as the
Shetlands. At other times, when the Gulf Stream ceases to flow, or is overpowered
by 1;he great Polar Current, they are carried by the latter to the S.E., on the coast of
Spain and Portugal, which current has been so disastrous by the number of vessela
that have been wrecked on Cape Finisterre, where it divides, one brandi of it passing
around the shores of the Bay of Biscay, along the western coast of France, and thenee'
crossing the English Channel, which is now so well known as the Bennell Current
while the main Polar Stream flows south, along the coast of Portugal, towards
Madeira, with a diminished velocity, as a surfiace current.

'< That the stream which sets upon Cape Finisterre is the origin of the Rennell>
Current, the following remarks by Horsburgh clearly show : — ' The current is found

»to set east from March to November, particularly when west winds prevail \ and df
Cape Finisterre, and near the southern part of the Bay of Biscay, it sets mostly alone
the coast to the east ; and along the east coast of the Bay it wts to the north, panuivt
_ to the west coast of Fnnoe.' '

3 A

»70

OBSERYATIONB ON THE OURBBlfra.

"AtMMMni Hid Vk» Otamcy Mataia th* iarCue Polar BtreMli iMtti to Imt*
•MfeBdi bill bj oto olMMnrMtinit oil tiie doep^M tempenton a tubmmrAt* ttrMmttiSi
wppeanto exut. In lien of the former, we have the current fiuniliarly known ae tlM
Anioan Current, l^itacaasing so many distressing wrecks on that coast, and to
irMoh attention has often been drawn by the captivity and <iruei slavery to which
fheir crews have been subjected.

" As has been seen in the narrative, bat little stiifboe eurrant was found on our
Toyan from Madeira to the Cape de Verdes { but the submarine stream was still
Ibuna, as was shown by the low temperature of the deep-sea soundingSr At, and in
tiie neighbourliood of, the latter islands, and between tiiem and Cape Verde, on the
African ooa8t,.a strong surface current is felt. In endeavouring to account for this
remarkable circumstance of the creation of a current, and its increased velocity, of
%hiiih every n%yiga.tat must be aware, when in the neighbourhood of many islands,
tad the eflbots of which we often experienced in our long voyage, I shall now advert
to the eause which, I think, is Quite sufficient for the efimt t and that is, the aoonmn-
ktion of water oaused by tiie oostruotions that islands offer to the onward flow of
■obmarlne sti«ams, thus raising til* level of the ocean in tiieir vicinity, and conae^
mwtitiy a ttfndeney to run off, and thereby oreate a current where none was peroep*
ttbl* befbre, or an inoreasM velooi^ in that which was iblt.

" To this cause, then, I believe the currents around the Cape Verde Islands
owe their origin^ as well as all others prevailing near islands and banks ; and, aa
oorroborative proof of this, I will mention the fact, that, where no submarine Polar
Stream exists, permanent currents are not found. This will, I trust, be amply shown
ia tJM sequel.

.*' That remarkable current along the coast of Gtunea, from which it derives its
llame, passing Cape PalQias, and flowing into the Bight of Benin, I attribute, to the
Same cause. This current Is in the immediate vicinity of the EquatMial Stream, but
tons in an opposite directlbn, and for a long distance parallel to it.

** This Guinea current is lost in the Bight of Benin, near Prince's Island, which
Ilea under the Equator, in the longitude of 7* E. ; and it is confined and obstructed by
a southern p<dar stream, much in the same manner as the Labrador is aflbeted by the
Gulf Stream on the coast of the United States, and which is supposed to be lost near
Cape Hatteras.

** Beyond the Cape de Verdes, overftills, rips, and a conthiued tendency to change
bk the surfkoe of the ocean, are experienced, as if two great conflicting submarine
iurrents were meeting at some depth beneath the surface.

'* As we proceeded on our route from Porto Praya to Rio Janeiro, the same appear-
•aees eontinued ; but we did not meet the Equatorial stream until we had cross e d the
Equator and reached the latitude of 9* S., and longitude 26" W. It was then pnrsu-
iBff its oourse towards the coast of Bracil, whence, paaaiQg between the Windward
Isms, it finally enters the Gulf of Mexico.

" This part of our passage afforded many interesting observations, exhibiting ex-
tended rips, and the boilings above spoken oi, alternating with smootii spaces, and
variable currents, setting ror a short time in one direction, and immediately after-
wards in- the opposite. All spoke of a conflict of currents, and a forcible mingling of
tb* waters beneatii the surface. From Porto Praya to Rio we were influenced by
owTCBta 280 miles, N. 4r W.

** Vo current of the velocity here mentioned has over been experienced to the Bairt.
To what is this sadden increaHe and rapid flow to be imputed P or to what other cauje
aaa it be imputed, but to a submarine stream, flowing oirectlv on the shoal coast of
Brasil, and raising the level of the ocean on those banks wnioh it endeavours e<m-
Mantly to restore, by flowing off rapidly in the opposite direction P

*< Beft>r« proceeding into the South Atlantic, I will recapitulate our results in the
noraieiti.

OB8BRVAinoi» ON TSB oyiiiusirrek

JSi

•nrmi Vw o«ewi whidi, pMwiff tloBg tb0 eowt «f BimU* rotan tkrm^ ittn Wilrir
ward bind Frmmw foto the CwriblMBji Baa, •ii4 tlii«i»«e into Om CMw of MwMVk
whmoe th« -wwter low* into th» Ghitf StsfHia, wWeh* »ltlM»n«li at flmt qwrow, ■9W
•praads itd^, mroMMNi the Atltratifl, mul «zyMi4ti it* faro* in mid-ooeaff , vt, at tiiiiii»
ttptm tlie Britiili Mea. Tbin great atpewi, qf jpodeiftt* t^nmnwtum «R 4m» «|MI
ooMa wiAnrtbP Squator, l»e9Qii»«i imr? bwtod «« th» oon^t ofBrMtt i iaii4 i^poijty
the coast of the United States retains, both in simuner and winter, a tenpaipaitvrp ip*

while another flows beneath the waters of uie Gulf StrenEim, passes south, aad aaioglii ■
with the waters of the ocean, and affects the snr&ce temperature where it comes ia
eontect with islands and banks. The unintenupted flew of this vast P<^ar Strean ia
along the eeast^of Portuffal and Spain, and a einall part of it flows into the Baj of
Biscay, caused by its striKing upon Cape Finistwre, and forms eventoaUy the RemMtl
Current} another part flows into the Mediterrai^ean, in conse^uepce of the hi|^er
lerel of the stream, when compared with the waters of that sea. the main bnmdi
now pnrsnes its course on the sur&oe, until Madeira and the Canaries are reoefaed m
its course, beyond which it is no longer apparent. But below the tur&ee, as shown
by the low traiperature of the deep-sea soundings^ a submarine stream pursues ita
way to the E^uatw, where tiie waters again eommenee the same round as bef«

*' In the south portion of the space included within the abo^e limits, is an expanse
of water whidi presents remarkable phenomena. This ia oaUad by the nama at tiie
Sargasso Sea, and is noted for the quantity of the aqnatio plant, known aa the g«lf>.
weM(/Wta«a<aiw) thatisfoundinit.'' ■

(1{93.) Moat willingly wonld we fire here, in ttetemo, an exoeUent paper with which
we have been favoiu«a by Captain K. Leighton« on the general systeni of o^ean cur-
rents, but space will only allow a brief notice of it. Captain Leighton, itom Us
own observations, aided by the remarks of others, toaees ia a more connected manner
than has hitherto been done the progress of eireulation in tiie ooean watera, as
follows : —

The amount of xw whicn falls ia the Oulf <^ Mexioo ajod the basin of the Mia-
aissippi River cannot be tii^e source of th« Onlf Stream ; for although there is a wet
and dry season in the West Indies, yet the amount c^ rain which fuls thene ia a mere
sprinkling compared witl^ the deluges of rain that &U in the whole of the coontiias
surrounding th^ Bay of Bengal during the S.W. monsoon, which may be judged of
by the twt that the avwuge annual loU of rain at Maulmain, in siii: yeani waa 15
feet ; and at Tavoy it waa 16 fleet, and it aometjaaes rains f<Hr nx weeju vithcmt oeaa»-
tion at Maulmain. In Hie Mexican Oulf tiie ^wat Mississippi is fdnioat the oplf
livw of great magmtude i but what ia this compared with tljis Oapges, the Irawaoh
the Sittaag, and the Selween lUvera, aU ftiUng into the N.E. i>art of the Bay of Ben-
gal P Now, feom this oauae, and from the N>«. wmsomi driving tke current alow
the west coaat of Sumatra, and the S.E. tmde hemmuig th9 water into the Bay <?
Bengal, the only outlet for these influxes of fresh water wovld he the Straitia of
Malacca ; and if the argument of fresh waters giving rise to the Gulf Stream or other
currents held good, the Strait of Malacea would be an unnavigable ttnrent; but it is
qot s therefore thenalnral in^onee is, that the Gulf Stream is a oontinuaace of the
great txopieai current.

Captain L^hton arsnes that the trade-winds are the great motive power of the
currents ; that the winos outside the tropiop mav, by their variableness, counteract
each other, but the etHeot of wind is well ekompl&ed m the effepts it has in retargiii^
the flood-tides. The general features of th? monsoons and the trade and passMe
winds, all tend to throw Bght on the movements of the sur&oe waters, and may pe
reconciled with those actions.

Considering these circumstanccB, the Indian Ocean, southward of Timor, appears

well adanted to fonn ♦J'p head-quarters of

~ B»

tsvpicai cwfeeai wmny svrrovncl-

OBftBRVAtlOKB OfN THE CITHBENTS.

"titoj^kli^iailibnttdiuidarflwtMioM luuD^ of tlie Sqwtoffal OBrrniti of flw
\ mii t fci IMft OoRMrt of the Indun OoMai--«ad the A«talhM Cttmnt
«iiiiiid ih« One of Good fiope, whenh i^tob the best proof of its befiig a nettt and
JNtt ■JittMil ebnent, hy its hXkmiag flw wiadinge of the Agulhaa benk, in 00
^trtttouM lirater^ We hkre it amjn in the Atkatie Ooeam (where it giveo riw to
't#o eiroahur e nr te n ti), end it Ib here ealled the Eqnatonu C mi e n t e nd eg e in ,
tile XMIi Onprentof the CMrihbean Seft-end, UmOv, in the North Atiaiktic, ae the

iwf-

G^ptain Ldurhton then proof!»eds to traee an tmbrokmi oonrent from the Indian
Ooean to the North AtiantiOr hy hie oheerratioui made during a single rop^ as
JbUpiwi: —

' 9arqne Sterti to Csloutta, 1850, November 4th, in lat. 28° 8., long. 78* 0' K, to
Nofemoer 10th, in lat. 0" 11' 8., and long. 84° T E., time eleven days, the onxrents
maea N. 71° W., true ; and the ditrtanoe 138 miles.

l^arqiie Secret from Mauimain, 18fil, June 21st, in lat. 8° 22' 8., andlong.^° E.,to
ii^ 8th, in lat 28|° 8., long. 44° £., the currents ran N. 82° W. true ; and the dis-
tanoe 216 miles in seventeen days.

Thxka. July 8th to the 17th, in lat. 32^° 8., long. 32° E., time nine days, and the
onrrents S. 88° W. true ; distance 52 mues.

F^rom July 17th to August 5th, in lat. 33° 46' 8.,- long. 15° 16' E. (bad weather in
a aeries of five rotar y g ates round the Cape of Good Hope), time nineteen days, and
tibe currents 8> 66° IH^true ; distance 354 miles, or averaging 19 miles per day.

From August 5th to' August 2l8t, at 8t. Helena, time sixteen days, currents
N. 6^ W. true : and the distance 175 miles.

From August 22nd, at 8t. Helena, to 8eptember 7th,'in lat 3° 23' N., long. 23° 48'
W., time sixteen diqrs, the currents N. IS!* JF. true ; and the distance 241 miles.

There is thus manifestly a continuous cuixent traced by this voyage from the
borders of the Eastern Archii>elago to the well-known trbpioal c\irrent of the North
Atlantic. The paper then proceeds to trace this current across the Atlantic into the
Mexican Gulf, where its final exit in the Gulf Stream proves that this latter is apro-
longation of the great tropical current, which nearly encircles the earth.

In our recent « Directory for the Pacific Ocean " (1851, Part. II., p. 1238) we have
described the tropicial currents of that great ocean, and demonstrated that uiis great
westerly drift becomes broken up and enters the Oriental Archipelago through the
numerous ehannels dividing the islands, and thus becomes neutralised as to its west-
ward set ■ We might therefore, suppose that the open spaces in tins archipelago will
hsive a generally higher temperature than the rest of the ocean, and also be, as above
argued, tiie inioal point of the great curent systems which circulate around the
Indian and Atlantic Oceans.

The tendency of the waters in the North Atiantic certainly seem to be a circulation
around the central portions known as the Sarffasso' Sea. We do not require the sup-
position of Mqor Mennell, that this is a hollow, or depression of tiie surfiioe, into
which the currents run on all sides ; nor that of lieutenant Wilkes, that it is a raised
area. This phenomenon of the vraters revolving around a central quiet space is also
well exemplified in the basm of the North.Pacifio on a magnificent scate ; it is less so,
but eqwilly clear, in the area of the North Sea. It is true tniat the southward tendency
of the Arctic waters in the Labrador Current, across the Newfoundland Bank, is to
break in upon this uniform circulatory movement, still it, is sufficiently symmetrical
to form a leature in the great movement of the waters.

■ ■ f

lliero is another current whose origin was involved in some obscurity; it is the

aiti of th«

M 'VttlVUt

iak» in 60
rm liae to
md again,
ktie, M the

lie Indian
royag^ M

rO'E., to
B ontToits

.86»E.,to
id thedis-

and the

reather in
days, and
day.

• omrents

9. 23» 48'
lies.

from the
;he North
B into the
r isapro-

we have
Uiifl great
ongh the
>ito west-
ekgo will
, aa above
■ound the

irculation
i the aup-
rfikoe, tinfo
B a raised
Be is also
is less so,
tendency
mk, is to
nmetrical

it is the

MAGNETIC VARIATION.

373

Ouinea Canent (ISIO* ^^ ^ certainly, partly doe to the prolongation of the African
Current from the N.W., but, by analog, we ahould soppose that it woold recurve to
tile westward when it g«»t iidrly within the scope of the trade-wind* and conseqiieut
tropical drift.

. Captain Leighton arffoes that it is a continuation of the central current, which,
after paaainff betwee. '^he Sargasao Sea and the Bermudas, turns t^ the south-ejast-
ward towaids and into the Gmf of Guinea, blending with the current from the North

' and eastward. This appears feasible, but what is this easterly current P

In the " Pacific Directory," 1851, pp. 1243—1247, there is an eaaterlu current
scribed, whidi extends entirely across the Pacific between the latitudes of 4° and 10' i\ .
This remarkable current would seem to be the effect of the Equatorial calms ; or,
rather, 'that the water, being driven by the N.E. and S.E. trades, is here heaped up,
as it were, and not being able to reflow over the adjacent drifts, like the aerial currents,
assumes the form of a coimter-currents.

The question arises. Is there a similar current in the Atlantic Ocean P By analogy
we reply in the affirmative. But the configuration of the land, and the greater inter-
ferences that the currents have from each other, renders this fact less evidont. Never-
.theless, it can be fairly assumed that some portion of the Guinea Current is due to an
Equatorial counter-current, which would set directiy along the African coast into the
Bights of Benin and Biafra, as the Pacific counter-current sets into the Bay Panama.
The arguments upon which the Atlantic counter-current may now be recognized are
given on pages 283 — 288.

if-wpy-

IV.-MAGNETIG VARIATION.

(294.) Among the changes which have come over the system of navigation of late
years, none have been more important than the different relation which the compass
now bears to the ship as compared with its place in former times.

Rude instruments, una^usted, with errors unsuspected, and under influences de-
structive to their accuracy, have given place to what may be, in some cases, over esti-
mation, of this primary aid to the seaman. In its very nature the compass is impeifect
and incompetent to show, at sea, the minute quantities, which are now disputed over.
The consequence is, that it is made, like tne topic we have just discussed, ocnau
currents, the scapegoat for many errors of seamanship and jud^ent, which a more
intimate knowledge and therefore greater mistrust and induced caution would have
avoided.

(290.) Our present task deals with the geotfraphic distribution of magnetism, not
with those local effects caused by the ship or its relations to outer circumstances, but
to its position in the Atlantic. The other points, most important in themselves, must
be discussed elsewhere.

The features of the earth's mi
inclination, and intensity. The
adjustment of the compass in its
an over-sea voyage across the
little influence on the directive
in commercial pursuits. The
elements in navio^tion, and it
the safe conduct or a ship.

etism, as related to the ship, are the declination,

p and intensity are very important elements in the

I passage through the varied magnetic condition which

Equator, conducts a ship through, but they have but

wer of the needle in the latitudes usually traversed

cUnation or variation is one of the most important

correct ettiioation and appUoAtion most essential to

S7»

MAONETIC YARUTIOir.

(SM.) Hm VMunm wkj th* oompaM ii uom p)«c«d iii«> much higlMr scnuideratum
te ^rhat it wm in fimner j«u» are naioiimt. Th* yrant incrMM of tha we of ixoa
hotk fiirihip boildiDg 9» well aa ia tlM fubrio of wooden ahtp*, and tiie eonaequmt
▼asuy inoifrased inflaenoe that the ship has upon her compasses has hean oor eidsi
reason why attention h so imperatively demanded. Again, since the nniversal use of
ateam, the oonr|B of a vessel in paaedng directly iSrom one point to anotiier requires to
be mnoh more aecnrately laid, than it was thought necessary when wooden dupe only
werensed.

Another reason, which has arisen in the course of years, in that caused by the
aeenlar variation. The accurate eovemment surveys, which have now been in progress
for 80 or 40 years, in their earlier portions have, in many cases, remained as they
w^!:<e issued, and consequently this change from the variation ot Ute compass they
ahow has amounted to a considerable quantity, such as wotdd endanffo' the safety of
a vessel where they have been implicitly trusted to. The survey of ihe 8t. Lawrenee,
as commenced by Cape Bayfield, may be instanced.

The appreciation of this diange, which has thus become manifest irfmultaneously
with the neoessity for improved compasses and improved methods ot using themi have
placed tiie magnetic eleipent in charts on a fresh oasis. One moat hnportant vesult
of tiiis movement was the appointment by the Admiralty of the late Captain B. J.
Jdmson as superintendent, in 1842, of the ComTwss Department. The great im-
provement in compasses dates from this appoin^.int <;, and the investigation of the
difienlt'and varying problems of local deviation h,. e been since pursued by eminent
men, among whom may be noticed Professor Air^-,iJr. ScoresbyiW. Walkerf£8^.,^.NM
Archibald Smith, Esq., and many others. TLsg^i rosearches have been mainly directed,
as before observed, to the effect the ship's iron hna on her compasses. F. O. Evans,
Esq., R.N., who has succeeded Captam Johnson, has drawn up a far more perfect
ohul of tihe geographic distribution of the magnetic variation than we hitherto
poaaessed ; former charts having become of impaired value from the lapse of time,
and from the imperfection of the observations on which they were oased. It
is from this chart brought down to the period, 1861, by applying the secular
change requisita to the chart of 1S68, that the illustrative ehiurt hias been con-
structed.

(297.) The wo^ontb Unei, or those upon which the variation is of the same amount,
on this chart, will represent this element, generally as near aa the ordinary ships'
compass will show it, and will serve to draw attention to any unsuspected change in
the magnestism of the ship, besides affording the sailor some information when oDser-
yation cannot be had.

.) The variation of the eon^pam in all parts of the coasts of the Atlantic ara
given with the Tables of geographic positions at the commencement of this work, and
uie amount of annual decrease or increase in this variation is idso indicated. To these
notices therefore the reader is referred.

It is for the open ocean that the illustrative chart and these notes are intended, and
on the chart are inserted the amount of annual change in different parts, so that the
approximate variation may be ascertained in future years by applying the necessary
correction.

(209.) But it must not be supposed that this annual change is regular, and of the
same amount in each year. By the accurate observations that are now self- recorded,
the connexion betwo^i these changes and apparentiy very remote oaoaas have been
identified. One of these, at the first glance a very smgular one, is that the spots in
the sun, if absent or present in large quantities, have a mariEcd magnetic iaflueooe on
tiic declination, tbusd^onstrating the source from which the magnetism of the earth
is chiefly dwived. As the Qreenwich observations will illustrate our subject as well
aa any, and tiiis volume night be filled with interesting results on this subiaet, the
extiaets will be limited tp the extraots tnm. those observations as being sumoient to
imnul a notion of the eyor varvinir amount nf the tiagnotic vanatioSi

D«f ixoB
Mequmt
our chief

laluseof
iqiiires to
bipsonlj

sd by the
iprogresa
dfts they
pass they
Bsfety M
jawreHce,

l^neoasly
lenii have
mt vesult
tain E. J.
great ini'
on of the
y eminent

' directed,
0. Evans,
>re perfect
I hitherto
e of time,
wed. It
le secular
been con-

( /

le amount,

ary shi^'

shtmffe in

en ower-

lantioare

irork, und

Totheae

^nded,and

that the

ineoeflsary

oientto

aaf

tUiMet

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i ..V-.- ,»-^ '. ,-,''' , /' / #/ '. I ^ ; '<<

''^"' ''VI '. A '''^•Vf""o2?f^;,

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■£

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Equator

40* h;,* :»o* 16* vf

A«nu •

ST WT

If A08AQES OVIB THB ATLANTXO.

87S

WssrnsBLT MAoiTETio VAmuTiON AT Obxsnwicb:.

1844.

1846.

1848.

1850.

1866.

1868.

» //

e t 11

a < M

o > //

» *

o » *

January . .

23 10 22

22 50 56

22 60 2

22 28 6

21 49 60

21 32 47

Febmary ..

23 18 43

22 60 17

22 49 5

22 27 28

21 48 13

21 32 14

March ....

23 18 42

22 49 21

22 63 46

22 26 54

21 48 41

21 32 ai

April

Muy

2S 18 42

22 51 61

22 52 27

22 25 44

21 48 44

21 32 26

23 19 23

22 49 32

22 52 46

22 25 1

21 48 25

21 29 16

June

23 19 8

22 51 48

22 53 21

22 24 47

21 50 12

21 27 34

July

23 18 40

22 49 24

22 53 18

22 23 41

21 48 14

21 28 28

Ang^

23 13 25

22 40 33

22 52 36

22 22 .4

21 48 31

21 27 24

September. .

23 13 6

22 48 55

22 61 31

22 25 43

21 47 9

21 26 43

October ....

22 12 62

22 47 65

22 62 11

22 19 1

21 46 21

21 25 33

November. .

22 11 fiO

22 47 38

22 61 46

22 18 27

21 45 ^9

21 29 46

December . .

22 49 41

22 47 61

22 51 40

22 18 27

21 46 64

21 28 40

(300.) Upon examing these columns of figures, it will be at once seen that the
decreasing amount of westerly variation is very fax from bein^ regular, and that at
tome times the variation is absolutely inermting. Thus the vanation in June, 1847»
22° 43' 0" ; in June, 1848, 22° 63' 21*, an increase of 10' 21". The decrease between
Januanr, 1846, and January, 1847, was only 1' 38* ; to January, 1848, 1' 4" ; to Jan.
1849, it decreased 14' 6" ; and to January, 1850, 5' 51" ; the mean annual rate for
these 4 years being 6' 44'. The variation in 1860 was about 21° 32*, so that it had
decreased 1° 57' 60' in the 14 years that had elapsed since 1844, or at the rate of
8' 4" per annum ; but its mean rate at Greenwich is about 6|' at present.

The needle also varies very considerably at times in the course of the day, the
maximum westerljr declination is at 2 p.m.. This diurnal change amoimts to 7', 8', 9',
and 10'. This topic is so large and comprehensive, that it must be left to other works.
In a later part of^this volume some fiirtner remarks will be found. The present and
the illustrative chart will suffice for the present purpose.

V.-OF PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

1. GENERAL REMARKS.

(301.) In the preceding pages we have described those natural phenomraa of winds,
currents, &c., which govern me track of a ship across the ocean. Tbe object of the
present section is, to apply these principles to the seaman's practice ; but, previous to
entering upon this portion of the task, we will make a few general observations upon
great circle sailing, which has been revived as a new subject, when in fact it is one
which was among the earliest principles recognised in navigation. This is not the
place to enter into disquisitions on the working of great circle problems— that must
be left to works specially devoted to nautical mathematics. Tiie excellent " Prac-
tice of Navigation," by Lieutenant Raper, or Towson's Tables, published by the
Hydrographio Office, will be found excellent guides ; but still a greater simplicity in
the application to ordinary purposes of navigation is a great desideratum, and one
whion, perhaps, we shall endeavour to supply at a ftiture day.

Great circle sailing was known and acted on very early in the history of naviga-
tion. It is more than probable that Cabot, Columbua, Mftgalhaenti, and all the went

S76

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

great navigators, were acquainted with the subject i* but this, it must be remembered,
was prior to the knowledge of the principles of finding the longitude. When Ger-
hard Mercator, in 1569, published a universal map, on the proje<%on now known by
his name, a new era commenced in navigation $ but its true principles were not cor-
rectly described till they were done so by Edw. Wright, in 1599. In this projection,
as is well known, the meridians being parallel to each other, and straight lines, the
latitude is distorted and increased in proportion as these meridians are more distant
team each other than the correct difference of longitude would give for that latitude.
Consequently a straight line drawn between any two ^ints on a such a plane chart
will give the correct compass bearing, which, if maintamed throughout the course by
a ship, will lead her from one point to the other. This course is well known as the
rhunib course, and is that in univensal use from its simplicity. But it is not the shortest
course, except it be due East or West on the Equator, or North or South on a meri-
dian, which are great circles. This course, developed on a sphere, is found to be a
spiral, and is considerably removed from a great circle or shortest distance if a great
extent of long^itude is travei'sed by it. We need not pursue this subject, but an ex-
ample will explain its application.

£)2.) From a point off the Lizard, in lat. 50° N., lon^. 5" 30' W., to Cape St.
's, in the Bay of Notre Dame, in Newfoundland, also m lat 50° N., and 55° 30',
the course, true, is of course West, and the distance on this parallel is 1,928| miles.
But if a ship were to quit the Lizard on a N. 70° 20' 30" W. (true) course, and then
graduedly bearing more westward, attaining the latitude of 50 45' N., in long. 30° 30'
W., thence bearing more southward, and approaching Capie St. John's on a similar
angle to the parallel that she had left the Lizard, she will have sailed over 1,893
miles, or 35 1 less than on the parallel ; but, in her greatest separation, she will
have been 165 miles distant from the rhumb course. Therefore, it she were to take
any course between this gfreat circle course and the parallel of 50°, she would have a
less distance to traverse ; and this is the great advantage which the great circle sail-
ing offers — ^that of a wide range of choice (in a higher latitude) without increasing
the distance.

Further, if she were to assume a course as much higher in latitude as the great
circle course is above the rhumb, she will find that it will be of the same length as
the latter. Thus, in the example cited, if on leaving the Lizard she were to bear
away for a point in lat. 55° 30' N., long. 30° 30', and uien approach Cape St. John's,
such a curve will be found to be exactrr 1,928^ miles in length, and yet be, in its
maximum separation, 330 miles apart icom the parallel. The advantage of such a
range of choice will appear subsequently in the remarks upon the transatlantic
paswges.

(303.) The great difficulties in application of the principle of great circle sailing to
practice are, the laborious nature of the calculations, now, however, much reduced,
and the inference as to how a course so much at variance with that which the chart
will apparently dictate as the most direct, will place a ship in respect to favourable
winds or currents. Still; the scope it allows to the navigator must be consid}.\ed as
no mean advantage, evp.n if its shorter distance may not be an inducement to rigor-
ously follow out its principles.

(304.) In the following general sailing directions, the application of the facts in

• It is alluded to directly in a work by Pedro Nunez, in 1637; again, by Pedro de Me-
dina, in 1545 ; but his svstem was erroneous, and was corrected by Martine Cortes (or
Curtis), whose work, " The Arte of Navigation," wm soon after, in 1661, translated out of
the Spanish into English, by Richard Eden, and was long the text book of British seamen.
Numerous other works, in which it is correctly and distinctly described, afterwards ap-
peared, as one by Michael Coignet, of Antwerp, in 1681 ; an excellent work by Roderick
Zamarano, in 1686, &o. That by this time it was thoroughly recognised is evident by John
Davis, published in August, 1594, called " The Seaman's Secrets ; wherein is Taught the
Thrte Kinds of Say ling — Horizontall, Paradoxall, and Sailing upon a Great Oirele." It is
also described in Richard Polter's " Pathway to Perfect Sayling," about the same time,
"is found in most of the old works on navigation.

GENERAL REMARKS.

377

;he facts in

physical geography which have her ^eecribed in the preceding sections of this work
must be left to tne discretion of tht imander in most cases. In fine weather and
with fair winds, the estimation of the verious influences which a£fect the ship's
ciourse are not difficult to make. But it is the adverse circumstances of a voyage that
call for the seaman's skill and intelligence, and what has bten said will help nim to
form a judgment of what is going on and how best to proceed. *

But there are an infinite variety of circumstances which render it impossible to lay
down any fixed rule which may be implicitly followed to advantoge at ail times.
Therefore, in cases where a definite course is pointed out as the best to be pursued,
and a vessel should be driven out of her intended route, it does not follow mat it is
right to endeavour to regain that course to pursue it afresh, but rather it should be
considered that a fi'esh voyage has to be Qommenced, and the course shaped from the
latest point as if it were a starting place.

(305.)^ A vessel under steam only is considered in the light of a sailinff vessel with
a fair wind. In a certain sense this is true, as it enables her to be independent of
wind or current. But it should be remem.bercd that the same contrarieties which
a£fect and hinder a sailing vessel from pursuing a direct course, will also, in degree,
be adverse to the progress of a steamer ; and, therefore, if a moderate deviation from
the shortest route wiU lead her into more favouring winds or currents, that course
will be most advantage to the vessel under steam as it is to the sailing ship.

There is one circumstance which may be mentioned respecting a ship under steam
as to how she is affected by the direction and strength of this wind. K a vessel be
steaming before a fresh breeze, strength No. 5, at the rate of 12 or 13 knots, she will
experience a perfect calm, while the sailing vessel will be only able to carry her top-

fallant sails and royals. If she steams in the teeth of the wind, she will seem to
ave a strong gale, under wluch a sailing ship could only carry close-reefed topsails.
This virill be made apparent by consulting the table of the velocity of the wind on
paffe 182. Now, a vessel steaming with the wind otherwise than directly fore or aft,
will not feel the wind in its trtte direction ; for it will appear to blow from that direc-
tion and vnth that force which is a combination of the rate and direction of the ship's
course with that of the velocity and direction of the wind itself. Its apparent and
real course and velocity may be found by constructing a parallelogram of forces — a
well-known problem. It is for this reason that the wind as registered on board a
steam-vessel does not give the correct bearing of its course, and it is much more dis-
guised than it is in a sailing ship when close hauled, as alluded to in (12.) on page 180.

As the steam-vessel, then, may be considered in a great measure independent of
wind or cut rent, the great object of the past and succeding remarks is mainly appli-
cable to sailing vessels.

(306.) It has been well observed thrt the wind systems of our globe naturally
govern the tracks of ships crossing the oceans, the trade winds cairying them from
east to west within '\a tropics, while the anti-trade or passage winds will bi-ing them
back again eastward beyond the tropics. If it were not for the intervening oelt of
calms, sailing directions for vessels going into opposite hemispheres would be of the
simplest kind ; but the well-known Equatorial emban'assments — " the doldrums " —
generally make a very different matter of it, and cause many considerations to enter
mto the problem of shaping a course. In the North Atlantic, these obstacles of the
intervening calms seem to be at their maximum, and in the future remarks one chief
point, now still argued, will be found to be that which has engaged attention almost
ever since over-sea voyages commenced — where is the best place to avoid theHc calms
and contrarieties of the Equator.

The directions which follow will commence with our ovm country, although very
briefly ; for it is presumed that almost every one who vnll use this book is
either well qualiflea to navigate our own channels, or has more extended works on
this point to guide him.

And even in the remai-ks on more distant voyages very brief notices would gene-
rally suffice, for most are now familiar with tne varied narticulars of th j hydros
graphy of the Atlantic as it affects a ship's passage. Notwithstanding the vast

3 U

878

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

labour that has been bestowed on the research into its phenomenal it does not seem
that a corresponding advantage has accrued to sliippinff ; for in many cases the direc-
tions of a century since will be found as useful as those based upon these refined
inquiries. However, one thing may be averred, that passages are now made with
much greater certainty than formerly, and even if the average duration of a voyage
is shortened a few hours, very much has been gained ; and, by the comparison of a
great number of voyagei* made under difierent circumstances, it may be safely pro-
nounced which is the best course to pursue, and what tibe average length such a voy-
age will be.

2.— TO AND FROM THE ENGLISH CHANNEL.

OurwAKD.

For vessels leaving the Downs, and having rounded the South Foreland, the track
is W. by S. ^ S. 21 miles to Dungenps(<, the depth 20 to 10 fathoms. From a mile off
Dungeness to 2 miles south of the sh^u^ls off Beachy Head, the course is W. f 8. 24
miles, and in depths varying from 18 to 12 fathoms. In working down, and while to
the eastward of Folkestone, stand iu to 13 fathoms, and off towards the Yame to 16
fathoms. This latter bank has lost much of ifis dangerous charsct^^r by the placing of
the light-vessel, which now marks its N.W. face. Between Dungeness and Be^uill
keep outside of 9 or 10 &thoms, and within 25 fathoms. To the westward keep
Beachy Head light or Hothouse in sight, which will keep you clear of the shoals.
Having arrived at 4 miles south of Beachy Head, a course may be shaped down
Channel. This course will necessarily be much controlled by tne vnnd and tide ;
bus, under any circumstances, the English coast should not beleft. if the wind be
contrary, the best position with the commencement of the ebb is inshore. The flood
tide, especially at its r i<^mencement, tends to the southward, filling the laf-ge inden-
tations of the French coast before it sets fiEur np the Channel, and then it sets on to the
coast south of Boulogne. It is well to remember that the tidal streams throughout
the fairway of the English Channel set towards Dover while the tide is rising there,
and away from it while falling, so that ^he Dover tide-table answers for the whole
distance between the Lizard and Beachy Head. H.W, F. and C. at Dover llh. 12m.
All this is explained on pages 251 — 253 ante.

If the wind is favourable a W.N.W. i W. course for 63 miles brings you off St.
Catharine's Point ; from thence W. by N. 94 miles to the Start. In working down
do not come nearer the Owers than in 20 fathoms, and to St. Catharines than
22 fathoms. From thence to St. Alban's Head into not less than 22 fathoms toward
the indraught. Between Portland Bill and the Start, if the weather be clear ajd
favourable, you may stand into Lyme Bay to 17 or 16 fathoms. Throughout all this
course, keep off until in from 35 to .36 fathoms. From the Start to the Lizard, the
course and duttance are W. % N. 64 miles, which course continued for 46 miles further
brings the ship 10 milet south of the Bishop Light.

Throughout the course as fur as off Plymouth, the tides set fair up and down ;
westward of this, they revolve in all directions, and must be most carefully attended
to, as is also most necessary when to the east of Beachy Head.

In case of bad weather or contrary winds, and necessity for shelter, the following
places may be safely sought for. With the winds broad easterly or westerly, ships
may stop ou either side of Dungeness, in East or West Bay, and also on either side
of beachy Head, in Scaford Road, westward and eastward of the shoals on the other
side, and near Bexhill ; and with westerly winds the Park inside the Owers Light-
vessel is also used. Within the Isle of Wight there is anchorage sheltered from nil
winds. Westward of the Wight, Studland Bay (near Poole) affords good shelter
from westerly gales. The new Refuge Harbour in Portland Roadstt^ad affords

TO AND FRO... THB EN ISH ( VNEL.

"band > Jaai soutucriy

security ^aiost nearly all winds. Qood anchorage in
winds in Torbay, Plymouth Sound, and Falmouth.

Most sailors have hod some experienee of the detem .. (tanned ' oontrary winds
in the English Channel. Some of the more remarkable of these detentions hav6
long lived in remembrance. The Bight Hon. Maurice FitEgerald, in some evidence
respecting the Western Harbours of Ireland, gave a curious illustration of the diffi-
culties in making way against these westerly gales. An officer of considerable expe-
rience commanded a smul vessel of war belonging to the Cork squadron. Informa-
tion was received that a smuggler was to land on the western coast ; he was ordered
to cruise off the Skelligs to intercept her. He sailed from Cork, but was brought up
six different times at Crookhaven, and, being extremely inxious to reach the ground
upon which he was to cruise, he determined to sail round the north of Ireland, and he
did so, and reached the SkelUg in a very few days.

The detention of Rear-Adniiral Christian was proverbially known. He sailed from
Portsmouth with an expedition for the West Inmes on Nov. 16, 1779, and, after hav-
ing been repeatedly blown back, he did not ultimately clear the Channel till the end
of the following March.

It seems that the wind generally draws up and down the Channel more or less, and
does not blow true as in the open ocean. Thus, a westerly wind in the offing may
become a W.N.W. wind in the English Channel, and a N. W. wind in the St. George s
Clumnel ; and the same with the easterly winds. By referring to (67.), page 209, and
the illustrative dia^^m, the reader will see some exemplification of this in the case
of Liverpool, and in (71.), pages 211, 212, those of the English Channel arc discussed,
where it will be seen that the western predominate over the eastern quarters as 229 i»
to 132.

As a further illustration of the direction of the wind in the upper part of the
Channel, we may adduce the following retwnS of 10 years' observations made by the

Royal Society : — '

--' • '.'i.'.T ■ ' , , ! ". . '.-■•,'" ■ ■ ■•.■^:i.i.y:;^ :.i]\

Table op the Winds Observed at the Rotal Societt'e Apabthents

IN London.

Easterly.

Westerly.

1826
1827
1828
1829

Easterly.

Westerly.

1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825

102
91

101
99
81
97

1,68
196
181
189
1.96
188

129
115
104
130

187
189
192
171

Mean

101

186

Or, supposing a feather to have been abandoned at the beginning of each of these
years, the mean direction and number of days the feather would have advanced is as
below : —

Year.

Direction.

Days.

Year.

Direction.

Days. ".

1820
1821
1822
1823
1824

S. 86" E.
N. 89" E.
. N. 84' E.
S. 81" E.
S. 74° E.

66
92
72
81
91

1825
1826

1827
1828
1829

S. 75"-8 E.
N. 68»E. ■
N. 68" E.
N. 39" E.
N. 67" E.

86
47
64
95
38

Mean for 10 years N. SS" E, 66 daw jkt annum.

380

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

This shows how far the westerly predominate over the easterly directions. North-
easterly winds are at a maximam in May and Jane.

Oar remarks as to the lighthoases and other points of departure will he usefol to a
ship loavinff dook to ^n a sea-r&te for her chronometers. In the geographical tahles,
pages 7 and 8, the chief land-marks are given to the minutest accura^ ; and in the
tahles of lighthoases, the position of any one of the lights there given will equally
answer as a point of departure.

Homeward.*

The Bristol Channel I consider safer to approach than either the British or St.
Georgfe's Channels. The parallel of Trevose llead, on which stand the two light-
houses, has been generally recommended, and that on the parallel of Lundy Island
may be used according to circumstances, direction of the wind, &c. In thick or dark
weather the soundings will indicate when you have passed a line cutting Scilly and
St. Ann's Lights near Milford Haven, and also on neoring the shores on either side.
The south side of Lm^dy is preferred, as you can go safely close round it, taking care
to keep the light in sight above the land; and as there are generally pilots lying
under the island, you are sure not to miss them by pursuing this route.

For approaching and proceeding up the British Channel, various directions have been
given. Ist. Soundings. The great di£Scultj is that the soundings are very deep, and
the same water may be got in different positions, both in latitude and longitude, so
that a false position by dead-reckoning in the longitude, or in the latitude by the want
of observations, is almost as likely to be coniirmcd as detected ; I mean, by detached
casts of the lead. As a precaution against this, I would advise ships (particularly
those navigating by deadyreckoning) to " seek the ground early," so tnat by striking
the edge or the bank they may obtain, as it were, a departure, and then take frequent
casts of the lead, add make with them a table in the following form, noting the true
course and distance between each two casts, and carefully observing the quality of
the ground, as well as the depth of the water : —

True Course. | Distance. | Depth. | Quality of the Ground.

And where a few of these are obtained tod set off upon the chart, one will check the
other. Ships, as well as steamers, have been lost by " not stopping to sound."

The prevalent winds are considered to be S.W. and westerly from May to De-
cember, both inclusive, and from January to April, both inclusive ; although long and
heavy S.W. and westerly gales may occur at this season, yet they are more frequently
interrupted by northerly and N,E. winds, particularly in February and March.
N.W, winds are considered to be generally of short duration.

To approach and pass SciUy, the parallel of 49° 15' to 49° 25' has generally been
recommended ; in place of which I would recommend that from 49° 30' to 49° 40',
according to the wind, &c., as likely to be attended with greater safety ; and if the
Bishop Kock or Scilly be not made, having taken every _ precaution to ascertain the
longitude, once that its meridian is past, strike for the Lizard, and, if possible, make
it, and thence proceed by the rules of the best coasters'. Lights can oe seen when
celestial observations cannot be made ; and as the navigation is generally free from
outlying dangers, courses should be shaped from one prominent point or u^t to the
next, keeping at a moderate distance to ensure seeing them, if possible. The ships
generally met with in this route are coasters, and they keep a good look-out, and are
generally very anxious to get out of the way of large foreign-going ships.

Easterly Winds in the Winter and Sprina Months. — Those winds are very destruc>
tive upon the East coast, and often cause heavy losses and great detention amongst
the shipping ; and, although those winds may blow long and steady in all the channel,
yet at times they do not extend to the westward of Cork, but more generally about

* Gonoral Notes on the Approaches to the Channels and for Navigating the British
<"ih>«nn«>1- ^v rifttifain Richard Leiiirhton.

TO AND FROM THE ENGLISH CHANNEL.

sai

the ed^ of Boundings ; I have known them to blow long and remarkably trteody in
the Bristol Channel, and yet ships were arriving at Cork with heavy S. W. wtnds.
There is also a kind of j>eriodical occurrence of easterly winds upon the coasts of the
United States of America, which have been desoribed oy Mr. W . C. Bedfleld, and he
considers them as distinct from the revolving theory of the winds.

Whilst speaking of soundings and channel navigation, I want to strongly urge the
use of Captain Sumners's method, as by it a single altitude, giving the line A A with
a cast of the lead, or a bearing of the land, will often fix a ship's position with
certainty, and its many uses and advantages will soon suggest themselves after a
little practice.

My reasons for dissenting from choosing the parallel of 49° 15' to 49° 25' to approach
the Channel, are —

1st. A ship in this parallel will pass from 30 to 40 miles to the southward of
Scilly, and will not expect to see it. I think this precaution attaches too much im-

Sortance to Major Rennell's thwart channel current, which I do not consider to be a
efinite current, but only at times occasioned by a combination of circumstances, driv-
ing a great excess of water into the Bay oi Biscay, and the excess of tide to the
northward does not require so great an allowance.

2nd. That parallel is the centre of the dangerous g^up of Guernsey, Jers^, the
Caskets, &c., which, I believe, have caused more wrecks to ships bound up the British
Channel than gettmg to the " northward of Scilly " has done, and the channel
course trends to the northward, the difference of longitude between Scilly and the
Caskets may appear great, but great errors occur in dead reckoning, and a ship goes
far in a winter night and a westerly g^e, but allowing them to avoid those dangers.

3rd. That parallel has led to or encouraged the imprudent and dangferous practice
of galloping up in mid-channel, with neither anchor nor cable clear, and trusting to
celestial observations and chronometers, as though it were in the middle of the At-
lantic ; and here we have the Conqueror, Iteliance, &c., sad examples of the effects of
not making and keeping hold of the English coast, lights, &c. A great deal was said
and written about those cases, but I consider that the amotmt of error in the course
and distance from a position off Scilly or the Lizard, to place a, ouip on shore between
Boulogne and Calais, instead of being in a position off Dungeness, to be an every-day
occurrence in navigating such a distance in tideways and blowing weather without
any check to correct the account, and neither " storm-wavts " nor " storm-currents"
were required to cause them. .......

4th. Foreign-going masters generally keep at too great a distance from the land,
by which they not only frequently miss a sight of l^^hts, &c., which it is important
that they should see, but they lose the benefit of some degree of familiarity with the
land, objects, &c., which a nearer approach would gnve them, and which in the want
of having to go into roadsteads, &c., would be found of very great service.

5th. It is not by keeping near the land that ships get embayed and lost. If it were,
colliers would never be safe ; they are as much afraid of getting off the land as
foreign-going masters generally are of coming near it. The general rule in coasting
is to see every guide as you pass it (unless tmck weather should prevent it, and in
that case strict attention to me lead until you find the next) ; this rule and attention
to the set and duration of the tides are the grand points in coasting.

3B2

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

3.— TO AND FROM THE ST. GEORGE'S CHANNEL.*

*' Many shipmaflters have been bewildered in St. George's Channel, especially in
thick weather, from ignorance of the tides and want of experience; some, we are
sorry to add, from want of due consideration, und others from not allowing for the in-
draught into the bays on the Welsh coast, 'fhe light-vessel in Cardigan Bay is placed
to remove some of this latter danger.

" The writer of the following hints and observations begs to be understood as laying
no claim to merit in their compilation ; his only motive being to assist and advise the
atranger, and those who, from want of experience, have acquired only a slight know-
ledge of this dangerous navigation."

Special caution to the effects of the tides seems necessary to be inculcated of late.
Some most lamentable shipwrecks have recently occurred on the banks on the S.W.
coast of IreLeind, by vessels leaving Liverpool under what ought to have been favour-
able circumstances. The unthinking hardihood of the commander who will place his
ship's keel on a special course as if it were a groove, which, if most accurately kept,
will just shave clear of destruction, and without taking into account the numerous
causes which will horse him off his course, such as bad steerage, leeway, heave of
the sea, and, above all, the set of the tides — cannot bo too strongly deprecated. And
yet, as above said, some losses liave occurred which have most certainly arisen from
a culpable neglect of all these particulars, and attributed to charts or local magnetic
attraction unadjusted, or, indeed, anything but the real cause — the thoughtlessness of
the sailor. On page 254 some brief remarks on the tidal streams of the St. George's
Channel are given, which will do to remind the sailor of what is said in more extended
works.

Another point of caution most important is, the character of the lights marking
its dangers. In the table their present condition is given, and it is sincerely to he
hoped tnat no misleading alteration will cake place. Government official entangle-
ments led to much conflision and unnecessary alterations in the Irish lights, which,
as they were, or as they are, answer their purpose well ; but unknown alterations
must lead to confusion, doubt, and danger. Therefore, let the seaman who has been
absent, perhaps for years, enter these difficult channels with all caution.

^ 'Oaptain Midgley's instructions are arranged as follow : — ! ' °

(a) On proceeding from Liverpool westward to the Bay of Holyhead. , ^^

(6) On taking the North Channel, and proceeding thence to Tory Island,
(c) On proceeding by the South Channel, and thence westward to the Ocean.
{d) On proceeding by the South of Ireland f^m the Ocean to Liverpool, &c.

{TTiroughotit these remarks, the courses, bearings, and state qf the winds, ^c, are to
be understood as by compass.)

„!». , (a) On proceeding from Liverpool westward to Holyhead. ;-

Liverpool being the principal ai.d central port in St. George's Channel, and the pre-
valent winds being from the westward, W.S.W., and S.W., during eight or nine
months of the year, I shall supposo that a large ship leaves that port, with an adverse
wind fVom the westward. Having discharged the pilot off the lightship, stand to the
northward all the ebb tide (which, in Liverpool Bay, sets to the N.W.. and the flood
to the 8.E), and, if laying N.N.W., or to the westward of this direction, during the
first quarter of the flood, keep the lead occasionally going, with a careful look-out for
the Isle of Man, which is moderately high, and on the south side bold-to.

■XT 1. V.„.._.1 A„~ T :.. 1 - I ..il.«..

Wostom Ports to tho Atlnnttc Ucean, and for Returning from tho Ocotin to the same ; by
Cuptuin ThumnH Midgloy, of Liverpool, 1839.

TO AND FROM THE ST. OEOROE'S CHANNEL.

883

,e, we are

Should there be a strong breeze and a heavy sea, the yeasel may not weather the
West Hoyle Sands, on the starboard tack ; and great caution is, therefore, required
when going near them, as they are bold-to and very dangerous. In thick weather
the lead must lie constantly used, and, and the sands should not be aj^roached nearer
than in 10 fathoms of water.

The soundings along the north coast of Wales, eastward of Point Lynas, will pretty
accurately determine the distance of the ship ftom the land, provided due attention
be paid to the depth of water ; but the quality of the soundings will not indicate the
particular part oi the coast she may be abreast of.

The Ormes Heads are very bold, and any vessel may safely steer a direct course
from thence to Point Lynos, which may be known by tne castellated building near
its extremity, used as a lighthouse, anc[ its telegraph station upon the summit.

Point Lynaa and the land to the westward ' "it is very bold, but the ebb tide hence
runs very stronely to the W.N.W. and throuo^h the Sound inside the Skerries. Off
the Middle and West Moiise the spring ebbs ran at the rate of 7 knots ; and all
vessels should, consequently, give this part of the land a good berth, during light
winds, at such times as the flood or ebb may be running strong ; or they may, upon
an ebb-tide, get into the vicinity, or perhaps upon, the Coal Rock or the Skerries
Platters.

The Coal Rock bears E. f S. 2^ miles from the Skerries, and lies with the West
Mouse (a large rock always high above water) on with the two beacons on Camel
Point. By night, a red ray from the Skcn-ies light will now point out its direction.
The Platters are nearly the whole length of the Skerries Rocks, and lie at about one-
third of the distance between the Skerries and Carnel Point.

Beaumaris is a good harbour for all ships, into which a Liverpool pilot will con-
duct them, provided no licensed pilot for the port may be found ; but the Beaumaris
pilot-boat is generally cruising off the chops of the bay, between the Ormes Haads
and Lynas, or lying at anchor within it.

Holyhead is also an excellent harbour, now much more sheltered by the new
Government pier.

(6) On taking the North Channel, and proCj?eding thence to

Tory Island.

If, after weathering the Hoyle Sands, the wind should be so far to the southward
of west as to enable a vessel to weather the Isle of Man, it may be a matter of con-
sideration whether it be most advisable to go through the North or the South
Channel ; but this should not be hastily decided on. In the summer months the winds
are more variable than in winter, and then it is certainly advisable to choose thai
passage which is nearest to the destined port ; giving the preference to the North
Channel if bound to British America, Newfoundland, or the northern ports of the
United States. In winter, the prevalent winds are from S.W. and W.S.W., and
these winds often blow steady for several days.

Should the North Channel be preferred, with soiitherly and S.S.W. to W.S.W.
winds (and it should not be attempted with any others that have westing in them,
especially by a stranger), it is advisable to take a departure tVom the lights on the
Calf of Man, and steer a direct midchanncl course, with a careful look-out, as the
passage is narrow and the tides very rapid, but running directly through the Channel ;
the flood setting from the northward toward the Mull of Galloway. With a W.S.W.
wind it will be noccssarj' to keep the Irish sliore aboard, after iiussing the two lights
on the Muidon Rocks i or it is poshible, in a strong galo from tnis quarter, that there
may be sonie difficulty in weathering the Isle of 11a.

The North Channel is well lighted, and has many excellent harbours, fit for tho
largest ships, as Louuh Foyle, BclfaHt Lough, Loch Ryan, Campbelton, Lamlash,
&c. t but. it !« ttd^ iMable for vesw.-lSi if "ossiljle, to take those upon the Irinh coast, as
they can get to sea witli southerly and S.W. winds, when it may be difficult to get
away from either Lamlash or Campbelton.

384

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

Mter passing Tory Island, do not be too anxioas to make southing, but steer well
to the westward, if possible ; for there is always a very heavy sea and a strong in-
draught upon the west coast of Ireland* and strong westerly and W.N.W. gales are
very prevalent in the winter. Although there are some excellent harbours in the
N. W. of Ireland, they may be considered as inaccessible to a stranger, owing to the
great difficulty of procuring a pilot in the winter season ; every exertion should,
therefore, be made to keep off this dangerous and too often fatal coast.

The depth of water, or quality of the soundings in the North Channel, will give
little or no indication of the progress of the vessel, so that a good look-out is here
the mariner's best safeguard ; the coasts on both sides being bold, excepting about
the South Rock and Maiden Rock, both of which dangers are well lighted, but require
a good berth in passing, particularly the latter.

In running through the North Channel with S.W. winds, every stitch of canvas
should be carried that the vessel will possibly bear, as these winds often fly suddenly
round to the N.W. quarter ; and in that case blow so hard, for twenty-four or thirty-
six hours, as to compel a vessel either to bear up for the South Channel, take a
harbour, or lie-to in a narrow and dangerous channel for a more favourable wind.

(c.) On pboceedino by the South Channel, and thence westwakd to '

THE Ocean.

If it be intended to persevere in working down the South Channel, it will be the
bast way to keep the Irish shore aboard by short tacks, should the weather be squally
with heavy rain, as the vessel will then have the benefit of the N.W. wind and
smoother water, should it fly round to that quarter, as is often the case. In dry or
moderate weather there is little fear of a sudden shift of wind ; and a vessel, in such
case, may jnake a long board toward the coast of Wales. Should it come on to blow
from the S.W., with much rain, get the Irish coast on board as soon as possible,
especially in the winter.

Vessels passing up or down the South Channel with westerly winds will find a
strong indraught setting into Caernarvon and Cardigan Bays, as well as into the
Bristol Channel ; and this may be probably, in some degree, accounted for by the
following, and, perhaps, other causes : — Southerlv, S.W., and westerly winds prevail
over the Atlantic, between the Azores and Great Britain, during eight or nine monthtj
of the year, causing the sui'face-currcnt in this vast space to flow to the eastward ;
the tides in the neighbourhood of and to some distance westward of Seilly run nine
hours out of the twelve to the northward, or into St. George's Channel, which, like
the Strait of Gibraltar, has some resemblance in form to the pipe of a funnel ; and it
is probable that, in gales of winds from the S.W. quarter, there is veiy little, if any,
ebb from the western edge of Channel soundings to a position 15 Icaf^ues WcHt from
Seilly, and thence to the northward, on the same meridian, until within 15 leagues of
the South coast of Ireland : neither do I think it at all unlikely that a portion of the
stream of " Rennell's Current," which frequently, as I shall hereafter show, runs with
velocity to the N.W., may be diverted by westerly gales into a more northerly direc-
tion, and being opposed in itH course by the Soutti coast of Ireland, finds its way to
the eastward, ana thus contributes to raise the level of the water, and muke a strong
tide or indraught into St. George's Channel.

This stream of tide sets E.N.E. toward the Tuskar, and nearly in the same
directoin, or a little more northerly, toward the Smalls, and rushes, with great
velocity, past Skokham and Skomar, through the sound, towards St. David's Head,
and nioiig the South and Kust coasts of Cardigan Bay, from whence it diverges
toward Bardaey Island ; in the sound between which island and the main it runs with
great strength.

It is generally advisable to keep the Irish shore aboard in turning down St. Gcor^'s
Channel, with S.W. winds and heavy rain. In the South Channel the load will im-
part some idea of the {wsiticm of the vessel, or, at rate, will indicate, by ihe depth of
«ratsrj the prob.ible distuncc of the vessel from the land. Tliu banks on the irish
cooat, between Ilowth Head and the Arklow Bank, may be safely approached to 20

TO AND FROM THE ST. GEORGE'S CHANi^L.

885

; steer well
I strong in-
J. gales are
Durs in the
^g to the
tion should,

1, will give
-out is here
pting about
, but requi'-e

1 of canvas
ly suddenly
IT or thirty-
nel, take a
le wind. ...

EVAKD TO

will be the
r be squally
^ wind and
In dry or
sscl, in such
on to blow
OS possible,

will find a

as into the

for by the

inda prevail

nine month^i

B eastward ;

ly run nine

which, liko

ncl; and it

ttlc, if any,

West from

5 leagues of

rtion of the

', runs with

lerly direc-

its way to

£C a strong

the same
with great
irid's Head,
it diverges

nms with

;. Goor^'s
d will im-
10 depth of
the irish
ched to 20

fiithonu of water, and nearer should it be cleto weatiier, which, by-fhe-bye, is not
often the case in this neighbourhood. When near the N.E. end of the Arklow Bank,
and from thence to the westward, no vessel should shoalen her water under 28 fathoms,
without daylight and constant caution. The lights on these banks require close atten-
tion, as they have of late been mistaken, which has led to several alterations in their
character, as before noticed. The tides of both flood and ebb ran directly over these
banks, in a N.N.E. and S.S.W. direction, and in light winds must be oarefUly
attended to.

In beating to the westward, should a vessel shoalen her water on the coast of
Wales to 30 fathoms, she will be quite £ar enough in-shore, and should tack imme-
diately, for it should be recollected that there are 36 and 40 fiithoms very close to
Bardsey.

ShoiUd a vessel be caught with hard N.W. gales upon this dang^erous coast, every
exertion must be used, by carrying taut well-set sail, to get the ship round the Bardsey,
when she will have St. Tudwal's Road (which is well sheltered with westerly winds)
under her lee, but a pilot can seldom be obtained here. The fixed light of Bardsey is
open to seaward only when it bears frova. N.E. ^ E. to E. ^ S. Should N.W. winds
continue blowing hard, it will be better to run for St. Tudwal's Road, on the North,
or to Fisgard Bay, on the South, than to persevere too long in attempting to work
out of Cardigan Bay.

Any moderate-sized vessel may find good and safe anchorage in Fisgard Bay, by
running in to 2 or 3 cabled' length from the Cow Rock, on the West side of the
entrance, f>nd anchor when the land to the westward of it is shut in, and the rock
bears N. by E., distant 4 cable's length. At this anchorage there is fUU 5 fathoms
at low watei', over a bottom of stiff clay and mud, which holds remarkably well,
and the ship will lie well sheltered with all winds, except those from the North
round by the eastward to S.E. by E. or S.S.S. N.E. winds throw in a heavy sea.

The coast in the vicinity of Fisgard Bay is clean and bold, and the bay may be
readily distinguished from the offing by the Cow Rock, which is always above water
off the western point of the entrance, and by the remarkable appearance of Binas
Head (the eastern point), which, upon an easterly or S.E. bearing, exactly resembles
the head of a large gurnet.

Were the advantages of Fisgard Bay more ftiUy known, they would be duly
appreciated. When the writer commanded the brig Freeland, of Liverpool, that
vessel was disabled, by the loss of her sails, in the neavy N.W. gales which pre-
vailed in December, 1833, and was obliged to run into this bay in order to save
the vessel from a lee shore ; and in this place she lay in safety, at single anchor,
with 70 fathoms of chain, during the tremendous gales that caused the Liverpool
Lightship to part her moorings, and compelled her to run into the Mersey for shelter.

From what has been stated above, it will be seen that this bay is of easy access and
egress, but it should never be used unless in a case of necessity, and then wiUi a good
and careftil look-out at all times, and everything should be in readiness to trip the
anchor at the moment the wind veers to the eastward of North, if the weather 1^ not
very moderate and settled.

On weathering the Smalls, when outward bound, it is advisable to keep well to the
westward if the wind will permit, so as, on advancing southward, to give Scilly a
largo berth — say of 18 or 20 leagues.

(rf.) On proceedino by the South op Ireland, prom the Ocean to

Liverpool, etc.

In coming from the westward, many navigators endeavour to make the Fastnet
Rock and Capo Clear, as it is high land, and has an excellent revolvinfr light. The
coast in the neighbourhood is also generally bold. But I do not think this is an
advisable plan for a stranger, unless he has obtained good observations a very short
time previously ; for I have known vessels to be detained several days in endeavour-
ing to work round the cape against atrong southerly gales and a N.W. currenV**r
unquestionably JienneWa. y ^',

In two of these cases, one in 1836, and the other in 1830, two different shipmasterii

3 c

386

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

ran with confidenoe for Cape Clear, upon the faith of good observations for latitude, .
taken fortj^eight hours previouslj, and both made the Skelliga on the starboard bow.
When steerinff £. by S.,with the wind from the southward and S.S.W., thick weather
and rain. When the Skelligs were near, one of these gentlemen considered his vessel
to be on the parallel of the cape, and the other (in 1839) thought that he was at
least 10 to 15 miles to the southward of it. It may be proper, however, to add
that the latter denied the existence of Rennell's Current, until he thus found the effect
of it.

In thick, hazy weather, it may be well to run upon the paiallel of 51° N., until the
vessel geta into 65 fathoms or less water ; then steer E. by N. or E.N.E., keeping the
lead occasionally going, and be careful not to advance into less than 40 fiEithom<i, when
a channel course of E. by S. may be shaped, having constant recourse to the deep-
sea lead. By proceeding in this manner, it is probable that the land will be made
in the vicinity of Waterford, or about the Saltee Islands. Waterfoid may be
known by its ughthouae on the Hook Point, on the East side of tL entrance ox the
harbour.

A little to the "westward of Waterford are the thbee towers, on Great Newton
Head, and two towers, upon Browiiston Head, as described in the Sailing Directoty.
The latter are about 6 miles to the westwai*d of the Hook Point of Waterford, and
are too remarkable to be mistaken. The Saltee Islets are 4^ leagues to the eastward
of the Hook Point, known by its tower and fixed light. The Oreat Saltee is high,
and may be readily known by the Coningbeg Liehtship, moored to the S.W. of it.
No vessel should attempt to pass between the light-vessel and the land if it can pos-
sibly be avoided, the passage between heir"- rocky and dangerous.

The weather is often very thick on the >l^n)ph Bank, with wind from the south-
wai-d and N.W. quarter, and the Tuskar is, consequently, very difficult to make, llie
Smalls and Tuskar, on the opposite sides of the Channel, wnen seen in this thick
weather, have often been mistaken for a large sloop with a peaked gaff-topsail set.
No vessel should run with confidence up St. George's Channel without previously
seeing one or other of the lighthouses on these rocks, or the land in the vicinitj, as
the tides are hereabout very strong, and hidden dangers abound in the vicinity of
both places, as shown by the charts. To the eastward of the Nymph Bank the weather
generally becomes a little clearer than upon it.

The course may be safely altered when the Tuskar bears North, and an allowance
of one point or more must be made for the direction of the wind ; particularly if
blowing from the N.W. quarter, as this wind not only increases the indraught into
Cardigan and Caernarvon Bays, but it throws a heavy sea upon the whole line of the
coast of Wales northward of St. David's Head.

In running from the Smalls toward Holyhead, it is, at all times, advisable to steer
a point or more to the northward of the direct course, unless there is easting in the
wmd; and should Holyhead or the South Stack Lighthouse be made upon a oearing
to the northward of N.E. by E. ^ E., the course should be altered a little, to bring it
upon this bearing, otherwise the vessel may find some difficulty in weathering it upon
an ebb-tide, if the wind should come out from the N.W. quarter, as there is a strong
Bet (along the land) to the southward into Caernarvon Bay.

The island or rock called the South Stack, distinguished by its lighthouse, is very
bold, but, with light winds and a flood tide, strangers should give it a berth of 3 or 4
miles, as there is much danger of being set inside the Skerries, if this is not attended
to. In light winds and a flood ti(!3 steer well to the northward, until the Skerries
bear E. by N., then gradually edge away to the eastward, until the lighthouse bears
E, bv S., distant 2 miles, when the flood tide, with a very little assLiauice from the
wind, will carry a vessel safely to the northward of it.

The Skerries may be approached by a stranger, on the north side, within a mile ;
and when the lightaouse Dears S. by W., steer E. by N. 2 miles, and East 1 mile, or
until the upper beacon on Carnel Point comes open to the eastward of the lower one,
when the vessel will be clear to the eastward of the Coal Ilock. On proceeding thence
with a southerly wiiiu, give a small berth to the Middle Mouse, u large rock alwaj'S
above water, and very M>ld. On steering thence toward Point Lynas, tako porticular
oaro not to idiut up the light if it be in tlio night. Should the light *iappen to be

ACfiOSS TH& EQUATOR

t latitude,
ward bow»
ck weather
1 his vessel
he was at
er, to add
d the effect

., until the
seeping the
lomj, when
I the deep-
ill he made
id may be
mce 01 the

}at Newton
' Directory.
«rford, and
le eastward
Itee is high,
8.W. of it.
it can poa.-

the south-
make, llie

this thick
topsail set.

previously
vicinitj, as
b vicinity of
phe weather

allowance
•ticularlj if
raught into

line of the

lie to steer
itinir in the

a oeanng

to bring it

ing it upon

is a strong

use, is very
h of 3 or 4
)t attended
ke Skerries
louse bears
!e from the

lin a mile ;

1 mile, or
lower one,
ing thence
9ck always

particular
pen to bo

•hut vpk distantly ran to the northward or N.N.E. until it opens, and heave-to or
stand off and on lor a pilot, about 4 or 5 miles to the eastward of the light, or between
it and the Great Ormes Head.

In thick weather, after ptussing the Skerries, and at night if the light cannot be
seen, great caution is requisite in order to avoid, the Coal Rock, and keep clear of the
ebb tide running through the Sound ; for, upon an ebb tide, the land between Point
Lynas and the Skerries must not be approacaied within 3 or 4 miles without a c<Hn-
manding and favourable breeze.

Veaaeh bound to Liverpool should make signal for a pi^ot immediately after passing
the Skerries, as the pilote are very often weU to the westward, and keep a diligent
look-out ; but should no boat be seen, cruise about for one, in the position before
stated (between Lynas and the Ormes Head), as the tides here do not run strong ; but
do not, on any account, run a single mile to the eastward of the Great Ormes Head {
for, should thick weather come on, the vessel will be in danger of being upon the
West Hoyle or the Burbo Banks, and lost. It sometimes, but rarely, hapf>ens, when
an unusual number of vessels come up on one tide, that there is no pilot-boat on tlie
Lynas station, but it will only be left for a few hours, and vessels should wait with
patience, for here a pilot is sure to be obtained.

The Liverpool pilot-boats are sloop-rigged, with a square-headed gaff-topsail, painted
with a white bottcmi' and black bulwarks, and ^ve their number connticuously
painted on the foresail and mainsail. These boats have no topmast, but when upon
their station carry a flag at the mast-head. If in the night tire guns oooasionaily,
hoist a light, and show a torch composed of new rope-yams, unlaid and saturated wiui
bright varnish, then marled slack npon a stick. Tris shows an excellent light, which
may beseen at a great distance ; it is also much better and more noticed than a blue
light, from the latter being so frequently used as a signal of recognition by passing
steam-boats.

The^ Liverpool pilots are under very excellent regulations, are exceedingly skilftd
in their profession, and in point of character and conduct are not surpassed by any
similar body of men on the coast of Great Britain.

Although I have before noticed the necessity of an unremitting attention to Hie lead
in thick weather, perhaps I may be excused for adding here, that such attention is of
the greatest ihMortance ; as, owing to the velocity of the tides, it affords the mariner
the only certam indication of his safety or danger, and contributes to relieve his mind
in some decree from the anxiety he must feel whilst his vessel continus within the
limits of this dangerous navigation.

-<.'..ii

■;ruf-,>.r

iMv

; K :^ ,. . 4.--0F SHIPS BOUND ACROSS THE EQUATOR.

To AND FROM THE EaST INDIES, ETC.

it is probable that there has been more discussion upon the route from the British
Islnnds to the Equator, and on the best meridian for crossing the line, than upon any
other passage. And yet the results of these inquiries aw to this, the great highway
ot the ocean, have served to confirm in a great degree the opinions published in the
early days of navigation, before an^ of the modern improvements and appliances had
been brought to bear upon navigation.

The directions which were given by M. IfA^^es tk Manevilletts in his great
" Neptune Orientale," publisheanearly a century since, might be followed now Mrith-
out losing much, if any, of the advantagoH which deep study and extensive inquiry
into data lately acquired, would give to the shipmaster.

There is only one prominent point elicited, and that has come oui of the investiga-
tions undertaken in the United States, by the office under Captain Maury, so often
alluded to in these pages. It is that a more westerly crossing of the Eqr.dtor than has
been advocat«d heretofore may be pursued advantagsously during a portion of the
year. As will be evident, this has arisen from looking at the voyage fhnn the opposite
side of the Atlantic to that on which almost all previous directions nad been composed.
Tb i configuration of the land about the equatorial portion of the Atlantic is peculiar.

868

PASSAGES OVEK THE ATLANTIC,

and cauaea the diflBonltiea of a trana-eqoatorial yorage. The eastern pouit of the con*
tinent of South America, the " great bugbear" Cape San Boqa6, as Maury calls it,
and the land about Pemambuco, lyin^ in the strength of the S.E. Trade, and the con-
sequent strong current to leeward which runs past it, were constantly the dread of
the older manners whore ships made so much leeway, and were incapable of sailing
on a wind as our modem clippers do. But from the improvements in ships and their
rig and management, much tnatwas formerly insuperable is now quite practicable,
and many of the difficulties of clearing Cape San UoquS have vanished uiK>n later
inquiry. It is upon this fieust that A&ury bases the greater portion of his argu-
ments for a more westerly crossing of the Equator uian had been usually done
previously.

The other difficulty, which also combines with Captain Maury's argument, is the
intervening belt of calms and monsoons (which extends nearly across the ocean
between the trade winds), which have a triangular form, the Imse lying upon the
African coast, between Cape Verde and the Equator, and gn:^aally getting narrower
to the westward, as shown in (46.), on pp. 198, 199, and therefore by crossing them
well to westward they are traversed in a sborler distance, and theii- detaining effects
are much less experienced.

The oreat object, then, of all vessels from any port of the North Atlantic, whether
on the European or American side, being to clear Cape San' Roque, it follows that
often the routes are the same from all qutui^rs, and that the Equator is perhaps most
advantageously crossed by all at the same point. This generally is the American
argument, but, as will be seen presently, it not universally accepted yet. It is pro-
baole that as much advantage is gained by making the northern edge of the N.E.
Trades at a proper point, as by leaving their southern limit|, but this will be discussed
hereafter. All these discussions of course refer to sailing netseh, those entirely
dependent on the peculiar meteorological condition of the localities they have to

':r*^

''f^^ji^fi f ,

traverse.

Steatn-ahip* of course are in a different category, and the shortest distance la
therefore their best route, provided it does not lead them through any adverse
influences.

Now the Oreat Circle route from the Lizard to Cape Horn is probably nearly the
best that could be followed, even if it were not the mathematical course. It passes
near to the west end of Madeira and the Cape Verde Islands, as is directed for sailing
ships, and thence crosses the equator in longitude 31° | W. It almost touches Per-
nambuco and close to Bio de Janeiro towards the Strait of Le Maire, the total distance
being 6988| miles.

Again, the Oreat Circle route from New York to the Cape of Oood Hope is a good
route out or home. It cuts the Equator in 22° W. passmg through Ascension and
just westward of St. Helena, the distance being 6877 miles.

To steam-vessels there will be no difficulty in following either of these nearest
routes, and they will bo only modified in eailmg vessels by the force of the trade
winds, which will make the course through the Trades more southerly than the Oreat
Circle in going southwards.

Although a voyage round either of the great capes — the Cape of Oood Hope or
Cape Horn — involves a more extended problem than that of the passage over the
North Atlantic, with which this book especially deals, yet the difficulties and all
phenomena which regulate the whole voyage are encountered north of the Equator,
and therefore the tuscussion of the voyage to the Equator includes the whole
difficulties, and what would follow for the South Atlantic is simple and easily
followed.

The Oeneral Inhtbuctionb for making the passage from the English
St. Oeorge's Channels to the Equator may be very briefly summed up as follows : —

1. From the Lizard or the Tuakar, steer "W.S.Vf. to gain ou omnir, to longitude

lO" or 12' W.

2. From thence steer so as to pass to westward of Madeir. • - ' a-- ■

ACROSS THE EQUATOR.

SStf

lirthecon-

J calls it,
the con-
3 dread of
of sailing
I and their
racticable,
upon later
his argu-
lally done

snt, is the
the ocean
upon the
• narrower
ising them
ing effects

0, whether
tllows that
:haps most
American
It is pro-
' the N.E.
9 discussed
e entirely
y have to

listance is
ly adverse

nearly the
It passes
for sailing
uches Per-
al distance

is a good
ension and

se nearest
the trade
the Great

Hope or
e over the
and all

Equator,
he whole
,ud easily

nglish or
Uows: —

longitude

3. Thence to the west of the Cape Verdes (or inside of them in the spring, De-

cember to April).

4. Thence to cross the Equator eastward of 30" W.

(Each of these portions of the voyage will be discussed separately.)

1. Leaving the Channel.

As has been said before, the Great Circle course firom the start to Pemambuco,
commencing S.W. by W. i W. {S. 37° f W. true), carried on for 1220 miles, taking
to a point 30 miles west of Madeira, passing 15 miles outside Ushont and 45 miles of
Cape Torinana or Cape Finisterre.

With every circumstance in a vessels favour, this course made good may be fol-
lowed ; but, as will be seen by former discussions, that she will be affected by numerous
causes, which generally have a tendency to place her to the eastward of her course,
and thus involves her among the dangers of the French and Spanish coasts.

A much more prudent course is at onne to make your westing after leaving the
entrance of the chuinel, as time will generally be saved by so doing, and all uncertainty
avoided.

Therefore steer to the W.S.W. or S.W. by W. in Jine weather after passing the
Bishop Rock or the Lizard, until the longitude of 10" or 12° be attained. By doing
this, tne perplexing inJ9uence of the revmving tides which occur between the Start
and the French coast, page 254, will be in some degree avoided. Again, the uncer-
tain Rennell's Current, pages 262 — 272, will less affect a vessel, or if strong, will
assist her in making the necessary ofi&ng. , , y'~^'--['' 'i.'''''.'-,',\..jljj]r^-^'^^^^y

But the most important object, in thus early in the passage getting to westward, is io
avoid the well known indraught into the EneUsh and St. George's Channels and the
Bay of Biscay, see (142.), pages 270 — 272. This westward tendency of the wind and
current would, if not properly estimated, cause some difficulty in weathering Ushant,
should the wind become at all adverse, and the strong tides, and dangerous navigation
around these projecting headlands, render them very unpleasant neighbours.

It is probable, too, that the wind may veer more to the westward, as you get beyond
the influence of the St. George's Channel in drawing it towards its more northern
direction ; and again, as westerly winds have a tendency to veer to the N.W., if you
give plenty of sea room, you can pursue your course a point or two free. With the
wind decidedly contrary to making a course to the south of west on reaching the
chops of the channel, it may become a question as to how far a more northerly route
is advisable.

In a discussion on the Packet Service about 1834, when a western port of Ireland
was advocated as a better storting place than Falmouth, Sir Francis Beaufort drtw
up a comparison of 60 passages made by the Falmouth Packets in contrary winds
(30 outwards, 30 homeWards), and what would have been the advantege had Cape
Clear have been the storting place instead of Falmouth, the desideratum being of
course the safe weathering of Ushant and Cape Finisterre. Of course this was pre-
vious to the Steam Mail Service, and when then the Falmouth Packets were in a
high stete of efficiency, that is, from 1826 to 1830. Sir Francis Beaufort constructe
the diagrams by laying off the tracks from Cape Clear of the vessels as if sailing with
the same wind as that experienced by them in sailing from Falmouth. The average
time occupied by the 30 outward packets from Fumouth to lat. 42° 40', off Cape
Finisterre, was 9 days 12 hours, varying from 12 days to 6 days. Had the packeto
started from Cape Clear, they could have arrived at tne same parallel in a mean time
of 4 days and 21 hours, thus showing a saving of 4 days 11 hours, or nearly one-half.
In the homeward route, the same mode of calculation shows that 4 days 9 hours may
be saved in the same manner. Now, as Gape Clear is about the same distance from
Madeira as the Land's End, it is clear that a vessel is in no worse position by
approaching it. Crookhaven, or some of the harbours on the S.W. of Ireland, will
afiord her sheller as well as the S.W. of England.

This is said in oa^) the vessel encounters strong head winds which will not allow
her to make southing, which after all is the grand object, in order that you may
quickly gain the S.E. trade. If the ship will not lay better than N.W. on the port

890

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

taek, perhaps it is better to make a short 1)oard until the wind veers a little either
way. If yon are well to the westward of Ushant, and the weather moderate, sup-
posing the ship will lay South or S. by W., you may safely stand on to the South-
ward; but should the weather be threatening, and a westerly gale apprehended,
it will be prudent to keep the channel open, rather than by beating to windward,
you g^t past Ushant, and thus embayed on the dangerous French coast, where also
the wind is liable to shift close in shore. By keeping the English Channel under
your lee, should you not be able to maintain your course, you may then run for sdme
shelter.

2. Passage to Madeira.

When the ship is sufficiently to windward of Ushant or Cape Finisterre, there can
be no difficulty in making ror Madeira, so as to pass within sight of it to the
westward.

•Cape Finisterre should be passed at a considerable distance, or, at least, the course
should be so shaped as to do so, for fear of the prevalent drift Avhich is frequently
powerful along tne north coast of Spain, '\nd the effect of the prevalent westerly
winds should horse the vessel to leeward and into the Bay of Biscay, which is espe-
ciidlv to be avoided. The prominent headlands of the coast of Spain being now
marked by a fine system of lighthouses, there is less danger of mistaking the country
than there was formerly, as in many parte it is difficult to make out tiie bays and
inlete, and of course it is a most dangerous iron-bound and lee-shore. . - <:.

By sighting Madeira an opportunity is afforded of testing the rate of the chrono-
meters, as a sufficient interval will have elapsed to gain a sea rate, and having it thus
early in the voyage will avoid much uncertainty in the subsequent passage. It may
be stated that any point of the island will answer equally for giving a longitude. The
table on page 42 will giVe the position of the most prominent point, oe the descrip-
tion and chart hereafter will give farther information.

It is better to pass 7 w 8 leagues off Madeira, as the winds are generally steadier,
particularly in wmter. In November, December, and January, westerly gales pre-
vail, which produce eddy winds and severe squalls near the land, occasioned by the
mountains obstructing tne regular course of the gales, and besides the weather here
is very precarious.

However, notwithstanding all that has been said in former directions as to passing
witMn sight of Madeira and the Cape Verdes, it is a question whether a more
westerly course to the equator may not be attended with some advantages. There is
some reason to think that the nearer the land the more baffling an(i uncertain the
wind is, and, as its tendency is to the westward, it is argued that some gain of
time has been found to arise from crossing the parallel of 30° (as well as the
equator) on a more westerly meridian than that of Madeira. The following abstract
was made by Lieut. Maury in the former editions of his " Sailing Directory" (in 1855),
and showed the number of days (average) that it took from lat. 30° to the equator in
the several crossings by 86 vessels : —

East of 16° 24 days from the mean of .

** Between le" and 17' 23 „

•••#•••••

■?*->^*

',M'

18"
19°
20°
21°
22°

18°,
19°.
20°.
21°.
22".
23°.

24
24
23
22
21
18

6 ■■-'■?"'

14 ■■ ■ -'

22 r'/^'^-

19 V •

Thus, as the place of crossing the parallel of 30° is further and further to the west,
so is the average passage thence to the equator diminished. East of the meridian of
19°, the avereige passage, as far as the data of these tables may be relied on, is about
24 days. Tc the west of 19° the ratio of deoreaae as to length of passage, aooordiug
to this showing, is most rapid. >,i*;M. -v - i., j '.j'T

Nnw *\it

*VUI1U

winds aloi"* ibi*" route are an ssaet co^t€S^part
in the Pacific, on the route from Cf^lifomia to Peru, Chili, or Cape Horn : for the
for the deserto of Mexico and the United States hold very nearly the same relation

ACROSS THE EQUATOB.

801

little ciither
aerate, sup-
the Soutn-
iprehended,
•windward,
where also
,nnel under
m for sdme

3, there can
r it to the

the course
fi-equently
it westerly
ich is espe-
being now
bhe country
le bays and

the chrono-
iring it thus
fe. It may
l^tude. The
iJie desorip*

ly steadier,

gales pre-

)ned by the

eather here

I to passing
ler a more
There is
certain the
ne gain of
ell as the
Qg abstract
■ (in 1856),
equator in

li'j «j;

14
i2
9 . ■

6 ... %

7 ^-"■''
6

a the west,

aeridian of

n, is about

aooording

_.^ « A

CUV auuKu

a : for tho
ne relation

to the N.E. tradfipwindi of the Pacific that the deserts of Afirica do io ibmi of th«
Atlantic ; and though qjuick runs may be made now and then, both along the west
American and west ^^fncan coast, yet, in the long run, experience in the racifio baa
amply proved that the navigator saves time by keeping off from the coast, and so I
? ^prehend it will be here. Indeed, experience in the Atlantic goes directly to show
u>e same thing, and to place the opinion almost out of the category of conjecture, for
this is the very point upon which the advantagefl of the new route from the United
States to the une are based.

The passage to the line from England and the Enslish Channel ought not, on th9
average, to b« as long by several days as it is fix>m the United States. In the first
place, the distance tmm the Land's End ia not so great by two or three days' sail ;
and, in the next place, the winds are fairer. Vessels oound to the line from any of th?
Atlantic ports of this cotmtry have to sail close hauled most of the way, but from
Europe they go free.

If the performance of the ships whose abstract logs I have, and which furnish the
data for these tablfi<), be a fair specimen of what ships generally do on this route, and
I suppose it is rather above than below, it would appear that the average passage the
jeaa round to the line fr«m England and the English Channel is 36 days ; the montktg
giving the longest averages, such as they are, being January and March 47 da^,
August 46, and June 39. The first two are evidently too long, their averages being
determined from only two or three passages each. The average to the line from the
United States has been brought down from 41 to 31 days ; and the average from the
British Isles and English Channel can be, I am encouraged to believe, reduced to less
than the American average ; and the observation, to be contained in the abstract logs
that shall be kept for us during the next year or two, will, probably, enable us to
decide this question.

In the meatltime, the route which I ventured to recommend — ^not, however, without
some misgivings, arising from the want of more ample data — ^is the same, very nearly,
for all vessels from whatever part of Europe.

They should aim, whenever the wind will uUow the option, to cross the parallel of
30° N., between the meridians of 25° and 30° W., but should not contend with
adverse winds for it ; having reached this crossing, their course thence is due south
for the line, between the same meridians. In summer and fall they should enter the
southern hemisphere about the meridian of 30°, but during the rest of the year they
will generally not be forced so far over to the west, though they should not care to
go east of longitude :^5°.

Vessels from as far north as the English Channel should aim to cross the parallel of
40°, between the meridians of 20° and 25° ; and for this reason — ^besides that of winds
a little more propitious — ^viz. : In crossing ' :e calms of Cancer the navigator wants
to be in such a position that he may alwciys se able to go on that tack which will
cany him most rapidly across this belt of calms. In other words, he wants to be ia
that position where it is immaterial to him whether he be making easting or westing,

Erovided he be on the tack which will give him the most southing. For this reason
e should aim to enter the calm belt between longpitude 25°' and 30 W.

The average crossing place of 30°, at present, is about the meridian of 19° W.*

If the comparison of more extended observation and experience should bear out
this reasoning, that even a few hours are saved on the average in the trans-equatorial
voyage, of course it behoves every commander to follow out this line of procedure i
but it will be seen there is some doubt as yet as to whether the advantages of this
western route have been fiilly demonstrated, and we shall give the opinions of others
presently on this point.

-C:'^

3. West, ob East of the Cape Verde Islands.

If the line of reasoning held by Capt. Maury, as above quoted, be valid, there can

* Maury, 8th Edition, vol. ii., pp. 366, 367.

892

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

be no doubt as to which route to puQsoe, inside or outside the Cape Verdes. But as'a
large number of vessels have usea tke inside route, evidently without much detriment
to making a goodj>a8sage, it will require a large amount of experience to subvert
entirely vxe practice asnitherto followed.

We are greatly indebted to our Dutch neighbours for their zealous endeavours to
improve hydroffraphy in the direction pointed out in the Brussels Conference. The
Boyal Nedierumds Meteorolog^ical Institute and the Meteorological Institute of
Utrecht have done good service to the mariner in their excellent publications. The
latter office has published a table of the times and crossings of 455 Dutch vessels from
the Channel to the line, which we will give pv ><!ently ; but in this they have distin-
guished those who passed inside from those who went outside the Cape Verde
Islands. To this list the Americans have added the sailings of 144 vessels, chiefly
probably clippers, so that there is the experience of these 509 vessels to appeal to in
the choice of the route in this part of the voyage.

Nundter qf Vesseh, Dutch and American, and their average time from the Lizard to
the Line, by the passage east and by the passage west of the Cape Verde Islands.

AMERICAN.

DUTCH.

-.5- .1 ■- ,. ,

EAST.

WEST.

EAST.

WEST.

■tvH--'» • '.rf ■ „l^.r^.. V .

Days

Vessels

Days

Vessels

Days

Vessels

Days

Vessels

December

January ,

February

29.5
28.5
27.8

4
3
2

31.5

28.9

32.1
31.5
35.3

33.6

32.9

16
17
11

Average and sum ....

28.6

29.1

32.9

32.5

March

April

29.7
24.2
32.1

1
5

30.5
26.1
31.8

8
12

36.6
31.8
33.2

30.5
28.7
32

15
39

MAy

Average and sum ....

28.7

29.5

33.9

30.4

June

July

August

36.7
34.5
30.2

2
3
2

29.7
30.6
34.5

32.5
35.5
35.4

4
4
4

33.1
33.9
33.8

37
53
38

Average and sum. . . .

33-8

31.6

34.5

33.6

128

September

October

November

42.4
33.2
29.7

2
4
3

33.3

36.3
32.4
36.8

36.2
32.9
36.8

31
24
26

Average and sum. .. .

35.1

32.4

35.2

35-3

.^ Total average and sum

31.5

30.6

111

34.1

114

32.9

341

It appears that the passages east are uniformly longer for the Dutch, except in Deoember, June, and
October ; and that for the American they give the shorter averages for January, February, March, and
April ; for August and November, But the averages for these are derived from an insufficient number of
l«assag6S, wiily two or three, fourteen in aii, for each month.

!. Bnt a8~a

h detriment

to subvert

deavours to
rence. The
[nstitute of
.tions. The
iresselsfrom
lave distin-
dape Verde
eels, chiefly
appeal to in

\e Lizard to
Takmdt.

WEST.

lys

VeBsels

L6.
.9

16
17
11

15
39
34

.1
.9

37
53
38

128

2
9

31
24
26

3
9

341

er, June, and

March, and

It number of

ACROSS THE EQUATOR.

In this table the Dutch outnumber the American vessels, and the outside exceed
the inside passages in the proportion of nearly 3 to 1. The Dutch and the outside
passages, therefore, give the most reliable averaget^ Nevertheless, the montilily
means for the passage west of the Cape Verde Islands tvre uniformly in fiivour of the
American vessels, except for January and August, when for January the mean of 17
Dutch passages is half a day shorter than the moan of 6 American ; and for August,
when the mean of 38 Dutch passages is 18 hours short the mean of 11 American.
The general mean of the outside passa^ for the year, however, is 2.3 days in favour
of the American vessels, and one day in favour of those that go outside as against
those that go inside of the Cape Verde Islands.

There is a difficulty here in estimating the relative value of the American and
Dutch results, as we do not know what tiie class and sailing powers of the two fleets
were ; but it is probable that the superiority of the American tracks would not be so
great, if the Dutch had selected vessels of an equal elass for the comparison. How-
ever, it would seem that there is certainly seme few hours' detention on the average
by going inside the islands compared with the outer passages contained in the fore-
going tables.

In many cases, if they are taken singly, or in small groups, we shall find great
diversity of result ; but it is manifestly futile to endeavour to raise a system, or to
subvert a decision, except upon a widely-extended experience. But as to the British
passages in westing in this direction, we have no collection of logs recorded and
analysed for the purpose of obtaining the best mean result of their various routes.
There is no doubt that a very favourable comparison for the eastern route may be
shown in numerous individual cases, and yet m others the time consumed has been
very much greater.

Thus, Captain Robertson g^ve^ the duration of three voyages inside and three out-
side the Cape Verdes in the same ships, Simlah, Niagara, Clyde, and Sappho, be-
tween 1851 and 1860. The inside passages were in June and August, and made 37,
27, and 40 days respectively from the Line to the Start — average 35 days. The out-
side passages, made in November, January, and March, were 22, 20, and 19 days —
average 20 days. The same voyages from 20° N. to the Line took 22, 13, and 18 days
for t^e inside passage — average 18 days; and 12, 8, and 7| days for the outside
passage — average 9 days.

The experience of these voyages would incontestably prove that the inside passage
is wrong ; but, reverting to our first summary on page 392, it shows also that the
seasons were wrong for selecting these passages. " Had they have been reversed, they
would in all probabilinr have been more equal, or, perhaps, their superiority might
have been reversed. They also demonstrate that the advantagegained by the westerly
route is not confined to that part of it North df the Cape Verdes, but is equally
shown between them and the Equator ; that is, if they be pursued at the wrong
season, as is done here.

If tae reader will refer to the diagram at page 185, and to the table on page 199,
he wiU see that the belt of calms and S.W. winds is very mifth more extended to
the westward in the northern summer months, and that while the stm is in southern
signs it does not appear to be nearly so extended. In fEict, during December, January,
and February, the westerly African winds are scarcelyfelt. As these winds are not
usually encountered West of 22° or 23° W. during December and April, the passage
inside of the Cape Verdes may sometimes be advantageously pursued, but not m June
and August.

Captain Sir Edward Belcher, in his outward voyage round the Cape of Good
Hope, in the 8amarang, March, 1843, diverged from the " beaten track,'^ with con-
siderable advantagpe. His reason for so doing was, that by crossing the Equator 10**
or 15° more eastward than is usually done, when arrived in the parallel of St. Helena,
he would be many miles to windwafd of the usual route. " Having always con-
sidered the eastf rn route the preferable, I attempted, on my homeward voyage, in
H.M.S. Sulphur, to reach Porto Fraya direct from Ascension. In this, however, I
failed, owin^ to the occurrence of westerly breezes driving us toward the African
coast, until m the parallel of the Cape de Verde Islands, which proved that from the

3 D

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

Ckpc d« V«rdM aoutherlj towardt the Equator in the month of June favourable
brecTCs without calmi might be reekoned upon ; and I was reminded that ships com-
ing from Ascension and St. Helena generally make good passages, passing to the
westward of tiie Cape de Verdes. My experience, whust employed on the African
station, taught me that a fiair passage from the Cape de Verdes to Sierra Leone or the
eoast easterlyf could always be anticipated, and that no retarding calms are to be met
with on the verge of the African soundings. Vessels also from the African coast,
Reeking Aaoenaion Ibr change of climate, find this remark applicable, and it might be
foirly assumed that if we could reach the Equator under light airs and moderate
breezes in a less number of days than the average passage to the twenty-fourth de-
gree of West longitude (the increased distance t^ing impeded by many days' calm),
and by orossinff to the eastward of the tenth degree of West longitude, the westerly
current would be avoided, and we should be able to fetch to windward of Ascension,
or possibly sight St. Helena, many hundred miles to windward of the ' beaten track.
The result proved as was anticipated. Leaving Porto Praya on March 7th, we ex-
perienced light and moderate breezes, with touth-eaaterly current. Between the 7th
and 21st of March, or from Porto Praya to the Equator on the ninth meridian of
West longitude, we averaged 81 miles per day, and experienced no more than ten
hours' calm. Before the south-westerly breezes quitted us, we had been earned as
fhr as 8' West. After lietvt south-westerly airs, we were enabled, on the 28th of
March, by a succession or breezes iVom the S.E., to pass 150 miles to windward of
Ascension, in 9° 44' E., arriving in Simon's Bay, Cape of Good Hope, on April 24th."
— Voyage of the Samarang, pp. 7, 8.

This passage, which takes advantage of the easterly Guinea Current (paves 283—
288), will be more specially alluded to hereafter. If e. West African port would be
sought, of course the advantages are on the side of the inner passage ; but this, as
said above, will be alluded to presently.

As each portion of the passage over the Atlantic is, in a great measure, dependent
on the other, it cannot be pronounced on absolutely whether, of itself, one part of a
course eon be most advantageously pursued in a certain direction. In the next
ensuing paragraphs, this yet undecided problem will be considered in connection with
the further progress of the voyages.

4. Crossing the Equator.

til'"

In 1848, Lieutenant Maury published his Wind and Current Chart of the North
Atlantic, upon which he marked the great circle track joining New York and long
31" W. on the Equator, distance 3,370 miles, and upon this track was the following
— " The distance by the route usually pursued is upwards of 4,100 miles. Outwam-
bound vessels are recommended to try this route to Kio Janeiro. The tracks of
vessels on this chart show the average passage from the United States to the liae to
be 38 days, and to Rio 55 days. There is reason to believe that the prevailing- wind
along the (great circle) route here indicated will be found more favourable -steadier
and stronger than they are by the usual route, and the distanc is nearly 1,000 miles
less. Hence I respMtftilly invite the attention of navigators to this route, under the
expectation that, by tia.king it, they will shorten their passage several days."

By the chart on which this note is placed it seems that the practice of the Ame-
rican ships was to run down to westward between 34° and 40* N., and cross the
Rarallel of 60° between 30° and 38° W. Naturalb a better course would suggest
»elf, and the great circle course is that which would stand prominent. Captain
Maury having i-eceiced much encouragement by the adoption of an approximation to
this track, to the rreht advantage to American voyages over the former easterly track,
has argued strongly or the advanteges that would, be gained by the route from Europe
being made to cross the Equator on the same meridian (about 30° W.). As this does
not appearto be entirely accepted, we will give the experience on both sides in order
thst the shipmaster mf-y form some opinion as tq their respective advantages.

On page 392 is given a table containing the times occupied in sailing from the
<i Lizard to the Line," inside and outside the Cape Verdes, as composed from the
tables drawn up by the Utrecht Meteorological Institute. The foUowiig is the table
itself.

§•

.If

I
I

e favourable
i ahipsoom-
issing to the
the African
Leone or the
ire to be met
Moan coast,
[ it mi^ht be
id moderate
y-fourth de-
nays' cahn),
the westerly
f Ascension,
•eaten track.
, 7th, we ex-
'een the 7th
meridian of
tre than ten
n earned as
the 28th of
nndward of
April 2ath."

paees 283—

rt should be

but this, as

B, dependent
le part of a
In the next
neotion with

r the North
k and long

following

Outwam-

le tracks uf

the I.iue to

ailiQj^ wind

e -steadier
1,000 miles
B, under the

8."

)f the Ame-
d cross the
uld suggest
Captain
ximation to
iterly track,
rom Europe
Ks this does
Ics in order
fes.

g from the
id from the
is the table

>p ve oovo oe>o 00 eo^i \o oe\o oeso -J oe^j \o oo o --J oo oo o

00 » ' «rt * * * d\M ■ 4» J d\ ■ 00 d\4» (rt * ' t« -i ' '

5? 7

mmmmmmi^mmmOmOmmmOm 0«m m li m m

;rt(rtU>4^Cn;rt4^4ku>'^ w.(k^M.^.^lMOi^^^(rt.^^
'~J(rtO^MWM(rtW-iLn "^i ' tioi '•JvA '^I'^J

~J -1 0\ 9\->l -J ON Os^rt On p\>a On On OS ONirt -^ On^i On On 0\>-i
tiwn-J 'M(rtW~i>-iCt 'M^M(n'-iM 'in 'M(rtW

MMri^Ml^tOtOMtOMtatOtStOtOtOtOtStSMMWCOtO

O ■!>; >-^*i q*i ",*-, O*; O-f; 0.4>> m4>^ 0-I>>, O-t-^ q4>: O, •^
^ W ' ' On On ' <n ON 00-^ (A OniX ' 4>^ ooln M 4>^ OnVn m Vn

«ecio '-4 'bstswwi-^ 'ui9 'tototSMOtM 'cncn-4

OU<MlnM(nMON>>ONOONWaN«lnM(rtOWN
■>i •>> ^ 00 ' oovi * "on" 'wwH"J»"d'

-._r__(_«._QV»wON

Onoo->i

0<^ 0(M O -t^ " ^ OU> UtM X'^ Mb4 OUIvOUtNCM O 4^

M <A cb~J (rt ' ' ' ^ obi^ (^ ON(rt ' w 00-j -i irt -J (rt -i

«MNO»pW00p4>-^ ^"^ OONO NONONOnOMOOMOM

' -J ^(rt M M M 00 M ebtrt

M W (rt (rt (rt ~J

(rt M (^ M

M^tS><^H^>f>-Oia>0>e<Cn-^C»-v|'MOlO>l^MCO(Ol(^hStOCO

W W M W

M M(rtU><rt(n p M OnO "_ i-i(»>4^M(«<(^(^ O ■-; H >^(*^ M

' -J (rt ■>J * (rt eb eb(rt m ' oo m '>j (^ ^ («i

r-«

f=^

f-^

f=«

r.^

MMMMMMMMMMUMCdMMWMMCOCiSeiSeoCdM

bscdOMtotiaSotcnM^cotocdtotoi-^apeB^Oitai^o
•^ d» CB d> )^ «^ M t« i(^ ob en «e o< ^ H^ ' ob d> a «n eo «6<n ce

«v

!z5

*8-

(rt

5Z5

396

PASSAGES OVEB THE ATLANTIC,

In this table the routes followed are thoae uaually taken by all ahhw from Europe
bound aorofls the Equator, and the mean oroeaing of the Equator is abqut 22° 40'.

In the laat column, which must speak for itself, the comparative time of the routes
East or West of the Cape Verdea is shown. Where they are less for the inside
passage is only in June, October, and December. They are about equal in Janiiary
and ^ptember.

The comparison and number of the ships is given before on page 392 ; but wo
cannot be entirely satisfied with the result, as in many months the number of ships
taking the inside passage is not sufficient to form a conclusion.

The following table is a summary of the information contained in the foregoing
Dutch table, to which are added the mean results of the American 1(^, whida are
quoted at length in Maury's " Sailing Directions," 8th edition, 18S9 : —

Day» and eroatingafrom the Lizard to 30°

N., and thence to the Line.

AMERICAN.

DUTCH.

■ 't- V-- :';■;' ■^;

To30°N.

Thence

to 0°.

To 30° N.

Thence to 0°.

Days.

Long.

Days.

Long.

Days.

Long.

Days.

Lon.

December

January

February

11.9
14.6
11.8

W.
21.1
18.7
22.2

15.1
16.9
17.1

W.
26.5
25.5
23.7

15.9
11.9
14.6

19.2
20

18.7

17.7
19.1
18.3

22.7
22.7
21

Means

12.8

20.6

16.4

25.2

14.4

19.3

18.6

22.1

Average miles per day

106

111

March

April

May

13.1
10.5
12.4

19.2
20.5
19.5

17.4
15.6
19.4

25.5
26.5
24.2

12.2
11.3
12.5

20.2
18.7
10

18.3
16.1
19.5

21.7
23.7
23

Means

19.7

17.5

26.4

19.3

22.8

Average miles per day

112

106

112

101

June

July

August

11.2
10.3
14.8

20.5
20.7
19.6

18.5
20.3
10.7

27.7
25.5
26.1

12.5
12.3
12.8

19.2

10.2

20.6
21.6
21

24.2
21.7
20.5

Means

12.1

20.3

19.5

26.4

12.5

19.1

21.1

22.1

Average miles per day

112

....

107

September

October

November

12.1
12.9
11.2

10.8
19.2
20.2

20.9
19.1
20.8

27.7

12.8

12.9

18.5
19.6
19.2

23.4
19.9
20.7

21.7
25.7
23.7

Means

12.1

19.7

20.3

27.9

12.0

19.1

21.3

23.7

Average miles per day

112

....

104

Yearly means

12.2

20.1

18.4

26.2

13.0

19.2

19.7

22.7

Ycwly avt. miienpcr day

ill

....

100

....

104

....

om Enropo
22° 40'.
r the routes
ir the inside
in January

92; bat wo
t)er of ships

le foregoing
I, whion are

tne.

•

hence to 0°.

DajB.

Lon.

17.7
19.1
18.3

22.7
22.7
21

18.6

22.1

18.3
16.1
19.5

21.7
23.7
23

22.8

101

J0.6
il.6
!1

24.2
21.7
20.5

51.1

22.1

!3.4
9.9
0.7

21.7
25.7
23.7

11.3

23.7

9.7

22.7
92

ACROSS THE EQUATOR.

991

This table shows us the effect of seasons as well as of longitude. It also shows
that the American ship make better time both before and after they cross 30" N.
than the Dutch do ; but it does not reveal the cause of this difference, nor indicate
-wheihe the better speed be due to the more westerly track of the Americans or to
their superior sailing qualities. It shows, indeed, that in the winter time, and In
the winter time alone, ooth the Dutch and Americans make better time Ji-om than
they do to 30° N. Consequently we infer that in winter the north-east trades are
more reliable than the " variables" on the polar side of 30°, and the north-east trades
are freshest in spring.

Let us pause to review a little more closely the winds, and survey the part of the
ocean through which these vessels hold their way.

I am surprised to find the prevailing character of , the winds between the Lizard
and 30° N. as baffling as they are thence along the coast of Africa to the Line. The
American track firom the Lizard to 30° N. is a little more westwardly, and we find
the winds, as indicated by the average distance made good per day ror the several
seasons, much more steady by the American than they are by the Dutch track.

Average mike made good per day from the Lizard to 30° N. in each of the

four aeaaont.

Winter
Spring
Summer
Fall ..

American.

106
112
112
112

Dutch.

93
112
107
104

Difference.

According to the seasons and the average rate of sailing, it appears that the Ame-
ricans are remarkably uniform ; the Dutch not so much so ; and this we attribute,
without hesitation, to the circumstance that along the American track the winds, if
not fresher, are at least less bafiing than they are along the Dutch track, which lies,
on the average, more inshore.

This is what the pilot charts have indicated, and this is what all our investigations
of routes running tnrough this part of the ocean have suggested. But I md not
expect to find the prevailing character of the winds between the Lizard and
30 N., nor on the old route thence to the Line, so adverse and unpropitiuus as they
appear to be, for their average force is here expressed by good ships in terms of
4 1 Knots an hour.

A track still further from the land even than the American ; indeed one that leads
from the Lizard to the meridian of 23° or 25° W., Rt its intersection with 30° N.,
would, I conjecture, take the navigator through a part of the ocean that would give
him an average speed of five knots. Though the oistance from the Lizard to 30° N.
would be eighty miles greater by this route than it is to the present crossing of that
parallel at its intersection with 20° W., the time from the Lizard would, on account
of both winds, sea and speed, be shortened j and it is this time, not distance, that our
researches ^v'ck to shorten. .^ ., , ,.

My the above table it is shown that the mean longitude of the American crossing
is 2(5^° W., while the Dutch is 22|° W. ; and yet the contrast between their passages
is not so great as the difference in the position with regard to the Equatorial calms or
" doldrums " would seem to wanaut an inference. It may, therefore, bo advised
pfonorally that the meridian of 26° W. w a good crossing, and that, if farther West, it
IS questionable whether any sUlvantage is gained. , ; ^^

In an able discussion of the logs of several clippers in the *' Mercantile Marinr

396

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

Magavme,"* the came oonolusioin >• independently atrived at. " We have ret to
learn if the most favourable oroaeing be wntward of 26* W. for English vesseu out-
ward-bound to the East. The paaaage by the eastward of the Cape Verdes haa )Men
itrong-ly recommended, as shown by the preceding extracts, and it is certainly worth
attention that the best passage recorded in that article was made by a vessel (the
Lady JRafflet), which ran down her southing eastward of ti e Cape Verdes."

Captain H. Toynbee, F.R.A.S., has also discussed the westerly crossing of the Lino,
as tried b^ him in his well-known ship, the Oloriana.^ This voyage was made in
October, 1858, and the Line was crossed in 38^° W.

" On the 2nd October, 1858, the Gloriana was in lat. 17° 43' N., long. 26" 29' W.
From this position, being West of the Cape Verde Islands, / endeavoured to make a
true South course when the wind was fair, and preferred the tack which gave the
most southing when it was foul.

" From the 2nd to the 7th we went on well, for on the latter date we were in lat.
T 29' N., long. 27° 62' W., having been driven by the wind and about thirty-eight
miles of current eighty-three miles Airther West. From the 7th to liie Idth we had
the ' doldrums." Until the tenth, wheh we were in lat. 6° 25' N., long 26" 67' W., the
weather was chiefly fine, with a mixture of Northerly and southerly swells ; after
that, heavy rain squalls, looking very threatening, but not sufficient wind to require
the royals to be taken in, with a high southerly swell. During the whole time the
wind was from East round by South to West, but chiefly South 5 the current was
generally to the eastward from 11° to 6° N.

" Oct. 16th.— Lat. 4° 8' N., long. 25° 41' W. ; current in the last 24 hours West,
16 miles; wind S. by W., by compass; variation 17° W. This wu» the point where
I had to decide whether to steer to the eastward, making a lUtl: i^ '*hm^, until I
considered my ship far enough to windward, or to the west." . akmg about
W.S.W., with the certainty of a westerlv current. I chose to § ■ : , 5 .e westward,
feeling sure that the wind would gradually draw to the S.E., wueieas I think that
had we gone to the eastward we should have continued la the variables, if we did not
run back into calms.

" Oct. 16th.— Lat. 8° 18' N., long. 27° 22|° W. ; course and distance, 8. 62^° W.
114 miles ; current in the last twenty-four hours, N. 39° E. 12 miles ; variation, by
azimuth compass, 17* 3' W., by steering compass, 16° 3' W. At lOh. a.m. a large
ship passed us steering to the eastward, and we lost sight of a barque which was m
company, so I suppose that she also went off to the eastward, The wind drew to the
South ay compass, so that we were able to make true S.W. i W. The weather dur-
ing the last 24 hours looked unsettled, especially in the N.W., where there was light-
ning ; but even when we broke ofi' to W. by N. for an hour I felt that by going on
the port tack we were drawing into the S.E. trade.

" Oct 17th.— Lat. 1° 30' N., long. 29° 24' W. ; by ♦ lunar, 30* W. ; course and dis-
tance, S. 48i° W. 162| miles ; current, S. 77i° W. 13 miles. The wind from S.by E.
to S.S.E. ; the sea sn}ooth and weather very delightful.

•< Oct. 18th.— Lat. 0° 52' S., long. 31° 24' W., by « lunars 32° W. ; course and dis-
tance, S. 41° W. 184 miles ; current, S. 44° W. 12 miles. The wind from S.S.E. to
S.E. by S.

" Oct. 19th. — 6h. a.'vi., lat. per meridian altitude of Sirius, 2* 32' S. ; noon, lat.
3° 15' S,, long. 31° 60' W. ; current, S. 13° W. 8 miles ; wind S.S.E. i E. ; bearing
and distance of the Rocas, supposing them to be in lat. 3° 55' 8, long. 33° 44' W., and
taking the mean of the above longitude as my position at noon, S. 36° W. 51 miles.
3h. p.m. — Lat., per meridian altitude of Venus, 3° 33 i S. 3h. 20m., p.m. — Long.,

Sir altitudes of the sun, using the London rates for the oest chronometer, 33° 10|' W.
ence, since noon we had made S. 36° W. 26 miles.

* " On the Passage from England to the Line :" "Mercantile Marine MaMaine," Sept.,
18S5,pp. 328—347.
t See " NftuMcal MsgaaiuS,"

thar

bow

miles

la«l9, ^. 169— 177, and d6j<-de3.

ACROSS THB EQUATOR.

»v» yet to
Teeaeu out*
Bs hMJMen
tioly worth
resoel

(the

9f the Lino,
iras made in

26" 29' W.
' to make a
1 gave the

cere in Int.
hirty-eight
9th we had
67' W., the
rellB ; after
to require
le time the
irrent was

mrs West,
oint where
1^, until I
kmg about
westward,
think that
we did not

I. 62i° W.
riation, by
m. a large
ich was m
rew to the
ather dur-
was light-
going on

e and dis-
aS.byE.

B and dis-
S.S.E. to

noon, lat.
bearing
W., and

01 miles.

— LOM.,

10^' W.

»," S«pt..

«• Yluroagfaout the afternoon we steered about S. 36* W., and at Oh. p.m. we saw
the leef about 12 miles off, eztonding from nearly ri^^ht ahead out on the weather
bow i and at 8h. we kept away W.S. W ., so as to pass it at the distance of about fire
miles.

** The sighting the Rocas was one of very many instances in my experience pror-
ing the look-oat man, either from want of practice or from feeling a want of interest
in what he was doing, unable to see an object almost staring him in the face. From
3h. 30m., p.m., I ordered a regular look-out from f<H-e-topeail-yard^ and at 5h. p.m.
felt so sure that the reef must be in sight that I determined to visit the topsail-yard
myself; when on stepping into the rigging somethinv strange causht my ere, which

f>roTed to be a beacon on the western part of the reef ; yet from the topsail-yard the
ook-out man had seen nothing, and could hardly see it when I pointed it out. A
similar case happened one evening on our way towards Torres Straits, when I sent an
officer un to look round as the sun set, though I always kept a man on the fore-top-
sail-yaira. He quickly saw a long line of broken water right ahead, it bein^ part of
Lihou Shoal extending further to the eastward than it was laid down either m charts
or books. I And that in moderately clear weather, when observations show that the
land may be sighted, a good night-glass on the forecastle and a patent lead are first-
rate safeguards ; indeed, the three L's are all right enough, but much depends on the
quality df these said L's."

" Now it remains to be decided how we should have fared if on the Idth we had
stood to the eastward, making easting, with a little northing, until we thought our-
selves far enough to windward. In our present case we certainly had to tack off
America (though it is the first time in my extreme westerly routes that I have had
to do so), yet in two days we beat 111 miles to the South and 27 to the East, and *
cleared the difficulty. It would not be right, however, to tempt ships near reefs and
land unless they gain by it ; and merely by a comparison of my own voyages of other
years at the same season I should condemn this route, for I never did worse from 10^
N. to the equator than this year. Once at the very same date I passed between the
Cape de Verdes and Africa. Then we were 13 days from 10° N. to the Line, but were
not troubled near South America and had a better S.E. trade. This time we were
only 12 days, but lost a day near South America. In October, 1802, 1 passed 10" N.
about 2° further East within a day or two of our date, and was only 8^ days to the
Equator, which we crossed in 20° W., having been carried into 18° W. by a strong
S. W^ monsoon, which turned into the S.E. trade without a calm. Still, this probably
was an exception, and I should like and shall try to see the logs of some ships which
passed through the Doldrums with us.

September 25th, 1R06, and October 15th, 1837, 1 crossed the Equator much in the
same lonvitude as this year — that is, 31° W. ; in September passed 25 miles to the
westward of Fernando Noronha, and in October ntill nearer, and both voyages we
weathered America with ease. Once in May I crossed ^e Equator between 2o' and
29° W. and could not weather America, but tcaa much bothered off Cape St. Augua-
tine.

<' Again, fh>m Cape St. Augustine to the Abrolhos, the ships which pass fhr West
do not seem to do so well as those which go far to the eastward. For instance, as I
am now writing on the 26th of October, we have done but S. 14° W. 61 J miles, and
on the 2dth S. 23° W. 86 miles. For all this, one feels inclined to blame the westerly
route ; at any rate until it is proved that the ships which went to the eastward have
done as bacuy or worse than ourselves.

" The conclusion I am inclined to draw ft«m all this is, that in October when once
your ship is so near the Equator as to expect the S.E. trade, and the wind sets in
from S. by W. bv compass, go on the port tnck with the yards sharp up, and keep
well fVtll { then the wind is almost certain to turn into the n.E. trade, wiui beautiful
weather. My experience would lead me to say that in October, when you are below
5° N., with a steaay S. by W. by compass wind, you have the commencement of the

s.~ ■

though

400

PASSAGES OVEJl THE ATLANTIC,

the tack on which you make the most southing with a fotil • becftnse the probability
is, that you will have a S.W. monsoon, which will drive you •%!' ♦<» the eastward.
If there were not this probability I would have u ihip in Oci . u«r steei to g^et tiie
S.E. trade, or rather the S. by W. wind, in about 2l>° W., for if she does not get into
the latitude of Cape St. Roque qvax so soon, I think we shfdl be in a better position
by the time sne loses the S.£. trade."

In a Bubisequent discussion, when Captain Toynbee had procured the logs firom other
ships of similar class which left the Channel at the same time, the Gosport, which
was also West of the Cape Verdes on the same day, bore to the S.E. crossing the
Equator In 25° W., and reaching 20° S. a week before the Qloriana. The Mfred,
which pursued a similar course to the Oloriana, crossing the Line in 32^° W. ; and
the Vernon and Octavia, which p&itsed inside the Cape verdes, cronsed the Line in
26° and 26° W.

" The first question raised is — ^Was the Oloriana riffht in steering due South on the
2nd when the wind was fair P The Ooa/orth'a track says no, she ought to have
steered S.S/E. until in 25o W., and then to have made a little easting vriui the south-
ing wbonever it was possible. But the tracks of the two shipa ( Vernon and Octavia)
which passed East of the Cape de Verde Islands, say on no account go to the east-
ward of 22° W. This advice is only applicable when the wind is light and variable ;
of course, if a S.W. monsoon is experienced in these parts a souui-easterly course
must be followed until the wind draws to the South.

" On looking at these tracks I suppose Maury's correspondent. Captain Windsor,
would say that the captain of the Ooaforth is < one of tnose men who are kicked
tJiroagh the world in good luck to keep them out of harm's way,' or how could he
have had a run of 184 miles between the 6th and 6th oi' October, when ships to the
right and lett of him did but little more than half that distance in the same time ?
Not being a believer in luck myself, it seems to me that the little easting he made
from the 2nd to the 9th placed him in a position by which he was enabled to keep off
the coast of South America, and so avoid the light winds f om the 24th to the 26th
which affected all the ships North of 20° S. Here my second query is answered, for
we find that the westerly crossing of the Line was not the cause of the light winds we
experienced on the 26th and 26th ; or, to be more explicit, the ships several degrees
East of us suffered from them to the same extent as ourselves.

The Alfred and Oloriana have given the extreme westerly route a fair trial. They
started from 20° N., differing one day in their dates, and on the 23rd of October, after
passing Cape St. Roque, iheAlJi'edyv9» in the same position as the Oloriana had held
on the 22na.

The extreme eastern route between the Cape de Verde Islands and Africa was fairly
tried by the Vernon and Octavia, It is manifestly wrong for the early part of
October, for they lost much on the ships which took the western route.

" Considerine the positions of the four hindmost ships on the 28th of October, I
am inclined to tnink that the Oloriana^t is the best, for to get South of the calms and
variables near the tropic of Capricorn is more important than to make easting, so
much so that when there I choose the tack which gi\es the most southing. Hence
the readers of my last paper on the subject will see that this research proves that we
were better off than most of our neighbours, and no doubt the < )mmanders of the
other ships will examine this chart with great interest.

" Itvrill be noticed that the Ooa/orth'a track endf^ on the 21st, so thai althnuffh,
where it commenced, she was but a trifle more than half a day in advance of the
Oloriana, she ended with an advance of seven days. Thus she gained on the Oloriana,
6| days J A\fred, 1\ ; Octavia, 8J j Vernon, 9J.

•' The conclusion I draw from this is, that early in October neither the extreme
eastern nor the extreme western route is good. Tlicroforc, a ship should pass West
of the Cape do Verde Islands, and then, when the wind will permit, haul * -» the S.E.
when South of them, so an to be about 23° W. when she is 6° N., she nhoulu then take
the tack win. 'i gives the uiost southing,

ACROSS THE EQUATOR.

401

e probabilil^
tie eastwara.
Bi to get the
I not get into
itter position

^ from other
>sport, which
crossing the
The AljT-ed,
2i» W. 5 and
the Line in

South on the
rht to have
ui the south-
and Octavia)
to the east-
nd rariable ;
iterlj course

lin "Windsor,
) are kicked
ow could he
ships to the
same time ?
ng he made
1 to keep o£P
to the 26th
Qswered, for
ht winda we
eral degrees

trial. They
ctober, after
inahad held

ca was fairly
rly part of

f October, I
le calms and
easting, so
ng. Hence
ives that we
ders of the

it althnngh,
ance of the
le Olortana,

he extreme
pass West
* 1 the S.E.
u then take

*' Maary's * Sailing Direciions ' sapport thie opinion. Thp averages he deduces
from the table in page 148 of the 2nd vol., dated MaM;b, 1859, plainly prove that the
extreme western route is a disadvantage in October. And, again, the Ameticai; part
of the table in page 369 shows that smps should not go East of the Cape de Verde
Islands in October, though it is contradicted by the Dutch part of the same table,
with more ships to take an average from. Still, most of the nine Dutch ships may
have passed East of the Cape de Verdes much later in October than the Americans ;
at any rate sound reasoi. seems to support the middle route, for if a iMp works her
way to the South in the longitude of the Cape de Verdes she is more likely to get a
spirt of the S.W. monsoon, which sometimes blows at this season, and avoids the
certain calms of a more easterly course, as also the danger of being detained a day or
two near Cape St. Roque by the more westerly route.

« From the end of October to February I would pass East of the Cape de Verde
Islands, and perhaps also in March and April. Early in December we took this
rout*!, and were on the Equator on the 23rd day from England.

<' A few tracks similar to these for each month in the year would soon decide the
best route."

With these remarks we close this branch of our subject, — one of great importance
to the mercantile interest, — and the application of the physical facte enumerated in
our earlier pages.

We leave it to the mariner to decide between the able authorities we have quoted,
as to the proper course to pursue, and express a hope, with Captain Toynbee, t^t we
may have at an early day a sufficient number of fiaicts to definitively decide the ques-
tion as to the best crossing of the equator. -'ii,,

■t<^f-

"■ina-

We are unwilling to omit those instructions which have appeared in our former
editions, and which have now for nearly a century directed almost all the European
shipping ; but, of course, what has preceded wiU supersede them where they difier.
Still much ia good to the present day, and may be followed advantageously.

M. jy.Apria de ManneviUette, in his Directions for Navigating from the English
Channel to the East Indies, says, " When you steer out of the channel, you ought to
shape y our course so as to paos Cape Finisterre at the distance of 2d or 30 leagues ;
thib distance," he adds, " will be sufficient, in whatsoever season of the year your
voyage may happen : you may, indeed, double that cape still nearer, if circumstances
require; but, from its latitude, you should always shape a course for the Island
of Madeira.

<' Though a sight of that iKland is not indispensably necesHury in this passage, it is

S roper, however, to gain a sight of that, or of the Island of Forto Santo, that you may
e able to keep or your course after, /ard with greater certainty, whether you pass
between the Cfanary Islands, or leave them to the eastward, as may be judged most
couvenient."

" In the passage from the coaste of France to the Canaries, you may frequently find
difierences m your reckoning to the eastward, which arise most probably from the
indraught of the currents toward the Strait of Gibraltpr : some have made the land
on the coast of Africa when they expected to have diHcovered Tcnerife j others have
gained sight of AUegranza, ofi" the northern part of Lanzarotc, instead of Tcnerife ;
and, though the errors in reckoning ma;y not frequently bo so considerable, yet it is
safer to be on your guard, when you judge, by your reckoning, that you are in the
latitude of these islands, especially in tne night-time, or when the want of moonlight,
or verv thick hazy weather, prevente you frx)m discovering dangers at such a distance
OS to be able to CHcapo them.

" The differences to westward, though much more rare, are yet not without
I'xamplo ; chiefly when the winds have liung contrary for some time after the de-
parture from the porte of England or France.

3 E

402

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

*< S)iips are, however, now generally recommended to pass to the Westward of the
Canary and C^pe Verde Islands : it having been found, that, in this route, steadier
wiude ly be expected than those generally prevalent close to or among the islands.
On tlic African coast, W.S.W. and S.W. winds are frequent. The track now
generally adopted by diips having chronometers, is that to the westward of all the
islands.

« ShoiJd it be required to touch at Senegal or Goree, the best course will be, to
make the coast of Africa near Cape Blanco, Kat. 20° 55' ; as there are soun^ngs at 5
or 6 leagues off the coast, and no danger in making the land, either by day or night,
provided the lead be kept fi>equently going : and tiius you may steer up to the cape.

" Though it may seem natural enough not to suspect any errors of consequence in
ypur reckoning in* so short a passage as from the Canaries to the Isles of Cape Verde,
yet there are instances of such, as well to easting as to westing. It is with respect to
errors in our westings, that I advise ali vessels to keep 30 leagues to windward of
'^onavbta, before they stand in to make the land ; lest, in keeping a direct course for
that island, they should pass between the Isle of St. Nicholas and the Isle of Sal ;
and, finding themselves to westward of Bonavista, when they reckoned themselves to
be still to eastward of it, they should miss their refreshments at the Isle of St. lago,
an accident which has happened to several vessels.

" The making of these islands is often difficult, occasioned by the fogs which hang
'fi*equcntly uround them. For this reason, those who come from the northward,
ought to steer their vessels in this track with all possible precaution.

" The most convenient course for vessels, which continue theii' voyage firom the
Canaries, without touching at the Islands of Cape Verde or Goree, is to steer, after
they lose sight of the Canaries, so as to pass about 45 leagues west of Ca^ Blanco, or
near the meridian of 20° ; from this position they will make good their course due
South, as far as to 12" N., and afterward S.E. by S., till they meet with those variable
■ winds which succeed to the trade-winds. By this they will keep the mid-channel
between the islands and Cape Verde, and coast along uie bank below that cape, at a
aufficient distance, even though they should make an error in their reckoning of 15 or
20 leagues to eastward."

But as, when the sun is near the northern tropic, the trade-wind h.\ 3 been often
fbimd to fail within sight of the Cape Verde Islands, it has been reconuncnded to
ships, at these times, to pass the islands to the westward, at the distance of about 10
leagues, in order to preserve a steady wind, and prevent delay, by keeping clear of
the light eddv winds, which then prevail near and among the islands. When to the
southward of these isles steer to the S.E., so as to get between the meridians of 18°
and 23° W., upon losing the N.E. trade-wind. Shoidd the southerly winds then
commence, advantage may be taken of the shifts to Stand on the tack which will gain
most to the southward, so as to cross the Equator between the longitudes above men-
tioned, if the wind will permit. Be cautious of making a long tack, either eastward
or westward, with a dead southerly wind, in hope of having a hotter, onless the wind
should veer, so as to produce much southing.

The S.E. trade-wind, at its northern limit, generally inclines fhr to the southward,
particularly in July, August, and September, but frequently in other months. A ship
meeting this trade, should not be kept too close to the wind, but keep clean full, in
order to make good way to the S.W., and clear of the southern limits of the westerly
current that generally prevails about the Equator.

It has been already shown, in the description of currents, that ships, passing the
line too far to the westward, run the risk of not being able to weather the coast of
Brazil. But M. UApres has observed, that there is not one instance to prove that,
by passing the Line to the eastward of the limits above mentioned, ships meet with
calms of a long duration, and currents setting with great rapidity toward the River
Gaboon, as had before been generally imagined.

M. D'Apres adds, " Vessels which sail from St. lago should steer S.E. as far as the

TO AND FBOM THE SENEGAL AND GAMBIA.

M»

;ward of the
>ute, steadier
If the islands.
3 track now
Eird of all the

ae will be, to
indings at 5
iaj or night,
to the cape.

•nsequence in
Cape Verde,
Ith respect to
windward of
H!t course for
Isle of Sal ;
themselves to
} of St. lago,

) which hanff
i northward,

ige from the
to steer, after
pe Blanco, or
ir course due
hose variable
mid-channel
lat cape, at a
ling of 15 or

3 been often
nur.onded to
of about 10
|}ing clear of
VVhen to the
dians of 18°

winds then
ich will gain

above men-
ler eastward
ess the wind

5 southward,
ths. A ship
:lean full, in
the westerly

passing the

the coast of

prove that,

IS meet with

•d the River

M far as the

12th degree of latitude : after that S.E. hj S. Those which depart ttaok Ooree ihould
steer S.S.W., if they desire to keep clear of the coast, till they reach the parallel of
10 degrees ; thence their course should be S.E. by S."

His words on crossing the Line are, " When the variable winds socoeed the trade-
y-inds, the best method of crossing the Line with speed is, to take advantage of the
very first variable winds, for g^ainmg the ordinary track of the trade^winda so soon as
you possibly can ; and for this end, to keep indifferently^ to that tack which bears
most to southward, without troubling yourself about crossing the line at any deter-
minate point, le'jt you make your voyage longer than is neoessavy.*

ON THE j&ErUBH TOWABD EKOLAHB, the Equator should be crossed
between the meridians of 18° and 26". When the sun is to the northward of the
Line, the longitudes of 21° to 23° are to be prefened ; bees se then light and variable
y inds extendfar from the AfHcan coast, especially in July , \ug^t, and September,
when the sun is returning from the northward.

If the southerly vrinds become light, a North, or N. by W. course may be kept, in
oi-der to reach the N.E. trade-wind as soon as possible ; but, if variable light breezes
are prevalent far to the northward, you should endeavour to pass the Cape Verde
Islands at the distance of between 40 and 60 leagaes.

In crossing the N.E. trade-wind, a ship's sails should be kept well filled, to enable
her to gain speedily to the northward. In this tract the Sargasso or gjulf-weeds will
be met with in the Sargasso Sea, and which are sometimes found as mgh as 41° N.

Beyond the northern limit of the trade-wind, ships generally cross the parallel of
32° N. in from 39° to 42° W.

Should th 8 wind vere to the N.W. on approaching toward the Azores, you may
pass through one of the channels of these islands, and thence pursue a course to the
English Channel, according to circumstances.

It is not always advisable to pass to the eastward of these islands, because adverse
winds often prevail firom the northward between them and the coast of Portugal ; and
the currents are also generally unfavourable to this route ; yet it has sometimes
happened, that ships passing this way have, with S.W. and West winds, reached the
Channel sooner than those which have proceeded to the westward. With these S.W.
and westerly winds, you must be cautious in approaching the Channel, in case the
current should prevail, which sometimes sets athwart it, as before described.

6.— ROUTES TO AND FROM THE SENEGAL AND GAMBIA-t

Whatever may be the season of the year, it is advisable to gain an offing of 2d
leagues to the westward of Cape Finisterrei from hence it may be immaterial
whether a course be shaped to the eastward or Avestward of Madeira. A commander
dcHirous of touching at the Canaries will adopt the former, and will shajie a course

* Capt. Maury says ; — " No sailing directions can be given for these calm belts, ex-
copt such as are contained in these emphatic words: — " Makb thb hbst op youu way
ACROSS THEM WITHOUT UBQARD TO LONOiTUDB." To which may be added, that noorer to
North and. 8outh the opurso is the better, as it croaaeH their dirocUon at right angles.

t Abridged, chiefly, from the Baron Rouauin. ^

404

PASSAOEH ACROSS THE ATLANTIC,

for Tenerife, having nothinff to apprehend on this course but the Salvaffesj the posi-
tion of which has Men well determined. In the Canarian Arohipela^ the winds are
mostly from North to N.E. If the course to the westward of Madeira bo adopted, a
vessel will make the westernmost of the Canaries only, and her place may be rectified
by a sight of Palma or Ferro.

But a sight of the coast of Aflica is by no means necessary for vessels bound to the
Senegal or Ooree. What has been said of the currents and prevailinar winds in this
navigation, leaves no doubt that it is perfectly useless to make the land more than 16
or 20 leagues to the northward of the Senegal, when bound to the Bar-anchorage.
This digression is the utmost which should M made from the above course ; and by
means of the lead, and some few latitudes careftdly observed, it might even be ma(^
a direct one. On leavine Tenerife, the course should be S.W. } S. [_S. by W.i W.']
a<i far as the parallel of 21°, then S. by W. J W. [/So«<A] as far as 20°, and from
thence S. by E. ^ E. ^S.E. hy &] without any further alteration.

The first com«e will carry a vessel more than 25 leases from the nearest point on
the African coast, and in a track where no danger hitherto has been found. Tbo
second will conduct her 26 leagues to the westward of the westernmost point of tlio
Bank '^f Arguin. By the third she will make the coast in the neighbourhood of the
Marigot or iMgoon of Mos^uitoa (lat. 16° 3d^'), '''Tom whence she may coast the shore
until abreast the Senegal, in 15° 55' N.

If it be found necessary to make the land during the night, the lead, being the only
means of correcting the estimated run, should be used freqiiently and with great care.
At about 10 leagues from the shore to the northward of the Senegal, a bottom of
white sand vrill be found, with 70 fathoms. From vhence the depm gradually de-
creases toward the shore, and at 1 mile from it there are 7 or 8 fathoms. \^'hen in
15 fathoms of water, it is advisable to anchor until daylight, to avoid running past
the bar, which has no disting^hing mark by night.

There is a source of error attached to the navigation of the AfHcan coast which must
be carefully guarded amiinst. It is the optical iUusion caused by the great horizontal
refrtiction, which renders any correct estimation of distance almost Impossible.
Numerous instances of it might be cited, which would hardly ha credited ; Inerefore
the moment the coast is seen, the lead only should be trusted, to determine the dis-
tance from it.

Track from Senegal to Goree. — The Almadiea of Cape Verde (described here-
after) are 31 leagues S.W. by W. i W. [«. 40° Jr.] from the roadstead of the Senegal,
and the prevailing currents set nearly on that bearing ; it is, therefore, the course to
be steered frova. the Senegal to Cape Verde during the day. During the night Btccr
a quarter of a point more westerly. From Cape Verde to Goree the course is direct.
It IS merely to coast the shore at the distance of 2 miles. From Cape Verde to Cape
St. MoJT, at the mouth of the Gambia, the direct course and distr.ace are S. by E. \
£. \_S.E. by 8."] 30| Icagpies, in all which space soimdings may be found.

Return to Europe. — The voyage from the Senegal to Europe presents no diffi-
culty, and calls for no other precautions than those commonly used in long voyages
on seas void of dangers. These precautions are, not to trifle with the wind, but rather
to make a good run in a given time, than to endeavour to maKe good the proposed
course. In all return voyages tcova. places within the Tropics, thtt grand point is to
leave the region of the trade-wind and get into the variables, and the currents setting
to the eastward, as soon as possible. As the winds generally blow from East to
N.W. on the coast of Africa, from the month of December to the end of June, you
should keep on the starboard tack until out of their influence. The course made good
will be about N.W., and you will then be in the neighbourhood of the Azores. It is
immaterial whether you pass to the northward or through the channels of thcHC
islands, but it has been remarked that the winds ai'e strongest on the westward. It
is seldom possible to pass to the eastward of them. The distance, no doubt, would be
shortened; but this passage can be effected only by keeping close to thv wind thus
far ; and experience uus proved that, by such procedure, little is to be gained.

ri thepori-
windsare
bo adopted, a
iry be rectified

bound to the
winds in tiiis
more than 16
ar-anohoraffe.
iirse ; and oy
Ten be matfo
by W.i jr.]
lO", ana from

irest point on
foand. Thj
; point of tlio
[irhood of the
)aat the shore

eing the only
fch great care,
a bottom of
^adually de-
8. When in
running past

It wbich must
at horizontal
t Imposaiblc.
ed; Inereforc
line the dis-

!8cribed here-
'the Senegal,
the courne to
e night steer
irse 18 direct,
erde to Cape
re S. by E. \

lents no diffi-
ong voyages
d, but rather
the proposed
i point is to
rents setting
:om East to
of June, you
10 made good
zores. It is
lels of these
estward. It
bt, would be
ic wind thuH
ncd.

, TO AND OP WESTERN AFRICA.

406

6.— DESCRIPTIVE REMARKS AND SAILING DIRECTIONS FOR THE
NAVIGATION TO AND OF WESTERN AFRICA.

WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF THE CUBRENT8, SEASONS, ETC.} THE RESULT OF EIGHT
YEARS ACTUAL EXPERIENCE, IN VHE COMMAND OF FOUR DIFFERENT VESSELS,
BY CAPTAIN THOMAS MIDOLEY, OF LIVERPOOL, 1837.*

On the Passage firom England to the Western Coast of Africa, it may be weU to
make the Island of Madeira and sail to the westward of it if possible ; for by so dioing
the ship will be placed in the best position as to her ftiture coarse. After passing
Madeira, steer so as to leave Palma about 70 or 80 miles to the eastward (if nearer,
the shiji is liable to be becalmed), and then steer a course to make iha N.E. end of
Bonavista. — Bonaviata requires a good berth, as the currents about it are strong and
uncertain, and dangers extend from the North and East sides to a great distance from
the land.

In the winter, when strong westerlv breezes, of long continuance, prevail to the
northward, it may be impossible to maks Madeira without much trouble and delav ;
in this ease, endeavour to get a good observation for longitude, or a sight of the
Salvages ; and, should westerlv vinds still continue, run boldly to the southward.
On nearing the Canary Islands, you will find the wind either gradually decrease
to a calm, or it will veer to the northward with heavy squalls. The squalls in
this neighbourhood ^ve little warning, but are f^quendy exceedingly heavy and
dangerous. Any ship may very safelv run through the passage to the eastward of
Palma, as a strong steady N.N.E. or N.E. breeze almost constantly blows through
it; and by kdcping mid-channel, there is little fear of being becalmed. When
clear of the Canaries, a course may be shaped to make Bonavista, as above directed.

The passage between the Islands and Cape Verde is generally and very properly
adopted by vessels trading to the Western Coact of Africa ; for, by runmng to the
westward of St. Antonio, they have again to make easting in that tract of sea which,
lying contiguous to the southern limit of the N.E. trade wind, is so often disturbed
by calms, squalls, thunder, lightning, and heavy rain.

The currents between the coasts of Great Britain and the Cape Verde Islands are
now so well known, that it is almost superfluous to make any further remark upon
them, excepting that their velocity is by no means exaggerated ; and the dangerous
effect whicn they have upon vessels, between the Bay of Biscay and the Capes Noon
and Bojador, on the African coast, cannot be too strongly impressed upon the minds
of those who have charge of valuable liver and property.

Those passing Bonavista in the months of June, July, August, and September,
should not be too anxious to make easting ; for they will lose the trade wind soon
after passing the parallel of the Island of St. Jago, and, after a short interval of
calm, fall in with the S.W. wind and its usual accompaniments of heavy squalls
and rain. On the farther progress the vessel makes to the southward and east-
ward, the S '"'■ winds generally become variable to the westward, and the squalls not
so frequent.

At this season of the year it is advisable to give St. Annexe Shoals a berth of 50
leagues to the eastward, as the sea sets in so heavily upon the coast, between these
shoals and Cape Palmas, that making southing when near the land, in these months,
is attended with much difficulty.

From October, to April or May, the weather in this tract is generally fine, and
the nights cool, beautifully serene and clear, with heavy dews ; and in .these months
a more direct track may be pursued from Bonavista to the southward and eastward.

* In these Remarks, &c., by the late Captain Midgley, as in the other parts of this
vohime- the courses and beftri""? are by cofupseti unless where o " *
every bearing or direction of the current is intended for the true.

unless whsrQ Qthsrwiss csprcifsod ',

406

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

than the one ahove mentioned. In the influence of the trades, the breeze is generally
steady from N.N.E^ and N.E., and the sea smooth ; occasionally, however, interrupted
by tornadoes, which, in the neighbourhood of Cape Verga and Sierra Leone, blow
with terrible fair. Such is their violence, that it is frequently necessary to keep the
ship directly before ^ :em, under a foretopmast staysail only.

Between the Capo Verde Islands and the coast, the currents in the above tracks >ire
variable, but mostly found running to the southward, and seldom exceeding 1 mile in
hour ; generally from ^ to f of a mile, until hauling up for St. Anne's Shoals. At
about 40 leagues to the westwfurd of these, I have several times foxmd them setting
abont E.S.E. oy chart, fiilly 1| miles in the hour.

The sea between the meridian of 20° W. and the Bank of Soundings extending team
the African Coast, is perhaps the most luminous part of the Atlantic Ocean. In the
very dark gloomy nights of the wet season, with a strong breeze of wind, and when
not one sohtary star is visible, nothing can exceed, no pen can describe, the awful
grandeur and magnificence of the scene. The whole surface of the sea appears as one
vast sheet of liquid fire ; and the ship, sailing at the rate of 6 or 7 knots through the
water, causes streaks of light to be emitted from the sea, that throw a strong yet sicklv
and appalling glare upon all the sails, creating an indescribable sensation in the mind,
that IS very far from being agreeable, as the vessel appears to be surrounded by
breakers on every side. - ! >

Although I have several times noticed this luminous appearance in the same tract,
I am led to remark more particularly upon it on account of a most awftd night
which I passed on the 24th of August, 1834, in or about lat. 7" 30' N. and long.
17° 30' W., which left an impression upon the minds of all on board that I fancy wul
not be very soon effaced; for the vessel appeared to be sailing through a sea of
liquid fire, whilst the heavy dark mass of clouds appeared to rest upon her mast-
heads, and not a single star was visible amid the homd gloom. No bottom was found
at 120 fathoms. Temperature of the air 82°, and of the water 79° (Fahrenheit).

Vessels in want ofKroumen should call at Orand Sestros. — From some years' ex-
perience I can confidently say, that they are the most vrilling and best disposed men
upon the Krou Coast j and, if well used, are faithful tv. dieir employer in everv diffi-
culty he may have to contend with to leeward. Every vessel should take four or
five, or more of them, in proportion to her size ; for, in the Oil Rivers, if white men
are exposed in the boats or canoes, landing or taking in casks, they very soon fall
victims to the climate. The Kroumen prefer rice to any other diet, and a good supply
can genenlly be procured at a cheap rate, except between January and June ; but,
considering the detention of lying-to, in dtder to procure it, the rice may be exported
frvm England, for ships' use, at veiy nearly as cheap a rate. One of the Kroumen is
of more real service m the Oil Rivers tlum two Europeans ; they are generally well
versed in the English language ; and are contented with a dash or present when left
at Fernando Po, after the vessel has completed her lading.

On approaching the Krou coast it is usual to hoist the ensign and iire a gun,
and the vessel will be soon surrounded by canoes. A small canoe may be pur-
chased for the ship's use for a mere trifle, and will be found extremely serviceable in
the rivers.

The navigation between Cape Lahou and the land of Formosa presents no difficulty
to the navigator; the currents in the route run to the eastward at 1, 1|, and
sometimes 2 knots or more, in the hour. If there be no inducement to call at
Bereby, Drewin, or Cape Lahou, for ivory, it will be as well (and vidll certainly
expedite the passage) to shape a course from Cape Palmos for Cape Three Points ;
and then, givmg that land a berth of 5 or 6 leagues, shape a course for the land of
Formosa.

In steering across the Bight of Benin, the current will be generally found running
about 1 mile an hour to the N.E. ; and must be allowed for, by steering one-third of
a point to the southward of the direct course.

A mere inspection of the chart will show that what is erroneously called Cape
Formosa is, in fact, an elbow land rounding ofl' gradually to the eastward ; and

TO AND OF WESTERN AFRICA.

40t

ia generally
) internroted
Leone, blow
' to keep the

76 tracks .ire
nff 1 mile in
Shoals. At
them setting

ending from
an. In the
i, and when
e, the awful
pears aa one
through the
ig yet sickly
in the mind,
rounded by

I same tract,
iwfiil night
^. and lonff.
[ fancy wfll
a^h a sea of
I her mast-
a was found
iheit).

le years' ex<
sposed men

every diffi-
ike rour or

white men
7 soon fall
;ood supply

June; but,
)e exported

Lroumen is

erally well
when left

fire a gun,
ly be pur-
viceablc in

difficulty
1|, and
to call at
certainly
ee Points ;
le land of

d running
le-third of

iUed Cape
YoLTd ', aud

regnUur sonndings upon a muddy bottom extend for some oonsiderable distance to the
westward and southward of it. The land is here extremely low, and should not be
approached in the night nearer than in 8 or 10 fathoms, unless by a vessel prepared
to anchor.

After making the land, the oldest and most experienced traders to the Oil Rivers
are frequenthr deceived as to the position of the vessels ; for the best description of the
rivers from Formosa to Bonny is but vag^e and imperfect ; and I therefore proceed
to give such directions as I think, from my own experience, will be found useftil to
vessels bound to the Bonny or New Calabar River.

The rivers between Terra Fotnoaa and Bonny have all shoal bars at tiie entrance,
and generally appear from the offing to be narrow. They have no peculiar feature to
distinguish them, other than their ^ing open to such points of the compass as are
expressed in the Sailing Directions.

SEASONS. — Tlie Seasons here appears to have been imperfectly described. The
rains generally commence in the latter end of May, or early in June, and gradually
increase, with strong S.S.W. and S.W. breezes, durine the months of July, August,
and great part of September, towards the end of which month they as gradually ter-
minate. In July and August heavv squalls frequently prevail ; and in these months
the wind very rarely shins more than between S.S.W. and S.W., an I the rain is in-
cessant from sunset to nearly n^ >n next day, when it ceases for a few hours, and again
commences with more or less violence in the evening. In October the weather becomes
more settled, with light land winds, and occasionally showers of rain, which, how-
ever, yield to the moderate sea breeze that sets in about ten or . eleven a.m. In No-
vember the tornadoes commence, and are at first violent, gradually decreasing in
strength as the Harmattan or drv season commences, although they are occasionally

frevuent from this month to May. In December, January, and February, is the
[armattan season ; and in these months the sea breeze sets in about noon, and blows
with very moderate force from the W.S.W. and westward until sunset, when it dies
away to a calm. During the night there is little or no wind, and the weather is ex-
tremely sultry and oppressive, and veiy heavy unwholesome dews. After daylight a
light air springs up from the northward or N.N.E, which gradually increases
to a moderate foice, and continues until about eleven a.m., when it falls calm, and
soon after is succeeded by the light westerly breeze. The Harmattan, however,
sometimes blows steadily and without intermission from the N.E. <]^uarter for several
days together, especially about the new and full moon. It is at this season that the
smokes prevail, and are exceedingly injurious to the European constitution. These
smokes are so dense that it is impossible to see a cable's length from the ship for days
together ; and any vessels that may be in the offing, inward bound, have no resource
but to anchor, and wait with patiencd for clearer weather. In ' larch, April, and
May, the weather is clear, with light land winds at daybreak, wiiich gradually die
away, are succeeded by the W.S.W. breeze about ten a.m. ; and this breeze blows
with moderate force during the remainder of the day and greater part of the night.
In these months the atmosphere is serene and clear, particularly during the nights,
which are very fine indeed. The palm oil season commences in the early part of
March ; the oil becomes plentiful in April, and continues to be so until September,
when it declines ; and from October to March it is, properly speaking, out of season,
fdthough small quantities of it may be procured in these months.

In the foregoing remarks as to the seasons and climate, I beg to be understood
as speaking of the New Calabar and Bonny Rivers only, and now proceed to consider
the best means of preserving the health of the crews of'^vessels Iramng there. Masters
of vessels should bo on their guard against shipping plethoric or lusty men to go to
the Oil Rivers of Africa. Drunkards are still worsj Hubiects than these > for if a man
undermines his constitution by intemperance ii. England, he cannot repair it in
Africa. I have too frequently remarked that huiaan skill is of little avail in saving
the life of a drunkard, when once attacked with the African fever. The fact is, a
drunkard is predisposed to sickness, and soon falls a victim to the climate. The
pletiioric or lusty man, if he has not tampered with his constitution, has a rather
uetter chance ; but should he fortunately recover from the fever, he is often annoyed

408

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

with attacks of affuo all tho passage home, and does not recover his health nntil he
arrives in England. Thin, raw-boned snbiects are the best for the coast of Africa ;
and they shomd be selected from men wno have made several voyages to the West
Indies, as they are, in some degree, seasoned to a warm climate ; and those that have
never made voyages to a tropioil climate should be decidedly rejected. To preserve
the health of the creW, the vessel should be housed over as soon as possible after her
arrival in the river. Plenty of mats should be procured, and a good, sabstantial,
tight house be at once made, to shelter the crew, and preserve the vessel from the
weather. Every care should be taken to make the house perfectly water-tight, as
well for the comfort and health of the seamen, as for the advantage of working the
palm oil in wet weather. An overstrained economy in the purchase of a few mats is
highly reprehensible. The seamen will generally nang hammocks under the house ;
and, if well sheltered fr«m the weather, will enjoy better healtii than they woTild by
sleemng below in the steam emitted itom the oil. In these rivers it is presumed that
the Kroumen do all out-duty required in the boats, &c. ; for a Euitvpean should not
be allowed to put. his foot over tne side, either for the purpose of visiting or going
ashore, even on Hip's duty (unless unavoidable), as it infallibly leads to dissension
and drunkenness irom the worst of spirits ; and a dnmken fit in Africa is the almost
sure forerunner of sickness, and probably deatJi.

All vessels should keep a sufficient quantity of English water on board for use in
the country, as the Bonny and New Calabar water has an immeuse quantity of ani-
malculae, is very unpleasant to the palate, and injurious to the health. Cocoa is an
excellent and nutritious article of met ; and the crew should be well supplied with
yams, which are the only vegetable, excepting corn and plaintains (the latter not
plentiful), that can be procured in these rivers.

If the crew unavoidably get wet, they should immediately rub themselves
thoroughly dry with coarse cloths, and put on dry clothes. The forecastle should be
frequently cleaned out with a solution of chloride of lime, and the seamen's clothes
ana bedding kept well aired. Attending to these precautions will be found the best
means of preserving health.

Here I may observe that fr^sh stock of all kinds is very scarce and very dear in
these rivers, so that vessels bound to Bonny or New Calabar would do well by pro-
curing tiieir fresh stock and com to windward, either on the K.rou Coast, Fnsco,
Cape Lahou, the various settlements on the Gold Coast, or at a small village on the
sea coast, near Cape St. Paul, called Dokko, or Occo. At these places stock of all
kinds is -abundant, and very cheap when obtained in barter.

Current. — I have almost omitted putting the mariner upon his guard against the
effect of the strong easterly current that runs from Terra Formosa to Old Calabar.
This current runs with greater or less velocity almost throughout the year, except in
or about the Harmattan season, when it occasionally sets to the westward and W.S.W.
Vessels that have advanced much to the eastward of Terra Formosa, and cannot see
Foch6 Point before night, should anchor, in order to prevent the effect of the current ;
but in squally weather or the weat season it may be as well to work to windward,
heaving-to occasionally during the night, according to circumstances ; 9 or 10 fathoms
is quite close enough to stand in-shore in the night ; when in 6 fathoms the surf can
be very distinctly heard.

When once to leeward on this coast, getting up to windward again is attended with
much trouble and difficulty. I may here remark, that too much attention cannot be
paid to the lead upon any part of me coast of Africa, as the current frequently sets
directly in upon the land ; and from careful observation, upon the windward coast, I
can confidently assert that the thermometer is no guide whatever on approaching the
land. In more than 100 experiments upon the surface water, I could never detect
any sensible difference in the temperature whsn sailing toward the land from no
bottom into 45 and 40, and thence close in-shore into 14 or 16 fathoms on the Krou
Coast. In the dry season there is little difference hereabout in the temperature of the
air and water ; the former averaging 77° to 81° (in the shade), and the latter 74" or
75° of Fahrenheit.

TO AND OF WESTERN AFRICA.

jaltii until he
Iflt of Africa ;
9 to the West
1086 that have
To preserve
ible after her
, substantial,
ssel from the
rater-tight, as
working the
a few mats is
;r the hoiise ;
ley would by-
resumed that
m should not
ing or going
to dissension
is the almost

rd for use in
intity of ani-
Cocoa is an
upplied with
le latter not

I themselves
le shoTild be
nen's clothes
)und the best

very dear in
well by pro-
oast, Fnsco,
illage on the
stock of all

against the
)ld Calabar,
ir, except in
andW.S.W.
1 cannot see
the current ;

windward,
p 10 fathoms
the surf can

tended with
n cannot be
quently sets
ard coast, I
oaching the
aever detect
rid from no
n the Krou
•ature of the
atter 74" or

Dirootiolu. — The Sbmeufard Ptuaage, through the Bight of Biafra, presents no
particular feature to the attention of the navigator, if I may except the strona N.E.
currents that almost invariably prevail in it. All homeward bound vessels Suit do
not intend calling at Fernando Po, should use every possible exertion to pass to the
westward of the island, as a good board may be then made to the southward on the
starboard tack. Except in the Harmattan or tornado seasons, no advantage can be
derivedby standing close in-shore, as Hiere are no land winds, and a near approach
is, at any time, very dangerous, as the whc^e of the coast, from Camaroens to the
Gaboon (except about Corisco), is generally bold-to, and the soundings in nowise to
be de^nded on. On this part of the coast there is no trade, and the inhabitauti
are miserable naked savages. On getting to the southward of Prince's Island, the
very excellent directions of Mr. Finlaison (given hereafter) may be followed with
advantage.

Many navigators have remarked, that on standing to the westward between Prince's
and St. Thomas's, «ven when making a trifle of northing, the N.E. current has been
found to diminish in strength as the vessel makes westing. Even so far to the south-
ward as 3° South there is seldom any easting in the wind before passing the meridian
of Greenwich.

Vessels bound to the northward ahovli not attempt crossing the Equator to the east-
ward of 20" W. (the n^eridian of 21 ^° W. is to be preferred), and should then make a
North or N. by W. course, to ^t into the N.E. traae wind, which having once fetirly

f gained, the homeward navigation i general! well understood. In this route, after
eaving the Cfuinea current in the Bight of > iiafrti, the ship will gradually get into
Equatorial current as she gets to the sortl ward, and this current frequently runs
with considerable velocity. On examinii ; my journals, I find that, by good lunar
observations and an excellent chrr^rometer, I have, at various times, made tne follow*
ing differences to the westward « i •..;: id reckoning, i>. the run from St. Thomas's to
longitude 20° West of Oreenwiol , bf.lween the parallels of 0° 35' North and 3° of
South latitude. In April, 1830, the brig Anne was set 237 miles to the westward and
78 miles to the northwfurd of account in 20 days. In October and November, 1831,
the barque Severn was set 240 miles to the westward, and 94 to the northward of
account in 23 days. In October, 1833, the Freeland was set 246 miles to the west>
ward, and 51 to the northward of account, in 20 days. In August, 1835, the same
vessel was set 228 miles to the westward, and 43 to the northward in 19 days ; and in
November and December, 1836, the brig Caledonia was set 373 miles to the westward
and 107 miles to the northward in 18 days. But it may be observed that, in the lattev
vessel, I never crossed the Equator, but was generally 8 or 10 miles to the northward
of it, until I crossed the meridian of 12° W. In the above runs I have occasionally,
but rarely, found slight differences to the southward. When to the southward of the
Equator, abreast of the Bight of Benin, I have always found a current running at
least three-quarters of a mile an hour to the northward. . n . -^

t'k; ;,..~,-M

fc,-

DlRECTlONS FOR SAILING FROM THE BlOHT OF BlAFRA TO SlERRA LeONE. ;

By the Late Mb. James Finlaison. , ;

Ships boimd from the Bight of Biafru to Sierra Leone, if fit)m Calabar River, when
the wind does not permit them to proceed by the N.W. of Fernando Po, may pass
between that island and Camaroens River, when they will find a strong current set-
ting to the southward, apparently out of the River del Rey. After they have ad-
vanced to the southward of Fernando Po, they must endeavour to make all the south-
ing and westing they can ; passing either to the eastward or northward of Prince's
Island, as winds will permit. On me East side of this island the current sets strongly
to the southward, at tne rate of 1^ knots ; westward of Prince's Island the current
sets strongly to the N.E. at the same rate.

Prince's Island, if the ship will lie no higher

3 F

Haviiij^ arrived at the ouuthwaru oi

410

PASSAGES ACROSS ^HE ATLANTIC,

than W.N.W., taok immedlfttely, and try to orom the Line ; for, by so doings, you will
keep oat of ihe strong N.E. current [the Guinea Current'] that sets towwrds the
Bignts of Benin and Biafra. After you have crossed the Line, you will find that you
are nearly out of the easterly current. In the parallel of 1° South jiou will find the
current set to the westward, at the rate of 1 mile an hour. In the month of May or
June, when the sun has a Ugh declination, the trade wind is fair to the southward,
and you will not g^ain the regular breese nearrr than in 3° South. This breeze com-
mences flpom S. by W. As you make westing, tLe wind will be found to haul more
to the southward and eastward, and the current increases to the rate of Ij^ knots in
an hour, until you arrive as fbr to the westward as 16" West. On proceeding hence
to Sierra Leone, come no ftirther to the eastward than 15° West, until you are as far
to the northward as 8° 30' N. ; then you mav steer boldly in for the Cape. You will
strike soundings in that parallel, in 14° 40' \V. ; and as you approach the Cape the
soundings will be found very irregular, from 20 fathoms to 12 at a cast. You will
then be 7 let^gues from the Cape, and in the fair track of the river^

Having given these directions to our prize-masters, they generally made the nassagc
from Fernando Po or Bonny in five weeks ; merchant vessels ha^e fr^uontly been
tlircti months by keeping in-shore.

By Commander W. B. Oliver, R.N.

-••?' ;r'C' ki} if-'S i

Conceiving that a shorter passage from the Bights, or Prince's Island to Sierra
Lconc, than that made by proceeding as recommended in the Book of Directions, to
the Kouthward of the Line, might be made by keeping to the northward, I determined
to ascertain the fact ; and though each time accompanied and retarded by a prize,
made three unusually short passages, viz. — one from the Biver Bonny, anchoring at
Prince's, and landing prisoners at St. Thomas, in 18 days; the other two in 13 &ys
each from Prince's Island to Sierra Leone ; and, on returning to England in H!er
Majesty's schooner, unaccompanied by a prize. Thirty-nine days having been the
shortest of three prizes I sent up under the old directions from Benin and the Gaboon.
I issued different directions to prize-masters; and, although not acted on, in absence
from myself, I feel assureu they would have proved, as they did in my company, an
improvement on the old one ; a copy of which Directiona are as follows : —

Your first object will bo to pot to the southward, unless you can make a West
course (true) without any nortlunff ; nor should vou go to the port tack unless you
can do so, or to avoid the land. Should the wind hang so much to the westward i a
to prevent making a good course on the port tack, pass to the eastward of Prince's
or St. Thomas, or both, as you will sooner get xut of the strong easterly current, but
do not approach the land within 20 feiUioms, day or night, ana g^t frequent casts of
the lead.

When to the westward of St. Thomas, and on or near the Line, steer W. ^ N., or
W by N., according us your noon sights give you a northerly set or not, until in the
longitude of Cape I'alinaB, 7" 45' W ; whon steer, in the rainy season (May to Sep-
tember), N.W. by N. ; in the other montlis, N.W., until in 13° West, the longitude of
the woNtern limit of the St. Anno Shoals ; you may then make a true North course,
Bounding every 5 miles by night, or tliick weather, and every 10 miles by day, from
6" N. t« 8" N. If you ronch the latter without striking soundings, it will pi*ove that
you have passed to the westward of the Anne Shoals ; when keep away K. by N., by
compnHs, tc) 8° 16' N. j then Hteer E. by S. | S. (East, true), and you will make the
high land of Sierra Leone ; if by night, anchor on reaching 12 fathoms.

These instructions can only be acted on in a general way, as of course much de-

Sends on winds and currents ; but I winh them to have full weight with any officer
etnched i.i a prize ; and remember, the land about Sierra Leone should always be
made to the southward of the Cape.

TO AND FROM THB WEST ^DIBS.

411

ling, you will
towards the
ind that you
nrill find the
h of May or
9 gouthward,
hreeze com-
to haul more
H knots in
:>eding hence
)u are as far
e. You will
lie Cape the
k. You will

the nassagc
^uontly been

id to Sierra
irections, to
I determined

by a prize,
anchorinff at
o in 13 &ya
land in H!er
ing been the

the Gaboon.

, in absence
company, an

lake a West
unless you
westward * s
of Prince's
current, but
lent casts of

W. f N., or
until in tho
lay to Sep-

onffitude uf
brth courHO,
y day, from

pi-ovo thnt
by N., by
ill make tho

to much (Ic-
1 any officer
I 111 ways bo

7— OF SHIPS BOUND TO AND FROM THE WEST INDIES, WITH
INSTRUCTIONS FOR NAVIGATING THEREIN.

The courses of these ships are reg^ilated by the -winds and currents which have been
described in the preceding chapters. The consequence is a circuitous track, requisite
to be taken, not only to the West Indies, but to the southern parts of the United
States. For, having passed Cape Finisterre, its befbre described, the best course is
then to the S.S.W., so as to gain the trade-winds quickly. The preceding observa-
tions on passing Madeira, &c., may, then'fore, in this instance, be usefiil, as well as
in the former.

As the great object is to attain the N.E. trade, in order to run down your westing
with as little delay as possible, the remarks upon the passage across the Equator will
almost apply equally to this voyage : the more especially thoHc given by Capt. Maury
as to a westerly track from ihe channel leading through steadier vrinds, ana therefore
more particularly applicable to the route across the Atlantic in the Trades, where
there is no object in maintaining an easterly position to avoid being driven to leeward
of the Brazilian coast.

In confirmation of this view, Captain George Cheveley, of Liverpool, remarks,
that he would recommend to ships clearing the English Channel, \f bound for the
West Indies, to make the S.W. quadrant trtte, so as to pass nearly at an equal dis-
tance between Madeira and St. Mary's. Captain Cheveley adds, tnat, by pursuing
this track, he has invariably held a steadier breeze, and got much quicker into the
trades, than when he proccci'.ed farther iaj the eastward, and bC Ciideavourcd to make
more southing. He is aware that the latter is the general practice ; of which ho
entirely disapproves, so far a^ concerns a Wesl, India passage.

Ships for Jamaica generally pass to the southward of the Island Montscrrat,
end thence proceed for the high rock uulied Alta Vela, o£f the southern point of St.
Domingo, whence they take a departure for the eastern end of Jamaica.* When
homeward-bound, they po-^s either through the Windward Channel or the Sti-ait of
Florida, as tho wind and other circumstances may prevail or dictate.

Between the months of October and March northerly winds prevail over the
Mexican Sea and the adjacent regions ; and when northerly winds jirevail in the
Strait of Florida, the Windward Channel must, of course, be preferred : but, at all
other times, — at least, generally at other times, — the quickest and therefore most
eligible passage is through the Channel of Yucatan, and thence, with the Florida
Stream ui your fiivour, tlm)ugh the Strait of Florida.

Although tho Windward Channel appears, by the chart, to be tho shorter and
readier passage, yet ships are frequently opposed nere, bo^ by wind and current ; as
will appear by the following statement, made by an ingenious ofilcer already quoted :
— " After the defeat of the French fleet, commanded by Count de Grasse, in April,
1782, and the British had arrived at Port Royal, in Jamaica, a squadron was de-
tached to gain the Windward Passage, run down the Bahama Old Channel, and
cruise to the eastward of the Havana, to prevent a Spanish squadron, in the harbour,
from cfiectin^ a junction with the French ships that had escaped into Cape Francois

tCape Haytten']. For six weeks did the English squadron beat against fresh eea-
rcezes and a Ice current j and, during that time, never advanced farther to the east-
ward than off Morant Hurbour, thougn the ships were much strained by carrying a
press of sail to attain the object ; but, ofter struggling so long, wore compclltu to
return, baflied, into port. Now, though the tti-Ht object might have been to meet tho
Spanish squadron on it wny to Cape Francois [/Trtf/^iWi], if it had sailed,, yet, so soon
as the cficct of a Ice current was ascertained, the object of gaining the Windward

* The AmoricatiB, who havo boon much in tho habit of going to tho West Indion with
timber, &o., romfu-k, thnt when tho flyinff-flnh fly in swarmH, on'T are uncommonly Hniall, it
is a certain indication of being nesr the West India Islnnds. — And, Livingtton.

412

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

Pasgage ought to have been immediately abandoned, when, by bearing away with a
fiiiTOurable current for some distance, and before a ftvsh trade-wind, CapQ Antonio
might have been passed the second day, the sc^uadron have been off the Dry Tortugas
on the third, and, by beating along the Florida shore with a weather current, when
to the eastward of the meridian of Havana, it could have stretched over to Cuba in
the night ; and, in all probability, have gained the appointed station in six days, or
even, perhaps, as soon as it comd have gained Cape Maysi, if the easterly wind had
been moderate, and no current to contend with." *

When the tretdo-wind blovra strong, and in frequent squalls, during the summer
months, between Jamaica and Hayti, and a short turbulent sea is found eastward of
tibe former, then will those bound for Europe or the United States shorten the period
of their voyage by bearing away for the West end of Cuba, and passing through the
Strait of Florida. For the strait presents a more eligible navigation in these months
than the Windward Channel. The sea-breeze will ensure a quick run to the Channel
of Yucatan ; and the current, perpetually setting eastward between Cuba and Florida,
will, in a few days, carry any vessel into the strait, where it will be nearly impossible
to remain much above two days, in the strength of the stream, after lieing on tho
parallel of the Bcmini Islands, even if there were not a breath of wind.

But as the North winds prevail in the Strait of Florida in October, and frequently
during winter, when variable winds and strong land-breezes ai-e not common on tho
coast of Jamaica, shipping will find this the most favourable period for gaining tho
Windward Channel. In January or February, if the wind otters a favourable oppor-
tunity for gaining the cast end of Cuba, this track should be taken ; but, if the sea-
breeze be strong, the Strait of Florida should be preferred, f , > .:'«.,'-> ' :' '

* " I think that this paragraph, unless qualified, is calculated to mislead ; pHrticularly
in the words, ' when, by bearing away with a favourable current for some distance, and
before a frosh trado-wind. Cape Antonio might have been passed on the second day.' Ad-
mitting tho gonoral experience of the writer of this passage, I think he states an extreme
case. Tho distanco trovn Port lioyal to Cape Antonio is fil8 miles ; which (divided by 48)
equals more than 10 < milos per hour, (lonerally, there would bo nothing extraordinary in
this porformancr, but I i<iucn doubt if it bo often Rccomplished in tho locality alluded to,
at the time of tho yoor supposod ; viz., in the middlo of May. Rodney arrived at Port Royal
on tho 29th of April ; it is probable that tho squadron was refitted on the 6th of >tay ; allow
ten days moro for its commiindor to convince himself of the impossibility of effecting tho
Windwa>-d Passago, and ho would have bore up on the 15th ; from the mforences L havo
collected on this head, it appears that the run to Cape Antonio is seldom made in May
within a week. In that month of this year [1833] I was ordered firom Montego Bay to New
Providence : at the former place I consulted some of the most experienced commanders of
West Indiamen, whether the most eligible course would be that of Cape Maysi or Cape
Antonio : the majority recommended the latter, and I more readily deferred to their advice,
from its concurrence with that contained iu tho extract, the previous consideration of which
had occupied my mind.

" Mttjf I8th, at six p.m., I sailed ; tho ship, being li^ht, was in most favourable trim ;
calms, light winds, and moderate breozes, doscnbe the intervening weather, and wo did
not pass the capo until tho 23rd, at two p.m., or in four dayt and twenty hour$ after leaving
port. This sofitary instanco, however, would not afford a sufficient basis whereon to fix a
rule; in its support., thorofore, I cite the Memoir, p. 226 [10th edition], wherein it appears
that tho Carnhalton Park, in May, 1824 and 1826 respectively, was itven daya in porfcrmiug
the same distAnce, although skilfully conducted.

" Finally, althoiigh the advice, contained in the extract abovo, is judicious in establish-
ing tho advantages of tho liooward Passage, I repeat, that tho hopes of* making it so spoodily
RS is represented will not often bo rottli«od, for tho pages biHt quoted also show, that neither
vory favouniblo curronts, nor fronh trade-winds, will i)o exnononcod upon that track at tho

is tho lUl-important distinction between tho passagos
W. H. Ihady, R.N.

vory

season indicated ; neverthelen« there

of rirtuinty and uncertainty." — Lieut.

f In nailing for the Windward (.'hannol, got tho coast of flayti on board hs Koon as you
can, as you may then find a windwartl current, and, in the evening, the wind off-shor*.

TO AND FROM THE WEST INDIES.

413

iway with a
apq Antonio
ry Tortugas
irrent, when
r to Cuba in
six days, or
Ly wind had

the summer
eastward of
n the period
through the
hese months
the Channel
and Florida,
y impossible
eing on the

d frequently
mon on the
gaining the
rable oppor-
if the sea-

particularly
ilistMnce, and
d day.' Ad-
8 an extreme
vided by 48)
■aordinary in
' alluded to,
t Port Royal
?Iay; allow
effecting tho
inces L havo
nade in Muy
Bay to New
mmandera of
ysi or Capo
their advice,
ion of which

amble trim ;

nnd wo did
iftor loaving
reon to fix a
n it appears

porfcrmiug

in ostablish-
t BO Bpoodily
that noithur
track at tho
tho passiigos

Noon a« you
F-shoru.

When the sun has approached the Tropic of Cancer, strong westerly winds begin
to blow along the western coast of Florida, and prevail during the months of June,
July, and Auj^ust, from the Bay of Apalach6, southward. These westerly winds cause
fluctuations in the atmosphere, which prevail more about the western end of Cuba
than farther eastward ; and near the Havanna they have little influence. At this
season vessels from Jamaica have met a westerly wind in the Channel of Yucatat. ;
others have experienced a fair breeze at some distance, after passing Cape Antonio ;
and the wind here will be found sometimes at N.W., West, and S.WT, veering about
variably.

The wind in the eastern quarter sometimes fluctuates about the western em' of
Cuba, but not generally.

At this season the wind blows impetuously off Jamaica, and in frequent squalls i
and vessels bound thence to Europe should universally prefer the Leeward Passage.
They will probably pass through tho Strait of Florida before they could gain tne
entrance of the Windward Channel, though straining, with every effort, against tho
wind. The appearance of a favourable opportunity lor passing through that channel
should not be suffered to deceive ; for it may be no indication of the general state of
the wind eastward.

FROM THE WEST INDIES to the English Channel, after having cleared the
Strait of Florida or Windward Passages, vessels may pass either to the northward or south-
ward of the Bermudas, giving the islands a good offing, and attending to the preceding
remarks on currents, &c. {See page 282.) In summer, the track to the northward of
these isles has been recommended, passing thence to the northward of the Azores.
In winter, the track to the southward of tne Bermudas is to be preferred; because, in
this season, gales of north- westerly wind may be expected from the coasts of Ame-
rica ; and, therefore, veKsels shoula continue a little to the southward of lat. 30°, or
in about lat. 29° 40', if wind permits, until certain of being to the eastward of the
Bermudas ; nor should they run to the northward of lat 35° or lat. 36°, until within a
few degrees of the Azores. Thus will the heavy gales be avoided, which frequently
rage more to the northward.*

In shaping a course at any season, it should be remembered that the Great Circle
course from Cape Florida to the Lizard follows the outer edge of the Gulf Stream in
its earlier course, and, passing about midway between the Bermudas and Cape Hat-
teras, it bears away north-eastward over the tail of the Newfoundland BanKs, and
reaches the parallel of Scilly on a duo easterly course. Tho vertex of tho Great
Circle being in lat. 60° and longitude 13° 48' W., of course itH direction is nearly east
and West tor several degrees on either side of this point. The shortest distance be-
tween the Lizard and Cape Florida is 3,671 milef . it leaves the Strait of Florida on
a nearly due N.E. course true (N. 45° 35' E.), ai-' reu iies the Channel on F,. \ 8.
true course.

During a great portion of the year it is probable that this course could bo sf
followed to advantago. Of course, the consideration of meeting with cyclones w inch
follow very nearly this Great Circle course toward the N.E. is important, and there-
fore during their season, July to October, as shown in (82) on page 217, a moro
easterly route had better be pursued, that is, if tho Florida Channel Im3 taken ; but
if, as is more probable, the windward passage is taken in this season, the Great Circle
course thence will bo the most advantageous.

But upon tliis subject Major Rcnnell has said, " Notwithstanding the advantages
U) be gamed, in point of distance, by ships returning from the West Indies by tho
favouring current of tho Ou^' Stream, which may be porhajwi reckoned i;<^ual to

• Ah tho most destructive hurricanes on record, in this part of tho Atlantic, havo
occurred in tho vicinity or on tho borders of tho Oulf Stream, this is an importuiit roiison
for ships {romtho V/ost Indios, uovind to Europu, not. k» iinvanco too fur to iho northwanl.
See, further, " Voyage from tho Wost Indies to tho Axoros," attacliod to tho duscriptiun of
those islonda horoafter.

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

several day's'ordinary sailicr } yet experienced navigators are still of opinion that, on
tbe whole, it does not piesent eqiial advantages with the southern route.

" It was, until latter times, held as a maxim not to advance to the northward of the
parallel of lat. 33", in returning from the West Indies, because of the prevalence of
storms northward of it. This wise rule of our ancestors has again been taken up,
and His Majesty's ships, and of course convoys, will be, in future, directed to proceed
by the South of Bermudas, and to cross its parallel at a few degrees to the eastward
or the isles, and thence to steer direct for Corvo.

" Bat, it may be observed, that a track which should cross the parallel of Bermudas
at a very few degrees to the eastward of it, and then lead directly toward Corvo,
would cross a most critical portion of the space, in which not only the warm water of
the Gulf Stream prevailed, out in which several gales have been actually experienced.
Therefore, it would seem that the parallel of the Bermudab should not be srosscd at
less than about lat 15° [say lat. 14° J io the eastward of the itilands.

" But, it may be asked. Where is the necesaitj of going to Corvo or Flores at all,
for by it ships are placed in a situation proverbially known as a place of storms ; that
is to say, on the West and N.W. of the Azores ? Why not go between them and the
at later Azores ; or rather to the southward of them all, and thereby pass through a
kindlier climate at all times P

'* Any calculation or comparisons of time in making the diflferent passages would
be nugatory ; since the security of lives and property is tne main object ; but it even
happens that ships, which have had all the aavuntage of the Gulf Stream, have been
crippled, and made more delay than in the southern passage with adverse currents."

On the 17th of July, 1828, H.M.S. Bustard sailed from New Providence for Eng-
land ; winds from the southward, and rainy weather. Found a current setting to the
eastward, at an average of nearly three-quarters of a mile per hour, to Ion. 60°. Hav-
ing passed to the southward of Bermudas, off the Western Islands, had thick hai.y
weather, with small rain. Winds very variable. On the 11th of August ran into
Fayal Roads from the northward, and anchored in 20 fathoms, with the West end of
St. George's Island E. by N. | N., Castle of Sto. Cruz, situated near the South part
of the town of Orta, W.N.W., off-shore about a mile. Supplies may bo obtained here
at a cheap rate, but the water is rather brackish. Found the longitude of the anchor-
age, by chronometer, 28' 41' 30". The current runs strongly here, and bet ween 1*100
and Fayol it seemed to set at the rate of nearly three miles m an hour. . .km^i

sive

Directions for Sailing to and from the West Indies and Noutii
America : translated from the " Derrotero de las Antillas," by
Captain Livinohton.

Thcfto advices, or drrections, are simple applications of a principle derived from the
general prevalence of the winds, as already described.

Were it not for the constant wind ftom the eastward, which reigns within the
tropics, it seems likely that the maritime commerce between the two hemispheres
would never have existed ; for, by its means, not only are the voyages rendereu very
simple, which would otherwise be interminable, but people in the most distant
regions communioato with facility ; and thus the navigator who is bound to tho west-
word has only to place liimsclf within the limits of the general wind, in the cci-tointy
thot, in this manner, he must effect his purpose in the shortest po«"'Hle period. Sucu
is iha first rule, which ought always to be attended to for thi- .lavigation.

Thi> second rule is derived firom the first ; it is, that anyone, bound to the East from
the W est, ought to get out of the region of the trade winds into tJ^t of the variables
or anti-trades.

Wo ha\*c here the two precepts which direct the operation of navigators in oxton-

TO AND FROM THE WEST INDIES.

«U

inion that, on

liwardof the
>rcTaIence of
ya taken up,
id to x>rocecd
the eastward

ofBennudas
ward Corvo,
irm water of
experienced.
96 irosscd at

'lores at all,
storms ; that
ihem and the
IS through a

isages would
but it even
n, have been
currents."

ice for Eng-
eitififf to the

60°. Hav-
l thick has.y
ist ran into
West end of
I South part
)tained hero

the anchor-
itwcon Pico

ID NoiiTH
[LLAS," BY

I'd from thu

within the
emisphcros
dered very
ust distant
o tho wewt-
uortointy
iod. Sucu

East from
variables

in exten-

sive MM i and, in attending to them, we shall observe, that everv one boond from the
Peninsnla (Spain and Portagal) to tiie eastern coasts of America ought to get into
the trade winds as soon as may be, holding in mind an advice, which may oe con-
sidered as a precept, that is, never, in navigating extensive seas, to keep eloae-hauled,
but ahoayt take core to tail with the wind, 'ree ; >r at least to keep seven points from it.

Taking it as ^nted that the first can of evt^ry one bound to America ought to be
to get into the hmits of the general wind, it is clear that, with scant winds, the tack
in the third quadrant (S W.) will be most advantageous, and ought to be followed
always when it can. All the endeavour ought to be to get into these witds, without
being particular as to the means, and without keeping close to the wind to imss be-
tween the coast of AfHoa and the Canaries ; but taking the passage that suits best,
be it that between the Canaries and Madeira, or be it between Madeira and the
Azores ; and certainly either of these is preferable to that to the Ep^t of the Canaries ;
for the proximity of the coast of Africa deadens the wind, and, consequently, is un-
favourable to the brevity of the navigation.

Having gained the general winds, the navigator miist t«ke precautions conducing
to prevent any error of situation, in making his port ot destination ; for, if he who
navigates by observations is exposed to be even 10 leagues in error, he who has no
more than clead-reckoning to direct him may, probably, be six degrees wrong. It
imports much to guaxd against this error ; keeping it in view that, in proportion as it
will be easy for any one, making & landfall to windward of his port of destination, to
mn down to it t so will be the mfficulty if he makes the landfall to leeward of his
port, in beating up again in a sea wherein both the winds and currents are contrair.
Even if bound to the coasts of the United States of America, it will be advisable to
run into the limits of the trade winds, in order to get to the westward in as short a
time as possible ; and although this mode may appear long, on account of having again,
after crossing, to aup[ment the latitude, it will be sufHcient to keep in view the follow-
ing maxim, to convince any one of the contrary : — j[f in the one way the distance is
shorter, in the other the velocity with which the ship proceeds toward her port of destina-
t'on more than balances it.

There are, nevertheless, many occasions on which a vessel may run across to the
American coast without reducing her latitude, and these occasions may be frequent
in the forty or fifty days which rollow the two equinoxes, as epochs during which the
N.E. winds generally prevail ; therefero vessels which, at these times, make their
passages, may at once follow their voyage in high parallels, -without descending to low
ones.

In summer, as the region of the general or trade-winds extends to about lat.
28" 30' N., it follows that the round about is trifling ; and this circumstance ought to
be attended to in the calcukwions which every captain of a ship ought to make before
he fixes on the course he will pursue.

Recapitulating what «v have said about the course which is most advisable for
crosHing to the United States, from the coasts of the Peninsula, it follows that, if the
winds permit it. West is the preferable course ; and, in case the winds will not allow
of shaping that course, the most advisable track will be that which comes nearest to
it, if tne voyage is made at the times above mentioned after the equinoxes ; but if at
»ny other time, a course in the third qiiadrant [S.W.] should be preferred ; for this
'.ill caiTy the vessel soonest into the general winds, with which the nece; -^ longi-
tude may be shor' I v gained.

Vessels bounu to Cuba during tb» ■ i.iy season, or sepson of the South winds,
should paos to the northward of Porto Riv ;) and Hayti • 'out, during the Norths, they

i ;!ted are, St.

," cessaiy, in

■ r'hH, tostner

iward of ihe

ought to go to the southwai-d of these islnnds. TV ' ports chiefly fn
lago en the South, and Havana on the N.W. T* ■ and to the first, ;
whatever se&son, to proceed directly to it, that is, ui the season of tli'
iVom Cape Tiburon, to make some point on the South of Cuba to v>-:

intenili'Q port; or even to '.yi'.idwiird cf Guantunamo j and, in the neasoii of the Souths,
to steer from the Point of Mole St. Nicholas, almost Weat for the port, marking, in
the first instance, various points on the coast of Cuba.

416

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

R -.♦

^ bound to Havana, in the time of the Norths, you should pass to the southward df
Cuba, although you will have to return the distance, between Cape Antonio and
Havana ; because thjs inconvenience is not comparable to that which might be occa?*
sioned on the North side of the island by a hard North, which would not only expose
a vessel to heavy risks, but might protract the voyage much longer than the course
above described, because th<! uij^Uiico m the latter case may be worked up in a short
time.

D^om St. lago de Cuhu, as i\e coast 's oleav, a vessel for Europe may easily make
her wajy by the Windwani Ta ;ijes, vniile ;il\ ^ose which are bound from Havana
will take ue Strait of Florida, xhe risks 'x Tio latter emanated from bad charts
and ignoT'suce f'.' the cc-r'^G.-itu: Uic ..arfc. x- aov rectified, and the current is
known.

By th'. Htkait i-f Florid > wo understand the space inluded between the meridian
of the iJir Tortugai: end the parallel of Cape Canaveral, The simple inspection of
the cha.<^ ■vdX show this to bp a bed or course, which, like a river, conducts the water
to the nor! hward. This rivur, >r geoertJl c ,nTeni , flows first to the E.N.E. as far as
the western i;ier.'l'an of the Doubk iikot iL^ys, by which Kays the stream is divided
ftnmE.N.r. S) N. by S., the direction wKich it pursues on the paraUel of Cape
Florida : thence It' Cn^e Canaveral ? ■ < ims North, with something of an inclination to
the East.

As it is undoubted that thig general current is caused by a superabundance of
waters, which seek, by this ^rain, to regain their level in the open ocean, it follows
that its rapidity will be greater or less, according to the said superabundance of waters :
but, as a ^ange cannot be momentary, on account of the great reservoir in which the
water is contamed, biU progressive, and, of course, slow, we hold that, having once
ascertained the velocity of the current, we may calculate it for three days or more,
in advance, without 'mv.ch error, if the wind remains in the same direction ; for an
alteration in the wind may affect the force of the current considerably, as already
explained.

On the meridian of the Havana stripes of current are, at times, found setting
to the E.S.E. and S.E. from the Tortugas Soundings.* Care should be taken
not to confuse the southern differences, caused by this branch of the current, with
those caused by the eddy current near the Colorados ; the one giving eastern de-
parture, the other West. The distinction is very clear, and can admit of no doubt,
becAuse the eddy current is met only from the meridians of Cavanas and Bahia Honda
to Cape Antonio, and not farther out from the coast than the parallel of 93°.

As the velocity of the current varies, it is requisite for every navigator to ascertain
its strength ae A-equently as possible, while within the stream. Every one who
crters this channel, naving marked well either the lands of Cuba or the Florida Keef,
so as accurately to establiHn this point of departure, ought to determine; in his ^rst
day's work, the velocity of the r— -t by the difference of latitude by account and
observation. We say, duiing th^ ai^ '. day's work, because the generahty of comm^tn
navigators make use of meridian altitudes of tho Hun alone to find the latitude ; but
it is very clear that aWttulett of the planets t.td fixed stars ought not to be neglected ;
not only because by this you cannot be in doubt of your real latitude, but also, because
they may be more exact than latitudes deduced from meridional altitudes of the sun,
when that luminary passes in the proximity of the senith,and because these repeated oh-
terrntions, during the night, assure, as much as possible, the sicanfion of the ihip. Th «
ou may go on, with a clear idea of the operation of the cui'iojit, -"' 1;a va^ tbu?,

' g ascertained the velocity of the curr" 1, use can be^iti8<ici

- < lite, and this knowledge 7ill bo r:.^3t important wh«.t

vations for latitude ; because, i!i uch a case, wanting a

• f latitude given by the current, you will bo in ■wpnt of

.■<fi the velocity of the current, with it and the course which

iie difference of latitude and depariure which t^ie current

7'
tl

he ship is making. Ha'
of it to find tbe ship's d
you fail iu obtaining •
knowledge of the diffci
everything ; but, "*' yov
it follows, you ma

* hf-)/. *■■<>. i:.11'-32 for an account of the Coimter Currents.

TO AND FROM THE WEST INDIES.

*tT

southward df
Antonio and
ight be occar
t only expose
n the course
up in a short

y easily make
from Havana
u bad charts
he current is

the meridian
inspection of
cts the water
LE. as far as
am is divided
illel of Cape
inclination to

abundance of
in, it follows
ice of waters :
in which the
, having once
lays or more,
ition; for an
:y, as already

ound setting
Id be taken
surrent, with
eastern de-
>f no doubt,
)ahia Honda
93°.

to ascertain

sry one who

^lorida Keef,

in hwjirst

account and

of comm.'tn
ititude; but

neglected ;

itlao, because

of the sun,

repeated 0(1-

hip. Th. M

. va;*' tbu?,
un be MvAii
>rtant wh( ..

'vanting a
in ^ont of
lurse which
;'ie current

gives ; and which, though it will not give the position of the ship with that precision
T/ith which it might be obtained by latitude observed, will still approximate suffi-
jiently to the truth to enable one to avoid danger, if prudence and seaman-like conduct
are combined.

For those who have little experience in the art of navigation, we add —

*1. — '^^i it is most convenient to direct your cotirse in mid-channel 5 not only
becavfe it is the farthest from danger, but because you will there have the strongest
current, which is desirable.

2. — Chat, as you cannot ascertain, with all necessary certainty, the position of the
ship, notvnthstanding the rules given to diminish the errors occasioned by the
currents, you ought, with the utmost care, to shun the eastern coast o' Florida, as
beiny very dangerous, the trade-wind blowinj^upon it; while there is not the least
risk m running along the Salt Kay Bank, and the edge of the Qrcat Back of Bahama.
Upon the latter, also, you meet with good anchorages, very fit to lie in during the
hard northerly gales experienced between November and March, and which do not
fail to cause many damages, and sometimes evfen force vessels to bear away, which is
always dangerous, for the weather is always thick with such winds, and the worst
case will be to run in one of them upon the coast of Cuba, when hopmg to have
made Havana or Matanzas. Hence, therefore, so soon as there is an appearance of
a North, the best way is, if near the Salt Kay Bank, to anchor on it ; and, if near the
Great Bank, to approach the edge of it, in order to be able to anchor when it may be
necessary ; for although you may have a hard North, so long as you can lie-to in it,
you ought to pursue your navigation, as the current will certainly carry the ship
through the strait.

3. — ^It is very necessary to sight the Kays on the Salt Kay Bank, even though you
have no fear of a North ; and there may be occasions in which every exertion i^ould
be made to make them ; especially if, from want of observations, the situation of the
ship is not well known.

4. — ^When, owing to calms or light winds, a vessel is in danger of being carried
through the strait by the current, she ought immediately to approach the edge of the
Salt Kay Bank, or of the Great Bank, to descend from it to the coast of Cuba,
without trying to beat down the lost ground ; for, by doing this, she would only render
the being earned through more certain. *

5. — Should you involuntarily approach the coast of Florida, you should take ex-
traordinary care to examine wnetncr you have advanced out of the general cuiTent
and into the eddy. That you may know this, observe, the eddy forms a remarkable
and visible line between it and the general current, which line of division is, in many
places, out of sight of land ; that, in general, you have no soundings on it ; and that
it shows, not only by the change in the colour of the water, but that also in it,
during the greatest calms, there is a kind of boiling or overflowing of the water.
From this Ime of division the water gprodually changes colour $ so that, near the
Florida Kays, it is of a beautiful sea-green, and at last it becomes almost as white as
milk. :■ 7

6, — ^When in the eddy you have to make the correction of currents on courses
entirely different from those in the stream. This is the more necessary to be rc-
markea, because, from ignorance of this circumstance, several have been ship-
MTecked.

7. — \\Tien you enter the chamel, or strait, from the Tortugas Soundings, with the
ini 'ntion of jiosbint' through, t'lke rare to become certain of the land of Cuba, or some
p. t of thr K«;irof f 1(. 'da, i'i order to have a good point of departure ; for, although
the latitude 1 and Houndiiigs on the Tortugas Bank are more than sufficient to ascertain
the place of the ship, yet the variable set of the current tov^ard the Havana may pro-
duce a seriuus error, if not properly attended to. Tlie meridian of the Havana is, in
a word, tie best point of dcparluiv for ships bound to the north-eastward.

3 u

418 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

"i ■ •'

On Pboceedino to the Windwabd ob Caribbee Islands.

As to choosing the North or South part of any of these isles for making yonr land-
fall, you ought to consider, Jirat, which point is nearest to the port or road to which
you are destined ; and, secondly, the season in which you go. In the dry season, it is
to be remembered that the winds are generally irom the north-eastward, and in the
rainy season they are often from the south-eastward. Thus, in the di^^ season, it is
best to make the North side, and, in the wet season, the South, bat without losing
sight of the first consideration.

There can be no mistake in recognising any of the Antillas ; nor, in making St.
Bartholomew's and St. Martin^ alone, can there be any doubt on seeing at once
the eminences or heights of various islands. That this may not mislead any one, they
must remember the rollowing instructions : —

When in the parallel of St. Bartholomew's, at less than 4 leagues off, if there be no
fog or haze, the Islands of St. Eustatius, Saba, St. Oiristopher's, Nevis, and St.
Martin's, appear plainly.

The mountain cf St. Eustatius forms a kind of table, with uniform declivities to
the East and West : the top is level ; and at the East part of this plain a peak rises,
which makes it very remarkable. To the West of the mountain seems to be a great
strait, la consequence of the lands near it being under the horizon (or seeming
drowned), and to t' e West of that there then appears, as it were, another long low
island, the N.W. part of which is highest ; but it is necessary not to be deceived, for
all that land is part of the land of St. Eustatius. From this station Saba appears to
the N.W. } it is not so high as St. Eustatius, and apparently of less extent than the
western part of St. Eustatius, which is seen insulated.

The 3r. fF. /)ar< o/' St. Christopher's is also seen formed by great mountains, in
appearance as elevated as St. Eustatius, with low land to the East ; to the eastward
of this low land Nevis will be seen apparently higher than all the others.

The lands of St. Martin's are notably higher than those of St. Bartholomew's 5
and this island appears also when you oi'e some leagues farther from it than from St.
Bartholomew's.

When there are any clouds which hinder St. Mai tin's from being seen, there may
be some hesitation in recognising St. Bartholomew's ; and thus it is proper to
notice that the latter, seen upon its own parallel, appears small, and with four
peaks, trending North and South, and occupying almost its whole extent ; and, if
you are not more than 8 leagues from it, you will see, also, the appearance of an
islet to the North, and anotL; r to the South, at a very short distance. As this island
has neither trees, high moixucains, nor thickets, it is not subject to fogs ; and it may
therefore be seen oftener thaa St. Martin's, St. Christopher's, Nevis, St. Eustatius,
and Saba ; it is therefore advisable to keep its appearance in mind.

At 8 leagues to the East of St. Bartho' omeVs you may see Nevis, very high;
from it to the West the strait called the Narrows, and then the lands of St. Chris-
topher's, appearing to rise out of the water, and which continue increasing in height
to the westward, so that the westernmost of two mountains, which are at the West
part of it, is the highest. Tliis mountain, which is higher than that called Mount
Misery, has, to the West of it, a gentle declivity, terminating in low land ; and it
cannot be mistaken for any other. To the West of this you may also see the large
strait toward St. Eustatius ; but from this situation you will see only the high S.E.
part of that island, or rather, its mountain, in consequence of which it appears like
a very small island, while its mountain seems to be lower than Mount Misery ; but
it is easily known by the table, which ite top forms, by the uniform delivities to the
East and West, and by the perk on the S.E. part of it. Saba seems, <Vr n this situa-
tion, equal in size to the visible part of St. Eustatius; but it shows ' . n eminence
without peaks, with declivities, and almost round.

Eustatius, that must
and, on getting uc&fcf,

If a small islet appears to tlib West of, and vc y lear to, St,
not conftise you 5 for it is the N.W. extremity of that island ; &

— JBX

J yoar land-
ad to 'which
season, it is
, and in the
season, it is
thout losing

making St.
eing at once
ly one, they

there he no
ris, and St.

ieclivities to
I peak rises,
o be a great
or seeming
er long low
Icceived, for
i appears to
Dt than the

TO AND FROM THE WEST INDIES.

419

ou will perceive the land which connects it with the S.E. part. Mount Mueiy, on
it. Christopher's, which has a very high and sharp peak, on the eastern part of its
Bimmit, seems at a distance to be the summit of Monnt Eustatius ; but it cannot be
mistaken for such, if you attend to its surface being more unequal than the table land
at the top of St. Eustatius ; and that there is another less elevated mountain to the
East, and with gentle declivities, which show much land to the East and West of the
high peak.

When you are 6 leagues to the Ea.^ of St. Bartholomew's, its N.W. extremity
appears insulated, and mis the appearance of a pretty large island, on the top of which
there are four small steps (like steps of stairs, Eacaumeg), with a considerable strait to
the South, between it and the principal islaiil : in the middle of this strait you may
also see a smaller islet : this is really one of the islets which surround the island ; but
the first is only the N.W. point, to the North of which you will also see some islets :
all these are much nearer St. Bartholomew's than St. Martin's.

Finally, in navigating finm one of the Antillas to another, there is no difficulty,
unless you have to get &om leeward to windward ; yet this will be reduced to a
trifing consideration if the passage be made by the straits to the northwt^rd of Mar-
tinique, in which the currents are weakest ; but the same does not follow in the
southerly straits, in which the waters set with more vivacity toward the West : and
it would be impracticable by the Straits of Tobago, Oranada, and St. Vincent, in
which the waters commonly Am at the rate of not less than 2 mil^s an hoiur.

,(!?'■•.< i/as-i-'';

\\i~fin-ti^A

onntains, in
be eastward

holomew's ;
m from St.

, there may
I proper to

with four
nt ; and, if
ance of an

this island
and it may

Eustatius,

very high;

St. Chrib-

g in height

t the West

.Ik'd Mount

ad; and it

) the large

) high S.E.

>pears like

isery; but

itics to the

this situa-

i eminence

that must

lug ucmFcF,

Particular Instructions for the Navigation of the Windward -

• Islands, &c. , ' ' , '

It has been remarked, by an e: perienced captain in the Royal Navy, that for
those bouTid to Jamaica or to any of the porta in the northern range of islands (the
Bahamas excepted), the safest land to is the Island of Desirado, near Quada-

loupe ; for, if you should not see other 1 j ^etbro dark, you may haul to the north-
ward, into the latitude of MuutMcrrat, hty^mg nearly 60 miles to run on, during the
night. Some commanders make St. Martin's or St. Bartholomew'b, when bound to
Tortola, St. Thomas's, St. Croix, and the islands to leeward ; but in this ose they
should be aware of the dangerous Island of Barbuda, and also of Anguii. for a
small error in the latitude, perhaps, fi.-om want of an observation, or irrcgi\.. / in
the current, wovld place them in a very perilous situation, should they attc. apt to
run on in the night.

Strangers should pass St. Martin's, when they make it, on the North side, the
passage oetween it and AnguiUa being clear ; St. Bartholomew's, Nevia, St. Christo-
pher's, and Antigua, on the South side. Barbadqes should likewise be passed on the
South side, in order to fetch into Carlisle Bay ; and Granada and St. Vincent's on the
South side. No particular direv: > <. o necessary for the other islands, as every
seaman knows the danger of rumung to leeward or past the land j — a very serious
occurrence for a dull sailing-vessel.

Vesaela on making Barbados and the other Wtndvard Islands, when approaching
from the northward, should be very carefiil not io cross the latitude of the low or
nortlicm islands during the night, although their reckoning may bo many degrees to
the eastward of the isles. The low islancU on which so many vessels have been lost,
are Barbuda, Anguilla, Dog and Prickly Pear, Sombrero, Anegada, and its Horse-ahoe
Beef: of all these, the first and last are the most dangerous. Before you see Ane-
gada, in clear weather, Virgin-Oorda, and pei'haps Tortola, will be seen very dis-
tinctly ; distance is o^n deceiving at sea, and this land, by those not well acquainted
with it, has been frequently mistaken for the East end of Porto Rico ; and, although
directions have been given for avoiding this error, by observing that there is uiily

4S0

PASSAGES OVEB THE ATLANTIC,

open sea to the eastward of Virgin-Oorda, and that to the eastward of Porto Rico lie
■everal islandiij yet it is necessary to observe that these islands, when the hu^h land
of Porto Rico is first discovered, cannot be seen, so that, if you muke the land at the
dIobo of day, it is proper to be aware of this oirumstanoe. It may be c^so remarked,
that Angmlla ana the Dog and Prickly Pear Isles cannot be seen u .til some time
after you make St. Martin's, which is high land, and lying to the southward of
tliose low isles. Barbuda is not dangerous in the night-time only, but to strangers
oliio in the day, having ree£> under water all round, excepting at the extreme S.W.
point.

Onpaaaing to leeward of the high islands which obstruct the course of the trade-
wind, danger arises ttova strong gusts coming from the mountains, which sometimes
dismast a vessel. Be cautious to keep so far from such land as to be able to work
vour shiu, should the wind suddenly shift and blow on the shore, which it often does
during tne day. When the wind is b^ing, you will find it advantageous to keep
your course along shore so long as you have Bteoragu-way, although all your sails may
no nl): ■■- , • it nrequently happciiH that the wind comes round to its lormei- quarter
li^isita you iobe youx headway, and by this one ship may get into another current of
air, which brings her into a fresh breeze, while another, in company, by altering her
cours? to get her sails full, loses tiio opportunity of getting into the breeze, and may
be detained by calms and bofliing winds groat pax t of the day. Wo have often seen
the after-sails filled, with the wind aft, while the headHuils were flat aback, with the
wind ahead, which continued so long that the foresail was hauled up to continue
the headway.

In navigating among the Windward Islands, every precaution must be taken in
allowing for the direction and strength of the cuireiits. It has already been shown,
in the preceding section, that the general prevalence of them is to the westward,
but with dificrent vi'locili^s, distmbed at times by the lunar influence, and varied
by the contour of the coast, &c. An easterly current is seldom or never found out
of si^ht of land, but N.W. and noi-theiiy, vn the passages, may generally be found;
unt! it has been remarked that, in some instances, when the current runs to lee-
ward on one side it runs to ^ .dward on the ou • also, that it uiay set to wind-
wai'd on both sides, while, at the same time, to Icewi d in the midi! ' , and frequently
the reverse.

The intelligent officer to whose book wo are indebted for these observatioi^p, says,
" In the daytime, attention to the progress you make ii ting to windward, by the
appcai-ance or bearings of the land, is the best rule you > ..ii have, first trying a Aiort
tack ill-shore, where, if you make little or no progress to windwrn', your best way is
to stand across, and try the other side of the cnannel ; and, if tl do not answer,
the mid-channel will most likely prove the best; for, although eon .ry to the general
opinion, we have often found it so ; much, however, deiKJuds on tlu; time of day. In
the morning and evening you should endeavour to be near the shore, the North side
of til [)as8age in preference, where, if the wind be moderate, and the coast not much
exposed to the general trade- wind, you are pretty certain of having the wind two or
tlu'cu points more off the luud. In like manner, you should endeavour to be in the
oifing about one o'elock p.m., as the wind generally blows more on the shore at that
time We have cUo obsen'od that the land and sea breezes prevail most where the
land )< the coast is low.

" SAr.f '>l you be hound to a plrre to the eastward of you, and no land in the way, the
best i . ..i to be upon is the one on which you will lie up nearest to E. by N., that

ingth< point from which the trade-wind generally blows ; when it changes from

t poi t you may consider it a slant of wind, and take advantage of it accordingly—

^articul rly if it veer to the South during the day, or to the North by night ; thus it

svill be 1 lund to be advantageous to bo on the port tack at night, and the starboard

tack by day."

In squally weather the wind is so very variable, that it is seldom possible to take
advantage of it in getting to windward.

To windward of the islands <tml (o the North of liarhados, in moderate trade

V iS,

b> N.
hour,
of Pot
Wo hs
point
Lucia,

>rto Rico lie
e high land
land at the

remarked,

1 aome time
mthward of
to strangers
:treme S.W.

f the trade-
h sometimes
Me to work
it often does
x)us to keep
ur soils may
mei- quarter
r current of
altering her
Kc, and may
ro often seen
?k, with the
I to continue

bo taken in
been shown,
e westward,
!, and varied
r found out
ly be found;
runs to lee-
ict to wind-
1 frequently

ation^, says,
('^ard, by the
ving a Aiort

best way is
lot answer,
the general

f day. In

North side
it not much
vind two or
bo in the
lore at that

where the

to AND FROM THE WEST INDIES.

4»1

10 way, the
by N., that
aiiges from
ordingly—
it ; thus it
c starboard

ble to take

rate tradt

\ i, the Equatorial current will be found generally to set in a direotioH flrom N.W.
b^\ \. to N. by W. at the rate of from half a mile to three-quarters of a mile an
h()ur. As you approach the islands, it becomes more irregular ; near to tiie eastward
of Point Salines, Martinique, it frequently sets strong to the North, and even N.E.
Wo liavo also felt this set of the current near to Point Moulacique, the South

Ejint of St. Lucia, and have fre(]^uently seen vessels bound to Gros Islet Bay, St.
ucia, from Barbados only the night before, driven so far to the North as to have
passed the Island of St. Luoio, and also a considerable part of Martinique, before
they disooverud their mistake ; and, being strangers, they had to wait until an ob-
servation oould be token to ascertain the lotituiu, before they could find out their
true situotion.

In thep(M8€uiea luing nearly in a North ami South direction, the current sets gene-
rally about N.N.W., until you are post the most northerly land on the eastern side of
the passage, when the western current, being no longer obstructed by the land, sets
with gi-cat strength in a more westerly direction, lliis is the case in all the passages
from Antigua to Hayti, and those on the South between Trinidad and Poria, and on
the coast and liCoward Islands from Margarita to Buen-ayro, as the current inside to
the South of these islands [in the dry season] sets about N.N.W. | W., at the rate of
nearly 2 miles an hour. Ships running to westward, inside, should make an allow-
ance lor it, and keep a good look out, ror it must be homo in mind, as already shown,
that the currents hero are variable, according to the season.

In order to touch at aa many of the Windward Islands as possible, without having
to boat to windward ; — suppose your vessel to bo at Barbados, and you hove to coll at
as many islands as you can, in as little time as possible — from Barbados you can steer
fur Tobago, hence ror St. Vincent's, which is as far to windward as you can fetch ;
and, with a northerly trade wind, you will not be able to do that. From St. Vin-
cent's you may steer to any of tho Gronadincs, and so on to Granada ; and at times
yuu may fetch Trinidad, but this is not to be depended on. From Granada yon can-
not always fetch St. Kitt's, but in j^eneral, tho Virgin Islands, St. Croix, St. Thomas's,
lie. The general course this way is to go to Tobago, and thence to Trinidad.

Another track is from Barbados (S.W. dide) to St. Vincent's (South side), hence to
tho Granadincs and Granada.

From Barbados to tho N.W. you may go to St. Lucia, passing round the N.E. point
of the island to Gros Islet Bay and the Careenage ; from this place you fetch Fort
Royal Bay, Martinique, then St. Pierre, Uosoau (Dominica), the Saintes, Bosse-tcrre,
and sometimes Point-o-Pitre, Guodaloupe.

From Bassc-tcrre, Guodaloupe, you "ban seldom weather Montscrrat, unless you
tack and take advantage of the variable winds under Guadaloupc, which is the best
way, if you are bound to Antigua, or to the northward between Antigua and Nevis j
but if not, you may pass close to the West side of Montscrrat, and so steer for Nevis
or St. Kitt's, or to the islands to the westward ; or, you may pass on either side of
St. Eustatius or Saba, if you can lie round without tacking, and so through the Dog
and Prickly Pear or Sombrero passage to the northward.

In steering through these pugHrijes, or across them, it is recommended to keep well
to windward, as the wind ^«iIl often head you as you approach tho opposite side,
and the currents are very strong ; and it may be remarked that, in standing to tho
southward, you feel the force of the curi'ent more than when }'ou are standing to the
northward.

From these remarks, and a reference to the chart of the islands, it may be readily
seen what other track con be accomplished. Thus, from Barbados to Antigua, and
the islands to tho westward of it, you pass to tho eastward of Desirado if you can ;
if not, between that island and tho East point of Guodaloupe ; when you ore clear of
this lost point, you have Antigua and oil the islands to the westward lu your route.

The intercourse between Barbados and Demarary is very uncertain, and you cannot
always trust to fetch from one place to tho other, even in fast-soiling vessels. From
Deiiierary you can generally weather Tobago ; of course, it must olways depend on
the wiiid and cuiTcnt ; therefore we speak in general terms only. Indeed, we hove

422

PASSAOF-R OVER THB ATLANTIC,

sometimefl seen floutherljr trtt 1 'tIdO^ continue for a long time, and also northerly
winds ; and we have seen, ovlig iu X.E. winds and lee currents, vessels from Cay-
enne not able to weather Barbados, and a vessel from Antigua a month in getting to
Barbados, owing to southerly winds.

In working to windward through any of thepastagea in the night time, it is stroi^ly
recommended not to trust to the distance run ; for, although you mav have an offing
of 4 leagues, and you could lie up so as to make a long stretcn, yet, before you have
gone tile distance of your offing, you will probably find it fiiU time to tack from the
shore. In the passages lying nearly East and West, the western current runs so
swiftly, that, in standing to the southward on the port tack, and lying up S.E. by E.,
you will often find that you have made little or no easting. This has been the case
with several vessels leavms the South shore of Antigua ; they stood on, lying up
S.E. by E., which course they expected to make good, and thought perhaps to weather
Point Antigua on Ouadaloupe, but the current deceived them, uttle or no easting had
been made, and they ran ashore among the small kays off the Bay Mahaut, Giiada-
loupe, nearly due South from that part of Antigua which they had left in the previous
evening.

When bound to windward it is sometimes difficult to beat through the passages be-
tween the islands. Of these passages, the easiest are considered to be oetwcen St.
Vincent's and Becquia, between Martinique and St. Lucia, and between Antigua and
Ouadaloupe. The wind, in general, blows a strong breeze, so that a vessel may carry
double-reefbd topsails, courses, top-gallant sails, jib, and driver. These are the most
suitable sails for working the ship in the night, the weather in the passages being
too generally squally. If more reefs are out, you will be liable to sprmg your masts
and yards ; for, however fine the weather may appear, strong and sudden gusts may
come on several times in an hour. Finally, too much sail is nazardous, as the squalls
may head you until' they blow past, when you come up to your old point ; and in liiis
way it is oDvious you may run a long way to leeward in carrying sail through a
squall.

.-<(.)-

■^'^

General Remarks on the Navigation of the Caribbean Sea, from
Leeward to Windward, by Lieut. Greevelink.

The best way to beat up in the Caribbean §ea is still an object of dispute among a
great many European mariners ; there are some, and they form the gpreatest number,
who always prefer the northern part ; others who choose to keep in the middle be-
tween 14° and 16° of latitude ; and a few, to beat up off the southern coast, till they
are able to make Antigua, and run out by tiie channel between that island and Ouada-
loupe.

Thejirst of these methods, the one generally adopted, is evidently the best ; as the
South coasts of Hayti and Porto-Rico are tolerably clean, and am>rd smooth water
when the wind is to the northward of East ; but in the hurricane months, this part is
rendered unfavourable, not only by these dangerous visitors, but also because the cur-
rents are then often very strong in the northern channels, whereas they have, at the
same time, been observed to be very weak in those southward.

The second route depends, I imagine, more on vague reports of a current setting
between those parallels to the eastward ; but this wul, I trust, no longer be credited,
at least, in the tract of sea here described. During the intervals, however, in which
light winds are of some duration, the westerly current may be found very weak, as is
undoubtedly proved by our passage in April, 1837. fSee the entry of that month,
" Col. Nav.," vol. iii., p. 26.) Yet this is ao reason wny a constant weak current, or
an easterly one, shoula be stated when found only occasionally in those parts whcie
they have once been met with.

The third route, by which the hurricanes arc generally avoided, has been treated
with too much negli ct, partly by its being impeded by the Leeward Islands, and

TO AND FROM THE WEST INDIES.

423

partly bj the unknown force and direction of currents, and w.r.t of local experience
of tile coast } but hereafter I doubt not but this track will b. (uiopvi as the best in
those months which threaten destruction in the northern pass ..^c.-. >> .cause it is almost
oniTersally followed by the coasters and pilots.

Commanders bound from one of the interior parts of the Caribbean Sea, toward
the coast of Guyana, generally prefer passing out by the channel of Antigua and
Ouadaloupe, which is one of the fittest for that purpose with northerly winds ; but
when, on the contrary, the wind is from the southward of East, I should not advise
any attempt to pass that way, but to proceed directly to the North, by the westward
of Barbuw, prolonging the stretch well, in order to gain at once. With the other
tack, the windward side of the islands. In July, 1836, we laboured for several
days to get out of the first-mentioned passage ; and in August, 1835, we were
happy enough to reach Enjo^lish harbour, though unable to effect our purpose of
gettmg into the main sea, bemg harassed by south-easterly winds and strong westerly
currents.

j^fter having reached the Atlantic, when destined toward the coast of Guyana, it is
best to keep your wind, if blowing from the northward of East ; as, in that case, it
may enable you in one stretch to make the desired port ; but, with unfavourable
winds, I think it advisable to run straight for the coast, and beat to windward along
the bank of soundings. This is most probably attended with less loss of time than
the working to the eastward in higher latitude, which may be proved beyond any
doubt by comparing some of the many instances which have occurred of vesseb fSedl-
ing to leewara of their port of destination, and trying to regain it by mqjung a
a bng stretch to the northward ; when, after fourteen days, they made the coast
nearly at the same place : with those of others who effected it completely in only
three or four days, m the space mentioned. I know many reports of this sort, but
they want sufficient authenticity to be relied on.

As a general remark, it may be kept in mind that to get soondings ought to be the

Srincipal object of ships bound to this coast, as, with the present knowledge of
epths hereabout, together with an observefi latitude, it may show them their
place of situation East or West of the intended place very near the truth, because
the general tendency of the mud-bank is nearly N.W. and S.E. : and thus, to the
eastward of a certam meridian, there will be found more water than to the westward,
upon the same parallel.

It is absolutely erroneous to state, that the limit of soundings is marked by the
change in the colour of the water ; as more than once, and particularly in November,
1834, in 25 fathoms of water, to the N.E. off Marowyne luver, the colour was per*
fectly blue and transparent, and at other times tinged of on ashy hue by the mud.

Bebmudas to the Windward Islands, &c.

Mr. Henry Davy, in his description of the passage of H.M,S. Cornwallis, between
the Bermudas and the West India Islands, with the return toward Halifax, in the
winter of 1837, states as follows : —

From Bermuda to Barbados, instead of steering direct, I would recommend a S.E.
by S. course. I'he advanta^ of this will be apparent, should the trade wind be to
the southward of East, and it is also a precaution against a leewardly current.

We left Bermuda on the 26th of November, 1837, and, pursuing the above course
until fairly in the trade, anchored at Barbados on the 6th of December. Made
the North end of the island at four a.m. at daylight, appearing in a long and
very low point. While on the starboard bow Kitridge Point* made equally so, with

Eitridge Point is the S.E. point of the island.

424

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

extenrive breakers far out. We rounded the island at a distance of 2 miles, the coast
preaenting saccesrive low points, encompassed with breakers, and came to anchor in
OarUth Bay.

The Comtoattia next passed the Oranadines, and the lofty summit of Granada
became visible at noon of December 10th, as the heavy clouas rolled away to the
westward. The ship then proceeded to the anchorage on the S.W. side of Granada.
Here, in 16 fathoms, a tide set past the ship to the S.S.W. at the rate of 2 miles
in the hour ; at midnight the ship tended, and the tide set through to the eastward,
8t the same rate. At eight a.m. of the following day it again made to the S.S.W.,
and by ten its rate was 9 miles. This tide renders the spot valuable as a temporary
auuhorage.

From the information of the harbour-master it appears that, at the springs, the tide
here obtains a rate of 4 to 5 knots ; that it is strong among the Granadincs, at St.
Vincent's, and to the southward of Granada toward Trinidad. He was also of opuiion
that throughout the range of the Caribbean Islands the tides wcru of more cohhc-
quence thui as hitherto considered ; and it appears probable that many of the accounts
which reach us respecting the currents in opposite directions, often in the same places,
may be the efiPect of tides.

At sunset of the 11th of December, tho Comwallis, full of troops, set sail for
Halifax. Mr. Davy says, " A fine moonlight evening followed ; tho ship gliding
along the western coast, as we shaped a course for St. Kitt's, which I should always
recommend to vessels intending to take tho Anegada Channel. At sunset, Mont-
serrat, iledonda, Nevis, St. Christopher's, St. Eustatius, and Saba, were in sight. At
ten we passed between St. Eustatius and Saba, closiiig Saba to within 2 miles. When
its Nortn point bore West 3 miles, steered N.N.W. for Dog Island and Hat Hay.
At half-past three in the middle watch, we mado the Dog Islands. At six a.m.
Sombrero bore E.N.E., and at eight we were fairly clear of the West Indies, and
steering oway N.W. for Halifax, with the trade wind at E.N.E. No variation.
Thermometer 80° ; temperature of the surface water, 78°. From this to the parallel
of Bermuda the temperature of the >*ater changed from 78° to 68°. Here, in 33°
North latitude, we e^ichanged the ilying fish for the stormy petrel.

The north-westerly winds have a greot ascendency at this period, and prevail over
every other quarter. I would, therefore, advise making tho most of the trade, and
steering away N.N.W., continuing to make as much westing as will ensure fetching
HaliiSuc with the prevailing wind.

Steam Navigation between Tobago and Demeuara.

Wc take tho following from a beautifully illustrated work,* which gives numerous
directions for the West Indies : —

" Between Tobago and Trinidad the current sets strong towards tho W.N.W. ond
W.S.W., almost always at the rate of 2 knots per hoxir, and not unfrcqucntly 3 or 4
knots.

" After clearing the channel, the stream will generally bo found running nearly

ftarallel with the lino of coast tho whole distance to Demerara, though it somctinius
•ikes a more northerly direction, particularly in the months of July, August, and
September.

" In shaping a course, therefore, for Demerara, vessels should keep well to tho east-
ward of the port, not only to avoid the banks off tho mouth of tno Essequibo, but

• " Practiral Obnorvntionn on tho West India Navigation," by a Commander of ono
cf the Koyal Mail Stoara Pn"' ■ \m. London, 1844.

les, tho coast
to anchor in

of Granada
away to the
of Granada,
e of 2 miles
ie eastward,
the S.S.W.,
I temporary

ngs, tho tide
lines, at St.
30 of opinion
more consc-
the accounts
same places,

set sail for
hip gliding
ould always
inset, Mont-
i sight. At
ilos. When
d Hat Hay.
\.t six a.m.
Indies, and
variation,
the parallel
ore, in 33°

)rcvail over

trade, and

ire fetching

TO ^^D PROM THE WEST INDIES.

425

I numerous

.N W. ond
iitly 3 or 4

ng nearly
somctinius
igust, and

tho ea«t-
'f/uibo, but

because the objects to the eastward are more remarkable, which ia of the utmost con-
sequence on a coast where its features bear one uniform appearance, without a hiU^
the bearing of which would point out a shi^s position ; and the land so low thai
vessels may be agpround before it is visible. The lead will be. found the best ^ide,
as the soundings very gradually decrease, and there is no danger while navigating in
7 fathoms water. ">

" The most remarkable features of the coast eastward of Oeorge Town are the
chimneys of the boHituhhouses, and a remarkable row of cabbage treea about 12 miles
from tiie KglUhotue. There is also a singular tree about 15 miles from the point of
Corobana, called General Murray'a I^ee ; it is tami ooDa|Eiottous when seen at the
termination of a point. • a» ^u ■ «1^> i.i> i<?

« Demerara. — This port should never be taken by a stran^r without a pilot ; in-
deed, even those who are most intimately acquainted with its localities, m vessels
drawing more than 12 feet water, should always take this precaution.

" In a steam-vessel the navigation is most simple at proper times of the tide. '>" ^v

(lor of one

Navigation to Jamaica vid St. Juan, Porto Rico, Cape Hattibn,

AND St. Jago de Cuba.

Steamers leaving St. Thomas's to perform the Jamaica route, vid the north side of
Porto jRico and Hayti, should leave the small islet of Bergantin (which b a hi(^h
rock resembling a ship when at a distance) on their left ; and Montalean and Cabrtto
on their right, bearing in mind that a reef extends firom Montalvan a good cable's
length. ■

*' After passing CuUibra and Culcbrito, I shonld recommend shapLig a course to pass
outside a rock on which the Barossais said to have stnick ; for although it seems to
be doubtful, yet masters of Porto Itico vessels have assured me it does exist. From
their statements I am inclined to believe that it is considerably nearer the shore.

" San Juan Harbour will readily be distinguished by the Mora, which, when first
seen, makes like an island having extensive fortification on its summit, rendering it
exceedingly remarkable.

" This Mora Castle is on the east side of tb'? entrance, and is stoep-to within a
half-cable's length on its noiihern side, llie position to lie-to for a pilot is about two
cables north of the Moro, with the ship's head off-shore, taking great care not to drift
near the low ro^ky island on the western side of the entrance, which has much foul
ground aiourd it; and the current generally setting strong in that direction.

" Tho harbour is not difficult of access by day, but at times the sea breaks right
across the entiance, which calls for the promptest attention ut the holm.

'* I do not consider it safe at any time to enter this port at night in large ships.
Rise and fall of tide, 2 feet.

" From San Juan a course should be shaped so as tc> pass or 7 miles from CaiH)
Viejo PVanjais (Ha^-tiJ, making allowance for a current which so's towards the Porto
Rico coast, when withm the distance of ten miles fVom the shore. The first land that
will be scon on this track (after losing sight of Porto Rioo^ will be Catuf Jtaphael,
which is of moderate height, and is the teimination of tne high land ; the coast
thence to Cmw Enqano being exceedinglv low. Raphael may aimj bo known by a
small conical hill {Mt. Redonda), a short distance inland, which, on coming firom the
N.W., is seen near the termination of the point.

" llic next ca;K< to the N.W. is Cape Sainana, which makes like an island on many
bearings, particularly 'Vom the N.W. After passinf^ Cape Satnana, Cape Viejo Fran-
cois will be Mi-n. which a)«> makes like aii island ^ith low points at eaoh rAireniiiy.

** Cape Ibabslla is the next headland, which is very low, and, like Cnpe Virjo

3 u

426

PA;;.SAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

li'angait, also makes like an island. Between these two capes there is a remarkalJA
high hill, sloping down to the water's edge, with a flat summit, and a remarkable
notch on its extremity when seen from the N.W. Thb land is Cape Caarouge.

" The Orange is the most remarkable object, and cannot be mistaken for any other
part of the coast if attention be paid to the book of directions.

" Vessels may pass inside the Monte Christi Shoals ; but as the channel is not well
known, I have invariably gone outside, on the principle that a steamer's progress is so
rapid through the water, that in a very short period of time after shoal water is
descried, the vessel is on shore. ' Although I have adopted tliis line of route, I have
on foimer occasions in H.M. ships passed inside, and am well aware that there is a
good channel ; but a large chart of this portion of the coast should be in possession
of the commander before he navigates his ship in doubtful water.

" Cape Haytien is a hi^h cape, sloping down towards the East, and having a
small rock, called Picolet, at its foot, presenting the appearance of a white patch when
first seen from the eastward. The water is deep tolerably close to this rock, and it
may be approached to the northward withoi t f^ar.

" I should, however, recommend all vessels to go in at slow speed, with strict
attention to the lead, as the late earthquake is likely to have changed the face of
nature in the bottom of the sea, as well as on the land.

" From Cape Haytien, the course should be shaped to pass between the Tortngas
and Hayti, in which channel there is always much less sea than outside, besides being
a more direct course.

" St. Jaoo de Cuba. — This harbour cannot bo taken at night, and never even
diu-ing the day without a pilot, as it is exceedingly narrow, and the greatest atten-
tion is required at the helm, owing to the sudden turnings in the channel.

" From St. Jago de Cuba to Movant Point, I would recommend a course to bo
shaped (during night-time) 15 miles to the West of the Formigas, as I have on more
than one occasion experienced a set in their vicinity of half a mile an hour to the
N.E. This is by no means a usual occurrence, but, knowing the existence of devia-
tions from the general set of the stream, it iw as well to be on the guarded side, nnro
especially as the saving in the distance is vt \-v trifling.

" MoRAT«T Point is very low, with a lighthome upon its extremity having an ex-
cellent revolving light, which may be seen 16 or 18 miles distont. From the Point to
the Keys of Port Royal it is only necessary to run down about two miles off shore,
taking great care at night to avoid the low land about Cowbay Point, which is very
deceiving.

" On returning by this route, the foregoing observations will be equally available.
It is, however, perhaps as well to observe, that after leaving St. Jago de '('ubu great
advantage may be gained by keeping about two miles off" shore, where •'here is
frequently a weatherly set, and invariably less cun'cnt.

" In making Porto Rico from the westword the land is low, gradually rising to i'
high chain of liills ; thence trending East, it a^in falls, nnd then rise's to another
chain of mountains called Luqttilloc, which terminate in low land at the eastern ex-
tremity of the island. St. Juan may bo known bv its situution between the above
two ranges of mountains^ and by having on its VVcst side a numl>er of remiirkuble
hillocks in the form of haycocks, which are frcquentlv seen before the Mora hHows
itself; but the fortiticatious are most commonly the nrst objects descried. I would
also caution vessels to be extremely jjuarded at night, in not mistaking the chnnm 1
between Culebra and Porto Rico, which is exceedingly dangerous. The dihtnnee niu
by the ship after leaving St. Juan will of course l>e a good guide, but between
August and October the current* arc often so variable, that the most careful navigator
may be deceived in hazy weother, or at night, ns there is under theso eireunistanees a
great rcsei-rblanee between Culebra and <S^. Thomas's. The latter, however, if set n
before sunset, may be distinguished by its being higher, and making in threfi small
peakn.

" From the mean of several observations I have found the current aXosff thu Porto

TO AND PROM THE WEST INDIES.

42*7

, remarkallf
remarkable
ouge.

br any other

1 is not well
progress is so
loaT water is
rate, I have
at there is a
n possession

nd having a

patch when

rock, and it

with strict
the face of

he Tortugas
icsides being

never even
•atest attcu-

course to bo
ive on more
hour to the
ce of dcvia-
l side, iii3re

ving an ex-
he Point to
s off shore,
lich is very

available.
('ubu great
(re ^here is

rising to p
I to another
eastern cx-

t lu> above
rcniurkuble
loro Hhows
I would
ho ohniiiHl
iNtniioe nm
bet ween
I iiuvigiitor
nistaneos a

', if hvvn
thrrti smali

tb* Porto

Rtco coast and Hduti to the northward to be as follows, though the very unusual state
of the weather in the West Indies of late has rendered these very uncertain, and there-
fore great cai-e should be taken in ascertaining the direction of the stream, always
distrusting published accounts.

" Between 18° 29' North latitude and Porto Rico, the current generally sets
obliquely on the shore towards the E.S.E. Between 18° 29' N. and 18° 39' N. it runs
to the E.N.E. To the northward of this latitude the stream takes a more northerly
direction, particularly in the vicinity of the banks of the Bahamas.

" To the distance of ten miles along the Hayti North Coast the current frequently
rims strong towards the shore, but beyond that distance it takes the direction of the
coast

" During the hurricane months it should bo remembered, that tho currents are
more uncertain than at any other period. ,- .... , ,,- i .....

Navigation between Grenada and Jamaica, along the South Side op .

Hayti to Jacmel.

" Leaving the island of Grenada, the current will almost invariably be found set-
ting between W.S.W. and W.N.W., but more commonly in the former direction than
the latter. It is generally strongest between December and April, and of least force
in the hurricane months ; indeed, betweej July and October, (on reference to fijirmer
journals,) I find not infrequent 1 2ia to the East and N.E., particularly when hurri-
canes have visited any part of the West Indies ; but except in these months it is veiy
rare to find the stream deviating from the W.S.W., W., or W.N.W.

" Alto Vela. — This little island lies about 16 miles S. | E. from Beata Point, in
lat. 17" 28' 40; N., and long. 71° 39' 30 W., and is directly in the fairway of the
steamers coming from Grenada to Jucmel. It is high, ban*cn, and quite bold close
to, and may be seen 25 or 30 miles distant, making in a peak.

" The course from this island {Alta Vela) to Jacmel is N.W. ^ W., about 67 miles ;
on which line vessels will make the Frai/les, which lie about 10 mil'js from Beata
Inland. They are a cluster of steep ;"e(/at«A-coloui ed roc^s, and are said to be steep
•luite close tc . though from the imperfect survey cf this part of the coast I would
advise shij.s to give them a l>orth of a mile at least. For the above reason, also, I
would not take the channel between Alta Vela and Beata Island, as scarcely anything
iif to be gained by it.

" The current most commonly sets very strong to the westward in the vicinity of
these islpnd^ ; but after p insing the Frayles Rocks a strong S.E. set is frequently ex-
pcrier.ceil, jiarticularly dnring the night, when the trade does not blow home.

" From Jacmel to Jamaica, shape a course so as to pass r> miles clear of the Isle of
Vtche, which is about 8 or nine miles in length, and makes like e group of small
islands when first seen, particularly from the westward. The current between -Ihis
iHland, an(.^ along-shore to Jacmel, generally sots to tho westward, but when within
a or (5 miles of the shore, an easterly sot is frequently experienced, particularly at
night.

" The first headland after passing the hie of Vache is called Abacou Point, low at
its extremity, then suddenly rising to a moderate height.

" The next cape to the westward is Cope (iraroia, which is very low, the land l>c-
tween bi>ing of a mtKlerato and e.jnal hoiglit. From tliis cape io Tiburun the laud
brromes very high. Tlie cape itwelf (Tiburon) is of moderate' height, l»ut a short dis-
tance from its extreiuity it suddenly rises to a high mountain, and when first made
from the «eu, appears to slope down to the water's edge.

level, aaJ eovrnd with (roes.

fjiiriiuiiy oi jtayit, ana is very low,
In running past this island, shoal water will Ih' seen

42S

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

some distance firom the shore. At night I would recommend running 10 or 12 milefe
to the eastward of the reckoning, when bound through the Mono Ptutage, as it is the
turning point, and bein^ verv low, ships would be in the reefia before seeing the
land, except with clear nights.

r'-v «/.v'i

\\ -''>'-"

.-■i .'/ ,.>-?■ r..u-

Passages between Jamaica and Yucatan, Chaobe, Cabtaoena,

Mabacatbo, Sec.

To THE Bat of Hondubas ; hj the late Mr. Johnson Cafes, a Constant IVader.

Take your departure from the West end of Jamaica, and steer W.S. W. by compass,
until you get into lat. 16° 35' ; then run on that parallel till you make the Island of
Bonacca, the latitude of which is 16° 30', long. 85° 47' West. (The northern and
easternmost part of the island is here meant.) Bonacca is a bold high island, and
may be made by ni^ht, if required ; as I do not know of any danger that extends
more than 1 or 2 miles off on the North side. Some navigators endeavour to make
Swan Islands, but that cannot be of any advantage to them, and is the contrary ; for,
if you expect to be near them in the night, you get very anxious, as they are very
low, and you may run on them before you perceive your danger. I always give them
a good berth, that is, keep to the southward ; for tne current about these islands is
very deceiving and uncertain ; but, for the most part, sets to the northward and west-
ward. In one of my voyages to the bay, I was set 34 miles to the northward, and 64
miles to the westward, of account.

Bonacca ought to be made early in the day, so that yon may run down to the
middle or West end of Kuatan by the evening, to be ready to take your departure
for the Southern Four Kays, at six, seven, or eight o'clock, accoi'ding to the breeze you
have.

If you take your departure from the middle of Ruatan, steer W.N. W. J W., making
that course good, in order to avoid Glover's Reef to leeward, and on no account what-
ever nm more than 45 miles from Ruatan before daylight ; if you run more than
that distance, you are in danger of running your vessel on the reef, where there is no
possibility of saving her, for in a short time she will be a perfect wreck. At day-
light make all sail possible, and if you do not see the kays, you will soon lift them.
The principal kay is called Half-Moon Kay, owing to its having a sandy bay, in
the shape of a half-moon ; on this kay is the Lighthouse, elevated about 50 feet
from the surface of the sea ; its latitude is 17° 12' North, and longitude 87° 32' West.
On this kay the pilots live ; a set uf useftil, active, steady, sober men. These kays
ought to be made as early in the day as possible, in order to ensure you an anchorage
before night.

It frequently happens that vessels, after leaving Ruatan, arc becalmed during the
night I and, in consequence, they will not mako Half-Moon Kay before the afternoon.
In this case, I would advise the master to brace sharp up, on a wind, and beat to
windward all night, tucking everv two hours ; for, it is to be particularly noticed
that the current sets strongly aown on the Southei'n Four Kays Reef. S^' xtoI
vessels have been lost on this reef, owing to their lying-to ; but by Keeping the light
in sight till morning, it will be sufficient to prevent accident by maiutaming yuiir
position till you get a pilot, or till you have the day before you.

If it should happen that the pilote are all in Balize (which is very seldom the
case), YOU must make all sail possible. Keep a man at the mast-head, and you will
soon aisecrn a kay, called Ifat Kay ; it is about the site of a long-boat, wit^ trees
upoji it. You may round the reef, within 2 or 3 cables' length, as there is no danger
but what you ma}' see, for soundings extend but a short distance from the blue water.
After you have ntunded the elbow of the reef, steer West, and you will very soon lift
th« low iiuid of Tunieft'; at flie South end of this marith is a little kay, called by thr
pilots Kiiif-BvM, with seyeral cocoa-nut trees un«»!i it. (For- '•• "•'■* "•'•>"-» —•

V 1"

TO AND FROM THE WEST INDIES.

489

\ or 12 milei
fe, as it is the
■e seeing the

i^ ^ - ■
}ENA,

jtant IVader.

by compass,
;he Island of
lorthem and

island, and
that extends
our to make
mtrary; for,
ey are very
m g^ve them
!8e islands is
rd audwest-
rard, and 64

lown to the
ir departure
e breeze you

W., making
count what-
more than
) there is no
At day-
n lift them,
dy bay, in
>out 50 feet
7° 32' West.
Ihese kays
L anchorage

during the
! afternuon.
Eind beat to
rly noticed
■ Several
the Uglit
ining yoiir

seldom tlie
[ you will
wit^ trees
no danger
jlue water.
•y soon lift
l»'d by thf

K«.0&ur«4 Wit

this kay, asid now frequently rendezvous here.) You may round tihis kay by your
lead I and, if it be later than three p.m., you must anchor here for the night.

The anchorage is about 1| miles from the kay, with its beariiw E. by S- ; but your
lead and your eye is the best pilot for this anchorage. You anchor on a fine white
sand-bank ; the first soundings you will get are about 10 &thoms ; run into 3 or 4
fathoms, dueing your saUs up as tiast as possible, and giving the vessel at least 40
fathoms of cable ; for the sand is so. hard, that, with a short scope, you will
certainly drift off the Imnk ; then you have no bottom. If this should bb the case,
you must heave up immediately, and make sail again, to get on the bank.

I anchored here one fine night about eleven p.m., let go my anchor in 5 fathoms,

fave the ship 30 fathoms of cable ; she never looked at it, but drovs off the bank,
f it had not been a fine night, I should have been compelled to cut from m^ anchor.
I would not recommend any commander to anchor on this groxmd with a chain cable ;
at any other part of the bay a chain is preferable. (This bank abounds with fish.)
In the morning (if ^ou have not by this time obtained a pilot), get under weigh at
daylight, and steer for English Kay.

English Kat is situated on the South side of the channel, and is a small, low,
sandy kay, with a few thatched houses on it, entirely shaded with tree^. It is distin-
guished by a fiogstufi* 60 feet high, for signals, &c. On the opposite side of the
channel, that is, on the North side, there is another kay of the same size, called OoJTa
Kay, that has some rescmblanij^ of a saddle ; at about half a mUe to the eastward of
^rhIch is a little f^andpatch, nearly even with the water, called by the pilots the Sand
Bore. This is the place you must anchor at, for it is impossible'for a stranger to pro-
ceed any further without a pilot.

In case the current or any other casualty should set you to the northward of Half-
M'lon Kay, and you fall in with the middle of the Southern Four Kays Keef, I would
still recommend you to haul the ship to the northward, and go round, the North end.
On the North end of this reef is a kay, called by the pilots North Kay ; after j^ou
round this kay, make all sail for Maugcr Kay, the northernmost kay off Turaeff ; after
you round Mauger Kay, steer S.S.W., and you will soon litl English andOoff'sKay j
then anchi <• as before oirected.

On Returning from the Bat, I would recommend your taking the pilot as far
as Mauger Kay, as I have known many vessels run upon Tumeff Reefs, owing to
their having discharged the pilots at English Kay. Endeavour to leave Mauger Kay
at the close of the day, so as to be the length of the Triangles by dayli^rht. There
is a very dangerous reef on the West side of Vxn Triangles, that has picke 1 up many
ships.

The current, in general, sets rapidly to the westward, by the South end of the
Triangles ; a ship snould, therefore, never attempt to pass to windward of this reef.
On approaching the western edge of the Triangles, keep your lead going.

From the channel within Maugor Kay, if the wind is free, steer North j if not,
steer N. by E. After you are t<> the northward of the Triangles, shape your course
for Cape Antonio, according to the instructions given in the " Colombian Navigator."
From the Triangles the current runs from 10 to 30 miles per day to the northward j
this I have aseeitaincd from the mean of twelve voyages.

The Pbec^uino Directions were given by the late Captain C'r-^tea as the result of
many years' experienco ; but it may be observed that they make no distinction for
the SvuHon of the Norths, or northerly winds. The following, therefore, from the
journals of Capt. Dunstervilk, It.N, will bo Uie more acceptable.

Directions Jbr Sailing from Jamaica to Balize, in the Season of the Norths, or be-
tween October and March : —

'lake your departure from Pedro Bluff or South Negril, keeping near the imrnllel
of 18" N. until you have attained long. B7" W. Should you then get the wind from
N.W. or N.N. W., which winds blow very otrongt you will fetch Mauger Kay, the
northernnfjst kay of Tnrnett', on the starboard tack. Keep well to windward, m the

._ ^U_ iU J

436

1>ASSAGES OVER THE ATLAJJTIC,

Should the commander prefer going going in by Half-Moon Kay, whioh is, to my
astonishment, the rout« of many (because the lighthouse serves as a guide), let it be
remembered that the prevailing winds will not, in this season, allow you to lay from
Hat Kay Reef to Kay-Bokel ; and it will also bo a dead-beat from thence to English
Kay } wnereas, on the route prescribed, there is a fair wind direct to English Kay,
in a course about S.S.W. 6 leagues. The " Colombian Navigator," which is an in-
valuable work for these seas, has been led into this error, directed you to make Bonacca
in lat. 16° 35', and those islands which lie contiguous ; but these, being surrounded by
dangerous ree&, and not surveyed, must perplex the mariner, with a strong southerly
current and constant gales from the northward to N.W., and there being no por^ into
which he can enter with safety, except Port Royal, in Ruatan. The latter is a ;nost
desirable place when you ai-e lu, but the entrance is particularly narrow and intricate
between the reefs.

Half-Moon Kay, as already explained, is the S.E. kay of the Eastern Reef, and
distinguished by a lighthouse on the East end. To the N.N.W. of this is Saddle Kay,
about o miles distant, with a small clump of trees on it. W.S.W. of Half-Moon Kay
.13 Hat Kay, which, with trees thereon, resembles a coronet. To 3 miles S. by £.
from this kay extends a dangerous reef, even with the water's edge. The course to
clear this reef, from 'I miles South of Half-Moon Kay, is f.S.W. J W. about 10 miles.
From" the reef to Kay-Bokel the course is West, or \V. \ N., according to the wind,
*l leagues.

"'■ Kay-Bokel may be knowt ^,>y its cocoa-nut trees, an'd a fine sandy beach. Round-
ing it at about half a mile, du <:iot approach nearer, as the ground to the southward is
foul. If you wish to anctior, bring the kay to bear from E. by S. to S.E. on a sandy
bottom, with 10 to 4 fathoms. Give the ship plenty of chain ; otherwise she may drag
off the bank.

Should the wind blow strong from the East or N.E., between Kay-Bokel and
English Kay, at the entrance of the channel to Balize, steer N.W. by W. 4 leagues.
English Kay is sandy on the N.E. part, and is bushy to the water's edge on the South
ana S.W. sides. Gaff's Kay, which is on the North side of -the entrance, is much
smaller, with a cocoa-nut tree on its centre, and is surrounded with a sandy beach. To
the eastward of it, about half a mile, is the patch of sand called the Sand Bore ; it is
even with the surface, and, in rounding it, a groat berth must be given. The anchoraj^e
is in 8 to 4 fathoms. Gaff's Kay bearing from N. by W. to N. by E., or the kaya to
the northward and Goff^s Kay in one.

There is also anchorage under Tumeff, as far to the northward from Kay-Bokel as
to bring English Kay N.W. by W. in 4 fathoms.

On English Kay, in gpeneral, the pilots live who pilot vessels coining in from the
northwara.

Sailing Outward. — ^The cour»e from English Kay to Mauger Kay is N.E. by N. ;
the distance between 6 and 7 leagues. This is the northernmost kay on Turnen ; its
latitude is 17" 36' 16", and longitude 87° 47'. A reef extends from it N.N.W. more
than 2 miles. During two cruises in the bay the latitude was confiripcd.

As the currents in this season run strongly to the southward, half a mile to three

?uartors of a mile in tl ^ hour, should it blow strong from the northward, on leaving
■English Kay, run out by the Souther.t Four Kays, as it is verj' dangerous to beat
between Turncff and the main in a dark night. With N.N.W. winds, at this season,
it is not unusual to pass out ;•> the southward and eastward of the Triangle.

The Directions for Vkssels bound to the Eastern Coast of Yucatan, from
ApaiI' to Sei'TEMBEB, as g^ven by Captai-i, Dunaterville, aio as follow ; —

Take your departure from Pedro Bluff, Jamaica, and pass about 2 or 3 leagues to
the soutuwaid of the Swan Islands. These are two low bushy isles, which may be
seen, in clear weather, 4 leagues off. Between them is a reef, over which the sea
breaks heavily, and there is not space even for a boat to ^ass, from North to South,
there being but one foot of wat«r over the reef. On coasting alotig the North side,
withiii a quarter of a mile, 1 found the coast very dear. About the

island
their e
from tl
northe
are sai
setting
ridian
At 2 I
13 fath

Frm
the cur
ward I
the SOI
strong
directef

TO AND FROM THE WEST INDIES.

43V

oh is, to my
le), let it be
to lay from
3 to English
Inglish Kay,
ch is au in-
ake Bonacca
rrounded by
^g southerly
nopor^ into
er IS a .nost
md intiicate

n Reef, and
Saddle Kay,
F-Moon Kay
es S. by E.
16 course to
ut 10 miles,
to the wind,

h. Round-

outhwaj-d is

on a sandy

le may drag

•Bokel and
'. 4 leagues.
u the South
ice, is much
' beach. To
Bore ; it is
3 anchora'^e
le kays to

y-Bokol as

11 from the

E. bvN.;
urneff; its
i.W. more

e to three
an leaving
to botit
lis season,

TAN, from

eagues to
may be
h the sea
to South,

irth side,

:,««.~ ...... i

island are spots of coral banks, but >«> clear to the shore as not to endanger a vessel ;
their extent, from East to West, is about 6 miles, the reef included, which extends
from the West end about a mile and a half, lliere are two sandy coves on the
northern side of the western island, and also on the southern sicfe, where boats
are safely landed, A current was, however, found on this and preceding days,
setting to the N.N.W. about half a mile an hour. I found the latitude, by me-
ridian altitude, 17° 24', ana longitude of the East end, by chronometer, 83° 48' W.
At 2 miles from this point we had soundings on rocky bottom, with from 9 to
13 fathoms.

From the Swan Islands keep in the parallel of Half-Moon Kay, or 17° 12' N., or, as
the current sets to the N.N.W., and should it be hazy weather, do not go to the north-
ward of 17° 6' by account, as it would be very dangerous to fall in with the centre of
the southern Four Kays Reef at the close of the day. The breezes .are generally
strong from the eastward with a lee current. From Half-Moon Kay pi'oceed as before
directed.

In this season, if, on your return, you pass to the westward of the Triangles, you
may find a current setting to the northward about 1 mile an hour; and it will
be found that the winds often shift to the westward, with fresh breezes and rainy
weather. ; J * T" ' '

On a voyage of H.M.S. Bustard from Jamaica to and from the eastern coast of
Yucatan, in June and July, 1827, Mr. Dunsterville made the following remarks : —

<' From the West end of the Pedro Shoals to the Swan Islands, found the current
setting to the W.N.W. about 1 mile an hour. These isles are between 3 and 4 miles
in extent from E.N.E. to W.S.W., and may be approached (particularly by day)
within 2 miles, in any class of vessel. The Bustard passed about a mile offshore on tho
North and South sidss. On the S.W. point is a fine sand bay, where a vessel may
cast anchor in from 10 to 7 fathoms ; hut, off the West end, a rocky bank extends
full 1^ miles, with very irregular soundings, from 10 to 6, 4, and 7 fathoms. When
the weather is clear, this bank is easily discovered by the eye. Latitude of the East
end of the eastern isle, 17° 24' ; off this we had soundings in from 13 to 9 fathoms,
rocky bottom, about 2^ miles, the East point N.W. f W. No water could be found
on the West isle, the swell being too heavy to admit our landing. Hence we pro-
ceeded toward Balize.

" At Balize the weather, during our stay, was heavy rains, with tornadoes from
S.W. to N.W. These last for two or three hours, then subside into a calm."

On leaving Balize, the pilots are always ready to accompany vessels as far as
Mauger Kay, and it is imprudent to discharge them sooner, as vc^isels have been known
to run upon Tumeff. Vessels from the Turneff Passage should leave Mauger Kay at
the close of day, so as to reach the length of the Northern Triangle by daylight next
morning if possible.

As the Triangle Reef is very dangerous, great caution is required in approachipg
it. Most vessels pass to the westward, as tlft current runs from 10 to 50 miles per day,
particulaj'ly to the northward ; and it generally sets rapidly to the westward, over
the reef, and at the South end, on which there is a small sand-bore.

On approaching the southern and western part of the Triangle Reef keep your lead

foing. when well to the northward, make the best of your way for yonr destination,
eepmg a good lookout in order to avoid the Island Cosumel.

Vessels going out by the Southern Passaye, t' atis, by the Four Kays of the Light-
house Reef, should never venture without a pilot. lu this case the pilot leaves tho
vessel at Half-Moon Kay, which is distinguished by tho lighthouse.

" On passing the western side of the Triangle, upon returning from the bay, we
steered N.N.E. and cleared the kays on tho North part j and, having run 30 miles on
that course, observed the latitude by the star Sjnca, 18° 35' N. Ihe current set to
the northward about 1 mile an hour, and continued so till wo arrived in lat. 22° 5',
and long., by chronometer, 85° 24' W."

From tho N.E. end of the IbIp Cosumel, Cape Antonio, the western extremity of

432

t»ASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

Cuba, bears N.B. hy compass [JV*. 02°^.] 125 miles. Upon this course allowance
must be made, in the southern parallels, for the general indrauffht into the Mexican
Sea to the N.W., and afterward for the Stream, whieh has too n^equently been found
winding from off Cape Antonio to the E.S.E., as explained in the "Colombian
Navigator, * and the former part of the present work (200.), page 313.

Jamaica to Chaobb and off Cartagena. ., ,i '; * U, !

1827.

*' Sailed from Jamaica on ^he 18th of November : the weathe? &ne, with light
southerly sea-breezes. In standing across to Cartagena we found the current had set
34 miles to the westward in four days. On approaching land the weather was very
hazy.

" We made the land of Oalera 2!amba [long. 75° 25' W.], which is low, and appears,
at a distance, full of hummocks. To the northward of Point Canoas (more to the
S.W.) the land is a little higher, and slopes gradually to the point, which is low, and
should not be approached nearer than 2 miles.

*' The hill called the Popa of Cartagena is very remarkable ; it stands to the N.E.
of the city, and has a convent on it. This is an excellent landmark ; and to use the
eimile of other writers, is like the quoin of a gun. From seaward it makes like an
island. The city from the ocean has a fine appearance.

" "We anchored, in the Bustard, on the Playa Qrande, in 6| fathoms, fine black
sand, with the convent of the Popa E.S.E. | E., Point Ct uoas N. by E., western
extreme of Tien-a Bomba S. f W. Latitude of the anchorage, 18° 28, off the town
li miles, longitude, 75° 34'. From herce to Chagre, light winds from E.N.E. to
North: hazy weather. ,

" On approaching the land near Potio Bello [Velo] we experienced strong N.E.
currents 1 i miles an hour, which continued until we arrived off Chagre. There-
fore, at this season, keep well to the westward, if the vnnds are light ; but if the
strong N.N.E. winds have set in, which commence about this time, make the land
well to the eastward, it not only affording a better landfall, but the currents then run
more rapidly to the S.W.

" In the vicinity of Chagre the land prcjiants nothing very remarkable by which it
may be known, particularly if the weather be hazy, and the castle cannot be seen
when it bears to the southward of S.E. by S. This castle is dtuate on an eminence
commanding the village and river, and mounts about 20 guns.

" The Bustard anchored in 5^ fathoms, with the flagstaff of the castle S.E. | E.,
Point Brujas N.E. | N., off shore, three-quai-tors of a mile. To the southwaid of
the point is a large white patch in the rock, with a fall of fine fresh water close
to it.

" Supplies, water excepted, cannot be obtained here,
and scarce.

Fowls were a dollar a-piece,

" In turning down the coast, from Brujas Point to Cha|grre, which is 1 league distant,
the shore seems bold ; but do not shut in the Point with the southeni land. The
best anchorage for a large sliip is with the Point N.E. abont 3 miles off. A strong
current out of the river runs to the N.N.E., 2 miles an hour at the anchorage, there-
fore you c«nnot ride heavy at the anchor ; but the vessel ix)llo heavily when strong
winiU blow. We weighed and beat to the eastward for Porto de Naos or Nary Buy,

tv«

le allowance

the Mexican

Y been found

« Colombian

;' ■' i^?f-' •'«,',%■• '''5 "

inental coast
c.) To that
Dunsterville,

> \rith light
rrent had set
lier was very

and appears,
more to the
1 is low» and

to theN.E.
1 to use the
lakes like an

TO AND FROM THE WEST INDIES.

433

iOn the N.E* Bide of which, under Manzanillo Island, a vessel will be well theltcired
from N.E. and N.N.E. winds. This bay is formed by Jifanzi Po*n<, the N.W. ex-
tremity of the Island of Manzanillo, and on the West by Toro Point. These points
lie nenrly 3 miles from each other. On Manzi Point is a lighthouse. Toro
Fo^'*^ . has a very dangerous reef, extending nearly a mile to uie N.E., which
should not be approached nearer than in 6 fathoms. Manzi Point is bold ; it
has 5 fathoms witiiin half a cable's length, and under it is the best anchora^,
at the present season of N.E. winds, in 4 or 4^ fathoms, with Manzi Point
North or N. by E. about a quarter of a mile. From the point off shore are
520 yards of good ground. To the distance of a mile or a mue and a half from
the entrance the shores are bold, with 3 fathoms close to the beach, and soundings
regularly decreasing from 6 to 4 fathoms. You may, therefore, take an anchoring
berth at pleasure, suited to the vessel's draught. This place does not produce supplies
of any kind : even water is to be found omy in a few stagnant pools, from heavy
rains, and is very bad.

" In the season of the rains the best place to anchor in is on the wc-stem side, as
winds prevail from that quarter. There is a hut on Point Limon, in the S.W. ex-
tremity of the bay, and which is very high in. comparison with the adjacent coast :
when it bears S. by W. you will be to the eastward of Toro Reef, and may run into
the bay. From this point there is a communication by a pathway to Cha^. Occa-
sionally two or three soldiers are kept there for the suppression of smuggbng. Cocoa-
nuts . are in great abundance ; fish very scarce. The soundings on the coast, ftova.
1 mile North of Point Toro, to the same distance off Point Brujas, are 7|, 8, 81, 9, and
from Brujas Point to Chagre, 10, 9, 7, 6^, 6, 6|, offshore about half a mile, keeping
Brujas Point open, bearing N.E. or N.E. J N. s v «!;,,r a

s, fine black
E., western
off the town
n E.N.E. to

strong N.E.
fre. Therc-
; but if the
the land
its then nui

)y which it
not be seen
in eminence

e S.E. I E.,
uthward of
water close

lar a-piece,

Rue distant,
and. The
A strong
•age, there-
hen strong

•KT 1>....

Jauaica to the Bar of Maracaybo, April and May, 1827.

On sailing from Jamaica we had fresh easterly winds and squally weather, then
winds variable round the compass.

From AUa Vela, in lat. 17° 28' N., 'ong. 71° 40', we took our departure for the Isle
of Oruba n the eastern side of the Gulfof Maracaybo, allowing for the strong westerly
currents »c nt three-quarters of a mile an hour.

Saw the Mionka, which are rather high rocks ; and, by the altitude of the star
Antarea, uade the northern one to lie in lat. 12° 28'. Hauled to the S.E., and ran
along the western coast of Paraguana, sounding, when distant from the shore about
Smiles, fh>m 12 to 8 fathoms, till we arrived at Punta de loa Eatanques, whence -Vtd
to took our departure for the Beu* of Maracaybo, S.W. J W.

To the eastward of the Bar of Maracaybo, about 8 leases, are high mountains;
the land westward of these is low, and continues so, with occasional breaks in, by
kays and hillocks, which are at the entrance of the lagoon. Farther westward are
two pieces of land, not particularly high, on the low S.E. termination of which are
three little hillocks. This is the Ida Todoa, on which stands the Castle of San Carlos.
When bearing S.S.W. | W. the hillocks are over the fort, which is white. Do not
steer for the latter, but continue on about West, not g^ing into less than 5 or 5^
fathoms, w^ an you will open the runins of Fort Zapara to the southward, and the
Castle of J5fa;c. Seco to the westward, in lat. 10° 69', long. 71° 42'. This fortress is,
likewise, whito, and is situate on a small sandy kay. To the westward of this
lies the bar, having at this season a depth over it of only 11 feet, hard bottom';
but in the rainy season, August, September, and October, there is, at least, 13 feet of
wat?r.

'jreezes here are very heavy from the N.N.E. to N.E. by E. in the early part of
yet at abojat 8 a.m- the wind is generally more moderate : and from 2 n.ra,

3 I

Th'

434

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

to S s.in., in the following morning it blowi <^ ;: jrfect gale, with « heavy eea, which
makes it dangerous to lie at anchor here.

The best anchorage off the bar is in 6 or 5| fiithoms, with the Castle of Bajo Seco
South or S. by W. ; off shore about 3 or 4 miles. The soundings on the South side of
the gulf [bay P] are re;r'lar, decreasing gradually as you anproach the shore. The
current runs to the N 'L V'^hen the moon rises ; and it is mgh water, on the fiill
and change, at 5>> Id*".

In beating to windward, endeavour to be near tiiie north-western shore at about
1 p.m., in onier to take advantase of the winds which draw to the N.N.E., so as to
make a good lay to the eastward.

The communication with the city of Maracaybo is kept up by one of the ship's
boats, hiring a pilot for the occasion, who, on making the general signal, will come
but from Bajo Seco in a boat with latine sails, shoula the weather be moderate. If
you have to communicate frequently with the city, or to cruise in the gulf, I should
recommend beating up to the anchorage of Estanques, in the peninsula of Paraguana ;
' but, in beating up, do not go to the eastward of Punta Gorda, the S.W. point of
Paraguana. . - .j

The Anchoroffe at Estanques is very good for a vessel of the largest class, even
. within half a cable's length of the beach, and capable of containing twentv sail in
safety. The best marks for assisting a stranger to find the anchorage is the Mountain
(or I'an) of Santa Anna, which much resembles Vesuvius, and may be seen, in clear
weather, 8 or 9 leagues off. This mountain, when bearing E. .^ N., leads to the
'anchorage. The place may also be known by being a lon^ tongue of sand, with some
huts on the extreme point, occumed by fishermen, who, in the seascfi, lake immense
quantities of fish by the seine. The Bustard anchored in 4| fathoms, and veered to
25 fathoms on the N.E. anchor (from which quarter the prevailing winds come
stronly), and 82 fathoms on the best bower to the S.W. Pomt Estanques, S. f E.,
Point Salines, N.N.W. | W., off shore 2 cables' length. No supplies can be obtained
here. Rabbits may be shot, but can be purchased cheaply. The littl& water that
may be procured is muddy, and not fit to drink.

If you are bound to the eastward, when clear of the gulf (bay ?) stretch to the
northward, as the currents run so strong between the Isle of Oruba and Cape
St. Roman, that it is nearly impossible to beat through; but, should you go be-
tween the island and main, be cautious in standing by night to the S.E., as the
coast from Cape Roman to Aricula (S.E. 19 miles) is very dangerous, and the currents
thereon.

In stretching across, from Point Chicabacoa, on the West side of the mouth of
the gulf, to Jamaica, we found a strong current, running due West, nearly 1 mile an
tour.

pass i

across
Kay
eourae
to the

. " The Channels op Providence.

The Channels of Providence, between the Great and Little Banks of Bahama,
are copiously described in the second volume of the " Colombian Navigator," as well
as the winds and seasons of this portion of the West Indies. The lighthouses on Gun Kay
and the Great Isaacs 'n the Florida Strait, together with those erected on the Florida
Reefs by the United States Government, and the fine line of beacons along the face of
the latter will be eminently useful in facilitating the navigation. We have been assured,
by an intelligent navigator, that it is not unusual for twenty sail of vessels, of firom
100 to 400 tons burthen, to pass the Great Stirrup Kay within musket-shot, and
even within haU, in one day ; these, for the most part, proceeding the United States
to Cuba and the Mexican Sea. They make the Hole in tiie Wall, now distinguished
by its lighthouse, then the Stirrup: thence, if the weather appears threatening, they

7 lea, which

of Bajo Seco
South side of
I shore. The
, on the full

TO AND FROM THE WEST INDIES.

48»

pass thnm^ the N.W. channel ; otherwise they shape a eoorse, picking their way,
across the Great Bahama Bank, to tLe southward of the Gat Kays, heyond the Gun
Kay Lighthouse. Here they enter the Florida Strait, and pnrane a southerly
course, where the Gulf Stream is found, as described, to run with the less velocity
tQ ^ northward.— (See farther, *< C!olombian Navigator," 1848, vol. ii. pp. 223 to 226.)

lore at about
^.E., so as to

of the ship's
tal, will come
aoderate. If
nilf, I should
[ Paraguana ;
3.W. point of

jt class, even
wenty sail in
bhe Mountain
seen, in clear
leads to the
id, with some
take immense
ind veered to
winds come
^ues, S. f E.,
a be obtained
le water that

tretch to the

ba and Cape

you go oe-

S.E., as the

the currenia

16 mouth of
ly 1 mile «|i

of Bahama,
tor," as well
on Gun Kay

the Florida
^ the face of
>een assured,
sels, of from

et-shot, and
nited States
istinguished
tening, they

■ ■■■' •i^./^iui

DiREci\.)Ns FOR Proceeding to Demerabt, etc., from the N.E.

■onlui of the " Colombian Navigator," pp. 128 . 'W, we have given
ion of the coast, and directions for making tb< vvr rs, of Guyana.
>n. Sec, the following remarks in addii't ;;, >»,v TiptaLa George
11 i ' (31, will be found a useful and valuable auvi'V;o;i : —

vt.

itb

a . n'^ .

Chei

" h vt. iC N., the water changes to a dark or black colour, or dirty drab,'

And thi II i 18 again to the usual sea blue, you may rely on being to windward.

There are aidings, only this remarkable change.* Vou will then, in running

{krther in, ou the coast, observe a perfect division, or line of change, on the water,
nearly N.W., firom blue to green, where the current sets strong in that direction. On
proceeding, you will again change to thick muddy water, influenced by the tides,
which should be carefully calculated and allowed ror. Many ships have run to lee-
ward from want of this, and a due allowance in the course when the tide is running,
which is always with the flood. As you approach in-shore 4, 5, and 6 fathoms, should
the water then be of a red colour, you may make sure of being to windward, and need
not fear running, even should you obain no pilot. This is most perceptible from
Miconie down to Corobana Point : to leeward all is dirty, thick mud.

" The lighthouse on the weather point of the Demerary River shows a bright fixed
light to seaward, from 12 to 14 miles ; with this light-tower bearing from South to
S. \ W., flood making, you cannot do wrong by steering in on that course, should
you not obtain a pilot, and come-to off the fort, keeping outside the poles on the West
side. I mean this as a safe plan for a stranger.

" The deepest of the channel has worked of late much to windward ; and deepened
so as to allow vessels of 17 and 18 feet draught to beat out in two or three tidcii. I
ran in without a pilot in April, 1830 ; was on the bar at dead low-water spring tides,
least water 2 fathoms, and am convinced 11 feet may always be found. The pilots, of
course, wish the bar to be thought shoal and dangerous, and endeavour to keep in
ignorance those who should make these things more a matter of study than is at
present the case."

To the preceding we add the following, obligingly communicated by Captain Wm»
Cook, of the Highbury, of London, 1834.

Ships from Europe, bound to Guana, on arriving in about the lat. of 10° N., kmg.'

northward at the rate of a mile and a quarter per hour ; and, in the months of August^
and September (after the rainy season), I have found it to set about N.N.E. at the
rate of 2 miles an hour. I consider this current to be caused by the s^- mm of tha
River Maranon j for as you proceed to the S.W., the water again resumes its usual
colour, and the current takes a more westerly direction, until you reach the edge of
the Bank of Soundings, where it takes the direction of the fine of coast, and runs
about 1^ miles in the hour, excepting during and immediately after the rainy season,
when it runs at the rate of from 2 to 2| miles an hour.

* This discoloured water appears to be in the Stream of the^EfuatorJal Currtiit ; as may
likewise he ths^t which is met with "-t so " . .— . •

-' »>==v-.=

• V v^W VA

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

I.I

ItilM |Z5

■tt Uii |22

Uf HA ■■■
Sf 1^ 110

■^■i

11^ ||u ij^

•

'V'

Photographic

Sdeoces

Corporalion

n WHT MUl»l tTHIT
WMITm.N.v. UIM

(7l«)l7a-4SOI

:^*.^

*''

*»

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIO,^

. Btrangeni boiiiid to Demerary or Berbioe (if not quite oertain of their kmgitade)
dumld avoid making the land, and endeavour to andn theparallel of 6° 30' N., before
going to the westward of long. 06^ The coune tiien is W. | S. by oompaM. To the
eastward of the Biver Coren^m, in this j arallel, yon -will have from 18 to 20 ihthoms
6f watoTt dark aand, with broken shells and mud ; when abreast of the Corentyn, you
will have 12 fiithoms, witb clean brown sand. Steering the above conise, you will
nradoally shallow your water to 7, 6, and 6 fathoms, soft mud, when you may be snre
that you are approaching the Bar of Berbioe.* If it be daylight, you will see the
land, which is very low. If in the night, and you are bound to Berbioe, I would
advise tiie ship to oe brought to anchor.

^ bound to Demerary, the better way will be to stand to the northward by the
ynad until daylight, as there are several dangerous mud-flats between Berbice and
itemerary, some of which extend 6 or 7 miles o£Fthe land, and shift occasionally.

Winds. — ^During the day, throughout the greater part of the year, the prevailing
winds on this ooast are from the N.E. to N.£. by N. During the months of June,
July, August, and September, the wind generally draws more to the eastward after
sunset, and continues blowing light until about 9 o'clock in the morning } when it
again backs to the N.E., and blows a tnah breeze.

CUBBEMTS. — ^Within 16 miles of the coast the tide regularly ebbs and flows six
hours each way ; tiie flood running westward, and ebb to the eastward. Without thu
range the current FEquinoctial] runs constantly in the direction of the coast, from 1 to
2 miles an hour. In sailing to the northward you will find the current, when about
60 miles from the coast, to run about N.W., and in this direction it continues to run
until you are to the northward of the islands.

" The velocity of the current between the coast of Guayana and the island is modi-
fied by circumstanced, Vhich I have never been able satisfactorily to account for, as X
have often foimd it imperceptible, at other times very strong, and not in the lc«8t
influenced by the seasons."

■^\.\ rw,(,'

'ff i n

8.— OF SmPS BOUm) to and from TUB NORTHERN PORTS OF

AMERICA.

In the introductory remarks to this section of the work, we have alluded to the
principles of great circle sailing, and have pointed out tiie advantaffes which it
possesses, not Bo*much in the shorter distance which it vives over the rhumb course,
but in the scope it allows the navigator in the choice of a parallel on which he can
make a good passage, without materially increasing the actual distance to be sailed
over.

In no ease can this be better exemplified than in the ooumes over the northern parts
of tiie Atlantic, between the British Isles and the northern American ports. We
alluded to a case, not impracticable, of the courses between the Licard and Cape St.
John's, in Newfoundland, and showed that two courses miffht be taken, not more
than 30 miles greater than the shortest distance, of exactly uie same length, and yet
be 330 miles apart in latitude in their greatest separation.

An imaginative course will well explain this for our present purpose : — From the
liicard to Sandy Hook, New York, the distance and course by compass ure 2,992-9

mile

N.,7

beari

andt

sailc

eoun

Bay

New

A"
line,
this:
siden
Bona
Isle, I
latit*.
the
arc,!

that I
tageo
clear]

St.

* Since the ffth of February, 1840, a light- vessel has been stationed off Berbioe near the
eaatem point of the entrance. It exhibits n single bright liuht, from sunset to sunrise, and
by day a black ball at the mast-head. The light-vessel oi Demerary is similar, and lies
10 miles N.N.E. i E. from tbo entrance. It may bo prudent not to depend too much on
«oviug those vessels when passiog.— Ed.

TO AND FBOM THE NOBTHSRN FORTS OF AMERICA. 487 .

miks 8., 78* 61' W. But if a yenel leaving Ha Lisard were to oommenoe Miliag
N., 73° 24' 40' W., and pasdng about 35 mflea southward of Cape Clear, nadnalhr
bearing to the West, attaining a nuudmum latitude of 61" 66' 30% long. 26° 27' 20* W..
and then, if it were poesible, approach New York on a S. 64° 36' W. ooune, ihe would
sail over 2,866 miles, or 871 mdes less than the compass course. This great eireli
eourte passes over Cape Bonavista and La Hone Bay in Newfouiidland ; St. Anne's
Bay in Breton Island; Pictou and Cape St. Mary in New Brunswick; near Bottoui
New London ; and over Long Island, m the United States.

A line, of the length of 2,962-6 miles, placed in a higher latitude than the rhumb
line, as diown in page 376, is just ae much above the great cirolfc course in latitude ••
this is above that by compass. Thia correspondiog arc from New york leads con-
siderably inland of the coast of the Eastern States, iaterseoting Chaleur Bav, C^pe
Bonaventura in Oan>6 Bay, Anticosti, passes 46 miles N.W. of the Strait of Belle*
Isle, approaches within 189 miles of Cape Farewell, Greenland, attains a mayimnia
latitude of 67° 12' N., and intersecting the S.W. part of Ireland, at Kinsale, reaohee
the Lizard in a S.E. direction. These two lines, of the rhumb and the corresponding
arc, are ufiwarda of 700 tnilee apart at the greatest deviation from each other.

With these considerationB so manifest, we shall be better prepared to understand
that a higher latitude than the usually received one cannot, of itself, be disadvan-
tageous ; and the excellent observations of Captain Hare, presently given, will be more
clearly evident.

By referring to the Chart, it will be seen, that from the Land's End of England to
St. John's Newfoundland, the true bearing[ is W. 4° S. ; and fit)m the same point to
Cape Sable, or the S.W. end of Nova Scotia, it is about W. 9° S. But tiie dronm-
stances of navigation, in general, render a direct course more tedious and difficult than
a circuitous route, and the best passages have been made by pursuing a high northerly
course.

It seems probable, from all that we have said on the winds and currents, that on
prosecuting a north-westerly course, from the Bank of Channel Soundings, the w^nds
and currents, respectively, may countei-act and balance each other ; that, on Airther
prosecution of t& same course, the winds will be found less westerly, and therefore
more favourable than in the more southerly parallels : and that, in auvancing toward
the mouth of Davis's Strait, the advantages both of wind and current may oe com-
bined.

Caution must be taken not to advance too near the eastern coast of Newfoundland,
if bound to New Brunswick or the southern ports ; nor to the eastern coast of Breton
Island, as here tiie vessel may be swept rouna by the strong westerly currents, which
have been described on the preceding pages (347, to 362), and which, now understoodf
instead of producing mischief, may prove tdghly advantageous in facilitating the
ship's course. ^""^

Tho propriety of these arguments was confirmed by experience, in more than forty \
passages made to and ftvm New Brunswick, &c., by Lieut. Chas. Hare, of the Royu I
Navy, nrevious to the fall of 1824. Annexed is a coyy of that gentleman's commimi- /
cation.* /

" Ships from Scotland, in the spring of the year, ani bound to New BrunswiolR'^
have ^ways arrived sooner than those from the English Channel ; which is attributea
(b their being more to the northward on leaving the land.

" Ship tfom. Liverpool generally arrive before those which sail fit>m the English
Channel ; the cause being the same.

" In the Spring of the year, I would never go to the southward of lat. *46° or 4T,

* Many succeeding passages made by Captain Hare, since 1824, have oonenrred to prove
tho propriety of tiieae directions, which have boon higUv approved by the Amerioaa
captains of home ships. woU as by British masters. 'Tnis gentleman had orossod the
AUantio for the ninety-' ^ath ^o, in the year 1830| and the om huttdrHl ami Mmalh, ia

1846. .' . f,.'-^ vtiifj ■

19S 4J^ii: : PASSAGES OVER TBE ATLANTIC^

«iitillT«Mhedloaff. ST'oi'dMreaboatt then adge to tlw Mnthward ace fiir as lat. 43°^
in order to avoid ue icebergs, keying a very strict lookout i this parallel (43°) I
ihould eudcAvoor to preserve, or nearly so, but nothing to the eouthward, until up to
Cape Sable, Nova Scotia ; for it carries you to a safe and proper distance from Sable
Island, a place that cannot be too much dreaded. In this track you will be without
tike northern edge of the Qulf Stream, and assisted by a south-westerly current from
the Banks until past that island.

'* In the Fall of the year my track is hx more to the nortiiward than in the spring.
On leaving the land as late as the middle of October, or thereabout, I generally steer
to the norui-westward untU I get as &r North as 55°, and until I enter the longitude
of 90% tiien edge to the southward, to enter tlie banks in lat. 46°, shaping again a
coarse to pass luwut 60 miles to the southward of Sable Island, as above. If bound
to Hali&x, andvory sure of my latitude, I might be tempted to pass to the north-
ward of Sable Island ; but, at all events, it would be at great risk ; and I should not,
vatdsr any oircumstences, recommend a stranger to attempt ; as the weather is
9iostly foggy, an^ the set of the currents unaccountable. The soundings on Ban-
quereau are mcorrectly laid down in everv chart that I have yet seen i being, in fact,
within an hour's sail of the N.E. bar of Sable Island ; from which cause I once very
narrowly escaped shipwreck. Numerous gannets are always hovering about this
island, and are a very excellent indication of your near approach to it, particularly
on the South side.

, ** By crossing the banks thus far North, you will find the advantage as you ap-
proach the lonntudes of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia ; the strong N.W. and North
nles having then commenced, you will frequently be compelled to lie-to for two or
foree days ; aad should then ensure sufficient dmt, before you are blown into the
steong influence of the Gulf Stream } which would be the case at a few degrees to
the southward, and inevitable in a S.S.E. direction, at an inconceivable rate.. Last
November (1824) the ccuw occurred; the vessel being hove-to, under main-topsail and
storm-trysail to the rvestward of the banks, in lat. 45°, and was, in fowr days, swept
into lat. 39|, consequently into the Gulf Stream, when the longitude became also
considerably afiboted, ana I took the first opportunity of making a N.N.°W. course, to
get out of it as sooa as possible.

•. *f To prove the advantages of a northern track, late .ir the fUl of the year, I may
notice that I have, in one or two instances, read in tJie j^*T>«trican newspapers the
accounts of very long passages experienced by ships whir i heavy galcb in the
latitudes of 35° and 38 , when several vessels were disable* i others suffered loss

of sails; yet, on the same day, in lat. 54° I had moderate vtreuvher from the N.N.E.
with top-gallant studding-sails set ; which strongly encourages me to believe that the
blowing weather, incident to approachiiu; winter,' commences southerly, and inclines
northerly as the season advances, and not the revnrse ; an hypothesis generally
formed by EngUsh ship-Qiasters, but, in my opinion, certainly erroneous.

" I am fiurther of opinion that the influence of the Gulf Stream, in the parallels
from lat. 35° to 42°, wnether from the warmness of .the water or other natural cauHca,
has a strong tendency to attract the wind from a western direction ; as I have in-
Tariably found the wind more alterative in the northern latitudes before mentioned
ihan the southern ones ; and it unquestionably must be allowed by all mariners of
'any observation, that gales experienned in the Gulf Stream or its vicinity blow with
much greater violence than they do in that part of the Northern Atlafatio not under
its influence ;* besides, the squalls from the southward or S.W. are much more sudden
and heavy, and near the banks they are attended with dangerous lightning, llie
^ermometer (an instrument easily understood) is of the greatest importuice for
ascertaininff your approach to it ; and, if bound to the West, I would, for my own
part, endeavour to avoid its effects as cautiously as I would a lee-shore ; for it maybe
depended on, that no ship, however well she may sail, will effect westing in the Gulf

• * See the remarks upon the Gales of the Afores, in the description herinafter given of
^ those islands.

tar ti» lat. 43*^
tanllel (43°) I
ird, until up to
ace from Sable
'HI be witiiout
|r ourrent frtna

I in the spring,
^nerally steer

the longitude
apinff attain a
ve. If bound
i to the north*

I I should not>
tie weather is
in^ on Ban<
being, in fact,
se I once very
ig about this
t, particularly

as you ap-
'. and North
■to for two or
.own into the
ew degrees to
e rate. Last
in-topsail and
r days, swept
became also
W. course, to

year, I may

rapapenr the

galeb in the

suffered loss

the N.N.E.

ieve tivat the

and inclines

is genei-ally

the parallek
tural oauNes,
I have in-
mentioned
mariners of
y blow with
not under
nore sudden
tning. 1'he
ortance for
or my own
)r It may be
in the Gulf

ker given of

TO AND FfiOM 1^ KOHTHBItN P0ET8 09 AMERICA.

9bmM with A wind from that quarter ; nd it is to be femembered liiat ita Velooity ik
Moderated according to the strength of those winds ; and its extent in breadth, at ft
few degrees to the westward of the Amies, is many more degrees IIibb is commonly
oupposed.

«* These obserrations, I hope, may be uiseM to my brother mariners engaged in
these Toyages ; and permit me to say, that they are grounded on the experience of
more than rorfy times crossing the Atlantic in the Royal and the merchant service;
and in the command of vessels in both ; latterly in one of 4<)0 tons burthen, the
TFa<«r/ioo» owned in St. John's, New Brunswick; and, as the custom-books in IdveP-
pool can testify, landed four ftiU careoes in thirteen following months f which, include
mg the time required to discharge uie same, then load outward to St. John's, there
diMsharge and load home again, leaves but very little time for the abip to cross the
Atlantio eight times in fowteen months, which, in fiust, was done.

« Still ftirther, In corroboration of my approved northern track, allow me to ob>-
8erve,.that in the fiill of 1823, by keeping ui a high latitude, the brig Ward, myself
master, also owned in New Brunwick, performed a voyage out and home in seventy-
two days. The sune vessel, likewise, on the 3rd of October, 1824, left the Englid|
Channel, and arrived again in the Downs on the 3rd of January following. ^^

" I must add, that a strong, well-found, and well-manned vessel, alone can perforqi
these voyages ; for they ttrast be maintained with unremitting attention ana pers^
verance.

" The necessity and ytopAety of the above remarks were particularly exemplified
by the Ward, which, on her passing through the Downs, in 1824, left ships there
which were bound to the weetwara, weather-bound, and found them there on her
return, havinjg been driven back by adverse winds ; while she, getting out of the
Channel, performed with ease a prosperous voyage to St. John's, New Bhinswick,
and back, exactly in three months, assttted by chronometer, thermometer, fto."

Althouffh the voyage to and from North America, between the parallels of 60" and
40°, has always been attended with a ctecn« 9 of peril from masses of ice which drift to
the southwara, during the summer monuis, from the polar regions, yet many an un-
wary mariner makes his r ^n across the Atlantic without any apprehension ofjneetin^
these floating dtia^n, or without sufficiently exercising a proper discretion and vigi-
lance to guard against coming in collision with them. Commanders of ships diould,
therefore, bear in mind the impterative necessity there is for using their utmost vigi-
lance and attention when crossing the above-named parallels, especially between me
meridians of 30° and 60° W., to guard against coming in contact with these formidable
daneers of the ocean. Upon the subject of the ices which come down from the
northern latitudes, much that is interesting and necessary to be known will be found
in a former pait of this book, pages 350 to 360.

The Neu) York packet ahipa, when making their winter voyafj^e f^m Liverpool,
kept in high latitudes until nearing Newfoundland. This they did for the twofold
object of avoiding the tempestuous weather so generally experienced to the soutli-
ward, and of obtaining fiurer winds ; and thus, by slippmg within the mighty stream
from the Florida Channel, they evaded its retarding influence. The voyage by this
route is shortened ; and, although had weather must be expected, it is not so violent
as f\irther South ; besides which the eastern currents are avoided. — (See further on
this subject " Colombian Navigator, vol. i., p. 219.)

QULF OF ST. LAWRENCE, &Ci— Those bound to the Golf of St. Lawrence,
after passing to the southward of the Virgin Rooks, on the Grand Bank, and the
Island of St. Pierre, should keep a middle course bet\»sen Newfoundland and Breton
Island; not forg^etting what has been heretofore said on the winds and currents. Re-
collecting also, that the harbours on the -coast, westward of Fortune Bay, are impedecl
with dangers'; there are many rocks about tho entrances, and most oi the harnoufs
are imperfectly known. The rocks are not to be seen in thick weather, and fogs very
much prevail on the coast.

Commanders of vessels bound to the Gulf of St. Lawrence will do well to observe
that, off the South coast of Newfoundland, between the meridians of Ad° and 66°, and

440

PASSAGES OVBR THE ATLANTia

the tehdleU of 46* 90' and 46° IS', u a deep gully in the ma, extending in a truf
JN.N.B. and S.S.W. direction, and separating the Bank of St. Pierre from the Qreon
Bank. 7%e method adopUd by the Mrmch vttteh bound to Sit. Pwrt/br making that
i$kmd M a$/bliowa :—

From the longitude of 62° W., in lat. 46", thev ateer a N.W. coone bv oompaM,
'whioh oarriea them aoroM the Oreen Bank, in 48 nthomi of water \ and when on the
meridian of 65° 10', in about 46' 35' N., they suddenly deepen their water, fiwm 4fi to
90 ftithoms. A fturther run on the same course of about 10 miles carries them acroM
thin gully, when they shoalon their water again to S6 and 30 fathoms i and, after a
fturther run of '23 mfles, they steer about N.N.E. directly for the island, and seldom
or never miss it. — {See tho Chart qf Now^ndland, ^e.)

Those who hare lost their reckonings, on finding this gully, whioh may be known
by the water shoaling on the East and West sides of it, an experiment that is fhv
quently made for ascertaining wheti^er they are actually in it or not, — may safely
take it as a ^VmA departuro. Commanders, not being aware of it, when they have
found their water deepen from the Oreen Bank to the westward, have imagined them-
ielvee entering the Oulf of St. Lawrence i and, by steering a course too far to the
ttorthward, have been lost to the eastward of Cape Kay, on the rooks of Newfoundland.
The length of the gully is about 60 miles, in a true N.N.E. and S.S.W. direction, and
the mivmle of it Is in lat. 45' 50', and long. 45" 15'. — Oomtnunwation of tht French
QmmandaHt to Captain l^r Richard Orant, R.y., 1833. "" '«''

2%« lUth I$kmd qf St. Paui, vhich lies to the north-eastward of Cape North, now
distinguished by its liffhthouses, is bold-to, steep, and high, and, with a good look-out
in the daytime, cannot be considered as dangerous even ui thick weather. The land
of Breton Island is very high, and though fogs are about it frequently, it is seldom so
much obscured as not to be seen in time. On entering the gulf, the Magdalen and
Bird IsUmda will be seen, as they lie in the direct course from Cape North to the
River of St. Lawrence.

There is, in clear weather, a safe passage between the Bird Islands and the Mag-
dalene I but, in thick weather, it is advisable to keep either to the southward or
northM^urd of both, as the wind may permit.

In Pleasant Bay, on the S.E. side of the Magdalen Islands, there is clear and good
anchorage, verv near the shore ; and it is a very safe place for vessels to ride in,
with a westerly wind, and infinitely preferable to beating about in the Oulf with a
foul wind. There is a safe passage mto it between Amherst Island and Entry Island.

As the weather to to the southward of these islands^ between them and Prince
Edward Island, is generally much clearer than on the North, the passage that
way is preferable, particularly after the early part of the year, when &.W. winds
mostly prevail.

F«M«b bound to and from the River St. Lawrence now use the Strait of Belle IhIo
as a dxannel whioh gives the shorter and better route to Europe in the aummer months.
It diould be remembered that the ices described in (284.), pages 355 to 360, which
float down the Labrador coast to the Oreat Banks have carefully to bo avoided during
the season of their frequency in February or March to July. Again, the shorter days
in the higher latitudes, andfthe prevailing fogs which infest the Newfoundland coast
have to he taken into account during the winter and late autumn months. The now
lights erected on Belle Isle and Auo'ir Point, in the Strait of Belle Isle, will vcrv
much focilitato the navigation thus pointed out. With the caution thus indicatca,
this route offers many advantages. The Canadian mail steamers now follow it,
although a recent accident firom ice to one of them, in the month of May, 1861, will
act as a warning.*

• When within the trulf the northern shore should not be made too free with, as it is
possible that some outlying rooks may havo escaped the vigilance of the Admiralty aur-
veyora. The Ortmgt Book, off Coaroacho Bay, is an example. The S,8. North Amtriea
discovered it by striking on it in September, 1868. It is 1| miles outside the line of
dangers, near a spot where the Admiralty chart showed no bottom at 47 ftithoms.

There aeoms to be little hope that much can be added to our knowledge of this well
beaten track, and that the paaaagei can be shortened by adopting any ftech ronto.
Soon after Maury's Pilot Chart*, an analysis was made of them in order to find out
the best route by eomjputation for each month in the year, of a track between New
York and Europe.

It will be needless to dilate on tiliese, or to give the copious tables that were drawn
up to illustrate these routes. They are given on the illustrative diagram of the tracks
across the Atlantic, and the lines there laid down will be sufficient to show their
relative position. These tracks certainly seem to us to diverge so much flrom any
regularify of order in difiSarent months, not eidiibiting any grfuual change with the
seasons, as might reasonably be exnected, but have a general zig-zag course, at
variance with the generallv received laws of simplicity and order wmch natural
phenomena, which govern uiese courses, usually assume. This want of an apparent
•general law of change is doubtless owing to the imperfection of the data upon which
they are based. This has been before alluded to in (29.), on pages 186, 187, and by
reference to that and the diagram it will be seen that the recoroi of the direction of
the winds are in themselves so imperfect, that they will be quite sufficient to account
for the anoQialies in the oompntua best courses for the different months. Therefore
the graphic illustration of them will here suffice.

But as these recommendations have been followed out by a great number of vessels,
chiefly the fine clippers and passenffcr ships between LiverjMol and New York, their
voyages have been discussed and tabulated by Captain Maury in his last edition, and
the general mean result of the best six passages in each month is given in the ensuing
tables.

But this selection may not afford a Just estimate of the ordinary voyase of a deeply
laden ship lees adapted for making a rapid passage. Still the route aaopted by the
clippers will manifestly be the Mst, in general, that can be taken by the heavier
vewiel. And therefore these tables will not be tiie less useftil.

In the development of any new route, or change in an adopted (nrstem* much dis-
cussion must necessarily be involved, and many facts brought to bear upon the
advantages to be derived. From this cause the volumes of Captain Maury have
assumed such a bulk that for every-day use their value is in some degree impaired,
and even in drawing up a summanr of the results arrived at, it is necessary to be
discursive, and extend the abstract to a considerable length, as will be seen in the
preceding pages upon the best meridian for crossing the equator.

With this view the computed routes given by Captain Maury, with the probable
amount of fair or head winds, gales and calms, and distance^ required to be sailed
over in each section of the voyage are omitted. The tables of actual experience
which follow, will, it is thought, be quite sufficient to give an idea of the sub-
ject. Only tlie mean results are given here, not the^lctails Arom which they ar«
derived.

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««4

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

Theso two tables giye the mean track and time occupied by the best six of each
of the paasagca diacosBed as proceeding fkx>m Europe to America, and firom America
to Europe. The ports on the European ude are London, Liverpobl, Havre, and a
few from the Ciyae, Hamburg, &c. The last column gives the total durati(^ of the
Yojrage, and the intermediate day columns the time occupied io sailing between the
respective meridians fi" apart

But these six best passages of course are considerably below the average length of
the ordinary voyages, whiw may be briefly stated as follows : —

Surope to America. — January, M to 87 days; mean of all, 40*1 days. ' Febmarr,
21 to 62 days ; mean, 32'a days. March, 21i tO 42 daysi mean, 31*0 days. Apnl,
24 to 43 days ; mean, 33-? days. May, 18 47 days; mean, 32*0 days. June, 29 to
04 days; mean, 36*7 days. July, 31 to 40 days; mean, 86-8 days. August, 22 to
42 days ; mean, 33*1 days. September, 23 to 4o days ; mean, 29-1 days. October,
18^ to 46 days ; mean, 31 '0 days. November, 28 to 53 days ; mean, 37*2 days. De<
oember, 27} to 48 days ; inean, 37*6 days.

America to JBurope, — January, 17 to 28 days ; mean, 21*0 days. February, 16 to
28 days ; mean, 22*6 day. Mardi, 16 to 27 oays ; mean, 22 days. April, 10 to 28
days ; mean, 22*0 days. May, 18 to 28 days ; mean, 23*2 days. June, 19 to 20 days;
mean, 22*0 days. July, 17 to 27 days; mean, 21*0 days. August, 21 to 28 days;
mean, 24*1 days. September, 18 to 29 days ; mean, 23*1 dhys. October, 16 to 27
days; mean, 21*9 dam November, 17 to 26 days; mean, 22 days. December, 10
to 28 days ; mean, 21*2 days.

These figures will show with how much more certainty the eastern voyage is mode
with the anti-trade winds and easterly currents in its favour, than the average voyage
with their adverse influences to retard and embarrass it.

These tables will'aniffioe to show all that is necessary on this well-beaten track.

mayi
men i
andot
that I
pretty
as for
espcd
York,
of no
if it-

>.■*,„

10.->43TEAM TRACKS TO AND FROM AMERICAr^

:k^"j

The daily increasing amount of collision, which has advanced much beyond the ratio
of the use of steam, has led to many plans for averting it, but, apparently, without a
corresponding effect in adopting them. The terron of this dan^r in the open sea
are manifest, and many saa examples are too well-known not to mduce oautiou — one,
that of the U.S. mail-steamer Arctic striking the French steamer Veata near Cape
Race in Oct. 1804, led our American friends to consider whether some means could
not be employed to lessen the danger. Accordingly, R. B. Forbes, Esq., of Boston,
proposed one track for steamers going to, and another for those coming from America.
This problem was worked out by Lieut. Maury, and we give here uie result in his
own words : —

" The shortest distance possible for a steamer between Liverpool and Sandy Hook
is 3,009 mUes ; the average distance actually accomplished is 3,069 miles, and the
distance, by the middle of the lane coming is 8,038. There is also another recom-
mendation in favour of this lane to the West, which is this : it lies along the northern
edge of the Gulf Stream, where there is an eddy setting westward often at the rate
of a knot an hour. On the average, I assume that the set of this eddy will amount
to 12 miles a day for three days and a half, or say 40 miles. This makes the distance
by the lane coming practically about 2,998 miles ; or, allowing 20 miles for detour,
we shall have 3,018 miles, wnich will shorten the average time of the passage this
way three or four hours, with less risk of collision, and less danger from Cape Race
by the way.

" It may be urged against this lane that it cannot always bo followed on account of
the ice, and that, inasmuch as it crosses the Grand Banks, the steamers that ply in it

STEAM TRACKS TO AND FROM AMERICA.

rond tho ratio

may now and then ran dbwn a flshinff veaaeL The reply ia thftt, as |hr at fhe flsher^
mon aro conoomed, they are now lialue to be ran down by the iteamera both going
and coming. Whereaa, with the lane, that liability ia incident to the ateomera aTone
that are weatwardly bound, and the flahermen will have the advantage of knowing
pretty nearly where the steemer will pass, and which way ahe will be oominar. And
as for its being obstructed by ice, so as to compel the ateajuers, aa it occasionally will,
especially in May or June, to tuni out of it now and then, the Erie Canal, m New
York, ia obstructed by ice the whole of every winter, but that doea not prove it to be
of no value ; it only shows that it, like this lane, would be of more value to oommerod
if it were never obstructed by ice, or anything at all.

" The Grand Banks afford a pretty good landmark, which can be used in tho
thickest weather. Generally tho water tnermometer is found to fall aa won as you
near these Banks } it is ffenerally agood landmark for them. The eastern edffe runs
JSTorth and South, and, therefore, aflrards an excellent correction forlonntude. Having
ascertained by the lead when the vessel first strikes this edge, then nonng the aoxma-
ings and the distance run before clearing the Grand Banks, the latitude will also be
known Mrith accuracy sufficient to enable the navigator to decide whether he be in or
ont of the lane, and if out, on which side. The mne crosses the Banks near their
greatest width, 276 miles. If a steamer be crossing there in a fog, and in doubt as
to her position, she can judge, by their breadth and the soundings, pret^ nearly as to
latitude. For instance, if the breadth of the Banks, when crossea, be less than 275
miles, but the soundings not less than 40 fathoms, the vessel has crossed the Bank to
the North of the lane { but if she find herself in less than 30 fiathoms, then she has
crossed to the South of it. Should she, however, find herself in water that suddenly
shoals to less than 20 fathoms, and as suddenly deepens again, then she is near the
Virgin Rocks, or the Rock and Nine-fathom Bank to the East of them^ and her posio
tion is immediately known.

" It should be recollected, however, that these lanes are not channel-ways in which
steamers must keep or be lost. Gales of wind, ice, and other things will now and then
force a steamer out of them, and in such cases she wiU actually be where she is now,
for she will ^en be in no more danger than she is now { only when she gets back into
the lane she will be in less.

"You will doubtless observe the advantageous position of the fork to HalifiEuc, in
the lane from Europe. As this lane approaches Newfoundland, it edges off to the
South in such a manner as to render it impossible for a vessel so to miss her way as
to get ashore. Suppose a steamer attempting this lane to be, when she nears the
Grand Banks, 100 miles out in position (a most extravagant case), and that she be out
on the Newfoundland side, she would, if behaving properly, be steering parallel with
the lane, and if bound to New York, she would go clear of Cape Race. But she
might be boimd for Halifax, and. hj steering West too soon, might run upon the
land ; but recollect that the lane' -io Halifax turns off on toundinga, and a West course
from where the lane fr«m England strikes soundings on the Grand Banks will take
you clear of everything* So without the most gross neglect of the lead and alLthe
proper precautions, which it is the duty of the snipmaster to take, it would seem im'
possible for him to run his steamer into danger here.

" In the longitude of the Grand Banks, the lane to Europe Is 200 miles South 6f
the lane to America. As a rule, this lane for the eastern bound steamers can be
followed always, admitting that an exception now and then in practice will make the
rule general. It will be observed that this lane runs E. 15° S. from Sandy Hook to
the meridian of 70°, where it takes a course E. 12° N., towards its junction with the
arc of a great circle. South of the Grand Banks. Though the distance bv this lane,
from Sandy Hook to this junction, is a few miles longer than the direct line, yet on
account of the Gulf Stream it is in time the shortest mstance that a steamer can take.
From tho Capes of Delaware it is obviously the shortest

" I will close this report with a i-ecapitulation as to distances and courses by each

IM FAStAOBS OVBB THE ATLANTIO,

Un^ bekwean New York, Halifkx, uid FliiladelphiA, on one aide, and Oftpe Clour and
the BoUly lalei on the other i flnt bening leave to aay that, aooording to mr oompu-
tUdaOf fMmded on Boch atatiatioa aa luKve touching the yelooity of the Gulf Streun,
if ttpo atoamen bound fbr Cape Cliiar, and of exactly equal apeed, wore to start from
HalifitXt to aae whioh should nrrt get into the great oinue part of the lane to Europe
from New Torict and if one were to go atraiffht for it bv steering East, and the other
were t» fbllow the Bunmean lane iran Halifax as prneoted on the chart, this one
would reach thepoint of destination quite aa soon as the other, the drift of tho Qulf
Straam compensating iat the goeater distance.

'< DISTANCE BT LANE TO AMERICA.

By Great Circle.

"FramSdUy Isles to Halifhx 2,301 2,300

M n Capes of Delaware 2,048 2,900

„ „ SandyHook 2,882 2,840

<' From Cape Clear to HaU&x 2,192 2,170

„ „ Capes of Delaware 2,780 . 2,76A

„ » Sandy Hook 2,723 2,605

t, „ Do by actual average 2,7M

*' This statem«it shows that by the lane to America the distance is actually shorter,
both to Sandy Hook, and, we may infer also, to the Delaware, than tho average dis-
tance by present route} for tiie route actually pursued by the steamers now, both to
Sandy Hook and tho Delaware, may be considered the same fkom Capo Clear or tho
Sdlly Isles, as fiu West as long. 70*.

' > ** DISTANCE BT LANE TO EUROPE.

-,> . . To Scilly Isles. To Cape Clear.

^' «TramHaliJhx 2,436 2,28«

„ Gapes of Delaware 3,024 2,873

; ;' „ SandyHook 2,080 2,829

" Besides the detour firom the great circle which a vessel from New York, Halifax,
Boston, or Philadelnhia would necessarily make by following the European lane to
Cape Qeav, it Would require an additional detour of only 15 miles tn vessels bound
into the EngliiAi Channel to use it also as fbr as Cape Clear. This lane, therefore,
will, in consequence of the fkvourable currents of the Gulf Stream, put a vessel into
Southampton quite aa soon as she could reach that port ftom New York or Phila-
delphia by the great circle route. Vessels tcma Halifuc will have to make the greatest
detour of any by adopting the lane to Europe ; but for them it is less than 100 miles
out of their way as thev now go, and it will prolong their average passaffo eastwards,
perhaps, two or three nours. I sar perhaps, because I am not sure but that the
steamers from Hali&x and New England are set back by the cold current 20 or 30
miles on the route now used for the eastern passage. The Gulf Stream, even from
where they will join it by this lane, will set them forward, on an average, 40 or
50 miles at the least. It seems, therefore, that the attractions of this hme as it
regards safety should more thui outweigh the eroftaSfe loss of an hour or two during
the passage. When I speak of dii^ances by tne lanes, it should be recollected that
the middb of the lane is moantt safer foUo^j{.tahle Qt oowsm and distance^.

i:i

STEAM TBA0X8 TO AND FROM AMERICA.

LAME TO AMEBIOA.

" From Sdlljr Islas to O^ie daar, '

Cape Clear to lat. 0^23', long. 1&>.V,

n
ft

lat «1».28',

u in
[01l(

01.16

00.06

00.28

49.86

48.88

47.10

40.88

i,(«) 45.00

l»

44.10

42.40

41.42

»»

40.80

„(a)4fi.O

00.00

00.28

49.86

48.88

47.10

45.38

40.00

44.10

42.40

41.42

40.30
70.0 Sandy Hook,
70.0 to Capes of DekwuOi
01.40 to Ibli&z,

20.0

80.0

40.0

00.0

01.40

00.0

60.0

II
i«
II
II
II
II
II
»»

25.0
80.0
80.0
40.0
40.0
00.0
01.40
00.0
60.0
-65.0
70.0

COIUM.

W. 88».7 N.
1»,00'N.
2».l7' S.

6.0

0.00
18.31
17.40
21.8
20.10
27.18
19.40
22.27
14.34
17.40

0.48 S.
22.8 8.

8.03 S.

LAME TO BUttOPBr

*' From Capes of Delaware to lat. 80"40', lon^r- 70*.0'
Sandy Hodi to lat 39°. 40', long. 70'>.0'
lat 39.40', long. 700.0' to lat 40<>.3l', long.

II
II

60''O'

Conne.
E. i0"46' N.
£. 14.29 8.

12.24 N.

II 40.81

60.0

41.9

60.0

9.39

II 41.09

60.0

41.38

.tf

06.0

6.0

,1 41.33

00.0

41.03

60.0

4.07

„(«) 41.68

00.0

43.00

46.0

29.6

„ 43.00

40.0

46.46

40.0

27.28

1, 40.46

40.0

47.11

36.0

24.4

1, 47.18

80.0

48.32

30.0

20.18

|»

„ 48.32

30.0

49.30

26.0

16.21

■vv >f

„ 40.30

20.0

00.14

20.0

12.46

„ 00.14

20.0

6ape

00.40

16.0

9.17

„ 00.40

10.0 to

Clear,

E. 4.34 K.

- 19

Cane Clear to Soilly Isles

■

E. 27.39 8.

„(4) Halifax to lat 48».'30', lon». 60»0'

E. 20.7 S.

' ' u

lat 43».30',

Ipng.

60».0' to lat

42<».30',

long

. 06».O'

16.17

1, 42.80

00.0

41.03

00.0

9.28

The oounaa and dlBtanoM ure for the "

middle"

of the Unee.

Distance.
109 miles.
187
187
189
198
199

ao7

216
228
83
148
236
231
236
183
249
003

II
II
tt
II
11
II
■jf'
.»»
II
11
It
II
It
11
It
It

Distance.

286
192
237
227
220
232
201
241
226
212
206
199
193
189

101

168
181
220

■ilos.

11
It
It
ti
II
It
It
II
ti
It
If
II
11
II
It
tt
I*

•^.

« Thus it appears that one lane will practically shorten the distance firom Cape
CleartoSandy Hook and the Delaware by 30 miles, while the other prolongs the
distance going to Europe 75 miles ; which prolonged distance, when measured not by
safety, but in time alone, the Onlf Stream, better weather, and diminished frequency
of fogs, will more than compensate for. In my judgment, these lanes, if properly
followed, will make the average length of passage, as determined by the mean of all
for the year, probably less each way, certainly not more than hour or two longer thait
it now u. Individual passages coming will, perhaps, not be made so quickly as they
have been, but, on the average, trips will be shortened."

Admiral FitzRot has also devoted some attention to this subject, and it is our
duty to idlude to it here.

" Another question appears to require notice in these pages, because it is still a
' moot point ' with many persons interested in navigating the Northern Atlantic.
In a well-known publication Maury particularly recommended ' Lanes for steamers.'

" If steamers could always steer direct courses, being full-powered, and not liable
to be headed off in occasional heavy seas, such an arrangement might be advantagecus ;
but as it is otiierwise, and as screw (auxiliary or mixed) ships sail while steuuing.

PASSAOES OVER THE A' ANTIC,

they cannot conveniently keep to preioribed Manes,' however desirable it might
otherwise seem.

« However, as the traffic increases between Europe and America, some special
arrangement may be required, even more urgently than now ; in which case it might
perhaps be found practicable to consider an imaginary line, from latitude 50° and
longitude 20° to the crossing of 46° N. and 55° W., the ' line of teparation' northward
of which should go all vessels bound to the westward, and south of it all those heading
to die eastwud.

" A great safeguard would be legislative enactment against high speed during fog,
heavy rain, or snow: — authoruring'a rnqforittf of passengers to make objection ; to
inspect, note, and sign the log, beroie disembarking ; and, by a quorum, to g^vo sab-
sequent evidence."-7--'' Meteorological Papen," 1858.

mgi
leth(

',; 11.— ROUTES BETWEEN NORTHERN EUROPE AND THE

UNITED STATES.

*' Get your offing and proceed as though yon were bound to Rio, until you get into
fhe N.E. trades. Then steer West until you fall in with the track of^^ homeward-
bound Rio tradera, and then take that. .' ;, <^

" Shipmasters, bound as above, should study the trade-wind chart carefully, in
order to ascertain the extreme northern parallel near which they may rely upon find-
ing the N.E. trades. The limits of these for the month should then be marked on
the chart for every day reference and use. Having reached the mean polar limits for
the month, it will, as a rule, be wise to go 2° or 3° further South in order to be sure of
a good time in ' running down the trades.'

" Hoaving reached the parallel of 30°, between 20° and 25° W., the best course is
still a little to the West of South, until the parallel of 20° N. be reached. Do not
care to iuake more than 5° of westing between these two parallels. From 30° N. to
20° N. by this route, the averajre time will be six davs in &11 and winter ; five in
spring and summer ; thus putting you fairly within tne trades in 18 days, on the
averaffe, from the Channel. It will be less from Lisbon, the ports of Spain, and
Gibraltar.

<* Now, suppose you enter the trades at a mean between the meridians of 25° and
30° near the parallel of 20°. { you should then ' run them down ' on that parallel to
60° W. It will take ^wo weeks to do this i total, so far, firom the Channel, 32 days.
Arrived here, you are in the fair way of homeward-bound Indiamen and Rio traders ;
and from this point every navigator knows the way to his port. If it be on the
Atlantic, South of the Chesapeake, 10 days, on the average, will put him into it-
total, 42 days from the chops of the Channel, and flrom Liverpool a day or two more,
trom Spain and Portugal a day or two less, to our Atlantic ports. By this route
Savannah is brought nearer than Charleston ; and Femandina, made for the voyage
/^om Europe, our nearest southern port. If, on the contrury, he be bound into the
Oulf, it will *ake him 15 days, trom the homeward-bound Kio track to put him into
New Orleans or Mobile — total to Gulf ports, 47 davs These times arc for ordinary
sailers. A smart ship, with a smart captain, will always make the run in less time.

" This is a mere general sketch of the average route. Clever navigators will know
trom the charts how to vorv it according to the season, and smart ships will gain upon
the time, especially in reaching and ' running down the trades.'

" The sketch supposes the ship to enter the trades near the intCTBOction of the
meridian of 25" with the parallel of ^ 20° N. There is no particular advantagp in
ont<>rinff the trades either on that meridian or upon that paraltoi, or of entering them
at ull, if you happen to find good winds before you get to the trades.

<* Thu8, suppose a vessel to be off the Lizard, bound to Charleston, and that she

have a 7 or 8 knot breeze that will enable her to lay up direct for port ; why shoiild
she, aa long as that wind lasts, run out of her way to find one that will not enable
her to do any better P On the contrary, let her take advantage of it to make west-
ing as fast as possible, and when it grows lighter or becomes adverse, as it will, then
let her master stick her away South in search of a better wind.

" By doin^ this, the voyage, as I have sketched it, may be considerably shortened.
The trade-wmd chart will show the navigator exactly how far South he ought to go
to look for the trades in each month. A reference to this, with the injunction to
make the most of a good wind wherever he finds it, seems to be almost the only sail-
ing directions that are required for the ports above named, especially in winter and
spring. •

« In the &11 of 1856, Captain Macloon, of the Oeorfpa, asked to have pointed out
to him a better route from Liverpool to Savannah, stating that he had tried three, and
had had bv them two passages of sixty days each, and one of fifty-four. The reply
was, in suostance : —

" ( You ask for a new way to come from Liverpool to Savannah. I* have often
thought that if I were in tliat trade, considering tne passage is a long and tedious
one, I should try it on the trades ; that is, when you come out of Liverpool, proceed
as if you were going to cross the Line, for which you will find sailing directions at
page 381 e^ aeq. of this work. Aim to cross the parallel of 30° N. in about 25° W.,
and then steer S.W. till you get wen i.ito the trades, even if you have to go as far as
the parallel of 20° N. Now steer V/est till you g^t about the meridian of 60°, and
then haul up for ^our port. If you have a smart ship, and will try this passage next
November, you will make something like this run : From Liverpool to the parallel
of 30° N., fourteen days ; thence into the trades, say 22° — 20°, five days ; thenue to
the meridian of 60°, ten days ; thence to Savannah, seven days ; total, thirty-six

" ' Within that time this passage can be made by this route ; but as I suppose the
Ocorgia is not a clipper, I will give you a week longer, or forty-three days ; and if

" • M. F. Maury.'

you do not make it in that time, I shall be disappointed.

« From June to October, inclusive, there is not much choice of routes. On the
one hand the N.E. trades are uncertain at that season of the year — the hurricane
season ; while to the North, calms are most prevalent, and gales less frequent. Dur-
ing these months, therefore, the best route is the straight course, for the Atlantic
ports especiallv, taking advantage of the winds as they present themselves, for they
are too unstable for one to go either to the North or South to look for them.

" At this season of the year the calm belt of Cancer is far North, and vessels that
attempt to make westing between 28" and 34° will find the winds more baffling than
they will either to the North or the South of those parallels. I caution navigators to
avoid the belt between thf;cte parallels as much as possible ; and when they have to
cross it, I advise them to cross it nearly on a meridian. The trade- wind chart shows
the position of this calm belt for each month.

Transient vessels, boimd into Philadelphia and New York, would find the southern
route, in the winter months, the most desirable on account of the weather, but the
passage by it would, at that the most favourable season for it, bo prolonged about a
week on tne average. The mistake that has been generally made by vessels taking
the southern route is in their not going far enough South to get well into the trades.
The trade-wind chart will leave no one in doubt upon that point, and no vessel
attempting the southern route should think of steering North, whatever be her port,
uhtil she mils into the great track followed by the homeward-bound vessels from the
other hemisphere. Tliey eross 25" N. in about G6° W=

" Dull-sailing passenger-ships from the North of Europe would do well, especially

3 L

460

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

fifom December to March, inchwive, by takins the sonthem route, even though they
be bound to New York. If they cannot gain time by this route, they will gain
at least smooth water and pleasant weather until they reach the offings of our own
coasts.

" In summer the great circle route is the best to all the Atlantic ports. Even for
the Gulf ports and Cuba the route in the summer time should be decided upon accord-
ing to the wind one meets with while gaining an offing from Europe, rather than by
considerations growing out of any fancied preference as to winds by the way. If
they be such as to force you to the South, make as much westing as you can beforG
nrossin^ tixe parallel of 38°. Having urossed th."'^. parallel it is then advisable to go
South in search of the N.E. trades to carry you into the Gtlf. ,.;

" The reason why theTforth or Great Circle route is recommended to vessels botind
into any of the Atlantic ports during the summer and fall months, from May to
October, inclusive ; — the reason why no preference is given to the southern route over
the Great Circle during that period, even for Gulf-bound vessels ; and the ivason why
such decided preference is given to the southern route, from December to March, may
be gathered from a little reflection as to the course of the trade-winds and a careful
consideration.

" From December to March gales of wind arc most frequent along the northern
route. These arc mostly from the westward. This circumstance, therefore, is against
the Great Circle route in the winter time. But ftt)m May to October the case is
different. The gales along the Great Circle are much less prevalent. , '

" On the other hand, the trade-winds being a flow of air from colder to warmer
latitudes, the difierence of temperature between the calms of Cancer, from which, and
the calm belt of tho Equator, into which, the trade-winds flow, is greater in the
winter than in the summer time. Consequently the more rapid, constant, and steady
is the winter flow.

" In the summer, however, the air in the calm belt of Cancer, though it be as far
Noilh as 35°, nttains as high a temperature, especially on the continents of Africa
and America, as it does in the belt of equatorial cplms. Then why should not tho
air flow towards those continental heated places as well as to the Equator P It does j
and thus the trnde-winds are frequently broken up in the summer time, and therefore
they cannot be relied on as in winter. There is another reason why the winter trades
riiould be fresher, more steady, and constant than tho summer trades, and it is this :
In the winter time the calm belt of Cancer, out of which the trade-winds flow, is
tmrne fiGO or 600 miles nearer than it is in the summer time to the equatorial calm
belt into which the trade-winds blow — the places of high and low barometer are then
closer to each other — and no one engaged in the business of commerce need be told
that the closer the places of demand and supply be together the more certain and
■toady will be the supply.

" And there is al: -j another reason why the southern route, even by the Gulf-bound
ships, should be abandoned, and why the Great Circle route should bo preferred in
the summer time, wliich is this: From July to October ihe hurricane season mgrs
in the V jst Indies, while frome Juno to October tho gale charts show the Great
Circle route to be the least stormy.

" These remarks about the southern route, for vessels bound in winter as far North
«8 the Chesapeake and New York, are intended especially for the passenger sliips from
Bremen, Hamburg, and other ports in tho North of Europe, ond they are earncsfly
commended to the attention ot the masters of such ships. — Mattry.

■jm^

( 451 )

.ii;*,*!.'*

1 though they
hey will gain
j[8 of our own

ia. Even for
1 upon accot-d-
ratner than by
the way. If
you can before
avisable to go

I vessels bound
ft-om May to
cm route over
le leason why
March, may
and a careful

; the northern
fore, is against
;r the case ig

Icr to warmer
am which, and
greater iu the
nt, and steady

|h it be as far

ents of Africa

lould not tho

:or ? It does j

and therefore

winter trades

and it is this :

i^inds flow, is

[uatorial calm

meter are then

need be told

e certain and

ic Gulf-bound

p preferred in

NcaHon mgrs

DW the Great

as far North
ger shijJH from
are earnestly

12.— Fi; ■:. THE UNITED STATES TO THE EQUATOR.

In a previous section (pages 387 — 403) the passage from Europe to southern lati<
tudes was discussed, and it was thei-e shown that a more veeaterly crossing than has
heretofore been usual has been attended with great advantage. To those pages we,
therefore, refer the reader for the arguments \duch equally apply to the voyage from
the western side of the Atlantic.

One of the gi-eat results of Captain Maury's inquiries hfts been the improvement
of this route ; and before such a mass of evidence had been collected, he recommended
the Great Circle route to the longitude of 31° West on the Equator, as has been
alluded to on page 394. This route considered in connection with the direction of the
winds and currents is that which would naturally be chosen, if the crossing in that
longitude would be considered to be a safe one to guard against being diifted to
leeward of Cape St. Roquc. Later experience has shown this fear to be fallacious
in a great measure, and that it seldom occurs that vessels get into difficulties hero.

Captain Maury devotes 220 pages of closely printed matter to this question ) but,
as his results wiil answer our purpose as well, we will briofly select uie prominent
points elicited : —

" Off St. Boque, in Brazil, the tracks of all vessels bound out of the North Atlantic
ocean into the soatiiem hemisphere fall in with each other. This is the great paw-
way between the North Atlantic and the other g^at oceans of the world. Here the
tracks of vessels, both from. Europe and America, come together, whether their desti-
nation be around either Cape Horn or the Cape of Good Hope. Passing the offlnes
of this great promontory of Brazil, tho highway then forks. All vessels for Indm«
China, or Australia, hugging the wind, turn off to the East ; those that arc bound
around Cape Horn keep straight on ; while those that are bound to tho La Plata, to
Rio, or any of the South American ports, being restricted in their courses by the
winds on one hand and the land on the other, make the best of their way South, and
turn off to the right as they reach the proper parallel. For the:ie last,^ no further
sailing directions are required after passing St. iiaque. Tiieir way is plain.

" The following time table, by the new route, the old and the middle, is derived
from the logs of 1,160 voyages, and it therefore may be held to embody tho expe-
rience of 1,160 navigators touching the best route hence to the ' fair- way of St.
Roque.' Tho meaning of this table is so plain that analysis and discussion can add
but littlo to the force of its own silent story. This table shows, for each month, the
average time from port to 30" N. ; the place of crossing that parallel, and the time
thence to the Equator, and the place of crossing it, also, by each of tho three routes.
It shows, also, the distance from 30° N. to the Equator, and the average number of
miles ' made good ' daily for so much of each route as is included between these
parallels.

'* The daily distances give to the navigator practically the best idea possible as to
tho difference in the winds by these several routes as they cross the N.L. trade-wind
belt, supposing that belt to lie • all the year round between tho Equator and tho
parallel of 30 N. Thus, in some months, as in October, for inntance, there appears
to be practically no differonco in the winds, the average rate of sailing being H7 miles
per day by the old route, 8H by the new, and 90 by tho middle ; a difference purely
accidental, for the N.E. trades are, at this season, pretty nearly broken up. The
gain by the new route, for -this month, is not in crossing tno trade-wind belt, but in
reaching it. It takes, from our Atlantic {mrts, 12 6 days to reach it by .the new route,
19 by the old, and 16 by tho middle j and having crossed 30" N., tho trade-winds
thence to the Equator, at this seiuion, are the same for all routes. Not so at other
seasons.

452

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

" Time Tabh by the Different Rowtea.

\f.

December Old route

„ Middle „

II New „

January Old „

• )i ■ ■ Middle „

„ New „

Februarj Old „

„ Middle „

„ New „

March Old „

„ Middle ^,

II New „

April Old „

i> Middle „

„ New „

May Old „

„ Middle „

„ New „

June Old „

'^ M . Middle „

,-;• New „

July Old „

„ Middle „

„ New „

August Old „

„ Middle „

„ New „

September .... Old „
„ Middle „

II New „

October Old „

„ Middle „

„ New „

November .... Old „
I, Middle „

» New „

LONG. OF OROSSmO—

DATS FEOM —

Distance from
30»N.toLine.

30° N.

Line.

Port to

30» N.

300 N.
to Line.

Longitttde.

Longitude.

Lays.

Bays.

Total Average

miles. per day.

32-2 W.

>5-5 W.

18-9

20-4

1835 equal 89

366

29-1

12-6

20-6

1860 „ 90

447

315

lOS

160

1965 „ 131

343

244

171

17-4

1885 „ 108

34*5

281

16-2

14-9

1830 „ 125

43'a

10-9

14-3

1960 „ 137

295

22-6

16-6

23-2

1835 „ 79

351

256

16-7

14-6

1870 „ 128

4a 5

30-2

11-8

14-3

. 1940 „ 135

31-2

237

16-4

20-9

I860 „ 89

282

14-2

17-2

1820 „ 106

4*5

11-6

16-3

1970 „ 121

3>4

2i-6

17-2

181

1835 „ 101

33'»

281

16-7

17-2

1825 „ 106

40-6

299

13-7

15-8

1910 ,. 121

22-8

19-4

1865 „ 86

364

291

19-5

20-2

1855 „ 92

41 -2

3»

12-9

16-6

1890 „ 114

3»'7

26-4

211

23-6

1830 „ 71

395

282

17-6

21-4

1920 „ 90

435

307

13-8

21-2

1945 „ 92

316

242

24-6

20-3

1850 „ 91

421

277

151

24-4

1990 „ 82

45 •>

30'5

205

2000 „ 97

316

a5 3

1830 „ 83

41-4

267

22-2

2000 „ 90

457

30'4

14-2

244

2010 „ 82

33-8

252

19-3

230

1867 „ 81

388

16-8

26-6

1880 „ 73

4' 7

3«5

16-8

16-4

1890 „ 115

289

267

20-7 -

1810 „ 87

»9-5

1815 „ 90

317

12-6

21-9

1930 „ 88

>5-8

17-7

18-9

1830 „ 97

344

28-9

20-2

19-8

1825 „ 94

4>-5

30.7

11-8

18-7

1940 „ 104

" From 30° N. to the line, the average distance sailed daily during the winter
months is 92 miles b^ the old route against 134 by the new. To what is this difference
owing P Are the ships that take the new route the faster P That can hardly be.
They arc better navigated I have no doubt, for, as a rule, the log-books show that.
But still that is not sufficient to account for all this difference. In winter a ship that
takes the new route from 30° to the line will go nearly as far, on the avera^, m one
day as she could go in a day and a half by the old rout«. This is owing, in a great
measure, to the fact that the new route lies through a region of the ocean where the
breezes are brisk, and brisk breezes always help to make both offlcors and crew brisk.
This great difference of time and speed is probably owing to this circimistanco more
than to any other."

a vessel
ing froj
its vi6l
gnfficiei
to the
storm.

anoe

from

ST. to Line.

Average

per day.

equal 89

131

108

125

137

>»

128

»»

135

106

121

101

106

»•

121

114

i»

>»

115

104

the winter
B difference
hardly be.
show that.
a ship that
0^, in one
, in a great
where the
crew brisk,
tanco more

( 453 )

13.— MONITIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS FOR VESSELS NAVIGATING ON
THE WESTERN SIDE OF THE ATLANTIC; by Mr. Redfield, of
New York.

1. Between the latitudes of 32' and 45° (the parallels of Geor^ and Nova Scotia)
a vessel bound to the eastward, on being overtaken by a gale which commences blow-
ing from any point to the eastward of S.E., or E.S.E., may avoid some portion of
its violence, by putting her head to the northward, and when the has veered
snfficiently in the same direction, may safely resume her course. But, by standing]
to the southward, in like circumstauces, she will probably fall into the heart of the
storm.

2. Within the same region, a vessel, on being taken in.a gale from S.E., or points
near thereto, will probably soon find itself in the heart of a storm ; and, after its
first fary is spent, may expect its recurrence from the opposite quarter. The most
promising mode of mitigating the effect of its violence, and at tu^ same time shorten-
ing its duration, is to stand to the southward upon the wind, so long as may be
necessary or possible ; and if the movement succeeds, the vnnd will gradually head
to the southwai-d ; and, if the wind does not veer, be prepared for a blast from
the north-west.

3. With the wind at East or N.E., a vessel, by scudding a gale, shortens its dura-
tion. By scudding, on the contrary, before a south-westerly or westerly gale, you
will thereby increase its duration.

4. A vessel, on pursuing her way to the westward or south-westward, meets the
storms in their course, and thereby shortens the periods of their occurrence ; and will
encounter more gales in an equal number of days, than if stationary, or sailing in a
contrary direction.

5. Vessels, on the other hand, while sailing to the eastward or north-eastward, or,
in the course of the storms, will lengthen the periods between their recurrence, and
consequently experience them less fi^equently than vessels sailing on a different course.

The difference of exposure, which results from these opposite courses, on the Ame-
rican coast, may, in most cases, be estimated as nearly 2 to 1. .-

6. The barometer, whether in the higher or lower latitudes, always sinks while
under the first portion or moiety of the storm on every part of its track, excepting,
perhaps, its extreme northern margin, and thus often affords the earliest and surest
indication of the approaching tempest. The mercury always rises a^oin during the
passage of the last portion of the gale, and commonly attains the maximum of its ele-
vation on the entire departure of the storm. The indications of the barometer ought
not to be neglected, even should the fall of the mercury be unattended by any
appearance of violence in the weather, as the other side of the gale will be pretty
sure to take effect, aift often in a manner so sudden and violent, as to more than com-
pensate for its previous forbearance. The pro^ostics engraved on the scale are not
to be regarded : the mere rising and falling oi the mercury are the particulars to be
attended to.

7. The vicissitudes of winds and weather which do not conform to the implied
specifications, are more fi^quent in April, May, and June, than in other months.
Easterly or southerly winds, under which the barometer rises, or maintains its eleva-
tion, are not of a gyratory or stormy character ; but such winds frequently terminate
in the falling of the barometer, and the usual phenomena of an easterly form.

SECTION IV.

^t■■ ui

/ /

, .■ itu- ...-i-

' Ur^> ,.

PARTIOULAE DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISIAND8
OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC; WITH DU?ECTIONS FOR SAIL-
ING AMONG THE ATLANTIC ISLES.

The Bbarinos and Courses are those by Compass, unless where otherwise ex-
proHsed: but those given ih\ia{^W.S.JF.'] signify the Tkub: and the given direction of
Wind, Tide, and Current, is to be considered as the Tuub.

1.— ENGLAND, IRELAND, FRANCE, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL.

It would be beyond the limits and scope of the the present work to enter into the
minute description and directions for the extensive line of coast of North-wcHtem
Europe, which would be sufHciont guide to the mariner, such details must bo sought
for in the special Sailing Directions which accompany each chart, and where all
necessary instructions are given.

This book being specially concerned with the general navigation and phenomena of
the ocean, only those more prominent features sought for m an over sea voyage in
the more fi-equentcd coasts, or those which may not be given in any other of our
publications are here alluded to.

THE EITOLISH CHAKHEL is amply described in our Sailing Directions for
the same, and on pages 378 to 381 arc given some useful remarks as to its general
navigation, with wnicn most sailors are now well acquainted. In passing from the
Strait of Dover westward, the first place where shelter may be found on the English
coast is Dungeness Bay. The lighthouses aro amply described in the lists in the
preceding part of the volume.

Dungeness lies 20 miles W.S.W. | "W. from the South Foreland, and 13 miles
S.W. by W. J W. from Folkestone. Upon it stands an excellent lighthouse and
buildings connected therewith, painted red. It shows a brilliant fixed light nt
92 feet. «

Dungeness forms a remarkable shingle point, projecting in a S.S.E. direction 4 milcit
beyond the fair line of the coast, afiording shelter in the East Bay from North round
westerly to East, or for niiiotucii points oi the compass. If there is any southing of
East in the wind there is no shelter in cither bay.

The quantity of bottom in both bays is fine sand over clay and mud, and excellent
holding ground throughout.

To the W. I S., distant 3^ miles from Dungeness lighthouse, lies the eastern end
of a narrow ridge of sand, called Stephenson Shoal ; it thence extends for nearly
three quarters of a mile in the same direction, ond carries a depth of from 19 to 23
feet water, with 4 or 5 fathoms around it. East Mill, at Lydd, on with No. 4 Coast
Guard Houses, bearing K.N.E. J E., clears the Eastern end in 5 fathoms; Rvf
Church on with the Ncw^Church spire near Rye Harbour, N.N.W. 1 W., T-lcars tnc
we»tcrii end in 27 feet ; Fairlight Church and Mill in one, leads half a mile to the

THE COASTS AND ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC. 456

and excellent

Bouth-west ; and the South Foreland and Dungeness Lights in one, three-qnarten of
a mile to the southward.

The West Road of Dangeness is that space between the first building to the west-
ward of the liehthouse, and the Black coast guard buildings at Jewrys Gap. It
affoi'ds good shelter against north-easterly winds with the wind as far to the south-
ward as E. by S.( and is much frequented by vessels bound to the northward. The
best anchorage, in about 6 fathomn, is with 'Romney Church tower in one with Lydd
Church, and Dungeness Lighthouse E. \ S. Smaller vessels may run Airther in
towards the beach, guarding always against a sudden shift of wind. The western
tide runs easy, and raords a good slack for running or working in.

East Road affords good shelter to vessels of all classes in from 4 to 12 fathoms,
upon pretty good holding ground with the wind between N. by E. and S.W. The
best position for anchoring is, Lydd Chuvch just open to the northward of No. 2 Bat-
tery, and the lighthouse bearing S.W. by W. J W., in 7 fathoms water.

The Royal Sovereign Shoals are o number of rocky banks which lie directly in the
track of vessels proceeding between Beachy Head and Dungeness. The principal
names to them ai'e, the Royal Sovereign, Horse of Willingdon, Elphick Tree, Rattan
Shoal, Kinsman Nab, Long Shoal, and Southern Head. The Royal Sovereign has
only 10 feet water on its shoalest part. It lies E.S.E. I E. 6 7-lOths miles irora the
signal house on Beachy Head, and the marks for the shoalest part are, the first tower
standing to the eastward of the Grand Redoubt at Eastbourne m one with the western
edge of Willingdon chalk-pit, and Fairlight Mill just opening of Hastings Castlo
Cliff. A nun buoy of large dimensions, painted black, and surmounted by a staff and
ball, is moored half a cable's length to the southward of the 10 feet natcli. The
Horse of Willingdon consists of s^no and rock, and lies N.W, by W. 2 nmes from the
Royal Sovereign Buoy.

Seaford Cliff, kept in sight to the southward of the pitch of Beachy Head, vdll lead
at least 2 miles to the southward of the Royal Sovereign Shoals. Beachy Head light,
kept open of the next eastern cliff, also leads outside all the shoals. Fairlight Mill,
in a line with the N.W. part of the cliff eastward of Hastings, leads to the eastward
of them.

In the Strait of Dover are some shoals of coarse sand and shells which very
much contract the navigation, of which the Vame and the Ridge are the most dan-
gerous. Besides these there is the BossurcUe with 22 feet, and the Vergoyer with
12 feet, least water. Their position will be known by the chart.

The Vame. the northernmost shoal, is steep-to, and runs in a N.E. by E. and S.W.
by W. direction, and is about 4^ miles in length between the depths of 7 fathoms at
each end ; its breadth varying from half to three quarters of a mile. The Hhoalest
water on it is 9 feet at about a mile from its north-east end. At its west end is a
light vessel showing a Quick revolving red light, and at 5 miles N.E. by E. ^ E. of it
is a red beacon buoy. There are strong ripplings over this bank both at springs and
neaps, and during tempestuous weather a heavy Bea, which would endanger any
vessel attempting t,o cross it. Folkestone Church seen between two conspicuous chalk-
pits on the face of the distant hills, N.W. by N., clears the north-east end of the shoal
m 7 fathoms, and leads a mile to the north-eastward of the shoal patch of 9 feet
which bears S. by W. \ W., 8| miles from Dover Castle ; and the eastern terrace at
Sandgate between the above chalk-pits N. I W., or the square tower of Lympne
Church on with Lympne Windmill, clears the south-west end.

The north-east end of the Ridge (or le Colbart) in 7 fathoms lies about 2 miles to
the south-eastward of the body of the Yarne, having 16 to 20 fathoms in the channel
between them ; it then takes a S.W. \ W. direction for about 8i miles to the same
depth, and is about three quarters of a mile broad. Like the former shoal, it is steep-
to, and composed of sand and broken shells, the shoal ])atchea lying in ridges acroc^s
the stream, which occasion strong eddies even at neap tides. There is much sea on
it durinff a weather tide, and in bad weather it breaks upon the shoalest parts ; no
vessel should therefore at that time attempt to crosK it under any circumntanees. The
shoalest water of 6 feet lies about 2j miles from the south west end, with the summit

1166

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS

of Mount Couple a little open to the southward of Cape Grisnez ; S.E. IE., 13| miles,
from Dungeness Lwhthouse, and W.N.W. \ W. 10| miles from Cafie Grisnes. The
mark for the north-eastern extreme of the shoal, in 7 fiithoms water, which bears
K.W. I N. 8| miles from Cape Griznez, is, the high trees at the back of Hythe in one
with the Swiss Terrace at Sandgate ; and Mont Lambert (a very conspicuous hill
pear Boulogne, with a fort on it) in one with the dome of the new cathedral in the
Upper Town of Boulogne, S.E. ^ E., or Sandgate Swiss Terrace between the two
cluuk'pits, N. \ E. or the Revolving Light on Cape Grisnez bearing E. | S., leads to
the southward of the south-western extreme in 9 mthoms.

From Beachy Head to the S.E. part, or Elbow, of the Owers (the light-vessel),
the bearing and distance are W. by N. 12 leagues ; and to St. Catharine s Point, on
the same bearing, the distance is 20 leagues. From Beachy Head to Selsea Bill the
coast trends in a curve ; but the direct bearing and distance are W.N.W., \ W.
\Z\ leagues.

Seqford Road. — Between Shoreham and Beachy Head the depths very gradually
decrease from the ofBng towards the land, and vessels may anchor all along the coast
with ofT-shoie winds in from 2 to 9 fathoms water ; but the anchofaro of most general
resort is that in Seaford Road, which lies between the tide mill which stands to tiie
eastward of Newhaven and the Mortella Tower near the beach at Seaford. The best
anchorage in the road is between the tower and Blatchington Battery, with Beachv
Head Lighthouse jtist shut in by tiie cliffs, over a bottom of sand, shells, and mua.
At this anchorage Beachy Head Cliffs will afford shelter with the wind as far southerly
88 E.S.E., and it is therefore superior to the western Bay of Dungeness. Seofora
Head is often mistaken for Beachy Head by vessels coming up channd within 4 or
6 miles of the land ; they may however be distinguished by ihete being a small build-
ing on the behest part of Beachy Head, whereas there is nothing on the former but
a conspicuous large green pactch on the face of it.

At nine miles westward of Seaford Roads is the town of Brighton, the lights of
which are conspicuous at nig|ht, and at 8 or 9 miles beyond this is Worthing, another
watering place. The coast is generally very low.

At 6 miles to the N.N.E. of Worthing is Chanctonberry ring, a larg^ circular thick

Sove of trees 964 feet above the sea, and is frequently the first object seen on making
e land. A reference to this object would often assist the mariner when all other
objects are too low or indistinct to be observed.

At 13 miles beyond Worthing is Selsea Bill, off which runs the line of shoals marked
at its S.E. point by the Owers Light-vessel, showing one light. These shoals are
described in the Directions for the Channel.

The anchorage in Pagham Bay between the Owers and the coast is familiar to sea-
men under the name of the Park, which is well sheltered from the violence of W.
and S.W., winds, but most unsafe with the wind anything to the eastward of south.
The holding ground is excellent, being a stiff clay under a thin crust of gravel ; but
the anchorage cannot be recommended as a refuge for large vessels owing to the fre-
quent and sudden shifts of wind, and the astonishing rapidity with which the sea
gets up. The above observation is particularly applicaole during the winter months,
for a long dreary night in the Park is anything but a desirable situation to be
placed in. : ' ■''" -

Small vessels may brin^ up with the Mixon Beacon bearing W.S.W., and Pagham
Watch House on with Chichester Spire, in about 3 fathoms at low water ; but laree
vessels should anchor further out and more to the eastward, with the spire to the
westward of Bow Hill, the Mixon Beacon bearing W. by N., and the Owers Light-
vessel S. by W. I W., both for geater depth of water and increased facility of getting
away from the coast, in the event of being surprised by a shift of wind. The nearer
the Mixon is approached, the stronger the tide runs.

SPITHEAD.— The limits of the best anchorage at Spithead are Southsea Castle N.E.
to E. by N., and Gilkicker Point N.N.W. to N.W. A good berth for large ships is
with Portsdown Windmill on the end of the trees on Portsmouth Lines N.E. \ N.u

IE., 13| miles
Grisnec. The
r, which bears
f Hythe in one
mspicaous hill
ithediral in the
ween the two
. I S., leads to

» lijfht-VBssel),
ine 8 Point, on
Selsea Bill the
V.N.W., i W.

rery gradually
long the coast
f moist general
L stands to tiie
ird. The best
, with Beachv
ells, and mua.
i far southerly
less. Seafoia
lel within 4 or
a small brnld-
he former bat

, the lights of
thing, another

circular thick
en on making
rhen lUI other

ihoals marked
ese shoals are

imiliar to sea-
iolence of W.
ard of south,
gravel; but
ng_ to the fre-
rhich the sea
inter months,
uation to be

aiid Pagham
er; butlarsfe
spire to the
)wers Light-
ly of getting
The nearer

a Castle N.E.
arge ships is
s N.E. i Ku

OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.

4«7

and Kickergill Tower on the western end of Monkton Barracks N. by W. f W. in
from 10 to 12 fothoms water ; but small firigates and vessels of li^ht draught may
berth themselves nearer to the Spit sand, in about 7 fiithoms, care being taken not to
open Kickergill Tower ^hmt the ea«t end of the jBarradu. Vessels moored should have
open hawse to the southward.

The navigation of the Solent and the excellent anchorage of Southampton Water,
with the entrance by the Needles Channel, will be found in oar Directions. They
require too much space to be described here. -^

In the southern part of Poole Bay the ground is clear, aild there is an open an-
chorage in 6 or 7 fiitnoms water, over sand and gravel, with Studland Church bearing
west 1| miles. In the northern part of the bay, however, are several patehes ^
dangerous rocks, with 6 and 7 &thoms between them.

Sludland Bau lies on the north side of Standfiut Point, and affords good anchorage
for small vessels during westerly winds ; and if a south easterhr gak should drive
them from their anchors, the banks withm are soft mud. The best anchorage is off
three remarkable projections in the chalk cliff, called the Yards, in about 2 ntthoma
water, and near me following bearings : — ^the Agglestone (a large square rock on a
small hill half a mile inland) open to the northwfunl of the coast guard buildings on
Red-end Point, W. by N. f N., and Old Hairy S.E. by S.

Porfland. — ^The Roads of Portland lie between Weymouth and the North end
of Portland, which bears firom the jetty of Wevmouth S. by W. ^ W., distant 2|
miles. In these roads the ground is excellent, in from 6 to 7 fathoms, with the North
Point of Portland bearing S. by W. Portland Castle S.W. about 1^ miles distant,
with the West CUfb of Portland just open, and Bellefield Hall on with Weymouth
or Sandsfoot Old Castle, N.N.W. f W. Iliere is also good ground in 12 and 13
fiithoms, witii the North Point of Portland S.S.W. ^ W. In these roads you wiU
ride safely with westerly and southerly winds.

The Bill, or southernmost point of Portland, lies W. by N. 6 leagues from St.
Alban's Head, and about 3| miles to the southward of the North point of the isle. It
has a white obelisk on ite extremity, and half a mile within it are two white light-
houses, which bear, when in one, N.N.W. i W., and are 1,509 feet apart. When in
one they lead between the Shambles and the Bill, but allowance should be made for
the set of the tide.

The lights of Portland are brilliant and nxed. Height of the high light, 194 feet
above the sea, and seen at 4 leagues. The latter is viable from W.N.W. seaward to
E.byN.

SHAMBLES. — The eastern end of the Shambles, a dangerous shoal, of coarse
shingle, sand, and shells, bears from St. Alban's Heaid W. ^ N. 11| miles, and from
the Bill of Portland, E.S.E. 4 miles. The bank extends thence W. by N. 2 miles,
and the West end lies with the Bill of Portland N.W. | W. 2| miles. It is steep all
round, having 14 fathoms close to it; but always shows itself bv' a break or ripple.
On its East and West ends are fh)m 6 to 7 fathoms ; but, near the middle, are only
11 feet at low water. The shoal, in fine weather, is always distinguishable by the
rippling. The tide rises over it about 10 feet perpendicular. Ite outer end is marked
by a light-vessel.

The breakwater abute on to the N.E. point of the island, and runs off shore in a
direct line East, by compass, for 3,500 feet ; but at the distance of 2,000 feet from the
shore is an opening of 4^ feet wide, between two circular heads of masonry. From
the eastern end it ciuTes round to a true North direction for 5,600 feet, making the
total length of the breakwater, when completed, 3,000 yards, or nearly 1^ miles. Its
outer extremity will be in 8 or 9 fathoms water, and the depth of 4 fathoms will be
found 1| miles vrithin the pier.

During the progress of the works, a red light is shown from the extremity of the
stage, elevated 30 feet, visible 8 miles off. As the stone thrown over during the works
extends beneath the water to some distance; vessels should net approach it
cable's lengtii. This x-efuge harbour affords shelter from nearly all winds.

y M

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISI,ANDS

TORBAY. — The entrance into the bay, fonned by Hob's Nose and Berry Head, ia
3^ miles 'wide, and the ground within is generally clear and good. In fsailipg in, yon
may, if necessary, keep close either to Berry Head or the Orestone. To sail oetween
the Orestone and Loadstone, keep nearly in mid-channel, taking care not to ap-
proach too near the Wesl side of the Orestone, as the water is shoal for half a
cable's length from the rock on that side. To the S.W. by S., a little more than a
cable's, length from the Orestone, there is a suuken rock, with only 6 or 8 feet over it
at low water.

Ships may anchor in Torbay in 6, 7, 8, and 9 fathoms ; the ground is strong clar,
and remarkably good. The common marks for anchoring are, Berry Head Soutn,
8. by E., or S.S.E., and Brixham Church on with the pier-head. The best ground is
about a mile a from Brixham pier-head, in 7 fathoms of water ; but ships may ride,
well sheltered, on the North siae. A g^eat swell is forced into the bay by easterly
winds ; but, about 1| miles from Brixham pier-head, there is an underset to windwara,
by means of which ships ride easier than m other parts of the bay. In general, the
deeper that you anchor in the bay, the better will be the riding, bemg more out of the
stream. From the middle of the bay, in 7 fa^oms, Berry Head l^ars S.S.E., and
the Orestone E.N.E. Small vesseb commonly lie aground at Brixham, on the South
side, and at Torquay, on the North side, of the bay.

Dartmonfh. — The entrance of Dartmouth Harbour lies nearly 2 leagues from
Benv Head, and about 7 miles to the N.E. of the Start Point. It is situated between
two aiffh lands, within which is an excellent harbour, sufficiently capacious to contain
90d sau of yessels, secure fh>m aU winds, in frt>m 7 to 15 fathoms.

2^e coast between Berry Head and the entrance of Dartmouth Harbour is rocky;
but the rocks, some of which are above vrater, as represented on the charts, do not
extend more than three-quarters of a mile off, but they require the utmost caution.

The entrance of the harbour is narrow, and the opening does not readily unfold
itself to vessels coming team, the soutJiward : the square steeple, however, of Stoke
Fleming; Church, which stands very conspicuously near a white house upon the land
to the «outh-we6tward of the harbour's mouth, as shown in the chart, will serve to
mark iu. position nearly, until, by a nearer approach, Kingswear Old Castle and St.
Petrox Church become visible. St. Petrox Church and Dartmouth Caatle are on the
western side of the entrance, within St. Petrox Point.

A fixed light, of a deep red colour, is shown from the tower of the castle on St.
Petrox Point, at the height of 41' feet above the level of high water, and visible when
bearing between N.W. ^ N. and N. by E. at the distance of 7 miles.

Ships coming in from sea, if obliged to wait for an oppHortunity of enterii^, gene-
rally anchor without, in the part called the Range, within BlacKstone and Froward
Points, which has a depth of from 7 to 10 fathoms. Here they lie safely when the
wind does not blow in ; and when it does, it will lead into the harbour. From S.W.
to E.S.E., the wind blows true in, and from N.W. to N.E. true out : all other winds
blow in flaws. Pilots are always ready, with boats for toviring and a steam-tug
whenever required: a signal may, therefore, be hoisted for one, when approaching the
Bang^.

Exclusive of the Mewatone, and other rocks above water, which lie on the eastern
side of the Range, there are several sunken rocks, extending outward to the distance
of 150 fathoms from the shore on the same side. For the outermost of these rocks the
mark is a house, with a balcony, on the North end of Custom-house Quay, bearing
N.N.W., on with the easternmost end of Dartmouth Castle. This mark, vrill, there-
fore, lead clear of the rest. The Castle Ledge Buoy i^ black, and lies in 4J fathoms,
with St. Petrox Church in line with the centre of a grove of trees on the back land,
N.N.W., and a conspicuous double pointed rock off Comb Point in line with the house
on Sladton Rock, W. | S. On the western side of the Range is the Homestone, a
rock having only fl feet over it at low water, which lies about 200 fathoms S.S.W.
from a high and steep rook, called the Blackstone, lying near the western shore. The
buoy on it is black and white, in circular stripes, and lies in 7 fathoms, with Kinj^swear
Old Castle, its breadth open of the Blackstonw Beach, N.E. f N. j and Stoke * leming

OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.

460

Church, its len^ down the slope of Comb Point, W. by N. The ladcQe of tiie
Blackstone bearing N.E. by N., and on witii Kingswear Cietle, is the mark fbr the
Homestone.

The PiK Hook, a tery formidable danger, lies one-third of a mile eastward <^ the
Homestone. Although well known to tne fishermen and pilots, it has only recently
been placed on the Government charts, having escaped tiie vigilance of former sur-
veyors. On the Pins Point a depth of 13 feet was found, ana it may perhaps have
less water.

The cross marks for the 13 feet are : the East Blaoksto^e and south point of
Mowstone in one, E. | S., and Daitmouth Caetle flag-staff in one with a white house
in trees on Yarrow Bank N. ^ W. ; the same house open of Battery Point clears it to
^e eastward, and shut in with St. Petrox Church, to the westward. There is a safe
channel between the Pin and the Homestone.

The following mark is to be observed as a thwart mark for the Sunken Booka on the
East side. To the eastward of Dartmouth is a red point, beneath which, near the,,
water, the earth appears black, and there is a white stone in the red part above.
When the white stone comes directly over the black part below, you will be abreast.
of the rocks. The town ^uay, if it can be seen, kept on with the middle of the
entrance of the harbour, will lead clear of them.

To sail in for Dartmouth from the eastward, with a leading wind, firom off the
Mewstone steer for Comb Point, until you bring Kingswear Point on with JDart-
moath Castle ; thence, by steering with this mark on, you will clear the eastern
ledge. When nearly abreast of the Blackstone, keep the castle open on l&e port'
bow, until the southernmost house in Kingswear is ojpen of Dartmouth Castle
Point. This mark leads clear of the rock called the Cheekstone, whence you may
run in and anchor. A chequered black and white buoy, and marked " Cheekstone," is
placed in 3f fiithoms water, about 25 or 30 fathoms S.E. of the rock. -From it the
bearing is, the southernmost house at Kingswear, touching the point under St. Petioz,

To sail in firom the westward, with a leading wind, give a good berth to the Comb's
Bocks, which lie off the shore on the West side ; then steer to the eastward, until
Kingswear Castle is open to the eastward of the Blackstone. This mark kept on
will carry you clear of the Homestone. With Stdce Church shut in, you will nave

Cd the Homestone, and may steer for the Blackstone. Having passed the latter,
^ Dartmouth Castle on the port bow, and proceed as above.

Great inconvenience attends the ingress to, and egress from, Dartmouth Harbour,
in consequence of the frequent and violent flaws of wind, which issue very suddenly
from the high lands. Therefore no square-rigged vessel should attempt to enter or
leave the harbour without a leading wind. Between S.W. by S. and S.E. by E. the
winds blow truly in, and as truly out when between N.W. W N. and N.E. Even
cutters cannot always succeed in getting to sea with S.W. winds.

Start Point may be well known from its rugged oock's-comb-like appearance \
the hillocks on its nde within the lighthouse are Eve in number, each about 200 feet
in height. Peartree Head, within the point, rises to 386 feet.

There are no dangers in the vicini^ of its projecting points to the south and S.W.,
except the Pear Tree, the Stait, and Chcrrick Bocks ; the latter lies S. % W. upwards
of 2 cables' lengths from the point, and is just awash at low water springs. A sunken
rock, with only 12 feet water over it, also lies at the same distance due east from the
lighthouse ; to avoid it a vessel should not shut in the Village of Hall Sands with the
Start Point, until the Pear Tree Rocks open out to the southward of the Start Rocks,
when, by giving the latter a berth of about 2 cables' lengths, she may proceed to
the westward.

A Lighthouse htCs been erected upon the Start at 140 yards its extreme point; it is
a stone tower 94 feet high, exhibiting a powerful revolving light, at an elevation of
204 feet above high water, and showing a bright flash every minute to seaward, till
it comes to the bearing of W.S.W., on which it is eclipsed, and mav be seen in clear
weaiucr at the distance of 19 miles. A fixed light is also shown u the same tower,

y^'

460

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS

fi.'

^ fipef <^ott INg}i wator, in the direction of Bernr Head, visible only when the
nt bvarfl W | 8. and S.W. by S., to goioe yeMele to Dartmouth and the
'«d.

To thi irth-eMHl ward of tho Stort lies a dangerous bank of pulverised shell and
fine gravel, ofUled tho Skerries.

To avoid the Skerries at night, a vessel should not approach them witliin 20
fathohis water ; and in coming from tho northward, if wishing to run to the westward
of them, she should keep the fixed light on a S.W. ^ S. bearing, and pium the Start
at a distance of a quaiter of a mile on its northern side, and half a mile on the
jpputhcrn. When Start Light bnvMi N.W. } W., ahe will be to the southward of tho

(ffciJ-WS.

Thtf Eddyitone Liffhthotue, with its fixed light, bears E. ^ S. 38^ miles tram the
Lirnrd, and W.N.W. f W. 18 miles from Bolt Head, near Salcombe. It has been
painted with a broad rad stripe, which will distinguish it at once from the Bishop
Rock Lighthouse.

From the Eddystone lighthouse, at the distance of 3| miles, N.W. by N. by N ,
there is a bed of sunken rocks, called the Hand Ikept, which lie nearly in the fnir-
way of ships bound bound ftt>m the westward for Plymouth Sound. On the sh/ aU;^*
part is a pomted rook (so far as can be judged by the lead), on the shoalust vn .:
which are fh>m 22 to 24 feet at low water spnng tides. The shoal has, comuioiAU, ^
ground swell on it } and, with a S.W. gale and ebb tide, the sea here rj^ is very high,
so that a ship may depress (or tenet) 5 or 6 feet.

_ The best mark for clearing this dangerous shoal is ftimished by the Breakwater
lighthouse, in one with with Penlee Point, E. by N. ; it leads a lonv mile to the
northward of them, and a mile to tiie S.E. of them when in one with Mount Batten
in Plymouth SouAd; N.E. by E. f £.

PLYXOUXA SOIJHD Ib the most capacious and secure harbour in South Britain,
The magnificent Breakwater is fi,000 feet long, at its West end is the lighthouse,
showing a red light seawud, and bright northward of S.W. i W. over the anchorage
within. Below this red light is a leading bright light, visible only when between
the buoys marking tiie western on' vonoe. A large bell is tolled in fogs or sno^v
storms. -■•.-^^' ■;:•-<■' -.'?' . ;.

■J ...» ■, /f : _ /f ^ -

On the East end of the breakwater is a beacon, a granite obelisk, rarmountcd by a
staff and ball. 'This ball is so constructed that ten persons might find shelter witnin
it should they be oast away on the bi'eakwater.

Besides these standing marks the Trinity Corporation have placed an obelisk, or
beacon, on tiie Hoe, at the head of the Sound, which has since been heightened, and
painted red and white in horizontal stripes. ,^, ,^ .

The entrance of Plymouth Sound is distinguished on the eastern side by two re-
-narkable laif^ rocks, which lie upon the extoemity of reefs that stretch fitim shore.
Jf these rocks the southernmost is called the Mewatone ; the northernmost, the
Shagatone. The first lies nearly S.W. by S., half a mile from Wembury Point, or
the S.E. point of the Sound, and has, just without it, a sr . s' f v n*?. Mailed the Littk
MetDstone, from which a shoal stret* > "s to the W.S.W. ncr'ly ''^ ;--1jI ■:'' lengths.

The bearing and distance from the Great Metoatone i '.■ . 2 lud are N.W. by
W. I W. 4| miles, and to Penlee Point N.W. by W. ^ mues. The entrance of Ply-
mouth Soimd lies between the two latter, and it may, fh)m a distance, be readily
known ; tJie land over Plynouth being high double land. On a near approach, Rame
c^n; -^h will appear open to the northward of Rame Head, and the square tower of
Pen will be seen standing upon the highest part of the land over Penlee Point,
wluc'i, '^■ndi: t>ife more certain mark.

•

K..'ru-' > JSi^EV. V..1' Kenntf Socks, appears like a black rock, lying N. by W. nearly
1 mil ' I'rvf tb: Mewstones, and at about one-eighth of a mile from shore. At the
distance oi t crible's lengtu vV.N.W. | W. from the islet stands the Shagatone.

Tho TiNKE^Ji, and the Knap and Panther, arc well known as the princinal shoals

nly when the
nouth and the

riied sholl and

eim Mritlun 20
the westward
pvm the Start
I mile on the
thward of the

miles from the

It has been

om the Biahop

.byN.byN, |
ly in the fnir- j^
)n the eh/ aU'^*.
loaluet t<:(.it ,):'
I, comuioii! v^, a
ij 18 very high,

le Breakwater
nff mile to the
Mount Batten

South Britain,
he lighthouse,
the anchorage
^hen between
fogs or snow

mounted by a
ihelter witoin

an obelisk, or
ightened, and

ie by two rc«
fa from shore,
lemmost, tiie
lury Point, or
ed the LiUk
engths.

are N.W. by
ranee of Vlj-
be readily
proach, Rame
lare tower of
Penlee Point,

)y W. nearly
lore. At the
jstone.

ncipal shoals

OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.

461

in the lower nart of the Sound, v }t these, the outer one is the Tikkeb. This shoal,
wUch it a caole's Idngth broad, atrctuhca nearly one-quarter of a mile East and West,
and its western extremity lies N.N.W. | W. more thtui 1} miles fttimthe Little Mew-
atone. It has on it from 10 foot t" 3| fathoins of water. The shoalcst part of the
wofltem end, on which, without tho depth of 14 feet, there is a white buoy, lies with
Penlee Point (the S.W. point of the Sound) nn with a dark square spot in the valley
to ^e northward of Rame Head, Soaring W. i. / N. f N., and tho flagstaff on Mount
Wise and the spire of St. John's chapol in one N. | £.

There is also a tohUe buoy on the eastern side of the Tinker, which marks tho
Eattern Channel. With the Bolt Head open to tho southward of tho Mewstone, or
hidden behind it, you will be well to liio southward of tho Knap and the Tinker.

The Knap and Panther are extremities of one rocky lodge, upon which thero are 3t
3}. 9nC i futhoms of water. This ledge is more tiian one-third of a milo in length*
trd ■ jct.-nds in the direction of N.E. by E. | £, and S.W. by W. | W. Each end ia

li i*i -jp .','.ied by a bluck buoy.

A reet extends S.S.E. } E. nearly a quarter of a milo from Penloe Point, and
i'^rminates in a sunken rook of 12 foot of water, called the Draystone. A checquered
I- J and white buoy has been placed on it. It lies in 5| fathoms, 2 cables' lengths
from the point, with Tor House (whitewashed and conspicuous) on with high water
mark of JEtedding Point, and the Breakwater beacon on with tho upper comer of the
northernmost quarry at Bovisand.

WESTERN CHANNEL.— This channel, lying to the westward of the Knap and
Panther, has sufficient depth for the largest smps ; and is now the pnncip<U channel
to Plymouth Sound.

Ships coming in here, for the Sound, should, in the first instance, to clear the Dray-
stone, as well as the Knap and Panther, bring Plymouth church spire in a line mth
the 'frinity red and white beacon, on the Hoe. A better mark than this is, to bring
breakwater liffhthouse in a line with the white tower on Mount Batten . To keep to
the southwardof it, you may keep the end of Bovisand Pier in a line with or open to
i^.e southward of the beacon on the East end of the breakwater.

The leading mark throng the channel is, the breakwater lighthouse in line with
the white tower on Moimt Batten, at the entrance to the Catwater, bearing N.E. by
E. I E.

There is generally a good deal of sea runninff during the ebb tide, near tho West
end of the breakwater. Near the West end of the work a ship is very liable to miss
stays in working out, bv reason of a cross sea and an eddy tide. Tne ship should,
therefore, be put about before she gets too near to the West end of the work, in order
to avoid the risk of missing stays and drifting upon it.

To sail in during the night, bring the Eddystone light S.W., and steer N.E. by N.
or N.E. by E., according to wind and tide, untilyou make out the breakwater light,
which should be brought to bear N.E. by E. Continue in this direction v itil the
water shoalens to 9 or 10 fathoms, which will be about three-quarters of a n ile from
Penlee Point ; this side being the safest to run in by in the night, or in thick weather.
Be careful to go no nearer to the point than in 9 fathoms, as this depth is b it little
more than half a mile from the shore. With the point W.N.W., you will bt above
tho danger, and may then steer for Cawsand Bay, according to circumstances.

The EASTERN CHANNEL into Plymouth Sound should not be attempted^
vessels of any considerable draught of water, unless with a fr«e wind, because of the
numerous rocks which are scattered in its vicinity, and the occasional send or depres-
sion of the sea there, with south-westerly and south-easterly winds. • The mark for
tlus Channel is, to bring the Beacon on the eastern end of the Breakwater in one
with the Beacon on the Hoe bearing N. by E. J E. easterly, which will lead bet~een
the Tinker and the Shagstone, and nearly up to the Breakwater in 6, 4, and 5 fatiioms
water.

In the centre of tho fair-way. however, are three rocky patches, of 24 and 18 feet
water, at low-water springs, the eastern eztremitieB of which rather encroach upon

463

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS

this line of direction } two of these lie nearly half a mile to the southward of tlio
Breakwater, the tiurd about one cable's lengtn { all three are marked by block and
white checkered buoys ; the Tinker by white buoys ; and the shoal bank (which ex-
tends from the eastern shore and the Sh^stone) by two red buoys. The above mark
will lead in between these biioys, and is to be continued till Maker tower comes in
one with the sl^al-staff on the Breakwater ( then steer towards Staddon point, so as
to bring the spire of Plymouth new church exactly in a line with the centre of Tor
house, which will cloor the latter shoal alluded to (the one of 18 feet). The Break-
water may be rounded for the anchorage at the distance of 60 or 80 fathoms, leaving
the Leekoed and Duke rock to the northward. At night the light on the west Bar-
bican pier-head, open of Mount Batten, bearing N.N.E. | E., leads through. There is
no anchorage in this channel.

When running into or out of the Sound in the daytime upon any of the before-
mentioned leading marks, bear in mind that, so lon^ as the Bolt Head contfnucs in
sight to the southward of the Mowstonc, you are without or to the southward of all
the shoals, and that the Bolt Head shut in with the Mowstone, ranges very clowly
upon the tails of both the Tinker and Knap.

FALMOITTH' — From Rame Head to St. Anthony's Point the hearing and dis-
tance is W. ^ N. 32 miles. The hoi-bour of Falmouth is one of the best in England.
Its advantages arise partly from its peculiar situation, and partly from the influx of
several rivers. The entrance is formed by the bold rocky coast of St. Anthony'y
Head on the East, on which is the revolving li(;ht, and by the headland called Pen-
dcnnis Point on the West. This latter is distinguished by Pendennis Cttstle, which
stAuds over it, on the summit of a hill. From tue Point of St. Anthony to that of
Pendennis, the bearing is N.W. by W., distance exactly 1 mile.

Within St. Anthony's Head, on the East side, are the castle and town of St.
Mawes, which stand on the North side of St. Mawcs' Creek, or the entrance of tho
River Penkule ; and within Pendennis Castle, to the N.W., stands the town of Fal-
mouth.

In the entrance qf^ the harbour, at the distance of one-third of a mile to the S.E. bv
E. I E. of Pendennis Castle, and E. | S. from Pendennis Point, is a rock called Fal-
mouth or the Black Rock, which is uncovered, in spring tides, from 2\ hours ebb to
3J hours flood. There is a beacon upon it, lately renewed, which HufRciontly indicutcg
its situation. Without this rock, at tho diHtunce of about a cable's length, S.I-i. by
E. 4 E., is a rocky shoal of 10 feet of wati>r, which lies with the garrison flagstufl'ou
ninth the rock perch. Between this shoal and some rocks which he off St. Anthony's
Head, is the usual entrance into the harbour.

Without the entrance of the harbour is the Outer Anchorage, or what may be moro

Sropcrly called Falmouth Outer Road, ttora St. Anthonv's Point toward the Muiinclc
Locks, where there is good anchorage with the harbour s mouth open, equal in point
of riding to Mevagizev Boy, superior to Cawsand Bay, and very little inferior to
Torbay, with the wina fi-om S.W. round to the westward, and northward to the N.E.
paint of the compass.

The marks for the Old Wall, or Pinnacle Rock, which lies to the eastward of this
anchorage, arc, a small white bowling-green house, at Flushing (on the North side (if
the river, opposite Falmouth), bearing N. by W. J W., just over tho northernnioHt or
inner part of Pendennis Land ; and Milor roint, nearly North, halfway between St.
Anthony's Punt and the extremity of the low rocks running off it. St. Mawcn'
Castle is, at the same time, hid by St. Anthony's Point.

A vessel firom th'^ westward bound t« Falmouth by night should keep the Lizard
lights in sight to tltu southward of tho Boast until St. Anthony light bears N.N.E.,
to clear the Manacles.

In the daytime the Beast should bo kept open of Block Head ; and when St. An-
thony lighthouse boors N.N.E.,keep it on tfiot bearing till Killigonnoon house is in
one with Peiiarrow or Mylor Point, bearing N. i E. contcrly; which v,'ill lead in
through tho eaatern ohannei, and through the narrows between the white buoy on

Iiward of tlio
by block and
k (which ex-
e above mark
WOT comes in
in point, 80 as
centre of Tor
The Break-
lioms, leaving
;he west Bar-
igh. There is

jf the bcfore-
l contl'nucs in
thward of all
9 very closely

ring anddis-
in Enffland.
the influx of
It. Anthony's
d called Pcn-
[)ttstle, which
>ny to that of

1 town of St.
trance of tho
town of Fal-

p the S.E. by
sk called Fat
houra ebb to
ntly indii'utcs
gth, S.E. by
n Hagstuffou
Anthony's

may bo more
the Muniu'lc
luul in point
e inferior Ic
I to the N.E.

vard of this
orth Hide of
lerninost or
)otwceii St.
8t. Mawes'

tho Lizard

krs N.N.E.,

ion St. An-
houMC is in

'ill ivdu in

ito buoy on

m^ti'.i'^i OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.

Hmt

463

Falmouth bank and the Uatk buoy on St. Mawes Bank, into Cerrick Road, where a
vessel may anchor in from 12 to 18 fathoms, or proceed on until Budoc Church comes
over the rising ground of Trefusis Point, or the Summer House is in one with Fal-
mouth Church bearing W. by S., which will lead through the Cross Road, till St.
Keveme Church comes over Pendcnnis Point, bearing S.W. ; with which mark she
may anchor in St. Just Pool in from 12 to 15 fathoms, over a muddy bottom.

In hazy weather, a vessel should give St. Anthoc^ Point a berth x>f 2 or 3 cables'
lengths, and run in with the land of St. Mawes about a point on the starboard bow,
and then steer for Penarrow Point. She should not approach the land of St. Mawes
nearer than .2 cables' lengths, nor St. Mawes Bank within 9 or 8 fathoms. With
the wind at East she wriU sail in free on the starboard tack, and at W.N.W. on the
port tack.

Western Channel. — ^Vessels not drawing more than 18 feet may safely pass between
the Black Hock and Pendennis Point, and at half tide there is water for ships of the
Une. By taking the centre of the channel, and steering a N. by E. course, it will
lead up between the black and white buoys ir. the narrows ; or vAen the Black Rook
beacon and lighthouses are in one, steer for St. Mawes Castle until Killagannoon
House comes on with Penarrow Point, bearing N. \ E., and proceed as before. In
this channel a vessel will sail in free on the port tack, with the vrind a N.W. by W. ;
and although the high land of Pendennis may cause it to baffle, there is no danger to
be apprehended when she has shot within the Black Rock.

THE LIZABJ). — The Lizard is a bold land, which lies 5 miles W. by S. from
Blackhead, and W. \ N. 12J leagues from tho Eddystone. It may be seen 7 or 8
leagues off, in from 40 and 42 fathoms of water, and may be readily known by the
two lighthouses which are erected upon it. These lighthouses, with Jixed lights,
about 222 feet above the level of high water, when in a line, bear W. l N. and E. J
S.| 223 feet trom each other, and may be seen 6 or 7 leagues off. The towers are
white.

This headland is one of the most noted among English navigators, as it is from
hence that ships take their departure from the English Channel ; and it is also the

Eroperest plnce for a landffiU, when homeward bound. The position of the high light-
ouse, according to the grand trigonometrical survey, is lat. 49° 67' 34", and long.
6" 12 4' W.

MOTJNT'S BAY. — This spacious bay lies to the N.E. of the Lizard, and is par-
ticularly distingmshod by the high island called St. MichaeVt Mount.

St. Michael's Mount, which gives name to Mount's Bay, is a remarkable and
picturesque isle, near the village of Marazion, 14 miles N.N.W. (by compass) from
the Lizard Point, and 2 miles E.S.E. from Penzance pier. On its summit is a church
and residence. At the bottom on the N.E. side is a small harbour. At low water
there is a diy passage to the isle from the main land.

Upon its eastern side, at about 4 miles from the Lizard, and at a small distance
from shore, lies a remarkable craggcd rock, called the Gull Rock ; ships bound up
Channel, if opposed by an easterly or S.E. wind, may run in on the North side of
this rock, and nere And shelter, near the shore, in 8 fathoms of water ; but great care
must be exercised in order to guard against a sudden shift of wind.

On the West aide of the Bay there is tolerable riding in Guavas Lake, near Newlyn

St. Paul bearing N.W. by W. ^ W. The latter has « feet over it, ond lies about one
quarter of a mflc North from the former, with St. Paul's Church on with a long
hedge, appealing ond on, al>out halfway between Penlea Point and Newlyn, and l>ear-
ing W. by N. Between these rocks, there is a depth of 10 fathoms.

In the winter scuhou the anehorngo in Guavas Lake ought not to be renorted to but
as a preliminary to entering tho i)ier of Penzance, or that of Mount St. Michael. In
approaching the shore from the olfing between the Lizard and Land's End, the depths

464

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS

of water vill be gradually found to diminish, and the bottom is mostly of coarse
sand, interspersed with Wnole and broken shells.

Near the shore, between Mount's Bay and the Land's End, there are several danger-
ous rocks. The first is the Rundleatone, a small rock, about 4 yards long and 2 broad,
the base of which is dry at low water, and covered before half flood. It has a fine
conical stone beacon on it. From this beacon the lighthouse on the Longships, here-
after noticed, bears N. 19° W. distant nearly 4 mfles ; the flagstaff on Point Tol-
Pedan-Penwith N. 7° E. three-quarters of a mile ; with the point distant a quarter of
a mile. The ground without the Rundlestone is clear, but there are rocks and foul
ground to the eastward and northward of it ; therefore a passage within it cannot be
recommended to strangers.

The Wolf Rock and Beacon : the rock, which is barely covered at high water in
neap tides, bears from the Land's End, or the westernmost point of land, S.W. | W.
6 miles distant. Between the Rundlestone and this rock, there are ftora. 20 to 36
fathoms of water. It is steep on ail sides, and has within a cable's length of it from
30 to 40 fiithoms all round.

The sea makes such a roaring on it, that the noise may, in moderate weather, be
heard a great way off.

longshipi.— About 3 miles N.N.W. J W. from Tol-Pedan-Penwith, or the
S.E. pomt of the Land's End, and 1 mile W.N.W. from the westernmost point, lie
the high rocks called the Long»hip» ; which extend in a North and South d'j'c on,
about naif a mile.

Upon the largest of these rocks stands the lighthouse, with fixed light, \«'hich was
erected in the year 1795, and the lantern of which is lighted with Argand lumps and
reflectors, so as to be clearly seen from Point Tol-Pedan-Penwith to Cape Com\rall.
From the light. Point Tol-Pedan-Penwith bears S.S.E. \ distant 34 miles ; Cape
Cornwall N.E. f E. 4 miles ; the Brissons N.E. \ N. 3| miles ; the Rundlestone S.S.E.
southerly, nearly 4 miles ; the Wolf Rock S.W. southerly, 7f miles ; and the light-
house of St. Agnes, Scilly, West, northerly, 25 miles.

Shipt aailinff down the Engliah Channel, and bound rotmd the Land's End, cannot
make the light till it bears N.N.W. \ W., or open of Point Tol-Pendan-Penwith (on
account of the high land which covers it, from this point to Cape Cornwall^ ; but
having seen it, and brought it to bear N. 19" W., will have the Rundlestone m the
direction of the light ; and by bringfing the light to bear N. by W., or North, may
steer safely for the lisht, clear of the Rundlestone and all danger, and may give the
!i<rht any convenient berth, as the westeitimost rock of the Longships lies on^ about
half a cable's length from the lighthouse.

8hip$ hound from the 8. W. of the light to the northward must be carefril to keep
this light clear of a N.E. direction, on account of the Wolf Rock { but by keeping
the li^t a point or two to the eastward or northward of this direction, till thcv huvc
passed the Wolf, may with certainty avoid it ; and the same observations will hold
good if bound to the southward, for both these rocks.

Shipt bound either northward or southward, when they are to the northward of the
light, ought to keep it a point or two to the southward of S.W. \ S., in order to go
to the westward of the Ih-issons, which arc two high and bold rocks, or islets ; but
there is no safe passage between them and Cape Cornwall.

LAND'S END- — The cape called the Land's End is so hi^h as to be seen in clear
weather 8 or leagues off. When first seen at a distance it appears in two round
hummocks, on the highcNt of which is a spire steeple ; upon nearer approach, on the
outermost point another spire will appear. By these objects the Land's End may be
readily known ; but at all times the Longships lighthouse will indicate its situation.

Cape Cornwall lies N.N.E. l E. about 3| miles from the Land's End. In the bay
between, called Whiteaand Bay, which lies about a mile to the northward of the

i„ _ij_ :_ i\.«_ if«

AULlvi , fcnncin lliuv x iUC ill livill 11/

OK A.^1

^U lULllUUlO,

11 _1,„1a J i» ■»? -^T t\

wL-ti BiiuiiiTcu iram rj.i>i.J%

nnu

easterly to S.S.E. winds j but the danger arising from westerly winds makes it littlo

ly of coarse

reral danger-
and 2 broad,
[t has a fine
g^ipa, here-
i Point Tol-
: a quarter of
icks and foul
it cannot be

igh water in

•om 20 to 36
h. of it from

weather, be

dth, or the
ost point, lie
ith o'li-cc on,

it, \»rhich •was
ml lumps and
ipe Cornwall,
miles ; Cape
estone S.S.E.
md the light-
End, cannot
Penwith (on
rnwall^; but
stone m the
p North, may
may give the
)8 onfy about

refill to keep
jy keeping
1 they have
8 will hold

kward of the
order to go
ir islets ; but

lecn in clear
two round
vach, on the
End may he
« situation.

In the boy
ward of the

Fi.i^.i^. mm
ikes it little

■4k^&

OF -THE NORTH ATLANTIC.

a:i(i

46d

fref|uented. The South side of the bay is formed W Peddenmeandue Point, from
which the ground is foul and rocky to half a mile N. W.

The islands of Scilly consist of a great many smally isles, islets, and rocks above
water, surrounded by innumerable rocks and ledges, some of which appear at half
tide, others at low water, and the greater part not at cU. Many have 6, 5, 4 feet on
them at low water spdng tides. The channeb or passages into the harbours are
called Sounds. They are dangerous, but well known to the fishermen of the islands,
who act as pilots. With an easterly wind, a number of pilot boats are on the look-
out for vessels frtun the westward. :^■i<i-i^J)^'»'.,■-:':u:^^i<.r■'>'.■-■■y!'

ST. AONES, which is also called the LioHTfiousS Island, lies nearly 1| miles to
the S.W. of St. Mary's. It is the southernmost of the Scilly Islands, exclusive of a
group of large rocks, which cannot properly be called islands. To the westward of
thete is that called the Oilstone, where Sir Cloudesley Shovel, in the Association man-
of-war, was lost in 1707. Shipwrecks have been too frequent about these islands.

The Lighthouse is the principal ornament an ^ great support of the island. It standi
on the most elevated ground, built with stone from the foundation to the lantern. It
was built in 1680, and is 53 feet high. It is a commodious structure ; and being
plastered white, is a usefril daymark to all ships coming from the southward. The
hght is revolved every minute, and in clear weather it may be seen at more than 6
leagues off; the lantern being 138 feet above high water mark. According to the
Grand Trigonometrical Survey the latitude of this Eghthouse is 49° 53' 30" ; and its
longitude from Greenwich, 6° 20' 40 ' W.est.

The S.W. DANGERS of Scillt are those called the Bishop and Clerks, com-
posed of a high rock, called the Bishop, on which is a lighthouse, and of several ledges
to the South and East. The Bishop's Ridge, having a race upon it, lies nearly a mile
to the South of the Bishop, with the lighthouse on St. Agnes bearing East, 4 miles
distant.

THE BISHOP LIGHTHOUSE is one of the most important ntruotures in the
English lighthouse system. It is a noble gpranite tower. It ohows a brilliant fixed
light at 110 feet above high water.

Being placed to the S.W. of all the danglers around the Scilly Isles, it renders the
approach to them much easier than heretofore ; inasmuch as it was almost the only
dangerous quarter frt)m which to make them, and now the interior anchorages can be
much more readily reached with confidence by the aid of it and the St. Agnes
Lighthouse.

The ^at importance of the Scilly Islands arises from their advantageous situation,
as lookmg equally into St. George's Channel, which divides Great Britain from Ire-
land, and into the English Channel, which separates England from France. From
this reason many chips, when the wind is favourable, in coming in frx)m the S.W.,
endeavour to moke the islands, in order to steer their course with greater certainty.
It is also sometimes convenient for vchkcIs to take shelter among them rather than
beat about at sea in bad weather, and a strong gale at East Mrill be frequently the
means of bringing in numerous vessels. Upon firing a gun, and making a waft, a
boat immediately puts off from the nearest island with pilots.

In coming from the southward you will descry Scilly, in clear weather, at the
distance of (J and 7 leaeues, and have 60 fathoms, with grey sand, broken shells ; you
may also see the land from the southward, in 65 fathoms of water, stony ground with
some shells ; but at 7 leagues distance to the northward, you will have sand and oaze
mixed together.

From the lighthouse of St. Agnes, the Lizard bears E.S.E., distant 14 1 leagues {
the Longships Lighthouse £. % S,, distant 8 leagues ; and the Wolf Rock E.S.E. | E.
6} leagues.

The Seven Stones are a dangerous reef of rocks, which appear above water, some
at half tide, and some at low water. They are a mile in extent from N.N.W. to S.S.E. j
the Bi-a always breaks upon them j and, except in very bad weather, they may be seen
from a considerable distance. The North side of this reef lies about 5 leagues

3 N

406

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS

W.N.W., weaterljr, from the Longships Lightiiouse, with Shipman Head, the Nortii
end of Bryer, bearing West, 10 miles distant, in a line -with the N.W. point of St.
Helen's, and opea to the southward of Bound Isle ; and Newfoundland Point, the
S.W. part of St. Mary's, S.W. by W. J W. 9J miles off, and just open of the S.W.
part of Menawethan.

The Light-vessel showing Ueo bright fixed lights, is moored in 40 fathoms of water,
about If miles E. \ S. from the Pollard Mock ot the Seven Stones, and about the same
distance £. by N., northerly, from the South Stone.

Vessels navigating between the Scilly Islands and the Land's End should endeavour
to bring the light-vessel to bear to the westward of South, when coming from the
northward ; and those approaching the light-vessel from the southward, should keep
her to the westward of North.

LinlDT ISLAND.— At about 10 miles N. | W. from Hartland Point, N.lS. by
E. ^ E. 74 miles from Cape Cornwall, W.N.W. i W. 16^ miles from Morte Point,
and off the entrance of the Bristol Channel, lies the South end of the Isle of Lundy.

This island is high, and extends N.N.E. and S.S.W. nearly 2| miles, while its mean
bveadth is only half a mile. The position assigned to tiie South end, by Captain
Denham, is 61"^ 10' 7' N., 4° 40' 16' W.

The Roads of Lundt present important advantages to vessels outward bound
from Bristol, in case of adverse wincb : and they are equally useful to homeward
bound vessels, in want of pilots or refreshments, and to such as may be imezpectedly
driven into the mouth of tne Channel by westerly gales.

The General Ancltorage is to the northward of Rat Isle. This islet appears like a
low ^reen hummock, jutting up from a gradual descent of the castle bluff, from which
it is insulated a few yards only at hieh water. It lies at four-fifths of a mile East
from the Shutter or S. W. Point, off which is*a detached Slack Pock.

Moderate sized vessels may bring up in 10 fathoms, sand and mud, at half a mile
off shore, with the North end of the island just closing with the rock called the Oannet
Stone, and bearing N.E. ; the farmhouse then topping overland, W. by S., and Rat
Isle bearing S.S. W., half a mile : thus leaving a scope to clear the either end of
Limdy, on a shift of wind. Large ships are, however, recommended to bring up a
little farther out (in order to clear the island with the wind setting on), with the
lighthouse in sight, bearing West, and dropping the anchor at a moment when the
top of the lighthouse dips out of sight. This rule is eqiwUy observable by day
and by night. Here you will have a depth of 10 fathoms, and mud, at aboat a
mile offshore. Should the top of Lundy happen to be obacured by flying scud, the
taking up a spot for anchorage must depend on the lead and the relative bearings of
Rat Isle, S.W. by W., and the North end of Lundy N. by W.

To vessels outward bound, if overtaken by westerly gales, the roadstead affords a
place of refuge. Here may be found, for ships of every class, suiHcient water, with
good holding ground, convenient to the shore ; and here may be obtained live stocki
provisions, vegetables, and water.

Vessels under a doubtiHil reckoning may advance after once gaining a sight of this
island, the approach to which may be known by the soundings and quality of bottom.
At lA milee without it, on the S.W., West, and N.W. ; there are 40 fathoms with
aandy bottom, shoaling thence to 26 fnthoms, rocky bottom, at Smiles South from the
island i to 29 fathoms, gravel, at 6 miles to the S.W. t to 22 fathoms, flne sand, at
5 miles to the West ; to 27 fathoms, with fine gravel, at the North; and to 24 fathoms,
with broken shells, at 5 miles to the East. Thirty-five fathoms, sandy bottom, is the
deepest water between Lundy and Milford, and there is less within, or to the eastward
of tnat line ; so that the navigator mar be assured of being without, or to the c««t-
ward of that line ; so that the navigator may be assured of being without, or to the
westward of the Bristol Channel, so lonv as he doea not shoalen nis water below 40
fiithoma, allowing for a rise and fall in tiae of 4 fathoms.

Vessels Bocrd up the Bristol Channrl., of to the

rklt#««

AJ«UaMjT

Aould {MM to tho Bonthward of the isUndi all oircumstanoei being most favourtl

.bit,

'i^\iii

sifOF THE NORTH ATLANnaUiiHiyiiiii

467

as shown in the g:eQeral direotions hereafter. Thick weather generally acoonnMnies
prevalent S.W. winds, and increases the danger of a too near approach to the Welsh

shores.

EABTIAND POINT.— The land of HartW Point is Terv high, and directly
from it, to the distance of aboat one-third of a mile, is a ridge of rocks, on which the
sea breaks very heavily. The mark to clear these rocks on the West is, Sharp^s iVb««,
S.W. i S., or kept well open. This Sharp's Nose is a high bluff land, nearly
3 leagues to the southward. The mark to clear the rocks on ue North is, Qallenay
or Gallantry Bower, to the West of CloveUy, with a tuft of trees on it, kept open, or
beuing S.E.

Hartland Point may be readily known firom the connecting olififs trending nearly
at. right angles to each other. It appears of a dark brown colour, and its summit
resembles the ruins of a building, elevated 350 feet above the sea, toward which it
slopes abruptly to the perpendicular clifis.

Hartland Point forms the S.W. point of the Bristol Channel, which may also be
considered to terminate at Milford Haven, ou the opposite coast.

THE BRISTOL CHANNEL. — It has baen justly remarked that there is not one
safe roadstead between the Land's End of Cornwall and the Flat-Holm, in the Bristol
Channel, with the wind to the westward of South ; and not very good with a wind to
the southward of S.£. by £. j for, although you may have tiie wind off ^ore, you
will find a great swell ; and, \S. the wind shifts, the sea is instantly up, before there
is time for her to weigh. On the coast of Wales there are several good roadsteads,
but none are easy of access to a stranger, Milford Haven excepted.

Vesteh bound to the Bristol Channel, and approaching from the south-westward,
with a vrind fi^)m that direction, should endeavour, says Captain Denham, to make
their landfall on the coast of Cornwall in the parallel of 50° 30', as well from the
height of Trevose Head as from the regularity of the soundings. At 23 leagues trtte
West of the Head, after running for some time in 60 fathoms, over mud, the bottom
at once changes to coarse hard ground, and thence shoalens so gradually that, at nine
leagues off there are still 34 fathoms. The land may, indeed, be safely made on any
parallel between Trevose Head and Hartland Point, but it should not be approached
at night nearer than in 30 fiithoms of water, unless it can be so plainly distinguished
that a course can be at once shaped with certainly for Lundy Island.

Should' the wind hang between West and N.W., it will be advisable to gain the
latitude of 50" xO', so as to run direct for Lundy Island. This course leads across
that great mud basin which seems to be an elongation of the Irish Channel, and which
is there about 15 leagues broad. The soundings at first slowly deepen from 50 to 60
fathoms, and then decrease to 46, where the bottom suddenly changes to sand, at 12
or 13 leagues ttova. the island. From the edge of the sand the bank continues to slope
up Hlowly and reeularly, there beinff from 32 to 34 fathoms at six and seven miles
from the island j out, unless concealed by fog, the island or the light will have been
discovered long before reaching ihat depm.

Captain Martin White, R.N., says : — " Vessels bound into the Severn from the
Atlantic, should endeavour to preserve the parallel of Trevose Head, not only with a
view of counteracting the north-westerly ana northerly excess of tide (currents) which
prevails in the Irish Channel, but because the soundings on approaching it aecreasQ
gradually, and because this promontory projects a considerable distance into the sea
beyond the general direction of the Corniuh coast. The land, also, being very high
and steep, renders it the most eligible spot for a landfall between the Land's End and
Hartland Point, from whence a vessel may with confidence shape a course for the
Bristol Channel. The erection of the lighthouse on Trevose Head also renders it
beyond any doubt the best point to make. On this parallel, and in the longitude of
10 53', are 140 fhthoms, firm dark-brown sand : this appears to be the edge of the
bank of soundings in that latitude. From hence the transition to shoal water is very
sadden, as 13 miles furUier eastward are only 94 fathoms. This depth is in the
longitude of 10° 32' W., and as you proceed easterly the depths more gradually de-
crease. In longitude 0" 44' are 71 i'uthomH, very fine dark grey sand, of the con-

468

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS

sistenoY of beaten pepper : seven leagaes further eastward are 71 and 69 fathoms
also ; the latter sounding are, however, oasy. Seven miles to the north-westward of
the ktter position, and six miles eastwajtl of the former, are 59, 65, and 53 fathoms ;
this b the western extreme of the Nymph Bank, which is nearly midway between
the English and Irish coasts. Fowc and eleven leagues southward of tne former
position lie the S.W. extremes of this btmk in 60 and 64 fathoms. Proceeding easterly
nom your former position, you will retain nearly the same depths until you advance
as far as the longitude of 8° 26', where you will find as little as 53 and even 45 fathoms,
coarse, tenacious, light ground, consistmg chiefly of mutilated shells and minute stony
particles, and you will almost immediately afterwards drop into 66 and 69 fathoms,
oazy ground. The former is the shoalest part of the Nymph, and is distant from
Scillv 29 leagues, in the direction of N.W. J N., 43 leagues from IVevose Head, N.W.
hy W. I W., and 22 leagues, S. by E., from Cape Clear ; to the eastward of the latter
depth, the soundings shoalen pretty gradually towai'ds the western coast of Cornwall,
nine leagues from which are 34 fathoms.

Should a vessel be forced into the entrance of the Bristol Channel, so that she cannot
lay out again, the most prudent course is to proceed as directly as possible, for Milf()rd
Haven ; but, should the weather be thick, and circumstances prevent this, she may

Eroceed to Lundy Island, there anchor, or take apilot for the harbour of Ufracombe.
>y obstinately endeavouring to beat out of the Cnannel, many lives and much pro-
perty have been sacrificed ; it being next to impossible for a vessel to get to windward
here, when opposed by the swell and indraught.

A vessel from the Longships, if bound into Bristol Channel, with the wind from the
N.E. should stretch as far to the North as she can, and to the westward of the Rocks
(the Man and his Man) off St. Agnes' Head, and then work up in the slack. With an
easterly wind you may find a good stopping place, for a tide, on the western side of
Trevose Head, sheltered by the Cow and Calf. In the great bight northward of this,
between Tintagel Head and Hartland Point, the tide b quite slack, and a vessel may
gar'n ground against the ebb.

With the wind to the South or S.E., and a commanding breeze, you may run be-
tween the Longships and the main, or haul close round the Longships within a cable's
length, and keep tne English shore on board : for so soon as you bnng the Longships
and Brissons nearly in a line you will gain the true Channel tide.

Spring tides, as already noticed, set very rapidly in the Bristol Channel. When
the wind is to the S.S.E. in the Channel, the stream westward of Hartland Point is
mostly found setting S.S.W.

Pilots for Bristol may be engaged at Lundy or Ufracombe. Vessels bound to Bristol,
or any port well up Channel, are recommended, in general, to keep near the English
shore, though without going into any of the bays, after passing between Lundy Island
and Hartland Point.

XILFOBJ) HAVEN is generally considered as the most capacious, the most
commodious, and the most secure harbour in the British Islands. It has no sort of
danger in its entrance, which may not be avoided without a pilot ; and ships may,
with perfect safety, sail either in or out (by taking the tide), either by night or day.
Those which come in, without anchor or cable, may run ashore, on soft oaze, and lie
safely. Now that the South Wales Railway is completed to Milford Haven (285
statute miles from London), the capabilities of this fine harbour for stcam-vcssei
transit are beginning to be developed.

St. Ann's Head is a bold promontory, advancing from a background of nearly
table land, with a large black rock at its extremity, always appearing above water.
Its lighthouses on the western side arc whitewashed. This point lies N.E. i N. 331
leagues from Cape Cornwall; N. | W. 47 miles from Hartland Point; andN. | W.
34^ miles from tne North end of Lundy Island. The entrance is deep, and more than
IJ ir.iles wide.

To enter the haven with a fair wind by night, at any time before half ebb, give St.
Ann's Head a berth of one-quarter of a mile, in a depth of 12 or 11 fathoms, then
steering so as to bring the lower light (which shows exclusively in the haven) to bear

OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC, t

I'.i-is ..'".i-sJ*.?

469

1 69 fathoms
i-westward of
I d3 fathoms ;
iway between
if the former
iding easterly

you advance
m 45 fathoms,
minute stony
I 69 fathoms,

distant from
1 Head, N.W.
1 of the latter
) of Cornwall,

at she cannot
e, for Milf(lrd
this, she may
>f Ufracombe.
d much pro-
to windwud

rind from the
of the Rocks
3k. With an
estern side of
Lward of this,
a vessel may

t may run be-
Ithin a cable's
he Longships

mel. When
and Point is

nd to Bristol,

■ the English

lundy Island

us, the most

laa no sort of

ships may,

light or day.

oaze, and lie

Haven (285

steam-vessel

nd of nearly
above water.
.E. I N. 33)
andN. iW.
d more than

bb, give St.
ivcn) to bear

W. i S., and afterward running E. i N. about If miles, the depths will decrease to
8 and 7 fathoms, and you will be in me middle of the harbour.

In the Entrance to the Haven the first danger met with was only discovered
in the latter part of 1851 — a very singular circumstance, considering tlmt the whole
of the coast was supposed to have been carefully and completely surveyed. It is a
small patch, called the Lewis Hock, 1| cables' lengths frt)m N.W. to S.E., and having
only 18 feet less water at its N.W. end, and 25 feet at its S.E. extremity. It lies
exactly on the line of the two lighthouses at St. Ann's in one, or N. by W. i W., and
nearly a mile from them. A black buoy, marked " Mid-Channel Hock," nas been
placed near it. It lies in 6 fathoms, at about a cable's length W. by N. fh)m it, with
the flagstaff at St. Ann's just open West of the Low Lighthouse, N. by W. j W. ; the
fort on the Stack Rock just touching the South part of Thorn Inland, E. | N.; Mr.
Davis's house, its apparent length on Dale Point, N. | E.

Besides this rock, there is another, discovered at the same period, called the Sheep
Jtock. It is a small patch of 41 fathoms, lying half a mile due West of Sheep Ishmd.
Both of these patches have deep water around them.

Another rock, called the Chapel Rock, lies at the distance of half a mile W.N.W.
from Rat Island, and has 14 feet of water over it at low spring ebbs ; and a rocky
shoal, called the Harbour or Thorn Rock, now marked by a buoy, having 20 feet over
it, lies at the distance of nearly half a mile N.W. by W. from Thorn or West Angle
Point, and vnthout the islet on that point called Thorn Island. The channel between
these two last shoals and the western shore is nearly a mile in breadth.

The course in is N. by E. until you open Dale Road, in the N.W. comer of the
haven. Here you may come-to, in 2 or 3 fathoms, so soon as Dale Town comes open.
But be cautious of not mistaking a bay on the West side for Dale Road, as it is dan-
gerous. In this road you may lie landlocked from all but easterly winds, in 2 fathoms
of water, with Sheep Isle on with Dale or Cswtle Point. Large ships should lie further
out, at the distance of about 1| cables' lengths N.N.E. ^ E. from Dale Point, where
there will be foimd 4 fathoms of water. The best channel, and that commonly used,
is to the southward of the Stack. Upon the south side, hereabout, is excellent ground,
in from 8 to 13 fathoms, where ships may be landlocked from all winds.

At the distance of a mile S.S.E. from the Stack lies Angle or Nangle Bay, in which
the ground is clear and good. In this place vessels, having lost their cables and an-
chors, may run aground on soft oaze : but should keep nearly in mid-channel between
the outer points.

The most convenient and cotnmon anchorage for large ships is in Hubbebston or
Man-of-War Road, at the distance of 4 miles to the E.S.E. of Dale Point. In sail-
ing for it, keep in mid-channel until the tovm of Milford bears N.E. by E., when you
may anchor in 10 or 12 fathoms. On either side, stand no nearer to the shore than to
the distance of 1 1 cables in length.

SMALLS.— The Smalls consist of a cluster of low bare rocks, upon the largest and
westernmost of which is a new lighthouse, a white tower, 141 feet nigh from base to
vane. The light is brilliant and fixed, 125 feet above high water. The rocks are
about one-fifth of a mile in extent, but very narrow, in a N.E. by N. and S.W. by S.
ducction, and are never entirely uncoverea.

There are several detached rocks at the distance, more or less, of one-quarter of a
mile from the main group, which must be carefully avoided.

Passage between the Smalls and Hats. — When the Hats are seen to break, this is a
good and safe channel, although not more than 1| miles vnde. If the South Bishop,
distinguished by its lighthouse, can be made out, this islet, just open of St. Davias
Head, will clear all.

To clear the Smalls, Hats, and Barrels, to the northward, care must be taken to gfive
the Smalls a sufficient berth to clear the N.E. rock, the transit of which is passed
when the lighthouse bears S.W. by f W. When the land is distinguishabie, an
excellent clearing mark is, the N.6. end of Qrassholm on with the S.W. end of

470

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS

^1 i^

Skomer i Has will lead at the distance of alH>ut three^uarten of a mile f^m the
Hata, and IJ ndles firom the Barrels. ^u. ^mJ^m m:h}im isi>

To eUar the Smatta, Hata, and BarrtU, to the aouthwtrd, the Smalls ought not to
be approached within 1 mile, on coming fix>m the westward, until the lighthouse is
brought to hear North, in order to avoid the S.W. Bock, as the soundings ate
extremely irregular, varying, at that distance, t>om 40 to 25 fathoms, generally gravel
and broken shells, so tliat no dependence can be placed on the lead. At night, the
Smalls light must not be brought to the westward of N.W. i N., nor St. Ann's light
to the southward of S.E. by £. i E. ; these bearings wiU give the Barrels a berth of
about 1| miles. Observe well that itie moment St. Ann's light is unmasked to the
qouthwud of Skokham, a vessel is nearly in the line of direction of the shoals.

. VxwELS BOUND TO MlLFOBD Haven, &c., J^om the S.W. of Ireland, are recom-
mended to make Grassholm, frequently tiie first land seen, by day, or the Smalla
lighthouse by night. Should there be a long flood to run, it will be the best, parti-
cmarly with the wind to the southward, to pass well South of the ^ht, or to try and
make St. Ann's Ught upon a bearing of E.S.E. | E., passing outside Skokham : but
on an ebb tide, opposite precautions may be taken ; and having passed to the north-
ward of the Smalls, keep St. Ann's light open between the isles Skomer and Skok-
ham, bearing about S.E. by S., which will lead between them.

8T. GEOBOE'S CHANNEL. — To give extended descriptions of this important
navigation would swell this work far beyond its proper limits. On pp. 382 — 387 are
given some general instructions for saiUng up and down this channel, which must
suffice. One especial point requires every attention, and that is the set of the tides.
In pages 264, 265, are given the general features of these currents, which, being
neglected, have led to several deplorable accidents on the banks off the S.E. coast of
Irdand. It is therefore most earnestly recommended to the sailor to pay every atten-
tion to this important subject. Some changes have been made in the lights on the
East coast of Ireland which should also be carefully attended to.

On the Eastern side of the Channel the indraught on to Cardigan Bay is in some
degree deprived of its dan^r by the establishment of the light-vessel described in the
list, which will warn a ship from passing too far to the eastward, and thus getting
embayed on this iron-bound shore and ita dangerous shoals.

The Reflige Harbour at Holyhead has now assumed an important position in the
navigation, and will afford shelter from bad weather for a large portion of the
compass.

SOUTH COAST OF IBELAND. — ^As ships bound across the Atlantic may be
driven to seek shelter oh the Irish coast, a few brief notices of the principal places on
the Southern coast follow. Complete descriptions of the whole coasts of Irehuid are
given in our Directories accompanying the Cnarts.

CABNSOKE POINT lies N. by E. 4 E. 41| leagues from Cape Cornwall, and
fiwm the Smalls lighthouse, N. by W. | W. 37 miles.

To the E.S.E. 4 E., at the distance of 6| miles from Carnsore Point, is the remark-
able rock called the Tuskar. Its bearing and distance from the Longships liehthouxe,
off the Land's End of England, are N. by E. f £. 42^ leagues ; and from the SmalU
lighthouse, N. 4° W. 11 leagues.

The TUSKAR LIGHTHOUSE shows a revolving liffht every two minutes,
twice bright and once red alternately. The ringing of two bells denotes the

Ecimity of the rock in fogg^ weather. The rock is about 16 feet above the sea at
i water, and the elevation of the lighthouse 101 feet above tbe base. The bright
ts may be seen at 6, and the red light at 4 leagues off.

At half a mile due West of the lighthouse are some rooky heads, and at three-
fourths of a mile S.W. of the light is the South Hock, of 9 fatnoms ; to avoid these,
be carefU to keep sufficiently without the rock on that side. And nearly midway
between the Tuskar and main is the long narrow bank called the Bailies' Prong:
the ripple on the South end of which bears from the Tuskar W. | N., and from Cam-
sore Pomt E.S.E., about 2i miles. The bank extends nearly 3 miles N. by E. f £.

OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.

■iV.Ji

mile from the

Cornwall, and

Its ahoalest imter is from 5| to 7 fothoma, with 8 and 10 fitthoms naar meh end.
clear it on the East side, keep nearer to the Tuskar than to the main.

The SAT TEES LIOHTVESSEL, showinr two lights, lies in 82 ..dioms. with
the Great Saltee hearing N.E. ^ E. ahout 4| miles distant ; the Hook li^tiioaae of
Waterford Harhour, N.W. ^ W. llf miles ; and the Ttukar lighthouse, nearly East,
20| miles. The Coningbeg Rock lies 1| miles S.W. \ W. from Coning^more, and 2|
miles S.W. i S. from the S.W. point of the Great Saltee Rock, and inside the light-
bouse. It shows at half-ebb.

WATEBfFOBD HABB0I7B, the Estuart of the Rivers Suir and Barrow.
From the Longships lighthouse, off the Land's End of England, the Hook Point of
Waterford bews M. by | W. true, and N. ^ E. by compass, nearly48 teagues *. from
the North end of Lnndy Island, off the Bristol Clmnnel, N.W. bv W . tme, and N.W.
by N. by compass, distant 33| leagues : frtmi St. Anne's lignts, Milfi»d Havea,
W.N.W. i W. true, and N.W. by compass, distant 23| leagues ; and from the Smalla
Ughthouse, W.N.W. northerly, true, and N.W. \ N. by compass, distant 17^
leagues. c»i

Upon Hook Head, or the Hook Point, is a white tower, rebuilt in 1791, 110 feei
high, which exhibits a brilliant Jixed light, at 152 feet above the level of high water,
and is seen from all points between E.N.E. seaward to N.N.E., 17 miles off.

The entrance of the harbour, between Hook Point on the eastern, and Red Head on
the western side, is 2f miles wide. Three miles within these points, on the western
side, is the remarkable raomontory called Credan Head, the extoemity of which bears
N. by E. 3| miles from Hook Point.

The pier at the little harbour of Dnnmore, on the W. side of the entrance, affords
a secure anchorage with westerly gales, as well as from the prodigious sea which
rolls along the southern coast, but it is not calculated for an asylum harbour, from its
space being very confined, and its want of depth, there being only one spot within
the pierhead with more than 14 feet, and 9 to 12 being the ordinary depth at low
water.

In coming in from sea for Waterford Harbour, you will descry the remarkable
inland mountain called the Slievnaman, which should be brought to bear N.E. ^ N.,
as it will, with that bearing, lead in sight of Hook tower ; whence you may round
Hook Point, which should not be approached nearer than to the distwce of 2 cables'
lengths, as the tide sets round it very irregularly.

With the entrance open, the course to Duncannon fort will be N.E. by E., which
will lead past Credan Head, at the distance of 1| cables' lengths. In the night, the
two lights will be seen on the fort of Duncannon, elevated one above the other, to
direct vessels to that point. These kept open of Credan Head, and bearing N.E. | N.,
lead directly up the harbour. You pass the fort at the distance of aw>ut 1 cable's
length, keeping the lead g^ing, and then steer N. ^ E. for Ballyhack church. When
the Perch beacon, near Passage, comes on with the to u of that name, you may steer
upward in mid-ciiannel to the anchorage above the town, in 5 and 6 fathoms of
water.

Ballyoottin Bay, on the North of the Ballycottin Isles, has been recommended
as a place of safe resort in westerly winds. The only disadvantage of this anchorage
is, that the wind setting in from S.E. to E. (which wind, however, very seldom blows)
renders it necessary for vesseb to put to sea as quickly as possible.

The prevailing winds on this coast are westerly throughout the year ; therefore
this ancnorage is safe and convenient with the wind from S.W. to N.N.E. by the
North.

Vessels taking shelter from a westerly gale, should anchor with the Government
houses bearing S.S.W. to S.W., and the outer island S.E. to S.S.E., in about 3
fathoms, low water. The bottom is smooth and even, of fine sand and clay, perfectly
clean, and the holding^ground good.

The outside island, on which is the l!<*hthouse, is high, with a bold, rocky ooasi,
steep-to, witii deep water, and no dangers ; so that a vessel, in taking tha bay frmn

472

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS

the westward, may round the island close to, and find herself suddenly jn smooth
water.

COBK HABBOim. — The entrance of this excellent harbour lies at the distance
of 46 leagues N. by W. i W. [N.W. \ N.'] from the Lonmhips lighthouse oflF the
Land's End of England; ana from St. Anne's Point, Milford Haven, nearly 39
leagues N.W. by W. J W. [ PT. i iV.] In coming up for this place from the south-
wanl, bring Knockmeldown Hill, N.E. by IS., and kcp it thus until you
see the Old Head of Kinsale, which is a remarkable bluff headland, with a ligh^
house upon it. From this head the entrance of Cork Harbour bears E. ^ N.
6 leagues.- ,ji .-r.^'Ij:-; M' «r

When off the harbour, Roche's tower, with its lighthouse, is remarkable from ih
standing on the point upon the eastern side. Without this point are two rocks called
the Cow and Calf, otherwise the Stags, which will be avoided by attending to the
following directions. Without the entrance, which is three-(^uarters of a mile broad,
the ground is clean ; and, with a northerly wind, ships may he here, in from 7 to 10
fathoms, awaiting the daylight, or a flood tide. With a leading wind, line-of-battle
ships may enter at any time of the day, if proper attention be paid to the marks for
the dengers.

The Lighthouse on Roche's Point shows a fixed light. It appears, from sea-
ward, of a clear red colour, but is brilliant toward the harbour. The tower is white,
26 feet in height, and the light, which appears at 92 feet above the level of high
water, may be seen at 14 miles off, from all points seaward between S.E. by E. and
N. by E.

Jtoche's Point is bold : so also is Dog Nose, a high point half a Jeague further in,
on the same side. Upon the latter there is a remarkable white wall, lying on the face
of the cliff, to the southward of the foii:, and so conspicuous as to be seen (torn, a con-
siderable distance.

From the entrance of the harbour to the Narrows, in the upper part of it, and
through them to the anchorage off Queenstown, the fairway is indicated by a double
' series of buoys, white on the western side, and blaok on the eastern. Beside these
there are two buoys on the Harbour Sock, and two oa the Turbot Rocks.

On entering the harbour of Cork, the channel eastward of the Harbour Rock and
Turbot Rocks is generally preferred, and a vessel may, at any time, be worked in or
out. On coming in, therefore, endeavour to pass between Roche's Poirt and the Har-
bour Rock, or between the Harbour Rock and Turbot Rocks. The first route may
be easily effected by keeping Cuskinny house ^already described) wholly shut in with
the point at Dog ^ose; this mark also leads to the eastward of the Turbot Rocks.
The depths in the channel are 5, 6, and 7 fathoms.

; Having arrived within or to the northward of the rocks, which will be when a
round stone tower, on the heights near Ringaskiddy (westward of Spike Isle), ap-

Sears four times its own breadth open to the northward of the lowest part of the
ecling land under Fort Camden, thence steer for the middle of Spike Island, keep-
ing as nearly midway as possible between Forts Carlisle and Camden, until two re-
markable houses, inland, to the northward of Cuskinny house, and eastward of the
old barracks, appear, the northern house between Cuskinny house and the southern
house, three-fourths nearer to the latter than the foi-mer.* This mark will lead up
between the shoals towards Queenstown, and very close along the eastern bend of
the spit, near the white Lower Spit buoy, though in not less than 4 fathoms at half
tide.

Continue running upon the mark last given, until two white-washed marks in the
upper and lower walls of the old fort or hospital appear in one. This mark will lead
you round the buoy last mentioned ; and when Ballybrickan house comes nearly into

* These houses are called Upper Harbour View and Lower Harbour View. Both are of
a whitish colour, and roofed with blue slate. The upper one is also weather slated partly

llnwn if o fjw)»it.

OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC

473

contact with the S.W. angle of the btiildines on Haulbowline Island, you shoulcl haul
suddenly to the westward, steering N'.W. by W. toward a large storehouse on the
upper quay at Queenstown, for about 2 cables' lengths, and then W.N.W., parallel to
the beach at Queenstown, until Roche's Ught-tower shuts in with the eastern end of
Spike Island. The last mark is the best for anchoring, and where you will have
itiovo. 4 to 9 fathoms of water.

Large vessels, particularly at low water, should pass to the eastward of the white
buoy on the Bar Kock, and after ro\mding it, at the distance of a quarter of a cable,
may haul suddenly round to the westward as above.

The Outer Route or anchorage of Cork Harbour, is between Fort Camden and the
buoy of the spit. Yon proceed up to it with Queenstown church just shut in with
the eastern angle of the new citadel on Spike Island, and may take a station at plea-
sure in from 12 to 7 fathoms. Merchant vessels may ride off Queenstown, in smoother
water and less tide ; they may also anchor farther up the harbour, off Passage, and
ride anywhere between the first houses and Ronan's Point.

Those tfforkinff into or out of Cork Harbour should be aware that the tide sets, in
the first instance, into the bight formed between Dog Nose and Roche's Point,
and thence obliquely across to Qross Haven, whence it is ag^in warped into a N.E.
direction, which produces corresponding counter tides and oldies along both shores.
The tide of ebb has a directly opposite tendency.

XINSALE- — From Poor Head, which lies 4 miles eastward from Roche Point, the
Old Head of Kinsale bears W. by S. 6 leagues. Two whitewashed towers are on the
vape, and between them are the black ruins of Baron de Courcy's castle. The southern
tower is round, the northern square ; the southern was formerly the lighthouse.

LIGHTHOUSE.— A new lighthouse f60 feet high with two red belts) is erected on
the rocky point at the southern end of the Old Head of Kinsale, distant half a mile
S.S.W. \ W. from the old lighthouse tower, the light for which is discontinued. The
light is a bright fixed Iwht, elevated 236 feet over the level of the high water, illumi-
nating an arc from N.E. ^ N.. seaward, to W. by N., and in clear weather will be
visible at the distance of 21 miles.

On the arc limited by a limited by a line across the entrance of Courtmacsherry
Bay to the Une of the Korse Rock it is coloured red ; ftirther within the bay, north-
ward of that line, it is c>f of the natural colour. Thus vessels, unless going to Court-
macsherry Harbour, shoild not psss into the bay within the limits of the red -colour
of the light.

In order to fall in with the Old Head, when ai>proaching from the offing, bring and
keep Knockmeldown Hill N.E. by E. This hill lies inland to the northward of
Youghal.

The harbour of Kinsale, though narrow at the entrance and all the way up to the
town, is veiy safe, and capable of receiving vessels of any size. The entrance is
formed by Hangman and Prehaun Points on the eastern, and Money and Strookaun
Points on the western side ; and it lies about 5 miles N.E. from the pitch of the Old
Head. After rounding the Breem Rock, lying \mder the eastern side of the Head,
with 7 fathoms close to it, steer for the harbour's mouth, by keeping the whole of
Charles Fort, an extensive castellated building at a mile within the harbour's mouth,
open to the westward of Hangman Point, and minding not to bring that fort within
its own apparent breadth of Money Point, on the port side } and having reached
well withm the former poiDt,keep as near mid-channel as possible, and anchor until
you obtain a pilot. The anchorage of Queenstown is the one generally resorted to,
and it affords good shelter, even vnthin the wind directly in. This place is a little
within or to the N.W. of Charles Fort, and about 1 J cables from shore. There is,
however, water enough for the largest ships close up to the town of Kinsale, the
channel to which lies close along the eastern shore ; but it is very narrow and circuit-
ous, and requires the assistance of a pilot. The wind between S.S.W. and E.S.E. is
a free wind in, and from W.N.W. to N.E. a fair one out.

There is a bcr of coarse sand u little to the southward of Charles Fort, having 12

DESCRIPTIONS OP THE COASTS AND ISLANDS

to 18 fleet OT«r it at low water of spring tides. T^'hen the body of Charles Fort bean
E.S.E. I E. yuu will be within or to the northward of it, and drop thenoe almost im-
mediately into deep water. -' ^ "- ' * -

The dangers of going into Kinsale Harbour are, Farmer Ledge on the port, and
the Buhnan Rock on the stai board side. The Farmer lies cloHe to the western shore,
and is uncovered at throc-quai-ters ebb. The Bulman lies above 2 cables' lengths to
the southward of Hangman Point, and has only 3 feet over it at low water, ana some-
times dries at very low tides. The marks for it are, the northern angle of a triangular
field on with the ptnkcd top of Crow Hond, and tho Small Sovereign Island on with
Froward Point. Bv keeping Charles Fort wholly open to the westward of Hanfj-
roan Point, you will pass conNiderably to the westward of the Bulman ; and by nut
bringing thut fort within its own apparent breadth of Money Point, yuu will avoid
the Farmer.

During the night a light is kept on Charles Fort as a guide to vessels entering the
harbour. It is bright and fixed, at 98 feet above the sea, open to the harbour, on a
N.E. by N. bearing, andmny be seen, in clear weather, 6 miles off. When running
for the harbour in a very dark night, some caution is, however, necessary, as thu
lieht and that on Old Head are the only guidance, and it will be prudent to keep on
offing until daylight, or till a pilot can be obtained.

Cape Clear, the southernmost promontory of Ireland, upon an island of the same
name, lies at the distance of 64J leagues N.W. by W. | W., true, and N.N.W. \ W.
by oomposs, from the Longships lighthouse, off the Land's End of England ; and at
tne distance of about 5^ miles eastward from the S.W. part of this island lies the
enti'ance to the harbour of Baltimore.

A lighthouse was erected on the S.E. side of Clear Island, to the eastwai'd of the
cape, and was first lighted on the 1st of May, 1818, but it was superseded by tho
more important light on the Fastnet Kock, to the S.W.

THE FASTNET BOCK, a small, steep, and conspicuous rock, lies nearly b\ miles
W. k S* ivQxa. Cape Clear. Between is a depth of n-om 12 to 35 fatlioms, the least
deptJi being near to the rock. Near Cape Clear there will be found from 24 to 27 and
39 lUthonia.

The LIGHTHOUSE on the summit of the Fastnet superseded that on Cape Clear
on January 1, 1854. It is 02 feet high, and has a broad red horizontal belt at mid-
height. The light is elevated 148 feet, is revolving, visible once in every 2 minutes to
the distance of 18 miles : but is not entirely obscured within short distances.

Between Cape Clear and tho Kiver Shannon, the land, on advancing to the North,
increases in height, and is very irregular and broken ; but the southern part of the
coast is seldom wholly free from fog and haze during the summer months, and is gene-
rally annoyed by powerful gales and a turbulent sea dming the winter season.

Long Island Sound, which lies within Long Island, to the S.W. of Skull Ha^
hour, is well sheltered, of easy access, and capable of receiving large ships, which
may enter at either end of the island, and anchor anywhere, the ground being good.
The only thing to be avoided is a spit of sand, which extends northward from snore,
at about half a mile within the East end of the island, and more than hallway over
the ofaannel.

In the anchorages the depth of water varies from 2 to 7 fathoms, and the ground is
everywhere a soft cohesive mud. The chief passages are, one from the S.W. between
Ooat Isle and Turf Isle, or the Black Back to the westward of it, called Man-of- War
Sound : one between Goat Isle and Long Island, and one between Long Island and
Three Castle Island on the East. Either of these passages may be safely taken with-
out a pilot, through water sufficient for a line-of-battle ship. "When entering by the
S.W. passage, you have merely to keep in mid-channel all the way through, as well
as from thenoe to the anchorage.

Crookhaven is a small but important harbour, lying Similes N.W. 1 N. from
Cape Clear. It is only 2 miles In extent, from 'East to West, by one-third of a
mile in breadth. Its entrance lies between a rock called the Alderman, on the

lea Fort bean
ice almoHt im*

the port, and
fvestem shore,
W lenethH to
ter, and ttonic-
if a triangular
Hland on with
ard of Ilan^-
1 ; and by nut
uu will avoid

» entering the
harbour, on a
^hen running
iHsary, as thii
aut to keep on

d of the same
N.N.W. t W.
gland; and at
iuland Ilea the

istward of the
rscdcd by the

learly 5^ miles
lumH, the least
^ 24 to 27 and

on Cape Clear
al belt at mid-
y 2 minutes to
ances.

to the North,
rn part of the
IS, and is gene-

scaHon.

of Skull Ha^

ships, which

being good.

•d from snore,
hallway over

the ground is
8.W. between
I Man-of- Wat
ng Island and
iy taken with-
tering by the
DUgh, as well

V, k N. from
ne-third of a
man, on the

OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.

47tf

South aide, and a peninsula called Rook latattd, on the North. Although narrow, th«
harbour is well sheltorod and commodious for ve(<iiela bound to the eastward ; the
around is good, and the water, more than halfway up, ■uifioiantly deep fur Urge ehipe.
This is a very convunicnt place for veusels drawing 14 feet, during oad weather or
easterly gales, against which it affords the moft ample shelter i but Captain White
adds, it is to be regretted that, in the last twenty years, the bottom has considerably
risen, and the depth, in consequence, decreased about 2 feet.

A LIQHTIIOl SE is erected on Rook Island Point, at Xhe northei-n side of the
entrance. The light was first shown on August 1st, 1843, and is 9.Jlx«d white light.
The lantern is open to ceaward, and to the &ven, from E. by S. to W. by N., and is
elevated 67 feet above the level of the sea. It bears from Cape Clear Island (S.W.
end) N.N.W. J W. 8 miles j Alderman Rocks (outer point) N.W. \ N. \ mile, and
from the Fastnet Rock N. | E. 6 miles, lat. SI" 28' 36" N., long. 9°. 42' 31'^W.

Having fairly opened the harbour, run directly in, keeping in mid-channel. The
ruined signal tower on Brow Head, three times its own apparent breadth open to the
northward of O'DriscoU's house, a remarkable white one, entirely insulated, bearing
West, will lead to the northward of the Alderman Rock, and into the fairway.

The opening of Crookhaven cannot be made out until you are very near the Alder*
man ; to make it, therefore, steer in due North from the Fastnet Rock, keeping that
rock South, as near as may be, until Mi/en Peak comes in one with Alderman Head.
In procecdin|; thus, you cannot be deceived ; because, at the same time, or nearly so,
Mount Gabriel will appear in one with Leamcon signal tower and castle to the N.E.i
and Brow Head, with its signal tower, will appear to close in with Streek Head, ta
the westward. The harbour will now begin to unfold itself; the revenue o£Blcer»'
houses on the northern shore will first bo seen, aud, ultimately, Coghlan's tower, which
stands as above explained.

A vessel cannot enter Crookhaven unless the wind is to the southward and east-^
ward of S.S.W. by compass, or to the eastward and northward of N. by W. ; but
when the wind happens to be foul for Crookhaven, it will prove fair for Long Island
Sound. You may anchor, with westerly and northerly winds, at a mile N.E. from
the Alderman Rock, in very good ground, but great circumipectioq must be token af
to southerly winds.

Bantry Bay lies to the northward of Dunmanus Bay ; it is large, safe, and com«
modious for ships of any size. The stream of tide is scarcely sensible in any part of
it ; the water is sufficiently deep, almost close to both the shores ; and there are no
rocks nor shoals in the way, but such as may be easily avoided, even in the night.
Ships may stop anywhere in the middle of xtiSsi bay ; or, in most parts, i^ear to either
side. The bay extends nearly in the same direction as that of Dunmanus. It is 6
leagues in length, and from 2 to 3 miles broad. Its entrance, between Three Castle
Head and Sheep Head, is 3. J miles wide. Off the latter point is a rock of 18 feet at
2 cables' lengtlis from its extremity. The depth of water throughout the bay varies
from 10 to 31 fathoms, and the ground is of the most tenacious description. It isi
however, much exposed to westerly winds ; but even when these prevail, the har-
bours named Searnaven, Bantry, and Qlenyariff, may be resorted to with great con-
vunience, and even without a pilot.

Bearhaven is an excellent harbour, spacious, and well sheltered firom all winds }
the ground is everywhere good, and easy of access, in a country abounding with
many necessary refreshments. Its proximity to the sea, and situation on the coast,
render it an excellent rendezvous for a fleet.

The LIGHTHOUSE on Roancarrig Island will materially assist the navigation of
Bantr)- Bay, and more particularly that of the eastern entrance to Bearhaven, off
which it tjtands. It is a white tower, with a red belt around it, showing ^ fixed light
at 55 feet, which may be seen at 12 miles off.

The haven has two entrances ; one at the East end of Bear Island, and the other
at the West end. The western entrance is the most direct and convenient fur bhf.pp
from the westward or southward ; but the other is the safest for strangers. You may
anchor anywhere off the North oidi; of the island, in from 6 to 1 1 fathoms ; but the

47a

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS

best place is off Ballynakilla ; and Bhips that wait for a wind only will find the West
end of the haven most convenient.

Valontia' — Brea at Bray Head is the S.W. extremity of Valentia Island ; the
island thence extends 6 miles East, and forms the harboiu* of the same name, which
is capable of receiving the larsest ships. It affords excellent shelter against all
winds that blow, wi^ good holding ground in 36 and 42 feet at low water springs.

Those bound into this place to steer in for Doulus Head, ^ving the northern side
of Valentia a berth of about a mile or more, until the remains of Cromwell's Fort,
on which a light is established, bear S. by E., which will then be in one with the
square tower of the church standing on a cliff of Valentia Island, consideiably above
the water's edge, and close to which stands the parsonage house, now in ruins, llug
mark leads to the entrance of the harbour. When passing Cromwell's Fort, keep
one-third nearer thereto than to Bcginnis, to avoid the reef projecting fix>m the latter.

«•

'•^''UtyiX

COAST of FRAlf GE.— In the upper part of the English Channel, the coast of
France is a part to be avoided by a passing ship. Upon it all the power of the tide
and wave which traverse the Channel fix>m West to East seems to be expended. Its
shores are the depository of all the matter washed and worn of from the shores to the
westward, and the light drifting sand of which they are composed, choke up all its
harbours, and bar access to any shelter when required for a snip in distress. All this
is explained in our Channel Directory ; and in pages 251 — 253 ante, there are some
remarks upon the Tidal Streams, whieh are very peculiar here, and require very
much attention.

Ambleteuse Road, between Boulogne and Cape Orisnez, affords some shelter from
gales between N.N.E. and S.S E. round by the East; but the sea is verj' heary,
especially when strong winds oppose the current, and moreover the tidal streams are
at times very strong, so that a ship may become tide-rode in a very ugly position.
Boulogne is difBcult to enter on account of t^e thwart current.

The Bay of the Seine is very dangerous. It is open to all winds from N.W. to
N.E., and the tides are very strong, so that ships embayed here with those winds
are in great danger. There is some shelter inside the banks, which extend N. and
8. of Marcouf, but the tides are so strong that they alone will embarrass, and the
formidable Race of Barfleur, which runs around the Cape Barfleur so turbulently, is
much to be dreaded in N.E. gales.

CHERBOTJROi with its majestic Digue, or breakwater, will afford shelter, and
ample descriptions and directions are elsewhere given. The following are a few
extracts: —

Cherbourg Road is comprised in the space between the Pointe de Qucrquevillc and
Pel6e Island, lying E.S.E. and W.S.W., 3f miles distant from each other. Its
southern limits are the shores of the two an-eat bays, the Ste. Anne to the West, and
that of Cherbourg to the East, divided by Pointe du Hornet.

It is sheltered, on the North side, by an artificial breakwater. La Digue, built in 6
and 7 fathoms water, 4,100 yards long. There is a green light on its West head; a
fixed and flashing light on tne contral Fort, and a r^ light on the West head.

The principal anchorages for large vessels ore, the Great Road, and the western
anchorage ; for smaller vessels, those called the Little Road, and the anchorage be-
tween the Pel6e Island Bank and the eastern branch of the Digue.

The Bay of St. Anne does not offer many good spots for anchoring ; the bottom is
uneven, and the holding ground bad. And besides, vessels are in ?^eat danger if
oaught here by gales between N.E. and N.W., which send a bad sea into it.

The Great Road (Grande Rade) is the man-of-war anchorage, and is limited on
the North and N.E. by the Pel^e Island Bank ; and extends to the West as far tun to
the North of the church at Cherbourg. In the North part, the bottom ia, in gcnerftl,
of schistose rock in a state of decomposition, and the'holding is good, and tlicre srf
some spots of bore and cutting rocks. The current of the flood begins half an hour

c*U .. . OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.

after low water by the shore, and ends three-quarters of an hour after high water in
the military port. Its g^reatest rate is 2 miles, and of the ebb 1| miles an hour.

The Western Anchorage, lyine to the South, and near to the West end of the
Digue, is a fine bottom of sand and broken shells ; four-fifths of a mile in extent, and
with 6 and 7 fathoms water. It is bounded on the South by the rocky bottom which,
running from the Great Road, extends to the S.W. of the West end of the Digue.
The current of the flood begins then nearly an hour after low water by the shore,
and finishes an hour after high water at the military port.

The Little Road is to the South of the Great Road, in the part which is sheltered
tiom. West winds, and the sea occasioned by them, by Fort du Homet and the mili-
tary port. In this anchorage, which is of good holding ground, the pilots placed
those vessels waiting for the tide to enter the commercial port, and also those seeking
shelter from bad weather, before the Digue was so far advanced ; these latter ^ow
prefer to anchor nearer to the Digue. Strong winds from S.W. and S.E. are ti-ou-
blesome in this anchorage, as vessels are liable to drive and be carried on the rocky
bottom of the Great Road, or even on to the Digue.

The anchorage to the South of the eastern part of the Digue, which is used by vessels
seeking shelter, lies between the Digue and the northern slope of the Pel^e Island
Bank, and extends from the Central Fort, where it is a quarter of a mile wide, to
nearly the West end of the Digue, at which part it is narrowed to 1^ cables in width.
It is a sandy bottom, in some parts rather muddy, the depth varying frx)m 26 to 32
feet. Vessels are here sheltered from N.W. to N.E. round by the North.

Western Entrance to Cherbourg Roads. Large men-of-war enter by the passes
at each end of the Digue, the principal of which is uie West, lying between it and the
Chavagnao Shoal. The two limits of this are marked by buoys.

You will run precisely in mid-channel, by keeping the light-tower (with a red
light) on the end of the eastern jetty of the rort du Commerce clear, but seen a very
little distance West, that is, to tne right of the high battoiy of the Fort du Homet.

There is no difficulty in entering with a leading wind, but large ships beating in
must take care of the Chavagnac, then the rocky head in the opening of St. Anne's
Bay, and, lastly. La T^narde. It is considered that it would be imprudent to attempt
to beat in at night through the West Passage with large ships, unless there is
moonlight.

The flood tide sets here S.E. and E.S.E., 3 miles at its greatest strength, and be-
gins Ih. 30' after low water by the shore, and ends Ih. 20 after high water at the
military port. The ebb current nearly the same, running to N.W. ^ W.

The Passage between the Fort of Querqueville and the Chavagnac Shoal is nearly aa
wide as the former, but is not practicable for large vessels but between half tides of
high water. As the bottom is uneven, and covered with rocks, it is dangerous to
anchor in it. No vessel should attempt it while it is calm, as you risk being carried
on to the rocks at the bottom of St. Anne's Bay. There is no advantage either in
coming near the shore of this bay, with the wind from land, as it frequently comes in
gusts, particularly with those from S.W.

The Eastern Entrance is comprised between the East end of the Digue and the
w-CNtcrn slope of the Pcl^e Island Flat; the most dangerous points of it are marked
by buoys. The mark for this passage was a stone pyramid on the quay in front of
the Hotel de Ville, now replaced by a largo wooden beacon on the rocks in front of
it, on with the church tower of Octeville, bearing S.W. by W.

The eastern passage is separated from the East part of the Great Road by the Pel^e
Island Bank, the breadth or which on the above bearing is 4 cables'" lengths j the
least depth on it being 22 feet,

The flood current is first felt one hour after low water by the shore, and ends one
hour after high watrr in the military port, and runs E_. by N. between the Digue and
La Truite at the rate of 2j mlies ; but a iittio to thr North this velocity is increased
to 3J miles, and runs to the E.N.E. To the N.W point of the Flat of Pclfo Island,
and on the northern slope of this plateau, the current of flood runs N.E. ^ E. at a

47S

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS

mazimam rate of 4 miles an hour } and the eddies and over&Us, occasioned by the
uneven bottom, form a violent and dangerous race. The ebb tide is more regular, and
runs at a rather less rate.

The eastern entrance, besides being[ very narrow, is inconvenient from the current!
orossing it obliquely. This renders it dangerous for sailing vessels in light winds,
and impracticable for them in calms. But when there is sumcient wind there is no
diffioidty or danger. It is easy for vessels coming from the East ; but care must be
taken to bear careAiUy round to the West of the N.W. point of the Pel6e Island
Bhoals, and not to run. on the mark for enteriuv till you nave doubled it. As you
cannot always see the beacon at the esplanade of the Hotel de Ville at a sufficient dis-
tance, you ought then to appi'oach the Pelee Island Bank, keeping Octeville churub
in one vrith that of Cherbourg. This will bring you in sight or it, or at least of the
buoy Oil the N.W. point of the rocks.

The great bay which is formed on the coast between Cape la Hague and the
Br6hat Isles, in which are the Channel Islands, is most dangerous to tue stranger.
Its furious tidal streams ; the countless rocks which cover and uncover to an enormou«
extent in the groat range of tide, render it impossible in a few words to describe any
of its navii^ation. Indeed, local and intimate knowledge alone can conduct a ship
through any of its intricate passages.

ALDEBNET, or AURIGNY.— The eastern end of Alderney bears W.N.W. 8i
miles from Cape la Hague. Tliis island is about 3^ miles in length by a media}
breadth of three-quarters of a mile.

The coasts of Alderney are sut rounded with rooks, which render the navigation
difficult and dangerous ; more particularly as the tides set strongly and in varioui
directions. The chief port, that of Braye, on the N. side of the sea ; and on the
western side of Port Longy is a signal post.

The REFUGE HARBOUR, which is constructing on the North side of the
island, is a formidable and very important undertaking of the British government,
under the superintendence of Mr. James Walker, C.E. It will consist of two piers,
which will enclose Braye Roads, and have an opening to the northward, ana will
shelter a considerable area of every depth for shipping.

It is not safe to remain at anchor here in the winter season, on account of the run
or ground swell, which often comes in very unexpectedly, and without any apparent
warning; nor can a vessel, if surprised there witn a northerly wind, easily beat out,
both ebb and flood heaving hct in bodily.

There is a rock in the middle of Braye Roads called the Hay-tide Rock, which it
especially dangerous to all vessels coming into the roads, being on a direct lino in or
out of the harbour. Part of the rock is only visible at low water, spring tides.

THE CASKETS, and LIGHTHOUSES, which lie N.W. by W., (52 miles from
Braye Roads, ore a cluster of great rocks, some above and others under the water.
On the largest, and nearly the westernmost, of tlieso rooks stand throe lighthouses,
triangularly placed, as shown on the chart, and furnislied with argaiid laniiM uiid
reflectors, at 113 feet above high water. The lights reiolee, and alternately prcHcnt
A bright light in eviry direction. The eclipses succeed each other every fifteiii
seconds, l^ion a S.E. by E. bearing, tlu'se lights appear as two, which may bo seen
6 or 6 leagues off". The N.E. and S.li. lights are in one when bearing S.W. by W.
Attached to the establishiuent is an alarm hell, w hich, sounded in fo^gy or snowy
weather, is loud and distinct, not unlike a church bt.ll.

The Jlanois or Ilatmrvaax, wliieli lie oft" the wcsternniost part of Guernsey, are an
extensive group, the greater part ol' which is always above water. They extend ou^
ward to the distance of more than half a leu '-^ne, leaving no passage between. It in
most prudent to give them a berth of about :) miles on tlie port hand. Their dan-
gerous character will be much lessened when the lighthouse is completed on them.

BAT OF BISCAT

donoy to be avoidcii -sm pages 270 — 2j2, .'iBU, ^^e.

-^MaSf «*SK«^

In former pjiges, when the best routes to the scnithward were

en|i«<oitiiiy mentioned as a ten-
Hut as it may sometimes hui>[M.>n

n *•

II. •

OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC, iiii

470

that a vmsel ma;^ get embayed without being able to weather its outer point*, only a
few remarks on ItH more available roadHteada will be given here. In the liat« of
lighthouses is given a description of these monitors which well mark its coasts, and
by means of which a ship may avail herself of many anchorages, which it would occupy
too much space to describe hero.

TJSHANT (Oueaaant) is a Htcep craggy island, about 4 miles in length from East
to West, and 2 miles in breadth. On itN S.W. side is a harbour, that of LampotU,
but of difficult access. The rest of the island is surrounded with rocks, a part of the
North side excepted, where there is anchorage.

Lighthouse. — On the N.E. part of Ushant is a light-tower, exhibiting an ex*
teWentJixed light, elevated 265 feet above the level of the sea, which may be seen
a,t 6 leagues off. The position of this lighthouse is latitude 48° 28' 31", longitude
5° 3' 32". It is proposed (1861) to erect another lightiiouse on the S. extremity of the
island.

Douamenez Bay. — This capacious bay, which lies to the southward of Brest
Harbour, will accommodate a large fleet, it being more than 6 miles in extent each
way. Its entrance is so wide, and its bottom altogether so clear and regular, that
no leading mark is required ; pravided that a hunicient berth be given to several
rocks which lie on the North side, as generally represented on the charts. The courae
and distance ^om the 8. W. end of Uahant to the bay are, S.S.E. \ E. 10 leagues :
there is nothing in the way that can take a ship up ; only observing to avoid the
Passe Vieille, off the Bee de Ch6vre, on the North side ot the entrance. This rock
lies about one-third over from the point, and vppcars just above water at tiyo-thirds
ebb. It is steep-to, having trom 17 to 12 fathoms close to it. The marks for it are,
Kidizicnt Mill, to the westward of St. Lawrence's Church, on with the middle of a
reef of dry rocks which lie off the Point or Beo de Chevre, bearing E.N.E. {| E. ; a
village, on with the N.W. cliff of the same point, bearing N.E. by E. ; and the
western Tas de I'ois (or haystack), in one with the Toulinguet llock off the
Lighthouse Point. Its bearing and distance from the Bee do Chevre are, W. 2 S.
1 1 miles.

A clump of trees, with a small chapel in the midst, stands on the North side to the
eastward of Point Ch6vre, having a windmill to the westward, and two to the east*
ward. With the windmill next to the eastward of these trees, just oiicn of the
Chevre Point, you will have passed the Basse Vieille, and may steer for what part of
the bay you please, all being fair and clear, excepting what may be seen above water,
and wiiat may be near the shore. The best ground, however, is considered to be that
toward the North side, being clear sand, with a depth of from 9 to 15 fathoms. The
general depths over the bay arc from 18 to 12 fathoms; and all, as before observed, is
clean ground.

The best leading mark into the bay is the high mount of Locrenan (in the S.E.)
just shut in to the southward of the Point Leide, a rock on the West of the little Bay
of Douarnenez. This will lead, in a fair course, clear to tho southward of the Basse
Vieille.

In the middle of the bay, about two-thirds of a mile North of tho town, is Tristan
Isle, on which a lighthoiiKC has been erected. It is 32 feet hiffh, showing a bright
fixed light, ut an elevation of 114 feet above the sea, and visible 10 miles. It was
lighted in 1857. This lighthouse, in one with Plouard steeple, is the mark for a shoal
of 7 feet, which lies half a mile Norih of Tristan.

ChanSBM, or Font da Boin, or Saints' Bridge, requires but little description, as
it is clearly exhibited on the Chart. This extensive chain of foul ground trends 9
miles to N.W. \ W. from the principal island, and is studded all ov^ with rocks,
either above or under the water. The Lioiithouhe, with its excellent flashing light,
erected on the northern part of the island, in a line with the lighthouse on the Bee du
IluK, denotes the general direction of the ClmuNsf^e, or Bridge. The fixed li^ht on tho
Bee is a 259 feet above the sea, and, as well as the flashing light of the Bern, may bt
seen Wuvu 6 icagves otF.

The lie de Sein lighthouse is 141 feet high ) the light is fixed and \«ricd by fUslMe,

480

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS

elevated 148 feet above the sea level; the flashes appear every four minutes, preceded
and followed by short eclipses.

The lights on the He de Sein and the Bee du Raz lie f^. 86° 50' E., and N. 86° 56'
W., true, or] S.E. by E. | E., and N.W. by W. | W., by compass, from each other,
b\ miles ap^. This bearing, which is likewise the general direction of the whole
chain of rocks called the Chaussee de Sein, passes about 4 cables' lengths to the south-
ward of the N.W. extremi^ of the chain, which is 9 miles from the Sein light, and
14^ miles from that on the Bee du Raz. v .v . v ; '

In approaching these rocks from the tcestward, the first light seen will be the flash-
ing light on the He de Sein ; and first light seen will be the flashing light on the
mariner whether he is to the northward or southward of the line direction of the two
lights. In clear weather, the Bee du Raz light will not not be seen till the vessel is
within 4 or 5 miles of the western extremity of the chain of rocks.

BELLE ILE. — This island, being high, and seen from a great distance, may afibrd
pood shelter in a westerly gale. Ite N.W. end is in lat 47° 23', and its South point
in lat 47° 16'. The N.W. end of the Island is surrounded with rocks. In a line
between the East end of this island and the Isle de Qroix, lies the rocky bank called
the Birvideaux, already described.

■ If a ship, with the wind at N.W. or W.N.W., keeps between the latitudes above
mentioned, when running for the island, on approaching it, she may steer along the
South side at the distance of 2 miles, to Point de VEchdle, or Point des Canons, the
S.E. extremity. From this point, haul up for Point de Kerdonis, the easternmost
point, which is situate 2^ miles from the former. Under this point may be found
anchorage, in from 15 to 8 fathoms, sheltered from N.W. and westerly winds. Should
the wind here veer to S.W,, a ship may run to the northward of the point, and anchor
on the N.E. side of the island.

On the South side of the island there are many rocks near shore, both above and
under water.

A tower on the plateau near the Cove of Ooulfar, on the S.W. part of the isle,
is distinguished by a brilliant revolving light of the first order, eclipsed once in a
minute.

The Isle of Hjedic, which lies about 7^ miles East from the East end of Belle
He, has many racks, with foul ground about them. The Axed light, near the
eastern point of the isle, mOjV be seen about 9 irlles off". The Cardinals extend
to the S.E. from Hoodie, and the extremity bears E.S.E. f E. 12 miles from the
S.E. end of Belle He. Should a ship be oriven to the eastward of Belle He, she
must give the Cai-dinals a good berth, and may then haul up to the northward for
anchorage.

In the Bay of Quiberon, after you have brought the Cardinals to bear S.S.W.,
S. by W., or south, there is good anchoring, with clear soft clay, and very even
soundings, in from 10 to 12 fathoms. With these bearings, you will be shut within
some fuul ground, lying ofi' the Cardinals, in an extent of 3 miles in length, with the
Cardinals from W. by S. to S.W. by compass.

The northern point of
rocks which surround

BASttXTE BO ADS lie within the Isles of Re and Ol^ron.
Olgron has a lighthouse, called the Tour de Chaasiron. The
this end of Oleron, called the Antioche Rocks, extend 2 miles to the East of the light
house ; but within them there is anchorage. The Tour de Chussii-on exhibits ajixei
light of the first order, elevated 164 feet above the sea, which may be distinguished at
the distance of 6 leagues.

On sailing into the Roads, it is safest to keep over to tho Isle of R£, until near the
S.E. end of it ; only taking care to avoid the Lavardin, marked by a tower. Then
steer for the West part of the Isle of Aix, a low fortified island witn some hounes on
it, which lies about half-way between Olferon and the main land. The roads extend

^»aU I *« *Vi.

ACiCilVfllia C'itlOU 11/ 1UV

sboaly to 12 and 13 in the middle of the road; and from 6 to 9 fathoms at about \\

OP THE NORTH ATLANTIC.

;h above and

mileH to the North and N.W. of the Isle of Aix. There are 6 fttthoms at halif a league
West from the island, and good ground.

The soundings in mid-channol, between the Isles of Re and 016ron, are gene-
rally from 12 to 15 fathoms, shoaling towards each side. This channel is nearly 2
leagues in breadth. The French Man-of-war Road is on the South side of the Isle

ofAiX. ;-''.^'-;'^'- '■•;■'' ' y.

The Roche Bonne has been described as one of the most dangerous shoals on the
western coast of France, particularly to vessels bound to Rooherort and to coasters.
It is a gfreat flat of rock situate between the parallels of 46° 10' and 45° 15', at 12
leagues westward from the lighthouse on Baleine Point. M. Beautems Beauprg,
who determined its position in 1824, describes the S.E. rock, on which there are only
18 feet at low water, in lat. 46° 11' 26", and long. 2° 25' 0'. The plateau, or flat,
according to the new charts, extends N.W. | "W. to lat. 46° 15', with a breadth
2 or 3 miles. Not only on this flat is the swell of the sea to be apprehended,
but a'l. on several heads of rock, on which there may not be more than 10 feet at low
water. ,,^

A LioHT-VESSEL is likely to be stationed in the neighbourhood of this shoal.

The rocky bottom, situate to the N.N.W. of the Roche Bonne, is known to the
fishers under the name of Banche Verte, and is not dangerous. Westward of the
rocks, in all their extent, the bottom is of mud.

THE OIBONDE. — The entrance of this river, with the banks and rocks that
impede its navigation, are so clearly exhibited on the general Chart of the Bay, and
particular Chart of the Harbour, as to render a minute description unnecessary. But '
care is requisite at all times, as the banks and channels shift very much. The lights
are described in the list.

The tour DE CORDOUAN, or Lighthouse, standing nearly in the midway
of the mouth of the river, is the most elegant structure of the kind in Europe, and its
figure is represented on the Chart. This tower was completed in 1666 ; its original
height was 169 French feet ; but in 1727, the upper part being calcined, an iron
lantern was erected, which increased its height to 175 feet ; and its elevation, from
recent improvements, is now given as 63 metres, or more than 206 feet.

Its light is revolving, and visible to the distance of 9 leagues. The eclipses succeed
each other once in a minute ; but every great flash of light is immediately preceded
by a flash less brilliant. In ordinary weather the eclipses does not appear total within
the distance of 3 leagues.

By the recent Bjirveys of the mouth of the Gironde, it has been found that all the
former charts of it were grossly erroneous ; and that, instead of Jive channels, as
formerly represented, there are now only two which can be used witli safety. These
are the Passe du Nord, or Passage by the North shore ; and the Passe de Orave, or
Southern Passage.

PASSE DU NORD.— The mark for the entrance by day is the Church of St.
Palais and that of St. Pierre de Royan in one, bearing S.E. ^ S. These churches
lie, as above stated, on the North t^de of the river, and about 8 and 10^ miles
respectively above Point de la Coubre : this direction will lead across the bar, and
about one-third of a mile off Point de la Coubre, when off" the latter point, and
when the semaphore comes between the two beacons on the point, as given on the
Chart.

Here you will have fairly entered, and should change the course to S.E. J S., which
may be continued for 8| miles, until the Church of fet. Palais bears North, obout half
a league distant. From the lost spot a S.S.E. course, 6| miles, will bring you up to
Mecher Road, where there is good ground of sand and mud, and from 8 to 10 fathoms
at low water.

Should circumstances require it, you may run up and take shelter under the Point
de Grave, which aflbrds a safe retreat durinir westerly aud S.W. winds. The mark
is, Royan stecnle ond mills N.E. \ N. At thfs pkce, between Verdon and the bank
called the TaVle Fer, coasting vessels ure commonly sheltered in bad weather.

4S4

DESCRIPTlOxV OF THE COASTS, ETC.

By Nioht, the entrance tu the Oiroude by the Passe du Nord is facilitated by the
light on the Point de la Coubre, and by a light on the tower of Terre Negre. This
is ajixed lenticular light, of the fourth order, elevated 1 18 feet, and visible 10 miles.
The object of this light is to offer to navigators the means of avoiding the dangers of
the dangers of the Barre k I'Anglaise.

It is not visible South of a line passing through the tower itself and that of St.
Palais, bearing one from the other, or S.E. by E.

To make use of tlus light, the following directions are necessary : — Having arrived
South of the Point de la Couore, and the small iixcd light on that point having been
brought to bear N.N.E. bv compass, the route must be changed ; and then steer
towards the Cordouan light, until the moment the light on Terre Nogre is first pr-
oeived : then steer towards it, keeping as near as possible in the line of itH direction,
which will be S.E. ^ S., until the Cordouan light bears S.S.W. ; after which, change
the route for the third time, and bear S.E. \ o.

It is very essential to remark, that the light of Terre Negre, not being visible to
the West of the Point de la Coubre, on the direction for entering the Passe du Nord,
will not be of any service until that point is doubled.

PASSE DE GRAVE. — This passage into the Gironde is 4 leagues to the south-
ward of the Passe du Nord, and is 2^ leagues in length. The mark for the entrance
is the beacon St. Nicolas on with the semaphore of the same, bearing E. | S., and
which from the entrance may be considered about 6 miles. This track is to be con-
tinued until the Tour du Chav and St. Pierre de Koyan, on the North shore, come in
a line, bearing E. by N. f N. nearly ; then steer on this course as near as possible,
which will take over the tail of a small bank called Le Ruffiat, having 9 feet in
one part, which- lies W.N. W. 2 miles from the lighthouse on the Point de Grave;
therefore bear a little to starboard before reaching this point. This last mark kent
on will lead into the main stream of the river, and at the distance of nearly a muc
from the Point de Grave. You hence haul roiud the point to the eastward, according
to cii'cumstances'

In going through the Channel de Grave, be cautious of advancing too near the
shoit^, as the tide of flood sets strongly upon it ; and never, if avoidaole, attempt to
anchor in it.

No large vessel should attempt to leave the river b) this channel, unless with a
rising tide and favourable wind.

Each of the channels b marked by buoys.

TIDES. — At the entrance of the Passe de Grave, with the Cordouan Tower bear-
ing N.E., the tides set as follow : — First of the flood. North ; one-third flood, N.E,j
half end two-thirds flood, E.N.E. — First ebb, S.E. ; one-third ebb. South ; half and
two-thirds ebb. West. In the channel within, with Oordouun bearing N.N.W., the
flood set«, generally, E.N.E., and the ebb, W.S.W. Hctween the great Bank of
Cordouan and the Point de Grave the flood sets, generally, S.E. { the ebb from West
to W.S.\V.

The tides, both ebb and flood, set through the difl'orent channels with rapidity; and
great caution is therefore requisite on making the river. Should the landmarks be
obscured by thick weather, or if night comes on, it will be prudent to anchor in the
first convenient spot.

BAYOITNE. — The mouth of the Adour, or Harbour of Bayonne, lies between two
■andy hummocks. The bar frequently changes > the sea without is very rough ;
there is no entrance but at high water, and then a pilot is required. On the full
and change, the time of high water is at 4''. Spring tides rise 12 feet } neaps, only
9 or 8 feet.

ToiiNO, in his description of this harbour, says, that to enable a vessel drawing
more than 14 feet to pass the bar, a concurrence of favourable circumstances must
exist ; these are, a smooth sea, a fair wind, a spring tide, and no current from the

COAST OF SPAIN.

483

I that of St.

unless with a

BIABITS, or BIAIftSlTZ.— At 3| miles S.W. from the mouth of the Adour
arc the little port and village of Biakits, or Biarkitz, a fashionable watering place.
The village is nearly a mile from the sea.

At 2| miles S.W. from the mouth of the Adour is Cape St. Martin, now dis-
tinguished by the lighthouse, which displays an excellent revolving light, the flashes
of which succeed each other every half minute, and may be seen nearly 7 leagues off.
The light is not entirely obscured within the distance of 3 leagues.

COAST OF SPAIN.— Off the North coast of Spain, which is hish, bold, and
rocky, the depth of water, in general, is from 150 to 200 fathoms, foul ground and
coral ; but, in many places, there is no ground at that depth, even near the shore.
The princinal harbours on this coast are those of Bilbao and Santander ; yet both of
these are devious and shoal.

BILBAO. - Its entrance, which is 3 miles wide, is formed bv the points, named
Lu/uero and Galea. On Galea is a lighthouse, showing a brignl fixed light. The
greater part of its coast if ^ofty, steep, and rocky ; but the bottom of the bay, on the
eastern side, is low and sav: ly.

On Cape Machichaco, 10 miles to the eautward, is a lighthouse showing a fine fixed
light, varied by a flash every 4 minutes.

The mouth of the River Bilbao is impeded by a shifting bar, having less than one
fathom over it, at low water. Here are two piers or kays, within which is the town
of PoRTUOALETE, and off which is the best anchorage in the harbour. Spring tides
rise about 13 feet. In winter, a heavy sea sets into the bay, which, at times, renders
it impossible for the pilots to go off.

If coming in, when the tide does not serve for taking the bar, with an unfavourable
wind, you may come-to in the I '.y, midway between the outer points, Luzucro and
Galea; bring the latter in a line with Cape Villano, in 16 fathoms, with sandy bottom.
There is here sufficient room, in case a heavy on-shore wind should bring homo the
anchor or part the cable, to let go a second anchor, before the ship can get ashore.
In summer, you may lie nearer to the land, in from 10 to 12 fathoms, all the bottom
being of sand.

On making the bay from the westward. Point Galea, on the eastern side, may
be readily known by its white colour. On it stands a lighthouse, with a fixed light.
Should you pass Santona, the bay may be thence distinguished by three sharp-
pointed mountains ; of these the northernmost is that of Luzuero, the middle one
and highest, the hill of Serantes, on the West of the bay. The southern ouo
appears like sui island. On steering for the first, you will, of course, make Point
Luzuero.

SANTANDER. — Of this harbour a particular plan is given on the New Chart of
the Bay of Biscay. Cape Mayor, on the western side of its entrance, lies in latitude
43' 30' 10", longitude 3 45' 6". This cape is of moderate elevation, but steep, and dis-
tinguished by its lighthouse. Cape Menor, or Little Cape, hall a mile more to the
S.h., has a Gattery on it. This is lower than Cape Mayor, and terminates in a low
flat point, with a small reef of rock below it.

On the "same side, at the distance of 1 3-10th8 miles to the south-eastward of Capo
Mcnor, is Point Puerto. The land between forms the sandy Bay of Sardinero, in
which vessels anchor, when the wind and tide do not serve for going into the harbour.
The best anchorage here is with the Capes Menor and Mayor in one ; and^ at 3 cables'
length from the former, ^ou will find from 10 to 12 fathoms, bottom of sand; but
more to the southward, it is all of rock or stone.

The extensive sands on the South side of the harbour frequently shift, and ^ groat
portion of them is dry, at low water. On the North side, from Poiut Puerto east-
ward, the coast is rocky, and defended by several batteries. The town has a smaL
pier.

With the wind blowing fresh from the S.W. or N.W. quarters, it is impossible to
take the hnrhnur nf Santander ; but vessels may, with noou tide, occasionally bring
up in the Road of the Promontory, which is clean aud roomy, and there wait for a

484

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

wind. With an ebb tide, it will be better to oome to in the outer bay, off the beach
of Sardinero, as already described.

An islet, named Monro, which is high and steep, lies in the entrance, at half a mile
N.E. from Puerto Point; on it a bright light is established ; close to its eastern side
is a larger rock, and there is a shoal at a cable's length to the N.W. of it ; otherwiue
there is deep water around it, and the channels on each side are clear and good.

Although Santander has been considered as the best harbour on the North coast
of Spain, eastward of Cape Ortegal, there is little doubt that it is now filling up,
and that the channel and even the anchorage now used may, in a few years, become
impracticable.

On Capfi Penas is a revolving light, visible every two minutes 5 on Cape Bmto
(long. 6° 29') is a bright fixed hght with a red flash every two minutes ; on the Orria
de Tapia, near Bibadeo, is another fixed and flashing liglit ; and on Cape Estaca is
a revolving light. These lights will indicate the chief points of the coast.

CAFE OBTEOAL, Cape Prior, with the other headlands in the vicinity, are high
and steep. The ground without generally rocky and foul. At the foot of Cape
Ortegal are nine or ten sharp-pointed rocks above water, with 15 or 16 fathoms close
to them ; and there is a rocky shoal at half a mile N. by E. \_N. by W.'] from the
cape. A watch-tower on the highest land, at 1| miles from the cape to the south-
wai'd, b a good mark for distinguishing it from seaward. Hence to Cedeira the land
is steep and rugged, but to the northward of Cape Prior it falls into sandy bays. At
different distances from shore are many scattered rocks, on which the sea breeds in a
swell.

Both the stream of tide and current of the sea set in toward the land of this coast ;
so that the utmost attention is requisite, in order to avoid being embayed with light
winds. With a good steady breeze, large ships may, however, pass safely within 2
miles of Cape Ortegal.

FEEB.OL- — From Cape Prior to the Harbour of Ferrol the land is highly moun-
tainous, with lar^e rocks above water along-shore. The bay, forming the entrance of
Ferrol Harbour, is only a mile wide ; and uie channel from it into the harbour but 2
cables' length in its narrowest part. There is, nevertheless, sufficient depth in mid-
channel for large ships at all times of the tide, viz., 8 to 10 and 12 fathoms. When
within, you keep over to the North side, where you may haul up, and anchor in from
4 to 6 fathoms, sheltered from all winds.

COBUNAi &c. — The North part of the Peninsula of Coruiia is distinguished by
the remarkable lighthouse called the Tower of Hercules, constructed with three sides,
and exhibiting a hxcd light with flash every 3 minutes. On the coast, without the
elevation on which the lighthouse stands, there is a bank of rocks extending N.W. to
a considerable distance ; but, from the meridian of the lighthouse a ship may ranL^e
along the coast into the harbour, to the S.E. and South, and find anchorage with the
town bearing S.W. in 14 and 15 fathoms. A fixed light is also shown from St.
Antonio Castle.

OENEBAL REMABXS on coming in with the Coast about Ferrol and
CoRUNA ; from the Spanish of Tofino. — " During the night, ships should never
advance too near the land ; for not only does, at times, powerful current set in for
the land from the N.W., but the streams of flood and ebb often draw vessels out of
their computed situation, especially in winter, or in thick foggy weather, which is
frequent here. In the daytime, the sandy beach at the bottom of the hills may often
be seen, when the latter are obscui'ed in mist and haze. Ships from the westward,
which cannot take the harbours in the day, should not advance to the eastward of the
meridian of Cape St. Adrian, or about Cisargas Isle ^8° 44'), where they should stand
off uud on according to the state of the wind ; tor lying-to may be dangerous.

•• During south-westerly winds, the currents set with great strength between
Cisurgas Isle and Cape Ortegal ; and vessels have often been carried tiius to leeward
of the harbour of Ferrol, where there is no place of shelter or safety. With north-
easterly winds a ship chould run within 2 ijiileK of Cape Priorj ana thence btecr for

■.-^.l COAST OF PORTUGAL. r^y:>^Trt-

aff tbe beach

Capo Frierino, in order, if the wind be not very Btrong, to gain the anchorage in the
Bay of Carino ; or to stand away, if it be so, for Coruna.

In the neighbourhood of Cisargas Isle and Cape Prior, as well as off the interme-
diate points, it is necessary, in hazy weather, to sonnd frequently ; for the soundings
will be a monition before the roai" ^, of the sea on the shore can be heard."

It may be observed that since these remarks were wiitten, the principal points, as
Capes Prior, Priorino, Cisargas Isles, Cape Finisterre, &c., have all been marked hj
the fine lighthouses described in the tables in the earUer part of this work.

From CAPE ST. ADRIAN, the high land continues to the Bay of Camaiinas, with
rocl-3 above and under water. Cape Villano is of rock, not very high, but per-
pendicidar toward the sea. Within it, at a short distance, is a sharp peak, of a red
colour, which, at a distance, appears like a tower. At the distance of a cable and a
half N.N.W. from the cape is the Sock of Bufardo, steep-to, and over which the sea
breaks.

CAPE TORIANA, which is 3 leagues to the S.W. by W. \_S. W. by SS from Cape
Villano, makes a sharp and steep projection into the sea ; it is not very high. At a
diistance it is not always distingui»hable from the high land at the back of it. At
two cables' length West from the point of the cape is a small sunken rock, which
breaks with a little swell.

The Nave of Finisterrk, a high mountain so named, stands at the distance of d|
miles to the S.S.W. [South'] from Cape Toriana. Its summit is flat ; and, at about
one-thiid of its height from the sea there appeal's to be a short point with hummocks
on it, and having at its base a smedl but high island. In the bay formed between
Cape Toriana and the Nav§ of Finisterre, vessels may safely anchor during north-
easterly and easterly winds, oft' a fresh-water rivulet, in from 6 to 8 fathoms, sandy
bottom, but not in aeeper water, as there the bottom is rocky. Cure mast also be
taken not to advance too near the North shore, as it also is foul.

CAFE FINISTERRE is only half a league South of the Nave. It may be
readily known from the sea ; because there is a bight between it and the Nave, with
low beach, and the laud behind less elevated. As there are no other points like these
on the neighbouring coast, they cannot easily be mistaken. There is a lighthouse on
it, wUch uiows a bright revolving light a 1 1 minute intervals.

PORTTTGAL.— The COAST of PORTUGAL is van^pted with roeky promi-
nences falling away into low sandy bays. Its harbours universally require the aid of
pilots. Such are Viana, Oporto, Aveiro, and even Lisbon. The latter has, however,
a good channel with 6 fathoms over the bar at low water, yet it should it bo
attempted by a stranger, lest the winds fall calm, and the strength of the curreu-. set
him on the banks. Here the powerful operation of the tides has caused the destruc-
tion of many ships. Off the city the ebb runs down at the rate of 7 knots, and the
danger in entering is when a strong ebb is running down, opposed to a strong wind
from the sea, which makes a complete break, sometimes all over the bar. Under these
circumstances a vessel is almost immanageable, and the tide may sheer her about ; but
iu the middle of the Great or South Channel, the tide sets directly through. To enter
the river, during the ebb, would require a brisk gale and all sails set, in oi-der to make
any way, or even to stem the current ; and it is to be observed, that within the river
the wind comes very irregularly through the valleys on dach side, unless it proceeds
from the West or S.W. It is, nowever, tolerably steady when iu the direction of the
river.

CAPE ST. VINCENT. — A light is shown from the convent, revolving every two
mmutes, at 221 feet. " Soundings extend to a considerable distance from Cape St.
Vincent. To the southward of the cape lishing-boats may frequently be seen at
anchor, fishing about 8 miles off shore.

" Off the capo, to the westward, the surf, by beating on the nrccijpitous and cavern-
ous rooks, may sometimes be heard to a surprising distance." — A. L.

486 U,

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

LAQOS.* — According to the latest astronomical observations, Lagos is in lai
37° 8' 40' N., long. 8° 37^ 46" W., which differs a few seconds from the position gene-
rally adopted { but, from a number of coincidences, I should prefer this in a final de-
termination. This place, and Villa Nueva, in time of war with Spain, are of the
utmost value and import, more particularly if there is a blockade of Cadiz, as shipg
are dispatched there to water ; on which occasion it is necessary to observe the follow-
ing instructions: — At half-flood the boats can get near enough to land the casks, and
may be taken off as late as quarter-ebb. The tide ebbs and flows in Lagos River at
two o'clock, full and change ; it rises about 13^ feet in the spring, and 9 in the neaps.
The bar is just covered at low water. It has 14 feet on it at high water spi "ng tides,
and 10 feet at the neaps. In fine weather, about 180 tons of water may be raited off
in 24 hours. Refreshments, such as poultry, pigs, fruit, rabbits, pigeons, vegetables,
&e., are to be procured reasonably.

. VILLA NUEVA. — In Villa Nueva River, water maybe got in transports, at about
130 butts in 24 hours 5 which must be rafted 3 or 4 miles down the river with the ebb
tide, as the water is too shoal for ships to go nearer the fountain where it is procured.
There is a depth of 16 or 18 feet of water on the bar ; but, in my opinion, it is only a
summer watering-place ; as the Portuguese told me, that in winter the bar is seldom
passable for ships, as the breakers are very dangerous, and the swell a long way out-
side it. At the lower water-place a butt may be filled in 8 minutes, and in 7 at the
upper. A great quantity of salt is shipped at Villa Nueva.

SAN LTTCAB. or the PORT OF SEVILLE.— A vessel bound for San Lacar, or
Seville, should, after sighting land, bring the town of San Lucar just open of the
point on which stands the ruin of the Fort of Espirito Santo, when a large etone
building (not whitewashed) vnl\ be seen ; it is the easternmost in the town of San
Lucar, and cannot be mistaken, as all the others are whitewashed ; bring this in a
line over the North edge of the Point Espirito Santo, and run boldly in in that direc-
tion, until a large square white building is seen at Bonanza, just clear or touching
the low sandy point to the northward, covered with trees, called Point Seville ; then
run with this last mark on, keeping the square building in sight, aikd pass Point
Seville at 1^ cables' length ; then run over to Bonanza, and anchor in 5 or 7 fathoms
before the square building or pier. The square building of Bonanza is close to the
river, and about 1| miles from San Lucar.

B^ night Espirito Santo, Bonanza, Chipiona, and Malandar Point are distinguished
by hghts as shown in the table.

The water breaks on Picaeho till half-lSood ; when there is any sea on, leave it on
the port side.

It is best to wait till flood tide to run in with ; we had 22 feet water at quarter
ebb, and beat out, opening and shutting the square building at Bonanza with Point
Seville. The South side of the entrance of the river is boraered by low black rocks,
covered at quarter-flood. Weather permitting, a pilot may always be obtained, but
they only put off when a ship is bound to the port.

It is recommended that no ship taking the bar of San Lucar should attempt it on
the ebb tide, especially if they have any suspicion that there are freshes in the river,
because, with a broken sea and strong tide, a vessel may sheer on shore before she
could recover herself.f

TRAFALOAR. — Cape Trafalgar, by the ancients called the Promontory of Juno,
is about 15 or 16 miles to the eastward of Cadiz, and 23 or 24 miles to the southward
of it ; its appearance is flat, and distinguished by a white building, but a lighthouse
is in course of construction on it. Those unacquainted with the navigation between

* The descriptions of Lagos, Villa Nueva, TrafEdgar, and Tangier have been communi-
cated by Captain W. H. Smyth, R.N., K.S.F., &c.

t These Diroctions for San Lucar have been communicated by Captain J. Wharton, of

the Romp, June, 1845, Iwifore the lights '

.ji,A ,i>

COAST OP AFRICA.

this and Cape St. Mary, generally labour under great dread of a mle of wind from
the S.W., and, fix>m want of knowins how these gales come on, frequently get into
difficulties. The_ S.W. gales generally commence with the wind at 8. by W. or
' S.S.W., and continue blowing on these points five or nix hours, although the sea bets
in from the westward ; and it is too common for persons, unaccustomed to navigate in
this bight to have their minds impressed with the danger of the shoals lying on Point
Regia, commonly called the shoals of San Lucar, and falsely represented as very
larming. Under this apprehension they are induced to haul their starboard tacks
on board, and push, for the Strait of Gibraltar ; whereas the real danger lies at the
entrance of this strait, and consists of dangerous reefs of rocks, with uncertain sound-
ings, in no wise to be depended on. Between Cape Trafalgar and Tarifa (and when
you suppose yourself round them, and the straits open), m thick water, not able to
gee land on either side, you will feel yourself in a very awkward situation to fi«d out
the drift of the ship, or ascertain whether you are in a fair way to push through the

Sit ; which you will be compelled to, do should the gale continue, and you are within
e influence of the stream ; for you can (as before observed) gain no information by
the lead of the reef of rocks which lie W. by N. of the Island of Tarifa, and are
extremely dangerous. On the other hand, by standing to the westward, with the
port tacks on board, at the commencement of a S.W. gale, when the wind is from the
southward, for instance, at S.W. by 8., and you make four points leeway, you will
make a fetch to the westward of Ayamonte ; or even with a N.W. course made good,
you will weather the Bar of Huelba, and the lead will inform you the distance the
ship is off the land, 15 fathoms being the very shoalest part you should stand into
along the North shore.

The outer shoal of San Lucar is not at a greater distance than 2| miles N.N.W.
TN. W.^ from Point Regla ; the ground, outsit the shoal, is even and hard, with 10
fathoms of water close to it ; about half a mile to the northward 'of it there is a spot
with 8 fathoms. No allowance is made for a S.E. current, which always prevails
when out i>^ soundings, and even in 60 fathoms.

A more particular description of the land between Cape St. Mary (on which there
is a fixed light) and Cadiz may be found in the Sailing Directory. Cape Trqfa^ar,
the last great promontory of this coast, may be knovni by its remarkable figure, being
flat, and termmating with two sharp comers or angles. A round tower stands on the
East corner ; to the eastward of the flat, the land is very uneven and mountainous.
To the East of the flat land are high sandy cliffs, but none to the westward.

It is to be noted that the northern side of the reefs called the Cabezos, lies 5| miles
W.N.W. [ Wesf] from the light-tower of Tarifa. This appears to be the spot on which
the British frigate Thisbe touched, in August, 1804 ; the depth over which was esti-
mated at 14 feet.

2.— THE COASTS OF AFRICA, FROM TANGIER TO CAPE

MESURADO.

Before proceeding with the description of the coast of Maroceo, we will direct the
attention to the following notice, issued by the British Consul, and which notice
ought to be borne in mind by all frequenting these coasts : —

" In consequence of several boats' crews having landed lately, from shipping of
various nations, on the open coast of Maroceo, or West Barbary, m search, it is sup-
posed, of water or other provisions, the Moorish authorities are desirous that all per-
sons be cautioned that it is not only against the law of this land, and against the
sanatory regulations, to land on any part of this coast, in places where there is not a
port for their reception, but that, in consequence of the strict injunctions given to the
people of this country by their government to prevent any ]/Kimns whatevev setting

48^

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

fbot on land, or approaching near to it on the open coast, the lives of those who in-
fringe the laws in such respect are exposed to danger.

" The undersigned feels it, therefore, his duty to give all the puhlicity he can to
this notice, for warning all commanders and masters of vessels, and especially those
navigating under the nags either of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ire-
land, or of the Kingdom of Hanover, or of the Hanseatio Republics of Lubeck,
Bremen, and Hamburg, not to venture, upon any account, to land, or to allow any
person under their caro or orders, to land or approach within muMket-8liot of the coast
of Marocco or West Barbary, excepting within the harbours of any of the well-lcnowu
ports of this country.

(Signed) " E. W. Drummond Hay, '

" Tangier, Sept. 15, 1843." " Jler Britannic Mcyeaty'a Consul- General, S^c.

TAITOIEB. — ^This place is of importance to the navigator, both in peace and wor,
on account of the refreshments to be procured, which are almost the only traffic the
Moors have. The principal articles are cattle, sheep, pigs, poultry, eggs, fhiit, and
vegetables, of which a limited quantity is allowed to be purchased oy each ship.

The bay affords convenient anchorage for vessels of all sizes opposite to the town,
in from 8 to 10 fathoms, sand ; but it is to be observed that, on the eastern side, there
is a rocky ledge, bearing E.S.E. from Tano^ier Point, and S.W. by W. f W. from
Cape Malabat. This cape, in a line with Europa Point, Gibraltar, leads clear of the
shoat ; and the anchora;^, therefore, lies with Gibraltar open of the cape. Ships
moor to the N.W, and S.E., with the longest cable to the N.W., &c.*

Tangier is described by Captain Washington as situate on a deep acclivity, rising
^t once from the beach, and presenting its eastern and not unpleasing aspect to a bay
about three miles wide. It is surrounded by mouldering walls, round and square
towers every 60 paces, and three strong gates. Its defences toward the sea are two
batteries, one above the other, on the South side of the sea-gate. Directly in front of
the landing-place, high on the wall, are about twelve guns ; to the North, m a circular
battery commanding the bay, about twenty guns of all calibres, mounted on clumsy
Moorish carriages, which would not stand fire for ten minutes ; crowning all, to the
North, is an old and extensive castle, L'Kassbah, and the residence of the governor,
On the land side, ruined walls and a ditch are the only defences. The gates are shut
at sunset, and a watch is kept by night.

All persons who visit this place should pay implicit obedience to the advice of the
consul, as to the conduct to be observed during their intercoixrse \rith the natives.

In rottnding Cape Malabat, some years since, at the distance of more than three-
quarters of a mile from the shore, the Excellent, of 74 guns, touched upon a rock
previously unknown ; at which time, from the starboard chains, were found 5^
fathoms, and 6 from the port. Cape Malabat then bore S. by E. a E., and the ship
floated off in less than a minute. This rock is known by the name of the Almirante,
and described as having over its shoalest part 3 fathoms of water. There is also a
sunken rock at nearly the same distance from Tangier Point, discovered by the
Pacifico schooner, in ^^18, and which lies with the inner coast of Tangier S. by W,
IS. ty E.-]

In all the extent betweeji Cape Spartel and Cape Cantin (lat. 32° 32'), as shown a
the chart, there are regula r soundings toward the shore. In this track there are no
harbours of conse<]^uence ; those which exist bein^- nearly choked up with sand. On
sailing along, the inland mountains may be seen at a great distance, covered with
snow, even in April and May.

♦ It is to be observed that the proper anchorage ia in the centre of the hay. On the
"West of this anchorage is, or lately was, a large old mooring chain, supposed to have been
laid down in the reign of Charles II., King of England, and found to extend nearly iu an
East and Wost direction, and in a line on the North side of the town of Tangier ; its West
end being nearly a mile from the nearest shore. Tangier Point is altogether sun'oundeJ
by foul ground to a considerable distance.

CAPE SPARTEL.

489

CAPE SPARTEL, the N.W. point of the state of Marocco, in situate in lat. 35'
47' 40 ", and Ion. 5° 56' W. The cape, at a distance, appears like an island, and is so
hi^h as to be seen, in clear weather, at the distance of 14 or 15 leagues. The outer
point, when seen from a short distance westward, appears uneven, with eminences on
it like hummocks, and the high lands resemble the awning of a galley. The ground
about the cape is quite clear, with the exception of some high rocks, steep-to. r

Around the West side, and at about one-third of the whole height from the summit,
is a range of well-defined basaltic columns, appearing like a cc^'onet. At the distance
of 2 miles from shore are 98 fathoms, the bank immediately dro^.ping to an unfathom-
able depth. To the southward of the cape the bank extends much farther off, and
there is excellent anchorage on a bottom of mud and sand, and shelter from easterly
winds.

The following descriptions of the coast between the parallels of 36° and 28° (those
of Cape Spartel and Cape Juba), we owe principally to the Survey of Lieutenants W.
Arlett, in the ^tna, and H. Kellett, in the Raven, 1835-36 j and to the notices of
Mr. T. J. Evans, of H.M.S. Bido, 1837-38.*

From Cape Spartel the direction of the coast is S.W. 20 miles to Arzilla, a small
fortified town situate close to the shore, between which and Cape Spartel thijre is
good anchorage all along with an easterly wind. The depths of water are regular,
10 to 15 fathoms, over a sandy bottom, at 1 or 2 miles off shore. The coast-line is a
flat, sandy, and shingly beach, rising to a fine grazinjif country in the interior.

The Roadstead of Jeremia, the usual anchorage near Cape Spartel, extends from it
8 or 10 miles to the S.W. The Dido anchored in the following positions in smooth
water, and well sheltered from a strong levanter, or easterly wind.

1st. — In 15 fathoms, sand and small shells. Cape Spartel bearing N.E. f N. ; the
town of Arzilla, S. by W. ~ W. ; extremity of land to the right, two points nearly in
a line, S.W. by S. Distance to the nearest shore about 1 f miles ; soundings very
regular to a depth of 5 fathoms, at 2 cables' length from shore.

2nd. — In 13 fathoms, coral rock, gravel, and sand, Cape Spartel bearing N.E. %
N. ; centre of the town of Arzillii S. i E. ; two bold and prominent points to the S.W.
of the town, nearly in n ^ S.S. \V. | W.

At the village of Almadronis, nearly midway between Cape Spartel and Arzilla,
landing can be effcctttl. A boat of the Dido, sounding in this vicinity, landed, and
numerous herds of cattUe were seen grazing in the city ; but on two officers and two
seamen, part of the boat's crew, walking not more than 100 yards from the beach, in
hopes of procuring stock, they were immediately seized by a party of Moors ; three
were detained and conveyed into the country, the fourth having effected his escape.
The Moors were armed, and were savage in their behaviour until they had made their

Srisonera. The ship, then lying at her first anchorage, was soon under way, and ran
own off Arzilla, demanding from the governor the officer and men detained. A
party of Moorish horsemen were now sent to scour the <nuntry, who found them on
their road to Tangier, under a guard : on this they were escorted back to Arzilla, but
were refused to be delivered up until permission was granted by the governor of Tan-
gier. The delays were so protracted that the ship anchored off the town, to m.ake a
serious demonstration, in 4i fathoms of water, at about 600 yards from the shore, and
loO yards outside a reef of rocks awash, which describe a semicircle without the
beach-line, affording good shelter under its lee, with the principal fortress bearing
S. A W.

* The irst of these was given in the " Journal of the Royal Geogi-aphioal Society,!'
vol. vi., 1836 ; and the second in the " Nautical Magazine" of June, 1839. We have, of
''r.iaso, lacorporated such other information as would render the description complete.—
(See Notes on the Table of Positions, page 38.)

3 Q ■ '

400

DESCHIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

" The fortifications, which apparently arc fast crumbluig to decay, cover the whole
sea-face of the town, on which we obaerved mounted about twenty guns, of varioiu
calibres : in our position not more than thirteen guns bore on us ; and if we had an-
chored about half a cable further North, not more than ten could have been used with
effect. However, the garrison being deficient in ammunition, and defenceless in other

Joints, the ship resumed her former anchorage, having gradual soundings, in all
ireotions, from the reef of rocks to a depth of 15 fathoms.

" The next day we Deceived our people by permission of the authorities of Tangier*
and started from their inhospitable shore. It is here necessary to state, that, while
prisoners, they had been well treated.

" To account for the foregoing proceedings, it appears, by a treaty, that trading is
forbidden at any port on the Moorish coast m which there is not a British consul, or
his agent. At Arzilla there is a Spanish Jew in the latter capacity, who behaved
uncommonly w^U on this occasion. Now, as we landed only 5 miles from an
authorized port, it appears that they carried this article of the treaty to its fullest
extent. In fact, it is generally attended with fatal consequences for a Frank, in an
unauthorized port, on any pretence, whether from distress or a want of knowledge of
their customs. An instance of barbarous murder committed on an Englishman who
(in ignorance^ had landed for the amusement of collecting shells on the sea-beach,
and actually m sight of the ship, occurred a few years back, not 3 miles from where
our party were seized j and it may be considered fortunate that this affair ended
without loss of life. As a proof of the general ignorance of this custom, we had on
board at the time of the above incident five merchant captains, who had been in the
habit of trading to the S.W. ports of Marocco, and who knew not that landing was
against the laws ; and it is to be regretted that our consuls in Murocco should not
have given mora general information on so serious a point." *

Four or five miles to the N.E. of Arzilla is the Wed el Ayaeha, a small river, barred
across the entrance, but reported to flow sufficiently strong for a good supply of
water ; and the distance to roll the casks, the bbat being anchored clear of the sui-f,
not above 50 yards. The preceding description shows how far caution may be
required.

Twelve miles inland from Arzilla is the Jibel Habih, a range of mountains very
conspicuous from the sea, the loftiest of which is 3,170 feet above the sea. Jihd
Hasan, another peak in this ran^e, more to the northward, is 2,270 feet high. Ju!>t
to the Noilh of the town of Arzilla is a castle in ruins ; and date trees, which overtop
the walls, are growing in the couri. On the wall fronting the sea, which is strength-
ened by three towers, twenty guns are mounted. Under the southern angle of the
wall is a well whitewashed tomb. The country around is well wooded, and a quan-
tity laid out in gardens. The population is supposed to exceed 600. f

From Arzilla the coast trends to S.W. \ W., and at the distance of 4 miles the
coast hills rise to the height of 734 feet j at 5 miles further is the Hajfa el livithi, a
remarkable white cliff, in the shape of a wedge, which rises to 308 fcot above the
sea, and presents the same form in all directions. It may be distinguished when 5
leagues off; but the best mark for the coast is the Peak of Fas, an insulated moun-
tain, resembling a sugar-loaf, which stands 8. by ¥•. ^ E. [iS.JE. 2" »S.] from off the
entrance of El Araichc, next described.

£L ARAICHE, a picturesque ruin, is situate on the deep southeni point of thclUver

AlKho
AlKhoi
the pool
state,
trade is
abundan
shore, v«

• 8ee the Notice issued by H. B. M. Consul, given on page 488.

t In tho liilitude of Arzilla the bank extends 12 miles from the land. Hero i« n mnckflrrl
fishery, on which twenty or thirty Bpanifth and Portugueso feluccas are employed. Tlw
method of taking the fish is by throe honks faatened togsthnr : the flshsrrrian throns s
hnndftil of FBlt or Hand into the water, to which the fish rice, and are immediately jigged
with great dexterity. They are cleaned and salted on the spot.

EL ARAICHE.

49t

At Khos, which here meandei-s through a rich and fertile valley.
Al Khos signifies the how ; El Araiche, the pleasure garden ; but
the people are barbarous, and the ;!ountrT is in an uncultivated j
state. The population of El Araiche is abcut 2,500 ; and a little '
trade is carried on between this town and Gibraltar. Supplies are
abundant, and there is a fine spring of water on the northei'n
shore, very convenient for shipping.

The best anchorage is with the town between the South and
S.S.E. The mouth of the river, which appears very broad, is really
very narrow at low water, and has then only 5 and 6 feet water
over it, but there is a rise and fall of 9 to 12 feet. Inside the water
deepens 24 feet. A " pap," or rising point, on the North side of
the river, is 204 feet high above the sea. The best anchorage in
the roads for vessels intending to enter the river, is with the dis-
tant conical mountain, Fas, appearing in the centre of the
entrance, 1 mile from the point, in 1 2 fauioms, sand.

Between ArziUa and El Araiche the ground is tolerably clean,
but not very good, being coarse gravel, with 25 and 30 fathoms of
water, at from 1 to 3 miles from shore. Before El Araiche the
depth decreases, and there are only 4 fathoms at 2 cables' length
from shore. In sailing along this coast, care must be taken not to
advance too near, unless it should be with a sti*ong easterly wind ;
for sometimes, in calm weather, there is here a heavy swell from
the West or N.W., which would render it difllcult to get ofi" shore.

The site of Old Mamora, known by several whitewashed tombs,
the chief of which is that of Muley Bu Selham, at the outlet of a
stream said to flow fi'om a s-nall lake, 20 miles to the southward of
£1 Araiche. At 2 cables' length from the bar is a depth of 5
fathoms, gradually increasing to 34 at 2 miles from shore. The
coast between El Araiche and this spot is straight, and for the
most part about 300 feet in height ; reddish cliffs for the first 10
miles, then sand-hills partly covered with brushwood. There are
everywhere from 20 to 25 fathoms of water, at half a league from
shore, and you may anchor off" the eoast hence to Slaa or Salee.
Ships, in fact, must sometimes anchor here, during a calm, to avoid
being drifted 1> the cun'cnts, which set to the southward, along
the coast ; and the velocity of which, especially at the full ana
change of the moon, is frequently fVom 1 to 2 miles an hour.

The Peak of Fas, above mentioned, serves as a mark for Old
Mamora, from which it bears nearly true East.

From this place the coast extends 10 leagues S.S.W. to Mahedia.
The coast is very clear, a little higher than the former, and readily
known, being or white sand as far as about the middle of its do-
I'livity, while the upper part appears like cliffs. The Kiver Sebou,
on the South bank of which the town is situate, is impassuble,
except in boats, or on rafts, at some distant"? from the sea, although
navigable near the ocean. The town f>xtends from the sea-shore
to the top of the highest land, so that you may readily distinguish,
ft'om the offing, the walls of an old castle, situate in the upper part
of it. Ships nmy anchor, at half a league from shore, in 12 or 14
futhiuns, sutidv ground; but, wlien the wind blows from the offing,
and Hometimi s in fair weather, the swell is hero very great, as
well OS alon^f the coast. The best, anchorage is with the t«v.n from
».K. by K. to S.E. by S.

Mvhvdia was formerly a place of some conbcquencc, and is noted

492

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

for the ruins of fountains, arches, &c. Tlie town now contains only JJOO to 400
inhabitants, chiefly flshcrmen, who subsist by the sale of ahebbel, an ext'ellent flsh,
much like salmon, which is caught here in great abundance.

In the mmmer, the wind generally prevails from N. by E. to N.E. along the coast.
During winter, there is a blustering S.W. and S.S.W. wnd ; and, in this season,
when it begins to chop about to the South or S.E., shipping must get off, for then it
commonly shiftj) to the S.W. and W.S.W., \vith foul weather. When it changes to
"W.N.W. or N.W., the weather is likely to be clear.

Between Mehedia and Slaa or Salee, the coast is rather low, with double land, very
even, with a white sandy strand, therefore readily known. At about half-way the
strand rises, and thence, southward, the shore consists of black and steep rugged
rocks, with small hillH.

SLAA and RABAT.— The towns of Slaa and Rabat are divided by the river
called the 3h Reqreb. In this river, between the two towns, some sloops of war,
bulongine to the Moorish sovereign, were formerly laid up for the winter. But Mr.
Jackson has said that, going thence to Mugodor, a few years since, the vessel in which
ho was, of about 1 50 torn t burden, struck three times on the bar: and, as the sand
continues to accumulate, it is likely that, in another century, there will be a separation
from the ocean at ebb tide*

Slaa, or Salkk, says Captain AVaMhington, once the terror of the seas, so renowned
for its rovers, whoso daiing exploits reached even to our coasts ; whose city and port
were a constant some of riot, and bustle, and activity j now ruined, still, and lifeless.
The present town, built on a sandy point, extending to the sea, forming the north-
eastern bank of the rivtr, is about half a mile in length by a (luarter in breadth, sur-
rounded by wall." ;)0 feet high, and square towers every 50 paces. Its defences, n
battery of twenty guns, facing the sea, a round fort at tne entrance of the river, and
a gun or two on the gates. The ■ mosques, arches, and fountains in the city, show
traces of beautiful sculpture, and of great antiquity. Streets narrow, and houses
sombre, like all Moorish towQS. Population about 10,000, of which 500 may be Jews,
with apparently little or no occupation.

The river, called Btt Reqreb, is hero about .'500 yards broad, when full. The bar,
about one-eighth of a mile from the entrance, extends almost ocross in a W.S.W.
direction, with 3 or 4 feet on it at low water, leaving a channel at each end ; the
Moors use tljc eusteni. Rise of tide, 9 or 10 foot. From the anchorage off-shore the
water shoalens very gradually till close to the bar, wherc it suddenly drops from 7 to
U fathoms. Here is almost invariably a heavy surf.

Rabat, on the S.W. side of the river, is 50 or 60 feet above its level, on bunks of
crumbling sandstone. It is crowned by a venerable and battlementod Kashah, or
citadel. A curtain of 500 yards, facing the sea. Hanked by two circular batteries of
twelve guns each, about as Inuny more in the Kassbuh, and a small battery overlook-
ing the river at the S.W. end of tlu» to>^ni, form its sea defences. The town is thn>c-
(piarters of a mile long bv one-third in breadth, and wuUed orchards of about 200
acres reach along the banks of tlie river.

The old Kassbah was built in the twelfth century, and some subterraneous maga-
liines in it, remarkable for their strength, being Iwmb-proof, are still preserved! tiiero
are, also, the remains of a small battery, which defended the entrance of the river.
At a short distance South of the castle,* on an elevated situation, is a scjuare fort, the
woUs of which are about 2 miles in circuit, and sti-enj^thened by s({uare towers; thn
encloBO the castle, the town of Rabat, and a largo Hi)aee of ground, where stiuid a
])nlnce, and the niausolcmn of the Sharcef. or Empei-or Sidi, or Seedy Mohammed.

A remarkable old tower at Rabat, called the Towar of livttl Jfnitmn, is the.lwst
M-a-mark for this place. It is built of liewn stone, is 180 feet in height, '<io or M

• iStf Jm ksoji'n (luK'nption of Murotco, &c.

DAU EL BEIBA.

49d

feet broad.* At a Hmall diHtance to the nortliward of it are the ruins of an ancient
wall, on which were formerly a battery and castle.

The country in the neighbourhood is planted with vines, oranges, and cotton, of an
excellent quality. There are docks for ship-building, both at Salee and Rabat.

The tower before mentioned is dcscnbed by. Captain Washington as that of Stna
Hassan, and is the most conspicuous object, standing 220 feet above the level of the
river, and the first by which this coast would be recognised in approaching firom sea,
OH it must be visible from the deck of a frigate 6 or 7 leagues. He adds, the main
street of the town, which runs parallel to the river, contains the principal shops ( not
very attractive ; the markets abundantly supplied with vegetables and fruit; orange
orchards, vineyards, and cotton plantations, are extensive ; the fruits excellent,
though grown on a light, sandy soil. Moorish population, about 18,000 ; Jew, 3,000.
The Jewesses the prettiest in the empire. There are ten mosques, besides the maiuo-
Icuin of the sultan before mentionca, and that of the Moorish hero Al Mantor.

The Road of Slaa is dangerous for shipping, and the accumulation of sand at tho
entrance wil scarcely permit a vessel of 100 tons to enter the river without danger.
Vessels may lie in safety out of the river, near Ilabut, from April to September in-
clusive ; but they are not secure in the rest of the year, the wind blowing from tho
southern quarter, and often obliging them to quit their moorings. Tho best anchor-
a<rc in this season is between the Mosque of Rabat nd the Old Tower of Hassan,
keeping the former to the northward. As a great number of anchors have been lost
in tne road, much attention must be paid to the cables. The ^wsition of Slaa and
Ifiibat may be seen in the Table, page 33.

'^'r VTansoria, shown on the Chart, is a square of 150 paces, enclosing an Arab
vil' The tower of tho mosque, 80 feet high, stands 180 feet above the sea, from

w' t ' less than a mile distant. From the deck of a frigate it may be visible at
6 ...ip,»^s. The coast here is iron-bound and rocky.

FID ALL AH, or Fedala, a peninsula, frequently mistaken for an island, forms a
harbour, having a depth of u or fathoms, whicn affords shelter to small vessels
during westerly winds. A roadstead hero is supposed to bu the only one, with tho
exception of Agudccr, in the parallel of 30" 27', wherein ships on the coast may rido
in security during winter. This is owing to a projection of the lund, South of tho
peninsula above mentioned.

The village of Fidnllah, situate at threc-quai'tcrs of a mile from the sea, is a walled
square, of luiout 200 paces, enclosing a respectable mosque, the ruins of European
nici'cliiuits' house<4, and an Arab encampment. It may, perhaps, contain 300 inhabit-
ants—Moors, Arabs, and Jews.

Hetween Rabat and Point Pidallah there is no danger beyond a quarter of a milo
from shore ; the Bank of Soundings extends to tho distance of 20 or 22 miles from
tlie hind, increasing south-westward. From KiO fathoms, mud, the water shoalens
Huddinly to 00 or 80 fathoms, between which depths and 60 fathoms it continues for
mnny miles, sand and mud, decreasing to 30 fathoms at 3 miles from shore. Tho
inland features vary slightly ; two lines of barren and gently undulating hills, from
200 to 300 feet in height, extend nearly parallel to the coast ; tho more distant are
from 4 to (I miles from tiio sea, the nearer not more than a mile, sloping gradually to
the heuch, which is generally sandy, with occasional patches of rock.

DAR EL BEIDA (sometimes called Caha Bianca, having the same meaning.) —
At t leagues W. by S. from Fidallah is 2)ar el Beida, or Am^'a,^ a small walled town

• A pnrtirnliir dcvsrription of this tower, &c., is given by M. Ciiflsini, in his voyage fo
Ninvfoundlund and Salon, 1708.

t !)»>■ el Beida, i.e., wliito house. A vosspl, the Rom, from CJibraltar, chartered for Ckua
lliiiiira (Itiilian, " white houso "), not tinding tho niimo on liis chart, made for Cape Blanco,
mill on liindinK, tho ciiptiiin iind part of the crow woro mado priHonors, and Hborutod with
i!ii!i( iiiiy. The notice from our consul-general, given on jiagc IMR, ought to bo very strictly
iiltondoil to.

404

DESGRIP'AION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

on the beach, within a point projecting half a mile N.N.E., trw, and forminpp a cove,
three-quarters of a mile deep, and well sheltered from westerly winds. This towB,
18 well as Fidallah, was built for ihe exportation of corn. The towers of i rse
mosques are conspicuous, and one is of superior height. Around the town ai'e m>n:j
palm trees and gardens ; water is abundant. Inhabitants, about 700, including Jews,
among whom is a British consular agent.

li'hia place is easily knoi^n by its towers, one of which seems almost as high ea
Hassan s Tower at Salee. The coast betweer is low, and bordered with small isletii,
all v( r near the land.

There is a reef rocks at one-thii-d of a mile oif the town, and the landing-place is
behind them. Some other prrts of the bottom are likewise rotky, and in winter the
anchorage is unsafe, owing to the current, &c. From the cape, rocks extend to the
distance of nearly half a mile, and farther off is a rocky bank of 6 fathoms. At 20
miles to *i -^ West is a depth of 150 fathoms, daric sand, decreasing rapidly toward
the land to 45 fathoms at 12 miles from shore, and then gradually to the beach.

AZAMOR* — On a sand-hill at about 13 leagues to the south-westward of Dar el
Beida is the small town of A ;amor, situate on the South side of the mouth of a river
called by Mr. Jackson the Morbega, and by Captain Washington Wad-oom-er-hegh,*
Its walls, crumbling to ruin, are tenanted by storks '1 he place is dull and lifeless ;
streets narrow and dii-ty ; but provisions, fish', vegetables, and fruit, abundant and
good. The population about 1,0U0, including Jews. These carry on a considerable
trade in wool, which is shipped from Mazagan. The inhabitants of the countiy
around, who are of superior stature, are chiefiy pastoral, possessing large flocks of
sheep and goats, and mostly live in tents. Wood is scarce and dear.

The bar of the river is dry at low water. The entrance is dangerous, and the shore
flat, having not above 8 or 10 fathoms of water for 1 or 1^ leagues from shore, and
foul rocky ground, so that it is not safe to anchor hereabout.

M AZAflATT. — From Azam'^r to the remains of the town of Mazagan, on the S.W.,
the distance is 10 miles. This place is on a low rocky point, projecting to the North,
which forms the western limit of a sandy cove, of about 1 1 miles, and affording a
good roadstead for small yessels. It is defended by several redoubts, enjoys a little
commerce, excellent water, and good supiilies. A large proportion of the buildings
are used as storehouses for wool, of which great quantities are hence exported.
There is a tank, admirably constructed, which will contain several thousand tons of
water. A lofty building, 140 feet high, now in ruins, appears to have been a light-
house. T'lere is anchorage off the coast, at a league from the shore, in 15 fathouis,
sandy \i* and ; but at the West point of Mazagan is a- ledge of rocks, which stretch
to th'^ 1% JS. \_N.N.E.'\ about a league into the sea, and are uncovered at low water,
A. df ngerous patch oi rocks, because the sea only breaks on them at low water in
bad weather lies 720 fathoms W.N.W. from the old light-tower. The best anchorage
is to bring the two fla^staffs on the Sardinian consul's house in one, and anchor in 6
fathoms water ; by doing so, you come upon a patch of blue clay, the rest of the bay
being all rocky bottom v^thout exception (June, 1839). The shore hence, towaid
Cape Blanco North, is everywhere rocky and dangerous, to a considerable distance
from it ; and ships that stop here muct anchor at 2 leagues off, in 35 or 36 f ithoms of
water, oozy ground; the swell is almost always very great, and the current is very
strong. From Mazagan to Cape Blanco the aistance is 4 leagues. The shore between
is merely a ridge of sand-hills. About midway are the ruins cf Tett, or ^Yrf, an
ancient town, and a conspicuous tower, 128 feet high and 148 feet above the siii,
which may therefore bo seen from a great distance. Two largo tombs, kept white-
washed, stand on either side of it.

The coast hereabout should not be apjproached nearer than 1^ miles, as scattered
rocks lie off the shore, and the bottom is very uneven. The btncli, in some places

Or I'm' n-' tnlyh ; " ..! >thcv of Ileibage."

CAPE BLANCO-CAPE CANTIN.

i95

:*tid.y, is generally lined with craggy rocks. A line of barren hUls, 200 feet high,
b; —^ -o t*»e beach along the whole distance, and terminate just to the northward of
the ^pe in a low and dark but abrupt and rocky cliff.

CAFE BLANCO North.— This is in lat. 33° 8', a little to the southward of the
headland last mentioned. It is 170 feet high, appears to be of white sandstone, and
the lines of strata, white and red, rising parallel to the horizon for some distance,
suddenly drop at nearly a right angle to the water, and the cliff appears like a wall.
In a bight on the S.W., which is formed by the cape, is a good anchoring place, of
gufficient extent for several ships.

At 22 Liiles westward of Cape Blanco are soundings of 150 fabhoms, fine sand,
gradually detreasing to 28 fathoms at 4 miles from the shore.

A dark and rather projecting cliff, formerly represented as an islet, under the name
of Duksal, stands at about 4 miles southward from Cape Blanco ; and, at 6 miles from
the cape, hills rise gradually from the beach te the height of 465 feet, the greatest
elevation on the western shore of Marocco. Hereabout are the ruins of Woladia,
where it seems there was once a harbour. At 4 and 7 miles to the southward of
these, on the edge of the cliff, are those of two other small towns, supposed to be Eder
and Teturia.

CAPE CANTIN', or Bas al Hndik,* in lat. 32° 32|', is a steep headland, which
rises precipitously to 21 1 feet above the sea, and has a ledge of rocks projecting from
it ; on its summit is a small sepulchre. At 16 miles westward from the cape are
soundings of 100 fathoms, fine sand; this depth gradually decreases eastward.

From the preceding description it will appear, that between Cape Blanco and Cape
North the coast is much higher than the coast between Cape Blanco and El Araicho.
It trends to the S. by W. | W. \_S.W. a «.] 12J leagues, and is safe all along,
having only some small islets very near the land. At 2 leagues off the depths are 40
and fathoms, oozy, ground. The currents are very stronf/, and generally run in the
direction of the coast, S.W. by S.

From Cape Cantin to the North point of Asfee or Saffi Bay the coast trends
S.S.W. l^icarly South'\ 4 leagues, and is much higher than the coast alr»iady described.
Between these points, at the distaiice of a league from shore, is a rocky bank, extend-
ing North ana Soulh, true, having over it from 30 to 40 fathoms, and, at times,
abounding with fish. From the ^ifoith point of the bay (which is foul) to the town of
Asfee, or Salfi, the distance to the S.S.L. is 2^ leagues.

Saffi. — The North cape of the Bay of Saffi fonns two headlands ; on the southern
one is a tomb or sanctuary. The coast between Cape Cantin and the bay is one con-
tinued white cliff, with a sandy beach at its base ; the cliff, riiiing gradually to its
southern projection , is there 530 feet in height, and here the bay commences. In the
bight within is a ravine, the bed of a winter torrent ; and on the slope stands the
ancient town of Saffi, in lat. 32° 18' or 32° lU', between two liills, which render it in-
tolerably hot ; and, in wi.iter, very disagreeable, as the waters from the neighbouring
mountains, occasioned by the rams, discharge themselves through the main street
into the sea. The road is safe in summer ; but, in winter, when the wind is from
South or S.W., vesstis are freciuently obliged to make off to sea.

Safti iH a considerable town, surrounded by a wall 31 feet high, with a ditch, and
defended by twonty-tbur heavy guns next the sea. The tower of cue mosque is 200
feet above the surface. Fresh water is scarce, and procured from wells southward of
the town. The country in the immediate vicinity ajjpoars sandy and barre"; but the
interior abounds in corn, and two falls of rain in a year are said to be sufficient to
bring it to maturity.

During the Kuramer months, or from I.Inroh to October, the ba^ afford.; as good
anchorage, and smoother water, than any other on the coast, but is entirely exprned
to westerly wMids ; the bottom is of sandand mud, and there is generally a depth of

• Rat al .ffffrfi*— Cape of Pslm Oi-ovM.

49d

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTg, ETC.

about 15 fiithoms at a mile from shore. VeHsels may anchor at a, league from the town,
in 20 or 22 fathoms of water, gray nnd oozy sand. To anchor in the road, the NGrth
point, on which stands a low towe: lust be brought a little to the northward of
W.N.E. Or, further in the bay, the same point may be brought North (by compass)
a little easterly, when the northernmost of two northern points will appear about a
ship's length open, without the southernmost ; and the high castle of the town S.E.
by E. or S.E. ; the depths 16 to 18 fathoms, fine grey sax A. There is also anchorage
within, in 15 fathoms, with the North Point N.N.W. or N. by W. ; but t^ese are the
summer roads : in the winter, you must anchor further from the land, in 20 or 22
fathoms, as already shown. You may boldly run in to the summer roads by night,
with the castle bearing E. by S. or East.

J^ bound to Saffi, from the northward, shape such a course as will lead sufficiently
to the westward of Cape Camin, in order to avoid the rocks about that cape.
You may easily know on which side of Saffi you are standing, as the land to the
northward of the bay is high and uneven, and that to the southward of it is a plain,
even land.

From i he South point of Saffi Bay, which is very low, to the inouth of the Wad
Tansift, or River of Marocco, the coast trends S.S.W. j W. [(S. | W.'] 16 miles, and
presrnra, generally, a line of sand-hills, from 150 to 200 feet high, which, in some
places, terminate m. low cliflFs, and in others slope to the beach. Inland is a ridge of
sandy looking hills, covered with brushwood, the highest 650 feet above the sea.
There is a large tank on shore, nearly midway between Saffi and the Tansift, and on
the southern bank of the river is an old castellated building, square and roofless,
v.hich was built for the use of travellers. The Bar of the Tansift, although a con-
siderable river, is in summer entirely dry at low water.

MOGOBOK. — iTom the Tansift the coast extends in the direction of S.W. by W,
\ W. \_S. 40" fF".] to a low sandy point, forming a cove to the northward of it, with
rocks within half a mile from the beach. The coast, which from the Tansift is barren
and uncultivated, and from 200 to 300 feet in height, here assumes features of fertility.
The lofty Jibel Iladid or Iron Mountains, extending more than 20 miles, is a mass of
high land, which here rises to the height of 2,350 feet ; another, nearer the sea, with
a conspicuous tomb on its summit, rises to 2,100 feet.

A sandy beach continues from the reef point nearly S.W. \_S. 21° W.'] 12 miles, to
Mogodor ; the inland prospect is here bounded by the Botof sand-hills, which extend
parallel to the beach, at the diiitance of a mile.

SUERRAH OR SuiRA, other^7i^e Mogodor, is the only port on this coast which
maintains i\ regular commercial intercourse with Europe. Its population has been
computed ut 9,500 persons. The town is built on a low flat desert of accumulating
sand, which separates it from the cultivated country, and is defended from the en-
croachment of the sea by rocks, which extend from the northern to the southern gate i
though, at spring tides, it is almost surrounded by water. There are two towns, or
rather a citadel and an outer town. Those Jews who are not foreign merchants are
obliged to reside in the latter, which is walled in, and protected by batteries and
cannon, as well as the citadel.

The wind being high all the summer, with little intermission, nothing grows here
in sufficient quantity to supply the inhabitants ; all kinds of fruits and vegetables
are, therefore, brought from gardens 4 to 12 miles distant; and the cattle and poultrv
are also brought from the other side of the sandy hills, where the country, althougli
interspersed with Hartiahe, or stony spots, is capable of producing every necessary of
life. The insulated situation of the town, and other circumstances, deprive the inha-
oitants of all resource, excepting that of comuierce, so that every individual of the
plact is supported directly or indirectly by it. In this respect, it differs from every
other port of the coast.

An island, which lies to the S.W. of the town, forms the harbour. This island is
about 1^ miles in circumference; and between it and the main land, on the South,
is the anchorage. There are here, i.i some parts, only 12 foot at low wator;
therefore, large ships do not enter the port, but anchor at about 1^ miles westward

CAPE MOGODOR. y'Kiv^feHCl'

4X^

pom the town,
ad, the North
northward of
(by compass)
)pear about a
le town S.E,
[so anchorage
t^ese are the
d, in 20 or 22
ids by night,

id sufficiently

ttt that cap^.

le land to the

it is a plain,

I of the Wad
16 miles, and
hich, in some
d is a ridge of
bove the sen.
iinsift, and on
and roofless,
though a con-

f S.W.byW,
i,rd of it, with
nsift is barren
res of fertility.
p, is a mass of
the sea, with

] 12 miles, to
which extend

!oast which
ion has been
accumulating

Tom the en-
outhern gate ;
wo towns, or
lerchants are

jatteries and

f grows here
d vegetables
s and poultry
try, althougu
necessary of
•ive the inha-
idual of the
s from every

his island is

the South,

low watc'!

■ics webtward

of the Skalla, or lon^ battery, which extends along the West side of the town toward
the sea.

On approaching the land in the parallel of Mogodor, the first remarkable feature
which appears, is the craggy summit of Mount Atlas, covered with snow, and con^
trasting with the dark rid^e of hiUs between it and the coast. To the northward,
the Jibel Hadid appears insulated, and, as you draw nearer, a lon^ patch of sand
becomes visible ; and finally, the white towers of Mogodor rise, as it were, from the
water. Soundings, in 100 fathoms, may be found at 23 mil^s from shore, -when the
water immediately becomes dr loured ; the souuding^ decrease very gradually, over
a bottom of sand.

Mogodor has a beautifiil appearance at a distance from the sea ; the houses being
all of stone, and white. The streets are, nevertheless, narrow and dull. A winter
seldom passes but some ships are driven ashore by the CW. winds ; and this happens
generally between the 8th of December and the 18th of January, the reason called
Liali by the Arabs, and the only period dangerous for shipping in the bay.

lAevtenant Arlett says, that, of the inhabitants of Mogodor, in 1835, 4,000 were
Jews, separated by a wall from the quarter of the Moors, whose portion is called the
Citadel. All laborious work is performed by Jews, and domestic servants are all of
that class. Much of the trade is also monopolized by the same people ; for, owing to
certain exemptions from duty, they are enabled to undersell European traders.

The principal exports are wool, ^m, wax, hides, skins, almonds, honey, ostrich
feathers, and gold-dust. Imports, — iron, hardwares, and cotton goods. Duties fixed
and not very heavy. The want of water has been diminished, by the construction of
an aqueduct, which conveys the stream from tha river, 1| miles distant, to several
large tanks in different parts of the town. One of these is exceedingly convenient
for vessels watering, being close to a jetty, ins'do a fortified bridge, which connects an
islet with the main ; here boats may fill, toward high vater, perfectly sheltered from
all winds. The market is excellent ; provisions of all sorts, including fish, poultry,
and game, are abundant and cheap ; as are, also, fruit and vegetables.

The position of the British consul's house, as given by Lieutenant Arlett, is
21° 30' is9' N., and 9" 46' 0' W. Captain Boteler makes the longitude 9° 44'. From
the roof of this house, the highest snowy peak of Atlas is seen, bearing S. 45° E.*

The roadstead: during the winter, can scarcely be considered tenable ; and even in
the summer, the strong N.E. winds which prevail cause a very disagreeable sea. A
westerly win<i throws a very heavy swell into the harbour ; but, notwithstanding
reports which prevail to the contrary, it is not generally unsafe for vessels properly
found in cables and anchors.

The North Passage into the Harbour is between the town and island. A great
ledge of rocks extends from the main, among which those next to the island stand
high above water. In coming from the northward, if you would sail in behind the
island, you must run between it and those rocks, close by them, where you will have
5 fathoms of water. The best anchorage is under the island, in 2| fathoms, as there
the ground is good.

SotUh Passage. — A small reef extends from the South end of the island, towavd
the main land ; and, on the South side of the passage, a bank extends from the
mainland to a considerable distance. In sailing outward, run along by the latter,
and you will soon be in 4, riud thence to 10, fathoms of water. The tide flows
here, on the full and change, at 4'', and rises from 10 to 12 feet. The current i".
scarcely perceptible.

From Mogodor southward.- -At ft J miles S.W. from Mogodor lies Ras Tagrifelt,
or Cape Sem, a lov/ sandy point, sloping gradually from the height of 490 feet, and
terminating in a reef of rocks which extend, on all sides, to the distance of rather

See Captain Wiishington's note upon this particular, in the " Journal of the Boyal

0«ographical Society," vol. vi. p. 291

498

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

more than two-thirds of a mile. The coast between this and Mogodor is a continuous
line of bare sand-hills, 70 feet high, and sloping to the beach. In the background
are the Botof eand-hills, covered with a dark evergreen. Under the cape is said to
be a rocky bank, stretching 2 leagues off, and upon which, at a league from shore,
has been found 13 fathoms ; at 2 leagues, 20 fathoms, rocky ground j at 3 or 4
leagues, 35 and 40 fathoms, oosy sand. Hereabout the current seta violently to the
southward.

CAPE TEFELNEH.— Cape Tefeloeh, at 18f miles S.S.W. fiom Cape Sem, rises
to the height of 780 feet, and terminates in a point from which a ledj^e of rocks
extends half a mile, with deep water close to them. There is anchoring ground
under it, on the South, affording shelter from East and N.E. wind3, in 10 fathoms,
sand. At 8 miles to the northward of Cape Tefelneh is Kuleihat, a small village
on the side of a wooded hill. A little stream, Tidsi, falls into the sea at its foot,
through a picturesque ravuie : between these, high cliffs, apparently of sandstone, face
the sea.

CAPE OHIB, or Oeer (properly Has Afernt), is situate, according to Lieutenant
Ariett, in lat. 30'^ 37' 30', and long. 9° o2' 30', and projects boldly into the sea at 25
miles to the southward from Cape V ;felneh. The intermediate back land rises to the
he'ght of 2,895 feet above the sea : the country appears wooded, and i. imerous
villages and tombs may be seen. On approaching Cape Ghir from the westward, it

? resents a bold bluff slope on each side, the highest part 1,235 feet above the sea.
he depths of water gradually dimininh, and soundings are found at 26 miles off. The
coast between Cape Tefelneh and Cape Ohir is a sandy beach. Cnpe Ohir is veiy
remarkable, and may be seen when 4 leagues off. To the northward of the cape,
about 4 miles within land, stands a round hummock, which is a mark for the cape,
and the land further to the northward is still higher ; but on approaching the cape
no land will be seen to the southward of it. From the North side of the cape, a reef
extends to some distance out to sea, and should not be approached neaier than in
20 fathoms of water.

AGADIER, or Santa Cruz. — The Town of Agadier, or Santa Cruz, stands it
6 leagues south-eastward of Cape Giiir, at the bottom of the bay of the same no jc.
This is the last port of Marocco on the Atlantic Ocean. Th" tow u, which stands on
the summit of a mountain, is strong by nature, and its walls are defended by batteries i
but the principal battery is at a short distance from the two town, down the raoun-
tein, and was originally intended to protect a line spring of fresh water, close to the
sea. This battery also commands the approach to the town, both from the North and
South, and the shipping in the bay. The niinn of the town, called by the Portuguese
Fonts, remain at the foot of the mountain ; and the arms of that nation are yet to be
seen in a, building erected over the spring.

The bay is considered as the best road for vessels on the coast of Morocco, bein»
large and well sheltered. It abounds in fish, immense quantities of which ore caught
by the inhabitants of the town. Owing to the jealousy of its government, Agadier
has ceased to be a place of trade ; yet it was formerly the centre of a very extensive
commerce, whither the Arabs, and the people of Soudan, resorted to purcliase mer-
chandise, for the markets of the interior of Africa ; and caravans were constantly
passing to and from Tinibuctoo.

From the northward high barren hills slope to the beach, which is rocky, to the
distance of 5 miles N.W, of Agadier, where a streamlet, the Wad Tamarcrt, flowing
thi'ough a green valley, discharges itstif into the sea. The high land, extending t'lora
Cape Ghir to Agadier, usually called the Heights of Idautenau, is the western ex-
tremity of the main chain of the Atlas, which range's hence in an E.N.E. direction,
and rises at 9 miles eastward of Agadier, to the height of 4,408 feet, and a remarkable
conical hill, 3,980 feet.

At 6 or 7 miles to the N.W. of Agadier, above a point stretching into the bay, is a
good anchoring place, with from 20 to 12 fathoms. In sailing from the c;ipe to the
read, be sure to ran along by the land of the cape till you are before the castle, becatisc
northerly winds are very prevalent here 5 and should you keep too far frott' shore,

MOQODOR ro CAPE NOON.

49^t

lor is a continuous
a the background
the cape is said to
league from shore,
round ; at 3 or 4
!tt) violently to the

n Cape Sem, risefi
a ledj^e of rocks
anchoring ground
nds, in 10 fathoms,
lat, a small village
bhe sea at its foot,
y of sandstone, face

tling to Lieutenant
nto the sea at 2j
;k land rises to the
ed, and i imerous
the westward, it
eet above the sea.
t 26 miles off. The
Unpe Ghtr is veiy
ward of the cafe,
lark for the cape,
iroaching the cape
of the cape, a reef
ed neaier than in

ta Cruz, stands nt
if the same nojc
which stands on
nded by batteries;
, down the moun-
voter, close to the
rem the North and
by the Portuguese
ation are yet to be

of Marocco, bein»
which are caught
crnment, Agadier
f a very extensive
to piu'chase mer-
s were constantly

is rocky, to the

Tamarcci, flowing

id, extending from

1 the western ex-

E.N.E. direction,

and a remarkable

into the bay, is ft
n the c;ipe to tho

far froK' shore,

you may be forced to fetch it up again with difficulty. If coming in by night, approac'i
no nearer than in 12 or 14 fathoms.

To anchor in the Road of Agadier, enter the bay so far that the castle may bear
N.N.E., and the storehouses E.N.E. Hero you will be to the southwara of a
rocky ledge, lying off the tovm, in 7 or 8 fathoms of water. The best riding is
with Cape Ohir bearing North, in 6 or 7 fathoms. Care must be taken to mive
your anchors ready ; your small bower is always to be laid out before the land-
wind, and the others to seaward ; the sheet-anchor must also be in readiness, and
brought out to the S.W. against a storm, which is soon perceived by the rising
and swelling of the sea. It is likewise necessary to keep the foresail.to the yard,
thac you may defend yourself the better, should you happen to be driven from your
anchors.

On the Coast of Suse, southward of Agadier, there is no port frequented by
shipping; but Mr. Jackson has emphatically stated, that " there is a track of coast
which holds out great encouragement to commercial enterprise, and secure establish-
ments might be effect&i upon it, which would amply remunerate the enterprising
speculator. The people of Suse are, also, well disposed towards Europeans, par-
ticularly the English; and the communication and short distance between this
place and the provinces, or districts, where most of the valuable products of
Barbary are raised, render it peculiarly adapted to trade." From Agadier south-
ward, the authority of Marocco lessens, and the Wedinoons prou^^y boast their
independence.

Although we may suppose that the features of the coast are properly delineated
in the Admiralty survey, yet we have not that detail of the land which would
indentify the local knowledge of the inhabitants. All the places along the coast
have some names which are not given in the survey. Thus we are not able to
follow the tracks of those who have travelled along the coast by our charts.

Immediately to the southward of Agadier a very low and flat country commences,
and extends thence 29 miles. At 5 miles to the southward of Agadier is the mouth
of the Suae, a fine river, i-ising at the base of the Adas ; but the bar is dry at low
water, and can never be passed by vessels drawing more than 4 or 5 feet.* From the
Suae the coast southward continues sandy. The JVad Messa, about 30 miles from the
Suse, has, likewise, a bar dry at low water, but may have 4 or 5 feet over it at high
water, spring tides. At a short distance within this, on the North side, is a village ;
and near the beach, on the South, a castellated building.

At a few miles to the northward of the Messa are the wells called Tomie, or the
Seven Wells, off which is an open roadstead. On this parallel, about 30° 0', is a depth
of 86 fathoms, dark sand, at 16 miles from shore ; and 45 fathoms, sand and mud, at
5 miles from the same, decreasing thence gradually to the beach.

Cape Aguluh of the charts is only a slight roundin" of the coast, in lat. 29° 49',
long. 9° 48'.t From the Messa southward the beach still continues sandy, but
verdant hills, approaching the sea, break off into cliffs, apparently of sandstone, about
100 feet in height. In the interior is a ridge of high mountains, at 50 or 60 miles
from the coast. The interval between appv,^ j like a wooded and well-cultivated
country, with many houses and farm buildings. Immediately to the southward of
t' J cupe is a little sandy bay, and a vallev crossed by a hili on which stands tho
villajje of Aguluh. A small stream runs Jown the valley. The slopes of tho hills
were waving with corn, nearly ripe, in May, 1835.

At half a day's journey (by land) south of the Messa is a small town, called by
Mr. Elton, Seed Bom Noire, where there is a small harbour. At this place a Spanish
vessel tjok in a cargo of wheat and beeswax about 1835. She laid off the place for

* Mr. W. ,1, Elton, Vice Consul af Mogodor, says that the depth in the mouth of the Suse
and of the Me.ssa (Massa) is 12 feet at high, and 2 feet at low, water.

t Where t.»ie Mossh has commonly been represented. The latter, we presume, is in lat.
29° 56', or thereabout.— ?:».

fiOO

DESCRIPTION OP THE COASTS, ETC.

several days before she was communicated with, and a plan was formed by the Moon
for seizing her, but she was saved by private information.

At 12 miles to the southward of Aguluh, the features of the country change ; the
hills become barren and abrupt, and form in su^oessive ridges, gradually increasing
in height till they join the tine of distant mountains, which nse to the height of
nearly 4,000 feet, and appear to be the S.W. extremity of an off-set of the Atlas,
More to the southward the appearance of the inland country continues the same, but
the coast changes to dark red clifl's, broken into coves, on the beaches of which boata
may be seen; and there are many villages, but inhabited by people of perfidious
character.

In lat. 29" 22' is a remarkable white cliff, supposed to be of limestone, and described
by Lieutenant Arlett as follows : — Its strata are extremely curved and irregular, and
it forms a good mark for the coast : behind it, and standing alone, is a conical shaped
mountain, rising to the height of 3,9U6 feet. In this latitude, at 25 miles from shore,
are soundings in 105 fathoms, broken shells : outside of this the bank drops very
suddenly. On standing in-shore the soundings decrease rapidly to 60 fathoms. At
6 miles from shore are 28 I'lil homs, coarse sand ; the depth tnence decreases very
gradually to the beach. From the cliff above described the country assumes a more
rugged and barren appeai-ance ; the hills steep, with deep and narrow ravines ; the
coast, alternate hills and sandy buys, with prominences rocky and rugged.

In 29° 10' N. is a cove, markedon the charts Reguala or Gueder. A rocky promi-
nence on each side projects to a short distance ; the sides are steep and barren ; these
are separated by a deep and naiTow ravine, down which a slender stream finds its
way to the sea. In this cove the water is deep, and bottom clean to the beach ; a
landing may generally be eficcted in it, but it affords no shelter.

In lat. 29° 3' the mountainous country terminates, and a sandy desert commences.
There is also a break in the coast, which seems to be the dry bed of a river, and is
called by the Canarians Rio de Play a Blanca, or White Beach River. At 4 miles to
the soutnward of this the coast is of bold sandstone cliffs, with sand-downs in the
interior devoid of herbage, and thus it continues to Cape Noon, in lat. 28' 45' 45", c
shown in page 38.

Gape Noon presents a cliff of sandstone 170 feet above the sea; but, owing to the
cliffs, to some distance on each side, being of the same height, and the country inland
a flat desert, it is difficult to make out the exact projection till very near it. The cape
is steep-to, and clear of danger.

Here the depth gradually increases outward; and at the distance of 4 miles from
shore the depths are from 30 to 54 fathoms, bottom of reddish sand; at 12 miles, 57
fathoms, dark sand ; and at 30 miles, 98 fathoms, coarse red sand ; the water then
deepens very suddenly. For a long distance, both to the northward and southward
of the cape, as well as to seaward, the water is very much discoloured. It has a red
tinge, and is so thick that the track of a ship is visible for a length of time.* At 4
miles to the south-westward of Cape Noon is the Riter Shleema (the Akassa of the
charts) ; and at 31 miles more, in the same direction, is the Akassa, in lat. 28° 19'.
(This must be the Inoon of the Chevalier de Borda, given in page 33.) Each river
has a bar, but both appear to have deep water inside, and the banks of both are
verdant and fringed with shrubs.

The Shleema, when well open, may be recognised by two remarkable hills, which
will then appear in the centre of the gap : they are conical ; and on one of them, 325
feet high, are some ruins, said to be those of^^ a fortress. The coast between Cape
Noon and the Shleema affords secure anchorage, with moderate depth of water, from
the month of March to October.

WEDDTOON, or Noon, is a kind of intermediate depot for merchandise on its
way to Soudan, and for the produce of Soudan going to Mogodor. Qums and wax

* This discoloration is attributed, chiefly, to the vast quantities of sand blown from the

rlngnrt.

^'■)':-Xfi:^'-

PORTO CANSADO.

601

arc j)roducod horo io abundance ; The people sometimes trade to Mog^or, but prefer
Bclling their merchandise on the spot, being unwilling to tnist their persons and
property within the territory of Marocco. With Timbuctoo, however, they carry on
a constant and advantageous trade, and many are rich. They also supply the Moors
of Marocco with coiivoys to Timbuctoo.*

The (toast line between the Shleema and Akassa (or Inoon) b a continued sand-
stone cliflP. A table-land, about 900 feet high, at 3 miles from the shore, shows just
above the cliffs, near which there is a regular depth of 20 fdthoms, with good ground.
On approaching, the table-land appears to break into detached hills, one of which,
950 feet high, and more insulated than the others, serves to identify the river.

The FlSHEEYcan-ied on by the people of the Canaries commences near the parallel
of Cape Noon, the fishermen seldom venturing to the northward, although fish
arc equally abundant, from their dread of the Moors, who, on that part jf the coast,
possess boats. From the cape to the Bank of Arguin (an extent of 200 leagues)
the inhabitants of the desert have not a single boat. The fishermen frequently land,
not only to procure water, but to barter their fish for wood and orchilla ; on these
occasions great precautious ai'e taken, as atrocities have frequently been perpetrated
on both sides. , ^

Porto Cansado. — From the River Akassa (Inoon of B jrda P) I'ae coast and country
continue as described above. The cliffs are above 120 feet in height to lat. 28" 7', or
the Porto Cansado of the charts. Here the cliffs terminate, and a low sandy beach
begins, continuing in a S.W. direction 18 miles, to lat. 28" 2', long. 12° 14', where
there is the entrance of the Porto Cansado of the Portuguese, which is described in
the Narrative of Judah Paddock. The entrance of this harbour is narrow, wideninpf
inside, and forming a soit of lagoon. The sea breaks heavily across, and, at times, it
is barely possible that boats may enter. Its only distinguishing mark is a table hill,
580 feet high above the sea.

Captain Judah Paddock, who was wrecked near here in the Oswego in April, 1800,
thus describes it ; —

" It has 9 or 10 feet within a cable's length of the shore. The distance across it
was estimated at about 3 miles ; the two outer points are broad, closing to within 1
mile ; a ledge of rocks on each point leaving a fair entrance of half a mile in breadth,
with deep water. Against those ledges the sea broke violently, but in the harbour
it was smooth ; from the windward side of the harbour a ship might lie very well,
witlkthe wind as it then was, which blew strong four points on shore, or at north-
east. Had our situation been less deplorable, I should have been led to examine this
fine-looking harbour more particularly. Should any national vessels ever undertake
to survey this coast, they will, beyond doubt, visit it. From our judgment, bein^ on
shore, it would appear from the offing a nearly straight shore, as the two outer points,
or chops, of the harbour would, except baing near it, seem nearly to close on the
western side of the harbour. Where we stood to look at it, the bank was high, and
from sea-board would, in my opinion, appear like a high round knoll ; the mountain
back, only a few miles distant, would appear black, at least of a dark colour, and the
top flat for several miles each way, running E.N.E. and W.S.W. On this nearly
flat mountain, supposed to be nearly 400 feet in height, above the level of the sea, is
a remarkable bed of salt, about a mile in diameter. Hundreds of ships can ride in
the harbour in safety, defended from all winds except the north-west ; and, as the
entrance is so much narrower than the body of the harbour, no sea through that gut
can hinder ships very much, the ground being perfectly clear."

Nothing can be conceived more dismal than the appearance of the shore hereabout.
For many miles not a dark spot is to be seen to break the monotonous appearance of

wn from the

* To those who wish for further information on this subject, we recommend the valuable
work by Mr. Jackson, alrcadv .liiotad. Sqg. also. " Joufaal of the Royal Geog. Soc, vol. vi.

p. 297.

i.-4

>|UULCIU.

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

the sand ; the fine particles of which, mingling with the haze occasioned by the heavy
surf, render the coast very indistinct.

From Porto Cansado the coast trends westward to Cape Jub;/, in 12" 65' W. At a
short distance to the westward of Porto Cansado, a cliff, from 90 to 100 feet in
height, again commences, and continues for 17 miles. The cliff is of dark sandstone,
and the bottom, being also of dark sand, gives a green appearance to the water. A
flat desert extends inland as for as the eye can reach. There is no beach, the sea
breaking against the cliffs, on which it appears to be encroaching. Where the cliffs
terminate, the land becomes broken into sand-hills partly covered with bushes, and
the coast trends in a true direction S. 80' W. to Cape Juby, 15 or 16 miles.

Cape Juby is a low sandy point ; near its extremity is a hummock, covered with
bushes, appearing like an islet. Rocks extend from the cape to one-third of a mile.
Here the coast changes abruptly to S.W. {true), and forms some coves, off the points
of which are scattered rocks. !From Cape Noon to Cape Juby the bank of soundings
extends to an equal distance, and the depth increases very gradually to the shore.

CuimENTS ALONG ShOBE, BETWEEN CapE SpAUTEL AND CaPE BoJADOR.

During five months (from March to August), the time occupied by the ^tna and
Jtaven, in the survey of the coast, 'a distance of 750 miles, no day passed in which
the former was not at least twelve hours at anchor, usually at the distance of from 4
to 5 miles from shore, and in positions well adapted for making observations on the
currents, which were constantly attended to. Independently of this, the Haven was
repeatedly sent to the distance of 20 and 30 miles from land ; particularly when fixed
and conspicuous objects afforded opportunities for ascertaining her exact position ;
by comparing which with that which should have been given by the course steered,
the rate and direction of the current could be aseertained to a considerable degree of
exactness.

From Cape Spartel, along the coast, to Arzilla, and also to the distance of 7 or 8
miles from the shore, a regular tide was experienced, running parallel to the coast;
but its strength was rather greater to the northward than to the southward. In this
distance, at 15 miles from land, no tide or current was perceptible.

From Arzilla, southerly, a tide was still experienced, gradually diminishing in
strength till its direction could not be ascertained. From the parallel of 34° 30' N.
to the distance of 20 miles in the offing, a steady southerly set was first experienced.
This current, in the offing, continues invariably to follow the direction of the land ;
its velocity increasing or diminishing from the rate of four-tenths to 1 mile an hour,
according to the strength or duration of the north-eastei'ly winds.

From Mogodor to Cape Bojador, except in particular instances, the current con-
tinues invariably to run in the direction of the coast. Its greatest strength is usually
at the distance of from 3 to 6 miles from the land, gradually decreasing on receding
from it. Its average rate between 31 1° to 28° N. is from one-half to three-quarters
of a mile in the hour. At Cape Juby, probably from its stream being in some measure
confined by the projecting cape, and perhaps by the Canary Islands (distant 58 milesjj
it increases its rate to 1:| miles, but diminishes off Cape Bojador to 1 mile. It did not
appear that this current was influenced by any particular wind, but near the shore a
tide was generally perceived." {See remarks on the currents on pages 278 — 283.)

Shipwrecks. — The various tribes of Arabs, frequenting the coast of the desert,
have already been alluded to, as well as the danger of falling into their power. Their
practice has been, when a ship is stranded, and the crew compelled to surrender, to
take everything portable from the vessel in boats ; and then, it the sea do not dash it
in pieces, they set fire to it, that it may not serve as a warning to other ships which
may be so unfortunate as to follow the same course.

SHIPWRECKS ON THE COAST OP AFRICA.

803

Mr. Jackson has communicated a stratagem bj which a ship was, many years ago,
saved on this coast. The vessel was utranded, and one of the crew being a Spaniard,
who had been used to fish there from the Canaries, advised the captain to let go an
anchor, as if the voysel were riding, aud in safety. Some Arabs coming on board,
the captain told them to bring their gums and other produce, for that they were come
to trade with them, and were going away again in a few days. As it happened to be
low water, the vessel, on the return of the tide, floated ; they then weighed anchor,
and set sail, to the great disappointment of the people on shore.

Of the vessels wrecked, from time to time, on the coast of the desert, many are pro-
bably neVer heard of; and, if any of the crew survive their hardships, they are in-
duced, seeing no prospect of emancipation, to become Mohammedans, and nothing is
afterwards known or heard of them ; the vessel is supposed to have foundered at sea,
and all passes into oblivion.

It has been stated that there were about thirty vessels of different nations, the
greater part English, lost on this coast between 1790 and 1806, part of whoso
crews found their way to Marocco, and gave some account of their catastrophe ; of
the remainder, a number were subsequently ransomed ; but the majority were either
lost, or dispersed in various parts of the desert, after a lapse of time, in consequence
of the consul's making no offers sufficiently advantageous to induce the Arabs to
bring them to Mogador.

In former editions we gave extended accounts of the shipwreck^' vnd suffe—'ngs of
the crews of several vessels. These occurred many years ago, before the uns.Epected
drift to the S.E., which has been dilated on in pages 277 — 281, was rr ognised.
Although the climate and character of the people remain unaltered, yet il s believed
that the wrecks are but few compared with form or years, as in thope times the losses
did not occur from stress of weather, but through errors in reckf i ';. ^: and judgment.
While, thei'efore, the silent and imperceptible influence of this fa1 i.l di ift, if unheedec\
still remains as powerful as ever, it behoves the sailor to be always on his guard to
counteract it, and all caution is most earnestly impressed on his attention.

One of the interesting results of these terrible shipwrecks and sufferings was the
account given by Robert AdamS of the wreck of the Charles on the coast in question
on Oct. 11, 1810. The crew were instantly seized by the Moors, who were fishing en
the coast, and were treated with the utmost barbarity, and many of them were mur-
dered. Adams was sold, and, after many painful wanderings, he visited Timbuctoo,
being the first European who had done so, and was ultimately ransomed by Mr. Jos.
Dupuis, the British consul at Mogador.

The sufferings of John Riley, who commanded the American brig Commerce, and
of his companions, who wei-e wrecked near Cape Boiador, in September, 1815, have
also been related as a warning. They were also the victims of the brutal treatment
of the Moors, but were ultimately ransomed by Mv. Willshire. The narrative of
Captain Juda[h Paddock of the loss of the Oswego., ^iirigh ignorance of the coast and
effect of the currents, and the usual sad tales of tiit captivity of the crew and the
consequent sufferings till relieved by the British consul, have also been given as
wai'uings.

The affecting narrative of tho loss of La Mediise, Fi-ench frigate, on the Arguin
Bank, to the s(»uthward of Cape Blanco, on the 2nd July, 1816 ; which may probably
be attributed to a similar cause — the direction of the currents. It has been justly
observed, that the annuls of naval distress do not offer a more terrible instance of
shipwreck. La Ileduse sailed, 17th June, 1816, Trcm the Isle d'Aix, under the com-
mand of M. de Chaumureys, havifig on board 240 persons; of which the greater
portion consisted of soldiers intended to garrison those forts at the mouth of the
Senegal, which had been restored by the treaty of peace ; they were accompanied by
the newly-appointed govenor of that place.

The ship ran aground on the bank, in the parallel 19° 36'. A great consternation
ensued ; and, after many angry deliberations, it was resolved, as they had only six
boats on board, to break up the vessel, and with its material construct a raft large
enough to place the soldiers on it, who were then to be towed ashore.

504

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

On the 6th of July, the embarkation from the wreck took place, in the greatest
oonfaaion. One hundred and forty-seven penions (including the captain and surgeon)
were confided to the raft. The precipitation with which it was built prevented its
being fitted with railings.

By the boats, however, the raft was inhumanly abandoned ; it was thus left to its
fate amidst all the horrors of famine. In an element whicrh already covered one half
df their bodies, the greater part of those upon it at once yielded to despair.

The recital describes the melancholy events of the twelve days ; during which time,
a principal portion of sutitonanco was derived from the bodies of deceased c()in].nnics!
At this period, only fifteen men remained, and these were happily discovered and
taken off, on the 17lh of July, by the Arijua, French brig, which restored them to
their country.

Another case was related by Captain Grover, in the " Geographical Journal,"
vol. xvi., 1846, page 162. In this the orig Coifricr anchored near the Island of Arguin,
and part of the crew were tempted to land, when they were immediately made pri-
soners with great violence and cruelty, and kcjit sc for eleven months.

Other instances of ships lost upon this coast might bo given ; but those selected will
be sufficient for our purpose.

CAPE BOIADOR to CAPE BLANCO.— The tropical regions of the African
coast between Cape Boiador and Capo Blanco, present to contemplation the Sahara,
considered as the most eylonsive desert on the globe. This desert consists of inad-
hesive sands, which are driven about by the winds, and chiefly by those from N.E.,
by which they are disturbed and carried to an astonishing distance.

This question of the red dust, which fulls in the open nir, is more amply discussed
hereafter. The few remarks which follow will suffice hei-e.

Of the merchant-fleet from St. Helena, under convoy, in November, 1813, most of
the ships had their sails covered with red sand, and they must have bcei. Trom 400 to
600 mileg from shore, in about 27" and 28' N., after a succession of easterly wind^.
" I once," says Mr. Luecock, " saw the iiails and deck of a vessel covered with it,
when 400 miles fVom the coost, and have heard of the same phenomenon being re-
marked at a far greater d'^-tanec. This moving expanse of sand was, probably, at
some anterior period, a large inland shallow sea, communicating with the Medtiter-
ranean by the Syrtes [Gulf of Sydi-a], &c.

A similar nh.?nomenon occurred to the brig Parasboro*, on her voyage from Bar-
badocs to Belfast, and when she was upwards of 900 miles from tue main land of
AfHca. The wind, it will Imj observed, had been at East, and wos interrupted by ore
of those gales which will be noticed hereafter, in our descrii)tion of the Azores. In
lat. 30° 60' N., Ion. 32" 40', Cape de Verde Islands bearing S.E., distant 690 miles, the
appearance of a heavy squall rising in the S.l<'. direction. Half-past six p.m., light-
ning, thunder, and the squall approaching nearer. At thirty minutes past ai.\ p.m.,
the sun about 16'' above th" western horizon, became overcast with peculiar looKins
clouds, and every uppearunce of on ajiprouehing storm. I consemieutly sliortcncd
sail, although the barometer did not inuicnte anything serious. At eight p.m., the
wind became very varir.'.ile, from N.E. to 8.W., every ten or fifteen minutes iilter-
nately, for two houra. There was a fall of rain when the heaviest oiithe s(iuiill wuh
on the zenith. \t midnight it had all passed to the S.W., and the wind resumed itH
former pluec, l''.UHt. At daylight, the decks, rigainii, n/mrx, and paint vork mre
covered with mud : ond as the sun dfied it, it had the appeaiunco of a very fine red
mould, with no siind in it.

CAPE BOIADOR is represented by the Chevalier de liorda, in Int. 26" 12 J, but
the late surveys exhibit in 26" 7' only. The cape has some roeks about it, but on its
South side is a bay iiHording anehornge in 4 or 6 fathoms, and ships may iinchor
further out in from 16 to 20 fathoms, within a league of the shore, on a liottomof
sand, broken sliells, &'e.

The Baron Roussin says, that the cosist ft; the nofihward of Cape Boiador is similar
to that of the desrrt to which it belongs. It is arid and sandy, the only signs of vrgc-

CAPE BOIADOR TO CAPE BLANCO*:

005

tation being a few small tufts of dried brambles, scattered promiscuously here and
there. It presents no other variety than some flat downs of a tabular form, whose
base can scarcely be seen at the distance of 3 miles firom the beach. The nature of its
soil is exclusively siliceous, being sand without any mixture whatever. The surface
of this immense plain is so completely horizontal, that it actually appears to have
been levelled. In some places on the coast it terminates in a steep cliff, and in others
in a gentle descnnt toward the sea. These cliiSti are streaked witn horizontal bods of
different shades, approaching to white ; the lower ones being generally thinner, and
of a more reddish cast than the upper. To the northward or the parallel of 23' N.,
this soil is overspread with a crust of block earth, which, from its bting nearly
general, may be taken as its covering, and is of a tolerable thickness. Tiiib species of
crust, no doubt, derives its consistency from the great humidity which it contracts
during the rainy reason, and the extreme heat to wnich it is again suddenly and con-
stantly exposedT. By the repeated shocks of the sea, huge masses of this black crust
fall to the Dottom of'^ the cliffs, and relieve the sameness of the shore. They first
resemble rocks on which the sea breaks, but their corners arc soon worn away, and
they soon present but a heap of sand. On the whole extent of the coast, as far as
Cape Verde, there is not a single piece of granite. Cape Boiador, which lies in 26" 7'
N., and 14° 30' 34" W., is not very remarkable. When seen from the northward, it
presents a strand of red sand, having a gradual descent toward the sea : and its
western extremity, which is very low, roruw a small bay Avith the cliff which imme-
diately follows. The position here given is that of the easternmost point of the cliff,
which has been selected as the most remarkable one in the neighbourhcod; its height
being about 70 feet. The depth along the coast, 3 or 4 mi ics to the northward of
Cape Boiador, varies from 12 to 20 fathoms, increasing gradually toward the parallel
of the cape. The nature of the bottom throughout is of sand and broken shells, or of
sand and gravel. At the distance of 3 leagues to the seaward tbere are 25 fothoms of
water ; and the sandy bottom becomes more general ; a circumstance which 's common
to all the African coast.

It is possible to anchor in the small bay of Cape Boiador, but the bottom is foul.
At the distance of half a mile from the shore there are 13 or 14 fathoms of water.

IVom Cape Boiador the coast trends S.W. J S. [S. 20° W.] about 22 leagues, to a
very remarKal)le cliff, about 300 feet high. The "tiff seems to be the Penha OrandS,
or Orcat Rock of the charts. As its height considerably exceeds that of any spot in
its vicinity, it may serve as a good land-mark.

All the coast thus fai presents, alternately, cliffs and sandy beaches ; but more
particularly the former. It is from 150 to 200 feet in heignt; being flat at ita
summit. The land in the interior, on whicu brushwood is very scarce, is of a darkish
colour.

The depth of water on this part of the coast is considerable. At 2 miles from the
beach, bottom cannot be found it 22 fathoms. On the parallel of 25° 60' N., and at
\\ miles from the shore, bottom may be had in 15 or 20 fathouis, gravel and broken
shells. The depth again increases ; and under the Penha Grande, at a mile from the
foot of the cliff, there are 20 fathoms, hard bottom, with gravel and broken shells.
The summit of the Penha Grand6 is in 25° 7' 6 ' N., and 14° 60' 63' W. > it is flat and
arid ; all its declivities are precipices from broken earth, which has fallen down, the
colour of which is gray. The whole of the coast is perfectly clean, even to the
beach.

From the Penha OrandS, after a slight indentation, the coast trends S.S.W. \ W.
\S. 6° WA 8 leagues, and includes a slender bay, now colled Garnet liai/. It then
forms a well-defined elbow, and trends nearly S.W. by W. i W. [S. H:.] 29 IcoBues.
On all this extent, it presents one contimied cliff, witn the exception of two or three
places., wliore it slopes to the sea ; the elift' being obout 150 feet hiffh. Freciuently, at
a short distonce from the water's edge, between the clifl" oud the Kondy rocks which
liure cover tlie beaoh, there is a chain of white sandy downs. The summit of the cliflf
is even and horizontal ; it follows nearly o rixht line, interrupted only by Bome small
flst downs, ncari-eiy perceptible. The whole of the beoch is continuuUy woshed by
an exceedingly heavy surf, and there is no sign of vegetation on the whole cooNt.

3 8 •

•M

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

Qtt&et Bay, which k thfe Atiffta dot Buiuoa of the FortognaMe, abonnda with
«od, bream, hake, and variens kind of other fiih. Two ilet^ea to the southward of it
•re seven small table-hilk, ealled the Seven Oapea, whioh constitute an excellent
land-maric.

*.' From the elbow formed by the coast, on the South side of Garnet Bay, to the soath-
Westward, the de]^th diminishes a little ; from 16 fathoms it gradually lessens to 11
fiiithoms, and continues nearly the same in a space of six miles. We shall now have
arrived at the parallel of 24''^ N., and immediately abreast of an interruption in the
cliff, at a beach of white sand, about a leasue in extent. Beyond this sand, which
does not reach ftir into the interior, is a body of stUl water, having the appearance of
a lake or river, with a sandy islet in the middle of it. This is the upper part of an
inlet named Bio do Ouro, or Oold River.

Continuing a south-westerly course, along a neck of sand, whioh separates the river
firom the ocean, and whioh is alternately interspersed with olifb, after running 10
leagues from where it was first observed, we arrive at its entrance. In this run, at the
distance of 1 to 3 miles fh>m the shore, the soundings var^ from 16 to 8 fkthoaig,
with a hard bottom, and shells. On approaching the nver, white sand will be
found.

RIO OtJRO, OR GOLD RIVER.— The entrance of this inlet is in 23° 86' N., aad

15° li8f W. Its breadth, taken from the outer cliff on the West bank, to the cliff on
the bend of the coast forming the East bank, is 7i^ miles ; but a very low sandy point
stretches to the southward, m>m the West bank, in such a manner as to leave only a
firee chanriel of a mile in width at the utmost.

Neither to the northward, nor at the entrance of this channel, does any island exiit,
although the old charts mark several \ but, at 20 miles to the N.E. of the northern
point of the entrance, and on the meridian of the islet in the interior before men-
tioned, there is a cliffy mound of sand, which, being insulated on a low sandy fiat,
Blight have been mistakeu for an islet. This, however, forms a part of the bank with
which it is connected at its southmi point.

No particular current was observed off the Rio Ouro, which consequently do«
away with the supposition of a river emptying it'jclf by this opening. At the dis-
tance of about 3 miles seaward from the mouth (^f thu inlet, the bottom is of sand and
shells, with a depth varying from 9 to 16| fathoms. In the middle of its entrance it
a circular breaker, 1 mile in diameter, on which there appears to be very little water.
The northern point is wholly surrounded by breakers, but they are only a continua-
tion of the surf which is found on the whole coast. The acyoining sea is well stocked
with fish.

From the southern point of the River Ouro, the coast trends nearly S.W. [iS'.S.ir.]
The cliff continues to a distance of 5 leagues, when white sandy downs succeed, or
which ih% summits ore mostly flat. At 1 league northward [N.N. W.'j from the
extremity of tho cliffb, and at 3 miles from the coast, there is a bunk, having only 32
feet of water ; its direction is parallel to that of the coast, and it is about 2 niilcf* in
length. Thirteen fathoms have been found on the edge of this bank ; to tho north-
ward of it '^e bottom is sand and shells; to the southward, fine sand ; and on the
bank itself, broke* shells.

AHGRA DE CIKTRA, or CINTRA BAY.— At the distance of 3 leagues fron
the southern extremity of the FiahermatCa Clifft, or the Cliffh of the Rio Ouro,
amongst a number of even downs, there is one somewhat devated above the rent,
extending parallel to the eoast. Ftom being flattened at its summit, and having iti
southern extremity peaked, it becomes remarkable. It is situated at a short dintance
from the beach, at tne head of a small bay, named Angro d» Cintrm. This bar v
dheltered, on tho North, by a very low, sandy point, which, detaching itself from the
coast, runs parallel to it, and a reef protects from its southern extremity, which msj
be considered as a continuation of It. The break in the coast, between the nortlien
and southern reefb, whinh forms the opening of this hay, may ba about 6 niksi hut,
on donblinir the northern reef, the bay is found to extend afao«t 4 bIIm inside of the
sandy poial which prefects it.

BT. CYPBIAN BAY. .Si^^uJCl

The depth of water in thia bay is not great ; at the distance of a mile indda it ii
only 4^ fathoms, sandy bottom j bat the stillnesa which prevails in it attracts a gNa|
number of fish, and it ibnns a harbour for the night to wo ftahingoTesseli of this ooast*
It is to be observed, that besides the ree£i atretohing fnao. the mrth and South pointa
of the bay, there is also a rock near the middle gf the entranoei whieb breakp ia
blowing weather.

All the coast firom the Bay i^ Olntra to the Bio Ouro is well stocked with flsh, and
is ft«qaented by eighteen or twenty small vessels from the Canary Ishrndst which
catch and salt nsh for the conBumption of those islands. Fresh water may be ob«
tained by digging at the foot of the high down, or sand-hill, above mentionedi as ft
place of observation. ' ^

It does not appear safe to attempt the channel into Cintra Bay, between thd point
and the northern reef, as the breakers seem to be connected between them } but the
entrance to the southward of this danger is quite safe. The least deptii found was 6
fliUioms, in the middle of the entrance. During the time of the rollers, as the sea
breaks over this in 6 fathoms, vessels should pass either to the northward or south*
ward, where they will find from 9 to 10 fathoms. The fishermen who fivquent this
creek attract some few Arabs, or Moors, to the spot, who seem to have no fixed ha*
bitation there, nor on any other part of the coast. These belong to the fourth tribe,
who are dispersed in the desert, and called the " Tribe of Thieves," complete waa*
derers and vagabonds. It is composed of the discontented of the tluree tribes already
mentioned in page 503, and which are scattered along the coast from Cape Boiador to
the Senegal ; they subsist exclusively on dried fish, and the plunder from wrecks,
tphkh formerly were so frequent here. No advantage can be derived from any com-
munication with iuese poor and miserable barbarians.

In the Bay of Cintra, at 2 miles from the beach, are from to 16 fathoms of water \
the bottom of sand, sand and gravel, sand and shells, sand and mud, generally cover-
ing siliceous or flinty rock, of the samo nature as Uie neighhouring coast. Toward
the bottom of the bay the mud becomes thicker ; and here the anchor would sink
down into a bed of greenish clay, which is excellent holding groimd.

The Down of Cintra, according to M. Roussin, is in 23° 6' 20' N., and 16" 10' W.
The magnetic variation on the same parallel, at 2 miles fix>m the shore, in February,
1817, was 19" 33' W.

Anchorage may be found along the coast from Cintra Bay to the Bio Ouro : but
the bottom, from being composed of siliceous rooks, must be unfavourable for
holding.

From Cintra Bay the coast trends S.S.W. J W. [S. 10" IF.] to a distance of 7
leagues ; the shore is low, but it gradually rises, and becomes a continued down •<{'
white sand. At 3 leaguas to the southward of this bay, in the interior, may be v^ai
four or five small insulated sandy downs, which are rather higher than the adjaceait
ground, and, with the lower one, may serve as a mark for this coast. These heights
•re called the Downs (^ Cintra, and they can be seen at the distance of 4 or leagues
only.

8T. CTPBIAIT BAT. — Having run 6| leagues abng a moderately high coast,
which prosentH alternately clifls and sandy bea^es, we arrive at an inlet, or bay,
formed by rather a deep bend of the beach. The bottom of this bay is low, and the
sea breaks violently on it. The eastern point of the bay is formed by a cliff, 160 feet
high, having a circular fbrm toward the sea, with a flat top, and much resembliuf a
fortification. The western sido is also formed by a steep ohtf, which, after extending
'ii miles in the westward, turns abruptly to the B.W., and forms Capo Barbas, in 22^
18f N., and 16° 39' W. 'i he bay formed by the cape is that which bears tlu) name of
**. Cyfritm,*

xiio nny of Trihtmriort of H. Koussln.
tNUMciNHHry, simI, UMic«Cbi«| improper.

tint we consider a diangs tn the naais quiU

DESCRIP-flON OF THE COASTS, ETC.

■" The Bay of St. Cyprian, being open from N.S. to W.X. W. (^ri«),' is unsheltered
from the prevailing wind on the coast. In consequence oi this there is generally a
heavy sea in it ; and the anchorage, although on a bottom of sand and mud, in 10 to
20 fathoms, offers very little securi^, and should be resorted to only in casesr of neces-
sity. The abxmdance of fieh in this bay frequently attracts the fishermen from the
Canaries, who, seduced by the hope of being quickly laden, and the appearance of a
fnoderate breeze, anchor too near the bottom of it. In thb situation, if the wind
freshens up, being equally incapable of beating out with their crazy vessels, or with
their ground-taclde of riding oat the heavy sea which sets in, they arc sure to dxive
and be thrown up on the beach, where their crews frequently lose their property and
lives; or, which is not less deplorable, are robbed and detained in slavery by the
Arabs. Here the magnetic variation was observed to be 19" 28' W., in March, 1817.

From Cape Babbas the coast trends nearly W.S.W. IS. W.'] 3 leagues. It ig
formed almost by one uninterrupted cliff, about 80 feet high, at the foot of which the
6ea breaks violently. At 1 mile from the beach there ai'e from 9 to 12 fathoms; and
at 2 miles, as much as 17 fathoms ; with a bottom of muddy sand, or sand and broken
shells. The coast then declines into white sandy downs, studded here and there with
oliffs. At about 3 leagues from this it forms i-ather a rem&rkable little bay, with a
^hore of white sand. The mo ith of tiiis bay is barred, at about 3 miles from itg
bottom, by a flat of banks and r.^efs, on which there is very little water. These recfi
serve as a foundation for an islet, called that of Pedra da Gall, and another small
islet, which M. Boussin has named Virginia. These islets are merely -rocks, of a
nature similar to that of the coast. The tii-st, which is rather higher on the noiihern
than on the southern side, is about half a mile in circumference. The latter, or
southern one, is thi'ce times that suse, and has some sandy patches. It is also 3,000
fathoms fi*om the coast, and about a league 8. bp W. {true) of Pedra da Gall. They
are connected together by a chain of flats, which stretches 400 fathoms to the S.W.,
and !, 000 fathoms to the N.E. of Pedra da Gall. At 1 mile westward fromthess
islets may be found 18 fathoms of water, with muddy sand. The depth increases to
the soutiiward, and the bottom becomes harder.

From Pedra da Gall to Cape Blanco the distance is 29^ leases. The coast in this
extent is nearly straight, and moderately high ; its true direction is S. 15° W., and it
presents only a few indentations of a trifling depth. It is one continued down, the
whiteness :>t which becomes more vivid on approaching to the Southward. In some
places it presenta peaked cliffs, in others there is a gentle descent toward the sea, and
the whole is devoid of vegetation.

- CAFE COjEIVOEIBO. — Having, says M. Roussin, in our wav from the north-
ward, reached the parallel of 21° 50' N., after passing a sandy beacn of about 2 leagues
in extent, with few indentations, we find ourselves abreast of a moderately high cliff,
whose irregular sumrait forms a stiiking contrast with the uniform smoothness of the
a^oinin^ coast. Ttis cliff is 5 mUes in length N.E. and S.W. [N.N.E. and S.S.W.],
after which the dcnus again commence, having previously formed a small bay to the
southward of the cliff. The most salient point of the cliff' is Cape Corvoeiho ; but it
is not w«.'ii denned, and is only remarkable from the breaks in the breach where it ia
aituatec- The strength of the current here is the same as on the whole coast, about
ninc-tenihs of a mile per hour; but further out to sea it loses half that velocity.
Between the islets and the coast, at the distance of half a mile from the latter, the
depth is ffV m 6 to 9 fathoms, with a bottom of sand, sand and shells, or sand and
roocB. At rhe distance of a mile from the coast it varies from 10 to 20 fathoms, with
mud and sand. The muddy bottom prevails to the southward of Cape Corvoiero, and
all this roast is perfectly safe. At 2d leagues to the northwaid of Cape Blanco we
divcovered, from tne masthead, that the beach, along which we were running, was
f >i-med by a tongue of sand from 2 to 3 miles in breadth, beyond which we obHcrved
v/ator. This is now called Oreyhound Bay, and is situated to the castwoi'd of
Cape Blanco. From Capo Corvoeiro the coast is formed of white and red sandy
downs, assuming various shapes, ahcmately terminating at the water's edge in broken
cliAa and low sandy beaches, on which there is a heavy surf.

CAPS SLAJmCC* ia 20^ ^7' N. and 17° -if W., is the Bouihernmost face of a whiio

ubsheltered
) generally a
Lud, in 10 to
ises of neces-
len from the
learance of a

if the wind
Bsels, or with
sure to drive
property and
iavery by the
^arcb, 1817.

aeues.^ It ig
of "which the
'athoms; and
d and broken
id there with

bay, with a

miles from its

These recfi

another small

Y -rocks, of a

the northern
'he latter, or
is also 3,000

Gall. They
I to the S.W.,
rd from these
L increaseB to

i coast in this
5° W., and it
led down, the
rd. In some
I the sea, and

a the north-

lout 2 leagues

ly high cliff,

tnnesB of the

ind«.-S.JF.],

ill bay to the

EIRO; but it

I where it is

coast, about

lat velocity.

e latter, the

or sand and

ithoms, with

>rvoiero, and

Blanco we

unning, was

we observed

eastward of

I red sandy

e in broken

of a whiio

CAI*E BLANCO.

cliff, about 160 feet high. It rik.v-8 vertically from a gentle slope which extends ftt)m
its base to the sea. With a point 4 miles to the normward, it fomns a bay, at the
bottom of which is a beach of white sand, interspersed with masses of the cliffii.
llirough one of these masses the sea has purforated a hole, which, in shape, muclt
resembles an arch. The anchorage in the bay, as well as on the whole soast i om
Cape Cor^'oeiro, is good ; a bottom of muddy sand prevails throughout, wf Ji a d«ipth
varying from 19 to 12 fathoms. At 1 mile to the southward there are 9 and 12
fathoms, and large vessels may anchor at this distance to the eastward, where they
will be sheltered from the prevailing N.N.E. and N.W. winlLs. .

The ]oortion of coast terminated by Cape Blanco is a long promontory, which, pro-
jecting frois the main, forms writh it a bay of nearly 8 leagues frt)m North to South,
iiTid aoout 6 broad. The bottom in this bay is generafly composed of soft mud,,
and there is a depth of water vaiying from 40 to 17 feet, reduced to the lowest
springs. On ike western side there is excellent anchorage for vessels of a middling
class.

la a radius of 8 nr' 10 miles round Cape Blanco, and in Greyhound Bay, the
currents are subjected to regular tides. The flood sets E.N.E., and the ebb W.S.W.»:
the greatest velocity of either being from 1 to 2 miles per horn- ; but it attains thia
rate only when the wind blows with it. The- greatest rise above the level of the
lowest tide is 10 feet, and it h. high water, on the second day after full and change, at
Qh 15'.^

All this coast abounds ynth good fish, as cod, biuam, soles, &c. On the little
beach eastward of Cape Blanco, a single haul of the seine has produced a thousand
pounds' weight. The best kind of turtle, namely, the green kind, also abounds here-
about. According to the information obtained from the Canarian fishermen, who
frequent the coast, a small quantity of drinkable water may be obtained by digging
a little to the northward of Cape Blanco. This spot is occasionally visited by some
Arabs, who possess a few musketd, and against whom it is necessary to guard. Here
the magnetic variation, in March, 1817, was 18° 9' W.

In 1830, Captain (now Sir) Edward Belcher, in H.M.S. ./Etna, by the mean of
several observations, assigned to the extremity of Capo Blanco lat. 20° 46' 26' N.,
long. 17° 4' 10" W. This gentleman has given a geological description of the ca^
and neighbouring country, which is insert^ in the " Journal of the Koyal Geographic
Society fvol. ii. pp. 299 — 303), and in which he particularly notices the practice of
the Cananan fishers, in the vicinity of Greyhound Bay ; the anchorage of these
vessels, schooners, with their boats, is in a bay about 3 miles North from the cape,
where they are quite sheltered from N.N.W. to S.S.E. Those of the fishermen whom
Captain Belcher met with were courteous and communicative, and they stated that
their usual fishing-ground is in 2d fathoms, where they take fish of from 8 to 60
pounds each, and that their average daily work is about 3 cwt. in the boats. The
schooners have polacca loremosts ; and, when fishing, they f- 1 all the sails in one;
their burden is from 100 to 150 tons. The fish token by i.c uEtna were porgy,
mullet of several kinds, r.-^ck-cod, and red-snappers, probably called bream by former
voyagers. Mussels and other shell-fish are very abundant at low water.

The summit of the Blanco peninsula is composed of lines of sand hills and rocky
eminences, just what one would expect to find if the sea were to quit its iw^-tition, and
show us the beds over which it flov ■ ■ In every position, where a bush or rocky islet

* " The tides aho*>t Cape Blanco are irregular, and much influenced by the i^- I near
which they run. Uigh water, at full and ohauge, may be looked for about noon ; the
KTP"*' "»t rise, under every advantage of springs and winds, does not exceed 6 feet. South-
ward of the parallel of the cape the indraught has a velocity of 26 miles, and the ofliiet i '
ebb tlio same. Eastward of the meridian of the cape the tide bends northerly, and at 3
miles chord its velocity appears from 8.W. to N,E., about 1^, following the circular course
into Greyhound Bay. North of tlio parallel of the cape the ebb sots North, and flood
(lioiith; and, dose inshcro, the tide is conHidorahly wcnko: than at 3 miles, wiivre iiii
greatest iuttueuoe may be expected."— CVjy^aiM Jieieker.

»10

DESCBIPTION OF THB COASTS, ETC.

ia promutent, there, or its southern side, you will surely And its sand hill — a proof of
the prevalent winds, m well as an admirable model of the formation of shoals, &o.,
ijiti re r water, and pointing out raost perfectly the "steep-to" approaches to bankis,
'■u-i which rapid streams < : currents flow, with their concomitant shallow tail, formed
ay jead water or eddies.

the vhole fsai'

intions, and of

eome ■m-e mon than 60

With the ezeeptioc of these newly-tbrmed and tonriug Hacd-hi^ls, t
fcee is cohered, in a rwt;i extraordmary manner, with ohclt^, <yt all tJuia

These are lotwi', R''.d

the speeies ffenerally ^onnd in the bay.
feet above me level oi the sea ! *

• The Spaniaid^ aiBm< that tiiere is no rainy <iea8on VjorC: ^xkl ,'rtro- jj nc-'ri'h->'ix and
uorth-easteriy winds tb.e whole year. In June and ^-jiy tbf^ \fi.i^ Noith. W.Xe.,
and N.E. Highest temywrature oi air ii the E'lRde, 75° -* of the water, 18°.

. BANK of ABOUIBi (^-c. — ^ThtBonk of Aigiiin conzmences at 4 leagues tutlie
southward of Cape Blanco It is a .iprc ** shelf oi about 30 leagues in length, and
reaches to the southward of C&pe Miirk. liie North point of -t is m lat. ?0' 3o 12' N.,
long. 10° 66' 30" W. The coast between this print an'il Cape Blci) jo sb repkce with
shcmla. The most considerable one is thro cf tiio liityadere, at I 6~10tk miles to tka
southward cf thf «ape. Theic are only 20 feet oi' wate/ oa thlB ^hoal, and it ocea-
HioBally breaks. iVnother lies W. } N. [ fP. 6y S.j :s tniies from tL.^ ape 5 auda thiid
at 8 iiJLiHi> S-S.E. ; E. iS.E.'X of it ; on which, liie tiie flrei, 20 feet of water have
be4?R tviUid. The channel, leading to the anchorage, eastward of Cape Blanco, lies to
the Tii'^'ivsrarJ cf tJieee iito&ls.

llie Burui '•; i-'Timn i6 a flat of sand, constantly increasing, of the same nature ai
tlic coant. '*'!'3 boiiv of it is hard, and covered with broken sheUs. Its outer edee,
It'iaiihhiiis h'itn tracet; firom numerous soundings, has been flzed at the depth 018
MtiC'ms, ai. no vessel can run within this limit without risk ; and, at a very short
distaaoi^ to the eastward of this boundarv, there arc less than 4 fathoms. No par-
ticalar part un the edge of this bank has been »o:jn quite dry; but close to the
breakers, which occur in maay places, there are not more than 10 feet of water ; and
tlie shallows between them do not appear to have more.

}?etween the North point of the bank and its western extremity, situated in
20' i:' 20' N., and 17° 7 30" W., on advancing from seaward, the soundings pro-
gr68»ively decrease. At 10 leagues to the westward, from 40 &thoms they decrease
to 8, with a very gentle ascent ; but to the southward of this parallel the bottom be-
oumss more uneven ; £'Jid frnm the point where the Medusa was lost (see page 503),
in lat. 19° 03' 42', lon^'. 17° 0' 35', a great irregularity takes place.

From the wcstemmoeit extremity, the edge uf the bank trends S.S.E. [8.E. i S.]
and extends as fur as Cape Mirik. The nature of the ground about the Bank of
Arguin has a veiy remarkable characteristic, which may prove of great service to
navigators. From the depth of 8 fathoms, which has been assigned as the limits of
thisban'k, to that of 25, to soaward, including an extent of a . ^lan 5 leagues, the
lead invariably brings up a mixture of sand and broken shells \ an4, in proportion to
thn proximity of the bank, the latter prevail. Beyond the depth of 25 f»< :hom8,ag
far iiB that of 45 and 50, at 8 or 10 leagues to seawai'd, the oottom is entirely of
white sand. Henof; it is evident, thet oy soundings, and a rough observation for
latitude, the distance from the Bank of Arguin may always be known. Should leai
than 25 fathoms be found, with a bottom <u sand and broken shells, you will be le«

* On pag« 004 we have alluded to the captivity of a v
Couritr, in 1844, on the I$Umd of Arguin. This island li .
B.B. of Gaps Blanea According to Captain Grover'i ar
main land, oetweoa which and the island the water is sha'
depth of from 6 1^ ^athoma elo$e to the there. O ^ (J>''^
conolasive. It ii> . : )d of a whitish rook, coverer* - ':
f«et. TheHout;^ ises to about 30 feet. Tfa. -i^n^u

mvil\ cMiwtio shrub, but it hss exosUsnt water, tl'.oop v
nra diffloult to find, but are important. Ths Trmairrr -. « • .. 1

'■■■■ "t lof the crew of the brig

/iM mouth of a bay to the

t is about 8 miles m>m the

To the seaward there is »

> t the evident t^ipaars to be

.ifting sands to the depth of i

produces no wood, and oa';

milky appearanoe. Tho welli

'inuia wap about W.

BANK or ARGUm, ETC.

*ll

th*n 6 leafttM te«m iti «dg« } and m pvopoition as ahaUa predominate in tiie floand-^
ings, you will b« nearer to it, and dioald avoid getting to tne eastward. Bkould you
have more ttiati 25 fethoms, wit> line sand, you will oe- more than 5 leagfaes from it.
To the northward of the parallri of 20° N., this may he partioidarly depended on ; to
the southward of that limit, i^ is subject to some exceptions ; hut as the hank then
takes a direction S.S.E. [S.K ^ S."], it becomes no long«* dangerous, if a ship is keut
on a wind in 20 to 25 fatuums, and sounds frequent.y. Henceforth we may ooncluae
(which all mariners must be convinced of), that a strict atteintion to incessant sound-
ing is so indispensable as to need no fnrther recommendatiot^

CURRENTS. — ^It has been already shown, in page 282, that the prevailingf
currents set firom North to South along the whole coast. Along the edge of the Bank
of Argnin, as far as its western extremity, this direction is constant ; and in the rainy
season, should any deviaticm be exjpenenced, it may be relied <m to happen very
aeldom. One proof of this may be adduced. On the 13th of July, when tioe wrecK
of the Meihua was found by the brig Argus, after thirteen days' absence from the

S;ate, it was abreast of Portandik, at 15 leag^ues from the shore, a distance of BO
es, and nearly on the meridian of the place where she was lost. It must, there' -
fjre, have driven at the rate of 7 miles per day along the coast.

Cap6 mrik if> that point of the coast which terminates the Bay of Arguin on th«
South, being a very low sandy point, on which there is a small down.* It is snr^
roonded by the southern part of the Bank of Argxiin, and cannot be approached by
large vessels, on the West, within 3 leagues, and on the S.W. within 2. The
magnetic variation, at the southern anchorage, in April, 1817> was found to be
18' 49' W.

Tanit Bay.— The coast from Cape Mink tends S.S.E. i E. IS.E."] 10 kagoes, it
then forms a complete elbow, gradually trending S. f W. f'S'. iy 2?.] It is low, and
presents a continued chain of small r^ular downs, composed of white sand, and inter-
spenied with small bushes. To the northwai d of the bay, formed by the bend of the
eoost, some downs may be observed which are rather higher and more insulated thaa
the rest. A few huts are seen near the beach, and in the dry season numerous parties
<tf the thieving tribe assemble here to catch fish and dry their stock. Two large pieces
of water maylw seen between the high downs : but wnether these be fresh or salt it
anknown. The latter seems most probable. This bay bears tlie name of Tanit, fiud
the North point of the down, at the bottom of it, as observed by Baron Roussin, is in
19» 3' 48" N., and 16° 12' 20' W.

Augel Hillooks. — lyom Tanit Say the eeneral direction of the coast is South
[8. by E. % .&] in an extent of 12 leaeues. At the distance of 4 leagues from the
termmation of this bearing are some downs, which are rather higher than the rest of
the beach, uud xvlth some oushes ou their surface. The beach itself is formed by a
Very low flat of quiuk-sand. These downs arc the Angel Ililhcka, composed of sand,
of which the summit i^ from 15 to 20 fathoms above the sea, and they constitute a
useM land-mark. They are divided into two groups : the summit of the northem-
most, which is much smaller than the other, is studded with tufts of brushwood ; while
the southern, which is formed of eight or nine hummocks, is nearly destitute of it;
The latter, which is the highest, stands in 18° 20' 30" N., and 16° 2' W. The coast,
from these hillooks, giuiuallv declines in height, and more so as it approaches to tha
soQthw*rd, when it fx >»\ falls into a uniform line of sand, with ooca«ionally a bush
liOi.--:* f i''! •'.|".'r-.\ ji-car^ciy above ih« level of the sea.

.' .!^£L Bank. — No v.\rt of this coast, southward firom Cape Mirik, should be ap-
: ./ached within 5 mikt^, nor to a Ic^s depth than 6| fathoms. By attending to this
A ale, all dangers Till be avoided, ant' amongst otborc a shoal 'v^hich extends outward,
d miles from the coasts, abreast of tLc northcra part of lac Angel Hillocks, from whiok

• Captain Owen gives this Hown in 19"" 96' N., and 16° 34' "W.
9- 2-2' W N., and 16* 81' 31" TV.

Barcu MoUoBin as

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

it derives its name. On this bank there are regular soundings on a bottom of sand,
>rith sand and broken shells, afford^g anchorage in caae of necessity. On receding
^m the beach, the dspth increases ; and, at the same distance from it, is greater than
to the northward of the hillocks.

POETAiroiC. — At 4 leagues to the southward of the Angel Hillocks, on rather
an elevated part of the coast, and a little within the beach, are two palms trees, with-
out branches, standing close together. The northernmost is the smaller of the two,
and they are the only palms to be seen on the coast between this and Cape Boiador,
They stand in lat. 18° 18' .'i4" N., long. 16' 2' 12" W., and Portandic is supposed to
have existed at about 1 mile to the southward of this spot. Not a vestige now remains
saffioient even to indicate to strangers the spot on which this little establishment once
stood. But since the survey it has been ceded to France, and a fort is mentioned.
From the two palm trees, the coast trends nearly S.S.W. [South], then to S.W.
Z^'S. W.'] It is straight and low, interspersed with small bushes, and present:) a
continued sameness. In an extent of 35 leagues there are only two downs of red
«and, covered with brushwood, and discernible only at about 2 miles from the
beach. One is in lat. 17° 25' N., the other in 16° 55' N. From the mast-head some
sheets of water at the foot ot these downs may be seen. At 2 leagues to the
southward of the latter, the interior of the country becomes a little clothed with
brushwood, and occasionally presents some level plains, but the coast remains uniformly
barren.

GUM TRADE.— The Dutch have the credit of being the first who introduced the
Oum Arabic, commonly called Gum Senegal, into Europe, in the early part of the
17th centiuy, when they carried on the fishery in the Bay of Arguin. The French
merchants of Bordeaux and Nantes first brought it, however, into general repute, and
decided its purity and superiority to the gums of the East. From 1760 to 1779,
Englemd possessed the Se 'egal, and the ti'ade for the ^um ; and by the Treatv of
Versailles, 1763, reser^red to nerself the exclusive posiiession of this commerce, which
she protected and maLitained. The English demolished the forts and establishments
at Portandic and Arg'iin, which had been fjrmed in 1724 by the old India Company
of France, in order to bring the whole of the gum of the African forests into the
River Senegal. In 1779, the French obtained re-possession of the Senegal ; but, by
the Treaty of 1783, it was agi'eed that the English should have the liberty of carrying
on the gum trade from the mouth of the Hiver St. John (3 leagues north-eastward of
Cape Mirik) to the Bay and Port of Portandic, inclusively ; provided that they
should not form any permanent settlement, of what nature soever, in tbe River St.
John, or the Bay of Portandic. The treaty is still in force, as no alteration of it was
made by the Treaty of 1814 ; which merely stipulated the eu .^agement of the English

government to restore to France, in ftilT ri^ht and sovevjignty, the possession of
enegal and Goree. The transfer took place m 1816, when the English withdrew to
their other settlements on the coast ; leaving the gum trade entirely in the hands of
the merchants of Seneppal, although they possessed an indisputable right to the trade
firom the Bay of Arguu to the Bay and! Port of Portandic. -«, ,. ,i ,.

At the commencement of the year 1821, the British merchants of the Gambia ob-
tained the support and assistance of the local government, in the attempt to renew
the ^^um trade at Portandic, and revive that friendship and good will which formerly
subsisted between them and the Moors in Senegal. Commodore Sir George Collier
was solicited to order a vessel of war for the protection of the trade, and to convey
presents to the chiefs of the Trazzarh or Tarassa Moors ; and; for this purpose his
Majesty's gun-brig Snapper, commanded by Lieutenant T. Evans, was selected, and
proceeded on his important service. The trade afterwards revived, and was going on
with the Moors in 1834, when it was unjustly interrupted by the government of
Senegal. The piEiriicuIars of this interruption, were given in evidence before the
House of Commons in 1842, by G. C. Redman, Esq.* But tliesc matters have been

* Parliamentary Report, West Coast of Africa, Part I., py. 176,. 177, 183.

THE RIVEE SENEGAL.

fi^

■djusted by the cession of the territory to the Frenchi we taking mb an equivalent
their factory of Albreda on the Gambia.*

PORTANDIC TO THE RIVER SENEGAL.— On the ^raUel of 16' 35' 24', am}
at the termination of the 35 leagues of coast already described, we arrive at the huts
of In^uiagher, or the spot called by the French the Mariffot or Lagoon of Mo»quUo$.
lliis m the rainy season forma a mouth of the River Senegal, the banks of which are
covered with mang^ves. At the distance of 2 or 3 miles tcora. the beach regular
soundings may be found, in ttom 7 to 13 fathoms, fine sand, occasionally mixed with
mud, and afiPording safe anchorage between this aild the palms of Portandic. To the
southward the depth gradually increases.

The Marigot of Moaquitoa is about 12 leagues to the northward of the Isle St.
Louis, in the Senegal ; and it communicates with the sea only when the rains have
swollen the river. It then covers the bank at its entrance, which may be passed over
by boats ; but they must 'be prepared against the surf which is common to it, as well
as the entrance of the Senegal. To the southward of this Marigot, the river is sepa-
rated from the ocean by a straight tongue of sand, formed by small white downs,
nearly bare, and gradually becoming ijwer toward the extremity. Within this tongue
of sand, the stream of me Senegal washes a number of small islands which lie
parallel to the coast, and on which a covering of thick bushes gives the country some
appearance of fertility. They are known by the name of the Antehpe Islands, Oriel
Wood Island, and Thiong Islands. The last is at a very short distance to the north-
ward of the Isle of St. Louis.

Griel Wood Island is distinguished by its bushes, among which are some trees
higher than t^ie rest, presenting a remarkable contrast to the barren desert of 200
leagues, which precedes it. Its distance from the Isle of St. Louis, in a straight line,
is not more than 5| leagues. Both to the northward and southward of Griel Wood
Isle, the stream of the river may be distinctly seen from the mast-head, running be-
tween the isle and the beach ; and it is the surest mark for discovering the landing-
place to the northward of the bar.

A vessel may run along the coast, at the distance of 2 miles from the ^eaoh, in from
9 to 14 fathoms, over an excellent bottom of thick green mud.

SEHEOAL. — On continuing your route to the southward, the French • v. lish-
. raent of St. Louis, in the Senegal, will soon be seen. This place is remarkable for its
white buildings, and a very high palm tree, which stands conspicuously close before
the flag of the fort. The latter is in lat. 16° 0' 48" N., and long. IB" 31' 1 " W. The
westei-n bank of the Senegal is so narrow and low, abreast of the northern part of
this island, that the town appeara to stand on the sea-shore; and it is only on nearing
it, that the channel which separates them can be seer ,

A little Moorish town, called Ouet n'dar or Oattandar, consisting of huts on a sand
hill, stands upon the strand, opposite the town of St. Louis. It was built by the
negroes engaged to open the communication in canoes with vessels arriving, and
checks the sands, which are constantly in motion. On the S.W. part of the Island of
St. Louis is a down, on which cannon are placed. From Gattandar. '\ '■ -ance of
the bar of the Senegal is only 2 leagues. The anchorage off the moi ■. .he river
may be taken in 7 to 14 fathoms, according to circumstanocR. The depth «xtands
front 2 to 4 miles from the bar.

The mouth of the Senegal presents nothing remarkable when seen from the north-
ward. The breakers whicn prevail on the wnole coast as far as I'oint Barhary, the
northern point of the entrance, prevent those on the bar from being distinguished i
and vessels may run pas without seeing them, if they keep at too great a distance
from the shore. From Gattandar you may run at the distance of a mile from the

• By a ! jnvention, signed March 7th, 1867, the Quoen of England relinquiahes her
rights to trade between the mouth of the River St. John to the Bay and Fort of Portandio
inclusively, and in return the French Emperor cedes the Factory, or Compwif , of Ainreda,
on the North Bank of the Gambia, with all rights belonging thereto.

3 r

614

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

beach without danger ; which will enable you to observe the smallest alteration in
the coast. A smallpost in the centre of the river, abreast of the EngUah Islet, where
there is a signal-post, and a guard-house on Bahague Island, at a short distance to
the eastward of the bar, will then be passed in succession. This guard-house is a
remarkable small square house, near which there is a p^'^ond signal-sta£P ; and a
vessel may anchor wnen this guard-house bears E. h S. \_E. by N7\ As the winds
generally blow from the northward, in consequence of the facility for communication
yith the shore, it 'r>, \ .'Tiuarb to anchor rather to the northward than to the sontii-
ward of the bar.

7^e Bar (/ Ser.i,(,<ai is not stationary. The western bank of the river, from the
Isle of St. Louis, is so low that high tides completely cover it, and, at times, force
open a ne^rv ;;hannel. Its northern point in 1817 was in lat. 15° 55' 18" N., and long.
16° 30' W., and it increases gradually the southward. Here the magnetic variation,
in 1817, was 17° 22' W. It u now 19° 0' W.

Ah the nature of the entrance li^ sr \' i ^e, it is manifest that no safe directions
can be given. Prior to 1857 liidre were two (.^trances, that near the Pointe avx
Chameaux, which led through a long channel diminishing in ddpth, and that of the
Barre de Oandiolle, opposite the coast of that name. The Banks to the North ■were
shifting and extending much to the southward, so that they formed a considerable
Jbow, which obliged vessels to steer N.W. or W.N.W., to clear the southern
^' nks. At the end of 1857 it was announced that the entrance by the Tointe
?.ax Chameaux was entirely closed, and that the obstructing banks extended at least
b miles cff, so that vessels working up for the anchorage should be well on their
guard.

llie Bar of GandioUe was then better than ever, and had constantly a depth of 12
or 14 feet, and within it firom 15 to 16 feet. Vessels should anchor before this bar
in 7 fathoms, and will be in the best position with the flagstaff bearing N.£. by
compass.

The dimgers attending the bar of the Senegal are well knr -n to be of no tiifl-'if
nature. In the rainy season, and even in March, when the aver, increased by t
rains, discharges a greater body of water into the sea, the bar is fi-equently impra
ticable even by decked boats. The waves, caused bv the impetuosity of the river
water meeting with that of the ocean, are very consiaerable, and succeed each other
iso rapidly that it is impossible to find a smooth. It is not uncommon, in these cases,
to see breakers at the distance of a mile from the bar, and in 8 fathoms of water. From
the month of April to the end of September the bar may generally be crossed by
decked boats, and sometimes even by canoes ; but it is advisable luat they should be
steered by natives.

- Vessels drawing 10 feet of wat< r cannot cross the bar. Those of a moderate
si?e only shou'",', thcro^i'e, be ( ploved in the commercial navigation of these
parts; otherwife. the loading am unloading, when necessary to employ lighters,
becomes very expensive. Inside the mouth the depth is from 6 to 8 fathoms ; and,
with the assistance of the tide and a pilot, a vessel may very ea^sily beat up to the Isle
of St. Louis.

, CURRENTS. — L has already boon said, that the (Ifeneral and almost constant
direction of the current is along the coast tVom North lo South, as I'ur as the mouth
of the Senegal. Abreast of this ope ■iy;,_und in a space of •■ieveral miles to seawai-d,
the river tidea affect the gener; unilimiity of this current. The flood and ebb tides
are alternately felt at the bai ' anc lorage ; they have no settled direction, but may
be considered as setting alK> W indS.E. ; and are frequently so strong a.s to
luako the vessels t-snd at the uK'shora^ ■, or at least to lay with their broadsides to the
wind, in the strongest breezi a. This anchorage is rendered very inconvenient by the
short sea which is always upon it.

The preceding descriptions are chiefly those of the Baron Roissin. The following,
from our former edition, may also be acceptable.

' From Santa Ch'uz, Tenerife, to the River Senegal, the true and safe course is S.S.W.

THE MVER SENEGAL.

OlS

to lat. 18° 30', before a ship hauls I ae eastward. This is in order to avoid being set
hy tilt' current too far to the i astw ard, or on the banks of Arguin, &c. From the
above-mentioned latitude haul to the south-eastward, so as to make the land in about
16° 15', M en you will probably see th« trees already noticed, which are the most
remarkable on this coast.

If standing in for the land bv night, heave a cast of the lead everv hour, as yon faU
into soundings all at once, 50 jathoms close to the edge of the bank, at the distance
shown the chart, or about 8 leagues from shore, and thence shoaling to 8 fisithoms at
1| miles from it.

The bar of the Senegal is most easily passed in the moaths of July, August, Sep-
t«nber, and October ; out it is very rarely quite calm. On the contrary, the siea fV^-
quently breaks against it violently. The waves, which strike against, it, are always
united in threes, or leashes. For example, when the sea is but slightly agitated, one
may perceive three waves, perfectly distinct, approach and break against the bar,
immediately after each other ; and these three waves [^pear to be, as it wei-e, con-'
nected ; for there is often a considerable interval of time between tiie attack of the
first threa waves and the approach of the succeeding trio.

During the prevalence of jroiigh weather, this series of assault by united waves
incessantly prevails ; but then these attacks follow each other so rapidly that the
time between them is no longn- perceptible. The sailors call the interval between the
two assaults, when tolerably iig, a set-off, because then the bar experiences a slight
degree of rest, during which time it may often be passed ; but frequently the violence
of the waves Li so great, and squalls succeed each other so rapidly, that there is no
longer any interval between them ; and, consequently no set-off.

On passing by sea within cannon-shot of the Isle of Senegal, it affords a very agree-,
able prospect. Fort St. Louis forms the principal object in this perspective. To
its right and left extend the two parts of the town, the streets of which are well
arranged ; and, in general, composed of thatched cottages or huts, interspersed with
some iitoiko houses, covered, according to the custom of this part of Africa, with flat
roof^.

Tlie woods which line the East bank of the river appear, at this distance, to belong:
to the isle, and give it a cheerful and rural aspect ; but this allusion disappears on &
nearer approach ; for no place can be more arid, paixshed, or deprived of vegetationt
than the Isle of St. Louis, the soil of which is nothing but a fine shifting sand. Notr
withstanding this, the population amounts to about 5,000 persons. The water of the
i» I ) < iuh and un vvholesome.

W .>DS.- The winds are not at all dangerous in the navigation of the coasts
of the Seuegal. They blow nearly along the coast from the N.E. and N.W.;
during the greater part of the year ; and as, in the rainy season, the squalls always
come from the S.E., and the winds which succeed them are very weak, when thejr
once pass the S.W. quarter, getting under way is always easy. Those vessels in
the road which cannot depend on their g^ound-taokle, may rctur.i to it when the squall
is over.

SENEGAL TO CAPE VERDE.— If a straight line were drawn from the an-
chorage at the bar of the Senegal to the outer rocks of the Alinadies, on the westeni
point of Cape Verdo, its direction would be nearly S.W. by W. \_S. 40° W.\ and itf
length 31 leagues. The arc described by the intervening coast, and Hubtcnded by this
chord, bends so little, that it would not exceed the vrhole length by mpre than 4
leagues, and its greatest depth would be 13 miles.

The coast, as far as 2 or 3 leagues to the southward of the Senegal, is just as lo^
as that to the northward, and resembles it very much ; it afterward becomes rather
higher, but is uniform in general appearance. It is composed of a chain of white
sandy downs, scattered over with bniahwood, amongst which a small cluster of trees
may be distinguished. It generally presents two well-defined plans. The first is
that next to the sea, foimcd of white sandy downs, on which there appears some

h \s. "nriMislprilhlv h.uheF than ■.■■« nrnt,. nninin(>nr<'>a ii^uhoiif

verdure. The second, which

lionsiUerabiy higher than we nrsi, commences ut about

916

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, IiTC<

2 miles iii the interior, and is fonned liy downs of a greyiel « o onr, which are covered
with bushes.

In running for the Senegal, from the southward, the mouth of the river is more
easily distiaguished than when approaching from the northward, from its appearing
more open. At the distance of 8 leagues from the mouth, and on the parallel of
16" 26' r]'., a large red sandy down may be observed, entirely bare, which, to thoae
ignorant of their latitude, may serve to indicate their distance to the southward of the
bar. From this down, southward, the coast presents nothing remarkable as fiur as
the Little Papa, of which the northern is in latitude 14° 56' 24" N., and longitude
HM'SOW.

The Litth Papa are the two highest downs between the Senegal and the Papt of
Cape Verde. They are situated on tiie beach, and are easily known by a slight un-
dulation of their summit, and three or four other small hills adjoining them to the
southward. They are visible at tiie distance of 4 or 5 leagues. The Bay of To/
commences from this point.

ITie Little Paps bear E.N.E. f E. [i\r. 69'. E.} from those on Cape Verde, at the
distance of 9 leagues. When running this distance, in fine, clear weather, both an
frequently seen at once. The latter may be seen at the distance of 7 or 8 leagues.
From about 8 leagues to the eastward of Cape Verde, the coast lises very much, and
becomes more wooded. The country about the cape is covered with trees, amongst
which there are several of remarkable height. All this cuast may be approached
within a very short distance. Within 2 miles to the uoi-thward of tne Adlluge of Yof,
situated near on islet of that name, there are 65 fathoms of water on a bottom of
mud and saud.

CAPE VESDE is the westernmost point of Africa ; it is the extremity of a
peninsula formed on the North by the Bay of Yof, and on the South bv the bay iu
which the Isle of Ooree is situated, and is composed of moderately hign land. To
the westward, as far as the two paps of Cape Verde, as aforesaid, it becomes higher,
and on the southern side of these two paps, the coast next the sea becomes nearly
perpendicular. This point is usually taken for Cape Verde ; it is not the western-
most part of the peninsula, but it is the highest. Its lat. is 14" 44' 30", and long,
17° 32' 0". Cape Verde, as seen from the northwai'd, terminates in very low land,
on which are some imconnectcd hillc^ks, which, at a distance, may be taken for islets.
The extreme point extends 1,000 fathoms still fiu-ther East, in a flat of blackish
rocks, awash with the water's edge, and which, in two or three places, rise from 8 to
10 feet abovethe level of the sea. This rocky flat is called the Almadies, and the
point which joins it, Almadia Point.

The sea on the Almadies breaks incessantly. Amongst the rocks are some smooth
spots appearing like channels fit for boats. The flat may be coasted at the distance
of a mue, there being, on the West, 35 fathoms of water ; the bottom is of broken
shells. Hence to the northward, in an extent of 3 miles, the depth increases to 80
fathoms, bottom of mud and sand. To the S.E. the depth is not so much ; in running
along these breakers and the coast, to a distance of 2 miles in that direction, which
will extend to the meridian of the paps, the depth varies from 26 to 39 fathoms, the
bottom, sand and shells, or sand and rock. The depth then continues to decrease to
the E.S.E. The highest and westernmost rock of the Almadies, which appears from
a distance in the shape of a die, is in lat. 14° 44' 29", and long. 17° 33' 29", as shown
in the Table, p. 34.

CURRENTS. — The prevailing currents between the Senegal and Cape Verde
follow the direction of the coast, in the same manner as those to the northward ; and
the idea of a current setting violently into the Bay of Yof, as formerly represented,
is altogether false. The sea on this part of the coast is not particularly heavy nor
dangerous ; the smallest coasters of the Senegal and Goree expose themselves to it
with impunity every day.

Southward from the Senegal as far as the parallel of 15" 20', including an extent of
more than 12 leagues, at 2 or 3 miles from the coast, the bottom is excellent, being of
pare mud, with a depth vailing from 12 to 30 fathoms. From this parallel, to the

GOREE.

filT

irer is more

aoathward, doubtless the depth increa8e8.conBiderably. At 2 leagues to the westward
of the Little Paps, for instance, there are from 64 to 70 fathoms of water. The
muddy bottom continues here, and is so soft that the lead sinks deep into it, and the
anchor alone would hold any vessel obliged to come to in consequence of calm. It is<
only in these cases that anchoring becomes necedsary ; if there is wind from either
quarter, the formation of the coast will always allow a favourable board to any vessel
well found and well managed.

»•<

CAPE YERDE to OOREE.— From Almadia Point to Cape Manoel the coast
trends S.S.E. } £. ^S.E.} in a distance of about 3 leagues. In this extent it is high,
covered with trees, and generally terminates at the sea-side in basaltic cliffs or sandy
rocks. In some places only the cliff slopes toward the interior, and forms small bay»
witib beaches of white sand.

At 2,000 fathoms N.W. by W. | W. [ W. by N.') off Cape Manoel and at half that
distance from the coast, there is a group of rocky islets, called the Magdalen lalea, of
which there are two principal ones. They are perfectly baiTen ; even the largest, in
the crevices of which were formerly some haobaba* is nothing but a bare rock of a
red^sh colour mixed with basalt, and perfectly destitute of any vegetation. The
shape of this islet is that of a crescent open to tne westward, and its gi-eatest extent
is nearly North and South. On the North side it has a gap, forming a very small
crctk, which aftbrds a landing. The other rocks ai'e to the south-eastward of the
principal islet, separated by a space of 1,000 fathoms, in which there is a depth of
from 4 to 6 fathoms. The sea breaks with violence on all these rocks.

The space between the Magdalen Islands and the main seems to offer a safe channel ;
but it should not be attempted by a stranger. In coasting the shore from the Alma-
dies to the Magdalen Islands, the soundings vary from 34 to 19 fathoms. These
islands may be approached on the southern side within 100 fathoms.

Cape Manoel is high, formed of columns of basalt, and covered with very thick
brushwood ; at the distance of a pistol-shot from it, to the southward, there is a depth
of 8 fathoms; and at 100 fathoms to the north-westward of its extreme point, close
to the beach, is a small insulated rock. In doubling Cape Manoel, the extensive bay
is opened, which is formed by this cape and Capal^^c, which may be called the Bay
of Goree. At the distance of 2,100 fathoms from Cape Manoel, E. | N. [N. 66° J5.]
lies the Island Goree ; and a vessel intending to anchor must steer for it, and may
approach on the South side within two musket shots.

OOBEE.— BAY of OOREE.— The Island of Ooree with the Senegal fell into the
hands of the British in 1809. By the treaty of Paris they were restored to the
French in 1816. As far as regard^ climate, they are more favourably situated than
any of our settlements on the coast. .The adjoining coimtry is iimabited by the
Jaloff nation. It is the seat of a flourishing trade. The French Govea-nment attach
much impoitonce to its maintenance, and have expended large sums on its military
defences.t ,; ,,, ,^ 'v.i , -, r , ",:'

Ooree Isle is merely a rock, about 400 fathoms in its greatest length, from N. | E.
to S. i W. [AT. by Jr. to iS. by £.J, and 167 fathoms in bieath. It is a volcanic pro-
duction, conoposed of basalt and sand, of the same description as the Magdalen
Islands and Cape Manoel, from which it seems to have been separated. The southern
part, which is about 500 feet above the level of the sea, is the highest, and like a
round mountain, may be seen at the distance of 5 or 6 leagues. The rest of the island
is very low, and the North point is distinguished only by its batteries and private
buildmgs. A fixed light is shown from the fort. The landing-place'is on the N.E.

• The baobab (or Adanaonia) is a species of very large tree, of a fine green colour, but
which does not keep its verdure all tlie year round. From the trees of mis sort on Cape,
Verde that cape derived its name.

t Dr. Madden, Parliamentary Report, 1842, Part I., p. 206, and Part II., p. 508.

518

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

side of the island, between the point and th^ hack of the mountain, to the south-
ward, iu a small sandy bay.*

Goree contributes nothing toward either the subHistence or comfort of its inhabit-
ants. Its two springs, situated at the foot of a rock, on its southern part, hardly
suffice for the consumption of two families, and the inhabitants are therefore obliged
to get their supplies of water, wood, and all kinds of food, from the main.

2%c roodktead is to the N.E. of the island. This roadstead, which is sheltered
from all winds from S.S.W. to E.N.E. (by the North), is perfectly safe during eight
months of the year ; that is, from the 1st of November to the 1st of July ; but dur-
ing the rainy season, the squalls from the S.E. are dangerous. The best anchorage
f jr large vessels, in either season, is at the distance of 800 fathoms from the landing-
ing-place, with Cape Manocl bearing W.S.W. \ W. [S. 52° IV.'\, a sail's breadUi
Qpen of the North point of the island. At this spot there is a bottom of thick clayish
mud, with a depth of 12| fathoms, and it is convenient to weigh from, with the wind
from any quarter.

- To fetch the anchoraffe tram Ca'pe Verde, in the fine season, when the winds are
from N.E. to N.W., it is necessary to nm close by Capo Manoel and the South point
of Goree ; keeping by the wind on the port tack, and sounding until in 8 or 10
fathoms. When within a mile of the land, tack and beat up to the anchorage.

The above position assigned for the anchorage of this island possesses one very

great advantage in the tornado season; which is, that ic the gruund-tackle cannot
s depended on, a vessel may run before the squall and even he sheltered for a short
time. For this purpose it will be necessary to veer to the end of the cable before tho
squall comes on, as its violence may not allow of a vessel being managed with tho
expertness requisite on such an occasion. She should then steer so as to round the
North point or the island at a convenient distance, and when to the westward of this
point, whatever may be the violence of the squall (which is always from the S.E.),
the island will afford sufficient shelter to enable her to keep on the port tack until
abreast of the South point. Having reached thus far, she will be in a favourable
position for doubling Cape Manoel, as by bringing it to bear W. f S. [<S. 66" W.] she
may then steer nearly four points free. All the channel between Goree and the
Peninsula of Cape Verde is perfectly safe, ha>'ing in it from 5 to 13 fathoms of water,
and the shores may be approacUcd within the distance of 200 fathoms. A vessel
intending to remain any time at the anchorage should moor N.E. and S.W., as the
two cables will then bear an equal strain in the heaviest of the squalls. Magnetic
variation, in June, 1817, 17" 30' W.} 1861, 18" IG W.

The Watering-place at Ooree, and the Retourcea which this Anchoraae ofers.— The
watering-place of Goree, used by vessels which frequent this island, u aoout 3,000
fathoms N.N.W. of the anchorage. It consists of several pits dug in the sand on
the sea-side, ncnr a marsh, and close to a negro village called ffan. The water is
neither agreeable nor wholesome, and should not be drunk until it has been filtered,
acidulated, or cleansed by red hot shot being put into it. The cove in which it is
situate is exceedingly well stocked with fish, and hauling tho nrine will be attended
witii succi>Hs, by any number of vessels touching hero. Fire-wood is purchancd from
the negroes or Dacar, a little more to the West, at the rate of about twenty
shillings the cord. Ballast may be procured at the foot of the point of that name.
Small bullocks may be purchusea from the neighbouring coast, for six or eight
dollars each.

Tho whole coast, from Cape Manoel to Capo Nu^o, which forms Goree Bay, may be
run along nt the diotanco of 2 miles. One bank only lies at 800 fathoms E.S.E. \ K.
[J?. 3° Jv.] from Capo Bolair,t having soundings which vary ttoxa 16 feet to 12

* Mr. Finlaison has said that shipfi sailing from the Capo Vorde Tsluuds, and bound to
Ooroo, will Htriko Rotiiidiiign in 60 fathoms, flmi Hand, at 80 mikmofT. — Eu.

t Thio in, wo prusumfl, ino Ca^ • Bernard of tho form-jr cb ' ' "

Ouroe.— El).

hing to the northward of

^■v, , -■ mH-MA^.i^ GOREE. ;n?;i.'<pvvV>U' \.^-^

fathoms, with a bottom of muddy sand, or sand and shells, as far as the parallel of
Cape Naze.

From the Bat of Han, northward of Ooree, the coast rises a little at some miles
in the interior, bat it is exceedingly low at the sea-side, where it presents nothing
but a white sandy strand. We again perceive the little downs, the chain of which
joins the paps of Cape Verde, and which we ran along in going round the Bay of
Yof. These uown^' rise progressively to the south-eastward, and are covered with
trees as &r as Cape Naze. The Naze Cape is terminated by cliffs of about 200 fathoms
in height, the woody summit of which may be seen, in fine weather, at a distance of
7 or 8 leagues. In running along the coast toward Cape Naze, we pass successively
several negro villages of the kingdoms of Cayo and Baol, belonging to Darnel. The
most considerable of these villages is Rufisk, on the eastern side of Ooree Bay ; then
follow the anchorages of Barnier, Red Cape, Yongop, &c., all of which points aro
frequented by coasters from Goree, who trade for stock ; they offer nothing interest-
ing. The highest part of Cape Naze is in lat. 14' 31' 30 N., and long. 17^7' 25' W.
-^Roussin.)

There are some rocks, westward of Rufisk, stretching about a gun-shot into the
sea, which may be avoided by keeping half a mile from the shore. To the West and
W.N.W. of Cape Naze is good anchorage, in 4 or 5 fathoms, fine sand ; but to the
South and S.W. of the cape the bottom, generally, is not good.

In the night time, you must proceed in 17 fathoms, ha^'ing sometimes recourse to
the lead ; the land, even in the night, will direct you sufficiently to avoid the rocks.
In the season of the tornadoes the road of Rufisk is not good ; but in the summer,
you may safely lie there in 6 or 7 fathoms, close to the shore, if agreeable.

About 3J miles S.E. of the Red Cape lies Cape Naze, with a araall bay botwecr ;
from the latter the coast extends to the S.E. j o. [^S.K | £.1 about 4i leagues, as
far as Portudal, formerly a French factory ; and then 6 leagues S. by E. \ E.
[S.S.E. I E."] to Cape Serene : between this cape and Portudal, 2 leogues off the
coast, and parallel to it, lies Amboroo Rank, on the South tail of which you find only
1| fathoms. Ships that come from the westward must be cautious of this shoal ; the
ground is very hard upon it, and close to it is a depth of 5 fathoms.

To the S.E. of Cape Naze the land declines in height, and the downs are partially
.covered with bushes. The point near a little river, the Soman, is thus covered, and
the country hereabout appears to be clothed with trees.

Portudal consists of a number of huts on the shove. Tlic coasters of Goree fr< -
quent this place. All the coast in the vicinity abounds in trees ; and at 3 miles to the
Boutliward of the village is a small wood, very remarkable from its trees being much
higher than the rest, and which, therefore serve as a mark for the coast.*

The Road of Portudal is far from being good, and is fit for small vessels only ; they
lie close to the shore, athwart of the little houses between the clifi's. All the coatt
near Portudal is bordered with rocks, and must not be approuclied too near.

Joal.— Three leagues S. by E. J E. IR.S.K * H.} from Cape Serene lies Joal or
YoAL, standing on the Ncrth bank of a river of the same name, from which a shoal,
with only 2 J mthonis of water upon it, projects into the sea. The Road of Joal is
not much better than those we have just mentioned ; the entrance of the river, be-
tween Joal Point and the point to the South of it, which they called Palmarin Point,
is 3 miles broad, with a depth of 3 fathoms of water in mid-cnannel.

Colonel L. S. O'Connor, C.B., governor of the Gambia, paid a visit to the King of
Bur Sin, at his sea-port of Jool, in January, 18i50. His object was to enter into a

• A more partioular detiiU of this coast, and of all tbo shore between Cupo Najio and ("!apo
Roxo, by M. Le Prcdour (extractod fVom tlio Annaks Maritintet), wivs publiwhod nt l'urin in
1828. To the description is aiini^xoii a. copiotiH titble of tho ixtaitions of plaeos, as doterinintxi
in 182fi and 1827, on bosrJ the friffnte In Fwrr nnd gooic. i La Itorade, undor tho orders of
CRptnin Ma»»itH dt Cltrva!, which may be udvdutHgoously oompiirud with more recent
obaorvatiouR.

A29

DESCRIPTION OF THE COAS "S, ETC.

treaty for the protection of vessels and persons wrecked on these shores, which vm
carried out, and therefore some appeal may be made hereafter to that treaty should
misfortune render it necessary.

From Palmarin Point to the northernmost of the Birda^ Islands the coast extends
S. by E. {_S.S.E. h i?.] 8 leagues ; and, from the mouth of the Salum River, which
lies 4 leagues south-eastward of the point, to the Birds' Islands, the shore is bordered
•with a sand, named the Sed Bank, that stretches 4 miles into the sea, and close to
which are 4 fathoms of water. The Birds' Islands, four in number, and very small,
lie on this bank.

The Salnm River is navigable for 90 miles, and vessels of 250 to 300 tons can
alwa^^s ascend it easily to Khaolah ; the last and principal trading port, and to which
the tide extends. The bottom throughout is of soft mud, and therefore may be
grounded on vdthout danger. All the people at Goree are intimate with the ;'iver,
and oan act as pilots. The only difficulty is the bar, which, like that of the Senceal,
is liable to shift, and is extencling to the South. The Sandy point of Sangomar has
thus extended a mile since 1828, the period of the survey. The bar is onh about
60 yards broad, and on it are from 8 to 9 feet water, perhaps less at spring tides. In
taking the bar you must be able to bear freely to the N.E. by compass, which may be
readily done with the sea breeze (N.N.W.) in the afternoon. The best time is, there-
fore, the two or three days following the first and last quarter of the moon : it is high
water then at from 4 to 6 p.m., and you can make sail for the bar at 2 or 3 o'clock
the moment the breeze sets in and is well established, but not if it is too fresh, tor
then the breakers are too strong. *

From Palmarin Point to the pitch of Cape St. Mary the distance is 11 leagues,
South. [(S. hy E. h E.'\ The entrance of the Gambia lies between the pitch of that
cape and the low islets called the Birds' Isles.

In sailing off the coast between Cape Verde and the Gambia, shipping must proceed
with caution, as the Amboroo Bank, the shoals of Joal, and the banks in tKc vicinage
of the River Salum, are dangerous, being very shoal.

RIVER GAMBIA.— Between the parallels of 13" 30' and 13° 40', in an extent of
10 miles, is the i-stuary or mouth of the great River Gambia : it is bount'c-l on the
South side by a point named Cape St. Mart/, the situation of which is lat. 1.' ' 30' 12 ,
Ion. 10^ 41' 24 \ On a point 6 miles S.E. 'ly E. [E.S.E. J E.'\ from this is the British,
settlement and town of Bathurst.

The Gambiat is one of the principal colonies of the British on the coast of Africa,
and the advantages of this noble river for carrying on trade with the natives in the
interior were well known upwards of 240 years ago, for a company was formed in
England for that puriwse in 1()18. From tlio time of the first voyager, Thompson, at
that period, up to that of Mungo Park in 1795, it was conriidcred that the Gambia
and Senegal wore branches of the Niger. Several expeditions were sent out, and the
British Factory was placed on the small Islond of St. James, about 17 niilcs from St.
Mary's. Besides this settli'mcnt in 1724, the African Company had another fiictory
at Jnar, about 100 miles distant from St. James's Island. In 1088 the latter fort was
captured by the French , and there is now scarcely a vestige of it remaining.

In 1816 a new settlement was formed at the Island of St. Wary's, which was formed
on the faith of a treaty for the exclusive trade with the Gambia with the French.
The Island of St. Mary's was purchased from the king of Combo ; and on the oppo-
site bank, a largo tract of country, extending one mile inland, ond about 3C mileit
long, was purchased from the King of Barra. It is to the eastward of Bana Point,

• Liout. Bourdon, of tlio Alecton, I. French nr.vy, 1857.

t Wfl hiivei ti«knn this general dosrriptid i from tho Report of tho Oovommon* rommiH-
sioner, Pr. Mudden. The corroctn(>8N of fhiif report was much disputed by mnny coinpi'-
tent authorities, an will bo seen throughout tho evidence boforo tho heu«C; but «" b»T8
omitted inose portions which have be«n particularly specified. Stt Report on tho WontiTU
Coast of Africa, Appendix, No. 8, p. 177, Part IT., &e.

•i'V

RIVER Gambia.

?|•^^^Ta

321

an oxtcntof
int'cl on the

and is of little advantage except as giving us command of the mouth of the river.
There is no British establishment on this tract except Fort BuUen, immcdiatclj'
opposite to Bathurst, and a small house, the residence of a missionary.

In the vicinity of Cape St. Mary's, 7 or 8 miles to the southward of Bathurot, is a
more valuable territory acquired by Lieutenant-Governor Huntley, in 1810, by pur«
chase ; it is called Baccow, and has some barracks for the AMcan corps.

M'Cabtht's Island is another British settlement, up the river, at the dintance of
about 175 miles from St. Mary's, though this distance is usually called 300 or 250
miles. The island is about 5f miles long and 1 broad, and the river is navij^able up
to it for vessels of large tonnage; beyond it the trade is carried on in small
schooners ; the breadth of the river here is about 200 yards. The falls of Bairaconda,
which stop the upward navigation of the Gambia, are about 300 miles above St.
Mary's, and from this to Fort St. Joseph, or Gallam, the French settlement on the
Senegal is about 150 nules, or five days' journey on foot. There are several islands
on the Gambia, between McCarthy's Island and the mouth.

The Island of St. Mary's is situated on the South bank of the river, opposite to
Borra Point, where a battery has been erected, and where a few black troops are
stationed ; the breadth of th ; river is about 2 miles.

The principal buildings on M'Cartliy's Island consist of the ban-acks, the Wcwlcyan
mission-house, school, and chapel, and three other stone houses ; the population
amounts to 1,200, or 800 males and 100 females.

The island is separated from the main land by a very narrow creek, called Oyster
Creek ; the length of the island is about 4 miles, and the extreme breadth 1 mile.
The total population of St. Mary's is 3,514 souls, including 81 r liens and resident
strangers ; of th'j iixed population, 42 are whites and 3,291 coloured people.

Bathurst is situated in the Island of St. Mary's ; it is a small, prosperous-looking
town, with several excellent stone houses, esijccially on the wharf where the houses
of the merchants are situated. Dr. Madden's rc^)ort has given rise to much discussion
as to the eligibility of the site of this town, but it would appear that there is no other
situation which otters superior advantages, JilliJ'ree is on the North side of tlu' river,
and is about half a mile from Fort James.

Albrida, or Albradar, a fort which belonged to the French, is about half a mile
from Jillifree ; their possession of this place was considered not to be on any well-
founded claim, and was also a very serious ii. convenience and injury to the liritish
trade in the river:* but, as shown in the nolo on page 513, it has been exchanged
for Portandik.

Of the Oanioia, Cnpiain Silcfer says : — " The Gambia, considered in a mcreatitll«
point of view, dii 1, as regards supplies, appears to ofiir more decided advantages tliau
any of our posse. ^sions on the coast of Africa and may. ind cd, bo said to be the only
pomt where anyihing ipproaching to trudc' tan be sutisfu .torily pursued. Even in
lis present state it is bj tar liie most healtliy part of the coast ; and, hod a portion of
the liberality of govern nt^nt to Sierra Leoni; been extended to Bathurst and its de-

rality oi
L'ics, 1 fed

pendencies, 1 fed satiMtied that, long ere this, it would have ac(j\iired that characU-r
whieh eventually, with iniinite labour, it will establisii for itself from its own
resouives." The constitutions of the residents appear to be as stmnd as in any part of
the world, and the strongest has been here thirty yeais without visiting Europe."

But it is to bo regretted that, at Bathurst, the only fresh water to be had is from
private wells ; but, by close work in the dry season, as much iis five tons a d«y tUKf
be obtained. Wood iuay be hud aX the heath, wijU dried, in convenient lengths for
stowage, at a dollar and' a half, or si:t shillirgs sterling, per cord.

Cape St. Mary is readily known by its making like a plain j low by the soa-side,
witli an acclivity toward the interior. It has some treei^ and ono house upon it.

• Parliununtnrv Heport, 1842, vol. xi., Piwrt I.
p. 47().

' Evidence of F. W. Findon, Edq.,"
3 V

622

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

The narrowest part of the mouth of the Gambia is between the town of Bathunt
and JBarra Point, to the N.E., the distance between being only 2^ miles.

From Bathurst Point, the Banyan or St. Mary's Shoal, a dangerous rocky shelf,
extends 5 miles N. by W. ^ W. [^W.N. W. f W.'] It is even with the water, on the
ebb. At a mile to the N.E. of this is a bank called the Middle Ground ; and, at three-
quarters of a mile northwai'd of the latter, is a smaller one, the African Knoll. There
are from 4 to 6 fathoms of water between these banks ; but the best way in is to pa»8
to the northward of the whole, keeping over toward the Red Bank and the bank
extending from the Barra or eastern shore, according to the following directions.

" It is strictly to be recommended that vessels, bound to the Gambia, should get
into the latitude of 13° 40', or 4 or 5 miles to the southward of it : then, making a due
East course, keeping their lead going, until in 5 fathoms, when you may anchor,
and engage a pilot. But, should you be desirous of proceeding up, you may follow
the sounding depths of the chart ; remembering that on the southern side of the
channel the ground is bard ; but on the North and East sides the lead sticks in, the
bottom being of soft mud. The anchorage is oft' the town of Bathurst, with any part
of it bearing about "West, three quarters to half a mile off"; the depth being 16, 14,
and 12, fathoms. Small vessels may lie closer in, where there are 8 and 7 fathoms,
The ground is good ; the tides strong : but it is, altogether, a fine harbour." — Limt,
O. L. Harries, R.N.

The direct course, from 5 fathoms ofiF Bird Island Shoal, to within the African
Knoll, off the edge of the Red Bank, is S.E. \_S.E, by E. i E.l o miles, where there
is, in the main channel, 6 and 7 fathoms. From the last spot to the anchorage off
Bathurst, the course and distance, in a fair working channel, is S. \ W. \_S. by E,
A E.^ 7 mUes.

WTien advancing to the Gambia, from the northward, you ought not to approach
the river nearer than in 7 or 6 fathoms, before Cape St. Mary comes in sight. It
may be advisable for a stranger not to proceed farther than in 5 fathoms without a

Eilot, unless the veosel draws less than 12 feet of water. Those leaving Goree, when
oiind to the Gambia, may steer about S. by E., keeping their lead constantly going,
and a])proaching the coast no nearer than in 7 fathoms. When near the entrance of
the Gambia, the ground will generally be found an oozy sand ; but, near the cape,
sometimes sand and sometimes red shells will be found. The ebb in the river runs
very strongly, nearly eight hours, but the flood is not so strong. Spring tides are
very rapid.

Having approwhed trithin one mile of Barra Point, from which a small spit stretches
off to about a quarter of a mile, keep over for mid-channel between that point and
Banyan or Bathurst Point. You have S, 9, 10, and 12 fathoms between the two
points, and good anchorage in 9 fathoms of water, muddy ground, with Barra Point
bearing N.E. by N., and Banyan Point N.W.

The tide of flood sets to Barra Point, and the ebb directly on the Middle ; be there-
fore very cautious during calms on an ebb tide.*

Froui Barra Point to Dog Island Point, on the same side of the river, the Scaring
and distance are South \_>S. by E. J E."] 8 miles. The coast between forms a deep and
shoal bay, and the flats extend from it into the middle of the river. From Dog Island
Point aiid Reef the coast takes a sudden turn to the S.E. and E.S.E., and it trends
from Dog Island Point to Leniaine or Lemon Point, S.E. } E, [E.S.E \ E."] 2 leagues.
On this shore, at half a league more eastward, is the French former settlement at
Alhreda, and at half a mile further is the English one named JiUifree. One mile
south-eastward from Jillifree, on an islet in the river, is I^)rt Jaives,

To go up to James Fort, which is 17 miles above Bathurst, you steer in mid-ehannel

• At the Gambia, in the senHon of the Hnrmattan, the rainy season hos just terminated
on the 9th of December. Upon this occaaion the colours are hoisted and a gun is fired. On
a second visit in M»y and June, 1831, the end of the dry «._>«»or., symptoins of approsching
Triinn, with iquHiU. —vaptain Btlcher.

'''rW

RIVER CASAMANZA.

:-:S-r

523

e ; be there-

2 leagues, with the town of Bathurst N. f W. ^N.N. W. \ W.'\ Thia leads to a Mr
offing fi^m Dog Inland Point. The course hence, in the fairway, to abreast of Le-
maine Point, is S.E. | E. \E.8.B.'\ 6J miles; and thence to Fort James, E.S.E. \ E.
E. \East'\ 3| miles.

In order to avoid the shelf which extends from the Banyan or western shore,
approach no nearer to that shore, in taming, than in 5 fathoms ; nor near the Barra
side, when above Do^ Island Point, than in 4 fathoms ; but if near that point, then
in 6 fothoms. Lemaine Point should have a berth of a mile, as some shoals stretch
from it. You may haul in and anchor before Albreda in 4 fathoms, half a mile from
it, the ground shoaling gradually to within a cable's length of the shore.

After giving Lemaine Point u berth, do not haul for the Barra shore till you are
abreast of Albreda, for the flat continues to the eastward of that point to a consider-
able distance.

Under AdniiraUy orders, in 1826, the River Gambia, to the distance of more than
190 miles, from its entrance, was surveyed by Ca[)tain Richard Owen, with his assist-
ants, Messrs. Tudor and Mercer. This valuable survey exliibits the depths of water
all the way up to Pisanea, where there remain the ruins of a factory, and where the
tide, in the dry season, rises 3 feet. It appears from the nurvey that, at 3 miles above
James Fort, this noble river is nearly 2| miles in breadth. Here it takes a north-
easterly dii'ection, and thus extends for 10 miles, to a point on the South shore called
Mooia Point, and a creek, Jukarda, on the North. The depths of this reach, in mid-
channel, are 6|, 4|, 4^, to &, 6, and 7, fathoms. Pursuing thence an easterly course,
its depths alternately shoalen and increase to a great distance.

From Boonyadoo Creek, or the Fourth River, which faces the mouth of the Gambia,
to Jukurda Creek, above mentioned, is a line of coast, 1 mile {nautic) in breadth, and
42 miles in length, the sovereignty of which was ceded to His Britannic Majesty, by
treaty with the king and chiefs of Barra, signed at Jillifrec, 15th of .Tur»e, 1826. A
small spot (400 yards by 300) occupied by the French, at Albreda, excepted. (See
ante, page 512.)

CAPE ST. MARY to CAPE ROXO.- From Cape St. Mary (the true cape) the
const stretches 11 miles W.S.W. to the Bald Cape, where St. Anne's Bank, with the
Timyui Rocks, extend about a league into the sea, and include three sandy islets,
called the Byjols.

Upon the coast of Cape St. Mary the groimd varies all along, but it becomes whiter
to the southward : when past the cape you find a reddish sand, wliich, at 2 or 3
leagues more to the South, changes into a gray, then into a whitish, sandy bottom ;
ami, about Cape Roxo, it becomes such fine sand as that which is put in the time
Kliusbes. These varieties of ground extend from 25 fathoms in the offing to 5 fathoms
ofi' the shore.

The coast bettcean the Bald Cape and Cape Roxo, in a distance of 20 leaguefi, is very
low, with a sandy beach, and covered with trees. The middle part is one low and
continued forest, with clusters of large high trees, at a distance resembling islands.

In sailing between the two capes, by keeping in 5 or 6 fr.thoms along shore, you
will find that depth down to the entrance of the Rirer Casmnanza, 4 leagues to the
northward of (/'ape Roxo ; there you have only 4 fathoms, and the ground mostly red
wind. About 2 leagues southward from that entrance, and abreast of a cliffy point,
near which you may anchor, the ground is so clammy, about a musket-shot from the
shore, in 2 fathoms of water, that the lead is brought up with difficulty.

The RIVER CASAMANZA, or Cahamance, is situate about 16 leagues to the
Houtlvi\ard of Bald Cape. If a bar did not obstruct this entra'ice, the river might bo
navigated by frigu^eH ; but it con be gained only by a very narrow channel, having a
dc'[)tyi of 2 fathoms, but it can be entered with case by a steamer under proper
pilotage.

The I'(^i1ugueso. established on the fvrtile banks of this inver, liave nscended to the
(listuiicc of many leagues from its mouth ; they hare several establishments on it,
principal of whi^h are called Zinyhicor, 45 miles up the river, and Makia Kitvoi

the
vnd<t.

034

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

They have carried on an advantageous trade, especially in ivory, rough hides, aromatic
seeds, and dyeing woods, with the Feloop and other negroes, who inhabit the banks of
the river.

There is a French establishment, Carabane, 5 miles from the mouth of the Casa-
manza, on the northern point. Toward this there ai*e two ptissages, divided by the
bar, which extends outward, to the West, nearly 4 miles. Tho deepest channel is on
the South side of this bank, and has 3^, 6, 4, increasing to 8, fathoms off the point.
The river upwcjd, which has a serpentine form, has been surveyed by Captain
Boteler ; and from his survey it appears that there is another French settlement, the
factory of Berrin, at 10 leagues up the river on the South side, and 3 leagues below
Zinglucor, which is on tho same side, llie soundings in mid-cliannel, from the
entrance to the latter place, vary fi-om 8 to 4, 6, 3^, 5, 6, 3|, 8, and 6 fathoms, lie
French recently placed another establishment at Sejeu, having purchased the laud of
the natives, and they are apparently endeavouring to increase, as much as possible,
their commerce in tnis part of the world.*

CAPE B>OXO (lat. 12° 21') is improperly called a cfl^je, it being an obtuse point
of low land, from which the cosist takes an E.S-E. direction to the River Cacheo, or
Mio San Domingo, tho navigation to which is impeded by extensive shoals called the
Cacheo Banks and Falulo Breakers. The point or cape, when bearing E.S.E. or
East, presents a down of white sand, of moderate height, covered with brambles.
On one side of the points formed by the coast to the north rard arc a number of tufts,
of a remarkably red colour, and it is supposed that, froui these tufts, the name of
Roxo (Red) has been imparted to the headland, altiiough they are distant from it
about 2^ miles.

"JL. Roussin says that on all the approaches \o Cape Roxo the soundings arc regular,
but the depth inconsiderable. From the River Casamanza, to the distance of 2 or 3
miles from shore, there is a depth of only 6 to 4 fathoms. At 10 miles to seaward are
8 and 7 fathoms; and at a short distance to the S.S.W. the first bank of the Bis«agos
is met with.

Cacheo, on the South bank of the river of that name, has been the chief Portu-
guese establishment between Capo St. Mary and Cape Verga, and was, formerly, very
considerable. Thev carry on the same kind of trade here as at Casamanza. The
country is singularly fertile and well peopled.

The mouth of Cacheo River is about 6i leagues to the south-eastward of Cape
Roxo, and tho entrance is between two reefs. In proceeding for it, give Cape Roxo a
Iwrth of about 5 miles. Steer S.S.E. on soundings of from 4 to 5 and 6 fathoms,
on a sandy bottom. Go close to the eastward of Cacheo Bank, which has 2\ fathoms
of water on it. Continue S.S.E. until you sec breakers ahead, and run straight for
them, untilyou are in 5 fathoms of water. You will see a single tree bearing East,
then steer E. by S., leaving a reef, which extends out about 4 miles from that tree,
Ok ; our port hand. This reef, although it is said to have 2 fathoms on it at low
water, breakH at half tide. Close in to the beach, at tho tree, there is a passage of 2j
fathoms, wliich is fit for small craft only. Continue your course E. by S., when you
will be apparently 4 miles from the land on your port hand, and will come to a shoal
called the Mud Bar, on which there is a depth f^f only 18 feet at ordinary high
water, but is only soft mud, and about 2 cahks' lengths in brca'^th. You may then
sec a clump of palm trees (ten or twelvi' in number) ^ bearing E.N.E. ; and when thcso
pa^m trees bear N.E. bj E., you will be over the bar, and -.ill have from 5 to 5, ",
8, and 9 fathoms up to Cacheo Fort, by keeping in the middle of the river ; and,
when abreast of the Fort, which belongs to tno Portagues«.', anchor in the middle of
the river in 9 falhoma.

BISSAOOS and RIJOOGA ISLANDS.— We have ;iow arrived at the Archipelago
of BisaagoM and the Bijooga Islands.

This archipelago is an extensive assemblage of islands and shoals between the

* .So'> rarliamcntfuy Rrport, Part I , pp. ilo, 657, fiOP. 700.

Wj^i»t ■ '^

BISSAGOS AND BIJOOGA ISLANDS.

525

jNiralIek of 10" 42' and 11° 40' N., and between the meridians of 16" 30' and 17° W.
Of the interior navigation amone the isles little is known, and the hostile disposition
of the inhabitants renders it probable that no complete survey of it, at least in the
present age, can be made.

The principal isles that constitute the archipelago are said to be 16 in number, be-
sides many islets, all surrounded by shoals, as shown on the chart.*

The archipelago is bounded on the North by the Jeba Channel, or Great
Channel of Bissao ; and an the East by the Cjiiannel of Rio Grande. Thes«
channels were parti Uy surveyed by the officers under Captain Koussin, in 1818, and
Captain W. F. Owcii, in 1826 ; and to their surveys we owe our knowledge of the
navigation presently to be exx^lained. The southern breaker, called that of the JSay-
flderc, was discovered in 1818, and is represented by M. Roussin in lat. 10" 42' 56",
lonp^. 16° 17', and the mouth of the Eastern or liio Grande Channel is 7 leagues more
to the eastward.

Jeba Channel, or Channel of Bissao. — The main land, forming the North side
of this channel, is intersected by seveial livers, which divide it into islands. The
fii-st of these is Cacheo, then follow Jatt, Bassi, and Bissao, of all which the land is
low. But there is, near the S.W. end of Jatt, at 13 leagues S.S.E. {^S.E. | jS.] from
Cape Iloxo (lat. 11° 50') a small but conspicuous isle, named Cayo, which is bold-to,
and very useful as a sailing-mark. This isle, when on an easterly bearing, appears
like three isles, but, on neariug, will be found to be connected with a flat, wnich is
common to all, though intersected, at high water, by shallow lakes. Its soil is sandy,
and mixed with flinty rock. The beautiful trees with which it is covered may be
seen, in clear weather, at 4 or 5 leagues oif. At 6 leagues more to the eastward
\_E,S,E,'], off the S.E. end of Jatt, are several islets, called the Ancoras, which dis-
tinguish the western side of a river, bearing the same name.

The islands, gcncrallv, which border the Jeba channel, are not high. The beach is
generally of white saiid, interspersed with black and red rocks, which, being covered
with lava, are, doubtless, with the whole archipelago, of a volcanic oiigin. They are
all well wooded to the sea-side ; and the height of the trees, with their vigorous ap-
parance, indicate that the soil must be fertile. The island Bissao, on which the
I'ortugTiese are established, is not so thickly wooded as the others ; but this is owing
to the clearance they were obliged to make for their safety, as the isle is equally
fertile as the rest. Tho large isles of the archipelago are inhabited by a race of
negroes, known in the country by the name of Papeh.

On ths Rio Grande, the Portuguese have several establishments. The settlements
of Portugal, on the coast, do not extend bevond Cape Verga. The objects of trade
consist chiefly in elephants' teeth, wax, hard soap, rough hides of every kind, dyeing
and building wood, indigo, cotton, drugs, resin, and resinous gums, gold in small
quantities, orchilla. &c.

The extremity, or N.W. part of the Bissagos Shoals, is composed of hard sand.
From this extremity, the bank and isles extend to the southward and south-eastward,
T,i loagui s, toward the Eastern Channel of the Rio Grande ; and the flat, which is
from 12 to leagues in breadth, is interspersed with banks above and under water,
and islands, either dry, or drowned and marshy, tho detail of which is little better
than unknown.

On the 25th of December, 1789, the sloop Endeavour, of Liverpool, struck on the
N.W. end of the shoal, to tho westward of the island named Carm^che, in hit. 1 1" 38'.
Captain S. Gamble, who was a passenger in the sloop, says, in his journal, that she got
ov'.>r tho reef, but, not being oblc to find a passage through the slioals and islands,
was, after twenty uays' scare h, obliged to return tho same way she went in. and
canied 3 fathoms o? water over the hank. All the islands they saw wore inhabited,
but the natives did not appear to have any canoes, and the few which they persuaded
to come on board, in hopes of finding a pilot among them, became seasick. When the

* For the pobitions, see the Tabic, page i) 1.

fi26

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

vessel struck, Carasche bore E.S.E. about 4 leagues ; and when she was near the
northernmost point of that island, the isle or kay, called Isle Cayo, on the North side
of the Frith, bore N.N.E.

The North edge of the Shoals of Hi - Grande, adds Captain Gamble, is in lat.
-11° 40', and we led round them in 11° 43', carrying from 11 to 15 fathoms, llie tide
of ebb runs veiy' strongly over the flats to the S.W. ; and, within the heavy
Itreakers, the ebb rins W. by S., and the flood E. by N. The tide, at full and
change, rises 12 feet.

f The PASSAGES to and from Bissao. — Cape Roxo has already been de-
scribed. Should you fall in with this point in the evening, come to an anchor,
bringing it to bear Noi-th, as then you will be well laid, in order to proceed further.

The outer part of the Breakers of Falulo bears S. by E. \_S.S.E. | EA 17| miles
from Cape Koxo, and lies to the sout'i-westward of the River Cacheo. 'Ine breakers
are divided into two groups,, and extend in a true E.S.E. and W.N.W. direction 3
miles. They are very steep-to, and close to them are from 6 to 3 fathoms. A
»»• Tchant-vessel may advance within sight of them, and thence proceed toward the
isle Cayo ; but the best way of proceeding to the Jeba .^r Bissao Channel is as
follows : —

From a point at 2 leagues to the westward of Cape Roxo, proceed S.W. by W. i
W. \_S. W.\ 12 miles ; then haul up on the port tack, as at this distance the depth
increases. The next course will be S. 5 W. [<S. by E."} for 25 miles, which willbnng
you to the parallel of 11° 47', where a depth of nearly 60 feet, with a muddy bottom,
ydll be found.*

You now enter the Channel of the Jeba, and will find that a run of 12 leagues!,
E.S.E. I E. [East"] will lead to the South point of the Islet Cayo, the trees of which,
as we have shown, may be seen at a considerable distance. All Ihe upace to the
northward of this track is replete with banks, which extend to the main shore ; but
those of Falulo are the only ones that break incessantly.

Proceerling thus, the depths will be found always regular, from 7 to 8 tiathoms, aud
the bottom constantly of mud. It must be observed, that when entering the Great
C annel, the northern banks should be approached in preference to thp routhern. As
the former descend by a gentle declivity, they always warn a vessel when she is out
of the channel, by each cast of the lead giving a gradual decrease u/ depth. The
southern banks, on the contrary, are extremely steep ; close to a depth of 40 feet there
will be found one of 25, on a bottom very unfit for anchoring.

In order to be assured that you are keeping the channel, keep constantlv soundiiij,',
and observe, that in all the channels which separate the banks to the N.W. of the
Bijoogas, the bottom is almost exclusively soft mud without any mixture. At each
cast, therefore, when the lead sinks into the ground, you may be certain that you are
following the proper channel, and the middle of it may be found, by the lead sinking
deeper, and being less easily extricated. If the bottom becomes hard, it is a certain
proof that you are near some bank, and if the vessel has much way on her, she must
alter course directly for that side on which the bottom is softer.

A vessel seeking or running for the anchorage off the Islet Cayo need not mind
passing close to it. This part is perfectly safe to the beach, at half a mile from which
there is a depth of 8 fathoms, on a soft muddy bottom.

The Great Channel, on the meridian of the Islet Cayo, is about 4 leagues in
breadth ; but this space is divided Into three channels, by means of two banks, on
which there is very little water. Of these banks the northernmost is the Bank of
Cayo, having a depth of only 10 feet on it, and lying 4 miles to the southward of the

* Vessels coming from the northward, after making Capo Roxo, may steer S.W. from
th..t cape, in 8 fathoms, ull along, until tJiey catch from 10 to 12 fathoms, green ooze; thon
steer 8.E. by E., taking care not to get into less than 6 fathoms on the port hand i
Uaiik, &c. — Mr. Swann, a pilot.

^;l,.-i

CHANNEL OF BISSAO.

i'i^'itt

5»|

was near the
the North side

ble, is in lat.
nas. ITie tide
lin the heavy
B, at full and

id^ been de-
o an anchor,
Beed further.

^.] 17| miles
The breakers

f. direction 3
fathoms. A

d toward the

]]!hannel is as

5.W. by W. i

ice the depth
ich will bnng
luddy bottom,

)f 12 leagues,

rees of which,

space to the

n shore ; but

tiathoms, and
ip; the Great
outhern. As
en she is out
depth. The
40 feet there

Iv sounding,
N.W. of the
re. At each
that you are
ead sinking
is a certain
er, she must

A not mind
from which

leagues in
banks, on
le Bank of
vard of the

8.W. from
, oozo; thon

iglet of that name. It is rather narrow from North to South, but its length from East
to West is about 5 miles. The best of the three channels is to the northward of this
bank, in which there are from 7 to 9 fathoms.

At the distance of 2 miles southv ..a from the Cayo Bank is the Bank of Carasche,
which breaks continually, and a part of which is dry at low water. Like the first,
it extends true East ar-^ ''Vest, and its length is also about 5 miles. The least depth
between the two is 9 i-' a ras. At 4 miles to the southward of the Bank of Carasche
is the North point of the island of the same name, which forms part of the South
Bank of the Great Channel. Ther6 is a channel between the bank and the island,
but the depth is irregular, and the bottom is bad.

On advancing for the Portuguese establishment at Sissao, and having arrived to the
eastwaard of the two banks before mentioned, you may safely proceed 5 leagues
S.E. i S. IS. 60° £.], and will thu3 coast the island of Jatt to its S.E. point, which,
from the trees upon it, appears to be the highest part of the whole coast on the
northern side of the channel. The course thence is E.S.E. [^. 6° 5.] 6 leagues, in
which extent the Ancoras, situated to the S.E. end of the Island of Jatt, the channel
between that island and Isle Bassi, and the southern part of the last island, will be
assed successively to the northward : on the South you will cross a large bay formed
y the Islands Carasche and Corbelle, will pass the Parroquet Island [Papakawa'],
lying to the eastward of the latter, and finally arrive on the meridian of the western
point of the Island of Bissao, at about 3 miles from it. From the Parroquet Isles,
the southern side of this channel is formed by a bank, several parts of which are dry
at low water.

To the southward of the town of Bissao is an islet, called £onn ; and at 2 miles
above this is another, called King's Isle. On the South side of the river is another
called Areas, which is 7 miles from Bonn, and nearly on the same meridian. The
latter lies on the eastern side of the channel to Rio Grande, and is the distinguishing
mark for that channel. From the S.W. end of the Isle j^issao the course to Bonn i»
E. \ N. \_E. 20° N.'\ This course runs parallel to, and within 2 miles of, the Island
of Bissao, and passes over several patches, on which there are only 26 feet at low
water. These patches are to the northward of the eastern channel, the mouth of
which is near the Island of Areas, which Is seen at the same time. They may be
avoided by altering the course occasionally ; but as the depth on them is not less
than 26 feet, and does not experience any considerable rise, as *hey are of no
great extent, a vessel may pass over them r "thout any feai", and may shape a direct
course.

At 3i miles W. | S. [ W.8. JT.] of Bonn, is .'-c Point and Grove of St. Martin of
Bissao, where the coast forms a slight elbow. This point is not to be approached
with safety, nearer than 1^ miles by a large vessel. At 3 miles S.S.W. [<S. 5" JF.]
of this point, and in a continuation of the line from Bonn to the highest point oi
King's Island, lies one of the knolls above spoken of. It is the easternmost to be met
with on the course above stated. To the eastward of the meridian of Point St.
Martin, the depth increases toward Isle Bonn. This knoll, with 26 feet of water on
it, is a small bank of not more than 100 futhoms extent in every direction, having
deep water to the northward and southward of it.

"When a vessel is within 3 miles S.S.W. i W. IS. by W.'] from Bonn, she should
steer direct for it, so as to pass within 200 fathoms to the eastward o. the island. This
part is extremely steep, having, at the above distance from it, a depth of 8 fathoms.
From hence she should run between King's It^land and the Fort, and anchor in 6 to
8 fathoms, on a soft muddy bottom. Havinj, loubled the Isle Bonn, the coast of
Bissao should be approached nearer than King's Island, as the depth is greater, and
varies from 6 to 7 fathoms. It would be supeifluous to mention the necessity of
sounding constantly in this internal navigation.

In March (1856) Captain Canal, cf the French ship Agly, proceeding to Bissao
encountered a most powerful southerly '•urrent. He nad allowed for 1^ knots, but
havmg become entangled to the Soiith ' T trash he found that he had set at the rate
of 3 miles per hour, — {See page 28!. He had grounded on a ehoal, and was

m<\

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

dompelled to cast overboard 40 tons of ballast to lighten the ship, and after j days he
Contrived, to pass safely through the Archipelago to the North and East, and arrived
at Bissao. He sent a boat out to sound, and by that and the colour of the water he
managed to ..: ive tvithcut casualty. Bissao, he says, offers but few resources for
fresh provisicuu.

, Bissao. — The road of Bissao lies in the princi^v>! stream of the River Jeba,
between the eastern side of the Island of Bissao and the small island opposite, called
King's Island. This roadstead is perfectly safe in all weathers. It is so completely
sheltered, that the sea is always smooth ; and the bottom is of such a natui'e that
with good ground-tackle a vessel may ride there in any season. It is advisable to
moor N.E. and S.W., as the tides set in this direction : and in the rainy ueamn,
as the squalls come from the S.E., the anchors, being thus placed, will bear an equal
strain.

The Portuguese Fort stands at 100 fathoms from the beach, and is a square
redoubt, flanked at the four angles by a bastion. The wall of the ditch, •which
on each face is about 100 paces in length, may be about 30 feet in height. The
magnetic variation observed in April, 1818, at the anchorage, was 17° 30' W. (It is,
in 1861, about 19^ 20' W.)

The watering place at Bissao is on the bach, at about 300 paces to the southward of
the Fort. It consists of several pits, dug about 4 feet deep in the sand, and may
afford sufficient water to fiill thirty casks in 24 hours. This water before being tiltered,
coming from sand and rock, is not agreeable to the taste, although it has the reputa-
tion of being wholesome, and of keeping well ; nevei'theless it should not be drank
without being previously acidulated, or purified by red-hot shot. It may be cither
brought on board in boats, or rafted off at high water.

Independent of wood and water, excellent bullocks, of about one hundred weight,
at the rate of from twenty to twenty-five dollars each, have been had at Bissao ; also
goats, pigs, and poultry. There is also rice, maize, and yams, and some fiuit, such
as banancs. lemons, and oranges. These articles are exchanged for gunpowder,
brandy, u-o^i , clothing, and dollars, by applying to the governor.

Gov* til it { J'Connor savs : — " Bissao, declining when I visited it last in April, 1855,
has i'n ,(1 I'lyii greatly deteriorated in trade and appearance. The old buildings,
totally) ;u fclo,;ted, are sinking into ruins, the troops without barracks living in mise-
rable mud lilts, the poi't occupied by only a few colonial and coasting vessels, the
market scantily supplied with the commonest necessaries of life, are indubitable
evidences that the power and prestige of Portugal are rapidly on the wane in this
part of the world."

The waters which surround the Bissagos are far from being supplied with fish, and
it is erroneously affinned, in some works on Africa, that amongst these islands car-
goes of salt fish taay be procured. Mud prevails too much in the bottom i and the
few fish which are tound are not even considered as wholesome. No dependence can
be placed on this resource, between the Gambia and the Isles do Los.

Dr. Madden says, " Bissao is the great stronghold of the Portuguese slave tiade.
The island of this group, on which the Portuguese Fort and factory are established,
is situate at the mouth of the lliver Jeba, about 100 miles South of the Gambia."

Winds in the Great Channel of the Bissagos. — The winds here follow nearly the
direction of the land, and vary their course according tc that of the channel. In the
Great Channel they vary from West to North ; at the anchorage of Bissao they are
generally from S.W., except in the morning, when they are from the northward. In
the rainy season, which commences here in the beginning of June, and continues
about five months, they blow from the S.E. with the tornadoes, as on the whole coast,
and then, passing round by South, return to the northward. Whatever may be the
direction of the wind, a vessel, with the assistance of the tides, may always find her
way into or out of the Great Channel, and the woi'king is extremely easy with the
assistance of the new Chart, which should accompany these Directions^ 1 he remark,
respecting the northern bank being approached in preference to the southern, should

be attei
the soul
not app
it wth
of this
which 1
with th
intends

longer

CHANNEL OF THE BOLOLA.

529

be attended to here ; the islands to the northward being perfectly safp^ whilst those to
the southward are surrounded by veiy steep and hard banks. Large vessels should
not approach nearer to the Isle Corbelle than 3 miles, nor to the line which connects
it vfith. Isle Corasche. All the space which lies between the island, to the southward
of this line, is filled with banks, having little water on them, and the- gittitcr part of
which lie in the channel. If it should fall calm, and it be wished to let a vessel drift
with the tide, she must not be abandoned to it until she has opened the channel she
intends entering.

Anchorage in the Jeba or Oreat Channel. — A vessel may anchor anywhere in the
Great Channel, the bottom beinor of soft muti and excellent holding-ground, with
the exception of one place at 2^ mi! s t: 80uth% id of the Isle Jatt. Here the
depth is from 20 to 22 fathoms, e id ♦* n oi coarse gravel. In all other

parts of the channel the depth varies ii to o fathoms, without any sudden

alteration.

TIDES. — The usual prevailing en he .mst to the northward of Cai)e

Roxo ai-e found to be completely chan^ ng this Cape. They have here no

longer one only direction ; and, in ail ch- >>f the Bissagos, are suspended by

tides, which are more or less regular. Tho^ o Jeba or Great Channel are per-

fectly so. Westward of the Isle Cayo the liood sots S.E. and the ebb N.W., each six
hours, or nearly so, Avith the exception that the current gradually assumes these
directions, requiring nearly an hour, from the change, before it is completely settled
in its course. The flood generally sets to the northward, and the ebb to the south-
ward. The greatest difference which has been observed between the high and low
water maTl:::, :; 8 feet ; and at the equinoctial full moon the rate of the flood and ebb
is about 1 2-5th miles an hour ; at other times it never exceeds 1 mile. At the
entrance of the Great Channel, which is 6 leagues to the westward, and on the
parallel of the Island of Cayo, it is high water, at full and change, at Q^ 15'.

From the meridian of Cayo, and as far as that of the Isle Bonn, the stream follows
the direction of the channel ; and here the tides are regular. It is not known that
the length of the ebb exceeds that of the flood. The greatest rate of either never
exceeds 2i miljs per hour, in spring tides, and the rise is found to be 8 feet, as outside
the channel.

On the meridian of Cayo it is high water, at full and change, at ll**. Before
Bissao the rates of the highest tides never exceeds 2*6 miles per hour, and the rise is
never more than 14 feet. In common tides the rate is never more than 2 miles per
hour, and the mean rise is 7^ feet. It is high water, at full and change, at the an^
chorage of Bissao, at 12'' 30'.

CHANNEL of the BOLOLA, or RIO GRANDE.— The eastern channel, or
Channel of the Rio Grande, branches into the Jeba Ghannel to the westward of the
Island Areas. The western bank is formed by a flat, which extends to the eastwai4
of the Parroquet Islands and Isle Galinha, the banks which connect these with the'
Hog Islands and by Kanyabac Island. The eastern bank comprises the Isle Areas,
Bulama, or Boolam Island, and the banks which connect these two islands. It is
then intersected by the mouth of the Bolola or Rio Grande, after which it again com-
mences at Bossessame, and forms a chain of reefs as far as the Island Yomber, in
ir 3' N., and 15M0' W.

The channel is then divided into two branches by a bank, which is about 4 leagues
in extent from North to South, and on which, amongst several islets and breakers,
are situated Isle Cavalho and Honey Island. Seven miles to the southward of the
latter lies Pullam Island. The western or main branch has, on- its western sidtt,
the Island of Orange, and a long chain of reefs, which extend S.S.W. from that
island.

To enter from the northtcard. — The first difficulty which presents itself, on entering
this channel from the northward, is when passing the Isle Areas. From the S. W.
part of the island a bar stretches out, on which there is a depth of only 19 feet at low
water. It is terminated, at the distance of 4 miles, b^ a rocky bank, which also
forms a part of the bar. Although the depth may be a little more at the distance of

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1 1

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

a mile from this bank, a large vessel should not ventare near it without previouslir
cxmaidering well the time of tide. If she be obliged to anchor, the best ground will
be found near the mericUan of Areas, on the North.

I7te mark fo. running through this Channel, from a position bearing W. \ S,

tW.8. W."] from the Isle of Areas, is to steer so as to keep the western point of the
iland, Bulama constantly bearing South \_8. \T E."], until within two miles of the
shore of this island. From hence, if it be intended to go to the southward, a vessel
should steer for the middle of the strait formed by the island and Oalinha ; but should
a vessel be bound to the northward, she should steer N. by E. | E. [^NortK] from the
above bearing of Areas, until she has passed the parallel in wMch it lies.

BULAMA, or BoOLAM. — The western end of this isle may be approached within
a mile. This island, wUch is well wooded and of moderate Aeight, has several well
sheltered roadsteads, which afibrd safe anchorage. One of these, on the S.W. side (A
the island, bar a depth in it of from 22 to 24 fathoms, with a bottom of soft mud.
The configuration of the land is such, that the strength of the current, being carried
more to the southward, ia almost imperceptible at this anchorage ; and although the
tide rises from 12 to Id feet, the sea is generally smooth and the landing easy. At
this roadstead fresh water may be procured from two places.

Bulama is generally considered as very fertile. Its situation at the entrance of the
Rio Grande, which may be navigated to a considerable distance, the facility of i\a
approaches from the westward and southward, and the safety of its anchorages,
render it one of the most important islands hereabout. It is situated in the same
estuary at Bissao, and about 30 miles to the southward of it. It is claimed both bj
British and Portuguese, and by the former, in right of a treaty for its purchase
entered into with tOQ natives by Captain Beaver. The Portuguese claimed a prior
possession to that of Captain Beaver's* purchase, which, they say, was made from a
chief who had no right to sell the island.

The island, however, on account of its insalubrity, was abandoned for many years
by both ; till one of the slave dealers of the Havannah, a Senor Oaetano Nozzalini,
obtained a Royal Portuguese Charter for settling on this island ; and, in 1820, he
established himself there. During ten years the island was in the hands of Nozza-
lini, it was frequented by slave deiuers. But, in December, 1838, Lieutenant Kellett,
of H.M.B. Brisk, visitea the island, attacked and destroyed the factory, and carried
away 119 slaves, and subsequently carried away another batch of slaves, which the
owner asserted were his domestics, notwithstanding the fetters with which they had
been manacled were found amidst the ruins of the barracoon.

In 1840, Lieutenant Hill, of the Saracen, had an interview with the governor of
Bissao, on the subject of the occupation of Bulama by the Portuguese, and threaten-
ing to expel by torce any Portuguese subjects he might find on the island. The
Sivemor of Bissao repaired to the Cape Verde Islands to complain to the Portuguese
ovemor-general of the threatened dispossession of the Portuguese. In 1842, it was
formally occupied by Lieut. Lapidge, in H.M.S. Pantaloon ; in 1843, the Portuguese
governor landed some soldiers and hauled down our flag. But since the suppression of
the slave trade it has been of little use to any one. The old barracoons, &c., of the
■laves still exist, and in 1855 a Portuguese Jew held them for Kittam's widow, he
being one of the last of the slave dealers.

jFV'oto the western point of Bulama the course is S. by E. f F. [5f. 36* E."], the dis-
tance 3^ leagues. This rourses crosses the mouth bf the Kio Grande, which separates
Bulnraa from Botscaaamf or Beaaeaaema, cortinuos along the banks tothoS.E. of
Oalinha, at the distance of a mile, the greater part of which are dry at half-tide, and
extends to about 1 ^ miles from the banKs on the western part of BosHessain^. The

See life of Oapt. Philip Beaver, R.N., by Admiral Smyth. Much respect has liefln
aid to bis memory by those who knew him. Boe also a notice of this place aud its coloniei
ly Governor O'Connor, in the Proc. Boy. Geog. Society, 1866, p. 48.

«;

KANABAC.

681

soundinga on this track are very irregtilar, and vary from 35 to 8 fietthonu, with a
bottom, generally, of Band and gravel.

'< On the right-hand bank, called Beasessema, are two settlements : one cultivated
by a Frenchman, M. Henrique Orteau ; the other a small location belonging to a
vagrant English subject named Lawrence.

" The bank and grounds at Bessassema are cleared to a considerable distance; of a
rich alluvial soil, they produce com, kus, rice, ground-nuts, sugar-cane, yams, pota-
toes, vegetables, tropical and European fruits, flowers in abundance.

'*M. Henrique Orteau employs about .300 natives; has a well-built open town ;
the huts, very lofty, with thick mud walls, and broad piazzas, are admirably cal-
culated for the climate. He represented the place as healthy, and that even in ti^e
rainy season fevers seldom or never prevuiled. — Governor O'Connor, 1867.

When at 2 miles to the westward of Soaaeasame or Beaaaahema, a vessel may run for
Kanyabac iHland, steering South 3 leagues. The depth in this course varies from 7
to 20 fathoms, red sand and shells. To the we;stward of this track are the four little
islands called the Hog lalea, and in the country, Rjuhan, Banak, Chieeya, and Corett.
The latter, which is the northernmost, is the most remarkable, being covered with
large trees.

KANABAC. — All the eastern side of Kanabac or Kanyabac is perfectly safe, and
may be approached to within a mile, in froiu 6 to 10 fathoms. The S.E. point, which
the inhabitants call Barel, is about 60 feet high, very bold, and formed in peaks. On
roundiiu^ this point to the westward there is a small cove, called by the inhabitants
Port Manel. It has a very good bottom for anchoring, but at low water a very small
depth. This part of the Eastern Channel is formed by the S.E. coast of Kanyabac
bland on one side, and a continued chain of banks, on which the sea breaks, on the
other. The latter connect Bossessam^ and Yomber Islands, and have on them an
islet of white sand.

Kanayabac lahnd, one of the most considerable of those which form this channel,
is of a moderate elevation, and rather higher on the southern than northern end. It
presents alternately a sandy, volcanic, and ferruginous soil. If we may judge
I't'om the numerous population, and the quantity of cattle on it, this island must be
very fertile.

The large trees, called in the country PuUam Treea, with palm trees, and vegetables
and all kinds, are very nlentiM on it.* The Port of Manel, Iving between Point
Barel and an islet callea Pomp, seems to be the chief resort of all the canoes belong-
ing to the inhabitants of the southern part of the island.

From Point Barel, near the middle of Kanyabac, the course is S.W. | S. {^S. 30°
TT.] 13 miles. This will take a ves6<^l s 'ithin 2 miles of the western side of a very
extensive bank which lies to the not .inward of the Isle Cavalho. The depth on this
couitie is from 10 to 21 fathoms, the bott/om of sand and shells.

From 2 miles West of the banks to the northward of Isle Cavalho the direction of
the southern parts of the Channel is S.W. J 8. [S. 30° W.] This bearing, extended
to a distance of 13 miles, will pass the eastern shore of Orango Island, at a proper
distance, and alno breakers which stretch more than 2 leagues off to the B.W. of this
island, and to the parallel of PuUam Island, at 3 leagues from it. Orango Island is
the most considerable of the Bissagps. From hence, any cuume between S.S.E. and
S.W. by W. IS.E. ^ S. and 8. W. i «.], will lead a vessel perfectly clear of all danger,
and out to sea.

'ITic eastern part of Orango is not vei^y high, and is of the same nature as the ad-
joining islands. The most conspicuous point, when bearing N.W. by W. ^ W.
[ W. by N.^ ia a well-defined cape, much higher than the a(\jaccnt land, and rcmark-

• Captain Bulchor has noticed that the PuUam tree is the bombax or tilk-eotton trera, and
liBs no refereuce to the palm. Pifilam Inland, whioh will be preHently described, as deriving
it« niime from the " Ufkc tree** with which it itt covered," can hnnilv boast half a do»eu
ralni", wliich hide their diminished heads beside the more maJeHtic rtmam (reft, <—

69^

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

able from several spots of yellow sand, which form a striking oontrast to the brown
appearance of the coast. This cape, forming the S.E. point of the island, is called
C^ Camehon, or Yellote Cape. At 4^ miles to the East of it is a spot nearly dry at
low water ; but the depths between are from fi to 11 fathoms.

Pullatn lakmd, which derives its name from that given by the natives to the large
trees (Bombax, or silk cotton), witii which it is covered, has not above a mile of extent
in any one direction, and is very little above the level of the sea. Its shores are
rooky, and rendered very difficult for landing, by the constant surf which breaks on
them. It is impossible for large vessels to approach this island ; from S.W. to E.S.E
it is bounded by flats, which extend to a distance of 4 miles from it, several parts of
which arc dry, or breaking.

On the 21st of April, 1821, H.M. shin Leven arrived off Byoosa Islands, and an-
chored between Yomber and Orang^. Upon the latter many natives and herds of
cattle were seen. On thr following day tne Zeven grounded upon the shoal, at half a
mile teom the East shore of the Isle Bawack, between Canyabac^ and Oiango, where
the lay in a perilous situation nntil the next tide, when she happily got off. On an>
choring, many canoes came off with natives, bringing various articles to exchange for
tobacco : but they had been reported as ferocions, dishonest, and treacherous ; and
they were found to be so.

The banks of the river have the appearance of being thickly inhabited, but the huts
with which the^ are apparently studded are, upon a nearer inspection, discovered to
be ant-hills, which are built in exactly the same form, and of the same height.

On the island Oalinhas (Hien'a Isle) the tracks of elephants and hippopotami were
seen ; and the largest sized boa-constrictor is also frequently seen in this island. Tho
nativea have great respect for these reptiles, and imagine that whoever destroys them
will die himself. This island resembles Bulama in every rcHpect, having fine savan-
nahs and abundance of water ; botli are surrounded by an extensive flat, which ren-
ders landing exceedingly difficult at any other period than high tide.

The idea we had been led to form of these islands was extremely erroneous ; as
instead of beiiig " low and marshy, with scarcely a channel for boats between their
muddy shores, we found them a cluster of the most beautify, fertile, and inviting
islancb, with moderately high and bold shores, separated by deep water, and contain-
ing many fine harbours ; most of them being inhabited, and each village having its
indepenaent ruler. According customs of these people, every vessel stranded

upon their shored is forfeited tr chiefs or people, in consequence of which they

considered that they had a jusi «..-uim to the Leven, when she lay grounded near
Bawack. ■■■' -•■ ■■-■•i-' ...-....•..■.•.

It is a practice of these islands to rear their poultry and stock on the small inletg,
sooieaboanding only in fo^<rls. The natives of Kanyabac biecd cattle on Yoniber,
and horsM on Honey Island, which tho people of Bissao called I'alka-vaht/o, being a
corruption from the Portuguese llha-Cavalho. Oalina appears also, by its name, to
have WRi used for raising poultry ; and many of the islets do not contain twenty
acres of ground, yet are well wooacd and fertile, with some stock on most of them.

WINDS, &c., iM the Eastern Channel.— The winds in the Eastern Channel are
generally light during the fine season, particularly in the night or morning. They
•et in gradually in the afternoon, ana blow almost always from S.S.W. round by
West to N.N.W., but they remain a very short time at any intermediate point, and
soon follow the direction of the land, which, as well as we could determine, trends
nearly N. by E. and S. by W. Easterly winds are limited entirely to the rainy
season.

llie TIDKS are as regular in the Eastern as in the Jeba or Great Channel. The
length of the ebb is equnl to that of the flood ; the former sets to the northward, the
Htter to the southward, but the different points of the channel, and the irregularitiea
of the bottom, affect those directions. The mean rise of the tide is from 12 to 16 feet.
The strength of the stream varies according to the b^dth and dep^ of the channel,
being greatir where it is confined than in the wider parts ; it is consequently nior»
oonuderable in the Strait of Bulama, and the Uonty Island Channel, than in say

RIO NUNEZ.

sas

other part. Nevertheless, it seldom exceeds 2| miles per hour, but is frequently m
much M 2. At 2 miles to the westward of Pullam Island it is high water, at fuU
and change, at 10>' 15'. The magnetic variation, in May, 1818, was found to be 17*
33' W. Now it is 18' 40' W.

MO irUNEZ. — ^The River Kakoondee or Kakundy, commonly called the Rio
Nunez, or River of Nuna Tri«tao, is a very considerable river, broaid at its entrance,
bat impeded by several shoals, among which the least water in the channel is 3
fatiioms. It has been celebrated as a place of trade for ivory. The situation of the
entrance, as shown in the Table, is 10° 36' N., and W 42' W.

Between the mouths of the Rio Grande and the Rio Nunez the coast is very imper-
fectly known, but it appears to be, /in general, shoal and dangerous to a great dis-
tance ft-om shore. On the edge of the bank, in lat. 10° 37', and at 23 miles ».E. % 8.
[8.E. f £•] from Pullam Island, is a rocky bank, called the Alcatraz, with a rocky
islet in its centre. It is surrounded with breakers, and the reefs extend from it both
to the N.W. and S.W. At 6 miles to the westward is a depth of 20 fathoms.
Captain Belcher has described the Islet Alcatraz, the landing to which was not at all
difficult, but the whole summit of the rock was covered with boobies {pelicanua aula),
the etfgs of which were pixxsurcd. Alcatraz may be approached on the S.E. side )
but the reefs stretch from it d miles S.W., true, and above 3 miles in width, at right
angles to this bearing. Lat. 10° 38', long. 15° 20|'.

Nearly in the route between the Alcatraz and the Rio Nunez, in lat. 10° 30', and
long. 15 11', is a much more dangferous reef, surveyed, in 1826, by Captain Owen,
and by him named the Con/lict Reef. Its western edge in 14 miles to the S.E. from
the Alcatraz, and its breadth each way is from 3 to 4 miles. Two other rocky banks,
to the southward of it, are comprehended within a dititanco of 8 miles ; the South
point of the latter is in 12°* 20', and has near it a depth of 1 1 to 16 fathoms. From
this spot the mouth of the Rio Nunez bears about E.N.E. ^ E. IN.£. by £.]
10 leagues.

The descendants of the Portuguese, who still exist on the banks of the Rio Nunez,
are so mixed with the negroes, that they have been described as negroes themselves.

In the old chai'ts of this coast no island is laid down at the mouth of the River
Nunez ; and we first learned, from the information of Captain Livingston, that a con-
siderable island, where Woodville formerly gave a shoal, had aiiseu within the last
thirty or forty years. It is called Sandy Island, is now covered with trees, and has
many palms upon it.

Sandy Idand, according to Captain Belcher, is in lat. 10° 36' 37 ' N., long., 14° 42'
19" W. Fifty years ago 7t was a mere sand-bank, even at low water ; subsequent
deposition, however, has not only formed it into an island, at least 6 feet above high
water, and bearing large trees, with a fair surface soil, but has also added a very
fxtenHivo range ot shoal on its northern, western, and south-western Hidct*.

Vessels hound to the Nunez should make the land in 10" 31' N. ; or if coming from
the southward, should, at least, not advance into less than 7 £athoms till in that lati-
tude. They will then approach the river, steering E. ^ S. [N. 75° JB.] through
regular soundings ; and it is necessary to remember chiefly, that, with a flood tide,
there is u dangerous rocky flat on the starboard beam goinir in, while, on the other
hand, a vessel may play with the edge of the breakers on the point of Sandy Island
on the point side. The constant warning also, " Keep in mud, which is familiar in
all channels along this coast, should be here especially kept in mind.*

For a vessel to reflt, no place can be better adopted than Sandy Inland. It is unin-
habited; and a vessel may be moored within 150 yards of low water-mark, or even
less, if required, but should be prepared to haul ofi* in case of a tornado. Small vessels

* Oaptain Livingiton says : — " In making the Nunez it is advisable to make it from the
KHtkward ; but beware or the very dangerous Sandkitual Roekt, extending 6 or 7 miles to

the southward of Benoer or ths FiRst Point. The reefti sntl banks at the entranc* of
river are cvrtainly iacreanng, and genernlly break, even in moderate weslhf r.

th«

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

Inay be grounded, or hauled up, for repair or examination ; a apace sufficient for the
encampment of a crew, even of a line-of-battle ship, is ftoe from trees ; and storei
may be conveniently landed. Immense quantities of drift-wood lie piled on the S.W.
side ; and plenty of live timber grows on the island, of which tne palm yields an
excellent cabbage for the use of the sick or convalescent.* Fresh water, alone, ii
scarce and ill tasted ; and a great annoyance arises from the clouds of fine sand which
are incessantly in motion over the island. The temperature, when the JEtna wu
there, did not exceed 106° in the tent ; which was, nowever, oppressive, from the
necessity of keeping it pretty well closed, to prevent the sand from imbedding the
instruments. A breeze generally prevailed throughout the day, except between nine
and noon. The western side is by far the most cool and pleasant, but not so con-
venient for communicating with the ship.

The river is very serpentine in its form, and the trees on either side impede the wind
in its true course. Still, however, a pleasant, and after noon, even a fresh, breeze
generallv favours vessels bound up, and afibrds favourable slants in many of the
reaches aown. The general depth may be stated at 2^ to 3 fathoms at low water,
with a rise and fall of about 12 feet ; and, although the lead generally gives mud, tiie
anchor frequently hooks a rook, and good and lon^ buoy ropes are especially neces-
sary, which should be got on board the instant the tide slacks, in order to be in readi-
ness to trip the anchor instantly, if found to be foul. The chauge of the tide is very
rrpid, and much inconvenience will be felt if completed before breaking ground.

The three principal settlements, Walkeria, Casaaaez, and Hebucko, or Debucko, are
all near each other, end from 70 to 80 miles up. We had formed g^eat expectations
of the supplies which could be procured at these settlements, but were much disap-
pointed. Bullocks and sheep could be procured with some difficulty ; fowls were very
scarce ; and vegetables could not be got at all. These native towns are never pre-
pared to meet a sudden increase of demand for food.

Below Walkeria not a single habitation was observed on the Nunez, though the
cultivation of its banks might be profitably pursued. The want of fresh water
prevents the natives settling here.

Above Casaaaez, which is 2 miles above Walkeria, the river is much interrupted
by rocks of close-grained basalt, several of them presenting a perfect columnar
formation.

The range of the thermometer, while the ^tna'a boats were in the River, March
and April, was at six a.m. fh)m 75° to 84° ; at noon from 84° to 04° ; and nine p.m.
ftom 81° to 83°. The dews were slight ; but at other seasons are said to be very heavy,
accompanied by a fog, lasting firequently till noon.

The FOLLOWING Observations on the Kakundt or Rio Nunez are from a
copious and valuable communication by Captain Licingaton, who visited the river in
the year 1829.

To enter the Nunez, bring 8andy laland, above mentioned, to bear N.E., or perhaps
a little (but very little) to tne northward of that bearing, and steer in right fur the
island, which is bold-to on the South side. The shoals generally break, and extend
about 6 or 6 miles to the S.W. by W., or thereabout, from Sandy Island.

Giving Randy Island a small berth, steer about N.E. for Big laland, which, in
clear weather, may be seen after passing Sandy Island. Keep close to Big Island,
as a rocky spit extends two-thirds or more, over from the Tatabunch (Talabooncho ?)
or western shore. It is scarcely prudent^ for a stranger to run much above Big
Island, but rather to send a boat up the river for a pilot, and one may generally ro
enga^ced at Walkeria, or a little higher up ; or one may sometimes be had from a
coasting vessel.

* This cabbage tniik«n a delicious pickle, and is conmdered one of the finest anti-ocor-
i>utic8 ia the world, doubly valuable when other vugotablos are not to be had.— ^. li.

RIO NUNEZ.

On going njp the Nunex in a boat, b« oautioua not to mistake anj of the oreelui on
the western side for the main river.

In case of necessity, fresh water may always be obtained by digging a few feet
deep at the root of any palm tree.

In going up the river Captain Livingston grounded about three-quarters of a mile
or a mile to the northward of Sandy Island. The vessel lay for two tides on fine
sand, without receiving any damage.

When at anchor, on coming down the river, in 7 fathoms, a^ut a quarter of a mile
off shore, the centre of Sandy Inland bore N. by W., and the extremity of the
breakers on the long spit of sand, which extends 5 or 6 miles from the West end of
the island, W. by S.

The situation of Talabunch (Talabooncho) village may be known by some remark-
able large trees, which may, in certain situations, be seeni from sea, before Sandy
Island can be described. I have heard it remarked, that wherever you see a
large clump of majestic pullam trees (the cotton tree of the West Indies) you are
Bare to find a negro village ; and wherever you meet with a palm tree, you may
be sure of finding fresh water, by digging a fow feet deep, however arid the soil may
appear.

No person ought to land at Talabunch unless in company with eight or ten others,
well armed, and on their guard ; but on the opposite or eastern side, Talabunchana,
the negroes, though of the same tribe, are remancably civil and honest.

llie Barrier of the River (as it has been translated to me from the Soozee
language] is, I think, about half-way up the river between Big Island and Walkeria.
Bi^es 01 rooks, almost like walls, and which appeared to me, when in u boat at
low water, like walls of lava, extend about two-thirds across the river irom the
port or western shore ; and at about a mile or a mile and a half above that, it is
laid that rocks, even worse, spit out from the starboard or eastern shore ; but these
were not seen in passing, when covered with the tide. There are other dangers
in the river, but none of magnitude until after passinff Walkeria and some houses
about' 2 miles above it, at Cassashe. These places are both on the eastern or star-
board shore. Between them and the village Rehucko is a very dangerous spot ; but
vessels drawing 10 feet may proceed to the latter near high water.

Both banks of the Nunez are generally muddy ; mangroves grow into the very
water, and some of the finest tree or mangi'ove oysters adhere to their trunks and
branches.

In the rainy season tornadoes are frequent and violent ; but, with caution, vesselr
may have sumcient time to prepare for them. I observed none here to begin with
nnall clouds or a small cloud, but all with heavy thunder clouds.

Vessels going to the Nunez ought to be well supplied with provisions, and not to
depend on what can be obtained there, as a trrcat scarcity frequently prevails. There
are many cat-fish in the river, and above Kebucko some other kinds of fish. There
are pike, similar to those of Britain, but with scales much larger.

The time of high water, on full and change days, at Walkeria, is 10*> 17' a.m. Rise,
from 16 1 to 18 feet or more. Depth, at low water, 15 feet: bottom of fine mud.
Latitude of the wharf at Walkeria, by two meridian altitudes of Jupiter, agreeing to
one second, 10° 54' 22" ; long., by 52 sets of lunars East and West, mean,
14° 18' 55' plus 3' for distance of place of observation equal 14° 18' 58'. The tide at
Walkeria runs strongly, and while I was there flowed five hours and ebbed seven j
but during floods in tho river (which sometimes rise considerably) it ebbs or runs
down longer.

Walkeria was named from Waker, a slave factor, who realized a large fortune and
died here. This place is composed thatched huts, mostly supported on stakes, though
some have mud walls, and there are two of two stories each. The population may be
from 500 to 600 \ all Mandingo Mohammedans, excepting the slaves. Buou Mod6,
the chief, who speaks a little English, said he had five wives, but he wanted to get

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

■ome more ! Hii arms bore many gri»-^ri» or charms (they called them gregorieN),
Mid eveii his horse's neck was loaded with no small number of them.

BIVEB COMFOONEE. — Captain (Sir Edw.) Belcher, in the prosecution of
his survey, made out tiiree mouths to the Rio Nunez, and 10 miles N.W. of the
northernmost, much to westward of where land was expected, saw a cluster of islands,
which gradually showed their close approximation to the main, and were ascertained
to form the North and West boundaries of the entrence to a river or inlet, lai-gcr at
its mouth than the Nunez ; and, at 12 miles within the dlHtance to which he sm-veycd
it, deeper, swifter, and promiiiinff as large or larger branches. Where Captain
Belcher stopped, it cameirom the East, and showed several extensive arms lending.to
the North and West. The entrance by which he ascended has two large channels,
equally navigable, but its mouth is so studded with shoola, that until better known,
few vessels will probably venture into it ; the natives North of the Nunez havini;
also the general reputation of being dangerous. The western enti-ancc is equally fair
and navigable to the sea. The northern alone is very shoal, and probably passable
for canoes only : several of these were neen at a distance, and one country schooner ;
from which, and the numerous fires at night, it seems likely that the banks are well
inhabited, and have some traffic.

Upon a renewal of the survey in 1832, it was found that small vessels only could
navigate this river vrithout great risk, there being a chain of reefs, which neaily bars
the passage ; but(> above this barrier, the channel is sufficiently deep for larger vessels,
and nas few dangers.*

The COAST'fuom the RIO NUNEZ to the ISLES de LOS, &c. — From
the Rio Nunez to Sierra Leone, in an extent of about 55 leagues, the coast is in
general low, in most parts swampy, and intersected with creeks, which, connectiDg
we adjoining rivess, form an excellent navigation ; but at unequal distances, from 5
to 20 miles, in a right Une from the sea, the land rises gradually ; and beyond that
distance, in many places, towers into lofty mountains, which, alter a tornado, when
the air is pure, may be seen 10 or 12 leagues off.

A small isle, called Young Gonzalez, ies about 5 miles to the eastward f^m the
regular entrance of the Rio Nunez. It is the southernmost of three, having channels
communicating with the Nunez ; about 5 miles true East from it is the mouth of the
River Cajmatchea. From Young Gonzalez a long and dangerous flat of rocky ledges,
navel and sand, extends S.W. (by compass) nearly 6 miles. At low water, a patch,
three-quarters of a mile in length, has over it only 6 feet of water. Its composition
is a coarse red sandstone, or conglomerate, like lava, till broken. The Coppatchet is
a trading river, but shallow, and frequented only by boats, or vesseb not drawing
more than 4 feet of water.

CAPE VEBOA, in lat. 10° 19', is the termination of some moderately elevated
land, and not a mangrove island, as commonly described. A long and dangerous spit
extends fix>m it N.W. 6^ mUes. In the deep bay vdthin this no vessel can enter
which draws more than 4 or 5 feet of water. This place is S. 21° £., true, from the
mouth of the River Coppatches.

The coast hence southwai-d appears to be a great series of islands, some forming,
others breaking up, so that in twenty years the aspect probably will be materially
changed. The high mountains of Cape Verga, which stand about 3 leagues inland,
to the north-eastward of the cape, serve as a mark for it, and may be seen at the dis-
tance of 15 leagues. Thus, bearing East [^£.N.I!. ^ JS.}, are they equally useful to
ships bound to the Rio Nunez, which, with this beafing, will clear the banks lying
wimont the river at 5 or more leagues to the south-westward.

Of the mountains within Cape Verga, two, in particular, are the most conspicuous,

* On prosecuting the examination it was found that this river is named the Compoome.
Captain Be Ichor has given a pleasing descriptiou of its course upward ; for which sec the
Oeogniphical Joarnal, vol. ii. pp. 287-8. In the upper part many indioationa of bufiWoes,
hippopotami, deer, lions, panthers, monkeys, Ac, were seen. ' «

•Vr'

RIO PONGO.

'fuvm^a

837

lem gregories),

thdihelilglieflt, according to M. Konsaia, is in lat. 10* 18' 52% long. 14*21' 30'.
These mountains have no particular peak, but form nearly one mam, extending from
N.E. to S.W.; and are about 000 fatuoms in height.

BIO POlfOO.— The entrance of the Rio Pongo is about 24 miles S.S.E. | E.
[S.E.'] from Cape Verg^. The river is well known as a place of trade on thij part
of the coast, ana its consequence has been increased by rettlements of slave-traaers
on its several branches,' To the country are several entrances, or inlets, bat all seem
to be included under one general name, Pongo or Pongaa ; each is impeded by a bar
of mud or sand ; and the coasts, to the head of the several riven^ are entirely oovered
with mangroves. ' wHim'n hms \ sn**U mr>i-P- f^ji,; sitr

The first of the Pongaa, or entrances to the Rio Pongo, is about 10 miles to the
■oath-eastward from Cape Verga. This is caUed the Coaaenety Bar, having A thaJlow
and dangerous entrance, thou{^ within are 4 and 5 fitthomsof water. ■■■.\-m)iH\ ki

ITie hett channel in, for a stranger, is over that called Rissing Bar, or the HtJb BAlt,
which lies in lat. 10° 2', and extends more than 2 miles out from the river to the west-
ward. On the North side of it are only 6 feet, on the South side from 6 to 9 feet,
and on the middle 12 feet at low water. From this bar, two hills up the country,
called the Papa, bear E.N.E., and serve bp the mark for the river. A grove of palm
trees, on the North side, is also a distinguishing mark.

To sail over the Mud Bar, get the river open, and steer in N.E. by E., keeping thd
Paps, which are moderately high, a cable's length open of tiie Nortn pf6int, by which
von will carry 4 fhthoms in depth at high water, or 2 fathoms at low water. Anchor
in 7 or 8 fathoms, in the middle of the river, abreast the palm trees on the port hand,
which trees appear to extend about 2 miles in length. Then send your boat up the
river for a pilot, or fire a gun twice or thrice, at intervals of about an hour, and in aU
probability a pilot will come off to you. <

If bound to this place, in the night, approach no nearer than to the depth of 4
fitthoms until davlight. If beating in, stand no Airther to the northward than to
bring the two hills in the middle Mtween the two points of the river ; then stand to
the southward to 2 and 2| fathoms, and proceed as shown hereafter. ;

If going in, with a fair wind, bring the North point of the river, with its palm
trees, to bear N.E., and run in with it bearing N.E, by E. On entering, keep on the
South side, within the bar, as the flood-tide sets on the northern breakers. Should
you here have a quarter-less-two, you need not fear, as the bottom is all of mud. The
river hence lies East and West, about 8 miles, and its depths, id mid-channel, arp
3, 4, 7, 6, and 5 fathoms, i t^ n*

The Sand Bar is miles to the southwi rd of the Mud Bar, and its entnnoe li
more intricate i therefore not to be attempted without a good pilot. This is, never-
theless, the Mouth of the Bio Pongo, properly so cedled. In the best channel, at the
entrance, the depth is 12 feet at low water, and within it are 4 and fethoms.

A small sand-bank having showed Just above water, at high tide, to the northward
of the Sand Bar, and mangroves having taken root on it, the bank consequently in-
creased, and the natives have planted palm trees on it. There is said to be a passage
of 3 fathoms. .

Feaaeta bound to the Pongaa sometimes make the high land of Cape Verga, and
sometimes go to the Isles de Los for a pilot, although one is not always to be foun^
there. Some run in by their latitude, taking care to sound fi'equently, as soundings
extend out 1|° to the westward.

The time of high iivater here, on ^e Aill and change, is 9\ The rise, about 10
feet.

.!<> ♦*>i'4tS«T ,Mi'n'»'ii'*H' !»?■■**: -fes^Uj* A

Sand Bar of the Sio Pongo X.y.E, \ E, — A — Barkia Hill ; remarkable table-land,

3 Y

DE8CHIPTI0N OF THE COASTS, ETC,

In Mny, 1848, Catotain Xou)r8e,^H.M.S. Iri$, dMtroyed a skve-tnde fkotory in tht
Bio PongMk tilt hmnamot whiish wai oarried on by Mn. Lightbrnn, but tlw riavw
yfove removed during the preparatiom for the attack, with the exception of eleven,
which were liberated. In destroying the factory several banrels of powder exploded,
wounding several, and killing one man belonging to the Iri$.

From the Mud Bar of Rio Ponoo to Dbmbia Kivbr, a place of some trade, eikI
nove to the southneastward, the distance is 8 leagues. Two leagues to the southward
t»f the lattor is 8angare9 Itiver, whence the landjuts out to the S.S. W., inte, 6 or 7
miles to IVmufci Pomt ; beyond which, to the eastward, is the high volcanic land
named Mount Sttzoa i and westward are the Ilhua do$ Itloiot, or ftte d« Loa, at 2}
miles firom the point*

Nolint Suot, properly so named, but which in the charts appears tinder the name
of Sangaree, has a regular conical peak, exoeptting that, on its southern side, at haif>
way up, there is a Uuige protuberance. This iuHulated mountain, in lat. 0° M', ii a
'oertain niark for the IhIca de Los during the rainy season. In the dry season the
atmosphere is always so hasy, that the coast of tne continent is seldom seen, even
iiear tnese islands.

. At about 4 leagues to the northward of Mount Suaos is another mouutaii), called
the French Mountain, to which M. Roussin assigns the latitude of 9° 4fi' 60', and
long. 13° 26' 10'.

On the 24th o^ May, 1826, Cai.tatn Owen, when in lat. 10" 2' N., saw the Sangaree
mountaias i one farmed a snguor-baf, between 4,000 and 6,000 feet in height. Hav-
ing been twelve days in this neighbourhood, on a previous occasion, it may seem
strange that it was not then observed ; but it was during the dry scoson, when there
fs always such a base over the land, particularly in the day, that the view is always
much hmited ; but in the rainj season every shower clean the attQosphere, and tne
most distant ol>jeots may be discerned. -;;,'. 'v! ' .' . ,

WINDS, &c.— In March, 1831, H.M.S. JS^, i^r paadng Cape Verga, lost the
land-breeae, which had previously blown with 'extreme regularity from about 10 p.m.
till morning, and been calculated on, with certainty, in moving the ship along-shore.
The winds also became much affected by changes in the tides and time of the moon;
ttm, tor example, if it were low watct at noon, there was seldom wind enough to more
the ship till the first quarter flood, and then the tide was too strong to weigh. The
weather also became more hasy, so as to prevent the use of the sea horicon ; and for
^« three days preceding full and change, this was so much the case, as inconveniently
to shottea the bases of triaing^ation.

HHAS DOS IDOLOS, or ISLES DE LOS.— These isles, which have already
beett ttMrtio«ked, lie between the parallels of 9° 26' and 9° 42' N., and between me-
fi^ans 18° 4d' and IS" 62' W. They are six in number, but only three are inhabited,
the i«st being Kttle better than rocks. Those which are inhabited are extremelt
pleasant, and, in general, healthy. The easternmost island, on which the English
nctory was established, lies nearly North and South, with a high wood-crowned hill
at each end, which, when seen from sea, appears like two islands. It is 4 1 miles in
length. The road is on the eastern side ; and, during the dry season, is very safe;
Irat, iti the tornado and rainy season, there is no security, unless in the goodness of
anchors and cables.

Tamara, or Fbotahar, the largest and westernmost of these islands, is nearly semi-
circular, rising on both sides from the sea by a gentle ascent, to a moderate neight,
and is covered with good timber trees. It is 6 milea in tength, and the summit of its
northern part is 466 feet above the sea. That ot Factory uland is 470 feet.

In a description of the Idolos, or Delos Isles, by the Baron Roussin, the admiial
says, the isles worthy of description are, Tamara, the Isle Idolos, or Factory Island,
and Crawford Island, by the French called Isle Fran^oise. Tumba, on the East, is
BO connected to the continent by beds of sand, mostly dry, that it can hardly bo con-
sidered as an island.

Tauara, the krgest and westernmost island, may be seen in fair weather at the

ILUAS DOS ID0L08, OR ISLES DE LOS.

A30

distance of 7 or 8 lotiguod. Ou approaohiiig, it appeart lika a rang« Of billa, thiokW
wooded I ite elovatiuu in m idorate, and the nortliern part higker than the South, it
ill, in shapo, like a oriuoont, with ita oonoavity to the B.B., fbrming wveral fine anduHr-
tges and depth* of to 8 fathoms, at low water.

You may enter the roadsteads on the eastern side of Tamara cither from the north-
ward or southward, only giving the coasts a berth of throc^uarters of a mil«,
beyond whtoh distanco both tho North and South points are quite clear. A reef, the
Arethtua, surrounds the North point to tho distance of a quarter of a mile. The
wc'Htorn side ia buld-to, and may be approached safely. Variation, 18" W.*

Near the prinoiiml anchorage within Tamara is a spring of ft'esh water, where 80
hofifshoads may be obtained in 24 hours.

At the diHtanoo of 1| miles S.B.E. from the South end of Tamara is an inlet named
Coral lata, leaving a passage between of 9 and 8 fathomH ; but, in tho same direo-
tion, at a quarter of a mile from Coral Lile, is a ttmall but dangoroiw rocf, which mmit
bo cautiously avoided. *

Tho central island of the group is JRooma, or Crawford l»land, tho western summit
of which is 300 feet in height. From this island to tho N.B. are shoal flats, extend-
ing to the distance of 2 miles, toward tho ^North end of Factory Island, leaving a
channel between of only two-thirds of a mile.

The Isles de Los are of volcanic origin, being formed chiefly of hard blue and iroQ-
coloured lava, with occasional masses of porphyritic hornstone of different elevations.
Of the vegetable productions, the most romarlcablo are tho palms, which furnish palm
oil and wine, and the silk cotton tree. Tho natives also speak of a troo, the bark of
which is an excellent bitter, but it was not seen.

Tho natives belong to the tribe named Baccas or Barkas [quci-y Bagos P], who also
occupy other islands along the coast. A groat similarity exists between their lan-
guage and tliat of the tribes inhabiting the banks of the Nunez.

The rainy season here commences in April, and ends in December.

The seasons have here been described as follow : — To begin with January. About
the 8th or lOtii of this month the Harmattan, or cold strong easterly winds, con-
tinue, with some strength, for about a week or ten days ; after which, the land-wind
and sea-breeze take place till about the middle of February, when the wind becomes
continual and N.W. or N.N.W., till the last ta\\ change of tho moon in March. The
tornadoes generally begin and prevail, more or less, till May or June ; then the rains
set in, and are almost continual all July and August; they begin to abate in Sep-
tember, and go off in October, giving place to the toi-nadoes, which continue till
about Christmas. Daring the rainy seasons the winds are mostly between South
and West, or in the 8.W. quarter ; and the tornadoes always blow with prodigious
force fi'uiu the B.S.E. or thereabout, accompanied with thunder, lightning, and a
delug<. of rain. When a tornado has happened in the night, it is impossible to
imagine the dear state of the atmosphere next morning i we have nothing like it in
Europe.

Captain Belcher sayis, that the rainy season between the Gambia and the Isles de
Los ranges, in its commencement, between the 1st of April and the Ist of June ; and
terminates from the Ist to 31st of Decembe. Off the Conflict lieef and Bijoogas, rains
and tornadoes were experienced on the 12th, 14th, and Idth May, 1831. - '

The flood, at the Isles de Los, sets to the North. Tho tide rises and flows as soowo
in shown in l^e Table, page 2(i8.

COAST between the Isles db Los and the VovQO.—\Captain IbfeAsr^— Tnmbo
Point is about 2 miles distant from Faotory Island : and is a long vocky flat, partly
covered at h^h water, and divided from the main by a narrow channel, navigable for
canoes at high water, but nearly dry at low, where the natives affirm that they caa

treather at the

>v. rtl:

* Survey by Lieutenunt Jtuues Badgley, of H.M. ship LeveH, 1827. . Tnc^t^aMt^

. DESCJaiPTIOK OF THE COASTS, ETC.

yrtAk tuamm, thouffh the depth of mnd makes thu improbable. From this the main
'land tiaee gradaallj, and partakes much of the features of the Isles de Los, 'without,
-however, being quite so denuded or bare as the summit of Tamara. The whole interim
is mountainous ; the highest peak of -which -we could obtain a measurement being
.2,810 feet above the sea. This mountain is called Kahulimah. Further on, the San-
garee or Soomba Bidge commences, and forms the entrance of the Sangaree or Debr^
Miver. The highest point of which, Tikitee-chin, or, as pronounced, Tikit-chin, ii
JLtO^ feet above the sea. Its western point is called Alligator's Point, and off this
uie mud extendN above a mile, dry at low water.

>. The whole of this bay is one series of flats and reefs ; and no vessel dra-wing above
6 feet should venture within a line drawn fit>m Tumbo to Alligator Point. Vesseli

^drawing 15 feet should not, when working up along this shore, do more, than open
Crawford Island ; and, to ensure good room, should even tack when the East end of

^ aanara opens the South end of Factory Island. Within these bearin|L,'S tiie soundings

ntitt very regular, and nowhere less than 6 fathoms.

. llie entrance of the Sangaree River has 2 fathoms in it ; but there is little induce-
mettt to ascend it, there not being the slightest trace of trade along its shores, nor anv
'supplies to be procured from them, excepting wood. The water is scarce and baa.
The JEtttiis boat ascended 65 miles.

More to the North there is a small isle in the centre of a river called the Dembia,
but which is, in feet, a month of the Sangaree. From this isle, Allisator Point bean
'S;E., true, 51 miles. The river -will admit very small vessels } but ^e greatest depth
^'Only 1 &thom at low watier, where the sea curled.

The shores hence are thickly clothed 'with mangroves, and extend about 16 miles
to the first acknowledged mouth of the Pongo, called Tt^ourg or Old Pongo, whid
'iir bordered to at a^e oat by dangerous breakers.

Directions for Sailing from Cafe Boxo to the Isles le Los.

Sg the Baron JRotusin.

r -

The description of the Bissagos, already given (page 525),-point8 out the course to
be steered in order to double their S.W. extremity. A vessel starting from a point at
4 1 leagues to the westward of Cape Roxo, which will be a little without the mediom
of 17° 0' 0" W., to the parallel of 10° 40' N., will be outside of all the danffers. From
hence a course of S.E. | E. [& 68° JEJ] and distance 68 leagues, will lead her to the
West point of Tamara Island. On this course the soundings will never be under
8 &thoms, until near the shore of the island} and those on the first course will be
considerably more.

From the parallel of Cape Roxo to that of the western breaker, 11° 31' 82 " N., at a
distance of more than 4 leagues to the westward of the meridian of 17° 0', the depth
wiU increase progressively from 8 to 28 fathoms, and the bottom be entirely of mnd.
This remark may be depended on to show that a vessel is not far to the south-
ward of the paraUel of the Jeba or Great Channel ; she cannot at the utmost be more
tlnin 10 miles tram the positions already given. From this point, as fer as the
parallel of 10° 40' N., the bottom is nearly free from mud, and on passing to the
southward of the parallel of 11° 20', verv slight traces of it ijemain, but are succeeded
by a bottom of fine white sand, sand and gravel, sand and broken shells, with a depth
varying from 1 2 to 50 &thoms. A vessel, having left Roxo, and arrived in lat. 10° 40'i
may twnoe steer s direct course for the Isles des Los.

The S.W. edge of the Bissagos follows a gentle curve from the western breaker as
far as the southern one, that of La Bayaddre. The bottom, in this part, pre8ent« a
singular peculiarity. Amongst the fine white sand, sand and broken shells, sand and

I8LES 1)£ LOS AND SIBRRA LEONE:

m.s- mtf-vM

gravel, of which it is most frequently composed, a greenish-coloured sand is some^
times found. The depth decreases very gradually ^m 60 to 9 fkthoms, from S.W<

to N.E.

■ The remainder of the course to the Isles de tioe passes over deep soundings, as much
as 50 fathoms, at the point of departure, and the least depth is 12 fiithoms« No pre
oise rule can be given as to the changes in the depth along this triuik, nor as to the
various nature of the bottom. It is uaown only tnat the ground, in the space passed
over by this course, seems to be fiirrow^d with channels, which, commencing firom
the southern extremity of the Eastern Channel of Bissagos, 'diverge toward different
points between 8.W.and. S.S.E., true. The furrows above mentioned appear to
have been caused by the regular tides in the mouth of the Rio Qrande, ana prove,
beyond a doubt, that the outlet of the same channel is partly caused by that river.
With respect to the nature of the bottom, M. Roussin says that he remarked the total
dbaence of mud. The bottom is of fine sand, in some places mixed with broken shells,
small pieces of brittle rock, and gravel, which appeared to be only a covering to beds
of a whitish volcanic sandstone, into which the lance penetrated but 3 or 4 inches,
and did not hold. A muddy bottom is not found until about 10 leagues to the vrest-
ward of the Isles de Los, and then only in small quantity, till within a very diort
distance to the N.W. of those islands.

Tides. — In proportion to the distance from th6 mouth of the Jeba or Greitt Channel
of Bissagos, either to the northward or southward, the tides lose their regularity.
This interruption in the tides is evident in going to the southward, as, at a few miles
South of tile parallel of the western breaker, 11° 31' 32" N., they are no longer per^
ceptible, even on the edge of the Bissag^.

' No decided course of the current was ascertained to exist, but it is generally allovred
that the waters have a greater inclination to flow to the southward man to the nortli-
trard ; and it may be presumed that it follows the direction of the winds on tihs
western edge of the Arcnipelago, but it is seldom found to be considerable.

Coast between Isles db Los and Sierba Leone.* — The portion of coast
between the Isles de Los and Sierra Leone comprises an extent of 66 miles, and
contains several rivers, islands, and banks, besides various inconsiderable creeks.

Between the Isles de Los and the sharp low point of Tumho there is a safe channel,
through which, by Captain Owen's chaxts, ships may carry 3 fiithoms of water, and
whioh may be, at times, highly convenient to use, or even to run through the group \
yet, without some good reason for so doing, it will always be advisable to go outside
the islands, where certainly no. dangers are to be met with.

In approaching this part of the coast it may be remarked, that though the
3 fethoms' boundary, in some places, extends to a considerable distance, yet tiie
sounding are so regular as to give ample warming. A tumbling sea, at times, may
prevail in a strong breeze, yet, as no giales but the Tornadoes, whidi are of short
duration and off shore, are knovm upon this coast, a commander need never be
alarmed; for there is always good anchorage under foot, and no long swell current to
force the vessel into danger.

From TuMBO Point to Matacono Island the bearing and distance are S.E. by
S. 23 miles. Tumbo Point is the S.W. extremity of an island bearing the same name,
and separated by a very narrow high water channel from the main land. To the
southward of this point the land fidls back to the north-eastward about 7 miles, form-
ins an extensive but shallow bay, at the bottom of which is an inconsiderable stream,
called Tannaney Biver, accessible to canoes only.

In the extensive bay between the Isles de Los and Matacong Isle no detachelT
dangers exist. The coast is safe to approach, the soundings being gradual, and

^•^im * DMcriptioa and Directions by Captain Betelor, of H.M.B. Htola, 1829. /^Itu '^

BEStulPTION OF THE COASTS, ETa

always affording good anchorage i and it is, in all parts, acc«ssible to large ships t«
the uistonce of 6 miles, which generally may be considered sumuiKutly sear to dis-
tinguish the land, and often to recognise the mouths of the rivers.

Hahneah Siver, about 12 miles E.8.E. ft-om Tumbo Point, is, at low wat«r,
scarcely accessible to the smallest coasting vessels, but the rise of tide exceeds 2
fathoms. The entrance is about miles south-eastward from that of Tannaney, but
the water between is very shallow { and a mud bank, which extends south-westward
from the West point of the entrance, is uncovered at low water, more tlian 2 niilei
from that point. A similar mud bank lines the East side also, leaving the channel
between above a mile wide, but carrying only from 4 to 8 feet at low water.

To enter this river it is necessary only to bring the western point of the ontranoe,
while at the distance of 5. miles from it, bear N.E. by E. | E., and then steer toward
it in that direction, until you get close to the S.W. mud bank, when you may proceed
along by the edge of that ba^, in a convenient depth, according to circumstances.
Within the river the depths at low water are from 6 to IC feet only.

The water discharged from this river must very great, as the ebb tide runs out with
great rapidity.

Aiver Morebiah. — The mouth of this river is about 18 miles 8.E. by E. | E.
from the Isles de Los, and about 7 miles northerly from Matacong Island ; and, though
its breadth within the points nowhere exceeds half a half a mile, yet it is far superior
to the Mahneah, last described. Its entrance is narrow, and forms an elboM' at the
commencement, which, to render perfectly safe, would require two btioys, because the
coast is destitute of good objects to serve as marks.

In ofiproachit^ the eoaat abreast <*f the river, with its opening bearing E.N.E. J E.,
distant about 9 miles, and Matacong; Island S.E. by E. ^ E., you will have 6 fathoms
of water or black mud ; from this situation the depth will decrease gradiuillv, on a
bottom of the same kind, to 3| fathoms at the entrance of the channel. With the
rounding of the land between the rivers Mahneah and Morebiah bearing N.N.E., the
East iMint of the entrance E. | N., and the middle of Matacong Islana S.8.E. { £.,
you will have that depth.- From this position steer N.N.E. until the East point of
the river bears E. \ 8., and then stand in towai'd this point, or about East ; but re-
membering, that both flood and ebb set partially over tne extensive shoals thiit form
the S.E. side of the channel : some of tncse, however, being dry at low water, and
nearly so at high water, their steep boundary is nearly discernible. In the elbow of
the cnannel the least depth is 1^ fiithoms at low spring ebbs : this depth, however
however, continues but a short way; and, from the time of altering vour course to the
eastward, or steerinv straight in, you will seldom have so little as 2 rathoms. Beyond
the East point the &pth varies m>m 4 to 6 or 7 fathoms, and for the extent of 7
miles up the river it appeai'ed to be clear of all danger.

About 4 miles above the East point of this river, and on the same side a remark-
able round mass of granite rook rises abruptly, about 40 feet from the water's edgci
it is about 400 yards in circumference : others may be seen inland ; and the natives
assert, that several are scattered about as fiur as the Skingaree Mountaint, which, they
say, are also of granite.

It is high water, on ftill and change days, at T** 40', and spring tides rise 11 feet.

The contrast which this coast presents to the eye, in different states of the atmos-
phere, has been already noticed in pages 206, 206, and 038.

Matacong iBland. — ^The beauty of this island consists of the luxuriance of the
trees, the verdui'e of those spots wnich have been cleared away, and the gentle rise,
which renders it a conspicuous contrast to the low swampy tract opposite. It is mors
than a mile long, and having been purchased from tne natives bv Mr. Oabadon, •
merchant of Sierra Leone, is now established for rearing cattle. Tne island appcan
to be of lava, yet on its summit there are two large pieces of granite ; but there ii
reason to believe that they have been artificially placed there.

Matacong is surrounded by mud banks and rocks in all directions, so that no vcskI
of any buraen can lie at ancnor within 2 miles of it. The channel, which divides it

4^,. THE RIVER MELLACOREB.

648

e runs out with

from the main, is nearly three-quorten of a mile broad, but its moddy bottom, at lew
water, is left dry.

From Matacono Island to Sallartook Point, a distance of 14| miles S. f E^
the general features of the coast are the same as those already described, but the
mountains are too distant to be distinctly seen ; here and there a cotton tree, with
smooth trunk and spreading foliage, rises above the surrounding thickets, and serves
to identify the locality of the coast to those who are acquainted with it ; but a stranger
can make the mouth of the river which he intends to enter by his latitude only, or oy
mnning the coast down ftt>m some known point.*

JVom Matacong Island the coast trends to the eastward a little more than 3 miles,
where it turns abruptly to the northward, and forms the West point of the mouth of
the River Forecabreah : the interval being fronted with sand and mud banks,
which extend more than 3 miles to the southward. The entrance of this river is
abcve 2 miles wide, and the least depth is 1 fathom at low spring ebbs. To sail in,
it will be necessary to pass close to the banks which project from the West point, but,
at the same time, to be cautions in approaching them, as they are steep-to, and dty at
low water. The outer sand will be apparent, even in fine weather, at any other time
than high water, and if seen, it may be safely skirted in 2 fathoms near low water,
or in 4 at high water ; and that yoa may not get in at the back of this sand, do not
bring the highest j>art of Matacong luland to the westward of N. by W. | W^
until the Wost point of the river bears N.E. J E. You may then sofeW enter, re-
collecting, as a guide, that you should always keep the western side aboard, off which,
however, you will have to edge occasionally to avoid the banks ; yet this river is of
very little consequence, as a ridge of rocks nearly crosses it at a short distance
from its mouth. The ebb tide is extremely rapid, and the overfalls in the vicinity
of the rocks are dangerous to those who do not possess a local knowledge of the
river.

THE RIVEB MELLACOREE which is or was of considerable importance in
the timber trade, has bettor objects for marks than any of those already described,
and the facilities of its navigation are greater, yet buoys are indispensably requisite to
make this secure.

For enterina the Mellacoree, observe that, at 8 miles off shore, there are six frithoms
of water ; and, with the river's mouth bearing E. by N., it will be fairly open. Steer
toward it, in that direction, until the soundings have decreased gradually to about
3 fathoms at low spring ebbs, with the following bearings : East Point of Yellaboi
Island S. by E. ; Sallahtuok Point, distinguinhable by the trees being higher than
eliewhcre, bearing S.E. ^ S. ; Bentee Point,t known by a remarkable largpe tree,
E. by N. ; the outer pomt of Tannah River, E.N.E. i E. ; and the rounding of the
land to the northward of the river, N.E. f N. ; you win then be at the spot indicated
by the outer anchor in the plan, and in the fair way. The Middle Ground is steep
and dangerous, but the soundings on the southern side are gradual, though the mud
bank is very wide ; borrow, therefore, rather on that side until nearly as far as Bel-
langsang Point, when you must haul over to the mouth of Tannah luver, and there
anchor. Higher up, tnere are some patehcn of rocks in the middle of the river, but
at low water thoy are seen, as well as the deep water channel between them, which is
one-third of a mile in breadth, with a depth of 7 to 9 fathoms. By keeping the East
point of the River Tannah, bearing N.W. by W. i W., you may pass through this
channel in safety { and, there being no further danger, you may ascend the river to
the factories established below Devil's Island, on the South shore i the general depth

* In the Table of Positions, the position of MRtacong, is griven, nccording to Captain
•Owen, &c., in Int. 9* 14', Ion. 13" 26 30"; but Captain Doteler (1829) givos the house on the
North side of the same island in lat. 9* 16' 10", and Ion. 13° 26' 20'; und henco, by survey,
the latitude of Sailahtook Foiiii wiil bo 9= 3' 5 .

t This point is on the South side of the river, and immodiatoly opposite to another point,
on which there are two very large trees.

'644

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

^raries from 5 to. 9 fathoms. Here it is high water on tail andohaage days, at 7'*. -v
spring tides rise 11 feet.

Besides the channel on the South side of the Middle Cfround, for which dircctioiu
.liave been given, there is also an inferior one to the northward ; to enter which, when
or 6 miles off shore, bring the West point of Tannah River to bear E. f S., and b;
\j carefully using the lead, you may proceed in with safety ; for, although at its ter-
nunation it takes a slight turn round the N.E. corner of the Middle Giound, yet this
is generally so well indicated that you can scarcely be deceived.

The Tannah River, which falls .into the Mellacoree, is also navigable, though
much smaller, and the tides are not so strong as in the main stream.

On account of the soft nature of the bottom, vessels may ground in several places
in the vicinity of the Mellacoree River, without being injured ; but a patch of
foul groimd, which surrounds the long reef of Sallatook Point, must be carefully
avoi&d.

From Sallahtook Point the coast trends S.S.E. 7 miles, to a small river, on the
western point of which is situated Sangahtook Factory ; and about If miles to the
. westward of this point is Yellaboi Island, surrounded by mud banks that are dry at
low water.

Yellaboi is a low swampy island, nearly two miles in length, and covered with
trees, which, toward its western extremity, give it the appearance of an abrupt cliff,
easy to be recognised ; abreast the S.E. extremity of the river there is another small
river called Inglis Pahboyeah.*

Corteemo Island. — Four miles S.E. from Yellaboi we come to a much larger
island, with extensive mud banks on the north-westward, but with a deep channel
between it and the. main ; it is called Citrteemo, and lies in the mouth of the Rivm
Scarcies. These rivers are known on the coasts by the names of Great and LiUh
Scarcies ; the former is navigable for large ships, but the other is adapted to' veiy
small vessels only, and requires very careful pilotage.

Great Soaroies. — The channel into the Great Scarcies River is the best on thia
part of the coast ; for, although the banks are steep, yet it is broad and deep, and a
of the line, by taking a proper time of the tide, might moor off the inner point of
Yellaboi Island.

To sail into this anchorage, bring the West end or highest part of Yellaboi Island
to bear E.N.E. and steer toward it in that direction, until you decrease the depth to
A or 4 fathoms, which will happen suddenly. Now change the course, and keeping
in 4 to 5 fathoms, steer direct for Inglis Fahhoyeah River, bearing E. ^ N.f taking
care to keep it well open of the inner point of Yellaboi Island, until the West point
of that island bears N. by E. % E., when you must haul directly in toward it, and
skirting along the steep mud bank which l)orders the South side of the island, steer
for its S.E. point, close to which you may anchor in 4jk fathoms. In reaching this
anchorage, the least depth you will have to pass over will be 2^ fathoms at low Hpring
ebbs ; and this occurs only after hauling in for the island, and running along the
edge of the mud bank.

A timber-ship, lying at this place, could easily have her cargo rafted down to her,
excepting during the rains, when, as affirmed, the strong winds occasion so heavy a
sea, as to make it unsafe to lie there with her raft ports open. With little difficulty,
howeVter, she might proceed to Kakongkah Island i though the channel is norrow and
crooked, and would perhaps require buoys to point it out.| It would bo Hcai-cely

• Yellaboi, or Yollaboa, accordinnr to Captain Owen, as showTi in the Table, p. 3S, isin
lat. 8*«6' 42". long. 83' 17' 46'. Captain Boteler gives its West end as in lat. 8"fi7'5,
long. 13' 18' 25". Variation, 18' 4' W., 1829.

t Inglis Pahboi/eah River, the entranro is nearly a league to the North of Corteemo
Island.

X Ka'kfiniiifkah \n a nmall isle in the mouth of Great Scarcies River, having a factory near
its western extremity.

SIERRA T-KONK.

545

lays, at 7\ "ii"

uch direction
»r which, when
3. f S., and by
ugh at its ter-
round, yet this

igable, though

possible to give intelligible marks for this winding channel, but it is so apparent in
the plan, that by using the boat ahead, and never passing over the 3 fathoms boun-
dary line described therein, except in crossing the three short flats, you can scarcely
go wrong ; the bottom, however, is so soft, and the water so smooth, that no damage
will arise from touching. It is high water here, on full and change days, at 7>> 10',
and spring tides rise 11 feet.

For Captain Boteler'a General Remarks on the Coasts and Seasons, see page 206.

several places
at a patch of
t be carefully

river, on the
1 ^ miles to the
lat are dry at

corered with
xa abrupt cIUT,
another small

a much larger

deep channel

of the Itmn

"eat and Little

apted to' very

best on thii
1 deep, and a
nner point of

'ellaboi Island

e the depth to

, and keeping

I N.f taking

le West point

;oward it, and

e island, steer

reaching this

at low spring

ing along the

down to her,
on 80 heavy a
ttle difflcultr,

8 narrow and
I be Hcaixieiy

[)le, p. 35, is in
lat. 8»fir5,

of Cortecmo
II factory near

SIEBltA LEOKE, etc. — From Yellahoi Island, mentioned in the preceding
page, the Cape of Sierra Leone bears S. by W. | W. \_South\ 25 miles. This
cape, vnth the coast eastward, forms the South side of the great river, bearing the
same name.

The coast northward of the mouth of the river is low and level, bordered with a
shoal bank 3 miles in breadth, and which has upon it several dangerous rocks ; but
on the South side the land rises into hills, which, forming one upon the other, tower
into lofty mountains, crowned with perpetual verdure. These are, properly, the
Sierra Leone, or Lion Mountains, which nave given name to the river and country.
From the foot of the hills, points of land, projecting into the sea, form excellent bays
for shipping and craft, and convenient places for hauling the seine.

The mouth of the river, which is 2 leagues wide, is obstructed by an extensive
bank, called the JfuJE^fe Ground, but on the South side of this is a safe and deep
channel for vessels of any burden. The latitude of the cape is 8° 30' N.

Vessels bound from Cape Verde to Sierra Leone are recommended to gain sound-
ings in lat. 9° 1 5' N. on the grand bank which extends from the Bissagos to Cape St
Anne ; and having gained bottom in 50 fathoms, gray sand, on the edge of the bank.
to make a true S.E. by S. course, keeping in soundings until in lat. 8° 20' or 8° 30'.
Then make an East course good, nnd you will make the land of Sierra Leone, the
mountains of which may be seen in clear weather 14 leagues off: but as, on this coast,
the weather is generally hazy, it is seldom seen farther off than 6, and fre<}uently not
more than 4 or 3, leagues ; although, at the same time, a good observation may be
had. This is occasioned by the constant vapours, caused by the sun, which ascend
from the mountains covered with thick woods.

Appearance of Cape Siena Leone, bearing S.E. by E., distant about 6 leaguet.

In standing in for soundings, and approaching SieiTa licone, keep the lead con-
stantly going, as the current sets in various directiouH, but generally tending to the
eastward, jft is requisite to be very attentive to this particular. Should you bo
standing in, in the night, in lat. 8° 30', and shoalen your water from 20 to 18, 13, and
then suddenly to 8 and 7 fathoms, you will be at tne distance of 3 leagues from the
river, and should immediately anchor and remain till daylight.

'The danger on standing in for the cape is, the Middle Ground, hereafter described,
which extends 7 miles fVom the eastern shore, and nearly to the meridian of the cajie,
leuving an entrance only 2 miles broad. Having made the land of Sierra Leone,
bring the cape, which may be easily known by a small negro town standing npon it,
to bear S.E. ny 8. ; then steer dii-ectly for it. At this plnre pilots for the rivor may
be had.

A rock, called the Carpenti'f, lies »i the distance of nearly a snile
i W.I ftom the N.W. ex'treniitv of the cape. This rook always

•nr

- " . I ...rill i«ir *i. Tf . T-Ai'iruiii V "I I i»f- vapr-. m iiin n/v-iv uiv

breakers over it, and at half-tido may bu distinctly teen

I XT

shows

- a. n.

itsHf by the
riiC Hood tic mil t'cts

M»

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, ETC.

directly thi-ough between the cape and the rock> You may advance within half a
mile oi the rock ; but those beating down the river, with the sea breeze, and a stroiiK
ebb tide, must be careful and give it a good berth, ae; the ebb tide netH strongly
between the rock and the cape. Fi-om the capo, a ledge of rooks extends in a direct
line toward the Carpenter.

The LIGHTHOUSE on Cape Sierra Leone was completed in 1849, and shows
a brilliant fixed light. It stands on the extremity of the cape, and is 69 feet firom
the base to the top of the lighthouse. It bears from Carpenter Rock E. ^ S. by
compass, and from the western edge of the middle ground, S.W. ^ S. Vessels, there-
fore, coming from the westward should be cai-eftil not to bring the light to bear more
to the eastward than E.S.E. | E., and coming from the southward not to alter the
course until the light is on that bearing ; and coming from the northward, should not
bring the light more to the westward than S.S.W. | W., until King Tom's Point
comes in one with the centre barrack, S.S.E. '| E. to t^v<nd Ihe middle ground.

Bearing of the Cai-penter Rock, W. 13° 7' S.

Within the cape the general trend of the coast is nearly true East 6 miles, but it is
broken by several inlets, which are called /?«»/«. Of these, the first within the cape
is a small cove, of pleasant appearance, called Cajie Bay ; the next is Pirates^ Bay, so
named from being the place where the pii*ates formerly used to careen and refit their
vessels ; the third is U^iiteman'a Bay ; the fourth, St. Qenrge^s or Freetown Bay,
whereon stands Freetown, protected on the hill-side by a fort, and above the fovt,
on the summit of the hill, are the new barracks. On the East of Freetown is Susan'n
Bay, and at a mile eastward of the last is Thompson^ a Bay, bounded on the East by
Farran Point. {For the position of Freetown, see the Note on page 39.)

Freetown.*— The general aspect of the country in the immediate vicinity of this
colony, and the external appearance of Freetown, give a stranger, on ari-ival, an idea
of salubrity and piospei'ity, which subsequent experience may not altogether realize,
or, at least, reconcile with the result of further observation.

Its more striking features are the largeness of the scale on which the public build-
ings are constructed ; the wideness of uie streets, and the regularity of their lines;
the number of stone houses, and the excellence of the roads ; the abundance in the
markets, the multitude of \rell-dressf d negroes in these places, the variety of stalls and
shops in their own (]uartcr, well supplied with British gpoods ; the cleanliness and the
comfortableness of their small abodes, the size and structure of the principal church,
and the numerous chapels and schools in the town and suburbs ; and last, though not
least, the admirable order that seemed to prevail amonj^st the negro population,
without any apparent exercise of magisterial severity, or rigour of political restraint,
to repress or control the people.

From ten o'clock in the morning till five in the evening a white man is seldom seen
abroad ; at the latter hour, the race course and the promenade on the battery are
frequented by equestrians ftnd pedestrians ; and, perhaps, no circumstance that strikes
the attention of a stranger, makes so strong an impression on his mind as the general
exproKsion he obsci-ves of languor and debilitv in the looks of every individual he
meets of European birth (with perhaps two or tlireo exoeptions) in the colony. The
younfij and old, the acclimated even as they are deemed, who have had their season-
ing, cither in one fever, or the periodical return of that malady, and have survived
these attacks, show plainly enough the baneful influence of the climate, which leaves
the features without vivacity, the frame without vigour, and the whole constitution
apparently deficient in vitality.

The settlement at Sior'-a Leone was formed in 1 787 ; and the new colony occupied
a tract of about 20 miles square, and was peopled, in part, by negroes from Amencai
and was increased by various additions from the West Indies.

In 1 701 , the tract of land that was ceded by the native chiefs, in 1 787, to the British
Bovcreign, was niudc over to the Sierra Leone Company j and, in 1700, Governor Ma-

• failiamontury Ropnrl, 1812, I'ttrl II., ii. 211, &e,

SIERUA LEONE, ETC.

641

caulay enkrgred the limits by an additional quantity of land towards the Bea-side on
the western boundary, obtained from a native chief called King Tom ; possession of
this was finally gaiaed in 1801. At this period the colony did not extend beyond the
peninsula, which is about 18 miles lonfj^ and 12 broad. In 1824, a new sovereignty
of the territory was purchased of the chief of the North BuUoms, on liie Noith aide
of the Sierra Leone River. We have derived this statement from Dr. Madden'n
report ; but in Colonel Doherty's remarks upon it, he states, that the limits of the
colony are strictly confined to the peninsula.

The Middle Oround, already mentioned, forms the North side of the channel into
the river, which is half a league in breadth. The general depths in the channel are
fh)m6 to 10 and 12 fathoms. Prom the cape the extremity of the Middle Ground
bears N.E. \ N. riNT.iV.^.] 2 miles, and the bank extends thence eastward to the
Bullom shore, liie ground is, in general, composed of hard sand ; and, in some parts,
large stones. It dries, in several places, at about the middle of half ebb ; and, at all
times, the sea breaks over it. On its eastern pail; there is a channel, but it is fit for
small vessels only. < > > i v

The Bt/Uom shore, which forms the rSTorth side of the entrance of the river, is level
and covered with wood. On this sh.)re, in lat. 8" 40', is an islet, called Leopard Isle,
whence the coast roonds to the south-eastward, nearly 12 miles, to Tagrin Point, and
between arc eight negro towns, of which the fourth, from the northward, is that of
the King of Bullom. The edge of this coast i? low, swampy, and bordered with
shoals.* In the river, eastward of Tagrin Point, is Tasso Island and several smaller
isles, the formation of which can be understood only by reference to the particuktt
chart.

Ships from the northward, when bound to Sierra Leone, should be careful how thie^
approach the oapc. They must keep their lead going, and not approach any nearer
than 6 fathoms, until they see the nigh land. No one should stand in for the capo
until he gets that high land to bear E.8.E. \ E. [^Easf], and, when he is 6 leagues
off, he will see the cape making in a small low point, with a ridge of cocoa-nut trees
close to the water's edge ; and when within 3 leagues of the cape he may observe the,
Carpenter Itock, with the sea constantly breaking over it. You pa»s the cape within^
a quarter of a mile, in 9 or 10 fathoms. You will now open the first cove, called
Cai)e Bay, and thence pass Pirates' and the other inlets which have been described.
In all these bays excellent fish may bo caught with the seine, and sometimes green.
turtle.

Having passed the cape as above, your course will be S.E. by E. i E. \_E. | SJ] up
the river ; this leads clear along shore to Freetown, which is 3^ miles from the cape.
The general depths will be 12 to 18, 13, and 14 fathoms. In working to the north-
ware^ advance no nearer to the Middle Ground than in 7 fathoms.

To anchor off Freetown, bring the fort {Fort ThorntorC) to bear S. by "W. ; the Eafet
point of the bay, S.E. \ E. ; King Tom's or the West Point, W. by N., off" shore a
quarter of a mile, 15 or 16 fathoms, with mud. Moor with the best bower to the
eastward. The watering-place here is very convenient, and the water excellent. You
illl your casks in the boat, with a hose, which leads from a cascade. A green light is
shown at the landing place by night.

In sailing up beyond Freetown to Furrnn Point, or further eastward, you will find
regular soundings, 14 to 10 and 17 fathoms. You may make free with the shore all
the way up, as it is very held.

Farran Point is remarkable. It is elevated, and has a house on its summit. In
hiuy weather, several vessels, on coming in, have mistaken this point for Cape Sierra

— — ! ^

* This swiimpy coast has lioeii thought, by some, to be the origin of the unhoalthinoss of
tlio oppo.iito shore of the rivor, ami Freetown. It has boon proposrd, by Bomo one, to orert
liinukiiaB on this corvs^, in order thxt their fumes might counteract the noxiou^miiiuniitA
ftnsiiiar fiom tJio shorns iiiul luimgrovos ! It noi'd sciircoly to be said, thai the iuRalubrity ef,
thy coloiiv d<M>N not tiriso onliri'lv IrDin MUi'h n ciiUNO.

548

DESCRIPTION OP THE COASTS, ETC.

Leone, although it .is nearly 2 leagues eastward from the cape, and have thus touched
on the Middle Ground. But Farran Point serves as a good mark for the mid-channel,
between the Middle Ground and Carpenter, when kept well open to the North of the
cape, and bearing S.E. by E. | E.

Vessels coming in more from the northward will clear the West end of the Middle
Ground in 3J fathoms, with King Tom's Point (West of Freetown) on with the
central barrack, bearing S.S.E. | E. IS.E. ^ B."]

The tide at Freetown flows, on the full and change days, at T" 50', and rises 12^
feet.

Duiing the rainy season the tide is \eiy regular and strong, running 6 and 7 knot*
an hour, and the cob sets rapidly on the Middle Ground. In the dry months it com-
monly flows on shore at 7*' 3C', with seven and a half houra' ebb, and four and a half
flood. In this season the ebb runs 2| miles an hour, the flood only 2.*

SIERRA LEONE to CAPE ST. ANNE, &c.— From the Cape of Sierra Leone
the coast, at the foot of the mountains, forms a slender sandy bay, bordered with
trees, which extends more than 3 miles to the southward of tne cape, where it ter-
minates in a rocky point. At three-quarters further is another point, more conspi-
cuous and projectmg, named the False Cape. The last bcai-s from Cape Sierra Leone
S. by W. I W. IS. i E."] distance 4 miles. , , ', - ^

From False Cape to York, or the Sisters' River, f the coast trends irregularly S.
% E. IS.8.E. I J?.] 12 miles; and from York to Cope Chilling, S. ^ W. [S. by £.]
7 miles. . '

At Cape Chilling the hills of Sierra Leone terminate, after having made a high
double land, which is seen a great way off ; the mountain near the South is of a pro-
digious height, it8 summit being perpetually covered with clouds, and can be per-
ceived at the distance of 14 or 15 leagues. The cape itself is low, and covered with
trees ; and, at 4 or 5 leagues off, appears like a small island.

One of the boats, employed in the survey under Captain Owen, was driven on rocks
extending from Cape Chilling, and was totally destroyed, tht people, with ^reat
difficulty, being saved. Upon this cape is Kent Town, a village of liberated Africans
and disbanded negro soldiers ; but, as no sure market exists for their industry, they
raise little from the soil except for their own use. This village is delightfully situate
on the side of a hill, with a large house for the superintendent. — Captain Owen, 1826.

BANANAS. — Off Cape Chilling, and separated by a space of 2 miles in breadth,
like the Banana Isles. The outer or S.W. end of these isles is 7 miles S.W. by W.
I W. IS. W. \ <S.] from the cape. The greater part of their coast is foul and rocky.

The Bananas very much resemble the Isles de Los, but the land is more elevated.
Thev are extremely fertile, and have plenty of water, but no running streams. Wild
cattle are abundant upon the greater isle. It is a remarkable fact, that pigs are the
only domestic animals that cannot be propagated here ; as there appears to be some
herb, of which they are inordinately fond, but which is fatal to their existence.

A few yeara ago H.M. ship Tartar anchored off Cape Chilling and to the north-
ward of the Bananas, with tne N.E. point of the isles S.S.E. a E., and the western
part S.S.W. Between the ship and islands the water deepened to 8, 9, and 7 fathoms;
but within a cable's length of the shore, between the westernmost island and the
jiext, there was found a depth of only 2 fathoms. The westernmost islet was then
inhabited by only one Frenchman, Jean Baptiate Mq/or, and his four slaves.

Sculh

■*##**''ir^7.''

JEatt Point, S.S.£. J E.

Weft Point, S.S. W.

• DirPoM«n« for sailing from t)te Bight of Biafrn to 8ierr.\ Leone have been given in
tr«atinK on the Currents, paae 286.

t Otiierwise Ayaifoop^nt, or Rivpr of the Twin Sisters.

SHERBORO INLET.

549

The Bananas appeared as above, from the Tartar's anchorage, at the distance of 4
miles.

There is anchorage as well to the southward as to the northward of these isles, but
the best is said to be in 5 fathoms, about 2 miles from shore, on clear clayey ground,
with the N.E. point S. | E., and the highest hill S. by W. | W. There are sandy
bays, which may be seen from the anchoring-place, and where you may land ; but the
best is at the S.W. end. Wood and water are obtainable here. The watering-place,
which is close to the beach, has a very good run of water.

Mr. Woodville has said, " It is very evident that the whole chain of mountains
called Sierra Leone, as well as the Isles Bananas and the Isles de Los, are the produc-
tions of volcanoes, if we are to judge from the great quantitr of lava found there,
and from the small pieces of it taken up by the lead, in soundmg, at certain distances
from the land, opposite to these islands, and nowhere else ; also from the conical
figure of many of the bills, and from the ferruginous soil in the country."

Yawry Bay.— At 6 leagues S.S.E. [S.E. I S.} from Cape Chilling is Point Tassa.
The coast between forms Yawry Bay, the shore of which is bordered with a shoal 4
miles bi'oad, having on it many oyster beds. Great part of the bank is uncovered'
with the ebb, and has only 4 reet over it at high water.

Off Tassa Point is a group of islets and rocks, called the Plaintain Isles and Bengal
Socks, whieh extend from the point 5 miles westward, on the flat between Yawry
Bay and Sherboro Inlet.

Tides. — The tides divide off the False Point of Sierra Leone. To the northward
of that point the flood nms to the northward ; to the southward of that point it sets
to the South. Hence at the Bananas the flood is from the N.W., and the ebb con-
trary. Here the tide flows, on the full and change days, at S*' 15'. During the eqtii-
noxes it rises 9 or 10 feet perpendicular ; other spring tides 8 or 9 feet. At the
Plaintain Isles it rises about a foot and a half more than at the Bananas ; but, at the
Bashaw or Turtle Isles, more to the southward, the rise is 6 or 7 feet, common spring
tides.

SHERBORO INLET. — The Inlet or Sound of Sherboro, commonly called Sherbro
Itiver, is between tiie island of that name and the main land. llie westernmost
headland of the island is Cape St. Anne, in lat. 7° 34', and nearly on the meridian of
Point Tassa, which lies in lat. 7° 55^'.

From Point Tasso the coast, forming the North side of Sherboro Inlet, trends
12i miles S.S.E. | E. [S.E. J J5.1 to the mouth of a river, the Yallucka, and thence
it winds to the south-eastward, 6 leagues further, to the Bagroo River. It is bordered
by a mud bank, off which are several shoals, the positions of whieh can be understood
only by reference to the particular chart.

The South shore of Sherboro Inlet is the North shore of Sherboro Island, which is
3 leagues in extent, from Cape St. Anne on the West, to Jamaica Poi^^t on the East.
On this shore, at 12| miles eastward from Cape St. Anne, is the spot and remarkable
tree called Little Paw Grande, and 3^ miles more to the East is Pow Grande. ' At a
leairue and a half eastward of the Pow Grande, on the shore, is Jenkins' Village, off
which is the general roadstead for large vessels, having 5, 6, and 7 fathoms of water.
All the shore oetween this and Cape St. Anne is bordered with an extensive mud
bank.

Bashaw or Turtle Islands. — On a great flat, which extends more than 4 leagues
to the N.W. from the western end of Sherboro iHland, is a group of eight or nine
islets, called the Baskato or Turtle Isles, which are evidently the remains of a con-
sidernble tract of land now submerged by the sea. The bank on which tncy exist
also exhibits innumerable ridges, knolls, "blind channels, and pools ; but is navigable
on almost every part by large boate at high water, and at low water by light boats
and canoes.

Directions for Sherboro Inlet have been given as follow: — From off the
■U'est end of the Bananas, steer toward the Bengal Rocks S.S.E. f E. [S.S. ^ ^.] 14
milct*, and ho n-* to give them a berth of about a league; having rounded these rooks,

550

DESCRIP'nON OF THE COASTS, ETC.

steer S.E. f S. \_S.I!. by i?.] 6 leoffuea, taking care to avoid the hard nand bank on the
East, 'which is Nteep-to. In running on, you may shoalen your water to 4 fathoms,
on the flat of 'VaUucka River, upon the eastern side, and thence continue the same
course, 4 leagues further, to the southern bank, making due allowance for tide, whe-
ther ebb or flood. The last course will lead to 1| miles from shore, in about 4 fathomi
of water, and without the edge of the bank. You may now run up along shore, for
2 league"* to Jenkma, taking care to avoid the edge of the Middle Ground on the
North, which here leaves a channel of only half a mile between it and the shore.

BANK and SHOALS of ST. ANNE, &c.--The Bank of St. Anne, which has
Hot vet been thoroughly surveyed nor defined, may probably extend from the parallel
of 8* to 7° 31V N., and from long. 13' 6' to 13° 32'. The northern lunit, as shown in
the Table, p. 39, is 7° 56' ; this is the limit to which the bank ban been actually sur-
veyed; so likewise the western limit is given in 13° 29', whore there are 10 and 12
fathoms of water; but 13 fathoms have ocen found at 7 leagues more to the west*
ward, upon the general bank of soundings extending from shore ; and there is a ispot
of 8 and 8 fathoms in about 7° 56' N. and 13° 48' AV.»

Upon the Bank of St. Anne are a number of small and dangerous insulated shoals,
separated by channels of 6, 7, 8, and 10 fathoms. The bank itself is divided from
that of the Turtle Isles by a narrow swashway, having 5, 6, and 7 fathoms.

But it appears that a vessel boimd from Sierra Leone to the Windward Coast will
clear every danger by proceeding over the great bank S.W. I W. \_S.W. by 8."] 12
leagues to the parallel of 8° N. ; and thcucc, on the meridian of 13° 40' to lat. 7° 30',
from which point a course S.E. by E. j E. \_E. f S."] 22 leagues, leads to the Shebur,
or Bar of Sherboro Kiver, at the S.E. extremity of Sherboro Island.

Captain Midghy recommends that " in the wet season vessels should give the St.
Anne shoals a laige berth to the eastward, as the current, as well as the sea, runs
with great velocitv into the bight of Cape Mount, and vessels which may unfortu-
nately happen to rail in with u^e land to the northward of Sinou, in the wet season,
will find considerable difficulty in working to the southward.!

When Lieutenant Badgley, with other officers and two boats, in 1826, proceeded from
Great Turtle Island, in order to survey the southern part of Sherboro Inlet, they
found a good channel, with about 6 fathoms, but the atmosphere was so thick that the
object was totally defeated. The colonial squadron was then at anchor at the Shebar,
vrhere was formerly the establishment of tne infamous James Tucker ; but which,
the country having been ceded to the English, by the old King of Sherboro, had been
deserted, and he nad removed to the River Kittam, about 26 miles from the sea.
From the old establishment the French and Spaniards had been in the habit of ship-
ping annually about 20,000 slaves, collected from the three great rivers, Bagroo, Deim
or Jona, and Kittam ; but as, by the occasion of this tenitory, the British authority
extended from Sierra Leone to the River Galinhas, the slave trade was rooted out
from the Sherboro, the most extensive mart upon the Grain Coast. |

'llie Boom Kittam River runs in a parallel direction with the shore, at a distance
from it of 1 or 2 miles. The strip of land between, called General Turner' a Penin-
8ula, is 8 leagues in length, and it is terminated by tne Forks, in long. 12° 8^ W. At
6^ leases further to the S.E. is the River Galinhus or Gallinas.

QALLIN AS — The bar of this river* is only passable for large boats or small

* " Journal of the Tartar" by the lute Mr. Finlaison.

t '• Nautical Magazine." — Captain Midgley, " On a voyage to the Gold Coast," Jan.,
1843, p. 27.

X On Christmas- lay, 1852, Capt. Philips, in the Polyphemus, destroyed a barracoort (be-
lonKinK to Crispo), at Bubbah, 17 miles E. of Kittam ; and in January, 18d3, they ascended
the Kittam for 50 miles to Damma.

* Desoription by Captain the Hon. /. Benmrnt, R.N., H.M. sloop Wanderer, December,
1840. roriiameutary HfltMii-tj Appendix, pp. 4Gv, iui.

GALLINAS.

661

sats or small

enaflting craft, and ia veiy dangproiu during the rains, ^hen it is iWquently impasMible.
During the dry season it may be generally, paracd with safety, excepting oooamonaUy
at the full and change of the moon, which has a very marked effect upon the surf on
the whole of this coast.

Aft«r passing^ the bar, the rivor opens out into a Rpacious sheet of water, about
3 miles across in every direction, which is studded with inlands lately occupied
by the slave dealers, and affording very favourable situations for trading faotoriee<

From hence the river runs, in three branches, to the north-westward,, to the north-
ward, and to the N.E. The fir^t, during the rainy season, joins the Boom Kittam
River, thus affording a direct inland water communication with Sierra Leone i but, in
the dry season, about 8 miles, is too shallow for canoes to pass. Thg next branch
runs ptast the town of Ohindamar (where the king resides), 9 miles from the sea, and
is navigable about 5 leagues for largo canoes. The third branch i-uns close inside the
gea-beach to the S.E., about 4 miles, and then turns suddenly to the N.E. at a place
called Soolimane ; from hence it is navigable for large canoes about 7 miles. This
branch forms the S.E. boundary of the Galliuas territory. To the N.W. it terminates
at a place called Casi, on the banks of the first branch, known by two conspicuous
rouna trees, which form the principal landmarks in this quarter. These limits com-
prise about 12 miles of sea-coast.

The coast here is very low and remarkably uniform, and for this reason three large
baobab trees near the mouth of the Oallinas are an excellent landmark. At about
6 leagues south-eastward from the mouth of the Oallinas is that of another small
river, the Manna, off which you may anchor in 9 or 8 fathoms : this mouth is shut
up by the beach, on which there is always a great surf. It is sometimes called Roc-
Manna, from the unusual circumstance of the snore being covered with blocks of black
rocks. At 8 miles further eastward, passing several villages or factories, you find the
little Siver Sugury, beyond which is the bight formed by Cape Mount, having from
10 to 14 fathoms of water, with a bottom of black mud.

From the JRiver Oallinas to Cape Mount the coast is very low, and covered with
trees. It has a fine sandy beach all the way. At 5 or 6 miles off are regular sound-
ings, from 16 to 18 fathoms, mud and rand, until you arrive at Cape Mount. H.M.S.
Tartar, Sir George Collier, anchored in 15 fathoms, muddy bottom. Cape Mount
bearing S. by E., and a remarkable large clump of trees Nortu. Merchantmen anchor
further in, at 9 and 10 fathoms. . „ - ,. ■■■,<, ■.■.]■ .!- i

CAFE MOTJNT, which may be seen at 9 or 10 leagues off, is a promontory of
high hills, projecting into the sea, the highest peak being 1,066 feet above the sea {
on each side the land is low, rather highest on the North side, with a flat sandy
beach to the eastwaid. llie Cape itself is distinguished by cliffs, which may be
seen 4 leagues off. It is very remarkable, especially in coming from the westward,
when it first makes like an island, and contrasts greatly with the low and uniform
coast to the West of it.

To fall in with Cape Mount, you ought to keep in the latitude of 6" 40', having, on
account of the current which sets toward the shore, frequent recourse to the lead,
when you think yourself near the land. In the night you may not approach nearer
than to 26 fathoms, unless well acquainted.

To the westward of the Cape lies the Road, into which you may run, until the

Coint of the Cape beai;fi South and S. by E. There, in the summer season, that is,
etwcen October and May, when the weather is generally fair, is anchorage in 9, 8,
7, and 6 fathoms, sandy ground ; but it is more common to lie in 15, 14, 13, 12, and
10 fathoms, because the tornadoes and southerly winds sometimes make a very hollow
sea. The watering place is near a large tree in front of the outer point of the capo ;
and here, in the fine season, you may take in water with great facihty.

In coming ashore with your boat, you must bring a hawser with you, and fasten
le end of it to the land, the other being dropped with the anchor to seaward, so
that you may prevent the breakers by it; for you run directly against the flat

one

552

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS, KTC.

.beach below the town, without any shelter of banks or cliffs ; in the morning, you
may easily get ashore with smooth water. •

To the northwai'd of Cape Mount there is a river of the same name, which hu
been celebrated for its trade. There is 7 feet water on the bar at low water, and
13 at high water ; the current runs very strongly out, and the best time for crossing
the narrow bar is at half flood. Between the Cape and the entrance of the River
there is good riding in the Bay, during fine weather, in from 15 to 6 fathoms;
but firom 14 to 12 fathoms should be preferred in the rain v season, and even there
it is hazardojus, unless provided with the best ground tackle ; for southerlv and
S.W. winds, in that season, set into the Bight with a tremendous sea and ncavy
ffusts, which raise a violent surf on the shore, that may be heard at a great
distance.

Those approaching from the westward by night, without a previous sight of land,
must take the precaution of sounding in time, in order to avoid the danger arising
from the velocity of the current. As there are 15 fathoms close in-shore, you should
not advance by dark nearer than in 20 or 25 fathoms. The same precaution should
be taken during the Harmattan, when the sun is obscured by haze ror days together,
and the current varies.

CAFE MESTJBADO lies about 14 leai^ues S.E. by S. \8.K by J?.] from Cape
Mount. Hence its latitude is 6" 19' N., in longitude 10 49'. Between the two
Capes the coast is very low, with a white sandy beach, above which the land is
covered with trees of varying colours; About 3 leagues to the northward of the cape
is the River of St. Paul, navigable for boats only ; but ships may lie off it at pleasure,
in from 16 to 6 fathoms, gooa ground. The deptii of 10 fathoms is nearly two miles
tsom. shore.

Cape Mesurado, though not so hi^h as Cape Mount, is an elevated promontory,
almost perpendicular on the Noi-th side, but with a gradual declivity toward the sea
on the South. There are regular soundings, of 20 to 15 fathoms, muddy bottom,
at 8 ^miles off-shore, along which the current sets strongly. At 2 or 3 miles off-
shore, with the Cape S.E. bv S., is a depth of 15 to 10 fathoms, muddy bottom, and
a common anchorage. With the Cape bearing N.E., the land appears like an island,
with trees rising out of the water to the North ; and at 7 leagues off it appears in its
insular form, the land on each side being very low.

The lighthouse, a red tower 40 feet high, shows a fixed light, at an elevation of
240 feet, and consequently ought to be ^'isible at 15 miles off.

MONROVIA, the capital of Liberia, contains about 300 houses, and 2,000 in-
habitants, and is built on a depression of the ridge which sweeps inland from tiie
Cape.

From its fine situation it is^evidently salubrious, and is far preferable to Sierra
Leone. It is the outlet of the products of the St. Paul to the North, to whien it
is connected by Scockton Creek. The settleraentR of Caldwell, &c,, on the St. Paul,
showed every indication of comfoi-t and prosperity ; far more so than in Monrovia.
Coffee, apparently, will be the great staple of this part of the country.

The Description of the Coast of Guinea, from the River Qallinas eastward,
with directions for the same, is ^iven in the Sailing Directory for the Uthiopic or
Southern Atlantic Ocean, Fifth Edition, p. 375, &c.

Ji .....

e morning, you

THE ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN.

TiJt ■' *'.'_

f '^jUi

3.--THE AZORES, OB WESTERN ISLANDS.

■//

'.<;,!-

n elevation of

THE AZORES, or Weitem Islands, are nine in number, and named Santa
Maria or St. Mark's, St. Miffuel or St. Michaers, Terceira or Tercera, St. Jorge or
St. George's, Graciosa, Fayal, Fico, Florea, and Corvo. The luid is, in general, mgh ;
tiie coasts steep and rocky.

These islands are said to have been discovered about the middle of the fifteenth
century by Joshua Vandenberg, of Bruges, in Flanders, who, in a voyase to Lisbon,
was driven to them by stress of weather. At Lisbon, he boairted of his discovery ; on
which the Portuguese, in that spirit of enterprise so strongly manifested by them at
this period, set sail and took possession of them, calling them Agorea, or lalet of
Hawks, from the many hawks and falcons found amongst them. It appears that they
were entirely destitute of inhabitants, and of every animal excepting birds. The
latter were numerous and of various species.

Antonio Qonzalo says, that the ^eat Don Henry, Prince of Portugal, conmdered
these isles as so considerable an acquisition, that he went in j>erson to take possession,
in 1449. This was forty-three years before Colombo landed in America. And, it has
been affirmed, that the Flemish merchants, on the part of their countrymen, sent a
colony thither, many of whose descendants continue in Fayal to this oay. Hence
the isles have been also called Flamingos, or Flemith Itlandt.

The capital of the Azores is Anpra, in Terceira, the residence of the civil governor
but the general residence oi the bishop is in the Island of St. Michael.

The climate is delightfiil ; the air generally clear and serene } the soil ao prolific,
that both European and tropical plants arrive at the greatest perfection : the fiuse of
the earth is, however, so diversified, as in some places to exhibit, within a small
extent, volcanic hills and productions, gardens of aromatic plants, pastures, vine-
yards, orangeries, &c. The greatest inconvenience of these isles is, their having been
subject to eruptions and earuiquakes ; and, in some parts, where the coasts are low,
the sea has, at times, overflowed the land, and occasioned considerable mischief. Yet,
in the cultivated parts, the lava, once a stream of fire, is planted vrith oranses, lemons,
and vines ; and we land, formed from the decomposition of volcanic suDstances, is
sovn with Indian com, small beans, and wheat. The islands still abound in waste
lands, fit for the cultivation of hemp, the vine, &c.

Beinff generally mountainous, they may be descried from a considerable distance ;
particularly the pesJc on the Isle of Pico, noticed hereafter, which may be seen more
than 20 leagues off.

It cannot be doubted that this archipelago must be considered as an immense
ridge, on which craters are thrown up so as to form islands. The Ishmd of St. Mary,
the only one not situated in the general direction of the others, is not volcanic ( no
part of its surface appears to have suffered from heat or eniption, snbseqoent to its
formation. The Island of Pico is elongated firom S.E. to N. W. in the same manner
as all the other islands, St. George, St. Michael, and Terceira ; and Fh»M and Corvo
lie exactly in the same directien. Fayal appears to be nothing more than a part
of Pico, for the general direction of these islands and their snores perfectly cor-
responds \ and Si. Mlchaera wid Terceira aj^ear to be connected by an intermediate

4 A

ISLANDS OF THE NOKTH ATLANTIC OCEAN.

ran^ of volcanic formations, as will be subupquentlv seen. Few places offer sach i
▼aliety of volcanic phenomena as St. Michael's ; ana the history of the eruptions and
earthquakes on ana near it give ample proof of the violence of the subterraneoiu
foVow over whhih it lies. In the desoriptions of the separate islands will be found
noticed f the principal volcanic phenomena that have been recorded. The reader
is directed, for a more complete deMcription of the volcanoes, &c., of the Azorei,
to an article in the "Nautical Magazinr" for 1841, pace 752, consisting of extracti
from the '* Philosopical Transactions," and " Von Buch's Descripcion Fhisique" of |
tliese islands.

T^^A population of the Archipelago fiwm the census of 1857 amounts to 241,646.

"WINDS AT THE Azores. — ^In the former jMirt of this work, in the section treating
on the subject, we have given descriptions of the general ph> 'i<im>. na of the wiiidt
and hurricanes of the Atmntic, and the laws by which ther " i ;rt<j to be govei-ncd,ai
deduced from the numerous and careful observatioDB thv"^ U8 . » I ;n rade at variou
times. In connexion with that system of aerial cnrren'i- anl their perturbations, ve
have reserved the consideration or that pai't of the suVJrct ^>'hich is connected with
the Azores, and their vicinity. It will not be iPivessarj to ..capitulate any of the
principles or statements which have been before f,i v>;i>, but must refer the reader to
that division of the subject, as detailed in page !' i 4 . iud following.

The ibllowing Table shows the mean duration in days uf the winds from each
quarter, from the results of 10 years' observations made by Thomas Carew Hunt,
Esq., between Jan. 1, 1840, and Dec. 31, 1849 * :—

UUVUllCU Y

ticalMttgi

a
(1

1
1

Fromtt
rately obw
sions whic
general di

With the C

K. ..

1-32

112

118

1-27

152

016

211

0-14

1-40

216

2-78

3-62

7-29

11-07

18-36

may every
rise of wa

N.E. .

7-64

6'18

6-73

8-89

10-9

101

137

151

11-6

10-9

6-84

7-71

6904

460

116-04

checked in
of atmosp
identify th
work of C
Stream to

E. ..

107

0-63

066

1-80

1-28

0-76

117

0-30

1-20

062

0-69

1-72

6-61

6-19

11-70

8.e; .

4-44

3-90

803

2-44

313

2-78

4-71

4-94

4-46

3-74

3-60

20-98

2317

44-15

their diam

..."^•./■.•.r,'

2'88

0-96

2-26

0-79

0-95

0-67

Oil

008

012

1-51

1-64

2-0

2-72

11-13

13-35

cane of Oc

fi.W. .

8'46

6-60

9 01

406

8-78

4-43

4-63

2-89

8-44

413

6-94

6-32

23-20

38-46

61-66

in about 5i
diameter.

w. ..

116

1'17

1-58

1-61

2-38

1-61

209

1-78

101

1-36

1-39

1-52

10-23

8-17

18-40

With re

the use wl

N.W. .

6-86

704

6-44

8-061 a OOl 8 •>?•! '■82

4-73

&-b9^

5 19

6-03

0o3

39-62

37-11 76-63 1

the Azore

' '■ '

probable

Calm .

0-19

0-66

0'12

0'»?|-'> 'jO;0>i; , i7

1-29

0-74

0-66

O'lO

0-08

3-61

1-70

6-21

Stream, ni

Surf ,

the wind ^

1-13

6-49

2-70

116

0-60

003

0-20

207

4-42

6-42

7-38

6-66

38 85

45-50

would ace

■shore.

Similar hurricanes to those described in the section devoted to the subject seem to
bo prevalent at the Azores, and in some measure to be governed by the HanH> lavx.
'Tbw it will be very important for the mariner to know, and therefore the following

* Beport of the British Aasooiation, 1850, page 135.

WI^iDS A'f TH]^ A^SOHES.

its to 241,646.

•3

11-07

18-36

460

US'**

619

11-70

2317

44-l{

1113

13'3J

38-46

61 'G6

8-17

18-40

3711

76-63

1-70

6-21

38 85

45-50

subject seem to
jr the same laws.
re 1 he following

obiervationH, by T. C. Hunt, JBtq., the Bzitisb coiuul at Bt, Michael's, will be very
interesting :—

u xhe r<^?ulaFity with whioh gales enter these seas in the north-west quarter,, Mid,
after oros^iiig f hem, disappear at the southreuit, is, a circumstance the knowlcfdm
of which may be highly servicuuble to the commanders of ships ■ailing aoxwM 1u9
Atlantic

" The centre of a eale, in its approach, always e£PectH a descent on the barometer,
and a change in the fall of rain. In iti!i actual passage over the instrument, the de-
scent generally^ reai hes 28-50, ^m which a rise of one-tenth appears to take place
for every 10 miles' removal of the centre ; so that the number of miW 'listuiice from
the centre of an approaching gale might, perhaps, be indicated by i number of
hundredths shown by the barometer over the extreme of 28'dO.

" The difference in the fall of rain* has also its regularity, the approat of the
centre bringing a temporary increase, and then a cessation of the rain, whici, < re-
newed, and, in a reversed order, diminished on the removal of the centre. A ord-
ing to the observations made at this office, there appears to be in every ^^ale ol ind
If __-• 1 J. in« _:i-_ -•_ 1 J..1. 1. -•- ^ _ ^..t . 1 'is a^xmt

on to the
twelve-

•vnry 1

atui
» of
iioh
-'au-

ecu-

'•lu-

ite

•h

a zone of rain about 120 miles in breadth, heaviest on the inner edge, wh
60 miles distant from the centre ; that the fall of rain decreases in prop(
distance from this line; and that the fall on the inner edge, bfing ab>
hondrcdth of an inch per hour, the decrease is about one-uundi dth fox
miles of removal.

•' In order to follow out the -views of Colonel {Sir W.) Beid, the British cons;
the vice-consuls at the Azores kept regular d 'ily tables of the direction and *'<'
winds, between Ma^, 1840, and mv., 1841 . and the courses of twenty gal
occurred were compiled from them, and the details of them t^re given m thf
tical Magazine,' as before quoted." .._.,„: ■,.,.; ^ '>■

From the particulars of these twenty gales, of which the courses have been
rately observed during the years 1840-41,-|- ther<> apppears to be some general c(
sions which may be. dteduced. The first circum^tauce developed hy the inquiry l
general direction of storms passing across the Azures. The coincidence ot this en
\vith the Great Atlantic Current, which is a continuation of the Oulf Stream, wl
may every day be traced to the neighbourhood of the Azores, and which the sud -i
rise of water in those islands (where, having been hastened by a gale, it is sudd*
checked in any locality by the operation of the -w ind, accompanied by a diminuii
of atmospheric pressure) proves to be sensibly carried beyond them, goes very far
identify the Azorean streams with the tropical gaks and nurrioanes traced in the &bkf
work of Colonel Reid, from the South American coast, along the course of the Golf
Stream to Cape Hatteras, in North America. There is a further resemblance in their
their diameters. In the chart which Colonel Reid Las composed of the great hurri-
cane of October the 10th, 1780, the diameter given to it, in the latitude of the Azores,
is about 550 miles. Of the Azorean gales under consideration, four were about this
diameter, eleven of about or under 660, and five under 900.

With respect to navigators, for whose benefit these inquiries are chiefly intended,
the use which may be made of this knowledge of the courses, taken by storms across
the Azores, is in the direction of vessels which may b reached by them. It seems
probable that if a ship were caught by a violent gate in the current of the Gulf
Stream, near the Azores, her best course would be to steer, so far as tlu'! veering of
the wind would allow, due North or South ; that if sht- steered to the eastward, sH(i
would accompany the gale, and bo overtaken by the greater violence of its centi'e,

* In the Azores a southerly -wind creates great humidity in the atmosphere ; a northerly
wind removes it. Under the former influence, there is frequ ontiy two per cant, of water iu
the air; under the latter, less than one.

t The commencement of these gales was on the folio-wing days. -vi?. : — 1840, June 4th,
Aug. 19th, Oct. 3rd, Oct. 7th, Oct. 9th, ?fov. 2nd, Ncv. llth, Nov. 14th, Nov. 28th,
Doc. iHt, Dec. 6th, Dec. llth, Dec. 16th, Dec. 27th; 1841, Jan. llth, Fob. 3rd, Feb. llth,
March (1th. Afarnh 19th Se«>t. Sth andS^t 18th.

5d6

DESORIFTION OF THE ISLANDS.

anid that by Meering to the West f&he would sooner meet the centre^ mn into a new
gale.

Whatever may be the cause of the occasional deflection of the Azorean stomu,
whether it arises fixnn collision with another storm, or from atmospheric eravitation
(the radiation of hMtt from the islands bein^ always very sreat), the uniform effect
appears to be a diminution of their progressive vjlocity, and frequently an increase of
their rotatory fbrce.

But as fiir as these effects can be foreseen, fit>m a knowledge of the deflection (vk-
sumin^ it always to be accompanied by a slower progression), it is worthy oi ob-
servation, that the deflection never appears to take a turn to the northward, bnt
always to the South. If this be true, tne safest course for a ship in these gales ia
to the NorUi, unless there are very cogent reasons for a departure from this presumed
rule.

, 8T. MICHAEL'S. — The island of St. Michael consists of a number of mountains,
hills, and declivities, which are evidently the production of volcanic eruptions. The
moimtains and hills clearly indicate, by their conical figure, and tlie cavity at their
summits, their being the production of fire, and bear unequivocal marks of the cffi'cts
of this destructive agent, m an accumulation of lava, sconie, and volcanic sand.

Externally, the volcanoes appear exting^uished, but they are supposed still to burn
internally and invisibly. Of this, Caldeiraa, or fountains of boiling water, in the
Valley of Furnas and other parts, are evident symptoms. There have existed three
principal craters, whose vertices now form three great lakes, situate toward the centre
and the northern and southern poilions of the island. From those craters vast
mountains have been thrown up ; and, in proportion as these ceased to vomit forth
matter, partial eruptions burst out, and formed the lateral hills and declivities, which
extend tnemselves m every direction from th^ mountains surrounding the lakes. The
cessation of fire tsom the different craters has been attributed to water, which appean
to have gained access to each, and suddenly extinguished the effervescence of its
mineral contents ; and the fire now seems confined to stations, where it operates only
in boiling the water with various degrees of activity and force.

The island, at length, seems to be of such a structure and confirmation, that the
waters pass freely throughout its volcanic caverns, and are easily forced out without
shaking or disturbing the earth. Of these extinguiished craters, that (the Sttk
CSdadea) in the N.W. part of the island is the largest, and is about 3^ miles long bv
2 miles broad. The interior is occupied by two lakes, and the ridge bounding it u
nearly of equal height throughout, except where it rises into peaks, and on the jV.W.
presents a gap between two hills, 1,620 and 1,770. feet high. The second crater i«
about 3,060 feet hiffh, and is called the Agoa de Pao ; it is m the middle of the island,
and situated in a large mass of pumice stones. Agoa das Furnas is the third
crater, 095 feet high, and in it arc the hot-water springs, but it is not so high
as that of Alagoa Grande. From Agoa das Furnas tne mountains of pumicc-Ntonc
continue higher, forming a continual range as far as the Pico de Vara, the highcHt of
which is 3,560 feet above the sea, and is the only summit on the island where snow is
found.

After Gonzalo Yelho Cabral had succeeded in establishing a colony in the Island of
St. Mary, discovered in HiH, he landed on the N.W. coast of St. Michael, in 1444,
and the extensive plains he saw apncorcd to him to be so capable of being highly cul-
tivated that he returned immediately to St. Mary to make preparations tor coloiiiziiif;
his newly-discovered country. But when he went there the following year, witli
everything necessary for the establishment of his colony, what was his surprise when,
in the place of the plains, he found an enormous mountain, wliich had been elevatid
on them, with an immense crater. This mountain is called the AUigoa de los Hetk
Cidadeg, on which are tlio two lakes Layoa Orande and Layo Aztil, oh nieiitiuniil
before. After the elevation of this great mountain, the island remained tranquil
until 1322, when an eruption overturned the two hills Sorirat and Rubicali and I'n-
tirely destroyed the town of Villa Fram-a, and 4,000 inhabitants also lost their lives.
in 1663, an eruption occurred of the Pico Sapadeiro, and a large current of lava ran

THE AZORES.

ri;.=iy'

^m^-

557

r run into a new | into the sea on the North side. In 1591, seven shocks of earthquakes occorred, and
VUla Franca was again destroyded. In 1638, the island to the West was found as

Kimeasi stonm,
eric flrravitation
3 timform effect
ly an increase of

! deflection fpre.
s worthy or ob-
northward, but
n these gales is
a this presumed

iT of mountains,
eruptions. Th«
cavity at their
ks of the cffi'cts
uiic sand.

ed still to burn
f water, in the
re existed three
ward the centre
«e craters vast
to vomit forth
iciivities, which
the lakes. The
, which appean
vescenco of its
t operates only

ation, that the

ed out without

:hat (the Seik

milcM long by

boundinff it is

d on the N.W.

cond crater is

le of the island,

is the third

s not 80 high

f piunice-stoiic

the highfNt of

where snow is

as described elsewhere. In 1652, some hills near Ponta del Gada threw up an im-
mense quantity of stones and cinders, spreading destruction around. In 1691, after
some very violent earthquakes, several small islets appeared not far from the coast.
In November, 1707, a torrent, attributed to the breaking of a waterspout, fell on
Ponta del Gada, and caused great damage. In 1719, a new island appeared in the
West, also mentioned hereafter. In 1720, a succession of violent earthquakes injured
the towns and villages, and shook down great rocks from the clifis, &c. La 1744, Oc-
tober 5, another fall of water occurred, washing down the valleys of Fovoa^ao and
Fayal de Leira, carrying away great parts of two villa^s. llie cause of these.floods,
not now unknown, is still luiexplained. The great Lisbon earthquake in 1754 was
also felt here, but there was no eruption. In 1806, a mass of rock slipped from the
vdley of the Furnas, leaving a chasm 100 yards in diameter ; and in 1811 a similar
fall occurred close to the same place. The eruptions of August 11, 1810, and of Sa-.
brina Island, June 13, 1811, are described below. In 1838, another landslip occurred
at the Furnas. In 1839, December 5, a rise of the sea, like that in 1755, washed
down several houses, &c., on the South coast. The last earthquake which was felt
here was that which devastated Terceira, in June, 1841, of which a description is
given in the notice of that island.

The circumstances attending the formation of Sabrina Island are described as
follows : the island had previously been apparently quiescent.* In the early j»rt of
the year 1811, a most awfiil and tremendous explosion of smoke and flames issued
from the sea at the distance of half a league from the shore at the western end of the
island. From the depth of about 40 fathoms, in the ocean, issued smoke, fire, cinders,,
ashes, and stones of an immense size. Innumerable quantities of fish, some nearly
roasted, and others as if broiled, floated on the surface of the sea toward the shore.
Thus a dangerous shoal gradually formed.f On the 10th of June, the crew of the
Sabrina, British sloop of war, obseived two columns of white smoke arising from tho
sea, which they supposed to arise from an engagement, and made sail toward it, but
were disappointed hy the wind's dying away. The israokc continued to ascend, wiUi
volumes of flame, and they then concluded it was a volcano. Next day they were
close in with the land of St. Michael, and found the volcano still raging. They
learned, on tho island, that smoke was first observed on the 13th of June; two or
three days previous to which there had been felt repeated shocks of earthquake in
the capital of St. Michael, which threw down seveiil cottages and portions of the
cliff toward the N.W., so that destruction was feared on the island ; but these ceased
80 soon as the volcano broke out. On the 18th, the Sabrina went so near to the vol-
cano OS she could with safety, and found it still raging with unabated violence, throw-
ing up, from under tho water, large stones, cinders, ashes, &c., accompani'.d with
several severe concussions. About noon on the same day they observed the mouth of
the cratci- just showing itself above tho surface of the sea, where there were formerly
40 fathoms of water. At three p.m., same day, it was about 30 feet above the sur-
face of the water, and about a furlong in length. On the 19th they were within 6

1 the Island of
hnel, in 1444,
ng highly cui-
tor colon iziiiK
ng year, witli
mrpriso when,
been clcvaftd
(Ht lie Ins fktie
, as mentioned
lined tranquil
iciil and t'o*
st tlii'ir lives.
t of lava ran

• The approAimation to an eruption has, however, at times appeiirod to hiivo boon very
cloBO. Oa tno lltli of August, 1813, at tho hour of ten p.m., slight shocks of an oiirtli-
quako were folt, wliich continued, at intervals of a few mmutos, lor four lioiuit. IJotweon
two and throo o'clock next morning, a di'eadful rocking was experioncod tluoiigliout tho
whole island ; several houses, unable to resist its violonco, were thrown down, and many
oUiers wore greatly damaged ; and such persons as sought nafoty in tho open air woro dashod
to tho ground. On tho uastom side of the island an oriiico wan discovorod, romjinbling the
cniter of a volcano, and out of which flames occasionally burst forth ; but thoy do not ap-
pear to have boon accompauiod by any ejection of vocanic matter.

• Tho flames were first soon in tho niglit of tho 1st of Fobruary, but invisible indications
of its operations had boon folt in nhocks on tho island from tho middle of the preceding
yesr. I'xm oimorvod nituaiion was H. vV. of Point Fnrraria, and duo West from the I'lco de
Oinotos, af about Ij miles from the nearest fthorn. The >)rig fiwift, with till her crow, were
lost oa this spot, before tho existouco of the shoiU was known.

i»

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

or 6 miles of the volcano, and found it about 50 feet in height, and two-thirds of a
mile in length, still n^ng as before, and throvring up large quantities of stones, some
of which fell a mile distant from the volcano. The smoke drew up several wate^
spouts, which, roreading in the air, fell in heavy rain, accompanied with vast quanti-
ties of ftoe black sand, that completely covered the Sabrina's decks, at the distance of
3 or 4 miles. On the 30th they proceeded on a cruise, leaving the volcano about 150
fe^t high, and still raging as fbrmerly, and continuing to increase in size. On the 4th
of July they agsin visited it, and found that a complete island was formed, and per-
fectly quiet. The captain and several officers landed won it, and found it very steep,
and its neight frnn 200 to 300 feet. It was with difficulty they were able to reach
the top.

On the 17th of June, Captain Tillard, of the Sahrma, accompanied by Mr. Reid,
the British consul, with two other gentlemen, proceeded overland to the cliff nearest
to the volcano ; and which was between 300 and 400 feet above the level of the sea.
The first appearance it presented was that of an immense body of smoke revolving in
the water almost horizontally, in varied involutions ; when suddenly would shoot up
a column of the blackest cinders, ashes, and stones, in form like a spire, and rising to
windward at an angle of from 10" to 20" from a perpendicular line. This was rapidly
succeeded by a second, third, and fourth, each having great velocity, and overtopping
the preceding one till they had attained an altitude as much above the level of the
eye on the chff as the sea was below it. These bursts were accompanied by explo-
sions of the most vivid lightning, with a noise lik'.' t > continual firing of cannon and
musketry intei-mixed ; and, as the cloud of smoki i . .ed off to leeward, it drew up
the waterspouts, above mentioned, which formec* a beautiful and striking addition to
the seen.

Subsequently the islet fell by degrees into the sea *, and, in the middle of October,
no part was left above water ; but a dangerous shoal remained in the place which it
had occupied. In February, 1812, smoke was discovered still issuing out of the Hea
near the spot.* In June, 1841, Captain Vidal, in H.M.S. Sti/x, anchored in 10
fathoms, on the site of Sabrina Island, and found that the least water thereon was 15
fathoms.

St. Michael's contains one city, five principal towns, fifty-four parishes, and
about, in 1840, 39,098 males and 41,711 females, total 80,809, living in 19,72«
houses. The coast is very bold, and may be approached without fear in almoat every
part, the N.W. side excepted. Its military strength consists of 300 or 400 ti'ouiM,
with a militia of several thousand ^asantry, whose arms are the pikes with which
they drive their cattle. The principal fortification is the castle of St. Bras, which is
close to the sea, and the western end of the city of Pouta del Oada. It is mounted
with 24 pieces of canon, but few of which are capable of service. A league to tho
eastward are two small thi-cc-gim forts, inHufflcient from decay and nogleet. The
island, notwithstanding, has many strong local holds ) and scvoial of the IuUh and
luisses, if judiciously fortified, would bo impregnable.

The landed rental is estimated (1851) at £16(i.()00 a year: it exports 38,000 quar-
ters of corn, one-half to Ireland, valued at £00,000 ; and 100,000 London size boxes
of oranges to England (with tho exception of about fimr cargoes sent to the United
States), valued at £40,000. In IHOl the value of the fruit exported was £10,000, and
in 1850 at about 05,000. In 1852 the orange ci-op is expected to amount to 150,000
boxes ; value, £00,000. The number of vessels calling to trade annually is 250
British, 150 I'ortuguesc, and 10 foreigners.

TiiK City of Ponta del Oada is tho chief scat of commerce, and contains
20,(M)0 inhabitants. This town appears exceeiliuf^ly pleasant from the offing. Tiicru
is a mole for the protection of small vessels, but those of greater burden compelled

• About 1/5 loBguos to tho westward, a volcano, w .ich ha. ^pptmred in ie;)8, broko out
from the soft in 1719, and disiippeiiroil in 1723. A depth oi'MO i .'.horns was iiftoiwanlH fouml
<m the spot which it had occupied. But see tho dusoriplion ot Turcuira for this volutuiiv

bhoal.

PONTA DEL GADA.

559

to lide In an open roadstead. By deepening and enlarg^g the harbour, it might he
rendered capable of receiving vessels of a considerable draught ; and, by excavating
the square of St. Francis, and cutting a canal between it and the mole, a large
number of vessels might be accommodated. As it is, vessels of burden cannot safety
use it ; for they would risk tbe danger of slipping their cables, while loading or un-
loading, and, perhaps, not be able to recover their station for several weeks ; or^ at
least, not dare to attempt its recovery during the prevalence of strong southerly
gales. It luu been said in former years that a light was shown here, but it was not
the case, and it is now stated that a light is proposed for South Clara fort.

The roadstead and harbour of Ponta del Oada are, however, the best that the island
affords. ^ The place next consequence is that called Ribeika Grande, one the
North side of the island ; but here is no anchorage ; and, having no harbour, it
is dependent for its commercial supplies on the towns on the South side. Villa
Franca, which is on the latter, haa a very inferior anchorage, and that for small
vessels only.

, St. Micihael, bold all round, may be approached without fear, as there are no
rocks or dangers more than a furlong from the shore, excepting some rocks at the
N.W. end, and the volcanic shoal, already described. The lonner extend about half
a mile from the Bay of Mosteiros, near the north-wcKtem point. The winds most
prevalent, from October to April, are from S.W. to N.W., which frequently come
m heavy squalls, particularly from the northward. In approaching from the east-
ward, Ponta de Galera, the southernmost point, should have a good offinp^, as the high
land above it often occasions a calm, and there are some rocks off the point.

On approaching the N.W. end of the island from the westward, the appearance is
very unpromising, as it presents barren mountains of stupendous bulk, with a coast
like many ramified pillars of basalt, exhibiting, at top, a few trees of stinted growth.
The impression made by a scene of rough and craggy cliffs is, however, soon dissipated
by a pleasing contrast on the southern coast, as this presents a beautiful acclivity,
aaorned by mruiiant vegetation. Open pastures, bounded by woods, vineyards, and
corn-fields, interspersed with orange and lemon trees, everywnere meet the eye, and
afford a landscape, extensive and various, that will always, in clear weather, be seen
with delight.* ....

. .. O'.

■>1'^-^^-

Outlitu of the land ovtr Ponta del Oada.

The road of PONTA DEL GADA, off the principal city, has good holding-
jjround, on which ships may ride safely, excepting during gales, from W.N.W. to
S.8.E. Should a vessel be forced to quit the anchorage in winter, by a southerly

• An escsUont and detailed account of St. Michael's, its geoloKical formation, its nftturtil
productions and general particulars, is given by H.M. consul, Mr. Hunt, in the " Journal
of tho Royal Ooogrnphicul Bocioty, vol. xv., 1846, p. 268, it uq.

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

gale, it will be beRt to round the western end of the island, and await a shift of \rind
from the N.'VV., which commonly succeeds a S.W. wind. ThuB may the roadstead be
easily regained ; but, by running to the south-eastward, it may be ten days, or more,
before you can beat back to the road. In beating up, keep close in shore, only avoid-
ing some rocks, which lie near Ponta de Galcra. Fresh water is easily procured in
the craft of the island.

' In 1846, it was announced that the following signnls had been established and
shown from a flagstaff at the custom-house ouay : — 1. A red ,/%r-— vessels at anchor
should immediately weigh, on account of the weater. 2. A iohite flag — vessels in
sight may safely make for the anchorage. 3. A red flag with white border — vessels
must not send their boats on shore, landing being dangerous.

It was also stated, that four buoys had been laid down in the anchorage, whicli
would considerably reduce the risk of vessels leaving their anchors and chains
behind them when they leave the roads.

Those coming in on the northern side of the island, must be cautious of not getting
embayed near Kibeira Grande, as there is no good anchorage on that side in case of^
shift of wind.

Thk road of VILLA FRANCA is sheltered by the Porto do Ilheo, a remark-
able volcanic rock, having a circular basin in its centre, with an entrance to it on the
N.E., fronting the town of Villa Franca. The entrance of this basin has 7 feet of
water, and is just broad enough to admit a small vessel, llie basin is about 100
fathoms in breadth, and has had a depth of from 8 to 18 feet ; the bottom of sand and
small stones. This place is resorted to by small vessels for the purpose of careening,
&c. It affords shelter from gales between West aad South ; but, as a part of the
S.E. side is low, the wind from that direction throws a heavy swell into into it, and
renders it dangerous; and vessels caught with this wind must be scuttled, as the only
way to save them. Not more than four vessels can lie with safety on the outside, in
winter, under shelter of the rock on the N.^., where there are 4 and 5 fathoms of
water. The ground near the town is foul and dangerous ; but it is stated, that a
ship may lie in 8 or 9 fitthoms, between the town and islet, by fastening a hawser on
shore.*

The Porto do Ilheo is a great natural curiosity ; it having been originally a volcano
of great height, whose apex has fallen into the caverns beneath, and forms the basin.
Ite appearance is extremely rugged and irregular. On its South side is a remarkable
detached rock, distinguished by the name of the Pyramid.^

Of Villa Franca, Tofino says : — " It is situated on a beach, which forms but a
very small bight. The channel between the islet [Ilheo) and coast is of the width of
3 cables' length, or thereabout, and is its pryicipal anchorage; it has 10 and 1 1 fathoms
of water, sandy bottom, and vessels moor North and South, with a hawser on shore,
on the islet ; but the latter, owing to its diminutive size, does not shelter a vessel
from the wind sea, between E.S.E. by South, to S.S.W. The town is capacious ; and
water, with all kinds of provisions, may be had here."

Tlie breakers seen to the N.E. of St. Michael's will be found described in the next
section. , ■ '-.-...•; .•'■:'■,/.■•■ >

* There is a rock and reef (the Lobeira Rock) lying S.W. by 8., three-fourths of a mile
oflf Point Albufeira (which is 4| miles East of Villa Franca). It is not volcnnic, but hai
always boon knoMm, It is not on the early charts.

i> In a letter to the editor, dated 28th of May, 1828, Captain LivinRston says:— "The
Ilheo seems to be tilling up with sand. The most of the rook is a kind of conglomeratft of
lava, in detached pieces, sand, dobris, and pumico-stono, and on the East side it seems
gradually wearing away. Tho highost part appoiirs about 80 feet high. There aro culti-
vated terraces on it, with cane-reeds, planted lor shelter, and they grow not only potatoes
liud maize on it, but there are oven .* fow poor vinos, and some fine heath 3 to 4 feet in
height.

" The sir.g;i!.".r volcanic reak of Gamarinha*, on the West end of tho island, was tho last
active »-olcuno in St. Michael's."

PORT CAPELLAS.

led in the next

Don Vincente Tofino, in his description 6t St. Michael's, states that Point Fer-
RARIA, the westernmost point of the island, is high and sloped, but a low point pro-
jects from it into the sea, so as to form a rocky ridge to the S.W. At the distance
of a league from land this ridge lias over it from 7 to 10 fathoms of water, and a
heavy sea rises over it, veir high.* The little harbour of MosTElROS, to the N.E.,
serves for boatB only. Of the islets here, the largest is high, sloped, and smooth
at its summit, with an aperture, through which the sea passes from one side to
the other.

North Side of the Island. — Between the Ponta dos Mosteiros and Ponta da
Bretanha the land of the coast is high and rocky, and it forms the Bay of Joam Bom ;
at the bottom of which appears a very sharp-pointed mountain, called the Pico de
Maffa, which serves as a very useful mark for ascertaining the coast.

Within the Ponta da Bretanha, and extending eastward, is the long village of
Bretanha. The country here is highly cultivated, and pasture land.

The Villa da Hibeira Grande, already noticed, is rich, stored with all kinds of
provisions, and abounds- with good water, but landing is practicable only when the
sea is very smooth.

PORT CAPELLAS.— The following description of this small harbour on the
North side of St. Michael's is by Mr. Hunt, the British consul : — " Persons having
stated that the bottom of the North side of St. Michael is foul in the anchoring
depths, and that no vessel would be likely to recover her anchor if she brought up
there, I thought it may duty to take the earliest opportunity of proceeding thither,
with the agent for Lloyd's at this port, for the purpose of ascertaining the ti-uth of
these assertions.

" The result of our survey was, that at about half a mile distant from the shore,
between Ribeira Grande and Capellas, there is a line, which, with occasional projec-
tions towards the land^ separates the foul and stony bottom of the coast from a per-
fectly smooth and firm bed of fine sand, sloping to seaward ; that, along this line, the
depth varies from 25 to 35 fathoms ; and that, from the rugged nature ^f the coast
itself, the small port of Capellas is the only part at which it would be safe for boat«
tx) disembark." In a small plan, also by Mr. Hunt, the marks for anchoring are,
first, the outer point of the port on with the Morro of Rio Grande, bearing E. by S. ;
and, second, Point St. Antonio on with Point Minho.

The N.E. Point of the island is Ponta da Ribeira ; at If miles to the S. by W.
S. hy E."] from this is the Ponia del Arnel, having a small port of the same name,
lut it is unsheltered, and the bottom rocky. The two points are of equal height, but

between them is a slender bay, with sloped rocky land, in the middle of which is a

very remarkable glen, wherein is a small river.

The distant view of St. Michael's is sometimes deceiving, in consequence of the
haze which frequently covers the land ; and the following observations will be useful
in explaining anj' uncertainty which may be felt in making this island. Captain
Midgley says :■ — " On the 26th of September, 1840, at daylight, I hauled up on a
N.E. by E. course, by compass, to make St. MichaeFa, with a moderate S.S.E. breeze
and fine clear weather. At noon saw the West end of the island bearing N.E. | E.,
and although the weather was apparently clear in every other part, a small portion
of the land could only bo seen, the remainder being covered with clouds and haze.
The above bearing and observed latitude placed the ship 31 miles from the West end
of the island. At three p.m. saw the eastern extremity of the land distinctly, but
could not make out the land in the centre of the island ; indeed, the haze which hung
over it so completely deceived me for some time» that I considered two islands were
in siijht, and tnat I must have made some mistake in my observations ; but, on drawing
nearer to the land, as the sun apjtroaehed the horizon, the fog dispersed, and I had a
good sight of the centre of the island also. After sunset, the evening was fine, with

* Thoro is a similar ridge, with islets on it, extending about a league from Point Mutogos,
the N.W. point of the island : it has from 2 to 6 and 7 fathtmiB over it.

4 R

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

(wrtae fAMt weather. At eight p.m. the light of Ponta Ferraria was aeen at 10 tnilca
off— but ttueh a Uffht ! had it not been marked on the Chart, I could not have
\h lieved k reflected from a lighthouse established for the direction of shipping— the
light Wtes really miserable : and, as it was not shown until long after every trace of
daylight had oisappeared (for the weather was quite dear, aira a careful look'«tit
kept for it), the fight which was seen might have been reasonably supposed to be
iQiat of some fisherman or passing vessel. (It has since been stated that no lights ate
exhibited.)

" On December 31st, 1841, 1 intended to pass to the southward of St. Michael'i,
but a scant wind obliged me to bear up for tue West end of that island, on passing
which it had again the appearance of two separate islands, with well-defined ex-
tii>mities to each, the land in the centre being coveied with fog and haze. When
seen from the northward, on the following day, it had again the same appearance,
that of two separate and apparently well-c^fined islands."

ISL£ OF ST. ICABY. — ^The preceding desorintioii of the appearances of St,
-Michael's will apply generally to St. Mary^s, and the other islands. The town is on
the South side, towara the West, on a bay, in which there is an islet ; and between
this island and the land is the anchorage, with a depth of 6 and 6 fiithoms. For the
position of the town and the chief points of the isle, see the Table.*

St. Mart'h has a town and three villages, with about 4,S00 inhabitants. Its chief
productions are wheat and barley, of the first quality, vnth wine and cattle ; but
onlv sufficient for its own consumption. It has water in abundance, but of wood
little, and a scanty proportion of fi:uit and vegetables.

" The Island of St. Mary is about 7 miles in its greatest, and 5 miles in its smallest,
diameter. It has nearlj in the centre the double-peaked mountain of Pico Alto,
1,880 feet in height, which falls on the East and West sides .to a shelving base of
about a mile in breadth, and 850 fieet above the sea. To the North and South it
throws out a range of undulating heights, which terminate at the sea in lofty nraral
olifik of mo|e than 200 feet elevation. The East side of this range is covered widi
hills, diminishing in altitude as they recede firom the centre, and intersected by nume-
rous gorgfes of increasing width and depth, the channels by which the heavy rains of
winter reach their points of discharge. The West side is a slightly inclining and on-
dulating plain, also cut by ravines, terminating in oliffis more than 100 fbet hwh. The
aspect of St. Mary's is therefore on all sides perfectly bold; the central peak custinct;
the subordinate range high and of varied outline ; and the coast abrupt preoipitoui,
and based by the usual accompaniment of fallen masses.

« In its geology, St Mary's is not like the other islands, where the surface of recent
volcanic matter conceals wnatever may have been their original constitution, or the
progress of their growth. It is of trap formation, and contains in its beds of marine
shells proofs of ito elevation from the sea, but there are some points of similarity in
its stioicture to that of St. Michael's ; this is also the case with respect to Madein,
and still more to Sicily ."f

" On the Slst of Deoembe|;^1841," says Captain Midgley, " at sunrise, with very
clear weather, I made < St. Mary's, ' bearing E.N.E. bv compass, distant 45 miles, at
which time the land appeared fh>m the deck to be like two small well-defined papti
rising out of the water close together ; but on a nearer approach on the same bearing
il appeared like a saddle land, which appearance it retained until the summits of some
of the lower hills became visible."

* ImmenBe quantities of molliiscat, or sea-worms, are certain signs of the proximity of
St. Mary's. Some of them are of a white colour, or of arrow-root mixed with hot water,
fliid are about 18 inches long, with orange spots on them, like the eyes of a peacock's tail.
— A. Livingston.

« a\/ui I

n descriptiuu of St. Mary's by Mr. consn! C. Hunt, in Journal of the Royal Geo-
(^rapliical Hocioiy, vol. xv., 4845, p. 2G0,' et $eq.

THS AZORES.

M»

ice, but of wood

PoifTA Do CABTBLto, tbe S.E. point, ii Ugh, and has a break, whieb forms a peak,
in the ehape of a «entry-box. A Teaiel may an^or •mttk this point S.W. vy S.
[8. by W.}t and close to it in 10 fathoms, bottom of sand.

On the Eastern Coast, at 24 miles N.N.E. [ JV. V FT.] from Pta de Castello, is
the Pottta do$ Cedro», which is likewise high; between these is asmall jpofait, otf
which is a low rock, at 3 or 4 cables' length from the coast, called Mutha Rock,
hat between it and the coast is a clear passage of 12 fathoms, in mid-channel, at
half-flood.

At N. by W. [ JV: W. hy N.") 4f miles from Pta dos Cedros' b Ponta dot Matoa : be-
tween is the 1%. de la Fnteira, with the Islet and Port of San Lourenzo. "Die
point ia is high and remarkable, when near th^ coast : the ialet is likewise high, and«
on tiie eastern side of it, has a cave, into which the sea enters, and where a boat may
he sheltered.

The Fort of San Loubenzo is formed by the Islet and Ponta dos Matos, which
ore a foil mile distant from each other. The bottom is sandy, and between the
points is a depth of 10 fathoms, increasing gradually outward, but the depth of an-
chorage should not be less than twenty fathoms. Water may be readily obtained
hereby making hollows, or mnall pits, in the sand on the beach, where the least ex-
cavation produces water of the best quality. There are several houses and a church '
ohwe to tae beach.

The Ponta das Laooinhas is the N.E. point of the island. The Islet Lagoinhas,
which lies off this point, is high, and sloped like a mitre ; and, on bein^ seen, in
an East or West direction, exhibits a small level point, extending a little way
into the sea. A rock, lying between the islet and land, obstructs the passage to large
vessels.

The Nobth Side of the island affords neither shelter nor anchorage ; the whole of
the western side is low and unifoim.

The Port and Town are situated, as already noticed, on the S.W. side of the
uland. The bottom here is sandy, and in some parts rocky, with from 10 to 4 fathoms
of water. The rocky part is on the western side, and the eastern is the clearest.
The Ponta da Marhao is the easternmost part of the bay, and this, with the next point
to the eastward, Malbutca, form a larger bay, divided into two ports by a black
point, Pedrera. The coast hither, fcam Point Marbao, is the most regular, and is
called Fiatteral ; on the top of it is a remarkable rugged mountain, but it is not so
high as those on the North side of the island. Ponta de Malbusca is high, and stands
at a distance of two miles to the westward of Ponta de Castello, the S.E. point of the
island.

TherRoAD of St. Mart is open, and exposed to southern gales. On this account
it is resorted to, in summer, by small vessels only, in order to be ready for a start, it
iit proper to anchor to the S.E. of Marbao Point, opposite Figueral, already described.
The best, anchorage, known to the pilots, is about a mile from the coast, in a line with
Malbusca Point, and with the castle at the S.W. part of the town of St. Mary en-
tirely open of Marbao Point. Here is a depth of 36 fathoms, bottom of sand ; but,
at a short distance eastward, the ground is foul. Hence it is that Port San Lourenzo,
on the N.E. side, is considered as the best anchorage about the island. At either
place refretihments may be obtained, as at the other islands, with the addition of par-
tridges, which abound here.

THE F0BMIOA8 BAITK AND SOCKS lie N.E., true, from the N.E., and
nearest, point of Santa Maria, 19| miles distant.* It is formed bv a submarine

* Captain A. T. E. Vidnl, who has surveyed these islands, brj'b, with respect to Tofiuo's
representations of the Foniiiiras : — " It is with rogret and vexation I have to state that I

" ' " this

uum
- „ , . differencs

in bearing is on a distance of 22 mUes. Although my observations on board the vessel with

064

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

moQntain of very irregulai* elevationi and which, traced to the depth of 200
fktboniB; was found to extend 6| miles N.W. to S.E., hy about 3 miles in greatttt
breadth.

Near its western marg^ there is a narrow olnster of black rocks, known as the
Fotmigas, (or Anta), wmch are about 800 yards in length by 150 in extreme breadth,
their reladve direction being N. 25° E. and S. 25" W., or North and South, true. The
southernmost of them, for about 350 yards, forms rather a closely connected man,

and is in lat. 37° 16' 14" N., long. 27° 47' 6' W.
1843, 26° 17' W.

Variation, August 17th and 18tii,

The most elevated rock of the group, named Hormtgon, by Toflno, is 35 feet in
heu^ht, and stands on the eastern side, about 200 yarcb from the northernmost rock,
and somewhat more isolated than the others, and having an inclination to the south-
ward.

With smooth water there is no difficulty in landing, particularly on the southern
rocks ; but in strong winds or a high swell the sea roUs over them all, leaving a blank
naked surface entirely devoid of vegetation. At 130 yards South of the southern
Formiga is another small rocky shoal patch, visible at low water, the channel between
having 5 to 15. fathoms. Again, 600 yards South of the South Formiga is another
small rooky patch, having 4| fathoms on it at low water. It is steep-to on all sides
but the North, where it is connected with the rest by irregular depths of 8 to 14
fiithoms.

On the Noith the Formi^s may be approached within a few yards, but a narrow
ridge runs out 400 yiurds with varying depths, but no danger. It has 18 fathoms on
its outer enfti, and immediately drops on to 30 and 50 fathoms. On the East and
West the Formigas are quite clear, with deep water close up to them ; on the West
the bank extends half a mile, but all very deep water.*

Tofifio thus describes them : — " The FoRMiOAS are some rocks which navigatots
have considcared as extremely dangerous, imagining a great part of the space here-
about to be strewed with simken rocks, and tnerefore to be avoided ; but, having ex-
amined these dangers, it is proved that the whole of them are visible, concentitkted,
and clear, and t^t vessels of any burden may steer for them, in order to pass on the
North and South side, as may be most convenient."

Other rocks also exist, as shown in the next paragraph, at the distance from them
of about 3^ miles to the north-eastward. We derive our knowledge of the latter
throagh the favour of Captain Livingpston. .

DoUabantts' Shoal> — To the S.S.E. of the Fonniga there is a danger, which was
shown on a chart of the Atlantic Ocean, 1766, but afterward omitted m other charts,
from want of positive information as to its existence. This shoal was seen by P.
Dollabarats, commander of the ship La Marie de Sehoure, in 1788, on his lotum
from Martinique to Bajyomie. On the 7th of March, at 3 p.m., when about to double
the Formigas, at the distance of three-quarters of a league, Le descried a breaker to
the S.E. of his ship, which appearea to extend a league true North and Smith.
He observed, that it lies S.E. 5° 8. {trtte), at the distance of 1| leagues from the
Formigas.

sextants perfectly cnnfix-med the true bearing 6btained with the theodolite, I was unwilling
to think Tofiuo could be in error. I therefore landed again the next afternoon a little later,
to have a lower altitude, and that second day's result was Punta Castello S. 29° 2' W.,and
Pico Alto 8. 40' 36' W. ; Toflno or his people are therefore in error." This correction will
place the danger about 3' of longtitude to the eastward of its assumed position, and in the
same latitude.

• Account of the Formigas Bank, by Captain Alox. Vidal, R.N., Joiunal of tho Eoyal
Oeographical Society, vol, si».j 1849, p. 160,

THE FORMIQaS BANK AND ROCKS.

665

A new and very Iteautiftil brig, the ZiUah, Martin,' of Dandee, bound to Hayti,
itnick on a sunken rook *< off the' Formigas," '' 10 o'clock in tiie night of' the 9th of
April, 1832, and was abandoned at 3 .p.m. o. e next day, having then 7 feet of
water in the hold. About midnight sne 'was seen to go down. Cubw picked up and
saved by the ilfor2ey, of London.

Captain J. D. Markland, of H.M.S. BriUmM a letter dated 20th February, 1882,
writes : — ^" I hove-to for the night between St. Michael's and St. Mar^s, being
anxious to see the Formigas Rockis ; and soon after daylight, 'with a thick morning,
we felt in 'with a very dangerous shoal breaking heavify, apd as the fog cleared away
we saw the Formigas. When the rocks and the shoal were in one, the shoal bore
from the rocks S.S.E. about 3 miles. This must be the DollabaraU^ Shoal. Ilie For-
migas are properly placed."

In confirmation of this statement, the following appeared in the Shipping Oa-
tette : — Notice to Mariners. — Lisbon, Dec. 6th, 1843. A notice has been issiwd by
the Minister of Marine, to the effect that a shoal, 'with 11| feet of water on it, has
been discovered about 4 miles to the south-eastward of the " Formigas," or Great
Fonniga Rock, in the vicinity of the Azore Islands.

Captain Yidal has set the question at rest, and has accurately fixed its position.
" DoUabarats' Shoal bears (8. 44° E.), true, from the Formigas, distant 3^ mues, and
is in bit. 37° 13' 30"N. We anchored close to it, ana scoured the ground with our
IxMtts. It is a feaiful danger : the least depth we found on it was 11 feet at low
water. " It consists of two or three rocky heads or knolls, which at low-water
springs have only 11 feet of water on them. At that time of tide their position is
marked by several large white patches, which may be ^tinctly seen, especially so in
bright sunny weather. The shoal is near the southern edge of a rocky ridge, which
extends from it N. 15|° E. 1 6-1 0th miles. The soundings over it are most irregular,
varying from 14 to 50 fathoms at its edges, but there are no actual dangers on it.
llie DoUabarats' Shoal is a very insimous danger in smooth water, but in stormy
weather the sea breaks over it with great 'violence."

TuLLOCH- Reefs. — lu 1808 Captain William TuUoch, of the brig Equator, of
Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on a voyage from Madeira to St. Michael s, was alarmed
by some of his erew seeing breakers. He counted distinctly twenty-one heads of
rocks, none of which appeared to have much water over them, and two of the rocks
show occasion^ly above water in the wash of the sea. I^eir extent, the captain
thinks, did not exceed half a mile from North to South, and was still less from East
to West. They bore E.N<E. by compass from the highest rock of the Formigas, then
in sight, distant about 10 miles, and appeared very black below water.

The breakers on the TuUoch Rocks have been stated to have been several times
seen since 1808; among others, by the Ayrshire, bound from the Clyde to Demeraro.
Mr. Ferguson, the mate of that snip, gives their situation as about nim miles E.N.E.,
by compass, from the Formigas.

Captain J. Henderson, commanding the ship Forteseue, fecim. Mauritius to LondoQ,
states that he saw the TuUoch Cocks on the 17th of April, 1829. Breakers wero ob-
served for half a mile East and West. The Greater Formiga and breakers in one
bore. W.S.W. (by compass), the former about 4 leagues, and the latter 2 nules distant.
There appeared to be several heads near the surface of the water.

Notwithstanding all that has been asserted as to the existence of this reef, it was.
not found by Captain Wilkes, U.S.N., in 1838 ; and Captain Vidol, R.N., in order to
set the question of its existence in some better light, sought minutely for it. In the
first instance, the steamer was started E.N.E. from the Formigas, and carried out 14|
miles in that direction, sounding, at frequent intervals, with 200 fathoms, 'without
reaching the bottom. She returned, traversing across this bearing. On three subse-
quent trials, 'with all caution and look-out, no signs of shoal water or soundings were
obtained. " We must express our opinion," says Captain Vidal, " upon this reputed
danger, as formerly upon the apparently well-authenticated statements relative to the
Ai^in Rook. It looks very Uke a whale, but, seeing the difficulty there is in dis-
covering small rocks beneath the surface of the ocean, we by no means presume to

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

aaaert that Tulloch Beef does not exist, Irat we entertain a vetj decided opinion tiut
it will not be found in tide poeition which has been aaeigned to it." It ia again notieed
hereafter, among the shoals of this part of the ooean.

Volcanoes between Terceira and St. Michael's.— It is stated that, in 1719,
a volcano appeared at 16 leagues to the webtward (query, north-west) of St. Michaers,
and disappeared in 1723, aAd was supposed to oocupjr the situation of that which had

3>peared in 1638. It u also stated, that in 1720 an island appeared at the S. W. ex-
eme of St. Michael's, about a mile. from shore ; this, perhaps, is connected with the
other statement, but is not very circumstantial. But we have the following accounti
of this oocurrenob :— Mons. SSgur Dupreyon has found some documents relating to
it in the French colonial archives ; the first states that at the end of 1720, a voloano
broke out at 28 leagues off St. Michael's, towards Terceira, which formed two shoalt.
A second statement affirms, that it ejected large quantities of pumice. A plan was
also forwarder! to France of the new islanded, though ijt could not be approached, in
consequence of the jets of bciliug water which were thrown upwards of 120 feet
high. The consul announced that, on July the 7th, 1722, this new island had sunk
down, and could only be distinguished by breakers.*

In the " Philosophical Transactions " is a much more complete account of this
volcano. It is dated May 12th, 1722. In that commimication, it is described as lying
17 lei^es S.E. from Terceira. " Hie lire broke out on November 20th, 1720, in the
night, and the prodigious noise it madi* "^ansed an earthquake, which shattered down
many houses in the town of Angra and places adjacent, to the great terror of the
inhabitants." The governor went to tke island a month afterwards. " In the after-
noon, we made an island all fiire and smoke ; we continued our coui*se till the ashes
fell on our deck like hail or snow all night. We bore from it., the smoke and fire
ixMured like thunder or great guns." " Prodigious quantities of pumice-stone, and
half-broiled ^sh, were found floating on the tsea for many leagues round the island,
and abundance 6f sea birds hovering about it." " This island is almost round, and
siwposed to be about 2 leagues in diameter. By good observation, it ia 38° 20' ; its
long. 26* 33'.t

More recently a dangerotis shoal has also been reported to exist between Saint
Michael's and Terceira, r b-~n at the latter end of 1848. These notices were trans-
mitted by H.M. consul, ':!. G. Himt, Esq., to Lloyd's. In substence they are as
follow: — Benjamin Pratt, of the William, on December 31, 1848, saw breakers, mast
loiah, evidently caused by a shoal, and not by a floatingmass. The observations then
tuen place it in lat 38° 16* N., and long. ^0° 41' W. The next is the declaration of
Victonno Falcao, of the Tres Amigot ; — Ou° December 31, 1848, saw a shoal when
the sea broke th6 height of a ship, at intervals of about ten minutes. By calculation
it is in lat. 38° 18' N., and long. 26° 50' W. The third is the declaration of George
Perkins, of the Plymouth .•—On December 25, 1848, 1 saw the sea breaking heavy at
the distance of 2i or 3 miles to N.N.W. A heavy sea was running, and the water
broke 60 feet hi^h in different places, at intervals of about ten minutes, as if on an
extended shoal, having several neads. It was certainly not a floating obstruction;
I consider it a narrow reef, about a mile in length, running from N.N.E. to S.S.W.,
about 40 miles W.N.W. \ W. (by compass P) from the N.W. point of St. Michael's

In Mr. Hunt's observations on the earthquake of 1841, presently alluded to, he
says : — " It b by no meanf< a great stretoh of hypothesis to suppose that the late
earthquake has, like some former on.'^s, been accompanied by the ejection of subma-
rine volcanic matter, which may have been thrown up within a short distance of the
sui^use : so that, in fact, in that part of the sea wnere there was previously 200
fathoms of water, there may at this moment exist a most dangerous shoal.

" As in navigation the extreme of safety should always be chosen, the commanders

* Comptee Bendus de I'Academie Frangaise, 1838, p. 302.

t " Part of a Letter from T. Forater, Esq., F.R.S., to Mr. Machin, Sec. R.8." Phil.
Trans., 1722. To this description are attached several views of the island, which were
taken at the time.

TEECEIRA.

867

commanders

of veswis anproaohing Terceira woald do well to keep a good k-o«t, an< -^ pre-
pared for indications of shoal water, at from 15 to 20 miles to th astward e. it.

Another annoanceinent is, no douht, connected with the same volcanic c> itre. It
ig in the " Nautical Magarine," July, 1843, p. 482, entitled » Malabar Bank." Ex-
tract of a letter ftrom Capt. Sartorins :— •< In lat. 38° 67' from the observations at
noon, and long. 26" 5' hv chronometer, and from sapposed most correct bearing of the
land, the north-east end of Terceira, taken at 8 a.m., given lat. 38" 67', long. 20" 66',
the ship graxed over, apparently, a shoal of about her o^ length. There was no
midden shock, no appearance of discoloured water, or any other indication of the
vicinity of rocks or snoals ; and at the time the motion was felt the ihip was going
8 knots, wind aft, and studJdingHMiils set.

>* I immediately shortened sail, and sounded with 180 fathoms ; no bottom. There
was too much swell to risk a boat for examination. My own individual opinion is,
that it is as likely to have been the shock of an earthquake as passing over a shoal.''

This spot will be about 30 miles to the noi-th-east of the reported situation of the
mibmarine volcano above described, and if the reader will turn to the Ethiopic
Memoir, 1844, p. 80, he will find that a submarine shock and grounding on a shoal
give precisely the same sensation in a ship. That this was a shock that Captain Sar-
torius felt, there can be but very little doubt, and it is most probable from the same
volcano. We must, therefore, recommend to the seaman's notice the cautions of
Mr. Hunt, as g^ven above.

But notwithstanding all this evidence, there has been no indication of any shoal
or elevation found in a search all over this channel, as no bottom has been found with
from 180 to 200 fathoms of line. This, however, only proves that there is no present
danger, but it is quite possible that the volcanic action mdden here is capable of rais-
ing the bottom to the elevation above described.

TEBC£IBA.-^Thi8 island is fertile, pleasant, and healthy ; the lava districts here,
as at St. Michael's, produce excellent vines, although nut equal to those of the
Cwcries and Madeira. The land yields large crops of wheat and other grain, pasture
for cattle, and a prodi^ous quantity of lemons, oranges, and all those fruits of hot
and cold climat^ which are propagated to the greatest advantage in temperate
countries. The capital, as already noticed, is Anora, on the South side of the
island, having a harbour, defended oy a fortress, in which resides the governor of the
Azores. Angra u distinguished by several handsome churches', convents, &c. Be-
sides this, there is another town, JPraya, and fifteen villages, all of which contain '
about 30,(K)0 inhabitants. In the bay of Angra, and around the island, flidi, of a
good quality, is abundant.

llie coasts of Terceira are high, and so surrounded vrith craggy rocks, as to render
the island almost impregnable. The interor is, in general, mmlerately hieh, but the
western side is higher than the eastern, and is distiuguished by a rugged mountain,
extendingnearly East and West, and of which the western extremity, Pico de la
Serreta, is the most elevated, lliis peak may be known by a great break on the
eastern side, at a short distance.

DESCRIPTIONS, &c.— The part of the isUlnd* in which Praya is situated, is the
most fertile of the whole ; on wnich account it was the part selected by the first dis-
coverers for their residence, and ite population was entirely agricultural. It is the
part from which levies were principally made to resist the landing of an expedition in
favour of Don Miguel, in August, 1829 ; when a small military force, with their
Assistance, and the possession of the strong forts on the Bay of Praya, beat off the
much superior force of Don Miguel.

The town of Praya had, in the year 1614, been totally destroyed by an earthquake,
which considerably injured the town of Angra, and was severely felt in the Island of

* The following account of the island, and the great earthquake of J841, we have token
from a communication, by Mr. x. G. nunt, the British consul at St. Michaers, to ttie
" Nautical Magazine," September, 1841, pp. 631—633.

(i68

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

St. Miishael. Since that time it had escaped injury, although menaced by many
leyere shocks of earthquakes.

On the 12th of June, 1841, at 4 p.m., a violent shock of earthquake was felt at
Pmya, extending with diminished violence to the westward. At fi^ 29', a second and
more violent one was felt ; the trembling continued throughout the 13th, and on the
14th an undulation destroyed all the buildings which had been weakened by the
Ibrmer shocks. The inhabitants of Praya then retreated to the fields for safety.
During the 14th the motions were slight ; but on the 15th, at 3 a.m., a violent trem-
bling and horizontal undulation commenced, and continued, with intervals o(
about ten minutes, until 3'' 30' a.m., when a strong vibratory and distinctly visible
rocking motion of the surface threw down the entire town of Praya, and injured
many other parts of the island. ITie ground remained comparatively quiet until
2'* 40' a.m. of the 16th, when another violent shock did further damage. After thi«
no fiirther damage was done, but the island did not become perfectly quiescent until
the 26th of Jane.

It was observed, with respect to the whole progfress of these phenomena, that the
motion was greatest at Praya, where a rent has been left in the gi-ound of about an
English mile in length, from the edge of the water stretching westward ; and that
every convulsion was preceded by a loud subterraneous noise, resembling thunder, w
exactly varying in intensity according to the severity of the succeeding shocks of
earthquake, that the first became the harbinger and gauge of the other.

The number of houses destroyed was estimated at 800, besides other considerable
damage, amounting to the value of £180,000.

The less severe shocks did not extend beyond the Island of Terceira, others were
experienced pf^ apparently equal force at St. George and Graciosa, and only that
which destroyed Praya was felt (but not severely) at the capitals of Pico and St.
Michael's. At Fayal, and at the eastern end of St Michael's, no motion was per-
ceived.

It is therefore probable that the origin of this earthquake was a submarine volcanic
eruption, and that its position or centre was about 17 miles due East from the eastern
eiMof Terceira.* This has been practically confirmed by the accounts of the volcanic
shoals before described.

Angra lies on the South side of Terceira ; it is the capital of the island. At the
town provisions are cheap, and in plenty. The bay may he readily known by means
of a remarkable forked hill, near the sea, on the West side, named Monte Brasil,\ and
by two steep little islets, called the Cobras, or Ooats, which lie about 4 miles to the
eastward of the mount. About 2 miles to the south-eastward of these islets is
another, called Los Frayles, with breakers near it. ; ; , •,.'. i. ( ■.<

In approaching from the S.W., South, or S.E., steer directly for Monte Brasil.
Should the wind be adverse, when approaching the land, tack boldly without the
bay, as there is a sufficient depth over it, and up to the shore.

But beware of a calm, as the currents are very strong and variable. If you have
not a leading wind, when sailing up toward the mount, avoid too near an approach to
the coast, between it and the westernmost part of the island ; as it would in a calm
be attended with the utmost danger ; the coast being iron-bound, a ship driven on it
would be in a most perilous situation.

The Bay of Angra is open to all winds from S.S.W. by the South to the East.
The swell from the S.W., in particular, which sets round Mount Brasil, on the
western side of the bay, is tremendous. The ground at the entrance is foul, and

ships ahj
side of

Vessel
the win^
mencen
appearaij
shelter.

• This proposition has been ingeniously argued out bv Mr. Hunt, from the various de-
grees of intensity that the shocks were felt in the different bearings and distances ; by
arranging these together, it fixes the centre of the action as above.

t See the particular plan of the Road of Angra, on the Chart.

er considerable

TERCEIRA. ' "Mji

ship! ahoiild alwayiiinbbr to the northward of Fqirt St. Antohio^ wlilioh ii on 'the We^
side of the bay.

Vessels may sa&ly remain in the road in June, Joly, Augnat, and Sepiamber, when
the winde are light, and prevail from between West and VlW. Bnt, on the com-
mencement of winter, the winds from the offing rage so violently, that, upon the least
appearance of bad weather, it is requisite to put off to sea, the coast affording no
sneltei'.

Porto Pfaya. or PBA YA BAY, on the eastern side of Teroeira, has been described
M the hurgest and safest bay in the Azores. " This bay," says M. Flenrieu, *< has the
form of a orescent ; the pomt toward the ^orth has, ajt its extremity, a small islet to
the N.E. To lie in the best place, this islpt laiist shut in, yntii, Hke point, and tiie two
towers seen on the bottom of the bay must bo. brou^t togeiher ( you tnll thien be in
24 fitthoms, sandy ground, the town bearing N.N^. and North. You may aim
anchor nwrer to the shore, in 20 and 16 fatnoms. The iKMits must not attempt to
bnd at the bottom of the bay toward the S.W., en aecotint of a sand-bank, upon
which they would ground ; but they will find a good lailding-place near the castle."

The FOLLOWING is a more particulab detail of the Coasts of TEBCEiftAi
abridged from Tofino.

The Mount of Braail, near An(^, is moderately hish, and has two small oolnmns,
or pillars, at the top,' which serve as look-out places. The hill descends ffently toward
the North, and at its base, on that side, is the CVtotfe/ or Fort of St. «/iMn,.the chief
defence of the island, and particularly of the city of Angra, which stands to the
nirthward and N.F of it. From the citadel, a line of wall and- batteries extend to
Fnt S. Antonio, on the East side of Mount Brbsil ; the opposite, or N.E. side Of the
ha.y,iaietejidedhyFiirtS'.Sehatitian.

Aferchant vessels regularly addio^ in the line of the forts S. Antoido pnd S. Se«
bastian, or rather furtfi^ in, tnooring with' th6 four aneUors. This is nec^sasary, the
bay being open to the sea from S.o.W. by South to East^ and-therefore Extremely
untafe when windl^ from those quarters may be expected, the coast being mostly, of
sluup rocks. Large ships anchor to the eastward of Mount Brasil, in from 30 to 40
fathoms of water, sandy bottom, and they must be ready to get underway in the
instant that the wind appears to be coming on from the south-eastward or south-
westward.

On the western side of the castle of S. Sebastian is a little beach, slightly sheltered
by a wad of the castle. It is called Puerto tie Pipae, and is the.,spO:, inierein flshing-
vessels are secured, by grounding them on the sand. It may serve as "% landing-place
when the wind will not allow you to land at the mole.*

The boats of the island come out so soon as iany vessel is seen to anchor, and by
them supplies may easily be obtained, even while keeping under way, taoUng in and
out, as mey will oring >7ater, wood, and all kinds of provisions.

The Ponta de lot Continendos is the S.E. pmnt of the island. It presents an
eminence, having three peaks on its summit. At about halfway between this and
An«ra are the Ca^eu or Ooata, already noticed, wUch lie S.E. by E. TJE. by &]
4 miles from the summit of Mo^nt Brasil, and two-thirds of a mile frop the nearest
part of the coast. Of .the two islets, the eastern is the largest and highest: when
seen from the East or West, it appears like a wedge. Bet\reen the islets is a channel
for row-boatb, with! from 8 to 10 fathoms of water: between the«n and the coast a
ship may pass, as there axe 9, 12, and 13 fathoms of water, with sandy bottom, and
rocks neai shore only^ ' "■ ;r; ' .

The IVaylet, or Friar's Isle, before mentioned, is a low islet, having two pyramidal
~*^ A shoal extends from the S.E. side of it, about a cable's length, over which

* It is sometimes much easier to U^ on the rocks under the cliff, on the Moanii. Brasil
ride of the ba*", than at Puerta. is, YspiS^, A fsctpath, of difficult ascent, marku tu« ytmyw
spot to attempt landing at, — A. ■£.

■ ■ .• -^ •* C

- at.

*i*

#TO

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

the aea breaks. Several cliffs on the idet sive it the appearonoe, at a distance, of
several isles. A ship may pass, with all safety, in the channel between this and the
Cabras, the depths being from 60 to 75 fathoms, gravelly bottom, and clear ground.

The eastern coasts of Terceira is generally broken, rocky, and dangerous. The
easternmost point is that named Mahneranda, which is high and oblique, with a large
, shoal near to it, which shows itself at low weter. To the south-westward of this point
is the town of Prata, defended by battencs. The bov on which this town is situate
is of great depth, with good holding-ground, and a fleet may anchor here, sheltered
from the South, by the West, rouud to the North, but entirely exposed to the east-
ward : the safest anchorage, therefore, is with Point Malmeranda in a line with the
northern islet, Cameiros, and the highest tower or steeple of the town, which is the
liorthcrnmost, open to the West. Ilerc is a depth of 25 fathoms, with sandy bottom;
and, as at Angra, supplies may be obtained from the boats of the place.

Remarks on Terceira, hy Captain Livingston, 1822. — " At about 6^ or 7 miles
North of Angra, in a valley near the summit of the mountains, a great deal of steam
issues from crevices of the earth, or rather clay, which clay, I am informed by a
scientific gentleman here, is actually lava, decomposed by the action of sulphuiic
acid. Some of the clay looks, when cut by a knife, much like Castile soap : it is of
various hues, and the natives of Terceira use it as paint. There are small quantities
of sulphur formed around some of the apertuies. The steam which rises b very hot:
we cooked some eggs by laying them among the clay, at mere cracks whence steam
issued. My thermometer ranged only to 152° of Fahrenheit's scale. I exposed it to
the steam at the first aperture I reached, but the mercury rose so rapidly, that, from
fear bursting the tube, I was obliged to withdraw it, I think, about three or four
seconds. Persons visiting Angra, who have any curiosity in their composition,
should see this furnaao or aouffriere. The access to it is by no means very difficult,
though, if you ask any of the Portuguese, they will describe it as accessililc only at
some periods of the yeai\ One may ride to within less than half a mile of it. Ponies,
or asses, and guides, may readily be hired.

" Some vessels, mistaking Praya for Angra, have stupidly run in there ; but the
Goats and Mount Brasil are sufficient to show the most entire stranger the difference;
I annex a skctoh of the former.

Tlie Goat Rocks, as sketched at nine a.m., 26th January, 1822, when about 2
miles distant, the weather being hazy, and the tops of the mounteins of Terceira
covered with dense masses of clouds. Point at the left bearing N. by E. by oompan,
and that at the right hand N.E. \ N. also by compass.

" Bloody flux is very frequent both among strangers and natives, and is often fatal.
K Scottish surg«on there told me, it was the worst disease he mot in the island.*

" Vegetables are excellent and cheap. Poultry and eggo good and reasonable i

• It de««rvea to be known, that the si/e of a hazel-nut of Castilo soap, scrapod fine and
diBflolvedm about tliroo wine-glasses of boiling water, to which add half a wino-gliMWof
good spint.s, and a fow lumps of white sugar, scarcely ever fails of curiuir bloody flux. Two
..r thrpp doaea may be ranuired. 1 have trlsd it oa myself and oihors with irroat euccew.

It jrvou ana otnors with groat succeM.

PICO.

671

beef and mutton tolci-able, the furmor aliout threepence per pound. Some of tho
island wine is tolerably good.

The North Coast of Tbrceira should not be approached by a stranger, as it is
rocky and dangerous. The western coast is also inaccessible.

PICO. — This island derives its name fi-om the remarkable peak or volcanic moun-
tain which stands upon it. The summit of this mountain, whose sides are neither
very steep nor uneven, is terminated by a small sug^-loaf, so very regular, that one
would think it had been made by art. The height of the peak, above the level of the
sea, according to the geometrical operation of the Frepch astronomers, is about 1,172
English fathonis ; by the survey of Capt. Vidal it is 7,613 feet : and, consequently, in
clear weather, it can be seen 24 or 25 leagues off; but it is frequently so obscured by
clouds, as not to be seen at any distance. When the southernmost point of Fayal is
in a line with the peak, E. by S., this mount appears c • shown before.

The peak has been described as filled with dark volcanic caverns, which have frc-

Suently emitted smoke, flames, and ashes, to a considerable distance. At the foot of
lie mountain, toward the East, is a spring of fresh water, generally cold, but some-
times so heated with the subtcrraucoud tire, as to rush forth in torrents, in a boiUng
state, and sending forth a stream of sulphureous vapours, vitrified stones, &c.

Fico, when the Peak (A) bears E.S.E. by compaM~-{h) E. by S.

d reasonable;

Pico contains about 22,000 inhabitant-i, who occupy three towns and eleven vil-
lai^ec. The soil being stony, little grain is produced, and the greater part of the
wheat and maize, for consumption, is imported from the neighbouring island^. The
wine is the staple commodity, and is rej)utod the best in the Azores. This, with
brandy, is exported in considerable quantities. The cattle are various, numerous, ond
excellent ; fruit is abundant, and equally fine. Ucsides these, they have cedar and
other timber, including a beautiful kind of yew, called Teixo, whicn is remarkably
solid and fine.

The S.E. point of the island, which is rather low and sloping, is named Ponta de la
Ilha ! a ridge extends from it to the eastward, 1 cable's length. The next projection,
on the South coat>t, is Pla. de Calheta, or Ncsquin, distant 5 miles, W. \ S., trite :
between are the little harbours Muelle de Mantina and Nesquin, fit only for coastcrH,
which may ground on tho sand, the bottom being generally rocky. At N.W, by W.
[ W. by N-l (\\ miles from tho Pta. de Caleta is the Ptu. de Anife, which is rather
more elevated : the coast between continues rocky, and is not to bo approached by
Ktran^erH. Eight miles N.W. by W. [ IF. hy N.] from Pta. de Arrife, is that of Santa
Catalum ; the coast between forms a slender bay, in which, at 2^ miles from tho
turnicr, are tho town and lagoon of liOgens ; the latter communicates with tho sea by
means of a bar, over which the coasters pass at high water. The fishermen have
onothcr place of shelter, in Puerto Pruima, which is on the N.E. of tho point Sta.
Cataliua.

On the S. W. and West sides of the island is nothing remarkable, but its rocky ooaat
and islets. From the Pta. de los Baxios, on the N.W. side, breakers extend outward,
to the distance of nearly a league, during a galo.

Off the most prominenr part of the western coast are the little Port and Isle of Ln
Ma^^dalciia. From tlic town, which stands here, the greater part of the produce of
th« island, for expoitation, is shipped off for Fayal in small row-bontH. The iHlft^

672

DESCRIPTION ,0F THE ISLANDS.

are surrounded by rooks ; but very near the latter the depths are 6, 7, and 8. fathoms,
rocky gnmhd, •

The North coast, from Pta. de los Baxios to the East end of the island, is altogether
rugged, and may be considered as inaccessible.

FATAL. — This island has been celebrated for its excellent pastures, fish, wood,
&c. The air is always mild and pure ; the cold of winter never felt, and the heat of
^umm6r always tempered by refreshings winds.' Its inhabitants are computed at abont
17,000. The island produces wheat and maice, sufficient for itself and a part of Pico.
The cattle reared here are not sufficient for the consumption of the island, and sup-
plies are, therefore, sent from the neighbouring Islaind of St. George, which prodneei
^ giieat number. The annual produce of wine is also scanty ; for that which u
'exported here is mostly from Pico.

V -'-'. ' Hayal, whtn the point (A) btari N.E. by E.\E.hy eompau, and (B) E. by 8,

The chief town is Horta, on the S.E. side ;* and there are, besides, nine villages
on the island. The name Fayal is understood to be derived from Faya, the beech
tr^e, with which, and other wood, the island abounds.

In the journal of Mr. Keilor, an intelligent master of the Royal Navy, it is stated
that those who run for Fayal should not depend on the peak of the next island as
a guide, because it is sometimes covered for five or six days successively.

Mr. Keilor adds, Fayal has a good bay, opposite to Pipo, which is formed by an
isthmus, extending to the S.E., and a point about 1^ miles to the north-eastward.
Water, in general, is bad and scarce.

The S.E. point of Ff^al is a mount, with a hermitage on its summit, dedicated to
Our Lady o/* Quia. (N.S. de la Quia.) Tlie North side of this is connected by a
neck of lana to a smaller mount, of a blnck colour, Caimadu, at the foot of which tiie
town of Horta commences. Near the mount, on the West, is a handy cuvc, Pvrt
Pirn, where, in fine weather, some small vessels load and diwhiarge their cargoes, but
ii is quite open to the S.W.

The northern point of the Bay of Horta is named £8palamaea : iU bearing and
distance ftx)m that of La Quia are N.E." | E. [N.N.E. ^ n!) If miles nearly. At the
bottom of the bay is a beach of black sand, which commences near Point ENpolu-
maca, and termmates at Mount Caimado. Within it is the town, facing the wa.
In the latter are two very remarkable buildings, nearly alike : one of these m close to
tlu! Bou-sidc, and waH formerly called the Company's College ; the other is in tho most
wester] V part of the city, upon an eminence, and near tho Coi'melite Convent. These
objects In a line bear nearly N.N.W. [JVT, 42^ W."]

Nearly in mid-channel, between Fayal and Pico, is a rocky shoal, the Chapman
Jtode, of 3| fkthomH ; it is about 20 fathoms in extent from N.E. to S.W. [N.N.E. to
8.8. fF.] and 10 broad. The marks for it are tho Company's College and Carmelite
Convent, above mentioned, in one; Point de Espalamanca, N. by £. [N.htf W.]
2 1-10 miles; and tho hermitage of Guia, N.W. | N. IN.W, by J W.] 1 6-1 miles.
See, Airther, the particular Plan in the large Chart.

The regular anchorage of Fayal is in the bay opposite to the town of Horta. It
is the bcHt anchorugo in tho Azores, on every account, excepting that it is open to tlie

• Seo the pai-tirulnr plan of the chHuncl between iVynl ««n,«i Pjco, cs tho Chufi.
further det>cnptiou of these islundt), sue hercaitor.

im «

■7*

FAYAL.

:, »/Jt.-

winds from North to N.E., and from S.E. to S.W., and these winds -are frequent in
winter. That frY>m S.E. is very destructive, it blowing right in. Those who anchor
dionld, therefore, always be prepared for a start, on a shift of wind. The safest
method is to let go the anchor in 35 or 40 fathoms, where the bottom, is of sand, at
about 1^ miles from the town, which will be with the Point of Joao Diaz a little open
to the right of Point Espalamaca, and the Companv's College in the town a little to
the southward of the Carmelite Convent, already aescribed. From this spot a ship
may depart with any wind. ."^'liv , ' '^ :« ■'■■'■

la the summer season and favourable weather, the general anchorage is #iththe
two buildings in the town as above described, but nearer to the town, in 25 fathoms,
gandy bottom < small vessels proceed further in, to 20 or 16 &th(mi8;*

To Sail in for the Road, if fivm the northward, no further directicm is requisite,
as the way is ^rfeotly clear. If coming in from the S.W., with a free wind, the
regular pa isage IS between the mid-channel shoal and Mount de Guia; or if more
aneeable, between the same shore and Pico, according to circumstances. With the
wind from the West or N.W., take especial care to avoid the shoal, by observing the
marks for it, above described.

If, on approaching the road from the S.W., the wind should be dying away firom
the eastward, and jaa. intend to tack, so as to gain the anchorage, keep over toward
Pico, within the distance of a mile or a mile and a half; because at a little frirther
out the bottom is rocky, and you cannot anchor, in case of necessity ; besides, by pro-
ceeding thus, you will be free from variable eddy winds and calms, which are caused
the mountains; and the coast is sufficiently clear.

SouTHiiRN Coast of Fatal. — The Point af Santa Catalina, whioh is 3f mUen-
nearly W.N.W. [ ^> i -AT,] from Quia Point, is of low and black rooky land, and it
lULewise has a hermitage ; between these paints is the cove of FuteirOt with its beach
and village. Near it are several iHlets.

The Point Castelo Bianco is the S.W. point of Fayal. It appears like a little
round mountain of moderate height, sloped on every side, so that at a distance it ap-
•^ean like an island. The coast hereabout is rocky, and aJSbrds no anchorage.

At the West end of Fayal are the two islets named Capelinoa, lying in a South
[S.S.E'] direction. Between them and the coast is a channel, which in fine weather
admits fishing boats.

The Point of Jorq» Lourenzo is the northern pointed Fayal. Its upper parrt is
hi)(h and sloping, ^rom this point to the N.E. point Riveirina, the coast tronds B.E.
[E.8.E.] Point Riveirina is high and sloped, and forms a ruimd front of about half
a mile; at the foot of it is a low point, with three islets. S.W. by 8. [8. by W.^
from this point, nt 2 3-lOth miles, is that of JtMo Dtaz, which is low, olack, ana
rooky, with rocks at its extremity. Between the points the coast forms a /slender
bay I the land is high and oblique, and it presents, near the middle, a remarkable
Blope of a red colour, whioh may be seen from the mid-channel shoal, called the bhoal
of Fayal.

At nine -tenths of a mile to the southward fh>m Point Joao Diaz is that of Eajtalo'
maca, on the North side of Horta Bay. It is high and sloping, with a ttmall round
front, having a vigia, or look-out, on its summit. Between mem points the coast is a
little indontod, and has a beach, with a church at the bottom of it. Tiiulinir veHscls
at Port Mogdulena, on the opposite side, when assailed by violent winds from th^ '
Muthward, frequently bear up, and find good shelter here.

* Mr. Wm. Lano, agent to Lloyd's, in November, 18;^, gave notice that, for the use of
voflaelx piiBsing through the channol betwoen Fayal and Pico, or those requiring assistance
from tlw Hhore, ho hiMl eroctod a HiiHstaft'behind the (ku*!* »/ 9t. Cfus, 9s,ysl, anil proviuod
iiiH tulo|;riij)U tUgH uf CiipUiio Marryiit, so as to onublu them to (.oiumiiuicnto any )ut'onBa<
tiou thoy wiiih to bo roportod, or to acquire imuodiate iuwiatutic« in case of disU'(;()u.

074

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

ST. GEORGE.— This island lite at the distance of 10 miles from Pico, and is sept.
rated from Graciosa hy a channel 20 miles broad. It is a long, narrow island, about
29 miles long, and a little more tluin 3 in its avera^ breadth. On its South coast is
the little town called Villa daa Velaa, or Velku, with a port where small vessels may
lie sheltered from all winds.

This island, when Tofino described it, contained more than 11,000 perrons, in three
towns and seven villages. He sava that it produces much wine of a good quality,
which it exports to Terceira and America. The island has been famous for its cattle,
with which it supplied other islands, and its cheese is said to be fine. The produce of
wheat and maize is equal only to the consumption of a part of the inhabittmts, as tlie
lower class substitute the root of the yam. Wood and fresh water are abundant

On the 1st of May, 1808, a dreadful volcano, seen from Fayal, burst out about the
centre of this bland, in the midst of fertile pastures, about 3 leagues S.F. of Vellas.
On the 3rd a crater was formed. In two days it had thrown ou^ cinders, or small
pumice-stones, which a strong N.E. wind had propelled southerly \ und which, inde-
pendent of the mass accumuuited around the crater, had covered the earth from 1 to
4 feet in depth, half a league in width, and 3 leagues in length ; then, passing the
channel, had done some injury to the eastern end of Pico, fhe fire of this large
crater had nearly subsided on the 3rd of May ; but, in the preceding evening, another
small crater had opened, 1 league to the northward of tne large one, and ouly 2
leagues fit>m Vellas. In a short time the island, heretofore rich in cattle, com, and
wine, was nearly ruined ; and a scene of greater deflation and distress had seldom
been witnessed in any country. ' ' "' 'r'L'''''"t .^l^;^]*:^:^^;;^ V ' •

The Channels among the Azores are in general clear and deep, and may be navi-
gated at all times : that, however, between St. George and Pieo, should not be at-
tempted, unless in settled weather, or with a steady breeze, for a sudden calm may
prove fatal; as a strong current runs through the cnannel, according to the state of
the tide.

The PoNTA DEL ToPO is the easternmost point of St. George's Island. This point
lies W. J N. [ W.S. W. % W."] 27 miles from the summit of Mount Brasil, in Terceira.
It is of moderate height, with rocks around it, and near its eastern part is a low islet,
likewise surrounded by rocks.

From Pta. del Topo to Pta. del Norte Grand, the North coast presents nothing; re-
markable. There are several breaks on it, but it is mostly low and regular. Hence
to the West end of the island, Pta. de Hoaalea, it is more rugged and barren. Off the
point last mentioned are several islets, of which two very high pyramidal ones ate
i*emarkable ; one of these is at the foot of the point, and the other half a mile to the
S.W. of it. To the W. by S., true, of Point Rosales, the pilots say that there is a
rocky shoal of 7 fathoms. The sea may break over it in a storm.*

From Pta. de Rosales to the Morro Orande (Great HillJ, near the Port of Vellas,
the coast trends S.E. bv S. \_8.E. hy EJ] The Morro is high, of a blackish colour,
and has a vigia, or look-out, on its summit. To the N.W. of the Morro, and on its
skirt is an indent of the coast, wherein several vessels have been lost, by mistaking it
for the Port of Vellas, the bottom being all rocky, and a vessel, once in, cannot leave
it without a change of wind.

Puerto de las Vellas. — At 1^ miles S.E. by E. \_E. hy S."] from the outer point
of the Morro Grande is Pta. la Caimaida, rather low, with a small castle. Between
the two points is the Bay or Port of Vella<i, sheltered from winds from N.W., by the
N. to S.E.

In the bottom of the bay, on the shore, is the town of Velas or Vellas, the chief
town of the island, and on the S.E. side of this is a small mole, having 3 fathomi
within it, but with rockv bottom. The regular anchoiage is to the South [<Sr.<S'.ii'.l of
the mole, in fathoms, nne black sand. Vessels moor with two anchors to the N.W.
and S.E. This is a place of little consideration.

From Point Caimada, on the costcfn ride of Post Veiias, the co»ti by the sea con-
tinues low and rocky, but the land within ris.>s to a good height, llius it jontinues

,'ii'«'v.A»t.i'»i'

GRACIOSA.

575

to (he Pta. do lo8 Monteros, fhe S.E. point of the island, which is high and sloped.
Four learaes from the Ba^ of Yellas is the Point de CaUta, whence a nigh mountain
rises, wim a gentie acclivity, and close to it, on the East, is a town of the same name,
whence much wood is exported to the neighbouring islands.

ORACIOSA. — Oraciosa is said to take its name from its beauty and fertility in
wm, fruit, pasture, and cattle $ supplying Terceira and several of the other islands
with' a great part of its produce. It is the most fertile of all the Azores, and has about
8,000 inhabitants, distributed in two towns and two villages. The greatest extent Jof
the island is only 8| mites, but in this extent the quantity of barley which is pro-
duced is almost incredible, together with wheat, mause, wme, all kinds of fruit and
vegetables. Of sheep, hop;s, and fowls, the inhabitants have more than they can con-
sume. The only &carce article is wood, for this is obtained from St. George's and Pico,
llie chief town is Santa Cruz, on the N.E. side.

Ponta Blanca is the S.W. point, and Carapacho the S.E. The mountains over
these points appear at a great distance like islands, particularly on approaching the
South side from the S.\V. Point Carapacho is low toward the sea, and has several
islets about it ; but at a little distance mland it is high and craggy. At two cables'
length S.E. \_E,S.E.'\ from the point is the Islet ^&a/o, veith others in its vicinity ;
but between it and the point the largest ship may pass, should it be necessary, to the
anchorage of Praya, on the eastern coast.

Between the Point Carapacho and the Ponta dos Fanaes, 1| miles N.E. f N. \_N.
14° E.'\ the coast is almost uniform and clear. At the last, the Bay of Praya com-
mences, the North side of which is Pta. Negra ; the bearing and distance between
are N. \ E. [N. 15° W."] 1 J miles. Pta. Negra is low and rocky, and near it stands
the town of Pkaya.

An islet, called the Isle of Praya, lies at half a mile East {^E.N.E."] from Point
Negra ; it is low on the West side, but rather higher on the East, and tnere is a pas-
sage between it and the point. At the distance of a cable and a half to the south-
ward of the islet is the anchorage.

At 3 miles North [AT.AT. W."] from Point Negra is the Point of Josef Ferrer, which
is verv low, being even with the water, and having a dangerous shoal, at about 2
cables distance to the llast [^E.N.EA The coast between these points is rather re-
gular than otherwise, with a few, little bights ; of these bights, tne first is close to
Point Negra.

The best anchorage about the island is with the Islet Abajo, lying near the S.E.
point, in a line with the westernmost part of Praya Isle, or rather a little open ; this
IS off the southern extremity of a great slope of land, extending toward the Point of
Josef Ferrer. The depths are from 30 to 40 fathoms, sandy bottom. Here vessels
load and unload, and are ready to be off with any winds ; but they lie shelteied only
from South by the We^t, neai'ly to North. All the goods from the town of Santa
Cnu are brought to this anchorage to be shipped, as they have no other.

On the "West of the Point of Josef Ferrer are the bay and town of Santa Cruz.
The coast is low, and the land rocky, with scattered fragments of rock about it. Close
to the town, on the S.W. side, are three small hills near each other, and a church is
on the highest part of every one of them. These, therefore, are good marks for the
North si^ of the island.

The Ponta do Pico Negro is the North point of the island ; it is hi^h, oblique, and
of a very black colour. The coast hence to the S.W. continues high and rooky.
From the Pta. de Fotseo de Porco, the western poimt, half a mile S.W. by 8.
[8. 10° W.\ i3 the Point of Jorge Oomez, low and rocky, with a church near it.
There is landing hero. At 3i miles from that point is Point Blanca, very high and
sloping, within which, at a snort distance, is tne highest mountain on the island,
1378 ket high. The coast between is of high rock. On the summit of Pta. Frayle,
northward of Point Blanca, is a stone that resembles a man.

At S.E. I S. IS.E. by E.l E.} 2i miles from Point Blanca is the low and rooky

67S

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

Pbintof Folgo; the coast bettreen: forms a bay, and the village of Folgd is attUe
bottom of it.

FL0BE8. — ^This island contains about 7,000 inhabitants. It has two towns, botii
on the eastern side, Sta. Cruz and Lag'ena, and four village. The chief productiom
are yams; wiieat of excellent quality cattle, sheep, and hogs. The exports are wheat,
olotns, baoon, with the weed or moss called orchilla, used for a dye, as already noticed.
The latter is found clinging to the rooks and declivities, and is not obtainable withont
great trouble and danger. • -■^^^. .=;;;*, iA>«rv.v.'-;;-'^ *iM'-^i«-> •,-:•>.;''•••'•■'■'■' ■

The island is very mountainmi8,^t much nkore so to^'i^ the South than the
North. The Fort of the town of Santa Cruz is in lat. 39' 27', and Ions. 31^ 8' 37";
and to the West of it, in the interior of the island, is a rernarkiable peak, the Mono
Grande, 3,687 feet high. The land is well cultivated, and has abundance of wattr,
falling down, in numerous cascades, firom the heights.*

PoNTA DEL Gada, the North Point of Flores, is of moderate height, smooth
on its summit, not very projecting ; but at its base is a cluster of islets, extending
outward a-quarter of a mile ; the ground around them is clear, '-v^.;

PoNTA RuiVA, the N.E. point of Flores, is high, sloped, rugged, and obtuse. At
the foot of it is an islet, called the Pan de Azucar, or Sugar-lou : a fishingrboat may
pass between. In the bay to the westward of Pt. Ruiva there is anchorage in 25
fathoms, sandy ground, sheltered from winds frvm S.E. by the S^uth to W.S.W. It is
frequently resorted to for water, or by vessels that are compelled by the wind to quit
the eastern side of the island.

The Point of Santa Cruz is 2f miles S. | E. [S.S.K ^H.'] from Point Ruiva. It
IS low and rocky, with several rocks about it. in the interval is the Islet of Aharo
Rodrieuez, very near to the coast ; and to the S.E. [^.<S.£.] of this is anchorage, in
30 fttthoms, sandy bottom, sheltered from the West and S.W. At true South, tlu«e-

anarters of a mile from the point, is the castle of Santa Crvz, which is very near to
tie town^ the principal port of the island.

At If miles southward from the castle of Santa CrU2 is Ponta Cabeira, low and
rocky land, which rises with a gentle acclivity to the distance of a mile. Between
these points the coast forms a bay, with a beach and a small river at the bottom of it
This bay is the best anchoring place about the island, and in sheltered from all point*
between N.N.E. by the Vilest to S.W. The proper depths are in from 35 to 40
fiithoms, sandy ground. This is the nearest anchorage to Santa Cintz, and therefort
the most frequented.

At 1| miles S.W. ^ W. {S.S. W. f W.'] from Point Cabeira is that of Lomba, whicli
is high and oblique ; between these points the coast forms a bay, with a beach and
small river at the end of it. A vessel may anchor in this bay, in 25 fathoms,
sandy bottom, but it is not so well sheltered as that to the northward, being open to
easterly and southerly winds.

From the Point of Lagens, which is 4 miles to the sou^-westward of Point Loma,
a ridge of rocks extends to the distance of a cable and a half to the S.S.E. At 2|
miles S. ^ W. \_S. by E. \ E."] from Point Lagons is a rock or shoal, of 4| fathomsi
its size is about that of two ships, and appears, when near to it, like a la'-ge flagstone.
Between it and the coast is a great deptn of water, and the same about it.

In the little bay, on the North side of Lagens Point, is the town of Laoens, having
a large church, which is a useful mark for this part of ihe coast. A vessel may
anchor very well in this with a wind between North by the West to S.W. by W.,
in 25 fathoms, sandy ground. This anchorage is much frequentsd, because a vessel
can here get under way more easily than at Santa Cruz, having better room for
working out. , . ;

Ami

same,

* The anchorinK ground about the island is generally at bCyond the distance of a i
:!R Ifisd. Within that distance the ground is roeky, and much farther out it i*

milt
m

FANAES.

«7S

From Laffens Point westward, the coast rises in height to the Point de Roca Alia,
at a little distance from which, toward the North, is ue highest part of the island.
The Point of Lope Bas, which is nearly a mile W.N.W. %Vr.lW. i S."] from Lagens
Point, is low by the sea, but within, high and sloping. That of Boca is If miles
farther, is obtuse, very high, sloping, and black. The coast here is nearly straight,
high, and rugged.

The Ponta de los Ilheos Agua Caliente, which is low and rocky, is so called from a
mineral spring which exists here, and of which the water is hot. Between this and
the Point Koca Alta is a bay, with anchoring ground in 25 fathoms, sandy bottom,
lliere are several islets at the foot of the former point.

The Pta. de Catarinas, with its islets, lie 1| miles more to the northward. The
coast between is wholly rocky. At 1| miles further to the N.N.E. is Pta. dos Bredos,
high, sloping land of a whitish colour, with islets at its base. One of the latter, on
the South side of the point, resembles a cobunn. The coast between affords anchorage,
in 20 or 25 fathoms, sandy ground.

The Pta. del Baxio, which is very low, is 2| miles to the northward of Pta. dos
Bredos. The coast between is. rocky, but you ma\ anchor off it in 32 fathoms of
water, sandy ground, and sheltered from N.N.E., East and South. Close to Bixio or
Shoal Point is a very remarkable church, that of S. Pedro, or St. Peter.

Fanaes.— At 2| miles N.N.E. \ E. [N. 6" ^.] from Baxio Point is that of Fanaes,
which is not very high by the sea, but it forms abruptly like a mountain, and is of a
black colour. Tne bay in the interval is that of San Pedro, which has anchoring
ground, in 25 or 30 fathoms, bottom of sand ; and here water may be readily obtained
from a cascade that falls from the mountains, by means of a hose, so as to fill the casks
withou'^ taking them out of the boat. The Islet Monchiqae lies at rather more than
a mile h.W. I W. [ W.X. W. J fT.] from Point Fanaes. The depth between is suffi-
cient for any ship.

The following observations upon this place are by Mr. E. May, Master of H.M.S.

Skylark : —

At daylight, bore up for the Bay of Fanaes; at 5*^ 10', shortened sail and sent a
boat for water. The beach consists of large stones, none smaller than a man's head.
These stones extend from the beach 2 or 3 boats' length, making it dangerous for
boats to land.

" The best landing-place is a passage between a point of rocks that lies to the South
of the beach. From thence you may procure water, from a fountain, about half a
mile from the beach, employing small casks, and at the rate of three to five tons per
day, by employing natives, if the weather is fine, and the wind between S.S.E. and
N.E. Witn any other wind, particularly if blowing hard, thei-e would be too much
surf, and the passage too narrow, in such weather, to enter. This place may be known
by a very high, steep mountain, a littlp to the left of the landing-place, from whence
the Island \fonchique bears N.W. l| miles. Between the island and the shore is a
clear passage for any ship ; but she should borrow towards the rock, as a reef projects
about a cable's length from thence, although there are no hidden danglers in the
pa(>dage.

Refreshments. — " At this place, by the assistance of shore-boats, about four toni
of water were obtained in ten hours. The place abounds in poultry, bullocks, sheep,
pigs, vegetables, of all kinds, and eggs, all verv cheap. Those who came off to the
ship were well-dressert, clean, healthy people. *rhe shore of the island is bold, and
may be approached to the distance of a quarter of a mile. Leaving Fanaes, I would
recommend vessels to run due West for 2 or 3 miles, to get clear of the high land to
the North of the landing-place, by which they would avoid being becalmed under
this land when the wind is from N.E. to S.E., and would be enabled to run clear of
the island. Corvo has also a bold shore, and can be seen off deck 55 miles distant, as
was proved by us the day after leaving the island, both by log and observation.
Flores may be seen stiU further off, as it is higher than Corvo.

It is important to know that such useflil refreshments can be so readily procured.

4 D

»Yd

DESCRJPTIOI^ OF THE ISLANDS.

A tedioQs homeward iwssage may make this place of the oreatest heneflt. *Thi» Has
been confinned by Captain Henry Toynbee in 1839. Captain Toynbee Bays :— " Twict
hare I hove-to for a few hours off Sta. Cnis! and taken in as many bullocks, pigs,
sheep, fowls, &o., as were required for a few days fresh mess fbr the invalid troops
on board my ship." In July, 1839, the Fitzjame» put in here in a distressed condition
at Captain Toynbee's recommendation, and was received with everv kindness by Mr,
M'Kay and. his family. The captain procured all he required. Bullocks, £4.;
{mtatoes, 3s. the bushel f ef(gs, &\a. a dozen ; fowls, 128. a dozen. This knowledge
may be the saving <^ much misery to a homeward bound ship after a protracted
, voyage.

r PoNTA Albernas is tile X.W. point of Floves. It is moderately high, sloped, and
of a red colour. Between it and Point Fanaes is the islet of Maria Gadellu, which
is high and round. W. I N. \_W. by S."] from this islet in anchorage, in 30 or 40
fathoms, sandy ground. From Uie jwmt eastward to Pta. del Gada, already described,
the coast is entirely rocky. " ' t,,?,, .,,, f.^.. , ,.

The bank of soundings is nearly of tlie same form as the island, except that to the
North, it extends further off than elsewhere. From the depth of 200 fathoms which
is met with 5 miles off on the mei-idian of Ponta del Gada, the soundings diminish
gradually up to the point, near which the depth is 22 fathoms. The same may b«
said of all the coasts, only that the narrower the bank, the more more rapid the
descent.

'. To the E. the mean breadth of the bank is 2 mUes ; at this distance the depths are
above 100 fathoms ; at the outer edge on this side the bottom is uniformly sand, or
coral and sand, sometimes to the northward sand and shells. To the south on the
parallel of Pta. Lfigens the bank is not more than a mile and two-thirds in breadth,
put its edge tren£ a W. by S. direction, so that at Pta. Ilheos it is nearly 4 miles
broad. The bottom is sand as far as this. On the west coast the medium breadth is
{(bout 2^ miles. The quality of the bottom on this margin is sand, but sometimes
rock, or sand and coral. Excepting the two shoals, Eseolar with 27 feet water off
the south side, and the Penra de Laranieira with 11 fathoms at If miles 8, 16° ?K,
true, from the S.W. point, there is no danger on the surrounding bank. But here
and there are rocky patches, which it is best to avoid in anchoring. A general
remark on the anchorage of Flores is, that a position should be taken at more
than a mile from the land, as nearer than that a rocky bottom is more frequently
met with.

. Reported Reefs. — Between Fayal and Flores, and off the latter, it is stated th»t
aome rocks exist. They were announced by M. M. Ferreira, of the Brazilian brig
i^onatante. The first showed above water, at low water, in lat. 37° 56' 20" N.,
long. 33° 4' 8" W., and has been named Conatante Reef. The second", Ferreira'i
Reef, is nearer the islands, and in lat. 38° 26' 44 ', long. 30° 25' 10' ; the sea broke
on this. Nearly on the same reported position as the first reef, another announce-
ment, under the name of the Rtioon Rocka, was issued, in the " Nautical Magazine,"
July, 1844. This was an extensive group of rocks, some of them more than 16 feet
iabove water ; lut. 38° 32', long. 33° 16'. Again, a rock, called the Atila Rock, was
announced in 1837 to lie in 36° 31' N,, and 32° 24' E., or 200 miles W.S.W. of
Fayal, and a singular warm mist and boiling sea was passed through on Nov. 15th,
'1857, by the Eatremadura in 39° 37' N., and 25° 30' W. All these reprts seem to
to indicate a series of dangers which are very perplexing to deal with, for after
repeated searches, they have not been again met with. But the notice of then
here will attract attention and induce caution. These reefs are noticed hereafter, in
the Descriptions of the Shoals, &c.iof the Atlantic.

COSYO ia the northernmost of the Azores, and is formed bv a singk Tolcanic
mountain, 3^ miles long. North und South, and 2\ East and West, or 9| miles in
oireuit. Tho extinct crater of this mountain is called the Caldeira, and occupies all
the N.W. part of it, and is 3j miles in circumference. The highest part of the ridge
surrounding the Caldeii'a is on the S.W. side, and is 2,348 feet in height. The Eut

occupied by two small lagoons, the surface of which is 1,273 feet above the sea, and

CORVO,

indeed the greater part of th^ island is. The Hummit, even in summer, is so frequently
Is, that rills of water were running down the mountain in the month,;

1,27^ below the highest peak. The bottom is cultiMited and- used for pasturage, a»i
indeed the greater f" """^ ''" ■ "" •- • . ~ • *

ofipped with clouds,
of Augufi*.

The lower land of the S.W. end of the island has all the appearailtce of being added'
to the original portion by an eruption of lava, and is diligently cultivated. The only
habitations on tne island are comprised in the village of Corvo, standing on the East-
side of the South point, on a. rising ground close to the coE^t, and containiug 160 or,
173 thatched stone houses. They are dirty, and have an uncomfortable appearancei^
aepaiated from each other by hlthy l^nes. At t^e South end of the village stands,
the church, a small stone building with a square tower and short spire, which, being
kept well whitewashed, is a good seamark. About 250 yards S.W. by W. from it'
there is a little rocky hill, surmounted by an antique horizontal mill. The population
in 1843 was 784 persons 5 383 malesf 401 females. They are poor, primitive, and'
cjntented. The church is in lat. 39" 40' 9" N., long. 31" 7' 16" W. ; variation, in 1842|
27° 30' W. It is high water, full and change, at 12>> 25', and the rise of tide 3 foef
6 inches.

Ponta de Pesquetro'aUo is the South end of the island. On its eastern side, facing
the village, is a small stony beach, where a few fishing-boats are hauled up. Ponta
de Caaa bears N. 52° E.\\ miles from it. It is a sharp, well-defined point ; and at
the distance of 60 or 70 yards from it there is a rock just visible above water, on,
which the sea at times breaks violently, and there is a similar rock a quarter of a
mile N.N.E. of it. Ponta de VEate is the next point, and is N. 16° B., distant 1
mile ; and the next is Ponta de N.E., a bold bluff, 760 feet high, \\ miles iV. 16° W.
from the last. The cliffs increase in altitude as you proceed noithcrly ; and to sear
ward of the Ponta de N.E., bearing N. 51° E., one-third of a mile off, is a small
block of rock, steep-to on all sides, with 3 or 4 feet over it at low water. Pi'oceed-
ing north-westward, the next point is Joao de Moira, N. 5T W. two-thirds of a mile,
and thence to the North extremes, Ponta de Norte, N, 79° W., about the same dis-
tance. The coast between these two points presents a series of high inaccessible
cliffs, fronted, as before, by a narrow belt of stones. From the top of the cliffs the
land rises with great abruptness to the margin of the Caldeira, a height of 2,200
feet, where the horizontal distance from the sea docs not exceed 2,500 feet. Ponta
de Norte is a high rock, 368 feet high, jutting out 150 yards from the coast, inaoces-
sible Irom the sea, and, when seen from East or West, shows an overhanging face to
northward. About West froia this, one-third of a mile, is a small elevated islet of
naked lava, and S. 47 " W. one-fifth of a mile from this, is Ponta de Turrais, the N.W.
extreme of the island. It is very remarkable 5 it runs directly down from the North
eJge of the crater into the sea, a sharp, serrated r-'ge of daik lava. At 300 yards
North of it, with Ponta de Norte bearing East, thei^ is a sunken rock, on whicn the
Hi-a breaks violently. In rounding the uland it will be advisable not to near this
point in less than 20 fathoms.

The next extreme point, South of Ponta TuiTais, is Ponta d'Oueste, bearing
S. 14° W. If miles, the coast between being partly a steep declivity, covered with
shrubs and wild vegetation. To the southward of this the coast consists of lofty
cliffs, and at nearly three-quartei-s of a mile South of it is a small, low^ dctachol
rock, named Ilheo de Muther, 50 yards off the beach. From this the coast runs
8. 2T E., a mile to the Suga: -loaf Mock, a mass of lava standing at the base of a bold
clifiy point. Hence to the southward the coast consists of a ragged outline of steep
clifis, and then a low coast of very broken outline, fronted by innumerable rocks,
to the meridian of the old horizontal mill previously mentioned.. This portion of
the coast is fronted by innumerable rocks, projecting from the shore in narrow
ridgss of broken lava to an average distance of 200 yards. In strong winds the
Bea rolls over them in enormous breakers, but the danger is not so wide as they appear
to be. ^

-•- "- ^ lut; iidiiK surruUiiuiiig me isiuiiu is {^cm-iatij' mcvp, auu vcrjr aurupi on im ouTcr

ivo the sea, and ■ ^^gj, ^^ Ponta de Casa it is 1 mile from the point. At Ponta de Norte, 1 J miles ;

580

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

or a quarter of a miltf, 12 fathoms $ half a mile, 30 fathoms ; three^uarten of «
mile, 40 &thoms ; 1 mile, 40 fathoms. Along the N.W. side the bank is oompara-
lively shallow and rocky, to the extent of half a mile from the land, where there are
15 fiathoms, and the edge of the bank is If miles off. Off the South point it does not
reach to 1 mile off.

A short distance to seaward of the rocks in front of the cliffs near the village, and
with the church bearing N. 31" W., three-tenths of a mile distant, lie three patches
of sunken rocks, on which are 3 and 4 fathoms water. They are steep-to. There
are no dangerous rocks before the stony ben^^i in front of the village, but the
surf which usually plays upon it makes the cove to the westward of the mill a
preferable landing-place.

The best anchorages at Corvo (mentioned by Tofiiio) are on the westward side, be-
tween the parall-r^b of the Ilheo de Mulher and tne Sugar-loaf Rock ; 30 to 35
fathoms, fine brown sand, about 1 mile off shore ; and on the eastern side, in 25 to 30
&thoms, sandy bottom, about half a mile due East of Ponta de Casa. Captain Vidal
cannot advise the adoption of these anchorages, nor of any others the island ma;
afford, except as a matter of necessity. ,; ij « > .. v

It has no fael to spare, no facility for watering, nor, indeed, anything to offer which
teannot be most abundantly and conveniently obtained at Flores ; whilst fi'om its size
and form it affords little shelter fr-om wind or sea.

The flood tide sets upon the island N. 30" E., and the ebb in the opposite direction,
at an ordinary velocity, in springs, of 1| miles per hour. When this is opposed by a
gale it occasions a very high, confused sea, as it sweeps over the rocky, uneven bottom
at the North and South points. — Captain A. T. E. Vidal, R.N. ;, ,,',^;.',, ^.,}

The bank of soundings around Corvo is nearly of a circular form, and 3xtends with
some regiilarity on tb^e East side to the distance of 1 mile and a third ; on the West
side, a mile and two-thirds ; the same to the North. It is narrowest to the South
near Point Pesquiero Alto, where it is only two-thirds of a mile.

Tc the eastward it is generally of sand, sometimes with coral, and rocky patches.
To the West the prevalent bottom is also sand, with some gravel and rocks. A vesiiel
should not anchor tiU she is assured beforehand of the quality of the ground and
depth of the water, which increases regularly from the shore to 50 or 60 fathoms, and
then suddenly falls to above 200 fathoms.

^ It is high water on full and change days at Flores and Corvo at 12'* 20', and the
rise and rail is about 3^ feet. The tidal hour and rang^ is nearly the same, or a
quarter of an hour later at the other islands.

Flores and Corvo forma separate g^up from the rest, and the channel, 120 miles
broad, has no known danger, and therefore is probably the best to use in passing
through the archipelago. The current sometimes sets to the N.E. through this
channel with varying strength according to the wind. But, as a general rule, the
eontinuation of the SnSt from the Oulf Stream bears to the S.E. and S., rately to the
6.S.W. This is more usual to the North of the islands.

, , . . .f ■ >

.■.■'>

■iK»

• I it,j;

4.-THE ISLANDS OF MADEIRA
. , AND POETO SANTO. ,

v'; U-'

PORTO SANTO> etc.— Ships are recommended to make, in the first instance, the
We of Porto Santo, and thence proceed for the Road of Funchal, on the titick shown
upon the particular plan given in the Chart. The land of Porto Santo is very remark-
able, and may be seen, in fine weather, 16 or 20 leagues oflF. It first appears in two
or three very high hummocks, by which it is distinguished from Madeira, and the
Uttle isles named the Deaerta*.

'^ V- ■ 'I..-"..-.!!!!! !.*»-1* I ,' H

Porto Santo (a) hearing South, 14 miles, as taken by Captain J. W, Monteath,

It is said that it was discovered by two Spaniards in a voyage to explore the coast
of Africa, but being driven oft' in a storm, they here found shelter, and named it, in
consequence, Porto Santo. At present it is a aepeudency of Madeira, and in 1838 itn
population amounted to 1,618 persons. It is 6 4-lOthB miles in length from N.E. to
S.W. Its mean bieadth is 2^ miles, and its circuit 17 miles. The surrounding bank
of soundings is more considerable than has been supposed. The N.E. part consists of
numerous rocky pointed mountains, some nearly 1,700 feet in height, and all its
North coast is generally high inaccessible clifis, with detached rocks at their bases.
The central part is much lower than the extremities, but on the North and N.W.'
coasts rises tp 700 feet ; from whence it slopes to the South, and terminates in a beau-
tiful white sandy beach, which forms its entire S.E. shore. On this central part are
Hoveral sandfields, covered with what appear co be fossil lieath-stems, probably coral .
formation. The S.W. end of the island is also rocky and elevated, some of the hills
exceeding 900 feet in height. ITie town. Villa Baleira,\% situated near the centid of
the bay on the S.E. side, about 300 yards from the beach. The church and court-
house on it are conspicuous ; and a little to the West of them is a small battery, in
lat. 33° 3' 30" N., long. 16° 20' 14" W. ; variation in 1843, 24° 30' W.

The Pico de Castello, 1,447 feet high, is N. 4^° E. from the church ; and on its
summit are tho ruins of several water tanks and stone buildings. The two peaks im-
mediately to the East, called Fachio and Guadaya, are the highest in the island, the
former being 1,660 feet high.

The island is chiefly used for pasture, cultivation, extending along the shore of the
bay and the low land. The island sufiers gfrievously for the want of water, but pro-
ducing veine, grain, and vegetables ; also plenty of live stock and poultry. The
banks around Eioound with fish.

The landing at Porto Santo is usually made upon the beach in ftont of the town,
though there are no artificial facilities for so doing. It is high water at full and
change, at 12^ SO ; the rise of the tide is 7 feet. Generally, vesseb should not
anchor in the bay within the line joining the South extreme of Ilheo Baixo and the
low extreme of Fonta de Incao, bearing S. 49|° W., and N. 49|° E., and the South
point of Ilheo de Cima N. 73° E., 2 miles distant. In this position, which is 1 3-lOtlui
miles from the landing-place, there will be 17 fathoms water, over a bottom of small
gravel and broken shells. The edge of the ba.ik is rather less than half a mile to
me South of it; the depth of water increasing rapidly. During the settled weather
in summer vessels may anchor nearer the shore, but care should be taken not to be
cauffht in the bay. In the,- present condition «f the island it is of little service to the
navigation, as M^adcira itself ofters superior advantages, „ ,.,

082

DESCRIPTION OP THE ISLANDS.

PotUa (te Lusao, the S.E. point, is composed of hiffh rocky cliffs. Off it lies th»
Ilheo de dma, a table>topped island, 360 feet high. Thei'e is a boat passage inside it
Off it is a good Ashing station. Ponta doa IVadea, a bold point, steep-to, is 1 mUe
N. by E. from Ponta de Incao, and between them is the small sandy bay of Ponta
doa Fradea. Ponta Branca, the N.E. point of the island, is composed of three bluffs,
the northern one of which forms a fine a fine, bold prom<Hitory, the peak of which
is 1,390 feet high. These rocky islets, steep-to, with navigable channels between,
lie off the Ponta Bronca. The outer, or N.E. Rock, is 330 feet high ; the rocky
bank, on which they stand, has a patch of 10 fathoms at 2\ miles N. 32° W. from the
N.E. rock.

Off the S.W. point is Ilhto de Ferro, 380 feet above the sea, almost inaccessible,
and having a narrow but safe channel inside it. Saixo laland, off the South poiut,
Ponta de Calheta, is 1| miles in length, and is only visited for its limestone quai-rieti,
a singular feature. Thoy are national propei-ty.

Off the N.W. coast of Porto Santo the bank of soundings extend for 8 miles, with
a general depth of from 25 to 3d fathoms, fine white sand. Near its N.E. margin is
the Falcon Rock, the position of which was first ascertained 'by the officers of H.M,S.
^ffiikon, Eieutenant J. Bowen, in January, 1802. It is a mere knoll, on which tiheie
'" are 4| fathoms at low water. It is said to break at times. When on the rock the
highest land of the N.E. rock bears 8. 60° E. 6^ miles ; of Ilheo de Fnnte, S. 13° 10'
E. 4 6-10th8 miles; and of Ilheo de Ferro, S. 5° 30' W. 8 4-10th8 miles. Vtwls
coming from the N.E., with a fair wind, may pass it, keeping the Ilheo de Fonte (off
the middle of the North coast) in line with the high land at the S.W. end of Porto
Santo. At nine-tenths of a mile N. 37° W. from Fa'xoon Rook is a shoal patch of
11 fathoms, n'amedthe Styx Bank.

Porto Santo (a) N. bi/ £. 12 miles ; taken bif Captain Monteath.

DESEB.TAS. — To the S.E. of Madeira, the Desertas, a line of narrow rocky isletfi
extend nearly in a North and South direction by compass, the North extremity of
which bears S. 34° 8' E. 10 miles distant from its East point. Between them in this
space is a bank of soundings of from 45 to 75 fathoms, about 2 miles broad, on which
in settled weather, fishing-boats frequently anchor. This bank continues quite ruund
the Desertas.

Chao, the northernmost, is nine-tenths of a mile in length, and ono-quartkT of a
'mile in width at itu North end. It is tabled land ; the highest point to the North iti
336 feet, and is surrounded by high rocky cliffs. Off the bold bluff at the North ex-
treme is a remarkable detached rock, called by the Portuguese the Furrilhao, but
known to navigutors as the Sail Bock. It lies due North of the point, 100 yai'ds
distant, and is 160 feet high. At 300 yards N. 65° W. from it is a breaking rock,
and a narrow ridge of irregular soundings extends fr'-m it N. 30° W. nine-tenths of
a mile. The suriace of Chao is composed of light soil, with rocks and stones, covered
with long coarse grass, and a few aromatic herbs. Near its centre is a pond of turbid
water The highest Lxnd is near the North point, and is 336 feet in hei$>;ht.

V The Deaerta Orande is the largest and most elevated of the three islands. It i86|
miles in length by 1 broid at the widest part. From Ponta de Pedregal, on the West
side, to its South extrcne, it consists of a continous chain of rocky heights, the
highest peak of which. 1,610 feet, lies 1 1-lOth miles E.S.E. of the pomt. The
width of the passage between Chao and the North point of Desei-ta Grande is but
little more than 300 yards between the rocks, and this is further Cvintracted by a
breaking rock in the centre, so that it is only practicable for ooats in iiue weathet.
Ponta OB Pedregal is 2 miles from the North end. It is a detached rock, vrith high
land towering above it to more than 1 ,200 feet in height. Between this point and
the nest to it to the North in w^ little cove ox Castattheira, where there is a boat

Off it lies the
passage inside it
»ep-to, is 1 mile
dy bay of PorUa
id of three bluffii,
e peak of which
annels between,
liigh; tlie rocky
aa^W. from the

lost inaccessible,
the South point,
lestoue quaiiiei),

For 8 miles, with

N.E. margin is

flScers of H.M.S.

on which tiieie

)n the rock the

''onte, S. 13° 10'

miles. Vessels

leo de Fonte (off

V. end of Porto

I shoal patch of

ow rocky isletti
th extremity of
»n them in this
road, on whicii
ues quite round

lo-quartrf of a
to the North is
the North ex-
Furrilhao, but
lint, 100 yarfs
breaking rock,
. nine-tenths of
stones, covered
pond of turbid
i!,'lit.

lands. Iti86|
%l, on the West
Y heights, the
le iwmt. The
Grande is but
intracted bya
I fine weathet,
Kjk, with high
bhis point and
)cre is a boat

_'t^_

lO'

17-

M-!

aoo

■■.. v^*^

X14

:■-.. 'i

xt^

/ *'-; \ '"< %

'■it V.

'^^6

-.»/•

MADIEIIBIA,

4&'

mmmmmm

\ I

MADEIHA.

86$

landing-plaee, marked by ft detached reck. Pdnta de 3»quew'aoytiui South point, ^
4^ miles S. 80° -E. from Fedrega', with a rock olow to it, hot tiae point ia ateep-to
and clear. The East coast is a ragged, broken, irregular line of cliffiu Northward
of Point Pedrcwal the island is differently formed to what it ia oonthward, cansiating
here of two ri&ea, with a ravine between them. At the head of this valley or
ravine, at the root of a green hill near the centrl of the island, about East of
Pta. Pedregal, is a small house, and near it two ponds or reset voire of turbid waters
onda few yards down the valley is a delicious spYing, though yielding but a Umitea
wpply.

The Sugto,m South DgMrta, is about 4^ miles in length. Its greatest brsadth ia
not half a mile. The paasaffe to the North of it is two-thirds of a mile in width,
gild is perfectly clear ; depth 19 to 20 fathoms, and 7 fathoms within 30 yards of
either point. Both shores are rocky cliffs, of less altitude than the Deserta Grande,
rormounted by a very sharp sen-ated rooky ridge of hills, which runs the whole
length of the island. There is a gap in this ridge, near the centre of it, which at a
distance gives it the appearance of two islands. The highest peak on the North part
is 1)349 leet, and on me southern part, 1,070 feet, in height. Ponta tCAgalha, the
South extreme, has a few rocks, quite close to it, but S fathoms at 130 yards off. It
b in lat. 32° 23' 1 6 " N., and long. 16° 27' 37 ' W.

The bank of soundings round these singular islands is tolerably regular, extending
U miles from the East side, and 2 miles on the West side ; and in a narrow ridge to
Madeira as before mentioned.

The islands have no permanent inhabitants. They are frequented for orchilla;
and on the centre one some cattle and sheep are pastured, and attended by a few
casual visitors.

There is much danger to vesseLs jpassing close under the lee of these islands with
strong breezes, in the violence of the gusts from the high land, which are most
variable, both in direction and strength. It is no uncommon thing to see the water
whirled into the air, and then precipitated on the vessel's masts and decks.

The tide sets by these islands at springes at the rate of 1| to 2 miles per hour. The
flood N. 31° E., and the ebb S. 31° W., and its rise is 7 feet.

XADElJftA.— The date and manner of the discovery of this beautifnl island are
involved in some obscurity. The most probable is the romantic tale of Robert Maohim
and Anna D'Arfet, two lovers, who, fleeing from the wrath of the lady's friends to the
shores of France, were driven by a storm far away to sea, and at length met vnth thin
unknown and uninhabited island. Here they landed, and both died, the crew again
departing. There are some variations in this story, both in date and particulars, but
about 1344 is mentioned as the time. There is great probability of its accuracy ; and
in the present little church of Machico is said to be preserved a portion of the cross
found over their graves, on their re-discovery between 1417 and 1419. This latter
discovery arose from the cirumstanco cf a dark cloud being constantly seen in the
8.W. by the settlers at Porto Santo, who had gone from Spain to the conquest of the
Canaries. They sailed towards it, and on June 1, 1849, they discovered the point now
celled, after their vessel, Cape San Lorenzo.

Madeira is of volcanic origin, though the only sign of a crater is upon San Antonio
(5.076 feet), near Blachico, at the East end of tne island. It is a collcctiou of moun-
tains, the highest of which, the Pico Ruivo, is near its centre, and is 6,056 feet high.*
To the West of it the ridve of the Lomba Orande, nearly of equpl elevation, extends
for 2 J miles, and furms the North edge of the stupendous ravine of the Vurral, one of

• The distance to which the mountains of Madeira onght to bo seen from a voMel's deck
is about 90 miles ; but, of course, at this low elevation it woiild rccjuire a vnry olenr utmos-
phere. Sir Andrew Lnng says, tbnt on leaving Madeira for the West Indies, December

ia'£'£, tne irieo KViivo WBB uiBilncuy tiridio wnen

from the anohoran at Funohal, bearing N. 40' E., at
wards, from the thickening atawsphere.— A'«w/. Maf., ■

tne snip avi reacnea 70 sea milea
I. p.m. ; lout sight of it toon aftw-
U, p. 261.

«84

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

the wonders of Madeira. The western side of this is fonue-i by a ridge of which the
rocky summit of the Ptco Orande ia 5,391 feet hijrh. South c Jlt.:"o is a ridge of
peaks of nearly equal elevation, amongst which ; .0 three ren urkahle peaks of the
TorrinJuts are 5,980 feet high. South of these, three-quarters o^ a mile, is Ptco Sidrao,
and half a mile further S.E. is i 'ico Arriero, 5,893 feet high. These may be con-
sidered to iorm the axis of the island, from which the mountains generally slope
gradually to the South coast, and on the North, with few exceptions, they drop
precipitously on to the bold high coast.

ITie cultivation is confined to the coast, or to the bottoms of some of the vallevn,
And occupies altogether a very small proportion of the surface. Vines form the chiief
feature ; for the com grown annually scarcely supplies a two months' consumption to
the inhabitants.

In the island may be found almost every European and tropical luxury. The
myrtle, the geranium, the rose, and the violet, may be seen on every side, ^'he g^
ranium, in particular, is so conmion, that the honey of the bees is strongly impreg-
nated with its odour.

Captain Wilkes, in command of the TT.S. Exploring Expedition, arrived at this
island September 16, 1838, on his outward voyage ; from his fine work we extract
the following : —

" The first appearance of Madeira did not come up to the idea we had formed of its
beauties, from the glowing descriptions of travellers. It exhibited nothing to the
distant view but a oare and broken rock, of huge dimensions, which, though grand
and imposing, is peculiarly dark and gloomy, and it was not until we made the land
that we could discover the green patches which are rv^irywhcre scattered over its
dark red sor'I, even to the tops of the highest peaks.

" The mountain verdure was afterwards discovered to be owing to groves of heath
and broom, which grow to an extraordinary height, aspiring to the stature of forest
ti*ees. Ill addition to these groves, the teriaced acclivities, covered with a luxuriant
tropical vegetation, change, on a closer approach, its distant barren aspect into one
of extreme beauty and fertility.

" The shores of the island are mostlj lofty cliffs, occasionalh facing the water with
a perpendicular front, one or two thousand feet in height. The cliffs are interrupted
by a few small bays, where a richly cultivated valley approaches thd water between
abrupt precipices, or surrounded by an amphitheatre of rugged hills. These narrow
bays are the sites of the villages of Madeira.

" Off the eastern cape of the island many isolated rocks were seen separated from
the land, with bold abrupt sides, and broken outlines. The character of these rocks
is remarkable : they stand quite detached from the adjoining clifik, and some of them
rise to a great height in a slender form, with extremely rugged surfaces, and briVen
edges. Through some, the waters have worn arched waj's of large dimensions, which
afford a passage to the breaking surf, aad w'ould seem lo thrsaten, ere long, their
dcstrnction.

" Similar nccdle-foi-m rocks nre seen off the NortheiTi Deserta, an island lying some
miles East of Madeira. One of them is often mistaken for a ship under soil, to
which, when first seen, it has a considerable resemblance. It statr^s like a slender,
broken column, several feet in height, on a base scarcely larger thau its summit."

At Madeira is a wind called the Leate, which, as its naire implies, comes from the
East, although all East winds are by no means Leates. It appears to be of the same
kind as the Harmnttan of Western '\frica, and is of a hot, close, drying nature, par-
ticularly oppressive to some constitutions, which it affects by languor, head-oche, and
a parching of the skin and lips. What is remarkable, the residents arc those whom
it most disorders in this way. Visitors, in general, suffer much less ; and the invalids
are never so well as while it lasts. A peculiar clearness and cloudlessuess in the
atmosphere are among the invariable indications of Lest«, and the weather 'urin§[ its
continuance is most delightful ; the sky of a deep blue, so stainless that one might
fancy it hart . "^er been B\.Uied by a cloud ; with a transpaicncy in the atniosphcrs,
which, like the tH-'ct of moisture,' seems to bring out fresh hues from every object.

ige of which the
["o ifl a ricbeof
ble peaks of the
ie, is Pico /Strfroo,
Bse may be con-
8 generally slope
tions, they divp

16 of the vallevfl,
en form the chief
i' consumption to

al luxury. The
y side. I'he gc-
jtrongly impreg-

arrived at this
TOrk we extract

lad formed of its
nothing to the
h, though grand
'e made the land
altered over its

groves of heath
stature of forest
^ith a luxuriant
aspect into one

the water with

are interrupted

water between

These narrow

separated from
of these rocks
d some of them
ces, and brcken
lensions, which
ero long, their

and lying some
under sail, to
ike a slender,
3 summit."

somes from the
)e of the same
ig nature, par-
lettd-ache, and
•c those whom
lid the invalids
essness in the
her urin^ its
bat one might

16 aiiuOSpuri wj

ery object.

J'ADEIRA.

S»a.

At times, but not frequently, the Leste is acconipanied by a strong wiitd, but the
weather is still delightfully warm and pleasant. The nights, too, are de;Uciou8 ; softr
and balmy ; and, wiui the moon walking in summer brightness, and the orange trees
in flower, the air is loaded with perfume. With the departure of the Leste, rain
almost invariably follows.

The climate, generally, is delicious, and strikes with peculiar charm to a s rranger,
whom a short sail has transfciTed to it from the very midst of the gloom and.chill of
an English December. Indeed, the great natural aistinction of Madeira is the cli-^
mate, which, perhaps, taken altogether, is the finest in the world.*

Water, of excellent quality, is abundant. Springs are found everywhere, and
copious ; even the streams at the bottom of the ravines, fed by the mountain mists,
ai-e never dry in the hottest season ; and the height from which they descend enables
the inhabitants to divert the course of the water at any elevation or in any direction ;
the whole cultivated region, therefore, is irrigated on all sides by these levadaa, or
water-courses. On the coast, fish is abundant, and forms an important article in the
tbod of all classes.

The towns and villages are invan'ably situated on the sea-coast, and commonly at
the outlet of a ravine 5 but where the bottom is fertile, and the surface permits,' the
cabins and qninta^, or country seats, are qften scattered up a considerable extent of

the valley. -^^ ^T-;w'^—-r''" "^■'-^■' •" ' ;-'■■•"■ ^>«""i v^^-w-^,..,, r,,;^.

The extreme length of the island is 31 T-lOths miles, its greatest breadth 12'
miles, and the circuit along the line of coast 79 miles. The magnetic variation
in 1843 was 24° 46' W. High water, full and change, 12'' 48'; rise 7 feet: the
flood runs N. 30° J?, at 1| miles per hour on springs.

Fora is the first land neared on approaching Madeira from the eastward. It is a.
small uneven islet, steep-to, and with rocky cliffs. A peak near its North end, 352
feet high, is in lat. 32° 3* 14", long. 16° 39' 30 "W. Off its S. E. side are some dan-
gerous rocky patches, surrounded hy deep water. The outei- one lies S. 43" E. two-
fifths of a mile from the peak, and is a small rock, with 4 fiathoms on it ; the inner
one Ucs S. 34° E. three-tenths of a mile from the peak, and has several rocks,
some v'ith 16, end othei-s with only 4 J, feet on them. They should be cautiously
rounded.

St. iiOU^enzo Point is formed by a rocky bluff, of small elevation j abovb the
clifl'ns a narrow ridge of hills, the highest being 348 feet above the sea. It is in
reaUty an island, for ht high wat«r it is quite separated from Ponta Furada, and by
the action of the sea may become permanently so.

• The mean temperature, fV^m obseiTations during oighteen years, has been given as
folWs:— Jamiarj', 64°. 18; Fob. 64'. 3; March, 65°. 8 ; April, 65°. 5; May, 65'. 53; June,
69°. 74 ; July, 73°. 46 ; Auj?. 76°. 2 ; Sept. 75°. 76 ; Oct. 72». 6 ; Nov. 69». 8 ; Dec. 66».
The year in, therefore, one summer, with comparatively little alteration, either of tempera-
ture or hue.

" III fine weathor, — and it is fine at Madeira nine months in the year, — the view of this
steep and lofty island, covered with bright verdure, and enlivened by numerous scattered
houses, as white ns snow, is very striking to a stranger who arrives from the low and tarns-
looking shores of the South coast of En}<lanc'.

"Soamen are often deceived, when about to anchor in Funchal Roads, in consequence of
the sudden transition which tfiey have probably made trom a low shelving coast to an
abrupt and hii<h mountain side ; for the bottom of :ne anchorage slopes away as snd lerily
as the heights ovorlooking it, and the anchor must, indeed, be let go upon the side of a.
mountain. Hei ce ships sellom go close enough, unless guided by a person who knows the
place J on J mauv a chain cable rim out to the clinch, when chains were first used, owing to
nn incorrort nstmiate of the vossol's distnuco from shore, and not taking time to sound
(ii'ourately.

" Closing the land quickly, afttir possinflf some time at sea— approaching high cliffs or hilly
nhores, after being, for p. time, n.cc'.iHt'.>mnd to low coasts — or nearing a fl.".t shore, after th4 .
•ye has heen usecf to precipices and uionntoins — almost always is a cause of error in esti-
mating ilistnnco, however experienced a 8»jaman may bo."— 0//)/«("» FitzRoy, vol. ii., p. 40.

•1 I".

DESCKIPTIOlNrOF THE ISLANDS.

' PoNTA FcRADA is a bold, basaltic point, surmounted by a hill 560 feet high, and
throv H it ia a fine lofty arch, made by the waves. Half a mile West of it is PonUt
de 2' u Jade, crowned by a rocky hill, surmounted by a small but very conspicupiu
white ohapel. North of this, quite across the narrow neck which forms the East
extreme of Madeira, occur those curious fields of fossils, similar to those described at
Porto Santo. Caniqal- Point and village are IJ miles W. by S. of this, the coast
bein^ lower. To the S.W. ^f it the cliffs are bold and high, as far as Machico Say,
1| miles S.W. of Cani<;al.

Maohioo ^ay is a most romantic spot, celebrated in tradition as the place where
the first discoverer, Robert Machim, landed with Anna D'Arfet. The village church
is supposed to cover their ^m,\ea. The village has a considerable number of fishing-
boats. Between Machico and Ponta Queimada the distance is half a mile, and thence
to Ponta de Santa Catarina 1 l-6th miles; off the latter is a steep rock, but the whole
coast is bold, and no outlying dangers. Ponta Ouindante is the next 'projection ;
^tween them there is a bay, at the North end of which is the valley of Santa Cruz.
Close around Guindante, to the S.W., is the village oi Porto Novo, in a small shingle
bay, where a considerable ribeira has its outlet.

Atalaya Pjtnt is nine-tenths of a mile S. 40" W. of Pta. Guindante, and has a
singular small pointed peak on the cliff, close to it. From this Ponta Oliveira bears
S. sr W. 1 mile ; it is a clean rocky point; steep-to, upon which you can lund, and
the ascent from it is easy.

Cabo Gan^ao, the Brasen Head, the East point of the Bay of Funchal, is 1 mile
S. 75" W. from Ponta Oliveira. It is a bold rocky headland, jutting out at right
■angles to the line of coast. It is formed by perpendicular clifts of roddisu-yellow tufa,
and above them is a narrow hilly ridge of land, crowned with a rocky knob or knoll,
420 feet abpve the sea, on which is a telegmph. This knoll pai-ticularly distinguishes
tile head when seen from the westward. The cape is steep-to.

THE BAY OF FTTITCHAL is bounded to the East by the Brazen Head, and
on the West by Ponta da Cruz, bearing ftomii S. 87" 40' JT., distant 4 Q-lOths
miles. The coast to the West of Cape Garaiao is a series of rocky cliffs and small
stony points to Santiago Fort, which is exactly midway between the two extremes of
the bay. It is also at the East end of the town of Fimchal.

FUNCHAL, the capital of Madeira, was named thus by Gon waives Zai-co, on July
3rd, 1419, when first landed on, from the quantities of fennel growing here.

" Funchal," says Captain Wilkes, " has a very pleasing appearance from the sea,
and its situation, in a kind of. amphitheatre formed by the mountains, adds to its
beauty. The contrast of the white buildings and villas with the green mountains
forms a picture, which is much heightened by the bold quadrangular Loo Rock,
with its embattled summit, commanding the harbour in the foreground.

" The streets of the town are vciy narrow, without side-walks, and, to our view,
like alleys ; but their narrowness produces no inconvenience. They are well paved,
nnd wheel carriagee are unknown. The only vehicle, if so it may be callea, is a
sledg of some 6 teet in length, about 20 inches wide, and only 6 or 8 inches high, on '
which are transpoiled the pipes of wine. Two strips of hard wood are fastened
together for runners.

The town of Funchal stretches along the margin of the bay for nearly a mile.
The cathedral is a fine building : before its western door is a parvis or open space,
and beyond thot the Terreiro da Se, a very pleasant promenade, under four or five
poi-allel rows of trees, and enclosed by a wall, a few fcot in height.

The church of ]\'o$»a Senhora do Monte is the neatest in the island. It is seated on
a terrace just half-way up the mountain, and commands one of the most enchanting
views in the world.

The Corral or Curral of Madeira, a few miles north-westward from Funchal, is one
of the grandest scenes in the ^world. Admiral W. F. Owen says, that the Cttrral
means simply a sheepfold, and is an immense valley, completely surrounded by hi!!°.
whose sides are literally perpendicular, in no part being less than 1,000 feet high.

Miy.

MADEIRA.

■ <t

fi87

Bound a part of these cliffs is a narrow road, leading to the garden hoasee and country
plantations, cut out of the ruck, about )0 or 12 feet wide. On riding along the road
OTW the Curral, it seems like an unfathomable abyss, filled only by cbuds and vapours
rolling in a constant motion over each other.

Although Madeira is so elevated, excepting the eastern end, which is a low,
rugged point, vet it is often so entirely clouded over, as not to be visible at the
distance of 5 leagues. But, when abreast of Porto Santo, the island commonly
a— -ars as one greet mountain, with its summit hiddein in the clouds. Shortly
after appear the l^csertas. Having passed, those islands, you will soon perceive the
HhipH in the Koad of Funchal ; and, from their riding, it will be seen how the wind
is in the road, as it is common to have a strong breeze from the N.E. or East, on
passing the Descrtas, when, at the same time, tide wind in the >ad is from the S.W.
irW.o.W.

When sailing in toward Funchal JRoad, a large rock, named the Loo Rock, with a
foit on it, will be seen on the West side of the road, a little to the westward of
the town. With this rock N. by E., when in 38 or 36 fathoms, let go the port
anchor, with two cables on it ; for, should there be a fresh breeze from the eastward,
it will be scarcely possible to brin^ up, until the splice is veered a good way out. It
is requisite to ridfe in the road witn a whole cable, and with a splice so situated, that
you may be able to cut near it, should circumstances unfortunately compel you to

Eut to sea, without weighing anchor. While riding, keep a slip-buov on the cable,
are a kedge-anchor and a nine-ich hawser to the westward, to keep the ship steady,
with the hawser on the starboard bow, as the wind generally veers from the eostwartl
to S.W. and West. When the land-wind makes a cross, the end of the hawer may
be shifted. :•".'■ ■'.•

The general asohorage is from 30 to 35 fathoms, with the citadel (called the Peak
Castle, a brown square fort on a hill over the N.W. part of the town) a little open to
the eastward of the Loo Rock ; the latter at the distance of half a mile.

With the Loo Rock and citadel in one, bearing nearly N.N.E. \ E., and Funtha!
Steeple N.E. J N., the anchorage appears cquall^r good, in 35 fathoms, stiff ^und.
With the same marks, with the Loo about a niilo off, there is good ground in 43
fathoms. To the westward, the ground changes to sand and rock, and to the eastward
it has a sudden declivity from 50 to 55 fathoms, stiff clay ground, to 100 fathoms,
rock, and then no ground.

In case of a S.W. gale, which may be fre^uentl^ expected in winter, the situation
with the Loo and citadel in one, or the citadel just open to the westward of the
Loo, will be found most convenient. On the contrary, the citadel, well open to the
eastward of the Loo is the best situation when a south-caster may be expected.

Wlicn coming into the road, with a brisk wind, sail should be reduced and secured
in time, to prevent having too much way through the water, at the moment of
anchoring ; and ships should be brought up with their heads to seaward ; for thus,
in case of auy accident in bringing up, saus may be had off shore, or other-vvise, as
required.

Those riding in Funchal JRoads should be very active when ^hey obsei-ve a swell
coming in from the S.W. ; at this moment, no time is to be lost in getting under
way, tor the swell inuicates that a gale is cei-tainly ci nung on ; particularly so in tho
months of December and January, generally the comincnccment of the rniLy season.
Should it come on to blow very hard from the westwarJ, the best mode is to run to
leeward of Desertus, whore shelter from the wind may be found, and water perfectly
wnoith i thus you avoid the rif k of losing sails, by heaving to windward."*

* Sonii. of tlio old inhabitants nffirm thiit there is no danger in attempting to ride out a
gale from tho southward, iis it rarely continues long. It is said that no vessels with good
ground tickle hiivo ovrir linnn loat by pursuinpf this method, and that njany, in atteiniitiTi!.t
to got iiwtiy at the commencement of tho gale, have been driven on shors. — " Vovago of f Lc
Chunticlccr, vol. i. p. 10. ' »

DESCKIPTIQN OtP THE ISLANDS.

^he b0»t wajffor 4^iw, however lar^ and numeroov, when boond into Foochal
Bofid from the eastwai'd, with the wind north-easterly, is through the passage
hctpftw the Desertas and Madeira. The north-easter will carry them to the c|^
of the Brazen Head, the East point of the Bay of Funchal. In the night, a single
ship may keep over toward that bluff point, and, with her boats towing ahead,
when becahii^d, luff up into the stream of the land-wind, and by that means fetch
the lUBchorage. Ships must show a light at their ensign-staff in the niffht, to prevent
hdn^ flred at from the forts at Loo Castle. In the days th^ shonla keep Airther
distant from the land than in the night, to avQid being becalmed under it, and to

giin the stream of the sea-breeze. If, from over caution, or other reasons, they
11 2 or 3 leeguGB to the leeward of the road, they should then keap plying up in the
iMream of the valley, until they gain the vein of the sea-breeze. In working in with
a land-breeze, it is best to make shbrt tacks, opposite the valley ; as here both the
land and sea-breezes are most regular.

. Small vessels, from North America and the Western Islands, come in, generally,
round. the iyest end of the island, but are frequently becalmed a considerable time
und^r the high land there. From this season ships, on leaving Funchal, should mako
iNdl w;ith the lani^-wind, and stand directly off from the road ; ships bound to the
southV' xd, by taking a contrary method, having continued seveial days becalmed
under the western part of the island.

In the winter months eddy-winds and squalls, proceeding^ from the high land, arc
frequent and severe, and the ships are often forced to put to sea from the rond.
Several westerly and S.W. gales, with rain, then frequently prevail, and prevent re-
gaining^ it for some time. At these periods, Madeira and the Desertas are often ob-
scured m fog. The squalls have been found so sudden and violent near the Desertw
and about the S.E. end of Madeu'a, as nearly to overset the ships in the vicinity; and
many havb been driven by them far to the eastward.

It has been said, that a southerly wind never blows hard quite home to Funchal ;
that the south-westers and south-easters are never expected, except in Janufary, Fe-
bruary, and the beginning of March ; and that large ships almost always ride them
out ; but Captain Horsburgh has stated, that " these southerly gales sometimes blow

Suite home to Funchal, even in November and December : and, v. hen they arc appre-
ended, it is common for ships of every description to put to sea. These S.W. or
S.E. gales are, in general, preceded by a swell in the road, often accompanied by
gloomy weather, drizzling ram, and a very unsettled breeze from the land, veeiing
backward and forward very suddenly. Under such indications, ships generally pro-
ceed to sea ;" for, should it blow strong firom the southward, it would bo almost im-
possible to clear the shore, the anchorage being so close to the land. A few yeani
ago, several vessels were driven from the anchorage, and completely wi'ecked on
shore.

From the Pontinha to Ponta da Cruz the distance is Ijt miles ; the coast between
has a broken outline of rocky cliffs, points, and bays. The bay to the. West of the
Fontinha is half a mile across, and its shores are composed of steep cliffs, with a high
bold bluff at its West extreme. Along the base is a beach of sand extending as for
as the watercourse. The whole of the bay is compcu'atively shallow, and appears to
offer the best position in Madeira for any artificial harbour work^

Admiral FitzRoy says : — " The roadstead of Funchal is well known to be unMifo in S.W.
Kales ; and there can be no doubt that the most prudent plan is to keep at sea while they
liist ; but I have been told by old traders to Madeira, that ships sometimes remain ut undior,
about half a mile from the Loo Bock, and ride out S.W. gales without difficulty; the under-
tow being ao considerable, that their cables are little strained." — Vol. ii. p. 46.

Thoye statements requii'e some moditication. On October 16, 1842, Madeira was visited
by one of the most druadful storms that hod occurred since the flood of 1803, which
swept 40U persons in the sea. On the 26th it blew a tremendous hurricane from tlie
8outb, which, with the terrilic sea, drove four out of the six vessels ut anchor on shore,
wi^ total destructicnj and uouily tul the crews were Itst.

CAPE « JUAa

. fbi) OoTj^tttka, a detached si}gar->loaf formed rocked, lier off. ft prvtty little bajr, Italf
a mile West of this. Four-tentbB of a mile Nortii of this todk is Monte da Oruz,
f^Ael Mgb, with a teleg^raph on its Bammit, and hence there is; a saceegidon of rocky
cli£» for another half mile to Ponta da Orm, at the S.W. extremity of which
there is a semi-detached pointed rock with a small iron cross aa the top of it. This
rack is the South exti-emity of Madeira, and is in lat. 32° 17' 18" N., long. 13" 57"
11' W.

Immediately to the West of Ponta da Cruz is the little bay of Praya Ihrmoaa,
formed by a suingle beach; and at 1^ miles from it is tue mouth of the Soconidos
iitier, a mountain stream, perhaps the largest in Madeira, which drains the celebrate^
vijley of tho Curral. At me west side of the mouth of this is a small bold rocky
put, round which are the village and little boat harbour of Camera de Loboa. The
west side of this is a narrow wavy line of black lava, running out South at 270
yards, llie little town is old and poor enough, but the sides of the mountains
around are covered with quintas and vineyards, and are said to form one of the finest
wine districts of the islarid.

CAFE GIBAO, a magnificent headland, is 3.1 miles West of Ponta da Cruz. It is
the terrainetion of a rid^e of mountains lying westward of the valley of the Jardim
da Serra. The cape is nearly perpendiculpi* for 1,600 feet above the sea, which nearly
washes its base ; and upon thie high land which covers it is a grove of pine trees,
2,079 feet above the sea. The hiUs continue rising until they reach ite head of the
valley, at an elevation of 4,535 leet.

At 2 miles from Cape Girao is the Jlheo de Lapa$ a conical shaped rock, in front of
the village of Campanaris. The coast to the East has a continuous lino of stony
beach; towards the West this charactmstio alternates with clean black rocky
points.

Fonta do Sol is ^ miles W.N.W. of Cape Girao. It is a bluff rocky cliff, with
gnme fragments of rock lyin^ close in front of it ; the largest of these is pointed, and
has a small wooden cross on it. The Ponta do Sol in a westerly gale and stormy
weather apjtears surrounded with the colours of the rainbow, arising doubtless frtim
the spray of the surf ; hence, probably, its name has been derived. The village of
Ponta do Sol is up the ravine to the West of the point ; its church may be seenr
through the narrow gorge. Westward of this the coast is a long wavy line of narrow
stony beaches, above which are cliffs of small elevation, much broken by ravines and
land-slips ; one remarkable piece of cliff stands I^ miles West of Ponta do Sol.
Three-fourths of a mile beyond this is the village of Magdalena, at the outlet of a ri-
heira ) 2 miles beyond Magdalena is another ribeira ; the space between is called the
Arco da Calheta. At 5 miles from Ponta do Sol is the town of Calketa, but little can
be seen of it through the very narrow ravine. At a quarter of a mile West of it,
above the cliffy, on a ridge of land, is a conspicuous long building like a monastery.
Ponta Oalera is seven-tenths of a mile from Calheta ; it is a natui'al jetty (^ flat
rucks of black basalt, 100 yards long.

Ponta Jardim is 1| miles N. W. hf W. of Ponta Galera ; it appears to be a land-
slip ; upon the top Ox .., are a small village and a chapel. The soundings off this pai-t
of tho coast are I'ogular, over dark sand, and extend off 1 1 miles, with 30 fathoms 1
mile off. Paul do Mar, a village on the corst, is 1 mile from Ponta Jardim. There
b a waterfall here, and a great land-slip. The land is cultivated in teiTaced vine
yards. A grove of pines above Paul do Mar is 2,C30 feet (or one-third of a mile)
above the sea, while its horizontal distance from it does not exceed half a mile, 'J his
will give on idea of the bold character of the scenery.

The beach of sliingle and large stones extends 1 7-lOth miles to Point Fajao d'Ovel-
ha. Here it is broken through by a little spur of black lava ; the cliffu become more
elevated, and above them the laud rises with a steep ascent to the highest peaks of tho
western moimtaius, 4,270 feet.

Ponta Panra

Ponta F*;ao jTQ
smooth topped hill

^00

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

point, there is a church. Some roclu and large Rtonee lie ■oattered atonnd the iMie
of Fonta Parga, and a rooky ridge of 1 1 to 20 fiithoms runs off it 1 1 miles, and occa-
sions a heavy sea in westerly winds. Fonta Parga is in lat. 82° 48' 6" N., long. 17*
16' 38' W.

The hank of soundings extends fij miles West of Ftgao d'Ovelha Point ; t« the
N.W. of Fonta Parga its hreadth is 2| miles. It is flat, with 40 to 46 fathoms, light
hrown or a dark eray sand, and occasionally i-ock. From these depths it drops veiy
suddenly to 200 lathoms.

Fonta Triltao is the next point, N.E. of Fonta Par^p, bearing If.JE. 5 miles. The
coast between it is a wavy line of coarse stony beach, with high rocky olifib risinff ab-
ruptly from it. Above the cliffs the land rises steeply to the ndge of mountains above
4,000 feet high, and 2 miles from the shore. Ponta Tristao, the North point of Ma-
deira, is a high, bold bluff, 1,070 feet high, off the foot of which are a few sunken
roc^ extending 130 yards, but clear beyond. On the heights, 1 mile to the South,
is the parish church of Magdalena, 1,700 feet above the sea. At nine-tenths of a mile
N. 60° JB. from the point, and about half a mile from the adjacent beach, is a oinpkr
cluster of flat rocks, a tew feet above the sea, called the Eochas de ^Ma^al.
With any sea, the surf rolls over them, but they are steep-to, and a deep channel in-
side them.

PonTa Moniz is 1| miles from Ponta Tristao, and is formed by a mass of lava run-
ning out N.E. about 470 yards beyond the general line of coast, and looks as if it had
flowed over and beyond the cliffs into the sea. The shores of the point have a veiy
irregvdar and broken outline. On either side of it are detached rocks, and right off
the bluff are four othei-s in a straight line. On the East side of the point is a small
fort iwith a i-onnd tower ; and 140 yards S.W. of the outer islet off the point is
another rooky point and another rouna tower, at which is the best landing as a jetty.
The town of Moniz is on the higher part of the point; the chapel being oncthirdofa
mUe from the landing-place. The wliole point is cultivated with vines. In front of
the point, at the distance of 120 yards, is an islet of the same name, composed of yel-
low tufa resting on black lava. Its shores are preci^l./uus, and it is the resort of sea-
fowl ; it has no channel inside it. The little bay, locally called Porto Moniz, is in foct
a rocky bank, varying in depth from 2 to 40 fathoms.

One mile S. 42' JE. from Ponta Moniz arc a group of rocks called the JaneUas, lying
near the outlet of that ribeira. They are Ave in number the largest 133 feet in
height. At 2| miles 8. 52° E. from the outer Janella is the point and village of
Sterol. The point is a comparatively low rocky projecting piece of land, with a great
vanety of feature. The town stands on the top of the point, a short distance ti-om
the cliffs, and surrounded by vineyards. The best landing is on the largest rock at
the East extremity of the point, which is on this account connected with the shore by
a wooden bridge.

San Vincente is 3| miles ftt>m Ponta Sieyal. The outlet of the ribeira is marked
by an isolated sugar-loaf rock, standing a few yards within the beach. This rock lias
been excavated and converted into a chapel. Ponta Delgada is 3^ miles from San
Vincente, the coast between lying generally similar to that West of the latter, a piece
of low land at the foot of the mountains, with houses and cultivated enclosures.
Ponta del Gada is a comparatively low point, composed of rocky cliffs, with a tower
upon the top of it. The houses, which are numerous, and many of them pleasing and
respectable, are scattered thickly among the richly cultivated vines ana orchards, )\-itli
a very pleasing effect. The church, large and handsome, is close to the sea. Close
round tlie point, on its East side, is a small bay, with a little bit of fine shingle in it,
which offers the best landing.

Ponta do Arco, a bold black point, is 1 2-dth miles East of Ponta del Gada.
Nearly midway are a few large detached rocks, the largest called Rocha de Boa Ven-
tura. A group of low rocks lie off 230 yards to the W.N.W. of it, and abreast of it
are two rtoeiras, the larger named Entroza. Nearly three-quarters of a mile inland
from Ponta do Arco is a conspicuous sharp, wooded pepk, 2,746 feet high, the summit
of the Arco de San Jorge, which proved a valuable station in the survey from its un-
inistakabie peculiarity cf feature.

MADEIRA.

Ponta da San Jorge is in lat. 32° 39' 44" if., long. 16° 54' 47 ' W. It is a high,
bold, rocky bluff, neany 700 feet above the sea, and may be called the N.E. point of
ihe island. A muil low rock just seen above water, on which the sea commonly
breaksi lies £. | S. three-tenths of a mile from Ponta San Jorge. The next point to
tbe S.E. is Santa Anna, bearing S. 59° E., distant 1 1-lOth miles. On the same bear-,
ing is a large isolated rock, Il^o de San Jorge, 134 feet in height, one-third of a mile
from Santa Anna Point. The point is formed by a gradually rounding narrow beach
of large stones and coarse shingle, from which the land rises very abruptly. One-
fonrth of a mile from the sea it attains an elevation of 1,100 feet. The country above
the sea face is well wooded and extremely beautifril ; and the quintas spread over it
are amongst the most favourite summer retreats of this island. A detached rook lies
a quarter of a mile S.E. of the point, and is about 12 or 14 feet high. At 1 l-5th
miles from this point, and 400 yards off shore, is a small isolated rock, which uncovers
at low water. .

?mta Cortada, a remarkable point, is 1 9-lOth miles S. 52° E. from Ponta de Sta-
Anna; at six-tenths of a mUe to the N.W. of it there is a singular sharp peak, 1,730
feet high, standing close to the edge of the cliff overlooking a large high srass of rock
at its base, called the ]Rocha do Navio. Porta Cortada has a very sharp termination,
with a peak above the cliff, and deep water close up to it.

Ponta de Fayal, the next point, is cr< iiparatively low and narrow, and has a |)er-
pendioular rocky cliff extending from its outer extreme cdonff its N.W. side Outside
the point, bearing N. 40° E. one-third of a ^aile off, is ablaox basaltic rock, called the
lUuo de Fayal, with a sugar-loaf rock in its centre, 74 feet high. A quarter of a
mile S.E. of the point there is a sharp bold rocky spar. The smul town of Fayal lies
up the bay between them. The dim from which this spar projects rise to a consider-
aole elevation, and form tlie sea face of a singular flat-topped mountain, named Penha
iAgvia, or Eagles* i2ocA;, whose summit is 1,915 feet high.

Ponta da Cruz is the outer extreme of a small peninsula, 1 6-lOth miles S.E. of
Ponta de Fayal. It is surrounded by low rocky clins, and in front of it there are
four detached rocks, the outer one of which is 500 yards off the Point. To the S.E.
of the point is a bay, three-quarters of a mile across, callfd Porto da Cruz. It has a
shingle beach at its head, and here is also the little town of Santa Cruz. The coast
beyond consists of bold iX>cky cli&, of no great elevation at the sea, but the land
rises above them precipitously. The last habitation seen on this part of the island
was close to the coast, half a mile beyond Ponta da Cruz.

Ponta de San Antonio is 1 0-lOth miles to the E.S.E., and is a bold rocky point.
Two rocks lie close at the foot of it, and half a mile inland is a mountain, 2,510 feet
high, densely covered with trees. A dreary iron-bound coast, without i labitants,
extends for 5^ miles to Ponta do Caatello, the clifib of which are of reddish tufa, 534
feet high, bold and perpendicular. At the foot of the bluff, 100 yards off, is a break-
ing rock. The shorn throughout is broken into innumerable small coves and bold
fantastic points, with a great variety of detached rocks, but in no case iH^ycmd 250
yards from the shoic. A mile and three-fourths from Ponta de San Antonio, and
about six-tenths of a mile inland, is a high green woody peak, named Caatanhas, 2,058
feet above the sea. The land East of it has a steep descent to Cani^al. Three miles
and a half to the East is Ponta Bode, a bluff, vdth a bay on each side of it. One
mile and a half further is Ponta Rosto, with a group of rocKs off it. There are other
rocks off this point which need not here be pai^cularized.

The bank of soimding extends farther off this part of the coast than any other,
except Ponta Pargo, and the depths over it are tolerably rej^ular, except in ft-ont of
Ponta da Ci-uz. Its breadth hereabout is from 2| to 3 miJjs, and the depth from 20
to 80 fathoms, the bottom generally of dark gray sand, \aA occasionally with coral.

We have extracted many of these particulars from the excellent and detailed account

S'ven by Admiral Alexanaer T. E. Vidal, B,.N., the Admiralty surveyor, as given in
fl « Nautical Magazine " for 1848.

( 69S2 )

6.-THE CANAHIES, OB CANAEY ISLANDS.

This group of islafads was supposed to be known to the ancients under the name of the
Fortunate Islands. An expedition to conquer it was undertaken in 1334, by liooia
de hi Corda, a Castilian prince, but it was repulsed by the braverj' of the original
inhabitants, the Goanches. It was left until tne year 1402, when Jean de 66thcnconrt,
a baron of Normandy, took possession of Fortaventura and Lanzarote, for John,
King of Castile. Bv the treaty of peace between Ferdinand, Sine of Castile, and
Alp&>n8o, Ring of Portugal, it was agreed that these islands should belong to Spain,
in lieu of the settlements on the continent of Afirica, ceded to Portugal.*

The land of the Canary Islands is generally high, being variegated by volcanic
mountains, among which that called the Pic, or Peak, of Tenerife, is supereminent.
The inequality of height is, however, so great as to produce differences in the tempe-
rature of the d rent islands. For eight months in the year the summits, excepting
those of Lanzarute and Fortaventura, are covered with snow ; yet in the valleys, and
dn the shores, the cold is seldom so great as to render fires necessary. A great pro-

g>rtion of the surface of the islands is covered with lava, calcined stones, and osnes,
rmerly emitted by volcanoes, the remains of which are still visible in all the
islands ; and 8<Hne of them, among which is the Peak of Tenerife, are not yet entirely
extinguished. The number of inhabitants, according to the census of May, 1637,
was 134,046. The productions, exports, and imports, may be found correctly de-
scribed in most geographic works. The first discoverers found neither corn nor
wine i though, at present, there is plenty of both. Variation of the compass, 20|° to
21' West.

Vessels may pass between the Canaries, and through their principal channels ; a
there is no known danger but what may be plainly discerned, excepting a sunken
rook, laid down in some charts, in the southern part of the channel, between Tene-
rife in the Grand Canary, about 8 leagues E.S.E. of the South point of Tenerife,
and 4 leagues westward of the centre of Canary, but which is not shown in the
survey of Admiral Vidal, and another off the E. point of Tenerife.

In sailing from Funchal to Tenerife keep well to the westward, steering S. by W.
5 W. \nearly South'] in order to avoid the Salvages, which are very dangerous in
the night.

If prevented from weathering the Salvages or thte Piton (described hereafterj
by prevalent westerly and S. W. winds, common in the months of January ana
I^bruury, when a heavy swell may set the ship much to leeward, you may safelr
heat up and run to leeward of the Great Salvage ; only observing that, if the swell
be very heavy you must cautiously avoid three shoal spots, lying to the north-
ward and eastward of that isle. Of these, the northern one is about three-quarters
of a mile to the northward [_N.N'. W.'] of the isle ; the inner one on the N.E., 230
fathoms from it ; and the outer, in the same direction, 1 1-lOth miles. Two others,
with 3 and 3| fathoms, lie at about half a mile from the eastern shore.

The SALVAGES consist of an island, named Ilha Orande, or the Great Salvage,
a larger islet named Cfreat Piton, and a smaller one called the Little Piton, together
with numerous rocks. The Great Salvage lies in lat. 30° 8', long. 15° 55'. It is of
very irregular shape, and has a number of rocks about it within the distance of a
mile. It is much intersected, and has several deep inlets, the most accessible of which

• Alleouanza (the northern islo) is synonymous with ^oyotw, a name given it by the first
conquerors of the islands, Jean de jBethencotui;, and Gadife de Salle. This was the first
point on which they landed. After remaining sevenil days at Graciosa, they conceived the
project of taking posBession of the neighbouring isle.o# Lanzarote, where they were wel-
comed by Ouardarfia, sovereign of the Gaunches with the same ho8pitality that Cortes found
in the palace of Montezuma. The shepherd king, who had no other riches tlian his goats,
became the vietim of toward treachery, like the sovereisrii of Mexico! — Hutttboldt.

LANZAROTE.

598

is on tho East side. It is covered with btishes, amongst which the thousands of sea-
fowl make their nests. It is surrounded on all sides with dangers, most of which
show, but many require all caution in approaching.

The Great Piton lies at the distance of 8^ miles W.S.W. f W. [S. W. by TT.] from
Ilha Grande. This isle is 2f miles long, N.E. f E. and S.W. f W. \_N.F. by N. and
S. W. by iS.] and has a hill or peak near its centre. The Little Piton lies at a mile
from the western side of the former, and is three-quarters of a mile long, nearly in
the same direction ; both are comparatively narrow. These isles are seated upon,
and surrounded by, one dangerous rocky bank, which extends from the western side
of the little isle naif a league to the westward.

It has been said of the Great Piton, that, in some respects, it resembles tho largest
Needle Rock at the West end of the Isle of Wight; and, at a great distance, looks
like a sail. Its southern part appears green, its northern part barren. It may be
seen 5 or 6 leagues off. The Little Piton is verr flat, and is connected to the South
point of the greater one by a continued ledge of rocks. The whole of the eastern side
of the Great Piton is rocky and dangerous.*

LAHZABOTE is above 3,000 feet high, and its mountains may be discerned at a
great distance. On approaching, it appears black, rocky, and barren, and it has
many extinct volcanoes. From its nortliei a extremity, in lat. 29° 14', a barrier of
precipitous cliffs rise to the height of l,5no feet, extend in a S.W. dirertion 7 miles,
and terminate in a sandy plain, where, iu 1823, a jlcanic eruption took place, and
two considerable hills were thrown up, which we ? bum in 1835 ; a stream of lava,
from 200 to 300 yards broad, found its way to t u- sea in the bay. The shore along
all the N.W. side to the S.W. extremity of tho inland is hiofh and precipitous, with
the exception of a covc , called Januvia > ? Tinubio, once a Junbour wr small vessels,
but converted into a salt-water lake bj aa ;. i uption in the year 1765.

On the eastern side of the island the shore is much lower than the western ; near
the middle of it is the Port of Naoa, a small but secure harbour, formed by several
rocky islets, and having two entrances, the northern with a depth of 12, and the
soutnern of 17 J feet at low water, with a tidal rise of 9 feet. During winter, nearly
all the vessels of the island resort to this place. Two bomb-proof forts, the one
mounting 11, and the other 12, heavy guns, defend the respective entrances. Tho
town of Areci/e is situate immediately to the southward of the port ; many of its
houses are large, and the streets are capacious ; inhabitant«i about 2,500. Tho entire
population of the island is estimated at 17,500.

'fhe greater part of the inhabitants of Arecife are engaged in the fishery on the
opposite coast of Africa, which gives employment to between 400 and 500 men from
tha idand alone, about 250 from Fuertaventura, and proportionably from the other
iiilands.

The highest land in • /:: :^,arote is Montana Blanca, above 2,000 feet in height
above the sea, situate nearly in the centre of the island, and cultivated to tho
summit. The wine of this island is very superior to that of the other islands ; the
grapes are superior in flavour ; the soil selected for their cultivation is decomposed
scoriffi.t Camels are used in Lanzarote as beasts of burden, on account of tho
Bcarcitv of water.

• See " Nautical Magazine," October, 1851, pp. 609—617. The occasion and result of
a visit by Roar- Admiralllercules Robinson in 1813 is there amusingly related. In sub-
stance it is, that, iu 1804, the crow of a South American Spanish ship, bound to Cadiz with
produce, and about two millions of dollars in chests, rose upon and murdered the captain,
oflf some islands corresponding exactly in description and site with the Salvages. Tho
treasure was carried on shore, and buried in the white sand above high-water mark in a
snug Uttle bay on the tSouth side of tho island, and over it was buried also the body of the
murdered captain. This tale was told to an English sailor by one of the two survivora,
whoso tale led to tho unsuccessful search by tho rromctheua. Still the tale appears credible.

t The piecoding dciciiption of Lanzarote is cluully that of Lieiiiennut Aiictt, ISjO.

4 F

;594

DESCRIPTTON OF THE ISLANDS.

Puerto DE Naos. — Any vessel, n'>t drawing more than 18 feet, may enter thin
port at high water, spring tides, and lie secure from all winds and weather : althougli,
in sailing along the coast, the shipping appears as if at anchor in an open road, the
harliour being foimed by a ridge of rocks, not perceivable at any distance, as most of I
them are under water ; "these break off the swell oi the sea, so that the inside io as i
smooth as a mill-pond. As there is no other ccnveiiicnt place in the Canaries f'tr
cleaning or repauin^ large vesitls, it is much, fvs^ueuted for that purpose by the ship-
ping trading to the islands, i,.- • 'r • -=' i

On the West side of Arecife lies another port ca'led Pceuto de Cavallos. This
is also an excellent harbour, formed, like Puerto de Naos, by a ridge of rocks ; butiti
entrance is shallow, there being no more than 12 feet of water in it, wilh spring
tides. A square castle, built of stone, stands upon a small island between the twu
harbours, and so defends them both ; this island is joined to the land by a hiidf^e,
under whicL boats go from one port to the other, or from Puerto de Cavallos to Puerto
dc Naos.

At the North end of Lanzarote is iv spacir)us channel, colled El, llio, wliich is the
strait dividing this island from the uninhubited one, calkd Graviom. A ship of auy
burden may pass through this strait ; for, if sfie keeps in the midway, between tlie
two islands, she will have 6 or 7 fathoms of water all along.

The Rio in, in general, rather more than a mile wide, and forms the only safe
harbour in the Canaries for large ships ; but the extreme difficulty of comnuuiieatinii
with Lanzarote presents an insuperable obstacle to its being resorted to as a Inuboiir
for trade. Here basaltic cliffs rise almost perj)endicularly to the height of 1,600 feet,
andean be climbed only bv a narrow i)atli which winds along the fnee >;f tlie pi^
cipice J halfway up the cliff is the only spring of fresh water in the island, but ren-
dered useless from its situation, except to a few goatherds. From the bijttom of the
cliff' to the shore of Lanzarote is about t"'o muoket-shots distance. The grouud in
the space is low ; and here was a salina, or salt wo)k. The tishermen of Luiizarote
have constructed a small stone pier, where boats can land under some shelter ; and on
the Oraciosa side there is a small bay wiiere landing can always be tlllctecl, TLere
are no resources here, nor any iuhabitunls. Some indiU'ertut water niny be got by
digging in the sand at some clistance from the sea. Fish is abundani and good. -
Lieut, du Maraia, French Marine, IS.I?.

Ou the N.E. extremity of lianzarote are two remarkable i-oeks, composed of Mack
vitrified matter, but in shape resembling the " Needles," at the western extrt-mity of
tlie Isle of Wight.

If a smooth place to lie in, while the trade- wind blows, be required, a whip coming
into this harbour from the eastward must run u good way in, and double a sliuUow
point, which lies on tho starboard hand, taking cure to give it a good bLitli ; uiid this
18 easily done bj- approaching no nearer than iu 4 fathoms ; when past it, edge towaid
Oracior.a, and anchor in any convenient depth ; for it shoalens gradually t;)\vardthc
iihore, close to which there are 2 fathoms.

This is a commodious place in the summer seiison for careening large ships; thcv
may come hero and unloi'd all her stores, itc, on the Isle of Onieiosa, and lu-il iinii
scrub. Or, if two vesselh. chance to c<»ne toj;elher, the one nuiy heave down by the
other; iu doing whieli, they need not ft.vr any opposition from the inhabita»t>, fr
there in neither castle nor hulutai'.un near this spot.

Tho water, however, is not .o snioot'.i here as at Puerto de Naos, ispiciully if llif
trade-wind hpppens to blow hard fnm the F,u>t, which sends in u swell tbuf mukcsit
troublesome, if not impossible, to careen a ship properly. But the wind here docs not
often blow from that quarter, those winds which mostly pr vail being from North awl
N.N.E. In mooring here, great care must bo taken to have a ^^ood anelior, with a
large seope of cable toward Lanzarote \ for in Eaxt and S. K. winds heavy Kusts "f
sqistilU coniG frem the high land of that isle. In the winter the whid hoinotiims
aluft* Iu the S.W. ; then it is necessary to weigh, and run Iwvk to thcca^twuid,i'ouml

FUERTAVENTURA.

494

the shallow point before mentioned, until the ship be sheltered from that wind, and
there anchor.*

Th6 Isle Allegranza« the northernmost of the Canary Island*?, is composed of
lava and cinder;^, tuu remains of an extinct volcano. It rises to the height of 939
feet above the aoa. The ed^e of the crater is well defined, and two-thirds of a mile
across ; its bottom U cultivated for barilla. The western cliff;? are precipitous, and
700 feet in heif^ht. About 40 persons were resident on the island in 1835, principally
employed in collecting orchilla.

The only landin;j-place is on the South side, where a cavern extends about 500
paces, slanting from the sea, and terminates ^"'i a little sandy bay, optn above. At
the entrance, the rocks form a natural jetty. The village is bituate immediately
above, and abreast is the only anchorage, half a mile from shore.

Qraciosa, forming the North side of the Kio of Lanzarote, is about 5 miles in
leiijfth and 2 in breadth ; and, as may be inferred from its appearance, it is destitute
of water. Allegranza is 7 miles to the northward of it.

Near Clara is a dangerous rock, 3 or 4. fathoms high, and covered with sooriac,
ivsembling coke. In the old charts it is called the In/ierno or Hell Rock, and may
have been higher. It is now called the Jrest Rock, or Ituca de Otieat.

Eijfht miles i > the eastward of Graciosa stands the Hoca del Este, or the East Rock,
the craggy suinnlt of an extinct volcano. Many ships have been wrecked upon these
islets ill the uight, being misled by erroi-s in their reckoning and by the currents, j.

FUERTAVENTURA, or FORTAVENTuRA. — This inland \n divided from
Lanzarote by the channel named Canal de Bocnyna, which is H miles in breadth : the
island as shown by chart, is singuhu'ly formed and -. ariegated ; it is less mountainous
than the other islands, yet bothi the UL>rthern ar.d southern extremities rise to 2,500
feet above the sea.

It has two ports of trade ; Cahra/> on the East, n'ld Tarnjttle/i) on the S.E. ; but
Cabras contains little more thai* 1,000 inhabitants. Tne ancliorage at the latter is
indifferent, and at the landing-place, a beach of shingles, still worse.

Lieutenant Arlctt says that, although the general feature of Fuertaventura is
extreme barrenness, still there are many spots of great fertility ; the most conspicuous
of these is the valley of Olim, toward the North end, where there is a village of the
Kume name, the residence of the lieutcMant-governor, a descendant of the Baron
liethcncourt, who possesses a very considerable portion of the island. The valley of
Olivais about .'5 miles long, and generally from 2 to 3 wide. The only two streams
of pure water in the island have their rise in the moxmtain of the Atalaya, or watch-
tower ; they are husbanded with great care, and irrigate the whole of the valley.

;V paved road across the island, from Cabras to Betancuria, is the only one existing {
the other ways being mere tracks following the direction of the valley, where the
jjromid is less encumbjrecl with stones, and softer to the camel's feet. The population
nfrom 17,000 to 18,000 scattered in small villages over every i)art of the island.

The interior formation of Fuertaventura is as f(jllows : to the North is a group of
extinct volcanoes j some of them, as Monte Vudo, on the N.E., rise to the height of
2,101) feet ; and they branch to the southward of Port Cubras, lMi:<t and West to tho
Hea, thence following tho direction of the coast on each side tor about 30 miles ; again
uniHiig, they encircle an extensive and and plain and several detached villages.
I'i'oin the sunmiit of the hills, the course of some hnickish streams may be triietd by
the venlurc they imi)art. There are also date palms, the only trees, excepting tho
%, on the island.

From the southern point of junction of the mountains, one of which, Chikyua, on

• I'iirticnliir ]>linis of this struit, and of tho harbours of Nhos and (JiiViillos, arc givrn 5n
iiirClmrt of the A/.or<'s, Ace.

596

DESCRIPTION QF THE ISLANDS.

the western const, reaches the heiplit of 2,100 feet, n narrow sandy isthmus, about 5
miles lonff and 2.^ broad, projects, connecting; it with the southern extremity of the
island, a peninsula, occupied by the Monte Jandia, a moimtain which presents the
most remarkable features ; from the N.W., its precipitous face is seen to rise to the
height of 2,820 feet j and spurs, or buttresses, diver^^o from its centre to the N.E.,
Ea«t, and S.E., by any of which it may be ascended to a frightful ridge on the
summit.

On the South side of the eastern entrance of the Bocayna, very near the N.E. shore
of Fuertaventura, lies the little island of Lohos, or Seal's Isle, which is about 1}
leagues in circumference, uninhabited, and destitute of water. Near this isle is a
good road for shipping ; the mark for which is, to bring the East point of Labos to
bear nearly N.E. by N., and anchor halfway between it and Fuertaventura, or rather
nearest to the latter. Although this road seems to be open and exposed, yet it is very
safe with the trade-wind, for the water is smooth, and the ground everywhere clean,
being a fine sandy bottom. Directly ashore from the road, on Fuertaventura, vn a
well of good water, of eauy access.

Through the broad channel. La Bocaynn, ships sail very safely, as it is deep in the
middle, and shoalcns gradually towai-d Lantiarote. near to which arc 5 fathoms of
water ; but very near or close to Lobos, the ground is foul and rocky. In this pas-
sage vessels of any burden may find room enough to ply to windward, and there is no
necessity of approaching too near to Lobos.

"When a vessel comes from the eastward, with the trade-wind, and is passing
tlirough the Bocayno, to the westward, so soon as she brings a high hill on Lanza-
rote directly to windward of her, she will be becalmed, ana soon have the wind at
S.W. Should this happen, make short tacks until you obtain the trade again, or a
constant northerly wind, the liret puff of which will come from West or W.N.W. So
soon as this is perceived, you must not stand to the northward, otherwise you will
immediately lose it again, but must steer toward Lobos j for the nearer you approach
this isle the more will you have the wind ; uo that, before you are two-thirds over,
you will meet with a steady wind at North, or N.N.E. ,

When there is a gi-cat westerly swell hereabout, the sea breaks hoi-ribly on the
rocks at the N.W. uuil <(f Lobos. Captain Glas affirms, that he has seen breakers
there nearly 00 feet iiigli ; of which, were one to strike the strongest ship, she would
be staved to [)icccs in a moment. " When I first saw," says Captain Ghss, " those
mighty brcakei's, our shij) had just passed through the channel, between Fuertavcn-
turn and Lobos; we had a fine brisk trade-wind at N.N.E. ; and although there wcn<
no less than 10 fathoms of water, wlien we came into the westerly swell, vet wc
trembled lest the waves should have broken, and thoiwht our8elveH"hai)py wlicn wo
got out of soundings. We luard the noise of these breakers, like diMtant thunder,
alter wo were past them or 7 leagues."

Point Jandia, or IIandia, the south-western extremity of Fuertaventura, Ih a
low rocky pohit, placed by the Chevalier de Horda in lat. 28" 4' long. 14^ 31', and by
Lieutoiuuit Arlett in 28" 3', and 14" 82'. A rock lies at half a mile from it to
the S.W.

CANABIA, or GRAND CANARY.- The Isleta, or N.E. point of this inland, lies
10 leagues N.W. In W. \ W. [ W. by N.^ fiom Point IIandia, the S.W. end of Fuerta-
ventura ; and, in clear weather, either of these islands may be seen from the other.
The centre of Canaria is excee'liugly high, and full of lofty numntuins, wliiih town'
so far above tiie clouds us to stop the current of tlio N.E. wind that genenilly prevails
here; so that when this wind blows hard on the North side of the inountuins, it is
either quite calm on the other side, or a gentle breeze blows upon it from the S.\V.*
This island is the grannry of the Canarian ArehiiK>lago, and has, in some districts,
two wheat harvests in the year — one in February, the other in June.

A deM'i'ip(ion nl tiicM' culm" ih Hulijoinoil (o thu jirosi'nt Hcction.

TENERIFE.

697

On the N.E. end of Canaria is the peninsula called the Isleta, 2 or 3 lenjpics in cir-
cumference ; the istlxmas, by which it is connected with the main island, la low and
Bandy, about 2 miles lonj^, and a quarter of a mile broad at the narrowest part. On
each side of this isthmus is a bay, which, being exposed on the N.W. side to the swell
of the sea, is, therefore, an utittt road for shipping ; but small barks get in between a
ledge of rocks and the shore, and lie there smooth and secure from all winds and
weather. Here the natives repair their small vessels.

On the other side of the isthmus is a spacious sandy bay, called by some Puerta de
Luz, and by others Puerta de las laletas, from some steep rocks, or islets, at the
entrance of the bay, toward the N.E. This is a good road for shipping of any burden,
with all winds, except from S.E., to which it is exposed ; but that wind, which is not
common here, seldom blows so hard as to endanger a ship.

The landing-place is in the very bight, or bottom, of the bay, where the water is
generally so smooth, that a boat may lie broadside to the shore, without danger.
Thence, along shore, about a league to the southward, is the city of Palmas, the
capital of the island. Shipj)ing, that discharge their cargoes at Palmas, generally
anchor, in good weather, within half a mile of the town, for the quicker despatch;
i)ut that place is not a good roud.

The next port, of any consequence in Canaria is Oando, situated in the middle of
the East side of the island. It is a good place for shipping with all winds, except
from the southward ; and there good water, with other refreshments, may be had.f

Las Palmas is a large handsome town, containing 18,000 inhabitants : it has a
cathedral, hospital, and college. It is well supplied with water, having fountains in
fll the principal streets ; ahd its market, likewise, is well supplied. The city appears
to great advantage from the sea, the streets rising regularly above each other, which
gives it a very commanding aspect. It extends at least a mile in length. There is
another lar^e town, with a lofty church, about 4 or 6 miles to the southward, which
fitands considerably higher and more inland than Palmas. From the number of
houhcs seen, while sailing along the island, it has the appearance of a coiisidcrablo
population, and of being well cultivated. A fixed light is sliown from the mole.

Canahy affords more anchorages than any of the other inlands : the bank almost
cvcrvwhero extcndinjf further. During summer there is here a constant N.E. wind j
the land, obstructing its course, causes the calms which prevail off the S.W. shore to
the distance of 8 or » miles, when the aerial currents again unite. Within this space
a westerly current runs close in-shore, which is advantageous to the coasters.

El Cumhrc, or the summit of the liighest peak of Canary, has been stated by Lieut.
Arlett to be (J,(548 feet above the level of the sea : the ux.untain Sancillu, near the
centre of the island, which has a large wooden cross ou > • ■ pu runit, 6,070 feet.

TENERIFE, or TENKRIFFE.— Point Naga, the >.;.. end of Tenerife, be.us
N.W. i N. [A'. h\ by WJ] \o\ leagues from the N.E. point of Canaria; but, from tlio
western part of Canaria to the nearest part of Tenerife, the distance is 10 leagues, in
the centre of the island is the famous peak, called, by the ancient and present inha-
bitants, the Peak ofTeyde.

The Bay, or lloadstead, of Santa Cruz, on the N.E. cii.ist, is the most frequented
of any in the Cunaries.

On conn'ny toward tfir island, in clear weather, the peak may be clearly discerned at
a great distance ;• it first appears like a thin blue vnpour or smoke, very little darker

• Tho pilots of Tonorifo assort that a rock, with f>nly V2 font of water ovor it, lies W.N.W
2j li'iiguuH from Toitit Ahlivi, tho woMtorn point of tho (tmnd C;inarv, iiml that tho aea
liroukH on it in rough woiithcr. Its prociHo situation nppours to l)o unknown.

t They sny, in tlio (^nnaries, tlmt tlio jm iik, in very clear woiither, is soon from La

llnrayna, or tho chaimel botwoon tho Isles of Lanziiroto and Fuertuvonturu, at, the distunco

aC ..)!.,..> .'.ii I

"'i'hrPeak nf Tt-ncriic i^ probably the most striking monuinunt of nature in the world ;

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

than the sky ; at a further castance the shade disappears, and is not distinguishable
from the azure of the firmament. Before you lose Hiaht of this toweling mountain,
it seenu at a considerable heieht above the horizon, although, by its distance, and the
Bperical figure of the earth, aU the rest of the island, the upper part of which is ex-
ceedingly nigh, is sunk beneath the horizon. But, in general, in sailing toward Tene-
rife, when the trade-wind blows, the island appears as a haziness of the sky, or as a
cloud, till within the distance of 5 or 6 leagues, and then the headlands show like
land, and are first conspicuous.

Tenerife presents to the curious eye the most singular object, perhaps, in the
northern hemisphere. The island appears, on sailing along the coast, tram Noith to
South, to have once been a complete cinder ; and presents to view a great deal of the
brokenness and irregularity of half-consumed coke. The resemblance, however, con-
trary to expectation, becomes less perfect as we approach the peak, the grea;, chiDiney
of the fieiy caldrons boiling beneath. The island is of a triangular form, its Nortn
and South sides being about 4.5 miles long, and its West end about 24 miles. Some
very interesting particulars of it, with photographic views, are given by Piofessor C.
Piozzi Smyth's account of his astronomical visit in 18o6.t

In Baron Humboldt's ascent of the peak, it is stated, that the volcano has not been
acdvc at the summit for thou;!ands of years, its eruptions having been from the sides;
the depth of the crater being only about 120 feet. The peak forms a pyramidal mass,
having a circumference at the base of more than 57,105 fathoms, and a height ti
12,176 feet, or ruther more than 2 geographic miles. Two-thirds of the mass arc
covered with vegetation, the remaining part being strrile, iind occupying about 10
square leagues of surface. The cone is very small in proportion to the size of the
mountain, it ha%'ing a height of only 537 feet. The lower part of the island is com-
posed of basalt ana other igneous rocks of ancient formation, and is separated from
the more recent lavas and the products of the present volcano by strata of tufa, puz-
zolana, and clay.

Captain Becchy, in his narrative of the voyage of the Blossom, obser\'cs : — " As I
purposed touching at Santa Cruz, we immediately hauled up for the land, and it was
a fortunate circumstance that we did so ; for so strong a current set to the southward
during the night, that, had we trusted to our reckoning, the port would have been
passed, and there would have been much difficulty in regaining it. I mention the cir-
cumstance, with a view of bringing into notice the great southerly set that usually

for, though the Chimborazo (in South America) soars to the height jf 22,000. and tho Hima-
layarfDewiilgiri )in Asia) to the astonishing height of 27,000, while Tenerife is but 12,176,
yet the latter, by its arising directly from the luvel of tho sea, is seen more conspicuously,
and stands at a more niagniticont oluvution. -The view from the summit, which it requires
a whole day to ascend, is unspeakably grand. On the top of this vast pyramid of basalt is
a crater, 40 yards dooji, from which vapour continually tiscends, and spocimons of finely
crystallized sulphur are gathered round itM lips. From this summit, when the sky i» unub-
scured, the whole island is seen like a model. Bihiug around it, at a distance, mo tjcon the
Canaries, glittering on the horizon, Ihoir peaks and pinnacles coloured by every change of
day. At fiivouruble times, Madeira and the African coast are visible." — Captain Akxandtr,
1837.

Boron Humboldt says : — " It may be admitted in general that the Peak of Tenorife is
seldom seen at a groat distance in the warm and dry months of July and August ; and thut,
on the contrary, it is seen at very extraordinary distances in the months of Janui;ry and
February, when tho sky is slightly covero<l, and immediately after a heavy rain, or .■^ few
hours before it falls."

t " Tenerife, on astronomer's oxporimont, or Hpecinltios of a reside'- o u'oove tho clouds, by
C. Piuzri Smyth, F.R.S., 1858." Profossor S-nyth and a part\ of scientific n.on went in
Kobort Stephenson's yacht, Titania, to Tonorito, in Juno and July, 1866, and carried thein-
Htrun.ents up to the tlanks of tho peak to Ouajaru, KiOO.'l foot alwvn tho sea, on tho *<o«th
side, and Altp Vista, near tho edge of the crater, at 10,702 feet above the sea. Tho rosultN of
these observationH woro very remarkable, and tho oxpo'itation was fulHUed that tho atitro-
••omsctl objects would Iw seen witii much groator cieamess and brilliancy when the lower

strata of cloud and vapour was jiasMod.

; ^8ti?3guishable
redn^ mountain,
liBtance, and the
of which is ex-
Jff toward Tene-
the sky, or as a
Uands show like

perhaps, in the
, from North to
reat deal of the
e, however, con-
e grea;, chimney
:'orm, its ISorth
14 miles. Some
by Professor C.

lo has not been
from the sides;
lyramidal mass,
and a height ci
of the mass arc
pying about 10
he size of the
'■ island is corn-
separated from
ta of tufa, puz-

jrves :— " As I
ind, and it was
the southward
uld have been
lenlion the cir-
et that usually

..;^'V;-,i,-;,.,,.,,-\..- ■ iiv^-^s,'. V^f,^-»-.-

//..

and tho Hima-
B is but 12,1 76,

conspicuously,
lich it requires
nid of busalt is
mens of finely
10 Hky is uuob-
16, ,1X0 scon tho
cry change of
tain Akxandn,

of Tenorife is

[ust ; and that,

January and

■ain, or ^ few

tho clouds, by
c n.on went in
curried the in-
on tho Mouth
Tho rosultN of
lat the astro-
don the lower

"^^I^^HHBB

miUi

J\ i

-N E

I F

l"°deAAexe
P?"df Chistiauos

■rw: t'/V-^a«tt^ '

l<HMWa

MhiMiiiUSkMfi

^'//^^Z:

ROADSTEAD

SANTA CRUZ

Teueiite.

Latitude ot' du- SU,U- :',
Lonaiiudv myj:: H'.

IM.

?- Juiui
n

• «

Onthr iiuiininfi oivimd w/ih^i i'tniit.v lit,-
Auchitra|iji- dw hi>ttont i.r itenitiillti 4*vi<i'ii>ii,r,

<uui stiif/.r h'f .rafrlft l>ji tii<i<>iiiul Xhniiil
y.W.lii^ ii'ni^tuv.H-ilA It -fiioi/ ti'iiifi I,' llu-

Olfuiil:lhlU-\ld.io,du'ff inilfl lf,rifl iliv

heavy sni r-tirnt lU Ornnr hit n/h'ilm ii/ini'.

hut it Id' issaUinl In hunff up Hif
citJkliM ■_ for. without d>ix prrituHum . Ihfift

intiir llir Hfh of .>/>oi/inff llunt and.
lotiny the ii/uihtus. not mtJ// hyfoulgtviutil

hut hy atuJwhf at the bottom , w/iich
are nunuiy>u.y .

1 1

( I

' .^rtTHlii

TENERIFE.

099

attends the paosage of ships from Cape Finisterre southwai-d. From thin cape to
Point Naga, our error in that direction, or more correctly 8. i)3° W. {true), waa uoft
less than 90 miles."

PCNTA DE Anaoa, the eastern point of Tenerife, is in lat. 28° 28' 33" N., and long.
16° 6' W. It is proposed to establish a light near it.

To the northward of the N.E. point of Teuerifc is a chain of black rocks called the
Anagaa, which are stecp-to, but aanserous. To the Sou^ of the N.E. point 'is a high
conical rock close to the shore, called the Mancha Blaneha, though it is usually of a
dark colour.

A dangeroua sunken rock lies ofP the East point, which is omitted in the last surrey,
though it appears in the older charts. It was seen by the mail steamer Cloipatra, in
December, 1859. It is known to the pilots as the Bajo de la Mancha, and Dears 1|
miles East, true, from Anaga Point, and E. by ^S*. from the rock described above, as
La Mancha Blanca. It has 18 feet at low water, and 21 feet at high water. It only
breaks occisionally.

Santa Cruz. — At a short distance from Point Anaga, the East point of Tenerife,
are the high perpendicular rocks above described ; and 4 or 5 leagues thence, on the
S.£. side of the island, is the bay or roadstead of Santa Cruz. The best road for
shipping here is between the middle of the town and a fort, or castle, about a mile to
the northward of it. In all that space ships anchor, from a cable's length distance
from the shore, in 6, 7, and 8 fathoms of water, to half a mile, in 25 or 30 fathoms.
Particular care must be taken, in going in, not to bring any part of the town to the
northward of West, lest calms should be occasioned by the high land under the peak ;
otherwise you will be in danger of driving upon the shore ; and, when ashore, will
have no groijid on the opposite side of the »bip, with 200 fothoms of line, so that
anchors and cables ate of no use.

Here vessels, if moored with good cables and anchors, may lie securely in all winds,
' although the bay is exposed and open ti those which blow to the N.E., East, and
S.E. ; however, Jt is not above once in the space of four or five years that they blow
so hard as to cause any considerable damage. sutf frequently beats on shore,

with great violence, for several days togethc ad the pier b ill-contrived for
shelter.*

A red light was placed on the extreme end of thv Mole, on July 1st, 1857. The
lamp will be kept lighted from dusk until dawn, and moved forward as the mole ;
prolonged. The light is 20 feet above high wntei- mark, and is visible at the disinnt.
of 4 miles. In steering from the South, the light ought to be kept in sight, the coast
out of the range of the light being dangerous.

The following directions for the anchorage at Santa Crua were issued in August,
1842, by Mr. Richard Bartlett, the British consul at that place.

• "The Bay of Santa Cauz is mucii > Lo all winds botweon E.N.E. and 8.W.
by W. ; and, us tlie ousterly winds are very prbraient, there is jijeueriilly a great swell set-
ting in, although it seldom blows hard from that quartr;/r of thu coinpus8.

"In 17^ fathoms, fine sand and blue clay, directly off the jntty, with the end thereof on
with the gateway leading into the town, bearing about N.W., is a convenient berth for
watering, and good ground.

"The jetty is built on a cui-ro, to breal: off the swell, for the convenicnco of boats, being
the only landing-place, whore all goods are landed and Hhippod. Shipn geuornlly lie off the
jetty, in from 17 to 35 fathoms, good holding-ground. TLo best mark w tho high square
building, like a lighthouse, just over, and in one with, tho mole or jetty Load.

"Tide rises about 4 foet ; sets round tho bay. H. W. 4h 30' (P)"- Mr, WUliam JTood,
H.if.S. Tartar, 18"3.

"The Chamber of Commerce at Santa Cruz notified .Tuly lathj 1850, that the works of the
mde had sufficiently advanced to permit tho oinborkatiou of coals, ut all hours, independent
oi tide, and that coals were abundantly provided.

^. ^^'

i'^.if.V*,-

j800

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

^:<#,

'♦ While running for the anchorage keep hoth leads going, and bring up to the
northward of the Mole Head ; or, bring the clock front of the square church with a
cupola to bear W.N.W., and anchor with this mark on, or to the nort ward of it.

" Ships may anchor when in less than 30 fathoms. Give a large scope of chaiij
cable. When the northernmost fort (Fort Paso Alto) bears N.N.E., the depth of
water will be about 25 fat lioms on the lines pointed out. The shore may be nearcd
without risk, the water being deep, and no dangers that are not apparent. Tho
anchorage to the South of the lines indicated is reserved for vessels m quarantine."
The foregoing will be sufficient ; but another !j^ood anchoring mark is, )iot to brinu
the Mole mad anything North of W.N. W. Variation, 22° 41' West.

Lieutenant Church, of H.M.S. JEtna, makes the foUomng observations on the
anchorage of Santa Cruz : — " Whilst surveying the Canai'v Islands in the JEtna, we
had, of course, considerable experience of Santa Cruz, and nad no reason to consider
it on • _nchorage. During tho very many times that the ^^na was there, in

ouiy one instance dxd wc experience a gale from the south-eastward. Most of the
shipping slipped at the commencement, and got into the offing ; but we remained at
our aiichors, and rode it out well. Although a Lf-avy K:.a tumbled in, there was much
less strain on the cables than might have been expected, arising, as it appeared to as,
from an offset, which, together with there beuig a great uphill drag for the anchor,
diminishes the chance of driving.

" The church tower with the cupola (San Francisco) open a little to the right of
the Mole Head, is considered the usual anchorage, and vessels congre^at j here to
be near the landing-place. But, in a man-of-war, J nould (especially if there are
many vessels here) anchor considerably to the north-eastward or windward of this
resort, the bahk of soundings being wiaer, and so avoid having merchant ships in the
hawser ; indeed, I see no reason why shins should not anchor nearly as far North as
the Paso Alto Battery, the most northern battery, in case the roads are crowded with
, 8hij;ping.

" I have noticed that ships, c^ ^ning from !he uo: i-eastward t' Ran La-Cruz, run
down at too great a distance from the land, and do ... haul in i > they yet nearly
abreast of the town. They get a cast or two of the iv. i with no bottom, and imme-
diately they get into soundings, the anchor is let go ^r a hurry, the bank being
narrow, and the ship's head in-shore, there being little for consideration.

"Instead of this method of proceeding, I think it would be nd' i sable, on making
the N.E. end of Tenerife, Punta de Anaga, to haul in upon 11 bank of scund-
ings immediately on passing Punta de Antiqucrra, as from this p(< to Santa Cruz
the bank extends as far out from the land as at the town, antl the anchorage is
just ii- good and as safe anywhere when abreast of the BaiTancos. I would p^ctinto
the (1 >th nearh that I wished to anchor in, and then run down with the lif^ht wind
paralk 1 to tho sL a-e. Besides having time to anchor leisurely, there is the advantage
of being enabled to let go tho anchor under foot, wherever you may be.

" Should it fall culm while the ship is outside soundings, she may be taken away to
leewP' :3 by the soi;, herly set, which once caused us twenty -four horn's' trouble to get
back gtiin. From experience, W;' latterly adopted the system I have mentioned.'

Conirn; lider T. L. Barnard, in H.M.S. st. Vixen, says: — " With the wind on shore
I shoui' pcoramend a istcamer to steer boldly under the sterns of the vessels ut anchor
^ the M lehead, and bring the head to wind with the Molehead on with th.; Church
'^er, ' 1 from 2j to 30 fathoms."

The \^ iter is easily procured when the surf is not great on the beach. It is scut
uiongside in butts. A good supply of wine may also be readily had.

The aspect of Santa Cruz is gloomy, and the heat is commonly excessive. On a
narrow and sandy beach, houses of dazzling whiteness, with flat roofs, arc stm k
against a wall of black perpendicular rocks, stripped of vegetation. A fine mole, built
of freestone, and the public walk, planted with poplars, are the only objects which
break the sameness of the landscape.

Orotava. — The next best port to that of Santa Cruz is the port of Orotuva, on the

PALMA— OOMERA.

iH^'

1. It is sent

northern side of the island, and which lies about 84 leagues to the .westward of Point
Anaga. Here the riches and fertility of the island are chiefly to be found, for her*
the wine is mostly made, and shipped when the weather allows. It is a good harbour
in the summer season, or from the beginning of May to the end of October ; but in
winter, ships are often obliged to slip their cables, and put to sea, lest they should be
surprised by a N.W. wind, which throws in a heavy sea : luckily, these winds rarely
happen ; and, in general, give warning, so that a vessel has time to get away. Strag-
gling rocks project about 2 ships' length from shore, on which the sea breaks furiously.
It is commonly calm in the roaa, but there is almost always a long northerly swell,
that causes ships to roll very much.

The anchorage is in 60 fathoms, about 1| miles from shore, with the peak bearing
S.W. ; and it is proper to continue a pilot on board whilst lying here.

Orotava stands upon a gentle slope at the foot of the mountain, and is surrounded
by fiel Is of com, gardens, and vineyards. The culture of the soil is here promoted to
a very ^reat degree, particularly in some patches so elevated and so secluded as to
appear maccessible to the husbandman. But the plain is very forbidding ; and the
beach is composed of naked, pointed, and cinereous, or scorched rocks.

PALMA, — ^From Point Teno, the western end of Tenerife, to the nearest part of
Island of Palma, the distance b about 15 leagues. The summit of this island ia
lu^^her than the general level of Tenerife, its peak excepted ; hence some navigators
run toward it with great confidence in the night.

The chief port is that of Santa Cruz, on the East side of the island. The mark by
which a stranger may find it is the following : — When he approaches the East nioB
of the island, Palma will appear shaped exactly like a saddle. Let him steer so as to
&11 in a little to windward of the lowest place, or middle of the saddle, till he comes
within a mile of the land ; then, nmning along shore to the southward, he will per-
ceive the town close by the sea shore, and the shippin"^ lying in the road ; but, as the
land behind the town is high and steep, one cannot discern the shipping till withia
a mile of them. The road is within a musket-shot of the shore, where vessels com-
monly ride in 15 or 20 fathoms of water, and are exposed to easterly winds ; yet, with
good anchors and cables, they may remain with great safety in all winds ; for the
nound is clean and good, and the great elevation of the island, with the perpen-
dicular height of the land facing the road, repels the wind that blows upon it, though
ever so strong.

When there is a great N.E. wind at sea, it comes rolling into the bay, but the want
of -wind and the deepness of the water deprive it of stren^h and power; so that ships,
in such a case, ride here with a slack cable. These circumstances render the road of
Santa Cruz,' in Palma, more secure than any of those of Canaria or Tenerife ; but, in
the winter, the rolling swell which comes into the bay, breaks high upon the beach,
and prtyjnts boats from going ofF, or landing, for the space of three or four days
together.

Santa Cruz de la Palma is a large town, but not so good as that of Palmas, in
Canary, or the towns of Tenerife In coming to it from the offing, a church on one of
the heights and some windmills are the first objects seen. It has several forts, and
near the mole is a castle, or battery, mounted with a few cannon. In the middle of
the town, near the great church, is a fountain, filled by a rivulet, which plentiftilly
supplies the inhabitants with good water.* . . - .

* The following notice, which appeared in the Shipping Gazette, in March, 1840, will be
useful to vessels touching at Palma : — " Several English vessels having lately sent HAhore
their boats at Tassacortu, without receiving the succour they required, I beg, through yon,
to inform the shipping intereRt in ge'nersl, that the orders from the Spaniah Government
are, that no communication be held, or refreshments given, at any other place, except this
»iid thr town of Seata Cruz, on the N.E. sideof Palma."— CSi«(»rt«*, January 10th, 1840;

4 o

602

DESC'trPTTON OF THE ISLANDS.

Toxacorta or Tattacorto, the port next in consideration to that of Santa Cmc, h
on the S.W. part of the island ; it is exposed to westerly winds, and little frequented
by any vessels, excepting boats.

■ In all the island there is no town of any note, excepting Santa Cruz ; but many
villages, the chief of which are St. Andrea, and Tassacorta. In the north-eastern
part, inland, is a remarkable high mountain, called La Caldera, or the Caldron, being
hollow, like the Peak of Teneiiie. ->,, a; ,{/;-, <>, . ^r. J JkjvL*: - ,•£_,,

OOMEBA is divided tvom Tenerifo by a perfectly safe channel IS miles wide. The
island is very nigged and uneven, the middle being a plateau, above which the moun-
tain AUa Oaraone rises to 4,440 feet. The shores are everywhere rugeed, and nearly
perpendicular to the sea. A few rocks lie off it, and there ara some smul sandy beaches,
at one of which, on the East side, is the principal town.

< The Port of Gomera lies S.W., about 17 miles from Point Teno, of Tenerife. St.
Sebastian, the principal town, is Hituated close by the sea shore, in the bottom of a
bay, on the eastern side, where shipping lie land-locked from all winds, except the
8.E. Here you may anchor at a convenient distance from the shore, in from Id to
7 fathoms ; but as the land-wind frequently blows hard, it is necessary for a ship to
moor with a large scope of cable, otherwise she will be in dangers oi being blown
out of the bay. The sea here is generally so smooth, that boats may land on the
beach without danger. On the North side of the bay is a cove, where ships of any
burden may haul close to the shoi-e, which is a high perpendicular cliff, and there
heave down, clean, or repair. When boats cannot land on the beach, on account of
tiie surf, they put ashore on this cove, from whence there is a pathway along the
cliff to the town.

The town has plenty of good water, which is drawn from wells in every part of
■it ; and in the winter, a tarve rivulet from the mountains empties itself into the
port. On the South side of the mouth of this rivulet stands an old round tower;
and on the top of its perpendicular cliff, on the North side of the cove, is a chapel and
a battery, witn a few pieces of cannon.

Care must be taken in passing round the East end of Gomera, as a atinken rock,
the Bem^fa Shoal, lies 100 yards offshore at a mile northward of the Noilh point of
.the bay.

To the best of my remembrance, says Captain Glas, the land that forms the North
point of the bay is the most southerly point of land, on the East side of Gomera,
that can be seen from Point Teno, on Tenerife. That land, when one is to the north-
ward of it, at about a league distant, bears a great resemblance to Rame Head, near
Plymouth Sound. In going into the bay, it is necessary to stand close in with this
point, for the land-wind is commonly too scanty for a ^ip to fetch the proper anchor-
ing-place; from that reason, it is better to come in with the sea-breeze, which. generally
begins to blow here about noon.

The best place for a ship to lie in here is, where a full view may be had along
' through the main street of the town, and at about the distance of a cable's length
frt>m uie beach : it is necessary to moor as soon as possible, because of eddy wind
- that sometimes blow in the .bay*

FESRO, or HIEERO.— This island, the westernmost of the Canaries, has neither
road nor harbour worthy of particular description. The land rises steeply from the
sea, and is craggy on all sides for about a league, so as to render the ascent very diffi-
cult. Its summit is an uneven plateau, the highest points of which are 4,580 and
4,990 feet above the sea. At the northern part of the island the sides of these moun-
', tains are nearly perpendicular cliffs, commencing at Point Salmone, and extending
round to the N. W. point, Pta. de la Dehesa, and are called iZt'sco de Taretai. The
. only roadsteads art at Nao8, at the south end, where there are no inhabitants nor
I JibienQr ; and at Puerto del Hierm, on the East side. The latt^er is only a slight '"let,
tHth a sandy beach between two rocky points, off the northernmost of which is a

DIRECTIONS FOR THE CANARY ISLANDF.

808

detached islet, which hu a shoal running off for one-third of a nt: «. lu the interior
of the island at the North end is Valvereu, the chief town, surrouTAied by high peaks.
It prodaoes, however, many trees and shrabs, witii better gratis, nerbage, and
flowers, than any of the other islands, so that bees, and honey abound. The wine ii
poor, and there are only three fountains or springs of water on the island.

■m:,v

:i.h i>

DIRECTIONS FOR SAILING AMONG THE CANARY ISLANDS,

BY CAPTAIN GLAS.

If a ship, lying at Palma, wants to go Lanzarote, and will not wait for a fair win^
(which, indeed, seldom blows there, especially in the summer season), let her stand
over to the N.W. side of Tenerife, and boat up along shore until she weathers Point
Naga ; thence, with the wind that generally prevails in these parts, she will be able
to weather Canaria, and fetch the Point of Jaiidia, of Fuertaventura, or perhaps
Morro Jable, Xha southern point, whence it is easy to beat up to Po^^negro, along
the East side of the island, because the sea there is always smooth. It is not quite sS
easv to beat up firom Pozonegro to the Isle rf Lobos ; vet it may be done without
difficulty, when the weather is moderate ; if he wind snould happen to blow hard,
she may stop in the Bay of Las Playas, until it proves more favourable.

From the Isle of Lobos, she will find no difficulty in beating up to Porto de
Naos, in Lanzarote. It is not advisable, for those who are not perfectly well ac-
quainted with l^t harbour, to attempt to conduct a ship in, because the entrances
ire very narrow.

It is common for ships that come loaded from Europe to Santa Cruz, Tenerife, &«.,
to have part of their cargoes to unload at Port Orotava : these ships, when the
tede-wind blows hard, will sometimes find it impracticable to weather Point Naga ;
when this is tlie case, bear away to the leeward point of the island, and keep nea^
the shore, where, if you do not meet with a southerly wind, you will be carried by
the current, in the space of twenty-four hours, from the S.W. point of the island to
Point Teno, whence you may easuy beat up to Porto Orotava ; for, when the wind
blows excessively strong at Point Naga, it is moderate weather all the way_ from Point
Tcno until witiun 2 or 3 leaeues of Point Naga. But I would not advise a ship to
bear away as above directed, ujless when the trade-wind blows so fresh that she
cannot weather Point Naga ; because, in moderate weather, there is little or no wind
stirring on the coast between Teno and Port Orotava.

lo rounding Point Naga or Anaga, the aunken rock alluded to should be guarded
against.

The Coast of Africa, East of the Canaries, is level, and is rendered inaccessible
by a heavy surf, which breaks on it continually. The Canarians, in the sea between
this coast and the islands, employ a number of vessels to fish for bream and cod.

OF THE CALMS OF THE CANARY ISLANDS.
(Bt the same.)

It ha^ been already noticed, in the description of the Islaad of Canariii, that its
mountains tower so mr above the clouds, as to stop the current of the N.E. wind that

404

DE8CU1FTI0N OF THE ISLANDS.

generally blows here ; so that, when this wind blows hard on the North side of th«
mountains, it is either quite calm on t^ie other side, or a gentle breeze blows upon it
firoin the S.W. These calms and eddy-winds, occasioned by the Iteight of the moun-
tains above the atmosphere, extend 20 or 25 leagues beyond them to the S.W. There
are calms beyond, pr to leeward of, some of the rest of the islands, as well as Canaria i
for those of Tenenfe extend 15 leagues over the ocean, the calms of Gomera !0, and
those of Palma 30. " I have," says Captain Glas, " been frequently in all the calmg
of the islands, excepting those of Palma ; and, from my experience of them, I may
venture to say, that it is extremely dangerous for small vessels, or open boats, to
venture within them \^hen the wind blows hard without. It is true, indeed, the wind
raises the waves of the sea to a mountainous height : yet those waves follow each
other in regular succession ; for, were they to fall confusedly one against another, no
ship would oe able to sail on the ocean. But, in a storm, the wind driving the gea
berore it, each wave gives place to the one which follows ; whereas, in the calms in
the Canaiy Islands, the sea, not moving forward in the same direction with the
sea without, but being, as it were, stagnant, or at rest, resists the waves that fall
in upon it from without ; and this resistance causes them to break just in the
same manner as the billows break upon the sea-shore, but with less violence, on
account of the different nature of the resistance. This breaking of the waves in only
on the very verge of, or just entering into the calms ; for within them the water u
smooth and pleasant.

" TTpon first coming into the calms, the waves may be seen foaming and boiling
like a pot, and breaking in all directions. When a vessel cnmes amongst them,
she ifl shaken and beaten by the waves, on all sides, in such a manner, that one
would imagine that she could not withstand their force ; however, this confusion
does not last long. The best way to manage a ship entering the calm is imme-
diately to haul up the courses, and diligently attend the braces, to catoh every puff
of wind that offers, in order to impel the ship into them as soon as possible. The
crew must not think it strange to be obliged to brace about the yards every two or
three minutes, according as the wind veers and hauls ; but, after a ship is once fairly
into the calms, she will either find a dead calm and smooth water, or a pleasant and
constant breeze at South or S.W. according as the wind blows without, to which this
eddy-wind, as it may be called, always blows in an opposite direction."

■ :\(-i'r:rAAMi :& ( eOS VfJ^ :•.-..;, V;aqr^r

t 'i

7.-THE CAPE VEEDE ISLANDS. :7Sy '

The CAPE VERDE ISLANDS derive their name firom the nearest point of th«
coast of Africa, and were discovered, it is said, in 1450 by Antonio Noh, a Genoese,
ia the service of Portugal. They consist of the Ilha de Sal, or Salt Island ; Boayista ;
Maio, or the Isle of May ; St. lago ; Fuego, or Fogo ; Brava ; San Nicolao ; Sta.
Lucia ; St. Vicente, and San Antonio ; besides several small islets. Of these isles,
the most considerable is St. lago, the chief town of which is the seat of government.
The population waa estimated at 8d,393 persons in 1851. Salt is the principal article
of commerce. The first port in the archipelago is Porto Grande on the North side of
San Vincente. For the positions of the cnief points, see pages 44, 45.

We have already shown (pages 391 — 394) the usual courses and allowances to
be made in sailing to these islandd ; and have there noticed the fogs by which they
are frequently- surrouudcd. The estimated limits of the N.E. trade-winds in the
vicinity may be seen in pages 186 and 188. Thus much premised, we immediately
proceed to the description of the isles.*

ILEA de SAL.— rhe Isle of Sal lies between lat. 16" 34' and 16" 51', and on the
meridian of 23° W. The northern part of the isle is mountainous ; the southern very
low and sandy. Both the eastern and western sides are irregular ; and the former
has almost continued reef, along shore, from North to South.

Sal derives its name from the salt ponds upon it, wherein the water cr;. '.tallizes
into a beautifiil salt, the chief production of the isle, as the land is so barren as to
bear no trees nor verdure, excepting a few inconsiderable shrabs.

On approaching the island from the North, it will be fonnd in general that the
currents are very irregular. You may, on approaching, see the high land at 14
leagues off ; sometimes at a greater distance. I he land makes in three hillocks, of
which the northernmost is the highest. This is the Peak of Martinez, in the N.E.,
the summit of which is 1,340 feet above the level of the sea.

The best roadsteads of Sal urc on the western side of the island ; but there arc
three small bays on the eastern side, and one on the South. The middle bay on the
eastern side, where a ship may lie, is apparently sheltered from the N.E. by a sandy
reef stretching out to the eastward, and here salt may be obtained. t llie other
bays on this side are open to the N.E. trade-wind, whif^b makes a very heavy sea on
the beach.

Great caution is required on approaching the South end of the island in the night,
it being 80 low as hardly to be seen 10 miles off in the doy. Keep your lead going,
and'approach no n.-arer than in 30 fathomn, uuIcns bouiid into the South Bay, which
lien between the S.E. and South points of the island. :^

The S.E. point of Sal In called Wreck Point, U.M. sloop Erne having been wrecked
near it in 1819 ; this is surrounded by a reef. From South Point, forming the West
tide of the bay, a dangerous sandy spit extends about 1 mile into the sea, If coniing
into the bay between these points, after rounding Wreck Point in 8 or 9 fathoms,
bringing that point to bear E. by S. and the opposite point V/. J N., and anchor in 9

• Mr. Fiulaison has said that, " In l(>avinK Tenorifo for the (Jape Verde iMlnnda, you
will cortaia!y have the wind from E. by S. to N.E. (i« vou approach the islands." He ulso
»tl(l», that in the pasMago a (Mirront was generally fouml notling/row S.S. W. at the rate of
half a mile an hour, which in contrary to th« current on the Afrionn (io»Ht.— (See page 280.)

t firtttom
Point. Att
pond, \m tent I
<5 feft below the top of th« h^ i.

* Hcarkftning for the noise of the surf will often give ample warning In approaching
!«:!, situci- during s. fog or by night, frnd ought to be attended to, if heard ; but no ooa
wght to run rashly, maiiug certain of heurin(j '\i.~A. L.

ont Hill.— A promontory, on tho oastorn co;w«t, stands at 2 leagues frot^ithe North
tthe back of this is tho Salt-pond Hill, a natural curioHity, as upon this is the salt
feflt above tho level of the seH. The surface of the pond, in a circular form, ia

flioe

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

fdthomH, sandy bottom. Here you will be sheltered from the N.E. trade, aud lie in
perfect safety.

At 6 miles to the West, from the North Point of Sal, is Manmlat the N, TV. Point,

Nearly true South, 8^ miles from the latter, is a little islet, called Bird Isle, near a

fromontory, Lum's Head, which is 620 feet high. At a league to the northward of
lird Isle is a small bay, called Palmyra Bay, and immediately to the south-eastward
of the Lion's Head is Mordeira Bay, which is one of the best in the Ckpe Verde
Islands.

Mordeira Bay is in a semicircular shape, 1 league in extent between its outer
points, Ztb»'« Head and Turtle Point. It is a sate anchorage during the N.E.
breezes. Captain Bartholomew says, that it has plenty of fish and turtle, but ban no
watering-place $ nor could water be procured by sinking casks in the sand.

H.M. ships Leven and Barracouta anchored in this bay in 1822, and caught a great
many most delicious fish ; yet the place pmdu ■;« little else but salt and orchilla ; a
few goats contrive to pick up a scanty subsistence, but eagles abound.

The principal mark for anchofing in Mordeira Bay is Bird Island just shut in with
the foot of Lion's Head, at 1? miles from the Bluff land ; there are several foul spots;
therefore, the ground should be examined before the anchor be dropped.

Fi-om Turtle Point, the South point of Mordeira Bay, to the South point of Sal, the
distance is 1^ leagues. The ground between is smooth, and has 7 fatuomH over it, at
half a mile from shore, which is sandy ; but be cai-eM, if you anchor, that the
ground is clear. In rounding the South point, with the spit extending from it,
approach no nearer than in 10 or 8 fathoms, as the latter is steep.

The latitude of the Lion's Head, according to the Admiralty survey, is 16' 41;
long. 23' 0' la". Variation, observed oc shore, 15" 20' W. ; it is now 18° 20'. High
water, T"* 16'; rise, 5 feet.

Between Sal and Bonavista there is generally a strong cwrcnt.

BOK AVISTA. — The Island of Bonavi('t3> properly Boavista, has been so cJled
firom the beautiful appearance it made to tisH first discoverers, in the year 1450. The
face of it is variegated ; partly low, j[)artly rocky aud mountainous ; formerly fertile,
now more barren. Salt is the jirincipal article of trade, which the inhabitants readily
exchange for old clothes, biscuits, meal, i.nd raw silk. The principal place is Eng-
lish Road, on the N.W.

The eastern side of Bonavista is partly environed bv a reef ; and on the N.E. are
the tee£s on which the Hartwell, East Indiaman, was lost, in 1787 ; and on which the
Itetolution, Captain Cook, wa/3 nearly driven by a southerly current. Hnl; a league
nearly from the West end is a coral reef, on which the sea breaks ; and ut iimeH ihe
current sets on it very ropidly.

From the South end of Sal, the N.W. point of Bonavista lies trtie South, or S. by
W. \ W. by compass, distant 7 leagues ; and, from the some end of Sal, to dear the
N.E. reefs, the course, by compasH, is S.E. by S. 11 leagues, in order to allow for
tiie current that sets to the S. W. on Bonavista ; bo sure to make this course, and it
will bring you to the eastward of these reefs, the oasternmost part of wiiich lies in
lat. 16° 10.

Bonavista is of an irregular shape, but nearly octagonal, and each way 3 leagues
in extent. Its eastern side it, low, but tlio interior is mountainous, and a ridge of
high land from N.W. to S.E. divides the island into two iinoqual parts. Of thi*
inland chain, Mount Jiuin Fernandez is the northern part, and the southern i» called
the South Mountain. Two miles fiom the N.E. end are two conical hills, Mount'
Ochel, or Ochetlo, and Broyal ; at the N.W. end is the Peak Rethee, and in the 8.W.
is the Pk-f/orm Hill, with an elevation within it called the Man Mountain. Engliih
lioad, on which the town is situate, forms a bay of A miles in extent from N.E. to
8.W., and its northrm part is protected by an islet, called by the English Small
Inland. The South point of this bay is Coral Point ,■ and off this point, which i«
" half a league, is a coral reet^

BONAVISTA.;*ii ; ;i

«07

trade, aud lie in

the N.W. Point,
3ird Isle, near a
he northward of
D south-eastward
the Cbpe Verde

!tween ita outer
luring the N.E.
urtle, but has no
sand.

d caught a great
and orchiila ; a

ust shut in with
!veral foul spots;
ed.

n the N.R. are
id (111 which the
Hrtli a league
nd ttt (imeM the

outh, or 8. by

al, to clear the

or to allow for

oourHC, and it

Avhich lies in

wuy 3 leagues
nd' u ridw of
)artH. Orthii
them i« called
hills, Mounit
A in the 8.W
Uiin English
from N.E. to
Englinh Small
[>int. which i*

Off the N.E. coast, as already shown, are the Hartwell Reefs, and three kays, called
dutch, BraithtoaUe, and North Kays. Between these is sufficient depth of water for
ships, in case of necessity, and proper depths for anchorage, under the lee of the
reefs; but many rocks are here scattered, with only 12 ar 13 feet over them, and 4
fatbnms close along them, on which, with a wrind, the sea breaks very high. Of the
channels between these reefs, the best lies between a ledge to the E.S.E. of Braith-
waite or \he Middle Kay, which is always visible, and Dutch or the South Kay. This
channel is three-quarters of a mile bioad, and has regular soundings, from 15 to 5
fathoms ; having been tried by H,M. »loop Bulldog, wnich often sailed in and out of
it, and several times anchored' under Braithwaite Kay, with that kay N.E. by £.,
Dutch Kay S. | W-

Braithwaite Kay is about 2 miles from the shore. The passage to the north-west-
vard, between this and North Kay, is half a mile broad, and its least water is 7 and
8 fathoms. The passage between Dutch Kay and Bonavista is naiTow, but in the
best water are 7 fathoms. Dutch Kay bears rrom Braithwaite Kay S. ^ W. [^S*. by JE.Ji
2| miles.

The North Kay is connected to the shore by a reef, ha'/ing over it only 6 feet of
water. When this kay is in a line with the summit of Mount Ochel, or the N.E.
high moimtain in Bonavista, it bears about W.S.W. 5 W.

In sailing out to the south-westward, with the wind easterly, stand well to the
southward, taking advantage of the current here setting easterly, and take care not
to borrow too near the back of the reefs.

Bonetta Rock (?). — A ship, the Madeline, bound to New South TVales, was
reported to have struck and been wrecked on a ree", at about 8 leagues E.N.E. from
Bonaviffta, in April, 1835, as shown in the '* Nautical Magazine, February, 1837,
and " Brazilian Navigator," 1838. Some smart but justifiable remarka upon this
report were afterwards given in the " Nautical" (December, 1839), the writer of
which represents the case as a matter " very nicely cooked up for the edification of
seamen," and the benefit of a certain •• market." He adds, that Captain Vidal has,
by his researches in the ^tna, satisfactorily proved that no such danger as the Ma-
deline or Bonetta Reefs have any existence.

These imaginary dangers were also sought for by the American exploring squad-
ron, as shown hereafter, and the result seems to be, that the Madeline was impelled
to the S.W. by the cun-cnt, aiid wrecked on the Hartwll Reef of Bonavista. The
tracb of the uEina and Haven, in search of the two reefs, arc shown in a chart
Hed to the " Nrutical Mrigazine" of December, 1839, above mentioned.

Notwithstanding all the investigations that had been made, and which might have
henn considered as having set the question at rest, of non-existence of the Bonetta
anrf, Madeline R' 'ts, a uotice w is given, that the British ship Charlotte was wrecked,
April 18th, 18il, on a reef 23 ndles N.E. by E. from the N.l'-. end of Bonavista. In
asuhsequent disf ussion on the Charlotte's log, in the " Nautical Magazine," the con-
clusion 18 again arrived at, that it was a portion of the Hnrtvsoll Reef on which shti
was lost. In July, in the following yeor, the Phanix steamer struck on a rock, which
wa» declared to )^o the Sunbeam Shoal, an<^ the name <m which the Charlotte was lost
[Timen, August 2nd, 1842) ; but this also was found, from her log, to be inconsistent ;
andthot it must have been the Hartwell Reef After that, the iron ship Ouid*,
beloaging to the East India Company, was wrecked on the Hartwoll Reef (7th
March, 1843). and went to pieces ; and on Sept<'mber 20th, 1844. the brig Nine, from
Ne\,cii8tli', outwtirdfl, was totally lost on the »':.r>^? ^lace. Thr long list of wrecks,
and the tact of ?io many vessels being to the weittwara of their reckonings, and thot in
tht short run from Madeira or the Caiaries, will give groat weight to the fbct of
the westward tendency of t)\« current*, which, tut has been stated befiire, t«nd directly
towards this formidiblc danger, and therefore will i all for all the vigilance and care
•0 itrpemtively nccssary for the safety of ships passing this place.*

• nne "Nfturical Magftrine, Augimt, 1841, p. 56; December, 18il, p. 816; January,
«»42, p 4«, FU,ptemb«r, 1M2, p. «< . ; Noromhw, 1842, p. 753 ; and July, 1843, p. 4M.

pre-

60ft

DESCRIPTION OF TItE ISLANDS.

-■ii^^

In another part of this Work we give an announcement made in 1840 of the dii-
covery of a shoal by the biig Emily of London, very nearly in the position of the
presumed Bonetta Kock, or 16° 59' N., and 21° 30' W., which position was not passed
within 17 or 18 miles by Captain Vidal, in his search for it in 1839 ; but the question
has been definitively settled by Lieut. Lee, U.S.N., on the cruise of the Dolphin, aa
he found a depth of l,u80 fathoms on the spot, and great depths close up to the
islands, as shown- hereafter. ' ' -^ ";'*:* } »■ *•

The Brazen Hill and Point (otherAvise Brnzcn Head), in lat, 16' 2', on the S.E.
coast, is the first high land to the southward of East Sand Head, which is the east-
ernmost point of Bonavista. The Head is remarkable, being very bluflFand perpen-
dicular on each side. The beach is sandy. Point Urrateo, or the South Point, which
is nearly Sleagues more to the south-westward, is low and foul, and an islet, of the
same description, lies at three-quarters of a mile to the eastward. To the westward
of the point is anchorage, in what is called Portuguese Road, with the Platform Hill
bearing about N.N.W. and nearer in-shore, in from 13 and 14 to 8 and 6 fathoms. In
the latter depths, the landing-place will bear N.E. by N. more than a mile distant. \

". North and West Coasts. — From the North Kay, off Mount Ochel, already de-
scribed, the coast is foul to Broyal Point, on the North coast ; and there are several
reefs between the latter and the N.W. end of the island, which is called the North
Point and Beef. Small Island, which forms the N.W. side of English Road, is 4 miles
hence to the S.S.W. [-S. hy W. \ W.'\

English Road is a safe anchorage during the summer months, while you have the
N.E. breezes, but there are three reefs in it, as shown on the new charts. Vessels
generally haul close round Small Island, in 6 and 7 fathoms, and pass within the first
reef (of 10 feet) in order to avoid the necessity of making a tack to get to the anchor-
age. The best mark for the iatt«r is, the tovTi open •with the N.E. end of Small
Island, and the highest part of that isle about N.E. by E. The Ten-feet Reef gene-
rally shows itself ; but when this is not the case, a stranger will do well to stand
outside, rounding it at about 1 1 or 2 miles from Small Island, approaching it no nearer
than in 6 fathoms, and, after once opening the town, taking care not to shut it in
again.

The new town is on the middle of the bay, and the second reef {Netc Town Reef]
lies to the westward of it, at a short distance from the beach. The Inner Reef lies,
in like manner, half a league more to the northward. The Ten-feet Reef is about 100
fathoms in length, and extends nearly East and West, at rather more than a quarter
of a mile from Small Island.

Mr. Keilor has said — "We experienced, in a calm, a very laige sea, breaking in
every part of the bay, and were, at the same time, riding with a veiy short scope of
cable, by reason of a strong cun-ent setting out of the bay, against the sea : this cur-
rent runs so high as to frequently break on the deck."

In the rainy season, which is diu-ing the months of July, August, and September,
the Island of' Bonnvista is subject to light airs and changeable winds, with heavy
swells in the bay and roadsteads.

. The tide flows, in English Road, at 7 o'clock, on full and change days, ar,J thi sea
lises fl feet. Ob.serve that there is no fresh water for shipping at Bonavisto. Thf*
is water, but not plenty of it, near the Portuguese Road.

Leton Rock, or John Ieton'sRock, a dangerous reef, lies, as shown in tbe
Table, p. 46. 'I'his shoal has h«Tetofore been variously represented, and described ai
just even with the surface of the sea, which breaks upon it with great violence. The
nottom about it is rocky, and swarms M'ith fish. Its extent from North to South i>
about a mile.

• Mr. Piiilnlcon i>nyn, that it is rmjuisito to Rive the point under riatfoini Hill a K""^
l>er(h, as th»ir»» in « fpol fxtundinK from it. lu the day. you may sue tlie hm Jir^iikiiig on i
Th« mountain E.N.E. clean the danger. , " '

ISLE OF MAYO.

From tbe centre of the reef, the North point of Bonavista bears N.E. | N.
[N. 26" £.} 9| leagues, and the South point of the same E. by N. [i\r. 64' JP.]
7 leagues.

The lamentable wreck of the Lcultf ^urgesa, East India ship, one of the outvrard-
boand fleet of 1806, was caused by striking on the Leton Rock. This ship struck
among the breakers on the rock, at 2 in the morning of the 19th of April, 1806. The
Alexander, Sovereign, Lord Nehon, and other ships, narrowly escaped. The Lord
Melville struck three times, and slipped off the rock into 26 fathoms, at the time the
Lady Burgess was standing directly among the breakers. It appeared, from the
observations subsequently made, that the Leton Reef is composed of coral ; no part
above water. Captain Swiiiton, of the Lady Burgess, conjectured that the extent on
which a ship would stiike is not above a cable's length, and that there are no breakers
on it in fine weather. To the northward, it appeared to be steep-to.

This danger appears to be on the central part of an extensive bank of coral sound-
ings, extending 4 or 5 miles to the southward, and considerably to the eastward and
T^estward. Some ships had soundings of 25 to 50 fathoms to the West and S.W. of
the reef, at from 2 to 5 miles from tiie breakers. Immediately after striking, the
Lord Melville had 25 fathoms, its head being to the eastward ; shortly after, 30
fathoms. This ship hove-to, with her head easterly, until daylight, and had from 30
to 40 fathoms, all coral soundings. Others had soundings 10 or 12 miles to the south-
ward of the reef, generally coral, sometimes intermixed with sand and shells, and not
less than 20 fathoms. The mean of the observations and chronometers of the fleet
gave 15' 49' N., and 23" 14' W., as the situation of the reef, which is on the meridian
of the Isle of Mayo : its situation, aocording to the Admiralty survey, is 16° 48' N.,
and 23" 13' W.

ISLE OF MAYO. — This island is raised considerably above the sea, but a great
part is level, excepting three inland mountains of considerable height; but these
show as hummocks, and are not conspicuous. On the S.W. side is a sandy bay,
called English Road, within which is the town and extensive salt-pans. The soil
of this isle is gen rally dry and unproductive, and there is but one spring of water in
the island. The coast is, however, plentifully stocked with fish, which supply, with
a few vegetable productions, subsistence to the poor inhabitahts.

From the S.W. end of Bonavista to the Island of Mayo, the course is S.W. by S.,
distant 15 leagues; Muio is about 4 leagues in length from North to South, .irsing
most toward the middle. On approaching the island fi-om the S.E., the appearance
isvery different ; you may descry, in the North part, two hummocks, which appeer
like two islands ; but, when nearer, the land is perceived by which they are connected.
Southward of these is a mountain {Munte Maio), with veiy low ground to the South,
over which two hillocks are seen.

At half a league from the middle of the North side of the island is a dangerous
reef, the Galhao, extending N.N.E. and S.S.W. three-quarters of a mile, which must
be cautiously avoided.

In English Road, ships may anchor in 7 or 8 fathoms of water. The landing is
very indifferent, no good water to be had, and the place is quite defenceless. The
shore to the eastward of and abreast the town is steep, bluff, and rocky ; but, to the
westward, a low white sandy beoch extends to a rounding point, from which a spit of
sand and coral stretches outward, at a short distance from the extremity of which
there is no ground at 46 fathoms. The spit may be rounded in about 16 fathoms, and
« ship should not anchor further out than in that depth, the edge of the bank being
uteep. At half a mile West from the town, there is anchorage in 12 fathoms, latitude,
according,' to particular plan, 16" 16' 10% long. 28° 15' Bv general chart, 15° 7' 30'
N., and 23" 17' W.

ST. lAGO.— Ships running from Bonavista to St. Tago, and being obliged to ply t«
windward during the night, must bo cflutious how they approach Maio, on account of
the rc( f, brfoi-c mentioned, off the North point of that island } having doubled that
jHiint, thev may aif^pv H-.W. to mske f he land of St. lagn, nnd tl""' — *' " ""*'"
'iJiy make the 'Road «jf I'raja, the common place of anchuiage.

nnd thence southward

until

4 n

610

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

The land of St. Ligo is very high, the peak of Sau Antonio, the highest point of
the ridge, being 4,720 feet, and the eastern coast is bordered with rocks, lying very
n€fav the land, along which you may sail very safely, at the distance of 2 miles. The
S.E. part, which is in reality the Hast point, appears as a long low point, when you
are to the northward or southwurd of it ; and, from this point, S. W. by 8., frwc, about
6 miles,, lies the East point of Vorto Praya. Between the two, and near the former,
lies a bay, which so much resembles that of Port Praya, that many vessels, deceived
by the likeness, have run the hazard of being lost in this dangerous place; at the
bottom of it are several cocoa-nut trees, and a few houses. The land betwe n this
and the point of Port Praya is mostly perpendicular, appearing, in some plac> «, like
the Berry Head, in Torbay ; and tljough the fort of Port Pra\ a, which stands on a
small cliff, is a mark by which the true bav may be distinguished from the iulse ono,
yet the surest mark is, that the North or tast point of the false bay is surrounded
with breakers; whereas the point of Port Praya is high, steep, and free from shoals;
you must haul close round the point, and keep' within a cable's length of the shore to
go to the anchoring-plaee. It may, also, be noticed that there is a look-out on the
cliff, at half a league to the northward of the entrance of Port Pruya.

PORT PRAY V is a fiue bay, which lies between two points, bearing from each
other W. by S. and E. by N., true, about H miles. As you sail round the East point,
you will soon open the forts at the bottom of the bay, to the westward of which, in
a valley, are several cocoa-aut trees and several houses.

The winds, except in ihe tornado season, are generally in the N.E. quarter, and
frequently blow fresh jud squally ; there are, also, frequent puffs from over the high
land ; therefore; as you haul into the bay, it is necessary to have the top-gallnut sails
furled, and to t '.ke one reef or more in tlie topsails. The cliffs, from the East part of
the fort, are those above described : you may easily sail within a cable's length of the
East Ihnd, where you will have 7 or 8 fathoms of water, and, in many i)laces, see the
ground at that depth.

On tire western side of the bay lies a small black island, called the Isle of Quails,
or FrvnchmtDi's Island ; it is almost even to the top, but rugged at each end, and some
rocks li'.' off each end to about half a cable's length : there is also a rocky ledge off the
yorth end, where the water is, in general, shallow ; you will not have more than I)
fathoms of water between this and the fort ; inside, or to the westward of the island,
it is navigable for boats only.

Commander DimsterriHe says ; — " This island, bearing W.N.AV. J W. 8 leagues,
nppears verj'high. Mount St. Antonio, rising out of its centre, is of a conical form,
and tei-minates in a peak, which peak, bearing N.N.W. (by compass) leads to Port
Praya Road ; and, as you advance westward, you will see the East end, which is very
low. As a further guide, you will see an opening, several miles north-eastward of
the harbour, on Signal-post Hill, which gradually slopes to the westward ; also, i?«rf
Hill which is on the port side of the bay, N. by \V.

" The town is situate on an eminence rather high, and perfectly white, the houses
being visiblo from S. by E. to S.W. by W.

" In sailing into the bay, keep wjU to the eastward, as the ground to the westward
is foul. Anchor in *Vora 10 to 7 fathoms, with the Red Hill W, by N., outer eastern
entrance E.S.E. Latitude of the ^.nchorage, 14° 53' 10".

»• A heavy swell sets into f\i^ bay and the prevailing winds are from N.E. to East.
On the 22nd of October the weather was sultry, with heavy rains. Fruit, cattle,
and water may be t)btained here. The two latter not very good. The watering-placf
\(t at the back of the town, and at some distance from the beach. Small casks are the
most convenient in foul weather ; but, otherwise, you ratt the casks off' from <ho nI"!'
to the beach.

"Quail Island, though centrically situated, is too near the main land to assist any
one in fluding the anchorage. Do not approach it, on any point, nearer than half a
mile, as the vicaiity is rocky, and some rocks do not appear above the suifacC'
S.«luted the governor with thirteen guns, which weie roturncd with an equal mimber,
and every officer wa« treated with re8i)e<.t." — Oct. 182.).

*<f i

ST. lAGO.

].:.ui

6ir

Y i)laces, see the

lite, the houses

Captain Ofant, in the relation of his voyage to New South Wales, has stated that,
'■After rounding the E. point of St. lago, there is a small bay to the East, about 4
miles, called by the inhabitants after St. Francis. This bay," he says, " may be
always known by its having, at the back of it, and nearly close down to the water's
edge, a high flat-topped tabie-lond, standing between two monntains, which cannot
be mistaken. Port Praya has, at the bottom of it, besides the houses already men-
tioned, a long, low valley, runntag inland to a considerable extent, the mountains
behind which are sharp and peaked. Near the landing-place there are two re-

^'ou come to anchor, and
you enter. But the surest
" shore h low and rocky
in general, until you reach the Bay of St. Francis ; thence to Port Praya the shore is
of high clayey cliifs, which round into the harbour, forming the East side of it. *; v'.

It seldom rains here, but a diy haze is very prevalent. This is a remarkable con-
trast to the climate of Senegal, in the same parallel, when there is alwa,ys some rain
during the winter season. In l)ecember and January the wind is frequently far to the
eastward, veering at times to the northwaid in the same season. In settled weather
there are often regular land and sea breezes in the bay ; the sea breeze setting in near
noon, with a great surf on the shore, and ending at 4 or 5 o'clock in the afternoon.
The N.E. wind sets in toward evening, and continues during the night. As there is
generally some surf on the beach, boattj should lie at their grapnels ; and the casks of
water be hoisted into them, after being filled at the well, and rolled down and floated
through the surf. ' / ' ^i ■ j[ ,;:

A spirited individual, however, at considerable expense, conducted the water to the
beach at this place, so that it can be filled with great facility, and be obtained in a
good state for ships' use. Formerly it was, as above mentioned, a service of much
difficulty and toil to water a vessel at Port Praya, as the casks had to be rolled up
to the well, not the cleanest in the world, and the water to be baled up in buckets.
The Vindictive, of fifty guns, in April, 1842, obtained sixty tons, and she was only in
the avichorage twenty-four hours. Merchant vessels are supplied, by rafting, by the
boatmen, who charge .3d. for a large cask. The cost of the M'ater is about 320 reis
tlic hogshead.

For nailing into Poi't Praya Bay, you may borrow on the eastern point {Ponta das
Bicudas) to 7 or 8 fathoms of water, and thence proceed, north-westward, to the
uiichorage. It is to be noticed that the ground is foul in diif'erent parts, particularly
on the western side.

The best anchorage is, to bring the flagstaff on the fort N.VV. by N. [^N. W."] about
thiw-quarters of a mile, the body of Quail's Island West, and the pouit of the bay
opposite Quail's Island E. by S., in 7 and 8 fathoms. Many conunanders prefer an-
choring nearer the N.E. side of the bay than the Isle of Quails, for the sake of more
easily getting under sail, without rurming the risk of being carried by the currents
upon tiie points of rocks to leeward, before the vessel has gained fresh way enough to
kteer clear of them ; and it has been observed, that vessels may anchor anywhere in
the bay, from 9 to II fathoms, good bottom, but nearer to the eastern shore than to
the Isle of Quails, as the wind, except in the months of August, September, and
OitobiT, generally blows from the N,E.

H.M. ship Tartar, Sir George Collier, anchored with the host bower in 11 fiithoms
nearly in a line with, or a little within, the two other points, ground of sand and bits
"f coral. Quail Island then bore N.W., the flagstaff of the fort N.N.W., and East
P'lint of the bay E. -^ S. A salute of thirteen guns was returned. Stock of all kinds
was in great })lenty.

"The Bay of Praya Iwing under the South end of St. Tago, should you bo to the
leeward of it, you will find it difficult in beating to windward against so strong| a
current as (here is here. In the months of July, August, and September, the rains
ai* frequent, and the southeilv winds which then prevail cause a great sen in the bay,
with a great surf on shore. 'I'hc inhabitants in these months are subject ♦« dangcrnu'r

812

DESCRIPTION OF THE IStANDS.

. The san^ cove, on the East aide of the bay, ia an excellent place to haul the seine
in ; as is also the head of the bay. The principal fish are the mullet, gray and red,
rock'fiah. snappers, cavalla, and a variety of small fish.

'J he governor-general of the Cape Verde Islands resided formerly at St. lago, an
episcopal city, and the capital of tne island ; bnt foreign ships havmg totally abnn-
doited the road of St. lago, which is very bad, and of difficult access, to come to .'■■..[
of Praya, tha governor now resides at this bay during the dry season.

To those bound from Praya fiay to Bonavista, Mr. Keilor recommends that they
should endeavour to sail in the evening, as the current will be favourable. He adds,
do not stand too far over toward the African shore, nor work between Mayo and St.
I^o, and yon will find the ship get to the eastward very fast.

A visitor, in 18<S2, complains of the want of clearness in the directions for Porto
Praya, as he says there is some confusion in the names of the S.E. and East points.
The East point is that to the North of St. Francis Bay, and the S.E. point is that on
the East side of Porto Praya. llie peaks which ai'e sometimes pointed out as good
marks are so frequently ob' ired by haze as to be of little service. He therefore
suggests the following orief directions as sui&cient : — After making the iislaud of 8t.
lago (outward bound), steer to the S.W. till the South extreme of the road bears W.
by N., when the South point will be distinctly in view, having Red Hill behind upon
the same bearing ; haul up then to the westward, sjid pass the point about f of a mile
off; Quail Island (having a very black appearance) will then be seen to the N.W.i
steer up for the North end of it till you fairly open the bay ; then lufi' up to about
N.N.W., and anchor midway between Quail Island and the eastern shore ol the bay,
in 7 fathoms, leaving Red Hill just open to the northward of the island.

Remarks on St. Iago, etc, by Captain J. W. Monteath, 1824.

November 20, 1824, at 4'' 20' p.m.. Mount Ochel, on the N.E. end of Bonavista,
was indistinctly seen through the haze (which generally prevail among these islandsj
bearing N. 80° W. From this position we shaped our course so as to pass well to the
eastward of the Island Mayo, in case there should be any vs esterly current.

The wind during the night continuej'. fresh, and steady from the N.E., the yeesfl
making a S.S.W. | W. course (by comjiass), at the average rate of 6 miles an hour.
At four a.m., estimating ourselves (by the distance run) to be in the latitude of the
South point of Mayo, we hauled by the wind on the port tack, under easy sail;
at daybreak, bore up, under all sail, on a W. | N. course. Notwithstanding our
vicinity to the island, the haze prevented oui' seeing it until with five leagues of it;
the high hill on the centre then bearing AV.N.W., and the North point N.W. by com-
])as8; the course until eleven was W. by S. % S., true, distance 14 miles ; at the same
time, English Road bore N. by "W. | W., true, distant 4 miles.

From the coloured appearance of the water (dirty green) this morning, it is my
opinion that an extensive bank lies at least 20^ nules to the eastward of Mayo, and
had I observed it previous to making sail, I would have sounded it, in order to ascer-
tain the depth of water on it ; but, being anxious to get into Port Praya as early a
possible, I did not heave-to for that purpose.*

In running from Mayo toward St. Iago, I would advise vessels to steer directly for
the most southerly point of the latter island ; this will carry you about 4 miles cltar
of the S.E. point, which is low and rocky; between it and St. Francis's Bay are a
number of black patches of rocks, a considerable way inland, and which, at that dis-
tance, have the appearance of low bushy trees.

The Bai/ of St. Francis may easily he distinguished from that of Port Praya, froni
the West point of the former being high, while that of the latter. Cape Tubarm,
is vei-y low and rocky ; it has also a fort with a flagstaff, which is distinctly seto

* The BOundiugN obtained by Lieut. Lee in the U.S. brig Do^p^Mi, have since demonstntfi
thrtt the water is very deep here, 1,386 fathoms o.-istwaid of Maiu, and 1,120, undJSJ [
fathomH close to the island. Sue hereafter.

HST. lAGO.

,.j«^.;/:v

619

befoi'e you open the Bay of Praya ; this, of itself, is a sufficient mark for the

harbour.

The b"- .a in St. Francis's Bay is sandy, and has a great number of palm trees
growing close to it ; there were only two houses in the bay, — ^the one on the western,
and the other on the eastern, side. The fiat, as mentioned by Captain Grant is. also a
very good mark for this bay. .v^; . . - -r^ ' ; i ^Ai;-^ r,f/^

November 21, at three p.m., we rounded the East point of, and anchored in, Praya
Bay, in 5 fathoms of water, black mud and sand, the eastern point of the bay bear.
in^E.S.E. ; fort at the town N.N. W., in a line with a high peaked mountain, and
Point Tubaron in a line with the South end of Quail Island, S. W. by S. It is neces-
sary to mention that, in anchoring, you should endeavour to shut in (or nearly so)
Pomt Tubaron with the South end of Quail Island, as outside of this line the ground
is very rocky, and you may have difficulty in purchasing your anchor.

The town of Praya stands on a hill at the bottom of the bay, and consists of three
streets, extending in an East and West du-ection. The Plaza, or square, is in the
N.W. quarter of the town, and contains the custom-house, barracks, jail, and other

fublic buildings. The magazine and church stand on the western side of the fort.
here are two other forts on the heights on the eastern side of the bay, which com-
mand the road. •••

The landing-place for goods is on the N.W. part of the bay, from which there is a
road to the town ; this road is, however, very steep, and all the goods are carried up
the hill by negroes, which incurs a considerable expense to the owners. The well is
situated in a valley at the back of the town, and is nearly half a mile from the land-
ing-place.

H.M.S. Beagle visited Port Praya, in January, 1832, and Captain fitzKoy's
remarks on this place, as then conditioned, are as follow : —

" The wind being always Ik-om the North or East dui-iuj, this_ season of the year
(December to June), a ship can moor as close to the weather shore as may be coflVe-
nicnt ; but during July, August, September, and October, no vessel should deem the
bay secure, or anchor near the shore, because southerly gales sometimes blow with
great strength, and the rollers, or heavy sea sent in by them, are dangerous to ships
which have bad ground tackle, or are lying near the land. As I have myself expe-
rier.ced the ford of these gales, in the vicinity of the Cape Verde Islands, and wit-
nessed the sea ^v^ ed by them, I can confidently warned those who are inclined to be
incredulous abo ;. a gale of wind being found in 15° of North latitude, beyond the
limits of the hurnuine regions.

" Strong gubts come over the land into the bay during the fine season, when the
breeze is fresh ; therefore, a ship entering, with intent to anchor, ought to have a
reef in her topsails, and be ready to clew up the top-gallant sails at a moment's

warning.

" The vicinity of Port Praya ofiei-s little that is agreeable to the eye of an ordinary
visitor. A desolate and hilly country, sun-burut and stony, with but few trees, even
in the valleys, and those only the withering spectre-like trunks cf old palms, surround
the harbour. The distant and higher parts of the island, however, present a striking
outline ; and no person, who has visited *he Port of Praya only, can form the slightest
idea of thfe beauty of the interior country.

" Fruit was abundant ; there were oranges, grapes, plaintains, bananas, sour-sops,
mammee apples, ^^'avtw, quinces, sapodillas, papaw apples, pines, citrons, medlars,
fts, and, occasionally, apples.

" From August to October is the rainy and sickly season. In September, a S.W.
Ralo is usually experienced ; but from five to ten hours before its commencement, a
dark bank of clouds is seen in the southern horizon, which is a sure forerunner of
the gale. Should a vessel be at anchor in the port at such a time, she ought to weigh
and put to a until the storm has ceased, and the swell subsided. In the month of
Septen vding our \isit, an American merchant brig and a Portuguese slaver

were 5t . ,, ■ in Port Praya. A bank m clouds was hcen during the day in the

614

DESCRIPTION OF mE ISLANDS.

S.W., and the American went to sea ; but tue slaver remained at anchor. A storm
arose at night, drove the slave-vessel ashore, and daslied her to pieces in less than
half an hour, yet did the American no damage whatever, and the next day the
anchored again in the port.

" Except during th*. ■ . :.y season, the •wind is always north-easterly, and then the
sky is clear and the si;. I Virry powerful; but a dry hnze hangs over the island in a
peculiar manner, and a quantity of fine dust, quite an impalpable powder, frequently
settles on every exposed surface, even on the sails and rigging of a vessel, when pasir
ing near the islands."

The town of Santiago, oi Riheira Grande, commonly called La Cidade, stands at
the bottom of a i"avine at 6 miles to the West of Praya. Vessels of any size can
anchor before it in the line season. The best place is said to be with the fort flagstaff
in one vdth the episcopal palace. From hence to the S.W. point of St. lago there is
no anchorage ; between this and the North point of the island, Ponta Biyhuda, there
are Ribeira Barca and Riheira Praia. These two beaches are G mile^ apart, and be-
tween them is a projecting point, near which are some houses. Water may be got
at these anchoring places in the fine season. I'urrafal Bay on the same coast is about
is about 6 miles North of Ribcii'a Prata. It is large and, according to the people of
the place, safe at all seasons. There are no houses except a custom house post, but
provisions and water are brought down from the interior.

Point Biffhuda is veiy high and abinipt, and is 3 miles North of Tarrnful Bay.
The eastern side of St. lago U dangerous from the calms produced by the high hnas,
which reflect the N.E> winds, and by the currents and bad sea whicli are found on it.
The only place worth mentioning is the little harbour of Santiago, which will scarcely
hold 4 vessels of 100 tons. It lies about the middle of the coast, and may be known
by some clumps of cocoa-nut trees and a small church to the S.

FOQO, or FCEGO. — This island, much higher than any other of the Cape Verde
Islands, is only a continued mountain, rising into a peak of 9,700 feet in height,
which has been in activity in recent times. This island has, nevertheless, about 7,500
inhabitants, whom the eruptions of the volcano have forced sometimes to quit tiie
island. The ground is clear within a mile of the shore, on the N.W., West, and
South parts ; but, on the S.E., East, and N.E. pai'ts, it is rocky. At about 4 miles
from the North end of Fo^o lies a rock, with 12 or 14 feet of water on it, wer
which the sea breaks when it blaws hard, but not else, and the bottom is clean all
round it,*

The town is that of Ncssa Senhora da Luz, on the western side. The roadstead
is open, and the anchoring ground off" the town very close in, being only holf a mile
from the shore. In ? t fathoms, rocky bottom, the northern extremity bears N. 20° E.
[AT. 4° WS : the southern extremity, S. 68° E. ; the northern flagstaflP, N. 35° E. j the
southern, N. 21° E.

No other soundings are to be obtained near either Fogo or Brava, with a line of
130 fathoms, at three-quarters of a mile from shore.

The marks, says Mr. Keilor, when a brig was at anchor off the town, in 10 fathoms
of water, were, the town bearing E. by N., a quarter of a mile ; the mount, E.N.E.j
the South end of Brava, S.E. by S. The bay is open, with foul ground, and a bad
landing for boats. Corn, fruit, and cattle may be purchased at Fogo, but water is
scarce.

BBAVA. — Brava is very high, and might be seen at a great distance, were it not
constantly covered bv a dense atmosphere. Its climate is temperate and healthy,
and for this reason tne Governor of the islands sometimes resides hei-e. The winds
here prevail at N.E. or East, most part of the year, excepting in July, August, and
September. The channel between Fogo and Brava is 9 leagues in breadth. Five
miles to the N.N.E. of Brava are the Romboa, or Romea, two small rocky isles, nearly

Not insert od in the Admiralty Survey ; its existence is, therefore, questionable.

J::^^Xkd ST NICOLAS.

.■^ia

with a Hue of

connected by smaller rocks, fomiiuff a crescent. The westernmost isle is lofty, and
has a peak on it. Between these islets and the North end of Brava is a clear passage.
Brava has, heretofore, had plenty of com, live stock, and fruit ; but bad landing' for
boats, except in the harbour on the N.E.

Although Brava is very high, its mountains rising one above the other, like
pyramids, yet, being so near the Isle of Fogo, it seems, in comparison, to be but low.
It produces plentv of sdI, and abounds most with saltpetre of any of the islandst
According to Ca^ ain Roberts, it has several bays, or roads, where a' ship may anchor,
the best of which, < Ued Furna, or the Oven, lies toward the N.E. end of the island ;
if yo haul in near the '^ck, which is a very good quay, having water enough by the
side tor ^i " mn: . war, you will lie land-locked from all wit ■ nor does any

wind 1)1 nv i cepi fi'om the S. by E.-to the S.W., which hfrt,'- • sea into

the bay, nrl tr very well deserve the name of a harbour.

ST. NI '^ ihr In id is high, and the coasts, therefore, subject to heavy

squalls, &

There are ; .\ ible mountains which may be seen from a distance of 15

leagues ; one in ..lupe of a sugar-loaf, called the Peak of Trade, which is near
the middle of the i»iand ; the other, Monto Gordo, near the West end.

From English Road, in Bonavista, to the East point of St. Nicolas, the true bear-
ing is W.N. W., and the distance 22 leagues ; the course must be regulated according
to the set of the sea. The East end of the island may be known by its being a plat-
fonn point, having a pyramidal rock, which appears like a sail, at a short distance.

On the South side, at 1 1 leagues from this end of the island, is a bay, having a
black sandy beach and a pond of ^esh water, supplied from the mountains, and hence
called, by the English. Freshwater Bay, properly Preguizo Bay. To 'anchor in this
bay, shut all the land to the eastward within tne East point of the bay ; you will
then lie in 7 fathoms of water, within half a mile from the shore. Tliere is good
landing for the boats, with plenty of good water in fine weather, and at neap tides ;
for, as the tides rise here 5 or 6 feet on the new and full moon, the pond is then over-
flowed. At this time you are subject to heavy squalls ; and, notwithstanding the
yrind blows off shore, tne sea is very high close to the beach.

At about 4 leagues to the westward, from the middle of Freshwater Bay, lies San
Jorge, or St. George^s Bay, where a ship can get refreshments ; but there is no water.
This bay is known by a sugar-loaf mount, and a flagstaff on the hill above the bay.
There is tolerably good anchoring in 7 fathoms, close to the shore ; but, without that
depth, or in 9 or 10 fathoms, the ground is rocky. There is a shelf stretching S.E.
by S. from the N.E. point of the bay, on which less water is found than within it ;
80 that, should your anchor start, which will happen if you are not careful, the bank
being very steep, and the squalls very sudden, it may hook this shelf and be lost,
The marks to anchor are, the cove, or landing-place for boats, N.W., dis' iit a quarter
of a mile ; Sujjar-loaf Mount N.E. by E., and the flagstaff N.W. by N.

Terrafal Bay. — On the S.W. aide of St. Nicolas is Terrafal Bay, where you
may anchor in from 20 to 10 fathoms, with the coast to the southward bearing Sr^by
E., and the Islands Raza and Branco in a line bearing N.W. by W. j W. [ Tv.N. W",
\ IT.], and the landing-place E. | N. a quarter of a mile.

The custom-house is situate on the S.E. angle or corner of this bay. Fro'- this
to the West point of St. Nicolas there is a bank of soundings, with from 40 to 20
and 35 fathoms at half a mile from shore. In the last depth is anchorage, in sandy
ground, at a mile S. by W. from the West point, but sheltered only from the N.E.

There is, in Terrafal Bay, a high bluff rocky point, nearly a quarter of a mile short
of the sea-side ; in which place it is low, stony, gravelly, and in some places, shingly
ground, the shore being a pebbly beach. On each side of this point is a very deep
golly, out of which come violent flaws or gusts of wind ; and, therefore, when any-
thing of a hard gale blows, it is very difficult to turn up into this bay. To avoid these
flaws, you much anchor right against the point, between the gullies, where you may
iide Very easv nnd«r its lee, in from --■"*■"

lu to 3 fathoms.

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tflB

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

WitMn 6ii8 bay tile d^ltiiB are 12, 13, and 14 Iktiionu, adft grottiid} and thte ^
ahoolm mdnally to tlie diore, to the deptihs of 4 to 6 ftithome^ frhm yotL hurt again
«and to tiie pdhbly beach.

By digging a well, almost anywhere on the low land, yon may water here, unless
the rainy season has fhiled ; Vnt there is always water in the valley, about half a mile
ftom the sea, whence the natives will bring it down on asses fbr a trifle. From this
xblul you may see, in clear weather, all the leeward islands ; but, if it be in the least
liasy, the Isle Rasa is not disecrnible.

The only anchorages are on the South side of the islandi The northern coast is not
frequented.

EAZA, raAHOO, ABD 8TA. LTJOIA.— These islands lie between those of St.
Nicolas and St Vincent, as shown on the charts. Rugged and monntainaas, they
partake of the general character of the other islands. Raza lies true West 8 miles from
the West point of St. Nicolas, and appears in the old charts under the name of Chaon,
or Doff'a tale. It is nearly 2 miles long, from East to West, and 1^ broad. The land-
inff-jplace is under the N.W. point, filing the West. This ishtad is low and unin-
habited. The edge of its coast is steep and rocky, and landing is difficult when therd
is any wind. Between it and Branoo, at about one-third from Raza, is a coral reef,
extending S.S.W. and NJ^T.E., and having on its shallow part 6 fathoms of water,
but deepening gradually cm the West to 45, and on the East to 18 and 20 fol^onu.
The sea oontinmdly brraks over the reef, owing to a strong tide, or current, setting
through between uie isles.

BRANCO, the Redonda of the old charts, is a league to the N.W. of Raza, and
much higher. In the passage between are soundings of 6 to 18 in the middle, and
decreasing near Branoo to 7 fathoms. The latter* is a narrow island, 2h miles long
from S.E. to N.W. A spit of sand stretolMs from its S.E. end, on which the roUeri
or break are violent, and its shore is altogether rocky.

Praya Branca, on the N.W. side of the island, has a small village of about thirty
■tone-bnilt houses, thatched with reeds. The scenery here, being on the side of a
stupendous mountain, ia picturesque and magnificent ; a small stream of water rap-
plies the village; bananas and papayas are planted «on the borders of the brook;
cassada and vines en the banks of the valley. The bread is made fi«m maize, or
Indian com, and from farina, or flour of cassada. The natives are, in general, poof,
but very courteous.

Monte Cfordo is in the central part of the island, toward the West. It summit ii
4,200 fret nbove the level of the sea. The mountain is composed entirely of volcanic
matter, very fragile and porous, and does not form a peak like many of tiie smaller
ones on the island. It is well clothed with vegetation, even to the summit. The
^St^horbium haleamifsra flourishes to about 3,700 feet above the level of the sea.
The prospect hence is very extensive, calm, and beautiftil. — 3fr. Jbrfte« ; Captain
Owen, vol. i., p. 27.

ST. LUCIA lies at the distance of 3} miles to the ndrthward of Branoo, and the
Bank of Soundings extends to this island. The bank here forms a regular flat
of 10 to 13 frthoms. The South coast trends nearly East and West 4 miles, and in
the middle of it is a good landing-place. A steep bank, half a mile broad, stretches
fkom it, having on its edge 3 to 4 fathoms. In the bay formed by the S.W. coast are
the rdas of a village, at thi^ee-quarters of a mile from the South point. To the
westward of this is a little islet, named Leon, llie N.W. part of St. Lucia into high
mountains.

^optatH Bartholomew desoribes St. Lucia as of moderate height, with a bay on tie
8.W., where omsll vessels may anchor, being sheltered ftom all points but South and
8.R The bench is sandy ; the anchorage, small pebbles and sand. In the middle of
the bay is an islet, named Lmn^ with the ruins of a village on it, and fivquentcd bv
flahermen only. There are many turtle here, and much orohilla is gathered, witn
•oniu cotton, in a wild state.

SAN VICEKTE, or St. Vincent'l.— Th« iMiund of St. Vincent is separated bjr •

ST. VINGENTS.

)ni ooaat is not

Aitanel, 4 miln broad, fnm that of St. Luoia, and by one of7 mfles from tliat df fit
Antonio. This island is 11 miles long, from East to West, and about 6 broad. It hacT
two chains of monntains, the N.E. and S.W., which from a central valley that ter-
minates in the bay called Porto Orande, upon the N.W. side of the island. The N.B.
coast forms two bays, separated by a low peninsnla, of 2 miles on eitlMHr side, and
this coast has been desoribed as alt(^[ether dao^rons.

The general aspect of it is monntainons, with sharp peaks ; the coast is rocky, and
rises abruptly, but the tide, ebbing, leaves a sandy beach. No doubt can be vuter-
toined that tne general character of the island is volcanip ; the interior is formed by
ranges of hills of different heights. The surface of the country is undulating, and, in
the Interior and loftier parts, has a tendency to table-lands.

With regard to the^ phrsical divisions of the island, it is divided by a valley running
from West to E&st; in the southern division, one range of moontams proceeds fttnn
West to East ; another from North to South, but Iwth connected by a hUl. The
northern part of the island consists of mountain chains, lying N.E. and S.W., r nd
N.W.and8.E. ' » .

The water runs fcom the elevated parts to the sea coast, and loses itself in thcr
■and, but the quantity of it is not capable to form, in the dry season, a river ; the

Srincipal valley is aivided by a hill, which connected the northern and southern,
ivision. The watercourse, running West, takes its rise A20 feet above the level of
the sea ; the bed is eravel, covered with mud, united by chalk. The coast forms a
great number of littfe bays, in general capable of containing vessels ; the chief port is
named Porto Orande, situated on the West side of the island, and is a good anchon^e
for about 300 vessels ! water and provisions cannot easily be procured ; the former
defect might be remedied. The wind blows generally from the N.E. ; in the rainy
Mason the S.E. wind prevails, which commences in the month of Julv, and ends on
the 15th of October. During the last years the rains have been regular in point of
time, but sometimes not in quantity.

PoBTO Oram DB is the largest and best bay in the Capti Verde Islands ; it is canable
of holding 300 sail of large Hhips, well sheltered under the high lands, and nas a
fine appearance. Captaim Vidat and Mudge, who surveyed this place in 1820, say
of il, that it now forms a good and safe anchorage, where you may strip and rent
Tour shin, as it is dieltered both from wind ana sea. The wind generally blows
mmi the N.E. over a part of the land, and seaward it is protected by the Island of
St Antonio.

Wood is plentiful, and sufficient water may be obtained firom the well, on the
eutem shore, for daily consumption. After a refit here, a complete supply of the
litter uav be fomid in the Bay of Terrafal, St. Antonio, which & 6 leagues to the
weatwara, and reckoned the best waterinv-place among the Cape Verde Islands.
Cattle may be had at Porto Orande, but they are not very good. The church of
Leopoldina and custom-house are situate in the bottom of the bav on the East, and a
anal-post may be seen, erected upon a hill, at a short distance nom the anchorage,
woich gives notice of whatever may be passing or approaching the island.*

• March 80, 1822.— "On the Lwm't arrival in Porto Orande, we ient on «hore to » few
houiM oalle*! a town, at tiie bottom of tixe bay, to inform the governor who we were, and
what wore our wished. We could find only one miserable Portuguese, the test being all
Dtgroes ; but most of them appeared to be free. The whole population did not exceed lOU,
without any plantations near their houses, as the soil is so very dry and storile ; hut, on
the (ides ot the mountains, in parts where there is water, they are said to have some good
mfdens. Indigo grows everywhere wild ; and with it they dye Uieir coarse cloths which
uejr manufacture from cotton, and which, if ever planted by them, appears to be left entirely
to nature's cultivation and care.

" We pitched a tent upon the beach ; cleaned a well in the ravine, which, daring the
niny senimn, is a water-course ; then landed the women and a par^ to wash. Daring our
itsy the wa breeee every day blew fkiriously over the hills to the N.E. of our anrhoragu ;

619

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

. Porto Grande ia well adapted for idfittmf^ in, as well as acolimatudng tbe crews of
▼enels going to the African station. There u no endemic disease there, as at St. lago ;
the climate resembles that of Ascension, without being so hot ; and tiiough there is
scarcely any vegetation on the island during the greater part of the year, vet a
sufficient quantity of live stock, vegetables, &c., for several vessels, can be always
obtained there, and at the neighbouring island, San Antonio. It is deficient of water,
as before stated, except fbr daily consumption.

The variation in June, 1841, was IT IT W.i dip, 49" 10'. It is now about
16" J W.

Without the entrance of the bay, at nearly three-quarters of a mile from its N.'W.
point, is a remarkable steep islet, called Bird I$le, which, at a distance, appears
roond like a sugar-loaf. ]Ur. Finlaison says, " You may run on either side of it, and
will find regular soundings thence to the shore; deptiis from 30 to 10, 8, 6, 4, and
2 fothoms, to the beach. The ground is good in most parts of the bay, and you may
anchor anywhere in 7 or 6 &thoms of water, sandy bottom, witii coral brancnes. llie
water is very clear, so that you may pick out a ol«ir spot for the anchor.

" Ships should moor with a kedge, as a very strong current commonly sets to the
N.E. between Bird Island and the shore : and, as the N.E. wind is variable, at night
it is impossible to keep a dear anchor, without tins precaution ; for the wind, at
times, comes in strong gusts from off the land."*

Mr. Finlaison adds, " In running between St. Antonio and St. Vincent we sounded
in 42 fothoms, bits of coral mixed with sand and small stones. Within half a mile of
Bird Island we had 42 fiithoms.

" Having proceeded about 8 miles to the southward of St. Vincent's, 40 fathoms of
water wert found ; and, on approaching SMI Say, at the S.W. side of the island,
found regular soundings, ooae and sand, to 20 fathoms, nearly in the centre of that
bay. We anchored in this depth, with the West point of the bay W. by N., and its
East point E.S.E. : the distance between the two points is 2| miles ; regular sovnd-
ings from.the ship to the shore, and very good landingon the beach. Tha ground m
perfectly clear of rocks, but the bay is open tc Uie S.W. Water is also to be got bj
digging for."

Captain Bartholomew describes the bay on the S.W. side as the Bay of 8. Pedro,
having a fine sandy beach, and he says that vessels may anchor in 10 fathoms, near
the nuddle of the bay, or rather more to the westward. The anchorajje is good in the
dry season, and the irhabitants say there is plenty of wood and water. The American
whalers firequent this place.

Oa the eastern ride of the island is another anchorage, the Praya da Oatta, with a
sandy beach, near which vessels may anchor in 6 fathoms ; the bottom is clear, but a
sea sets directly in when the wipd is cither N.E. or S.E., the Island of Sta. Lucia
sheltering between those points. This bay and coapt are without wood, water, and
inhabitants.

ST. ANT^ip. — ^This island, as already shown, lies at the distance of 8 miles to
the N.W. of 8t. Vincent, and it appears, altogether, like an assemblage of high moun-
tains, particularly to the West. It is 22 miles in length, from East to West, and
about 11 in breadth, and its highect peak is estimated at 7,100 feet above the level of
the sea.

and although the whole bay is nearly land-locked, yet the sorf is very high all round,
except in one spot near the town. We therefore embarked only a tun and a half of
bad water, and caught a few fish."— Cbptoin W. F. Owtn,'yo\. i. p. 28.

* In working between St. Antonio and St. Vincent, to Porto Ghrande, you may stand to
a mile off St. ijitonio, and as near as you please to St Vincent, as the current generally
seti strongly through to the N.E.— Ji. KeUor.

Mr. Fi^aison says that ships bound through this channel should keep over toward the
latter, as no danger whatever is to be apprehended on that side.

ST. ANTONIO.

619

t is now about

Of the two highest mountains in the West, the Sugar Loaf is the most elevated,
and both are commonly covered with clouds. Acooraing to the Admiralty survey,
the Sugar Loaf stands «n 1?" 4' N., and 25° 20f W. The island is very woody, but
has plenty of goats, fruits, and salts ; it produces wine, cotton, indigo, &c. There is a
village, Santa Crva, on itsS.E. side, but the ground is not fit jfor anchmrage.

Tebbafal Bat, which is onl;;^ half a league to the northward of the S.W. end of
the island, has been already noticed (p. 616) as the beat watering-place in tiie Cape
Verde Islands, and other refiwshments may be here purchaaed. The edge of the baiuc,
with 40 fathoms, is about one-third of a mile from shore. At a cable's length within
are SO fkthcms, and it then shoalens inward to 20, 8, and 4 fitthoms ; the latter near
the beach. Latitude of the landing and watering-place, 16° 57' long. 25* 24' 48*.
Variation, in 1820, 16° W.

" This wat«ring'^lace of Terrafiid Bay is one of the most convenient fbr the purpose
amonffst the Cape Verde Islands. The bay is spacious and has a black sandy bottom.
Vessels anchor ,at 20 fathoms, at three-quartets of a cable's length firom the diore,
sheltered from the N.E. and South winds and sea : and when the wind coines to the
westward of South or North there is always, from the extreme high land, a calm in
the bay, the wind never blowing home, but only occasioning a sweU to set in.

" From the high mountains over the bay a small stream descends, which is never
dry ; on the first level spot a large pond has been formed as a reservoir to receive the
stream, with a sluice to conduct it to the sands between the flat and the beach, which
is a gradual descent ; the flat may be about 60 or 70 feet above the level of tiie sea,
and IS generally moist and cool. In the vicinity of the pool is a fine plantation of
bananas, papayas, &c., and in the lower sandy grounds a cotton plantation, willi some
trees of the atclepias proeera. Just above the beach is a well $ and when the water is
let off from the pool, all the soil between it and the well must be saturated before any
can arrive at the latter.

After passing St. Antonio, as above. Captain Monteath, between the parallels of 3
and 2 degrees North, found the current to set S.E. by E. in the twenty-four hours i
bat, between 4° and 14° S., the ship was set, by the Equatorial Current, 80 miles
westerly in five days.

Captain Monteath adds, " On approaching St. Antonio, which is very hiffh, and
may be discerned in clear weather at a great distance, it appears black, rocky, and
banren $ consisting of immense rocks or mountains, heaped on each other, and rising
far above the clouds, which, in general, cover a great portion of their summits. On
the N.E. part of the island the mountains are aivided by deep ravines and gullies,
which have every appearance of deep water having passed down them: on rounding
the N.E. point you will perceive to the S.W. large vihitc patches from near the shore
until about halfway up tne mountains ; at this distance they are not unUke ripe fields
of com ; but, on nearing them, they are found to consist only of large white rocks,
like pumice, and are entirely 4estitute of verdure ; the mountains toward the centre
of the island are composed of rocks of stratified basalt, in thick and perpendicular
columns, to their very summits { it idso rises more gently, for a consideraole eleva-
tion, than either the N.Ei or N.W. ends, but without verdurp, excepting a few tufts of
brushwood near ike shore, and patches of brown heathf with which this island is
generally covered. Prom the N.E. point, until rounding the point of Sta. Crus, the
only habitations I could discern were two or three miserable looking huts built upon
the shore, about a mile distant from each other.

"TheS.W,

point is pretty well covered with brushwood, but I saw po signs of cul-
tivation, nor innabitants. The channel betweeh this island and St. Vincent's is quite
dear of danger ; and within a short distance of the shore on each side (except off the
point of Sta. Ciuz, where tixe breakers run out about a mile) ut bold-to, and I should
apprehend that a vessel might work through th.^ passage with little risk, either by
day or night."

a>i ,.».

( 620/ )

8.-BERMUDAS OR 80MEB8' ISLANDS.

Tbe flrat discoverer of these islmds waa Joan BermndeK, a native of Qaliois, in
Spain, whoee name th^ still retain, aliout the beginning of the 16th century.

In 1609,. Sir George Somers, an Bnglishman, was drove thither by the violence ot^
the wind, and some of his men returning to England so much commended there
islands, then called Somers' Islands, firom Sir George Somers, that in the year 1612, a
aocietyof English gentlemen and merchants, having obtained a grant from Kins
■James the Pint, sent over 60 men to begin a colony, under the diiOBtion of Richard
.More, who built eight forts, and several places.

The group of islands and the surrounding reef are of on oval fbrm, the longest
disfnetei lymg N.E. 1^ E. and S.W. by W. 25 miles, and the breadth 10 to 12 nantic
miles. The idands themselves are on the S.E. side (ff the reef, and are shaped in the
most irri^;ular manner imaginable ; they extend about 15 mfles in length in the go-
neral direeiion of the reef given above. The breadth is very various, the gi-eateHt
about 1^ mileSi The chief island is Bermuda, oontaininff the town of Hatnitton, St.
Georee's, with its town of the same name, Sbmerset Isknd, and Ireland Island, on
which is the dockyard ; these are the principal : besides these are St. Da\'id's, Long-
bird, Paget's, Smith's, Cooper's, Nonsuch, Castle, and many inferior islands and
rocks.

The elimate, being moist, is favourable to vegetation at all seasons, except during
the droughts of summer, and the storms of winter.

Hurricanes and tempests ore very frequent, as is to be expected from the proximity
of the isles y> the variable limit of the Trade and other prevailing winds. Few
antumns paib without hurricanes of more or less violence.

The Bermuda Squalls are sudden and violent tempests, occurring particularly in
the winteer season.

As the day closes, the whole horizon becomes obscured by dark and heavy clonds,
and the thunder and lightning, which precedes the first squall, give notice of ite
approach. After the commencement, the wind, gradually shifting, blows in ttc-
mendous gusts at intervals of every 20 or .'M) minutes, a dead calm intervening ; and
the sea, rising in oonftised and breaking waves, renders the situation of a vessel, pa^
ticularly a small one, very dangerous.

The conduct pursued by seamen, and which appears to be the most advisable under
such circumstances, is to furl the ^p's sails, and endeavour to get before the wind ;
by which means she may ultimately run clear of these local squalls into a steady
breeze. It is an observation made by seamen who are familiar with the Bermndos
Islands, that the various winds which blow meet theie, and contend for superiority ;
and the inhabitants themselves remark, that the currents about their rooks are as
variable as the winds, and as numerous as their islets.

The LIGHTHOUSE.— The most useful mark to mariners is the new iron LigBT-
HOUBS on Oibbs' Hill, on the South side of the island. This will very materially add
to the security of vessels approaching by night. The official desonption and direc-
tions are as fmlow : —

A liffhthouse has been erected on the southern part of Bermuda, in lat. 32"
14' 4' N., and long. 64° 61' 36 West of Greenwich. A revolving light, visible every
minute, iras exhibited on the 1st of May, 1846, and will be continued every night
from sunset to sunrise.

It is elevated 362 feet above the level of the sea ; and in clear weather mav be seen
fh>m the deck of a frigate 7 or 8 leagues. It is higher than the a^oining land, and
in day-time will appear like a sail. The light is intercepted between N. 43° 24 E.,
true, or N.E. )t E. by compass, and N. 47° 34' E., or N.E. f E. mag. nearly, by the
hills at St. George's i and also, between N. 49° 7' E., true, N.E. by E. mag. and
N. 57° 35' R, or N.E. by E. J E. by compass, by the hills on the South side of the
(These bearings differ 10° from those given in the public Notice.)

THE REEF.

621

B, except during

1^ particularly in

Bermada ifl always approached with more safety from the southward ; and in run-
ning for it at night, or m thick weather, care should be taken not to get to the north-
ward of lat. 32" 8' before seeing the light or the land.

In coming from the S.E. the light
should not be brought to the southward
of W. by S., or approached nearer than 6
or 7 miles during the night Coming
firom the westward, it ahouU not be ap-
proached nearer than 10 or 12 miles,
nntil it bears to the northward of N.E.
bv E. With the light between N.E. and
West, the coast is free from danger, and
may be safely approached within 3 miles.
Any vessel g^ttmg sight of the Light
from the northward had better haul off
immediately, as the reefb extend all round
tmm the S.W. to the North and N.E.
from 19 to 16 miles.

The light will show a bright flash,
continuing for 6 or 8 seconds, and re-
peated once in every minute.

The situation of the lighthouse has
been objected to by some, inasmuch as it
ig not visibie at the chief entranne at St.
Oeoige's. The light appears on an are
of a tew degprecs in the direction of Mills'
Breaker ; but, of course, a vessel will not
depend upon making the light within the
bearings given above.

There are four Signal Stations on
the islands. One on Fort George, at St.
George's; central at Mount Langton,
near the governor's house, near Hamil-
ton; another on Oibbs' Hill, near the
lighthouse ; and another at the dockyard,
on Ireland Island. By means of {hese,
dgnals are ti-ansmitted from one part of
Um island to another, and vessels re-
quiring pilots, &c., wUl be telegraphed
to that effect.

THE SEEF. — This singular tract,
extending 25 miles in length, N.E. by E.
and S.W. by W., with a breadth of 10 or
12 miles, forms at once an effectual bar-
rier against the fury of the Atlantio
storms, and, with the exception of the
few narrow and intricate entrances, an
impenetrable line of reeh and breakers,
over which no vessel oan pass.

It is composed of whitish limestones
and sandstones, in many parts as if com-
posed entirely of minutely pounded shells,
and calcareous clay, resembling pipe-clay.
Upon this, corallme structures grow in
innumerable pat«hM, and in every va-
riety. It is to thu cirounutanoe that the gr^t danger in navigating within the reef

COnusts. ., „., ■ ..'.•, ;, -.;vS, ..-.'■

622

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

^ Tlie water on the reef is remarkably dear, m that even small objects are readily
distinguishable at considerable depths. A dollar may be discerned at 16 or 18 fbet ;
and the appearance of the bottom, in many parts, and in clear weather, is very beaa<
tifal, firom the varied growth and structure of the coralline productions. To this oir-
oumstanoe of the transpaivnoy of the water the pilots owe their talent of conducting
vessels through the maces of the reef. Takinv an elevated position in the dbip, up
the shrouds, m the top, or on tibe forecastle, and by the appearance of the bottom,
thej blreot the course of the vessel. Brown or discoloured patches indicate coral and
reen. And it must be insisted on, that only the practised eye of the Bermodian pilota
can be depended on for conducting a dun safely. The pilots are regulated by a legis-
lative enactment passed during Colonel Reid's government, in 1843.

The outer border of the reef is shallower than the centre, many parts having less
than a fathom over them, and the others varjinj^ from 3 to 4 fathoms. Within this
external and rocky barrier, which is about a mile in breadth, the coral and rocks raise
their heads in countless numbers ; the intervals having a depth of 5 to 10 fathoms.
There are some larve tracts clear from shoals, as that to the N. and W. of Murray
Anchorage ; these have a nearly uniform depth of 7, 8, or 9 fatlioms.

Round the West, N.W., and North sides, it is a continued and very dan<;erouB
ledge of rocks, beginning at the Long Bar, the South part of which lies 6 miles
W.8.W. from Gibbs' Hill : trending then N.E., it is called the Chub Heads, which,
off Wreck Hill, lies 9 miles from the shore : the ledge hence rounds to E.N.E., and
joimi the North Rock, which is always above water, and lies N.N.W. 12 miles from
Catherine Point. From the North Rock the reef rounds East and E.S.E., and ends
in Jfilh* Breaker, which dries at low water, and lies at N.E. 6 miles from Catherine
Point, and N.N.E. from St. David's Head. On the south-eastern side of the island
the reef botdering the group does not extend more than a quarter of a mile off shore;
the outer edge is one continued line of breakers, many of which are dry at low water.
Within the external and narrow border of rocks, on this face, the water increases
considerably in depth nearly to the shore. At the S.W. comer of the reef, and oa its
outer edge, is a spot that always breaks, callled the South-west Breaker. It lies 1^
miles off shore, and is nearly South, true, from Wreck Hill. Round the outer edge
of the ledge is a margin of souudings, of from 1 to 2 miles broad, having from 9 to
14 fathoms on it ; there are, likewise, soundings for 2 miles from the shore round the
N.E., East, and S.E. sides of the island ; but, as the water here is deeper, it would bo
prudent for those who suspect themselves near the longitude of Bermudas in the
night, or in thick weather, while between the latitudes of 32° and 32° 40', to keep a
lead constantly going, being assured that, at 14 fathoms, they will strike the ground
in time to avoid danger. The lead might be incased with tallow, for the greater
certainty of striking uie ground ; this precaution would prevent many of the wrecks
that constantly happen here.

The CHANNELS through the outer edge of the reef, commencing at St. George's
at the eastern extremity, are the Narrows, or channel into Murray Anchorage, some-
times called HurtFt Channel. This is regularly boycd, and may be consider^ as the
principal entrance to the interior of the reef.

South of this is the channel over the Bar to^St. George's Harbour, hereafter de-
scribed.

There is another channel running East and West to St. George's, called the Boiler
Channel, passing North of, and dose to, Jenkin's Boiler Shoal, with a depth of 12 to
18 feet.

Still ftirther South is an entrance sometimes used by small vessels running under
St. David's Head, but has not more than 9 feet at low water. This]|leads in a N.W.
direction.

Proceeding northward, the next channel is MilU'lBreaker Channel, the'entrance to
which is half a mile North of the Mills' Breaker.* Its direction inwards is S.W.
towards liie Narrows, and is only used by Bermudian vessels in and out

Continuing in the same direction, the north-eastern face of the reef presents an im-

THE BERS^UDAS.

623

penetrable and otrntinaoui reef, often breaking, until we come to the North Sock
ChantuU, having a aoutherly direction.

There are two channels by the North Rock : that on the eastern side of the rook is
called the N.E., and the western, the North-west ChanneL They are known only to
a few of the pilots, and from that cause but seldom used, althouah it is said that the
north eastern Channel is one of the best through the edge of mo reef. The north-
eastern Channel is narrow and intricate at its entrance ; llie general depth is 6, 7, and
8 &thoms, but in one spot bat 6. At 3| miles in the direct Une from the entrance,
toward Murray Anchorage, there lies a cluster of rocks, which render a dreuit to the
westward advisable. The mark for clearing the West end of these, the I%ree Hill
Shoah, is Painter's Hill, over a hill on the western side of the Ferry at St. George's
Island, bearing S.8.E. There is also a channel vhroueh the shoals, which is more
direct ; the mark for which is Painter's Hill in the Hdlow or Saddle of Two HiUs
(hence their nameV at the West end of St. Georcre's Island, bearing S. f E. As soon
as the shoals are cleared in either case, which wiU be when 3^ miles from the shore,
you can bear round to the S.E. to Mtirraw Anchorage, this part of the reef being
clear.

The next is the Slue Cut, on the western side of the reef, but can be used only by
small vessels. It is exceedinglv narrow and intricate, and has only 8 feet water in
Its direction is to the East of South.

The Chub Cut is the next channel southward ; this is also narrow and dangerous.
It leads southerly to Wreck Hill, or first southerly and then easterly to Lreland
Island.

Sog Fish Out liec at the south-western angle of the islands. For half a mile in a
north-easterly direction it lies through numerous rocky shoals, and then turns to the
N.W. It lea<l8 to Ireland Island and to Ellis Harbour.

The Hog Fish Cut, which has recently been examined with a view to its improve-
ment, is the most convenient at the West end of the islands, particularly in the winter
season, when the winds prevail at N.W., and the danger of being at sea and about
the islands is the greatest.

The Hog Fish Cut, though not fEir firom the land, is an entrance fit>m the ocean,
through the outer barrier of rocks. Before arriving at the Cut, there are the Sream
Shoah to be carefiilly avoided. The course through what are called the Chops of the
Cutis nearly at a right angle ; the turn is very sudden and sharp, and the greatest
nicety must be observed by the pilots in navigating it. The course in from the ocean
to Hog Fish Cut is N.E., and from the Cut to the Kitvhen Shoah N.W. ; and the
vassage is so narrow that it does not afford sufficient space for vesseb to tack in, and
when a passage through them shall be attempted, it must be without a change of
tack. These mfficnlties are felt more especially m the winter season, when the winds
are generally unfavourable for passing the Kitchen Shoals. To remedy this evil, the
committee appointed for the purpose (August, 1846) recommended the removal of the
centre Kitchen Shoal, of coral (8 feet on it at high water), by the same means now
employed at St. George's Harbour, when a passage sufficiently capacious would be
opened, and vessels now often compelled to remain at sea, or make the circuit of the
iuand in search of d^elter, would nnd an easy and ready access to port.

The various channels here mentioned, having different directions, are available
according to the wind ; that which is fair for one being the reverse for others ; but
they must not be attempted without a pilot, who will immediately come off from St.
David's Head, upon a signal being given to that effect; atid a vessel in the offinff re-
quiring a pilot, it is telegraphed from one part of the island to the other by the chain
of signals established thereon. They will be best understood by referring to the
Chart of these Islands.*

• A New Chart of the Bermudas or Somers' lolands, with Plans of the Narrows and
Murray Anchorage, and St. George's Harbour, &c.,by A. O. Findlay, F.R.G.S., published
by Mr. Laurie, accompanied by a description of Uie Islands. v ^ .

624

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

Tk6 floath-eostern fcM of the reef fordis nearly a eontinuoiis line tff breakers, about
2 cables' lengtJi from the shore, and has no entrance or shelter till we come >to Casth
Hairhowr, the entrance to which, past the King's Castle, is in a N.W. dircotion. Thire
is no other opening through the reef between this and the channel under St. David's
Headi before described.

The SOUTH-WESTERN BANKS.— There is a rocky fishing bank lying ft-om
8.S.W. to S.W. from Oibbs' Hill (or S.W. part of Bermttdas), from 3 to 5 leagues
distant, and having 22 to 40 fathoms. These banks were surveyed in 1829 by the
olfoers of H.M. rioop Columbine, according to whom the northern extremity of th6
JMfMT Bank Kes in W 6' N., and W 63' W. ; the S.W. in 32° N. and 65° W. The
least water foimd was 29 ibthoms, corally and lockv bottom. On the edges are 40
fktiionu. To the S.W. of this bank is another, called the Outer Bank, the N.E. end
of which was in lat. 31° 59|', long. 65° 2f ; the S.W. end in 31° 57', and 65° 5'. The
least water found on this bank was from 33 to 47 fathoms, rooks and coral. From
this Outer Bank the land is not visible.

THE ISIAHDS.— IRELAND ISLAND is the north-westernmost of the group.
The flagstaff, which is the highest point of the fortification, and stands above tiie
break-water, is in lat. 32° 19' 30", and lon^. 64° 51' 40' W. It is one of the four tele-
graphic signal stations established on the island. The site of the Royal Dockyard
and Naval Establishment is on the North extremity of the island, from the rest of
which it is separated by a deep dry ditoh.

Ireland Island is about one mile in length and perhaps a quarter broad, and is
nearly all occupied by the buildings required for the officers, artisans, and for store-
houses. The hospital is situated on the highest part of the island, and u very \u^
and commodious. The officers' residences are bmlt in the English style, and are very
comfortable. > The most important work is the breakwater, similar to that at Plv-
mouth. Several hundred convicts are employed on it. The dockyard is kept in
fine order.

Between Iieland and Somerset Islands there are several smaller ones, the chief of
which is Boaz'a Island, but there is no passage whatever between them.

SOMERSET ISLAND is the next in order. Its western point is Daniel's Head,
off which is a small island.

WUt or Bliet Harbour lies between its southern extremity and Wreck Hill. Thu
small harbour may be reached from the Hor Fish Cut, from Ireland Point, or by the
Chub Cut. Between Somerset Island and the N.W. side of the reef the ground u oil .
rocky, so that the channels to the harbours are very circuitous, and no directions can
be given for them.

OBEAT BEEMTIDA ISLAND.— This, the chief of the group, is about 12 or 13
miles in length. About the centre of it is the town of Hamilton, standing on the
North side of the harbour, an inlet of the island ; it u a free port, and the seat of
the legislature. North of the town, which consistoprincipally of one street 1^ miles^ -
long, parallel with the shore in an East and West direction, and about midway
between the ferry at the West end of the island, and the dockyard, is one of the
houses appropriated to the governor for the time being ; it is scarcely seen from the
water ; but near it is a hill called MontU Langton, on which is a flajrstaff, by means of
which communication is kept up between St. Oeorge, Somerset, and the dockyard. A
few miles beyond this is the residence of ^e admiral, Kinf^t Hill or Clarence Lodge.
Between this and Ireland Island is Onu»y Bay, the anchoring place of men-of-war.

From Spanish Point to Ireland Island a ledge of rocks divides the Cfreat Sound
from Grassy Bay. There are two passages through this; one called the Stag
Channel, near Sober Island, the North entrance ; and one nearer to Spanish Point.
Through these is the channel to Hamilton Harbour. There is also another line of
reefs running between the North point of Somerset Island and the chain of islets

.f!»>«».^*».-.T^^i>'''a-

MoHtgomery Martin' t Oolonies, p. 112. .^^ .'

I *'«^.

■** t:'

GREAT BERMUDA ISLAND.

026

' breakers, about

oome 'to Ciuth

direction. Thi-re

idar St. David's

lank lying ft-om
3 to 5 leagues
in 1629 by the
xtremi^ of the
id 68° W. The
le edges ore 40
Ii, the N.E. end
ind 66° 6'. The
id coral. From

it of the group,
stands above the
of the four telc-
tloyal Dockyud
fivm the rest of

ft broad, and is
I, and for store-
nd is very large
|rle, and are very
to that at Fljr-
cyard is kept in

nes, the chief of
m.

B Daniel's Head,

eck Hill. This
Point, or hj the
he ground usil.
directions can

I about 12 or 13
standing on the
and the seat of
street Ij miles^
about midway
i, is one of the
I seen from the
f, by means of
I dockyard. A
\llarenee Lodge.
men-of-war.

Oreat Sound

led the Stag

Point.

lotiier line of
in of islets

8outh of Hamilton Harbour ; this reef has also to be passed to enter the Oreat Sound
South of which is Port Boyal Baif, which has a depth across it for boats only.

The eastern end of Bermuda Island is occupied' by the LUtle, or, as it is more, com-
monly called, Harrmgtim Sound, a sheet of
water only communicatinfl> with the sea by
a narrow channel, called ue Sound's Mouth,
over which is a bridge at JF^ttt ViUage.
Through this passage the tide ebbs and flows
with great velocity, but does not pass in suffi-
cient quantity to sensibly affect the level of
the water within.

. The southern shore of Bermuda is the bold-
est among the islands, and vessels may come
in some places withm half gun-shot of the
shore.

East of Mount Langton is Brackish Point,
near which is " Hie Wells,*' a government
establishment for supplying water to the
navv, should there be no water at the naval
tanks on St. George's Island.*

|The following description of the coasts is
nrmcipally by Lieutenant John Svaha, (a)
Ji.N. ; commencing with the West.)

The westernmost projecting headland is
Wreck Hill ; it stands insulated on its base,
is cone-shaped, and very dark coloured. When
seen from the S.W. it appears flattened at its
summit, but from tho South as peaked ; it
is the land looked for, and first seen, when
approaching the isles from the West.

GIBBS' HILL.— The next particular guide
is Oibbs's Hill, which is the mghestand most
conspicuous eminence observable near the
S.W. part of the coast; it is a smooth mount,
entu'ely clear of trees, with the lighthouse
'previously described and a telegraphic post
on its summit. To the westward, and con-
tiguous to it, is a table-land, crowned with a
grove of dark tall cedars.

Between OibW Hill and Castle Island, to the
• E.N.E., there are several sandy mounts,
having the appearance of white cliffs, and at
moonlight may be mistaken for breakers.
These are very remarkable, and are called the
"Sand Hills. One of tlieso is much moi'e
conspicuous than the others, being of greater
extent, and without any verdure nyrnn tho
summit. At 2 miles East of the g^at sand-
hill is Castle Harbour, in the entrance to
which are several islets and rocks: on the
largest of these is an old castle, which gives
name to the harbour. Theue iBlets are re-
markable for the colour of the clili's and
the dark verdure of tho turf which covers
them.
The coast here presents a very picturesque appearance of land and water j the tele-

Large fleets could not, us yot, And sufficient watar at Bormuila, — Oovey

0" jiiifi,, tOlO.

6S6

DESCRIPTION OP THE ISLANDS.

graphic hill over St. George's is a pleasing object in the perspective. This may be
t«rmcd the S.E. face of tiie islands, and is considered as in the best parallel to make
them in from the eastward.

In the winter, with the wind firom the N.E. there is a strong set of the water to the
S.W. on the South side, and it is very tedious and unpleasant to tnm to windward,
the wind blowing in heavy sqnalls at intervals. I have, however, known South and
S.W. winds to prevail during mpst part of the winter months.

CASTLE HARBOUB In Castle Harbour there is good anchorage ; but it is not

used by men-of-war. .A fHgate, many years ago, was wrecked in her endeavour to
get out.

The southern channel to tht. harbour is narrow and intricate ; the mark to lead
across the outer edge of the reef is Minor's Hill, on the North side of St. Oeorp^'s
Island, midway between Castle Island and Southampton Island. As soon as this is
crossed, bear to the eastward and steer close to the eastern side of Castle Island,
which is steep-to, and. then pass between the banks which border the channel for
about onB-thJrd of a mile North of Oastle Island ; then bear rqund to the eastward,
and anchor in 5| fathoms, one-quarter of a mile Noi*th of Nonsuch Island.

In working up from the S. W, end to Castle Harbour ships may stand within a mile
of the shore ) atia small craft until the bottom is seeo. There are some small reefe
and ledges jalong the line of shore, but they are very near the beach.

St. Davids Head is next seen, in the form of a round bluff, covered with foliage,
and, when the land is opened to the northward, a large cave will appear to view be-
neath the head. A reef extends from this bluff, about half a mile off shore } the sea
generally breaks over it.

Vessels wa^ng for pilots may run m to the N.E. of the bluff, and heave to with
their heads off ignore ; the bottom is hereabouts visible, but no danger need be appre-
hended on that account.

The pilots are the most expert I ever met with. * A good look-out is kept by the
artillerymen stationed at the telegraphic hill, and delay seldom takes place .

Beyond St. David's Head the land trends to the N.W. St. George's Harbour (the
best among the islands) is formoA by several islands, and a curve in the larger island
of the same name ; its entrance lies between Fort Paget and a small kay to the east-
ward; tibe harbour is land-locked, well sheltered from the stormy West and N.W.
winds, with a good depth of water over a bottom of stiff pipe-clay. The vicinity to
the open a^a alone gives it a decided superiority to the anchorage at Grassy Bay, if
there were nothing else to recommend it.

ST. OEOBOE'S ISLAND is " the military statbn of the oolony, and formerly
the seat of government ; is about 3 miles long, and at no part exceecung half a mile
broad ; it lies' at the entrance of the only channel for ships of burden. The harbour
of St. George, when once entered, is said to be one of the finest in "VtUi world, and
capable of containing the whole British navy. It is completely land-locked. The
entrance to the harbour is narrow, and is protected by Cunnin^iam Fort. After
passing this entrance, the town presents one of the most beautiful landscapes the eye
ever rested upon."

Tho Roadstead, from whence ships proceed to St. George's Harbour, is called the
Five Fathom or Outer Hole ; within this is the Inner Hoh, having a fairway buoy,
chequered black and white, mai'king the entrance to the Narrows or Channel to
Murray Anchorage, as well as being in the proper direction for crossing the bar.
This buoy bears N. by W. from the rock under St. David's Head.

The Five Fathom or Outw Hole, where ships wait with winds not fair for going to
Murray Anchorage, has from 6 to 10 fathoms. The mark for anchoring is the Cherry-
stone OE Sugarloaf Hill (at the head of Mullet Bay) open of the old battery on the
point (i^ St. George's Island, bearing East by compass; St. Catherine's Point about
W.N.W., and the rocks off- Cooper's Ishmd open to St. David's Head, S. J W. ; but in
letting go your anchor look out for a clear spot. .

From the chequered buoy before mentioned, the passage over the bar to St.

ST. GfeOttGE'S ISLAND.

637

George's Harbour Wrs S. by E. | E. ; the bar marks arc, " a i tone pillar and a
whitd stake in a line, bearing about S.
20i W. bycoDipaw (1861) j" they Ke on
the slope on the North aide of St. David's
Island. Carry on this course until Smith's
Fort on an island, which forms the South
side of the entrance, bears S.W. by W. ^
W. and then steer for it, and when nearly
up to it, bear round between it and the
point, when the town will open on the
otarboard bow { whence you inay proceed
to the anchorage, keeping the N.W. shore
on board. The passage over the bar is be-
tween two poles on the North side, and
two on the South side. Four other poles
mark the channel S.W. of this.

The depth on the bar is 16 to 18 feet;
within it, and in the channel, 4 and 6
fathoms.

" At the entrance to, or on the bar of,
St. George's Harbour, there lay a i*ock
exactl\ in mid-channel, which was a great
impediment to vessels entering. The reefs
at the outer bar, half a mile from shore,
are of a different nature to those in the.
narrowest part, which consists of a con-
glomerate of broken shells and sand,
cemented by a limestone ; it is here all of
recent coralline formation. The greatest

Eart are hemispherical masses, called here
rain-stonee {meandrina labynnthtca), in
the cavities oetween which the diver
places a canister of powder (usually
oOlbs.), which is fired by the' galvanic
batteiy. The gteatest labour is in re-
moving the fragments This is done
partly by the diver descending and sling-
ing the broken rock, and partly by nippers
used from boats. These operations are
superintended by Lieut.-Col. Barry, Com-
manding B.E.''^ — Gov. BeitTs Beport,
Bermu&, March 16th, 1846.

High water, ftill and change, at
St. George's, VIII|^ Common tides rise
to about 4 feet, but springs, or in gales of
wind, they frequently rise 6 or 7. The
floods in tne offing set to the N.E., and
ebbs to the S.W., but near the shore they
run in various directions.

" St. Catherine's Bluff is the north-
eastern extremity of St. George's Island
and of the isles in general. There is a
fort upon it, and a battery for point blank
shot. Beyond thb head, to the westward,
is Murray Anchorage, one of the most un-

Sleasant places in the world to ride in
Bring the winter season. I have been
for several weeks ridine out a N.W. gale
in a frigate here, pitching bows imdvr ( and the DriV'(!r, sloop of wa:

M7 OM&U

626

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

have carried away her bowsprit, iu conscqucnco of ito getting under the cable, when
fihe WBR in the act of plunging during a galo here. The North Hock, at about 8 miiui
in the ofUug, appears from this anehLuroge through a telescope like a Hhip's huat,
with three lug sails; there is a passage of egress for large ships through the
ree& near the rock ; but it cannot be attempted without a fixed leading wind ;
boats are then placed on either side of the channel to guide the pilot." — LtetUenant

JEVOHB.

MURRAY ANCHORAGE •• lies on the S.W. side of Catherine Point, extending
from Tobacco Bav to the Feny, between St. George's and the Great Bermudas ;
whence, after gomg through a po^^sage to the westward, there is secure anchorage
from abreast of ^racki^h Pond, across the entry of the Great Sound, as far as Ire-
land. The common entry into Murray Anchorage is through an intricate ond narrow
passage round Catherine Point, called the Narrows ; for tlio particulars of which sec
tUo Chart., as no description can be given here that will bo of any use to a stranger.
The ground in the entry, as well as all over the anchorage, consists of stone, of tlie
soft dripstone kind, ground as tine as flour, mixed with a shelly substance, and a
chalky clay ; it is very heavy, thoretbre the unchore do not sink deep in it, and thoy
loosen immcdiattly when a-pcak ; but it w rarely that 8hi\)s drive in it. I have, in
the Resolution, a 74-gun ship, rode many heavy gnles in this anchorage, but never
started an anchor ; aithoua;!!, in Hampton Rood, Virginia, which has remarkably
tough ground, the anchor has often come home. Ships bound for Murray Anchoraii[o
will generally get a jrilot off Castle Harbour, or they niaj run as far as St. David's
Head. When to tlio eastward of tJt. David's Head stand no further to tlie north-
ward tliau t») bviiiH: the Head N.E., or you will sec a white sandy bay to the south-
ward of the Head, betwoon it and Castle Harbour. In standing to the northward,
earc must be taken to sliut no part of this bay in behind St. J)avid's Head. Tiio
West laud of. Uermiulus will be bliut in behind tlic land, over this bay, before this
nuirk comes on. lu the night, when waiting here for a pilot, the best precaution i8
the lead ; for, if cure be taken, and the shij) is not running too fast thr«)Ugh tlie
\\atcr, you will be sure of strikuig grouiid m time to avoid danger." — Mr. Murdo
JJowniv. 1803.

the V7l
Bepaj
theisl
ttttemi
look-ol
ivttdilf
t'orwai)

St. Gm>rge'$ Iiland and Signal Station, from Mwray Anrhorage,

The navnl tanks Ho abronst of Murray Anchorajro, just above a small cove {Tofmrro
hay), wlierein is the landing-place. There is not n spring in the isles, and ducks arc
abundant. I had to remark at Nice (in Italy), where the earth is saturated with
springs, that there wus not a duck to be seen.

From the iiiichori(!/i' of ffntsMij Jh.nf s'jips, uiilis.-* iiii-v hiiiipencd to he fuvound with
fl lending wind, are gciiemlly one dsy working np to Mnrrsy Anchorage, a dintanrc
of t> miles ; and there they must wait until the wind proves' fair before they can get

ic cable, when

i about 8 miles

a uhip'a buat,

I through the
.eadin^ wind;
." — Lteutenant

tint, extending;
at Bermudas ;
are anchorage
OS far aa In>
itc and narrow
3 of which 8CC
to a stranger.
:' stone, of the
Mtaucc, and a

II it, uud thoy
t. I have, in
igo, but never
IS remarkably
ray Ancliorngc
lis St. IJavio's

to Uie north-
r to the south-
lie northward,
3 Head. Tlio
ly, before this
t precaution in
t througli the
" — Mr. Mnrdo

[)vc ( Tohitm)
d ducks arc
uratcd with

kound with
, a dlHltinic
hey can get

THE BERMUDAS.

629

to sea round Si. Cathorino's Bluff, and through the intricate channel which leads to
8t. David's Head. Even with a fair wind to or from Ireland Island fon which the
new dockyard is situated) shins are liable to strike upon the heads of rocks every-
where scattered about ; this happened to a ship I was in, with a most expert pilot on
board ; the weather being «louay, the rocky spots did not show themselves sufficiently
clear to be altogether avoided. — Lieutenant Evam.

Directions for makind the Bermudas, by Mr. Murdo Downie, 1803.

Vessels in hazy weather, or in the night, must bo very cautious in approaching, lest
the winds or currents should set them on the reefs, or into some inextneabte channel.
Be particularly cautious in coming from the S.W., oa upon the rocks off this end of
the island, from S.W. to W.N.W., many ships have been lost. No stranger should
attempt any of the anchorages without a pilot, many of whom are always on the
look-out, and put to sea wiicn a vessel heaves in si^ht. Their boats may be
ivadily known, being of a peculiar construction and rig ; of a light draught of wua"
forward, with a long heel or deep titcriipost ; rigged with one most and bowsprit,
caiTying a triangular mainsail, a foresail, and jib, and, occasionally, a gaff topsail and
sqnare-sail.

The prevailing winds with fine weather in these seas being from between the South
and West, vessels from the West Indies and America generally make these islands by
running in their latitude from the westward. The best latitude for that puiiHMe is
32^ H', always having regard to a small probable current in the direction the wind
blows ; steering East, you will first see the land a little on the port bow, being two
Bmall sand-hills, close together, having a white house on the top of one, and cedar
wood on the other (these are called Gibbs' Hills, now distinguished by the light-
house before mentioned) ; as you near the land, you will see Wreck Hill ftirther to
the northward, appearing peaked, and joined by low land to that firet seen ; steer to
bring Gibbs' Hill to bear l<i.N.K., and, when within (« miles of the land, take core it
is not to the eastward of tlmt bearing, because of the rocks called the Long Bar.
Then steer so as to pass within 2 miles of the S.K. land ; and, when Wreck iiill shuts
in behind the South land, you are clear of the S.W. breaker, and may steer along the
8.E. side of the island, at a mile distant fnnn the shore, until abreast of St. David'a
Head, there being nothing to hurt a ship but what is in sight.

In running for BKRMunAS/rom the eastward, the best parallel is between latitudes
32^ 10' and 32° 20' ; in which a ship may run boldly, as there are no rocks at any dis-
tance from the land.

When running down a parallel for Bennudas, with a large wind, and not making
ihc land toward night, but expecting to be near it, no vessel in this situation ought
to lie-to, but slioula rather turn to windward, under an cosy sail, until daylight, bc-
cauHc of a probable current, as befiu'c mentioned, which has deceived many by bring-
ing them unexpectedly among the rocks. The land not being high (Gibbs' Hill, on
which is the lighthouse, is the highest land in the islands), it cannot bo seen at
any great distance from a small vessel ; add to this, the thick hayie that frequently

Sievails hero, particularly in fine weather, renders making the land somcwhot
ifflcult, and nt times jirecarious, unless the latitude be accurately ascertained ; for
instances have happened «)f vessels missing the islands, and after a fruitless search
Hteering for the American coast in order to take a fresh departure for running down
the latitude again.

iNHTRUCTIONfl FOR SAILING TO BERMUDAS ISLANDS, BY ADMtRAL MURRAY.

Within the Gulf Stream steer well to the southward, jierhaps as much as S.S.E.,
until vou get within 3 or 4 miles of the latitude of Caiw Hatteros j and then steer

S.K. W K. until you get into the latitude of 32° 5'. ""- '" " '" " ■"-

(lulf Sfrenm where it '

...... ...V ......^....v ». r.m » . Thus you will avoid crossing the

v.uii oiri-n.a wssere :i js vi-ry broad, and ii^ direction far to the eastward, and pass it
where it affoets your latitude more than your longitude; and, of course, bo of less
loiikeipienee to the ship's reckoning ; and, by bteenng thence so fa

I far to tlie southward

630

DESCRIPTION 0^ THE ISLANDS.

A9 8.E. by B., you will fall into the lutitv of the Bcrmudaa at 4 or 5 degrees of lon-
gitude to the westward.

You should hy no means run for these islands unless sure of your latitude)
and always make them from the S.W., if possible, looking out in time for the land,
as, owing to the set of ike Gulf Stream, and the general tendency of the currents to
the eastward, ships from the coast of America wiU almost always be tea ahead of
their reckoning.

Having ascertained your latitude, and being well to the westward, g6t into the
parallel of 32° 5', and steer due East ; this course will bring you to the islands, pass-
ing about 4 miliBS clear of the South end of Chub Heads, a very dangci-ous shoal,
lymg across the West end, about 8 miles fit)m the land, with not more than 12 feet
on it at low water ; as well as the S.W. breakers, which lie about 11 miles S.8.AV.
from the southernmost land, being the shoalest part of a led^p of rocks of consider-
able length, lying parallel with the shoi-e. Should the wind in the night incline to
the noruward, keep in 32° 7' N. ; but if to the southward, in 32° 2'.

. The soundings do not extend more than 1^ miles from the shore on the South side ;
therefore, you have only a strict look-out to dejpend on for safety ; and as for the
East, West, and North sides, the breakers lie from 3 to 4 and 5 leagues off. You
must avoid, by all means, running in the night, without having a good observation
the preceding dav, and beinj; prcttv sure of your longitude. Follow these directions,
and will first make Wreck Hill (which is high land on the western extreme of the
islands), and tibe land trending from it to the S.E. Having passed the S.W. breakers,
the land lies about E.N.E. ana W.S.W., having danger no more than half a mile off,
and that generally visible ; you may run «afely along shore at a mile, until you paw
Castle Hai'bour, which is easily known by the ' castle on an island on the starboard
hand. You should bring-to off the eastern point of this harbour, and wait for a
pilot, who will soon come off, and carry you into St. George's Harbour. But should
vou be pressed for time, or the pilot not come off, you may haul round by the
breakers, after havine passed the islands which form the South part of Castle Har-
bour, into St. George^! Koad, bringing on the foUowuig marks : —

A high island, next to the N.E. part of the small ones off Castle Harbour, has, at
its eastern extremity, a bluff rocky point, called St. David's Head, having breaken
off it about half a milo ; the northernmost land in sight, after you haul round St.
David's Head, is called St. Catherine's Point ; bring this point to bear W.N. W., and
St. David's Head S. | W., and you will be in as good a berth as any in the ruad, with
7 or 8 fathoms of water ; but in every part of these roads vou must be guided by the
eye where to drop your anchor clear of foul ground, wnich is everywhere easily
seen, owing to the oleamess of the water and tho whiteness of the sand where the
anchorage is safe.

In case you have been driven to the eastward of tho islands (a situation, however,
which you are to avoid with tho utmost care), you may run for them in lat. 32" 14'
N., which yrill brinv you to them 5 or 6 miles to tho southward of St. David's Head,
for which you may haul up upon making the land j but you are not to run till you
are far enough to the S.W. to follow the directions before given for coming from the
westward, should you make sail for Bermudas from any pa^ of tho Gulf Stream, ur
without it.

• I recommend you to make great allowance for your being to the eastward of ^'our
reckoning, and try to fall into the parallel of latitude above mentioned, in longitude
70°or7rW.

High water at St. Geoive's, tall and change, HJ hours. Spring tides rise about fl
feet ; common, 4 feet. The tides are various, both in height and time, at difffiviit
puis of the iaUndit. The Bermudas bear from Cape Henry S. 63° 36' E., distant 21U
leagues.

• ^ Navigation to the Bermudas. (Lieut. Evanb.)

• " Outhe 12th of April, 1811, having loft the frigate, I took charge of a price

schoonl
On the!
might f
thenp^
npai
and 631
thattiif

legrces of ktn-

^our latitude;

for tho land,
the curreots to

tea ahead of

, ^t into the
islands, pass-
Dgci'oiu shoal,
I than 12 feet
miles S.S.W.
:s of consider-
ght incline to

he South side ;
ind as for the
giics off. You
i>d observation
leso directions,
ixtreme of tho
8-W. breakers,
lialf a mile off,
intil you pass
the starboard
nd wait for a
. But should
round by the
of Castle Har-

rbour, has, at
vihg breakers
aul round St.
rV.N.VV., and
he ruad, with
uidcd by the
where cattily
d where the

Ion, however,

[n lat. 32" 14'

>avid'N Head,

run till you
|ing from tho

"" Stivain, or

irard of your
longitude

rise about 6
at difft'mit
distant 2IU

of a priw

THE BERMUDAS.

631

schooner for Bermudas, and anchored at) St. George's on the 6th of May following.
On the 4th, at noon, in lat. 'iV 44', longitude by account 62° 10', considering that we
might be set to the West by current,! determined to get into the parallel of 32^, and
then put the Tessel's head to the eastward imtil dayl^ht. By mianight we had run
up a course N. 79° 45' W. 43 miles i which gave our situation, by account, 31° fi2' N.,
and 63° 3' W. I left directions with the mid of the watch to tack at 12>> 30' ; and at
that time the 8and*hills were seen N.N.W. 9 or 10 miles ; which showed that we
were, by account, 1^° to the East of the true longfitude ; the southern part of the land .
being in 64° 33'. I have no doubt we were set to the West by current, but something
must be admitted for erroneous allowances, as we had often contrary gales and heavy
seas to contend with. In k dark and dismal night, with very severe lightning and
thunder (the schooner full of gunpowder), I recollect, whilst the wind was blowing a
storm at North, that it shifted in a second to South, and nearly set us down ; the ^aff
of the reefed foresail having caught between the ratlines of the rigging. We were
lying-to on the starboard tack. I was, therefore, most happy when we dropped
anchor in the snug harbour of St. George."

\,U

'fc^^.

Rehasks on the Bermudab, and Passages to and fbo, bt Commander

dunsterville, 1830-31.

In July, 1830, tram the Matemillo Bank, on the N.W. of the Bahamas, to the Ber- ■
mudoH, the winds prevailed from the S.E. to S.W. Light breezes and cloudy, with
heavy rain at times. Found no current.

The Bermudat, from the S.W., at 5 leagues distant, appear as an assemblage of
detached, high islets, on the South part of which the sienal-post on Gibbs' Hill is
seen, being erected on the highest Jand in the islands. Hence we ran along shore,
at li to 2 miles off.

During our stay at these islands the winds prevailed for seven weeks from S.S.E.
to S. W., which is invariably the case here during the summer months. Rise of spring
tides about 3 feet 6 inches. High water at 6>>.

When a signal for a pilot is made from ships in the oiRng, it is telegraphed hy the
■ignal-posts throughout the island.

To lay through the Narrows, near St. George's, it is requisite to steer from N.W. to
W.N.W., and from St. Catherine's Point (the N.W. point of St. George) S.W. by 8.
Mid 8.W., till Ireland Island bears about W. by N., whence haul to that course. In
every course avoid idl brown or dark patches, which are corally rocks, with little
water on them. In the channel are from 6 to 7 fathoms. The buoys mvariably point
out all the rocky heads, which in some parts are numerous. In the latter end of
September fine North and N.E. winds : the thermometer at 74°, which had been foi:
the last two months from 80° to 84^ The Itanger anchored at Murray An.
chorage in 10 fathoms, chalky bottom. St. Catherine's Point, E. | N. about
1| miles.

The Hanger sailed for Bermudas from Jamaica on the 5th of October. Winds pre-
vailing from tho N.N.E. Fresh breezes and fine weather.

Winds light from the eastward until we arrived at Bermuda, when it blew strongly
from tho southward and westward for a fortnight. On the 1 1th of April anchored
off Iruland Island. Vertical rise of spring vides here about 5 feet } neaps, 2 or 3 feet,
Highwater at 8*'.

Going through the Narrows at Bertnuda.~ln going in, the white buoj^ lie on the
starboard side t the black on the port : of course, ^n going out, rice ver»a. Fa»rw«v
buoys are chequered, one at each entrance. Tho couracs throujjh are from W.^.W.
to I^.N.W. i W. i ho best anchorage at Murray Anchorage is m 9| fathoms, ofl St.
Catharine's Point, with the East signol-stutf in St. George's 8. by E. A E., off shoro
one-quarter of a mile. Between St. Catharine's Point and Mount Lsisigton .{..o
Rnvcfiior's house) keep tho »horo well on boai-d ; soy one-quarter of a mile or loss,
pushing iu-shore of the buoy>* : but, when going tlirough tho Narrows, ofl tho admi-

632

DESCRIPTION OF THE" ISLANDS.

mind's house, goiiig betwixt the buop.
selTes.

In clear weather the &Hg<Birs show them-

■ With these remarks on the islands by Mr. Dunsterville, the following, since made
may be included : —

" The land, generally, of these islands is low ; yet there are many parts, as Qibh/
HiU, Mount Langton, the North part of St. Georges and St. Davwa, that may I)e
seen in clear weather 5 leagues ofiu The isles, as shown hereafter, are surrounded by
most daneerons reefs, the S.E. side excepted, which may be approached within a
mile, untu abreast of the N.E. point, called St. DavicCa Head. Off this Head pilots
are readily obtained by displaying the usual signal. The goTcmment pilots may be
known by a narrow blue burgee, with a broad arrow in white therein.

There is anchorage without the Narrows, on a spot called Five Fathom Hole, with
St. Catharine's Point about W.N.W., and St. David's Head S. | W. ; but, in letting
go the anchor, look out for a clear spot.

In proceeding for the Narrows, the first buoy seen, which is chequered, is the lead-
ing buoy for the fairway. In the Narrows are 6 and 7 fathoms of water ; here you
leave the white buoys on the starboard, and the black on the port side.

If you intend anchoring in Murray Anchorage, bring St. Catharine's Point to bear
East ; the signal staff at St. George's, S. by E. | E., in 9| fathoms, chalk bottom, at a
quarter of a mile off shore, From this anchorage to Ireland Island, where the men-
of-war lie, is about S.W. by S. to abreast of Mount Langton, the governor's country
residence, keepinff the shore about one-quarter of a mile distant, and going with a
leading wind in-uiore of the buoys, which are placed on shoal corally spots. When
Ireland bears about W. by N., you then haul for the island, passing oetwixt two
corally spots, nearly abreast the Admiral's house, which are both buoyed. In clear
weather all tiie reefs are readily discerned, and may be avoided with a common degree
of care. From Murray Anchorage to Ireland you have, in the channel, 7 and 6
fathoms.

During the summer months, from April to September, the winds prevail from
S.S.E. to S.W. Thermometer, SO" to 84°. About the latter end of September the
northerly winds set in, when the thermometer falls to 70° and 74° ; quite a bracer for
the constitution. The rise of tides at springs is about 6 feet, neaps 2 or 3 feet. High
water at Ireland, full and change, at eight o'clock. The tide at the narrows sets
fi-om 1 to 2 miles in the hour.

The height of Gibbs' Hill signal station is about 200 feet : of Wreck Hill about
150. On the S.E. side is a large space of sand, called Sand Ililla, which is very
remarkable. The North Rock is about 16 feet high, 20 feet long, and 6 feet wide :
here the currents are strong and very variable, but mostly to the eastward in the
ofllng.

A >>ranch pilot has 3«. per day, with allowance of provision, and one dollar per foot
for any government ship.

DiUECTIONS FOR SaILINQ NEAR THE BERMUDAS, ON COMING FROM TIIR

Westward.

." On coming from the westward, the S.W. points of the land ought to bcnr E.N.R.
before you come within 4 leagues of the land, when you may steer directly foi- it,
without danger. The breakers, on the South side, always show tlicm.selvcs ; so tlmt
a ship may safely approacli within gun-shot from the S.W. end to the S.K., and, when
getting to the eastward of the castle, round into St. George's. Do not go fiirtlier to
the northwurd than to keep Cooper's Island open within St. David's Head, till you
take a pilot ; nnd the subscriber engages no ship will ever strike, if tliis bo attended
to."— 2'/<o/»«» Lean, 1808.

J show them-

^ 633 )

On the Winds and Navioation of the Bermudas, by Htt BtCBLLRNOT
Colonel (Sib W.) Reid,* Governor op Bermuda.

The first half of a revolving gale is a £ur wind from Bermuda to New York,
because in it the wind bbws from the Haat ; but the last half is a fair wind from
New York to Bermuda.

During the winter season most of the gales which pass along the coast of North
America are revolving gales. Vessels from Bermuda hound to New York should put
to sea when the N. W. wind., which is the conclusion of a iMissing gale, is becommg
moderate, and the barometer is rising to its usual level. The probability is, more,
particularly in the winter season, thaC after a short calm, the n^t succeeding wilid
will be easterly, the first part of a fresh revolving wind coming^ from the S.W.
quarter.

A ship at Bermuda, bound to New York or the Chesapeake, might sail whilst the
wind is still We$t, and blowing hard, providing the barometer indicate that this
West wind is owing to a revolvino; gale, which will veer to the northward. But
as the usual track which gales follow in this hemisphere is nortiierly, or north-
easterlv, such a ship should be steered to the southward. As the wind at Wett veers
towards N. W. and N., the vessel would come up, and at last make a course to the
westward, ready to take advantage of the East wind at the setting in of tbe next
revolving gale.

A vessel at New York, and bound to Bermuda at the time when a revolving wind
is passing along the North American coast, should not wait in port for the westerly
wind, but sail as soon as the first portion of the gale has passeil by, and the N.E.
wind is veering toMrards the North : provided it should not blow too hard. For the
North wind wul veer to the ipeatwara, and become every hour fairer for the voyage to
Bermuda.

A great number of gales pass along the coasts of North America, following nearly
similar tracks, and in the winter season make the voyage between Bermuda and
Halifax very boisterous. These gales, by revolving as extended whirlwinds,. give
a northerlif*ynni alon^ the shore of the American continent, and a southerly ■wind on
the whirlwinds' opposite side far out in the Atlantic. In sailing from Hali f ax to
Bermuda it is desirable for this reason to keep to the westward, as affording a better
chance of havine a wind blowing at North, instead of one at South ; as well as because
the current of the Gulf Stream sets vessels to the eastward.

When vessels ft>om Barbadoes, or its neighbouring West India Islands, sail to Ber-
muda on a direct course, they sometimes fall to the eastward of it, and find it very
difficult to make Bermuda when westerly winds prevail.

Thev should therefore take advantage of the trade-wind to make the ^tS" or 70° of
West longitude, before they leave the 26° of latitude.

On a ship leaving England for Bermuda, instead of steering a direct course for the
destined port, or following the usual practice of seeking for the trade-winds, it majr
be found a better course, on the setting of an easterly wind, to steer West, and if this
wind should veer by the Smith toward the West, to continue on the port-tack, until,
by changing, the ship coultf lie in its course. If the wind should continue to veer to
North, and, as it does sometimes, even to the eastward of North, a ship upon the star-
board tack might be allowed to come np with her head to the westward of her direct

• 11

. tH-s.

On the Winds as influencing the Tmcks sailed by Bermuda Tsssels; and oa u>«
Advantage which nisy bs dsrivou from sailing on curved Courses, when meeting with ];)«>-
grwHivo revolving Winds, by Oovernor S»td, of Btrmvda (Author of the ' Law ofStorms')."
-Edin. New Fhil. Journal, July, 1846, p. 192.

4 L

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

course. On both tacks she would have sailed on curved lines, the object of which
would be to carry her to the -westward ajvainst the prevailing wind and currents.
There is reason n>r believing that many of the revolving winds of the winter season
originate within the tropics; and that ships seeking for the steady trade-winds,
even further South than the tropic, at that period of the year, will frequently be
disappointed. How near to the equator the revolving winds originate in the winter
iseason, is an important point not yet sufficiently OMerved. The quickest voyage
IVom England to Bermuda, therefore, may perhaps be made by saiUng on a couise
composed of many curved Unes, which cannot be previously laid down, but which
must be determined by the winds met vrith on the voyage. This principle of taking
advantage of changes of revolving winds, by sailing on curved lines, is applicable to
high latitudes on both hemispheres, when ships are sailing westerly. — Qovetttment
^use, Bermuda, 2l8t March, 1846.

dav-it ^'MJ'S'js Sfi* f^tesjl 'mfirWiimm

E— EOCKALL, OR EOKOL.

. , This is a large and high rock, of a conical or sngai--loaf shape, the summit,
'^*' or upper part of which is perfectly white, from an im-

mense quantity of bird's dung, with which it is covered.
The rock had been seen many times, but its true situa-
tion was unknown till the year 1810, when it was ascer-
tained by Mr. T. Harvey, master, and the other officers of
the JSndymion frigate, commanded by the Hon. T. B. Capel.
In Captain Vidal's survey of the western banks it is repre-
sented in 67° 36' N., and 13° 41' W. There appears to be
dangers both to the N.E. and to the S.W. of the rock.

Jiokol, 2 mUfdutant, at N.E. Dangers. — With the rock bearing N. by W., broken
taken 4y Mr. Harvey. water appeared to the N.E. of it ; and, on approaching

nearer, a rock, on which the water broke, appeared just at
the water's edge. When due South of Ilokol, the breakers were in a line with the
eastern nart of it. The sunken rock bears N. "73° E. from it, at least 1| mile istant.
This rock may be named the Helen Rock, as it is probably that on which the vessel
was wrecked as recorded below, unless there exists another rock further off in the
same direction.

On the N.E. rock just mentioned, until then unknown, and lying about 2 leagues,
or less, E.N.E. 1 E. (by compass) from Rokol, the brigantine Helen, of and from
Dundee, struck fatally, on the 19th of April, 1824. This vessel, commanded by Mr.
Thomas Erskioe, was bound to Quebec and Montreal, with a general cargo, and
after she had struck, the crew and passengers continued at the pumps for 13 hours;
but, being overcome with faticue, were at length compelled to abandon the vessel.
The crew, at that period twelve in number, embarked in two boats, with one pas-
senger, and soon after they had left the vessel she sunk, when sixteen passengers
perished, of whom seven were women, and six^ildresv The crew were picked up
at sea by the bark Flora, Captain Baker, an^^aafely landed on the Isle of Tiree, one
of the Hebrides. "^

It apnears, from Captain Erskine's narrative, that he estimated Rokol to lie in
13° 40 W. That the vessel struck twice on a clump of rocks, apparently not much
bi(rgerthan a ship's length, and on which the sea broke occasionally." No otlier
bi-eakers were in sight at the time. Rokol at this time bore, by compass, W.S.W.
^ W., he thinks about 6 miles distant } but, aa the weather was hazy, probably some-
thinir less. .. > .- .^

ina

RbCKALL, OR ROKOL.

635

Extract from the log-book of the Emperor Alexander, of Aberdeen, L. M'Kinnon,
master. — April 8tfa, 1832, saw Rockall [Kokol] beariuv W.N.W., distant 4 leasfues ;
and Long Reef, breaking occasionally, blearing from the ship N.W. by W. | W. (by
compass), distant 8 miles, and about 4 miles from Rockdl. At intervals the sea did
not break on the reef, but it broke frequently very heavily, and with long rolling
white seas, like breach upon a bai, for about 6 or 7 ship's len^'ths.. The sea broke
in no other place at that time within sight. — " Nautical Magaziue," December, 1833^
n. 697.

Breakers were again seen^ in 1844, by Mr. R. Bartlett, of the Guide. The follow-
ing particulars appeared in the Shipping Gazette r- — " On 16th April, 1844, at 4 a.m.,
sighted Rockall, oearing N.W., ship lying N.W. by W., strong gales from the S.W.
by W., clear weather ; was desirous to keep my reach to the NIw. ; not being able to
weather Rockall, bore away to round the Noith end : had my mate alott a^ myself
on deck to look for breakers ; suddenly \ found the Vessel between tho outer rock and
the main one, at least 8 miles distant; with difficulty I cleared, by hauling the ship
suddenly on the starboard tack, being not more than one sea from the broken water;
breaks occasionally. They are bad to discern aloft, but their locality may be seen
much, more readily off deck by the colour of the water. The morning being clear, 1
was able to obtain tho bearing and distance pretty correctly." This reported clump
of hidden rocks, about 80 or 90 feet in length, and 30 feet in breadth, the main rock
on Rockall, bearing from the outer one, W. by N., by compass, distance 8 miles, may
perhaps have the same origin as the previous account. Captain Vidal has minutely
surveyed the whole of that part, and no shoal or rock was discovered by them, but
the above accounts are certamly circumstantial and deserving of attention.

S. W. Dangers. — ^There is another reef or line of reefs extending to the south-east-
ward, which does not appear to have been completely examined, for we have had
repeated notices of its havmg been observed, as may be seen by the following remarks
on Rokol, which were communicated to the public by Mr. Richard Peacock, as early
as 1809 : — " This rock appears almost like a ship at a distance, and is steep close-to
on the North side. I have passed at the distance of about 50 fathoms ; but, to the
southward, or nearly S.E. by E. from the rock, there lies a long reef of rocks for about
3 miles. On this reef, with gales of wind, the sea breaks very hearily.

Captain Osbom, of Workington, told me that, on his passage from Quebec, in
1806, it was with the utmost difficulty he escaped getting amongst the breakers.
Captain Magee, of Greenock, a^ao informed me, that he had seen the sea break to the
distance of nearly 3 miles in a S.E. direction from the rock.

An intelligent person has also related that he had, about two years before the
disaster occurred to the Hehn to the N.E. in 1824, fallen in with the breakers to the
S.li. of Rokol, which appeared to extend outward 3 or 4 miles, in clumps, at some
distance from each other.

Still more recently (June, 1860), the Admiralty gave notice that a breaker, lying
E.S.E., from 6 to 10 miles from Rockall had been observed, and that it had appeared
in a chart made by H.M.S. Leonidas in 1802, perhaps from the information of the
oflBcci-8 of the Endymion above given.

The Rokol Bank has been surveyed by Captain Vidal, R.N. The edge of the
bank of soundings, comprehending less depth than 100 fathoms, is 20 miles to the
northward, and 35 miles to the southward of the rock ; and the least depth expressed,
which is on the S.W. of the rock, is 54 fathoms. The whole extent of soundings from
N.E. to S.W., within the depth of 200 fathoms, is 56 leagues.

The greatest breadth, which is on the parallel of 67° 30', is 18 leagues. The North
end of the bank, with 163 fathoms of water, is in lat. 58° 19', long. 13 40 j and tho
S.W. end, with 180 futlioms, is in lat. 66" 3', long. 16° 69'.

\ » \M:\-f jt;-,;>

/. ;'jJU is"-'-'*|!»i; f'!

■MtS. u^

;-,r«,.-:<<

636

li ^WKIFIION OF THE ISLANDS.

lO.-SABLE ISLAND, OFF NOVA SCOTIA.

In B former page, 351, there are aome remarka on this singular and daiwerotw
ialand, lying in the strength of the Oolf Stream, and apparently formed by oonfficting
iqwrrenta.

The island is formed of two nearly parallel ridges of sand, shaped like a bow,
conoaVe to the northward, and meeting m a point at either end. Its whole lenirth,
folic wiug the curve, and including the dry parts of the bars, is 22 miles i or E. f^ S.
20$ miles, in a direct line across we onrre ; its greatest breadth is exactly one mile.
In some parts it is wholly or partially covered with grass, in others scooped out by
the winds into crater-shaped hollows, or tiirown up into sand-hillH, not exceeding the
height of 75 feet above hiffh water. Between these ridges a long ytond, named Salt-
water lake, said to be graaually filling with blown sand, but Htill in some parts 12
feet deep, extends from the west end to the distance of 1 1 miles ; and a low valley
continues from it 61 miles more to the uorth-eaut of the ittknd. ^ The entrances
to this pond have been for some time closed, the sea flowing in over the low
sandy beach on the south side, and at the west end only in high tides and heavy
gales.

Fresh water is to be had almost everywhere, by digging down a few feet into the

MUld.

The West Flagstaff, whicli points out the position of the principal establishment,
stands on a sand-hill 40 feet high ; and with its Crow's Nest, or look-out, 100 feet
above the sea, is a conspicuous object on the north side of the island, and was distant
(iu 1852) 4,215 fathoms from the west end of the grassy sand-hills.

The East Flagstaff, 40 feet high, is also a conspicuous object, standing on a sand-
hill on the north side of tho island, and distant, at the same date, 2,280 fathoms from
the north-east end of the grassy sand-hills.

The Middle Fla^ataff Yfoa further inland, and was about to be removed to a more
advantageous position on the south side of the island. Besides the buildings nt these
flagsta£fs, there was an unoccupied house on the north side, distant 3^ cables from the
west end of the grassy saudyMiills.

Sable Island and its submerged' bars form a crescent concave towards the north,
and extend over more than 50 miles of sea. Vessels shoidd be careful not to be
caught within this crescent in a Strang gale from the northward, when the^ accele-
rate ebb-tide, setting directly towards and over the bars, would render her situation
exti-umcly dangerous. Both tho bars are extremely steep on the north side, the
East bar especially so, having 30 fathoms water close to it. To the southward, on the
contrary, the water deepens gradually out for so many miles as to render it difficult
to account for the greater number of. shipwrecks having occurred on that side of the
island and its bars, excepting by a neglect of liie lead. ,;.u:.>vi r^..,.^^

In approaching the anchorage off Sable island from the northward at night, or in
thick weather, the lead should be kc])t constantly going, and after passing the Middle
Ground, distant about 25 miles to the northward of the island, great caution should
be used, and the vessel should bo certain of her position ; tor the east end of the
island and the East bar are very steep on that side.

The Middle Ground, and the ridge of sanil reported to continue from it to the west
and sonth, till it joins the West bar, require to be surveyed, before more precise
directions can be safely given.

Vessels seldom anchor off the south side of the island, because of the prevailing
heavy swell from the southward ; but they may safely approach by the lead on that
side, taking core not to become becalmed in the heavy swell, and in the strong and
uncertain tides and currents near tlie bars.

The landing is in general impracticable on the south side, excepting after a long

Acll
nndha
quarteil
the sea
islets,
amercl

PESEDO DE ST. PEDRO.

637

continuance of northerly winds 5 and on the north side boats cau land only in southerlv
winds and fine weather , but there are surf boats at the establishment, wlich^Sj
when ordinary boats would swamp instantly. "^--ui, wuica can lana

The positions of the various points are given in the table on pp. 61,

. 11.

1I.-PEI»ED0 DE ST. PEDEO, OR ST. PAUL'S ISLETS.

A cluster of five steep, craggy -rocks, without verdure, covered with bii-ds' dunir.
nnd having no place for anchoring, or convenient for landinir. Thev are abontk
mmrter of a mOe in extent ew;h way, and the highest part is* about I00 feet above
•r* Th^*^* *'°« °^ *^ f5*^™«' no attorn was found within 2 miles of the
islets. Ihe appearance annexed has been communicated by the intelligent master of

IT feet into the

The rocks change mutenally m their appearance, according to their bearinir.
The Telticherryh^t InAmm^nyoH^dm found that the appe£

ance, between N. 30" W. and K. 37^ W., 6 or 7 miles distant, was that of a hcWrf
nigged i-ocks, w.th low gaps between some of them. The northernmost, a sLu
pyramidal rock, rather lower than the rest. ^^

lafter A Ions

iV>i«to de St. Ptdro, Weti, at taken by Captain Monteath.

Commodore Brou, of the French frisate Hertnione, in 1825, describes Penedo de
San Pedro as a tnile in Extent, in a N.E. and S.W. direction ; seen iii fine weather
4 or 5 leagues off; when bearing N.W. appearing in the form of three pinnAclei
of sharp naked rocks of a remarkable shape. The S.W. pinnacle separated a short
distance from the others. Hie Ibl^t appears safe to approach, and no breakers weM
seen, to indicate sunken rocks. The itermione sailed roiind oh the eAstem side at
the distance of 5 miles ; did not try for soundings, but from the colour of tiie t^ater
it was presumed that bottom would not be found.

The Equatorial current set the ship to iAie '<^eity^AtQ. at the mean rate of 18 miles,
and to the North 6 miles, in the twenty-foUr hours, betiveen the parallel of 8° N.
and the equator, and the medidians of 28° and 30° W. At the islets the directiofl
of the current changed, and set more to the northward, at three-quartet of a hiile
in the hour.

The best description of this isle is that of Captain Amasa Delano, who, in the
American ship Perseverance, from Boston toward Cape Horn, 23rd December, 1799,
at two p.m. saw throe small islands bearing W. by S., 2 or 3 leagues distant. The
vessel bore away, and at three p.m. was abreast of them^ Hoisted the small boat
out, went on snore, and found them to be nothing more than a cluster of craggy
mks, about one-fourth of a mile in extent from North to South, and nearly as mucn
from East to West. No sort of vegetation existed upon thom. The rocks were fouud
to be five in number, but only two of any considerable magnitude. Their greatest

DESCKIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

extent was from N.N.E. to S.S.W. The two largest nearly connect with each other,
and form a Mnd of hairbour, orplace of shelter for a boat, on the N.W. side. Here
they manag^ to land, but obtamed nothing except a number of boobies. On shore
the aspect was most dreary, the sea roaring and surging on all sides. Two smaller
rooks were lying off to the S.S.W. of the large ones, and one very small to the N.E.
When on the highest part, which was at least 100 feet above the surface of the sea,
1)0 dangers could be seen but what showed themselves above water ; nor could any bo
discovered from the ship. Plenty of fish were caught in tlie harbour or basin. At
six p.m. returned on board. Sharks were numerous about the ship, but in attempting
to take them a number of hooks and lines were lost, and several pairs of grainett
broken. On sounding within 2 miles of the islet, no ground could be foiind with a
line of 200 &thoms.

Captain Delano states that the islets may be seen at the distance of 4 leagues, and
always make like three sail when first seen. They are very dangerous if fallen in
with by night. The current near them set N.W. by N., true, 1 mile an hour. The

i>arts above the reach of the surf are covered with birds' d\ing. The birds were
latching their young at the time. The month of November would be the season for
procuring eggs at this place, as they may be obtained at that time in abundance ; but
Dcing the eggs of oceanic birds, they are rather fishy than sweet. We have seen a
different latitude assigned to the rocks, but consider it is incorrect.*

Admiral I^tz Boy, from his observations, places the summit of the Pcnedo in lat.
0° 55' 30", long. 29° 22'. The v^ation here, on the 16th of February, 1832, was
91° W. Temperature of the air and water, 82°. Wind, S.E. The rocks were seen
on the horizon at sunset of the 15th. They appeared extremely small at about 8
miles distant. At daylight next morning two boats were sent to land upon and
examine thtnl, while the Beagh sailed round, sounding and taking angles. Good
observations were made during the day, as the sky was clear and the water smooth.

The multitude of birds whicli covered the rocks was astonishing, and they suffered
themselves to be kicked about and killed with sticks ; at the same time, those on the
wing even darkened the sky. While one party were scrambling over the rock, a
determined struggle was going on in the water "between the boots crews and sharks.
Numbers of fine fish, like the groupars (or g^ropas) of the Permuda Islands, bit
eagerly at baited hooks put overm>ard by the men ; but so soon as a fish was caught,
a rush of voracious sharks was made at him, and notwithstanding blows of oars and
boathooks, the ravenous monsters could not be deterred from seizing and taking away
more than half the fish that were hooked.

At short intervals the men beat the water with their oars all round the boats, in
order to drive away the sharks ; and, for a few minutes afterward, the groupars
swarmed about the baited hooks, and were caught as fast as the lines could be hauled
up, — ^then another rush of sharks drove them away ; those just caught were snatched
off the hooks ; and again the men were obliged to beat the water. When the boats
returned, they were deeply laden with birds and fish, both welcome to ti^ose who had
been living on salted provisions.

" From the highest point of the rocks, which is 64 feet above the sea, no discoloured
wuter, nor any breaking of the sea could be discerned, apart from the place itself ;
and from the soundings taken in the boats, as well as on board the ship, I conclude
tJbiat it is unconnected with any shoal, being merely the summit of a steep-yidcd moun-
tain rising from the bottom of the ocean. A slight current was setting to the west-
w(urd, not amounting to a mile an hour." — (Vol. ii. p. 56.)

*, The late Captain Henry Forater gave the position as 0° 58' N., and 29° 16' 40" W.

"■?■

h\\**^:^

f^Kjr:; ini t

. ■ ^ ■ -

.■r.l»-r:!);>i,i"^r'*?

.ri-.'ui

( 639 )

rith each other,
L side. Here
lies. On shore
'Two smaller
,11 to the N.E.
ace of tho sea,
>r could any bo
or basin. At
t in attempting
lairs of graines
I found with a

^ 4 leagues, and
ms if fallen in
an hour. The
[he birds were
s tho season for
.bundonco ; but
fe have seen a

Pcnedo in lat.
uary, 1832, was
3cks were seen
all at about 8
land upon and
', angles. Good
^ater smooth.

id they suffered
fie, those on the
er the rock, a
)W8 and sharks.
da Islands, bit
ah was caught,
ITS of oars and
d taking away

d the boats, in
the groupars
ould be hauled
were snatched
lien the boats
those who had

no discoloured
place itself;
ip, I conclude
sp-sided moun-
ig to the west-

16' 40" W.

djfe(''h%--!*-5'f5;.

,U «(..., ill.

'»«£*?? ew- r

12.— THE EOCASj ETC.

Although this dangerous spot is not strictly within the North Atlantic
Ocean, yet it has of late assumed a much greater importance in respect to
na^Higation, since the western route across the equator has been advocated and fol-
lowed. It is also the more necessary to allude to it here, as a singular error in its
position has been perpetuated till the present time, and which must have led to much,
embarrassment, and probably loss and danger. Yet the apathy of the seaman is ex-
emplified in this, that among the thousands who must have passed it, and suspected
the error, not one should have thought it worth while to question the aocnracy.

The group was examined, and their position accurately ascertained, by M. Lar-
tigue, under the Baron Boussin, in 1825. Yet from an erroneous estimate in Hors-
burgh's directory, ihejirat edition, in 1809, they are placed in longitude 33" 31' W.,
or &om J\fteen to eighteen miles too far East. This error has been continued in all
the editions of Horsburgh down to the last in 1855, and has doubtless misled many.

It was first pointed out bv Lieut. Lee, U.S.N., who visited it in the Dolphin, in
April, 1852. He gives the following descript'on of them.

The centre of this low and dangerous reef is in lat. 3° 61' 27" 8., long. 33° 48' 57 "
and is 84 miles due West of the petuc of Fernando Noronha. Ilie reef extends about
.1^ miles in latitude, ^and nearly If miles in longitude, and is covered at high water,
with the exception of Grass and Sand Island on the West, and the scattered rocks on
the South and East sides. These objects are from 10 to 15 feet above the reef, which
is formed of coral, generally level, tnough with many holes in it. In case of a vessel
striking on the weather side of it (SiE.), the chance of saving life would be but
small. When about 10 miles ofi^, the oreakcrs were first seen from aloft. Then the
two low islands and the black rock soon appear. Sea birds abound, but there is no
guano owing to the rains. The eegs of the gulls were plentiful and good (March,
1851.) There is no wood, nor fresh water. There is bad anchorage from one to two
miles northwest of Sand Island, is from 15 to 18 fathoms coral bottom. We found
coral bottom at 15 fathoms 6 miles East of the reef, but no bottom at 30 fiithoms 2|
miles N.N.E., nor at 70 fathoms 4 miles S.E. of it.

The tide rises about 5 feet. The lagoon, in whioh we saw many turtle, has from 1
tb 4 feet water at low tide, and shows white from the mast head at 4 or 5 miles dis-
tance. The anchors and cable on the S.W. part of the reef, and the remains of a
wrecked vessel on the N.E. side of Grass Island, appear to have been on the reef for
a long time. A lighthouse on the reef would be very usefril to vessels.

The current in the vicinity of this reef sets from between S.E. by East, and East
by North, at the rate of from 8-lOth.s to 1^ miles per hour, as found by the patent
log. The sm'face current found by trials on 4 different days, sets from between S.E.
and East by North, from 9-lOths to 1 4-lOth miles per hour. At the anchorage under
the lee of Sandy Island, the tide ran from 2-l0th3 to 8-lOths knot per hour, setting
from between S.S.E. and East by North toward the northward and westward.*

They were again partially surveyed by Lieut. J. E. Parish, in H.M.S. Sharpshooter,
in March, 18o(). He gives the position of the centre of the South Sand Island as
3° 51' 26' S., long. 33° 46' 23' W., or about 2 miles further East. Captain Lartigues'
longitude agrees with that of Lieutenant Lee, and should therefore be preferred.

Lieut. Lee saw the remains of many wrecks on various parts of the banks, and a
hut on the western edge ; numerous cotton bales lie scattered about. A bank carrying
14 or 15 fathoms affords anchorage as far as 5 miles to the N.E". of the banks. Lieut.
Lee planted some cocoa nut trees on the eastern sand bank, which would afford a useful
mark jf they grow. ^ ^ - -

* Cruise of the U.S. brig Dolphin, p. 82.

640

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

Fernan do NobONHA and the scytMsent opaat of Brazil* are described in our direc-
tory for the Soutii Atlantic Ocean.

Lieat. Lee, UiS.N. brig Dofyhm, says :— We were thi o days (March 20—31, lH32)
within from 20 to 30 miles north of the flats, of S. Roque, uff Cape Toiro, when the
N,E. and S.E. trade seem to meet and form a re^on of calm 'ind rains, with an
oppressivo atmosphere resemblinff that of the eqnatonu calms. Ouioide of this n-
^lon our track shows that the S.E. trades, tiiouffh light, generally prevailed bet ween
tiie Kpoas and the main to witldn a degree of Point Tairo, and tnat when we were a
degree and a half North of this Cape, and in the parallel of the Rocos, the li^ht
variable winds, leaving the S.L. qnadauit, came out to theeastward, soon got northing
on them, and turned' into gentle N.E. trades in 2° S. The direction or the windH
aroond tUs Gape, outside me influence of the land-breeze, and also outside of the belt
of oidms and rains, appc ars r a be modified by the form of the Continent. They como
from the southward wo. ^n'.iU'axd upon the eastern shore, which bends to the north-
ward; whilst arouui^ ii'i \h -y of tne Cape they ditiw more easterly (interrupted at
thisaeason, whr 7. thu iMU lb M«r the equinox and going North, by small squalls of
wind and rain ir4>m nil around the compass), and on the northern coast, which trends
to the wesfrTTOifd, 'he,.- < ome from the jf.E.

T!..eeu/>'<: ('between the Rocas and the main sets generally from the southwai-d
and en8t 'I-.;, from 1 to 1^ knots, until near the flats, wheve we experienced indica-
tions of a counter current or tide. Learned at Par& that thmr coasting vessels were
generally 4 weeks going from there to Pemambuco. It is more fh)m the failing of
the wind there than from tiie current, that it is so difficult to double Cape ban
Roque.

■ t iVl'h

-^k

ii>^ ■y.-.'X

lii^-M.

13.— THE COASTS AND ISLANDS OF AMERICA, IN GENERAL.

For a complete and correct description of the Coasts of Newfoundland, of the Gulf
and River of St. Lawrence, the Coast of Nova Scotia, &c., to Cape Cod, the reader is
referred to the " British American Navigator," published bv the Proprietor of the
TOesent Work. The navigation thence to the southward, including the whole of the
West Indies and Mexican Sea, is described in " The Colombian Navigator."

The American navigation, in general, requires details so minute, and explanations
so copious, as to render it impracticable to do justice to the subject in an abridgement.
It wul, therefore, not be attempted. A few remarks on the principal ports only will
be added. /

In the preceding jmges the various phenomena which control the passages across
the Atlantic are recited, and with thos< remarks are many concerning the proper
mode of approaching any port. In connection, therefore, with what follows, these
j^revious directions m(i^ lie incorporated.

The foil , .Jig descriptions only of the chief points of interest, and of the principal
^x>rts, are therefore added : —

The Liit of Lightliouses and the Table of Positions, in the earlier part of this Work,
may be consulted in connexion with them.

The NEWFOUNDLAHB BAVXS, which have been, in their fisheries, the
source of all the opulence in the island, are vast submarine elevations, of various

• It is said that a reef or some rocks lie 32 mUes E.N.E. of Cape San Roque, (Verhan-
delingen, &c., 18A0, p. 651). We have no farther informatiou on this important point,
which, if correct, wiU require all caution in passing the cape.

THE NEWFOUNDLAND B^NKS.

641

1 in our direc-

JENEEAL.

depths and vci y unequal fiffures. The depths on the Great Bank vary from 15 to 80
fathoms. The (quality of the bottom vanes considerably, but it generally consists of
sand, or sand mixed with shells and gravel, rai-elv with stones. The eastern face of
the Bank in a clear sand, white or whitish, and onen sparkling. In the gullies and
deeps which separate the hanks, and more particularly m the Whale Deep or Trou de
la Baleine, the bottom is found to consist of mud or oaze with a fetid smell, and
abounds with different sorts of fish; but more particularly with cod, which is incon-
ceivably numerous ; for, although from 200 to 400 vessels have been annually
freighted with this article of commerce for nearly two centuries, there appears to be
no sensible decrease of th'^ former plenty. A great swell and thick fog usually indi-
cate the place of the ban

There are, generally, in tii spring, within 125 or 130 leagues of the land, and
b( ween the Outer and Granu Banks, numerous ice-borgs, or ice-islands, that float
ilown with the current from b ■ north-westward, and which, during the foggy
weather, are very dangerous: evt in the months )f June, July, and August, there
are frequently a number oi them . i>mc of which may be seen aground, in 40 or 50
fathoms of water. In thu* seath' r, the plac( of tncse may commonly be distm-
guished by the icp-hlink, a 1 -htncs- of the 8k\ above them; or by the breaking of
the sea against them which v also 'so heard at a considerable distance ; or by the
decrease of the tempi ature o. Ik wn r, as shown on page 359.

On approaching the banks, thei' wi urcnerally be found a number of sea-fowls, as
mnUtnauka, roaches, and divers. he lust-mentioned are seldom found at more than

mnuks, and several other kinds, are frequently
iiou^h not so numerously elsewhere as in the

30 leagues from the banks ; but
>c'en during the whole passage
vicinity of the banks.

Tn approaching toward Cape i u
a lid the Virgin Rocks, a dangero
til it cape. In gales of wind a he
which sets about them, often increa.*-

The bank in which the shoal is sn
its iM-oadest part is about 2f mile
fathoms, until they deepen suddenly

i^the S.E. point of Newfoundland), be careful to
reef, lying 29 leagues S.E. f E. \_E. by -S.] from
V sea breaks over them ; and a strong current,
he danger.

ited, extends E. by N. and W. by S. 4J miles ;
The sounilings are regular from 28 to 30
:he outer edge to 39 and 4.3.

The rocks themselves are in 46° 26 > N., and 50° 51' 30" W. They extend in an
irregular chain, S.W. by W. and N.x by E. 800 yards, varying from 200 to 300
yards ; u breadth. The least depth of water is on a white rock, in 4^ fathoms, with
5 to 6i fathoms all round it ; the bottom distinctly visible. Toward the extremitieB
of the shoal are several detached rocks from 7 to 9 fathoms, with deep water
between, and with a current setting over em W.S.W. one mile an hour ; and with
also a very confused heavy swell. ^

It is said that " A shoal with only 21 feet water upon it, was discovered by Jesse '
Ryder, m ister of the fishing schooner Bethel, on the Grand Bank of Newfoundland,
in lat. 46 30', a rock of about 100 or 200 feet surface ; about 50 miles East of the
Virgin Ro ks. Shoal bears from the Nine Fathom Bank S. by W. W compass about
1 1 mile: lascovered it accidentally while searching for the Nine Fathom Bank, to ;
fish on. I afterwards saw the Virgin Rocks."

Ships bound to St. John's are, therefore, recommended to keep on the parallel
of 46^ or a degree and a half to the southward of the parallel of that port, and until
they approach the outer edge of the Great Bank ; and, when they obtain sounduig^,
to steer directly to the north-westward for Cape Spear, the position of which is given
as 47° 31' N. -ind 50° 36A' W. ; but see also pages 436—440. , ^ ~^^,

ST. JOHN'S, the principal harbour of Newfoundland, is an excellent one.
The entrance is through the " Narrows," a strait running in a N.W. by W. direction
about half a mile long, and 220 yards across in the narrowest part, with rocky pre-
cipitous heights of 500 feet on each side. There are from 9 to 12 fathoms of water in
the middle of the channel, with tolerably good anchorage ground. The harbour then
bv a turn at risrht angles, and runs in a S.W. direction for a mile and a
" 4 m

,^l^

opens

i.4d^.

Qi2

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS,

The entrance, as
narrow; as, in the

quarter, and in front of the City of St. John appears climbing up a hill, from Fort
William to Fort Towaend. The ridfje of the hills on the S.E. side of the harbour is
750 feet, and on the opposite side of the Narrows is a continuation of the same ridge,
called Signal Hill, 510 feet high, on which is the citadel, to which place all vessels
are telegraphed from Cape Spcai* on their first appearance oflF that place. On Fort
Amherst on the South Head, at the entrance of the Narrows, is a brilliant fixed light.
A.t two- thirds the distance from the entrance to the harbour itself, is a rock, on the
north side, called the Chain Rock, which, with Pancake Island on the opposite shore,
contract the entrance at this part ; and between them a chain can be stretched when
required, to prevent the entrance of any hostile fleet. In addition to this, the forti-
fications berore mentioned, other batteries which command the entrance, and the
Crowds Neat, a small battery perched on the top of pyramidal mount on the North of
the entrance of the harbour, render the place perfectly secure against any sudden
attack.

above stated, lies N.W. by W., and within will be found to
inner part, there is a rock on each side, but above water. Here
the breadth of the channel is only 95 fathoms, and the depth 9. When past these
rocks you may run on boldly, without any fear of danger, only avoiding a rock on
the south side, called Prosser s Rock, on which there are only 9 feet of water.

About 20 fathoms to the southward of the China Rock, which is always above
water, is the Roby or Salisbuiy Rock, on which the U.S. steam-frigate Niagara
struck after landing the electric cable in Trinity Bay. It is about to be or is
deepened. The same with the Merlin Rock inside the entrance, which has been
blasted to 27 feet least water.

Within the harbour you may anchor in any depth from 4 to 10 fathoms, land-
locked from all winds, as the harbour within tne Narrows lies W.S.W. It is, how-
ever, to be noticed, that there is no possibility of sailing in, unless with the wind from
S.W. by S. to East. The wind from 8.W. to N.E. by N., blows out of the Narrows.
Here ships must then anchor, and warp in, for which purpose there arc rings in the
rocks on both sides.

" The entrance of St. John's Harbour is readily known by the block-liouse on Sig-
nal-hill on the North H«'ad, and Amherst Fort (from which is shown a fixed \\^\A)
on the South Head. There is a sunken rock, called the Vestal, 50 fathoms without
South Head, with only 25 feet of water on it. This rock is about 1 fathoms long
and 7 broad ; the marKs for it are, Fort William (which stands within the harbour on
the north side) open of South Head, bearing N. 39° W. ; and the outer Wash-ball
Rock open with Cuckold's Head, bearing N. 47° E. The Wash-ball Rocks join the
North Head ; they are all above water and steep-to, therefore not dangerous. -.The
coarse in the Narrows is N.W. by distance 370 fathoms, to Chain Rock on the North,
and the Pancake on the South, side. Both these rocks are above water, and stcep-to.
Sixty-five fathoms within the Pancake Rock, on the South nhore, lies the Little
Pancake, a rocky shoal, dry at low water ; and 80 fathoms within the latter lies like
a sunken rock, called Prosser's Rock, running ofi* 30 fathoms from a rock above
water, in form of a saddle, with 18 feet of water in the hollow, and only 5 feet on the
outside. It is steep-to, with 5 fathoms close to it. After you have passed Piossor's
Rock, you may stand to either shore, as they are clear and steep to. You may anchor
in what water you please, from 8 to 4 fathoms, muddy hot ton;.

'• The tide of St. John's sometimes rises 7 or 8 feet ; it is not regular, but greatly
influenced by the wind." — Mr. Owen.

Note. — " At half a mile S.E. J S. from Fort Amherst is the centre of a narrow
bank, having 14 fathoms over it, and which breaks in rough weather. It extends
nearly a quarter of a mile N.E. and S.W. and has on it, near each end, a depth of 20
fathoms.

" It is high water in the harbour, on the full and change, at 7''. 30'". Spring tides
rise 5, neaps 3^ feet."

the coast, that you mistake n<ft the pla»t
Vitty, a mile to the northward, lor the harbour of St.

Joh
safe
St.
Stat

Be very cautious, if unacquainted with tl
railed Quidi Vidi, or Kittv Vitty, a mile to

uU, from Fort
he harbour is
tie same ridge,
lace all vessels
ace. On Fort
int fixed light.
, rock, on the
ipposite shore,
tretched when
this, the foi'li-
ancc, and the

I the North of
ist any sudden

II be found to
) water. Htre
hen past these
ding a rock on
water.

always above
igate Niagara
xt to be or is
hich has bccu

fathoms, land-
^ It is, how-
the wind from
f the Narrows,
re rings in the

house on Sig-

a fixed li^ht]

thorns without

;) t'uthoms long

he harbour on

ter Wash-ball

.ocks join the

Ingerous. -.The

on the North,

, und stcep-to,

ios the Little

latter lies like

a rock above

.5 feet on the

,s8cd ProsHor'H

u may anchor

^r, but greatly

of a narrow

It extends

depth of 20

Spring tides

lurbuur of St.

CAPE RACE AND NOVA SCOTIA.

643

John's, as it shows an opening like a good harbour, but ia fit only for boats, and not
safe even for these at low water. Fort Amherst, which stands on the South head of
St. John's, appears white, and it shows a brilliant fixed light by night, and the flag-
staffs on the hill, over the North head, will point to the harbour of St. John's : besides
these, the course from Caj^Sjiear is N.N.W., and the distance about 4 miles. Cape
Si)car is indicated by a revolving light.

CAPE RACE LIOHTHOIJSE is 40 feet high, and is »tvipcd red and white
vertically. The light is a brilliant fixed light at 180 feet, visible 17 miles oflF. It is
visible to seaward from N.E. by E. round • Mthward to west. It stands close to the
site of the old beacon, which has been cut rfi.

The land about Cape Race ia comparatively low, and bare of wood, with a steep
cliff of about 50 feet in height.

The lighthouse on Cape Race has and will doubtless prevent many wrecks, and
remove the uncertainty of reckoning so oft«n felt in approaching tiiis land. It is,
therefore, an important and safe landfall.

Cape Pine, with its iion lighthouse and revolving lijjht, stands as in shown in the
table in lat. 46° 37', long. 33^ 32', and at a short distance westward of it is the
i'lihious (in foi-mer times) St. Shot's Bay, alluded to in the account of the wrecks in
(271.) page 350.

The currents hereabout are described on pages 347 — 351 j the winds, on pages
212, 213 ; and the tides, pages 249, 257. ,.,n

A general description of the Passages and Sailing Directions towards Newfound-
hind, and past its South coatit into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, are given on pages
437—440.

Full and complete directions for approaching the South-east coast of Nova Scotia,
including Breton island, cannot well be given until the extensive banks which lie off
it shall have been surveyed.

The aspect and nature of the different parta of the coast eastward of Halifiix have
been stated in the preceding chapters ; but the distinctive features are often not
easily perceived in the usual weather, and at the distance which the outlying dangers
render it prudent for a vessel, uncertain of her position, to be kept from tne shore.
The lighthoiises, however, on Cranberiy and White Head Islands the beacon on
Wedge Island, and the lighthouse on Beaver Island, afford great additional assistanco
to a stranger in ascertaining his position, when first making the land ; as would also
a lighthouse if placed on l*igg Island. Vessels approaching Sambro Island light-
house in a fog, and firing a gun, will be answered from the island, where a heavy
gun, and a party of artillery are stationed for the purpose.

In the present imperfect state of our knowledge of the banks which lie off this
eoast, of the depth and nature of the soundings on them and between them and the
whore, no further directions can be safely given to vessels approaching the land dur-
ing a dark night, or in a thick fog, than not to go into a less depth than 40 futhams,
at the aunic time bearing in mind that there is that depth at a less distance than 3
miles from some of the most formidable of the dangers between Cape Canso and
Halifax, as for instance the Jedore ledges; whilst 30 fathoms is near enough to the
iSunibro ledges, which have more than 40 fathoms water ut distanees of half a mile
mid one mile to the East and South of them respectively.

The principal banks lying off the s<nith-east coast of Nova Scotia are the lianque-
reau and Sable Island Banks, wLich are each about 130 miljs in length, and extend
to nn eciual distance from the coast ; but it has not yot been uscortained whether
these may not be united, and form a single bank of doul.'c that extent, in a direction
neuily parallel to the coast. Our knowledge of the extont, shape, and position of
the snriller banks neftrer the coast, including the Canso Bank, nnil of the nr.turv of
the soundings on und between them, Is equally unccrtiiin and incomplete.

ISahle hlaiid and its Buiikx have been described on page «J3«.

644

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS.

HALIFAX HARBOUR, one of the finest in the world, affords apace and depth of
water sufficient for any numoer of the lai'gest ships with safety; and although the
dangers off its entrance are such as to render great caution necessary, especially in
the fogs which usually accompany all winds from the sea, it is yet caster of access and
egress than any other large harhour on the coast. It is 5^ miles wide at its entrance,
from Chebucto head on the south-west to Devil Island on the north-east, and it con-
tinues inland 15 miles, in a northerly direction, to the head of Bedford basin. The
city of Halifax, the .capital of Nova Scotia, containing in 1853 about 25,000 inhabit-
' ants, stands on the declivity of a peninsula on the western side of the harbour, and U
miles within its entrance. The citadel, immediately in rear of the city, is elevati' d
227 feet above the sea at high wate^, and with its flagstaff forms a leading murk
easily recognised li-om a vessel off the entrance of the harbour.

Lights. — Two lighthouses stand on the eastern side of the entrance of Halifux
harbour, one on the south-west point of Devil Island, at the eastern point of the
entrance, and the other, named Sherbrook tower, on the Wost extremity of Maugher
beach, at 4| miles within the entrance.

The lighthouse on Devil Island is octagonal, built of wood, and painted brown >\ ith
a white belt. It exhibits at 45 feet above high water ajixed red hght, visible in clear
weather from a distance of about 8 miles,

Sherbrook tower, on the west end of Maugher beach, is 48 feet high, circular, and
painted v^ite with red roof. It exhibits at an elevation of 58 feet above hitfh water
a^ed iviii' light, visible in clear weather at 12 miles. It bears from the liirumeap
buoy N. t-^v W. 2 j miles.

rii.oTai!re stationed on Devil Island, and several families lesido there.

DIRE'JTIONS.— Tile coast in the "icinity of Halifax is of moderate hciffht, tho
hillrf near the hhore being seldom 200 feet above the sea. To the eastward of tliu
harbour, as far as Jedore, almost all the headlands present clifis of reddish sand, clay,
and boulders to the wasting action of the waves ; whilst to thu westward, as fur um
Mars head, granite rocks nearly white predominate. Hence the remark, that, " in
standing in for the laffd, you may know on which side of Halifax harbour you arc,
by a remarkable difference that exists in the coloui of the shores, which, if red, de-
notes that you are to the eastward, and if white, to the westward of the entrance."

The bank off Sarabro Island, terminating in a point, and at the depth of 30 fathoinx,
5 miles South of the Sambro ledses, offers considerable assistance to vessels approach-
ing Halifax from the westward m the thick fof^s which so frequently prevail. From
the eastward the approach is rendered comparatively easy, by the absence of outly-
ing dangers after passing Shut-in Island, and by the soundings deepening out with
tolerable regularity to 30 fathoms, at distances varying from 4 to 6 miles from tiiu
shore, until within 2 miles of Chebueto and White Heads, where the depth exceedn
30 fathoms, until within one-lliird of a mile from the shore. Attention to thise
soundings, combined with the ^uns fired from Sumbro lighthouse island, may eiiubie
steamers at times to enter the harbour notwithstanding tlie fog, but it is seldom pru-
dent tor a large sailing vessel to attempt it under sueh circumstances.

From the Westward at Night. — In approacliing Halifax harbour from the west-
ward at night, shape a course to pass not less than 3 miles to the soutliward of the
Sambro Island light, steering E.N. K., and in not less than 30 fathoms water, until
the light bears North ; when, if not more than miles from it, the vessel will have
arrived at the southern prolon^ration of the Sambro Bank. Having erossed the bank
into deep water, haul up X.N.E., until the light on Maugher beach opens out East of
Chebueto head, bearing N. by E., when steer for it, or so as to pass within a niili- »»r
loss from Chebucto head, which is quite bold. Having done so, keep the light beiir-
ing between North and N. by N. as the vessel runs towards it, and all the dan^eiit
wul bo avoided excepting the Neverfuil shoul, on whicli there is not less than 4^
fathoms.

Having arrived ahn-ust tlie Thnimoa]), or bnmght Devil Island light in line with itn
Soutli extremity bearing U.S. E., alter course to N. by W., or an mav be neeessary, to
avoid the Lighthotise bank j and as soon as the light on Maugher heaeii bears Ea^t,

e and depth of
although tho

especially in
of acceHB and
it itH ectraucc,
it, and it con-
d basin. Tho
5,000 inhabit-
larbour, and
y, is elevated

leading mark

ce of Halifax
I point of tho
y of Maughur

ed brown with
visible in clear

1, circular, and
>ve high water
the Thrumctip

fe.

tu height, tho
istward of the
lish sand, day,
ard, as far oh
ark, that, " iu
|rl)our you ure,
ich, if red, do-
le entrance."

of 30 fathoniH,
iSols approuch-
irevaiC From
ence of outly-
ling out with
niles from tho

cpth cxeeodu
iition to tlu'RC
may oiiublc

H seldom pru-

)m the went-
Jiward of the
s water, until
lel will huvc
iHod tlie hftiik
IS out East of
lin a mill' or
,e light heiir-
thc daiiKein
less than 4^

I line with its
I neeec sury? to
|i heurs luut,

NOVA SCOTIA.

645

steer N. by E. for Ive's Point (or N.N.E., if necessary, to avoid the Middle ground,
oil which, however, there are not less than 4 J fathoms), until the light bears S. by
h. ; then a N. by W. coui-se, keeping the light astern, will lead between the Pleasant
shot 1 and Keed rock white buoys on the one side, and Ive's knoll red buoy on the
other 'nto the harbour. Having passed Ive's knoll, the vessel may proceed in on
either t,'Ae of George Island, or may anchor in the stream of Macnab Island until
daylight, according to circumstances. The light on Maugher beach disappearing
behind Ive's point, will show the vessel's distance from George Island, as she nins in
to the eastward of that island, which is the wider and preferable channel in a dark
night.

Within George Island there is nothing in the way, excepting thei Dockyai-d shoal*
and the shallow water off Dartmouth.

By Day. — Approaching from the westward in the daytime, passing Sambco light-
house island at the distance of 3 or 4 miles, and when Sandwich point ojjens out East
of Chebucto head, stand in N. by E. or N.N.E., according to the wind, until the
citadel flagstaff opens East of Sandwich point, bearing N. i W. Keep the citadel
Hagstuff only just open, ninning towards it, and it will lead between the Lichfield
and Neverfaii shoals, and up to Mars rock white buoy, which leave to the westward.
Having parsed Sandwich point, from which the shallow water does not extend be-
yond a cable's length, steer towards George Island, keeping Chebucto head only iust
in sight East of Sandwich point until the vessel has passed close to the westwara of
the Middle ground ; then open out the head more, so as to leave the Pleasant shoal
and Heed rock white buoys to the westward, in running towards George Island: or,
if it be preferred, the steeple at Dartmouth iu one with the eastern side of George
Island, bearing North, will lead to the eastward of the Middle ground. Either of the
markn just given will lead clear up to George Island, on either side of which the
veHHcl may pass into the harbour, leaving the Belleisle and Leopard buoys to the
westward, if she passes between them and the island, and choosing her ancnorage off
the wharves of the city, or off the dockyard, where the Commissioner's buoy will
lK)int out the Dockyard shoal.

D-om the Eastward by Xiyht. — Approaching from the eastward by night, and being
to the westward of the Jedore ledges, run along the laud in a depth not less than
30 fathoms, until th Jixed white light on Sambro Island is seen ; then, if it be in-
tended to pass to the southward of the Rock Head and Portuguese shoal, steer for
Chebucto head (remembering that, to clear tho Hock head, the light on Sambro
Island must bo kept wide open to the south-east of White head, bearing nothing to
the southward of S.W. by W. \ and the fixed red light on Devil Island nothing to
tho eastward of N.E. by N.), until the light on Maugher beach bears North ; when
Hteer for it, keeping it bearing between North and N. by E., and proceeding as already
dirceted.

By Day steer for Chebucto head u:;t:l the citadel flagstaff is only just ooen East
ol Sandwich ^)oint, bcaiing N. | W. : tiieu steer for it, and proceed as before.—
Admiral Bayfield, , ;

If tho wind should make it advisable to enter between the Rock Head and Thrum
Cap ShuaU, and having passed Shut-in Island, steer W. i S. from J to 1 mile South
of the red light tin Devil Island, until Maugher Beach light bears N., then steer for
it until abreast the Thrum Cap i then alt cr course to N. by W., or as may be necessary.
By day, pass tho same way, keeping Graham Head well open South of Devil Island
until George Island opens out West of Maugher Beaeh lighthouse, then steer for it
N. \ W. until abreast of tho Thrum Cap, then edge away westwai-d. .

From Halifax, westward, to Margaret Bay, the country appears, from tho offing.

leagues. Proceeding . -^

Mirrouiultd the suoiT ni'hlaek* with some banks of red earth. Cajte le Hare is an
abrupt cliff, 1U7 feet 1 ,ii above the sen ; it is bald on the top, with a ml bank under

646n

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS.

it, facing the south-westward. Between this Cape and Port Metway thcrd Ate some
hummodcs within land, ahout which the country appeal's low and level from the sea;
and on the shore, white rocks and stony beaches, with several low bald points ; hence
to Shelburne Harbour the land is woody. About the entrance of Port Latour, and
within land, are several barren spots, which, from the offing, arc easily discerned ;
thence, to Cape Sable, the land appears level and low, and on the shore are some
cliffs of exceedingly white sand, particularly in the entrance of Port Latour, and on
Cape Sable, where they are very conspicuous from sea.

Baooaro Point, which is the western point of Port Latour, with its revolciitg
light, is useful by night in indicating the vicinity of the dangerous Brazil Hock,
presently noticed.

From Sambro' lighthouse to Cape Sable extremity, the bearing and distance arc
W.byS.fS. 112 miles.

Cape Sable is the cliff of a sandy islet, distinct from the former ; it is white,
broken, evidently diminishing, and may be seen at the distance of 5 leagues. From
this islet ledges extend outward, buth to the East and West ; the eastern ledge, callc4
the Horae-ahoe, extends 2^ miles S.E. by S. ; the western, or Cape Ledge, extend-*
three miles to the S.W. The tide, both ebb and flood, sets directly across these
ledges, the flood westward. The ebb, setting with rapidity to the N.E., causes a
strong break to a considerable distance from shore. This coast should not be
approached without a commanding breeze and clear weather. Here the tide runs at
the rate of three, and sometimes four, knots ; and when the wind blows fresb, a rip-
pling extends from the bi-eakers southerly to the distance of nearly tht-ee leagucH,
and shifts its direction with the tide ; with the flood it is more westerly, and inclines
to the eastward with the ebb. This ripple may be dangerous to pass through in a
gale, as it hak kll the appearance of high breakei-s, although there is no Ichh than 8,
10, 12, and 20, fathoms of water, rocky ground. At the Cape, the tide, on full und
change, flows at S**., and rises 9 feet.

Brasil Book is a flat rock, covering an area of about ten yards, and having 8 feet
over it, at low water, in calm weather ; within a hundi'cd yards from its base arc
from 6 to 8 fathoms of water. To the southward, at about a mile from the rock, the
depths arc from 30 to 55 fathoms ; but toward the shore the soimdings are regular, 15
and 19 to 20 and 24 fathoms, sandy bottom. The tide, by running strongly over the
shoal ground, causes a great ripple, an^ makes the rock appear larger than it really
is. From Cape Negro the bearing and distance to the rock are S.S. W., trm, or
or S.W. I S. by compass, 10 miles ; from the rock. Cape Sable bears W. hg N. k N.,
true, or N.W. by W. by compass, 8^ miles, and from Cape Baccaro lighthouse it bears
N. f W., true, or N. by E., magnetic, 5 miles. Its given position is, latitude 43' 21'
30', longitude 66° 27'.

Seal Island. — TTie southernmost point bears from Cape Sable nearly W.N.W. J
W. 16 miles. The lighthouse stands half a mile from the South end, showing a fixed
light at 98 feet.

At about .two miles S.S.W. from the lighthouse on Seal Island lies the Blonde, a
rock uncovered at low water, on which the frigate of that name was lost in 1777.
Close around it are from 7 to 10 fathoms. Within a mile westward from the Blonde
are heavy and dangerous overfalls, which present an alarming aspect. At 4) miles
north from these is a bed of shoal ground, of 16 feet, causing a violent ripple.

Off the West side of Seal Island is the rocky islet called the Devil's Limb, whieh
may at all times be seen.

The navigation of the Bay of Fundy, with its furious tides, requires extraordinary
caution, and any space we could afford here would be of little service in explaining
its nature.

The Coast or Maine, also, is so intricate, its inlets so numerous, and fronted by
almost innumerable rocks and islets, that a lengthencrf description would only Rufficc!
to cxplaiii its character. The outlying rockis oi Mount Desert and MiUiniciis, marked

BOSTON.

6*7

id diatancc arc

III onlv siifflci'

bj lighthouses, will well show the outer limit of this labyrinth, and further descrip-
tion will be found in the « Colombian Navigator," vol. 1.

BOSTON.— From Seal Island lighthouse to the entrance of Boston Harbour, the
direction and distance ai-e W. ^ S. 220 miles, but it should be remembered that the
dangerous rock on Cashe'a Ledge is just to the northward of this course.

The lighthouses of Cape Anne, and those on the Cape Cod peninsula, described in
the list, are the most prominent points in approaching Boston.

From about a lea^e oflF Cape Cod, the coixrse tothe granite lighthou»o on the outer
Minots Ledge is N.W. by W. | W., and the distance 28 miles, and from tiience to
Boston lighthouse N.W. i W. 6 miles, 'i'he lighthouse, which is 82 high, stands on
a small island at the north side of the entrance of the channel. Those making the
Light, and unable to obtain a pilot, may bring it to bear W.N.W., and run bol(Uy for
it, until within a cable's length, then steer W. by S. until in 6 fathoms, where there
is safe anchorage.

When you make the light with a fair wind, bring it to bear W. by N. or W.N.W.,
then steer for it until you are within two cables' length distance. Come no nearer to
it, but run in until it bears N. by E.

With adverse weather, and you cannot get a pilot from the lighthouse, after bring-
ing it to bear N. by E. as above, you may run W. by S. two miles, until the light
on the N.E. end of Long Island bears N.W. by N. Then steer N.W. about one mile,
or until the outer lighthouse is hid by George's Island, where you may anchor in
safety, in Nantaaket Road, and in from 5 to 7 fathoms.

If the vnnd be contrarj', you may stand to the southward till you bring the outer
light to bear W.N.W., and to the northward till it bears W.S.W., until you come
3 miles of it ; then you must not stand to the northwai-d any further than to bring the
light to bear W. by N., nor to the southward than till it bears W.N.W. j you may
safely anchor in the bay, if the wind be off the shore.

From off Capo Anne to Boston lighthouse on Groat Brewster Island, your course is
S.W., and the distance nearly 8 leagues. The LioHTHOusKS at Cape Anne stand on
Thatcher's Island. To go clear without Thatcher's Island Ledge, you must keep about
3 miles distant from the lighthouse. In thick weather a gun will be fired from the
lighthouse, to answer any signal which may then be made.

When you proceed from Cape Cod to Boston Bay, with a flood-tide, you should
steer about one point to the northward of the course already described, because
the fluid Kcts into Barnstaple Bay. This precaution is the more necessary when
the wind is northerly. Similar care is requiuite in steering from Boston Bay to
Cape Cod.

Until you advance to within two Icngncs of Boston Lighthouse, you shoolen vour
water from 35 to 19 lathoms. The soundings are irregular. On the Cape Anne snore
the bottom is rocky ; but, towards Cape Cod, it is of fine sand.

On the days of the full and change of the moon, it is high water ofl* Boston Light-
house at tea o'cloik. It flows off the town till a quarter of an hour after eleven.
The spring-tides rise 16 feet perpendicularly ; neap-tides, 12 feet.

To Sail in during the night, or turn within tke Lighthouse Anchor-
age. — Coming from sea in the night, bring the lighthouse to bear West, and steer for
it observing to incline your course soutlicrlv as you approach, in order to give a
berth of two cables' length to the Lighthouse Island. When you are abreast of the
li^ht, shape your course West, until it bears from N.N.E. to N.E. Here, if not ac-
quuinted with the harbour, you may anchor till daylight. With the whid between
the S.W. and N.W. quarters, a ship may, in great safety, turn up within the Light-
house anchoraffc, taking care not to stand further southward than to bring the light-
to bear W.8.W., nor further northward than N.N.W.

Boston Harbour.— Off the entrance of the harbour is a small shoal, called the
(.od Bank, which lies E. by S. nearly three miles from the lighthouse, and in the

648

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS.

foirway of the harbour, with Point Alderton and the north sides of the two islands
within it nearly in a line, W. k S., and the 8.W. ends of the two outer islands on the
north side, in a Ime, bearing N.W. | W.

On the South, or port side of the entrance, are Harding's Rocks, a cluster steep-to,
and which lie at the distance of 2\ miles S.E. from the lighthouse. At low water
the largest rock shows itself about twenty feet long and four feet high. It is sur-
rounded by smaller blind rocks, extending about 140 fathoms on all sides. The
marks for the largest are the S.W. point of the Lighthouse Island and western point
of Great Brewster Island in one, and Nahant Rock, nearly N. by E. a small ship's
length open with the S.W. end of the rocks called the Graves. A white boy is now
laid on tne N.E. side of the Harding's, which is, on entering, to be left on the port
hand.

Alderton iS%oa/ extends in a northern direction from the bluff head of Point Aider-
ton, on the South side, and about one-third over. There is a red buoy on the outer
part of this shoal, which bears from the white buoy of the Hardings N.W. by W. \
\V. one mile and a half.

The Egg Mocks are a cluster, above water, on the North side, at the distance of
half a mile E. by N. from the lighthouse on Brewster Island.

The Beacon on the S.W. end of the Spit of Great Brewster Island stands at the dis-
tance of a mile and a quarter W. f S. from the lighthouse. It marks the entrance of
the Narhowh*, which lie between Lovell's Island on the East, and George's Island,
with Gallop and Nick's Mate Island, on the West. On the north side of the Narrows
is a red beacon light.

The Centurion, a rock of eleven feet at low water, lies at nearly half a mile S, \
W. tram the bacon, and is left, on entering the Narrows, on the West or port side.
It lies with the S.E. points of Great Brewster and outward Brewster Isles in
a line, and one-thiid of Nick's Mate Island shut in with the east side of George's
Island.

From the S.E. side of George's Island a rocky bank extends to the distance of more
than a quarter of a mile, and has on its extremity a black luoy. The entrance of the
Narrows lies between this buoy and the Beacon Point.

On Nick's Mate Island, at the other end of the Narrows, upon the western side, is
a baacon, or monument ; and upon the northern part Long Island, nearly a mile to the
westward of Nick's Mate Island, is a lighthouse.

On coming inward, direct from the East, for Boston Harbour, the proper parallel, if
it can be kept, is 42° 20' N. The Cod Bank, already described, lies in 42° 19' 40'. If
a ship should happen to fall to the southward of the harbour, care must be taken to
avoid the Cohasset Rocks, which lie at some distance from the land, five miles to the
south-eastward of Point Alderton. On the outer one, called Minors Ledge, as the
lighthouse on it as above described. From this lighthouse the course to Boston
Harbour is N.W.; distance two leagues. In running thus, you will paHs the wliito
buoy on Harding's Rocks, and may thence haul up to the westward, passing between
the Lighthouse it lUnd and the red buoy on Alderton Shoal.

From the middle of the Lighthouse Channel steer W. by N. one mile, to the beacon
on the Spit, to which you may approach within one quarter of a cable's length,
leaving it on the starboard hand, while the Centurion Rock and black buoy on
the shoal ground of George's Island are left, on the port. Having thus entered the
Narrows, the Course up to Gallop Island Point is N.W. by N. three quarters of a
mile ; and thence through, by Nick's Mate, N.N.W. half a mile. The beacon on
Nick's Mate may be left on the port hand, at the distance of a cable's length.

Midi
hano^
mosti
mileJ

B]i

chani
appej
port
on S.
point

win

* In 1830 a 8in,u;uliir diHcovery of a dangerous sunken rock was made nearly in miJ-
rhannol of the Narrows. It has from 15J to 17 feet at low water, and doiihtloas haN picked
up many voHsels. Falfo Spit beacon boars E. i N. from it : The Narrows Lighthouse N.E.
i N., and Nick's Mate beacon N.W. i W,. nn/J ■«. ons wiui Buaton Lighthouse.

e two islands
islands on the

uster steep-to,
At low water
l^h. It is sur-
lU sides. The
western point
a small ship's
ite hoy is now
ft on the port

I Point Alder-
/ on the outer
LAV. by W. i

the distance of

mds at the dis-
the entrance of
l^eorge's Island,
of the Narrows

If a mile S, \
it or port side,
iwster Isles in
ide of George's

iistance of more
entrance of the

restem side, is
ly a mile to the

ipcr parallel, if
12° 19' 40'. If
\,i be taken to
miles to the
Ledge, as the
irse to Boston
jaHs the white
[ssiiig between

to the beacon
sable's length,
llack buoy on
Is entered the
quarters of a
Phe beacon on
tgth.

NANTUCKET SHOALS.

64$

From Nick's Mate, the course for Castle Island, through the main channel is W.
by N. three miles. In running thus you will first leave a white mar huoy on the
Lower Middle Ground upon the starboard hand, which buoy is a nule below Cai^le
Island.* You will next see a tohUe buoy upon the Castle Rooks, which lies in 2
fathoms, on the port.

When abreast of the castle, steer N.N.W. one quarter of a mile, to clear the Upper
Middle Ground, which has a black buoy on it, in 2 fathoms, to be left on the port
hand. Should this buoy happen to be taken up, run N.N.W. until the two northern-
most steeples in Boston are a Handspike's lengta open ; a course then N.W. by W. 2
miles, will bring you up to the town.

Broad Sound is the northern entrance, of Boston Harbour, but is not a proper
channel for large vessels. Without its entrance are the Graves, a cluster of rocks
appearing white, and which lie in latitude 42° 22' 30' : these may be left on the
port hand, at the distance of two cables' length. Bring them to bear S.E., and rail
on S.W. by W. This course, for four miles, leads up to the lighthouse on the north
point of llong Island, described above.

Nantucket Shoals. — These very dangerous shoals, lying immediately in the line
of traffic of the coasting trade of the United States, have been but very tittle known
till within a very few years ; and then theit limits were first more exactly defined at
the expense of a private individual, Mr. E. M. Blunt, of New York. These " Good-
win Sands" of the United States now, however, appear tolerably well examined,
though still some doubt has been expressed as to whether their entire extent has been
ascertained, by the United States Coast Survey, chiefiy by Lieutenant Charles 11.
Davis, United States Navy. The danger of these formidable shoals is much reduced
by the new lighthouse on Sankaty^ Head, completed in 1849. This tower is 70 feet
high, painted in three horizontal rings, and shows a dioptric flashing light every 1|,
U, ana 3 minutes, at an elevation of 150 feet, consequently visible from Davis woutn
Shoal.

The Old South Shoal has from 6 to 18 feet water on it, and is 2^ miles in ezteut.
From its centre Sankaty Head bears N. 22° W., trtw, or N. by W. \ W. by compass ;
distant 12| miles.

From the middle of the New, or Bavia' South Shoal, discovered in 1846 (8 (to 18
feet, U miles in extent), the middle of the Old South Shoals bears N. 4° E., true, or
N. by E., mag., distant 6^ miles. No ^art of Nuntucket Island is visible from it in
the clearest weather, but the Sankaty light may be seen.

The Light- VESSEL which lies nearly 2 miles to the south of Davis' South Shoal
marks the limit of dangers in this direction. She lies in 14 fathoms, in latitude
40° 66' 30" N., long. 69° 62' 30' W. The shoal soundings, however, do not oeaae
here for a spit with 8 to 10 fathoms ext«nds for about 7 miles further South.

Within the Old North Shoal there are very many dangerous patches which can be
best described in the chart, but to the eastward of Nantucket Island, in October,
1849, six shoals, of small extent, but not the less dangerous, having from 9 to 14 feet,
were discovered and placed by Lieutenant-Comm. M'Blair to the northward
of these. They lie generally about East, true, from, the Great Point light of Nan-
tucket Island, at distances varying from 9^ to llj miles off. They are sharp,
abrupt ridges of fine white sand, which are readily discovered by the rip of the
tides at all times; except at slack water, but by daylight the exhibit the usual
discoloration.

learly in mid-

1^088 lias pickod

yhthouse N.E.

3US0.

• The American Coast Pilot also savB, Thj Lower Middle Ground, which lies on the

north side of the channel, a lit He above Spectacle Island, and which is in part dry at low

WHtor, has on iiH eastern part ired buoy, and on ths western point a black buoy, in two

fHiiiomR; to be left on the port hand.

4 y

650

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS.

To the southward of M'Blair Shoals, a line of breakers and shoal patches, called
the Oreat Hip, extends to lat. 41° 2'. To the Eattt of the southemmost of these patches,
\fiiix 9 feet water, a buoy-boat is moored. At 2^ miles East of this is another long
shoalt Davis' Bank, discovered in 1848, on which there are only 3f , 4, and 6 fathoms
for 6 miles. Beyond this the depths are 15 to 20 fathoms till we reach the outermost
shoal known at present, the Fishiny Rip, a line of shoal paches, with 4 to 9 fathoms
on it, between 41° and 41° 10'.

It would seem as if this labyrinth of shoals would scarcely ever bo known, for in
,1860 the Asia discovered a line a line of 10 fathom patches 15 miles S.S.E. of the
tail of the Fishing Rip, where the water was supposed to be deep.

The main body of the flood tide nms to the eastward, the ebb to the westward.
The currents always run across the line of directions of the shoals, and are much
more rapid d'uring their passage. This makes a near approach particularly dangerous
on the Bide towara which the tidal current is setting.

The current is never still. During what is called slack- water, the velocity is
rarely less than half, sometimes more than 1 mile. A careful attention to currents is
important in this vicinity.

It b high-water, full and change, at XII'* 4™, mean rise and fall 3 feet
2 inches.

From the Nantucket Lightship to Montauk Point Lighthouse, at the East point of
Long Island, the bearing and distance are W. by N. 91 miles. From Montauk Point,
the South coast of Long Island trends W. by S. | S. for 32 miles, to Shiniiecock Bay,
in the rear of which is a high lighthouse, 150 feet high, showing a fixed light. From
hence to the Fire Island inlet, at which there is another high lighthouse, with re-
volving light,' is W. by S. \ S. 34 miles, and from hence to Sandy Hook is W. % S.
37 miles.

NEW TOBK. — ^The lighthouses ard light-vessel which indicate the entrance to
New York Harbour, are described in the table. The chart of the approaches is the
best guide, both for the depth and quality of bottom, and Lieutenant Maury has
founded an elaborate description on its indications which cannot be quoted here. The
water shoalcns gradually towards Long Island, but is deepest at the East end, where
'20 fathoms is found at 9 miles off, while at its west end tnis depth is only to be got
at 25 miles off. This circumstance is a good guide. There is another singular feature
which may mislead if not known. There are about seven deep holes lying in a south-
east direction from Sandy Hook, which have from 10 to 15 fathoms more water than
immediatelv around them ; but the outermost is in lat. 39" 37' N., long. 72° 25', and
has 145 fathoms, nearly 100 fathoms more than sm-rounds it, and 15 miles within
the 100 fathom line. The others are known as the 38, 37, 37, 32, 21, and 23 fathom
holes. This range of holes, With the light-boat at one end, and the 38 fathom hole at
the other, is 65 miles long and 14 miles broad at the outer end, and 2 miles it the
inner end. This will, by careful attenti.;n, afford a good guide.

When Block Island bears N., distant 4 or 5 leagues, you cannot see any land to the
northward or eastward; but as you approach the island, you see Mc.itauk Point to
the westward, making a low point to the eastward, on which is a lighthouse. In
sailing W.S.W., you will make no remarkable land on Long Island, from the east-
ward of said island to the westward, its broken land appearing at a distance like
islands ; but may discover Fire Island light-house, which shows a revolving light.
From Fire Island light, a shoal extends south three-fourtlis of a mile, on which the
flood tide sets very strong. It is not safe to approach the shore nearer than 2 miles
when the light bears to the E. of N. To the eastward of the light the shore is hold.
When Fire Island light bears N.. in 10 fathoms water, you may steer W. by S., whith
will carry you up with Sandy Hook light. The quality of the bottom is various,
viz., yellow, red, brown, blue, and grey sand, within short distances. About Soulh
from Fire Island, 33 miles distont, and' 40 miles S.E. by E. from the Higlilands, lies a
bank, extending from N.E. by E. to S. W. by W., having on it from 10 to 14 fathoms,
pebbles. Within this, a short distance, you will get 20 lathoins, when it shoals into

itches, called
hese patches,
another long
,nd 6 fathoms
bhe outeimost
: to 9 fathoms

known, for in
S.S.E. of the

the westward,
and are much
rly dangerous

lie velocity is
to currents is

1 fall 3 feet

East point of
[ontauk Point,
linnecock Bay,
d light. From
louse, with re-
ook is W. t S.

le entrance to
iroaches is the
ant Maury has
ted here. The
',ast end, where
inly to he got
ngular feature
Ing in a south-
ire water than
g. 72° 25', and
miles within
land 23 fathom
Ifathom hole at
inile« nt the

Iny land to the
Itauk Point to
Ighthouse. In
from the east-
distance like
jvoiving light,
Ion which the
than 2 miles
shore is hold.
hy S., which
jm is various,
About South
rhlnnds, lies a
Ko 14 fathoms,
it shoals into

SANDY HOOK TO THE DELAWARE.

651

fathoms, grey sand, which depth vou will carry till you get into what is called the
. .d Hole, where are from 20 to 36 fathoms water, marl or green ooae, and some-
times pebbles, the deepest part of which bears East from the northenimost part of
the Woodland, 10 miles ; and S.E. ^ S., 15 miles from Sandy Hook light. From the
Mud Hole to the bar of Sandy Hook the water shoals gradually, as laid down on the
chart.

You will have 20 or 22 fathoms water out of sight of the land, sandy bottom in
some, and clay in other places. Before you come m sight of Sandy Hook lighthouse,
you see the Highlands of Nevcrsink, with its lighthouses, which lie W.S.W. from
Sandy Hook, and is the most remarkable laud on that shore.

If you fall in to the southward, and make Cape May, on which is a lighthouse ex-
Iiibiting a flashing light, it would be prudent to keep about three leagues oflF, to
avoid Hereford Bai', which lies from 4 to 6 leagues from the cape to the northward, "
and 8 miles from the inlet of that name. This inlet is frequented by the Delaware
pilots, having no other harbour to the northward until they reach Egg Harbour.
After passing Hereford Bar, you may steer N.E. when in 10 fathoms water, taking
care that the flood tide, wliicli acts very strong into the inlet, does not diaw you too
close ; this com>se continued will carry you up with Egg Harbour ; you will then
have fine white and black sand, intermixed with small broken shells j by continuing
the same course, you will deepen your water, and so continue till you draw near
Baruegat Inlet. [In running along the shore, do not steer to the northward of N.E.,
if in 10 fathoms water or less, as you will be apt to get on Absecom Shoals, or Egg
Harbour Bar.] On the South sideof Barnegat Inlet, a lighthouse, showing a revolv-
ing light, is erected, off" which you will get bright coarse yellow gravel. The shoal
off Barncgat does not extend beyond two miles from the beach, and is steep-to ; you
may turn this shoal in 6 fathoms water, within pistol shot of the outer breaker. It
would always be prudent to keep in 9 or 10 fathoms water during the night, and not
steer to the north of north-east, unless certaij of being to the north of the shoal.

The soundings are so much to he depended on, that the moment you lose the
above soundings you are past the shoal, when you will have fine black and white
sand, and very hard bottom j you may then haul in for the land N. by E., which
course will bx'ing you along shore in from 15 to 17 fathoms water, but if the wind and
weather permit, I would recommend hauling in N.N.W., which will bring you in
with the southernmost part of the Woodlands, which is veiy remarkable, having
no other such land in the distance from Cape May up to. the Highlands, and can
be distinguished by its being very near the beach, and extending to Long Branch.

In passing from Barnegat to Sandy Hook, when to the southward of the lights on
the Highlands, you must not open the northera light (which is a fixed light) to the
westward of the southern light (which shows a revolving light), as that will bring
you too near the Jersey shore. ,

As a number of vessels have been lost, bound into New York, from heaving to with
their head on shore, we cannot too strongly urge on the sliipmasters the necessity, if
he is in doubt of his position, of heaving to with the head off shore.

Directions for proceeding onwards into New York Bay must be left for more ex-
tended works and to the assistance of i)ilots.

SANDY HOOK to the DELAWARE.— To the valley at the foot of the High-
lands of Navesink succeeds a tract of low table lund, and southward of this is u cou-
sidorable and remarkable tract of Woodland, which terminates at 6 leagues S. by W.
from the Navesink lighthouses ; next follows an extensive lagoon, named Barnegat
Sound, which is fronted by a narrow strip of low land. The coast from the High-
lands of Navesink to the elbow of an island, ailed Barnegat Long Beach, trends
nearly S. by W, true 38 miles, and the soxmdiugs regularly decrease toward shore
from 12 to 7 and 5 fathoms.

In the parallel of 39" 48' is the Inlet of Barnegat, or the entrance of Barnegat
Sound. On the South side of it is a rid and white lighthouse, KJO feet high, witji u

652

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS.

r*voiviH0 light. A ahoal bar extendi outward from this place to the distance of two
miles, luid the bottom in an admixture of mud, shells, and gravel. The outer edffe of
the ahoal is steep'to, and you may pass it in 6 fathoms within a short distance from
the outer breaker ; but, during night, keep at least in 9 or 13 fathoms . The sound-
ings more to the nortiiward in these depths are fine white sand, with very hard
brntom.
' 'Bamegat may be readilv known in the day, even when the breakers are not seen,
aa there is a lonv grove or wood, back in the country, apparently 3 or 4 miles long,
directly within ws Inlet, and commonly called the iittie Swamp. With the North .
end of this land directly abreast, you will be to the northward of Bamegat.

Between the elbow of Bamegat Long Beach and Cape May, at the mouth of the
DeWware, the coast forms a gentle concavity, but its general trend is nearly S.W. }
S. and the distance 18 leaffues. The laud is, generally, low and- broken, forming
several islets and inlets. The soundings are regular, commonly 8 to 10 fathoms at 2
leagues from shore ; but there is a sand bar at every inlet, several of which extend
off to a considerable distance. V

LITTLE EGG HARBOUR, in the parallel of 39' 28', long. 74° 19', is a smaU har-
bour formed by low isles or beaches on the east, and by salt marshes on the west. It
is known as the port of Tuckerton. To a stranger this harbour cannot be recom-
mended. Unless as a reti'eat in case of emergency, several shoals about the entrance
being dangerous ; yet it has firequently served as a place of shelter in the vnnter, when
violent N. w . wincU have prevented vessels from entering the Delaware or New York
Harbour.

Ahawum Inlet, at the distance of six miles S.W. from Little Egg Harbour,

A lo:

is another hat'bbur which affords shelter to vessels of easy draught.
160 feet high, on the south side of the inlet, shows a bright Jixed Kght.

lofty to .ver,

The shoal water extends at least 2 miles off shore at Absecum Inlet and at 2| miles
E.8.E. of the lighthouse is a 3 fathom shoal.

In sailing between New York and the capes, if the wind should be in the north-
west quarter, with which, in general, is clear weather, keep no frirther off than to 10
fathoms ; the nearer in-shore the stronger the unrrent, which sets about one mile in
an hour. The tide of flood runs W. by S., aiid the ebb E. by N., but you will huve
no ^ide till Airther off than in 8 or 9 fatnoms.

If you are turning, with the wind to the westwaj^, stand off no further than to 18
or 20 fiithoms of water. You may venture to stand in-shore into 6 fathoms, until you
advance towards Hereford Creek, or about two leagues to the northward of Cape
May.

The grreatest danger to a ship cruising hetQpbout is the shoal called the live Fathom,
or Cape Mag Bank, and lying at the ditttance of 4 to 5 leagues East to E.S.Pj. from
Cape May. Much of the danger is averted by tho- Lightveaael, showing fixed lights,
which is moored in 12 fathoms outside of it.

DELAWABE BAY.— CAPE MAY and CAPE HENLOPEN, the two ex-
tremities of the estuary called the Delaware River, bear from each other S.W. by
8. and N.E. by N., 10 miles distant. Each is distinguished by lights at night. A
great tract of Overfalls and broken ground, southward of Cape May, is two leagues
in extent; the- depths over them are from 5 to 15 feet. These shoals form the two
channels into the river, of which the chief, between the shoals and Cape Henlopen, is
nearly 5 miles in breadth.

CAPE MAY Lighthouse is on the extreme S.W. point of the cape. At present it
shows a fixed and fiashing light, but a new tower intended, of 160 feet high, will
show a revolving light, and bears N.E. by N. about 11 miles from Cape Henlopen
light.

CAPE HENLOPEN Lighthbuse is of an octagonal form, handsomely built of

^WAK BAY.

653

stone, 72 feet high, u. ii.-. foundu a itt 118 feet above the level of the sea. The
lantern is between 7 ;i 8 feet Hqt>,.ire i the light isjixed, and may be seen at 20 miles
off, if the weather b< in

At the distance of thi-ee-quai-teiM of a mile from the Cape Henlopen high light, and
iiuar the sea, is tkjixed beacon light, of small ^wer, 35 feet high. The two lights in
range is the leading mark for cai'ryiug vessels into the Boads, within the cape.

To Enteb the Channel by Cape Henlopen.— The couvi>d in the fairway between
Cape May and the light-vessel, which has been described, is S.W. until the Ughtuonae
on Cape Henlopten bears West. Then steer for it in tiie latter direction, and within
two mfles from it you will have 14 or 16 fathoms of water ; having passed it, you may
steer W.N.W. until you bring it to bear E.S.E., when you may anchor in Oldkiln
Koad, in 3 or 4 fathoms.

The Beaco'n Light on Cape Henlopen, already noticed, exhibits a brilliant light
that can be seen at six leagues off. It stands on the extreme north end of the cape,
veiy near the beach, and bears N. % W. three-quarters of a mile from the high light.
Vessels running in for Oldkiln Koads, may, when the beacon light and lighthouse are
in one, approach the former within a cable's length, then steer W.N.W. until the high
light bears S.E. and anchor in 4 fathoms, good Holding ground.

The estuary of the Delaware for 70 miles from the sea, has no safe natiural harbour,
and to remedy this defect the General Government of the United States have con-
structed a magnificent breakwater within Cape Henlopen, forming a safe artificial
hai-bour. On the N.W. end of the breakwater there is a lighthouse, showing a fixed
light, with a flash every f of a minute.

In approaching from sea, and going in by the south passage, give the beacon»light
on the pitch of the cape a berth of from 4 to 500 yards, and when you bring the west
end of the breakwater to bear N.W., steer for it, and anchor in a line between it and
the government house on the beach, as close to the works as you can with safety ; the
light on the west end bearing about N. or N. by W. Tlicre is no diflSiculty, with
common attention, in running into the anchorage to the south of the breakwater, even
in a gale of wind, either between the two works, or by the passage to the S.E.
of both.

Vessels bound fram the Delaware to the Chesapeake should, in order to avoid the
Hen and Chicken, &c., which run to the S.W. of Cape Henlopen, steer out with the
lighthouse of Cape Henlopen E. by S., to the distance of ten miles, (the beacon light
in range with the light on the breakwater will lead you on the edge of the Hen and
Chicken). They may thence, with an off-shore wind, pursue a 8. by W. course for
13 leagues, which will clear the Gull Banks on the west. Thence S.S.W. \ W., 20
leagues, leads to the parallel of the light on Smith's Island ; and the same course con-
tinued, » ight leagues further, brings you in sight of the light on Cape Henry, pre-
sently described, and bearing W.N.W. In order to avoid the tail of the MtddU
Ground, you run in with the light in that direction, and round the point into Zyn-
haven Bay, or proceed upward, as hereafter directed.

In proceeding along these coasts, during easterly winds, great caution is requisite ;
as with s^ich winds the weather is generally hazy, and tlie coast obscured. The cur-
rent will generally be found setting to the S.S.W., in the direction of the shore. The
drift of several cun*ent bottles have demonstrated this.

On the courses above prescribed, the soundings will be found to vary from 11 to 15
and 16 fathoms, until approaching Capo Charles, where from 9 to 8 tathoms may be
found. At ten miles EIS.E. from Cape Henry, are from 10 to 12 fathoms, which
depths continue in a W.N.W. direction to the Cape.

The Coast of Delaware, south of Cape Henlopen, is nearly a straight line running
due South, true, for 11 miles, to Indian River Inlet, and 10 miles further to the boun-
dary between Delaware and Maryland. It is very low, broken into long narrow
islands, with off-lying shoals to the distance of 1 to 1| miles.

Fenwic'k Island Lighthouse, which stands on the state boundary, in lat. 38" 27'
shows a bright fixed light, with a flash every two minuic-s, liom Vvhitc Brick tower.

654

DESCRirXION OF THE COASTS.

South of the parallel of 38", the shores appear in numerous islets, drowned land, and
inlets, into which craft only can be admitted ; and it so continues to Cape Charles, at
the mouth of the Chesapeake. There appear, in all this extent, no other distinguish-
ing marks which can he useftil to a stranger, until we arrive in latitude 37° 1 3', where
a revolving light marks the north end of Smith's Island, as will be presently noticed.

Matomkin and Machi-Pongo are very dangerous harbours in a gale of wind ; but you
may ride along shore with the wind from ]Sf.W. to S.W. When the wind blows hard
at N.E. or E.N.E., and you are in sight of Chincoteague Shoals, your only chance for
safety is to stand to the southward, for you cannot clear the land to the northward.

The COAST of Maryland, south of this as far ns Chincoteague Inlet, in lat. 37° •!)4',
is still a low, straight coast, cui'ving towards the west, and on it are some danyerom
ahoaU, whose character and position have been ascertained by the U. S. ^oost Survey
in 1852.

Fenwick'a Island Shoal.— -The centre of this shoal is in 38° 27' 30" N. latitude, and
in 74° 56' 09' W. longitude. It is about 2 miles long, running from S.W. to N.E.
The least water on it i» lo feet. It boars (S.E. by S.) distant 11 miles from Indian
Iliver Inlet, and E. ^ N. from Fenwick's Island Lighthouse. On the seaward side,
the soundings change suddenly from 10 to 2^ fathoms, and there are 10 fathoms about
2 miles West of this shoal which appears to be extending on the West side and
towards the Noilh.

Isle of Wight Shoal, on which there are but 3 fathoms water, lies 4 miles S. ^ E.
from the centre of Fenwick's Island Shoal. It is nearly O^niiiles East of the beach,
and bears East from Isle of Wight woods. There ai-e 10 fathoms water within a mile
on either side of this shoal.

Midway between these two shoals there is a spot with 3| fathoms water on it.

At 9 and 11 miles South of the lighthouse, are two shoals, Little and Great Gull
Banks, with 12 and 18 feet water over them, lying 2 and 5 miles off shore. Soutli
of the latter 10 miles, and 8 miles off »hore, is a small patch of 21 feet. At 30
miles southward of Fenwiok's lighthouse is Winter Quai'ter Shoal.

Winter Quarter Shoal is 1| miles long and one-third of a mile wide, running in a
direction E. by N. | N. and W. by S. f S. (E.N.E. and W.S.W.) with not over 3J
fathoms water upon it.

The least water is 12 feet in several places, at low tide. On the seaward side
the soundings change suddenly from 2 to 4, and then to 2 fathoms. It is 6|
miles distant fr-om the nearest land, with 10 fathoms water between it and the
shore.

In clear weather the lani^rn of Assateague Lighthouse is just visible from it.
The centre of the shoal bears from Assateague light E. by N. | N. (E. by N. f N.)
distant 11| miles.

This is a highly dangerous shoal, as the soimdin^ change suddenly, and it lies
directly in the track of vessels. The sea breaks upon it in heavy weather.

Black Fish Banks form a long narrow bank or ridge, running in a Erection
N.E. J E. and S.W. | W. (PJ.E. \ E. and S.W. \ W.) 4f miles long, with an
average width of one-quarter of a mile, and distant from 4^ to 6 miles from the
shore, with from 3| to 6 fathoms water upon it. The north end bears E. by S.
(E. % S.) distant 7^ miles, and its south end S.E. i S. (S.E. \ S.) distant 5| miles
from Assateague Lighthouse.

Chincoteague Shoals are the outer shoals off Assateague Lighthouse, and bearing
from it from S. 4 W. (SouthJ to S.E. by E. (E.S.E.) comprising six points of the
compsiss and at a distance urom it of from 3| to 4j miles. They have from 9 to 17
feet water upon them.

Assateague Lighthouse stands on an elevation about one mile distant from the
beach. It is a fixed light and at night in clear Aveathcr can be seen at a distance of
about 15 miles. ■■ ■ - * . *

THE CHESAPEAKE.

6fl5

Within a semicircle of thin distance the lig^ht being the centre, the bottom is
very uneven and broken. The general direction of the current is to the southward
ana westward.

THE CHESAPEAS[E, one of the finest estuaries on the globe, being 160 miles
in extent from North to South, is the recipient of many important rivers, which foil
into it on all sides, but especially on the north and west. At its head is the Susque-
hanna, which pervades Pennsylvania ; on the N.W. the Patapaco, falling from Balti-
more; at a degree fiirther south is the Patuxent ; then the Potomac, which passes the
federal city of Washington ; the Rappahanoch, running downward from Frederics-
burg ; York River, on which are situated York Town and Gloucester 5 James River,
ou which stands the town of Richmond ; and, in the south, EUzdbeth River, the
luirbours of Norfolk, &c.

Its entrance lies between Cape Charles on the North and Cape Henry on the
Soutli, being about 10 miles in width, but owing, as it appears, to the southward
drift, the northern side of the entrance, like the Delaware, is embarrassed by shoals.

Cape Charles Lighthonse, which at present stands on the N.E. end of Smith
Island^ or above 4 miles eastward of Cape Charles itself, marks the no: *hern side. It
shews a revolving light, but a new tower, 150 feet high is building — {see Table).

Cape Henry Lighthouse marks the southern enti-anoe, and shows a fixed light.

Ships falling in with the land to the northward of the entrance, should not stand
mwards to a less depth than 7 fathoms, until they come into the latitude of Smith's
Island and Cape Charles, whence they may stand with safety into 5 fathoms. In
coming along shore from the southward, 7 fathoms will be a proper depth to keep in,
until up with Cape Fenry ; whence, falling into 8 or 9 fathoms, with a stiff or sticky
bottom, you will be in the channel-way.

When you come in towardb the land, to the southward of Cape Henry, you
will have deeper water than when you are in the latitude thereof 5 as 21 fathoms,
reddish sand, and pretty large : 9 Teagues off it there are 35 and 40 fathoms, fine
grey sand.

The land is low and sandy ; you cannot see it above 7 leagues off. Cape Heniy
is low, but bluff, with a few trees to the sea side, at a little distance from the
water: it moderately steep-to, excepting that a small shoal stretches about two
cables' length from the shore east of the lighthouse, and there is nothing to hinder
a ship from passing into Lynnhaven Bay, where there is soft ground, and from
4 to 6 fathoms of water, lie bank called the Middle Ground is about 4 miles from
the Cape.

When coming in from sea, in the latitude of Cape Henr^, 36° 56„ you will meet
with soundinjys, as above described. You may readily ascertain when in soundings by
the muddy colour of the water. In clear vf eathei*, the land of Cape Henry may be
seen from the depth of 10 or 11 fathoms, regular soundings, which extend 6 or 6
leagues to the southward of the Cape : more to the northward, the soundings are
irregular and coarser, as above described.

In coming in for the Chesapeake, you may advance to Cape Henry, but cautiously
avoiding the Middle Ground, which occupies so large a portion of the entrance, and
which may be still increasing. With a northerly wind you may approach this bank
to the depth of 5 fathoms. To the southward of it you find 12 and 13 fathoms, os
well as in the channel between it and Cape Henry. This channel has a depth of 8
fathoms close to the Cape.

With a fair wind, you may run in with the lighthouse bearing W. by N. ; and, with
a turning wind, you may stand to the southward until it bears N.W. by N., and to
the northward until it bears West.

If requisite, ■'/on may run in with the lighthouse bearing West, as this course will
lead to the channel-way, in from 7 to 10 fathoms, sticky bottom, as before mentioned.
It is then proper to take soundings towards the southern shore ; and, in order to this,

656

DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS.

Bteer West, until you have advanced to a short distance from the lighthouse ; then,
rounding the point, you may haul into Lynn Haven Hoada, and drop an anchor as
most convenient, in from 7 to 4 fathoms.

From Cape Henry, in latitude 36° 66', to Cape Hatteras, in 35° 14', the coast
forms a concavity in the greater part of its length, to the latitude of 35° 40', trending
nearly S.S.E. ; and the rest inclines a little to the westward of south to the extremity
of the cape, now represented in longitude 75° 30' W. It is all low, and bordered
•with narrow isles, at the back of wliich are Curriinck Sound, Albemarle iSound,
Pamlico Sound, Sfc.

The Wimble Shoals lie between the latitudes of 35° 30', and 35° 34'. They extend
two leagues out from the shore, but there is a passage between them and the land.
The sea always breaks over them in a gale.

To the southward of the Wimble Shoals, there is a large muscle-bank, inter-
mixed with cockles and small pebbles, having 5, 4^, and 4 ftithoms of water : it outer
ledge is about 4 miles from land, and there is a depth of 9 fathoms between it and
the shore.

Cape Hatteras, although not conspicuous for its elevation, being only a low sandy
spit, gradually extending to the southward, is very remarkable as being a turning

ftoint in the coast of the United States. The shores on either side are purely diluvial,
brmed and extended by the action of the currents which drift past them. Lying upon
the line of junction between the two wind and current systems, where the East and
West tendencies divide, we here meet with the first e^^deuce of the conflict between
them in the singular line of shoals which project ut right angles to the line of coast;
an evidence of the conflict between the Gulf Stream and the southerly current coming
from high northern Iptitudes.*

THE LIGHTHOUSE on Cape Hatteras now stands 2 miles North of the point it
was built to indicate. It shows a revolving light at 150 feet. Near the extreniitv
of the point a fixed beanon light is shown, which bears S. | W. from the higb
light.

THE HATTERAS SHOALS are most dangerous. The outer shoals, 3:^ miles in
extent, have from 9 to 15 feet water. Between them and the Diamond Shoals is a
6 fathom channel 24 miles wide. These shoals have 12 feet least water. A spit runs
off for I| miles S.S.E. of the beacon light.

Cape Hatteras Light bears N. 37° W. , distant about 8 J nautical miles from the
flouth-eastem edge of the 9 feet or Outer Shoals.

To clear the Outer Shoals, in approaching them from the northward and eastward,
bring the lighthouse to bear West in 12 to 10 fathoms water, when run South keeping
in not less than 10 fathoms water, until the lighthouse bears N.W. | N„ when any
course South of West may be steered with safety.

In coming from the southward and westward keep in not less than 10 fathoms
water, until the lighthouse bears N.W., when any course eastward of North may be
steered. The beacon light and the high light in one clears all to westward.

In bad weather, and especially at night, do not approach the Outer Shoals nearer
than 16 fathoms water from the northwai-d and eastward, and 12 to 11 fathoms from
the southward and westward.

It is necessary to watch the bearings of the lighthouse, and keep the lead going in
beating around or between the shoals. In approaching the shoals at night or in bad
weather, if the lights have not been seen before night, it will not be prudent to mn
in for it.

An 10 or 11 fathoms wat«r may be found to the westward of the shoals, in going
out«ide of them from the southward and westward do not approach the land to the
southward of the Cape nearer than 8 1 to 10 miles.

tjm iin^aS lo<;, too ; i)dZ, ■t<1l7, CC, ntllC

/ CAPE LOOKOUT.

657

bouse; then,
in anchor as

l4', the coast
40', trending
he extremity
ind bordered
narle 3ound,

They extend
jid the land.

i-harik, intt>r-
iter : it outer
etween it and

Y a low sandy
ng a turning
urely diluvial,
». Lying upon
! the' East and
nflict between
line of coast;
urrent coming

>f the point it
the extreniitv
from the high

kls, 'i\ miles in
nd Shoah is a
A spit runs

iles from the

and eastward,
jouth keeping
N., when any

10 fu thorns
North may be
ard.

Shoals nearer
fathoms from

lead going in
ght or in bad
ident to nin

oals, in going
land to the

Betweeir Cape Hatteras and Cape Lookout, the next projecting point, a long sweep
of narrow banks which separate the ocean Scorn Pamlico Sound, extend in a curve for
64 miles.

The narrow bcachy isles which form the coast between the two capes, form an
inlet into Pamlico Sound, named Ocracoke Inlet ; the shoal bar of which (extending
two miles seaward) is 9 leagues S.W. by W. ^ W. from the lighthouse on Cape Hat-
teras, and 13 leagues N.E. | E. from Cape Lookout. On the eastern side of the inlet
is a lighthouse, exhibiting a fixed light, which bears from the middle of the Bar, in 13
feet water, N. | E. Sj nules, whence the course in is N.W. by N. ^ N.

The soundings all along, between the shoals extending from the two capes, are
regular, gradually diminishing from 14 and 15 fathoms to 5 and 6 fathoms near
shore, all sandy ground.

CAFE LC OKOUT is marked by a red tower 96 feet high, showing a fixed light.
It stands 2a tiiles N.N.E. of the point of the cape.

The light may be seen from the outer end of Cape Lookout Shonls ; but vessels .
passing are recommended rather to trust to the lead than to making the light.

From Cape Lookout the shoals extend, nearly in a S.S.E. direction, to the distance
of 3 leagues trom the lighthoiise. The broken ground extends to latitude 34" 28' ; iu
this parallel are 10 fathoms of water, and thence to the edge of the Gulf-Stream the
soundings gradually increase to 25 fathoms. From Cape Hatteras lighthouse the
outer part of Cape Lookout Shoals bears S.W. \ W. 22 1 leagues ; and from tJie outer
part of Cape Hatteras Shoals S.W. by W. at the same distance.

From the lighthouse the coast trends to the northward of West, but the low spit
stretches out, as above said, for 2| miles to the S.S.E. of this du'ection.

Beaufort Hakbour is about 8^ miles W.N, from the South spit of Cape Look-
out, and affords shelter fi'om all winds, and is easy of access, carrying 17 feet over the
bnr at low-water. It can be entered with all winds except between N. and West.
On the N.W. side is Fort Macon, on making which, the breakers will be seen, and
with the flagstaff of the Fort bearing N.W. \ W., or by night the two lights, on the
Bofi;ue Banks inside in one, bearing N.W. | W., steer N.W. by W. | W. for the bar
buoy, passing close to it, and bear northwards when rounding Shacklcford Point on
the starboard hand.

CAFE FEAA is the south-western extremity of another of those long beaches
which characterise this portion of the American coast. Its extremity bears S.W.
by W. \ W. from the spit of Capo Lookout, distant 84 miles, but the shore recedes
18 miles from the direct line.

The low sandy point known by the name of Cape Fear, is the S.E. extremity of a
marshy island called Smith's Isktnd, which forms the two entrances of Cape Fear
River and the port of Wilmington. Near Bald Head, the western extremity of this
island, is a lighthouse, upon the eastern side of the southern inlet; and there is
another upon the north side of the New Inkt, at three leagues north from the extremity
of the cape.

The Frying Pan Shoals, a very remarkable line of reefs, nms in S.S.E. direc-
tion from Cape Fear. They are not more than a mile in breadth, ond at their outer
end there is a light-vessel showing two lights. •

In passing Frying Pan Shoals, which extend to nearly 20 miles from Hald Head
Lighthouse, sailing rvsseh of heavy draft should keep in from 15 to 18 lal horns, espe-
cially in threatening weather, and under no circumstances run mto itss than 10
fathoms. Steamers in good weather may cross the outer end of the shoals in 10
fathoms. The tight-vessel marks their outer end, as alwve said.

To clear these shoals, vessels from the eastward approaelun;', Capo Fear River
should bring Bald Head light to bear S. by W., and then steer N.N.W. for the mouth
of the river ; -or bouiul to tlie eustwiird tVom Cupe Fear River, should steer S. by E.
to ti»p diHtancr of 15 miles i'rora the bnr in 8 and 10 faflioms water, when an East
roiiise wnW imsHover the outer end (^f the shoal in from 7 fo 10 fathomt.

4 o

608

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS.

Venels drawing not more than from 9 to 10 feet, can cross the shoal at the distance
of 4 miles from the point of Cape Fear, steering from E. to E.N.E. or W. to W.S.W.

Vessels drawing tO^ to 11 feet can cross the shoal at the distance of 5f to 8 miles
from the point of the Cape, steering N.E, to E.N.E. or S.W. to W.S.W.

There is a channel of not less than 13 feet mnnimf N.E. by E. and S.W. by W. ll
miles S. by E. f E. from Bald Head lighthouse. Thirteen miles S.S.E. from Bald
Head lighthouse there is a shoal with 7 feet water on it ; and to the eastward of it
14^ miles S.S.E. ^ E. from Bald Head lighthouse, a shoal having 10 feet water on it.
The sea breaks on these shoals in moderate weather. Between them is a channel
about three quarters of a mile wide, with not less than 3^ fathoms.

These channels over the shoals should not be attempted by strangers in vessel*
drawing more 7 feet.

There are two shoal spots with 16 to 18 feet water on them ])earing S.S.E. <( E. to
S.E. by S. distant 16 to 17| miles from Bald Head lighthouse.

From Cape Fear the coast again forms a sweep of curved beach, called the Long
Bay, and at 81| miles S.W. | W. from its extremity is Cape Roman, or Momain,
lighthouse.

CAFE BOMAN is very improperly so called, it being a very Jow land, without
either tree or bush, and appears, at a distance, like a sand left dry by the tide. To
the W.S.W., about two miles from this cape, on the isle called the Great Racoon Kay,
there is a lighthouse, 150 feet high, which exhibits a bright revoking light every
minute, visible 23 miles off. The tower is painted in horizon stripes, alternately red
and white. With the li^ht bearing from N.W. by N. to N.E. by N. there is good
anchorage op . the flats, m 3 fathoms, to the east of the mouth of the inlet called
BulVa Bay.

Cape Roman Shoals extend for 5^ miles E.S.E from the lighthouse, or 3^ from the
South Spit of the Cape Island. A striped nun buoy was moored near there on the
edge in December, 1S55.

Vessels of heavy draught should not approach Cape Roman within eight fathoniH
water, there being a five fathom bank outside of the shoals.

Vessels of light draught coming from the southward, and intending to run inside
the shoals, will, when in 4'| fathoms water, bvinf^ Cape Roman lighthouse and the old
mill in range, the South point of Cape Island bearing N. by E. (N. 9° 15' E), then steer
N.E. (N. 43" E.), passing directly through the slue.

These shoals ore of a dangerous character, lying directly in the track of coasten,
6 miles distant from the lighthouse ; they are about one miio in extent, and have but 6
feet water upon them, and shoal very rapidly from 6 fathoms to 3 feet. With mode-
rate vrinds from N.E. or West, the sea does not break upon thcTi, but with winds
from S.W. arottod by South to the East, they are shown by the breakers on the sea-
ward side.

Inside the shoals there is a good 15 feet channel nearly 2 miles in width.

A 6 feet channel extends from the south-west, leading to the harbour inside the
Cnpe.

There is good anchorage during northerly winds S.W. of the lighthoase, with not
Jioss than 3 fathoms water.

A lighthouse, which marks the entrance of Charleston harbour, bears S.W. h W.
35 miles from that of Cape Roman. The land between is alluvial, and forms nume-
rous low islands— an extension of the famous Sea Islands — the principal of which are
named liuU's, Capers, Dcvies, Long, and Sullivan's Islands. Flats extend from ell
those isles, along which the Koundings are regular. Bull's Island appears very bluff,
with red sand-hills, and a spit from the outer end of it extends eastward, about &\
miles.

\ apit called the Rattlesnake also extends to the distance nf five milra I], hr ^^
from Sullivan's Island, which forms the North side of tlie entrance to Chariest cm, and

It
IP

CHARLESTON HARBOUR.

659

!!he diatftnce
to W.S.W.

^ to 8 miles

r. by \V. 11
from Bald
ttward of it
water on it.
B a channel

rs in vessels

.8.E. i E. to

ed the Long
, or Romain,

and, without
:he tide. To
Itacoon Kay,
t; light every
Iternately red
there is good
e inlet called

ir 3^ from the
there on the

eight fathom"

to run inside

me and the old

E), then steer

[k of coasten,
ind have but 6
With mode-
It with winds
|err» on the sea-

!rou will be on the edge of it in 5^ fathoms. Its outer extreme is marked bj the
ightvessel in 6 fathoms, and showing two lighto.

When Charleston churches are seen to the northward of Sullivan's Island, you will
be on the edge of the Rattlesnake ; and when the churches ace open to the southward
of Sullivan's Island, you are clear of that shoal, or Fort Moultrie bearing W. \ N.
clears them to the southward. You should approach no nearer to this bank than in
fathoms of water.

CHABLESTOH HARBOTTR.— The entrance of Charleston Harbour is distin-
guished by its lighthouse, situate in latitude 32° 44', on a low sandy point of Morris's
or Lighthouse Island. The lantern is 123 feet above the sea, and exhibits a revolving
light, which may be seen 8 or 9 leagues off.

St. Michael's Church, at Charleston, is now, also, an excellent mark, it having been
painted with pure white, and may be seen, in clear weather, 20 miles off.

The entrance to Charleston is between Sullivan and Morris Island. The main ship
clianncl runs northward pant Mon-is Island, at a mile distant, in a North direction,
and the bar \\. 6 miles South of the West end of Sullivans's Island. At this part
(near Fort Moultrie) there are two beacons, ono bearing N. f W. leading up the
channel.

The LiQUTnousE on the South end of Morris Island is nearly half a mile from its
South extreme, and shows a bright fixed li^ht ; at 300 yards S.E. of it is a beaeont
which also shows a fixed light. These in line are a mark for the hell buoy outside
the bar 4 miles distant.

On the flat to the North of Morris Island b the now famous Fort Sumt«r, which
shows a bright fixed light, and here the main channel bears to the N.W. into Mehel'
lion Road,

Mam Ship Cliannel. — In approaching Charleston Bar for main ship channel keep
in 6 fathoms water till up witn the Bell Boat and the light bears nearly N.W. open
the Charleston beacon 5" to the northward of Charleston light, and follow this range,
passing to por£ of the three bar buoys.

Having passed the inner buoy, the North or further channel beacon by Fort
Moultrie being open about its width to the westward of the South or near Channel
Beiicon, steer North until the two Channel Beacons are in range. This range leads
up the channel on a course of N. f W. (N. 6° "W,), keeping Haddrell's Beacon a little
open to the eastward of the range.

When Fort Sumter bears W. AN. and Charlestoa light is open midway between
the two Morris Beacons, steer N.W. by W. (N. 64° W) 1 J miles to Rebelhon Roadi.

The shifting character of the sands which compose Charles Bar prevents anrthinf
like permanence in the channels, which are subject to frequent and very oousiaertble
ehangos in depth and location, particularly after a south-easterly gale.

ith.
lour inside the

Use, with not

irs 8.W. i W,
forms nume-
Ll of which are
[t«nd from all
Jars very bluft
lard, about 5)

.lilM K, hy f
fchRriehtont""''

Directions for the ports of the United States South of this are given in the Coloi^
bian Navigator, vol. i., and for the Islands and Coasts of the West Indies in vols. ii.
ttudiii. Instructions for the navigation of the West Indies generally are given in
pages 411—436. To these the reader is referred for farther and more complete
uilormation.

W -i

I.) Vv-

m-,aiV!'i}nWI;-v':?;?1iA^ '.^j^'' ,.

SECTION V.

u..^ .^

' lf>;

ACCOUNT OF . THE EOCKS, SHOALS, AND VIGIAS,* IN THE
ATLANTIC ; AND OF THE AUTHORITIES ON WHICH THEY
HAVE BEEN INSK TED IN THE CHAET. .> ; ...... ; ,

i-ti

The present section is in many respects the most unsatisfactory portion of our
work. To deal with the conflicting ana imperfect accounts which so often arise of the
discovery of new shoals and dangers is most perplexing. But of late these doubts
have been dispelled in very many instances by the direct test of the deep sounding
machine, and the testimony thus afforded as to the non-existence (at least, in the
assigned position) of many of the formidable reefs described, in perfect good faith,
has led mony to doubt the authenticity of the whole range of reported rocks. And
this disbelief is unquestionably a growing one, but the subject cannot be dismissed
until a satisfactory and systematic examination of the whole bed of the ocean, now
so readily done, is made.

In a subsequent section the subject of deep sea soundings will be discussed. Its
great importance in relation to the present topic, of doubtful rocks and shoals is mani-
fest, as it is almost the onlv test which is conclusive, and those trials which bear
directly upon each shoal will be specially alluded to in this part of our work.

But while we may dismiss those dangers which havf been absolutely disproved, we
may also have some doubts on the correctness of some of the soundings which have
been cited to show that great depths exist in their neighbourhood. In the earlier ex-

{)eriments which were made with small line, quite incapable of bringing back the
ead, it is evident that at times the indication of them having reached the bottom by
the line ceasing to run, is not altogether satisfactory.

The chief expedition which has been undertaken to disprove these numerous dan-
gers in the Nortn Atlantic, is that sent out by the United States Government in
1851 — 2, in the brig Dolphin, Lieutenant Commander Lee, whose labours will be
quoted hereafter.

It is gratifying to us to find that a former edition of this work, the Atlantic Me-
moir, of 1845, was made the basis of these experiments, and we give vdih pleasui-e the
disproof of many of the shoals and rocks which had been announced in this work,
■hown to have been given from erroneous information, or imperfect observation.

But until a perfect and systematic survey of the depth of the sea is made, we can-
not pronounce absolutely that it. is free from isolated dangers. The enumeration of
them, therefore, will be continued for the uresent, not with the idea of inducing too
much caution, but ab a reference to show tnat they liave not been overlooked.

An isolated rock is a very difficult matter to detect ; and even the most laborious

• VioiA is a SpaniNh word, literally signifjing Wntcli, or Look-out. It w goncriilly, in
the charts, Attached to npots Rupposed to be dangerous, and which should, therefore, b«

n.-rrn^W

;« .■••i;i?f:

..'/■ ■ t ■' J>

IN THE
)H THEY

ortion of our
n arise of the
thoHC doubts
!ep sounding
t least, in the
; good faith,
rocks. And
be dismissed
D ocean, now

iscussed. Its
loals is mani-
Is which bear
vork.

iisproved, we

which hare

he earlier ex-

ng bnck the

e bottom by

imerous dan-
lovemmont in
)ours will be

\ Atlantic Me-
pleasure the
In this work,
Tvation.

|ade, we con-
ameration of
[inducing too
Iked,
lost laboriuuB

I genorully, in
therefore, b«

TO THE NOlVmvVAKD OF LATITUDE 30*. 661

furvoys have failed sometimes to detect such. More examples might be cited of this.
Thus the dangerous rock in the entranceof Milford Haven occupies what was sup-
posed to be deep water, till accident made it known. A similar very dangerous
I>innacle, the Pm Rock, is of recent discovery in the entrance of Dartmouth Har-
bour ; another the Lee Rock, lies off the South end of Lundy Island, in the anchorage.
A man-of-war has lately been veiy nearly wrecked on an miknown rock in the centre
of Braye lloads, Alderney, where our Government are expending enormous sums in
making shelter. The ship in which the Prince of Wales visited Canada struck on an
unknown rock outside a buoy in the St. Lawrence. Another rock was overlooked in
the survey of Tenerife, at its East end. All these, and many others, show the diffi-
culty of pronouncing absolutely, on the non-existence of an isolated shoal, if a
pinnacle of rock may not be seen with very close search, and pass quite unnoticed
\n a channel way. " ,; ' 'j^ ]

The accounts frequently given are very vague and ambiguous, and in some cases
evidently refer to floating objects.

■1 " It is, moreover, possible that navifjators, at a certain distance, may have mistaken
whales for shoals. M. de Chabert, in his vojageto America, in 1741, for the pur-
])08e of making astronomical observations, being at the distance of 70 leagues from
(Jorvo, one of the Azores, descried a dusky body, over which hovered a number of
gulls, a bird seldom seen at such a distance from land ; at first he imagined it to be a
rock, but on coming near, in order to observe it, he found it to be the carcase of a
whale of monstrous bulk. Besides, some of those vigias may have ceased to exist,
after having appeared for some time ; as, for instance, the island which rose out of the
sea in the year 1720, to the westward of St. Michaels, of the Azores, and which dis-
appeared again r.i the 17th of November, 1723."

As a monition against too hastily forming conclusions from mere appearances, we
here add, that an old friend of ours, in crossing the Atlantic, was once alarmed by
the sight of breakers at no great distance. Instead of coming home with an imper-
fect report, he very properly sent out a boat to examine them, and found that they
were caused by a* floating hody, thickly covered with barnacles, &c.. to which a
hatchet was applied, and soon disclosed a cask of wine, which proved to be excellent
Burgundy. It had, no doubt, been floating many years, and dui iiig the time had
probably' been the prolific parent of a number of vigias, &e. On the 4th of August,
1822, Captain Hamlin, in the brip Hevovery, likewise picked up a ho<'shead of claret
wine, that had been a long time m the water, and worm-eaten nea;iy through, lat.
;J4" 51', long. 24" 61'.

We have shown in another work how easily an animated as well as a lifeless being
may be mistaken for a rock. In 1818, the Northampton, Captain Tebbut, on her
passage to India, had passed the meridian of the Cape. On the 1st of August, at
noon, the ship was in lat. 40" 45' S., and long. 24" 32' E. On the next day an object
appeared right ahead, like a boat ; on nearing it looked like the wreck of a vessel,
two parts beiufj above teaser, at two ships' lengths from the lee-bow. The bai'naclcs
could bo distinguished by the naked eye ; hut, when abeam, the creature went down.
It proved to be a thrasher. Captain Tebbut says, " Being forward at the time we
came up with the animal, the two parts above water seemed to me like a wreck,
bottom upward. When I first saw the barnacles, the part covered with tliem looked
rugged, and I was firmly of opinion that it was a rock above water ; so much so, that
I looked over the lee-bow to see that we were clear of it, ordering the man to star-
board the helm." .:»,,,

A similar instance ha« been recorded in the Journal of the Royal Geographic
Society. " A frigate was one day running into the Rio de la I'lata," with her stud-
ding sails set, when the look-out "nian ot the mast-head veported bieakcrs on the bow."
The captain, believing that such a danger could not have escaped the notice of tlie
Spaniards, and having, also, a tolerable chart of the river, suspected it must be some
floating object, and ordeied the ship to bo steered directly for it. The officers were on
the nlert i glasses were frequently directed to ilie spot, and oil concurred in represcnt-
it ns n n»ek a little above wnt»'r= Anxious lojsks were uiieiiid t

\vh<pm they now cousid- itcl as

to tne captain,
uniKiCNsanly running into danger ; but that officer

662

DESCRIPTION OF SHOALS, VIGIAS, ETC.

kopt careiiilly watching his approach, and, as the Btudding-sail boom was just over it,
the cetaceous mouuter (for such it was) hastily made off; and, rising again to blow,
finally disappeared. It was observed to have an excrescence on its back, covered v«ith
flhell-tish. The sea broke gently on its weather side, and appeared becalmed to lee-
ward ; and so perfectly did it resemble a rock, that, had the vessel passed at a dis-
tauce without disturbing it, there can be little doubt but it would now have had a
place upon the list of vigias.

" It is to be observed, in this case, that there was only a little ripple about the body,
but no breakers ; and this circumstance had not escaped the intelligent eye of the
commander." >

The dead carcase ot a whale may even approach nearer in appcai-ancc to a perma-
nent danger than a living one. ' Captain Vidal, in II.M.S. Styx, while passing from
Terceira to St. Michael's, on July 20th, 1844, the mast-head man reported the appear-
ance of breakers on the starboard bow ; the Wind was West, and there was a little
swell. •• With our glasses we saw what appeared to be a small sand-bank, such as
forms the crowns of some of the coral banks in t^i'- eastern oceaq, and there appeared
particularly on its southern margin, to be a few breakers. Finding the vessel could
not fetch it, I sent the master in the gig to ascertain what it really was ; and it
proved to be the carcase of a whale, from which much of the blubber had been
taken, but some, only partially severed, lay floating by the side, and, by the undula-
tion of the waves, presenting the appearance of bi-eakers. Now, I have no hesitation
in stating, that this object so much resembled a sand-bank, or, it might be, a tide-
rock at low water, that had I left it unexamined I should certainly have reported
the probability of its being either one or the other, and, in so doing, I should
have added another vigia to those which disfigure the charts of the North Atlantic
Ocean."

Captain Wilkes, of the United States Expedition, gives the following instance :—

" The oth of September, 1838, being near the I'eported shoal of St. Anne, I deter-
mined to pass over its position.

*' On the 6th, we passed over it ; thu sea was smooth, the horizon clear, and the
day beautiful. At eight, a.m., the look-out cried out, ' Rocks, or a wreck, on the
starboard bow !' whinh at once created an excitement on board. We stood for it.
It had, at first, every appearance of a rock, then that of a wreck with the masts gone.
It proved, however, to be a large tree of cotton-wood, 120 feet in length, and 14 feet
in circumference, at the height of 5 feet from the roots. It had been a long time in
the water, was Ml of barnacles, and much eaten by the teredo navalis. Great quan-
tities of fish were about it, consisting of dolphins, sharks, &c. We did not, however,
succeed in taking any. In rough weather it might easily have been mistaken for a
jfock, particularly if passed in twilight, or at night. There is little doubt in my mind
that many of the numerous vigias that appear in our charts have as little foundation.
No current was experienced hereabouts, and I am led to the conclusion, that a sort of
eddy or still water is here found, wherein most of the wood carried by the Gulf
Stream becomes deposited for a time. On the 8th, we were in long. 34 8' W., lat.
87» 17' N."

In every event, hotwever, it is al ways the safer course, in matters of this nature, to
err rather by marking too many than too few j especially when we make known, as
we have done, the authority that we rely on for tne existence of each. Every one,
of course, is free to act according to his own judgment.

But on all future announcement of the discovery of rocks or shoals, it is absolutely
necessarv that they should be verified by the test of the sounding lead. Without this
they win not be considered as authentic.

yX .^

ij-.t.l

■■»^;,-i.'

The reported shoals, the existence of which have been apparently disproved, arc
marked hereafter in italics, and have the signs (P) attached.

They are here recited to show upon what grounds they are disclaimed. In fuUnt
editinnit they will be omitted. ^ . ■ . -■

, just over it.,
am to blow,
Dovered Viith
Lmed to lee-
«d at a dis-
have had a

out the body,
t eye of the

to a pertna-

Sausing from
the appear-

waa a little
Eink, such as
lere api)earcd

vessel could
r was ; and it
ler had been

the undula-
no hesitation
it be, a tide-
iiave reported
Qg, I should
orth Atlantic

; instauce :—
Inne, I deter-

Icar, and the

wreck, on the

e (stood for it.

e masts gone.

and 14 feet

long time in

Gi'eat quan-

lot, however,

istaken for a

it in my mind

foundation.

;hat a sort of

by the Gulf

*8'W.,lat.

[is nature, to
\e known, as
Every one,

lis absolutely
IWithoutthis

isproved, arr
In fvtm

( 863 )

1.— TO THE NOETHWAED OF LATITUDE 50" DEGEEE8.

NUN ROCK, oflf Cape Wrath, in lat. 68' 62f , long. 4° 66' W.

This rock, with the adjacent bank, was suri'eyed, under an Admiralty order, by
Captain Raraa^fe, in the Cherokee sloop of war, 1*817. It is a venr dangerous isolated
shoal, bearing N.E. by N. mag. or N. 5' .E, true, from Cape Wrath, the N.V*'. part of
Scotland, 15 miles distant. It is of small extent, not half a mile in diameter, with
deep water all around it, and with S\, or, as some say, not more than 2| fathoms over
it. It has been seen to break very high at half tide.

Lion's Bank, in lat. 66° 40', long. 17° 45'.

This bank was sounded by Lieutenant Richard Pickersgill, in the brig Lion, in
1776. Dr. Forster, in his '• History of Voyages made in tiie North," says, «' On the
20th of June, with 320 and 290 fatioms, Pickersgill found a sandy bottom, in 56° 38'
N., and 17° 44' W., which induced him to call that spot Lton^s Bank ; and particu-
larly so, as he found there what is usually seen on all banks at sea, a vast quantity of
sea-fowl, such as gulls, dumdivers, &c. Soon after this, he could no longer get any
soundings, nor were there any more fowls to be seen. This bank is said to have been
sounded on a few years a^o, by Captain Richmond, of Greenock. It is a continuation
of the Rockall Bank, which has been shown by the Survey to extend thus far.

NORTH SHOAL, West of Orkney, lat. 59° 13' 23', long. 3° 34' W.

One of the most dangerous shoals around the British Isles, as it is singularly iso-
lated. It has but 7 feet least water, is not larger than half the size of a boat, and
with 30 to 40 fathoms around it. It bears from Noup Head, Westra, W. ^ N. 17
miles ; Brough of Birsa N.N.W. 9 mUes ; the Old Man of Hoy, N. by E. \ E. 2^
miles.

Aitkin's Rock, to the West of the N. W. of Ireland. (?)

The original notice relative to this imaginary danger, was published at Whitehaven,
12th of September, 1740. On the 16th of July, at seven o'clock at night, in a passage
from Virginia,^ on board the Friendship, of Ayr, John Aitkin, master, coming in at
the N.W. channel of Ireland, saw a rock under water, about 4 feet, distant 40 or 50
yards ; all hands being on deck saw it plainly. Si-^jposed to lie in the latitude of
65° 18' N., and longitude, from the meridian of London, 11° 14' W. From Tory
Island, West, distant 64 miles.

A second advertisement, relative to this rock, wos published by Mr. F. Cumming,
of New York, in the year 1793. " On Thursday, Aujust 9th, 1792, ship Nestor, of
Greenock, from New York, bound to Greenock, being in latitude, per observation, of
55° 19' N., and longitude, per account, of 9° 53' W. of Greenwich. The ship's com-
pany perceived a rock about 4 feet below the surface of ihe water, not 5 fathoms
irom the weather-beam of the ship, in the form of a horseshoe, with one side longer
than the other. The Rev. Mr. Stewart, then a passenger in the Nestor, saw the rock
plainly, with the tangle growing on it.

We have othei* accounts of this rock, and of these, one states its position at 55° 15'
N,, and 10" 40' W. ; a part appearing at 3 feet out of the AVDter, with sounding of 30
to 40 feet a short distance ; at 30 fathoms off, no soundings with o line of 150 fathoms.
In or about the year 1804,-Captain Clarke, since of the Harmontf, of Ayr, believes
that he saw the rock very disthictly ; by his run, it oppeared to lie 20 leagues nearly
true West from Torj' Island. The tangle appeared about 1 foot below the surface, at
about dead low water, and the ship rubbed alongside the rock.

In the True Briton, J. Reid, commander, Wednesday, the 27th of September, 1826,
when steering E.S.E., a man at the mast-head called out that thci-s were breakers close
to our port bow. A rock appeared a little above the water, nearly flat, about 90 feet

664 .

DESCRIPTION OF SHOALS, VIOIAS, ETC.

long, and 40 broad ; saw no breakers, excepting round the rock) and could distinctly
see the sea working over the rock.

Tver M'lver, a rigger in Greenock, stated (in 1820) that many years before, while
he was seaman on board a vessel, they fell in with Aitkin's Rockin fine weather. Tlie
captain caused the boat to be got out, and M'lver was on° the men in the boat. He
8ud the rock was not much under water, had seaweed on it, and was about the size of
a iship's launch.

Several other accounts of this rock have been given, as seen from different vessels ;
and in consequence of all, the Chamber of Commerce of Glasgow addi'essed a letter
to the Admiralty in 1821, stating that no less than six vessels were missing from tbat
port, and solicitmg their loi dships fo cause an examination of the danger. The ap-
plication was renewed in 1826 and 1827. In consequence H.M.S. Oannet was on
this service in 1824, the Harrier and Badger in 1827, and the Pyladea and Dispatch
in 1829 ; but the rock was not discovered.

Again, in 1830, the Onyx end Leveret, two gun-brigs, commanded by Lieutenants
Dawson and Worth, and directed by Captain A. T. E. Vidal, were engaged on this
service. " They put to sea on the 6th of June, when the moon was at the full ; and,
commencing their examination at Tory Island, proceeded nearly along its parallel of
latitude to the westward of all the given positions of the rock. The two vessels weio
always in companny, and the general practice was to sail on parallel lines, distant
from each other from 1 mile to 1^ miles by day, and closing at night to half a mile, or
as much less as the state of the weather rendered necessaiy. During the few hours
of darkness experienced at that season of the year, the vessels were hovc-to, that no
part of the suspected ground might be passed un^jcen, and the leads were kept goiuiif,
both day and night, from the depth of 150 to 200 fathoms. Their distances fioni
each other wei« determined every hour by the angle of elevation subtended by their
respective masts, at the heads of which balls had been placed to facihtate the measure-
ment. Their mutual bearings were taken at the same time ; and men were kept
constantly at the mast-heads during the day, and a vigilant look-out preserved
through the night.

'• This system of crossing and re-crossing over every part of the suspected ground
was persevered in until the 31st of August ; when, having visited every position
assigned to this danger, and indeed the whole space comprehended by them, without
seeing anv rock, or discovering any detached bank, which could indicate its having
existed, the search was relinquished, and the vessels returned to England."

To those, hereafter, who may have to make similar researches, it may be impoitant
to know that Captain Beaufoit (Hydrographer to the Admiralty), in his instructions, "
had recommended that the vessels should sweep for the rock by laying out a large
scope of hawsers between them, and drifting with it over the suspected ground. To
effect this, he suggested two methods— the one, when the two vessels should be on
the same tack, the leading brig keeping a little off the wind, with her main-topsail
occasionally lifting ; the hawsers fast to her quarter, with a spring to them from her
weather-bow ; the sternmost brig lying-to, witli her main-topsail to the mast, the
hawsers from her weather-bow, and a spring to them from her weather-quarter.
The other method Captain Beaufort proposed was, di-ifting oo opposite tacks, tlie
hawsers fastened to theii* sterns, with springs to them from the weather-bow of carh
vessel.

An additional number of hawsers were accordingly pronded for the purpose ; and,
upon the principles desfibed, a line of them, amounting to raoi-e than 700 fathoms,
was laid out, and a large portion of the suspected ground subjected to this mode of
examination. To prevent the central part of this loni| scope from descending to too
great a depth, and to relieve the vessels and hawsers as much as possible from ihs
strain required to keep so much heavy rope in proper tension, the hawsers near the
middle of the line were buoyed at intervals with empty water-casks.

During the month of June many of the mast-head men and others were moment-
arily deceived by the blowing of whales, which at Diat time Avere numcrouw ; and in
August a small black object, a little above the surface of the sea, was productive of

BETWEEN LATITUDES 40° ANit 60».

665

Id distinctly

)efore, while
eather. The
;he boat. He
it the size of

rent vessek ;
!8sed a letter
ng from that
er. The ap-
nnet was on
md Dispatch

Lieutenants
raged on this
,he full ; and.
ts parallel of
9 vessels were
lines, distant
lalf a nuile, or
tie few hours
vc-to, that no
•e kept goins,
listances ft'oni
nded by their
B the measure-
len were kept
)ut preserved

lected ground
very position
them, without
ite its having
i."

be impoitant
instructions, '
out a large

S round. To
ould be on
main-topsail
lem from her
Ihe mast, tlie
Ither-quartcr.
[te tacka, tlie
-bow of. caoli

lurpose ; and,
1700 fathoms,
Ithia mode of
f ndiug to too
Ible from ihs
|ers near the

ere moment-
l-ouH ; and in
lioductive of

similar hope and disappointment. It was first seen from the Leveret, and on examitaa-
tion, proved to be the trunk of a very laree tree, with its roota projecting two or three
feet out of the water. They were covered with weeds, barnacles, and other marine pro-
ductions ; corresponded very minutely with one of the descriptions of the rock. — Journal
of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. I, pp. 51 to 58. We have thus quoted largely
to show that ^reat troubles are g^ven from imperfect accounts of dangers like this
supposed Aitkin's Rock.

Brasil Rock, in lat, 5V 10', long. 16". (P)

M. Bellin, in his Memoir of 1742, states that this rock is marked in lat. 51% and
long. 19° 30' from Paris, according to Brouage, hydrogprapher, and Laisne, a pilot.
It has been variously represented in different charts, although its existence has been
doubted. Messrs. Verdun and Borda have added to their remarks upon this rock,
that they do not believe it to exist. It was, however, said to have been seen in the
year 1791, hy the company and master of an English merchant ship, stating that it is
really a high rock, or islef, apparently bold-to, and to which he passed so near, that
he could have cast a biscuit on shore. The longitude, according to his computation,
was about 16° W. It is highly improbable that a rock of this class should exist,
which improbability is increased by the deep soundings got by Lieutenant Berryman,
1905 fethoms, about 160 miles to the N.N.W. of it.

Kramet's Bank, in about 60° 57' N., and 16° 40' W. (P)

This bank appeared in M. Bellin's Chart of 1751, and was probably copied fromi
the Dutch charts of the Greenland seas. It is said to have been discovered by
Captain Ahf Kratner. Captain John Ross sought for this bank, but unsuccessfully,
in 1818. He could find no soundings in 130 fathoms, anywhere on or near tlie
place. ^

■ BETWEEN LAtStUDBS 40' AND 50° N.

Roche Bonnb and the Banche Verte in the Bay of Biscay.
These are two reefs, lying vnthin a short distance of each other, East of the Isle of
Re. Their position will be found already noticed, in the description of the coasts,
&c., p. 481. -y.i

The Chapelle Rock, in lat. 47° 43', long. 8° 4' 30" W.

In the Analysis of the French Chart of the Atlantic, of 1786, it was remarked that
a rock, den- iinated La Chapelle, on the chart of 1766, in lat. 47° 24', and long. 7° 12',
was said to Lave been in 1764.

But, on the 27th of September, 1822, the sloop Favorite was returning from Ma-
laga toward Liverpool, at daylight, the water appeared green, as if on soundings ; at
10 a.m. the water seemed greener, also at noon, in lat. 47° 26' 1", long. 7° 41'.

28th, at 8 p.m., sounded, and got rocky bottom in 65 fathoms, the arming of the
lead bringing up a bit of shell and thiee small black specks. At S^ 21', again sounded,
in the same depth of water, 65 fathoms, and rocky bottom ; but this time the arming
had only two small specks, and a veiy minute one ; made sail, and kept away to clear
the land. As midnight, sounded ; no bottom at 80 fathoms. At six a.m., no appear-
ance of land; hauled up: the dajrlight increasing^, perceive the water is less dis-
coloured 5 and by noon the water is quite blue again.

" At noon, latitude, 47° 49' 38 ' ; 47° 49' 49". Longitude, 9° 15' 59".

"We have really passed over a bank, which may extend, in longitude, from about
7* 24' to 8° 29' W. of Greenwich. I am aware, however, that this can be considered
as a rough guess only. At all events the latitude, in which we got soundings in 65
fathoms, may fairly and surely be taken at about 47" 37' 12".

"The Chapelle Bank, as we may call it, will at- any rate bs found in lat. 47' 37',
omewhere between the meridians of 7° 24' and 8° 29. a.^ - ■ ■ ■

666

DE8CBIPTI0N OF SHOALS, VIGIAS, ETC.

The French surveyors have since said that the Chapelle Rock, which is traced on
several old charts, has long been the object of cur ineffectual researches. We have
found only, in the situation assigned to this rock, an insulated bottom of small extent,
having over not less than 80 tathoms, and on which the sea may break in rough
weather, but have little reason for believing that a danger exists hereabout.

Notwithstanding this uncertainty, we have another statement of a different cha-
racter,— a rock atoaah : 9th of August, 1842 :— " At l^ 30' p.na. breakers seen close to
the vessel, and a sunken rock observed distinctly and repeatedly above water, in the
hollow '>f the sea, which clashed together and broke much. Supposed the rock might
be about %1 feet below the usual sea level : its circumference appeared to be about 40
feet 5 it was of a sandy colour, like freeatone, and no weed appeared on it. Latitude,
47° 43' N., long. 8" i* 30" W.— James Taaker, master of the Grace Darlimj: We
mubt leave the reader to foi-m his own opinion on this. The last communication ib,
perhaps, worse than worthless ; there was no sounding.

DeviTs Bocks, in lat. 46' 36', long. 13° .7'. (?)

We have here a most mischievous announcement, which has only lately been dis-
proved by Capt. Pullen, as depths exceeding 1,600 and 1,800 fathoms exist near the
positions named. The following are the announcements of this bugbear : —

M. Bellin, in his Memoir, of 1742, noticed, that in lat. 46° 66', about 110 leagues
W.S.W, of Ushant, there is a rock, even with the surface of the water, discovered by
Capt. Brignon, of the Constance, of St. Malo, in 1737. The Devil's Rocks, in lat. 46°
36 , and long. 13° 10', according to M. Delise, might be the same danger. They were
particularly observed in 1764, by Capt. Thomas, of Havre de Grace, from whose
oommunication to M. L'Abb6 Diqiiemare, we find that, on the 23rd of May, 1764,
Capt. Thomab observed, at noon, the lat. 46° 24'. The rock was bc-^n, at a short dis-
tance, 3 feet above water, of a g: ay colour, covered with moss, ancT about 40 feet in
diamsJter, in lat. 46° 24', longitude about 13° 10'.

Again : — " The Brothock, of Arbroath, Copt. William Peter, 13th of November
[1818], at noon observed a rock about 10 feet from the starboard quoi-ter, about 2 feet
under the surface of the water, in lat. 4G° 36' N., and the longitude, by mean of two
well-regulated chronometers, 13" 7' W. TThe sea recoiled around it, ana broke on the
top. Its ciicumference appeared to be about 40 feet.

This rock was said to have been afterwards seen by Captain Scott, of the cutter
Voast : and again, on 26th of April, 1829, by Captain Henderson, of the Fortescw.
The appearance, according to the latter, was that of a rock, of a brown colour, about
12 feet long, nearly as much in breadth, and about 2 feet above water. The latitude
46° 33', and loneitude 13° 2' W. Captain Scott was of opinion that there are more
heads of rocks than one ; that which ne saw was like the poiut of a sugar-loaf.

It was supposed to be seen, in 1829, by Captain Swainso'i, in the Fortitude, of
Dublin, and described as in lat. 46° 36', long. 13° 8'. They wer3 subsequently sought
for and seen by a commander, who has said, that the water was seen breaking upon
them very high, and as it receded the rocks were disceinible.

Lieutenant Syrigg, commanding H.M.S. ^mA;, says: — "On the 6th of August,
1842, we were distant from the Devil's Hock, at noon, 36 nules, and, doubting its

N.N.W. and S.S.E. direction for 1 J miles, its greatest width close to our wake, about
three-quarters of a mile, having very ii-reguuur and indented sides, in bold outline
with the dark water surrounding it. A heavy swell from N.W. seemed smoother
over the patch, without any visible break ; but that it was a shoal no doubt exists on
my mind, or on many that saw it. Our dead reckoning places the spot in lat. 46°
12' N., long. 16° 3' 30' W."

On passing this way in the Friends, 17th of August, 1820, Captain Livingston
says : — " At about 2^ 20' p.m., supposed to be certainly to the southward of the
DeviTs Bocks, and looking over the lee-quarter, 1 saw what, at lirst sight, appeuied to

, .!>"

is troced on
1. We have
small extent,
ak in rough

(Ut.

iifferent cha-
seen close to
vater, in tho
^e rock might
be about 40
it. Latitude,
arlhuj:\ We
uunication is.

itely been dis-
ixist near the

it 110 leagues
discovered by
cks, in lat. 46°
:. They were
;, from whose
af May, 1764,
at a short dis-
lout 40 feet in

L of November
Br, about 2 feet
t\ mean of two
d broke on the

I, of the cutter
the Fortescue.
colour, about
Ihe latitude
there are more

■loaf.
le Fortitude, of
\uently sought
jreaking upon

th of August,
I, doubting its
[was suddenly
ler, which had
Extending in a
\t wake, about
bold outline

ned smoother
loubt exists on

ot in lat. 46°

|in Livingston

nvard of the

It, appeured to

BETWEEN lATlTUDES 40» AND 60'.

667

be a bottle, about 30 fathoms to leeward. The sea immediately covered it, and on its
einerging again, it .icemed like the back fin of a shark, in the wash of tJie sea, about
4 incnes above water, and of a triangular form. A few moments afterwards, as I was
attempting to point out the place I had seen it in to the mate, be remarked that he
saw breakers off the boom-end ; and, on paying attention to it, I plainly saw a light
curl and break of the water for fully hall a mile ; but as t^e water, was very smooth,
the break was not great, though still plain enough, while no part of the surrounding
sea broke. The result was an impression, that we had passed a large and very dan-
gerous shoal, situated in about 46° 9' 30" N., and 12° 60' W."*

Here ate ten announcements of this supposed rock, but not a tingle sounding.

Capt. W. J. S. PuUen, in H.M.S. Cyclops, sounded with 1,600 fathoms, no bottom,
in 46' 42' N., long. 13° 6' W. ; and again in 46° 12', long., 13" 3* W., vrith 2,220,
fathoms; but, from the unfavorable weather, it was considered that only 1,800
fathoms was tho vertical depth without bottom.

This is negative evidence, but we have positive proof in the sounding obtained by
Commander Dayman, of H.M.S, Oorgon, in Uct. 1868, when he got a good cast of
2,360 fathoms in 47° 6'N., 126° 7' W. : and again, by Lieut. Berryman, in the Dol-
phin, who got bottom with 2,190 fathoms, 60 miles to the South.

These settle the question of tlie Devil Rock. '"'"'■ *' ■ " •*

-Smi<A iZocA, lat. 49° 36' N., long. 16° 17' W. (?)

The barque Port Wallace, J. W. Smith commander, June 27, 1866, states that he
saw a small rock, 6 or 8 feet under water, and another with more water near it, lat.
49" 36' 36', long. 16° 17' 16 .f This is impossible, both from its ijosition, and from
the fact of the U.S. ship Dolphin finding 2,700 fathoms, at 65 miles to the West

of it. .■>^f,.-; -:.;;(v - -.;«-; i-:-: -'^r;,:

Esmeralda Hock, lat. 45° 13' N., long. 16° 48' W. . - v v

The barque Esmeralda passed a supposed rock, lat. 46° 13', long. 16* 48', by imper-
fect D. R. It was thought to be 4 feet out of water by Captain Henderson, who was
a passenger, t But Commander Dayman, in the Gorgon, in 1868, found 2,260 fiithoms
at 46 miles N.N.E. of it, and 2,100 fathoms at 36 miles.

D7INA Rock, off Gape Fmisterre, lat. 44° 46' N. long. 9' 40' W. (?)

This announcement we received from Capt. Grote, of the Russian Imp. Navy, when
b command of the Dvina, the vessel which was hardly chased by our men-ol-war in
the Pacific during the last Russian war.

" On Jan. 14 — 26, 186!i> the foretop look-out descried breakers right ahead, and we
discovered it to be a rock. It is on a level with the water. Our olwervations gave us
lat. 44° 43' 6', and long. 9° 37' 23' W. The sea was perfectly white with foam for
about 200 fathoms." Capt. Bessarabski made it to be in lat. 44° 48', long. 9' 43'.

We have nothing to disprove the existence of this, but the position is remarkable.
It must be left for future test. , .„ ^ . ,,

The charts of Van Keulen, of the last century, showed a rock in 44° 43' N., a.id 11°
22' W. ; but it has long been omitted as not authentic.

• In the " United Service Journal," October, 1834, p. 199, is a lively description of a
moonlight night at sea, during a gale, which concludes with that of a dreadful reef, sup-
posed to be the Bail's Bocks. The communication is more in the style of a novelist than of
seaman, and there is not a word on the situation of the reef.— See, further, Capt. Living-
on's comimnication upon this subject, " Nautical Magazine," December, 1834, p. 737.

I Naut. Mag., Apru, 1857, p. 221. % Ibi''., Dec., 1867, p. 67ar.

a
Bton'

009

DE8CKIPTI0N OF SHOALS, VIGIA8, ETC.

iean 5Aoa/, 45° 32' N., long, ir 67 W. (P)

" July 4, 1854, 6 p.m., perceived a ithoal rock with heavy hreakent right ahead}
appeared to extend about an inch to the north-eastward. — Capt. Lean, schooner
Mary. — Shipping Oazette.

The remarks on the Devil Bock and the Dvina Rock, in this quarter, are also
applicable to this.

Mayda (?) 1105.— Clark's Book (f) 1842, lat. ifi" 40' long. 10' 17' W. (P)

Mayda{f) — This vigia appears, on the French chart of 1766, in lat. 46"^ 48', and
lung. 19° 50'. The latitude, according to Bellin, is uncertain, and its longitude more
s'). A report, made to the Admiralty of Bordeaux by Pierre Nau, in October, 1705,
states it to be a little white island. There is a note concerning it in the French Depot,
but it disagrees with the report of Pierre Nau. Captain Baden, in the ship Mane,
when returning firom Martinique, April 10th, 1738, discovered Mayda, which,
according to his observation, he found in lat. 46° 10'. He remarked^ve heads of rocks,
and a breaker of 6 or 7 feet high on the danger.

This is the original information on thiis spot. But it was revived by the following :
— " On board the bark Hartley, W. B. Bradford, master, bound from Sierra Leone to
Plymouth, passed, on Friday, 26th August, 1842, at half-past 5 o'clock, p.m., in lat.
45 40', long. 19° 17' W., at the distance of three-fourths of a mile from the ship, a
double-headed rock, which, during the fall of the sea, was uncovered to the height of
6 or 8 feet. The sea broke over it with a gentle spray, and during the rising and
falling of the water it was observed to be of a dirty whtte colour, interspersed with
dark coloured patches. Robert Clark, Senior Assistant-Surgeon to thp Colony of
Sierra Leone." — Nautical Magazine, 1842, p. 852.

This might, possibly, have been the carcase of a whale, but here is, another :—
" When going out to the West Indies, in 1840, in lat. 46° 36' N., long. 19° 30' W., I
saw a rock within 100 yards, of a conical shape ; it appeared about 4 feet out of water,
in the trough of the sea. I should think it woiUd be under water in a smooth sea. —
2>. England.

The general depth of the ocean hereabout, above 2,000 fethoms, throws every doubt
upon these statements, unsupported by sounding^.

The Five Heads, in lat. 44° 1 long. 19° 25' (P).

Under this denomination the French churt of 1766 has a rocky shoal some part
above water, in lat. 44° 10', and lone. 19° 25'. It is marked some nunntes more to the
North on the charts of M. Van Keulen. No acc\>unt of it is, however, given either by
him or Bellin ; nor, although sought after, has any account of it yet been found.
Capt. Dayman found 2,375 fathoms near the spot. ' ,

Chaderton Reef, lat. 44' 56' N., long. 23° 51' West. (P)

" On my passage from Caldera to Liverpool, April 20th, 1858, passed a reef of rock
covered with water. Owing to the strong breeze blovnng at the time, I was unable
tb make fiirther observation." T. H. Chaderton, commanding the barque Salu-cc-

At 30 miles ~:i.SE. of this, the Dolphin found the depth of 1,500 fathoms.

Laidman Rock, lat. 46° 0' N., 26° 0' W. (P)
Probablv a volcanic shock. ' " *

Isle Verte,(?) or Oreen Rock, (?) 44° 52' N., and Ion. 26° 25' W. (?)
ITiis imaginary rock, the Green Island of the old charts, has been omitted in others,
on the authority of Messrs. Verdun and Borda, who have said, " On M. Bellin's chart
of 1766, in lat. 44° 52', and long. 26° 35', is an imaginary island, named the Isle Verte,

authority

BETWEEN LATITUDES 4»» ANJi 50\

669

ht ahead i
, schooner

•, are also

'.(?)

r 48', and
itude more
ober, 1705,
ach Depot,
(hip Marie,
da, which,
ds of rocks,

following :
ra Leone to
p.m., in lat.
I the ship, a
le height of
e rising and
persed with
B Colony of

another :—
9° 30' W., 1
out of water,
oaooth sea. —

even' doubt

some part
naore to the
en either by
been found.

reef of rock
was unable
Salwceri

ns.

I?)

Id in others,
ellin's chart
J Isle Verte,
[island, but
lie English
no better

Captain TuUoch, of New Hampshire, stated that an acquaintance of his, Captain
Coombs, of the ship Pallas, of Bath, in Maine, keeping a look-out for Qreen Island,
actuallv saw it, being^ a very fine day, and the water remarkably smooth. He went
out in nis boat, examined it, and found it to bo a large rook or stone, covered with

Screen herbage, or moss, some of which he pulled off. The rock did not seem much
ai'ger than a vessel with the bottom up, and it was very smooth aioimd. The summit
was higher than a vessel's bottom would appear out of the watf X; being about 20 feot
high above the sea. Captain Coombs remarked that if it had i^ot been so high, he
should, when he first saw it, have supposed it to be a vessel which had been upset.
But a depth of 1,500 fathoms has been found near the spot.

Oreeve'a Ledge, in lat, 44° 15', long. 25* 5'. (P)

This is stated to have been seen by the Dutch ship Anna Catharine, Captain J.
Qrecve, July 7, 1745, and to be nearly level with the sea. It is said to have been
Keen by Captain Currie, of the brig Diana, of Port Glasgfow, 1811. Captain H. T.
D. Siclcens, of the Dutch Marine, sailed over the spot in 1846, without seeing any-
thing of it, with a good look-out. It lies midway between two soundings of 1,500
and 1,850 fathoms.

MiDGLEY Shoal, in lat. 44° 9' 30', long. 22° 57' 46'.

This shoal was discovered by Captain Thomas Midgley, in 1838, who describes it
as follows : — " On the 14th of June, 1838, at 2'' 40' p.m., on my passage from Africa
to Liverpool, I suddenly fell in with a large patch or belt of discoloured water, of a
dirty gray appearance, much resembling river water, and rippling vety mttch, as if
upon a shoal bank. No rock nor danger could be seen from the mast-head, but tho
water appeared very much discoloured for more than half a mile in breadth, as far as
the eye could reach, in a direction. N.W. and S.E. by compass.

" The vessel passed at a quarter to half a mile from the S.E. point or extremity of
it, which lies in lat. 44° 9' 30" N., long., by an excellent chronometei, 22° 57'45''^W.
of Greenwich, and by account from Flores, 23° 5' W. ; the latitude deduced from the
sun's meridian altituae, taken on the same day, with two excellent sextants, and the
chronometer ascertained to be correct oflf Flores four days previously, and subsequently
when off Holyhead in St. George's Channel. The altitudes for the time were taken
a few minutes after passing the danger, and when it was still within 1 mile f "om
the vessel.

" In appearance this water very much reminded me of the shoal ground near Nan-
tucket, and those on George's Bank ; had it been caused by ice, spme would have been
seen upon the surface ; if by flsh, there would have doubtless been many birds h(,vt!r-
ing about, which was not the case.

" At the time I saw this danger, I was running with a favourable breeec nnd
dear weather, and the contrast between the deep blue colour of the water, in ^viiich
the vessel was sailing, and that of the danger I allude to, was noticed by ever j one
on board.

" I sincerely tegret my inability of closely examining the shoal, owing to my crew
being on short allowance of provisions and water, in consequence of a long preva-
lence of light and adverse wmds."

The late Captain Midgley was a man of perfect veraci^, but the appearance might;
have arisen from other causes. At present we have nothing ts contradiot it.

WoodaWa Rock, near lat. 43° 20', long. 25" 10'. (?) .

" Ship Indemnity, from Demerara to England, 1829, at 30' p.m., discovered a rock.
on her starboard beam, distant about three ships' length ; a heavy swell from the-
N.W. With each succeeding swell the rock was entii-ely covered, but at intervals it
showed several feet abe^'e water, and perfectly perpendicular. From the mast-head
it was seen to a great depth below the water, and. appeared to be in the shape of a-
conc. At the preceding noon the latitude, by observation, was 43° 20' N., longitude,
bv chronometer, 25° 10' W. At 28 miles N.N.W. 1,860 fathoms have been
found."

870

DESCRIPTION OF SHOALS, VIGIAS, ETC.

' Amplimoxt Rocks, in kt. 42' 51', long. 24".

In M. Bellin's Memoir of 1742, a danger ia mentioned in lat. 42' ^0', long. 24" 5',
which was seen in 1735 by M. Guichardi, commander of the ship Dauphin, of Nantes.
It has two points of rocks separated, and 30 feet above water. He ascertained the
height within a league of the danger, which appears to be the same as that called
La Basse tTAmpUmont, stated to be nearly in the same latitude and longitude. We
have given it the position originally assigned by the Memoir. Some Euglishman has
called it by tiie name of Edmund Knowles's Bock, by whom it is supposed to have
been seen.

These rocks, appearing like the two masts of a brig, and nearly in the position
assigned, were seen by Captain MUls, in the brig Tamer, early in 1829.

" On the 13th of May, 1842, 1 sailed from Paimboeuf for Quebec, with the wind at
N.E. AVe had a fine run to long. 19"" 44' W. On the 23rd of May (at noon, in lat.
42° Sl'N.j by two good observations, and long. 24° 3' W.), at 7'' 20'jp.TO., I pasBcd a
rocg within two ships' length. When I first saw it, it was a little before the larboard
beam, and appeared like a ship's anchor buoy. When it came upon th^ quai-ter, I
saw the sea-weed quite plain upon it, as did also the watch on deck. Another part of
the rock we saw under water, about 8 or 10 feet from the rock we saw above water ;
at intervals it was covered and uncovered. We had not much swell on at the time,
Ane pleasant weather. At the time of passing the rock the ship was in lat 42" 51'
N., long. 24' 15' W. The rock was seen a considerable time after we passed it. Wind
at the time W.N.W. Ship's head, North, going 3 and 3| knots pur hour." — Captain
Thomas Alderson, of the Morning Star.

It was also said to be seen by Captain L. W. Duff, of the Esporanoe, on his
voyage from Valparaiso to Swansea, on Nov. 19th, 1846. He was looking out for the
Amplimont Ilocks, scarcely expecting to meet with them, when he was startled by a
large and dangerous rock, with two uuintcd summits in the hollow of the sea, not ten
yards off on the larboard beam. He could see no more of it after passing, nor the
sea breaking on it, which it would do in bad weather. He had the day before passed
Corvo, and found his chronometer accurate, and also the same on making Lundy
Island. Ifis position of it is lat. 42' 56' N., long. 24° 30' W. We have given the
mean of this and that by Captain Alderson as the position.

We have no direct evidence to contradict this, and therefore it must be left for
future decision. In all the cases cited there was no attempt at verification.

*' Henderson or Chaucer Ba> ' , lat. 42° 45' N., long. 29' 0' W. (P)

The ship Chaucer, Captain Robert Henderson, firom the Mauritius to Glasgow,
states that : —

«• On October 28th, 1860, at noon, wo were in lat 42° 4" N., long. 28" 46' W.,
steering N.W. by W. (true), with light variable winds from the eastward, and fine
clear weather. Having ureviously observed that the water had changed colour
about 10 a.m., and since that there was a sensible ripple, at 2 p.m. I sounded, and
found hard bottom at 48 fathoms ; the distance run since noon about 6 miles.

" At 4 p.m., having steered the same course, in lat. 42' 49' N., long. 29° 4', sounded
and found 50 fathoms, and at 6 p.m., having run about 6 miles, round 70 fathoms,
rocky bottom.

" From observing the change of colour and ripple at the surface of the water, at
10 a.m., and having sailed from that time up to 6 jj.m. nearly N.W., the bank mov
probably extend considerably to the S.E. of the position where I took my first souna-
ing at 2 p.m." — Shipping Gazette, November lOtu, 1860.

This appears ouite circumstantial, but yet 1210 fathoms was found, by U.S.8'
Dolphin, at its S.E. extremity. ' .

, ~. , The Three Chimneys, in lat. 47" 54', long. 29' 40'. (P)

This vigia is said to have been seen on the 10th July, 1820, by Cajtain de Clai

loiiff. 24" 5',
t, ox Nantea.
irtained the
that called
iti'dc. We
lishmaii has
oaed to have

the position

the wind at
noon, in lat.
,, I patjBcd a
the larboard
1^ quarter, I
other part of
bove water;
I at the time,
in lat 42" 51'
8cd it. Wind
r." — Captain

ranee, on his
[g out for the
Btartlcd by a
D aea, not ten
sing, nor the
before passed
lakinjj Lundy
,ve given the

it be left for
Ion. .

to Glasgow,

t. 28"'45'W.,
lard, and flue
langed colour
[sounded, and
lies.

' 4', sounded
70 fathoms,

the water, at

le bank inov

first sound-

by U.S.S*

iin de ('!»'

BETWEEN LATITUDES 40" AND fiO'.

fT^

Fernel, who approached within 2 leagues of it, and who remaiued two hours in sight
of it, and appears to be one which a M. de Merry has mentioned. The charts vary
with regard to its position.

Thus much we have stated in our former editions ; but Mr. Heron, of Greenock, in
1824, adds, *' I am informed by the master of a merchant-vessel, that the Chimneys
actually exist ; for a whole watch, as well as himself, saw them. They were seen
about twilight, and three heads were distingmshed."

Captain Roallons, iii tha brig Eagle, says that he passed a rock above water, at the
distance of about 4 miles, on the outward passage from Hamburgh to Newfoundland,
on July 29th, 1«42, "in 47° 37' 22% long. 28° sf; it formed three distinct points ; the
highest to the westward appeared to be about 80 feet high, the sea breaking violently
over the lower part, near the eastern extremity, but no appearance of woal water
around it."

This must have been ice. A depth pf 1900 fathoms has been found in the first-named
position by the Dolphin.

Mariner Kock, 46° N., 29' 35' W. (?)

This rock, said to have been seen in 1831, by Mr. Swinton, is also placed 25 miles
further Wggt • bnt it lies between two soundings of 1760 fatboms.

Oot^h's Bocks, or Harrison's, in lat. 40° 28', loug. 30° 0'. (?)

These rocks appeared in the chart of M. Rochette, 1778, with the words, " Rocks
seen by Captains Gough and Birch." Yankeulen and Bellin have indicated several
dangers in the vicinity to the N.E., but their existence has been denied by the pilot»
of the Azores.

Captain Livingston says : — " Captain Beauford, of the brig Concord, of North Yar-
mouth, told me at Malaga, in 1820, that he twice saw Gough and Birch's Rocks,
when bound from Newfoundland to Lisbon ; that one of them is about 12, and the
other 3, feet above water ; and that they lie nearly in the longitude originally as-
signed them in the charts, but 5' more to the northward."

Another report states, that Gough's Rocks were seen by Captain Harriwn, in the
brig Hope, from the Sierra Leone to Cork 17th April, 1830, lat. 40° 16', long. 33".
At 11 a.m. two rook appeared close under the lee-quarter. In smooth water these
rocks would be even with the water's edge, and in the hollow of the sea Captain
Harrison could distinctly see six or eight down in the water.

These statements are vague, and it is improbable that thev should have escaped
detection by the pilots and others frequenting the Azores. 1116 bottom, however, is
not so deep here as elsewhere, for 830 fathoms fathoms only wp£ found 20 miles to
the North of Gough's position.

Bcazkfj Shoal, in about lat. 40° 45' N., long. 36° 47' W. (?) .

In the chart of the Atlantic Ocean, drawn up by M. Rochette, and published by
him in 1778, there is a shoal of 5 fathoms, stated to have been seen m 1769 by a
Spanish ship in lat. 40° 26', long. 36° 5'.

'• Captain E. W. Beazley, then commanding the bark Castries, from the West
Indies to London, on Sunday, June 20th, 1841, at 6'> 20' p.m., passed a shoal half a
cable's length to the northward of the ship ; it appeared about the size of a large
ship's quartor-dock, with the sea-weed almost awash with tho water's edge ; the sea
rolU.'d over it, but did not break. Tho latitude and longitude places it in lat. 40°45'N.,
long. 36° 47' W."

This statement, which cei-tainly does not appear to be lightly mode, but it seems to
have probably been a floating wreck.

Spanish Shoal, 1769. (?) Wahlstein Breakers, 1867. (?)

A shoal was inscribed vaguoly in the old charts in '. T 26', long. 36° 5', as having
ktu seen in 1769 by a Spanish nhip.— " Afluutic Mc ;i .b" 1812, p. 131.

6ta

DESCRIPTION OF SHOALS, VIGIAS, ETC.

Caption C. J. Wahlstein, commanding the Rumian barque Jtuneberff, on Scptcmbor
dth, 1857, waain 40" 20', long. 30° 18', pamed through a very rough sea, which in i\
moment commenced breaking over the veHscl, and continued for 20 minutea. The
wate? aiao changed colour for the same period, with all appearance* of ithottl water.- •
"Nautical Magaiino," j>. A06.

There is at present nothing to contradict this statomont.

Jaquet Island, in kt. 40" 66', lung. 80' 30'. (P)

Stated to have been seen again in 1789, but disbt'liuvod.

A letter ttom Jersey, 3rd of April, 1838, states that Jaqu6t hie, in about 40" ill)' N.,
long. 32° SO* W., was seen by the brig 8ea-Jlower, of Jersey, at 6 a.m., on the 20tli
of April, 1830 : liic weather nno and clear ; but no bottom was found at 100 fathoniH.
Theude appeared to be half a mile in length, and about 300 foot, or 100 yurUN, hi^li
above the surface of the sea. This must have been an ieeh«rq, althougli Mr. ].«
Oros, mate of the Sta-Jlower, declares that it wan not. The depth hereabout is 2,<KH)
fiithoms. V . ,,

Beaufort Bank, lot. 42' 37', long. 41" 45'.

Lieutenant A. Sainthill, R.N., commander of the ship Beaufort, on returning fi-oin
Jamaica, August 3, 1832, when in lat. 42° :)7', long. 41° 45', of>Ner\'ed the water to bu
discoloured t in consequence of which he twice tried for soundings, and found rocky
ground at the depth of 100 fothoms. But Conmiander Dayman found no iMttoni
with 3,(N)0 ftithoms up and down in 42° 07' N. and 41° 28' W., about 32 miles ott' in
September, 1858.

Notwithstanding that Cu.r' '- r Dayman's sounding of 3,000 fathoms so nonr
Lieutenant Sainthill's positir -hich, however, he in not confident to half a de-

gree of longitude), would ap|.».-j.iUv diNnruve it« existence, yet Lieut. Sainthill him
repeated his statement : — "lean only tell you that I am perfectly convinced that wo
touched bottom, which Captain Dayman would call an excellent up and down ca<*t.
The arming of the lead showed sharp rooky l>ottom of fine blueish ashos, and my
opinion is mat wo were over a submarine volcano in a state of eruption. — (" Nutit.
Mag.," 1851, 200.)

We muat leave these two statements to bo reconciled by Mure investigations.

''"''' ."^ " DruitTi Reef, in lat. 41° 19', long. 41° 25. (P) *

On the 12th of April, 1831, Captain Trcadwell, in the Druid, of London, ^xmnX
this reef on his starboard hand, at not more than 30 yardH distant. The reef had the
appearance of ivom 7 to 10 sugar-loaf heads, and its length, iVom E.N.E. to W.S.W.
was estimated at 10 to 14 feet. It was about 3 feet above water.

A reef was hci-otofore inserted from the Spanish chart, as seen in 1803, lat. 41° 2-1',
long. 41' 20'; but we ore not acquainted with the authority under which it hns been
there introduced. It mtiy jmHsibly be a rock, said to be seen by Detmaires, a pilot, in
1083, who reported thut it appeared at the Iteigitt of a sloop ub«)vu the wiitcr. Hclliii
assigned to tnis danger lot. 42' 0', long. 41 ' 10'. The nponish chart uImo cxhiliitN
unower tngia, said to have lK<en seen in 1708, lot. 43" 30', lung. 37° 35'. All thc^u
wore more likely to be of ice only.

i. ' i Hermffnutfs Breakers, in lat. 41° 2', long. 40° 23'. (P)

They were inserted originally imon the authority of M. H(TViiu:oult, cnnimnndcr of
Le Conqturant, of NantcH, 20th or June, 1723, wno dcHciihi'd thorn as cunipoNcd of
two parts, between which ho wdj» forced to pas. The sea iM'tween was very dpiir,
and broke heavily upon the dangers.

Again, on the 12th of May, 1827, Coijtnin Maxwell, of the ship Ifnnie, on Iiin

Sassage tvom Liverpool to New York, fell in with three sunken rocks, with o tnnu n-
ouH sea breakinn; on them, opparenttv from 4 toO feet under the Nurfacc, in hit 112
North, long. 49" 23' West, ana olraut ,30 feet in eircumference ; the lost of thcni tiiih d
off to the north-eastward with & lor.jg ledge. It was again Koid to have been Hin on

June
appei
ooaer
byCi
and

Thi

obaer
other

28nd

sailed

Tht)

broad.

finding

BETWEKN LATITUDES 4(y» AND 50».

6^3

Soptombor
which in a
lUteB. Th6
itlMrater. <

t 4ft" (■SB' N.,
Ill the 25th
00 fivthomH.
ytmlH, hiiifh
ugh Mr. I<o
)out is 2,<K)()

;urning[ ft'oin
watvr t(> bo
found rocky
I no bottom
I miloM oH' in

lonw so ncnr
to half a <li •
Bainthill him
lood that wo
d down fttht.
hoB, and my
«».—(" Nttut.

rations.

[ndon, paoHrd

reef had tho

to W.S.W.

lat. 41° 24 ,

it hnR bei'ii

VH, a pilot, in

Mer. Hclliii

^Imo cxhibitK

All tlui'e

Inimnndcr of

I'onipoHi'd of

very clnir,

loniff, on liin

Ih a tronu n-

1 in hit U 2

Ithcni tiiihd

locn Htn on

June 20, t8M, by K. T. iHarqttand, master of the schooner Mentor, at Jersey, and
appeared to be a2ottt 3 feet aboTe water, when it was passed about a mile oC. Qood
obaernlitioiu made it in lat. 40* 27', long. 49° 66' W. In 1816 it was aaid vo bs seen
by Captain Lourp, of the brig AlexaMkr Savage, who places it in lat. 41° 6' 23' N.,
and long., by dead reckoning, 49° 67'.

Tlie position is almost conclusive against its existenco, bnt Captain Maxwell's
observations demonstrate that it was ice that he saw, as is probably uie case '/vith the
others.

DaraUKi Socka, in lat. 40" 60', Jong. 84" 63'. (P)

M. Bellin, in his Memoir, of 1742, hfi» said that this danger was seen on the
28nd of August, 1700, by M. Daraith, who approached within 1^ leagues of it, thm
sailed round it, in order to observe it well, and took an altitude within sight of it.
Th« rook is desorilicd as extending 1{ leagues, bein^ three-quarters of a league
broad. This was manifestly ice. Its existence is disproved oy Lieut. Berryman
finding 2,710 fathoms on the spot.

Watenn's Roek, lat. 40- 18', long. 63° 40', (?)

Captain T. A. Watson, of the Harbinger, writes : — " April 28th, 1824, at eight a.m.,
moderate weather, a man saw something ahead; the helm was immediatelv ordered
a-weather to clear it t being only 16 or 20 fathoms to leeward of it, whicn enabled
me to diittinotly make it out to be a rock, just even with the water. It was covered
with weed, similar to that oa half-tide rocks ; it was of a light ^een, with some
branches of a red colour. It was at times, on the top of a sea, invisible ; but in this
hollow of a sea, several feet uncovered. I observed- the sea to break on IL twice,
rnuNin« a Hpray, as any pinnacle-like substance, with deep water around it, might be
ex|>eotod to do. The lead was hove as soon as it could be got forward, but there was
no bottom at 90 fathoms perpendicular. From an excellent observation at noon I
consider it to lie in lat. 40° 18' N., long., by dead reckoning, 63° 40' W. The water
for several miles aronnd it was dark, as if on soundings."

It is very improbable that this can exist in the fairway between Europe and Ame-
rica without having been fhMiuently seen.* ■'"■' ' ■ ,'" ' ■•-*»- •'•

The virgin ROCKS, to the E. by S. of Capk Race \ lat. 46° 26' 30',

long. 60* 66' 20'.

These rooks form a dangerous reef, lying about 30 leagues E. by 8., true, tram. Cape
Race ; in gales of wind a heavy sea breaks over them, aud a strong current, which
lets abont them, often increases the danger.

The existence of the Virgin Rocks having been questioned, it is proper to com-
municate the following extract of a letter, addressed by Arthur Kemp, master of tho

having run 84 miles, I was alarmed with tne cry of • Breakers a-head !' and almoRt
immeuiatoly saw them to Huoh an alarming extent as obliged me to alter the course
from 8.K. by 8. to E. by N., it not bring noHsiblo to clear them on the other tack.
After giving the breakers a good berth, and leaving them to the southward, distant 4
miles, I hove the main-topsail to the mast, and lay by from ten o'clock till noon,
ind observed in lat 46° 33, long. 60' 61'; the extent of breakers appeared to be

• Mhtoc Osnnelioh, commanding the Sicilian brig Anna, at three p.m., June 8th, 1841,
oUerved a shoal to" the South, dibtance ubout 2 mUcs, appearing like a ship with thiue
m(Wt« of equal hPiKht. and iucliuinn: townnl the South, and alrout 60 foet high, Hunoundeil
by nhoals level with the water; lat. 39» 3'i' N., long. 60* 60' W.-(" Niiutic.il Magii«ii.i),"
NoTemher, 1841, p. 781.) "i'hid w manifestly an io»b*ro, worn i.-.to pinrmcies in ite southern
progri..- ; hut T Viitpn it is noreBsnry to notice it here, as it has beeu placed on ii recent
("hart M* a pernt «nt danger.

674

DESCRIPTION OF SHOALS, VIGTAS, ETC.

about 2 miles, and weic more tremendously alarming th&n I Lave ever experienced
during the 23 vears that . Ma/e (chiefly in this trade) commanded a vessel."

The reef ImIi. r-ince heon >■ urveyed by Mr. Rose, master of H.M.S. I)ftw, who, with
Captain Binhop, of H.M. orig Manly, has ascertained its situation. The following
are the paiticulars : —

The bank on which the shoal is situated extends E. by N. and W. by S. 41 miles ;
its broadest part is about 2^ miles. The soundings are regular Svom 28 to 30 fathoms,
until they deepen suddenly on the outer edg^ to 39 and 43.

The i-ocks themselves are in 46° 26' 30" N., and 60° 65' 20" W. They extend in an
irregular chain S.W. by W. and N.E. by E. 800 yards, Tary-ing from 200 to 300 yards
in breadth, llie least depth of water is on a white rock, in 4i fathoms, with 5 to 6|
fathoms all round it ; the oottom distinctly visible. Towaid the extremities of the
ahoal are several detached rocks of frum 7 to 9 fathoms, with deep water between,
and with a current setting over them W.S.W. 1 mile an hour ; and with also a very
confiised heavy swell.

The vessels were anchored upon the rocks for the cmace of two days, during which
the weather was extremely pleasant, and every way mN'ourable for taking the most
accurate observations. The surrounding bank haJs been noted as a gtxtd fishery.
vVariation, 26° 30' W.

■A

i Shoai. on the Bank of Newfoundland, East of the Virgin Rocks, lat 46" 30'.

' A shoal, with only 21 feet water on it, was discovered by Jesse Ryder, roaster of
the fishing schooner Bethel (belonging to Provioce Town, Massachusetts), on the
Grand Bank of N'd\Tfoundlana. In lat. 46° 30', having observed on the shoal, saw it
distinctly, it being a rook of about 100 or 203 feet surface ; supposed it to be about
50 miles East of the Virgin Rocks. Shoal bears from Nine-fatnom Bank S. by W.,
by compass, about 1| miles ; discovered it accidentally while searching for the Nine-
fathom Bank to fish o<i. Was certain it was not any part of the Virgins, for I after-
wards saw them, and, from my experience of the different fishing grounds, know thu
ahoal to exist.

■■ CASHE'S LEDGE, in lat. 42° 66' N., long. 68° 51' 30 W.

" This is a dangerous reef, about half a mile in extent each way. Its aourdingsaro
very irregular, having from 10 to 4 fathoms in the len^h of a i)oat. There are 17
fathoms within a cable's len^h of it, deepening a short distance to 90 fathoms, on the
western side. On approaching the shoal you may find 60 to 35 fathoms^ brown sand,
with black stones and broken shells $ then 30 fathoms, where it becomes rocky. The
currents on the ledge are exceedingly rapid and devious. On the shnalest part there
are said to be only 12 feet at low water. By observations made, on four successivo
days, by the master of H.M. sloop Beaver, the latitude is iif 1' 0'. The longitude
has been deduced from that of Cape Anne as from 69" 6' to 69° 12."

Sach is the statement, e.ioctly as it appeared in this Work since the year 1815,
respecting this dangerous rock. Yet by a recent examination by the United States'
coast survey, by Passed Midbhipman \mmen, it is recoramended to be called Ammen't
Rock. As we see not the slightest reason for such change, notwithstanding the difli-
culty and persevei'ance shown in its exploration, the original name certainly muut
remain.

The latitude of the rock, deduced from the two days' observations, June 5th and
6th, 1849, is 42° 56' ; the longitude 68° 51 ^' W. The least water on this rock is 26
feet ; a less depth has been reported by the fishermen, but thejy^ soupd with their
^hiog lines, perhaps not accurately marked^ and with a lead insufficient to prem
down or pass tnrough the thick kelp that covors the rock. Th^ extent, having lcb8
than 10 rathoms, is about half a mile in a N.W. by W. and S.E. by £. direction, and
vary narrow. It is surrounded by deep water at a short distance, particularly on the
8.^. side, where the depth inoreasos suddenly to 60 fathoms.

Shoal Giiound8 on Gkoroe's Bank.

Th,

■tinni

8 were tormerly

spcv

tive iiiiincs oi jfrown » miin

■ and the
of the
HuU,b
the " C(
properl
34' N.
which ii
15 to 35

But
the U.S.

It app

N., and r
the dept
The two
and 67"
teet of w
any part
whole lei

Some
miles S.V

These v
tiadeof tl
j'ears} an
individual
States nov
has been e

They hi
tending th
these fornu
pleted in 1
shows a di(
S. of Dav;
them on pa

The com
'."ock proj?c
September
conld have
highway of
Oreat JLivei
hroujj^ht doi
of this is av
beeaimed in
was burprib<
was suppose
to be a very
with shott^
uinuunced a

24 ., lon|f. 24

BETWEEN LATITUDES 40" AND 50*.

«75

rperienced

who, with
I following

, 44 miles;
30 fathomB,

rtend in an
o 300 yards
(vith6to6J
itles of the
er between,
also a very

uring which
(ig the most
r(K>d fishery.

, kt 46" 30'.
er, master of
etts), on the
Hhoal, saw it
to be about
nk S. by W.,
for the Nine-
is, for I aP^r-
ds, know this

soupdings aro
There are 17
thorns, on the
. brown sand,
rocky. The
est part there
iwx successive
^he longitude

\vo year 1815,
JJnited States'
llled Ammen'f
Iding the difli-
lertainly mutt

I June 5th and
kia rook is 'i^
[pd with their
Icient to prcM
, hpving U'i>«
direction, and
Eularly o" the

\iroion » omxi

and the Malabar Shoal, by neither of wliich names are they now rec^niaed. A copy
of the report of an actual survey of them, made under the oi-ders of Commodore Isaac
Hull, by Mr. Felch, of the U.S. navy, and Mr. Edmuqd Blunt, jun., is contained in
the *' Colombian Navigator," vol. i. p. 66. From this report it apjjears that there are,
properly, fonr shoals on the bank, the whole of them included be*"'-e« latitudes 41*
34' N. and 41° 63' :«)' N., and longtudes 67° 18' W., and 67° 69' W. The largest,
which is toward the S.W., is also the most dangei-ous. Between the shoals are from
16 to 35 fathoms of water.

But these shoals liave been accurately surveyed by Lieutenant Charles Wilke»} of
the U.S. navy, and the officers under his direction.

It appeara by this survey that the general direction of the shoal ground is N,W. by
N-, and S.E. by S., and it extends 13 miles in length, and from I to 2 miles in width ;
the depth of water within this space being 10 fathoms and less, but very irregulai-.
The two shoalest places are between 41° 40' 13' and 41° 40' 33" N., and 67° 44' 10'
and 67'' 40' 30" W., and ai'e knolls of hard sand, having upon them, at low tide, 15
teet cf water. With the exception of these two places, the shoal may be ci'ossed iu
any part by an ordinary (sized vchsel without danger. There is a np usually the
whole length of the shoal, and, at times, heavy brefOcers in the shoalest places.

Some other shoal patches of 6 fathoms lie at 28 miles to the S.W. by S., and 44
miles S.Wj by W. of the shoalest spot, and are called the Little George Bank,

■;. >J NANTUCKET SHOALS, extending from Nantucket Island.

These very dangerous shoals, lying immediately in the line of traffic of the coasting
ti-ade of the United States, have been bat very little known till within a very fov/
years ; and then their limits were more exactly defined at the expense of a priva ~»
individual, Mr. £. M. Blunt, of New York. These '< Goodwin Sands" of the United
States now, however, appear to be tolerably well examined, though still some doubt
has been expressed as to whether their entire extent has been ascertained.

They have been surveyed by Lieutenant Charles H. Davis, U.S. navy, snperlta-
tending the hvdnwraphio parts of this portion of the coast uurvey. The danger 6f
these torniidaDle uoals are reduced by the new lighthouse on Sankaty Head, coiA'-
pleted in 1849. This tower is 70 feet high, painted in three horizontal rings, and
Nhows a dioptric flashing light ; and also by the Liyht-vesael, which lies 2 miles to the
8. of Davis' So;ith Sh(Mil, showing two fixed lights. Some particulars are given of
them on page 649.

l^' . " Anm-ica Rock, lat. 40° 20' N., long. 63° 50' W. (P)

The commander of the bark America, of Baltimore, thought he had discovei-ed a
'-•ock projocting from 25 to 30 feet above water, and about 30U feet in circumference,
September 1, 1846 : lat. 40° 20', long. 63^ 60'. It is very improbable indeed that this
could have been a rock ; it looks more like a wreck, from the fact of its being in the
high^ ay of shipping, and its locality having been crossed at least four times by the
Great Liverjmol steamer alone, in 1838-39. It may have been a large tree, perhaps
brought down by tiie Mississippi, and launched into the Mexican Gulf. An example
of this is given by Captain G. P. Lock, of the Martha Shalla, of Liverpool, who, being
becalmed in the neighbourhood of Munn's Reef (or lat. 39° 45' N., long. 64° 10' W.),
was burpribed to hear the announcement of a boat's approach ; but, on referring, it
was supposed to be Munn's Reef. A boat was got out to survey, when it was found
to be a very largo tree, roots upward, ard 40 feet in circumference, and surrounded
with shoH^ of fish. Had it not been so closely examined, it r.-ould have been again
announced as Munn's Keef.

■OL.i.k

IMAOINAEY SHOALS.

lAind of But, to the S. of Iceland, in lat. 58% long. 30» W. Vii/ia'ot 1746. lat. &&'
24.. lonjr. 24° 40' W. Ramimau'it Vi-iin, 1750, 40° 42' N., 37° 30' W. } und anr thcr

Bavencihy's Rook, 1726, lat. 4J° 60, long. U? 'lo.

w. • - -

viffia hiuf u degree northward. Bnretw
y-yrv8 Rovka, 1722, lat. 48' 7 , long. 21°

fr70

DESCRIPTION OF SHOALS, VIGIAS, ETC.

BETWEEN THE LATITUDES OF 30 AND 40 DEGREES.
DxnAhVB Rock, off Capb St. Vincent, in about 36° 30' N,, and 9° 16' W.

'fhe old charts of the Atlantic indicated a danger at the diutanoe of 12 or 15
leagues to the S.W. of Cape St. Vincent. This danger was omitted in the French
qhart of 1786, and subaequently in other charts, fi:vm the supposition that, if it really
existed, it must have received some modern confirmation. But it seems, from in-
formation communicated by Captain Taylor, of the bri^ ~jaurel, of Whitby, that, in
dbout 1813, the Dadaliu, transport, struck on this rock, and received so much damage
as rendered it necessary for her to put into Lisbon ^or repairs. Captain Taylor was
in the fleet when the Jbadalua strucK.

Added to this, the brig Briton, Captain Stokes, was lost, 'n consequence of striking
upon the rock, in December, 1821. After she struck she swung off, and then imme-
diately triied for soundings, but got none. On finding the vessel striking, the people
^k to the boat, and were picked up by another vessel. Captain Stokes had not seen
Cape St. Vincent, but supposed it, at the time, to bear N.N.E. I E. 28 or 30 miles.
This information has been communicated by Captain Livingston, who says, " This
information was given to me in Malaga, in September, 1822, by Captain T. Tankersly,
of the schoonei' Lord Muhrave, of London. Captain Tankersly added, that he had
met with another master mame forgotten), who said he had observed the sea-weed on
this rock ; got out of his boat, and held on by some of the weed. He supposed the
rock to be about 50 yards in circumference."

The preceding information is from Captain Livingston, who also says, •' I was some
years smce informed by an old man of colour, a native of Goa, who was steward of u
vessel I then conimanded, that, while he was cabin-stewaixl to Sir Edward Pellew,
while captain of H.M.S. Indefatigable, she struck on a rock off Cape F^'histerre. This,
I understand, has been denied, and it api)ears truly ; for I have now information on
which I can rely, from a very respectable naval officer, whdse name I do not consider
myself at liberty to mention, that the Indefatigable, when commanded by Sir Edward
Pellew, actually struck on the rock, or a rock, off Cape St. Vincent, and received some
damage. I had no doubt, before, that she had struolc somewhere, as I had perfect
confidence in mv old steward's veracity : the error was in memory only." — {Letter,
2&th October, 1822.)

- The existence of this rock was affirmed on the 6th of March, 1839, by Mr. John
Aves, commander of the schooner Tan.ivg, of Plymouth. At O*" 30' p.m., this vessel,
on her voyage fh>m Zante, passed close to the eastward of it ; it was not seen till
close aboard, and not avoided without difficulty. There was a swell from the N.W.
breaking over it, and a sheet of foam, about 20 to 25 fathoms in circumference. The
Tantivy stood in N.N.E. on the starboai-d tack, till 7 next morning, then tacked to
the southward, passing the cape at the distance of about 2 miles. 'Tue rock was thus
estimated to lie considerably to the eastward of its position, as shown by chart, and
to bear about 8.S.W., true, 37 or 40 miles from the cape. , n .» i, .v ■>'

We must leave this for the present. It is a blot on the chartii. Its ex!^«n(«
ought to have been set at rest many years since.

•■'^■*^ Cleveland Jtoef, off Cafe Qmji. {?)' ' '

This reef, or bank, said to have been discovered l y Captain Clevelana, R.N., in
1796, in iat. 30° 45', at about 9 leagues from the coasc, was diligently sought for bv
the jEtna and Raven, on survey, lu 1835, without success ; and it Kas been accora-
ingly erased fh)m the charts. .. . . , ., .,i,^„i e<» fj . ..

FALCON ROCKS, to the Northwaid of Porto Santo.

The situation of these rocka has been already given in the description of the Ma-
deiras, p. 58fi. They hud pi-eviously been vaguely and erroneously described as ft
bank, on which Francis Doublet, of Honfieur, grounded, to the N.E. of Porto Santo;
and as a ledge on which a Dutch ship was lost. It is most probvole tbftt it is the
same shoal as the Eight Stones, next described. ~". ^ .

:£S.

16' w.

f 12 or 16
the French
, if it really
IS, from in-
l>y, that, in
uch damage
Taylor vas

B of striking
then imme-
, the people
bad not seen
or 30 miles.
Bays, " This
r. Tankersly,
that he had
sea-weed on
supposed the

•• I was some
steward of a
reard Pellew,
laterre.^ This,
formation on
» not consider
T Sir Edward
'eeeived some
I had perfect
y."— {Letter,

)y Mr. John
,, this vessel,
not seen till
m the N.W.
jrence. The
en tacked to
ook was thus
)y chart, and

Its exi'itencA

|na, R.N., in

ought for bv

Ibeen accora-

1 of the Mtt-
_cribed a» a

_»orto Santo;

Ihat it is the

BETWEEN LATITUDES 30' AND 40*.

The Eigid Stones, to the Northwaid of Madeiea. (P)
A very extensive and dangerous reef, accordiugr to M. D'Apres, was supposed to
have been discovered by a Captain Vobonne, of London, in 1732, and subsequently
seen by a vessel going to the West Indies. Eight rocks were aid to be se^, even
with the surface of the water, and situate between 34" 30' and 34° 46' N., near the
meridian of 16° 40' W. This object, therefore, for more than a century past, was
alarming the navigator ; but sufficient evidence has been given to prove its non-
existence in the deep sounding of 2,298 fethoms gained in the U.S. ship Do^hin.

The routes of the following ships and vessels of the British navy are also con-
clusive :— On the E. and N.E. of the assumed position, we find, in 1828, the South-
amiitontaid Chanticleer: in 1829, the Blossom; in 1832, the Beagle; in 1833, the
.dEtna and Baven ; mo > to the West, beyond the meridian of 16% in 1326, the
Md*tin: and in 1828, the Emulous: beyond these, westward, the Bav«n and Sul-
phur, in 1836 ; and the Blossom, in 1825, which passed from the northward directly
over the spot. In 1831, the ^Etna likewise passed over it, and pursued her course
thence toward Porto Santo. The ^tna agoin, in 1836, more to the West, sounded
near the meridian of 17°, but found no bottom at 200 fathoms. The same ship, in
1833, passed in an East and West direction directly over the supposed centre of the
shoal, but found no bottom at 70 fathoms.

MossMAN Rock, lat. 43' 41' n!, long. 28' 61' W.
The harbour master of Hartlepool announced the discovery of a rock a few feet
above water, by his brother. Captain Robert Mossman, in command of the Edward
Kenny, April 22nd, 1864, in the above position. It was conlitleutly believed to be a
rock, hut no means are stated to have been tried to test it.

The repeated announcements of rocks in this neighbourhood, as is shown, although
they do not hardlr* m any case appear to be seen again in the positions claimed for
them, and the evidence or the deep soundings is against several of them, yet this rc-

Setition of discovery leads to the inference that some such rock as Mr. Mossman
escribes, may lurk nidden here, and has given rise to these reports.

Prank Rocks, West of the Azores, lat. 38° 32' N., long. 33° 16' W. (?)

Captain A. Pronk, of the Dutch bark, De Hoop, reported, that on his passage from
Batavia to Rotterdam, in the North Atlantic Ocean, near the Azores, April 6th, 1844,
in the afternoon, sailing with a strong breeze and fine weather, being on their quarter-
deck with his officers, tney were much alarmed by some of his people in the foretop
calling out that they saw a large rock close by on the lee-bow. Ine captain imme-
diately ordered the helm to be put down, and the vessel luffed up 3 or 4 points to
avoid the danger ; with astonishment they saw several rockr, plainly visible from
deck to every man on board. They passed thein within a cable's length, and Captain
Pronk says that it was an extensive group of rocks, with several points above water,
some of them more than 16 feet in height, against which the sea broke furiously.
The captain places this danger in 38' 32' N., and 33° 16' West of Greenwich, by very
good observations and chronometer ; the next day they saw the Western Islands, and
found the longitude by chronometer very exact.

The foregoing was comriunicated from the Dutch newspapers to the Nautical
Magazine by Captain F. Fohkens, of the Dutch ship Boon and jPendrecht.

The site was sailed over in 1846 by Captain Siekcns, of the Dutch Marine.
Besides the circ.unstance of the asserted discovery not having since been verified,
there is a positive evidence of the depth of i,d00 fathoms at 2<> miles N,W. of it.

Constante Beef, lat. 37° 66' 20', long. 33" 4' 8" ; and Ferreira Beef,
lat. 38° 26' 44% long. 30" 26' 10 W.

The official notice of these two reefs we find in the Nautical Magazine, December,
1840, p. 881, as follows :—
" 1, Manocl Mariano Ferreira, pilot, while navigitting from Paraimi to liishon, on

board th«

noei .Vllinan" rerrciin, pinn, wiiiit ii»i»iy-i'.s::g ii..iu x luiuon lu jiioi»v/n, nu

Brazilian brig Constante, as master and chief pilot thereof, and being to

ft78

DESCRIPTION OF SHOALS, VIGIA8, ETC.

the westward of the Azores, near the parallel, and not very dii^tant from the meridian
of the repelled Martyrs or Azores reef; at 10 a.m., on the 26th of AugOHt, 1840,
sailing in a northerly direction, with light winds ii-om the E.S.E., saw breakers to
windward, at the distance of 1 or 2 miles. Shortly alter it tell calm, and my vessel
reniained in the same position for six hours, add in sight of the said breakers, so that
I got tile boats out to keep her head away, and tow her out of danger. -At nooUi it
beldg then high water at that place, the surf had nearly disappeared ; at 2 p.m. it
again became perceptible, and at 6 p.m. a group of rocks was clearly vipible above the
water. By the latitude I had observed at noou, and tho longitude given by a good
chronometer, and the rock being about 1 1 miles distant from me, I compute their
situation to be in lat. 37° 66' 20' N., long. 33° 4' 8 ' West of Greenwich.

" As the wind freshened, at 6 p.m., I made sail agdn, and having arrived in three
days in sight of the Island of Flores, I found that my chronometer was perfectly
con-ect.

" The wind being East I tacked to the southrvard, and on the Slst of August I
THidsed near another sunken rock, which is marked in the chart as having been seen by
Captain Kobson, to the northward of Fuyal. At 8 a.m. I saw some rocks above
water, over which the sea broke, and which I passed to leeward, at the distance of 1
to 2 miles, ^y observation and the chronometer I calculate this second danger to be
situated in la ;. 38° 26' 44% long. 30° 25' 10' W. of Greenwich, all which I certify with-
out doubt.— iwfton, 6th 'October, 1840."

The first of these reefs has been named the Constante jR:ief, and the second, Ferreira
Reef; they have been previously noticed, together with the Pronk Rocka (Rhoon
Kocks, in the Nau*ical 3Iagazme), on p. 417.

The shoal off Flores, mentioned above, was originally copied iVom Van Keulen into
Bellia's chart 'ot 1742. Its position has varied from time to time. It ciinnot be
authentic. By some it is called Martyrs Shoal, by the Poi-tuguese Vigia doe Azores
(" Atlantic Memoir," 1825, p. 262.)

Near to the asserted position of the Constante Keef, Captain J. Keyzcr, of the
Dutch ship Bato, on May 6th, 1846, saw a white patch about 100 feet in diameter.
The sea smooth at the time. Lat. 37° 42 . long. 32" 87'.

We leave these asserted shoals for future investigation. *"' .{: ^*'"^'

Against their authenticity we have the authority of Captfiin T. D. Sickem, of tlic
Dutch Maiine, who passed over the spot with a good look out from the rigging, with-
out seeing anything, and then steered N. W. by N. over Constante Reef, &c., with the
same result.

Again a volcanic shoef: was felt, March 13, 1853, lat. 38° 9° N., long. 31° 66'* Near
to this, however, the sea is 2,000 fathoms deep.

At all events much circumspection is necessary in sailing through these parts.

Atila Jtock, lat. 36° 31' N., long. 32° 34' W. (P)

A very vague announcement was issued by the Hydrogitiphic Office of Madiid, in
1867, of a sunken rock of uncertain depth, seen by uie Captain of the Spanish
brigantine Atila, in lat. 36° 31' N., long. 32° 24° W., but with no further particulars!
this would be some 200 miles '.7.S.W. of Fayal, but it seems very doubtful.

. uihiiA/ Hilton Rocks, West of the Azores, lat. 39° 18', long. 35° 60'. ' '"
" Bark Secret, Mr. Robei-t Hilton, master, from Valparaiso toward Livci-pool, May

12th
of n4
whic
andl
the 8
and
not I

* The repented accounts which havo been jyivon of earthquake phenomena hereabout,
ought to induce caution. Their range appears to be wide, for on November 26tli, 1867, W.
Cook, of the Eatreinadura, bound for Fayal, when iu lat. 39« 67', longr. 26" 60', saw abaft the
beam what was though to bo a squall, but which turned out to be a kind of mist or wann
steam, which lasted half an hour ; wind N.E. The waves then changed to a kind of boil, or
topping sea, as if smged up from beneath, but it returned lo its former state, when the mist
wnn passed. (Lloyd's List, Jan, 11, 1868).

.T»-'«V:i^-

he meridian
igiut, 1840,
breakers to
d my vesael
;r8, so that
\.t nooHi it
at 2 p.m. it
le above the
by a good
mpute their

tred in three
ras perfectly

of August I
ieen seen by
rocks above
ihtance of 1
lan^r to be
certify with-

)nd, Ferreira
ockft (Rhoon

Keulen into
[t cannot be
(a dos Azores

eyzer, of the
in diameter.

ckena, of the
gging, with-
icc, with the

65'» Near

parts.

Madiid, in
the Spanish
larticulars ;

erpool, May

J heiHsabout,
tb, 1867, W.
HW abaft the
list or wann
^d of boil, or
ben the mi::l

BETWEEN LATITUDES Stf- AND 40*. 679

12th, 184a. "W tale obserring a meridian altitude breakers were reported ; they were
of no m-eat extont, but Mr. H. plainly saw aome objects in the holtows of the waves,
which he felt perfectly certain were heads of rocks. The swell was not very heavy,
and he thinks, m smooth water, they would be nearly on a level with the surface of
the sea. The breakers were about 1 J or 2 miles S. W., by compass, from the vessel,
and at the time she was running 7^ or 8 knots, with steenng sails set, so that there was
not much time for very particular remarks.

"The latitude stated, 39° 18' N., long. 35° 60' W.; was from meridian observation,
and the longitute ftorn the mean of thebe observations j viz., their own chronometers,
—the chronometer of a ship in company, and a lunar taken by Mr. H. himself, the
same afternoon."— Communicated to the Nautical Magazine bv Captain A. Living-
ston, August, 18^5. ■> J r e

This reported shoal lies to the N.W. of the Pronk Rocks, but the positions ascer-
tained would, perhaps, be conclusive against their identity. It is much to be re-
gretted that in this and many similar cases some little trouble is not taken to place
uese matters beyond doubt and uncertainty ; they remain, perhaps for many years,
without being confirmed, and thus only " disfigure" the charts, and are a source of
anxiety and annoyance to the navigator.

Jean Ramon's Bock, in lat. 36° 64', long. 19° 49' (P)

Tie existence of this distance rests solely on the authority of Jean Hamon, com-
mander of the Troa Amie, of Bordeaux. On the 8th of January, 1733, according to
M. Bellin, he approached it within three-quai'ters of a league, and carefully observed
it. ( Very doubtful.)

KeU8, or Europa Bock, lat. 38° 15' N., long. 22° 14' W.

Captain D. Kens, of the Dutch ship Europa, stated, in a letter t> H. E., the
Minister of Marine, that on the morning of December 10th, 1853, he saw a " black
mass," to the S. W. by W., steering N.E. by compass ; at day break he saw that it waa
a rock or reef, and passed it about 2 miles distant. Its height was about 15 or 20 feet,
and it was about 200 ells in length. Captain Kens places this rock in lat. 38° 16' N.,
long. 22° 14'W.*

Whah Bock, in about lat. 38° 46', long. 25° (?)

M. Fleurieu exhibited this rock on his chart of the Azores, at about 29 leagues from
St. Michael's, upon the report of a pilot, whom he knew at Angra, in Terceira.
Its existence has, however, been disputed. Some breakers, which were very high,
were seen by Mr. R. Gradun, commander of the ship Harmony, of London, on the
8th of January, 1800 ; their latitude by observation being 38° 46', and longitude, by
account, 24° 47'. The situation assigned by Mr. Gradun being very near mat stated
by M. Fleurieu.

Mr. Reid, late British consul-general at the Azores, believed it really to exist ;
several masters of vessels, who have been blown to sea from St. Michael's, having told
him that they have actually seen it, and that in form it much resembles a whale.
The rock has been diligently sought for, under an order of the British Admiralty, but
without success ; and it now seems clear that it cannot lie in the situation assigned by
Mr. Gradun ; and their existence is most improbable. ,,,-,-_

Tulloch Beef, in about 37° 27' N., and 24° 45' W. (?)

This reef was said to have been seen in 1808, by Captain William Tulloch, of the
brig Equator, of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on a voyage from Madeira to St. Mi-
chel's, as already shown and described in page 565.

It may be remarked that Captain TuUoeh observed, from their black cindery appeuv-
anoe, that the rocks had risen from volcanic impulse ; but as shown previously they
cannot now be found. . . ,

* Yorhanuolingen on Hoiigten, 1851, No. l,p. 171.

•680

DESCRIPTIC^ OF SHOALS, V1GIA8, ETC.

St. Mart's Bank to the S.W. of the Island of St. Maiy, in aboirt 35° 53' N.,

and 2r 19' W.

On our passage, in 1819, from Havana to Barcelona, we passed over white water,
wently a shoal, to the southward and westward of St. Mary's. The captain
Id not allow the vessel to heave-to in order to sound ; but I have no doubt in my
mind of its being a very extensive bank of soniidings ; and I have little doubt that I
have ascertained its position, tolerably accurate, from lunars, prior and subsequent. I
■honld not be surprised if it turned out that the bank w6 passed over was connected
with the Kntusoff Bank, marked, in the last edition of Admiral Espinosa's chart, as
having been seen in 1816, and whieh lies to the S.W. of the one we passed over, at
the distance of about a degree. We were some hours crossing the .bank.

•

" The bank lies iu lat. 36° 63' N., as calculated by account between the observations
of the noon before and noon following ; long. 27° 19' West. I have heard a French
gentleman, a lieutenant de vaisseau, mention what I suppose to be the same, at the
table d'hote, at St. Michael's, in October, 1818." A Lmnfftton. This is all we Rtill
know.

'UHi'

joayna Eock, in lat. 31° 40', and long. 23° 45' (P)

On tiiis danger, it has been stated that the Joayna, of Flushing, was lost in August,
1697. The latitude observed, and the distance 110 leagues m>m Madeira. In the
Spaniih coart it is said to have been seei^ in the year 1805 ; in lat. 31° 40', long. 23°
45', as above. .;-\f ;>*;.i 'l^

" John M. CHlchriat, master of the brig Jewess, of Liverpool, reports that on his
passage from Bahia, on the Ist of January, 1848, at about half an hour after noon,
m lat. mer. alt. of the sun that day, 23° N. (»tc), by 24° 28' 30" W., by forenoon and
afternoon sights ' for a chronometer, which on making Medeira, and arrival at
Gibraltar proved correct, saw at about a quarter of a mile distant, bearing S.E. by
S. by compass, something which at first appeared to be a fish sporting in the
water, but upon taking the glass and looking at it, appeared like a flat rock just
awash with the wa^«>r. As the Josyna Rock, by some considered doubtful, is sup-
posed to be situated somewhere thereabouts, this notice may serve to put mariiners on
tb air guard."

We copy the foregoing from the " Nautical Magazine," March, 1848, page 160, as
posted at the Liverpool Underwriters' Booms. The latitude is there stated to be 23",
but the reference to the Josyna Hock leads us to the assumption that it is an error for
32° N. The account seems very vague, but it is right to mention it, and we leave it
in great doubt, for future determination.

Falconer Rock, ofif Fayal, lat. 38° 40' N., long. 29° 8' W. (?) ^ ' • * '

The bark Johanna, Captain W. Falconer, on July 13th, 1847, passed what was
supposed to be a rock, of which the men were perfectly sure. The bearings place the
spot in about lat. 38° 40' N., long. 29° 8' W., or about 12 miles N.W. of the end of
Fayal.

The account in in the " Nautical Magazine," November, 1847, page 589, it is vague,
and it may have been some floating object, still its nature was confidently stated, but
it is very doubtful. ..c/5.< . .'-•

Candler's Rock, in about 39° 47' N., and 34° 29' W. (?)

This rook, to the westward of Flores, said to have been seen, a few years ago, by
Captain Candler, of the Betsy, of Boston, who thought it to be 100 feet in height, is
beheved to have been an iceberg only, and therefore expunged from the charts.

Chantebeau's Shoal, in lat. 38" 27', and long. 38° 0'.

This shoal, described as a white rock, was said to have been seen by Captain Chnn-
tereau, of the ship L'Auguste, in lat. 38° 24', long. 41" 35', in coming from Martinique,
6th September, 1721, when the sea broke on it very much. It was again announced
by Lieutenant Edm. Scott, commanding the Princess Elizabeth packet, 24th of Apiil,
1828 :— " On the 24th of 1828, at three p.m., the water round the ship very green,

and
board
to the
then
it. Ii
halfa

"In
was re
dently
had, at
39° 49'

vigia,
Perez,
37° 67'
the(^
after.

»sy,

BETWEEN LATITUDES SO" AND 40' N.

681

65' N.,

'hite •water,
[lie captain
ubt in my
mbt that I
)8equent. I
I connected
,'b chart, as
ed over, at

>bservations

rd a French

ame, at the

all we 8till

t in August,
iira. In the
)', long. 2a»

that on his
r after noon,
Forenoon and
d arrival at
ring S.E. by
»rting in the
lat rock just
btful, is 8up-
, mariners on

page 160. as

ed to be 23\

an error for

we leave it

what was

rs place the

the end of

I, it is vague,
stated, but

[ars ago, hy
height, 18
larts.

stain Chan-
lartinique,
announced

|th of Aprili
rerv 2i'cen,

and with every appearance of being in soundings; and, on looking before the star-
board beam, saw under water, at the distance of 2 cables, what evidently appeared,
to the master and myself, to be a white sand-bank or rock, which the water aid cot
then break on, but it appeared so very plain that there could not be much water on
it. In extent it was about 1 or 1| cables E. by N. and W. by S., inte, and about
half a cable in breadth.

" Immediately on observing the shoal, I ordered the lead and line up ; but, ere it
was ready, the coloiu of the water had changed to a deep sea-blue, when it was evi-
dently useless to sound ; at that time we were about a mile firom tbe white spot ; we
had, at the time, a good breeze, but very little swell of the 8ea.^Lat. 39° 14', long.
39' 49' W.

According to a notice inserted in the late official copies of the Derrotero de ku
AntiUas often quoted in this work, and dated Madrid, July 4th, 1846, a shoal, or
vigia, was discovered at three p.m., May 2l8t, 1846, in fine weather, by P. Gabriel
Perez, captain of the Spanish n^erchant ship Zeontina, in lat. 38° 27' N., long.
37° 5r 10' W. of Greenwich, accoiiing to observations made shortly before seeing
the {Eacollo) rock, and confirmed by -chronometer in making Graci^ (Azores) soon
after.

Here we have three announcements of dangers of similar character in close
proximity. If it exists, thej are probably the same. We have no further evidence
m its favour or to contradict it. But at 74 miles eastward of it, the Dolphin found
2,675 fathoms.

Breton's Bock, about lat. 39° 40', long. 41° 36'. (?)

This shoal, according to M. Bellin, was seen by Breton, a pilot of Bochelle, who
marked it merely as a rock. Laisn§, another pilot, has also placed it in nearly the
same latitude and longitude. It is also sounded on bv Roland, a pilot of Tremblade,
and also seen by Jean Desmaries ; there bein^ scarcely 10' difference in latitude, and
in longitude not more than 1°. The situation originally assigned was 39° 45' N.,
and 41"' 25' W.

This danger was again said to have been seen in 1816 by the ship Tiger, on her
passage from Barbadoes to Liverpool. The letter of a passenger states that, " On the
14th of March, at ten a.m., a smart breeze from the S.W., with studding-sails set,
going 7 J knots an hour, steering E. by N„ true, in lat. 39° 40', long. 41° 40', we
passed over a very agitated rumbliug sea. 'Under our starboard bow, in appearance
about a circle of a mile, was a small field of dark-brown rockweed, apparently a
confirmed fixture ; entangled with tl. weed were two pieces of spar, seemmgly very
much decayed." A little trouble would have settled this at the time. Its non-
existence is determined by the deep soimding last meationed, of 2675 fathoms, 20
miles to the East of it.

Columbine Shoal, lat. 35° 25' N., long. 49° 1' W. (?) "^Vf "" ' : ':v .

The Columbine, Robertson, from Aux Cayes, on April 2nd (1844 ?), at three p.m.,
being in lat. 35° 25' N., long. 49° 1' W., saw discoloured water to windward; it had a
brown appearance, extending above 100 feet in a 8.S.E. direction, and about 30 feet
across. It had all the appearance of a rock under water ; the vessel was then little '
more than her length North of it, steeling E.N.E. Some other brown patches were
Been. The sea did not break over theao places. The discoloured water last mentioned
was seen for nearly a nals.'^Shippinff Gazette, May, 1844.

We have here an in'/tance of carelessneas which is often to be deplored, and highly
reprehensible. The 'ommander of the (hlumbine, with every circumstance of wind,
weather, and sea in Isi^ favour, did not attempt to decide, by a single sounding, most
easily made, whether this was a real danger, or merely discoloured water, which
must be supposed to abound in this centre basin of the Atlantic in the calm
regions.

Westenenk Shoal, 31' 48' N.,40° 28' W.
Captain J. W. Westcnenk, on board the Dutch ship AUda Maria en Adele, llth

682

DESCRIPTION OF SHOALS, VIOIAS, ETC.

of August, 1854, about 11 o'clock in the forenoon, sailing with a light E.N.E. breeze,
breftjura were seen at half a mile distance. The noon observation gave the latitude
as SmC^' N., and the longitude, West of Greenwich by two ozonometers, was
40° 28' 30*.* We give this as related, but nave nothing to contradict it at present.

Anna Bock, lat. 39° 30' N., long. 60° 30' W. (P)

Extract from the log. of the Sicilian brig Anna, Marco Carmelich, master: —
" Tuesday, June 8th, 1841, p.m., ship sailing with all sails set. At three p.m., ob-
served a shoal to the South, distant about 2 vailcn, appearing to the eye like a
ship with three Tnasts of equal heiffht, and inclining towards the South, and about 50
leet high, surroundieq by shoals, level with the water. Latitude, calculated from
that observed at noon, 39° 32' N., long 50° 50' W."

. Evidently an iceberg.

Mmn's Reef, in about 39» N., 64° 20' W. (P)

This shoal was seen by the brig Joseph Hume, of which Mr. Alexander Munn was
mate, 22nd of August, 1827, on her passage homeward to Liverpool. " The vessel
passed close to it ; they saw the white sand above the water, and sounding where the
vessel then was, found 20 fathoms sandy bottom, a quarter of a mile off : then bore
up, and sailed westward of it, in deep water."

This information was communicated by Mr. Munn, through the medium of Captain
James Porter, of the bark Science, of Greenock.

, In the passage of H.M.S. Thunder from Bermuda to Halifax, in 1835, the ship
hove-to for the night, in order to search for this shoal, but it was not found. The
Sapphire frigate had passed over the spot at noon of the day before, but likwise un-
successfully. In a former page is an account of a large tree having been found by
Captain G. P. Lock, near this position.

t-f-

V- .-i W.' *^L.

"iSt"

Field's Vigia, lat. 37° 31', long, by account, 66» 0'. (P)

An account of this vigia was published in the ^ear 1833, but we are strongly
inclined to think that it might be only a collection of weed, &c., in one of the
southern eddies of the Gulf Stream, where, in abundance, it is frequently found, lliis
was Mr. Purdy's remark, but Captain Field's negligence gave great trouble to dis-
prove his opinion.

• The U.S.S. Dolphin had a good sounding of 500 fathoms on the spot, another of
1,175 fathoms at 10 miles S.E. of it, and many other unsuccessful soimdings in its
neighbourhood, where they were for 4 days.

' ' " ""*" ' Anf trite Shoal, in lat. 35° 50' N., long. 66» 4' W. (P) ' '

An official notice from the Spanish Hydrographic Direction states that tL. S^i.^uish
merchant ship Anjitrite, in her passage from the Havana to Cadiz, in May lU-12th,
1846, discovered a patch of broken water, about a cable's length in extent from N.E.
-to S.W., which they placed in lat. 35° 50' N., and long., by observation, 59° 46' 38
West of Cadiz, or 66° 4' 11" West of Greenwich. As in the pseceding case this un-
founded assertion gave work for 5 days to the U.S.S 2>o^Am, when 1,000 fathoms,
no bottom was found on the spot.

Potomac'a Soundings, lat. 38° 10', long. 67° 26'. (P)

On the southern side of the Gulf Stream, in the situation given above, sounding
at 90 fathoms were found by Captain Smith, in the ship Potomac, of Alexandna,
U.S., June, 1838. The U.S.S. Dolphin found 400 fathoms, no bottom, on the spot,
and 300 to 430 fathoms, no bottom, for 50 miles around it, Oct. 18,1851. Lieut,
Berryman also had a doubtfril sounding of 4,290 fathoms at 40 miles to the W.S.W.

Yerhanderlingen en Berigten, &c., Amsterdam, 1854, p. 511.

BETWEEN LATITUDES dOT AND 40* N.

.E. breeze,
IB latitude
leters, ■was
t present.

master : —
le p.m*) 0^*

eye like a
id about dO
ilated from

r Munn •was
•• Tbe vessel
ig where the
f : then bore

na of Captain

135, the ship

found. The

t likwiseun-

ien found by

are strongly
in one of the
, found. This
rouble to dis-

\t, another of
idings in its

Itth. !^. 'finish
[May lU-12th,
Vnt from N.E.
on, 59^ 46' 38"
J case this un-
1,000 fathoms,

Ive, soundings

|f Alexandna,

on the spot,

|l861. Lieut.

ltheW.S.W.

False Bermudas and Dyet Rocks, to the Eastward of thi !>ERMrDAS. (P)

Former charts of the Atlantic exhibited rocks at aboat 100 leagues to the i^Miof
the Bermudas, upon the authority, it is probable, of Bellin, 'who has stated, that
" about 100 leagues to the East of Bermudas there is a little shelf of brittle rocks,
which has been seen by one Louis Duhal, in a corsair, or privateer, that sailed around
them ; and as this shelf is nearly on the parallel of the Bermudas, many have mis^
taken it for the rocks about those islands." M. Bellin has observed that there are
some rocks on this shelf whose tops are above the water ; but that many doubt their
existence.

Subsequent inquiry as to these vigias showed that rocks, supposed to have been
seen by tno late (Japtain Bell, oi the Francis Freeland packet, were placed in about
3ir'46'N.,and66»25'W.

The r jport of these rooks was afterwards revived by the following statement :— '
*' On my passage from St. Kitt's to London, and when off Bermuda, May 17th, we^
passed within 30 or 40 feet of two sunken rocks, having 6 or 8 feet water over them,,
it being very smooth at the time, in lat. 32° 46' N. at noon, long. 60° 6' W." — Bohert
Dyet, master of the bark Catherine Qreen, of London. . . ;

llie U.S.S. Dolphin spent 7 days in the unsuccessful search for this rock ; sounded
\- uh 800 fa 'loms, no bottom, 12 miles East, and with 550 fathoms over the spot
assigned to 'iie Dyet Rocks, and no bottom with 800 fathoms in that of the Fuse^
Bermud'v^.

Ashton Rock and 'Jrion Rock, between the Bermudas and Cape Hattbras. (?)

Sh p William Aahton, Captain H. B. Guy, 22nd May, 1824 :— " At 11" 50', the man
at the wheel saw 3omethin^ on the starboard bow, distant about 1 mile. Hauled the
ship toward it, when we discovered it to be a rock ; passed to the westward of it, at
the distance of about 2 cables' lengths. The base of the rock appeared to be about.
100 yards in circumference, on which the sea broke. In the centre was a point of
rock in the form of a sugar-loaf, about 8 feet above the water, with a quantity
of weed about it. [Something like a whale ?] Passed the lead forward ; no gronna-
at 80 fathoms. Latitude 33° 48' 60", long. 71° 41' 20".

" Orion Rock, no soundings. — We have received the following communication'
from Liverpool. The master of the Orion, belonging to our port, Luytjas, from
Trinidad de Cuba, arrived in the Weser, has furnished the following particulars of a
rock fallen in with : — On my voyage from Trinidad de Cuba for Bremen we per-
ceived, May 5th, lat. 34" 51' N., long. 72° 28' W., a rock 2 feet above the water.
It had the appearance of a water cask of two or three hogsheads. We were at a;
distance of only 20 feet from the rock, when ^e, fortunately in time, discovered?
it.— JSroncn, July 17th." — " Nautical Magazine," August, 1845. Very unlike a rock .'

Huntly's Rock, lat 30° 49' long. 78° 27'. (P) ,f /;

This danger {if a danger) Was first made known by the following communication^
addressed to Lloyd's, by' Captain C. Huntly, in 1834 : —

On the 30th of November, 1833, at 9 a.m., saw a coral rock. We were about 60'
yards to the southward of it. I find that this rock lies in lies in lat. 30° 49' 15", long. '
78" 27' 30' West. It was about 8 feet above the water, and in the fall of the sea it
branched out to the N.N.W. about 30 feet in distance. This must have been some
floating object.

The Steen-ground to the westward of Madeira, very vaguely represented in the
charts of last century, 60 or 35 leagues to the West of Madeira.

111.

..vOiliBt

684

DESCRIPTION OF SHOALS, VIGIAS, ETC.

BETWEEN THE LATITUDES OF 20° AND 30".

Gombauirs Bock, in lat. 23° 16', long. 32° 26'. (P)

According to M. Fleoriea, this danger was first seen in 1764, having been dis-
ooV«tredbyG'>mIiaud, the commander of a merchant-vessel of Uochelle. Upon this
authority it was continued, but it was annihilated by a aotmding of 2,200 fathoms
on the spot by the U.S.S. Dolphin.

Overfalh, or Heavy Eipplea, in lat. 24° 11', long. 61° 44'. No Shoal.

On Saturday, the 7th of February, 1819, at ten a.m., the schooner Brilliant, Capt.
Tulloch,on her passage from Gibraltar to Havana, passed through very heavy over-
falls, extending N.N.E. | E. and S.S.W. ^ W., true, as far as the eye could reach,
with much sea- weed- (y^cu« natons) in it. The breadth of the overfalls did not ex-
ceed half a mile. Latitude about 24° 11', longitude 61° 43' 67' W. The preceding
information was communicated by our friend Captain Livingston, who adds :— " We
saw no danger." Bottom was satisfactorily obtained with 3,460 fathoms in the
U.S.S. Dolphin on the spot, indicated by Capt. Livingstx)n.

i'iCf ;rT ■ ., Oandaria Bocks, lat. 26° 30', long. 37° 46'. (?)

The following notice of these rocks appeared in the Gagcta de Madrid, May 28th,
1842 : — " On Monday, April 18th, Captain Oandaria, of the Spanish merchant ship
Dolores Ugarte, 107 days from Guayaquil, saw from the deck of that vessel a group
of rocks about a cable's length in extent, and in the middle of them a large one, high
and insulated, on which the sea broke violently. The latitude 26° 29' 66", longitude
37° 18'. But Lieut. Lee found bottom with 1,720 fathoms on the spot. , ,

MourancCa Bank, in lat. 24° 34', long. 66° 10'. (?)

This danger wok discovered by Mourand, commander of the Prince de Nizarre, of
Nantes, on the 6th of April, 1773. He described it to be a " bank of red sand, many
parts of which are out of water, like detached islands, over which the sea breaks j it
appeared^ to extend about a quarter of u. league from North to South."-

The U.S.S. Dolphin got bottom with 3,660 fathoms near the position of the reef,
and no bottom was found with 1,000 fathoms on the spot.

> i'.iv;..: Deep Soundings S.E. of Bermuda, {f)

TIi9 New Bedford Mercury relates an account of some soundings which were sup-
posed to be obtained in the ship Chaucer, in April. 1860, but which were fallacious
as follows:—" Here, in lat. 27* ION., lonff. 62° 45' W., on the 20th of Amil, 1850,
the nearest land being Bermudas, bearing N.W. by N., a'.id distant 346 mues, water
blue, -with much gulf-weed, weather calm, no current, the boat was lowered ; let run
the lead, and sot bottom in 744 fathoms. April 16th, lat. 27° 31 N., long. 60° 3' W.,
Bermudas N.W. by N., 300 miles, sounded and got bottom in 366 fathoms. April 29th,
lat. 29° 20' N.,long. 64° 11' W., Bermudas N. by W. 160 miles, sounded and got
bottom in 620 fathoms.

The time occupied in running out the line varied from twenty to thirty minutes.
The line was constructed thus : first 100 fathoms, five parts of shoo thread ; second,
four parts ) third, three parts ; fourth, two parts ; remaind«.*r single. The lead weighed
about five pounds) the whole wouna o^ion a light reel, and hem by hand. In this
process of obtaining Bound\-tgs the load is not to be hauled up." — Daily News,
Aug. 28, 1850.

There is no doubt but iuat the imperfect means deceived the commander as to find-
ing bottom i for Captain l.ue, U.S.S. Dolphin, got a good sounding of 3,828 fathoms.
the deeiwst obtainca in the cruise a degree to the South of that reported of Mi
fathoms, and no bottom with 1 ,000 fathoms near that of 620 fathoms, ond 3,080
fathoms have been got near that of 744 fathoms.

BETWEEN THE EQUATOR AND 20" N.

68fr

m,y:

been dis-
Upon this
lO fathoms

al.

liant, Capt.
leavy over-
ould reach,
lid r>ot ex-
B preceding
Ids:— "We
)m8 in the

, May 28th,
!rchant ship
jscl a group
je one, high
i', longitude

I iWzarre, of
j. sand, many
a breaks ; it

of the reef,

!h were sup-
e fallacious:
April, 1850,
ifles, water
jd ; let run
. 60° 3' W.,
April.29th,
[ed and got

tv njinutcs.
lad ; second,
Vd weighed
id. In this
^aily New»,

as to iind-
28 fathoms,
rted of ;Wft

and 3,080

Ouigou'8 Bank, in lat. 20» 60', long. 66° 45'. (P)

M. Bellin, in the Memoir of his Chart, of 1742, deBcribes this to be a " rocky
bank, about 45 leagues to the northward of Porto Rico, upon which a Dutch vessel
was lost in 1701, and that it had also been seen by a French versel." Another manu-
script, in the Depot de la Marine, confirmed this account. It also appears, firom the
deposition of Christopher Whipple, commander of the Anna, of Rnode Island, that
he was wrecked on the 27th of rl^ovember, 1733, upon a shelf, from 30 to 40 leagues
to the northward of Porto Rico. In the Marine Depot of Paris there is a manuscript
entitled, " Plan of the Shelf which was discovered by Captain Michael Ouig^ou, of
Seine, iii Prevence, in the ship La Concorde, February, 1688." On that plan it is
placed at 45 leagues to the northward of Porto Rico, somewhat nearer to the western
than to the eastern end. But a sounding by Lieut. Berryman of 2,960 fathoms at
35 miles N.N.E. of it, destroys its authenticity.

> Courier Hock, off Matanilla Reef, lat. 27° 51' N., long. 78° 31' W. (?)

The Courier, of Greenock, drawing 15 feet, William Thompson, commander, states
that he rounded the Matanilla Reef at 2** p.m., and, at 6^ 2(r p.m., struck on an un-
known coral reef, on January 22nd, 1849, and on tacking found 3|, 4, 5^, 7, and 10
fathoms, and no bottom at 16 fathoms. In some remarks on it {Nautical Magazine,
1849, p. 214), it is argued that the courses would not bring the ship to the position,
and that the eddy of the Gulf Stream would also tend to vitiate the reckoning. With
Uiese views it is then contended that a 2 fathoms coral spot, at the N.W. end of the
reef, marked on the chart, is ♦b«> real danger. In the Nautical Magazine, August,
184*7, p. 421, there is a statement from Captain J. Watkin, commanding the ship
Joshua Waddington, of Liverpool, that on May 13, 1847, he discovered and "touched
on a spot not larger than three or four times the size of the ship, with 3 fathoms,
sand and jlay, which was stirred up by the ship. It was supposed to be a detached
part of tlie Matanilla Shoal. The survey of the Matanilla Bank at this part is too
complete to allow of the supposition of these shoals having been omitted.

INQLEFIELD Bank, in lat. 29° 42' N., long. 80° 17 W. P

This bank, lying about 66 miles East of St. Augustin, was discovered by Captain
8. Hood Inglefleld, on the 26th of May, 1810, lat. 29° 42' N., long., by account,
80° 12' ; by chronometer, 80' 17' j and by lunars, 80' 18'. Sounded m 25 fathoms,
black sand ; hence, steering N. by W. \ W., course made good, had regular soundings,
24, 25, and 2*7 fathoms, speckled sand and broken shells, until 6 p.m. on the 27th,
when no bottom could be found. Noon, on the 27th, latitude 30° 5' N., longifude, by
account, 80" 25' W., by chronometer, 80" 25'. On the 26th, the current set W.N.W.
1 mile an hour ; at four p.m. on 27th, no current. On the 28th, in latitude 31" 6',
longitude by chronometer, 79° 46'. Current ran N.N.E. \\ miles nn hour. — CommU'
nicated by tientennnt John Erana, R.N. It is probable that an erroneous reckoning
hiu) placed tliis too far off shore.

ViaiAS BETWEEN THE EQUATOE AND Till-] PARALLEL

OF 20 DEGEEE8.

Hannah's Coral Shoal, lat. 10° 7 , long. 27°. 32". (?)

This shoal was reported by Captain Thomas Fanning, of the brig Hannah, on the
passage from Rio Janeiro to Trieste, June 25, 1824. Sounded in 16 fathoms, granu-
hted coral, on ihe S.W. part, but supposed it much shoaler on the N.h. points, as the
weed was plainly to be seen from the mast-head on the surfoce of the water. Its
latitude was found to be 10° 7 N., and longitude about 27" 32 W. This would appi-ar
to be circumstantial, but Captain I'uUon, in H.M.S. Vyclupi, eoum get no bottom on
the ijpoi with 2,000 fathomsin Dec, 1857.

68&

DESCRIPTION OF SHOALS, VIOIAS, ETC.

Maria Bock, Madeline Reef, Warletja Skoal, French Shoal, Souvefs Bank, etc.. (/)

We have the ffrateful task of introducing extracts from a letter addressed to
the Secretary of the United States' Navy, by Lieutenant Charles Wilkes, command'
ing the South Sea surveying and exploring expedition, and dated on board the sloop
Vincennee, at Rio Janeiro, November 27, 1838.

It! will be presently seen that the squadron effected the examination of the sup-
posed position of ten or eleven shoals or dangers, the detailed accounts of which were
formeny given in this vrork, their assigned positions in the charts, and the non-
existence of which has apparently "been pro tea.

The shoals enumerated in the ensuing paragraphs have been expunged from the
charts for many years. It will be, therefore, unnecessary to re])eat the particulars of
their alleged discovery. They will be found in the editions of this 'work published
before 1840. .^

ITiey were unsuccessfully sought for by the United States' Ex^loH'ng Expedition
under Lieut. Commander Chas. Wilkes, and an account of the search was sent to the
U.S. Government under date Nov. 27, 1838. .; v, v x;iy ;,•,*,•

" The first reported shoal laid down on our route Upon the charts WiB the Maria
Bock, in lat. 19 46' N., long. 20° 50' W., which we stood for, and hove-to near the

gtsition. Nothing, however, was discovered, and no bottom could be found with 300
thoms of line.

" The next position er^amined was Bom Felix Shoal,* said to be within 30 miles of
the Maria Rock ; this we searched for in the same manner, but were equally unsuc-
cessful. • We then stood for the place assigned to the Bonetta Shoal, to the eastward
of Bonavista, said to be in lat. 16° 32' N., long. 20° 37' W. We, in like manner,
hupted for this, and after exploring the locality of its position on the chart, I steered
on the course of its reported oearing, E. by N. from Bonavista, until nearly up with
the Hartwell Beef, lying in sight of Bonavista, which has, without doubt, lleen taken
for, and reported as, the shoal called Bonetta,

" From Port Praya we steered for Patty's Overfalls, as laid down in the chart, in
lat. 11° N., long. 24° 30' W,, and had a good opportunity of examining their locality.
A few rips were observed within a degree of the situation assigned them, but little or
no current was found ; and I feel confident in asserting that, no danger exists in this
vicinity. Warley's Shoal, said to be in lat. 5" 4' N., fong. 21° 25' W., was also care-
Ailly examined, but no shoal, or appearunce of shoal water, or any danger, discovered.

" Our next examination was of a FVench Shoal, said to be (as laid down) in
lat. 4° 6' N., long. 20° 34' W. This was also examined, and no danger or a[)pearancc
of shoal discovered. From this point I proceeded East to 13° of West longitude, and
over the position assigned to the shoal by the French hydrographers ; then stood for
the Triton's Bank, said to be in lat. 0° 32' S., long. 17' 46' W. We did not, however,
find it in our progress, or any bottom or indication of soundings ; no discoloration of
water was visible, or change of temperature, although the line extended 30 inilcs
East and West of its reported position j ofter which we again stood to the North,
and ran over a vigia as laid down on the charts, but none such was found in exiiit-
cnce.

" Our next examination was for Bouvet^s Sandy Inland, which was, in like manncr»
careiHilly searched after in and around its position, but our search was equally unsuc-
ccssftil.

" Finally, search was made in and about lat. 2° 43' S., and long. 20° 35' W. ; ex-
tending to the N.N.W. of this point a distance of 30 miles hereabout having been
assigned as the situation of the submarine volcano reported by Admiral Kruscnstem,
which, it was supposed, might have left a shoal. Tnis locauty was twice run over

But it is stated thiit M . Fr^minville, 1R19, obtiiinod a sonnding nf 164 fathomR bqtwcon

the liiinignod position of Bom Folfx and the CRf VwdoN, or lat, 18°

itS uiuutiuucd uSrenftOF. — Anhfilf' Marniimm, ore, vuL iv., 1834, I't.

34', long 21" 40' W
■2, p. iao.

in diffe
none su

"Lie
Octobei
looking

Toth
that giv

Frenc
8 soundj

IVitot

Bouve

Kruae
of the p(

To the
lat. 14» t
Bock, lat

Them
and shoa!
charts,
an oblong
cables an<
longitude

This is
question i

The Do
at modera
fathoms ai
1*0 miles
Nicolas J 1
and 1,876 i

Still Air
1,220 fatht
Mays; an(

Between

In the c
threatened
classed amc
have been »
place, but \

It has be
■Miirw, from
breakers, di
first seen th
in a crcsccn
a strong hn
in heaving i
had no bott
14 W.' — C

They ore
but the earl
The reader i

BETWEEN THE EQUATOR AND 20° N.

667

etc.. (/)

rcssed to

sommand-

the sloop

f the 8up-

'hich were

the non-

from the

ticulars of

publuhed

Expedition
sent to the

the Maria
■to near the
d with 300

30 miles of
lally unsuc-
\io eatttward
ike manner,
rt, I steered
irly up with
, lleon taken

he chart, in
leir locality,
but little or
dats in this
18 also care-
, discovered.

id down) in
appearance
igfitudc, and
en stood for
Dt, however,
coloratioH of
._ 30 miles
the North,
id in exiat-

manncr,
lally unsuc-

y W. J ex-

laviug bctu

Lruscnstern,

nm over

amn b»)tworn
121" 40' W-

in different directions, and carefully examined, with the squadron in open order, but
none such was found in existence.

" Lieutenant Hudson, of the Peacock, having,- c:eparated from me on the 16th of
October, proceeded on a different course in search of the same shoals which we were
looking for, but was unsuccessful in finding any."

To the evidence thus afforded by Captain Wilkei's careful search we can now add
that g:iven by the deep soundings gained by Lieuf^nant Lee in the Dolphin : —

IVench Shoal— bottom obtained with 2,670 fathoms on the spot, which appears by
8 soundings to be the general depth hereabout.

Triton'a Bank— 2,8^0 fathoms, bottom obtained at 8 miles West of the position.

Bouve^B Island— -no bottom at l,dOO fathoms.

Kruaemtern'a Volcano — ^bottom obtained with 3,450 fathoms at a few miles N.W.
of the position.

To the imaginary shoals above mentioned, we may doubtless add DubreuiPs Vigia,
lat. U" 60', long. 29° 40'; Vigia de 5 Palma8,\&t. XT 0', long. 27° 20' \ Longchampa
Rock, lat. 9» 47 , long. 30° ; and the Maalstrom, in about 16° N., and 37° W.

£milg Rock, lat. 16° 69' N., long. 21° 30' W. (?)

The master of the brig Emily, of London, reports that they had discovered a rock
and shoal in lat. 16° 69' N., long. 21° 30' W., of which no mention is made in modern
charts. The rock is about two feet above the level of the sea, about 12 yards long, of
an oblong form, and of a gray colour. The shoal extended fi'om the rock about two
cables and a half in length and one in breadth, running due East. The latitude and
longitude were obtained by good observations at noon."

This is a revival of the old tale of the Emily -Rock, but Lieutenant Lee has set the
question at rest (see page 607.)

The Dolphin passed over the position under favourable circumstances, and sounded
at moderate depths without bottom over the spot ; but he got bottom vdth 1,680
fathoms at 8 miles duo West of it. Besides this, thcv got bottom at 1,970 fathoms at
CO miles North of San Antonio i 1,676 fathoms the same distance North of St,
Nicolas ; 1,370 fathoms 40 miles North of Sal ; 1,612 fathoms N.N.W. of Sal; 1,944
and 1,876 fathoms at 40 miles S.E. of the alleged position of the Emily Shoal.

Still ftirther South and to tlio West of the Cape Verdes, bottom was obtained at
1,220 fathoms at 80 miles E. by N. of Mayo; 1,3mO fathoms at 40 miles East of
Mays ; and a depth :i 1,120 fathoms within 6 miles of Maiu.

Between St. lag'.' nnd Fogo, no bottom was . v d with 900 fathoms.

Pryce Siwo^, Casar Breakers, lat. T 7 ug. 24° 14' W. (?)

In the early editions of this Work this danger was included among those which
threatened the navigator; but fh)m its not having been seen of late, it has been
classed among the imaginary shoals. It is stated on the chart of M. de la Koohette to
tiavo been Nccn, in II'M* in lat. 2° N., long. 22' IH' ; and on this authoiity it held its
place, but was consider'^ d as very doubtful.

It has been again revived, by a not very clear acco\'*^t of it, as follows : — " The brig
Mary, from Africa to Liverpool, on the night of the 4tu of July, 1846, at 7'' p.m., saw
breakers, diHlanoo a quarter of a mile, strong current setting towards them : when
flrHt seen they bore by compass N.W. by N., and seemed to be a long ledge ( f locks
in a crescent shajie ; at 3*' a.m., the following morning, saw the S.E. end of the ret-f;
a strong breeze coming on prevented us making any ftirthcr examination ; the man,
in heaving the lead, struck it upon a html rock (no depth nor situation stated), but
had no bottom the second cast. Their position, when seen, was lat. 3° 7' N., long. 24°
14' W.'' — Charles Pryce, supercargo.

They are also 146 miles ft-om the previously assigiied position of the C-d«u" T'reaksrs,
but the early dates «»f the first announee-meiit will allow great variation in position.
The reader must form lUs own opinion oil to their authority.

668

DESCRIPTION OF THE SHOALS, VIGIAS, ETC.

Slaeadale'a Meefa, in about lat. 0" 67' N., long. 41" 6' W. (P)

On the Idth of October, 1819. the brig Richard, of Ulvemton, Captain Blaesdalor
Btruok on a coral reef, in about 0" 56' or 0° 57' lono;., by account, beyond 41' W. In
fine moderate weather, the ship going at the rate of 3 knots, at 6^ p.m. grounded, and
remained fast about ten minutes. The water was smooth, and no breakers seen.
Upon sounding, a few minutes after, no bottom could be found at 150 fathoms; The
vessel drew 11 feet of water, and in 1 hour there wero 18 inches of water in the welL
On a subsequent survey at Tpva three holes were found, each about the size of a man's
hat, and nearly through the vesseVs bottom, and several large pieces of white coral, as
laige as a man's hand, were found sticking in different parts. This account appears to
be very circumstantial, and the reef has maintained its place on the chart.

But the U.S. ship Dolphin obtained a satisfiictory sounding, in which bottom was
get with 2,980 fathoms in its position, besides two others with no bottom with 1,000
and 2,000 fitthoms in its vicinity. This decides the questiou.

The India Shoal, West of Cape Verde Islands (P)

This shoal is laid down from the chart of M. Rochette, 1777, 70 leagues W. by N.,
true, from St. lago. It is more than doubtful.

Tregarthen JRojk, 14" 29' N., long. 26° 30 W. (P)

Captain James Trugarthen, of the barque MandartAi of Scilly, left Liverpool in
April, 1856, for San Francisco : — " We made Sant' Antonio on the 18th May, 1856,
and found the chronometer not many mileo out. We passed along close by' a rock
yesterday, not marked in the chart. It is in lat. 14° 29' N., long. 26° 30' W. ; was
ibnr feet high and eight feet long, quite round on the top, and steep on all sides. We
8aw it yesterday at half-past nine in the morning. We had good sights for the chro-
nometer at that time, and good observation at noon. Wc^ passed it within thirty
yards.

We mark this as doubtful, as theie was no attempt at verifying the discovery by
sounding or otherwise.

Baxo das Oargaa, lat. 12° 30' N., long. 29° 2' W. (P) 'f

Upon the authority of an old Dutch chart by Vankeulen, " which is but one shade
better than no authority at all," a bank was inserted at 107 leagues W.S.W., true,
fipom Brava, or in lat. 13° 0' N., long. 29° 50' W.

" On January 17th and 18th, 1848, on board H.M.F.M. briff Villa Flor, Lieutenant
Commandant P.V.C. Louveiro e Pinho, on her way from Loanda to Lisbon, saw
breakers, and a shoal in 12° 30' N., long. 28° 56'. She afterwards sailed over the
position first assigned to Gar9aa shoal, without seeing it."

Atlen, or PoBQAS Bank, between the Cape Verde Islands and the African coast.

In the early charts of the Atlantic this bank ba:> always been shown, as extending
60 leagues in length N. and S., with a breadth of o leagues. Nothing more than thiH
appeared to be known of it except the statement that it was all deep water, and not
dangerous to ^\app{n^.— {^Oriental Navigator, p. 27.) It was unsuccessfully sought
for by the Leven in 1819. In some later charts it has been omitted for want of somo
confirmation, but this seems to be revived by a cast of the 1 :'^ taken in the Birken-
head steamer, in her voyage to Ascension, under the command of Mr. J. B. ^ Jon,
R.N., on November 11th, 1850.

ITie position, careftiUy deduced from cmonometer and observation, is 17° 0' N.,
long. 20° 3' 15' W., and the denth 86 fathoms. The bottom appeared to consist of

frteces of shells and sand, '• dmall particles of coral. Mr. Aylen says, that " I did not
ike heuving the ship to, to take another cast, particularly as I considered myself on
the edge of the bank only, and that at noon, when on its centre, I would again try,
which I did without success, with 90 fathoms of line. — Nautical Maaazine, 1851,
p. 155. ''

Bcbidea this sounding hereabout, another of 164 fathoms was obtained^

IfilO k»

Captai
2r40'.

Brea
for the
mile N<
long. 32
lat. 11°
20 feet
which 1<

Lieuti
about 2^
of such
current-1
watera s(
to the ea

This sv
Longuevi

the Span;
danger (1
of the fac
it, withou
more or h
also a mei
Ea.st of M
sand J am
Joachim ^
ever, this \
the Spauie

But the
renders it 1
and found
fathoms in

M. de H

minica, anc
romtantly i
this place, i

This is d<
to Jamaica,

This vigil
M. Qalissio
had previo.i
Rainbou), n
seen in 1825

It is dispi
Dolphin.

Mart

A shoal w
mentioned 1

■'■uiui, OI tJ

Jtetef^!

Blaesdale,
L» W. In
luded, and
kera seen,
ims. The
1 the welL
of a man's
be coral, as
appears to

lottom was
with 1,000

W. by N.,

iverpool in
May, 1856,
by* a rock
0' W. ; was
I sides. We
'or the chro-
rithin thirty

iiscovery by

it one shade
,S.W., true,

, Lieutenant
!jisbon, saw
bd over the

lean coast.

Is extending
re than thin
icr, and not
ruUy sought
ant of somo
the Birkcn-
\. B. ^^ox^,

\r 0' N.,

consist of

" I did not

myself on

again trvi

ls»/»«, 1851,

BETWEEN THE EQUATOR AND 20*.

Captain FrSminville, to the N.W. of this cast of Mr. Aylen, in lat. 18' 35', and Iohr.
21° 40'. ' ' e

Texeiro's Shoal, in lat. 12" C, long. 38" 28'. (?)

Breal jrs seen by Don An^l Texeiro, Captain in the Spanish navy, April 16, 1810,
for the . imeriean ship Topa^o, bound for Boston. They appeared to extend about a
mile North to South, and 2 cables' length from East to West; latitude, 12° 0' N.,
long. SS" 28'. Again, Captain Edgar Wakeman, of the ^«fe/oMfe„January 11th, 1866 ;
lat. ir 21', long. 33° 33' W.,a&yfhreakera ahead; tacked ship, the stern being within
20 feet of the reef: on nearing it again saw three discoloured patches to leeward,
which looked like shoal water.

Lieutenant Maury, who records this (vol. ii., 1859, p. 162), caused the traclrs of
about 22 vessels which had passed near this to be examined ; but there was no notice
of such a reef in these journals. It is therefore presumed, that it was one of those
current-rips so singular and frequent in this latitude, probably at the junction of
watei-s setting in oppcc'te Jirections, aa Captain Wakeman states that the diift wa«
to the eastward. (See page 283, etc., ante.)

Galleon's Bank, in lat. 15' 56', long. 49° 40'. (:")

This supposed bank, or reef of rocks, was discovered on the 23rd of July, 1730, by
Longueville, the pilot of the San Fernando, commanded by M. de Navaro, Admiral of
the Spanish galleons, By^ the detail into which Longueville enters concerning this
danger (his journal bdng in the Depot de la Marine at Paris), there can be no doubt
of the fact. It appears that the San Fernando apparently struck on and passed over
it, without receiving any damage. Other ships in the same fleet also struck, with
more or less violence, but without actual injury. In the Depot de la Marine there is
also a memorandum of the existence of a bans in 15° North latitude, and 228 le\gu«>«
East of Martinique, upon which there is said to be 40 fathoms of water, bottom of flne
Band ; and over which Joachim Voette is said to have passed and sounded. Who this
Joachim Voette was is not mentioned, nor when he ascertained its position. If, how-
ever, this last-mentioned bank really exists, it may oe. tho same as that over which
the Spanish galleons passed.

But the careful examination by Lieutenant Lee, in the Dolphin, of the locality,
renders it highly improbable that any danger exists. He was four days in its vicinity
and found no bottom with 550 fathoms in Longueville's position, nor with 250
fathoms in Voctte's position, liusides other soundings.

M. do Humboldt has noticed, that there exists in the parallel of the island Do-
minica, and very near the 55th degree of longitude, a space wherein the water seeins
constantly milky, although the sea is very deep : and he asks, " May there not be, in
this place, some sunken volcanic islet ?"

Betsy's Rock, in lat. 18° 7', long. 50" 0'. (?) '

This is described as a flat rock, seen by the brig Betsy, on her passage fr<' i Greenock
to Jamaica, 17th of September, 1808. . / ;< ...>:**

Gnlisioniere's Rock, 12° 20' N., and 54° 49' W. (?)

This vigia was exhibited, on the chart of •* 'Pochette, as a rock, mentioned by
M. GalisHionierc, and some other navigtrt^rs. £>ot, nearly in tho scm'^ situation,

hod previo;»"' > '>een called the Isle of Fonaeca. it is said to iiave been seen by tlio
Rainbotv, n ' ■ f-war. Wc havo been vaguely informed, that the rock was again
seen in 1822.

It is disproved by IV, sounding of 2,Ci',.) tarhims obtained by I • jwti nant Lee in the
Dolphin.

Martin's Reef, eastward of Uuadnlc .i»c (P), in 10° 42' N., an. 58° 63' W.

A shoal was inserted hereabout on the chart of Bellin, 1742, who says that it is
mentioned by many navigators. " It wa« Rn:Rin seen in July, 1816, by Captain
Martin, of the ship John Manning, The shoal f^temed to consist of yellow sand, with

690

DESCRIPTION OF SHOALS, VIGIAS, TaV.

«r>..

aM-weed upon it ; to be about half a mile in length from Ev c to West, and a quarter
of a mile in breadth from North to South."

This reef was again announced by the ship Cecilia, of Glasgow. 19th July, 1823,
b V which the position assignvd was, 16° 44' N., and 68" 6V W. To the 'Commander of
t^e t^liip it appeared to be about 1| or 2 miles long, and onlv about 30 feet wide : the
VroBti}\i; pet I- shaped like the bulb of a thermometer, seemed, dangerous.

Lftt^tly, Capcuin N,ewbold, of the brig IVantit, on her passage fivm Halifax to St.
yincont, ii. }* ' rnary, 1842, disoovei-ed a shoal to windward of the Island of Antigua,
:*', \jx 16" 'rl ^ ,, lonf . 59° 6'. He examined it as carefully as ciroumstances would
p&rruit, anr! <';( noribes it to be about 2()0 feet long, and 80 feet wide, with 3 fethoms
water in the nuntre, and much shallower on the edges.

Licutcnvit Lee, U.S.N., examined this locality : — He says, " he sounded along its
iMU-allel from 68' 3d' to 60° 15', with a clear radius of vision, and examined the iieiji^h-
traurhnod of ^j -> mean position assumed by Laurie, within two miles of which Mr.
Bcu»iiii^ . Boutiding from a boat, found no bottom at 3,200 fathoms' depth. At the
positio).' \\here the Transit located this reef in 1842, we did not find bottom with
1,01)0 fttthonia."

Delaware Skoal, eastward of Tbinidad.

Captain Kos8,ln the brigantiue Delaware, ft>om Charleston, on the 10th September,
1839, at noon, in lat. 10 38', struck soundings in 37 fathoms, shells and sandy
bottom. At 3 p.tn., steering South, passed over a rooky bank, having 5, 7, and 10
fathoms, aiul bottom plainly seen ; inferred fttim the distance run that the latitude of
the shallow part of the bank must lie in 10° 37' N., longitude, by chronometer, UU° 3'
W. At a quarter past 3 /).m. had 70 fathoms of water. \v .!,.= ;/,

St. Esprit Beef, in lat. 14° 37', long. 68" 59' (P)

" On the 4th of July, 1817, the French ship St. EsprU, in lat. 14" 37', long. 58° 5ti',
35 leagues distant from Martinique, fell in with a chain of rocks, about 8 feet under
water, extending about 500 fathoms from North to South, and being about 100
fathoms broad, and were plainly seen on the bottom from the vessel."

In theearlier editions of this work there are notices of Capt. Pierre Renault of the
Automne seeing a danger hereabout in 1 723, and of Capt. Labordc passing over a
supposed sand-blank 80 or 90 leaguei^ from the island. {See Edition 1825, p. 258.)

It was annoimced, in the year 1833, that H.M.S. North Star, on the 11th of Febru-
ary, while on her way from Antigua to Demerary, under the command of Lord
William Pa^t, struck soundings in 7 fathoms, near the position assigned to the Ertprit
Reef ; and, in consequence of this, Vice- Admiral Sir George Cockburn, commander-
in-chief on the station, directed the sbipc. of his squadron to search for the danger;
♦*-'5se were the Ariadne, S'pj'^iire, VeKf^il, Forte, and Victor, in January, 1834, and
V. fatea, in 1826 ; but, after a vigilant search, neither reef nor shoal have been found.
— (See Nautical Magazine, November, 1834.) Again, on the 11th of October, 183ii,
H.M.S. D> -patch, Captain Daniells, passed over or near the place where the North
Star (struck soundings ; the lead was kept going for six hours, without any indication
of shoal water. If it exists, it is therefore dear that the true situation of the danger
has not been ascertained.

Clowes' Reef, to the northward ;>f Po-axo 'tco, l»t. 10° 17', long. 66" 50f.

An American schooner, in IK! ; aaiick ov a iock to ♦he northward of Porto Rico,
in between 19° and "0* North, i his was thougl to oe the same danger on which,
some time after, the brig F \rt. Captain Baxter, «.rack and remained several hours.
The i-eef, which has been -•• riously reprciieifted on the charts, vas seen by riuntain
Clowes, in the bhip Caledonia, on the 24th of April, 1823 ; and ', ivptuiii Clowes assis^i :
for iU situation lat. 19° 17', and long. Oo" 50|'. It is ubout a quarter of a mile in
extent from East • - West, with a very little water on it. A quantity of kcu- weed won
i^een at each enu, ;vhidi apjK'ared t; be drifting to the S.W. The snip was within a
mile of the r«ef.

Further nroot oi the exiMttinci! of this must be Icl

'oiiKn>'>U'>«

VOLCANIC REGION.

691

id a quarter

. July, 1&23,
tmmander of
;t wide : the

lUfax to St.

of Antigua,

tances would

itU 3 fathoms

ded along its
ed the neigh-
,f which Mr.
ipth. At the
, bottom with

We have thus concluded the catalogue of dangers and presumed dangers which
have been stated to exist to the embaiTassment of uavigrition, and which have for ao
many years '* disH^urcd our chartu." As will be seen, the direct test of the sounding
lead has caused tho disappearance of most of them ; and, as was at first stated, they
are only retained iii this edition to show the reasons upon which they may be
ignored.

At the same time it is well to mention now, as will be also done presently, that
these deep sea soundings are not altogether satisfactory ; indeed, in very many in-
Ntanoes they are more than probably erroneous. But they at least demonstrate that
the ocean is very deep in their locality, and until a more satisfactory examiuation be
made, they must sumce to remove these .'cportod dangero.

th September,
lis and sandy
ig 5, 7, and 10
the latitude of
aometer, C0° 3'

", long. 68° 56',
,ut 8 feet under
ping about 100

Renault of the
passing over a
125, p. 258.)
llthof Febru-
imand of I-ord
•d to the EHorit
n, commanaev-
for the danger !
lary, 1834, and
,ve been found.
October, 1^33,
here the NoHli
any indication
of the danger

66° 60|'.
I of Porto Rico,
iger on which,
several houw.

en by ^>vl'*''^

I'lowes aRsv4' '

Ci of a mile in

sea- weed wus

was within a

itiuil.

VOLCANIC EEGION. -

In the neighboui-hood of the Et^uator, and between longitudes 18° and 23° W., is a
space which nas been very fertile in former years in ths production of supposed roeka
and sand-banks. The nature of this space is now better understood, and we haTe
now only the frequent announcements of volcanic shocks having^ been felt. They are
indeed very numerous, and in our Memoir for the South Atlantic, pages 84 — 88, we
have given a series of these occurrences. They need not, therefore, be repeated
here.

It is now well known that the effects of an earthquake or tremora at sea has ex-
actly the same effect on vessels as if they had rubbed over a reef of rocks, or the heavy
cabte had suddenly runout. We have manv instances of this, and such effects may
be looked for in crossing the E(^uator within these limita. It may perhaps extend as
far to the West as the volcanic islets of Peiiedo de San Pedio.

To the list given before, as above stated, we may had, by way of exaniple here, the
following : — *

Captain Ballaird, of the ship Rambler, from Calcutta, on October 30th, 1860, in
lat. 16° 30' N., long. 54° 30' W., and Captain Potter, of the bark Millwood, last from
Rio, half an hour later on the same day, when in lat. 23° 30' N., long. 68' W., each
felt a volcanic shock. These vessels were about 620 miles apart. Supposing them to
be in direct line, in which the earthquake was travelling, it» rate will appear to be
about 1 mile in 6 secondui >^hi«h «J only a iittle slower than sound travela through
the air. ., , ,

Tho Russian ship Dallas, W. Wikander commander, March 20, 1861, at 7 p.tn.,
lat. 0° 27' N., long. 20° 30' W., tiie ship apparently went over the ground ; the ship s
masts and yai-ds were shaken. Found afterwards that the false keel had gone.

At the same moment another ship, the Melbourne, of Dundee, C. Cowie master, in
lat. 0" 20' N., long. 20° 36' W. (that is 8J miles distant from the RusMan nhip in com-
pany), was startled by hearing a loud rambling noise, and at the same time felt the
ship tremble from stem to stern, which lasted tour or five minutes.

ITie ship Fhrence Xtghtingale, January 23th, 1869, ha%ing the St. Paul Rock, or
Penc<lo de San Pedro, bearing N. W. by N. 10 miles, experienced a severe shock. It
commenced with a rumbling noiHe like distant thunder, and lasted about forty seconds.
The sea had been short and irregular, but waa succeeded h^ 9. heavy swell Jrom JS.JS.,
1^'hich lasted for several days.

Captain Whitmorc, of the Sea Serpent, December 29th, 1868, strucl<, as lie snp-

pOh^lT

I iiii a vvwi reef, in iat. VT 20 N.,long. 28° 30' W., in consequence ui whieJi he

S92

DISCOtOURED WATER.

put into Rio. He sounded immediately, and found no bottom, but found afterwards
his fidae keel and copper injured.

The Russian sloop of war Pussodnik struck, as was supposed, on the same shoal,
about 24 hours before the Sea Serpent, but this proves the nature of the occurreace.

The Prince, of Scilhr, James Thomas commander, 11th December, 1853, in lat. 0°
64' N., long. 26° 50' W., smooth water, suddenly felt a grinding tremour go through
the vessel, as if dragging over something rough and yielding. It continued for about
a ship's length, but did not stop her way through the water. The ship did not
strike.

The barque Eleanor, Captain G. A. Findlay, March 26th, 1861, 10 a.m., felt a shock
as if something very heavy was being rolled about the decks, or as if the ship had
gone over some rough ground; it made the vessel tremble only for a few seconcb. A
rumbling noise heard like distant heavy thuuder. Weather remarkably fine ; lat.
0" 44' N., long. 21° 19' W. Great quantities of fish and sharks around the ship.

These instances with the others will afford ample evidence of the general nature
and locality of these volcanic shocks.

We have limited the instances hei-e to this particular area on the Equator ; but
there appears to be cither an extension of this action far to the northward, or else
there is a separate area, for volcanic shocks have been felt as far North as 23° 30' N.,
and long. 58° 0' W. ; and from the almost continuous line of discoloured and peculiar
water that extends from the Equator to this position, as will be presently stated, we
are led to infer that there is a luie of volcanic action trending pai'allel to the range of
the Antilles. ^^ -' .

The depth, however, is very great, and there is not now any reason for supposing
that any shoal exists. Lieutenant Lee and others have found depths exceeding 2,000
fitthoms over most of the region in question ; and this is another wonderful evidence
of the force of these shocks which can be transmitted through a stratum of water
12,000 feet and upwards in thickness.

DISCOXiOUEED WATEE.

At 3 r-m. on the 15th of July, 1792, Don Cosme de Churruca, then on his passage
to the vVest Indies, discovered a boiling and breaking of the sea, so very extraor-
dinary, that it appeared to be breakers ; but they found no bottom at 150 fathomB.
This phenomenon, wliich appeared to be in consequence of a current setting
against the wind, accounts for the differences between the observations and dead
reckoning.

On the 16th, at 10 a.m., they were in lat. 13° 66', long. 54° 7' West of Greenwich;
and observed that the colour of the water changed, looking like muddy river water,
or as if they were on a bank. They were 128 leagues to the eastward of the midiUe
of St. Lucia, and 160 to the N.E. of the mouth of Orinoco. They continued theii'
course without alteration ; sounded a^ night and found no bottom at 120 fatUonw.
The captain, Churruca, says that th? «" jur is always the same in that part of the
Of'ean, always appearinjf as if on m (i igs in that latitude and longitude, and tliat
it never vanes the position of its liro Js ) and, in addition to his own remarks, he had
assured himseK o'^ the fact by information collected from various sources ; and that,
also, the Englit,fa sailing directions for the year 1782, entitled the Complete Pilot for
the Leeward Ishinds, in the account of Barbadoes, mentions that this pneiiomcoon i»

found
there ar

Thep

"In t
^villfind
but ther
i8land."-f

"In a]
brown at
Sailing
whether
tainty.

" On 01
afternoon
same man
was hove
boat, sou
The latitu
by chrom
2,800 tath

Off the
track of t
o'clock, in
coloured ^
niorning ;
its shade
miles an h(
blue T"avefi
time, ; j^av
lamented "V
our course
lead, as it M
wth horrib
hammocks.

. While in
>ng the mer
lunar distan
were clear o
for several d
no bottom ai

That we 1
stances ; yet
Barh: :.
what . ^i
my humble
which the M

* It seems
■'here Captain
niaking as a f5
I*e, in the 1
101, 102.

t In 1813, t
•iisooloured : t]
"ardhore; wj
charged by tht

#*%■

.-Mm '■ i«F WL

«rwards

le shoal)
iirence.

in lat. 0°
I through
for about
} did not

It a shock
ship bAd

;onaiB. A
fine; lat.

ship.

ral nature

lator ; but
ird, or else
23" 30' N.,
id peculiar
stated, we
hs range of

supposing
eding 2,000
111 evidence
im of -water

lis passage
r extraor-
fathoms.

ent setting
and deaa

Greenwich ;
liver water,
EiidiHe
Inued theii'
.. fathoms.
j>art of ti\c
fe, and that
Iks, ho had
and that,
Pilot fir
komcDon it

DISCOLOURED WATER.

found at the distance of 10 or 80 leagues to the eastward of that island, and that
there are no soundings, though the water seems as if there were.*

The passage above quoted, from the old Book of Directions, is as follows : —

"In the latitude of Barbadoes, about 70 or 80 leagues to the eastward, you

Avill find the water discolouied and prodigiously thick, as if there were soundings;

but there aie none, and you may depend on being at the distance aforesaid from flie

i8land."t

" In alluding to Mr. Luccock's remark about the patches of water which exhibit a
brown and di; ty appearance, and also to the note from Captain Kotzebue in the New
Sailing Directory for the Ethiopic, page 42, I should question, with all deference,
whether the depth of water in such places was tried to a sufficient degree of cer-
tainty.

" On our passage from the West Indies to Europe in July, 1837, at about four in the
afternoon of the 7th, a streak was observed on the surface of the sea, exactly in the
same manner as Captain K. describes, and at the moment we passed over it the lead
was hove in a very proper manner without finding bottom ; but, having lowered the
boat, soundings were found to exist, although in more than 30 fathoms of water.
The latitude computed from observations taken at noon, was 21° 12' N., and long,
by chronometer, 58° 42' W. — A. H. Biaavhop Oreevelink." (Lieutenant Lee found
2,800 fathoms here.)

Off the Coast of Guyana, in the morning of the 17th of September, 1835, en the
tracK of the Echo from Antigua toward Surinam, there appeared at about seven
o'clock, in every direction upon the surface of the ocean, several large spots of dis-
coloured water, more or less thickly mingled as it seemed with mud. It was a fine
morning ; the sun rose in all its splendour, and not a single cloud was there to throw
its shade upon the water, which was uncommonly gmooth, although the ship ran 6
miles an hour ; besides the water in some of the spots were so thick as to make the
blue vaves curl against their edges. Having, says M. Greevelink, the watch at the
time, ; gave warning of this strange occurrence to our captain (the late and much-
lamented W. H. van Vosa), who came on deck and ordered me to keep — ^not to alter —
our course '. /hich we passed through of those spots, yet we did not heave the
lead, as it V. le first day in which we gained a breeze after fourteen days struggling
mth horrible calm and rainy weather, rnd two-thirds of our crew confined to their
hammocks.

While in tlie midst of these spots I observed ti titude by the moon, then pass-
ing the meridian 11° 47', and the longitude by obv ; i-^ters, and at the same time by
lunar distances, three excellent sets, 53° 47'. In ac out three-quarters of an hour we
were clear of them, and the sea resumed its former clearness. The current, equatorial,
for several days remained northerly, yet was not very strong. (Lieutenant Lee found
no bottom at 2,780 fathoms.)

That we had not been in soundings we felt nearly convinced by existing circ'^n-
Btances ; yet how came this muddy water here P The common discoloured water of
Barba " •• was not, as the latter is a large extent of water of a diiferent but some-
what : . ^r hue than that of the ocean ; at least, so far as we have seen it. As for
my humble opinion, I seek for a cause of this appearunce only in the ' .<rce with
which the Maranon rushes downward, but without sufficient power to strengthen the

• It seoms that the appearance of soundinqfs described above occurs in th6 same place
■There Captain Tulloch tolu me a bank existed, which some Americans were in the habit of
making as a fresh point of departure when bound to Surinam, &c. — A. L. But Lieutenant
Lee, in the Dolphin, found depths of 2,d00 fathoms. See cruise of the Dolphin, pages
101, 102.

t In 1813, at the diutance of 197 miles to the eastward of Barbadoes, we found the water
discoloured : the thermometer rose here 1°. The current [Equatorial] inclines to the north-
ward here ; which, as well as the discolourod water, may be attributed to ths stream dis-
charged by the great Eivei Orinoco, &t -Lieutenant Evans.

KW»i'*''

'69i

DEPTH OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN TC.

Eqafftorial current. This may seem contradictory, but I thitiK it may be found re-
Goncileable in the manner following : —

'This river impetuously pours fortL its waters in a mass over a bod of some declivity,
which steepens more and more towards its issue till it becomes a precipice, so as to
form a cataract, whereby a part of its stream may dive beneath the stratum of un-
dulations of the ocean, and afterward rise to the surface by its lesser specific gravity ;
where, driven still farther off by the northerly cuiTcnt, it may easily remain tor
some days in t^e above-mentionea manner, especially iu those mouths wherein con-
tinual calms prevail, and the water is rarely disturbed by the wind. (This may be
tiie case, but it may also be attributed to a vulcanic origin as stated above.)

The commander of H. (Netherlands) M. brig Koerier, informed Captain Stoi-t that
in the month of May, 1854, when between lats. 16° and 17' N., and in 54" W. longi-
tude, he sailed for a whole day iu dark coloured water. This was particularly re-
marked, inasmuch as similai'ly coloured sea is met with in about lat. 10^ and more
easterly. Purdy, in his "Atlantic Memoir," mentions that iu lat. IG" N., white
coloured water has been observed.*

With this IwiowleJge and the announcements before given of the Betsi/'a Rock,
Gulisaionierd's Mock, Martin's Reef, St. Esprit Reef, and the singular phunomeuu
related by Chxirruca, Greevelink, and Nockells, it may be inferred that a large extent
of ocean, runniuj i)arallel with the rang-e of the Win' ^ ward Islands, covers either
a range of submarine volcanoes, or that the bed is in a ate of action from the same
cause.

Lieutenant Lee, i" the U.S. brig Dolphin, also met with discoloured water in lat.
12" 22' N., long. 54° to 55° W., but found no bottom at the East end of this, with
1,000 fathoms, and a depth of 2,570 fathoms at its West End.

He again came into discoloured water in lat. 14" 10' to 14° 50' N., long. 54' 30' to
55° 0'.

Captain No(k< "% in the ship Bri//ht». an, of London, 5th of May, 1835, observing
that the sea appeu ^d of a dirty ' uk green, in lat. 41°, long. 39° 19', by chronometer,
tried for soundings >ut found oottom at 240 fathoms.

Captain Nockells, iU two previous voyages, found the water in the same place very
much discoloured, whi' ■ he supposed might originate from the melting of the ice in
the northern latitudet^ .

\ remarkable change in the i 'lour of the sea was observed by M. Dupctit Thouai-s,
boud the^ French ftigate / '-^niM, in lat. 21° 60', long. 19* 34' W., iu the same

The officers tliought it was a bank, but

spot which Fraisier had alreads jinted o:.it.
no bottom was found with 550 fathoms, f

" DEPTH OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN, AND DEEP-SEA

";■; .; .■:A.- SOUNDINGS.

It was formerly considered that the lower bed of ocean-water was, from the pres-
sure and weight of the incumbcut masses, so dense is to be rather of the nature of
solid matter than the natmal fluid. However, a low facts will serve to dispel such a
notion. The descent of the deep sea lead is quite as rapid at a depth when the upper
weight must be enormous, as at less distance from the surface, and no tendency to
obstruct its downward passage can be observed at the greatest depth yet attained, ex-

* Verhand. enBerigten, Amstenliun, 1854, p. 386.
t Voyage de la Venus, vol. iii, p. 446.

cept th
freqner
the idei
be for a

Itisi
square i
creased
nor the
to the b(
square i
ened abc
enormou
into a sai
of their
very slig

The lei
to the b
will offer
as succest
or 3,000 f
the resist

Among
that recor
midway tl
obtained t
Captain V
1,300 fatl
thought tl
sounding
affect navij
cannot be (
ments. T]
in the " Ni

On July
muda : — N(
fathoms; n

On Augu
and Ncwfoi
The whole
for nearly i

below the s

On the s

fatiioms in
atl ached of
iathoms, wl
Mooney.

But the g
U\ikh, iu tl
3,700 lathon
was suppose
fathoms, at i
sounding; t
whatever ai
character; f
down and ru

DEEP SEA SOUNDINGS.

690

found re-

Q declivity,
;e, so as to
urn of un-
ic gravitjr ;
remain tor
lerein con-
ds may be

)

1 Stort that
r W. longi-
iculavly rc-
O' and ujorc
' N., white

ietsifa Rock,
phouomcua
large extent
covers either
om the same

(S'ater in lat.
of this, with

,ng. 54' 30 to

35, observing
chronometer,

le place very
the ice in

)ctit Thouai-s,
ill the same
a bank, but

3EA

pm the pres-
16 nature of
spel such a

^en the upper
. tendency to

I attained, ex-

cept that which is due to the firiction of the sDUndins-line. Again, the whale fishers
frequently find their prev to descend perpendicularly to such an enormotu depth, that
the idea of an impenetrable density, or even of any considerable increase of it, cannot
be for a moment entertained.

It is true that the pressure increases with the depth, to the amount of 1 5 lbs., upon
square inch for every 34 feet in depth ; but the density is not thereby sensibly in-
creased owing to the incompressibility of water ; so that neither the buoyant force,
nor the resistance to the motion of any body, are sensibly increased from the surface
to the bottom. At the d^pth of 3,000 fatlioms, fol- instance, the pressure upon a
square inch i nearly 8,000 lbs., but the column of water of 18,000 reet is only short-
ened about lUO feet ; the density is then but slightly increased $ but the effect of this
enormous presHure upon compressible bodies, as air, wood, &c., is to condense them
into a smaller bulk, by which they may be rendered heavier than water, and will sink
of their own weight. A piece of wood cannot float at the bottom of the sea, but a
very slight extraneous force will bring it to the surface.

The lead, if allowed to descend alone, will fall with a uniform and rapid velocity
to the bottom ; but if a line be attached to the lead, a few hundred feet of the line
will offer a resistance to the motion nearly equal to the whole weight of the lead, and
as successive lengths are drawn into the water, this fesi stance is increased, till at 2,000
or 3,000 fathoms depth, the weight will be almost entii'ely suspended in the sea by
the resistance of the water along the sides of the line.*

Among the earliest experiments, perhaps the first, of these deep-sea soundings is
that recorded by Captain Edward Sabine, who, on November 13th, 1822, when about
midway the Caymans and Cape Antonio, in the Caribbean Sea, sunk a cylinder and
obtained the temperature at a depth exceeding 1,000 fathoms. This was followed by
Captain Wauchope, in H.M.S. ^urydice, who gained water from a depth of about
1,300 fathoms. After that. Captain (afterwaid Admiral Sir Francis) Beaufort
thought that he attained a depth nearly the same in the Strait of Gibraltar ; but his
sounding is shown to be faUacious. Although the results can scarcely be said to
affect navigation, still in a work like the present so interesting a feature of its subject
cannot be overlooked. We shall gfive here the details of some of those great experi-
ments. The first was made by Gaptain Bamett, of H.M.S. Thunder, and is related
in the " Nautical ^agazine " for 1849.

On July 10th, 1848, lat. 25° 55' N., long. 66° 0' W., between St. Thomas and Ber-
muda : — No current, sounded with 2d0lb. of pig ballast ; the line broke at about 3,250
fathoms; run out in 1** 11' 34".

On August 3rd, 1848, lat. 41° 19', long. 44° 16' W., between the Western Islands
and Newfoundland Bank, same weight as before, current N. W. by W., 2 knots an hour.
The whole line, 3,700 fathoms, run out in l"* 15' 27 ', and held the boat with the reel
for nearly half an hour against the current, when the line broke about 300 fathoms
below the surface.

On the same day tried a line of iron wire, varying in size from Nos. 1 to 6, 4,000
fatlioms in length, W')und on a small reel, the smallest part first, vdth a weight
fttlaclied of Gl lb., but a hand lead would have been better. It broke at 2,000
iathoms, which run out in 20' 53". This experiment was suggested by Lieutenant
Mooney.

But the greatest length of wire line sent down is that effected by Lieutenant /. C.
Wahh, in the U.S. scho<mer Taney, on November 15th, 1849, to a depth of more than
5,700 iathoms (32,200 feet, or more than 6 statute miles), without finding bottom, as
was supposed, in lat. 31° 69' N., long. 58" 43 W. The wire broke at this length, 5,700
fathoms, at the reel, and was lost. It preserved the exact plumb line throughout the
sounding ; there was a steady, uniform increase of weight and tension ; no check
whatever any instant of its descent. This experiment, however, is of a negative
character ; for it is evident, says Professor Trowbridge, that the wire would be earned
down and run out by its own weip '

ight.

• Professor Troworidge in Sillimun's Journal, vol. xxvi., 1868, p. 391.

^96

DEPTH OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN, ETC.

. ' One of the earliest specimens of bottom obtained at great depths was by Comm.
C. H. Davis, U.S.N., in October, 184d, when greenish mud was Drought up in the
Steliwagen cup from a depth of 1350 fathoms in the Qulf Stream.

The Hydrographic Bureau of the United States, following up the investigations
thus commenced, instructed Captain Piatt, in the U.S. sloop of war Albany, to con-
tinue these experiments; and accordingly, between December, 1850, and April, 1851,
besides numerous trials in the Atlantic, quoted below, she carried a line of soundings
across the Gulf of Mexico.

The possibility of obtaining a knowledge of the great depth of the ocean being
establisned, the Government of the United States first commenced utilising this know-
ledge, on a more extended scale, by the expedition of the brig Dolphin, in her well-
known cruise, under the command of Lieutenant-Commanding Lee, U.S.N. The result
of this voyage was the disproof of many of those shoals and dangers which had lon^
held a place on our charts to the continual annoyance and embarrassment of naviga-
tion. These have been recited in the previous pages. This cruise of the Dolphin was
confined to the North Atlantic, except a portion in South latitude about Fernando
Noronha, and the Rocas. The Dolphin was again sent out under the command of
Lieutenant O. H. Berryman with the same object.

The soundings taken in the Dolphin, most of which will bo given presently, were
taken with the thin sounding line, seven-hundredtho of an inch in diameter, and one
or two 32 lbs. shot. It has been questioned, and it certainly seems vrith reason,
whether the evidence upon which the deeper soundings rest is qmte valid, as has been
before alluded to.

There are two methods of estimating the true depth obtained, the one by the rate
of descent of the line, which has been carefully estimated now from the numerous
experiments made, but whichich estimate of course is liable to the vitiating influence
of under-currents, and also by the indications of a sounding machine such as Massey's,
or another proposed by Professor Trowbridge ; but hitherto these instruments have
manifestly failed at g^at depths fix)m some cause, either the helices not acting readily
under the pressure, or the friction on the wheel-work. Errors therefore of 500 fathoms
may escape 'detection, and therefore a series of deep soundings, apparently of similar
depths, as will be seen in the ensuing tables, may pass over submarine mountains as
high as Snowdon or Ben Lomond without detection. »

In sounding with a line of seven-hundredths of an inch in diameter, the velocities
of the descent diminish, with one 321b. shot, from 8*83 feet per second at 50 fathoms,
to 2-84 feet at 1,000, and 2-09 feet at 2,000 fathoms ; and with two 321b. shot, from
12.5 feet per second at 50 fathoms, to 3-48 feet at 1,000, or 2-99 feet at 2,000 fathoms.

Another vei'y impoi-tant consideration is — what eflect would under currents have
on the line in passing through it? From the remarkable trials made by Lieutenant
Walsh, cited on pp. 365, 366, when in several instanceei unsuspected and deep-seated
currents were found, and in one instance at a velocity of If knots, and in others of
1|, !{, and 1 knot, and these, too, moving in quite contrary directions to that other-
wise ascertained, it must be considerable. It is possible, nay, probable, also, that in
the vast depths penetrated in these soundings, more than one such submarine and
opposing current would have to be crossed.

Now it is certain that a cun-ent must act upon the bight of the sounding line after
the weight has passed through it, and it may operate in swerving the weight itself
from its perpendicular descent at great depths. Therefore it would be difficult to
state what the exact depth was that the sounding weight would reach, and it is
familiar to all, that a very great strain is required to get a towing line straight again
if the bight of the line gets into the water. Therefore it would seem that such sub-
marine cuiTents have the efi'ect in causing the irregularities in the times required to
uink a certain quantity of line.

Again, the force exerted by a current against the bight of the sounding line will
have the eflTect of taking the twine off the reel at nearly double its own velocity. So
that supposing the ship stationaiy at the surface, and the shot at the bottom, such
submarine streams as those recorded by Lieutenant Walsh would take off the line

nearly
it in
cause*

Fro]
is cer
uncert

Too
posed,

The
been ta
Amerio
by Lieu
1856.
ing Vah
by a mi
tne line

The sa
Jas. Day
were obt
as hereto
and in a
in small i
338, (245
there I'ela

The fai
route, Coi
October, ]
land, gain
estimating

Another
% started
and obtain
land and I

The sou
118 lbs., th(
fained, am
and a self
brought up
open so lonj
canized ind
brought up
engineer, ai
the Bulldog

The Sonne
out lying ov
after, wliich
prove useful

DEPTH OF Tl'E ATLANTIC OCEAN, ETC.

§ii

by Comm.
up in the

estigations

ny, to con-

pril, 1851,

soundings

jean being
this know-
n her well-

The result
1 had long

of naviga-
Dolphin was
it Fernando
lommand of

sently, were

ter, and one

vnth reason,

as has been

( by the rote
te numerous
ing influence
as Massey's,
•uments have
cting readily
f 500 fathoms
ly of similar
[nountains as

the velocities
50 fathoms,
b. shot, from
000 fathoms.

urrents have
y Lieutenant
deep-seated
in others of
» that other-
also, that in
•marine and

|ug line aft«r
veight itself
. difiBcult to
fch, and it is
taight agoin
lat such sub-
1 required to

ling line \vill

Velocity. So

l)ottom, such

foff the line

nearly as fSut as the shot .vruiid sink it, and it would be nearly aa difficult to haul
it in as it would be to raiHe ^e shot itself from a great depth, with all the ftictioit
caused by the length of the twine.

From these consideration* it mart be supposed diat the depth* stated, even when it
is certain that the bottom has been reacned, are in excess, and this, too, in an
uncertain degree, unless any judgment can be formed from the irregularity of ita
descent.

To obviate these sources of error or doubt, a line of fine sewing silk has been pm-
posed, but we have not heard of any trial with this.

The most important, and most probably the most accurate soundingi that have yet
been taken, are those which originated in the ouestion of connecting Europe with
America by the Submarine Electric Telegraph. The first of these seriM was obtained
by Lieutenant-Commanding O. H. Berryman, in the U.S. Steamer Ardtic, in August,
1856. The line of deep-sea soundings, 24 in number, being on the great circle join-
ing Valentia, Ireland, with St. John's, Newfoundland. The depths were estimated
by a machine, Massey's Sounding Machine, and a similar one by M. Lecointre, and
tne line was wound in by a small engine on the deck.

The same ground was' gone over with the same object, by Lieutenant-Commanding
Jas. Dayman, R.N., in H.M.S. Oyle<q>8, in June and July, 1857, and 34 soundings
were obtained, the depths being estimated by the length of line and by the machine
as heretofore. The sinker employed was self-detaching upon touching the bottom,
and in a quill attached to the support, bottom was brought up in almost every instance
in small quantities. The nature of this bottom is alluded to previovtsly in pp. 337,
338, (245.) and (246.), and tiie very interesting features it first brought to light are
there I'elated.

The failure of the Atlantic Cable having suggested th^ necessity of a shorter sea
route, Commander Dayman was despatched m H.M.S. Gorgon, in September and
October, 1858, and obtained soundings between Newfoundlana, the Azores, and Eng-
land, gaining much experience as to the best methods of sounding, and and also of
estimating the depths.

Another project for the telegraph cable having arisen, in July, 1860, H.M.S Bull-
dog started unaer the command of Captain Sir Leopold M'Clintock, of Arctic celebrity,
and obtained the depths between the Fseroe Islands and Iceland, and then^je to OreeU'
land and Labrador, with most satisfactory results.

The soundings were first obtained. generally by cod-line, with an iron sinker of
llSlbs., the line and sinker being lost at each sounding. The depth being thus ob-
tained, a machine for bringing up the bottom was ne:^t sent down oy & strraiget line,
and a self-detaching tubular weight or sinket of 100 lbs. The appatatos, which
brought up specimens of the bottom, was a double scoop, 5 inches in diameter, kept
open so long as the weight is dependent on it, but forcibly closes by means of a vul-
canized india-rubber band the moment it is detached by touching the bottom. _ This
brought up specimens in large quantities. It was contrived by Mr. Steil, the assistant
engineer, and, with some modinoations proposed after their return, has been called
the Bulldog Machine,

The soundings obtained in these expeditions, although of the greatest -importance,
but lying out of the beaten track of navigation, are not inserted in the tables here-
after, which give most of those hitherto recorded to the ,South of lat.' 60°. They will
prove useful should it be supposed that rocks or shoals are seen in their neighbourhood..

V: ■■' ;fTt"-'

, "!A>: LMV

4 'i'

(698 )

SOUNDINGS.

BETWEEN LATITUDES 40" AND 80' N.

Lm. n.

LoMo. W.

Depth.

Lat. N.

Loxo. W.

Depth.

O 1

Fathoms.

» .

Fathoms.

47 "

252fi a

45 58

»9 35

19 rf

46 4a

13 5

• 1400 »

49 59

17 35

2700 ..

46 la

«3 3

1800 ..

49 57

13 16

1480 ..

40 24

"5 "5

1200

4" 38

9 '

1800 ..

4' 4

H 31

2000 ..

4<5 3"

12 4a

2190 ..

4« 55

»3 40

1900 ..

44 5

13 >9

2460 ..

4a 16

22 3a

1884 ..

4> 7

15 29

2.)a0 ..

43 17

ai 20

1800 ..

40 20

1748

2B/>0 ..

44 5

2100 ..

4a 10

42 4

1800 ..

44 34

18 47

2374 ..

46 53

37 4«

2000 ..

4,« II

17 26

2100 ..

48 16

35 aa

2100 ..

45 53

16 7

2300 ..

49 53

31 34

1900 ..

46 33

>4 39

2404 ..

43 10

4656

2700 e

47 6

>- 57

2340 ..

42 34

43 '9
41 28

2725 ..

. 47 48

II 12

2274 ..

4» 7

• 3000 ..

46 48

ai 42

2464 4

40 10

35 »

2775 ..

444a

?4 35

1600 ..

40 34

58 30

2750 d

44 43

»4 35

1370 ..

41 7

54 37

2710 ..

43 47

24 24

1840 ..

41 43

51 31

3130 ..

45 7

26 8

1400 ..

•

4a aa

1050 ..

4626

i 45 »3
' 42 44

><5 55

1400 ..

41 9

43 40
64 44

1975 ..

a7 38

1320 ..

40 50

2200 ..

28 20

1210 ..

41 la

62 38

2200 ..

40 49

1080 ..

41 40

59 »3

2600 ..

40 48

30 2

830 ..

41 40

56 I

2494 ..

40 35

3' 5«

1230 ..

40 36

54 "8

3460 ..

42 40

31 II

1G80 ..

41 7

49 »3

4580 ..

46 '5

30 38

1660 ..

43 40

4a 55

2700 ..

30 4

1760 ..

44 41

40 16

1800 ..

>9
»3
21

»7
*7
ao

BETWEEN LATITUDES 30° AND 40° N.

•

33 8

16 10

• 2940 d

39 40

33 34

1926 e

34 18

•645

2298 ..

39 12

38 54

3» 3»

1074 ..

^f> 59

19 58

2400 ..

3' »

925 ..

}.(> 49

19 54

2740 ..

38 33

a? 33
28 50

900 ..

30 49

27 25

• 1100 ..

38 23

409 ..

30 49

>7 >5

• 2200 ..

38 51

28 27

70(5 ..

39 '4

19 I

2820 ..

39 17

27 46

804 ..

34 23
31 46

«o 57

2160 ..

39 41

38 54

afi 37

1426 ..

»> 3

2840 ..

33 30

16U0 d

37 50

3» 7

2000 $

3« 17

33 8

2400 ..

a7 ao

• 4U00 .

39 36

41 6

2(i74 ..

]■_

35 6

26 50

•

• 4000 ..

33 35

38 3»

1800 /

• No Bottom.

a Soundings taken by Comimmiler Dayindn, in H.BI.8. Cyclop:

Ciiptain Pullen, in H.M.H. Cf/r/op», 1858.

Commander Daymun, in H.il.S. Gorgon, 1848

LiouUmiint 0. H. Derryiaun, U.S. brig Dolphin.
inlcnn In TT.H.8 J<t>>t**(ovM-.

TT.8.S. Siiique/innna.

•1

•

inlcnn

»»

a9
21

•i

E? vrf' te

Depth.
Fathoms.

19 <;

2700 ,.
1680 ..
1800 ..
2190 ..
2560 ..
2.>00 ..
2t>'>U ..
18')0 ..
2000 ..
2100 ..
1900 ..
2700 e
272'j ..
• 3000 ..
2775 ..

2750 d

2710 ..

3130 ..

1050 ..

1975 ..

2-200 ..

2200 ..

2600 ..

2695 ..

8460 ..

4S80 ..

2700 ..

1800 ..

1025

1075 ,

925 ,

960

409

706

806

1426

1600

2400

2676

1800

158

bhitt.

( 699 )
BETWEEN LATITUDES 30» AND 4(f JH.-^ContiHUtd,)

Lat. N.

LoNO. W.

Depth.

Lat. N.

LoHO. W.

Depth.

Fathoms.

• .

Fathoms.

36 16

4* 5a

• 6070 f

32 46

S9 56

• 800 ..

34 "

43 "

2800 A

32 10

59 9

• 300 ..

38 15

45 33

2000 «

31 17

53 a2

600 ..

38 50

43 49
43 a8

1600 P

38 38

66 31

• 1625 k

3> '0

2080 d

33 34

61 38

• 1950 ..

»3» I

44 a»

2260 ..

30 5

58 5a

• 1000 ..

3» »9

47 a

• 1960 ..

yi a4

6852

2920 d

3a 55

47 58

• 6600 ..

38 3

67 14

• 4920 ..

33 3

48 3«

. 3660 ..

3« 43

« 1600 e

32 47

3260 ..

36 33

• 1900 ..

J3 50

5a 34

2600 i

^37 6

68 2

2000 ..

3» 6

44 47

6600 P..

38 13

62 32

3700 ..

31 I

44 31

2300 ..

39 39
30 38

70 30

• 1000 d

35 7

, a5 43

1040 ..

70 10

• 600 J

37 >8

56 22

6000 PA

33 3

72 lA

73 6

• 346 ..

37 a«

6548

• l'^5 J

5t:

• 700 ..

35 5>

6556

• iOOfr ..

73 59

• 1460 ..

BETWEEN LATITUDES 20» AND 30» N.

18 32

49 48

2370 ..

29 12

22 5d

28^0 d

21 26

5' 3«

2300 ..

a3 58

24 20

2700 .,

22 27

53 «5

23itO ..

21 6

a4 38

2626 ..

ai 45

55 46

2800 ..

27 30

2000 I

12 9

55 '7

2136 n

4 16

21 42

2700 ..

20 51

58 a6

2800 d

2 20

28 4/.

1080 ..

20. 2

61 2

2810 ..

a? 5

21 21

1700 d

21 19

66 27

2960 ..

27 2

30 48

258U ..

23 42

67 37

2940 ..

20 2

3' 6

2660 ..

29 26

28 20

5* 4a

1480 ..

21 48

3a 3«

7020 P..

59 44

2900 ..

20 29

34 «8

2850 ..

28 4

61 44

3080 ..

26 43

38 39

• 800 j

28 23

^1;

2518 ..

a5 30

37 44

1720 ..

26 49

2710 ..

a5 30

37 4a

• 1560 ..

28 14

69 24

2950 ..

a5 4

3* «3

• 1000 ..

20 12

S9 39

• 1-200 J

' a3 43

3a M

• 2180 ..

22 39

59 a$

• 800 ..

a3 41

3a 39

• 2200 ..

'3 I

59 «*

• 358 ..

a3 «5

3a a4

• 2200 ..

23 36

59 a5

• 600 ..

21 19

38 10

4700 m

a4 37

59 49

• 634 ..

28 55

41 21

• 1880 d

a5 "

• 6-20 ..

29 lA
21 6

35 49

2270 ..

a5 45

60 7

• 656 ..

42 9

2370 ..

26 32

60 7

3825 ..

a3 «

1760 ..

24 II

61 44

3450 ..

21 18

46 .4

1876 ..

24 27

«a 55

• 460 ..

• No Bottom.

d Soundings tokon by Lioutemint O. H. TSvnyxuKa, U.S. brig IMpkit*.

g „ „ in TT.S.8. St. Louii.

„ U.S.8. Flytnouth.

„ John Adami.

„ by Liout Loe in U.S. brig Dolphin.
Ctipt. Vlntt. U.S. AibaMu.
Captiiin Pullen, in H.M.S. Cyclop*,
m „ „ In U.H.M. Portmouik.

N „ „ U.S.S. Slwimer Saranae,

( 70b )
BETWEEN LATITUDES 20* AND 30' N.— (ContfntW.)

Lat. N.

Long. W.

Depth.

Lat. N.

Long. W.

Depth.

•

.. ,

Fathoms.

• , .

• 1

Fathoms.

34 38

«3 30

• 1000 J

»7 10

76 59

1180 k

»4 34

<5 3»

• 1000 ..

37 10

75 6

1806 ..

»4 37

65 13

• 3560 ..

36 31

74 «o

1590 ../

"5 »4

««57

• 2350 ..

36 38

73 50

1778 ..

»6 33

<7 33

• 1000 ..

»5 30

73 7

4100 ..

37 31

38 56

«K 6

• 1000 ..

3448

70' 33

• 1898 ..

^9 4

• 1000 ...

34 48

h 39

8600 P "

37 19

77 '8

600 k

32 40

2762 ..

BETWEEN THE EQUATOR AND 20° N.

18 41

• 2000 J

17 2

38 8

2160 d

t8 51

• 1900 ..

18 44

29 18

2620 ..

18 39

2680 ..

18 49

36 16

2820 ..

3 17

»5 45

• 900 ..

'9 »3

40 23

258) ..

3 '

18 36

2725 ..

I'n

• 1000 >

> 36

19 13

2780 ..

2980 ..

3 10

•9 57

2760 ..

» 7

4» 58

• lOUO ..

2690 ..

1 7

43 44

• 2000 ..

8 43

10 53

2270 ..

44 5a

• 1000 .

7 »7

30 7

2060 ..

45 '

• 1000 .

1940 ..

I 10

44 "

• 600 .

5 37

>9 35

• 2019 ..

43 36

• 600 .

4 »7

■ 9 31

2540 P..

44 »'

640 .

4 i

>9 15

2125 P..

7 58

47 5>

1970 .

4 >4

19 20

2670 ..

10 :%

47 40

• 600 .

3 49

19 6

2760 ..

II 12

47 37

48 58

• 1866 .

351

ii 39

19 6

2:60 ..

• 260 .

"5 H

1970 ..

45 56

49 34

• 500 .

18 19

»3 48

1676 ..

'5 5»

49 34

• 6<.0 .

i9 II

1612 ..

49 40

• 6'!0 .

>7 35

33 JO

1370 ..

«5 5«

49 'i9

• 500 .

16 30

30 58

1941 ..

'5 6

jO 34

• 600 .

'6 34

20 47

1875 ..

14 31

5' »4

• 664 .

«6 59

31 38

1680 ..

13 28

53 »6

• 1960 .

>5 »4

31 47

1220 ..

12 47

5* 58

2780 .

ii t

33 29

13R0 ..

II 47

5J 49

t 1)00 .

•

»> 57

1120 ..

13 20

54 49

2570 .

15 J

>3 «3

790 ..

'5 '5

55 «

3020 .

>3 50

• 900 ..

'5 54

56 45

5» 6

• 1000 .

'J '

>» 59

• 680 ..

'6 43

• 346 .

•' 7

»» 57

1160 ..

16 43

58 55

59 *

• 8200 .

1120 ..

1643

• iOOO .

18 10

>4 5'

2080 d

19 3

59 33

3300 .

AN AC

Many
oonsidera
^peared
Ehrenbei
Infusoria
fiillen; a)
considera
end of thi
Mtriking

The ph
Cape Ve«
fallen is
10° N. to i
Itetween 4
diHtancc o
according
noinrnon h
dust has Be
coast of Al
lcnB:.35''24
andthertfo
i»f the Senei

On the 1(

• No Bottmn.

d Boundiiigs tAkeu by Lieiitoniint O. H. Berrymiiii, 11.8. brig Dolphiit.
j „ „ )>y Liout Leo in U.S. brig Dolphin,

k „ „ ^;iipt. Plan, U.H. Jl(Kf»>(.

St. Jago, HOI
wind-vane a
air, OS the h1
previously I
from the coa
"nly 1 mile i
the wind wa
Iihcrc waH c
tliat the uHti
tolleoted on
it does not el
Kriiy bead.

In 18;}8, ft
^l^y, wan sai
lat. 21° 10 N
qunntitioH of
fumpiunioatic
"lay (oi- the 7'
"11 the sucto
•oloured part
iurptT, and m
«t Icust ;J30 T
"puruleu of cr

K'tinliuigli

\ 701 )

AOO ,
664 .
960 .

m .

>00
570
020
000
34A
200
)00
|»00

AN ACCOUNT OF THE FINE DU8T WHICH OFTEN FALLS ON
VESSELS IN THE ATLANTIC OCEAN.

By Charles Darwin, Esq., F.R.S., F.S.S.

Many scattered accountfl have appeared conccruing the dust which has fallen in
considerable quantities on vessels on the Afiican side of the Atlantic Ocean. It has
appeared to me desirable to collect theue accounts, mure especially since Professor
Ehrenberg's remarkable discovery that the dust consists, in considcxable part, of
Infusoria and Phytolitharia. I have found fifteen distinct statements of dust having
fallen *, and several of these refer to a period of more than one day, and some to a
considerably longer time. Other less distinct accounts have also appeared. At the
end of this paper I will give the particular cases, and will here only refer to the more
Htriking ones and make a few general remarks.

The phenomenon has been most frequently observed in the neighbourhood of the
('ape Verde Archipelago. The most southern point at which dust is recorded to hive
fallen is noticed by Captain Hayward,* on whose vessel it fnll whil;it sailing from lat.
10° N. to 2" 56' K. ; the distance from the nearest of the Caye Verde Islands being
Iwtween 450 and 850 miles. Respecting the northern limit, the water for a great
distance on both sides of Cape Noon (m lat. 38° 45) is discoloured, owing in part,
according to Lieutenant Arlett,t to the quantities of falling dust. Hence the phe-
nomenon has been observed over a space of at least 1,600 miles of latitude. Ill is
dust has several times fallen on vessels when 'between 300 and 600 miles from the
coast of Aftrica: it fell, in May, 1840, on the Princess Louise J (in lat. 14° 21' N.,
long. 35° 24' W.), when 1,030 miles from Cape Vorde, the neareet point of the continent,
ana therefore half-way between Cayenne in South America and the dry country North
uf the Senegal in Africa. '

On the 10th of Januarv, 1833, when the Beagle was 10 miles off the N.W. end of
St. Jago, some very fine aunt wns found adhering to the under side of the horizontal
wind-vane at the mast-head ; it appeared to have been filtered by the gauze from the
nir, as the ship lay inclined to the wind. The wind had been for twenty-four hours
previously E.N.E., and hence, from the position of the ship, the dust probably camo
from the coast of Africa. The atmosphere was so ha/y, that the visible hori/ou was
only 1 mile distant. During our stay o*" three weeks at St. Ja^o, (to February 8th)
the wind was N.E., as is always the case during this time of the year ; the atmos-
phere was often hazy, and very fine dust was almost ioHi»tantly falling, so that
that the astronomical instruments were rougheiud. and a little injured. The dust
collected on the Beagle was excessively fine-grained, and of a rtddiNli-brown colour ;
it does not effervesce with acids ; it easily fuses luuler the blowpipe into u black or
Igmy bead.

In 1838, from the 7th t« the lOth of March, whilst Lieutenant .fames, in H.M.S.
%y, was sailing, at the distance of from 330 to 380 miles from the continent, betwetn
lat. 21° 10 N., long. 22° 14' W., ond lat. 17" 43 N., long. 25° o-i' W., considerable
quantities of dust tell ,n his vessel, four packets of which, together with a written
cumyiunication, I owe U) the kindness of Mr. I.yell. The dust which fell on the first
ilay (or the 7th) was preceded by a thick haze. "and it is k iirs< i than tlint which fell
nil tne succeeding days ; it contains numerous irrrtfular. transnarent, voriously-
loloured particles of stone about the l-lO(M)tli of an inch square, witli some few a little
uvKcr, iind much fine mattor. 'llie fact of particles of this si/< luning Ixen brought
at least 330 miles fr.)m the land, is infurfsting. as bi'arinjr on the di-^tribution of the
«Horule» of cryptogamic plant* and the ovules of Infusoiia. The dust which fell on

KsntioM! ih

^rtininH, \ «41', Jt.

.IHt.

t GfAgrHjihuMl .foiiinal, vol. vi. y. 'i'M.

Kdinliuinh New rhiUf<o|ihi<iil .foiunnl, vol, xxxii. p. Ul.

702

DUST IN THE ATLANTIC.

the three BUCcccdinB daya resembles jn appearance and in its action under the blow-

Jipe, that collected oy mvBelf off St. Jago, and is so excessively fine, taat Lieutenant
ames was obliged to collect it with a s^nge moistened with fresh water. As the
wind continued nearly in the same direction during the four above-mentioned days,
and the distance from the land was only a little increased after the first dav, it would
appear probable that the coarser dust was raised by a squall with which the breezes
on this coast so often begin blowing. v: _

With respect to the direction of the wind during the falls of dust, in every instance
where recorded, it has been between N.E. and S.E. ; generally between N.E. and E.
In the case, however, given by the Rev. W. Clarke,* a hazy wind which had blown
for some time from E. and S.E. first fell calm, and was succeeded for a few hours by
a S.W. wind, and then returned strongly to the East ; during this whole time dust
fell. With respect to the time of year, the falls have always occurred in the months
of January, February, March, and April ; but in the case of the Princess Louise in
1840, as late as on the 9th of May. In the one year of 1839, it has chanced that dust
has been recorded as having fallen in the Atlantic (as may be seen in the references)
on the 14th and 15th of January, and on the 2nd, 4th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th, and 13th
of February. I may add, that Baron Ilou6sin,f during his survey of the north-western
African coast, found, that whilst the wind keeps parallel to the shore, the haze and
dust extend seaward only a short distance ; but wnen, during the above foui- specified
months, the harmattan blows from the N.E. and E.N.E., accompanied by tornadoes,
the dust is blovm far out, and is raised on high, so that stars and all other objects
within 30° of the horizon are hidden.

Another account is given by Mr. Oeorge Peacock, as having occurred on board
H.M.S. Winchester, in February, 1829 : — " Shortly after leav?ng Tenerife, when in
about lat. 25° 30' N., and some 250 miles from the coast of the Great Desert of Sahara,
the weather became very hazy and sultr\', and one morning, at daylight, the lays of
the lower rigging were observed to be filled fine, reddish-brown dust, and the decks,
whilst being washed, were in as muddy a state as the pavement of a street after a
shower. This hazy unpleasant weather continued all day, and quite obscured the
horizon ; rendering it difficult to observe even the crest of the waves beyond a few
cables' length, and the sun appeared as viewed through the red shade glass of a
sextant. Towards evening it grew worse, the wind became light, and the haze was
almost as dense as a London November fog, the air full of fine red dust, which
made it difficult and unpleasant to breathe. So thick was it, that a young man
having fallen overboard, the boats which were lowered in search of him could
neither find him nor scarcely find the ship for some time afterwards, and this
though guns wer« fired."

From the several recorded accounts,^ it appears that the quantity of dust which<
falls on vessels in the open A.tlantic is considerable, and that the atmosphere is often
rendered quite hazy ; but nearer to the African coast the quantity is still more con-
siderable. Vessels have several times run on shore owing to the haziness of the air; j
and Horsburgh,§ recommends all vesHels, for this reason, to avoid the passage between
the Cape Verde Archipelago and the main land. ItouHsin, also, during his survey, weu
thus much impeded. Lieutenant Arlctt foi/ud the water so discolourcd,|l that 'the j
track left by his ship was visible for a long time ; and ho attributes thij, in part, to
the fine sand blown from the deserts, " with which everything on board soon become.'*
perfectly caked. "^

Profei

myself;

no less

silicioiu-

tissues

myself ^

Professo:

the pack

James, n

E.N.E.V

all old ki

fresh waf

tiluria gtt

any of tl

hence it )

after havi

distributii

arepeculi

many fort

eially of 1

these &cti

sidering tl

directly ft

seen to coi

dust and fa

the Atiant

when the ]

dust and m

falls in th

absence of

South Amc

circumstan

over so imi

apparently

tion ; and l

chief part (

* These i
Berlih Akac
of the name

• Proceedings of the Oeol. Soc., vol. iv. p. U5. f Naut. Mag. 1838, p. 824.

} Naut. MoR., 1837, p. 291 ; Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. vii, p. 402 ; HowariJ
Malcolm's Travels, vol. ii. p. 200.

§ Horsburgh's East Indian Directory, p. 11.

II In Tuckoy'H Narrative of the Congo Expedition, p. 10.

H Nsutical MagAzinc, 1847, p. 364.

DUST IN THE ATLANTIC.

703

Professor Ehrenber^* has ezamined the dust collected by Lieutenant James and
myself; and he finds that it is in considerablepart composed of Inftisoria, including

Professor Ehrenberg Ttimaz'nB, that as thirty-seven species are common to several of
the packets, the dust collected by myself, and on four successive days by Lieutenant
James, most certainly have come from the same quarter ; yet mine was brought by an
E.N.E. wind, and Lieutenant James's by a S.E. and E.S.E. wind, llie Infusoria are
all old known 8i>ecies, excepting one allied -to a Hungarian iosdl ; and they are of
freshwater orisin, with the exception of two {Orammatophon-% oceanica and Tex-
tilaria gMnilota), which are certainly marine. Professor Ehrenbeig could not detect
any of the soft parts of the Lifdsoria, as if they had been quickly dried up, and
hence it would appear that they must have been caught up by the wind some time
after having been dead. The gieater numlx^r of the species are of wide or mundane
distribution ; four species are common to Senegambia and South America, and two
are peculiar to the latter country ; moreover, it is a very singular fact, that out of the
many forms known to Professor Ehrenberg as characteristic of Africa, and more espe-
cially of the Sahara and Senegambian renona, none were fourd in the dust. From
these facts one might at first doubt wheuer the dust cime from Africa; but, con-
sidering that it has invariably fallen with the wind between N.E. and S.E., that is,
directly from the coast of Africa ; that the first commencement of the haze has been
seen to come on with these winds ; that coarser particles have first fallen ; that the
dust and hazy atmosphere are more common near the African coast than further in
the Atlantic ; and lastly, that the months during which it falls coincide with those
when the harmattan blows from the continent, and when it is known that clouds of
dust and sand arc raised by it, I think there can be no doubt that the dust which
falls in the Atlantic does come from Africa. How to explain the enigma of the
absence of characteristic African forme and of the presence of two species from
South America,! will not pretend to coniecture. Finally, I may remark, that the
circumstance of such quantities of dust Deing periodically blown, year^ alter year,
over 80 immense an area in the Atlantic Ottean, is interesting, as snowing bv how
apparently inefficient a cause a widely-extended deposit may be in process of umna-
tion ; and this deposit, it appears frt>m the rt?^3arches of Professor Ehrenberg, will in
chief part consisr of fresh water Polygastriciik and Phytolitharia.

* Thesa microscopic organised bodies have been described in the " Monatsberiohten der
Berlih Akad. der Wissens, Mai, 1844 ; u. 27 Februar, 184f ," In the latter paper a full list
of the names is given ; the column marked St. Jago includes those selected by myself.

;f,!

„ ; HMtwm'^msii

I.:,-,--! , ■

APPENDIX;

iJiiM

;v ■.,}f,n<ii:. COMTAIMINO

•'■'lifl fvftji!- ',^M ''..■■:

HINTS AND EEMARKS ON GENEi AL NAtll'CAii gtJBJECfS.

;.i,"t-! ,<

I.— Hemarks on the use of the chronometers, etc:

'jOftJ

1. General Rules given by Captain Rich. Owen, R.N. ,:?»? , /•;;

1. The time for receiving- chronometers on board, previous to sailing, will differ a
little according to circumstances ; but it is strongly recommended that they should be
received on board at least a week previous to sailing, in order that a rate may be
obtained for them, in the position and place they are constantly to remain, ad it may
be taken for an absolute maxim in general practice, that the rate of a chrotwmeter
obtained on shore will not be the same when removed to the vessel. There may be a few
exceptions to this general rule, but it must still hold good as a practical maxim.

2. The first thing to be attended to, after the timekeepers are on board, and in their
proper place, is to be regular in the time, and careftil in the manner, of winding them
up. Our practice on board the Leven «vas to wind up at noon, and never pipe to
dinner until they were reported to be wound up and compared. Some method of this
kind may always be adopted in men-of-war, and it would be advisable in merchant
vessels to devise some plan by which the winding up of the chronometers should not
depend upon the memory of any single person, the want of which must, in many in-
stance8« have caused the watch to rue down ; which will, at all times, alter its rate,
and, not unfrequently, injure the chronometer. Odr eight-day watches we wound up
on Sunday, which will always be better remembered than any other day in the week.
In winding up the small cnronometers in watch cases, the left hand should rest
against the body of the person iKanding^ it up, to prevent his giving it a rotatory
motion by turning the watch oti the key instead of tne key in the watch. This prac-
tice is very common, and very bad. fia winding up chronometers, the turns ot the
key should always be counted, and the last turns made gently and carefully, until it
is felt to butt. It has sometimes happened to persons over careful, that they have let
their chronometers run down, by having calculated the number of turns, and never
winding close up, from fear of mjury to the chain or works, by which they have
always lost a little of the chain each day, and, after two or three months, the chro-
nometer is found to stop just at the time it should be wound up.

3. Of all the methods used by seafu ring men to ascertain the rates and errors of
their chronometers, that by equal altitudes of the sun in an artificial horizon is mueli
to be preferred, both on account of it.s simplicity and the very great degree of cor-
rectness attainable by it, and being likewise fri(> from the effects of iustrumental
r-ror, or wrong latitude. The observations may be made at any time, with a sextant,
when the sun's altitude falls between 20" and 60°, provided it be not too near noon, an
under two hours, or at least one hour and a half, the nun's motion, in high latitudes,
being then very slow.

4. The method of rating chronometers by hn nr obHervntions obtained at sea has
been by some much insisted on, but we are f\ lly satisfied that they can never be
mide vise of, for that purpose, in general practice. Lunar observations are of grciit
use for detecting a (jross error in the longitude by chronometer, from any suddm
cliange of rate or defect in the watch, &c. ; but i* must be evident that, where this is
discovered, it would be unsafe to tnist to such a chronomejer for the remainder of the
voyage. We would not be understoofl to discourage or depi-eciste the l\innr methoil
of oi)tuining the- longitudf, «« wp av fuiiv awni-e of itK great ntilitv, particularlT

long vo
rating

" « Fre
6ned mj
speaking
compeas
perature

"Itot
different
foimdbe

«The<
from the
change oi

« I hav
sawdust, J
cots not oi

"When
ning on tl
hur, or an
iJetter thai

" The B
box; each
wide shelvi
each box, a
box and wt
shelves, on^
down, and i
manner, nei
running out
was often pj
magnifying

" All the
compare or ■
were never
finally lande

5.— The f
ofchronomei
F. Fallows, 1

" Let a trt
Wished in a «
true time : ti
darken the Ij
notice being
instant of tur
intervals. Th
the lamp can
same be repej

• "Essay c
•nandor R.W,

tV i'

rffi<*?!fS.

r.j, ur ' k

ill difFera
Y should be
ate may be
act it may
chronometer
ay be a few
Axim.

and in their
inding them
sver pipe to
;thod of this
in merchant
8 should not
in many in-
Itet its rate,
e wound up
,n the week,
should refit
t a rotatory
This prae-
;urn8 of the
[Uy, until it
ley have let
I, and never
they have
I, the chro-

hid errors of
?on is much
yree of cor-
Cstrumental
a sextant,
bar noon, as
[h latitudes,

I at sea lifti*

never be

j-e of Rveiit

iiiy suddin

Iherc thin is

liider of the

nsr mrthoil

jioulnrlT in

. REMARKS ON THE USE OF THE CHRONOMETER, ETC. 705

lon|f voya^s ; but we would strongly dissuade persons from using such means for
ratmff tneir chronometera.*

'imsti-

3.— Remarks exteacted from those of Captain FitzRot, R.N.

*« Frequently employing chronometers in boats and very small vessels has strength-
tsned my convictidn, that temperature is the chief, if not the only, cause, generally
speaking, of marked changes of rate: and the balances of few watches are so weU
compensated as to be proof against a long continuance of higher or lower tem-
perature.

** It often happens that the air in port, or near the land, is at a temperature very
different from that over the open sea in the vicinity. Hence the difference sometimes
found between harbour and sea rates.

" The changes so frequently noticed to take place in rates of chronometers moved
fix)m the shore to the ship, and the reverse, are well known to be caused partly by
change of temperature, and partly by change of situation.

" I have never found chronometers go better than when the boxes were bedded in
sawdust, and the watches moving freely in well-oiled gimbals. Suspending them in
cots not only alters their rate, but makes them go less regularly.

" When fixed to a solid substance, they feel the vibrations caused by people run-
ning on the decks, by shocks, and hy cnain cables running out. A cushion, wool,
hair, or any such substance, is preferable to a solid bed ; but I can think of nothing
hetter than plain dry sawdust. i

" The Beoffle'a chronometers were suspended in gimbals, as usual, within a wooden
box ; each was placed in sawdust, divided and retained by partitions, upon one of two
wide shelves. The sawdust was about 3 inches thick below, as well as at the sides of
each box, and formed a bed for it which rose rather above the centre of gravity of the
box and watch ; so that they could not be displaced unless the ship were upset. Tho
shelves, on which the sawdust and boxes were thus secured, were between decks, low
down, and as near the vessel's centre of motion as could be contrived. Placed in this
manner, neither the running of men unon deck, nor firing guns (forward), nor the
running out of chain cables, caused the slightest vibration in the chronometers, as
was often proved by scattering powder upon theii' glasses, and watching it with a
magnifying glass, while the vessel herself was vibrating to some jar or shock.

" All the watches were in one small cabin, into which uc ^ "rson entered, except to
compare or wind them, and in which nothing else was kt^it. The greater number
were never moved from their first places, after being secured there in 1831, until
finally landed at Greenwich in 1836. ' — Captain FitzRoy's Appendix, pp. 325, 326.

5. — The following easy method of comjxiring tho time indicated by any number
of chronometers, with the given time at a certain station, icas published by the Rev,
F. Fallows, astronomer at the Capo of Good Hope, in 1824 ; —

" Let a transit instrument, or even a sextant with an artificial horizon, be esta-
blished in a conspicuous situation on shore, where a clock can always be regulated to
true time : then provide a powerful Argand's lump, with a shutter, so ns to be able to
darken the lamp instantaneously : a few minutes before a certain hour in the evening,
notice being previously given to the ships, let the lamp bo lighted, and at the proper
instant of tmic let it be darkened : this may bo repeated several times at short known
intervals. Then the errors of every chronometer on board of all the ships, from which
the lamp can be seen, are immediately found. After a certain nural)cr of days let the
same be repeated, when the daily ship rates will be given, siT'ce they are only the

• " Essay on the Mnnagojiient nnd Use of Chronomftors," by RiCuftrd Owen, Vi
•nandor RTsT. Pr-otixod to the voiunui of Liititudos nnd Longitudes of tho PointH of Aft
iVc, l.v CaptJiin W. ¥. Owon, 4to,, 1827.

4 U

om-
ricH.

708 REMARKS ON THE USE OF THE CHRONOMETER, ETC.

differences of these errors divided by the number of days eLipsed between the two
sets of observations. It is evident that, for greater truth, thiese observations may be
repeated at pleasure. No objection can be made from the chrono*' . ter's being gene-
rally below deck, as one person might have his eye upon it, and atothcr immediately
above him, on the upper deck, might give a stamp with his foot the instant the lamp
is darkened." But the superior meuiod is by t ■ 'jnie-hall lately established in
various places. -^vjci?. ,?«

6. — Sir J. Herschel gives the following very simple and efficient means of ascer-
taining the ittte of a chronometer or clock, a mos<t important desideratum, where appa-
ratus IS wanting, and which is available at any time or place on shore: — "An observer
need only station himself to the North of some well defined vertical object, as the
angle of a building, and, placing his eye exactly at a certain fixed point (such as a
small hole in a plate of metal, nailed to some immoveable support), notice the suc-
cessive disappearances of any star behind the building by a watch. When he ob-
serves the snn, he must shade his eye with a dark-coloured or smoked glass, and notice
when its western and eastern edges successively come up to the wall,, from which, by
taking half the interval, he will ascertain (what he cannot directly observe) the
moment of disappearance of its centre. This is an excellent practical method of
ascertaining the rate of a clock or watch, being exceedingly accurate if a few precau-
tions are attended to ; the chief of which is, to take care, that that part of the edge,
behind which the star (a bright one, not a planet) disappears, shall be quite smooth ;
as, otherwise, variable refraction may transfer the point of disappearance from a pro-
tuberance to a notch, and thus vary the moment of observation unduly ; this is easily
secured, by nailing up a smooth-edged^board." — Astronomy, p. 74. It need scarcely
be remarked, that the interval between the two appearances of a star is a sidereal
day, or 23'' 56' 4-08" ; with the equation, for solar tune, every sailor is acquainted.

i-'i- 1-

II.— ON THE ARTIFICIAL HORIZON.

It is 01 the utmost importance to the sailor that he should at all times be enablc^i
by astronomical observations, to verify his position, and avoid all uncertainty as to
his locality or course, which he must inevitably labour under if he has i.; depend for
any lengthened period entirely on his dead-reckoning. Now it must '■ vre occurred
to the experience of every one that such observations may have been had, ^jerhaps at
very critical times, but for one impediment, — that of the horizon bein" obscured by
fog or hase. It is true, that the common reflecting horizon of mercury, or other sub-
stitate, will obviate this on shore ; but even this frequently fails in low latitudes from
the fact of the great angle, formed by the height of the sun being beyond the limits
of the instrument. A substitute for the natural horizon is proposed in an instrument,
"tivut can be attached to the sextant, the invention ot Commnnder A. B. Becher, R.N.,
which may be used at all times on shore or at soa, provided the motion be not too
violent, and the observer have sufficient experience in its use.

It; the construction of this appendage to the sextant, it was assumed that the line
of the sea horizon forms a horizontal diameter to the field of the telescope, at right
angles to the plane of the instrument. Accordingly, a place was assumed for this
line, so as to appear, when seen through the telescope, to be in the middle of the field
of view, beyond the horizon glass. A point was next assumed beyond it from which
a pendulum was suspended, carrying an arm, at the extremity of which >c! a small
slip of metal, which we will call the horizon vane. The upper edge of tHs vane,
when made to coincide with the horizon line on the glass, and seen to do so through
the telescope, completes the horizon for observation. In the middle of the upper edf^e
of this horizon vane a small aperture is made, as, when the axis of the telescope is
directed below the horizon, the vane would, but for this, entirely conceal the horizon
line, by rising above it. These part* are arranged in a tube to b ifT.xed, when k-
quired, to the sextant, the axis of the tube of the horizon v;;> ! uding exactly
with that of the telescope of the sextant.

III.—
ON
OF
R.N

Ther
for the
nomete
this es
branch

Then
use.

many pi
tion, an(
trust thi

The
from the
nometers
other tht
track; ai
As it haj
never aft
the chart
whore it ^
wanderin
measurem

The me
down eacl
observatio
place, so n
the place I
true place,
the next tr

It will f(

broken lin«

niiig off fri

in the first

dead rsckoi

the instant

different, ai

there will a

the plan ha

place and tl

the set of tl

the instant (

It is aseft

some way ft

* EXAMPL

on the first d
a fresh dopai
next true plai
noted as B.
'wkoning, b«
88 at C.

From the i

TO drawn, as

( 707 )

the two

18 may be
inp gene-
modiately
the lamp
bliahed in

3 of aacCT-
liere appa-
ll obsevver
;ct, as the
(such ae a
e the 8UC-
len he ob-
, and notice
L which, by
ibserve) the
method of
few precau-
)f the edge,
ite smooth ;
from a pro-
;his is easily
ced scarcely
is a sidereal
^uaiated.

B be enabled*

•tainty as to
depend for
ve occurred

., -erhaps at
obscured by

ir other sub-
ititudes from
id the limits
. instrument,
;echer, R-N.,
be not too

Ithat the line
Ipe, at right
aed for this
. of the field
?rom which
J »s a small
[if tHs vane,
BO through
e upper edge
telescope is
1 the horizon
led, when re-
ting exactly

III.— ON THE PROPER METHOD OF LAYING DOVm A SHIP'S TRACK
ON SEA-CHAR rS J WITH SOME REMARKS ON THE IMPORTANCE
OF TIMEKEEPERS IN NAVIGATION. BY CAPTAIN BASIL HALL,
R.N., F.R.S.

There is no point in practical navigation of more importance than the allowance
for tho direction and velocity of currents ; and, although the introduction of chro-
nometers and lunar observations has led to much more accurate methods of making
this estimate, yet there is unquestionably still much obscurity belonging to thu
branch of the subject.

Tho mode proposed in this notice is quite as easy in practice as that in most general
use. It is so obvious that I cannot help being sure that it must have occurred to
many practical navigators ; but as I have never met with it in any treatise on naviga-
tion, and have never seen a single chart in which the tracks were so laid down, I
trust this notice will not be superfluous.

The common method U as follows : — The ship's place of each day, as estimated
from the log-board, is noted on the chart ; and oIho the place, as deduced from chrr/«
nometeris and lunar observations. Tho first is called the place by dead-reckoning, the
other the true place. The line joining the true places at noon is called the tru«^
track ; and that joining the others is called the track or course by dead reckoning.
As it happens invariably that these two cracks separate very early m the voyage, and
never afterward come together unless b^ accidenT, it is obvious that, upon inspecting
the chart, no information will be afforded as to the point where the current began, or
whore it ceased, or what was its set or its velocity ; all that we see is two tracks
wandering apart from one another, and it always requires some calculation and
measurement tc come to anythiag like an estimate of the true effect of the current.

The method which it is proposed to substitute is this : — Let the true place be laid
down each day as before, either at noon, or, which is better, at the precise moments of
observation for the longitude. Let a fresh departure be taken from eve* y such true
place, so noted in the chart : and whenever a true place is marked on the chart, let
the place by dead reckoning at that moment, estimated by iu^-boai-d from the last
true place, be also noted down. From' each true place let two hues be drawn, one to
the next true place, and the other to the dead reckoning place at the same moment.

It will follow from this, that the trae course of the ship will be one continued un-
broken line, but the dead reckoning course will be a series of terminated lines run-
ning off from the successive true places. The advantages of this method are these :
in the first place, it will be evident that, as long as there is no current, the true and
dead reckoning places will coincide, and there wiU be but one line on the chart ; but
the instant that a current begins to act, the true and dead reckoning i>laces will be
different, and consequently the lines will separate ; and whenever the current ceases,
there will again be but one line. These distinctions catch the attention at once ; but
the plan has this further great advantcge, that the line joining the dead reckoning
place and the true place, at any given hour, vnW express correctly the direction and
the set of the current, in the interval between the moment under consideration and
the instant of the last preceding observation.*

It is ascful, in practice, to have ti'ie line expressing the true course distinguished In
some way from those marking the dead reckoning courses ; one may be a strong black

* Example. — Let the ship's true place,
on the first dtiy, be assumed bh at A. Let
a fresh departure be thence taken, and the
next true phice, or place hy observation, be
noted as B. Lot the ship's place by dead
reckoning, be noted at the same moment,
08 at C.

Prom the true place (A), lot two lines
he drawn, as A B and A C

708

SHIPS' TRACKS AND CHRONOMETERS.

line, the othetb dotted lines, or when a chart b much covered with tracks, it is useful
to use differently coloured lines.

It is sometimes satisfdctory to join the dead reckoning places and the true places by
anvws, and then rub out the whole of the tracks ; so uiat all which is essential, as
far as currents are concerned, is contained ; while all that is not, and which might
tend to confuse, is removed.

When one or more days elapse without an observation, the dead reckoning ti ick
may be carried on till an observation be obtained ; and then the dead reckv ling ph j
and the true place at that instant being noted, a knowledge of the strength ai.l direc-
tion of the current during the interval 's at one afforded.

\S8.

IV.— BRIEF MODE OF EXPRESSING THE POINTS OF

The Spanish navigatora, in describing courses, &c., com-
monly made use of the expression, " Mhombs of the first,
second, third, and fourth quadrant ;" or winds of the same.
The first quadrant, in this expression, is that contained
between North and Saat; the second, from JSast to South ;
the third, from South to West ; and tLe fourth, from West vjr
to North. ^

The respective quadrants may be represented algebrai-
cally by the letters A, B, C, D, as in tne annexed figure ;
and, in keeping a journal, the points of the compass, or
courses and bearings, may be expressed briefly, by adopt- S

ing these letters as the representatives of the four quadrants : thus N.W. by W. I
W., or five points and three-quarters from the North toward the West, will be con-
cisely expressed by D 6| ; N.E. will be A 4 ; S.E. by E., B 6 ; ond S.W. by S., C 3 j
&c.

So, likewise, by reckoning in degrees of the quadrant, N. 50" E. will be A 50° ; and
in allowing for magnetic variation, say 24° W. ; this added will be A 74^, the com-
pass bearing, &c. Should a true bearing be N. 76° E., adding 24°, the variation, will
give 100°: deduct 90°, and this gives E. 10° S., or S. 80° E., or B 86°, the bearing by
copipass.

But that the figures for points may never be mistaken for degrees, it may, perhaps,
be 1)081 to express the latter in the usual manner, as N. 50° E.

VARIATION OF THE COMPASS BY PROJECTION.

The readiest way of understanding this subject is to project every azimuth and am-
plitude when it is taken. If this be done pro])erly,
no confusion will remain, after a few observations.
An example will best illustrate this.

Say,— latitude 0° 38' N. ; declination, 21° 32' N. ;
magnetic azimuth, E. 81° 20' N. ; true azimuth,
E. 68° 24' N. In the first place, assume a point '*,
which call the observer's eye; and another O, which
call the sun : join these two, and from the eye, as
the angular point, lay off the magnetic azimuth =
81° 20 ; then, from tne.same line, <^ and O, and from
the eye '», lay off the true azimuth 68° 24', the
d'fference of these two angles is the variation,
12° 66'.

' 1 — - — - —

The difference, B, thus shows the error in dead-reckoning, which may be the effect of
current.

From B, the ship's true place on the second day, the ship's true place on the fourth dav
may have changed to D ; whilo K ropresentfl her place by dead reckoning on the third,
and F on the fourth day, &c. — Editok. ,

Concei
of its hij
quent cla
Europe, t
the knov
Chinese ■v
missionai'
which pt
same autb
antiguiiy

^ It has 1
discovery
But it 18
Columbus
on magne
doubted b
served by <

Magneti
electricity
become evi
be heresta'
duction of i
By the pro
produce ele
By the elec
netic needle
ism. From
an effect, to
of electricit
South, pole

There is c
in practice, ;
duce a state
that is with]
in that of ai
meridian an(
tained in its
most marked
this cause, w
caused enom
scientific det
expressly tre

Terrestrial
dip, and the
volved in son
been framed
needle. Am(
principle are
Sabine, Capti
From their la
of magnetic j
in some measi

Now the m
magnetic curi
flfxions of tb

Mym'i0

( 709 )

s useful

jlaces by
entiaU as
ch might

ing tt ick
ing pl^ -}
ludttirec-

\S8.

. by W. I
will be con-
by S.,C 3;

A 60° ; and
i'', the com-
iation, will

[bearing by

ly, perhaps,

Ithandani-

tie effect of

fourth dav
the tliiru,

■ if;

v.— ON MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS.

Concerning the hiatonr of the magnetic needle, we have many and vague notices
of its high antiquity. It is mentioned by Homer and Aristotle and by many subse-
quent classical writers ; the first account we have of this is, that it was known, in
Europe, at the time of the crusades, in about a.d. 1150, and it is very probable that
the knowledge was derived from the Arabians, during those expeditions. But the
Chinese were acquainted with it many years before this. We are told by the Jesuit
missionai-y, Du Ualde, that the Chinese Empeiror, Hoang-ti, possessed an instrument
which pointed to the South, so - — H- as the year 2,634 B.C., or 4,479 years ago; the
same author gives subsequent nC. ^ ;. ^^ the compass in China, proving its very great
antiguuy among that people.

It has usually been considered %iw (ky.amhMa, in his voyage from Portugal, on the
discovery of America, first observed the variation of the needle from the true North,
But it IS not improbable that the variation was discovered nearly 200 year~ before
Columbus made this change kno^yn, as it is mentioned in one of the earliest tfeatisog
on magnetism by Peter Adsiger, in 1269: the authenticity of this, however, 11
doubted by some. The wonderful property of the dip of the needle was first ob-
served by our countryman Robert Norman, a maker of compasses, in 1676.

Magnetism is a principle which is evidently allied to, if 'it is not identical with,-
electricity and galvanism. For, in the causing any or either of these principles to
become evident to our senses, we produce, at the same time, the others ; and it may
be here stated, that five apparently dissimilar effects are inevitably caused in the pro-
duction of either : these are — light, heat, chemical action, electricity, and magnetism.
By the production of liyht we cause heat and chemical affinity, and these vdll also
produce electricity, and will cause the magnetic needle to swerve from the meridian.
By the electric fluid we produce light, heat, and the other phenomena ; and the mag-
netic needle is a measurer, by its deflections, of the most minute portions of galvan-
ism. From the magnet, a spark can be produced, absolutely similar, in apjpearance
nn effect, to that of electricity and galvanism. There is i' positive and negative state
of electricity and galvanism ; and there is a positive aud negative, or North and
South, pole to the magnet, and these attract or repel each other.

There is one phenomenon connected with these sciences of very great importance
in practice, and that is, that of induction ; a substance electrified positively will in-
duce a state of negative electricity, or will cause a body to be negatively electrified,
that is within its influence ; the North pole of a magnet will induce an opposite pole
in that of another piece of iron, in certain positions with respect to the magnetic
meridian and itself. Thus, tiie iron employed in the construction of a ship, or con-
tained in its cargo, may all become, by induction, temporary magnets, and have a
most marked and important effect upon the compass by which it is steered ; and it is
this cause, which is too frequently ovi ooked— that of the local deviation — which has
caused enormous errors in reckoning, aud consequently the loss of many vessels. As
scientific details is out of our province, we must refer the reader to those works more
expressly treating on the subject. ';'.'. " ,

Terrestrial Magnetism.— The magnetism of the earth, by which the direction, the
dip, and the intensity of the force of the magnetic needle is controlled, is still in-
volved in some obscurity, and no perfectly satxsfactory system or theoiy has hitherto
been firamed to account for the multifarious changes and phenomena of the compass
needle. Among the m ire modem inquirers into the source of this most wonderful
principle are Prbfessci Hansteen, Mr. Bain, Mr. Bariow, Mr. Christie, Sir Edward
Sabine, Captain Johnston, Mr. Archibald Smith, Mr. Evans, 11.N., and many others.
From their labours we have arrived at a tolerably correct notion of the general effects
of magnetic phenomena ; and from these the laws by which they are governed have,
in some measure, been deduced.

that

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0 ^^ ta

■" 1i£ 12.0

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Sciences

Corporation

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33 WIST MAIN STRUT

WMSTIR.N.Y. MSIO

(71*)l73-4»09

710

ON MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS.

source, or whether the earth ia in a positive and permanently magiictio state, does not
aflfeot the niesent question. From certain changes in the ooaipas% perhans it might
be infer ea, that the magnetism is induced by temperature (heat) fii'om the sun } or
that tho feirugtnous pdrtions, whioh enter so largely into the compoeitioa of the
earUi, have received an inductive magnetism from the same source.

In 1683 Dr. Edmund Halley published a theory of maenetuim, in which occurs
the following idea* :— that the earth's magnetiam was caused hjfburmkt or point* cf
attraetioH, two of them near each pole of the equator ; and that, in those puts of the
world which Ue nearly adjacent to any one of those magnetic poles, the needle is
ffoverned thereby, the nearest pole being always predominant over that more remote.
This view of ^e earth's magnetism ha8l)cen supi>orted by the i^eHults of the labours
of Professor Hansteen, one of tho chief promoters of the science. Fzom his most
valuable work {Magnetismua der Erde, Cliristianitt, 1817), his views may be learned.
Havin? collected all the observations of valuo that had been made on the variation of
the needle, he proveS that lliere were^ur puintt ot convergence among the lines of
variation ; yiz., a weaker and a stronger point, in the vicinity of each pole of
the fflobe. This, combined with the result of Sir D. Brewster's inquiries, will
certainly lead to the view of the connexion between tho heat of the earth and
its magnetism. Professor Hansteen considers tliat the strongest poles, N.S., Uo
almost diunetricallr opposite to each other, and the same is true of the weaker poles
n.«. These four poles 1^ found to have a regular motion obliquely ; tho two nortliem
ones N.n., flrom west to East, and the two southern ones o.». from East to West.
The following he found to be their periods of revolution, and their positions in
1830 :~

Pole N. 69" 30' N.
Pole B. 68° 40' 8.
Pole «. 85'' 6' N.
Pole «. 78" 29' S.

Time of revolution round

Lon. tram Greenwich, each pole of the earth.

87' 19' W. 1,740 years.

131' 47' E. 4,609 —

141' 17' E. 860 —

137'4«'W. 1,304 —

From calculations based upon subsequent observations he slightly varied these
jmsitions and periods { but he nas shown, verv clearly, that the changes in the varia-
tion and dip of the needle, iu both hemispheres, may be well explained by their
motion.

These four magnetic j^les, or points on the earth's surface, over which the dippinff*
needle would stand vertical, are separated by a magnetic equator, whioh is not coinci-
dent with the eailhs's equator, but is ap. irregular circle, which crosses it in three
Kints, according to M. Dupeney, or in fiour points, according to M. Biot and Pro-
Mor Hansteen ( on this circle, of course, the dipping-needle stands horisontal.

Respecting the North Atlantic Ocean, we may here state, that the magnetic crosses
the terrestrial equator in about long. 20* E. (in the Bight of Biafra), and proceeds
westerly across tne Atlantic, to the coast of Brasil, which it touches in lat. 16' S.
The line of equal dip, at 70°, runs from the Bristol Channel, curving S.W. and W., to
about Charleston. U.S. i between these lines, the lines of equal dip (or laoclinai lines)
form regular divisions.

The mariner's compass, as generally used, exhibits the direction of the magnetic
meridian only t but, in treating of the magnetic needle, three points are to be in-
quired into : these are, the variation, or declination i the dip, <»> tnfilination ; and the
tntctuity of the manietio force t and to the elucidation of these the philosophers in all
quarters of the globe are at present . Jgagcd.

Tht Declination, or Variation. — With this branch of the subject nvery sailor ir per>
foctly fluniliar, and any comment on its actual state is thereforo nncessary. But thii
variation is not constant. There are several elements of ehange in this part <^ the
magnstio force, for it undergoes secular, annual, mensual, diurnal, and also irregular
changes. The eeeular changes is a progressive alteration, observed in the dinotiot
the magnetic needle daring a series of years. Thus, in 1A76, Robert Norman fouuu

ON MAONRTISM AND THB COMPASS.

Um eomMM at London to point 11* 10' Boat of North i in 1606, it pointed true
North ; it was on the increase to 1819, when it was 24° 41' Wett of North ; and since
then it has been retrograding, and in December, 1860, it was 21« 11' 30".

The tnttuuttl ohanee is according to the season of the year. It was first notioed bj.
Mr. Canton, about the year 1706. It amounted, in January, to T 8" { in Mandit
11' 17* I in June, 18' 2r ; in September, 11' 43* i and in December, 6' 58". Theoe
are the ^nmal changes, which vary in amount in different parts o4 the year.

The diurnal change is thus ffiven from the recent obserrations of Professor Lloyd :
^M The mean daily curve of the changes of declination, for the entire year, exhibits
a smal! easterly movement of the Noi-m end of the magnet during the morning houn,
which reaches its maximum about ?*■ a.m. After that hour the North end moves
rapidly westward, and it reaches its extreme westerly position at !■■ 10' p.m. It then
returns to the eastward, but less rapidly, the easterly deviation becoming a maximum
about 10» p.m. ; the mean daily range equals 0-3'." These small daily and monthly
changes are unimportant in a seaman's practice.

Th» irreguiar chan^, or magnetic storms, as they have been termed, occur with-
out any previous notice, and are of very great extent ; some of them have been
traced almost throughout the globe. At times this deviation amounts to V.

As the ascertained variation of the compass in various parts of the Atlantic are
attached to Tables of Positions in the former part of tUs work, and are also given on
the chart facing page 373.

The Dip, or Inclination. — ^The dip of the needle, as we have already had oocasion
to observe, is the and^le which a well-balanced needle forms with the horison, after it
is rendered mafrnetic, and when it has the power of free motion in Hu plane of tha
magnetic meridian. As before stated, this angle varies in diffeient parts of the globe,
being at lero on the magnetic equator, and 90^ on the magnetic poles. The dip, like
the vwiation, undergoes a continual change, increasing in some parts of the world and
dinmdshing in others. Thus, at Paris, in 1761, it was 70° ; in 1829, only 67° 41'. At
London, in 1076, it was 71° 00' ; in 1837, it was 69° 20' { in 1861, it is 68° 20'. The dip
is a very important element in magnetic consideration, and is too much overlooked by
the sailor. The instruments for its measurement, however, are expensive and deli-
cate, and require great nicety in their management ; for these reasonH, it is _ compara-
tively neglected ; but as it is in some degree a measurement of the intensity of the
magnetic force, and also ^atly modifies the directive powei of the compass, it i<i
very important to the manner. When the needle is perpendicular, as it is war the
magnetic pole, of coarse its directive force vanishes, although at that time tfie in-
tensity of the magnetism is greatest. The diurnal change in the dip amounts to ^'
or 4', and is iJso aoout 10' greater in summer than in winter.

The following table gives the rebult of soms of the more recent and careftil observa-
tions that have Deeu made for ancertaining the dip in various ports of the Atlantic.
We have extracted it from one by Major (now Sir Edward) Sabine, in the " Phil.
~ 130 :—

Trans.,' 1840, p,
Place.

Montreal . . . .

Halifax

Worcester

Cambridge . . .
Bpringflcld ....
Proviaence. . . .
Hartford . . . .
New Haven . .
New York . . . .
Washington . .

Dip. Observer. Year.

76 19*
74 40
74 21
74 20
74 11
74
73 08
73 27
72 02
71 21

Estcourt.
Estcourt .
Loomis .
Loomis .
Bache . . .
Loonis .
Loomis .
Loomis .
Lbomis .
Loomis .

1839
1838
1839
1839
1834
1839
1839
1839
1839
1839

Place.

Dip. Observer. Year.

Bermuda 67 31

Nassau 58 13

Contoy Island 49 48

St. Thomas . . 49 29

Antigua 48 46

Alta Vela .... 47 39

Jamaica 47 19

Daibadoos .... 43 37
Cape Oracias a

Dios 41 4

Home ....
Bamctt . .
Bamett . .
Zarhtman
Home ....
Home ....
Bamett . .
Home ....

1837
1839
1838
1834
1830
1835
1834
1830

Bamett . . 1833

• North End.

713

ON MAONETISM AND THE COMPASS.

Place.

Dip. Obaerver. Year.

38 m*
87 16

CorafM

Caraooas

St. J. de Nioa-

zagiuk .. 34 43

Dememm 3^ 57

Chagrea .:.... 32 30

Para 24 8

Madeira ...... 09 42

Bahia,Bnudl.. 5 1
Bio Janeiro .. 10

Zarhtman 1833
Home 1836

Bamett .
Home . . . .
Home . . . ,
Home . . . ,
Sabine ..
SaUvan .,
Solivan .,

1839
1837
1834
1835
1847
1839
1839

Place.

Dip. Obserrw. Year.

London 68 25* Mag.Snnr. 1859

Terceixa 68 6 FitsBoy.. 1836

Biver TaguB . . 60 39 Lament . . 1868

Paris 67 34 Arago 1835

Tenerife 57 47 WidUuun 1837

Port Praya . . 45 46 FitaBoy . . 1836
Egga, on the

Niger 13 51 AUen .... 1833

Fernando Po . . 48 Allen .... 1833

nha das Bolas 7 44t Allen .... 1833

27k« ImteruHy. — ^Tke intennty of the magnetism of the earth varies also with time
and place. It is the power of the earth, to bring an oscilla ti ng needle to a state of
rest s and it is in proportiou to the squares of the number of vilnrations per Becoud.
The lines of equal intensity woujj^, at first, seem to coincide with those of equal dip,
bat, in consequence of the doable magnetic polar axes, they di£fer in their relation,
though they still form regular and symmetrical curres. As the magnetic latitude in-
OBBaserf, so does the intensity, but not the directive force ; for, when a needle is on the
magnetic equator, it naturally preserves its horizontality, and, conseqaentiy, the
whole of its ma^etism is employed in directing the needle towards the poles. But,
in high magnetic latitudes, where the dip is great, the means employed to keep it
paraUel witii the hbrison of course reduce very considerably its power of keeping in
a North and Sou^ direction ; and in the circumpolar regions tne ordinary compass
becomes so sluggidi as to be of but littie value to steer by.

Having thus vwv briefly sketched the general phenomena of terrestrial magnet-
ism, the reader will understand the general principles laid down by Dr. Halley and
Professor Hansteen, that in the northern hemisphere the two points of convergence
of the magnetic variation or declination by revolving around the pole of the earth,
will cause a local change in the variation of all places lying in North magnetic lati-
tude, and which, in the case of London, has amounted to 35|° in 465 years. The
dip, on the other hand, has changed but little, or 2^" in 260 years ; this is obvious,
because the two magnetic " res, while they change their terrestrial longitude in a
considerable degree, do ■■ ry much in Ir.titude, and, consequently, will not greatly

affect the dip in placeb'. .le distance from them.

The points then interesting to the navigator are, first, the influence of the earth's
magnetism upon his compasees, and the infl icnce the ship and her iron has upon it in
neutraliring or modifying the first ; the second, viz., the local deviation, is a subject
which has become magnified into vast and vital importance since the introduction of
so much irOii into the mbric of wooden ships, and the daily increasing number of iron
ahips.

The North Atlantic Ocean has this peculiarity, in a magnetic sense, that it has
over nearly all its area but one kind of magnetism — ^westerly declination (or varia-
tion) and northerly inclination (or dip). The magnetic equator passes, as before said,
obliquely across the terrestrial equator from Africa to Brasil, the Une of no dip being
to the South of this. The line of no variation will be seen by the chart.

Now, as will be seen presently, as the force of the ship's magnetism diminishes, so
does that of the earth increase in its infiuence on the compass, so that a ship's corrected
compass does not hold the same relative poedtion with respect to both witn the same
correction into a different magnetic latitude. Thus a vessel with a large original
error in England, will find that error reduced perhaps to one half on reaching the
equator t and if sailing northwards a very different relation will be found.

This is especially to be noticed on sailing into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, or any-
where in a N.W. cureotion towards America. Frequently a ship may be btandiiig

North End.

t Soutlk End.

ON MAGNETISM AND THE (XMIPASS.

7X8

on one ooaiBo tb the wrathward of Wert aoroM the Atkatie, and then suddenly bean
up to N.W. ; and then paining; rapidly towards ibo magnetic pole, the relation
between the earth's ma^etism and that of the ahip upon nor oonmaaa nndergoea a
rapid and important clunge, which, unattended to, has doubtless been the oanaeof
many embarraBsmenta and accidents.

The Local Dbvution of the Compass is its variation fixnn the magnetio
meridian, which may be caused, as already noticed, txaa a peonliar at^te of th<B
atmosphere, Aunnra Borealis, lightning, or we local attraction of the shii^ iron, &e.
This 18 a sirineot of inquiry, ^^lich was first explained by Captain Flincura, in the
description of liis surveys of the AustraUan coast. To this suqeot Ills attention war
directed, not only by some anomalous differences whidi he found in the oompasaea
that he used, but by others recorded by Mr. Wales, whb'had aocompuiied Captain
Cook in the capacity of astronomer, and nis dedoctions, refeiiing as they do to wobden
vessels, are still held to be correct

But the problem of the local deviation in. iron t^h^ is a widely different one, and
includes a large ranve of phenomena and considerations which have hitherto been
but little undenitoo^ and even now may not be establidied on a. flrni basis in all its
particulars.

This important discussion upon the magnetism of iron Bhip« began by Professor
Airy's experiments recorded in the Philosophical Transactions for 1839. EUs eon*
elusions were somewhat opposed by Dr. Scoresby in 18fi4, which was rtolied to in the
*' Mercantile Marine Magasdne," in 1854 and 1855. To farther investigitite the stilt
obscure principles involved in this venr important topic. Dr. Scoresl^ ' nnderfeo6k
his weU-known voyage to Australia and bacK in the JKOyo/ CharteTf bet^reen Fi^
ruary and Augurt, 1866.

The attention of the shipping interest to this qu'jstion was strongly called, at the
Meeting of the British Association at Liverpool in 1854, and the resmt was tlie forma-
tion of the Liverpool Compass Committee, who reported to the Ctovemment in 1665,
and 1856, and the valuable series of observations they had-collected were discussed by
their able secretary, Mr. Kundell, and by Mr. Archibald Smith, Mr. Towson, and
others in 1857. One important conclusion since arrived at is stated by Mr. Archibald
Smith as follows : —

" Whatever difference of opinion may be entertained as to applying corrections to
the steering compasses of iron ships, it can hardly admit of question that every iron
ship should have at least one compass removed as much as possible fh>m the influenoe
of iron and not corrected by magnets, and should be swung at the beginning and end
of every voyage of any length, and the deviation of the ancorrected and corrected
Compasses (if any) observed. No man is competent to command an iron ship who is
not competent to make these observations."*

The more refined calculations which can be entered into for determining the relation
between a ship and her compass are gpiven in a pamphlet by Archibald Smith, Esq.
" Instructions for the computation of a Table of the Deviations of a Ship's Compass,^'
1848, as a supplement to tne '* Practical Rules for ascertaining the Deviations, &o.,"

1864.

Dr. Score$by gives the following summary of leading- deductions on the Character
and Distribution and liability to change of the Magnetism of Iron Ships :—

(1.) Aa to the tourcM <ff the int»n»« m(^fneii9m tff iron thip$. — Ships built of iron
must not only be rtrongly magnetic, because of the vast body of this metal which is
snhjocted to the action oif terrestrial induction, but by reason of the elaborate systepi
of hammering, as well as ftom the bending of the plats and bars during the progress
of construction, there must be an extrenufy high development of the quality of retiiUiM
magn«ti$m.

(2.) Effect of the potitwn of a ahip when huildin/f.—Eaeti iron ship must have a

• Tnti'odiiclinn to Dr. ScoroBby's
Kmith, £«><i., M.A., p. 48.

' Journal of a Voyiigo to AustraliH," by Archibnld

4 X

&S IHAIISITETIBM AND THE 'COMPASS.

MioiU liM(ivMaal% of tlk< iiiB{;neti6 dntribiiticm/dci)efiditig:'MwftfM% on tiw porir
nm «ir the ked tad liaad wUlrt building, loch distributaaa having, in each individual
ekse, apblsr aadBWd equatorial idameoiniforawble to those of 4te Ottrth at the plaoe
ivlwm ue dkip iebnik.

(3.) Magne^ lime* of the inductive and retentive magneti$Hi the «Bme.— Whilst the
iDontiili«Otik%tt(Mttte*c(f viOmle ^diMtien mtM. be develop a ttrUrtient magfnetic oon-
ffition, hM^ilng.ihHNufii Itidiviaad ett«e,<a ptfba izie and eqvirtorial ]fla(De oonfbnnable
tb IAm^ tf Ihe eluAih«t Ibe pbee ^here thto ship ie iMiilt ; io'aho the retentive mag-
Mtistli iiMkiptAi»Ati$ Kkb hoiiditig ttukt li&vo «onreeptmdltig polar dliectimi and

.(4;^ ^2^M&|% ^*^^V^ mqffnetie dktnbulion to ehange.-^Tbe Origittal diatributton
of W6 magnetiAin, or oaKing of the magnetio luiee, must be liable to chan|^, after the
tavbofaAng, under any Violrat mtebahicSl ao6on on "die ddp/When tying with heih head
m a new direction, or sailing in remote regions of the globe, having very different
JKrections dT'the i^utl^ ttiagneftie force.

(fi.) SympeAhyQ^ £he eon^Mte toith a •V/''< moffnetie ehanffea.—ML ohaiiges in a
■tup's magnet oondStidn must tend to produce disturbance in fheadiota of compasses
on or about the deck. And .the effect must be, in however minute or insensible
Quantity in Bottib {Mrtien^ otuies, to change the !<mount of the original deviaHont.*

The propontion. No. 4,-above recited, was fortified by the example of tiie loss of
tke T^yJMtr-, ^ new iron ship about 2»000 tons, wlioee steering ?««mpa88 had originally
a mttTimnim deviation of 60°, whioh was corrected by a magnet. She laet with severe
wmtt'*'^ «ft^ leaving Livei^pool going down channel, and i£i as Dr. Sooresby sup-
poera, the effiect was to " shake out," the magnetism of building, and j^ve a new
nutfnetism, this would ICdve the corrected magnets to produce- a deviation which
fb^w ht^ota ihe Irish Coast

It was this argument on the " retenti.'re'' condition of the magnetism of the ship
indnoed ligrlier bniiding thyt led to the controversy between Dr. Scoresby and Pro-
Assor Aii^ and caoseathe former undertaking, at uis advanoed years^ the voyage to
Australia, ibom the effects of whic^ he may be said to have fitllen a nuurtyr to
science.

Dr. SeoMsby, in his LeMA to iihe Underwriters of Association of liveipool, in
1804, inm* up the following propontions, in addition to those he laid dowu in his
later work «f the " Voyage of the B(^ Charter."—

8. Thai tl|e original magnetism and compass deviation are specially liable to
change in new ships, when meeting vdth -heavy weather on their first ;going to seat

4. That a change <(feour$e, after long steering in one direction, is liable to produce
a change in the 3omi>asB.

6. That a^^iSted compasses aire spedally liable to ohsage in the direction of over-
bon^nsatiolit and may dangerously mislead lihe navigator.

6. That a atroke of the sea may produce a sudden change in the compass.

7. That a rtroke of lightning may ohange a ship's magnetism and compass
deviation.

8. That a Aot Mm BhilAtigpartiaUy on an iron ship 01' ^'ht change her magnetism.

9. That permanrat magnets applied for the acyustment of compass deviations must,
with rare exceptions, tend to aggravate the error in ships going far into another
heniiq;>here.

10. That a compass aloft affords an easy, practical, and if duly elevated and pre-
pared for, an eflbctual remedy for the sh^M disturbing influence.*

• '< Journal of • Voyage fcr Magnetioal Researoh," 1869, pp. 71, 72

t " The Compaw in iron Ships, ftc," by Rev. W. Scoiesby, D.D., pp. 67, «8.

<m uA^vmifm and tm fH>iiBA94.

The experiMMw.gwaod by tlw w<m^ of ttte Jb^ CWl^ (Ao^Bd tbjKSi ih« Uenro
and stimuia that die hee experieneed in her voyage out to AnstEalja, dimiffiuahed or>. eo
to speak, ahook out the uieq,i|aUtifla ip her pompaseea, which wei^ pbeervell bejiare hfc
Baihn«r, to such an extent t&it the standanl compass, which had originally a dei;iatfopi,
of 20^io t(X9 port side when the shin's head was north, had this deviation reduqed to
3° 22' on her return to Liverpool { v«liile the steerinR compass, which (nrigitaally had
been rather over corrected, having aa error of l" 43 returned with it 22^ ftf'i whS#
tito eompaaion ooapsat hturiac ta error itf V 49' fetuzned wjth it* t?" atf. l%is
clmnge was one which had evicbntly taken place in the retentive magnelwni of ^b%
ship. This change, shows the con^lete Culnres in such a voyage hjjbced magnets.

Bction of over-

In 1843 when the Gompass Depoitoient of tite AdmlraMy waa ettsbHslted; the
Bcience and the instruments were in an equally bad' condftioh:. The laboura of Oapt:
E. J. Johnson, ILN., F.B.S., however, soon put a new fiuse on the matter, and mmw
was dotM in hi» tioM towards devidoj^g the applioatiott of the iMnnaiplea enunciated.
But the vast increase of iron shipping nas caused gnreater requirements, aft has hum
stated, and the sailor ia very Uixgely indebted to Mv. Fved. J< Evavs, B.N., $he
present supenntendant^ who has pcodiiced an excellent series of variation o]^arta {ihitm
vtjfih our diagjram on p. 373, has been taken) ; and also has dev^ed mnch t^le^^
to the investj^tion c^ toe piobl^ of the ma^etism in iron shijM. From his Bepor^
to the Hydrographer on the Deviation in the Iron Shijgaqf the V^^ Navyi^ A^rif 18^
1,860, we ^txtraot the following : —

On <i» Hottire of Ihg magiutinn m ^on^uiU $h^. — ^Th» nu^etio inQoenoe of
iteam niachioety having been reviewed, t|he nature of the magnetism of iron-buiH
ihips can be entered on nee, to a certain extent, of oondilions ajcisiug fi;om thia ex-
traneous source of compass ecror,^ and those examples Ihirly oHnii^tM ^ere it ^d«
to embarrass the discusobn.

The inveatigati^an of the disturbance arising &om the hori^mttal ^nduption of the
loft iron in the slii^ or the the c««ftcient D, offers sevecal novel and suggeslUve points
of inquiry: the t^ef oharaoteriatics are, —

1. That it hafct invariably a po$ituM siflfn, causing an easterly deviation in tito
N.B. and (f,.W. quadrants, and a westerly deviation in the S.E. and N.W. quadranta.

2. That its amo'int does not appear to depend on the size or mass of the teasel, or
direction when boiU^ngt or on toe iron bea^.,

3. That a gradual decreaae in amount has occurred* when Qxamined QV^r a number
of years, in nearly every vessel that has been reviewed.

4. That the value remains unchanged in sign and amount, on changes qf geographic
I position, confirming theoretical deductions..

5. That a value for this eoefficient, not exceeding 4°, and ranging between that
amount and 2*, may bo assumed to leprosent the average or normal amouat in vessels
of all siaes.

The opinion hsa been long entertained, that the original magnetism of an iron
baih sh^, or that acquired in the process of building, undergoes a rapid change •SUst
launching, and that from this cause accidents have occurred to recently launched and
hastily equipped vessels. The xveoids of ships of the Itoyal Navy do not illustrate
this subject.

I have alluded to the importance of the aonclusions to be dmvod from a review 6f
the examples and eases given in this report; for although varying oondWons of
compass fUsturbanee exist, and the inference is irresistible that they anse tnm the
nature of the iron employed in the construction of the hull of the ship, there is up
doubt that, by attention to a few leading principles in the bvilding and equiMi^
of irpn shi^ the lawer and uncertain sources of error may bo modified and reduced
within linita both of fluctuation and amount, that will not seriously oompromiee the
ak%y of this ship i^ the baoda of an ordinarily prudent seaman.

'iimmi¥*:

716

ON MAONETISM AND THE COMPASS;

The pdntB of praotidal import to ^ddch I W(rald inTite attention an

lit The iieet. diteotkm, ^th reference to the magnetio meridian, for the keel

ana head of an iron ship to be placed for building, to enanre the least oompass

diitorbonoe.

And. The best position and arrangement for a compass, to ensnre small deriationB,
•M pennanetie;jr on changes of geograpic position.

8^ -Hie changes to whieh the compass is liable fWmi varions causes when the fore-
going conditions are ftilfllled.

1. On the but Dinetionfor Building an Iron Ship.

In those built head N.K, Bast, "West, and N.W., stroojg^ south polarity for an at-
traeHoe force on the nortb end of the compass needle) obtains on one side of the ship
adjoining the cioynpass as usually placed between the middle section and the stern;
the resmpng disturbance is not lessened as the compaiM is moved in a fore-and-aft
line within these limits.

In yessels built head S.E. and S.W., north polarity obtains . under the same
conditi<ms.

In Teasels built head North or South, the conditions arise, that in the former the
attraction is toward the stem (the toptddes in their action being neutral to a compass
in the middle line of the deck), and diminishes in force as the compass is moved
towards the bow. In the latter the law is reversed, and small compass deviations are
obtained as the stem is approached.

In an iron «a»Iif^f hip, b^t head to South, there will be an attraction of the north
point of the oonmass to ti^^ head, and if built head to North, a like attraction to the
ship's stem ; ana so fhr there would seem to be no advantage in one direction over
the other. But in the first case the topsides near the compass have wei^ magnetism ;
in the second case they are strongly magiietio : the first position seems therefore
preferable.

In an iron steam-ship, built head to the South, the attraction due to machinery ui
added to that of the hull, whereas in one built head to the North, the attractive forces j
of hull and machinery are, in the northern hemisphere, antagonistic, and a position
of small, or no " semicircular" deviation for the compass may generally be obtained.
To iron steam-vessels engaged on the home or foreign trades in the northern
hemisphere, this direction of ouild is therefore to be preferred.

2. On the Position and ArrangemenU of the CompatB.

The position of compass, whether standard or steering, must depend, as will have
been observed from the foregoing conclusions, on the direction of the ship's build ;
that 'is, in those built head Norm the compass must be as fiur removed from the |
stem as droumstances will permit ; in those built South, placed as near to the stem i
as convenient, without approaching so close to the rudder-head or iron tafihiil as to
cause the ship's general magnetism to be overpowered by the magnetic influence of
those masses.

In ships built East or West there is little choice of position, except to avoid, as a

Sneral rule, proximity to vertical masses of iron ; in vessels bmlt with their heads on
B intercardinal points, a porition approximating to the bow or stem respectively,
where the action from the topsides (to be determined experimentally) is at a minimum,
is to be preferred.

Ample elevation above the deck, and to be strictly confined to the middle line of I
the ship, are the primary conditions of position for every compass in an iron dliip, and I
no compass, whetner steering or standud, should be nearer ^e iron deck, beams than I
4 feet : for the steering oompaaa this arrangement could be met by the use of a
vertical card for the helmsman.

The standard compass, which as a rule I should recommend to be invariably un-
compensated, requires an elevation of at least 5 or 6 feet from the deck, and to be I
flttod on a separate and •permanent pillar or stand : it is by this superior elevation [

ON MAGNETISM AMD THE COMPASS.

717

aiier the same

that the strong magnetic pQwer of the iron heame and adjoining topaidea are
oorreBpondingly leaaened.

As every piece of iron not oomposinff a part of, and hanunered in the fUnioation of
the hull, — sneh as the mdder, flinnel, boilen wA machinmr^ tanks, cookjog ffiiU^jrs,
fiutenings of deck homes, &c.,-F-aTe ^ of a maghetio character difRaring ftxmi ue hall
of a ship, their nrozin^ity should be avoided, and, so fiir ai possIdIb, the ocmipaas
should he pkoed so that they may act as correotors of the geoenll mtgnetism of
thehulL

A compesB placed out of the middle line of the deck is aflbcted hy^Hie nearest top-
side, liild its deviations must necessarily be much increased if that topride has the
dominant polarity, as in the ships built East or West.

Experience has proved that the practical value of mast or elevated compasses has
in some cases been overrated^ they are, in &ct, affected bv the ship's omgnetisni to
an amount depending on their elevation and the direction of the ship^s build : thoM jii
ships built North or South, but especially the latter^— the compass being on the miMn
mast — the deviations will be large comparatively. In ships built East or West the
deviations will be comparatively small, from the topside, which would aflfeot a deck
compass, being more urectly under the maslrcompafls ; they may therefore be uaeM
in the latter cases, and valueless in a, ship built head to the South. The wear and
tc&r on the pivots and agate caps of mast-compasses, from the increased motion due
to their elevation, require constant attention when they are employed.

8. On variotu 8ouree$ of Error affecting/ a Compass placed under favourable

condUums.

Errors arising from changes of geographic position, as also incidental causes of
error due to anomalous rather than mneral conditions, have been brought under
review in the general progress of ihis Keport. There is, however, one source of com-
pass-error — ^that arising from the heeling of the ship — ^which has not been alluded to,
as the ship in all the points hereto reviewed is assumed to be on an even keel.

The few experiments made in ships of the Royal navy will be found in Table I.,
and they tend to prove, as also does the test of experience, that when the original
compass deviations are small, the errors from heeling are generally small in propor-
tion ; and conversely, that exaggerated errors tram heeling are the consequence of
exaggerated errors wUle on an even keol. Ample elevation from the deck, in order
to raise the <M>mna8S above the level l^e topsiaes and adjacent deck beams, is one
of the chief conditions for reducing thu source of error.

With head built North, on heeling, the north end of compass needle will be

attracted to the weather or nearest side from
its south polarity.

„ N.E., M ' o the same.

„ East, „ „ the same.

^, 8.E., „ the north end of needle will have but little

error from the balanced conditions of north
and south polarity of topsides.

„ South, „ the north end of needle will be repeUed to the

lee side by the north polarity of nearest or
weather topside.

n S.W., „ tho north end of needle will have but little

error, as at S.E.

„ " West, „ the north "end of needle will be attracted to

the. weather or nearest side.

N.W., ,, ». the same.

718

ON MAQNETISM AND THE COMPASS)

TliMB lawf) •nfy held ^ood a» lung m the timaiiie* in the inunediate vi^ii^ of tha
coupaaB retain their dominant polarity due to meir original direction of Inuldr m Great
Britain : if in south magnetic latitudes a change of polarity takes place, the condi-
tions ti healmg oorrespood to such change.

The>majSmam ^turbance on heeling in all these resaels is when their heads are
^by ^isturhed.opmpass) ma^metio North or South, and this disturbance Tanishes when
she head iis Bast or West. This law of disturbance may be thus explained : when tbii
TesseFs head is north or south on an even keel (by disturbed compass), the needb lies
parallel to the topeides by their combined action, which neutrauzes each other i on
beduig, tibe nearest topsMe exercises it* then dominant polarity at si^t angles to
the dueekioD of the needle, a^ hence the maximum error. With the ship's hcid east
or west, whether on an even keel or heeling, either pole of the compass-needle pouti
directly to the topsides, and is consequently unaffected except in a Tertical plane.

As the amount of disturbance on heelihff varies under the vatious conditions of
direction of build, height of compass, and breadth of ship or distance of topsides,
addbd to title prevailing permanent or inductive magnetic condition of the la,tter and
the deck beams, eadi dup must have an individual character, to be determined only
bj experiment or observation at sea. lUere are, however, strong anwinds for infer-
ring wot by aindicious position of the compass, so as to ensure smaU errors while on
an even keel, the errors arising firam the ship's heel will be so proportionally reduced
as not practically to aflGect the navigation of the ship in the hands of a prudent
seaman.^

VI.— LIGHTNING BODS AND CONDUCTORS.

"To protect a ship effectually from dariige bv lightning, it is essential that the
conductor be as continuous and as direct as possible, ttom the highest jwint to the sea ;
that it bo permanently fixed in the masts, uiroughout their whole extent, so as to ad-
mit of the motion of one portion of the mast upon another ; and that, in case of the
removal of any part of the mast, tojgether with the conductor attached to it, either
firom accident or design, the remaining poxtioa should still be perfect, and eaual to
the transmission of an electrical discharge into the sea. To rolfil these oonoitioM,
pieces of sheet copper, from one-sixteenu to one-eighth of an inch thick, vaiying
firom -1| to 6 inches in breadth,, and bein^ about two fbet long, according to the size
of the masts, are inserted into the masts in two laminte, one over the other, the butts
or joints of the one being covered by the central portions of the other. The lamintD
are riveted together at the butts, so as to form a long, elastic, and continuous line. The
whole conductor ij» inserted under the edges of a neat groove, ploughed toncdtudinally
in the aft side of the diflBnrent masts, and secured in its position by wrought copper
nails, so as to present a &ir surfitce. This metallic line then passes downward ttom
the copper spindle at the mast-head, along the aft sides of the royal mast and top-
gallant mast of large vessels, and is connected in its course with the copper about the
sheave holes. A copper Uning in the aft side of the cap, through which the topmast
I'iides, now takes up tne eonnection, and continues it over the c«^ to the aft side of
the topmast, and so on, as before, to the step of the mast ; here it meets a thick wide
copper lining, tamed round the cap, undiw the heel of the mast, and resting on a
similar layer of oopper, which is fixed to the keelson ; this last is connected with
some of the keelson bolts, and with three perpendicular bolts of copper, of 2 inches
cUameter, which are driven into the main keel upon three transverse or horizontal
bolts, brought into immediate contact with the copper expanded over the bottom.
Tlie laminee of copper are turned over the respective inast>heads, and are secured

* " Reduction and Pisouasion of the Deviations of the Compass;" by Fred. J. Evaiu,
Esq., B.N. PhiloB. Trans. 1860, part ii., pp. 334— M8.

MARINE THERMOMETER.

719

p&iityof tki
uilduiOreat
te, the condi-

ieirlie«dB«re
uiiBhai when
id: wheath^
to neiBdIeUM
ch other I on
{ht anglef to
,ip*« hcid eaii
•needle pobti
HEtl plane.

oonditieM of
e of topsides,
the latter and
termined only
iinds for infer-
rron while on
mally reduced
of a ^ ^

iknat wi indi oetmoite dows <tn Ihe ofifotite side ; the cap, whic3i oorrM|Nmdk, ia pre*
parad In a . im nw h ait aiiailar way, the copper beiny ctwitinned from the hning in the
■It part df tiie nnind hole, over the eap, into the tore part of the aqnare one, where it
if tamed down and aecnied as before, so «that, when the cap is in its plaoe, the contact
is oommlete. IntiiiB way we have, under all oiroomstanoes, a continuons metaUio line
from tne highest points to the sea, which will transmit the eleettio matter directly
through the keel, and emit it into that non-conducting fluid, where it becomes peifeotly
neutralized and harmless." — Sir JVilliam Snow Harrit, F.R.S.

enlial that the
ointtothesesj
int, so as to ad-
[in case of the
d to it, either
and eaual to
jse conditions,
thick, varying
ig to the size
her, the butts
ThelaminsB
uousUne. The
liongitadinttlly
rought coTOor
>wnward from
nast and top-
sper about the
ih the topmast
Se aft side of
_ a thick wide
4 restinff on a
•nnected with
, of 2 inches
or horizontal
tiie bottom.
[d are secured

J. Evans,

Vn.— MARINE THERMOMETER.

Captain
tnometen

Livingston says : — '< In my fhermometiic experiments I had several ther-
broken, and I have heard objections made i» the experiments, that, in the

manner they were made, the thermometer
was not immersed for enough to enter into
water sufficiently uninfluenced by the heat

of the solar rays ; but it will be seen, by
compuing the oay and night observations,

that this is a fuule objection. However,
to avoid it, to secure my thermometers finm
being broken, and to enable me to have a
column of water round the lliermometer,
sufficient to retain its original temperature
till such time as the degree indicated by
the thermometer scale could be read aS,
keeping at the same time the bulb of the •
thermometer immersed in the water, I
prevailed on an ingenious mechanic to
to attempt the structure of such a case ns

1 wanted, in which he has most happily
succeeded."

The person here aUaded to is Mr. Robcii
Jamieson, of Glasgow, who was honoured
with the large silver medal of the fioeiety
for the Enoomragement of Arts.

Debcbiption.— The first figure, heretb
annexed, represents the case, a tube of
copper, whicn encloses a thermometer : the
second figure represents a thermometer, so
enclosed. The lenjgih of the whole tube,
including the lid, is about, 18 inches, and
its octenial diaind»r 2 inches. The Ud,
which has a dieck to fit the tube, is about

2 inches deep, and has a conical or puppet
valve in it, wtdeh rises upward. At the
lower end 'of <t3ie tube is another valve of
the same description, which also rises up-
ward; and these two valves permit the
water to pass freely through the tubo
while it, descends in the water; but so
soon as it stops, the valves shut, and the
water admittea, at fhe greatest d(3^th to
which the machine is punk, remains iii the
tube, around the thennometer.

--v^,t''^fT?'^^

79b

CLASSIFICATION OF THE CLOUDS.

' Fig. I. ia a back view of the case ready for nw. In Fig. II., a a repreaents a ring,
or collar, on which the thermoDietoi>pIat<B rests, to keep it dear of the lower valve :
b b, the upper valve and valTe-tnhe cover : c c a brid^ on which' the neck, rod,er
journal, of the valve works, throuffh a hole in a swell in the centre of the bridge :
.d d, lowOT part of the joumid, with a sorew-head, which keeps it tram rising through
the hob in the bridge : e e, ends of the journals.

VIII.— CLASSIFICATION OF THE CLOUDS, AS DEFINED IN THE
NOMENCLATURE OF THE CELEBRATED METEOROLOGIST, MR.
LUKE HOWARD.

Our naturalists on shore very frequently refer to the appearance of the sky accord-
ing to the distinctions which have lately been established ; but which, as yet, are very
imperfectly understood by the generality of mariners, although sometimes introduced
into the journals of the more infonned. We have, beyond expectation, exceeded our
intended limits in the present volume, but we cannot resist the wish to make this
portion of knowledge generally understood by those who traverse the ocean, and who
may, at least, be amused ^^ily oy comparing the atmosphere with the following ex-
phmation:— I

■ The primary distinction in the classification are, — 1. The Cirrus, or Curl Cloud,
generally the most elevated of all the clouds, and the first light cloud tlut forms in
the sky after fine clear weather. It is very light and delicate in its appearance, in
constant motion, generally curling or waving, like feathers or extended fibres. 2.
The Stratus, or lull Cloud, is an extended sheet cloud, sometimes small, shapeless,
'and undefined, like a creeping mist ; and at other times covering a large portion of |
the earth ; but it does not wet leaves or other substances. 3. iSie Ninmu, or Jtain
Cloud, an horizontal, heavy looking, and shapeless cloud, from which ra^^ is falling.
Whatever shape a cloud may have retained previous to rain falling from it, at the mo- 1
ment of its cbange fit>m vapour to water it softens in appearance, and becomes a
Nindtus, 4. The Cumulus, or Stack Cloud, which increases from below in den^e
convex and conical heaps, and is the grand prognostic and accompaniinfnt of fair
weather.

The Cirrus is often seen after acontintuEince of fine light weather, as a fine whitish
line of cloud, stretched across the sky at a great height, the ends seeming lost in the
horizon. This is often the first indication of a change to wet weather : to this line of
Cirrus others are added laterally, and at times clou£ of the same sort seem to pro- 1
ceed from the sides of the line, and are sent off in an oblique or transverse direction, {
so that the whole nuiy have the appearance of net-work.

At other times the lines of Cirrus become denser, descend lower in the atmosphere,
and by uniting or conjoining with others below produce rain. The Une alluoed to
above is called the Linear Cirrus, and the transverse lines produce the Setieulated or |
Curl Cloud.

The Comoid,OT Hairy Cirrus, commonly called Mare's Tail, is the proper Cirrus;
it resembles, in appearance, a long look of white hair, or a bunch of wool pulled ont I
into fine pointed ends. The appearance of Cirrus in the atmosphere often indicates
wind and rain ; and when the fine tails have a constant direction toward any one
point of the compass, it has been frequently obsei*ved that the gale has li^ituig up from
that quarter to which they previously pointed.

TheCirrc
the stormy
proximity.
I npall detacl
ment.

When th

I in lummer ;

In the aumn

beautiAil ap

comnloa sul

I modification

, The arro
ili^htly inc]

I their exterio
with a ainkii

I mow.

The Cirro-

CLASSIFICATION Of CLOUDS, ETC.

721

Tlie Stratus comprehends foga and all fliose ereepu^miBts whioh.ui auminer
evenings fill the Tallevs, but diaapftear in the mornings. The best time for observing
its formation is on a fine evening, after a hot summer's day } we shall then observe
that, as the Cumuli of the day deorease, a white mist forms near the ground ; this
oload, as the Cumuli evajiorate, by degree arrives at its density, la autumn it re-
mains lon^r in the morning. In winter it often puts on a still denser appearance,
and renuins during the day^ and even for many days successively. i

Hie Nimbus always precedes a ISUl of snow, raiin, or hail; and has' received its
name from a notion of the ancients, who distinguished between the It^ber, or shower,
and the Nimbus, or cloud, from which the rain comes.

The Cumulus (plurial, OtmuWjf. Hie progressive formation of the Cumulus is seen
in fine settled weather. If we uieit observe the sky soon after sunrise, we shall see
small clouds here and there in the atmosphere, which appear to be the result of small
gatherings, or concentrated parts of the evening mist, which, ririne in the morning,
^w into small masses of cloud, and the atmosphere becomes clear. As the sun
rises, these clouds become larger, bv adjacent ones coalescing, and at length a large
cloud is formed, assuuiing a cumutated irregular hemispherical shape ; this usually
subsides in the evening as it formed in the morning, breaking into statXL masses, then
fra^ents, and evaporating, when it is succieded by the Stratus, to the formation of
which it may have contributed. In fine weather these clouds form soon after sun-
rise, increase during the day, and subside witb more regularity, and have a more
Jiemispherical form, than in changeable weathei. When well-formed Cumuli prevail
for three or four days, the weather is settled. These Cumuli reflect a strong dlvery
light when opposed to the sun, like Alpine mountains covered with snow.

The Secondary distinction of Clouds partakes, in a mixed degree, of the preceding
distinctions} hence we have uie Cirro-cumulus, the Cirro-stratus, and the Cumuh'
stratus.

The Cirro-cumulus (cirrus and cumulus) is an assemblage of nubecula, or small
roundish clouds, either detached fW>m,or in contact with, each other, and frequentiy
reaching, to appearance, into the azure sky, commonly attended by an increased tem-
perature, and found to accord with a rising barometer. The most striking feature is
observed in summer, before or about the time of thunder-storms. The component
nubeculee are then very dense, round in form, and in closer apposition than usual.
This kind of cloud is so commonly a forerunner of storms, that it has been assumed
by some as a tempestuous prognostic. In rainy and variable weather another variety
of this cloud appears, contrasted very strikingly with that above mentioned, being of
a light fleecy texture, without any regular form in its nubeoulse. Sometimes the
latter are so small as scarcely to be discernible, but the sky seems speckled with in-
niimerable little white transparent spots.

The Cirro-cumulus of fair summer weather is of a medium nature, not so dense as

I the stormy variety, nor so light as the variable one. Its nubeculse vary in size and
proximity. In fine dry weather, with light gales of North and easterly winds,

I nnall detachmentB rapidly form and subside again, g^nemlly in an horizontal arrange-
ment.
When the Grro-cumulus prevails, we may anticipate an increase t>f temperature

I in summer ; and in winter the breaking up of a frost, or warmer and wet weather.
la. the summer time, extensive beds of this cloud, viewed by moonlight, have a very

I beautifiil appearance, which has been compared to a flock of sheep at rest. The Cirro*.
comnlns subsides either slowly, as if by evaporation, or changes into some otbeif

I modification.

The Cirro-stratus (cirrus and stratus) or Wane Cloud, is composed of horizontal or

I dightly inclined masses of small clonds, attenuated toward a part or the whole of

their exterior, bent downward or undulated, separate or in groups, and generally

with a sinking barometer, indicating a decrease in temperature, with wind and rain otr

mow.

* .

The Cirro-stratus is characterized by great horizontal extent iii proportion to ver-

4 T

722

CLASSIFICATION OF THE CLOUDS.

tioal bjTMd^ ; w that whien any other c^oud heglns to asaume thV't form, it generally
ends in CmpiBi^tiis. Tlie Cirrns more oommonly beoometi a Cirro-stratus than any
other olondj u^ C^rrp-PlvmuIuQ ne^t; and th^n the Cumi^lus. T^e Cirro-stratCB) once
fonned, somenhief resumes 'the modification from which it' opginated, hut more ii:-
^ue^itly it grj^diifilly eT^porates or conjoins with some otheir modification. It seldom
remains lonsr' iu ope form, but seems to oe constantly declining, ^nd hence the term of
Wane Oioua. 'It is spmetiqijBs ooipposed of wavy bars qr sti-eaks, connected in the
centre and (^nftised, out tbe streaks more defined at the edg^ : this is common in
Taiiable veather in snmmien The Mackerel Shy, as it is tenned, is a variety of this ;
•nothar vapety oonsista of ana long and plain stiteak, thick in the middle, and wasting
away at its edges ; and a third, consisting of small rows of little clouds, curved in a
peculiar manner, ^n^ a sup indication of stormy we^thec : this is more or less regu-
larly formed,' and nie in^olar formation is often produced when a large Cumulus
passes under a Idiig line of Cirrc-stri^tus, and is a|so a sign of stormy weather.

The last variety of Cirro-stratus is a large shallow veil of cloud, which extensivelv
overspreads the sky, pt^icidarly in the evening and during the night, and'througn
which the sun and moon appear dimly. It is in this cloud that those neculifur rei^-ac-
tions of light, of the sun and moon, called haloes, mock tuna, &c. usually appear, and
which is a tolerably certain prognostic of rain or snow. I'here are minor varieties,
which m^y frequently be observed.

The Cirro-stratus usually teimioates in forming an intimate union with some other
cloud, to produce rain ) but, at times, it evaporates or changcH into some other modi-
fication.

The CumulQ-ttratue designates the Cirro-stratus blended with the Cumulus, and
either eppeai'ing intermixed with the heaps of the latter, or super-addiug a wide
structm'e to its base. The Cumulo-stratus is most frequent during a mean or change-
able state of the barometer, when the wind blows from the >\ est, with occasioual
deviations ftom the North and South.

This cloud may be always regarded as a preliminai'y to the production of rain ; and
it frequeintly forms in the foUowing manner: — the Cumulus, which, in common,
passes along in the current of the wind, seems retai-dcd in its progress, increases its
density, spreads out laterally, and at length overhanss the base, in dark and irregular
protnberaaoes. The change to the Cumulo-stratus ouen taken place at once in aU the
Cumuli which are near to each other ; and their bases uniting, the superstructuie
rises up with mountain-like or rocky summits. The change from Cumulus to Cumulo-
stratus is often preceded by Cirro-stratus.

Cumulo-strata vary in appearance; those in which hail showers and thunde^
storms form look extremely black before the change to rain, and have a menacing
aspect, as they are seen coming slowly up with the wind. The Cumulo-Htratus somu-
times evaporates or changes again into cumulus ; but, in general, it ends in the Nim-
bus and fall of rain or snow : sometimes only one part forms a Nimbus, the other
remaining a Cumulo-stratus. ^ - i

Oenebal Bbm ark on the .\imbue. — Any of the modiflcationB above described may
increase so much as to obeonre the sky, without ending in rain \ before which the
peculiar oharaoteristio of th« rain-cloud may always be dirtinguished. In order to gtx
a dear idea of its formation, you may observe a distant shower in profile, from iU
formation to its foil in rain. You may then observe the Cumulus first arrested, then
the Cirro-stratus or Cirrus mav appear to alight on its top; the change to Cumulo-
stratus then goes on rapidly, ana this cloud, increasing in density, assumes that black
and threatening appearance known as an indication of rain : presently this blacknc»!)
is changed to a gray obscuritv, and this is the criterion of the actual formation of
water, which now begins to roll, and constitutes the cloud a NinUme, while a Cirri-
form crown of fibres extends tmm the upper part of the clouds, and small Cumuli
riitvr into th« lowef part. After the ihower has spent itself, the cloud resumes iU

CLASSIFICATION OF TrfE CLOt/DiS.

titledf Gttmnlo-striatus, and thentie probablr olidngefl inib a difTet^t n&odifloatbm ;
and if €ttittaliHi<ratr appear again, tbiey indioatfl a zMittn of xttbx.

•i^

Aa contMoted with thia aulgebt, the indidiitiona of a ohaiun of WMltidhi', lire taiabt.
8 deacrintion of Squalls, firom Hbs work of the diatingniahea navigator lb whom we
are indebted fdr the lead^g paragraj^ of the preaent aectimu

y ■..

'* SQtJALLS are generally of three kinda ;.t^ 5!al}ed the ^wsfiMD Squall is
frequently experienced, and ulsiiaUy rises from we horizon in the form of an arch ;
ttut sometimea it aaaomea the appearante^ of a deiise dtek chmdv pdrttocdd-ly wfiten
hif^kly charged with ram, or eleotxio matter. Frota the time lihat l^e areh or olo^
is flrat aeen above the horizon, ita motion ia aometimta vtiry qmdk to the aenil^', thtf
interval beihg aoaroaly aitffloicBt to allow a ahip to rednte tne BoeeBstoy aail befine'
the wind reaches her, which happens when the cloud has a^roapKed the gOKtOa, , At
other times the motion of the cloud is very slow, and not unfirequently it disappeara,
or is dispersed, the impulse of the wind being not then sufficient to reach a ahip. Aa
a ffcneral rule, it may oe observed, that if there be rain in theae aqnalla pr^edrng the
wind, tii.e latter will probably follow the rain in audden severe gusts ; whereas, if the
wind precedes the rain, the aqualb are seldom so Airious, and terminate in moderate
showers of rain. The general rule, however, ia often interrupted by the operation of
local causes.

<' The Descending Squall is not so easily discerned as the former, because it
issues firom clouds which are formed in the lower parts of the atmosphere, near the
observer ; and when clouds are thus formed, they generally produce ahowera of rain,
and successive squalls of wind.*

" The White Squall is not often experienced ; but it sometimes happens near to,
or within, the tropics, particularly in the vicinity of mountainous land. This squall
generally blows very violently for a short time ; and, as it is liable to happen when
tho weather is clear, without any appearance in the atmosphere to indicate its ap-
proach, it is consequently very dangerour. The only mark that accompanies it is the
white broken water on the surface of the sea, which is torn up by the force of the
wind.

" Squalls, and also storms, are sometimes progressive, at other times regressive,
when obstructed by an opposite wind ; or, according as the point of greatest rarefac-
tion is situated.

" When a squall is opposed by an opposite wind, its motion is greatly retarded
thereby ; and a ship sometimes, in this case, outruns the squall, and overtakes other
■hips which are witnin the limits of the opposite wind."

Captain FitzRoy says: — *< Undoubtedly the worst wind, next to a hurricane'
which a vessel can encounter, is a violent ' White Squall,' so called because it ia
accompanied by no cloud or peculiar appearance in the sky, und because of ita tearing
up the surface of the sea, and sweeping it along so as to make a white sheet of foam.
By squalls of this dcHoription, frequent in the West Indies, and occasionally felt in
otner parts of the world, no notion will be given much above the horizon ; but, by
consulting a grood barometer or simpiesometer, and frequently watching the suriboe
of the sea itself, even a white squall may be guarded against in sufficient time.

'* Dark clouds, hard mixed with soft, and inky fragments in rapid motion beneath
them, accompanied, perhaps, by lightning and diHtant thunder, are the forenuinera of
a heavy squall. Soft shapeless clouds, in which it is impossible to point out a daflnit*

• In the Mexican Sea heavy and very suddflu doscendins aquAlU eome wp r.t timos from
very smnil clouds. These ore scarcely felt until the cloud ia idmost right or*r the ship's
masU. — A. L,

724

CLASSIFICATION OF THE CLOUDS.

edget usually bring rain, but not wind; and, generally speakinff, the more diatu. ;•>
defined the edges of the clouds are, the more wind they foreteU. A little attention
to these simple obseirations, so fiimiliar to ^rsons who have been some time at se^,
may save young officers unnecessary anxiety in one case, and prom^ them to shorten
sail at a proper time in the other." — (" Voyage of the Beagle, yol. li. p. 49.)

" Captain Beuben Bunker, fm old and experienced seaman of Nantucket, has
related that he has often, and sometimes for several days together, rode out a heavy

Sle at sea by fiirling all his sails, pointing his Tarda forward, and veering out from
e boMTs a s&earo ct^le, with a small anchor and a ^ar lashed to it : thus ridin|[, as
at anchor, head to wind. He considered this mode much safer than scudding or lymg-
to ; and in this situation, he faid, his yeesel seldom shipped any water.

" Mr. Owen, formerly master-attendant at Jamaica, recommended to schooners and
other small vessds, when running befine the wind in a gale, with a heavy sea follow-
ing, to tow a hawser frnm the $bem ; as he had found, from experience, tliat it divided
the waves, and prevented their breaking on board." — laetU. Bvana. " Bevision of
Geographic Terms," p. 134.

t:rr

INDEX.

uit it divided
' Beviaion of

Abaco, 77
Abtfeoum Inlet, 632
I Adour River, 482
I Aferni, Has, 498
Africa, Coast of, 487

, Tides of, 256

African, or Guinea
(7urr«»<, 283-288; (151)
JJeflned; (152) Extent;
(153) (154) Examples
jf'rom Maury ; (155) Ve-
locity and Direction;
(156)Temperataie; (157)
Directions off .Guinea
Coast ; (158) Near Cape
Mount, &c. (159) Sail-
ing Directions by Mr.
Finlaison ; (160) Obser-
vations by.M^jor Ren-
nell; (160) Bottle Ex-
periments.

Kemarks on the African
Current, 407

between Cape

Spartel and C. Boiador,
502

■ off C.Verde,516

■ off the Senegal,

514
lAitkens Rook (P), 663

Aix Isle, 480
lAgglestone Rock, 457

Agaluh Cape, 499

Albreda, 521
lAlcatraB Islet, 523
Ulderton Shoal, 648
lAUegranKa Isle, 595
lAlderson Rock, 670
Ulmadia Point, 516
lAlmadronia Village, 489

Alta Vek, 87
lAgadier, 498
lAmbleteuse Road, 476

America Rook (P), 675
I Amherst Port, 648

lAmplimont Rook, 670

I Amsterdam jHNdtion of, 1 24

lAnegada, 87

Ancoras Islets, 525

Anfttrite Shoal (P), 682

Angel Hillocks, 511

[Angle Bay, 460

I Angra de Cintra, 506

Angra de Teroeira, 553,

568
Anna Rock (P), 682
Anne, Cape, 647
Anticosti, 53, 59
Antioohe Rooks, 480.

Anti-trades, or Pas-
sage Winds, 208 — 214
(64) Definition; (65)'
Estimates; (66) Predo-
minance; (67) Liverpool
Observations; (68) Mo-
tion, Seasons and Di-
rections; (69) (70) In-
terferences; (71) (72)
Winds in the Englidi
Channel; (73) Winds in
the open ocean ; (74)
Westerly predominance;
(75) Winds in North
America.

Antonio Cape, 82

Arctic or Labrador
Current, 344 — 352 :
(262) Definition; (263)
Extent; (264) Ai-ound
C. Farewell ; (265) Up
Davis Strait, &c. ; (266)
down the Coast or La-
brador; (267) Drifting
ice; (268) Remarks by
Lieut. J. S. Park ; (260)
Arguments by Mr. Red-
field; (270) Velocity;
(271) Past Newfound-
land; (272) Into Gulf
of St. Lawrence ; (273)
Around Sable Island;
(274) Along the Coast
of the United States;
(275)Intermingling cold
veins ard cold wall.

Areas Isle, 527

Arethnsa Reef, 539

Arguin Bank, 510

Artificial Uorison, 706

Ariilla, 489, 502

Aafec, or Saffi, 495

Ashton Rook (P^, 683

Asaatoague Lignt, 654

Atalaya Point, 587

AtiU Itoek (?), 678

Atlantic Ocean limits, 1

Aves I., 91 '

Aylen, or Porgas Bk., 688

Azamor, 494

Azores, The, 553

Position, 41

Baccaro Point, 646
Bagroo River, 349
Bahamas, Tides, 258
Bald Head, 657
Baleine Point, 481
Ballyoottin Bay, 471
Ballynakilla, 476
Baltimore, 474
Bananas, 548
Banohe Vai», 665
Banquereau, 643
BantiryBav, 475
Barbados, 91
Barbas, Cape, 508
Barel Point, 531
Barfieur, Cape, 476
Barencthy's Rock, 675
Bamogat, Inlet of, 651
Barnstaple Bay, 647
Bashaw, or Turtle Is., 540
Basque Roads, 480
Basse Vieille, 479
Bathurst, 521
Baxo Nuevo, 84
Baxo de Gar«as (P), 688
Bay of Biscay, 478
Bayadere Shoal, 510, 525
Bayoune, 482
Beachy Head, 456
Bearhaven Harbour, 475
Beaufort Harbow, 657
Beaufort Bank, 672
Beasley Shoal (P), 671
Bee de Ch6vre, 479
Bee du Ras, 477
Bcginnis, 476
BeUe De, 480
Bermqja Shoal, 602
Bermudas, or Somers Is., .

74, 629
Bermudas, Winds at, 207
Benin, 524
Bessassema, 531
Betsy's Rook (P), 689
Biarits, or Bianiti, 483
Bjooga islands, 524
Bilbao Harbour, 483

726

INDEX.

Bird Isle, 618

Biivideaux, 480

Biscay, Bay of, 478

Bishop Lignthouse, 403

Bissao, 528

Bissao Cliannel, 035

Bissagos, 524

Black Fish Banks, 654

Blaokfltoae, 'fhe, 458

Black Bnck, 474

Blaesdale Reef (P), 688

Blanco, Cape, 508'

, North, C, 495

Block Islaad, 650

Bloody Flax} Beuedr for,
571

Blue Cut, 603

Bocayna, Canal de, 595

Boaz Mand, 624

Boiador Cape, 504, 5

Boiler Channel, 622

Bolola Channel, 520

Bom FeKz Shoal (?) 686

Bonaviata. 606

Bonetta Shoal (?), 607, 686

Bonn Islet, 527

Boolam, or Bnlama, 530

Boom Kittam River, 660

Boston, 70, 647

BoBsessame, 531

Botof Sand Hilk, 496

Bottles, Current, Me Cur-
rents.

Boulogne, 476

Bouvets BankJP), 686,687

Braithewaite Kay, 607

Branoo Isle, 616

Brava I., 614.

Braye Roads, 478

Brasen Head, 586

HiU, 608

BrazU Rock (P), 645, 685
Brea, or Bray Head, 476
Bream Shonb, 623
Brcem Rock, 473
Brehat Isles, 478

Brest Harbour* 479
Breton Roek (P), 681
Breton Island, 043
Bristol Channel, 467

, Tides at,

263

Brighton, 456
Brmd Sound, 649
Brow Head, 475
Brown's Bunk, 674'
Brussels, 24
Bufiurdo Roek, 480

Buuio, or S. Deserta, 583

ti..r - -- n— 1_~. KOA

u II mum, «! MiwiMUMMt vara

Bnllom Shore, 547
Bull's Bay, 658
Bulman Rock, 474
Bu Reoreb, Wady, 402
Bnsto Cape, 484
Bus, Land of, 675

CiiBEZos, The, 487

Cabras, 896

Cabras, or Goat's Ids., 569

Cacheo, 523

Cadiz, 32

Caesar Breakers (P), 687

Ctumadu Point, 574

jCaldeiras, The, 556

Calms and Winds, Canary

Islands, 603
Calms of Cancer, 206
Cambridg& Observtttt^,

70
Camden, Fort, 47S
Canary Islands, 592
Ganana, or Grand Canary,

596
Cancer, Calms of, 206
Candler's Rock (P), 680
Cansado, Porto, 501
Canso Banks, 643
Cantin Cape, 488 — 495
Cape Breton I., 57
Capellas Port, 561
Cape Verde, 516
Cape Verde Islands, 605
CMabane, 584
Carasohe Island, 525

Bank, 627

Cardinals, 480
Carino Bav, 485
Camsore Pmnt, 470
Carpenter Rook, 545
Cashe's Ledge, 647, 674
Casa Bianca, or Dar El

Beida, 493
Caskets, Th(. 478
Castle Harbour, 624

— Island, 625, 649

Catharine Point, 022
i Caycoe, 78
Cayo Bank, 526

Isle, 626

Romano, 82

Cazamansa River, 523
Centurion Rock, 648
Chaderton Reef (P), 668
Chain Rook, 642
Channel Islands, 478
Chantereau's Shoal, 680
Chao I., 502
Chapelle Rook, 665

Cape Charles, 655
Charleston, 71, 659
Charles Fort, 473

Cape, 664

Charlotte town, 60
Chassiron Tour, 480
Chaucer Bank (?), 670
ChaussSe de Sem, 479, 480
Chavagkao Shoal, 477
Chebncto Head, 644
Cherbourg, 476
Chesapeake, The^ 665
Chilling Cape, 540
CMncoteagiie Shdal, 654
Christient^sBd, 88
CHRdNOMBTERs), Remarb

on, 704
Chub Headfe, 622
Cintra Bay, 500
Cisargae Isle, 484
Glark%i Rook (P), 668
Clear Cane, 474
Cleveland Keef, 676
Clovelly, 467
Clowes Reef, 690
Coast Line, LoAgth of, 5, 6
Cohassot Rooks, 648
Colbart or Ridge, 465
Columbine Shoal (P), 681
Compasa, on the, 708
CompoOnee River, 536
Constante Reef, 677
Cooper's Island, 632
Coppetches River, 594
Cordouan Totm, 461
Cork Harbour, 472
Cape Cornwall, 464
Corral, or Curral, 686
Corteeiilo Island, 544
Coruiia, 484
Corvo, 678
Corvoeiro, Cape, 608
CoubrorPoint de la, 481
Courier Rock (P), 685
Couitmaoaheny Bay, 478
Crawford Island, 539
Cromwell's Fort, 476
Crookhaven, 474
Cross Haven, 470
Crow Head, 474
Crow's Nest, 641
Cuba, 81
Curriil, The, 586

CtTRRKNTB, 259'

(127) General Remorkii

(128) Bstbnation of;

(129) Authorities t(130|
Allowance for Into-
reckoning I (131) Drift

fitoe CwNOty I (m)
Depth of Cunvots aua
Spedflo C^^itT of Sea
Water) (1^) Depth of
the Opean} (im Tem-
perature; (130} Defini-
tions; (137) Bnomera-
tion of Currento, see

1. Renmcll'sCurbbnt.

2. S.E. Dbift to Eu-
rope and Africa. 3.
African or Guinea
Current. 4. Sargasso
Sea. 5. Equatorial
Current. 6. West
India Currents. 7.
Gulf Stream. 8. Arc-
tic or Labrador Cur-
rent, which see.

Currents Obsebvations
ON, by lii«ut. Jno. S.
Park, R.N., 360; by
Miyor Beonell, 364 ;
Submarine Currents by
Lieut. Wal«h, U.S.N.,
365 ; by Capt. Irminger,
367 ; Kemarks hj Capt.
MaDdepfSK>n,. 467 ; On
the Easterly CuiTents
in the North Parts of
the Atlantic, 367 ; Re-
marks by Capt. Chas.
Wilkes, U.S.N., 369;
by Capt. Leighton, 371

I Cyclones, see Hurricanes

DfDALUs Rock, 676
Dangers of Soiily,46d
Darack's Rooks, 673
Dar El Beida, or Anafa,493
I Dartmouth, 458
Davis Bank, 6d0
Davis' South Shoal, 649
I Dead-reckoning, 707, 708
I Deep-sea Soundings, 661
I iSlee Depth of the AUantio

■ Delaware Bay, 662

■ Delaware Shoal, 680
I Delaware, 651

iDlPTH OF the ATI<ANTI0,
694

Condition of Deep Water,
695 ; Early Experi-
ments, 695 ; Cruise of
the Dolphin^ 696; of
the ArctiCy 627 ; the
Cychpt, 697 ; the Sutt-
dog, 697. Table of
Soundings between 40"
•ud off N., 688; be-

INDEX.

tween 30° and 46°, 696 ;

between 20° and 30%

699 ; Equator to 20", 700
Desertas, 4.3, 582
Deserta Grande, 582
Desirade, 90
Devil's Rook (P), 667
DevU Island, 644
Digue of Cherbourg, 476
DiscolouredWater,692 — 4
Dogs Isle, 616
Doff Nose, 472
Doldruiis, see Equatorial

Calms
DollaVrat's Shoal, 564
Douarnenez Bay, 479
Double-headed Shot K.,

82
Doulus Head, 476
Douro River, 32
Draystone, The, 461
Drmd's Reef (P), 672
Dublin, Position of, 16
Duksal Islot, 495
Dungeness, ^54
Dunmanus Bay, 475
Dust in the Atlantic, 701,

703
Dvina Rook (?), 667
Dyet Rocks (P), 683

Eddtstone Lighthouse,

400
Edinburgh Position, 13
Egg Rocks, 648
E^t Stones (P) 677
El Alraiche, 490
El Cumbre Peak, 507
El Mansoria, 495
EmUy Rock (?), 687
Engksh Channel, 454

, Tides of

251
English Road, 608
Entrosa, 590

Equatobial Cubbents,
294—302
(174) Name and Defini-
tion ; (1 75) Mean Rate ;
ri76) Examples; (177)
Ertimate of Mean Ve-
looitT ; (178) Drift of
Bottles and List of them
flrom Captain Becher;
(179) OtAer Examples
of Bottle DriftH ! (180)
Division between North
and South) (181) the
South Enuatnrial Cur=
rent ; (182) Direction ;

727

(188) At the AntiUaa;
(184) Remarks by Sir
R. Schombuittk; (185)
Exceptions ; Rollers, or
Heavy Ground Swell
Equatoblal Calms and
Winds, 198—200
(45) Definition of the
Doldrums ; (46) Re-
marks and Table of Ex-
tent; (47) Cloud-ring;
(48) The Bains
Esmeralda Roek, 667
Espalamaoa Point, 373
Espirito Santo Point, 486
Establishment of tiiePort,
242

See Tides
Estaca Cape, 484
Europa Point, 488
Rook (P), 679

Falcon Rook, 582
Falconer Rock (P), 680
Falcon Rooks, 676
Falmouth, 462
False Bermudas (P),683
Farewell, Cape, 50
Fanaes, 577
Farran Point, 547
Fastnet Rock, 474
Fas, Peak of, 491
Fayal, 572
Fear, Cape, 657
Fenwick Island Shoal, 654
Fernan do Noronha, 640
Ferraria Point, 561
Ferro, or Hierro, 602
Ferrol Harbour, 484
Fedallah, or Fcdala, 493
Field's Vigia (P), 682
Finisterre, Cape, 485
Finisterre, Nav6 of, 485
Firestone Hill, 605
Fire Island, 656
Fisherman's CUffii, 506
Fishing Rip, 650
Five Heads (P), 668
Florea, 576
Florida Tides, 258
Fogo, or FuejTO, 614
Footabar, or Tamara, 538
Formigas,Bank and Rocks,

563
Forecarreah River, 543
Fortaventura, 595
France, Coast of, 476
Frayles, The, 569
FFeetown, 546
Fieels, Cape, 6i

728

INDEX.

FreminTille Bank, 688
French Shoal (P), 686, 687
Frenchman's Isund, 610
Freshwater Bay, 615
Froward Point, 474
Frying-pan BhoalB, 657
Fnego Island, 614
Faertaventora, 595
Funchal, 43, 587
Fnndy, Bay of. Tides, 257

Oabbiel, Mount, 475
Galea Point, 483
Oalhao Reef, 609
Oalissioni^res Rock (P),
689
. Galleon's Bank (P), 689
Gallinaa River, 550
Gallop Island Point, 648
Gambia River, 520
Gandaria Rocks (P), 684
GandioUe, 514
Garajao, Cabo, 587
Garnet Bay, 505
Gattandar, 513
Geer, Cuie, 38 '

George Island, 645
George's Bank, 674
Ghir, or Geer, Cape, 498
Gibbs Hill, 625
Gibraltar, 407
GUohrist Rock (P), 680
Girao, C^, 589
Gironde Kiver, 481
Glengariff Harbour, 475
Goat Hocks, 571
Gold River, 506
Gombaud's Rock (P), 684
Gomera, 602
Goree Isle, 39, 517
Gorgulho Rock, 589
Gough's Rocks (P), 671
GouEhr Cove, 480
Oraoiosa, 575

, 595

Grand Cayman, 83
Grand Canary, 596
Grass Island, 639
Grassy Bay, 624, 628
Great Bermuda Island,

624
Great Piton, The, 593
Great Racoon Kay, 658
Great Rip, 650
Great Soarcies River, 544
Green Rock, 668
Greenland, 51
Oreeve's Ledge (?), 669
Grenada, 91.
Greyhound Bav. 508

Griel Wood Island, 513

Orisnes Cape, 476

Groiz, Isle de, 430

Ground Swell, 301

Guadaloupe, 90

Gnavas Lake, 463

Guigou's Bank (P), 685
Gull Banks, 653

Guinea Current, see Af-
rican Current

Gulf STBk.AM, The, 316
—344: (208) General
Remarks; (209) His-
tory ; (210) Causes ;
E Various Opinions ;
Character; ^213)
usteristics ; (214)
Extent; (215) Left-hand
Margin; (216) to (220)
DeptiiinGulfofFlorida;
(228) Depth off Charles-
ton, &c; ; (222) Depth
off Cape Hatteras; (223)
Breadth ; (224)Velocity ;
(225) Seasons; (226)
Deep Sea Temperatures ;
(227) Changeable Velo-
cities; (228) Observa-
tions by Sir Ed. Sabine,
Capt. Monteath, Capt.
J. S. Park ; (229) Tem-
perature ; (230) Colonel
William's Surface Ther-
momctrical Indications;
(231) Temperatures in
Seasons; (232-3) Diffe-
rence in Temperature;

(234) A Series of Warm
and ColdWater Streams ;

(235) Submarine Tem-
peratures ; (236) " Cold
Wall;" (237) Counter
Currents; (238) Along
the Florida Reefs; (239)
Remarks on it; (240) On
the Cuban Shore; (241)
N. and N.E. of the Ba-
hamas ; (242) Roof-
shaped, and Eddies on
the Edges ; (243) Phy-
sical Geography of the
Gulf Stream ; (244) Cha-
racter of the Bottom ;

(245) Animal Life found ;

(246) Similarity of Deep
Sea Temperatures; (247)
The Stream South of the
Newfoundland Banks ;

Its Northern

^240^ V.-rtM>nt.

\ — / — — — •

Gulf STaEAif:-r.*
Nort&ward; (250) Ir-
regular Temperatures;
8151) Character of the
reat Banks ; (252jl
North-easterly Drift tol
Europe ; (253) Drift oii|
the Fluropean Coasts;
(254) Dr. Stark's Obsei-
yations; ^255) lilvidencc
in Hign Latitudes ;
(256-7) Captain Irmin-
ger's Observations ; (2o8]
Drift on Fseroe's, Ice-
land, &c. ; (259) General
Summary; (260) Drift
of Bottles, and Table;
(261) Concluding Be-
marks.

Hadid, Jebel, 496
Halifox, 63, 644
Han, Bay of, 519
Handia, or Jandia, 596
Hangman Point, 479
Hannah's Coral Shoal (?),

685
Hanois, or Kanovcaux

Rocks, 478
Harding's Rocks, 648
Harmattan, The, 203— &e

Winds on African Coa.'^t
Harrington Soand, 625
Harrison Rock (P), 671
Hartland Point, 467
Hartwell Reef, 606
Hats, The, 469
Hatteras, Cape, 656
Haulbowline Island, 473
Havana, 82
Henderson, or Chaucer

Bank, 67
Henlopen Cape, 652
Henry Light, Cape 655
HervagauTts Breakers (?),

672
Hierro, or Ferro, 602
Hoedic Isle, 480
Hog Fish Cut, 623
HoUand, Positions of, 24
Homestone, The, 458
Homet Pointe, 476
Honey Island, 529
Hook Point, 471
Horse of Willingdon, Ui
Horse Latitudes, 206
Horse-shoe, 646
Hubberston Road, 469

Huntley's Rook (P), 683
Hurd's Channel, 822

■ V ,

INDEX.

729

Hurricanes, 214 — 234:
(76) Discussions Enu-
merated} (77) Defini-
tions; (78) Law of
Storms; (79) Sir W.
Reid'8"Rule;''(81)Ir-
regolarities ; (82) Sea-
sons ; (83) Barometer
Indications ;(84)Precau-
tions Necessaiy; (85)
Prognostics; f86) Move-
ment of Crclone; (87)
Rule; (88) Lieu-
tenant 3. Evans'
(Stormy Jack's) Storm
bud; (89) Use of it

(90) N.E. Quadrant

(91) S.E. Quadrant
(93) S.W. Quadrant

N.W. Quadrant.
Captain Leia^ton's
narks; (96) Exam-
ples ffiven on Chart;

(97) Hurricanesof 1780;

(98) Trinidad Hurricane;

(99) Barbados Hurri-
cane; (100) Hurricane
of 1830; (101) On the
United States Coast ;
(102)AtNewYork,&c.,
(108) On Making use of
Hurricanes.

I Ices, 352 : (276) Bematks ;
(277) Formation of loe-
oergs ; (278) Dimen-
sions ; (279) How
formed ; (280) In Green-
land ; (281) Seasons ;
(282) Description of Ice-
bergs ; (283) Mr. Red-
field's Views ; (284) Ex-
amples of Ice-orifts into
Lower Latitudes ; (286)
The same, from Mr.
Redfield ; (286) llie
Ships on the Ice, per-
haps Sir John Frank-
lin\; (287) Remarks by
Lieutenant Evans; Cau-
tions and Indication ;
A Warning
Ille de Sein, 469
jllha de Sal, 605
lllhas dos Idolos, 538
llnagua, 78
llndia Shoal (P), 688

, ._ I Indian River Inlet, 653

)k (P). 683 llnglis Pohboyeuh River.

} (250) Ir-I
nnperatureg A
ttcter of the!
inks; Ml
srly Drift tol
!53) Drift fliil
)ean Coabt^J
itark's Obser-l
65) Kvidencol
Latitudes;!
ptain Irmiii-I
vations; (258)1
FsBroe'H, Icc-I
(259) General!
1 (260) Drift
, and Table ;L
icluding Re- 1

EL, 496
644
,519

Fandia, 596
oint, 479
>ral Shoal(?),|

Hanovcauxl
B

^cks, 648
^rhe, 203— Seel
African Coa!<t|
Sound, 625
ck (P), 671
int, 467
lef, 606
69

pe, 656

Island, 473

or Chaucer I

pe, 652
, Cape 655
Breakers (?), |

rro, 602
180
t, 623
itions of, 24
"he, 458
e,476
1,529
J71

Llingdon, 4(5
pies, 206
16

1,469

Inglefield Bank (P) 686

Inner Hole, 626

Ireland, South Coast of,

470
Isaacs, The, 78
Isle Cavalho, 529

Tiiatan, 479

-^-Verte(P),668

of Wight Shoal, 654

Ives Point, 644

Jaqua, 83

Jamaica, 83

Jandia, or Handia, 596

Janellas Rocks, 590

Jaquet Island (P), 672

Jean Hamon's Rock (P),
679

Jeba, or Great Channel,
629

Jeremia Road, 489

Jibel Habib 490

Jibel Hadid,orIron Moun-
tains, 496

Joal, or Yoal, 519

John Leton's Rock, 608

Josyna Rook (P), 680

Juby, Cape, 502

Julianesluuib, 61

Kakoondee, or Kakundy

River, 633
Kakundiee River, 633
Kanabac, 531
Kanayabac Island, 631
Kenny Islet, ''OO
KeuB, or Europa Rock (P),

679
Khaolah, 620
Kickergiil Tower, 467
King's Isle, 627
Kinsale, 473
Kitty Vitty, or Quidi Vidi,

642
Kitchen Shoals, 623
Knap and Panther, 46
Knockmeldown HUl, 473
Kmsenstem's Volcano, 687
Kramer's Bank (P), 665

Labrador, 53, 59
Labrador Current, tee

Arctic Current
La Cidale, 614
Lagens, 576
Lagos, 486
La Hague, Cape, 476
l4impoul Harbour, 470
Land'H End, 464
Lunzai'ote, d03

Las Palmas, 697

La Tenarde, 477

Lavardin, 480

Law of Storms, tee Hur|ri-
canes

Lean Shoal, 668

Leiden ObeerfaAory, 24

Le Have Cape, 646

Leon Islet, 616

Leopoldina, 617

Le RufBat, 482

Leton Rook, 608

Lewis Rock, 469

Liberia, 562

Lion's Bank, 663

Little Paps, 516

LiQHTHOUSEB, Descrip-
tion of, 97 ; Lighthouses
and Li^ht-vesscls, 97;
Catoptric, or Reflector
System, 98; Dioptric,
or Lenticular System,
99 ; Holophotal System,
102.

Lighthouses, Table of:
Explanation, 104
AMca, W. Coast, 175
Alabama, 168
AntiUas, 172-3
Atlantic Islands, 176
Bahama Islands, 171
Belgium, 134
Bi8cay,Bayof, 140, 144
Breton Island, 149
Bristol Channel, 109
Carribbee Islands, 172,
173

Chesapeake Bay, 162 —
164
Connecticut, 168—160
Cuba, 171-2
Delaware Bay, 161
Denmark, 130
Elbe River, 130
England, E. Coast, 105,
113,116

■■ , S. Coast, 107

,W. Coast, 109

—112

Florida, 166-7
Fi-ance, N. Coast, 135
—139

, W. Coast, 140

—143

Georgia, 166
Guernsey, Jersey, &c.,

138
Ouayana, 173 <»''^» '*
Guii of Mexico, 174
Hanover, 131
4 z

130

iin)EX.

LTGHTH0VS|'«, Ti^>1« of:
HelnidM,l)l9
Ireland, 122— 120
Samwa, li2
Long luand Sound, 158,

160

Louisiana, 168*9
Maine, 153—156
Manildeof, i;^
Marocco, 14.6
Maryland, 162
Massad^utetto, 155-157
Mexico, i(t4
Miadssippi, 168
Netherlands, 131, 133
New Brunswick, N.Cst.

140

, S. Coaat 154

Newfoundland^ 147
New Hampshire, 155
New Jersey, 160, 161
New York, ieO
North Carolina, 164
Norway, 126—128
Ifovn Dpotja, N. Coast,

149
— ' — ■ .. ■ ! ' . , , S. Coast,

150, 152

Orkney IsUuids, 118
P^rtug^l45r«
Prince Edward Island,

149
Bhode Island, 158
Scotland, £. Coast, 116

r-Tll8

-r, W. Coast, 119

—121

Slietland Isles, 118-19
Soutb Carolina, 165
Spun Jif . Coast, 143

,W. Coast, 146-6

St. Lawrence, Gulf of,
147

, Hiyer, 148

Texas, 169, 170
Thames River, 105
I'ierra Firme, 174
United States, 153
Vineyard Sound, 157
Virginia, 161
Wdes, 110

Westlndialslands, 172,
173
White Sea, 26

Lighthouse Island 463

LisDoi^, 32

Little George Bank, 674

Lisaid, The, 463

Los, Isles ds, 538

Lemba Grande. 583

Long Bar, 622
Longships, 4^
Loo Itodt, fi87
Lookout Cape, 657
Lundy Island, 466
Luzuero Point, 48^
Lynhaven Bay, 653

M'Cabtht's Islaiid, 521
Machichaco Cape, 483
Machi Pong^, 654
Macon, Fort, 657
Madeiba ISLANPS, 581
Madeline Reef (P), 607,686
Magdalen Islands, 53, 59
Magnetism and the
Compass, 709

Terrestrial Magnetism,
709 ; Peclination, 710 i
Dip, 611 ; Inteii|al^,
&c., 71?
MAONi. ic Vabiation,
378—5

(224—6) General I^-
marks; (297, 8) Xso-
eonic Lines; (299, 300^
Annual Change and
Table. 6lee Vfuriation
of the Compass

Mahedia,491

Mahfieah R^veri 549

Malabar lBho^,Q75

Malaba^ Cape, 488

Malmeranda Point, 570

Manqel, Q., 517

Man-of-Wa^ Sound, 474

ManveTSi Port, 51

Marcouf,476

Margaret Bay, 645

Mam Rook (P), 686

Marigot of Mosquitos, 513

Mariner Book (P), 671

Maroooo, ^, 487

Martinique, 91

Martin's Reef (P), 689

Martines Peak, 605

Mar^' Shoal (P), 678

Maryland Coi^it, 654

Mat^oong Island, 511, 2

Matamlla Bank, 77

Martinieus Rock, 646

Mfitomkin, 654

May Cape, 651

May Cape Bank, 652

MaydafP), 668

Mayor Cape, 483

Mayo Islajid, 609

Maysi, C., 82

Mazagan,494

Mellaooree lUver. 543

Menor, Cape, 483
Merlin l^k, 642
MesiMR(do Cape, 552
Metw»y Port, 646
M^wstoi^e, The, 458
iSdgley Shoia, 669
^|U^I4^aTen,460
MiUs Bleaker, 622
Minors Hill, 626
Minots Ledge, 641
Mink Cape, 510, 511
Misen Pesk, 475
Mpg^dor,496
MoiDey Point, 473
Monte Gordo, 616
Monte Moio, 609
McmroTia, 552
Montreal, 60
Montauk Point, 650
Monte Gordo, 615
Mossman Rook, 677
Mount, Cape, 551
Mount Desert Rock, 258,

646
Mount Langton, 624, 631
MounV8B|Biy,463
Mount SuzoB, 538
Mouvand's Qank (P), 684
Mouro Met, 484
Mordeira Q(^y, 606
Morebiah Rivet, 542
Mosteiros, 561
Mud Bar, 524
Mud Hole, 650—6
Minn's Reef (P)t?82
Murray Mc^rage, 627

Nahavt Rooie, 648
Nangle Bay, 469
Na^tasket Rood, 647
Nantucket Shoals, 675,

649

, Tides of, 258

Nassau, 78
Negres Rocks, 675
Newfoundland Banks, 640
r — , Tides of

257
New Orleans, 72
New York, 70
Niger River, 40
Nick's Mate Island, 648
Noon, 500
Norman Cape, 52
North Sea, Tides of, 265
North Shoal. 663
North Rooli, BermudM

622
Norway, Positions on, :
Nova Scotia. 63

Nnevitas,
Nun Rock
NunaTri

OOHEL, M

Oracoke I
Old Head,
Old ^hi :
Old Mamo
Old South
Old Wall,
Oleron, Isl
Orango Isl
Orion Rod
Orkneys, P
Orotava, 60
OrriodeTe
Ortegal Ca
Outer Hole,
0TerfiillB,6
Owers, The

Paoham Bi
Pahna(, 601
PalmarinP(
Pamlico Sot
Paris Obai^
Park, The, 4
Parroquet U
Passage i

Anti-Tradl

Passages —

General Rei

(301) Orea

iiisr; (302

Applicatioi
ing Desori
Vessels ni
(306) Trac
by the Wii
Sailing £

To and from

Clutnnel, 371

Outward ^

Table of 1^

don, Hlffj

380, 391

To and fro

George's Chi

387

Liverpool t*
382,. bv
Channel, I
South Ch^
South of
Liverpool,
To and (rom

liiuiftf, 587.

INDEX.

Kuevitas, 83
Nun Rock, 663
Nnna Txirtdo R., 633

OOHEL, Mount, 612
Oraooke Inlet, 637
Old Hend, 473
Old min Road, 653
Old Mamora, 491
Old South Shoal, 649
Old WaU, The, 462
Oleron, Isle, 480
Oraogo Island, 531
Orion Rock (P), 683
Orkneys, Position, 13
Orotava,600
Orrio de Tapia, 484
Ortegal Cape, 484
Outer Hole, 626
0TerfUlB,684
Owers, The, 456

Paohah Bat, 456
Pahnii,60I
Pahnarin Point, 520
Pamlico fi«nad, 657
I Paris Obserratorjr, 27
Park, The, 456
I Parroquet Ie1a.id, 527
I Passage Winds, tee

Anti-Trades
I Passages —
General Remarks on, 375
(301) Great Circle Sail-
ing; (302) Examples {
(303> ReiAarkB on i (304)
Application of Forqro-
ing Descriptions; (305)
Vessels under Bteam;
(306) Tracks Governed
by me Wind Systems
Sailing Ditetifiitne.
I To and from the English
Channel, 378—81
Outward Voyage, 378;
Table of Win'ds'at Lon-
don, JS79'; Horiiewttrd,
380, 361
I To and ^m tlie St.
Oeotge's Channel, 382'^
387

Liverpopl to Holyhtod,
382; bv the North
Channel, 383; l^y' the
South Chtonel, 884;
South of Ireknd tb
LiTcrpool, 385
I To and from the Eai^t
liiuk'tr, 387-

Sailing Directidm—
Aeroee the Equator,
387-404

1. LeaTing the Channel,

389

2. Passage to Madrira,

390

3. West or East of Cape

Verdes, 391

Table of Passives,

4. CrMsingtheEqatttor
394
Dutch Crosftihgs ibid

Tables, 395
Lizard to the Line,
Maury's, 396
Maury's Croaring,
397—401
D'Aprds Instruc-
tions, 402
Return toward Eng-
land, 403
Toward England firom the
Equator, ^3
CanAiT Islands, 603
To and nom the l^negal
and Gambia, 404—410
From Africa Homewards,
409
Cape Rozo to Meft' de
Los, 34^, 1

Biafra to Sieifra LdOne,
409
Ditto, by Capf . OKvfer
Weet Indies — To tod
from, 411

Toward Jamaica, ecu.,
411
West Indies to En^Ush
Channel, 413 -
Ditto tod North Ame-
rica bom. the " Derro-
tero," 414
Strait df Florida, 416, 7
To tl^e Caribbeef or
Windw«r*Is.)419
Caribbean Seat, 422
Bermudas to Windward
Is., 423

Bermudas, 629, 33,423
Steam Navigation be-
tween Tobago and De-
meraTa, 424; to Ja-
maica, Ban Juan, Cape
Haytion, and St. lago,
425

Between Grenada and
Jamaica, 427
Butwouu Jamaica and

SaiUng Direetiont —
Yucatan, Chaorefl, Oar-
tagen^t &o., (^
To theBayof HondunuL
428

To Eastern Coaat of Yu-
catan, byjQiipt. Dun-
sterville, 430
Jamaica to Chajnes and
Cartagena, 433
JaxtfmatL to Maracaibo,

439
The Chtonels of Provi-
dbnce^ 434
To Demerary, 435
To and from the Northeni
Ports of America, 43&—
440

Great Circle Courses',

437 } Oemt. Charles

Hare's In'st^otionB,

437; to the Gulf of St.

Lawrence,^ 439 ; by the

Strait of Belleide, 440

Between Europe tod New

York, 441—444

General Remarks, 441 1

Tables of Croisingsand

Time from England! to

New York, from Maury

442,443; Times, 444

Steam Tracks (or Lanes^

to and from America, 444

-^448

Maury's Remarks, 444^

445; Distances, 446 {

Directions of the Lanes,

Tables, 447 ; Adm.

FitzRoy's Remarks,

447

Between Northern Europe

and the United States,

448-460

From the United States to
the Equator, 451, 452
Maury's Remarks on the
Old and New Routes,
451; Time Table of the
Different Routes, 452
Monitions and Instruc-
tions for the Westwn .
Side of the Atlantifi by
Mr. Redfield, 453

Passe de Grave, 481
Patty's OverfhUs (P), 686
Peak of Trade, 615
Pedra da Gall, 508
Pel6e Island, 478
Penos Cape, -ISi

732

INDEX.

Piftodo dc St. Pedro, 637
Penha Orond6, 505
Fensanoe, 463
Pcfrnambnoo, 640
Pioaoho Reef, 486
Pioo, 671
Pioo RoiTO, 588
Pin Rook, The, 459
Pine, Cape, 643
Plymoutn Position, 10

Sound, 466

Ponta Albernas, 578

da Aroo, 590

delBaxio,577

Bighuda, 614

: Blanca, 576

Cabeira, 676

do Castillo, 563

de Caterinaa, 57

de las Continen-

doe,569

Cortada, 591

daCnu, 691

— de Fayal, 391

Fiiracia,586

Delamda, 590

delGada,5{;8

de los Ilheos Agua

Caliente, 677

delnoao, 582

Jardim, 689

das Lagoinhas, 563

Moniz, 590

— Negra, 378

de Pesquero - alto,

579

Ruiva, 576

de San Antonio,591

de San Jorge, 691

del Topo, 614

Tristao,590

Turrais, 679

Parga,589

Pont da Sem, 479
Poole Bay, 457
Porgas Bank, 688
Portandik, 39, 512, 513
Portland, 457

Rock, 83

Porto Cansado, 601

Grande, 617

do Uheo, 660

Praya,orPrayaBay,

669
Praya, 45

Rico, ground sea,302

Santo, 681

Port Praya, 610

Royal Bay, 62-5

Spain, 92 ^..j. , .

Portudal, 519
Portugal, Coast of, 485
Portugalete, 483
Positions, Tables of,—

AMca,N.W. Coast, 33

Aftioan Islands, 37

Azores, 40, 41

Bahama Is., 74

Barbadoes, &c., 89

Bay of Biscay, 26

Belgium, 24

Bermuda Is., 73

Canarr Isles, 42

Cape Verde Isles, 44

Caribbee Isleo, 89

Colombia, 93

Cuba, 79

Denmark, 21

England, E. & S.Csts., 7

, W. Coast, 9

Feeroo Isles, 46

France, 26

Gambia River, 34

Greenland, 47

Guayana, 92

Guinea Coast, 36

Gulf of St. Lawrence, 63

Hayti, or St. Domingo,
84,5

Hanover, 22

HoUand, 22, 23

Honduras, 95

Iceland, 46

Jamaica, 81

Labrador, 41

Leeward Is., 90 ^^^j

Liberia, 35 ,>.n'^'t

Madeira, 42 ssVp

Man, Isle of, 10

Mexico, 96

Mosquitia, 94

New Brunswick, 62

Newfoundland, 47 — 60

Norway, 17

Nova Scotia, 61

Orkney, &c., 11

Passage Islands, 76

Porto Rico, 85

Portugal, 30

St. Domingo, 84, 86

St. Lawrence, Gulf and

River, 53
Scotland, 11—13
Shetland Is., 12
Spain, 28
Sweden, 19
Trinidad, 89
United States, 64—60
Venezuela, 93
Virgin Is., 86 v^.^i

Wales, 9

West Indies, 75

Yucatan, 96
Potomac's Bank (P), 682
Pow Grande, 649
Praya Bay, 569
Preguizo Bay, 615
Praya Branca, 616

da Gatta, 618

, Isle of, 576

Prehaun Point, 473
Prince Edward Island, 56
Prior Cape, 484
Priorino Cape, 486
Pronk Rocks (P), 677
Pryce Shoal (P), 687
Puerto de Cavallos, 694

Naos, 594

Pipas, 569

Point, 483

de las Vcllas, 574

Pullam Island, 532
Punta de Anaga, 690

Quails, Isle of, 610
Quebec, 69
Queenstown, 473
Querqueville, 476
Quiberon Bay, 480
Quidi Vidi, 642
Quorra River, 40

Rabat, 492

Race Cape, 641

Rame Head, 462

Ramigeau's Vigia, 675

Rains, see Equatorial
Calms

Ras al Hudik, 495

Tagrifelt, 487

Rat Isle, 466

Rattlesnake Shoals, 658

Raza Isle, 616

R6, He de, 480

Rebellion Roads, 659

Red HUl, 610

Ree&, between Fayal and
Flores, 578

Regla Point, 487

Reguala, or Gueder, 500

Rennell's Curbent, 26d
272: (138) (141) Ckj
raoter, definition, an^
examples; (142) Drifll
of bottles; (143) Doil}
rates estimated.

Revolving Storms,
Hurricanes.

Rhoon Rooks, 677

Ribeira Barca, 614

INDEX.

733

Ribefra Grande, 600, 614

Plata, 614

llidge. The, 466

Rio, The Channel, fi04

Grande, 629

— NaneB,533

Ouro, fi06

Pongo, fi37

Roallon'i Book, 671
Roancarrig Island, 470
llocaa lales, 639
Roche Bonne, 666, 481
Roohe's Point, 472
Rookall, or Rokol, 633
Rock Head, 643
Rolleis, or Ground Swell,

301
Roman, or Romain, C, 658
Romboe, or Bomes Isles,

AI4
Ronan's Point, 473
Rooma I., A39
Roxo, Cape, 524
lioyai Sovereign Shoal,450
Ruivo, Pico, 683
Rundlestone, The, 464
Ryder Shoal, 674

Sable IsUnd, 62, 636

Banks, 643

Cape, 646
ISabrina Island Volcano,

667

i SafB, or Asfee, 496
I Sailing Dikeotions, tee

Pass^fes.
I Saints Bridffe, 479
St. Adrian Cape, 484

— Agnes Id., 466

— Anne's Bay, 476

— Anne, Bank & Shoals,
660

I- Ann's Head, 468
I — Antonio, 46

Island, 618
I - Catharine's Bluff, 627
1 — Christopher, 90

- Crprian Bay and Cape,

- Croix, 88
I -David's Head, 622

— Esprit K«ef, 690

— Francis Boy, 611

— George's Channel, 470
-l^d«8,264

St. John River, 612

— John's, Newfoundland,
62

— Lawrence, Gulf of, 68

— Lawrence River, 64
, Tides

of, 267

— Lourenzo Point, 686

— Mary's Island, 621
~ Martin's Cape, 483

— Martin's Point, 627

— Mary's Bank, 680

— Mary, Cape, 621

— Mary's Cape, 621

— Mary, Isle of, 662

— Michael's, 41

,666

Mount, 463

— Nicolas Island, 616

— Paul's Islets, or Penedo
de St. Pedro, 637

— Paul's Island, 68

— Fetrox Point, 468

— Thomas, 87

— Vincent's Island, 616

— Vincent, Cape, 486
Sal, 606

Salee, or Sloa, 492
Sallahtook Point, 643
Saltees Lightvessel, 471
Salum River, 620
Salvages, llie, 43, 592
Saiween Rock (P), 668
Sambro Island, 644
Sand Island, 639
Sand Hills, 626
Sandwich Bay, 61
Sandy Hook, 661
Sangaree River, 640
Sankaty Head, 649
Santander Harbour, 483
Santander, 483
San Antonio, 610

Juan, 87

Lorenzo, 663

Forge, 616

Lucar, 486

S. Pedro, Bay of, 618
San Roque (Jape, 640

Vincente, 690

Santa Cnus, 498
, St. Antonio,

IsLind, 626

Bay, 616

— George Island, 674

- lugo, (309
■- Johu'H, 041

619

601

6U9
Sta. Lucia, 616

SaiitittgO, oH

Point, 676
de la Palma,

de Tenerife,

Sto. Domingo, 87

Sakoasho Sea, 288—294:
(162) Area t (163) Limits
Defined) (164) Major
Rennell's Remarks ;
(166-6) ExpUmation of
Its Character; (167-4)
Sargasso Weed; (169,
170-1) Remarks on it}
(172) The Weed seen on
the African Coast

Scilly Isles, 10,466

Sea isUnds, 668

Seaford Road, 466

Seal Island, 64

— ,646

Seasons on Afirioan Coast,
406

Selsea BiU, 466

Seed Bom Noire, 499

Sei^al, 690

Seine, Bay of the, 476

Sem, Cape, 497

Senegal, 613

Seneg^ River, 613

Serranilla Bank, 84

Sette Cidades Mount. 566

Seven Capes, 606

Seven Stones, The, 466

Seville, 486

Seville Point, 486

Shambles, The, 457

Sheep Head, 476

Sherboro Inlet, 649

Shinnecook Bay, 49

Shleema River, 500

Sierra Leone, 39, 545

Signal-post Hill, 610

Silver Kay Bank, 79

Skerries, The, 460

Skull Harbour, 474

Sloa, or Salee, 492

Smalls, The, 469

Smith's Island, 657, 654

Smith Rock (P), 667

Sombrero, 90

Southampton, Tides at, 253

S.E. Drift Curbenth to
Europe and Africa, 273
—283: (144) General
Set; (145) Estimate of
Velocity; (146) Bottles"
Enumerated, and Cur-
rent along Portugal ;
(147) Examples frum
Maury, and Jackson ;
(148—150) Remarks by
Flcurieu,MajorRenncll,
and the Baron Rous-
sin.

784

INBBX.

S.W. Broak«r, fi6rundaa«

fll«{a, Ooaot of, 483

. PwdtiotMi of, 81

Bpanii^ Foint^ 9^1
8paiu8h8iioar(P),671
8part«l Gi^, 38, 488
fUpmr Gttpe, 341
8f^ iBbBkd, 473
SpilUMid, 406
Sing Channel, 624
Standflirt Point, 407
Start Point, 409
Steen Orevnd (P), 683
Stephenson Shoal, 444
Still Bay, 618
Storms, «m Hitrbicakbs
Strait of Doyer, 455
Strookaon Point, 473
Studlaod Bavi 457
Styx Bank, 584
Suenuk, or Sn^tt, ot Mo-

godor, 406
Sagar-Ioaf Mountain, 619
Sumtet' Fort, 659
Suae, Coast of, 499

TAMARA,0d8

Tangier P<nnt, 487

Tanit Bay, 511

Tancnh tttvef, 044

Tc^ .julejo, 590

Tarifa, 487

TarrafiEil Bay, 614

Tassa Point, 049

Tassacorta, or Taxaoorta,
602

Tasso Point, 049

Tefelneh Cape, 498

Tenerife, 44, 097

Terceira, 067

Terrafia Bay, 610

Tett, or Tid, 494

Texeiros Shoal (P), 689

Thames, Tides of, 251

Thr, Hill Shoals, 623 i

Three Castle Island, 474 i

Three Chimneys (P), 670

Thmm Cap Shoals, 640

Tides, 239—209
(109) General Theory of ;
(110) Action of the
Moon; (111) Action of
the Sun; (112) Equi-
noxes } (113) (114) Lub-
bock and Whewell's
Observations; (115-17)
The Tidal Wave; (118)

- ICstablishment of the
Port, and Corrected Es-

TlDES^^

tablishment ; (119-^
125) Various Particulars
and Obacrvations ; (126)
On the Tide Tabla
TlDB TABi r, 240-201
Africa, 238, 9
Atlantic Is., 248
Cape Breton I., 249
England, E. Coast, 246

, 8. Coast, 240

J W. Coasti, 240

Franto^ N. Coatft, 247

-, W. Coast, 348

Fuddy, Bay of, 250
Gulf of Mexico, 251
Ireland, 247
Labrador, 249 -
New Brunswick,

'f.f,,

Z49

Newfoundland, 2<ti>
North Sea, E. Coast of,

247
Norwasr, 247
Orkney Isv, 246
Portugal, 248
Prince Edward Is., 249
St. Lawrence, Ghilf and
River of, 249
Scotland, 246
Shetland, 246
£bain and Portugal, 241
Titanies and South Coast,
245
United States, 250
Wales, 245
West Indies, 251
Tinker, The, 460
Tobacco Bay, 628
Tobago, 91
Toiro, Cape, 646
Torbay, 458
Toriana Cape, 485
Torrinhas, 084
Tornadoes, 200

'%,'• Furricanes
Touilrpiet Rock, ^'T^
Tou> .J.' Ohassiro&j Lot)
I jor lie Cordouan, 481
Tower of Hercules, 484
Townsend Fort, 642
Trade Wind, The, 184
(21) Definition ; (22) Sta^
tistics ; (23) N.E. Trade
Wind JDirection and
Duration ; (24) Extent ;
(20^ Northern Limit;

(26) Variation in Limits;

(27) Southern Edge,
with Table; (28) Di-
rection ; (29) Diagrams

Taadb Wctd—
described ; (80) Analysis
of the Direction in Dif.
ferent Latitudes ; (31)
Inferciices ; (32) Sea-
sons ; (33) Summary of
the Winds by Captain
Maury

Trafalgar*, Gape, 486

Trdgairt^ RoA (P), 688

Trinidad, 92

(58) Definition} (59)
k\use; (60) Position;
(61) Range; (62) Rea-
son ; (63) At the Ber-
mudas

TabaronCape,612

Tnlloch Reef (P), 060» 679

Turbot Rocks, 472

Turtle, ae Bashaw Islands,
549

Tuskar Rook, 470

Ttphoons, see Hurricanes

United States Survey, 69
Ushant Island, 479

Valentia^ 16, 476
Variation of the Compass,

tee Magnetism
Variation : — !

Africa, West Coast, 40

Azores, 41

Bahamas, &c., 79

Canada, 60

Cape Verde Is., 46

Caribbean Sea, 96

Garibbee Is., 92

Cuba, 84

England, 11

France, 28

Greenland, 53

iiulf of St. Lawrence, 60

Gulf of Mexico, 73

Iceland, 52

Ireland, 16

Jamaica, 84

Madeira, 44

Newfoundland, 13

North Sea, 25

Norway and Sweden, 21

Nova Scotia .Src, 64

St. Domingo, 88

Spain and Portugal, 32

United States, 72

Virgin Is., &c., 92

West Indies, 96

INDEX.

730

Vame, The, 456
Verde, Cape, 605
Ver^, apr, 626, 636
Vigia do8 Azores (?), 678
ViUa Baleira, 581
Villa l.anoa, 660
Villa Nueva, 486
Villano, Cape, 483
Virgin la. Currents, 298
Virgin Rook, 641, 673
Virginia Islet, 600
Volcanic Region, 691, 2

Shocks, 678

VolouioeB, 6t. Michael's,
666

Wad MesM, 499
Wad-oom-er-begh, 494
Wad Tansift, 496
Wahlstein's Breaker's (P),

671,
Walkeria, 536
Warl^s Shoal (P), 686
Washuigton, 71
Waterfurd Harbour, 471
Waterspouts, 236—239
Watson's Bock, 673
Wedinoon or Noon, 600
Westenenk Shoal, 681
Western Ids., or Azores,

663
West India Cubbents,
302--416

(18&— 8) Currents on the
Colombian Coast ; (189)
Equatorial Current to
th«) Antillas ; ri90) Off
the Coast of Guayana,
by Lieutenant Oreeve-
link; (192) Eastward
Currents South of Ja-
maica ; (193) In the
West Part of the Ca-
ribbean Sea ; (194)
Drift of Bottles { (196,
196) N. Coast of Hayti,
&c. ; (197, 8) Between
the Caribbean Islands ;
(199) The Bays of Hon-

duraa and Guatemala i
(200) South of Cape An-
tonio ; (201) South aide
of Cuba ; (202) Channel
of Yucatan ; (204) Gulf
of Mexico; (206) Re.
markn by Maury } (207)
North of the Yucatan
Channel
Whale Rook (P), 679
Whitesand Bay, 464
Wimble Shoals, The, 666
Winds in Gen£kal,176 —
184—

(1.) General Remarks ;
(2) Circulation of the
Atmosphere ; (3) Hal-
ley's and Hadley's
Theories; (4) Wind Sys-
tem's ; (5) Anti-trades ;
(6 — 8) Equatorial Calms
or Doldi-ums ; (9) Aque-
ous Vapour (10) Height
of the Atmosphere ;
ai) Winds of Each
Hemisphere Q2, 13)
Force of the Wind at
Sea and Land, Beau-
tart and GlalBher's No-
tation of; (15) Actual
Force and Velocity ,with
Table; (16) Land and
Sea Breezes ; (17) Dove's
Law of Gyration (18,
19) Area of the Wmd
Zones ; (20) Cyclonic
Area
<%« Trade Wind and
Anti-trade Wind,
Equatorial Calms,
Tropical Calms,
&c.
Winds on the Afei' an
Coast, 200 :

(48) Influence of the
Land; (49) Dampier's
Description; (50)EaBt-
erly Current caused by
them; (61) Southerly

.,r-0 ■■-fi

Monsoons; (62) Winds
and Seasons, by Captain
Midgley; (67)theHar-
mattan
Winds on the —

Atlantic Isles, 189

Azores, Table of, &o.,663

Bahama Islanids, 192

Bermudi « 207, 633

Bissago 68, 528

Bulama, 63.

Cuba, 193

English Chami» 210

Guayana, 193

Jamaica, '91

Leste, at Mnfl«ira, 'H4

Liverpool, ^i, 210

Los. Isles d )39

Me- lean St 193, 94,
190

Mosquitia, 193

The NOKTHS, 194

NovaScotia, 2 '

Sable Island, 2

Seasons in th If of
Mexico, 195

Senegal, 616

St. Lawrence, Or " and
River, of, 212

South Carolina, 21~.

TTnited States, ith

Coast, 196

West Indies, 190

Yucatan, 193

Winter Quarter ShoalriM
Woladia, 496
Wolf Rook, The, 464
Woodall's Rock (P), 669
Wrecks on the Coast of

Africa, 601-2
Wreck Hill, 622, 626

Yallucka River, 349
Yawry Bay, 649
Yellaboi Island, 544
Yoal, or Joal, 619
Youghal, 473
Young GongAlez Isle, 336

Zinghicor, 523.

''■>',iSf„';-">.'*. ,'