IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) r/. 1.0 I.I 1.25 ■tt Ui 12.2 ISf 144 ■" lU Hi 1.4 Uo 1 2.0 li 1.6 P% V y r Photograpliic Sciences Corporation 4^ ^. 3>^ <> ^. «3 'AIIT MAIN STRHV ^■UTM.N.Y. MStO (7U)I73-4S03 i\ CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICIVIH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Inttituta for Historical INflicroraproductiont / Institut Canadian da microraproductions hiatoriquaa TMhnical and Bibliographic Notaa/Notat tachniquaa at bibiiograpliiquaa Tha Inatituta haa attamptad to obtain tha baat originai copy availabia for filming. Faaturaa of this copy which may ba biMiographically uniqua, which may altar any of tha imagaa in tha raproduction, or which may aignificantly changa tha uaual mathod of filming, ara chacicad balow. □ Colourad eovara/ Couvartura da couiaur I I Covara damagad/ D □ D D D D Couvartura andommagAa Covara raatorad and/or iaminatad/ Couvartura raataurAa at/ou paiiiculAa r~n Covar titia mi«aing/ La titra da couvartura manqua r~~| Colourad mapa/ Cartaa gtegraphiquaa 1% cculaur Colourad inic (i.a. othar than blua or black)/ Encra da couiaur (i.a. autra qua blaua ou noira) nn Colourad piataa and/or illuatrations/ Planchaa at/ou illuatrationa an couiaur Bound with othar matarial/ RaliA avac d'autraa documanta Tight binding may cauaa thadowa or diatortion along intarior margin/ La raliura aarrAa paut eausar da I'ombra ou da la diatortion la long da la marga intAriaura Blank laavaa addad during raatoration may appaar within tha taxt. Whanavar poaalbia, thaaa hava baan omittad from filming/ II ta paut qua cartainaa pagaa blanchaa ajoutiaa lora d'una raatauration apparaiaaant dana la tawta. mail, iorsqua cala itait poaaibia, caa pagaa n'ont pat «t« fiimAaa. Additional commanta:/ Commantairaa aupplAmantairaa: L'Inatitut a microfilmA la maillaur axamplaira qu'il lui a AtA poaaibia da aa procurar. Laa dAtaiia da cat axamplaira qui aont paut-Atra uniquaa du point da vua bibliographiqua. qui pauvant modifiar una imaga raproduita, ou qui pauvant axigar una modification dana la mithoda normala da fiimaga aont indiquAa ci-daaaoua. Tl to D D D D n D D Colourad pagaa/ Pagaa da couiaur Pagaa damagad/ Pagaa andommagAaa Pagaa raatorad and/or Iaminatad/ Pagaa raataurAaa at/ou palliculAaa Pagaa diacolourad, atainad or foxad/ Pagaa dAcoioriaa, tachatiaa ou piquAet Pagaa datachad/ Pagaa dAtachAat Showthrough/ Tranaparanca Quality of print variaa/ Qualit* InAgaia da I'impraaaion Includaa auppiamantary matarial/ Comprand du material aupplAmantaira Only adition availabia/ Bauia Mition diaponibia Pagaa wholly or partially obacurad by arrata alipa. tiaauaa. ate, hava baan rafilmad to anaura tha baat poaaibia Imaga/ Laa pagaa totalamant ou partiallamant obacurciaa par un fauillat d'arrata, una palura, ate. ont M fiimiaa i nouvaau da fa^on A obtanir la maillaura imaga poaaibia. Oi b4 th ai( ot fit al( or Tr ah Til wl Ml dil •n ba rig rai mi Thia itam is fllmad at tha raduetion ratio chackad balow/ Ca documant aat fiimi au taur da reduction indlquA ci-daaaoua. 10X 14X liX 22X 2ex 30X y 1IX 1IX 20X a4X ax atx tail* du idifiar una naga Tha copy filmad hara haa baan raproducad thanks to tha o*narosity of: Library Division Provincial Archival of British Columbia Tha imagaa appaaring hara ara tha baat quality poaaibia conaldaring tha condition and iaglbility of tha original copy and in liaaping with tha filming contract apacificationa. Original copiaa in printad papar covara ara filmad baginninq with tha front covar and anding on tha last paga with a printad or iliuatratad impras- sion, or tha back covar whan appropriata. Ail othar original copias ara filmad baginning on tha first paga with a printad or iliuatratad impras- sion. and anding on tha Inst paga with a printad or iliuatratad imprassion. Tha last racordad frama on aach microfiche ahall contain tha symbol -^ (moaning "CON- TINUED"), or tha symbol ▼ (moaning "END"), whichavar applias. Maps, platas, charts, etc.. may ba filmad at diffarant raduction ratios. Thosa too iarga to ba antiraly includad in ona axposura ara filmad baginning in tha uppar laft hand cornar. laft to right and top to bottom, as many framas as raquirad. Ths following diagrams illustrata tha mathod: L'axamplaira film* f ut raproduit grlca i la gAnAroaiti da: Library Division Provincial Archives of British Columbia Laa imagas auivantaa ont Ati raproduitaa avac la plus grand soin. compta tanu da la condition at da la nattat* da raxamplaira film*, at an conformity avac laa conditions du conf'at da filmaga. Laa axamplairaa originaux dont la couvartura •n papiar ast imprimia sont filmto an commandant par la pramiar plat at •n tarminant soit par la darniAra paga qui comporta una amprainta d'imprassion ou d 'illustration, soit par la sacond plat, salon la cas. Tous las autras axamplairas originaux sont fiimAs an commandant par la pramiAra paga qui comporta una amprainta d'imprassion ou d'iliustration at an tarminant par la darniAra paga q j| comporta una taila amprainta. Un das symbolas suivants apparattra sur la darnlAra imaga da chaqua microfiche, salon la cas: la symbols -^> signifia "A SUIVRE". la symbols y signifia "FIN". Las cartas, planchas, tablaaux. ate. pauvant *to fiimAs A das taux da r«duction dlffirants. Lorsqua la document ast trap grand pour Atra raproduit an un saul ciich*. ii ast film« A partir da i'angia supAriaur gaucha, da gaucha A droita. at da haut an bas. an pranant la nombra d'imagas nAcassaira. Las diagrammas suivants illustrant la mAthoda. rata lalura. A 1 2 3 3 32X 1 3 S'w -a llO Dr Ric'ljardson on the Frozen Soil of North America. W i On the Frozen ^'ail of Xnrth America. Hy John Richardson, M.I)., r.R.S., &c. IiKspoctor of Nuvul Hospitals. Commu- nicutcd by the Autlior.t At the meotiiifj of the British As.soeiation hehl at Kdinbiirgh in the year 1834, M. Ara^-o addressed the Committee of Rc- eommendations on the necexsiti/ of more extensive and .vy,y- tematic oLser rat ions on the tempera tare of the earth. In the course of the iliseussion which ensued, I mentioned the ad- \anta<;('s of correct measurcmcntit of the depth of permanently frozen s.'il in the northern parts of America, and at the i^uff- ^•estion of the memhi'rs then present, undertook to ajtplv |»er- sonally to the (iovi-rnor and Connnittee of the IIudMm's Hav Company, reipiestinn- that they w.aild j^ive directions for niak- '''' ^fr Wilson fxliihit.-d numerous siH-ciim-ns of iiu.snir, y'u'trti durn, ca- iiU'OH ..( .liin.ivnl (ifK-s in pictrii dura, and siitruiicnH of n1h>1I (amoos; also ..rCHiUH'M. and Vi>notian.j.'\M-ll,.ry,V(MU'tiangIuss,midrul.yg]'»tt8, togotlu-r wjtli nuinrjourt prinlN ami drawinttss. * I{i-;id li( rule till' Wcnu'riaii Hotietv. Doc. 12. IRIO. I)r Kieliardson on the I'Votcn Svil of Xortli America. Ill in;,' the necessary observations as fully as the means available at their several |)()sts would allow. I wrote, accordingly, to the (iovernor, now Sir John if. Pelly, liart., statin^^ fully the object in view, and the niodeof niakini^ the oliservations : and that ;,'entleman and the other members of the Committee of the Company, with the zeal for the advancement of science for Mhich they have lon^ been distin^-uished, early in 1835 trans- mitted copies of my letter to the several chief factors in chari^o of tlistricts in the fin- coimtries, with instructions for them to eom])ly with the directions therein expressed. Pits were dn«;' at upwards of fourteen ditferent posts in the autunni and winter following', but the rejiorts of the results did not reach nie until the be^innint; of the present month (\ovend)er 1840). In the mean tin\e, the inquiry had been rendered more interestintf to scientitic men in luigland by Professor Haer's jiapers on " The (Iruund fee or Frozen Soil of SiU'ria,'^ published in the Joiu'iuil of the (ieographical Society for 183^< ;* and not being aware that my former let- ter had been acted upon, I again drew up a paper having similar objects in view, wlTnh was [irinted in the ( jeographieal Journal for 1831), together with " Some notes on the best points in IJritish \orth America for making observations <)n the Temperature vi' the Air/' Copies of both were trans- mitted that sanie seastm to Hudson's ]^iy, together with twenty-six therjuometers, carefully constructed by \ewman. These thermometei's were ordered by the council of the Royal (Jeographieal Society, but tlu' governor and conunittee of the Hudson's Hay Company liberally determined to defray the expense themselves. Unfortunately the greater part of the thermometers were di'stroyed by accident in the overland jour- ney, and some of the ri'inaining ones were lost in the winter by th(;ir iron/ scales curving and breaking the tubes ; a mischance which has not happened to thermometers with nu'tal scales in that country. IJy these accidents we have been tleprived for a tinu' of a knowletlge of the mean temperature of the atmo- sphere in the nctrthern zones of Anu-rica. and con.secpu'utly of the means of calculating theoretically the depth of the frozen soil in the ditferent latitudes. * Sen iiKo tliit4 Jouniul,, vol. xxiv.. p. VMi, ami vol. xxv., p. AX^.—Edii. P u t I \ •V 4153'? PRO-" 1 •-.' i"" ' v I. i-r rci>orts on tlio state of tlie pits (liij»' in 1835 and lSo6 ; l>nt altliouyh tlie zoal with which tiie trials wi'ro made cannot he too highly coniuicndcd, yet it is to be rcLjrcttcd tliat the reports arc in some instances too con- cisely drawn np. and a few minute but important particulars iiave been omitted or overlooked. Professor iJaer ri'marks that, " If wc cx.-miiiu groi.iul wliidi contains only vc ry littlt- nioi.-turc in a Um.vn slate, it is vi-ry diilicult to (Irtect tliL' ice, ;is it forms an tNtrcnuly tliiii ])artition lutwccn tlir single partick's of rartli. Slioukl tlic nioistnrc be more consi(lfraV)lc before tlie frefzinp- comes on, we jiereeive in its frozen state smr.U |tieces of lee, wherever tin- spaees between the partick>s are lar'^'e cno\ijrli to a«lniit of them. Tliese pieees of iee, whieii lo»)k like small crystals, I have parti- cularly noticed between the upi)er layer of soil which is thawed, and the lower layer in a frozen state." Attention to these remarks will be very useful in examinino- a [)it lorinL!,' the banks of the IMaikenzie, I broke otf a piece of a solid stratum by a snuirt blow of my hammer, and on exa- minino; its orain, concluded that it was a very hard sandstone. Uavin«; labelled the specimen and deposited it in my pocket, it was shortlv thawed bv the heat of mv body, Jind I disco- vered that it was merely sand containinfj;' nuich frozen water in its interstices. 1'he thawing- of this stratum ciiuses a con- stant crund)rm_i,' of the cliff at the mouth of IJear Lake liivcr. " The farther wc t^o east" (in Knrope and Siberia), says Professor liaer, " the more southerly do we find tin; limit of perpetual ground ice. It has not been oliserveil in I.aphind out of the mountainous districts, nor did I ever hear of it at Archanjiel, thouoli Herr Sehrenk assured me that, on the Petchora, the ground at a certain depth is never free from ic«'. Humboldt found in the district of Hou\i;.l(»\Vsk, in Lat. .iDij" N., \.o\\\r. (50 K., at the foot of the Ural Mountains, small |)ieecs of ice at the dejtth of six feet in summer; but Ponuslowsk lies very hiirh. No permanent ice has been found in Tobolsk in AH N. At Bi-re/ov, in <»4' N., where Krman f<»und tlie temperatiu'c of the ground, at the depth of twenty-three feet, to exceed ( + r W.) - 34.22 F., a dead body was fotind in 1}I2I, I)r Rii'liiircd of (rrountl ice, sht wincf no signs of decay; anil we learn from Helawski, that the lower parts of the district are never without ice. So that Herczov is prohably very near the limit of perpetual [ground ire ; for it is clear that pei'iiiuiritics of soil mnxt have conniilerah/e inftnetirr in lumtitrii's wliiih lir near tlti-t liniif. Farther east this fro/.ei soil extends much more t(» I'lesoutliwani. (ieortri, in the last century, related that ice remained in the irround throutrhout tiie whole year, upon an island in Lat. .52° X., Lons;. 10(5° E., in th<' en- virons (»f Lake Baikal." " In the district of Ni-rtchinsk, liat. 52°, the yrounil thawed in summer from one to nine feel, aecordinut liene.'ith this the frost extendeil to tiie dej)th of forty-two feet from the surface, when the intervention of solid rock prevented fartlier search. On one occasion, Captain Frchse havine; rolial>ly liecause the ncighhotirhood «)f the sea raises the temperature of the soil. Krman, ut least, found no ice at Okhotsk." U\r.H, Oeogr. Journ. vol. viii.) Till* observations on tlic tcMU]K'ratiirt' of tlu' atniospluTe in x^'oftl) America liitherto retonhd, and the conr.si* of the line o'l termination of the forests towards its arctic extremity, in- «licate that the isothermal lines dij), as in Siheria, to the south- ward in their coiirs(! from west to cast throno-h the c(»ntinent, and the reports of the frozert soil detailed helow tend to the same conchision. Indeed, It has h)no been said that the cli- mate of the north-west coast of America is milder and opener than that of the ea.stern cf)ast, and the differenco of mean tem- perature in the 57lh parallel is stated by iJaer to be 18 F.* The observations of fi'o/.cn soil made on opj)osit(' sidts of .lamcs's JJay Jiri' too few to found uuich upon, especially as they are not supported by reports on the mean temperature (''■ the air, ]>iit they seem to denote a milder climate on the eavt side td' that bay than on the west. Were this proved to be actually thf ca>»', it Miiohi be considei'ed merely a.-> another example of the fact, that the western cua.sts of continents have milder climates than the eastern ones, but it miyht also be ad(hu<'d in support «d an explainition which I have else- wlieret eiideavoiu'cd to oive of the cause of the low temjicra- ture of the coast uf Hudson's llav. mtmeh, the detention f. (t>iinii, \i)\, ix. p. H'O. t Appendix to Franklin's Journej , and to Itack'n .Tourney in IttUIl ;<.». VOL. XXX. NO. LIX. JANUARY 1841. N m 114 ]>!• RiclLiiVlx.il o/- //ir l-'ra^en Soil nj Xorth Amriru. fields of ice in its neighhuurhooU for neiu-ly the wlitle sinumer, resulting fi-om the form of the land, and the direetion of the jirevailini' winds and currents of the sea. As to the loeal intiuenee of soil to whieh Professor 13aei directs our attention, I have heen informed l»y .a gentlenuui who has had I'orty years' exjierienee as a praetieul farmer in hji!^!!*"^^ ^I'Jit when lie used fian(/ as a covering for i»otatoc,s, carrots, or other vegetahles, in the winter, the frost j)enetrated farther than when loam or other earth was used, and tluit the looser the latter was thrown over the vegetahles, the better was the protection it ati'oided. lie remarked, also, that lie always found the earth fro/en to a greater dei)th after severe frosts under a l)eaten footpath in a tield, or compact gravel on the hinhwav, than in loose sod. F<)rt-Sim}iso on the Mael;en/ie, being nearly in same latitude with Yakutzk (02 11' N., and 62 1^' N.), is a de- sir.djlc locality for ascertaining the thickness of the perma- nently frozen stratum. At the latter place a well has been sunk into the frozen soil to the dei>th of 382 feet, and the tenijicratine of the earth, which was 4-18.5 F. at some feet below the surface, gradually rose to + 31 1) F. at the bottom of the well, where the soil was so loose as to require timber- iny'. which it had not done higher up. This gives a rise of ti'iupcratin'c ei[uid to one degree of Fahreidieit's scale for every 28^ feet of descent at a place where the mean heat of the year is about i- 14 l'\* In Philiij)s's Guide to (Tcology, the nu'an increment of heat is stated to be 1 F. to every forty- five feet of descent from the surface of the earth, which is one-third less (juii k than the above. At Foit-Siinpson the mean temperature of the air is about 4 25 F., and the frozen soil was I'ound to extend at least seventeen feet from the sur- face. A th rinometcr \\as ki'pl at the bottom of the pit for .some tiin(\ but the register of it-; indications has not reach- ed me. iMi* iM" Pherson not haviiur been made aware of the "' '. Ilriii.u) f Ociigrapli. Jouni. viii. ji. '213) statos tlio iiicaii lioat at Ya- lt cannot he said to l)e yet per- fectly ascertained at that ijiace. I am indebted to him for a register of the temperature of the atmosphere, careiully kept at l'\)rt Simi'soii for tiu'ee years, and for nuieh usel'ul veri)al in- formation respecting the M;ickenzii'. where he hiis wintered for nearly eighteen years. He is now in thi.^ country, and should he return to liis old quarters, we trust that he will speedily set the matter at rest as re:-.pi rts that IcK-ality. Pits were eonnnenced at I'oi t-Chepewyan and ( ireat Slave l^ake, but discontinued, 1 believe, on (oniing to the rocky strata which lie near the .surface, and no rslf'n>n of fin /'oy/v niDiiid in fill yilh')nni<', 10^0, foot dot-p, soil frozen to tiic dojitli of I 2 feet .i iii<|i(>is from tlio surface. In a tliii'k wood :U'iir!nni;s fioiii tlio l.iko, !sn;>w "i feet A iuclns. Snil .sandy Soil fro:;. 11 to the dopili of 1 foot 7 in I'otatu tii'ld h.df a mile in tlie woods. Snow -J fi'i't. Loose sandy soil frozen 1 foot d.ccji. Ten paces Crom llie lalvc. Soil coarse 3 •.''•;ivc|,froz'-ii to tliedepili of '2 I't. H in. ^ Micliiskam, l{iiprrf's Hivcr Lat. no 'M) S. district. Inte- lionf,'. 7(r W \V. rior, elevated ! Soil never pennant ntly frozi-n ; but in ► tlie pol to field the frONt pelietrati'S t IJ-li feet in the v, inter, and in tlie woods i onlv inches. Soil sandv. • .Moose F:;clory, Mouth of .Moose ^ . No frozen soil in a pit du^' 12 feet de-p, j Lat. ■•.rir.'N. Ifiver, at bottom "^i,'..i-'"' when the iuHiix of water throuiih ti.e | Loim. ){(»'. ■),"»' W. of James' Uay. ' '*' i fiiMvtd put an end to the oper.aioii. 'i i : Hetween Uuiiert's I louse. East side of q^,^ j^. ^ Lat. r>l "Jti'N. , Jainos' 13ay,on v^y jy Lnii.-. VH' 10' W. I the coast. ' j^.^. Several pits du;;- tVdni 0 to tlO feet hi;,di. Much water IImwchI in. i \ .( I IIG Dr Uioliardson on the Frozen Soif of Xorfh America. 4 I'larcH. Di^lrii t. UuiK^rl's llousf, Ivist side of I^at. .'il 'Ji;' N. JiiiiK-s' IJay on Lon:ij. 7" 40' W. tin co;:st, A]>it . fro/m sni! extended 7 f< <'t from tlie lUJO, suiface. Under a .snow-drift l\ feet thick the soil was frozen only 13 inches I (let>i). F'.a St Lat. :,•! Long. TU main 40' W Mast .side of Jann-s' IJay, Jfupert liivir District, on the coast, Sit\iation cxiiosimI. Dn^ 7 feet H inclios in nnfro/.en soil, and drove a stake throu^^h Sept I. the suit earth o feet farther, in all 12 ft. lliH.'j, }J iiich(!s. Stopi»ed by the influx of water. ^tJompare this with the observa- tions at Albany, in same latitude.; Sept. 1». 1»35, Duj; Ji feet '.S inches, until stopped by Mater, Avhen a stake was driven 7 feet lower. In all 1." feet '.i in. of soft soil. Sept. 2!>. (Stake driven w ith ease into a sw.imiiy \\V.\'t, piece of irround 12 feet deep. Feb. 27. 183<>, Albany, Lat. -2- 15' N. Long .8r 53' VV. Gr. jcn Lake, Lat. 54 17 N. Lon. 117 "3U'W. Isle I la Cros'ie, Lat. r>.-. ' 25' \. Lou. 107 53' \\. West side of James' Bay near the coast, Sept. 2, and 3. 1835, Pit diinf in the bnrying-ground, inclosed by stockades, when the frost was found to have penetrated 8 or 10 inches into till- soil. The snow-drift lay 8 feet deep over the spot. Thawed surface soil G inches ; 3 feet 7 inches frozen earth ; beneath which a brown clay, so hanl that it required to be cut with an ice-chistd, cut into 11 inches; in all 5 feet. Query, Was lint III)' claii Mr ('"fn'iKil niriifliiiis /ri>:,i)f It would have been desir- able to have j)laced it near the fire to see if it became more plastic. Interior, on a small lake, at least 350 yards above the sea. Oct. 15. 1835, A pit dug 15 feet deep, 40 yards from the lake; 2 feet of gravel on the sur- face ; r(!st compact clay, so hard at bottom that it was impracticable to dig it deeper. Query, IVnti if /'rn^nif iVijiihl il lutiy i/ hard at tieal)le to // /'I'l^iii .' hard clay, Query, 'xittlllll i tli(> depth uil, when pit. )la('0 was le frozen I* l'l:i l)'.-'viit. D.it.'. RCMAllK^ Scvi-rn ()utpo>.t, Lonu:.»« l.VW. Severn lii\fr, W(>st side of I lud scon's llav. Frozen earth at the di'j)th of 5; ftt t in Autumn, coniijact l)lnr mud. 'J'l.c fni/cu stra- fun!wa> (lit ir.to 7', f'M't. when a.'^iiow t storm ])iit au end to the operation. ' rit i;{ f.rtd.ep. Tlie river bank is H(» feot liiiih, and dii euttimr into it, to make a (piay. tin- fmst was found eNt(»ndiii;r dounwarJ.^ till it reaiiied iiinh-water maik. at whith point the earth was soft, as far as the experimenter could penetrate liori/.ontallv. York I.at. Long. Fa»"torv, •>7'^el ti'nm surface. 'J'lie (iiu:u;ini; into the perma- nently frozen .stratum continued for fourteen days, when the tiiawcd e,.i(h was aj^ain reached at tin' depth of 2oA feet fi-om tlie surface, leavinn 17i feet of permanint frost. l)en( ;.t!i which the temperature of tinnved mud was found ))y repeated trials to be + 113 F. I'ort Simpson, J. It. (J2 ll'N. I -on. 121 3-> W. Intlu.x of the south l)ran( ;i of the Mackenzie into the main stream, about 110 yards above the level of the Arctic Sea, Oct li>. 183U, I'it }{(» yards from the banks of the river. Soil hea\y, sand and clay mixed. Tliawed surface soil H) feet 7 inches. Frozen substratum «! feet \\ inches. Jl feet more throuuh a loose sandy soil, and a rod thrust 4 feet deeper into the botioin. In all "JK feet. A thermo- meter kept at the bottom of the pit shewed a higher temperature than one exposed to the air, 'i'he mean tem- perature of October lu re is about + 23' ]■". Mean aimual heat I''.* * Tli>si; fiit'ts iisciTtniiicil |i;nMl,v li\ vcrliiil t rnmi'imiiiilions with tlic I'.xiirrjiin liter. Mr Mi.i 'oi li M'l'lifi-.siin. Our ju-evious knowledge of the de])t!i to which tiie sununer thaw penetrates, or the extent of the frozen substratum in Nurfli America, was very limited. At Fort Franklin on (ireat Hear Lake, the summer thavv, on the Tith of October H'i2.'), had penetrat(>(l 21 inches into the sandy platfnrm on wiiich the house was l)uilt. I'lie fntzen subsf.'tum wasduif into about (i feet, i»ut its total (lei)th was not ascertained. Fort l-'ranklin is siipjutsed to stand about 230 feet above the sea-level. The nuMin heat paces from the hank of tlie river. The ])il was seven feet h)ntr hy six wide, and tlie operators penetrated to the ih'i>tli of ten feet pcrpendicuhir without discoverinq; anything reniarkalde, the soil heiiiL; a fine, Uyht, sandy-coloured marl throutrhoiit. ,\t tiiis stauc, however, wa- ter heirrin to make its appearance at the l)ottom of th- pit, and, on diu'iiinfr two feet lower, it increased so much as to ])nt a stop to further »xcava- tion. Durinir the proLi'ress of ligi,'ing the last two feet, the soil became rapidly mixed with sand and Sfravel, ajid, latterly, almost pure <,'ravel without a sign of fr(»st anj-where. In fact, it has l»e«ii clearly aseertaimd that the winter frosts, in ert,s' House, East Maine, Jane 25. 103(3. " From the lOtli of October to the 7th of November last, several pits were dug from six to eight feet deep, in all of which much water was found. Indeed, in every ])art of the vicinity of this establishment, which is situated on banks from fifty to sixty feet high, tin- earth, being of a sandy nature, over beds of gravel, shingle, and clay, is full of water springs. " On the 28th and 20th of April lar.t, 1 caused a i>it to be dug in a dear piece of ground in the most ex])Oscd situation here, being open to the north-west winds from Hujiert's Bay, and in this wi' did not get through the frost until we penetrated exactly seven feet. This pit was distant fifty feet from the face of the bank. " One hundred and forty-five yards from the above-nnntioncd pit, I caused a srow-drifi within the stockades of the establishment, eight feet deep, to ]>v. cut throu'di, and the earth beneath was found to be fro7,en to the deptli of thirteen inches only." No. 3. — E.ttraetofu Letter from Mr Tliotuas Vnemran, e/rrlf. dated Eunt Maiiie-iiost, liujiirt's Rivrr Di.strivt, S ■fdvmhcr 'AO. 1M.V), " On the li)th Septend)er l!i:t5, a pit was dug in the plantation in a spot not sheltered with wo. id, willows, or anything else, and where the snow docs not lodge at any time to a greater depth than eight or ten * " lliilli-y's (!oniet sci-ii fVniii (he li'tli lo ilm \H\\\ n\' Oetuhor IHUr). nflrr " ' ; h ;t wn'i liisr Miclit of'ibu'inj; rt xiu ssioii •iCsnowN wiUIum'."- (i. K. 1 1! ^*V Di" Rii'liai'ilsou <»i thr Fr<'.r.ii Soil nf Sorth Amvrii\i. 110 iiiclics, aiul con.'ciiiu'iitly av luiifli cx))! 7 H of the spaih" was left od", owini^to water, to tl!(> (Upth of ") (i No frost or ice discovered to this depth, 12 W Qualitii of the Soil. li'i't. In-h( n Loose nioidd. 5 Mixture of whitish loam and sand. 1 ;l I'lire sand. 2 l.oani and sand. 2 Loam of a had coh)iir. 55 Lighter eoh)ured htam. 1 1 liead-coUmred loam. n ■ ■• ' From the a]>j)earance of the lartli adhering t. the stake, the next live fjet TPas judged to he lead-cohmred loam. " On tlic 21»li Se|.tt'mber iM-V), a pit w.-is dii-' alioiit a mile (o thecast- 'v;,rd of till' lioiise, in a screen liltill' of i)ines, and consequently sheltered from drift. Dili;' with the spade to the depth of ... . I'iereed with a wooden stake after the water flowed in, No frost or ice discovered to this dci)th, QiKilitji of the Soil. 4 Lii>lit moidd. 1 1 Hand. 1 10 Sand and lime. 1 2 Whitish-coloured loam. 8 10 Lead-coloured ditto. 7 (> l.-j .'$ « The (|uality of the remaining depth supposed to be loam. " On 2i)th Septend)er \\\^o, a stake of twelve feet in kni;lh was driven with ea^e into a small swamj) that is tolerably well sheltered, heini; sur- rounded with pine trees and within a mile of the house. No iee was dis- covered at that depth. In this situation the spatle could iu)t he used owing to water. " On the 27ih Fehriiary last, a grave wa.-: dug here in the huryinnf ground, which is enclosed by stockades six feet seven inches iiigli, for In- terring the remains of a poor old woman who luifortunately was frozen to death on the 2i5th of the same month. In digning this urave It was dis- covered that the frost had not peiu-irated into the soil above elijht or ten inches, but then the drifted snow lay as hli^li at h-ast as the stoekadis that surrointded it." " From the foregoing observations, it maybe inferred that ilie «:oII In i 3 i I l[ r f ij !/ I* Ft 120 J)r RicbiirtlsDii on the Fro^^cn Soil of North America. tliis neisrliltourhood, to tlif distance of a mile in anv direction from the house, is not permanently frozen." N(». 4. — Kx'.nii't i)f. and tiie soil is of a moresandv nature thronnhout, ex('ei>t a small surface-layer of vegetable matter, the ground was fro/en to the extent of tine foot seven inches. '' f'W, in a potato- field, about half a mile in the woods, the depth of snow was one foot, and the loose and sandy soil was frozen to the dejith of one foot. " 'U/i. On the borders of ihe lake, about ten j)aces from the water's edffe, tlie snow was but tiiHins;', and there wire liare patches liere and th I clu ere. l cnose one of them, and found the ground froz( n to the depth of two feet eiirht inches before wc penetrated to llie unfrozen soil. The ]>laee was very ston\ and tnnibk'some to dig, and the poor pii'k-axe had much employment before we diichargetl it ; but, after we got down a little, clay reseniblinii' blue marl began to make its appearance. It hap- jteiied to be a bitter cold day wlien tlie men anil myself executed the above on the l'7th instant, but, for want of a thermometer, I was unable to ascertain the exact temperature, l)Ut judge that it might be 2.5''' below zero. " On the .Id of November last, 1 dug a pit in the potato-garden to the depth of siven feet, and not tinding any symptoms of frost, considered that further pursuit was uiinecessiry. The weather at tliat time was un- commonly beautit'ul. and unlike the rugged weather which we generally cxperieiiee at this season. " It may not be unworthy of remark, that tht re is a strip of open wa- ter to be seen on the lake all tlie w-inter round, even in the severest Dr Richardson on the Frozen Soil of North America. 121 weatlier, for the distance of iibout three miles in the circuitous course it taiies to Net Point. This is supposed to be the leading channel to the main river, but no current is perceptible ; the open water must tiierefore be caused by the nature of that part of the bed of the lake, for tiie cold at times is sufticiently severe to freez.e every thina; but an actual cascade." No. 6. — Extract of a Letter fro)n chief trader Jacob Corrh/al, Ettq., dated Alhauji, 3d September 18'M. " I beg to inform you, that, in order to ascertain the temperature of the earth at this place, we dug a pit in tlu course of yesterday and this morning, and found the soil thawed at the depth of five feet, and frozen earth three feet seven inches. The soil at the surface six inches deep of black earth, from that and nearly to where the ♦'rozen earth terminates, there was a brownish-coloured clay, so hanl that it was not perceived to be thawed earth, till after it was cut about two inches deep with a nice chisel. A few small pieces of shells were found amongst the blue clay." No. 7. — Extract of a Letter from Mr Chief Factor R. M'Kenzie sen., dated Lsle <'i la Croxsc, l&t .lane 1}{J3(5. " Two pits were dug 15th October last. One at Isle a la Crosse, thirty yards from the lake, to the depth of ten feet, when water began to come up, two feet of gravel and saiul on the top, and eight of hanl clay ground. And one at Green Lake, to the de])th of fifteen feet forty yards from the lake, two feet of pure sand, and thirteen of clay ground, but so hard at the bottom that it was inipracticable to dig it deejter, and no frozen earth to be found. 1 have heard it frerniently said by old servants who have resided here for upwards of thirty years, and who have had oc- casion to dig pits and graves at all seasons of the year, that they never knew the frost to penetrate into the earth more than from two to three feet deep." No. 0. — Extract of a TjCtter from Mr Chief Trader James Ilari/rave, dated York Factor n, I'ith Auyiist 1830. " At this place the digging of a pit to ascertain the principal facts, conun-nced in the beginning of Oetober last. The surface water being then e('m]»letely solid, and any addition to the depth of last summer's thaw being 'lespairi'd of, as the new frost had already penetrated eight inelies into the ground. The spot selected Mas the driest in the vicinity of this factory, perfectly exposed to all elianges of atmosphere throughout the season, ami U|)wards of thirty yards from the bank of the river. The soil is a deep blue tenacious nuid. The periodical thaw was soon dug through, and when accurately measured, was fouiul to lie exactly tliree feet fr«)m the surface-level to the lieginning<»f the ])crni(UU'nt frost. From this point the operation continued for about fotirtcn days, at the entl (»f which time the thawed earth was again reached, the distaiu-e frt»m the surface of the grotind being twenty and li half feel, thus leaving n stru- » 1 122 Dr Riohardson on the Frozen Soil of North America. turn of seventeen and a Iialf feut of perpetual frost. It may, liowever, be material to remark, tliat, on close examination, the total deptli of the ])It was found to approximate very nearly to the height of its mouth above hitrh-water mark in its vicinity, which may lead to a suspicion that the layer of permanent frost mltrht have been thicker had the river bank been higher at the place where the pit was dug. Tlie '' blue mud" above no- ticed was found to extend to the lowest point reached, varied at points from three to five feit asunder by layers of small gravel mixed with solid ice. Each lavcr about from three to five inches thick. Shells, such as are still found about the shores of the stream, ' vcrc discovered imbedded in the mud about twelve feet from the surface in a state of perfect pre- servation ; pieces of drift-wood (willow) were dug cmt .about nine feet dee]), some of them quite fresh. The temperature of the thawed mud immediatily below tlie permanent frost was ascertained by repeated trials to be + fln° on Fahrenheit's scale. " A similar attempt was made last autinnn to ascertain the like facts at Severn outpost ; but, from various jiilvorse circumstances, the residt was not so satisfactory. The first jiit was dug through a loose sandy soil, eleven feet deep, at which ]n)int the permanent frost was reached. The surface-water, however, filled the pit, and tlie jiarty being luiprovided with adequate means to keei> it dry, .'inotlier attcuq)t was made elsewhere. " In this se.'ui.d [lit, the labours were again intrrruptt d by water, after having dug through seven feet of thawed ground without reaching the frost. A tliird attempt was made in a close compact soil of blue mud, abmu twenty yards from the bank (»f Severn river, in which they reached the permanent frost at the depth of h'\ feet from the surface. The labour- ers continued cutting the solid frost to an additional dejtth of 71 feet when the surface-water, together with a snow-storm, put a stop to further pro- ceedings that season. "The postmaster, who superintended the undertaking at Severn, men- tions that, having occasion to cut into the rivt r-bank (which iit that place was above thirty fe< t in perpendicular height), for the ]Mirpose of making n summer (juay, he foiuid the frost extending downwards till it reached the mark of high water, below which the earth ap[)eared (pilte soft ami thawed, as far, in a horizontal direction below the frost, as he eoidd pe- netrate. This eireuinstanee apjte.'irs to coincide with what was observed ut York VaetorVj and to lead to the conclusion that ))ennaiient fmst de- scends to the point where it first meets with the level of water." No. 0.— /?,»7mc///v»).'/ ii Lcftrr from Mr Cliirf-Trmifr Mur'l-rli M'P/iersiiii, ildted VorUuia la T.mhv, 4fh Aiii/nsf MVM>. " A copy of a letter from l>r Hiehardst)n fodovernor IVIly, dated Mel- vilh' llosnital, ".^/ith FebruJiry U'!l/), was Iransiiiitti'd to me, together with instruelious from Qoveinor Siuipson to furnish the information required; but 1 am sorry to inform vou that those instructions did not reach me till lute in December, vvlien tlie ground was so deeply frozen that experiments 1 On the Culllrulion of the Cerralea of North America. 123 of tliis kiinl became altojrcther impmcticablc for the season ; and the pe- riod at wlileh I travelled on the Mackenzie River this sprin^f was too early for the occurrence of recent land-slips or rents in the earth, liy which tlie (juestion nii<>ht have been resolved. I shall, however, avail myself of the close of the summer to obtain the required information." NoAO.—E.rtmrtofa Letter from Mr Chicf-Trwlcr Murdoch M'Thcrmn, dated Fort Simpson, Mncken:zi(> River, 10.37. " I bea- leave to send you the followinsr report of a ])it du^- at this place on the inih of last October (18^(5). The pit Avas made at the distanct- of eiphty yards from the banks of the river, in a heavy soil of sand mixed witii chiy, and in a situation free to the action of the sun during' the sum- mer. The result was 10 feet 7 inches deep of thawed soil, from the sur- face of the i^roiUid to that which is permanently frozen, and G feet 3 inches deep of frozen soil (permanently frozen, as I believe) tietween that which thaws during the siunmer ami that which never freezes." On theCitllirutton of the ( 'enuUa in the Tlitjh Latitudes of Xorth Auieriva. (~'oni[)ris(.'»l in tlie < xtract of a ri"ttt'r from Picteii \V'A!tiii;N Dkask, Ks<|., Cliiof Fat-tor of tli:' llti(l- k';; River to liehrin<^'s Straits) i'lirnishos a further illnstration of the nature of the North American climate, iUid is therefore closely connected with the iirocedin^' ar.d following' articles. " ill rcL'ard to the cultivation of n-raiii on Maekeiizle's River, 1 can only Sny, that altliouLih we had nhvnt in perlretion in I152H from Fort aiix Li'ards (Lat. (10" .V X. ; bung. 122" .'H' W.), that was the only season out of several in wlil h llu'uraiii rijuiu'd ; and the culture of wheal i^ re- itorted to be eipially precarious at Dunveoan, Peace Kiver(I,!i(, .Id'd' X. ; liOiig'. 117" 45' W.). Most ])laees lying near the Uocky Mountains are liable to summer frosts, and 1 observed the saiiu' tliiiiu (luring my resi- rt (iconic (Lat. r.r^.^.')' X. ; Long. 12.'^ W.^ on Frazer's Lake, and at Alexandria (Lat. T\'l' fill' X'. ; Long. 120" A\'.) on l''iazer's River, c(>oil crops of wheat are raisetl. The whole averaiie about four nioiidis in couiiiiij lo iiinliiiity. linrlfii has lireii eiil(i\ated to advantage at Fort aiix Liards, Fori Simp- son (Lat. (i2" II' N. ; Long. ISl" [VI' W .), and Fort Norman (Lat. (!4° 41' N. ; Long. 124' 4-')' NN'.), and generally lakes thnn- months to ripdi. (hitx have eoine to perfection at I'ort aux Liards, and at Fort Simpson, ii i I 124 On the Tempera tu re of the Atmvsphcr at Fort Si/Npson. but have not been sown at Fort Norman yet, tliough no doubt they nii<>lit tlirive as well there as at the two former places, and ri|>cn about a fortnitrht sooner. 1 know of no ve 1 n: 126 0« t/ie Tempera/are of the ^^tnwsphcrc a! Fort Simpson. Abstract of thr Tin niunnffrifnJ Rcr/i.strr kept at Fart Siiiij>»(,a in t/ii' i/< <(rs 1837-38 'Old 1838-39. fMri^is nf tnto .s'/cw .•,■>•/»'- t/rarn.J (Tonjx raturr for Scjttduhcr !ut< riinlatrif m L'ah'idatu(84 — H.XM) — 8.428 18;m-39. Jiimiai-v, . . — 20.85'. — 17.518 —18.129 — 19.493 Felu-uary, — C.857 — l.(;7'.> — 2.08!) — 4 473 March, — 4.401} + 12.G77 + 7.on5 + 1.331 April, + 2:j.-.»3 + 47.218 ;{4.9no 4 29.242 May, f 41.!»'J3 + .'.8.985 - 50.812 4- 48.303 Autumn. [ Sff'ffiiiliiv — \i)Viiubt'r, + 24.1>.VJ + 34.151} + 29.471 + 27.215 "Winter. Ducriiihri- — Ftlruary, — r2.2r.o — 9.317 ! — 9.747 — 11.000 Sprinfi. i Mi a litth' abftv' t 25 A ° V. Abst)'(ii'\« of the Tlormomi'trirnJ Rrt/istcr kc/if at For* Slniimon in 1837 -B, 1838-0, ",!,! 1839 40. prran.^< ofthr.'. s,o-rrs:4,j,' yrnrs.J fSf'h! iiilicr iHt- rpitJatrd In calruhitiiKj thr Mran Autumn Urat.J Months am> Seasons. 1837 38 39. Ortolx'r, NovtMub.>r, l)i'( 1 ;iibi r, ii;3;i 39 40. Jniiuary, February, March, April, May, .M>i\ii ll.'iit in tlic Shade. ; R A. H. 8 p. M. 8 A. M.— 8 P. M. -(- 20.720 + 5.8(!tJ — 9.409 — 14.409 — i2.:iti(; + 0.201 4 22.055 4 44.805 + 25.074 4- !».ICO - 9.032 — 12.505 — 8.553 4- 8.742 4- 29.833 4 51.188 Autinnn. S';,lr,.,l.r'~.S,r~^~Frliri'nni, —12.033 , — 10.t)74 Sprinfj. M,n-rh — Mai>, . • I + 22.291 4 29.915 + 23.200 f 7.517 -- 9.221 — 1.3.457 — 10.429 4- 4.473 4- 25.944 + 47.880 4- 20.200 — 11.054 + 26.103 Tho nioftU toinperaturoof tlicso thrco years, calculutod as iti thoju'ecod- intr tables by usinfi; the summer lieat of 1838, and addin;>:,:' (juarter of a do^reo for the defect of tiie moan of tlie pair of liours 8 and 8 is raliier under i 25,', V. *^