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Les diegrammes suivants illustrent le mAthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 ''''.»"JJ>Bll!#'j **»«ocory RBoiurioN tbt chart (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) !■■ |2£ I» l^H tn. 13. Hi |3j6 IM IB |4£ U •* > ■lUU |2J 1^ 2.0 i^ 'il 111 1.6 APPLIED IIVHGE Inc 16S3 East Main Striat Rochester. N«» York 14609 USA (716) 482-0300 ---^e (716) 288-598S ^-r'* *#■ ^mm^%M99/^t II -<< immmiaitMilmiim I A/OKAyfi'S TW'KSTIKTII-CEXTVHY mXT-IUtOKS TARfv AND McMURRY GEOGRAPh .ES OUR HOME AND ITS SURROUNDINGS A FIRST HOOK OK MODKKN (JKOiiRAI'HV WJTIl COLuHKI, MAPS A.V,. yr.HKKOVs UUSTNATIOSS VIII^F, V I'UOTOUKAI'IIS OF AiTVAL SCESES HEVIHEI) AND mDAFTKI, FOK (CANADIAN SCHOOI^ »v W. C. CAMI'HKLL Ai Tii„B or M..i.»:k.n h. „.,„l o„k,k*hiiv,- KT.^ Authcrited by th, SUmsur „/ J-.tucalion for use ,n th, Pubtif Hchools of Onlano. TORONTO GEORGE X. MORANG & COMPANY, LIMITED Thh hook mu>,tn.th,irnporM into,,.., rirrulaM i„ the Initti Statt»o/A» -im or (irtal Britnin, /I Kniciiil lu nllhtf III Ad "f tlif I'Arlltiiiii'tit nf <'aimila, In ilii' yrur NIh.iiiri MiiiMlml nml Om . Iiy (<»:iiKi.r N. Mokanu aniiIompanv, I.IiiiHihI, lit Ihv l)i'|iurtiiii'iit of Ab'rii'iiltiiri'. l'<>|'.vri|{lit In tho Unlle.,v W:;;. "' "•""^"• Nkikssitv kou II(,MK (Jko<„{VI.my TI, «• I . . ^..I. Mud, of ,..,,,,,, i.^^J^^-.-J^';''-^^ lHM.k« on this Mul,j..ct lanlv ti-..»t FI . / . *''''^' f"r the l,.,er . „,ly of « o^ . f '"'' " ™'"'''""' >-"«'" rtir;ri;":;::;r'-<' -= ^^-^^'^^ •nere definitions ^lil fnV, x ^ . "^ Seogmphy; but T.. «ve™,e ;;i;th!:h':;:;;:::;; t;:rrf'"™^ grade,. The fact that thl S^W^ i" the higher t^at out .eo;:;t;:::i, tL";:u:,::r„r'"""^ '- •--' iv PREFACE \\i)\\' THESE Needs ake met. — In this first volume the iUteiupt is made to supply this t'oumliitioii by treating tirst such conunon things as soil, hills, valleys, products, animal life, people, industries, climate, and government, whioh are part of every child's environment ; and sec- ondly, other features, as mountains, rivers, lakes, and the ocean, which, though absent from many localities, are still necessary as a pre[)uration for later study. Definitions, however, are not relied upon for giving the child this extra knowledge, but detailed descriptions and discus- sions instead. This by no means involves neglect of the child's own environment from the time the unfamiliar matter is introduced, for references to home experiences in this regard are frequently used. We believe that our plan gives a fuller guarantee of fitness for advanced study than has heretofore been furnished. Relationship to Mankind. — According to the deii- nition of geograi)hy, — which treats of tiie relation between man and the earth, — a hill or a lake is worthy of mention only because it bears a relation to us, the men upon the earth ; considered by itself it is not a part of geography. Therefore, each chai)ter which takes up one of the above subjects, either closes with the bearing of the given topic upon mankind, or it deals with the human relationship througiiout. Reviews and SuG«iF;sTioNs for Furthek Home Sti'DV. A study of books alone can never furnish an adequate knowledge of geography. Therefore it has V)een tht)Ught expedient to make numerous suggestions upon each section, in order to remind both teacher and PREFACE y pupil of suitable excursions, expeiimeuts, etc., to show at the same time the l.i-eadth of the subject, aud to encour- age the habit of investigating the home environments Uevievv material is always suggested in frequent compaii- sons and contrasts, and in introducing new topics through others that have already been presented. Maps. — The succeeding volumes of this series are of the same size as the present one ; our reasons for this marked innovatiim are — that the old form is both unne- cessary and unwieldy. The main excuse for the size of the common gei.graphy is the supposed need of larcre maps, a need which should be supplied bv atlas and wril maps. This supposed requirement has led to the intro- duction of so many names, entirely unnecessary to pupils that the purpose of a school book has generally been sac- rificed to that of a cheap atlas. Aside from this, the old form of geography is distinctly objectionable because of Its size, which makes it difficult to handle and to carrv. When open it occupies nearly the entire surface of tlie desk ; and being so unwieldy, it is the most easily dam- aged of all the school books in use. The most pertinent inquiry in regard to the maps of a text-book of geography should refer not to their size, but to tlieir quality; and in respect of excellence we be- lieve that our maps are the best thus far printed in any geography. TLLUSTRATi<»Ns.-The illustrations liave been selected with great care to illustrate speciHc points; and for the sake of accuracy, photographs have in most cases been emi)loyed. They are not inserted merely for the purpose VI PREFACE of entertainment, but in every case bear a distinct rela- tionship to the text. They are not intended as mere pictures, but as iUustrations ; and being numbered and referred to frequently, they pay for tlieir space by con- tributing materially to the book's fund of instruction. This, as well as the other volumes of the series, is based upon and is largely the work of Professor Ralph S. Tarr, B.8., F.G.S.A., Professor of Dynamic Geology and Physi- cal Geography at Cornell University; and Professor Frank M. McMurry, Ph.D., Professor of Theory and Practice of leaching at Teachers' College, Columbia University. TABLE OF CONTENTS SEcrroM I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. vin. IX. X XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. • 'Ihk Soil . HlLI,.S MOIXTAIXS Vali,ky.s . RiVKRS Posits Axi. Lakks . Thk Ocka.n Th.c Aik . Natcuai. Pkoi»i:it.s of 1„k Oik Domkstic Animals Pkoplk I.NnuSTRY ANI. CoMMKKtK (jovkkxmkxt Mai's . KkV.KW QLE8TIOXS AXD Sroc HOMK AXD Our OK Doous P.\ ok N I-"- To 11, «»IMH A MKKICA ■LL-SfKATE THK Mk AXIXG OK .Ma1-i VII FAfixo PAOE . 120 . 1.J7 f hi par/.- 137 . l.'JS !! OIK HOME AND ITS SURROrXDIN GS "J»Jo I. Tin: SOIL y-.'- l"iv|' often played i,, the .li.t. Di.l you ever sto,, to tlnnk wlmt ,t is nv.ul. of/ It w.s not alway.s what U "ow .s. \ou know that the wood in vonr (h-sk was not alvvays a part of the ,lesk ; it nsed to he part of a tree and has a long story to tell about itself before it was >ronght to your school. So all the dirt or .oil that v<... Have ever see. has a long story to tell abont how it l>eca.ne what it^ is now. Let ns see what that story is. W hen nuul dries npon your hands and you rub Lu. tether, you can notiee an unpleasant, gritty feeling. Hus .s caused by the serai,ing together of hai-d bits of .s..n.etlung n. the soil. If v..u rub scuue of this dirt against a smooth piece of glass, you can often hear it scratch the glass. This shows that these little bits must ^ very har.l for if they were not, they could not scratch ■ n tiung so hard as glass. They n.ust be even harder than a p.n. for you ...nnot scratch glass with a pin. It wdl help yon to Hud out what these bits are if you exanune some sand, The grains in it are tiny bits of .stone, large enough to be clearly seen. When they are « 1 ■^ 2 orii HOME AM) ITS srRnorxmxGs I ) iil rubbed iigainst glass, tboy serutih it, bfi-ause tbey are hard aixl sharp. 8and is made of stone that has l>een broken up into very fine pieces. Soil is also made of stone, but the pieces are finer still. The soil that you liave seen, such as that in the school yard, or by the side of the walk, was once stone. Soil has been ttiof/r from stone. Since soil is found silmost everywhere, you may wonder how .so muoli stone has been changed to it. The answer is not hard to find. Did you ever pound a bit of brick up until you made it into dust ? Vou can change a stone to dust in the same way. Break one into small bits and see how !nuch it reseiUbles dirt. Sometimes one sees men aste. When a grindstone is used to sharpen tools, small pieces of the stone are ground off, and if water is poured ui)on it. tliis dust in„Kes the water muddy, just as soil would. Much rock has been changetl to soil by the rubbing of pieces of stone against one anothei-. In this way tiny bits have been worn off, as chalk is worn away when rubbed against the blackboard, or slate [)encils against the slate. Perhaps some of the .soil that you have seen has been made in this manner. Further on you will learn about the glaciers wliicii have caused mucl» of this rubbing. The rirhidlng of roehs togetker has made mach soil. But this is not the only way in which rock has been clianged into soil. Much of it has decayed and fallen to pieces as wood does. You know that, after a long time. ■w ^-2 Fm. 1. A derayinj; Ntunip .,f a tree. THE SOIL .^ ^*« in niucli the same way, although perhaps more shnvly. Hard nails, at first bright and shiny, decay untd they become a soft, yellow rust. Iron pipes and tin pails mst until holes appear in then.. V ou may not have thought that stonp« -i i 'Kv.o. The ,,eaa.„„.i,, „cr;;;!r:^;:L'': ■ , crumbled that the let- ters can scarcely be read, and sometimes the stones '"ive even fallen to pieces. The decay of •stone may also be seen •" old buildings, in boulders, and rock cliflPs. Have y(,n ever noticed this :> Soil has been formed nlso. hi, the demy of TlHiiv are several things tliat help to cause this decay (fig. 2). rsually so.ne of these are so it^J u!)^'." """^^ '" ''""^ «een; but there are many others so dnv t ' , '•' '*'" ''^ '*''"" ^^ w liny that ihey cannot be seen ^u Grand Maiian Island, N B i oint to some of them. oi'H HOME ANii iTA sriiiioryDiyas without a iiiJijj[iiil\iiij{ j{lu«s. Wlu-ii ii riiiiio. the wiiter .steaU into them, and i>y softening and rotting the rock, very slowly cliangeK it to a jiowih-r. The water n>ay alco fi-eeze in these cracks and force the Htone apart. If y<"i Jiave sen- water pitcliers, or iron water pijies, hurHt in cohl weather, you know how this is done. Some of the pieces oi stone broken off in ti>is way are very sniiill, others quite large (Fig. -i). Plants iielp the water in this work. In search of food they push their hair - like r(X)t.H into the cracks, and theiv remain until they grow so larecoine very fine. Watrr finding its may into the crarks causes rock to decay and crumble. Frost assists in this. Plants and earthicorms also hrlp to break it up. Rock cliiinges to .soil most rapidly near tlie surface ; for the rain, roots of plants, and earthworms can reach it more easily there than elsewhere. So the deeper into the earth one goes, tlie less change is found (Fig. 4) ; and, no matter where you live, if you should dig deep enougli. you would come to solid rock. Fi.!. 3. Pieces of rock broken from a cliff by tlie weather. Can you also see tlie cracks in the rock of the cliff? Find some liroken pieces in Figure 'i. THE SOIL Notice the ,«,„ „, ,t, ,^ "l ttoteft .,„; ' "'"' ''"" "" '" "■'• MM"™. Figure 5 8h„w8 ,„il alwut one a.ui „„„.|,„lf feet ,!„„,, Sometimes there i. mud, „,„,.„ „,„„ „,i^ „„,, tlVti; Fui. "i. A picture showing solid rock h.ne,-»th the .„ii. Xo,..- Hlhecraclssiii the rock. 6 OUlt HOME AND ITS SUHHOryDlS'fiS even dijjf deep wbUm without tiiuliii^ rock : but in many places tlicre are only a few inches of soil, or. sotnetimeH, not even enough to hide the rock. One reason for such differeiioeH in the depth of Hoil in that Monie kihiiM of stone decay nioro easily than tithers. Another reason is tliat in some places the rain washes the bits away as fast as the stone crumbles. This nuiy leave the rock quite bare in one place and make the soil very deep in mother. Tfiere is solid rock beneath all soil. How different it wouhl l>e if no rock hatl ever clianged into soil I There could then be no gnifis, flowers, or trees around your home, because they grow by means of the food that they get from the soil. Without grass there could be no cattle, horses, or sheep; in fact, few animals such as are found upon the land could live: for what would they eat? What, then, ccmld you yourself find to eat? There would be no vegetables, no bread, butter, and milk, and no meat. You .see that, if there were no soil, few people (!ould live ; so that the soil under ov: feet is a very valuable substance. Without soil, few ftlants, animals, or people could live- on the Invd. Soil is needed i)v plants l)ecau8e it holds water. They become thirsty as well as you. Where the soil is only a few inches dee[), it may dry out on liot summer days, and then the plants die ; but where it is deep, the roots may reach down several feet till they find damp earth. It is surprising how long the roots of some small plants are (Fig. fi). Voy example, the clover in the picture is less than a foot high, but its roots are longer than you are tall. They reach so fleep down that even in dry weather the clover is green while other plants, with shorter roots, are withered and dry. Some trees push their roots THE SOIL down A greater .li.tai.e.. ..till, (an y„„ a„d out how long the roots of any we«'«l.s ai« '■' The .s(.il Ih.Ms f„o.l, as well as water, for plants. In it w foun.l son.ethin^r w|,id, plants nee«l, and which they take uj) throujfh their roots ; it is V, part of the soil itself, and 18 ealled plant food. Ki .. blade oi ;,Mass and ea h lind* of a tree contains sonie of it; and when a pit'(!e of wood is burned, some of this foo ITS srnHO(r.\hi\ns HIV many kiii.ls o( imk, sucli us niaiiirf, lim^Htoi... mnl NaixUtuiK!; Hiiil wlieii tlicy il.'i'iiy tlii-y iiiiikf M-rs ol pliuitN hav.. niown u|> ami diwl. DiiiiiiK »»>••'>• Krowfli tlit-y UM)k sul.NtiiiKfs from (li.. air. un well ns from the «.i|. and when th.v .lied und de.uye.l they relurned w.me of thew to the noil. TheM. {ihiiit remains liave Urome miiiKled with the soil, making it dark and soiii»«inies ulniost l.la.-k. in some phioes this dark-eolored layer may U- s..v.Mal feet de«j.. as in forests, or in swain|.s. where plants have heen ({rowing and ilecayiiiK f"'" ImndredH of years. This is an exrellent soil for farmiiiK. iKjeauw it contains niiu'li plant fiMxI. Then- arc imtnt/ ifif/rrrnf kiinls of .soil. Soil that has iiiiich plant t'ocid in it is saiil to ho !-i<'h or fertile : if it has litth' it is said to ht- jm., ,r or Hterih-. Thi; phiiit.s are takiiij; away .soiiu' of this food ; they an' leally robbing the soil. lint when weeds and trees fall anut have been obliged to move away to Mml other laniis w here the soil has not lieeii robbed of its plant food. The wise farmer lak s care to put some plant food Lack upon the soil to pay for what lie has taken, so that he may eontinne to jjrow uood crops. That which he puts back iijwn the soil is called a J-rtilizf-r. because it keeps the soil fertile, .'eople in the city often use a fertilizer to feed the jrra«« of th* >• lawn- uid keep it grppn. Fertile si.il maybe robbed of it h food and become sterile. II. IIIIJ.s Thk m.il that has 1m.,.|i foriiu'd Hem .sKmh- has not Ikm-ii left HiiKM.th ami hnel like a H...,,-. Tli.- surfaco v tlu- land is nsnally un.'Ven or rolling' ; an wluc-l. at fii^t siK'ht apiK-a, l.-vel, are really sloping. (I'i«. O. Besides sneh ^M-ntle slopes, there are many Fki 7, A very level plain ; but. as a Mrean. in (lowinK tl.mu^i, „. li.er. n.n.t be sIojk- others steej. enon^rh to allow roasting in winter, and others still that are much too steep for this purpose. In other words, fnfh, some jrn.tly slopin^r, some sfn-p, are tonnd almost everywhere upon the surfaee of the earth (Fig. H). These hills iiave not always been here. Kven the ones you may have seen and climhed have heen slowly made. Let us see what has caused them. When it rains «!ight!y. the water s.,.iks into the ground and disai)pears ; hut when there is a heavy rain, all (.f the !) Hi 10 OUn HOME AND ITS SURHOlfSIHNUS ll- 1 water cannot sink into the soil as rapidly as it falls. Some then begins to How away. One little stream, perhaps hardly an inch wide, begins at one point ; another joins it; quickly several of them unite, and soon a good-sized Fio. «. A picture of a hilly country. The surface of the lalte is level : hut the hills, some steep, others geiitly sloping, are very irregular. brook or creek is formed. Have you not noticed this flowing water in the school yard, in the roads, and on the sides of hills ? But did the water flow off without taking something with it ? Was it not muddy ? This means that soil had become mixed with the water and was being borne away. Every heavy rain bears along much soil, cutting out little channels, washing out roads, and perh.ips even destroying the beds of railways, so that trains must stop running for a time. During such a rain little channels, or valleys, and tiny hilh and ridges are carved in the soil (Fig. 9). No doubt you have seen these formed very many times. If not, you can easily make tliem by pouring water from a sprinkler ujwii a pile of loose dirt. There are many heavy rains every year, and in a life- time their numbei' is very large. During many hundreds of years, then, the water could wa-O) awav an enormous aBE= HILLS 11 amount of soil and rock which the large streams and rivers would carry away to the sea. By this means deep valleys have been formed, leaving hills between them, much as the tiny channels in the school yard are cut in the earth by the rain water. Then, also, some rocks are not so hard as others, and the softer ones, as they break up, are naturally carried away faster than those that are harder. This leaves high ground where the rocks are hardest. Fio. !t. Little hills and valleys cut in the soil by heavy rains. Point to some of them. What a change water must have made in the appear- ance of the surface of the earth I No doubt, in the very beginning there were hills and valleys; but every year, for thousands of years, these have been slowly changing, so that they are now very different from what they were long ago. And after many more years they will be very different from what they now are, for they are changing even now. Mosf hills have been rarrrd out hy runniix^ water. In pvery neighborhood there are hills, althongh thev may not be very high. The picture shows one with a somewhat gentle slope 12 m7/mr«, ti.at ((.uhl n<.t he ejinihe.! (I^ig. lM),an(l one must travel round these to find a place where the slojxj is gentle. This makes the path still longer, so that to climb a moun- tain one mile high it might be necessary to walk ten miles, or even more. If the ail is oohler at the toj) of a hill than at its base, one might expect that it would be very much folder on the top of a high mountain, and this is true (Fig. 12, p. 13). In fact, it grows so much colder near the summit Fio. la. A mountain pret-ipice in the Yoscmite Park, anion-' the Sierra Neva.la Mountains of California \o one couhl iHwsibly climb the face of this steep rock clifT, which is about 40(10 feet high. of the higher mountains that it never rains there, but snows instead; and it may even be so cold that trees can- not grow there (Fig. 20, p. 22). It is a long di^tartce to the top of a high mountain, and the air is cold there. JO orn iioMK A v„ ,,s srnuoi \hi\,:s xerlan.l ; I... .h.l.. ,l..,v ..„joy di.nl.inu t on the si.U.. «„.| I.H.k- • K at tl... U.H,.titul vi«w.H. v..,-v t..w ever .va.-l, tl.« MUM,„it of the luKhH,. ,.ak.. Mont .,Ian.. r .he U.t know,, of these, a .1 Z^HW)'"""^ """"«'" ^''•""-"--'^i.--.-.view.o: It is very .lirtienU. and even son.ewhat .lanKerous, to clJn.l. to th« Hu-nnnt of h.s n.onnta.n. VVh.n a jH-rson winhes to do «.. he munt employ gn.des to help hitn over th« diffin.lt phiws. The round trip usually takes two nij-hts and thr-se days: as there .H no place to obtain food high up on the n.ountain side, (i is necessar^ o carry .t. Overcoats and blankets are also necessary; for even hough the journey \^ ,„ade in the hottest sumn.er weather, it will In, bitterly cold uikju tlie mountain top. Suppose that we are nuiking such a journey. We start early in the morning so as to have a long day. Each of us carries a few light ^ ..,, article.s, but the guides and porter carry most, for they are strong and used to climbing. At first we walk iilong a pleasant path in a Iwautiful wood. A house is occasionally jiassed (Fig. 20, G), and l)erhaps a green field. Hut soon there are A picture of the timber line ,.„ the snowy sK.pes of 7^^'^ Jouses a,„, the mountains in Yukon Territory look i n^Tist- f^'' """^ '^" ^""^^ ward from the east side of the Yukon River. become smaller and ,. ... smaller, until the line .8 rei^hed above which it is so cold that no trees can gi-ow. This IS called the tree line or timher line (Fig. 10). From this ,H.i„t on, no plants larger than bushes are seen, and after a while even the.se .Hsappear. Me.anwhilc the soil and the grass have become ...ore scarce, while here a..d there banks of snow are found in MoiyTAixs 21 he HhaHy hollows S^k,,. we hav„ din.lHMl to th« .,o,r li,... This is I.. I.ne aU.VH wh.eh m.ow i. fo.„,.l all th. y.-a. r Xo, , .. .natter ... what .|.,.c.tio.. ... I.k.K. ....-k ,u.,| ...ow a.e ev...ywh..,. ti. »ee„, the latter ofte.. Wu^k \n,u.lv.,U ni i.H ,. (Fi. •,. ,.') work He l.n.k dow„ „,„,„ ,|.„ „,,mI. tlno,.Kl. which w. hau- h.st puHml; the., over ..eyo.,.| tl....... t„ th,- .lee,, vallevs, svi.h rlM- u. fleld«. p.-ett.v ho...eK, a...l villages fa.- U-low ..s; a.-.l. U-yo ,', ; to the other Hteep ,..o.,..tai..,s ..,k,., the o,.,K,site .i.le of the vallev ' rhe j;,...|e takes his place i„ f,,,,., of .,s. a...l ofte,, tells .,s In sto,. wh. le he g..s ahe,ui to exa...i.,e the way. It ,..ay 1. that the s. w has hr.,|,,e,l ove.- a.,.l hi.l.le.. a deep u..d ..a.row el.as.„, so that uZ we.e t<. step up.., this s.iow he .„i,rht fall th.-..,.Kh &«n.et.,..es the guides lift o..e of us over a da..«e,ous place ; a..d. wl .t .s steep or sl.pp^My. fasteu all the ..,e..,lH.,s of the pa, y to«et I w.th .-opes K.,. 20 K), s.. that if o.,e falls, the other .,lav lohU, As we advauce h.gher a.,.l hiKhe.-. it is of.eu ..ecessan' to take a na.Tow path o,. the steep side of the „.o,.,.tai.,. („. the right ;. cau ook hu..d.eds of feet al..,ost .ii.ec,|y dowuwa.d ; on the 1 ft ' e grea ntces a,.d .....sses of suow al.„..st directly overhea.l rhe 8,.ow 8on,eti...es falls. for...i„K m.,ow slides or arolan,/,.. ttt ": "'• 'r*''"""^- '"''->■ ^•"•"" ^-"'s 'i'- 1» e shits ; h n.ou,.ta.,.. w.th a .e.-rible .-o.-.r. h....yi,., whole villages l,e„eatl them. You have see., n.e sa,..e tl.iug. ..u a ...uch s.ualler scale, whe.. S..OW has sl.,1 fro... the .■.K,fs of house, o., warn, wh.ter days After o.,e night .spent i.. a little ho..se about halfwa^ up the .ountan. s.,Ka.Kl after ...uch hard wo.k on the .,ext day,' we .-ea h the su„..„.t (F.g. 20, A). Here. i,. spite of our w.aps.'^e a e a whLT'"' for upo.. high ...„u..tai,. su,.....its the.-e ar^ fierce w,. wh.ch seem to go through eve., the thickest cloth On this barre.. ..,o„.,tain top there are ..o birds, .,o trees, no gra.ss • . oth,..g b..t snow a..•• '" Alberta. N.H. Territory. Kntrance to the Van WinkI,. MarRoUl n.in.., near l.ytt..,, H< . Here men are .liRKinK ^old ore deen in the '"■'' ""/""- ".-nnta.M «!,|.,. The ,.r.- is I.n.a-I.l tu the s.ufa.-.- a.ei ^ntit .stninuer c rushed, so that the purtieles of gold can be extracted. rcsofts • Moutihtins are al., f,„„„| ,|,„;. ^vvTe „ lit, ■' """V"""'' "■- -" k".." then,. Hu, the , an,l v'"'fr' """■''"• "'"' ■'"■'™'- '="""' """ vo" have »een, an.l even the iron part., „f your sehool desks ,nav I'ave con,e fr„n, th,. rocks of so.ne n.onntain (Kir^-V The tree, i„ the mountain tore.,, »„ also vilnabfc Tl, ' , MorsTAiys 26 The land upon a .nonntain side is usually too steep and rockv for arn.s. Hut even .here farms are not possible, trel ofte" ' ^v^ hnely, cover.ng the n.ountain for n.iles and n.iles with .lense uLu rius .s an advantage ^,.r the trees n.ay he cut down and sawn into mnber, fron. whv' .- ,,,„s ..f woo.ien articles are n.ade. IW v the very seat u. v ..eh yon a,v .uing was once a part of a tree thai grew on tiie side .'-. .t luouiitaia. Mountains are .^ f ;.,,!,. ■ ,.,. ,„e„.,« of the abundance of water that they supply. ^U have an.-ady seen that there is ,nuch ice aZ Via. -M. The forests o„ the sides of the White Mountains. The large buildinKs are the hotels of a suuniier resort. snow upon some of thetn; in fact, there is so nnch uj.on the higlier ones that it can never all melt away, no matter how hot the summer may be. During hot weather many streams drv up ; but at such times the >ce and snow of the mountains only melt the faster, so that the streams which flow fort I. from these mountains are even more swollen than usual. This water may run along for many miles until it finally reaches towns and cities where people need it to drink. Do you know of any city that gets its drinking water from fmch ,t riv^-r? Mountains furnish metals, lumber, and water. \ IV. VALLEYS We have seen liow water is always wasliinjf away soil, niakiiifr lulls and changing their appearance. Wherever hills are found there are always low i)laces or hollows, and these are called valleys. Some very small valleys you have al- ready seen in Figure 9. They are only a few inches wide, and . , the tiny hills or ndges between them are only a few inches high." Kvery stream of water, whether great or small, when flowing ) you see several val- leys. Rain falls into each of these, some of it sink- ing into the soil and some ruiuiiug off down the slopes. Into which valley will the water How that falls on the top of the ridge '! When it rains upon the roof of a house (Fig. 27), the water is divided along the highest part, some flowing down one side, some down the other. A similar thing happens when water falls on the land. Because the water Km. 'J). 'I'lie dotted lines show tlip divides be- t\yeen tlio valleys. Trace them Wliat else do y is ealled a duude or water-parting, or sometimes a watershed. The (h)tted lines in the i)ictuie (Fig. 2«i) show some divides. I low irregular the lines are I A divide some- times stands out sharply, as on the roof o^ a house ; but in many places it is difficult lo find, for the land there may appear to be Fi(i. 27. A house roof, to show that the water is divided along the highest point. flat. Can you point out such a place in Figure 2(5 ? If you wish to know how wide one of these ralley.s is. where would you heffiu to measure? Would it not l)e from the divide on one side to the divide directly across on the othe. side? Of course it would, for the divides form tlie liouiidaries of the vailey (Fis. L^S). t4 divide nr rrnter- shrd ifi fhr hi^hesf 0'oiijid sejmrafimj tn-o valleys. r^\- r^~^-tT ^a^^^^CIs:* ' ^:^i0i7^ Fi.i. 2S. Tho lin.. \-H shows the width of this val- ley. Ol.scrvc that the vall.>y is much wider than the stream. VALLKr.S 20 While tlic vallevs that one usually sees arc hotli narrow and sluirt, IIilmv are some so lou"- iiM.s tlu.refore c-alk.! a j,/a{n. Uui wlu-n rain talis Hhmv, it ;-.-l-tel,- ih,ws touanl the nv.r. thus proving, that 1 e plain Ks a part of the great Mississippi N-Jley slopes. water 'v "7'"^ ''"/' "'" ""' ^"^ "^'^ '^V -'"»i"S vat . ^ ou l.ave learned that hills are n.ade in that wa>' bu hat nxonntau. are forn..! hy the rising of great n.asses of lock Son.e of the great valleys, like the Mississippi, u ve also been nja.le by changes in the level of the Ian Hut e^en the valleys that have been fonnecl in this .vay i;;;::rz:!^ht:r"^^' '''"'-' '^ ^^- --'■ ^^- Fio. ;«). - valley sliced thronj,!. to ill„s,n.... Low valleys may be formed by the folding of the rock l;iyet«. People generally choose the valleys for their lion.es. J'^ven among high mountains, where it is impossible to live on th<' steep an.l c.l.l si.les, they often dwell in the bottom of the valleys. Here they are surroun.led by lofty peaks Avhich appear to shut them in almost entirely^Fi-r. ?A) I nils are often too cool or too steep, or haVe too shallow a so,! for farming. The rains have washed the earth down the steep slopes into the lower part of the valleys, making a deep and fertile soil there. In the vallevs, therefore rAI.LEVS 31 tl.e host farms are found, with tlu-ir ITS sriiiwirxniyGs Most of tl.e land is really n.u.le m. of slopes, and we are hvu.g upon then.. It nmy not seen, tha yourhol upon^a lalltop, and yet you .uay he li^iu, i/, ^^^ Fig. .ii. A ditch dug to drain a swamp. ra.„ w„,.M »ta„d too ,o„, „p.,„ u/;:::i.^"Bu 'r:: there are slopes, down wl.ieh the water ca„ run hZTZ qmckly flows off „„d does not drown the crops r„fa'ke the region unhealthy (or man and animak. VALLEYS 33 The great niiportaiice of tl.is matter is shown when farmers buv land. One of the Hrnt things that they inquire al,„ut is dr.unaoe that IS the sluiHJs which allow the water to run off (juickly. If the water does not How freely away, they even dig channels in order lo carry it off. Sometimes these are left oj^.n, ,us in the picture (Hg. ;l:<), aiul they are then called ,iiir/,.s; l.ut, more often, when the channels are small, tiles are placed in the bottom, forming a kind of pipe, and then the earth is thrown hack again. Such channels are known as 77. s srnnoryn,sas lower purts, m-ar tlu- stieuiiKs tl... I ,..,1 ; '•-'t their roa.Is in .1 ^.,"^r' ""I''''''''''^' *''«>' '"•" rally small at their heginning or gfinn-e. Some of the largest have their sources far up in the mountains, where they are so small that a person may easily step aeross them. 37 Km.. ..; A noisy irioiiiitaiii brook, imnliliiij; rockv licil over Its ^'A-^: JS^ 88 or/.' IIOMt: AM) ITS SL'lHiOiyDI.XGS 'I'liu water of these rivers may come frf)m the melting snows ; and as it dashes along, ' heating itself into foam by striking against the rocks, it is joineil by other streams like itself. Often the water must rush round or leap over large boulders which lie in its path ; and often it falls directly downward for many feet with a great roar (Fig. 47). fijTfff rivers at their snuree (irr usually no larger than a brook. The water of a mountain stream seems to be quite help- less, with the great hard rocks all about it ; but it never gives up its struggle with them. Rocky cliflFs may reach far up into the sky on each side, and the slopes may be so steep that loose pieces of stone often fall into the watirr. Hut the torrent dashes these against one another, and grinds them against its rocky bed, until they are worn into pebbles. These pebbles are borne down stream and are slowly ground up into grains of sand, or even finer still so as to form day. Copyrighlcd, \m\ l>j- S. R Stoddard Fi(i. ;w. A iiiDiiiitain torrt'tit Iciipinj; over the ledges in rapiils and water- falls. Point to one of the falls. Find others in the otlier pietiires of the book. lilVHIis m If we should travel down siuli a stream, startiii^r near its source among the wild mountains, we should find it constantly clianging. In the first place, it gradually grows larger, because other streams, called branches or tributaries, enter it (Fig. 39). The banks become lower and the river grows broader and deeper. In phices there may still be rapids and falls, but the country on botli sides is not so steep and rocky as it was among the mountains. Now, Fir.. ;«t. Two streams, the Allegheny and Mononsaliela, uniting to form the Ohio River. houses, farms, and men are seen, and pasture land and fields of grain are on the banks (Fig. 40). At first, the slope of the stream bed was so great that the river hurried along faster than you could run. Now the water no longer flows rapidly enough to drag boulders or even pebbles; but it can still carry the sand and mud brought by tl-e rain from tlie soil of the hillsides. It has now been man\ ciavs since this water left the 40 Ol'K HOME AND ITS svhhoundixgs Fia. 40. The St. Francis River in Quebec, flowing through a splendid farming country. mountains. The river has become so wide that a long bridge is needed to cross it (Fig. 41), and so deep that f .srmi^- ^^:.. =-_-^ - ^' -^ .. ' ^^^j.4.^^gg^- „ -., ^g, ^^^ one cannot touch its bed even with a long pole. At last, per- haps weeks after it start- ed, the water approaches the ocean ; and now the downward Fiu. 41. The Victoria Jubilee Bridge across the St. Lawreu.-e River at Montreal. Notice how small the train of cars appears on it. This will show how long it is RIVERS 41 I Slope of the river bed in so gentle that the current cannot drag even grains of sand ; but it still carries line bits of rock-mud with it. These bits, or particles, n.ay be so tuiy that if y„u were to place some of the muddy water in a glass, it would take h.,urs for all of them to settle and leave the water clear. When the i-iver enters the quiet waters of the ocean, even this mud, or silt settles. We have followed the river from the source to the mouth where it empties its waters into the great ocean At first It was a little stream, but by tho addition of water from many tributaries it has grown larger and larger, until at Its mouth it may be miles in width. A great river is broad and deep at its mouth, and ZliT7 '' ""'l- *'^"'' *^* '^ ^«'"-''^*' fi^^ particles which form a sediment even to tJie ocean. We have been considering a large river that had its source in the mountains ; but others are much smaller, and n.any do not start in the mountains Some empty their water into other rivers, being tributaries, and others enter lakes rather than the sea. They mav also have low, '^ ^ soft banks in- stead of high, rocky ones, and there may be no rapids and falls. But no matter where their sources and mouths may be, or what other dif- ferences may ex- ist, they are, in many ways, much . . . , , , * "*' ^"' like this river. \^^^1 '"""'it '"^ '*''''■'' ''^ '^"'"^ "'*'' ^'"''^ «»'"' the rain falls or the si.„w melts, but is often dry in summer I J 42 en if son.e n.uddy water is allowed to stand in a glass for a time. Try it. F[f;. 4.'{. ^""""K' "' •■*,"/«''• rt"<'d on the Or.»„l River, at BnmtfoM. Ont., which Las covered the railway tracks. Tell what you see in this pictur^. In much the same way. when there is a river flood (Fig. 43) the M-ater sprea,ls out on both sides of the river in a great, thin sheet, flow- "'S slowly along and depositing a thin layer of mu """» '-''» to ""= form t,v 7 """"»'' '^''™»"' i" deposited to unti, it h.„,ue! hi^ihtl-rtolrdrl-Zr '•~^' call nit'TKi" % '"T "?'-■- /"™ -■"" - ««» (rig. 4&). Many streams have such wide lilVKltS 4r> I .A < » *>,.-. ^ deltas that one cannot see across then,, most of what Ins formed the sedin.ent having con.e fron. fiehls. Id s a nd monntams perhaps hnndreds of n.iles away. The sur face of the delta ^ me sui- is a plain, because it cannot be built any higher than the floods themselves have reached. From year to year more sediment is deposited, and the land is built farther and farther into the water, so that deltas are constantly grow- ing. The slope of canno1Tow'^'' "'"'"^ '^ ^'''''' '''^' ^'^ ^^^ -«ter enters th7 .1" " T^'' ^^•'""^^- ^^^"^ ^^^^ ^«-- ^t into^eXn^^^^^^^ ''''"'' ^'™^' ^""^"^ ''- ''^'^ ^2r«;Lt ^^T' '''''''-' *^ ^^'^ ^-- of iZZ^T'TV!':^ r..yr,cei.. water brought by hundreds oi tributaries. Thus the rain that falls in places even hundreds of nubs apart may at last be brought together in a single main trtm (Fig. 46) For instance, we speak of the St. Lawrence River system meaning the St Lawrence, Great Lakes, and their tributaHe" ' ' a rZtr rl "'"J,^«,'^'-'^'-^ ^y ^ -n^'e -ain stream is called in luded n the St'l '"f '''''"' '^ *'« «'• "^^^^'^^^ ^-er is inciuaed m the St. Lawrence basin. wash basui. has a rim extending all around it. The rim of a river Fio. 45. This picture shows a river delta. What else do you see iu the picture ? 40 ont iioMK ASh ITS sinitor\i,ix(;s II basin is tlie dividt Fui. 46. Picture of n river system and river basin. Pdint to some of the tributaries; to their source ; to the mouth ; to the delta. but fluM.. is no divi.le, or ri.n. near the mouth of ••I liver, since the water runs out into tlie sea. If it were a true basin, with a run all around it, the water would collect and form a lake. .:/// the land thr waters of which are drained hij a nin^le river is called a river lasin, and all these streams togetlwr form a river system. Some ways have ;»lready been mentioned in which rivers are of much use. They build flood- plains and deltas, thus making some of the most fertile lan' people and animals depend on rivers for all the water they use. Even whole cit.es obtain their drinking water solely from rivers. Streams not only bring water where it is needed, but they also carry it away when it is not wanted. A river IS really a great ditch for draining the land, so that when- niiKiis f a ever tlu, .snow ...Hts rupi.lly, u, u Uv.ivy .ai,. |hI|.s. tlu- nver.s ,,mckly remove the water. They also v.awy uff the filthy wilier, or sewu^re, of inunv towns and cities. lirvrrs snp,,f,f water wher.- iieeih',{. nn,l rnnnrr it whrn not irnnfn/. The water of rivers is als.. use.l for tinning' wheels to lu'lp in the makin^^ of nmny artieh-s, siuh as .loth an.l Honr. Vou have i)erhai)s noticed how win.hnills work ( Ki.' <5H). The ,mi,f hh.ws the lar^re wheel round and ronnd* Via. 47. Niagara Falls, the greatest waterfall in the worl.l. !.«» f..,t high fro,,, uhi.-l- many streams are .Irawn to drive wheels on bo,!. .M-. of tl^' ri e" T ese are of great jn.wer, an.l must be en.Iose.1 in v.. ih in.'s an «n are out of sight. J'oings, and so and it is so connected with other wheel, that it can pump water, or grind corn, or turn a saw for sawing wood. Likewise steam is used to turn the wheels of a rail way enguie, so that it drags the heavy cars along. River water is made to do work in much the same man- ner. Where there is a swift current, or where there are falls, as the Niagara Falls (Fig. 47), it is often easy to run some of the water off to one side through a canal or 48 oirR noMK AM) ITS sirimorM)i.\ns h pipe. he WHter, moag rapidly »l„„g, strikes « whed (big. 102) and umkcH it whirl round. This wheel, lieinir cnnected with others, cuuHen then, to turn ulso, „uich ,^ one wheel in u clock causes another to revolve. Thus machinery is set in motion by which logs are sawed into lumber, grain is ground into flour, cotton is made into cloth, ami many other kinds of work are done 1 he water that furnishes the power to turn the wheels IS called the water-power, and the buildings in which such manufacturing is carried on are callad factories or milh In many places the river water does not flow fast enough to strike a wheel with much force ; water-power is found mainly in rivers with swift currents, and especially near rapids and falls. Here mills have been built, and then cities have sprung up (Fig. 105, p. HI;. Rivers also supply water-power for manufacturing. There is still another way in which rivers are extremely valuable. It has always been difficult to find a convenient means for carrying goods from one place to another. In some places there are no roads ; and even where there are they are often hilly, rough, and muddy. Yet most of the articles that we use every day, likes ir flour oil, meat, coal, lumber, and clothing, have bee • ear- ned long distances, sometimes thousands of miles, iilven If the roads were excellent, it would take a great deal of time, and cost much money, to bring these things in waggons. To carry them by railway takes less time, but is expensive. A broad, deep river, or a laKe, which is a river dammed up (p. 51), IS really one of the finest roads in the world, lo be sure no wagi,_n8 or cars can be drawn over it, but RJVKliS 48 boatH ,„ov. there with eane. A river or l.k.. 1 . carry hh n.uch u« «eore. of wag,,o„s .r , „" /k J 4^ ""J "•Huy may be going and co,„i„g ,t tl e .^,1 th n ^' T " large river or hike is equal to Jve ll ! '' "' ^''"^ little, t<.o, to keep it i„ rl^'" "'""' '""^^'^>''* '• '^ eoHt« Flo. 48. On Lake Huron. A steamer -."y .»«.«,. ..„^. „. ,.,...:« ;,S3 ;^s^ziLL':;z.:i"" called canah, have bppn out ,\, *i •■ Before the railways were hiiilf «4 . • agoth.„ when ,o„/,. JL,!:: 'w7ret: '%;:.'"'■«" used for carrvinrr 0I1 * i- . -^ ' — ''"^*'' ^^ere Even LI Znlr "'■'""''' '■'""' "'"™ '" I'l"^"- ducts on Zl tha„t ■""■ T^' '""'" ""'' <"'- P™' We see th!L T "' """^ ""'^ '" ""»" «'""«• we see, then, why many people have preferre.l to huild >0 (Hi: in,\ir ,\m, //•> si lutni xnisti^ tlu'ir lioin<>s n..ai- n\ tm. A faniH-i- pivfi-is to liv.. near n K T 17'' ^''"''^'" ^''■^''* of the Dead Sea and the Great Sah Tl ^'t?'''^^"" ^'^'' ^'^^^ lakes of this kind, and no one wltf . I !. ^'"''- '^''^'^ ^'"^ ^^'^ dying of thirst. '""^""''^'^""'^ *»'«"■ ^ater, even if he were But why do such lakes become salt? TJ,o..„ ■ even in that which we drink alTl. ^ '■' '""" ■■"*'* "' ''" ^•*t«''. When water flows into a flk Th tlT ""'f "'^ '" "'^^ ""*^^« •'' "o outlet, the salt can go nffai „T "T!,' "'"^ '' '' '""'^^ '« f 54 orii HOME AND rrs sruuorNoiJVGs that along the margin of u htke is called the «;..... ,„ .is*/ V ^rvp-^^^'" ,*P^r| J'lO. 51. A sandy beach on a Jak.. shore. Z ','! wtth" '"'"' t" ■""^' ''" ■'"' •"»' -'• «»■• ove,- then, bj^the waves. TbU ki„,l „f ,h„.-„ i, called a S«L Man.v lake .,!,„„» are regular, but many more are hveg. ■ • n s„„,e paces points of |„n,l. ealb-,! /,.„*„„*, et /^ «' o, <•„/„..,.. ,f Uvg,, ,,e,nn,uJa,. A „arrow neck of . . J" ..n|f ,wo larscr |,ie,,.., is an ,Vrt,„,„. Dodie, o lau. e„ ,,,,, snrronnded by water are known a., i.,,.„^ is ,. 1 c " 'I ;" l""'^-"'"" i" ''-'"-ee,, two l,ea,nan.l« «ea,l., surrounded by lan.i Ibat vessel, ean enter it and PONDS AM) LAKES Fnj. 62. A «,w „„ M„«,e., ^,„ ,,.„ „,.. ^^^.^ ,,, ,,^^ ^^^^^^^ __^^^^^ be protected from tht^ xi,.;,.j i Fi..„ «„.! h. this „ soii.u also on Fig. (ii). . ' I'lcturc •/ Kind 66 OUR HOME AND ITS SURROUNDiyGS When the water gathers l)ehiiKl a natural barrier or dam to form a lake, it enters many valleys, forming bays and barters, with capes and perhaps islands between. This is the chief reason for the irregular shores of many lakes. If you will make a little valley in clay, with two or three tributaries entering, then put a dam acro.ss it and fill it with water, you will aw jtist how this is done. The .sJiores of lakes are often irregular, producing bodies of land and water of many shapes. Ponds luul lakes are useful in many of the same ways as rivers are. They help to keep the ground moist ; they furnish water to cities, and they supply water to turn the wheels of factories. Besides this, many valuable fish are caught in lakes, and much ice is cut from their surface. Again, like rivers, lakes are important waterways (p. 48). Upon large lakes, like ,the Great Lakes, hundreds of ves- sels are going and coiaing, carrying men, grain, coal, lum- ber, and countless other things. On this account many peoi)le have settled on the shores of large lakes ; and, as a result, many towns and cities have been built there. Can you tell of any ? The shores of lakes are often very Iwautiful, and many persons go to them in summer to hunt, fisli, and canoe. There are hotels there, too (Fig. 52), and some lakes are im- iwrtant summer resorts. Lakes sup- ply drinking water, water- jiower, fish, and ice. TJiey lire (II so useful for navigation tui. .->4. and for suin- A picture to show how deep a vessel sinks in the water, nier resorts. PONDS AND LAKES 57 How are vessels loaded with troo.ls' \,„J ..„ • 1 can t„e. cargo. „„ „,„„,.uea . ^vt«„,,»:: .t:,'. :! be» d„ a ™hvay car, and be ftlle.I „,. e„,,„i„i ™ Jik." S f !,-^', '' " ""'"" ""■"■ 'I'"' »I'»W. it ,„i,r|,t Strike tl.e bottom ami be wrecked. " Fig. .W. "";;rc:'vetei!;"e»- ,»r::f;;;:"„, "■■•;", "■• """■" «■"--• "-«-"> wh„v.., „„.„ „„;„ .u.r„:'',i"."S';.:'/Ci;, sl,:'"*""" ""•• smantr"''','"'," "'"'.'I'"'' ^'""ff "-^ ^'"•"'- "-ere are sm,al, iMys or barbors with deei, water. The oneni,,^ i, (Fig i-i) ™ "■"■'='• "•"■' ''"' ''»™ "^ «■"* *«'■«»'• From the shores of the harbor men build piers of wood or «o«e, called rfa„„. These reach into the delf^ 58 OVn HOME AM) ITS Sl'HROUNDimiS ! ' ii I ( Welter, where ships may be fastened or moored to them. Watriroiis t^an be driven on to the wliarves, so that this forms a convenient and safe place for loading and nnload- ing vessels. Such a harbor often determines the situation of a city. Large citien are sometimes found on parts of a lake shore where there are no such natural harbors. In that case harbors have to be made, even though it is expen- sive to do so. Walls of rock, or rows of posts driven deep into the ground, are built in such a way as nearly to enclose a body of water, very much as capes enclose the water of a natural harbor. Such a wall is called a hrenkicnter (Fig. 5«5), because it breaks the force of the waves, and prevents them from entering the space within. When a harbor is not «leep enough for vessels to enter, it is nece.s- sary to dig out, or dredge, as it is called, the dirt and rock from the bottom. This has often to be done in the inlet and outlet streams of a lake. Harbors are places ivhere resseJs find safety from stnrtns arul where cargoes are loaded and unloaded, with ease. A view of Southampton Harbor, on Lake Huron, showing a breakwater built in a place where the coast has no natural harbor. VIl. TIIK OCKAN The great rivers, startinij as tinv hr l '^•^er a,ul .till U.^er streams "^ ^t^'Z "'" liaps weeks, thev mingle tlioi,-\v.rf ''/^'V ^ '""' i^^'"" finally reaches the L! tlS w'" '"..^'T -^^"^'^'ooa ah.ng upon it in a liHit \uZ ?• ' ^"" •""^'^ "«at i light boat, 1,. tune you too w(,„ia reach A View of the great ocean. NoticP »h« c •,• »"■ i^ouce the sai ine vesspl in fi.„ j- . right-han.1 side ""* ^"ta"''" "" the Wp Pnn ""ousting facts about it? the .a.;::; r aT;„:";::':";::; ::' - -" -- -- Oue could sail unon U ' ' '''■^^'" '"^ ^'"^^ ^^^ger. 50 OUR UOME AND ITS SUltHOUN DINGS 11 11 in which direction you might travel, if you went far enough you would come to it. If you were to set out to reacli the ocean, the journey might hist many days. It might be necessary to go up hills and across valleys, to pass around lakes, and possibly over great ranges of mountains. You wouUl be surprised to find how much land there is, .ind how many farms, villages, towns, and cities there are. But there is far more water than land. In fact, tlie water covers about three-fourths of the earth's surface and the land only one-fourth. If one were to travel entirely around the earth, he would probably spend much more than one-half of his time upon the ocean. The ocean is so immense that the great rivers in all parts of the earth pour their water into it. Their mouths may l>e tliousands of miles apart, yet the sea stretches far enough to reach thenj all. The water of the ocean is too salt to drink; but river water is fresh. Since there are many thousands of rivers entering the sea, would you not expect that their water would make the ocean less salt? It does do so near the mouths of great rivers ; but soon it becomes mixed and swallowed up in the salt water. This is another way of showing the size of the ocean, for all the river water that enters it is not enough to make it fresh. The salt water of t}ie ocean surroutidfi all the land. Different parts of the ocean have different names. For instance, the Atlantic Ocean is the part lying between Canada and Europe, where the British, French. German, and other peoples live. We buy many articles from these countries, such as woollen cloth, knives, silks, and carpets ; and they likewise purchase other articles from us, such as wheat, timber, meat, and dairy products. The wav to reach these people is to cross the .\tlantic Ocean. Ti, ' fastest steamers need live or six tluys for the voyage. if TIIR nCKAS 61 and n..u.3 other tliingn. Alth..uirl, tl..Mv Ir . '"achines, w so large tl.at one «hin ,^^1. I ""'''''^' '''"l''^' ^''« •'«««" another. ^ "^ "'"' *"'' """'^- '^"P wi^'out ...eeting »^l are Iar«er ,:,„„ the ve^els .,„„„ |,.ke,, „„j 2;*,!;: Fk;. 58. » »a> cars. See how small the men appear. deeper Into the water rFicr ^8>, v i -M. ^„ ..., „,.'., iiSJ-i'-.x:;; -" 62 OUR HOME ANU ITS Sl'Rl{(H'MHSas (Fij?. «;0). We Juiv.' l.anuMl (pp. IH and 3U) that the lund in plaws ha« been raised or lowered. When it is » Fio. 5!». Ocean waves during a Htorm. lowered near the seacoast, the water enters the valleys and partly covers the land, as it does in lakes (p. 5tJ). This of course makes an irregular coast. Naturally, on such an irregular coast there are harbors Fio. 60. A picture of Bras d'or I^ke on the Island of Cape Breton. Here the land has been lowered so that the salt water of the ocean has entered the valleys. covering their bott.jmfl, but leaving the hilltops as islands, capes, etc. ' Tiih: ni'KAx «{3 2 f wlnVI. larpo veHHols tM.tor, iu„l i„ ,v.|,i,.|, tl.ov uro f r Htoims. For ex., ....I., if ,.,',' ^"•'> '"^« •'«»ft' fr,,,,, time,. „i.l.„Moa,li„;:. ,,1, ■>,;'• '"'""' '" " "' '"' for »ton„, to ,««. "'""""'"K "'«"■ >'wg"<^«. ".■ waiting- couv.r. i„ „H,,.,, c„h,„"'r.,,,r';i: '";,"''■" '''''■'^'•■' *•"'• "prinK up whZ tt ! ™[ """ '"■■^'' "'"o' ^''""I'l ^^jp^ ♦J4 or,.- ,loMK A\h ITS srHHfH\Dim;s VoMseb ro„M. ,.w«r.l tU... ,.„,,„„ fron, ull p.,r.s of the world; but .1 ,« ofU.,, .|„|i,,.l. iM ,el| j„«, ,v|,,„. ,„..,„^r tl... hurlHT. ..H,«ciallv at niKht. M.ips ar,. ... ..u,,^,..- of «.,!„« o«. of tl... right way. a„d Jf Fia. »R». A veiwl wre.ke^te the visitors; a..d t the ,««.,«e. resoru during the wbter '""^ ^"''' ^^^^'^ '•'^'"»"' ^t CAi <>/■« iroMK A.\n ITS srRRouxnrxas There is unothc-r way in which tlie oieun is even more usefnl to man. It is the sea-water uliieh supplies us with moisture, so that there can be rain. If it were not for the great ocean, very little rain would fall. Thus every one is deeply indebted to the ocean, even though he may live thousands of miles from it. You will learn soon (p. 71) how Its water reaches us in the form of rain. The seaH}wre Is a ,mpular suinuier resort; tlie ocean water supftUes footl and makes rain possible. Rivers, lakes, a.ul the ocean pre.sent ,na..y Imautiful views You may have ohserve.l that in cities, where jn^ople plan fine parks, they arranRe, if ixvwible, to have a lake or stream as part of the scenery. A body of water, even if l)ut a brook, greatly im- proves a view. A brook is a beau- tiful object (Fig. 6.'»). How pleasant to see it« green banks, to listen to its rippling waters, ' '\ to watch its tiny apids, whirlpools, and Fuj. (». A pretty bro<>k in Kosedale Park. Toronto. falls, as it travels on- ward to the ocean ! :";:!^;:;vi^r 'r\^"^^^ -Hingwaters"rt;::iu:to:;: sTol^bv Z? 7" ' '^''"' '" "^**" ^""^ '"^ '-•'• At times, when nS .!,:,, \'"^' '*^" *^'""« ""'-'-«'v, then they rush over rapids and falls w,th a roar: here their banks are low and ureen there they are high, steep. a..d rocky. ^ ' dotted «.th white sails. Sometimes the color is green, at other times I TBR nVRAN 67 It i» blue: and when the heavy cJouds hanp over it. it is dark an.l glo«n.y. There are beautiful sunrises and sunsets o watd. Zl one ca, see th^storms con,e an.l go, with the waves d,«ldn« i o always .hanging n, appearance, so that the lake shore and the sea- shore are among che most attractive of placs I Vin. THK AIR SiNX'E air cannot be seen, people often forget that it really is something ; but a tire will not burn without it, and plants, animals, and men must have it to breathe. In fact, drowning means nolinng more than being smothered under water, where there is not enough air to breathe. This is proof that the air is really something, even though It cannot be seen; and you can prove the same thing in other ways. For instance, if you stand with your face to a breeze, you feel the air moving. Some- times this movement *of the air, which we call wind, is so rapid that it blows down trees and houses. Here i8 an exiierinient to i.rov,. that the air is sornetliing and that it nils j^pace. Find an empty l.ottle witliout a cork and sink it in water with the open en.I up. Notice the gurglinj; noise as the h.d.bles of air rise to the surface while the bottle .slowly fills. Where i\oeM this air come from? And why does not the bottle fill more quickly? Vou .see that although we oalle.l the bottle .mpU^, it was reallv filled with air which could not l>e s^en. The water could not enter the bottle until it pushed the air out, lH>cause the bottle coul.l not Ik^ filled with two .substances at the samp time. .So, as the air was leaving, the wat«r was enterir.g. If the bottle IS turned bottom uinv,ir,|. and pushed perfectly straight into water, the air will l>e given no chance to slip out. and then the l»ottle cannot l)e filled with water. Air is snmetJntig real and oceufdes spact-'. There is air all around the earth, and it expends many miles above us. This air, often called the atmosphere, is usually in motion, now in one direction, now in another, and it often moves fast enough to cause a breeze, or wind. 68 I TUE AlH 69 Even when the wind is not blowing near the ground, it may l>e don.g 8o far a!.„ve, where the clouds are. You can see that this 18 so, if you watch the clouds as they are driven alone by the winds. •' Let US see vvliat cuiises the air to move. Heat has much to do with it. If you watch smoke in a room where there is a lighted himj), you will see that it moves tow- ard the lamp, and then rises above it (Kig.6«J). Hot air also rises above a stove, or above a furnace through tiie registers ; and dur- ing the winter, when there is a hot fire, the air near the ceiling of a room is much warmer than that near the floor. The smoke of a cifjar risiriK from the table above the lighte~t nio.e landwaid, and a cool sea hree/.e begins to blow. VVhenever the air i. heavy in one phtce, and li^rht in juu^her wuH s will blow toward the place where ,t is .J?l t. ^uu-. Ins lightness of the air is u.uull^ eaused by li«'at, we say that ^ turr of tl„ nil: '"ffr,(rucs n, thr trmpcm- VVinds are us,.ful in n.any ways. Thev drive sailin-. vessels thronj,'h tlie water, and tiiey turn wind- mills (Fijr. ♦;s), whieh are often used to jMunp water from wells. I5iit whatisnjost iiniiortant, they carry water over all the earth. At all times tlitre is onouarh water in the nt- UKtsphere to till v,,„ !. ., , Juany large lakes. Jon knou- that there n.ust be s..,„e water in the air. for .t c-lothes hung out on a line become dry as the water passes oft into the air. Flo. (17. ^ ?'"'r ^"■' '""'*'" ""•""«'' "'" «'«♦'>'■ ''V M.0 >.>ml. this 1. i, hshiMK s.l,o<,n,T Koing ont .if ti,.- oIhI '''"""''"'■■" ^■'■^''•^'•''•'='- "'"-'•»'-'' TIIK AlH 71 Kui. (W. A vviiiiliiiill. Some of the water in the at.uosj.lKre enters It after every minstonn, w),e„ ti.e nin.Ulv roads ;,n,l wet tiel.Is are drying; Imt nu.st <»> •t e„.ne.s fn,n. riv.rs. lakes, and the oeean. lou iiave already learned (p. GO) that the ocean cvers al..,ut thre.-fomths of the snr- ace of the earth. Tlu. air is taking water from all parts of it, so that ,.,,.1. minute enough water to till thousands and thousan.ls ot barrels ,s leaving the o.ean an.l floating away in the atmosphere. Another reason why we know that there n.u«t be a quantity of water in the air, is that n.ueh ...n.es out of It m the form of rain, snow, hail, .lew, and frost. Ihe air takes up water fnun one place atal hohls it, perhaps for nnu.y days, during whi.h ti.ne the winds n.ay utve carried .t hundn-ds of nnles ; by and by this n.oistun, ^v.ll fall. Ihus It IS by the help of the wind that rocks are wet and caused to ehang,. to soil, plants are n.ade to grow nvers are furnish,.ilea away, passing into the air, where }ou can no longer see it. The water in the kettle was a //y.iV/, which could be seen ; but heat has changed it to a ,/«*, which, like air, is colorless and cannot be seen. Then, too, it is so light that It floats .n the a.r. This water gas is called uJr vapor, and the change fron, water to vapor is called evaporation Fig. (>n washing day, when a great deal of water vapor rises from the boiler, the windows are often cov- ered with drops of water, because the vapor has been changed back to liquid, or condenne,^ on the cold window pane. Your own breath contains vapor, and yo,. can change it to water by breath- ing on a cold wimlow pane. So you see that if air loaded With vapor .s cooled, some of the vapor is changed bick to water. ** There are several ways in which air mav be cooled. 1 on know that mountains are colder than the lower lands (p. 1. ) : so that winds blowing over them are often chille.l »"( fron, this that numntmuH are an important help i„ causing rain. Vapor may also be condensed when a old wind blows Fi(i. 70. l-iltlc drops of water coii- •leiisfil from f|ie vapor of the air on the outside of a {fliiss of coltl water. 74 oru HOME AM, ITS sriiuoryoiy^js rnr:i;;;r.,::T;:;r:rr:::- - hiiu mil. Tl... "*■'*"«'<"<» that the vaju.!- con, ennes ""». IJic «unnuer tinimler showers whi.-h nf. c-n... on hot afternoons, a.. .,,„,,, ,. t^^^J^'"'''' "^^«» Fici. 71. Clou.,.s f..„„e., u,..n the n.onntai.. .ides ..e.„„«e the air haa been ..,.,.1. There are several different forn.s of condensed va,.or >N l.en yon breathe into the air on a cohl, frosty nu.n 2 y.^ reath^n.n.salittU,.^.....,ond/The!j> r S n.Mle the vapor c-hanj^e to tiny j.artieles of water so sn 1 Imt you eannot see a sin.^Ie one, th<,n,h n. u \ " -^.Mnae. thinnest Von have noth.nht sLf.^: • of t n d ops of water eon.lensed from vapor in the air. ci s n,,.e too, are eansed by the eoobng of tul .ir -nne tunes when it n.oves against n.onntain sK,pes( K 7 ' -.netnnes when cold winds blow a^au.st .aim 1';:: ll;i "ir^. THE A I It 76 ■^ *""" r <-l<»iiw form. It is coufff'Hsffi rafx/r that /'onus /'og', mist, rain, stunv, hail, (lew, und htMr-frust. Usually, winds from certain directions, as from the iK-can, are liable to bring rain, while others indicate fair weatlu r. My keeping a daily rect)rd of the direction of the wind, and of the kind of wcjither it brii,igs, you will In; able to lind out for yourself which of your win»• Oav. Aug. 17. IfMM.S A.M. DlRKt'TKiN OK WiMi. KiMt lit WitATIIKK. Cloiulv. Tr.Mi-. 7(P Sontliea-Ht. Aug. 17, 1(MH. 8 P.M. Caliii. Geiitlf Rain. 72° AUf?. IS. lOdl.S A.M. West. Clear. fi8' ' If it i.s practii-ililc. tin- U-achcr sliould at tliw point intrixhice an ele- niL-iitary tstudy of wi-ather maps and have the pupils read theni oaoli day. IX. NATURAL PRODrC'TS OK rilK LAND AM) NVAIKK In whatever piirt of tlu- <'<»uiitiy \vv live, wt; timl lluit we aru miW'Wteil to the hin»l or the water for sotue vahi- al)lc imtunil piochictM, and tliat ii re(niires more «»r U'ss hihor t" get these or to make tliem switaWU; to our wants. We call thoHe thinj,'s imtuml /innhirts, wliich liave then- origin in the hind or water, anruved hy cultivation. These natural products may he classed as: those of tlu' farm, such as grain and cattle; th..se cf the .^rf^.^ as timher or lumher ; those of the mine and ijunrri/, as gold, iron, e..al, or petroleum and huilding stone ; and those of I he Hetu as fish, tin- seal, and tlu- whale. All our wants, as far as regards the necessaries of life, - food, clothing, and the comfort of the ho ASU WATEli 7l> tainous (p. 'lit), and wlien' tlie waU'r Hows ra[)i(lly away, or whether it is level and well watered ; (tn the noil (p. 8), whether it is fertile, or rocky and barren; on the >/niin)n/f Fig. ""i. Lincoln sheep, fronx a farm near Ix>n(lon. Out. Noted for their lon^, soft wool. (p. 33), wlietlier it is swampy, or whether the snri»lus water and the melting snows from the winter How easily away. Most localities have their special prodnets, for which they are best adapted. In a farming district, on the rolling lands of the east, or on the level prairies of the north- west, we see the waving fields of grain, or flocks of cattle and sheep (Fig. 75), and we see the farmers driving to town ^^° ^'•• with loads of hay, wheat, Canadian Pacific Railway elevators at . . Fort William for storing grain to be oats, potatoes, and other shipped awaj 80 on: noMH .wn its srnnorxDixas farm i.r<.(luce. W.- uniy also svv .i,nvat .-Icviitors an.l st...v- l»ouses (Kijr. 7.;, laiilt to ivcviv,- tlu- ,i,nuin, iin.l railway cars loa ) and floated down the rivers and lakes to a seapiut, t^ere to be 1 Fig. 80. Trip of mine cars, drawn by an electric motor, Crow's Nest Colliery. British Columbia. Fellinj,' bifj trees neur Vancnnver, !!.<'. Niitetlie pliilforin. on wlii.b tlie men stand, si. as lo be above wliere (lie roo(s bejjin to sjiread. (laded on ships and .sent abroad, or niadt; into masts for ships, or cut into .s(piare tind)er for buildings ; besides trees cut down for telegraph l»oles and many other purposes. Ill the mining dis- tricts we see c(»al, or iron and other ores dug out of tlie mines and brought to the surface of the ground (Figs. 28 82 (Hit iioMK A.xn ITS .^rinioi'yni\fis FlO. HI. C(Ml-fi8liiiig (HI the Banks (»f Newfound land. and HO): or we lind nuiiiy men i.iili.'iitly matkii h:] wants of ptM.pl,. in other (tomitrit-s, who in n-tmn s.n,l ns their prodiuts, which are very .lifferent from ours, and which we cannot i>ro(luce in our r)\vn countrv. TVhaf articles are pr,»lurnl in ym,r ' Incalitu in greater nhnmlmvce than thn, ran be „snl at hume> \\ here is the surfjlus sent to / The timber of our forests, besides ^rivinjr emi.h.yment to the lumbermen, supplies our sawmills, gives employ- ment to carpenters in building houses, to the cabinet maker in making furniture, to tl e waggon-maker, railway car-builder, ship-builder, agricultural implement maker, and many others. C^an you name any other trades which require to use wood? How many industries can von name which use iron, from the making of a tack or nail np to the great iron buildings and bridges, the rails of the railway, or the huge locomotive that draws the train? How many industries are dependent on our cattle and sheep? On our fislieries? On our mines? To how many uses are our coal and iron put? VVIiat industries connected with our natural products are there in your neighborhood ? X. oru DoMKsric animals KvKliv (.11.- is fiuniliiif with tlie licrse, the <.x, the cow, the sluei), f'l; |»ij,'. the ^'oiit, the dog and eat, the poultry; iiiid it outrht not to he dim,-nlt to state the use each of these is to us. These were all originally wild animals, and even now lire t(. he found in their wild state in various parts of the world, 'i'hey have, however, been tamed hy man, and gradually brought t(. their pres.i-t state of perfection and usefulness l.y careful attention to their traiinnga: I hreed- uig; and thus we call them our m-Htir,itfd anunalx. A very natural (piestion is, '' Do the people in other ••ountries have the sanu^ kind of domestitt aninuds that we have/" The answer to this .piestion forms part of the knowledge that we gain hy the study of geography. We shall see that while these animals are found in every part of our country, some are m.,re successfully raised in one part than in another, chicHy because the climate and the products of the soil are better adapted for that pur- pose. Many of them, too, are to be found in other parts of the world much more abundantly even than in this country. While cattle, sheep, and horses are raised by most farmers, yet the great cattle ranches, or pasture groiuids, are on the level grassy plains in the northwest (Fig. 88). Similar ranches are found in the United States, in South America, and in Australia. 84 OUH DOMESTIC ANIMALS 85 Sheep are ruised in tins tountn, Imt fur more uhiiii- (luntly ill Austiiiliii iui,'ers «.f old ), and sometimes sur- Fi(i. S7. A slave raid in ('ciitnil Africa. Notice the licavy wooden yokes on tlie men's necks, and the |>oor little children ruiinin,!; after their mothers. rounded by a fence of jtosts (or xtockiKh-. as it is called) stuck into the ground close together. 'IMiese tribes often quarrelled and fought with each other, and, when they maile prisoners, sold them as slaves to a fierce race of men called Arab., who ti'cated them most cruelly, and drove them naked, in gangs (Fig. ST), to a seaport, from which they were sent away in horrible slaveships to othe^^ PEOPLE in .ouiihies to labor, and to be boiifrl.t and sold like cattle. Many negroes in this country escaped orij,nnallv years ago from our neighboring country, the l'nitcd\states, when negro slavery was allowed there, or are descendants of those escai)ed slaves, who, as soon as they reached Can- ada, became free. It was not until a great \var took place in the United .States, about forty years ago, that the ne- groes there became free and were allowed to work for themselves. Most boys and girls, or at least those who live in a city, have seen the Chinaman who keeps a laundry. Von will generally see him with his hair plaited into a queue at the back of his head, wearing a blouse and strange-looking thick-soled shoes. You can easily see that he is not a Fio. 88. Chinese children eatins ri.e with ehopmi.-ks. These chopsticks are like wooden knitting-needles. 92 OUR HOME AND ITS SURI Ol'NDINGS native of this country. He does not si)eiik our language. The (•()h>r of his skin is different from ours, lie has no family, no wife, no children. Why is this? And where maikct. :V (ireek in typical ('ii-(ttuiic. 1. Frriich peasant cliiiii — n.iti- tlie lillle wiHiilfU shoes. ."». Russian peasant fjii-ls. tl. Swiss mountaineer 9« oi'u HOME AND ITS srituoryDiyos "reservations." These are specially reserved for the Indians, and there they cultivate a little land and Ii\e a lazy, peaceful life, assisted by a i>en8ion from the Government. There, also, are to be found schools, estab- lished by the Government, for the Indian children, where they are taught useful occupations as well as the simple school lessons. In Figure 93 we see a group of these young Indian stu- dents, who for intelligence and brightness of expression would do credit to any of our schools. And we must never forget our duty by them, inasmuch as by our having taken possession of the lands of their forefathers, they have become the wards of ourt country, and our country" must, therefore, be their guardian. We have now seen that besides our own race, the white people, there are black, yellow, and red people. These are called the four great divisions of the people of the world. Yon will learn farther on how all the white people also are divided into nations or tribes. You have seen French- men or Germans or natives of other countries, who speak other languages than English, and as you proceed with your lessons you will find how the white race is divided into many different peoples (Fig. 94), speaking many different languages, not one of which can understand the language of the other, at d yet all belonging to the " hite " race. In the illustration (Fig. 94) we see some of the people belonging to the white race in Europe, but there are also many other branches of the same race in Asia and Africa as well. It is the same with the other races. They are divided PEOPLE 97 into many nations or tribes, speaking languages altogether different from those of the white people. As it is with the languages, so it is with the dress, the food, the manners and customs, the occupations and the modes of living. Each country has its own peculiarities which vary from those of the others, and if you were to travel round the world you would find much to see and wonder at, and you would realize how much there is to be learnt and studied in this great world. XII. INDISTUV AND COM.MKUCK KvKHV limn is expec^trd to t'Hj,riitr». i„ some kind (»f work or iniluHtry in order to earn u livinj,'. As ve liav alreiidv learnt, many are en^'aged in seenrinj; or enltuaiing tlie natnral prodncts of the land or of tlie water, uceordinj,' to the h)eality in which they live. Others a^rain, instead of working? to cnltivate or f,'ather these natural produets, are en«,'a'hat, then, ITS srniior\r,rxas other countries. At the Hnme ti.rie that we hnun tl.is, we have to find .,ut where the Murj.luM of „ui- pr-Hhicts m»e.s and what we get elsewhere in exchange for them (p 78)' To do this wo must know not only about the various parts of our own country but about the other countries of the worUl as well. Just as the products of one part of our country vary from those of another part, so the i)roduct8 of differen't parts of the world vary, and in each case thr reason for the .hfference is to be found, chiefly, in the climate, in the sod, or in the locality, as in our own country (p. 78). When we come to table we find that although' our country produces the mdst of what we eat -the meat fish, fowl, vegetables, and fruits -yet, there are the tea,' the coffee, and cocoa; the sugar, the pe].per, the rice, and spices ; the oranges and bananas ; the currants and raisins m our cake; the almonds and peanuts - where do thev come from (Fig. 95)? And how do they get here? In the same way with our clothing, our furniture, our houses. While wc .an produce our own wool, and it can be woven into cloth in our own country ; yet we must go elsewhere for our cotton and silk, and we are depend- ent on other countries for such articles as our tinware plates, dishes, and cutlery. Even for the brick and stone and lumber in our houses; for the canned fish, fruit, and vegetables we buy at the store; for the manufactured farm implements, furniture, and clothing, we must go to certain localities in our own country. Hut, on the other hand, some countries contain so many people that there is not land enough to produce sufficient food for them, and consequently the extra supply neces- sary must be brought from where it is more plentiful, and lyPUSTRV A\r> roMMEHrK 101 when. tlM-re is mori^ than in v.antc-l f„r home usr. Our own mother count ry ((ireat Hritain) is an examph; of this, an«l the jKM.ph there wouhl he in danger of starving if it were not for the food supplies sent from Cuna.hi and other C((untiie8. One country is (h-pendent on another for many thin^rs, and each part of any country is (h'pendent on other parts for many thinj,rs. This exchange of commodities or articles, wljethcr mnjiu- factured or in their natural state, is called trade or rom- merce; internal, if carried on hetween diflferent parts <,f the same country; uv foreign, if carried on with other countries. IJy this system of c.mmerce, the people of each country are enahled to enjoy the comforts and luxu- nes of the natural products, or of the manufactures of every part of the world. Thj storekeeper is the one who gathers together the various commodities which we require, whether from the producer, the manufact.nvr, or the importer (the merchant who brings foreign commodities into our country). There :'re also many persons employed in gathering together our natural products, which are manufactured into articles for our own use, or are exported, that is, sent abroad to other countries to supply their wants. At the present time it is easy, where most of us live to buy almost everything, and to Hud men who can do almost any kind of work. We are so accustomed to all this that we are apt to forget that it has not alwavs been so. Not much more than a hundred years ag.. there were no stores in this country and not many houses except in a few seaport towns, or in the neighborhood of some of 102 orn HOME ASH ITS Hi'Hitor\Diyus till' «)I<1 forts which liaj-|«>Ht had l»eei» built of logH, HurruumkHl by a Htockade, by the adveiittiroiiH fur trader^4. Kaeh family, im it settled in the eounlry, was obliged to find its own foo t' living has been cached. The whob' of this country, as well as the whole of the great continent of America, .lelonged originally to the Indians (p. 02), who were the only inhabitants until adventurous sailors of various nations came ixorw Europe across tin* Atlantic Ocean, and by force gradually took possession of the land. The first persons who arrived here nat" rally settled Flo. !»>. All i)|te<-tioii of the early settlers. tMU'sTltr .IA7* tttSIMKHCK lo:{ alniiu 111,! nuMt uiiil iH-ar tlM> .si-aiM.its. iHMaii.Ho tlii-Ht- wi-ie tin' liist pliues ri'iiclK'il. Ill ('aiiatla tlir first Kiiii.|Haii " ] |H'o|>l»' to mak*' ii Mrtth'iiU'iit wi-if Kii'iHliiiien, who sail«'<| liom Kraiici' iiikUt tlif It'udt'isliip ot Ja(t|iu'.s ('urtier {V\^. 1»7) not <|iiitt' lour iiiiii(li-c(l >«'aiH a^'o, aii«l took i»osh»'h- sioii of \\w land in the imiiiu of tin- Kin^jof KraiKv. TlM'nativf Indians, although friendly at Hist, became hitterly opposed to the invatiion of their t'ouiitry l>y the white men. As a protet'tion against the Iniiuu.j •>. 4l • J. i''""Tc.wii lUliuISi Mill), Frarire ■led Houses upon their j)ropertv. These liecame places of refuge for the summtiding settlers, trying t<» cultivate the land, if at any time tiiey were attacked by the ferocious, hostile tribes of Indus of those (lavs. The British ami other Kuropean nations ha«l also made settlements in other parts of America, and for a long time there was bitter warfare between the Kren -h and iJritish. Finally, (ireat Hritain. after many years of lighting, gained possessiuu of Cana«la. and the wars with the Indians gradually cease were raised anke, Que., showiiis tlio water power on the Majjog Rivei IIJ (>//»' llnMH AMt ITS .sr/.'/.'0/\/>/.NV.S it ' Thus crtcli town, like eurli iiian, is apt to lu- iiiteresteil ill the production of few things; what they grow or nmnufaeture is sent away in all direeiions, and the other articles that the people want are brought to them from the many places in which they are produced. Find out what are the priniii)al industries in your own town, and where their products are sent. Name also some of the substances that are brought to it and where from. When people are so dependent upon others for most of the nniterials they use, it is clear that roadways become of great impor- tance. For if wheat for flour be grown in the northwest, and shoes and nails be made in the eastern provinces, ^^ ^^m and if the thousand ^^^ tI^ other things that we must have are produced in a thousand other places, what good will they do us, if they cannot be brought to us? The pioneers had no roads at first, and one of the hardest pieces of work they had to do was to cut ways througli the dense forest. For this reason most of the early settlers chose their lands on the shore of a lake or bay, or on the bank of a river. In summer the water formed a good natural road for their boats, and in winter when frozen over it formed a smooth, level road for their sleighs. The winter snow makes the great highway now for the dog-teams and sledges of the northwest (Fig. 84), Fio. 106. A winter road to a clearing in the bush. TNnvsTltV A\n roMMEncK 113 ZH'Z^;. "'"•^'•^ "•"' '""•^--' ^--Khout the I., th. hunlHTin^. districts the snow-roHcl, even now i« H net-essay, us, wi.e,. the 8„.,wfull is li.W,t it is ? f impossible to haul tiie lo^^s to the banks of the streams ready to be floated doun with the s,.rin,. thaw. in the moun- tainous districts, 'J iM^^^ 1 where there are •— ^^^^^^ — no roads, as on the way to the Klondike gold Helds, it is nprs essary to follow a trail or narrow path ; and, in- stead of using a p,„ ^^ waggon, to carry a pa.ac train at I):»w«o„, Yukon Territory. ,.,.ich has goods Strapped ' """" "^*' ♦'"' P*«'«'« ot the R,Kky Mountain" on one's back or else upon horses or nmles (Fiff 107) roads. Not only nu.st trees be cut .lown and stumps and stones l,e renu.ved, but steep places must often be le!Xd Bndges are also necessary, and nmch work must be done to keep the roads n. repair. In the more settled parts of the country great sums are spent in making good roads than r T' '" '" "^"^^ ''' «P^"^ ^--^y^- this way; Irnn for he wear and tear of conveyances, injury To ho.es, and the great loss of time so often caused^y^d roads. Ihe Government, also, spends large amounts every year m b.n'lding roads into new distHcts for the purpose of opening them up to settlers. ■>■ ! Itf f! Ill nil: iiiiMt: ASh ns sri!U(H Mtix^is III citii-H, iiistfiid of till' iiiimI "I- j;rav»l <.r pliiiik loiuls of tlu' roiiiitiy, the stivtts iiiiisl U- puvril Ih'ciuiw' tlifiv is ho much triinii- omt tlnMii. A Iwtl of l.rok»'ii sume is iiiu Hide; and in iiiaiiv eities iisphalt iKiveineiitH are fomiiioii. What kind of .ntreets liave you seen, and how were they made ? We have aheady eonsi"*^" "^^ lOWereo, IXhl'STIty A\tt rnSlMKItf K 11.-. i. in what are call.,l ..L.-kK," a..o,.linK as tlu-y are bo..,,.! up or m). Hut railway8 are, i„ „.a„^ „.«peetM, the bent roa.ls. Kveu with the Hnent .,f xvaggon r.,adH, g,„„|s ,.H„„„t !,« carried more than twenty to forty miles a •lay, and it was considered fast travelling when the ol.i stage- coach (Fig. 101 ») with its four .>r i'ix horses could make ten miles an Ijour. Boats Hre somewhat faster, but rail- way trains will travel forty miles in an hour, and they take both passengers and freight much more cheaply than they can be carrieec.aus». they could not be sent to the great cities to be sold ; but Fiarlian»ent ; can you state anything about them ? Vou have certainly seen a policeman .• what are his duties? In our stu.ly of commerce we saw that it required a long time to reach our present way of living and carrying on trade. So it is with our government. At present we have many laws, and ollicers, or persons aj.pointed to carry out the laws, while lo.ig ago there were very few of each Let us see why this is so. The farmer manages his farm nearly as he pleases He l.nts up fences, sells his grain, or fee.ls it to stock, as seems to h.m best : and when repairs are neede.l he looks Hft.r them himself. The n.iiler builds a large or small I l> ^-M Pi 120 OUR HOME AND ITS SUIiROUyDl\GS null uses old or new machinery, gnnds much or little cor., and makes repairs, as he chooses. In each case one man owns and uses the property. But there are some things that no one man or conipany owns, and yet all wish to use. These are known as pubho property. This is true, for instance, of roads. All people drive oi- walk over them, yet they belong to no one person. Who, then, should build roads in the first place, and who should make the necessary repairs on them / In the early days of the country, this, as we 1 as many other matters of interest to all, was part of the business of the government. Biit it was found that the better way to do, was for those who used the roads in a small section of the country or township, to meet together and choose or appoint certain men who should make it a part of their business to see that the roads were built, and that they were kept in good order. Such men are known as councillors. These councillors were naturally those in whom the people had the greatest confidence. They were not only intrusted with the control of the work to be done, but received power to tax or assess all the owners of property to pay for the cost of this work and its management. Schools also are not owned by one person, and yet many wish to use hen.. Ciood buildings, large playgrounds, and good tead.rs are all desirable, but who should provide for them? This .natter was a OS tied n the same way, by those interested meeting toge her and electing by vote truMee. or officers whose duty xt was to see that the schools were properly managed. So It was also with many other important matters m winch all the people were interested. For example, there are -^^fy^'^^^^^ T. every connnunity who are liable to take things that do not belong to th.m, or who are noisy an.l quarrelsome. Laws were passed in regard to such offenders, and officers called magis,ra,e.. vvere appon.tud GOVERNMENT 121 to carry out tl •>«* laws with ..H„ .. a- .. . .Ik- ..n;-,,,!,.,., „l„„ ,,„.;.:;, ';,"'" "" ■■'*• '•''"■■■ «■ >■ <" -r,,l might ,e.e, „ ,. „„a|| „,,,„,, „f |„„ ,„ ,., . , ." a snmll a.s,,-,..,, ,.,„.„M,. „, ,,,,;, ,„. ■]„ -'•"^ u ,:;:';i,is '" '""'^ "■" ^ "•- ■'- -'■- > I" order thai ail 1,1 „.„rk i„ l,ar,„„„v (.....ther f„r ■e «o,Kl „f . „ „,,„le ,,„,„„„„i,v. the hea,i ,„.:;, eac .1. r,ct or v.llase „r small ,„„,, u„ite .„ l„r,„ ,v ha called t e V.„.„,y Co.,.,,-,. Th,.»e ,„e„ are eal „ ^ the co„„„ll„r, a,„l the, have the power to ,J^uZ goverumg the c,.,.„t/,. The ehi,.f offleer of the Co! 1 Council IS the ir„rrf„, „f ,|,„ (.„„,„,. """"J Ir. a similar manner eonntie, unite together to ,e„,l representatne, ' Isenss mai.er, in whiW, thev are •" ;"tere»ted, and „, law., „, reg.ihU,. these natte' Ihe u:n„„ of ,he.. eounties lorn,, tl^ /V,„.,„,,.. a tl e ; -l>;-esenta.,ve, the /V,„.,„,,„, i,,,.,,„„, ,,„ , ; K,r example, , onld it happen tha, ,!,„ managers" a .'ilway eompan.v eharge too mneh for passengers or f„.i j, 1 es lint as these raiUvuys may he hundreds of mile, ing. he people o, a single ,„„., or eonn.y e .er^ a ;, T"-, '; '" .','""'-''"'^- "•■"•-'■•^ '■"■■ "'"- living perhaps hundreds ol unle, apart lo unite in some ,vav in oner to make law, ,o eontrol ,„e managemen tof e " 122 or/; HOME AM) ITS suinior\i)i.\r,s U:i\u. it is iii.i".itimt Unit tli.T.' slmnl.l U- l,uil.lin«s i» wlii''l' tl"" hliiitl. ami tlic (h'lif aiitl «liiiiil> IMMlplc iiiiiy l>f ciliK-iitcd. illld insane i«f(i|ilf taken care i>t. Til. If nmst also In- Mruni,' |irisnt tliiTf arc not many sucli persons in one town or innnty. and it wonld lie very expensive to take proper care of oidy a tew. 'I'liis is anotlier reason vvliy a nnnilier of peojile slionlil unite to make laws on some inatters. Fio«ly is called tl„. Parlimnnit ( ,„• „.//.r,// • ^ren.e,. and they... .V,..A.J ^ A ;:l:r'''' r.?'''- »"^ve tin. power to .nakc or ,,,...;, ,1 ' ' '^'^ .''*">• I 'lis IS a city, where ^ there is a flue hiiildin^. ('ailed the Parliament Home (Fig. 110), i„ which the members of parliament hold their '"«etings, and the gov- enwnent officers of the I»r()vince have their offices. We have seen that in the town or county the people not only made laws throiifrj, their coun- cillors,, but also a])pointed men to see that they were enforced. Such ^^^('w are necessarv for if'^r';:;::;!:: j':; '•-' "^^ •■""■'■■■ -" "- .-i--- int.-,H.e,l , , ' I-"'Ut<''>l)lf. l^l^'il Mi' Fi.i. n<>. Provincial l*iirli.iiiieiit IJuildings. f^'OVRR.XMEXT 12/ In large cities, where tl.erc are manv pecple, neeessifat- •ng jrreat buildings ^VU^, n.-.) ,„„, „„„^. „,,i,.^.,.^ ^^,. ^,^^_ law, the people there arc governe,l l.y representatives, just as those of tlie whok; pr.)vinee are g..verne,l. These men who make the hiws for cities are called Aldermen, and their as- sembly the t'itij Couio'il. The highest oflicer elected to execute the laws in a city is known as the Mdi/or. The building in which the City Council meets, and in which the mayor and his officials have their offices, is called the Cifi/ i^«// (Fig. 117). While a city is governed by its own officers in some matters, it also elects "lembers to the Pn,vin,-ial Parliament and is still a part of tlie Province and under its authoritv. In the Dominion of Canada there are several provinces (^tig 118), and there are some matters that no province can decide alone, because all the others are cpuillv inter- ested ,n them. For instance, it would be a great bin- 'Irance to trade and travel if each province made its own money ; for then each one might have a different kind, with coins of different names and weights. Every time a traveller pa.ssed from X^,va Scotia to Quebec or Ontario, he might be obliged to take much time and trouble to Fi(i, 117. Tlie City Hull. Toronto, Out. i'SI i I k s 126 OUIt HOME AND ITS SURROrSDINOS exchange his money for another kind. So, also, in the case of railways, as we have already seen (i). 121). Mail is another nmtter that concerns all the provinces, and there are others hesides. Can you mention some? It is evident, therefore, that we need a Dominion Gov- ernment as well as Provincial, City, Town, County, and Township (lovernments. The reason for calling it the Dominion Government is, that the different provinces are united to form one British American Dominion, or Do- minion of Canada (Fig. 118). The vast tract of land between the Provinces in the east and British Columbia in the west, extending as far as the Arctic Ocean (Fig. 118), was formerly under the con- trol of the Hudson Bay Company. This powerful and ancient trading company held exclusive trading rights in this region. In order to unite the whole country from the i»tlantic to the Pacific Ocean, the Dominion Govern- ment purchased these rights. Now the whole of the continent of America north of the United States to the Arctic Ocean, with the exception of one portion called Alaska, is under one authority or dominion. A narrow strip of tl.e eastern coast of Labrador from the Strait of Belle Isle to Hudson Strait is under the authority of Newfoundland. This is only inhabited by a few Indians, and in the summer tune by fishermen from that island. If the people of one province cannot meet in a body to make laws, certainly those of all the provinces cannot do so. Representatives or Members of Parliament are there- fore elected and sent from all the provinces to one place, where thev consider the affairs of the whole Dominion. The place" where they meet is the City of Ottawa, and ,:^ ■-,. J I i/Vil°''^T„ \ ^,V" ''>o •'.?,"'"' '•<. ^1 ''hu '^4 2^^*-&>.l'«>^, DO'lTNION OF CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND Scale or Miln. 9 "!» too aoo wo MO M» Citloa wllh over 300,000: MoiltMtAl Cllle. with 50.000 to 800,000: . :: i.JfS;,!!^ Cities with 25,000 to 60,000: WuiliS ofCounlrlc.:0 CapltoU or rrovlnocs : • other CItlef ! • ^.. ^ no* I<«ii»»ad( A 1 anvKiiyMK\T 1ST m" ^M it is on that account oalU-d the ('n/iiful of the ftnmii)!->t>. H«'r«' lire the Parlianieiil Huihlinjfs ( Ki^. ltJ») in wliich the ineetinjfH wva hehl : and here also are the ortices of the govern- ment orticers. The representatives from all the provinces form the Dominion Par- liament. This is just like the Provincial Par- Vm. ii;t. liuments; the Dominion iH'minii.n H4tiif«.< ^^^ I'lirlianiiiii, at the srs ot Parliament making laws for the whole conntrv, while the I'rovincial members make laws for their own provinces onlv. The Dominion (tf Canada forms part of the great Hritish Emi)ire, of which King Kdw.ird \'II. is now the crowned hcaach part. To Canada the Governor-General comes as representative FiQ. I JO. QUEEN VICTORIA From • photo|p«ph taken in IW8 128 Ol'H n<>ME AM) ITS SC ItROLWDiynS of the King, and lie chooses his ministers to carry on the government from among the members of Parliament who come from the different provinces. Before these ministers can make any new law they must have the consent of the majority of the members of Parliament, and nothing can be done contrary to the will of the majority of the people's representatives. Should any minister attempt such a thing, the members of Parliament can demand that the (iovernor- Fio. 121 KING EDWARD VII. Fio. 122. QUEEN ALEXANDRA. General dismiss his ministers and supply their places with men in whom Parliament will have confidence. The Governor-General of Canada is appointed by his Majesty for a term of five years, and has a residence (Fig. 123) called Kideau Hall in Ottawa. Besides the officials who carry out the details of the goverinnent work at Ottawa, there are many men called officers of the Crown who work under the control of the OOrERyMKXT 129 1-J.i. Riileiin Hall, the resideiueof the (Jovenior General, at Ottawa. Government in uU the .lifterent parts of the ccuntiy, in the post-olHees, custom-houses, et.-. Do y„u knou'anv officers of tlie Dominion (iovernment ? Of the Provincial (iovern- ment? Of the City, Town, or County (iov- ernment'' We liave seen liow the people in small dis- tricts arrange for theii h(mie government, ami how, uniting with those in other districts, they elect some men to repre- sent them at the Provincial Capital, and others to repre- sent them at the Dominion Capital. These representatives are elected by the votes of the people; whoever receives the largest number of votes in a district being chosen to represent the people of that district. Canada is a colony of Great Britain, an offshoot fron. the Mother Country, and the form of government in Can- ada IS similar in form to that of Great Britain, which is called a Limited Monarchy. Although the monarch governs the country through ministers or servants of the Crowji, yet the Commons or members of parliament, repre- senting the people, have the right to say in what manner they shall be governed; that is. they alone have the right to make the laws. Other counuies have different forms of government from nr.rs. Some, like our neighboring r.,untrv, the United States, have a government, called aIiepuf>lic,\heTe 180 nVR UOMF. AND ITS umBorNmNGS the people not only vote for their representatives but also for their chief ruler, who is called a Premie nt. The Pres- ident is elected only for a term of years (in the United States the term is four years). In some countries, people are by no means so free as we are, and only few of them, comparatively, have the privi- lege of voting for representatives. Under some govern- ments in Europe, and almost all of those in Asia, the people have very little to say about the laws that shall govern them. Nor do the laws protect all equally for the high officers may say freely what they think, while others may not do this. They must obey their rulers blindly, just as little children are expected to obey their parents. Such a government cannot be called a Limited Monarchy or a Republic ; it is an Absolute Monarchy or Despotism. This means that the ruler has complete or absolute power to do what he chooses, without regard to the desires of the people of the country, or to the laws of the land. For instance, he can put men to death without any trml, a thing that the laws of our country do not allow. China and Turkey are examples of this kind of government. There are other nations in which the people have more freedom than this, but not so much as we have. They are allowed freedom to do some things wliich they wish, and a certain number of them have the privilege of voting for representatives in their parliaments. In some matters, however, they are compelled to obey, without even asking any questions. Spain has a government of this kind. Since the people have some rights by which the monarch's power is checked or limited, this government may also be called a Limited Monarchy. GOrERNMEXT 131 When we sum all up, we fin.l that in Canada we have one of the most free and most economical and just for.ns of government that can he found. We have n.> RoNal 1^ amily to maintain at great cost ; neither have we c'.n- stantly recurring presidential elections with their enormous exr,enses, costing more than any royal family. Almost every man of the age of twenty-one has a right to vote for some one to represent him. Our judges are appointed to their positions for life, are independent of party influence and are noted for their integrity and ability. Justice is impartially dealt out to rich and poor, and no country is more lightly taxed for the welfare and good government XIV. MAPS Fl(i. 124. Picture of a schoolroom wliicli is :Vi feet long and 32 feet wide. We often wish to represent a country so as to tell, at a glance, its shape, and where the mountains, rivers, and cities are located. Such a drawing, called a map^ may be made of any place, no matter how large or small it is. Suppose we desired to draw only a school- room (Fig. 124), uhich is perhaps 32 feet long and 32 feet wide. It would not be easy to find a piece of paper so large as that, and it would not be necessary to do so. A small piece would do, because 1 inch upon it could be understood to represent several feet in the room. In this case let an inch stand for Ki feet. Since the room is .'12 feet on each side, and there are two 10s in -VI, the drawing will be just two inches long and two wide. To place the desks and aisles properly, we will need to use a ruler divided into sixteenths, for one foot in the room represents j's of an inch on the ruler. The ends and sides are marked (Fig. 12.5) north, east, south, and west. The teacher's desk is :}J feet in front of the north wall. There is a row of de.sks about 4 feet from the west wall. The desks are just 2 feet long, with eight in a row \\ feet apart. There are seven rows; and the aisles between them are each \\ feet wide. Here is a 1.12 MAPfi 133 WEST EAIT map of the schoolroom (Fig. 12r>). Measure each part to see if it has been drawn correctly, using a foot rule that shows the sixteenths of inches. How large is the desk? The piano. When a person draws in tliis way, letting a certain distance on the pappr represent a mucii greater one, he is said to use a scale, or to make a map according to a scale. In tlie school- ^ """P "^ *''*' »«'""'''■"•>'" sliown in FiRnre 124. room just described (Fig. 12o), the scale is 1 inch to 1() feet. In the next drawing, that of the school yard (Fig. 120), the scale must he much smaller, because the yard is so « 4 6 8 10 U I« lA •CAIC OF FEET : 1 fNCH»l6rceT 08 /l J OF *H INCH — 1 FOOT Fi<;. 12.5. Fio. 12fi. Picture of a school yard. FiRure 127 shows a map of this. 134 ouii HOME AND ITS sritnouNDiyGs much larger than the room, and in the same i)roportion woukl oeeupv too nuuh spaee. Here one inch represents 140 feet. According to that scale, tind ont how large the yard and the school building are (Fig. 127). Find how far the trees are from each other, from the nearest fence, and from the building. NORTH WEST JMmUt,^ A. IM A. EAST 3S SOUTH KM no 2M\ Sc^ulf in leet: 1 Inch ei|ual8 in UU feet. FlO. 127. A map of the yard slmwii in the picture, Can you not make a map of your own school- room ? What scale will yo\i use? Mark in your own desk, but omit the others, if you wish. You might also draw a map of your school yard. If you prefer to do s(t, tind its si/e by stepping or jxiiiuii it off, nuiking each of your steps about two feet long. Measure the building in tin; same way. After having finished these two nuips, draw a third one, including in it not oidy the school yard, but also a few of the neighboring streets and hou.ses. The scale for this might perhaps U' 1 inch for every 500 steps. All maps are drawn to a scale in this way, whether they represent a school yard, a iiroviucc, the Dominion, or even something still larger. Opposite page 1:57 you will find a map of North America (Fig. ll'!)). On what scale is it drawn? Look at .some other maps to find out the .scale. Maps are used a great deal to show the direction of one place from another. But a person must first tuiderstand what is meant by north, south, east, and west. Probably you already know that. MAPS 185 Fio. 128. A compass. The let- ter N means north. What do the other letters stand for? Notice that the needle is pointing; north and south. One of the easiest ways to find the di- rection is \)\ a I'ompttfig ( Fig. liJS). This is simply a piece of steel, called a needle, t hat swings ahont easily and always points to the north. It is magnetized, like the horseshoe magnets that you have seen, and it points nortliward, because some- thing draws it in that direction ; hut no one knows certainly what this "some- thing " is. When the stars are shining, one can tell which direction is north by the help of the (treat Dipper. The two stars on the edge of the Dipper point toward tlie North Star. It is so bright that it can be easily picked out, and it is always to the north of us. One can also find direction by the help of the sun ; for, as you know, it rises in the ea.st and sets in the west. Accordingly, when oiu; faces the rising sun, liis right side is to the .soutli and his left to the north. Which direction is (»n his right and left when he faces the west? The south ? The north ? Fig. 129. Diagram showing the North Star in the centre, the Dipper, and the iw>inters, Northeast means half- way lietween iiortli and east. Southeast means halfway 136 OUR HOME AND ITS SURROUNDINGS Ix-tween noiith and east. What, then, do north went and southwest mean ? Point north, east, west, south, southwest, nortlieast, northwest. Walk a few feet in each direction. Wiiat direction is your dealt from that of your teacher V From the desks of your friends? From the do«>r? What direction is your home from the schoolhouse? From other houstts? In what directions do some of the streets extend? Now let us tell directions on the map. Lay your draw- ing of the schoolroom upon your desk, so tliat the line representing the north side of the room is toward the north. Also place y urself so that you are facing directly north as you look at the map. If your desk faces the wrong way for this, turn round, or put your map upon the floor. Now, north oil the map is also north in the room, and the other directions on the map correspond with those in the room. In which direction, on the map, is the door from your desk ? From the teacher's desk ? Place your map of the school yard in the same position and give the directions. You see that the north side of this map is the side far- thest from you ; the east side is on your right, the south next to you, and the west is on your left. When a map is lying before us, we usually look at it from this position. But it is not always convenient to have a map lying down, especially in the schoolroom, where it must be hung uj) so that the whole class may see it. Let us hang u}) one of these maps and take particular pains to put it upon the north wall. Which direction on the map is north now ? It is evident that north must be up, while east is on the right, south is dotcn, and west is on the left. Certain lines, called lines of longitude, extend due north and south, and others, called lines of latitude, east and west. You should drill yourself to understand directions on maps. \^ KOBTH AMERICA. Scale of Htla*. <\ . .W>. . . .lap" CaffteU-.* OOmt ClUM:t ^0PliOn|ftBa^W€j^O^2jm^J5«n»ijIJ^ V itf MAPS 187 Fia. m. Relief Map of North Amerioa. (ModelM bf E. E. HowaU.) UH orR IIOMK .1 .'I) ITS SUHROUNIHNaS (iive the ain.ctu.nH .,( > '.j-.tH fro... .me »,..,tl.e.- vvLiU' th. nmp U ha..«i..K ..p. l'"t »!• t»'" ' 4 * t»"^ «'»"'^'' >•»''*• "'"' "7 'f "" ***'' you have, and tell tl.e dire uo, froi.i ....e j.lai-e U. another.' It iH clear now whr .>. p in. H in a drawing telling .nnetlung about . .cun ,.. mi us a letter may be Home writing telling 80 ,• m.m. ,t'.o«t a fr.end When you reacUuch a letter, ,.n Hi k about your friend how he looks, what he haH I v.n .1 . -g, and so on. bo when you look .t a map, you .houul H-ink .»--: the country, how it looks, how far a; vt .he ; lu.. ., and other particulars connected with it. • * ,»« There is uu.re thar one l.ir, . - ' -vp. "ere is a picture of North Atnerica ( .fi. i^^^)- '^ .hows how this conti- nent might ai,pear U you looked down upon it from some point far above. A picture like this, showmg the moun- Lins u.d vdleys, is caile.l a r.Hef map That is, it g.ves vou some idea of the relief or height of the land. ' The maps that you have been drawing do not show this. They are flat maps, representing the country as if it were . Af.pr the Children are quite at home in using the map when it is hung H or l^^wtl hing U on other mdes of the roo.n and let Ihe.n give the rr^culs Iht'i e-y vvovK if properly graded ; but the fact that .nany SrenJ>'n« geography are cc.fused in.rega.^ t. direct.on. ou the .nap sugge.t^ that caution ^^^^ ^^, ,i,i,„ ,i,at every It is well to bear in m.nd that this is simpijr aiuic "• v ,„.l Ik'rlm a.lo,,led to a.old confu.lou. A picture ol «..y pan ol tU. r,d rjd 1 1 ' » correc. it dn.w„ .hawing .he po.U,o„» re.e„ed » -l!nn:l°S™hT-.he «ch., ,n.y ..,»<.!-» ,he «"^y »Jj-- m.M ». Ihi. point. The childn^n milht draw a eo„u,nt map of their «- Srld! and then ,.,»ihi.v ,„aVe a „,,e. '- --'„r riT.' 1-- »' »"»»•"' \''"l;TS;r„*..S'»:do,, better -till, Keliet .nai.« i.iay also In: eun=tr.,'-tM ny m j^ ., ,,„„i_e^. in putty, as the latter can afterward be colored, it desired. ►^ 1 XI MAPS 189 a flat surface. Opposite page 137 you will find a flat map ot North America. Compare it with the relief map op- posite and notice the difference. In Figure 132 you will see the way in which flat maps are made to represent the land and uater. No attempt is made on the flat maps to show just what the country looks like, that is, to represent its relief. They merely repre- sent the position and direction of towns, rivers, lakes, etc.. just as if the country were perfectly flat. REVIEW QUESTIONS n AND SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY AT HOME AND OUT OF DOORS I. THE SOIL \ .>?atX itt e hits in it are hard like .st..neV (=») What you show that the, nine inw m lu if «r.i. I ave ever seen hanuens when sU.nes are rubbed U.gether? (4) If you »;f ^^^^^ ^'^" S hat were decaying and crumbling, tell about .t (o) How rocks tnat were u ,> b .....^g^.i.en water freezes in the does water enter rocks i (0) » hat napi^ens « • Tracks'' (7) Whatelsehelpstocrunibletherocksandsoil? (») ^h»* heneath the soil? (») Make a drawing, like Figure 4, showing ;L rrk '^!:^ath the Ul. (10) Tell al.ut the depth of the .U. /ii\ Whv is there no soil in some places.' ^'Vl.>7 W ; is the soil worth studying? (1=^) Name two things that plants lake from it. (U) ^f . what advantage is a de^^^^^^^^ n-,^ Do all plants want the same kind of food.' (16) What causes i Iff .ntkindsof soil? (17) What has made some soils so black? thedifferentkinds tsoilf ^1 ,, ..,,,) How are some (18) What is fertile soil (IJ ^^^"''^ ^^^^ ^ J^ ^, ^^^, ,hem soils robbed of their plant food ' (21) ^^|»^y^"^ ^ ^ 8. fertileoncemore? (2-2) '^^-^^^^''^'Zl^!: ^'^'^■^^- , ,. /.>\ Uroak <(onie t)el>l)U's ol>en w» wi "'"^ ::i:LlI -r,) C.,U™t.v„„,..i«e«ntki„d,o,«i.. (0) runt 140 BFA'JEW QUKSTrnxSi 141 beans in eaoh kind, at ilw sam.- tini.-. an.l mu. in wliich one tli.y grow »>est. (7) See what tlu- «-ttVct would !..■ if no wat.-r w.-re jfiv.-ii to some of them. (,S) Fin find out what kind of soil is us«'d there, and what i.s done to keep it fertile. (11) Visit a ^anleneror a farmer U, find out how he cultivates the soil. (12) How many articles can vou name, as crockery, for example, that are irnuU' of soil or clay? (1:5) Write a short story about tlie soil. ir. HILLS Review Questions. — (1) Is there much land that is really level? (■2) What do you understand by rolling land? (:{) Were the hills that you know always there ? (4) Have y.»u seen water carrying away 8oil? If so, tell alM)ut it. ("») Kxplain how hills have been nuide. («) What is the base of a hill? (7) The summit? (8) Tell what you learn from Fignre lO. (9) From Figure 11. (10) Make a drawing somewhat like Fignre 11. (11) ()„ what part of a hill is it coolest? (l->) Howcould you prove this? (l:j) Why does it often snow on hills while it rains on lower land near by? (14) What is a swamp? (ir,) Why shoul.l not houses be built on swampy ground? (1«) Why are hills liable to be dry ? (17) Why is the lowland in cities usually so dry? (1,S) Why have castles oft<"n been built on hills? (1») Why ,lid the earlier settlers place their churches on hills? (L>(>) What oth.-r rea.sons can iK...ple have f..r wishing to look far out over the country ? Suggestions for Study at Home .\ni» out ok I)<,o,ts.— (1) Find some ground about your home that seems nearly level Is it really level? (2) Where is the longest sIoik3 in you; neighbor- hood? The steeliest one? (3) Observe the water carrying off soil after a rain. Where does the soil go? (4) Write a story alwut it. (5) Search for a washout after a heavy rain. (6) Where is your highest hill ? (7) In what season of the year is it estx-ciallv pleasant to Uve on a hill ? Why? ' (8) Can you find any houses built on low, wet stjil? (fi) Are their cellars ever very damp? (10) Ask some d.K^tor why one should not live in such places. (11) Find some pictures of castles, showing their location. (12) Is your schoolhouse upon a hill? (13) Name pn: • i if f! ^ I .5 I 4-1 142 or/: //o.vf? /t.v/> its sri{iioi\in\as any houses in your .H-i«hlM.rh.M..l that Htan.l on .i l.iil. (H) Where is your .nost l>.-autiful vi.w V (i:.) Do yur fn-Hls agree w.th .v.m that it is viie most heaiitifiil oneV III. MOUNTAINS Rkv.kw QiKHr,oNs.-(l) What can y.m say abont the height of mountains V (2) How have they l>een n.adeV a U hat .s a mountain chain or rangeV (4) Mow long ni.ght it uke to cl.m b a " . ., .. ,.> .-,-> whv solouL'.' (»>) What can you tell mountain a mile high i (•>) >^ '0 ^ '""K • ^ \. ^ ' .^„^ . , about the cold at the summit.' (7) How do the trees change in apiH-arance as one mounts higher and higher ^ %) What woul.1 you need for a journey up Mont BUnc. (9) Describe the first part of the journey. (10) What is the timber lineV (11) What is the snow line? (12) What are avalanches/ n:n Describe the view from the toi> of the mountain. /l4) Mention son.e reasons why mountains are favorite summer resorts (b^) What kiml. of mines are found in mountains. m) Whv is it so fortunate that trees grow so well on mountain sides? (i7) What is d..ne with themV (IH) Tell what you can alK)ut the streams that flow from mountains. SruuKST.oNS.-(l) Watch for clouds that resemble mountains. Make a drawing of them. (2) Find pictures of mountains; note the timl>.^r line, the snow line, and other points of interest (^ Represent a mountain in sand. Show the tree line; the snow line steep and gentle sloi^s. (4) Represent a mountain range in sand^ C5) In what direction are the nearest mountains.' What are they called? How far away are they? Find out interesting facts about *'";S) Ask some one who has climbed a ."ountain to f^y-^^!;^ it (7) Wouldyoucare to climb one yourself? Why.' (8) WriU- a'stc'ry relating the adventures you would expect to "'-^J^*;^'^ moun^n clin.bing. Describe some of the -^ ^'^ ""^f/X, to find. (0) Why do few people live high up on the 'n^"**^^ f J^ (10) Examine a piece of ore (in some museum) and find out how the n,etal is taken from the rock. (11) Begin a collection for the Xl\ bv bringing -some ores. (12) Look up pictures of wc^ds on mountainside^ You will find several in this book. (13) Find some I 1 UF.VIhAV tfl'KsriOSs 1J:! pictures wliicli show k<>ij(.'s cut in tlu- iiioiiiitiiiiis l.y riiiiiiiiig watfr. (14) Fiiitl out soiiit! fiicts iiliout gliiciers. IV. VAI.LKYS Rkvikw QiKSTroNs. — ( 1 ) Whiit niiikcs the little valleys? (:.') 'IVil why they must change from year t.. year. (!) Describe smne of those you have crossed on the railway. (I) How many slo|«'s are neces- sary to make a valley V (-)) What is a divide? (t!) Tell h„w large some of the largest valleys may Iw. (7) How have these very large valleys been formed ? (X) What is a plain? (0) In what parts of mountains do most |>eople live? Whv? (10) What is meant by drainage? (11) Mow .lo farmers sometimes provide drainage? (1:») What is a swamp? (l;j) Why d., roads and railways among the mountains follow the valleys? (11) What is a mountain pass? (lo) Where is the most level land usually found? (1(!) What fields or grounds near you are beautiful? (17) Are there any walks or drives that you greatly enjoy ? (1«) How d,, the views change from time to time ? Sr ITS sunnou\hi\Gs (M What are tributaries? («) !><«'« the current K""W <"«'•« or les. swift an oue Koes further (7) Mow doeH the coui.try change i.. ap,>earance? (8) What becou.es of the pebbles^ Why? (ft) What is meant by the nource of a river? By ,ts n,outh? (10) Where do rivers obtain their water? (11) ^\h»t '^'^ * J""^ ' ll') What effect has a heavy rain upon a stream? (M) \Vhy do not large rivers dry up in summer? (14) Why does not sednnent sink where the current is swift? (15) What .s a A-^P'- ^ ^s ^a is it level'' (Ifi) Explain how a delta is made. (17) What is a iver basin? (18) A river system? (l«). ^^y.^io plants grow weU on the banks of a river? ('->..) What is irrigation? (21 » ow a^ rivers useful for drainage? (•->•->) What is water-power? (M) In what way is a river a good road? (J*) Give some of the reasons why many cities have sprung up near great rivers. SiM;o^ir.oNS.-(l) Aft«r a heavy rain, follow a small strea.n f..om Its source to its u.outh. (2) Throw a chip into the wat.r and Llow it as far as you can. (^) Why are the lobbies m river beds us ally so smooth and round? (4) If there is a brook or river near "examine its banks. Is it a tributary of an..ther stream? 5 ' 1 ow deep and how wide is it? (0) Trace a brook to its .source f possible. Find several tributaries. (7) What large river ,s neare.s oZ hon,e? What are its largest tributaries? (8) What .s n.au by .Uip a river"? By "down a river"? By right bank .' By left bankv By river channel? By river bed? (0) Find a spring. Why is it; water cool? (10) Observe a well that is l>eing < ug, to see if underground water is found. (H) Find a flood-plain l:; the side 'of a stream. (12) Find a delta ( : Do you know of a city that gets its water from a nver > (14) Make a sill water-wheel, and arrange for a stream of water Jo turn i troiin^ (15) Visit a mill that is run by water-power. (16) i.nd some ^ms describing brooks and rivers. (17) Write a story of a journey from the source to the mouth of a river. VI. PONDS AND LAKES Review Questions. - (1) Why are dams built in rivers? (2) Ex- pla" Lw pond, are made. C^ How do lakes differ from ponds? (1) How a« lakes made? (5) Tell what you cau about beaver REriEir Qi'KSTKhWS 14;', dams. (6) Tii what other ways may Ink.- ut the water then? Why? (10) What is meant by shore? By heach? (11) What do you understand by a rpf,ul„r lake shore? (12) Make a drawing o^f a cape; jieninsula; isthmus; island; bay; strait. (l:j) Tell what each of these is. (14) What is the cause of thes«' irrefrularities? (15) Mention a few uses of jKinds and lakes. (K!) What is a harlxM- ? (17) Why should the water be deep? (1,S) How can a harbor pr.>t.'ct ships from storms? (1ft) What is a wharf ? (20) How an* harlnirs often made? (21) What is a breakwater? Si-ooESTioNS. — (1) Build a dam in some small stream and note how rapidly the water collects. (2) Find out more about U-avers. (:J) Look for a jsmd or lake and examine the dam that cans.-.! it. (4) See if there are lK)th an inlet and an outlet. (.')) Walk up the lake; walk down the lake. (0) Examine the shore and notice the different forms of land and water. (7) Find a small harlw.r. Wouhl every bay mak." a good harlM)r? (S) Make a small, irregular holh.w in clay an«I till it with wat«'r tnd. (14) Find out how many feet some of our largest ships .sink into the water. (15) Walk toward the nearest large lake. What are some of its tributaries? Where is the inlet stream? The outlet? What are thfir names? (l(j) Name some cities that are on lake harbors. (17) Write a story telling what you would exi^ct to see along a lake shore. VIL THE OCEAN Review Qiestions. — (1) What place does the water of brooks and rivers finally reach? (2) How much of the earth's surface is water? (;)) What other facts show that the ocean is very large? L fir 14G iito you know of any park or meadow with a stream or lake in it? If so, describe it. (12) Did you ever enjoy watcdiing the water? Where was it? (!:}) How does the surface of a lake or ocean change at different times ? SiKiOKSTiovs. — (1) In what direction would you go to reach the ocean? How far is it? (2) Find pictures of large harlHirs with ships in them. Qi) Name several aeajKirt cities. (4) Have some one tell you alxtut a journey across the ocean. (.*>) Name as many arti- cles as you can that come from over the ocean. (0) How does the captain of a vessel know in what direction he is going, after losing sight of land? (7) How are ships made to move through the water? (8) What use is made of whales? (8) Find out how fish are caught. (10) Ask some one who has visited a summer resort on the seashore to tell you about it. (11) Is there any brook or river that you enjoy visiting? Where is it most Iteautiful? (12) Tell about some of the storms on the ocean described in Robinson Crusoe. (UJ) Do you know of any views that are made more beautiful by the presence of water? If so, where are they? Describe them. (14) Collect, from old magazines, pictures of beautiful views with water in them. (1.5) Write a story, telling what you would expect to see in crossing the ocean. (16) Make a drawing of a ship. VIII. THE AIR Review Questions. — (1) Of what use is air ? (2) How can you prove that air is something? (;i) Describe the exjieriments with the bottle. (4) What do they prove? (") What are winds? (6"4 Prove that there are winds high above the ground. (7) Why does the air rise over a heated lamp? (8) What causes winds? (fl) In what ways are winds useful? (10) How can you prove that th) il-nv cold nniHt it Iw to form snow? (L>n) How i.s dew cauN.-.r." Fn-.i/ (24) Of what imjKirtance are the ) Name son.e of them. (:{) What are the natural products of your neighborh.HKi ? (4) For what are these natural pro which luinlH'riuK \f\v*'!i «-iii|ili>yiiicnt. (1:.') Nuiii«> noiiu> uf the U!te.s t<> wliich iron is {itit. (Ut) Nuitit* wjiiie iudutttrivM deix'utleiit uu the iiroiliictH uf the fiiria. (14) On cattle uud Mhefp. (15) Ou tba lishfrieH. (lU) What du we get fruiu luiuett? (17) Fruiu quarrieH? Si'uuE8TioN». — (1) Visit tiie iieareHt market, and see what articles are brought there fur ttale. (2) Find out if thcM* articles are fur huuie use ur tu Ih; sent away. (•)) V^isit a railway statiun, and see what natural pnHlucts are loaded on the cars. (I) When* are these going toV ('>! What natural products dared that the grocer sells? (lit) Which ar»' home prinlucts, and which come from other countries? (II) What natural products do you use for food? For clothing? (lU) Where does the coal or w«hm1 you burn come fn>m ? (lU) What materials havt* In'en used in building the house you live in, and where do these come from ? (14) Write a story alniut a tree, from the time it is growing in the forest till it is used as luml»er in building. X. OUR DOMESTIC ANIMAL.S Review Questions. — (1) What animals are called our domestic animals? ('J) Do other countries have the same kind of domestic animals? (:{) Where are the great cattle ranches to l)e found? (4) What animals do our farmers chiefly raise? (5) What animals do we use for drawing loads? (0) Name some of the animals used in other countries. (7) Where is the horse most valuable? The mule crass? The ox? The elephant? The camel? (8) Where is the dog used for hauling loads ? Can you tell why ? (9) Why is a camel most useful in the desert? (10) Why is a mule or a burro most useful in the mountains? (11) Why is an elephant best fitted to break through the jungle? (12) What wild animals act as scavengers in some old countries? (13) Name some of them and where they are found. Suggestions. — (1) Ask some farmer what breed of cows gives the most milk. (2) From which does he get the richest cream, and REVIEW Ql'ESTlONS 149 the bert butt«r? (:») What kin.i of cattle are the I..Ht U. fat»..„ for (*lg. ,.>)f (.)) Which make th.. Lent mutton? («) Which hr,^.,! of hoKH .H the lK..t to fatt..,./ (7) What .Km. he f „...,., .„., («) I-ind out alM.ut the .lifferent ki.ulsof h„r«.> hu.I where they come fr,.m; tho... for carriage use. or for ri.ling; a,..l U.os,. f,.r teH,„i„., and heavy farm work. (») Iluve you a dog? (an he draw v.m. iu a 8h..Kh or h«ht waggon? (1(.) Is he like the ,|„g i„ Kig'un. H4V (II) Have y„„ ever gone through a creamery ? If not. take the first chance you get and nee how l.utter an.l chee«. are made. ( 1') I),, you keep any ,^>„itry? (J.J) Ask .s<,„,e friend to t^-ll v..u how manv Ls are^Hcnt away from Canada every year. (U) Name the various" kinds of food made from the dilTerent i>arts of a hog. XI. VVAiVl.K Rkv.kw Q,KST,o.VH.-(l) Have you ever neen anv .K-ople of another color than the whif i-eople? (-) Tell when", the hlack people came from, an.l what Hort of a country theirs was. (.() How did they live there, an.l how is it that there are Mack people in thi« country? (4) Can you tell what slav.-s are, and what is meant hy slavery? (^y) Are there any slaves in Canada? («) H.)w did the slaves in the I'nited States I)ecome free? (7) What jH-ople are calle.I the yellow ra^e? (H) I)escriJ«. their dress and apiK-arance. (<») What .lo we get froni th.ir country? (10; Have you ever seen any of this race? ,,ol^\L^^*"** ^'^"^^'^ *'■'' ^^"^ ""^"'"' "'»'«''itants of our continent'^ (12) Why are the red n.en called Indians? (]:{) (Jive an account of how the Indians treated the early pioneers. (H) II„w .li.l the early pioneers of the country travel? (1.-,) II„w were the In.lia,. ,..o„le divided? (Hi) Are th..re any unciviliz.-d Indians now? (17) What IS an " Indian Re.servation"? (18) Do any of the In.lian children go to school ? " (li») How many diff. -rent whit^' nations are rej.n-sent^d in Figure OP Doanyof them speak Knglish? (i'(») ( ^n people .,f ,.,„. country mid^THtand those of anotiier ? (21) I)u all the Indians siK-ak the same language ? lAO Ol'lt IIOMK AND ITS SUHRfUMUSdS StuuiKurmyn. — (1 ) U h-I tl>«' ntory of " rncle Tom's Cabin " (yon will prohably timl it in your hcIiooI library). ("J) Why ih tin-re no Hiavi'ry now an tUvn- wan in tin- tinii' of tin- Htory? (:l) Are there any colored lM)yn ami xirU in your m-hiM»l ? (I) You havt- r»*ail " HoIh in.Mon ("ru*)«' "? What in Haiti alMuit his man " Fri«iay " an). Could you picl( up r'u'f witli two \v(HMii'n l(nittiiiK-nak their own language as well as Knglish? (14) What other language is sjMikeu largely in C'ana«ia l>esides Knglish? I XII. INDCSTRV AND (OMMKRCK Ukvikw QiESTi<»Ns. — (1 ) How do men earn a living? ('2) What do storekeepers and merchants do ? (:}) What is commerce? (4) Of what advantage is commerce U> a country? (o) Where were the only stores a little more tlian a hundred years ago? (♦!) How is one country dejH-mlent on another? (7) Who were the first settlers in Canada? (H) Wlmtntlit-r Kuropean nations had settleiuents on this continent? (1>) Why were forts (Fig. KM) and blockhouses (Fig. JHJ) neces.sary? (10) When did Canada l>ecome British? (11) Who formed a large part of the early Mritisli s«'ttlers in Canada? (1"J) Descrilw the home of a jmmeer settler. {V\) How did he secure sujiplies? (14) How was tra«le carried on in the early days? (l.'») How did indu*- tries spring u'> among the early settlers? ( Ki) W hy does tlie growth of a city dei)end uiKm its situation ? (17) Tell something al>fmt a back- woods road. (IH) What is a pack train? (1!>) Why must rf)ads l»e paved in cities? ("JO) What is the use of canals? (21) Why are railways valuable? (2"-') How is foreign commerce carried on? C2'-i) How does Great Britain prot«'ct the commerce of the British Kmpire? (24) Describe wliat you see in Figure 11:5. SffiOESTioNs. — (1) Make a list of the crops grown in your neigh- I HKVIKH' ^it/KSTKtys \',\ !»oph.HMl. Mow in th*' work of j.nMliiHnjf th.'iii (Joii,.' (o) |)„ thn xuiiv f.,r ...mH,fa,.tu v,| Hrti.-I.... (:») Writ.. » «tury .l.-mTihinK uii early ]>umv,-r-n ymruvy U, tiw n.-un-st town. (4) Visit a K-n.-nii »t<.n' III tlu- rouiitry. I),.s,.rilH. tl..- vinit. (.-.) Mak^ « list of artirl.., which w.iv j.rolial.lv l.roiiKlit from it ilistuiuv on th.' railway or Wttt«T. («J) FiiMl nut wh.n. tli..y «.uiii.. from. (7) U.^^riU. *.„.„ „l wi«' roails yoii iiavi- .m-fii. (H) ViMitafaitoryora mill. iKs^rilK. th.> vinit. (») Whatif.HMl.. Br« inaiiiifact.,r..,.ilwav. an- in your n.-iKhlnir- h.HK ? Find ..lit wh.-r.. th.y nin t-. (in Tell alnnii any Ht.-am.-r. you have «.en ; where they «.,. an,| w fiat ■],,., „,nil| v .arrv. (\-, Vanie as many wd.Htances a« you can thiH .-itMi.- a. n.^-* th.. „-..an ( Fi^ (W) (1«) Find ..ut Home faot.-^ alnHit tl.. .liJT.-r. nt ani,I,..s „am.-.! in Fig f|-'). (17) Write a story Kivin^ tlie hist.„v .-I ili,- .n.iteriaj <,f your drew or coat. Xlir. (JOVKUX.MKXI Rkvikw (iifsTioNM. - (1) Name a few things that no one in-rsim own.s and that all wish U> use. (•_>) What system was f,.un.l hest for lookuiK after the nm.ls? (:{) Why an- magistrat. . and .-onstaMes nece.ssary? (4) What an- laws? (.-,) Why slumi.l towns, villages. and districts unite to make laws? (.i) What is the nni.,,, „f their re,,re.sent«tiv.-s call.-.!? (7) Why shoul.l c.imti.-s nnif.- t,. make laws? (S) Wliatisth.Mrunit.-.| as,s.Mii».lvcall.-.l'^ (!i) Xuine some of the ohjec-ts f.,r which tli.-y unit.-, (lo) What is a j.n.yince? (11) II..W are laws ma.le in the |.n.vinc..? (\-j) Why are the representatives of the ,k.„,.|,. .-alle.! m.-mhers .,f parliam.-.,; or of the leKislatnre? (l:{) Wh.-re do the members .,f parliam.-nt meet? In whatl.iiihlinjr? (M) What isthecapitaL.f your pn.vinceV (ir,) Who I.H the leading officer of the g.,yeininent? (Ui) Through wh..m .l.,..s he (.arryout the laws made l.y parliament? (17) Why mii.st larg.- citie.s W g..vern..,f t.y repre.s.-ntatives? (18) What are these repre- sentatives called ? Where .lu they iii«;et ? %mM 152 OUIi HOME AND ITS SUHROUNl>INGS (1») Why Hhould not each province make its -" njoneyj ('m\) Why i/our country called the Don.inu.n of I anada .' (-' ) H«.w ild\hev:r;ou«provincL.co.neunit..,.V (•-'•^) >Vhat part o the - tinent of An.erica l.longs to the Donnnu.n of Canada .' -' ) ^ h;« do the n.einlK.r« of the Do.ninion I'arhainent meet> (-4) Why is O tawa "ri ed the capital of the Do.ninionV (•->.>) Of what K.npxre Ottawa ^»'"^' J ^vhat is the forn. of government rCarda? ; ) What is' nLt hy a " Li„.it..d Monarchy"^ oH^Tame oir Lte Queen, and the l'-- ,f '^J -^^^^-^ nr:!:"^L^oTw;::at..ndstor..^^^^^ 1- •; ro\ What officers look after the school*.' (•<) " nat :^;r;:7 d htrt PuLHc huiMin.. Uke a Deaf and ^,.n: h.!ninyour..i.hho.hoo..V (5) '-hat pn.v..^o^ou it from your hous.-, and in ^^ ''^\f '7^ '7 ' , .^.^, i„ ^ ^itv, who i, t,.nant-C;overn<.r of your Province .' (0) If >'>" >' *;^" * [' j^^^ vonr Mavor? If in the country, who is your Reeve . (0) >J nerc • v.. nlv llalP (11) Ask some friend who has travelled abroad IS the I ity Mail . V"^ •*""* ,.,, !„ „.Viftt direction if he hud much trouble with f..reign money. (l->) ^^^^Y^''^^^^ i, Ottawa from where von are, and how far away is it? (l.-^) Who IS Ottawa """'/"'= • .... . u „., .^„e to show you a is living at Uideau Hall -^ ' (^'\^ '^^ ,,^ , advantages ballot-paper and how to vote. (l-J) » «»'■ ar. . s ill being a Canadian V lO