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The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes ou les planches trop grandes pour §tre reproduites en un seul cliche sont filmdes d partir de Tangle supdrieure gauche, de gauche i droite et de haut an bas, en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Le diagramme suivant illustre la mdthode : 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 Jlk.f '0 'Cl4J..C711.'^, 'HPiMMumi^^w^pwar" Mew Brttftdttilcrc Scftool Scries* PRKSCKinKI) liV THH HoARD OF Er)U{ATION OV NkW BiUT.NSWICK. ELEMENTAET J^aluFal j^ifioFy: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE 8TUDY OF MINP]RALS, li^ANTS, AND ANIMALS, WITH Special Keference to tho.ility ; Fusihility ; etc., Z. Useful Minkrals, I. Metals and Their Ores. Iron — Character; Varieties ; Uses; Sources, Manganese — I'ropertitts; Uses, Sources, Copper, Lead, Zinc, Tin, Antinutny, .... (iold, Silver, Mercury, liarer Metals, II. Minerals not Metallic. 1. Applicahleto Ornamental Purposes : (iuart/; Mi(!a; Felspar; (Jarnet; etc., (iems, 2. Applicable as Sources oj Heal and LiylU: Peat. — Nature; Use, l^itiiutinous Coal — Character; Sources, Hard ( ^oal, or Anthracite — ('haracter ; Soun^es,,.. All)ertite; IJituminous Shale, Rock Oil, or Petroleum, Sulphur, 3. Minerals Capable o/ Resisting Heat : (Jraphitc, or Plack Lead, Rrick and Fire Clays , Mica ; Stiapslone; Asliestos 4. Mineral Paints, etc.: Ochres; Karytes; Clialk, 5. Mineral Manures: ^ (Jypsuiu ; Apatite, " 0. Salt and Mineral Waters. Brine 'ipiings, Miueral Springs, 4. Useful Rocks, Granite, 6 y 9 11 12 i;^ 14 ir> lo in 17 18 IH ... 20 .... 22 .... 22 ... 2a ... 24 24-2r> .... 25 ... 2J; ... 26 ... 27 .... 27 ... 28 111 28-29 29 30 30 30 Iv Table of C'onteni'S. I. The BUneral Kingdom. — Continued. 4. UsKKUL Rocks. — Continued. Page Sandstones and Freestones, m Slates, ^ 32 Limestones, 32 Marbles, 33 6. Ok tiik Rklations of Rocks to thk Earth's Surpack. L How Rocks Crumble and Decay. Action of Air and Water; Re- sults, 84 2. Jfow Rocks are Formed. Souree of the Material ; Distribution ; Consolidation ; C'lassification ; Aqueous Rocks ; Igneous Rocks ; Altered, or Metauiorphic Rocks ; Fossils, 34 3. How Rocks Tell the Past History of the Earth, Rock Records, and their Interpretation ; (ieology, 3G 4. How Rocks Determine the History of Man : \. Through their Relations to Agriculture; Origin and Nature of Soils, 37 2. Through their Relations to Surface Features; Origin of Hills, Valleys, Harbors, etc., 37 3. Through their Mineral Wealth, 38 11. The Vegetable Kingdom, 42 L Ok LlFK IN Gknkkai ^ 42 2. Pi-ANT LiKK — Nature; Purpose; I'seful Ends, 42 Hirth of Plants, 44 Seeds, their Structure and (Jrowth ; (icrmiuutitin, , 44 (irowth of Plants, 45 Experimental Illustrations, 4.')-4C Parts of Plants Concerned in fir oivth, 46 Root, Stem, and Leaves, 46-48 Varieties of Roots, 48 Varieties of Stems 4y Varieties of Leaves. 51 Parts of Plants Concerned in Multiplication, 53 Nature of Flowers, 54 Parts of the Flower, 54 Varieties of Flowers; Causes of Oitference, 55 Nature of Fruits, 56 Varieties of Fruits, 56 Seeds, 57 The Food of Plants, 57 The Nourishment of Plants; Nature and Circulation of the Sap, 59 The Useful and Hurtful Plants of Xeu' Jirunsvick, 60 L Crowfoot, or Buttercup Famify, 61 2. Water Lily Family, 61 3. Mustard Family (Mustard, Cress, etc.), 61 4. Violet Family (Violets, Pansiea), 62 5. Pink Family, 62 . 6. Linden Family, 62 7. Vine Family (Grapes), 62 a. Cashew Family (Sumach, Poison Ivy), 63 Table of CoNTtNTS. II. The Vegetable Kingdom. — Continued. The f'sr/ul and Hurtful Plants of New Brunswick, — Continned 9. Maple Family, 10. Tea Family (Fea, Clover, Locust), U. Rose Family (Hose, Ap;)le, Tear, Cherry, Flum, .Strawberry), 12. Currant Family (Currants, Gooseberries), i:{. Witch Hazel Family, 14. H.meysuckle Family (Honeysuckle, Elder), 15. Heath Family (Hlueborry, Cranberry, etc.), Irt. Aster Family (Thistle, Dandelion, Aster, <)x-Fye Daisy, etc.), 17. Olive Family (VVIute and Black Ash), , 18. Convolvulus Family (Morning Cflory, Rind Weed), 63 f>\ 61 6.1 6.1 65 65 66 66 67 19. Figwort Family (Mullein, Toad-Flax, Yellow Rattle), 67 67 68 68 68 6!> 69 70 '20. Mint P'amily (Mint, Catnip, etc.),. 21. Buckwheat Family (Buckwheat, Dock), 22. Kim Family (Kim, Nettle), 23. Walnut Family (Butternut), 24. Oak I''amily (Oak, Betch, Hazel, Hornbeam) 2.5. Birch Family (Birches. Alders), 26. Willow Family (Will()ws, Aspens, Poplars), 27. Pine Family (Pines, Cedars, Spruce, Hemlock, Hackmatack, Balsam Fi') 28. Arum Family ^.'idian Turnip, Calamus), 29. Lily Family (Lily, Trillium, Hellebore), 30. Grass Family, 31. Fern Family, III. The Animal Kingdom, 1. Animal Life — Its Nature; ITow Manifested, 1. Animal Movements — How PlflTected ; Apparatus of Bones, Muscles, Nerves, etc., 2. Animal Volition and Consciousness — The Brain in Relation to the Body V 3. Of Animal Sensation — Powers of Sight, Smell, Taste, Hearing, and Touch, 4. Animal Xiitrition — Nature and Sources of Food, Organs of Seizure; of Attack and Defense, Organs of Digestion — Stomach and Intestines, Organs of Circulation — Heart and Blood Vessels, Organs of Respiration — The Lungs and Gills, b. Animal Fa'inue and Jtesf, 6. Animal Reproduction, 1. By Direct Birth, 2. By Kggs, 3. By Buds and Branches, 7. The Death of Animals, Architectural Comparisons, 2. Plans of Animal STRiTcrrRK, 1. The Vertebrate Plan — Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Fishes, 2. The Articulate Plan — Insects, Spiders, f'rustaceans, Worms, .... 3. The Molhiscan, or Sac-like Plan — Cuttles, Snails, Oysters, etc., 92 4. 7%eJ2adio/cP/an—Sea-Urchins, Star Fi:jhes,, Telly Fishes, Corals, 93 5. Forms Without Definite Pton-— Sponges, Infusoria, etc., 94 71 74 74 75 75 78 78 79 80 80 80 80 80 8t 81 82 82 82 83 83 83 8.t 85 85 -M. T-'Kr'-'- Plate I. —Forms of Minerals, \/ \ rs^ .^^^^>>. 14 ^^•^1^' ^V f 18 .•"■ ■■'•;• JV EXPLANATION OP PLATE I. FORMS OF MINERALS. The above figures rpprosotit a few amoug the many shapos ast^umed by- mineral siiltstanecs, atid whieh are coimuouly known as crystals. AW are found in actual minerals, and are the result of purely natural operations. They are also, in many instances, nearly related to each other, and to be ol»(aiiu'd, the one from the other, by slight modificatioiKs. Thus, from Fig. 1, the cube (easily cut by the pupil out of chalk, wax, or soaj)), it is easy to obtain, by merely cut- ting off successive slices from angles or edges, or both, all the forms fi'om 2 to 6. In each of these forms, length, breadth, and thickness arc alike. Tn the suc- ceeding figures this is not the case, but the figures still possess their own sym- metry, and may be similarly modified. Figs. lo-lS represent some of the forms of snow crystals, the result of the grouping or clustering of many smaller crystals around common centres, vi .-. . ...■ . INTRODUCTION. In looking at the world around us, a jiroccss which wo begin at a very early period of life, we are unconsciously led to divide the objects which we see into two great groups or classes, viz.: into (1), those which have I^ife, and (2), those which have not Life. In the former of these classes we naturally place what we after- wards leant to know as Animals and Plants both being easily recognized as living beings, if not by any visib'^ movements or other signs of life, at least by the fact that soom^r or later they all die. In the second class, on the other hand, we include such objects as stones, rocks, metals, sulphur, salt, and the like, which are essentially unchangeable, and which have obviously no life to lose. A block of wood, it is true, is also lifeless, as nmch so as a lump of lead or a bar of iron, and so are the b( nes and meat vvhich we use as food; but we know that bot' of these have once formed parts of living beings, and hence we associate them with the latter, even though thev now be dead. If, now, we look further into the differences of things, we shall find that, althou^;h both plants and animals are living beings, while minerals are not, there are also between the former so few points of resemblance, and so many features in which they are strongly con- trasted, that we would hardly be likely, in any ordinary case at least, to mistake the one for the other. Thus we are led to recognize three great groups or divisions of all natural objects, to which, borrowing a familiar term used in connection with the races of men, we may apply the name of the Kingdoms of Nature, and which are actually known as the Animal Kingdon,, the Vegetable Kingdom, and the Mineral Kingdom. But it is not enough to know, merely in this general way, that there are such things as Animals, Plants and Minerals. An enquir- ing mind will be led to seek out more exactly the points of resemb- lance and of difference between them, and by so doing will soon find its knowledge of each vastly increased. The more a person obee.ces. 2 Introduction. the more lie will find to sec, and the better will lie be able to see it. Thus his powers of observation — his senses of sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing — will be better developed, his mind will be led to make more careful comparisons, and he will l)ecome in every respect a better educated man. Hence some portion of such studies is very pro[)erly required to be taught as a part of our ordinary school work. Again, we are brought into relation with many dif- ferent animals in many different ways, sometimes beneficially and sometimes not ; we emi)loy both animals and plants for human food, in the making of clothing, and in many other ways; and, finally, we use various mineral substances in the construction of our dwel- lings, iiv machinery, in coinage, in all the arts and industries of life, and the better we know the nature and properties of all these bodies, the better will we be in a position to use them advantageously. Thus the knowledge gained by such studies is useful knowledge, capable of being applied in numberless different ways. It is the wish of the author, in the following pages, to help to- wards the attainment of this knowledge by pointing out, in the simplest possible way, the distinctive features of animals, plants, and minerals, respectively, with special reference to such as are found within our Province, and which, in one way or another, are capable of serving some useful purpose. His work will be largely that of a guide; but it is his earnest wish that attention should be paid rather to the objects to be described than to the mere descrip- tions of them, and that the statements made should, as far as practi- cable, be tested by actual comparison with the subjects of which they treat. Methods of effecting this result, in connection with each of the three great kingdoms, will be given in subsequent pages, and, if faithfully followed out, will be found to present no difficulty, while they will add greatly to the interest and value of the study. As the Mineral Kingdom embraces objects of a simpler charac- ter than are to be found in the Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms, it is capable of being more readily understood, and will be first con- sidered. I. THE MINERAL KINGDOM. 1, Of the Nature of Mineral Sujistanxi-^s. What is a Mineral? In tlie Introductory Chapter it lias been stated that the various objects on the earth's surface may all be placed in one or the other of three great groups or kingdoms, termed the vVnimal Kingdom, the Vegetable Kingdom, and the Mineral Kingdom. It will therefore follow that whatever is not an animal or a plant must be a mineral. But such an answer, even if true, would not be satisfactory, for it leaves one entirely in the dark as to what are the real difierences between these several groups, and still more as to what characters especially distinguish mineral substances. Again, the terms " min- erals," " rocks," and " stones," are of very coumion occurrence, as are the objects to which they refer, and yet few persons, without previous thought, have any definite idea of the difierences between them.. Let us then see whether it is not possible to obtain some clearer notions upon the subject. If we look at any ordinary animal, such as a dog, a cat, a bird, or a fish, we shall find that certain prominent features at once attract attention. It will be seen to move, to take and eat food, to recogniz^^ the existence of various objects around it, and in other ways to show that it is an active living being. It has, moreover, a variety of in- struments or organs by means of which it efTects these various ob- jects — legs, wings or fins for motion, a mouth, bill, teeth, etc., wherewith to eat, the senses of sight, taste, smell or touch wherewith to seek and select its food, and, we may add, a stomach and other organs wherewith to digest it. It is, in other words, not only a living but an organized being, with parts or organs serving difTerent purposes, but all needed for the well being of the animal that possesses them. Each of these animals, moreover, possesses a dis- tinct history. All have had their birth-days; all have attained, by gradual stages, to their full growth; all in turn will die, but not 4 The Mineral Kingdom. usually until after their own life has become repeated and continued in that of their young. Plants, again, are living and they are also organized beings. They show that they are alive in the fact of growth, in being born or pro- duced from seeds, which in turn they again produce, in their power of taking food from without and of converting this into their own substance, as well as in a variety of other ways. They show that they are organized by the fact that they also possess parts or organs especially designed to meet their various wants. Roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruit, etc., are all vegetable organs, each serving its own purpose, and together making up the individual herb, shrub or tree. These larger organs also are made up of smaller ones, and these again of still smaller, so that no matter how minute the plant or fragment of a plant we may have occasion to examine, its true nature can at once be recognized. Now mineral substances have none of the above characteristics. They are neither living nor organized bodies. They are not horn, they do not grov\ in any proper sense of the word, they cannot move, although they may be moved, they do not need, and there- fore they do not take, anything of the nature of food. They have no senses, and are wholly unconscious, even of their own exist- ence. One portion is essentially like any other, and each is inde- pendent, to a great extent, of all the rest. But these are only negative characters. Have minerals and mineral substances no positive ones? Certainly they have ; and their characters, in most instances, are as definite and fixed as are those of any animal or plant, serving as means by which we can at once recognize and distinguish them. Thus, they often have definite forms, and these forms, as seen in what we call crystals, are almost endless in variety, and often of exquisite beauty. They have, in each case, a definite iceight, some being heavy and some light, in various degrees. They are variously affected by heat, some melting readily, while some can hardly be melted at all. They have various colours, which are often rich and beautiful. They may be transparent, like glass, or opaque, like the various metals. They may sparkle with the bril- liancy of the diamond, or they may, so far as appearance goes, be dull and unattractive. In a few instances they possess what are termed magnetic properties, as in the lodestone ; in other cases again they may possess some peculiar smell, taste or odour. The Mineral Kingdom. 5 We may next enquire: Of What are Minerals Composed ? To answer this question fully would require some knowledge of the science of chemistry — a science wliich treats of the nature and constitution of bodies, — but it will be enough to say here that minerals are made up of one or more of several distinct and simple substances, which are known as the chemical "elements." Thus Iron, Lead, Zinc, Tin, Gold, Sulphur, Antimony, etc., are simple elements, it not being possible to obtain from either of these any- thing but itself. But these are often united to form what are called ** compound bodies," and these compound bodies may, and generally do, differ entirely in all their properties from the elements which compose them. Thus, water is a compound body, capable of separa- tion into the two elementary gases. Hydrogen and Oxygen. Most of the ores of the metals are compound bodies, and lience special methods have to be resorted to in order to separate them. Coal, Glass, Salt, Alum, Saltpetre, are all compound bodies, and from each, by appropriate means, several dillerent substances can be obtained. Now, all these bodies are mineral substances, that is, they belong to the mineral world, but they are not all minerals, as that term is usually employed. So granite, limestone, sandstone, and slate are mineral substances, or of a mineral nature, but are not minerals. In the first place a true mineral is always a natural, and not an artificial product, though many such minerals may be artificially imitated or reproduced. And, secondly, a true mineral must be alike throughout, and not a mere mixture or association of various unlike substances. It is in this respect that a mineral differs from a rock. In ordinary granite, which is so commonly used for building or for •ornamental purposes, and for tombstones, it is easy to see that the material differs in its various parts, or is made up of different sub- stances. Here and there are hard, glassy grains, which are known as quartz, while side by side are others, usually somewhat larger, and of a pink or reddish color, which are known as felspar, and finally still others, usually nearly black, which may be readily split into scales with a knife, and which are known as mica. Now, the ([uartz, felspar and mica are minerals, but associated together they form the rock termed granite. So sandstone is made up of grains of sand, ■which may or may not be alike, and the same is true of many clays, of ordinary earth, of slate, and many other substances. Again, 6 Thp: Mineral Kingdom. water, quicksilver, and petroleum, or rock-oil, are minerals, notwith- standing their ordinary liquid state, for they are all formed by natural causes, are lifeless bodies of similar nature throughout, and possess nothing of the nature of organs. From what has been stated, it will be evident that the nature of a rock will varv with the number and kinds of minerals of which it is made up. We shall, therefore, proceed now to show a little more fully how minerals are distinguished and recognized, and will then proceed to enumerate and describe some of thoL, which are of most interest and value. OF THE RECOGNITION OF MINERALS. The following are among the features of minerals which are of most service in distinguishing and identifying them : (1.) Hardness. This is easily tested with the point of a knife, or the edge of a file. Each true mineral has its own degree ot hardness. Diamond, for exjimple, will cut glass, quartz will only scratch it, while black lead, which we use in lead pencils, but which is not really lead at all, is so soft as to stain the fingers. A table Oi* scale of hardness, containing a number of well-known minerals, and arranged in a regular series, is of much service in making such comparisons. Related to hardness, and depending tipon like causes, are the properties which minerals possess of allowing or not allowing them- selves to be cut, or bent, or hammered out into thin sheets. Gold and lead can be cut (or are sectile)^ while iron cannot ; gold, again, is easily hammered out into gold-leif (i. e., it is malleable), and it can be drawn out into wires, as may copper and iron (they are ductile), but many others cannot. Mica will bend (or is flexible) ; other minerals are brittle, like glass, and will break if we attempt to bend them. All these characters depend upon the variations in some inward force by which their particles are bound together. (2.) Weight. Every one is familiar with the expression "as heavy as lead." Bodies dift'er in their relative weight, and these differences, where they are constant, as among minerals, often serve The Mineral Kingdom. 7 a useful purpose in distinguishing them. Thus not only lead but most of the metals are heavy, and so are their ores; but minerals not containing metals are often much lighter. The differences may be measured with great exactness, but the methods of doing so need not be described here. (3.) Form. Minerals often have a definite shape, sometimes exceeding in beauty and perfection of finish the most elaborate works of human art. These regular shapes are commonly known as crystals, the name being derived from a Greek word signifying ice. Ice itself is a good example of crystals, as freezing aflbrda a good illustration of what is termed crystallization. Snow, again, is often seen to be composed of exquisitely beautiful crystals, and more (Plate I.) than a hundred different forms of tliis substance have been observed, though all are mere modifications of a comparatively simple form. So most substances are found, at one time or another, in a crystalline condition, and the form of the crystal being fixed, within certain limits, for each substance, we have merely to notice the form to know what the mineral is. Salt, alum, saltpetre, sugar (rock candy), are other examples of crystalline substances, and they show well the way, or one of the ways, in which many crystals have been formed in Nature. We have only to dissolve either of them in water, and then allow the water to escape again by evaporation, when, if the process is not disturbed, we shall obtain it in the form of crystals, each with its own peculiar shape. In the case of ice, sulphur, and some other substances, the same result has been ob- tained by the substance first melting, and then, by cooling, becoming solid again. Snow has crystallized from a state of vapour. (4.) Cleavage. This is the property which many minerals possess of splitting or cleaving more or less read.^y in jiarticular directions. It is similar to what, in the cjise of wood, we express by saying that it "breaks with the grain." Some minerals, such as quartz, have no cleavage, breaking much like glass ; mica, on the other hand, splits indefinitely into thin sheets, often (but inappro- priately) known as isinglass. Between these two extremes there is every possible variation, but the feature is constant for each parti- cular substance. (5.) Relations to Light. These are manifested in two ways; first, in the nature and extent of the light which minerals reflect from 8 . The Mineral Kingdom. their surface, and secondly, in tlie corresponding nature and amount of liglit wliicli they permit to pass througli tiiem. It is througli the former power, cliietly, that tliey acquire their colour, varying tlirough almost every i)ossible shade in different species, and often subject to wrrh diversity even in a single one. To the same cause also we are to describe their peculiarities of lustre, which may be either brilliant, feeble, dull, or altogether wanting, or on the other hand, may vary in character, sometimes resembling the lustre of the ordinary metals, sometimes that of glass, resin, mother of pearl, wax, or some other familiar substance. To the second cause and its varia- tions are to be ascribed the i)roi)erty possessed by many minerals of being transparent, or of allowing objects to be readily visible through them, or of being only translucent, merely allowing light to pass, as through ground glass or oiled paper; also the internal colours of gems and i)recious stone?-', and in some instances the ai)parent doubling of objects over which the mineral has been placed. Finally, many minerals intercept light altogether, and are then opaque. (6.) Relations to Heat. Some mineral substances, like ice and sulphur, melt very readily; others, like iron, with more difhculty, and others again, like black lead, not at all. Some again, under the influence of heat, may, like water, be readily converted into vapour. For the better appreciation of these difierences, a special means of applying heat in the form of what is known as a blow-pipe, is very desirable, but even without its aid the test is often a very valuable one. (7.) Relations to Magnetism and Electricity. The com- mon magnetic toys of the shops illustrate the first of these properties in their power of mutual attraction. It is a property confined under ordinary circumstances to certain ores of iron, and especially to that known as tlie lode-stone. To the old Lati:^ name of this mineral, viz., magnes (derived from the town of Magnesia, in Lydia, whence it was obtained) the words magnet and magnetism owe their origin. Electricity is a related property which is developed in a variety of substances as tiie result of rubbing and other causes. There are several minerals which become electric and attract light objects when thus treated. From one of these, ordinary amber, of which the Greek name is electron, comes the familiar word electricity. The Mineral Kingdom. 9 (8.) Relations to the Senses. Salt ami nlum nre readily recognized by their taste; sea-vvaier is slightly bitter; many mineral waters have offensive sulphurous odors. Such features are of com- paratively rare occurrence, but when found, constitute usef il guides in the recognition of t)^e mineral? ^vhich exhibit them. A Description of the More Useful ]Mixerals, with Special Keference to such as Occur in New Brunswick. I. METALS AND THEIR ORES. IRON. General Ciiaracter. Every one is familiar with the general appearance and qualities of iron, for among all mineral substances there is none so generally emi)loyed, and so generally useful, as this. Hard, firm, and unyielding, and yet capable of being fashioned into almost every conceivable shape; possessed of great strength, and yet in many instances flexible and elastic; not easily affected by heat, and yet capable of being melted and run into moulds ; having little tendency to change, unless when long exposed to damp air or moisture, when it is found to rust; and, finally, occurring in enor- mous quantities, and capable of being obtained at a comparatively trifling cost, it answers far better than any other metal the ordinary requirements of life. Varieties and Uses. Three principal varieties of iron (or, more accurately, of a compound of iron and charcoal), are known in tlie arts, viz. : Wrought Iron, Cast Iron, and Steel. The first, thcjugh hard and tough, is flexible and malleable, i, c, it can he bent with- out breaking, or rolled out into sheets, as in ordinary sheet iron. It can also be drawn into wire. It cannot, however, be readily melted, its several forms being given to it by various processes of hammer- 10 The Mijieral Kingdom. ing and working. Cast iron, on the other hand, containing much more charcoal, is also more fusible, and hence better adapted for the making of castings. Cast iron stoves afford a good illustrition of its characicr. It possesses little or no flexibility, and, unless thick, is easily shattered by a blc.v. Steel, again, both in natnre and properties, stands between the other two, and further varies in quality, according to the methods of making it and the use foi which it is designed. Thus, in razors, knives, chisels, and cutlery of all sorts, it is made, by a process termed (I'mperhw, extremely hard and brittle, while in swords, saws, and wat i springs, by a moditica- tion of the same process, it becomes pliant and elastic. Enormous quantities of an inferior variety of steel are now emi)loyed in the making of the rails of railways. Some idea of the extent to which iron is at present used, in all its various forms, may be had from the statement that the world's consumption of this metal, in the year 1883, amounted to more than twenty-seven million tons. Sources. The sources from which this vast supply of metal is derived are very numerous. In almost all countries it is found to a greater or less extent, but there are a few whicii may be especially referred to as the iron producing countries of the world. One of these is Great Britain, where iron ores occur in large beds, and are extensively worked, especially in South Wales, and in the :;ounties of Stafford, York, and Derby. Large quantities are also obtained from Norway and Sweden, and from Germany. The iron mines of Spain have also been worked since a very early period. In America iron ores occur abundantly in various parts of Canada, especially in Nova Scotia and Quebec, and in the United States. The ores of iron are somewhat various in quality and appear- ance, but all are essentially compounds of the metal with the gas, oxygen. To obtain the metal they are accordingly heated in large furnaces, called " bLost furnaces," with charcoal, which removes the oxygen and sets the iron free, combined, however, with a portion of the charcoal. Pure iron is never found as a natural product of the earth (though shooting stars, compo-sed of this metal, sometimes fall ui)on the earth's surface), and is also never used in a pure state, its various forms, as above stated, being all the result of a combination with charcoal. In New Brunswick, the chief localities for iron ores are St. John county (in the vicinity of Black River), and Carleton county. In TlIK MiNKUAL KlN'CiDOrr. 11 the latter the })e(Is are extensive, and were formorly largely worked in the vicinity of Jaeksontuwn, near Woodstock. Over 40,000 tons of ore were raised and used in the blast furnaces at tiiis place, and for certain j;.irj)oses tlie iron produced was of excellent (piality, but of late years it has been found impossible to carry on tlie business profitably, and the Avorks have been abandoned. The ores of Carleton are of a brownish red colour, and easily recognized by tiieir weight and the colour they exiiibit when scratched, this being eitlier reddish or brown. They are mixtures of red iron ore {/lemalite) and brown iron ore (limonile). In the rocks of the southern counties veins and crystals of magnetic iron ore are often met with, but they are not in sufficient (piantity to be of value. Another compound of iron, known as Iron Pyrites, should also be mentioned here, not that it is of any value in itself, but because itbears some resembhmce to gold, and, being of common occurrence, is frequently met with and mistaken for the more precious metal. It is, in fact, often known as "fool's gold." From true gold it is. easily distinguished, by being nuich iiarder, not yielding to a knife like gold, and not beating out under a hammer; also by giving, when thrown on hot coals, the well known fiame and odor of burning: sulphur. It is a very common impurity of ordinary house-coal. MANGANESE. This metal, which in its properties bears much resemblance *©■ Iron, is rarely seen in a pure state, and in this form has little or no value. Small quantities of manganese are sometimes associated with iron in the manufacture of certain kinds of steel, or may, as in the Woodstock iron ores, be already present in the proper amount; but the chief value of manganese, or rather of its ore, arises from the indirect use to which it is put in the process of bleaching^ and for this purpose it is almost solely employed. Small quantities are used in the manufacture of glass, both for giving and removing colour from the latter. Manganese occurs in large quantities in New Brunswick, and ha» been successfully mined for many years. The most important deposits are those of Markhamville, about twelve miles south of Sussex, in Kings county. The anhual production from these mines varies from 500 to 1,500 tons, being valued, according to quality. 12 The Mineral Kingdom. from $15 to ^oO per ton. Other localities, not now worked, are Shepody Mountain, (^luico, and theTattagouclie River, near Batlinrst. The ore, which i8 of a dark colour, very heavy, and usually crystal- line, in chieHy exi)orted to the United States. Beds of very impure manganese ore, known as "wad" occur in Tarious parts of tiie Province, and may usually be readily recogriized by their very black colour. One such bed, of considerable extent, may be seen on the ))ank of the St. John River, just above Govern-- ment House, in Fredericton. They are of no value. Of foreign localities, those yielding the chief supplies of manga- nese are Spain and Portugal. It is also obtained from various localities in the United States and Irom Nova Scotia. COPPER. General Properties and Use.s. Several of the more im- portant qualities of this metal, such as its peculiar reddish colour, metallic lustre, hardness and durability, are familiar as seen in the smaller denominations of ordinary coins. In addition to these properties, copper is in a high degree malleable and ductile ; that is, it can be readily rolled into thin sheets or drawn out into long wires, ■which are at once strong and flexible. It is not easily melted, while at the same time it gives easy i)assage both to heat and electricity. Lastlv, it unites readilv with other metals to form what are known iUJ alloys, such as brass, bronze, bell metal, and the like. As a result of these qualities, it is largely used in the manufacture of utensils, in the sheathing of ships, for electrical purposes, in engraving and -electro-plating, as well as in coinage. Even ordinary gold and silver coins contain a certain proportion of copper in order to add to their hardness and durability. Copper also gives rise, by chemi- cal means, to several important compounds, such as Blue Vitriol, Verdigris, Paris Green, etc. Introduced into the human body in any form it is highly poisonous. Sources. Copper is a very widely distributed metal, and is found in nature in several different forms. In some instances it is found quite pure, and large masses of such pure or native copper occur about the shores of Lake Superior, where they have been mined from a very early period. More commonly the copper is united with more or less sulphur, forming either a rich brass yellow mineral (Copper Pyrites), or one of darker and somewhat variable colours, The Mineral Kingdom. 13 known us Variegated Copper ore. A bright green variety of copper ore, known as Malachite, in addition to being used as a source of the metal, is also valuable for ornamental purposes, lieing readily polished and sdhiewhat largely used in jewelry. The chief foreign sources of supi)ly for copper are the districts of Cornwall and Devonshire, in England, portions of Russia, Franc^, Hungary, and Spain, the Cape of Crood Hope, Australia, and New South Wales. In America, in addition to the Lake Superior region, there are very rich mines in Colorado, Arizona, and other parts of the Rocky Mountain region, with some, of more limited extent, in the Province of (Quebec. In New Brunswick cop[)er ores occur at many localities along the southern seaboard, in Charlotte, St. John, Albert, and Westmorland Couiuies, as well as near Woodstock, in Carleton County, and near Bathurst, in (iloucester County, and attem})ts have been made at many diftcrent points to remove the ore, but as yet none of them have resulted [)rofitably. All the varieties of ore above named are occasionally met with. LEAD. Character and Uses. Lead is a metal remarkable chiefly for its great weight, for its whitish colour, bearing some resemblance to silver, and for its great softness, which admits of its boing readily cut, bent, or hanmiered. It is also very easily melted. When freshly cut it is bright and silver-like, but soon tarnishes by exposure to the air. Its effects on the human system are highly injurious. The principal uses of lead as a metal are in the making of pipes for the conveyance of water, in the lining of cisterns, in shot, in plummets, and, by union with tin, in the making of alloys, such as plumbers' solder, and pewter. Combined chemically with other substances it is the basis of several important paints, such as White Lead, Red Lead, Chrome Yellow, and others, and, as "Sugar of Lead," is employed in medicine. Several of these substances are dangerous poisons. Sou] CES. In the old world, lead is chiefly obtained from Eng- land (especially Derbyshire), Spain, and Prussia. In the United States, large and valuable deposits of the ore exist in Missouri and Wisconsin, but the most remarkable mines are those of Colorado and Nevada. From a single locality, that of Leadville, in Colorado, ' ^ . 14 TnK MiNKUAi. Kingdom. there were obtained, in 1884, over 3o,000 tons of lead. It is not mined to any extent in Canada. Jn New I>rnnswick, lead occnrs at a nund)er of })()int.s, among which may be mentioned the island of Ounpobello, in Charlotte eonnty ; Mnsqnash, in St. John eonnty; ^Norton, in King's eonnty; and the neighborhood of P.atlun-st, in vered over with a thin protecting coating of zinc. The metal is also very largely used in the production of electri- city. It may be readily united with other metals, and one of these compounds (or alloys), a mixture of zinc and copper, is familvar as ordinary brass. Bronze, so largely used in early times, before the general introduction of iron, is a compound cf zinc, copper and tin. German silver is brass, to which a small quantity of nickel has been added. Some of the compounds of zinc are of service as paints, and others as medicines. Sources. Zinc is never met with, in nature, in the pure state, but combined, most conmionly, with sulphur. It then forms the mineral known as blende^ which the miners, from its dark colour, sometimes call "blackjack." It has a peculiar lustre, recalling that of resin, and, like true resin, will become electric by rubbing. Zinc ores are found and profitably worked in many parts of Europe (especially Belgium), and America. In the United States, the most productive works are those of Kew Jersey, Illinois and The Mineral . .nodom. 15 MiHSOuri. In Canada, deposits occur in tlie vicinity of Lake Superior. In New Brunswick, zinc ore (blende) is found associated with lead ore (galena) at several jioints (chielly on ('anipol)ello Island) along the soutliern coast, but the (piantity is loo small to be of much value. TIN. General Properties and Usrs. Tin is one of the oldest metals used by man, and possesse. many valuable qualities. It is a ■whitish metal, having some ret?: lance to silver, but with a less brilliant lustre, and becoming somewhat dulled through long ex- posure. It is quite soft, and i)ossesscs but little strength, but may be beaten out into very thin sheets, then known as tin-foil. It is readily melted, and much of what goes under the name of tin is merely thin sheet iron which has been covered with tin by dipi)ing it into the latter when in the melted state. IJy proper treatment, the surface of this tinned iron may, owing to the highly crystalline character of the tin, be made to assume » very beautiful frost-like appearance. Tin unites readily with other metals, and a certain amount of it is contained in bell-metal, bronze, Briitania-metal, plumbers' solder, pewter, etc. Sources. Tin is rarely, if ever, found pure in nature, but rather combined with oxygen, to form what is known as tin-stone. This mineral occurs abundantly in the district of Cornwall, in England, where it has been mined from the earliest ages.. The British islands were indeed known to the ancient Romans as the Tin Islands, and it was partly with a view to obtain this metal that England was invaded and conquered by that people. A certain amount of tin is also obtained from Asia, and from Australia. It is of rare occurrence- in the eastern United St'ites and Canada, but is more abundant in some parts of the Rocky Mountain region. It has been mined, to a limited extent, in the state of Maine. In New Brunswick, tin ore was reported many years ago as occurring about the Pokiok River, in York County, but the quantity was small, and no similar discovery has since been made. ANTIMONY. • General Properties and Uses. Antimony is a substance of decidedly metallic aspect, having a bright, somewhat silver-like, X 16 Tjie Mineral Kingdom. colour and lustre, winch does not readily change. It is a very brittle metal, which, by hammering, is easily reduced to powder. It also melts very readily. Owing to its brittleness, it cannot well be used for many of tlie purposes to which tiie ordinary metals are ap- l>lit'd, but certain quantities of it are often added to other metals to make them melt more readily, or for other purposes. It is thus, found in the metal of which type "s made, as well as in Ihitannia metal, Babbit metal, etc. An inceresting application is in the manufacture of rubber goods. A certain quantity is also used in medicine, as the "wine of antimony," and "tartar emetic." It» action on the human system, like that of arsenic, is highly in- jurious. Sources. Antimony is found both in the pure state (Native Antimony), and combined with sulphur (Antimony Glance). The chief foreign localities from which the metal is obtained are the Island of Borneo and New vSouth Wales. In the Dominion of Canada antimony ores occur in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Ontario. Of the New Brunswick localities yielding antimony the most important is that of Lake George, in the parish of Prince William, York County. The first mines in this vicinity were opened in the year 1802, since which, at various periods, considerable quantities of ore have been removed. The latter is partly pure or "native" an- timony, and partly a compound of sulphur. Expensive works for the separation of the metal from the latter were erected near the mines, but they have recently been destroyed by fire. When in full operation they yielded about fifteen tons of metal every six weeks. More recently the ore has been exported unchanged, and used chiefly in the manufacture of rubber goods. It is said that not less than $400,000 have been expended at the locality since the first com- mencement of mining operations. ■ GOLD. Properties ani> Uses. Gold is the most precious of all the metals, its value dej)ending partly upon its rarity and partly upon its well-known qualities. Of a beautiful yellow colour, it is soft, malleable and ductile, receiving readily a high degree of polish, and retaining its lustre unchanged under all conditions of temperature and exposure. A very high heat is required to melt it, and the The Mineral Kingdom. XT only substances whicli will readily dissolve it are quicksilver or mercu . .nd a combination of tlie stronger acids. Its chief uses are in the making of coin, in gilding, in dentistry, and in the manu- facture of gold plate. In coinage it is associated with a certain pro- portion of copper to render it less soft, and therefore more durable. As gold leaf, the metal may be beaten out so thin that 280,000 leaves, placed one upon another, would not exceed an inch in thickness. Some of the compounds of gold are employed by photographers in giving a more desirable coloar or "tone" to photographic pictures. Sources. Though somewhat widely distributed, and found in many different countries, the larger part of the gold of commerce comes from California, from Australia, and from llussia. From the United States, in the year 1881, there was obtained an amount valued at over ^34,000,000, and an amount nearly as large from Australia. In the same year Canada furnished gold to the valre of between one and two millions of dollars, most of which was obtained in Nova Scotia and British Columbia. In New Brunswick gold has, as yet, been found only in very small quantities, usually in the bed of streams. No veins of the metal are known to exist, and all search for profitable quantities have so far proved unsuccessful. Reports of its discovery are, in- deed, frequently made, but it is seldom that these reports can bo traced to any reliable source, and in most instances they originate from other and wo^'thless minerals being mistaken for gold. The two minerals most likely to deceive in this respect are mica and iron pyrites (or fool's gold), but the former is easily distinguished by splitting readily into thin sheets, and the latter by be'ng hard and brittle. SILVER. * Properties and Uses. Silver, like gold, is a precious metal, valued alike for its comparative rarity, its beauty of colo»* and lustre, especially when polished, and its fitness for the manufacture of jewelry, plate, coins and the like. Like gold, it is also malleable and ductile, quite soft, but readily hardened by the addition of a little ct)pper, not easily melted, an^'. unaflfected by exposure to air or water. Dissolved in Nitric Acid, it forms the substance known as Nitrate of Silver, so largely used in the taking of photographic pictures. Its extensive application in the arts is well shown by the statement E . 18 The Mineral Kingdom. that the quantity thus used, in 1884, and not employed for coinage, amounted in vahie to five and a half millions of dollars. Sources. The chief silver-producing countries are the United States, Mexico, and South America. In the United States the richest mines are those of Lake Superior, Nevada, Montana and Colorado. In Canada, considerable quantities have been obtained in British Columbia. In New Brunswick, some of the ores of lead have been found to contain silver, but the proportion is usually small, and attempts to obtain it have not as yet given satisfactory results. MERCURY. Properties and Uses. This singular substance stands alone among the metals in being a perfect liquid at ordinary temperatures, a fact which, in connection with its beautiful colour and lustre, re- sembling those of silver, led early writers to mistake it for that body. Plence its common name of quicksilver. Owing to its fluidity, in connection with the fa^^t that it freezes only at very low and boils only at rather high temperatures, it is admirably adapted for measuring various degrees of heat, and is thus employed in ordinary thermometers. Its weight, again, is so great that a comparatively small amount of it (a column of about o() inches) is sufficient to balance the weight of the air, and it is thus used in the construction of barometers. Owing to its power of dis- solving gold and silver, it is used in large quantities as a means of separating these latter from their ores. Finally, one of its com- pounds, Vermillion, is a valuable paint, and others, like calomel, as well as the metal itself, are employed as medicines. Sources. Mercury is found to a slight extent in a pure state, but chiefly combined with sulphur, forming a bright red mineral (cinnabar) resembling Vermillion. The chief mines are found in Spain, Austria and California. It has not been found in New Brunswick or other parts of Canada. RARER METALS. The following are a few additional metals, which are either 'of comparatively rare occurrence, or not often seen in the metallic state, but which find more or less extensive applications for useful pur- poses. "S» The Mineral Kingdom. 19 Platinum. A metal bearing some resemblance to silver, but of inferior lustre, is used ehielly in tlie m:ikineen made of it. Many small streams orij.nnate in peat bogs, deriv- ing therefrom a dark colour and swainpv taste. At the same time these bogs, by their spongy character, tend to retain the water, and to prevent its too rapid removal. COAL. Nature. Coal is, like poat, of vegetable origin, but, unlike peat, is not now to be seen in process of formation, and dKrers further in many important particulars. It has been shown to be the proiluct of a far distant period of the earth's history, when not only did vege- tation of a widely diflerent kind flourish on the earth's surface, biit with a luxuriance which has not since been equalled, and yet under such peculiar circumstances as led, from time to time, to its general overthrow and burial beneath vast quantities of sand and clay, now hardened into rock. As a result of this burial and the enormous pressure thereby produced, the vegetable matter has been greatly changed, and in this changed form, hardened, compacted, and dark- ened in colour, it constitutes our ordinary eoul. Varieties. There are two principal varieties of coal in com- mon use, viz. : Bituminous, or Soft Coal, and Anthracite, or Hard Coal. The former, as indicated by its name, is rather soft, easily broken, takes fire rather readily, and burns with a bright but somewhat smoky flame. The latter, on the contrary, is hard, brilliantly lustrous, difficult to ignite, and, in burning, produces great heat, with little or no smoke. In this respect it is like coke, such as is formed in gas works from the heating of bituminous coal, and it is altogether probable that it has been similarly formed from such coal by the heating of the latter, through natural causes, while still within the earth. Uses. In addition to its employment as fuel, soft coal is the direct source of illuminating gas and of various burning oils, such as Paraffme, Kerosene, etc. Indirectly, it is also the source from which are obtained the rich and varied Aniline dyes. Sources. The chief coal-producing countries are Great Britain, the United States, Belgium, and Canada. In each of these countries coal-bearing rocks cover extensive areas, and enormous quantities are annually removed. In Great Britain alone tliere were raised in the year 1884 nearly one hundred and seventy million tons of this 24 The Mineral Kingdom. «iibs-.ance, wliile tl)e amount raised in the United States was bi less. This (piantity is about one-fourth that of the total proc of the world. Hard Coal, or Anthracite, is almost solely tl duct of the Pennsylvania mines, and from the latter the qi removed in 1883 amounted to over thirtv-one million tons. ) a rate is the mineral fuel of the earth being consumed ! The coal fields of Canada are confined to the Maritime Pro chiefiy Nova Scotia, and to some portions of tlie North',vest. Ii Scotia the coal beds are numerous and thick, and are largely w especially about Pictou, Spring Hill, arid Sydney. Single co: occurring here are sometimes as much as thirty feet in thickn In New Brunswick the coal-bearing rocks cover a very ext area, embracing large portions of the counties of Queens, Su York, Kent, \Vestnu)rland, and Northumberland, in all aboii third of the entire Province. But though seams of coal been observed at many different points over this great tract are for the most part very small, the only ones which have j capable of profitable working being those found in Queens C about the head of Grand Lake and the streams connected w Even in this last-named region the seam is thin, not exc( twentv-two inches, and were it not for its nearness to the si and the consequent ease with which it can be obtained, it woi of comparatively little value. As it is, considerable quantiti removed every year, and sent to the Fredericton and St. Join kets, where it is especially valued for blacksmiths' use. The amount of coal originally present in this coal field has bee; mated at 150,000,000 tons, of which probably not over 100,0C have as yet been removed. Beds of impure anthracite occur at Lepreaux, in western St county, but have not repaid the cost of working. ALBERTITE. This name has been given to a peculiar mineral first foi Albert county, New Brunswick, and which was there mined for yeai*? with great profit. Though often called by the name of . Coal, it is not in reality a true coal, being rather of the natui mineral pitch, and probably resulting from the chemical altt of mineral oil or petroleum. It does not occur, like coal, ir but in the form of irregular and branching vei»^.s, of whic The Mineral Kingdom. 25 largest, when first discovered, had a thickness of eighteen feet. Be- tween the years 18()3 and 1874 over ir)4,()00 tons were removed, having a vahie varying from $1') to $20 a ton, Init in descending the vein was found to diminish greatly in size, and after reaching a deptli of over 1,")()0 feet it was found necessary to ahandon the mine. Numerou.5 attempts liave been made to discover other veins, hut so far as known to the author none of workable size have vet been found. The Albertite, a black, highly lustrous, pitch-like substance, was never nsed as an ordinary fuel. Its great value resulted from its employment in the manufacture of oil (Albertine) and gas. BITUMINOUS SHALE. This is the material in which the veins of Albertite occur, and from which the Albertite itself was probal)ly derived. Jt is a rock rather than a mineral, and is found in thick beds extending through a large part of Albert county (from Elgin to Ilillsboro'), and i)ortion8 of Westmorland (about Memramcook). It is of a dark grey colour, very tough, with a strong bituminous odour, and in some places contains so much oily matter ji« to yield oil in considerable (quan- tities when heated. Works for its separation were at one time established near Baltimore, in Albert count v, but the discoverv of the great i)etroleum wells of Pennsylvania prevented the work from being prof" table, and it was soon abandoned. Portions of the shales contain large quantities of fossil fishes, and the oily matter contained in the rock has probably, in great part, been derived from this source. PETROLEUM, OR ROCK OIL. In addition to the oily matter spread through the Bituminous shales last described, fluid oil, or Petroleum, is sometimes found oozing from these shales in small quantities. It has been thus ob- served in the Albert Mines, and at several places about Memramcook, where it is accompanied by inflammable gas. Ail attempts, how- ever, to obtain it in profitable quantities have so far failed. Petroleum, in large quantities, is found in Pennsylvania, the Russian provinces on the Caspian Sea, in British Burmah, and also in Ontario. After being refined, it is employed chiefly as a burning oil, but has also many other applications. Single wells in Pennsyl- vania liave in some instances yielded 6,000 barrels of oil a day, '*- while the value of the yield in the United States for the year 1884 I was upwards of twenty millions of dollars. Ma>**.»»w«-nii.i.iyiiJMii rifi 26 The Mineral Kingdom. , SULPHUR. The ai)pcaran('e and some of the }»roi)ertit's of this substance are made familiar by its iisse in connection with ordinary friction matihes. The first ignition of the hitter is (hie to a small quan- tity of phosphorus with which the match is tipi)ed, })ut })ehin(l this is Ji (piantity of sulphur, which, taking fire from the phosphorus, in turn ignites the wood. The sulphur is a bright yellow substance, very brittle, and very indanunable, i)roducing, when burning, dense, suflocating fumes. In addition to its employment in match-making, sulphur is used in enormous (piantities in the manufacture of gun- powder and lire-works, as well as in the making of suli)hurie acid, in medicine, in bleaching straw goods, and for many otlier purposes. The supidy for these uses comes chiefly from Sicily and other vol- canic countries, where it is found in a nearly })ure state. No such pure sulphur is to be found in New Brunswick or P'astern America, but many ores of the metals are com])ounds of sulphur, and from some of these the sulpluir may, if desired, be profitably extracted. A compound of sulphur and liydrogen is sometimes found dis- olved in the water of mineral springs, which are accordingly known as "sulphur springs." They are readily recognized by their ofieiisive taste and smell, but are often considered as serviceable in the cure of certain diseases. 3. Materials Capable of Resisting Heat. GRAPHITE, OR BLACK LEAD. Graphite is probably vegetable matter greatly altered by intense heat. It is therefore now but little afiected by the latter, and may be usefully employed where the effects of lieat are to be resisted. It is tlius used for "facing" the moulds in which stoves and similar articles are cast, as well as for giving to iron a bright, glossy surface. But its most important application is in the manufacture of lead pencils, for which it is especially adapted both by its softness and its black colour. It lias not, as its name would seem to indicate, any relation to ordinary metallic lead. Graphite is obtained from many different localities in Great Britain and the United States, as also in Caiuida. In New Bruns- wick the mineral is found at several points in St. John county, and i j iiiiiii j llpii i i - p ii p i The Mineral Kingdom. 2T has been mined to some extent in the vicinity of the Snspension Bridge, in Portland.. As here fonnd it is somewhat impure, and htis been chiefly used for foundry purposes. BRICK AND FIRE CLAYS. The dillerent vjirieties of Chiys are not properly minerah^ but result from the decomposition of the latter, especially from felspar and mica. Thev are most commonly found in the valleys of the larger streams and rivers, but Jire also to be met with in other situ- ations. Their most important quality is tliat of their plaaticitij, or power of being moulded into any desired form. In consequence of this property and the })()wer which they ac(juire, when baked, of re- taining their form and of resisting heat, they are largely employed in the manufacture of all kinds of bricks and tiles. They also con- stitute the basis of the manufacture of all varieties of earthenware. Brickyards are of common occurrence in the Province, but the two of most importance are those at St. John and at Marysvllle, in York County. From the latter there were produced, in the year 1884, not less than 8,000,000 bricks. Fire brick differs from ordinary brick in being made of a purer clay, and one better adapted to withstand high temperatures. It is generally of a whitish colour. Clays suitable for such use are fre- quently found beneath seams of coal, as at Grand Lake and else- where. MICA, SOAPSTONE, AND ASBESTUS. The first of the above minerals has already been referred to a& being frequently employed in the making of the windows of stoves^ being adapted to this use by its transparency, by its splitting readily into thin sheets, and by not being acted upon by heat. SoAPSTONE is, as its name indicates, a stone of a peculiarly soft,^ soapy feeling, and is sometimes used in the making of stoves, mantels^ etc. It does not occur in any available form in New Brunswick. AsBESTUS. This substance is a variety of the mineral Horn- blende, or sometimes of Serpentine. It is remarkable chiefly for its fine fibrous character, resembling cotton or flax, and its power of resisting heat. In consefjuence of these properties, it is largely used for roofing purposes, for packing fire-proof safes, in making fire- proof garments, and for kindred purposes. The mineral is of rare occurrence in New Brunswick, but has been found in some parts of St. John County. It is much more abundant in the Province of Quebec 28 TnK Mineral Kingdom. MI1S.XRAL PAINTS. 1. OCHRES. Oclires are clays variouHly coloured with compounds of iron. By their colour and softness they are adapted to the manufacture of certain kinds of j)aint, and in some parts of the I'nited States are largely so used. They are found in New Brunswick, both as yellow and red ochre, at a number of localities, especially iu Albert county, but little has as yet been done with them. 2. BARYtES. This is a white and very heavy mineral, sometimes known as Heavy Spar, and used somewhat largely, both alone and in connec- tion with White Lead, in the makin;^ of paints. It is found in many i)arts of the United States, in Canada, and in P'ngland. In New Brunswick it is found chieflv on Frve's Island, in Char- lotte county, and near Memramcook Station, in Westmorland. ; 3. CHALK. This is the familiar material employed for writing purposes. It 18 a variety of limestone, and consists largely of the remains of very minute animals, at one time living in the sea, at the bottom of which similar material is now believed to be accumulating. Chalk is wide- ly spread, and in large deposits, over the continent of. Europ*^ (especially in England and France), but in America is confined to some small beds in the Rocky Mountrin region. MINERAL MANUEES. 1. GYPSUM. This mineral occurs in very large beds f>otli in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. In New Brunswick the chief localities are in Kings county (in Sussex and Uplmm), in Westmorland county (near Petitcodiac station), in Albert coMnty (near Hillsboro and Hope- well), and in Victoria county (on tflJe^Tobique River). Near Hills- The Mineral Kingdom. 9^ boro it hoH l)een very extensively ([narried for ji number of years, and large works iiave l»een erected for grinding and burning it. When simply groinul, ( fy[)sum is found to be of much service in adding to the fertility of certain soils, and from several of the localities above mentioned it is reujoved in large (quantities to be so employed. On the otiier hand, when heated, it loses water, and be- comes converted into Plaster of Paris, a nuiterial largely used in the making of cements, in the interior linishing of houst*s, in the stereotyping of books, and for 'uany other purposes. From the ilillsboro beds the total amount rc/noved during the last year (188()) was 20,1)21 tons, of which the larger part was exported to the United . States. As a mineral, (ryj)sum presents several varieties, being some- times wliite and opa scenery. The course and length of rivers, the position and depth of lakes, the i)lace and character of water-falls, and, upon the coast, the occurrence of bnvs and headlands, of rock -bound shores and sandv beaches, of islands and harbors, are other features, all of which are largely determined througli like differences. And these, in turn, de- termine the origination of commerce^ the sites of cities, the construe- vJ8 TiiK Mineral KiNc;i>o>r. tion of railways and canals: in general, all those factors upon which the character and growth of nations depend. Lastly. Rocks and their contents afford or produce a large part of the wea.ih of nations. From them we derive the greater portion of the materials employed in the construction of our dwell- ings, much of the material of which all our tools and machinery are constructed, a large part of our fuel, the substance of our coinage and plate, and all of our gems and precious stones. Being thus intimately connected alike with the present and the past condition of our earth and the beings which inhabit it, the study of rocks in their various relations nuist ever be a source of profit as well as pleasure. It is hoj)ed that the few simple explana- tions and statements contained in the preceding pages may contribute to this result. EXPLANATION OF PLATE II. PLANT LIFE. Figs. 1-5.— Stagks of Growth. L The Seed; 2. The Seedling; 3-4. The same more advanced ; 5. Th» Plant with fully formed Leaves. Figs. 6-10. — Tiiic Branching Plant. G. Showing position of Buds (Linden); 7. Nature of Buds as undeveloped Branches; 8, 9, 10. Forms of Trees. Figs. 11-20. — Forms of the Stem and Branches. 11. Prostrate Stem or Runner (Strawberry) ; 12. Underground Stem, forming tubers (Potat(j) ; 13. Stem with Branch forming a tendril for climbing (Vine); 14. Sec- tion of "Exogenous" Stem, showing bark, pith, and rings of wood. Figs. 15-20. "Endogenous" Stems; 15. Grain of Corn germinating; > 16. Same more advanced ; 17. Leafy Stem ; 18. Underground Stem or " Root-stock " of Iris ; 19. Grass ; 20. Section of Endogenous Stem. Figs. 21-26. — Forms of Roots. 21. Toung Seedling forming root and root- lets ; 22. Roots branching for absorption ; 2;i-2G. Hoots thickened by deposited food : Carrot (23) ; Turnip (24) ; Radish (25) ; Dahlia (2G). Plate II. Plant Life. p. 39 40 Thi: Vkgp:table Kingdom. EXPLANATION OF PLATE III. PLANT LIFE ! Fios. 1-10. — Forms of Leaves. 1. A simi)le and complete Leaf; 2. Leaf M'ith cleft margins; 3. Loaf with throe-lohed margin; 4. Three-cleft Leaf; 5. Three-divided Leaf; 6. Compound Leaf, with seven Leadots. The above arc Leaves of " Exogenous" Plants. Figs. 7, 8, 9. Leaves of Endogenous I'lants. Fig. 10. Leaf of Feru. Figs. 11-21. — Forms and Groups of Flowkrs. 11. Solitary Flower (Bluets); 12. Flower-cluster of Lily of the Valley ; 13. rmbrella-likc clusters (or Umbels) of Caraway ; M. Heads, or " Compound Flowers"; 15. Hare- bell, showing Calyx and Corolla; IG. Flower of Stone-Crop, showing Sepals, Petals, Stamens, and PisliKs ; 17, Flax-blossom cut thr. nigh, and showing — in addition to Calyx, Corolla and Stamens — the Ovary or interior of the Pistil, Avith contained Ovules. (The above are Flowers of Exogenous Plants.) 18. Adder's Tongue; 19. Trillium; 20. Indian Turnip — a form of flower cluster in which the small and imperfect flowers are near the base of a central fleshy "spike," and concealed by an enveloping flower-like leaf; 21. Flower-clusters of Grass. The above are Flowers of Endogenous Plants. Figs. 22-28. — Forms of Fruits. 22. Stony Fruit of Plum; 23. Fleshy Fruit of Cranberry; 2-1. Nut or Acorn; 25. Strawberry — the true Frujts being minute and buried in the thickened stem ; 26. Winged Fruit of Maple ; 27. Pear, divided to show the core, or ripened ovary; 28. A Pea- Pod. . Plate III. Plant Life. II. THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 1. OF LIFE IN aENERAL. Tk tlie first portion of this work tlie attention of the student has been directed, almost exclusively, to what may be termed dead Nature. The various rocks which constitute the substance of the earth, together with the minerals of which they are composed, or which are contained within them, however liable they may be to certain kinds of change, never manifest in any way the possession of what we term Life. Plants and Animals, on the other hand, are livir\(j beiiujs. They are produced, they grow, they move, they take and digest nourishment, and finally they die, their life having, how- ever, in the meantime, been transmitted to their young. Now if we reflect upon these characteristics of living things, as compared with those of rocks and minerals, we shall see that the diilerence lies in this one thing; viz., that the former are capable of doing some- thing, while the latter are not. Mineral substances may be used in a variety of ways; they may be made the implements wherewith to do something, but they cai do nothing of their^^lves. Plants and animals, on the other hand, are always doing '»ing by powers of tlieir own, and as soon as th'^y ceusc to f' ^ die, and return to the earth from which they sprung. What we have to study, then, in the case of Plants and Animals, is, WhatTiiey Do, and How They Do It. As the work of Plants is far simpler than that of Animals, and as the agents or organs by which it is effected are also much simpler, we shall find it most con- venient to take up tlieir study first. 2. PLANT LIFE. It seems somewhat odd at first that we should look upon a plant as a living thing, and should attempt to describe its life. In an ordinary herb, shrub, or tree, there seems at any one time but little to suggest vitality. The trunk of the tree apparently diflTers but little from the boards into which it may be sawn: the leaves flutter- 42 , TlIK VKfiKTAHLK KlX(il)OM. 41^ f ing in tlie bree/.o yecni no more alive than wlien, tletarheil by the same breeze, tiiey are scatten*! over the ^Mound. We Kee no motion^ except such as tlie wind i)rovokes. Tlie tree lias apparently no (trgans wherewith to take food, or to digest it when taken. It seem* neither to eat, nor drink, nor sleei>, nor breathe, nor climb; and though we know that it grows, it is far from being obvious at first how this growth is ellected, or by what agents it is carried on. And yet a plant docs all tiicse things and a great deal more, after its own peculiar fashion; and so it is a real living thing, as much so as we ourselves are, having a regulurly allotted term of life, having a definite work to di?, and dclinite instruments or organs wherewith to do it. The study of this peculiar life of Plants, systematically pursued and in all its varied relations, constitutes the science of IJotany. It is both an interesting and a valuable study for many reasons, of which a few only can here be stated: (1.) Plants supply us directly or indirectly with all our food. A knowledge of vegetable growth and structure therefore assists us in obtaining from the earth the greatest possible supply of such food and of using it to the best advantage. The whole science of agri- culture has for its immediate object the promotion of the growtl of plants, and its successful prosecution may be very largely afiected by our knowledge or ignorance of the laws of Plant life. (2.) Plants furnish us witli much of the materials wherewith we clothe our bodies and build our houses. Their suitability for these purposes depends upon peculiarities of structure and growth wbich it is the part of the botanist to work out and understand. (3.) Plants supply us with many important drugs and medicines, with valuable perfumes and dyes, with the materials for tanning, and with much of our fuel. Their capability of being so used or not can in many instances be directly inferred from a knowledge of their botanical character and relations. (4.) A knowledge of plant-life — of "What Plants Do, and How . ' They Do It" — adds a ten-fold interest to the contemplation of the plants themselves. With such knowledge they cease to be merely the pretty things they were before, valued only for their beauty of form, or colour, or perfume ; they become things in which we can take an intelligent interest, as being constructed according to some ^;v. 44 The Vegetable Kingdom. plan; as hitving everything about them with a meaning and a pur- pose ; in short, as being so many manifestations of Creative Wisdom. To understand fully all that is embraced in the life of plants "would, of course, require a very lengthy course of study, even on the part of those of mature years, and with all the modern aids to assist investigation. But much may be learned from the mere observation of the most familiar plants, and wc shall now proceed to sliow, in i* very simple way, some of the facts which tliese are capable of teaching us. 4. THE BIRTH OF PLANTS. The farmer, in order that he may obtain his crop, sows his seed. The dandelion and tiie thistle by the wayside, despite the farmer's wish, scatter McjV seeds broadc < by entrusting them to the winds, and again n crop is sure to foL^vv. In all our woods, seeds in large numbcis fall at certain season (- the ground, and from them again, sooner or later, springs up a lot of young seedlings, some to gi^ow iigain into trees, but a larger number to perish. So all ordinary plants spring from seeds, and this springing from the seed (commonly called germination) is the first obvious act in the plant's history. Obtain now a number of seeds, as many as can readily be pro- cured, and compare them one with another. Probably some will be large, others small ; some heavy and others light ; some of one colour and some of another; some smooth and others wrinkled or having various appendages attached to portions of their surface. Put these are only outside differences. Amid them all this one fact remains, that each one, provided the seed is good, contains in the in- terior a living plant, which is at least capable of growth, and which will grow as soon as it is placed under suitable conditions. Even •within the seed thi» little plantlet can generally be discovered, with its little stem and leaf or pair of leaves, but, from want of room and other causes, generally so crumpled u»> or otherwise mis-shapen that -we are ai)t to overlook its true nature. Thus, even from th« inspec- tion of a few seeds, if attentively considered, we are led to recognize this important principle, that amid r.U the apparent variety of nature there is unity and harmony of design — one general plan which may be recognized amid an infinite divei-sity of detail. These statements will tind other and more interesting illustra- tions as we now trace the df'velopment of our seeds into lull-grown ulants. The Vegetable Kingdom. 45 5. THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. Let the pupil take a number of sucli seeds as have been above named — lliose of the Bean, Pea, or Morning Glory will answer well — and sow them, a few of each kind, half an inch deep or more in clean sand placed in a small flower-pot or saucer, ap.d to which a little water has been added. After an interval of two or ihree days let him repeat this process with other seeds of the same kind in other jars, and yet again a third time, after :i similar inter- val, if in the meantime all the pots or saucers have been kept in a moderately v.arm place, Jind also kept moist, it will be found that by the time the seeds last planted begin tc peep above the sand, those which were planted first will have attained a considerably greater growth, and thus, by com{)arison Avith the former, will enabM us to ascertain in wliat that growth consists. To make the comparison more complete it will be well to have, in addition to the growing plants, a few actual seeds which have simply been soaked in water in order to soften them. Xow, if the pupil will take one plant from each of the jars which have thus been successively started, and place them side by side in the order of their growth, adding finally the unaltered seed as the starting point of the series, he will be in a position to recognize a number of things wliich, if he were to confine his attention to any one period, be would probably fail to see. Thus, in addition to the fact of growth, he may, if he cares to do so, form something like an estimate of How Long it Takes to Grow, lie may see more clearly the direction of the growth. He may, by a few trials, see also what circumstances may promote and what may retard their growth. He will see, for example, how they turn to the light (that portion, at least, which is above the ground), and if he allow tliem, by care- lessness, to get dry or to become chiiied, he will be led to recognize their need of warmth and moisture. Finally — and this is a point to which he should pay especial attention — he ought to be able to see wherein, if at all, his more advanced seedlings differ from those which liave but just sprouted, or even from the plantlet in the Beed which has not yet sproutec at all. The growth of the same plants in gardens aflbrds admirable opportunities for further profitable com- parison. The culture of beans, acorns, or grainr, of corn, allowed to Bprout and then suspended in tumblers or glass vases filled with, water, also affords good illustrations of the subject. 46 The Vegetable Kingdom. Having now hecome familiar with the facts of growth in any on3 of the several kinds of seeds with which he started, if the pupil ■will fiirllier take tlie rows or series of specimens illustrating that ^rowtli, and i)lace them side by side, he will he in a position to make further comparisons, and to see wherein one plant in its growth rescn.bles or dillers from another. By so doing he will again find, 4is he did in the co:n})arison of seeds, that amid many ai)i)arent dif- ferences, there is one conim(mplan; that, however unlike various plants may be in the rapidity of their growth, in their form or <3olour, they are composed of essentially the same i)arts, having the same relations to each other, and doing the same kind of work. We have next to consider what these parts are. 6. THE PARTS OF A PLANT WHICH ARE CONCERNED IN GROWTH. It will not be possible, nor is it desirable, within the limits of this little work, to describe in detail all the various parts of which a Plant consists, with the more minute structure and mode of opera- tion. If, however, the i)ractical experiments which have been above reconmiendcd have been faithfully performed, and the comparisons suggested by them have been carefully thought over, the pupil will probably have already learned for himself all the main facts of the case. lie will, for example, have recognized in each of the plants examined an obvious distinction between that portion which re- mains beneath the ground and that which rises above it into the light and air. In the former he sees the Root> in the laiter the Stem and Leaves; and though he may find when he begins to com- pare, as he should do, one stem and its leaves with another, or one root with another, very considerable difTerences, he will again l!nd that among these seeming differences the main idea is never lost, and that Stem and Koot respectively have certain constant features by which they may always be distinguished. In the case of the Root or Roots (for even on the same plant there may be one or many) the first common feature is that of their xlownward growth. They seem to be attracted towards the earth and to avoid the light. In the second place they have no ai)parent regularity of growth, turning here and there without any obvious reason, and, though branching freely, having the branches also disi)osed on the root without order or synunetry. Finally they are Sp» . 1 W ^ M^ 'i " m tm The VKfiETABLL Kingdom. 47 "wliolly destitute of leaves. A little reflection will |trobably suggest tluit this, after all, is what might be expected; for, buried in the soil, a root is obliged to take its chance, and grow this way or that as circumstances may determine. Again, the roots being (as will presently be shown) the parts concerned in drawing up moisture from the soil, they will naturally turn or form branches wlierever such n\oisture ha})[)ens to be most abundant. But they have no leaves, for, even if they liad, they would, underground, be of n(» service whatever. In the Stem, on the other hand, we have, in most of our })lants. at the beginning at least, a single upright shoot looking towards the sun and skv. Along the sides of this shoot, and upon its summit, it is clothed with leaves, but these are found to be disposed with great regularity, either in pairs or one after another up the stem, so as to give to the latter the appearance (and it is more than mere appearance) of being composed of a succession of joints. If, now, we further com- pare together any one of our series of experimental seedlings, we shall see that the whole growth of t)*e stem, from the beginning, consists merely of the successive formation of new joints, each one growing, as it were, out of the preceding one, and each having at its top a leaf or pair of leaves, which are necessarily left on the sides as new joints are formed above them. It would seem as though it were the object of the joints to increase the number of the leaves, and at the same time to place each of the latter where it shall have the greatest possible amount of light and air. And this is indeed the ease; for it is the main purpose of leaves to digest the plant's food, and this they can only do when freely exposed to the warmth and light of the sun. It may here be added that ev.ni if we extend our observations to plants of longer and larger growth, we shall find no different parts or organs concerned in that growth. A seedling Maple may, in time, become a tali forest tree; but whatever its size jr age, its growth is merely a repetition of the same process, and is effected through the same organs — roots below and stem above, the latter bearing leaves on its newly-formed joints or twigs. It is true that in this and similar cases the original stem naturally sub-divides at quite an early period into what we call the branches, but these are evidently mere repetitions of the main stem, consisting of the same 48 Thp: Vegetable Kingdom. parts and growing in the same way. They may produce flowers also, but (as will be shown farther on) these are in no way concerned in ordinary growth, iueir purpose being the formation of seed, by which the plant is to reproduce itself. Root, Stem, and Leaf, then, are the agents or organs of Vegetable Growth, and eacli has its own peculiar part to fullil, — the root that of binding the plant to the soil, and of absorbing therefrom a por- tion of its food ; the stem and branches serving to carry up this food to the leaves, wliich are at the same time spread to the liglit and air, and the leaves serving, under the influence of the sun's ruys, to so change or digest this food as to flt it for the nourishment of plants and animals. But Root, Stem, and Leaf are subject to numerous modifications,, and are made to serve many other than their ordinary purposes^ becoming, as a consequence, so disguised that we may at times have difficulty in recognizing them. As some of these modifications play a most important jiart in the life-history of the plant, a few of the more prominent may now be noticed. 7. VARIETIES OF ROOTS. Let a pupil or a school devote a half holiday to the collection of Roots — entire ones in the case of the smaller plants, and portions of the extremities in the case of ihe larger. The specimens having been collected, place them side by nde and compare them one with another. Such comparisons are veiy suggestive, and the student should endeavor, /or himself, to find a meaning for all the differences which lie sees. A few examples only can here be given. (L) Roots Designed Mainly for Absorption. These are usually thin and fibrous, branching freely, as they thus increase the number of points as well as the extent of ground available in the taking of food. They are especially common in annual plants, which have to do all their work in a single season. (2.) Roots Serving as Depots of Food. Many plants do not become sufficiently mature to flower and form seed in a single year, but require two or more for the purpose. In these the root is often made a receptacle in which a portion of the food prepared in the first season is stored away under ground to be drawn upon for a second season's growth. Turnips and carrots are examples. What The VEGjrrABLE Kingdom. 49 is food for tlie plant is food for man and beast as well. Ilcnce the value of such root-crops in ordinary farming and gardening. (3.) Roots Serving as Holdfasts. This is to some extent the case wit!i all rrots, but besides those which grow directly downward from the seed, otlicr roots are often seen higlier on the stem which would seem to have tlils as a more special olKce. It is to some ex- tent the case with the roots developed from the second or higher joints of the stem in common Indian corn, v. hen earth is heap.ed up around the latter, and so it is in many vines and trailing plants; but there are other eases, like that of the English Ivy, in which this would seem to be the sole i)urp(!se. the whole stem being thickly covered with little rootlets by which the plant is enabled to cling for support to various objects, and thus to reach heights which would otherwise be unattainable 8. VARIETIES OF STEMS. The Stem, as might be expected, presents a -imch greater num- ber of varieties than does the Root. Thev mav be studied in the same wav bv the collection of as manv diflerent kinds as can con- «' ft «. veniently be got, and then, remembering what has been said of the proper nature of the stem and its mode of growth, endeavoring to recognize that nature amid all the possible variations. These all have their purpose, and to seek it out in each special case is a most entertaining study, but our space will only allow us to mention a few of the more striking examples. Stems, then, differ in lemjth, from that of the tiny seedling to that of the tall forest tree, and with increase of length there is generally, but not always, increase of breadth, thus giving the necessary strength. Stems ditfer in firmness and solidity; some, like our ordi- nary herbs, being soft, juicy, and ettsily injured or destroyed, while others, like our shrubs and trees, are woody and not so readily affected by outside influences. Even among woody plants great differences exist, as seen in the contrast between our hard and soft woods, and the uses to which they are applied. Again, stems differ in duration, those of herbs either dying altogether at the end of the summer, after the seed is ripened, the plant being then an annual ; or dying down to the surface of the ground, as in many biennials and peren- nials. They may differ also in the method and extent of their branch- ing, some (like our Spruces) sending off only small side branches, D 80 The Vegetaiii.k KingdOxM. >\'hile tlie main trunk continues to grow upward like a spire, or (as in Klnis and Willows and Maples) the main stem may, at no great ranches, usually remove all difficulty in recognizing their true character. The only other kind of diflference presented by stems which can be liere referred to is one connected with their interior structure, and which results from their different modes of growth. To under- stand tlie difference, cut with a sharp knife a slice from off a stem of Indian corn, a Lily, or a Grass, and then a second similar slice from a young Beech, Maple, AVillow, Grape Vine, or Elder. In the latter ease, as every one knows, there will be revealed to view a separable bark on the outside, enclosing one or more hiyers of wood, and, it may be, a quantity of soft pith in the centre. The cut end of a cord- wood stick exhibits similar rings still more strikingly, and in very old trees they may be very numerous. In the plants first named, on the contrarv, there is no distinct bark, nor is there anv yerv distinct wood; for, though the latter is really present, it is so scattered in irreguhir bundles, here and there, that some search is required to ihid it. Now it has been found that plants possessing these two dif- ferent kinds of stems differ quite as markedly in the character of their leaves, in the nature of their seeds, and in the peculiarities of their flowers, and hence the distinction is of much importance in the grouping or classifying of plants. The figures and explanations of Plates II. and III. will serve to make these differences more intelligible. The Vegktable Kikcjdom. 61 It may be well in this place to observe, further, that it* our ordi- nary powers of vision be assisted by the aid of a strong magnifying glass, or, still better, })y a good mieroseope, such a view may be obtained of wood, jiith, and bark (as well as of other parts of the plant), as will serve to show more clearly their real nature and rela- tions, as Avell as to give a better understanding of the i)rocesses by which vegetable life is carried on. Whatever be the i)art taken, such an examination, by means of a thin slice •^nfilciently enlarged, will show that it is not, as we might su})pose, absolutely dense and solid, but is really made up of a vast nuiltitude of little cavities, each bounded by its own proper walls, and which are A'ariously associated together, as they also present many diflerences of form and size. These cavities are known as cpUs, and tlie masses formed by their association as Cellular I'issue. In the case of pith the cells are either round or, b} mutual i)ressure, many-sided, looking much like honey-comb, while they are at the same time thin and easily destroved. Similar tissue forms also the edible portion of ordinarv fruits. In wood, on the other hand, many of the cells are found to have been lengthened into tubes, and tiiese being arranged side by side, spliced together, as it were, as well as thickened, help to give strength to the rising stem, as they also serve to form the fibrous framework of the leaf. It is from diflerences of this kind *hat we have the familiar distinctions of "Hard" and "Soft" Woods, of Sap Wood and Heart Wood, etc., as well as the adaptation of each kind of wood for some particular use. Finally, cellular tissue may, in certain cases, become so dense and thick as to acquire almost the solidity of stone. This occurs in die so-called Stone Fruits, as the Cherry and Plum, and again in the outer portion of luits. 9. VARIETIES OF LEAVES. Let the student again collect as many different varieties of leaves as he can conveniently find. The mere search for such varieties can hardly fail to suggest many instructive comparisons. The leaves having been collected and arranged before him, let him then endeavour to see what they have in common, and wherein they differ. One part, the Blade, he will be pretty sure to find in all, it being the most im[)ortant part of the leaf, and, as evident from its form, so constructed as to expose to the sun's rays the greatest possible extent of surface. In many he will tind a second part, the -■ri-^^w^'i^r-'W'r^'TY^^'^'wrr^^rw^^^^r^mgmmRlt^m'im^^fJ^llffl^ 52 The Vegetable Kinc4Dom. leaf-stalk, by wliich the Blade is attached to the stem, and he may find a third in the form of two little appendages, often resembling miniature blades, and atta(!hed at the base of the leaf-stalk on either side. These are the parts of which a complete or pattern leaf consists ; but now for some variations of the pattern. In the first place there m ly be variations due to incompleteness. The leaf-stalk, for example, not being absolutely necessjiry, may be very small or (with the appendages at its base) may be wanting altoeeonie independent ()lants. Finally, the great ditticulty met with in exterminating such weeds as couch grass from our gardens arises from the fact that their underground stems, full of ahundiuit nourish- ment, branch in all directions, a!id each being largely independent of all others, each will grow into a new plant and throw out more branches, even if all the other i)arts shall have been destroyed. The sowing of potatoes, in which the so-called eyes are nothing but. little buds on a greatly thickened piece of stem, is another illustra- tion of similar facts. But it would seem as though plants could not indelinitely nudtiply in this way. By d(nng so they are likely to become weakened and would eventually be destroyed, so that, sooner or later, we have to come back to the other method, through the formation of Flower, Fruit, and .Seed. U. THE FLOWER AND ITS VARIETIES. Flowers may be studied in the same way as roots, stems, and leaves. Let some comparatively simple flower — that of a Geranium (so called), the Flax Plant, the Rose, or the Apple will answer well — be first taken and carefully examined as to the parts of which it consists. These will be found to be, (1) on the outside a circle of green leaves, smaller, it is true, than the ordinary leaves of the plant, but not unlike them in colour and appearance. These are known under the name of Sepals, and together they form a sort of cup around the rest of the flower, which is known as the Calyx. Next within them is another circle, also composed of parts which are somewhat leaf-like, but much more delicate than any ordinary leaves, and either pure white or, like the leaves of many foliage plants al- ready referred to, possessed of some gay and brilliant colour. These are the Petals, and together they make up the showy part of the blossom, called by botanists the Corolla. If these be in turn re- moved, we And, standing just inside of them, a number of curious organs, which seldom bear much resemblance to leaves (though the botanist stiU regards them as representing the latter), and which are more especially concerned in the formation of seeds. Of these the outer ones, known as Stamens, consist of a long narrow stalk (//a- . ment), bearing upon the top a sort of sac or case (the anther), from which, if the flower is ripe, there will fall, when shaken, a yellowish powder, known as Pollen. The inner ones, on tlie contrary, which w^mi^mmm^mm The VE(iETABLi: Kingdom. b'> are known as P/W/As, and which occupy tlie very centre of the flower, are usually largest below, forming a second sort of sac (the Oranj), usually lar^'cr than the anthers, and havin<^ within it what appear to be small seeds, and which will reallv become so if in anv wav the j)olk'n shed from the anthers can reach and act u[k:\\ them. To facilitate this the u})per part of the pistil is usually lenf^theiied out, and either on its to[) or side is left bare and moist, so that thei)ollen grains (either falling by their weight, blown by winds, or carried by insects), if they happen to touch it, readily cling, and thus gain access to the interior. As soon as the ovules have l>een acted u[>on by the pollen, the office of the llower has been accomi)lished, and soon after all parts of it, except such as are needed for the protec- tion of the seed, fall away and perish. Those which remain, how- ever, become greatly changed, and these changed portions, with the seed which thev enclose, eventuallv become the Fruit. The varieties of flowers are almost endless, and no more interest- ing or delightful study can be engaged in than that of tracing out the one common plan amid this infinite diversity of detail. The total number of (lowering plants now known to botanists will not fall far short of 120,000, yet in every one of these the only parts present will be one or the other (or all) of those which have been referred to above, and which, by sufficiently careful study, may be recognized and distinguished. The variations are due to a number of causes, a few onlv of which can here be mentioned. Differences may arise, (1) from unequal growth in the several parts of any one circle, producing corresponding irreyularity of size and shape, as in Violets and Pansies; (2) they may arise from the total failure of certain parts to grow, thus interfering more or less with the si/mmelry of the blossom ; (8) they may arise from the dis- appearance or suppression of entire circles, three, two, or only one, being sometimes left, as in some Maples and in Indian Corn; (4) they may be due to the growing together or union of the different members of any one .net or circle, as in the calyx of Fuchsias or the corolla of Bluebells; or (5 those of diflerent circles, as the petals with the stamens (Morning Glory), or the calyx with all the parts within it, as in the Apple or the Hawthorn ; (6) they may differ in the interior structure of the ovary, and in the number and arrange- ment of the seed-like bodies (ovules) which it contains, but for the examination of these a good magnifying glass is required ; lastly (7) X ^ M' The Vegetable Kingdom. flowers differ in their mode of attachment and distribution stem, sometimes ocrnrrinj^ «>"gly, sometimes in numbers; soi wide apart, })ut more eoajmonly chistered; sometimes wi sometimes without little stalklets of their own. All of th features are pretty constant, not only in individual plants, b in whole groups of phnits, and are among the means by wl recognize their family relationships. 12. FRUITS AND THEIR VARIETIES. The parts of a flower which are commonly lost in the Fi the Corolla and the Stamens, these having served their purp perished. The Calyx may also disapi)ear, but it conunonly i giving a degree of protection to the parts within, and is su so where, as in the Apple, it has grown into union with th( The latter, however, is the essential part of the Fruit, ai ripening, becomes a seed vessel, in which the seeds are niatui this process various changes take })lace, determining as man; ent varieties of fruits, but only a few of the more common c be indicated. In ordinary berries (such as currants and cranberries) wt seed vessel or ripened pistil, which is soft and fleshy throng is also the case with tomatoes and grapes. Orangjs and len similar, only here the outer portion forms a thick and leatiie which becomes still harder in cucumbers, pumpkins, ajid In stone fruits, on the contrary, such as the clierry, plum, ant it is the inner part which becomes hard or "stony," while tl portion becomes soft and edible. In our common grains rye, Indian corn, etc.) the whole fruit becomes dry, the seec here also clinging closely to the seed. It is nnich the san nuts, only liere, as in chestnuts, beechnuts and tlie like, the free within. The seeds are also free in ordinary pea-pods, or the seed vessel, when ripe, splits down one side, and thii something like the leaf of which it is really only an alterc In the scales of a pine-cone, which are also ripened pistils, I quite numerous and crowded together, this resemblance to o leaves is still more evident. Where the calvx remains as a of the fruit, it may also form the larger part of it, as in th< portion of apples, pears and quinces, where it surrounds a €ore within, containing th*» s^jeds. Finally, much of what ^RMVPI #' The Vegetable Kingdom. 5T the fruit (though it is not properly so called) may be only thickened stem, with the true fruits resting upon or imi)odded in it. '"he strawbe;rv furnishes the best illustration of the latter kind. 13. SEEDS. The general nature of seeds, and some of their differences, have already been i)ointed out. (I^'ee page 44.) It only remains to say a few words iiere as to the means of their dispersion, and tlie con- ditions which determine their growth, or otherwise, when once spread abroad. Tlieir escape from the seed vessel may be effected either by tiie splitting of tlie latter or by its decay, and sometimes the very act of tluis opening, if sudden, may serve to jerk tlie seed to considerable distances. More commonly this is efll'cted by the agency of the winds, and to facilitate it many seeds are furnished with tufts of hairs, a:; in Milk-weed, or long woolly hairs, as in Cotton-plant, or by various other contrivances, in many cases, however, as in Dandelions, Thistles, and similar plants, these appen- dages are attached to the fruit, L e., the ripened pistil, rather than to the seed. The subsequent growth of the seeds will depend upon a variety of causes, as, first, U})on the length of time they have been kept. Good seeds will, in some instances, retain their vitality for many years, but the period i« usually quite limited. Even when good, iheir growth will usually require for its beginning a certain amount of warmth and moisture. It may also, to some extent, be affected by the presence or absence of light. But once started and brought up to the surface by the employment of the materials which the mother-j^lant has provided for its use, it now enters upon a career of its own, rising higher and higher above the ground, developing more and more joints of stem, and more and more leaves, as the roots, simultaneously produced below, continue to supply it with more and more material for the purpose. 14. THE FOOD AND WORK OF PLANTS. This brief review of the life of plants may now be closed with a very few words as to the sources from which their food is derived, the way in which this is worked up by the plant into its own sub- stance, and a few of the products which are thus formed. Plants derive their Food mainly from the Mineral World. — Of the substances thus taken, one of the most abundant 58 TlIK VEGETABLE KlNdDOM. is Water, as indicated by the necessity for the frequent watering of phmts, the effects of prohmged droughts, and tlie entire absence of vegetation in rainless regions. But with this Avater various otlier miner? i substances, in a state of solution, are taken in as well. These *'..'liide compound of soda, potasli, lime, iron, etc., which are found in the ash wlien the plants are burned, and sometimes so abundantly that wood-asli is a common source of lye or potash. Of course these mineral substances can only come from tlie soil, and their presence or absence in the latter may determine the difference between a good soil and a poor one. TIence the importance, in some cases, of supplying the deliciencies of the soil by the addition of suitable manures. Hence, also, the ini})ortance of various well- known agricultural operations — such as plougliing, harrowing, fal- lovving, etc. — wliich have for their object the speedy restoration (by the action of the atmosphere chiefly) oi the fertility of sods which may have been impaired by excessive cropping. As different crops require different forms of mineral food, an obvious advantage is sometimes attained by a judicious "rotation " of crops. Another mineral substance absolutely required for the growth of plants comes mainly from the air, and is known as carbonic acid, being one of the substances formed when coal (or carbon) burns. A few 2)lants possess the power of capturing and using animal food, such as insects and the like, but though very curious, they are exceptional, and cannot be further noticed here. Plants take in their Food mainly by their Roots and Leaves. — This is obvious, as regards the roots, from what has been already stated. Any common garden plant plucked up by the roots during the active period of its growth soon begins to wither or decay. That the leaves are concerned in the saihe i)rocess1s not so obvious, but yet the fact is one which has been placed beyond all question. Plants Take in Their Food by Mere Absorption or Soak AGE. — The surfaces of plants, so far, at least, as the stems and roots are concerned, exhibit no openings by which food may be in- troduced, and Ihough, in the case of leaves, when highly magnified, they are found to contain numerous little apertures, chiefly on the lower side of the leaf, these are merely the openings of little tubes or winding passages by which (as in the case of our lungs) air is freely carried into the interior of the leaf. Nothing of the nature of true mouths is found iu either. But openings are not required ThK VEGilTABLK KINGDOM. 59 where tlie food consists simply of li([ui(ls and ^ases. It may and does pass in by simple soakage, much as water would pays througli paper. Plants are Notrisiied ry the Circulation of the Sap. — Tiie food, us we have said, passes in, but into what ? As there are 110 mouths, so (in ordinary cases, at least) there is nothing of the nature of a stomach. There are not even cavities or tubes visible to the eye. But just as water spreads through i)aper (itself a vegetable substance), so it spreads with ease through the material of the root, and from the root to the stem, and finally from the stem to the leaves, meeting there with other food which may have been imbibed more directly from the air. In the leaves much of the water whicli has been concerned in this process (the rise of the sa})) passes oft into the air, but a portion of it is retained, and out of it, in connec- tion with carbonic acid, a variety of new products are formed, which are now suited, as the original or raw sap Wiis not, to 8upi)ly the plant's wants. These products are only formed in the leaves, and there only under the influence or through the power of the sun's rays» But it is not in the leaves that the material is required. It is needed elsewhere, either to be used for immediate growth, or, where occisioii requi/es, to be stored up for future use. In the one case it is carried directly to the growing parts (chiefly in he form of mucilage and sugar), and there employed ; in the other, as we s:iw in previous pages, it is carried to some place, root, bulb, tuber, bud, or seed, and de- posited in a form (chiefly that of starch) in which it will be removed from ordinary sources of injury, and not be liable to change until it is again needed by the plant itself. The employment of common potatoes and wheat as sources of starch, and the similar employment of sugar cane, beet root, and maples as sources of sugar, are good illustrations of the facts above stated. So the sweetish taste of pota- toes which are beginning to ^.prout, the similar change of hapd (i. e> starchy) unripe fruit into what is soft, mellow, and sweet, or, on the other hand, the formation in certain portions or kinds of fruit (nuts^ etc.) of very hard material, show the readiness ' h which the plant converts one of these substances into another as need may arise- By what power the plant effects these changes we do not know, any more than we do how the sap is directed from the roots to the leaves^ and from these back again to the roots or other parts. It is simply one of the faculties which plants possess as living beings. 60 The Vegetable Kingdom. Having now learned something of tlie nature and life of Plants, yre may proceed to notice very briefly those forms which, occurring within our own Province, may, in one way or another, be regarded -either as serviceable or as a source of injury to its inhabitants. In so doing we may at the same time learn something further of their botanical relations The Useful and Hurtful Plants of New Brunswick. SERIES L FLOWERING PLANTS. All the plants of this series are possessed of true flowers, con- taining stamens and pistils, and formiug true seeds; i. e., seeds having within a true, though usually minute plantlet, or embryo. As these latter differ, however, in possessing either two or only one seed-leaf, so the whole structure and mode of growth of the plants springing therefrom present corresponding differences, and lead to the sub- ■division of all flowering plants into two great groups or classes, the Outside Growers (or Exogens), and the Inside Growers (or En- dogens).* Class I. Exogens. The plants of this group possess two seed-leaves in the embryo, and in growth form stems embracing a true bark, wood, and pith, the wood increasing by annual zones or rings on the outside next the bark. (See Plate II., and Page 50). The leaves are iietted-veined ; i. e., their veins form an irregular network, and their flowers have the parts usually arranged in fours or Jives. In the greater portion of the group, the seeds, while ripening, are enclosed within and protected by an external cc/ering or "seed vessel" (either a berry, pod, nut, or core), but in the Pine Family the seeds remain uncovered, being borne upon the inner side of the scales of cones. Again, while many plants have flowers in which all the several parts are present, and the leaves or petals of the corolla quite dis- tinct and unconnected, in many others these are more or less united into one piece, while in others again they are wholly wanting. Tliese characters are taken advantage of in the further classification ♦For the features of the latter group see page 73. The Vegetable Kingdom. 61 of plants. In the following groups, forming the natural orders or families of the Vegetable Kingdom, the first thirteen, as far as and including the Witch Hazel Family, have both calyx and corolla, the petals being at the same time distinct. They are therefore termed Polypetalous, or Many-Petalled Flowers. The next seven, from the Honeysuckle to the Mint Family, inclusive, usually have the petals, more or less united into one, or are Monopetalous ; while after these are a number of other plants in which the corolla, and often the calyx as well, is wanting, they being therefore known as Apetalous, These all have flowers witii covered seeds. The naked seeded plants include in this part of the world but one family only — that of the Pine and its relatives — often known as Cone-bearing Plants. The various families of Flowering Plants may accordingly be arranged as follows : SUB-CLASS 1. PLANTS WITH COVERED SEEDS. DIVISION I. POLYPETALOUS PLANTS. Crow-Foot or Buttercup Family. The most familiar representative of this family is the common Buttercup. To it belong, al' The Vkoktaulk Kingpom. 53 Cashkw Family. The representatives of this family in the Province are the Snmach and the Poison Ivy. Tlie former is not nncommon along the borders of liehis and gardens, wliere its leaves and fruit, especi- ally in autunm, are quite conspicuous and ornamental. Its bark and lea'^es are also said to be serviceable in tanning. The Ivy, on the contrary, is a plant to be mentioned only as one to be avoided : its long vines, creeping orer rocks or climbing upon trees and shrub- bery, being highly poisonous to the touch, thougli more so to some persons than to others. The Maple Family. Five kinds of Maples are to be found in New Brunswick, four of which are conniion. Of these the most valuable in everv wav is the Rock or Sugar Maple. Not only is it a majestic tree, beautiful alike in form and foliage, and serving admirably the purposes of shade or ornament, but its wood is also one which is highly esteemed. Hard, dense, and compact, it takes readily a high polish, and in the several varieties of Curled Maple, Birds-Eye Maple and others, is highly valued for interior decoration, especially of railway carriages. As fuel its value is unequalled. The Rock Maple is also the source from which maple sugar is obtained, holes being bored for this pur- pose into the trunk, and the liquid sap which escapes being boiled down until it assumes the sugary condition. Large quantities of such sugar are annually manufactured in the Cc unty of Madawaska, and but little of any other kind is there used. The Red or Swamp xMaple is next in importance to the Rock Maple, but is usually of smaller size, and with a wood which is weaker and less durable. It is, however, capa})le of being readily turned and polished, and finds useful application in the making of. furniture. It is also sometimes used in house-building. Similar remarks apply to the rather rare White or Silver Maple. The two remaining varieties of Maple; namely, the Striped Maple and Mountain Maple, are both much smaller, not often ex- ceeding a height of fifteen or twenty feet, and, though not devoid of beauty, are of no special interest. The Striped Maple is sometimes known as Moose-wood, it being said to l)e the favorite food of that animal. » . The cultivated Morse-Chestnut is closely related to the Maples. 64 The Vegetable Kingdom. The Pea Fa:mily. The members of this family, one of the "roval families" of plants, are readily distinguislied in most cases bv tlie resemblance of their blossoms to that of the Common Pea, and of their fruit to an ordinary Pea-Pod. Their most imjjortant representative, next to the Pea itself, is the Common Clover of our fields, so highly valued bt)th by bees and cattle. Locust Trees, frecjuently planted for orna- mental purposes, belong to this group, as do also the diflerent kinds of A'etcli, often found in garden? and trailing over bushes along- river banks. The Eose Family. The characters of this family are well exemplified in an ordinary Kose, but it embnices also many other forms which differ widely in size and general ap[)earance. Among tliese we have first the diflerent varieties of Cherries, of which several kinds (the Dwarf Clierry, the Wild l\ed Cherry, the Choke Cherry, and the Wild lilack Cherry) are founOM. their ilowers and otliers for their fruit. Amon<^ tlie former stands out proniinently the well-known Mayliower, the much-prized and beautiful Inirblnger of spring; also the dilierent speeies of Laurel, Khododendron and Labrador Tea, wliich, blossoming almost simul- taneously, for a ft'W weeks in spring, add sueh a richness of red and purj)le colour, mingled with white, to the surfaces of bogs and swamps. Of the fruit-bearing species, the most important are the Cran- berry and the IJlueberry. Cranberries grow in great abundance in peat bogs and marshes near the coast, and thousands of bushels are annually gathered there. Blueberries are also common on rocky and swampy tracts. Winter-green berries may also be mentioned here as affording a familiar flavoring extract. Tup: Aster Family. Tliis family, as represented in a wild state, embraces but few use- ful forms, but is worthy of mention as embracing many which, owing to the ease and rapidity of their nniltiplication, are apt to become pernicious weeds. Pre-eminent among these stand the dif- ferent kinds of Thistles, wliich, once that they have gained a foothold, are found so difficult to eradicate. Llere, also, be'.ong the Ox-Eye Daisies, Burdock, Fire-weed, and the Yarrow, all common weeds. Here, too, belong the Dandelion, the Michaelmas Daisy, and the Golden-rod, though in these latter cases the beauty of the flowers make some atonement for more objectionable qualities. Dandelions are also valued for "greens." The Thoroughwort, common along streams, has some useful medicinal qualities; as have also Arnica, Chamomile, Wormwood, and Tansy, all members of the same family. The common 8un-flowers of gardens also belong here. In all tlie plants of this family wliat seem to be single blossoms are in reality composed of many flowers, closely clustered into more or less dense heads, and by this feature, among others, the members of the family may generally be distinguished. Olive Family. This family is represented in New Brunswick only by the Ash, of which two spe(,'ies are conmion. Of these the most valuable is the White Asli, which is found i'.i most parts of the Province, and forms, nnder favorable circumstances, a tall tree, fifty or sixty feet high. It is most abundant in rich loamy woods, and in the vicinity TlIK VEGETAnLE KlNGDOM. 67 of streams. Its wood is strong, tough and elastic, and is extensively employed hy sleigh and carriage makers, as well as in the manufac- ture of furniture and agricultural implements. It is well adapted for the making of oars. The Black Ash is a less valuahle tree, but still yields a wood possessing remarkable toughness, strength, and durability. It has been employed to some extent in the manufacture of furniture, in the panelling of railway cars, and largely in the construction of sleighs and i>ungs. It is generally employed by the Indians in the making of basket-work. It may be seen in great quantities along the bordei-s of the larger streams which are tributary to the upper St John. Convolvulus Family. The plants of this family deserving mention here are the Hedge Bind-weed, often called Convolvulus, and the Dodder. The former is noticeable for its handsome and conspicuous flowers, to be seen in great numbers along the banks of the St. John, and often cultivated for ornament; the latter only as a worse than useless weed, destitute of any foliage of its own, but twining its long yellow and leatless stems around those of other plants, and living at their expense. The common Sweet Potato is the imported root of a plant of this family. The ordinary Potato, on the other hand, is not a root, but the greatly thickened underground stem of a })lant of the nearly related Night-shade family. Tobacco is composed of the dried lenves of a plant of the Convolvulus family. Ked or Cayenne Pepper is also derived from the same group. * . FiGWORT Family. This group is noticeable only as containing several very common weeds. Among them may be mentioned the Mullein, the Toad-tlax or " Butter and Eggs," several kinds of Veronica or Speedwell, and the Yellow Battle. The latter has spread widely turough the southern counties, giving a yellow colour to the fields, but is rarer in the interior. Mint Family. The members of this large family, embracing only herbs, are usually readily recognized by their square stems, opposite leaves, and the two-lipi)ed character of their tiowers. Among them the Mint itself is one of the most common, to which mav be added the Catnip, which sometimes escapes from gardens;, and both of which 68 The Vegetable Kingdom. are valued for their medicinal properties. Here ixho belong several weeds, such as t!ie IJrunclla or 1 leal-All, common in field, and pastures; the Hemp-Xettle, equally common, and the Motherwort. Amon,t( cultivated })iants the Thyme, Marjoram, and Summer Savory, all valued tor culinary purposes, belong here. DIVISION in. APETALOVS PLANTS. The llower.s in tliis grouj) arc without ]>ctals, the flower-leaves, if present, representing the calyx, but often wholly wanting. Buckwheat Famii.y. The onlv important member of this familv is the Buckwheat it- self, one of our most valued and reliable crops. The otJier, or Avild species, including several kinds of Polygonum, and the Dock or Sorrel (liumexj, are only pernicious weeds. Elm Fa^iily. As an ornamental tree the Elm has probably no equal among the native trees of the Province. ( irowing to great heights, branch- ing freely and gracefully, and often featliered with drooping branch- lets, it is a conspicuous feature in the landscape wherever it occurs. It is especially noticeable about islands and intervales, and much of the beauty of the St. John river vallev is due to the manv fine specimens of Elms which skirt its banks. Trees are occasionally met with girthing twenty feet. On uplands it is comparatively rare, and is wanting where tlie soil is poor. The wood of the Elm is strong and elastic, and is used to some extent in connection with the furnishing of ships; but owing to peculiarities of grain, is somewhat ditiicult to work. The Nettle, a i)ernicious weed, well known for its stinging prop- erties, is, though only an herb, nearly related to the Elms. The cul- tivated Hop and Hemp also belong here. Walnut Family. The sole representative of this family in New Brunswick is the Butternut, and this is found only in certain portions of it, including parts of the southern counties and the valley of the St. John, es- pecially above Woodstock, where it often forms beautiful groves. The Vkoktablk Kingdom. 60 The wood of the Butternut is liiglily ei^teemed in cabinet mak- iui,' and for purposes of interior decoration, liaving a rich reddish- yellow colour, which deejiens with age, and hears some resenihlance to that of the Knglish Oak. It is especially well titteecially suiting it for such uses. It is also, from its durability, especially suited to the making of fences. Wliut is known as Red Cedar, but more properly as Juni})er, is found, oceur'-ing si):'.ringly, along the southern coasts, and on the bea«!ies of IJestigouche county. It is liere, however, only a low prostrate shrub, of little or no value. The Spruces. — These are very valuable trees, and their v*'ood constitutes one of the most important exports of the Province. There are two kinds, the A\ hite, or Single Spruce, and the Black Spruce. The latter is the most valuable. At one time it covered vast areas of the Province in dense forests, but fire and the axe of the lumberman Jiave now greatly reduced its supply. It is most abandant in the southern and middle counties, growing usually around lakes and in low situations. Its wood is strong, light, elastic, and durable, and is extensively used .' ' shipbuilding, especially in the making of yards and topmas-ts. Very large quantities are manu- factured into deals, clapboaiV-;, and battens for exportation. It is also used to some extent in the making of shingles. The White Spruce is a larger but more slender tree than the Black Spruce. It is also of less frequent occurrence. Its wood is white and soft, and generally free from knots, but it possesses less strength and elasticity than the last naiued variety, and is therefore less vahiable. Tlie spruce deals shipped from the northern counties are largely made from this tree. Hemlock. — Another important tree is the Hemlock Spruce, or Hemlock. It is one of the most abundant of our evergreen trees, and is found on almost every variety of r>oil. Under favorable cir- cumstances it reaches a height of seventy or eighty feet, '";i*H a circumference of from six to nine feet. It is ot more frequent occurrence in the sd, vhe latter being irregu- larly scattered through the stem, and mosily near the centre; lience called Endogens, or Insid;^ Growers. The leaves have thi? veins usually arranged in parallel lines ratlier than branching, are not toothed, and generally clasp *he stem, The parts of the flower are usually in threes, and the embryo possesses but a single seed-leaf. 74 The Vegetabi.e Kingdom. The group embraces quite a number of families, of wliicli, liowever, only a few tan liere be noticed. Arum Family. This family derives its name from the "Wild Arum, or Indian Turnip, commonly met with along the borders of brooks and in hhady woods. Its tuber, or thickened underground stem, is remark- able for its intensely biting taste, and when grated and boiled (when it loses its acridity), is a popular medicine in the cure of coughs and consumption. A plant of more real value for its medicinal proper- ties is the Sweet Flag, or Calanuis, not unfrecpiently employed in the diseases of children. It is found in river intervales, and about the borders of lakes and ponds. Lily Family. But fcAV members of this family are noticeable as useful plants, but many are deserving of mention for their beauty: one, the Onion, constitutes an article of food, and another, the Hellebore, is a violent poison. Among the forms noticeable for their beauty may be men- tioned the ordinary Yellow or Orange Lily; the true Canadian Lily, the ornament of intervales and meadows ; the Belhvort, common also in similar situations ; the Adder's Tongue, or Dog's Tooth Violet ; and the Trillium, whose flowers, especially of the white or painted variety, are among the most common and beautiful blossoms of early spring. All of these plants are capable of successful culti- vation. The cultivated Onion is of course familiar to every one, while wild Onions abound along the banks of the upper St. John and its tributaries. The Hellebore, on the other hand, is l^ss widely distributed, but is not uncommonly met with along the banks of in- tervales, where its broad green leaves and luxuriant growth can hardly fail to attract attention. The poisonous qualities reside cliicfly in the root. Okchis Family. This family is hero alluded to simply for the reason that it in- cludes some of the most beautiful and curious, though not the most abundant, of our wild flowers. One of the most familiar forms is the Lady's Slipper, whose flowers, including both white and })ink varieties, are among the choicest ornaments of our vernal woods. Iris Family. The two representatives of this family here ibund are the com- mon Blue Flag, occurring everywhere in wet places throughout the The Vegetable Kingdom. 75 Province, i\nd tlie Blue-Eyed Grass, iibundant in fields. Both are noticeable for their beauty. Cultivated species of Iris, with large and showy blossoms, are common in gardens. The Crocus and Gladiolus are related forms. Rush Family. The Rushes are only noticeable as weeds. Five or six species are of common occurrence, but are for the most part homely, worth- less, and trG;:blosome. Cat-Tail Family. The Cat-Tails, or Flags, are common in wet and nuiddy places. They have no important applications, but their dried spike-like fruits and long sword-like leaves are often employed for interior house decoration. The leaves are sometimes made useful for weav- ing the seats of chairs. Gra.ss Family. Though usually of small size individually, of simple structure, and with inconspicuous flowers, no group in the vegetable kingdom is more deserving of mention than that of the Grasses, for this, if for no other reason, that it affords so large a proportion of the food both of man and beast. Thus, within this family are included not only all the ordinary grasses of fields and pasture lands, which,, either in the green state or as hay, form tiie chief xneans of subsist- ence of all our domesticated cattle, but here also are found such in- valuable plants as Rice, Wheat, Rye, Barley, Oats, Indian Corn, and Sugar Cane. SERIES II. FLOWERLESS PLANTS. The plants referred to this great division of the Vegetable King- dom differ from those previously noticed in that, though they con- form to the general plan of vegetable growth, they fail to fornL either true flowers or seed, multiplication being effected by spores,- i. e., minute seed-like bodies borne upon the leaves, but which con- tain within no ready -formed plantlet or embryo. To this series belong (1) the Ferns or Brakes; (2) the Club- Mosses or Ground Pines; (3) the Mare's Tails or Scouring Rushes; (4) the true Mosses; (5) the Mushrooms ; (G) the Lichens; and (7) the Sea-Weeds, with a multitude oi related forms. The Ferns are especially noticeable for their abundance and their beauty, being unexcelled in the whole vegetable kingdom for the 76 The- Vegetable Kingdom. delicacy, variety, and elegance of tlieir foliage. Tliey are also well iidaptcd for garden and house cultivation. The Club-Mosses are iilso beautiful })hints, well adapted, by their trailing stems and spruce or pine-lilve leaves, for interior cultivation and decoration. The Mare's Tails are connnon about ponds and wet situations, but are of no special interest. Tiie Mosses, the Fungi or Mushrooms, and the Sea-Weeds (better known as Algae) all embrace many beautiful forms well worthv of consiical islands, or even themselves form islands in the midst of the ocean. (11.) The Animal Dies. The duration of all living things is limited. Subject at all times to internal change, subject also to acci- dent and disease, as well as liable to be attacked and destroyed by other animals, each kind, or rather each individual, having served its purpose, and having given birth to new individuals, becomes the subject of decay, and, dying, becomes resolved into the elements out of which it was made. THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. In the study of natural objects, as in all other kinds of study in which comparisons are made, the mind is naturally led, as the re- sult of these comparisons, to group or classify tlie objects or ideas thus considered according to their features of resemblance and of diflference. We classify familiar objects as houses, churches, barns, and the like ; we classify words as nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc. ; in the first part of this work we distinguished rocks from minerals, and metals from bodies which are not metallic ; and, finally, we grouped or classified plants in a number of distinct families, each of which had some repi'esentative member and some peculiar features of its own. The classification of animals has the same object in view, and is effected in the same way; viz., by bringing together into distinct groups those animals whicli have conmion features or which stand more or less nearly related to each other. The classification of animals, however, is not nearly so easy as that of minerals or plants, becfiUse they are of a far more complicated structure, and the grounds of comparison are at the same tim^ mucli more numerous ^o ^ Va m/j 7 7 f /^ i «5^ O yy^/ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 If 1^ lid 1^ !■■ 1 2.2 t lis 12.0 111= 1.4 il.6 V A /, % i^. WJ.X u.. 84 The Animal Kingdom. • and less thoiouglily understood. Hence naturalists are not altogether in accord as to the number and relative importance of the groups to be adopted, but certain general principles are, nevertheless, recog- nized by all. Tiiese principles will be best understood by a few simple illustrations. ► If we were called ujton to classify the books of a library, we might, as a matter of convenience, do so with reference to their relative size ; or, as a matter of taste, from tlie character of their binding ; or yet again, with reference to the dates of their publica- tion. But such classifications would be of little or no vahie for any one who wislied to know wh;;i sort of books the library actually con- tained. For this purpose he would need to go beneath the surface and know something of the subjects of which they treat. So with the different varieties of buildings; we distinguish and group them together with little or no reference to their size, colour, amount of ornament, or other unimijortant features of like kind, but with ref- erence to the plans of their architecture and th.e purposes for which they are to be employed. It is the same with the classification of animals. The first and most important feature to be determined is that of their })lan of structure. According to what general pattern are they built? In the Vegetable Kingdom we found but one such plan, but in the higher Animal Kingdom this number is considerably increased; four, if not a greater number, of distinct patterns being here recog- nizable. The first of these patterns finds illustration in the case of our own bodies, as well as in all ordinary (juadrupeds, birds, reptiles, and fishes, the common feature which they all possess being that of having an internal bony skeleton, with a back-bone for an axis. The division or branch of ihe Animal Kingdom possessing this common feature is hence called that of Back-Boned (or Vertebrate) Animals. The several groups referred to may be regarded simply as repre- senting so many modes of carrying out this one idea or pattern, and they make up so many classes into which the Vertebrate Branch may be subdivided. So each class may, with the varying complexity of its members, their form and mode of life, be subdivided into smaller groups, known as orders and families, genera and species. The plan is the same in all, but is variously expressed. In addition to the Back-Boned or Vertebrate plan, three other plans are recognized by most authors, known respectively as the rr The Animal Kingdom. 85 Articulate or Jointed Plan, the Sac-like or Molluscan Plan, and the Ray-Formed or Radiate Plan — plans which are equally to be found in all the various animals which belong to each, however much they may vary in individual peculiarities. These, therefore, make three more branches of the Animal Kingdom, and they in similar manner are subdivided into classes, orders, etc., according to the varying ways in which the one common plan is executed. Finally, it has been found necessary to adopt a fifth branch (Protozoa) to include a number of forms, mostly of minute size, the structure of whose bodies is so simple that they can hardly be re- garded as being built upon any definite plan. Referring once more to our architectural comparisons, we may regard the four main types of animal structure as corresponding to the difierent styles of building distinguished by architects — the Grecian, the Gothic, the Norman, the Elizabethan, etc. The em- ployment of any one of these styles, such as the Gothic, for building a castle, a cathedral, or a house of parliament, as the case may be, is paralleled among vertebrate animals in the adaptation of some to life on the land (Quadrupeds), others to life in the air (Birds), and others again (Reptiles and Fishes) to life which is essentially aquatic. Again, a cathedral or a castle, built upon any one pattern, may be large or small, may be simple or complex, and may have various relations to its surroundings; and so any one class under any one branch of the Animal Kingdom may have members presenting similiar diversity. Finally, to complete the same comparison, the members of the fifth branch, which are not constructed iipon any particular plan, may be regarded as corresponding to rude huts and hovels, which, in like manner, cannot be referred to any particular architectural method, though they necessarily exhibit many of the more essential features upon which all edifices are built. The following systematic but simplified classification of the Animal Kingdom will afibrd further illustrations of these simple principles, as it will also give opportunity for reference to some of the more important wild animals of our own woods and waters. Branch I. Back-Boned or Vertebrate Animals. This branch embraces all animals possessing an internal, usually bony, framework or skeleton, having the back-bone as an axis, en- 86 The Animal Kingdom. dosing distinct organs of sense, of digestion, of circulation, and of respiration, and supporting externally two pairs of limbs, variously modified. The right and left sides of the body correspond, and the head is distinct and well defined. .. v The branch embraces four classes, exhibiting adaptations to as many disdnct conditions of life, as follows : Class I. Mammalia. Vertebrate or Back-Boned Animals bringing forth and suckling a living young; adapted in most in- stances to life on the land, and hence having their limbs developed into legs and fee!, for walking, leaping, running, etc. ; possessed of a four-chambered heart, with a double and perfect circulation,* and lungs inflated with air ; warm-blooded, and having the body more or k.s protected by a covering of hair. In addition to ordinary q ad- rupeds the group includes also Man, Monkeys, Bats, Seals, Walrus, Whales, etc., which, though not all four-footed, and in some instan- ces not inhabitants of the land, are yet true Mammals, possessing all the essential features of the group. Omitting Man, the following are the chief orders in the Mam- malian class, with some of their Provincial representatives : 1. QuADRUMANA. The Monkev Tribe, including Apcs, Monkeys, Baboons, et<;., only seen in imported specimens. 2. Carnivora. Flesh-Eating Animals, or Beasts of Prey, hav- ing usually strong, well-knit bodies, keen senses, and active movements ; having also mouths provided with sharp-pointed and cutting teeth, and feet armed with claws. Their entire structure adapted for the recognition, pursuit, capture, and digestion of living prey. In addition to domesticated dogs and cats, this group is represented among the wild animals of the Province by the Wild Cat, the Canada Lynx or Loup-cervier, one or more species of Fox, the Weasel, the Raccoon, the Sable, Mink, Otter, and Ermine, highly valued for their furs ; the Skunk, * A perfect and double circulation is where the whole of the blojod, in ad- dition to traversing the body, is driven through the lungs, and thereby purified. The heart, in such cases, always consists of four cavities, and the blood is con- •tantly and thoroughly renewed. The Animal. Kingdom. 8T the Bear, suul one or more Seals. Wolves were at one time common in the Province, but seem to have entirely disap- peared. 8. Herbivoua. Plant-Eating Animals, adapted externally and internally for subsistence upon vegetation ; iiaving bodies often large, but weaker and generally less active than those of carnivorous animals ; their senses often acute ; their teeth adapted for cuowing rather than for tearing or rending ; and their fee' ^rmed with hoofs instead of claws. The domesticated representalives of this group are our common and most useful animals, the Horse, the Cow, and the Pig. Among wild forms we have in the Province tlie Moose, the Caribou, and the Red (or Virginian) Deer. The two former are becoming lessened in numbers by the whole- sale slaughter to which they are subjected by huntei's, but the last named appears to be upon the increase. 4. Whales. These very peculiar forms of Mammals, which, with the closely aUied forms of porpoises, are generally mistaken for fishes, are not unfrequently seen upon our coasts, and are of several different kinds. Their main pecu- liarities' are their enormous size, tlieir water residence and fish-like form, the absence of hind limbs, and the imperfect development of their teeth. 5. Bats. These are another exceptional group, being adapted^ though true mammals, to life in the air. They are possessed of powers of flight; but these, instead of being effected through a true wing, composed of feathei-s, as in birds, are the result of a mere expansion of the skin, stretched upon and moved by the greatly lengthened fingers. They are small-sized, feeble animals, living in dark situations, flying only by night, and passing the winter season in a state of inactivity. We have three species, but only one of common occurrence, in the Province. 6. Insect-Eaters. The only reprerentatives of this group with- in our borders are the Shrews ai :i the Moles, of which there are several kinds. Both are very small and feeble animals, subsisting upon insects, burrowing under the ground, and 88 The Animal Kingdom. rarely seen by day. Their feet are adapted for digging; ri eir fur is very soft and fine, and tlieir eyes remarkable for their small size ; features all connected with the conditions of their underground life. 7. Gnawers. These include the Rats, the Mice, the Squirrels, the Woodchucks, the Muskrats, the Beavers, the Rabbits, 1 and the Porcupine. They are all plant-eatei-s; but in ad- I dition to being of small size and feeble structure, are pecu- liar in having their jaws and teeth (especially tlie two front teethineither jaw) adapted for gnawing. The three animals ; firstnamed, as well as Rabbits, are common everywhere. The Porcupine, remarkable for its covering of quills (really modi- fied hairs), is also not uncommon, frequently coming even into settlements. The Beaver, on the contrary, though once abundant, is now rare, being confined to the least frequented and most inaccessible portions of the Province, where the occurrence of their dams and houses attest the results of their activity and singular habits. The other groups of mammals met with in foreign countries need not be noticed here. Class II. Birds. Vertebrate animals, developed from eggs, and adapted for flight. The fore-limbs formed into wings, and the body covered with feathers. The circulation double and perfect, the respiration aerial, and the blood warm. This class may be divided into several groups, distinguished by peculiarities of their bills and feet, of which the following are the most important : 1. Birds of Prey. Hawks, Eagles, Owls. 2. Climbing Birds. Woodpeckers. 3. Perching Birds. Sparrows, Warblers, Swallows, ThrusheSj Humming-Birds, Crows, Blackbirds, Blue-Jays, etc. 4. Fowls, Etc. Including Barnyard Fowls, Pigeons, and Par- tridges. 6. Wading Birds. Heron, Snipe, Woodcock, Curlew. 6. Swimming Birds. Ducks, Geese, Loons, Gulls. riMM The Animal Kingdom. I Class m. Reptiles. Vertebrate animals, developed from eg^ and adapted for land life, for water life, or for both. The limbs a short, rudimentary, or altogether wanting; motion being slow, 1 creeping or gliding. Circulation douWe, but imperfect ; the bio* being only in part conveyed to the lungs (or gills), and but partial renewed. Eet:piration either through air or water, or through bot but inactive, with development of little power, and leaving the blo< cold. The body covering is composed of scales. The following a the subdivisions of this group : 1. True OR Scaly Eeptiles. • - (1). Turtles. Having tlie body enclosed in a shell made the back -bone, ribs, and hardened skin. The mou bird-like, without teeth. (2). Lizards. Having a lengthened body, not enclosed in shell, but covered with scales; limbs present. Tl mouth provided with small teeth. (S). Snakes. Having bodies greatly lengthened and destitu : of limbs, motion being effected by gliding. The mou' is provided with small teeth. In venomous serpen these are replaced in part by fangs, connected wi poison-glands, but none of this character are to be foui - • ' in New Brunswick. About four species of snakes oce in the Province, all of which are harmless. 2. Amphibian or Naked Keptiles. ''1). Frogs and Toads. Keptile-like animals, which in ear life live, as tadpoles, in the water, being fish-like form, and breathing by gills, but subsequently chanj to land-life, acquiring limbs and lungs. The body , short, with distinct head, and soft membranous skin. i 2). Newts and Salamanders. Lizard-like animals found I cellars, wells, and similar situations, but, unlike lizarc having a body without scales, and breathing more less by giUs. Class IV. Fishes. Vertebrate animals developed from eg (roe), and adapted exclusively to a water life ; the body lengthene horizontal, and cylindrical, without marked inequalities, and coven with scales ; the limbs developed into fins ; the circulation perfe< W) The Animal Kingdom. but single, the blood passing but once through the heart, and re- newed by gills instead of lungs. . The tliree principal groups of fishes, all of which have repre- sentatives on our shores, or m our lakes and rivers, are : 1. Bony Fishes, including nearly all food-fishes^ such as Trout, Salmon^ Perch, Herring, Mackerel, Pickerel, Cod. 2. Cartilaginous Fishes, destitute of a bony skeleton, and mostly injurious, as the Sharks and Rays. 3. Sturgeons, having the body more or less covered with bony - _ plates. They are often of large size, and are common in the St. John river, where they are captured in considerable numbers for the oil which they yield. t i Branch II. Jointed Animals or Articulates. The animak of this branch are without an internal framework or bones of any kind, the hard parts of the body being external. The body is usually lengthened, and more or less conspicuously divided into rings, which are articulated or jointed tcqfether, and which, on the outside, have attached to them the organs of locomo- tion, seizure, respiration, etc., variously modified. The right and left sides of the body correspond. The branch embraces the follow- ing classes : Class I. Insects. Terrestrial or Aerial Articulates, having the horny body divided prominently into three distinct parts (the so- called head, chest, and tail), living in and breathing air, and usually provided with wings for flight. They pass through several stages of growth, of which the first (as grub, caterpillar, or maggot), is worm- like. The principal groups are the following : 1. Bees, Wasps, and Ants. Social insects, living in communi- ties, and working for common ends. Of service iis affordiug honey, but also often injurious to growing vegetation. 2. Butterflies and Moths. Four-winged insects, the tribe of beauty, and of service in connection with the fruiting of plants, but as caterpillars often highly injurious. 1 The Animal Kingdom. 91 3. Beetles. " Ilard-shelled " insects, with four wings, of which two only are used for flight. Tlie mouth is provided with jaws. They include — besides all varieties of Beetles — June Bugs or Cockchafers, Potato Bugs, etc., many of them working; incalculable injury. 4. Fltes. Two-winged insects, including the common House- fly, Bot-flies, etc. ; in part beneficial as scavengers, but apt to become pests by their numbers and habits. Fleas are related wingless forms. 6. GRASSHOPi»ERS, Crickets, AND LocusTS. Winged insects,, having the framework of the wing arranged in straight continuous lines. They are highly injurious to vegetation. 6. Dragon Flies. Four-winged insects, having the framework of the wing exhibiting numerous branches, and the mouth provided with jaws. Though formidable in name and aspect,, the dragon-flies are wholly harmless to man ; affording, on the contrary, much service by preying upon and therefore reducing the number of injurious insects. Though not con- fined to such situations, they are most commonly found about ponds, lakes and rivers. ClclSS II. Spiders. Air-breathing, articulate animals, related to the Insects, but destitute of wings, and having four instead or three pairs of legs. The body, which is soft, is usually divided inta two distinct parts. They live largely upon insects, which they cap-^ ture with the assistance of their webs; but some forms are plant- feeders, and very destructive to vegetation. Class in. Crustaceans. Jointed animals, having a body cov- ered with a hard and rigid shell, the pieces of which are so united as to divide the body into two prominent regions. They are con- fined to the water, and breathe by gills. Of familiar forms there are but two groups ; viz., (1) the Crabs, and (2) the Lobsters and. Cray-fish. They are largely employed as human food. Class IV. Worms. Articulate animals, with a soft body con- sisting of an indefinite number of similar rings, with or without external appendages. They are confined to water and damp earthy ^2 The Animal Kingdom. breathing either by gills, or by the general surface of the body. Be- sides the ordinary earth, or angle worm, they include also the Leeches, often found in ponds, and many marine forms. Earth lyorms are of service as helping in the formation of isoils, and leeches for medical purposes. . , Branch III. Soft-bodied, Sac-like Animals. MoUusca. Animals destitute of a bony framework, consisting essentially of «, soft fleshy unjointed bag, containing the stomach and other organs, and usually protected externally by a limestone shell. The num- •erous (over 20,000) distinct forms are mostly referable to three groups, as follows : • * • . Class I. Cephalopoda (Head-Footed). The Squid and Cuttle tribe, having w'ell defined heads, surrounded by long arms, employed for seizure and locomotion, and (in our species) destitute of a shell. The species of our coast are mostly small, but some in the North Atlantic attain a length of ^orty feet. Class II. Gasteropods (Belly-Footed). Molluscs, enclosed in a shell usually composed of a single piece (univalve) and coiled spirally, as in the Snail. The body consists of a dis- tinct head, with eyes and feelers, and of a soft, fleshy disc, containing the stomach, etc., by which motion is effected. Class III, Bivalves. Molluscs enclosed in a double or two- valved shell opening by a hinge, as the Oyster and the Clam. They are destitute of a distinct head, and, in most instances, ® of locomotive organs. Kespiration is effected by plate-like gills (the combs of the oyster), or by a system of water tubes. Eelations or the Mollusca to Man. These are varied and important. In the first place they yield, as in the case of the oyster, clam, and some other forms, valuable articles of food ; some of them are available as bait ; and many animals of importance to man, in- ^^ The Animal Kingdom. 9S eluding varioua food-fishes, and even the gigantic whales, obtain in them a large part of their subsistence. Their shells, from the lime which they contain, are valuable as fertilizers, and owing to their beauty, for the making of ornaments. Mother of pearl is a portion of the inner layer of sliells of this group, and the pearl itself is similarly constituted. On the other ha.'l, they may also be injuri- ous, partly as preying upon other animals, as in the case of the cuttles; or by preying ui)on plants, as with the slug and snail. Finally, by the power which they in some instances possess of boring into wood and stone, they may work immense damage to such human structures as are exposed to their attacks. The ship-worm (not really a worm, though conmionly so called), is one of this character, and produces incalculable injury. Branch IV. Ray-Formed Animals, or Radiates. Animals destitute of a bony framework, but often possessing a calcareous skeleton, with the organs of the body, external and inter- nal, arranged radially around a central axis. This brunch includes two main divisions, mostly marine, and several subordinate ones, as follows : Class I. Echinoderms. Having generally an external body- covering, composed of many calcareous pieces, and bearing more or less prominent spines. Their most familiar forms are the Sea Urchins and Star-Fishes, abounding on the coast. Class II. Jelly Fishes (£,nd Belated Forms). Having soft, jelly-like bodies, of very simple structure, growing and multiplying much like plants. Class III. Corals (and Related Forms) . Having the simple, sac-like body divided by radiating partitions, which, with the body itself, generally become hardened by stony material into an endur- ing skeleton. Growth and multiplication resembling that of plants. Relations of the Radiates to Man. Except that these, in various degrees, eat and are eaten by other animals, they are — at M The Animal Kingdom. least in our waters — of little direct importance to man. In warmer latitudes, however, they play a part of the first importance in the building up of limestone reefs, such as surround many tropical islands, and mov even form the bulk of the islands themselves. <3 Branch V. Protozoa. These are systemless animals, having the simplest possible struc- ture, possessing few, if any, disUnct organs, and not built upon any definite plan. They are mostly of very small size individually, or even microscopic; but, by a process of budding, build up large, some- what plant-likip, communities. The mist familiar example is ordi- nary sponge, varieties of which are common in our ponds and upon the coast. The best sponges come from the Mediterranean. Ordi- nary Chalky which we employ as a writing material, has a somewhat similar origin. fc^^ (in J'ffb \ % t \ ■Utaaikli«.-^^fiiA