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LONDON : SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE; SOLD AT tHE DEPOSITORIES: 11, GREAT QUEEN STREET, LINCOLN'S INN FIELDS ; 4, ROYAL exchange; 48, PICCADILLY; AND BY ALL BOOKSELLERS. I, V 1 f^tOD^a.'^?§7 ' t •*' "f ■'V -■. *■ ■• i* *• .' ■ A'* .\r*,-' . IAKDOM: printed by W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAHFOfiD STREET I, AND CHAUINa CBOS3. ■■ ,» ^» '. . . .' ■'t.^,; ^» -■- ' i' : PEEFACE. (i... '■.-\ /I.. ~»o*- The following work is based upon the notes of a course of lectures delivered by the author while holding a Govern- ment Lectureship in Geography at the York Training Schools; and is published in the hope that it may be found useful by the large and continually inqreasing class of readers who are interested in our colonies and foreign possessions. The author wished to render the study of Geography attractive by presenting to his pupils a fuller account than usual of some chief branches of the science, in the place of the statistics and unconnected statements, which usurp the name of Geography. For the purpose of clothing these dry bones it seemed best to rely upon Physical Geographyj'because it allows numerous interesting observations to be arranged into groups, themselves the members of a system. Thus, the geology of a country determines the main features of its surface ; the latter chiefly govern its climate ; and, again, the character of its vegetation and of its animal life is in agreement with the ■ 47000 i ». IV PBEFAOE. conditions cf its climate and its soil. Lastly, all these divisions of the subject are intimately related to the pro- ducts of the coantry, and the pursuits of its people. In sketchifig the doj^endenoe of these causes and effects upon each oiher, the "writer has collated the best authorities within his reach, and has endeayoured to give reaUty to his descriptions by availing himself at all times of the kindness of well-informed friends, and by the study of appropriate collections of commercial and Natural History produc- tions. The work is published in four separate parts, each wiih its own series of maps and index. Part J. contains — The American Group of Colonies ; II. „ The Australian ; III. „ The East-Indian ; and lY. ., The Atlantic Colonies. ?> i ■ 1 ■ : « ; Yorh, June, 1864. - 1* - -. ■'., \'^ ^>' '}::, vr "'i'- ■ ' ." ' ^■:S ■■' '-' •,!■ • ■ ,.. " •" • ^.yM ■f -. >■ . t-^' _ 1 = '- '.: •'-■ •" ■■ i\ '. -n-^clvL . 5. ■/ '■ (!, ; ' 'i^-i •• "1 ... the pro- • , ' d effects . thorities THE AMERICAN COLONIES. ty to his Canada . ^ dndness »ropriate produc- CHAPTER I. • ••«••• FAOE 3 a,ch wlih A 4) It CHAPTER n. olonies; New Brunswick . ^ . . . • . CHAPTER m. . 51 Nova Scxxtia * 72 •^ V ^^ W v^v ^te'^^^^ a^ 4^^i^V V CHAPTER IV. • • •• Prince Edward*s Island CHAPTER V. . 95 NeWTOUNDIjANP • • • • • t • . lOG CHAPTER VI. British Columbia, and Vancouver Island . . .117 CHAPTER VII. Hudson's Bay Company's Territoby— Rupert's Land . 141 ^1 THE AMERICAN COLONIES. -•o«- NORTH AMERICAN GROUP. British North America exceeds 400,000 square miles in extent * and includes nearly all the continent north of the 49th parallel, and the Great Lakes. The exception is Russian America, occupying the north-western pro- montory beyond the 14l8t meridian, together with a strip of sea-coast which descends to lat. 56°. Geographically, this vast region is bisected by the 95th meridian W. longitude. To the left of this line is a huge unbroken land-mass of nearly a square form, each side measuring about 1200 miles; and to the right, or east, is a tract of nearly equal dimensions, but cut np, and in part occupied, by the deep indentation of Hudson's Bay on the north, and by the irregular basin of the St. Law- rence on the south. Regarding the variations of surface in this territory, the principal physical feature is the lofty system of the Rocky Mountains, the chief range of which rims parallel to the western coast, at from 300 to 400 miles inland. This system forms the main watershed of the continent, dividing its short slope into the Pacific Ocean from its long one into the Atlantic. A subordinate watershed stretches from the Rocky Mountains eastward near the southern boundary of the British territory, until it approaches the Lake Region, throwing off the feeders * North America is estimated at 810,000 square miles in area. a NOnm AMEUICAN GROUP. f>f tiio Mississippi and Lake Winnopog in opposite directions. And connected with this is a range of higher hind extending from tlie north of Lake Superior to the Straits of Belle lHle,»aud separating the drainage of the St. Lawrence from that of Hudson's Bay. This range is sometimes called the " Height of Land," an indefinite term, which it would bo well entirely to disuse and to replace by an appellation derived from the prevailing geological formation, whence it is named the Lawrentian Chain. To the south of the range just mentioned are the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, with the insular possessions of Prince Edward's Island and New- foundland. On the west of the Rocky Mountains are the newly-erected colonies of British Columbia and Van- couver Island. And the immense tract remaining after these reductions have been made constitutes the Hudson's Bay Copipany's Territory. We now proceed to the con- sideration of these subdivisions in the order of their enumeration. '■i^ 8 CHAPTER I.-CANADA.* Canada; — Boundaries, Geology, General Description; — the Erie Plain, Forests ; Terrace-region ; — the Lawrentian Plateau, the Ottawa, the Saguenay ;— the Sonth Section, Eastern Town- ships; — the St. Lawrence, tlie Great Lakes; — Industry; — Timber-trade, Fisheries, Minerals, Earth-oil ; Agriculture, Climate; — Population, Manufactures, Commerce, Iteciprocity Treaty, Communication with England. Canada. Boundaries. — Canada is by far the largest and most important colony of the North American group. It occupies an extensive region stretching along the north side of the St. Lawrence throughout its whole length, and extending also on the south bank up to the boundary line in N. lat. 45°. Its limits towards the Hudson's Bay Company's territory are very ill defined, as that part of the country is quite unsettled. But it is usual to consider the crest of the Lawrentian Mountains as the boundary, continuing the latter to the west as far as the Pigeon Eiver, on the shores of Lake Superior, in long. 90°, and eastwards, to Blanc Sablon, on the Strait of Belle Isle, near long. 57° 30' W. Canada is then estimated at 850,000 square miles in area ; and being subdivided by the River Ottawa, Western or Upper Canada is 100,000 square miles in extent, and the lower division about twice as great, being the remainder, after sub- tracting 50,000 square miles for the River and Gulf of St. Lawrence. Even these wide limits do not satisfy ♦ See 'Essays on Canada,' by Hogan and by Morris, 1855; •Canada, 1849-59,' by Hon. A. T. Gait; Kingston's * Western Wan- derings ;' Wood's 'Prince of Wales in Canada :' Official Tables and Reports ; ♦ Geological Quarterly Journal,' ix. and xv., &c. 9^ I 4 CANADA. some Canadian writers, who advance claims to the whole of the Saskatchawan Valley up to the base of the Eocky Mountains. It is more practical to observe that, by the year 1854, there were 33,000 square miles surveyed in Upper, and 12,700 in Lower Canada, large portions of which were unappropriated ; so that the extent of country which can be said to be settled in any correct sense is considerably less than 50,000 square miles. Besides this settled territory, which is all tillable land, it is making a low assumption when we conjecture that there are 100,000 square miles which will be found hereafter amply to repay the labours of the agriculturist. The southern boundary is so complicated that it can be understood only by an examination of the map. It leaves the 45th parallel at the head of the Connecticut River, and keeps the ridge of land which divides the drainage of the St. Lawrence from that of the more southern rivers, approaching at one point within 30 miles of the former, and leaving to the United States the pos- session of the St John as far as the frontier of New Brunswick. Between Canada and the latter colony the bounding line follows the course of the Restigouche into the Bay Chaleur ; although the southern slopes, at least, of the peninsula of Gaspe, belong, both physically and commercially, to New Brunswick. Geology. — The most important position in the geology of Canada is occupied by the Lawrentian formation,* which principally composes the range to which it gives its name. It comprises a series of granite and gneiss rocks, sufGl- ciently distinct to have received a title of its own from its learned investigator. Sir W. Logan, by whom it has been compared, in its components and scenery, to parts of our own Grampians. It extends from the northern shores of Lake Superior to those of the St. Lawrence at Cape Tourmente, 30 miles below Quebec, and thence to the Gulf. It forms a broad table-land, of from 2000 to 3000 feet high, its upper surface being indented by broad- * Sir R. I. Miirchison has given this name to his recently de- termined oldest series of rocks in the Grampians. ' Geological Quar- terly Journal,' 1860. " 1 I CANADA. shallow lake-basins, and embossed with huge rounded hills of no great altitude. Occasionally deep clefts occur pre- senting scenes of great sublimity ; and, indeed, the St. Lawrence itself, in its lower course, may be said to oc- cupy an enormous fissure along its southern edge. Thus a line of precipices extends from Cape Tourmente through- out the Strait of Belle tsle, having very few interruptions and often rising directly out of the water to the plateau above. And as the cliffs of Point Gaspe on the opposite side are also very lofty, it has been suggested that the early Spanish navigators entering the mouth of the St. Lawrence regarded it as a magnificent ravine (canon), and thence named the country Canada. From Lake Superior, the southern edge of this plateau may be traced along the northern shores of Lake Huron. The extensive and singular line of islands known as the Manatoulins are of limestone, but to an observer on the lake, behind their well-wooded eminences is seen on the mainland a line of massive heights composed of quartz rocks, towering 1000 feet above the lake, and known as the Cloche Mountains. An offshoot from the main body of this formation runs hence to the south-east, crossing the St. Lawrence at the Lake of the Thousand Isles, and spreading out into a mountainous granitic region in the State of New York. The intervening portion of the St. Lawrence valley, down to Cape Tourmente, is formed of other rocks, limestone prevailing; and this rock also often penetrates the granite plateau of the Lawrentian Chain, especially upon the upper parts of the Ottawa and Saguenay, carrying its own especial productiveness into the heart of an otherwise infertile district. Limestone, further, imderlies the broad plains of the west, and prevails around the whole of Lake Huron. This very slight sketch of the geology of Canada is sufficient for the purpose of enabling the reader better to grasp the physical characters of the country. To go more into detail on this subject would not be compatible with the design or limits of the present work. ^ General Description. — The lines of the vertical sections and ground-plan of this colony are scarcely less compli- - 1 \ 'il 6 CANADA. cated than its geology. For the sake of obtaining a com- prehensive view of its features we are compelled, for the moment, to disregard the common and, in some respects, advantageous division into Upper and Lower Canada by the River Ottawa. That river separates neither dis- tinctive varieties of surface, nor of the geological forma- tions beneath. We divide the country then into three great portions, one on the south and two on the north side of the great trough of the St. Lawrence. Of the latter, the easternmost is essentially a highland region, while that to the west as decidedly consists of lowlands ; and hence the contrasts between these well-pronounced masses are so strongly marked, that they are easily im- pressed upon the memory, and will serve for future refer- ence. On the one side are extensive levels, varied by only slight risings, or by step-like ridges dividing one broad terrace from another: possessing also millions of acres of the richest soil, broad tracts of which are still covered by dense forests of deciduous trees.* On the other hand is a bleak and rugged region, forming a per- fect chaos of mountain and rock, lake, torrent and stunted forest; diversified at times by scenes of sublime grandeur, produced by the rush of mighty rivers through fissures of enormous depth and magnitude ; having, more- over, a soil which is commonly as cold as its climate, but often producing vast forests of pines and firs. The line of demarcation between these two sections runs nearly east and west, leaving the St. Lawrence at a point about 30 miles below Quebec, meeting the Ottawa in the neighbourhood of GrenviUe, 23 miles from its mouth, and crossing this river near Lac des Chats. It ultimately becomes obscure and vanishes upon the rapid rise in the country between Lakes Simcoe and Muskoka, near the shores of Lake Huron. This line is not pro- perly the crest of a mountain range, although when viewed from the lower lands to the south of it, it presents the aspect of one ; but it is the edge of the Lawrentian * The kindred orders of Juglandacete (walnuts), and Cupuliferae (oaks), peculiarly belong to the west, as those of the conifers and maples do to the east, province. 11 CANADA. ),ining a com- >elled, for the ome respects, er Canada by neither dis- ogical forma- m into three on the north ace. Of the iland region, of lowlands; 1-pronounced re easily im- future refer- Is, varied by dividing one 3 millions of lich are still s.* On the •rming a per- torrent and s of sublime vers through laving, more- climate, but wo sections Lwrence at a the Ottawa es from its Chats. It n the rapid id Muskoka, is not pro- ough when , it presents Lawrentian id CupulifersB conifers and pi loau, that is, of the upper and larger of the two divisions now defined. • Erie Plain. — We commence the more detailed account of these sections with the western or lower one. Upon examination it will be found convenient to divide this again into two parts. United to the edge of the highland, near Lake Simcoe, is a range of limestone hills running south to the western end of Lake Ontario. There making a sharp bend, it almost fills the slightly elevated isthmus which separates this lake from Lake Erie, and, after causing the celebrated falls of Niagara on its northern edge, the range passes into New York and sinks upon the banks of the Kiver Genessee. To the west of this range is the Great Plain of Western Canada, whose estimated area is 20,000 square miles. It is of triangular shape, gradually narrowing towards the Detroit Eiver, which forms its westernmost limit, and is nearly level throughout its whole extent. Hence, descending to the bounding lakes in low shores, which only slowly deepen, it labours under the disadvantage of possessing no good harbours. Even Samia, the terminus of the Grand Trunk Railway on the River St. Clair, and Amherstburg on the Detroit, are by no means fine ports, although they are well placed for commanding the traffic on the lakes. This drawback is, however, the only serious one tltat can be opposed to +he numerous physical advantages of the Erie Peninsula, which well deserves its appellation of the "Garden of Canada." It enjoys an excellent climate, and possesses a soil of imbounded fertility ; peaches are grown in orchards, and grapes ripen in the open air ; and the most luxuriant crops of wheat and maize vary the scene with pastures of nutritious grasses. In the centre of this region is a marshy tract bare of trees, whence rise the chief rivers ; but, with this exception, the whole plain was covered by a vast forest only 200 years since. Every farm still keeps its strip of woodland, sometimes as much as 60 and 100 acres being thus retained ; and towards the eastern hills the slopes still present unbroken forests as far as the eye can reach. * . Forests. — Seen in their autumn tints, there are few i 1 : i t i i \ 6 CANADA. sights more enchanting than these forests. The trees are mainly deciduous, and their fading leaves assume the brightest hues, enhanced by the cloudless sunshine of the spring-like days which occur at that season after the first frosts. All attempt to analyse this loveliness is vain, for want of words adequate to the task. Perhaps the groves of beech are the most beautiful : the delicate yellow and pale buflf tints of the topmost leaves are cooled into the greens of the inner ones, and warmed into the deep golden shades of those below, while the open foliage admits the pure light, tinging it as it passes with its own colours, producing shadow but not gloom. The maples are almost equally charming : they are arrayed in gaudier tints and stronger contrasts, exhausting the whole series of crimson, red, orange, yellow, and green, and the leaves flutter gently to the ground like brilliant butterflies; but the light does not penetrate the denser leafage, and these lack the airy grace imparted to the birch and beech. Broad masses of oak-forest reflect the sunshine as if their leaves were made of burnished copper ; and sombre pines in belts add intensity to the general brightness, raising their jagged and dark-green heads aloft on gaunt and branchless stems. When such elements as these are dis- posed harmoniously by nature so as to make one beautiful composition, we can understand the frequent assertion of eye-witnesses that the beauty of the autmnn forests of the west must be seen to be believed.* The Erie Peninsula is well watered. The principal streams are the Ouse and the Thames, which have their sources in the above-mentioned marshes. The former greatly resembles its namesake of central England, in its many windings and in the rich country which it drains. It is navigable for small vessels 25 miles from its mouth, and Port Maitland, at its entrance, is one of the best harbours on the northern side of Lake Erie. The Thames flows into Lake St. Clair, and is also navigable, to a small extent, by vessels engaged in the Lake trade ; and we note with a smile, which deepens into interest, how the * Kingston's ' Western Wanderings.' I CANADA. 9 settlers in its valley have endeavoured to perpetuate old associations, h/ naming their towns and villages after the Tilbury and Chatham, the London and Oxford, of their mother-country. The Grand Trunk J Railway, with its connected lines &om Ottawa, and along the south coast, compensates to a great extent for the want of ports. The level nature of Qie country offers unusual facilities for the construction of railroads, and ordinary carriage-roads are provided by Government as fast as the land is taken up. Few dis- tricts have progressed so rapidly as this has done since it ! was first settled : and we know of no other part of the world, within three weeks' travel of an English port, I which combines so many attractions for the emigrant, especially if he be a labourer, or a man of small capital, who is also a practical farmer. Abundance everywhere [rewards labour. And, indeed, "plenty" might well be [assumed as the motto of the industrious settler; for ["plenty reigns in his granaiy, and is exhibited in his [farmyard, and gleams from his corn-fields; and plenty smiles in the faces of his children." This, we believe, ipon abundant testimony, is a true representation : " but," [it is added, " let it not be imagined that this plenty is gained without continuous labour, and the exercise of Judgment and intelligence."* In short, the idle and slow id better not emigrate. Terrace Eegion. — It will be remembered that the low- land division was subdivided into two parts, of which the jastem remains to be considered. This is more broken \n the lines of its vertical section, and may be aptly termed the Terrace Eegion. The southern edge of the (iable-land which has been already indicated may be traced from Lac des Chats to the Huron, by a line )f cascades, occurring wherever it is crossed by the tri- )utary streams of Rice Lake and Lake Ontario. About )0 miles to the south of this is a second ledge, which |akes the form of an irregular hill-range, commencing lear the Bay of Quinte, and continuing westward along * Hogan's * Prize Essay on Canada,' 1855. Ifp" liE 10 CANADA. the 44th parallel. It is the boundary between an upper and a lower terrace, the latter of which terminates in bold cliffs, upon the shores of Lake Ontario. This is neither so long nor so wide as the former; yet behind Toronto it extends 25 miles inland. Both terraces are abundantly fertile ; but while farms and pastures occupy the lower entirely, the upper one is still in great part imder the dominion of its primaBval forest. Towards the cast, the latter diminishes in height considerably; and the depression has led to the formation of the Bideau Canal, uniting the city of Ottawa with the excellent port of Kingston on Lake Ontario. This canal is 142 miles long ; and Lake Eideau, at its summit, is 280 feet above its northern termination, though only 150 above the Kingston end. It is a continuation of this difference of level which causes the series of rapids upon the St. Law- rence above Montreal. The promontory to the east of the canal, lying between the St. Lawrence and the Ottawa, rises in gentle slopes from both rivers until it is 500 feet above them. Still further in the same direction, beyond the mouth of the Ottawa, a low plain skirts the St. Lawrence, extending backwards to a line of cliffs which forms the first rise to the granite plateau. Where the Maskinonge falls over this ledge, it is 100 feet high, and only 12 miles from the river : and nearer to Quebec, the lowland portion narrows to five miles and even to one mile. The whole of this strip is thickly populated and well cultivated, although much of it is used for pasture. Quebec and Montreal stand on its southern limit, their respective heights being detached portions of the higher ground of the interior. To the westward, this section possesses the important towns of Kingston, Toronto, and Hamilton, all on Lake Ontario. The rapidity with which large cities are created in these western countries is astonishing. Hamilton was only laid out in 1813, being then a forest. In 1845 there were 6000 inhabitants in it, and in 1856 these had increased to 25,000 ; and land in the suburbs was selling at the rate of £300 per acre. Unfortunately, in this instance, success appears to have led to mismanagement of the corporation funds, and the CANADA. 11 [town is not now so flourishing as it was a few years ago. [Toronto supplies another case, indicative of the rapid changes taking place in the country. The present inha- Ibitants were able formerly to indulge in snipe-shooting Iwhere now there are fine blocks of buildings far within Ithe outskirts ; and as showing the rise in the price of land, lit is recorded that a plot of ground bought in 1854 for |£30,000, to be paid in ten years, was sold in small [lots before that time was expired, realizing a profit of |£100,000.* The chief river in the terrace region is the Trent, [which, rising 100 miles in the interior, unites a series of lakes in the upper terrace, and passes through Lake Bice the lower one, falling at last into the Bay of Quints. [t is an important stream, being, it is said, navigable by )oats throughout its whole course of 300 miles ; and is, in its western part, within a few miles of a navigable tribu- tary of Lake Simcoe. This lake is a fine body of water )00 square miles in extent, surrounded by forests and farms ; but at present its water communication with Lake neuron is impeded by the numerous rapids upon the Eiver Severn. Lawrentian Plateau. The Ottawa River.— After this )rief outline of the lowland division of the colony, we burn to a similar examination of the Lawrentian plateau. It is much larger, but vast portions of it are unknown, 3xcept by report ; and only comparatively small sections ire settled. It is in general a wild, intractable country. Jare ridges of rocks corrugate its surface in the direction )f its length, and rounded hummocks of massive granite )rotrude through the gneissic strata. Almost innumer- ible lakes are strewn thickly over it, some being of large limensions, as Nipissing and St. John ; while their feeders md outlets interlace with each other, and draw off the Irainage to most unexpected spots. These features are loreover so intermingled with dense forests — now of the inest timber, and now of the veriest dwarfed and matted scrub — that were it not for the magnificent water-ways •> ' r * Kingston, ' I i ! 1 ii n 111. 12 CANADA. which penetrate this region, we should be hopeless of gaining access to it. Of these great roads, so to speak, the two principal are the Ottawa and the Saguenay Rivers, which empty themselves into the St. Lawrence about 250 miles apart, both having south-east courses. By following them we shall be able to arrange systematically all that we can say of this division. The river Ottawa is a noble stream, draining a basin 80,000 square miles in extent, and having a probable course of 780 miles. Its fiu-thest sources exist in the unknown Height of Land, far to the north of Lake Temiscaming. Of the many affluents larger than the Thames which swell the Ottawa we can only mention those which present some peculiarity of interest. Thus the lake just named receives from the east the Kepeewa, which faUs into it over a beautiful cascade 120 feet high. This river is known 90 miles to the eastward, where it is a deep, full stream, 300 feet wide, issuing from a lake of the same name, said to be 50 miles in length. From this lake flows also the Du Moine, whose swifter course carries it into the Ottawa, 100 miles below its twin river. Above the mouth of the Du Moine, the Montreal enters from the north-west, having a length of 120 miles, and forming the canoe route to Hudson's Bay; while the Mattawa comes in from the west, rising near Lake Nipissing. The last-named stream is the route for canoes going to Lake Huron, which is reached by the French River. It will probably become of great importance hereafter. A canal, a few miles long, would complete the canoe navigation ; and this route from Montreal to Lake Superior is shorter by 600 miles than that by the St. Lawrence. It was by this course that Champlain came in 1615, and that the earliest French missionaries bore the Gospel to the wild Huron tribes. Under the 16th parallel, the Ottawa begins to expand into a series of lakes, themselves enclosing islands of large size. The uppermost of these, or the Allumettes Lakes, are embosomed in scenery of the grandest charac- ter. The mountains rise 1500 feet above them ; beauti- ful islands, their rugged shapes concealed by a thick 'oSk^^ CANADA. 13 In rapory of foliage, rise out of the broad still waters ; and eep navigable reaches of 50 miles in length are suddenly topped by rapids which try the nerve and test the skill f the daring voyageurs. Pembroke lies at the foot of hese lakes, and is one of the backmost settlements, and he centre of an extensive system of water communication ith the " lumbering " country around it. Of the incen- ives persuading the farmer to break up and till new land n these beautiful and productive, but remote districts, it as been truly remarked that — whereas in other countries ach step forward carries the settler away from civiliza- ion, raises the cost of all his necessaries, and cheapens 11 he has to sell — in this case the producer of food bllows in the wake of the lumberer, and finds himself the midst of a market where all his prices are increased ly what would be the cost of transit to his more distant ompetitors.* At the city of Ottawa, 130 miles up the river, the cenery is again highly picturesque. The widened stream ssumes the aspect of some fine land-locked harbour, sub- ivided into bays by bluff headlands, which are often clad • the water's edge with thick forests of pines. Three iles above the city a series of rapids commences, ter- inating in the romantic Chaudiere Falls. These are nly 40 feet high, but are so broken and divided by slands and projecting rocks, a feature more than once epeated in the limestones of the Ottawa, that they have een well described as a hundred rivers struggling for a assage. One fall presents the appearance of a broad ass of dark-green glass, and another is a narrow grace- 1 curve of foam ; a third dashes and breaks among the orn and jagged rocks, as if a river were poinding through le ruins of shattered walls and columns ; while the " Lost haudiere " excites the wonder of the observer by rolling volume of water, big as the Thames at London Bridge, to a vast hole, where it disappears in an underground ourse. Huge precipices overhang on all sides ; and the reenest of foliage is fed by the spray. * Lord Elgin's despatch, September 5, 1853. > i'ii )• • t »r 1 1 t. ; } t I 14 CANADA. \ Ottawa has been recently erected into the political capital of Canada, for which it is well suited by its central position. A fine building for the Government House has been erected, in which the excellent close- grained sandstones of the vicinity have been employed. Quebec, Montreal, and Toronto have alternately been the seat of Government, and it is reasonably anticipated that the jealousy of rival capitals will be extinguished in the selection of Ottawa as the metropolis of the united provinces. This choice is doubtless the result of a far- sighted policy ; and it will be their own fault if it turn out detrimental to the commercial greatness of the former cities. On the other hand, the importance thus given to the "Ottawa country" promises results beneficial, not only to this river-basin, but to the interests of the whole colony, and possibly all British North America. Already the copamunications up the valley are improved. The navigation will shortly be completed, by the aid of canals, to a distance of 154 miles from the mouth; a railroad is in construction, and sections of it are already at work ; an increased development of the resources of the country will quickly follow the easy means of access to it ; the timber trade and its dependent occupations will receive a fresh impetus ; the minerals of the district will be utilized ; fresh settlers will arrive, and more food will be produced from newly-tilled groxmd. The hitherto almost unknown tracts Gaining towards this centre will also receive attention. To the north-west, for instance, is the basin of the Gatineau, 12,000 square miles in ex- tent, the river itself having an estimated length of 420 miles : it has been surveyed for upwards of 200 miles, and when left, was still a fine stream, 1000 yards in width. Of this extensive unsettled region we know only that it abounds in noble forests and cultivatable land. As a distant result of these changes, though possibly nearer than we at present expect, must be reckoned the formation of a road across the entire continent, which, when com- plete, will pass by the Ottawa valley to the head of Lake Superior, on account of its being the shortest route, and also because it crosses districts which are rich in timber CANADA. 15 } the political suited by its le Government xcellent close- teen employed, lately been the .nticipated that guished in the of the united result of a far- fault if it turn 8 of the former B thus given to beneficial, not ;s of the whole rica. Already aproved. The 3 aid of canals, ; a railroad is 3ady at work; of the country sess to it ; the will receive a strict will be lore food will The hitherto lis centre will for instance, miles in ex- length of 420 of 200 miles, 000 yards in we know only ble land. As )ssibly nearer the formation h, when com- lead of Lake !st route, and ch in timber d vail iblo minerals. As a local and immediate con- quence may be noticed the astonishing and rapid rise in e value of property. Only thirty years ago the farm on which Ottawa is built was bought for 80/., and it may now be set down as worth almost as many thousands. That portion of the plateau lying to the west of the Ottawa country varies in height from 700 to 1000 feet above the level of Lake Huron. It is a beautiful un- dulating tract, well watered by streams, which aiford un- limited water-power, and are full of fish. Its climate and soil render it well suited for settlement, although not so attractive as the Erie Peninsula to the south-west of it. A rich growth of hard-wood trees envelops the greater part of this region ; and luxuriant beeches and elms, maples and walnuts, attest the fertility of the soil. Ad- joining (as it does) the " lumbering country " to the oast, and communicating with the Lakes in the opposite direc- tion, the tract in question seems admirably adapted to be the producer of large supplies of vegetable and animal food for these outlets whenever it becomes settled. Two canoe routes run across it by the Mattawa and the Mada- wasca, the latter being also a tributary of the Ottawa, 210 miles long, with its sources lying towards Lake Simcoe. Approaching nearer to the shores of Lake Huron, the country becomes more chequered in appearance ; the wild and unproductive nature of the coasts first occasionally intrudes itself, and at length predominates. In the copper-mining district, near the northern end of the lake, the aspect is exceedingly bare and forbidding ; and yet to the north-east of the St. Mary River is a fine forested country ; and the valleys of the Thessalon and its affluents e reported to be eminently fruitful. In 1856 the Cana- an Government sanctioned a project for a railway through he heart of these regions, passing onward to the mines 'urther north; but until they become better populated, uch a scheme would hardly repay its promoters. The Sag^enay. — If the valley of the Ottawa abounds in autiful scenery, and raises high anticipations of its uture prosperity, that of the Saguenay is no less attractive o the tourist for the savage sublimity of its aspect, 16 CANADA. ! IH '' '. :l 11 niTcctcd as it is by tho apparent hopelcssnosf^ f over Bubduing nature in such an untractablo mood. It is ontcrod from tho St. Lawrence between two lofty granite cliffs, and at once the cheerful portion of tho world seems left behind. Its gloomy characteristics are most in accord with bad weather, when fierce squalls drive the dashing rain like volleys of small shot, and sable clouds resting on the ragged cliffs, double their height by obscuring it, and pour over their edges in streams of mist. At rare intervals the lines of precipices are breached by ti'ibutary streams ; these are tho brighter spots in the valley, and are combined with softer features and more habitable districts. The culminating point of wild scenery is reached about 40 miles from iho mouth, between Capes Eternity and Trinity. Affluers^s join the main stream here, and enhance the wildness by the comparatively gentle character of their deep valleys. The brOad river is flanked by gigantic walls of rock, 1000 and 2000 feet in height. On tho right they are poorly clad in a stunted growth of pines; on tho left, with scarcely a sign of life or verdure, the limestone cliffs stick up, bleached and fissured by exposure to tho north. Capo Trinity is an enormous pile of confused rocks and cascades, which pierce the scattered patches of birch and fir. Capo Eternity is an equally characteristic example of the opposite and barer forms. It is one tremendous cliff of limestone, 1500 feet high, overhanging as if about to fall into tho deep, black waters beneath. Nothing shields its naked surface, or mitigates the hardness of its uncouth outlines. High up a few weird pines cling to a ledge, and then all is blanched and stained by age and tempests. * At Statue Point, a few miles further up, the mouth of a large cave is seen in the face of an unscalable precipice, once guarded by a statue-like rock which gave way under the frosts of winter ; and beyond that is Tableau Rock, another of the natural curiosities of the Saguenay, where the cliff becomes a sheet of dark limestone, 600 feet high, and 300 broad, quite straight, and almost as * Wood's • Prince of Wales in Canada.' Itiit-' CKSADA, 17 Fmooth as a mirror. With such grancl features this river rivals tlio most awe-inspiring of the fiords of Norway, wbilo it biiipassos most of them in size and depth of water. Its true source has not been defined. Lake St. John has an ai'ca of more than 500 square miles, and drains a vast extent of country, which roaches to the ridge of tho Lawrentian mountains. From tho eastern side of it two large streams take their departure, called the Great and Little Discharge. About 40 miles from their commence- ment they unite and form the Saguenay, which has then a course of 100 miles to the St. Lawrence. The united stream is often a mile wide, and if not unfathomable, as h?.8 been asserted, yet in some places it attains the enormous depth of a mile and a half. For 90 miles up, the Sague- nay is navigable by vessels of the largest burthen ; and Ha-ha Bay, 70 miles from its mouth, is said to be a good harbour. A tram-road is in construction from Quebec to the district around Lake St. John ; and some of the finest saw-mills in the province are upon tho banks of tho Saguenay. In* the extensive region between this river and the Ottawa, the best known part is that watered by the St. Mam'ice. It is one of the latest opened districts for the production of timber, great quantities of which are now brought down for exportation. The town of Three Eivers is situated near its mouth, and has long been famous for its iron-manufactures, especially stoves, the metal being obtained from ore found in the neighbourhood. An affluent on the right bank of the St. Maurice flows through an extraordinary series of 23 lakes, some of which are of an immense depth. Of the thousands of square miles which lie to the east of the Saguenay we can find no account beyond such general remarks as were made above concerning tho aspect of the Lawrentian table-landr South Section. — Leaving, therefore, the north side of the St. Lawrence, we turn to give a slighter account of the third and last section of Canada, viz., that on the south side of the river, between lat. 45° and the Gulf. 18 CANADA. I ;l! if In ground-plan this section consists of a triangular pai*t towai'ds the west, and an eastern portion, which is a strip of country along the shores of the St. Lavirence, gradually widening into the Peninsula of Gaspe, where it attains its maximum width of 80 miles. The 70th meri- dian is near the separation of these subdivisions, which differ greatly in their physical features. The westernmost is a beautiful and varied region, well watered, and containing tracts of great fertility. It rises gently from the low country on the St. Lawrence to the south and east ; the marshy levels near Lake St. Peter graduating first into an imdulated, and then into a hilly country, as the United States frontier is approached. Of the numerous streams which cross it the principal are the Eichelieu or Chambly, the St. Francis, and the Chaudiere. The first of these drains Lake Champlain, in a line with the Hudson River. It is navigable for boats throughout its length, and is one of the main lines of traffic with the States. The St. Francis has its sources near those of the Connecticut, flowing in the opposite direction. Being more to the east, its navigation is imT)eded by rapids, which do not, however, prevent a considerable amount of transit upon its stream. Its valley possesses the towns of Richmond and Sherbrooke, and is traversed by the important raih'oad from Portland to the former place, which is on the Grand Trunk line of Canada. The Chaudiere drains a district so close upon the other division that physically it almost forms a part of it. It is a hilly broken tract, the soil and climate being inferior to those of the former river basins. Its navigation is completely stopped by the rugged features occasionally seen in the St. Francis becoming predominant, and causing rapids and cascades which are impassable ; and about four miles from its mouth it pours over the edge of the plateau, in much-admired falls, 130 feet in height. With its ready means of access to the great American markets on one side, and those of Montreal and Quebec on the other, together with its own productiveness, this district ought to have been one of the most prosperous in Canada. The peculiar institutions prevailing in the CANADA. 19 f a triangular ion, which is a St. Lawrence, raspe, where it 'he 70th meri- :visions, which id region, well ility. It rises -vrence to the iake St. Peter a into a hilly i approached, principal are icis, and the Champlain, in ihle for boats main lines of IS its sources the opposite navigation is 3r, prevent a (1. Its valley •rooke, and is rtland to the •unk line of o close upon forms a part and climate basins. Its ;ged features predominant, impassable ; )ver the edge fc in height, at American and Quebec iveness, this fosperous in ing in the I Lower Province till the year 1854, derived from those of feudal France, were the great hindrance to its progi'css ; but since they have been abolished, this part of the country has entereu into energetic rivaliy with Upper Canada, and every branch of industry has received a new impulse. The most flourishing portion has always been that adjoining the southern frontier, between the Chaudiere and Richelieu, known collectively as the Eastern Town- ships. Here the feudal tenure never obtained ; and the inhabitants, free from its restrictions, found scope for their activity in the careful tillage of their land, the building of mills, and commencing manufactures of va- rious kinds. These so-called " Townships " comprise six counties, estimated to contain nearly 6,000,000 acres of land, and 250,000 people. Of the eastern subdivision little is known correctly apiut from the coast. Two lines of heights pass through its length, each of them situated a few miles inland. Between them is a shallow valley abounding in lakes, whose surplus water is carried off by ravines which further complicate the region. Forests still cover large portions of it, particularly on the side draining into Chaleur Bay. The St. Lawrence. — Many objects of interest upon the water-frontage of the three great sections of Canada, now described, have been left imnoticed. This has been done designedly, with the view of combining them together, in connection with the great artery of the country, the Eiver St. Lawrence, to which the attention of the reader is now directed. This noble river has its proper source in the St. Louis, a feeder of Lake Superior, which it enters at its south-west corner. Both physically and with reference to its navi- gation the St. Lawrence is entitled to claim the Great Lakes as magnificent expansions of its waters. It then has a course of 2030 miles from Superior City downwards to Anticosti, and enters the sea by a mouth which, above the island just named, is already 90 miles in breadth. Regarded thus, its basin contains more than half of all the fresh water on the surface of the globe. The Lakes dO CANADA. I i Hi lit ''I ■i> II! (including Lake Michigan in the estimate) cover an area of 94,000 square miles. The first of the series is 627 feet * above the sea level, and the last is 232 ; while the mean depth of the three upper and larger lakes being 1000 feet, it follows that the bottom of these remarkable depressions in the land is 400 feet below the surface of the sea. When taken in connection with the statements before made concerning the Saguenay and the St. Maurice, these facts indicate physical phenomena which are wholly unequalled elsewhere ; either as to the sudden and im- mense depths involved, or the magnitude of the hollows filled with fresh water. And the importance given as a matter of right to the St. Lawrence is therefore seen to be in accordance with the distinguishing mark of the whole continent of America, which claims to be an aggre- gation of elements, very few in number, but enormous in size. The Lakes. — Lake Superior alone has an area of 32,000 square miles, and contains about 4000 cubic miles of water. f Its Canadian coast is generally bold and rocky ; cliffs of from 300 to 1300 feet rising near the shore, which is usually a fine sandy beach. The " Pictured Rocks " are variously coloured cliffs which rise perpen- dicularly out of very deep water for a continuous length of nine miles, and impart an anxious sense of insecurity to the adventurous sight-seer, who, in a frail Indian canoe, reflects on the possible occurrence of one of the sudden and overwhelming squalls which occasionally rush across the lake. The hills near the coast are mostly bare and rounded knolls, especially where gneissic and granite rocks prevail. But when trappean soils occur, the vol- canic constituents produce a heavy growth of hard wood ; and these spots, together with the mouths of rivers and some few sandstone flats, compose the scanty area suitable for cultivation. Deep bays indent the shore-line, and clusters of islands add variety to the scene, which often embraces also well-sheltered coves and inlets, destined * Captain Bayfield. Sir W. Logan makes it 597 feet, t Sir W. E. Logan. Uia,!^ CANADA. 21 32 ; while the to become commodious harbours for the service of the mining and fishing population now gradually accumulating. Already the fisheries are an important branch of industry. The fish are salted on the spot, with salt brought for the purpose and packed in barrels of 200 lbs. each ; and large quantities are exported to other parts of Canada, and to the States. The White-fish is that most esteemed ; and another called the Scisowett, of small size, is prized on account of its extreme fatness, insomuch that it almost melts away before a hot fire, and a pint of oil can be obtained from a single fish. Near the boundary-line at Pigeon River (lat. 48°, long. 89° 60' W.) are three deep land-locked inlets, the southernmost of which is Thunder Bay. Its importance is such that it deserves a passing notice. It is 32 miles long and 14 miles broad, and its entrance, five miles wide, lies between the impos^'ng headland of Thunder Cape, 1350 feet above the water on the right, and the rounded summit of Pie Island, 850 feet high on the left. Beyond the latter, on the mainland, rises the lofty mass of M'Kay's Mountain, 1000 feet in height, formed of trap rocks, and prolonging its heavily-timbered flanks far towards the south-west boundary. Immediately to the north of this high ground the river Kaministiquia enters the bay by a delta having three branches, and on the left of which Fort William is situated. This was the principal station of the North- West Company (for 60 years the dreaded rival of the Hudson's Bay Company), and from this fort all their traffic for the interior took its departure. Recently, the Canadian Government have kid out the neighbourhood for settlement. The river banks are flat, only 10 feet high, and thinly covered with a stunted growth of tamarack-trees. The gardens of Fort William yield oats and potatoes, and notably a great variety of currants and other berries of good flavour, which were originally obtained from the surrounding woods, where they abound. Further up the river there are broad flats extending back from the water's edge to the cliffs, which are the true banks ; and these levels, to the extent of many thousands of acres, are richly grassed, and give gi'eat il^ •=ilf! I 'I liiii I'Ul ' 1 i 1 ; .i ,; ■ ! ■ t( ■j Hiii Hi IMli .\m 22 CANADA. promise of being highly fertile. The navigation is soon impeded by rapids and falls, that occur in the midst of the most romantic scenery. Such are the Eakabeka Falls, 105 feet high, where the yellow waters of the river are precipitated into a profound gorge in the finely-stratified and almost black slate-rocks. The clifis are surmounted by forests of pine, birch, and other large trees, while the sloping banks at their bases are lined with berry-bearing shrubs and flowering plants (blue-bells and others), fed by the spray. Below the Falls, where the gap widens, the elm, balsam-spruce, butternut, &c., flourish on the alluvial soil, with an underbrush of hazels and cherries, or luxu- riant grasses cover the ground, and the hop, the honey- suckle, and convolvulus climb up the trees.* If the route across the continent should, as it has been sug- gested, take the course of the Kaministiquia Kiver, the traveller will indeed be as much gratified with, as pro- bably surprised at, the varied and picturesque character of a country of whose beauties so little is at present known. The descent of land between Lake Superior and Montreal is mainly accomplished by three steps, which produce rapids or falls according to the degree of their suddenness. The first of these occurs upon the river Ste. Marie, which flows into Lake Huron ; the second and most violent produces the Falls of Niagara; while the third consists of a succession of rapids extending over more than 100 miles, from Kingston to Montreal, in which distance the level of the river sinks 200 feet in perpen- dicular height. These obstacles to free navigation are avoided respectively by the canal of the Sault Ste. Marie, the Welland Canal, and the Lachine and other canals. The shores of Lake Huron partake of the low hum- mocky nature which characterizes those of all the lower lakes. On the north side, however, it is bolder and less inviting. The v/ooded range of the Manitoulin Islands cuts off a largo section, which is named the Georgian * Hiud's • Canadian Exploring Expedition in 1857.' CANADA. 23 Bay, whose shores offer much ground available for settlers, and some moderately good harbours. The towns of Sydenham and CoUingwood are rising ports; the latter being largely engaged in the Lake traffic, although the low, sandy shores in its vicinity are a great drawback to it as an anchorage for shipping. Between Lakes Huron and Erie is the small Lake St. Clair, the least interesting of them all. It is girt by low, green shores, and is so shallow that a wide belt of rushes extends far towards its centre. It is emptied by the river Detroit, upon which are several Canadian settlements, Sandwich being the principal; and the numerous wind- mills along the British border afford evidence to the pass- ing voyager of the prosperity of the district. The navigation of Lake Erie is difficult on account of its comparatively shallow water, and the want of available harbours on its shores : it is also rendered tiresome along the northern coasts by long, low points which project far beyond the general outline, without affording any compen- sating shelter. Nevertheless the surrounding country, on both sides, is so productive that a considerable trade is carried on across its waters. The south shores of the Erie peninsula present alternations of farm and forest in grateful contrast, and both grain and timber are largely exported. The White oak {Quercus alha) here attains an altitude of 130 feet, and a diameter of 84 inches. The Button-wood tree {Tlantanus occidentalis) is especially abundant, rivalling the former in height, and often ex- ceeding six feet in diameter. The timber of this tvee is softer than beech, but extremely difficult to split ; and is sometimes beautifully marbled, when it becomes a valuable furniture wood. Another magnificent tree, almost peculiar to these shores, is the White-wood (Liriodendron tulipifera), which is covered in June with beautiful tulip-shaped blossoms, whence its common name of Tulip-tree. Of the same size as those just mentioned, its timber is adapted to all the purposes for which the wood of fii's and pines is employed. Niagara. — That portion of the St. Lawrence which drains Lake Erie into Lake Ontario is called the Eiver I 1 ,:;!) 24 CANADA. Niagara, upon which are situated the celebrated Falls.* About 20 miles from its commencement, the river, pre- viously divided by Grand and Navy Islands, reunites into a broad stream, which is shortly after narrowed to a width of one mile, and its speed increased in consequence from a rate of three miles to one of eight miles per hour. For the last half-mile above the cataract it becomes a series of rapids, falling 60 feet in that distance. Its direction is here almost due west, when it suddenly turns toward a point east of north, and takes its tremendous leap into the pool below. Stretching some way up the stream is a long bank, just under water, which terminates at the brink of the Falls in Goat Island and some other rocks. Owing to this circumstance the Falls are divided ; and we have the Great Horse-shoe Fall on the Canadian side, 700 yards in width, the American Fall towards the east, 200 yards broad, and a smaller fall in the centre, 33 yards across. The line of shallows also divides the rapids above into what are in effect two channels, of which that to the west has the steeper incline ; and thus, while the American Fall has a drop of 164 feet, the Horse-shoe Fall is only 158 feet high : the difference is, however, more than outweighed in the effect upon the spectator by the enormous volume of water which pours, like an unbroken sheet of liquid malachite, over the latter. The change of direction in the course of the river is very favourable for obsemng the Falls, as fine front and side views are obtained in consequence. The ledge itself over which the water is precipitated forms a curve, that, from the American side to a point about midway across the Horseshoe Fall, is nearly in a line with the right bank of the river below, and for the remainder of its length is almost perpendicular to it. Hence on the lower stream, or at the suspension-bridge which spans the ravine, the western side of the Canadian Fall is all that is seen in front, the other parts being viewed sideways at * TliG most intelligible account of these Falls which the author has seen is contained in the ' Western Wanderings ' of W. H. G. Kingston, 1859. B'^t one glance at Sir C. Lyell's coloured plate and map is Avorth more than all the descriptions ever Avritten. CANADA. 25 a very acute angle. Goat Island was formerly reached by embai'king in a canoe above the rapids, and poling care- fully down the line of shallow water ; but the exploit was exceedingly dangerous, since the slightest mishap might entail certain death. The island is now united to the Ame- rican side by rough but firm bridges, extending also to an adjacent rock, and from these the most impressive views of the several falls are gained. On the Canadian shore a slab of limestone projects horizontally nearly 50 feet beyond the cliff below it; this is called the Table-rock, and is another favoui'ite point of view. Also, by walking up the side of the pool, beneath this rock, it is possible to see completely behind the Horse-shoe Fall, and even to walk some distance under it, where the vast curtain of water, impelled by the velocity gained in the rapids, shoots over in a graceful curve, quite clear of the rockal at the foot of the Fall. The wind rushes out of the aper- ture thus formed with extreme violence, and completely di'enches the approach. In general, it is not until ! visitors have seen these famous cataracts in various I aspects, and grown to some extent acquainted with them, [that the mind is sufficiently at rest to appreciate their beauty and grandeur. The overwhelming rush of waters, the mingled roar and crash, the constantly varying forms and colours, the clear green of the Falls, the dark water beneath, and the circular rainbows ever forming and breaking on the wreaths and clouds of spray, — all these elements are only to be duly valued after the confusion of the first impressions has subsided. It is the opinion of some that the Falls never look so solemn as when seen by moonlight, when the silence of the night is uninterrupted by aught save the sound of mighty waters ; and cabmen, guides, and " museum-men " no longer intrude their in- congruous attentions, and a friendly shade is thrown over the whole array of puffing advertisements and carved names, which by daylight look so vexatiously unromantic. Their appearance also in the winter is extremely striking, and much less often noticed. The severe frosts struggle to arrest even the tremendous power of the falling water, land, failing that, heap great mounds of frozen mist 26 CANADA. 111 '11' 13 m half-way up the cataract, while translucent stalactites of | enormous growth depend iB icy sheets and columns from every overhanging rock. Below the Falls the river runs away to the north in a course at right angles to that above them, and at the bottom of a magnificent gorge, whose boimding cliffs are 200 and 300 feet high, and as many yards apart. Four miles down, by a sudden twist to the left, and then to the right, the boiling stream is carried into an expansion of its bed, where its violent motion causes it to revolve several times before it can make its exit. This is the Whirlpool, where huge trees may be seen hurled round for days together, and tossed about with fearful power, indi- cating too surely what would be the fate of any small vessel caught in the whirl. The northern escarpment of the table-land is reached three miles below this spot, and the stream henceforth pursues its unruffled course across the sandstone formation to Lake Ontario, seven miles distant. Queenstown is situated beneath these heights, to which it gives its name. The upper 90 feet at the Falls is of hard limestone, below which is a soft black shale ; and these strata are faithfully repeated all the way down the ravine. The softer shale rapidly crumbles away under the combined action of the water and atmosphere ; and hence the superincumbent limestone at the Falls overhangs as much as 40 feet, and occasionally large pieces of it give way. Goat Island is, indeed, said to have been formerly much longer than at present. From this it has been conjectured that the whole of the gorge down to Queenstown has been worn away by the Fall in the lapse of ages.* In the opposite direction fears have been entertained lest the Falls, by continual retrocession, should in time arrive at Lake Erie, and drain it ; but Professor Silliman, a geologist engaged on the United States Survey, has * In any attempt to estimate the probable time required for this, it should be remembered that the Falls are now nearly at right angles to the width of the lower course, and about three times as broad. The height also from the top of the plateau would be di- minished formerly, as now, by previous rapids. 3 CANADA. 27 observed that the limestones now compc g the top of the Falls, dip towards the south, and will eventually form the whole of the cliff. "When that happens the upper parts will bo worn by the water into a slope, and the Falls of Niagara will ultimately disappear in a long series of rapids. Low and gently-shelving shores surround the greater part of Lake Ontario; yet on the north side there are frequent exceptions to this, and to the east of Toronto, at a place appropriately named Scarboro*, the cliffs rise 320 feet above the water. In the south-west comer is Hamilton, at the head of Burlington Bay, unlike its namesake at home, in having a narrow entrance. The Burlington Heights (continued from Queenstown) are here only one and a haK mile from the shore, and form a finely-wooded background to the orchards, gardens, and farms which surround the town. On the north side of the lake are Toronto and Kingston. The former city possesses a fine natural harbour, made by a long spit of land stretching to the westward, and acting as a break- water. The port of Kingston is more excellent still, and is also admirably situated for commanding the trade of the lakes, the St. Lawrence, and, by the Bideau Canal, of the Ottawa country. Kingston is, therefore, a place of considerable importance. In its neighbourhood is some of the richest and best cultivated land in Canada. The scenery is also beautifully varied, especially where the shore is indented by the Bay of Quinte and other open- ings. Immediately to the east of Kington is the entrance to the St. Lawrence, by the expansion known as the Lake of the Thousand Islands. The beauties of this lake are a constant theme for praises with Canadian writers and travellers. The rounded forms of the islands are some- times bare and smooth, and at others covered with trees and underwood, encouraged by the moisture in the air to the richest luxuriance of growth. The sudden changes arouse the attention of the most dormant. Emerging from shady passages, so confined that one may leap on shore, a broad sheet of water ahead appears closed by a green 28 CANADA. Ill band of follago, which breaks up into a hundred islands on approaching nearer, where the complexity of the twist- ing channels requires the nicest judgment in selecting the right one, and the greatest skill in handling a Tessel. The interest caused by such alternations continues throughout the whole length of 70 miles. On clearing the Lake of the Thousand Islands the voyager down the river next encounters the rapids by which the descent is made from the last of the terraces, composing the Lake Region ; of these, besides smaller rapids, there are five great ones. The first is the long Sault, where the highest waves occur, and the lowest is the Lachine, in which the act of '• rhooting the rapids " demands the greatest care and cout'j\[»o in all concerned. Formerly, the ill-built craft employed in the river trade never attempted this dangerous feat; but accidents are unknown to the well-appointed and ably-worked steamers which now shoot them daily, starting from both the American and Canadian sides of Lake Ontario. The Lachine Eapids are just below Lake St. Louis, which is formed by the junction <'i the westernmost arm of the Ottawa delta. Here, for miles on either side, the clear stream of the St. Lawrence runs side by side with the dark, though not turbid, waters of its great affluent. At the lower end of the lake huge billows are thrown up by the river meeting with obstructing ledges of trap-rock in its bed. The stream widens to the extent of 4 miles after passing the rapids, the low wooded shores being relieved by the " Mountain " on Montreal Island, — a boss of green- stone rising boldly out of the plains, but of no great alti- tude. Opposite the city of Montreal the trap ledges again jut out into the river-bed for a thousand yards on either side, the water forcing itself through the narrow deeps in the centre with a rush, which causes the Sault Normand and the St. Mary's current. Here, too, the St. Lawrence is crossed by that wonder of modern engineering, the Victoria Bridge. Constructed after the plan of the Britannia Bridge over the Menai Straits, this work far exceeds any of its predecessors in its magnitude, and in the difficulties which attended its .. CANADA. m formation. It was thrown across a river nearly two miU » wide, at an elevation of 100 feet above it. In tb# summer, when the water was low, it ran like a mill- stream, with a speed of at least eight miles an hour ; in the winter, millions of tons of ice floated down on tho swollen ciUTont, sometimes carrying away in an hour the work of months. Tho bed of the river presented other diffi- culties ; in ono part, almost a quicksand, it had to bo excavated, and rendered firm by artificial means ; in another, vast boidders, some of them weighing 25 or 30 tons, required removal. The piers, 24 in number, are furnished with wedge-shaped projections, faced with granite, to stem the assaults of the floating ice. When those were built came tho task of raising tho enormous tubes to their summits. The centre one is 330 feet long, and each of the others 270. These tubes were lifted in two sections each, and tho whole firmly riveted together. Huge abutments of masonry and solid embankments join them to the shores. After five years of imremitted labour, this great work was finished in 1859,* and thus completed tho Grand Trunk Railway as far as Montreal. Notwithstanding our admiration of it, yet it must be confessed that the outlines of this bridge are not pic- tm*esque. Probably it is not fair to expect beauty in tubular bridges. The Victoria Bridge is, however, seen at the greatest advantage from the south side at sunset, when its dull tints are brightened into reds and yellows ; and Montreal forms a background of real beauty, with its tin roofs and steeples glittering like silver, and the " Mountain " overhanging all. Between Montreal and Lake St. Peter tho country on the south side is often marshy from its lowness. On the opposite shore the edge of the granitic plateau foims a cliif, about 100 feet in height, at from one to six miles from the river, and over which the tributary streams fall in cascades. * A tiiblct on it becars this date, and the inscription "Eob. Stephenson and Alex. M. Ross, Engineers. Built by John Hodges, lor Sir Saml. Peto, Thos. Brassey, and Edwd. L. Betts, contractors." — Wood's ' Cunuda.' 30 CANADA. il ili ; m ill As tho St. Lawrence ncars Quebec, the sccnory of its shores gradually becomes more bold. On tho right, lines of rocky clififs, or steep earthy slopes overhang a narrow beach, on which are almost continuous villages and houses. On tho left, tho bank ascends by slow degrees to tho Heights of Abraham ; the escarpment rising from 50 to 350 feet above tho water, in tho space of seven miles. This is the south-east face of the narrow mass of high land which terminates at Quebec, in Cape Diamond, 372 feet high. Forests and farms occupy its summit; its northern flank dips, by short ledges and grassy incliiies, to low meadows, which soon rise again to the edge of the neighbouring plateau; and on the eastern end is built Quebec. Tho city clings to the steep slopes, and the quaint houses rise tier above tier, in most romantic irregu- larity, and tho whole is surmounted by the formidable fortress whose outworks indeed encroach upon the streets. Draining the hollow to the north of the city is the Eiver St. Charles, which here assists in forming the harbour — a magnificent basin, enclosed below by the Isle D'Orleans. On the right bank of the St. Lawrence, standing opposite Cape Diamond, is Point Levi, with its church and village. It is a shattered cliff 200 feet high, capped by grassy declivities to the height of its rival. In rear of it, the top of the plateau is a rough undulating country of farms and forests, intermingled with low ridges of almost naked rock ; and the edge of this tract forms high cliffs for a considerable distance down the river. On the left side, below tho St. Charles, is perhaps the most romantic spot in the whole neighbourhood ; this is a deep ravine in the face of the cliff, containing the Montmorenci Falls. The stream above is as large as the Thames at Eich- mond, and is here, with scarcely any warning, hurled over a precipice 300 feet high, in one massive body of water, which groups well with the wild rocks and dense foliage, and gladdened by the prismatic hues reflected from the misty spray, composes a picture that the inha- bitants of Quebec are never tired of showing, nor their visitors of admiring. To the east of the Falls of Montmorenci, the cliff CANADA. 81 which produces them alternates with steep slopes of giuHH and clay ; the maximum elevation being attained in tho stupendous headland of Capo Tourmonto, 2200 feet I high. From this point upwards, tho scenery of tho St. Lavvronco presents a succession of views, unmatched for their variety, beauty, or grandeur. None combine all these qualities moro admirably than the extensive pano- rama seen from tho walls of tho citadel which crowns Quebec. Nor can any one contemplate this scene with- out its deriving additional interest, both from its associa- tion with the immortal names of Wolfe and Montcalm, equally revered by their respective countrymen ; and from the importance of the fortress itself, as the key of the St. Lawrence, — the Gibraltar of America. The St. Lawrence is considered to end at tho Island of Anticosti, 140 miles long by 35 miles wide. The south side of this island is low ; the north is formed of broken cliffs from 200 to 500 feet high. Many streams come down on either hand, falling into a channel which sur- rounds the island, and is caused by a line of reefs dry at low water. This channel affords an excellent fishing- ground for the few inhabitants, who chiefly reside on the south siuj, where they cultivate barley, potatoes, and othei vegetables. The limestone soil supports a covering of spruce forests, having a dense undergrowth of cran- berries, strawberries, &c., wherever the sun penetrates tho glooiuy leafage. The south side of the river mouth is formed by the end of the Gaspe peninsula, which ought to be better known than it is, on account of its grand scenery and its excellent harbours. Between Bonaventure Island and Gaspe Point, vast cliffs of red sandstone form the coast, and the singular Perce Rock is an isolated mass of the same material, in which the deep clefts have been worn completely, through a huge cape. These heights unite with the solemn gray limestone crags of the lofty Point, to anticipate tho majestic features of the River Saguenay. But the shores are little frequented ; and the fine harbour of Gaspe Bay is chiefly used by the fisher- ; men engaged in the Gulf. 32 CANADA. n, llli il^'ii Here we conclude the description of ' the physical characteristics of Canada: and propose to employ the remaining space at our disposal in some account of the principal branches of industry which occupy the colonists. Industry. — Timber-trade. — The timber-trade deserves to be first mentioned, as forming the original occupation of the people, and as still the most valuable in its pro- ducts, although fast yielding, in this respect, to those of agriculture. The immense forest region of this colony embraces the country drained by the Ottawa and the Saguenay, and extends in great luxuriance over the whole of the Erie Peninsula. Its position, as thus marked out, admits of the following partial explanation. The pre- vailing winds are from the west, and thus are moist winds ; these, coming in contact with the Lawrentides, deposit copious supplies of water upon their southern slopes. The Erie Peninsula, also, derives much damp air from the lakes upon its borders. Hence, wherever the soil was fitted to maintain a vegetation of large growth, the combination produced the forests which so densely cover the country. The particular species or genus which should predominate in any given district was determined by the minor differences of soil and climate : thus the " Ottawa country " is the special home of the white and red pine {Finns strohus and resinosa), and these are again separated by the preference of the latter for the di'yer and cooler localities. Again, proceeding to the westward, as the lower and richer soils of the Erie Peninsula are approached, the endless mass of pine forest gives way, and is mingled in increasing proportion with hard-wood trees. Walnuts, maples, oaks, and others, contrast in autumn the glowing tints of their deciduous foliage, with the ever-sombre hues of the conifers. These species occur, at first, as the mere underwood of the groat leafy eminences built up by the latter ; but, at length becoming predominant, the pines and firs stand out, singly or in small gi'oups, above the general level, like the members of some gigantic race who have left their native uplands to luxuriate in the plain. CANADA. 83 The timber and wood of commerce are principally supplied by the valley of the Ottawa ; but all the smaller kinds, such as battens, cask-staves, &c., and also the varieties of hard woods, are procured in greatest abun- dance from the countries borderinj]j the Great Lakes. In the former district, the white or Weymouth pine is the most valuable.* Its great size (it is sometimes 200 feet high), its straightness, and especially its light weight (for a cubic foot weighs but 29 lbs.), place it in the first rank with shipbuilders for making their masts and spars. The red pine is also much prized ; its resinous nature making it exceedingly durable, but its weight (40 lbs. per cubic foot) forbidding its use in the upper parts of a vessel. In the Western district, besides the valuable white oak already mentioned, there is the black walnut (Juglans nigra), a fine tree, growing to a height of 120 feet, the lower half being entirely free from branches ; its beautiful d?rk-grained wood requires only to be known in England to compete successfully with mahogany and rosewood; for instance, excellent veneers are cut from its timber, almost six feet wide. The hickory ( Carya alba) is another tree of the same natural order, nearly as high, but distinguished by its smaller diameter and shaggy bark. Its wood is esteemed by the lumberers for their axe- handles, on account of its toughness and elasticity; it has been also ascertained to possess more heating power than any other wood, a point of no small importance in a country where even the steam-vessels and locomotives are supplied with wood for fuel. This property is found to be connected with great density and weight, the num- bers for hickory being sp. gr. 0*929, and weight of cubic foot, 58 lbs. The white ash (Fraximis Ammcanus) is also prized for its toughness, but more so for its quick growth; it has, moreover, the peculiarity, that the timber of two-yeox-old trees is the best for all pur- poses where great strength is required. The Dogwood {Cornus flovidd) is worthy of notice here, on account of * The following remarks are compiled from data obtained at the Interutitional Exhibition. 34 CANADA. its supplying the place of box for the use of the engraver; iind its wood is so free from silex, that watchmakers and others employ it for polishing drill-holes and lenses ; while its rough bark is in repute medicinally as a tonic. Lastly, the varieties of maple produce beautiful woods for the cabinet-maker, and one is planted for the sugar obtained from its sap, though that article is chiefly pro- duced in Lower Canada. Li the above brief enumeration, the abundance of deciduous trees should be remarked, because it is based upon their prevalence in Canada, which is, notwithstanding, usually imagined as yielding principally the evergreen genera of pines and firs. This notion is partly accounted for by the great quantity of deals and light- wood timber which we receive from thence, and is also partly due to the statement of botanists, that out of 114 species of pines at present known, 42 are peculiar to Canada and the Hudson's Bay Company's territory. The occupation of preparing and bringing the timber to a port of shipment is termed "lumbering," and to engage in it requires peculiar qualities in the labourers, and a large command of capital in the principals. The master lumberer often rents 10 square miles of forest, and employs 500 horses in the work of dragging the timber to the water-ways. And on the Ottawa, a timber-raft is frequently worth 3000/., and only a small one is valued at lOOOZ. The winter is the season for cutting down the trees, as then the frost and snow have dried and hardened the ground, and rendered it possible to convey the timber to the creeks and streams. A good hewer brings gi*eat intelligence to his business, in addition to physical strength and an iron constitution. The Canadians are said to make the best lumberers, being inured to the labour and climate, and sober, although somewhat wild. Their number in the " Ottawa country " alone is upwards of 25,000, and such as are exi^erienced hands, earn 6/. a month. When the logs are brought to the water's edge, with the first thaw they are floated down to aome general outlet of the allotment, wliere they can be formed into a raft. This i)art of the work is very severe, the men often ^ CANADA. 35 ! engraver; Qakers and id lenses ; as a tonic, ifiil woods the sugar hiefly pro- imeration, remarked, 1 Canada, 3 yielding irs. Tills uantity of ive from tement of -t present ^son's Bay lie timber and to labourers, lis. Tbe 3rest, and timber to er-raft is is valued down the hardened le timber igs gi-eat physical lians are to the lat wild, ujiwards arn 6/. a r's edge, ' general d into a len often labouring the whole day up to their thighs in water at the freezing point ; but, arrived at larger streams, they build a rough hut upon the raft, and glide down swiftly with the current, although the frequent rapids, and dangers from hidden rocks, require constant watchful- ness and exertion. Where the obstruction is very great, the rafts have to be taken to pieces ; and, in some places, government money has been devoted to making public timber slides on a large scale. Such are those by which the Chaudiere Falls at Ottawa are avoided, and which, when complete, will have cost 100,OOOZ. The timber would be broken if allowed to go over the Falls ; it is consequently formed into small rafts, of 10 or 15 logs each, with a sort of bridge in the centre for the men to stand on. These are brought to the mouth of the slides, which resemble a series of inclines with levels between them, the latter being necessary to check the speed of the descending water. Some of the slants have a little fall of three or four feet at the lower end, down which the " crib " drops, plunging deep into the flat water below; and hence the need of the raised bridge in the middle. The motion is described as a combination of swimming and flying, each slope being taken at a faster pace, and the raft thumping along the levels in a manner which is extremely trying to the nerves of the uninitiated. These slides are altogether three-fourths of a mile in length, but are passed in a few minutes. The timber is then once more collected, and brought down to the ports on the St. Lawrence for sale. The value of the wood exported in 1860 was 2,068,250/., of which that sent to Great Britain was worth 1,272,530/. Pine-timber (espe- cially white) and deals, composed two-thirds of the total export, and oak-timber was the next principal sort. To this quantity must be added that reserved for home consumption, which, under the items of ship and house building, and of fuel, will considerably more than double the above figures as the total value of the wood supplied by the forests of Canada. Yet it is estimated that^ at the present rate of demand, timber of the scantlings now used could be furnished for the next 150 years by ilie i 36 CANADA. I'll ■in r$ 11 m' :| III 1 :§ Ottawa district alone, no regard being had to planting in the mean time. Ship-building is encouraged by the ready supply of good materials, and may be considered as a branch of industry dependent on the lumbering trade. It is carried on at many places on both sides of the St. Lawrence, but to the greatest extent on the banks of the St. Charles, at Quebec, where vessels of 1500 and 2000 tons are built faster than crews to man them can be obtained. The value of the shipping sold in 1853 was half a million sterling. The exportation of pot- and pearl-ashes is also regu- lated by the work in the forests ; the small wood being consumed on llic spot for this manufacture. In 1860 we imported ashes of the value of 164,000 pounds sterling from Canada, nearly all of the first or coarser kind, as our glass and pottery makers find it more economical to refine their own raw materials whenever possiblo. The production of pot-ashes might be greatly increased with more labour, and would be a profitable business, since it is calculated that two and a half acres of ordinary hard wood, out of which the lumberers have taken the large timber, will yield a barrel of ashes, giving at least a net profit of 71. 10s.* It is further worthy of observation that in the case of the white oak, one of the best trees for this purpose, the potash in the outer wood is to that in the central parts in the proj^ortion of 13*4 to 9*6, indi- cating the advantage of thus using the pieces chopped off in squaring the logs. Fisheries. — The Fisheries are of more importance to the colonists as furnishing articles of food than to other countries as yielding exports. Still they deserve mention as being a school for seamen, and as affording an occu- pation which might be vastly enlarged. The Gulf of St. Lawrence is the seat of the deep-sea fisheries, where the Canadians share with the inhabitants of the Atlantic colonies and the Americans the pursuit of the cod, herring, and mackerel, which annually come in from the * ' Quarterly Review,' January, 18G1. '^ CANADA. 37 ocean. The settlers on the Magdalen Islands also engage largely in this fishery, and in the pursuit of seals, which is carried on in the Strait of Belle Isle. In the St. Lawi'ence salmon and herrings are taken as high as Quebec, by the simple expedient of planting a row of stakes near low water-mark so as to make with the shore a passage to a circular pool, defined also by stakes. The fish are carried into the latter by the retiring tide in astonishing quantities, and only require to be gathered up as they are left on the mud. During the winter a small fish, called the tom-cod> is caught by hook and line through holes in the ice. In 1854-5 it is asserted that 20,000 bushels of this fish were sold in Montreal market, realiz- ing 2500Z., the produce of the single fishery at Three Rivers.* The value of the Lake Fisheries has been alluded to above, the white-fish, salmon-trout, and stur- geon furnishing the largest part of their produce. The total export of fish and oil in 1860 was worth 167,000/., although only a small portion reached us ; but this state- ment gives no correct notion of the entire value of the Fisheries. Minerals. — The mineral resources of the colony are as yet scarcely appreciated. The unlimited stores of copper on the banks of Lake Huron are tapped by the Bruce IV ines, but the distance from a market has hitherto intciferevl with their success. The same cause has affected the Mai iiora works, on the north of the River Trent, where . agnetic iron-ore of rich quality is obtained. L'on-ore is indeed found in numerous places, but, ex- cept at St. Maurice, it is but little utilized. Plumbago ' and manganese are similarly neglected. Various ochres are obtained in abundance, as at Three Rivers ; litho- gi'aphic stone at Marmora ; gypsum at Paris ; and plenty of excellent sandstone, for building, on the banks of the Ottawa. Here, also, Arnprior, at the mouth of the Mada- wasca, furnishes very beautiful marbles from the lime- stone of the Lawrentian formation. The absence of coal has led to various contrivances for * Morris's * Prize Essay.' 88 CANADA. I' : ' If: obtaining other kinds of fuel. Of these we may mention the large manufacture of compressed peat near Montreal. To the same necessity may be traced the employment of asphalt and petroleum as aids to fuel, and the quickness with which the niiii oral-oil springs of the west have been turned to profit, although not especially for the heating properties of their produce. Earth-oiL — These springs have originated such an important trade that some account of it must be given here. During the progress of the Geological Survey, conducted by Sir W. Logan, it was noticed that petro- leum, or mineral-oil, occurred on the water of the River Thames, in the township of Mosa ; and a bed of bitumen was found in Ennisldllen, a township adjoining Sarnia. The latter was about half an acre in extent, and two feet deep in the centre. Nothing was done towards putting this substance to its present uses till 1853, and very little before 1857. In this year a gentleman residi'ig at Hamilton, named Williams, stimulated by the experiments of Young of Glasgow in distilling oil from coal, deter- mined to do the same with this asphalt. He subsequently dug wells below it, which produced the liquid petroleum of commerce. By the beginning of 1861, Mr. Williams had raised 200,000 gallons, and five wells were then yielding 700 gallons a day. Meanwhile oil-springs had been discovered in Pennsylvania, and extensively worked. From this commencement arose the large oil trade of the States and Canada. The Petroleum region extends from the Ohio valley to CoUingwood on the Georgian Bay, and from the Allegha- nies to the Mississippi, and is met with again in Texas and California. In Canada the best yielding springs ^re found upon Black Creek, which falls into Big Bear Creek, a feeder of Lake St. Clair. Here the original wells were sunk. They are only 40 feet deep, while others, close to the water's edge, are three times that depth. The oil is found in vertical fissures in beds of clay or gravel, from which it drains into the wells. Latterly, also, the under- lying rock has been bored, and the oil so obtained is of a finer quality than that from the superficial deposits. CANADA. 89 In soniG instances tliG oil is forced up to the moiitli of wolls 50 feet deep and even runs over, wasting thousands of barrels, and justifying the name given to the creek. The pressure is thought to be due to gas, which is always given otf in great quantities, and acts like laughing gas upon the workmen to such an extent that it requires to be occasionally dissipated by explosion. On the Ohio the oil is much purer, but not so near the surface ; and there are other circumstances which lead to the inference tliat its origin is different from that of Upper Canada. The theory of its formation, suggested by what happens in the chemist's laboratory, is, that the coal deposits below have undergone a process of distillation at a low heat, and that the vapours have been subsequently condensed in the cracks and gravel beds whence the petroleum is obtained. If this explanation is accepted in the case of the American oil-wells, it will not hold good for those of Canada, since the Survey has shown that the strata in which they exist are lower than the coal-beds, and dip under them, both towards Pennsylvania and Michigan. The petroleum of Enniskillen is therefore supposed to be derived from layers of bituminous shale, which are full of organic remains, mostly animal, and are peculiar to the geology of Canada, but presumed to be the equivalent of our Devonian system. Either theory requires application of h-^at obtained perhaps from steam, and the distillation must have been conducted as in the closed retorts of gas- works, on account of the absence of oxygen in the products. The crude oil of Canada is very thick, and of a dark- brown colour, with an intensely unpleasant smell. By distilling it, and carefully separating the results of different temperatures, several varieties of oil are ob- tained, while the colour and smell are removed by washings with water, sulphuric acid, and caustic potash. The latter agents are used sparingly, however, as they impair the illuminating power. By these processes the following articles are manufactured in succession : — 1. Naphtha, Benzine or Benzole, which is very volatile, and, when vaporized, exceedingly explosive, and there- fore dangerous — used as a solvent of resins and fats. 40 CANADA. )% 2. Several illuminating oils, of the formula C„ H„, more or less free from colour and smell, the inferior sorts being excellently adapted for lubricating purposes. 3. A dense, dark, unctuous liquid, from which Paraffine crystallizes at the reduced temperature of- about 40"^ Fahrenheit. This, when purified, becomes the white, inodorous substance of which the beautiful paraffine candles are made. Superior to wax in appearance and light-giving power, they will be eventually much cheaper, perhaps even cheaper than common tallow candles. In the United States they cost less than Is. 6d. the pound. An extraordinary export trade in mineral oil has been created, the quantity shipped in the first six months of 1862 having reached a total of 4,500,000 gallons. In Canada, the increase in the exportation of these products may be expected to be very great, now that public attention has been drawn to the subject. Eefineries on a large scale have been erected at Hamilton and Toronto, and the Grand Trunk Kailway Company have made cars, each capable of carrying 10 tons of the crude oil. A large consumption takes place in the colony, the best burning oil selling in the towns at 2«. per gallon ; while Great Britain is said to be capable of absorb- ing 42,000,000 gallons of these oils every year, and already extensively employs them for lighting, lubricating machi- nery, oiling wool previous to spinning, and in the manufacture of candles and soap.* Agriculture. — The Agriculture of Canada has made astonishing progress during the last twenty years, and will continue to advance as the colony becomes more com- pletely settled. This is most manifest in Western Canada. Here, as if by magic, the hand of man is pushing back the primaeval forest, each settler's log-house being a centre of operations ; their farms gradually coalesce, until the forest disappears altogether, or only remains in strips and patches left by design. The richest soil is found in * 'Pharmaceutical Journal,' August, 1862; * Chemical News,' Nos. 14G-8; United States Catalogue, International Exhibition; Pamphlet of Messrs. Field on Paraffine Candles. (Paraffine, from parum affinis, because of its resisting combination with other bodies ; even with sulphuric acid and nitric acid, unless liot.) S CANADA. 41 connection with the Erie Peninsula. On the banks of the Ouse the land was at first too rich for wheat ; in other places cereals Ldve been grown for thirty years in suc- cession without artificial dressing or rotation of crops. No doubt this is a ruinous practice, and the cause of tho small returns compared with those of Great Britain. But it is not always so. The best farming of Lincolnshire and Haddington is often reproduced by colonists from those counties. The finest breeds of cattle are obtained, and tlie most newly-invented machines introduced. Of wheat, 50 bushels to the acre are obtained, while the stumps of the trees are yet in the ground ; and some land yields 100 bushels. Still the annual average return of winter wheat is only 18 bushels per acre for the whole colony, and of spring wheat (by far the most frequently grown) it is but 16.* The average return, indeed, for Canada East is hardly half these numbers; but agriculture in that province is now making rapid strides in advance. The superiority of British farming in Canada West over French in the Lower province is aptly illustrated by the retui'ns for 1852. From these it appears that while the land under wheat culture in the [former was not quite twice as much as in the latter, the produce was three times, and the value four times as great, the average price being 4s. a bushel. So with oats, barley, buck- wheat, and peas, though in less decided ratios. The maize of the Upper division is sometimes marvellous in its growth : we are told of some at Toronto which was 10 feet high, with cobs of enormous size. Tried by the statistics of pasture lands, the results are similar. With more grass land in Lower Canada, the Upper province owns more cattle, and especially more sheep, and yields larger quantities of dairy produce and wool. Another observation furnishes the clue to much of this difterence. The holders of land were about 100,000 in each division. But the small occupations, 10 acres and under, and also the larger, 200 acres and upwards, were as 14 in the East to nine in the West ; while the bulk of the holdings, * Official Report of Sir Edmund Head, August, 1859. 42 CANADA. .!:!,! from 50 to 100 acres, wore 10,000 more in the latter tliaii in the former province. Tims the French hahiUms cither had farms too small to he j)rofiLahly worked where labour was so dear, or too largo for their capital ; while the reverse obtained among the Scotch and English settlers of Upper Canada. On the other hand, this dis- position of property in Lower Canada favoured the pro- duction of what may be termed garden crops. Of these, flax, hemp, and hops are the most important ; the pro- duction of which might be increased until they become largely exported to Great Britain and the States. The populous cities in the East have an effect in producing the greater quantity of hay returned for this province, whereas the cattle in the West often browse in the woods in summer, and are fed on turnips in the winter. Between the years 1841 and 18 il the agricultural pro- ductions of Canada increased 400 per cent. In the latter year they were valued at 9,000,000Z. But in 1859 the wheat crop alone was estimated at 25,000,000 bushels, which, at the above-named average price, would bo worth 4,500,000/. sterling. The exports of farm produce are about equally divided between Great Britain and the States ; but the trade in bread-stuffs with the sea-board colonies grows annually larger. Flour is more frequently exported than grain, and its excellence and whiteness are such that the American millers are said to improve their own by its admixture. Montreal, Kingston, and Quebec are the great centres of distribution of food products, for which their geogra- phical position admirably fits them. Thus in 1860 the number of sea- going vessels cleared and entered at Quebec was 2535, having an average admeasm'ement of 540 tons. This was more than double the number of the ships re- corded at all the other ports besides, sufficiently showing how much this city engrosses the ocean traffic. Kingston occupies the same relation to the trade on the Lakes, no less than 1500 vessels making the voyage to and from this port. Of these, 1000 were steamers, and about one-third of the whole belonged to the United States. Toronto is only second to Kingston in its share of this large trade : C.VNADA. 43 and, in Lower Canada, Montreal commands a vast overland Kystoni of cominunications, by canal and railway, both with Canada and with the Eastern and Western States of the Union. Climate. — The character of the Canadian climate is popularly believed to bo a great obstruction to the pro- gress of agj'icultui'o. It is certainly extreme. With the latitude of the south of France, the difference between the maximum and minimmn temperatures in Canada West is very much greater. This is also the case with Quebec, in latitude 40° 49'. There the monthly iso- thermal (according to Dove) for January is 14° Fahren- heit, and passes through Bear Islands, near Spitzbergen ; ■while that for July is 68^^, or the same as for the Azores and Nantes. Occasionally the cold is intense, as, for instance, in January, 1859, when for more than five days the thermometer did not rise above zero, and mercury froze in the open air, the minimum of — 40'!'^ Fahren- heit having been observed at Quebec. Some such in- tense cold as this froze the whole of Lake Superior in 1843, the only time recorded, and happening then with the concurrence of four days' calm.* Yet the winter season, severe as it is, does not perniciously affect the operations of the farmer. A layer of snow, a foot and upwards in depth, effectually protects the wheat plants of the autumn sowing from the frosts. When once the cold weather has fairly set in, the air is dry and the sky bright ; and tl ; hardened snow makes the country pass- able in all directions, even broad streams offering no impediment to motion. Carting of all kinds can then be done at much less expense than is usual at home. No doubt there is a difficulty in providing for the sheep and cattle during the five winter months ; but the Canadian settler meets this, at least in great part, by killing off his fat stock on the approach of winter ; and grim stories are told of the rows of frozen animals standing in the meat markets of the large cities ; moreover, that the drawback is not overwhelming, is shown by the great and annually * ' Bishop of Muutrears Journal,' quotetl by Mr. Hind. 44 CANADA. i increasing; numbers of cattlo and ehcop returned in the Official lioports. * The summer climate possesses peculiar advantages. The hcttt rapidly brings the crops to maturity, whether of grass and grain, or of fruits, vegetables, and roots. Melons ripen freely in the open air, and the orchards of the Western province are remarkable both for tlio excellence of their apples and for the cider, which is abundantly made from them. Notwithstanding the general character of dryness pos- sessed by the climate of Canada, it is clea:; that copious depositions of moisture must take place along the rango of the Lawrentido Mountains, by which the vast drainage is supplied. The Ottawa compares in volume of water witli the largest rivers of Europe, and the mouth of the Saguonay is like the junction of some great lake. This rain and snow, it is observed, is commonly accompanied by a north-east wind ; but many facts and comparisons lead to the conclusion that the moisture is actually brought from the west, and deposited where the wind from this quarter encounters the cooling eflfects of that from the north-east, acting in conjunction with high and broken ground. As if in compensation for the hard winter and the late spring, British North America has a peculiar revival of warm weather in autumn, called the Indian summer, the cause of which is, however, not well understood. To- wards the end of October the first frosts take place, and the forests assume their gorgeous hues, reflecting a light so bright and yellow through the atmosphere that even a dull day displays all the glow of sunset. Then the weather becomes warm and oppressive; a haziness ob- scures distant objects ; the calm air permits sounds to be heard at astonishing intervals ; and all nature wears an aspect of charmed tranquillity. From twenty years' obser- vations at Toronto (1840-59), the mean continuance of this season is found to be six days, from the 27th October to 2nd November.* But suddenly the cold sets in with * Hind, quoting Mr. J. Walker of the Pro-sincial Observatory. CANADA. 45 ictl in the 1 vantages. v^Lother of ». Melons da of tho 3xcellenco buudantly ncss pos- it copious kho range drainage of water th of tho e. This Jmpanied aparisons actually ;ho wind of that high and the late svival of tner, the d. To- ace, and a light t even a len the less ob- s to be ears an obser- ance of 3ctober in with ^atory. ,' , extreme rigour, and in a single night tho gay woods are btripped of their foliage, and ice and snow reign supreme. Exi)erienco has taught the peoi)lo how to prepare for and enjoy the severe winter. The casements of tho windows are doubled ; stoves are universal ; and out-door garments of leather and fur leave but a few square inches of skin on the face exposed to the frost. When tho Falls of Moutmorenci are frozen, they become the rendezvous of merry pic-nic parties, who amuse themselves by sliding down the mounds of frozen spray on small sledges. Travelling and visiting are undertaken in win- ter as tho pleasantest time. On the lakes, ice-boats, mounted upon iron skates, sail before the wind with great celerity ; and, with the settling of tho ice in the St, Lawrence, roads are opened across it, and separated coun- ties become one. At Montreal the ice always causes some anxiety before it becomes fixed for tho winter. The smft current drives the loose pieces under each other imtil huge piles of icy ruins are formed. These great heaps, sometimes 500 yards long and 200 broad, formerly occasioned much damage by encroaching on and sweeping away the buildings on the quays, which are now protected by barriers : even after all seems at rest, the submerged ice accumulating may so increase the hydraulic force of the stream, that it lifts the whole mass, and forces it onwards with uncontrollable might. This is called " the shove," and is often a scene of terrible grandeiu'. But directly open water appears in St. Mary's Current, all is considered safe, and the roads across the river are laid out ; for this sign indicates that the water has room to flow freely, and no more disturbance of the ice is apprehended from it.* Population. — The population of Canada, by the recent census (1861), numbered 2,508,000, of whom 1,300,000 were located in the West province, which the constant set of the stream of emigration has made the most populous. * With an excessive climate like that described in the text, emi- grants should not urrive in the winter, especially those of the poorer classes, as then work is scarce, and all the necessaries of life enhanced m cost. 46 CANADA. In Lower Canada nine persons out of every eleven are native to the country, of Frencli origin, and Eoman Catholics in faith. The case is reversed in the Upper division, with slightly increased proportions, which the arrival of British emigrants is continually enlarging. The chief cities are Toronto, containing 45,000 people, and Hamilton, 19,000 ; and in Canada East, Quebec, 61,000, and Montreal, 90,000; while Ottawa, the new political capital of the united provinces, has a population of 14,000 souls. Manufactures. — Hitherto the attention of the colonists has not been directed with much zeal to the increase of manufactui'es. As long as laboiu' is scarce, and therefore dear, no new country can hope to compete in this respect with an old and thickly-peopled one. Hence Canada imports most of her manufactured goods. The forced leisui'e of the long winters is, however, a gi-eat incitement to the commencement of manufactures in their domestic form : and during the summer the copious supply of falling water affords a cheap moving power for all kinds of machinery. If coal could be found within the bound- aries, or cheaply imported, Canada would possess all the requisites for becoming a manufacturing coxmtry, as her population increases its numbers. As it is, the wool of Upper Canada is largely made up into blankets, flannels, and other woollens ; and much linen is manufactured from the flax of the other province. In the latter, also, there has long been made a great quantity of sugar from the sap of the maple (Acer saccharinum). The trees are tapped in the spring, and the sap treated in much the same way as that from the sugar-cane. A coarse, brown sugar is the result, of great sweetening power, but unin- viting appearance ; it is, therefore, imable to maintain its ground against West Indian sugar, the importation of which annually increases. Ship-building is an important occupation ; and the manufacture of hardware, jiottery, soap, &c., is gradually spreading over the country, and immigrating artisans, skilled in such crafts, are sure of constant employment at good wages. A man-servant is rarely seen, as the men find more profitable occupations. CANADA. 47 leven are d Roman be Upper vhich the inlarging. )0 people, Quebec, the new opulation colonists crease of therefore LS respect ) Canada le forced icitement domestic ipply of all kinds e bound- 3 all the 5^5 as her wool of flannels, ifactured ter, also, gar from ;rees are inch the 3, brown >ut unin- itain its ition of iportant pottery, ry, and sure of rvant is pations, and there is also some of the aversion to taking service in another's house, which is so characteristic of the people of the States. From their neighbours, also, the Cana- dians have too largely imi)orted the un-English habit of carrying bowie-knives, and similar concealed weapons, leading to crimes from which it is the pride of English- men to be comparatively free, and whose prevalence has called forth strong efforts on the part of the colonial legislature, in the hope of suppressing them.* Commerce. — On the other hand, the energy of the people has been actively brought to bear upon the task of improving the communications, and thereby enlarging the commerce of th3 colony. The results to the latter are highly satisfactory. The total value of the exports in 1860 was 7,215,000Z. sterling, three-fifths of the goods being sold to the United States. These were princij)ally composed of flour, wheat, barley, and oats ; also large numbers of horses and cattle, sent by way of the Niagara railroad ; and fish, and various articles of food, were other chief items. To Great Britain were forwarded exports worth 2,675,000Z. ; the produce of the forests, together with wheat and flour, forming ^|ths of the whole quantity. During the same year the imports for home consump- tion amounted to 7,177,000/. sterling, one half of them being derived from the States. Those from the United Kingdom were valued at 3,304,000/., and of this total, 60 per cent, were woollen and cotton goods, while hardware and iron, in its various forms, composed one-seventh ; the chief remaining articles were silk, linen, carpets, china- ware, rice, and salt. The bulk of the imports pay an ad-valorem duty of 20 per cent. ; but more than half of those from the States consist of such as the Canadian tariff admits free of duty. And, since the duty is in- cluded in the above values, the apparent difference in the value of the imports from the mother-country and from the States is not so gi'cat as, in fact, it is. It is somewhat lessened, indeed, by the importation of British goods * Governor Sir Edmund Head's Despatch, August 20, 1859. WW i:\'. ■'0 ^8 CANADA. through the United States ; but the result is still in favour of the sharp-witteci Americans, who are more than a match in acuteness for England and her colonies. Neither home nor colonial lawyers seem able to frame treaties which they cannot, and do not, evade to their own benefit. And while it is granted that these evasions are rather vexatious than important, it is probably the mis- fortune of their peculiar institutions that high function- aries among them are found taking advantages, which, as private persons, it is to be presumed they would scorn to accept. What is termed the " Keciprocity Treaty " between the United States and Canada and the sea-board colonies of Great Britain, came into operation in 1854; and, it cannot be doubted, has greatly increased the trade be- tween Canada and the States. The chief articles of this treaty are : 1. The sea-fishery in British waters is open to American subjects. 2. Certain articles, the growth and * produce of either country, are to be admitted duty free by the other. 3. The St. Lawrence and its canals, on the one hand, and Lake Michigan on the other, are open to both parties. It was expected that a free ex- change of goods would take place under these provisions, and the vessels of both nations compete on equal terms. In practice, the Americans take the lion's share. For instance, the Western States of the Union are great producers of grain, &c., of which the New England States are i,he consumers ; and Montreal is, by position, the great receiver and distributor of this trade. The Canadian city derived great benefit from converting the corn into flour as it passed through ; but in February 1858, a Treasury Circular of the United States, narrowing the previous construction of the Treaty, led to this flour being charged with duty, on the ground that it was not the growth of the colony, although it might be the pro- duce. By the same means, logs of timber sawn in Canada, * In 1849 tlie Canadian Assoin1)]y passed an Act admitting "the gTOwtli or produce " of tlie United States free, if the favour was re- ciprocated. The alteration, probably undesigned, was neither noticed nor acted on till 1858. S fr. & ca pc It in CANADA. 49 18 still in more than lies. e to frame their own asions are 7 the mis- i function- s, which, 3uld scorn between I colonies L; and, it trade be- es of this s is open e growth itted duty ts canals, other, are . free ex- I'ovisions, lal terms, ire. For ire great nd States tion, the Canadian orn into 1858, a wing the liis flour was not the pro- Canada, ting "the ir was re- er noticed ^ from timber grown on the American side of Lake Michi- gan, were stopped from entering Chicago. In another case, though peas and pease-meal are admitted, yet split peas, not being specially named in the treaty, were taxjd. It is also a subject of complaint, that all free goods of the value of 100^ and upwards require a declaration before a Unitod States consul, who charges 2$ for his certificate, one of which is transmitted to the Consul-General. Moreover, while the Americans often engage in our coasting- trade, the States' navigation laws are enforced with unsparing rigour against the British. xS. Canadian- built vessel can, under no circumstances, engage in the trade between American ports. One Canadian owner was provoked into offering to naturalize himself in the States, but desisted, upon finding that his ship could never obtain the privileges of an American vessel. In the mean time ^hc Americans, by using the Welland Canal, have created • large trade between the Western States and Oswego and Ugdcnsburgh on Jjol^i) Ontario, and the St. Lawrence. Thus New York competes with Quebec and Montreal for the custom of Canada West; but the Canadian cities, practically, canroc compete for the trade of the Western States. In reference to the trade with the mother-country, a committee of the Canadian Legislative Assembly made a suggestion which shows the imj^ortance attached to it. After setting out that a large subsidy was paid by the Brit- ish and American governments to a line of postal steamers from Liverpool to New York, they trace the results of this arrangement. By introducing a new and larger class of vessels, those before engaged as packet ships now carried out emigrants, and were thus able to load cargoes in return at very low rates. Hence immigration fell off at Quebec, and increased at New York, while return freights became comparatively higher from the former city. So much is the trade diverted to the States, that Canada receives most of its sugar and tea through their ports. But from Quebec to Liverpool, by the Strait of Bolle Isle, the distance is 500 miles less than from New York, making a difference in time, of two days two hours ; E 50 CANADA. m v i il .'4MH|| and goods can bo landed at Chicago, the great emporium of the West, at rates varying from 25 to 30 per cent, in favour of the St. Lawrence route. It was, therefore, proposed to maintain a daily line of steam-vessels of 2000 tons burden between Quebec and Liverpool, to be con- nected, both with others of 1000 tons traversing the canals and lakes to Chicago, and also with the Canadian railroads. Passengers might then travel from end to end of the route in about 12 days, and at the slowest in 20. As the ice is only open 200 days in a year, the tonnage carried by these steamers would not materially encroach upon the existing traffic, while it appears that they would offer such advantages as always to command employment. The superiority of the magnificent line of navigation up the St. Lawrence, and its splendid canals, is now acknow- ledged by the Americans themselves, it being open as long as the Hudson River route, and admitting far larger vessels than the Erie Canal.* In proportion as the Far West gets more completely settled, will this route gain in importance ; and already the passage through, from Chicago to Liverpool, is becoming familiar. As a link in the great line of communication across the continent, it has been alluded to above. And in this view it is probable that a railroad passing up the Ottawa valley, and carried on to Lake Huron and the Saulte Ste. Marie, will be of great importance, since it would shorten the present route by about 300 miles. In looking forward to the future of Canada, one cannot fail to be impressed with the many natural advantages possessed by this large colony — in its fertile lands, its gi'eat water-ways, and its undeveloped resources ; and these, combined with an energetic people and institutions pushed to the extreme of freedom consistent with safe government, form a solid basis for predicting a prosperity which only wilful mismanagement can retard. * ' Cciimda, 1849-59,' by IIou. A. T. Gait, Finance Minister, ISGO. 'T-W \ \ .-.* \ emporium or cent, in , therefore, els of 2000 to be con- versing the e Canadian end to end west in 20. he tonnage y encroach ihey would iployment. igation up w acknow- \ open as far larger is the Far ite gain in igh, from s a link in ntinent, it view it is kva valley, te. Marie, lorten the / ne cannot dvantages lands, its 'ces ; and istitiitions with safe )rosperity stcr, ISGO. N" Ul New Bruniyrick ;. !! ) Scoitbrds GeoQ^Hitat' London I'uhUshKi by thi !>cc^ tvr prvmotv^ff '"hrif^tian Kn^jwUiiga i ^\. ygvrBnm»wick ■"r •«) 48 3. 1 46 Vonhe'sti 64 Sc-aitbrds OeCQ.^Eiitz^ ' 51 CHAPTER II.-NEW BRUNSWICK.* Position. History of Boundary Dispute ; — Coasts: South and East ; — Physical Geography : Mountains, the Tobique Range, the Nerepis Hills ; Lowlands ; the Drainaf?e, the St. Jolin ; — Industry : Forests, Timber, Maple-suii;ar, Fires ; Fisheries ; Agriculture ; Climate ; Minerals ; Manufactures and Commerce. New Brunswick. The colony of New Brunswick is a compact tract of country, rudely square in outline, lying between the Bay of Fundy and the Bay Chaleur in one direction, and be- tween the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the State of Maine in the other. The 45fch and 48th parallels are very nearly its south ar lorth limits, and it lies wholly within the 64th and meridians, W. long. Its area is 27,037 square miles, oi- about 17,000,000 acres, its greatest length being 210 miles, and greatest breadth 180 miles. New Brunswick was erected into a colony in the year 1784, hn,vmg been previously a part of Nova Scotia, or Acadia, as it had been termed while held by the French. The boundaries of the new government were, however, so little understood, and so loosely defined in treaties and warrants, that for many years disputes were carried on concerning them with the United States, which were only kept from a violent issue by continual yielding on the part of Great Britain. The following is a brief outline of their history, which is geographically important."]" * Dr. Gesner's 'New Brunswick;' Perley'' Handbook;' J. V. Ellis on New Brunswick ; Munro on the 1^'orest Trees, and Builey on the Minerals of New Brunswick ; OflSclal Tables, &c. t See Gesner's 'New Brunswick,' 1847. 11 1 i,iii r-^;„ 52 NEW BRUNSWICK. El ' . wm Boundary Disputes. — In 1783, tbo Treaty at Paris recognizing the United States, defined the north-western limit of Nova Scotia. It is there stated to be "a lino drawn due north from the source of the St. Croix to tho high lands which divide those rivers tliat empty them- selves into the St. Lawrence from those that fall into tho Atlantic Ocean to tho north-westernmost head of Con- necticut River." Why no map of the country ever camo to England, or if it did what became of it, cannot bo now ascertained. Unfortunately, the treaty would not suit the country. Instead of one, there arc two water- sheds between the Gt. Lawrence and tho Atlantic, the basin of the St. John lying between them, and draining into tho Bay of Fundy. This intervening tract after- wards formed the " Disputed Territory." That the Eng- lish immediately formed settlements of Acadians on tho Upper St. John suggests what tho meaning of tho treaty was, while still fresh in the memory of its framers. In 1794, commissioners from tho two nations interested in tho dispute, agreed upon the meridian 67° 53' west as the " due north line " of the treaty. But on reaching Mars Hill, near lat. 46° 50', the British claimed to go westward to the heads of the St. John and Penobscot rivers, while the Americans insisted on carrying tho meridian to the northern watershed, a few miles from the banks of the St. Lawrence. Tho further settlement was consequently left open. At the Treaty of Ghent, in 1835, it was determined to submit the dispute to the arbitration of the King of Belgium, whose decision was to be strictly binding. The king divided the land in question, carrying the " due north line " to the St. John, just above the Grand Falls, thence along its mid-channel and that of the St. Francis nearly to the source of the latter, and afterwards through the country to the v/est of the St. John. This award gave 7008 square miles to the United States, and 4119 to Great Britain. The former power, however, now broke from the stipulation, refused the decision, and began colonizing the disputed territory. Forts were built, lands granted, and settlements made. NEW BRUNSWICK. 58 it Paris -western "a lino X to the y them- into the )f Gon- er came nnot bo uld not ► water- itic, the Iraining t after- he Eng- on the e treaty terested )3' west caching to go nobscot ng the L'om the ent was ined to [ing of The "due I Falls, Francis hrougli award mo to broke began lands In 1839, the English government again appointed commiysioners, in the hope of putting a stop to a state of things daily becoming more serious. This attempt at settlement also failed, from the impossibility of satisfying the United States without giving up the whole country in dispute ; and in 1842 a border war was on the point of breaking out. Lord Ashburton was thereupon sent out from England, with full powers to make a settlement ; and after much negotiation, the present line was agreed uj)on. It is very nearly the same as that suggested by King Leopold, although it gives to Great Britain 893 square miles more territory, while the Americans gain the Upper St. John and the navigation of that river as far down as the meridian 67^ 53' west. While these negotiations were in progress, the Ameri- can senate held a secret discussion on the subject. From statements since published, it appears that this body gave its approval to the Ashburton Treaty with the full know- ledge that it had no right to the land claimed. A communication was read from a United States gentleman, named Sparks, who, pursuing his researches upon Ameri- can history at Paris, had discovered an official letter of Benjamin Franklin, dated December Gth, 1782. This letter spoke of the " strong red line " in an accompanying map, as marking the boundary agreed to in the treaty. Upon further inquiry the map itself was found, with the line upon it. " Imagine my surprise," writes Mr. Sparks, " on discovering tha,t this line runs wholly south of the St. John, and between the head waters of that river and those of the Penobscot and Kennebec." With such in- formation, the United States senate hastened to ratify a treaty giving them 7015 square miles of territory, of right belonging to the unsuspecting mother-country. But the settlement of this long-festering source of rancour between the two nations was well worth the sacrifice, and the cost of a single campaign would have far exceeded the value of the whole country in dispute. There is s^ill some uncertainty respecting the boundary- line between New Brunswick and Canada. The Eesti- 54 NEW BRUNSWICK. t m (4' poucho an'l its estuary tho Bay Chalcnr, wcro intcmlcd to divide the colonies ; but tho question arises, as to whether tho upper part of this river is that now called tho Kesti- gouche, or its tributary the Petam Kedgwick, which is the larger of the two branches.* A considerable extent of valuable forest is involved in tho settlement of this point, which, draining as it docs into tho Bay Chalour, would seem to belong to the smaller colony; but if this principle be admitted, then all the country along the north coast of that bay is naturally a part of New Brunswick, and should be, therefore, included in its government. Coasts. — It is estimated that fully two-tliirds of tho whole boimdary of New Brunswick is formed by sea- coast ; and of tho remainder, a largo portion is so close to the navigable rivers St. Croix, St. John, and Restigoucbe, as to have all the advantages of a sea-board. Along tho Bay of Fundy the shores are mostly high and precipitous, and rocky headlands succeed each other with picturesque effect. The north end of the Grand Manan Island should also be noticed, as there magnificent cliffs of columnar basalt rise from 200 to 400 feet above the sea. Numerous tidal harbours exist on this coast, the best of which aro tho bays and coves at tho entrances of the St. Croix and St. John. Tho towns of St. Andrews, St. George, and St. Stephen have ports on the former, and St. John, Carleton, and Portland are situated on the latter. The entrance to this river is guarded by Partridge Island, whence stretch sand-bars which stop largo vessels from passing, except at high water ; but the rise of the tide is so great that ships of the deepest draught can then enter, although there is often a strong current from the river to be encountered. The mouths of the Musquash and Pcticoudiac f Rivers are also convenient harbours for vessels not of the largest class. * The map of New Brunswick attached to Perley's ' Handbook,' assumes a large tiact on the north of the St. John, between tho Mistouche and the St. Francis, as belonging to this colony. t From the French "petit coude," in reference to the elbow or bend, 26 miles up the river. On the spot the name is usually *' Pettycoat-jack." — Gesner. NEW BRUNSWICK. 65 3n short a ark canoe !S with a 3ility and by water- Ivantages y drained y is the Inch 225 3 more it >on after a broad hen pre- , 68 feet 3scent at le latter , 1604. occur in the gorge below the Falls, which is three-quarters of a mile long, only 250 feet wide, and shadowed by rocky walls, at least 100 feet in height. Through this the river rushes with frightful impetuosity, the effect of which is in- creased by foaming whirlpools, due to projections from the sides. The surromiding scenery is in accordance with the grandeur of the Falls, which are annually visited by thousands of sight-seers. During favourable seasons steamers ascend the St. John to the rapids. And above the Falls the river is navigable for 40 miles, after which Lake Temiscouta may be reached by the Madawasca, thus prolonging the water-way to within 18 miles of the St. Lawrence. Boats, canoes, and timber-rafts pass down the St. John almost from its source. A fine natural basin at the head of the Falls becomes an excellent landing-place for goods and timber. The wood is sent over the cataract, but this proceeding often entails great loss upon the owner. And until this can be avoided by the erection of locks, it will always form an obstacle to the trade of the river. The St. John then pursues a general south course for about 70 miles to Woodstock. In the upper part of this division it receives its two chief tributaries, the Aroostook and the Tobique. Both these streams are interrupted near their mouths by falls, which, however, do not prevent the passage of timber from their finely-wooded basins. Above the rapids boats navigate them for a great distance. Both on the Tobique and the main stream there are long tracts of alluvial ground, capable of producing all kinds of farm produce. The valleys of the former exhibit very beautiful scenery, combining as it does every variety of mountain, forest, and water. Spruce and larch, birch and maple, form the bulk of the timber-trees ; elm and smh group upon the untilled flats, which are covered with good grass ; and v/ild plums, and various berries, form the undergrowth of the woods. The banks of the St. John rise in a series of well-marked terraces to the upper country bordering its course. They are sometimes steps of 20 feet, and, being formed of gravel and river-mud, are considered to indicate considerable changes in the relative levels of land and water. I!!« 60 NEW BRUNSWICK. n it F- I Woodstock is a thriving frontier town, well situated to command the timber trade, in connection witli the numerous affluents of the St. John, but looking to its future pros- perity chiefly in the means of working its large supplies of iron ore, which is hematite of great richness. A rail- road will connect this town with the port of St. Andrews, and by the river ii communicates with the capital, and with St. John. Another 70 miles down the stream brings us to Frcdc- ricton, 85 miles from the mouth. The banks are lofty, and produce much picturesque character, receding from the water's edge, so as to admit broad stretches of alluvium. These are productive pasture -lands, or fertile fields, with enough timber left to please the eye. Farms extend up the flanks of the hills into the interior, and frequent streams bring down their produce, and that of the forests, to the lower markets. Waterfalls add their peculiar beauty, still maintaining the character of the eastern, as distinct from the tamer western portion of the colony. At Fredericton the river is three-quarters of a mile broad, and navigable for sea-going vessels. Flowing slowly onwards, it has the appearance of some winding lake. The evidences of trade and population are now continuous on its waters and its banks, and little remains to bespeak a newly-settled country. Fifty miles from the sea the St. John is met by the mouth of the great arm, called the Grand Lake. This is the first and largest of four similar collections of water, all coming in from the nortli-east, and running through a highly fertile country. They are 30 and 40 miles long, with irregular shores, which ; Id largely to the extent of water-frontage possessed by this district. Above the city of St. John the river widens into a broad expanse, known as Grand Bay, capable of accommodating the largest fleet. Unfortunately its outlet is through a narrow gorge between high clifis, where the pent-up waters rush out with a force which no ship could venture to meet. A curious phenomenon occurs near its lower end. The well-known tides of the Bay of Fundy cause a rise in the luirbour of 26 feet. At low water the St. John is the hiiJihcr, and its stream falls 20 fc^ thl 'i,',' NEW BRUNSWICK. 61 ') situated to le numerous uture pros- go supj^lics 5S. A rail- t. Andrews, japital, and s to Frcdc- i are lofty, }ding from •f alluvium, fields, with extend up 1 frequent ;lie forests, f peculiar eastern, as olony. of a mile Flowing e winding are now e remains from the ;rcat arm, largest of fj'om the country, ir shores, possessed the river md Bay, rtunately gh cliffs, ^vhich no )n occurs e Bay of At low falls 20 feet over a ledge at the end of the Narrows. At high tide this is reversed, and the fall, sometimes 15 feet high, is on the other side of the reef into the river ahovc. For about an hour and a half at the end of flood-tide the bar is passable by vessels of considerable size, as there is then from 10 to 15 feet of water upon it. Of the remaining rivers which so copiously water New Bnmswick we can only name the Miramichi and the Eestigouche as the chief, whose navigable waters extend hundreds of miles for boats, and in the early days of the colony rendered the want of roads scarcely felt. The Nepisiquit is an extremely turbulent stream, 100 miles in length. At about 20 miles above Bathurst is a magnifi- cent cascade, produced by a wall of granite 140 feet high. The water makes four leaps in the descent, and the broken fall, wrapped in clouds of spray, forms the centre of a beau+iful scene. The Peticoudiac presents a natural feature of a different character, in the fine " bore " which rushes up it every high tide. The wave is five feet high, and is heard approaching with a noise like distant tlmnder. Near Dorchester, where the contraction of the estuary takes place, the rise of the tide is sometimes 60 feet, and from the extremely rapid ebb and flow, vessels always require a pilot ; but with this precaution accidents seldom hajipen. Industry. The Forests. — From the foregoing descrip- tion of tlie physical geography of the colony we may now turn to a review of the present state of its industry. As might be anticipated, the chief industrial pursuits deal with the produce of the forests and the fisheries. But with the progress of settlement agriculture annually increases, while the extensive mineral resom'ces of the country are continually receiving more and more attention. The forest originally covered the whole of New Bruns- wick, except some of the highest summits of the mountains, and the coast of the Bay of Fundy. And only a small portion of the land has yet been cleared. Even Frede- ricton, the capital, a city with 4500 people, is hemmed in by a forest, so little removed from its primitive wildncss, that bears, wolves, and deer may be seen on the M m u '1 m 62 NEW BRUNSWICK. I! '^' !■? very confines of tlae place. Still, the large annual con- sumption of timber has materially altered the aspect of the woodB, especially in districts having ready access to a market. The division of timber trees into hard and soft woods, noticed aF obtaining in Canada, is also common to all the lower provinces. As the trees producing the timber are also the s;, i>ie, the reader is referred to details of the species jelore given, in preference to repeating them here. The white and red pine are again the most prized for their timber ; the former, especially from the Mirami- chi, is deemed superior to that brought to Quebec, for its j)eculiar whiteness, elasticity, and size. From the ex- cellent way in which its wood bears exposure to the sun it is much in request for all the outside parts of houses. The spruces (Ahies), white and black, are equally valuable. The latter produces deals of the largest scantling ; and the numerous water and steam-mills of the colony are employed in sawing this and other timber for the English market. The most characteristic tree of the forests of New Bnmswick is the Hackmatac,* or American larch (Larix Americana). Its foliago resembles oar common larch, but its wood has a dark-red tinge. It is often 80 feet high, and fine trees will j'ield baulks 5G feet in length, and from two to two and a lialf feet square. Its timber is used for all the parts of a vessel, but its large lateral roots have a spicial value for making what are termed " ships' knees," /. e., the strong pieces of wood cut Avitli an angle, which fasten the ribs and deck beams together. From one of these roots and a part of the stem, knees of any angle can be cut, having the grain of the wood running through its whole length. Of the other valuable trees may be noticed the black birch, often four feet in diameter, whose wood is unrivalled for durability in situations where it is always under water, as in the keels and bottom planking of vessels. The Hem- lock spruce (J.. Canadensis) is one of the largest forest- * This is tlic Indian, and common name. By the Dutch it has been called Tamarack; Ly the Frcucli, Epinette IJoufje. In the colony it is a cypress and a juniper; also, rinm Larix {rndpendulc.. I fell: ! I NEW BRUNSWICK. 63 nnnal con- 5 aspect of access to a soft woods, 1 to all the timber are iils of the ting them aost prized le Mirami- bec, for its n the ex- to the sun of houses. 7 valuable. tling; and iolony are le English forests of can larch common is often feet in liare. Its its large what are wood cut ik beams rt of the grain of ;he black nrivalled ei water, 'he Hem- t forest- Itch it has p. In the ci penduJa. trees, but its timber splits very much in drying. Advan- tage is taken of this circumstance to manufacture it into laths, of which immense quantities are sent to the United States. It becomes so dry that nails do not soon rust in it, and it is said that rats will not attack it, on which account it is much used in flour-mills and stores. The wood of the white cedar* is much prized for its endurance of alternations of wetness and drought, and is hence largely employed as palings, and as clap-boards for the roofs of houses. Among the furniture woods we can only mention two, the Butternut, or white walnut {Juglans cinerea), whose edible nut, contained in a long egg-shaped shell, yields an excellent oil ; and the well-known maple. The importance of the forests to the trade of the colony may be judged of from the fact that in 18G0 the worth of wood of all kinds exported amounted to 621,000/., or two- thirds of the total value of the exports. Birch and pine timber and. the largest-sized deals are principally sent to England. The most considerable quantity of all sorts goes to the United States. And the next most important item consists of " shooks," or casks packed with cask- staves, and of other small wood, for the West Indies, chiefly Cuba and Barbados. Besides wood, of which an infinite number of useful articles are made in the colony, f the forests also afford several other articles of great service. The bark of the oak and hemlock is used for tanning. Large flakes of the latter are stripped off by the lumberers to fonn the roofs of their huts. The sumac (Rhus sp. ?) supplies a dye from its fruit, though apparently not from its leaves. The crab-apple makes an excellent preserve, and the wild * Named Tiiuya occidental is, hi ihc International Exhibition, 1862. Juniperus Americana. — Munro, t At the International Exhibition was shown an irjenions vari- ation from the time-honoured shape of the domestic imjilement called a " rolling-pin." The new one is a cylinder, I foot long, and 4 inches in diameter, which moves round an axis ending in turned hiirullcs. It is of bird's-eye maple, and was priced at 4s. 2d. j)er dozen. ! tS, 64 NEW BRUNSWICK. cherry yields a cordial rivalling Kirschcnwas^cr. Tlio Indians close np fractures in their canoes with tlie gum of the white spruce, and Canada balsnm is a li(piid resin wliich collects in cavities in the wood of the silver fir (^A. hilsdmca). Maple-sugar. — The most impottant of these ]>t -ducts is sugar from the rnapL 1 ilC Si I 1' IS asuuily 'L «,wn in March, while yet tlic frosts last. And with wsirm days following cold night.s each tree will yield 25 gallons of sap in about six weeks. Tli*^ average return of sugar is four lbs. per tree. It is whiter according to the cove bestowed on its manufacti.re, but is ordinarily of very dark colour. In 1851 upwards of 350,000 lbs. of. m;;[.le-siigar were made, besides large quantitic;s of mnple-honey, which is the iSiip of the later drawings, uncrystallizable, but useful for sweetening purposes. In a country where forests cover so large a surface, it is natural to seek for relations between the species of trees and the soil they grow in. The observations made are not conclusive, but as a rule we have the following. The wliite spruce delights to spread its roots in a deep free soil ; the black never produces such valuable timber as when clinging to the barest rocks, and slowly imbibing the fogs of the Bay of Fundy. The cedar loves a marsh, which when drained produces heavy crops, the first after burning being a spontaneous growth of white clover.* But if hemlock and pine abound, the soil is cold and undesirable for the settler. The black ash luxuriates in low alluvial tracts, and the sugar-maple on the shady sides of streams in lofty situations, where the soil is rich and free, and the air is clear and cold. The hackmatac grows everywhere ; and the valuable butter-nut flourishes by the roadside, or may be planted on pastures. Fires. — The majority of the trees being of a resinous nature, the forests are liable to occasional devastation by fires, which have sometimes been very fearful in their results. The most terrible fire recorded, happened in 1825. The summer had been unusually hot and dry; * Gesner. ai NEW BRUNSWICK. 65 ?cr. Tho . tlio gum uid resin silver fir r'jflucts is rest8 are equally gorgeous. In autumn and spring floods are common. When only the result of freshets, they seldom do much harm : Ihe low intervales along the rivers' banks arc indeed overflowed, but the farmer tries to compensate himself by netting large quantities of fish where his corn has lately been reaped. In the winter the streams are all covered with ice ; and before this is quite fixed, or Avhen breaking up, the floating pieces sometimes get wedged into a solid dam, banking up the waters as in a lake. This is called an " ice-jam," and v'hen one of these bursts, the rush of the liberated flood is always dangerous, often extremely destructive to the farms upon the banks, and large portions of land are sometimes swept away. Minerals. — The mineral resources of the colony are as yet but very imperfectly known, and still less utilized, owing to the want of the requisite labour and capital. An apparently inexhaustible bod of rich iron ore is worked near Woodstock. Iron is known to exist abun- dantly in other parts, as on the Eestigouche and at Dorchester. Ores of manganese have been worked near Bathurst, and at Quaco, on the Bay of Fundy. An extensive deposit of impure but useful plumbago is quarried close to the Grand Falls ; and copper and lead have been found in various places. With a coal-bearing formation covering one-third of the province, it might be expected that much coal would be raised. Till lately this has not been the case, although some was obtained near the Grand Lake. But the export of this mineral is now an important business, carried on chiefly with the United States. In Albert County, at the head of the Bay of Fundy, a new kind of coal, most nearly resembling jet, and named Albertite, has been discovered. It produces 70 NEW BRUNSWICL n-j ill^i'i' !i , by distillation excellent mineral oil, the refined qualities of which arc colourless. This also is largely sent to tho States, the quantity in 1800 being over 12'2,00U gallons. The fine-grained sandstones are much used for buildinr^, and tlie granites afford an excellent material for gi''ud- stones. Beautiful marbles, gypsum, and various ochres also form pai*t of tho mineral riches of tho colony, which, notwithstanding the recent progress made in their working, may be looked upon as practically untouched. With a population hardly more than 250,000, it is not to be expected that the manufactures of tho colony can bo • other than of tlie most simple and domestic character. Yet for their means the inhabitants have made consider- able advance. Ship-building necessarily occupies tho greatest number of hands, and their vessels stand deserv- edly high for sailing qualities and durability. They have also potteries and manufactories of hardware, besides tho rural manufactures of maple-sugar and coarse woollen cloth. And tho railway now making from St. John to Shediac is tho work of tho colonists, as ai"o also tho locomotive engines and carriages.* Tho commerce of New Brunswick is gradually in- creasing. Its exports in 1860 were valued at 916,000/., and its imports at 1,447,000/. Its trade with the United States is the most important. To them it sends its wood and fish, apples and potatoes, in return for bread-stuffs. From us it takes hardware and haberdashery, fishing- tackle and canvas. From the adjoining colonies it buys live cattle and provisi(ms in exchange for salt (obtained from springs at Sussex Vale), wood, fish, and a portion of its manufactured imports. The progress of the colony, compared with some others, lias doubtless been slow. Its fertile soil, healthy climate, * The English traveller is struck with two contrivances peculiar to countries with severe winters and wood fuel. One is the snow- plougli, a carriage with low wheels, having a sharp inclined front armed with iron-plute, to tlirow off the snow-drifts. The other is a huge funnel-shaped outer chimney, which receives the sparks issuing from the inner one. The " cow-lifter," like a small snow-plough, tells its own tale. NEW BRUNSWICK. 71 ill lualitica it to the galluns. uildinr^, r gi''U(l- i ochres colony, in their ichcd. t is not T can bo • liaractcr. ionsidcr- pies tho [ desorv- licy have jides tho woollen John to also tho and varied resources certainly ought to attract moro emigrants than they have done. Servants receive from 50«, to 4/. a month, with board and lodging. Artisans earn from five shillings to eight and ten shillings per day. All articles of constant requirement are reasonable in price ; and a careful review of all tho available materials respect- ing the condition of the people confirms the following guarded language of tho Lieutenant-Governor, who wi'ites in a recent report : " There is, I am convinced, no portion of the British empire or of tho United States of which the inhabitants in general have a larger command of tho necessaries and cheaper luxuries of life ; and I bolievo that nowhere is a comfortable independence, if not wealth, more certainly the result of honest industry and persever- ance. "* Despatch of Hon. J. Mauaers Sutton, December 28, 1839. ally in- 1G,000Z., United its wood id-stuffs. fishing- it buys obtained portion others, climate, 8 peculiar the snow- ined front other is a ks issuing v-plough, I { I. ^ 5 72 CHAPTER III.-NOVA SCOTIA.* Position, Size, Physical Features : "NTorth-Wcst Section, Hills, We^t Shore ; Soutli-Eust Plateau, South and East Coasts ; Harbours, Tides, Intervales ; Capo lirt'tun Island, Sable Island ; Climate; Population; — Industry: Agriculture, Flax; Forests, Furs; Fish- eries; Minerals, Coal, Iron, Stone, Gold; Trade. Nova Scotia. Position — rize. — Nova Scotia is a tract of land lying to the south of the Gulf of St. Ijawrence, and to the eastward of New Brunsmck. From the latter it is almost dis- severed by the Bay of Fundy, 100 miles long and at its entrance 50 miles wide. But towards the north, the colo- nies are united by the Isthmus of Chiegnecto, which, at the common boundary, formed in part by the little Eiver Missequash, is only 12 miles across. Nova Scotia is oblong in shape ; its total length is 350 miles, while it is from 50 to 100 miles wide. Its longer axis is a line drawn parallel to the adjoining shores of the continent, from south-west to north-east, the direction becoming somewhat more northerly in Cape Breton Island. This name is conferred upon the north part of the colony, which is separated from the peninsular portion by a narrow strait, called the Gut of Canso. The whole area * 'Nova Scotia and its Resources,' J. F. Knight, 18(32; 'Nova Scotia as a Colony,' Hamilton ; Lyell's ' Travels in Nortii ATiicriea;' ' Official Catnlogue of International P^xhibition,' 18G2 ; Dr. A. (ilesner on ' Geology of Nova Scotia,' and R. Brown on ' Cape Breton IsLiuiIk,' in ' Quartijrly Journal Geological Society,' vol. i., 184a ; H. Kigby's ' Observii-ions on Clhnate of Halifax,' in ' Meteorologit-al Papers of Board of Trade,' No. I., 1857; Blue Books on the Colonies and Reports thereon ; Private luforniution, &c. •' rf N?U Nova Scotia A rFM^vai'il I. I, prills, We^t ); Haib()iii>', d ; Climatoi ; Furs ; Fislx. i lying to ) eastward most dis- md at its the colo- which, at tie Eiver Scotia is lile it is 18 a line ^ntinent, ecoming ' This colony, •n by a ^Ic area ; 'Vova iiM'ik'aj' (ifesner IsLin.li./ '{>pt>rs of • it's ftinl L rt'.fj.y Crtaa^ Kstak^ Liftxdti'x thil^jih^H b^Hfi ^ i fpramattng (1. itnati ^itfiHtfr F r w * r 1 1 ■ ■ t ^^^u ' '■ N': 'k m NOVA SCOTIA. 73 of the province is nearly 18,600 square miles, or about 12 million acres, one-sixth of which is comprised in Cape Breton Island. The 43rd and 47th parallels, and the 60th and 66th meridians W., lie near its extremities in either direction ; suggesting the latitude of the south of France, and recalling the fact that the shores of Nova Scotia are projected towards Europe more than ten degrees of longitude further than Boston or New York. Physical Features. — The physical geography of this colony is not marked by any broad features of mountain and river valley. The surface is usually undulating, ofton very bleak and rugged, and the level portions are few and small. Perhaps the most general division that can bo made of Nova Scotia Proper will be that which regards it as mainly composed of a north-western section, cha- racterised by hill ranges in connection with the Bay of Fundy, and of a plateau upon the south-eastern side adjoin- ing the Atlantic. Cape Breton Island does not readily fall in with this division, and must receive a separate description. The Bay of Fundy divides towards the north into two great arms ; that to the west is the Cumberland Basin, at the head of which is Amherst r that to the east, after passing through a channel oiily six miles broad, suddenly spreads out to a width of 20 hi ,.he Basin of Mines, which terminates in Cobequid Bay. Truro is situated at the head of this bay, and Windsor, the capital, is placed upon a southern arm of the basin, within 25 miles of the bead of Margaret's Bay, on the r\pposite coast. Hills. — The northern shore of Minos Basin is skirted by the most considerable range of hills in the colony, namely, the Cobequid Mountains. Their highest parts are less than 1200 feet above the sea, and, being formed of granite, have a rounded and unpicturesque appearance. But their flanks, composed of various rocks, among which are slates and basalt, are often so broken as to be pro- ductive of very beautiful scenery. A forest of pines covers their summits, and their sides bear a thick veil of hard- wood trees, which when cleared away leave an excellent soil for cultivation. Almost the only break in the range occm's near its centre, where a deep transverse valley is 74 NOVA SCOTIA. ip.a mi %' drained by a small stream, at tlio moutli of whicli stands the town of Parsboro'. Commencing a few miles east of Truro, a low range runs parallel to the above for some distance, till, nearing the nortb-eastorn coast, it bifm*cates and forms Cape St. George and some low cliffs on tbe Gut of Canso. West Shores. — Turning towards the other direction, the •south shores of Mines Basin present high cliffs at intervals. The most lofty occur about Cape Blomidon. This is a magnificent precij^ice, the lower part composed of red marls and sandstones, and the upper being a vast capping of basalt, the vertical lines of whose rude columns increase its height without diminishing its bulk. Steaming down the inlet, the traveller who is able to resist the effects of the tremendous swell which conunonly agitates these en- closed waters may here enjoy a sccixo of rare beauty. The fine cliffs of Cape Blomidon are exchanged further on for the isolated fragments of limestone which have given its name to Split Cape, whose main portion is clothed with Canadian pines : on the opposite side are the white houses of Parsboro', nestling in a beautiful valley, sur- rounded by lofty hills and forests, which exhibit their most varied aspect in this point of view. Coming out into the Bay of Fundy, the igneous rocks of Cape Blomidon may be traced for 130 miles, foraiing a straight line of cliffs, whose almost unbroken continuity is only pierced by the narrow entrance to Annapolis Basin. These precipices form the edge of the range known as the Northern Mountain. Running parallel to it throughout the greater part of its length, and only a few miles distant, is a similar range, called (like the last from its position with respect to Annapolis) the South Mountain. Their flattish summits are well covered with forest, which, when cleared, displays a fertile soil, resulting from the decom- position of the volcanic rocks and limestones. Between these ranges is the oldest settled part of the colony. The beautiful and spacious harbour, and the productive soil of the valley, soon attracted the French settlers of Acadia, who built here their chief town of Port Boyal : this city received its present name in honoui* ch stands ow range 1, nearmg 5 Cape St. 3ction, the intervals. Tliis is a 3cl of red t capping s increase ing down effects of these en- e beauty, d further lich have is clothed the white lley, sur- bit their ous rocks onning a ontinuity lis Basin, wn as the roughout s distant, position Their ch, when decom- rt of the and the ! French town of a honour NOVA SCOTIA. 75 of Queen Anne, upon the cession of Nova Scotia to us at the Peace of Utrecht, in 1713. The west coast of Cumberland Bn-Jn, although mono- tonous in its almost uniform height, and in its flat uplands intersected by shallow rectilinear valleys, is yet very in- teresting on account of its mineral wealth, and of the beautiful ^'oological section which it exposes. Near the South Joggins* is a fine series of precipitous cliffs 150 feet high, the inclined beds of v/hicli dip to the south, and consist of many seams of coal, intermingled with sand- stones and clays. Here, in the face of the precipice, Sir C. Lyell saw the stems of fossil trees growing out of the coal-beds, and covered up in the superimposed strata — fur- nishing one of the plainest evidences of the vegetable origin of coal. South-east Plateau. — The whole of the south and east coast of tlic peninsula may be considered as the edge of a plateau, which, stretching across the country to Cape St. Mary at one end, gradually narrows towards the north till it comes to a point near Cape Canso. The western edge of this table land can be traced by lines of cliffs and ridges of rocks throughout the interior, and with almost equal certainty by the difference in the soil and its productions. Its structure is an intricate combination of quartzite, gneiss, and clay slate, rent and confused by the intrusion of dykes and masses of granite. The latter prevails to a great extent along the coast, forming broken and in- accessible cliffs. Above, broad fields of coarse quartz sandstone, or of granite, are either bare or covered with a sparse vegetation, consisting of mosses, lichens, and small shrubs. The visitor tm'ns from the cold skeleton of the scene to find relief of some sort in these, and their beauty repays examination. Large patches of mayflower occur, monoj)olising the open lands like our ling. This pretty little flower (Epigea repens, Ericacece) is, indeed, so common, that it has been assumed as the emblem of the * There is a North Joggius on the opposite siile of the basin. A "jogginy1io1c being of native produetioa and ^YO^k- manship. + Linnajus took this little plant as an emblem of liimself, de- scribing it as "a humble, despised, and neglected Lapland plant, flowering at an early age." The reader sliould note the climate indicated by its presence. e s fi b a L-!k>-3; snow. * J, as, for )n leaves 3.t The h an ex- ) contend ere liuge ered and ited \ery Scotia in )r judged lateau is ;li is said vs, which thej are with fish les long, Mountain 1 varied of the sual, and Their upplied ant and , The hich is the in- which, alks. I eemmg -board : ore than xliibition, tying tlio 111(1 work- iisolf, do- 1(1 plant, 3 climate NOVA SCOTIA. 77 ever true. We have already alluded to the fine coast pcenery. Everywhere the outline is jagged by deep nari'ow fiords between blufl* headlands prolonged into islands and b(jrdered by deep water. The most admired part of the shore is to the westward of Halifax, where the broad indentations of Margaret's and Mahone Bays are separated by a bold promontory named Aspotagoen, the summit of which — 500 feet high — is a landmark for ships in the distant offing. Margaret's Bay, with its hundreds of green and rocky islets and numerous coves and inlets, presents a series of pictures varying with every movement of the spectator, and perhaps unsurpassed for beauty on the whole coast of America. To the south of this is the now famous Ovens, at the end of a narrow ridge, five miles long, its eastern scarp falling steeply towards Lunenburg Harbour, and ending in a mighty cliff of slate, whose base is hollowed into caverns by the waves, and in whose face may be seen the veins of auriferous quartz which have enriched the sands below. Harbours. — It is, however, the number and excellence of its harbours that renders this shore line so valuable. Between the mouth of the Bay of Fundy and the entrance to the Gut of Canso, a distance of about 300 miles, there are, besides Halifax which stands alone, not less than 16 harbours easy of access, roomy and safe for first-class vessels ; together with 40 more which elsewhere would be highly prized, as thej^ are capable of receiving ships of 500 tons burden. Of the first-named class may bo mentioned as the chief, Shclburne to the south, and Ship Harbour to the north of Halifax ; and Country Harbour and Whitehaven further north still. The harbom* of Halifax cannot be over-estimated. In convenience for ship- ping and commanding position it has few equals. The outer harbour narrowing above the city, again opens out into au inner natural harbour named Bedford Basin. It extends over some 10 square miles, and is completely landlocked, with good anchorage throughout in from four to 30 fathoms of water. The " north-west arm " is an inlet stretching three miles further in the rear of the town, and the wholo capable of being comprehended in the port. Here all the H !j I ■I .!< I )••■ 4 1i! "4 n^' |l IS 78 NOVA SCOTIA. royal navy of Great Britain would seem lost, and the few vessels of tlic Atlantic squadron which make it their summer head-quarters, appear quite solitary on its broad expanse. The town and citadel occupy the top of a promontory, the sides of which are clad in forests of white and red pine, whose fresh aroma greets the early riser as a choice perfume. Around the harbour are wooded hills, half mountains in size, where might be erected fortified works that would make Halifax impregnable. The northern shore of the province is generally low, until Pictou is passed ; but it is by 'no means deficient in commodious harbours, of which Pugwash and Merio- gomish arc the best. These are peculiar for the slight tide which affects them, so that vessels lie against the shore-lino as in a dock. Tides. — The tides of the Bay of Fundy are remark- able for their great height and violence. Annapolis Basin, on which is also Digby, is the best port on this coast ; and to the north, the inlet on which Windsor is situated, and the Shubenacadie River, are the principal rendezvous for shipping. The latter is the largest of the many but sliort streams which water the country, and are all navigable to a small extent. The tide rushes up its estuary with a bore several feet in height, and in the course of a short time raises the water-line to the asto- nishing height of GO, and even 75 feet. The current moves at the rate of 10 miles an hour, with a turbulence exceeding that of the rapids of the St. Lawrence ; but the waters, unlike those clear green masses marbled over with snow-white foam, are here charged with red mud, which, if very useful, is decidedly not pretty. On the outer shores the red sandstone which forms the base of the cliffs stretches far from them, in flats almost perfectly level. A slight ripple along their outer edge is the only warning of the coming flood, and he must be a swift runner who can escape the wave which covers these levels nearly simultaneously. In a few minutes, the salt water is three feet deep, and, as it rises more slowly, though still fast, upon the banks and cliffs, till the height is reckoned by scores of feet, the beholder cannot at first NOVA SdOTlA. 79 1 the few 3 it their its broad top of a s of white riser as a ded hills, d fortified rally low, 5 defieient :id Merio- fclie slight ;ainst the 3 remark- A^nnapolis I't on this Windsor is principal est of the J, and are les up its id in the he asto- current iirbiilence but the )led over red mud, On the base of perfectly the only a swift rs these the salt slowly, le height )t at first restrain some feeling of insecurity while marking such an unparalleled rise of the tide. Intervales. — The quantity of red mud brought up twice every day by these floods is enormous. At the point of turning, the waters are stationary for a short time, and this mud is then deposited. Under favourable conditions, it becomes hardened before succeeding tides act upon it. The settlers then fix a row of stakes along its seaward side, and twine a rude fence of bushes upon them. This immediately accumulates the sediment, so that in time a bank is raised, and with a little more assistance from man, the tract behind it is recovered from the sea. Such lands arc called " intervales," and are the richest in the colony. Cape Breton Island. — It will be remembered that the northern part of the province is formed by Cape Breton Island. Its extreme length is 120 miles, and width 00 ; but it is nearly divided into two parts by an inland sea, called the Bras d'Or, covering an area of nearly 500 square miles. The northern peninsula is, for GO miles, a range of little-known highlands, from 15 to 20 miles broad, and highest near the coasts, where they rise to 600 and 1000 feet above the sea. For the most part they are incapable of cultivation. A stunted growth of spruce and fir trees covers some large tracts, but the rest is rocky and barren moorland, where a scanty supply of moss is browsed by a few herds of wild deer. As the country approaches the latitude of Port Hood, it becomes undulating in character, and encloses many small rivers with fertile banks, and the large lake Margarie. In the rear of the fine harbour just named, is a range of hills draining southward through the rich valley of the Inhabitants' River, into Ship Harbour. The low shores of the Gut of Canso are 18 miles long, and a mile and a half apart. Through this opening the tide rushes with the velocity of a mill-stream, and has thrown up beds of shingle, which now protect the shores from further erosion. Notwithstanding the strong cur- rents, this is the favourite passage for vessels to and £i*om the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 1 1 I'll I % 80 NOVA SCOTIA. The eastern coast is alternately formed of rocks and clay slopes, till wo arrive at Lo.iisbourg, the former capital of the island, whence high cliffs, sometimes rising lUO feet high, form the outer ^ihores, the heads of the numerous bays being sandy au'l low. 15 ut little cultivated ground is seen on this coast, although some' highly-pro- ductive tracts are found inland, especially on the banks of the Miray and (irand Kivers. A tine granitic ridge forms St. Ann's Harbour, and, with the equally precipitous flanks of Boulardaric Island, bounds the fiord- like straits leading to the Bras d'Or. Tliis is subdivided into two magniticeut salt lakes, the shores of which abound in grand scenery. Long ranges of coiiglomerato form blue hills in the distance ; white cliffs stand out in bold relief on the water's edge. A narrow belt of rich cultivated land margins the sea, studded with the cottages and gardens of thriving settlers. Numerous creeks and islands vary the scene, and the many channels add greatly to the navigable waters of this curious bay, the whole of which is capable of receiving *ho largest vessels. B asides the ports above named, there is that of the capital, Sydney. This harbour is the best in the island. Ltfj entrance, five miles wide, has nine fathoms of water, and its two arms are each five miles long, and nearly a mile wide. Thus able to receive an unlimited number of vessels, its position in the heart of a great coal-field renders it of the first importance. Sable Island. — At the extreme southern point of Nova Scotia is Sable Island. Of small extent, it is formed entirely (as its name implies) of sand, which is blown up from the Atlantic into rows of hillocks, 100 feet high. Coarse grass, and cranberry and whortle bushes, consti- tute its sole vogetation, but herds of wild horses contrive to exist upon it. Its only human inhabitants are a few coast-guards, whose services to shipwrecked mariners are alone sufficient to make this barren spot worthy of a notice. The still more dangerous Seal Rocks, 25 miles to the west, in the open ocean, are indicated by a light- house. But the currents are strong, and the traffic great, 3ks and former s rising ; of the iltivated ily-pro- ^auks of iir, and, 1 Island, IS d'Or. kcs, tlio g ranges 5 ; wliite dge. A tlio sea, settlers, and tlie aters of eceiviug of the island. f water, |nearly a mber of loal-lield )f Nova formed lown up 3t high, consti- jontrive a few tiers aro ly of a |5 miles light- great, NOVA SCOTIA. 81 and loss of life and property is but too frccj[ucnt on this coast. Climate — If tho reputation of the soil of Nova Scotia has suffered from being judged upon tho Atlantic coast, this is no loss true of its climate. Tho cold drizzle and frequent fogs of Halifax have been ascribed to the whole province. Since it is nearly surrounded by the waters of tho ocean, its climate should not experience such ex- tremes of heat aixl \\ as are met with in the in*' rt inland colonies. n rare occasions tho tcmperaiiire falls to —25^ Fal i and rises to 95° in the shade. But at Halifax, tl.o . aiuier and winter means are 22^ and 62° respectively ; while the difference between these means at Quebec is 54'^ Fahrenheit. The average of the whole year is 43°, and this is remarkably constant through- out the province, varying from it less than V, both at Pictou and Halifax. The coldest month of tho year is February, and the lateness of the spring is the chief drawback to farming operations. The increase of cold, with tho considerable lengthening of the days, and conse- tuent increment of solar heat, is amply accounted for by the passage southward of the ice of the St. Lawrence, and to some extent of tho icebergs from Davis' Straits, whicli the increased heat sets free. During this time also N. and N.W. winds prevail, and, extending sometimes into t!io month of May, tend very much to keep down the temperature. They are succeeded by winds from the S. and S.W., which are warm and moist, rolling uj) dark masses of cloud from the ocean, and enveloping the eastern coast with fog. This, however, does not pene- trate far inland. When in earlier spring this moist air comes suddenly in upon the chilled land, its contents are frozen upon everything, and the trees and shrubs glitter with the frost like elegant candelabra, producing the phenomenon called the " Silver Dew." HainfalL — When once the summer season commences, the course of vegetation is singularly raj)id. The autumn is as enjoyable as elsewhere in North America, and the Indian summer nearly as well defined. In winter, snow falls, equivalent to 6*5 inches of rain ; but the sweeping G * t|' ^1 0, •**^- IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) h A «t 2 <^ /i 7. w '/ Phote^phic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. HS80 (716)872-4503 ^. Cv ■,'N ' • f 1 "n l<}\ 1^' n\ Uh', 82; NOVA SCOTIA. winds imiinpeded by high hills, and tho frequent alterna- tions of mild weather, prevent its accumulating to any- great depth. The harbours of the northern coast are frozen up for three months, but those on the eastern side are always open. The total rainfall is 41 inches, which is comparatively small, and probably due also to the absence of mountains. The character of the climate may be illustrated by the circumstance that English fruits and vegetables grow luxuriantly. Apples, 17 inches in (n'rcumference, are sometimes seen, and the finer sorts of pears ripen well in the open air. Peaches and grapes always succeed under glass. Indeed, the black Hamburg and other grapes produce excellent fruit against a stone wall at Windsor, year after year, with only careful covering during the winter.* Both popular observation and medical statistics bear testimony to the salubrity of the province. The moso usual disorders are colds and their accompaniments, due to the variable weather in winter and spring. The much- dreaded intermittent fever is not indigenous to the colony, and patients suffering from it are benefited and ulti- mately cured by the mere removal hither from the neigh- bouring parts of the mainland. It is also asserted, that the average length of life is greater in Nova Scotia than in the same latitudes elsewhere. f Population. — The population of this province, though still small, is advancing at a rate quite equal to that of the adjacent provinces. In 1861, the number of its inha- bitants was 330,800, having increased 115 per cent, in the previous 33 years. Halifax contains 25,000 people, and is the only Targe town in the colony. The majority of the inhabitants are of British descent : Irishmen are most nmnerous about Halifax; Scotch in the northern parts and in Cape Breton Island. The remnants of the French settlers linger near Annapolis and Louisburg ; and the descendants of the disloyal Acadians, expelled in 1755, who afterwards returned, are found in Clare on tho * Knight's • Nova Scotia,' 1862. t Hamilton. KOVA SCOTIA. 83 ;erna- ) any jt are I side which o the t)y the grow e, are rell in under grapes indsor, Qg the s bear 3 moso is, due rauch- Bolony, ulti- neigh- d, that la than south-west coast and in some adjacent townships. Many German families, invited by proclamation, arrived in 1753, and formed a colony at Lunenburg, which is still essen- tially Dutch. A few Indians remain, dependent upon charity and a state allowance ; and there are some 5000 negroes, whose forefathers were originally slaves, derived from the West Indies and the United States. Industry. — The small population, the want of super- fluous capital, the absence of all attempts to make Nova Scotia attractive to emigrants in recent times, and to some extent the lack of energy in the inhabitants, are causes all of which tend to retard the development of the great natural resources of this colony. These have af- fected its agriculture and even its timber trade, as well as the produce of its fisheries and mines. Agriculture. — The capabilities of the soil and climate for agricultural operations have no doubt been much underrated. The average return of wheat per acre is 30 bushels ; of barley, oats, and rye, 40 ; and of buckwheat 45. Three hundred bushels of potatoes, and double that quantity of turnips, are the average returns per acre of these crops. And yet very little of the science of farming is brought to bear upon increasing, or even maintaining, the productive powers of the land. Rotation of crops, and the restoration artificially of the elements taken out of the soil, are matters seldom thought of. New land is valued according to the number of times that it will bear cropping without dressing, and when it is worn out, more land is taken in. The farmers are often half lumber- men, or half fishermen, and give no more attention to the land than is absolutely necessary to raise their rye, buck- wheat, or pumpkins. When it is known that this plan has been in operation ever since the first settlement of the province, the conclusion is, we think, gi'eatly in favour of the soil which can bear such treatment without becoming absolutely sterile. Wherever a greater density of population, more energy and capital, or some other powerful cause exists, we find the condition of agriculture highly prosperous. The county of Pictou, with those parts of the adjoining coun- 84 NOVA SCOTIA. *ii ties which border on the Cobequid Mountains, present the greatest area of " improved lands." These, together with the parts adjacent to the Gut of Canso, are the chief producers of wheat and oats. The former of these grains is not extensively grown ; but oats are a very favourite crop, the annual return for the colony averaging 2,000,000 bushels. The warm light land of the valley of Anna- polis is admirably adapted for vegetables and fruit trees. Here, especially, potatoes grow to perfection, and are exported to the United States in large quantities. Indian corn, also, is most largely produced in this and the ad- joining county. The fertile tracts of Horton and Grand Pre,* to the west of Windsor, also evidence the plentiful results of good farming ; although even here the English eye misses the neatness and economy of space which characterise' well-tilled districts at home. Buckwheat is grown in considerable abundance throughout the colony. Its meal is excellent, much whiter than common, and is used for pancakes and other similar forms of bread. The dairy husbandry of Nova Scotia is further advanced than is its arable. The rich intervales of the Bay of Fundy, and the south coast, afford iu exhaustible supplies of fodder. The fine uplands, interior to the north shore, are covered with sheep runs, while cattle are kept in large numbers in the lower tracts. This is also the case with Inverness and Richmond counties in Ca);o ^veton Island, which are altogether amongst the mosi. t 'shing agri- cultiu:al districts in the province. From the above, it will be seen that much of the general backward state of agriculture is to bo attributed to the little progress as yet made in the granitic division adjoining the Atlantic ocean. This has arieen in part from the uncongenial soil, but partly also from much better land being elsewhere abundant, in comparison with the number either of purchasers or cultivators. For many years past €rown land has been sold at the upset price of Is. ^d. per acre ; and the rate ranges from this to 201. an acre for reclaimed intervale. * The scene of Longfellow's ' Evangeline.' present ogether 18 chief 3 grains ivourite 000,000 [ Anna- it trees, etnd are Indian the ad- d Grand plentiful English e which :wheat is J colony, a, and is d. dvanced Bay of supplies ;h shore, in large ,se with Island, |ng agri- general Ithe little [djoining from the Iter land number at the tes from NOVA SCOTIA. 85 Flax. — Before leaving this part of the subject, attention should be drawn to the peculiar fitness of this country for the production of flax and hemp. Both these valuable plants have been found to succeed admirably, but they are Roarcely at all cultivated. The preparation, and even the working up of these fibres, is exactly suited to the scattered state of the population, which would be an obstacle to the commencement of many other manufac- tures. Dew-rotted flax, linen thread, and cloth, have beer exhibited in England, and sufficiently prove the feasibility of introducing this branch of industry.* Porests. — The forests are composed of the same trees as those of New Brunswick and Canada, of which descrip- tions have been already given. The white cedar, how- ever, appears to be less abundant in Nova Scotia, and the most common of the conifersB is the hackmatac, here called juniper. Hard-wood trees are chiefly found in connection with the deep and good soils of the Cobequid Mountains, and the trap districts bounding the Annapolis Kiver. The more exposed and lesr fertile eastern region produces exclusively the several varieties of soft-wood trees, which also cover the upper and central parts of the Cobequid Mountains. From these sources the different sorts of wood may be readily followed to their respective ports of shipment. Liverpool takes the lead in this export trade, the extensive pine forests of Queen's County furnishing the materials, while Lake Rossignol and other waters offer ready means of carrying the timber down to the nume- rous saw-mills to be cut into the " pine-boards " of commerce. Halifax, also, has a considerable export trade, especially in cask staves and other small kinds. Spruce deals form the staple of the port of Pugwash, and hewn timber of that of Pictou. Hard woods are not largely * A gentleman of Halifax has discovered that Bokhara clover (Melilotus Leucantha major) yields a fibre which is a good sub- stitute for cotton, hemp, &c. It grows with great luxuriance, giving crops for several years together, if manured with gypsum. It may be left on the ground all the winter ; the fibre is easily prepared, and furnishes also an admirable pajDcr material. — 'Official Catalogue, International Exhibition,' 1862. 86 NOVA SCOTIA. .liii^ '5 i Im^ exported, though abundant in the counties bordering the Bay of Fundy. The beautiful " bird's-eye maple " is the chief of these, being, like the curled and white varieties, much prized by the cabinet-maker ; the native workman, nevertheless, reserves his best efforts for display upon the imported wood of the black walnut. The total exports of wood are worth about 200,000Z. per annum, being the largest item after the produce of the fisheries. Considering the small extent of improved land, that is, about one million acres, or one-fifth of the total quantity granted to buyers, and that the greater part of the remainder is more or less forested, the lumbering trade does not appear very flourishing. The proportion of large trees also is less than in the adjoining provinces, and they are almost all gone in some districts. The chief sites bf the timber-cutting operations lie in the extreme north and south parts of the colony, out of the route pursued by the casual traveller, who, however, obtains a glimpse of a lumbering country on the road between Windsor and Truro. His eye is caught by great trees, their bark girdled, standing up, blanched and dead, awaiting the saw; or he passes huge piles of timber ready for carrying away during the winter frosts, covered meanwhile with creepers and wild flowers of the gayest colours, about which resplendent humming-birds are flashing like motes of coloured light ; or, more commonly still, he remarks the wanton destruction of the forests by fires, and even such curious questions as " why oak trees and beeches should then replace pines and swamp ashes," cannot prevent the reflection that already some parts of once well-supplied Canada are in want of wood, nor the lament that such loss should be wilfully caused or left unchecked. It would be a profitable use of the wood thus wasted to turn it into charcoal, or even into potashes, which are valuable as articles of commerce, and are at present not exported from this colony. Furs. — The forests and rugged parts of the country harbour many animals whose skins are valuable. The largest are the Moose and Cariboo deer and the black bear, all of which are now fast disappearing. But foxes ing the is the krieties, rkman, y upon )0,000Z. iuce of iproved I of the fcer part nbering ►portion 3vinces, 3. The in the out of lowever, he road jy great id dead, timber covered gayest rds are imonly ests by ,k trees ashes," arts of [nor the or left e wood itashes, are at jountry The black it foxes NOVA SCOTIA. 87 are numerous, — silver, red, grey, and black, and with the otter, mink, and beaver, are much hunted for their furs. The skins of the silver fox have sold for 40/. each ! so highly prized ai'e their peculiar lustre and beauty. Mink furs also fetch large prices. The skin of the little animal called musquash, stripped of its hair and dyed, is sold ;to counterfeit that of the fur-seal, the resemblance being very gi'cat. And enormous numbers of rabbits (Lepua Americanus) are taken by the poorer outlying settlers, who eat the flesh. As many as 60,000 rabbit skins have been exported in a year by a single dealer.* The sportsman, besides these and other wild animals, finds abundant amusement in the pursuit of grouse and partridge, and the large numbers of water birds, snipe and wild duck, goose and teal, which frequent the neigh- bourhood of the numerous lakes and streams. Important as lumbering and agriculture are- -and the latter is yearly becoming of more consequence — yet upon neither of these industries does the peculiar character of this colony's resources rest. Its forests do not bear comparison with those of New Brunswick and Canada, either in point of extent or of abundance of large timber trees. As a wheat-growing country it can never compete with the vast regions lying around the great lakes. Whatever may be the progress made by Nova Scotia in these occupations, it may be always outdone by her neigh- bours on account of their vastly larger sources of supply. On the other hand, this province possesses such im- mense stores of material wealth in her fisheries, and, above all, in her minerals, that a due appreciation and working of these cannot fail, as it seems, to place her in that foremost rank among commercial states which her geographical position suggests. Fisheries. — Along the whole of the coast line of nearly 1000 miles the sea teems with fish in almost incredible numbers, and the numerous streams and lakes not less so. The "bay" fisheries are the same as those described when speaking of New Brunswick. The shad and gas- >i< « OflBlcial Catalogue, International Exhibition,' 1862. 1< 1 1! ■ i ■Si! ^Hi \ Hjj 1 1 ii - ill if ' 88 NOVA SCOTIA. pereau nro fished especially in Mines Basin, and the haddock, hake, and pollock in the deeper parts of the bay. The latter, when split and dried, are classed together as "scale fish" in the statistical retui-ns, while shad are entitled "herrings." Smelts swarm up the rivers in myriads, and are taken in early spring by lading them off the mud-banks with scoop-nets. They are of delicious flavour ; but such is their abundance, that they are often thrown on the land as manure. The principal fisheries are, however, those of the eastern coast. Here the cod is obtained all the year round, often weighing 90 lbs. The halibut is an excellent fish, though sometimes 500 lbs. in weight. Salmon are caught abundantly in the streams, and also on the coast before they enter them. And the tunny, or albicore, which is so inuch fished in the Mediterranean Sea, is here three times the size of the European variety. The most exciting fishery is that of the mackerel. Swarming along the coast, these fish crowd into every inlet, their greatest armies passing up the Gut of Canso into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Their numbers are so enormous that a " schule " will extend over several square miles, smoothing the surface of the sea by its dense masses, and even impeding the passage of small vessels.* One seine will take 3000 barrels in a night. In November, 1855, at a single haul, 800 barrels were drawn on shore in Halifax city from the north-west arm; and 20,000 barrels were caught in the harbour during that autumn. A barrel weighs 200 lbs., and when salted, sells for about twenty shillings, — figures which attest at once the numbers of the fish, and the value of the fishery. And yet, the bulk of the mackerel taken are caught further north, in Cheda- bucto Bay. Several species of shark occur, of which only one is abundant. This is a small kind called the dog-fish (Spinax acanihias), which attains a weight of 16 lbs. It is taken for its valuable oil ; the residue being used for fattening pigs, and for manure. Some seal- oil is made * Hamilton, !!« NOVA SCOTIA. 89 id the le bay. ;her as ad are rers in lem off slicious e often of the le year :cellent Lon are e coast Ibicore, is here le most g along greatest Qulf of that a oothing id even ine will )5, at a Halifax s were barrel twenty bers of le bulk Cheda- for exportation, but only in small quantities. In 1861 iish-oil, to the extent of 2,300,000 gallons, was exported, nearly all of it being obtained from this little shark. There is probably no market so well and so plentifully supplied with fish as that of Halifax. Salmon is four- pence a pound ; delicately flavoured whiting are bought at one penny each ; trout, up to four pounds each, at eightpence per dozen ; and smelt at twopence. A customer generally receives a lobster gratis to make the sauce with. One penny is the usual price, but sometimes a shilling for a wheelbarrow full;* and it is estimated that all together, for export and for home use, a million dozen lobsters are sold every year at Halifax. Lobster- catching is a common amuseiuent in the harbour : the only apparatus required is a slight stick, ten feet long, split at one end, and tied to prevent the opening becoming too wide. The sportsmen take a light boat, or a canoe if procurable, and paddle into any of the hundred creeks of the basin, where the lobsters may be seen crawling on the bottom. The forked end is then slipped over the animal's waist, and he is lifted by it into the boat. In a few hours the craft may be filled. We have measured the claw of one monster, and found it 15 inches long. These crustaceans are sometimes thrown on the northern >iV.ore by gales in sufficient abundance to be used as manare. Oysters are similarly plentiful. The whole coast is an oyster bed, which might be turned to immense profit. Those of Tatamagouche, near Pictou, are esteemed the best flavoured.! The Reciprocity Treaty has produced its effects upon the fisheries of this colony as upon those of its neighbours. The most grievous complaint is that made of the practice one IS iog-fish bs. It sed for made * * Official Catalogue, International Exhibition,' 1862. t Among the edible moUusca of Halifax are two oysters, three scallops, P. Islandicus being very abundant; many clams, all Veneridse, Cyprina Idandica wearing the title of the Black Quahog. A large Modiola also, and two Fusi, Islandicus being one ; and Solen ensis. What would a British conchologist say to a supper of P. Islandici ! Near Annapolis, pearls are found somewhat largely in Unio Margaritiferm : our pearl mussel. 90 NOVA SCOTIA. 1,5 1' i^^Rv^ i i I^B' i i j ^ ': 1 , ■1 1 i '^ of " trawl " lino fishing, both on tho banks and in-shoro. Largo hooks, three feet apart, are laid near tho bottom, where they take larger fish it is true, but also, those which are depositing their spawn ; and it is alleged that tho fisheries will bo ruined if tho eflforts now making by tho Colonial Government to prohibit this practice are un- successful. Another result should be to arouse tho colonists to greater care and energy, if they would not have their own profits monopolised by the Americans. There was room for improvement, perhaps there is so still. A great trade existed in cured herrings with the Slave States of the Union. In 1854 the Nova Scotia fishing masters complained to the English consul in Virginia that their fish were undervalued in the States markets. He went mthout delay to Richmond, but, on opening the barrels so rated, their contents speedily made known the condition they must have been in before the curing process com- menced, or possibly the inefficiency of the process itself. He subsequently reported that he had not found his suggestions concerning greater care had been very well received.* The present value of the fisheries' produce exported is upwards of 600,000Z. ; and by the census of 1861, 14,300 men were directly engaged in this branch of industry. Minerals.— Coal. — The mineral resources of the province remain to be briefly considered. Of these we give the first place to the extensive deposits of coal. As in the case of the trap rocks, the coal formation of Nova Scotia is also continuous with that of New Brunswick. Here, however, there has hitherto been discovered the largest quantity of available coal. It is chiefly worked in three districts, each having its peculiarities. On the Cumberland Basin the South Joggins mines are distinguished by numerous small seams, the biggest of which is three feet six inches * Reports from Foreign Countries. — Blue Book for 1854. An official brand is the true remedy for tliis carelessness. With this guarantee, the Scotch herrings are beating the Norwegian fish out of the continental markets : the brand having been lately discon- tinued in Norway. — ' Official Report on British Fish,' 1858. !N NOVA SCOTIA. 91 in-slioro. bottom, BO which that the ig by the are un- onists to ,ve their here was A great States of masters hat their He went e barrels condition ess com- ss itself, pund his rery well produce ensus of branch province the first e case of is also lowever, antity of districts, id Basin umerous X inches 854. An With this fish out ly discon- in thickness. Its coal, yielding 3G per cent, of volatile combustible matter, is esteemed for its illuminating properties. The largest coal-field is that of Pictou, where the beds are few in number, but of extraordinary depth, the two main seams being 22J and 37J feet thick. The supply is practically inexhaustible. The Albion mines are the most important works, whence large quanti- ties of coal are sent to the United States for use as steam-coal, and for the production of gas. Oil-coal has also been recently discovered in this field at Fraser Mine. This mineral is wholly dissimilar in appearance from the jet-like Albertite of Now Brunswick. It has an earthy fracture, and is very light. Picked samples will yield 199 gallons of oil per ton, and the average is 70. The third coal-field is that of Sydney, in Cape Breton^sland, which covers 250 square miles, and is scarcely inferior in importance to the last named. Sydney coal is remark- able for the small quantity of ash (5*5 per cent.) which it contains : whence it is principally used for domestic pur- poses ; but the newly-opened pits at Lingan, to the east of Sydney, produce a coal almost equal to that from the Joggins as a gas-producer. . The total amount of coal raised in 1860 was 306,000 tons, of which the greater part was sent to the States. It is impossible to over-estimate the value of these extensive coal-fields in regarding the future of Nova Scotia. The surrounding countries are either totally or comparatively deficient in this essential article. They have all enlfered upon a race of progress ; and in proportion as they advance, so will the demand for coal increase. Locomo- tives, steam-vessels, mills, manufactures, light, all require continually enlarging supplies of fuel ; and this colony is by position the natural supplier of the demand. Already Sydney feels her growing consequence to the traffic of the St. Lawrence in the number of steam-vessels which stop at that port to coal. Iron. — Iron-ore of rich quality is extensively found in the wej^tern part of the province, but has not yet been worked to any great extent. The largest returns are obtained from mines in Londonderry, on a feeder of 92 NOVA SCOTIA. I l^i firf ' 1 1 1 ^^^^HBii .i; Coboquid Bay. Hero arc rich beds of magnetic ore and bromatito, yielding iron of the first class for the manufac- ture of steel ; and highly appreciated by the Americans for making largo ordnance. This deposit is to bo traced for more than 20 miles in the cliffs on the north of Mines Basin, and being in close connection with abundant supplies of wood and coal for fuel, and limestone as a flux, it must eventually become largely productive of iron. Both specular iron and haematite are also found on the Nictau and other streams of the Annapolis Valley, where works are carried on to some extent. Digby, in the southern part of this valley, possesses rich ores of copper, which are also known to exist in Capo Breton Island, and in the mining country south of Pictou Harbour. Lead, man- ganese„and plumbago are found on the shores of Cumber- land Basin, and the latter somewhat largely at Parsboro'. Stone. — Very beautiful marbles are quarried at Five Islands, near the port just named. Limestone and gypsum occur abundantly, and are largely used for lime and manure, and the latter for plaster of Paris, and ornamental purposes. In 1860, 105,000 tons were exported from the eastern shores of the Bay of Fundy. It is seen in fine cliffs, especially on the Shubenacadie Eiver, where Sir C. Lyell found a mass 900 feet thick, which he traced for 12 miles across the country.* All the northern ports supply excellent freestones for building purposes, and the granites of the east are equally valuable, the quarries ncai« Halifax being those best known. Grindstores are a considerable article of export to the States; Minudie, near the South Joggins, has a specialty for them, and the rise of the tides allows them to be loaded at the quarry's mouth. Both the jeweller and the mineralogist will find much to reward attention to the products of Nova Scotia ; and the frequent landslips, especially on the coast of the Bay of Fundy, annually reveal fresh crops of valuable gems and beautiful specimens of rare minerals. * The same writer mentions the occurrence of fossil wood, with the marks of beavers' teeth upon it, but which the finders insisted were evidence of man's handiwork. NOVA SCOTIA. M. ore and nanufac- naoricans 30 traced )f Mines ibundaut one as a ) of iron, d on the y, whore r, in the f copper, id, and in )ad, man- Cumber- arsboro'. at Five i gypsum Lime and ■namental from the in fine re Sir C. •aced for rn ports and the quarries as are a IVIinudie, and the quarry's nd much tia; and the Bay )le gems oed, with ■rs insisted Oold. — Wo have purposely deferred to a soparato section all reference to the recent discoveries of gold. The geological character of the granitic region early led Mr. Dawson, its first explorer, to predict the probability of finding gold. But it was not till March, 18G1, that au accident fulfilled this expectation, when a man, stooping to drink at a brook, saw some shining particles among tho pebbles. This was near what is now Tangier, about 40 miles east of Halifax, and in the chief gold-bearing district in the colony. A few months later the Ovens diggings, near Lunenburg, were discovered. At first the quartz veins high in the cliffs were worked ; but the sands below, caught in the fissures of highly-inclined slate-rocks, soon drew attention by their richness and ease of working. And widely, indeed, the demure Dutch maidens opened their eyes when they found that the sand they had so plentifully bestrewn on their floors from time immemorial was nothing less than gold-dust worth 400 dollars a bag. A third locality, richly auriferous, was opened at Sherbrooke on St. Mary's River, near Country Harbour. But gold is known to exist at numerous places scattered over the granitic metamorphic division, and also in Capo Breton Island. Except at the sand-diggings of the Ovens it is usually sought in the quartz veins which penetrate the slates. The quartz is dug out and crushed by mills erected for that purpose, and the metal is afterwards separated by amalgamation with quicksilver. No very large nuggets have as yet been discovered, although tliid washings frequently yield well. Some Tangier quartz was ascertained to contain gold at the rate of 40Z. worth to the ton, and a sample from Lunenburg, analysed in London, yielded 61 ounces per ton. This discovery cannot fail to attract emigrants to the colony, but it may be doubted whether gold mining will produce the rush of mere hand labourers which the diggings of our Australian colonies so frequently excite. Trade. — The commercial prospects of Nova Scotia must not be wholly j)assed over without remark. For the last ten years there appears but little increase in the values of the exports and imports. These were, in 1861, 1,150,000/* 91 KOVA SCOTIA. u N » ■ (a 'I ' I and 1,550,000Z. respectively, to whicli should bo added about 60,000/. for ships sold to Great Britain and the neighbouring colonies. The chief items of this trade have been already noticed, with one exception, viz., the important traffic with the West Indian Islands. These now form the principal market for fish, which is exchanged for their sugar and other produce. It is in fostering this intercolonial trade that the commercial progress of Nova Scotia most certainly lies. By her geographical position, and by her splendid harbours, she is eminently calculated to command the carriage of the St. Lawrence valley. The vast populations to the west of her are demanding yearly more of the produce of the West Indies and of Europe. And Halifax, only 2,350 miles from Plymouth, ought to be the great emporium of the countries in its rear. pPo fit it to become so the present railway to Truro must be united to the Grand Trunk Line of Canada. Already the telegraphic communication with America passes through the colony, commencing at Aspy Bay, in Cape Breton Island. The canals joining Halifax Harbour to the Shubenacadie, and opening the Bras d'Or on the south, will greatly increase the means of com- munication in the province. The mercantile marine, its writers boast, is scarcely less than that of England at the end of William the Third's reign ; and they offer to supply the inland navigation of this country with new vessels at less cost than the old vessels now bought up for this tjp.de. With such advantages of position, and with such valuable articles to sell as the colony possesses, the com- merce of Nova Scotia may be safely affirmed to be capable of almost indefinite extension. f li S iM,.i i ) added and the s trade iz., the These changed ing this of Nova >osition, Iculated valley, aanding and of jrmouth, iries in Iway to Liine of m with at Aspy Halifax as d'Or 3f com- •ine, its i at the supply ssels at 'or thia h such e corn- capable 95 CHAPTER IV.— PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLAND.* Physical Geogfraphy : Coasts, Interior. Productions : Vegetation ; Fisheries ; Agriculture, Climate ; Manufactures and Commerce ; Condition of the People ; Absenteeism. Prince Edward's Island. Prince Edward's Island is a small colony, consisting only of the island so named, situated in the southern part of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is separated from the northern shores of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia by Northiunberland Strait, which, north of Bay Verte, is only nine miles wide. With an area of 2133 square miles, its greatest length is 130 miles. Its breadth varies considerably, being 34 miles towards the east, while in two places deeply-cut arms of the sea reduce the width of the intervening land to a few miles. Physical Geography. — This island must be regarded as a detached portion of the neighbouring mainland, to which it bears a close resemblance. Its northern coast is an irregularly-curved line, concentric with that of the gulf, so that if it were prolonged in both directions to the end of Cape Breton Island and the heads of the Bay Chaleur, the seaboard of the gulf would be somewhat more circumscribed than at present, but scarcely altered in shape. The shore on the south side of the island is very irregular, having a general north-west and south-east .i%- direction. The sections displayed in the opposite coasts of the Northumberland Strait indicate a great similarity * • Prince Edward's Island in 1818,' by a Resident ; • Geography of,' by Rev. G. Sutherland ; ♦ Remarks on Census of 1861,' by the Collectors ; Parliamentary Papers ; Private Information. i '1 96 PRINCE EDWARD S ISLAND. I . . l\ LSI ; i!: > ;i between their geological formatious ; insomucli that the undulating surface of Prince Edward's Island appears to be entirely a continuation of the lower eastern division of New Brunswick, and of the flatter parts of Cumberland and Pictou, in Nova Scotia. Sandstones of various colours and degrees of hardness constitute the greater part of the island, interspersed, however, with thin layers of limestone and clay. Occasionally, the latter are sufficiently bulky to be of economic value, as the beds of grey limestone on Governor's Island, in Hillsborough Bay, and those of clay fit for pottery and bricks, which are found in most of the townships; but the prevalent rock is sandstone reddened by iron, although neither this metal nor any other has hitherto been discovered, except in such small quantities as to be practically useless. The country is so intersected by arms of the sea that there is scarcely any part of it more than six miles from the tide-mark. These inlets often take the form of rivers (being favoured by the general lowness of the land), and sometimes nearly extend from shore to shore. Thus Hillsborough River is a north-east prolongation of the bay so named, whose head-waters approach within two miles of those of Savage Harbour on the northern coast. So, too, further to the west, Richmond Bay on the north, and that of Bedeque on the south, leave a narrow isthmus between them only three miles wide, and a like distance divides Egmont Bay from that of Richmond. The island is in this manner divided into three unequal sections ; and the easy access consequently obtained to some point where water-carriage commences is one of its chief natural advantages. The western coast is remarkably unbroken: its cliffs are probably formed of like materials throughout, and are therefore worn away equally. Neither is it so much exposed to the storms of the gulf, to which may be attributed the deep indentations of the northern coast. This agent, however, like all others in nature, supplies its own counterpoise in the long narrow sand-banks which stretch across the broad mouths of these openings, con- verting them into beautiful sheets of still water, locally hat the pears to ision of berland various greater a layers ;ter are he beds borough s, which )revalent ther this i, except )SS. sea that lies from form of B of the to shore, gation of ithin two rn coast, le north, isthmus distance . The unequal ained to •ne of its lits cliffs I, and are I so much may be |rn coast, supplies is which igs, con- locally PED "F[ Edward's island. ^7. called "ponds," !>• i at the same time impairing their efficiency as harbours for large vessels. The eastern coast presents a great contrast to the western, and displays a series of alternating headlands and deep narrow bays. Of these, Cardigan Bay with its several arms, which form Georgetown Harbour, is well adapted to become the principal port in the colony ; its capacity and depth of water, its good entrance, and its position on the track of vessels passing through the Gut of Canso — the highway to the gulf — are all in its favour. Both the northern horns of the rudely-shaped crescent which the island resembles, terminate in lofty cliffs, and the country behind them is elevated, though tolerably level. A fine line of precipices also bounds the extreme south-east, forming the edge of an upland promontory which ends in Bear Cape. Unfortunately the deep water off this coast is not continued into the mouth of Murray Harbour, otherwise a convenient port. In the interior, gentle swellings and undulating valleys everywhere vary the surface. The frequent remainders of the forest which formerly covered the island, and the uni- versal presence of water, with outlines of charming intri- cacy, contribute to form very pleasing scenery. The top of Tea Hill, near the capital, commands an extensive view of Charlotte Harbour — the Port la Joie of the first colo- nists — with the adjoining sea-coast; and to the north- west, overlooks the most broken and lofty parts of the colony. But even these nowhere rise beyond the dignity of hills, or possess those rugged features which impart to the western region of New Brunswick the aspect of an alpine country. Rounded ridges here traverse the island in a north-east direction, probably in agreement with the strike of the strata. They are best defined near the northern coast, but are highest and most wild near the centre, where parts of several townships are comi)osed of land of very poor quality. To the west, between Holland and Egmont Bays, is a low tract, some of which is a marsh. Marshes also occur at intervals all along the south coast, where they produce good crops of hay. But the same action of the sea which H 98 PRINCE EDWARD S ISLAND. If- 1;:^: mi 9 '' i has caused them has also thrown up banks of sand and mud, rendering the water near the shore of the harbours so shallow that long piers are requisite, even at Charlotte- town, for loading and unloading vessels. Vegetation. — The extensive forests have been greatly thinned by fire and the lumberer's axe, and now exist only in patches. One of the largest of these occupies the most western part of the island, beyond the marshes above mentioned. The trees are those of New Bruns- wick with scarcely an exception, although the supply of timber bears no comparison with what may be furnished by that colony. The export of wood shows, indeed, a marked and steady decline. In 1852 it was worth more than 25,000/. ; in 1860, not half as much. It should be stated, however, that ship-building has been more ener- getically carried on of late yeai's; so that this colony now furnishes a large portion of the boats and vessels used by Newfoundland in her fisheries. Birch timber is the best and largest exported, and, like that of the neigh- bouring colony, is chiefly sent to Great Britain. The few scores of Micmac Indians which still linger in the north-west make their canoes of the bark of the black birch, using withes of black spruce for sewing the pieces together, and stopping the fractures with its gum. As in the adjacent colonies, the maple supplies sugar from its sap, and a small bush of the myrtle tribe yields a wax- like substance, which coats its berries, and is employed as a material for candles. The medical plants sarsapa- rilla and ginseng are abundant in the swamps. The latter is believed to be the same as that which is so highly prized in China, that expeditions of troops are annually sent beyond the Great Wall to collect its roots. These are worth their weight in silver, and might, one would think, be profitably exported from Prince Edward's Island and the other North American colonies.* Moist places * The Americans export it to Canton. This root {Panax Ginseng, or qumquefolium ; Araliacex) is regarded with almost superstitious reverence by the Chinese ; and Dr. Lindley countenances the idea that it possesses aromatic and stimulating effects when fresh, of use in some nervous disorders. PRINCE EDWARDS ISLAND. $9 nd and irbours arlotte- greatly w exist ccupies narshes Bnins- pply of imislied deed, a ih more Lould be :e ener- colony I vessels Lmber is e neigb- inger in e black e pieces As in from its Is a wax- iployed sarsapa- |S. The |o highly .nnually These would Is Island ;t places Ginseng, ^ei'stitious the idea bh, of use also produce the so-called Labrador tea in abundance. It is a low evergreen shrub {Ledum paliistre), allied to the Rhododendi'ons, and frequent all over the colder parts of the continent. Its leaves are about one and a quarter inches long, and half an inch broad, curled under at the sides, glossy pale green above and hoary beneath, and possess slightly refreshing properties, which have led to their use as a substitute for tea. Many varieties of berries — the strawberry, currant, cranberry, &c., — are common in woods and waste places, and all sorts of introduced English fruits thrive in the gardens. Fisheries. — It has been observed that the produce of the forests is diminishing in quantity. It is satisfactory to notice that with respect to the fisheries the change is in the opposite direction. This is chiefly due to the -energy of American settlers. Their countrymen have largely engrossed the fisheries of the island, but capital is wanted by the inhabitants, and the settlement of such persons as are willing to employ it in developing the resources of the colony is by all means to be encouraged. Thus, the exports of fish, which in 1852 were valued at less than 9000Z., had increased nearly threefold by 1860. Two- thirds of the quantity sent is bought by the United States, plainly indicating the share of that country in enlarging the trade, and the rest is exported to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. The fisheries are mainly distributed along the northern coasts. The cod and hake occur abundantly during the greater part of the year. From July to November immense " schules " of mackerel enter the gulf. These are followed first by the herring, and then by the alewife, and as all the latter enter the har- bours and streams, the in-shore fishermen find abundance of profitable employment. Excellent trout inhabit the rivers, and smelt come up them in enormous numbers, and are caught with a scoop-net. Salmon are now con- fined to St. Peter's Bay and other north-eastern estuaries, where they are usually taken with a spear. So, too, are eels, and spearing them by torch-light, or through holes in the ice, is an exciting amusement. The spear-head is a most ingenious contrivance. It has two points about 100 PRINCE EDWARDS ISLAND. , 'il |i I, I!:: '. six inches apart, which gradually meet, but separate again ir imediately, so as to enclose an oblong space, in which the iron spike lies like the spindle in a weaver's shuttle ; the prongs being of elastic wood, admit the fish's back through their point of meeting, guiding it directly on to the end of the spike. With this instrument skilful fisher- men take eels when gliding along at the rate of 10 miles an hour. These fish are much sought after, particularly the sea variety. Agriculture. Climate. — The forests failing in their supplies, and the fisheries requiring capital, there remains a third great branch of industry in agriculture, and to this the colonists have always paid the most attention. Both the soil and climate are fitted for the occupation. The former is generally a light-red loam, always darker and better bn the highlands. In some parts it is nearly all sand, in others a stiff clay, but these are exceptional cases. In assessing the quit-rents a threefold division was adopted, which is still maintained. According to this, three-eighths of the land was of the first quality, rather more of the second, and the residue of the third. And although this partition had some reference to the timber upon the lots, yet trees when of fine growth usually indicate good ground ; and in fact it is ascer- tained that a large part of Prince Edward's Island is capable of producing abundant crops under the same amount of care and skill as is commonly bestowed upon an English farm. The climate possesses the general character of that of the adjacent colonies, with the ex- tremes moderated by the equability of the surrounding gulf. This is most evident in the reduction of the summer heat, which seldom rises above 90° Fahr. The thermometer occasionallv sinks in winter to —23°, and the result is to give a yearly mean of 40°, which is three degrees below that of Nova Scotia. The winter season lasts from the middle of December to the middle of April, but with the discontinuance of the prevailing north and north-west winds the snow disappears, the ice breaks up, and vegetation makes rapid progress. The end of April and May is the sowing-time ; haymaking is the work of PRINCE EDWARDS ISLAND. 101 3 again which luttle ; s back ■ on to fisher- [) miles cularly a thoir :emains and to tention. ipation. J darker \ nearly sptional division ding to quality, third, to the growth Is ascer- iland is ie same id upon general Ithe ex- )unding of the The 13°, and lis three season If April, Irth and [aks up, If April Iwork of July, and the harvest occurs in September ; potatoes and turnips are secured in the following month, Und then the beet-root, cabbage, or other winter-food for cattle. The Indian summer is not always experienced, though very delightful when it does happen, presaging, it is thought, a prevalence of severe cold. But even the greatest heats of July are delightfully modified by a few hours' north wind at intervals. The principal grain crop is oats, of which 2,219,000 bushels were raised in 1860. Barley and wheat were grown in smaller quantities, 346,000 bushels being the return for the latter. Buckwheat, though sown, is not a favourite crop, while potatoes seem to be so, nearly 3,000,000 bushels of 'them being obtained in 1860 ; and these and oats constitute the chief items of agricultural produce exported. The low summer temperature has, pos- sibly, some effect in causing the small return of Indian com, but neither climate nor soil is a sufficient obstacle to the growth of wheat in much larger quantities than at present. The obnoxious fogs of the southern colonies are rarely felt here, and the land, with proper dressing, bears good crops. The neighbourhood of the shore in the central county, and the extreme north-west of the island, produce the greatest relative quantity of this grain. This is partly due to the readiness with which the fertilizing " mussel-mud " can be obtained in those situations, and in part also is to be explained by their vicinity to a market. But the indigence of the cultivators is the cause bearing most directly upon the nature of their farming operations. Poor Highland families from the north of Scotland, and equally poor and unskilful Irish, still compose a large majority of the inhabitants not born in the colony, as they did also of the original settlers. Some, even in 1861, we read, had not seed for their little clearings, others were eking out a subsistence from such vegetables as they could till with a hoe alone.* Such people cannot be expected to cultivate farms ; and * See Remarks of Census Collectors. These are to be received with caution, as they usually end with a request for a new road, wharf, or some other improvement at the expense of the Treasury. 102 PRINCE EDWARDS ISLAND. lif m: *■'■'! where they are in better circumstances, it would seem that some inherited predilection for particular crops is shown by the returns, rather than that the capabilities of the country are limited to the growth of oats and potatoes. Of horned cattle and sheep the colonists possess a fair proportion, though still a much smaller number than might bo profitably kept. At a hasty glance, the whole island looks as if .t had been intended for a vast dairy farm,* and there can be no doubt about the fitness of large portions of it for such a purpose. But the winter-food of animals requires more skill and capital in its collection than is often possessed by the inhabitants; hence, the stock are mostly killed in autumn, or exported to New- foundland and other markets, some reaching Bermuda. With ali its drawbacks it is pleasing to record that agriculture is progressing in the colony; and that an Agricultural Society, of which the late Prince Consort was the President, has greatly contributed to this result. The total exports of farm-produce in 1860 were worth 119,000/., having more than doubled in eight years. Manufactures. — The manufactures of the colony seem also tinged with the home traditions of the people. Flax has been cultivated to a small extent, but with a most favourable result. We have some before us which, we are assured, bears comparison with the best Irish flax. As yet the manufacture of linen can hardly be said to be commenced ; but the production of flax for exportation might readily become an important occupation. The most characteristic manufacture is that of a stout woollen cloth, appropriately named " Home-spun," which is much in request by persons whose business entails exposui'e to severe weather. Other articles of warm clothing are made of wool and fur in considerable abundance. Much leather is also manufactured, and the people supply themselves with boots and all kinds of saddlery. Maple sugar and bay-wax candles have been mentioned before ; iiud among the minor industries may be classed the * Wood's ' Prince of Wales in North America.' PRINCE EDWARD S ISLAND. 103 i seem pops is bilities bts and s a fair sr than I whole ;t dairy af large ;cr-food Uection ice, the New- uda. ird that that an Consort } result. 3 worth s. ly seem Flax a most ich, we sh flax, id to be ortation The woollen much Dsure to ing are Much supply Maple before ; jed the preparation of goose-down, and of the hair of the black fox, from which the best gilders' pencils are made. An indigenous grass is used for plaited articles, which pro- duces the effect of Tuscany straw ; and very pretty wares are made by the Indian women with split maple wood, dyed of various colours, and adorned with quills and bead-work. The commerce of the island shows an advance corre- sponding to that of its supporting industries. In 1860 the imports amounted to 230,000?. in value, and the ex- ports to 201,000/., to which must be added the significant item of " new ships," worth about G0,000Z. more. From Great Britain are imported piece-goods and hardware, including iron. Spirituous liquors, sugar, and molasses are largely purchased from Nova Scotia, being the pro- duce of the West Indies. Our manufactures and tea are also similarly re-exported, and wooden articles of do- mestic use are brought from New Brunswick. In return, Prince Edward's Island sends us wood and bread-stuffs, and the same articles, with the addition of fish, to the United States. By far the largest trade is carried on with the latter country; and of all our colonies, this island has benefited most by the Reciprocity Treaty. The principal port is that of Charlottetown, the capital. It is a fine basin formed by the union of three salt-water arms, — the Hillsborough, York, and Eliot rivers, — while its cruciform outline is completed by the entrance, in which are 1 1 fathoms of water at low tide. George Town and Bedeque are also chief ports, after which are New London on Grenville Bay, and Crapaud on Holland Bay, both on the northern coast. There are numerous small harbours and coves, but all suffer in common from being closed by ice during the winter months. The mail is then brought from Nova Scotia by an ice-boat mounted on iron runners ; but such are the dangers and delays, that sometimes days elapse without the strait being crossed. Population, &c. — By the census of 1861, the population numbered very nearly 90,000 persons, 300 of whom were Indians. The latter inhabit Lennox Island, and a few other small reserves of land. When " the Island " became 104 PRINCE EDWARD S ISLAND. :?:if h ■«i I definitively ours in 1763, it was as a part of Nova Scotia, and bore the name of St. John. Six years later it was made a separate colony, and in 1800 received its present title, after Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, who had shortly before visited Halifax, and had taken some interest in the new province. In 1764, the island had been divided into townships, or lots, of about 20,000 acres each, which were given by ballot to certain persons who deserved well of Great Britain, either as sufferers in the late war, or for actions of bravery. Of the latter class were the 78th Highlanders, whose officers obtained no less than four of these lots. A small quit-rent was to be paid, and a settlement effected at the rate of one person for every hundred acres. Hence arose all the evils of absenteeism, under which the colony still groans. The settlers, being mostly tenantry of the grantees, had little wealth, and often less knowledge of farming, and made slow progress ; while the money which was paid as rent was taken away, instead of being spent in developing the resources of the country. Another retarding cause has doubtless been the extreme anxiety manifested to own land, with very slender means of cultivating it. Political quarrels, also, arising out of the fact that responsible government, and all but uni- versal suffrage, are the only apparent remedies for absen- teeism, have too often drawn away the attention of the colonists from more profitable employments. Against this is to be set the industrious habits which commonly prevail among the islanders ; and also the very laudable desire evinced for education, in which again we see the influence of the Scotch element in the population.* Indeed, one-third of the whole revenue is spent in pro- viding schools and teachers, insomuch that there are almost more seminaries than roads to them. But this anomaly will soon right itself if the colony continues its present rate of progress. Its government is gradually buying up the claims * It is the only colony, as far as we know, except New South Wales and the Cape of Good Hope, which has published a " Geogra- phy " of itself for use in its ordinary schools. a Scotia, 3r it was present I shortly st in the ded into ich were well of p, or for ihe 78th I four of , and a )r every Qteeism, 's, being Ith, and regress ; n away, s of the PRiNC' Edward's island. ]05 derived from the original grantees. Other debatable land questions have been settled; and it is to be hoped that no new complication of political affairs will eheck the advance which the island has now entered upon and to which Its natural fertility, salubrious climat^and exton sive fisheries should all be made to contrihite extreme c means I out of ut uni- r absen- . of the s which he very gain we lation.* in pro- Bre are (ut this lues its claims N- South Geogra- » • lOG If CIIArXER v.— NEWFOUNDLAND.* Position. Size. Coast Scenery : St. John, South Coast, West Const, North-oast Coast, Interior ;— The Labrador;— Industry, Aj^ri- culture, Ciiinuto; thu FiaUtrius, tho liauka, Uitttory of; Truck', Newfoundland, Newfoijndland is a largo island enclosing tho Gulf of St. Lawrence on its eastern side ; separated from tho mainland on tho north-west by the Strait of Belle Isle, 60 miles long and 12 wide ; but leaving a much broader opening on the south-west, where Cape Eay is fully 70 miles distant from Cape North, in Capo Breton Island. It contains an area of 35,850 square miles,f and extends from the 47th to the 62nd parallels of N. latitude (which is that of the northern part of France), and includes within its shores the meridians 63° and 69° west. It is projected eastward beyond any other part of North America by its whole breadth of 300 miles, so that Trinity Harbour is only 1834 miles from Valencia Bay in the south-west of Ireland ; and these places were therefore chosen as the termini of the Atlantic Telograph cable. Rudely triangular in shape, it resembles Cape Breton Island in throwing out a narrow peninsula far to the north, part of which approaches Labrador, and forms with it the fine cliff scenery of Belle Isle Strait. Towards the south-east is the still more remarkable peninsida of Avalon, united to the main body of the island by a low, narrow neck between Trinity and Placentia Bays. * Official Ketiirns. ' Journal of Bishop of Newfoundland,' 1850 ; Eev. AV. Gray's ' Sketches of Newfoundland and Labrador,' &c. t Official Ketiu-n. N«^fouuilliui(l Stunl'i^rdi Cftaii'i'n.ib> siOtrdiii ■ hu^b^'htj hy ffle Sw^ tin- firjmntiruf Chi \fli.ti\ Jv^n^-Udt/a NEWFOUNDLAND. 107 v> )) Coasts. — The waves and storms of the ocean have eaten their way into the coasts of this island on all sides, and have caused the massive and lofty lines of cliffs which everywhere meet the approaching mariner. The first view to a visitor from Europe is very imposing. The grand precipices of slate rocks, dipping almost perpen- dicularly to the south, which compose Cape Spear and the adjacent coast, look like some gigantic wall rising from deep water, against which the vessel is on the point of being dashed. But suddenly a cleft appears, and she passes safely between two fine headlands, 600 and 700 feet high, into the landlocked and capacious harbour of St. John. This is the capital and chief port. The city is on the north side of the inlet, built on the side of a hill, the unfinished cathedral forming the principal object. On the opposite shore a high range is covered with a forest of spruce and pine, and a few birches and other hard-wood trees. Below, the still waters are crowded with shipping ; further up the valley, the slopes are well cultivated ; and the view is shut in to the west by a line of rugged heights, which repeat on a still vaster scale the outlines of the coast. Ten miles from the capital (crossing the peninsula on which it is situated) are the shores of Conception Bay, wdth Harbour Grace on its western side. This is, after St. John, the most frequented port in the colony. The route winds through beautiful scenery, and finally de- scends to an inlet called Portugal Cove, where the lofty shores are alternately forested slopes and broken cliffs, and into which runs a river whose course is a succession of cascades. Across the mouth stretch the precipitous flanks of Belle Isle, equally valued for its fertile soil and as a fishing station, and beyond all, the horizon is filled by the broken and picturesque forms of the coast in the neighbourhood of Harbour Grace and Carboniere. Almost the same features are presented by a second peninsula, on which these towns are placed, and on whose western side is Trinity Harbour. The whole south-east of the island is indeed cut up into long riband- like land-masses, whose edges arc again fringed and 108 NEWFOUNDLAND. ill I ;.| I i! i tattered by lofty blufifs and deep winding fiords. Fifty miles south of St. John is the fine but little frequented harbour of Aquaforte, the road to which passes around and across a series of these openings and projections, affording scenes of grandeur and beauty little suspected by the majority of English tourists. Toad's Cove, one of the most strikingly beautiful, reminds us of the entrance to the Dart, with all its vertical dimensions greatly in- creased. A roaring stream crosses the road and falls over into the winding lake beneath, producing a fine effect.* South Coast — The southern coast is almost equally broken, and is further diversified by groups of islets of every form and size, — from huge heaps of naked rocks, whose scored sides teem with sea-birds, to low banks of the brightest green, where the grasses are intermixed with a profusion of wild flowers. These islands, however, render the coast navigation difficult, and, combined with the frequent fogs and strong tides, often highly dangerous. The best-known harbour is La Poile, near 58° W. long. ; but small settlements of fishermen are scattered all along, upon the shores of the numerous bays and coves. Burgeo, more to the east, is one of the most important of these ; and another is on Grundy's Passage near Cape Eay. This is a fine inlet, studded with islands, and enclosed by lofty cliffs, over which in one corner falls a pretty cascade.f It receives a river which is navigable for boats, and on whose banks the views partake of the features of the Malvern Hills and the River Wye, modified by their own peculiar abruptness. More hard-wood trees occm* here than in the eastern parts of the island, and many varieties of birds enliven the scene. West Coast. — Immediately to the north of Cape Ray is the entrance to Great Codroy River. It is a broad stream, flanked by fertile meadows, which support the numerous cattle of the settlers. Such spots occur frequently on this western coast. The largest openings are St. George's Bay, where the water is often too deep for anchorage, * Gray's 'Sketches.' t * Biahop of NewfouudlaiicVa Journal,' 1850. NEWFOUNDLAND. 109 Is. Fifty ■requented es around rojections, suspected ►ve, one of 3 entrance ;reatly in- i falls over effect.* st equally f islets of ked rocks, V banks of nixed with , however, bined with dangerous. W. long. ; I all along, Burgeo, of these ; av. This |d by lofty cascade.f ;s, and on •es of the their own fccui' here varieties ipe Eay is |ad stream, numerous [uently on George's inchorage, though excellent harboui'S exist among its minor inlets; and the Bay of Islands, with its fine arm, called the Humber River. The latter is navigable for 15 miles, and will accommodate vessels of any size. The scenery of the bay ranks among the boldest in Newfoundland. Per- pendicular cliffs, hundreds of feet high, rise out of the deepest water; other elevations are clothed to a height of 400 feet with birch, beech, and poplar of luxuriant growth, overtopped by lofty pines ; and, rising above all, are the bare rounded summits of the Blow-me-down Hills, shrouded in mists, and originating the squalls referred to in their expressive name. A small farm has been cleared by one settler, another keeps sheep on the natural grass- land, and swine in the beech-woods ; the gardens are well stocked with English vegetables, and the banks of the streams are bordered to the water's edge by fragrant rose- trees, much loved by the bees, and by wild gooseberries and raspberries, which look like cultivated fruit. North-east Coast. — At the extreme north-east of the island are several flourishing French settlements, of which Quirpon is the chief. It is on an island, and the port is formed by the " tickle," or strait, between it and the mainland. A few English settlers also inhabit these shores, but the French are much disposed to monopolise the entire fishery, which is very productive. The Bay of Exploits is further south, under the 55th meridian. It is a fine estuary, receiving the river of the same name ; and is chequered with almost innumerable wooded and rocky islands, while the mazy channels and sheltered tickles afford safe and most capacious anchor- age. Interior. — The interior of Newfoundland is very im- perfectly known. It appears to be an uneven table-land, but slightly wooded, and in many places covered with marshes ; it contains also numerous lakes, emptying themselves by rivers, which are mostly torrents hurrying to the sea over beds half choked with rocks. Possibly a better acquaintance with the country would discover features of very different character ; but the inhabitants of the island are too much employed in fishing to care no NEWFOUNDLAND. hii [t; {iboiit exploring a tract which docs not seem to offer many gi'atuitous advantages. The Labrador. — For governmental purposes a part of Labrador is united to Newfoundland. It commences westward at the boundary of Canada, in W. long. 57°, at the commodious little harbour of Blanc Sablon, and its small feeder, the Eubicon. To the north-west its limits are not defined, being conterminous, however, with those of the Hudson's Bay Company's territory. Many fishing stations exist, which are partially deserted during the winter. Forteau on the Strait, and Battle Harbour just outside it on the north, are the most frequented. Others are St. Francis Harbour and Sandwich Bay, the latter a fine basin 20 miles long and 10 broad, forming the estuary of the Eagle Kiver, and three other streams. The moun- tains, forests, and waterfalls around this landlocked bay are well worth a visit ; and the finest salmon are caught in the rivers. Henley and Castle Islands, off Battle Harbour, are twin masses 200 feet high, whose upper halves display fine series of basaltic columns, two feet in diameter. Hawk Bay contains an island of granite, whose masses are thrown into the most fantastic shapes. The outer coast, on the whole, coincides with the popular idea of Labrador ; beset by icebergs, and exposed to the arctic storms, its bluffs are mostly as bare as can be imagined ; but ascending the numerous creeks, or winding among the innermost tickles, the most marked change takes place : the heat is frequently great, fine timber and luxuriant vegetation cover the hills, abundance of wild fruits line the shores, and fish, and wild animals, birds and mosquitoes, fill every nook with life.* Agfriculture. — The agricultural capabilities of Nevv- foundland are very imperfectly developed. There are but few of the inhabitants who are solely farmers, and tillage is regarded as only of secondary importance to the fisheries. Every inlet possesses more or less of flat land near its head, which is always of great fertility. The * A small mosquito, no big,i?cr tlia:-' a ^nat, known as "tho Nipi>er," especially produces mo.st lively recolkctious in all those who have once exi)enenced its attacks. to oflfcr ft part of )mmences ong. ST"", n, and its its limits irith those ay fisliing iring the bour just . Others e latter a le estuary he moun- )cked bay ire caught 3ff Battle ose upper wo feet in ite, whose les. The 3 popular ed to the can be r winding change mber and of wild als, birds of NevT- ^here are lers, and ice to the flat land cy. The In as "the all those NEWFOUNDLAND. Ill humid climate is probably an obstacle to the extensive growth of wheat; but barley and oats ripen well, and turnips and potatoes are grown with success. In some situations the bare rock is turned into a productive garden by bringing up earth, which is measured characteristically enough by the fish-barrel. The boys of Burgeo onco made a present to the clergyman of the settlement of 3000 barrels of soil, and walled his garden round to prevent the rain carrying it away. But this was an instance of respect for the person, rather than of any great liking for horti- culture. And to the too general neglect of cultivation are to be attributed the dearness of provisions in places at a distance from the chief ports, and the want, almost amounting to starvation, which we read of as occurring in unfrequented spots, though sometimes possessing abun- dance of good soil. Climate. — The climate is necessarily much tempered by the surrounding ocean. According to Dove, the hottest month at St. John's is August, the mean of which is 59" Fahr., and that of February, the coldest, is below 23°. But these figures are far from indicating the extremes of heat and cold. The winter is longer and the cold more severe on the western than on the eastern coasts; and even in July, immense icebergs drift southward, chilling the air in their neighbourhood. Earlier in the year, they greatly retard the spring. Nevertheless, the severe cold is considered invigorating ; and persons in delicate health are expected to improve during the winter season : while length of years is one of the distinctive marks of the inhabitants. The industry connected with the forests is small, and chiefly confined to cutting wood for fuel, and the building of boats and fish-stores. Much wood is imported from Nova Scotia, but in outlying districts, the erection of a church may depend upon a shipwreck supplying large timber at a comparatively cheap rate. Scarcely anything is known of the mineralogy of the island. It has been asserted that both coal and iron have been found, but the authority does not appear, and such minerals have not been worked. Specimens of silver, :•■:/* 112 NEWFOUNDLAND. combined with quartz and with lead, have been sent to England, and also of the gray oxide of copper, though without any account of their prevalence or locality.* The Fisheries, — The Fisheries are, as they have always been, the absorbing object of interest in Newfoundland. The population of 123,000 is reduced to less than one- half dui'ing the fishing season. The settlements are fixed with regard to the fishing-grounds. Fish are the crop, whoso abundance means comfort, and failure, distress. The majority of the people live on salt fish, assisted, however, by United States pork, and corrected with spruce beer. Boyp are fishermen at ten years of age : and even their noted breed of dogs are fishers by instinct. The Banks, — The Great Bank is the site of the largest fisheries. This vast submarine plateau is 600 miles long and 200 broad. It lies to the east of Newfoundland, commencing in lat. 50^^, and running far to the south, spreads out and grows higher as it proceeds. The depth over it varies from 25 to 95 fathoms ; and it stands on a lower platform, the eastern edge of which forms the Outer Bank. The warm Gulf Stream washes its southern side, where it falls in a rapid slope to 3130 fathoms. And on the banks the cold current from the north brings a temperature often 20° lower than that of the water from the tropics. It is this meeting of such unequally heated currents which produces the prevailing fogs. To the cool waters from the arctic regions is due the excellence of the cod fishery here so extensively followed, for the best fish are always found in the colder seas. And even the banks themselves, as Lieutenant Maury suggests, may owe their existence to the same cmTents. Enormous ice- bergs come down Davis Strait by hundreds, all bearing some burden of rocks or gravel. As they drift southward, their number is thinned by the increasing heat, but none pass the northern edge of the Gulf Stream, and the Great Bank is the accumulation of the solid matter thus furnished. Its shape and outline, indeed, correspond with this suppo- * Lead occurs at La Manche in Placentia Bay ; gypsum Codroy ; and bcautilul white marblo on tlie Humber. — Puiiey, at 1 sent to r, though ty.* ve always )undland. than one- [ are fixed the crop, distress, assisted, 3ted with age : and tinct. he largest niles long oundland, ;he south, rhe depth stands on forms the southern fathoms, th brings ater from ly heated the cool lUence of the best even the sts, may ous ice- ll bearing )uthward, but none Ithe Great tiunished. is suppo- Igypsum at fuiiey. NEWFOUNDLAND. 11(J sition, which has the fm'ther merit of combining the attendant phenomena in an interesting manner. History. — The fisheries on these banks and off the adjacent shores have been an object of contention for centuries. France, Spain, and England quarrelled for their possession from the time of their discovery, till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713, when the supremacy in these waters passed to Great Britain, leaving only the small islands of St. Pierre and Miquclon in the hands of the French. They retained, besides, rights of fishing, which were again in complete abeyance during the last war with France, while England so monopolized the fisheries that, in 1814, the fish and oil sent home were valued at 2,G04,000Z. Ui)on the peace which followed, the French resumed their rights, and have since established new settlements on the north-eastern extremity of the island, where they pretend to have the sole claim to the fisheries. Compared with ours, their vessels and fishing gear are larger and better, and more energy is displayed by them in taking up new grounds than by oui* own settlers in maintaining their right to the old ones. In the meantime, a new and formidable competitor appeared in the United States. By the convention, signed in London, in 1818, a concurrent right to all our deep- sea fisheries was conceded to them, on the express con- dition that they were not to fish within three miles of the British shores, nor land there except in distress. This stipulation was quickly and constantly broken. The Amerieans landed on the less-i)eopled coasts of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick upon the most flimsy pretexts, introducing smuggled goods, and, with the connivance of the inhabitants, even curing the fish caught within the proscribed limits. Besides illegal fishing, it was com- plained that they spoilt the in-shore grounds by throwing their offal overboard in the bays, and by taking fish at improper times. With their intimate knowledge of the sea-board, it was easy to avoid the few cruizers of Great Britain. Their own war-vessel was reported as lying in the Bay Chaleur, " all hands fishing." The law was weak, its infringers were strong. Our rights were not exercised I 114 NEWFOUNDLAND. "Si'i I Iri; I ■' subjects bcon : the !i our own subjects as they should ha^ Americans profited by disregarding them. Official re- monstrance had no effect ; quarrels were frequent, and national misunderstandings always imminent. The Ame- ricans either could not, or would not, keep the treaty ; and at length we yielded the solo right of fishing in our own waters, by the Recii)rocity Treaty of 1854. It would have been more satisfactory if the reciprocal right to fish in their waters had been conceded by them, although it would have been little more than an act of courtesy, since the fish off their coasts are not equal to those further north. But looking to all the circumstances, and not- withstanding the grievous and often just complaints of the colonists, to yield was the best thing that could be done. Two courses were open to us ; either to maintain our rights by keeping an expensive fleet of guard-ships, or to give them up entirely. By taking the first alternative we might have kept off the Americans, but our own people were too few, or else imwilling, to occupy their places. The numerous fishing-vessels which frequented these seas in former times were English, not colonial; and when France and America encouraged their fishermen by a bounty on their tonnage and by other immunities, ours were unable to compete with them, and the trade declined. Instead, therefore, of protecting comparatively unoccupied w^aters, we generously gave way to the intruders, throwing open at the same time the trade between the States and our colonies. The commerce of the latter has since greatly increased : and stimulated by the profits made by the foreigners, our own people have aroused themselves to new energy in the prosecution of their fisheries with a corresponding increase in the produce. The general prosperity thus commenced more than compensates for the loss of a monopoly which was little appreciated, and England's part in the adjustment of the dispute appears to have been as wise as it was liberal. The fishermen of Newfoundland have almost entirely withdrawn from the Great Banks. The summer fisheries are situated further from the land than those of the winter season j but usually within reach of the salting and curing ^'\ NEWFOUNDLAND. 115 ■^n ; the cial re- ent, and lie Ame- I treaty ; y in our It would it to fish hough it sy, since 5 further and not- its of the be done, itain our ips, or to iternative m people r places, bese seas nd when en by a es, ours declined. Loccupied throwing ates and as since made by emselves BS with a general sates for ited, and appears entirely fisheries le winter d curing stations. A line with two hooks is commonly employed. Each man has two lines, and the cod arc often so numerous that he draws them in as fast as he can put on the bait. The fish are split and cleaned, and the livers carefully put aside in a barrel. A curing establishment in full work presents a most lively scene. The "rooms," or stores, stand near the beach, from which a rude landing- stage projects. Close by are the " flakes " or flat stages of spruce poles, on which the fish to be dried are spread out : and the labour is so constant, from the necessity of immediately beginning the curing process, that the shore- men are employed night and day. In other parts of the establishment the oil is separated, the "cold-drawn" being that which flows spontaneously. Heat and pressure are, however, the agents used in the extraction of the bulk of the oil obtained. The cod-fishery is mainly pursued during the summer, commencing in June.* The seal-fishery of Labrador and the Strait is the next most important branch of this industry, occupying the time from March to June. The animals taken are valued for the sake of their oil, and especially for their skins, which form the shining patent leather of the shops.f Salmon are caught abundantly on "the Labrador," whence they are exported fresh, pre- served in hermetically sealed tins, or in ice. Herrings are also plentiful in the Strait, and are caught in enor- mous quantities ; a seine-net at a single haul securing 120,000 fish, and sometimes thrice as many. Trade. — As may be supposed, the principal articles of export are produced by the fisheries. In 1860, the total value of exports was 1,271,000/., only 14,000Z. of which was made up of other goods. The dried cod are chiefly sent to Portugal, Spain, and other parts of the Mediterra- nean, and to the West Indies and Brazil. Salmon and herrings are shipped to the United States; while we receive the greatest quantity of the oil, — cod, seal, and * In the West Fiord, in Norway, tlio fishery is over in April. This is a good illustration of the diflerence in the time of spring on the opposite coasts of the Atlantic. t Dr. Lankester on * Uses of Animals.' 116 NEWFOUNDLAND. m u ^i< ] u dog-fish, — and of seal skins. Besides tlic ordinary quali- ties, estimated at a value of 87,000/., the refined eod- liver oil sent to us iu 18G0 was 303 tuns, worth 25,400/. ; in the same year tlio seals' skins amounted to nearly 600,000. The imports were of nearly the same amount as the exports ; the prineipal item being 200,000/. paid to us for cloths and cotton goods. Fishing-tackle, cordage, hardware, leather, and tea were also largely bought from us, and salt from Spain. The United States supplied most of their flour and pork ; but sea-biscuits are ob- tained from Hamburgh. Prince Edward's Island sends potatoes and new boats ; and Nova Scotia the bulk of tho wood imported. Tho trade with the West Indies and Brazil procures the islanders coffee and sugar, and, it is said, too 'largo a quantity of ardent spirits, — rmn alone accounting for more than one-tenth of tho total value of the imports, i. e. of 1,254,000/. This account of Newfoundland may bo closed, by re- commending it to the notice of our numoious tourists. It is almost all untrodden ground. The visitor will find no lack of hospitality, though he may have to di*ink his spruce beer out of a tea-cup. If he be an artist, he may revel amid scenes of grandeur and beauty rarely equalled ; if a sportsman, he may spear his own salmon, shoot his own Cariboo venison, and net his own curlew ; and if gastronomically inclined, may judge for himself whether these fish, flesh, and fowl are not excellent viands. And to these recreations ho may, if he chooses, add the plea- sure of studying a simple-minded hardy race of men, whose respect for the old country is only paralleled by their attachment to the new. ! i ry quail -. iicd cod- 25,400/. ; o nearly it as tlio ,id to us cordage, gilt from supplied are ob- id sends ik of the ilies and iiid, it is im alone value of 1, by re- tourists, will find rink his he may quailed ; hoot his ; and if whether 3. And he plea- of men, leled by f l\iHuli» <>lHnil>W * V»uw-ouvri- I. II • ! I -r. 'h 1 1 [ 1 |T i. :i^ 5 IIH * \jUU'1»UV1T 1 --IH ^ K V \J 117 - I CIIArTER YI.— TVRITISTT COLinmiA, AND VAXCOUVEU ISLAND.* British Columbia: Moiintnins; TJivcrj^, tlio Frasor, (ho Tlioniiwon ; llic ]IiiiTis()ii-Lil(X)('tt lioiilo. Coast lloutcH, Cliiimte. — Industry: Uold-digginj;, liara, Jicuclies, Cariboo; Populutioii. Vancouver Island:— Oonoral Dcsorijition ; Coast and IlarhonrH ; E:^- (luiinalt. — Industry: Forests and Vegetation; Fislierie.s ; jVlineruln, Coal. Tlie San Juan Dispute. British Columbia. British Columbia is an extensive territory on tlic north- eastern coast of til Pacific Ocean. On the south, the 49th parallel separates it from the possessions of tho United States. A recent Act of Parliament has extended its northern boundary from the Simpson and Finlay Rivers to the GCtli parallel between the liussian territory and the 120th meridian. The main ridge of the Kocky Mountains and the coast line com2)ose the limits of tho province on the remaining sides. The latter are nearly parallel to each other, and run in a north-west direction for 800 miles. The mean width of the oblong thus sur- rounded is 400 miles, antl the area of the mainland portion of the colony is estimated at 344,500 square ♦ Official Eeports by Mr. Downio, lilr. Justice Begbic, Lieu- tenants Pahner and Mayne, and Governor Douglas, in ' IJhic Books, on Cohunbia,' and ' Geographical Journal,' 1801 ; ' Bi.sho]> Hill's Journal,' 18150 ; ' Official Catalogues of International Exhibition ;' 'Letters of Times' Correspondent,' &c. Grant's 'Vancouver Island,' 1858, and Eeniarks on, ' Geographical Journal,' 18(J1 ; Report of Captain G. H. Kiohards, 1858, in 'Blue Book on Columbia,' Part ii., &c. 118 BRITISH COLUMBIA. ! i I i miles, Vancouver Island at 13,250 square miles, and Queen Charlotte Islands at 5000 square miles. Mountains. — The principal range of the Eocky Moun- tains, on the eastern side of the colony, must be regarded as the line of departure, with reference to which the other physical features are subordinate. The whole tract is, indeed, nothing else than the extremely irregular western sloj)e of this chain, oiid might be very properly defined as such; for between it and the sea, the country is tra- versed by long ranges of mountains, like parallel lines of breakers, of which it is the mightiest ; while the troughs of these seas, though terribly confused by a cross swell, contain the rivers. The main range changes its character near its centre. Here, under north latitude 52^ 30', is a singular lake, called the Committee's Punch Bowl, whose waters discharge into the River Athabasca in one direc- tion, and, in the other, into the Columbia. It lies in the midst of lofty mountains forming a vast knot, the cul- minating points of which are Mount Brown, 16,000 feet, and Mount Hooker, 15,700 feet above the sea, and probably 7000 feet above the pass which skirts the lake. To ine north of this, the range has not been explored, but it appears to be considerably lower than the Athabasca pass. Fifty miles from the latter, it is breached in a similar manner by the Yello,/ Head pass, uniting the Mette, a feeder of the Athabasca, witii a tributary of the Upper Eraser. Towards the south, the range is composed of a number of long narrow valleys, overlapping each other, and reproducing on a smaller ground plan that parallel- ism which has been said so strongly to characterise the whole colony. Among the many ridges, one is more prominent than the rest. It is united to the chief range by the mountain knot above mentioned. Southward from this it is called the Selkirk Mountains, and encloses the valley of the Upper Columbia, not more than 30 miles wide. To the north, for upwards of 200 miles, it divides the Ui)per from the Lower Fraser, gradually receding to a distance of 100 miles from the main ridge, and becoming itself an intricate assemblage of mountain- valleys, including the famous gold district of Cariboo. II :' cs, and ' Moim- cgartled lie other tract is, western fined as is tra- lines of troughs 5s swell, haracter 30', is a 1, whose le direc- DS in the the cul- 000 feet, probably To ine but it sea pass, similar VIette, a Ui^per sed of a other, parallel- rise the is more }f range ird from Dses the miles divides eceding ge, and ountain- ariboo. BRITISH COLUMBIA. 119 Beyond this, it again narrows its base, and rises to the region of perpetual snow, under the name of the Peak Mountains, which are the highest part of the system in this latitude, and form the western limit of the broad basin of the Finlay and Upper Peace Rivcirs. This remarkable line of elevated ground we shall refer to hereafter, from its distinguishing character, as the " Gold Range." The next best-defined ridge of high land lies nearest to the coast. It is most like a mountain chain towards the south, where it is broken through by the River Eraser. Here it is not more than 50 miles from the shore, and preserves its features for 200 miles, the snow lying on its crest as late as July. North of this, it spreads out, and assumes rather the aspect of a rugged plateau ; at the same time it increases its distance from the sea till it is crossed by the Simpson River, 100 miles above its mouth. Again, another tolerably distinct range is found near the right bank of the Fraser, throughout its mid-course. It also is more narrow and ridge-like toward the south, where it is known as the Lilooett Range. The tributaries of the Fraser cross it in deeply-cut valleys. The depres- sion between this and the Coast Range is almost lost in the highlands of the central parts, but its northern por- tion is occupied by the basin of the Chilcotin River, and its southern by a series of lakes of which the Harrison and Lilooett are the chief. A transverse valley, also occu- pied by lakes, connects the Lilooett with the Fraser, and is the main communication between the rich mining dis- trict of Cariboo and the coast. The four ranges now mentioned, it will be observed, fill the whole breadth of the province in its northern part, but are so much contracted in width at the opposite end that a broad space remains between the Fraser and Colum- bia Rivers, from 150 to 200 miles across. This contains the basin of the Thompson, the most important feeder of the Fraser, and, to the southward, comprises several valleys which are continued across the 49tli parallel : of these, that drained by the Simalkameen River is the most interesting to settlers, from its fine pastoral character. 120 BKITISII C0lh;3IBIA. p i ,(' -I 11 ')' II III ^1 i: Tlic prevailing feature of the country is aptly illus- trated by tlio observation, that the 50th parallel crosses no less than eight principal depressions * with their dividing ridges, all at right angles, besides many others of smaller nnto. In fact, the only great exceptions to the meridional direction of the valleys and ridges are the " Lands Height," a range 2400 feet high, which separates the Fraser from the Peace Kiver, and joins the Peak Mountains to the main range ; and the lower course of the Thompson, including its expansions in the Kamloops and Shushwap Lakes. But the number of minor streams and hill-spurs is immense, and these are mostly per- pendicular to the principal lines of the country, and con- stantly make travelling along the banks of the rivers exceedingly toilsome and often impossible. This pecu- liarity, coupled with the rapidity of the chief streams, and their liability to floods, is the reason why communi- cation is so difficult ; and hence the interest which attaches to the opening of new routes to the interior. The Fraser River — The principal river of British Co- lumbia is the Fraser, first descended by Messrs. Fraser and Stuart, in 1808. Its source is on the northern side of the great knot in the Rocky Mountains, and a few miles from Mount Brown. Its upper course is 200 miles in length, with a north-western direction ; then, turning in a broad curve to the southward, it soon after receives the Stuart River on the right at Fort George ; and main- tains the same general course of south, one point east, for 400 miles to Fort Hope. At Lytton, 80 miles from Hope, it is joined by the Thompson, its chief tributary on the left bank. At Fort Hope, it is about 100 miles from its mouth, which is reached by a nearly due west course, and is only nine miles north of the boundary line. There is a striking resemblance between the course of this river and that of the Columbia. The upper and middle parts of the latter, contained within the colony, * Boginniii!^ at tlie coust, these are Jurvis Inlet, Lake Lilnoett, tlie Fraser, the Sinialkiimei'ii Valley, Lake OkiuiagMii, the Thoinpsoii, the C'oluiubia, and tho Kutauie ; all, except the Thompson, running south. ly illiis- . crosses til tlieir y others as to the are the separates he Peak course of [amloops [• streams 5tly per- md con- le rivers liis pecu- streams, lommimi- L attaches itish Go- 's. Fraser lern side a few 00 miles turning receives id main- east, for es from ributary 00 miles uc west ary line, oiirso of )per and colony, looett, the ^lioinpson, 1, running BRITISH COLUMBIA. 121 are close counterparts of the corresponding portions of the former, although surrounded by higher land — often, indeed, reaching the limits of perpetual snow. The auriferous character of the whole bxsin of the Fraser, has rendered it of paramount importance. Other districts will acquire interest as the country becomes more settled ; but at present little is known of their capa- bilities, or even of their aspect. The entrance to the Fraser is bounded by low marshes on either hand, as far as New Westminster, situated at the junction of the two arms which form its delta. By the south, or main branch, the distance up is 10 miles. The opening is further inconvenienced by sandbanks, extending five miles beyond the edge of the marsh, and in process of being added to it. The violent floods of the river have evidently brought down the matter forming these lowlands. Fortunately the same swift current keeps open a channel through them sufficiently deep to admit ships of considerable burthen. It is rather difficult to find without a pilot ; but Vancouver Island acts like a vast breakwater, protecting the coast from all winds except the N.W., and although vessels have often run aground on the sandbanks, yet wrecks from this cause are very rare. The width of the stream soon narrows from two miles to one, and the bulrushes and low bushes of the swamp are exchanged for the high and pine-covered banks which overlook the capital. In rear of the latter an extensive area of tolerably flat ground stretches to the northward, greatly assisting the formation of roads through the forest to Burrard Inlet and the Pitt River. The eastern horizon is filled with the jagged peaks of the Coast Ruiige, where patches of snow are seen glistening ill the sun, though the distance is too great to observe the foirv'ts of Douglas pine, which often clothe them to their summits. The Pitt River is a navigable stream 14 miles long, leading to a fine deep lake among the mountains, of somewhat greater length. The scenery here is extremely beautiful, resembling that on the most charming of the Scotcii Lakes ; fir-covered cliifs rise to the height of mountains, and beautiful cascades gleam among the dense 122 BRITISH COLUMBIA. , II'!'' i ill '''' ■'i I I. i foliage. At the head of it is some available land, but the shores are generally too steep for settlement. Eeturning to the Eraser, the high banks come close to the water's edge, completely hidden with a luxuriant growth of trees, — the Douglas pine, cedars, a poplar called the cotton tree, and others, — while the undergrowth is of alders and hazels, and a wild apple, whose clustering blossoms re- mind the emigrant of the hawthorn in May. The first station above Westminster is Fort Langley, a post of the Hudson's Bay Company, placed on a s2)ot ■ "here the banks are lower and flatter than usual. This is 20 miles ^rom the capital ; and in another 20 miles the pnssage through the mountains commences, and occupies as many more. The western spurs rise rapidly from 200 feet to nearly 3000 feet. Occasionally bare bluffs are met ; but the uni- versal Dpuglas pine covers mountain and valley alike up to the snow patches, which often continue all the siunmer. The " bars " are now a prominent part of the river scenery when the water is low. They are spits of sand and mud, which run along the sides, and at times project some way into the stream, but always leave the channel clear, and often 10 fathoms deep. Higher up the river, these bars are the chief sources of gokl, and here, also, they contain it in the form of fine dust. Vast piles of drift timber get caught on them, all barked and bleached, giving evidence of the powerful current and its encroach- ments on the upper banks. While toiling slowly through this wild scenery, the eye is delighted by the distant views which oi)en up the valleys of the Smess and Chile- wTiak, where the park-like country and rich meadows seem especially to invite the farmer. On the opposite side is the fine entrance to the Harrison-Lilooett lakes and valley, at the new settlement of Caernarvon. About 85 miles from the capital is Fort Hope, most delightfully situated at the bend of the river ; the mountain scenery on both sides fills tlie view, perhaps too much so for the agriculturist ; and the River Quequealla and other streams struggle through the picturesque gorges of Mount Man- son, over which is the road to the fertile valley of the Simalkameen. If this route could be made available for BRITISH COLUMBIA. 123 I, but the Returning water's of trees, le cottou (lers and soms re- The first st of the the banks iles ^rom 3 through ,ny more. to nearly t the uni- r alike up J summer, the river fcs of sand js project B channel le river, ere, also, piles of jleached, ncroach- through distant bd Chile- meadows opposite ett lakes About ightfully ). scenery ) for the streams int Man- ly of the liable for the ready transit of goods, the already thriving trade with the United States up this valley would be greatly in- creased, and a fine district opened to settlers. Most of the surrounding hills are grassed a-top, shaded with pines ; and the dells are choked with vegetation, except where the potato grounds of the Indians show their readiness to adopt new ways, and skill in carrying them out. Entering upon the middle course of the Frascr, wo approach the rugged country on its banljs, which so seriously impedes the communication ^v^ith the interior. As far as Fort Yale, now the towD of Derby, 150 miles from the mouth, stern-wheel steamers ascend without much difiiculty, and Indian canoen and miners' boats by dint ot hard paddling and pulling. The mountainous banks then close in, narrowing the channel, and pro- ducing the rapids called the Canyons, which, during the summer at least, are highly dangerous to come down — impossible to pass up. The canoe voyage to Derby is very exciting, from the exertions required to stem the current, and avoid the floating wood. Yet the passenger finds time to admire the bold hills and their leafy covering, and foaming torrents, and to pick the roses as he shoots by close to the thickets. Gay butterflies flutter among the :tfowers on shore; and the gray waters are enlivened by the quaint painted canoes, and the bright scarlet and blue shirts of their energetic crews. Gold bars project at inti i vals, and are crowded with eager diggers as fast as t^e decreasing floods leave them bare ; and here, too, the banks above the reach of the flood begin to be regarded with equal interest. Above Yale, the river is left and the route to Lytton pursued by land. For 30 miles it is full of difiiculties ; perpendicular escarpments overhang the stream, and the pathway is roughly cut out of their face. Even this is interrupted by narrow fissures, which have to be crossed on frail bridges of ropes and planks, hundreds of feet above the roaring flood. At another time the path ascends a hill so steep that it appears utterly impracticable for a loaded mule, or an Indian with his pack of 100 lbs. But even this is less perilous than the corresponding i '11 !f P I! I &\ h I! 124 BriTISH COLUMBIA. " slide, or descent, where accidents arc frequent, and sometimes fatal. There is much magnificent scenery along this route, which has been compared to that of Saxon Switzerland,* though far more vast and grand. From some of the rapid rivers oi* Europe, too, the ferry- men on the Fraser seem to have adopted a most ingenious contrivance for saving labour. At Spuzzum, a few miles above Yale, the river is 250 yards wide : here a stout rope is stretched across it, from which other ropes are carried to the ferry-boat ; these are so arranged as to keep its side oblique to the current, which then, acting like the wind upon a sail, quickly urges the boat over, and, tlie tackle being reversed, as speedily drives it back again. Beyond Quayomc there is a marked change. The hills are lower, and the more open country is adapted for agricidture. Fine " benches," or terraces occur, a mile wide, grassy, or but thinly timbered, and farms are com- mencing in many places. The climate is drier ; so is the soil ; and the spruce, hemlock, and Douglas pine, give way to a kind of Scotch fir. Lytton is at the junction of the Thompson, and on the left side of the Fraser. It is situated on thp upper of two benches, which together rise 300 feet above the stream. Farms are laid out in the neighbourhood, but complaints are made of the scarcity of water. The natm-al paucity of timber has been increased by the settlers and miners cutting down every tree within reach, so that dust and wind are the characteristics of the town. The river valley maintains the same features all the way to Cayoosh, where the Harrison-Lilooett route again joins the Fraser. Two, and sometimes throe, benches rise from the water's edge to the height of 600 and lOCO feet. Their sides slope so steeply that a man can hardly mount them with- out using his hands. Loam, sand, shingle, and mud are their invariable components. Their flat summits are usually covered with a rich growth of "bunch-grass," with occasional belts of fir. These terraces reach back If « Bishop Iliirs Journal.' I BRITISH COLUMBIA. 125 [ucnt. and it scenery to that of nd grand, the ferry- ingcnions , few miles re a stout ropes are iged as to len, acting boat over, res it back The hills :laptcd for iir, a mile s are com- ; so is the pine, give ,nd on the per of two Ihc stream. omplaints al paucity ,nd miners dust and The river Cayoosh, ihe Eraser. he water's llieir sides hem with- mud are mits are ch-grass," leach back from the river four or five miles on each side, and often communicate with extensive and similarly grassed plateaux among the higher hills. An unlimited number of cattle might be kept on these natural pastures ; but the climato ajipears to be too dry for arable farming.* It is also extremely cold in the winter time. Looking up the Eraser from some of the higher elevations, the same singular parallel benches extend as far as the eye can reach, always green with grass, or thinly wooded ; and the whole view is closed in on both sides by mountains from 4000 to 7000 feet high. When we consider that these sin- gular benches arc thus traced through nearly four degTees of latitude, and reflect on their other dimensions, it appears an amazing theory which su2)poses every spadeful of the earth composing them to be auriferous. Nevertheless, the suggestion is confirmed by the experience of all who have acted upon it. And if literally true, it is only one of the wonders of the marvellous goldfield of the Eraser. Eor to the cast of the tract last described, and contained in the great bend of the upper parts of the river, is the incredibly rich district called Cariboo, where, on almost every one of the streams, over hundreds of square miles, gold seems to be obtainable almost as fast as it can bo gathered up. The basin cf the Thompson gives promise of much greater agricultural capabilities than that of the Eraser. This river is only 150 yards wide at its mouth, where it has the rai)id current of the main stream ; but at Eort Kamloops, 90 miles iip, at the junction of its great branch, the North River, both confluents, are 300 yards in breadth, and move at a comparatively gentle^rato. The land around the head waters of the Thompson is classed among the best in the colony. Its chief tributary on the left is the Nicola. Many fine tracts of meadow-land exist upon the banks of this stream, among hills 1000 feet high, which are mostly gi'assed to their summits, but sometimes show naked precipices of trap-rock and sand- stone. The level tracts are, however, liable to be partly * BIr. Justice Bej?bie. )« 12G BRITISH COLUMBIA. I ' i;i ^ i:i II floodcfl, an oljcction from which Kamloops is not altogether free. But with a better knowledge of the country, these low portions will ho avoided as arable lands. Tlie soil is often sandy, yet all kinds of vege- tables thrive well, and at Kamloops, wheat returns fifteen fold. Tlie North River also abounds in extensive pastures, nn{^ the hill district around Lake Quesnello is described as affording similar advantages. On the soutli, and interlacing with tlie feeders of the Thompson, is the rich l)astoral valley of Okanagan, containing a fine navigable lake, GO miles long. Harrison-Lilooett Route. — After the foregoing account of the Fraser, it will be easy to understand the general desire which prevails in the province to discover some less troublesome route to the chief seats of consumption in tho gold-diggings of the interior. That which has obtained most favour has been several times alluded to above as the Harrison-Lilooett route, which, leaving the Fraser at a sjiot half-way between Langley and Hope, again joins it at Cayoosh. In actual length nothing is gained, but it has the important advantages of a lake navigation for two-thirds of the distance, and of passing through a country possessing much good land. The largest of the lakes is the Harrison, 34 miles long, whose clear blue waters are frequently 100 fathoms deep. Its sides are formed by si^urs from the Coast and Lilooett ranges, which overhang the water's edge in rocky precipices and steep declivities, heavily timbered, and down which the foaming torrents rush with great impetuosity. There is little available ground, however, in the neighbourhood, and Port Douglas, at the end of the navigation, appears to be inconveniently situated. At Lake Lilooett the water-carriage is again resumed, and beyond it is a fine pastoral valley extending to the north-west. Summit Lake is too small to be of use in the transit of goods, but is interesting on account of its sending its waters in one direction to join the Lilooett, and in the other, by the Anderson and Seton Lakes, to meet the Fraser at Cayoosh. Around the latter lakes are several extensive tracts of good land, and as the route nears the chief river, it passes BRITISH COLUMBIA. 127 ? is not ;c of tho as arable of vcgc- ns fifteen I pastures, described Dutli, and s tlie rich navigable g account le general Dver some isumption vliich has [illudcd to saving the ,nd Hope, lothing is of a lake of passing nd. The ng, whose Icep. Its 1 Lilooett precipices wn which There bourhood, appears ooett the is a fine Summit oods, but TS in one 3r, by the Cayoosh. tracts of it passes along tho benches peculiar to it, on one of which stands the village of Cayoosh, 150 ** ,t above the stream. Coast Routes. — Explorations of the coast districts have been undertaken, with the same object of finding j^rac- ticablo moans of communication with the upper coimtry. These regions are commonly filled with the offshoots of the westernmost range of mountains. Their terminations compose a precipitous and broken sea-board. At one time long lines of continuous cliffs oppose all attempts at landing ; at another the navigation is dangerous from the intricacy of the channels among gi'oups of rocks and islands. The meandering valleys of the interior ranges are repeated on the coast-line, with even greater depth, and form long, narrow fiords with deep water and steep sides, whose windings often enable vessels to penetrate 50 and 80 miles inland. The most complex of these is known as the Bcntinck Arm, properly the name of one of its divisions. It is about 500 miles north of Victoria, in Vancouver Island, and near latitude 54°. It was here that Sir A. Mackenzie came down when he crossed tho country in 1703, and the same Indian trail has now been partly followed in opening a route hence to Fort Alex- andria, on the Fraser, which is estimated at 230 miles distant. On a river falling into the Arm is the rising settlement of Bellacola. Bute Inlet, much further south, also possesses advan- tages for the commencement of a road to the interior. The difficulty in these cases is the necessity for importing all the provisions, and other requirements, for those engaged in the carriage of goods or passengers, as so little land is met with fit for agricultural purposes. More experience of this tract will probably give us a knowledge of many small portions of good land ; and some of the islands (Savary Island, for instance, off Desolation Sound) offer a very enticing prospect, in their well-grassed slopes and apparently fertile soil. Still, unless upon some frequented line of road, these parts must wait for some time before they are inhabited by white men, or their resources known. The River Simpson route, in the northern part of 128 BRITISH COLUMBIA. i ' i ' I I tlio colony, presents a mueh more favourable aspect. After crossinj^ tlio ruj^geil mountains wliieh line the coast, the banks of this river bcseonie more and more open. And, whether upon the branch leading tlirouf^li a chain of lakes to Fort Fraser, or by its tributary the IJabine to Fort James, the trail traverses broad extensions of fine grassy country, with good soil, and but sparsely timbered by oaks and " cotton trees." Stuart Lake, on which Fort James is situated, is 50 miles long, and navigable tJiroughout by steamers, as is also Lake JJabine, 100 miles in length, and connected with the former by a portage of only 10 miles. In the neighbourhood of the fort tlio land is reported as " good and able to produce anything.'' The village of Naas Glee, at the mouth of the Babine, is a great fishing-station of the Indians, who hero catch and cure many thousands of salmon annually.* It is highly probable that :ic more southern portion of this section of the province, about Lake Chilcotin, will also be found to contain much cultivatablo land, as the route thence to Lilooett has been very favourably described. Climate. — The climate of British Columbia is as yet only known from poj^ular opinion, and observations U2)on some of its effects. Having regard to the latitude of tho country, and to its situation on the north-western coast of a continent open to winds from the south-west, the a priori conclusion would bo that the climate was very similar to that of Great Britain. The statements of residents and travellers confirm this view, with the addition that tho climate of the colony is less variable, and the annual mean somewhat higher. Theoretical considerations would lead to deductions at variance with this. From the very irregular contour of tho surface, so constantly formed of highlands and mountains, intermingled with tortuous valleys, often 1000 feet deep, we should argue that greater thermometrical variations would take place than in this * Dowiiie; who says of tho 50 miles up the Babine from the village, '• It is a great pity to see lliis beautiful country, so well adapted to the wauts of man, lying waste, when so many Englishmen and Si'otehmen wonld be glad to come hero and till the soil." Naaa Glee is 25U miles from Fort Simpson. BRITISH COLUMBIA. 129 ! aspect. ;lio const, »rc open. , chain of Jabino to s of fine tiiiibci'ctl hich Fort iiavi{^'ablo 100 miles [)(>rtago of ) fort tlio mytliing.'' Babine, is catch and is highly section of c found to thence to • is as yet tions upon iude of the |rn coast of ;he a priori similar to idcnts and In that the ;he annual ions would |m the very formed of 1 tortuous hat greater an in this lino from the ntry, so well Enji;Uslinicn soil." Naas country. Por such a configuration inevitably leads to local extremes of heat and cold, and to violent winds in opposite directions, bringing great and sudden changes of temperature. Lieutenant Mayno, indeed, remarks upon the variableness which ho observed in the months of April and Juno, 1859, and quotes reatlings of 31°, 85"", and 40'^ Fahrenheit, all on the same day. And referring to the annual variation, we find that in December, 1858, the Fraser was frozen over so as to stop all communication with Yalo and Langloy ; and at Lytton the cold was 20^ below the freezing point ; while, in January, 1862, at Beaver Lake, in Cariboo, the mercury froze in the rays of the setting sun.* Tlie universal complaint of the preva- lence of mosquitoes in the summer time indicates a high degree of heat at that season, so that the dificrenco between the hottest and coldest months must be consider- able. It 'should be observed, however, that the cold has been most fel*^^. especially during the clear nights, hy miners and others accustomed to the warm climate of California. The colony is generally allowed to be ex- tremely healthy ; nor do emigrants from Great Britain require any " seasoning " disorders to inm*e them to their new habitat. Abundance of rain falls on the coast, and on the higher mountains of the interior ; but the periodical floods are chiefly due to the melting of the snow. This, acting in conjunction with the summ' r rains, causes the Fraser to rise in May and June, and tO maintain a flooded state dm'ing the greater part of the summer. The scarcity of animal life is very striking. A few bears and deer are the larger wild animals. Hawks, ducks, loons, partridges, and robins ("as large as black- birds and good eating ") are mentioned by difierent explorers, but usually the exact number seen is added, their occurrence at all being remarkable. Humming- birds are sometimes noticed, and are probably migratory. In the early days of the gold mania, many unhappy diggers, who lost their way in the mountains and became « < Official Catalogue.' I 1.30 BRITISH COLUMBIA. V. t f • y t filiort of provisions, were starved to death, as tlic country atforded nothing eataldc excei)t berries. Industry. Gold-digging.— British Columbia, viewed industrially, is at present little else than a vast gold- " digging "* The other resources of the province will no doubt rapidly develop themselves ; but the permanent population must first become much greater, and the search for gold less a lottery, and more of a regular occupation. Tlie immense extent over which the precious metal is deposited renders tlie latter alternative extremely probable. Reference has been ah-eady made to the Gold Range. This has been found to be auriferous for at least 400 miles, and all the rivers draining westward from it also produce gold. The first discovery in 1857 was soon checked by the rising waters of the Fraser covering the bars. Great distress followed, and much sickness, and many deaths from the impossibility of supplying food and shelter to the multitudes in an unprepared and inaccessible district. The high state of the water lasts usually from June to September, but many diggings are flooded in March. In 1858, the excitement caused by rumours of great success drew thousands of adventurers from California, and much gold was extracted. All the bars between Hope and Yale were tried, and found to contain it, but very unequally disseminated through the mass of earth and gravel. Commonly a stratum only a few inches thick was worked, yet the average yield was an ounce of gold a day per man, and two pounds a day was earned by some for weeks together. The richest of all was Hill's Bar, two miles from Yale, where acres of soil have been swept away by the diggers to the depth of 10 and 12 feet, and the higher parts are now being worked. All this gold was in small particles, often so minute as to receive the name of " flour gold." The " rocker " was the only machine employed, a common wooden pail and tin pan being the most frequent apparatus. The rocker contains a sieve, beneath * The Statistical Ectumsfdr 1800, give 10,000?. as the value of the furs sent to Vancouver Island ; but the source is not stated. country viewed iBt gold- 3 will no jrmancnt and the I regular precious jxtremely the Gold >r at least d from it cd l>y the s. Great ay deaths shelter to .0 district. 1 June to arch. In at success and much ) and Yale unequally id gravel. IS worked, r per man, for weeks two miles )t away by ;he higher in small of " flour |employed, the most e, beneath lvalue of the BTimSH COLUMBIA. 131 which is a blanket, and below all a copper plate full of Ijoles, and covered with quicksilver. The " dirt " mixed with water is thrown in, and tlio gold stopped according to its size, the finest particles uniting to the mercury, and forming wliat is termed " amalgam gold." This resembles a cake of dull yellow mud, with glistening specks scattered through it. The belief soon spread that the diggings further up the river i)roduced gold in larger masses, and a rush of miners took place in that direction. From Quayome to Lytton the singular parallel benches attracted attention, and upon trial proved to be almost as rich as the bars. These are worked by the " hydraulic process " as it is called. A head of water is brought to a " sluice," or long wooden box, w^hich has the advantage over the rocker of washing the " dirt " more expeditiously. The gold occurs in what is termed a " placer," that is, a layer some feet or inches below the surface. The upper bed is washed away by directing on it a stream of water obtained from above, the force corresponding to the height of the source of supply. As a fall of several hundred feet can be often obtained, a few hours' application of the hose sweeps off a large quantity of surface earth, and then the placer is exposed. Placers extend indefinitely under each of the terraces, and promise inexhaustible stores of gold whenever they can be worked upon a large scale. British Columbia far outvies her rivals — Australia and California — in a copious supply of water. In the former of these countries water is often impossible to be had ; in California we read of artificial cuts for its conveyance 40 miles long. But here, for the use of all the bars and lower benches, water is abundant. Where it is required to be brought to the diggings, it is usually the work of other parties who make the necessary ditches and *' flumes," or wooden channels, by which it is conveyed. The water is then sold to the diggers, and the sale produces a good profit on the outlay.* * At Hill's Bar iu June, 1860, a flume erected at a cost of 2,400Z. was supplying 40 claims at 11. a day each. Tliis gives a return of about 50 per cent, per month. ]• I I ■.I' ' r Ij ■ i 1 132 BRITISH COLUMBIA. h' i The astonishment produced by the discovery of these rich placers had not subsided before reports from various other quarters drew off large bodies of the excited searchers eager to share the first prizes in a new lottery. The banks of the Lilooett and of the Bridge River on the west, and the valleys of Simalkameen and Okanagan towards the south-eastern frontier, successively contributed their golden " dirt " to the sluice or the rocker. But in 1860 the diggings at Rock Creek eclipsed all these in richness. This is a small stream ultimately draining into the Columbia, and about 130 miles south-east from Hope. Here extensive workings of both sorts were commenced with great success. Hundreds were attracted to the spot, and a town of canvas and wood arose in the lonely glen. Twenty pounds a day were sometimes earned ; and in one case three partners netted 12,000^ during the season. But not even such retm'ns as these could secure the favour of its uneasy and fickle population. The following year the Cariboo Diggings, opened in 1859, proved so rich and attractive that Rock Creek was left to the Chinese. Cariboo. — Fort Alexandria, on the Fraser, 230 miles above Hope, is near the southern side of the district of Cariboo ; and all the streams to the north of this latitude, contained within the great bend of the Fraser, are richly auriferous. So abundant is the gold, indeed, and in such comparatively large pieces, that the miners dispense with the use of quicksilver, being able to afford the loss of the smaller particles. To illustrate this exuberance by an example, we take the following case : — A party of five men opened a claim, which was not apparently a very rich one. During the summer they had hewn timber, and made a flume to bring water to it. For the first three days they were engaged in removing the unproductive surface earth, from 8 to 18 feet thick. They then obtained 4 ounces a day, ond this quantity increased continuously till they closed the workings at the end of two months with a yield of 409 ounces, worth in London, after payment of all expenses, 1400/. The produce has since risen to 21,875/. The auriferous layer was 6 feet thick, composed of blue clay, mixed with gravel and BRITISH C0LX7MBIA. 133 of these I various excited r lottery. 3r on the )kanagaa atributed But in these in ning into )m Hope. mmenced the spot, lely glen. ,nd in one e season. the favour wing year rich and sse. 230 miles district of 8 latitude, are richly id in such (cnse with LOSS of the ice by an •ty of five tly a very imber, and ifirst three productive ^hey then increased ihe end of [n London, •oduce has /as 6 feet ravel and decomposed slate, and the part of their claim worked over was 80 feet long and 25 broad.* By the most recent accounts Cariboo maintains its position as the most productive part of the Fraser gold-field, rewarding the diggers, now with thousands of pounds' worth from a hole three feet square, and now with 20 ounces of gold in the space of ten minutes.f The remarkable absence from these statements of all small returns is accounted for by the circumstance that an unlucky miner at once hires himself for good wages to the more fortunate ones. Eight dollars a day, together with all expenses of living, is a usual rate ; but this of course varies with the abundance of labour that can be commanded. Population. — The permanent population of the colony was estimated in 1861 at 6000, not reckoning persons of colour ; but it is of such a floating nature that even an approach to exactness is next to impossible. During the summer of 1862 the number was laid at about 50,000. Of these some 15,000 were Indians, to whose aptitude for civilised customs and great trustworthiness the miners of the interior are largely indebted, for to them is intrusted the purchase and carriage of nearly all the necessaries of life which reach the diggings from the coast. The Chinamen were estimated at 10,000, mostly from Cali- fornia. Besides gold digging, which is often done for liire, they construct bridges and restaurants, amusingly like the paintings on their porcelain. They are gene- rally quiet and industrious, evincing much appreciation of their different treatment here and in California, where they were heavily taxed. The whites form the remaining element in the population, numbering about 20,000 men and 300 women. They are a confused medley of races, speaking many tongues. American and German from the adjoining state, Spanish from Mexico, French from Canada, with the various dialects of the natives, compose * Times' Correspondent's Letter, dated January 20, 1862. t 'The Guardian' of January 14, 18G3, records a case in which 80,000i. was given for a claim of 1000 sqtiare feet, from one-tenth pai*t of which the purchase-money was realized. • ,.T- I :li it 1'? I. \ i III 134 VANCOUVER ISLAND. il. ■ «. Babel, in which pure English is in much danger of being overwhelmed. The great distance from this country is the chief di'awback to emigration to British Columbia. Still, it is not greater than to the Australian colonies, even by sailing-vessels; and the route across the Isthmus of Panama is very much shorter. Moreover, it can scarcely be doubted that a few years will suffice to complete a lino of easy communication, if not a railroad, across the American continent. Upon the importance and feasibility of this measure some remarks will be made in the next chapter. Capital and labour are alone wanted to develop the resources of this colony. Its vast gold-field will fm'nish permanent employment probably for generations to como. Silver, copper, coal, and iron have been discovered. It possesses a salubrious climate, large tracts of fertile land, extensive sea and river fisheries, and unbounded water- power. And, besides these material advantages, it has a government, whose rule of "justice to all" has been administered with singular felicity under circumstances so trying that if anai'chy and wretchedness had triumphed, it would have excited no surprise. Vancouver Island. General Description. — Vancouver Island is separated from British Columbia by an aim of the sea, called the Gulf of Georgia. This is from 15 to 25 miles broad, but narrows, north of the 50th parallel, into Johnston's Strait, a dangerous passage, on account of the violence of the tides. The island is 270 miles long, with a maximum width of 70 miles near the centre, from whence it tapers towards either end. But in several places the inlets and bays almost unite at the central axis. This is a chain of extremely rugged gneiss mountains, about 2000 feet high, sometimes bare, or covered with heaps of loose rocks, and at others clothed with a dense scrub, chiefly composed of the Douglas and other firs. The shores are almost everywhere steep and rocky, and extremely uninviting. anger of .he chief 3till.it is even by thrnus of L scarcely ete a lino cross the feasibility the next svelop the ill furnish s to como. vered. It irtile land, ded water- SB, it has a has been jumstances riumphed, VANCOUVER ISLAND. 135 separated called the [broad, but )n's Strait, ice of the maximum |e it tapers inlets and a chain of feet high, I rocks, and Imposed of Iro almost minvitiug. Seen from a vessel the foreground is formed by dark frowning cliffs, aga nst which the surf dashes with vio- lence ; the middh distance comprises rounded hills covered with fir ; and the jagged mountain tops beyond fill up the picture. But little level ground is visible, and the general impression of the country is unfavourable, A nearer acq laintance hardly appears to moderate this discom'aging opinion. The view of the interior from the small flat summit of some stone-covered hill discloses only ridge beyond ridge in hopeless confusion. The broken outlines never become gi'and, but are wild without being romantic, rugged and yet monotonous in the extreme ; and the steep, short hills and slight narrow valleys sug- gest the simile of some great seething mass petrified while the bubbles were in the act of bursting.* The interior is, lie ever, very imperfectly known ; and there are some J • ' ? Is for hoping that with the increase of popula- tion m larger tracts of land \vill be found improvable than at present it would be prudent to attempt. Coasts. — Wherever the ground is sufficiently level for culture the soil is very fertila. Some such spots exist on the coast, but they are neither numerous nor extensive. The capital of the island, Victoria, stands on one of these on the south-east shore ; but the city has quite outgrown the capabilities of its situation. The small harbour has a bar at its entrance, and is encumbered within by rocks and banks, which make it tedious for a sailing-vessel to reach the quays. The water supply is also scanty, both ou the borders of the harbour and in the town. The buildings extend along the quays, and straggle inland towards an open space, which is quickly walled in by a belt of pine-scrub, or by low wooded hills. But 20 miles to the north is the harbour of Saanetch, nearly opposite to the mouth of the Eraser River. Here a good anchor- age, completely sheltered, is girt by open land, and the port receives the River Covvitshin, which waters tho largest known plain in the island. About 20 miles further north is the harbour* of Nanaimo, which, owing * Grant. i: ! ^l; ml i I 136 VANCOUVER ISLAND. to tlio coal worked in its vicinity, has acquired great importance. Hero a pier enables several vessels at a time to load with coals. Some streams fitted to drive mills run into the harbour; but the amount of land available for settlers appears small. Numerous other harbours also occur in this district, whose capabilities are as yet unknown. Towards the extreme north is Fort Rupert, a post of the Hudson's Bay Company, on a small stream named Beaver River. It was hoped that coal in abuTidance would be obtained here, but the largest seam is only six inches thick. The country around, is, however, very well wooded, and much timber fitted for spars and masts has been exported. On the western side of the island are many fine inlets. Of these, both Nootka and Clayoquot Sounds contain well- sheltered' anchorages, but apparently have little open land, or valuable timber. The natives are heie most numerous ; and though very independent, and hostile if not treated with tact, have evinced a great desire to trade with Europeans. Barclay Sound, to the south of these,- is a broad opening, running inland 17 miles, with its entrance protected by islands, among which are con- venient roadsteads. According to native report an arm of the sea, or a navigable stream, 80 miles long, runs into the head of this bay, passing through a district where coal has been seen in the banks.* This is partly confirmed by the statement of an ofiicer of the Company, who crossed over to Nanaimo, and found an extensive lake near the centre of the island, girt by good and open iand.f Other anchorages occur at Port St. Juan and Soke, and around the latter is a small strip of rich prairie, and much fine timber. At the extreme south-eastern point of the island, and only six miles from Victoria, is the excellent land-locked harbour of Esquimalt. Great im- portance is attached to this inlet, for the following reasons. It is easily entered and left ; and within, the shipping are safe in all winds. The anchorage is good, and there is space for 12 ships of the line, and a large ♦ Grant. t Mr. Hope, quoted by Captain Ricliaids. Vancouver island. 137 ed great ;els at a to drive of land (US other ilities are I is Fort n a small t coal in 8t scam iH , however, spars and ine inlets, itain well- ttle open leie most hostile if re to trade ?f these,' is with its are con- rt an arm runs into ict where confirmed Iho crossed near the •t Soke, and airie, and n point of a, is the Great im- foUowing ithin, the is good, d a large Icliai'ds. number of a smaller class. The minor bays present facilities for the construction of wharves, and for docks also, with some small amount of excavation on account of the tides only rising to the height of 12 feet. It is, moreover, at the end of the sailing voyage from the Pacific, as baffling winds and strong currents prevail further up the strait, and will be met most economically by steamers. The entrance is also capable of being defended so that the harbour will be almost entirely secure even from the shells of an enemy. Against these advantages are the serious wants of available land and good water ; although it is true that a fine lake lies at a short distance to the westward, and that a narrow isthmus alone separates the harbours of Esquimalt and Victoria. Yet, notwithstanding these disadvantages, the port is of the greatest value, both to Vancouver Island and Colum- bia, and not improbably will become the point of departure for vessels continuing the trans- American communication with Asia and Australia. Industry. Vegetation. — The industry of this island is in a transition state. The Hudson's Bay Company em- ployed the natives at certain posts to cut timber and catch and cure fish. With the cessation of the Company's rule these occupatiom have been discontinued, and others have scarcely yet taken their places. The small extent of cultivable ground seems to forbid any great advance in agriculture, although the produce is very fine. Much more is to be expected from the prevalence of wood. Among the trees is the majestic Douglas fir (Abies Dotiglmii), of which a specimen has been found measur- ing 309 feet high, with its lower half perfectly free from branches. The timber of this tree is very valuable for spars and masts of the largest size. The cypress is useful for boat-building, and the red cedar is employed for a variety of purposes, as shingles, posts, and railings. The natives seldom cultivate anything except potatoes, which grow well and are of large size. These, and dried salmon, are their chief food, to which is sometimes added a root named " camass " as a dainty. It is a a small blue-flowered plant ( Camama esculenta), with an 138 VANCOUVER ISLAND. P 11 m . 1 ! onion-liko root, which is carefully stored for winter use. Among the other wild plants are cranberries, raspberries, and similar bushes wiiv^do fruit is eaten raw or pieserved. The Indian tea also occui'S, and the hemp-nettle produces a fibre which is likely to become a valuable article of export. Fisheries. — The most promising natural resources of Vancouver Island are, however, its fisheries and its mines. The salmon season is in August and September, and is the happiest time of the year for the natives. The fish then swarm up every stream and inlet in incredible numbers, and are taken both with net and spear. The next two months are those of the herring fishery. The shoals of this fish are sometimes so closely packed that the natives rake them into their canoes with a stick armed with crooked nails. Cod and halibut are common, and whales, porpoises, and dog-fish supply large quantities of oil. There is also a small fish called the oolachan, like a smelt, which occurs by myriads, and yields a fine oil used as butter by the Indians, and in the place of cod-liver oil by the whites. The Sandwich Islands and the neighbour- ing colony afford markets for dried and salted fish, which might also be largely exported to Australia. Minerals. Coai. — The precious metals are reported to exist in the island ; but if so, they have not yet drawn attention. Copper and rich iron ore more certainly occur, but at present coal is the best known mineral. This has been chiefly worked at Nanaimo, where there is a seam six feet thick. The coal is pronounced equal to that of Newcastle, although it gives out rather more smoke, and necessitates a more frequent cleaning of the flues of engines. The field is believed to extend two miles in every direction from Nanaimo, and there are other har- bours on the adjacent coast where coal is said to crop out in the cliffs. The same locality also possesses large brine springs, whence salt is manufactured to a small extent. Until the island becomes better populated, these re- sources do not admit of any great development. Such unforeseen mineral discoveries have, however, been made VANCOUVER ISLAND. 139 inter use. spberries, preserved. I produces article of sources of its mines, and is the J fish then numbers, e next two 3 shoals of he natives rmed with nd whales, es of oil. lan, like a le oil used kd-liver oil leighbour- fish, which reported yet drawn inly occur, This has IS a seam to that of moke, and flues of miles in other har- crop out sses large o a small these re- nt. Such »een made in this part of the world, that even the unauriferous aspect of the interior is insufficient to destroy the expectation of finding gold there. This metal occm:s in situ in the quartz rocks of Queen Charlotte Islands, which appear to have been once continuous with this. The population in 18G2 was estimated at 6000 whites and about 15,000 Indians, but the latter are rapidly diminishing. San Juan. — In the Gulf of Georgia lies considerable group of islands known as the San Juan Archipelago, but whether a dependoncy of Vancouver or not is still undecided. Its value consists in numerous excellent and capacious harbours. There are three passages through the archipelago from Juan de Fuca Strait to the Gulf. That on the west is Haro Strait, which, leaving the island of San Juan to the right, makes a sudden bend to the east. On the left side of this channel among the Satuma Islands, there is good shelter for a fleet, with easy access both by wind and steam. The nex j is the Middle Chan- nel, on the west of which is the fertile island of San Juan, and its good harbour in Griffin Bay ; and Stewart Island to the north, which also containy a snug shelter for steamers. The easternmost passage is Rosario Strait, where are several good chorales, especially in Orcas Island, the largest of thv. oup, in which are two noblo sounds with unobstructed entrances, and capable of pro- tecting the largest fleets. It is still in doubt through which of these channels the long-disputed boundary line shall pass. "When the Americans laid claim to Oregon, it was seen that the natural boundary between their territory and ours was the Oregon or Columbia River ; but from their pertinaciously demanding the whole coast up to lat. 55°, the line was settled as follows. It was to pass along tho 49th parallel till it reached the Gulf of Georgia, and then down the ship channel through the San Juan group, and along the middle of De Fuca Strait. When this came to be laid down, it was found that the 49th parallel passed to the north of Bellingham Bay, which the Ameri- can Exploring Expedition, under Lieutenant Wilkes, had discovered to possess the largest coal deposits on the n ; I' ! i s> 140 VANCOUVER ISLAND. coast, — a circumstance apparently unknown to our Com- niissioncrs. On proceeding to place the landmarks, the 4:9th parallel was also ascertained to reach the shores of the gulf at the head of Semiamoo Bay, just to the north of its only port, Drayton Harbour. It further cut off a few miles of the point ending in Cape Roberts, the north- western horn of this bay, and the Americans now con- tended that here the parallel first touched the gulf. After much discussion this was yielded ; the cost of a war being not to be compared to a few square miles of rocky wood- land, although the sole shelter for shipping in the vicinity was beneath its cliffs. But no sooner was the inter- national beacon erected, than the Haro Strait was claimed as the ship-channel of the treaty, and it was insisted that Point Roberts carried with it the San Juan group and all its fine harbours. These islands had always been re- garded as British territory, the ship-channel being Rosario Strait ; and when the Americans attempted to settle the dispute by occupying San Juan with an armed force, the judicious conduct of the British governor * alone prevented serious complications. This is the " San Juan difficulty," and pending its peaceful solution, a small English force is also placed upon the island. It is too late now to ask that the original intention of the treaty with regard to Rosario Strait should be carried out ; while no amount of previous concession will justify us in yield- ing the whole group. The generosity of the British nation will probably, therefore, offer to make the middle passage the boundary line, still giving to our neighbours the largest share of the islands, and the finest hai'bours in the archipelago. * Douglas. I to our Com- andmarks, the the shores of 5t to the north ther cut off a rts, the north- ans now con- e gulf. After of a war being ■ rocky wood- in the vicinity as the inter- t was claimed 3 insisted that group and all ays been re- lannel being attempted to vith an armed pernor* alone le " San Juan ;ion, a small ad. It is too of the treaty 3d out ; while y us in yield- ■ the British :e the middle ur neighbours aest harbours N"\ ii„ f ■ I ■I ^ i I: i ] ¥■ R<4>rft's Liinil 5lun;'.o-a5 t^rt^v' A^wi' uondo'i • OiU'ksh/ti by th^ l^i'^'' for )*■■ Unq Chnsdan A,X\.'>ririnf Rnycrt's I.jukI M H •^ .141 1 • ii ft fj O.T> .Slujl/".mi:5 t'trtV '■*•"''■' CHAPTER VII.— HUDftONS BAY COMPANY'S TERRITORY.— IIUPERT'S LAND.* Physical Geography: Granitic Plufoaii ; Lake Rrjjjion ; MudRivor; R«m1 River; Selkirk Settlement; l^oeunts ; Floods; High Pniirics and Plains; the Saskatchawan, Fertile belt of. — Trans.Conti- nental Route : Routes to Red River ; Rocky Mountuiu Pasaes ; the Qu'appello Valley. Expert's Land. The vast central region which constitutes three-fourths of British North America is called the Hudson's Bay Company's territory, and is known also by its lately- revived title of Rupert's Land. Some account of at least the southern portion of this large area is necessary here, in consequence of the great interest which belongs to the probability of a continental route being carried through it, and its separation as a new colony at no very distant period. Physical Geogp:aphy. — The most general characteristic of all the great physical features of this part of North America is their common direction from south-east to north-west. The only important break in the broad mass of the continent is Hudson's Bay. This inland sea is bounded on the south by the Lawrentian Mountains, whose extensions also surround its eastern and western sides. In the latter case it is a broad band of country which reaches the shores of the Arctic Ocean, and may be conveniently distinguished as the " Granitic Region.'* * Hind's ' Canadian Exploring Expedition in 1857-8 ;' Palliser's * Exploration of British North America ;' Isbister on North America, in ' Geological Quarterly Journal,' xi., 1855, &c. 142 RTIPKUT 8 LAND, !■ It: • \r I H West of tliifl iH a panillcl tract, fonning tlio lowest part (»f tlio interior of tliu continent, marked l)y an almost (■ontinnouH series of lakes, extending 1500 miles from Jjake Superior to (Jreat Bear Lake, some of them, as Lakes Winnepeg and Athabasca, being of larger size. This is ( ininently the " Lake Kegion." Beyond it are tlio *' Prairies " and the " Plains," rising in successive though slow steps to the base of the Koeky Mountains, whoso crest forms the western boundary of the territory in ques- tion ; and it mil be seen, on referring to a map, that tho longer axes of all the main divisions now sketched out extend toward tho north-west. Important ditfereuces of surface and composition dis- tinguish these sections frcmi each other, wliich will bo 2)oiuted out in the following remarks, and their economic relations indicated. The Granitic Plateau. — Tho Granite Region is a low jdatcau formed of crystalline metamorphic rocks, through which there have been numerous erupti(ms of granite. The gncissic strata first rise in ill defined ter- races toward the " Height of Land " about 00 miles north of Lake Superior, and 1)00 feet above it, and then fall in broader irregularities of surface both toward the north, and also from their eastern edge in tho directi(m of Lake Winnepeg. The granitic intnisions form uneven rounded knolls, seldom more than 150 or 200 feet higlicr than tho general undulations. These often show distinctly tho scratched marks which geologists account for by referring them to the grounding of ancient icebergs ; and some are rubbed so smooth, and arc so bare of vegetation, that there is no foothold on their gentle slopes. So numerous aro these bosses, that tho whole country appears full of them. From one of the highest on Hill River, no less than 86 can be counted, all repeating tho same low curves, and, too frequently, similar naked surfaces. Another promi- nent feature of this region is tho intricate network of streams and lakes thrown over it. Undulations at right angles to tho strike of tho strata have ruffled their sur- face, and have impressed their own direction on that of the lines of drainage. Hence everywhere • the main west part II almost lefl from ilioin, as zo. This are tho '0 though IB, whoso ' in qiics- , that tho tchcd out lition (lls- h will 1)0 economic ion is a lie rocks, ipti(m8 of ;iinc(l tcr- ilcs north lon fall in north, and of Lako n rounded V than tho inctly the referring some are that thcro lerous aro 1 of them. is than 3G rves, and, er promi- 3t\vork of at right their sur- )n that of lie main RUPERTS L49il>. 143 rivers run across tho plateau frv)m south-west to north- east in IxmIh which, thoU|^h (»nly half worn, in con- sequence of the unequal harduesH of tho rocks, aro yet from (50 to IU)() fcict deep, and ar(i hounded hy crags of tho wildest aspect. The uneven bottom of tho streams is the (!ause of frequent rapids anot-crops flourish. Unfortmiately, there is no market. Carelesy- ness is the result. A " native " grows wheat enough in one year to serve him for two, and lets his fields lie fallow in consequence ; he drives his sheep over the border, and does not replenish his stock, as he has no sale at home for lucat or wool. First appearances are favour- able to tlie settlement. Substantial stone houses, the steeple of St. John's Church, and the conspicuous tin- covered spires of St. Boniface's Cathedral, arouse expecta- ti^:^ns of prosperity which are not realized on a nearer acquaintance, not for want of any natural advantages, but solely because there is no sufficient population to create an energy that shall tm'n to profit the unbounded capa- bilities of the district. Until the settlement is brought into more easy commu- Hind. *« •oiling w.* •st at- olkirk, idson's iuence. severe aspects ulation lio are an the and in display prairie tlie in- Dcril of dll and md, the elds 40 p and ceeded er hun- ^t-crops larelesa- 3ngh in Ids lie ver the no sale favour- 3es, the :)iis tin- Bxpccta- ncarer ges, but ) create id capa- commu- Ec RUPERT S LAND. 149 nication with the rest of the world, its resources must continue dormant. Fort Gany is COO miles from Luke Superior, and the difficulties of the journey enhance the cost of carriage still further. Two serious drawbacks also exist. The first is the occasional visitation of im- mense swarms of the red-legged locust, which consume the green crops, and indeed attack almost everything except india-rubber clothing. Their multitudes dim the sun's light ; flying at the height of 200 feet, the motion of their wings rustics like the leaves of a forest stirred by a gentle breeze : a degree of cold which freezes mercury has no eifect on their eggs ; and so formidable is this insect-pestilence, that it may be a grave hindrance to settlement in the Western Prairies. The ui)per part of lied lliver, including nearly half the occupied portion of its banks, is also liable to spring floods, due to the melt- ing of the snow. No loss of life is recorded from this cause, but the inhabitants have been at times obliged to take refuge on the more elevated spots and ridges of the valley ; and haystacks, farm implements, furniture, and even barns, have been carried off by the waters. The rise does not continue long, but the mischief done is sometimes considerable, and the country is too level to admit of a remedy. The floods do not extend far from the river, nor do they affect the lower parts of the settle- ment; and there is, therefore, abundance of available land beyond their influence. The last flood of conse- quence happened in 1852, and one in 1826 caused much alarm. High Prairies. Plains. — Westward of the Lake Region now described lie the High Prairies and the Plains. These are successive terraces of large area, rising abruptly from the lower levels, and almost equally flat. The height of the first is 1100 feet above the sea, or 470 feet higher than the Lake district ; and that of the second is 500 feet more. The Plains of Rupert's Land are con- tinued from those of the United States, where they form the extensive region of permanently barren land, which lies to the east of the Rocky Mountains, and which is crossed by .the upper courses of the Missouri and its i'. l:l^ il ! t P'i-. I i: U. i K fir I 150 KUrEKT S LAND. afBucnts, ^vith no much loss of water from absorption and evaporation. Its north-eastern limit is called the Grand Coteau do Missouri, from it^ being traceable for 3S0 miles nearly parallel to that river, and about 50 uiiles from it. It enters British territory at the 103rd iner.'dian, whence it takes a N.W. direction to " the Elbow ' of fhe south branch of the Saskatchawan ; and a proiongiition of the Plain district reaches to the north of this branch, as far as lat. 52^. This Grand Cotoau is a series of precipitous hills, often extremely steep, preserving a uni- form height, and everywhere varied by projctting pro- montories and re-entering bays, exactly like, what in fact it iBj the bold shore of some ancient ocean. Above thib abrupt boundary, and stretcliing to the foot of the moun- tains, is the arid, treeless, table-land, among the scanty vegetation of whicls. a cactus is the most prontiaent plant, and the Indian tirnip the most useful.* Eank herbage occui's only in the shallow depressions ; but in summer the short, nutritious buffalo grass (Sysleria dactyl oicles) is sufficient to maintain large herds of buffalo, which seek to escai)e the hunter by retiring to these feeding groimds of the Far West. From beneath the Grand Coteau the true Prairici extends eastward, with an imperceptible incline towards the lines of drainage. It terminates in a similar abrupt manner in a curve, which is found about 30 miles from the banks of the Eed River, and from the shores of Lake Manitobah. In the former case, its edge composes the rapidly rising terraces, which are dignified by the title of the Pembina Mountains, from the summit of which the prairie takes its departure. But west of Manitobah Lake, it assumes the form of several hill ranges, called the Riding, Duck, and Porcupine Mountains. These slope gently towards the valley of the Assinniboine and prairie beyond it ; but their eastern flanks present bold escarpments and irre- gular bluffs, repeating in exact counterpart the outlines of * Psoraha esailenfa ; Papilionaceai. It is a small root, which the Indians eat raw, boiled, roasted, and poimdcd, and made into soup Tliey also ont it into slices, and when thied, pack it iu bags oi buffalo-skin for winter use. — Ilind. of on and Grand or 380 ) inilus 3rjper plateau extended thus lar, and that these hills now marli the sea-board of an ocean still more ancient than that which washed the Grand Coteau. Detached patches of the higher table-land now rise like islands out of the level prairie, such as the Turtle Moun- tain (lat. 49°, long. 100'), and the Touchwood Hills, about 70 miles west of the Duck Mountains. The northern limit of the Prairie llegion may be placed apon the low water-shed which skirts the North Sas- katchawan, and divides its basin from that of the Mackenzie River. Here it is bounded by the so-called " strong woods " which occui' in this latitude. The North and the Main Saskatchawan flow through a country of surprising fertility, now densely wooded, and now covered with the finest pasture, over which clumps of trees are scattered, presenting park-like scenery equal to the most admired at home. Continuing southward, young aspens and small oaks gradually assimilate the country to the treeless aspect of the plains. The sad evidences of devastating fires are everywhere manifest in the charred stems of magnificent trees, and sometimes whole forests of dead trunks standing out of the vigorous second growth of aspens. And it is all but proved that at one time timber covered the whole prairie, and that its gradual retrocession, still going on, is owing to the frequent and wide-spread fires. This destruction is too often the result of the wilful and improvident habits of the Indians, who ca,nnot comprehend the consequences of their con- duct ; and thus true " prairio " is converted into bare, aud not seldom sterile " plain." Rivers. — On the Riding Mountains and their asso- ciated hills are fine forests of white spruce, birch, &c. They cover the western slopes ; and the spruce especially abounds upon the flattish summit of the ranges, in size fit for the purposes of the lumberer. These forests are estimated to cover 3500 square miles; and numerous streams will facilitate the descent of the timber to Lake 152 RUPERTS LAND. k\i man I tm I Manitobah and the Assinniboine. The lower parts towards this river are among the most attractive portions of the whole region, and luxuriant grasses, roses, vetches, and gaudy wild flowers attest the richness of its soil. Nearer the Assinniboine, the land becomes sandy ; but both the banks of the main stream and those of its feeders are heavily wooded with balsam-poplar, aspen, and ash-leaved maple. The Saskatchawan is the most important tributary of Lake Winnepeg, which it enters through Cedar Lake near its north-west corner. The North and South branches of this noble river rise within a short distance of each other in the Rocky Mountains, and after flowing with many windings for 700 miles, they unite in long. 105° W., near Fort a la Corne, and form the "Main" stream, which has a further length of 340 miles. For at least 800 miles from its mouth, this river is navigable for boats not drawing more than four feet of water. At the Elbow, the South Branch is 600 yards wide, with a channel 10 feet deep ; and 200 miles further up. Captain Palliser, in August 1858, was compelled to swim his horses across it. The North Branch presents the same advantages, the Company's heavy bateaux ascending as far as Fort Ed- monton, in long. 113° W. At Fort a la Corne, with a width contracted to 320 yards, there is a mean depth of 20 feet, and except at the Grand Kapids, below Cedar Lake, there is no obstacle to the passage of steaniors of suitable build and power ; such, for instance, as the small powerful vessels which ascend the Missouri to Fort Benton, 3120 miles above its entrance into the Missis- sippi. Fertile Belt of the Saskatchawan.— -For the last 50 miles of its course, the South Branch runs through a spruce-laden, rich tract of country, forming part of the broad fertile belt which extends from the Red River by the Assinniboine and the North Branch to Fort Edmonton, and thence southward, past the ruins of Bow Fort, to the boundary. It is on this belt that Captain Palliser esti- mated there were 65,000 square miles of improvable land ; and Mr. Hind, that 11,000,000 acres consisted of arable land of the best quality, and probably as much more of a V RUPERTS LAND. 153 pastoral character. As suitable areas for settleincut, in addition to those above mentioned, the latter explorer recommends a very extensive tract around the Grand Forks of the Saskatchawan, reaching up both branches for a considerable distance ; and another having the Touchwood Hills for its centre. There are Hudson's Bay Company's posts at Carlton House, Fort Pitt, and Fort Edmonton ; and at the latter wheat returns 20 bushels to the acre with very indifferent farming. Potatoes and I vegetables succeed ; and, to an artist's eye, the neighbour- hood of the Fort is more like a beautiful flower-garden than wild land.* There are about 150 persons living at this station who, in the absence of buffalo meat, supply themselves with abundance of fish from St. Ann's Lake, 50 miles to the west. Towards the mountains are low wooded ridges, poplar growing on their western, and spruce on their eastern slopes. The upper part of the Eed Deer River is similarly well timbered, and a site for a settlement has been found in its neighbourhood. On this river occur also beds of coal, 12 feet thick in the aggregate,! and apparently of better quality than the dull- burning ashy mineral used at Fort Edmonton. Lignite is also known to underlie the Rocky Mountains through- out a great extent ; and iron ore is abundant on various parts of the Saskatchawan, and other streams in the bp,«in of Lake Winnepeg. To these resources must be added salt, lime, gypsum, and gold. When, besides, we recdll the agricultural capabilities of this district, and its fine water- way in the large river which drains it, there is assuredly reason to congratulate ourselves on possessing the only fertile region in the continent, which extends across it from east and west, and is so well adapted to become a new colony, uniting those on the shores of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The apparent history of this exceptional fertility is an interesting chapter in physical geography. We can here only indicate the nature of the connection between cause * Keane, * Rambles of an Artist.* t Dr, Hector found this coal on fire in the cliff. The Indians Bay it is never extinguished. 154 RUPERTS LAND. i I ; I and effect, by the briefest statements. A vertical section of the Ilocky Mountains show s that this system consists essentially of a broad plateau of comparatively moderate height, upon which stand the parallel ranges which com- pose the summit. In the United States the plateau is broad, and the surmounting chains ai'e uniformly of great altitude. Hence the warm, moist winds from the Pacific are so chilled and dried in passing across this barrier, that the arid plains to the east of it are the consequence. But between north lat. 47° and 4y°, the plateau up to 5000 feet, instead of being 700 and 800 miles wide, is less than 250, and the mean height of the ranges is also diminished from 9000 to nearly GOOO feet as they cross the international boundary. Through this depression in the mountain chain the beneficent south-west winds make their way, retaining sufficient moisture to fertilize the country to the eastward : and the area of rainfall is then determined by the meeting of these warm currents of air with the prevailing north-east winds, when the former are so much cooled that they deposit the copious supplies of rain and hail which moisten the valley of Lake Winnepeg. In a similar manner the Red River Basin receives mois- ture from the south winds, which ascend the Mississippi and readily overflow the low watershed which alone inter- venes. Thus, while the winters are undoubtedly very severe, — for instance, the winter mean of 1856 was — 6'85° Fah. — the mild spring and autumn, and the comparative humidity of the summer point out the reason why Indian corn and melons ripen in the open air, and all agricultural operations may be conducted with success. Trans-continental Route. — The question of a route across the continent in British territory is rapidly becoming of great importance. The future of Columbia and Vancouver Island depends upon it. So does the peopling, and probably the preservation, of the extensive fertile tracts above described. These central regions present no obstacle to the formation of roads, and the Saskatchawan is navigable for the greater part of its coui'se. But the difficulties occur when the attempt is made to cross the Rocky Mountains ou one side, and to nUPERTb A.AND. 155 section jonsists oderiite li com- icau is if great Pacific barrier, quence. L up to wide, is ; is also 3y cross isiou in Is make Lize the is then ,s of air •mer are )plies of nnepeg. s mois- sissippi le inter- ly^ very ) was and the 3 reason air, and success. a route rapidly olumbia oes the ^tensive regions and the of its empt is and to open an easy communication bct^\cen Lake Superior and the Kcd liivcr on the otlier. And it is in the latter section of the country, occupied by the Granite Region, that the real obstruction to a through route exists. At present there are two lines of communication which meet at a point situated a few miles to the cast of Rainy Lake, and thence passing through the Lake of the Woods, and down the River Winnepeg, the journey is contii iied up the Red River to Fort Garry. Of the two lines, one leaves Lake Superior at Fort William, and runs northwards and west- wards through Dog Lake, from whence it derives its title. The other is the Pigeon River route, which pursues a course through lakes and portages along the boundary lino. It is somewhat shorter than the former, has more lake navigation, and was the chosen route of the North- west Company. Its gi'cat drawback is a steep ascent at the commencement, of eight miles in length ; but this it is proposed to obviate by a tramroad from Fort William to Arrow Lake, near the boundary line : and if further, as it has been suggested, a good road 100 miles long were opened, running direct from the north-west corner of the Lake of the Woods to Fort Garry, the entire distance would be shortened by nearly 150 miles, and the time required for the journey reduced from the 20 or 30 days now occupied to a maximum period of six.* It may be doubted, however, whether the best line of road is yet known ; and it would need a very great improvement on the present route to enable it to compete with the almost ready-made and convenient one from the United States, passing directly down the valley of the Red River. Eocky Mountain Passes. — The explorations of Captain Palliser and Dr. Hector have shown that practicable passes exist in the Rocky Mountains at a lower elevation than any that occur in the United States for hundreds of miles south of the boundary. Of these passes the Ver- milion and Kananaski appear to be the most important yet discovered. The South Saskatchawan is formed of two branches, the main one being the Bow River, and the * Dickinson's Report to Mr. Hiud. In • Blue Book,' Aug. 18G0. 156 RUPERTS LAND. ? ! . I Boutlicm tlio Railway or BoUy River. On the main stream are the ruins of Bow Fort, near lonf», 115°. This spot is 4100 feet above the sea, and is in the midst of bald mountains rising by inaccessible cliffs 3000 and 4000 feet higher. Through these for 80 miles the valley of Bow River rises almost imperceptibly, but much overgrown with timber, to the Vermilion Pass. This is a wide valley in lat. 51" 8', whoso enclosing mountains have exchanged the slaty ridges of the outer ranges for huge masses of white and pink sandstone. The greatest height is 4940 feet. The pass issues on the western side upon the Vermilion River, a tributary of the Kutanie. It is on this descent that an important geological phenome- non presents itself. All the inner valleys of the moun- tains have been filled up with a singular deposit of rounded i boulders, sand, and gravel, sometimes loose, sometimes cemented by lime into a solid mass. It is this which makes the ascent on the eastern side so uni- formly easy, since where it is most worn away a terrace remains, along which the road is carried. But from the western slopes this deposit has been completely swept, with the single known exception of the Vermilion Valley, and in consequence this pass may be easily made practi- cable for waggons. After reaching the Kutanie, the route passes up that stream to its source and that of the Beaver Foot, a small feeder of the Columbia, which occur in a swamp covered with the yellow water-lily ; thence, it descends the latter river and runs westward to the Thompson, and Fort Kamloops in British Columbia. Returning again to Old Bow Fort, the reader will find on the maj) a small stream rising towards the south-west. By following this river to its source. Captain Palliser passed through a winding gorge, shut in by tremendous precipices, up to Kananaski Pass, 5985 feet above the sea : he then descended on the opposite side upon the Kutanie, whence, as he learned from some Indians, there is an easy road to the boundary, and westward probably to the Simalkameen Valley. He met no obstacle save that arising from fallen timber, the result of fires by lightning ; and when strongly recommending this pass as suitable for RUPERTS LAND. 157 iO mam . This miidst of )00 and ios the lit much This is )UTitains iges for greatest orn side nie. It tienome- e moun- posit of 3 loose, }. It is ) so uni- , terrace Prom the Y swept, Valley, 8 practi- nie, the t of the ch occur thence, to the )la. will find ith-west. Palliser mendous the sea: Kutanie, an easy to the ave that ^htning ; table for a railroful, ho remarks, tliat by a short tunnel the eleva- tion of the summit level may be lowered to 4 GOO feet. 0th or authorities seem to prefer for this purpose the Biitish Kutanie Pass, further south, in lat. 49^ 20'. This is 4.0 miles long, through thick woods, with occasional marshes and* sudden descents, and has a maximum height of 6100 feet.* Also, more to the north than any of the above. Dr. Hector passed from the broad valley of the North Saskatchawan through a Cfmntry presenting no other hindrance than dense woods, to within a distance of 60 miles of the " Boat Encampment," on the northern bend of the Columbia. At this point he was obliged to retreat, in consequence of his provisions failing : but there is much reason to think that this opening may be found to offer greater facilities for a road than any yet explored. Q,u'appelle Valley. — In connection with these specu- lations, a singular physical feature of the Great Prairie demands attention. Stretching from " the Elbow " of the South Branch almost due east to the Assinniboine at Fort Ellice, is a valley named, after the chief stream flowing through it, the Qu'appelle.f Its highest point is only 12 miles distant from the Saskatchawan, and but 80 feet above it. Here is a lake from which the water runs both to the "swift-flowing river," and eastward to the Qu'appelle. The valley itself is a deep excavation, rarely exceeding a mile in width, but from 150 to 300 feet below the level of the prairie, and having hollows in its bed filled with lakes 60 feet deeper. Its extraordinary canal-like character has suggested to Mr. Hind the bold idea of turning the waters of the South Branch into it, either by a cutting through the " height of land " 80 feet deep, or by a dam across the Saskatchawan of a like height. While en- deavouring to appreciate the great advantages of such a wonderful canal as this would then be, yet (having the * Arrowsmith's Map, in Blue Book on British Columbia, part ii., 1859. t A solitary Indian descending this valley heard a voice calling him. He answered and searched around, but failed to find any one. Hence the Cree name, Katapaywic fcepe, Quappelle, or " Who calls?" liiver.— Hind. 158 RUPERTS LAND. f: fato of the Ganges caaal * before us) wo must express a doubt as to whether the water of the Saskatchawan would be sufficient to fill it. It may be observed, however, that the freedom from fires incident to the spread of settle- ments would restore much of the forest to the now bare prairie, and conduce to increased quantities of rain. The construction of a ready means of passing across ihe continent, by whatever plan effected, cannot fail to be of the utmost consequence, not only to our North Ameri- can possessions, but also to the colonies of Australia, and to the trade of China and Japan, to all which countries it will offer the shortest route from England. At the same time, with the golden treasures of Columbia at one end, the vast resources of Canada and the eastern colonies at the other, and the fast-developing agriculture of the central regions, such a route would seem to promise reciprocal advantages to its projectors. (I * Part ill. ii-^ [press a Q would '^er, that ■ settle- ow bare 1. ; across til to be Ameri- lia, and itries it be same me end, mies at ) central siprocal INDEX TO PAKT I. Agrictlture of Canada . New Brunswick Newfoundland Nova Scotia . Prince Edward's Island Alewife, or Gaspereau (Alosa tyrannus) Animal life in British Columbia, its scarcity Annapolis .... Anticosti Island Arnprior, its marbles Ash, White {Fraxinus Americanus) Assinniboine Kiver . Bay of Fotdy Tides of . . . Benzine ..... British Columbia Climate of . . . Eivers .... Gold of . Mountains Population Routes to interior . . Bokhara clover, fibre from Buffalo-grass (Sysleria dadyloides) Butternut, or White Walnut (Jtiglans einerea Button- Wood tit^e {]?lautanus occidentalis) Canada Climato ..... Conmiorco .... E'io Plain . . ^ % General Doncription GiMilo^jr .... Industry , i . . Lawrentian Plulu«|( . , ) 54 PAGE 40 67 110 S3 100 00 129 74; 84 31 37 33 146; 152 57; 66; 73 . 78 39 . 117 . 128 . 120 . 130 . 118 . 133 . 126 (note) 8.T . 150 03 . 23 3 . 43 . 47 . 7 4 . 82 . 11 IGO INDEX. B.n I ml U: i Canada —continued. PAGE Manufactures 46 Population . 45 St. Lawrence Kiver . . 19 South Section . 17 Camasa {Camassia esculenta) . 137 Cape Breton Island . 79; 82 Cariboo .... . 132 Chaleur Bay . 55 Charlotte Harbour . 97 Town .... 98; 103 Chaudiere Falls 13; 35 River . 18 Cheputneticook Lakes . 55 Chicago, St. Lawrence route to . 50 Climate of British Columbia . 128 Canada . 43 New Brunswick . 68 Newfoundland . Ill Nota Scotia . . 81 Prince Edward's Island . 100 Red River . 154 Coal, Bellingham Bay- . 139 New Brunswick . 69 Nova Scotia . 75 ; 90 Red Deer River . 153 Vancouver Island . 136; 138 Cobequid Mouutahis . 73 Collingwood . 23 Derby .... • . 123 Dog-fish oil . » • 88; 138 Dogwood ( Cornus florida) . • . 33 Dorchester, high tides at . • . 61 Earth-oil 38; 70; 91 Eastern Townships, Canada . 19 Edile MoUusca, Halifax • B . (note; 89 Eel-spearing, Prince Edward's Is land , . 99 Erie Peninsula . • . 7; 23; 41 E.squi 111 lilt f . 136 Expui iH—see Importx. Ferry on the Eraser River, self-acting . . . ,124 Ftrtile Belt on the Saskatchawan River . 152 Fir, Silver {Af/ies halsamea) . 64 Fisheri«H of Canada .... . 36 Lake Superior . 21 New Brunswick » • . 65 PAGE . 46 . 45 . 19 . 17 . 137 79; 82 . 132 . 55 . 97 98 ; 103 13; 35 . 18 . 55 . 50 . 128 . 43 . 68 . Ill . 81 . 100 . 154 . 139 . 69 75; 90 . 153 36; 138 73 23 123 88; 138 . 33 . 61 70; 91 . 19 (note; 89 . 99 ; 23; 41 . 136 124 152 64 30 21 65 INDEX. Fisheries of Canada— cmtinued, Newfoundland Nova Scotia . Prince Edward's Island Flax .... Forests, Fires in of Canada . of New Brunswick of Nova Scotia of Riding Mountains of Vancouver Island Fort Garry William Fraser River Fredericton Furs of Nova Scotia Gaspe .... Ginsenoj ( Panax G-inseng) . Grand Coteau de Missouri . Grand Falls on St. John's River, Grand Manan Island Gold .... New Hackmatac {Larix Americana) ...... 62 Hahfax 77 ; 88 ; 89 Climate of ........ 81 Hamilton ......... 10 Hickory fCarya aZ&a) ....... 33 Hudson's Bay Company's Territory — see Rupert's Land. Brunswick 161 rAGB . 112 . 87 99 42 ; 68 ; 85 . 64 7 ; 15 ; 23 ; 32 . 61 . 85 . 151 . 137 146, 147 21; 155 . 120 60,61 . 86 18; 31 . 98 . 150 . 58 54; 66 93; 130; 153 " Ice-jam " on St. John's River Ice in St. Lawrence River . Imports and Exports of Canada New Brunswick Newfoundland Nova Scotia . Prince Edward's Island Indian Summer Intervales JoGGiss, fossil coal-plants at Origin of name Kakabeka Falls Kaministiquia River Kananaski Pass Kingston Kutanie Pass . . 69 45; 81 36 ; 42 ; 47 65; 70 . 115 SQ; 89 ; 90 ; 92 ; 93 98; 99; 103 44; 69; 101 67 ; 79 ; 84 . 75 . 75 . 22 . 21 . 156 27; 42 . 157 M 162 INDEX. Edward's Island Labrador Laku Committee's Pimch Bowl Erie . . Huron . OntJirio . St. John's, Canada Superior t of the Thousand Islands Region of Rupert's Land Winnepeg Lakes Allumettes Harrison and Lilooett Lund, division of, in Canada Price of. in New Brunswick Nova Scotia Early Allotment in Prince Lawrentian Mountains Linnxa borealis Lobster-catching at Halifax Locusts in Rupert's Land . Lunenburg, guld at . Lytton .... Maple (Acer saccharinum) Ash-leaved {Negundo fraxinifolium) Sugar . . Marmora, its iron Mars Hill, New Brunswick May-flower {Epigea repens) Minerals of Canada . New Brunswick Newfoundlnnd Nova Scotia . Prince Edward's Island Miramichi River Montmorenci Falls Montreal . Nanatmo, coal at Nepisiquit River Nerepis Hills . New Brunswick Boundaries of Climate . Industry Lowlands MoM'itains St. John's River PAOB 110; 115 118 23 22 27 17 20; 43 27 145 145 12 119; 126 41 67 84 104 11; 141 76 ^9 149 77; 93 . 124 46; 64 . 147 46; 64; 98 . 37 52; 55 . 75 . 37 . 69 . Ill . 90 . 96 55; 61 . 30 23 ; 43 ; 45 136; l.-^S 55; 61 57 51 52 68 61 57 55 58 INLBX. 163 Newfoundland . Agriculture of Climate Coasts . Fisheries, and their history- New Westminster Niagara Falb . Nova Scotia Climate of Harbours Industry . North-west Section . Population South-east Plateau . Oak, White {Querem alba) . Oolachan oil . Ottawa Country Eiver . Parapfine Candles Passes of the Kocky Mountains Pembroke Peticoudiac River Pictou .... Pine, Douglas (Abies Bourjlasii) Red {Films resinosa) White, or Weymouth (P. strobus) Plains of Rupert "s Land Pot-ashes Pi-airies of Rupert's Land Prince Edward's Island Agriculture of Fisheries ' Manufactures Physical Geography Population Vegetation Qu'appelle Valley Quebec . Quirpon . RECiPRoaTY Treaty Red River Restigouche River Rice, Wild {Zizania Aquatica) Richelieu River . . FAGB . 106 . 110 . Ill . 107 . 112 • . 121 ■ < . 23 1 1 72 1 ( 81 1 1 77 1 4 83 fl 73 1 82 ■ 75 23 t 4 138 14 12 ; 34 . 40 . 155 . 13 54; 61 . 91 122; 137 33; 62 33; 62 . 149 36; SQ . 150 . 95 . 100 . 99 . 102 . 95 . 103 . 98 . 157 30; 42 . 109 48; 8£ 1; 103; 114 , , . 146 • • 55; 61 « 143; 145 • • • 18 ICd INDEX. m! Kideau Catial . 10 H Riding Mountains ^ . 14G n liocky Mountains ] : 118; 154 R Parses in 118; 155 Hf Route through British North America . 154 n Rupert 8 Land ...... . 141 1 Fertile Belt of ... . . 152 1 ', Granitic Plateau . . . 142 Hi ' Lake Region . 145 ft; Plains . 149 Prairies . 1.50 9l f 1 Trans-Continental Route . . 154 f FvPLE Island . . . ... . 80 1 i o ;.enay River . 15 .! j teuu Juan Arcljipelago . . . i:)9 p i BawVatchawan River . . . . . : ' Selkirk Settlement . 152 . 148 ■■ ■ ,-■• . 66 Ji uil? uuikling of Canada .... . 36 ^ New Brunswick .... . 70 f 1 Nova Scotia . 94 f ! Prince Edward's Island . . 98 1 "Silver Dew" . 81 fc,^, ^]piuce, ilavalock {Abies Canadensis) . . 62 Pll St. i^rancis River p * 8 St. Jvihn's Harbour, New Brunswick . . 18 . 54 P River . 58 f City, Newfoundland . 107 |i St. Lawrence River ..... 19; 50 1 ( St. Maurice River . 17 f Sydney, Cape Breton Island . 80 Tatamagouche, Oysters of . 89 11 Teat Indi&n [Ledum latifolium) ^ . , . 144 '' hahrfidor {L. paluscn] . 99; 144 [^ Thompson River .... . 125 »|| Three Rivers . . . . 17; 37 H»ji Thunder Bay . 21 "ffl ' j Timber slides . 35 ^Ii' Trade of Canada 23: 32 |1|| New Brunswick . . 62 ! • ' Nova Scotia . . 85 Prince Edward's Island . 98 Tobique Mountains .... . 55 Toronto 11; 27: 42 Bill li Trees, their relation to their habitat . '. (note") 6; 32; 64; 85 1 11 j Trent River • . 11 • INDEX. PAGK . 10 Tmro . . . . . . 146 Tulip tree ( Lhlodendrm tvlipifera) 8; 154 Turnip, Indian {Psoralea eseukuta) 8; 155 . 154 Vancouver Island . . . . . 141 Coastaof . , . . . 152 Fisheries . . . ' . 142 Minerals . . , * . 145 Vegetation . . . .' . 149 Vermilion Pass . . . '. . 150 Victoria, Vancouver Island . '. . 154 Victoria Bridge, Montreal . . 80 Walnut, black (Jug'iam nigra) . 15 White, or Butternut" (/. cinerea) Welland Canal . . . . . i:}9 . 152 Wheat, returns of for Canada . . 148 Fort Edmonton, Rupert's Land 66 Karaloops, British Columbia 36 New Brunswick 70 Nova Scotia . . , . 94 Prince Edward's Island . 98 Selkirk, Rupert's Land . 81 White Mud River . . . . fi2 Windsor . 18 Woodstock . . * 1 i . 54 . 58 . 107 19; 50 . 17 . 80 . 89 . 144 39; 144 . 125 17; 37 . 21 . 35 23; 32 . 62 . 85 . 98 . 55 27; 42 64; 85 . 11 1G5 Paob 73 23 150 134 135 138 138 137 156 135 28 33 63 22; 49 41 153 126 67 83 101 148 146 73; 86 . 60 , ( rf' LONUOX: PUINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFOBD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.