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I 
 
 ( 
 
 Some Temperatures in the Great Lakes and 
 
 St. Lawrence. 
 
 J , I , •• • , • • 
 
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(Reprinted from the Canidia.v Rkcord or Scikncb. Vol. IV., No. 2, April, 1»!K». 
 
 Some Temperatures in the Great Lakes and 
 
 St. Lawrence. 
 
 By a. T. Duummond. 
 
 The 0(|uulizing inHuence exerted by giea( aii(i deep bodies 
 of water uj)on the climate of the* siUTOundiiig land is well 
 known. Apart from this general result, the temperature of 
 the water has also a direct eflect. On the banks of the 
 Lower St. Lawrence these two effects are well illustrated. 
 Where the cold Labrador current, trending inward f/om the 
 Straits of Belle Uv, skirts the north shore of the estuary, 
 the little semi-arctic plants are more numerous than on the 
 south shore, where the same current returning outwards 
 carries with it the mihler waters which have descended 
 from the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence. Lake Superior, 
 around whose jutting headlands dwell serai-arctic and 
 northern plants, and west of whoso coasts many of the 
 familiar forest trees of Ontario and Quebec do not range, 
 affbi-ds another illustration. 
 
 The vast area and depth of the St. Lawrence Great Lakes, 
 the diffei-ent latitudes in which they lie, and their relations 
 to each other, taken in connection with the extremes of 
 heat and cold of the Canadian seasons, combine to give an 
 interest to the temperature of the waters of these inland 
 
 IS.!*.-, .'.^■.^ii, ...... ..-'.raffli,- 
 
78 
 
 Canadian Rectml of Srietwe. 
 
 I 
 
 seUH. Lakes Suponor and Mii-lii/fan may be n'<,'urdetl jih 
 two diMtinct roworvoirs — the t'ormor ol'cold and tlio latter of 
 warinoi- water --which con«titute the hu'^ont sources of HUp- 
 ply f(»r tlto lower (ireat Lakes. liind tbund the surface of 
 Lak»' Superior (»ti ."{Olh .Inly, at noon, :i« low as .'Jtf.SO^ at 
 titty mi li>s from limd. The oiitlet« of these two lakeM into 
 Ijiko Huron ai-e close to each other, the Michigan watei'8 
 tlowini; directly into the main hasin of f^ake Huron, and 
 llie colder waleis from Sujierior. while joiniu!; them in part 
 (htouf^li I lie detours lietween the Manitoulin Islands, appear- 
 ing; .n part also to find theii- way eventually t(» thedeorgian 
 B.\y 'y the channels north of the s ine islands. Now, Jiake 
 Huron in its profound depths forms three groat basins — 
 the (Jooivciain Bay, the (central and the Southern IJasins. 
 The (leoi'^ian May is separated from the Central Basin, not 
 only l»y the Bi'iico Peninsida, hut !>y a continuous sub- 
 aqueous ridijo which comes to the surface in islands at dif- 
 ferent points, whilst under water it presents on the one side 
 bold precipitous dills facing the (Jeorgian Ba}*, and on the 
 other, shelves somewhat -ixradually towards the deeper 
 waters of the Central liasin. This ridge pi-events the free 
 interehangc of water between the deeper portions of the 
 (Jeoigian Bay and Jjake Huron proper, and makes the for- 
 mer H somewhat isolated basin of cold water without any 
 considerable free current of wai-mer water Howing into and 
 through it. This isolation aids in retaining in the Bay the 
 colder walers which have iiccumulated there during the 
 wintei months. Thus, whilst the surface in July and 
 August may be as high as 65° K., the bottom lompeniture 
 at 3 1 fathoms antl upwards, varies between 3!>.5*^ and 37.75° F. 
 The Central and Southern basins of Lake Huron, on the 
 other taiid, are .separatt'd by the sub-aqueous corniferous 
 escarpment which diagonally ci'osses the lake in a south- 
 eastern direction from the outlet of Lake Michigan, and 
 which also appears to have its olfect on free cii'culation 
 between the deeper waters of these twu basins. In the 
 Central basin, at the bottom in 65 tiithoms the temperature in 
 July was 4-^' F., whilst in the Southern basin at the bottom 
 
Tf^m/ifrntures of Great Laha and St. Ltiwimrr, l'^ 
 
 fov- 
 any 
 auii 
 the 
 the 
 and 
 ture 
 °F. 
 the 
 
 CU8 
 
 uth- 
 
 ar.d 
 
 tion 
 
 the 
 
 oil) 
 
 oni 
 
 in :{S and (5 t'athoniH it wuh 52'' K. Tliu Soutliorn husin not 
 only lies in a lowoi' latitude, hul is miieh Hhallowoi' and han 
 a Ixittoui largely <'i)m|ioHe<l ol'nand. Apai't fVoni those cir- 
 euinstanceH, the natural flow of the warm Michiiyan surface 
 watei'H JM lowards and into tluH hasin hoforo thoir final 
 entrance into the St. (ylair Iliver at Sarnia. On the other 
 hand, the tendency of the colder Superior wati-rs constantly 
 lU)wing into the t/V'ntral lia.sin and inoililyin^ the warm sur- 
 I face watord from TiUko Michigan, Is to maintain a somewhat 
 
 lower temperature in the de|)thsol' the Central than in the 
 lesser de|)ths of I ho Soutlieni hasin 
 
 In their »nain expanse, liako Superior and the (Joorgian 
 |{ay thus constitute in midsummer, great hodies of colder 
 water, whilst the Central hasin of Lake IIui-on in its 
 greater depths also forms a reservoir of cold water, hut 
 tempered by the warmer inflow from Lake .>richigan. 
 
 Lakes Krie and Ontario are, on the other hand, warmer 
 lakes, conso(|uent on their geographical position, their 
 affluent streams from the south and south-west, and the 
 necessarily higher temperature of the larger volume of 
 waters which have flowed over the great shallows of Lake 
 St. Clair before rcatdnng Lake Erie. 
 
 Records of observations made by myself during this last 
 summer neai- the outlet of Lake Ontario, and in the St. 
 Lawrence and other rivers, and by Statf-Commander 
 Boulton, R.N., during last and previous seasons in the 
 (ieoi'gian Bay, appear to establish some interesting results 
 which are here appended. It is not assumed that these 
 results are new, but they exemplify some charactei-istics of 
 fresh water in the great masses in which it occurs in the 
 Canadian Great Lakes and rivers, and under the varying 
 conditions of climate wliich the geogi-aphieal position of 
 these lakes and rivers prosenji. 
 
 The instruments used in my (tbservations were : — for sur- 
 face reswlings, Nogretti &, Zambra's Iteferonce Th<3rmometer 
 with Kew corrections, and, for deep water, the same 
 makers' Patent .Marine Thermometer, carefully compared 
 with standard instruments. Statl-Commander Boulton's 
 
 /V 
 
80 Canaiiuin Record of Siienre. 
 
 thermnmetorw wore proviously tcHtod at the Toronto 
 ( )bHorvatory. 
 
 Motion as Affectino the Temperature or Water. 
 
 Some toHtH mudo altovo and nt the loot of the rapids in 
 the Richoliou Rivor at Chambly, would seem to hIiow that 
 the motion of tlio wator during the ono mile of continuous 
 rapid hero, raises the tcmjyorature of the wator at least per- 
 ceptibly. Above the rapids at 3 p.m. on 21>tli August, the 
 air at the suiface indicated 80° F., and the water at a depth 
 of 1.5 feet, 7:}.75° to 74^ F., whilst at 3.45 p.m., at the foot 
 of the rapids, with the air at the surface, 75° F.. the water 
 in 1.5 feet in the rapids was, in ditVcront tests, 74° to 74.5^' 
 Y. In other words, the watci- showed an increase of about 
 one-half a degree in the face of the decreasing temperature 
 of the air, as the afternoon wore on. Again, on 7th Sep- 
 tember, at 4.20 p.m., above the rapids, with the air on the 
 bank registering f)(j.o° F., the water at 1.5 feet dei)th indi- 
 cated 69.75" F. in the sun, while at 5..'{0 p.m., at the foot of 
 the rapids, the water in the rapids was still 6!>.75° F., though 
 the sun was clouded and the air on the bank had fallen to 
 02.5'' F. 
 
 Rapid currents have, however, the etVect of equalizing 
 the temperature of the water. Thus, in June, at Rockport, 
 among the Thousand Islands in the St. Lawivnce, where 
 there is a strong current, the watei-, at nearly 40 fathoms, 
 indicated only 0.5^ lower temperature than at the surface. 
 
 Areas of Water op Different Temperatures. 
 
 Under conditions which appear to be the same, and at 
 points relatively near each other, the water on the surface 
 of the lakes and rivers is not uniform in temperature, but 
 seems to flow in areas of difterent temperatures — the varia- 
 tion being generally from 1° to 3°. At ditVorent <lepths 
 down to the bottom, there are equally marked variations. 
 In the tributary streams similar results appear. An inter- 
 esting illustration occurred in a shallow creek, fully 
 
Ttm/tn'titurfjs of Great Lakes and St. Lnwrrtirc. 81 
 
 oxpomnl foi- an oij,'htli of :i inilolo the Hun'h ravs, and Hlowly 
 flowing ovoi" a HUccesKidu of liniOHtonc ledgCH, when-, in 1.5 
 iiK'heH of water, the mercury on a warm .luno afternoon 
 could bo Hoen risini; and falling botween 81° and R.'J*^ F. 
 Hero there woic sorne exceptional cauncH, but in the lino of 
 outflow from liake Ontario to the St, Lawrence, the fluctu- 
 atiouH are rather to be ascribed to the evaporation at the 
 surface, and to the cooler watcrH beneatli aficonding fo sup- 
 ply the place of the evaporated water. As the evaporation 
 would he irrogulai', varying with the passing clouds, the 
 gusts of wind, and the features of the land, the ascending 
 currents would also bo irregular. Those ascending waters 
 would give rise to a slight inflow at the bottom from deeper 
 and cooler parts of the lak'o to take their place, and both 
 I hose currents would bo affected by the general onward 
 flow of the lake waters towards the ontranco of the St. 
 Lawrence. 
 
 IJoTTOM Currents in (Ieoroian Bav. 
 
 On 20th August, 188fi, Commander Boulton, in a series 
 of soundings diagonally across the centre of the (Toorgian 
 Bay, in a somewhat southerh' direction, found the tompora- 
 turo of the wat(!r at the bottom at one point (31 fathoms 
 deep) 30.5° F., at another (47 fathoms) 38.25^ F., and at a 
 third (42 fathoms) 37. 75^^ F. — the distance between the 
 extieme points being about 40 miles. On 1 0th July, 1889, 
 nearer the Jiruce peninsula, the i-eadings in 70 fathoms 
 gave 38.75° F.. and on 8th September fol'owing, at another 
 point in (i3 fathoms, the reading was 30*^' F. Tn all those 
 different cases, tho surface water varied from 50.75° to fi8° — 
 the last being on 8th Sept.. at 10. 10 a.m. As the tempern- 
 turo of water at its maximum density is 3n'2° F., and 
 below that, the density again diminishes, there would be a 
 tendency in those bottom strata of w.-iter to i-ise until they 
 intermingled with water of a higher temperature and 
 equivalent density. It is thus necessary to seek some 
 explanation of this singular fact that the bottom tempera- 
 tures in this extensive bay are in summer as low in places 
 
8f Cnnnilinn Rentrd of Srienre. 
 
 nH.'l7.7R'^ K. 'Vhv prohal»ility \h tluit tliorc an* '^•!''tti|^ bottom 
 rmrcntw which prevent what wrmld Ik* the natural conrHH 
 upwanlH (»r the coldi'r arnl li^hlor waters of the bottom. 
 Commander Moulton is alwo incliiu'd l(» take fhiH view. The 
 two loading pliysical features which charactori/.e the bottom 
 of the hay. are, tirst, the somewhat ^hclvin<^ nature of the 
 bottom from east to west, the western si<le, alon^' nearly its 
 wliolo length, being remarkably (b'op, and continuing so u|» 
 to the very elitf-^ wliich bound it, and, secondly, the appu- 
 i-ently complete sovoi-anco of its deeper waters from those of 
 Lake Huron by the subniorgod oscai-pmont Ixitwoen the 
 Hi'uce peninsula and the Maniloulin Islands. These two 
 features may be found to have some intluenco in this con- 
 nection. 
 
 TIauhoiik Tempkratiirks. 
 
 The more land-locked a harbour is, the higher is the 
 lomperaturo of its water as compared with thatof tVie water 
 outside of the harboui-. It may be ocjually pro<licated that, 
 up to a certain point, the more foul the harbour water is, 
 the higher, to a further extent, is the temperature likely to 
 be. At Kingst(»n, this occasionally, in midsummer, is well 
 illustrated. On 10th July last, afti'r two oi- throe days of 
 eomparatively calm weather, during which the upturned 
 sediment of the bottom, the floating harbour accumulations, 
 surface di-ainagc, and the .sewage appeared to be gathered 
 together in the harbour to an unusual extent, while the 
 mercury at 3000 feet oti' the wharves indicated 73.5^' P. two 
 inches under the surface : it, at 100 feet, rose to 78° F., at 
 the same depth thi-ee hours subsequently, though in the 
 meantime the sky had become overcast with clouds. These 
 accumulations contaminate the water for very considerable 
 distances outwai-d in the harbour, and warn us how impor- 
 tant to the liealtli of cities and towns, similarly situated, it 
 is to have the water, supplied for domestic uses, taken from 
 ))0int8 beyond any possilile line to which such accumula- 
 tions may extend. The higher temperatui-e of the harbour 
 
I 
 
 (tin 
 
 )in. 
 
 iThe 
 
 om 
 
 fho 
 
 ilH 
 
 111- 
 ..(• 
 the 
 (wo 
 ■on- 
 
 Tftn/jerntures uf Great Lukes and St. Lawrence. 88 
 
 wuturti would fbriii Homo objoctioii lo Ihuir uho lor IiouhuIioUI 
 pui-|x)Huti, though not tto hui-iouh un objortioti oh their 
 contiiniination. 
 
 Tbmi'Eraturk in Kklation to Deitii. 
 
 It Ih itnpoif.jiblu to luy down any guncrtil rule rogarding 
 the changes of teniperuturo with the iiicroaMO of depth. 
 Apurl from varititions ruHultiti^ at the ditturuiit huuhoom, 
 ^4url'uc■e ruudingri arc ull'uctud by isunlight and cloud, gut^tnot 
 wind, channol currontH, thu inflow of attlucmt HtrcaniH, and 
 thu physictd fciituruH of the Hurrounding Itind. iioadingh 
 beneath the hurface arc uttbctod by the dupth (if the water, 
 by ordinary cin-roniH rOMulting from cliangch of level, by 
 evaporation at the Hurtiiee creating an upward flow of the 
 water underneath, by the contour *>\' the bottom, and by 
 high wiiuls which drive the HUrtiice watorH before them, 
 CM'eating return currents underneath t<» take their place. 
 Eaeh case haw to be judged by itH own special circuniHtanccH. 
 Thus, in the Georgian Hay, between t'abot'H Head and Capo 
 Croker, Commander Houllon, on 27th .luly, 1H88, at H.:{0 
 a.m., obtained the following recoi-d ; 
 
 KurfmiH (i(i-2"K. 
 
 lOfniB ATi-r 
 
 L'd " 41 -t" 
 
 :{5 " AV 
 
 m " (i)ottom) a»-fr 
 
 On 1-ith June, 1HH9, at 1 1 ,25 a.m., one mile 80uth-west of 
 Kingrtton, in the channel trom the lake to the i-iver, one of 
 the records was : 
 
 Air in sun 79° 1-'. 
 
 Surface water 58 5°. 
 
 «i tetit oO.'Jo". 
 
 18 " 54^ 
 
 30 " 54.25". 
 
 60 " (bottom) 52°. 
 
 On the 25th July tbilowing, at 4. 1.'> p.m., at a point in 
 the same channel, two milew diistant, the reatlings showed 
 not oidy a higher range, but a much nearer aiiproadi be- 
 tween the surface and bottom temperatures, thuH : 
 
84 Canadian Record of Science. 
 
 Air in sun SOT. 
 
 SurfacH water 69°. 
 
 5 feet 68.75°. 
 
 12 " 67.75°. 
 
 18 " 6766°. 
 
 30 " 67.75°. 
 
 72 " (bottom) 67". 
 
 Again, in a very i^hnllow stream on Wolfe Island, lightly 
 flowing over exposed limestone rocks, tlic air ()n June 14tli, 
 at 3. 15 p.m., at three feet above the water, indicated 73° F., 
 whilst the water at 1.5 inches registered 83'' F., at 4 inches 
 viriod between T!>.5° and 82 5" F., and at 7 inches, on the 
 bottom, fell to 72.5^' F. 
 
 .ItiNCTioN op Affluent Streams. 
 
 An illustration of the effects of the warmer waters of the 
 iiflluent streams on the main body of the St. Lawrence 
 waters, was the case of the (ranaiioque River at its outlet. 
 The tempei-atui-e of the bottom near the foot of the fall 
 was, on loth .lune, (•2.75'^ F, ; a ([uarter of a mile down 
 stream, at the oullcl to the St. Lawrenci'. it was (il.5*-' F. ; 
 in (he St. Lawj-once, 150 yards off the outlet, 57° F. ; 10»» 
 yards west of this, again^t the current of the St. Lawrence, 
 56.75^' F.,and 100 yards .still further west54.25° F. The sur- 
 iace water at these ditVeienl j)()ints varied only between 
 (12.25'-' and LI3*-' F. The (iariano(iuc Kivei- current below the 
 lalls is strong, antl by a we-tward dcjflection of the sandstone 
 banks at the outlet, it is thrown against the much lighter 
 St. Lawrence current, but as above shown, the effect is 
 soon gradual!}' lost at the bottom of the St. Lawrence, how- 
 ever much farther it might be tiaced at (he suiface. 
 
 (rRADKAL ABSORPTION OP HeAT. 
 
 The general rise in the temperatui-e of Lake Ontario 
 waters as the >ummer advances is, a( first, slow, compared 
 with the general rise in the tempeiaturo of the air, but, as 
 midsummer is reached, tlie rise is more rapid both at the 
 
Temperatures of Great Lakes and St. Lairrence. 85 
 
 id, lightly 
 tune 14th, 
 ;ed 73' F., 
 t 4 incheM 
 18, on the 
 
 
 ;ei'8 of the 
 Lawrence 
 itH outlet, 
 f the fall 
 lile down 
 Ol.f)^' F 
 
 jawrence. 
 The sur- 
 between 
 
 below the 
 
 sandstone 
 1 lighter 
 etfect is 
 It 
 
 fe. 
 
 I Ontario 
 :;ompai'ed 
 , but, as 
 :h at the 
 
 t 
 
 I 
 
 surface and at the bottom. On .lune 14th, at noon, when 
 the air indicated 79.75° F., the surface water in the main 
 channel, two miles from Kingston, was still as low as r)7.5° 
 F. or only 5"' higliei- than on May 23rd. On .luiy 5th, the 
 readings at the same place and hour had increased to GO.S'^ 
 F., with the air at 79° F., and on July 10th to 74.75° ¥., with 
 the air at 92.75" F., the thermometer being always in the 
 sun. The most marked change was between June 25th 
 and July 5th, when the advance registered was 9°. The 
 bottom temperatures indicated somewhat similar results. 
 On May 23, at 13 fathoms, the deep sea thermometei- 
 registered 50.25° F. ; on Juno 14, at 12 fathoms, 52° F. , on 
 July 10. at 1 1 fathoms, 62.25° F., and in another spot in 17 
 fathoms, 53° F., and on July 25, at 12 fathoms, 67° F. 
 
 The absorption and retention of the sun's heat is most 
 noticeable in the small streams and quiet pools. Thoi-e we 
 tind well illustrated the general proposition that in high 
 temperatures, the surface of comparatively still water, 
 where unaffected by under currents, absorbs and retains the 
 heat of the sun to a much greater degree than the immedi- 
 ately overlying air. A remarkable illustration has already 
 been given in the case of the lightly flowing but shallow 
 Wolfe Island stream, where the sui-face water was 7" higher 
 than the immediately overl^-ing air. and 10° higher than 
 the air at 3 feet above, whilst on the bottom, at 7 inches in 
 depth, the temperature fell again to 10.5° below that of the 
 surface water. The records of other creeks did not indicate 
 such extremes, but showed that each str( am in its bottom, 
 current and surroundings, may have circumstances which 
 vary the temperature. In very shallow, still pools, exposed 
 freely to the sun and breeze, but almost isolated from the 
 main stream, the diifercnce between the temperature of the 
 surface of the water and of the immediately ovei-lying 
 stratum of air, is. however, sometimes still more marked, 
 the water on sunny afternoons in June and .luly showing 
 over 11° higher range. In such pools, the watei-, though 
 indicating variation, is tolerably uniform even to the bottom.