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A corrnT in the oicliard. A I.onihanl plum tree. Is it carrying; too nnuh fruit? 
 What should ix; done? (Soe paj^e k/j.) 
 
AGRICULTtiBtEiii 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES C. JAMES, M.A. 
 
 DKPUTY >ri.\is'n;R ov aortci-i.titrk for Ontario 
 
 KORMKRi.v I'KOl'KSSOR OF CHKMISTRV AT THK 
 ONTARIO AORICri.TfRAI. COM.KGK 
 
 Authorized by the Kflucntion Department 
 
 for use in the 
 
 Public, vSeparale and High vSchools 
 
 of Ontario. 
 
 Price, 30 c^nts 
 
 it? 
 
 TORONTO 
 GEORGE N. MORANG & COMPANY, Limited 
 
 tS99 
 
Entered, according to the Act of the Parliament cf Canada, in the year one thousand 
 
 eight hundred and ninety-eight, by Gkorge N. Moranu, Toronto, 
 
 in the office of the Minister of Agriculture, at Ottawa. 
 
 183a 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The purpose of ihis book is to aid the reader and student 
 in acquiring a knowledge of the science of agriculture as dis- 
 tinct from the art of agriculture ; that is, a knowledge of the 
 "why," rather than a knowledge of the "how." The science 
 of agriculture may be said to consist of a mingling of chemistry, 
 geology, botany, entomology, physiology, bacteriology, and 
 other sciences, in as far as they have a bearing upon agri- 
 culture. The aim has been to include but the first prin- 
 ciples of these rarious sciences, and to show their application 
 to the art of agriculture. In a field so wide, and with so 
 limited a space at the author's disposal, this work claims to 
 deal only with the simple first principles of agricultural science. 
 It is hoped, however, that the beginning here made will lead 
 to a further study of what is one of the most interesting and 
 most profitable sciences— one that is at the present time 
 making most wonderful advance. 
 
 From his expeiience of several years teaching at the Ontario 
 Agricultural ('oUege the author believes that the rational 
 teaching of agriculture in Public and High Schools is not only 
 possible, but would be exceedingly profitable. An intelligent 
 understanding of the science underlying the art of agriculture 
 will add much interest to what is otherwise hard work, and, as 
 a natural consecjuence, the pleasure of such work may be 
 
IV 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 greatly increased.. 'I^he agriculturists of this country in the 
 future will work at a seri(ius disadvantage if they do not have 
 some knowledge of the very interestinij science that underlies 
 their work. The residents of our towns and cities also will 
 find that some knowledge of the science of agriculture may be 
 of use to them, and may increase the respect and consideration 
 for the calling that contributes so largely to the general wealth 
 and welfare of this country. 
 
 To the many who have offered help and advice and to all 
 who have in any way contributed to this work, sincere thanks 
 are offered. 
 
 The First Principles of Ai^ricuiture, by Dr. James Mills ana 
 Prof. Shaw will be found useful for reference, as some of the 
 subjects herein dealt with are enlarged upon in that work. 
 
 C. C. James. 
 Department ov A(;ricui,tuke, 
 Toronto, August ist, 1890, 
 
 
 I 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 1 
 
 Part I. — Thk Pi,.\nt. 
 
 Chaptkr i.--The Seed ..... 
 II. —The Young Plant 
 HI. The I'lant and Water . 
 IV. The IMant and the Soil 
 V. — The Plant and the Air 
 VI.- Structure and (Irowth of the Plant 
 VII,— Naming and Classification of Plants 
 
 
 Chap 
 
 Chap. 
 
 « 
 ft 
 
 (C 
 
 «( 
 
 M 
 II 
 
 Part II. -The Soil. 
 
 VIII. — Nature and Origin of the Soil 
 IX. — Tilling and Draining the Soil 
 X. — Improving the Soil 
 
 Tart III.— Thk Croi's of tmk Fiki.d. 
 
 XI. —The (Irasses .... 
 
 XII. — '{"he drain Crops or Cereals 
 XIII.- The Leguminous Plants 
 XIV. — Root Crops and Tubers 
 XV. — \'ari()us other Crops 
 XV I. —Weeds ..... 
 XVII. - Insects of the I'ield 
 xviii. — The Diseases of i'lants 
 XIX. — Rotation of Crops 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 29 
 
 3' 
 
 37 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 57 
 62 
 
 67 
 
 71 
 
 74 
 88 
 
 93 
 
vi 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Part IV.— The Garden, Orchard and Vineyard. 
 
 Chap. 
 
 
 Chai' 
 (( 
 
 << 
 <( 
 
 (i 
 
 XX. —The Garden 
 XXI.— The Apple Orchard 
 XXII.— Other Orchard Trees 
 XXIII. - Insects of the Orchard 
 XXIV.— Diseases of the Orchard . 
 XXV.— The Vineyard 
 
 Part V.— Live Stock and Dairvi 
 
 . XXVI. -Horses 
 
 XXVII. -Cattle .... 
 
 xxviii.- Sheep 
 
 XXIX.— Swine 
 
 XXX Poultry 
 
 XXXI. -iMilk 
 
 xxxi! - The Products of Milk 
 
 XXXIII -The Structure of Animals 
 
 XXXIV —Foods of Animals 
 XXXV.— Digestion and U.ses of Foods 
 
 no. 
 
 Chap. XXXVI 
 
 " XXXVII. 
 XXXVIII. 
 XXXIX 
 
 
 Part VI.— Other Suhjects. 
 
 ■Bees • . . . 
 
 Birds 
 
 l'\)restry .... 
 -Roads 
 
 XL —The Rural Home 
 
 Appendix. 
 
 List of Trees 
 1 -ist of Weeds 
 Spraying Mixtures 
 
 «> 
 
 PAGE 
 
 97 
 
 103 
 
 107 
 
 1 10 
 
 116 
 
 118 
 
 122 
 127 
 
 136 
 139 
 
 M3 
 
 147 
 
 155 
 
 158 
 
 162 
 
 171 
 
 176 
 
 181 
 
 187 
 
 '93 
 
 199 
 201 
 203 
 
 /; 
 
 I 
 
^^Af^rici/Zliire is the oldest of the arts and the most reeent 
 of the sciences^ 
 
 " Perfect a\::^ri culture is the true foundation of trade and 
 industry — // is the foundation of the riches of States." 
 
t 
 
 s 
 a 
 
 t 
 
 s 
 1 
 ii 
 
 V 
 
 tl 
 fi 
 n 
 tl 
 tl 
 
 P 
 c 
 
 tl 
 
 ii 
 
 w 
 
 il 
 
 g 
 s 
 
 w 
 
 tl 
 
 t< 
 
PART I. 
 
 CI I ATT K R I, 
 
 THE SEED. 
 
 The Forming, of Seed. — We scatter some oat-grains over 
 the earth and then lighty cover tlicm with the fine surface 
 soil. The spring rain falls, and the air grows warmer. In 
 a few days the green blades of the oat plants aj)pear through 
 the soil all over the field. If we pull up some of these 
 green shoots we find that each one grows from a single 
 seed, and each plant has a bunch ci small hairy roots 
 If we look closely we may find the old husk, or the cover- 
 ing, of the grain that we planted, but nothing more. What 
 was once a seed has now become a plant with roots in 
 the soil and stalk and leaf above the soil. Perhaps we may 
 find some seeds that were buried too deeply and that have 
 not sprouted. On tiirough the summer the oat plants grow, 
 tall and green ; soon the head branches out and blossoms • 
 then the grain forms, first soft, soon becoming harder, and the 
 plants lose their green color and turn brown and yellow. We 
 cut down the plants and later on thresh them out, separating 
 the grain from the straw. The roots or stubble left beiiind 
 in the soil decay; they will not grow again. The straw also 
 will not grow ; it is fed to the stock or used as litter. iJut 
 the grain we may feed to the stock or we may use it again for 
 growing another ciop of oats next year. We begun with tiie 
 seed and the i)lant has given us seed again, just like the seed 
 with which we started. The seed, then, is the beginning; and 
 the end of the oat plant, whose aim in growing appears to be 
 to form seed that will produce other plants like itself. The 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 seed appears to be the most important part of this plant j its 
 life passes on through the seed. We therefore begin our 
 study of plants with the seed. 
 
 Many other plants of the field, like the oat, sprout, grow, 
 form seed and die in one season (Annuals). Some others, 
 such as carrots and turnips, do not foim seed unless left in 
 the ground for a second season (Biennials). Then their roots 
 and stalks die. There are others, such as fruit trees, nut- 
 bearing trees, grape vines, that form seed year by year, but still 
 keep on living (Perennials). 
 
 Make a Ust of the plants of the farm and garden under these three 
 classes : Annuals, Biennials and Perennials. 
 
 Shape and Size of Seeds. — The seeds of the same kind of 
 plants are very much alike in shape and size, but the seeds 
 of oats, wheat, barley, corn, peas, beans, turnips, pumpkins, 
 apples, red clover, and timothy all differ. So do the seeds of 
 the grasses and of the weeds. Some are ball-shaped like peas, 
 some are long and pointed like oats, some are flat like pump- 
 kins, some are three-sided like buckwheat and beech nuts. 
 And there are many other forms ; in *"act, there is a different 
 form for every different kind of seed. 
 
 One seed may send up two or more stalks, but one stalk never grows 
 from more than one ?eed. Find out how many grains of wheat there are 
 on a single stalk ; how many seeds there are on a dandelion head, and 
 how many grains of corn will be grown from one seed of corn. 
 
 (iet a number of small glass bottles about two inches long. Collect the 
 seed:- of grains, of grasses, and of weeds. In the summer and fall gather 
 these seeds from the growing plants, in the winter get them from the bins. 
 I'lit these separately in the bottles, write the name of each kind on a piece 
 of paper and fasten it on the bottle. You can in time get a collection 
 of all the principal seeds that are to be found growing in your locality, and 
 you can then study them. After a while you can write on each its botani- 
 cal name also. 
 
 The Stki/cture of the Seed. — Wheal and oats are too small 
 for us to take apart easily. Let us take a large seed such as a 
 hickory nut. First the rough outer husk is taken off, then we 
 
THK SEED. 
 
 come to the hard shell. If we crack this carefully we can take 
 
 out "the meat" in one piece. We see that it is made up of 
 
 two parts, joined together at one end. Notice at which end 
 
 of the shell the two parts are joined together. 
 Now take another nut — an almond. 
 
 We crack it ; the meat comes out in one 
 
 compact piece. We place this in water 
 
 for a couple of minutes and then we 
 
 carefully rub off the coating. We find 
 
 that the white almond will separate into Kig. ,. .\n al.'.oikI siu.wim. 
 two parts that are joined together at one {^ll^ ^rLun^ i^l.i^'l'p 
 end, very much as in the hickory nut. ^^ -^[ -^,;^Z"^^:::i 
 We find also that tperc is a tiny tip =^''^'"- 
 between these two parts. The nut aj)pears to be made up of 
 two thick leaves joined to a very short stem. It is somewhat like 
 a plant with a short stalk, having two big lea\es, but no roots. 
 
 Fig. 2. — An Acorn cut Fig. 3. — A H()rse-Ch«;stinit 
 in two. cut ill two showing seod 
 
 leaves .iiul tip. 
 
 Fig. 4. -An 
 Apple - 
 Seed. 
 
 Fig. $.-A 
 Pumpkin- 
 Seoil. 
 
 We can examine the seeds of the acorn, the horse-chestnut, 
 the apple, the pea, the bean, and the pumpkin, and we find 
 them all made up or put together in nuich the same form. If 
 we oi)en up other seeds, howexer, we may find some that have 
 only one .seed-leaf, and some that have more than two. What 
 do you find in the maple tree seed ? 
 
 The Sprouting of the Skkd. — When a seed begins to 
 grow, it is .said to sprout. Seeds do not begin to grow in the 
 ground in winter, nor will they sprout in summer if they are 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 buried too deeply in the soil. We can easily cause seeds to 
 sprout, and we can, at the .same time, find out just when they 
 will sprout. It we place some wheat grains in a dry dish and 
 keep them dry, they will not sprout either in winter or sum- 
 mer—it makes no difference whether they are cold or warm, 
 they will not sprout so long as they are kept dry. We there- 
 fore conclude tiiat seeds re([uire water or nujisture in order to 
 sprout. If this were not .so we would have the grain sprouting 
 in the bins and granaries. At the same time we notice how 
 important it is to have all bins and granaries (juite dry. 
 
 Now let us take three deep dishes, such as soup plates. We 
 get three pieces of flannel and cut them so thii.t when once 
 folded each piece will just about cover the bottom of the dish. 
 We place about twenty grains of wheat in each between the 
 folded flannel. We then moisten one i)lale and set it away in 
 a cojI place, and we keep the flannel moist all the time ; we 
 moisten the second and set it in a warm place, in a sunny 
 window, for instance, and we kee[) it moist ; we fill up the 
 third antl set it also beside it in the warm place, and we keep 
 the i)late//7/<v/ with water. We can see what changes take 
 j)Iace from day to day by lifting up the flannel. The grain 
 kept cool does not sprout ; the grain kept covered with water 
 so that the air does not reach it does not si)rout, even though 
 it is warm ; but the grain that is kej)t warm, that gets some air, 
 and that has a little moisture soon sprouts and starts to grow. 
 We now conclude that for seeds to sprout they must have 
 7C>a/t'r, /tea/ and air, and if any one of these three be lacking, 
 si)rouling will not take place. 
 
 My means of v.irm, moistened cloths we can tell whether the 
 seeil grain that we desirt' to sow is likely to sprout or not in 
 the ground, and about how nuich is likely to grow. This is 
 important, as seeils when they are old lose the power of sprout- 
 ing. Some seeds lose their vitality or power of sprouting much 
 sooner than others. Can you fintl out which these are ? 
 
Iltnv ;i yrnin^^ walnut p't> out of its slu-ll. Note 
 tlie lliiik, llcsliy tap nut. Compare with I'i^. 7, 
 ^\■lu'll■ are the seed leaves ? 
 
 Kiks from little amnis 
 ^;to\\." 'riu! youn^j plant 
 ft'ftis on tin- " meat " in tli(> 
 acorn till the root is aMc to 
 },'(t nourishment from the 
 soil. Look aj^ain at lit;;. 2. 
 
THE SEED 
 
 Conclusions ; — 
 
 1. Seeds will not sprout unless they get some water or 
 
 moisture. 
 
 2. Seeds will not sprout when the ground is too cold. 
 
 3. Si-eds will not sprtjut when they are in undrained soil 
 
 thai is full of water, l)e(aiuse the\' cannot gi-t air. 
 
 4. Seeds will not sj)rout when they are buried too deeply 
 
 so that the air cannot reach them. 
 The seed is the beginning of the i)lant, and with the plant, 
 ;is with so many other things, it is ofxery great imj)ortance to 
 ha\t' a good start. This means that we should have good liv- 
 ing seed seed that will grow, free from weed si'cds. Tb.en we 
 must ha\e a good, line, le\el seed-hed, on a well-drained field, 
 so that the seed can he sown e\enl\' and covered {)roperly. 
 Moderate rains and bright sunshine will cause the seed to 
 sprout, and the young planls will soon appear at the same time 
 in all j)arls of the surface of the lield. This brings us to the 
 stud)' of the young i)Iant, which will form the next cha])ter. 
 
 Dcscrilie tlie sords of coin or iiiiii/i', Imckulieat, the Uiniii), llie 
 thistle, iho (laiulclioii, llic sMau licny, llio ^DosL-liciry, tlie |)Uiiii)kiii, the 
 ^lapo, tlic cherry, tlie apple, the maple, the elm, the hasswooil, the beech, 
 the hickory. 
 
 What is the effert of steepint; seed jusi Ijefore il is sown? Wliat kind 
 of water should i)e used — hot, warm, or cold? 
 
 How are seeds distributed naturally? 
 
 What kimls of seeds may be easily carried liy wat<'r, b) wind, by birds, 
 by animals? 
 
 Why do we lind willows alotiLi; streams? 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER II, 
 
 I 
 
 1 ) 
 
 THE YOUNC; PLAN r. 
 
 We have learned that seeds 
 will sprout when they have water, 
 heat, and air. Hut there must 
 not be too much water, for then 
 they will sinii)ly bec:om.e soft and 
 decay ; nor must there be too 
 much heat, for then they will be 
 
 KiK. 6.-;A Hear, showing tip of rootlet ^^\^ ^,p ^,^^1 l^JH^.^^ \y^. [^^VC 
 or radicle at r; also with parts separ- ' 
 
 ated showing tip just starting to grow, shown iiow they can bc sproutcd 
 between layers of moist flannel or blotting ])aj)er. When sprouted 
 in that way their growth can be watched day by day ; but this 
 plan of sprouting seeds will not allow us to watch their growth 
 to a very large si/e. If we wish to see them grow up into full- 
 sized 
 
 l,k 
 
 P 
 
 a box of ck-an garden soil placed in a sunny window, or out of 
 doors in warm weather. We may |)lanl some peas, beans, or 
 pum[)kin seeds. Let us take a handful of bean seeds. As 
 
 they are rather large in si/e we must cover 
 
 them 
 
 see( 
 )rou 
 
 ghly 
 
 with soil about an inch deei). At the same time we might [)ut 
 in a few seeds four, five or six inches dee[), and also place 
 three or four right on the surface, to oi)ser\e the effect on them 
 in contrast with those planted at the i)ro[)er depth. We then 
 water the soil slightly evtiy day. 
 
 Alter two days we carefully take up a couple of seeds to see 
 what has taken i)lace. Then we put them back carefully. In 
 this wa\', day by day, we examine carefully a couple of the 
 seeds until we lind them starting to sprout. 
 
THE YOUNG PLANT. 
 
 |lo see 
 
 . In 
 
 i)f the 
 
 When they have once sprouted 
 we can take up a plant every day 
 to see what change is taking 
 place. We should have enough 
 l)lants growing so that we can 
 throw away each little plant after 
 we have examined it. I'irst we 
 fmd the seeds becoming moist 
 from the water in the soil, and 
 
 Fig 8.— Seed Pea and young pea 
 plant. 
 
 Fig. 7. lieaii Sft;il ; also young plant 
 on riijlil, aiui, in llie i;entre, a plant 
 sliDuiiii; iwo svA-d lt:a\i;s, also lirst 
 pair of Hue leaves above. 
 
 soon turning soft. 'Che beans swell 
 a little and soon break open the 
 outer covering or husk. 'I'he two 
 thick leaves of the .seed separate a 
 little and a few fine roots push out 
 into the soil. The little tip between 
 the seed leaves begins to grow 
 larger and [)ushes up towards the air. 
 The plant never makes a mistake ; 
 the roots always grow out and 
 down into the soil and the little tip 
 
8 
 
 Aokicjui/ruKK. 
 
 that forms the stalk ahvays grows up into the air, whether the 
 seed is lying uj)si(le down or not. 'I'he roots lengthen out and 
 branch into a little bunch of fine fibres, and the stalk soon 
 brings the two leaves above ground. .Sometimes we can see 
 the old husk of the seed still clinging to one f)f the seed leaves, 
 which are generally (|uite smooth and simple in form. The 
 stalk grows on higher and higher ; new leaves form ; little 
 branches are thrown out ; leaves form on these ; and now we 
 see the general form or make-uj) of the plant. Hy this time 
 we observe that the two seed leaves have become thin and soon 
 disapi)ear. They appear to be of use only in the first few days 
 of the sprouting of the seed and the early growth of the young 
 plant. What is their use? They are different in shape and 
 si/e from the ordinary leaves of the plant. They are thick at 
 first, and soon become thin and disapi)ear. 'I'hey are nothing 
 else than little sacks of food stored up in the seed to feed the 
 young plant until it forms roots and leaves and is able to get 
 food for itself from the soil and the air. 
 
 Parts of the Plant. — The roots spread out or go down 
 through the soil ; the stalk grows up and branches out ; the 
 leaves grow along the side and at the ends of the 
 branches. These three parts— roots, stalk and 
 branches, and leaves — are ([uitc different in form 
 and in color, and we may conclude that they 
 also have different work to do in the life of the 
 l)lant. 
 
 We can easily study these three parts in larger 
 plants. In the case of a carrot the root is thick 
 and long and pushes itself straight down into the 
 soil. \Ve call such a root a taproot. But along 
 this root we find a large numl)er of fine, hairy-like 
 rootlets, to which the fine particles of soil cling 
 closely. These are the feeders of the big root. 
 
 gji„g.„,.; In the case of a stool of wheat or oats we have 
 
 i 
 
THE YOUNG PLANT. 
 
 down 
 
 the 
 
 the 
 
 and 
 
 brm 
 
 they 
 
 the 
 
 cling 
 
 have 
 
 a mass of fine roots. We call such a root 
 fibrous. In the case of large trees, we find 
 large roots running off in all directions, 
 many of them for long distances. If we 
 take up a piece of tree root, we find the outer 
 end covered with fresh, fine, hairy-like roots. 
 These are the feeders of the big roots. 
 
 How do roots grow ? A man's arm is 
 longer and larger than a hoy's arm. How 
 did it urow? Not simply l)y adding on at Fig. lo.- Fibrous root, 
 
 " _ 1 ^ ^ o as of grass. 
 
 the end, for in that case the man's arm would 
 be merely the boy's arm with very long fingers. All parts of the 
 arm must have grown at the same time. A root would find it 
 very difticult to grow in that way through the soil. It adds on at 
 the end or tiie tij). Sometimes a root has to go around a large 
 stone; a bend is formed in the root. How difficult it would 
 be for the root if it had to keep pulling itself around that stone 
 as it grew longer. Roots, of course, grow larger and thicker, 
 j)ushing aside the soil and even rocks ; but 
 they lengthen at the tips and take in the 
 food from the soil through the fine, hairy 
 rootlets, which are always found in largest 
 numbers near the ends of the newly- 
 formed roots. 
 
 Two other things we notice, namely, the 
 roots do not bear leaves and they are not 
 green. They are generally light colored 
 inside with a dark covering. They are 
 also (juite pliable— easily bent or twisted ; 
 
 ,.. ^\ 1 r 1 • 1 • I'ig. II.— End of Root, rov- 
 
 Hi tact they are made for working their ered with fine, hairy, 
 
 •I .1 1 ii •! 1 1 feeding rojtlets. a is tip 
 
 way easily through the sou and around hardened for protectim; 
 
 stones. Tull up a bunch of grass and older *^p.°r7"oi- T^k. The 
 
 observe how the ro(,ts rling to the fine soil. ^oT^^o^^^. "OS- 
 
 Also observe how crookedatree root grows. '"o^n'Tang^^'s .o'.f ' "'"' 
 
 
lO 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The stalk is compact and strong, built for holding up a 
 heavy weight. When young the stalk and branches are green 
 in color ; as they grow older the color becomes darker and 
 duller, and the soft, smooth skin changes to hard, rough bark. 
 The stalk and branches are much stiffer than the roots ; if they 
 were as pliable as the roots they would not be able to hold 
 themselves up in the form that we see. Most plants, however, 
 are pliable enough to yield to strong wind and thus avoid being 
 broken. The last thing to be noticed here in regard to them 
 is that what is called " the grain " goes along and not across 
 the branch and stalk. We can split a piece of wood along its 
 grain, but we have to saw or break it if we wish to divide it 
 across the grain. What would be the effect of a strong wind 
 upon plants, trees, forests, if the grain ran across instead of 
 along the stalks, limbs, trunks, and branches ? 
 
 The most noticeable points in connection with leaves are 
 their shape, their number, and their color. The leaf is generally 
 flat and very thin. Its outline or form varies with different 
 kinds of plants. Contrast the thick, needlii-shaj)ed leaf of the 
 pine and the thin, long, pointed blade of grasi; with the leaves 
 of the oak, maple, basswood, and willow. 
 
 Take a green maple leaf : draw its outline ; trace the frame- 
 work upon which it is formed. Then glue or paste it between 
 
 two sheets of paper or cloth 
 and dry carefully. Pull these 
 two sheets apart and thereby 
 split the leaf. We thus see 
 that the leaf is a thin web 
 stretched upon a framework of 
 fine branches, and we observe 
 that the branching of these 
 
 Fig. 12.— Section of a Leaf. /I , row of cells ., r ^\ i c ■ • i-rr 
 
 forming skin on upper side ; B, row of ribs of the leaf VarieS HI dlffcr- 
 
 cells next to skin ; D, next row of cells ; . i • i r i r ..i 
 
 C, air spaces in leaf; E, inner portion of Cnt kuids of leaVCS ; further, 
 
 CI. filled with sap; /<", row of cells form- .1 ^ tu 1 iU 1 c ' 
 
 ■■ .der skin of leaf showing mouths that though the leaf IS Very 
 
 orv.i«ninp (stomata). 
 
 4 
 
THF-: VOUNC. PLANT. 
 
 II 
 
 4 
 
 thin, yet it is made up of different layers, two skins with softer 
 layers Ijetween. 
 
 Draw the leaves of all the (iilTereiU forest and shade trees found in 
 your locality. 
 
 The new leaves of spring and early summer are green; as 
 summer advances they change in color somewhat, and in the 
 fall the green turns to brown or yellow or red. The young 
 shoots also are green in color at first, becoming duller and 
 darker in color as thi.'y become older and stiffen I>ut observe 
 the many different shades of green in the leaves of different 
 kinds of trees — even different kinds of maples show tints that 
 slightly vary. Even the two sides of the same leaf are not of 
 the same shade. This can be seen on a windy day when the 
 wind blows the leaves over. 
 
 What causes the green color? Place a small piece of board 
 
 on the green grass ; after a few days lift the board and observe 
 
 that the grass under it has become paler in color, has been 
 
 bleached out. Leave the board off and the grass will soon 
 
 become green again. When potatoes start to grow in a dark 
 
 cellar their sprouts are white, the tii)s grow towards the light, 
 
 and if they reach direct sunlight they become green. We 
 
 conclude from the above that the sunlight in some way or 
 
 other is the cause of the green coh^r in the leaves. (The 
 
 name chlorophyl., api)lied to the green-colored matter in the 
 
 leaf, means " leaf green."') 
 
 Why are the roots not green like the leaves ? 
 Are evergreens of the same color in winter as in smiimcr ? 
 Why is the growth of trees less and less, or nuxe stunted, as we go 
 farther north ? 
 
 Wlu'ii do evergreens shed their leaves ? 
 
 Compare the cones of difTerent evergreens. 
 
 Where do we find the most evergreen trees, and why? 
 
 Where the most deciduous ? 
 
la 
 
 ACRICri-TURt:. 
 
 CHAI'TICR III. 
 
 'i 
 
 THE I'LAXr AND WATER. 
 
 TnK Water ok the Plant. — In a long season of drouth, 
 the grass turns brown and wiiliers, the lea\es of the trees 
 dry uj), and shrubs and plants of all kinds drooj) and die. 
 In the case of plants grown in the house, everyone knows that 
 they must be watered regularly. \\'hen the rains are frequent, 
 how the grass grows, and Ikjw all plant life becomes green and 
 thrifty ! Nothing more nee^d be said to prove that ivater is 
 one of the most im[)ortant foods for ])lants. I'\irther, we 
 find some water in all plants, some fruits being made up of over 
 nine-tenths water. If any plant, or any part of a plant, such 
 as a i)iece of root, a chunk of green wood, a bunch of green 
 grass, or a handful of leaves, be placed in a warm ovt.-n, it will 
 gradually become lighter in weight owing to its losing wat-- or 
 becoming drier. I^ven well-dried wood will lose a little water. 
 If we weri> to take loo pounds of several substances, such as 
 the following, and dry them out thoroughly, we would find that 
 they would become lighter by the following amounts, that is, 
 they W3uld lose these amounts of water : 
 
 Roots, carrots, turnips, etc 85 to 95 pounds. 
 
 Potatoes 75 " 
 
 Green pasture grass <So " 
 
 'I'imber wood 40 to 50 " 
 
 I )ried or cured hay 15 " 
 
 Grains, such as wheat, oats, etc .... 10 to 15 " 
 
 We can therefore say that roots contain from 85 to 95 per 
 cent, of water, potatoes 75 per cent., etc. 
 
 1 
 
f 
 
 THE PLANT AND WATER. 
 
 13 
 
 How Does the Water Get in? We can answer this 
 first (juestion by carefully observing as follows : When 
 house j)lants are watered, v.e do not j)our the water on the 
 leaves and branches, but on the soil that I'ontains the roots. 
 W'lun the earth above the roots has been allowed to become 
 too dry, the gardener sometimes sets the whole pot, earth and 
 root.--, in a i)ail of water until the soil has become thoroughly 
 wet. I'wo pots of the same si/.e and shape may be taken, one 
 having a plant growing in the soil and the other containing 
 only soil. Then place them side by side and water the soil in 
 both with the same amount of water. It will be ob.served that 
 the .soil in which the plant is growing will become dry nmch 
 more cjui* kly than the soil having no j)lant. 
 
 If we (H)uld examine the drains coming fnjm under two fields 
 having the same kind of soil, one having little or nothing grow- 
 ing upon it and the other having a heav\' (toj), such as roots, 
 corn or ha\-, we would see that much more water drains away 
 from the bare field than from the field bearing a crop. 
 
 Perhaps you have noticed a bulb or a sli[) from some rapidly- 
 growing j)lant being started in a vase or glass bottle filled with 
 water. If you take two glass bottles of the same si/e and fill 
 both with water "nd j)lace a growing plant slip in one, \(»u will 
 notice that the water in the one having the plant sli|) will dis- 
 appear more rapidly than the water in the other bottle. Some- 
 times it Can be shown l-ww more clearly by placing a few large 
 white llowcrs, such as lilits or chrysanthemums, in water that 
 has been colored red or blue. AWcv a while some red or blue 
 color will appear in the flowers. 
 
 Wc conclude from the above that the water passes into the 
 plant by way of the roots. 
 
 How Does the Watkr Oet Oit? -It is (luite evident that 
 there is not room in the [)lant to hold all that goes in. Wher- 
 ever we cut into a living plant we find it daiiij) and the cells 
 
M 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 filled up, SO that as water is constantly going in by way of the 
 roots, it must he passing out by some way. 
 
 When the soil becomes very dry and the plants, as we say, 
 suffer from drouth, the first place where we observe the effect 
 is in the leaves. These droop and wilt and lose their freshness, 
 and soon after watering they become fresh-looking again. 
 
 Let us take a clear bottle and wipe it out so as to ha\ e it 
 perfectly clear, ("lean and dry on the inside. 'Then we carefully 
 place it over the branch of a growing plant so as to have the 
 bottle pretty well filled with leaves. We leave it there, fastened 
 up S'.'curely, for a time ; after a while we obser\e a fine film on 
 the inside of the bottle. When we take it off we notice that 
 the bottle is damp on the inside, some water has been depos- 
 ited upon it from the leaves. We observe the same kind of a 
 film on a piece of looking-glass when we breathe u[)on it. In 
 fact, we can take a piece of dry looking-glass and fasten it 
 to a plant leaf and get a faint film of moisture from the leaf as 
 from our breath. I'urther, if we try first the u]>;)er side of the 
 leaf and then the under, we shall find that the moisture comes 
 almost entirely from the under side. 
 
 We conclude, then, that the water passes out by the leaves 
 and principally from the under surface. I f we had a microscope, 
 that is an instrument for making small things appear large, we 
 could examine the two sides of the leaf of any plant, and then 
 we would obser\e that on the under side there are a great 
 many little mouths, or pores, or o[)enings where by the water 
 can pass out, and that these are drawn uj) smaller as the air 
 becomes drier so as to prevent too great loss of water. JCach 
 of these mouths or pores is called a " stoma," and when we 
 speak of two or more we tall them "stomata." 
 
 We have called these mouths or pores ; they are openings 
 through which the plant breathes, and they are generally on the 
 under side of the leaf, several hundred or several thousand on 
 every leaf. In the case of such a [)Iant as the water lily, whose 
 
 
THE PLANT AND WATER. 
 
 »5 
 
 1 
 
 large round leaves lie flat on the surface of the water, the 
 stomata or mouths of the leaves 
 are found to he on the tipper 
 side. \\'hy has nature made this 
 change ? 
 
 Animals soon suffer from chirst, 
 although they have some water 
 in nearly every kind of food that 
 they eat. Dut plants reciuire 
 water ([uite as much. There is 
 nothing so im[)ortant in connec- 
 tion with i)lant growth as having 
 a proper supi)ly of water — not 
 too much and not loo little. 
 When the rains come at the right 
 time and in the right (}uantitics, 
 nearly every soil bears good t''«- >> I'luicr side ..fie;if. ^ show 
 
 •' ■' _ ^ tin; niciutlis (ir stomata witli sina 
 
 croph. ; where no rains fall we find '';''•■ "" ''-•■''" ='' ''■ '''' •'i » ^i-'^^iio". 
 
 sliowmn stoma or mouth at f, the 
 a desert. "if spac<; is at rt, ami m is a Kuard 
 
 cell whiuh opens and closes the 
 mouth or stoma. 
 
 Conclusions : 
 
 1. Water is found in all plants and in all parts of living 
 plants at all seasons of the }ear. 
 
 2. Water is necessary for the life and growth of plants. 
 
 3. Water goes into the i)lants through the hairy rootlets at 
 the ti[)s of the fresh roots and passes out through the thousands 
 of tiny mouths on tlu; untler sitK- of the lea\es. 
 
 4. 'i'he mouths or breathing pores are called stomata. 'I'hese 
 
 open wider as the air becomes damp and i)artially close as the 
 
 air becomes dry. 
 SiKKiKsrivK : — 
 
 Wliiit Rives rigidity and firmiK'ss to a j;eraniiiiu leaf? 
 
 Which contains oroporlionately ihc more water, an apple leaf or an 
 ap[)le twiy;? 
 
 ows 
 
 II 
 
I 
 
 i6 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 I 
 
 'i 
 
 \ 
 
 THE PLANT AND THE SOIL. 
 
 Thk Powkr of W'aikr to Dissoia'k Substances. — If 
 \vc drop a littk; comnion salt into a glass of water, it will 
 (lisai)i)car ivom sight ; hut if we taste the water we find that it 
 is salty — the salt has hecn dissolved in the water. If we pour 
 out the salty water into a saucer, and set it in a warm place, 
 the water will gradually hcconie less and less, and we shall 
 soon see the white salt reap|)ear as a fine white crust. W'e 
 know now that .^alt is soluble in water. If we keep on adding 
 salt to the water in the glass we shall find that after a while no 
 more salt will he dissolved, hut what we atld will remain un- 
 dissolved in the bottom of the glass. We conclude, therefore, 
 that the water can dissolve a certain amount of salt and no 
 more that there is a limit to the power of the water to dissolve 
 the salt. We can make the same trial or ex[)eriment with 
 other substances, such as sugar, saltpetre, etc. 
 
 l)Ut all substances are not soluble. If we place some sand 
 in the glass ol water it will not dissolve. If we stir up some 
 road dust in a glass of clean water, the water will at once be- 
 come dirt) ; but altci- a whiK' the iliit will settle and the water 
 cleai up. Sometimes when we examine salt by putting a little 
 in water we find a small (iiiaiuily o\' hard, gritty substance set- 
 tling at the bottom uiulissv)ive<.i -tnis is not salt, i)utan impurity 
 in the salt. If there were any sand in the sugar it would not 
 dissohe. A nail will not dissoKf in the water, though it can 
 be more or less disscjhed if there is a little acid in the water. 
 11 we lake a handful o{' hardwood ashes and stir them up in a 
 [jowl of water, a large portion will si-ttle to the bottom undis- 
 
TMK PIAXT AND Tin<: SOIL. 
 
 7 
 
 solved, l)Ut tlic water will feel and taste soapy. There is 
 evitleiitly sometiiiiig soluble in wood ashes, and also some- 
 thing insoluble. If we take coal ashes in^lrad ol wood 
 ashes, we shall find thai there is liltk- or nothing soluble in the 
 loal ashes. It is evident, therelore, that wood aslus contain 
 luueii more soluble matter than coal ashes. This soluble 
 matter is food for plants. If we take a [)icc(,' of linu'stoiu' and 
 j)ou. water upon it wc shall lind thai little or no change takes 
 place; but if wc use a little weak acid (c\en vinegar will ha\e 
 some effect), we find that the limestone will dissoKc. If, in- 
 stead of limestone, we take iVc'shb burnt lime -(|uick-lime — 
 we find thai the waier will take u[) some ol the lime, as we can 
 tell by tasting it. 
 
 We coiK-lude that some substances are (juickly solul)le in 
 water, some slowly soluble, some insoluble, and that weak acids 
 will h;i\e the effect of dissoKing some substances, such as lime- 
 stone and iron, that do not dissohe in water alone. 
 
 J""urther, we fuid that water can dissoKe only a certain 
 (|iuintily of ai-y substance— tliat its power of dissohing is 
 linfited ; and when the water evaporates or ])asses olf into the 
 air, the substances, such as salt, sugar, and lime, that were 
 dissoKc'd in it, reappear as salt, sugar, and lime. 
 
 If we pour milk through a fine strainer, the milk all passes 
 through, and the diil that was not dissoKed remains behind. 
 If we stir up some hardwood ashes in a glass of water and 
 then pour it through a \er\- fine straiiit r, we find the undis- 
 solved ashes remain behind, and the water that passes through 
 is soap)' in taste. 
 
 We conclude that the substance's dissoKed m the water g(j 
 along with the water wherever it passes in tlu; li(|uid torm. 
 
 Tiike ;i cIlmh iiu^la/.cd farllu'ii llowrr \h<\ ; sIm|) up the hole in the 
 ImiUoiu, till it with w.ilcr, and llnoss inlu tlir wain a lianillul iil sail. 
 ,\lliiw llio |)(il lit slaiid undisUirlicd. .\ltcr a ssliilf a dtf[)(i>,il will appc.ir 
 on llic cfU/siJe ol liic poi. Taslc il, it is sally. E.splaiii. 
 
|: 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 • 
 
 7- J, xl,9w. MINERAL Food (1p:t.s into the Pi-ant. — We have 
 ilcfCJTe" learned that water goes into the plant through the 
 roots and passes out by the leaves ; there must therefore 
 be a movement of the water through the plant ; and we 
 thus conclude that the water can carry along with it into 
 the plant, and through it, some substances taken up in solu- 
 tion from the soil, that is, that it will take into the plant 
 whatever it finds in the soil that can be dissolved. This is not 
 (juite the case, for the roots a[)pear to have the i)0\ver, in large 
 measure, of taking up the substances that the plant re(|uires ; 
 the roots have a certain amount of what may be called 
 " selective " power. 
 
 One thing more may be mentioned in connection with the 
 taking in of food by the roots ; there is a small amount of 
 weak acid found in the ends of the roots, so that wherever 
 the fine, hairy rootlets come into contact with the soil they 
 are heli)ed by this weak acid to dissolve small cjuantities of 
 material that the water alone, without this acid, could not take 
 uj). It is because of this that we frequently find the marks of 
 [)lant roots on the face of hard rocks, showing where the roots 
 !)}■ their acids have eaten out some of the rock. 
 
 When we burn wood in the slovt' we have left what is called 
 the ashes. If we burn up some straw, or grain, in fact any 
 kind of a plant, we have left some ashes. This ash is earthy 
 in nature. Sometimes it is called the " mineral mattcj- " of the 
 plant. It has all gone into the plant by way of the roots, dis- 
 solved in the water of the soil. When this ash or mineral 
 matter is taken a|)art and examined by a chemist, it is found 
 to contain such substances as compounds of lime, soda, and 
 j)otash. From 100 j)oiuids of i)lants taken, we get one to five 
 l)ounds of ash or mineral matter; we therefore say, that the ash 
 or mineral matter forms from one to five per cent, of the whole 
 l)lant, and it has all come from the soil. 
 
 The mineral matter of the soil, after being dissolved in the 
 
 ^ 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
THE PLANT AND THE SOIL. 
 
 19 
 
 water of the soil, passes into the plant, is carried by the 
 circulation of the sap to all i).irts, and is used in hel[)ing to 
 huild up the various parts of the plant. When matter gets into 
 the plant in this way that is not reijuired, serine of it may be- 
 come dei)osited in various parts of the plant, but nuich of it is 
 carried to the outside of the leaf and of the bark, and left there 
 as the water evaporates. In the case of some plants, more 
 mineral matter is taken up from the soil than tlie sap can hold 
 in solutioii, and some of the salts are found in a solid form in 
 the little sacs or cells of which the plant is made up. These 
 are often seen by a magnifying gksss or microscope in the form 
 of crystals either in the cells or in the walls of the cells. 
 
 Conclusions : 
 
 1. The water of the plant comes from the water of the soil, 
 hene:e the importance of rains, 
 
 2. All of the mineral or ash material of the plant comes from 
 the soil, being carried into the plant in solution through the 
 roots. 
 
 3. The mineral matter is carried to all j)arts of the j)lant in 
 the circulation of the sa|). 
 
 4. Some of the mineral m Uti-r that is not needed bv the 
 l)lant is given off from the outside of the leaves and through the 
 Ijark. 
 
 5. It is vt-ry important to have the mineral or ash material 
 retjuired b\' tlu' pl.ml in as soluble a torn) as possible in the 
 soil, hence the imjxjrtante of good cultivation and of pro|)er 
 fertilizing or manuring. 
 
 ic 
 
Sfmmsmm'mfm 
 
 A(.Kll Ul.riKK, 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 I 
 
 'I'm-: I'LAN'i' AM) riii: air. 
 
 Tui', ( 'o^n!Us■| iiii.i', i'Mn ok a Plant. -When wc dry 
 ;in\' pl.iiit lliorouglily, \\\: (lri\c off the wdUT that it contains : 
 when wc burn up this (h"i<'(l ijortion, we ha\c left the ash. 
 Ihit uh.it ahont the |)()ili()n that has l)een huiiu'd iij)? What 
 was it and win re (hd it come from? All plants contain lihie 
 
 woody I'lhre as we ma\- now call it ; this has heen hunu'd 
 up. Some plants, such as sugar heets, sugar cane, and corn, 
 contain some sugar. ( )dK'r plants, such as potatoes, contain a 
 large (juantily of starch, in burning, all the rii)re, starch, and 
 sugar dvv. liurned up. Then such seeds as lla.xseed and cotton 
 seed contain oil. Tiu're are other substances, also, that we 
 slv.) lid kno\'-. I'"()r instance, if we chew a lew grains of wheat, 
 w;: find al\( • a short time a small c|uantity of a gumm\- sub- 
 stance rem;"ning in the mouth —it is called ^(.'■//^/tv/. 'Then \ou 
 all kimw that from main' different fruits a beautiful clear sub- 
 stance is got by boiling, known as jelly. Perhaps wt; ha\e 
 mentioned enough — I'ibic, starch, sug.ir, oil, gluten, jelly 
 subsianci's all \\\cm' and many others similar to them are 
 ioimd in i)lants. They do not pass off when tlu' wati-r e\apor- 
 ates, nor are they left behind in the ash. They are all con- 
 sumed or burnt up when the plant is burned. 
 
 \\h,il do the',' consist of? In burning any |)lanl slowly, the 
 llrst thing that \-ou notice is that the |)IaiU becomes black-- 
 charred ; and by \r\\- slowh burning it we can turn it into a 
 black in.iss that we call charcoal, somewhat like coal in 
 a|)peai,uice This black color is giwn to it because of the 
 
 4 
 I 
 
 car/' 
 
 >on \\ 
 
 hich il contains. It' we could put some of this 
 
THE PLANT AND THE AIR. 
 
 21 
 
 , the 
 ick-- 
 ito a 
 
 I m 
 the 
 this 
 
 
 i 
 
 ?. 
 
 i 
 
 ■ 
 
 charred plant into a strong iron vessel, having only one small 
 open pipe leading from it, we would find that there were 
 gases coming away that would burn witii a flame ; and when 
 you are further advanced in the study t)f chemistry you will 
 bQ able to prove that these gases contain, besides carbon, 
 another substance also, called hydrogen. 
 
 In iiddition to these two, carbon and hydrogen, both of 
 which will burn in the air, there are in the plant small ([uan- 
 tities of nitrogen and sulphur and some oxygen. All of this 
 cannot be proved l)y you at present, but you will now have to 
 accept the statement that these parts of the plant that are 
 burned up contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and 
 sometimes sulphur in varying ([uantities. The chemist, for 
 shortness, refers to them often simply by the first letters, thus : 
 C H O N S. 
 
 What the Plant Gets from the Air. — The next 
 question is as to where these elements came from and when 
 they got into the plant. If they came from the soil they must 
 have been contained either in the water or in the salts or 
 mineral matter carried in through the roots. Water is a 
 compound of only two substances, hydrogen and oxygen. 
 'I'wo of them, then, may have come frcMii the rains and soil 
 water. The sul[)hur and the nitrogen may have come from 
 the soil in i)art or in whole, for we sometimes find soluble com- 
 pounds of sul[)hur \\\ the soil, and also compounds o*" nitrogen. 
 I)Ut the carbon which is found in such large (juantity does 
 not come from the water, nor from the minLial matter of the 
 soil. There is only one other source, and that is the atmos- 
 phere, or, as we say, the air. If the carbon comes from the air, 
 we at once conclude that it gets into the plant through the leaves. 
 And how wonderfully well supplied is every plant with leaves 
 for taking m food from the air ! 
 
 The air is a mixture of gases. Coal and charcoal are almost 
 pure carbon, so that we think of carbon as being a solid. And 
 
!9SiB8» 
 
 22 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 SO it is. But in the air there is a gas railed carbonic acid gas. 
 It is formed wherever cari)()n is burned. 'I'he carbon unites 
 with the oxygen gas of the air and forms a compound, a gas, 
 that is called carbonic acid gas. This is the source from which 
 the i)lant gets its carbon. 
 
 There is only a very small quantity of this carbonic acid gas 
 in the air, but the j)lants have a large number of leaves and 
 they are broad and thin, and the air is moving more or less all 
 the time, so that the plant h is no difficulty in getting all the 
 carbon that it recjuires. The carbonic acid gas of the air goes 
 in through the leaves ; the i)lant takes up the carbon for its 
 own use and sets free the oxygen gas with which the carbon 
 was united. Just here we might mention that all animals are 
 constantly breathing out carbonic acid gas from their lungs, 
 and that when too much of it is present the animals will be 
 smothered. We feel the effect of it when shut up in a close 
 room. Plants take up this carbonic acid gas, keep the carbon 
 and set free the oxygen, so that plants are constantly purifying 
 the air for animals, and animals are constantly producing car- 
 bonic acid gas to feed the plants. Nature has in this way 
 made plants and animals dependent ui)on each other. 
 
 The starch of [)otatoes, the sugar of l)eets, the jelly of cur 
 rants and apples, the oil of flaxseed and the fibre of flax and 
 of all parts of [)lants are made up entirel) of the three elements 
 — carbon, hydrogen and oxygen ((' H and O). 
 
 'I'he plants get all the carbon from the air, and the hydrogen 
 and oxygen can all be got from water, which, as we have said, 
 is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, so that starch, sugar, 
 jelly, oil and fibre are made up by the plant from what comes 
 from water and the air. When a fiirmer sells from his farm 
 sugar or butter (oil) or fibre lie is selling what in the first place 
 came from the rain and the air, and thereby he does not rob 
 the soil so much as wlu'n he sells grain or hay, since these 
 contain mineral or soil material. 
 
THE PLANT AND THE AIR. 
 
 v^ car- 
 is way 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 We have said that the quantity of carbonic acid gas in the 
 
 ;iir is \rry small : there are oiilv three jtarts in e\t'r\- ti'n thou 
 sand parts l)\- Nohinie. 'I"he air, (>.■ atinit^pheic, i^ made up 
 almost entirely of niUoi^en and ()\y,:;en, mixed together, not 
 united, in the proportion ot about four to one T that is, in every 
 one hundred volimies of air there are nearly eigiity ])arts of 
 
 nitrogen to a little over twenty parts ot oxygen. In addition, 
 there are very small ([uantities of other gases, such as ammonia, 
 
 hut 
 
 we 
 
 need not refer to these here. The facts now to he 
 
 fiM'd in the memory are that the [)lant, through the leaf, does 
 not take u[) the nitrogen and oxygen which are in such large 
 (|uantities, hut does take up carbon from the cari)onic acid gas 
 which exists in such small (juantities, and from this carbon, 
 along with tlu; elements of water, it builds u]) the larger portion 
 of its entire structure. How it does tiiis is largely a mystery. 
 CoNci.usioxs : 
 
 T. liesides the water and the mineral matter of the plant, 
 whicli conu- in through the roots, there are in j)lants large 
 quantities of such substances as starch, sugar, oil, and gluten. 
 
 2. A\] of these substaiKX'K contain caibon. 
 
 3. This carbon comes from the carbonic acid gas of the air. 
 
 4. Animals breathe in oxygen and breathe out carb(jnic acid 
 ga>, through their lungs ; plants take in carbonic at:itl gas and 
 give off oxygen through their leaves. 
 
 -ti 
 
 e said, 
 sugar, 
 comes 
 s farm 
 t place 
 lOt rob 
 these 
 
24 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ! 
 
 ( 
 i 
 
 I 
 / 
 
 STRUCTURE AND GROWTH OF THE PLANT. 
 
 'TiiK S.M'. — All the water used by the plant enters throui^h the 
 roots, and along with it comes the material that we call the 
 mineral matter, together with the nitrogen that the plants refjiiire. 
 'The stalks and branches form the frame work of the plant — ^its 
 body, so to s])eak. 'The leaves give off the water taken in by 
 the roots, and also take up t:arbon from the carbonic acid gas of 
 the air. Now if the water goes in by the roots and out from the 
 leaves it must moi'e through the plant — through the roots to the 
 stalk, thence to the bra?iches, and so f)n to the leaves. This 
 water contains many substances in solution (sugar, salts, and 
 other things) ; we call it sa|i, and the movement is called " the 
 circulation of the sap." We have already referred to the fact 
 that a limb will split lengthwise, not across. Sometimes, as in 
 flax and in the inner bark of basswood, we can pull off long 
 fine strings of fibre. 'These long libres that run up and down, 
 or lengthwise, are nothing else than stritigs of little cells, and 
 in circulation the sap passes on through from one to the next. 
 
 Frecjuently you see a hollow tree that is alive and thrifty • 
 and when you cut across a large tree you notice that the sap is 
 prin(Mpally in the outer portion. 'I'he outer rings of wood are 
 much wetter than the inner or heart wood. We conclude, 
 then, that the sap moves principally u[) and down through the 
 layers or fibres of the j)lant near the outside, just under the 
 outer rough bark. 'The life of the body of the plant is then 
 mainly near the outer bark. When we girdle a tree we are apt 
 to kill it ; we can cut a small nick into it, we can tap it, or we 
 may bruise a piece of the bark, and we do not kill it. Now 
 you see the reason. 
 
 
STRUCTURE AND (;kO\VTH OF THK PLANT. 
 
 25 
 
 Work of the Leaves.— The circulation of the sap brings 
 the water and material taken up from the soil to the leaf, 
 where also is found the carbon taken up from the air. And 
 it is in the green growing leaf that all this material is worked 
 over into such forms as the plaiit can make use of. The leaves, 
 we may say, are both the lungs of the plant and also the stom- 
 ach. If fire burns the leaves of a tree, or some blight or 
 disease attacks them, or insects tlevour them, the tree becomes 
 weak and in many cases soon dies. 
 
 \Ve observe the vitality of any j)lant in the leaves ; and we 
 should always try to keep the leaves fresh and free from attacks 
 of all kinds. The greenhouse gardener carefully washes the 
 leaves of his valuable plants, and the fruit-grower sprays his 
 trees and bushes f(jr this purpose. \\'hen the leaves have 
 worked over all the food from the air and the soil (that is, 
 digested it, as we digest food in the stomach), it is carried 
 away in the saj) to all parts of the plant— -to make root in one 
 place, more leaves in another, to increase the wood in the 
 branches, to form buds, or blossoms, or fruit ; in fact to build 
 up the plant in all its parts. How all this is done and no 
 mistake is made — how leaves are formed in one ])lace and 
 roots in another, and buds in another, is, as we ha\e said 
 before, largely a mystery ; just as it is a mystery how hair 
 is formed on your head, teeth in your mouth, and nails upon 
 your fingers. 
 
 A\'e have another point to notice in regard to the leaves. 
 Cut off several long switches or branches from a willow, a 
 maple, an oak, a spruce, and currant bush. Observe how the 
 leaves are ])lace(l. They are not attacheil by chance. In 
 some cases two lea\es grow out from the same part on 
 opposite siiK's. 'Vhi'Y aw sd\(\ [n \)r (>/>/i(>siti'. In others thiTt; 
 is first one on one side and then the next abo\e on the' other 
 side. They are said to be alternate. Then, if you start with 
 the first leaf and draw a line to the next, and then to the next, 
 
26 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ■I I 
 
 1 
 
 and so on, you find tliut the line goes around the branch in a 
 spiral direction. My closely observmg all these different 
 branches, you hnd that in all cases there is a certain definite 
 order (jf arrangeuient. J-'urtlur, you find that just as the leaves of 
 any one kind of tree are nearly alike in outline, .so they are all 
 nearly alike as to their form of arrangement. I^'ind out this 
 mode or form of arrangement of leaves on the different trees 
 and shrubs with which }()U are familiar. 
 
 When the leaves have done their work they lose their bright 
 green color, turning duller, sometimes brown or almost white, 
 sometimes yellow, sometimes red and many-colored. In the 
 case of one class of trees, such as maples, (uiks, etc., they fall 
 off the branches — suc-h trees are called deciduous, t(j distinguish 
 them from the evergreens. Hut even the evergreens become 
 duller in the fall, and the new growth of the spring is of cjuite 
 a different green from that of the old growth. 
 
 "^Phk liuDs. — 'i'he leaves do not grow into branches or 
 flowers. 'The buds come every year (in the fall and in the 
 spring) in the angles or "axils" of the leaves or at the ends 
 of the branches, so that the arrangement of the leaves is also 
 the arrangement of the buds. Some buds grow into branches 
 and some into blossoms. \Vhen a bud grows at the end of 
 the branch it, of course, by its growth lengthens the branch; 
 when it comes on the side, by its growth it forms a side 
 branch. ANheii we "stop" a rasj)berry bush by pinching off 
 the growth at the end, we cause the side buds and branches to 
 grow out, and thereby make the ])lant beccjme bushy. 
 
 If )()U remove a bud lormed in the fall, co\ered with 
 a wavy substance to protect it in winter, or if you take a 
 bud foniu'd in spiing or suinnuT, and c;n\ fiilh open it, you 
 find it is a coinpai I mass ;)f sm.ilt Kaws it i-^ a little biiuu ii 
 C(MUj)ressed and ])acki'(l away ; aiid the opening n\' the bud 
 is nothing else than an unfolding uf these lea\es as they 
 
STRL'CTUKK WD (.KOWTW OF THI': PLANT, 
 
 27 
 
 Tlic life of the tree starts the 1 
 
 eaves growing, an( 
 
 L;ro\v larger, 
 
 the l)U(ls burst and open iij), sonic to form leaves and branches 
 
 and some to form blossoms. 
 
 lii.ossoMs. Let us take a simple blossom like a yellow 
 buttercup. First we find five small lea\es arranged around 
 the (Hitside. These form 
 what is called the calyx^ 
 and each of these five 
 leaves is a sepal. Just 
 above these are fi\e 
 leaves of bright yellow 
 color forming \\\<icor()lla^ 
 each of which is called 
 
 'A. petal. Next inside the Fii;. 14 -Parts of a Blossom, as follows: Kiid of 
 
 ,, 1 ,- sl-ilk 'ir " rcLupiacle" ill centre-; two leaves or st'pa's 
 
 corolla are a numner 01 of,.ily\ on (.inside; then two leaves or petaU of 
 
 ,■ ., , ,' . 11 corolla; then twu stamens ; then two pistils. 
 
 little Stems or fine Stalks, ' 
 
 with tiny balls on their tips covered with fine dust. 'I'hese are 
 called stamens^ and the dust '\'A pollen. Right in the centre are 
 some more little growths called the pistils. This blossom, then, 
 has four })arts < alyx, corolla, stamens, and pistils, if we take 
 a buttercup, we can easily examine the parts by pulling them 
 off one by one, beginning at tiie wuiside. 
 
 FoKMixG Ski:i) or Fruit.- What is the use of these four 
 parts? The calyx and corolla are 
 sim[)ly two rows of lea\es, green 
 and }cllow, arranged around the 
 two otluT parts to ])rolect them. 
 Observe their form in the closed 
 bud. They guard the more valu- 
 able ])i)Mion, the pistils and 
 St. uncus, and wlun their work is 
 
 , , , -,. ,,., ,• I'ij;. 15. —Stamen and Pistil. St.iinen on 
 
 (Idlie they dri»|) OtI. 1 he lllU- Ictt sh.-winK'/i, the sulk, and /., the 
 
 1 ,, ,- .1 . head, iDvered with pcillen diist. Pistil 
 
 Just or pollen Irom the stamens „„ ^j.^ht si.owinn r, the stigma un 
 
 d.1 4 r .1 „; .^:^ , which the pollen falls; <^ the style, and 
 
 rOpS on the top of the pistils. ,^ ^i^,, ^,.„.'j. containing the seeds, a. 
 
 6 A 
 
 .^^tmitttmkamA 
 
28 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Sometimes the wind blows it over ; 
 sometimes the insects carry it on 
 their ixxlies and legs. As soon as the 
 pollen reaches the upper end of the 
 pistils, growth starts within the pistil, 
 beginning at the top (the stigma) and 
 FiK. 16. -Complete Blossom, Continuing (lown through the fine stem 
 n;i^.:a'll;:;;ilr""'■ "^" (t^e sty/e) until it reaches the main 
 
 inner part (the ovary). It is in this 
 
 part of the blossom that the seed is formed. 
 
 Figures 14 and 15, showing the different 
 
 parts of a blossom taken apart, will help to 
 
 understand what takes place. To form 
 
 3eed, then, the pollen from the stamens 
 
 must reach the j)istils. \\\ some ])lants we 
 
 have them side by side in the one blossom, 
 
 in other plants soiue blossoms have only 
 
 stamens and others only pistils. In this 
 
 latter case the j)ollcn must be carried l)y 
 
 the wind, or by insects, such as bees, as 
 
 thev uo from flower to flower. The seed '"'>•• '7^ incomplete or 
 
 ■' *=*_ impi ikitHloNsoriis. ] he 
 
 forms in the ovary of the blossom after the 
 pollen has fallen from the stamens upon 
 tne [Hstiis. 
 
 Compare tliL- flowers of the a|)[)le willi those of the cherry, and the 
 flowers oi the pear with those of the phiin. 
 
 ip. 
 
 upper oiie lias stiimeiis, 
 liul no pistils (male 
 hlossiim); tlie lower one 
 has pistils, Imt no sla- 
 nieiis (female hlossom). 
 
 m 
 
THE NAMING AND CLA.SSIFICATIO:; OF PLANTS. 
 
 29 
 
 It over ; 
 y it oil 
 >n as the 
 d of the 
 le pistil, 
 Wrt) and 
 ine stem 
 It; main 
 in this 
 
 k.A 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE NAMINCl AXl) CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Tlie many millions of human beings in the world may he 
 arranged in classes or great families. Sometimes the basis (jf 
 classification is their color ; thus we have the white race, the 
 black race, the red race, etc. The white race, also, may 
 be divided in various ways, l*or instance, we speak of 
 the English-speaking i)eoi)le, the I'Vench people, the (lerman 
 people, etc. The Lulians are tlivided into tribes. These 
 classifications are i)ased on color, height, form of body, language, 
 and certain habits or characteristics, in a similar manner it is 
 advisable *o arrange the great ])Iant world into groups or 
 classes — aii those somewhat alike in one class, all otliers some- 
 what alike in another class, and so on. To these various 
 classes names must he given. These names are what we call 
 the scientific or botanical names. They are not always much 
 like oiu" common names of pi nils. The common nami'S may 
 \'ar\' in different })laces, but the botanical names must be the 
 same the world o\er. The botanical names are not so familiar 
 to us as the common nami's, lu nee the\' appear to be very 
 (lilticult ; but in stiid\ing plants, in naming them, and in re- 
 terriiig to text books on botar.}', it is necessar)' to become 
 more or Icns familiar with them. 
 
 i low are we to study a plant, to di'scribe it, to know the 
 plant referred to in an\' botanical work? llow are we to 
 identify \\\\\ \^\\\\\\ ? TlK-ri' arc ilu- four part^ the moi^, tin' 
 sti'in, tlu- lea\csand the blossoms. Tlu' IcaNcs rcallv iiu ludit 
 those parts which we call the blossoms or (lowers, as tlu'se are 
 made up of changed leaves ; but for the [)resent we may say 
 
 M 
 
 i 
 
^c* 
 
 AOKICUI.TUKK 
 
 , I 
 
 that these are the four [)arts named. In stii(lyin,u; or tlescril)ing 
 any i,lanl, tliercfore, we lind out the nature or niake-u[) of its 
 root, stem, leues and blossom. In regard to the root, for 
 instance, we observe whether it is tap-rooted or librous. W'c 
 note the color and Ibrin <.A' the stem. We observe the sha[)e 
 i)( the leaves and their arrangement on th-j branches. In the 
 blossom we note the form, numberand arrangement of the sei)als 
 or [)arts of the cal\x, and of the petals or parts of the corolla ; also 
 the number, form and arrangement of the stamens and pistils. 
 If we carefully oi)serve a buttercuj) and a marsh-marigold we 
 fmd that in the main they closely resemble eac^h other, yet 
 there are differences in their form and they grow in different 
 
 locations. 
 
 M( 
 
 eadow rue, columhme, anemone and hepatica 
 also ha\e a strong family resemblance to these two [)lants. 
 Thesi" are all classed together in one great order or family 
 known as the Ranunculaccu' or crowfoot family. 
 
 The wild mustard of our grain lields and the weeds shep- 
 herd's [)urse and pennycress are classed in another order or 
 family known as the Crucijcri(\ so called because of the 
 arrangement of the four petals forming a cross-like corolla. 
 
 The blossoms of the field [)ea, sweet |)ea, bean, clover a. id 
 locust tree are much alike. These are all classed in one familv 
 — the Lt'i^uniinoscc or legume family. 
 
 C'om[)are the blossoms and leaves of the apple, pear, plum, 
 cherr\, slrawi)erry and hawihorn with the wild or single rose. 
 Thc\' all belong to one l"anul\ the A'csiucd' or rose famil)'. 
 
 The carrot and tlu' pai'snip form a cluster of flowers in form 
 calK'd an uiuhcl^ hence tluse belong to the family UnibelUjow. 
 
 \\\ many t'ommon plants we ha\c the (lowers in a dense ..: 
 
 thick head like the blt)ssoni of ;i field dai>\ or of a sunllower. 
 
 The tln^tll•s, burdixks, e\ eiiisting, golden rod, asUr, varrow , 
 
 dandelion and lelliK f ;iii' other members ol the same family 
 
 — the com[)osile family, or Composite:. 
 
NAIUKK AM) ORIGIN OF TllL Sl)IL 
 
 31 
 
 PART II 
 
 CHAPTER VIII, 
 
 NATURE AND ORKIIN OF THE SOIL. 
 
 All the plants grown upon the farm or in the garden grow 
 '.n the soil; e\en those that ap|)ear to he growing in streaius 
 and marshes have their roots in the soil beneath the water. 
 Sometimes we see j)lants grown in water only in the house or 
 greeniiouse, hut most of those tbund there are growth in pots 
 filled with soil. The plants found on the surface of rocks and 
 on old rail lences are of a low, simple order. We may then 
 con( hide that most of the jtlants that we are now lamiliar with 
 re(|uire soil, and we therefore shall study for a while the soil, 
 its nature, its origin, and its improvement. 
 
 KiMis oi'" S(Mi.. -Sandy soil is made uj) principal'y of sand. 
 If we take a hanilful of dry sand we find that it consiNls of 
 small hard grains that are easily mixed together. If we 
 moisten it, it will cling together and can he moulded into 
 various forms, hut wlu'ii it dries the particles all fall 'apart 
 into fine sand as before. Then there is clay of \arioiis colors, 
 sometimes red, souRtimes almost white, sometimes nearh' 
 blue. If We' moiNteii it wi' can mould it, but wlun it dries 
 it keeps its shape and be<'omc. hard. W f readiK' sci' ihe 
 difference. \\ hm we walk (>\ii' W(t samb soil and wet 
 cla\ey soil, the lormci, when di\, readib rubs oH' oiii b(i()t-,, 
 the latter sticks. Sand is used h)r making luiuilds in the 
 ."ouiidry and clay is used for m iking mndcls b)' the artist; the 
 
 fifl 
 
 ■I 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 former readily falls apart after being taken out of the boxes 
 and can be used again, and the latter when moulded and 
 worked keei)s its shajje as it dries. 
 
 Make two sets of objects (such as halls, cubes, cups, vases or simple 
 llp;urcs of small animals), one set from wet sand and one set from clay. 
 Place them in the sun or near the stove and observe the effect of drying. 
 
 We see that sand as it dries does not stick together, and clay 
 as it dries does stick together and also sticks to other objects. 
 We now understand how it is that wet clay is sticky ; it clings 
 to the i)low and the harrow and to the feet of the horses and 
 is hard or heavy to work. Sandy soil is said to be light and 
 clay soil to be heavy, not becatise of their weight, but be- 
 cause the former is easily worked and the latter is harder to 
 work. I\' we watch closely the drying out of the two sets of 
 objects that we have moulded we shall observe further that the 
 sand dries out more (juickly liian the clay; the latter holds on 
 to the water longer. Clay soils are tisually wet soils ; they are 
 more apt to have water in them than sandy soils. 
 
 The third class of soils is usually dark in color, from light 
 brown to dense black, such as are tbiuid in the wootls where 
 leaves and branches have decayed, and in k)W pastures and 
 swampy places. This soil is m.ule up of the reftise of leaves, 
 branches and roots of [)lants. Sometimes we can see j)ieces of 
 half-decayed or rotten plants ; sometimes there are very slight 
 traces of the original form of the plants. 'I'his soil has, how- 
 ever, all come from former plaiUs. We call such a soil a 
 vegetable soil, and this dark ("olored loose material formed from 
 the decay of vegetable matter is called hnimcs. Notice how 
 it differs from both sand and (~lav. It is light in weight and 
 easily worked and it holds water readily. 
 
 I'lace a handrui of swamp murk or It'uf mM\ild (humus) on nn iron fire- 
 shovel ami careUiliy sel it upon ihe biunin;; coals. Ii dries out, then burns 
 fiway until only a small (|uanlity of asli is left. IMace some wet sand on 
 the shuvcl and iical, and then a little wet clay. What is the result ? 
 
 •I. 
 
NATURE AND ORIGIN OF THE SOIL. 
 
 33 
 
 he boxes 
 <Jed and 
 
 th 
 
 al parts of soil.' 
 
 i 
 
 iiese, tnen, are the three principal parts ot soils — sane, 
 day, and hunuis, hut in many cases we find them mixed 
 toj^cthcr or one above the other. If sand is the i)rineii)al |)art 
 of the soil we call it a sandy soil ; if clay, a clay soil, and if 
 humus or muck, a vegetable soil. A loam soil contains a mix- 
 ture of sand and clay with some humus, and such a soil is 
 usually best fitted for growing most of the crops of the (arm. 
 
 Oricin of the Son.. We already know where the humus 
 or vegetable matter has come from, and, as it was formerly 
 parts of plants, wt' conclude at once that it must contain some 
 material for feeding new plants. j»ut where did the sand and 
 the clay come from ? 
 
 l'erhai)s you have never before asked that ([uestion, thinking 
 that the clay and the sand were always in the field in that form. 
 This, however, is not the case, although they may have bee'n there 
 for many years, pt'ihaps for hundreds of years, [)erha[)s for 
 thousands. Why do we say that the\' ha\e not been there 
 for all time;? Well, if we go to thr shore of a large lake we 
 see fresh sand being washed up div bv day by the waves. If 
 we go to the banks and mouth of a large river, or even of a 
 small stream, we see sand and cla\- and \egetable matter being 
 washed down, <-arried away, and s|)read out to form new layers 
 of soil. Jf we go to the face of a high rocky cliff we can ste 
 the great rocks being gradually broken down and changed 
 into piles of coarse stone, and later into liner matt'rial, and still 
 later into sand and clay. Hut if we can go to a range of 
 mountains or high hills we shall see more clearly the change 
 ot great rocks into line soil. 
 
 Under our soil we fnid solid rock, in some places the rock 
 is al the surface, and wi; can see it beconnng wealluriil and 
 rotten. The outer surface is softer than the interior. In otluT 
 places the rock is just under tin: surfai'e. In some places we 
 have to go very di'ip to find the roi k, but it is alwa\s there, to 
 be found if we only go deep enough. All of our sand and 
 
34 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 
 Fig. i8 —Soil formed from rock- underiieaili. a soil 
 with urass j;ro\viii!i; in it ; /> siili>oil, i oarsor ami 
 more roi.ky ; r coarso, loose rock ; 1/ rock in layers, 
 (racked. (/diunj;es to c, c cluilii^es lo />, and /» tort. 
 
 chiy have come from these old rocks, sand from one kind of 
 rock, while day Irom another kind of ro( k, hhie clay from 
 another. The nature of the soil will therefore depend largely 
 
 upon the nature of 
 the r(j(;k from which 
 it came. This sand 
 or clay may have 
 come from the break" 
 ing uj) of the rocks 
 that are to he found 
 just under the soil ; in 
 that case the soil is 
 likely to be shal- 
 low. Hut usually it 
 has come from rocks 
 at a distance, a long 
 distance it may be, 
 and has been carried to its present place by water and ice, and 
 sj)read out over the old rocks. In this latter case the soil may 
 be very deej) and mixed. We can now explain why the soil 
 .11 some ])laces is ([uite different in its nature from the rocks 
 under it, and wh)- there is such a variety in the sanic locality 
 and on the same farm. One field may be clayey, and across 
 a stream we may imd a sandy soil — they have come from 
 different ])laces, and have been washed down by the waters 
 and s|)read out at ([uite different times. 
 
 A step farther back can now be taken. We go to the hills 
 — to the great piles of rock. We observe that the old rock is 
 weathered. If we break off a |)iece, the fresh surface shows a 
 diffirenl appearance from the old weathered surface ; it is 
 generally harder. \\'e can rub off some of the old weathep^d 
 surface ; what we rub off is the weathered rock — fine sand or 
 fine clay. \\'e observi' long (Tacks or cre\i<H's, some narrow 
 and fine, some wide- and deej). The rain< 'ind ih-'i'- "'■•y 'nto 
 
NATURE AND ORIGIN OF THE SOIL. 
 
 35 
 
 these cracks and fill thcin up. Then winter comes on and the 
 water in the cracks freezes. What will happi'ii then ? just 
 what ha|)jx'ns when the l)arrel ol rain water Iree/.es, or the 
 down pipes on die house hve/e solid, or the bottles ofc^anned 
 fruit in the cellar freeze. 'I'here will he a bursting. And even 
 th(mgh the (juantity of watir is small, it must expand, the 
 rocks must give to make loom for it. The cracks are made 
 larger, a little of the surface is broken away, or a huge shoulder 
 ..«^ ofther(i(k is burst off. (Iradually, 
 
 I *«.^ year by year, the rocks are thus 
 
 broken u[) by the frost, the atmos- 
 phere wears them away, and the rains 
 wash them down, 'I'he rocky cliffs 
 are slowly brc^ken down, and the 
 ice, as it slowly moves down the 
 sides of the mountain, scrai)es and 
 scratches off more and more. This 
 
 Sad haarVng porUot 
 
 Fig. tQ —Soil formed from liill rock- .-\l .1 distance, n is solid rock of a hill or moiint.-iin. 
 Rock at < lias been lirokeii otV \>y rain and fmsi and llirown ddwn to foot i>t lid! ; 
 coarsest rock lies in heaps forming soilless pinion ; liner rock has lieen carried further 
 down where some plants, ,is trees and i,'rass, Krow. I'"inesl soil is helm; washed into 
 the stream to he carried away and spread out, forming layers of soil more ur less level, 
 on w hich crops are j^rowii 
 
 material is washed away -the larger ])ieces but a short dis- 
 tance, the smaller pieces further, and the finest sand and clay 
 carried far away, to he dropjied t)r spread out st)mewhere to 
 make soil. Seeds are dropjied by the birds or blown by the 
 winds; some [)lants sprout, grow, die and decay, and Inrm a 
 

 h 
 
 36 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 little humus. More plants grow and more humus is formed, 
 until out of the material that came from the hard tough rocks 
 and the decay of roots and leaves a fine soil is formed, sandy 
 in one place, clayey in another, and loamy in another. 
 Conclusions : 
 
 1. All our soils have come from the l)reaking down of rocky 
 material and the decay of former plants. 
 
 2. Soils may be classed as follows : Sandy, clay, loam, and 
 vegetable or humus soils. 
 
 3. 'i'he texture of the soil depends upon the amount of sand, 
 clay, and humus mixed together forming it. 
 
 4- The nature of the soil def)en(ls to a large extent upon the 
 nature of the rocks out of which the sand and the clay have 
 been formed. 
 
 5. The rocks have oeen broken up by the action of the air, 
 the freezing of the rain-water in the rocks, the grinding of ice,' 
 and the downrush of rains and streams. 
 
 6. Some soils have been carried about* from one place to 
 another, and spread out by ice, snow, streams, and even lo 
 some extent by the wind. 
 
 7. Some soils have been formed out of the rocks beneath 
 them, and from the decay of j)lants growirg upon them. 
 
 S. Some soils, such as swamp soils, have been formed almost 
 entirely from the decay of plants. 
 
 Suc.r.ESTiVK : — 
 ^Vhat class of plants arc most useful in improvin- the soil, those with 
 shallow j^rrowinn; roots or those havintr deep ^nouin- roots? Have you 
 observed any differenoe between tiie roots of clover and of t,.,iothy ? 
 
TILLING AND DRAINING THE SOIL. 
 
 37 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 TILLING AND DRAINING THE SOIL. 
 
 Weathering. — If we leave a piece of iron exposed to the 
 damp air it soon l:)ecomes rusty ; if we keep it in a dry place or 
 put it under water so that the air cannot reach it, it will not 
 become rusty so soon. Vegetables left in a damp cellar, or 
 thrown out on the ground, soon decay. Pieces of wood, if left 
 long enough, will rot and decay, first becoming brown and 
 later on crumbling to a fine, i)lack substance, the same as the 
 humus of the soil. Harder substances, such as bones, will in 
 time decay and wear away. An old brick when picked up is 
 found to have lost its shar[) corners and edges and to have be- 
 come smaller than when first made. As we examine object 
 after object, we find that there are very few things that do not 
 become changed through the effect of the air, dew, rain, frost, 
 snow, and ice. In a previous chapter we have referred to the 
 oxygen and the carbonic acid gas of the air. These are the 
 two substances in the air that cause many of the changes — 
 rotting the stumj)s, charring old leaves and roots and l)ranches, 
 wearing away the boulders in the field, and dissolving lime 
 out of the rocks. 
 
 If you thrust a stick into the coals it will catch fire and burn. 
 Blow out the blaze and you have a charred stick. If you 
 throw another stick of the same kind out on the ground, or 
 bury it just under the soil, after many months it will be found 
 to become brown and then ahnost black it has become 
 charred also, but it has taken a long time. 'i"he oxygen of the 
 air has burnt up some of it in both cases. If we go to an old 
 

 38 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 limestone Ijridgc where the rains beat upon it, we notice that 
 where the water trickles down, some of the limestone has been 
 washed out, and, in some places, long stone "icicles" have 
 formed. The limestone has been dissolved out by the car- 
 bonic acid in the water. Water in the soil contains some 
 carbonic acid, and the air contains carbonic acid gas ; so that 
 we have in this an e.\{)lanati()n of the hollowing out of caves in 
 limestone rocks, the breaking down of limestone cliffs, and 
 the rapid changes that take place in limy soils. 
 
 Effects of Drainixc. — We take up a handful of vegetable 
 soil— swam[) nuick, for instance, or wood mold — it is easily 
 ground up between the fingers ; there does not appear to be 
 much rocky or sandy material in it. If we shake it up in a 
 bottle of water, we find that the water becomes more or less 
 brown in color ; some of the substance has dissolved, but only 
 a little. In order to get this material into a soluble form, the 
 air must be allowed U) work ui)on it. But the air cannot get 
 into it unless it is drained. 
 
 Take two tin cans or light luixcs ; fill one with wet muck from an un- 
 draiiied, swani|)y fuld, and llll the other with dry leaf mold. I'laiit a few 
 seeds of the same kind in each, anil ohserve how much better the dry, 
 well-aired leaf mold is for the growing of valuable farm plants than the wet 
 swamp muck. 
 
 Wet, swampy soil needs fust to be drained and then to be 
 well W(jrked over, so that the air can get in through it to 
 weather it. There is another reason for letting the air into the 
 wet, swam])y soil, and that is, it will szveeten it. Vegetable 
 soils that are water-loggetl are sour, or acid ; and seeds will not 
 sprout nor ])lants grow well in sour soils. The air contains 
 some anmionia, and this, when it gets into the soil, changes it 
 from a sour to what we may call a sweet soil - it takes the 
 sourness out of it. If a little lime be scattered over the 
 drained soil, this sweeteiu'ng will be hastened. 
 
 Then, again, wet, swami)y soils are usually cold, because of 
 the water that they contain. When we wish to cool a room (»n 
 
TILLING AND DRAINING THE SOIL. 
 
 39 
 
 a hot day, we sprinkle the floor with water. As this water 
 
 evaporates, or passes off into the air, the floor becomes cooler, 
 
 and that cools the air above it. We may look upon a 
 
 swampy field as a great room, the floor of which is the soil. 
 
 If the soil is kept wet, the floor of this field will be kept cold. 
 
 Water is not easily warmed up or heated. A dry soil, or a soil 
 
 well drained, is warmed up by the sun more easily than a wet, 
 
 undrained soil. 
 
 If you place a cup (stonewar*) of water, a cup of wet sand, and a cup of 
 dry sand on the top of a warm stove, you will find that the dry sand be- 
 comes hot much more rapidly than the wet sand, and the wet sand much 
 more rapidly than the water. 
 
 Again, if you wish to heat a pan of water, or to boil the 
 kettle, you place it over the fire, not beside the stove, nor 
 under the stove. The sun is the fire that heats up the soil and 
 the water in it, and it is above, so that the effect of heating the 
 water in the soil is very small. 
 
 We have, then, three reasons why the presence of too much 
 water in the soil keeps the soil cold. We must get the water 
 out of the soil by drainage, so that we can thoroughly work 
 the surface of the soil ; so that the air can get into the soil to 
 sweeten it and help the decay of the humus ; and, also, so that 
 the soil can become warmed up early in spring for the sprouting 
 of seeds and the early growth of the plant. 
 
 All that has been said here in regard to humus, or mucky 
 soils, applies also to sandy, loam, and clay soils, except that 
 sandy soils are not so much in need of s{)ecial drainage 
 — in most cases they drain themselves. The clay soils, when 
 well drained, do not bake upon the surface as they dry out, 
 and they are much more easily worked. The stickiness of 
 clay can be somewhat overcome by the use of lime. 
 
 If you shake up some clay in a bottle of water, and then throw in some 
 finely powdered lime, you will observe a peculiar effect upon the fine clay 
 — it will become flaky or coagulated and the water will clear up. 
 
 The thorough drainage of clay soils, then, is most important 
 

 40 
 
 ADRICULTURK. 
 
 to get the water out and to let the air in. Then thorough 
 working should follow. The soil is plowed up in ridges in the 
 field, every furrow straight and clean rut, glistening in the sun 
 like metal in many places, liut when the freest has t(jiii it to 
 pieces during the winter, we find a great improvement in th' 
 texture of it in the s{)ring. The good effects of plowin 
 and harrowing will not appear on most clay soils unless the 
 land is first thoroughly drained. Drain the soil and let the air 
 work for you, breaking up the coarse particles in winter and 
 w(jrking over the particles in summer into soluble form for 
 plant food. Perha|)s you do not realize how much of the soil 
 is still rocky and needs to be worked over. 
 
 Take a deep hoUlc of clear water, and drop a handful of soil into it ; 
 shake it up a little, then take a small stiek and slowly stir it. The heaviest 
 pieces will settle at ihe hotloni, the smaller above, and the lightest on top. 
 Notice, now, how much coarse, stony material there is in this soil. 
 
 l^lace a little sand, clay, or loam soil under a good magn' 
 fying glass, such as is used for examining grain. The soil loo' 
 like a ])ile of small stones. And that is just what it is — a mix- 
 ture of fine stones with vegetable matter or humus in it. These 
 small pieces of stone came from the great masses of rock on 
 the hillside. How did they come to be so broken up and 
 worked over ? The air got at them, and the dews, and the 
 rain, and the frost. Then if we open up the under-soil by 
 under-drainage, and thoroughly oj)en uj) the surface soil by 
 tillage and cultivation, the air and the rain and the dew and 
 the frost will go on working over these fine stony })articles, 
 forming soluble matter that can go in through the roots and 
 feed the plant. 
 
 Thorough drainage and thorotigh tillage — these are the two 
 main points in im])roving all soils. They are even more im- 
 portant than luaiuuing. This word manure is the same as 
 mantcuvre, which means to "work by hand;" the draining of 
 the soil and the tilling are means of fertilizing or manuring. 
 
TILLING AM) DRAININC TMK SOU,. 
 
 41 
 
 Did you ever notice how large a plaiU the flower grower 
 produces in a small pot of earth ? Examine tlie pot ; it is 
 porous, and has a hole in the bottom. I'he soil is well drained 
 and the air can get in among the roots that have grown so 
 thickly all around next to the pot —close to the places where 
 the air can come in. 
 
 Conclusions:- Plowing, digging, harrowing, and other means 
 of tilling the surface soil have the following effects : — 
 
 1. The coarse soil is broken into finer particles. 
 
 2. 'i'he soil is mixed, rich and poor, fine and coarse. 
 
 3. The air is allowed to get into the soil. 
 
 4. (irowing weeds are killed. Weed seeds are first started 
 growing and then the young weed plants are killed. 
 
 5. Insects and their eggs are disturbed and destroyed. 
 
 6. Well-tilled soils do not suffer from drouth so much as 
 imcultivated soils. 
 
 Draining the soil has the following effects : — 
 
 1. Standing water is taken on' of the soil ; plants will not 
 grov in stagnant water or in sour soils. 
 
 2. Cold soils become warmer i^nd Ct»n b-' planted early. 
 
 3. The rains can go into the soil, instead of running over 
 the soil and washing away the fine surface soil. 
 
 4. The air c:.n get into the sub-soil, and thus rapidly work 
 it over into matter available for plants. 
 
 5. The plants root deeper, thereby havitig more soil from 
 which to get food, and a better chance to withstand drouth. 
 
 IIow is water held in the soil? 
 
 \Vh;U is fice waer? Is the ])lanl ])enefite(l by the jiresence of hirye 
 quantities office water? The remedy is a good system of diainai^^e. 
 
 What is understood l)y capillaiy water? 
 
 Wliat kinds of soils contain most water in this form? 
 
 What effect has deep plowing in the si)rin2, followed by rre(|uent shallow 
 cultivation durint; sumniL-r, \\\ic\\ tliis source of water supply? 
 
 What is the effect of an earth mulch, and how is it secured ? 
 
42 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 IMPROVING THE SOIL. 
 
 *• Feed the soil if you would have the soil feed you " 
 
 Exhausting thk Soil. — Sometimes we see a very heavy crop 
 of corn, oats, barley or roots grown in the open field. In such 
 cases we generally find that there is a good soil, well-drained, 
 and that the season has been very favorable. As a rule, how- 
 ever, we find much larger crops grown in the garden of the 
 farmer, and still larger grown in the little plot of the market 
 gardener. The flower grower, however, j)roduces still heavier 
 crops in his small pots and neat beds. If we observe closely 
 we find that the amount of the crop, its si'/e or weight, and its 
 value, increase in proportion as the soil is well-drained, well- 
 tilled, well-cleaned, and well-fertili/ed. If we neglect or decrease 
 the draining and cultivating, the cleaning and the enriching, we 
 know the crop will grow less year by year. When the trees 
 were first cut down and the fields partially cleared large crops 
 were grown ; the soil was new (virgin soil as we say); it contained 
 a large amount of leaf mold that had been acc:umulating for 
 centuries. On many larms larger crops were once grown 
 among the stumps than are now grown on the cleared field. 
 Then the stumps were burned out, and the ashes, rich in potash 
 and lime, further improved the soil. In some cases the fields 
 have been well-drained and well-cult' valed, and year by year 
 the fields have been fertilized or manured. Such farms are 
 still very proiluctive. lUit we all know what are called run- 
 down larms, that will not now i)roduce heavy crops of grain 
 or hay ; they were once the same as the first-class farms, they 
 had the same start. Why the change? Vear after year hay and 
 
I 
 
 o 
 
 t 
 
 o 
 
 *■> 
 ri 
 
 OJ 
 
 -4-* 
 
 u 
 
 c 
 
 ■c 
 
 il 
 
 c 
 
 «-« 
 
 U 
 
 •E 
 o 
 
 U3 
 
 3 
 tn 
 
 h 
 
 i 
 

IMPROVING THE SOIL 
 
 43 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 grain were grown and taken away from tlie soil and notliing was 
 put back. These cro[)s tocjk up ihc plant lood out of the soil. 
 'I'he rich soil has become poor. Jf you [)ut a thousand dollars in 
 the bank and then begin to driiw out a hundred dollars every 
 year and put nothing in, you will one day use up all of your 
 money — your bank account will become less and less, and you 
 will become [)Oor. So with the soil. 'J'here is a limited amount 
 of plant food in the soil, and even though )'ou drain and work 
 it well, if year by year you lake away from it and i)ut nothing 
 back your soil will in time become poor. Some soils are richer 
 than others and therefore will not become run down so soon. 
 Now let us consider the method of preventing good soils from 
 becoming poor and of making [)oor soils richer. 
 
 Fallowing thk Soil. In former years, before the great 
 prairies were open to settler.s, the farmers of Ontario and the 
 Eastern States grew wheat as their princi|)al market croj). Its 
 price in many years was more than one tlollar a bushel. The 
 usual practice was to [)repare the land for fall wheat by a /xife 
 {alloiv. 'I'he soil was allowed to lie idle ox unproductive for 
 the whole or the greater j)art of the season preceding the 
 sowing. It was i)lowed froui time to time and harrowed. 
 What benefit did that tilling bring ? The rains fell and washi'd 
 down a little material out of the air. This will be seen if you 
 contrast rain water witji clear sjjring water — the former has 
 been <.:hanged, something has been taken out of it by the soil, 
 and something else gi\en to it b\- the soil. The s(jil is bene- 
 fited by rain water [)assmg through it. 'I'Iku some ammonia 
 might get into the soil from the air. Nothing of a solid 
 mineral nature, ho\\e\'er, such as j)otash, or soda, or lime, or 
 phosphates could gil into the soil troni ihf air, siui|)l\' bec.iuse 
 they are not found in the aii'. l!ul ont' tiniig could be done 
 and U>at was done, nauieh', the air could ,m'l into and through 
 the soil and help weather ii and work it o\ii' inlo foiin a\ail- 
 ilbie for plant food. IJaic fallow, tlu'U, <loes not int rease the 
 
 :1| 
 

 Kr 
 
 44 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 material of the soil, it merely works over what is in the soil 
 for feeding the plant ; it can not and does not prevent the soil 
 Ironi becoming worked out. Furthermore, there is the loss of 
 one season's crop, and il" the soil can he kt'pt in good condition 
 and a crop grown at the same time, all will admit liiat the latter 
 should be d(jne. In bare fallowing, howe\er, the soil is more 
 or less cleared from weeds when the fallowing is thoroughly 
 done. But weeds can be cleared out by otlvr means than 
 the bare fallow. First of all a cultivated cro}) can be grown, 
 such as corn or roots — the constant cultivating re(iuired during 
 early growth will clear out the weeds. Or a cro[) can be put 
 in that grows quickly and that co\ers the ground well, such as 
 clover, buckwheat, etc. This smothers or checks the young 
 weeds, and the green growth can be plowed under to decay 
 and form humus. This prac:tice is called }^rcen-)nanurifii^. 
 In green-manuring there is less water lost by drainage than in 
 bare fallowing and hence less loss (jf soluble plant food. In 
 addition everything that the plant takes from the air is turned 
 into the soil and the amount of /^////'//j is thereby increased. 
 This latter result is very beneficial in loosening up heavy soils 
 and in making light sandy soils more loamy. 
 
 Fkrtii.izino Till': Son,. — The ))lant gels some food out of 
 the air through its green leaves ; (he water comes from the 
 rains that fall on the soil and pass in through tin- roots ; the 
 mineral matter or ash comes only from the soil, passing into 
 the plant through the roots along with the water. The .lir is 
 free for all a.nd is about the same everywhere. The rains and 
 snows are largely beyond the control of man, except as 
 affected by the cutting away or growing of trees, the dniinage 
 of the land, and its proper cultivation. Ihit as for the soil food, 
 the mineral substances, the ash C()m|)oun(ls these must be in 
 the soil, and in such form that plants can take them u|), or else 
 no crop will be produced. This soil food is mainly compounds 
 of nitrogen (nitrates, such as saltpetre or nitrati' of |)otash); 
 
IMPROVING THE SOIL 
 
 45 
 
 compounds of phosphoric acid or phosphates, such as wc find 
 in hones; compounds of jjotasli, such as wc find in wood 
 ashes; c()nipounds ol liinr, of iron, ol inai^ntsia, etc., etc 
 Now the point to i»i' notrd Uvw is that the plant muNt 
 have every one oi these conipounds, and growth will not take 
 place if even only one he lacking. Nearly every soil contains 
 lime ; it is a very conuu(^n suhstance in rocks and soils, there- 
 fore we do not need to suj)i)ly that f(jod. JNhignesia and iron 
 are quite common, and much of either is not re([uired. When 
 we feed the soil, or fertilize it, wc have mainly to consider this 
 — whether the soil needs nitrogen, phosphates, or potash. 
 'I'hese are the three main constituents of fertilizers, and they 
 largely fix the values of those that are ap[)lie(l. 
 
 When we api)ly barnyard manure to a soil, we add a bulky 
 fertilizer that, in addition to increasing the ])lant food, has an 
 imj)ortant effect u[jon tiie texture of the soil, for instance, 
 light, sandy soils are apt to be poor in i)lant food, and to 
 be too loose or porous the rain runs thiough them. Wm 
 notice that as the baniNard maiuu'e becomis ohler in the pile 
 it becomes darker through changes that we call fermentation. 
 This dark color is due to the changing of the straw or litter 
 into hiiDius ; and when this is applied to the light soil the tex 
 ture of the soil is improvi'd, the sand}' soil becomes more 
 loamy. When ap|)lied to cla\" soil its slick\- (|uality is mort' or 
 less owieome, and the hea\y clay ( h.inges towards a loose 
 loam. One of tlu' main benefits of ap|)lying bani\aid manure 
 to a soil, then, lies in its err(it upon the texture or |)h\sical 
 (luality ')f the soil. This same elTeet is produced l)\' green 
 manuring, that is the plowing under of a green growing cro[) 
 such as clowr, tares, rye, or but k\\ heal 
 
 'I'he barnyard manui-e conl.iins compounds of nitrogen, of 
 potash, and also |)h()sphates, so that in it wc appl\- the dilVi reiU 
 kinds of food that plants nuist gt t out of the soil. llaniNard 
 manure is called a geiuaal or coiuplcle It ilili/er. 
 
 m 
 

 46 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Soils differ as to their composition ; some, such as mucky 
 soils, may contain plenty of nitrogen but not enough phosphate 
 or potash. In this case the use of a phosphate such as ground 
 bone, or of potash such as wood ashes, would change a barren 
 .soil into a fertile soil. Such a soil as a light-colored clay may 
 recjuire nitrogen compounds to make it complete. 
 
 Again, a soil may contain plenty of food, but it is locked uj), 
 it is unavailable ; that is, it is not soluble or in form reaily to 
 be taken up by the [)lants. If >ve drain and cultivate it so that 
 the air can get in, these will in time be changed into soluble 
 forms. lUit sometimes we can hurry up or assist in this work, 
 as when we apply land plaster (sul[)hate of lime) to a soil 
 bearing clover, salt to a root crop or to grain, and (juic^klime to 
 to a heavy clay or to a fresh mucky scjil. The [)Iaster, salt, and 
 lime are not direct foods, but they act upon the constituents of 
 the soil, setting free potash and nitrogen com[)ounds. 
 
 Nitrification. -Wheat and other tx-reals take up their 
 nitrogen from the soil in the form of nitrates. These are 
 sometimes supplied in fertili/iMS in the form of nitrate of soda. 
 Nitrate of potash, or saltpetre, is now too exi)ensi\e to \)c so 
 used. Humus contains nitrogen, and in its tlecay forms 
 nitrates, es[)ecially nitrate of lime. The change from the 
 insoluble forms of nitrogen in humus to the soluble nitrates is 
 brought about b)' ferments. These are minute forms of j)lant 
 life too small to be seen by the eye. \'east that is used in 
 fermenting dough is a ferment somewhat sinn'lar. In order to 
 do their work, these tiny nitrate ferments in the soil recjuire 
 warnuh, air, and moisture. Hunuis, of course, must be pre- 
 sent. If the soil is sour, they will not work, (lood drainage 
 and tillage, therefore, assist. The fermentation of the manure 
 pile in the barnyartl is brought about by fernu'iUs. Cireen 
 manuring adds material lor making nitrates, ami barnyaril 
 manure adds not only humus but also the ferments. The 
 making of nitrates in the soil is called nittifuwtion. 
 
Lin 
 
 biO 
 
 c 
 u 
 
 rJ 
 
 0) 
 O 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 c 
 
 (U 
 
 X) 
 
 ir 
 
 x: 
 
 C 
 
 c 
 a 
 
 
 u 
 3 
 C 
 rt 
 
 B 
 
 o 
 
 
 
IMPROVING THE SOIL. 
 
 47 
 
 0) 
 
 0) 
 
 a. 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 C 
 
 E 
 
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 ID 
 
 E 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 Conclusions : — 
 
 1. All of our soils were once fresh, unworked, virgin soil. In 
 many cases worn-out soils were once very rich ; they have been 
 made poor by over-croi){)ing and Hitle fertilizing. 
 
 2. Many soils have but a small amount of mineral food in a 
 soluble or availal)le form. 
 
 3. Bare fallowing is for the j)urpose of working over the 
 hard, rocky, insoluble portion of the soil into soluble form. 
 This is done by frecjuent plowing and harrowing, thereby letting 
 the air in. Weeds also are sprouted and afterwards killed. 
 
 4. Green-manuring has the same effect, but prevents loss of 
 food through drainage, and increases the humus of the soil. 
 
 5. The three substances that are most delicient in the soil 
 are nitrogen compounds, phosphates, and potash. 
 
 6.' The value of a fertilizer consists not only in the amount 
 of these three substances, but also in their state of solubility. 
 
 7. Nitrogen is found in nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, 
 dried blood, guino, fish refuse, etc.; phosphates in bone manures 
 and rock [)hosphales ; potash in wood ashes and potash salts. 
 
 8. Barnyard manure is a general fertilizer supplying all three 
 constituents. Its value consists largely in its humus. 
 
 9. (Quicklime, land plaster or gypsum, and salt are valuable 
 as fertilizers, not because they contain plant food, but because 
 they act upon the soil, setting free insoluble plant food. 
 
 10. Draining, tilling, and airing the soil are necessary for 
 the nitrification of humus, or the making of nitrates in the soil. 
 
 SiKuiKSiiVK : - 
 
 Moisluic is iK'Ccssury fur ihe speedy (IcoDinixisilion of ^'reca crops wla-n 
 plowed under. Miglil a soil be injure<l for ;i while by turning under .1 
 crop of rye during a dry time ? 
 
 We have seen that fertili/.ers must lie dissolved before they can be taken 
 up by the plant. What is the effeet of pouring water over a pile of manure ? 
 
 Does not this leaching lessen the value of the manure? Is it not desir- 
 able, therefore, to prevent this loss liy providing a cover for the inanure 
 pile? Tliis liijuid fertilizer is very valuable. 
 

 48 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE (IRASSES. 
 
 Nature of Grasses. — If we carefully lift a slice of green 
 growing sod, we find it is made up of a mat of grass plants. 
 We pull these apart, and find that the roots are all fibrous. If 
 we pull uj) a wheat plant, we find it also has a fibrous root. 
 So has corn. So has timothy. Next take a stalk of timothy. 
 It is round and smooth on the-outside. Cut it open. It is full 
 of narrow tubes running up and down. There are some hard 
 joints in the stem. In the case of a wheat straw you find 
 the stem hollow, except at these joints. Now observe the 
 leaves of the green timothy. They are long and narrow in the 
 blade. Pull this blade and you find that where it meets the 
 stem it is \vrai)i)ed around it, formi ^- what is called the sheath. 
 The sheath is split down one side and is attached to the stem 
 at one of the joints. I''urther, notice the little growth on the 
 leaf called a " ligule." The leaf then consists of three parts- - 
 the blade, the sheath, and the ligule. From the structure of 
 the stem and the form of the leaf you can always tell a true 
 grass from other plants, such as the sedges. 
 
 liy comparing the following plants you will observe that they 
 have the same kind of stems and leaves, and therefore they are 
 all members of the grass family (^ramineic): — the conunon 
 grasses of the fields, such as timothy, orchard grass, June 
 grass, fescue ; grain-producing crops such as wheat, oats, rye, 
 barley, corn, millet ; sugar-producing crops such as sugar-cane 
 and sorghum. 
 
 i 
 
TUF. (IRASSKS. 
 
 49 
 
 1/ 
 
 V-i i'l it-' h\h \ n ''' . 
 
 WliLMi a grass j)lant grows tall and produces seed or grain 
 laige enough to use as food, we allow it to ripen its seed. We 
 use the seed as grain and the leaf and stem we call straw. 
 
 When a grass plant grows tall, hut produces very small seed, 
 we generally cut it down hefore it |)roduces seed. We then 
 call this hay. Such grasses are timothy, red-top, orchard grass, 
 the fe.scues, the foxtails, brome grass, and rye grass. 
 

 AORICUI/rrRK. 
 
 1 .1 .^rass plant does not grow tall, hut grows short and 
 (■ use: such |)lanls for |)asturL' grasses. Such grasses 
 e grass and ( 'inadian hlue grass. 
 
 50 
 
 \Vhcn a grass plant does 
 ihick, w 
 arc Jiuu 
 
 Fig. 21. — Kentucky blue gr.iss or Junu sr-iss. A pasture and lawn grass. 
 
 The best way to study the different grasses is to study them 
 as they are growing ; you will then find out how many there 
 are and how different they are in form of leaf and head, in 
 color, and in their habits of growing. 
 
 Hn)ssoMiN(; OF CiRAssKs. — 'I'here is one other point to study 
 in grasses, and that is their blossoming. The blossom'" >f 
 the corn plant will be referred to in the next ' '>r\|ift" 
 blossoms of wheat and oats are much like th( t m, y, 
 
 showii in fig. 20. 'I'he grass blossoms, genera^, are very 
 small and are not very bright in color, we are therefore iikely 
 to overlook them ; but every grass plant blossoms before it 
 forms seed. If we allow the timothy to stand too long before 
 
 ) 
 
TUE C.RASSES. 
 
 5» 
 
 cutting it becomes woody ; but dusty hay is caused by 
 the |K)lleii from the l)lossoms on the head. Notice, also, thai; 
 all the blossoms on the timothy head do not come out at the 
 
 I'i>.' 22. — Illustration shovviiii? how some plants ruproducc- \>y crecpiiit; 
 roots. I, new plant just coniini; up ; 2, plant hefoie MossoiniriK ; j, old 
 plant forming seed. Jinie grass ;uul couch grass spread in this way, 
 
 same time. Some are a little later than others. Ik'cause of 
 this we sometimes hear it said that it blossoms twice, but this 
 is not the case. Grasses for hay are generally cut just after 
 blossoming, or just as the seeds begin to form. 
 
 Clover and hiickwlicat arc not true grasses. Why not ? 
 
 Why arc foxtail and red-top so called ? 
 
 Which grasses have branched tops and which .spikes ? 
 
 What is meant by ".seeding-down "? When is this done . WTiy does 
 not the grass outgrow the grain? 
 
 Explain why grasses, such as June grass, are so common. Why do not 
 wheat and corn spread ? 
 
 y-_gigii 
 
 IHM 
 
..-ji*---^a», 
 
 
 ACiRKTITURE. 
 
 I 1 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 ' I 
 
 THK CRAIN (M<()PS OR c'i>:ri:ai.s. 
 
 The ])ritici|)al grain crops of llir farin arc wheat, oats, harlcv, 
 rye, corn, hiickwhcat, and millet, and to these we shall hrielly 
 refe'r. It nnist be remcnihered that these crops also ma\' he, 
 and tVe(|iienll\' are, (ait green and tV'd to stock hetore the grain 
 is fornied, e^peeiall)' r\e, corn and millet. ()dicr crops ah.o 
 are used (or soiling, such as clowr, peas, and tans or \etches. 
 
 While the jjlant is glowing it takes in food from the air and 
 the soil. It keeps on increasing in si/e until in lull Moom. 'Chen 
 the seed begins to lorm from the blo.^som, and all the material 
 that goes to lorm the seed is taken up out of the leaf, sttin, 
 and root, where it has been stored up. l)uringall this time of 
 seed lorming, wry litlle plant food comes in through the root, 
 so that when the seed is lull)' formed, the le.i\es and stalk and 
 root are not so rich or nutritious as they were at the time of 
 blossoming. I'Vom this )()U will s(;e why it is that stniw is not 
 so rich a food as lia)'. 
 
 Wni, \i. -Wheat is .sometimes classed aiN-onh'ng to its color, 
 red and while ; sometinu's according to its grain, hard and 
 sol! ; sometimes according to its chaff, beanlcd and bald ; 
 sometimes according to die time it is sown, fall or winli-r, and 
 s|)ring. \\\' use these four imlhods in dc^c^il)it1g am 
 \arict\' of ^\heat. Where the first wheal (,iiiie from wc 
 doiiiii know ; bul wheat taken from one climale to another 
 and from one kind of soil to anolher will change in si/e, form, 
 and general appi'arancc, so that we neeil nol e\pect to find the 
 sai.ic variet)- of wheat always appearing exactly as described. 
 
TlIK CkAIN CkoI'S OK CllRK.VLS. 
 
 
 This \vc should rcmenihor, that wlirat, like every other kir.d of 
 
 jj;raiii. imist he carefullv selected if we wish to keep it iiii] ro\ed. 
 
 We can e\"en ehaii^i' a winter \ariety to a s|.>rinj; l)\' sowing 
 
 gradually earlier \ear l)\' year; and we can change a spring 
 
 variety to a fall \ariet\' 1)\' sowing gradual!} later war l)\- \ear. 
 
 (iet a licad ol licardcd wheal ; lal<c it to |)iL'(es, and oIimtvl' llu' 1i>iil; 
 beards, wltal llioy arc and how attached. Compare with the beards ol a 
 barley head. Are llie beards on the grain ? 
 
 The grain of wh'.at is made up of M'wral i)arts, the three 
 prinei|)a! ])arts being fir^t the out' r skin or the i)ran coalings, 
 second the white tloui portion, and third the little yellow geim 
 at one end. 'This gerni is the li\ing part (/I the grain, the Hour 
 is the food stored up for li'eding it in its earh growth, and the 
 hran is tlu' co\ering" or cloak. Il" we grind up the whole 
 grain we get wholewheat tlour. \\\ die old stone milling pro- 
 cess the hran alone was si parated trom the rest. I)\' the new 
 pioci'ss the grain isdi\i(led mainly into three parts, namel\' the 
 hran, the white Hour, and the hluish or gre_\ish gi'rm Hour. 
 
 riace si_'\i'ral graitis of wheat in xour mouth and chew diem. 
 (IradualK- \()U separate and swallow part of llie wheal -that is 
 the starch ; ytni will ha\f left in noiu" mouth a gimim\ suh- 
 slance— that is the ghiu n. The ghileii is the richest part of 
 tlu: (lour ; it is what gi\es it its strength. 
 
 \\\\:. — ill some couiUries of lairo])!.' r\i' takes the same 
 |)lace that wheat does in .\merica, it is the griMt llour produc- 
 ing cro|). .\s widi wheat it is sown lioth in the fall ami 
 in tlu' sjiring. It is \cr\' hard\ and can he grown e\en on \eis- 
 poor soils. With u> It is som. times sown in the lall to he cut 
 earl\ in the summ.'r as a soiling crop. Thi.' grain is longer 
 than that lA wheat and il^ lln'ii is i|uile daik. 
 
 ().\ IS. --The oat jilatu fumi>he-,a most impoitant jood forman 
 as Well as for hoi ses and other animal... ( ).ils ate ;.;eneiall\ i la■^^el| 
 accv.rding to their colm. The head is hrain lied and the grains 
 are t'owred with a coaise' Ioosl' husk, iR'iice its light weight. 
 
 :i 
 
 i 
 
 i;l 
 

 I' 
 
 '» I 
 
 i 
 
 54 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 This grain will grow in j)oorcr soil than wheat and much 
 further north. It is a rather hearty and gross feeder and 
 produces very large crops on rich soil. 
 
 Barley.— This grain is classed as two-rowed, four-rowed 
 and six-rowed, according to the number of rows of kernels in 
 the head. The two-rowed refjuires a longer S'-ason ot growth 
 than the six-rowx'd, which is one of the most rajjidly growing 
 and maturing grains liiat we have. Barley is used as a food 
 for stock, and also for the making ot malt out of which beer is 
 brewed. Its value for malting depends upon the soil and 
 climate. It must be of bright color, well filled, and all ripened 
 so that it will si)rout evenly in malting. 
 
 Corn or Mai/k. — In (ireat Britain the name 'Xjrn is applied 
 to either wheat or any l)read-])ro<.lucing cereal, in North America 
 it means Indian corn or Maize. The distinc^tion is made of 
 sweet corn which is used for food by man, and .common corn, 
 which again is divided into lli?it and dent. Flint corn has a 
 hard flinty kernel, and dent has the indented form on the ti[) 
 of the grairi. The roots are long and therefore the [)kuU feeds 
 c[uite deeply and recjuires a soil of ckep cultivation. It has 
 long heavy leaves and thick stalks, not hollow like the previous 
 grains, but more or less filled. It bears heavy ears and pro 
 duces large (juantities of food |)er acre. W'e at once conclude 
 that it takes nuich more food froni the soil than the others, that it 
 is a heavy feeder and rt.'(iuires heavy manuring. \\'hen well 
 cultivated, it is a good cleaning cro\), 
 
 'i'he blossoming of the corn is worth noticing, k'ine silky 
 threads may be seen hanging from the end o! the green ear, all 
 attached to the cob —these are the "styles," the female portion 
 of the blossom. At the top of the stalk is " the tassel " wiiich 
 carries the stamens oi- male portion of the blo^som. The pollen 
 from thest' falls down upon the pistils of tlu' ear and there 
 com|)letes the blossoming. If diffi'reiit \aiieties of corn are 
 planted near together the |)ollen irom the tassels of one \ariety 
 
 i 
 
TIIK GRAIN CROPS OR CKREALS. 
 
 55 
 
 
 rnay i)C carried by the wind or by insects to tlic silky pistils of 
 another, and thus j)r()duce the peculiar kernils that are some- 
 times seen on ears of corn. In growing corn tor seed, there- 
 fore, it is necessary to grow each kind by itself, far from any 
 other variety. 
 
 There are various ways of growing corn. It may be sown 
 broadcast, when the [)lants grow close together and cover the 
 entire soil. In this case the jjlants do not h;ive sunlight upon 
 the lower leaves and the stalks, and as a result the [)lants do 
 not mature, and production of e;u-s is pre\ented. The crop 
 consists entirely of leaf and stalk, and is cut and used just as 
 we ('Ut and use timothy hay. 'i'he effect of the lack of sun- 
 light is seen also in the pile yellow color of the under leaves. 
 The stalks and the lea\es are (juite walL'ry, and the amount 
 of food per acre is less than is got b\- the other methods, if 
 t.;a''s are desired the corn must be sown in rows or in hills far 
 a[)art; the taller the corn the farther apart must be thediills or 
 hills. A method adopted by many WL'stern corn-raisers is that 
 known as "listing." The corn is grown in furrows, which are 
 gradually filled in as the corn grows higher, just ab()\e the 
 surface of the soil a ring of sackeis shoots out from near tlie 
 joint or node, and as the earth comes up to tlu'in tlu'se take 
 root. In this way the corn becomes deep rooted, is held lirml) 
 in place ;ind is abk; to wilhstcUid drouth. 
 
 A great deal of valuable information can be learned by care- 
 fully watching tin- growth of different kinds of corn in llu' field, 
 i'fom what part of the stalk do the eais grow? What is the 
 I'ffect of ^ utting off i)art of tin,' l.issels ? What is the clTcri 
 of culling off all the tassels ? Wh.it is the ell\( t of re- 
 mo\ing the smaller ears and Iraxingonly the larger? What 
 is the effect of cutting away all the Cv)rn for aboiU eight feet on 
 every siile of a singU' hill or slan<l ? 
 
 SuiiAK ('AXt;. This |)hin!, like corn, h.is a stalk who^e tubes 
 arc filled with a juice rich in sugar. New plants are started 
 
 ") I 
 

 .1 \ 
 
 56 
 
 AC.RIcri.lL'RE, 
 
 from " ("uttings." Its stalks grow from one to two inches thick 
 and from eight to twenty feet high. It is cut before flowering 
 and the juiee j)ressed out. This juice is eva[)orated and a 
 dark brown sugar remains, from which the white sugar is got 
 by " refming." 
 
 SoucMiiM. — This has pithy stalks like maize and sugar cane. 
 There are several varieties ol it, one, Indian Millet or doorha, 
 is grown extensively in iCastern countries for its grain for bread 
 making ; another is grown for its sugar or syru[), also as food 
 for stoi-k ; and still another (broom corn) for its tassels, out of 
 which the whisks of brooms are made. The broom-corn tops 
 are cut off while still slightly green and are dried in dark 
 buildings, where they partially bleach out. 
 
 These three members of thu grass family, maize, sugar cane 
 and sorghum, are then distinguished from the other grasses, in 
 having their stalks filled, and all contain a consideral)le quantity 
 of sugar in tlu'ir juices. Sugar cane grows only in very warm 
 climates, sorghum is found farther north, and maize, although 
 originating in Mexico or ("entral America, will, in some of its 
 varieties, mature its grains much farther north. 
 
 Rici:. — '["his is the great bread food of ( 'hina and Jaj)an, 
 and is best grown in lands that are mild in climate and are 
 capable of irrigation. The l.nid is |)repare(l as for grain. The 
 v\cv is sown in drills and coxcrcd with about two inches of soil. 
 Then the wati-r is let on to a di'pth of 12 to iS inches. After 
 standing for f )ur to six days it is drawn off and the plants 
 allowed to get a good start ; water is again let in for a time and 
 then drawn off before harxi'sting. The growing of riei' upon wet 
 soils gis'cs us tlu' e\plana\. 11 foi- the scriptural teaching: " ( !ast 
 thy bread upon the waters, for thou shall fmd it atiei many 
 days." (liccl. xi. i.) 
 
thick 
 
 THK LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 57 
 
 THE LEC.UMINOUS PLANTS. 
 
 Nature of Lkc.imi.s. i'lants sucli as whrat and hatlry 
 were foniierly cut with a sickle ; the pods of such as peas and 
 l)eans were gathered l)y hand ; hence the Letter were known as 
 /e^'^/n;ies, (rnmlhc Latin /e^i^'n, "I gather." All ])lants reseinhling 
 j)easand beans in their botanical nature were called the legum- 
 inous plants. They were; also called />n/se because, as some 
 say, of their be'ing j)ulled or plucked. The most striking 
 resemblance is in the blossom. 'I'he seeds are formed in |)<)ds 
 
 I ; 
 
 Fifj. aj. — HlnsMiin nf a II'^;..'!!" ;is nf 
 pea, Ijean, or Iknveiiiij; locust in f*. 
 
 Fin. ?4. — Hlossiim of k'mimu t.iki'ii 
 apart, sliowini.; I'lvi' luavo of ( (irnlLi 
 I ppL-r larm' Uaf is llic " siamlard," 
 the two l.iwL-r tin; " ki-'el," llio two 
 side iliL' "wiiius." Tlic i)isiiUaiul 
 
 st.iint-'iis arc t.mjlosi(,l in the kcd \^^ . ' / \ > 
 leaves. ^ 
 
 Im;. -t 
 or IcgunifS of diffcrcnl sh:ipcs in dilfi'iciit plants. 
 
 the mcnibiis of the 1cl;uiimiioiis laiiiiK, tlir lilo^-^(im-> aim] pi 
 
 aicinii ^nlall for us to 'i|isri\c rc.idiK ihcir ri '-ciubianif 
 
 those of the pea and Ix ,iit ; Iml a i :uiliil >liid\ < >| ihr ro' 
 
 lca\es, and l)lo->>oms ol ihc ji illciw nig pi inK will sonn pii 
 
 dial they are all (|uile alike. I hey are all legumes with wh 
 
 we should be familiar. 
 
 n s'),iu' of 
 
 to 
 
 nh 
 
 i 
 
f I <u 
 
 I 
 
 HI' 
 
 51; 
 
 ■:B 
 
 AtlKlCUl.TURE. 
 
 c 
 
 ommon 
 
 per 
 
 Leguminous Family {Le, 
 I. Co 
 
 0- 
 
 <:uniinos(C) 
 
 mon red clover. 
 
 White or Dutch clover, 
 Alsikeor Swedish clover, 
 Crimson or scarlet clove 
 
 Coninioii string bean, 
 
 Lima bean. 
 
 Horse or Windsor bean, 
 
 Common \etch or tare, Mammoth red clover, 
 
 Common lentil, Lucerne or alfalfa, 
 
 iAij)ines, IV'anut or ground nut. 
 
 I'Vom this list of plants we see tliat the family is large and 
 imp(jrtant. \\\ addition there are many weeds belonging to 
 this same family. To s[)eak of clovers as being glasses is bot- 
 anical ly incorrect, since in 
 form or shape and in mode 
 of growth they are entirely 
 different. The most notice- 
 able difference is in the 
 shape of l)lossoms. The 
 lea\es also are different in 
 shape ainl in arKuigement. 
 Contrast a plant of clo\er 
 with a plant of timothy (jr 
 wheat. The stalks also are 
 different, and the roots are 
 (juite different. Full ii[) a 
 large rcilcloxer or pea plant, 
 and also a wlu'at plant, and 
 contrast their roots. Which is the more fibrous and matl^'d? The 
 clo\ers st_iid their roots deeper into the soil. Obserxi", also, the 
 little knots, or balls, or tubercles on the clowr roots. These 
 tubercles play a wry impoita.nt part in tlu' nourishment of the 
 legimiinous plants. The\- are lilled with inaii\ little li\ing 
 parasiti's, souuthing like \easl celK, that grow and Kh(1 upon 
 the free' iiitiogeii of the ail", from it forming compouiuls that 
 lieip to nourish the [)lanls. Now we have ahead)' mentioned 
 
 \ in. 95 —Rout of !i tesiiiiuc showing knots 
 or lioilulcs or luburclcj. 
 
 II! 
 
Till': i,i:(;uMi\ou.s plants. 
 
 59 
 
 that wheat, for instance, will readily feed upon nitrogen in the 
 f(jrni of nitrates ; i)ut if we a[)ply nitrates to clover no effect is 
 produced. The wheat cannot take up the free nitrogen of 
 the air, hut the clover can, through these root tuhercles. 
 Sometimes clover does not grow well ; and when pulled u[) 
 very few, if any, of these little tuhercles are found upon the 
 roots. If, however, some soil in which clover has been growing 
 well, or the washing from such soil, is applied to the weak 
 clover, the plants soon begin to thrive and the tubercles are 
 seen growing ui)on the roots. These tubercles possess the 
 power of taking u[) free nitrogen from the air in the soil. If 
 we can get leguminous j)lants to grow in a [)Oor soil and then 
 turn them under, they will deca}' and produce humus rich in 
 nitrogen that will give rise to nitrates (by nitrification) for the 
 benefit of the wheat or other grain cro})that comes after. 'The 
 seeds frcjm all leguminous jjlaiUs are wry rich. Then we can 
 state tlie following as the valuable points in connection with 
 leguminous })lants : — 
 
 1. The)' ha\e man)- hvives and are good for fodder. 
 
 2. 'I'heir seetls are ver)- rich in food material. 
 
 3. 'I'heir roots are generally long, therefore dec]) feeders. 
 
 4. 'I'he\' take up tree nitrogen from the air, .md are therefore 
 easier on the soil than are cereals or root crops. 
 
 I'i'.AS are generally grown for th.j seed, which is very 
 rich in nitrogen and in oil. The man\' \arielirs grown for 
 m.in and stock are classed as garden pivis and field peas. 'I'he 
 stiiov is richer than that of the grain (■roi)s. When grown to 
 be cut green for soiling, peas are generally sown with oats. 
 
 l»i:.\N's are grown in this countrv for the seed, planted 
 in hills, as a garden (aop, or as a fu Id croi) with good 
 uardeii eulli\ation. Sonic ot the xaiirli*"^, as the hor>c bean, 
 
 reijuire a 
 
 rlv 
 
 mild climali 
 
 Sonic aic short and bushy, 
 
 11 
 
 i; '* ! 
 
 II 
 
 
 if 
 
 
 ! 
 
 others are tall climbers. Examine their means of climbing. 
 

 6o 
 
 Ac.Ricui/ri'Ri': 
 
 ll'l 
 
 n 
 
 \y:vc]\\.s OR 'r.\ki:s have sniallcT pods and seeds than peas, 
 and are jj;n)\vn for soilini^ aloni; with oats. Tlie stiff stalks of 
 the oats hel[) to su[)[)ort the slender \ines of the tares. 
 
 CoMMo.v l\i:i) Cj.ovkr is also k'liown as liroad leaf clover 
 or treloil. 'I'he j)eculiar light sjjot on the leaves and the 
 closeness of the up])er leaves to the head are to be noted. It 
 grows to two feet in luight, and the roots i)enetrate the soil 
 dee|)ly While in some localities it is a j)erennial, in 
 most tem])erate regions it is a biennial. Its form and 
 mode of growth adapt it for hay rather than for pasture. It 
 rij)ens about the same time as orchard grass and about two 
 weeks earlier than timothy. It should be cut before the heads 
 become very brown ; if left too late its leaves, which form a 
 large part of it, become brittle and droj) off in handling. After 
 being cut once the |)lants rapidl\- grow uj) again, giving a second 
 crop, the aftenuath or roweii. 'l"he de[)th to which its roots go 
 dei)ends greatly u])on the state of the soil ; therefore the soil 
 should be well drained. When the sod is turned over, large 
 (juantities of humus, rich in nitrogen, are left near the surface 
 for the wheat or other grain crop following. A variety of red 
 clover is known as manunoih cl(j\er. 
 
 Wniii'; OK Drrcii Ci.ovi'.r is a low growing i)lant, with 
 creeping steius and white blossoms It is \ery hardy and apt 
 to crowd or smother out other ])lants. It is one of the most 
 fre(|uent plaiUs in [)aslure fields, and is es'pecially valuable for 
 sheep and cattle. It is usually sown with grass seeds in 
 permanent pasture mixtures. 
 
 Ai.siKi". OR Swi.iii>n ('iit\i,R is a perenni il with pink 
 blossoms, glowing abiul two leet high. It tliii\rs in cool 
 ( lim.ite>. Il tUir>, not gi\e such lua\\' \ ields as red (io\er, 
 but is speciall)' adapted for lui\ fields thai arc to be kipt for 
 
 se\eral )ea 
 pastures. 
 
 rs. 
 
 It 
 
 IS sometuiies sow n aloiiLi with other seetls for 
 
pink 
 

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 •^ X> 
 
 THE LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 
 
 6i 
 
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 Crimson or Sc ARi.F.r Ci-over grows further south than tlie 
 others, has a long scarKt hrad and makrs an laiiy rapid growth 
 cwn on j)oor land. It is a ha\' |)KuU. In some plates it is 
 used as a "catch ero]),"' that is it is grown on land after the 
 removal of grain crops, for a liglit forage crop or to l»e plowi'd 
 under as a green manure. 
 
 Lupines include a number of little shrubby plants 
 that bear ver\' showy flowers. 'I'he i)lants are ai)t to be too 
 woody for forage, but shee[) readily eat them. Their principal 
 use in this country is for jjlowing under as green manure, since 
 being leguminous they gather nitrogen from the air. The most 
 common are white, yellow, and blue lupines. 
 
 Lucerne or Aijali a is a plant resembling clover in its 
 growth. It is not strictly a clover, although sometimes called 
 Spanish clover. It is difficult to start ui)()n land, but once well 
 started it is h^ng continuetl, being a deep-rooted perennial. It 
 has a smaller leaf than clover and a purple head, more o[)en. 
 It is somewhat bushy and sends its roots as tleep into the soil 
 as the water level will allow. I'or this reason it resists drouth. 
 It must be cut early or it will produce a very coarse wcjody 
 hay. In mild climates it may be cut for hay several tunes 
 during the )-ear. 
 
 The i*EANUP is an annual, growing in warm climates on 
 light soil. Other names for the j)lant are earth-nut, ground-nut, 
 goober. Though not a nut its pod is somewhat like a nut and 
 it belongs to the pea familw The seeds are very oily, giving 
 an oil used for soap making. 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 I'M 
 
 '■ a 
 
 I 
 
 ■f. D- 
 
 I r. 
 
 D C 
 
 a, 
 
 -f- C 
 
 x: 
 

 62 
 
 ACRICULTrkK. 
 
 N 
 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 ROOT CROPS AND TUBERS. 
 
 Nature and Cikowrir of Roots. — If \vc place some seed 
 of the turnij) or beet in the ground in early summer, we find a 
 plant s[)routing up that has broad thick leaves. The root is 
 tai)ering, sometimes (juite long, and has fme rootlets growing 
 (jn the sides. Towards the end of the season the lea\es wither, 
 change color, and die. When we pull u}) the root we find a 
 thick mass of juicy substance that is relished much by 
 animals. This turnij) or beet root has not fmished its life-' 
 work as a plant, since it has not \et j)roduce(l any seed or any 
 new plants like itself. If we lea\e it in the ground, or if we 
 take good care of it through the wiiUer so as to keep it cool 
 and unbruised, and i)lant it in the early suiumer, it will begin 
 t(^ grow again. A new growth will appear above the soil, a 
 stalk will be foniK'd and seed be produced of the same kind as 
 that which we sow^d in the lust place. It we again j)ull uj) 
 the plant, we find the thick lleshy root has become very tliin 
 and fibrous, and is of no use as food for stock. We conclude 
 that these plants are bietiniah ; that during the first seas(jn 
 they store \\\) large ([uantities of food in their root, and that 
 this food in the root nourishes the ])lant during the second 
 season. Since they have a whole season to gather food, we 
 find that the weight per acTe greatly exceeds that of many crops 
 that are annuals, and they take a large ([uantity of material out 
 of the soil. These plants are heavy feeders. IJy keeping the 
 soil well cultivated we destnjy the weeds, keep the soil 
 moist, and help the action of the roots, 'i'he roots are very 
 watei}' and contain large ([uantities of the substances that are 
 
ROOT CROPS AM) lUnKRS. 
 
 ^>3 
 
 c seed 
 
 find a 
 root is 
 rowing 
 witlicr, 
 
 find a 
 ich by 
 its life-" 
 or any 
 )r if we 
 
 it cool 
 I i)egin 
 ; soil, a 
 
 kitid as 
 ])ull up 
 cry thin 
 onclude 
 
 season 
 md that 
 
 second 
 ood, we 
 ny crops 
 erial out 
 ping the 
 
 the soil 
 are ver)' 
 
 that are 
 
 4 
 
 first formed in plants, namely sugar and stanh. The materials 
 that are taken from the soil through the roots, and that which 
 ()asst's in from the air, are worked o\er in the green leavts, so 
 that while green we would expect to iind a considerable iiuan- 
 tity (jf mineral or soil material in the leaves. Anv green leaves 
 that are cait from the roots wluai they are pulled, therefore, 
 should be left on the soil where the roots g''ew, so as to hel,) 
 keej) up the richness of the s(jil. The roots ke;.'p on growing 
 during the fall until the weather l)ecomes very cold, therefore 
 they have a good chance 
 to benefit bv the nitrates 
 that are formed diu'ing 
 thelatter part of sunuuer. 
 They have the advantage 
 of spring-sown grain 
 crops in this regard. 
 Since root crops are such 
 heavy feeders, and since 
 the ground sIkjuUI be 
 ke[)t thoroughly cultivat- 
 etl during their growth, 
 they are generally used 
 as the crop to which the 
 largest (juantity of barn- 
 yard manure is aj)plied. 
 In addition to hea\y 
 manuring, another very 
 important necessity is 
 thorough cultivation of 
 the s(jil before the sowing of the seed. The root is thick and 
 compact; it has to push down and out on all sides, if it can 
 iKjt go straight down it will twi^l ahout or ])ush iiMlf p.nil\' out 
 of the ground, h'or well shan.ii a id [jiaieit root^, lluii, we 
 must have a well-tilled and well-drained soil. 
 
 Fig. 26. Sii;;:ir beet on left Rrowii in i;i)iicl 
 suil, w ull (Ir.iincil ami wi'll cultisalctl ; beet uii 
 right glow 11 in ruu:^h Mjil. 
 
 I| 
 
 m 
 

 »' ;., ' 
 
 64 
 
 .\(;UIC LI.ILRK. 
 
 The Turxii' Ixjlon^s lo what is known as the nuislard 
 family i^CruciJenc). 'I"hc principal uicnihcis ol this laniil)' arc 
 the turnip, the radish, the cabhaLije, raj)e, cultivated mustard, 
 iiorseradish ; the weeds, wild mustard or charlock, she[)herd's 
 purse, and wild flax ; the flowers, stocks and candy tuft. The 
 flowers of all these plants Xxaw, 4 i)etals si)read out in the 
 shaj)e of a cross — hence the name, cruciferdt. 
 
 THii CvKKor is a [)lant whose varieties differ gieatly in 
 shape, si/e, and color. Celery and the [jarsnip belong to the 
 same family. The blossom resembles the stays of an um- 
 brella ; hence the name — uniheniJer(C—\\)\\\\K:(\ to this famih'. 
 The sliaj)'' of the root, differing Irom that of the tiu'nip, 
 suggests that the plant goes deep and therefore re([uires a 
 soil loose and ».'pen and dee|)l\' culti\atecl. 
 
 Tmk Bkkt belongs to still another ''amily, the goose- 
 foot family. Thj origincU of this root was a wild |)lant of 
 Southern Euroj)e. (Iradually it has been imj)rove(.l, the root has 
 been enlarged and the compc^sition cha;i;red, until now we have 
 several very valuable plants whose roots are widely used. The 
 mangel wur/el or mangel is one variety, grown for stock feed- 
 ing. The sugar beet is another, grown for its sugar. Mangels 
 wlu'ii grown on rich, wellcultivated soils pioduce enormous 
 )'iel(ls per acre. They m<i\' be kcj)! stored lor late fec'ding. 
 
 The sugar beet is a good exaiuple of what can be done by 
 way of improving i)laiUs. In its wild state tlu' beet had very 
 little sugar that could be- extracti'd. iJy culti\ation it wasfoimd 
 that the (|uantity of sugar increased. Suppose we take a field 
 of common white bcv Is and seli'ct the mo>l |)erfe( tly shaped 
 roots ol about 1 ' ... or j |)ounds each, and plant them and 
 then si'lcct the best seed Ironi these and sow this si'cd. W'e 
 pick out the bi st beets licm tliat crop. Then by testing small 
 piei~es of the roots we lind out which \\\\\\' \\\v largest amoiml 
 of sugar, and i)lant them. We keep on in this way for several 
 years ; we find that at la.-.l we get secil that will produce beets 
 
 t 
 
 1.1 I 
 
ROOT CROPS AND TUISERS. 
 
 65 
 
 I Is 
 
 that arc ('Icar-skiniU'd, ni'H.l\- ta|)crii\u, haxiivj, a lari^L' amDuiit 
 of sugar and a small anioiiiU oi" ash matrrial. \\i' (ouM thus 
 develop beets good for sugar making, \vlin>t' nature it is 
 to produce sugar. In this way the sugar hcets h;i\e hceii 
 developed, and in this \va\' the seedsmen are still pKH hieing 
 imj)ro\e(l seed. To grow good sugar beets the soil must be 
 we! -drained and well-tilled, the ))lants nuist be grown closer 
 together than when grown for feeding stock, and the roots must 
 i)e kept well covi-re'd, since the sugar is stored in iIk' part 
 under the soil. ^\ny green collar on the beets will, like the 
 green leaf, have too mu<h mineral matter. 'The bi'cts aie taken 
 to the factory, cleatied, [Hilped fine, the juice extracttd, and 
 the sugar obtained from it by e\aporali.)n. Sugar, like 
 l)utler, is made up from carbon, h\clrv)gen, andowgen, which 
 come from the air and the rain ; so that if the Icaxcs are left 
 in the soil, and the pulp tak^ai baek and \vd on the farm there 
 is little or nothing lost iVom the soil. 
 
 Till': I'or.M'o is here included among ''ne roots, and \ct we 
 all know it is (|uitL: diffiTenl in form and growth fiom the 
 beet and the carrot. We do not sow seeds, b .t potatoes 
 or parts of potatoes ; the iiuthod of growth under grnund 
 is peculiar; and the branching lops and blossoms are (|uite 
 ilifferent from ihosi' of the roots. If we examiuL' a pot.ito 
 tuber wi- fmd \\\))\) it manv eyes or buds. If we phce th'' 
 potato in a warm damp loom these buds grow out inti' gre( , 
 stems. We can lAi n cut A into man\' piiers and still 
 the eyes will send out stems. Wr do not cut u|) roots for 
 planting ; we sow tlu'ir seed. If we pull u]) a hill ol' xouiig 
 potatoes wi' lind what a| ,.( .ir ti 1 !),■ two sets (-f roots. <inc ha\ing 
 lillle b;ills Upon tliiiii, the oiliir none. Trace tli(>M' that < arr\' 
 the lillK' I'otatocs back to the stem and \n\\ find lliat tli A' are 
 li'alK br.inehi s of till- stem, whcieas thi' olhels air the tlUr 
 roots. Then we cont I ide that tlu' puialois grow on undir 
 ground stums, lh.it they are really swellings of the stem and the 
 
 ' ! I 
 . f'l 
 
^■f 
 
 
 IV. M 
 
 66 
 
 A(;Ricri.i rki;. 
 
 eyes an," buds ; so that 
 what wc |)laiu are cut- 
 tings of the uiulergrouiid 
 stems of the plants. 
 Observe the arrange- 
 ment of tlie eyes in the 
 potato. Rightly, then, 
 wc speak of the [)otatoes 
 as being tubers not roots. 
 
 |erus;ilem a rt i chokes 
 also are tubers. 
 
 If }ou cut open a 
 
 jjotato you hnd it filled 
 
 with a starchy su])sLance 
 
 generally white in color. 
 
 Fi« -J7. — I'»lat.. plant, sli..wiiii; /! lliu tni.; roots ; If VOU CUt UJ) flllC a SUgar 
 
 (', tlie iiii<lurL;rimii(i stems; .-/, the tiihurs, uliii li , .... 
 
 are .swolloii or ciilar-ca i.arlsof the stems. ilic l)eet and pKlCC it 111 a 
 
 eyes ill the t)otato tiiliers, therefore, are buds. . i 
 
 ■' coarse towel nou can 
 
 wring tlie juice out of it (juite easily, you cannot easily do so 
 witli ])otatoes. \'ou conclude that potatoes ha\e less water 
 and more dry matter or food in them than haw: the roots. 
 If yoii evaporate the iuicc from [)otaloes }-ou find litlK' or no 
 sugar, 'riu'n we conclude that roots ha\"e large (luaiitities o!' 
 sugar and water in their make-u]), but jjotatoes have U'ss walei 
 and (juitea large amount of starch. 
 
 The potato, the tomato, and tobacco belong to the famih' 
 known iis So.'afuuea'. 'I'he swt et potato is llu' root of a plant 
 grown in very warm cl'inales, and bt'longs to the famil)- Con- 
 votvuiaciuc, as do the morning glory and dodder. 
 
 New varieties of potatoes may be got by sowing the st'cd 
 .iiid st'lecting the best tubers so grown, planting these and 
 .selecting llic best grown from them, and so continuing. 
 
that 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 VARIOUS OTHER CROl'S. 
 
 ^7 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 i 
 
 'i 
 
 i 
 
 VARIOUS orilKR CROPS. 
 
 TJrcKWFiEAT |)r()(luc(.'s seeds or j^raiiis which resemble in 
 shape small heeeh-iuils, heiiee the name beech-wheat or buck- 
 wheat. The second part of the word would suj^gest that it is 
 a kind of wlu'at or a membi/r of the grass family. 'I'his is not 
 the case, as the Uaves and (lowers [)rove. It belongs to the 
 family known as \.\\v, po/ygonacea', to which also belong rhubarb, 
 the docks or sorrels, and knot grass. Its roots are (]uite short 
 and it feeds largely on the air. It will grow even on very [)oor 
 soils, when- it is souK'times plowed under as green manure, 
 lis peculiar blossom is noticeable in its color and odor, and is 
 nuich sought b\' bees for its nectar. The grain is used for flour 
 and also for feeding in moderate ([uantilies to stock. Ihick- 
 wheal tlour is not so rich in nitrogen as that of wheat, and die 
 straw has more fibre than the straw of the grumineic or true 
 
 grasses. 
 
 Till'', Srxi'i.oNvi'.K is an annual, growing very liigh on tough 
 stalks with a huge show\- luad filled with seeds. 'I'hese seeds 
 are ri( h \\\ oil and nitiogin compounds, 'i'he oil forms nearly 
 one fifth ot the third ^y\'(\, and is extr.icted for various usi-s. 
 The sicds are u^til also for feetling stock. Why is tin- plant 
 called the sunllower? The simtliiW( r is a fine I'xample of the 
 larue famih' known as the compositu, which ha\e man\ (lowers 
 
 in a single head. 'I'he histle, ragweed, goldenrod, astir, daisy, 
 \arro\\, chrysanthemum, marigold, saKify, dandelion, K'ttuce, 
 anil suntlowcr are all niii' Ixrs ol tliis f.unih'. ('oiii|)are the 
 heads of an\ of these belori and afte-r seed formation. 
 
 ' ii 
 

 
 
 68 
 
 Af.RlCri.TTTRE. 
 
 Rai'I'. has alrculs' Ixtii ic fcrrcd to as hrinij; rlosclv related to 
 till' tiiiin|) ami < al»!ia_m'. lis Irat rcMinMcs that oi' the tiinii|), 
 ImiI il-. iiimI i-, iiimh smaller and lis iDp iiiurh lai;;( i'. Il ^rows 
 to a liv i;;lil ol Iidhi one to ihrrc lict. Soiin' v.irirtiis are 
 anniiids and sonic aic hiriinials. it is L';rouii hoth lor its seed, 
 which <ontiins a lai'u'ie ([uantit\- ol" \alu>il)lc oil fapi'sced (jil — 
 and also lor its tops, which are us-d in pasturing and in soiling. 
 When used for soiling or pasturing, the biciuiial is sown in 
 drills and culiixati d. 
 
 l''i,.\\ is an annual with slender stems about two feet in 
 length and hearing bluish llowcrs. The sei'd is known as 
 flaxseed or lins'.ed. The word linsi'cd is IVcim the botanical 
 n.iiue /////////, which is al^o found in linen, th doth made from 
 ih.' Ilax liorL'. it is grown both for its seeds and for its fibre. 
 The seeds contain a wr) large amount of oil (linseed oil), which 
 is very \aluable I'or p.iiiUs and other j)urpo,S(.'s ; also a large 
 avuouiU of nitrogenous comjxjunds, and of ash material. When 
 the oil is removed the bye-product forms oiu; oi ilu- richest 
 foods used for stock-feeding. When the plant is grown for 
 111 re it luas Ik' pulK d at any time after blossoming. Tiie fibre 
 is obtained from the stalks. We ha\e before referred to the 
 cell structure of plants. When wt, tait across a piece of wo(jtl 
 we cut actoss its aW lubes; when we (ait leniilhwise alonu; 
 the wood We I'lil ihese lubes from one anolhi'r. The grain, as 
 we ha\', runs along the stem or l',ub. In somi' plants these 
 cells are strung together in threads and aix' wvv tougli so that 
 thev will hold togi'iher. The clIIs in the bark or bast are 
 generally longer aiui tougher than those in the wood, and are 
 known ;;s bast cells or bast (ibres. 'Ilii' inner bark of bass 
 wood (or bast wood) is (|iiiie tough bt'caus^' (^f thesi'. These 
 ba.st cells in the lla\ .ire \er\' liiu' and \er\' tough, and, tluae- 
 lore, make i'w^i.' \\\\'. The b^'si fibre is got from llix that has 
 not ripiiied its si',1 \esscls or boils. Wh\ ? (ientialb', how- 
 e\er, the i)laiit is allowed to ripen its seetis. The plants are 
 
VARIOUS OTHER CROPS. 
 
 69 
 
 l)ulk(l by hand, dried, and tied in l)undles. The seed is 
 sej)arated hy what is known as " ri[)|)h'ng " or eoiiihing out. 
 I'heii the slniw is |)artl\- rotted, either on th(' i^rass or hv 
 steepini^ in sals ot water. This |)roeess rots the eoarsi' woods- 
 part ol the stein, and sepaiales tile line lihre troni it. It is 
 then dried and " sciiit lud, " either hy hand or hy inaeiiine. 
 This proeess of scutching simply rubs or heats away the louse 
 woody parts from the long hhres. The liore is now ready for 
 use, to l)e made into twine or thread or linen cloth. To grow 
 good crops oj" llax, rich, clean, well-drained, well-c ultivated soil 
 is needed. It reijuires a moist climate, moderately warm. The 
 plant is very rich in nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid, and 
 therefore we m,i\' conclude that it takes a good deal of nourish- 
 ment out of the soil ; hut these constituents are found almost 
 wholly in tlu- seed and straw and not in tlie fihre, so that if the 
 straw is returnee' to the soil, and the seed fed on the farm, 
 there will he little loss in growing llax for the sak; of fibre onl)'. 
 
 rni-: Iloi'isa menibcr of the nettle family, it is a perennial 
 plant. It is started by cuttings, in hills about six feet apart. 
 The [)lanls are not woody enough to support themselves, and 
 therefore climb up to the' air and sunshine by twining. The 
 iio[) blossoms are picked b\' hand when just ripe (a condition 
 learned only b\ txperience), and dried in a kiln or drsing 
 house (called an oast house in KeiU, England), when they arc- 
 packed and M)ld for use in brewing The \alue of the hop is 
 greatly iniluencetl b\ tiu' climate. I lop \ines always twine in 
 the same directi(}n — to tlu- right. Ilimlwced and morm'ng glory 
 twine to tlie left. 1 low do tiu' grapi' \ ine and X'irginia creepi r 
 climb tuul support theinschi's? llow do peas and tares? 
 
 We have already learnetl that the two important |)artsofa 
 blossom are the pistils and stamens, that pi''""ct blossoms 
 ha\e both, but that in S(tme plants tlure an- blossoms liasing 
 pistils but no st.nnens ; and in othei plants there are blossom^ 
 having stamens but no pisiiK. I'he former hjossoins are 
 
 li 
 
 m 
 
 5 ' ; I 
 
 !l^ 
 
r. 
 
 
 !!''■ :!; 
 
 If 
 
 1 
 
 .: 
 
 I 
 
 I !f 
 
 70 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 caWcO pisti//afe blossoms, and tlu- latter stamiuafe. Only the 
 pistillali' i)l()ss()iiis form sii'd. In soiiu' cases j)istillatc and 
 staniinalr blossoms i;i()\v on the same i)lant, as m (aieumber 
 \ines. These arc; said to be mo7nvcious j)lants. In other eases 
 the pistillate and the staminate blossoms grow on different 
 plants, 'i'hese plants are said to be dicvcious. The ho)) plant 
 is diivcious. In settinj^^ out a hoj) -yard, therefore, it is necessary 
 to have here and there some j)lants that produce staminate 
 blossoms, to su|)ply j)ollen for the pistillate. 
 
 '!"()i!.\fro is an annual, i^rown only in warm climates, but 
 mucli farther north than cotton, being grcnvn in the milder 
 parts ol" (^)uel)e(" and Ontario. It is grown for its long, broad 
 lea\es. In the use of tobacco we observe three things; Hrst, 
 it l)urns readily; second, it gives a \ery large amount of ash; 
 third, it has a jjcculiar effe(~t upon the smoker. It burns 
 ri'adih- because, in addition to its woody or fibrous matter, it 
 contains laigi; (|uantities of potash, which readil)- unites with the 
 owgen of the air. Its ash forms from 15 to 20 i)er cent, of the 
 entire plant. Its effects u|)on the human s_\stem are due to a 
 compound known as >ncotint', similar to thciiie in tea and cafffine 
 in coffee. intiieir jiure c:ondition these "alkaloids "' as they 
 are called, art' |)oisons. 
 
 I'Vom the following statement it will be seen that tobacco is 
 \er\' hard upon the soil, and re(iuires \ery rich fertilizing. 
 .\n .ure of tobacco will yield about 1,500 pounds of tobacco 
 leaf. The whole cro|) will contain about 70 pounds of nitro- 
 gen, 15 pounds of [)hosphoric acid (in phosphates), and 150 
 pounds of potash- — 235 [)oun(ls in all. An acre of wheat, 
 \iel(lin;j, 20 bushels of grain, will contain 40 pounds of nitro- 
 gen, 15 pouiub of j)hosphoric acid, and 1 S pounds of potash 
 -- 7,:; pounds in all. .\n acre of meadow hay, Nielding 2 tons, 
 will contain about 56 pi)un(ls of nili'ogen, 14 pounds of [)hos- 
 phoric acici, and ()o pounds of potash— 130 ptjunds in all. 
 
 li 
 
WEEDS. 
 
 71 
 
 11 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 iif 
 
 WEEDS. 
 
 " A weed is a plant in llie wrong place." 
 Weeds are Plants. — White clover is rre(}ueiitlv sown with 
 grass seeds on lawns, )'et a few j)lants in a fine lawn of June 
 
 grass won 
 
 kl b 
 
 e consK 
 
 lered 
 
 weeds 
 
 ares are grown as 
 
 fockler crop ; in a wheat lield we call them weeds. ()\-eye 
 daisies and goldenrod in a flower garden are line plants, hut in 
 pastures or hay fields they are weeds. A weed is a [)lant just 
 
 It has all the [)arts o\' 
 
 as niuc 
 
 as w 
 
 heat, 
 
 corn, or clover. 
 
 plants, grows like other plants, and forms new j)lants. Iiut it 
 is a plant that we do not want ; it is a |)lant out of its i)lace, 
 or, rather, it is a i)lant in the wrong [)lace. 
 
 OiijKCTiONs 10 Wkkds. — We might say that weeds are 
 objected to because, whether valuable or not in other placi's 
 or at other times, they are not what we are working for. 
 If a man engaged in moulding plowshares should lind one- 
 half of his work turning (.)iit to be large cannon balls he would 
 consitler his work, to that extent, a failure, because his business 
 is to make plowshares, not cannon balls. So if a farmer finds 
 his work resulting half in grain or ha\, half in weeds, his wt)rk 
 is :i tailure to that extent, but we must ha\'e particulars. 
 
 1st. Weeds reciuire some labor, wlK'tlu r we permit them to 
 grow or ti'v to destro\- them. Sometimes our labor helps the 
 weeds to grow more rapidly, just be('ause we do not iinder- 
 
 ■;taiul their nature. 
 
 W 
 
 eeds mean wor 
 
 k. 
 
 211(1. Weeds, through their roots, taki' uj) food from tlie soil. 
 Our most valuable plants do not take ver\- mu<h out of the 
 soil ; on the average n(.)t more thin one-tsventieth of tluir 
 
 m 
 
 iJ'i 
 
 m 
 
 III 
 
 
 
am^ 
 
 
 ! 
 
 I 
 1 
 
 72 
 
 AGKiCUI.TURE 
 
 total weight. Usually, however, there is not very much food 
 just ready lor the plants to take u\). If tlure are weeds growing 
 with the ciops there will he less food (or the latter. Some of 
 the Weeds are licixy feeders. 
 
 3rd. Manv weeds have hroad, spreading leaves which cover 
 over the tender young |)lants of oiu- crops, and hy shutting off 
 the sunlight smotlu'r them out. This may he seen l)est in a 
 pasture or on a lawn (dandelions and [)lantains for e\am[)le), 
 
 4th. W'eeds draw luoisture from the soil through the roots 
 and gi\'e it off through the lea\es; weeds hel|) to dry uj) the soil. 
 
 5th. Weeds are feeding and breeding grounds for insects and 
 they assist in the spread of many crop diseases. 
 
 6th. l''re(|uentl\' weeds are poisonous to stock, they taint the 
 milk, or they destroy wool. 
 
 7th. Weeds offend the eye and degrade the taste for farming. 
 
 Because of these facts e\ery weed should he considered an 
 intruder, a thief, and a nuuderer of other cro[)s, and ever\- 
 farmer should try to kecj) his soil as clean as i)ossihle. 'I'o 
 succeed it will he necessary to know as far as [jossible the 
 nature and the mode of growth of the weeds. 
 
 NA'i't'kK oi' Wkkds. — ^Vild mustard, lamh's (juarters, shej)- 
 hertl's j)iu"se, and wild oats form seeil the first season ; the 
 {)lants then die and the seeds are read)' to sprout the next 
 season. Such weetls are annuals. They generally have fibrous 
 roots and [produce a large number of seeds. 'I'he seeds in 
 many cases are oily and an.' cowred with hard coatings ; they 
 are able to sprout after lying in the groiuul a long time, even for 
 manv years. Thus tlie seeds nia\' be plowed under deep and 
 the next \ear the field m.i\' api)ear cKan. Altera couple of 
 years they are brought u|) b\- plowing and culti\ation, and one .» 
 more the field will appear wi'edy and dirt\. If the weeds are 
 cut off before the sei'ds fonu the\- will be (lestro\e(l, for they 
 cannot survive' or reproduce unless seeds are formed. 
 
WEEDS. 
 
 73 
 
 4 
 
 The wild carrot, the wild parsnip, teasel, burdock, blue weed, 
 and mullL'in grow like our comiiion gardiii roots —tluy do 
 not iorm tinir stT<l imtil thr srcoiid season. I'liry arc /vV//- 
 fii(i/s', and arc usiiail) Uii)-rootc(l. It \..li not do in tin'ir casi' 
 sinn)ly iu cut off the tops the lirst year, for tiicy will soring uj) 
 agaiii. Continued cutting off of the to|), or, better still, the 
 coni{)lete removal ofthc root, will be found necessary with such. 
 
 The ox-eye daisy, plantain, sorrel, and dandelion live on 
 from year to year ; they are peretinials^ ami, therefore, mcjst 
 ditificult of all to get rid of. Some of the perennial'^, such as 
 the Canada thistle, couch grass, toad flax, milk weed, j)erennial 
 sow thistle, yarrow, and bindweed are creeping in their roots, 
 that is, they spread by the root, and therefore are among the 
 worst weeds, and, because of this, they are most difticult to 
 completely remove, and recjuire most thorough tnatment. It 
 is important, therefore, to know the nature of weeds, as to 
 whether they are annuals, biennials, or [)erennials, and as to 
 whether they are creeping perennials. 
 
 Naming of Wkkos. — 'i'he weeds are classified like other 
 
 plants. Fre(iuently lists of weeds are given, ha\ing their 
 
 common names and also long scientific names, difticult to 
 
 s})ell and difficult to i)ronounce. Why is it necessary to 
 
 have long scientific names for weeds when common names 
 
 are easily pronounecd, are easily understood, and are so 
 
 suggestive? Take an example. 'i'easel, water thistle, tail 
 
 thistle, Indian thistle, English thistle, and l'\iller's card are 
 
 all local names for one weed. All do not know it by the 
 
 same name, but as dipsacus sylvestris e\ery botatiist in any part 
 
 of the world would know it or would be able to find it in 
 
 scientific books. blue weed, blue thistle, blue stem are 
 
 various names in different ph.u'es for the sanu: weed. Stick 
 
 seed, stick weed, stick tights are dilVcrcnt weeds, although 
 
 somewhat similar in nam;-; and stick weed, in fact, is a|)[)lied 
 
 to UiflereiU weeils in different i)laces. 
 6 
 
 iiii^i 
 
 il!l 
 
 i 
 
 'f iX\ 
 
I fc* 
 
 
 74 
 
 AC;RICUiTUUE. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 I 
 
 If' t 
 
 M 
 
 IXSF.Crs OF THE FT FT J). 
 
 (T^\ssHOPPKks. — W'c shall Inst refer to an insert that attacks 
 nearly all the plants of the field —the grassh()i)[)er. You 
 catch one oi' these insects in the hayfield or the i)asture 
 and carefully observe its form. First of all you count its 
 legs there are six, three on each side. By conii)aring with 
 other insects you notice that all exc^ept si)iders have the same 
 number. \'ou obserN'e that its legs are jointed and that its very 
 long hind legs are well suited to jumping or hopping. 'I'hen 
 
 Fi^'. 28 — A Grasshopper. 
 
 you notice that its body is ])ut together in ])arts or sections. So 
 are th;)se of other insects —hence the name "in-sect." It has 
 also two long cairved feelers sticking out in front of its head 
 (each is called an antenna and the two are called antennne). 
 Then t)bserve ttie two large eyes and the mouth fitted for biting 
 or (anting through the leaf and the stalk of the grass. The 
 outside of the body is hard and the inside soft — a dead, dried- 
 up grassho|)j)er has the form of a live one. A horse or a 
 cow has its bones within and tiie soft llesh outside, bu*^ the 
 insect has its bony part, so to speak, on the outside. 
 
INSKCTS OF THK FIKI.D. 
 
 75 
 
 So 
 t has 
 head 
 
 jiting 
 I'hc 
 Iricd- 
 or a 
 <■ the 
 
 Next Avc must learn soinctliing of its mode of increasing — its 
 life-history. (lrassh()|)j)ers are male and female and the latter 
 lays the eggs. Sometimes she does this in soft wood hut 
 generally in the ground, in the fall of the year, after the damage 
 to crops has been done. The female makes a hole in the 
 ground, in which she lays a number of tiny eggs. These are 
 covered with a sticky sui)stance which causes them to liang 
 together like a j)od. The nest or h()le is then covered over 
 and there they remain unseen tiirough the winter. In the 
 warm s])ring they hatch out and thousands and millions of 
 young grasshoj)])ers ai)j)ear. Their appearance in large numbers 
 is thus e\])Iained. They have no wings, but they can spring 
 about, and they have vigorous appetites. Later on their wings 
 a[)pear, and now they are ai)le to fly They have done much 
 damage where they were hatched and now they can fly away 
 long distances, eati?ig u[) and cutting down grass and hay and 
 grain. Later on the females defxjsit their eggs, to be hatched 
 out the next year. And so they continue year by year. Some- 
 times severe weather destroys their eggs or the young insects. 
 Otiier insects may eat them up. Tiny forms of life (j)arasites) 
 prey upon them. Diseases of various kinds destroy them. 
 Knowing their mode of life, their life-history, the farmer can 
 check them. I'V)r instance, when a field becomes infested with 
 them, it can be ploughed up in the fall and tluir nests of eggs 
 destroyed. A change or a rotation of crops is advisable. 
 
 Insects are arranged in orders. The principal basis of this 
 classification is the form or strut'ture of the wings. The grass- 
 hojipers are "straight-winged."' Crickets and coi'kroaches 
 belong to the same order. I'viUomoiogy is the science of 
 insects, as IJotany is the science of ])lants. TIk' I'jUomologist 
 souietimes uses the word orHioptera when slating the older 
 lo which grasshoppers belong. 
 
 Morns AM) CiiwoKMs. In giU'deiis and fields we often 
 find the plants being cut (^{{^ but can see no insect or other 
 
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 76 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 animal at work. If, however, we turn up the soil we find some 
 dull-colored, greasy-looking caterpillars of almost the same 
 color as the soil. On the top of the ring or section next 
 to the head is a smooth shield; the head is smooth and shiny; 
 there are some bristles along the side ; and, when disturbed, 
 the worm curls up. This is a cutworm ; rather, this is one 
 of the cutworms, for there are very many different kinds. 
 They stay in the ground during the dayand come out at night to 
 eat off the leaves and stalks. These cutworms have been hatched 
 from little eggs in the spring, summer, or fall. The cutworms, 
 or caterpillars as they may be called, are cjuite small when first 
 hatched, but they are heavy feeders and grow gradually to the 
 size shown in figure 29, and by their feeding they do 
 great damage in garden and field. When they have become 
 full grown they burrow into the soil several inches and 
 become a hard, deadlike mass similar to that sTiown 
 in figure 29. This is what is known as the pupa of the 
 insect. For sevi.;al weeks, perhaps all through the winter, they 
 remain asleep in this conditicjn. Then another change takes 
 place, the hard shell of tlie i)upa cracks and there comes forth 
 a moth with wings and legs and feelers, looking entirely 
 different from the caterpillar or the pupa. These moths 
 are the perfect insects ; they are dull in color and are 
 very active at night. They lay eggs which hatc.h into cater- 
 pillars, and the caterpillars go to sleep in the pupa form 
 to again come fi)rth as |)erfect moths. In most cases the eggs 
 are laid in the fall, nnd the young caterpillars, less than half an 
 in(-h long, lie in the ground quiet all winter. In the spring 
 they attack the young crops and do most damage. Ai)ouf July 
 they are fiill grown ; llun tlu-y go into the i)upa state and 
 come out moths in .\ugiist. if the fields become weedy and 
 there is nuuh vegi'talion on the land in the fall the moths have 
 a fine place for laying their eggs, and there is plenty of food for 
 
 Iji 
 
INSECTS OF THE FIELD. 
 
 77 
 
 d some 
 J same 
 m next 
 , shiny; 
 .turbed, 
 
 is one 
 : kinds, 
 light to 
 latched 
 tworms, 
 len first 
 y to the 
 hey do 
 become 
 les and 
 
 sTiown 
 
 of the 
 er, they 
 e taices 
 t's forth 
 entirely 
 
 moths 
 nd are 
 ;o cater- 
 )a form 
 the eggs 
 
 half an 
 J spring 
 ou^ July 
 ;ite antl 
 :dy and 
 ths have 
 food for 
 
 the young caterpillars. Therefore the thorough cleaning of the 
 land after harvest is one means of checking them. 
 
 The army v^orin also is the cater})illar of a moth, and is so 
 called from its occasioiial appearance in immense numbers, 
 when they devour nearly every particle of plant food in the 
 
 8 
 
 Fig. 29.- I. Army worm, pupa of s.im j ; 2. Moili into wliich it changes; 3. Chrysalis. 
 
 I his is a cutworm. 
 
 course of tlieir march. Then we have other moths, the larvae 
 of wliich live upon the fibre of clothing, clothes moths. All 
 these are similar in form and in their changes, and all are very 
 destructive. 
 
 Besides the egg we liave, in most insects, the three forms or 
 states, namely: the c;iter|)illar, or larva ; the pupa^ or resting 
 state; and the perfect inse( t, n\ imago. All moths, butterllies, 
 bees, beetles, and Hies pass through these same three states - 
 thus we see that the iiisicts dirtcr from other aniniaK both in 
 their general form or appearance, and also in then- incthod ol 
 growth or course of hie. In the case ot gr'isshop[)ers and 
 some bugs there is no pupa or resting state. 
 

 78 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Butterflies. — We frequently find mistakes made in the use 
 of the words motlis and butterflies, lioth have scaly-wings as 
 we see when we catch them and find the fine powder from the 
 wings sticking to our fingers. 'I'his powder under a magnifying 
 glass appears like scales of different shapes and colors. There 
 may be several hundred thousand of these tiny scales on a single 
 wing. However, there are differences in the two insects ; the 
 
 V\k, -in.— Cabbage butterfly. The catcriiillar above on the left; tho chrysalis below 
 
 un the left. 
 
 moths usually fly about at night and the butterflies in daytime. 
 Then if we examine the feelers or antennd" we see that those of 
 the moths are usually feathered, while those of the butterflies 
 are more or less threatl-like and knobbed at the end. We can 
 readily observe the changes in the conunon butterflies. The 
 eggs are laid on the leaves of trees. I.illlc, crawling, bristly 
 laterpillars are hatched from these eggs. They grow in si/e, 
 and it is only while in this larval stale that that they are 
 destructive. The caterpillars do injury principally to the j)lants 
 t)f the garden, orchard, and forest. The pupa of a butterfly 
 is called a chrysalis. It is usually rough and angular, 
 whereas that of a moth is smooth and oval and often cov- 
 ered with a silky cocoon. l"'rom the c/uysa/is later on 
 there comes forth a beautiful butterfly. 
 
 i; 
 
INSECTS OF THE FIELD. 
 
 79 
 
 c chrysalis below 
 
 Beetles arc so common that nearly every person is familiar 
 with their api)earan(:e. S(M1ic arc very small; those found in this 
 countiy are usually not larger than the 
 figure shown here. In some foreign 
 countries, however, they are found four 
 to six inches long. Observe the three 
 sections of the beetle. 'I'here are two pairs 
 of wings, the upper pair quite hard or 
 horny, covering the pair of filmy wings 
 beneath. These sheath-wings are pecul- 
 iar to the beetles. How many legs 
 have they? Where are they attached to Imr. 3i.-AKroumn)eetie, 
 
 . one of the "sheath 
 
 the insect? Find the i.'yes and observe winue.i" insects, very 
 
 , - , destructive to cutworms. 
 
 the shape of the mouth and feelers or 
 horns. The beetles go through much the same changes observed 
 in moths. In the case of the beetles, howe\er, the b.rval 
 form is known as a grub. The white grubs found in the soil 
 are the larvic of large brown beetles. 
 
 F\^. yj -I.atiyhinl lieetlcs, or " lacly-l>ui;s." The straii;hl hues represent the avemgc 
 natural length. 'I'lieso heetles are very destruclixe to |)l.uil Hi e. 
 
 Among the beetles we have a large number of very des- 
 tructive insects. There is, for instance, the potato beetle 
 which does so much damage to the potato plant by eating 
 the leaves. vSee fig. 33. The hard-shelled beetle lays her 
 orange-colored eggs on the under siile of a leaf These 
 eggs hatch into the soft-skinned larv;c which eat the 
 leaves. The larvie change to pujKe and these to tlu; full- 
 grown winged insects. Since the lar\;e (cvd on the leaves a 
 simj)le remedy is to sprinkle some poison (Paris green) on 
 the leaves just before they begin to feed, or to destroy the 
 
 I 
 

 ; 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 80 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 eggs before these hatch. Why does the eating off of the 
 leaves above ground injure the j)lant in j)roducing tubers under 
 ground ? 
 
 5C7 
 
 that 
 
 The turnip flea-i)eetle is sometimes wrongly called *'the turnip 
 fly." Our illustration shows the shape of the beetle and the 
 larva mu(ii larger than life. 'The little 
 black beetles pass the winter imder any 
 rubbish or clods of earth, and in the 
 si)ring seek out some weeds near by that 
 belong to the same family as the turnip, 
 sut h as niustaid and shejiherd's [)urse. 
 
 turnip flea- 
 
 As soon as the young turnips a|)pear above ground they 
 do great damage by eating holes in the leaves. One of the 
 remedies a|)pcars to be the keeping of the ground clean of 
 rubbish and the destruction of all weeds, esjiecially wild mustard 
 or charlock, false llax, she|)her(rs purse, j)epper-grass, etc. The 
 beetles lay tluir eggs on the roots of the turiu'p. In a few 
 'l;iys the larvie or grubs hatch out and feed u[)on the roots. 
 
INSECTS OF THE FIELD. 
 
 8i 
 
 When full-grown they enter the pupa state in the ground and 
 emerge (ull-giown hcitlrs. Therr may he SL'\tTal hroods in a 
 season. l5y'a\inL; tiu' ground in good condition hrtorc llit- 
 seed is sown the young plants grow rapid'y and soon get the 
 start of the heetles. 
 
 'J'he weevils also helong to the same order as the heetles, 
 and are most injurious to grain (Tops. The pea-weevil may he 
 taken. Its eggs are laid on th.e outside of the young pod. 
 The larva hatches and eats its way through the pod and into 
 one of the peas, where it lives u[)on the suhstance of the pea. 
 'J'he change to the pupa takes place in the pea. Sometimes 
 these heetles come out in the fall, hut in most cases they stay 
 inside the peas until spring. They do great damage to the 
 peas by destroying the germ. All grain weevils may be killed 
 l)y j)lacing in the bins some j)oisonous substance that will 
 readily evaj)orate, such as carbon l)isul[)hide. I'he bins are 
 shut tight and the beetles are killed by the fumes. If 
 the peas are kept o\er until 
 two \-ears old the beetles will 
 mature and die in the bins the 
 fust Near, and the seed then 
 sown the second )ear will be 
 entirely free from the pest. 
 These beetles do not lay their 
 eggs, or oviposit, on dry ])eas. 
 Any seeds of which the germs 
 haw been eaten l)y the grubs 
 will, of course, not sprout. 
 
 I'ij;. (s-— Pea-weevil or " pea lui^r," li(e >i/c, 
 A, the matiiri; beetle, enlaiyed ; H, the 
 larvu or gnil), ciilurgutl ; larva life si/i-. 
 
 'I 
 

 Si 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Fig. 3^).— Currant sawflies ; grub or larva on the 
 rinht. The perfect insects !iave yellow bodies. 
 The eugs are laii.1 along tiic ribs on the backs 
 of the leaves. 
 
 M 
 
 Fig- 37. — Larvx of currant-worm, green, doited 
 will! black spoib. 
 
 Transparent- Winced 
 Inskc rs.— This order 
 imludes ants, bees, 
 wasps, hornets, and 
 sawflies. The scientific 
 name for this order is 
 hymenoptcra. The study 
 of an ant hill will be 
 found very interesting. 
 We need not look for 
 any in a well-cultivated 
 field. No warning need 
 be given that in thestudy 
 o f bees, wasps, and 
 hornets great care must 
 be used. As for saw- 
 flies, illustrations given 
 in figs. 36 and 37 will 
 serve to make their 
 ac([uaintance — to "iden- 
 tify" them. They are 
 called sawflies because 
 they are able to cut or 
 saw into leaves with their 
 abdomen in order to 
 make nests for their 
 eggs. The stems of 
 wheat are sometimes 
 cut off by sawflies, and 
 the galls in oaks are 
 produced by gall-flies 
 which also belong to the 
 order of transparent- 
 winged insects. 
 
INSECTS OF IHI': I'lKLD. 
 
 83 
 
 Bugs — All hugs are insects Init all insects are not bugs. 
 When we speak of bugs we mean such insects as the many kinds 
 of plant lice. Aphis (plural, aphides) is another name for a 
 l)lant-louse. This order of insects is known as the half-winged 
 {hemiptera). Some have only two wings and some have four. 
 We find plane lice quite common on many house plants 
 and garden plants. Orchard trees, cabbages, hops and 
 many other plants are much infested by lice, some very small, 
 some large enough to be easily studied. There are some also 
 
 Fig. 38. — IMiiiit lice, li;ilf-\viiit;cd insects. Cross lines ;ur1 small fijjure 
 
 show natural size. 
 
 that do much damage to grain, especially wheat, barley, 
 oats, and rye. The plant louse or a[)his is generally green 
 or black, sometimes yellow ; in fact if we observe closely 
 and frecjuently we shall come to the conclusion that the 
 color of the ai)his is not unlike the color of the leaf, stalk or 
 head that it feeds upon. We notice also that the leaves of 
 plants upon which the aj)hides are found in large numbL-rs soon 
 curl over and become sickly. If we c\aininea large plant louse 
 we find that it has a strong beak about one-third the length of 
 its body, so that it is well fitted to j)ierce through the skin of 
 plants and to suck the sap. They Ww on li(|uid food. .An- 
 other thing we obsi.-rve in regard 10 tlu'in is that tlu' lici- are 
 fi)und in large numbers, and thv y muiiipiy Mry ra[)itlly. Some 
 lice feed largely upon other insecl.s, and are therefore bene- 
 ficial. 
 
§4 
 
 AGRICULTURE, 
 
 ) ■: 
 
 Fig. 39. — Caterpillar covered with 
 parasites. 
 
 In tlie case of house plants, garden plants and orchard trees 
 we can wash and spray with solutions that destroy the lice, but 
 with lice that injure the grain such means are not yet practi- 
 cable. Why then do not the lice nuilti[)ly so as to eat u[) 
 everything in the fields? Simply because there are other insects 
 that keep them in check. There are some tiny flies that 
 atiack the lice and lay their eggs 
 right in the bodies of the lice. 
 These parasites soon kill the lice. 
 Other insects are destroyed in 
 the same way, such as cater- 
 pillars and grasshoppers. If 
 we carefully examine the leaves of trees or other plants 
 infested with lice we may find some of the beautiful little 
 lady-beetles and their larva3 feeding upon the lice. Another 
 enemy of lice is the aphis-lion, the larva of a lace-wing fly. 
 
 Flies— If you examine a common house-fly or a mosijuito, 
 you observe that it has only two wings. Here then we have 
 another order, that of the "two winged" flies, known as diptera. 
 The Hessian fly, the wheat midge, the many flies of root plants, 
 moscjuitoes, fleas, and many of the flies that annoy stock — all 
 have two wings only and belong to this order. 
 
 The Hessian fly a[)j)ears in spring as 
 a small winged insect with long legs. 
 'I'he female lays about twenty eggs in 
 the fold or crease of the leaf of the 
 young wheat plant. After a few days the 
 larva) hatch and gi't down between the 
 stem and k-af-sluath. I Icre they feed 
 on the plant and wtakeii it so that 
 the heavy head soon altii" loppKs osi-r 
 antl the grain is iKslroNcd. The eggs 
 may bi- laid either in the spring or in 
 the early fall. When the latter is the 
 
 FiR. 40 — 'I'lio Hessian lly, a 
 two-winged insect. 
 
 i I: 
 
INSECTS OF Tin-: KIKM). 
 
 85 
 
 covered with 
 
 l|)lfS OW'f 
 
 case the young insects generally pass through the winter in 
 the pupa state, known as the "the flax-seed" condition, 
 because the pupa case is like a flax-seed. Any such found in 
 wheat screenings should of course he hurned, and where found 
 in the field the stubble should be cut and burned, 'i'he 
 principal remedy for the Hessian fly then is to completely 
 burn all material containing the young insects and to change 
 from wheat to a cultivated crop, as roots or corn. The Hessian 
 fly attacks wheat, barley, and rye. 
 
 The Clover-Seed Midge lays its eggs in the young clover- 
 heads where the larvae or orange-colored nviggots hatch out 
 and do much damage. Then they fall to the ground and com- 
 plete their changes, appearing as full-grown insects towards the 
 
 latter part of sunuuer, ready to 
 do damage again to the second 
 crop of clo\er. Where the 
 midge is doing nuich damage 
 it is evident that the [)asturing 
 off t)f the first croi) of clover 
 will tend to destroy the larvae. 
 The first crop also may be cut 
 early, when in full bloom, be- 
 fore the first brood of magg(;ts 
 develop. A regular rotation 
 of crops tends to kee[) in 
 cluck these and many other 
 injurious insects. 
 
 CONCMISIONS : 
 
 1. Insects are so-calletl because they are made up of sec- 
 tions. There are three main p;nts, the heaM, tin- tlionix or 
 trunk, and the abdomen. The thorax and abdomen are also 
 made up of sections (see illustrations). 
 
 2. 'I'he legs and wings of the adult or [)erfect insect are all 
 attached to the thorax. * 
 
 Fig. 41. — Mitlj^o ami larva, 
 
86 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 1 
 
 ■■ ■ 
 
 ■ i 
 
 i U 
 
 3. The aduli insect usually has two large, compound eyes, 
 that is, eyes made up of many parts. 'I'he antennae, or 
 " feelers," are attached to the head. Some persons think that 
 insects hear by means of their antennaj. 
 
 4. Insects breathe, not through the mouth, but through small 
 holes or openings along their sides. These are called "spir- 
 acles " and are connected with air tubes passing through the 
 body. 
 
 5. As a rule insects pass through three forms after coming 
 from the eggs, known as : first, the /arva (caterpillars, grubs, 
 slugs, maggots, etc.) ; second, ihe ptipa (called chrysalis and 
 nymph in certain forms) ; and third, the imago or perfect or 
 adult insect (butterflies, moths, beetles, flies, etc.). 
 
 6. Insects are ke[)t in check by nature in various ways. They 
 destroy one another; for instance, the lady-bird beetle- the 
 ground-beetle, the tiger-beetle, the aphis-lion prey upon other 
 insects. Toads and lizards devour large quantities of insects. 
 Many birds feed ui)on insects almost entirely, and are hence 
 called " insectivorous birds." 
 
 7. Insects lay eggs when in the imago or perfect form, but the 
 damage to plants is done principally when in the larval form. 
 The imago or adult insect is full grown when it comes from 
 the pupa. 
 
 8. Insects injure plants either by biting and eating the 
 foliage and other living i)arts, or by sucking their sap. Biting 
 insects, such as cutworms and grubs, may be destroyed by 
 placing poison (Paris green, etc.) on the plants. Sucking 
 insects, such as plant-lice, are destroyed by dusting the plants 
 with insect powder or by spraying them with an emulsion of 
 kerosene and soap— thereby closing up the breathing holes of 
 the insects. 
 
 9. Where the insects of field crops cannot be destroyed by 
 spraying, the best practice is to keep the fields and fence 
 corners clean and free from weeds and rubbish, to thoroughly till 
 
INSECTS OF thp: fikld. 87 
 
 the ground, to adopt a good system of rotaMon of croi)s, and 
 to keep the seed grain clean. 
 
 10. Insects are arranged accorditig to their wings. The 
 following are some of the orders : 
 
 1. Nerve-winged or neuroplera (lr;ii;<>n flies and niay-llies. 
 
 2. Straight-winged or orthoptera grasshoppers and crickets. 
 
 3. Half winged or hemiptera hugs and phxnl lice. 
 
 4. Sheath winged or colcuptera hcclles 
 
 5. Scaly winged or lepidoptera Inilterllies ami moths. 
 
 6. Two- winged or Diptera ... .house-flies and nios(|uitoes. 
 
 7. Transparent winged or hynienoptcra . . .bees, wasps, sawflies and ants. 
 
 NoTK. — The .scientific names for the above orders of in.sects are accented 
 on the second syllable before ihe last, tiius : neu-rop-tera, or-tliop tera, etc. 
 These words are derived from the Greek word pieron, which means a wing. 
 
lagriTTirc. 
 
 
 88 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 11 m \ 
 
 ! i 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 THE DISEASES OK PLANTS. 
 
 Effkcts or DisKAsK. - f^ousc plants, es[)c(ially those with 
 large leaves, often become covered with small dark s[)ots which 
 gradually become larger and make holes in the leaves, which 
 
 soon (lie. 
 
 W 
 
 th 
 
 e can see tne same on tne lea\es o 
 
 th 
 
 )r th 
 
 eapp 
 
 le trei 
 
 the pear tree, and can also find them an the leaves of the shade 
 trei's. This s|)otting of the leaves is a disease. Wc can find 
 similar diseases on the lea\es and stalks of grain. 
 
 When i)Iants become diseased, they lose some of their 
 vitality, as we sa\', and we need not look for mi!< h fruit or 
 grain. It is therefore of importance that disease among plants 
 be [)re\enle(l, just as we try to prevent sickness of animals, 
 or of oursehes. 
 
 Again, in addition to the disease attacking the leaf, the 
 branch, the stalk, or the root, it may attack the fruit. Vou 
 ha\e seen the br(;wn and black S[)ots or scabs on theap[)leand 
 the pear ; you have seen the ear of corn all overgrown with smut, 
 and the heads of wheat and other grams covered with a dirty 
 growth ; \'ou ha\c; seen the potatoes affected by the "st-ab" 
 
 riiK 
 
 1 th 
 
 rot. 
 
 All of these are cases of disease. W'h 
 
 ene\er 
 
 tlK- plant is diseased in any part the fruit or the seed 
 will be found to be either small and of a poor shape or 
 else entinly usi-U-ss. Sciibby ai)ples, sniutty corn, and 
 potatoes affc<'ted with tin- "rot" are not salable, they are of no 
 use, ill fact thr\' are harmful. \\'h\' are they harmful ? In the 
 fust phu e, su( h food is not wholesome. I'lirther, we know 
 that \ery often oiu- animal will take diseast; from another 
 scarlet fever,diphlheria,small po\,and e\eii inlluen/a,ora "cold" 
 
Tlll<: DISEASES OF I'LANTS. 
 
 ■)se with 
 ts which 
 s, wiiich 
 )j)lc tn-c, 
 he shade 
 can find 
 
 of their 
 
 fruit or 
 
 iti; plants 
 
 animals, 
 
 leaf, the 
 
 it. \\)u 
 
 pjjleaiul 
 
 til snuit, 
 
 a dirty 
 
 "scab" 
 
 iiiMU'xer 
 
 U' seed 
 
 ia|)e or 
 
 rn, and 
 
 i- of no 
 
 In the 
 
 e know 
 
 lotiier — 
 
 1 "cold" 
 
 will pass from one person to another. It is so with the diseases 
 of plants. If potato " rot" gets a start it will go from potato to 
 potato until all are affeeted. 
 
 If we allow smut to stay in the corn field it will spread. If 
 a cherry or j)lum tiee has hlack-knot the disease will soon at- 
 tack the other trees until all are killed or nearly killed, and no 
 good fruit results. This point, therefore, we should firmly {\k 
 in our minds, that whenever disease appears upon a plant we 
 should first of all try to i)re\ent it from spreading by destroying 
 the diseased ])art, or, if necessary, the whole plant. And there 
 is only one effective way of destroying disease in plants, and 
 that is by Ifurnini^. It will not do to cut off a black-knot limb 
 from a cherry tree and throw it in the (vnrc corner or on the 
 brush heaj). The disease will sj)read fiom the cut off branch. 
 It should be burned up. vSo with the j)each tree affected by 
 "the yellows." Oin^e the disease has started it is useless to try 
 to cure it or to remedy it. The diseased tree or [)lant or the 
 diseasecl |)art should be destro\ed. lUit we can prevent it from 
 spreading, if we take action in time. vSubstances and methods 
 used fi)r preventing the spread of the disease are called "pre- 
 ventives." 
 
 Naitre of Disease. — If we begin nith a giant oak or 
 white i)im,' and arrange the |)lants known to us in order of size 
 tlown to the smallest grass phuU, only a couple of inches high, 
 or the still smaller moss, we sh.ill take in a great many plants, 
 but not all. There are ver}- many others still smaller and 
 much sim|)ler in tiieir form and mode of growth. Perhaps 
 \oU ha\e obserNed thi; gre\ ish lichen growing on tlu' old 
 fi'iice lails or on the side of a bouli'er. It is not nuiiji thicker 
 perhaps th.ni this papii and \rl it is a kind of pkint it is 
 one ol the lower orders of p^'jints. Then \ou lia\i' seen the 
 III lit • mold or /////j,VM on the side ol a cheese, it a bo i> a low lorm 
 of pKnit life. The sum' growing in the r.w of < om, the 
 rot of the potato, the rust of wheat, and the other forms of 
 
90 
 
 AGRICUI.TURK. 
 
 •^1 
 
 
 I- 1 
 
 disease in vegetation are all minute plants. These lower forms of 
 
 j)lants live in and upon the higher plants, taking the food 
 
 out of the plants and 
 
 thereby checking 
 
 their growth and even 
 
 killing them. Where 
 
 did they come from ? 
 
 'I'he field croj)s grow 
 
 from seeds, and when 
 
 they are ripe, they 
 
 produce other seeds t'i.u. (-'--.A •'■i--^a.-<'ii,i^Mf- i ii.' luihuic phmt lausing 
 
 ' _ (llsu.ist; IS i;iu\Miii; in a leaf and i> tliiuwiii^; oil ripe 
 
 that will auain LrroW. spoius (sucds), wlilcli win scUlu on otlii;r loaVL-s, 
 
 and thus i aiisc lln; sprcail (jf llic illscasc. A 
 Now these small i-ii^Ut^^il Imle will rcinaiu ia llic leaf, usually brown 
 
 in color on the niaigiii 
 
 plants, these disease 
 
 plants, grow from tiny seeds generally called "spores," and 
 when they mature they form other sjjores which will be carried 
 about by the wind, settle on other |)lants, start growing there, 
 and thus spread themselves. A small tlark s|)eck ap[)ears on 
 the leaf of a house jjlant -the spore has started to grow. The 
 speck grows to a large sjjot, it soon becomes darker, then the 
 whole Sj)ot or scab l)reaks open — the spores are rijjc and fall 
 off or are r)l()wn away, and the life of this disease plant begins 
 again on another leaf or on another ])lant. Why tlid we not 
 see the si)ores at firsl ? Simply because they were too small, 
 they can l)e seen only by a magnif}ing glass or a mi(-rosco[)e — 
 hence tluse plants are sometimes called microscoi)ie [)lants. 
 
 I'ui'.VKNiioN ()!•• 1 )i^i;.\si;. If we could destroy these sjjores 
 we would, ol" course, |)re\i'nt the growth of tlu' disease plants. 
 In addition, thereloii', to destroying all jdants and j)arts of 
 plants known to be diseased, wi- should use priAcntiM'S whi'ii- 
 e\er we lliiltk the disease is likel\' to beslarletl. Thelea\i'S 
 ,111(1 stalks ol house |ilaiits are washed fioiii time to tiuie in 
 order to cK'an lluiu from dust and also to wi|)e olf disease 
 s|)ores. One of the |trincipal substances used for killing these 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
begins 
 
 \V(j not 
 small, 
 n\)v. — 
 
 mis. 
 s|)t)rcs 
 plants. 
 
 latts ol 
 whrn- 
 lf;i\fs 
 inr in 
 
 (lisi'asL 
 these 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 ri n 
 
 
 i 3 
 
 'rt ~ 
 *-» 
 
 C ;r 
 
 C S 
 
 <-■ ~ 
 
 t -- 
 

 i 
 
 t 
 
 i 
 
 III 
 
 I I 
 
THE DISEASES OF PLANTS. 
 
 t)l 
 
 spores in the case of trees and shrubs is i)Uiestoiu' (also known 
 as suli)liate of copper). When the Iriiit grower spra\s his tr( cs 
 on the branches or leases or Iruil he uses a 
 Sometimes he makes a mixture of Paris 
 the I'aris green being to kill all insects 
 that eat the leaves, and the bluestone to destroy the spores or 
 
 to check disease 
 solution of bluestone. 
 green and bluestone, 
 
 Fig. 4V— Two fipriti:^ of iniiuite pl;iiUs Krowiiiii in lo.Tves ,tiu1 in fruit 
 of plants, caiisini^ disease of plants. \'ciy inin;li cnlaruccl. 
 
 seeds of disease, 'i'here are so many different forms of disease 
 (rusts, smuts, mildews, blights, etc.) that we ha\e not s|)ace to 
 mention them. lUit we shall here give oiil\' the simplest modes 
 of preventing disease. Smut, ingrowing wheat, generalK' comes 
 from wheat that has grown in fields where smut existed the year 
 before, that is, the wheat when sown had the spores of smut 
 already in the grain. Tlu; disease then can be prexented l)\ 
 destroying the spores in the seed that is sown. Make a solution 
 of one pound of bluestone or <-opper sul|)hate in twcnt\ tour 
 gallons of water. Soak thegrain to be sown in this solution for 
 fiom twelve to sixlci-n hours. Then the seed may be di|)|)e(l in 
 lime water for fi\'e minutes. Alter being thus treated it mav be 
 sown and no smut will appear. Sometimes the spores of siuii! 
 

 hi I 
 
 III 
 
 92 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 on the seed wheat arc killed by dipping it into hot water shortly 
 hffore sowing, hut (Ik; hliK'slonc treatment is preferred. 
 
 Tile |)()talo tubers are sometimes found to be covered with a 
 rough scurf. On cutting the [)otato it will be found to be affect- 
 ed also under the skin. This roughness is the result of a 
 disease called the potato scab. If scabby potatoes are planted 
 the tubers [)rodueed from them will be scabby, and if clean 
 potatoes are [planted in the ground where scabby potatoes were 
 lately grown, tlie new crop will likely be scabby. The best rule 
 to follow, then, is to plant only perfectly clean potatoes in ground 
 where no scabby potatoes were previously grown. Some success 
 has been had from rolling scabby potatoes in sulphur before 
 planting, but it is much more satisfactory to destroy the scabby 
 potatoes and plant only clean tubers in clean ground. 
 
 The rot or blight of potatoes is quite a different disease, 
 produced by a different fungus. Different names for this 
 disease are rot, l)liglit, and downy mildew. It is also called 
 " late blight," because there is a somewhat similar disease that 
 attacks the plants earlier in the season called "early blight." 
 The potato leaves show brown spots. These spread rapidly, 
 especially if the weather is warm and moist, "^rhe undersides 
 o>" th(.' leaves soon become covered with a light colored growth; 
 these are the spores or seeds growing on tiny threads. The 
 spores a[)|)ear to lall to the ground and by rains are washed 
 through until they rea(~h the tubers, to which they at once 
 attach themselves and then begin their growth. Then the rot- 
 ing of the [)otato begins. 
 
 It is thought by some that the disease in some way reaches 
 the tubers by way of the stem. It may be that the disease is 
 transmitted from the leaves to the tubers in both ways. To 
 prevent the spread of this disease the growing j)lants are sprayed 
 or sprinkled with a solution of bluestone (sulphate of cojiper). 
 I'he disiase is sometimes (\ilUcl n/ufii^us {\)h\\\i\,/uN^i), hence 
 the [)reventive is called AjiDigicide. 
 
shortly 
 
 ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 9$ 
 
 I with a 
 ; affect- 
 ilt of a 
 [)lantL'd 
 f clean 
 es were 
 test rule 
 ground 
 success 
 ■ before 
 ; scabby 
 
 disease, 
 for this 
 called 
 ase that 
 blight." 
 rapidly, 
 Icr sides 
 growth ; 
 s. The 
 
 washed 
 at once 
 
 the rot- 
 
 ' reaches 
 lisease is 
 lys. 1 o 
 t sjjrayed 
 ■upper). 
 ■), hence 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 Importance of Rotation. — If we get a large yield of any 
 crop from a certain field, should we not grow the same cro[) 
 year after year? 'I'his is done, for instance, on the rich prairie 
 soils, where wheat has been grown year after year u[)()n the 
 same soil. In former times this was done also on our soils 
 when they were new and rich. But what has been the result? 
 The soils of many farms have run down ami good c-roj)s are 
 got only by heavy manuring. In the best farmed countries of 
 Europe, where, after the exi)erience of hundreds of years, 
 larger yields of wheat and other crops are obtained than 
 we get in Canada, it has been found advisable to change the 
 crops grown from year to year. The e.\i)erience of I-airope and 
 of Canada both prove that the best farmers succeed in cro[) 
 growing only by rotating or changing their crops. 
 
 Reasons for Rotation. —i. The different (TO[)s, as we have 
 seen, are all made up of the same elements, and take up 
 food from the soil ; but they do not all take up soil food 
 of the same amount or in the same form. Thus the potato, 
 tobacco, and fruit trees require a great deal of potash ; 
 the grain (Tops take U[) more j)hosphales. The cro[)S differ 
 in their feeding just as animals differ. The dog does not 
 cat just what the cat does, nor the horse just wh it the pig 
 does. If cattle and sheep are pastured together, the slue|) 
 will [)ick out certain weeds and grasses, and the cattle may 
 prefer others. Wheat, for instance, recjuires nitrates as one 
 
94 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 H 
 
 !i 
 
 of its most imi)ortant foods, and if we grow wheat year after 
 year we may soon exhaust the nitrates available; hut if we grow 
 wheat on-^ year and some other crop the next, the second 
 crop may be able to feed well and flourish upon food left by the 
 wheat. 
 
 2. 'I'he j)lants have different methods or powers of getting 
 the same kind of food. Thus clover or j)eas will get nitrogen 
 by means of the little knots or tubercles (page 57) upon their 
 roots, whereas wheat has not this power to take up free nitrogen. 
 A clover crop will need more nitrogen than a (Top of wheat, 
 and yet, because of the r<)t)t tubercles, we do not a[)ply nitrates 
 to a clover crop, but nitrates may be applied to wheat with 
 good results. 
 
 3. 'Hie plants have different kinds of roots. Those of barley 
 are very short, those of wheat longer, those of red clover and 
 lucerne still longer. A dee[)-rooted crop feeds lower down than 
 a shallow-rooted crop. If, then, we grow clover this year and 
 wheat the next, we grow these crojjs, to a great extent, in 
 two different s<jils. W^e use surf.ice soil for one and under-soil 
 or sub-soil for the other. IJy changing from a shallow-rooting 
 crop to a deejvrooting, or from a dee[)-rooting to a shallow- 
 rooting, we, as it were, change the soil from )ear to year. This 
 is one of the most important jjoints to observe in rotating crops. 
 
 4. Hy rotating crops we change the treatment of the same 
 soil, since we do Jiot treat the soil exactly alike in i)re[)aring it 
 for different crops. Some crops, also, are cultivated and others 
 are not. We thus give the weeds different treatment. The 
 weeds differ as do the crojjs — there are annuals, biennials and 
 perennials; there are long-rooted and shallow-rooted ; there are 
 early seeding and late seetling wt'cds. 'I'he same treatment 
 year after \ear may be just the right treatment to encourage 
 certain weeds to grow and s|)rea(l. The growing of wheat 
 year after year in the west is causing the sjiread of some very 
 noxious weeds. By changing the crops, and therefore the treat- 
 
ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 95 
 
 y'ear after 
 ■ we grow 
 e second 
 ift by the 
 
 )f getting 
 t nitrogen 
 ijjon their 
 ! nitrogen, 
 of wheat, 
 ly nitrates 
 heat with 
 
 t of barley 
 lover and 
 down t',mn 
 , year and 
 extent, in 
 under-soil 
 w-rooting 
 a shallow- 
 car. This 
 ing crops, 
 the same 
 •ei)aring it 
 md others 
 ent. The 
 nnials and 
 ; there are 
 treatment 
 encourage 
 of wheat 
 some very 
 e the treat- 
 
 ment of the soil, we do not give the weeds so good a chance to 
 rob the crops and infest the fields. 
 
 5. The insects also make their homes on certain crops and 
 in the ground. By rotating the crops we disturb the insects 
 and help to keep them in check. If we remove the food of 
 the insects, bury them or their eggs deep in the soil, or turn 
 them up to the frost we are hel[)ing to destroy them. 
 
 6. Some cro})S mature early in the year, as fall wheat and 
 barley ; others late in the fall, as corn and roots. Some are in 
 the ground but a short time, others for a long time, and so 
 they have different lengths of time for feeding. It is often 
 helpful to have a long-feeding crop followed by a short-feeding 
 crop, as in the case of roots followed by barley. 
 
 We may then sum up by saying that crops differ : 
 
 As to the kind of food which they take up ; 
 
 As to the amount of different foods which they take up; 
 
 As to the length of their feeding roots ; 
 
 As to the length of time that they are feeding ; 
 
 As to the treatment we give them (cultivated or not) ; 
 
 As to the weeds that associate with them ; 
 
 As to the insects that infest them ; 
 P'or these and other reasons the best farmers always pay 
 careful attention to the proper rotation of their croj)s. 
 
 Samples of Rotation. — Let us take what is called a four- 
 year or four-course rotation — turni[)s, barley, clover, wheat. 
 The first crop recjuires thorough cultivation and gives a chance 
 to manure heavily for the entire course. Turnips are bi- 
 ennials, and therefore long-growing, feeding until late in the 
 year. Then comes a shallow-rooted, ciuick-growing croi) of 
 an entirely different nature. The clover at once follows barley 
 and sends its roots dei-p. It ft-eds u|)on tlu' {\v(_^ nitn)gen 
 of the air in the soil through its root tuber* Ics, and when 
 plowed in leaves a large (luantily of material in the roots and 
 stubble to make food for the wheat. The manure ap[)lied with 
 

 I 
 
 ) i'? 
 
 \i 
 
 96 
 
 ACKlCUl.TUKK. 
 
 the roots has by this time been well worked over. Last comes 
 tlie wheat with roots of medium length, teetling in the fall 
 and spring and coming to maturity in the summer of the 
 fourth year. A variety of crops for the farmer's use is at the 
 same time obtained. 
 
 Here are some other rotations that may be examined : 
 
 I. 
 
 Wheat 
 
 I. 
 
 Harley 
 
 I. 
 
 Wheat 
 
 I. 
 
 Parley 
 
 2. 
 
 Hay 
 
 2. 
 
 Hay 
 
 2. 
 
 Hay 
 
 2, 
 
 Hay 
 
 3- 
 
 Hay 
 
 «• 
 
 Pasture 
 
 •^ 
 .•)• 
 
 Pasture 
 
 3- 
 
 Oats 
 
 4- 
 
 Pasture 
 
 4- 
 
 Corn 
 
 4- 
 
 Pasture 
 
 4- 
 
 Peas 
 
 5- 
 
 Oats 
 
 5- 
 
 Oats 
 
 5- 
 
 Oats 
 
 5- 
 
 Corn 
 
 6. 
 
 I'eas 
 
 6. 
 
 Peas 
 
 6. 
 
 Peas 
 
 
 
 
 
 7- 
 
 Roots 
 
 7- 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 
 The system, of course, must be suited to the soil, the kind 
 of farming adopted, and the circumstances of the farmer. 
 Rotations may have to be changed from time to time, but, if 
 the principles upon which rotations are based are well 
 understood, there will be no difficulty in making changes, and 
 in forming rotations suitable to the needs and conditions of the 
 farm. The four-course rotation ma\- be taken as a basis, and 
 changes made to lengthen it ; thus corn may be })ut in place 
 of roots, and barley may be seeded to clover and timothy, and 
 a year or two of hay and [jasture, or both, may be had before 
 returning to a cereal crop. If the soil is the farmer's capital, 
 then growing the same croj) year alter year leaves part of the 
 capital idle. Rotating the crops causes all of the capital to do 
 its share in tmn in producing income, anci, it may be, in 
 increasing the amount of capital. 
 
t comi s 
 
 the fall 
 
 of the 
 
 i at the 
 
 cy 
 
 s 
 s 
 rn 
 
 the kind 
 ; farmer, 
 le, but, if 
 are well 
 iges, and 
 jns of the 
 asis, and 
 in phu'e 
 )thv, and 
 d before 
 s capital, 
 irt of the 
 ilal to d(^ 
 ay be, in 
 
 V. 
 
 n 
 
 x: 
 
 G 
 
 C 
 
 c 
 ri 
 
 in 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 
 a. 
 
 i :'. 
 
I 
 
THE GAKitN. 
 
 97 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 THE C.ARDEN. 
 
 "A small garden well-kept will iiroilme mnrc th.ui a large gankn neglected." 
 
 Si:i-KCTi()\ OF CiARDP-N I'l.oT. — The gunlcM plot slioiikl he 
 near the housL-, and at one side rather than in front of the 
 house. A neat, dry walk sliould lead to it. A loamy 
 soil, well drained, and well manured will he suited to the 
 crops recjuired. If it is long and narrow in shaj)e rather than 
 square, much of the cultivation may he done hy horse help. 
 A wind-hreak or shelter-helt of si)ruce or other trees will add 
 to the a[)i)earance as well as to the value of the garden. 
 
 Gari)I':m Crops. — In every farmer's garden there may be 
 grown the following crops : 
 
 Beets, 
 
 Carrots, 
 
 Potatoes, 
 
 Parsnips, 
 
 Radishes, 
 
 Cahhages, 
 
 Cauliflowers, 
 
 Sweet Corn, 
 
 Onions, 
 
 As[)aragus, 
 
 Salsify, 
 
 Rhuhnib, 
 
 Tomatoes, 
 
 Celery, 
 
 Egg-plant, 
 
 Lettuce, 
 
 Peas, 
 
 Beans, 
 
 Horse radish. 
 
 Cucumbers, 
 
 Pum{)kins, 
 
 Strawberries, 
 
 Ras[)benies, 
 
 Currants, 
 
 Gooseberries, 
 
 S[)ina(h, 
 
 Sweet ^Marjoram, 
 
 Thyme, 
 
 Sage, 
 
 Summer Savory, 
 
 Parsley, 
 
 Garden Mint. 
 
 Melons, 
 
 Much that has been said about field cro[)s, their mode of 
 growth, and their enemies, both insects and diseases, will ap- 
 
98 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ply to the crops of the garden. More may be learned by 
 
 working among the plants growing in the garden, and at the 
 
 same time using your eyes. 
 
 What parts of the following plants do we use as food ? Common rad- 
 ishes, horse radish, cahhaj^e, caulitlower, lettuce, celery, artichokes, 
 onions, asparagus, potatoes, rhuharh, and spinach. 
 
 Explain the hleaching out of celery hy hanking up. Will the stalks 
 bleach out if grown on the level close together? 
 
 What is the difference between top onions, potato onions and onion sets? 
 Is lettuce an annual or a biennial ? 
 
 Classify the crops given above as annuals, biennials and perennials. 
 Are all the blossoms on a cucuml)er vine alike? Which produce fruit? 
 Is ihe cucuml)er plant inon(ecious or diiecious? See pjge 70. 
 
 '\\\\i S'iKAWiiKUKv. — If you pull off the petals of a rose 
 blossom you find the stalk on which it grew is somewhat 
 enlarged at the end. This little swollen end is called the 
 "receptacle." In the case of the strawberry which we eat, we 
 see a large luimber of small hard grains in little pits on the 
 surface of the soft, fleshy fruit. If the hard grains vere large 
 enough we could open them, and see that each one is a little 
 seed. The part we find so ])leasant to eat, then, is not the 
 
 seed. What :a it? Jiy examining 
 the stalks bearing green berries as 
 well as those bearing rij)e berries, 
 we observe that it is the swollen end 
 of the stem, that is the rece[)tacle. 
 If a ripe berry is cut in two, the 
 seeds will be found to be onnected 
 ^vlth tlie stalk. The strawberry 
 
 plant 
 
 is a member of the rose 
 
 family 
 
 (rosaccic) to which belong a large 
 number of our conmion fruit-bearing 
 plants, as well as some other common plants, such as the plum, 
 the cherry, the strawberry, the rasjjberry, the blackberry, the 
 wild rose, the hawthorn, the ji.ar, the apple, the (juince. 
 
THE r.ARDEN. 
 
 n 
 
 Compare the leaves and blossoms of tlio strawberry, the apple, and the 
 wild rose ; uIsd the fniit of the luiw thnm, the wild mse, and the nicuiilain 
 ash. ()l)serve Imw tlie )ra\es are anani^ed on tlie luanclies, Alulial 
 place do the blossoms appear ? IIosv many petals in c\ery blossom? 
 
 In a patch of >vil(l .strawberries you find that the plants 
 spread in all directions, that tlie frtiit is small in si/e and small 
 in quantity in comi)arison with the lat\^e amount of leaves and 
 runners. Most of the i)lant food 
 is being used up in forming 
 runners and leaves. If we wish 
 fruit large in size and large in 
 quantity we must plant improved 
 varieties in rows at least three Fig. 45.- a strawberry plant rcpro- 
 
 n . ,1 .1 iluciiit; by a " niiiiicT." 
 
 feet apart, and we must keep 
 
 the space between the rows clean of weeds and runners. 
 
 The strawberry is a perennial, but as the plants have been 
 developed by cultivation and selection they tend to go back lo 
 their original habit of producing small berries. Therefore it is 
 best to grow fruit only on young plants. The phuits st-nd oiu 
 runners which take root and form new plants, and the best 
 berries are on these new plants. The old plants soon become 
 of little value. Therefore the beds must l)e renewed. 
 
 If you examine the blossoms of many kinds or varieties of 
 strawberries you will find that those of some are perfect, that 
 
 Fig. 46 —A perfect strawberry 
 blossom liaviiii; both pistils 
 and ;,t:iim'iis. 
 
 ImR- 47- — All imiJirfci I sir.iw- 
 l)i;rry blossom li.iviiig pistils, 
 but not si,im(''is. 
 
 is, they have both jjistils and stamens (fig. 46) ; these will of 
 themselves produce fruit. The blossoms of olhcrs, however, 
 
lOO 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 i ii 
 
 ij 
 
 ^1 
 
 W 1 
 
 .' imperfect, they have pistils but no stamens (fig. 47) ; these 
 II ii'it loiin \vw\j unlr^s jjollni from pcrlrd blossoms is 
 
 l>l■oll^ht to llu'iii l)\' the w 111! 
 
 1 or I 
 
 i\' UHrt 
 
 Is. Soiiii; of the iicst 
 
 p,"o(Ui(in;^ wiricUrs ol straw, )rrrns ha\"e nniv.rlCct hlo^soms ; 
 they are pistillale \aiietics ;iii(l if xw; wish thrm to [)rochiee 
 good (•ro|)s \\c must plant alongside of {hvWt some plants of 
 
 uportant and 
 
 'I'l 
 
 us IS XCVV u 
 
 \;irirtii's hearing perfect blossoms, 
 should 1).' Well understood. In some of the xarieties of fruit 
 trees iilso, the blossoms arc either imperfect or else able to 
 lerti!i/e themselves onl)- wiUi diflleult\-, and the ])Ianting of 
 
 f 
 
 ,h 
 
 )1( 
 
 djundi 
 
 lee 01 
 
 len IS o 
 
 hose hlosso 
 great hel[). 
 
 Ras!'1!KRRI1',s. — When you pull off a strawberry, part of the 
 stem comes widi it ; hut when nou |)u11 off a raspberr)-, it lomes 
 awa\' frei'l}' from tlu; stem, leaxing a poiiUed cui\. This is 
 i)ecause the receptacle or I'ud of the stem is tlu' lleshy [)ari of 
 tlu' slriwl)trr\', wheitas the nispherr\' is a colli'ciion of soft 
 fruits distinct from the rece|)lacle. In the case of the straw- 
 herrv, we eat the end of ihi' swollen stalk ; in the case of the 
 rasplu-ri}, we eat a clusU'r of fruits like sm.ill cherries. 
 
 The roots of raspheirie's are perennial and the canes are 
 I'iennial. Thus, canes grow up one \\ar, hear fruit tlu: second 
 year, and tln'ii die. I'licrelori', in pruning tlu' husiies we cut 
 awa\- all the cam-s as soon as the\ aw done fiuiting, and save 
 the new cauLS tor ne\l n ear's fruiting. 
 
 'I'ln- hushes are increasi'd or propag.Ued \)y suckers or by 
 the tips. Tlu; suckias, which giow up Irom the roots, are 
 remoNcd hy culling a\\a\- below the soil and then set out as 
 new plants. The tips of the canes are IkmU o\erand huried 
 in t-arlh, wIk'U the\ lake root. The red \arietiesare propagated 
 oy means of suckers or ro(jt eultings ; tiic black-cnp and [)ur[)le 
 cane varieties by the U[)<,. 
 
 
 r 
 
or hy 
 »ls, arc 
 out as 
 
 )aL^aU'(l 
 purple 
 
 e !■ 
 
 g c 
 
 < c 
 
 - y. 
 
 ^ rt 
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 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
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 U 
 
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 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J2 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 rU 
 
 
 
 1- 
 
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 ■7, 
 
 3 
 
 
 1; 
 
 'sJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
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 u 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 rj 
 
 
 tx 
 
 - 
 
 
 c 
 
 ir. 
 
 
 1!2 
 
 -r 
 
 
 (J 
 
 
 
 
 t;: 
 
 
 •" 
 
 iZ 
 
 
 *- 
 
 
 
 r3 
 
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 "^ 
 
 I/) 
 
 
 ~ 
 
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 yr 
 
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 c 
 
 
 
 
 
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Till': CARDEN. 
 
 lOI 
 
 rioosEHERRiKs. — Our garden varieties liave been developed 
 from natives of Europe and of iXnierica. 
 I'lg. 48 shows a fruit rut across containing 
 the seeds, which are fastened to tlie skin 
 by little threads. The form is similar to 
 tliat of a graj)e. New hushes or plants 
 are produced by la\ers and i^uttings. In 
 
 iverinu, a bran< 
 
 'O' 
 
 is 
 
 Ijcnt 
 
 o\er, a 
 
 little »•'«• •»^- '^ ^'^"^^^^^"y 
 
 11 
 
 sliin< itiu Mreils 
 alLiClicd to skin ;U /' 
 
 notch cut m the under side where it wi 
 
 be under ground, then bent down and covered with soil 
 
 ]ea\ing the tij) abtn'e ground. After a 
 
 little, roots will a|)|)ear near the note li, 
 
 and later on the branch may be cut 
 
 from the bush and a new plant will 
 
 thus be started. In using cuttings, 
 
 iiood thriltv stems or brandies about 
 
 six inches long are cut in tlie fall or 
 
 earl\- in spring and set out with the toj) 
 
 bud just ai>o\e ground. These are 
 
 covered for the winter. The next 
 
 )ear they form good ri)()ts, and tiie 
 
 following year ma)- be set out in rows. 
 
 To pre\"ent suckers, the buds below gi'ound are rubbed off. 
 
 Seedlings of all the benies may bi' obtained by rubbing up 
 the ri[)e" fruits wiUi sand to se|)arate the seeds and pulp. 'I'lie 
 sandy S(.'ed is sown on the surface of a fnicly worked bed, wi'll 
 enriched with (U'c;iyed manure, '{"he soil is kept shaded and 
 Wet with a line s|)ray. Thi; plants are alti-rwards pricked out 
 in anoihrr bi'd with more room and aliowi'd to fruit to lest. 
 
 CuRRANl's. -These are grown w i\' nuu h as we grow goose- 
 berries. Most of our Nariciics belong to three classes: 
 
 1. Till' i'lowcring ( 'iinanl, which is grown as ;ni ornamental 
 shrub. Its sweet-scented )ellow llowi-is ap|)ear eail\ in the 
 spring. 'I'he fruit is black and of decided (la\or or ta>te. Ily 
 
 Fii;. 49 — Reproducing pLints 
 l)y layering. A is Ijraiicli 
 Ijeiit over and Ijtiried, held 
 down hy stat<e />'. Ni;w 
 shoots C start up, wtiicli are 
 tlien cut oir from p.ireut 
 plant at D. 
 
«sp 
 
 I 
 
 lo: 
 
 AC.RlCl'I.rURK 
 
 cultivation, it may i)i; used in the future as a fruit producer. 
 
 2. The Black Currant, which came from Europe. The 
 fruit is black, and has a i)e(ailiar odor. 
 
 3. The Red Currant, with berries red and white. 
 Enkmiks of (iAKDKN" Ckoi's. — In connection with field 
 
 crops we referred to the enemies under two heads — insects 
 and diseases. I'hese enemies are als(i to be found in the uar- 
 den, and, as garden crojjs are relatively more valuable than 
 I'leld croj)s, they should be watched very closely. Many of the 
 field insects will be found in the garden, especially the many 
 siuall insects called by the general name ''flies,'' which, of 
 course, are ([uite different from our house flies. Then there are 
 caterpillars of many sizes and (U)lors, some of which closely 
 resemble or "imitate" in color the plants on which they feed. 
 A very common enemy is the cutworm. Erequent cultivation 
 and the turning up of the soil will bring them to light. 'I'he 
 birds will pick them up. Diseases are the second-("lass of 
 enemies, which api)ear in so many forms, variously named rust, 
 leaf blight, anthracnose, mildew. Strawberries, for exam{)le, 
 are greatly injured in [)roducing fruit because of leaf-blight. 
 vSpraving with sulphate of copi)er ( /Bordeaux mixi/tre) hciovc 
 the fruit begins to enlarge will che(-k it. In the diseases of 
 currants, gooseberries, etc., the same may be used. Vu\^ 
 instructions as to what to use and how to iipi)ly the various 
 pre\cnti\t'S may be got in the bulletins of the various Dejjart- 
 ments of Agriculliuv. All that lU'i'd be said here is that thrifty 
 plants grown in well-tilled soil, ke[)t c:lean from weeds and 
 rubbish, and [)roi)erly fertilized, are least likely to be attacked 
 by disi'ase. 
 
 ICAkTiiwoK'Ms. -These must not be confust'o with cut 
 worms, wiri'worms, and other insects that destroy crops. 
 ICarthworms j)lay a very imj)orlant part in working over soil 
 and in producing Wuc mold. Their effect may be noticed 
 esj)eciaDy in lawns. They come to the surface at night and 
 after rains, bringing up soil from beneath. 
 
TIIK AI'I'LK iiRCIlARIt. 
 
 "3.3 
 
 CHAPTER XXI, 
 
 THE APPI.E ORCHARD. 
 
 1 )(.'forc 
 ascs of 
 I'ull 
 arious 
 )ri)art- 
 thrifty 
 s and 
 lacked 
 
 til cut 
 
 crops. 
 
 ,fr soil 
 
 iiolicrd 
 
 111 and 
 
 The Apple. — Let us take a ^^ 
 
 fair-sized a[)ple of good shape, cut 
 it through as shown in fig. 50. 
 We see that the stem is con- 
 nected with the core, and beyond ^.f 
 it at Care the small ends of what 
 apjiear to be lea\es. These are 
 the ends of the cal\\ lea\es. 'I'he 
 core is the seed box ; it is made 
 
 up of hard, tough, fibrous ma- ''''^- 5"' Section ..r a fully formed 
 1 7 ri ' ai)ple. A, si;eils lii sceil-1 ox or cure, 
 
 terial, E, in which are the seeds, A" ; C the calyx end ; y, the pulp. 
 A. If you cut ;in()ther apple 
 across the core you see the fi\e 
 seed boxes. Tiu' ap|)le, then, is 
 firmly allaclu'd to the branches 
 b\- the stem which is closely con- 
 nected with the core, 'i'he i)arl 
 T, outside of the core, is made 
 
 ,- , 1 1 1 , 1,1 Fi^'. ^,1. Se<:lioii of ail apple hlossom, 
 
 up ot the enlarged stem and the .i,uwin« how the apple beyius to form, 
 lower and thicker portion of the calyx Iea\es which ha\f 
 closed oxer the seed forming portion of the blossom (thr 
 ovary), and haw bi'conie thick and jiiic\-. What \\f eat, then, 
 is really the Uaf j)ortion of the blossom, united witii live 
 swollen stem. Cut a thin sli<i- across the ap|)le and hoM it 
 up to the light- you will obsii\e li\c parts somewhat resiiu 
 bling the blossom ol the a|)ple. I''rci|ui'ntl\ the li\r tips ot 
 the lea\es al C arc easily ol)ser\fd. 'I'he relation ol' the 
 appk' to the blossom is now known. 
 
 # 4 '/ 'I ■• 
 
 '•^^ 
 
 %r 
 
ttt 
 
 
 i '1 
 
 
 1 1; 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 r 1 1 
 
 
 ' ' 
 
 
 r 
 
 ro4 
 
 AC.RICUI.TUkE. 
 
 
 Hi 
 
 Skicduncs. — If \vc plant some apple seeds, plants will 
 s[)ring up that, after a few years, will become trees and bear 
 fruit. These trees are known as " seedlings." ]]ut, what at 
 first appears strange, they are not likely to bear apples similar 
 to the.api)le from which we took the seeds ; in fact, the apples 
 may be of little use. And why so? Because the apj)le, in its 
 wild or native form, has a small, rather i)oor fruit, and the 
 many varieties have been i)roduced by careful cultivation and 
 selection. In this way varieties are obtained that are different 
 in their hardiness and different in shape, size, color, and flavor. 
 As is the case with other jjlants, while we develop them for 
 producing fine fruit they frecjuently become more tender in 
 stem and roots, and, therefore, the nurseryman has to use great 
 skill in producing plants that are both hardy and j)roductive of 
 good fruit. If we grow aj)ples from seeds only, the hardy 
 seedHngs will grow to a i)roducing age. In this way we can 
 obtain trees with hardy roots, stems, and buds. If, now, we 
 can use these roots and stems for our trees, and at the same 
 time cause them to produce highly-flavored fruit, we shall get 
 trees such as we desire. 'I'his may be done by grafting. 
 
 (ikAFTiNC. — The hardy stem and root is called the siotrk. 
 The part to be grafted on to the stock is called a sa'o/i. The 
 nurseryman selects the young seedlings and cuts small 
 branches as scions from the trees of improved varieties such 
 as he wishes to produce. The scions are cut in the late fall 
 after the leaves have fallen, or in early spring before the l)uds 
 start to open. At that time the branch is dormant or asleej). 
 'I'he grafting is done, as root-grafting or as tojvgratting, before 
 the growth starts in the sj)ring. In root-grafting, the stock and 
 scion may be cut across as shown in Fig. 52. This is called 
 whip or tongue-grafting, and is the method of cutting when 
 both are of same s\/c. When the stock is large and the scion 
 small, the latter is tut wedge-shaped, and the former is split so 
 as to take in the little wedge end, as in Fig. 53. The scion is 
 
THE AI'PLK ORCIIARI). 
 
 '05 
 
 placed in the stock and the cuts are all covered with grafting 
 wax, which is composed of a mixture of tallow or linseed oil, 
 
 f AJI ■, 
 
 stock. 
 The 
 
 small 
 T such 
 te fall 
 
 buds 
 isleej). 
 before 
 
 k and 
 called 
 
 when 
 
 scion 
 
 plit so 
 
 fcion is 
 
 Fi>j. 52. — Whip or tongue-graft- 
 ing on root. I'scil also in the 
 case of small stocks. 
 
 fig. 53.— drafting in cleft or split 
 linili. Used in the case of large 
 iiinlis. In very large limbs two 
 sii'ins are inserted on ojjposite 
 sides of the cleft. 
 
 beeswax, and resin (about i, 2, 4 parts by weight of each). A 
 very important point is to have the layer just underneath the 
 bark (the cambium layer) of both stock and scion exactly 
 opposite or against each other. Why is this important ? The 
 living part of a trunk or branch lies between the sapwood and 
 the bark ; it is the thin layer of moist woody fibre just under- 
 neath the bark. If wc bring the living layer of the stock and 
 the living layer of the scion together, the sap from the one will 
 flow into the other, and the root 'AwOi stem will continue to 
 nourish the new branch. The nature of the fruit depends 
 upon the kind of branch. 
 
 I^RUNING. — The leaves and new branches are formed before 
 the fruit, so that, if the tree is inclined to become very branchy, 
 most of the food may be used up in producing new wood, and 
 very little will be left for fruit. Therefore, in many varieties, 
 pruning is very important. The proper time is to begin with 
 
1 
 
 ' 
 
 m 
 
 1 06 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 the tree as soon as set out, and to prevent the growth of too 
 many limbs by cutting off limbs when small shoots and by 
 rubbing off buds that are not required. Limbs growing too 
 long may be "stopped"; that is, pinched off at the end. The 
 thinning out of fruit will, for the same reason, have the effect 
 of producing larger fruit. 
 
 Fkkdixg thk Trees. — Three crops are produced yearly in 
 the orchard - new leaves, new branches, new fruit. The tree 
 needs food for all three. It is necessary to have the land 
 drained so that the roots can go deep into the soil. Then the 
 surface soil must be kept well cultivated about the young 
 trees, that the moisture may be saved and the air get into the 
 soil. But, in addition, food must be supplied, not merely to 
 the young tree, but also to the old tree as long as it is expected 
 to bear a crop. W^ood ashes are the mineral or soil matter of 
 the trunks and branches of trees, therefore we may conclude 
 that wood ashes are an excellent food for fruit trees of all 
 kinds. Wood ashes contain lime, potash and some phosphates. 
 If any other manures aie applied they should be such as fine 
 bones, which contain phosphates and lime. Potash and phos- 
 phate manures are the proper food for vines and trees produc- 
 ing fruit. The proper place to apply such is, not close around 
 the trunk, but beneath the ends of the branches. Why ? 
 
 Scc.r.RSTiVE : — 
 
 If we plant the seed of a northern spy ap])le, may we expect that the 
 tree llnis produced will also bear northern spy? How are new varieties 
 produced? What might be done with a seedling apple tree that bears poor 
 fruit in order to make it a useful tree? In peaeh-growing, is it best to 
 have a large number of small peaches or a smaller number of large peaches ? 
 Good orchardisls now thin their peaches and plums. Why ? 
 
 Did you ever notice how a wound made by cutting off a branch of a tree 
 heals? If a stub six inches long is left it dies back, rots, and finally falls 
 away, leaving a hole in the tree trunk. If cut close new wood grows over 
 the wound until, in time, it is entirely covered. In pruning, then, cut close 
 to the main branch or tree trunk. 
 
 Remember that the tree itself is a crop, taking its food from the orchard 
 soil. It is bad practice, therefore, to raise other crops such as grain or 
 roots between the trees. This may occasionally be done with good tillage 
 and good manuring, but more often the trees are starved as a result. 
 
OTHER OKC HARD TREKS. 
 
 107 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 OTHER ORCHARD TREES. 
 
 The Pear. — We ha\e already staled tliat the apple, the 
 pear, and the (|iiin(e belong to the rose family. The form of 
 their fruit with seed in a hard box or core shows their resem- 
 blance. Our different varieties of pears have all been derived 
 from the common pear of I'^urope by (cultivation and selection. 
 These fruits all change somewhat with soil, climate, and treat- 
 ment. According to the size of the tree we class pears as 
 "standards" and "dwarfs." 'i"he standards are formed by 
 grafting or budding from the imjjroved varieties on to seedlings 
 as stocks. 'I'he pear trees that are purchased for an orchard 
 are therefore fust grown from pear seed and then grafted or 
 budded. Transplanting in the nursery induces a greater growth 
 of fibrous roots than if the trees were kejjt growing in one 
 place. So that better results are sure to follow from getting 
 trees that have been well cared for, even if t'hey cost more 
 money. AMien trees are transplanted some of the top is pruned 
 off and the trees are cut back. Why? In transplanting some 
 of the roots are likely to be damaged, and all are not likely to 
 start work at once ; therefore the old top would be too large in 
 proportion to the amount of feeding roots. 
 
 The dwarf pear trees are produced by budding on the 
 quince as a slock. The quince will not take the buds of all 
 varieties of pears, so that it is sometimes neiessary to "double 
 work " them. 'J'his is done by building on the (juince with 
 any pear bud that will take, and then afterwards budding on 
 this pear stock with the buds of the varieties desired. 
 
m\ 
 
 1 08 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ■ I 
 
 I 
 
 Budding is a means of increasing very many kinds of fruits. 
 We have, uiidi-r the apple, refrrrt-d to \hc fact that the hving 
 j)art of the tree is on ihu outside, junI nndir []\v rough hark. 
 
 II" a li\ iiig l)ud is laki'n froui 
 oin; Ircf, \)y neatly cutting it 
 out with a httle of the wood 
 beneath, it may be made to 
 grow if at once i)]aced in con- 
 tact with tile similar hving 
 part of another tree. This is 
 done by making a slit up and 
 down and one across the bark, 
 T-shaped. This cut is opened 
 and the bud placed in and the 
 bark lapped o\er it. The cut 
 and bud in place are then 
 Fig. 54. Budding. Carefully tied up. It will be 
 
 seen that budding must be done when th(i bark is loose or 
 will slip, that is in midsummer. In the following spring the 
 old growth al)Ove the bud must be cut off, and buds are rub- 
 bed off below so as to send all the sap into the new branch. 
 
 Thk Plum. — We now come to the stone-fruits— the plum, 
 the peach, and the cherry. They differ from the pear and 
 ai)ple group, but they belong to the large rose family. I'^xam- 
 ine their blossoms. We have in America several wild varieties 
 of plums, from which some of our hardier varieties are derived. 
 From the European plum come our highly flavoured plums. 
 As a rule they are not so hardy as the natives. A thirtl class 
 of plums is derived iVom Japanese varieties. The plum is 
 propagated by budding and grafting. For northern climates 
 the stock used should be seedlings or the native wild plum. In 
 milder climates the peach is used tjuite extensively as a stock. 
 The Peach tree is not known here in a wild state ; it 
 has come from Asia and is closely related to the almond. 
 
othp:r orchard trees. 
 
 109 
 
 The nectarine is (juite similar with fruit of a smooth sicin. 
 ()i)serve the l)lossom as to siiape and color. In some vari- 
 eties the stone clings to the pull) ; in others it separates readily 
 — hence the terms " cling-stone " and 
 "free-stone." The peach ripens only 
 in a mild climate and re([uires a warm 
 soil, that is, a light soil that readily 
 drains and absorbs heat. As the [)each 
 trees mature or come into bltxssom 
 earlier than apples, they are sometimes 
 set out in young ai)i)le orchards. A 
 
 c c \ ii I • 1 1 f 'g- 55- Stone fruit, a peach. 
 
 few crops of peaches can thus be picked 
 
 before the a[)i)les come into bearing. When the ai)[)le trees 
 become nearly full grown and begin to bear fair crops the 
 peach trees are removed. The peach trees are increased by 
 budding on stocks of seedling ])eaches or on {)lums. Why 
 would you e.\[)ect peach buds to take on plums and not on 
 pears or apples ? What is the edible part of the peach ? Tlie 
 true fruit or seed is inside of the stone. Crack one oi)en and 
 com[)are with an almond nut. V'ou may taste it, but do not 
 eat it. If you take a thick leaf you can peel off the skin on 
 the ui)per side and also the skin on the under side. Between 
 these two is the soft cell matter. The cal\\ leaves fold over 
 the inner part of the blossom, enclosing the seed, the inner side 
 of the leaves hardening to form the stc^ne, and the outer part 
 forming the skin ; the soft material between forms the part of 
 the peach that we eat. 
 
 The Cherkn'. — This tree is sometimes grown as an orna- 
 mental tree ; sonu'tinu'S I'or its wood, which has a beautiful 
 grain and takes a liiu' j)()lish ; but geneialK lor il< fruit. There 
 are \ er\' inanv \arii'ties ol » herries L;ri)\\iiiL; \\il<l in Ameiiia 
 known 1)\' \arious names -(.Iwiul elu'rr\', biid eheir\, ( hokt; 
 cherry, wild red cherry, cVv. M(»st of our garden varieties arc 
 derived from two European varieties. 
 
,-3c9*'r~— ' 
 
 II. 1 
 
 no 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 
 
 The Borer. — This is a beetle that does much damage to 
 the trunks of trees. It is al)()ut half an inch long, of a sliining 
 greenish-hlack color. It lays its eggs in summer in the rough 
 bark near the ground or near the crotches of large limi)s. From 
 tliese eggs come the larvae, which, when full-grown, are nearly an 
 inch long As soon as hatched they begin to l)(,)re into the tree, 
 where they remain one or two years. From the lar\a state they 
 pass into the pupa state, and from this the beetle again comes 
 
 forth. If many of these bore through 
 the under l)ark and into the living 
 wood they must injure a tree just as if 
 it were girdled. What is to be done? 
 We can dig out the borers and kill 
 them, but already much damage 
 will have been done. We can keep 
 the rough bark scra[)ed off with a 
 dull hoe, so that there will be no 
 convenient cracks and holes in which 
 to place the egiis. We can also give 
 
 Kin. 56.— The dat-licadcd borer- , , , , 1 
 
 ,1, the larva, /■ the pupa, ,/ the tlic tfunks of the trccs a g^ood coat- 
 
 Iierfcct heetlc. It injures many . /• 1 1 • 1 1 r 
 
 Liudsof trees. uig of whalc-oil soap,then soft soap 
 
 or whitewash in the spring and early summer. As the bark 
 
 on young trees is soft and the young trees are most easily 
 
 injured we sliould look out tOr borers in young orchards. 
 
 TiiK OvsiKK-Siii.i.i, Uakk 1,(»isk. — On the bark of the 
 apple tree are frequently seen little patches that appear like 
 
INSECTS OF THIC ORCHARD. IH 
 
 roLigli l)ark. If you pry them iij) with your pctiknifu you find 
 
 Fig- 57- — Bark covered with larva; of oyster-shell bark lice. 
 
 that they are not rough bark, l)ut scales. What are these little 
 scales or shells ? As the weather becomes warmer little white 
 insects come out from under these shells, and for a cou[)le oi 
 days the bark swarms with life. Then they settle down, get 
 their tiny beaks into the soft bark, and suck the sap of the 
 tree. At the end of summer we find the scales with a nest ot 
 eggs underneath. Protected by the scale, the eggs remain 
 until next summer, when out again come the tiny insects to 
 live upon the sap of the tree. Spray with kerosene emulsion. 
 
 The Aphis. — These are to be found on all of our fruit trees. 
 They are n^^ iced as green bugs less than one-tenth of an inch 
 long. They suck the sap out of the leaves and green bark, and 
 are sometimes found on the roots. The eggs are laid in the 
 fall in the cracks of the bark, and in the next summer we are 
 surprised at the large number of green wingless lice that appear 
 as if by magic and do so much damage in a short time (see 
 j)age 83). Keep the bark clean and spray the trees in the 
 spring, as s'^ on as the insects ai)i)ear, with kerosene emulsion, a 
 diluted mixture of soft-soap and coal-oil. ^^'e have staled before, 
 l)age 79, that lady-beetles are very deslnicti\e to i)l;int iice. 
 Different kinds of plant lice are found on ihe apple, (heriy, 
 [)eac-h, currant, cabbage, strawberry roots and in grain. Since 
 they increase so very rapidl\, spraying should i>e dom; as soon 
 as the lice ap|)ear. House [)lanls ma\' be washed with whale- 
 oil soa^) or tobacco water. 
 
112 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Catkrpili.xks. — We already know that there are many 
 kinds of caterpillars, and that they are larvie hatched lioiii 
 
 HI 
 
 • 
 
 -..fe/-^-^ 
 
 
 I'lH- S'S.— 'riic'_ tint < aliiiiill:ii. </ .iii<l /• ;irc c alciiiill.irs on 
 llio wcl), ( is ;i mass i>\ i'lius, i/ U tlii' ciu'dun iniiiaiiiini; 
 tliL- cliiysalis (ir iiiipa. 'riii- (ciiialc laulli i. ali(i\i'. 
 
 the eggs of mollis and l)iiUerllii'S. 'l\Mit tiiUi|)illa?-,s li\c> in 
 nests and strip the trees of tluir leaws. An\ msts sirn on 
 the tri'is or hiisiu-s should he earerully ri'mo\t'd and hiirned 
 whenever observed. These caterpillars cume out o( their nests 
 
INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 
 
 113 
 
 many 
 from 
 
 \i' 111 
 I) on 
 inu'd 
 ncsls 
 
 two or three times a clay to feed. Therefore we should be care- 
 ful to see that they are all at home before the nests are re- 
 moved. S[)raying with Paris green will help to destroy all leaf- 
 eating cater[)illars. 
 
 The CoDi.i\(i Moth. — Codling is an old word for a cook- 
 ing ap[)le. We know what a moth is (see pages 77 and 78). 
 We have seen an ap[)le with a dark worm hole in it, and we 
 have cut the ai)ple open and hav(.' found the little white worm 
 inside. Now for its history. In our illustration, fig. 59, g is 
 the moth about half an 
 inch across the wings. 
 'I'he fore wings are grey, 
 the hind wings light (^ 
 brown. As moths fly at 
 night we are, perha[)S, 
 not so well accjuainted 
 with it as with the white 
 lar\a. The female moth 
 l,i\s her eggs upon the 
 little a[)[)le as it stands 
 upright. The larv;\; 
 that hatch, usually enter 
 at the blossom ijud, 
 and bore to the core 
 and feed upon it. Since 
 the core is a continua- 
 tion of the sti'in, the latter weakens and the woniu' a|)|)les 
 are the iirsl to lall. After a while the lar\a eats its wav out 
 and falls to the grouiul. (ieiieialh' it crawls to the trunk 
 of the tree and after a litlle s|)ins a <'ocoon from wliieji in 
 alioul two weeks the iiiolli appears and begins the la\ing «•! 
 eggs. Maiu' of the lar\,e of this siMond biond aic taken In 
 the cellar in tlu' appK's. To destroy llu'in is import, mt. All 
 wormy windfalls should be gathered up at once and W^d to the 
 
 Fi^. 59' — The codlini; iiiDlli. << is ijn.' l,m- 
 ri)u ; /', tin; entrain :e liulc ; (•, tlic larva ; 
 (/, ilic |mpa ; /', inoiii at rest ; ^i-, iiiotli 
 willi wiiiLis spread; //, lioad of larva ; /', 
 I 111 Diiii riiiitaiiiiii'.; pii|)a. 
 
114 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 pigs. The trees are sprayed with Paris green while the tiny 
 ai)ples are still turned upwards. If we spray the trees earlier 
 for other insects we must be careful not to si)ray while in full 
 bloom, since then we may poisc^n the bees that are gathering 
 honey and helj)ing to fertilize the blossoms by carrying pollen 
 fnjm one blossom to another. Further, we may injure the 
 blossoms and at that time the codling moth has not yet laid 
 her eggs. 
 
 The Pear Tree Seuc;. — The perfect insect is a very 
 black saw-fly, with four wings of the form shown in fig. 36. 
 The female is about one-fifth of an inch long, the male a little 
 
 shorter. Points to be 
 noted are the nature 
 of the wings and the 
 color of the legs. 
 Little cuts are made 
 
 Eig. 60.— The pear tree slu;4. in tllC leaf in wllicll 
 
 the eggs are laid about June. From these the slugs are 
 liatL-hed, which are from one-half to two-thirds of an inch long, 
 slimy, dark green in color. At once they begin to eat the 
 leaves. The slugs change their skins four or fi\e times, and in 
 about a month they crawl or fall to the ground and change to 
 the pupa state. After two weeks more these change to flies, 
 which are ready to lay eggs to hatch a second brood early in 
 August. After doing damage a second time the larvae enter 
 the ground for the winter. In the spring the flies appear, 
 again reatly for destruction. The slugs are to be looked for 
 on |)ear and on cherry trees in June and again in August. 
 
 The Pi.UM CuucUEio. — The perfect insect is known as a 
 weevil or snout beetle. It is dark in color, and about one- 
 fifth of an inch in length. Diu'ing winter it remains hidden 
 imder ruhbish. It comes out in the spring and does great 
 damage as tlu- young fruit is setting. It juinclu's a little hole 
 in the fiuil with its snout, lays an egg, and then makes 
 
ie tiny 
 earlier 
 in full 
 Lhering 
 pollen 
 ire the 
 et laid 
 
 a very 
 
 I'lg- 36. 
 ; a little 
 
 ts to l)e 
 nature 
 md the 
 e legs, 
 e nnule 
 whii'h 
 ugs are 
 :h long, 
 •at the 
 and in 
 mge to 
 to Hies, 
 early in 
 .\i enter 
 appear, 
 ked Tor 
 1st. 
 
 n as a 
 )Ut one- 
 hitldrn 
 "S great 
 lie hoU' 
 makes 
 
 INSECTS OF THH ORCHARD. 
 
 -5 
 
 a moon-shaped cut in the skin near the hole. If this cut were 
 
 not made, what would haj)i)en to the young larva as the fruit 
 
 grew in size ? One beetle will 
 
 lay from fifty to 100 eggs. A 
 
 sort of gum forms aroiuid the 
 
 hole. The stem of the fruit 
 
 soon weakens, and it drops to 
 
 the ground with the larva in it. 
 
 The larva then comes out and 
 
 burrows into the groimd. In 
 
 about a month the full-grown 
 
 beetle appears. Some fight 
 
 the CUreulio by jarring the trees Fig. 61.— The plum-tree curculio. a, the 
 
 lar\a ; A, tin; impa : c, the beetle; <i, 
 
 day after day, early or late, curculio, natural ^i/e, on young plum, 
 catching the insects in a sheet, and then throwing them into 
 water covered with kerosene. Paris green is used in si)raying. 
 It is applied several times after the blossoms ha\e fallen. 
 
 Othkr Insects.— New insects an; constantly appearing, 
 being brotight in from other countries in fruit and luirsery 
 stock. When first introduced, these insects increase \eiy 
 rajiidly, since their natural enemies are not always brought 
 with them at the same time. Sometimes thev come later on. 
 
 Fit;. ''>..'. — Huil nmili. Tlio larva fccdi 
 upon yuuiiji liud;, onViiii irech. 
 
 Fin. ''.i- Canker WDrni. a, /<, ami ( are 
 ejins ; r is a in.iss of cyns ; J is larv.l 
 itirk hrmvn in rolnr. I.arv.i- ran drop 
 fr ml ircf hy viil< llir'.id. They attack 
 apple, plum, and cherry tree»i. 
 
ii6 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE ORCHARD. 
 
 " All ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure," 
 
 Forms of Disease. — The leaves and green twigs of all the 
 orchard trees are affected i)y diseases which are variously 
 named leaf blight, leaf curl, yellows, etc. On the branches of 
 plums and cherries we have black-knot. On the fruit we have 
 diseases called the spot, the scab, rust, etc. We know that 
 diseased fruit, such as spotted apples, is, as a rule, 
 stunted in size and distorted in shape, and is not so salable as 
 well-formed, clean fruit. Diseased fruit, also, will not keep so 
 long as perfect fruit. We do not, perhaps, realize that trees 
 whose roots, branches, or leaves are affected with disease will 
 not produce as large er()i)s as perfectly sound trees. It is 
 especially imjKJrtant ih.at the leaves be ke|)t clean and thrifty. 
 
 Prevention ok Disease.— The fust thing to be noted is 
 that all old fruit trees or bushes that are not bearing good crops 
 should be destroyed. When a tree becomes unfruitful it will 
 be neglected and then diseases as well as insects will find a 
 home in it. I'^ven if at some distance from other trees, all 
 such should be cut down and burned, since the spores of these 
 diseases are very light and are carried long distances by the 
 wind and by insects. In the case of black-knot u|)()n plums 
 or cherries, there is onl)' one course to follow- cut it off and 
 burn it. it will not do simpi,' to cut it off and throw it on the 
 waste heap ; the spores will ripen there and spreiid lo the otlui 
 trt'cs. If affected twigs and limbs are cut off as soon as tin: 
 lirsl signs of disease appear, we shall do much to sto|) the 
 spread of the disease. It may even be found lo pay to cut 
 
DISEASES OF THE ORCHARD. 
 
 117 
 
 )y the 
 
 down a whole tree, since it may save the entire orchard. We 
 imisi consider e\ery one of these little knots, s[)()ts, or Mights 
 ;is breeders and spreaders of disease. 
 
 If a tree was diseased last year the sj)ores will \)c left upon 
 the branches and on the trunk. By spraying before the buds 
 
 J-N iv 
 
 Fig. 65. — Section of a tliseaseii plum leaf, spores 
 bein i thrown otT. a Spores very nuicli enlarged- 
 See I'igs. 42 and 4;). 
 
 Fig. 64, — Disease in a plum 
 leaf. 
 
 open we prevent the spread of the early growing spores. The 
 spraying must be repeated several times, as various diseases 
 start to grow at different times. As a rule the i)est fruit-growers 
 combine their s[)raying for insects and for diseases — thus they 
 make a mixture of bluestone and of Paris green, the former to 
 kill the disease spores, and the latter to [)oison some of the 
 insects. One warning nnist be repeated, that is, not to spray 
 with poison while any tree is in full bloom, since at that time 
 the blossoms may be injured, and insects, such as bees, may 
 be killed that are carrying pollen from the stamens to the 
 pistils, thereby assisting in the fertilization of the blo.ssoms. 
 
1 1; 
 
 a;;ric ri.'rrKK 
 
 chapti:r XXV. 
 
 THE VTXEVARIX 
 
 The ViXE FAMir,v. — The X'irginia Creeper and the different 
 varieties of the grape \ine together fo'-.ii v.hat is known as the 
 vine laniil)' {vitau'd'). These are wcxjdy [)lants elinihing l)y 
 tendrils. 'I'he leaves are set one after another (alternate). 
 The flowers are small, greenish, in a cluster or bunch. The 
 tendrils and flowers are ()p[)()site the leaves. The \'irginia 
 creeper has its leaflets in !i\es, and is thereby distinguished 
 from poison ivy, which has its leaflets in threes. A bunch of 
 blossoms like that of tlie X'irginia creej)er is called a cyme, 
 that like the grajje is called a thyrsus. Notice the form of the 
 tendrils of the \'. creeper and how they attach themselves to 
 \vires and flat surfaces. Are those of the gra[)e similar? 
 
 \'.\Kii/rii;s OK (IkArEs.— 'I'he grapes grown under glass or 
 in hot-houses in this country are ([uile different from those 
 grown out of doors. They are of different flavor, and the 
 former are thinner in the skin. Our hot-house grapes are 
 Euro[)ean \arii'lies. In the woods we And several varieties of 
 grajjcs growing wild, with long climbing branches, bearing 
 bunches of small fruit ([uite sour or acid. The principal wild 
 varieties are known as the Northern I'O.x, the Summer gra[)e, 
 the white or Frost grape, and the Muscadine or Southern 
 l'"ox. Our out-of-door cultivated varieties have been got 
 by selection^ fi'om these wild varieties, also by crossing 
 them with the i-uropean, and by chance seedlings from all 
 varieties. Most of our edible grapes have been got from 
 crosses on the Northern Fox, and most of our wine grapes 
 from crosses on the Frost grape. 
 
different 
 •n as the 
 il)ing by 
 Iternate). 
 •h. The 
 
 X'irginia 
 nguished 
 )unch of 
 
 a cyme, 
 ■m of the 
 selves to 
 
 r? 
 
 glass or 
 m those 
 and tile 
 ij)es are 
 rieties of 
 
 bearing 
 pal wild 
 ir grape, 
 
 uithern 
 een got 
 
 Tossing 
 
 om all 
 ot from 
 I grapes 
 
 
 i 
 
 -I 
 
 m 
 
 XL 
 
 
 V 
 
 u 
 
 V 
 
 T3 
 
 3 
 o 
 
 C 
 3 
 O 
 u 
 
 ►—4 
 
 ^2 
 
 I- X! 
 
 C '.J 
 
 c 
 
 rt 
 
 B 
 
 
 $ 
 
 6 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 T' 
 
i II 
 
TUL: VINKYARD. 
 
 119 
 
 Treatmext of \'ines. — The soil for planting should be 
 deep, rich, and thoroughly drained. Two-year-old vines should 
 l)e set out, and after the first year only mineral fertilizers, surh 
 as ashes and hones, should i)e apj)lietl unless the soil is poor. 
 If the winters are severe the \ines are laid down in the fall 
 and covered. One of the most imj)t)rtant p(jints in connec- 
 tion with grape growing is the i)runing. If left alone the vine 
 will naturally produce an abundance of stem, branches, and 
 leaves. If properly pruned the food taken in by the ro(Jts 
 and the leaves goi-s to the formation of fruit. 'IMie vines may 
 be trellised in various ways, depending upon the climate. In 
 mild climates where the vines are left ui) all winter they may 
 be trained high and si)read up fan-shaped. In colder regions 
 one of the best methods is to lead one branch to the right 
 and another to the left about a foot above the ground, and 
 then train branches from these u[) across the wires. When 
 l)runed off in the fall, they can be easily laid down and cov- 
 ered. I'he method of ])runing is easily learned from practice 
 with an expert. The methoil de[)ends upon this rule : " The 
 fruit forms upon shoots that grow this year from eyes that 
 were formed on the wood that grew last year." All branches 
 growing too long should be pinched at the end or "stoi)ped," 
 so as to cause hardy wood to form. 
 
 Grape-vines are increased in number by cuttings, layering, 
 and grafting. The cuttings are made of the last season's 
 growth, and are buried two buds deej) in the ground. In lay- 
 ering, a branch is turned down and buried, when it takes root. 
 In grafting the method is somewhat similar to that of tree 
 grafting, but the scion is inserted close to or below the surface 
 of the ground. 
 
 AVe have stated before that many of our best varieties are 
 crosses of the fox grape. To understand this we nuist exaiuine 
 the blossom of the \ine. The blossoms are small and some- 
 what dititieult to stud)'. They are of peculiar 5jhi.ipe. The 
 
120 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 petals of the blossoms form a sort of caj) which covers the 
 pistils and stamens. i\s the flowers begin to open, the petals 
 loosen belo'w but remain connected above. In this they differ 
 from the blossoms of the N'irginia creeper. When these petals 
 begin to o[)en the pollen flies off from the stamens ' falls 
 upon the pistils, and then, if the pistils are ready i it, the 
 fruit will begin to form. In some of the varieties, either the 
 pollen is not well formed and distributed, or the i)istils are not 
 ready for it, and then fruit does not form. As a conse([uence 
 we see bunches of small, imi)erfect fruit. When such varieties 
 are grown alone little fruit may be e.\i)ected. 
 
 Wliat is the f;ia|)c tlial we eat? We throw away the seeds and skin and 
 eat tlie pulp. Cut a i^rape across and observe its structure. Cut another 
 lengthwise fo as to get a thin section ; hold this up to the light and 
 observe how the seeds are placed and how they arc attached to the skin 
 near the one end. What are raisins? 
 
 Insect Enemies of the Grape. — Among the ects is 
 
 'iltm 
 
 Fig. 66. ■ Oiape-vine nc;i-l)cetlc. d, l)cctlu ; /, l.irva ; < , larva; and beetles on foliage . 
 t/, injury to buds ; <i and /' mucli enlarged, rest natural size. 
 
THE VINEYARD. 
 
 121 
 
 covers the 
 the petals 
 they differ 
 hese petals 
 , • falls 
 ' \ It, the 
 ,, either the 
 stils are not 
 onse(iuence 
 ich varieties 
 
 s and skin and 
 
 Cut another 
 
 the lii^ht and 
 
 -d to the skin 
 
 le 
 
 ects IS 
 
 I beetles on foliage 
 size. 
 
 the grape-vine flea-i)eetle which lays its eggs on the underside 
 of the leaves. Small brownish larviu are hatched, which eat 
 the leaves, then drop to the ground and change to the i)ui)a 
 form, from which in about three weeks the perfect beetle 
 emerges. The beetles may be collected by hand, and the 
 vines dusted with powder or sprayed. We also give here one 
 of the leai-rollers which are found on so many vines and trees. 
 
 rig. 67. — firape-vine leaf roller, a, male moth; /', female; c, larva; //, head and 
 thoracic segment of same, enlarged ; <•, pupa ; j", tip of pupa, enlarged ; ji^, grape 
 leaf folded by larva. 
 
 Ihis grape-vine leaf-roller eats the leaves. The adult is 
 a dark-colored moth with two white spots on each of the 
 two hind wings. The larva rolls up a leaf and stitches it 
 together, as shown in figure 67. Poison by spraying with 
 Paris green in water, applied in early spring. 
 
 The principal diseases of the grape are mildew and black 
 
 rn 
 
 t, which are prevented by spraying. 
 
 Sit(;(;estive 
 
 Grape leaves are .suital)le oljjeets to draw in outline. Notice the woolly- 
 Uaved Roger'^ varieties (the soulliern Fo.x grape) and also tlie thin 
 
 <IUi)0 
 
 ih leaved kind like Clinton - the northern type. 
 What is the best aspect for a grape-vineyard ? 
 
122 
 
 A(;RICUl/rURK 
 
 PART V 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 
 HORSES. 
 
 Origin of Horses — These animals are not natives of 
 America. The Indians had no liorses before the white-man 
 came — they went afoot or by canoe. The wild horses of 
 America are the offspring of escaped animals, (leologists 
 have found traces of small animals, supposed to be the ances- 
 tors of the horse, in some parts of America, l)ut these had all 
 disaj)i)eared long before Euroj)eans arrived four centuries ago. 
 Horses, as we know them, were originally used in warfare. At 
 present we have man)' kinds of horses, but all have doubtless' 
 come from the same stock or kind, ^^'hen the wild animal 
 was llrst tamed or domesticated, we do not know. CliniiUf 
 and food, which ^•aried in different countries, and the uses to 
 which horses were j)ut,graduall\' |)r()duced some changes in forni^ j 
 and appearance. Animals that showed the ([ualities desin't: 
 — such as si/e, color, form, strength, and lleetness — were caic 
 fully treated, and thus there were develoj)ed in differeii:' 
 countries horses of different breeds, ^ouie desired horses h: 
 heavy work, animals of he;ivy body, stout limbs, and stron. 
 muscles. Odiers desired horses for s[)ced, animals of lighu: 
 frame, smaller bone, and sound lungs. 
 
 KiXDs oi'' H()Ksi';s. --Two classes of horses have result. d 
 We shall mention here only four breeds of each class. 'I'h' - 
 have become fixed or dehnile in their characteristics. 'J li; 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
not natives ot 
 the white-man 
 ^vild horses ot 
 Is. Geologists 
 o be the ances 
 It these had a 
 r centuries ago. 
 ill warfare. M 1 
 have cloul)tK 
 -le wiUl aninia 
 low. Clinuiic 
 and the uses U 
 changes in form 
 ualilies desiriC 
 ^■ss— were caic 
 cd in differur 
 ired horses lo 
 nhs, and stroiv. 
 iuials of lighi^. '■ 
 
 ■s have result 
 h i-lass. 'rii'"' 
 icteristics. 'i'li- 
 
 <u 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 o 
 a 
 
 Xi 
 
 H 
 
J 
 
 HORSES. 
 
 123 
 
 only way in which to heconic familiar with these different 
 
 breeds is i)\' ohsersing ihr li\injj; animals. 
 
 Heavy horses : 
 
 1. The Clydesdale, from (he valley of the Clyde in Siotland. 
 
 2. The Shire, of the rLast-ceiitral shires of I^igland. 
 
 3. The Suffolk Punch, from the [eastern counties ol I'Jigland. 
 
 4. 'I'he Percheron or Norman, of Northern I'Yance. 
 
 Light horses : 
 
 1. The Hackney, of Yorkshire and Eastern iMigland. 
 
 2. The Cleveland Bay, from \'orkshire, I'jigland. 
 
 3. The Standard-bred, of the United States, a trotter. 
 
 4. l"he Thoroughbred, or running horse of iMigland. 
 
 The Le(;s and l''Ki:r. — These are of most impfjrtance in 
 a horse— "no foot, no horse" is true of it as of no other 
 animal. 'I'he feet are constantly striking upon hard earth or 
 stone. \\'hy can a horse bear the strain of so much hard 
 [xjuiuling upon its feet and legs? The [)arts are being con- 
 stantly reformed : life is repairing them all the; time. The dif- 
 ferent parts are put together with what we may call cushions. 
 Then the j)arts of the hind legs are not joined in a straight 
 line, and the front legs are not straight as the fet't strike the 
 ground. Step from a (liair, kee[)ing the leg stejiiK-d on 
 l)erfectly stiff. Notice how the jar goes straight u|) through 
 the knee to the bod). Wlmi we jumj) we bi'ud the knees. 
 
 SiioEiN(; iiiK Horse.- Put the shape of the legs and the 
 bending of the knees do n( t sa\e the hoof from all wear and 
 ti'ar. If tlu' shank and loot of a (k'ad horse can be got, it 
 will bi" an interesting stu(l\ to take it apart and see the 
 arrangement of the dilTeienl |).nts. I'he wall of the hoof is 
 what we see as the foot stands on the ground. It con^i^t> of 
 toe, tjuarters, and heel. The wall turns in at the heil, lorming 
 the bars. Within the bars is thi' frog. Of what use is the 
 hog? Should it be nuich cut down in shoeing? The varnish 
 
124 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
 TiiH KxTKKNAi. Parts of the Hoksk. 
 
 I. 
 
 Fnrc. 
 
 2. 
 
 Korrlii-'ad. 
 
 !■ 
 
 I'.ars. 
 
 ■t- 
 
 Mil//!.-. 
 
 s. 
 
 Clu'cU or fi)\vl. 
 
 6 
 
 I'oll. 
 
 7- 
 
 Thiual. 
 
 8. 
 
 AaiDtiil. 
 Neck. 
 
 ID. 
 
 I'nst. 
 
 I 1. 
 
 Jiiuu! ir Clr'.uiK'l or I'linciw 
 
 1 •■ 
 
 I've si. 
 
 I {. 
 
 Willii'is. 
 
 M- 
 
 Ha. U. 
 
 IS 
 
 Ril.s. 
 
 1'), 
 
 Ciiilli. 
 
 >7. 
 
 I.llills, 
 
 1 8. 
 
 C'lnl||), 
 
 ly. 
 
 I)... I<. 
 
 ao, 
 
 Klaiik. 
 
 21. 
 
 Hcllv. 
 
 aa. 
 
 I'oilU ofsll'illlill T. 
 
 a.)> 
 
 IClllDW, 
 
 I'orcarm. 
 Kiicc. 
 
 CaiiDii (11- shank. 
 
 Kciluck joiiii. 
 
 I'astuiii. 
 
 Ci)riiiiet. 
 
 Kdot. 
 
 I'lrjiDl :iiul fiulcicl 
 
 Haiiiicli. 
 
 ■Iliiyli. 
 
 Slide. 
 
 liiiltock. 
 
 36. Ia'k. 
 
 37. Hoik. 
 Canon or slianlc. 
 I''olio(;k jojnl. 
 l'".vj;oi and ftlloi;! 
 I'asUMii. 
 Coronet. 
 Foot 
 
 l.owi T liiinii. 
 I'oini oC lio<k. 
 
 24 
 
 25. 
 26, 
 27, 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 31 
 32 
 
 33 
 34 
 35 
 
 38 
 
 39' 
 40 
 
 41, 
 42 
 43 
 44 
 
HORSES. 
 
 125 
 
 y 
 
 
 on the hoof is formed by nature to keOp the water out on 
 (lamp ground, and to keep the hoof from drying u[) and 
 (•racking on (h\' ground. Siiould the hkicksmilh rasp off this 
 \ariiish if it is the natural protection to keep tiie hoof sound ? 
 (ircat care nuist he taken in shoeing young horses while their 
 hoofs are growing larger. On sod, turf, or dirt, it would not 
 be necessary f(;r a horse to be shod, as the hoof is hard, and 
 formed l)y nature for running over the natural soil and grass, 
 15ut we cause the horses to work on hard stone roads and 
 pavements, and therefore we fit them with shoes that are 
 harder than their natural hoofs. The hoof is of the same 
 
 material as our finger-nails — we may 
 call the hoof a large, thick toe-nail. 
 The foot is the middle toe. the 
 other four having disap[)eared. \V^e 
 can cut and pare the hoof and drive 
 nails into it, therefore, without caus- 
 ing any pain. If we cut the nail 
 too deeply, we come to a very 
 sensitive part of the finger. So with 
 the hoof ; under it and within it is 
 a very sensitive part of the foot. Il 
 we cut into it or drive nails into it, 
 we cause great pain to the horse, and 
 ameness and suffering follow. The 
 liorse, therefore, should always be 
 
 navinilar, ati'l /' tho Cdtliil I'une ; ^Uc,\ !>,, ., ,rrwwl Cirri, r rir ^lw»..r 
 
 tiic shou is nailed. Whrii vou Walk Oil vour toes, or 
 
 ill a |)air of boots too high in the ln'ci or too tight, \()U soon 
 tire out. If good shoes of proper fi)rm and weight are so 
 iin|)ortaiU to us in walking, llu' proper lilting of shoes of the 
 right weight and si/e is (juite as important to the horse. This 
 is another reason for always having the work done by a good 
 workman. 
 
 Flu 69— The horse's fnoi : A is ilio 
 instcrn, A' the lowor pasicrii, C" tlic 
 
126 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Food of Horses. — The horse has a small stomach, and 
 (Iocs heavy work, therefore we must remember that strong food 
 and pure water should he gixcn in moderate ([uantities, and at 
 freciueiit intervals. The stomach when em|)l\' weighs from 
 three to four pounds, and it will hold three to three and a half 
 gallons. Horses are not built for coarse, bulky fodder. Nature 
 and experienee prove that such food as good hay and oats are 
 well adapted to horses that have to work hard either in 
 driving or in drawing. Overfeeding of ourselves makes us 
 heavy and lazy, and causes indigestion. We should be careful 
 to give the horse just enough to eat for its needs, and no more. 
 
 Care of Horsks. — (Irooming to a horse is the same as 
 washing to ourselves — it keeps the pores of the skin clean and 
 gives a good a[)pearance to the horse. Since it does all of its 
 work on its feet, the health of the feet and legs is of the greatest 
 importance ; therefore great care is taken in providing a proper 
 floor for the stable. We do not rest or sleep well in a foul 
 atmosphere; the horse stable should be ke[)t clean and neat. 
 We do not rest well on too hard a bed, neither does the horse. 
 We do not thrive well when exj)osed to cold winds or heavy 
 rains, neither does a horse. When we come in from hard 
 work and are in a [)ers[)iration, we do not sit or stand in a 
 draught ; the horse is just as likely to catch cold. 
 
 What is meant hy the ht-ight of a lioisc ? In what terms is it stated? 
 
 When a horse walks, in what order iloes it lift its feel? Describe the 
 actions (/f llie feel anil let^s in trolling, pacing, cantering, and in gallo[)ing. 
 
 Wh<.'n a horse rises, which feel are raised lirst ? Why does billing on a 
 horse's head prevent its rising? Would such action prevent a cow ? 
 
 Is it natural for a horse to reach up and pull down lis food, such as 
 dusty h.iy ? 
 
 IP 
 
i 
 
 IS 
 
I 
 
 < 
 
 J3 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 p 
 o 
 
 fc/. 
 c 
 
 
 <1) 
 
 lit 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 127 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 
 tn 
 
 < 
 
 if3 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 'J2 
 
 
 hi 
 
 (1) 
 
 CATTLE. 
 
 Breeds of Cattle.— Cattle formerly included all the live 
 stock of the farm ; we now apply the term only to bovine 
 cattle or neat cattle. They are descended from wild animals, 
 some of which are still found in the wild condition. As 
 horses were at first used for warfare, cattle were largely used 
 for work. We have now two uses f(jr cattle— producing beef 
 and producing milk. There are very many different breeds in 
 these two classes, but we may give the four leading breeds of 
 each class in this country as follows : 
 
 Beef breeds : 
 
 1. The Shorthorn, or Durham, originated in T:)urham 
 County, England, over 100 years ago from Teeswater cattle. 
 I'here are some dairy fanu'lics also among shorthorns. 
 
 2. The Hereford, originated in Herefordshire, England, over 
 150 years ago. 
 
 3. The (lalloway, a breed of black [Hilled cattle or "doddies," 
 from Southern Scotland. 
 
 4. The Aberdeen-Angus, from Aberdeenshire, Scotland. 
 Dairy breeds : 
 
 1. The Jersey, from the Island of Jersey. 
 
 2. The (luernsey, from the Island of Guernsey. 
 
 3. The Ayrshire, from Ayrshire, Scotland. 
 
 4. The Holstein, or I loIslcin-JMitsian. 
 
 In figure 70 we give the outlines of a beef animal. We shall 
 now refer to a few of these parts. 
 
128 
 
 ACRicui/n'Ri; 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 70. —The External Parts of a Beef Animal. 
 
 1. Mouth. 
 
 2. Nostrils. 
 
 3. Lips. 
 
 Muzzle. 
 Face. 
 Eyes. 
 Cheeks. 
 
 8. Jaws. 
 
 9. Forehead. 
 
 10. Poll. 
 
 11. Horns. 
 13. Ears. 
 
 13. Neck 
 
 14. Throat. 
 15 Dewlap. 
 \6. Shoulders. 
 
 17- 
 
 Shoulder Point. 
 
 33' 
 
 Plates. 
 
 18. 
 
 Shoulder Vein. 
 
 34- 
 
 Rumps. 
 
 19. 
 
 Elbows. 
 
 35- 
 
 Hips. 
 
 20. 
 
 Arm. 
 
 36- 
 
 Thighs. 
 
 21. 
 
 Knees. 
 
 37- 
 
 Hocks. 
 
 22. 
 
 Shanks. 
 
 38. 
 
 Hmd Leg. 
 
 23' 
 
 Hoofs. 
 
 39- 
 
 Brisket. 
 
 24. 
 
 Crops. 
 
 40. 
 
 Bosom, 
 
 25- 
 
 Fore Flank. 
 
 4' 
 
 Chest. 
 
 26. 
 
 Fore Ribs. 
 
 42. 
 
 Loin. 
 
 27. 
 
 Mid Ribs. 
 
 43- 
 
 Hooks. 
 
 28. 
 
 Hinder Ribs. 
 
 44. 
 
 Purse. 
 
 29. 
 
 Harrel. 
 
 45- 
 
 Iwist. 
 
 .30- 
 
 Helly. 
 
 4^- 
 
 Pin Bones 
 
 3>- 
 
 Spine. 
 
 47- 
 
 Tail Head 
 
 32- 
 
 Flank. 
 
 48. 
 
 Tail. 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 129 
 
 Horns and Hoofs. — The horns of cattle were intended 
 by nature for defence. In the domestic animal they are not 
 required, hence breeders have aimed at reducing or removing 
 them. 'I'he " Longhorn " i)reed was once a favorite; it has 
 given i)lace to the "Shorth(jrn." In some breeds the horns 
 have disappeared. These are called "jjolled" cattle, as the 
 Polled-Angus and the Red Polls. 'I'he bone of an animal is 
 largely made u[) of mineral matter ([)hosphate of lime), with 
 some oily and gluey substances. Horns and hoofs are (juite 
 different from and indei)endent of the bones. When burned, 
 a piece of horn or of hoof will give off a very disagreeable 
 odor. vSo will hair. The horns, hoofs, and hair are all nitro- 
 genous in their nature. Since the horn is closely connected 
 with a very sensitive part of the animal's head, when dehorning 
 is practised, the horn should be cut off ([uickly and neatly. 
 The horse's hoof is in one piece ; the feet of cattle are cloven. 
 Is there any advantage to the cattle in this? Which kind of 
 foot is better adapted to climbing, and which to level travel ? 
 Do all cloven-footed animals chew the cud? 
 
 The Mouth. — When full-grown, we have three kinds of 
 
 teeth. The front teeth are for biting, and are called the 
 
 incisors ; the back teeth are brcxid and double-rooted, formed 
 
 for grinding, known as the molars ; between these are longer 
 
 teeth called the canines. If you examine the teeth of an ox, 
 
 you find no U[)[)er incisors and no canines. There are eight 
 
 lower incisors, and six ujjper and six lower molars on each side, 
 
 making thirty-two in all, as fcjllows : 
 
 T • o ^ • 0-0 ,, , 6-6 
 
 Incisors - Canmes -— Molars — - 
 
 S 0-0 6-6 
 
 This arrangement api)lies to cattle, shee[), goals, and deer, 
 
 though sometimes (\uiines occui". I low would you rrpnsenl, as 
 
 above, the teeth of a bo\- and ot a full mow n n)an ? 1 low those of 
 
 ahorse? The molars of a horse are larger and broader than 
 
 those of a cow. iV horse biles the grass with the incisors, 
 
I30 
 
 AGRICUl/rURi:. 
 
 and by a nod of the head cuts it away. A cow wraps her tongue 
 around the long, coarse grass, pulls it into her mouth, closer: 
 the incisors and upper gum upon it, and by a movement of the 
 head tears it away. The horse is therefore able to take the 
 fine grass, and to crop the pasture more closely than the cow. 
 
 The Stomach.— Sheep and cattle are ruminants — they chew 
 the cud. See Fig. 71. a represents the gullet connecting the 
 stomach and mouth through which the food passes into tiie 
 stomach, and / the beginning of the intestine through which 
 
 the food passes out of the 
 stomach. There are four sacs all 
 joined ; /' is the first or largest 
 stomach (the rumen, or paunch); 
 c is the second (reticulum) ; 
 d the third (omasum) ; e the 
 fourth (abomasum). When a 
 cow takes in coarse food, it passes 
 into the first or largest stomach 
 until the cow is done eating. 
 Then the cow sto})s taking in 
 food and begins to digest it. 
 Fig. 71 —The four stomachs of a cow. After soakiug or Steeping some 
 time in the large stomach, it gradually comes back through the 
 gullet to the mouth, to be chewed over and over until it becomes 
 more liquid-like. Then it flows back and passes right on into 
 the smaller stomachs, and thence into the intestines. If licjuid 
 food is taken, as in the case of calves, the food passes right on 
 into the third and fourth stomachs. The fi)ur st - ihc 
 
 cow therefore enable her to take in a V^-ff 'i- Ui 'od, 
 
 and to digest very coarse fodder. Tlu 
 
 .'Wl 
 
 uij, f tb cud 
 
 enables her to do without the complete sc. of te. ill so neces- 
 sary in the case of horses. The single stoma< 1 of a horse 
 holds about 3 gallons, the four stomachs of a cow from 60 to 
 70 gallons. 
 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
ler tongue 
 itli, closer: 
 lent of tlie 
 ) tukc the 
 the cow. 
 they chew 
 ecting the 
 s into the 
 jgh which 
 t of the 
 jur sacs all 
 or largest 
 r })aunch); 
 cticulum) ; 
 111) ; e the 
 When a 
 d, it passes 
 t stomach 
 ine eating, 
 taking in 
 digest it. 
 mig some 
 iroiigh the 
 it becomes 
 ght on into 
 If licjuid 
 cs right '>n 
 [he 
 od, 
 tl cud 
 so nc(X's- 
 f a horse 
 from 60 to 
 
 CATTLE. 
 
 ^31 
 
 Dairy Cattle. — Figure 72 shows the general form of a 
 good dairy cow, an animal in which the end desired is to give 
 as large an amount as possible of rich milk at the least cost 
 for food. C.'ontrast the outlines of this animal with the one 
 shown in figure 70. As a rule, the large dairy herds are com- 
 
 mutlify 
 
 ittf 
 
 Fig. 72. — l';iit^ of a iiiudcl dairy cuw. 
 
 posed of grade cows; these are the offs[)ring of pure-bred sires 
 and common dams. There is an old saying, "The sire is half 
 the herd." This is illustrated in tiie following table of the 
 offspring of a pure-bred sire and of a common (scrulj) sire : 
 
 Pure-bred sire. 
 Common cows or dams. 
 
 1. Grades, one-half pure. 
 
 2. Three-tjuarters pure. 
 
 3. Seven-eighths pure. 
 
 Common (scrub) sire. 
 Pure-bred cows or dams. 
 
 1. Crades, one-half pure. 
 
 2. One-cjuarter pure. 
 
 3. One-eighth pure (scrub). 
 
 This statement means that in the first case we start with a 
 herd of common cows and a pure-bred sire. The first genera- 
 tion of calves will all be grades, one-half pure-bred, 'ihe 
 calves of these and the pure-bred sire will all be three-quarters 
 pure-bred, and their calves will be seven-eighths pure-bred. 
 
 t 
 
T32 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 If, however, we were to start a herd with pure-bred cows and 
 a common sire, the third race or generation would i)e only one- 
 eighth [)ure-l)red. The continued use of a pure-bred sire will 
 in a few years bring the herd to the le\el of the sire. 
 
 Beek. — As we have got most of our farm animals from 
 the IJritish Isles, the names api)lied to them have come 
 from the same source. The living animals we call oxen, cows, 
 calves, sheep, swine, but the meat from these same animals we 
 
 call beef, veal, mutton, ])ork. \\'hy these 
 two sets of names? In early times the 
 living animals were tended by the Saxon 
 hind, and the meat was eaten by the 
 Norman lord or baron. Thus the names 
 for the living animals are Saxon names, 
 and the names for the meats are Norman. 
 
 "Yf \ " \r7i I^ut what is the meat? It is made up 
 
 ni ' I ^'i'. of fat and lean meat. The lean meat is 
 
 of the same composition as muscle in 
 fact, it is fine, tender, muscle fibre. Now 
 Ave can easily understand why the differ- 
 ent parts of a (juarter of beef are not 
 Fig. 73.-A Side of B.c-f. tx]ually valuable. In some parts the fibre 
 1. Eet;. 2. Roiiiui. 3. Mouse IS ("oarser, more like muscle as we gener- 
 '"'sidnin V^^'ilunnr'T ally know it. \Ve can understand why 
 gul;;;? icLeH^S'T the neck is tough, and why the meat ob 
 
 the hind (juarter, for instance, is tougher 
 lt)wards ihe smaller or lower part or 
 17. Ne.-k,or siickiiiK-piL-cc. ^hank. In finding the tenderest cut of the 
 carcass, we look lor thai place wlu'rc there is plenty of flesh 
 and little work to be done, that is, where the muscles are U'ast 
 developed by hard work ; this, by reference t > Fig. 73, we 
 locate between parts 5 and 8. 
 
 'I'liin (lank. lo I'mcrili 
 II. Uiisket i;.'. iMid'lU' lili 
 1,}. Slioulili'r. 14. C'liiuk 
 rib. 15 Sliiii 16. Clod. 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 ^33 
 
 COWS and 
 J only onc- 
 ;d sire will 
 
 mals from 
 lavc conic 
 )xcn, cows, 
 iiiinials wc 
 ^\'hy ihcsc 
 ,• times the 
 
 the Saxon 
 ten by the 
 s the names 
 xon names, 
 re Norman. 
 is made up 
 L*an meat is 
 muscle in 
 "')re. Now 
 the differ- 
 
 ef are not 
 
 ts the fibre 
 we gener- 
 
 stand why 
 e meat ol 
 is tougher 
 
 ( ]■ part or 
 
 St cut of the 
 ty of llesh 
 
 es are U'ast 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 shi:kp. 
 
 " 'I'lie foot of the Slioep briiiLjoth wealth." 
 
 Nature of Sheep. —Our domestic sheep are so harmless 
 that we are not at first thought likely to see in them the 
 descendants of wild animals. Their shyness, their flocking to- 
 gether and following a leader, and their natural inclination to 
 climb hills and even knolls, recall the characteristics of their 
 ancestors, the wild shee])oftlu' mountains. 
 They are more closely allied to our cattle 
 than to (Jther farm stock. Like the c-attle 
 they are clo\en-iootetl, ha\e lour stomachs, 
 and chew the cud. Cattle are more in- 
 clined to the wet boltomlaiul and the 
 water courses, sheep to the dry u|)Iands. 
 Cattle are coated with hair and sheep with 
 wool. The sheej) is one of miuTs earliest farm chattels, provid- 
 ing him with both meat and clothing, and is of \ery great 
 usefulness in helping iiiaint.iin the fertilil\' of the soil. 
 
 Wool,. Hair and wool contain nitrogen, as nou mav prove 
 b\' burm'ng -anunonia being gi\cn off. burn a piece of cotton 
 thread and r.otici^' the result. The wool of tJK' sheep is for its 
 protection, and therefore the length and thickness of tiie wool 
 \ar\' with the climate of the countries in which the sheep are 
 li\ing. '["he same is tiU'j of the hair of (~atlle, as we sec in the 
 case of the shaggv co\fi-ing of the llighland breed of cattle. 
 Horses i'\|)osed to the winter wcalher giow a coarsi- coal. 
 I'ood also affi'cls the (|ualil\- of the wool. it llu- food is not 
 uniform the wool will become irregular and be of poor quality 
 
 EiK. 7 1. —What breed is it ? 
 
134 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 11 
 
 I 
 
 (I 
 
 No other farm animal is so much affected by its surroundings 
 as the shee-j). As a consecjuence we find so many different 
 varieties, and for this reason we must he careful to choose the 
 variety that is most likely to do well in the conditions of the 
 farm on which they are desired to he grown — such as situation, 
 climate, etc. \\'hy is w(jol warm ? Because it is fine and 
 open and holds so much air in its fibres, and mis air prevents 
 the heat of the body from going off; as we say it is a poor 
 conc'uctor of heat. It is not because it keeps out cold, Init 
 because it keeps in the heat of the body. If you wrap a 
 piece of ice in a lo(jse thick w(3ollen cloth it will [)revent the 
 ice from melting rapidly. Why ? Because the heat outside 
 does not pass through or get in. Double windows in a Ikjusc 
 are a protection, not because of the glass in the panes, but 
 because of the air between the two windows. wSo the hollow 
 sjxice in the wall of a silo kee[)s in the heat of the ensilage, 
 and thus prevents it from freezing. A covering of loose snow 
 [)rotects the wheat for the same reason. Now that W'e under- 
 stand that wool keeps the sheej) warm while it is on the sheep's 
 back, we ask why wool can be made into yarn and cloth. If 
 you look at a fibre of wool under a magnifying glass you will 
 see that it is made u|) of sections, that there are little joints or 
 s(;ales on the wool and when several fibres are twisted together 
 these little scales catch into one another and the fil)res thus 
 hold together tightly the wool, as we say, "felts" well. There 
 comes from the skin of the sheep a soapy substance called the 
 " yolk," which i'o\ers the inner wool and lu'I])s to shed the 
 rain. It prevents the wool from felting on the sheep's body. 
 When the fleece is washed this is washed out and the fleece 
 becomes nuich lighter. Shee[) are by nature fitted to stand 
 cold, but not wet weather —they should always have dry (luarters. 
 Brkicp.s ()!•' SiiKKl'. -Sheep ol' Nations breeds ari' found in 
 Britain, from the marsh lands ol Kent to the mountains of 
 Wales and Scotland. They have ada[)ted themselves in time 
 
 J ( 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 M5 
 
 fundings 
 different 
 oose the 
 IS of the 
 situation, 
 fine and 
 prevents 
 s a poor 
 cold, but 
 u wrap a 
 event the 
 it outside 
 1 a liouse 
 janes, but 
 he hollow 
 J ensilage, 
 pose snow 
 we under- 
 lie sheep's 
 cloth. If 
 s you will 
 e joints or 
 :l together 
 "ibres thus 
 ell. There 
 called the 
 ) shed the 
 jell's body, 
 the lleece 
 1 to stand 
 |-y ( juarters. 
 found in 
 unlains ol 
 •s in time 
 
 to a great variety of soil and climate, and in selecting sheep for 
 a farm it is well to get the breed suited to the situation. The 
 following is a table of the principal British breeds : 
 
 Upland or Hill Breeds. 
 Dorset, 
 Southdown, 
 Suffolk, 
 Hampshire, 
 Shropshire, 
 Oxford. 
 
 Mountain Breeds. 
 
 Welsh, 
 
 Cheviot, 
 
 Highland. 
 Lowland Breeds. 
 
 Cotswold, 
 
 Leicester, 
 
 Lincoln, 
 
 Romney Marsh. 
 
 The lowland breeds arc; long-wooled and the uj)land breeds 
 short-wooled. The lowland breeds are larger than the uplands. 
 The upland breeds are the best mutton breeds. Short wool 
 from 3 to 4 inches long is sometimes called carding wool, and 
 longer wool, from 7 to <S inches long, combing wool. 
 
 The principal bn-eds of tliis country may be arranged as 
 follows, according to the texture of their wool : 
 
 Fiiic-7Vooled .--Merino ; 
 
 yI/('^///;;/-7£vw/(v/.- -Southdown, Shropshire, Hampshin', Ox- 
 ford Down, Cheviot, Horivd I )orsrt ; 
 
 Coarse-wooled •' — Leici'ster, Lincoln, ( 'otswold. 
 
 Is the wool oil all parts of a slioi-p's l)o(]y of ilu' saiiu' Irxtuif ? 
 
 Arc all loii^ wools coarse, and all sliorl wools riiic ? 
 
 From wliat parts of I'airo|X' have the ahove hn-eds ol sli'-cp come f 
 
 At whal Iniu' of the year iIik-s siuMriii^ take place ? 
 
 Are ^(-ats covered uiih wool or with liair .'' 
 
 What kinds of cloths are made from wool ? 
 
 Why is llaimel cloth warmer than <;ottoii? 
 
 Whal is sho(hly? 
 
136 
 
 ACRiciM/rrRF:. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 SWINE. 
 
 Nature of Swiive. — The wild hog is still found in many 
 parts of the world. I'^wn in I'vUrope there are districts where 
 wild hoars are hunted, l-'roni the many kinds of wild hogs our 
 domestic breeds have been deri\ed. In the wild condition 
 the animal is ver\- active, and well able to })rotect itself by its 
 tusks and teeth. 'I'he improxing of the wild animal has 
 changed the form, and made an animal that is ([uite compact 
 and lli'shy, and less active. There is less bone in the hog than 
 in sheei) or cattle, as one may see from the following statement, 
 which gives the number of jiounds of water, fleshy substance, 
 fat, and ash or bony matter in every 100 pounds of a fat ox, a 
 
 fat sheei), '^'^*^1 *'■ ^'■^^ P'K • 
 
 Fat Ox. Fat Slieep. I-'at Pig. 
 lb. U). 11). 
 
 Water 48 46 43 
 
 Ideshy matter 15 13 t i 
 
 Fat 32 38 44 
 
 Ash (bony part) 5 . 3 2 
 
 Thus it will be seen that a fat pig has more fat and less bone 
 in projjortion to its weight than a fat o\ or a fat sheep. 
 
 ("lUowi'ii. Although the hog has cloN'cn hoofs, it does not 
 riuuinate or chew its vm\ as do the cow and the sheep. 
 Therefore, we ma}' concli 'c at once that it does not digest its 
 food in tin- same way as tney do. It has only one stomach. 
 And \i't we hnd that the hog grows in ^v^ight luore rapidlw 
 How do we explain this ? Theri' are three things to \)v con- 
 sider^'d : Mrst, the kind of food which tlu- animal eats; 
 .second, the means which the animal has of digesting its food; 
 and, third, wiuit the food, after being digested, is usicl lor. 
 
 i '• 
 
SWINE. 137 
 
 First, as to the food eaten. Pigs arc able to cat a greater 
 variety of foods than cattle or shee[). 'I'he wild hog lives on 
 grass, njots, nuts, etc. (Xir domestic hogs are generally fed the 
 richest kinds of food -[)eas, corn, wheat, skim milk, llesh meal, 
 etc. rigs will greedily devour the richest rations day after 
 day of which most other animals would soon become tired. 
 
 Second, as to the power of digesting food. As we have 
 stated before, the animal digests and takes up its food through 
 the stomach and intestines. The })ig has a small stomach, but 
 a very long intestine. The following table gives an idea of 
 the weight of the stomach and intestines in proportion to the 
 whole body, and also the weight of the four (quarters : 
 
 Cattle. Sheep. Swine. 
 
 Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 
 
 Stomach 4^ 2^ 1} 
 
 Intestines 2 2^ 4 
 
 Four (quarters 41 }4 45 73 
 
 Thus it will be seen that in cattle the stomach is over twice 
 the intestines in weight, in sheep about e(iual, whereas in 
 swine tiie intestines are over three times the weight of the 
 stomach. \\'e conclude that swine ha\e small stomachs, and 
 can take only a small amount of food at a time, but, because 
 of their very long inti-sliin's, tlu'y are able to digest tlu' food, 
 nuich more thoroiighl)' that is, they i'cvd fret[uently aihl 
 dij-lest their food thoroughly. 
 
 Third, as to the use made of the food digested. They are 
 not so actiw as sheep or rattle ; the\' ai'e geiicrallv more shut 
 in, and therefore the\' do not use u|) as nuich of their food 
 through exercise. I'jiglish experiments proM' that, out of 
 vwvy ioo j)oiuids of digested food, cattk: use 23 pounds, 
 shee|) 26, and swine 43, for making increase in their bodies. 
 
 When, further, we ri'nu'iuber that swine inereast' in nmuber 
 so much more ra|)idly than cattle or sheep, we can understand 
 why the keeping of swine is .so profitable a part of farm work. 
 
 I 
 
138 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Brekds of Swine. — Every country has its own peculiar 
 breeds of swine. In England there are, besides many others, 
 the following : The Large White, the Small White, and the 
 Middle breeds (so named according to their size and color) ; 
 also the Black Suffolk or Essex, the Berkshires, the Dorsets, 
 and the Tamworths. In America there have been developed 
 breeds known as the Chester White (Pennsylvania), the Poland 
 China (Ohio), and the Duroc or Jersey Red (New Jersey). The 
 Yorkshires and Imi)roved Yorkshires of America are derived 
 from the Large White swine of England. 
 
 Feeding of Swine. — In producing pork and bacon, three 
 
 things are to be noted : 
 Selection of the right kind 
 of switie ; feeding the best 
 kind of food ; housing the 
 animals in suitable ([uarters. 
 In })roducing swine for 
 bacon and hams that are 
 required for city consump- 
 tion, hogs of medium size, 
 that produce lean meat and 
 fat in proper projxjrtion, are 
 the best. Foods such as 
 the bye-products of milk, 
 peas, wheat, and barley, will 
 jiroduce more lean meat and 
 less fat than corn. The hog 
 is sometimes considered a 
 dirty animal. For this the 
 owner is as nuich resjion- 
 sil)le as the animal. Clean 
 housing and good (uire will pay with swine as much as with 
 other animals. 
 
 Fig. 75. — 'r\vi> sides nf pork, showing niclluxl 
 of cuttiiiu; lip. 
 
 ' Stieakv (iiiiirter. 9 I.oin. 
 
 - Ril) qiiarlot. i<> Fillet. 
 
 3 MIiUUl' iiuarter. 11 RliouUk-r. 
 
 4 Hams " 12 riiiiu- streaky, 
 t; ImkI of iiLck. 1 ^ I'liiii " 
 
 6 Middle of iicck. i\ l'"lank. 
 
 7 Tliii kliackand sides, is Middle of namtnnii. 
 
 8 Primei)ack and rilis. iTi Kiuickleofs.unmon. 
 
 17 Foie eiui. 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 139 
 
 1 peculiar 
 ny others, 
 ?, and the 
 id color) ; 
 ; Dorsets, 
 developed 
 le Poland 
 t;y). The 
 e derived 
 
 ::on, three 
 le noted : 
 right kind 
 5 the best 
 using the 
 i (juarters. 
 wine for 
 
 that are 
 consump- 
 iium size, 
 meat and 
 )rti()n, are 
 
 such as 
 
 of milk, 
 
 arley, will 
 
 meat and 
 
 The hog 
 sidered a 
 r this the 
 1 respon- 
 l. Clean 
 1 as with 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 Origin. — In addition to the common poultry of the farm, 
 we have turkeys, geese, ducks ; also guinea-fowls, pea-fowls and 
 [)heasants. These are all closely related to various kinds of 
 wild fowls and some of them are very similar to these wild 
 fowls in api)earance. In our common fowls there are very 
 many varieties of breeds, from the small bantams to the large 
 brahmas, differing in si/.e, in shaj)e, and in the color and form 
 of feather or plumage. It is believed that all have been derived 
 from one original source, a wild breed of fowl. Many consider 
 that the common Jungle T'owl of India is the sour(\; from 
 which have come all the varieties. This fowl is somewhat like 
 the Black-breasted Red (lame, and is still found in India. 
 Others think a wild fowl now no longer found is the ancestor. 
 How have our breeds been formed ? Just as new breeds are 
 now being formed. Suj)pose we take a flock of fowls and observe 
 them from year to year, as they increase in number. Wc shall 
 get some chickens that, as they grow, show differences in form, 
 si/.e and color. I'^ven if they are all one variety, lu'ie and there 
 one will appear having some slight difference from the others. 
 We select two or three that have a new coloring in their 
 feathers that we desire to continue. Those selected are differ- 
 ent from the others, but similar to one another. We place 
 them by themselves and allow them to breed. The chickens 
 that we raise from them will probably have the same peculiar 
 kind of feathers. We select those that are most alike and 
 breed from them. After a few years we may be ai)K; to raise 
 a number of fowls that are cjuite similar in ap[)earance to one 
 
'W?*"'*' 
 
 3( 
 
 1 ^' 
 
 140 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 another, nut quite different from the original flock, and whose 
 chickens will reseml)le the parent fowls. Thus a new variety 
 or breed will he obtained. Or we may take birds from two 
 different kinds of fowls and cross them. By carefully selecting 
 only those that have the peculiarities that we desire to preser^•e, 
 we shall soon get a new breed which may be improved in si/c 
 and shape by selecting 0!ily the best, male and female, to l)rced 
 from. Thus the Plymouth Rocks have been obtained by 
 crossing American Dominiques with Cochins. It is very 
 important to note that the fowls are so readily changed in form 
 
 Fig 76. — Parts of .'I Fowl. 
 
 1 Comb. 
 
 2 \'.u:e. 
 
 3 Wattle. 
 
 4 I'.ailohe. 
 
 5 Hackle. 
 
 6 Hieast. 
 
 7 Mack. 
 
 8 Saddle. 
 
 Q Saddle feathers. 
 
 10 Sickles. 
 
 11 Tail coverts. 
 
 ij Main tail feathers. 
 I j Wiii);-lHnv. 
 
 14 Wine: < overts forniiii.i;^ the ' 1 
 
 15 .Secondaries. 
 
 16 Primaries, or (light feathers. 
 
 17 Point of breast bone. 
 
 18 TliiRlis. 
 ig Hocks. 
 
 20 !.e>;s or shanks. 
 
 21 Spur. 
 
 12 Toes or claws. 
 
 lar. 
 
 1^ 1 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 141 
 
 and whose 
 iL'W variety 
 ' from two 
 ly selecting 
 o presen-e, 
 
 ed in si/c 
 ^ to breed 
 )tained by 
 It is Very 
 ed in form 
 
 and feathers. Breeds that are so readily changed will soon run 
 out unless care is constantly taken to improve them, by weed- 
 ing out the poorest and keeping die best with care. 
 
 The Parts of a Fowl. — Simx' all have the same origin 
 we may expect that they will all have some characteristics in 
 common. The general form is the same. Fig. 76 gives us 
 the names of the various parts. 
 
 Varieties. —In some varieties, such as the Cochins, the 
 Langshans, and tlie Brahmas, the feathers extend down the 
 outside of the legs or shanks. From this fact we sometimes 
 have the fowls divided into the two classes, the s)nnoth-lei:;ged 
 and the feather-legged. The different breeds are further sub- 
 divided according to the color of their plumage ; thus we have 
 Dark Brahmas and Light linihmas ; also Black, Buff, White 
 and Partridge (x)chins. Another mode of classing fowls is 
 into laying varieties and sitting varieties. Sometimes they are 
 classed according to the country or region from which they 
 have been deri\e(l, as Asiatics, Mediterraneans, Amerii;ans. 
 
 CnARAC'rKRLsiic:s. — Common fowls have four toes, three in 
 front and one to the rear. They are not web-footed, there- 
 fore we conclude they are fitted by nature for hard dry s(jil. 
 What is the use of the web foot in ducks and geese? Tlie 
 toes have sharj) strong nails for scnitching. l'"roin this we 
 notice that they should be supplied with a dry run when! thev 
 can scratch and exercise thenisehes and their Noung broods. 
 I' owls take their young to seek for food and birds bring food 
 to their young in the nest. They need |)lenty of sunlight, as we 
 may conclude from watching chickens basking in the sunshine. 
 How do fowls drink water ? Have they teeth? What is the 
 use of the (Top in fowls? 
 
 y\s to food we have only to remember what tlu; fowls 
 re(juire food for to conclude that tin;) need ])lenly of rieh food. 
 They are constantly growing feathers which are rieh in nitro- 
 gen, their flesh is i)rinci[)ally lean meat, their eggs are what we 
 
142 
 
 AGRicri;rrRE. 
 
 call "strong meat." For their good health they need also 
 some green food. The shells of their eggs are largely coni- 
 [)osed of lime, therefore we must give them mineral matter, 
 especially when more or less shut in and when the ground is 
 covered with snow. They are fitted by nat^'ire for picking out 
 the richest food, such as insects and small seeds. 
 
 The health of the fowls depends greatly upon having a 
 variety of clean food to eat, clean water to drink, clean places 
 in which to roost and nest. The fowls keep their coats and 
 skins clean of insects by dusting, as do many other animals. 
 
 Because of the rich food, such as grains and insects, 
 which fowls feed upon, we may expect the droppings to be 
 rich in fertilizing material. The richest manure made upon 
 the farm is that from fowls. It should be carefully saved and 
 used where it will do most good. The use of gypsum or sifted 
 coal ashes about the hennery, especially under the perches, 
 (not common lime or wood ashes) will keep the buildings 
 clean and sweet. In washing the buildings with lime or other 
 disinfectant, the orchard sjiray pump may be used. 
 
 Eggs. — A good flock of laying hens should lay on the 
 average ten dozen eggs ea<"h. The egg ('onsists of the shell, 
 whi(Oi is porous, the lining or membrane, the " white " or 
 albumen, and the yolk. 
 
 Can you give any reason for some birds' eggs being nearly s])herical in 
 shape, and others oval like hens" eggs ? 
 
 In whieli end is the air ehamber of an cgi; ? 
 
 Why is a stale egg lighter than a fresh egg? 
 
 What is meant by " candling " eggs ? 
 
 Why is the shell porous ? 
 
 Why docs the setting hen turn the eggs under her? 
 
 What is an incubator ? 
 
 Mow long does it take to hatch a chick from an egg ? 
 
 Why does a " moulting" hen not lay eggs ? 
 
 What are the principal methods of preserving eggs? 
 
 Which is the better test of a laying hen ? The number of eggs laid, or 
 the total weight of eggs laid ? 
 
 
 
M!I K. 
 
 H3 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI 
 
 lencal in 
 
 MILK. 
 
 Milk. — Nature provides as a food for the young calf the 
 milk of the mother cow. l-'or a short time after the birth of 
 the calf this product is called "colostrum." In a few days, 
 however, the cow gives in her udder milk such as we use. 
 The giving of milk is to a great extent an acc^uired habit. In 
 the case of breeds raised for beef only, as in the case of 
 Herefords, the c[uantity of milk given is not large. Where, 
 however, the aim has been to produce dairy cows the continued 
 practice of milking has gradually increased the flow of milk. 
 The knowledge of this is imi)ortant. For instance, if we begin 
 by milking a cow, say for only six months, and then allow her 
 to go dry, she will of herself be inclined to go dry thereafter 
 at about the end of six months. If we do not thoroughly milk 
 out a cow at first, she will gradually drop off in her flow. It is 
 of importance, then, to thoroughly milk out the cows, especially 
 as the strippings are the richest portion of the milk. Anything 
 that irritates or disturbs a cow will cause her to "holdup" 
 and to produce a [)()orer milk. The cow as a milk-j)roducing 
 animal, it must be remembered, is very much what her owner 
 makes her, and she will give many of her equalities to her calf. 
 
 If we place some milk in a tall, narrow glass, and allow it to 
 stand for a while, there will gradually rise to the toj) a thick 
 substance, sometimes yellowish in color, whit:h we call cream 
 When this cream is churned, we get from it butter, which is 
 an oily substance. Carefully renioxe the cream, and allow the 
 other portion of the milk, the skim-milk, to stand for some 
 time until it thoroughly sours ; we shall find that a curdy 
 
144 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 It: ■-^■■- 
 
 ^^;€ 
 
 
 
 '^S 
 
 IV 
 
 
 ;l- 
 
 ■■■I..' 
 
 substance separates and leaves a bluish water behind. The 
 
 cream or butter, then, is an oil or fat which is mixed through 
 
 the milk, and from the fact that it comes to the top wc conclude 
 
 that it is lighter than the skim-milk. It is not dissolved in the 
 
 water of the milk as sugar is dissolved in water, but is sim[)ly 
 
 mixed with it or distributed through it in very fine particles ; 
 
 in fact, wc can put it back into the skim-milk if we pour the 
 
 two together from one vessel int(j another before the milk 
 
 sours. It is in the form of 
 
 what is called an "emulsion." 
 
 When fresh milk is run through 
 
 a cream sei)arator, the heavy 
 
 skim-milk is thrown away from 
 
 the lighter fat or cream. This 
 
 could not be done if the fat were 
 
 dissolved in it. Milk, then, 
 
 contains water and fat or oil — 
 
 butter-fat, as it is called. Now 
 
 Fig. 77.— Mfik, showing the fat globules take soiiie skim-milk and slight- 
 floating in it. , '.^ A ..1 • r 
 
 ly warm it. A thin scum forms 
 upon it. This scum is composed principally of albumeti, a 
 nitrogen comjiound similar to the white of egg, which becomes 
 white and nsoluble by heating or cooking. It forms but a 
 small portion of the milk. If, however, we put a few drops o( 
 rennet or vinegar into the skim-milk, a curdling at once takes 
 place, and a considerable quantity of material is thrown out of 
 solution and floats about as a curdy or cheesy mass ; this 
 is the casein of the milk, also a nitrogen compound. Then 
 we have at least two nitrogen compounds in milk— the 
 albumen, which is curdled by heat, and the casein, which is 
 curdled by acids. The latter is in much larger quantity than 
 the former, and both are in solution in the water of the milk. 
 We can readily prove that these two contain nitrogen, and 
 differ therein from the fat. Take some pure butter and burn (^ 
 
 _flC5_-J 
 
 i| 
 
 hi 
 
id. The 
 I through 
 conclude 
 •ed in the 
 is simply 
 particles ; 
 pour the 
 the milk 
 form of 
 emulsion," 
 in through 
 the heavy 
 away from 
 am. This 
 he fat were 
 lilk, then, 
 iat or oil — 
 led. Now 
 and slight- 
 cum forms 
 albumen, a 
 h becomes 
 )rms but a 
 w drops o[ 
 once takes 
 own out of 
 iiass ; this 
 nd. Then 
 milk— the 
 1, which is 
 antity than 
 the milk, 
 rogen, and 
 and burn 
 
 MILK. 145 
 
 it on the end of an old knife, then burn some casein curd or 
 cheese, and notic:e the strong ammonia smell from the latter. 
 If, now, we pour off the clean water frc^m the curd, and carefully 
 evaporate the water in a saucer {)laced over the steam of a 
 kettle or in a slow oven, we shall get a white substance that 
 tastes sweet but gritty ; it is the sugar of the milk, called milk- 
 sugar or lactose. Finally, if we carefully dry out a little dish 
 of milk and burn it thoroughly, we shall have left a small 
 quatitity of ash or mineral matter. Milk, therefore, consists ot 
 water, having particles of butter-fat floating in it undissolved, 
 and having in solution casein and albumen, milk-sugar, and 
 ash. The composition may be stated as follows : 
 
 Water, from 80 to 90 averaging 87.0 per cent. 
 
 Fat, from 2 to 10 . " 4.0 " 
 
 Casein or cheesy substance. . " 3.0 " 
 
 Albumen " 0.5 " 
 
 Sugar or lactose . . " 4.8 " 
 
 Ash or mineral matter " 0.7 *' 
 
 A pitcher of warm water gives off vapor into the air, but a 
 pitcher of ice water will have vapor settle up its sides from the 
 air. So it is with milk. Milk is warm when first milked and 
 we can smell the odor, the cow odor, as it passes off into the 
 air; but it soon begins to cool down and vapors of the air 
 will settle upon its surface as upon the cold pitcher. If, there- 
 fore, we leave a i)ail of milk standing in the stable, or near any 
 food that has a bad smell, it will take up foul air that ("an after- 
 wards be tasted in the milk, the butter and the cheese. As 
 soon as milking is done the milk should at once betaken to 
 a clean milk-house or cellar. But bad odors and tastes can be 
 given from the food. Thus turnips, bad ensilage, cabbage, 
 rape and weeds of many kinds will affect the milk. All such 
 should be kej)t from the animal. Here we see a strong argu- 
 ment for keeping pastures clean. I'^very trace of musty food 
 such as mouldy ensilage or rotting roots should be kei)t from 
 
 M 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 the COWS. The mangers should be kept sweet. No more food 
 should be given than the cows will eat up clean, otherwise 
 the feeding boxes may become stale. The best way to get 
 good flavored milk is to feed only such foods as will give a 
 good flavor. A plentiful su[)ply of salt always within reach 
 will improve the digestion, increase the eating power, keep the 
 system in good condition, and increase the flow of milk. 
 
 Fig. 78. The udder, left side, with si<iii removed, n is ,111 .irtery with brandies c, <f, 
 and (' carr>iii.i.i hloiid to tliflernil ])arts ; /' is a sein with liranches .(,% //, anilo; / is a 
 Kniphatic gland; m is the milk \e'n; / is a ner\c, ut" which 7< is a liranch and .r is a 
 < iintiiuialiiin I'eneath anil cnmiected with the almve parts is a milk gland, the outlet' 
 of whii h are through these two teats. In the uj>))er p.irt of eai h of the teals is a small 
 milk ( isterii. On the opposite siile t)f the inlder is a second gland having outlets liirounh 
 the two right teals. Out of the hl.jocl brought .to the udder through the arteries, the 
 cells ne.\l to the glands are formed These cells are gradually changed into milk, which 
 fills the glands and the milk cisterns, and passes ofT through the nipple of the teats. 
 
nore food 
 otherwise 
 ly to get 
 •ill give a 
 bin reach 
 keep the 
 ilk. 
 
 branches c , </, 
 and ; I U a 
 
 H h and .r is a 
 
 (1, till; DUtlui- 
 lLa<s is a small 
 nilk'ls tliiMU.nh 
 ic ai lories, the 
 
 lo milk, which 
 Ic of the iculs. 
 
 PUUnUClS OF Mlf-K. 
 
 M7 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 PRODUCTS OF xMILK. 
 
 Cream. — The cream is fornud by the particles or globules 
 of fat ".vhicii, because they are liij,hlrr than water, rise to the 
 surface. These glolniles are very small- it would take about 
 2,000 of the largest of them ])la(Ltl side by side to make an 
 inch. To see tliem, the\' must be examine ! under a powerful 
 micros('o[)e. Some of them are smaller than oUiers. The 
 larger they are, the more rapidl\' the\- will rise, and the more 
 (|uickl\- and thoroughly the milk will eream. Milk willi large 
 fat globules is therefore adajjted to butter making ; that with 
 small fat giol)ulL-s is well ada[)ted to cheese-making. These fat 
 globules are not transparent ; therefore instruments are some- 
 times used to determine the ([lunUity of fat in mil!; by 
 determining how much water must be added before the milk 
 can be clearly seen through. Such instruments are called 
 " lactoscopes." 
 
 The separating of the cream from the milk is done either by 
 ])lacing the milk in i)ans or cans, and allowing the cream lo 
 rise of itself, because ii is lighter than the wati'r ; or by running 
 it through a machine called a "separator."' This consists 
 mainly of a steel bowl, which is caused to revobf at a \ery 
 lii<;h nite of speed, 'i'he vatcr, being luaxier, llies to the 
 outside ne\t to the bowl, and llnws off by one spout, and the 
 cream is left behind in the imu i" part of the bowl, and Hows 
 off by another spoilt. In <ii(l( r to allow tli" water and cream 
 to separate more easily, the milk is w.nnicd slightly before it is 
 run into the bowl. The ( leam by this [)rocess is separated in 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 a fresh, sweet condition, whereas liy the "cream-setting" 
 j)roeess it may be more or less soured or ripened. 
 
 I'he richness of milk in cream varies greatly with the different 
 breeds, the different animals of the same breed, the j)eri()d of 
 milking, and the portion of the milk taken. Tiie strip[)ings or 
 last portions of the milk are richer in cream than the tore-milk 
 or first portion milked, as the water comes away from the 
 udder in larger j)ortions at first, and the fat ai)j)ears to be set 
 free in the udder by the proc-ess of milking. Ordinarily cream 
 will contain from 55 to 65 per vent, of water, 25 to 40 per 
 cent, of fat, and some sugar and casein. If the milk sours 
 during creaming, so as to cause the casein to curdle, more 
 casein will be carried along with the fat. Therefore, the milk 
 should be kejit cool in creaming by the setting i)roeess. In 
 creaming nulk, the j)urj)()se should be to remove the butter-fat 
 as ihoroughl)' as jjossible, in as sweet a condition as possible, 
 and with as little water as possible. 
 
 Skim-mii.k. — This is the milk that has been skimmed of its 
 cream, or from whicli the fat has been removed by the sei)ar- 
 ator. If we could take all of the fat, iuid only the fat, we 
 would still have left in the skim-milk the water, cast'in and 
 albumen, sugar, and ash. The skim-milk would contain a 
 large amount of very important food compounds, vi/..: casein 
 and albumen, which can make muscle and flesh, or form fat, 
 or be burned up to [)roduce heat; sugar, which can bt.' used 
 for i)r()ducing heat; and ash of the best kind for making bone. 
 Thus we see that skim-milk is a most important f(;od, only the 
 fill is larking to uiiike it a perfect food for young animals. We 
 Kixn rei)lii.'e this fat that has been ri'moxed in die cream by 
 mixi;ig with i( a small quantity of some oily food, such as a 
 little Ixjiled linseed. If, then, we take away th- milk from the 
 young calf for making butter, we can give it ba'k to it by 
 adding liuMid or some rich meal to the warm skim-milk, and 
 thus imitate the natural cow's milk. When the cream is 
 
PRODUCTS OF MILK. 
 
 149 
 
 ■setting" 
 
 (liffcrc-nl 
 )ijri()(l of 
 )pings or 
 tore milk 
 from the 
 
 be set 
 ily cream 
 to 40 per 
 lilk sours 
 (lie, more 
 
 the milk 
 
 lecss. In 
 
 butter-fat 
 
 possible, 
 
 ned of its 
 
 1 he separ- 
 K' fat, we 
 asein and 
 contain a 
 {/..: casein 
 
 form fat, 
 1 be used 
 dug bone. 
 , only the 
 lals. We 
 cream by 
 .such as a 
 c from the 
 10 it by 
 -milk, and 
 cream is 
 
 W 
 
 removed by the separator, the skim-nu'lk is still ({uite sweet, 
 l)ul when wc allow i'lf milk to ri^r ni shallow pans, or cwu in 
 (lce|) cans, the luilk may bi'come a lilllc soured, unless we 
 keep ice or cool water around it. W'lu'n li(jui(ls become sour 
 it is because of the fornu'ng of what we call an acid, like the 
 acid of \inegar. The acid that is formed in milk when il tiist 
 sours is called lactic acid (from the latin word An:, meaning 
 "milk"). This lactic acid is formed Irom the sugai' of the 
 milk or the lactose. Since the sugar is \ery soluble, any water 
 that goes off in the cream will contain lactose, so that lactic 
 acid will form also in cream, 'i'his acid at once acts upon the 
 casein, changing it h'om a soluble substance to an insoluble 
 substance ; therefore, as soon as acid begins to form, tlu' luilk 
 will begin to curdle. 'I'his \\\v\\v acid is not nearl\ so valuable 
 lor food as the sugar from whiih it is formed ; therefore, sweet 
 skim-milk and sweet whey are always more valuable for feeding 
 
 than sour milk or sour 
 whe\', and care should 
 be taken to keep them 
 as sweet as possible. 
 l)Ut why does milk sour? 
 What causes the sweet 
 siigcU- to change to the 
 
 Fig. 79.-Veast pL-int, in.nKnified. SOUr acid ? \'oU know 
 
 that yeast causes bread to "woik" or to ferment. The yeast is 
 a mass of little plants, each plant \er\' sim|)le and very small. 
 'I'hese plants feed upon the .substances in tlu- dough, chanLiing 
 them and making new compounds, some of which are gases. 
 'i'hese gases j)ush out in all directions, and ma.ke little air-holes 
 all through the bread, causing it to bt light, as we say. Now, 
 yeast is only one kind t)f thex' minute littK' plants. They are 
 found everywhi'n' noiitin. about in tlu' air b\ millions, too 
 small to be si-en. Sonn- of them, we haxc already stated, 
 grow in little knot.s or balls on the roots of clover and j)cas. 
 
 
.1 
 
 "^3 
 
 ^ 
 
 \ 
 
 Fig. 80. — One of ilii; Icirnents 
 
 AGRICULTURR. 
 
 Sorrie of them are acting constantly in the soi], changing some 
 of the humus into nitrates tor the roots of plants. Sonu; of 
 them gather on cheese and form hhic-mold. Some of them 
 get into the refuse barrels and cause decay of the pieces of 
 food thrown therein. Some of thrm dro[) into the cider or 
 wine and make vinegar. There are \er)' many kinds, each 
 
 kind working in its own way. They 
 can he recogrii/ed only l)y a \ery power- 
 ful microscope. One kind, that is 
 very common, drojis int(j the milk 
 and changes the sugar into lactic 
 acid. Supposing that we do not 
 of milk, ma-iiitiod. clcan out a milk pail or a milk 
 
 can thoroughly, what will hap[)en ? Many of these little 
 ferments, or bacteria, as they are called, will settle on the sides 
 arid get into the cracks, and just as soon as milk is placed in 
 the vessel they will begin to act upon the milk, causing it to 
 sour rajjidly, or to produce substances that ha\e a ]iasty taste 
 or an un[)leasant odor. If there is any trace of milk left in 
 the can after the milk is poured out, they rush down U])on it 
 an(f begin to fi.ed and iiuavase in numl)e^•. Any dirty places 
 about the fl(.)or, or table, or walls, will also cause tliem to greatly 
 increase. 'J'ainted milk is not pleasan.t to drink, it makes poor 
 butter and \ oor clieese ; so that for success in dairying every- 
 thing must be ke|)t clean, very dean — the cows, the food, the 
 stables, the pails, the utensils, the milk house, and t!ie dairy 
 workers. One of the great reasons for using iee and cold 
 sj)ring water to keep the milk^ cream, and butter sweet is 
 because thi'se little feiments cannot do harm in \ery cold 
 places. They do their work only when tlu'\- are ki'pt moder- 
 ately warm. Science, then, teaches us that in (lair\ing it [)ays 
 to be dean. In addition to ferments whi( h may get in from 
 the outside it is thought that there aic minute forms of life some 
 what similar to these ferments, wlii h aie contained in the 
 
PRODUCTS UF MILK. 
 
 151 
 
 mg some 
 Sonu; of 
 of thorn 
 pieces of 
 cider or 
 nds, each 
 y. They 
 jry jjower- 
 l, that is 
 the milk 
 ito lactic 
 do not 
 • a milk 
 :iese little 
 1 the sides 
 placed \u 
 isiiig it to 
 tasty taste 
 k left in 
 n upon it 
 rty places 
 to greatly 
 ;ikes [)oor 
 ng every- 
 food, tb.e 
 the dairy 
 and cold 
 sweet is 
 \ery cold 
 )t nioder- 
 iig It i)ays 
 ri in from 
 life sonie- 
 (I in the 
 
 milk itself. These work changes in the milk and milk pro- 
 ducts when the conditions are lavorahle. 
 
 BuTTtR. — We have referred to the use of the separator for 
 obtaining sweet cream from the fresh, warm milk. A machine 
 made on a similar plan is capable of so throwing the particles 
 of fat together that tb<\' come out, not in the tonn of cream, 
 but of fun; butter, 'ibis machine is called an "extractor." 
 The butler made tr()m it will, of ccjurse, be sweet cream butter. 
 Ordinarily, however, the creain is obtained either by the 
 se})arator, by setting in shallow pans, or by se'tting in deep 
 c;)ns placed in ice water. 'J'hen the cream is allowed to ripen. 
 This ripening is caused by some of the little lerinents that 
 were referred to before. These get in from the air, or they 
 may be j)lac'_'d there 1>\' taking a little cream from some that 
 has alread)' ripened, just as we may take some dough that has 
 rdready worked and place in a fresh lot of dough to start it 
 working. At once these ferments begin work, and produce 
 changes that give a new taste or llavor and a new odor to the 
 cream. If w>.! allow the cream to stand too long, or in a foul 
 atmospheie, some ferments will get in that will pioduce 
 unpleasant taste and foul odors. 'I'hese little ferments, then, 
 hel|) us in our work, or the}' can s])()il our work. We nnist, 
 therefore, learn the methods which will gi\e us the best 
 ferments to assist us and kee]) out the bad ferments that will 
 binder us. If the milk or tlie cream i^' lirst waruied for a few 
 minutes the ferments in the milk will be killed the milk will 
 be "pasteurized," as we sa)'. Then the right kind of ft.Tment 
 is added, and the ri|>'.ning of the cream takes place. By this 
 method the making of buttei is under the perfect control of 
 the dairyman, and butter t)f unifoim ([ualily is [jroduced. 
 
 The cream, well-rij)ened, is [)laced in the chu :«, and the 
 action of the churn throws the little particles of fat together, 
 until soon we ha\e tliem gathered into little nuisses ; the butter 
 begins to come in litde grains; these grains gather into large 
 
t ■ ^^■. -^wy^ 
 
 ^52 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 I 
 
 lumps, and soon the buttermilk can be drawn off. The butter 
 is washed in the churn with cold water, and then turned out 
 and worked and salted. The buttermilk contains some lactic 
 acid and cysein, both of which, if left in the butter, would be 
 further acted upon by ferments, antl disagreeable compounds 
 would be formed; therefore, the buttermilk is carefully drawn 
 off, the washing is thoroughly dcjne, and the working of the 
 butter drives off the last tra(X'S or almost the last traces. The 
 wtjrking of the butter, then, is to take out the rest of the 
 biillurmilk, but it must be done carefully, so as not to break 
 the tiny grains of the butter and rub them into an oily mass. 
 Then the salting— what is it for? Salt, we know, preserves 
 food. It attracts moisture, the moisture of the buttermilk, and 
 it prevents the ferments from going on with their work. By 
 all this process we have got rid of nearly all the casein, sugar, 
 and ash ; we have still some of the water; and we should have 
 all, or nearly all, the butter-fat that was in the milk. Any 
 sugar, or acid, or casein that is left, will in time l)e likely to 
 Sjet the ferments at work and make the butter rancid or stale. 
 BuTTKRMii-K.. — Since cream varies scj much, according to 
 the system of getting the cream, the buttermilk will vary a 
 great deal in comi)osition and value. It should contain very 
 little fat if the churning has been properly done, less than one 
 per ce-nt. It will contain a little ash, cjuite an amount of 
 lactic acid, and some casein. The c^asein will vary with the 
 system of creaiuing. As a food, it should be used as soon 
 after churning as [)ossib1e, before further fermenting is set u[). 
 
 CuKESE. -In making butter, we try to take all the butter-fat, 
 and only the butter-fat, out (jf the milk ; in making cheese, we 
 try to take all the casein and the fat out of the milk. If we 
 were simjjly to take the casein out of skiiu-milk, we would get 
 what is c"alled a skim milk cheese, or a skim-cheese. Usually, 
 however, whole milk is used, and a great many different kinds 
 )\' cheese may be made. 'I'he milk of gixUs and of ewes is 
 
 III 
 
PRODUCTS OF MILK. 
 
 153 
 
 le buttev 
 rned out 
 mc lactic 
 ^vould be 
 mpounds 
 lly drawn 
 lij- of the 
 cs. The 
 St of the 
 to break 
 3ily mass, 
 preserves 
 milk, and 
 ^ork. By 
 jin, sugar, 
 ould have 
 ilk. Any 
 i likely to 
 or stale, 
 ordiiig to 
 >ill vary a 
 tain very 
 than one 
 miount of 
 with the 
 as soon 
 is set up. 
 tutter-fat, 
 •hucsr, we 
 w. If we 
 would get 
 Usually, 
 rnt kiiuls 
 ;f ewes is 
 
 sometimes used, but the cheese of this country is made almost 
 entirely from cows' milk. Formerly, the cheese was made in 
 the private dairies, but now principally in fact(jries, to which 
 the milk is drawn. The cheese usually made liere in the 
 factories is what is known as Clheddar cheese. It is more 
 properly called American Cheddar, or Canadian Cheddar. 
 
 The fat, as we already know, is simi)ly floating in the milk 
 in fine particles, but the casein is held in solution. To get it 
 out of the milk it must be changed to an insoluble form. 
 Rennet is the substance used for this purpose. This is an 
 extract obtained from calves' stomachs. If a little rt.'iinet is 
 droj)ped into a glass of milk, the casein will at once begin to 
 api)ear as a flaky, curdy substance with the fat entangled in it, 
 and the water may be poured off, leaving behind the casein 
 and fat. In the factory, the milk is strained and run into kirge 
 vats that have a larger vessel or jacket around them for holding 
 water or steam. By means of this jacket the milk can be 
 cooled or warmed, as the maker desires. The rennet is added, 
 and at once (uirdling Ijegins ; the proper heat is obtained by 
 hot water or steam, and the curdy milk begins to " ripen." 
 Gradually, by working, the flakes or grains of curd increase in 
 size, and when the {)ro[)er time comes the water is run off. 
 This water or whey carries away the sugar of the milk and 
 most of the ash material ; little c^r none of the fat should float 
 away on it if the; cheese-making has been pro|)erly done. The 
 curd is heai)ed up and allowed to drain, when it appears as a 
 crumbled mass. vSome salt is added and nn\ed with it ; then 
 it is run through the mill, and is ready for pulling up in pack- 
 ages. These packages are pressed out and handages are [)ut 
 on them, when they are taken to the curing room. The curing 
 of the cheese is a very im[)ortant part of the making. The 
 room is kept at a warm temperature, and \arious ferments 
 work in tiie cheese, causing changes that add much to the 
 flavor and food value ot the cheese. The fresh, or "green," 
 
154 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 cheese is not nearly so tasty or so digestible as the matured or 
 well-ripened cheese. If the cheese is allowed to remain 
 exposed to the air it will mold, and its value will be greatly 
 decreased. Its rich flavor depends largely u[>()n the cream of 
 the milk and the changes that take place both in the ripening 
 in the vat and in the after-rij)ening in the curing-room. 
 
 Wni':v. — If we remember that the whey contains the ^sigar 
 of the milk, most of the ash, and some of the albumen, and 
 casein, and fat, we shall cijiiclude that it contains some food 
 of value. l>ut this value depends ui)()n its l)eing used while 
 "sweet," before it sours, for then its sugar changes to lactic 
 acid, which is not of nuich value. As a Unnl, it is sjjecially 
 ada[)ted to the feeding of j)igs. One of the greatest difficulties 
 about cheese factories arises from the souring of whey. As 
 before stated, success depends upon kee[)ing the factory, the 
 factory yard, and the milk cans absolutely clean. 
 
 We may sum u[) the various dairy products as containing 
 the following : 
 
 Whole milk contains water, fat, casein, albumen, sugar, ash ; 
 
 Skim-milk contains water, casein, iilbunicn, sugar, ash; 
 
 Butter contains water and fat prin.cipally ; 
 
 (!heese contains water, lat, casein; 
 
 Whey contains water, sugar, ash, some albumen. 
 
 The average composition is about as follows in every one 
 
 hundred pounds : 
 
 Casein and 
 Wnter. Fat. Albumen. Sugar. Ash. 
 
 Whole milk. . . 87.0 4.0 3.5 4.8 o.y 
 
 Skim-milk.... <)o.o 0.5 3.0 5.0 0.7 
 
 lUitter 10.0 86.5 i.o 0.5 2.0 
 
 Cheese 35.0 33.0 28.0 0.0 4.0 
 
 Whey 93.0 0.3 1.0 5.0 0.7 
 
 i 
 
THE STRUCTURE OK ANIMALS. 
 
 155 
 
 turc'd or 
 remain 
 : grcuily 
 ;reain ot 
 ripening 
 
 ic .s.igur 
 iicn, and 
 me food 
 ed while 
 to lac tie- 
 specially 
 itticulties 
 liey. As 
 :tory, the 
 
 pntaining 
 
 ar, ash ; 
 
 Lsh ; 
 
 very one 
 
 Ash. 
 o.y 
 0.7 
 2.0 
 4.0 
 
 0-7 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 THK STRUCTURE OK ANIMALS. 
 
 Plan IS and Animals. -\Vhat is the tlifference i)et\veen a 
 l)lant and an animal? It is sometimes very difticult to deter- 
 mine whether some of the lower forms of living matter are 
 plants or animals. In the higher forms the distinction is easily 
 made by us. What is the difference? A horse re(iuires air, 
 water, and food. So does a tree. 'I'he horse takes in oxygen 
 from the air and breathes out carbonic acid gas ; the tree takes 
 in carbonic acid gas and gives out oxygen. I'he horse can 
 move ai)oi.;t at will to seek food ; the tree remains fixed, and 
 the food comes or is brought to it. 'I'he horse feeds uj)')!! 
 plants —organized food; the plant feeds upon crude material, 
 such as minend compounds - unorganized food. 'I'he j)lant, 
 tlieref(jre, is built u[) from the simi)le substances in the air, soil, 
 and water. 'I'he animal buiUls itself up largely by feeding 
 ui)on the material formed by the plants. This distinction, 
 however, does not hold in the case of all i)lants and all animals. 
 Can you state any exce{)tions to the abo\e ? 
 
 Bonks. — These are the framework or foundation. They 
 largeh' make the general form of the animal. The bones of a 
 \()ung animal are pliable, but the}' become more rigid as the 
 animal grows older. The)' are the support of the animal, bill 
 to enable the animal to move, they are in parts joined together. 
 Notice how every Ixjiie is suited to its place. The skull covers 
 the to[) and back of the head, thereby protecting the brain. 
 The ribs, front and back, [)rotect the heart and lungs. Why 
 are thev not closely j(jined togt'lher, as the bones of the skull? 
 The bones are suited in size and length to the uses re([uired 
 
 ii 
 
156 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ' .1 
 
 of the various parts of the h(jdy, as may be seen in the bones 
 of the arm and the finders. The bones are composed of 
 mineral material, phosphate of lime being the principal con- 
 stituent. In structure, they are more or less porous or cellular. 
 
 Musci.Ks, - The bones are ingeniously joined tv gether in 
 many places, but to hold them together and to move them 
 muscles are required. In some places these are large and 
 tough, in others they are smaller and more tender. The lean 
 part of an animars body is a mass of fine muscle fibres. Feel 
 their movement on the inside of the wrist while closing the 
 fist, (irasj) your upj)er right arm, then move the lower right 
 arm up and down. We observe that the muscles that do the 
 most work are the strongest and largest. These muscles are 
 in all parts of the bod)', crossing and overlap[)ing. By con- 
 tracting and expanding them the animal moves the bones, and 
 therefore the part of the body containing the bones. Around 
 them and over them we sometimes find layers of fat which act 
 as a sort of packing. 
 
 Thk Groans. — In addition to the ordinary muscles, there 
 are the tongue, the throat, the stomach, the heart, the lungs, 
 the liver, the kidneys, the intestines, etc. These are different 
 in shape and different in their uses, but all are very much like 
 the muscles and tendons in comj)osition — they may be called 
 structures of muscles formed together into certain definite 
 shapes, so as to do certain definite work. The skin, the hair, 
 the wool, the hoofs, and the horns, that is, the outer parts of 
 an animal, are also made up of the same kind of material as 
 the flesh and .nuscle. 
 
 Hi.ooi).— "The blood is the life." It flows through all 
 parts of the body, and it is out of it that all the various parts 
 — bone, muscle, organs, lean flesh, fat — are formed. When we 
 examine blood under a microscope we find that it somewhat 
 resembles milk, as shown in flgure 77, page 144. First of all, 
 there is the liquid part, which is called /A/i'-'-'/c/. In this plasma 
 
 I 
 
THE STRUCTURE OF ANIMAL::, 
 
 157 
 
 hie bones 
 [)osed of 
 ipal con- 
 cellular, 
 jether in 
 tve them 
 arge and 
 The lean 
 is. Feel 
 jsing the 
 iver right 
 t do the 
 scles are 
 By con- 
 )nes, and 
 Around 
 vhich act 
 
 les, there 
 le lungs, 
 different 
 uch like 
 3e called 
 definite 
 the hair, 
 parts of 
 Lterial as 
 
 ough all 
 lus parts 
 \ hen we 
 iniewhat 
 st of all, 
 pliisnia 
 
 are floating a large number of small dis(^-shai)ed particles, 
 which arc called corpuscles. Most of these are red, and thereby 
 give a red color to the blood. Some are white corpuscles. It 
 is by means of these cori)uscles that much of the material is 
 carried through the systtiu. I'or instance, in the lungs they 
 take up a load of oxygen and carry it to all parts of the body 
 and bring back a load of carbonic acid gas to be breathed 
 out from the lungs. \\\ the plasma is contained uuich of the 
 material that goes to build u[) l)one and llesh. W'e have seen 
 that when the albumen of milk or white of egg is healed it 
 becomes ins()lul)le, or is clotted. When acids are adtled to 
 milk, the casein becomes clotted. In i)lasma there is a similar 
 nitrogenous substance, fihrin^ whith is clotted by the action of 
 the air. When blood flows f'-om a cut, therefore, the clotted 
 fibrin and the cor[)uscles that aie entangled in it form a cover- 
 ing for the wound — '(Jtherwise the animal would bleed to death. 
 When a clot forms inside of the body, cir(ailation stops at that 
 [)oint, and death frecjuently results. In a man the blood forms 
 about one-thirteenth of his entire weight. 
 
 CoxcLUSiox. - A})art from the water of the body, the various 
 digestive licjuids and ageiits, and the blood, we have, then, 
 three classes of compounds in the animal l)ody— the bones; 
 the fat ; and the muscles, the various organs, lean flesh, hair, 
 hoofs, and horns. The bone^, as we have already stated, are 
 largely made u[) of ash or nu'neral matter; the fat contains 
 three chemical elements — carbon, h\(lrogen, and ox\gen ; the 
 third, or nuiscle class, is made up ol' li\e elements — carbon, 
 hydrogen, o.wgen, nitrogen, and sulphur. 'I'o show in what 
 proportion these are contained in an aiunuil's bod}-, we give 
 one e.\ami)le. 'i"he hody of a half-fat ox, alter the remowil of 
 the stomach and intestines, will contain in every 100 pounds 
 the following: Water, 56 jjounds ; flesh and nui^cli: material, 
 18 pounds ; fat, 21 pounds; hone material, 5 j)ounds. 
 
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158 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 .; '^ 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 h? •' 
 
 I ; ;. 
 
 FOODS OF ANIMALS. 
 
 Uses of Foods. -First of all, an aiiiiiKil rc(iuirL'S food to 
 buikl up its body — to form bono, flush, muscle, organs, skin, 
 hair, wool, fat, etc. The material for all these must be con- 
 tained in its lood or the water it drinks. In the next [)Ia('e, it 
 ret^uires food, or liul, to keep it warm, to sup[)ly heat to the 
 body. Then it re(|uires food to keep it alive a liorse shut u[) 
 in the stable williout food for a single day will suffer, 'i'his 
 food is necessary to re[)lace the waste constantly taking place. 
 The body is constantly changing, and retjuires food to renew 
 it, whether the animal is working or standing still, whether 
 sleei)ing or awake. In the ft)urth i)lace, work demands food. 
 An engine at work demands a supply of energy —this comes 
 from the burn: g of the luel under the boilcT. A horse 
 moving about or doing work retjuires food to supply energy. 
 These four demands are nrule upon the food which is daily 
 given to an animal, and the footl gi\en should be chosen so as 
 to sui)ply these demanils. We have on l)age 159 a table of the 
 comi)osilion of the principal Ibods given to animals. 'I'his 
 table is simply for reference, and is given in order to get a 
 general idea of the great difference in the various foods used. 
 
 Waikk. — We see that green grass, roots, and fixlder corn 
 all have a huge t[uanlity of water from 75 to over 90 per 
 I'eiU. (thai is, pounds \)vv hundred) whereas ha\', straw and 
 grain luiNe only from 1 2 to lO |)er cent. N'oung plants that 
 are cut while still green are therefore succulent foods and are 
 eaten by animals in large (juantities. As i)lanls grow okler 
 and mature, the amoimt ol water that they contain gradually 
 decreases. 
 
FOODS OF ANIMALS, 
 
 159 
 
 Composition of Foods. 
 
 1; 
 
 Milk, whole 87 
 
 Milk, skinmiccl 90 
 
 Linseed 12 
 
 Oil ( like (old process) . 9 
 
 Oil Cake (new pnjcess) 10 
 
 Oatmeal 8 
 
 Cottonseed Meal .... b 
 
 Pasture grass ' 65 
 
 Meadow I la), average . i^ 
 
 Ked Clover, average . 15 
 
 U'heat Straw 10 
 
 Oat Straw , 10 
 
 IVa Straw 
 
 Corn Stalks , . . 
 
 10 
 40 
 
 U'heat T I 
 
 iiarli'v 
 
 Oats.". 
 
 ( 'orn 
 
 Peas 
 
 Hran 
 
 Middlings 
 
 Mangels . . . 
 Turnips. . . . 
 ( "arrots . . . . 
 Potatoes . . . 
 Corn Silage. 
 
 I I 
 I [ 
 I I 
 I I 
 I J 
 
 90 
 
 ()0 
 
 So 
 cSo 
 
 O 
 ■/T 
 
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 £ -^ 
 
 3-5 
 
 3-« 
 21 
 
 30 
 
 3-i- 
 
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 4 
 6 
 
 1 2 
 
 3-5 
 4.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 r 2 
 
 '-'.•5 
 
 I 2 
 
 10 
 
 JO 
 
 I.: 
 
 o 
 
 4.0 
 
 0-5 
 36.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 3-0 
 7.0 
 
 CVo 
 r.o 
 
 2-5 
 
 30 
 
 '•3 
 
 -•3 
 
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 5 
 
 5-5 
 2.0 
 
 4 
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 0.2 
 0.2 
 0.4 
 o. I 
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 y 
 n 
 
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 67 
 
 26 
 
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 6.0 
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 ifei! 
 
i6o . 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Albuminoids. — Compounds like albumen or white of egg, 
 the casein of milk, the gluten of wheat, and the fibrin of meat, 
 are known as albuminoids ox protein. They are all compounds 
 containing nitrogen, and are the flesh-forming substan(*es of 
 food. They are very low in roots, a little larger in grass, still 
 larger in hay ; so that we see that they increase as plants ma- 
 ture. 'J'hey are very low in straw, but quite large in grain. 
 Why is this ? As the wheat, oats, and other plants are grow- 
 ing they take up food from the air and soil and, until blossom- 
 ing time, all their food is contained in the leaves, stalks, and 
 roots. After blossoming the seeds form, and material that has 
 been stored in the stalk and leaves is used to build up the 
 seed. In most plants very little valuable food is taken into 
 the plant thrt)ugh the roots after the time of l)lossoming. The 
 leaves continue taking in carbon and the roots water, and 
 therefore starch and sugar continue to increase, but the other 
 substances are about all in the {)lant by the time of full bloom. 
 Out of the leaf and stalk the most valuable materials are then 
 carried into the seed ; thus we find the nitrogenous com- 
 pound, the fats or oils, and the most valuable ash compounds, 
 especially the phosphates, stored up in the seed or grain, and 
 not in the straw. 
 
 Fat. — For the reasons just given we must look for fat or oil 
 principally in the grains. Some seeds, such as flaxseed, con- 
 tain a very large amount of oil. 
 
 Starch and Sugar. — These materials are very much alike 
 in com[)osition ; they are com[)osed of three elements — 
 carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Hydrogen and oxygen, we 
 have learned before, are the two elements composing water. 
 These two are found in starch and sugar in the same proportion 
 as in water, but not as water, and therefore such compounds 
 are sometimes called "carbohydrates." They are found in 
 large quantities in all plants and [)arts of i)lants, forming as 
 
FOOD OF ANIMALS. 
 
 l6l 
 
 )f egg, 
 f meat, 
 )()unds 
 ices of 
 ss, still 
 Its nia- 
 
 1 t^rain. 
 
 2 grow- 
 ilossom- 
 Iks, and 
 that has 
 I iq) the 
 :en into 
 
 g. ^'1^^ 
 Iter, and 
 he other 
 I bloom, 
 are then 
 us com- 
 ipounds, 
 rain, and 
 
 I'at or oil 
 jcd, con- 
 
 much as 70 per cent, of some kinds of straw. Notice that this 
 class of comi)ounds tlocs not form one of the leading classes 
 of constituents of the animal body. 
 
 Fibre. — Woody fibre this is sometimes called. A ycning 
 plant is easily bent and pulled U) pieces ; it contains little 
 fibre. As the plant grows older it becomes stiffer and tougher, 
 because the fibre increases. Wood that we burn is nearly all 
 fibre, and we know how tough and indigestible it is. 'I'here- 
 fore, we conclude that a large amount of fibre makes a food 
 less valuable. The fibre is formed from the starch and sugar 
 by the addition of carbon. It forms the walls of the cells of 
 plants, and therefore is sometimes called by the name "cellu- 
 lose.* 
 
 Ash. — The ash or mineral matter is found in all parts of 
 the plant, but, as has been stated already, the most valuable 
 ash is stored up in the seed or grain. The cell walls of the 
 plant fill up with carbon and ash as the plant grows older, and 
 therefore the sap cannot flow through so easily, the cells dry 
 up gradually, and the jjlant becomes stiffer and tougher. 
 
 ReI' KRENCES : — 
 
 Tlie Icaclur who wishes tf) study the siil)jcct maltcr <>( this cliaptcr 
 furtl\cr may consult " Feeds and Feeding," hy Henry, " Caltle Feedini;," 
 by Arnisl)y. 
 
 Inch alike 
 Mnents — 
 
 kygen, we 
 ng water. 
 
 lr()i)ortion 
 
 ^nipounds 
 
 found in 
 
 jrming as 
 
fjr. 
 
 r 
 
 162 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 DIGESTION AND USE3 OF FOOD. 
 
 Li > 
 
 What is Digestion ? — The food which the animai eats 
 must pass into and become part of the l)lood before any use 
 can be made of it. The fuel which kee[)s it warm or supplies 
 energy to enable it to do work ; the com[)()unds which go to 
 the building up of bone, muscle, flesh, organs, wool, and all 
 other parts of the body ; the material out of which milk is 
 made— all these come from the blood. This male ial in the 
 blood is made U}) from the food which the animal eats. The 
 blood may be called a licjuid flowing through the body con- 
 taining the material in solution. But the solid portion of our 
 food consists to a large extent of such substances as starch, 
 sugar, fat or oil, nitrogenous compounds, such as the gluten of 
 wheat, the white or albumen of egg, and the librin of meat. 
 Of these sugar only is soluble. It is necessary, therefore, to 
 change these insoluble parts of food into soluble forms so 
 that they can pass into the blood. This changing them into 
 soluble forms in the various organs of the animal's body is 
 "digestion." 'I'he changes are brought about in the mouth, in 
 the stomach, and in the intestines, and the agents that cause 
 the changes are ferments somewhat similar to tin; minute forms 
 of life already referred to in the curing of cheese, and nitrifi- 
 cation in the soil (see pages 149 antl 150.) 
 
 There are three forms of compounds in the food to be 
 digested - those similar to starch (the carbohydrates), the fats 
 or oils, and the nitrogen compounds (the albuminoids). These 
 we shall refer to as we follow the course of digestion. 
 
 i 
 
 . 
 
DIGESTION AND USES OF FOOD. 
 
 163 
 
 imai eats 
 : any use 
 r supplies 
 ch go to 
 1, and all 
 11 milk is 
 ial in the 
 ats. The 
 body con- 
 )n of our 
 as starch, 
 iilutcn of 
 of meat, 
 erefore, to 
 i forms so 
 hem into 
 's body is 
 niouth, in 
 hat eause 
 mite forms 
 uul nitrifi- 
 
 )od to be 
 ), the fats 
 Is). 'These 
 ■)n. 
 
 The Course OF Dioestion. — The food is first bitten ofTand 
 taken into the mouth, wlicre it is cut up and ground fine by 
 the teeth. At the same time a li(iuid called the saliva is set 
 free from glands in the cheeks and under the tongue. This 
 saliva not o .y moistens the ff)od so that it can slip down the 
 throat or gullet, but it also acts upon the starch, converting it 
 into sugar, thus changing it from an insoluble to a soluble 
 form. Thus digestion begins in the mouth. Thorough 
 chewing of the food not only breaks up the food fine so that 
 it can be acted upon by the juices of the body, but also helps 
 to set free saliva and mix it with the food to digest the starch. 
 When we remember that starch forms a very large portion of 
 most of our vegetable foods, we see that thorough mastication 
 the food is very necessary to good digestion, and "bolting'' 
 the food by man and many other animals a common cause of 
 indigestion. 
 
 The food passes from the mouth into the gullet, which is a 
 tube formed of tough elastic rings that can contract and 
 expand as required. Through the gullet it passes into the 
 stomach. Here it comes in contact with the gastric juice^ 
 which is a secretion of the stomach. The gastric juice acts 
 principally u[)on the albuminoids, changing them into soluble 
 forms. Some of the soluble and digested food here passes 
 into the blootl, but most of it goes on through into the intes- 
 tines. Just behw^the stomach, and on the right side, is the 
 liver, which builds uj) or secretes a liiiuid called bile. This bile 
 flows into the intestines and acts ujjon the fiit of the food, 
 forming with it soluble comi)ounds. Other secretions come in 
 contact with the fooil, acting upon the albuminoids and starch 
 to comi)lete the digestion ; and through the walls of the in- 
 testines the soluble foods now pass in large quantities into the 
 bU)od. The rest of the food that cannot pass into the blood 
 moves on and is expelled from the body, forming the solid 
 excrement. The solid excrement therefore consists of the 
 
164 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 k 
 
 insoluble portion of the food, that which could not he digested 
 l)y the secretions of the mouth, stomach, and intestines, and 
 any s()lul)]e matter that was unable to get into the blood be- 
 cause uf the animal bemg fed too rapidly or in too large 
 (juantity. Its value as a fertilizer will therefore depend upon 
 what we feed and upon how we feed. It may be worth much 
 or very little. 
 
 At this ])oint it will be worth turning back and reviewing 
 what has been said about the four stomachs of the ruminants 
 (cattle and sheej)), the small single stomach t)f the horse and 
 the pig, and the long intestines of the pig. 
 
 Circulation of thk Blood.— The next question is as to 
 the movement of the l)lood through the body — the circulation 
 of th.e blood. \\'e start at the heart, which is the head([uarters 
 of the blood system, the i)umi)ing-station of the system. The 
 heart is made up of muscles which expand and contract and 
 thus give motion to the blood. When the heart stops beating, 
 when it ceases to work, the animal life stops and death takes 
 place. We can feel the beating of our heart. On the inside 
 of the wrist we can feel the throbbing of our pulse. On the 
 side of the head between the ear and the temple we can feel 
 the same throbbing. Where do you find the pulse of a horse, 
 and the pulse of a cow? 
 
 Vou have doubtless seen an ox heart; if not, try to get one 
 and examine it. In shape it is like a large pear or egg. There 
 are two divisions, one up and down and one across, dividing it 
 into four comi)artments. The two smaller divisions in the 
 up[)er or larger part are called the right and the left aun'c/e, 
 and the two larger lower parts are called the right and the left 
 veutrich'. The different parts of the heart are connected with 
 tubes that go to all parts of the body, and the four compart- 
 ments are c()nne<'ted by valves. liy the movement of the 
 muscles of the heart the blooil is driven along. How is its 
 course directed or controlled ? Perhaps you have seen a mill- 
 
DIGESTION AND USES OF FOOD. 
 
 165 
 
 digested 
 10s, and 
 ood 1)1'- 
 [)o large 
 
 id UJM)!! 
 
 ;h much 
 
 eviewing 
 iniinaiits 
 orse and 
 
 is as to 
 rculation 
 dt^uarters 
 ,'m. The 
 tract and 
 s beating, 
 ;ath takes 
 he inside 
 On the 
 can feel 
 a horse, 
 
 get one 
 There 
 ividing it 
 IS in the 
 "t auricle^ 
 l1 the left 
 'cted with 
 
 coni[)art- 
 iit of the 
 
 ow is its 
 en u mill- 
 
 race or a small canal with a swinging gate that will open in only 
 one direction. When the water rushes against it one way it 
 ojjcns the gate and jxisses on ; if it rushes hack it shuts the 
 gate and thereby stops itself. So in the heart, the valves open 
 (jnly in one direction, and the tubes of the heart have valves 
 that allow the blood to flow in only one direction. Thus by 
 means of these automatic or self-closing little gates the course 
 of the heart's blood is controlled and the circulation is always 
 proptrly directed. 
 
 Now let us very briefly follow the course of the blood. It 
 comes from all parts of the body into the right auricle through 
 two veins, whose valves open only towards the heart. The 
 heart contracts and the blood flows into the right ventricle 
 through the opening, whose valve opens only towards that 
 ventricle. From the right ventricle it goes by an artery to the 
 lungs, where it gets a supply of fresh oxygen from the air and 
 where it gives uj) its load of carbonic acid gas to be breathed 
 out into the atmosphere. Thus purified it comes back by the 
 veins to the left auricle. Then it passes to the left ventricle, 
 l-'rom the left ventricle it is forced out of the heart through 
 the arteries and is carried to all parts of the body. 'I'hese 
 arteries divide and sub-divide until they become a network of 
 line tubes called the cai)illaries. These ca[)illaries uniting 
 again form the veins which carry the blood back again to the 
 riglit auricle. Thus every beat of the heart sends fresh blood 
 out to all i)arts of the body, and the old blood comes back to 
 be purified before being sent out again through the arteries. 
 The veins are the tubes that carr} the old blood to the heart ; 
 the arteries are the tubes that carry the fresh blood from the 
 heart. We see, therefore, why the cutting of an artery is much 
 more dangerous than the cutting of a vein. In cutting an 
 artery we open up the flow direct from the heart — the sluice- 
 gate is oj)ened for the free flow of the blood. 
 
 With the stomach, and especially with the intestines, are 
 
1 66 
 
 ACKICULTURE. 
 
 I> 
 
 ft 
 
 I 
 
 ft 
 
 conncrtcd a large number f)f capillaries. Into these flow the 
 dissolved j)orti(>n of the l)l()()d. Aflrr ])assin,L; throuj^h tht- li\ir 
 
 systiiii ihi- material is carritd 
 in one of tin- \iiiis to the huart 
 (the right aiirirle). 
 
 In I'igiirc 80 we have a con- 
 densed and modified illustration 
 showing how the hlood eireulates 
 through the body. The arrows 
 show the direction of flow. The 
 black channels are the veins, and 
 the unshaded the arteries (ex- 
 ce])t Nos. 10 and 12). i is 
 the left side of heart; 2, the right 
 side ; 3, the aorta from the left 
 ventricle ; 4, artery to abdomen ; 
 5, capillaries; 6, vein from ab- 
 domen ; 7, artery to head ; 8, ca- 
 pillaries ; 9, \cm from head ; 
 10, artery from right ventricle to 
 lungs; II, the lungs; 12, vein 
 from lungs to left auricle; 13, ar- 
 tery to intestines; 14, small in- 
 testine; 15, capillaries and veins 
 from intestines carrying away 
 digested food; 16, portal vein; 
 17, artery to liver; 18, liver; 
 19, vein from liver; 20, lacteals ; 
 21, duct leading to vein going to 
 the heart by which some ab- 
 sorbed material is taken into 
 circulation; 22, artery to the 
 kidneys; 23, the kidneys; 24, vein 
 from the kidneys. 
 
 !i 
 
DIGESTION AND USES OF FOOD. 
 
 167 
 
 Thus we have seen how the (hgested food gets into the 
 l)lood, and how the I)l<)()d is carried through all |)arts of the 
 body. The next (question is as to what is done with this 
 blood. 
 
 Uses of the Digested Food. — The animal must be kept 
 warm, and therefore some food is reijuired as fuel. The oxy- 
 gen of the air comes in through the lungs and unites with the 
 material in the blood, or with material such as fat formed from 
 the blood. To keep warm, therefore, food and fresh air are 
 necessary. Now you will understand why brisk walking, 
 running, or working in fresh air, even in cold air, will cause 
 you to become warm, es[)ecially if you have been well fed. It 
 is like starting a fire with j)lcnty of good dry fuel and opening 
 the draughts. Then there is bone to be built up in one 
 place, muscle in another, wool or hair in another. If the 
 animal is growing, food is necessary ; even if it is not growing 
 food is necessary, for the old parts are constantly wearing away 
 and new parts being formed. If the cow is giving milk, the 
 material of the milk must be formed out of the material in 
 the blood. If the horse is doing hard work there must be 
 material in the blood to replace the muscle that is being worn 
 away, and also to l)e usetl up to produce the force or energy 
 that we see resulting in work. 
 
 The Waste MAi'i.kiAr.. — In the burning up of food to 
 produce warmth, in the using u[) of food to j)ro(luce work, in 
 the working over of material to form flesh, muscle, fat, bone, 
 wool, or milk, there will, of course, be more or less waste or 
 refuse material. Mow is this refuse material got rid of by the 
 animal? In three ways : by the lungs, by the skin, and by 
 the kidneys. 
 
 Till: i.i'Nt'.s. Animals brcallu' in pure oxygen ;in(l breathe 
 out carbonic acid g;is and moisiure. Tlie\ sJioiiM ilietclore 
 be able to get pure air and not be coni|)elle(l to bieathe o\er 
 again the air that has already come from their lungs, for it 
 
1 68 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 contains some refuse of their l)odies. If we shut up an animal 
 in a close room it will smother, 'i'he animal must have fresh 
 air. Proper ventilation is necessary for the good liealth of all 
 animals. Exposure to cold draughts, however, must be care- 
 fully avoided. 
 
 The Skin. — The small capillaries come out close to the 
 skin, which is filled with pores or tiny openings. \\'e may say 
 that animals breathe through their skin, and through the pores 
 of the skin rid themselves of a large amount of used-up 
 or refuse matter. We help the animal, therefore, by kee[)ing 
 its skin clean. When we curry or rub down a liorse or a cow 
 we do for it what we do for ourselves in taking a balh. A 
 clean skin is necessary to the health of an animal, ^^'e should 
 keep in mind that every pore is the outlet of a little drain 
 whereby the refuse of an animal is carried out of its system. 
 If these little drains are choked up sickness may follow ; if 
 they are kept open the system is helped very much in its 
 cleansing process. The regular and proper currying and 
 brushing of a horse means more work from the horse ; the 
 currying and brushing down of a cow means more milk. 
 Cleanliness always pays. Science and practice are agreed upon 
 this point. 
 
 The Kidneys. — The blood in its circulation goes to all 
 the organs of the body, building them up and sup[)lying ma- 
 terial for their various uses. All j)arts of the body are con- 
 stantly changing ; some tjuite rajjidly, as the brains ; some 
 quite slowly, as the bones. The old portions that are being 
 replaced have to be removed. Wc have just abov'e stated 
 that through the lungs and skin carbonic gas and water are 
 constantly being thrown off. But there are many other sub- 
 stances, such as the nitrogen com[)ouiKls and the mineral com- 
 pounds, which cannot escape by way of the lungs and skin. 
 How are these got rid of? 'i'he kidneys, which in human 
 beings lie below and behind the stomach, near the back, are 
 
 :i 
 
1 animal 
 ive fresh 
 :h of all 
 be care- 
 
 t to the 
 may say 
 he pores 
 used-up 
 keeping 
 or a cow 
 )ath. A 
 e should 
 tie drain 
 i system. 
 dIIow j if 
 h in its 
 'ing and 
 )rse ; the 
 )re milk. 
 2ed upon 
 
 les to all 
 png ma- 
 are con- 
 s ; some 
 re being 
 e stated 
 ater are 
 ler sul)- 
 ral CHMU- 
 id skin, 
 human 
 )ack, are 
 
 DIGESTION AND USES OF P'OGD. 
 
 169 
 
 the organs that do this work, freeing the blood from these 
 refuse comi)ounds and passing them off in the li([uid excre- 
 ment or urine. This liquid excrement, then, is a sohition of 
 material that comes from the blood, muscle, bone, etc., of the 
 body, and, therefore, we may conclude it will contain vahiable 
 fertilizing material, more valuable as a rule than the solid ex- 
 crement. The li(iuid excrement consists of the dissolved 
 waste of the blood, muscle, bone, and other parts of the body ; 
 the solid excrement consists of the indigestible and undigested 
 portion of the food. None of the waste nitrogen or mineral 
 matter of the animal escaj)es from the body through the 
 lungs, but all passes off through the kidneys. Hence the 
 great imi)ortance of carefully saving, by litter or otherwise, all 
 the li([uid excrement for use as a fertilizer. \Vhen wo sel[ 
 grain, hay, straw, and roots, we take away from thti soil of the 
 farm all the nitrogen and mineral matter which they contain, 
 Ave really sell part of the soil upon which these foods grew. 
 When we feed these to stock and sell the animals or their 
 products we sell but a small portion of these soil constituents ; 
 by far the larger portion is found in the solid and licjuid ex- 
 crement. The economy of feeding stock upon the farm lies 
 then in the saving of all the excrement, especially the liquid, 
 and returning it to the soil ui)on which the plants originally 
 grew, and from which we wish to derive more food. 
 
 Conclusions. — 'i'he uses of food in the animal may now 
 be stated briefly as follows : 
 
 1. To produce heat to keep the body warm. 
 
 2. To produce force or energy to enable work to be done. 
 
 3. To replace the waste from all parts of the body. 
 
 4. To increase the body in bone, muscle, llesh and fat. 
 
 5. To produce miik, wool, etc. 
 
 LLvery animal nuist be kept w.irni. lC\ery aninial docs some 
 work or uses up some energy even when standing still or lying 
 down ; all parts of the body are constantly wearing away and 
 
I 'k^ 
 
 m 
 
 s 
 
 % 
 
 170 
 
 AGRICULTURF,. 
 
 being reformed. Therefore, first of all, food must be given 
 for these three purposes before any increase in fat or flesh 
 takes place, before any hard work is done, or before products 
 such as milk are obtained. It is only from the exccn of food 
 that the fourth and fifth uses can be supplied. When we 
 wish an animal to work hard, to increase in flesh and fat, or to 
 produce milk we must feed liberally. Poor feeding, there- 
 fore, will give us no return at all beyond keeping the animal 
 alive, but liberal feedmg must be done where we wish to get 
 some return. 
 
 Cark of Animals. —If we leave animals out exposed to 
 rough weather we shall have to increase the food to supply 
 heat; if animals are compelled to work hard to get their food 
 or are restless and excited, they must use up more food. The 
 proper housing and protection of animals will save food, and 
 the keeping of them in quietness and comfort will also cause 
 a saving. Thus we see that good care means a saving of food 
 for the first two recpiirements mentioned before, and is (juite 
 as important as proper feeding ; in fact good care is one of the 
 most important parts of good economical feeding. Oood 
 feeding implies the selection of the foods suitable for the 
 wants of the different classes of animals, the preparing of the 
 food in suitable and attractive forms, and the proper care of 
 the animals during and after feeding. 
 
 1^ 
 
 It' ! 
 
 
 1 
 
 tiic- 
 
 H 
 
 m 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 i '( 
 
 i 
 
 hJ. 
 
REES. 
 
 171 
 
 be given 
 or flesh 
 products 
 of food 
 /hen we 
 "at, or to 
 ^, there- 
 e animal 
 ih to get 
 
 )Osed to 
 supi)ly 
 leir food 
 3d. The 
 3od, and 
 so cause 
 ; of food 
 
 is (juite 
 
 ne of the 
 
 ("lood 
 
 for the 
 g of the 
 
 caie of 
 
 PART vr. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 BEES. 
 
 Bees.— We can carefully observe a l)ee on a thistle top or a 
 roadside flower. It will not harm us if we do not disturb it. 
 There are two pairs of wings very thin, like a membrane, hence 
 the bees are said to belong to the order of hymenoptera. When 
 not flying, these wings fold in closely together; when flying, 
 they si)read out and the inner pair hook or hinge on the outer 
 pair, so that the bee is able to carry a heavy load. Perhaps 
 we can see the long tongue which it can thrust away down into 
 the cup of the flower to take up the jui(-e or nectar. This 
 
 little tongue can be twisted about as 
 an elephant twists its trunk, and it has 
 a sort of brush on the end with which 
 the nectar is swe[)t up. The nectar or 
 sweet juice of the blossom is carried 
 up into the mouth and from there it 
 passes into a little .sa^k called the 
 honey bag. When its honey-bag is 
 full it goes home to store away this 
 Ik'ih'W If we could see its legs 
 under a uiagnifying glass wc would notice th.il tluy arc h.nry 
 and have some hollows along the side. What are the>e for.^ 
 We Have before learned ihat the blo^so,ns of flowers piodu.e 
 pollen. Some of this pollen the bee needs for food, and the 
 pollen is carried home- in the hollows of its hind legs. Some 
 
 Fii;. S[. - A hoe Latliorinj^ 
 iioct.ir tViiiii a hlossiiin. 
 

 172 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 1 1 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 of the pollen will cling to other parts of the bee, and so, when 
 it goes from one flower to another, it frecjuently carries th.is 
 pollen to blossoms that have none of their own or that cannot 
 use what they do have. The bees (and other insects also) in 
 this way help to make plants fruitful, to fertilize them as we say. 
 But there is another part of the bee that we shall find out be- 
 fore we desire to do so if we anger or disturb it, namely, the 
 sting. It is found in the rear end of the abdomen, and con- 
 sists of two long sharp lances. It can be pushed into one's 
 hand but cannot easily be drawn out. When the bee cuts into the 
 flesh it throws into the cut a drop of poison through the lances 
 with which it pierces. It leaves the sting in our flesh, 
 causes us pain because of the pcjison, and itself soon dies, ^^'e 
 may then conclude that bees will not readily sting, but do so 
 8imi)ly when disturbed and as a last resort in self-defence. 
 
 The Hive. — We go to the hive and there we find perhaps 
 20,000 of these honey gatherers, or "workers" as they are 
 nailed. Inside, if we can look through a glass side, we see one 
 larger bee surrounded by a dozen or so of the others. This is 
 
 
 I'ig. 8j. Drone. Queen. Worker. 
 
 the Queen or mother bee, whose duty it is to lay eggs. There 
 is only one Queen. Alter once settling tlown as the mother 
 of the hive she ni'ver goes out except when ''swarming,' 
 but day after day lays eggs, as many as j,ooo iti a singK' 
 day. Then we obsL-r\e some others that do no work, so far as 
 we can see, they are the "drones." The family or swarm then 
 will consist of one Queen bee, 20,000 or more workers, and 
 
D, when 
 ries tlus 
 L cannot 
 also) in 
 ■i we say. 
 
 out be- 
 lely, the 
 md con- 
 ito one's 
 i into the 
 \c lances 
 11 r flesh, 
 ics. We 
 lit do so 
 ;nce. 
 I perhaps 
 
 they are 
 e see one 
 This is 
 
 orkcr. 
 
 s. There 
 le mother 
 warniinu;," 
 I a single 
 ;, so far as 
 Aarin tlicn 
 rkers, and 
 
 BEES. 
 
 173 
 
 500 to 1,000 drones. The Queen is the female or mother that 
 lays the eggs, the workers are females that gather the nectar 
 and do the work, and the drones are the males. 
 
 The Comu. —Next we observe the comb. It is made u}) of 
 hundreds of cells in which the honey is being packed, and in 
 which young bees are being hati:hed. In shape tliey are six- 
 sided. Why six-sided? If you draw a lot of circles tout^iing 
 one another there will be some vacant sj)aces between. If you 
 draw s(iuan,'s or triangles you can fit them closely together, but 
 there will be sharp corners to fill in. Now if you draw a lot of 
 regular six-sided figures you can fit them all together, there 
 will be no vacant spaces, and no sharp corners. Cells of that 
 sha[)e will be strongly built. In fact you cannot improve on 
 the shape of the cell which the bee makes. 'I'he comb is 
 made up of wax, bees-wax we call it. The bees make this out 
 of honey, but it takes some time, and therefore I)ee-kee[)ers 
 help the bees in their work by starting it for them. 'I'hey 
 make the beginnings or foundations of the coi.ibs for the bees. 
 These foundations are [)ut in, and when com[)leted by the 
 bees can l)e easily taken out se[)arately. This is one reason 
 why we get much more honey from our hives than we would 
 from the wild hives of the bees where they have to be con- 
 stantly making the whole cells for themselves. 
 
 Some of tiie cells are used for storing honey and [)ollen, and 
 some are used by the (Jueen bee for hatching (nit the young bees. 
 The egg is laiil in the cell by the (^)ueen. Then the workers place 
 beside it some jelly made up of honey aiul i)ollen to be used 
 as food. In about three days the egg hatches ami a little 
 lar\a appears. This leeds and grows, and in about six da\s 
 fills ii|) the cell, 'i'hen the hei-s |)iit a coxcr or lid of \va\ 
 thread on tin- ( I'Jl, the lar\a gots into the second or pupa 
 stage (si'c page no) that we ha\e noticed in comuction wilh 
 other insects, and in about iwehe oi" rourteeii (la\s the perfect 
 bee appears and comes out of the cell, a worker bee. The 
 
 i 
 
>" 
 
 w 
 
 tu 
 
 AGRICULTURK. 
 
 \l> 
 
 I 
 
 cells in which the drone bees are hatched are a lillle larger 
 and the tinie to form is a few days longer. When a queen 
 bee is reciuired a different process is needed. Perhaps the old 
 Queen has died or is going away with a swarm to form a new 
 home. A larger cell than either of the others is made, the 
 egg is laid, and a special kind of food called " royal jelly " is 
 placed within. In less time than before the young (^)ueen bee 
 appears, 'i'hus it takes about i6 days for the (^ueen to be 
 produced, 21 for a worker, and 24 for a drone. There are 
 many things in regard to the production of these three classes 
 of bees that cannot be exi)lained. 
 
 Honey. — The bees can gather honey only while the flowers 
 are in bloom, therefore they work rapidly and store up large 
 quantities for winter food. In an ordinary hive a colony of 
 bees will i)ut away from 50 to 100 lbs. The bee-keeper at 
 the end of the season takes out part of this for his own use, 
 leaving enough for the use of the bees until tiie next flowering 
 season comes around. lUit what is the honey? The bee 
 takes the nectar or juice out of the flower ; in its honey-bag 
 some slight change probably takes place, and in the (H'II, before 
 being cai)ped over, more change occurs. IJut just how nectar 
 becomes hoiu-y as we know il, cannot be fully e\[)h'ined. 
 
 Bees gather honey from many different plants that blossom 
 at different times of the year, and the honey varies in (juality 
 according to its source; thus we ha\e clover honey, thistle 
 honey, bass\v(jod honey, buckwheat honey, golden-rod honey, 
 etc. In fruit blossoming we flnd the bees in large numbers in 
 die orchard, and, as before statt-d, spraying with i)oisons, such 
 as I'aris green, should be discontinued while die trees are 
 in full bloom. 
 
 Kinds oi' Hi.ks. just as wr lia\e coniiuon cattle an<l also 
 [)ure-brt'(l that haw \k\\\ inipioNcd by care, m) wt- liaxc dilfcrcnl 
 ' or \arieties of bct-s. They are generall)' named acccjrd 
 
 jj to the country whence tliey come, as I'Jiglish, Italian, 
 
BEES. 
 
 175 
 
 ule larger 
 1 a queen 
 ,[)s the old 
 nil a new 
 made, the 
 I jelly " is 
 Jueen bee 
 een to be 
 There are 
 ree classes 
 
 ;he flowers 
 
 I 111) li'-''^^'-' 
 
 colony of 
 
 -kee[)er at 
 
 > own use, 
 
 t flowering 
 
 The bee 
 
 honey-bag 
 
 H'll, before 
 
 low nectar 
 
 ned. 
 
 t blossom 
 in ([uality 
 y, thistle 
 )d honey, 
 umbers in 
 ons, such 
 trees are 
 
 a, 
 
 Syrian, Cyprian, etc. These differ just as much as Shorthorns, 
 Jerse)s and Axrshiri's. Some are (juiet, olhi'rs are very ill- 
 iL-mptrrd. In addition to our honey bns tluic are otlu-r 
 kinds of bees, such ;is tlie humbli- bi'i-, wjiose tongue is long 
 enough to get into th.e nectar of the red cloxer, We have 
 here given only a very few of the simplest facts in regard to 
 bees. There is no part of nature that will be found more 
 interesting or more i)rontuble than the study of the busy bees. 
 
 SwARMixc. — In the fall of the year the wild bees comi)lete 
 their store of honey, packed away usually in a hollow tree. 
 As the weather grows colder the bees go out less and less. 
 Winter sets in and we find the bees all bunched together, 
 clinging to one another in a half-asleep mass, a drowsy bunch 
 that can be handled without any fear of stinging. On bright, 
 warm days some of the bees may venture out for a while. In 
 this dormant condition they eat but little. Siiring comes on 
 and the early flowers a[)pear. The hive again becomes active 
 and the hatching of the young brood begins. The old 
 (jueen, with a part of the bees, starts off to seek a new 
 home, leaving the old home for the new (jueen and her 
 followers. Swarming takes place, the bees fly away in a cloud 
 and settle in a tree [)rol)al)ly. The bee-keeper is on the watch, 
 he follows them and shakes them down into his basket, and 
 pla(x*s them in an emi)ty hive, where they soon take u[) their 
 regular work (jf storing honey. 
 Suc.c.KsriVK : — 
 
 Slunild llio fruit growL-r keep hees ? Why ? 
 
 Nanu' sonu' usofiil lionc) -yii'ldin^ plants. IIow docs "clover lioiiey " 
 differ from " buckwheat honey "? 
 
 and aNo 
 dilTcrcnt 
 d accortl 
 , Italiati, 
 
176 
 
 ACRICUI.TURE. 
 
 r 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 'WS 
 
 II 
 
 , 
 
 I 
 
 \ft 
 
 IJIRDS. 
 
 •• And the birds sang round him, o'er him 
 ' Do not shoot us, Hiawatha ! ' 
 Sang the Opecliee, the Robin, 
 San J the I'liiebird, theOwaissa, 
 ' Do not shoot us, Hiawatha ! ' "—Longfellow. 
 
 Migrations of Birds. — As winter goes and llie warm spring 
 begins, the buds show Hfe and the grass shoots up. Then we 
 look for the return of the birds. They come back to us at first 
 two by two, or in small flocks. Sometimes we see great flocks 
 flying past, high over head, steering straight north for the 
 regions where they may find food and nesting places. They 
 went lar south to escaj)e the winter's snow and cold, and they 
 come back to us to build their nests and rear their young. A 
 few of the fliers may stay with us all winter long if they find 
 their natural shelter, but most of them fly south in the fall and 
 return in the spring, W'e look for their coming as we look for 
 the spring, and we are never disapj)ointed, tiiough year by year 
 we see many changes. Some birds are missed and new kinds 
 are welcomed. The bluebirds, lor instance, may disappear 
 for a few years. We think they have been driven out or de- 
 stroyed. If our eyes and ears are trained, however, we may 
 see and hear them passing to new fields further north, flock 
 after flock of thousands passing by overhead in the early 
 morning, 
 
 UsKs OF Birds. — Sometimes we think they do more harm 
 than good, and we are a[)t to call them a nuisance. Jiut how 
 we would miss them! If their singing and chattering were 
 completely ;iilen(xni, we would .soon wish for their return; and 
 
 •i 
 
BIRDS. 
 
 177 
 
 irm spring 
 Then we 
 us at first 
 reat flocks 
 h for the 
 L's. They 
 , and they 
 )iing. A 
 they find 
 e fall and 
 e look for 
 ;ir l)y year 
 I'W kinds 
 disappear 
 ut or de- 
 ', we ma)- 
 rth, flock 
 the early 
 
 ore harm 
 lUit how- 
 ring were 
 urn; and 
 
 we would long for a sight of them in their varied form and 
 coloring, even if they did not sing for us. Many of the wild 
 birds, the game birds, of course, supply food for man, and their 
 usefulness no ont (juestions. But, apart from their singing and 
 their beauty of form and color, of what use are the other birds 
 — the robins, the bluebirds, the yellow-birds, the blackbirds, 
 the woodpeckers, the blue jays, the meadow larks and the very 
 many other birds of our gardens and flelds? That depends on 
 what they feed upon. 
 
 Food ov 1]iri>s. — Many birds are fond of fruit and will take 
 some of the cherries and berries of the garden, others will help 
 themselves in the grain field. This, however, does not prove 
 that they are a nuisance and should be destroyed. As a rule 
 the birds feed upon the food which is most readily got — weed 
 seeds, fruits, or insects. It fruit is plentiful they will take some 
 fruit, but if insects are about they will greedily pick them up 
 and in quantities that will astonish us. Jiirds that feed upon 
 insects are called "insectivorous." Most of our common birds 
 are more or less insectivorous, and while they do some injury 
 by robbing the fruit trees, berry-bushes and grain fields, they 
 do far more good by devouring great cjuantities of insects that 
 if allowed to live would inflict most serious injury. The only 
 way that this can be proven by you is by carefully watching 
 the birds as they go about through the garden, or as they carry 
 food to their nestlings. On examining the stomachs of many 
 birds that are sui)posed to be the most destructive to fruit, 
 large (juantities of destructive insects have been found. If the 
 birds do take some fruit it must be remembered that as a rule 
 they pay well for all they take. It may l)e set down as a safe 
 rule that most of our birds do more good than harm, and our 
 aim should be to encourage them, and not to destroy them. 
 It has been estimated that one bird will devour or destroy 
 about 2,400 insects in a year, l-^ven the i">nglish sparrow, 
 blackbird, Cf\^d crow ari' known to destroy large numbers of 
 
178 
 
 AC'.KICULTURE. 
 
 if 
 
 \ i 
 
 i 
 
 insects. Birds of prey, such as the hawks and owls, destroy 
 larj^e niinihcrs of (kl<l mice and other vermin tiiat are very 
 injurious to growing < r()|)s and stored grain. 
 
 I'rotix 1 ION oi' Ihki.s. 'I'hcre are some birds that appear 
 to be very destructive. Some hawks are much dreaded because 
 they kill young chickens ; the crow, blackbirds, or bronze grakles, 
 are the bitter enemies of many of our common birds, and crows 
 have few friends because they pull u[) the si)routing corn. 
 'I'hey take the corn at that time because it is softened in the 
 soil and can then be eaten by them. Even crows, however, 
 feed largely on insects when insects are to be got. The Eng- 
 lish sparrows, also, have made themselves very much of a 
 nuisance because they nest about tiie houses and barns and 
 steal oats from the field. K\cn these three kinds of birds 
 make uj) for some of their badness by destroying insects. One 
 of the most objectionable birds is the cow bird or cow black- 
 bird, which is a j)arasite, that is it lays its eggs in the nests of 
 birds smaller than itself. The true owners of the nest 
 are pushed out by the intruder when hatched. What 
 we need to learn, however, is that we should protect most 
 of the birds rather than destroy them. Some try to en- 
 courage the birds to nest by setting up small houses, i)lacing 
 empty boxes and cans in the trees, hanging pieces of twine and 
 hair ujjon the fences and limbs Tlie general rule that we 
 should follow is -leave the birds alone, do not molest or dis- 
 turb them, keep away from their nests. They will soon learn 
 that they can (H)me and go in safety and build their nests and 
 rear their young broods without fear, and year by year they 
 will return to their old nesting-places and will repay us for 
 their assurance of safety. 'I'he birds are the farmers' friends, 
 but they must l)e treated as friends. 
 
 I low many l)ir(ls can you name and descrihe? 
 
 What birds iVeiiiK'nl llu; fields, and what birds are found along the 
 streams and small lakes ? 
 
 It 
 
BIRDS. 
 
 179 
 
 destroy 
 re very 
 
 appear 
 because 
 grakles, 
 d crows 
 ig corn. 
 i in the 
 lONvever, 
 he Eng- 
 ich of a 
 irns and 
 of birds 
 ts. One 
 i\v black- 
 ; nests of 
 the nest 
 What 
 •t most 
 to en- 
 placing 
 ine and 
 that we 
 t or dis- 
 m learn 
 ■sts and 
 _ar they 
 us for 
 friends, 
 
 Make a list of all the birds of your locality under these heads : — Those 
 that make their nest in the grass ; those that nest about the hou.se and 
 barn; those that nest in the orchard trees; those that nest in the foliage of 
 forest trees; those that seek a hollow in the tree. 
 
 What birds of your locality rear two broods in one season? 
 
 Which are the best singers of your birds? 
 
 What is the difference between a bluebird and a bluejay ? lietween a 
 bLickl)ird and a crow blackbird ? Between a wren and a greybinl ? 
 Between a cedar i)ird and a grosbeak ? Between a barn swallow and a 
 field sptirrow ? Between a robin and a Baltimore oriole ? 
 
 Iilong 
 
 the 
 
 "It is well known that of the various groups of birds the majority live 
 upon insects. Among the insect eaters are the fly catchers, warl)lers, 
 woodpeckers, nuthatches, orioles, goat suckers, huinmingl)irds, tanagers, 
 waxwings, gnatcatchers, kinglets, vireos, thrushes, wrens, titmice, cuckoos, 
 swallows, shrikes, thrashers, creepers and bluebirds. 
 
 " It is not generally known, however, that the^so-called seed-eaters 
 feed their young largely upon insects, and eat a great many themselves; 
 nor is it realized how nuich good they do by eating weed seeds. I'rofessor 
 1'. K. L. Beal has calculated that the little tree sparrow in Iowa alone 
 destroys 1,720,000 lbs. t)f noxious weed seeds every year. Moreover, in 
 summer seed-eaters eat blueberries, huckleberries, strawberries and rasp- 
 berries, and distribute their seeds unharmed over thousands of acres which 
 would not otherwise support such growth. 
 
 "After the examination of about forty birds, the only one actually 
 sentenced to death is the English sparrow. Of all the accused hawks 
 only three have been found guilty of the charges made against them— the 
 goshawk. Cooper's, and the sharp shinned— while the rest are numbered 
 among the best friends of the fruit grower and fixrmer. Of the wood- 
 l)eckers, the sap-sucker and redhead may be beneficial or injurious, 
 Ill-cording to circumstances, bul the rest of the family are higiily beneficial. 
 To most of the remaining birds hied the evidence is decidedly creditable. 
 The crow, crow blackbird and cedar bird are ac<[uilted, as doing more 
 good than harm; and it is proved that agriculturists owe especial protection 
 and frienilship to the j)lni.'be, kingbird, catbird, swallow, brown llnasher, 
 rose-breasted grosbeak, house wren, vireos, cuckoo, oriole, shore lark, 
 loggerhead shrike anil meadow lark." 
 
 Fi.oRENCic A. Mkrriam, of Washiiigton, D.C. 
 
'1 ' '' 
 
 1 80 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 m' 
 
 U ■'' ^HU 
 
 m 
 
 
 *' Within certain limits, birds feed upon the kind of food that is most 
 accessible. Thus, as a rule, insectivorous birds eat the insects that are 
 most easily obtained, provided they do not have some peculiarly disagree- 
 able property. It is not probable that a bird habitually passes by one 
 kind of insect to look for another which is more appetizing, and there 
 seems little evidence in support of the theory that the selection of food is 
 restricted to any particular species of insect, for it is evident that a bird 
 eats those which, by its own method of seeking, are most easily obtained. 
 Thus, a ground-feeding bird eats those it finds among the dead leaves and 
 grass; a fly- catcher, watching for its prey from some vantage point, 
 captures entirely dififerent kinds; and the woodpecker and warbler, in the 
 tree tops, select stdl others. It is thus apparent that a bird's diet is 
 likely to be quite varied, and to differ at different seasons of the year. 
 
 '* The practical value of birds in controlling insect pests should be 
 more generally recognized. It may be an easy mattter to exterminate the 
 birds in an orchard or grain field, but it is an extremely difficult one to 
 control the insect pests. It is certain, too, that the value of our native 
 sparrows as weed-destroyers is not appreciated. Weed seeds form an 
 important item of the winter food of these l)irds, and it is impossiljle to 
 estimate the immense numbers of noxious weeds which are thus annually 
 destroyed. 
 
 " If birds are protected and encouraged to nest about the farm and 
 garden they will do their share in destroying noxious insects and weeds, 
 and a few hours spent in putting up boxes for bluebirds, martins and 
 wrens will prove a good investment. Birds are protected l)y law in many 
 states, but it remains for the agriculturists to see that the laws are faithfully 
 observed." 
 
 Prof. F. E. L. Beat., B.S., 
 Asst. Ornithologist, Dept of Agriculture, 
 Washington, D.C. 
 
 Build houses for the birds. Nesting boxes. 
 
 ■,1 *1 
 
t is most 
 s that arc 
 
 disagrec- 
 js by one 
 and there 
 of food is 
 lat a bird 
 
 obtained, 
 eaves and 
 ,ge point, 
 iler, in the 
 d's diet is 
 year. 
 
 should be 
 minale the 
 :ult one to 
 
 our native 
 s form an 
 possible to 
 xs annually 
 
 FORESTRY. 
 
 i8i 
 
 e farm and 
 and weeds, 
 larlins and 
 vw in many 
 
 re 
 
 faithfully 
 
 riculture, 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 FORESTRY. 
 
 The Primeval Forest. — What was the appearance of 
 North America four hundred years ago, when it was first 
 discovered by Columbus and by Cabot ? Let us turn to a map 
 of the continent. Along the west coast we have the great 
 mountain ranges, beginning at Alaska and continuing south 
 through Mexico. These were covered with thick forests, in 
 some places the trees being of enormous size. A large [)ortion 
 of this great primeval forest still remains untouched, especially 
 in British Columbia. Then notice the mountain ranges on 
 the eastern side. As they cross into Canada they become 
 lower, branching into two sections, the one going north-east 
 through Labrador and the other north-west through Ontario or 
 off towards Alaska. In between these two branches lies 
 Hudson's Bay. This whole eastern section was cov'ered with 
 a dense forest extending from Florida to the bleak lands of 
 Labrador and away off north-west towards Alaska and the 
 barren lands. It covered all of the Eastern States, the eastern 
 provinces of Canada, all of Quebec and Ontario, and a part of 
 the North-west Territories. Down through the central part of 
 the continent stretched the [)rairies, treeless except on the hills 
 here and there or along the rivers. 
 
 Much of this original eastern forest has been cut away i>y 
 settlers or killed by forest fires, but some still rcniauis 
 in the mountainous parts of the I'^astern States and in the 
 northern parts of Maine, New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario. 
 
i8: 
 
 AGKICULTUKK. 
 
 Range of Forest Trees, — This great forest of eastern 
 North America was conii)osed of many varieties of trees, each 
 variety growing where it thrived best. In some places they 
 were mixed, as though scattered by mere chance ; iiMially, 
 however, the different kinds were confined to certain ihstricts 
 where the conditions were favorable. Thus we here and there 
 come upon a whife i)ine belt ; in one place we find a forest of 
 maples, in another oaks or elms. As climate and soil are the 
 two things that largely control or determine forest growth, we 
 may expect to find the various kinds of trees confined to 
 certain limits. If we trace across the country a line marking 
 the i)laces up to which each kind of tree is found growing, 
 but beyond which it will m)t grow in any very large numbers, 
 we shall thereby get lines which mark what are known as the 
 " northern limits " of these trees. These lines will not run 
 east and west, nor will they be parallel in all places. The 
 Atlantic and Pacific oceans and the inland lakes and Hudson'y 
 Bay have the effect of making them very irregular. 
 
 The northern limits of the most common trees will be found 
 to be about as follows: — Chestnut, black walnut, hickory, 
 butternut, red cedar, white ash, beech, and basswood in 
 southern Ontario ; somewhat further north, hemlock, red oak, 
 sugar maple, yellow birch, red i)ine, and white pine ; still 
 further north, white elm, black ash, balsam, poplar, and spruce. 
 
 It must be noted that this order is not always followed, as 
 both soil and climate have their infiuence, and the effect of 
 fire has been to change the nature of the forests. As a rule 
 evergreens will grow in colder climate than tht trees that shed 
 their leaves (deciduous), and of the latter the nut-bearing 
 varieties are usually found in the milder climate. 
 
 v\n interesting study is to find out the different trees growing 
 in a locality, and to determine the nature of the soil in which 
 they thrive ; which, for instance, grow in low, dami) places, 
 and which in dry, gravelly soil, or on rocky hills. 
 
eastern 
 ,'S, each 
 es they 
 usually, 
 Llistriets 
 id there 
 orest of 
 are the 
 wth, we 
 fined to 
 marking 
 growing, 
 umbers, 
 1 as the 
 not run 
 .«s. 'l"he 
 Hudson's 
 
 )e found 
 liekory, 
 ){)d in 
 ed oak, 
 
 ne ; still 
 si)ruce. 
 )wed, as 
 
 effect of 
 s a rule 
 Kit shed 
 
 t-bearing 
 
 growmg 
 
 in which 
 
 places, 
 
 \\i 
 
 .5 
 
 ri 
 
 B 
 I 
 
 ri 
 U 
 
 3 
 
 01 
 
 t/1 
 3 
 
 >_. 
 
 3 
 
 cr 
 a 
 
 V 
 
 'a. 
 6 
 
 c 
 'J2 
 
 2 
 
 aj 
 
 3 
 
 ii 
 
 ri 
 

 . , 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
FORESTRY. 
 
 l8 
 
 Destruction of the Forest. — What has destroyed this 
 great forest? l-'irst of all, the settler had to clear the soil for 
 his roatls aiul for his fields of grain and of pasture. In early 
 days of settlement two of the principal products of the farm 
 were the logs and timber from the body of the trees and the 
 ashes made from burning the top branches and small cuttings. 
 To-day the cutting of lumi)er is removing year by year large 
 quantities of trees, but the natural growth of young trees is 
 more than sufficient to make up for this cutting, if properly 
 carried on. The great agent of destruction to-day is fire. 
 One forest fire will sweep away or destroy in a few weeks in 
 summer or autumn far more than all the lumbermen remove. 
 The fire burns ra[)idly because of the infiammable material, 
 such as resin, in the evergreens. At the same time it destroys 
 the young s[)routing seedlings and the seeds also, which would 
 otherwise soon start a new forest that in twenty- five or forty 
 years would re[)lace the old forest. 
 
 Benefits of I*Y)Rests. — Of what use are the forests? In 
 the first place, they are a great protection against cold winds, 
 modifying the climate as great wind-breaks. They also hold 
 back the snows of winter, preventing s[)ring freshets. When 
 the country is laid bare of its trees, the creeks and streams are 
 full in early s[)ring and dry in midsummer. 
 
 Although the trees give off enormous quantities of water 
 througii their leaves, yet they hold back or store up in the 
 loose leaf mold larger amounts of water. The trees, therefore, 
 hold back the snow, and later hold back the water, and thereby 
 save the creeks from becoming dry. They also save the hills 
 from being washed i)are. The loss of soil washings by the 
 creeks in s[)ring is heavy. l-Lvery spring, therefore, should be 
 shaded by trees at its source, and every stream, no matter how 
 small, should be protected, not alone at its source in the high 
 lands, but also along its course, by at least a fringe of trees. 
 
184 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 In the in'xt |)l.ice, the forests are the home of birds and 
 game, wliicli are a source of sii|)|)ly of food and furs. 
 
 'I'rees and forests also add t(i the fine a|)pearanee of a 
 country, whether found along the streams and ri\ers or on the 
 hill toj)s. 'I'rees for all hilly country is a good rule to follow. 
 It is there that the streams take their rise. Lantl there is of 
 less value for grain crops. When we lay bare the hills we cut 
 down the wind-breaks, we dry up the springs and streams, and 
 we leave a poor soil, to be made poorer by the wa,shing of the 
 rains and the blowing of the winds. We should remember 
 that the forest is a crop of the farm, and its nature should be 
 considered as carefully as that of any other crop of the farm. 
 
 Tni", I'OKi.sr as a PkonutKR of CroI's. — If the trees are 
 a cro[), how should that cro[) be harvested? We cut dnwn all 
 of a wheat crop at one time. If we are growing a crop of corn 
 f(jr green ears W(> do not pi(^k all at once, but go over the field 
 again and again, taking the ears that are full-grown and leaving 
 the small ears to grow larger. If we were to cut down a whole 
 forest or a wood, as we do a (Top of wheat, we would have to 
 wall many years for a new crop. Hut if we take out each year 
 only the largest trees, and leave the others standing until they 
 grow to full-si/e, we can harvest a crop of trees every year, and at 
 the same time assist the smaller trees to grow more rapidly. 
 The cutting down of trees, large and small alike, is wasteful; 
 the proi)er cutting of trees, leaving the y(jung forest to make 
 growth, is alone worthy of the name of forestry. 
 
 Thert' is only one way in which to become ac(]uainted with 
 trees, and that is by studying the trees themselves as they are 
 growing. In stud\ing a tree the following [joints are to be 
 in)ticed. Mist, as to whether it is an evergreen or whether it 
 siieds its K'aves (that is, deciduous) ; second, the general shape 
 of the tree, whether it grows tall or spreads out, how it 
 branches ; third, the form of its leaves ; fourth, the nature of 
 its bark; and, fifth, the nature and form of its seeds or nuts. 
 
FORKSTRV. 
 
 185 
 
 irds and 
 
 ice of a 
 r on the 
 
 follow, 
 jre is of 
 s we cut 
 mis, and 
 ig of the 
 mienii)er 
 lould be 
 he farm, 
 trees are 
 down all 
 ) of corn 
 the field 
 ;l leaving 
 
 1 a whole 
 have to 
 
 a(~h year 
 itil they 
 and at 
 nipidly. 
 .•asteful : 
 o make 
 
 led with 
 ihey are 
 • to he 
 
 •Iher it 
 il sha|)e 
 
 how it 
 Uure of 
 or nuts. 
 
 Contrast the cedar and the ma])le ; contrast the branching 
 of (he elm and of ihr biTch ; contiast the Kaxivs of the maple, 
 of ihf o:ik, and of ihc ash ; contrast the bark ot the hickory 
 ;ntd of the birch ; contrast the seeds of the [)ine and ol the 
 basswood. 
 
 Till': FoRKST Trke Nurserv. — Every farm should and 
 every school might, have a small nursery, a i)lot fenced off so 
 that cattle and pigs cannot get into it, and which should be as 
 well tended as a tlower garden. Here are the instructions of a 
 forester. Sir Henri joly, of Quebec : —"With a little attention, 
 it is easy to tell when the seeds are rijie. Thus, toward the 
 end of June and eady in July the seeds of the elm antl those 
 of the |)lane are ri[)e; if you sow them at once, they will shoot 
 up nearly a foot that same summer. 'I'he seeds of the maple, 
 ash, oak, wild cherry, and walnut mature in the autumn ; it is 
 better to sow iIkiii inmiediately than to kee[) them in the house 
 all winter. Sow, let us sa\-, ma|)le seeds half an inch deep, 
 and others, in proportion to their si/.e, two or three inches for 
 nuts. Sow thickl)-, and after the first year you can thin them 
 b\' transplanting some. Alter four or live years you can plant 
 your \()ung trees where they are to remain. \'oii should 
 select cloud}' or rainy weather in the spring. 
 
 "In many (~ases you can ewn spare yourself the trouble of 
 sowing. When the ground is laxorabk- in July or August, 
 along the ditches, the woods, the fences, in the moss, in damp 
 places, in the lU'ighboiiiood of t'he elms and tiie planes, )()U 
 will lind hundreils of little shoots which ha\e sprung from the 
 seeds fallen tioni the trees ; plant tlu in in )'our nursery. 
 
 "The seed of the pine is very diliicult to gather. ICarly in 
 the spring, in the p.istures near the |)ines, yt)U can pull up, 
 when the soil is d.imp. as nian\ little tiii's as you will wish to 
 plant; for this kind il will be better to take the |)recaution to 
 shelter them from ihc sun until they ha\e taken tool." 
 
T 
 
 1 86 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 From this nursery you can set out a row of maples or elms 
 along the main road and the lane, taking care to keep them 
 well apart, so that they will branch out and not shade the road 
 too much ; you can also jjlant a wind-hreak for the house and 
 the garden ; you can cover the hilly ground and protect all 
 springs and water courses ; you can also plant a small clump 
 in a corner of the pasture, being careful to protect it from the 
 cattle till well grown ; you can locate a few trees near the 
 house, but not too near. There will be no difficulty in finding 
 a place for every tree, and, if properly cared for, every tree 
 thus set out will add to the value of the farm or the home. 
 
 1. How many different kinds of maple, of oali, of birch, of cedar, of 
 elm, of ash and of pine are found in your neighborhood? 
 
 2. What is pulp? Wliat trees are used lor producinj; pulp? 
 
 3. Which is more valuable, a pine from the open or one from a pine 
 forest ? Why ? 
 
 4. Why will a hollow tree live nnd a girdled tree die ? 
 
 5. What causes the rings in a tree, and the grain in a board ? How can 
 you tell a tree's age ? 
 
 6. How is maple syrup made? When? Do any other trees give 
 sin)i!ar products ? 
 
 7. What causes a knot in a pine board and a burl in an oak tree? 
 
 8. What is the effect on forest growth of allowing cattle to browse and 
 range through the wood lot. 
 
 9. What are the principal uses in manufacture of maple, ash, elm, 
 birch, oak, hickory, basswood, black walnut, ceilar, hemlock, spruce, ami 
 white pine ? 
 
 10. Kx|)lain the difference between log, timber, and lumber ; board, 
 plank, and deal; straigiitcut and (juarter-cul ; selected, mill run, and 
 culls. How is lumber measured ? 
 
 Cone of white i)iiie. (One half natural size.) 
 
ROADS. 
 
 5 or elms 
 jc'p them 
 the road 
 )use and 
 otect all 
 11 clump 
 rom the 
 lear the 
 1 finding 
 ery tree 
 ome. 
 cedar, of 
 
 Mil a pine 
 
 How can 
 
 trees give 
 
 ee? 
 rowse and 
 
 ash, elm, 
 )riice, and 
 
 r ; board, 
 I run, and 
 
 187 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 ROADS. 
 
 •' A good road is one that is good in bad weather." 
 
 Early Roads. — The Indians made their journeys by canoe 
 routes and by trails. The former followed the winding streams 
 and lakes, shortened in places by portages or "carries." The 
 latter were narrow footpaths that wound in and out, up and 
 down, following the easiest natural route. There was little or 
 no attemi)t at making or improving the road or path. Large 
 stones and fallen trees were avoided, not removed, and a good 
 surface to the path was got only by long use, not by any 
 attempt at direct improvement. The condition of the roads 
 is a fair test of civilization -the savages do not make roads. 
 
 When the settlers first came into the forest to make their 
 homes, the first thing rec^uired was a road by which to get in to 
 and on to the lot. This road was made as quickly and as 
 cheaply as possible. The trees were cleared away, making the 
 "road allowance," some of the stum[)s were removed, and the 
 road was thus used in its first stage. It was found, however, 
 that such a road was im[)assal)le and useless in the spring and 
 fall or during heavy rains.— it needed drainage. Then followed 
 the next improvement, nam^^ly, the cuttmg of a ditch on each 
 side, the dirt from which was thrown upon the road, thereby 
 raising the centre a little above the sides. This second stage 
 was a great improvement; the water drained off into the 
 side ditches, and the roadway was ke[)t fairly dry. The wheels 
 of carts and the feet of horses and of oxen do not cut into the 
 dry earth so easily as into the mud. Such a road as this we 
 call a dirt or earth road. Many are still fountl, and they are 
 
 I 
 
w 
 
 1 88 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 4 
 
 &rim 
 
 the only kind of road possible in (-(.rtain places, hut in order 
 to he useful they uuist he kej)! well rounded uj) and wi-ll 
 drained on the sides. The i^realest enemy of .ill roads is water, 
 whether it is wale r //»/ the material of the road or on the surfaie 
 of the road. The frost can do no damaL^e unless there is water 
 in the road. You know tliat water e\i)ands when it freezes, so 
 that when a wet road freezes it heaves, and heeomes broken 
 up. This, then, is the first j)rin(i|)le of road-making — keej) it 
 dry by open drains on the side, or by covered tile drains on 
 the side, or by tile drains below the road. 
 
 The next i)rineiple in road-iuaking is to get a fairly hard 
 surface. In early days the settlers sometimes cut down small 
 trees, and, after trimming them, laid tluau sitle b)- side across 
 the dirt road. By this means there was made a surface that 
 was hard but a little rough. Such a roiul, from its ribbed 
 ntiture, was called a "corduroy" road. Later on, when saw- 
 mills became couunon, sawn-planks were sometimes laitl down, 
 forming a plank road. The object in both cases was to 
 get a hard, level surface. A horse can [)ull but a light load 
 through loose sand or diej) miry mud ; he can draw nuich 
 more on a hard, level road ; he c;\n draw still more on a le\el 
 steel track. \\'hy is this so ? 
 
 Oravkl Roaixs. — Another way to harden the surface is to 
 put hard, stony material upon it. I''irst of all, good gravel 
 may be used, and a coating of it laid along the roadway. \'ou 
 will at once ask as to whether loose graxi'l will not be difficult 
 to drivi' through. So it is. Thei'efore we must gt't the gra\el 
 well packed together, and so a roller is usi'd. After first 
 rollinu the dirt roadway, a layer of grawl is put on, and the 
 
 heav)' roller is again drixen back and forth, i\cr)' lime c:rush 
 
 mg 
 mor 
 
 tl 
 
 le urave 
 
 1 d( 
 
 own a link-, and packing it together a iittle 
 
 e closely. This should be done score's of tinu's if neces- 
 sary. 'I'he number oi" limes will, ol ("omse, depend u|)on the 
 weight of the roller; a heavy 20-ton steam roller will not need 
 
ROADS. 1 8^ 
 
 to he passed over the gravel as often as a 6-ton roller drawn 
 hy two teams of horses. Unless the gravel is rolled in this 
 way, It remains loose and soft when the fall rains come on, 
 the wheels of wag<;ns cut through it, and mix it with the mud 
 heneath ; and so the graxel is wasted and the road is not nearly 
 so good as it should he. Then more gravel is put on and 
 rolled agam, and a nicely rounded or crowned surface is made 
 which will shed the rain-water into the side ditches, and 
 which is so hard and coftipact on the surface that the wheels 
 will not cut through. 
 
 Ikit hig open ditches on the side are unsighdy ; they get 
 choked up with weeds, and they are frecjuently dangerous to 
 horses and travellers. They should he kept clean, of course, 
 so that the water will not stand in them. But the hetter plan 
 is to put down a covered tile drain on each side of the road, 
 and leave only a shallow ditch ahove it. The grass will grow 
 over this, and a neat roadside will result. 
 
 Fig. 8^^.— A -ravel road properly crowned, with side ditches and tile drains. 
 
 In order to get a strong, tough surface, the gravel must he 
 well packed together, that is, it must ''hind." If we mix 
 together in the road coarse g,;ucl and fme hard stony material 
 and soft fine dirt the road will soon hecome uneven. It is 
 necessary, therefore, to have the gravel well scrt-ened ; then 
 the coarser pari should he spread on the n)a(lway and well 
 rolled, and the finer gravel spread upon it to form the surface. 
 All soft material, such as sods and loose dirt, should he kept 
 
 I 
 
I go 
 
 AORICULTURE. 
 
 itlil 
 
 out of the gravel ; in short, the gravel should be as clean as 
 possible; it should be screened, graded, and put on in layers, 
 and should be well rolled. 
 
 Stone Roads. —As a rule, gravel is more or less rounded, 
 and therefore does not at first bind well. You know that a 
 road could not be well made out of marbles. To bind well 
 there must be sharp corners and rough sides on the pieces. 
 So we find that broken stone will make a stronger and more 
 durable road than will gravel. But we must remember the 
 points already referred to, namely, the road must first of all be 
 thoroughly drained, both underneath and on the sides ; the 
 stone must be put down in courses, the largest below and the 
 smallest on the surface, and every course must be thoroughly 
 
 
 I i 
 
 Fig. 84. — This i^^ the kind of road that is made by placing loose stones 
 on a dirt road without properly prepariiiR the foundation— the 
 stones sink throuKh the mud beneath. 
 
 rolled as it is laid. It is a mistake to leave the rolling until 
 the road is all filled in. The dirt sub-soil should first be well 
 rolled. In using jjroken stop.e care should be used in choos- 
 ing a tough rock ; if the rock is soft it will soon be ground 
 into dust. Tough limestone and the hard rock called trap 
 are the best. Sandstone and most kinds of granite are too 
 easily crumbled for use on roads for heavy travel. 
 
 Now, as to the mode of building or laying a stone road. 
 I'^irst of all, wc may build the road of broken stones, none of 
 which are over three inches in diameter, laying the stone in 
 courses, and well packing it by rolling. In this way we make 
 
clean as 
 in layers, 
 
 rounded, 
 o\v that a 
 
 bind well 
 he pieces, 
 and more 
 mber the 
 : of all be 
 lides ; the 
 V and the 
 noroughly 
 
 ROADS. 
 
 191 
 
 jnes 
 the 
 
 ing until 
 t be well 
 n choos- 
 j ground 
 lied trap 
 ; are too 
 
 nc road. 
 
 none of 
 
 stone in 
 
 '.ve make 
 
 what is called a macadam road. It is so named after a Srottish 
 engineer, John L. Macadam, who lived from 1756 to 183O, 
 and who originated this method of making roads. 
 
 Fig. 85. - -A Macadam road. 
 
 We may, however, begin the road by kning a foundation of 
 flat stones from six to eight inches in thickness, then a layer 
 of coarsely broken stone, another layer or course of more finely 
 broken stone, and a thin coat of fine gravel or screenings on 
 the surface — all well compacted by a heavy roller. This kind 
 of road is called a Telford road, from the inventor, Thomas 
 Telford, a Scottish engineer, who lived from 1757 to 1834. 
 
 Fig. 86. — A 'I'elford road. 
 
 The legal width of a country road allowance is 66 feet. The 
 usual travel on such a road does not recjuire more than 24 
 feet of this to be graded and crowned. In the centre of this 
 graded portion the metalling (that is, the broken stone or 
 gravel) is placed, having a width of 6 01 8 feet and a dept,h of 
 9 to 12 inches, according to the number and weight of the 
 vehicles which will pass over the road. As the country 
 becomes more thickly populated, and the number of vehicles 
 
ww^^ 
 
 192 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 i I i- 
 
 I 1 
 
 using the road increases, it will be found necessary to make 
 the metalled poiilon wider than 24 feet. 
 
 NojES : — 
 
 Broad tires should he used on heavy waggons and carts, as 
 wheels with wide tires will not sink so readily in sand and dirt 
 as wheels with narrow tires— in fact the wide-tired wheels have 
 the same good effects as a roller on the surface of the road. 
 
 The greatest enemy to good roads is water in the roadl)ed 
 and water on the surface. Notice how a small hole on the sur- 
 face of a road becomes larger soon after a rain. 
 
 The best time to mend a road is just as soon as it needs 
 mending. "A stitch in time saves nine." 
 
 The road surface should be nicely crowned, so as to 
 shed the water to the side ditches; the side ditches should 
 be kept clean and uniform, so that the water will run away 
 and not stand in them; the road sides should be level and 
 sloping towards the ditches, and should be covered with 
 sod, all weeds, stumps and shrubs being cut out. 
 
 The fences along the road should be kept neat and trim. If 
 trees are planted along the roadside they should be fur enough 
 apart to allow the sunlight to kee[) the road dry. 
 
 As a rule the roads are a sure index of the intelligence, 
 enterprise, and prosperity of a farming community. Poor, 
 cheap roads are a source of great exj)ense to farmers, (lood 
 roads, well-kept, will enal)le the farmer to draw heavier loads 
 in a shorter time, cause less wear and tear on vehicles, horses 
 and harness, add nuich to the i)leasure and satisfaction of living 
 in the country, and increase the value of farm property. 
 
 A good road brings a farmer nearer to his neighbors, nearer 
 to market, nearer to school, and nearer to church. 
 
 "t ^ 
 
to make 
 
 1 carts, as 
 I aiul dirt 
 eels have 
 the road, 
 roadbed 
 n the sur- 
 
 it needs 
 
 so as to 
 2S should 
 run away 
 level and 
 jred with 
 
 trim. If 
 r enough 
 
 elligence, 
 
 I'oor, 
 
 Ciood 
 
 ier loads 
 
 ■s, horses 
 
 of living 
 
 )erty. 
 
 rs, nearer 
 
 THE COUNTRY HOME. 
 
 193 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 THE COUNTRY HOME. 
 
 A Fine Country Home, — In the older countries of Europe 
 most families of even moderate wealth endeavor to have two 
 homes or re: idences, a city or town house and a country 
 house. The greater pleasure, the more lasting recollections, 
 are usually associated with the latter. When we clearly under- 
 stand the nature and the surroundings of the rural homes, the 
 country seats, of England, Scotland and Ireland, we do not 
 wonder at the preference. With increased wealth, in the future 
 a similar condition of affairs may, perhaps, result in this 
 country, but the building up of pleasant, attractive country 
 homes in this land need not be put off until the day of 
 increased wealth shall make such possible to a few. Far better 
 will it be for this country if every farmer's home can be made 
 attractive and comfortable. Many men of the towns and 
 cities, wearied and perplexed with the driving cares and the 
 never-ending anxieties of their busy life, look forward longingly 
 to a time when they can return to the country, for a part of the 
 year at least, to enjoy the ({uiet, the comfort, and the health- 
 fulness of a country home, even though it may be a very 
 humble home. The young people of to-day will ere long be 
 making homes for themselves ; in fact, even now they can do 
 something towards making their homes more attractive, hence 
 it is not out of place to make a brief study of what the ideal 
 country home should be. Home life in the country, as in the 
 town, is the most important factor in building up character. A 
 nation's life is largely the combined home life of all the families 
 that make up the nation. 
 
m^^ 
 
 194 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The House. — The house depends for its attractiveness not 
 upon what it is made of — stone, l)rick, wood, logs — but upon 
 its form, its situation and its surroundings. In deciding 
 upon the outline of a house both plainness and too much 
 variation and decoration should be avoided. It should, if 
 possible, face towards the south, to see the first of spring and 
 the last of autumn ; it should be near enough to the road to 
 bring passing vehicles and traffic within range, and yet not 
 right on or against the road. If possible, from the front there 
 should be a pleasant outlook or landscape. It should stand 
 on rising ground, so that there will be perfect drainage away 
 from it, and no possibility of any drainage towards it. 
 
 Having selected a good site, we begin with the house, and, 
 of course, start with the cellar. This should extend under the 
 whole house, otherwise some of the rooms may be damp at 
 times. The cellar should be deep enough so that one can 
 walk about in all parts of it erect ; it should have a concrete 
 floor, and a well-laid drain from it to keep it dry. Have 
 windows on all sides, so that the whole cellar can be kept well 
 aired. If it can be arranged, have a root-cellar apart from the 
 house, say in one corner of the garden. All this means a little 
 extra expense, but damp, musty cellars and decaying roots 
 result in sickness, sometimes in death, and the cost of a good 
 cellar will be money well invested. 
 
 The arrangement of the rooms in the house is a matter 
 largely of choice. There should be a large kitchen, a pantry, 
 a dining-room, and a parlor on the ground floor. There 
 should be also a reading-room or library or study, in which 
 will be found the best agricultural papers, and at least a small 
 collection of the best agricultural books and reports. Two 
 other things should be provided for, namely, one large bow 
 window for house-plants and a grate for a log fire. The sleep- 
 ing rooms may be on the second floor, and, in addition, there 
 should be a store-room and a bath-room. 
 
THE COUNTRY HOME. 
 
 195 
 
 iveness not 
 -but u\)on 
 1 deciding 
 too much 
 should, if 
 spring and 
 the road to 
 nd yet not 
 front there 
 lould stand 
 linage away 
 it. 
 
 house, and, 
 id under the 
 3e damp at 
 lat one can 
 : a concrete 
 dry. Have 
 e kept well 
 rt from the 
 leans a little 
 aying roots 
 ,t of a good 
 
 lis a matter 
 |n, a pantry, 
 tor. There 
 y, in which 
 -ast a small 
 lorts. Two 
 large bow 
 JThe sleep- 
 lition, there 
 
 So much for the inside. On the outside there should be a 
 wide verandah with comfortable chairs. This will be found to 
 be the summer living room. It should run the length of at 
 least one side of the house, and, if the style of the house 
 allow and the outlook be favorai)le, it should run around on a 
 second side. Both sides will be used in different kinds of 
 weather. Around the supports of the verandah there can be 
 twined a climbing plant, Virginia creeper or ivy or honey- 
 suckle or clematis or climbing rose. 
 
 The Si'RROUNDixGs of the House. — Two great essentials 
 to health are pure air and sunlight ; therefore, have plenty of 
 windows, and keep all trees far enough away so that the 
 windows will not be darkened. Vou wish a fine outlook from 
 your verandah, therefore do not plant trees to hide the view. 
 You should, or may have, a few trees along the main road and 
 on either side of the winding driveway from the entrance-gate, 
 but kee[) the front well open, so as to let in the fresh air and 
 the sunlight, and so as to allow you to see out and away over 
 the country. In the rear have a clump of spruce, to act as a 
 wind-break against the cold north and north-west winds. On 
 the side you may have a neatly-trimmed hedge of cedar, and 
 here and there you may have a native shrub, but between your 
 house and the road have a sloping lawn of green grass, clear 
 of weeds, and well-trimmed. If the lawn is large enough you 
 might have one or two shapely miaples, but do not crowd out 
 the grass or obstruct the view. And the flowers? On the 
 side rather than in front, but choice and taste will settle where 
 they are to go Perhaps you can make a simple [)lan or sketch 
 of a home such as we have briefly outlined. You will find 
 that you will have to alter it to suit the general situation and 
 lay-out of your farm, but, keeping in mind these simple 
 principles as a guide, you can, if you will, make in time an 
 ideal country home, which is one of the greatest blessings of 
 any country. 
 
96 
 
 AORICULTURI-: 
 
 
 FIl;. 87.— a country schoijlhouse. 
 
 
 Fig. 88. — How it miRtit he iiii|iii)\iHl hy .uiiling some trees ;i,.il shrulis (I'Vimi Itiille- 
 tii, College of Agrictilttire, Cornell University, entitled " Hints on the Planting of 
 Shrubbery," Figs 21 and 22.) 
 

 I, \ 
 
 / . 
 
 i^'' 
 
 ili.w. 
 
 
 Ha 
 
 i 
 
 r'ii 
 
 
 m 
 
 |(l''rcini I'.uIIl- 
 Plaiitiug of 
 
 THE COUNTRY HOME. 
 
 197 
 
 The leading thought in planting home grounds, but 
 particularly school grounds, is to have a setting of green- 
 sward for the central figure — the building — and then to 
 frame this with an irregular border of trees, shrubs, and 
 flowers, as shown in fig. 89. 
 
 
 
 Li^-. ^.M^'jii'^t^': 
 
 
 
 Fig. 89. — A picture, of wliicli a schoolhouse is ilie ctniral figure. 
 
 The border can always be added to or taken from with- 
 out disturbing the arrangement. A hill of corn or a canna 
 root may be inserted in the badvground with pleasing 
 rffect, while the foreground may be used for annual 
 flowers. 
 
 SUCC.KSIIONS TO 1 UK TkaCIIKR : 
 
 Are not the siini)un(lini;i ul tlio ii\erai;e eountry school bare and 
 cliecrless? (Mj^. ^"j). May Uil-} not he iiiii)r<>VL'<l hy tlie plfiiitiii^ of 
 such native shnil»s and llowcrs as nii^;ht he picked vip in a half- 
 day's outiny with tlie hoys and girls? (Fig. 8S). In this oonncoliun 
 
■TT-P' 
 
 198 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 1 
 
 the teacher will do well to consult "Hints on Rural School 
 Grounds," Bulletin No. 160, Cornell University Experiment Sta- 
 tion, from which the accompanying cuts are taken. 
 
 I 
 
 Tioael. 
 
 h'iji. 90. — A " corner' scUoolhuu.se and how the grounds niuy be arr.myed. 
 
 ! i 
 
TKKHS AND SHRUBS. 
 
 199 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 TREES AND SHRUBS. 
 
 There are special botanical names for all trees and shrnl.. 
 just as t ere are for other plants, such as grass" ! d ed ' 
 In the foo.,ng table the scientific or botanical nan e pui 
 m one column and the comn.on name in the other n VZ 
 
 meaning white." In the same wav, .juenus m.anm. ''oak '' 
 ^uera. ai,a is the botanical name of ''white 1' nd 
 ^uenus rulmt '^VQd oak:' 'I'c oak, and 
 
 Al'ies halsavtifera . . n \ r 
 
 A: . Isalsam fir. 
 
 Acer nc,rundo . I'^l'! '"*'^^'''^- fbox ddcr. 
 
 Acer Pennsylvanicuin '. Ash-leaved or Manitoba n,aplo .,r 
 
 Acer rubrum , ^ ''''''''' '"■ "'"^^•^^' ^^■^'^'''• 
 
 Acer saccharinum ^" '"' '^^'^ '"''^f^'^'- 
 
 Acer spicaUon ... ^^"-^ "' '"' ' '"^^P'^' 
 
 Aescu^^s hip^oras^;nu>n \ u"T'7 ""''" 
 
 Betii/a lenta ... ,,. , 
 
 BetHla uhrra ' "' '^'''-''''y "'' '^^^''-'^'t '''''ch. 
 
 r, J , I'^ed lurch. 
 
 Befu/a papyrifera ... r^ 
 
 Bctula popuNfolia ,^vr!'' " ^''''" '"■^^'''• 
 
 Carpinus Americana '. '. ''^i "'' ^"•^•>' '"'•^■•^• 
 
 r,,,..,^ Micllhark liicUorv. 
 
 ^a>ya atmua. ... „• , . , •* 
 
 /-^ . l5ittcr liickorv. 
 
 (^arya inicrocarpa . . t; tr r • . • 
 
 Caryaporcina \. ^.nall fruU h.ckory. 
 
 r^ \ ' 'Kiuit. 
 
 tarya tomentosa ,.. ... 
 
 Castauea sativa.. \M"te.heart hickory. 
 
 rp , C IlL'StllUt. 
 
 Fagus sylvatica ... r. 
 
 t.iiro|)caii lifcch. 
 
200 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 IP 
 
 M 
 
 Fagus ferugmea American beech. 
 
 Fraxinus Americana White ash. 
 
 Fraxinus pubescens Red ash. 
 
 Fraxinus sainbucifolia Black ash. 
 
 Gymnoiladus Canadensis . . Coffee tree. 
 
 fuglans cinerea Butternut. 
 
 Julians nigra Black walnut. 
 
 /unipeius Virginiana Red cedar. 
 
 Larix Americana Tamarack or American larch. 
 
 Li'iodendron ttilipifera Tulip tree. 
 
 Ostrya Virginica Iron wood or hop hornbeam. 
 
 Picea alba White spruce. 
 
 Picca excelsa Norway spruce. 
 
 Picea nigra Black spruce. 
 
 Ptuiis Banksiana Cypress or jack pine. 
 
 Pinus tiiitis Yellow pine. 
 
 P/nus resinosa Red or Norway pine. 
 
 Pinus strobus White or Weymouth pine. 
 
 Platanns occidemalis Buttonwood or sycamore. 
 
 Populus balsainifera Balsam poplar or Balm of Gilead. 
 
 Popuhis grandidentata Lar^e toothed aspen. [poplar. 
 
 Populus treinuloides American aspen or trembling-leaf 
 
 Quercus alba While oak. 
 
 Quercus coccinea Scarlet oak. 
 
 Quenus prinus Rock chestnut oak. 
 
 Qiteicus rubra Red oak. 
 
 Quercus stellata .... Tost oak. 
 
 Quercus tinctoria (Quercitron oak. 
 
 Quercus macrocarpa Bur oak. 
 
 Salix alba While willow. 
 
 Salix vilcllina Yellow willow. 
 
 Sorbus Americana Mountain ash. 
 
 Thuja occidcntalis Arbor-vitre or white cedar. 
 
 Tsuga Canadensis Hemlock. 
 
 Tilia Americana Basswood or linden 
 
 Ulmus Americana American elm. 
 
 Ulmus fuha Red or slippery elm. 
 
 Ulmus racemosa Cork or rock elm. 
 
 Ulmus campestris European elm. 
 
WKKDS. 
 
 20I 
 
 WEEDS. 
 
 Note. — A is for annual, B for biennial, and P for perennial. 
 
 arch. 
 
 ;am. 
 
 le. 
 
 e. 
 
 pf Gilead. 
 
 [poplar, 
 bling-leaf 
 
 Common Name. 
 
 Buttercup P 
 
 Cursed Buttercup. .A 
 Tall Meadow rue. . . P 
 
 False P'lax A 
 
 Shepherd's purse . .A 
 
 Pejiperwort A 
 
 Penti ycress A 
 
 WiUrnuistard A 
 
 Worm seed " .... A 
 vSt. John's \vort....P 
 
 Corn Cockle A 
 
 Bladder Campion.. P 
 Field Chickweed. . .P 
 
 Bouncinj^ Bet P 
 
 Chickweed A 
 
 Purslane A 
 
 Mallow P 
 
 Indian ]Mallow A 
 
 Poison Sumach . . . . P 
 
 Poison Ivy P 
 
 Climbinj.^ Ivy P 
 
 Rabbit-foot clover... V 
 
 Wild Tare P 
 
 Black Medick A 
 
 Sweet clover A 
 
 Wild Carrot B 
 
 Poison Hendock . . . B 
 
 Wild Parsnip B 
 
 Eveninjf Primrose. .B 
 
 Willow herb P 
 
 Teasel B 
 
 Gnnmdsel A 
 
 Ra^fweed A 
 
 Ox-eye Daisy P 
 
 Yarrow P 
 
 Tansv P 
 
 Golden Rod P 
 
 Cone-Mower B 
 
 vSow Thistle A 
 
 Corn Thistle P 
 
 I'ireweed .X 
 
 Burdock B 
 
 f'amiia' or 
 Ordkr. 
 
 Ranu!!culaceie 
 
 Crucifera.' 
 
 Scientific Name. 
 
 Hypericacex' 
 CaryophyllaceiE 
 
 Portulacacete 
 Malvaceie. . . . 
 
 AnacardiaceiL' 
 
 (i 
 Leguminosce 
 
 Umbellifera2 
 
 Onagracea? 
 
 Dipsaceiu . 
 Compositie 
 
 u 
 
 Ranunculus acris. 
 Ranuncidus sceleratus. 
 Thalictrum ])<)ly_t,famuni. 
 Camelina sativa. 
 Capsella Bursa-])astoris. 
 Lepidium \'ir>,nnicuni 
 Thlaspi arven.se. 
 Bra.ssica Sinapistrum. 
 F>ysimum cheiranthoides. 
 Hypericum perforatum. 
 Lychnis Cdtliago. 
 Silene inflata. 
 Cera.stium arvense. 
 Saponaria ofiicinalis. 
 Stellaria media. 
 Porlidaca olcracea. 
 Malva rotundifolia. 
 Abutilon avicenniu. 
 Rhus venenata. 
 Rhus toxicodendron.. 
 Rhus radicans. 
 Trifolium arvense. 
 Vicia Cracca. 
 IVIedicago lu])ulina. 
 ]Melilotus alba. 
 Daucus carota. 
 Conium maculatum. 
 Pastinaca sativa. 
 (Fnothera biennis. 
 Ivjiilobium angu.stifolium. 
 Dipsacus .sylvestris. 
 Senecio vulgaris. 
 Ambrosia artemisia'folia. 
 Leucanthenunn vulgare 
 Achilltea millefolium. 
 Tanacetum vulgare. 
 Solidago Canadensis. 
 Rudbeckia hirta. 
 Sonchns oleraceus. 
 vSonchus arvensis. 
 Ivrechthitis hieracifolia. 
 Arctium I.appa. 
 
m^^ 
 
 202 
 
 AGRICUI/rURK. 
 
 ^1 
 
 Common Xami-;. 
 
 Chicory P 
 
 Dandelion V 
 
 Fleabane A 
 
 Mavwee (I A 
 
 Canada Thistle . . . . P 
 
 Bull Thistle K 
 
 Bur Marigold P 
 
 Elecampane P 
 
 Clot -bur A 
 
 Mullein B 
 
 Neck weed A 
 
 Toad Max P 
 
 Vervain P 
 
 White Vervain P 
 
 Motherwort P 
 
 Catnip P 
 
 vSelf Heal P 
 
 vStickseed B 
 
 Hound's Tongue., .B 
 
 Blueweed B 
 
 Pigeoiuveed A 
 
 Thorn-Apple A 
 
 Bindweed P 
 
 Dodder A 
 
 Milkweed P 
 
 Plantain P 
 
 Rib-grass P 
 
 Lamb's Quarters. . .A 
 Strawberry Blite. . .A 
 Russian Thistle .... A 
 
 Pigweed A 
 
 Goosegrass A 
 
 lilack liindweed . . .A 
 Ladv's Thumb .... A 
 
 Sorrel P 
 
 Common Dock . . . . P 
 
 Bittei Dock P 
 
 Smart weed A 
 
 Nettle P 
 
 Wild I.eek P 
 
 Chess A 
 
 Foxtail A 
 
 Barnyard Grass. . . . A 
 
 Witch Grass A 
 
 Wild Oat A 
 
 Couch Grass P 
 
 P'amily or 
 Ordkr. 
 
 Compositie. 
 
 It 
 
 ScrophulariaceiL' 
 
 Verbenacetc . . . . 
 Labiatai 
 
 Borroginacea.' 
 
 Solanacea? 
 
 Convolvulaceu.' . 
 
 .\sclepiadacetL' . 
 
 Plantaginacete . 
 i( 
 
 Chenopodiaceui 
 
 i< 
 
 .\marantaceai.. . 
 Polygonacea.'. . . 
 
 1 1 
 
 SciiiNTii'ic Xami-: 
 
 Urticaceee. 
 LiliacetL' . . , 
 Gramineae , 
 
 < i 
 II 
 
 Cichorium Intybus. 
 Taraxacum otTicinale. 
 Ivrigeron Canadense. 
 .Vntliemis Cotula. 
 Cnicus arvensis. 
 Cnicus lanceolatus. 
 Bidens frondo.sa. 
 Inula Helenium. 
 Xanthium Canadense. 
 \'erbascum Tha])sus. 
 Veronica peregrina. 
 Linaria vulgaris. 
 Verljena ha.stata. 
 Verl)ena iirticifolia. 
 Leonurus Cardiaca. 
 Nepeta Cataria. 
 Brunella vulgaris. 
 ICchinospermum Lappula. 
 Cynoglossum officinale. 
 Ischium vulgare. 
 Lithospernunn arvense. 
 Datura vStramonium. 
 Convolvulus arvensis. 
 Cuscuta trifolii. 
 Asclepias Cornuti. 
 Plantago major. 
 Plantago lanceolala. 
 Cheno])0(lium album. 
 Chenopodium capitatum. 
 Salsola kali 
 
 Amarantus retroflexus. 
 Polygonum aviculare. 
 Polygonum Convolvulus. 
 Polygonum Persicaria. 
 Rumex Acetosella. 
 Rumex crispus. 
 Rumex obtusifolius. 
 Polygonum hydropiper. 
 jl'rtica gracilis. 
 Allium tricoceum. 
 Bromus secaliiius 
 Setaria viridis. 
 'Panicmn Crus-galli. 
 Panicum capillare. 
 Avena fatua. 
 Agropyrum repens. 
 
 I 
 
SPRAYINi; MIXTURKS. 
 
 SPRAYING MIXTURES. 
 
 «>3 
 
 destroy sucking insec.s ; 3. 1" lTJvent7JT. ' I' '" P'"="l "^ 
 
 copper su,p.a,e ,or ,he .Wrdr-VsTrl.r'LT;?^'^^^^^"!^:' 
 
 Bordeaux Mixture. 
 
 Copper sulphate (or bluestone). . 
 
 Lime (fresh) 4 pounds. 
 
 Water 4 " 
 
 Pla-^ .1 . 40 gallons. 
 
 wa^rS,I4TL"li;1f„1y;i;„ -^-.^l-^g --^ -ansi. i„ 5«a„o„so, 
 the other 30 gallons of wafer U?I on f ' ^^" """ '^^ ^^" ^"^^ add 
 solution is made by stirring up / pound of P^l^? '" '"'"'" ^^"^ ^^««" 
 of water (200 for apple treL, 250 for Ims .^^^^^^^ 
 about 4 gallons of milk of jime ^ ' ^"'^ ^°° ^""^ peaches), add 
 
 che^J^k'^he' in'S'i^l^Tseafe'at't^r;^^ ^° ^^ "^^ '°^^^her to 
 
 mixture as above stated aSadLoz of P^, r'""' '""'^^ '^' ^°'^«^"'^' 
 Bordeaux mixture. ^ * °^ ^^"^ ^''^e" to the 40 gallons of 
 
 Kerosene Emulsion. 
 
 Hard soap, . 1/ .^^ j 
 
 Boiling water (sofo'.' ■;:. .^.P°""^' °'' '°^' «°^P. 
 
 Cuai oil 
 
 I quart. 
 
 1 gallon. 
 
 2 gallons. 
 
 wUh sour U (. gK) andrf oiuriuonsT'lioT "'P-'" ^''^"''^ 
 This laller will not keep long. gallons), no soap being required.