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Maps, plates, charts, etc.. may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre film6s d des taux de reduction diffdrents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul clichd, il est filmd d partir de Tangle supdrieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. lies diagrammes suivants illustrent la m^thode. t 2 3 1 2 3 ♦\ : I 5 6 .*J&' p ■*-Li THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES ov LANGUAGE ; OR, THE PHILOSOPHY OF GRAMMAR. BY THOMAS JAFFRAY ROBERTSON, ESQ., M.A., HEAD MASTER OP THE NORMAL SCHOOL FOR UPPER CANADA } (Hate mtiiO Huspectot of tl)e ilrisij j^ktional Sctjools.) SECOND EDITION. PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY JOHN LOVELL ; AND SOLD DY R. A A. MILLER. Toronto : R. & A. MILLER, 02 KING STREET, EAST. FOR SALE AT THE BOOKSTORES. 1861. \ ^ .- V Entered, according to the Act of the Provincial Parliament, in the year one thousand eight hundred and sixty, by Thomas Jaffray Robertson, Esq., M.A., &c., in the Office of the Registrar of the Province of Canada. The a mar pupils philos< princi] partici tice of represi the mi in the rules Thel illustra Date ii they a^ intend^ of the ion wii so far I afford analyst tactici Lament, in 3y Thomas &ce of the P R E P A C E. The study of Grammar has been so constantly pursued in a manner almost purely mechanical, that both teachers and pupils seem to have generally forgotten that any theory or philosophical basis can exist on which its great general principles are founded. It is true that the usage of each particular language will always guide and govern the prac- tice of that lan<;uage ; but besides this, the facts that words represent ideas, and that the connexions between ideas in the mind must be indicated by corresponding connexions in the words, aflford a common basis for the great general rules which are identical in all languages. The following treatise is an attempt to explain and illustrate these general principles — to show how they origi- nate in the operations of the mind, and to what extent they are necessarily identical in all languages. It is not intended to introduce these considerations to the exclusion of the practical rules which operate in immediate connex- ion with the usage of any language, but rather to explain, so far as possible, the origin of these rules, and thereby I afford a more accurate and precise means of examining the [analysis of sentences, the nature of words, and their syn- I tactical /arrangement. i;64378 r iv PREFACE. It was the original intention of the author to limit the following sketch strictly to the mere philosophy of Grammar, chiefly for the use of teachers and advanced students. Various considerations, however, have induced him to in- troduce into the work as much as possible of the practical application of the principles of general Grammar to the usages of the English language, and more especially to add, in the shape of an Appendix, a short introduction to the practical rules as commonly taught in schools. The teacher is recommended in teaching beginners (at least young children) to commence with the Appendix, giving such explanation of the reasons of the different rules as the pupils are capable of receiving. He will find it convenient also to limit himself at first to the three prin- cipal parts of speech — the noun, verb, and adjective, — to combine these in easy propositions, with simple explana- tions of each part, and then to practise them in finding out the several parts. A great variety of examples of analysis has been intro- duced, with a view to illustrate as many as possible of the different forms in which words are arranged in sentences, and to exhibit in the strongest light the very general nature of the great principles which constitute the philo- sophy of Grammar. It was the writer's intention also to add two chapters, one explaining the numerous peculiar and idiomatic forms of speech in common use, and the other exhibiting and correcting the various incorrect and imperfect or ambigu- ous modes of expressing the thoughts bo commonly heard, but the apprehension of rendering the work too costly for ■ the convenience of the great mass of schools and teachers, rendered the omission of those chapters unavoidable. his dren It " hear of, at shoulc requii subjec is thel time i I limit the jrannuar, students, iin to in- practical lar to the lly to add, ion to the inners (at Appendix, c different c will find 1 three prin- jectivc, — to lie explana- i finding out been intro- ssible of the n sentences, /ery general be the philo- wo chapters, Lomatic forms hibiting and ct or ambigu- imonly heard, too costly for and teachers, roidable. TREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. In announcinj]^ a second edition of the " Philosophy of Grammar," the author s^adly takes the opportunity of returning thanks for the rapid circulation of the first ; and with the view of making the work more worthy of tho notice of teachers and students, he has taken great pains to correct errors, and has also introduced in the Appendix some additional matter explanatory of common incorrect modes of expression and peculiar phrases. He again deems it necessary to remind his readers that his principal object was to add to the treatises at present in use, a sketch of the Philosophy of Grammar, including at the same time in an Appendix as much of tho rudiments as will enable the work to I e used as a text-book for chil- dren of all ages. It must however be distinctly understood, that a mere "hearer of lessons " will find himself at a loss in the use of, at least, a largo portion of the work. The teacher should be capable of giving all the explanations obviously required by the text ; in short in this and many other subjects, "conversational teaching," at least with children, is the most eflfective method; indeed for a considerable time a text-book should be dispensed with, and when VI PREFACE TO THE 6EC0ND EDITION. placed in the children's hands, almost every line of it will require illustration and explanation. For this reason the author has carefully avoided questions at the bottom of each page, because they are apt to lead to mechanical teaching ; any one who can read, can ask them ; and after the old system, can " pandy " or " cowhide," every child who does not answer in the words of the book. All teach- ers who are entirely dependent on such questions and practise such a system should abandon the profession, and the sooner the better. In short no text-book will supply a deficiency in mental ability, a mind trained and taught by experience, and a spirit heartily engaged in the work. 4 I will the 1 of lical ifter ;hild !ach- and and pply light ■k. J PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE. 1 CHAPTER I. LANaUAQU IN THE LoWER AnIMALS — LANaUAOl A RESCLT OF TUi POSSESSION orr intellect, and must follow its opeuations — Operations of tub mind— their effect on the lanouaqb OF different races — Connexions between ideas indicated BY CORRESPONDINQ CONNEXIONS BETWEEN WORDS. (1.) The intellect of man comprehends a variety of powers and faculties which are exhibited by the lower ani- mals also in various limited degrees. These powers are perpetually exercised on the objects that surround them, and hence, as most creatures live in society, they may na- turally be supposed to possess some means of imparting their feelings or thoughts to each other. — (In the use of the words " ideas," " thoughts," " notions," and others of a similar character, I shall be guided by their commonly received acceptation, without venturinoj to deal with the precise definitions adopted in mental philosophy ; thus I shall speak of an idea as the mental impression received from external objects through the medium of our senses, and so on of the others.) But how are these thoughts or ideas to be made known te his fellows by any creature possessed of intellect ? Evi- dently by some sort of signs capable of being understood by the others, and we find traces of such signs observable in most, even of the inferior animals, with which we are acquainted ; so arguing by analogy, we may fairly assume that no creature possessed of life, however low in the scale of creation, is altogether destitute of such a power. Con- sider language in its widest acceptation, apart from the 8 I'llINCIPLES f»F I elements of nrticulatc pniinds, this power of communicatinp scnmitions, so uiiiver.sally distributid, iiiiiy In- ilciiniuirjated lan^ua;^e, whether it coii.si.stH of discordant souikIm or criert, motions or distortions of the }»ody, clian;;es of aspect, or actual words. This is sufRciently obvious in the superior orders of the lower animals, the various domestic creatures, which we train up to minister to »mr luxuri«'s or our ne- cessities, — nay, our superior intellect hris en:ibli .1 us to attach a distinct meaning to the various cries and ^'estures of the do«j, the liorsc, or the elephant, and occasionally to distiiif^uish the peculiar intonations of individuals, and even to form an estimate of the temperament and disposi- tion by peculiarities of aspect and chanj^es of countenance. (2.) Thus to some extent we have become acquainted with the lanp^agc of the lower animals, and can trace a direct connexion between the sentiment or sensation to be indicated, and the sitj;ns used for that purpose. Wc have learned that these 8i<;ns vary under various circumstances, and that, no matter how limited be the intellect of the creature under observation, the si^ns it makes use of will vary with its sensations, and will therefore necessarily follow such order, and have such connexion with each other as exists in the mind (if I may use the term) of the creature using them. (3.) Thus language (using the term in its most extend- ed signification) may be said to be common to all creatures possessing any degree of intellect, and to be a sort of ne- cessary result of such intellect ; it must change with the changes, and depend on the operations of such intellect. (4.) These signs of sensations which constitute language in its widest sense will thus, for the same reason, be few and simple where there is least intellect, and increase in complexity and variety accordingly as the intellectual ope- rations possess greater scope and power. Whatever may be the discrepancy existing between the intellects of the various orders of the lower animals, the human intellect is so immeasurably superior, that the language of man must necessarily be in an equal degree superior in expression^ copiousness and variety. LANUL'AUE. (5.) It iH not nocoss.'iry to my purpose to cntor on tho disputed (|U(',stioii touching tho ditl'troneo between tlio in- tellect of the brute and that of the Mian, it is suflieient to impress on my readers the general laet alluded t<» above, that ill both cases the expression of sensations nnd of idean must be guided by the mental circumstances connected witli such ideas. ((>.) Perhaps the simplest operation of tlie mind with wliich we liave to do in consideriuL; the nature of lam^'ua^'c, is "simple apprehension," or that process, ]>y whieli, what we call an idea is produced or called up in the mind, usu- ally throui^li the instrumentality of the senscH. (7.) The next intellectual process, and one of a more complicated character, is tlie comparison of two ideas, by means of wliich we form an opinion or " judj^icnt of the mind." This is called " Jud^'ment ;" and the usual means whereby we make these mental operations known to others, is " Lan<;^uajj^e." (8.) Of course there arc various other operation? of the mind of which we make frequent use ; and among these is tho comparison of two judi^ments, whence we deduce a third. This is called " Keasoning;" and tho examination into its use and nature constitutes the science of Logic : but these and other mental operations are communicated by means of the signs made use of for representing the results of simple apprehension and judgment ; that is, by signs of mere ideas or of combinations of ideas forming opinions. (9.) The human intellect varies materially in its powers, both in different nations and in different individuals of the same nation ; but these are differences of degree, not of kind : and though certain faculties may be exceedingly weak, or possibly altogether wanting in some, yet the ope- rations of the mind, so far as they take place, are identical in all. Thus, to form an opinion we entertain the idea of some thing (no matter what its nature) and attach to it, or compare with it, the idea of some quality ; and as these two ideas agree or disagree, we form an affirmative or ne- gative opinion, For example, wo think of the sub- 10 PRINCIPLES OP ject "man," and we compare with it the idea of the quality expressed by the word " mortality." By means of such comparison we form the opinion, which would be expressed in the English language by the phrase, " Man is mortal ;" and some such process is carried on in the mind of every one when forming an opinion, no matter what his race or condition. (10.) The immense difference that exists in mental power between the highly educated civilized man, and the lowest in the scale, as for instance the brown man of Sumatra!, is no argument against the above statement. The latter race will have infinitely fewer and less complex ideas, and will be immeasurably inferior in the faculty of abstraction, the power that probably distinguishes the human intellect from that of the lower animals ; but the mental operations, so far as they are performed at all, will be performed in the same way in both races, and hence the language of both will, to the same extent, partake of the same characteristics. Thus the dialects of the savage will have infinitely fewer words, because the ideas he re- quires to communicate are infinitely fewer. He will have few or no common terms ; because his mind is deficient in the faculty of abstraction, by means of which we are enabled to frame common terms. He will have names, for instance, for particular kinds of motion or colour, but no words equivalent to the general appellation indicative of the whole class. V^ery possibly his dialect may consist only of the names of the objects around him, of their qualities, and what he does with them; but it will nevertheless equally represent mental operations, identical in their na- ture with those which take place in the mind of the most enlightened individual. (11.) In short, as there are different ideas and different kinds of ideas in the minds of all to be represented by language, so the signs or words used for such purposes in any language must be different and of different kinds ; and, as the ideas have various connexion and relations in the minds of all, so the signs or words representing them must by some means or other indicate such relations with i cl( op in to m it LANQUAQE. 11 clearness and precision. Thus, if I am led to form the opinion regarding two men, that one is beating the other, indicated by the words " William beats John " ; in order to express that opinion accurately, the word " William " must bear the same relation to " beats " as the idea which it represents bears to the idea represented by the word " beats " and so of the other word, " John," whose rela- tion to " beats " must be different from that of " William" to " beats," because the relation of the idea for which it stands is different. All this is the case, no matter in what language we express ourselves ; and consequently the grammatical conditions adopted to express such relations must be identical in all languages, no matter how the mode of indicating these conditions may vary by the usage of particular dialects : as in the example above, what is called in English a verb, must have before it, in any lan- guage, what we call a subject ; and if it represents a parti- cular kind of action, it must have after it what we call an object. I here use the words " before " and " after," not according to the position of the words as uttered, but ac- cording to the sequence of the ideas. CHAPTER II. Lahouaoe, Words — Gbnebal Principles common to all Lan- OUAQES — Based on identity of Mental Operations — Origin 09 CLASSES OF WORDS — LETTERS — TUB PhILOSOPHT OF GRAM- MAR. (12.) Language is " the means by which we communi- cate our ideas to each other," and consists of words, which are articulate sounds which represent ideas. Those words combined together represent corresponding combinations of ideas ; such combinations of words, that is, "judgments of the mind expressed in words," are the means we make use of to make known our sentiments on all subjects. Different languages make use of different words to express the same idea, and arrange them in dif- 12 PRINCIPLES OF ! ferent modes, when in combination, to express the same sentiment. Of the origin of words in any dialect I am not about to treat, nor of the particular methods adopted by different dialects to indicate the relations of words to each other when used to convey a sentiment. These ar- rangements will depend on the arbitrary usage of each language, and cannot be accounted for on any precise theory ; and the details of the special arrangements of any language, will constitute a considerable portion of the grammar of that language. The great principles, however, which are more or less indicated by those special arrange- ments, are identical in all languages ; because, as already stated, the operations of the mind to be represented by such languages, are similarly identical. These general principles common to all languages, are chiefly as fol- lows : — (13.) All minds admit and communicate ideas ; there- fore, there are separate representatives thereof, namely, words. This is true, whether, as in some languages, several ideas are combined in one word, or, as in others, many ideas exist for which there is no single sign or word. Thus diflFerent languages differ very materially in the number of words composing them, such number depending materially on the condition of those who speak each, as regards enlightenment of intellect, and civilization. The wants of life are immeasurably increased in the civilized man ; new arts and sciences introduced, and consequently a vast number of new words required to represent the host of additional ideas thereby admitted. (14.) Ideas connected together in the exercise of thought, must be imitated therein by the words that represent them ; and these connexions of the words must be clearly indicated in the language, or such language will express the sense either imperfectly, or not at all. The mode of indicating such connexions may vary in different dialects ; but the connexions or relations intended to express the same sense, will be always the same, without reference to the language made use of. Opinions or sentiments formed in the mind may b^ LANaUAQE. 13 he same Dct I am adopted Tords to ^hese ar- of each precise ;s of any of the lowever, arrange- already tited by general as fol- ; there- namely, , several s, many r word, in the pending each, as I. The iivilized quently ;he host bought, b them ; dicated 3 sense iicating but the 5 sense, nguage nay b^ grouped together in a variety of ways in order to form a fuller or more prolonged expression of opinion, and tlicse connexions also must be carefully exhibited in the corres- ponding groups of words. (15.) ideas are of different kinds; hence the words used to express them must be also of different kinds, and thus some languages may have not only fewer words than others, but also fewer classes or kinds of words ; and tlie most perfect languages are thus found to contain about the same number of classes of words ; nor is it likely that any dialect will hereafter exist containing a greater variety of classes of words than is now to be found in the languages of the most civilized nations. (IG.) Diflferent ideas will assume in the mind connexions of different kinds with other ideas, or will be themselves modified by relations based directly on their respective significations. Thus an idea of action, if combined with others in the formation of an opinion, must have connected with it various others, such as the idea of the thing to which the action is applied, as doing or enduring, and consequently the corresponding sign, which we call in English, a verb, must have a subject before it; and, as the same idea expresses action, it may have connected with it the various modifications of time, place, manner, instru- ment, &c., all of which must be expressed in language without reference to the particular disilect spoken. (17.) Again, the idea of what we call a thing (giving the term its most general acceptation) must, from its very nature, be capable of having ideas of quality attached to it ; and consequently words representing these two classes, must have a corresponding connexion in the grammars of all languages. Ideas of things hold various relations to the other ideas with which they are connected, and these relations are so important that an alteration in them will usually materially alter the meaning in which they occur. These relations between such ideas, called in grammar. Case, must be clearly represented in language, or the true meaning will not M clearly conveyed. il 14 PRINCIPLES OF 'i 1 ' 1 (18.) The ideas of things, and therefore the words standing for such ideas, must be subject to those modifica- tions which affect the things themselves ; and thus the properties of number, gender, and some others, are found attached to the names of things in all languages. (19.) Ideas of quality are from their nature necessarily susceptible of being modified by considerations regarding the degree in which the quality is possessed, or its direc- tion ; and the corresponding words are therefore capable of being similarly modified in all languages. (20.) There may be connexions between various ideas in the mind, of a nature to be more conveniently expressed by separate words ; and such words are therefore to be found in many languages, though from their very nature they may be supposed not to express ideas, but merely the relations existing between ideas. (21.) These sounds of which these varioiis classes of words are composed, are necessarily those which the human organs of speech can produce ; but these organs are capable of so varied an expression of sound with such minute changes of intonation, that it is scarcely possible to place a limit to them, and there are undoubtedly sounds in various barbarous dialects incapable of being represented by any combinations of letters with which we are acquainted. The characters used to represent these sounds are arbitrary in their application and frequently insufficient and imper- fect, but the sounds themselves may be considered with reference to principles dependent on the different organs by which they are uttered; consequently all alphabets may be expected to contain labial, dental, guttural letters, &c. (22.) Thus in all languages, there must be different words, different kinds of words and combinations of words to express sentiments ; these groups of words must have certain parts, all of which must have certain relations with each other, and they must be capable of being linked to- gether in a variety of ways ; individual words must have connexions with each other, and the different classes of words must have certain modifications of grammatioal pro- dc th LANGUAGE. 15 he words modifica- thus the ire found ecessarily regarding ite direc- 8 capable 3US ideas expressed )re to be ry nature lerely the slasses of le human 'e capable 1 minute place a n various 1 by any uainted. arbitrary d imper- red with organs Iphabets 1 letters, different of words ist have Dus with kked to- st have asses of ioal pro- perties more or less perfectly indicated. These principles are common to all languages in proportion to their several degrees of perfection ; because words represent ideas, and their combinations represent sentiments or opinions : and as the operations of the human mind are carried on in the same way, in the reception of ideas and the formation of opinions without reference to race or language, so the connexions and relations of the words that represent these operations must be, to a great extent, identical in all lan- guages. (23.) These principles are therefore the great general laws on which the most important rules of grammar in all languages are based ; and while the precise mode of indi- cating these connexions and relations in any particular language, constitutes the special rules of its grammar, an examination into the origin of these great principles, their connexion with the operations of the mind, and their effects on the different classes of words, considered separately or in combination, may be designated " General Grammar/' or the " Philosophy of Grammar." CHAPTER III. Thk Natubb or bach of ths Diffsrbnt Classes of Words— Their ORiain— Some Classes WAMTma in barbarous dia- lects — Nouns, Verbs, and Adjectives essential — Defini- tions. (24.) We next come to the consideration of the different classes of words and the nature of each. Vast numbers of ideas pass through the mind ; conse- quently there must be a considerable number of words to represent them. Occasionally words are used in several meanings, that is, represent several ideas, and frequently the same idea has more than one representative, though in this case it will be found that the several words so used represent the idea with slight shades of variety in their application. I include herein all words of whatever sort, 16 PRINCIPLES OF I I ! f . 1 ; ( i ; whether they indicate ideas, or merely the relations of connexions existing between ideas, such as conjunctions and prepositions. This latter consideration aflfords a basis for the division of words into two great classes, namely, Notional and llelational, or those which represent ideas of any sort, and those which indicate merely relations. To the latter belong prepositions and conjunctions ; and to the former the remaining parts of speech, — the noun and pro- noun directly, because they are the representatives of the ideas of actual things ; and the adjective, adverb, and verb indirectly, because they include the ideas of action or modi- fications of action, quality or degrees of quality. This division, however, is comparatively useless, and is denied by many on the ground that prepositions and conjunctions represent ideas of the relations and connexions existing between other ideas or combinations of ideas. (25.) The real division of words into classes adopted in all languages which possess a written grammar, and neces- sarily existing whether adopted or not, must be based on the corresponding distinctions that exist between the var- ious kinds of ideas entertained in the mind. (26.) Using the word "idea" in its popular sense, (and without considering the mode in which they are produced in the mind,) we find that we have ideas of Things, of Qualities or degrees of quality, of Action, of Emotions, Feelings, or Sensations suddenly produced, and of the Re- lations or connexions existing between other ideas or groups of ideas. Thus to represent ideas of things, we have the corresponding class of words called in English nouns (in which pronouns are included) ; for ideas of qualities and degrees of quality, we have adjectives (the articles included), and adverbs (including words indicative of the various re- lations under which the mind may consider an action) ; for ideas of action, we have verhs ; as expressive of sudden emotions or sensations, we have interjections ; and to ex- press the connexions and relations existing in the mind between ideas or combinations of ideas, we have preposi- tions and conjunctions. (27.) It may be questioned whether any other classes of ^ tl LANGUAGE. 17 relations of conjunctions [fords a basis Bscs, namely, jsent ideas of slations. To ? ; and to the oun and pro- atives of the erb, and verb tion or modi- iiality. This ad is denied conjunctions dons existing jcs adopted in ar, and neces- ; be based on ween the var- ir sense, (and are produced of Things, of of Emotions, ,nd of the Re- deas or groups , we have the lish nouns (in qualities and cles included), he various re- r an action) ; sive of sudden IS ; and to ex- in the mind have preposi- thcr classes of ideas save those named above, are ever entertained ; hence the above kinds of words may be conHidered sufficient, and hence the necessity of " Parts of speech," or dift'erent kinds of words, in all lan^ages. (28.) It is probable that some barbarous tribes, either from natural deficiency or from utter bar}>arisni, may be without some of these kinds of ideas, and thoir dialects will be defective accordingly ; in other instances, though the ideas may be found, the dialect may be so rude and imperfect as to possess no means of expressing them. In these cases various of the parts of speech may be wanting ; though it is probable that no dialects are altogether so de- fective as to be without names of individuals, things ob- servable by the senses, especially the sight ; names of (jua- lities possessed by such things ; and words expressive of what is done with them. These are Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. They are necessary to express an opinion, to make an assertion. The use of mere unconnected single words expressive of ideas is among the first eftorts of lan- guage, at least after the cries or other vocal sounds (if they can be called words) which make known sudden emotions of pleasure, pain, &c. But the mere utterance of such de- tached words can never independently express an assertion, for which the noun, verb, and adjective are necessary, though the last is often included in the verb. This mak- ing of assertions or expressing of ojnnions is the great end of language, and, as will be more fully shown hereafter, can not be eflFected without the use of the noun, verb, and adjective, or some signs representing them. Though the words " yes " and " nay " indicate an opinion, they do so only in right of their connexion with some previous statement or question. When the Indian says, " This good," we understand infcrentially , that he means to as- sert the quality, " goodness," of the subject, " this " ; and in the same way, from a sudden exclamation of astonish- ment, we infer that the party using it is astonished, but evidently neither has actually made the assertion. (29.) By means of these three classes of words, there- fore, opinions can be expressed, assertions made, and, by 11 ; 18 rRINCIPLES OP f!i r^ consequence, questionH asked. The other classes of words, however convenient, are not actually essential to the ex- pression of an opinion : but from the nature of the mental operation by which an opinion is formed, there must, in order to communicate it accurately, bo a word to repre- sent the thine; whereof the opinion is about to be formed ; another to represent the quality to be attached to, or com- pared with it ; and a third word to express the act of com- parinpj. The pronoun is only a convenience to avoid re- petition the article is an adjective ; the diiferent relations expressed by prepositions, may be, and very often are, ex- pressed by altering the terminations of the words between which the relations exist ; some similar expedient might be adopted instead of the conjunction ; and the adverb may be expressed by means of the adjective and noun. (30.) Before proceeding to show how the connexion be- tween words and the ideas they stand for, aifeots each of the different kinds of words, as regards the philosophy of grammar, it may be necessary to make a few general re- marks on the nature of definitions, those at least which are applied to the different classes of words in grammar. The value of a definition depends upon its describing precisely the objects under consideration, in such terms that no other can be included under it, and that none which it should include shall be omitted. If I define man to be " a rational animal," my definition is imperfect, be- cause the epithet " rational " may be applied to other crea- tures besides man, and consequently they also will be in- cluded under the definition ; therefore, besides the term animal, I must use some epithet indicating a quality pos- sessed by no other creature but man. Allow, for instance, that he is the only creature possessed of the faculty of ab- straction, and then a correct definition of man will be " an animal possessing the faculty of abstraction." This evi- dently consists of two parts, namely, the name of the class to which the thing defined belongs, and the name of the quality by which it is distinguished from all others of that class. This rule should be carefully borne in mind in con- sidering the nature of the different classes of words in any LANOUAaE. 19 f wordB, the cx- I luontal nust, in rcprc- formed ; or com- of com- ivoid ro- rclationa are, cx- bctween it might J adverb oun. sxion bo- 3 each of sophy of incral re- st which nmar. jscribing h terms lat none ine man [ect, be- ler crea- ill be in- Ihe term lity pos- [nstance, of ab- fbe "an ?his evi- bhe class of the of that in con- in any language ; and though their very nature may bo such as to render it difficult to prevent Hotno of one cliisa from par- tially poHscssing the essential (juality which distinguishes another, it will enable us to decide, with far greater preci- sion and certainty, the classes to which different words should be respectively referred. (31.) It should further be borne in mind, that all classes of words are defined with reference to their meaning, and more especially to the part they act, or the duty they per- form, when combined with others. Adverbs very common- ly end in English in "ly" and in Latin in " tor " or " e," but we do not find them defined according to that fact, but always in accordance with the fact of their performing a certain duty, that is, being attached to certain other words for a special purpose. Hence, in determining the nature of any word in any language, wo must refer it to that class whose essential or distinctive quality it possesses. In dwelling on this point, therefore, I shall not usually take into account the origin or former meaning of any word, but judge of it by its application in the connexion before me ; being well aware that there are few words that have not changed their meaning and application at different periods, and very many that are used in several meanings at the present time. CHAPTER IV. Thh Vbbb — Its Distinctivk Quality — Its Gbammatioal Pro- PKRTiES — Means of expressixo its relations and connex- ions. (32.) In whatever language we are about to express ourselves, the first species of words that becomes familiar to us is probably the class which consists of the names of things, because through the organs of sight we become ac- quainted most readily with the number, nature, and variety of the objects around us ; and as this sense of seeing is in perpetual activity in storing our minds with ideas, so the I I \i In i ' 20 rUINCIPLES OP Rlp^s or words representing; sueli ideas are tliosc with which wo first become familiar in i\w attempt to ac(|uire any lan^uaj^o; just as we see a person, amont; those of whose lanmi.'if^e he is ignorant, pickinu: up I'rom them in the first instance the names of the tliint:;s lie sees around him. Tliouijjh this renders the iKmn in any hniijuafjjc one of the most important chisses of words, yet as tlie i^reat end of language is to communicate our thouglits and opi- nions to others, that is, to make assertions, the class of words, hy which alone we can make an assertion, namely the verb, must necessarily be considered the " princi- pal word in language," without reference to any particular dialect. There is no class of words whose dednition is more disputed than that of the verb ; without therefore attempting to enter into such disputes, or presuming to settle them authoritatively, I shall proceed to consider the verb with reference to the idea for which it stands in lan- guage. (33.) In common parlance, the idea of action is repre- sented by the verb. If this were taken unlimitedly, any word in any way representing the idea of action would bo a verb ; but this is not so, as there are numerous verbal words, partially representing the idea of action, (such, for instance, as the participles), which are not verbs. We must therefore state more precisely what is meant by the idea of action alluded to. In the process of forming an opinion, as already stated (7), the mind, as it were, compares the idea of some quality with the idea of some subject. By this act of comparison, the mind is enabled to judge that the former may be attached to the latter, or that it may not. These judgments being represented in words, become assertions ; and the word that conveys this assertion un- doubtedly becomes the representative of the act of compar- ing the ideas, and is so far a representative of an idea of action. This mode of considering the matter includes the verb " to be," which probably has a separate sign in every dialect. When I say " Man is mortal," I use a combination of words indicating that my mind has com- pared the quality represented by the word " mortal," with I,' ! LANOUAOE. 21 that represented by the word " man," and has formed Huch a jud other word will directly perform either of these operations, and hence no word of any other class can be included under it, and the great point of logical accuracy is sufficiently attained. I may here allude to the supposi- tion that this power of asserting might possibly be repre- sented by some peculiar alteration of shape, or some inflex- ion, in some other word, the subject for instance, but this would merely be making one word represent two diffijrent kinds of ideas, which certainly would not add to the per- spicuity of the dialect. (35.) The grammatical properties assigned to the verb must be to some extent the same in all languages, because they are dependent on the nature of the idea which the verb represents. One of the most important of these is "Kind," according to which verbs are divided into various species. It is obvious that a number of individuals be- longing to any one class, may be grouped in a variety of ways, according to the basis of division adopted ; thus the 22 PRINCIPLES OF i ! ' ■ i-\ houses in a city may b(! ^'r()U|)C'(l, iiccordinj^ to their uses, into rcsiJonccs, stores, churches, &c. ; or jiccordin^ to their materials, as wooden, stone, hrick, itc, and so on, selectinj^ diftercnt (jualities as the b;usis of division. So witli verbs. If the nature of tiie action consi modi- fications of time, mann»!r, ^:(^ This appears to 1h' the most philosophical method of indictatiiii^ these modifications, because, as the idea is essentially thi^ same, it would seem that the word represontin;^ it should alone continue to do so, though with some slight corresponding change of fonu ; other methods, however, are adopted in various languages to express modifications and relations. The principal of those methods are "position," and ''additional words"; as, when I say, " The man gave the book to me," the dif- ferent relations of " man " and "book" to "gave," arc indicated by position; while that of "mo" to "gave" is indicated by an additional word. In other languages these circumstances might be expressed by varying the termina- tions of the wordrf. (39.) These considerations are of course general, and apply with peculiar force to the different species of vcrb.s. All verbs must express either transitive or intransitive ac- tion ; but as no one idea of action ever varies so as to be at one time transitive, at another, the contrary, so no verb expressing the one species of action ever requires any change of shape to express the other, conseciuently the shape or form of the verb does not indicate to which of these kinds it belongs. If neuter verbs be acknowledged, the same observation will apply to them ; no change of shape in the verb is requisite to announce the fact that it is transitive, intransitive, or neuter. (40.) This is not the case with the distinction of " Ac- tive " and " Passive " (called in English, " Voice ") ; be- cause an individual idea of action may be considered in • I ■ ! ' i I 24 PRINCIPLES OJ* the mind with reference to the fact of the subject" doing" it, or of the subject " enduring " it ; hence the verb in- dicating that idea should be susceptible of change of form to indicate the modification in question ; in other words, there shouhl be two forms of the verb for voice, the one for the active, the other for the passive, as in the La- tin " amo," " I love," (subject doing) ; "amor," " I am loved," (subject enduring). When any dialect (as the English, for instance) does not possess a second form for voice, it is driven to adopt one of the expedients mentioned above. Thus in the example just quoted, " am loved," if written and considered as one word, is a real passive voice ; but as such is not the case, there may be said to be no passive voice in English. No matter, however, whether the dialect has, or has not the means of expressing, either by an additional word or by alteration of form, such modi- fication of the idea, it may have a real existence in the minds of all persons, and its expression should be provided for in some way or other in all languages, — that is, there should be a form for the passive voice. (41.) There is yet another division based on the nature of verbs which may require some explanation, though it must not of necessity exist in all languages. Any one who compares carefully the process carried on in his mind in the formation of an opinion with the words used in expressing it, will readily observe that he frequent- ly expresses by a single word both the idea of the act of comparison and the idea of the quality compared. Thus when we use the words " The bird flies," the word " flies " evidently represents both these ideas, namely, the quality of flying and the act of comparison or the idea of connex- ion between it and " bird." This oflSice is, in short, per- formed in English by all verbs except the verb " to be," and such is probably the case in all dialects ; hence such verbs are frequently denominated " verbs adjective," and the verb "to be," in opposition thereto, the " verb sub- stantive." The special duty of the latter therefore is merely to indicate the act of comparison in the mind, as when I say " Man is mortal," the intention of my words LANaUAGE. 25 IS not so much to assert that " man existvS," as to connect the quality expressed by " mortal," with the subject " man;" but where the verb " to be " is used to denote existence as in the sentence " There is nobody in the room," it is a verb adjective, because it then includes the idea of the quality " existing." (42.) All ideas of action may be connected in the mind with various modifications, the principal of which are " time" and " manner;" hence the verb in every dialect may be expected to possess within itself some means of indicating them. As regards the former, three times must be alluded to, namely, "present," "past," and " future," for which we naturally expect separate forms in the verb ; but besides these great divisions of time, the combinations of our ideas require in the more perfect dialects means of ex- pressing various shades of the divisions of time, which is ef- fected in many languages legitimately by alterations in the form of the verb called (in English) " tenses," as is observ- able in the Latin, Greek, modern French, &C. ; while in English but two forms for tense are found, the other divi- sions of time being represented by the old expedient of using additional words. While tense, to some extent at least, is known to exist in most if not in all dialects, because it depends on the nature of the idea, it is evident that the number of the minor divisions of time may vary iu differ- ent languages, according to the usage (arbitrary authority) of each. For example, in English (including the com- pound tenses and using the common appellatictns) we have Present, Imperfect, Perfect, Pluperfect and Future ; and in Greek, Present, Imperfect, two Futures, two Aorists, two Perfects and Pluperfects, and a Paulo-post-future, all representing minor shades of the three grand divisions of time. (43.) The same observations apply to " manner," de- signated in English, "Mood;" and of right universal, even in dialects (if any) where the grammatical property called " mood " is unknown. This universality should exist, because every one may consider the idea of action with various modifications of manner, and consequently r! ^ 26 PRINCIPLES OF I I i i' i there should be in all dialects some means within the verb of expressing such modifications, as in the Latin, where we say " amo," '• I love," " amem," " I may love," "ama," " love thou." Though in English we can express the idea of action *' generally " (Indicative) and, by means of ad- ditional words, the modifications of contingency, (Sub- junctive), power or possibility (Potential), command (Imperative), still the form of the verb itself scarcely un- dergoes any change for this purpose, except in the very irregular verb " to be," and in the third singular of a Sub- junctive tense which assumes the form of the Indicative plural. In different dialects there will be of course diffe- rent moods, expressed in the more perfect languages by changes of form and corresponding nearly with those men- tioned above. The so called Infinitive, indicat<;d in Eng- lish by the sign " to," is usually a noun, and is so consid- ered by the best writers. (See Whately's Logic). In fact, it is the name of the action, and received the name Infinitive from the unlimited manner in which it indicated the action. Thus, *' It is useful to study," means " To study is useful," the pronoun " it" evidently standing for " to study," and being introduced merely for convenience. Again in the sentence, " I am able," the sense of the words can only be completed by introducing the name of the thing for which I am " able ;" because I cannot enter- tain the idea represented by " able;" without also having suggested to me some idea of the thing to which my ability is directed ; so that when I express the full sense, I must introduce the name of this thing, and I say, " ab\i to go," " to write," &c. In such sentences " to go," tak-ii as one word, is a noun, the name of an action ; or if "go " be considered separately, it is equally a noun, governed by the prepositional sign " to." In Greek the Infinitive mood is constantly used as a noun, pointed out by an article and governed by a preposition. This is found to some extent also in French. (44.) Those words denominated Participles arc not verbs, but either adjectives or nouns, as will be shown hereafter. LANGUAGE. 27 the verb in, where " u ama I tlic idea lis of ad- 3y, (Sub- command ircely un- the very of a Sub- ndicative Tsc diffe- ua<;es by lose mcn- 1 in Eni]'- n consid- []^ic). In the name indicated ans " To ding for vcnience. 30 of the name of lot enter- having ly ability , I must ^ to go," II as one "go "be irned by ive mood 'ticlc and le extent are not c shown (45.) The grammatical properties denominat^id in English, Number and Person, do not, philosophically speaking, belong to verbs, inasmuch as verbs, not being names of things, cannot designate either one thing or more than one ; and for the same reason they cannot be the names either of the person speaking, the person spoken to, or the person spoken of. The application of those pro- perties to the verb is merely a grammatical expedient made use of for convenience' sake. The nature of this expedient is as follows : the idea of action has always in the mind a certain relation with another idea going before it in sense ; this latter, when both are expressed in words, is called, as I have already stated, the " subject "; this subject is very often a pronoun, the name of some familiar thing spoken ^ of a little before. When this is the case, it saves trouble and avoids repetition not to name the subject .again, but to indicate its person and number by changing the termina- < tion of the verb ; and thus, whether the subject is ex- pressed or not, the termination of the verb varies, and it is said to agree in number and person with its subject. In Latin, for instance, instead of saying " Ego amo," " I love," " Tu amas," '' Thou lovest," kc., we omit the pro- nouns *' Ego " and " Tu," being made aware by the termi- nations ''o " and "as," that the one means " I love," and the other, " Thou lovest." This is done only to a small extent in English, only the second and third singular hav- ing special terminations ; and even these might well be omitted, as the pronouns that mark the persons are not usually left out. (46.) I have not alluded here to the division of verbs into " Regular " and " Irregular," because it has no con- nexion with the philosophy of grammar, originating in the fact that in some dialects certain terminations were set apart to mark particular modifications of the verb, and all verbs whose forms agreed therewith were called " regular," the rest irregular. 28 PRINCIPLES OF 1 ! CHAPTER V. Thh Nocn — Grammatical PROPEnTiKS — Kind — Number and Person — Gender — Case. (47.) Next to the verb in importance, and perhaps first in common use and familiarity, is the noun. The exist- ence of a dialect not possessed of the names of things is inconceivable ; and by considering the nature of the ideas represented by tlie class of words called in English " Nouns," we arrive at a correct notion of the grammatical properties that may be attributed to them in any dialect whatever. Some nouns may be names of things possessing a bodily material existence, such as "horse," "table," " house ;" others again may represent the idea of things possessing no bodily existence, such as "justice," " purity," &c., including the names of actions as " to go," " to write." These are called " abstract nouns," and this is one method of dividing nouns as regards kind. Another and much more important division is based upon a different circumstance. When an idea of a thing is produced in the mind, it may have reference to some par- ticular object apart from all others of the same or of any other kind and the noun representing that idea will evi- dently be particular to that one object and applicable to no other, as " Charles," " Henry," and is called in English a " Proper noun." But when the name is of such a na- ture as to apply to a class of individuals grouped together in right of the possession of some common property, it ceases to belong to one individual only, and, being common to a number, is called a common noun. This is effected by the mental process called " abstraction." For instance, "John Thompson of London," is the name of an indivi- dual ; abstract or >7ithdraw the idea of his connexion with London, and you can consider him as one of a set classed together in right of tlie common property of being called "John Thompson;" "John Thompson" then becomes a term designating all the " John Thompsons " in the world. I IBER AND ■haps first rhe exist- things is the ideas English immatical ly dialect possessing " table," of things ' purity," to write." ic method 1 is based thing is lome par- >r of any will evi- icable to English ich a na- together )erty, it common eflFected instance, n indivi- ion with t classed called comes a le world. LANGUAGE, 29 Reject the idea of this class being designated "John," and you have a more general term niiniing all the '' Thomp- sons." Abstract the idea of their being named '^ Thomp- son," and the still more general term " man," is arrived at, applied to all those possessed of that special property by which men are distinguished from all otiier animals. Cast- ing away this idea, the common terra " animal," is ob- tained, applied to all creatures possessing a certain common property not found in others. And withdrawing this idea, we arrive at the still more general term " tiling." Thus common terms and common nouns are formed ; and it is obvious that a name usually peculiar to an individual, may become the name of a class, if there be others to whom we can apply it. Thus we speak of the " Jameses of Scot- land," &c. (48.) It is worthy of remark that this mental faculty of abstraction is far less active or almost entirely wanting in very barbarous races, and is apparently entirely absent in the lower animals. In the dialects of very barbarous races, few or no common terms are found ; and in tracing the progress of a language towards perfection by means of accessions of words from other dialects, we find that the names of individuals belong to the more ancient and ruder dialects, while the names of classes (abstract terms) are adopted from the dialect of some more advanced people ; thus we have from the ruder Saxon the names of particular species of motion, and of particular colours, while for the words "colour" and "motion," indicating the two classes, we have recourse to the more polished Latin. (49.) As, except by a peculiar usage, no one noun is at one time the name of a class, at another of an individual, no modification of the shape is requisite to indicate whether the name is " proper," or "common." (50.) As every idea of a thing must stand in the mind either for one thing or more than one, so nouns in all dia- lects either should or do vary their shape in accordance with this mental modification. The modes of effecting 80 PRINCIPLES OF this change of number belong; not to general grammar, but to the particular usages of different dialects. (51.) When a judgment of the mind is expressed in words in any dialect, the nouns occurring in it must bo names of persons speaking, persons spoken to, or persons spoken of; hence has arisen the grammatical property of nouns called in English " Person," which usually produces no change in the shape of the noun, and may be said con- sequently to have only a mental existence. Certain words (pronouns) called in consequence " Personal," do indeed change their shape to indicate the person, but nouns in general do not : nevertheless, in considering words in connexion with each other (parsing), the property called " person," is properly noticed, because in many dialecta the verb changes its termination according to the person of the noun which is its subject. (52.) All things are of the male, or the female, or of no sex : hence the words representing the ideas of these things have a corresponding grammatical distinction, called "Gender;" one "Masculine," comprehending names of males ; another, " Feminine," for names of females ; and the third called " Neuter," comprising no gender words, that is, names of things without sex. In these statements regarding general grammar, of course I do not take into account the peculiar usages of particular dialects, wherein, by a sort of figure, certain inanimate objects are spoken of as having sex. Taking as our guide the common defini- tion of gender, " The distinction of sex," the above is the legitimate division ; and the usage of the Greek, Latin, and some modern languages, wherein the names of things without sex have the grammatical peculiarities that can properly be attached only to the names of males and fe- males, is altogether unphilosophical, and departs entirely from the great principle which constitutes the basis of general grammar, that words must accurately represent the ideas for which they stand. In some dialects only occasional alterations in the shape of the word take place to indie j^j gender ; as in the Eng- lish " testator," " testatrix." To render such changes led adl n ''^ i L.\NOUAGE. 31 nmar, but )rcssed in ' must be r persons opertj of ' produces said con- lin words indeed nouns in words in ty called ilccte the on of the or of no 3e things , called anies of cs; and ■ words, tements ke into therein, spoken 1 defini- 3 is the Latin, things at can md fe- ntirely asis of •resent shape Eng. langes I legitimate, the body of the word in each should bo the Siune, Ihc termination only being altered as in the example adduced. In languages like the Latin, Greek, and wouie modern dialects, where the adjective alters its termination iccording to the gender of the noun to which it is attached, this question of gender becomes an important granmiatical element, and the neglect of it, a fruitful source of errors : but in English the adjective undergoes no such change, and this ground of error is removed ; and even in other dialects, how much better would it be, could the definition of gender be adhered to, and all names of males be called " masculine," of females, " feminine," and of things with- out sex, " neuter;" thus carrying out the principle alluded to, instead of calling the name of an animal, " neuter,'* and of rivers, " masculine !" (53.) The last and perhaps the most important gram- matical property of the noun, is called, " Case," and the mental circumstances on which it is based equally apply to all languages without exception ; and any neglect or con- fusion in the verbal representation of these circumstances may render the words employed altogether useless for the fulfilment of the great end of language, — the expression of the opinion. If I entertain certain ideas of two indi- viduals, " William " and "John," and also of the act of " striking " ; and if the relations between these ideas, be, of William doing the act, and of John enduring it, it is plain that any confusion in the expression of these relations may render the words useless, or even cause them to convey a totally opposite meaning. The existence of these rela- tions between ideas in the mind renders some means of expressing them necessary in all dialects ; and without at present entering into the question, whether a change of termination, as in Latin and Greek, is necessary to con- stitute a real case, it is obvious thatj^he relations and con- nexions existing in the mind between the ideas of nouns and other ideas must be clearly indicated by the corres- ponding words, otherwise, as I have already stated, the words will not convey the sense. Some means must con- sequently be adopted in all dialects to represent these rela- t I 82 PRINCIPLES OF tions, and such means, whether alterations of termination or not, may he called '' Case." (54.) What is Case? From what has just been stated, it a])pcars that case, as it must exist in all dialects, is the relation existin*:; between nouns and certain otlier words of a sentence, iiidicatint; the corresponding]; relations existing in the mind between the ideas represented by such words. Hence the common i^rannnatical definition of case may bo adopted, nanu'ly, '/The relation which nouns bear to other words witli wliicii mcy are connected in sense^' These relations exist between the ideas in the mind, without reference to the language used by the thinker, and they must be clearly represented by that language, whatever it may be. The means of doing so, adopted in various dia- lects, may be mentioned hereafter ; at present the first point to be considered is the number and nature of these relations. (55.) In forming a judgment of the mind, the ideas of things are usually contemplated in one or other of three relations with the other ideas constituting such judgment ; namely, as the idea of a subject or thing specially tiiought of; as the idea of a thing possessing another thing ; and thirdly as the idea of a thing unavoidably suggested to the mind by the very nature of some other idea. There are therefore three relations to be represented in every dialect, and therefore there should be at least three cases. We find, on examination, that each of these is susceptible of several minor variations ; and if any dialect adopted means to represent each minor variation separately, that dialect would have so many additional cases ; and it is very pos- sible on the other hand to conceive the existence of a dialect so imperfect as to possess means of expressing only some of the relations in question. (56.) Tliese three cases are distinguished by names in- dicative of their natures. Thus the word representing the idea, of which the judgment is formed in the mind, is necessarily the name of the thing of which the assertion is made, and is said to be in the '' naming or Nominative case " ; that which represents a noun in the relation of LANGUAGE. ;53 termi nation been stated, ileots, is the lier words of ons existing such words, case may bo )ear to other ^' These nd, without er, and they whatever it various dia- ;nt the first Lire of thcso the ideas of lier of three 1 judgment ; ;lly thought thing; and 3st€d to the There are ery dialect, ises. We sceptible of ited means at dialect very pos- tence of a [ssing only I names in- mting the mind, is ■jsertion is miinatioe blation of pOHSCssion to another, is called Possrsslvc. ; and the relation existing between a noun and some lor word, which, un- avoidably suggests the idea ropresontt'd by the noun, is called the '' Ohjrctirc case." Tiiose relations, so named in Knglish, may be considered as general, since they spring from the operations of the mind. (57.) It has already been stated that those relations are susceptible of minor variations ; but if these minor variations arc similar in nature, they may fairly be represented by one case in language. Tiie Nomina- tive case, which properly expresses the precise name of tlie thing of which the assertion is made, namely, the subject, may be made to include several others ; thus in the assertion, " Sir, the wind being, favorable, the ship Arrow has started on her voyage ; " " Ship," the name of the thing of which the assertion i« made, is the legitimate Nominative; "Sir," the name of the person addressed, may also be called the Nominative case, tliough of a slightly diflFerent kind, distinguished as the " Nominative of ad- dress " ; the noun "Arrow," being another name for the thing of which the assertion is made, is necessarily in the same relation as " ship," with the word making the asser- tion, and is therefore also the Nominative case ; again the word " wind," not being in either of the positions indicated by the other two cases, is in English also called the Nomi- native, more especially as it becomes really the subject of an assertion, when a slight change of construction is made, — as, instead of saying " the wind being favorable" we may say, " as the wind is favorable." This last species of nominative is called in English the No7ninative Absolute. Besides all these, certain verbs make assertions in such a way as to take after them other names for their respective subjects ; as when I say, " Alexander was king," the latter noun is merely another name for the former, and is in the Nominative case, by what is called in English Apposition, which takes place when different names are used in the same assertion for the same thing. These names being in the same relation to some other word, are consequently in the same case. 9 M PRINCIPLES OF i (5S.) As the Hunie thin^' may ho Hpokcn of nmlor difTor cut names, in the; same assertion in any dialect, so that which we call '' apposition " may be found in all dialects ; and jud;;ing of case by the definition just given, nouns in apposition with each other will be in the same case in all dialects. There is an apparent exception to this statement in English; as when wc say '' The City of Toronto," the two nouns are different names for the same thing, but are not in the same case. This arises from the fact, that in using such an expression we violate the laws of tlic philoso- phy of grammar; as there is no relation in the mind between the idea represented by " city " and that repre- sented by " Toronto " which would reijuire the word "of" to express it, so wc sliould not introduce that word, and should rather say " The Ci*;' Toronto." But in this and in many other instances, various dialects, set aside by the mere arbitrary authority of usage and fashion, the great general laws of grammar, attaching to expressions, mean- ings, which the combinations of words in them, philoso- phically considered, will not bear. (59.) Thus in dialects, where, as in English, the cases are not distinguished by terminations, the Nominative Cjjsc may be found urlcr various circumstances ; — as first, JPie "^f^ Nominative, subject to the verb (legitimate nominative) ; 2ndly, Nominative of Address ; 3rdly, Nominative Abso- lute; 4thly, Nominative in apposition with another; and 5thly, Nominative after certain verbs wbich are usually followed by another name for the subject)^ It is obvious that the Nominative Absolute and Nominative of address are both " absolute " or " independent," being neither of them governed by any other word, and might therefore be called by the same ncime. Different names are conveniently used to mark the difference existing in the circumstances under which they occur. It is further evident that in dialects which distinguish the cases by terminations, some of the above relations, classed in English as Nominative, may be indicated by terminations marking other cases, as in Greek where the English Nolninativo Absolute is expressed by a Genitive case ; and in Latin, where it is expressed by an Ablative case. LANUL'A' t. ler (lifTor- , so that dialects ; nouns in iHo in all itatoniont nto," the r, but are t, that in c philoso- the mind I at reprc- [>rd"of" vord, and 1 this and ic by the the great ms, mean- , philoso- the cases ative cijse first, jK)ic (linative) ; ivc Abso- hor ; and re usually s obvious )f address neither of erefore be iveniently iimstances that in ions, somo )niinative, her cases, bsolute is here it is ((10.) Whon the ideas represented by two mui are m related that one is the name of the thin}; pdHH*'^ nj? the otlier, this relation is expressed in E mulish b} pi i"ing the former in the Possessive case, as " John's carriage," where, "John's" in English is said to be in the Possess- ive case. This relation may be found in all languages, whether they have a ease to mark it or not. (CI.) When the idea represented by a word is of such a nature as to suggest unavoidably the existence of some idea following it, tlie relation between tlie two ideas is indi- cated by placing the word representing the latter in the ca.se called in English " Objective." This specially occurs after two classes of words — those expressive of action passing on from the agent, and those words which indi- cate the relation existing in the mind between two ideas. Such words are known in English i\b " Transitive Verbs and Prepositions ' ; lience after these two kinds of words the Objective case is found. This relation must exist in all languages, because the ideas of action in the mind must include transitive action ; and though a dialect may have no prepositions, the objective case which would otherwise follow them must be indicated by some means or other in every dialect, or, where it is omitted, such dialect must be imperfect, that is, express the thoughts imperfectly. (62.) The relations indicated by case in language must, as has been said, be clearly represented, but the mode of doing so may vary in different dialects. The most com- mon methods are two, namely, by clumging the termina- tion, and hy 2^os it ion. As words represent ideas, it may be said to follow "naturally, that every modification or relation of the idea should be indicated by effecting some change in the form of the word representing such idea. This is called in grammar " Inflection," and usually aflFects the termination. It was adopted to express case by many ancient languages, especially the Latin and Greek, as well as the old Saxon, on which our modern English is so ma- terially based. (G3.) Though there are in Greek five, and in Latin six different terminations to express case, they nevertheless 86 PRINCIPLES OP indioato the HUine tliroo rclatioiiH alrt-ady dt'scriluMl ast'xiMt- inp between ideas ; the Niniiitiato and Vncativ*' eases indi- catin;; the first relation, a;^reein^' with thf various s|)eeies of the Knj;lish Nominative; the (icnitive, indieatin^ tlie second relation, and sonietinies tin; third, namely, the Knglish Possessive and the Ohjeetive ; while thr three re- maining Latin cases, namely, the Dative, the Accusative und the Ablative indicate the various spi-cies of tiu^ object- ive relation, — the English objective case ^'overiuMl either by a transitive verb or a preposition. Two species of tlu^ Nominative case, namely, the subject of the verb and the Nominative of address, arc sometimes distinij;uishcd by as many terminations in Latin, as, " Dominus," " Jiord " (subject of verb), " Domine," " Lord " (Nominative of address or Vocative.^ (G4.) I have usea the Latin as a convenient example of the different cases in different lan<5uagcs, while the relations they indicate are identical in all. Similar observations apply to the Greek and other lanj;uages. (05.) One case, the Po.sse8sive,is distinguished in English by a termination, namely, 's, (s with an apostrophe.) This is taken from the ancient Saxon form of the Genitive case which ended in " cs " ; of this we retained the " s " mark- ing the rejection of the " c," by an apostrophe. The Nominative and Objective are distinguished in English by their position, as written or uttered, the former being placed before the verb, and the latter after the transitive verb or preposition. But very often this is not adopted, as in the line — " Breathes there a man with soul so dead." Here we find the Objective case, " soul," placed naturally after the word ■ ' with," which unavoidably suggests it, and whose sense it completes ; but " man," instead of being written before the verb, its natural position, is placed after it, and we only know that it is the subject by the obvious sense. Thus instead of the case guiding us to the meaning, the meaning here guides to the knowledge of the case; hence it has been asserted, that the grammatical consideration of LANUUAOE. 87 soxist- is iiuli- s|>c'cies i»<^ the y, tho irce ri'- UHiitive oljject- tlior by of tlie uul the (1 by as liord " iitive of mple of elatiouH rviitious Fiiiglish Thin ive case iimrk- Thc ^lish by placed verb or h in the iturally it, and being d after obvious eaning, hence Ation of •Hw) cxistH only partially in the Knglish dialect. In tho line- " Your columns the fathomlods fountiiins lave, wo are led to call " fountains " the Nominative, and " col- umns " the Objective cane, Holely in consequence of tho meaning of the word •' lave " ; and in such sentences what all tho we call "case ' in Knglish is not a nieans ot indicating relations, and may conscfiuently be said to have no real existence. (G(>.) Thus there are in all languages certain gramma- tical considerations attached to nouns, except where tho dialect is so imperfect as not to possess means of expressing them. These arc Kind (proper and common), Gender (njasculinc, feminine, and neuter), Number (singular and plural), Person (first, second, and third), and Case (nomi- native, possessive, and objective) — all of them representing .some relations of the idea for which the noun stands, and some of them indicated by changes in the word, others not. (67.) It may also be well remarked here, that in all dialects wherein the modifications and relations of the words correspond precisely with those of the ideas represented by such words, the philt)S(»phy of grammar is more strictly adhered to than in others, where such correspondence is more or less neglected ; thus to liave too many cases in one dialect is as unphilosophieal as to have too few in an- other, or to call gender a distinction of sex and yet consi- der the names of things without sex as of the masculine or feminine gender. CHAPTER VI. > TiiK Adjective — Definition — Grammatical Properties — Other PARTS OP Speech — The Pronol'n — Similar to the Noun — Its Species — Adverbs — Adveukbial Phrases. (68.) From what has been said, it is evident that, in addition t > the names of things and actions, the names of qualities are also necessary to the making of an assertion or expression of an opinion ; hence the next important part i 38 PRINCIPLES OF , j of speech to be considered is the " Adjective." All things possess qualities of some kind or otlicr ; hence words indi- cative of quaUty (not the names of qualities) are necess- arily attached in language to the names of things ; they are therefore defined as, " Words added to nouns to express qualities," and are called in English " adjectives, " a name signifying " added to." Considered with reference to their mental origin, they represent ideas attached to the ideas of things in consequence of the mind believing the things represented by the latter to possess the qualities indicated by the idea so attached. (69.) In some dialects, adjectives change their termina- tions to indicate gender, number, and case, but this is only a grammatical expedient adopted for convenience, to mark more exactly the particular noun to which the adjective is attached. Philosophically speaking, an adjective not being the name of a thing, cannot properly be possessed of any of the above qualities. (70.) As a thing may possess a quality in various degrees, so adjectives may be expected to be susceptible of some modification of form to indicate the degree in which the quality is possessed, particularly when several things are compared with reference to the same quality. From the nature of the idea represented by an adjective, this is per- haps the only grammatical property which the form of the adjective might be expected to indicate. It is called " Com- parison," and is as often indicated by additional words as by an inflection. In English, where no comparison is in- dicated, the adjective is said to be in the " Positive " degree ; where two things are compared,the " Comparative " degree, marked by making the adjective end in " er," is used ; and where three or more things are compared, the " Superlative " degree is used, wherein the adjective is made to end in " est." Even in dialects where this ex- pressir of comparison exists, it must be evident that there may be many adjectives notisusceptible of it, because the qua- lities which they indicate may be incapable of being possessed in diflferent degrees. Thus of three things compared together aa regards the quality expressed by the adjective " large " I, I LANGUAGE. 89 er," is , the I one may be " large " (positive), another " hirger " (compara- tive), and the third may be " largest " (superlative) ; but this process cannot be undergone by such adjectives as " some," " other," " all," &c., because they do not express qualities capable of being possessed in degrees. (71.) The idea of quality in connection with the class of words called Adjectives is to be considered in the most general sense, as that which being attached to the idea of a thing causes the latter to differ in so far, however slightly, from what it would be without such an addition. Thus in the phra.ses, " time past," " time present," " time to come " the noun " time " differs in each instance by the quaUties expressed by the words " past," " present," and " to come " ; hence '' to come," (taken as one word) is just as much an adjective as " past " or " present." (72.) It may be added that the nature of many adjec- tives in all languages is such as to require after them vai-ious words or phrases to complete the sense. This is the case, because such is the nature of the ideas they re- present. Tlie idea for example expressed by " fond," is such as to require another idea in relation to it expressive of the direction of the fondnes ; and as this has to be ex- pressed in words, if you use the expression *' He is fond," you must, to complete the sense of " fond," add some such phrase as " of learning," &c. ; but these phrases consist in English of separate words, and, with others of similar char- acter, will properly be considered under the heads of" analysis" and the "structure of sentences." (73.) The three principal parts of speech, so far as their nature is dependent on the philosophy of grammar, have now been discussed. The methods by which they arc made to adapt themselves to the expression of sentiments, will be considered elsewhere : and though these methods are connected intimately with the particular usages of indi- vidual dialects, they are also sufl&ciently based on the great principles of general grammar to be alluded to witli pro- priety in a work of this nature. (74.) The other parts of speech arc little more than conveuieaces of language, which might possibly be omitted i 40 PHlNCirLES UF |i from a dialect without incapacitating it for tlie expression of opinion. To commence with the pronoun. The com- mon use of language leads to constant abbreviation ; in the cvery-day discourse of life our ideas flow more rapidly than our words, hence we are apt to curtail the latter, both in sound and number, in every way that does not interfere with the sense, and often without considering this limit, as may readily be perceived by any one who notices the use of the little word *' it," both by speakers and writers. In i'act we rarely utter a sentence, without, for convenience sake^ omitting various words required to represent the ideas we are communicating ; and we do this more frequently where the same idea is repeated. In this latter case, it is very often much shorter and much more agreeable to the ear to avoid the repetition of the word standing for that idea, and to substitute for it one or other of a class of words, in general short and easily pronounced, which are called in consequence " Pronouns," that is '' words used instead of nouns." (75.) It is evident that all pronouns are in reahty nouns because they possess the distinctive quality which charac- terises the noun ; that is, they are names of things. Thus if I use the word "it," meaning a pencil, ^' it " is the name of that thing for the time being. What, then, is the difference between a noun and a pronoun ? So little, that the pronoun may be included under the class '' noun." It consists in the fact, that every noun is the name either of some class or of some individual, whereas the pronoun is a sort of general noun, that may be made the name of any thing or class, limited only by certain grammatical con- siderations regarding gender, number, and person. (76.) As a pronoun is therefore actually a noun, it may be distinguished in any dialect by the grammatical proper- ties belonging to nouns ; that is, it may have kind, case, gender, number, and person. (77.) Many languages may exist without the class of words called pronouns, but where they are found, their division into kinds is not based on the same circumstance that decides the two great sjxjcies of nouns, namely the species of ideas they represent, whether grouped in classes or mo me: Th lan< call wh( for ral plu LANGUAGE. 41 or representing individuals. The divisions of pronouns in most lanj^uages are arbitrary, being based both upon their meaning, and upon certain peculiarities in their form. Thus in English (and the example will do for most modern languages,) there are first, the " Personal pronouns," so called because they indicate the persons by their form, whereas other names of things do not do so. They are, for the 1st person " I," plural '' We " ; 2nd " Thou," plu- ral '' Ye " or " You " and 3rd " He, " (( She, or It. plural " They." These are real pronouns, and are always used without nouns, and therefore represent them ; whereas many other words which are frequently called pronouns, are in fact adjectives, referring to some noun expressed or understood. From the personal pronoun arc formed certain other words which may be classed as pronouns, denoting possession, and indicating the person and number by their form. Thus we have from the above, in regular sequence, ''mine," "thine," ''hers," "ours," "yours," "theirs." These are called, " possessive pronouns " ; but the corres- ponding words similarly formed, namelv, "my," "thy," '• his," " her," "its," "our," "your," "their," arc better classed as possessive pronominal adjectives, because they are found joined to nouns. (78.) Nouns in general do not distinguish their cases except the possessive, by terminations ; but the personal pronouns, on the contrary, vary their forms, that is, they undergo inflection, to mark case ; and as there is a diflFerent pronoun for each number, person, and gender, a personal pronoun by its form alone usually indicates the gender, number, person, and case. (79.) All pronouns can have a precise meaning only by their reference to the nouns for which they stand, and they consequently carry back the mind thus to some thing previously mentioned. Thus, if I say, " Send John, he will go," the word " he " immediately carries back or refers the mind to the person, " John," previously mentioned. But there are also certain pronouns in English which are said to do this in a much more pointed and special manner, and which, by the usage of the language, are always place4 ^ PRINCIPLES OF as near a» possible to the words for which they stand. Sucli pronouns from two Latin words signifying " to carry back," are called " relative," and have the additional peculiarity of coupling assertions together. From this circumstance they should be called conjunctive pronouns, as other pro- nouns relate, as much as they. The Relative pronouns in English are "who," "which," "what," and "that." Of these " which " and " what " are adjectives rather than pronouns, as they often arc, and always can bo joined to nouns ; " who," like the personal pronouns, changes its ter- mination to mark the cases. " Who," " which," and " what," are often used in asking questions, when they are denomi- nated " Interrogative " pronouns. " This " and " that," and their plurals, " these " and " those," called " Demon- strative" pronouns, are really adjectives, being always joined to a noun expressed or understood. (80.) Pronouns of a character similar to the above are found in those languages suflSciently perfect to possess such a part of speech ; but several of these, as in the Greek and Latin, though commonly called pronouns, are really adjec- tives, as " ille," &c. in Latin, and " houtos " in Greek, with various others. (81.) There are in English several other words that are used in a pronominal sense, chiefly to designate something, the name of which the speaker has not indicated. Such words are, " One," and " Others." The former may per- haps, under most circumstances be considered an adjective, because a noun may be supposed to be understood ; but in such sentences as " One does not often see it," " One " is evidently used pronominally, as standing indefinitely for " any person," or " a person," and thus may be called an " indefinite " pronoun ; " others," is undoubtedly always a pronoun, and is never joined to a noun. In the sen- tence " Others say so," " others " cannot be joined to a noun, but evidently stands for " other persons," and thus has a compound force. It also is an indefinite pronoun. i*? (82.) Thus pronouns, however convenient, are not essen- tial, because they only stand for ideas which have their own peculiar representatives in nouns. It is probable, how- (( LANOUAflE. 43 ever, that there arc few languages in which pronouns arc not found. (83.) Of the remaining kinds of words, perhaps the "adverb" is next in importance. As ideiw of action, from their very nature, may be modified by ideas indicating the various relations under which action may be contemplated, such as time, manner, cause, place, «&c., so there may be words representing these modifying ideas. Such words, being more especially added to verbs, have acquired the appropriate name of Adverbs ; and this class of words in- cludes also those which are added to adjectives to express the degree in which the adjective indicates the quality. As these adverbs thus modify, so they may modify in a greater or less degree, and consequently other adverbs can be added to them for this purpose. From these considerations, the adverb is defined as " A word added to a verb, an adjec- tive, or another adverb, to modify it." In fact, it may readily be shown, that an adverb is a word representing any idea that modifies an idea of quality. All verbs, except the verb " to be," include the idea of quality, and it is in right of this circumstance that they admit of being modified by adverbs: thus " runs " is equivalent to " is running;" and when we say, " runs rapidly," the adverb obviously modifies the word " running," which equally evidently expresses a quality in some subject. Similarly in the sen- tence, "Man lives carelessly," "lives" includes the idea of the quality " living," asserted of " man " ; and that quality is modified, as regards manner, by the adverb " carelessly." (84.) As adjectives represent the idea of quality, and adverbs represent ideas modifying the former, it follows that this connexion will be indicated by some connexion between the words expressing those ideas : and sucA ifl usually the case, adverbs in most languages being formed immediately from adjectives, by a slight change of termina- tion, and very often some form of the adjectives being used adverbially. ThiLs in English most adv^bs are formed from adjectives by adding " ly " to the termination of the latter, as "happy," "happily," &c. In Latin and Greek J 44 PRINCIPLES OF ll ! i i a similar course is adopted, in the former by makinjj; tlic adjective end in " e" or " ter," and in the latter by adopt- ing the termination " os," while in both, the neuter adjec- tive is frequently used as an adverb. The French dialect also affords another familiar example of the adverb formed from the adjective. (85.) Th'^ adverb is not an essential part of speech ; its duty can generally be performed by a combination of a noun and adjective governed by a preposition : thus " happily " may be expressed by " in a happy manner " ; " here " may be expressed by " in this place " ; and the same expedient may be adopted in other languages as well as in English. There is no doubt, however, that such expedients would interfere much with facility of expression, although many adverbial modifications are of such a nature that they arc unavoidably expressed by phrases instead of single words, as, for instance, " lie lived in London," where, in indicat- ing the place of the action, it is found necessary to intro- duce a name of a place. In many other instances, as will be shown hereafter, the use of adverbial phrases instead of adverbs is unavoidable, and is constantly adopted in many languages. CHAPTER VII. Prepositions- i: -Conjunctions — Articles— Intkiuections — Par- ticiples. (86.) The preposition performs a very important duty in language, though it may be questioned whether it is the sign of an idea ; it is properly the sign of some relation existing in the mind between an idea of a thing and some other idea. Relation, properly the act of carrying back, may be described as the species of connection that exists between two ideas of things, by which the one unavoidably suggests the other, and the mind is as unavoidably carried from the one to the other. This relation between ideas is often expressed by terminations, that is, by altering the termination of the word representing the latter idea ; but •i LANaUAOE. 45 ing the Y adopt- er adjec- Dxaniplc cch ; its f a noun appily " e " may cpedient Knglish. s would h many they are e words, indicat- to intro- 5, as will instead in many js — Par- nt duty it is the relation [id some back, it exists roidably carried ideas is ing the ea; but n i ■i It is often expressed by a separate word, and such word, being legitimat^ely placed hcforc the ohjrtt of the rtlatiou, receives the name '' Preposition " (placed before) ; hence the correct definition, " Preposition is a word placed before a noun to show the relation between it and some other It) .. _ . (87.) As the word after the preposition is the object of the relation, that word must be a noun ; and, as a relation exists between two things, the word before the preposition, if it be not a grammatical noun, must at least be a notional (24) word, that is, it must include the idea of a thing, just as a verb includes the idea of action or assertion, and the adjective, of a quality. For instance, if I say, " The man goes," the very nature of the idea represented by the word ''goes" unavoidably suggests some following idea of a place ; and the relation between these two will be express- ed by some preposition, as in English by " to " or " from," whichever will indicate the actual relation existing in the mind. Thus the above words cannot express the full sense, but must be completed by some phrase stating the place, as " The man goes to London," where the word " to " represents the relation between the idea of the act of going, and the idea of the place "London"; that is, the word " to " is a preposition showing the relation between " goes " and London ; but to avoid the (ipparent incongruity of speaking of a relation between "goes," grammatically a verb, and the noun " London," we may in such sentences describe " to " as a preposition showing the grammatical connection between " goes " and " London." In the same way, in the phrase " fond of money," " of" shows the relation between the quality " fondness " and the object of it, "money," and may be described as before. (88.) As there may be a great variety of relations ex- isting between ideas, and as the use of case in grammar is to indicate relations, so it has been asserted, that there should be a diflferent case for every relation requiring a separate preposition. Very little consideration will show the absurdity of such a supposition ; thus, " to," " from," and all other prepositions take after them the object of the 4C PRINCIPLES OF relation, and that word, bein^ an o})jcct, is said to l>e in the objective case, and it is (juitc clear that the condition of such word as the object of a relation is not altered by the particular nature of the relation expressed by the pre- position. (89.) As a preposition, because it represents merely the relation existing in the mind between the two ideas,aud sense only to connect two other words, is commonly considered a merely relative word, not in any way including the idea of a thing having an existence external to the mind ; so a " Conjunction," which connects sentences together, may perhaps be viewed in a similar light, that is, as represent- ing only a connection. In forming a judgment, the mind may compare several ideas of quality with the idea of the same subject, or the ideas of several things may be con- nected together in the mind with reference to some judg- ment, or several judgments may be connected in the mind in such a way that the sense goes on through them all, so that no termination of the sense occurs until the end of the last. (90.) In these and similar instances, language is required to adopt some means of tepresenting such connections, and though we may conceive the possibility of indicating them by some other means, an altered termination, for instance, yet separate words are obviously the most convenient ; hence conjunctions are defined as " Words that couple words together, or assertions together." Thus in the sentence, "John visited Toronto and Hamilton, and there he saw William," the two ideas represented by the words, " Toronto," " Hamilton," arc evidently associated together in the mind with regard to the idea of the action, " vis- ited;" also the two assertions (propositions), "he saw," and " he visited," are similarly connected, and this duty is performed by the word and ; nor will it make any diflFe- renoe in the nature of the conjunction, whether we suppose it to couple the two words, " Toronto," " Hamilton," or the verb repeated, "John visited Toronto," "John visited Hamilton." (91.) If I say, "A great and good and wise man LANGUAGE. 47 to ])e in condition Itcred by the pre- lerely the ind sen'sc onsidered the idea mind ; so ther, may •epresent- the mind lea of the y be con- me judg- thc mind em all, so he end of J required ions, and :ing them instance, at; hence )le words sentence, e he saw le words, i together OD, " vis- he saw," this duty any diflFe- e suppose n," or the in visited use man should bo loved ;" the ideas of the three qualities are evidently assoeiatod in the mind :us all existini^ in the man, and this association we learn from the conjunction "and," coupling the corresponding words to each other. If we repeat the assertion, " A great man should be loved," &c., we evidently alter the sense ; hence the conjunction evi- dently couples the words, and not the assertions, that might opparenth/ be framed from the same sentence. Again, " Two and three make five." Here it requires no expla- nation to show that the conjunction couples the words " two" and " three," since we cannot say " two make ftve," and " three make five." Thus it appears that conjunctions couple both assertions together, and also single words. (92.) The very fact of things being intimately connected together, argues some similarity in them, and thus the ideas that arc so connected are usually similar grammati- cally, and in the same relation to some other ideas. Hence in all dialects where conjunctions are found, some repre- sent connections of so intimate a nature, that the words coupled by them are necessarily of a like kind, and in the same relations with other words, as exhibited in the fore- going example, where the words, " Toronto," " Hamilton," are coupled by " and," are both names of things, and both in the same relation to " visited." Thus there is one class of conjunctions indicating a very intimate connection, and consequently always coupling like words or phrases ; these are in the English language " and," " or," " but," and certain compounds " either," " neither," " nor," (I speak of these words as they are commonly used). (93.) Besides the connections between ideas and asser- tions above alluded to, there is another species of connec- tion existing in the mind between assertions, wherein the latter assertion, besides being so connected with the former, also expresses a modification of some word in it. Such a connection must of course be expressed by a conjunction ; but a« the fact of the modification has also to be expressed, the conjunction has to do another duty, namely, to repre- sent the modification, which being usually one commonly expressed by an adverb, the conjunction will in such cases 48 PRINCIPLES OF Jl'IM be also adverbial in its nature, and therefore may be ealled an (idvcrhidl roiijitiirtion. (94). Further, as the latter assertion expresses a modi- fication of some word in tlie former, it is dependent, and thus adverbial conjunctions are necessarily followed by dependent assertions (propositions). In the following sen- tence, " When I went thither, I saw him," there are two assertions (propositions), — " I went thither," and " I saw him." In sense, the order is, " I saw him when I went thither." It is evident that the two judgments of the mind expressed by these assertions are connected in tlje mind, hence to fulfil the purpose of language that connec- tion must bo clearly expressed. Also the latter proposi- tion is obviously a modification of time to the action " saw," expressed in the former, and the connecting word indicates this circumstance also. Both these duties are evidtrntly performed by the word "when" in the above exanjple, for it clearly refers to the time of both the actions " saw " and " went." And if we resolve it into words expressing the same meaning, this fact will be evident ; thus, insteai' of " when", we may say, " at the time on which ;" when the sentence becomes, " I saw him at the time on which I went thither." Here the first assertion is, "I st w him at the time," and the next is, " on which I went thither." In other words, " when " is in sense a part of loth tlie assertions, and is consequently the connecting link between them, just as the hinge is between the door and the wall, whereby the former is attached to and depends on the latter. (95.) The same fact may be shown with more or less facility with regard to all other words of similar character, namely, those which connect assertions and refer to some modification of time, manner, cause, condition, &c. Thus in the following examples the words, " because," " how," " as," " wherefore," evidently both connect the assertions and indicate the modifi«ations alluded to : ''I did it be- cause I chose to do it," two assertions coupled by " because," the latter indicating the modification of cause ; " I will tell you how I did it," two assertions, the latter indicating LAXr.rAtii:. 49 Li modi- nt, and \]\v manner and ooupk-d })y '' how ;" " T did it as you told nic, " — " as," the eniiplinj;; word indieatint:; manner ; '' Tell nie wherefore you did it," — " wlierefore," the couplin*^ word, indicating tlie cause ; and so on of others. All these words may be resolved into plirases accordinjj^ to their meaning, as, " how," ec^uivalent to " the manner in which," the manner in whicli " ; " wherefore," '' the cause as ♦ > a for which," «!tc. Thus tlieso words are adverbial and con- junctive in their nature, and, though here classed as con- junctions, may also be called " conjunctive adverbs." (96.) Some of tliese adverbial conjunctions differ some- what from the rest in the mtidification they express. INIost of those already spoken of refer, as stated, to some modifi- cation of the action expressed in the preceding assertion, and thus complete the sense of the verb ; but the words, "whence," "whither," " where," and some others, appa- rently indicate a modification belonging to some noun telling the place of the previous action, as *' Tell me the name of the place whence you come," " Show me the place irhcrc he lives." In each of these the dependent assertion evidently expresses something about the noun, " place," and not about the verb as in the previous instances. The reality of this difference between, " where," " whence," " whither," and the other adverbial conjunctions, may however be questioned, as these words, strictly speaking, are improperly used in the examples just given. " Where " signifies, " in which place;" "whence," " from which place"; "whither," "to which place"; and wherever it can be avoided, the word, " place," should not bo used before them, as it becomes a mere repetition; thus it would be better to say, " Tell me whence yon come," or" Tell mo the place from which yon come," &c. (97.) I have already stated (77), that the relative pronoun connects assertions or propositions ; and in the above examples, where, instead of the adverbial conjunctions, the corresponding phrases have been used, the propositions are coupled by the relative pronoun, (whicli thus docs the duty of a conjunction,) and the assertion or proposition following it is equally dependent. This property of the i M I'UINCIPLES OF rolativo pronoun is based on tlic circumstance that it refers HO immediately to the noun for which it stands, and is placed in so close proximity to it })oth in writing and speakinj;, that it unavoidably becomes a link of connection between the assertion in which it is, and that, in which the noun for which it stands, occurs. In all lani;ua}j;cs where this class of words is found, its nature will be much the same, because it is based cm the mental connections the word is used to represent. (08.) There is in many dialects a species of woid not exactly reprcsentin*:; an ideajDf quality, but placed before the name of a thing, the idea of which is considered either indefinitely, as any one out of many of the same kind, or as a particular one considered to some extent definitely, but without reference to a special name. The word doing this duty is called an " article." In English the articles are " A " (written " an " before a vowel) and " The." From their very nature, these words may bo prefixed to any noun that is spoken of as one out of several of the name kind. They are evidently a species of general adjec- tive, and should be so considered ; they are not found in all dialects, and in some arc used somewhat differently. (99.) Any passion, emotion, or feeling, suddenly or violently excited in the mind, such as joy, pain, grief, fright, astonishment, &c., is apt to manifest itself by a cry, or a sudden utterance of some sort ; and if this cry be an arti- culate word, it is, " a word used to express some sudden emotion." Moreover, as it is frequently thrown in between the parts of a sentence, it takes its name, '^ Interjection," from two Latin words signifying, " thrown between." As all persons are liable to sudden bursts of emotion, the savage perhaps more than the civilized man, so there is no dialect without what may be called interjections ; in fact, sudden exclamations of any sort may be considered as coming under this head, and very often, other words very different in their original character, are used interjection- ally. Thus in English," hush," "liist," " hark," ''hearken," commonly called interjections, are really imperative moods of verbs ; so are, "lo," (look) and " behold ;" the sudden 1 0X( is jeo thi ''o "c las to of^ an3 are "i^ ^ nee an) sen 1 ifg exp nee any LAN," are pure inter- jections ; and tlu; first ery a ehild utt( rs on its entry into this worM, approachini.', as it probably (Idos, the sound of " oh " or " ah," may be called an interjection. Adniittinj^ " oh " to be a word, it is the first we use in infancy, the laHt that abandons us in the close of life, and is common to very many dialects. (100.) One circumstance is remarkable about this class of words ; they have no ossessivc case, as " Fathcr^s house." A noun in apposition, as " Milton, thepoet^ A proposition beginning with a relative pronoun, as " The man who was killed ijesterday^ In the above examples the sense of the words " man," "house," and " Milton," is completed by the phrases at- tached, which consequently, to some extent, do the duty of adjectives, and may be called adjectival phrases. (142.) Complements of place, manner, and time, are sometimes apparently attached to nouns, but it is only apparently ; they really complete some word understood, expressive of action or existence, to which only, the modi- fications of place, manner, and time can apply. In the example " Toronto, on the shores of Lake Ontario," the latter phrase is a complement of place, and is consequently adverbial; it seems to belong to " Toronto," but in reality completes some word understood, as "situated," or "be- ing." So in the phrase, " Toronto, at that time, the capital," the complement of time seems to belong to " Toronto," but it is in reality a complement of time to " understood. (143.) In the example " These persons, namely, John, ■ *' being. c1^ 70 PRINCIPLES OP I Thomas, and William," here the adverb " namely " seems to be a complement of "persons," but is not so; " namely " signifies hy name, and the phrase is, " These persons, being hy name^' &c., where " by name " evidently completes the sense of " being." (144.) Adjectives express quality, and as things may possess qualities in very different degrees, so adjectives admit of complements expressive of the degree in which the quality is possessed. The nature of the quality ex- pressed by the adjective may also be such as unavoidably to suggest some other consideration, without which it can- not exist. Words expressing these modifications of the adjectives are adverbs, and, as a phrase may be often used instead of a single word, adverbial phrases may be used for adverbs : hence adjectives may have adverbs or adverbial phrases attached to them as complements. (145.) The most common form of an adverbial phrase is, " An adjective and noun governed by a preposition ;" the adjective may be sometimes omitted. Thus the adverb, " Here," may be expressed, " In this place ;" " There," "In that place ;"" Happily," "In a happy manner:" " Very," " In a great degree," &c. Some adverbial modi- fications may be expressed by a dependent proposition beginning with an adverbial conjunction, as those of time, place, cause, &c. (132) of which examples have been already given. Most of these modifications belong to words expressive of action, but there is one adverbial phrase, a dependent proposition beginning with the adverbial con- junction " than " always found after a comparative degree and which may be called the " complement of comparison." After all adjectives also indicating comparison, as, iat c, mch, similar, &c., there must be a complement expressing the other side of the comparison, as, " It is not %uck as I thought.^* (146). If we attach the word, " excellent," to a noun, we may modify it by a complement of degree expressed by an adverb, as "very excellent;" or by an adverbial phrase, as, " excellent to a great degree f^ or, if the adject- ive indicate a comparison between two things as to the \^ LANGUAGE. 71 I degree in which the quality is possessed by each, as the word, "larger," for instance, we use a dependent prepo- sition beginning with, " than," as " larger than that is.'* Or the adjective may be such as to suggest unavoidably some other consideration which will be expressed by an adverbial phrase, as " fond ofttwney^' " fit/orwsc." (144.) (147). Thus as the adjective expresses quality it may be completed, in sense, by an adverb or adverbial phrase, the forms of which latter are, an adjective and noun governed by a preposition, and a dependent preposition beginning with an adverbial conjunction. (148). It may be here remarked that, as adverbs have more or less reference to the expression of quality or degree of quality, they may be modified in the same way as adjectives. Thus in the phrase, " valued very highly," the adverb "highly" is modified by "very." (149). As the verb expresses action or being, and includes also the idea of quality, the sense of it may bo completed by any word or phrase expressive of the various modifications with reference to which the mind considers the idea of action or being. These modifications are time, place, cause, manner, means, instrument, condition, &c. ; and the words expressing these are adverbs, instead of which adverbial phrases (as described above) are often used, indeed some of these modifications can be expressed by such phrases only ; hence verbs may have complements attached to them consisting of adverbs or adverbial phrases. Many verbs also express transitive action ; (35) in such instances the verbs must be followed by a noun in the objective case. The following sentences afibrd examples of most of the diflferent complements that may be attached to verbs. He shot Aiwi, without delay, icith a pistol, ichen he met himy Him" object — "without delay," adverbial phrase, complement of time — "with a pistol," adverbial phrase, the instrument — " when he met him," adverbial phrase (dependent proposition) comple ment of time — « (( 72 PRINCIPLES OP ** He went out early^ that he might return before night, ij possible. ^^ ''Early" — adverb, complement of time — "that he might return before night" adverbial phrase (dependent proposition) complement of purpose — " if possible," adverbial phrase (dependent pro- position) complement of condition. " He worked hard for him in the garden , with his spade for many hours, though he was suffering from illness^ Here the verb "worked" has many complements; the first, " hard," an adverb, all the rest adver- bial phrases — " hard," the manner — " for him," the direction — " in the garden," the place — " with his spade," the instrument — " for many hours," the time — " though he was suffering from illness," an adversative complement indica- ting opposition. (150). The above examples are sufficient to exhibit the nature of the different complements that may be attached to verbs, and as verbal words, that is participles, partake of the nature of verbs and adjectives, or of verbs and nouns, (103) so they may be completed by most of the complements which are found after these three parts of speech. Thus the verbal adjective, " striking," coming from a transitive verb, may take an object, " him," after it; and an adverb, "severely;" and an adverbial phrase, " with a stick;" and another phrase a dependent proposi- tion, " that he might be forced to yield." To the word, " striking," used as a verbal noun, the same complements might be attached, thus : " By striking him severely with a stick, that he might be forced to yield." — In both these examples " striking," is a participle ; in the former it may be made a verbal adjective by joining it to a noun, as, " the man striking, &c. ;" in the latter, it is a verbal noun governed by the preposition "by." (151). To sum up the foregoing observations, with reference to general grammar : — Language is the means of expressing our sentiments an(i feelings and consists of words. LANGUAGE. 7a Words are articulate sounds used as signs of our ideas or of the connections and relations existing in the mind between them. The different kinds of ideas and connections or relations give rise to the following different kinds of words which are found to be sufficient to express them, and are observed to exist more or less in every language in proportion to its progress towards perfection. The kinds of words are : the names of things (Nouns and Pronouns) — the names of ac- tions (Verbs) — the names of qualities and degrees of quality (Adjectives, Articles, and Adverbs) — the names of rela- tions and connections (Prepositions and Conjunctions) — and unconnected words indicative of sudden emotion (In- terjections). Of these different kinds of words the principal are, Nouns, Verbs and Adjectives ; and all words in combina- tion formPropositions (including interrogations) and clauses or phrases used to complete the sense of other words, and hence ciUed Complements, and capable of being attached to the principal parts of speech, as represented in the fol- lowing table : NOUH. (May be completed by) An Adjective ; or Adjectival phrase. Verb. (Mny be completed by) An Adverb ; or Adverbial phrase. An Adjectival phrase may consist of, A Noun in Apposition. A Xoun in the Possessive case. A Noun and Preposition^ A Proposition beginninK with a relative Pro noun. An Adverbial phrase may consist of, Noun and Adjective governed by a PrC' position. Dependent Proposi tion beginning with an Adverbial Con junction. Adjectivk. (May be completed by) An Adverb ; or Adverbial phrase. For Adverbial phrase, see Verb. (152.) The above general view will be found to in^slude the principal forms in which we combine words to express opinions, and as these combinations originate in certain, mental processes which go on in the human mind in a 74 PIIINCIPLES OF greater or less deforce according to the intellectual progrcHH it ha.s made, nimilar combinations or some anuloj^ous forms will be found to exist to a corresponding extent in all lan- guages. CHAPTER XI. Analysis — The parts of a prolonged disoodrsb — Analysis of THE SLIUBCT — Of THE PREDICATE— ABSOLUTE AND INFINITIVE Phrases — Mode of finding out the propositions of a sen- tence — Parsing — Relation, single and double — Example of analysis — Relations or connections of words found OUT BY analysis — EXAMPLES — So — EvEN — PARTICIPLE AFTER TO HAVE— For — Before — After — Verbs of asking and TEACniNO. (153.) A very important process in examining the mode of combining words in any dialect, is Analysis, including what is technically called by grammarians, Parsing, which is in fact effected by means of analysis. Analysis is that process by which any thing is separated into the parts of which it consists, so that we are thereby enabled to ascertain the exact nature of those parts and the mode in which they are combined to form the whole under considerations Independently of the useful habit of philosophical investigation, a most important branch of mental training, we are thus enabled to obtain a more thorough knowledge of the thing in question, and arrive at a correct conception of the great general principles by which it is governed, so as to have a better guide for our practical rules than mere usage, fashion, or popular accep- tation. (154.) A prolonged discourse will be found to consist of a series of sentences ; each of these will consist of a propo- sition or propositions ; and each of these, of subject, copula and attribute, or of subject and predicate (110) ; each of these parts will consist (if containing more words than one) of principal words and complements (IIC), and each com- 1 WNGUAdE. 7.') plomcnt, of principal word ami its complonicn^ until wo como to single words. These ai;ain may be analyzed by bcinj; divided into syllables, and each syllable, into simple sounds: this last branch of analysis will not be considered here, as it bclonj^a to a diflferent department of grammar. (155.) In finding out the above parts, certain mechanical means may be used. As every proposition makes an as- sertion, the essential element of its existence inust be that part of speech which makes an assertion, that is, a verb ; hence in order to analyze a sentence we look first for the verbs, and for every verb there must be a proposition. But this is not always a certain feuide, inasmuch as, there may be verbs not expressed in the sentence ; but in that case, the fact will be indicated by the evident sense or meaning of the passage and also by the presence of some additional coupling word (conjunction or relative pronoun). Before each verb there must be a subject, and the mechan- ical means of finding it out is by asking the question "who" or "what" before the verb; all the words which together form the answer to this question will constitute the complete subject, called in grammar the " logical sub- ject." If the verb be any part of the verb " to be," ask the question "what" after it; tdl the words together answering this question will form the logical attribute, and these with the verb will form the predicate. The words so linked together will constitute a proposi- tion, and the parts of the propositions connected with the other verbs occurring in the sentence may be distinguished in a similar manner. (156.) If the subject consists of more words than one, it is analyzed by finding out the principal word, called the "grammatical subject;" this is done by asking the usual question for the subject and ascertaining what one word answers it hy itself ; this will be the grammatical subject. Its complements aie ascertained by asking after the prin- cipal word of the subject, such questions as are suggested by its nature (116) each word or combination of words in the proposition answering a separate question, or the same nl 76 PRINCIPLES OP question repeated, will conHtltutc a separate complement ; each complement, if it consist of more words than one, will have a principal word, and this word is found out by ascertaininj^ which of the words constituting the comple- ment makes sense by itself with that to which the whole complement belongs ; this will be the principal word (IK)) and this process is carried on till we arrive at a sin<:le word. (157.) The predicate is examined in a similar manner; the verb being invariably the principal word or gramma- tical predicate (in pro]>ositions where the verb "to be" is not used,) because it always expresses the (juality asserted of the subject. When the verb " to be " occurs the attri- bute may be analyzed separately, the copula being consi- dered an independent part of the proposition ; in either case the complements will be found out by asking the various tjuestions which may be put in connection with the principal word : as, after a verb or any word indica- ting action, " how," "when," "where" " why," iV:c. In many cases complements will be found to which no precise ({uestions can be applied; in such instances a careful examination of the proposition will enable us to ascertain with certainty, to what principal word each complement belongs, and on our doing so correctly will denend the meaning we attach to the proposition ; in these cases we are aided in good composition by the position of the com- plements and the punctuation, and mistakes in these points, the results of ignorance, or careless composition, often materially alter the meaning of a proposition. Having gone through the above process with each verb in the sen- tence, if there be any words omitted, that is, not attached in the course of the process to any proposition, by reading over the sentence carefully, we may readily discover to which propositions they belong. (158.) There are two kinds of phrases sufficiently pecu- liar to merit separate notice ; they are the Nominative absolute, and [the Infinitive phrase. The peculiarity of the former is, that though it is grammatically independent, it is in reality a eomplement (57) usually indicating the cause, time, or condition of an action, and is analysed by LANaCAOE. 7T [living fintling the principal word nn. r. noccsMary to oxplain the nature of " parsing'," which is in itself an analytical pro- cess. (lf»]). The word "parse" is probably derived from the Latin *' pars," " a part," and hence it sij^nifies to consider and detail separately the ^rrannuatical nature, characteristics, and properties of any word when used to form part of a phrase or assertion. Some of the ^grammatical properties of words, — a noun for example, — exist in it independently of its connection with other words, while others exist only in right of such connection; consequently tlie process of parsing exercised to its fullest extent applies only to words in gramnmtical connection with others ; indeed the act of distinguishing these connections and relations is the most essential part of the process, and when it is omitted parsing can scarcely be said to be carried out. In general most words belong to some class or other without regard to the connection in which they may be used ; in nouns the number and gender may be told by reference to the meaning or termination, and sometimes the case also by the latter, that is where the termination is considered the essential element in right of which case exists; but properly, as that termination is used only to indicate the relation of the noun with some other word, without such relation case can scarcely be said to have any existence. In verbs, the tense, mood and sometimes the person and number may be distinguished by the form, without reference to the connection with other words ; but in general parsing is properly understood as applied only to words forming parts of propositions. (162.) It is by means of analysis that we are enabled to ascertain the connection of one word with another, as is evident from the previous explanation, and hence with- out some analysis more or less, we can not complete the process of parsing any word, that is we can not tell the government or relation, the most important element in parsing. Every word in a proposition has some relation with some other word, as for instance, the adjective with its noun, the verb with its subject, the adverb with the (( LANOUAnE. 79 some I said and lishcd other ood as as i word it nindifios, iVc Any word so rolatod to nnr other word is said to bo a word of single irlnfuui, i\h, *' A f/ftud man is respected," hero the relation of " ^'ood " is ''pood man," that is " u'ood " is related to " man ;" to j;ive tho relation of man ; we say '* man is," that is, " man " is tho subject of " is" ; and so on ; to indicate any one of these relations it is necessary to read two words only. IJut some words are equally relattjd to firo others ; words so related are said to have a double relation, and such relations can only be expressed by three words at least. Thus prepositions arc always words of rlouble relation, as, " fond <>/' money ; so are conjunctions ; and occasionally nouns are used so as to have a double relation ; thus in the sentence, " I ordered them to stop," the word " them " is partly object of " ordered," and partly doing the duty of subject before '< to stop." (1G3.) These relations are distinguished by means of analysis, as in the following example ; — " In all cases, " without reference to what may be said by others, wo " ought to act prudently rather than rashly" ; — " In " being a preposition is a word of double relation, and can not be parsed without ascertaining the word br/ore it in sense as well as the word <(ftcr it, that is, the word which it completes, and the word that completes it. By ana- lysis we ascertain that the sense is '' to act in all cases " hence the relation is expressed by the three words " act in cases" and we are enabled to parse the word accordingly, in other words, " in " shows the relation between " to act " and " cases." (164.) To parse any word fully we have to tell its rela- tion, the class of words to which it belongs, all the diffe- rent grammatical properties that belong to it, and its government, the last being known by the relation. To parse a noun (or pronoun) we nmst tell its relation, kind, case, gender, number, person, and government ; — to parse a verb, its relation, kind, mood, tense, person, number and subject ; — an adjective (or article) its relation, and the noun it refers to ; — an adverb, its relation and tlie word it modifies ; — a conjunction, its relation, and the words or 80 PRINCIPLES OP phrases it couples ; — a preposition, its relation, that is, the words between which it shows the grammatical connection. An interjection has strictly sfKjaking no grammatical rela- tion by which it is governed, but it usually has some connection in sense with a proposition before or after, indicating the cause of the emotion of which the interjec- tion is the expression. (165.) The example given below indicates the method commonly adopted in ascertaining the propositions of a sentence and the different parts of a proposition by means of (juestions, but these questions are chiefly useful for the subject and attribute, and there are many complements to which no precise question can be applied, hence such com- plement is usually read off as it is distinguished, and this is done by a knowledge of the general structure of sen- tences and a little study of the proposition, aided by posi- tion and punctuation. " Another bill being brought into the house of commons " for rendering the treaty of commerce effectual, such a " number of petitions were delivered against it, and so " many solid arguments advanced by the merchants who " were examined on the subject, that even a great number " of tory members were convinced of the bad consequence " it would produce to trade, and voted against the ministry " on this occasion." In this sentence the first proposition is, " Another bill " being brought into the house of commons for rendering " the treaty of commerce effiecc'^al, such a number of pe- " titions were delivered against it;'' 2nd Proposition — "and so many solid arguments " (were) advanced by the merchants." 3rd Proposition — "who were examined on the sub- " ject." 4th Proposition — " that even a great number of tory " members were convinced of the bad consequence." 5th Proposition — " (which) it would produce to trade." 6th Proposition — " and (they) voted against the minis- " try on this occasion." The first proposition is principal — " were " is the verb ; 1 (( M LANdUAUE. 81 3, the 3tion. i rela- some after, terjec- icthod 9 of a means for the ents to h com- nd this of sen- ly posi- immons , such a and so nts who number 3quence iiinistry Lher bill [ndering |r of pe- iments Ihe Bub- of tory trade." lie minis- the verb — Who or wluit '• were ' ? " Such a number of pttitions,"' tliis is the .subjoc't. The remainder is the predicate. In the subject " number " is the principal word, because it answers the question "what were" by itself (11(>), com- pleted by "such," that is one complement ; "a" tliat is another ; " of petitions," that is another ; in this last com- plement, ''of" is the principal word completed by " peti- tions." In the predicate " were delivered " taken as one word is the principal, completed by " against it : " in this com- plement " a<::ainst " is the principal word completed by '' it." The clause beginning with " another " and ending at "effectual" is an absolute phrase, completing '-were delivered" in sense, but having no grammatical depend- ence on it; (57) In this clause, "bill" is the principal word, completed by " another " that is one complement : '• being brought into the house of commons for rendering the treaty of commerce effectual," that is another comple- ment; in this latter, "being" and "brought" if taken separately arc both principal words, (or if taken as one word " being brought " is principal) " brought " i^• com- pleted by " into the house of commons," that is one com- plement ; " for rendering the treaty of commerce effectual," that is another ; in tlie former, " into " is the principal word, completed by " the house of conmions " ; in tliis, " house " is tiie principal word, completed by " tho," and "of commons;" in this, "of" is the principal word, com- pleted by "commons." — In the complement beginning with " for," " for " is the principal word, completed })y "rendering the treaty of commerce tlfectual;" in tliis complement, " rendering " is tlie principal word, completed by " the treaty of commerce effectual ; ' in this '' treaty " is the principal word, completed by " the," "of commerce," and "effectual;" in "of commerce," "of" is the prin- cipal word, completed by "connncrcc." Strictly speaking, in the; couiplement, " rendering the treaty of commerce effectual," " to be " is understood, and the words " tlie treaty of commerce to be effectual " constitute an intinitive phrase of which " to be " is tlie I 82 PRINCIPLES OF (( the treaty of commerce " ; "to verb " wliom to be " ? bo what"? "effectual." The 2nd proposition is principal, coupled by "and" understood to the first ; here " were advanced " like " were delivered," as exemplified in the first proposition may be taken as one word, but as they are really two words, they should be so considered in analysis. " Were " is the verb ; (I omit the questions) "so many solid arguments," is the subject; " advanced by the merchants" is the attribute; in the subject "arguments" is the principal word, com- pleted by " so many," one complement, " solid " another ; in the former, " many " is the principal word, completed by "so." In the attribute, "advanced," is the principal word, completed by "by the merchants " ; in this, " by " is the principal word, completed by, " the merchants " ; in this, "merchants" is principal, completed by "the." (See copula 111.) The 3rd proposition is dependent (beginning with the relative pronoun " who ") (125) and completes " mer- chants." The subject is, "who"; the verb is "were" the attribute " examined on the subject " ; in this attri- bute, " examined," is the principal word, completed by, " on the subject " ; in this complement, " on " is the prin- cipal word, completed by " the subject " ; in this, " sub- ject" is the principal word, completed by " the." The 4th proposition is dependent, beginning with the conjunction "that" and completes, "such," and, "so" in the first and second propositions — " Were " is the verb ; '* even a great number of tory members " is the subject ; " convinced of the bad consequence " is the attribute. In the subject, "number" is the principal word, completed by "a," one complement, "even great,' another, and " of t,ory members," another. In the complement "even great," " great " is the principal word, completed by " even " ; " of tory members," " of," is the principal word, completed by "tory members"; in this, "members" is the principal word, completed by " tory." In the attribute " convinced " is the principal word, completed by, " of the bad consequence " j in this, "of," is the principal I LS P a th ch th p(] th fit m II II ' LANOCAOK. •; "to " and " " were may be Ib, they le verb ; ' is the tribute ; •d, coni- inother ; mpleted )rincipal , " by; hants " ; ■ " the." with the } " mer- " were" his attri- ietcd by, the prin- ts, u sub- with the id, "so" the verb ; subject ; bute. In ^ompletod ther, and nt " even pleted by ;ipal word, aibers" is e attribute 1 by, " of principal word, completed by, "the bad coiise^iuonoo " ; in thin, " consequence " is the principal word, completed by, " the," and, ■■ ba^l. ' These propositions may bo conveniently divided into inthjfct and jjrcdiratc, by joinini^ the verb "were" with the attribute. The 5tli proj)«tsitii^i'n is dependent botriiinintr with ilio relative priHi<»un •which underst()<»d and completes "con- ii(Bf|iience." "It." is the subject ; " would produce which to trade," is the predicate. In this predicate '* would pro- duce " is the principjil word, completed by "which," that is one complement (object) and "to trade," that is an- other; in this, "to" is the principal word completed by '• trade " ; " would produce " taken .sqxirdte/j will be ex- plained hereafter. The ()th proposition is dependent, coupled by " and " to the 4th, therefore doin^ the same duty and beginninjj; with "that" understood. "They" is the su})jcct ; "voted aj^ainst the ministry on tliis occasion," is tlie pre- dicate. In this predicate, " voted," is the principal word, completed by, " against the ministry," that is one comple- ment; "on this occa.^ion," is another. In the former, '• against " is the principal word, completed by, " the min- istry " ; in this, " ministry " is the principal word, com- pleted by, •• the" ; in the complement, " on this occasion," " on " is the principal word, completed by " this occa- sion " ; in this, " occasior.,'' is the princip:'.] word, com- pleted by " this." (16G.) It may be nl)scr^<'d of r! e worJ.> " such " and "so," sec 1st and 2nd p opositi > - that they have in themselves no specifir 'm.^-nijig, ;'ieroly indicating some «juality or degree of <^ -ility; hei.c they recjuirc some clause to be added to erp^aiu tlicm : ii;:s explanation in the example under coiijMeration is givfcrs to the is one word (verbal ad- eferring to Duld be ac- l adjective, bill"; and e verb " to ui evidently 4t The relation of " into " is, " brought into hoiist^ " ; it is a preposition showing the relation (or grammatical con- nection) between "brought" and "house." Observe in this and similar examples the word " brought" (or other similar word) evidently causes the phrase " into the house " to be used, and " into " shows the relation between the act of bringing indicated by " brought " and the place (house) to which the thing was brought. We learn by the analysis (1(15) that the phrase begin- ning with "for'' completes "brought;" hence the rela- tion is " brought for rendering,'' and " for " is a prepo- sition showing the relation (or grammatical connection) between "brought" and "rendering." From the analysis, the relation of " rendering " is, " for rendering " ; therefore from the nature of a preposition (87) "rendering," is a noun; but it is also a form of the verb "to render" and is therefore a participle or verbal noun, in the objective case governed by " for." Observe, this may be tested in the following way ; if wc use the word " for," we must from its nature, mean " for some- thing or other " ; ask the question, " for what " ? and the answer can only be " rendering." According to the analysis, the relation of "treaty" is, " rendering treaty," and " treaty " answers the (juestion " rendering what" ? it is therefore apparently the object of " rendering," ai;d the complete parsing of it is, a com- mon noun, objective case, third person, singular number, neuter gender, pait of tho object of "rendering, " which, being verbal, takes after it the same case as the transitive verb, "to render." Properly, the verb "to be," is un- derstood, (see analysis) and " treaty " is a word of double relation, being partly the object of " rendering," and part- ly doing the duty of a subject before " to be ; " this should be expressed in the parsing thus, objective case governed by, "rendering," and before "to be." In the sentence, " I thought him to be honest," it is nonsense to call, " him," the object of the verb " thought," as the nature of the action expressed by " thought " would not admit of such an object. The object of the action expressed by 8G PRINCIPLES UF ':• ' "thouj;ht," iH, "to be," ''the hcinp^" or the ftict of being; 3nd "him," is df»injr the simie duty l)eforc, "to bo," as a hubjoct docs before its verb, })Ut is in the objec- tive case because the whole plirase, " liini to be lionest," is governed by " thouglit." It' the construction were al- tered, " him " would become the nominative case, as, " I thought that h< nuts honest.'' " Kftectual " ; relation, "treaty effectual"; nn adjec- tive (jualif'ying "treaty." " Sucli " ; relation, "number such " ; an adjective (jualifying " number." This word is Very frequontly called a pronoun by those who neglect the definitions, probably because* it is often used without a noun ; but it is always joined to a noun expressed or un- derstood. " Were delivered " ; relati(Mi " number were delivered " ; taken as om^ word, is a passive verb imperfect tense, indi- cative mood, third ]>erson, plural num])er. having " number ' for its subject. It is thus parsed as a passive tense of tlie verb^ " to deliver " ; b\it there is properly no form for the passive vcice in English. (40) " Were" and "delivered " are two words, are always written and uttered so, and may })e se]>arated in writing by sevcM'al other words ; they sliould of course be parsed separately, " were " being tlie imper- fect tense of the verb " to be," an*' " delivered " the past passive participle (verbal adjective) ui the verb to deliver, .h merely means that a singular noun should be followed by a verb in the form which marks the singular, and ihe rever.-*e. " Number ' though singu- inr in tn'm is plural in meaning, as is evidenced by the plural compK niont of " petiti(Mis," and thus the verb is made to agree iii form with the meaning rather than the form of its subject. Such nouns an called nouns <>/ mul- titude, and even when singular ofteu have a plural verb attached to thmn. The relation of " and,'' is the two propositions whicli it LANGUAGE. 87 ict of I, "to objcc- ncst," tire al- ls. (( adjcc- uniber A word iiop;lect without or un- crcd " ; c, indi- imber'' } of tlie for the vered " nd may sliould iinper- he past deliver, n, while •111, oou- \v num- |sini;ul;u" h marks h viu«:u- 1 by the \orb is than the nf mul- rul verb which it couples; that is, the conjunction is equally related ir h of the two proposition!! ; it is therefore parsed, a conjunc- tion coupling the two propositions. The relation of "so," IS " many so" ; that is. "so," is an adverb modifying " many." (In reading a relation, read the principal word first.) " Were advanced," " were examined," may be parsed like " were delivered," either as passive verbs, or more properly, each word separately as shown above. The relation of " who," is " who were," it is a relative pronoun, in the nominative case, third person, plural number, and masculine gender, subject to the verb " were." " Who," is properly considered a pronoun, because it always sta?ids for a noun and is never joined to a noun. It does not change its form to mark either gender, number or person ; but these grammatical properties are attributed to it in accordance with the nature of the noun it represents, and because the verb attached to it may vary its form accord- ingly as the pronoun represents a different number or person ; as, " 7 who^o " ; " Thou who goest,'" &c. " Who," in the example before us, couples the second and third propositions. (79) "That," relation, the two propositions; a conjunction coupling the two propositions, the verb of the one before it bciing, " were," (advanced) and of that after it " were " (convinced.) " Even," relation " great even," the sense being " a number oven great" ; an adverb modifying " great." This is often one of the most diflScult words to parse, as in the following sentence and others similar, namely, " Even William returned " It will be explained in the examples given under the uead of " Peculiar constructions." " Would produce," relation, " it would produce." Taken u.s one word it forms the imperfect tense, potential mood of the verb " to produce " (Appendix) active tran- sitive, third person, singular number, having " it,'' for its subject. " Would " and " produce " are however two words and should be parsed separately. Thus " would " is an active-transitive defective verb, imperfect tense, indi- cative mood ; it is the irregular imperfec'^ tense of the 88 PRINCIPLES OF I > verb '• to will." " Produce " is an infinitive mood governed by, "would"; but as already stated (43) what is com- monly called the infinitive mood is really a verbal noun ; it is in this instance the object of the transitive verb" would." All the verbs u.sed in forming the moods and tenses of otiier verbs, (except " to be ") that is, all the auxiliary verbs, are transitive, taking as their objects verbal nouns, usually in the form of an infinitive mood, but after, '* to have," the verbal noun has the form of the past participle ; — as, " I may go," " I can go" " I shall go" " I have gone," &c. The Latin " possum " " I can," or *' am able " is an example of a similar usage, being followed by a verb in the infinitive mood (verbal noun) which is really its object. " Voted," relation, " they voted " ; an active intransitive verb, imperfect tense, indicative mood, third person, plural number, having " they " for its subject. This is an example of what is commonly called in English, a n^jfi/Zr/r verb ; that epithet being applied to all verbs that make the im- perfect tense end in " ed." (1G9.) " They are not such as I had hoped for." In order to analyze this example, the nature of the word " such" must be considered. It cannot be used without indicating a comparison between the noun to which it refers, and some other to which that one is compared ; thus we say, '' This house is not such as I intended," meaning evidently, " This house is not such as that one is, which 1 intended." In the example " They are not such as I had hoped for," the full sentence is, " They are not such as those are which I had hoped for." First proposi- tion is " They are not such " ; this is the principal ; sub- ject, they ; predicate, the remainder. The second is, " as those are " ; subject, " those " ; predicate the remainder, this is a dependent proposition completing "such." The next proposition is " which I had hoped for," dependent, completing, " those," the antecedent of " which " ; a better order would be '' tor which I had hoped " ; subject " I " ; predicate " had hoped for which." The analysis need not bg carried further, the process of finding out the comple- objt LANCJUAiJE. «y iovc^riied , is com- (1 noun ; would."' of other ry verbs, , usually ivc," the —as, " 1 ?," &c. ,c '" iH an a verb in really its transitive on, plural I exaniplo lar verb ; :e the iui- for." In the word d without which it onipared ; ntended, " lat one is, not such ey are not st proposi- ipul ; sub- nd is, " as •cniainder, I." The Icpcndent, ; abetter oct " I " ; s need nut ho coniple- iiM'iits lu'iiiLi' sufTiciontly iudicatt'd in tho rxaniplc first iriven. (170.) In the pars^n,L^ (last example) '• they," (and all other pronouns) is parsed like a noun, its relation here beinu; " They are" — a personal pronoun, noniinative ease, third person, jihiral number, su}»jeet to the verb " are.' " Such,'' relatit)n, '' they such," an adjective (jualify- in^, '' they." It may here be remarked that adjeetives may be divided into a considerable nund)er of classes accordin^^ to the various "yet," "I can not succeed, notwithstandinj;' the fact, though I have often tried." The word, " therefore," is commonly called a conjunc- tion for a similar reason. In the example before us, it can not be a conjunction, the coupling word, " and," beinj^ expressed. "Therefore" moans, "consequently," "for this reason" or " on this account," " in conse(|uence of this ;" these are adverbial phrases, and the proposition is, " and in consequence of this I went to a hotel ;" " therefore" is an adverb modifying " went." It may be observed of the analysis of this sentence that the 3rd proposition, beginning, "although," is called an adversative complement of, " decided," because it indi- cates the opposition existing between the decision to remain, and the intention to set out. " To set out" taken as one word is the subject to " was," " it," being only introduced by usage for convenience sake ; hence " to set out," is a verbal noun, nominative case, sub- ject to " was," and in apposition with " it ;" that is, " it," is only another name for the action expressed by, " to set out." Taking "to set out" as the subject, intention be- comes the nominative case after, " was," (57). In all such propositions, " it," merely representing the verbal noun (infinitive mood) may be omitted, as here ; " although to set out at once was my intention." (175.) In such examples, the word, " out," is usually parsed separately and called an adverb modifying " to set." This is scarcely correct ; we often add a word to the verb to alter the meaning slightly, not to express any of the usual modifications applied to the idea of action ; in such cases the word though written separately from the verb, should be parsed with it, as both are used together to express the one action. Thus, " out," in the example does not seem to modify the word " set," but rather to be attached to it to alter the meaning, so that, " to set out," shall express a different action from, " to set," and one which there chances to be no one word to express. This is done in various languages, Latin and Greek especially, by compounding prepositions or particles with verbs, (some LANfiUAOE. 101 fact, ujunc- it cun being " lor jncc of tion is, rcforc" antencc H called it indi- reiuain, « was," icc sake ; ase, sub- is, " it," " to set ntion be- i all such )al noun ,ougli to s usually " to set." Ithe verb ly of the in such [the verb, jgether to nple does ler to be set out," and one Iss. This jspecially, fbs, (some of whicli particles are only used in composition) ; thus, '' dare'' in Latin is, " to give," Init contpoundod witli " do," it becomes " dedero" " to give up." We have not the same facility in English, and in many instances it is not requisite, tlie word so compounded with the verbs being real prepositions wliich may be used separately, as, " ire " " to go," '' transirc" " to go across," '' trans," and " across." being both propositions which may be used separately. The same mode of composition is sometimes, but not often, adopted in English as in the word " to undergo " (to go under) and some other similar instances. The adverbial conjunction, '' as," couples the dependent proposition to the principal, as stated ; but in its adverbial capacity it refers to the modification of cause ; its proper duty is to indicate manner : but besides cause and manner it occasionally indicates time, as in the following sentence, " I saw him as I was going along the road." "To remain;" relation, " decided to remain" a verbal noun (infinitive mood) object of "decided" — It may be questioned whether " to decide" is ever transitive ; com- mon usage makes it both transitive and intransitive, as, " The judge decided the case in his favour." " He said he would decide on the course he meant to pursue." If it be intransitive there must be a word (a preposition) to express the relation between the action of deciding and the thing decided on. The phrase, " at once," is usually quietly disposed of in parsing by calling it an adverbial phrase, which is undoubt- edly true ; many other phrases might as well be parsed in the same way, but as it consists of two words, each should be considered separately ; thus, in the example, " at," is a preposition showing the relation between " to set out" and " once;" " once" is properly an adverb, meaning " atone time," but it is used here as a noun in the objective case and should be parsed accordingly. In the same way we say, "forever," "everywhere," "from thence," &c. The last phrase though frequently used is decidedly incorrect. (176.) " Of man's miraculous mistakes this bears " The palm, ' That all men are about to live,' I It" r. 102 PRINCIPLES OF " For ever on tlic brink of boin^ born : " All pay thcui.sclv(!S tbo compliincnt to tliink *' TJK'y one day shall not drivel, and their pride " On this reversion takes up ready praise ; " At least their own ; their future selves applaud, " How excellent that life they ne'er will lead! Ist Proposition. — " Of nian's nnraculous mistakes this bears the palm" — principal ; — subject, " Of man's miracu- lous mistakes this (one)" predicate, " bears the palm." 2nd " That all men are about to live ;" — dependent — in apposition with, "this," ("this one," or " this mis- take"). Hrd " (That all men are) for ever on the brink of being born." — dependent, in apposition with " this." 4th " All pay themselves the compliment to think ;'' — principal — coupled by, " and," understood to the first. 5th "(That) they one day shall not drivel;" — de- pendent, — object of " think." Gth " And their pride on this reversion takes up ready praise ;" — principal, coupled by " and " to the 4th. 7th " (It takes up) at least their own (praise) ;" — principal, coupled by " and," understood to the preceding;. 8th " Their future selves applaud ;" — principal, coupled by "and," understood to the preceding. 9th " How excellent that life (is) ;" — dependent, coupled by the adverbial conjunction, " how," to the pre- ceding, and object of " applaud." 10th "(Which) they ne'er will lead;" — dependent, coupled by " which" to the preceding, and completing the antecedent, " life." "Of," (1st proposition) relation, "this "(or this mis- take) "of mistakes;" a proposition showing the relation between "this," (this mistake) and "mistakes." "Of" is used to indicate possession, as, " the house of my father," or in the sense of " out of," or "from among," as in the example, where the full meaning is, " this mistake from among all man's miraculous mistakes." " About to live," (taken as one word) relation, " men about to live :" future participle of the verb, " to live," qualifying " men." LANaUAflE. 103 1, >H this liracu- n. Dndcnt is luis- rink of ihink ;" ho tirHt. •"— do- akes up ithe 4th. so) i^ — eccdinfi;. rincipat, )endent, the pre- Ipendent, (ting the biis mis- relation u Of" father," las in the ike from , *' men to live," In the two following* oxnniplcs : " All men livhg now shall pass away," and, " Ail men ithout fo live hereafter shall pass away," " livincr," and " about to live," are equally participles qualifying " men," and diflferin'; only in ten.sc, •' livin;^" reierrinfjj to the present, and " about to live," to the future time. But " about to live" consists of two words " about" and " to live," (assuminp; " to live" as one word) the former is a preposition governing the verbal noun, '* to live." The future participle in English has two signs, " to" or " about to," these vary slightly in meaning; — *' I am to live in Toronto," denotes a sort of necessity; "I am (ihovt to live in Toronto," expresses a mere intention. " I am going to live in Toronto,'* has a similar meaning, but is a vulga- rism, though in some measure sanctioned by usage. "For ever" an adverbial phrase ; "for," a preposition showing the grammatical connection betwoon "are" under- stood and "ever;" "ever," is an adverb used as a noun, in the objective case, governed by "for." " Being born," (taken as one word) is a verbal noun in the objective case, governed by " of." Treated thus, it is the present participle, passive form of the verb " to be bom,*' which in this sense is only used in the passive /orm (com- pound). It is, however, evidently a form of the passive of the verb " to bcnr," passive " to be borne," and in the form above, " to be b(»rn." " Being" and "bom," are two words and should, if possible, be parsed as such ; if the words be used they must be applied to some word under- stood indicating the person or persons, and if this word be supplied "being" and "born" will be participles (verbal adjectives), qualifying that word ; thus in the example, the full phrase would be, " of them being born;" usage would not admit of the word " them," being so expressed, but the words " being born" may from the ideas they express, be so applied. " Themselves," relation " to themselves," personal reci- procal pronoun, governed by " to." " To think," relation, " compliment to think ; " a verbal noun in apposition with " compliment," it explains what the compliment is. ill . 104 PRINCIPLES OF ', ,n ) ! 1 i 1 I " Day ; " relation, " (on) one day," a noun in the ob- jective case governed by " on " understood. In general, nouns indicating the time, measurement of space, &c., are in the objective case governed by a preposition, which is very often not expressed as in the present instance. " Up," (6th proposition) should be parsed with'' takes," and both be treated as one word (175). " At least," relation, " takes up at least," is commonly treated as an adverbial phrase ; properly, " at " is a prepo- sition, and " least," is an adjective used as a noun, objective case governed by " at." " Own," relation, " own praise," an adjective qualifying " praise," (understood). " Own," is commonly called a pronoun, apparently for no reason whatever, except that it is very often used without the noun to which it refers. The word, " their," is the possessive case of the personal pronoun, " they," or a possessive pronominal adjective qualifying " praise." " Selves," relation, " selves applaud," a pronoun, nomi- native case, third person, plural number, masculine gender, subject to " applaud ; " " self," is not generally used except in composition, with the personal pronouns ; when used separately as here, it is evidently a pronoun because it may be made to stand for any noun. " How," is an adverbial conjunction coupling the two propositions. This will be understood by considering the meaning of the word; — "How," signifies, "the manner in which," or " the degree to which." Substitute one of these phrases between the two propositions, and we have as follow : " Their future selves applaud the degree in which that life is excellent ; " of these two propositions, the former is, " their future selves applaud the degree," and the latter is, " in which that life is excellent ; " thus " how " belongs in meaning to both the propositions, and the phrase repre- senting it constitutes a part of each ; it must consequently be the link between them. " How " in its adverbial capa- city may be said to modify " excellent." The 8th and 9th propositions might be considered only one, thus, " their future selves applaud that life how excellent;" "how" would then be an adverb. (( LANGUAGE. 105 the ob- reneral, &c., are hich is ' takes," mmonly a prepo- abjective aalifying called a 3ept that it refers. 1 personal adjective un, nomi- le gender, illy used [18 ; when 1 because the two jtering the manner ite one of we have > in which the former jthe latter " belongs [ase repre- Vsequently fbial capa- 8th and lus, " their how" (177.) " How," which often commences an interroga- tion, is here used in some measure in an exclamatory sense; An exclamation, when it contains the parts of a proposi- tion (subject and predicate) assumes nearly the form of a question, and indeed assimilates very nearly in meaning to a question. The words, " how excellent is that life," con- sidered apart from the remainder of the sentence, may bo either an interrogation, or an exclamation ; the former is not a proposition (112), but the latter may perhaps be so considered ; it is impossible to say, " what a fine day this is! "without letting it be clearly understood that your opinion of the day is, that it is decidedly fine. In completing the analysis of the 10th proposition (and in all similar cases) care should be taken to read the pre- dicate in the grammatical order, that is, placing the com- plements as much as possible, after the words they complete; thus, " will lead which never ; " principal word, (gramma- tical predicate) " will lead," (calling it one word) — object, " Will" taken " never." (( h (( " which," complement of time, separately is present tense ; — " lead " parsed separately, is a verbal noun, object of " will." (178.) Some sentences are very complicated in their structure, the various parts and complements of difierent propositions being mingled up with each other in such a way as to render the analysis diflGicult. " You see this animal alight upon the plants, where the " caterpillar (which is the appropriate food of her young) " is to be met with, run quickly over them, carefully ex- amining every leaf, and having found the unfortunate object of her search, insert her sting into its flesh, and there deposit an egg." In this and all similar sentences where the parts are very much involved, the best mode of procedure, is to select in succession the dependent propositions as indicated by the adverbial conjunctions and relative pronouns, the remaining words, often so scattered that the connections between them are not easily traced, can then be more readily grouped together, and will usually be found to form the principal proposition or propositions of the sentence. (( (( . 106 PRINCIPLES or :i Following this rule the propositions in the above example are as follow : — 1st. " Where the caterpillar is to be met with," dependent completing " alight " in the preceding proposition or plants. (96.) 2nd. " Which is the appropriate food of her young " dependent, — completing the antecedent " caterpillar." 3rd. " You see this animal alight upon the plants, run *' quickly over them, carefully examining every leaf, and " having found the unfortunate object of her search, insert " her sting into its flesh, and there deposit an egg." This proposition is principal ; subject, " you ;" predicate, the remainder ; the principal word of the predicate is " see," hence the whole proposition asserts the quality " seeing" (expressed by the word " see',) of the subject " you ;" — all the remaining words constitute complements of " see." " See" is a transitive word and must have an object after it ; this can always be found out by asking the question "what" after the verb, thus, "See what?" "this animal alight upon the plants," this is one object; " (this animal) run quickly over them, carefully examining every leaf," this is another object ; " this animal, having found the un- " fortunate object of her search, insert her sting into its " flesh," this is another object ; " this animal there depo- " sit an egg," this is another object. This proposition (and all similar) can be divided into as many separate propositions as there are separate objects, as thus ; " You see this animal alight upon the plnnt" one proposition ; " You see this animal run quickly over them, " carefully examining every leaf," this is another proposi- tion, and the remainder can be similarly treated. All these objects are infinitive phrases coupled together by "and," as will be made evident by reading the infini- tive moods coupled by " and " and omitting the other words ; " alight and run and insert and deposit." A full infinitive phrase consists of parts corresponding to those of a proposition (159), that which answers to the subject being found out by asking the question " whom " before the infi- nitive mood ; in each of these infinitive phrases " this ani- i I i the dou &c. obj( 1 also com vert wor( "eg Ii mini depe "ev( comj "is] answ mal,' minii "ani In as om a verl have sign " the sij " anin is the] find.". " to hi words (verba verbal LANGUAGE. 107 ! example ipendent )r plants. rcmainc n young lar." intrS, run leaf, and ch, insert g." ^ predicate, 1 18 " see, " seeing" ou ;"— all of "see." 3Ject after J question lis animal is animal) 'ery leaf," ad the un- ig into its here depo- sed into as 1 objects, as ■>l;iut" one )ver them, 3r proposi- [d together ] the infini- the other A full those of bject being te the infi- '" this ani- ; mal" stands for the subject, and t phrase represents the predicate. (179.) In parsing these phrases it must be recollected that the so called infinitive moods are really verbal nouns, objects of the verb "see," and the relation of each is, "see alight," " see run," &c. " Animal," being partly the object of see and partly doing the duty of subject to the infinitive moods, is a word of double relation, "see animal alight," "see animal run," &c. ; it is therefore in the objective case, being partly the object of " see" and partly the subject of " alight." These infinitive moods, though a species of noun, being also verbal (names of actions) can have after them the same complements as verbs ; hence we find after alight, the ad- verbial phrase " upon the plants;" and after the transitive words " insert " and " deposit," the objects, " sting " and u egg." mining In the phrase " examining every leaf carefully," " exa- is the principal word, because the others are dependent on it, "carefully" telling the manner; and "every leaf" being the object; hence the whole phrase completes the word on which " examining" depends ; this " is readily ascertained by asking what examining?" the answer is " animal," therefore the phrase completes " ani- mal," and the relation of "examining," is "animal exa- mining," a verbal adjective (present participle) qualifying "animal." In the same way, the relation of " having found" (taken as one word) is found to be, " animal having found," it is a verbal adjective qualifying " animal." These participles have tense and voice (108) and this one marked by the sign " having" is a perfect participle, " having" been used as the sign of the perfect tense ; it is also active, as the word " animal" to which it refers is doing the action, (106) it is is therefore the perfect active participle of the verb " to find." — Like the other compound forms in which the verb " to have" is used, this also should be parsed as separate words ; " having," thus considered is the present participle (verbal adjective) qualifying " animal," and "found" is a verbal noun object of " having" (lOG). 108 PRINCIPLES OF m " Where," an adverbial conjunction coupling the two propositions— it is remarkable that all these adverbial con- junctions when expressed by corresponding phrases are found to include the relative pronoun " which," and in right of this property they possess the conjunctive power ; many of them also commence with " wh," the first letters of which — in the example before us, " where" is equivalent to " among" or " in which." — Compare them with their corresponding adverbs, thus the adverbial conjunctions, " where," " whence," '' whither," " wherefore," correspond respectively with the adverbs " here" or " there," " thence" or " hence," " hither" or " thither," " therefore." (180.) " To be met with ;" this phrase taken as one word is the future passive participle of the verb " to meet with" qualifying " caterpillar." In the proposition the " caterpillar is met with" the phrase "met with" (taking it as one word) is confessedly the past passive participle of the verb " to meet with," and the example " to be met with," dif- fers from " met with" only in referring to the future time ; if " met with" be considered a participle, so must the other form. (181.) The word " with" is used peculiarly and requires explanation. — When a verb is expressed in the passive voice the subject is enduring the action, (40) and properly speak- ing, no verb can be so expressed except one in connection with which there is a word enduring the action, that is, only transitive verbs can be made passive — the verb "to meet," when followed by the preposition "with," is intransitive, and cannot be expressed in the passive voice ; but if the preposition be joined with it and considered part of it, then " to meet with," is a transitive verb and can be changed to the passive form ; thus the active proposition, " I met with him," can be made passive by making " met with," one word, when " him," will be its object, and the passive will be " he was met with by me," hence in parsing such passives, the preposition must be considered part of the verb, as it was only by taking it so that we were ena- bled to make the proposition passive. One of the most familiar instances of this construction is exliibited in the 11 LANGUAGE. 109 he two ial con- ses are and in power ; t letters uivalent th their motions, rrespond thence" a as one ' to meet ition the ^taking it pie of the vith," dif- ure time ; the other passive form of the active proposition, *' They laughed at him;" as " laughed" is intransitive, the proposition can be made passive only by Leaking " laughed at," one word when it becomes a transitive verb with " him," for its object, and the passive proposition will be " he was laughed at by them." In all such instances, the preposition can not be parsed separately, but must be looked upon as part of the verb or participle. " Object," relation, "having found the object," a noun " in the objective case, governed by the perfect participle "having found," from the transitive verb" to find." CHAPTER XIII. Examples of Analysis continued — Pausing op " Let " — Sion of Infinitive Mood — Construction after the Interjection — Expletives — Tense of Participles — Examples o» Nomina- tive Absolute — Both, and, neither, nor — Change in the MEANING. (182.) The following is an example of the analysis of a sentence where the structure is very involved, and the sense carried on through a number of propositions and comple- ments. " Let us suppose (what is possible only in supposition) " a person who had never seen a bird to be presented with " a plucked pheasant, and bid to set his wits to work how " to contrive for it a covering, which shall unite the qua- " lities of warmth, lightness, and the least resistance to " the air, and the highest degree of each ; giving it also as " much of beauty and ornament as he could afford : he is " the person to behold the work of the Deity, in this part " of his creation, with the sentiments which are due to it." 1st. Proposition. — " Let us suppose a person to be pre- sented with a plucked pheasant, and bid to set his wits to work " — principal. 2nd. " What is possible only in supposition ;" depend- ent. To distinguish these two propositions precisely, we " ■ ! i f I i p 1 ^!';i •r!! m 110 PRINCIPLES OF must divide the compound relative " what " into the two words it represents, namely, the antecedent" that " (mean- ing that circumstance) and the relative " which ;" the word " that " will be part of the principal proposition, and " which " will commence the next, which is consequently dependent and completes the antecedent, " that circum- stance." 3rd. "Who had never seen a bird ;" dependent, com- plement of the antecedent " person." 4th. " How (he should proceed) to contrive for it a covering, giving it also as much of beauty and of orna- ment ;" dependent, coupled to the first proposition by the adverbial conjunction " How," and completing " to work." 5th. " Which shall unite the qualities of warmth, light- ness, and the least resistance to the air, and the highest degree of each." 6th. " As, (that is) ;" dependent, coupled to the 4th proposition by the adverbial conjunction, "as," and comple- ment of degree to "as," (before " much.") 7th. " (Which) he could afford," coupled to the pre- ceding by " which " and completing the antecedent, " that," understood. 8th. " He is the person to behold the work of the Deity, in this part of his creation, with the sentiments;" — prin- cipal, coupled by " and " (understood) to the first. 9th. " Which are due to it " ; — dependent, coupled by "which" to the preceding, and completing the antece- dent, " sentiments." (183.) In the first proposition, the subject is " thou " (understood), predicate the remainder. In the predicate the principal word is the verb" let " completed by the in- finitive phrase " us to suppose," &c., to the end ; in this infinitive phrase " to suppose " corresponds with the verb (150) ;" us " does the duty of the subject, and " to suppose a person to be presented with a plucked pheasant, and bid to set his wits to work " corresponds with the predicate (159). In this, " to suppose " is the principal word com- pleted by the two infinitive phrases, its objects namely, "a person to be presented with a plucked pheasant," and LANGUAGE. Ill be two (mean- 1 ;" the on, and (juently circum- it, com- for it a of orna- n by the to work." ith, light- 3 highest ) the 4th id comple- the prc- it, " that," [the Deity, ." — prin- ;t. [ouplcd by lc antece- a is " thou " (( predicate by the in- jd ; in this Ih the verb J to suppose |nt, and bid predicate word com- ets namely, asant," and a person, to be bid to set his wits to work. ' Those in- finitive phrases are analysed according to the examples of such phrases, already given ; " a person " stands lor the subject in each, and the remainder of each represents the predicate. In the phrase, "set his wits to work," set is the principal word, completed by '' his wits " the object, and the verbal noun (infinitive mood) " to work "; or work may be considered a common noun, completing " to," the phrase then meaning " set his wits to the work of as- certaining how to contrive," &c. In the second proposition ; subject, '* which ;" predicate, " is possible only in supposition ;" or, the attribute, '• pos- sible only in supposition," may be given separately from the verb "is." In the third proposition ; subject " who ;" predicate, " had never seen a bird :" " had seen," principal word, having two complements, " a bird " the object and "never," the time. In the fourth proposition, "he" is evidently the prin- cipal word of the subject, aud " should proceed to contrive for it a covering," is evidently the predicate, the phrase " giving it also as much of beauty and of ornament " will belong to either the subject or the predicate, according as its principal word, " giving," completes a word in the one or the other. By asking the question " who or what giving " we find that the sense is " he giving," therefore the phrase is part of the subject and the whole subject is, " he giving it also as much of beauty and of ornament." In the phrase just considered, "giving" (the principal word) has three complements, namely, " to it;" " also "; and " as much of beauty and of ornament." In this last phrase " much " is the principal word, having three complements, namely, " as ;" " of beauty " and " of ornament ;" in each of these latter "of" is the principal word, &c. In the fifth proposition, subject, " which ;" predicate, " shall unite the qualities, of warmth, lightness, and the least resistance to the air;" in this predicate, "shall unite," is the principal word having one complement, "the qua- lities," &c. — in this, " qualities " is the principal word, * < I i 1 ' ! ji ■!if'i ! ' i1- :| . :"'il ^ j i4 1 n 11 ■r i Jf'll! I iliPl : 112 PRINCIPLES OP having three complements, namely " of warmth," " of lightness," and " of the least resistance to the air," each of which may he analyzed according to the examples already given. In the sixth proposition, the subject is" that," attribute <' much," (understood from the 4th proposition to which it is coupled;) this form will be more readily illustrated by reference to some more familiar proposition having a simi- lar construction, (as " this house is as high as that,") meaning " as high as that house is high ;" the quality of height is compared in each, and in the sixth proposition the quality of muchness of beauty and orn.iment in each is compared. The last few words of the 4th — the whole of the Cth and 7th propositions, read together, will run thus — " as much of beauty and of ornament, as that quan- tity is, which he could afford." In the seventh proposition, " he," is the subject, " could afford which," is the predicate. In the eighth proposition, "he," is the subject, "the person to behold the work of the Deity in this part of his creation, with the sentiments," is the attribute ; — in this, " person," is the principal word, completed by the remain- der ; in the remainder, the principal word is understood, such as " fit," or " suited," completed by the following words, in which " to behold," is principal, having two com- plements, namely, " the work of the Beity, in this part of creation," and "with the sentiments;" in the former, " work," is the principal word, completed by " of the Deity," and " in this part of his creation," and so on of the rest. In the ninth proposition, " which," is the subject; " are due to it," is the predicate ; or, " due to it," is the attri- bute, &c. (184.) The use of the word "let," (1st proposition,) in the imperative mood is peculiar, and will be discussed elsewhere; as regards the mere parsing, the relation of "let," is "thou let," an irregular transitive verb, impera- tive mood, second person, singular number, having" thou," for its subject. I> (( M of each tamples ittributo [O which rated by 5 a simi- \ that,") quality of oposition • in each :,he whole will run hat quan- it, " could ect, "the ^art of his — in this, le remain- nderstood, following two com- bis part of e former, "of the so on of ject ; " are the attri- toposition,) discussed relation of rb, impera- ig" thou," LANOUAGE. 113 " Us," relation, " lot us suppose ;" it Is partly the object of " let," and partly the subject <>t " suppose." "Suppose"; relation, "Let suppose"; it is a verbal noun (infinitive mood) object of " Let." The word " what" in this and similar constructions is equivalent to " that which," and the usual practice is to parse these words separately. In this instance, '' that," is a demonstrative pronoun object of "suppose;" strictly speaking, however, these demonstrative pronouns are really adjectives agreeing with some noun understood. (79) The only way to parse " what," without resorting to the above division, is to call it a relative pronoun subject to, " is." "Only"; relation, "supposition only": an adjective (used for " alone ") qualifying " supposition." The mean- ing is not, " is only," or " only possible," but " supposi- tion only." " Only " is often used for " alone," as " he only was in the room," which evidently means, " he alone was in the room." " Person " ; relation, " suppose a person to be " ; it is the objective case partly the object of suppose and partly the subject of "to be." It would be wrong to call " per- son " the object of " suppose," because we cannot " suppose Vi person, but we can " suppose the fact or the being ^ " To be presented," as one word is a verbal noun (pre- sent infinitive passive) object of " suppose." " Presented " (taken separately) is a past passive participle (verbal ad- jective) qualifying person ; the relation is, " person pre- sented." " Bid," is coupled by " and " to " presented," and is there- fore parsed the same way ; it is a past passive participle qualifying "person." Supplying, " to be," as in the ana- lysis, the connection is, " to be presented," and " to be bid." * " To set," a verbal noun, governed by " for " under- stood ; or " set " may be taken as the verbal noun, and " to " as the preposition governing it. The meaning is "bid to the setting" in other words "set" is the name of the action, " to," or " for " which the person is " bid. " To " is properly no part of the infinitive mood, it is a mere H I n 114 PRINCIPLES OF ir I m sign gradually introduced after the infinitive ceased to be distinguished by a termination. " Work," a verbal noun, governed by " to." In every instance the sign "to" and the verbal noun should bo treated separately where possible. " To contrive " is the name of the purpose or intention for which he should proceed. (lOG). It is therefore (if taken as one word) a verbal noun governed by " for " understood ; as just stated, however, it is better to call ** contrive" the verbal noun and "to" the preposition governing it. It is not the usage of the present time in English to introduce " for " before the so called infinitive mood, but it was so formerly, and the change is compara- tively a late one, originating probably in the awkwardness of having the two prepositions, " for " and " to," coming together ; this does not prevent the word being understood, inasmuch as we habitually omit many words absolutely necessary for the full expression of the sense. (185.) " Shall," taken separately, is the present tense, indicative mood of the defective verb " shall." It should be carefully borne in mind that every auxiliary verb pos- sesses a peculiar meaning and force which it transfers to the verb to which it is attached, thus giving to the action of that verb a modification as regards tense or mood diffe- rent from those of the auxiliary; for instance, "I can," signifies *' I am able " ; this is evidently indicative, but when added to another verb it attaches to the idea of action expressed by such verb, the idea of ability to do it, and thus the jompound verb becomes what is called the potential mood, namely the mood whereby the verb expres- ses the action uocompanied by the idea of the power to perform it, as " I can go." In a similar manner " will " expresses the idea of wish or intention, and gives the idea of futurity to the verb to which it is attached, though i£ is itself the present tense. In the same way " have," " may," " will," ara present tense ; while, " had," " might," " would " are respectively the past tenses. " Each," relation, " each quality " ; an adjective quali- fying " quality," JIach is so frequently used without ex- TiANOUAOE. 116 to be every uldbo cntion )rc (if " for " to call losition ime in finitive )mpara- ardness coining erstood, solutely it tense, t should erb pos- isfers to action d diffe- can," ive, but idea of do it, died the expres- )ower to "will" the idea hough i£ " have," might," pressing the noun to whicli it refers, that it is commonly considered si j)ron()un. This however is not correct as it docs not stand for a noun but cjuulities one, expressed or understood. Some call it an adjective pronoun and parse it, as riualifying some noun. To call a word a pronoun of any sort, and say that it ({Ualifies a noun is altogether illogical, violating the detinitions both of the adjective and the pronoun. "Also"; relation, " giving also " an adverb modifying " giving." This word is so commonly called a conjunction that some explanation is rc(juisitc. It has no coupling power, though it often seems to have, because the actual word " and " is so frecjuently understood. " Toronto is on the lake shore, so also is Hamilton"; here "and" is understood, and also signifies " in addition," an adverbial phrase ; in the example, " giving also " means "giving m addition,^' the latter phrase obviously modifying " giving." " It " ; relation "to it " ; personal pronoun, third person, &c., objective case governed by "to" understood. In languages where the case is marked by the termination, no preposition is understood ; the termination is a post jiosition, which marks the relation equally with the^re- position. (186.) "As"; relation "as much"; an adverb modi- fying " much." " As " is here used for " so," and in many instances we use either indifferently ; thus we say, " so far as I know " or " as far as," &c. The former is correct ; the latter is sanctioned by usage, therefore admis- sible, but should be avoided as much as possible. " Much " ; relation, " giving much " ; an adjective used as a noun object of " giving" ; it is strictly an adjective, agreeing with a noun understood and consequently in its capacity as an adjective can be modified by the adverb " as " (or " so "). " Much " here refers to quantity and means "a large quantity." " Could afford," (as one word) active transitive verb, imperfect tense, potential mood, third person, singular number having " ho " for its subject. As this verb is transitive it must have an object after M Ch 1 lir, PRINCIPLES OF *f 1 i 1 h\ .1 ■f ; ' • 'i \ i . -1 IS 1 it, according to the analysis, " which " utuh^rstood is the object; considcrijj*^ however thc! iiieaniiij^ of the word " afford" and the use of the word " ^ivini; " in the pre- vious proposition, it is better to supply the ellipsis, " to give which," and then the whole projK)sition will be, *' which he could afford to «j;ive " ; in this, the verbal noun " to give " is the object of " afford," and " wliich " is the object of '* to give." " To behold," apparently completes " fit " understood, (183) but if it bo taken as one word " for " is understood, and the whole phrase is " person fit for to behold," or as before " behold " is the verbal noun governed by the preposition " to " (184). " This " ; relation, " this part " an adjective qualifying part. The adjectives "this" and "that" possess the peculiarity of having different forms for the plural num- bers, "these "and "those." They arc often called pro- nouns, being so frequently used without a noun. In a few cases possibly they may be so considered, but they almost always qualify nouns expressed or understood. " Due " ; relation " which due " ; an adjective qualify- " which." (187.) " On the other hand, a multitude of poor and *' lawless men, attracted by the distribution of public " largesses and private gifts, were drawn together from " all quarters, and formed at Rome, the central point of " government, a mass which readily joined the party of " those who were struggling to raise themselves at the " expense of the state." 1st Proposition. — " On the other hand, a multitude of " poor and lawless men, attracted by the distribution of " public largesses and private gifts, were drawn together " from all quarters ; " principal — Subject " a multitude of " poor and lawless men, attracted by the distribution of " public largesses and private gifts." — Predicate is the re- mainder of the proposition ; or the attribute is the remain- der except the verb. In the subject the principal word is " multitude," com- pleted by, " of poor and lawless men," that is one comple- ing LANflUAOE. 117 < the word ) pre- , "to vliich I " to nbjeet Htood, stood, i," or by the lifying IS8 the I num- ed pro- In a it they d. ^ualify- lor and public r from loint of arty of at the Itude of Uion of ogether Itude of Ition of the re- Iremain- com- loomple' njont, and " attrnctod by the distribution of public largesses and private f^ifts;" that is another complement; its prin- cipal word is " attracted;'' i*tc. In the attnbuto, the principal word is "drawn," com- pleted by, ''on the other hand." one complement; — *' to- j^ethcr," another complement ; and '' from all (juarters," is another — the analysis of these complements is simple. Und Proposition. — " (They) a mass, formed at Home the central point of p>vernment ;" principal, coupled by, " and," to the preoedin<;; — subject, " they (understood) a mass;" principal word, '* they," completed by " mass." Predicate, " formed at Rome the central point of gov- ernnient;" principal word, "formed," having two comple- ments ; &c. It may be (|uestioned whether the word " mass " completes the subject or is in apposition with, " point;" if the latter, it belongs to the predicate. 3rd Proposition. — " Which readily joined the party of those," — dependent, complement of the antecedent " mass." — Subject, " which." — Predicate, the remainder. In the predicate "joined" is the principal word, completed by, " readily," and " the party of those." 4th Proposition. — " Who were struggling to raise them- selves at the expense of the state;" dependent, comple- ment of the antecedent, " those." Subject " who ;" verb, " were ;" attribute, the remainder. In this attribute " struggling " is the principal word, completed by the re- mainder. In this complement " to raise " is the principal word, having two complements, " themselves," and " at the expense of the state;" &c. " On," (first proposition) relation, " drawn on hand ;'* a preposition showing the relation between " drawn " and "hand." " Attracted ;" relation, " men attracted ;" a past passive participle (verbal adjective) qualifying " men." (188.) " Supposing that the body of the earth were a " great mass or ball of tho finest sand, and that a single " grain or particle of this sand should be annihilated every " thousand years ; supposing then that you had it in your " choice to be happy all the while this enormous mass of sand \ (I I.: W 118 TRINCIPLES OF \\'tr' t \ ! ) ;■ » " was consuming, by this slow method, until there was not " a grain of it left, on condition you were to be miserable " for ever after ; or supposing that you might be happy " for ever after, on condition you would be miserable until " the whole mass of sand were thus annihilated, at the " rate of one grain in a thousand years : which of these " two cases would you make your choice ?" Taking the propositions marked by adverbial conjunc- tions, as already suggested, they are as follow, namely : — 1st " That the body of the earth were a great mass or " ball of the finest sand," 2nd " That a single grain or particle of this sand should " be annihilated every thousand years;" 3rd " That you had it in your choice to be happy all " the while on condition." 4th " (During which) this enormous mass of sand was " consuming, by this sluw method." 5 th '* Until there was not a grain of it left." 6th " (That) you were to be miserable for ever after." 7th " That you might be happy for ever after on con- " dition." 8th " That you would be miserable." 9th " Until the whole mass of sand were thus annihi- lated, at the rate of one grain in a thousand years." 10th " Which of these two cases would you make your choice?" These propositions evidently exist in the sentence, as distinguished above ; but some words are omitted, and it is necessary to ascertain whether these omitted words con- stitute a separate proposition, or are connected with any of the foregoing propositions. The omitted words are, *' Supposing," " supposing then, or supposing ;" they must refer to some person who is ma- king the supposition, or oflFering the condition, and as there is a question asked, the words " supposing," &c. may be taken as referring to the person asking that question, and there will be a proposition understood running thus ; " I supposing," &c. (all the conditions given in the depen- dent propositions) " ask you," (( u Jk- LANGUAGE. 110 ivas not iserablc happy le until at the if these jonjunc- nely :— mass or i should lappy all sand was • after." on con- > annihi- irs." ake your tencc, as and it ords con- vith any ing then, ho is ma- and as &c. may question, [ig thus; le depen- I These words may also be treated as belonging to the subject of the interrogation, as thus, ' which of these two " cases would you, supposing such or such conditions to *' be given, make your choice ?" The sense would be suf- ficiently accurately expressed by either mode of analysis, but the former is the better, because as a question is put it must be put by some one, and the conditions may fairly be considered to be annexed by the person giving the ques- tion. (189.) The first proposition is dependent, object of that," is understood — Subject, " the body li supposmg , »» (( of the earth;" predicate, "were a great mass or ball of the finest sand." The second proposition is dependent ; object of " sup- posing," and coupled by, " and," to the preceding. Sub- ject, " a single grain or particle of this sand;" predicate, " should be annihilated every thousand years." Third proposition is dependent, object of " supposing j" " Subject, "you," predicate, "had it in your choice to be happy all the while on condition." Principal word " had," having two complements, namely, " in your choice," and "it," to be happy all the while " on condition ;" in this latter complement, the pronoun " it " stands for the infin- itive phrase, " (yourself) to be happy all the while on con- dition," hence in the entire complement " it " may be taken as the principal word, and the infinitive phrase in apposi- tion with it; in this phrase, "yourself" will be doing the duty of subject, and the remainder the predicate, in which " to be " and " happy " are both principal words, the former completed by, " all the while," and "on condi- tion." The fourth proposition is dependent, coupled by " which " understood to the preceding, and completing the antece- dent " while," used for " time." Subject " this enormous mass ofsand ;" verb, " was" attribute, " consuming (during which) by this slow method ;" in this, " consuming," is the principal word, having two complements ; &c The fifth proposition is dependent, co ding by " until," and complement upled to the pre- * I ^ , 1^. li'. time to " consu- 120 PRINCIPLES OF mm^ >» ■M/.'i %> Subject, " a grain of it left ;" predicate " there was not." In the subject " grain " is the principal word ; com- pleted by " left," and " of it ;" in the predicate was is the principal word, completed by, " there," and " not." It should be observed that the assertion here is not " until a grain of it was not left ;" but until a single left (remain- ing) grain was not " (did not exist.) It might also be an- alyzed the former way, namely, subject " a grain of it," — predicate, "was not left." The sixth proposition is dependent, coupled by " that" understood to the third, and completing " condition " (telling what the condition was.) Subject " you ;" pre- dicate the remainder. The seventh proposition is dependent, object of " sup- posing." Subject " you ;" predicate, the remainder ; prin- cipal words " might be " (taken as one) and " happy ;" the former having three complements, namely, " for ever " — "after" — and "on condition." The word after, means " after that time," and the whole phrase is a complement of time to " might be." The eighth proposition is dependent, coupled by " that " to the preceding, and completing " condition." The ninth proposition is dependent, coupled by " until " to the preceding, and complement of time to " would be." Subject the " whole mass of sand :" attribute, " annihilat- ed at the rate of one grain in a thousand years." In this " annihilated " is the principal word, completed by the re- mainder ; in this, " at " is the principal word, completed by " the rate of one grain in a thousand years ;" in this, " rate " is the principal word, completed by the remainder ; in this, "of" is the principal word, completed by the remainder in this " grain " is the principal word, completed by " one," and, " in a thousand years ;" in this latter, " a thousand " means, "one thousand;" principal word is "in," complet- ed by " one thousand (of) years;" in this, " thousand " is principal completed by " one," and " of years." It is evi- dent that in such phrase the article, "a," means " one," and here refers not to the number of years, but to the number of thousands. LANGUAGE. 121 3re was ; com- 3 is the t." It until a remain- ) be an- fit,"— "that" dition " 1 ;" prc- f " sup- r; prin- )y;" the ever — r, means iplement r«that" "until" )uld he." innihilat- In this y the re- leted by " rate " ; in this, mainder "one," ousand" complet- sand" is It is evi- " one," t to the The tenth (so called) proposition, is only an interroga- tion, no quality being asserted of a subject ; if it were changed so as to make it an assertion, it would run thus, " you would make which of these two cases your choice." The subject therefore is, "you ;" predicate, " would make which of these two cases your choice." In this predicate, " would make," (as one word) is principal, completed by the remainder, an infinitive phrase, " to be " being under- stood, and the whole phrase is, " which of these two cases to he your choice ;" this is analysed in the usual way. (190.) In either of the modes of analysis suggested re- garding the words " supposing " as repeated in the sen- tence, they are part of the subject, qualifying, " I," in the first method ; or " you " in the second. " Supposing;" the first two of these words are coupled by " and," and the third is coupled to them by " or ;" they are verbal adjectives (present participles) qualifying " I," or " you," as already stated in the analysis. "Mass;" relation, "body a mass," nominative case after " were " because there is a nominative before it. "Were;" relation, "body were;" it is the imperfect subjunctive of the verb "to be;" "were" is the plural form and this marks it as the subjunctive, which is distin- guished in form from the indicative, only by assuming the third plural of the indicative, for the third singular in each tense of the subjunctive. " Should be annihilated," (as one word) is the imperfect tense, potential mood, passive voice, of the verb " to anni- hilate ;" or, if each word be taken separately, " should " is the imperfect indicative of the active transitive defective verb "shall;" "be," is a verbal noun (infinitive mood) object of " should ;" " annihilated," is a verbal adjective (past passive participle) from the verb " to annihilate " qualifying " grain," or " particle." "Every;" relation, "every thousand;" an adjective qualifying " thousand." (191.) " Thousand ;" relation, " (in) thousand ;" a noun, objective case, third person, singular number, neuter gender, governed by " in," understood. A U; m U 122 PRINCIPLES OP 11 m t •■ ill $ ;,!i>:r ii "Years;" relation, "(of) years;" the objective case, governed by "of." The whole phrase means, " on each (every) thousand of years ;" " hundred," " thousand," " million," &c., are all nouns, not adjectives, as is com- monly said. " Ten," though often used as an adjective, is as often a noun — thus we say " Tens of thousands were slaughtered." In the phrase " one thousand men," the word one evidently indicates the number of thousands and not of men ; so also in " six thousand," the peculiarity being that by a vulgar usage, in this and many other ana- logous phrases we say " thousand," and " hundred," for " thousands," and " hundreds," just as we say commonly " ten hundred of beef," instead of " ten hundreds of beef," " ten stone weight," instead of " stones," &c. If we write " ten hundred " as one word, it may be called a numeral adjective, and thus when we find these numerals repre- sented by figures, as " 1000," " 10,000," we may treat each as one word and call it a numeral adjective. "Then;" relation, " supposing then ;" an adverb, mo- difying " supposing." This word, as well as " now," is frequently used as a sort of expletive, as when we say " now then, let us go." " Then " is used somewhat in this way in the example, it has but little force and might be represented by " next," or "in the next place." "It;" (3rd proposition) relation, "had it;" personal pronoun, object of " had," and in apposition with the ver- bal noun " to be." Ask the question " had what in your choice?" the answer is, "it," namely, "to be happy," &c. " To be ," relation, " it to be;" a verbal noun, in appo- sition with " it," and object of " had." "Happy;" relation, "yourself happy;" an adjective, qualifying "yourself" understood. "While;" relation, "(during) the while;" a noun, in the objective case, governed by " during " understood. " While," is properly an adverbial conjunction, used here as a noun. It is very often used for the word " time," just as " where " is used for ^lace in the phrase " every where." ' LANGUAQE. 123 f " On ;" relation, " to be on condition ;" a preposition, showing the grammatical connection (relation) between " to be," and " condition." "Was consuming;" (as one word) an intransitive verb, the imperfect tense, indicative mood, third person, singular number, having "mass" for its subject. These are two words and should be parsed separately; " consuming," re- lation, " mass consuming ;" a present participle, (verbal adjective) qualifying "mass." "Consuming" is here called intransitive, because it doej^ not take an object after it, being used in the sense of " wasting away." Many transitive verbs are used in this manner, as, "I moved to the table;" in such phrases, if the verb be transitive, the object will be the same individual as the subject, and this usage corresponds somewhat to the Greek middle voice. The form consisting of the verb " to be," and the present active participle of some other verb is used to express con- tinuance of the action. " Consuming " is here used some- what in a passive sense, instead of "being consumed." Thus we say " the house is building,^' instead of " being built;" though the latter form is now becoming common. "Until;" relation, " the two propositions ;" an adver- bial conjunction, coupling the two propositions. It is equivalent to the phrases, " to the time, on which ;" the former being a complement of " consuming," and the latter being a complement of " left." (192.) "There;" relation, "was there;" an adverb, modifying " was." This word, when used as in this ex- ample, is called an expletive adverb, because it merely Jills up a space, and has little or no meaning. Where any part of the verb " to be " is used without an attribute being separately expressed after it, the proposition would read awkwardly, if the words were arranged in the natural or- der, subject, verb, &c., as " nobody is here," " nobody is;" to prevent this, in such instances, the subject is placed after the verb, to supply the place of the attribute, and the word " there," is introduced to fill up the space left by the subject, as, "there is nobody here," "there is nobody." But when the words are placed in their natural order *' no- i ii' 111 i 1 .i 124 PRINCIPLES OF ! i 1 ! body is here," the word " there," disappears. This use of the word " there " occurs where the verb " to be " denotes existence. " There " is sometimes, though not so fre- quently used with other verbs as in the following line, " breathes there a man with soul so dead ?" " There " is also used in a very different sense as an adverb of place. "Left;" relation, "grain left;" a past pasvsive parti- ciple, qualifying "grain." "To be;" relation, "you to be;" a future participle (verbal adjective,) qualifying " you." (108.) An apparent infinitive mood when placed after the verb " to be," will usually be found to be the future participle. "Miserable;" relation, " you miserable ;" an adjective, qualifying "you." (193.) Participles are sometimes said to have no refer- ence to time, because they are found joined to verbs of different tenses, as in the example before us, where a future participle is placed after a past tense. It will always, however, be found that it retains its tense with reference to the tense of the verb to which it is attached. Thus in the example, " to be," " or about to be," expresses a future time with reference to the time indicated by " were." " He was going," means that the action of " going," was present, that it was beinp performed at the moment of time indicated by " was." " They will be travelling," means that the action of travelling, will he present, that is, will be going on at the moment alluded to by the verb "will be;" here then the participles "going" and "trav- elling," still refer to the present tense, though joined, the one with a past, and the other with a future tense. "Ever;" relation, "for ever;" an adverb, used as a noun, governed by " for." (176.) " Forever," if written as one word, would be an adverb. Any adverbial phrase written as one word becomes an adverb. "After;" relation, "after that time;" (understood) a preposition, shewing tLc relation between " to be," and " time," (understood.) This and various other preposi- tions, are frequently used as above, without any nouns (I LANGUAGE. 125 Chis use of B " denotes ,ot so fre- >wins line, " There " adverb of 3sivc parti- e participle Ln apparent to be," will in adjective, ive no refer- to verbs of lere a future will always, th reference d. Thus in expresses a by " were." going," was moment of travelling," sent, that is, by the verb and "trav- 1 joined, the ense. used as a if written irbial phrase Uderstood) a to be," and ;her preposi- any nouns being expressed after them, and as they then seemingly refer to the modifications of place or time, they are very improperly called adverbs. In fact they are in sucli in- stances, the first words of adverbial phnuscs, and if the preposition could be considered as representing the whole phrase, it might then be called an adverb. AVhen we use the words, " below," " behind," *' above," we nmst mean " below," " behind," or " above," some thing or per- son. Thus " he sat behind," means " he sat behind some person or thing," and the phrase " behind some person," is an adverbial phrase, but the first word of it, whether the others are expressed or not, is necessarily a preposi- tion. '' Might ;" imperfect tense, indlaitlve mood, of the verb " may." (185) " Were ;" (9th proposition) imperfect tense, subjunctive mood. (190) (194.) "Which;" relation, "make which (to be ;)" an interrogative pronoun, objective case, third person, singular number, neuter gender, partly the object of " make " and partly subject to, "to be," (understood.) These interro- gative pronouns are properly adjectives, referring to some noun understood, and very often expressed. Thus, speak- ing of two books, we say, " which will you have ?" or " Which book will you have ?" and in either case " which book " is meant; thus, these interrogative words, in being joined to nouns, possess the distinctive quality which r.iarks the adjective. In the example before us, " which " lefers to " case" understood. "Choice;" relation, " which choice;" choice is the ob- jective case after " to be," because there is an objective before it. (195.) "Ah! that at least, confirmed in this sad persua- " sion, I might have tasted the heart-rending pleasure of " bestowing upon my departing child the last earthly en- " dearments ! but, tranquilly composed, and softly slum- " bering as he looked, I feared to disturb a repose on " which I founded my only remaining hopes." The first part of this sentence is an expression of des- u *;,! I [ I i ' li 126 PRINCIPLES OF pairing regret, like the following, namely, '* oh that I had done so," and others of a similar nature. In all these there is an ellipsis, as " oh ! would (or I wish) that I had done so." Thus in all these sentences, which partake of the nature of sorrowful ejaculations or exclamations, the principal proposition is understood, and the expressed proposition is the object of the verb of the principal. In the example before us, then, the propositions are as fol- lows : — 1st. " Ah ! I wish," (understood) principal, — subject, "I;" predicate " wish." 2nd. " That at least, confirmed in this sad persuasion, I might have tasted the heart-rending pleasure of bestowing upon my departing child, the last earthly endearments 1" Dependent coupled by the conjunction " that," to the pre- ceding, and object of " wish." Subject, " I, confirmed in this sad persuasion," principal word (grammatical subject) *' I," having one complement, " confirmed in this sad per- suasion;" in this, the principal word is, "confirmed," &c. The remainder of the proposition is the logical predi- cate ; principal word, " might have tasted," (as one word) completed by " at least," and " the heart-rending pleasure of bestowing upon my departing child the last earthly en- dearments;" the principal word in this complement is "pleasure " having two complements, namely " heart-rend- ing," and the remainder of the phrase; in the latter, "of," is the principal word, completed by " bestowing upon my departing child, the last earthly endearments." In this, " bestowing," is the principal word, having two com- plements, namely, " upon my departing child," and, " the last earthly endearments." 3rd. " But, (he being) tranquilly composed and softly slumbering, I feared to disturb a repose." Principal, — Subject, "I," predicate, " feared to disturb a repose, he, tranquilly composed and softly slumbering," principal word "feared," completed by " to disturb his repose," and the absolute phrase, " he, tranquilly composed and softly slumbering," in this phrase, "he," is the principal word (( LANGUAGE. 127 jestowin*!; havinp; two complements, the principal wonls in which are respectively "composed," and " slumberinf^." 4th. " As he looked," depende. coupled by, " as," to the preceding and completing " so," understood before "composed," and "slumbering," 5th. " On which I founded my only remaining hopes," dependent, coupled to the 3rd by " which," and complet- ing the antecedent " repose." Subject, " I," predicate, the remainder, principal word in the predicate " founded," completed by, " on which," and " my only remaining hopes," principal word " hopes," having three complements, " my," "only," and "remaining." (196.) " At," relation, " tasted at least," preposition showing the relation between " tasted," and "least." " Confirmed ; " relation, " I confirmed," a past passive participle qualifying " I." " Might have tasted ; " (as one word) active transitive verb, pluperfect tense, potential mood, first person, singular number, of the verb, " to taste," having I for its subject. Parsed separately ; " might," is the imperfect tense, indi- cative mood, of the transitive verb "may; " "have," a verbal noun (infinitive mood,) object of " might;" tasted, a verbal noun (106) object of " have." " Bestowing ; " relation, " of bestowing ; " a verbal noun, objective case governed by, " of." — As " bestowing," is part of the transitive verb " to bestow," it will take an object after it, (108) ; this object is the word " endear- ments," the objective case governed by " bestowing." The phrase, " (He) tranquilly composed and softly slum- bering," is a nominative absolute, (158) hence, "he," is parsed, as a personal pronoun, nominative case, third person, singular number, nominative absolute — though it has no grammatical connection with any governing word, the phrase may be considered a complement of " feared," to which it is a complement of cause. " Composed," and " slumbering," are verbal adjectives qualifying, " he," understood ; the former a past passive participle and the latter a present participle, as commonly called. ■ I : 'ill l"il ■ i ■.;•! hi 1' 128 PRINCIPLES OF " But ; " the relation of " hut," is, the two propositions ; it is therefore a conjunction coupling theni. " But," like "and," and "or," always couples like thin«;s ; it differs from " and," in indicating a species of opposition, and should not be used otherwise ; thus we say " this day is wet but warm ; " " but," both couples the words " wet," and " warm," and denotes the species of opposition exist- ing between them ; when we say, " this day is wet yet warm," the adverb " yet," denotes tlie opposition while the coupling word, " and," is understood, the statement being " this day is wet, and notwithstanding this circum- stance, warm," or "it is warm." " To disturb ; " relation, " feared to disturb," a verbal noun, object of " feared." " On ; " relation, " founded on which," preposition showing the grammatical cuimection between "founded," and " which." " Only ; " relation " hopes only," an adjective qualifying " hopes." " Remaining ; " relation, " remaining hopes," a verbal adjective qualifying " hopes." (196.) " The foot of slave thy heather never stained, " Nc r locks that battlement thy sons profaned." Here the first proposition is obvious, namely, "The foot of slave never stained thy heather." Principal — Subject, " the foot of slave ; " predicate, " stained never thy heather." The meaning of the second line is doubtful, and this is often the case where words arc used in dififerent meanings as in the English language, without any change of termi- nation ; thus rocks may be a noun, or a verb, and this grammatical difference not being marked by any corres- ponding difference of termination, the sense and gramma- tical structure may be doubtful — the word "battlement," also though undoubtedly a noun, may be poetically used as a verb. — "Without going into the question regarding the earlier origin of verbs or nouns, it . may be remarked that nouns, originating as they do in the exercise of the organ of sight, probably the most constantly used, and the earliest LANOV \>iE. 1» Bitions ; It," like t differs )n, and 8 day is " wet," )n exist- wet yet n while tatement circuni- a verbal eposition funded," ualifying a verbal tained, rofaned." eather." predicate, nd this is meanings of termi- , and this ny corres- gramma- btlement," ly used as irding the arked that the organ he earliest exercised, should be considered as preceding th», an«Tl hence, in instances where the same word is » aetime« a noun and occasionally a verb, we may assume mmt it wim originally a noun and was afterwards made use of tu incfl cate some action in which the thing it named was an important agent. Thus the noun " ship," is common- ly used as a verb, *'we shipped a heavy sea." — "She loved him," or " she gave him her love." As the word, " battlement," means a protection, so it may be poetically used as a verb " to protect," — the second line of the ex- ample may have either of two meanings, namely, " nor does that battlement rock which thy sons profaned " in allusion to the idea of the battlement rocking under the pressure of a violent storm — the other meaning must be given in connection with the first line, thus, " the foot of slave never stained thy heather nor profaned the rocks that battlement (or protect) thy sons." The latter meaning is correct ; the passage is descriptive of the utter absence of aught like slavery from the country in question indicated by its prominent physical character- istics of heather and rocks, and hence the obvious mean- ing is "the foot of slave never stained thy heather nor profaned thy rocks." In a similar way doubtful passages, particularly in poetry, should be examined with reference to the context, poetic imagery, figures, «fec. (197.) "Battlement" is here used as a verb and its object is " sons." " Nor " is both a conjunction and includes the negative adverb "not"; it is properly equivalent to " or not," as the corresponding word, " neither," to " not cither " ; thus these conjunctions, though they couple in grammatical posi- tion, separate in sense, and consequently take a verb in the singular number (appendix) as " either he or she is at home," positions, " nor " in each sentence ; but they are also coupled by " either " and " neither," which thus respectively do the same duty, as "or" and "nor," and being introduced to I 1 ''neither he nor she is at home." In these pro- " he " and "she," are coupled by "or" and n V I 130 rillNCIPLES OP 8tren}j;tlicn the expression, may bo omitted without alter- ing the House, as, " he " or *' she is at home." It uiay be shown in such instances that "either" and "neither" are really adjectives agreeing with some noun understood, as " neither person, he nor she, is at home," &c, " Nor," though it contains the negative adverb, is not to bo classed with the adverbial conjunctions (94) which are necessarily followed by dependent propositions in con- sequence of the nature of the adverbial modification which they indicate ; whereas, " nor," in its conjunctive capacity is the same as, " or," and must couple like things, so that if there bo a principal proposition before it, there must bo one after it, &c. " Both " corresponds to "and" in a similar wav, as, " botb ho and she are at home," where " both " is intro- duced to increase the force of " and," and is doing the same duty, that is, it couples "he," and "she"; like " neither " and " either " it may be omitted without alter- ing the sense, as "he and she are at home " ; and it may also be shown to be an adjective, as " both persons, he and she, are at home." I have, however, called these words conjunctions instead of adjectives, because when they couple propositions instead of nouns, their actual use is more in accordance with such a course, as "he neither wrote nor returned," " he both wrote and returned," where " neither" and " both," doing the same duty as " nor " and " and," couple the two verlbs. They can only be made adjectives here by explaining the passages thus; " he did both things, &c." " he did neither thing, &c." They are represented in some other languages, Latin for instance, by conjunctions. (198.) " Although it be true, that in the lower strata " there is a large proportion of the remains of animals " which possess an apparently simple structure, nothing " can be more unsound than to found upon such observa- " tions a doctrine such as we have before stated." Ist Proposition — "Although it be true" — dependent, coupled by although to the fourth, and complement of " can be " — subject " it " ; predicate, " be true." u (( T sc LANdUAdE. 131 alter- iiy be ther" stood, is not which n con- which ipacity igs, so there ?ay, as, i intro- ing the '; like at alter- l it may L ho and e -words they il use is neither " where "nor" be made he did hey are tance, by er strata ■ animals nothing observa- ^pendent, ement of u 2iul. '* That in tlio lowiT strata tliorc is a lari^r propor- tion of the remains of animals." DopoiuK'tit, coupled by " that " to the first, and sul>joct of *' bo ' in the first, where it is represented !)y, '' it," — subject, •' a large pro- portion of the remains of animals " — predicate, " there is in the lower strata." Principal word in the subject, '* pro- portion," having two complements — principal word in the predicate, " is," having two complements '' there " (182) and " in the lower strata." IJrd. '• Which possess an apparently simple structure." Dependent, coupled by " which," to the preceding, and completing the antecedent, " animals " — subject, " which "; predicate, " possess an apparently simple structure." 4th. " Nothing can bo more unsound," principal — sub- ject " nothing " ; predicate, " can be more unsound." 5th. " Than to found upon such observations such a doctrine (is unsound)." Dependent, coupled by, " than" to the preceding, and complement of com])arison to " more " — subject, " to found such a doctrine upon such observa- tions " ; predicate, '' is unsound " (understood). In the subject, the principal word (grammatical subject) is " to found," having two complements, namely, "such a doctrine," and " upon such observations." The word " such " before observations re(j[uire8 a complement after it (145) as, for instance, " observations such (is I have aUaded to ; " — this complement, though absolutely necessary to the sense, is not always expressed, being usually sufficiently obvious from the context. 6th. " As (that doctrine is)." Dependent, coupled by "as" to the preceding and completing "such" (145). 7th. "(Which) we have before stated." Dependent, coupled by, " which," to the preceding and completing the antecedent " doctrine " — subject, " we " j predicate, " have before stated which." " It," introduced only for convenience, stands for the second proposition, and is parsed as in apposition with it and subject to "be." " Bj ," is the subjunctive mood of the verb " to be." This form is irregular, (appendix,) and the verb itself seems to be extremely irregular in many languages. 132 I ''if?; mi PRINCIPLES OF " In," relation " is in strata " — the parsing is evident. " There," expletive adverb modifying "is." " Can be ; " as one word, present tense, potential mood of the verb " to be; " as two words, " can," is the present tense, indicative mood, &c. ; and " be," a verbal noun (in- finitive mood) object of, " can." " To found ; " relation, " to found (is) ; " a verbal noun, subject of " is " understood. In the 4th and 5th propositions, it is evident from the use of the word " more " in the former, that two things are compared; these things are, " nothing," and " the act of founding " (to found) which are compared as regards the quality of unsoundness. " Such ; " relation, " such doctrine ; " an adjective qua- lifying " doctrine." " As," adverbial conjunction coupling the two proposi- tions. " Before; " relation, " stated before (this time) " a pre- position showing the grammatical connection between "stated" and "time" understood. " Before this time " is an adverbial phrase, hence the word "before," often used without the remainder being expressed is improperly called an adverb. (199.) " Still as I view each well known scene, " Think what is now, and what has been, " Seems as to me of all bereft, " Sole friends thy woods and streams were left ; " And thus I love thee better still, " Even in extremity of ill." The general sense of this passage is sufl&ciently evident, but the analysis of it is by no means clear, in consequence of the manner in which the poet has mixed up propositions and displaced complements, chiefly on account of the re- quir Tients of the metre and the rhyme. 1st Proposition. " Still (it) seems." Principal — sub- ject, " it," understood ; predicate, " seems still." 2nd. " As I view each well known scene." Dependent, coupled by " as" to the first, and complement of time to li! I LANGUAGE. 13S lent. nood Dscnt I (in- loun, [11 the hings tic act jgards e qua- roposi- a prc- etween time" often roperly ** seems." 5 left; 3vident, quence ositions the re- il— sub- )endent, time to Subject, " I," predicate, *' view each well known scene." 3rd. " (As I) think of that and of that." (Each of the words " that " is taken out of " what " equivalent to " that which.") Dependent coupled by " and " understood, to the preceding, and by "as " understood, to the first; com- plement of time to "seems." Subject "I;" predicate, " think of that and of that." 4th. " Which is now."— Dependent, coupled by which to the preceding and complement of the first " that," the antecedent. — Subject, " which," predicate, " is now." 5th. " Which hath been." — Dependent, coupled by " which " to the third proposition, complement of the an- tecedent, the second " that." — Subject, " which ;" predi- cate, "hath been."— " Which " in the fourth and fifth propositions is taken out of " what." 6th. " As (it would seem) to me bereft of all." — De- pendent, coupled by " as," to the first, and complement of manner to "seems." — Subject, " it ;" predicate, "would seem to me bereft of all." " Would seem " h^ one com- plement, the principal word of which is " to " completed by " me bereft of all." 7th. (That) thy woods and streams were left, sole friends." — Dependent, coupled by " that " to the first, and the real subject to " seems " the verb of the first proposi- tion ; it is represented in the first proposition by " it ;" this is a mere convenience to prevent the awkwardness of plac- ing a long proposition before a verb as its subject ; the actual connection is " that thy woods and streams were left sole friends, seems still," &c. — Subject, " thy woods and streams ;" predicate, " were left sole friends." Strict- ly speaking only the verb " to be " attributes a quality to a subject, as "they are good;" but many other verbs to some extent discharge the same duty and indicate some action besides, as in the example or in such phrases, as, " they became good." 8th. " And thus, I love thee better still. Even in extremity of ill." — ii il n r- * i 134 PRINCIPLES OF ii' Principal, coupled by "and" to the first. — Subject, " I, even in extremity of ill;" predicate," love thee better still." — The use of the comparative degree "better" indi- cates a comparison between two things ; but, as the second of them is not expressed, to complete the full sense the el- lipsis would be filled up according to the meaning, and the full sentence would be " and thus even in extremity of ill, I love thee better still than I ever did hefore.^^ (200.) "Still;" relation, " seems still ;" an adverb of time modifying " seems." " Is" (4th proposition) is here a verb-adjective (41) because it denotes existence and does not perform its usual duty of attaching an attribute to a subject. " Hath been," (5th proposition) is also a verb-adjective (41) for the reason assigned in the foregoing paragraph. Parsed separately, " Hath " is the present tense of the verb " to have," and " been " a verbal noun, its object. " Of," (6th proposition) relation, " bereft of all ;" a preposition, showing the grammatical connection between " bereft," and all (things). " All " is so frequently used without the noun to which it belongs, that it assumes the appearance of a pronoun ; it always, however, refers to some noun expressed or un- derstood, and does not stand for a noun; — it is therefore an adjective, as in the example. The same observation applies to " each," " every," " other," and some similar words. "Bereft;" relation, "me bereft;" a verbal adjective (past passive participle) qualifying " me." (201.) "Friends;" relation, "woods and streams, friends ;" common noun, nominative case, third person, plural number, neuter gender, nominative after " were left ;" verbs, the noun after which, is another name for the noun before them, take the same case after them as be- fore them ; they do not, however, govern that case ; it is regulated not by the verb, but by the case of the noun be- fore it, hence the relation of " friends " is as given above. " Were left;" relation, " woods and streams were left ;" LANGUAGE. 135 "I, itter mdi- Bond le el- Ithe )f ill, rb of usual jcctive graph, le verb ill;" a letween ) wliicb. )noun ; or un- ercforc rvation similar djcctive streams, person, r " were tame for m as be- ; it is noun be- as given ;re left ," a passive verb, imperfect tense, indicative mood, third per- son, plural number, having " woods and streams " for its subject. — Observe, it is passive because the subject is en- during (36) and consisting of the corresponding part of the verb " to be," (were) and the past passive participle of the verb " to leave." " Left " considered separately would be parsed accordingly. " Thus j" relation, " love thus j" an adverb modifying "love." "Thy;" relation, "woods thy." This word may be parsed in two ways, as the possessive case of the personal pronoun, " Thou," governed by " woods," or, as a possess- ive pronominal adjective, qualifying " woods." In lan- guages marked by numerous inflections, the idea repre- sented by " thy," is expressed in both the above ways, (see the Latin). "Still;" (8th proposition) relation, "better still :" an adverb modifying " better ;" the adverb " still," sometimes refers to time as in the first proposition ; and sometimes to degree of quantity, as in the 8 th. " Better ;" relation, " love better ;" an adverb modifying " love;" better is properly an adjective, but as there is no corresponding adverb, it is used in an adverbial capacity, and like many other words, by no means in its original . I meaning. (202.) " Even." It is often very difficult to parse this word, because its relation is not readily perceptible. In the present instance the phrase, " in extremity of ill," is a sort of complement of place referring to " I ;" but a comple- ment of place must from its very nature belong to some word expressive of " being," or " doing," hence the word " beinnfj" is understood after " I," and the relation of " even " is " being even ;" it is an adverb modifying " be- ing " understood, the whole phrase is " I (being) even in extremity of ill." " III ;" relation, " of ill ;" a noun in the objective case governed by "of;" or more properly, an adverb used as a noun. " He looked very ill," " He acted ill," " He be- haved ill," &c. ; — in all these examples " ill " is an adverb ; i ; I 'I Ml ♦ I / .1'' If* ■' } 136 PRINCIPLES OF " He seems ill," " He is ill ;" in these propositions, " ill " may be classed as an adjective qualifying "he;" though even here it is doubtful ; after " seems," " tobe " is under- stood, and the examples may be taken as meaning, " He seems to be (to exist) in a bad state," or " He is in a bad condition." (203.) " They heard, and were abashed, and up they sprung " Upon the wing ; as when men wont to watch " On duty, sleeping found by whom they dread, " Rouse and bestir themselves ere well awake." li 1st Proposition. — " They heard " — Principal — subject They ;" predicate " heard." 2nd. " (They) were abashed " — Principal coupled by "and," to the first — subject, "They;" predicate " were abashed." 3rd. " Up they sprung upon the wing " — Principal, coupled by " and " to the preceding — Subject, " They ;" predicate^ "sprung up upon the wing." The adverbial conjunction "as," couples some proposition understood to the preceding, a complement either of time or manner, such being the nature of " as," in its adverbial capacity; the 4th proposition may therefore be supplied somewhat as follows : — 4th. " As the case usually is," — Dependent coupled by as to the preceding, and complement of manner to " sprung up." 5th. " When men wont to watch on duty, sleeping found by (some person) rouse themselves" — Dependent, coupled by " when," to the preceding, and complement of time to "is," in the preceding proposition — Subject, " men wont to watch on duty, found sleeping by (some person) ;" — predicate, " rouse themjielves." In the subject " men " is the principal word, completed by " wont to watch on duty," one complement ; " found by some person," this is another complement ; " sleeping," a third complement. The quality expressed by the word "sleeping," obviously belongs to " men," and is in some measure attributed to this latter word by the passive participle " found " — (199. 7th proposition). ' (( 1 LANGUAGE. 137 (( 6th. " Men," &c., (same subject as in the 5th) *' bestir themselves " — Dependent, coupled by " and "to the 5th, and by " when " understood, to the 4th, and complement of time to " is " in the 4th proposition. 7th. " Whom they dread." — Dependent, coupled by " whom," to the 5th, and completing the antecedent " per- son " understood. 8th. " Ere (they are) well awake." — Dependent, coupled by " ere," to the 7th, and complement of time to '' bestir," as also to " rouse." "Abashed;" relation, "they abashed;" an adjective, qualifying " they." " Up ;" relation, "sprung up;" an adverb, modifying sprung." This is parsing it separately; but properly " sprung up " should be treated as one word. (175). "Wont;" relation, "men wont;" an adjective, quali- fying " men." This word is to some extent participial, with the meaning " accustomed ;" we have also " wonted," in a nearly similar sense, save that the former is applied usually to the person as in the example, and the latter to the thing, as " they pursued their wonted course," " they were wont to pursue this course." " To watch," completes " wont," and the phrase is " wont (or accustomed) to watching." " To," is a preposition showing the grammatical connection between " wont " and " watch." " Watch " is a verbal noun governed by " to." " On," shows the relation between " watch " and " duty ;" if the punctuation were altered and the comma placed af'ter " watch," the connection would be " found sleeping on duty," that is, at their post ; a stronger sense. " Sleeping ;" relation, " men sleeping ;" a verbal adjec- tive (present participle), qualifying " men." "Found;" relation, "men found;" a verbal adjective (past passive participle), qualifying " men." " Whom " ; relation, " dread whom " ; a relative pro- noun, third person singular number, masculine gender, ob- jective case governed by " dread." In the words " found by whom they dread," the antecedent of " whom " not being expressed gives the pronoun a more indefinite and 111 > 1 , !l I :| , ( ■ • I ■1 ■ t ; '! ;-' i 4* i .'1 J\ If U\ \M I! ;'l- 4': 138 PRINCIPLES OF I general force, as thus, " found by any one whatever whom they dread." "Ere"; relation, the two propositions; an adverbial conjunction coupling the two propositions, as given in the analysis. It is equivalent to " before the time, at which ;" wherein " before the time " belongs to the former, and " at which," to the latter proposition. (204) * * * " They but now who seemed " In bigness to surpass Earth's giant sons, *' Now less than smallest dwarfs, in narrow room " Throng numberless, like that Pigmean race " Beyond the Indian mount ; or faery elves, " Whose midnight revels, by a forest side " Or fountain, some belated peasant sees, " Or dreams he sees, while overhead the moon " Sits arbitress, and nearer to the earth " Wheels her pale course ; they, on their mirth and dance " Intent, with jocund music charm his ear ; " At once with joy and fear his heart rebounds." Ist Proposition. — " They now less, in narrow room, " throng numberless, like that Pigmean race beyond the " Indian mount, or (like) faery elves," Principal — Sub- " ject, " They now less, numberless, like that, Pigmean race " beyond the Indian mount, or like faery elves ;" predicate " throng in narrow room." In the subject " they," is the principal word, completed by " (being) now less," one com- plement; '* numberless " another complement; ''like (to) that Pigmean race beyond the Indian mount," another ; " (like to) faery elves," is another com- plement. In the predicate, " throng," is the principal word, completed by " in narrow room." In this proposi- tion, the words from "numberless" to "elves" inclusive may be taken as part of the predicate (199. 7th proposi- tion.) 2nd. " But now who seemed in bigness to surpass earth's giant sons." Dependent, coupled by " who " to the pre- ceding and completing the antecedent " they." Subject, " who ;" predicate, " seemed but now in bigness to sur- pass earth's giant sons." In the predicate " seemed " is (( iC l( LANGUAGE. 139 whom \rerbial in the iich ;" id " at i dance ' room, )nd the I— Sub- an race redicate is the ne com- *' like mount," r com- »rincipal proposi- nclusive proposi- s earth's the pre- Subject, 5 to Bur- ned" is the principal word completed by "but now," one complo- mcnt ; and to surpass " in bigness earth's jjjiant sons," another; — in the former complement " now " is the prin- cipal word ; and in latter " to surpass," having two com- plements, &c. 3rd. " Than smallest dwarfs (are little.)" Dependent coupled by " than," to the first, and completing " less." 4th. " Whose midnight revels by a forest side or foun- tain, some belated peasant sees," dependent, coupled by, " whose," to the first, and completing the antecedent. Subject, " some belated peasant ;" predicate, " sees whose midnight revels by a forest side or fountain." In the subject " peasant" is the principal word, completed by " some " and " belated." In the predicate " sees " is the principal word, completed by " whose midnight revels " and "by a forest side or fountain." In the former com- plement, "revels" is the principal word, completed by " whose," and " midnight ;" in the latter " by " is the prin- cipal word, completed by, " a forest side or fountain :" in this, " side " and " fountain " are the principal words ; — or this complement of place may be divided into two on ac- count of the conjunction " or," thus, " by a forest side," and " by a fountain." 5th. " (Some belated peasant) dreams." Dependent coupled by " or " to the preceding. Subject, " some belat- ed peasant ; " predicate, " dreams." " Dreams " has a com- plement after it, but that complement is a separate propo- sition and therefore in analysis must be taken separately. 6th. " (That) he sees." Dependent coupled, by " that " to the preceding and object of " dreams." The object of " sees " is " whose midnight revels," understood. 7th. While over-head the moon sits arbitress." De- pendent coupled by "while " to the fifth and sixth, and completing " sees " and " dreams." Subject, "the moon arbitress ," predicate " sits over head." In the subject, " moon " is the principal word, completed by " arbitress " — in the predicate, " sits " is the principal word, completed by " over-head," as before stated (199) the word " sits," in some degree attributes " arbitress " to " moon." tl ■i h ■ •jil ' f. It «i fd n^ l40 PRINCIPLES OF il 8th. " (While she) nearer to the earth wheels her course.*' Dependent, coupled by " and," to the preceding, and by " while," (understood) to " sees." Subject, " she nearer to the earth ;" predicate, " wheels her pale course." In the subject " she " is the principal word, completed by " nearer to the earth ;" in the predicate, " wheels," is the principal word, &c. 9th. " They, on their mirth and dance intent, with jocund music charm his ear." Dependent coupled by * ' and ' ' to the preceding, and consequently having, ' ' while, ' ' understood before it. Subject, " they on their mirth and dance intent ;" predicate, " charm his ear with jocund music." In the subject, '* they," is the principal word, completed by "intent on their mirth and dance;" in this " intent " is the principal word, &c. In the predicate, " charm," is the principal word, having two complements, " his ear," the object, and " with jocund music " the in- strument. 10th. " At once with joy and fear his heart rebounds." Dependent coupled by " and," understood to the preced- ing. Subject, " his heart ;" predicate, " rebounds at once with joy and fear." In the predicate, " rebounds " is the principal word, having two complements, " at once," and " with joy and fear." (206.) For the sake of simplicity, it has been assumed in the analysis that the 9th and 10th propositions are de- pendent, because "while" is understood before each of them, an assumption which may be adopted without much inaccuracy; as, however, the "faery elves" to whom the passage refers, are represented in the beginning of it by the pronoun "whose," it follows that "who" should be used for " they," in the 9th projKjsition, which of course, would render both it and the 10th dependent. "But" (first line) relation, "now but;" an adverb mo- difying "now." "But" is here used in the sense of "only," and is frequently so applied ; "1 have onli/ one book," or " I have hut one book." (207.) "To surpass;" relation "seemed to surpass," a verbal noun (infinitive mood) object of seemed, which is a mg LANGUAGE. 141 ursc.*' nd by nearer " In ed by is the ;, with led by Bvhile," •th and jocund 1 word, in this jdicate, sments, the in- ounds." preced- at once ' is the " and ssumed are de- each of t much om the of it by ould be course, erb mo- lense of nly one )ass," a ich is a transitive verb but always has a verbal noun for its object. " He seems an excellent man ;" here " man " is not the object of "seems," but the nominative after " to be" un- derstood, because there is a nominative, "ho," before it, and the object of " seems " is the verbal noun " to be." "Now" (3rd line) relation, " (being) now ;" an adverb modifying "being," understood. "Now" refers to the modification, time, and this modification, can, from its na- ture, belong only to some word indicating the idea of some sort of action or being, hence the relation of now, in this instance, must be, " being now," as given above. "Less;" relation, "they less;" an adjective qualify- ing, " they." (208.) "Dwarfs;" relation, " dwarfs (are)," a common noun, third person, &c., nominative case subject to " are " understood. The comparative degree " less " indicates that two things are compared with reference to some qua- lity ; the things are, " they," and, " dwarfs," and the quality is size, or rather " littleness," hence the full pro- position is, " than dwarfs are little." "In;" relation, " throng in room," a preposition show- ing the granmiatical connection between "throng" and "room." (209.) " Room ;" the parsing is obvious ; it affords, moreover, a remarkable and very familiar instance of the power of usage in altering the meaning of words : a room is a space enclosed in a house between walls and a roof, and as its convenience is usually dependent upon the ac- commodation it offers on account of the space it contains, it is frequently substituted for the word " space." This effect of usage is very common. "Numberless;" relation, "they numberless;" an ad- jective qualifying, "they." (210.) "Like;" relation, "they like;" an adjective qualifying, " they ; " the quality of likeness or similarity here spoken of, evidently exists in the individuals desig- nated by the word " they," hence " like," for which the word " similar," might be used here, and very often else- where, is an adjective qualifying " they." From the fact ' "li *i i 142 PRINCIPLES OF '',1 ';• ■ , 4 of tlio preposition after it being frequently suppressed, " like " is by some considered a preposition ; but wherever it is used, it must have a preposition after it expressed or understood, because it expresses a quality which can not exist in any object but by comparison or in relation with another, hence there must be a word to express that rela- tion ; this word is the preposition " to " or "unto," which is indeed often expressed. In the common phrase, " in like manner," like is clearly an adjective, though if the words were arranged in another order it would be as well entitled to be called a preposition as elsewhere. The phrase means " in a manner like (some other man- ner)," already mentioned. " Like " is often used as an adverb. " Race ; " relation " (to) race ; " a common noun, third person singular number, objective case, governed by " to " understood. " Race " and various similar words, each considered as one collection of individuals, are to be con- sidered as of the neuter gender, even though the indivi- duals may be masculine or feminine. (211.) "Beyond" — To ascertain the relation of ':his word, it must be observed that the phrase it begins is a complement of place, and must consequently belong to some word indicating "action" or "being," hence " existing " is understood after race, and the relation is " existing beyond mount;" it is therefore a preposition, &c. "Or;" relation, "race or elves;" a conjunction, coup- ling "race" and "elves." It may also be considered as coupling "like," expressed in the 4th line, to "like," un- derstood before " faery elves." "Whose;" relation, "revels whose;" a relative pro- noun, third person, plural number, masculine gender, and possessive case, governed by " revels ; " it stands for "elves." "Midnight;" relation, "revels midnight;" an adjec- tive, qualifying " revels." It is properly a noun, but is here used as an adjective, a very common practice : "a gold cup," " a silver goblet," " the south pole," &c. "By;" relation, "sees by side or fountain;" a prepo- 4 I (< LANGUAGE. 143 rcvcr ed or n not I with : rela- into," ihrase, ugh if lid be where. ' man- as an I, third " to " ,8, each be con- indivi- of 'his {Tins is belong hence ition is ion, &c. Q, coup- iered as :e," un- ive pro- gender, mds for n adjec- but is tice: "a a prepo- sition, showing the grammatical connection between " sees," and "■ side," or " fountain." If the comma after " revels " in the example were removed, and indeed even as it stands, the phrase, "by forest side or fountain;" may be taken as a complement of place, to some word understood after *' revels;" thus " revels carried on by," &c. (212.) " Over-head ; " relation, " sits over-head ;" an ad- verb modifying "sits." *' Over-head," is here written as one word; properly " over head " are two words, a prepo- sition and noun, constituting an adverbial phrase, a com- plement of place to sits ; but every adverbial phrase when written as one word, becomes a single part of speech, that is, an adverb. Thus, " I saw him when I went home," contains two propositions, the latter of which is an adver- bial phrase, telling, ihe time of " saw," and if it were writ- ten thus, " when-I-went-home," that is, as one word, it would be an adverb. "Arbitress;" relation, "moon arbitress ;" a common noun, third person, singular number, feminine gender, nominative case, in apposition with " moon." (199). "Nearer;" relation, "she nearer;" an adjective quali- fying "she." The relation might be "course nearer," without violating the sense ; either view would be better than calling " nearer " an adverb, modifying " wheels." " Near," is often used without expressing the preposition after it, as " near the house," " near the city," &c. ; hence it has been parsed very incorrectly as a preposition, which is in reality always expressed or understood after it. In the example the preposition is expressed. " On;" relation, " intent on mirth and dance;" a pre- position, showing the grammatical connection between "in- tent," and " mirth." " Intent;" relation, " they, intent;" an adjective, quali- fying " they." " With ;" relation, " charm with music :" a preposition, showing the grammatical connection between " charm " and "music." " At once;" if written " at-once," that is, as one word, it would be an adverb, modifying "rebounds;" but taken > *t '' r "I k 144 PRINCIPLES OF (< (( <( aH two wordH, tlic phrase consists of a preposition and ad- verb used UH a noun. (176). " With ;" relation, " rebounds with joy ;" the parsing is obvious. (213.) " Its walls arc described by heathen historians, as having been one hundred feet in height, and sixty miles in circuit, fortified by fifteen hundred towers, each " two hundred feet high." 1st. Proposition. " Its walls are described by heathen historians," principal — subject, " its walls ;" predicate " are described by heathen historians." 2nd. " As (walls) having been one hundred feet in " height, and sixty miles in circuit, fortified by fifteen " hundred towers, each two hundred feet high, (would be described)." Dependent, coupled by " as " to the pre- ceding and complement of manner, to " described." Sub- ject, •' walls having been (of the measure of) one hundred " feet in height, and (of the measure of ) sixty miles in cir- " cuit, fortified by fifteen hundred towers, each (being) two hundred feet high;" predicate, " (would be described)." Principal word of the subject, " walls " (understood,) having two complements, the first of which is, " having *' been (of the measure of) one hundred feet in height, *' and (of the measure of) sixty miles in circuit;" second complement, " (having been) fortified by fifteen hundred " towers^ each two hundred feet high." In the former, " having been," is the principal word, completed by " (of the measure of) one hundred feet," that is one comple- ment; " in height," that is another; " (of the measure of ) sixty miles," that is another; and "in circuit," is another. In the complements "of the measure of one hundred feet," " in height," &c., the prepositions are the principal words, and they are analysed as in former simi- lar examples. In the second complement of " walls" " having been fortified," (taken -together) is the principal word, having one complement, " by fifteen hundred towers, each two hundred feet high." In this, " by " is the principal word, completed by the remainder, of which, "hundred," is the (( T.ANOUAGE. 145 principal word, coniplctod Vjy " fifteen, " and ''(of) tow- ers. The phrase " each (tower beinj;) two hundred feet higli," is an absolute construction, unconnected by any {grammatical government with the rest of the sentence, but being in sense a complement of " towers ;" the principal word in this phrase is " tower," understood, completed by " each," and " two hundred feet high ;" in this latter, "high" is the principal word, completed by " (by) two hundred (of) feet;" in this, the principal word is "by," completed by " two hundred of feet," in which the princi- pal word is " hundred," completed by " two " and " of feet," &c. (214.) The use of the conjunction " as," in this sen- tence, requires a slight notice. In the first proposition, strictly speaking, " so," is understood as indicating the manner of " described ;" but " so " may refer to any man- ner, hence it must be explained by a comparison with some other manner already alluded to, or explained in the fol- lowing proposition ; this connection of comparison is ex- pressed by the adverbial conjunction, "as," and the pro- position beginning therewith, accurately considered, com- pletes " so," and thus, as " so " is often omitted, the latter proposition is usually considered as a complement of man- ner to the verb which " so " completes. Thus, " ho acted so as to be successful," fully expressed is, " he acted so as he should act to be successful." " He did as he was de- sired." "He did how?" the answer is, "so;" and the following proposition beginning with " as," explains the manner indicated by " so." " They speak of him as an honest man ;" that is " as an honest man would be spoken of;" or " as they would speak of an honest man." In the parsing, "having been," (taken as one word) is the past participle of "to be," qualifying "walls;" this participle is here a verbal adjective. These words may be parsed separately as already described; "having," being a verbal adjective, qualifying "walls;" and "been," a verbal noun, object of " having." (106). The verb "to be," unless when it means "to exist," must from its very nature have after it, some word indi- li i m . 11 146 PRINCIPLES OF eating, what is asserted of the subject, hence, when we say (speaking of walls) having been one hundred feet in height, we mean, " having been walls of one hundred feet," &c., or, " of the measure of," &c. (215.) "Hundred;" " of hundred ; " a noun, objec- tive case, third person, singular number, neuter gender, governed by "of." It is evidently a noun, being the name of a collection of units or tens, and the adjective one agrees with it, showing that it is singular. So also with thousands, millions, &c. j thus we say, " one thousand," " two thousands," &c. " Feet " is governed in the objective case by " of," un- derstood, as is usually the case ; the preposition, however, is frequently expressed, as " hundreds of men were slain ;" " tens of thousands." " Sixty miles " is governed in the same way as " one hundred feet ;" " sixty," however, is an adjective, quali- fying "miles;" if the words "six tens of miles" were used, the expression would exactly correspond to "one hundred of feet," " six " being an adjective, and " tens " a noun. " Fortified ; " relation, " walls fortified ; " verbal adjec- tive, (past passive participle) qualifying "walls." If " having been fortified," be taken together as one word, it will be the compound form of the past passive participle, of the verb "to fortify;" this form is sometimes called the perfect participle, from the introduction of the auxili- ary " have," a sign of the perfect tense. " Fifteen hundred towers," is parsed as already ex- plained, taking " hundred " as a noun used for " hun- dreds ; " but " fifteen hundred," written as one word, is an adjective. " Each two hundred feet high," fully ex- pressed, is " each tower being high by two hundred feet." Here " tower " is the absolute case, and is qualified by the verbal adjective, " being," and the adjective " high; " " each " is also an adjective qualifying " tower." " Two hundred (of ) feet;" the phrase indicating measurement or dimension, is governed by the preposition expressed or understood. " This house is ten feet higher than that ;" gram thus theoi the and r^ul un- one LANGUAGE. 147 hat is, " higher by ten feet ;" and so of other similar phrases. CHAPTER XIV. SYNONYMOra WORDS. — CUANQES OF CONSTRUCTION. — FrOM ACTIVE TO PASSIVE. — From PROPOsiTiONa to dbpendknt phrases. — Different kinds of propositions changbd into different KINDS OF phrases. — ABSOLUTE PHRASES. — CHANGES IN 1 JO- positions beginning with the conjunction " that." — Adverbs and adverbial phrases. — Irregular changes of construction. (216.) In a copious language it usually happens that very many ideas may be each expressed by more than one word, thus several words may represent nearly the same idea, and consequently, as the same or nearly the same idea may be represented by dififerent words, so the same sentiment may be announced, or the same assertion made by different words. It will be found on careful examina- tion that these words, apparently similar in meaning, nevertheless possess slight shades of difference, if not in meaning, at least in application; thus we have, "large," " big," and " great," with nearly the same meaning in English, and so of " small" and "little." This is found to be the case to a greater or less extent in most languages, and the selection of precisely suitable words will depend on the knowledge of the language possessed by the writer, and constitutes an important element in forming a correct style. (217.) Besides this use of synonymous words, however, the same idea or sentiment may be conveyed by means of the same words variously inflected, with certain changes of grammatical construction. Though the general sense may thus be sufl&ciently communicated, certain constructions, theoretically correct according to the general principles of the philosophy of grammar, are inadmissible by the fashion and usage of a particular language whose style has been regulated by acknowledged standards. The principal [ \ f .. It '> 'I l> I" » !i 148 PRINCIPLES OF changes of grammatical construction dependent in a groat measure on the philosophy of grammar, and consequently observable in many languages, but especially in English, may be readily explained, premising that the sense of the passage must be preserved as accurately as possible in every change. Wherever a word expressing transitive action is made use of it must be followed by a word receiving that action (an object). This object is an important word in the pro- position ; it is necessarily the name of a thing more or less specially spoken of, hence it can be made the subject (110) of the proposition, that is, the verb may be expressed in the passive voice (36). To preserve the sense, the same thing must be represented as doing the action, in both forms of construction ; and similarly, the same thing must be represented as enduring the action in both forms of construction ; but in the active voice, the subject is doing, (36) hence the name ; and in the passive, the lu^ iect is enduring ; that word therefore of the active con^ • r 'iion which was enduring the action must become the s* • ^ of the passive form, — and the subject, (doer or agent) m the active will become in the passive some species of objective governed by a preposition indicating the relation of agency ; the verb also must undergo such change of form as may be used in the language to express the action applied to a subject enduring the action. If no such form (passive voice) exists in the dialect, the change in question cannot be eflFected. Thus, in the example " John killed William ;" " John " is the agent or doer, and " William " the recipient of the action, or the object ; and to alter the construction to the passive voice, it must be made the subject, the verb must be inflected or otherwise altered accordingly, and the agent placed in the objective case governed by a suitable prepo- sition. The proposition will therefore be, " William was killed by John." The rule therefore for this change of construction, namely, from active to passive, is, to " make the object of the active the subject of the passive, and the subject of the active, the objective case governed by " by " IS « LANGUAGE. 149 in the passive ;" (or by some similar preposition in other languages). The passive voice is more especially used, when we wish to make the expression as indefinite as possible, which is done by not expressing the agent; as "We are all wonderfully made ;" here the agent is not expressed, but in the active sentence it must be. The opposite change, namely, from passive to active is effected by a reversed procedure ; " the objective case in the pass- ive becomes the subject of the active, and the subject of the passive becomes the object of the active " — as, "It is believed by all," becomes in the active, " All believe it." "It is not given to man to foresee the future ;" in this passive sentence the agent is not expressed ; to render the proposition in the active voice we must first supply the agent according to the sense ; thus, " It is not given to man by Providence to foresee the future ; the active of which will be according to the rule, " Providence does not give to man to foresee the future." " It " is only intro- duced for convenience' sake and is not required, and there- fore need not be used in the active sentence. (218.) The next most common change of construction is that whereby the sense of dependent propositions (or occasionally of principal propositions) is represented by phrases which are not propositions. All propositions in the same sentence being connected in sense (90) must be connected also by words, and if any of them ceases to be a proposition, the coupling word ceases of course to be necessary, hence in such changes it must always be omitted. Again as the clause ceases to be a proposition, the verb of it must assume some other shape, still indi- cating, however, the idea of action ; that is, it must become a participle or an infinitive mood ; to change, therefore, a proposition into some other form (preserving the sense) the connecting word (conjunction or relative pronoun) must be omitted. One of the simplest instances of this change is from a proposition beginning with a relative pronoun ; such a proposition always completes the antecedent, it does the duty of an adjective, and consequently must still be an adjectival phrase when changed, that is, the verb must ■H W t km I) ii ': ■ ;? 1^' 150 PRINCIPLES OP become a participle qualifying the antecedent of the rela- tive. In the sentence, " The bridge, which was built across the river, was destroyed," the dependent proposition com- pletes " bridge," and if the connecting word, " which," be omitted, the verb " was built " becomes the past passive participle, " built," and the sentence contains, instead of two, only one proposition ; thus, " the bridge built across the river was destroyed." (219.) " The bridge, which the enemy had destroyed, was rebuilt ;" here the dependent proposition completes " bridge;" therefore when we omit "which," the verb of that proposition is to become a participle qualifying " bridge j" thus, " The bridge destroyed by the enemy was rebuilt." Though the verb " had destroyed " is active, nevertheless we must use a passive participle, because in the original example the word " bridge " (represented by " which ") is enduring the action of destroying, and to preserve the sense a passive participle of " to destroy " must be used. Of course the opposite change may be made in the participial phrase by introducing the relative pro- noun and changing the participle into a verb ; thus in the sentence, " The bridge destroyed by the enemy was rebuilt j" the participial phrase, " destroyed by the enemy," may be 'expressed, by introducing the relative pronoun, " The bridge which the enemy had destroyed was rebuilt." " The statements made by him were found to be false," by applying the foregoing change, becomes, " The statements which he made were found to be false." (220.) Propositions beginning with conjunctions may be similarly changed, though the precise nature of the change must always depend on the sense. " Alexander collected a large army, crossed the Hellespont and attacked the Per- sians." These three propositions are coupled by " and,'* but leaving it out, the whole will become one proposition, two of the verbs becoming participles ; " Alexander having collected a large army and having crossed the Hellespont attacked the Persians." Each of the above propositions is principal but a similar ia^ LANGUAGE. 151 change may be eflfocted by applying the same principle where they are dependent ; thus, " When Alexander had collected a large army and had crossed the Hellespont," &o., may be changed as above, " Alexander having col- lected and having crossed," &c. Sometimes one form of expression will be more convenient and sometimes another. (221.) This change may be made in the same way when the proposition begins with an adverbial conjunction, when the verb of such proposition will become a participle completing whatever noun the sense requires. " When the enemy had broken down the bridge they retreated ;" here by leaving out " when," and making the verb of the dependent proposition a participle, the sentence becomes, " the enemy having broken down the bridge retreated." In this example, the same word or a pronoun standing for it (enemy and they) is the subject of both the dependent and the principal proposition ; hence, when the two pro- positions become one, the noun (enemy) becomes the sole subject, the participle qualifies it and the pronoun (they) being unnecessary disappears. (222.) When the subjects of the dependent and prin- cipal propositions are different words, the participial phrase into which the dependent proposition is changed is usually an absolute construction. " When the enemy broke down the bridge the army advanced." The change here is, " the enemy having broken down the bridge ;" or the passive form, " the bridge having been broken down by the enemy," &c. Both' of these are absolute constructions ; so that when the subjects of the two propositions are the same, the participle into which one of the verbs has been changed, will usually qualify the subject of the other ; but when the verbs of the two propositions have different subjects, the participle will usually form part of an absolute construc- tion. (223.) The opposite changes can be effected by reversing the mode of procedure ; that is participial phrases can be changed into propositions, by changing the participles into verbs and introducing the required connecting words. The particular connecting word to be introduced and the i m h V ■ 1 ^1 6Ai M . 1 , ■ ' i J: 152 PRINCIPLES OF kind of proposition to be formed will depend on the sense, more particularly on the nature of the modification expressed by the phrase, that is, on the kind of comple- ment it is. *' The day being wet, I brought my umbrella." Here the participial phrase evidently expresses the cause, there- fore the dependent proposition into which it will be changed must begin with an adverbial conjunction indicating the modification of cause ; the change will be, "I brought my umbrella because the day was wet ;" or "As the day was wet I brought my umbrella." " The general being slain, his army was defeated." In this instance the modification expressed by the participial phrase is doubtful ; it may be either the time, or the cause ; hence the sentence when changed, will be, either " When " the general was slain, the army was defeated," or, " The " army was defeated because the general was slain." " Alexander having collected an army and crossed the " Hellespont attacked the Persians at Granicus." Here we have two participles, "having collected" and "having crossed," hence we can eflFect several changes, namely, by making them the verbs of principal propositions coupled by " and," as " Alexander collected an army crossed the Hellespont and attacked the Persians;" again, by leaving the former unchanged and making the latter participle the verb of a principal proposition, or by changing the latter and leaving the former unaltered, we can effect a different change, as, " Alexander having collected an army crossed "the Hellespont and attacked the Persians ;" or " Alexander collected an army and having crossed the Hellespont," &c. Besides these, similar alterations may be effected by changing the participles into dependent propositions, as, " When Alexander had collected an army, he crossed the " Hellespont and attacked the Persians;" or making two dependent propositions thus, " When Alexander had col- " lected an army and had crossed the Hellespont, he " attacked the Persians." Generally speaking, in these changes, that proposition which may be considered the result of the operations and man. L^- LANQUAQE. 153 "} as. which expresses the most important fact, should be retained as principal. Thus in the example before us, the collecting tlie army and the crossing the Hellespont are merely pre- paratory steps leading to the important result of the attack : this last therefore is in all cases retained unchanged as a principal proposition. (224.) There is a large class of propositions beginning with the conjunction, " that," wherein the change pro- duced by omitting the conjunction is slightly different from the foregoing. Propositions beginning with the adverbial conjunctions are UiuiiJ'. adverbial phrases, or if they can be written as one word, adverbs ; (132) but propositions beginning with the conjunction " that," being chiefly (135) subjects, objects, or in apposition with nouns, if written each as one word, would be nouns ; hence when changed, the verbs of such propositions, usually assume that form of the verb which is especially a noun, namely the infini- tive mood, and thus. in such propositions on leaving out the conjunction " that," the verb usually becomes an infinitive mood. In the sentence, " I thought that he was an honest man," the dependent proposition is object of the verb " thought," and if " that," be omitted, the sentence will be, " I thought him to be an honest man," where the pre- cise object is the verbal noun, " tobe," and not the pronoun " him " as often considered. " That they should pass away and be forgotten is the lot of most persons." Here the dependent propositions, " That they should pass away " and " that they should be forgotten," constitute the subject of the verb " is," and may be represented by infinitive phrases, as follows, " to pass away and be forgotten is the lot of most persons." " The command, that they should return, was not obeyed." Here the dependent proposition " that they should return " is in apposition with "command," and by leaving out the conjunction the whole sentence may bo rendered " The command to return, was not obeyed by them," where the verbal noun " to return " is in apposi- tion with " command," being merely another name for it, I ! J ■ !'1 I 1! ! hi 154 PRINCIPLES OF The opposite changes are effected hy reversing the pro- ceeding as in the former cases. (225.) There is sometimes a slight variation in sense in these changes of construction, but in general that variation is not so great as to interfere materially with the obvious meaning of the passage. In languages wlAoh admit of this and similar changes, it is n to be understood, that they may always be intro- duced with propriety ; — in many oases the peculiar usage of the language will not permit it ; for instance, the Latin language employs the absolute construction much more freely than the £)nglish *, and in many cases the infinitive phrase is used by Ladn authors (Caasar especially) where the English would employ a dependent proposition. In the English itself numerous instances occur where the elements of these changes are present, but where the fashion or usage of the language (a very arbitrary author- ity) will not admit of the alteration being effected. These considerations must be viewed with reference to the style adopted by the standard writers of the language in ques- tion. (226.) The foregoing are the principal changes of which propositions are susceptible and which are based on suffi- ciently general principles to admit of their being classed and described by special rules. Besides these, however^ many others may be effected of a more irregular character, and of which examples merely can be given. They consist chiefly of phrases for single words, or the reverse ; and of propositions for imperfect phrases, and the reverse. (227.) For adverbs, adverbial phrases may be substi- tuted, as "in a successful manner," for " successfully ;" " to a great extent," or, " in a great degree," for " greatly ;" " in reality," for " really." Instead of the phrase, " for the purpose of obtaining power" we may use the propo- sition, " that they might obtain power ;" " Purchased as slaves, and introduced as soldiers" may be altered by using phrases instead of the adverbial conjunctions, " as," " Purchased in the capacity of slaves, and introduced with the view of becoming soldiers." In this last instance. (I howevc] merely of the 6 original (228. afford a is, parti passive to a dej more in "Th( " Numl " Mosea " ordair " promii Here tioned," d'^pende of Mose be expre relative ; plement ning wi being a ] tive " to the verb noun "( what as ] "The " are me " was th( " when I " be the "land Compare and it wi and yet j (229.) instead oi •» "i9 LANaUAQE. 155 " as," however, the change is scarcely legitimate as it consists not merely of a change of construction, but in a groat measure of the substitution of different words for those used in the original. (228.) The following sentence may be altered so da to afford an example of most of the changes alluded to ; that is, participles into dependent propositions or the reverse ; passive verbs into active or the reverse ; infinitive phrase to a dependent proposition or the reverse ; and some of the more irregular changes above described. " The most celebrated person mentioned in the book of " Numbers, is Joshua, the pious and upright minister of '' Moses, and who, on the death of his master, was divinely " ordained to be the conductor of the Israelites into the " promised land of Canaan." Here we have the participles "celebrated," "men- tioned," and " promised," which may be changed into dependent propositions ; " the pious and upright minister of Moses," being a complement of the noun, Joshua, may be expressed by a dependent proposition beginning with a relative pronoun ; "on the death of his master," a com- plement of time may be changed into a proposition begin- ning with an adverbial conjunction; "was ordained," being a passive verb may be made active ; and the infini- tive " to be " may be changed into a dependent proposition ; the verb of the same family also may be substituted for the noun "conductor." The above changes will run some what as follow : — " The person who was most celebrated among those who " are mentioned in the book of Numbers, is Joshua, who " was the pious and upright minister of Moses, and whom, " when his master died, the Lord ordained, that he should " be the person, who should conduct the Israelites into the " land of Canaan which had been promised to them." Compare this changed sentence with the example as given, and it will be found to exhibit the indicated alterations and yet preserve the sense with tolerable exactness. (229.) Some further change? may still be made ; thus instead of the passive proposition " who are mentioned in 1 Hi 156 PRINCIPLES OP LANfiUAOE. the book of Numbers," wc may substitute the active, " Whom the inspired writer mentions in the book of Num- bers." In passive propositions, the agent governed by the preposition "by" is very often not expressed; in such cases it must be supplied in the passive proposition in order to change it into the active. In the same way the passive proposition, " which had been promised to them (by the Lord)" may be given in the active, namely, " which the Lord had promised to them." Again the active proposition, " who should conduct the " Israelites into the land of Canaan," may be rendered in the passive, as, "by whom the Israelites should be con- ducted into the land of Canaan." Changes effected by means of substitution of totally different words may or may not be changes of construction, and depend on considerations altogether different, having reference not to syntactical considerations so much as to the comparative meanings of words apparently similar. u Hi. *-i 't^ ■A i -. 3-i« '1 , ' I 5 active, of Num- d by the in such in order Lich had ^ivcn in niscd to iuct the dered in be con- if totally truction, t, having ch as to lilar. APPENDIX FOR TUE USB OF THE YOUNGER CLASSES IN SCHOOLS. Grammar is both a science and an art. It is the science of language and the art of speaking and writing it with propriety. It contains four great divisions ; namely Orthography, Etym- ology, Syntax and Prosody. Orthography treats of the forms and sounds of letters, and the correct method of spelling words. Etymology treats of the derivation, classification and inflec- tions of words. Syntax treats of the proper arrangement of words in sentences. Prosody treats of the accent and pronunciation of words, and the laws of versification. ORTHOGRAPHY. LsTTEBSt "Written words are composed of letters which are therefore marks used in writing such words. The English alphabet consists of tWenty-six letters which are divided into Vowels, so called bscause they can be perfectly sounded by themselves, and Consonants, so called because they ean be sounded only with the aid of a vowel. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and w, and y, when they do not begin a word or syllable* All the other letters are consonants. The letters may also be divided into mutes which cannot be sounded without the aid of a vowel, namely, b, p, d, t, k, q, and c, hard ; and semivowels, which may be imperfectly sounded by themselves, namely, f, j, 1, m, n, r, s, v, x, z, and c, and g, ' ^.'1 fcii I t'li ■AL 158 RUDIMENTS OP soft ; of these, four, 1, m, n, r, are called liquids, because they readily unite with others in sound. The consonants may be also conveniently divided according to the organs of speech chiefly used in their pronunciation. Labials (with the lips) Soft b, m. Sharp. h Aspirated. Hissing, none. Dentals (with the teeth) J, 8, *» none. z. Gutturals (with the nose, palate, and throat) g, as gone and perhaps, 1. k, q, c hard. none — or, j and g soft. X. P», if represented by one letter, would be the hissing labial. Similarly, lA, would be the aspirated dental, and ng represented by one letter would be guttural. Two vowels united so as to form one sound are called a Diph- thong, — as ou in loud, A Proper Diphthong is one in which a sound is produced dif- ferent from that of either of the vowels singly. They are oi, ou and au. An Improper Diphthong is one wherein the sound of the two vowels is the same as that of one of them singly — as oa in coat. A Triphthong consists of three vowels united into one sound •^aa eau in beauty. In written language, different and larger characters are used in certain situations ; they are called capitals, and are introduced under the following circumstances, namely : The first word of every sentence. The first word of a line of poetry. The first word of a quotation. The epithets of the Deity. Proper nouns and adjectives derived from them ; as Canada, Canadian. Names of objects personified, as, O Grave, refuge of the weary! the pr commoi A syl sound, by a sin least on( Words man ; or three sy bles, as c Words Words that is, in guage, as source or piness. T word, as, i together, i Etymol of words. When tl same or sc word, as, i I bind. T Inflection different g tives, and and persoE of words namely, th tioii Conji A Noun U80 they ccoriling ion. [liBsing. none. GRAMMAR. lr)9 ng labial, presentt'il (1 a Diph- luced dif- ire 01, ou sound of |;ly — as oa le sound are used ^troduced word of iThe first Proper [anadian. le weary! The pronoun I, and the intorjoction 0, — and in general any common nouns used for the time aa proper nouns. SVLLARLKS. A syllable is a distinct sound whicli may consist of a single sound, or of several united in one, and is therefore pronounced by a single effort as, a, an, man. Each syllable must contain at least one vowel. Words are either Monosyllables, consisting o( one syllable, as man ; or Dissyllables, two syllables, as, pen-knife ; or Trisyllables, three syllables, as, hap-pi-ly ; or Pollysyllables, many sylla- bles, as con-tent-ed-ly. Words "Words are articulate souJids used a.* signs of our ideas. Words considered with reference to their origin are Primitive, that is, incapable of being traced to a sin* >1er form in the lan- guage, as man; — or, Derivative, that ..■, having some known source or origin from which they *^rp formed, as, "auti/ui, hap^ piness. They are also simple no combined with any other word, as, use, kind — and comp ^nd, formed of two or more ..» ^.ed together, as, work-man, man-kind. ETYMOLOGY. Etymology treats of the derivation, clasnification and inflection of words. When the origin of a word is traced to another word in the same or some other dialect, it ia said to be derived from that word, as, manly derived from man, siring from the Latin stringo, I bind. This branch of the subject cannot be considered here. Inflection is exhibited i* the changes words undergo to express different grammatical relations, as in the comparison of mijec- tives, and alterations in the termination of verbs to mark tenses and persons. An regards classification, there are various kinds of words ^ hioh are called parts of speech ; these are eight, namely, the Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposi- tiot Conjunction and Interjection. Thk Noun. A Noun is the name of any thing as, man, justice, goodness. it' |:i I 160 RUDIMENTS OF N. B. — By tho word thing is meant also person and place, as well as any thing of which we can form an idea. As regards the application of nouns or names they are divided into Proper and Common. A proper noun is that which can be applied to but one person, thing or place in the same sense, as Lon- don, William, Toronto, Canada. A common noun is that which can be applied to several persons, places or things in the same sense, and is therefore the name of a class of things grouped to- gether in right of possessing a common property (47). Proper nouns become common when they are used to desig- nate a number of individuals possessing the same name as, the, Ceesars of Rome, the Napoleons of France; or when used to de- signate all the individuals posse-^'^ed of some remarkable quality, as a Wellington, a Demosthenes. As regards the things of which they are names, nouns may be divided into real and abstract ; real nouns arc ihe names of things actually existing in Nature, &3, river, mountain, tree; ab- stract nouns are names of qualities abstracted from all reference to the subjects in which they exist, a.3 justice, virtue, truth, &c. Diminutives express a diminution in the force of the words from which they are formed by the addition of certain syllables ; as from hill, hillock ; from stream, streamlet ; from cod, codling; from man, mannikin. Verbal nouns are those which partake of the nature of verbs, and are the names of actions ; &3 "reading," " writing," " hunting," *^oread," " to write," " to hunt;' (43, 105, 106). Number. Number is the distinction between one thing and more than one ; there are therefore two numbers. Singular, expressing one thing, &a house, dog, lion; and Plural, expressing more than one, as houses, dogs, lions. The general rule for forming the plural is by adding s to the singular, as in the above examples. Particular rules— Where s cannot be sounded in connection with the final letters, as in words ending in s, x, sh, and cb, the plural is formed by adding es — as box, boxes ; church, churches ; —nouns in ch hard obey the general rule, as patriarch, pa- triarchs. •*»K Noi excep cbimn Non plural " tyro, Most as " lo compo The] the old Ma Wc Ox Chi Some ferent a dice, squ Some mon, app Some names o Some form onl l e, as ivided can be sLon- which z same )ed to- desig- as, the, to de- quality, i may be lames of ree ; ab- :eference futhf &c. words llables •, codling; f}erbs, and lunting," than one ; ane thing, m one, as g s to the sonnection nd ch, the churches ; iarch, pa- Nouna ending in y, change y into ies, aa beauty, beauties ; except when y is preceded by a vowel, when s is added, aa chimney, chimneys, and in|proper names as "Henry," "Henrys.'^ Nouns ending in o after a consonant generally form the plural inc« as ^^ potato" "potatoes" ; except " canto," " grotto," "tyro," "portico," "junto," "solo," "quarto," "rotundo." Moat nouns ending in for fe change their termination into ves, as "loaf" "loaves", "wife" "wives," "staff" "staves"; but the compounds, "flagstaff," &c., merely add, s as "Jlagstaffs." The following nouns either alter the body of the word or add the old plural en from the Saxon. Man Men Woman Women Ox Oxen Child Children Foot Feet Tooth Teeth Goose Geese Mouse Mice Some nouns have two plurals, regular and irregular with dif- ferent meanings, as die, plnr&l, dies, stamps for coining; and dice, square blocks used in games. Some nouns have singular and plural alike, as deer, sheep, sal- mon, apparatus, species. Some nouns have no plural, namely, proper names as, Charles ; names of metals, as, lead, gold ; names of qualities, as goodness. Some nouns, being plural in their meaning or having a plural form only, are said to have no singular, as, breeches, lungs, bel- lows, ifc. These are usually treated as plural words except news and gallows which are considered a? singular, and means, which is treated in both ways, accordingly as it is meant to express one instrument or more than one ; as " many means were used" "one means was used." The names of sciences ending in ics are usually treated as plural, but not always. (See list at end.) Nouns of multitude have a singular form but indicate a col- lection of inividuals, and hence are frequently looked upon as plural, as "parliament," " congregation" ; this occurs where any Word is used indicating the individuals included in the noun of multitude, as, "The council, all in their robes, were assembled." Nouns introduced from other languages without any change of form usually retain the plurals belonging to them in their ori- . ■W 4'1 M ,^i ill , '.! ■'Ml 162 rudim¥:nts of ginal dialect, as " d^itum," " do/a," " stratum," " strata." (See list at end.) Gbndxb. Gender is the distinction of sex. There are three genders ; the names of male creatures as " boy," " king" " man," are said to be masculine. The names of female creatures, as " girl,^^ " queen" " woman" are feminine ; — and the names of things of neither sex as, " tablcj" " house," " chair," are said to be of the neither gender, which is usually called neuter. Some things are occasionally spoken of as persons, and though without life, are considered as of the masculine or sometimes of the feminine gender. Thus we call the Sun, " he " and the moon « she." Insects, fishes, small quadrupeds and children are frequently spoken of as neuter. Many masculine nouns form their feminines by making the word end in ess orix; as "baron," "baroness," "executor," "executrix;" others express their feminine by a diflferent word, as " brother," " sister ;" " bull," " cow ;" and others again by an additional word as " Ae-goat," " sAc-goat"— -(See list at end.) Cask. Case is the "position in which a noun falls with regard to some other word in the same proposition. There are three of these positions, that is, three cases ; namely, the Nominatire, the Possessive, and the Objective. A noun is said to be in the Nominative case, when it is the sub- ject of a verb, that is, when it answers the question, Who ? or What ? before the verb ; as, " John " fcui/ds— Here " John" answers the question, " who builds ?" A nouc may also be in the nominative case under three other circumstances. 1. When it is the name of the person or thing spoken to, as " Charles, come hither" " Sun, arise ;" this is called the "Nominative of address." 2. After many verbs when the noun after the verb is another name for the noun before i7, as, " Alexander was king" 3. A noun having no grammatical dependence on any other V!ord in the sentence i^ said to be in the Nominatiue absolute ; as, " the day being fine, I went out." GRAMMAR. 163 See ; the d to if the bough mesof > moon [uently ng the Bcutor," t word, in by an end.) to some cases ', ive. is the sub- Whol or «< John" iree other or thing ,» this is my verbs before i^ •ammatical be in the ,t out." The Possessive case indicates the possession of one thing by another thing, and a noun in this case ends in s' (s with an apostrophe) as, "my father^ s house." N.B. In plural nouns the apostrophe is after the s as Mechanics' Institutes ; and many words ending in the letter or the sound s, take the apostrophe only, omitting the s — as " JWbscs' death ;"" conrenience' sake." When a noun is the name of the thing receiving the action, as the word house in the example " John builds the house ;" or when it comes after a preposition, as, " by name" it is said to be in the Objective case ; the Objective case is therefore found after a Transitive verb or a Preposition. Person. There are three persons ; the name of the person speaking, is said to be the first person, as, / come ; the name of the person or thing spoken to, is said to be the second person, as " Chariest come"; and the name of the person or thing spoken of ; as " Charles comes," is the third person ; these persons make no alteration in the termination of the noun. The Adjective. An adjective is a word added to a noun to express a quality ; — as " a good man"; any word therefore found joined to a noun may be considered an adjec ive. When things are compared with reference to the same quality, the adjective expressing that quality is said to be in different degrees of comparison ; of these, there are three, called the Positive, which expresses the quality absolutely as, " rich men ;" the comparative, which is used when two things are compared, as, " this man is richer than that ;" and the Superlative, when three or more are compared, as " this man is richest of all." In words of one and two syllables, the comparative is formed by making the positive end in, " er,' as " rich, richer ;" and the superlative, by making the positive end in "est," as, " richest." In long words the degrees of comparison are expressed by the words " more." and " most," as " amiable," " more amiable ;" " most amiable." Thi Pronoun. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun to avoid the two i ! If 1 ' I ! tl 164 RUDIMENTS OP frequent repetitions of the same word, as " I saw John, he was at home." They are of several kinds : Personal pronouns, so called because they mark the persons-- They are : Singular. Plural. Ist person I, We. 2nd " Thou, You. 3rd " He, She, It, They. These change their forms to mark their cases Singular. r Nominative I, 1st. ■} Possessive Mine, (^Objective Me, Plural. We. Ours. Us. rNom. Thou, ye or you. 2nd. ) Poss. Thine, yours. (^Obj. Thee, you. rNom. He, she, it, they. 3rd. ) Poss. His, hers, its, theirs. (^Obj. Him, her, it, them. As pronouns stand for the names of things they have the same properties as nouns. From these are formed the possessive pronominal adjectives, my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their, called adjectives, because they usually are, or can be joined to nouns — " mine, thine," Ac, the possessive cases of the personal pronouns, are sometimes called " Possessive pronouns." Relative pronouns are so called, because they relate to some word going be/ore and just mentioned, called the antec ^dent ; they are, " Who, which, what and that." These should be called con- junctive pronouns, because they always couple propositions ; other pronouns relate to words going before and may as well be termed relative. " Which," is properly an adjective, and is often joined to a noun, as, " Which circumstance," Sec. It is then called a relative adjective. are GRAMMAR. 165 What includes both the pronoun and its antecedent, as, " I told you what it was," meaning, " I told you that which it was." Who is applied only to persons ; " which," to things, and the others to both ; " who " is declined, Nom. who, Poss. whose, y In both numbers. Obj. whom. The compounds, "whosoever," "whichsoever" and "whatso- ever," now written " whoever," &c., are indefinite relative pro- nouns. 3rd. " Who " " which " and " what" when used in questions, are called interrogative pronouns as " Who is that ? " 4th. Indefinite pronouns are those which are used in the most general sense, where any individual whatever is alluded to ; — they are " one" " none" and " others" ; as " no one saw him," " others do so " ; — under other circumstances " one" is an adjective. " Each," " all," " every" " some," " either," "neither," " other," " own" and some similar words, are all adjectives, being joined to nouns expressed or understood. These words are frequently but most incorrectly classed as Indefinite Adjective pronouns, ^n- other is sometimes used as an indefinite pronoun, as, " this is not mine, it is another's." "Few," which is sometimes included, is an adjective, as "few men are happy" ; but it is as often a noun in a different sense, meaning a small number, as, " a few arrived safe ;" here, " few," means a " small number," and is a noun. 5th. The possessive adjectives, my, thy, Ac, joined to the pro- noun, self, which is rarely used separately, form what may be called " Reciprocal pronouns," indicating the fact of the same person doing and receiving the action ; as "I struck myself." " Self" makes its plural selves. These words are also personal ; that is, they mark the persons. The words, " this," and " that," and their plurals " these" and " those," commonly called " Demonstrative pronouns" are really demonstrative adjectives, being joined to nouns expressed or un- derstood. It must be carefully borne in mind that all real pronouns are nances of things, that is, nouns, and must therefore be treated 1c ' II ■0 166 RUDIMENTS OP as such in all grammatical considerations. When speaking of the pen, I say " It is good," <» /f," for the time being, is a name of the pen, and so on of the others. They diflfer from nouns in the fact that each may be made to stand for a number of diffe- rent things or classes of things, as, " it " may mean a " pen " or a <' book " &c, ; whereas, " pen " can not stand for any thing else. The Verb. r A verb is a word which makes an assertion or asks a question : as, " He voriles ;" " He strikes." Verbs also imply action. Con- sidered according to the nature of the action, they are divided into Transitive and Intransitive ; in the former, the action pas- ses over to an object, as, " The man builds the house." In Intran- sitive verbs, it does not pass over, as, " He walks slowly." As regards their form, verbs are divided into Regular, Irre- gular, and Defective. Regular verbs are those which form their imperfect or past tense in " erf " as " I love," " I loved " ; all others are irregular (see list at end.) Defective verbs are those which want some of the usual parts, as, " I must," " It rains " ; — the former of these has only one tense, and the latter has only the third person of each tense. As regards the manner in which the action is applied to the subject, verbs are divided into " Active" and " Passive." " Ac- tive" means doing, and Passive means, enduring. Verbs are said to be Active when the subject is doing, as, " I strike " ; and Passive, when the subject is enduring, as, " I am struck." These are called the two voices. As there is no means of expressing the Passive voice in English by one word, there is properly no passive verb in English ; " am struck " is two words and should be so treated. (36) Ndmbbb and Person. Every verb must have before it.a noun in the nominative case called the subject ; as this word is singular or plural, or of the first, second or third person, the verb varies its termination to some extent, and is said to be in the same number and person as its subject. The termination, of the persons and numbers are as follow : 0/1 twol insj suci thef Mol i ORAMMAR. Forms of the Persons : — Singular. Plural. 1st. The verb itself; as, love. The verb itself, as, 2nd. St ; as, love«^ " " " as, 3rd. 167 love. ye love. s or th ; as love«. " " " as, they love. There is therefore in English a separate form only for the 2nd and 3rd persons singular. Tense. Tense is the distinction of time ; and, as there are three great divisions of time, verbs should have at least three corresponding tenses, namely, the Present, the Past, and the Future, The En- glish verb has but two forms for the distinction of time, that is, two tenses, namely, the Present, which is the verb itself, as, "I love :" and the Past, which is marked by the termination " ed ;" (in regular verbs) as " I loved." To express the distinctions of time more accurately, and in particular the future time, addition- al words called " auxilary verbs " are used as in the following table : Time. Tense. Form. Present. Present. Verb itself, as, r" Imperfect, — " ed " ; as. Past. < Perfect, — " have " ; as, (pluperfect,—" had " ; as, " I love." " I loved." " I have loved." " I had loved." ( Future, — " shall " or « will »; as, " I shall love." Future, J gd Future,—" shall or will have"; as, " I shall have [loved." Thus including these compound forms there are six tenses, one of which refers to the Present time, three to the Past time, and two to the Future time. These compound forms consist in each instance of at least two words and should always be treated as such (analysis, passim) ; the auxilary " have " is followed by the T^&at participle (106) ; " shall " and " will" by the Infinitive Mood of other verbs. y Moods op Vehbs. ' The Mood indicates the manner in which the action is performed. With a slight exception there is properly but one form for f \-- i.- ^h( 168 RUDIMENTS OF > mood in English, (43) but admitting the compound forms, there are said to bo five moods in English ; namely, the Indicative, which simply declares the action, as I love ; the Imperative, which expresses a command as love thou ; the Potential, which expresses power, possibility, will or obligation, and is distinguished by the auxiliary verbs, may, can, must, would, or their tenses, as, " I can love," &c. These auxiliaries are followed by the Infinitive moods of other verbs ; — as " I can go." I may go," " I would go," in each of which, " go " is the Infinitive mood so called. The Subjunctive which denotes a condition, as, " he will be in time if he start early ; and the Infinitive so called because it is used in an unlimited sense. The Infinitive is merely the name of the action and is distinguished by the sign " to," as " to love; " it does not change its termination to mark the number and person. This mood is properly a species of noun and should be parsed as a verbal noun, as, " To sttidy is wise." Pabticiplbs. A Participle is a word that partakes of the nature of a verb and adjective, or of a verb and noun ; it is therefore always either a verbal adjective or a verbal noun. Including the compound forms there are three participles. The present participle ends in " ing," as " loving ;" the past participle ends in " ed ' (in regular verbs) as '' loved;" i\iQ future participle is marked by the sign " to," or " about to ;" it is therefore compound, as " to love," or " about to love." A compound form is used also for the past participle, as " having loved." These words are verbal adjectives where they qualify nouns as the coming time," " the time to come," and verbal nouns when governed as nouns, as " seeing is believing," " on going home." The following is an example of a regular verb in all its moods and tenses ; 1st person of each tense — active voice, i^ In Im Po Sa Inl Pa Im Im Po Sul In£ Par ORAMMAR. 169 Indicative Mood^ Present. I love. Imperfect. I loved. Perfect. I have loved. Imperative " Love thou. Potential " I may or can love. T might or could love. I may or can have loved. Subjunctive " Same as the Indicative. Infinitive " To love. To have loved. Participles, Loving. Having loved. Indicative Mood Pluperfect. I had loved. Future. I shall or will love. 2nd Future. I shall or will have loved. Imperative " Potential " I might or could have loved. Subjunctive " Same as the Indicative. Infinitive " To be about to love. Participles, To love or About to love. i\ i! •§ >ii 170 RUDIMBNTS OP !! ♦ Wherever an auxilarj verb ia used to form a tense, the auxi- liary chang^es its form in going through the persons, as " I have loved," " Thou hast loved," &c. The Subjunctive mood sometimes differs from the Indicative in the form of the 3rd singular, as " If he start now, he will be in time ;" that is, the 3rd singular of a subjunctive tense is the same as the third plural of an Indicative. The Potential has no future and consists entirely of compound forms ; as " I may love." The Imperative has only one tense and one person — the se- cond. The sign " shall" is said by some grammarians to foi'm an Imperative mood in the 2nd and 3rd persons, as " You shall go," » We shall go," Ac. Both " shall" and « will " are used as signs of the future with some diflTerence. (" Shall " applied to theirs/ person merely implies futurity, as " I shall go," " We shall go." " Shall " applied to the second and third persons implies a threat or command, as " he shall go." " Will " ap- plied to the^rs^ person, implies intention and in some degree a threat ; it is also usually emphatic, as " I will go," (it is my po- sitive intention, &c.) " Will " applied to the second and third persons, merely implies futurity, as " he will go." The Infinitive has three tenses, marked by " to," but the Fu- ture is seldom used. The Participles also have only three tenses, whereof the Pe r- fect and Future, are compound (the simple form of the past par- ticiple, " loved," is usually a passive word). The active past participle is compound, as, " having loved." To conjugate a verb is to put it through all its parts, as above, or to give the three principal parts, namely : — The Present Tense. Past or Imperfect Tense. Past Participle. Love. Give, Loved. Gave, Loved. Given. 3RAHMAR. in VoiCB. As already stated, there are two voices, the Active and the Passive. This distinction applies only to transitive verbs. The only means of expressing the Passive voice in English is by the use of additional words ; the form which is usually called Pas- sive coruiits ofthepatt passive participle of the verb in use, and the corresponding part of the auxilary verb " to be ;" thus " / Jove" is active voice ; and " Jam loved,^' is passive ; this present passive tense consists of the passive participle, " loved," and the present tense of, " to be ;" for the imperfect passive of /ore, use the imperfect tense of " to be " and passive participle, as " / was loved ;" and so on of the other parts. The regular verb " to love," through the forms used for the passive voice ; — Indicative Mood Present. I am loved. Imperfect. I was loved. Perfect. I have been loved. Imperative " Be thou loved. Potential " I may or can be loved. I might or could be loved. I may or can have been loved. Subjunctive " If I be loved. If I were loved. See Indicative. Infinitive " To be loved. To have been loved. Participles, Being loved. Loved or hav- ing been loved. II «i i I ■rf > 11 172 iiTTT>j»r ITS or Indicative Mood Pluperfect, I had been loved. Future. I shall or will bo loved. Future Perfect. I shall or will have been loved. Imperative " Potential " 1 might or could have been loved. Subjunctive " Same as the Indicative. ' Infinitive " To be about to be loved. Participles, To be loved or About to be loved. For the imperfect potential ** should," or " would," may be used for " might." As stated above, each of these forms consists of the corres- ponding part of the verb " to 6c," and the past passive parti- ciple of the verb in use. Other forms of the tenses are made up of the corresponding parts of " to be," and the present active participle, ending in " iny ;" as " I am loving,^^ &c., these are ceilled progressive forms. A third form of the diflferent tenses, called the emphatic form, is composed of the corresponding parts of the auxiliary " to do," and the infinitive of the verb in use, as, " / do lovef^ " 1 did love" Ac. All these forms are compound, and, though treated by some writers as legitimate forms of the verb, are in reality separate words and should be considered separately. GRAMMAR. 173 "1 Auxiliary Vbbbs. Auxiliary verbs are those which are used to form the moods and tenses of other verbs ; tlicy are " to be," " to do," " to have," (which are used in all their parts) ** shall," " will," " may," " can," (used only in the present and imperfect tenses) "ought,' ' and " must," which are not used in any other parts. All these are conjugated as follows : — Present. Past. Past Participle. Am was been Do did done Have had had Shall should Will would May might Can could Ought ought Must must These are all transitive verbs except " to be," and, therefore take an object after them ; [35]this is in every instance an In- finitive mood, except after the verb " to have," which takes the past participle as its object [106]. "I do go," " I shall go," " I might go," &c. ; in all these cases "go" is the inBnitive mood. " I have gone ;" in this instance, " gone " is the past participle. All verbs may be used in the interrogative form, (that is when a question is asked), by placing the subject after the verb, as, " Is he there ?" or after the sign of the tense, as, " Has he gone T" When the compound forms are divided into the separate words of which they consist, and when these words are parsed separ- ately, the auxiliary verbs cease to be auxiliary, and become principal verbs, (analysis and parsing, passim). Adverbs. An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, to express *ome modification or degree of quality ; as 1 * il m "iHI .■ijy 11 174 RUDIlOlXIB 01* " He runs rapidly ;" " It is too large" ; "He spoke exceedingly quickly." Most adverbs are formed from adjectives by making the latter end in " ly," as, " happy," " happily." Adverbs can be expressed by adverbial phrases, as, " in this place," for " here ;" " in a happy manner " for " happily," &c. They are named according to the modification they indicate, as, adverbs of time," " of man- ner," Ac. Adverbs are compared by prefixing "more" and " most ;" as, "happily," "more happily," " most happily." Prepositions. A Preposition is a word placed before a noun to shoyo the rela- tion (or grammatical connection") between it and some other word ; as " He went to London," where " to " shows the grammatical connection between " went " and " London ;" " he sat on the table," &c. The principal prepositions are as follow :— About Amongst Besides In Respecting Above Around Between Into Through Across At Betwixt Instead of Throughout After Athwart Beyond ^Notwithstanding To Against Before By Of Towards Along Behind During On Under Amid Below Except Out of Underneath Amidst Beneath For Over Unto Among Beside From Regarding Upon With Will :in Without. " Except," and " save " frequently called Prepositions are really verbs in the Imperative mood, but they are used some- times with the force of Prepositions. "Regarding," " Respect- ing," " Concerning," " Excepting," and " Touching," are pro- perly present participles, but occasionally have the force of Prepositions. "According" is properly a present participle, but " according to " is used as a compound Preposition. "Near" and "like" called by some Prepositions, are always Adjectives or Adverbs, having " to " expressed or understood after them. ORAMMAR. Conjunctions. 175 Conjunctions are words that couple words to^ether^ and sen- tences together : as " I went and relumed." [Copulative conjunctions couple both in sense and in grammar, ) a's, " and," " both." ^' Disjunctive conjunctions couple in grammar but separate in «cn«e, as " or," "either," "nor," "neither," "but." "William or John is the man ;" here, " William " and " John " being coupled by ^^or" are in the same grammatical position, whil<; they are separated in sense, as it means, not that both, but only one of the two, is the man. Besides these there is a large class of conjunctions which also indicate some modification of an action, &c. ; as, time, place, condition, &c., and are consequently adverbial as well as con- junctive, they are therefore called ^^ adverbial conjunctions f as, "when," "while," "where," "whence," "whither," "why," "wherever," "whether," "since," "as," "if," "till," "until," " ere," " than," " though," " although," " because," " unless," and some others. All these are conjunctions because they couple propositions ; but they are also adverbial because they indicate some of the modifications usually expressed by adverbs (93). Intebjectioms. Interjections arc words commonly thrown in betvieen words to express any sudden emotion ; ag, " oh," " ah," " alas," «fec. Any other kind of word used for the same purpose may be consider- ed as an interjection as, " What ! Is it so ?" " Hoiv ! Do you say so?" Interjectior-j have usually no tyrammatical dependence on the other words of the sentence, but are connected in sense, as in the above example, where " What^' expresses the astonishment indicated by the following question. Articles. The Articles " A " or " An," and " The," need not be treat- ed as a separate part of speech, as they are properly adjectives, being always attached to nouns. " A" or " An" has been cal- 1 '■ i '.I V % ,tf i I 176 RUDIMENTS OP ■« ' led the IndefiniU article because it does not specify a particular individual of a set. " The " has been called the Definite article for the contrary reason. Parsing. Parsing is the art of explaining the grammatical circumstawen of the words used in a sentence. To parse properly each sepa- rate word should be considered separately and according to its definition : its relation with other words should be first pointed out. To parse the noun, tell its relation, kind, case, person, number, and government ; an adjective, its relation, the noun it agrees with ; a verb, its kind or voice, mood, tense, person, num- ber, subject, and relation ; a pronoun, like a noun ; an adverb, its relation and the word it modifies ; a conjunction, what it couples ; a preposition, the words between which it shows the relation. Derivation. Derivation is the tracing of a word to some simpler form in the same or some other language ; those words which cannot be so traced are called Primitive, as, " man," " good ;" others are called Derivative, because they are so derivedj as, " content- ment " from " content," " goodness " from " good," — the simple form from which the derivative comes is called the root, and the derivative usually consists of a single word from that root, as " state," from " status ;" of a compound word from two roots, as " philosophy," from two Greek words ; of the root, with a syllable prefixed or added, or both, as " reduce," " re- duction," from the Latin " duco " and the prefixed and added syllables re and ion: syllables prefixed are called prefixes; those added are called affixes. The following is a list of those most commonly used in English ; but the subject of dciivation will be found more fully treated of in any good work on ortho- graphy :— English Prefixes. A, at or 071, as aboard, ashore. En or Em, into or in; as enrol ; also *' to make," as enlarge. Fore, before; as " /b'*«knowledge." In, to make as " mpoverish." GRAMMAR. 177 , t'n). Inter, between ] a ' -nUn-iyi" Ob, in the vrny oj . as 'dcuouous '' " occur " (written also of or op). Per, through or thoroughly, aj " nerform," "persist." Post, after, a? '' j c^pone." Pro or pre, be/;re : as "prepare ,' prescribe." Pro, forth, as " ^iroduce," "proclaim." Preter, beyonJ, as "pretermit." Re, fcacA;, or again ; as " restore ;" " rebuilt." Retro, backward ; as "rff' 'grade." Se, apart or aside ; as " seduce," " secede." M •M I I fl 178 RUDIMENTS OP li Sub, und^r ; as " subterranean ;" sub becomes, suf, sue, bus, Bur, sug, (see (ul) as suffice, succeed, sustain, surrender, suggest, according to the consonant before which it is placed. Super, above ; as " su/jcrimpose," " superannuate." Trans, beyond or across ; as "transport." Greek Prefixes. A, not ; as " anarchy " " anonymous." Ana, flgrain or 6acA:, or according to; as "analyse" ana- gram." Anti, against ; as " antichrist," " anWdote." Apo, from ; as " aposi&ic,^' " aposilQ." Auto, self; as " autograph." Cata, down or against ; as " catechiam " " cafaptrophe." Dia, through ; as " rfialect." Ex or ek,/rom, as " eclipse," " eclogue." En, in, as "energy.' Epi, upon ; as " epilogua ;" " cj)istle." Hyper, above ; as ' /tt//)erbolical." Hypo, U7idcr ; as "/lypothesis ;" "Ayphen." Meta, beyond or change ; as " me/amorphose." Para, beside ; ns "paraphrase." Syn, with ; as " synod," "syntax;" written also sym, as sym- pathize, syl, as " sy/Iable." Affixes forming Nouns. Acy, state of; as " prelacy." Ary, ory (sometimes " ery ") collection of: as " depository." Dom, possession or state, as, " Christendom." Er, eer, ster, the doer ; as " engineer," " writer," !' spinster." Ee (opposite of or) the person receiving^ as " patentee," " les- see." Hood or Head, condition ; as childhood. Ism, species or peculiarity, as " Catholictsm" " Irishwm." Kin, ling, cle, lock, a diminutive, as " mannifcin," codling, artic/e, hil/ocA\ Ment, stale of having done, or thing done ; as "agreement.". Ness, quality of', as " happiness," ORAMMAR. 170 Ship, condition or office ; as " fellows^jp." Tude, ty, y, state of being ; as " beati/urfc," " reali/y." Ure, condition of doings or thing done ; as " lecture." Affixes fobminq Adjectives. Able, ible, ble, able ; as " laugha6/c." Aceous, ous, ose, of such kind, or full of; as " herbaceous," "infamous," "jocosg." Al, an, ary, ic, ine, of on belonging to ; as " naturo/," « ima- ginary," " philosopAic." En, mcule of; as " golden." Ful,/u/^; as " wonder/u/." Ish, similar, or nearly so ; as "boyisA." Ive, doing, in opposition to ed enduring ; as " restricttye,' " restricted." Less, without ; as " piti/ess." Some, some 0/ a 5Ma/i/y ; as " cumbersowc." Affixes forming Vebbs. Ate, en, fy, ize, ise, ish, to make; as " allevia/e," "enliven," " paci/y," "analyze," " poh'sA." Affixes forming Adverbs. Ly, or like, way or manner ; as " happi/y." Ward, direction ; as " downt^arrf." SYNTAX. 8" ?yntax is that part of grammar which treats of the proper mode of combining words in propositions and sentences. (110) Syntax is divided into Concord and Government. Concord is the agreement of one word with another in certain grammatical circumstances as indicated by some change of form in the word; as, I go, thou goest, he goes, where the agreement of the verb with its subject in number and person is indicated by a change in its termination. Where no change of form is produced by such agreement, as in the case of the adjective and the noun, grammatical concord can Bcarcel^ be said to exist ; the term agreement, however, li ii ' ii ! \ 180 RUDIMENTS OF f continues to be used as a n)«,tter of convenience ; it is howeve improper. Government is the power which one word possesses with regard to another, in causing it to be in some particular state as regards case, gender, number, person, or mood. As the English language is but little inflected, it may be said to have but little Syntax, and the relations and connections of words have been sufficiently pointed out in treating of Parsing and Analysis. Rule I. — The verb must agree with its subject in number and person ; as I go, he goes. Here the verb go, has the form that marks the first person ai;d singular number, while goes has the termination that marks the third person singular ; consequently each may be said to agree with its subject in number and per- son. Where two or more nouns (whether singular or plural) are the nominatives to the same verb, the verb will be in the plural num- ber, if the nominatives be joined by a copulative conjunction ; " John and William are there." If they be joined by a disjunc- tive conjunction the verb will be singular if the uouns are singular, as " John or William is there." Nouns that denote a number of individuals take a verb in either the singular or plural, accordingly as the collective noun is supposed to mean the whole collected in one group, or the individuals taken separately ; as, " the public is deceived," or, " the public are dissatisfied, they are deceived," An Infinitive mood or a proposition, when subject to a verb is considered as a singular noun (usually represented by it) and takes a singular verb ; — as, " To rise early ic pleasant." " That they should return immediately was the King's order." When a verb has two or more subjects of diffV?rent numbers joined by disjunctive conjunctions ('* or," " nor," Ac.,) it usually agree"> in number with the nearest one. When a verb has two or more subjects of different persons con- nected by copulative conjunctions, ("and," Ac.,) it is plural and agrees in person with the more worthy, that is with the first in- stead of the second, and the second instead of the third. RcLB II. — Transitive verbs take an object after them ; aud if GRAMMAR. 181 this object be a noun or pronoun it is sait' '..: « in the objective case, as " John loves me." The object is sometimes an infinitive mood ; as, " IIo loves to learn;" " I can go-" it is also sometimes a proposition, aa, " He required that they should return." Participles, whether verbal nouns or verbal adjectives, take after them the same construction as the verbs from which they are formed ; thus, " loving," being from the transitive verb to love, takes an object ; as, " loving me ;" " (^'oing," being from the verb "!^ Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 % o^ 186 RUDIMENTS OP 1^ '':i I m stop marks the end of the sentence and the complete termina- tion of the sense. The other marks are usually considered as equivalent in length to a period. Besides the above there are other pauses shorter than the comma necessary in reading, which are not marked in the book. The principal of these occurs between the subject and verb, ex- cept when the former is a pronoun, (because the pause would make the pronoun emphatic) and between the verb and attribute, except when the latter is a participle (because the participle is usually joined to the verb " to be" to express the passive voice.) Pauses still shorter, momentary cessations of the sound of the voice, occur between complements. The particular rules for intonation cannot be given here ; the general rules are to pitch the voice in the natural key ; to avoid monotony, (a series of tones of the same pitch ; ) to drop the voice at a full stop, (but a question not commencing with an interrogative word terminates in the rising inflexion) and not to drop the voice while the grammatical construction goes on. Verse. There are two kinds of verse ; namely, rAj/me, where the final syllables of two lines correspond in sound ; and blank verse, where they do not. Two lines whose final syllables correspond in sound form a couplet; and three lines so corresponding form a triplet. Every line of verse contains a certain number of feet, and each foot, according to its nature, contains a certain number of short or long syllables, and according to these the measure or metre of the verse is named. The most common feet in English verse, are the Iambus, a short and a lonp: sylla- ble (or an unaccented and an accented syllable) as " reduce ; " and the Trochee, containing a long and a short syllable, as " happy." The rhythm of lines of verse, (or harmonious flowing,) is dependent in a great measure on the manner in which the words are arranged, so that the accents requured by the metre shall correspond with the accents required by the acknowledged pronunciation of the words used. To aid the skill of the writer in the art of making verses cer- GRAMMAR. 187 i&m poetic licenses are allowed, that is, certain deviations from the acknowledged laws of Orthography, Etymology and Syn- tax. The learner can most readily obtain a knowledge of these by studying the works of the best poets. FINAL LISTS. Words having only a plural form. Alms Entrails Orgies Annals Goods Pantaloons Antipodes Hysterics Pincers Archives Ides Riches Assets Lees Scissors Bellows Lungs Shambles Bitters Mallows Shears Billiards Manners SnuflFers Bowels Matins Sweepstakes Breeches Means Thanks Compasses Measles Tidings Clothes Minutiae Tongs Calends Morals Trowsers Customs Nippers Vespers Drawers Nones Victuals Dregs Oats Vitals. Embers Odds List of Irregular Verbs : — Present. Past. Past Participle. Abide abode abode Am was been Arise arose arisen Awake awoke awaked Bear bore or bare born (bring forth) Bear bore or bare borne (carry) Beat beat beat or beaten Become became become Begin began begun Behold beheld beheld or beholden Bend bent or bended bent • bended I I 188 RUDIMENTS OP Bereave bereft or bereaved bereft or bereaved Beseech besought besought Bid bade or bid bid or bidden Bind bound bound Bite bit bitten or bit Bleed bled bled Blow blew blown Break broke or brake broken Breed bred bred Bring brought brought Build built or builded built or builded Burst burst burst Buy bought bought Cast cast cast Catch caught or catched caught or catched Chide chid chidden or chid Choose chose chosen Cleave, to adhere clave or cleaved cleaved Cleave, to split clove, clave, or cleft cloven or cleft Cling clung clung Clothe clothed or clad clothed or clad Come came come Cost cost cost Crow crew or crowed crowed Creep crept crept Cut cut cut Dare durst or dared dared Deal dealt or dealed dealt or dealed Dig dug or digged dug or digged Do did done Draw drew drawn Drink drank drunk Drive drove driven Dwell dwelt or dwelled dwelt or dwelled Eat ate eaten Fall fell fallen Feed fed fed Feel felt felt GRAMMAR. 189 Fight fought fought Find found found Flee fled fled Fling flung flung Fly flew flown Forbear forbore or forbare forborne Forget forgot forgotten or forgot Forsake forsook forsaken Freeze froze frozen Get got or gat got or gotten Gild gilt or gilded gilt or gilded Gird girt or girded girt or girded Give gave given Go went gone Grave graved graven or graved Grind ground ground Grow grew grown Hang hung or hanged hung or hanged Have had had Hear heard heard Heave heaved or hove heaved or hove Help helped helped or holpen hevr hewed hewn or hewed Hide hid hidden or hid Hit hit hit Hold held held or holden Hurt hurt hurt Keep kept kept Kneel knelt knelt Knit knit or knitted knit or knitted Know knew known Lade laded laden i Lay laid laid ^ Lead led led Leave left left Lend lent lent Let let let Lie, to lie down. lay lain or lien I hi . ■A 190 Lift Light Lose Make Mean Meet Mow Pay Put Quit Read Rend Rid Ride Ring Rise Rive Run Saw Say See Seek Seethe Sell Send Set Shake Shape Shave Shear Shed Shine Show Shoe Shoot Shrink Shred Shut ,^- RUDIMENTS OP lifted lifted lighted or lit lighted or lit lost lost made made meant meant met met mowed mown or mowed paid paid put put quit or quitted quit read read rent rent rid rid rode ridden or rode rang or ] rung rung rose risen rived riven ran run sawed sawn or sawed said said saw seen sought sought seethed sodden sold sold sent sent set set shook shaken shaped shaped or shapen shaved shaved or shaven sheared or shore shorn shed shed shone ot • shined shone or shined showed shown shod shod shot shot shrank or shrunk shrunk shred shred shut Shut cd pen 7ea Sing Sink Sit Slay Sleep Slide Sling Slink Slit Smite Sow Speak Speed Spend Spill Spin Spit Split Spread Spring Stand Steal Stick Sting Stink Stride Strike String Strive Strew or Strow Swear Sweep Swell Swim Swing Take Teach GRAMMAR. V sang or sung sung sank or sunk sunk sat sat or sitten slew slain slept slept slid slidden slung slung slunk slunk slit or slitted slit or slitted smote smitten sowed sown or sowed spoke or spake spoken sped sped spent spent spilt or spilled spilt or spilled spun or span spun spit or spat spit or spitten split or splitted split or splitted spread spread sprang or sprung sprung stood stood stole stolen stuck stuck stung stung stank or stunk stunk strode stridden struck struck or stricken strung strung strove striven strewed or } s trowed |l «+-«^« ^- ^ strewed strownor^g^^^^^^ swore or sware sworn ^i^ swept swept swelled swelled or swollen swam or swum swum swung swung took taken taught taught 192 RUDIMENTS OF Tear tore or tare torn Tell told told Think thought thought Thrive throve or thriven thriven Throw threw thrown Thrust thrust thrust Tread trod trodden t WaT waxed waxed or waxen Wear wore worn j Weave wove woven 1 Weep wept wept Win won won 1 Wind wound or winded wound Work wrought or worked wrought or worked Wring wrung or wringed wrung or wringed Write wrote or writ written or writ Writhe writhed writhen or writhed List of Defective Verbs : — Present. Past. Past Participle. i Can could Forego foregone i May might Must must 1 Ought ought Quoth quoth Shall should Will would Wiss wist . Wit or wot wot MASO Abbot Actor Admini Adulte Ambasi Arbiter Author Baron GRAMMAR. 103 List of words introduced from foreign Iftr iguages :— SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Alumnus Alumni Hypothesis Hypotheses Addendum Addenda Index Indices^, indexes Amanuensis Amanuenses Lamina Lamin;e Analysis Analyses Larva Larviv Antithesis Antitheses Madame Mesdames Appendix Appendices Magus Magi Arcanum Arcana Medium Media Automaton Automata Memorandum Memoranda Axis Axes Metamorphosis Metamorphoses Basis Bases Momentum Momenta Beau Beaux Monsieur Messieurs Calculus Calculi Oasis Oases Cherub Cherubim Parenthesis Parentheses Criterion Criteria Postulatum Postulata Crisis Crises Phasis Phases Datum Data Phenomenon Phenomena Desideratum Desiderata Radius Radii Effluvium Effluvia Seraph Seraphim Ellipsis Ellipses Speculum Specula Emphasis Emphases Stamen Stamina Erratum Errata Stimulus Stimuli Focus Foci Stratum Strata Formula Formulae Thesis Theses Fungus Fungi Y'-rtex Vertices Genus Genera Vicl/aoso Virtuosi Gymnasium Gymnasia Vortex Vortices List of Nouns forming their fem inine by different terminations. MASCULINE. FEMININE. MASCULINE. FEMININE. Abbot Abbess Duke Duchess Actor Actress Elector Electress Administrator Administratrix Emperor Empress Adulterer Adulteress Executor Executrix Ambassador. Ambassadress Fornicator Fornicatrix Arbiter Arbitress Giant Giantess Author Authoress Governor Governess Baron Baroness Heir Heiress ;i! N 194 RUDIMENTS OF 1 Benefactor Benefactrefis Heritor Hcritrix 1 Conductor Conductress Hero Heroine 1 Count Countesp, Host Hostess 1 Czar Czarina Hunter Huntress 1 Dauphin Dauphiness Jew Jewess 1 Deacon Deaconess Lad Lass 1 Director Directress Landgrave Landgravine MASCULINB. 7EMININB. MASCULINB. FEMININE. Lion Lioness Protector Protectress 1 Margrave Margravine Seamster Seamstress Marquis Marchioness Shepherd Shepherdess f Mayor Mayoress Songster Songstress ^ Sorceress ^ Patron Patroness Sorcerer Peer Peeress Sultan Sultana Poet Poetess Testator Testatrix Priest Priestess Tiger Tigress Prince Princess Traitor Traitress Prior Prioress Tutor Tutoress Prophet Prophetess Viscount Viscountegs 2. By a different word : — Beau Belle Horse Mare i Boar Sow Husband Wife I 1 Boy Girl King Queen 1 Bridegroom Bride Lord Lady f Brother Sister Man Woman i Buck Doe Master Mistress e Bull Cow Monk Nun u Bullock Heifer Milter Spawner a Cock Hen Nephew Niece j| ai Colt Filly Ram Ewe 1 th Dop; Bitch Sir Madam f bi Drake Duck Sloven Slut or slattern W] Earl Countess Son Daughter CO Father Gaffer Mother Gammer Stag Uncle Hind 1 Aunt of Gander Goose Widower Widow wl Gentleman Lady Wizard Witch ca A 1 Hart Roe iM K. I