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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la m^thode. 1 2 3 32X 1 2 3 4 5 6 G HISTORY CF THE GREAT NORTH-WEST, T m c or at I P SI MANITOBA ANI> THE GRliAT NORTHWEST: THE FIELD FOR INVt'STMENT; THE HOME OF THE EMIGRANT, JtKINt, A IJuU iind (Complete Histovy of the (Touutxrij, m GBOnRAniV, AHKA, Snl»IION, ANT II. .1 SIiAKIF.'l , ITtRAPIA MISln»VANIi Kuli.pF-.^ ; INClUBNTt Of TtiN iKIII.KMKMl Ph >M I l< F RAK(IP.- if'i >l .K Al'l(^' ANB OB^KKAt ^ IIAfAl IK« OP TUB I '>1'NIRY — IIS I 1 IMA IF, liX.KI HER VSI I II I AIILKs iiF rHMIhUA llIR« \«l» f UIMAIU; CHANl.KS, PI'Rl •*! I'l'LIKS — tiiAl IIMPI-R, PT< , IMP SOU. -IIS W\ A M AI.I'.^ A M> A l> A I' V A HI I IT Y , M I M- (t \ I PR. .««|iRi;RS AM. PHiisPRl f-s I P niiVPI <.RK'l,'i, A Nil |)R VRI i >PRMRN I . I H li INDIANS — 1 HFIR P\-.r HISIOPV AMI fHllSPNI SrMllS, I MR HI'liMiNS RAY il'MF'ANV \Mi ITs KRLATIONS WnH VIIB i i H;N TRV — I I -> PA>I AM. I'RKSKNT HISTuRV, I^NIi ■ AM) I.AMl fliLICV : ITIB i.i iVKKNMRM AMI RAILWAY lANKS — MlilIK dP SrRV»V AND LAVIN(. dlT TOWNSHIPS, l.ANl. PRt.lN LAMilNS IIP BA( M ; ADVIfB TO IMMIl,RANI^ ANU tmTTLKRs, BY JOHN MACOUN, M.A., F.L.S, l>«mint\"> titlii t\\itMt , y,,it t fint <,'•>,••■ 'nm, lit Ertictr ^ tht Ni^rth-H'eit /•>t'Hfriy t'ro/eimr o/ lU , l'rin,ifi.ti lyturn't t'nivtriity, Kingntim, ihtl.. Author ,■/" ': i-in l.> < '..-aw ' i!^i . f''r H iTORY OF THE ROMAS CATHOLIC MISSIONS IN ST, BONirACf, ( INI pimiKii in Ml t.uAii 1 II! A Kv milSM* >r I Ai H K'S Sii wii i akv aiso mun AND THK HOW lllVKR DISTRIfT COIFARKI) FOR miM PIRPOSKS, H» Al,KXAM)KK UK<.<., k'A.' ./>.«/ r/i< ti.itfr. n/ ti:>i\ f^anffniM^ K'tfi tnli'imt vith .1 firiv of fitaHitking a iiantkt , ititu SKHTn; OF THE rise AM) ERO(,RESS UE WINNIPEG, i!v J. r m«lai;ax. XUt whule ufiti ^ely lliustr.Ur.l with Littio|{r.»phs ami tngravmc'., City and Town PUiu, «h1 the mosi roniplele *yiitem of M.qn yet i««ued, to which naf. been added an APPKNDIX Of STATISTICS OF TIIK DOMINION OF ( AXADA, Of much value and prepared with (jreat i jrc .-<;/ ENCYCLOPEDIA Of- I.\'f-ORMATION in regard to the (Wcat NnrihWcM jputlijsfitb bp THE WORU) I'UnUSIIlNO COM PAN V. c;UFLPH, ONT. 18S2. ^5 '^5 2:C't:Ll ' i \C0 urJ J Entered h< . onjijij- u, A't .,i I'urlmiu. tit >>( ( luiii.la m ih. y«i .»n. thonwind eight hiin.lr..! and eighty-two, l.y J AUt. W m.tuu I v.,n. ii, the ofJi.r of Uie Minwtfli of Agriculture M N T « F A 1. ■ €t)« ButlanB lilhogtipliir «omp«nj, H.«CT«OTVPKI HI-- KXv Kl.l.KN( V IMt HIGH I HON Mv Jlohu 5ougl;is J^uthcvUiud (Campbell, ntiivquis of I*oitic, K.]'.. G.C.M.(j., (ioVKRNOK GKNKRAK ul CANADA. K'l , Ml ., KIl ;i'his Uuoh IS MOSI RKSI'KC'JFUl.LV DKDlCArEl) in sfti ui. I'mvii'ssioN I i I- i BIRDS' EYE VIEW F W PHO'O LlTM B" T'lr rtU«l »N0 LITH CO MONTREAL S' EVE ViEW F WINNIPEG ^> PREFACE FuKgUKNT ilcniamlH u]K»ti ruy tiint iiiil piitn-iict tor intbnmition rt'^ ol the soil, stock-rawing, c!im»t^', i"fec., I have spoken from my own kuuwled^'e ,ind un mv own >iuthoritv VVti.ire my own knowletlge of any maUer wiis cousidered msutficient, 1 have .pioted from other writers of known ahility and trut}ifuluo~H«. SlrttemeDt.s froni actual .settleix are in then own wonls. and as their addrefwcH are given these can \m- verified Nearly every matter pertainiug to the country has iM-en touched ".pon, in Ocean," un tlieir cele- brated Hxpeditiou tvcross the i ontineiit in the yeiii IH?."' 1 wa.- appointed Iwtaniat to theexiwMlition, which undei the leadership of the Director of tho Geological Hurvey. explored the Peace liivei and Kocky MounUiUis. Two VI I'UKt'Ai i;. years htor 1 WM** a^ikt'il by tht' 1 >oiiiini»)ii « Jovcrnnioul lu wrifv .i report on thu Noitli-VV,:.-,i 'IVrriloriiv'*, .iiiil i\ iili-il nivs.'ll vl ill r<'liiilil« iiil'oriii.UKJii r»>gimimg tin' i'onntr\. 'I'lif sr!niiit'i> d l^7'..•-^<»■^i Ji.ivti tn'oti -ijHMit m travorsiu^ lln' It-x-^t kiiuwu part.- niii inv(vstij;iUiu;^' the foniia, tluni, iinbton)- logy .lud pliVHical iilu'uonit'iiii of tin- ciuiutry. It will tliu> \»> M«t}i// of Miiidtoha, \U Sittiation find Uoundanes Area — Ceneral Charai teristi' «-- Ued River J'rairit"— I'lnibma Mountain NS'>'t ronntiv along its Base — Riding Mounlain — View Imm it« Suninnt — l)a\iiilun Lake l>iiik Mountain — I^ik" Winnipeg — Lake* Mmitoha and \Vinni;iemH)si.><— -Siiuth \V.Nt« ru Manitoha — Turtle Mountain Red Rivei — (;r;iphic Ri. ture i>f the I'rairie near Winnipeg - Fort (larry- Assinihoiiie River — Land oa A.Hsinihoini-Soun^ River — .Snake ('reek -()ak Lake — Vi.mity Suited fur Stork- tanning -Sftud Hills, it Siiaki t.'reek Little Saskatehewan — l«ind on Little Siiskiitrhi-wan - Settlements in its N'.diiV Sluiai Lake- Bird Tail Creek - -Surround ii^ (,'ouiitry —Shell Riv'T *'oniitr\ North to Fort l'el]\ Indian Farm — Oen.Tal T!. ira ■t-r of Soil — A Desert hancid ti. u Taraih-^-- Tiiulu i foi Huilding I'ui-jhjscs — Where Located -Building Stouu Bn.k < l.\ys — W'ate.- Supply neai Winnipeg. CII A.PTEK 1 II ('haiacter of Cbntttrt/ hcfnifot Int. 4lL tuui 50 irest of ManUoba. iVfscription of Moo»' MoTiTitaIr — Plain from it.> Top — West side of Moose Monntain-- TunlM-ron the Mountain View from High Hill -Souris Rlaiu — West (d' Moksc JL.uu- tain- (.'hara.'ter of Soil--<)f Vegetation id' Surface (irtut I'hi) I'lain lt> RougU Siirfaee— ^oarcity of Water — Wild Ro^es A Visit to the i'oteau C'aetus I'laiii— Wood in the Coteau — Description of < oteau — Resenildanee to Turtle Mountain — Ah w.'ne,c ofWo«jnn thp(M'.H. — Kiatrn-ek Gnplicr < refk — I.aiid WH.st of (Miplier ('re»k l'i}>e»tonf Crefk Wendy ami W^lf Hills Kit h < .>mitry iiluii>; tl'. < . I' K. - Vu'Aj>l>fllc H v.T- N.ivii^atioii 't ilii •Vu'Apj'f'lii — «'oi)iitry North of tin* t^u'Aj>|H»ll»' - F'lie.i8ai)t I'Uiti, L>'ac)i Lake V.n T\r\\ Land iii tin- !v.t?i')ii Lon^^ I,/ikt--Ki.H}i in Long L.ikf -W;itfrf<'wl--("reeks nt tin Hi-ad of l>oii»: Lnki — Country VV.st "f M'^nd Ml riiliaii — Wmm1 Hills — Ustiiiiiiti' ol ,:>.i.(l Ltnd 111 Vw'Ai'jxii' \ aMt y — Uno<,uiillpd tritct foi Wheat — hariy Ki[i«?iun>; of tlrani — Abwuw of Suiiiiinr Fioat-s-Karly S]iniii' Moose .1 iw Ct^ck — DryCnuiitry iiiit.s Vn initv- -Siind Hiils W.st ->f it Tin- t'otraii -Old Wiv.s Lakci —Country West of L.ikf-s — tir» li.-nt I'lijittiriH— NutntiuiuCIrHsm's— Thi ir I»istril>ution — Su^:« Hni.sh and Cactus no PnKif .>f Aridity - BuUrush I>akt> Strong Current Cretk— Want of Wood — High hrokt n Cmuitrv — Ai>})«anmc»' ofCypn'BH Iliils, ( H APTKH V. (.'}uiru< it r iij Onmfri/ hftirtm Int. 51 >nt(f ^)2^ W* f*t of Mdiiitohd , , Com, try West of thi Assinibonu- — IWaver ami Tourhwix>d Hills— Heavy Forest — Kioh anii.st Mountain — Water Svan-e on Mur- fare — Bp'keu Country, Tw.nty-two Miles Widt — Fine I'listui- l^nds — No lia*! Soil lu f.ighty Miles -Lines of I'.ouiders, near Hunihiddt -A'auw of Wo'hI at Certain roinls -FxlenMVe Plain Southwest of Toiiehwood Hills —Stilt Marshes — l^jttje T<>!«' Woo«Js— Ijind Vm^\ of River — Soil of tlrf-al Depth — \roliii. , fir T« h i,Tai'h Cros^iii^F. -i{,,), Ijind- Country We*t of Kiver — Fiu*' L»'?«*l Tract — iAgh- Crfck — tagle iiilis, Fim ( ..uutry lor Stock CHAPTER VI ClhiritrUr of CtiKntnj hetirten hit VJ n/nf h'\" W'sf of Ponnpim Mountain— Country on Ri d !>.•( r River -8oil very Rich— F.xhaustles*; Fertility of the Camt River Country— Prince Allwrt iS«ttlerneul— It« Fairly History — Wonderful Progress Hi a few Yeats-Des, njition of tin Settletm nt — Many Houses in Course of Frection— Fall Sowed Whe:«t .iSiii(ess- No injury from Frost - I)U( k Luke Settletnent —Fort Cprllon and it,s Vicinity— Country iK'tw.ren the Riveiw Kagle Cn>ek — The fiear and b:^gl.- Hills— Land South of Them Description >if liattlefoid and Virinity— It* Ftiturt Skt ti, bed t'ut— Land in the Ni..;hlMirho,Hl— Character of SI<' Vitality of S#'e«l»— Depth of FiootH in thf Soil- -riiiiii 8oiitli of Hit'lifiipl — ( ouU'iH of tlic Pjiiiii — Tht:ir Orij^in — Ouiitrj North of llciir HillH--S|ilt'n(liil I'uhtiir. L.iikI Waturi(iiuit-- (imsscs of thf Plains — CftU^«■ of Aliscm !• of WimmI — Constant I'lairi'- Fires Wliy thf Sonlli.-nlo of a Hill i.« without W ^l Hay in This k< - jfion— CftMirral View of tin' Counfrv- I.akis p'illt d witli Fish -H'livr still N'uiiier oils — All lijikes and Ponds Filltid witli Birds in .Spring and Fall — Bears and VVol?e« Numerous some 8caa*ms, hut Nt ver Injurious Except to Small Sto* k C II A l» T E R VII I)esrri/)fi(rri of Ow Co\u\trij Draimd }>if the North S0'i Acres — L;ir^;' Ar^a nf F""rtil< I^nd Nortli of Kiver — r^tar Mission, its Success- .Multitude* of Whiteti.sh -La< La Bii:n»! Mission — Faniini>,fjal thi Lake — Wheat, Barley, Ate — — Victoria Missum -wSmall-pox Ravaf'j.H— Re-- George MiDougall his l)eath, the Kdnionton Pioneer — Fonuer Liwh-.tsnesa at Kdinoiiton — Chanj^e Caused by the Police — Kdruoot. Mills, Char( hes, Stones-Coal and !ron at Kduionlon — Review of ;hi Country- Nintysix jht Cent.(Ji»od Soil over \ Vast Area — Lands tor the Irish without Rent — St. Albert Mission, its History and Success — Catholic Mis- sionaries, their Work and Succes« — Rocky Motintivin House, Fine Timber— liold Washing — Beaver River, very Rich Land — Oreeu Lake, Ahiin laiu-e of Fish — Chipweynii Lidians— Athahiwca Rivei and Country~Si/e of the Ktver and its Tnbu- taries — Little Slave River — Pembina River, Conl in it" Banks — The Mel-«-od — liaptiHtf's River— Ja.s|H'r House and V ilh y — Climate of th* V iiPey, Sni)w F^ill very Li(,du, Warm Winds, Dry Cliiimte, Spring Weather — Horhes Living out all Winter — vSource of Warm Win(b— Fertih Belt Richness of It— Where Located— Praine HtiU Better— Wet Lands — Summer Fronts — Late Sowing— Fall Sowing, its Success. C II AFTER VIII. Peace Rirtr, Position «-)f , he Lands Described -Area of the Region in li»uestion — Character of Rorks and Soil Its (.omposition and DisiioHilioii Peace Kiver Prairie -Location id Prairie — Sandy Soils along Athabasca- Origin of Peace River Prairie -Wonderfui Vegetation— ClimaU? «if Peace River -vSumnier of 1879 -All Sorts of Grain and Vege- tahles Mature- -RijHuing of Crain at Diinvegan and other Points — D'pth ot Snow — Setting 1)1 of Winter — (^jK-ning of Spring — Breaking up of the Ice - Ditrerence in Climate of Valley and Plateau — Occurreuce of Frost— (^uupariscn of Temi»erature8 — Peace River Spring as Karly as m Man itolia— Cause of Kxceptioiial Chmati!— Chinook Winds — Length of Day and Iik reased Sunlight give Warui Summer CoNTEVTS. Initiiuiiity rmni Orahsho]iiH r> - I>i'si riptum ol \M\\>- S\n\r I.ukf - Hip'-miig nf (Jriiin Mf tlii.'« Ponit - NVIiit(|\.sli 111 til.' I^kf A))iin>liiiii f U.uvi'r Ni>rtli.'iii IMhui l(i|M'imi>; .if (limii i»t V. riniiicni Siiimufr Cliiimtt >t th.it |{i ifi'Mi— Mil.l. r rluiuiti' F;irtlmr North nl l.ittl< IN-ii Uivcr — Vii-iiiit\ '>| Fort l'lii|iwt>yi»n - Kxti^mnliiiury NVln-nt nu I'.M.r Soil ("rops .u I ort Siinpv'ii .11 Mill kriizi^'s lliver— f'liiiiati' iiii'l Crop!' ;it Fort Luinl, l,.ii tU" had-r Uip< IIS iiiiilcr tlir \rrti. 'ir' !•• -hAnniiiij <>ii Pi-iki- IJiv«r a SuiifN-< -l^akt's ^l''•llllIl^ witli FihIi- Hints ill < u\iiitl>>> Fl(.i ks — H'ote« iroiii hlodgett'v • lini-ilology- Ith (Jr.nt VhIik- l.aki- SniMTior Cnnipntvd with Nortli \V(>«t — Sumiii't lln n Northw.-sl line !l.'twt'i-ii St I'mil » r»iiil Mickciine Hivtrx I>i'>ift F Noiihcni Plain— I'liir-tl"' iiioTf \ii\iii Ago— S'ze of iiir North- West l.onl S.lkitk'> Mpmioii- Sivmtv N' Milt-*, with i\ Miiiu\M 1, lr''l;iiiii, "11 ("li 111. lit' tiii-iit 11 •at Ciiu.*" .s lo. In.oiivi-MifiKf — Iiit.li>' ( >.M Hiir.-pth- N'tttoiis in Manitohii -MuiiitoLtii iii tiio Micl'lh'.if '.h- Coiitiiifiit — Lon^ |i,i\)( (if Siin.nicr--Autiiiiiii \Vi'nth Tahh- of Mt-an riinp' ratlins - Suninitr Ttn.jM'raHiiis ("onipan-cl p.-.n.- Kiv.-r " liiiiat. — M.init.'l.ii cliiiiiilt Jljirdiifss of \S')i.-;tt -(tniins m tlw ('luHt<-r - Min. lusota No\Kliir.~- Pt'iue Iviv.-i Wh.'ut- li*othfrniul I.iih's -Corn and NVhi.it Zoin-v — T^'inpfnitiii- N..is>!ary for Su.-. .-^sful Win-nt Cnlturc Thf Win. it Zom-.s- Piobaldy Thrt-e-fonrthx of th. Wh-al l.aiid.s -d Ain.'ri.a in th. N.-w North-Wcst— 'iOO.OtiO.oiM) AiTf-H-Kxtfiit fd tin- TlTritor^ --liOi'l S.dkirk's • tjniuons S«vtiitv Y. iirs A>.jo Cp-ut Aint- n. .Ill I)i->i rt - lt>, Ktl.. t on Cliiiiatr — Chuiij^i.s Ulisfrvod l'iw«.iii(< North — How th.- Isoth'riiial I.iiK'* Curvi' - Wh tin- Hiatfd Air comes From — Two rufp'iit.s passiiiij North - Sniiiimr T'd Di'ptli id Wnit.-r Fro-.t It-, l'..nt'l'ui«l Klfects on Soil -Tahl<- of UainfalK for I'^'y.in i l,*<»su--[{,iinrall .mil < lijudlis.-iiif.Hs- 'I'l-.^itini.iny '.f ^-tthT, l{«')^';irdiitg hf HcaltliiiifS* of ihf I liiii.il"-. CONTENTS. XI Nalnidl Prnt/firfs n/' thr Soil. rnmpnrisnti 'ty ValiiuMi - Ili^'K Hush t'riiiilM'rritN--Kii.sj)lM rrns ..f Mmv .SiM'cic- .l.iMi tr mi thr 'Mouil Menv — Coiiiiiioi, ('nuilMrrics — lUuflnTMis Wild SHrMi|>nnll.i -SiUi I Utrry - liutl'iii' M.iiy — HeaiUit'ul iinl Valuiihle Shnihs Wild Hojm- Ua/<1 NmIh Flower^ ami Shruhv it Hrmnlon — Tlieii li.-unty iii I'r iiti. — M(HiNr Mountain Flowers— FIowits 4t the Sand \\\\U umI Fliii Creek- Line ..I C. V K.--ri|>.sf.ine Ci<",.k- -Fh>wers ot thp I'hiiii- tiriMit Soiiii!4 I'iaiii Ai les ot lalii's- Tnir 1- CiHeniij,' Sipiare Miles — Mushrooms, then (Ire. it V^iliie and Kiornioiis Si/e Mid N'uiiihers- Mushrooms over '2'>0 Mil-s '"t ( uuutry- ljy<'oiHTdon« \l*utl'- liiill»\ not Poisonous- Flora at Long I.ak>, l.iho, Aueinou.'s, I'eiitstemous, I'oten- tillus rtiid many Others — ('oiiunon I'ophir a Ketiiedy loi Inlerinittetit Fevei. (J H A F 'V ¥A{ XII. lidis'mtj Wheat. R»'d iJivcr I'rairif, Description ritits .Soil — An < ild <'()untrymau'-< Views — F.xtent of thp Wlit.tt l.aiid.s — l,'iO,00(i,Oou Ac-lt"i ol Wheat Uiilnis — .Maiilloha K.Vi luded tltun the Calciilutiou — GtM>d Land (,'ontinues 1(11 100 Miles at a Tune — Fixed Laws Uei^arding the Growth ■>( Wlieai — Northern Limits o| Whe:a Zom — Northern Wheaf more Fpi- hfic — The CrtU«e ^'.xidained — Ifow Wheat (irows in Spring and Summer — Wh\ Maiii- toliu Wheat i.s Hard — h'oots l'eiietrat>' to a Oieat Depth — Analysis of Soil, fai Supe- rior to the Hcst Wheat Land in Kurop* — Kest .Soil in the World iii the .Vorth-West — Maiiitoha Formerly an old Lake I'ottom — .Soil of the Second Prairie .Stt ppe - .Soil ot" the Third I'lateau — (iypsum v^•^y Alnindaut — Cactus iio I'root d Aridity — .Setter's Farm Descrilx-d — Wheat Cirowmg amoiiL^st Cactus — ApiK'anince of thi- Laud— Kesults of 1880~of 18.S1 — Seed Houghl in MiiUiesota m lS7ti — I'ro^ress since Then— Mam- tolia Wheiit Admitted Duty P'lee into Miuiu'.->ol,i — < ipinions uf rioiicer l'res> of St. I'aul's, Minnesota, rei;ardiiij{ North- West Wheat — Statements of Kesideiits — .\venige Crop for Four Yean* — A venire Yield of (-anutlian North-West Couipareii with the host States in the Union — (Jreat Wei^rht of the Oraiii — •..'u'Apjielle llefiion a." a Wheat District — I'rince Alheit and Fdnioiiton as Wheat Districts — licscrijition of Kdmoii- ton— OuHt'n Farm at Fihnonlun — Country on Pt ace Uiver — Fxudhnt Wheal Lands far to the North — Cucunihers KijH-n in liUt t;o — Wheat in I.at. tW Kirst-cla>s — SlMuic Frost- not Hurtful — Fall Wheat nut Suited tor the N'orth-Wr.st — Fall SiAvini; HcconiBiended-- No DoiiDt ol its Sikccss — InsUiiiccs of Fall Sowing— Fali.Sowiiig the True P.dicy of Settlers on the Pmirie — Wheat Production of tin' Future beyocd Cul- onlatiou — Kn^land should Realise that we have th' (Jr. afcr part of the Wheat Lands of America — Kufiland's True Pidi' v— !•";. riners Te.siiin'iny Kegardiug the Soil. Xil CoNTKNTS. (Ml A VT K\{ X I M . Oer^a/jt, lioof ('n>f>s, Sctd rime (UkI llon^iM, liiuuls, i(r. IWrliy — It;< ^'n-iit Weight in th< North — hay of <./iuiili' Unrlcy — Adilitiomil lUO.Oci),- OOO AiTi'K Sv.itftl ti> U.irl<'y North if tht Wh.'Ht !Wlt — I'wh of Uarh-y in thr Wpst— TpBtimony Koi^ii tiling itn CuUiin- in Mamtoha— Avr-rsiKP Yn-M fur Four Yftip* — <''jui- par-'l wuh thi liiitiil Stiiii-H --Kiii>riii«>n'. Ywhl •'f < ••its--Tfntinionv of UoHiilriiU* id Mi.ntol'a — \v. rH)^'< Nitty HuMtirls jut Ai n* — Nmrly Thrii' Tini>'s (ireattr thin <*hio — liifi l*» in tlif N'ttli — Melons < Jrow ami Huhii NOrtli of St P<'tnt and ("apnoity of tlic t'onntry U^irding the PriMluotivp Powers of the Soil — TiiiiMiliyan Kx' illcnt (fof) — (loiid Fall Pa->. an- — Wild MnpH — Clover — Flnx — Heinp — Why all Crops Succeed ho Well — S<-)utherii Kusnia a Parallel Caw — Couiiuencetneai of Spriuj;~Setting ui of Winter — Seedtime in the North- We^t - Varten in Certaii: l^H-alitiex— Hirvei-t Time — Kjirlnst in the (Ju'Ap]v'lle Valley— AlwayH Free trotu Front - t^u'ApjM lie Valley Coiiipared with Sa«k;»ti hewmi — Time for Takinjr "p K'»>t« -Ti'wtimony Kcf^rding Sw-cl Time and Harvest — ll«iad> of the West merely Cart Truls — N' ml K.^id? other than HailwavH in the Country -l)e»cri|itii)n of Leading Trills — Htw TraiU ,4P Formed — When' they I^-ail to — No Attempts made to Improve th< in — TravellerH Tell of their Own Incapa<'ity - Kxjx'rienced men Never got "Stuck"— How t.. CroM a "slew"' with Loaded Carta — Trails or Koads of Ten Yeara Hiuc* — How they were Foimed — Indian Trails — Kuadii of the Future. C II A r T E U X I V . G^niSMf'j^ (iftJi* Phti/is, Forfeits, (I fid Mtonttnins. Pawtufr* >t thi IrauifH- Their Value iii Varioua Section* — I)e«igii of the Chapter — LUt <»f (iraasca, their Hubitata — List of Cyjwracea-, their HabiUiU* — list of Uuahea — List --Sand Hill Graauea — Huui-h Ora»»e» — Huthilo (inuw<'.H — " C.rama-gniaa" --(Jni*iai» of the Alkali Lands — Valuable Cy.s Ililln ('omjiipil — Siiimiifr |'iiHtur>' Kvcrvwlu-n — KiiunitTA lioiiol Lociilitic.T — All l'".t|iially Viiluiilili — I'tniirs ciiii Wiiilfi Aiiy\^ li'-n- — 'Vhr lieuhut; of TIiii»— Prairn' (Jriuc* n-al II;iv in Winii r— W'liy t'aiiatluin ilorws Dif — How t" Hfmody This — Mr. Miickfu/it's 0|.niion — ('aiiadiaii llorncH must \w F«'(l — ('attli> Snri'.-dl Wi'U lis ttu-y ar>' ilwuyi •iru-'" K>(1 r<>iiii» VH»r thf Hoot. (.'nttlf th<- Nost- tii rrti'-Urt- tin if r>'inl III \\ lIlttT- - Will II C^ttlr IllUMt 111' Ki'ii — lllrlll.Tlt'* Oil thn I'raini' in Winter — Mr. Sulwyn'.s Ti-stiiiony — l>r l»i»wnoti'H TfHtinioiiy — Wild Cattlf Winitr out — Winter Shflttr .i N' ssitv — nttn-r Ii«>oatMn>. us (Jooil uh I?o\v Uiver — ('«ii- try W.St af Cyi'restt llillx — 11 iml IIiIIh i.s They are Nmv — I)<-s(iiji- tion of the Hills— The "Store "—t'..unt,r\ West ot Srundin^: I.akt — Tiiil ('reek— Keniams of Former FijflitH — How K'lv.r Cnuntry — Nitural Hay — < lunfry {'.rttfr Snitetl fur I'liwtiire tlmn KHrmnii.,'— l>(>t"ri|iti('n "f the I'istriit Knut ('rojiw cu.sily liiiis«'(i tor (utile Feed — Winter Storm.s Never do Harm if Food is Ahuuduiit — She-'p Kttisin^' — Keeping Hogi*, easily Fattened — Animals easily Fattened in the North — lllustr,itioni« of this Fact — Ui^a hxjiorts Hidis and Talliw — (Mir i'lams ol same ("hannttr na IliuHian OniH — Fond Aluindaiit l-lvrvwlieri' — .\n Irish I'ele^'iit'-'M \'ie\v:i on Stoi k lUiMii^-Mr SjKMne's tiiiiuiiins Uegardim; the Hanie Matter— Testiiuouy hI S«'ttlers Kegardiug Cold (MIAPTKK XVI SUnk Htiitiinii in th>: Btttr Hirer I)i,siri( t vomparHil with Moiit(tH(t. (Chiptkr Writtkn hy Ai.Rt. Hroo, E^g I Auitrii'in WrJtA'rs Ii^nore oiir North-West, oi S]i.ak of its Sterility — Bow River District l)elnie»l — Montana St'v k-raist i-s Testily to the Superiority ot tht How Kiver Distrn t — I)e«erij»tion of North-Western Montana — It Improves hh We Oo North— C'attk now in thf How Uiver Couutrv — No Loe* from Winter Storms — Ileiiting 'iia/.in^ l-ands — StrttisticK of St'M'k in Montana — ('hiri(n/k Winds — De.seription of the Uo«kv Mount«inn — How to Sunk a Kamho — Sort of tattle to I'Imose — I'ompuiison of Varieties of Ktock — rapit*i NeeeKwry to Estahlish a Kanche — Size of a liunehe — The 1UU> of ItKH-iwe — Protitfl on tho InveKtincnt — VVill Thero K; a Market? — Another Kstimato of Cowt and I'rotit — Fh it Wi.so to \a\\ in Some May — Sort of Men for Herds- men — Men and Cattle Should Ik- CiiniortAhh^ — The (.' V K. to .rorts the Ik)w River Distriet — ShcH'p-famunjr as a Fnturo HnsineKs — Flvery Rciiuireuient in the Res;ioii in CJuehtion — A iVrfi'ot Sheep'n I'arailise — No Sheep Ever Lost hy Severe Weather in Moht4in» — [little DiHea.si! am<>nk' Sheep — Profit from Sheep Farmintj in Colorado — !i«iually ad (iood in How Uivtr t'oiintr) — Hreediuj: and Rearing ilortiet) — Coucluwou. XJV CnNTKNTS. (Ml A rr i; i: x v 1 1. Wiitt r V"/'/'/// ClIAI'IKi; will. t'lu I Sh jipl II H. Fi'af ity of Furl not Kml- -Vnw- "f thf <\i»a'liaii, lie Kiiglihhinnii, anil th^ Yanlc'o— ^U) plv "f Si.utli«.sitrn MtiiiifoliA — Turtl<' Mntuitain M-hkc Mou't.kiii a Sourca fif Siij>j>)y— Scftrritv <>f W.»0(l Wf.st .>f This— ('y]»n>ii.n IIiIIh — Uovoniment R4Sflrv.'« Fufl — F\i>l 'lm- Supjily tor r)ii>iw;iiit I'Uin — Scarcity of U >Mi(i West of Tou. hv*««Ml HilU- - K-fk^*!.' IIU1.>- Su|ii>ly -Fuel Ahuiuimit N<>rth of tlip Prairit — iVat lV|M*itK Almnlnni -Tl.nr Distnlmtion — Pc it uu uiarly all Fi»nu'< How - Mm- ml Fn> N nt:»rtli<' Houiittarv--Aii.'il)»es of Coalu— Value of tho Li^miti*— St .NlirvV Kiv.r ( .,,ii — \iiilyscs uf Ciwil^ (>% I'rof Miiiiol — Souri'* ('onurrs mi tin Sinkat liewdu— 2f),0i>0 Squap Mili> of li Coal Fu 1.1 — E.lnioiitoii tin t'-i.trcof this (',.;,! Fi-l.l — '"u:»l ou tho Ftii.iiinii Hivft/. Minnesota Considend— Lake nf the Wixxl.^- I.nn' < f tlict- . V. U --V.irit*tif,s of Timber— Whi-ni I^ratfni— Ilrreii'H Uiv«!r — No l'int< Wfst of I,iike Wiiini]M'^— Pi.itnbution of White S|.ru<*— Hluck Spnuf- Sotul' ['iiif- " ('yj.n-tw "— fUlfain Po|>l«r- Aftpen F'oiilar — <'..tl. iivvMuil — <>ak -Klin -Ash— '* Su^ar Msjil.' " — liinii, I.tiimriii- and Hl;i( k \Vill(^\^ — TiriiiMr on Wwinij^'t^'dosiM-Sujijily for ll;i|Md <'ity, MmiitdoM, odauah, J5iitl( — liiluij.' Mount un -Puck and Pomininc Mount, iinsTindjer Nurtli of the, Siiskalliir — Wolvcrim-H, the En» niit'H of tin- Tiappcrs — Antcdotcs of tin' Woivcrint — Mink iiiul Otttr — Skunks — i'Mvu hy Huiitfrs — IJadgiTH and thtir Hahits— Panj^'iT ')f Kidinj; on HorH»hack — Modf of Killing; Madpis — Notes on the Hlack IJeai— Tiieir Hahits — The Teirihle drizzly — Fears of the Indians on I'eaeeHiver — Nearly all Cirry Scars Inllieted liy Hears — Description of One Killed at the Haml llill.s — Indian W unan Killed hy a drizzly — The Cahn>«' or Troiif,'- Horned Anlelupt — IMack Tailed Deer — Wapiti or American Elk, its Distrihution — The Moost — Hunting Mouse an Art — Starvation on Peace Hiver in 187f> — Carihou Found in the North — Hunting,' on the Harren Grounds — The Hocky Mountain Goat — Description of It — Ihinting in How Kiver Pass — The Hig Horn or Ilocky Mountain Sheep — Measurement of their Horns — Musk (>x of the Harreii (Jrounds — Its general Ap|>farance and Hadits — Warmth of its ('i)Vering — The Hulfalo, its Distrihution — Wdod Hull'alu on tlie Athahasca — Their Present Scarcity — Hutl'alo Hunting in the Past— Mode of Camjiing in the Indian Country— Moile of Running Buffalo— Exciting Scenes— 'i'he Charge, Conflict and Pursuit — The Hutl'alo Pound in Fortuer Days — How the Indians Slauglitered the Hullalo — Doctor Hector's Account — Moles and Shrews, Rich Soil wh<'re they Are — (lophers and Prairie Dogs, their Hahits —Mode of Catching Prairie Dogs — Heaver — Stories Helated of their Instinct— Con- struction of their Dams— Heaver Houses — Their Construction — Muskrats, their Num- hers and Hahits — Character of Country they Inhahit — Muskrats as Weather Prophets — The Fwdishness of the /Vc^/icAv — How the Muskrat Huilds his House— Pouched Gopher and Jumping Mice— I'orcupines and their Hahits— The Prairie and Woodland Hares — Grtat Numhers of the Latter— Hocky Mountain Hare. CHAPTER XXI. Birds of the North- We.tt. Large Nuinhers Breed in the Country— Enumeration of Singing Birds — Notes on tho Thnishes, Warblers, Swallows, Finches — Prairie Birds — Peculiarities of the Cow-bird — Blackbirds a Great Nuisance — The Fly-catchers, Enumeration of the Species — Night Hawks, Humming Birds, and Woodpeckers — All these are Forest Species — Range of the Humming Birds— Hawks and Owls— The Owl of the Prairie— Hawks very Beautiful and Abundant— Their Habits— The Wild Pigeon— Prairie Chicken, Ptarmigan and Grouse — Enumeration ot tho Waders — Numerous both in Species and Numbers — Plover — Avocets — tiodwits — Sandpipers and Snipe in Myriads — Bitterns and Cranes often Numerous — Enumeration of the Ducks, Geese, and Swans— Their Breeding Places— Notes on the River Ducks— Couutless Myriads in the Fall— Game B XVI CONTKNTS. BinlH Aro\iii(l or in n Pond — A romnion Sijjlit — How to Prortirr a fluppr — Tlir MtT- gniiwTM >ir Sill Mrakr-* — P«'liiiin\ llu-ir Hiilitii and UrrriliiiK I'liuro — Tlinr MoiIih of Kiiliinp — (iulU iind 'IVrnt> — Vny AliuniUnt on tin* lj»r>{rr Lukfn — Tlitir Suinninr HiiuntN — Loons, (Jrehi- ami Duli-ihuki* — Mahitu of the (Jn'lw — Tin- (Jp-Ht WfHtrrn (Irvltf — Syno|iiuMl TiibN- of till' MmU — Notin on tlu' I'nurir KjhIn — llirtlx nviir llnui- lion in l!*>t' — At Kliit Crtik — At Moom- Mo\inliiiii — SouriN I'luin — Anniml Suit Toinl* — Multituilo of Duikn Hml rniirn' Cliirkrnit — Taking to tiiu htubble Fi»'ld» — NoU'» uu the iluwk* -On llu- OwU— Uti the CitilU. CHAPTER XXII. Nott'f< on Ri^ttihfiy Fiti/ns^ mtil JnwvtA. List of Roptilt'K— SnakcH in Sjirinf; and Autumn — (lathering <>f SniikcNHl LivinKxtont* — SnaktH in Hulirush liiikf— FiKliinn for Sin-tlonn — iUttlcHnHkcK — LixanlH — 'I'omiM Hiid F'r<'k"> — Li»t ot Kihlus — 'I'in I'trrhcH — Tlif •• I)orr — Carp Family — Tluir iinat Numbco — Nut ("nnsidtrtd (mxkI FikkI — hind Uu I»ogH and Unit — The I'lkr «»r .Itu k Fiidi — Its Haliits — Tlu'Cat Finli — SiiUnun Family — An tit Salmon — Mountain Trout — Arrtit Trout — AnndotcK — H,' StHiK — Devonian litH-kH on PciM e Kiver — (Jypsum. Salt, and Petroleum — (Jypsum on Peace Uivor — Salt Sprin>jK «)f Salt River — Tar Springs (m the AthahuKta — Cretac-ouK Series — ItH Extensiou— Limestone and other lioiildcrK — (Jnivcl and Sand — Niohnira Limestone — Souris Coal Field — Coal in the Wmv River Country — Lignite Tertiary — Its Prohahl«» Extension — Coal Deposits of Immense Kxtent — Pure Hematite in ct)nne( tion with the Coal — In the Saskat< hewan Country — At Kdnionton — Along Peace River — Its Probable Value — Gold f)n the Saskatchewan— On Peace River — Gold Washing Seldom Remunerative— Brick Clay»— Their Great Value and Probable Extent — Concluding Remarks. r'^ .\ K CONTENTS. xvn CHAPTKU XXIV. Uinfory of (he Xttrffi-WtHf./rom (hf t/isrorfrt/ <{f America to t/ir i/nir I8lil. Firxt Vovug<' of ,Inc(|urH Ciirtirr — Wlint lie Inti-mlfd Dning — Si'cnnd Vnyago — Thn Dis- rovcrj- nf the St. Luwri'iicf— Montreal Itciichfil— Kolnrviirs Attt-mpt iit Scttlfiiifiit — Win Want of .Sufci'itM— Chiiinjiliiiii Founds (,»u('lit'i', in ItiOH — IntiTfcrcH in Indian (Viinrrtl.H— I.akf Suprrior lit-nrd of, in Irtl.'i— MisHioimrifH TraviTNo itn Shon-H, 1641 — Fri'in linirn CrosH \— 'i'ln Claims ol the Fn nrh Half-breeds — Surveyors Stopped i)y Louis Hiel — Hudson s 15ay Coiupaiiy and itoinaii Catlioli' I'atliers Decline to Interfere — An attempt at Indepeiidi m e — Fort (iiirry ^;iven up to Hiel — (iovernor M( Tavisli's Explanation — Mis Evident ("omplii ity \Mth the Uehels Almost Admitted — HisChild- like Simplieity — C>l)t>noliue .loins the Rebels — He IntnHluees tlie Fenian Element — His Letter to tlieCaiiadiaii (iovernnient — P.ill of IJiiihts drawn I'ji — The Mov» nient is seen in its jiropt r Asjici I — ( 'anadiaiis Attempt to break Hiil s Power — Their Imprison- ment — Munlirof Si ott — Arri\alof liishoj) Tat he — Hiid t han^eH from a Wolf to a Lamli — Fenian FhiK Pulled Down — Arrival of Colonel Wolseley with his Tr(K>p«, and Flight of Kiel anil Lepine — Coiulusion. CHAPTER XXVI. Ten Years Rcntini-sreittes muf Xofe^ on the Various K:)r(f/i iiir/ifs (Hid Vil/agrs. Purport of the rhapter— Manitoba and Winnij'et: as They Wero in 1872 — Grasshopper Plajrue— f rop (.f is:,",— Sia^-e Hide in the Winter <>i' IHTT) — Disappenmnco of tho Grasshoppers — .^ettlrnients Extend to the .'^.innd Plateati — Nelsonville Founded — Wet Srasons Commeiiic-Maiiy libservtrs Cdndemn the Country — Kajiid City Com- meneed in 1PT8 — Laml in tin- Nrij:lib<.rh — Crowds inter the Country East of Fort Elliee — Birtie Founded- Rink Lake Settlement — Winter of lH7'J-H(i_Uilanah and Minnedos)4 the Rii;. m tlic Spring of IhKo — Grand Valley Comes into Notice — StitT-nei ked and Soft-ln arti d Inimi).'rants — Mosipiitoes Prove t(Ki Much for Th«iu — Enj^'lish Ideas of Canadian Kindness — Canadian Notions He^rardiiiif Englishmen's Inability to Fall in with the Ways of tiie Cotnitry — No Stealing,' on tho Plains — Settlements North of liirtle — Formation of the " Synilieate " — The "Boom" at Portaj^e la Prairie — Winni|H>r and Emerson take the Fever — Route of the C.P.U. Chan^eil in the Spring of \hh\ — Bratidon Founded on the AssinilM)ine — Vigor of the Syndicate — Railway i ipeiied to Rrandoi. — Spt( ulation at Fever Heat — Contlict> ing Statements Regarding the Cnimiry—Short Noii( es of Selkirk, Ementon, Portage la Prairie, Morris, Brandon. Rapid I'ity, Minnedosa, Odanah, Birtie, etc., etc. CHAPTER XXVII. Deftcription amJ IliMory of Winnipef/. Position of Wniiiipeg— Fnrt Rougr — Fort Selkirk— The Foundeni of Wimiiix'g— Winni- jMg in 1^70 — l.'ailway Stirvcys — P.iiibinii Branch— WinniiKg the (hitb-t of the Inter- ior Trade — The " Boom " in Ibtl— .Statihlichof the Trade of Winnipeg — Enumeration CONTENTS. XIX of the Chief Buililiiigs — Present Area of the City — The Business Corjiorations — City Sclinols — rornuT Trade with Wiiiiiipeg — Cnntni.stf'1 with tlie Present — Railway (Jrouinls ami olVures — Postal Facilities Past ami Present — Leading Societies — The I'rcss of Wimiipfg — Agrieultural Society — Extracts from Lord Duflerin's Speeches — We> grapliical Position — Kivcrs and Lakes of Canada — Mcniioniti's and Icel.mdiTs — The Fiiturc ut the City — Appearance of Winnipeg to a New Comer — How Business is Transacted — Preponderance of Males — Occupation of the People — Their Steady Hahits. CHAPTER XXVIII. Cliurrhes mid SrJuxtIs ui the North- West. (A CHAeTKK WlllTTKN MY '«. M. (iHANT, D.D., PKISCil'AI, OK QiKKN's UmvUKSITY, KiMisTiiN, n\i.) First Settlers in Miuiitoha Presbyterians — Their Piety — Attiichment to the Church of tiieir Fathers — Firnt Anglican Missionaries — Their Zeal and Prudence — High- land Tenacity — Arrival of Kev. John Miuk — Kildonan Chunh — Roman Catho- li* Missions — EstHhIishment of Chnrclies and ScIkmjIs liy Missionaries from the Church of Englaml — Rupert's Land Oivided into Four Dioceses — One Kpiscoi)al Church for Canada — Methodist Missionarii's — Uev. (ieorge Macdougal — Rev. Ocorpe Young — Metluwlist Chun lies in Winnipeg,' — Missions of the Piesliyterian Church — Knox and St. Andrews I'liurches — A ('(inimon Mission Hoard for the Protestant Churches Re .''lO.odO Tons — Doubts cast on the Navijjation of the Red and Saskatihi'wan Rivers in 1876 — .Mr. Trow's Statement made in 1877 — Red Rivir Fliit ill lS7it— Navij^tion of Lake Winnip'g — Assiniboine Opened up — Its Capacity and Present Facilities — The QuWppelle and Souris — The South Saskatche- wan — North Saskatihiwan — Steam Navij^ation on tin- .\thabasca, on Peace River, on the Mackenzie— l.akr .\thabasca and (Jnat Slave Lake — Impediments to Naviga- tion—The Future of tin- Lake and River Trade — Summary of Navigable Waters. CHAPTER XXXII. T7ie Past, Present, and Pnture of our Railway Si/fitems. Palliser's Kx|>edition — His Report on the Country and Mountain Paswes —Canada pcquires the Hudson's Bay Company's Territories — British Columbia unites with the Domin- ion — Saiidford F'lemiiii,' ajiiioiiited < 'hief Fugineer — Yellow Ilciid Pass — Trip of the Chief Kii)^'iiietr— My trip tu Peace Rivir — " Ucean to Ocean " published — My report on the Flora and Climate — Continuation of the Surveys — My second Report — Called Ix'fore a Committee of the House — My third Report considered Kxtravagant — Surveys dniw to a Close — Diverse Opinions ngardiiif^ the Country — My views regarding Peace River Confirmed — I'.xploratKin of the Bullalu Plains — SirCliarbs Tupper Kudorses my Statements — \ General Awaheiiing as to the Value of the Country— Railway Commu- nication Kiricted with Wiiuiijieg — Formation of the "Syndicate" — Review of the Surveys! and lh*ir Renult* — Construction of the Luke Superior Branch— Lines Sur- CONTENTS. XXI Teypd — Cost of Surveys — Increased value of the Country — •' Syndicate " carry the Road South — Braiulon Lociited— Lines Located by the " Syndicate " — Lines in Oi)cra- tion— Soutli Western Colonization Railway Company — A net work of Railways Contt-niplated— Oiily Two Outlets Calculated at Present — The Future Traffic — The Nelson River Route — The Churchill and Saskatchewan Route — Prince Albert and Peace River — The Great City of the Future. CHAPTER XXXIll. Adiuce to Iinmlf Uaut'i's ami 'Icwiisliijis — Hum' Lim-s — Corrrctitui Lines — Si/c (i| 'l"(i\Mi>hi]i^ — lu>:ul .MlowaiitiN - Mow .S>iivcy Lines arc Marlcol on tin- <;iiis— I)i.i;;raiii >lin\vini; tln' IHvisioii of a Towiisliij) into Sei'tion.H - Imik ral Ki'^'ulaticiis — llun'tions— Ccloni/atiou I'lan Nuinlii r (»ii.' -I'lan Nnnilirr Two— Timlxr tor S«ttlfrs — ra.stura^je Lands -CJcnt'ral I'rovJM.uis ('an.nliaii Pai ilii" Hallway Lamls-t'omlitiona of Sale LilnTality of Canailian Lami Ki gulalions — IludMin's Uay loni|>any'.s Lands— School Limils — LunJs at Privati' Sale. CHAPTER XXX V 1. ♦SVf the Dojuininii in I'^Hl as Compau'il with that of 1871 — Populat'on of tho ("ilits am! Town> — I'iai c ot Uirth — lUliciniis Hilirf. — Areas of IIh- Provimes, eU-. V I a.' -1 ,.-''0 A f I 'S \ irvfy. riili;»iis — Size ctiou Liiifs — I till' tlnmiiil u\vii;? ulc.t'on of the vim OK, et<'. V '"HIT'** "''^ //» ■.*."/ ■ MAN The Don] Prince ritories- Prairie i Basin o Churchi The Americ main a the Pro Edward Pro vine and Qu extend the Roc 120th M two old Columbi This\ and is < of 1,770 TheP Nova Sc( the sout Island, a The Pen: !«HW*iJ MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. CHAPTER I. M :% General Geoyraphy, The Dominion as a whole — Its Extent anil Area — Novii Scotia — New Bninswick — Prince Edward Island — Quebec— Ontario — Keywadin — Manitoba — North- West Ter- ritories — British Columbia— North-West and Manitoba a vast Plain — Southinu or Prairie Section — Middle or Partially "Wooded Section — Region of Continuous Forest — Basin of Lake Winnipeg,' — Its Uivers and Lakes — Mackenzie River Basin — The Churchill and Nelson Rivers— (leiicrnl View of the Rocky Mountains. The Dominion of Canada includes at present all British America, except Newfoundland, which still elects to re- main a Crown colony. Beginning at the East, it includes the Provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. These were formerly called the Maritime Provinces. Upper and Lower Canada are now Ontario and Quebec. Manitoba and the North-West Territories extend from the boundary of Ontario to the crest of the Rocky Mountains, and west of this range and the 120th Meridian lies British Columbia, which includes the two old Crown colonies of Vancouver's Island and British Columbia. This vast domain extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and is equal in size to the United States, or a square of 1,770 miles. It includes about 3,000,000 square miles. The Province of Nova Scotia consists of the Peninsula of Nova Scotia and the Island of Cape Breton. These lie to the south-east of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, and form the most eastern part of the Dominion. The Peninsula of Nova Scotia is of a triangular shape, and 2 18 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. ■ v :^i is connected with New Brunswick by an isthmus sixteen miles wide. Its surface is undulating and picturesque and is dotted over with many small and beautiful lakes, which contain multitudes of fine fish. Nova Scotia is rich in minerals, having no less than three extensive coal fields, which are destined, owing to the fostering care of its Government, at no distant day, to be a large source of revenue to the Province, as it owns the mines and receives a royalty on all coal taken from them. Iron, gypsum, and gold are not only abun- dant, and a source of present wealth to many, but hold out future prospects of large returns for foreign invest- ments. The best agricultural lands of Nova Scotia are situated at the head of the Bay of Fundy, though the soil almost everywhere is good. Nova Scotia has been long noted for its apples, of which vast quantities are shipped to England. Halifax, the capital of Nova Scotia, is situated on one of the finest harbors in America. Owing to its proximity to the Gulf Stream, the harbor rarely freezes over. This fact and the position of the city as the terminus of the In- tercolonial Railway have made Halifax the winter port of the Dominion. Owing to the excellent construction and management of the Intercolonial, it is fast growing in favor with the travelling public. Besides farming and mining, a large number of the in- habitants are engaged in the coast and deep sea fisheries, which are very remunerative. Ship-building is exten- sively carried on and gives employment to numerous mechanics and others. On the whole, taking into con- sideration its mining, fishing, farming, and ship-building, Nova Scotia can support a far larger population in afifiuence than she now possesses. New Brunswick lies northwest of Nova Scotia, and has many points in common, but differs in shape, being very compj large ship-b carrie( divers clear 1 out its with f( lent fa: This to its VI can be ships fo] is 450 capital, steamen or up tc Miramic miles frc large shi gouche ii Quebec a into the into the Like ] coal and granite, timber ai linae, anc vinces ht trade is e Prince . lubrious farming ai both cases \ GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. 19 compact and little broken by narrow bays. Numerous' large bays indent its coast on the side of the Gulf, and here ship-building and lumbering operations are extensively carried on. The surface of the Province is very much diversified, and mountain and valley, noble rivers and clear lakes follow each other in quick succession through- out its whole extent. Much of the surface is still covered with forest, but along the rivers and in the valleys excel- lent farms and farming lands are to be seen. This Province possesses three fine rivers which add much to its value, as by means of these the timber cut in the forests can be floated down to the sea or used in the construction of ships for which New Brunswick is justly noted. The St. John is 450 miles long, and is navigable from Fredericton, the capital, to its mouth, a distance of eighty -four miles. Small steamers ply on the river above the city for 1 20 miles further, or up to the Great Falls, which are eighty feet high. The Miramichi is 225 miles long and navigable for thirty miles from its mouth, which is very wide, and here many large ship-building establishments are located. The Resti- gouche is 200 miles long, and forms the boundary between Quebec and New Brunswick. Both the latter rivers flow into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, while the St. John empties into the Bay of Fundy. Like Nova Scotia, New Brunswick possesses mines of coal and iron, and she has also abundance of lead, asphalt, granite, marble, and other valuable minerals. Besides timber and ships, her exports are grain, fish, iron, coal, lime, and gypsum. The resources of the Eastern Pro- vinces have of late been greatly developed, and their trade is every month increasing in volume. Prince Edward Island is very fertile and possesses a sa- lubrious climate. Its inhabitants are chiefly engaged in farming and fishing, and are well repaid for their labor in both cases. The island is crescent-shaped, about 130 miles ■ : '• 1 ! ! (i 1 .^^ 20 MAiMTUHA AND THE GKEAT NORTH- WKST. lonp;, with an average breadth of thirty-four mileH. In general the hind is very level, and being free from rock is easy of tillage and very productive. Immense quan- tities of potatoes are raised and exported to Boston and other cities along the coast, where they bring ready sale at remunerative prices. The climate of all three Provinces is alike as regards the autumn, which is delightful in the extreme. Nova Scotia has less extremes of heat and cold, but is more subject to chilling fogs than either of the others. New Brunswick has cold winters and late springs, but the summers are warm and growth is rapid. Owijig to the insular position of Prince Edward Island, its climate is less liable to extremes than that of the other Provinces. As a rule, the air is dry and bracing, the winters are cold and the summers tempered by the sea l)i'eezes. Quebec may be said to lie in the valley of the St. Law- rence. It extends from the mouth of the river to some distance west of Montreal. The 45th parallel separates it from the United States, while the Ottawa river is its boundary on the side of Ontario. Since its disco- very, Quebec has been noted for its vast Pine forests, its noble rivers and lakes, and its magnificent scenery. The increasing trade of Montreal, owing to €\e develop- ment of the west, has caused business men to bestir them- selves, so as to retain the traffic that is flowing to their doors, and a consequence of this action is the development of their railway system by which they are in communica- tion with all points of the compass. The St. Lawrence has been deepened, and vessels drawing twenty feet of water come to Montreal to load. Besides the Western trade in grain and other products, the Ottawa and its various branches send large rafts of timber to Quebec, from whence it is exported to England. Much fertile land is to be found in Quebec, especially in the ther wliic vinc( but ( Phos wash the p for a On sula, J Erie c west norths and w its inl people The mounti dulatin plough, Bay, w barren fertile ward fr Georgia Superio North o continue lakelets there is and exj the rock All th rence or i. GENKUAL OEOGUAl'llV. 21 the Eastern TowiinhipH and in the Ottawa valley, and there are large depo.sits ot* iron, copper, and lead, which are worked with succesH in many partH of the Pro- vince. Many other mineraln of uhc in the arts are obtained, but of late years, none have l)een more talked ot than the Phospiiate mines, north of Ottawa. Gold ia obtained by washing in many streams to the soiitii of the St. Lawrence, the principal of which is the Chaudiore, near Quebec, where for a number of years, gold washing has been carried on. Ontario presents the appearance of a triangular penin- sula, and is bounded on the south and southeast by Lakes Erie and Ontario, and the River St. Lawrence, and on the west by a line still undefined. To the north and northwest, there are immense forests, which are now, and will be for years to come, a source of great wealth to its inhabitants, as alt the public lauds belong to the people of the Province. The surface rises in no place into what may be called a mountain, but, as a rule, the whole of the country is un- dulating, and where not encumbered with rock, fit for the plough. It is only along Lake Superior and the Georgian Bay, where high rugged hills and precipitous cliffs give a barren and desolate aspect to the scenery that other than fertile lands can be seen. The Lauren tian Hills run west- ward from the Thousand Islands, below Kingston, to the Georgian Bay, and continue northwestward by Lake Superior to the Lake of the Woods and Lake Winnipeg. North of this line of hills the country, instead of being continuously fertile, is umch broken by rocky ledges, small lakelets, swamps, and sandy tracts ; but, nevertheless, there is still much fine rich land throughout this region, and experience proves that the farmer can plough up to the rocky ledge without any difficulty. All the rivers of Ontario How either into the St. Law- rence or the Great Lakes. Owing to the diversified charac- 22 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. l >:^ ter of the country, these are numerous, but unimportant as regards internal communication. Besides rivers, many beautiful spring brooks traverse the country in all direc- tions, and these connecting with multitudes of small lakes filled with the best of game-fish, enable the sportsman or farmer to have pleasure or profit, or both, without going far from home. The small clear streams spoken of are now be- coming of great value and will be increasingly so in the future. Within a few years, cheese factories have become very numerous, and the manufacture of cheese a leading industry. Soon butter factories will be added, and then Ontario's rich pastures " by the brooks " will be valued as they should, and grain raising become a thing of the past. Water power sufficient to grind all our wheat and manu- facture all our clothing has been going to waste for ages, but now the spirit of enterprise has taken possession of our people, and manufacturing establishments are rising on every hand. On the Trent alone, there are over twenty miles of rapids, where innumerable mills could be erected for every purpose. At present, the Government contem- plate the formation of a canal by means of this river, to connect the waters of Lake Ontario with the Georgian Bay, so that the grain of the West may find a sure and speedy transit to the East. Should this canal be built, manufacturing towns will, as a matter of course, rise along its track, and the dream of many will be a glad reality. To the capitalist, there is no better field on the American continent for investment, than is presented by Ontario to-day. Minerals of almost every description are abundant in the Laurentian Kills. Silver mining on Lake Superior, gold mini>ig in Madoc, iron mines in various places, of surpassing richness and great extent, would surely place Ontario in a prominent position as a mining country, yet these are not all ; on the shores of Lakes Huron and St. Clair are large GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. 23 deposits of salt and petroleum, which seem well nigh inex- haustible. Northeast of Kingston, phos|>hate is found everywhere. Lead, gypsum, marble, copper, graphite, lith- ographic stone, and numerous other metals and minerals exist in workable quantities in many places, but hitherto, the want of capital has prevented their development. Of the fruits of the soil, Ontario may justly be proud; her apples to-day stand A 1 in the English markers. Peaches and grapes are grown in enormous quantities, and the latter are now raised without difficulty in every part of the Province. Barley grown along Lake Ontario is alto- gether superior to anything that can be produced in the United States, and always commands a good price. All other grains are raised in abundance. Ontario wheat has long been known as a first-class article, and is only excelled now by that of its sister Province, Manitoba. Keywadin is a tract of rough, broken country, lying between Ontario and the North-West Territories. Its southern boundary is the United States, and its northern the shores of Hudson's Bay. This region is but little known in its eastern part, but may be characterized as a land of rocks, lakes, rivers, marshes, and muskegs, with occasional Islands, or small patches, of good land intermixed. Along Rainy River, there is a belt of very rich land, but this is overshadowed at present by the fertile lands of Manitoba, which fill men's minds to the exclusion of everything else. The boundary question is not yet settled, but when it is, Keywadin will pass out of existence and become merged in Ontario and Manitoba. Manitoba, by the Act of 1880, had its boundaries ex- tended, so as to include the greater part of the existing settlements formed, during the past f(;w years, along the western boundary. As now extended, it reaches from the Ontario boundary on the east to 101'' 30' west long., * 11 I ! II ^ 24 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. and from the International Boundary on the south to the Saskatchewan and Lake Winnipeg on the north. The North-West Territories extend from Manitoba westward to the crest of the Rocky Mountains. Where the Rockies cross the 120th Meridian, that line is taken as the eastern boundary of British Columbia. All the vast tract enclosed between these lines and extending inderinitely to the north, is known by the general term of North-West Territories. British Columbia is that portion of the Dominion which extends from the western boundary of the North-West Territories to the Pacific, and includes Vancouver Island and Queen Charlotte's Islands, its west- ern boundarv is the Pacific, from lat. 49° to the head of Portland Channel, in lat. 56°. From this point, the line passes at a distance of twenty-five miles from tide water, northwesterly, until it reaches the 143rd Meridian. The 60th parallel is its northern boundary. As a separate chap- ter will be written on this Province, I shall merely notice that, were it for no other reason than its position, British Columbia is a necessity to the Dominion. Besides posi- tion, it h.as forests of unsurpassed excellence, fisheries with- out a rival, coal fields unequalled on the West coast, a climate at once mild and salubrious, and rivers flow- ing over " golden sands." It is well known that from its southern boundary to its most northern explored point, g"jld in paying quantities has been found. The North-West Territories and Manitoba may be char- acterized as a vast plain, gently sloping to the north and northeast. Its southeastern extremity (at Emerson), is about 700 feet above the sea, and rises gradually as we proceed west, until it readies an altitude of nearly 4,000 feet at the base of tlie Rockies, on the International Boun- dary. Lake Winnipeg, which receives the waters of the interior is only 627 feet above the.sea. It will be seen that from the Rocky Mountains to Lake Winnipeg, a distance, in \ GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. 25 round numbers, of 1,000 miles, the fall is about 3,000 feet, or three feet to the mile. In this 1,000 miles there are two lifts, of over COO feet each, which serve to divide the prairie country into three great subdivisions, having the same general characteristics. Under the name of the First Prairie Steppe, is included the low plain of Manitoba, bounded by a line of elevated country which commences on the International Boun- dary, at a point some distance west of Emerson, and extends northwestwardly undtr the names of Pembina, Riding, Duck, Porcupine, and Pis Mountains to near Cum- berland House, on the Saskatchewan, in long. 102° west and lat. 53° 37' north. This plain, in its southern part, being more elevated, is drier and better fitted for agricul- ture than the northwestern part, where Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegoosis ancl their surrounding marshy lands take up much of the surface. The soil, however, in the northern part is exceedingly rich, and marshy meadows covered with tall grass, take the place of the weedy or grassy prairies of the south. The soil of this lower plain is a dark-colored or black alluvium of great depth and almost inexhaustible fertility. Ascending the broken hills, or face of the escarpment which is the eastern slope of the " Mountains " spoken of above, the traveller is surprised to find that tho " Moun- tain " has disappeared, and he stands on a plain almost as level as the one left behind, but much better adapted to farming purposes, as the soil is warmer, the surface more rolling, and therefore drier, and water of a better quality and more plentiful in the form of brooks. This is the Second Prairie Steppe, and contains an enormous quantity of excellent land. Its boundary on the east has been already described, and the International Boundary, for 270 miles, is its south- ern one. The Coteau de Missouri, crossing the Boundary 26 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST, in long. 103° 30' west, sweeps up to the northwest and crosses the South Saskatchewan in lat. 50° 45*, where it takes the name of the Bad or Bear Hills. Passing north- ward it becomes the Eagle Hills, about fifty miles to the east of Battleford. This range of hills is about ten miles to the south of Battleford, in lat. 52° 35', and from thence the elevated country extends northwesterly to Lac la Biche, in lat. 55°. Groups of drift hills are scattered at intervals over this plateau, but anything to be called a mountain has no ex- istence. The Turtle and Moose Mountains, Brandon Hills, Pheasant Hills, File Hills, Touchwood Hills, and other small groups found at various points can scarcely be called hills. They are in most cases merely a series of ridges, and rounded drift eminences encompassed by marshes and lakelets, which prevent the destruction of their forests at uncertain intervals. Therefore the wood ranges on them from mere twigs of a year old, up to trees eighteen inches in diameter. The Third Prairie Steppe, or Lignite Tertiary Plateau, is bounded on the east by the western boundary of the pre- ceding one, and includes the remainder of the great plain south of Lac la Biche. "Wood Mountain and the Cypress Hills are both on this plateau, and deserve the name of hills, the latter even that of " mountain," as the western part attains an elevation of 4,000 feet above the sea, or 2,000 feet above the plain to the north. This section of the country is more broken than the others, and large tracts are better suited for pasturage than for the plough. Salt lakes and ponds, rolling hills, alkaline flats, deep ravines called cmilees, and rivers flowing in deep channels, are the leading features of the district. Cactus flats, hills of pure sand, and large areas of excellent agricul- tural lands will attract the attention of different observers, so that varied and conflicting accounts are being and have been given of it. \ GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. 27 Leaving out the areas covered with gravel, or which consist principally of drifting sand, the remaining level country will sooner or later become farming lands, and the broken country pasturage. It is within this area that all, or nearly all, the coal exposures noticed in this book . are to be found, and as a rule at no great distance from the surface. Ninety per cent, then of the first two areas consists of excellent soil. On the third steppe are areas such as the one south of Battleford, where 10,000 square miles of good land may be found in one block. Further inves- tigation is required before the more southern part can be definitely described. That part of the prairie lying west of Moose Mountain, and a line connecting it with the Touchwood Hills, may be said to be wholly without wood, between the Boundary and lat. 52° north. Wood Mountain and the Cypress Hills, together with the narrow river valleys, are the only ex- ceptions. Although at present without wood or even a bush for more than one hundred miles at a stretch, yet the only cause of this absence of trees is the ever recurring fires which burn off the grass and shrubby plants almost every season. Permanent water in abundance is found where not a willow or poplar twig has been seen for years. Should a range or group of sand hills intervene, shrubbery and even trees are found amongst them, though the plain in the vicinity is without a single twig. It requires very little observation to detect the reason. All fires cease when they touch those hills. Theories regarding an insufficient rainfall, based on the absence of trees, are fallacious, as all grasses form a sward on every part of the southern prairie, except where the soils are either too sandy, or the opposite — Cretaceous clay. With these exceptions all the surface is covered with grass, though much of it is very short. Passing north of lat. 52° west of the Touchwood Hills, 28 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. the traveller advancing from the south will notice first little tufts of willows nestling close to the north eastern corner of a little pond of clear water. Still advancing north, he will notice these clumps becoming more common and occasionally showing stems two or three years old ; these are soon followed by little poplars, and should a larger pond than usual be seen, a small group is sure to cling to it. Having frequently passed from south to north on the great jjrairie, and i\ever having seen any change in the mode of arrangement as above briefly described, I came to the con- clusion that the prairie fires explain the absence of wood. In the partially wooded region which lies north of the prairie, ponds are more frequent and often marshes abound. The soil is very rich^ and as the newly cleared land produces longer grass, this section and the more northern forest belt along the Saskatchewan were called the " Fer- tile Belt" by Captain Palliser, and others, who merely reiterated his statements. The mixed forest and prairie extending from Rapid City westward, including the Pheas- ant, File, and Touchwood Hills, and the country north of lat. 52'" and south of the North Saskatchewan is of this nature. All the surveyors who have located the lands in this mixed prairie and poplar belt complain of numerous ponds and marshes that retard their work and cause them to suffer much from wet clothes while *' chaining " in the fall when the -water is cold. The broken front of prairie and forest land has no defi- nite line either to the north or to the south. The wetter the land towards the south the farther the wood extends .^n that direction, and the drier towards the north the fartiicr the prairie extends northward. Prairie then means a dry and generally level tract in the north ; and the occurrence of wood towards the south implies an eleva- ted region of ponds and lakelets, as the Turtle and Moose Mountains. Conf Manito and nc Albert, the hei the wh Lake the ma Prairie Winnij dischar, waters. lake, ai flows nc route i] River, i At it Red Rii and av confluei situatio: The R( forming Manitol nesota \ earily 1 the gres latitude summer In as( Souris i region, deep na On the ] chewan GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. 29 Continuous forest extends from the south end of Lake Manitoba by the Riding, Duck, and Porcupine Mountains, and northwestward to Fort h la Corne, east of Prince Albert. It thence ascends more to the north and follows the height of land south of the Beaver River, and includes the whole valley of the Athabasca and its tributaries. Lake Winnipeg, as may be seen by an examination of the map, is the lower part of a basin, of which the First Prairie Steppe was formerly a part. On the east it receives "Winnipeg River, a large and turbulent stream, ,, aich discharges the Lake of the Woods and its accumulated waters. Farther to the north, Beren's River flows into the lake, and by means of this stream and the Severn, which flows north, the Hudson's Bay Company kept open a summer route independent of the more regular highway of Hayes River, usually spoken of as the Nelson River Route. At its southern extremity Lake Winnipeg receives the Red River, which at the city of Winnipeg is 900 feet wide, and averages ten feet in depth. Winnipeg is at the confluence of the Red and Assiniboine Rivers, and from its situation must be a city of great importance in the future. The Red River rises in Northern Minnesota, and after forming the boundary of this State and Dakota, enters Manitoba at Emerson. Many people think that because Min- nesota and Dakota are south of Manitoba they must neces- sarily be warmer, but a little reflection shows that the greater altitude more than compensates for the higher latitude. Manitoba is actually warmer, both in winter and summer, than either Northern Dakota or Minnesota. In ascending the Assiniboine we have, in succession, the Souris and Qu'Appelle, both draining a very extensive region, which is nearly all prairie, and both flowing in deep narrow valleys through the Second Prairie Steppe. On the north side of the river we have the Little Saskat- chewan and Bird Tail Creek, both taking their rise in the ^^i so MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. ( il f M 1^1 Riding Mountain. Farther to the north, Shell River, a rapid stream rising in the Duck Mountain, enters from the east ; about fifty miles above, the White Sand, which is really the main river, enters from the west. On the west side of Lake Winnipeg another Little Sas- katchewan is found, and this apparently insignificant stream drains an area of not less than 30,000 square miles. All surplus waters of Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegoosis empty by it into Lake Winnipeg. What this means will be understood by simply enumerating the rivers that flow into Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegoosis, and considering that the only outlet of these is by this Little Saskatchewan. The White Mud River enters the head of Lake Manitoba and drains much of the wet country crossed by the C. P. R. between Portage la Prairie and the " Big Plain." It is worthy of note that this river rises quite close to the Assini- boine and flows northeasterly. Mossy River discharges Lake Dauphin ; Pine River and two others drain the eastern slopes of the Duck and Riding Mountains. Swan River, a large stream 300 feet wide, drains the Porcupine Mountain, and, greatest and last of all, the Red Deer River enters the head of Lake Winnipegoosis, and with its tributaries drains the whole country as far west as the 106th meridian. All the waters flowing into the great Saskatchewan come from the Third Prairie Steppe, except the Carrot River, which runs parallel with the Red Deer River and enters the Saskatchewan near Cumberland House. The main affluents all take their rise in the Rocky Mountains, and uniting on the plain become one mighty river. Thus the South Saskatchewan is formed by the union of St. Mary's, the Belly, the Bow, and another Red Deer River, which rises in the Rocky Mountains and joins the main stream a>out long. 110° west and lat. 51° north. Below this the iver widens, and at the Elbow, near the source of the Qu' Appelle, is 1,84^ only st Strong the wej the wa North Battlef ofEdm The and w€ flood in the Pej mounta base to which Columb course < Mounta range, : ing mo: through ishes in east. I fertile i most nc drain tl and At its chan enters i Athabaf stream, it with mer, th< autumn into the GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. 31 is 1,848 feet wide and with a channel ten feet deep. The only streams which do not originate in the Mountains are Strong Current Creek and Maple Creek, the latter draining the west end of the Cypress Hills, while the former receives the waters of the eastern end. The chief tributaries of the North Saskatchewan are Battle River, which enters at Battleford, and the Brazeau, which it receives southwest of Edmonton. The Mackenzie River drains an immense area, both east and west of the Rocky Mountains, and pours a mighty flood into the Arctic Sea. Its great southwestern branch — the Peace River — takes its rise on the west side of the mountains, and flows northwesterly along their western base to lat. 56°, where it receives the Finlay Branch, which drains a large area in the northeast of British Columbia. The united strean now turns east and, after a course of nearly seventy miles, emerges from the Rocky Mountains. It flows through the plateau east of the range, in a channel 1,000 feet below its level. Turn- ing more to the north, it sweeps in majestic curves through a rich and fertile plain, which constantly dimin- ishes in altitude as the river gets to the north and north- east. For 770 miles it flows through a most lovely and fertile region, receiving in its course many rivers, the most notable of which are the Smoky and Pine, which drain the district of country lying between the Peace and Athabasca. When the river leaves the mountains, its channel is under 600 yards in width, but before it enters Slave River, twenty-five miles north of Lake Athabasca, it is over 1,000 yards wide. A branch stream, named the " Quatre Fourches " River connects it with Lake Athabasca, and by this stream, in early sum- mer, there is a steady flow of water into the lake, but in autumn this is changed, and the waters of the Lake flow into the river. The author found this to be the case in fi 32 MANITOIJA AND THE CREAT NORTH-WEST. i August, 1875, when there was a strong current ilowing from Lake to River. Lake Atha})asca is about 250 miles long, by some twenty- five in breadth, and receives the drainage of a very exten- sive region, which is almost wholly covered with forest. The Athabasca River, which enters the western end of the lake, takes its rise in the Rocky Mountains, close to the sources of the Columbia, and flows in a general northeast course, till it enters the Lake. In its course, it receives the Macleod, Pembina, and Lac la Biche Rivers from the south, while on the north it receives Little Slave River, which, after a course of fifty miles from Little Slave Lake, empties into it a little north of hit. 55°. Little Slave Lake is an extensive sheet of water lying nearly east and west, about seventy-five miles in length and five in average breadth. In lat. 57', the Athabasca receives the Clearwater — a fine stream of pure water which comes from the elevated coun- try east of Portage la Loche. Lake Athabasca discharges its accumulated waters by Slave River which, twenty-five miles below, receives. the Peace, and both, under the former name, discharge into the still larger basin of Great Slave Lake. At the efflux of this lake, the real Mackenzie commences. At Fcrt Simp- son, in lat. 61° 50' north, it receives the Laird from the west, some of the branches of which have their rise close to the sources of the Finlay, far west of the Rocky Mountains. It is on the upper waters of the Liard, that the rich gold fields of northern British Columbia are located, where hundreds of miners are engaged every summer. After receiving the Liard, the mighty flood, increased in volume and power, flows on, without break or obstruction, to the Arctic Sea, a distance from Fort Simpson of 700 miles in a straight line. A li cle south of the Arctic Circle, Great Bear Lake River '.mters from the east. Here was Fort Franklin, where the Arctic explorers wintered. North (JKNEFIAI, (JKOCKAIMIY 38 of the Arctic Circle is F'ort Good Hope, the rnoHt northerly of the Ifudson'H Bay Company's pouts in tlie North-West. The Churchill and NcIhom are the great Rivers of Hudson's Bay, and enter its southwestern extremity ; the latter about hit. 57 , while the mouth of the other is more than a degree I'urther to the north. The Churchill, under the name of the IJeaver River, rises in the high lands, north of Fort Edmonton, and Hows generally eastward to the meridian of Fort Carltou when it turns north and flows into Tsle la Crosse Lake. This lake also receives the drainage of that extensive region lying iu)rthwesterly towards Portage la Loche. From this lake, under the name of English River, it Hows easterly through a chain of beautiful lakes, connected by more or less rapiil dis- charges, and often l>ordered by clilVs of Laurentian g:iiess. Before receiving the "Great River," which discharges the waters of Rein-deer Lake, it turns northeasterly, and, keeping the same general direction, enters Hudson's Bay nearly 100 miles farther north than the Nelson. Owing to the peculiar character of the region traversed by this river, its waters are quite clear, and in marked contrast with all the other western rivers. Before it re- ceives the Little Churchill, it is one-third of a mile wide, but below that it widens out to nearly a mile. Nelson River discharges the surplus waters of Lake Winnipeg, and will be fully described in another place. The Rocky Mountains are the only mountains of the North-West. It is true that groups o hills and so-called mountains are occasionally met with, but nearly all these are composed of gravel and sand, and with the exception of the Cypress Hills, are very slightly elevated above the plain. The Rockies cross the International Boundary about the 114th Meridian, and run northwesterly, being in lat. 56° north on the 122nd Meridian, and ten degrees farther north on the 131st Meridian. They form one continuous fi 34 MANITOBA AM) TIIK CUKAT NOKTII-WKST. i ^ '. cluiiii, C()mjK)M«M| oIm uiiiiiImt of HOpiirato tninsvi^rHO ridgeH, bt'twoon .vincli the iiiiiltitiido of Hnuill HtrtMUiiH that form tiio \i\v^e riwvH liiivc tlicii' .sourcoH. Tlu' liirj^er lateral vnlloyH roooivc muiiv oftlicso Hiiiall HtiMMiriiH, and it is up tlicHc that till! varioiiM j>iisMt'.s ar*' to he loiind. Tlio Kootuiiio I'jiHH to tlio south, ill hit. 41)" .'iO' north in G, ()()() t'eot above the; H(Mi. Ah we ^o northward, the passt^s get mueh h)wer, .MO that the Peace Kivcr l*aHH is only 2,000 I'eet above the sea, wiiile the mountains decrease very little in altitude. PiNU^e River and the Liai'd are the only rivers wiiieh break through the (4iaiii. I'liese have tlieir souree.s in a series of mountains I'artlicr to the west. Tiie highest part of the chain in Britisli America, is where the Fraser and the (Columbia, running to the west, almost unite with the North Saskatchewan and Athabasca tlowing to the east Here Mounts Brown and Hooker rear themselves to the height of over lo,000 feet, and their glaciers are the sour- ces of those mighty rivers which How on the one hand to the Pacific and on the other to Hudson's Bay and the Arctic >Sea. Its aitiiati( I'lwiibiiiii itH.Siiiiiiiii ^\ illlli|),.jr I'ii'tiire of A.s,siniI)oiii I'aniiiii-,'—; Saskiitchcv Count iy_i of Soil— A Located — J The ei hut as o] dian, whi the Inter and Dako long., aiK is compri.- that part Jiiid Winn Its gen gently to approach in the F: chapter. Winnipeg( '^ty; that national B five miles trict Was o sent rich ;?•( CllAPTKK n PhjIsU'nl Geography of Manifofxi. !;i' Its Situation and IJonndaiii's — Area — Oonoral ('ImmctBrintics — lUd River Prairif — I'fMiibina Moiuitain — Wet Conntry alonj; its Hast; — Uidiny Mountain — View fnun its Suniniit— Daupliin LaUo — Duclc Mountain— l,ak(( AVinniiicj,' — l,ali>ly near AViiuiiiieg. The eastern bouiuljiry of Manitoba is still undofmed, but as originally formed, its limit was the DGtli MiM'i- dian, which touches the Lake of the Woods. On the south, the International Boundary separates it Irom Minnesota and Dakota. Its western boundary is about lOT 20' west ft' long., and its northern, hit. 5o\ Within these limits is comprised a total area of about 50,000 square miles, but that part of the country in the vicinity of Lakes Manitoba j'.nd Winnipegoosis, is low and marshy. Its general character is that of a level plain, sloping gently to the north, and becoming swampy as we approach the lake basins. The gi(>jiter part is included in the First Prairie Steppe, delincd in the preceding chapter. This includes Lakes Winnipeg, Manitoba, and Winnipegoosis, and the low lying lands in their vicin- ity ; that part of the Red River Valley, north of the Inter- national Bonndary ; and tlie Assiniboine Valley lor twenty- five miles west of Portage la Prairie. The whole of this dis- trict was evidently at one time a lake basin, and the pre- sent rich soils are largely derived from the silts deposited I ! 30 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 1 ii during a long series of years, when the present surface was under water. These rich aUuviums have been the theme of many writers, and it is not necessary for me to enlarge on their fertility, or capacity for growing grain crops continuously. Suffice it to say that the cause of the poor water and alkaline soil in numerous localities, can be traced, in every instance, to the exceeding richness of the soil, and as long as it retains its mlLs, so long will it be noted for fertility. The following extracts from the Report of Dr. George M. Dawson, Geologist and Naturalist to the Britiwh North American Boundary Commission, will be found of great interest, as giving an exact account of the region in ouep- tion from the standpoint of a competent ol)server : — " THE RED RIVER PRAIRIE." " Of the alluvial prairie of the Red River, much has already been said, and the uniform fertility of its soil can- not be exaggerated. The surface, for a depth of two to four Icet, is a dark mould, composed of the same material as the subsoil, but mingled with much vegetable matter. Its dark color is, no doubt, in part due to the gradual accu- mulation of the charred grasses left by the prairie fires. The soil may be said to be ready for the plough, and in turning the to.igh thick prairie sod, the first year, a crop of potatoes may be put in. though it is not efficiently broken up till it has been subjected to a winter's frost. When the sod has rotted, the soil appears as a light friable mould easily worked, and most favorable for agriculture. The marly alluvium underlying the vegetable mould, would in most countries be considered a soil of the best quality, and the fertility of the ground may therefore be considered as practically inexhaustible. " The area of this lowest prairie has been approximately stated as 6,900 square miles, but of this the whole is not at prese pretty u large ar ence to Governr ever, so Red Riv pressed i At prese are made grass is s will cont S{ ttler. when tht winter's i large aret fresh-wat " As a n great val square mi of calcula wheat. "^ which, ace Minnesotfi amount to " The ^^ small. TI trees, of w Americana Ash leaved dant. In so woods bore tiful. Mu( culled out, tematic attc PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF MANITOBA. 37 at present suited to agriculture. Small swamps are scattered pretty uniformly over its surface, and in some places very large areas of swampy land occur, as will be seen on refer- ence to the large map of Manitoba, lately published l^y the Government. The greater part of these swamps are, how- ever, so situated as to be easily drained, either into the Red River or some of its tributaries, which are usually de- pressed thirty or forty feet below the level of the surface. At present, the swamps in the vicinity of the settlements are made to yield supplies of natural hay ; and until hay- grass is sown and regularly cultivated, the " hay -swamps" will continue to be a necessary part of the economy of the S(-ttler. The wide overflow of these swamps in the spring, when the season is wet, ©r when the dissolution of the winter's snow takes place very rapidly, is shown by the large area often found to be strewn with the dead shells of fresh-water molluscs, chiefly of the genus Limnaea. *' As a measure of the possible agricultural capacity of this great valley, take one-half of the entire area, or 3,400 square miles, equalling 2,176,000 acres, and, for simplicity of calculation, let it be supposed to be sown entirely in wheat. Then, at the rate of seventeen bushels per acre — which, according to Prof. Thomas, is the average yield for Minnesota — the crop of the lied River Valley would amount to 40,992,000 bushels. *' The wooded area of this low^est Prairie Steppe is quite small. The Red River and its tributaries ore fringed with trees, of which Oak ( QuerciLsmacrocarpa, var.)^ Elm ( Ulmus Americana), Poplar {^Popnlas t reinulol h's, ethulsami/era), and Ashleaved Maple {Negundo aceroldes), are the most abun- dant. In some places the trees attain a large size, and the Oak woods bordering many of the streams are especially beau- tiful. Much of the best timber has, however, already been culled out, and it is yearly decreasing, without any sys- tematic attempt for its preservation. The steamers running u i I< 38 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. '.'■i ) 1 on the Red River are among the largest consumers. Away from the immediate borders of the streams, the prairie^ though covered with luxuriant sod, is absolutely treeless. It is fortunately the case, however, that the Red River valley is bordered on the east by the forests already de- scribed, and on the west by the wooded district of Pembina Mountain and its northern extensions." The Pembina Mountain is pa?' excellence the ancient beach in the valley of Lake Winnipeg. Dr. Owen describes it as it occurs a few miles south of the 49th Parallel. " After a hot and fatiguing ride over the plains, wo arrived an hour after sunset at the foot of the Pembina Mountain. In the twilight, as we stood at our encampment on the plain, it looked as if it might be 800 feet or more in height ; but in the morning, by broad daylight, it seemed less. When I came to measure it, I was somewhat surprised that it did not ex- ceed 210 feet. I observed on this as on many other occa- sions, that a hill rising out of a level plain, appears higher than it really is, especially when, as in this case, the trees (m its flank and summit are of small growth. Pembina Mountain is, in fact, no mountain at all, nor yet a hill. It is a terrace of a table-land, the ancient shore of a great body of water, that once filled the whole of the Red River Valley. On its summit it is quite level and extends so, for about five miles westward, to another terrace, the summit of which, I was told, is level with the great Bufflilo Plains, that stretch away toward the Missouri, the hunting grounds of the Sioux and the Ilalf-breed population of Red River. " Instead of being cciixposedof ledges of rock, as I was led to suppose, it is a mass of incoherent sand, gravel, and shin- gle so entirely destitute of cement that wi' i the hand alone a hole several feet deep may be excavated in a few minutes. The Pembnia River has cut through this material a deep narrow vallej-, but little elevated above the adjacent plain." Fifteen miles north of the Boundary lone, the PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF MANITOBA. 39 escarpment rises by four distinct terraces onc^ ver the other, three of which are from twenty to twenty-five feet high. Beyond this there is a gradual ascent of two miles, covered more or less with boulders, before the level of the next plateau is reached. It runs northwesterly from a i)oint about thirty miles west of Red River, and merges into the Riding Mountain, west ci' the lierxl of Lake Manito))a. In front of this broken esc: rpment, there are lunuerous marshes and pools of water wl ich, north ol the Assiniboine, prevent settle- ment for long distances. In rear, or to the west of this marshy tract, sand hills and sandy ! lopes vise one over the other, until the level of the plateau is attained. This pla- teau is the Second Prairie Stei)pe. Riding Mountain rises from the lower plain at its south- eastern termination by three successive steppes, each one separated from the other hy a i;ently sloping plateau. The greater part of the mountain ii^ densely covered with forest. On the ridges the soil is dry and gravelly and precisely like that of Pembina Alj^mntain. High above the Peml)ina Moujitain the steppes and plateaux of the Riding and Duck Mountains rise in well defined succession. On the southern and western slopes of these ranges the terraces are distinctly defined; on the northeast and north sides they present a precipitous escarp- ment which is elevated fully 1,000 feet above Lake Win- nipeg, or more than 1,000 feet above the sea. Standing on the edge of the escarpment of the Riding Mountain and looking in the direction of Dauphin Lake, a gulf, two or three miles wide, and some tAvo hundred and fifty feet deep, is succeeded ])y two ranges, one lower than the other, of cone-shaped hills covercMl witii boulders. The hills are parallel to ilie general treiul of the escarp- ment. In some places they are lost on the plateaux on which they rest, in others they stand out as bold emi; jnces, showing the extent of denudation which gaVL^ ^ise to !iem. I 40 .MANITOBA AM) THE (IKEAT NORTII-AVEST. ,',( i r These rangen c^ conienl hills correspond with terraces on the west side of the mountain. Dauphin Lake, lying at the base of the Riding Mountain, is about 750 feet above sea level. It is twenty-one miles long, iuid twelve miles in breadth. It receives several streams which rise in the Duck and Riding Mountains and discharj^es its surplus waters into Lake Winnipegoosis by Mossy River, a stream about 125 feet wide and averaging froiu live to seven feet in depth. This If ke is altogether surrounded ])y marshes which are separated from one auother by ntirrow ridges of dry ground. Northeast of Dauphin Lake is Duck Mountain, a high range of ttible land similar in everj' respect to that of the Riding Mountain described above. To the west this range is cut off from the Porcupine Monntain by Swan River which flows in a wide valley between the two ranges. On the west the Assinilwine cuts it off from the great prairie so that it is almost isolated by these two rivers. The "Mountain," as you proceed from west to east, consists of a series of broken or gently swelling hills very slightly elevated above the plain. These hills are covered with brush, brule, or forest and are extremely difficult to travel through owing to the tangled pea and other vines which constantly retard the footsteps. As the hills are penetrated the forest becomes denser, and before the eastern escarpment is reached, Poplar, As])en;, and Spruce of large size are very common. Standing on the edge of the escarpment, Lake Winnipegoosis lies at your feet. From this point, oxer 1,000 feet above the Lake, the view is very fine. As a whole the hills may be considered as forest and the soil uncommonly fertile. Lake Winnipeg receives the waters of numerous rivers, which drain in the aggregate an area of 400,000 sfjuare miles The Saskatchewan is its most important tributary. The Lake, at its southern extremity receives the Red PHYSICAL GIMKJKAPIIY 01' MANITOBA. 41 River, which, together with its important affluent, the A ssiniboine, drains an area of extraordinary fertility and extent. In length Lake Winnipeg is about 300 miles, and in several places fifty miles broad. Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegoosis together are nearly as long, and the broad- est part of the first named is not less than thirty miles across. Nearly t.'ie whole country between Lake Winnipeg mid its western rivals is occupied by smaller lakes, so that between the Duck and Riding Mountains and the western shore of Lake Winnipeg, one half of the country is per- manently covered with water. These lakes are shallow, being seldom over sixty, and often for long distances under ten feet in depth. As to the second Prairie Steppe along the Boundary, or wliat is now South-Western Manitoba, Dr. Dawson says, at page 287 of his report, " The extreme western margin of the Red River prairie in the vicinity of the Pembina Mountain, is diversified by groves of oak, which stretch out from their base, and would, no doubt, be much more extensively wooded but for the constant recurrence of jjrairie fires. The front of the escarpment, and its summit, forming the edge of the Second Prairie Steppe, are in some places thickly wooded, and always show extensive patches of timber. The forest covered area increases north-west- ward. Ill the vicinity of the Line, the woods owe their preservation to the protection against fires afforded by the broken nature of the edge of the escarpment, by the great valley of the Pembina River, and its systems of tributary coulees, and to the frequent occurrence of patches of swamp. Poplar is probably the most abundant tree, though, even after ascending the escarpment, groves of oak are found. The wooded region has, however, in all localities suffered much from local fires ; most of the trees at present living are small, while traces of a former heavy forest growth frequently appear. I 42 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. " In some places pretty extensive prairie areas occur between Pembina Escarpment and Pembina River, and with the exception of a few localities, near the edge of the escarpment, where the Cretaceous Clays are near the sur- face, the soil is of excellent quality, and differs from that of the Red River Valley by the addition of a considerable proportion of sandy material. Swamps are here pretty thickly scattered, and some of them attain large dimensions in spring. Those parts of them which are permanently wet, however, bear luxuriant crops of natural hay-grass, and the general aspect of this region is favorable. "On crossing the Pembina River the eastern margin of the great treeless plain is entered. No woods now appear, except those forming narrow belts along the valleys of the streams, and soon even the smaller bushes become rare. The shrubs met with are generally stunted, from the absence of shelter against wind, and the frequent passage of prairie fires. The little thickets consist, according to situation, of dwarfish snow-berry (^Sympliorl- carpus occidentalis), Spircjea, roses and willows, fringing the small swamps and pools. The metallic-leaved silver-berry {ElcByuus anjentea), comparatively rare m the Red River Valley, now begins to occur in abundance on tlie drier areas. In the last week of May, 1874, the common flowering plants on this eastern part of the First Prairie Steppe, were : Viola cncullata,V. pedata, Ranunculns rhomboideus, Anemone patens, then going to seed, and the whole prairie covered with its brownisli woolly heads ; Gewu trijiorum, found most abundantly near the edge of the escarpment, less common westward ; A,stragahis caryocarpus, becoming rapidly more abundant westward, Antennaria plantaglnlfo- lia, Lithospermwm canescen^, first blossoms. " The undulating character of the prairie between Pem- bina Escarpment and Turtle Mountain, and the occasional occurrence of stony and gravelly hillocks, has received i 'J PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF MANITOBA. 43 mention in the chapters on the drift. With reference to the soil, west of Pembina River, nearly the same remarks apply as to that east of it. It is fertile, though not so deep or inexhaustible as that of the Red River Valley, and rests on a gravelly, drift sub-soil. Swampy bottoms bearing a good growth of hay-grass abound, but their area is quite small as compared with that of the dry ground. Toward the end of the summer, most of these swamps dry up completely, and extensive regions are then without other water supply than that derived from the streams and rivers, whic)' lie in deep valleys, and are often far apart. I do uoc think, however, that difliculty would be found in obtaining water by wells sunk in any of the lower parts of the prairie. The rainfall of this region is probably slightly less than that of the Red River Valley, but appears^ to be sufficient for agricdtural purposes. It seems probable that at a period not very remote, a great part of this dis- trict was covered with forest trees. The humidity of the soil and climate is sufficient for their growth, and in some places little hummocks, resembling those formed in a forest, and known as " cradle hills," were observed. On approach- ing Turtle Mountain, the tendency of this part of tlie prairie to reclothe itself, is shown by the recurrence of thickets of seedling poplars on the sheltered sides of the undulations, wherever the fires hav? not passed for a few years. Between Pembina River and Turtle Mountain^ and especially toward the latter place, the deep narrow paths, or ruts, made by the buffalo when travelling, are still quite apparent, th'^.igh the animal has not been known so far east for many years. They have here a remarkably uniform northwest and northeast direction. " The water of the swamps and ponds of this part of the prairie is generally sweet, but one distinctly saline lake was seen. It had not the thick fringe of grasses and sedges of the other ponds, and here, for the first time, the ■ i i HI 44 MANITOBA AND TllK GREAT NOUTII-WEST. Salh'ornea w.a.s met with in some abuiidance. There were also many dead sliella o( Linuiam and Phtuorhls parvus, but wliether these molluHcs lived in the .saline water, or were washed thither from some neighlwring Hwanii), 1 was unabk> to determine." The lied River rises in Otter Tail Lake in the State of Minnesota, in lat. 46" 24', and at first Hows to the south- west, but in lat. 40° 0' it turns to the north and sht)rtly after enters on the great prairie, through which it cuts its tortuous course, without a break, to its entrance into Lake Winnipeg in lat. 50° 20'. To get a proper idea of the Red River in Manitoba it is merely necessary to imagine a stream from 300 to GOO feet wide, with a moderate current, which has in the course of ages excavated a winding trench or canal to the depth of from thirty to forty feet, in a tenacious clay, through a nearly level country, for a distance exceeding one hundred miles. As the river winds through the plain it forms peninsulas of varying size, and these qx.i generally covered with heavy forest. This remark applies only to that portion of the river from twenty miles south of Winnipeg to Emerson. As tlie primitive features of the Red River prairie are fast disappearing, and towns and villages si3ringing up in every part, the following extract from the pen of Prof. Hind will be read with interest, as it is a typical descrip- tion of what can be seen, in part, on the great prairies beyond the settlements at the present time. The scene is laid close to Winnipeg. " Here stretching away, until lost in the western horizon, the belts of Avood on the Assini- boine rise above the general level, while from the Assini- boine towards the north agtiin is an uninterrupted expanse of long waving prairie grass dotted with herds of cattle, and in the fall of the year with immense stacks cf hay. This is the ordinary aspect of the country, comprising that portion of Red River settlement which lies between Mill PHYSICAL GEOGRAl'llV OF MANITOBA. 45 Creek and Fort Garry. Remove the farm Iiouhch and churches, rephicing them on the river banks hy ibrewt trees of the largest growth, and the country between Fort Garry and the 41)th Parallel, as seen along the road to Pembina, a distance of seventy miles, is continually reproduced in its ordinary aspect of sameness, immensity, and vniclaimed endowments. "But it must be seen in its extraordinarN asi)ects before it can be rightly valued and understood, in reference to its future occupation by an energetic and civilized race, able to improve its vast capabilities and appreciate its boundless beauties. It must be seen at sunrise, when the vast plain suddenly flashes with rose-colored light, as the rays of the sun sparkle in the dew on the long rich grass, gently stirred by the unfailing morning, breeze. It must be seen at noon- day, when refraction swells into the forms of distant hill ranges the ancient beaches and ridges of Lake Winnipeg, which mark its former extension ; when each willow bush is magnified into a grove, each far distant clump of aspens, not seen before, into wide forests, and the outline of wooded river banks, far beyond unassisted vision, rise into view. It must be seen at sunset, when just as the ball of fire is dipping below the horizon, he throws a flood of red light, indescribably magnificent upon the illimitable waving green, the colors blending and separating with the gentle roll of the long grass, seemingly magnified toward the horizon into the distant heaving swell of a parti-colored sea. It must be seen too by moonlight, when the summits of the low green grass waves are tipped with silver, and the stars in the we^A suddenly disappear as they touch the earth. Finally it must be seen at night, v^^hen the distant prairies are in a blaze, thirty, fifty, or seventy miles away ; when the fire reaches clumps of aspen, and the forked tips of the flames, magnified by refraction, flash and quiver in the horizon, and the reflected light from rolling clouds of smoke above tell of the havoc which is rsiging below I i 40 MANITOHA AND THE (JUKAT NORTII-WK.-'T. m " These are some of the scenes M'^hich must be witnessed and folt l)efore the mind f(jriiis n. true conception of these prairie wastes, in the unrelieved immensity wiiich belongs to theiii, ill foinmon with all the ocean, but which, the everchaiigiiij; and unstable sea, seems to oft'er a bountiful recompense, in a secure though distant home, to millions of our fellow men." Fort Garr}^ is situated a few hundred yards west of the confluence of the Assiniboine and Red Rivers. A bridge has been built across the former at this point. Common report makes the river nearly double the width now that it was forty or fifty years ago. At present the breadth is over two hundred "eet and this it preserves up to the mouth of the 8ouris where it is 230 feet wide. Above this point tho river decreases in width but increases in depth, and after '- the Rapids" arc passed, im v en miles below Brandon, no other obstructions are met with until we pass Fort Ellice. At this point the river is still lo5 feet wide, and for nearly 100 miles, by land, nortL of this to the mouth of the White Sand River, its breadth and depth change very little. Fifteen miles above Fort Ellice are the Marquette Rapids which are caused by sand-bars and gravel. The Assiniboine rL:es in about lat. 52^20' and long. 103"^ 15' west, and runs southeasterly to the great southern bend, thirty-five miles west of Brandon, where it changes its direction nearly east and joins the Red River in lat. 49° 54'. Tlhi country on both sides of the Assiniboine, for thirty miles west of Winnipeg, is of the same general char- acter as that of the Red River, except that there is much more wood in the vicinity of the Assiniboine, especially on the south. The soil is of the best quality, but owing to the unbri^ken uniformity of the surface it is very wet in many places, and in a few, as at Bale St. Paul, subject to overflow from the river. Twenty miles west of Portage la Prairie the banks increase in height, the country be- comes ] Prairie This great t iind joii the Col the Inl JVIeridiii when it of the 1 a level considei Sand Hi Plum water se abode of around marshy, presence farming The k their sid is quite ( dominatt less, but along Sn The S( feet dee although says it is The L :iii(l for c generally tain are c the Bird PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF MANITOBA. 47 coiu«H more elevated and Handy and we enter on the Second Prairie Steppe and Hoon iit'ter reach the mouth of the Souris. This atream riHes near the Si '■■< II I I *; T i f.^ 'i \ t 1 ', i k i P \ F '■ J i •N^ 50 MANITOBA AND TUE GREAT NORTH-WEST. stream issues from the forest through an excavated valley filled with balsam poplar, and an undergrowth of choke- cherry, dogwood, and cranberry, with thickets of roses, raspberry buslies, wild peas, vetches, convolvuli {Calystegia sepiuin), and wild hops. For the greater part of its course this is the character of the valley, but below Minnedosa and Odanah wood is not so abundant as higher up. All the district drained by this stream is generally fertile but much broken by ponds and hay marshes ; these, however, can be easily drained in most cases, and lands now rejected from this cause will be sought for in the future. Ponds and lakes are numerous ; wild fowl in great numbers visit them every spring and fall, and the river itself abounds in fish of which great numbers are caught in the spring. The waters of the river are beautifully clear and of sufficient depth to float down logs from the Riding Mountains, for the use of the settlers on its banks or the country on either hand. The rising towns of Rapid City, Minnedosa, and Odanah have b(*on located in this valley and the country around is fast filling up with an intelligent and generally wellrto-do class of settlers. Between the Little Saskatchewan and Bird Tail Creek, on the west, is an extensive tract of very excellent land in the midst of which is Shoal Lake, described by a writer in a recent publication as follows : — " Shoal Lake is distant about one hundred and seventy- five miles from the city of Winnipeg. On reaching it, the eye of the traveller is suddenly caught with the view of a magnificent sheet of pure, crystal-like water stretching away to his right some four miles, surrounded by gravelly and sandy shores, and fringed here and there with thick belts of timber, mostly poplar. This is said to be only one of a suc- cession of beautiful lakes stretching from the Riding Moun- tains, some twenty -five miles to the north, to the Assiniboine River about thirty miles to the south. In spring and autumn especiaj the sui All of i had wil sportsm stock-ra tural pi but str country poplar, abundan also a P( nection ton. It doubt hi large inc will crea BirdT in the wt Assiniboi passes thr less broke Little Sas forest, bu country 1 bluffs givt of Birtle i Ellice, in i surroundec in the sett Betweer westerly d few settler sunds. Th abundance PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF MANITOBA. 51 especially, myriads of wild fowl are to be seen popping over the surface of these waters, which also abound with fish. All of this, in connection with deer hunting (which can be had within easy distance), affords excellent pastime for the sportsman. The advantages for settlement, particularly for stock-raising, iil though the excellence of the soil for agricul- tural purposes cannot be doubted, are not only numerous, but strongly inviting. The picturesque and undulating country for many miles around, thickly dotted with bluffs of poplar, with occasional large marshes intervening, afford abundance of both fuel and hay for the settler. There is also a Post-Office and mail station, established here in con- nection with the mail line, between Winnipeg and Edmon- ton. It is also a station of the Mounted Police, and will no doubt become very soon a place of some ii'iportance. The large increasing immigration continually moving westward, will create an excellent market, at this point." Bird Tail Creek, a fine stream of pure water, takes its rise in the western part of the Riding Mountain, and enters the Assiniboine some distance east of Fort Ellice. Thi« stream passes through a very rich section of country, which is far less broken with ponds and marshes than the trjict along the Little Saskatchewan. In its northern part, it is almost all forest, but after the stream leaves the " Mountain," the country becomes more diversified, and prairie and aspen bluffs give it a park-like appearance. The village or town of Birtle is situated on the creek, twelve miles east of Fort Ellice, in the midst of a very rich section, and at present surrounded by fine farms, though the first house wjis erected in the settlement in 1879. Between Bird Tail Creek and Shell River, m a north- westerly direction, is a magnificent tract of country where a few settlers have gone in, but where there is room for thou- sands. The land is of the very best quality, and there is abundance of wood and water. !■ 52 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. * " From Shell River to within ten miles of Fort Pelly, on the left bank of the Assiniboine, is a tract of country un- surpassed for beauty of situation and richness of soil in the North- West Issuing from the Duck Mountain, are numerous streams, which meander through a beautiful and fertile country This area may be said to commence at Two Creeks ten miles from Fort Pelly, thence on to Pine Creek, filteen miles further. The vegetation is everywhere luxuriant and beautiful from the great abundance of rosebushes, vetches, and gaudy wild flowers of many species. After passing Pine Creek, the trail to Shell River pursues a circuitous route through a country of equal richness and fertility. Shell River is forty -two miles from Pine Creek, and in its valley small oak appears, with balsam poplar and aspen, covering a thick undergrowth of raspberry, currant, roses, and dogwood." Numerous settlers are located in the Shell River country, and all express themselves highly pleased with it. Dur- ing the past summer the writer examined the Indian Farm north of Pine Creek and obtained samples of wheat so fine that they were the wonder of all beholders. About one hundred days ripen wheat in this region, which is between lat. 51° and 52°. The general character of the soil in Manitoba, west of the Pembina Mountain, is a rich sandy loam, often varying to a very rich black loam, and at other times passing into sand as the Souris is approached. In no section of this district is frost injurious, as the land is generally dry and the soil warm. On the Souris Plain, both east and west of Turtle Mountain, the early explorers found short grass and little water and called it a desert. Practical men break up the dry and apparently sandy soil and produce crops that astonish the world. To-day South- Western Mani- toba is called the garden of the Province ; five years since it was supposed to be a barren, irreclaimable waste. Nor many abundc tered i requisi part of but it land is present questioi Abun on the 1 down th Creek t< of settle are fine j were cut Lakes JV of spruce untouche Lake Ma Totcj^jn, Fine g sam popi be found flats ther< Although still it is i wood in J!i Stony J of rock, of varyin uninjured miles fix)n: About tw PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF M-ANITOBA. 53 North of the Assiniboine the surface is more broken in many places, the soil is deeper and richer, wood is more abundant, but late-sowed grain is in danger of frost in unshel- tered situations; water is abundant and good, and every requisite for successful settlement is at hand. There is no part of Manitoba where an immigrant cannot find good land, but it is advisable at this early stage of settlement, when land is abundant, to keep clear of wet lands, as drainage at present in most localities on the lower plain is out of the question. Abundance of timber for building purposes can be obtained on the Biding and Duck Mountains. At present it is floated down the Little Saskatchewan to Rapid City, down Bird Tail Creek to Birtle, where it, is sawn into lumber for the use of settlers On Shell River, in the Duck Mountains, there are fine groves of spruce, from which large numbers of logs were cut and floated down to Brandon last year. Around Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegoosis there are quantities of spruce of large dimensions, which up to the present remain untouched, except on the Fairford River, at the outlet of Lake Manitoba, where Mr. Pratt, who owns the saw mill at TotCj^3n, obtains his logs. Fine groves of elm, ash, maple {Negundo aceroides)^ bal- sam poplar, with occasional spruce and tamarac, are still to be found in the Assiniboine Valley, and outside of the river flats there are large quantities of fine aspen in many places. Although there exists areas where wood of any kind is scarce, still it is a mistaken notion that there is a general scarcity of wood in Manitoba. Stony Mountain, as its name implies, is largely composed of rock. It is a whitish limestone, lying in horizontal beds of varying thickness, very easily worked and said to be uninjured by frost. As the quarries are only about six miles fi[X)m Winnipeg, it is of inestimable value to that city. About twenty-five miles above Portage la Prairie, on the ! I 54 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. Nl iii f! ,. h Assiniboine River, there is a fine outcrop of limestone of another variety, which will be easily worked and ought to be a source of supply for Portage la Prairie and possibly Brandon. A few other localities where rock is exposed have been noted, but up to the present no action has been taken regard- ing them. Up to 1873 no brick clay was supposed to exist in the country, but since that year knowledge in this line has so increased that practical brickmakers now say that Winnipeg bricks are unsurpassed in any country for hardness and durability. As towns increase, brick clays will be found with- out difficulty, and each locality will produce its own brick as the variety worked at Winnipeg is known to exist in other parts of the province. One difficulty, which has been a serious one in the past, has about disappeared, that is, the power to get good sweet water in Winnipeg and its neighborhood. At first all wells sunk into the clay invariably gave brackish water, and owing to this the supply for drinking purposes had to be drawn from Red River. Last season a number of wells were bored through the clay into a stratum of gravel below, and in every case good water was obtained. It is now a matter of certainty that excellent water exists in abundance under the clay, and when this is struck and the surface water kept out re water will be assured. "I ^^ CHAPTER III. Character of Country between lat. 49° and 50'' west of Manitoba. Description of Moose Mountain — Plain from its Top — West side of Moose Mountain — Timber on the Mountain — View from High Hill — Souris Plain — West of Moose Moun tain — Character of Soil— of Vegetation — of Surface — Great Clay Plain — Its Rough Surface — Scarcity of Water — Wild Roses — A Visit to the Coteau — Cactus Plain — Wood in the Coteau — Description of Coteau — Resemblance to Turtle Mountain — Ab- sence of Wood — Plateau of Lignite Tertiary — Wood Mou-uain — Disappearance of the Buffalo. In the preceding chapter we desci'ibed that part of the Souris Plain lying east and south of Moose Mountain. This "Mountain " is part of an elevated group of drift hills that extend to the northwest, under the name of Weedy, Wolf, and Squirrel Hills. In the distance it presents the same appear- ance as Turtle Mountain, and forms a blue line on the horizon of considerable length. The distribution of wood upon these hills and their environs, presents an exact counterpart of that on Turtle Mountain. The east end of Moose Mountain rises into a somewhat conical peak 340 feet above the gen- eral level, and from it a wide view over the plain to the south and west is obtained. Far as the eye can reach stretches the naked plain, characterized a few short years ago as a barren desert, but now known to be of wonderful fertility. Like Turtle Mountain this group of hills is com- posed altogether of drift, and incloses numerous lakes of con- siderable size ; these lakes are the sources of a few small streams, but in most instances they have no outlet, and in the autumn their water becomes brackish and unfit to drink. Moose Mountain, as seen from the prairie on the east side, rises with a gentle slope and is flanked by marshes extend- ing some miles to the east. Towards the south two or three rounded points are seen rising to a considerable elevation, ^1 m fi i.jij' 56 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. Hi ;f I but when the base is reached nothing to bt called a hill is visible. On a westerly course we travelled twenty-one miles along the bills, about three miles from the green timber Having penetrated it nearly four miles, I am safe in stating that there are at least 100 square miles of good timber, nearly all balsam and aspen poplar. Occasionally a few small ash and ash-leaved maple appear, but these are of no value. There is abundance of water in the hills, nearly one-fourth of the surface being covered by it, but the greater part of it is brackish, being in isolated ponds like those in the Touchwood Hills. Whenever the ponds are connected by an outflow they are mvariably good. The others are not, unless fed directly by .springs. The whole country to the north of the continu- ous wood consists of ridges, ponds, lakelets, and hay marshes, with very little level land, but the soil is always good, even on the tops of the ridges, which show gravel on the surface. Pits were frequently dug and the black loam was never less than nine inches in depth. Often with pebbles on the surface first-class soil was found for a depth of eighteen inches. From the top of the highest hill, at the northern end of the continuous green wood, a very extensive view of the whole country to the west and north was obtained. To the west the view was bounded by our powers of vision, while to the north numerous bluffs and ridges showed that some of the timber still remained, which had been seen by Palliser and Hind twenty years before. South westward of this region lies the western part of the great Souris Plain, which to the old explorers was a howl- ing wilderness destined to sterility, on account of its light rainfall, scarcity of water, and total absence of wood. This immense treeless expanse, extending from the Souris River, on the 101st Meridian, northwesterly to Moose Jaw Creek, in nearly the 106th Meridian, we crossed diagonally from Moose Mountain to the confluence of Moose Jaw and Thunder Creeks. CHA] Afte] miles, ii and rid ceeding better, veller e south ii uniform as days liness co the " Gi Nume proceede country more dii class soil roots an depth of beyond year, ani complete a tenden scarcely the rainfi water poi in the coi pelle trai Before soil chang varying c more hon with scan crop of ta and fresh. noted on CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT 49° AND 50°. 57 After leaving Moose Mountain, the country, for a few miles, is rather broken by occasional ponds of brackish water and ridges containing a large percentage of gravel. Pro- ceeding westward, the country becomes more level, the soil better, but water scarcer; almost imperceptibly, the tra- veller enters upon a vast plain, extending to the west and south into the horizon, without a bush or mound to break its uniformity. At first, blue hills are seen to the north, but as days pass, these disappear, and that sense of utter lone- liness comes irresistibly upon him, that travellers crossing the " Great Plains " of the United States have noted. Numerous pits were dug into the soil each day, as we proceeded. As we passed west from Moose Mountain, the country became drier, the grass shorter, and the surface soil more difficult to penetrate. We never failed to find first- class soil, but about eight inches of it was almost entirely roots and often very hard and dry, but beneath this, at a depth of two feet, it was quite soft. Roots penetrated much beyond this depth. Fire passes over the country every year, and, in 1879, in many places, burned the life so completely out of the roots of the various grasses which have a tendency to grow in clumps, that the following year, scarcely a blade was seen. Although the grass is short the rainfall is quite sufficient, as there is abundance of fresh water ponds, and yet not a shrub over six inches high exists in the country. I speak of the region east of the Qu'Ap- pelle trail, which we crossed in lat. 50° 03'. Before crossing the Qu'Appelle trail, the character of the soil changed. Instead of being a black loam on the surface, of varying depth, with a light colored clay sub-soil, it became more homogeneous, and was generally a strong friable clay with scarcely any water on the surface, but covered with a crop of tall, rich-looking grass, which was remarkably green and fresh. The soil was precisely the same as that I had noted on the great plain, south of Battleford, in 1879. For 1 i^l 68 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 11 forty-five miles, we passed over a region which was almost a dead level, and yet so rough, throughout the greater part of it, that our carts were nearly shaken to pieces. Patches of skin were jerked off the necks of the horses, by the twisting caused by the hummocks and hollows. By digging pits into the soil, we ascertained the reason of this extraor- dinary roughness. Although the ground appeared hard and dry, it was not so. In reality, about eighteen inches of the surface was quite soft md .« ' la^* ly penetrated, that almost Without an effort, a spai - r rid be thrust into it up to the head. Beneath this, ho> r , he clay was very hard and dry. All the sprhig and summei, \in enters the soil quite easily, by means of the cracks surrounding each hummock. These are well described by Dr. Robert Bell, when speaking of another part of this region : — " The clayey ground, in this part of the country, is rendered hummocky and difficult to travel over by carts, owing to the fissures produced by dry- ing, in former years. These fissures divide the ground into spaces, usually five-sided, from one to two yards in width. The edges of the fissures, by falling in, have gradually con- verted the intervening spaces into dome-shaped mounds, which are hard and unyielding. These prmcipal hummocks are again divided by minor fissures of more recent date. This kind of surface extends alike over the flat-bottomed hollows and low-swelling hills." The moisture descends almost at once into the soil, by means of these cracks, ai;d owing to the imperviousness of the clay, is retained near the surface, or just below where the soil is friable. The win- ter's frosts expand this moist soil, and instead of these cracks being caused by the sun, they are frost cracks, produced by the heaving of the soil. Clay taken out at a depth of two feet, was generally in little cubes, and it was between the crevices of these that roots penetrated to an unknown depth. With all our exertions, water was obtained on the surface only four times in crossmg this forty-five miles, and yet the CHARACTER OP COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 49" AND 50°. 5^ whole air was odorous with roses which grow on bushes a few inches in height. The prevailing grass of the region was a species of wheat grass (TViticum), closely related to the quick, quack or couch grass of Ontario, a grass known to be sweet and nutritious. Southwest of this tract, blue hills began to show themselves, but instead of water becoming more plentiful it became scarcer, and with our utmost exertions we could not obtain a drop, so that it was ultimately necessary to deviate from my instructions and proceed to the north. Before I was compelled to do this, however, I left the party encamped at a water pool, and with two others went thirty mil**;* to the south to locate the blue hills seen in that direc- tion. Ten miles over such a country as I have 1: ^n describing, brought us to Moose Jaw Creek flowi^_J t<. the northwest, with banks about ten feet in htighi,^ and breadth about twelve feet The water wat ?ry m^ddy. After crossing it, we came upon another creek of pure sparkling water, which came from the Coteau and emptied into the first, a little to the west of our crossing. Nearly twenty miles over a perfectly level plain, which in places was covered with a profusion of cactus, brought us to the base of the Coteau, at a point near the Cactus Hills. The plain between the creek and the hills was principally Cretaceous clay, and occasional patches of it were without any vegetation, except that peculiar to arid soil. The ravines along the Coteau were filled with wood of small size. Ash, elm, maple, and poplar were the prominent species, but numerous shrubs were like- wise seen. Along the creeks, willow clumps were common but no trees. The lift from the plain to the top of the hills was about 400 feet, and seemed to be the " ruins of an escarpment," as the whole face consisted of a series of slides with the strata tilted at various angles. The plain crossed south of the .4* li i 1 :J: ii i ii 60 MAMTOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. creek, appeared to be principally composed of the washingB of the escarpment, and was nearly level with a very slight dip towards the creek. Dr. Dawson, who carefully examined the Missouri Coteau, thus speaks of it : " One hundred and twenty miles west of Turtle Mountain, the second prairie plateau comes to an end against the foot of the great belt of drift deposits, known as the Missouri Coteau. " The Missouri Coteau is one of the most important features of the western plains, and is certainly the most remarkable monument of the glacial period now existing there. Though frequently mentioned in western reports, I cannot learn that its structure has yet been carefully studied. I have had the opportunity of examining more or less closely that portion of it which crosses the forty-ninth parallel, for a length of 100 miles. "Where cut somewhat obliquely by this parallel, the Coteau may be said to extend for a distance of forty -five miles. At right angles to its general course, however, its extreme width at this point cannot be more than thirty miles. On approaching it from the east, on the trail from Wood End, which, as already stated, is somewhat more elevated than the prairie lying east of it, a gradual ascent is made, till the edge of the Coteau is reached, amounting in a distance of twenty- fve miles to about 150 feet. The country at the same time becomes more distinctly undulating — as on approaching Turtle Mountain from the east — till, almost before one is aware of the change, the road is winding among a confusion of abruptly rounded and tumultuous hills, which consist entirely of drift material, and in many cases seem to be formed almost altogether of boulders and gravel, the finer matter having been to a great extent washed down into the hollows. Where it appears, however, it is not unlike that of the drift of the lower prairies, being yellowish and sandy. Among the hills are basin-like valleys, round, or irregular m form, I ' CHARACTER OP COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 49' AND 50°. 61 and without outlet, which are sometimes dry but generally hold swamps or small lakes, which have frequently been filled in with material washed from the hills so as to become flatbottomed. The hills and valleys have in general no very determinate direction, but a slight tendency to arrangement in north and south lines was observable in some parts of this region The hills culminate on the line about the 305th mile point, and westward from this point they are neither so steep nor so stony. The country gradually subsides from its rough and broken character, to that of rather boldly undulating prairie, without, however, falling much in gene- ral elevation below the tops of the bolder hills further east. We have, in fact, passed up over the margin of the third great prairie steppe. " The whole of the Goteau belt is characterized by the absence of drainage valleys, and in consequence its pools and lakes are very often charged with salts, of which those most abundantly represented are sodic and magnesic sulphates. The saline lakes very generally dry up completely toward the end of the summer, and present wide expanses of white efflorescent crystals, which contrast in color with the crimson Salicomea with which they are often fringed. The crystal- line crust generally rests on a thick stratum of soft black mud. " The boulders and gravel of the Coteau were here observed to be chiefly of Laurentian origin, with, however, a good deal of the usual white limestone, and a slight admixture of quartzite drift. On the western margin some rather large disused stream valleys were seen, holding chains of saline lakes ; but their relation to the drift materials of the Coteau were not so clearly shown as in other localities further north, to be described. " In passing westward, from the last exposures of the ter- tiary rocks near Wood End, to the locality of their first appearance within the Coteau, a distance of about seventy 1 02 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. miles, wc rise about GOO feet and attain an elevation of about 2,500 feet above the aea. Tlie slope of the surface of the Lignite Tertiary then, assuming it to l)e uniform, is a little less than one hundred feet per mile ; and on and against this gently inclined plane, the imiiieuse drift depoaits of the Coteau hills are piled. " Passing westward for about seventy miles, it is found to preserve much the same appearance. The prairie of the Coteau foot is rather undulating, and slightly raised above the general level, but the edge of the hilly country of the Coti'au itself, is always from a distance well delined. To the northward and eastward, boundless level, treeless plains stretch to the horizon. The Traders' Road to Wood Moun- tain, after passing along the base of the Coteau for the dis- tance above indicated, turns westward and crosses it, taking advantage of a deep bay in its edge, in which aLo rises a main tributary of the Souris River. The road then passes for about lifty miles through the Coteau belt, which must here be about thirty miles wide, and repeats almost exactly the physical features already described, though in this par- ticular locality neither quite so tumultuous nor so stony as on the line. " Following the Traders' Road westward for about twenty- five miles toward Wood Mountain, it passes for the most part between the southern edge of the Coteau proper, and the northern margin of the Tertiary plateau. Wherever from any hill, a view over the Coteau to the north can be obtained, it is seen to stretch away to the horizon in a suc- cession of wave-like mounds and ridges, which do not differ much in average altitude. " The intervening region, followed by the road on account of its facility, has characters of its own. Wide and deep valleys, often tlat-bottomed, with systems of tributary coulees are found everywhere cut in the soft rocks of the foot of the Tertiary plateau. Some have small streams still flowing in rilAUArTKR OP COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 40" AND 50^ 03 thein, led by the drainage of the plateau ; but for the most part theH(3 old valley.s are dry or occupied by chain.s of small Huline lakcH, the waters of many of which diHupi)ear early in the Hummer. The lakew usually have the long river-like forniH of the valleyw which contain them, and receive the waters of the brooks which still How. One of the most im- portant, probably nine miles in length, forms the drainage basin lor the streams of W(X)d Mountain ; its sides are abrupt and the water appears to be deep. These old valleys are evidently of pre-glacial age, and have formed a part of the original sculpture of the country. The heaping up of the great drift deposits of the Ooteau along the foot of the Ter- tiary plateau, has blocked them up, and prevented the drain- age finding its way northward as before. Since the eleva- tion succeeding the glacial subsidence, the rainfall of the dis- trict has never been sufficiently great, in proportion to the evaporation, to enable the streams to cut through the barrier thus formed. The existence of these valleys, and the arrangements of the drift deposits in this region, have impor- tant bearings on several problems connected with its general history." The Coteau resembles Turtle Mountain in its physical fea- tures and like that district would no doubt be thickly wooded but for the prairie fires, which have sometimes run hundreds jf miles in the dry weather of autumn. As it is, the want of wood is one of the most serious drawbacks, and animals fed over these hills in summer would require to be wintered in some of the river alleys to the north, or in tlie wooded ravines of the Tertiary plateau to the south. The plateau of the Lignite Tertiary is for the most part adapted for pastoral purposes, and being covered with a good growth of grass, is well suited for this use. The strip of country between the plateau and the southern edge of the Coteau, partakes in some measure of its character, but has a less favorable appearance. :(:i^ *W \\ •t; 64 MANITOBA AND THE OREAT NOllTU-WEST. One important advantage of this plateau is the existenoe along its edges of sheltered ravines and valleys, containing groves of poplars. Another is the presence beneath it of vast deposits of lignite coal. In one of these sheltered valleys the Half-breed settlement known as Wood Mountain is situated. Here there has been stationed for a number of years a large detachment of the Mounted Police, and here too Sitting Bull made his headquarters after the slaughter of the American soldiers under Custer. In past time Wood Moun- tain was a noted locality, as the buffalo roamed in countlesfli thousands over the wide prairies on every hand, and the hunters had only to kill and eat, aR game abounded. All this is changed, and now buffalo are becoming so scarce that in the vicinity of Wood Mountain they scarcely ever appear. Charactei Assiniboine b don Hills- Crack — Fi|) Qu'Appelle I'heaHuut P Long Lakc- Moridiun — ' Hills— Estii Early Uipcn — Dry Coun — Country V — Siigo Unih Creek— Wftn The tra paasing tli river cetis( ness incrca hurricane < the south crookodnes intelligent reason tha crooked, an Jiscend the The " Rj ol the 8ou crosses tfic boulder rid On the sou the dircctio The poin don, but ft] The river b CHAPTER [V. Character of Country between lat. 50" and 51" West of Manitoba. Aasiniboine below Brandon — Brandon — Assiniboine Kapid— liaiid near Brandon— Brp.a> don HilU— Land along thoC.P.K. — FlatCreek— Gopher (reek— Land West of Gopher Creek— Pip»!stono Creek -Weedy and Wolf Hills— Rich Country along the C. P. R. — Qu'Appelle River- Navigation of tlieQu'Appelle — Country North of the Qu'Appellc — Pheasant Plain, Leacli Lake — Very rich Ijdiid in tiiis Region — Long Ijako— Kish in Long Lake — Waterfowl — Creeks at the Head of Long Lake — Country West of 102nd Meridian — Wood for House building and othiT Purposes — Country West of Touchwood Hills — Estimate of good Land in Qu'Appelle Valley — Unequalled Iractfor Wheat- Early Ripening of Grain — Absence of SuninuT Frosts — Karly Spring- Moom; Jaw (Jreek — Dry Country in its Vicinity— vSand Hills West of it — Tlic Cotoau — Old Wives Lakes — Country West of Lakes - Kxcellent Pastures — Nutritious Graascs — Their Distribution — Sage Brush and Cac^tus no Proof of Aridity Bullnish Like — Strong < urrent Creek — Want of Wood — High broken CRuutry — Appearance of Cypress Hills. The truveller ascending tlio Assiniboine linds that, al'ter pjiasing the mouth of the Souris, the ercxlirig [)()wer of the river ceiises ; its width sensibly diminishes and its tortuoiis- ness increases, while the banks become so h)w that from the hurricane deck of a steamer an extensive view, especially to the south and southwest, can be obtained. Owing to the crookedness of the river the ascent is slowly made, and an intelligent observer docs not fail to notice that this is the reason that boats can ascend the river, for were it less crooked, and its waters not thus backed up, no boat could ascend the stream; The " Rapid," situated about eight miles above the mouth ot the Souris, is caused by a ridge of boulders which here crosses the river, and which can be seen as a gravel and boulder ridge, extending back from the river on both sides. On the south side this line of boulders seems to extend in the direction of the " Hills of Brandon." The point on the Assiniboine whicli is now called Bran- don, but formerly the " Grand Valley," was well named. The river banks at this point are very low, but some dis- 5 '■' 66 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. i!i tance back on both sides, the country rises gradually until the genera] level of the prairie is attained. The valley lying between these elevations well deserves the name of '• Grand." It is certainly destined to be a place of groat importance both as regards its farming capabilities and railway and steamboat privileges. The soil, however, on the south side cannot be called first-class, as it contains much sand and grav(3l in the ridges back from the river, and many boulders on its surface. There is none of it, however, that will nut be taken up, if indeed any of it has been left since the " boom " of last summer. About eight miles south of Brandon lie the " Brandon Hills," which are very picturesque on the east side, as they rise ridge over ridge from the level of the Souris, which here runs in a deep valley. Aspen is still found in some abundance along the slopes, but much of it is useless except for lirewood. Standing 1 oO feet above the plain, on the most western ridge of the Brandon Hills, the traveller once looked over a vast grassy plain stretched out I't his feet, without bush or mound to break its uniformity, except one solitary conical hill rising from the centre. Now, standing on the same point, he looks no longer on a solitary waste, but sees the plain dotted with the cabins of the settlers, and their cattle grazing peacefully in the little valleys or up their slopes. One short year more and stacks of grain will be grouped over every part of the plain, and what in the spring of 1880 was a vast prairie covered with waving grass, will, ir the spring of 1882, be alive with settlers, and its solitude and loneliness gone for ever. Proceeding westward on the line of the C. P. R., the soil is a light sandy loam for a number of miles with many boulders near the railway. Beyond this, the country is first- class and comparatively level, but altogether without wood. About eleven miles out from Brandon, a patch of sand hills of about a square mile in extent is passed on the left, ooutaiuing I! 1 i 68 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 1 i j i ■ . I some wood, consisting of oak and aspen of small size, fit only for fuel. These hills — like all sand hills — are flanked by marshes and hence protected from fire by water. Westward from this point to Flat Creek the railway keeps to the marshy plain, which extends all along the base of the high rolling country more to the north, and which lies between it and the Assiniboine. The tract lying between Flat Creek on the south and Gopher Creek on the north, is generally low and marshy, or consists of sand hills, altogether unlit for farniing. but emi- nently suited for grazing purposes. In the marshes around the hills immense quantities of hay can be cut. There is good pasture, wood, and shelter in the hills themselves and pernmneut water abounds. After passing the last mentioned creek the land rises gradually and its character at once changes. An excellent (anuing country is entered upon, which extends witli very little change to Moose Mountain, a distance of nearly sixty miles. For the whole distance the soil is rich and fertile, having a black sandy or clay loam surface soil, with the sub- soil varying from gravel coated with carbonate of lime in the ridges to a light ash-colored clay in the more level parts. All the water is good as far as the 102nd Meridian, but beyond that very little is found except in Moose Mountain itself. Pipestone Creek, flowing in a narrow valley about 190 feet deep, was, when I crossed it on the 20th of June, a rapid stream about twenty-one feet wide and thirty inches deep. It rises in the high country between the Qu'Appelle and Moose Moir.^tain, and flows to the southeast into Oak Lake, described in a £>r( vi >KS chapter. Near the lake the banks of the Pipe- stone art on Last Mountain no wood is to ))0 seen, but coal can b<* suj)])li<'d by means of the lake and the C.P.R. One of the liithest tnu'ts in the Qu'Appelle valley lies east and north from Last Mountain and when known will be speedily taken up by farmers, as the much dreaded frosts of the Sas- katchewan valley are unknown. While (Micanipod near the head of this lake, in 1879, we had anij)le ()])po!'tnnity to examine this porticm of the country We were ))arti('ularly charmed with its soil, pro- ductions, and position. Multitudes of ])elican, geese, ducks, av(xjetrt, phalan>j)es, water hens, and grebe, besides innu- merable snij)e and j)lover were everywhere in the marshes CUARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. SC" AND 51°. 73 at the head of the lake or along its shores, or on small islands lying to the south of the camp. This was early in July and experience tells me that not one-tenth was then seen of the bird life assembled in September and October. To the east of the head of the lake lay the rich country which produced the enormous mushrooms referred to in Chapter XI, when speaking of the lilies and other flowers which caused me to call this region the " Flower Garden of the Northwest " Passing round the head of Long Lake, from the east, we found a creek a few yards wide, with a sluggish current and a very miry bottom. Scarcely a mile from the lirst creek, we came to another of a totally different charac- ter. This creek had a gentle current of clear water, was nearly three feet in depth, and about eighteen wide. A lish weir was seen a short distance above our crossing, show- ing that fish ran up stream in the Spring. In half a mile, we crossed another creek, but this contained much less water. The middle creek, which is much the largest and which certainly contains fish in Spring, seems to be the stream which discharges Wolverine Creek. I believe the land on this stream will be found of unquestionable value, as the water in the creek was quite pure. The section lying west of the 102nd Meridian is bounded on the south by the Qu'Appelle, on the west by Long Lake, and by a line running northeasterly from the head of Long Lake to Quill Lakes. It may be said to have, both as regards surface and subsoil, a similarity of character, varying i'rom deep black cLiy loam, with a light colored marly clay subsoil, to a light sandy or gravelly loam, with a gravelly subsoil. Some travellers taking the washed out subsoil thrown out by badgers, or found in cart ruts, as the real soil of the prairie, have characterized parts of this region as gravelly and sandy, but pits dug into the subsoil showed but a small percentage of eitb .'r. i . 74 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. a Abundance of good water is found on every part of this tract for the greater part of the summer, and future settlers will find that good permanent wells can be obtained, at a rearionable depth, on any part of the prairie. Poplar wood for house-building, fencing, and firewood, can easily be pro- cured at Pheasant, File, tmd Touchwood Hills, whicli ex- tend from southeast to northwest through its whole extent. Almost continuous W(X)ds extend along the Carlton road, from twelve miles east of its western boundary to where the Qu'Appelle and Pelly rond crosses it. Thence, eastward, extends the Pheasant Plain, a stretch of twenty-five miles long, without wood, but Pheasant Hills having abundance of it, are always in sight. East and northeast of this i^lain, copse wood is more or less abundant, until the Assiniboine is reached. West of the hills spoken of, no wood exists, but the soil is of the very best description. A depression, of which Long Lake partly fills the southern end, extends up to Quill Lakes. Although less than twelve miles wide where it crosses tlie travelled road from Carlton, the name of "Great Salt Plain" is given to a tract thirty miles from east to west. This valley contains many lakelets of brackish water. An alkaline creek, which crosses the road, seems to discharge the surplus waters of Quill Lakes into Long Lake. In this depression no wood is found. In fact, not a bush, so far as known, grows on a belt of country twenty-five miles wide, extending from the Qu'Appelle to Quill Lakes. I may here state that the appearance of the country just described, was altogether different from what I expect- ed. I had been led to believe that much of it was little else than desert. Having cro8;;ed that part of i':- north of the Qu'Appelle, in the summer of 1879, I can speak with certainty of the fertility of the immense plain sloping towards that river on both sides. Starting from the Qu'Appelle at its mouth, and pro- CHARACTER Or COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 50° AND 61 ". 75 jecting a line nearly duo west to the South Saskatchewan, a distiuiee of over 250 miles, and including only the land south of the Touchwood Hills, a belt, with jui average breadth of 100 miles, extends right up the Qu'Appelle. Here we have 25,000 square miles, or 10,000,000 acres of laud lying in one block, that to my own knowledge, has over 00 per cent, fit for agricultural or pastoral purposes. The only poor soil in this extensive tract is that portion lu^tween Spy Hill and Fort Ellice, and two small groups of sand hills, lying at the sources of the Qu'Appelle. No alkaline hoil is known on any part of it, except a narrow tract extending from the head of Long Lake toward Quill Lakes. Numerous small brooks are found on both sides of the river, and where tbcre are no brooks, ponds of g(H)d water are seldom wanting. There will be no difficulty in obtaining first-class wheat cro^s throughout the greater part of it, as the soil is gener- ally a rich black loam, mixed with silica, and at times con- taining more or less gravel. The subsoil, in nearly every case, is a light colored clay, or clay intermixed with pebblea coated with carbonate of lime. Nearly the whole of the surface is a gently undulating plain easily drained, and over three-fourths of it sloping to the south. The crops at the Qu'Appelle Mission, about the centre of the area, ripen earlier thaxi in any other part of the North-West ; barley having been cut, both in 1879 and 1880, during the last week in July. No summer frost has ever been reported from this region, and authentic reports say, that the spring is two weekn earlier than at Winnipeg. Forty miles west of the File Hills, wood is no longer found, and from that to the Saskatchewan, not a bush of tmy description is seen. Moose Jaw Creek, about eight miles below its contluence with Thunder Creek takes a great bend to the east. At this point the sides of the valley are one hundred and forty feet deep. The breadth of the Creek is only sixteen feet, with about four inches of flowing water. Small clumps of maple and ash were observed, but no poplar. f :^' .! I •%. ^>. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /. ^ A. 1.0 L 21 Kit Wk' 12.2 I.I 40 Hill 2.0 MJ£ 1'-^^ r-^ !'•* < 6" ► Photographic Sciences Corporation ^ •S^ \ ^ <^ V^ '^' 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4S03 f/. 76 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 11 'u m \M For the last twenty miles east of the Creek the country was very dry, and shewed signs of drought but the soil was rich and the grass tall. At our crossing, the creek flowed from the southeast, but a short distance lower down, it turned almost due east and then north, until it emptied into the Qu'appelle. West of Moose Jaw Creek the country changed at once, and four miles south of our crossing passed into sand hills which extended as low mounds from that point westward and northward. For thirty miles west from the creek the country was very dry, and frequently sand and gravel hills were seen with occasional patches of cactus, Opunfia Missouriensia where the surface was sandy ; but much good soil covered with rich grass was also passed. To the south of our line of travel the country was more hilly than to the north. As we neared the base of the Coteau, alkaline plants became common, and small brackish lakes frequent, these being the usual harbingers of the approach to the Third Prairie Steppe, or Coteau. At every point where I have touched the Coteau I have noticed saline soil which has evidently been formed from the washing aM^ay of the face of the hills. A journey of twenty -eight miles, through a broken hilly country brought us to the head of Old Wives Lakes, which lie in a depression between the hills. The head of the north- ern Lake, is a series of detached alkaline ponds with mud margins and very brackish water. The waters of the Lakes are quite clear, but very salt. Strange to say, environed by the before mentioned salt pools a spring of excellent water was found not 100 yards from the head of the northern lake. This Lake is quite shallow for a long distance out, and the eastern side for many miles is much indented by points and bays. The western side is less broken, and is backed by higher liills than those which rise to th passe pastu brack sand Pas their to sou Occasi twent could In CHARA.CTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 50" AND 51°. 77 to the east. The twenty-eight miles of broken country passed through before reaching the hake, is well suited for pasturage, as there is abundance of water both fresh and brackish in the hills, and the soil is of varying character, sand or gravel prevailing. Passing west from Old Wives Lakes, the hills change their charactPi' and run in parallel ranges, from northeast to southwest with abundance of good pure water in ponds. Occasional swampy lakes varied the scenery. For about twenty-one miles west of the lakes, very little of the land could be claimed as agricultural, but all is excellent pasture. In the fifty-one miles referred to above, the leading grasses were all of the most valuable kinds for pas- ture. They were noted for their value in the fol- owing order. Stijm spartca (wild oats as named in Manitoba), took the lead, as indeed it does on all fairly dry and rich soils from Fort Ellice to the Rocky Mountains. This grass is preferred at all seasons by horses when travelling on the prairies, except late in July and August when its seeds are ripe. After the frosts come, horses always seek for this grass, and it is this species that constitutes the principal buffalo grass of the great plains. The other or more southern buffalo grass {Bouteloua oligoatachya), easily known by its curling leaves, and peculiar panicles of flowers was seen in some abundance on the drier knolls, but it is only found in quantity where the soil is inclined to be arid, or much further to the southwest. Triticum repens (Couch or Quick grass), is always found where the soil is a strong clay, and wherever it is abundant, sand is not to be found. Kcderia cristata and Poa ccesia grasses which have a tendency to grow in bunches, and are hence often classed as " bunch grasses," were comparatively common on the dry hills. These five species may be said to constitute the bulk of the western pastures, but more especially the three first mentioned. Artemisia cana ^ ,1 h 78 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. \m (Canadian sage brush), was met with in some abundance on the clay plain, twenty miles west of Old Wives Lakes, and is the same plant as that found by Palliser, nearly in the same longitude, at the Elbow of the South Saskatchewan, and called by him Artemisia tridentata, or the true American sage brush, which in reality never crosses our boundary east of the Rocky Mountains. This plant is no proof of aridity of climate as it is found only on Cretaceous clay, and wherever that crops out it is sure to be seen. At the present time it is growing at the base of the hill on the left bank of the Assiniboine, just opposite the mouth of the Qu'Appelle at Fort Ellice, and as a proof that even the presence of the cactus does not always indicate aridity of climate, I may state that anyone may find cactus growing in the Qu'Appelle Valley, just south of where the Carlton road ascends out of it. Here then are the two plants, which former writers cited as proofs of the aridity of the climate of our western plains, found growing in the neighborhood of Fort Ellice where the rain-fall is known to be abundant, because here they find a suitable soil — the first mentioned, clay, the latter clay and sand with a suitable amount of alkaline matter. Twenty-five miles west of Old Wives Lakes, is a fine large fresh-water lake, called Bullrush Lake, which is at least eight miles long and five broad. Three creeks enter it from the north and west, and another discharges its sur- plus waters from the south end. Clay cliflfs over sixty feet high, are along the eastern side, and its waters, even at less than a rod from the shore, are very deep. At the north end of the lake, the trail from the Elbow joins the other coming from Qu'Appelle. Four miles east of the lake, good agricultural land was entered upon, which extended all around it. As we rounded the north end a sluggish stream was crossed, and beyond it another with water standing in deep pools. These streams come from the north. About two miles to the south another CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 50" AND 51°. 79 and larger stream was found coming from the hills and emptying into the head of the lake. Crossing the plain and a narrow range of hills with a rich, sandy loam surface soil, we descended into another valley and here found Strong Current Creek flowing to the east. Within a short dis- tance, it turns to the north and enters a range of hills which shuts in the valley on that side. The creek flowed down a valley from the west and meandered through it, having banks about ten feet high. Its bed was thirty yards wide, but there was flowing water only over part of it. A few willows grow in its bed, and these were the only brush seen in seventy-six miles, as not a bush exists around any of the lakes spoken of. Nearly the whole of the tract lying between the Cypress Hills and Old Wives Lakes, has excellent soil, and at times spreads out into wide, slightly undulating plains, covered with tall, rich grass. In other parts high rolling hills with deep valleys, having a northwest and south- east direction, are met with. Old Wives Creek receives the drainage of all these hills, but it is only in spring that any flow of water passes over its stony bed. The highest land is always to the north and west, and some of the ridges or narrow plateaux passed over, were found even higher than the eastern end of the Cypress Hills. Occasionally brackish lakes were seen, but water of any description was not abun- dant, although we never suffered from the want of it. The last twenty miles was over a gently undulating plain, with fair soil and but little water. As we approached the Cypress Hills, they rose before us bodily from the plain to the height of 400 feet, with the various ravines which penetrated the eastern face of the escarpment filled with wood. Along their base were the usual alkaline ponds and poor soil, but these were much restricted as Strong Current Creek was found flowing south along the base of the hills. After passing three miles south of our camp, it turns boldly to the : i' If U; I::' i 80 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. north, so that before reaching the hills we were compelled to cross it twice in less than two miles. Blue hills shut in the horizon to the nortli ; twenty-live miles to the south- east lay the high ridges wo had left the preceding day, and an interminable plain stretched away to the south, while in our front were the Cypress Hills themselves. CHAPTER V. Character of Country between lat. 51° and 52" West of Manitoba. Country West of the Asainiboine — Beaver and Touchwood Hills — Heavy Forest — Rich and Lovely Country — Great Salt Plain — Immense Plain to the South — Tract North of the Qu'Appelle — Rich Soil and Rank Grass— Last Mountain — Water Scarce en Sur- face — Broken Country, Twenty-two Miles Wide — Fine Pasture Lands — No Bad Soil in Eighty Miles — Lines of Boulders, near Humboldt — Cause of Wood at Certain Points — Extensive Plain Southwest of Touchwood Hills — Salt Marshes — Little Touch- wood Hills — Mission at this Point — File Hills — South Saskatchewan, Voyage Down It — Moose Woods — North of Moose Woods — Land East of River— Soil of Great Depth — Aroline, or Telegraph Crossing — Rich Land — Country West of River — Fine Level Tract — Eagle Creek — Eaglo Hiils, Fine Country for Stock. After passing above the mouth of Shell River the land on the right bank of the Assiniboine becomes exceedingly rich, and in every respect as good as that east of the river. All travellers and surveyors speak in the highest terms of the land west of Fort Pelly tmd south of the telegraph line, and although much of it is wet and generally covered with forest or brush it is a very desirable country. The Beaver and Touchwood Hills farther to the west are covered in part with heavy forest, and although not suitable for present set- tlement, owing to the fr est and marsh which predominate in some places, yet there are large areas cohered with a wealth of tall grass, pea vine, vetch, and lovely flowers that will tempt the pioneers of the next few years to locate in the paxk like country both north and south of these so-called hills. Extending west from the Touchwood Hills, is a level plain without wood for thirty miles on the line of the Carlton trail. This plain has been erroneously called the Great Salt Plain, whereas the part of it to which the term applies, is scarcely twelve miles wide on the trail. Stretching westerly 6 7 82 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. In n ni 4\^ ' 1 from the hills, a plain over 120 miles wide extends to the South Saskatchewan For nearly the whole distance, the surface is undulating or quite level with occasional waves a mile or two apart. Scarcely a twig exists on the whole plain. Fresh water and excellent soil are found every- where. In the southern part, near the head of Little Arm Creek, the country is broken into rolling hills, but the soil is very rich. The following description of this tract was written on the ground, and gives a general picture of this section The country described is generally on the 106th meridian from the Qu'Appelle River north. Our course was now due north for eighty miles, so as to traverse the great plain, extending northward from the Qu'Appelle, in its greatest length. The soil of this plain was thought to be generally sandy, so I resolved to examine i every mile for the whole distance. We did not expect ' ; find any wood and but very little water on the journey, so, after filling our kegs and piling a week's wood on our carts, we started north. Ascending out of the valley we found that the upper part of the slope and the outer margin of the plateau, were covered with boulders just as we had found them on the southern side. As we receded from the river, the plain crossed on September 11th began to assume the appearance of a range of hills, but we knew it was only the undulations rising slightly one over the other, and that no hills existed in that direction. This is the Eye Brow Hill Range of Hind's Report. For sixteen miles from the river, the plateau was almost level, with a slight rise to the north. The soil near the river was a light sandy loam with short grass, but this soon changed for the better and the grass became taller. From the crest of the plateau, spoken of above, we could see an immense distance to the west and north over a bound- less rose nen us a] coul Arm cove: not s the I throu count see, a As grass tract hay-m for pa Creek, margin only I soon gi Ade ed far almost brough In t] observe) the Qu'f or gentl| always found e\ and boul five mil plentiful once, urJ CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 51" AND 52°. 83 less plain. Apparently about forty miles off, Last Mountain rose from the plain, standing alone being a very promi- nent object on the horizon in the northeast. Our course led us along the ed^^e of the plateau, and occasionally "cut banks " could be seen in the distance, showing the course of Little Arm Creek. All day we travelled over a level nrairie, covered with good grass, and having excellent soil but not a drop of water except at the creek. Another day, over the same level prairie, with Little Arm Creek flowing through it, brought us to the margin of a broken, hilly country which extended east and west as far as we could see, and was twenty -two miles from south to north. As we proceeded north, the soil constantly improved ; the grass was always tall, water abundant and good, and this tract although rough and niuch broken by lakelets, ponds, hay-marshes, and hills, had a rich soil and was well suited for pasture everywhere. Near the head of Little Arm Creek, clumps of bushes were observed nestling along the margin of some lakelets. These showed that, if fires could only be stopped, bushes suitable to shelter stock would soon grow up. A descent of 100 feet brought us to a plain, which extend- ed far to the north, while the hills we had just left, ran almost due east and west. Fifteen miles over the plain brought us to our most northern limit, latitude 51° 43' In travelling the eighty miles just described, I never observed bad soil. No sandy soil was seen except close to the Qu' Appelle. The greater part of the surface was level or gently rollmg, and where it did rise into hills, the soil was always good. I constantly dug into the dry knolls and found excellent soil, although pebbles were on the surface and boulders were frequently seen. For the first thirty- five miles water was scarce, but after that it was always plentiful. Brackish water was never detected, except once, until we descended from the line of hills. After that (i,; 1 > A ^ i I'ii 84 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. !PI occasional pools were seen in circular depressions or narrow valleys. For the last fifteen miles boulders on the knolls were of constant occurrence. Occasionally the country became more rolling and a few willows and small poplars about two years old were seen around the hollows, but not large enough to use as tuel. Turning east we travelled for twenty-five miles over either a level or undulating prairie, with a clay loam surface soil, having numerous boulders at times scattered over it. The high ground left on Saturday, Sept. 11th, was seen in the south, but to the north a high undulating country alone was visible, with occasional patches of small wood. We now crossed a stony tract about five miles wide, running north and south, and afterwards entered on a level sandy loam plain, which extended to Wolverine Creek, a distance of six miles. This plain showed signs of alkali, and was the poorest land we had seen since leaving Strong Cur- rent Creek. After getting a supply of wood and communi- cating with Humboldt so as to fix our longitude, I turned south for the purpose of traversing what is known as the Great Salt Plain. Had the country in the vicinity of Hum- boldt continued as good as farther south, no wood would be found here either, but the stony tract referred to with numerous marshes, ponds and long narrow lakes, lying south of the woods, stops the fires and saves the wood. The soil near the margin of the woods was a dark colored sandy loam, containing a very large percentage of silica. This sandy and alkaline soil vanished as soon as we crossed Wolverine Creek, which is here nothing but a series of pools connected by sloughs. Proceeding south we entered upon a very level plain, which continued without change, except for the better, for thirty miles. Many clumps of small poplars of from one to six years growth were passed, and occasionally a narrow ridge or roll in the prairie, but nothing like a hill was seen for many miles. Near the a I CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 51° AND 62°. 86 centre of this tract we crossed a fine creek twenty feet wide, with two feet of flowing water in it, which is probably the discharge of Quill Lakes, and is the middle creek that enters the head of Long Lake. The creek merely runs in a slight depression, with banks nowhere more than four feet high, margin always dry and no signs of alkali. For many miles a higher tract could be seen to the west, with many prominences covered with trees or brushwood, but this dis- appeared or merged into the high country which lies to the southwest, and which is a continuation of the elevated region described as extending east and west from the head of Little Arm Creek. In the direction of the Touchwood Hills high rolling land could be seen, with occasional patches of wood. On this whole plain the greater part of the grass was tall enough for hay, water w*as abundant and always good, the soil invariably a rich sandy or clay loam, and no gravel except in the subsoil. The only poor land observed was a narrow strip on each side of Wolverine Creek. Crossing a small stream flowing nearly west we passed for six miles through a very fine country with rich soil, but all the depressions were alkaline and the marsh water gen- erally brackish. The country at this point seemed to be covered on the higher ground with a thin coating of drift, but this in the lower places gave place to Cretaceous clay, which here took the form of white mud swamps instead of the hard baked clay flats of the southern prairies, where the rainfall was light. Having reached a small creek flowing to the west, and seeing Last Mountain lying southeast of us, we changed our course to the southeast before crossing the creek, and very soon entered on another part of the plain spoken of above, which was much more difficult to cross owing to numerous white mud swamps that lay in our course. Beach- ing the creek again, now flowing in a valley about half a mile wide, and crossing it with extreme difficulty, we entered on a fine undulating country of great extent. t < I I v\ 80 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. The tract dcBcribed above Ih the only alkaline noil we saw on the " Great Salt Plain," which certainly \h a misnomer, aH 1 Mtuted in my report of last year. That an extensive, treeless, and in some parts waterless plain, extends west and northwest from the Touchwood Hills I admit, but I do not admit, and am prepared to disprove that an alkaline plain thirty miles wide extends either on the Carlton trail or any other line west or northwest from the Touchwood Hills. There is undoubtedly a saline depression extending from Quill Lakes to Long Lake, the worst parts of which are largely made up of white mud swamps or brackish marshes, but there are no data to show that it covers twenty per cent, of the area assigned to it. The country around the flanks of the Touchwood Hills is much broken or undulating, and has a good rich soil varymg from dark colored clay loam to sandy loam. It is always covered with a certain amount of dark earth, and frequently, when gravel is seen on the surface, none is found by digging. The subsoil is usually a light colored clay loam, containing more or less gravel, which is generally covered with carbonate of lime. A line of broken country connects the Little Touohwood Hills and Last Mountain, and is more or less covered with small poplar copse. Were the country level no wood could grow, as fires constantly sweep over the level ground without obstruction, and destroy all the young wood. I left my party when we reached the trail leading from Qu'Appelle to the Mission, and found the Missionary getting in his potatoes and other roots. His crops this year were very fine, the frost having done them no harm. He showed me over four hundred bushels of as fine potatoes as I ever saw, and told me all the Indians had abundance of them. Owing to the broken nature of the surface, farming by white men at this point would not be profitable, but it seems just the place for Indians. Patches of good arable land, interspersed with little lakes and hay marshes, were seen everywhere, and CHARACTER OP COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 51° AND 52°. 87 from the abrLndance of feathered game at this time (October let) it might be called the himter*H paradise. In three or four days any man with a breech loading shot-gun could have supplied himself with his winter's m' j,t, as all lakes and ponds at that time were alive with ducks of many species. Indeed, from the middle of August until the lakes and ponds freeze up for the wintei, water fowl are very plentiful everywhere. Multitudes breed in the country, and about the middle of September the sea ducks begin to arrive, and myriads of them crowd every pond. A ride of fifteen miles over a very rough trail brought me to Touchwood Post, on the Carlton Trail. The country between these two points — especially the western part — is very rough and much broken up by ponds and lakelets, with intervening ridges, but exception the western side near the Mission, nothing worthy of being called a hill was seen. What is generally denominated the Touchwood Hills by travellers is merely the broken country lying between the Little and Big Touchwood Hills, the one lying to the right of the trail, the other to the left. In the vicinity of the Mission, on the Indian Reserve, are fine groves of large-sized poplar, well suited for house building, and, excepting this, very little but second growth aspen and brush was seen. I may as well state in this connection that the Touch- wood Hills and File Hills as regards altitude can scarcely be considered hills at all. They are merely elevated plateaux, or more strictly speaking watersheds, protected from fire by innumerable ponds and marshes, which are scattered every- where over their surface, and in my estimation can never be first-class farming lands, though well suited for hay and stock farms. The Big Touchwood Hills extend eastward and merge into the Beaver Hills, and both are merely an elevated tract from which the small streams flowing U) the Qu'Appelle on the south, or the White Sand River on the north receive their waters. Experience has taught me that i i I ' : i ( !■ ,i m Pii ^1 88 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. wherever trees and brushwood are found, there we may look for a broken country, and one that contains too much water, while the open treeless prairie, generally condemned to sterility, is by far the best farming land. From the Elbow of the South Saskatchewan to its junction with the North Branch below Prince Albert, the river meanders through a valley of varying width, which cannot be better described than by reproducing the account written by Prof. Hind of his canoe voyage down the River from the Elbow in August, 1858. " The banks of the river slope gently from the prairie on the southwest side to an altitude of about 250 feet, they then become abrupt. On the northwest side the Sandstone cliff, varying from thirty to sixty feet in altitude, rises abruptly from the river, then follows a hilly slope to the prairie level. Trees, consisting chiefly of aspen, are found in patches on both sides. The river continues about half a mile broad, with numerous sand-bars and low alluvial islands. The drift above the sandstone is gravelly, and many small sand dunes occur on the hill bank sloping to the prairie, and have progressed beyond the prairie to a considerable dis- tance. A treeless prairie, boundless and green, except where the patches of drifting sand occur, is visible on either hand from the top of the bank ; below, the river glides with a strong current two and two and-a-half miles an hour, filling the broad trench or valley it has eroded. The June berry, La Poire, is very abundant ; shrubs or trees, eighteen to twenty feet high, loaded with this fruit, perfectly ripe and of excellent flavor, are numerous in every grove ; the ber- ries are of the size of large black currants, very juicy and sweet. This shrub is the La Poire of the Red River Voya- geurs. " About twelve miles from our camp, or sixty miles from the Elbow, forests of a^pen begin to show themselves on the banks, after passing through a low country, which is an fjfjll CHARACTER OP COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 51° AND 52". 89 expansion of the river valley. Ripple marks are numerous on the fresh mud, the furrows lying parallel to the course of the stream. They are quite recent and similar to those observ- ed on Red River in spring. The ash-leaved maple begins to show itself, but the aspen is the prevailing tree. The woods are not continuous, and the prairie on either side of the river remains bare ; it is fast regaining its former alti- tude. Sand hills are visible in the distance from the top of the bank La Poire is very abundant and fine flavored. The exposed cliflfs consist of reddish loam, and the rock is no longer seen below them. At a point fifty -three miles from the Elbow, we made a careful section of the river, and found its breadth to be nearly one-third of a mile (28 chains) ; its greatest depth was ten feet on the east side, but on the west side there is another channel with nine feet of water. "As we approached the Moose Woods we passed for several hours between a series of low alluvial islands, from ten to twelve feet above the water. They sustain some fine elm, balsam, poplar, ash, ash-leaved maple, and a vast profusion of La Poire. The river valley is bounded by low hills lead- ing to the prairie plateau four to eight miles back. The country here furnishes an excellent district for the estab- lishment of a settlement. The spot where we camped for the night is an extensive, open, undulating meadow, with long rich grass, and on the low elevations rose-bushes, in bloom, grow in the greatest profusion. It is only ten feet from the water, yet it does not appear to be flooded in the spring ; water-marks and ice-marks are nowhere seen above four feet from the present level of the broad river. " The region called the Moose Woods, which we entered last evening, is a dilatation of the Saskatchewan flowing through an extensive alluvial flat six miles in breadth, and cut into numerous islands by the changing course of the stream. This flat is bounded by sand hills, some of which are nothing more than shifting dunes. The woods are in patches. ' llii li 90 MANITOBA AND THB GREAT NORTH-WEST. I If |;i W '. and in the low land consist of balsam poplar, white wood, and aspen. Small aspen clumps cover the hills, but no liv- ing timber of importance has been seen as yet, although many fine dead trunks are visible, probably destroyed by fire. The river continues to flow through a broad alluvial flat for about twenty -five miles. Its water is very turbid like that of the Mississippi, holding much solid matter in mechanical suspension. " Beyond the Moose Woods the banks close upon the river and have an altitude not exceeding sixty feet. The breadth of the stream contracts to 250 yards, with a current fully three miles an hour. On the east bank the prairie is occasionally wooded with clumps of aspen, on the west side it is treeless, and shows many sand hills. During the afternoon we land- ed frequently to survey the surrounding country. Nothing but a treeless, slightly undulating prairie was visible ; many large fragments of limestone not much water-worn lie on the hill banks of the river, which is about 100 feet in altitude. The river continues very swift, and maintains a breadth of 250 yards. Frequent soundings during the day showed a depth of ten to twelve feet. A little timber dis- plays itself occasionally on the east bank below the level of the prairie. "At 8 A.M. we arrived at a part of the river where it showed an increase in breadth ; it is now about a quarter of a mile broad, still flowing through a trv;3less plain, in which only one low hill is visible. This character continues for many miles, the hill banks then begin to increase in altitude; and are about 100 feet high, but the river flows through a dreary treeless plain for thirty miles from our camp, after which " The Woods," as they are termed, begin ; they con- sist of a few clumps of aspen on the hill flanks of the deep valley of the river. The face of the country is changing fast, it is becoming more undulating, and patches of aspen woods appear on the prairie; here and there, however, the CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 51" AND 52°. 91 remains of a heavier growth are visible in clusters of black- ened trunks ten to fourteen inches in diameter. During the afternoon we anchored to measure the rate of the current. The river is 200 yards broad, and it flows three miles and a half an hour. Its average depth is seven and a half feet." The land on the east side of the river was examined by Mr. George Simpson, D. L. S., during the past season all the way from the " Elbow " to the Middle Crossing (Batoche's) and pits were dug every twenty miles to the depth of four feet. Excepting a little in the neighborhood of the Elbow, all land passed over and examined by him was first class. He reports that along the river the soil is rather sandy. These views are in accordance with my own. Later still a correspondent of the " Globe " reports that in this sandy belt, Mr. Clark, who keeps the ferry at the Telegraph Crossing, informed him that, though the soil was not particularly promising in appearance, it was remarkably productive. "Everything in his garden grew and matured admirably this season, and he is very confident that grain would do well here. Large quantities of small timber are to be found along the banks of the South Saskatchewan within easy reach, and altogether * Aroline or the Telegraph Crossing' as it is called, promises to become a prosperous settlement in time." On the west side of the river the surface of the country is drier and less broken than on the east. Although the soil is sandy loam and contains some gravel and in places boulders on the surface, taken as a whole, the district be- tween the two rivers, south from Duck Lake, to the Moose Woods, will make a fine agricultural settlement. I know that all manner of reports have been spread regarding it, but I still cling to my own opinions, corroborated as they are by the thorough examination of Mr. Simpson and the in- telligent correspondent of the " Globe " who remarks of the section west of the river : — r ' ''': '• ) \ w '•■/ f 92 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. **^«i .. I " For the first few miles this morning the trail led along fine uplands, from which we were enabled to take our last look at the great discolored slopes away to the north of the river, where the purple bronze of the leafless bluffs contrast- ed richly with the limitless stretches of pale yellow prairie grass, a glorious boundless expanse that will some day be dotted over with countless farm houses, and be the home of a hardy, wealthy, and prosperous community, but which is now only pressed by the stealthy tread of the coyote as he chases the timorous hare, and where even the lonely moose is seldom disturbed by the prowling half-starved savage. " As we left the bank of the great prairie stream of the north, we passed through broad stretches of treeless plain, where the soil is both rich and dry, but the presence of many small boulders is likely to render it unpopular with farmers so long as the settler has so much choice country from which to select. " We have travelled some twenty-nine miles according to our own estimate of distances through open, treeless prairie, where the soil looks rather light and gravelly, but where the rich growth of buffalo grass would indicate that it is much more productive than it appears to be. Indeed it is rather difficult to judge fairly of a prairie country at this season of the year, as everything looks parched and dried up with the severe frosts of early winter." Westward of this tract the country gradually merges into the broken ground along the southeastern part of the Eagle Hills. Before reaching these, Eagle Creek is crossed flowing through a valley covered with tall rich grass, and beyond, the hills rise in tumultuous masses without any order. Nearly all the land is good. In all the valleys the grass was of sufficient length for mowing. Excellent fresh water is found everywhere. Few localities could be found better adapted for stock raising than this part of the Eagle Hills. Should fire wood and shelter be wanted all that is necessary CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 51° AND 52". 93 is to move farther north towards the Saskatchewan, where there is abundance of both in the Eagle Hills. Numerous brooks of never failing water flow from the hills into the Saskatchewan. i H {: :|, • 1 ■; t ■ < i ' i CHAl lll!^i CHAPTER VI. Character of Country between lat. 52° ana 53° West of Manitoba. Porcupine Mountain — Country on Red Deer River — Soil very Rich — Exhaustless Fertility of the Carrot River Country — Prince Albert Settlement — Its Early History — Wonderful Progress in a few Years — Description of the Settlement — Many Houses in Course of Erection — Fall Sowed Wheat a Success — No injury from Frost — Duck Lake Settlement — Fort Carlton and its Vicinity — Country between the Rivers — Eagle Creek — The Bear and Eagle Hills — Land South of Them— Description of Battleford and Vicinity — Its Future Sketched Out — Land in the Neighborhood — Character of Soil — Police Farm at Battleford — The Government Farm — Remarkable Vitality of Seeds — Depth of Roots in the Soil — Plain South of Battleford — Coulees of the Plain — Their Origin — Country North of Bear Hills — Splendid Pasture Land — Water Abundant — Grasses of the Plains — Cause of Absence of Wood — Constant Prairie Fires — Why the South side of a Hill is without Wood — What Causes Aridity — Description of Hand Hills — Cactus not a Proof of Aridity of Climate — Fine Rich Land South of Battleford — Immense Area of Good Land — Mauito Lake — Sounding Lake — Neutral Hills — Fine Pastoral Land to the Southwest — Land around Sullivan's Lake — Fine Land West of Sounding Lake- Rich Country at the Head of Battle River — Millions of Tons of Hay in This Re- gion — General View of the Country — Lakes Filled with Fish — Beaver still Numer- ous — All Lakes and Ponds Filled with Birds in Spring and Fall — Bears and Wolves Numerous some Seasons, but Never Injurious Except to Small Stock. The Porcupine Mountain lies west of the Duck Mountain, and is separated from it by Swan River and its valley. It is bounded on the east and north by marshes, but on the south and west it passes by easy transitions into the more elevated plateau to the west. The " Mountain " itself is covered with a heavy forest of spruce and aspen. The trees, being preserved from fire by the surrounding marshes, attain a large size. Red Deer River, emptying into the northwestern corner of Lake Winnipegoosis, passes through a fine country. Its upper part possesses a soil only excelled by that of Carrot River, a fine stream which flows parallel to it and empties into the Saskatchewan, east of Cumberland House. All travellers and explorers unite in praising this extensive region, a produced haustible Marcufi in 1879, t southwari the banki Here we crops nea: the well J black moi to the hot formed un ed and a ] " We St for Little without di which the ground is several fee — chiefly j till near t with a fori the countr where the where the miles of a in open gh the Quill I northward near Fishii distance nc Prince A ches of th Mission es CHARACTER OP COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 52° AND 53°. 95 region, and settlers who went there two years since, have produced enormous crops on soil which is practically inex- haustible Marcus Smith, C. E., who travelled through this region in 1879, thus expresses himself regarding it : " We travelled southward from Fort a la Come to Carrot River, and up the banks of the latter to its outlet from Water Hen Lake. Here we found several fields of wheat with very heavy crops nearly ripe, and two farm homesteads. I examined the well at one of them and found a depth of six feet of black mould on the top, with sixteen feet of stiff clay loam to the bottom of the well. Mr. Robinson, the proprietor, in- formed me that this summer fourteen farms had been select- ed and a number of farmers were coming in next spring. " We started from the Lake on* a course 30° east bearing for Little Quill Lake, and reached the summit of the range without difficulty, about nineteen miles from the Lake, in which the rise is less than 200 feet. The surface of the ground is very uniform, the soil of the richest quality, and several feet in depth. It is equal to the best parts of Manitoba — chiefly prairie with scattered clumps of poplar and willow, till near the summit of the ridge, which is nearly covered with a forest of poplar. Between Humboldt and Quill Lakes the country is variable in some places, low and swampy where there is much willow brush, but eastward of this line, where the trail crosses the telegraph line, there are several miles of a beautiful park-like country, the trail wandering in open glades through groves of aspen. Before we reached the Quill Lake we came upon an alkaline plain extending northward to the telegraph line ; this continues eastward to near Fishing Lake, and probably also to some considerable distance north of these lakes." Prince Albert settlement, situated between the two bran- ches of the Saskatchewan, was originally a Presbyterian Mission established about fourteen years ago by the Rev. i !• 96 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. )i ■ ! H Mr. Nesbitt. For some years after its location, it was thought that besides christianizing the Indians they could be taught farming, but buffalo being plenty they would not settle. In the summer of 1875 Captain Moore, an Irish gentleman of means, brought machinery for a steam saw mill on waggons from Winnipeg a distance of fully 700 miles by the road they had to travel. From that time the progress of the settlement was assured. Besides the saw mill a grist mill was erected, and flour at once fell to Winnipeg prices, but owing to the large amount required for the Indians it is much dearer at present. The progress of Prince Albert during the last six years has been astonishing, and at present it is the most important point west of Brandon. In 1877 there were about 500 people in the vicinity, and about 1,200 acres under cultiva- tion. Now report says there are 3,000 people in the neighborhood. The correspondent of the Toronto "Globe" writing from Prince Albert last August thus describes the settlement: — " The settlement, or rather the aggregation of settle- ments, including the Prince Albert District (extending from Fort Carlton down to the junction of the north and south branches of the Saskatchewan), includes a strip of territory about eighty miles from east to west, by fifty miles from north to south. This district contains a white and Half-breed popu- lation of about 3,000 souls. Here there are about 10,000 acres under crop, and fully 5,000 acres newly broken this year, the latter figure furnishing the reader with some idea of the rapidity with which settlers have been flocking in within the last year. The town of Prince Albert may be designated as about four miles long by half a mile wide, along the south bank of the North Saskatchewan. The town is situated on a plateau considerably above high-water mark in the river, and is bounded on the south by a narrow and shallow ravine, beyond which rises another bench or CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 52° AND 53° 97 bluff to the level of the surrounding prairie, which is con- siderably higher 'than the plateau upon which the town stands. The population of Prince Albert proper is about 800, but some idea of its rapid growth may be obtained from the fact that there are now no less than thirty-one buildings in course of erection in the town, and many parties intending to build are merely waiting to secure the services of carpenters, which are in great demand just now." Speaking of early frosts he says: " Mr. Miller informed me that though he had been in the coun^-ry eight years he had never lost anything by early frosts. He does all his ploughing and sows his wheat late in the fall. In this way the wheat does not germinate till the following spring, but as soon as the frost is out of the surface of the ground, the wheat begins to grow, and is really well on the way before it could be put in the ground under the ordinary system of spring ploughing. Last year there was a pretty sharp frost about the 25th or 27th of August, but Mr. Miller sold his whole crop of wheat at $1.75 per bushel." Duck Lake Settlement is located half-way between Carl- ton on the North Saskatchewan and Batoche's Crossing of the South Saskatchewan. In the summer of 1875 Stobart, Eden & Co. started a store at this point, and the same year broke up a small piece of ground. That small piece has now become a large farm, and, other parties coming in, a fine set- tlement has been formed. Between Duck Lake and Prince Albert the country is generally/ a light sandy loam, but much of it would be considered very poor when compared with other sections. South from Duck Lake the land improves [\m\ is generally well suited for farming. Fort Carlton is situated on the right bank of the North Stuskatchewan, and has been for some years the headquarters of the Hudson's Bay Company. Here every summer the Council meet imd discuss the business of the Company, and receive the returns of the year's trading. Little farming is 7 i ? M 08 MANITOHA AND TIIK CKKAT NOUTII-WEST. CM, , 't done close to the fort, but many line fjirniH are located between it and Ducii Lake. To HUpply tlie Hettlers and theni8elveH, Stobart, Eden & (Jo. iiave a portable Hour mill, which docH good work for the Hcttlement. The tract of country lynig southwest of this between the rivers has been described in the preceding chapter. Lying north of the river is a fine tract that may be seen from the heights above Eagle Creek, and which, when settlement crosses the river, will be very attractive. Eagle Creek, a fine stream of pure water, enters the Saskatchewan at the eastern end of the Eagle Hills. This stream seems to rise in a large coulee that extends many miles into the great plain south of Battleford. The Bear Hills pass gradually into the Eagle Hills, which, at first, turn to the northeast, but, as they approach the North Saskatchewan, they rend to the northwest and continue in that direction until they reach Battle River, some distanci' west of Battleford. At Battleford their base is about eight miles south. As they pass eastward they draw nearer to the SaskatcheAvan. Their northern slope is a continuous for- est of very good poplar ( Popalas tremaloldes and haUamifera) , which breaks up and becomes interspersed with prairie as it approaches that river. Between Battleford and Eagle Creek no less than twenty -two small streams issue from the forest and make their way into the river. Owing to these streams, the country between the hills and river is very much cut up, and rendered well nigh impassable for loaded carts, when the hills are wet and slipper}' The land borderir.ji,' on the river is generally a sandy loam, but many fine farms will yet be located there. In the hills themselves, and southward from them, the land is very rich, the soil being a black clay loam, changing as it gets drier (southward) into a sandy one, but with very little change in vegetation. Mr Wilkins, D L S , crossed diagon- ally through the hills, while I ])assed on both sides of them, j|: » :,( and his ment Fti southeri tains in I immens( waste e^ the best the prai: swamp, t As th< Battlefor descriptic " This turesque winch na The steal] miles wes but for a general d strip of la lialf, and i This strip tiful plate tion is al< and it sloj of this pie strips of b( of spring f other han reader wil city of Ba the prairie the north which cou from the ce CHARACTER OF COUNTRY HKTWEEN LAT. 52" AND 53°. 99 and his report of the land at the Mission and at the Govern- ment Farm agrees with my own observations. The hind in the southern extension of the hills is very much broken and eon- tains multitudes of ponds and fresh-water marshes, where immense quantities of natural hay of the best quality goes to waste every year. Although many people think the hills the best for settlement, I believe future settlers will prefer the prairie, as there is less broken land, less marsh and swamp, and less labor recjuired to make a home. As the views of the "Globe's" correspondent regarding Battleford are nearly in accord with my own, I give his description : — " This place is certainly one of the most beautiful and pic- turesque in the North-West, and if ever there was a spot which nature intended for the site of a city it is Battleford. The steamboat landing on the Saskatchewan is two or three miles west of where Battle River* falls into the larger stream, but for a long way (several miles at least above this) the general direction of the two streams is parallel, though the strip of land between them is seldom above two miles and a half, and in places less than three-quarters of a mile, in width. This strip of land between the two rivers consists of a beau- tiful plateau of fine, smooth upland prairie. Its highest por- tion is along its centre, midway between the two streams, and it slopes away gently toward each. The lowest portion of this plateau is fifteen or twenty feet above the narrow strips of bottom land along both rivers, which latter in times of spring floods are sometimes partially submerged. On the other hand the highest portion of this plateau (which the reader will have already identified as the site of the future city of Battleford,) is considerably lower than the level of the prairie bluffs, which rise beyond the Saskatchewan on the north and Battle River on the south. Here is a spot which could be easily drained by sewers falling each way from the central ridge ; the whole outer boundary would be 100 MANITOBA AND THE ftREAT NORTH-WEST. cn II . i ifil () rivor frontage, at which tho Siinkatcliewan MtouiiuTH could land at nearly all times, while the wnaller craft, which would be required to navigate IJattle River, could perform the service from the forks when the larger steamers could not ascend on the south side of the peninsula with safety. With a city located on this peninsular plateau (which is now nly occupied by the barracks of tho Mounted Police), the south bank of Battle River and the north bank of the Sas- katchewan (about four miles apart) would afford the most charming situations for villa and suburban residences. '* Regarding the country in the immediate vicinity of T3attleford, I am quite aware that what I have to say flatly contradicts what appears to me to be the general impression concerning it. Before coming here I was told that Battleford was in the midst of a sterile, dreary waste of sand, but I wish we had a few hundred square miles of just such dreary wnstos of sand in Ontario and Quebec. The soil is not the deep, black loam which I have seen m other portions of the North- West, but at the same time that it is not unproductive 1 shall presently produce abundant proofs It is a rich and very friable soil, in which there is unquestionably some sand, but for all that it is deep, strong, warm and extremely productive. I should have stated before that the few houses (beyond the houses of Government officials, which are on the crest of the beautiful high bluff south of Battle River), are located on a narrow strip of bottom land south of the smaller stream, and the plateau to which I have already referred is the site of the future city." The police farm at Battleford was established in 1879. In the spring of that year Inspector Walker broke up the soil, and on my visit about the first of August I found every- thing well advanced and wrote in my journal, — " The police farm, situated on the point of land between Battle River and the Saskatchewan, is a sandy alluvium, and appears to be very dry and barren, but it certainly 'has produced good crops tl now oal ftiitly. bages, < scrij)tioi grass pi of prod situated also visi with th which w by most middling class wh< five feet " Besi( remarkal astonishe it is not 8 (luced in up the pr get belov that they ter's fros< are enabh the belie pores ope] instead of inches of inches." The gre except in changing c lent grass, soil until I CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 52" AND 53°. 101 cropH thin year. Throo inoiithH iv^o it wan Imrren prairie^ now oata, barley, potatoes, and turnipw, are growing luxuri- antly. In the garden, aluo broken u\) tliis npring, are cab- bages, caulitlowera, and other vegetableH of the fineHt de- scription. Timothy and clover had been sown to form a grass plot, and these were now in tlower and gave promise of producing abundance of seed. The Governor's farm, situated on the sand hills to the east of his residence, was also visited. Here the soil, outside the fence, was covered with the short prairie sward indicative of dryness, and which would have been pronounced as unfit for cultivation by most people, yet within the fence were excellent oats, middling barley, short in the ear but grain fine, and first- class wheat, the latter standing thick on the ground, nearly five feet high, with correspondingly long ears, nearly ripe. " Besides the exuberant growth of most grains there is a remarkable vitality imparted to them in this region that astonishes a stranger. I am more and more convinced that it is not soil which is the cause of the astonishing crops pro- duced in the west, but the peculiar climate. When digging up the prairie soil, even in the hardest clays, I could never get below the roots of grass, and these were so numerous that they seemed tc fill the soil. Owing to the severe win- ter's frost, and the light rainfall in spring, the young roots are enabled to penetrate the soil to a depth wholly beyond the belief of an eastern farmer. They seem to follow the pores opened by the frost right into the subsoil, and hence, instead of drawing their nourishment from four or five inches of soil, they draw it from eighteen to twenty -four inches." The great plain south of Battleford is not easily described, except in general terms, owing to its immense size and changing character. Coming from Battleford I found excel- lent grass, plenty of good water, and a rich loam or clay soil until I passed some distance south of lat. 52°, and west 102 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. CI !i 1% of the same Meridian. My assistant and myself noticed the change from a good strong clay, producing excellent pasture, to another clay covered with Artemisia and small Cactus, where the water was scarce and bad, and the pasture poor and dried up. On examination this clay proved to be the Creta- ceous St. Pierre beds of Dr. G. M. Dawson's Boundary Survey Report, and contains remains of Baculites and other fossils, together with nodules of brown iron ore. This tract of bad land is principally confined to the section between 111th and 112th meridians and between the 51st and 52nd par- allels. Except this region the Great Plain, as far as known, is not arid, but produces good grass, has generally abundance of water, and usually a good soil. This extensive tract is almost wholly without wood of any description. Not a shrub enlivens its surface, except occasional clumps of rose bushes (^Bosa hhmda) a few inches high, the western snow- berry {iSymphoricarpus occidentalis) , and the beautiful Silver berry i^Eloecujnus argentea). These could not be called bushes except on the ground of being woody. They are never seen more than three years old and hardly ever that. The coulee, in which Tramping Lake lies, is still partly wooded with poplar and maple, but except in this and a few other localities not seen by me, no wood exists. Coulees are quite a marked feature of the plains, but do not appear to be a part of the present natural system of drainage. They seem to be of an earlier geologic time, other than being dry water-courses of the present, and here the few creeks, which carry off the surplus water, originate. The Qu'Appelle Valley is a well known instance ; the val- ley in which the Red Deer Lakes lie is another. Crawling Valley between Red Deer and Bow Rivers is a third, and here on the Great Plains is a fourth, as Tramping Lake Coulee is said to be the head of Eagle Creek on the one side, and a stream emptying into Battle River on the other. As a rule, the lakes found in the coulees are salt, but this is easily accoun clay, a brackis contain althoug along tl bnickisl Exte] is a tra and occj to Train and ther small art remark a to the ab Report, t that " th^ .^ime pag miserable and affon again I p natural ca A peru shows tha Jigricultur* always goc page 90, C( says : " TI gravelly ri ing quality with the s( Report, sa^ country; ii bunch gras ferred to ot CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 52' AND 53". 103 accounted for, as their bottoms are always on the Cretaceous clay, and the springs near the bottom of the coulee are brackish likewise, while the springs nearer the prairie level contain good sweet water. All br either east or west of it, l)ut many groves were scattered through it. " In the northwestern part of it the land is very good, but the timber is not of large size, being nearly all second growth, as the old timber had been burnt down some years before. The whole section may be classed as level plain, or gently rolling land, no hill being seen higher than fifty feet, except in the vicinity of the Mission. The land generally is a rich loam, with a small percentage of gravel, which indeed is the prevailing character of the soil for many miles. Spring wheat at the Mission, the best I have seen, was fit to harvest August 20th, 1879." Two hundred and fifty miles northwest of the Star Mis- sion is Lac la Biche, where a Roman Catholic Mission has been established for many yearg. Long before railways were talked of, the Fathers at this Mission had brought in a grist mill, worked by horse power, and here in Lat. 55" wheat was being grown and ground, into flour long before the value of the Red River Valley becahae apparent to Canadians. Marcus Smith, C.E., thus speaks of the Mission : " Lac la Biohe is 304 miles from Carlton. Mr. Trail, Hudson's Bay Company's officer at this post, stated that there were about forty families settled on this lake, principally Half-breeds and French Canadians. The Catholic Mission is on the lake shore, about nine miles northwest of the Post ; here I met Bishop Farand, from whom much valuable information was obtained concerning the country to the north and west. " Barley and wheat thrive well here, and also vegetables. There is a grist mill near the Mission. Abundance of white- fish are in this and the neighboring lakes. The timber of the country is spruce, poplar, and tamarac, all of good size. The divide between Beaver River and the Athabasca water- shed is not more than three miles from Lake la Biche." The Victoria and Whitefish Lake Missions are under the i • f 112 MANITOUA AND TllK (JUKAT NOUTll-WEST. I li^ amtrol of the Canatla MotliodirttH, and around each quito a tH'ttlouiont has Ihhmi forniod. In 1871 thuHc Missions were in a very llourisiiiufj; stato, but an outbreak of sniall-pox (U'vaslated the sett lenient, antl when the writer viwited the country in IS72, only the ehinuieys of the houses remained standing. Their (urupantH were either dejui or scattered to the (bur winds. The Rev. George McDougall, the pioneer Missionary to those parts, k)st a daughter at this time, and he told me that the lUackfeet lay around for days waiting a chance to kill him or his wife, because they thought he had brought the calamity upon the country. God mercifully preserved him at that time, but in the winter of 1875 he perished miserably while visiting the Mission at Morleyville then in charge of his son John. On this Mission he had set his heart, and when the writer iirst saw him in 1872 he told of tile wonders of the liow River country, and prophesied its future greatness. In 1872 his house was the only one out- side the Fort at ^'Mmonton, and lawlessness was so common, even amongst the >•' mi-civili/A'd Indians around the fort, that nuu'ders wore of frequent occurrence. A month or two before my visit an Indian, from some unexplained cause, became angry with his wife and attempted to kill her with a knife, but she lied from him. He pursued and overtook her, and stabbed her to death a short distance from the fort. A relative of the woman when pointing out the sptft where she died, asked with great earnestness when would law reach them, and I replied that it was then on its way in the person of Col. Robertson Ross, the Adjutant- General, who would set everything right. He came and the Mounted Police were sent out, and the murders then so frequent ceased. This is Edmonton society as it was in 1872. The state of farming was very little better. Fully one-half of the ripened wheat was smut, and doubt prevailed whether the TIIK NOUTH SASKATCHKWAN AND ATHABASCA COUNTRY. 113 climate woh at all Huitcd for that grain. In 1881 Edmon- ton appcarH as a town and Bcttlcment ol' gruat importance. It luiH its regular agricultural hIiowh, itH balls, and its public oxhibitiouH, where the inhabitants vie with each rther in Huch matters as their exhibits, their agility, their personal attractions and refinement. Lawlessness has passed away, and although the stockade is still around the fort, the guns still in the bastions, and the great gate and wicket closed at night, the fear of Indians, like the buffalo, has passed away, and only the Hudson's Bay Company's officials recall the time, scarcely ten years since, when the Blackfeet and Sarcees made night hideous with their fearful yells and threatenings, on account of the cruel nmrder of two of their number under the very guns of the fort. Edmonton is a general term applied to a district, but still there is a concentration of houses and places of business called by that name. The village is some distance below the fort on the north side of the river. The Church of England and Canada Methodists have each a church, and a Presbyterian Mission having been established, a church will soon follow. There are several stores well stocked with goods suitable to the country, the chief being owned by J. H. McDougall, John Brown, and P. Heinwick, each carrying a stock of goods worth from $25,000 to $30,000, in- cluding freight, which swells the cost of goods in this distant part of the country. Three grist and saw-mills grind all the flour and saw all boards necessary for the settlement, iind nothing is wanting now except railway communication, or better steamboat service upon the river. Abundance of coal can be dug out of the river bank, and less than a mile above the fort there is a deposit of bog iron ore, which may prove valuable when properly examined. We are now 890 miles by cart trail northwest from Winnipeg, and over this immense distance pits, four feet deep and twenty miles apart, have been dug, and a careful 8 i 1 1 1 ■ ; I H 114 MANITOBA AND TIIK (IHKAT NOUTII-WKST. oxainination of the soils hIiowh that only al)()ut live \)er cent, of the whole distance is unlit for agriculture and chLsned as third class soils, when coini)ared witii those of Prince Edward County which is one of the most productive districtH of Ontario. The extent of these fertile hinds cannot he realized hy any person reading the accounts puhlished in newspapers or hlue boolis, nor even in passing over the trails as these are only particular lines. But having traversed the country in every direction I am enabled to grasp their immensity, without realising in any appreciable degree their influence upon the future of the civilized world. Seeing millions of acres of arable lands lying without inhabitants in one part of the British Dominions, and learning that in another part people on the brink of starvation are mur- dering each other for the privilege of renting a potato garden, causes one to exclaim against the shortsighted- ness of Governments, in not assisting emigration, and on the other hand against the foolishness of people remaining where their normal state for generations has been and toill be one of poverty. Nine miles west of Edmonton is St. Albert Mission, the largest and most prosperous Mission settlement in the North- West. It is the seat of a Bishopric, having Bishop '« palace, cathedral church, nunnery, and various other buildings, all of large size and well furnished. The Bishop's palace, as described by a late writer, is a magnificent building . " This is a handsome frame structure, eighty by thirty-two feet, three stories high, including a large attic, lighted by rows of dormer windows, besides a large and well-lighted base- ment." Pdre la Comb established the mission in 1858, when this was only an Indian and Half-breed camping ground. Nine years later he was succeeded by Pere la Due, who gave place to Bishop Grandin m 1871, and from that to the present time St. Albert has been the seat of a Bishopric, from which many eminent men have gone ou* to preach the glad THEN tidings of the " by this more res have bee the Fath journeys looks upc the marr and an eji one with visited. Lake S available 1 is carried ( iioteworth • years gone ly on meat The R(x trading 2)o; here the ] untutored t their wild the police, and trade a tance as a ti west of Ed] margin of tl aiidthenei try. Splen( tree are on here in futi Rocky Moun Gold wash vicinity of g THE NORTH SASKATCHEWAN AiND ATHABASCA COUNTRY. 115 tidingH to the benighted Indian women, thnt, in the sight of the *'Oreat Spirit," the woman is equal to tlie man, and by tliirt moanH to Htanip out polygamy and make marriage more roHpet'tod. Throughout tlie whole NorthWcHt there have been no men, of any Church, Huperior in any Hense to the FatherH with whom the writer has met in his numerous journeys both east and west of the Rocky Mountains. He looks upon their labors as having producied due res[)ect for the marriage relationship, a i)r()[)er regard for the Sabbath, and an earnest for peacea])le conduct and upright dealings one with another, in every part of the country he has visited. Lake St. Ann's may be said to be the present limit of available buid on the old line of the C. P. R. Little farming is carried on. The wliitefisli fisheties constitute the most noteworthy industiy. These were more highly valued in years gone by when people and dogs depended almost entire- ly on meat, but at present they receive little attention The Rocky Mountain House was formerly tlie frontier trading post on the borders of the Blackfeet country, and here the plain Indians came in all tlie spleiulor of their untutored savagary, and in days when Rum was king held their wild orgies in front of the fort. Since the advent of the police, and peace with the Crees, the Blackfeet roam and trade at will, and this fort has lost much of its impor- tance as a treading post. This post is about 150 miles south- west of Edmonton, within sight of the Rockies and on the margin of the Saskatchewan. It is 3,195 feet above the sea and the neighborhood is of very little vjilue as a farmingcoun- try. Splendid groves of spruce and even forests of the same tree are on the upper Saskatchewan and its tributaries, and here in future will probably be the headquarters of the Rocky Mountain lumbering companies. Gold washing has been practised for many years in the vicinity of Edmonton, but in no case has success been II ; • i 116 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. i; i fto marked as to cause any parties to leave off farming for the purpose of prosecuting it. That fine flour gold is de- posited on the bars each year is certain, but where it comes from, or whether it exists in large quantities, is still a matter of doubt. Beaver River flows in a valley parallel to the North Sas- katchewan, from a point nearly north of Edmonton to the Meridian of Carlton, a distance in a straight line of nearly 300 miles. It turns north at Green Lake, 150 miles north of Carlton, apparently into a valley of which Green Lake is a part.. When the Beaver river is high in spring, it fills Green Lake by means of a small stream connecting the two, but as its waters lower the current changes and the Lake begins to empty itself. The valley of Beaver River contains very rich land, but future experiments are necessary before wheat can be relied on as a sure crop. Green Lake is about eighteen miles long by from one to two wide. It is surrounded on all sides by a very fine poplar or aspen forest. The soil is rich and the climate suit- able for the growth of wheat. Beaver River and Green Lake, like all the northern rivers and lakes, are full of whitefish. Throughout all the northern forests the Chipweyan locates himself on the margin of a lake, builds himself a house, clears a potato patch, and sets his nets. A visit to these nets twice a day gives him his food the year round, and his potato patch m the fall, and a few bears furnish him with a change before winter sets in. When he retires to his win- ter hunting ground, near a lake, he sets his nets under the ice, and is still independent of four-footed game The Athabasca country is very little known, as it is all covered with forest and difficult of access. Much of it is wet, and that section through which the old C. P. R. line passes is very wet and marshy, and full of muskegs. These are veritable peat bogs being composed of the same material as the bogs of Ireland and Scotland. THE NORTH SASKATCHEWAN AND ATHABASCA COUNTRY. 117 The Athabasca at Fort Assiniboine, northwent of Edmon- ton, is fully 300 yards wide, being rather larger than the Saskatchewan at this point and flowing in a wider and deeper valley. About sixty miles northeastwards from this place it receives the discharge of Little Slave Lake from the west. The valley of this river is generally level and the soil on either side of the stream seems excellent sandy loam, and where free from timber abounds in rich grass and pea vine. Ascending the Athabasca from this point the first river met with is the Pembina, a stream about thirty yards wide, flowing from the southwest. This stream rises further out on the plain than any other belonging to the Arctic basin. It is known to show large exposures of coal in many parts of its course of a quality much superior to that of Edmonton. Proceeding still to the southwest we pass the mouth of the McLeod, a large stream one hundred yards wide. Here the banks of the Athabasca become 300 feet high. Below this stream a sandstone cliff 100 feet high, having a coal seam five feet thick, is passed. Proceeding still up stream we reach Baptiste's River, a tributary from the west which is ninety yards wide. On this stream there is abundance of fine timber of various species, the spruce as on all other streams, proving to be the best. Jasper House is beautifully situated on an open plain, about six miles in extent within the first range of the Rocky Mountains. As the valley makes a bend above and below, it appears to be completely encircled by mountains which rise from 3000 to 4000 feet, with bold craggy outlines. The little group of buildings which form the " fort," has been constructed in harmony with the picturesqueness of the situation, after the Swiss style, with overhanging roofs and trellised porticoes. The dwelling house and two stores form three sides of a square, and these with a little detached hut constitute the whole of this remote establishment. The clim- ate of this valley is remarkable and is worthy of a passing 1 'i ' ii:| 1 •■^ . '■■;'.: 1 ' 118 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. notice. Mr. W. Moberly, C.E., who spent the winter of 1872-3 in the Jasper veen tried by Mr. Bannatine of Winnipeg, luul he reaped his grain two weeks aiuad of that sowed in the spring. ■I CHAPTER VIII. Peace Uiver, Poaition of tho Lands Described — Area of tho Uegioii iu Question — Character of Rooks and Soil — Its Composition and Disposition — Peace Uiver Prairie — Location of Prairie — Sandy Soils along Athabasca — Origin of Peace River Prairie — WonderlUl Vegetation — Climate of Peace River — Summer of 1879 — All Sorts of Qrain and Vege- tables Mature — Ripening of Grain at Dunvegan and other Points — Depth of Snow — Setting in of Winter — Opening of Spring — Breaking up of the Ice— Difference in Climate of Valley and Plateau — Occurrence of ITrost — Comparison of Temperatures — Peace River Spring as Early as iu Manitoba — Cause of Exceptional Climate — Chinook Winds — Length of Day and Increased Sunlight give Warm Summers — Immunity from Grasshoppers — Description of Little Slave Lake — Ripening of Grain at this Point — Whiteiish iu the Lake — Abundance of Beaver — Climate Unchanged to the North— Soil of the Northern Plain— Ripening of Grain at Vermilion — Summer Climate of that Region — Milder Climato l^arthcr North at Little Red River — Vicinity of Fort Chipweyan — Extraordinary Wheat on Poor Soil — Crops at Fort Simpson on Mackenzie's River — Climate and Crops at Fort Liard, Lat. 61' — Barley Ripens under f'.e Arctic Circle — Farming on Peace River a Success — Lakes Teeming with Fish— Birds in Countless Flocks — Rocks of Peace River, Limestone, Gypsum^ Abundance of Salt Bituminous Shalei on Athabasca River — Tar Springs— Descrip- tion of the River — Appearance of its Banks — Land Between the Athabasca and ths Peace Rivers. Dr. George M. Dawson, F. G. S., was sent out by the Dominion Government in company with one of the C. P. R. surveying parties in 1879, and spent the greater part of the summer in exploring the Peace River country, and the fol- lowing extract is taken from his official report. I prefer giving his report to my own as he takes up the whole subject : " The portion of the Peace River country, for which the exploration of last season enables pretty accurate general information to be given, may be considered as extending eastward from the Middle Forks of Pine River. West of ^ this point, as already stated, the areas of fertile land are small, being confined to certain river valleys, which pene- trate the foot hills of the Rocky Mountains and high plateau 'i 122 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. M attached to them. With this western limit, the region now to be described may be considered as bounded on the north by the fifty-seventh parallel, to its intersection eastward with the Peace River. Thence the boundary may be assumed to follow the Peace River southward to the mouth of Heart Brook, near the confluence of the Smoky River. Thence to run southeastward to the extremity of Lesser Slave Lake, to follow the western border of the hilly region lying to the south of the lake to the Athabasca River; thence to follow the Athabasca westward to the foot hills, and skirt- ing the foot hills to run northwestward to the first men- tioned point on Pine River. " The tract included within the limits above given has an area of about 31,550 scjuave miles, and by far the larger part of this area may be classed as fertile. Its average elevation may be stated as little over 2,000 feet, and this is maintained with considerable uniformity, for though the general surface slopes slightly ^rcm the north and south toward Peace River, the region as a whole may be consid- ered as a plateau through which the great gorgs-like valle}'- of the Peace has been excavated. This valley has in general a depth of 600 to 800 feet below that part of the plateau bordering it, with a width of two to three miles from rim to rim. Its tributary streams, at first nearly on the plateau level, flow in valleys of continually increasing depth as they approach that of the Peace River. Those from the southeastern portion of the region rise either in the Rocky Mountains, or near the Athabasca, the tributaries received by the latter stream from the north and northwest being — Will: the exception of the Batiste — quite inconsiderable in this part of its course. " The ridg'es and hills by which this region is occasionally diversified appear in all cases to be composed eitlier of the generally soft locks of the Cretaceous and Tertiary, or of arenaceous clays containing erratics, and representing the PEACE RIVER 123 boulder clays of the glacial period. These elevations are generally slight, and with exceedingly light and gradual slopes, the scarped banks of the streams v^onstituting much more important irregularities. These ridges, however, often resemble detached portions of a higher plateau, and spread widely enough to occupy in the aggregate a considerable area, of which the soil is not so uniform in character as else- where. W^ith these exceptions, the soil of the district may be described as a fine silt, resembling the white silts of the NecLacco basin previously referred to, and not dissim- ilar from the loess-like material constituting the subsoil of the Red River Valley in Manitoba. This silt, at a short distance below the surface, is greyish or brownish in color, but becomes mixed superficially with a proportion of vege- table matter to a varying depth. It has evidently been deposited by a comparatively tranquil body of water not loaded with ice, probably toward the close of the glacial period, and has either never been laid down on the ridges and undulations above referred to, or has been since re- moved from them by natural processes of waste. As evi- denced by the natural vegetation its fertility is great. " West of the Smoky River, both to the south and north of Peace River, there are extensive areas of prairie country, either perfectly open and covered with a more or less luxuri- ant growth of grass, or dotted with patches of coppice and trees. " The northern banks of the Peace River Valley are also very generally open and grassed, a- id parts of the Valley of the Smoky and other rivers have a similar character. The total area of prairie land, west of the Smoky River, may be about 3,000 square miles. Tile remainder of the surftxce is generally occupied by second-growth forest, occasionally dense, but more often open and composed of aspen, birch, and Cottonwood, with a greater or less proportion of conif- erous trees. Some patches of the original forest, however, 124 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. I' I li [■f»' remain, particularly in the river valleys, and are composed of much larger trees, chiefly coniferous, among which the black spruce is most abundant. Handsome groves of old and large cotton woods are also to be found in some of the valleys. Where the soil becomes locally sandy and poor, and more particularly m some of the more elevated parts of the ridges before described, a thick growth of scrub pme and black spruce, in which the individual trees are small, is found ; and in swampy regions the tamarac is not want- ing, but grows generally intermixed with the black spruce. " East of the Smoky River, and southward toward the Athabasca, the prairie country is quite insignificant in extent, the region being characterized by second growth woods of the character just described, which, on approaching the Athabasca, are replaced by extensive and well-nigh im- passable tracts of brul6 and wind-fall, in which second- growth forest IS only beginning to struggle up. " Though the prairies are most immediately available from an agricultural point of view, the regions now covered with second-growth and forest, where the soil itself is not inferior, will eventually be equally valuable. The largest tract of poor land is that bordering the valley of the Athabasca on the north. This rises to an elevation considerably greater than most of the region to the north and west, and appears during the submergence to which the superficial deposits are due, to have been exposed to stronger currents, which have prevented the deposition of the fine silt, causing it to be replaced by a coarser silt which passes in places with actual sand, and alternates with ridges of boulder clay. This region is also often very swampy, and for a width of twenty to twenty-five miles on the trail from Sturgeon Lake to the Athabasca is quite unsuited to agriculture, though still JTi many places capable of yielding good sum^ ier grazing when the forest has been completely removCvi by fire. To the northward, more particularly to the east of PEACE RIVER. 125 Smoky River, peaty and mossy swamps occupy part of the surface, and these may be regarded as permanently unsuited to agriculture. " There is also a sandy tract, though of small width, along the lower part of the Elk River near its junction with the Smoky Deducting, as far as possible, all the areas known to be inferior or useless, with about 20 per cent, for the por- tions of the region under consideration, of which less is known, the total area of land, with soil suited to agricul- ture, may be estimated as at least 23,500 square miles. In the absence of complete maps, such an estimate cannot be otherwise than very rough, but may serve to give some idea of the fact. " Whatever theory be adopted, and may have been ad- vanced, to account for the wide prairies of the western por- tion of America further to the south, the origin of the prairies of the Peace River is sufficiently obvious. There can be no doubt that they have been produced and are main- tained by fires The country is naturally a wooded one, and where fires have not run for a few years, young trees begin rapidly to spring up. The fires are, of course, ulti- mately attributable to human agency, and it is probable that before the country was inhabited by the Indians it was every v/here densely forest-clad. That the date of origin of the chief prairie tracts now found is remote, is clearly evi- denced by their present appearance, and more particularly by the fact that they are everywhere scored and rutted with old buffalo tracks, while every suitable locality is pitted with the saucer-shaped " buffalo wallows." It is reported that a few buffaloes were seen last year near Pine River, but the animal has now become in the Peace River country practically extinct ; an event which, according to the Indians, happened at a date not very remote, owing to a winter of exceptional severity, during which the snow * reached to the buffaloes' backs.' I I ii 126 MANITOBA AND THE GKEAT NORTU-WEST. lit Mf " The luxuriance of the natural vegetation in these prai- ries is truly wonderful, and indicates, not alone the fertility oi the soil, but the occurrence of a sufficient rain-fall. The service berry, or amalanchier, and the choke-cherry, are very abundant in some places, particularly on the so-called Grande Prairie, which constitutes the great berry gathering ground of the Indians. " With regard to the climate of the Peace River country, we are without such accurate information as might be ob- tained from a careful meteorological record, embracing even a single year, and its character can at present be ascer- tained merely from notes and observations of a general character, and the appearance of the natural vegetation. " It may be stated at once thattlie ascertained facts leave no doubt on the subject of the sufficient lengtli and warmth of the season to ripen wheat, otits, and barley, with all the ordinary root crops and vegetables, the only point which may admit of question being to what extent the occurrence of late and early frosts may interfere with growth. This remark is intended to aj)ply to the whole district previ- ously defined, though it must be remembered, in consider- ing the subj(!ct, that the conditions of places situated in the bottom of the trough-like river valley, and 600 to 800 feet below the j^hiteau, may be considerably different from those of its surface. " The summer season of 1879 was an unusual one, charac- terized by excessively heavy rain-fall, with cold raw weather hi the early summer months. These conditions did not extend to the west of the Rocky Mountains, but appear to have been felt over the entire area of the plains to the Red River Valley. As a result of this, the crops generally throughout the North- West were later than usual, and the mean temperat nre of tven the latter part of the summer appears to hav :. been rather abnormally low. Not- withstanding this, on my arrival at Dunvegan, on the 16th PEACE RIVER. 127 of August, small patches of wheat and barley m the garden of the fort presented a remarkably fine appearance, and were begmnmg to turn yellow. On my return to the fort on August 3Lst these were being harvested, their com- plete ripening having been delayed by overcast and chilly weather which prevailed between thene dates. At the first mentioned date potatoes were quite ripe, with the balls formed on the stalk, and the garden contained also fine cabbages, cauliflowers, beets, carrots, onions, lettuce, and tur- nips. Dwarf beans, cucumbers, and squashes, were also flourishing, and though these plants are particularly tender, showed no sign of frost. The two last named having been sown in the open ground did not appear likely to perfect their fruit. A few stalks of Indian Corn were also grow- ing, though it is improbable that this plant would ripen its seed in this district. " When this garden was again visited on the last day of August, the beans, cucumbers, and squashes had been cut down by a frost, but not completely killed. The potato tops were also slightly nipped. " Rev. M. Tessier, who has been at Dunvegan as a Mission- ary for some years, has always been able to ripen small, black butter-beans, but in some seasons not without diffi- culty owing to frosts. He has also tried a few grams of oats which he procured accidentally, and obtained a return of astonishing adundance. About the date just referred to the potato plants at Smoky River post (The Forks) were badly cut down by froit, the tubers being, however, quite ripe, fine and large. " On the 15th September Mr. R McConnell, my assist- ant, found the potatoes in the garden of the fort at the west end of Lesser Slave Lake, and on the level of the plateau, little affected by frost, with tubers large and ripe. Mr. H. J. Cambie also ascertained that wheat thrives at this place. We found some rude attempt at cultivation also 128 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. t 1 I'll [i 1 • ■ i ^! . i i i 1 i at the Cree Settler lent, which consistfl of a lew log houses built by Indians on the border of Sturgeon Lake, about seventy miles southwest of the west end of Lesser Slave Lake, and is at the average level of the country, with an elevation of about 2,000 feet. Here, on September 14th, the potato plants were slightly affected by frost, but not more so than observed with those at Dun vegan two weeks before. The tubers were quite ripe, but the Indians did not intend to dig them for about ten days. Turnips were very fine, and carrots, beets, and onions were good, though evi- dently cultivated with very little care. Two or three very small patches of barley had been almost completely destroyed by mice, but a few stalks remaining were quite ripe and with fine heads. The Indians here were very anxious to have a supply of garden seeds, which I have since been able to forward to them by the kindness of Messrs Stobart, Eden & Co., of Winnipeg. "At Fort St. John, ninety-five miles west of Dunvegan, and so much nearer the mountains, on July 26th, 1875, Professor Macoun states that potatoes, oats, barley and many varieties of vegetables were in a very flourishing state in "Nigger Dan's" garden. The oats stood nearly five feet high and the barley had made nearly an equal growth. The barley and oats were both ripe about the 12th of August. Professor Macoun was informed by Charlette at Hudson's Hope, thirty miles still further west, that in 1874 there was no frost from the 1st of May until the 16th of Septem- ber, in 1875 sowing commenced the last week in April. There appears to have been a frost on June 28th, but the first autumn frost occurred on the 8th of September, and Mr. Selwyn found the potato tops still green in the middle of the month. Mr. H. J. Cambie saw wheat flourishing here in July last, but on his return in September it had been cut down by frost. " Such are the notes that can be obtained on the growth of PEACE RIVEK. 129 cereals and vegctableH iii tlio iliwtrict in question. From information obtained at Dunvogan, it Hecms that the snow disappears about the middle of April, westerly winds sweep- ing it away fast. The river opens at ahont the same time. Cultivation begins at about the end of April or first of May. The river generally begins to I'reeze in November. The depth of snow, I was told, averages about two feet, an es- timate which agrees with Mr. Iloretzky's statement. Mr. Iloretzky was also told that the j)lains were often nearly bare up to the month of December, though the winter usually sets in with the month November. Sir Alexander Mackenzie remarked the same absence of snow in the early winter months of 1792. It was entirely gone on April 5th, 1793, and gnats and mosquitoes were troublesome on April 20th. Horses almost invariably winter out well without rtMiuiring to be fed. Hay should be provided for cattle, to ensure perfect safety, for a period of three or four months, though in some seasons it is necessary to I'eed the animals for a few weeks only. The Indians of the " Cree Settlement " on Sturgeon Lake, previously referred to, winter their horses without any difficulty round the borders of a neighbouring lake, the shores of which are partly open. From Hudson's Hope the horses are sent southward to Moberly's Lake to winter, and according to Mr. Selwyn, do well there. Lesser Slave Lake, with its wonderful natural meadows, has long been known as an excellent place for wintering stock, and is referred to as such by Sir J. Richardson. " Some general idea of the length and character of the seasons at Fort St. John may be gained by an examination of the extracts from the journals from 1866 to 1875, pul> lished by Mr. Selwyn. The dates of opening and closing of Peace River being an important clue to the mean tem- perature of the region, may be quoted as summarized by Professor Macoun in the same report (p. 156) : 9 130 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. : Ice breaking Ice drifting firet time. 1866, April 19Ui November 7th. 1867 ,. 2]8t Novemljci «th. 1868 „ 20th Novemlicr 7th. 1869 ., 23rd November 8th. 1870 .. 26th No record. 1871 ,, 18th Novenber 10th. 1872 ., 19th November 8th. 1 87n ,, 23rd Xoveuiber 4th. 1874 19th... October 31st. I'^T.'-) .. 16th ... K< • m \] 1^ ' '* The average date of the breaking up of the ice may thus be stated to be April 2lHt ; that on which ice is running on the river for the first time, November 7th. In 1792 and 1793, when wintering at the mouth of Smoky River, Sir Alexander Mackenzie observed the ice to be running for the first time on November 9th, while the river was clear of ice on the 25th April. I have been unable to find any precise records of the dates of closing and opening of the Saskatcho- wan, but Dr. Hector states these are usually the second week of November and the second week of April respectiveh . The Saskatchewan is a more rapid stream than the Peace. '' With regard to the probable difference between the actu- al valley of the Peace and the plateau forming the general surface of the country, Professor Macoun observes, speaking of the vicinity of Fort S^. John, that notwithstanding the difference in altitude tlie berries on the plateau ripened only about a week hster than those near the rivor, while he was informed that there was about the same difference in the time of disappearance of thw snow in spring. While at Dunvegan 1 ascertained that a similar difference was observed there, but it was added that this obtained chiefly with the wooded parts of the plateau, the snow disappearing on the prairies much about the same time as in the valley. In my diary, under date September 5th, I find the follow- ing entry : * Aspens and berry bashes about the Peace River Valley now looking ijuite autumnal. On the plateau PEACE KIVEK 131 800 or 900 feet higher, not nearly so much so. Slight tinge of yellow only on some aspen groves.' This difference, though not altogether constant and depending much on diversity of soil, appears to be actual. In October, 1872, Mr. Horetzky writes : ' We observed that, curiously enough, the vege- tation upon these uplands did not appear to have suffered so much from the effects of frost, this being probably due to the fact of the air in these upper regions being constantly in motion, while in the deep and capaciouo valley of the river the winds have often no effect.' " The difference between the valley and the plateau being thus very small, I have not treated separately the observa- tions for temperature taken by myself in the different situatioiis. Most of the observations, however, refer to the plateau, and including the whole time spent in the country, from the Middle Forks of Pine Hiver to the bank of the Athabasca, cover a period of nearly two months. The mean minimum temperature for the month of August, deduced from observations extending from the 6th to the 31st of the month, is 39*9°. The mean of observations at 6 a.m. during the same period is 42*3"' ; that of the observations at 6 p.m. 59*5°. In September the mean minimum tempera- ture was 28'1°. The mean of morning observations 34*3° ; of evening observations 51*5° I have endeavored to deduce from these observations mean temperatures for the months in question, by correcting them by the tables of hourly variations m temperature given by C. A. Schott in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge (No. 277), but find it impossible to do so, as the daily range is here so much greater than that of any of the places represented b^ the tables, which refer chiefly to the eastern portion of the continent. It would appear that while in most places the mean temperature of the day is reached about 8 p.m., it is found in the Peace River country not far From 6 p.m., by reason of the increased rapidity of loss of heat by radiation .' ■1 . „ . j i I 'i 132 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH- WEST. ii:ii due to greater elevation and drier atmosphere. The maxi- mum temperature was seldom observed, but th6 daily range was very great, and the maximum probably several times reached 80° in August, and often surpassed 70° in September. " From the 6th to the 31st August I registered two nights of frost, on the 13th and 20th of the month when the ther- mometer showed 32° and 26° respectively. Both of these were observed on the plateau, but one at least of them (that of the 20th) must have occurred also in the valley, from the effects produced at Dunvegan on tender vegetation. These frosts occurred in very fine weather, following a day of strong westerly wind, the result of which is to remove from the surface of the earth the whole of the lower heated layer of the atmosphere. This, succeeded by a calm and cloudless night with transparent sky, causes the ther- mometer to sink below the freezing point before morning When not preceded by strong wind, mere transparency of the atmosphere seems seldom or never to lead to frost in August in this district, as many beautifully starlight nights, without an approach of the mercury to freezing-point, were observed " Though in some cases such frosts as these may be general, and extend over a wide district of country, it is more usually found that they are quite local in character. A few floating clouds, or light wreaths of mist, may arrest radiation so far as to prevent frost over the greater part ot the country, while some spot accidentally exposed during the whole night under a clear sky experiences a tempera- ture below 32°. The contour and character of vegetation of the country also have much to do with the occurrence of frosts, and it is very frequently the case that river valleys are more subject to frosts than the upland districts. Dur- ing the month of September, in a region for the most part wooded, and often above the average altitude , between Dunvegan and the Athabasca, nineteen frosts were regis- PEACE RIVER. 133 tered, the actually lowest temperature being 20' on Septem- ber 18th. " Through the kindness of Colonel Jar vis, of the North- West Mounted Police, I have been able to secure a copy of records kept by Dr. Herkomer, of Fort Saskatchewan, on the Saskatchewan River, about twenty miles northeast of Edmonton. For comparison with the observed tempera- tures 111 the portion of the Peace River country now dis- cussed, they are invaluable ; for in the whole district sur- rounding Fort Saskatchewan and Edmonton, we now know from actual and repeated experiment that wheat and all other ordinary cereals and vegetables thrive, and yield most abundant crops. The climate in its great diurnal and annual range, corresponds exactly with that of the Peace River country. Fort Saskatchewan is situated on the brow of the Saskatchewan Valley, about seventy feet above the river, and therefore probably less liable to frosts than either the bottom of the river valley or extensive flat tracts of plain, where there is little circulation of air. This, with the position of the thermometers in regard to the buildings, leads to the belief that if at all in error, as representing the climate of the region generally, the indicated tempera- tures are slightly too great. The thermometer appears to have been read in all cases to the nearest degree only. " A comparison may be made between the temperature observed in the Peace River country during August and September, with those at Fort Saskatchewan, as follows : — ■ Peace River Country, mean of minima during August, SO-O". « « " " «« " September, 28-1"'. >' « « Frosts experienced during \ugust, 3. « " « « " September, 19. Fort Saslcatchewan, mean of minima during August, 39-3°. " " " September, 31 -l'. Frosts experienced during August, 0. « " " September, 15. mean of maxima for August, 77-8°. « " September, 6-81'. temperature of August, SS*)". " September, 49-6°. 11 « u u u u (1 II (1 1! 134 MANITOBA AND TllK (MIEAT NORTH-WEST. II! " The mejui of luaxiiiui and actual mean temperature for the month cannot be stated for tlie Peace River country. The actual mean for Fort Saskatchewan is obtained by adding the minima and maxima for each month together, and is probably very nearly correct. " While regretting tliat the data at disposal for the deter- mination of the agricultural value of the Peace River country are not more ample, we may, I believe, arrive with consi- derable certainty at the general fact that it is great From such comparison as can be made, it would be premature to allow that the climate of the Peace River is inferior to that of the region about Edmonton or the Saskatchewan. It is true that in both the Saskatchewan and Peace River dis- tricts the season is none too long for the cultivation of wheat, but if the crop can be counted on as a sure one — and experience seems to indicate that it may — the occurrence of oarlv and late frosts may be regarded with comparative indilVeivnce. The season is at least equally short through- out the whole fertile belt from the Peace River to Mani- toba, though early ami late frosts are not so common m the low valley of the Red River The almoat simultaneous advance of spring along the whole line of this fertile belt is indicated by the dates of the flowering of the various plants, a point referred to by me in some detail elsewhere. It is further unquestionable that the winter is less severe, and not subject to the same extremes in the Peace River and Upper Saskatchewan regions as in Manitoba. " We have already found reason to believe that the early .and late frosts, and not the absence of a sufficient aggregate amount of heat, constitute the limiting condition of wheat culture in the North- West ; but that neither the Saskatche- v/an nor the Peace River countries he upon the actual verge of the profitable cultivation of wheat appears to be proved by the fact that oats succeed on the Saskatchewan, and also — in so far as one or two seasons can be accepted as evidence PEACE RIVER 135 — on the Peace River; while it is well known that thin cereal is less tolerant of summer frost than wheat. This is further proved by the fact that at Fort Vermilion and Athabasca Lake, 180 and 300 miles respectively northeast of Dunvegan, Prof!. Maconn found wheat and barley ripen- ing well ; but in this instance the fact is complicated by the circumstance of the decreasing altitude of the country which introduces a new condition. As no knowledge has been gained of this country on the Lower Peace in itddition to that collected by Prof. Macoun in 1875, it is not included in the above discussion, though from it additional great areas might doubtless be jidded to the fertile tract. "Referring to the journals kept at Fort St. John, Mr. Selwyn, in the report already several times referred to, comes to the conclusion that the climate of the Peace River com- pares favorably with that of the Saskatchewan country, or Montreal. " It has often been stated in a general way that the ciiuse of the exceptionally favorable climate of the Saskat- chewan and Peace River countries, as comi)ared witli those of the eastern portion of the American continent, is to be found in the prevalence of warm westerly winds from the Pacific. Sir Alexander Mackenzie speaks of these westerly winds in Avinter. writing I had already observed at Athabasca that this wind never failed to bring us clear mild weather, whereas, when it blew from the opposite quarter, it produced snow. Here it is much more i)ercep- tible, for if it blows hard southwest for four hours a thaw is the consequence, and if the wind is at northeast it brings sleet and snow. To this cause it may be attributed that there is so little snow in that part of the world. These warm winds come off the Pacific Ocean, which cannot, in a direct line, be very far from us, the distance being so short that, though they pass over mountains covered with snow, there 18 not time for them to cool.' i I ! : I \ i \ f, \ 136 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST " Farther south these southwesterly currents are known as * Chinook Winds/ and similar consequences are observed to accompany their occurrence. Sir Alexander Mackenzie, however, in the summer of 1793, found the distance to the Pacific coast from his wintering place, at the mouth of Smoky River, greater than he appears to have imagined at the time he penned the above quoted remarks, and it is difficult indeed to understand how currents of air, blowing for at least 350 miles across a country which is for the most part mountainous, should retain enough warmth to temper effectually the climate of the plains to the east. This diffi- culty would appear to be particularly great in summer, when the mountains are largely snow-clad, and the mean temperature of the Peace and Saskatchewan Valleys, is pro- bably considerably in excess of that of the region interven- ing between them and the sea. " In addition to the favorable climatic conditions indicat- ed by the thermometer, the length of the day in summer in the higher northern latitudes favors the rapid and vigorous growth of vegetation, and takes the place, to a certain extent, of heat in this respect. This has been sup- posed to be the case from the luxuriant vegetation of some northern regions, but Alfonse de CandoUe has put the matter beyond doubt by subjecting it to direct experiment. In latitude 56", which may be taken as representing that of much of the Peace River country, sunrise on 21st June occurs at 3h. 12iu., sunset at 8h. 50ni ; while six degwees further south in latitude 50°, which may be assumed to represent Manitoba, sunrise occurs on the same day at 3h. 49m., sunset at 8h. 13m. The duration of sunlight, in the first case, is ITh. 38m. ; in ^he second, 16h. 24m., or one hour and a quarter in excess in the northern locality. This excess of course decreases to zero at the spring and autumn equinoxes, and the difference is reversed in the winter. " A further circumstance giving to the Peace River country PEACE RIVER. 137 and that on the upper part of the Saskatchewan, other things being equal, a value as farming land acre for acre considerably greater than that of most parts of the North- West, is the immunity of this region from the visits of the devastating locust or grasshopper {Galoptenua spretus). I have elsewhere discussed the question of locust invasions, in several papers, and it has since been taken up by the United States Entomological Commission It must suffice to state here, that while a long series of years may pass with- out the occurrence of serious invasions, these must continue always, or at least for a very long time, to constitute a drawback to the whole territory lying south of a line drawn about sixty miles souoxx of Edmonton, and thence nearly following the border of the wooded country eastward and southward to Manitoba." Little Slave Lake lies nearly eagt and west. It is about seventy-five miles long, with an average breadth of about five miles. The south shore is low and marshy Extensive marshy meadows are around the southwestern extremity, but owing to willow thickets their extent is unknown. South of the lake the country is hilly, some of the hills even rising into mountains, but to the north the country becomes level and is said to pass into marsh some distance from the lake Vegetables in abundance are raised at the Post, and wheat and barley grow well but are seldom sown. Barley ripened here on August 12th, 1872, wh'le at Edmon- ton the same year it did not mature until the 26th of that month. Large numbers of white fish are caught in the lake, and in the surrounding woods moose are quite common, being indeed the chief food of the people. Many beaver are still to be found in the neighbourhood, and the Rev. Mr. Gordon reports that as many as 8,000 were obtained in the winter of 1878. From the Rocky Mountains to very nearly Fort Simpson i^'l » ^ 138 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. in latitude 62° there is scarcely any difterence in soil or climate, except that the latter improves as we recede from the mountains. Near Fort Vermilion, in latitude 58' 24', I found both soil and climate everything I could desire, The soil here is of the very best description, evidently alluvial and of great depth. About half a mile from the river the land rises nearly fifty feet, with increased luxu- riance of vegetation, although two degrees north of St John barley and vegetables grow much quicker and ripen earlier than at that Post. Barley sown on 8th May was cut August 6th, having been on the ground just ninety days. TurnipH and early rise potatoes were large with indications of heavy crops. The whole country around this point is a plain, elevated from i\h\ to one hundred feet above the river. From frequent enquiries regarding the character of the soil at a distance from the river, it is believed to be exactly liki^ that seen at Vermilion. The country intervening between this and the Caribou Mountains seemed level or to slope gradually up towards the mountains, and as far as the eye could see Avas covered with aspen forest interspersed with a few groves of spruce. No frosts occurred from early in May to September 8th, 1875. Often whole seasons pass without frost from early in May to October. Peace River at this point is 3,000 feet wide. At Little Red River, farther north, the climate seemed still milder, and if anything the soil richer. Cucumbers sown and ripened in the open air were seen August 15th, and all garden vegetables were ripe. Fort Chipweyan, at the west end of Lake Athabasca has oonq)aratively poor soil in its vicinity, being largely composed of sand ; still here 1 obtained fine samples of wheat and barley that took the bronze medal at the Centennial Exhibition, held in Phila- delphia in the summer of 1876. The land is very low and swampy, being but little elevated above the Lake. Mr. Hardisty, Chief Factor in charge of Fort Simpson, PEACE RIVER. 139 informed me that barley always ripened there, and that wheat was sure four times in five. Melons, if started under glass, ripen well Frost seldom does much damage. Chief Trader McDougall says that Fort Liard, in latitude 61° north, has tho warmest summer climate in the whole ' region. All kinds of grain and garden vegetables always come to maturity. He has been on the Youcan for twelve years, and says that in most seasons barley ripens under the Arctic circle in longitude 143° west. The localities mentioned were not chosen for their good soil, but for their facilities for carrying on the fur trade or for Mission purposes. Five-sixths of the land on Peace River is just iis good as the points cited, and will produce as good crops in the future. The reason so little land is culti- vated is owing to the fact that the inhabitants — whites and Indijms — SLieJlesh eaters. For three years the Rev. M. Garrioch has been farming at Vermilion, and has definitely settled the question of fertility and climate at that point. All kinds of grain ripen well and cattle winter as well there as anywhere else. The testimony of residents, and the meteorological obser- vations which have been taken at Fort Simpson for a series f}^ years, show that wheat can be successfull3^ grown as far north as lat. 61", and barley up to the 66th parallel, or under the Arctic Circle. All the lakes of the north teem with fish of the very best quality, — whitefish and enormous trout are the principal. Geese, and ducks during the migrations are in countless thousands, and supply the whole population with food. At Fort Chipweyan many thousand geese are killed every tall and preserved for winter use. Not less than 25,000 dried white fish are required for the post every winter. Part of these is fed to the train dogs and the others serve as rations for the men when J'resh fish are scarce. The seat of the fishery is at the Quutre Fourche liiver, a point where four 140 MANITOBA AND 'rUT. GREAT NORTH-WEST. rivers meet, about eight miles from the Fort. Here fish are cauglit every day in the year. So little is known of the cou::*ry between the Athabasca and Peace Rivers that I have not attempted to describe it. Rich soil, !.owever, is known to prevail, but much of the land is reportvid marshy on account of beaver. CHAPTER IX. Climate of the North-West. Notes from Blodgett's Climatology — Its Great Value — Lake Superior Compared with North-West — Summer Heat Decisive of Climate — Thermal Liues Curve Northward — Spring opens Simultaneously on a Northwest line Between St. Paul's and Mackenzie Rivers — Deserts not Found North of Lat. 47* — Rain Sufficient on the Northern Plain — Buffalo more Abundant in the North — Peace River Compared with Germany and Russia — Canadian North-West the Better — A Prophecy Thirty Years Ago — Size of our North-West — Lord Selkirk's Opinions Seventy Years Ago — 600,000 Square Miles with a Mild Climate. The region to which the following remarks will mainly apply is bounded on the south by parallel of lat. 49° ; on the north by parallel of lat. 60° ; on the east by meridian 95° ; on the west by the line of the Rocky Mountains. An area, in round numbers, of 667,600 square miles. For many years this vast region was almost a blank on our maps — little was known of it, either by Englishmen or Canadians, beyond the fact that furs were obtained there- from. More than twenty years ago, however, Americans recognized its value, and foretold its great future and even described it as the prospective granary of the world. In 1857 Capt. Palliser was commissioned by the British Government to examine the country south of the 64th parallel. Commencing his examination at the intemar tional boundary, in the vicinity of the Red River, he made a few traverses and reached Fort Ellice late in the season. Proceeding up the right bank of the Qu'Appelle to its head, he crossed the South Saskatchewan and proceeded northward to Carlton, where he wintered. In June, 1858, he turned southwest and spent the summer on the Great Plains, wintering that year at Edmonton. In the foUow- i 142 MANITOBA AND TlIK OKEAT NORTH-WEST t^!j: ing Mpring he again proceeded south to the boundary, but afterwards passed to the west into British Columbia. He reported in very favorable tonus of the northern portion of the country that he had traversed, but of the southern portion he spoke much less favorably — alleging that running water was very scarce ; that no wood was to be seen except in the river valleys ; and that, owing to the enormous herds of buffalo which covered the plains at that time, leetl in many places was poor. As I'iir as public opinion was concerned the only imme- diate result of this exploration was that a certain district in the north became known as the " Fertile Belt," and that the southern part, about which so little was said, was set down, or assumed to be, arid and of slijj^ht value; an opinions till generally j)revalent and mainly fostered by writers whose views have been based on a misinterpreta- tion of Capt. Palliser's remarks. The survey of the International Boundary and the es- tablishment of the Mounted Police Force in 1874, tendered in son.'e degree to dispel the cloud which hung over the south. Frequent journeys have done much since in the same direction, yet in the minds of the general public, and even of many others who should be better informed, the old prejudice, in a measure, exists. In this case the past only repeated itself. How many are the instances of wealth unknown having remained for centuries under the eye of the dwellers on the spot, unap- preciated and untouched ? In our day the growth of the Dominion, demanding a through coramuiiieation from east to west, and the exigen- cies of the over-populated countries of the old world, have been the means of enlightening the world as to the extent of the resources of the " Great North-West," thus fulfilling the beneficent intentions of the all-wise Creator. Explorers have travers(^d its length, settlers have here CLIMATK OF THE NORTII-WKST. 143 and there dotted the new hind, and tlie reportH of one and the other only Btimulate us to further reHearch. Amongst those sent out to explore, 1 was first commis- sioned by Mr. Fleming in 1872, to examine the Hora of the prairies between Winnipeg and Edmonton. The same yeai* I was despatched in comi)any with Mr. Charles Iloretzki, to explore the Peace River and examine the country on its banks. The journeys resulted in the discovery of the low passes through the Rocky Mountains, and of an exten- sive tract of fertile country, since known as the Peace River District. In 1875, 1 accompanied Mr. Selwyn, Director of the Geological Survey, in the capacity of botanist, to British Columbia and from thence by the Peace River Pass to the east of the Rocky Mountains. Circumstances compelled me to descend the Peace River from«the Rocky Mountains to Lake Athabasca, and 1 was thus enabled to see the country lis far north as lat. 59^ Turning eastward at this point a journey of 1200 miles brought me to Winnipeg. The general conclusions which I arrived at from my ex- plorations of 1872 and 1875 were : 1st, That as there was hut one flora common to the region extending from eight to twelve degrees of latitude, or as far north as 60", and as that flora required a high summer temperature for its exist- ence, the thermometer would be found to show a corres- pondingly even distribution of heat throughout the whole district. 2nd, Tl t exceptional or special conditions must exist to produce t? at high and even distribution of heat discovered as ranging over so great an area. These conclusions have since been established as facts by the recorded observations sent in from the Meteorological .stations at Winnipeg, Fort McLeod, and Fort Calgarry in the south, and Fort Rae and Fort Simpson in the north. (See Meteorological Report for 1878.) In 1879 my attention was mainly directed to an investi- 1 m 144 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. gation of the causes of the supposed aridity of the district lying to the south. I found {>, parched surface, dried and withered grasses, and in short every appearance of the ex- istence of such aridity ; but closer examination showed that these indications were illusory. At the point " Blackfoot Crossing " lat 50° 43' where the consequences of aridity appeared the strongest, I came upon ground broken up in the spring, bearing excellent crops of all kinds — oats being four feet high, while on the land outside the fence the grass was burnt up and all other vegetation withered. From this I argued that the rain-fall in the district was evidently ample fjr the requirements of vegetation, but that, until the baked crust was broken, it could not percolate the ground as rapidly as it fell and so a great portion was evaporated by the dry atmosphere and lost. Thus the apparent aridity vanishes before the first efforts of husbandry. Next to the question of aridity was that of the high and even temperature of climate. On this point I simply accumulated data bearing on the observations of former years, all of which tended to prove that the great plain to the northwestward, and north of lat. 49° extend- ing along the Saskatchewan and other rivers between the 100th and 115th Meridians, and the narrow strip of coast north of Montery, California, present decided features of difference from other districts of the American continent. These differences and peculiarities I shall now deal with sei'iatim. TEMPERATURE. It was long ago asserted as a principle by Geologists that " land in quantity situated to the southward of lat 40° north, very materially raises the temperature of lands lying to the north of such parallel." (Sir C. Lyell). To the ex- pression *•' land in quantity," I would add, when its character is that of a desert or arid nature. Another maxim is thus laid down by a well known writer on American CLIMATE OF THE NORTH-WEST. 145 Climatology (Blodgett) " that high arid plains are indica- tive of great summer heat, of an arid atmosphere, and of little rain or snowfall." Now the conditions required to test the accuracy of both these propositions are presented in the position occupied by the North-West Territory. South of our boundary, within the United States, lies a vast tract of land, generoUy arid or desert, of which at least 500,000 square miles are embraced in a plateau which has a general level of 6000 feet. At Laramie City in lat. 42° it is about 7000 feet above sea level, thence northward it rapidly falls off so that when it reaches our boundary in lat. 49° at Pembina, it is considerably under 1000 feet. At the base of the Rocky Mountains it is under 4000 feet. From the boundary the plain extends far to the north and only terminates at the Arctic Sea. In such a wide range of latitude it might well be expected that a considerable difference of temperature would be found. The f .lowing Table, however shows the temperature as being wonderfully uniform. (See Meteorological Report, 1878) : Placb Lat. Winnipeg 49.53.. Fort McLeod.. .49.39.., Norway House . . 54 . 00 . . . Fort Simpson. . .61 .52 . . , LoNo. W ...97.07. . .113.42., . . 98.00., . .121.25., Junk. ..59.2, ..GO. 6. ,.54.9. ..58.8, July. .65.8,. .63,3.. .63.5,, .63.4.. AuOkJST. ,.,.63.3.. ,...57,0.. ...61.2.. ,. ..63.2.. Mean or Sum. Mo8. 62.8 60,3 59,9 61,8 In the same parallels of latitude in Europe the tempera- ture is recorded as follows. (See Blodgett) : Plack. Lat, Penzance, S. W. England 50.08 , , Cracow, in Poland 50.04 , . Kocningsber^g, in Prussia 54.42 , . St. Petersburg, in Russia 59.56 . . , JCNS. July. ..59.5 62.1 ..64.0 65.8 ..57.4 62.6, ,.58.2 62.7, AtJOUST. ,.,61.1,. , , . 64.9 . . ,,,61.7.. , . . 60.8 . . Mkan op Sum. Mob. 60.9 . , , . 64.9 ,...60.6 60.6 We see that the summer temperature in the North-West Territories is exceptional. Believing, however, that in addition to the quoted causes, there are others which con- tribute to this result of exceptional temperature, I purpose for the present, to reserve the fact for further comment, 10 ' I 146 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST and pass on to the subject of isothermals. The recorded lines of equal temperature show that the various lines of heat, as they make westing from the eastern coast of the continent, tend in summer to curve upwards from the Gulf of Mexico in a northwesterly direction to a point in lat. 60", long. 110° west. At this point the mean summer tempera- ture is 70" F., while at Winnipeg, on the same parallel of lat., but 15° further east, the temperature is but 65°. Tra- cing these isothermals still further north, the line of great- est heat pjisses near Fort Vermilicm in lat. 58° 24' and long. 116° 30' west. I may mention that at this point I found barley cut on August 6th, 1875, and wheat almost ripe. Still farther north and west the table shows that Fort Simp- son has a mean summer temperature of 61° 8' F. Turning to the west coast, the isothermal lines commence to turn northward from the Gulf of California, and for a time skirt the western side of the Rocky Mountains. On reaching the low point of the chain between hit 41° and 45° they turn to the east, cross the mountains, and strike the Dominion l)()undary on the 115th meridian. These westerly currents, nimed the " Chinooks " have been known to cause a rise in the temperature of 60° in a few hours. When in that country I enquired from a Half-breed about their effect on the snow. His reply was, " the Chinooks lick up snow, water and all." After crossing the Rocky Mountains the thermometric cur- rent of the west meets that of the east at or about the Hand Hills in lat. 51° 20', long. 112". There, in 1879, 1 found that for days together, during August, the thermometer in the shade registered from 87° to 92^^ F. From the Hand Hills the united currents, following their resultant direc- tion, carry the temperature of latitudes extending almost to New Orleans over the North-West, and confer on it the blessings of a climate, not only exceptional as regards character, but productive of results to the agriculturist. CLIMATE OF THE NORTH-WEST. 147 which, I believe, are unsurpassed in any other part of the world. Returning to the course taken by the east and west cur- rents before their union at the Hand Hills, it is a matter for consideration, why that from the east departs from the natural law which would give to it an eastward, in place of a westward bend, while the western current follows the natural law and bends to the eastward. The answer to this question is the key to almost every clirn- atological peculiarity of the North -West. The data which we have for the investigation of the question : " Why does the eastern current of heat proceed- ing northwestward from the Gulf of Mexico bend to the west ? " are : 1st. Recorded observations, which show that land of a desert character is heated to a greater degree than the land or water adjoining. 2nd. Recorded observations which show that currents of air are constantly on the move to where the land is most heated. 3rd. The fact that to the westward of the tract running northward f m the Gulf of Mexico lies the " Great Ameri- can Desert." To my mind no argument is needed to show that the cause of the divergence of the eastern thermometric current to the westward is solely due to the position and effect pro- duced by the American Desert. A confirmation of this inference is offered in the eastern hemisphere, where the Southeast Trade winds are drawn out of their course b"^ the heated atmosphere of the Western Indies, and result in the Southwest Monsoon, and further by the northeastern trend of the isothermals in Northern Asia. In the transition from summer to winter we find the desert losing its tem- perature (terrestrial and atmospheric) and consequent attrac- tive intluence on air currents wanner than its own. The first SI' i'- t ■ i; il 148 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. r effect of this is that the isothermals pass away from their northern altitude and sink southward ; next, when freed from the desert influences, they no longer trend to the west- ward, but to the eastward. On the withdrawal of the southern warm currents, other currents from the north and r^om the west follow them up, particularly on the east side of the Rockies, and establish the prevailing northwest win- ter winds, which being affected by the temperature of the Arctic regions on the one hand, and by the mountains on the other, bring the minimum line of cold far to the south. Were the American Desert an inland sea, the summers of our plains would lose their exceptional character, and our winters would be like those of Eastern Europe. In a book like the present, however, it would be out of place to discuss the climate of the eastern hemisphere ; but it could be shown that precisely similar causes to those which I have specified exist there, and are productive of the same results. HUMIDITY. m The rainfall of the North-West offers as favorable a con- trast to that of other districts as the temperature. Rains usually come just when they are wanted and cease when vegetation no longer requires them, and when their con- tinuance would be f '.mental to harvesting. Formerly the rainfall of a couju ' was judged by the average for the whole year. Such - comparison, however, is misleading. What we want to know is the quantity that may be expected to fall :— (a) During the period of vegetation, and its distribution month by month, (b) During the harvest months. The period of vegetation in the North-West embraces May, June, July and August. The harvest months are Sep- tember and October. I append the following tabulary ar- ranged statements of rainfall : — CLIMATE OF THE NORTH-WEST. 149 Table I.— For the Four Montlui of Vegetation. Plack Position. Raini'ali, in Incheh. Total for 4 Lat. Alt. May. June. July Aug. Months. Winnipeg, Manitoba Toronto, Ontario Fort Uiley, KanRaa Bochester, New York. . . . 49.53 43.39 39.03 43.07 740 350 1300 50G 2.17 2.98 4.14 3.04 3.42 3.04 3.(t« 3.25 2.68 3.72 I.OH 3.01 7.11 2.81 2.99 2.00 15.37 12.55 11.29 11.90 Table Il.—For the Tio(t Mouths of Harvest. Place. I'osition. liAINKAL'ilNT, -HKS. Total Lat Alt. Hcpt. Oct. 0.03 2.96 0.02 3.39 Winnioeer. Manitoba 49.53 43 39 39.03 43.07 740 350 1«00 500 0.73 4.45 4.18 3.0.') 0.76 Toronto, Ontario Fort Kiley, KansiiH llocheKter, New York 7.41 4.20 0.41 Having stated what the recorded facts as to rainfall are, I will give my reasons for asserting that these facts are the necessary consequences of the physical conditions existing m the west of the North American Continent. In the beginning of this chapter I referred to the posi- tion of the Great American Desert, and pointed out one of its effects on the air-currents rising northward from the Gulf of Mexico — viz., its power to attract and draw them to itself, and to the westward of their natural course. Another effect arises from the heat given off by radiation during the summer months. The Gulf air currents, laden with moisture, when drawn over the desert, are met by the rari- fied and heated air ascending from its surface, and the rain which in the ordinary course they would shower down, being prevented from falling, passes on and is wafted by the prevailing winds m the direction of our North- West. There their long borne p.nd priceless load is given forth m the form of our summer rains. • ! '■ i 150 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. if ' I 'f Having shown cause for the summer rains, I may now state that the simple "suspension of those desert effects which gave the summer rains," is the cause of the almost total absence of rain in the autumn and winter periods. It was shown when writing on the winter temperature, that as the desert cooled down the main air currents from the Gulf of Mexico no longer pursued a westward course, but passed to the eastward. This change of direction takes them over the region of the Canadian Lakes, where they deposit an abundant rainfall. AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS. The progress of the seasons and the labors of the hus- bandman may be summarized as follows : — In April the hot and unclouded sun clears from the lands the last of its light snow covering, thaws, and at the same time dries the ground sufficiently to fit it for the plough, and almost simultaneously for seeding. Germination quickly follows and the young roots, moistened by the thawing of the subsoil, follow the pores opened out by the disintegrating power of the winter frosts, and penetrate tc a depth inconceivable to those who have not put the matter to the test. By the time that the rainy of May and June come, the roots have a firm hold of the ground, and growth is extraordinary. The July and early August rains nourish and swell the ear of the now ripening crops, and complete the promise of the early spring. Towards the end of August the winds change and the almost rainless period sets in and continues all winter. The farmer harvests his crop without loss and in the highest possible condition, stacking it in the open air, without even the necessity of thatching it for the winter. TO STOCK BREEDERS The advantages are equally great. Storms of sleet or wet snow are unknown on the western plains. The snow CLIMATE OF THE NORTH-WEST. 151 is always dry and light, hence cattle and horses may be left out the whole winter without suffering from wet. Intense cold they may experience, but stock-raisers know that where the cold is dry, cattle are not hurt. Hence cattle can be raised on the North-West Plains without buildings for win- tering them. Reference was made to Blodgett's Climatology in the foregoing remarks, and I now quote a part of his work bearing on the climate of our North- West, written by him over thirty years ago. A careful study of what he says will he necessary to the reading with profit of the succeeding chapter : " By reference to the illustration of the distribution of hea» we see that the cold at the north of the great lakes does not represent the same latitude further west, and that beyond them the thermal lines rise as high in latitude, in most cases, as at the west of Europe. Central Russia, the Baltic districts and the British Islands, are all reproduced in the general structure, though the exceptions here fall against the advantage, while there they favor it through the influence of the Gulf Stream. " Climate is indisputably the decisive condition, and when we find the isothermal of 60° for the summer rising on the interior American plains to the 61st parallel, or fully as high as its average position for Europe, it is impossible to doubt the existence of favorable climates over vast areas now un- occupied. " This favorable comparison may be tiaced for the winter also, and m the average for the year. The exceptional cold for the mountain plateaux, and of the coast below the lord parallel, masks the advantage more or less to those who approach these areas from the western part of the Central States, and from the coast of California ; but though the distant mountain ranges remain high at the north, the width of their base, or of the plateau from which they rise, is much \ 1 1 152 MANITOBA AND TllK GREAT NORTH-WEST. Ies8 than at tlie 42ii(l parallel. The elevated tractH are of leBH extent, and the proportion of cultivable Hurface is far greater. " It will be Heen that the tliermal lines for each season are thrown further northward on passing Lake Superior to the westward, in the charts of this work, than in those of the military report prepared by the author. At the time those v^ere drawn the number ( ' the • sevvations beyond the limits of the United States v, ;rv jo small that the full ex- pression was not given to thi i>tut;Htics then used, in the fear that some correction would ultimiU' V be found to apply to them, reducing the extreme northward curvatures they indicated. But a further collection and comparison warrants the position now given to the thermal lines, placing them further northward than before, and extending them in a course due northwest from Lake Superior to the 58th parallel. For the extreme seasons, winter and summer, this accurate diagonal extension of the thermal lines across the areas of latitude and longitude is very striking. The Buffalo winter on the upper Athabasca, at least as safely as in the latitude of St. Paul, Minnesota; and the spring opens at nearlij the same time along the immense line of plains from St. Paul to Mackenzie Ricer. " The quantity of rain is not less important than the measure of heat to all purposes of occupation ; and for the plains east of the Rocky Mountains there may reasonably be some doubt as to the sufficiency ; and doubts on this point whether the desert belt of lower latitudes is prolonged to the northern limit of the plains. If the lower deserts .ire due to the altitude and mass of the mountains simply, it would be natural to infer their existence along the whole line, where the Rocky Mountains run parallel and retain their altitude ; but the dry areas are evidently due to other causes prim- arily, arid they are riot found above the AUth parallel in fact. It is decisive of the general (question of the sufficiency of CLIMATE OF THE NORTH-WEST. jr.Q ).j raiii, to find the entire Hurlace of tlie upper plainn either well graased or well wooded ; and recent inlbrmation on these points almost warrants the assertion that there are no barren tracts of consequence after we pass the bad lands, and the Coteau of the Missouri. Many portions of these plains are known to be peculiarly rich in grasses; and probably the finest tracts lie along the eastern base of the mountains, in positions corresponding to the most desert-like of the plains at the south. The higher latitudes certainly differ widely from the plains which stretch from the Platte southward to the Llano Estacado of Texas, and none of the references made to them by residents or travellers indicate desert characteristics. Buffldo are far more abundant on the north- ern plains, and they remain tiirough the winter at their extreme border, taking shelter in the belts of woodland on the upper Athabasca and Peace Hivers. Grassy savannas like these necessarily imply an adequate supply of rain; and there can be no doubt that the correspondence with the European plains in like geographical position — those of East- ern Germany and Russia — is quite complete in this respect. If a difference exists it is in favor of the American plains, which have a greater proportion of surface waters, both as lakes and rivers. I ! " Next the area of the plains east of the Rocky Moun- tains, is not less remarkable than the first for the absence of attention heretofore given to its intrinsic value as a pro- ductive and cultivable region, within easy reach of emigra- tion. This is a wedge-shaped tract, ten degrees of longitude in width at its base along the 47th parallel, inclined north- westward to conform to the trend of the Rocky Mountains, and terminating not far from the 60th parallel in a narrow line, which still extends along the Mackenzie for three or four degrees of latitude, in a climate barely tolerable. Lord Selkirk began his efforts at colonization in the neigh- 164 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. II bourhood of Winnipeg as early as 1815, and from personal knowledge he then claimed for this tract a capacity to sup- port thi^-ty millions inhabitants. All the grains of the cool temperate latitudes are produced abundantly. Indian com may be grown on both sides of the Saskatchewan, and the grass of the plains is singularly abundant and rich. Not only in the earliest exploration of these plains, but now they are the great resort for buffalo herds, which with the domestic herds, and the horses of the Indians and the colo- nists remain on them and at their woodland borders through- out the year. *' The simple fact of the presence of these vast herds of wild cattle on plains at so high a latitude, is ample proof of the climatological and productive capacity of the country. Of these plains and their looodland borders the valuable surface measures fully, jive hundred thousand square miles** w t CHAPTER X. Practical Remarha on Climate. Mr. Anderson, of Listowel, Ireland, on Climate — Great Heat Cansos no Inconvenience — Intense Cold Hardly Felt — Manitoba Winter Climate Better than that of Ontario — Snow Seldom over Twenty Inches in Depth— .Seasons in Manitoba — Manitoba in the Middle of the Continent — Long Days of SuninuT — Autumn Weather —Snowfall — Heat and Humidity — Comparison of Summer Temperatures — Warm Summers and Dry Cold Winters — Table of Mean TemiM-raturus — Summer Temperatures Compared — Peace Hirer Climate— Manitoba Climate— Hardness of Wheat -Grains in the Cluster— Min- nesota nowhere — Peace River Wheat — Isothennal Lines — Com and Wheat Zones — Temperature Necessary for Successful Wheat Culture — The Wheat Zones — Probably Three-fourths of the Wheat Lands of America in the New North-West— 200,000,000 Acres — Extent of the Territorj'— Lord Selkirk's Opinions Seventy Years Ago — Great American Desert— Its Effect on Climate — Changes Observed Passing North — Hovrthe Isothermal Lines Curve — Where the Heated Airtiomes From — Two Currents passing North— Summer Temperature the same over 300,000 Square Miles — Moisture in Sum- mer, its Absence in Winter — Rainfall of the Year — Progress of the Seasons — Fall Frosts not Injurious, Climate Unsurpassed for Farmers — Its Possibilities Unlimited — Depth of Winter Frost— Its Beneficial Effects on Soil— Table of Rainfalls for 1879 and 1880 — Rainfall and Cloudlessness — Testimony of Settlers Regarding the Healthinesa of the Climate. In the preceding chapter I have given the facts and deductions regarding the temperature and liumidity of the atmosphere of the North-West as noticed by myself. I shall now give details of a more practical nature, and adduce other evidence just as conclusive as my own, regarding sum- mer and winter temperature, rainfall, and all other kindred .subjects which naturally fall under the term climate. The following extract is from the report of Mr. R. H. B. P. Anderson, of Listowel, Co. Kerry, Ireland. In it he gives his views of the climate and seasons as observed by himself. These are worth more than a passing glance, as he touches with a master hand the most salient points of the subject. " The Climate of Manitoba and the North-West is one of the settler's most serious drawbacks, but \ve are inclined to look upon it as a much more serious affair than it really is. Mi 1:1 156 MANITOBA AND TlIK GKEAT NOUTII-WKST. Description will do little to remove these impressiona, it must be expe "cMiced to be understood. At home, exces- sive heat is generally accompanied by oppressiveness, with its attendant weariness and inertia; and cold, as u rule, with dampness, which makes it raw and piercing. Now this is not the case in Manitoba or the North-West. The heat at 100^ was undoubtedly very intense, but — and I apeak from personal experience — without sultriness. I per- spired freely, but otherwise felt no inconvenience, and had energy enough for any amount of work. This was au unusual degree of heatj the sunnuer mean is, I believe, about 70". Usually during sununer there is a pleasant breeze, and the higher the thermometer stands the more likely is there to be a breeze. No matter how hot the day, the night is sure to be cool. In winter the cold is very great, but nothing like what it is at home in proportion to the degrees of frost ; if it were, animal life would cease, for the thermometer sometimes sinks to 40" and 50° below zero — just imagine what that would mean in England 1 but when it does so it is certain to be accompanied by a bright and perfectly still atmosphere and a warm sun. However, as a rule, it stands at from 10° to 15". As I had not au opportunity of experiencing it myself, I was not content with the testimony of the ordinary settler concerning it, but had that of such men as the Bishop of the Saskatche- wan and clergymen of various denominations, as well as bankers and others, on whose opinion I could rely. All agreed in saying that one feels no colder when the thermo- meter stands at 40" than when it is at 10° below zero, and that winter is a delightful part of the year. Numbers of people from Ontario said that the climate of Manitoba com- pared favorably with that of Ontario. There are, however, slight deviations which are intensely disagreeable. In the summer there are sometimes extremely high winds and hail- storms, and in the winter storms of wind and snow — PRACTICAL REMARKS ON CLIMATE. 157 * blizzards* as they are called. In Hpring and early autumn frosts sometimes occur, which do no good to the crops ; but all these things apply to the Western States of America just as much as they do to Manitoba. Indians camp out in their wretched canvas-covered tents during the most severe winters, and white men, when hunting, often do the same, and think nothing of it. A curious fact is that Europeans, for the first two winters, bear the cold better than Cana- dians. Snow does not fall to any extent till the beginning of the year, and seldom exceeds an average of eighteen or twenty inches in depth. When the thaw comes it is unaccompanied by that abominable slushiness we have at home ; the snow evaporates leaving the ground dry. During spring and early summer an immense quantity of rain falls ; drought, which so often ruins the farmer in the United States, never occurs here. The dew is so heavy that one would imagine that there had been a fall of rain in the night. The seasons are as follows : Spring — April and May ; Summer — June, July, August, and part of September ; Autumn — part of September to the middle of November; and then Winter. Of course in so extensive a country as Canada, there are slight diflferences in climate. In Ontario the harvest is ten days earlier than in Manitoba. All agree that as regards health the climate of the North-West cannot be surpassed." Anotb'^r observer. Rev. iEneas McDonell Dawson, writes as follows : — " Manitoba is situated in the middle of the continent, nearly equally distant between the Pole and the Equator, and the Atlantic k id Pacific Oceans. Its climate gives conditions of decided lieat in summer, and decided cold in winter. The snow goe^ away and ploughing begins in April, which is about the same time as in the older Pro- vinces of Canada, the Northern United States on the At- lantic seaboard, and the North-Western States, Minnesota and Wisconsin. The crops are harvested in August and 158 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. > f September. The long, sunny days of summer bring vegeta- tion of all sorts to rapid maturity. The days are warm and the nights cool. Autumn begins about the 20th September and last still November, when the regular frost sets in. The winter proper comprises the months of December, January, February and March. Spring comes in April. Th*^ summer months are part of May, June, July, August, and part of September. In winter the thermometer sinks to thirty and forty degrees below zero , but this degree of cold in the dry atmosphere of the North-West does not produce any un- pleasant sensations. The weather is not felt to be colder than that in the Province of Quebec, nor so cold as milder winters in climates where the frost, or even a leas degree of cold than frost, is accompanied with dampness. In times of wind storms, however, the cold is found to be specially searching. The testimony of settlers is universal as to the fact that the winter is on the whole, both pleasant and healthy ; and former residents of both Ontario and Quebec state that they like it quite as well as that of those provinces. " Snow does not fall on the prairies to an average greater depth than eighteen inches, and buffaloes and horses graze out of doors all winter. They scratch the snow off the prairie grass, and grow fat upon it. Horned cattle graze out of doors part of the winter, but in some states of the weather they require to be brought in. Instances are, however, stated in which horned cattle have grazed out all winter. " Heat and humidity are the two chief elements of climate, and these two divisions of the North-west, the prairie and wooded, have high summer temperatures and heavy summer rains. South of the parallel of Manitoba, lie the regions of summer droughts and great heat — producing the immense deserts over the western territories of the United States, Tlie abundance of rain in British America, with summer temperature sufficient to mature all the great staples of the temperate zones, makes it a good agricultural country. The PRACTICAL REMARKS ON CLIMATE. 159 absence of summer rains, with high temperatures, leaves vast areas of the interior of the United States barren wastes, especially those parts of the country westward from the 100th Meridian or west of the Missouri. The following table will serve for comparison between the summer tem- peratures of the Red River and the countries south : — Jdnb. July. Aucurt. Summku Mean. Kcd River G9.10 71. IC (i8.03 67, 7« Chicago 62.07 70.08 (iH.Of) 67.03 Iowa 66.04 70.05 (J8.09 68.06 Wisconsin 01.07 68.06 65.07 65. «3 New York 64.02 68.05 66.07 66. (»5 Toronto 64.02 67.05 (i5.(io 66.08 It will thus be seen that the summer is warmer tlian that of Northern Illinois, Western Wisconsin, Northern New York or Toronto. In relation to agriculture the intensity of winter cold is not injurious, but on the contrary it has advantages, and its effect upon physical comfort is mitigated as above stated, by a clear dry winter atmosphere." Mr. J. W. Taylor, the Consul of the United States at Winnipeg, who has a right to be considered an indisputable authority on account of his long residence in Winnipeg, and thorough knowledge of the subject matter in hand, wrote the letter, from which the following extracts are taken, to the Editor of the " Pioneer Press," St. Paul, Minnesota. Mr. J. A. Wheelock, Commissioner of Statistics to whom he jilludes is the very man to whom he addresses his letter, as the i^ditor and Statician are one and the same person, and the present letter quotes the Editor against himself COMPARATIVE TEMPERATURE. " A comparative statement of temperatures at St. Paul, Winnipeg, and Battleford, for the first months of the current year, including April, having been published by me and noticed in the " Pioneer Press," I assume that your readers will be interested in a similar statemt t for the year ending ii" ti KiO MANITOIU AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. m July, 1S70, to which I have added t?ic monthly obsorvationH at Toronto : N. 1,AT W. LONO. Toronto 43.49 7fl.2:?. St. Paul 44.52 »:U)6. Wiiniii>og 49.r)0 Brt.^O. Rnttlpford 52.43 109.00. " It will bo convtMiiont to refer io latitiides as Toronto, 44"; St. Pnid. IT)'; Winnipeg, 50'; Baitlelbrd, 53". The place last named is situated on the Saskatchewan River, and is the capital of the North-Wcst Territory of Canada, sis the vast tlistrict west of Manitoba (lonjritnde 0!)") to the RcM'ky Mountains is now known .ireop;raphically and politically. 'rh' of Mean TempcraturcH. TouoNn). St. Pat I,. Winnipko Aupist ('(5.38 72.00 <'<7.34 Sont(-ml«(.0t> Pcccinlwr 'J5.7S JftiUMry '2'J.SO Frbniary 'I'l.lA March 'l^.W 4fi.0.T 38.03 19.03 16.03 15.02 BATTi,F.roni>. ... «7.79. ... 47.10. 3.'.. 84 34.52. 30.f>(? 28.rt0. 11.97 7.43. (!.10 0.45, 12.32 10.25. .... 33.01 14.14 1(5.84. April 40 72 50.04 39-10 4«1.70. May 51.74 58.07 53.13 63.36. .Tuiio roportions : — .S7.65. St. r.vri . 65.05. WlNNIVKt;. 58.19. Ratti.kfoup. 58.53 " Tlui.< it will be seen that the climate, in relation to agri- culture, is warmer in Manitoba and over territory 700 milcH to the northwest, than in the most central districts of On- tario, while St. Paul in lat. 45" is 7" 40' warmer than the vicinity of Toronto, in lat. 44'. PRACTICAL REMARKS ON CLIMATK. 161 " I hope Hoon to bo in posHi^HHion of Himilnr HiatiHiit^H from Fort McMurray on tlu; AtlmbaHcii Kivor, and Fort Vennilion on Poacollivor, roHpootivoly 1,000 and 1,200 niiloHduu north- west of Wiiniipo^, and I liavo fnll confidonco that the climate lit ihuHU i)ointH will not bo materially diironnit from liattle- ford. The altitndo of tho Athabanca and Petu3c Uivur dis- trict Ih IcHH, and tho trend of thu Pacific windu throngli the KxM'ky MountainH iH nsore marked than at Battlcford. It wa8 on tho bankH of the Peace River, well np in hit. 00*, that Sir Alexander McKenzie recordn, on the 10th of May, the gniHH HO well grown that bnfTalo, attended by their y<»ung, were cropping the nplandH. '* Thit [ find my bcHt illiiHtration that the climate Ih not niiiterially dillerent west of Lake AihabaHca, in hit. 60" from what we experience west of Lake Snperior, in hit. 46°, ill some personal observation of tho northwestern extension of wheat cultivation. In 1871, Mr, Archibald, the well- kiiown proprietor of the Dnndas mills in southi^rn Minnesota visited Manitoba. He romarkod that the spring wheat in liis vicinity wjw deteriorating — softening, — and he sought a cliiuige of seed, to restore its flinty texture. He timed his visit to Winnipc^g with the harvest and found the quality of l^rain he desired, but the yield astonished him. " L(K)k," siiid he, with a hejwl of wlu^at in his hand, " we have had an excellent harvest in Minnesota, but I never saw more than two well-formed grains in each grouj) or cluster, forming a row, but here the rule is three grains in each cluster, Tliat is the diflerence between twenty and thirty bushels per Jicre." More recently. Professor Macoun, the botanist of the Canadian Pacific Railway survey, has shown me two lieads of wheat, one from Prince Albert, a settlement near the forks of the Saskatchi^wan, hit. 53", long. 100° ; and another from Fort Vermilion on Peace River, hit. 50°, long. ll(»', and from each cluster of the two I separated five well- forined grains, with a corresponding length of the head. 11 102 MANITOBA AND TIIM GKEAT NOUTII-WEST. II i p *. 1:1 Horo wiiH t,li(» porfcoiion of th(» wluMit plant, attaiiUMl ac(M)r(l- ing to tlio woU-known pliysioial law, iirar the inuHt iiortliorii limit of it.s muvoHsfnll growth. ISOTIIKUMAl, MNKS. " Tho lino of tMjual uwnu t.Mnporatnro, ospocially for tlio .soa,son of vofrt»tation Immwimmi iMMrcli ioul OcIoImm", iiiHtead of following linos of lalitiulo, ImmuIm from i\\o MiHuiHsipin Vallov far to tho norlli. onvrving tlio /,on«' of whoat from Minnosotii away to tlio ()Otli piiriillol in tin* Nallo\ of tlio i*o!n«o Iiiv(>r, and roprodnring (lio mimmor lioals of New .lorHt'v iiiiij sonlhorn Ponnsylviniiji, in MinnoHolji iiml Diikodi. iind lliosc of noilluMii INMiiisylvaiiia ami ()lii«) in tin' v.'illoy oj' tji,. SiisJxMtoliowjin. * * * Williin tlio iMotlnTiiiiil linen tli.it inoh).so tlio zoiu» wost and nortliwost of Mimiosotii. wliicli is boing or is soon to \)o oponnstitntt* a ('t>t(on /one ; and ohsorviiiir tlio im])orativo natr.ral rostriotitins in tho Mississippi Vallo\ on tho sncoossl'iil jirodnotion of wIkmI. I hazarded tho stntomont that tliri»o-tonrtlis t)f tho whoat prodiioing holt of North Amorioa would he found north of the international IxMuidarv. This arithnu'tioal division has sinoo Iummi «pu'.s- titMiod hv tho " Pioiuvr Tn'ss." " 1 will vonturo to illustrate tho olimatie inflnenees whioji (\>ntnd tho ]>rol)lom under oonsideration, hy some oitatioib from ' "^f, iunes«>ta : Its plaoo among the Statt's; hy ,1. A. Whot^ux't. «.\ in nissioni'r of Statistios.* whioli, though |)iil)- lishod in I8l>0. is aii the more an authoritv heoanse of tho tX)nlin>5;^lion of tx^enrv vears. Tlotroneral law of limitation to tl 10 j\-)'.« « ult^Viitit)n of wheat is thus luininousl' r PKACTIOAT UEMAKKH ON CLIMATE. 103 ! . ptated. * Tlu5 wlu»at producing diHtriiU. of the United StaioH in coniined to about ten degreeH of latitudy and hix degreuH of longitude, terniinniing on tiio weHt at the U8th meridian. M«it the zone of itH profitable culture occupioH aconijjarati vely narrow belt along the cool borders of tlio diHtrict define. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) A liiii 1.0 I.I 11.25 |50 lU M 12.5 gH/ 2.2 1^ lillM ■HUI_ U lill.6 /; Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14SS0 (7t6)S72-4503 A^^ ^J^ ^ 170 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. : ' I ■f Jii 'i caused by it. Another, equally important, is the curing of the natural hay. Our experience of October and November has been that the horses and cattle do better to collect their own food on the prairie than to be fed with hay. All stock raisers know that it is not cold that injures horses or cattle, but those storms of sleet or soft snow which are so common in Ontario and the Eastern Provinces. Such storms are not seen in the North-West, and the cattle are never wet from November to April. Many intelligent persons are afraid of the winters of the North-West, as they measure the cold by the thermometer rather than by their own sensibilities. It is not by the thermometer that the cold should be measured, but by the humidity of the atmosphere. All through the fall my men never noticed a few degrees of frost, and it was no uncom- mon thing to see a man riding in a cart without his coat, when the thermometer was below freezing point. J. A. Wheelock, Commissioner of Statistics for Minnesota, wrote as follows concerning the atmosphere of that State, over twenty years ago : " The dryness of the air in Minnesota permits a lower range of temperature without frosts than in moist climates. The thermometer has frequently been no- noticed at 20 degrees without material injury -'o vegetation. In the damp summer evenings of Illinois and Ohio, for example, the heat passes off rapidly from the surface of the earth and from plants. Frosts develop under such circum- stances at a comparatively high temperature. The constant bath of moisture has softened the delicate covering and enfeebled the vitality of plants ; and thus a fall of the ther- mometer which in Minnesota would be as harmless as a summer dew, in Ohio would sweep the fields like a fire." What Wheelock says of Minnesota is equally true of the North-West Territories, and more so, as they are certainly drier. Dry air is a non-conductor of heat, and as the dryness increases with the lowering temperature, the in- ::J PRACTICAL REMARKS ON CLIMATE. 171 creasing cold is not felt by either animals or plants, and we find a solution to the paradox, that although water may freeze, vegetation is not injured except when a humid atmosphere is in immediate contact with it. The increase of dryness in the air has the same effect as an increase of warm clothing for man and beast. We suflfered less from a temperature of 10° below zero, this winter, though lying in tents, without fire, than we would have done in Ontario with 10° degrees of frost. In conclusion, after nine years' study of all available ma- terial and constant observation, I can state that our peculiar climate is caused by the " Great American Desert," which commences at the 100 Ih meridian, exactly south of our prairies, and exiv^^nds with little interruption to the bound- ary of California. The winds passing over it descend on our interior plain, giving out heat and moisture in the summer, and in the winter wrapping the whole country in a mantle of dry air, which moderates the climate so much that without the aid of a thermometer no one would believe the cold was so intense. We, have then, a dry, clear, cold winter ; a dry spring with bright sunshine ; a warm summer with an abundance of rain, but not necessarily a cloudy atmosphere, and a dry serene autumn, with possibly a snow storm about the equinox. An atmosphere like this, with a soil of abounding fertility extending over a region of almost boundless extent, causes me to feel that the words of Lord Beaconsfield were those of a far seeing statesman, and that our great North-West is truly a land of " illimitable possibilities." During the summers of 1879 and 1880 I was on the plains the greater part of the season, and kept a record all the time^ from which I make the following extracts : — 1879. June 19. Very heavy rain with severe thunderstorm. „ 20. Beautiful day. Cloudy iu the morning. „ 21. Light showers in the forenoon. Thunder at night. i t I 1 i 1 i. 1 i , I i 1 * ' ]\\ 172 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. ii I, l! H JiiJie 22. Wiirm, pleasant day. „ 23. Terrible thunder storm this morning. „ 24. Heavy rain all day. „ 25. Showers in the afternoon. „ 26. Rain as usual this morning. 27. Lovely day. Dew heavy. 28. Very beautiful day. 29. Thunder storms passing to the south all day. 30. Showers both north and south. No rain near us. July 1. Slight showers after noou. 2. Thunder storm with heavy rain in the evening. 3. Very lovely day. 4. Day very fine. 5. Severe thunder storm with heavy rain. 6. Slight showers in the afternoon. 7-9 Very fine days. 10. Thunder storm with rain to the south. 11. Very hot day. 12. Thunder storm to the south. Gale ft-om the west. 13. Gale continued all day. 14. Wind still strong. Light shower. 15. Gentle wind. Lovely day. 16. Thunder storm in the northwest. Lovely day. 17. Very fine day. Thunder storm in the night. 18-22. Very beautiful days. 23. Heavy rain this morning and nearly all day. 24. Heavy showers in the afternoon. 25-30. Lovely days. 31. Rain fell all the forenoon. Rain all night. Aug. 1. Wet forenoon. Almost a frost this mornipg. Day very hot. Thunder storm to the southeast. Day very hot. Heavy rain in the night. 5. Cool morning. 6-11. Weather intensely hot. 12. Thunder in the distance. Slight shower. Very lovely day. Severe thunder storm at night. Very lovely day. Very hot day. 92° in shade. Very hot day. Strong gale without a cloud. Great change in the weather. Air quite cool. 18-19. Changes still continue. 20. Clouds look very rough. 21-22. Weather very pleasant. Thunder after dark. 23. Weather very pleasant. Terrific thunder storm in the night. 24. Rain and a strong gale. Our tents blown away. 25. Cool windy day. 26. Pleasant day. 27. Rain threatening. 1. 2. 3. 4. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. PRACTICAL REMARKS ON CLIMATE. 173 Aug. 28. Rain threatening. Came at 6.00 p.m. Rained all night. „ 29. Kain this morning. „ 30 Lovely day. „ 31. Cold showers. During the month of September scarcely any rain fell, but there were a number of cloudy days and white frosts at night. The month closed with a thunder storm succeeded by a number of hot days. These were followed by strong winds which lowered the temperature, and on the 9th October a heavy snow storm was experienced over the whole country west of the Touchwood Hills. This snow soon dis- appeared and lovely weather with occasional low temper- atures continued till late in the season. ' li- lt ■ i 1880. June 19. Thunder storm with rain. )» 20. Rain threatening all the morning. n 21. Heavy rain with thunder. n 22- 23. Very fine days. » 24. Slight showers in the north in the evening. )i 25. Light local showers at noon. Terrific thunder at night » 26. Evening cool. n 27. Slight rain after dinner. n 28. Thunder storm with heavy rain. n 29. Thunder storm with heavy rain in the afternoon. » 30. Lovely day. July 1. Thunder in the distance. » 2. Heavy rain in the night. » 3. Heavy rain at noon. » 4. Showers about noon, accompanied by thunder. n S. Lcvely day. M 6. Light rain at night. n 7. Thunder storu in the afternoon. n 8. Thxmder storm at night. » 9. Pleasant day. » 10. Showery in the afternoon. n 11. Thunder storm in the night with heavy rain. n 12. Showers all around in the afternoon. » 13. Very fine day. M 14. High wind and heavy showers. » 16. Showers in the distance. )l 16. Day very hot Usual thimder and rain storm. n 17 Very h )t day. Thermometer 87° in the shade. n 18. Lovely day. n 19. Lovely day. Strong wind all day. n 20. Thunder and rain in the afternoon. , \ 174 « t ii ■ I i ( :( MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. Jnly » Aug. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Day extremely hot. n 89° in the shade. 95° in the shade. Thunder storms in the distance. Very warm. 90° in the shade. Terrible thunder storm in the afternoon. Max. 92°. Usiul thunder storm. Max. 93°. Pleasant day. Cloudy at night. Very fine day. Liglit nvin in the morning. Thunder storm at noon. Pleasant day. Pleasant day. Wind strong from the south. Day warm. Thunder storm with lieavy rain. Thunder and rain all night. Very pleasant day. Very warm all day. Sun's rays extremely hot. Max. 92°. Severe thimder storm in the afternoon. Cool day. Heavy rain in the afternoon. Very heavy rain with thunder all the forenoon. Pleasant day. Day very pleasant. Stormy day with heavy rain. Cold rain, which continued all day. „ 16-17. Fine pleasant days. „ 18. Light showers. „ 19. Cool and pleasant. „ 20. Day very hot. „ 21-22. Tlumder storm all night with torrents of rain. ,. 23. Heavy rain all day. „ 24. Cold rain all day. „ 25. Temperature low. Clearing up. „ 2C-27. Very pleasant days. „ 28. Cloudy with light showers. ., 29. Pleasant day. Wind strong from the west. ,, 30. Fine, pleasant day. 31. Heavy rain storm all day with a fierce gale. September was much wetter than usual, with three very cold rain storms and low temperature accompanied with heavy gales. The early part of October was delightful with warm pleasant weather. About the loth this changed to cold, and after this time the nights were more or less frosty. Although rain is frequent in summer, cloudy weather is uncommon, and many of the days on which rain is recorded PRACTICAL REMARKS ON CLIMATE. 175 were more than three-fourths cloudless. Heavy dew occur- red every night that the minimum thermometer Ml to 50°. As the nights were nearly all cloudless the temperature during the summer had a great range, being often 92° at noon, and sinking to 55° in the night. A fall of temper- ature was always followed by rain without thunder. All severe thunder storms took place when the barometer was very low, but a light one might take place at any time. A rising barometer nearly always gave cloud, and very often rain, in summer ; in the autumn this was always so. The following notes on the healthiness of the climate are taken from the evidence of a great number, and are append- ed to show what settlers think of the country : — Teatvmony respecting Climate. Nauk. Post Office. Remarks. Haward and Swain Morris We have never had any sickness. John Kelly „ The climate is very healthy. George Cadman High Bluff We have had very little sickness. We have found the climate very healthy. The climate is very healthy. Have had no sickness. We have enjoyed excellent health. The climate is very healthy. The climate is healthy. The climate is healthy. Have found the climate very healthy. None of family suffered through climate. William Jackson „ A. J. Moore Nelson^'ille Benj. J. Chubb „ Allan Bell Portage la Prairie Jno. Brydon „ James Airth Stonewall William Eagles „ Isaac Casson Emerson F.T.Bradley „ A. Macdonald Gladstone The climate is very healthy. Robert Fisher Cook's Creek Have had no sickness. J. G. Ruit „ I find the climate very healthy. George Taylor Poplar District. . . . This is a healthy climate. P. H. Brown „ .... Healthy. Proper clothing is necessary, J. S. Higginson Oakland No sickness in six years. W. GresKon Meadow Lea The climate is very healthy. Jiimes Stewart „ No case of sickness. E. W. Johnston Springfield The climate is fairly healthy. William Corbitt „ My family have excellent health. ,r. W. Adshead St. Charles The climate is very healthy. Ben. Haitley „ The climate is very healthy. Robert Black Bird's Hill The climate is very healthy. W. A. Mann „ The climate is quite healthy. G. V. Fitzgerald Ridgevillo The climate is very healthy. D. F. Knight ., We have had no sickness. 176 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. Naiik. Post Orrio. Rkuarkh. James Fleming West Lynne Have had no Hickncss. S. Ballantyne „ Wo have had perfect health here. J. Sutherland Eildonan The climate is exceedingly healthy. J. Oeddis „ The climate is very healthy. William Green St. Agathe The climate is very healthy D. O. Low ,. „ The climate is exceedingly healthy. John Smith Westbomne The climate is healthy. Rev. T. Scott „ The courtry is decidedly good for health. Andrew Dawson Headingly There is no sickness at all. W.B.Hall „ The climate is healthy. C- Begg Stone Fort Hiid forty-seven years of good health. T, B. Robinson Rockwood i cannot complain of the climate at all. RobcrtBell „ The climate is very healthy. William Hill Woodlands There is no sickness. Neal McLeod Victoria The climate is quite healthy. John Currie , -j-jje climate is quite healthy. Joseph Dobbs Sumiyside My family has never been sick. John Hourie St Anne The climate is extremely healthy. mi ..:| CHAPTER XI. Natural Products of the Soil. Comparison of Floras — Peace Itiver Floru Compared with that of '^ucario— Forest Flora — Flora of the Prairies— List of Species — "Sugar Maple "—Syrup from the Birch — Wild Plums — Cherries — Service Berries — Their Value — Berries in Pemmicau — How Pemmican is Made— Berries for Breakfast— Strawberries— Currants and Qooseberries — Black Currants very Valuable — High Bush Cranberries — Raspberries of Many Species — Jam from the Cloud Berry — Common Cranberries — Blueberries — Wild Sarsaparilla— Silver Berry— Buffalo Berry— Beautiful an (Blue Burrien) " myrtilloides, Hook. ) ArctostaphyloB Uva-ursi, Spreng. (Bear Berry) Ledum latifolium, Ait EloegnuB argentea, Pursh. (Silver Berry) Shepherdla argentea, Nutt.. (Buffalo Berry) Corylus Americana, Walt. | ^^^^j jj^^ ^ " Fostrata, Ait Betola papyracea. Ait. Pinus contorta, Dougl. (Canoe Birch) (Black or Sugar Pine) The Ash-leaved Maple or Box Elder has been referred to when speaking of the timber, and I will only further remark that wherever a grove of these trees is to be found there Indians have made sugar, and the bark pans in which they caught the sap are still lying around. Never having seen the sugar, nor heard of their mode of manufacturing it, I can give no information regarding it. Throughout the whole north a syrup is obtained from the sap of the Canoe Birch {Betula papyracea) which is very useful. Being a product of the northern forest it is a val- uable contribution to the culinary department of a Chip- weyan*s household. Wild Plums are ver}?^ common in many parts of Manitoba, and are simply delicious. In many localities this fruit can be gathered by the bushel, but like the Wild Grape it is local in its distribution, and does not extend beyond the boundaries of Manitoba. Choke Cherries, which in Ontario are extremely astringent, are in the North-West remarkably sweet, and pleasant to the taste. This species is very common on sand hills, and in thickets along the ravines or coulees entering the western rivers, and extends far to the north bearing as good fruit in the Peace River Vallej^ as it does further south. His Excellency the Governor-General spoke in very high terms of this berry when in conversation with the writer some time since in Winnipeg. Other gentle- men have made the same remark, and all were surprised at NATURAL PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL. 183 its sweetness. It is a fact however that all fruits are sweeter on the great plains than eastward. This is doubtless caused by the cloudless skies and general dryness of the atmos- phere. La Poire, June, or Service Berry is the chief berry of the west. Though common throughout the great plain, forming thickets along the margin of all coulees where wood grows, it attains its highest perfection along Peace River. Below Dunvegan on the north side of the river the bank rises in a succession of terraces. These terraces and the slopes are covered with the Service Berry, and for many miles along the river the bushes are purple with ripe berries about the beginning of August. At this time, bears, Indians, and Half-breeds, live almost entirely upon them. It is no uncommon thing to see five or six bears in a morning breakfasting on the berries and eating them with the great- est relish. As bears are plentiful at this time, their flesh and these berries are the general food of the camp. While visiting a berrying camp in 1875, on Peace River I was in- vited to breakfast. Our bill of fare consisted of boiled bear's flesh and Service Berries stewed in their fat. I need scarce- ly say that I ate a light breakfast. When on the Peace River Expedition in 1872, we had a quantity of pemmican made at St. John to enable us t j cross the mountains. This pemmican consisted of one-third pounded meat (dried muscle) pounded to dust or shreds one-third grease (fine render- ed fat) and one-third Service Berries. Its manufacture was very simple. The dried meat was put in a large trough and the berries added, after which the grease melted, was poured over the meat and berries. All was now thorough- ly mixed with a wooden shovel, and put into skin bags made out of raw hide, with the hair side out. As it was shovelled into the bags a man pounded it solid. After these were filled they were sewed up and our food was ready. Strawberries are a very valuable crop, but more so in the 'si »', ! ft I I ^ St ' f I f :•. U: t i 1 ! ¥ i'M. m 184 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. I ■ middle regions, or northward than on the southern prairie. The true home of the strawberry is on the mixed prairie and forest lands, and here it bears heavy crops of fine delicious fruit that are highly prized by all residents in the country. While ascending the Assiniboine in June, 1879, a number of us left the steamer while she was " wooding up " a few miles above Brandon, and climbed the steep slope of the right bank (the coldest one) to the summit and there we obtained abundance of ripe strawberries on the 16th of June. At this date many are still planting their potatoes. Black Currants, Red Currants, and Gooseberries, are abun- dant in many localities. The Gooseberries are represented on the plains by Eibes oxi/canthoides and in woods by Mibes hirtelluni. Only occasionally will the bushes be found load- ed with ripe fruit, as some animal seems to live on the fruit in its semi-ripe state. Last season during August and a part of July we were in the alluvial valley of Red Deer River and its tributaries. On all the alluvial fiats fine red and black currants were in the greatest profusion, and the mt;n at meal-time gathered a dessert from the bushes close to them. Another Black Currant {Rihes Hudsonianum) ripened later, and like the Missouri Currant [Elbes aureum) instead of maturing altogether, as the common currant does, continued for a long time ; the lower berries on the raceme always ripening first. In many cases the crop of black currants, were settlers there to gather them, would be of great value. High Bush Cranberries are very abundant in the north- ern forest particularly Vihurnum paucifiorum, which is the most northern form and which ripens before the first frosts. Viburnum Opuhw is found principally in large clumps in river valleys, or on the borders of little ponds within the woods. Its fruit is not so acid as the other species, and is more ainnidant. The three species of dwarf Raspberry are valuable, espec- NATURAL PUODUCTS OF TliE SOID. 185 ially ill the north where their fruit is in the greatest perfec- don. Rubus triflorua is common in Ontario, but it is only in the cool damp forests north of Lat. 52" that it attains that juiciness and size which gives it value. Rubus arcticus is first seen in the swampy district, west of the Lake of the Woods, but here its fruit is of little worth. Westward on the watershed of the Churchill about Isle La Crosse, and north- ward towards Portage la Loche, it is a fine and very pro- lific berry. Rubus Chamcemorus grows still farther north, and this and the preceeding are often found together in the muskegs. This species has a fine yellow fruit, and the pre- ceeding a bright red one. Both grow together in the same bog and often cover the surface with beautiful fruit. At Isle la Crosse and Lake Athabasca large quantities of these are collected by the Indian women, and made into jelly at the Hudson's Bay Company's posts. Red Raspberries are found everywhere in lately burnt forest, and seem to be larger and better fruit than we have in the east. Many writers speak as if this fruit was every- where, but being a close attendant on burnt forest, it dies out when grass usurps its place. Low Bush Cranberries are common in all peat bogs, and tamarac swamps, but the fruit is not often gathered, as there is no demand for it. Vacciniam Vitls-Idcea grows in great profusion in all sandy or spruce woods, after the forest is reached. It is one of the most abundant fruits, and is easily known by its bunches of bright scarlet fruit pendant on the ends of small stems covered with evergreen leaves. This fruit is common near Prince Albert. Although very acid it makes a fine jelly and is a first-class addition to an explorer's dessert. Blueberries are not common except in certain localities, and these are so far removed from where permanent settle- ment will be made, that it is only necessary to mention the sandy tracts where Banksian Pine flourishes to indicate ■i * ^ I V .1 i i t ! ■. i i ' ■ S K , ' I 1 i 1 ( ! » n t 186 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. where they may be obtained. The Dwarf Blueberry grows abundantly on the elevated country west of Edmonton, and here, as everywhere else, indicates a climate too cold for successful wheat culture. Wild Sarsaparilla forms the greater part of the vegetation under the tall aspens in many sections, and wherever dry forest is, or thick brush on the plains, there it is also. Labrador Tea grows in all muskegs and marshes, and, if half that is said of its virtues be true, it will }et be much sought after by speculators, and manufactured into a specific for many diseases. At present, when tea is scarce, the Indians and Half-breeds use it sparingly. Silver Berry is one of the commonest shrubs on the prairie, anu deserves a place in all collections of hardy species. About the middle of June its small yellow flowers perfume the air. This perfume is wafted for miles on the light breezes of the prairie. Later its Silver Berries are attractive to the " PraTtie Chickens," and amongst its stems in the fall coveys are sure to be found. Even the leaves are beautiful, and shine like silv er, and when laid under a lens lovely stellate hairs of great beauty are revealed. Buffalo Berry is generally found in the river or stream valleys of the south. It has also been found on the Assini- boine below Brandon, and at Manitoba House on Lake Manitoba. This is another fine shrub with beautiful foliage shining like silver, and in the months of August and Septem- ber loaded with large clusters of bright red fruit. There is no other berry in the southwest comparable to it for the making of jelly. After we had been on bacon for months, a jelly of these berries was a luxury of the highest order. Grizzly bears are very fond of them, and are hunted where these grow. The only grizzly ever seen by me was in a thicket of these bushes. This shrub, if a quick grower, would be excellent for fencing, as it has a number of short mid stift' thorny branches in every part. NATURAL PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL. 187 Wild Hops are common in every river bottom throughout Manitoba. The past summer I found them climbing over shrubbery and up trees, and forming festoons over the end of every dead stick in the valley of Red Deer River, lat. 53°. No place in the Assiniboine valley is without them. At Fort Ellice the river bottom seems like a hop-yard after the leaves have fallen in autumn. Hops are in great pro- fusion in the Qu' Appelle Valley, and hang in larger bunches than are generally seen in hop-yards. Hazel nuts are found where there is brush. Many thick- ets of these bushes extend for miles, and being generally higher than a man's head, and growing in brul6 cause travellers to dread them as they would a quagmire. The fruit is gathered in great quantities by the Indians and stored for winter use. I purpose in the following pages to give a few notes on the flora of districts, knowledge of which is generally desired. A voyager on the Assiniboine in the ascent from Winnipeg to Brandon, cannot but remark the paucity of species in the river valley as regards trees. It is true he sees familiar forms but many eastern species are wanting, and he looks in vain for beech, maple, or pine, and only occasionally does he see oak or ash. Poplar and elm with willows, which sometimes attain to the size of trees, make up the bulk of the wood, while roses {Eosa blanda) and Pembina berries ( Vi- burnum Lentago) form almost impassable thickets. The Ostrich fern {Struthiopteria Germanica) is occasionally very abundant, and attains a great height, and all herbaceous vegetation is astonishingly luxuriant. Climbers too are not wanting, and Wild Hops {Hamulus Lupulus), Wild Balsam, Apple {EcJunocystis lobata), Hedge Bindweed {Calt/stegia .sf'pium), Wild Grapes ( Vitis riparia)^ and Virginia Creeper {Ampelopsia quinquG folia), are common or occasionally seen. Berry bearing shrubs are not rare, as thickets of Wild Plum (^Prunus Americana) y Raspberry {Rubus strigosua), 5! '■ 1"! •!» i ; 188 MANITOBA AND TU£ GREAT NORTH-WEST. I • 1 If : i; ill' Service Berry {Amelanchier Canadensis), High Bush Cranberry {Viburnam Opuliis et paucifiorum), Wild Clierry {Prunus F*V(/miawa), and White Thorn (^Cratoiguscoccinea), are very common, and bear well flavored fruit; Goose- berries {Rihes oxycantholdes), Wild Black Currants {liibes Jloridum), and Red Currants {Rlbea ruhrum) , are abundant in the valley, the two latter where the soil is wet, the former on the drier slopes. A beautiful western shrub, the Buffalo Berry {Shepherdia argentea), is occasionally met with on the Assiniboine, but it is only on the Saskatchewan that it is seen in its beauty. A near con- gener, the Silver Berry {ElcBgnus argentea), is abundant on the drier slopes, and throughout Manitoba is said to indicate good soil, but in reality it is only an occupant of a dry one. These two shrubs are well worthy of cultivation, being per- fectly hardy, and having beautiful silvery leaves, and sweet scented flowers — the blossoms of the latter about the middle of June loading the air with their fragrance. Later in the season, the former is borne down with its close clusters of bright red acid berries, which when made into jelly and sweetened we found to be an excellent corrective to salt pork. The berries of the latter are of the same color as the leaves, and are quite mealy. These with rose hips constituted the principal food of our ho called Prairie Chicken, the sharp- tailed Grouse [Pedioecefes phasianellus), during the fall and winter. Besides the shrubs mentioned above, there are a few that should not be passed without notice, on account of their beauty. Foremost are the Lead Plant {AmorpJia canesceiis), which was abundant at Portage la Prairie in 1872, and a smaller species, Amorpha microphylla, which is found in some abundance at the Rapids on the Assiniboine. Both these species are worthy of a prominent place in any of our gardens. Wild Honeysuckle {Lonicera parviflora) and two species ot Snow Berry (^Sjjmphoricarpus racemosus et ■ I NATURAL PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL. 189 occidentalifii) with wild Cornel {Gornua stoloni/era) , and Downy Arrow-wood {Viburnum puhescen^i) , are found in more or less abundance in the river valley. Tlie Wild Cornel or Western Kinnikinik is very afcnTidant in the valleys of all streams, and it is from the inner bark of this shrub mixed with tobacco, that all the Indians of the plains, and the Half-breeds make the " Harouge " which they prefer to pure tobacco. The Kinnikinik of the east [Arctostaphyloa Uva-ursiy) and the Creeping Juniper {Jun- ipents Sahina var. procumhens) are abundant on all sandy soil, and form the chief covering of the sand dunes and hills throughout the country. In the Grand Valley (Brandon) and west to the Moose Mountain on the 102nd meridian, 452 species of plant? were noticed during the latter part of June, the majority of which were common in Ontario ; a few seemed to have a southern origin, while others were exclusively western, and others again extended far to the north. At the time we crossed the extensive plain lying between the Grand Valley and Moose Mountain (the latter part of June), the whole country was gay with beautiful flowers. The air was loaded with the perfume of roses, and the ElaB- gnus, and every little mound was bright with the tall purple spikes of Oxi/tropus splendena and Lamberti, while the level prairie was dotted with patches of Arnica angustifolia looking hke the Marigolds of our gardens. Even the marshes were beautiful with the nodding Plumes of the Cotton Grass [Eriophorum polystachyon) , and their borders lined with Dodecatheon and the little yellow star grass {Sinyrinchium Bermudiana), The Sand Hills at Flat Creek were covered in spots with a beautiful Cactus [Mamillaria vivipara) which grew in small compact clusters often not larger than a small apple with a beautiful pink flower rising from the centre. A lovely fern (Botrychium Lunaria) was growing amongst !m1 n hi ! 'i i r 190 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. the grass, and Lathryua venoaua — the western pea — formed thickets in the hollows between the hills. Around these hills were numerous marshes filled with various grasses, and sedges, while the hills themselves produced vetches and horse-tails {Equisetum). At Pipestone Creek the vegetation (June 27th) was won- derfully luxuriant, and pasture excellent. The leading grasses were Avena pratensisy Sporoholua JieterolepiSf Poa casia et set'otina, Stipa aparteay Vilfa cuapidatay Calamagrostis stricta et Canadenaisj and PJuxlaria arundinacea. The ponds contain Carex ariatata in the centre where the water is deep and permanent, outside this line Carex Icmuginoaa and Carex marcida. The three species are found in this order all over the country, and wherever they exist water is abundant. When Carex ariatata disappeared from the ponds, water was bad or merely rain water, and we had to be on the alert. The prominent flowers were three species of Penstemon, (P. graciiia, cristatua et confertua var.)y Hedyaarum horeale, Thermopaia rhombifolia, Gaura coccinea, Galium boreale, Siay- rinchium Bermudiaim, Arnica anguati/olia, and four species of Astragalus {A pectinatvs, Jlexuoaiia, caryocarpvsy et hiaulca- tua). All of these would have been ornaments to any gar- den, and grew in such profusion that they gave a marked character to the landscape. Passing westward towards Moose Mountain, Hedyaarum horeale covered square miles of plain, and being tall, over two feet high, its spikes of lovely pink flowers were exquisitely beautiful, as they nodded to the pleasant summer breeze. A handsome Primula (P. farinoaa) was very conspicuous, and together with its congener the Dodecatheon made the margin of many a marsh a floral paradise with the profusion of their lovely and bright tinted flowers. The flora of Moose Mountain was in no respect different from that of many parts of Ontario, except in the absence of forest trees of which there were but few species. NATURAL PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL. 191 After passing out on to the " Souris Plain " a marked change took place in the flora, and the soil became much drier. Hedyearum Mackenzii was occasionally seen in great patches, and being of a rich velvety purple, charmed the eye with its beauty. At this date (July 7th) many beautiful flowers were in their prime, and their peculiar habitats were worthy of more than a passing notice. Every species has its own habitat, and at one time in going through a rich hollow, lilies (X. Pkiladelphicum) will cover acres with orange red flowers. Leavi g there and ascending a slope, we will have to cross a carpet of the richest purple, for here Astragalus flextioaiia is extremely abundant, and fills the air with its perfume. On yonder knoll Oxytropis splendena and Castilleia seasilijlora dispute possession with Astragalus pectinatus and Erigonum flavrnn We pass the ridge and now there is more water and a new series of plants come in to view, and Zagadenus glaacus, Potentilla gracilis, Anemone Pennsylvanica and Lysinuichia cdiatay mixed with various species of Astragali, are noted, and as hours pass into days this ever changing panorama glides past filling our hearts with delight as we contemplate this garden of nature. Days pass, and these lovely gardens are left behind, and now stretched out on every side, is a vast clay plain with an extremely rough surface. The flora has changed, birds have almost disappeared, and even the hills have gone out of sight, yet beauty is still around us on every hand, Roses [Rosa hlanda), scarcely six inches high, load the air with perfume. Lepachya columiiaris enhances the beauty of the landscape with its yellow flowers, and the rich green of the grass is pleasing to the eye, yet over all this vast ex- panse not a bird wings its flight, and our utmost exertions could hardly obtain water for ourselves and horses. One hundred miles and upwards is crossed, and the only shrubs seen are the two snowberries (Symphoi'icarpus racemosus !; 192 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. » I et ocddentalia) and the rose bushes, while Aftter multifloruSy Lepdchya and Triiicum repens, with various Poientillae, make up the bulk of the flora. Moose Jaw Creek, like all other streams throughout the country, had essentially an Eastern flora, and it was only on the gravel ridges and clay slopes bordering its valley, that the western forms wore seen. Here the species were cliar- acteri.stic of the arid plains to the south, and partook largely of an alkaline character. The flora of the Cypress Hills is very remarkable, and differs in many respects from that of the plains. In the coulees which extend into the hills on the north and east sides, the vegetation is almost exclusively eastern, and con- tains numerous forest species, while that of the plateau above, and the upper slopes of the hills have the prairie features of the Rocky Mountain flora, and both Alpine and boreal species here find a home. In the upper part of the coulees amongst the spruce at the eastern end were Spircea hetuli/oUa, Geranium Eichard- soniij Ilahenaria rotundifoUa, Phleum alpinumy Arenaria nar- difolla et cerna^ Delphinium azureum, and on the exposed gravel points and ridges that rose almost perpendicularly were Astragalus paucifioruSy Sedum stenopetalum, Cetraria nivalis, aculeata et Islandica, Polygonum Paronychia., et Vesi- caria 7nontana, In the deep coulees around springs of purest water, were large patches of Mimulus Jarnesii covered with a profusion of yellow flowers, and amongst the common sedges were Carex /estiva and capillaris. These, all mountain species, and numerous others known to dwell there, told a tale that the botanist alone could understand. Whether the Cypress Hills were an outlier of the Rocky Mountains or not, their flora indicated that their climate was that of the foot hills above Morleyville, and necessarily unfit to regu- larly mature cereals, although, in sheltered valleys, barley and potatoes could possibly be raised. NATURAL PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL. 193 The grasses of the plateau were of the real pasturage spe- cies, and produced abundance of leaves, and were so tall, that for miles at a time we had great difficulty in forcing our way through them. The chief were species of Festnea, Danthoniay Poa, Avena pratenaisy Bromu8, and Phleum aljnn- unif and although their seeds were all ripe (August 4th) their leaves were quite green. As we proceeded westward over the plateau, it became more elevated and other species began to take prominence, notably Lupimis argentea and Potentilla fruticosa covered miles of country to the exclusion of other species, and as both grew about eighteen inches in height, and had a bushy habit, the whole country, for a day's travel, was either blue or yellow or both, as either species prevailed or were inter- mixed. In all my wanderings I never saw any spot equal in beauty to the central plateau of the Cypress Hills, After the middle of August, 1880, mushrooms became very abundant, and continued with us until the latter part of September, when the frosts became too severe, and prevent- ed their growth. There were three species all equally large and numerous, and although we consumed great quantities of them we never observed any ill effects from their use. There was one species, however, which was very large, and more abundant than the others, which I did not touch, as I (lid not like its appearance, yet the usual test indicated it to be nutritious. While crossing the great plains north of the Qu Appelle in July, 1879, we found mushrooms by the cart- load, and the past season we used them every day for three weeks while travelling at least two hundred miles in an easterly direction. From the reports of other travellers, and my own observations, I am lead to believe that on nearly the whole prairie abundance of mushrooms will be obtained after any great rain fall during the summer. One species of Lycoperdon (Puff Ball) was seen that grew to a very large size, and numerous others were noticed during the whole 13 'I 104 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOUTil-WEST. • • ( l||i; 1 ■'1 ' seaHon Hcattercd over the plain in groat i)rofusioii. "So Lt/co- perdon is poiHonouM, but it' gatliorod young bctbrc tho Hporcs turn yellow, cut into thin .slices, and fried, are highly nutri- tiouH. Were it i)o«8ible to teach the Indians to discriniinate between the g(K)d and bad nnishroonis, iuiuien.so quantitiefj could be collected every year, dried and stored away Ibr future use as is done in Norway. The following notes from my journal will illustrate the flora in the vicinity of Long Lake as seen the first week in July, 1879. Flowers are a most conspicuous feature of the prairie. Iledysarum and various Astragali vicing with the lily and the vetch in loveliness and luxuriance. Often whole acres would be red and purple with beautiful flowers, and the air laden with the perfume of roses. Sometimes lilies [Lilitim Philadelpluram) are so abundant that they covered an acre of ground bright red, at others they are mixed with another liliaceous plant [Zagadetms glauctis) and form a ring around the willow thickets which we pass. At anoth- er time we come upon a pool of fine pure water, and within is Garex aristata which the horses love so well, around it where the water is nearly gone are Carex marcida mid lanuyinosa. Outside of these a ring of white anemones {Anemone Pennaylvanica) and growing where it is slightly drier a yellow flower {Pofentilla gracilis). As the ground became still drier the Purple Pentstemons {Peuisiemoit con- fertus) would appear, and lastly the lilies would surround the whole. Mushrooms are extremely abundant, and attain a fabulous size. They grow in regular "fairy rings" often more than 40 feet in diameter. Some rings were found to contain so many, that taking all good and bad from one ring, we could almost load a cart. Other rings were devoted exclusively to a species of giant Puff*-ball which were extremely numer- ous on almost every part of the plains. Amongst many others I measured one specimen of a mushroom that was 33| NATURAL rRODUCTS OF THE SOIL 196 inches in circuinferonce, and 2,5 inches through the cap. Tlie stem was over 2 inches in diameter and weight over three pounds. Dr. Loew, of the American Geological Survey, rejwrts that the bark of the common Aspen {Jhjfulua trernuloidett) is used by the Indians in intermittent fever. His analysis of the bark gives salicin and populin. The former was long ago in common use in intermittents. "It has," says Dr. Rothrock, "long been more or less a domestic remedy, and, indeed, of a certain class of practitioners, for this disease. It is not a little remarkable, however, that it should be used by the Indians, and we can only account for the fact that it does possess some remedial ])ower in this direction, which a ' hit or miss' empiricism has led them to discover." ' I ;if CHAPTER XII. liaising Wheat. Red River Prairie, Description of its Soil— An Old Countryman's Views — Extent of the Wheat Lands — 150,000,000 Acres of Wheat Lands— Manitoba Exclud«»d from the Calculation — Good Land Continues for 100 Miles at a Time — Fixed Laws Regarding the Growth of Wheat — Northern Limits of Wheat Zone — Northern Wheat more Pro- lific — The Cause Explained — How Wheat Grows in Spring and Summer — ^Why Mani- toba Wheat is Hard— Roots Penetrate to a Great Depth — Analj'sis of Soil, far Supe* nor to the Best Wheat Land in Europe — Best Soil in the World in the North-Weat— Manitoba Formerly an old Lake Bottom — Soil of the Second Prairie Steppr— Soil of the Third Plateau — Gypsum very Abundant — Cactus no Proof of Aridity — Setter's Farm Described — Wheat Growing amongst Cactus— Appearance of the Land— Results of 1880 — of 1881 — Seed Bought in Minnesota in 187C — Progress since Then — Mani- toba Wheat Admitted Duty Free into Minnesota — Opinions of Pioneer Press of St. Paul's, Minnesota, regarding North-West Wheat— Statements of Residents — Average Crop for Four Years— Average Yield of Canadian North-West Compared with the best States in the Unions-Great Weight of the Grain — Qu'Appelle Region as a Wheat District — Prince Albert and Edmonton as Wheat Districts — Description of Edmon- ton — Cust's Farm at Edmonton — Country on Peace River — Excellent Wheat Lands far to the North — Cucumbers Ripen in Lat. 60° — Wheat in Lat. 61° First-class — Spring Frosts not Hurtful — Fall Wheat not Suited for the North-West — Fall Sowing Recommended — No Doubt of its Success — Instances of Fall Sowing — Fall Sowing the True Policy of Settlers on the Prairie — Wheat Production of the Future beyond Cal- cnlation — England should Realise that we have the Greater part of the Wheat Lands of America — England's True Policy — Farmers Testimony Regarding the Soil. The Red River Prairie, or first Prairie Steppe, differs from the more western lands in being almost a dead level, except occasional ridges of gravel, which slightly change the uniformity of the surface. So much has been said and written regarding this prairie that I shall quote the opi- nions of only two individuals regarding it. One is noted for his scientific attainments, the other for his general in- telligence and close observation. Dr. George M. Dawson thus describes, the Red River Prairie in 1874 : — " Of the alluvial prairie of the Red River, much has already been said, and the uniform fertility of the soil can- not be exaggerated. The surface for a depth of from two RAISING WHEAT 197 to four feet is a dark mould composed of the same material as the subsoil, but mingled with much vegetable matter. Its dark color is no doubt in part due to the gradual accumu- latioji of the charred grasses left by the prairie fires. The 8oil may be said to lie ready for the plough, and in turning the tough prairie sod the first year, a crop of potatoes may be put in, though it is not efiiciently broken up till it has been subjected to a winter's frost. When the sod has rotted, the soil appears as a light friable mould, easily worked, and most favorable for ag-riculture. The marly alluvium underlying the vegetable mould, would in most countries be considered a soil of the best quality, and the fertility of the ground may therefore be considered as practi- cally inexhaustible. The area of this lowest prairie has already been approxi- mately stated at 6,900 square miles, but of this the whole is not at present suited for agriculture. # # * * As a measure of the possible agricultural capacity of this great valley, take one-half of the entire area, or 3,400 square miles, equalling 2,176,000 acres, and for simplicity of cal- culation, let it be supposed to be sown entirely in wheat. Then at the rate of seventeen bushels (the average is over 25) per acre — which according to Prof. Thomas is the aver- age yield for Minnesota — the crop of the Red River Valley would amount to 40,992,000 bushels." Our other quotation is from the report of Mr. R. H. B. P. Anderson, of County Kerry, Ireland. His description belongs partly to 4he Red River Prairie and partly to the Pembina Mountain district : — " The soil varies much, as it is natural to suppose over so large a tract of laud, but as a rule it is rich, black, vegetable mould, working very like clay — rich beyond imagination and resting on a marly clay. The depth of the surface soil varies a good deal, in some places not more than ten or twelve inches, in others as many feet. I am informed that chemical analysis has I; I ' i !i '' ■'! ) I 1 V t '1 ' 1 ^ 198 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. ' f f ( Ij'' > l! if i I ' proved the soil to be the best adapted of any in the world for the growth of wheat, and certainly practical experience bears this out. It is very easily worked, becoming as fine as powder. However, there are all descriptions of soil to be had here, from the heaviest clay to the lightest sandy loam." The above extracts will show that almost all observers class the land with the best in the world. Between Winni- peg and Edmonton, a distance by cart road of 980 miles, the various settlers affirm that where they are located is the best land in the country. Travel where you may the same story is told you, and proofs are shown of the astonishing fertility of the soil. At Fort Calgarry in the south wheat produces enormously, and in lat. 59", 600 miles due north of that point, I obtained wheat that took the Bronze Medal at the Centennial in Philadelphia, in 1876. In nineteen- twentieths of all this vast area there is a clay subsoil with a surface soil varying from black clay or clay loam to light sandy loam. It is difficult to give even an approximate estimate of the extent of cultivable lands in the North-West Territories. The following was made at the request of the Government in 1877 : If a line be drawn from the boundary line where it is intersected by the 9oth meridian, in a northwesterly direction to where the 122nd meridian intersects the 61st parallel, we shall have the base of an isoscles triangle, which has its apex on the 115th meridian, where it intersects the 49th parallel, one side being the boundary and the other the Rocky Mountains. This triangle encloses at least 300,000 square miles, or over 200,000,000 acres of land. In a rough classification I estimated 80,000,000 acres as arable land and 120,000,000 acres as pasture, swamps, and lakes. After two years further examination, I submitted another report to the Government, of which the following is a condensed summary. RAISING WHEAT. 199 Since the date of my last report I have had opportunities of gaining a much more extended personal knowledge of the region, and I have had access to the reports of all the recent explorations made by others, and had personal conversations with the several explorers. I am, therefore, in possession of much a dditional data and in a position to classify the areas of land with greater general accuracy. I now submit what I consider a tolerably correct estimate of the areas of the several descriptions of land between the Rocky Moun- tains and Manitoba, not including the latter province, and excluding also any available land that may exist north of lat. 57'' in Peace River District. The total area of available land suitable for agriculture and pasture was 150,081,280 acres after 30,000,000 acres had been deducted for bad and wet lands. Within the whole area of 180,000,000 acres there are isolated patches of unavailable land, consisting of marshes and swamps, sand hills, barren clays and stony tracts. Possibly not one-third or 10,000,000 acres of the whole 48,000 square milos which I have deducted from the total area could be classed as sterile or irreclaimably wet. There can be no doubt that drainage will ultimately do much to contract the area of land now considered valueless. At present I consider that in the North-West of Canada, beyond Manitoba and within the western and northern limits defined, there are at least 150,000,000 acres of land suitable for agriculture and stock-raising, and of this area I feel confident that a higher percentage will be found avail- able for growing grain than in that portion of Ontario so well known for its productions — I refer to the peninsula lying between the Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario, and bounded on the north and east by a line drawn from Kings- ton to Lake Simcoe and the Georgian Bay. Many unacquainted with the country think that good huul is in patches like most other districts. Often for 100 miles at a time no bad soil is seen in any direction, and the .'l! t I 1 • ^ ' ! I ! 200 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. i <■ f :. ' . ' f 1 ' iM I ■ i • I only land not suited for grain would be the marshes or the steep slope of a coulee. Much of the southern district now con- sidered fit only for pasture will yet be known as the best of wheat lands. Nothing is needed to prove tliis but the plough. There are certain laws applicable to wheat culture which are of the greatest importance when studied in reference to wheat growing in the North-West. Naturalists recognize the fact that there are certain limits within which each species of plant or animal attains its greatest development. I may mention here, that if the mean temperature of the two months, July and August, reaches 60", wheat culture will be profitable. Now in the tables given in the chapter on climate, it is shown that in every part of the territory the temperature exceeds this. I might even state that this temperature is found over a far larger area. I believe that wheat culture will yet extend to within a short distance of Hudson's Bay and down the Mackenzie to lat. 05°. Another physical law fixes the greatest yield near the northern limit of successful growth. Tliis was well exemplified by the wheat obtained in 1875 at Lake Athabasca, in lat. 58" 42 . In Ontario seldom more than two grains to the cluster are fcund, in Manitoba three is the usual number, at Edmonton four or five, and at Lake Athabasca five or six. Did the average yield of Ontario reach fifteen bushels, the yield in Manitoba would be twenty -three, at Edmonton over thirty, and at Peace River forty bushels. This accounts for the large yields per acre reported from these places, and were only the same ni'.m})er of ears per acre harvested in the west the proportions would remain the same. But when an acre without either stump or stone is reaped we may expect to hear of thirty to forty bushels per acre being the average on well-tilled fields in Manitoba. There is no reason why sixty bushels to the acre should not be reaped. On another page I have stated in detail the growth of wheat froln seed time to harvest, and from that it will be RAISING WHEAT. 201 seen why the ciimate is so well suited for its growtli. Cool- ness with moisture in spring gives root growth. The porous soil allows the roots to penetrate to an astonishing depth. During June and July there is abundance of rain and great lieat, followed in August by still wanner weather and some rain, which completes the cycle of growth. As soon as the weather begins to cool, rain ceases and the air becomes very dry, hardening the grain and giving it that tlintiness and weight for which all Manitoba wheat is noted. Two causes combine to produce the enormous crops reaped on those lands. The frosts of winter pulverise the ground to a depth of many feet. Summer rains, with almost constant sunlight, give a quick and vigorous growth. Owing to the looseness and porousness of the soil in spring the roots throw out many fibres, and when the rains come these openings are filled, and the growing crop feeds on eighteen inches of soil instead of three or four. Hence bad husbandry has little effect on the crop for many years. As long as the west is blessed with winter frosts and summer rains so long will teeming crops be the product of her soil. Were it necessary for the growth of the plant the small fibres could penetrate to a depth of over three feet. It will be remembered that the land is never ivet when winter sets in. Only a few samples of the soil have been properly an- alyzed as far as I am aware. One I will give in the words and figures of the chemist who made the analysis. Professor Emmerling, Director of the Chemical Laboratory of the Agricultural Association of Kiel, in Holstein. He writes to Senator Emil Klotz : '' The analysis of the Manitoba soil is now completed, and the result is in 100,000 parts : Potash 228.7 Sodium 33.8 Phosphoric Acid 69.4 Lime 682.6 Magnesia 16.1 Nitrogen 486.1 (Signed) •' V. Emmerling." SI I ii -\i >• 'it I '. ; i'- 202 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. ' ' I I Senator Klotz writes from Kiel, May 4th, 1872 : " After considerable delay I succeeded in obtaining the analysis of the Manitoba soil from Professor Emmerling, and hope it may be of service to you. Annexed I give you our analysis of the most productive soil in Holstein, whereby you will see how exceedingly rich the productive qualities of the Manitoba soil are, and which fully exj)lains the fact that the land in Manitoba is so very fertile even without manure. " The chief nutrients are, first nitrogen, then potash and phosphoric acid, which predominates there ; but what is of particular importance is the lime contained in the soil, whereby the nitrogen is set free and ready to be absorbed in vegetable organisms. The latter property is defective in many soils, and when it is found defective recourse must be had to artificial means by putting lime or marl (a clay which contains much lime) upon the same. According to the analy- sis of the Manitoba soil there is no doubt that, to the farmer who desires to select for his future home a country which has the most productive soil and promises the richest harvest, no country in the world offers greater attractions than the Province of Manitoba, in the Dominion of Canada." Analysis of Holstein soil and Manitoba soil compared : — HOLSTEIN SOIL. Potash 30 ... Sodium 20 ... Phosphoric Acid.. 40 . . . Lime 180 ... Magnesia V^ ... Nitrogen 4ij ... MANITOBA SOIL. .. 228.7 .. 33.8 .. 69.4 • •••« •••• BXOKSa IN MANITOBA SOIL. 198.7 13.8 29.4 682.6 662.6 16.1 6.1 486,1 446.1 Manitoba or the first Prairie Steppe was originally with- out doubt an old lake bottom. Lake Winnipeg is the remains of the lake. It follows that nearly all Manitoba possesses an alluvial soil, chiefly derived from decaying vege- tation and the fine silts brought from the more elevated region to the west. Lying along the western margin of the Manitoba plain is a series of sand dunes, which gradually pass into the second Prairie Steppe, the soil of which is RAISING WHEAT. 203 different froi' that of tho plain below. The surface here is principally a dark-colored sandy loam, sometimes passing into clay, while at others it becomes quite light and sandy, more especially in the vicinity of the various rivers. The subsoil is very uniform and seems to be a light-colored marly clay, containing numerous pebl^les coated with car- bonate of lime. As we approach the confines of the third plateau the soil gradually passes into clay and the surface and subsoil be- come more homogeneous. It is on this plateau where most of the pasture lands are situated. The greater part of it is altogether without wood. The second steppe contains much sand in certain localities and the third much gravel in the more elevated tracts. It is simply then a change from silt to sand and from sand to gravel Only, however, about five per cent, of the soil can b^^ Cv^lled either sandy or grav- elly. The Second Steppe is composed of Cretaceo is rocks overlaid with a thick coating of drift, while the inird Steppe is sometimes called the Lignite Tertiary Plateau, on account of it being composed of this group of rocks. One of the chief ingredients in this higher plateau if Gypsum, which can be gathered in a crystallized state whei- ever there is a slide in a river bank. The surface water of this plateau is often a mild solution of Epsom salts where the soil is not covered by drift and the clays obscured. When the underlying Cretaceous clays are exposed the water is equally bad and the soil shows signs of aridity, being cov- ered more or less with Cactus {Opuntia Missouriensis) and Artemisia (Artemisia cana). This is the "Sage Brush" of Palliser's Report, but not of the American Desert as he asserts. As it is generally supposed that these Cactus flats are too arid for the growth of wheat, I insert an extract from my report for 1880. The location referred to is on the north side of the Cypress Hills, and certainly had every appearance of sterility prior to being broken up. 1 1 » •' ! I •{.. 1 ,1 / U ' I ■•! f; 204 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. The creek upon which the farm is located has on its banks some willows and maples, the former " eing the largest I have seen in the North- West, a few being three feet in diameter. There is no poplar on the creek, and all fence poles have to be brought from the hills. All the land broken up was in the flats along the creek, and consisted almost wholly of soil, which in my former reports I had pro- nounced worthless. The hills were composed of light or dark-colored sandy loam with numerous boulders and some gravel on the hill top.^, and the flats along the creeks of Cretaceous clay and so arid that grass could not form a sward. The flats were covered with sage brush {Artemisia catia) and Cactus {Opantla Missouriensia) and everything betokened aridity. This was how the country looked when I was there on August 13th, except the part under cul- tivation. Setter located the farm in April, set to work and brokt* up the artemisia and cactus flats, but got only a little sown before a drought set in, which continued all through June and caused some of the seed to lie in the ground over three weeks. Notwithstanding, I gathered ears of ripe wheat on August 14th, and have bean informed since that the greater part of the crop ripened. At the time I gathered the ripe ears of wheat. Cactus was in flower for the second time, and both were flourishing together. The problem was solved, that the apparently arid soils were only so in appearance, and that all the land where not covered with sand or gravel would yet " blossom as the rose." The soil had been broken up only to the depth of a few inches and the change was astonishing. I could not penetrate the sun-baked clay, but not a yard away, where he had ploughed, I could dig to any depth. On the one hand Wiis life, while on the other, the artemisia and cactus gave evidence of death or profound slumber, as all vegeta- tion was dried up by the great heat of the last month. RAISING WHEAT. 205 My own observations and those oi' others who have care- fully examined many parts of the country, cause me to believe that actual settlement will show that fully eighty per cent, of the land is arable or will be located as farms. During the summer of 1875 the grasshoppers were very destructive in Manitoba, and scarcely any wheat was raised. The next spring nine-tenths of the seed had to be bought in Minnesota, yet in the fall of 1878, 1,100,000 bushels of wheat were harvested. In 1881 it had risen to millions of bushels, and now when railroads are open to take it to market, its production will go on at an ever increasing ratio, the capacity of the country being only limited by the means of transport. I place the testimony of residents in a tabulated form, to show the number of bushels raised by each per acre during the four years 1877 to 1880. As I give name and post-office address any person can verify the truth of the statement. One column is set apart for the average weight per bushel, so that parties may know that besides a large average of bushels there is a high average of weight. The number of bushels depends largely on soil, but the weight solely on climate, for no wheat can be heavy in a damp climate. Manitoba wheat is allowed to enter the United States free of duty when a guarantee is given that it is going to be manufactured for export. It has been found that a mixture of hard Manitoba wheat and the softer Min- nesota makes a far better flour than the Minnesota alone, and the shrewd Yankee takes advantage of this and gets the wheat admitted in bond. The following quotation from the "Pioneer Press" of St. Paul, Minnesota, certainly a disin- terested authority, will give point to the above statement. It says in its issue of November 8th, 1880 : — " It seems to be a settled fact that the further north wheat is grown, up to a certain limit, the better it is. * * * The future great wheat region of the world will, undoubt- :' I ni iHt : I I • I I 'I [' 20C MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. edly be in the rich and ftir-ftimod valley of the Saskatchewan where this grain grows to perlection, not only in quality but in every other particular. The berry attains an nraber color, rounds out into a fullness it does not attain here, and is rich in glutin, the life sustaining principle in Hour. * * Some two or three years ago samples were procured from several parts of the Province of Manitoba for trial. The best of these was placed in the hands of some of our leading wheat growers for cultivation. One variety, Scotch Fife, yielded the first year, at the rate of thirty-seven bushels to the acre, of a hard amber color, which the wheat inspector of the Millers' Association at Minneapolis pronounced the finest specimen he had seen since he had been connected with the Association. Straw stood up stiff and strong, some of it being over five feet high, the heads were long, while the color of the growing grain was superb." The above was scarcely in print when American buyers were in the country, and the whole surplus was bought up at a higher price than the Dakota wheat nearer home. The following returns are given by some of the most re- spectable and intelligent farmers in the North- West, and are reliable. Where the average is below twenty bushels it must be remembered that the cause is generally newly broken land, or some misfortune to the crop : — NAME ADDRESS. YIELD PER ACRE. Aver'ge 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880" Weight perbhl. John Dilworth High Bluff 25 30 25 25 25 25 33 35 30 30 28 25 25 30 20 28 30 20 29 23 20 35 32 32 20 25 25 28 23 25 30 24 26 34 16 35 35 31 20 22 25 22 25 40 25 25 30 30 20 40 37 30 30 30 35 35 61 George Cadman 60 William Jackson 62 William Eagles S. G. Higginson Stonewall 65 Oakland 62^ 6S J. Sutherland Kildonan E B.E. Mitchell William Moss Cook's Creek High Bluff 66 60 William Owens 64 John Ferguson John Airth 61 Stonewall 63 Robert Fisher Cook's Creek St. Charles 64 J. W. Adshead 63 Robert Black Bird's Hill 62 NAME. JiuuuH ArniHon . . Williiim (Jorhctt Oe()r),'o Taylor . . John Hrydon . . . 11. J. M(M)re J. UodduH J. Mac'doimld . . . 0. OillcHpio A. P. HtcvenHon . Edward Hcott . . r. FurKUHon . . . . Mux. Wilton.... A. Dawson A. J. Ilinkor. . . . F. OKli-'troo T. H. Urown . . . . G. A. Tucker . . . A. V. BcckKtuad A. J. Nugent. . . . W. B. Hall ChurleH Begg . . . H. Granby A. PolKon, jr . ... G. Tidsbury J. B. Robinson . . Neil Henderson . Thomas Sigsons. James Munroe . . James Taylor . . . T. Dalzell William Hill . . . J. Davidson John Fraser Alex. Adams . . . John Hourie . . . . G. Stewart W. A. Farmer . . E. Burnell Robert Bell John McKinnon. J. W. Carlton . . . E. P. Bradley . . . RAISING WHEAT. ADDRESS. High Blutt Kpringtield Poplar Point .... Portage la Prairie Nelsonville Kildonan Gladstone Plympton Nelsonville Portage la Prairie Gladstone High Bluff Heudingly Green Ridge Portage la Prairie Poplar Point . . . , PortJigo la Prairie Emerson West Lynno Headingly Stone Fort High Bluff Kildonan High Bluff Rockwood Cook's Creek . . . . Portage la Prairie Kildonan Headingly High Bluff Woodland High Bluff Kildonan Clear Springs . . . . St. Anne Meadow Lea Headingly Nelsonville Burnside Portage la Prairie Clear Springs . . . . St. Pie YIELD PER ACHE. 187" 30 35 2S 31 27 20 30 10 33 25 30 30 30 25 25 30 25 30 20 20 35 27 25 23 24 30 25 30 15 26 16 25 24 38 20 28 27 30 27 30 25 30 187H. 34 30 26 33 24 30 30 28 30 27 29 34 30 17 38 20 27 35 20 30 30 25 30 25 28 30 28 30 16 26 20 25 25 35 34 25 25 25 30 30 15 32 1879. 1880 32 31 30 30 23 35 35 35 28 37 26 40 30 23 3G 18 27 28 18 15 32 21 25 35 20 30 35 34 8 33 15 30 22 30 18 15 20 30 30 30 10 40 35 60 35 30 28 35 30 25 30 33 '0 35 30 26 30 27 23 36 26 40 36 30 30 20 35 35 30 34 15 20 25 25 25 40 30 20 25 30 27 30 20 25 207 Avor'j liorbul 'St 62 63 66 62 61 60 62 64 66 65 66 62 60 66 GO 60 63 65 68 60 60 62 66 62 61 65 62 64 60 64 62 60 61 62 61 63 65 65 62 63 61 66 Average yield, according to the above, was over twenty- six bushels per acre. Taking twenty-six bushels as the average yield of the Canadian North-West, we will compare this with American States : — Canadian North-West 26 Bushels per Acre. Minnesota 17 „ Massachusetts 16 ., Pennsylvania 15 „ Wisconsin 13 ,, I i M I I 208 MANITOBA AND THE OKKAT NOUTH-WEST. IltWH 10 HuhIuiIh |HT Arvr Ohio 10 „ lUinoii 8 „ These facts show the superiority of the Canadian North- West as a wheat-growing country. The weight of the wheat grown is also remarkable. Taking the heaviest samples of each country we find :— Canadian Nurth-West G6 lbs. pur Bushel. MinncHota 66 „ Ohio 60 „ PonnHylvania 60 „ Illinois fi8 „ The Qu'Appelle region, partly surveyed last year, will be opened up this year by means of the Canadian Pacific Rail- way, and here in one block are at least 10,000,000 acres of wheat lands which hitherto have been almost unknown to the general public. Late surveys show that on the line of the Canadian Pacific Railway, 100 miles west of Brandon, lies the finest tract yet opened up, and having the warmest summer climate in the North-West. At Prince Albert, 600 miles from Winnipeg, there is a large settlement and abundance of wheat is grown. Two steam grist mills and one portable mill at Duck Lake grind the flour required for the surrounding country. Owing to the influx of settlers and the nect .'Ay of supplying the Indians, flour has been bringing a high price, and no diffi- culty is found in disposing of the surplus. Almost 1000 miles from Wmnipeg is the Edmonton settle- ment, and here farming is carried on extensively. Two steam grist and saw mills are in operation, and at this distant point they have regular Agricultural shows, where the various products of the country are exhibited. The corres- pondent of the Toronto " Mail," writing of the settlement last October, thus speaks of its appearance and products : — " Edmonton is located on the north side of the Saskatche- wan River, 200 miles north of Calgarry, Bow River District, RAISING WHEAT. 209 ami 300 miles west of Battlel'ord, more or Icbh — decidedly more over the bad state of the roads when I travelled \ hem. Tlie view of the river approaching from the south is very fine. A i)lateau — the original level of the country — extends from each side of the river, and it is only when near the edge of the bank that the traveller recognizes the deep channel which he has to cross to reach the town, apparently only a few chains distant. Approaching a little nearer, however, he perceives a large valley and a mugiiilicent river sweeping rapidly eastward and northerly around a curve which forms a plateau large enough for a small farm, tuid then losing itself in a gorge some distance below, neai* where steam rising from the smoke-stack of Edmonton Mills, gives evi- dence of progress and industry. The banks of the river at the ferry rise to nearly 200 feet, but the ascent is made by tlie benches and plateaux to the upper level, and so is toler- ably easy." After describing the town site, the Hudson's 13iiy Fort and remarking on gold and coal mining, he proceeds with his description and says : — "Two steam mills for sawing and grinding have been erected at Edmonton * * * * j^ ^iU ^j^uy [^^, y^^j^ that the rich agricultural country in this neighbourhood will have ample accommodation for having their wheat ground, as well as opportunity of obtaining supplies of lumber for build- ing purposes. But a short time since lumber had to be niaimfactured by hand labor, consequently was comparatively scarce. Now settlers can furnish their houses as economi- cally as those 500 miles farther east. Whilst referring to the surrounding country, I may mention that the most ex- tensive farmer in the district is Mr. Oust, whose farm is contiguous to the St. Albert's Mission. He is a native of the County Derry, Ireland, and has been on his present farm for five years. He had this year 180 acres of land under wheat, yielding thirty bushels to the acre; thirty -six acres barley, yielding thirty-six bushels to the acre on new 14 1 1 i ■• . i ■ U i m nil • ( 210 MANITOBA AND THE GUEAT NORTH-WEST. ground ; and twelve acres of oats yielding, twenty -five bushels to the acre. The grain crop this past season has been lighter than formei' years, owing to cold, wet weather, altogether exceptional in this district until the past two years. His oats thin year are only twenty -five bushels to the acre, which he considered only half a crop. Mr. Cast hftd twelve ploughs engaged last fall (1880) to do up the ploughing for spring crop whilst the good weather lasted. He has forty -four head of cattle, sixty hogs — twelve of them fit to be slaughtered next week." Four hundred miles to the north crops are just as early as in the vicinity of Winnipeg, nine degrees or 650 miles farther south. While on Peace River, in 1875, 1 was enabled to collect information regarding the raising of grain along 770 miles of its course. Excellent potatoes were ob- tained on July 21st, in lat. 56°, and oats and barley ripened on the 12th August. Strange to say 400 miles to the nortli- east splendid barley was in the stock on the 6th ol August, and wheat was ripe on the I2th. At Fort Ver- milion, in lat. 58' 24', I liad a long conversation with old Mr. Shaw, who has had charge of the establishment for sixteen years. He said tliat frost never injured anything on that j)art of the river, and every kind of garden vegetables could be grown. Still farther to the north and east, at Little Eed River, 1 found cucumbers, Windsor and pole beans ripe, and was told that their summers were always warm and frost did no harm. Cliief Trader Macdougall says that Fort Liard, in lat. 61° M., has the warmest summer temperature of any place in the listrict, and that all kinds of grain come to maturity, and vegetables of every description could be raised with success. At Fort (/liipweyan 1 obtained the wheat and barley which took the prize at the Centennial, and of the soil which pro- duced it I wrote : •' Less than two miles from the Fort is the French Mission, where 1 obtained the barley and wheat. jr-five 1 has ather, it two els to '. Gust Lip the lasted, f them just as Qr 650 I, I was )f grain '^ere ob- ripeiicd ■d iiorth- 6th of t Ver- old Mr. sixteen on that could tie Red De, and d frost •r es se y lat. or in the ty, and success. which ich pro- i-t is the wheat. I , • |:|' ' ( if i 1 i! 212 MANITOBA AND THE GKKAT NORTH-WEST. f ! Si The soil here is a mixture of humus and sand, and in any other locality would be considered valueless, but everything planted or sown around the Mission seems to flourish." There are no records to show that spring frosts ever did harm to the growing grain. It is a well-ascertained fact that as soon as spring does come, fine, warm weather is continuous, and the only danger from frost is after heavy rains in August. Fall wheat will never be a success on the prairie, but there is no reason why it should not in the moister country to the nortli. Usually September is too dry for a fall growth on the open prairie, and besides, the biting winds of v/inter, and the clear sunshine and light snow fall, would destroy the crop. For the last three years I have been advising settlers, both by public lectures and personal conversation, to sow their wheat and many garden seeds in the fall, say after the mid- dle of October, instead of in the spring as they now do. This is the true fall sowing, and it has only to be tried once to prove its success. I was led to think of this while at Battleford, in 1879, by seeing a field of self-sown b;i;'.cv almost ripe before the other had headed out. In the siuae field there had been a potato patch the preceding year, and now it was overrun with seedling potatoes. Every potato stalk 1 id produced an abundance of fruit and now the seeds were scattered and growing. During the fall, owing to the dryness of the atmosphere, there is scarcely any growth, and my advice is to sow so late that the grain cannot geruii- iiate. Owing to the dryness of tiie se^d and soil, it can- not absorb water enough to cause it to rot. When the first warm days of spring come the snow melts and passes into the soil, the starch of the seed by this time has changed to grape sugar, and germination taking place at the same time, the young plants get a str.rt that no drouth can injure. We hope to see the day when nearly all the wheat shall bo sown at this time, and then August frosts can destroy no RAISING WHEAT. 213 more. About the 20th August there is a sudden lowering of the temperature, and all grain hard, at this time, is safe. Grain ripens slowly after this and is often injured by frost. Last season there were two notable instances of fall sowing chronicled in the newspapers. Mr. Bannatine, of the city of Winnipeg, sowed wheat and carrots early in the preced- ing November, just a few days after I had advised it from the public platform in that city. In July last the wheat was two weeks ahead of spring-sowed grain, and doubtless it ripened two weeks earlier. The other instance is related by a correspondent of the Toronto " Globe," who, while at Edmonton last October, got the facts from Mr. Gust. His words are — " Like many other pushing and intelligent agri- culturist in the North-West, Mr. Gust has come to the conclusion, that in future the safest and best plan of oper- ations will be to do as much fall sowing as possible, that is, putting in spring crops in the fall, so that they will germi- nate during the first warm days of spring, and mature for harvest long before the early frosts that are liable to visit this part of the country can possibly reach them. I am in- formed that Mr. Reid, down at Fort Saskatchewan, has tried the experiment of sowing spring wheat in the fall, and that the results have been most satisfactory." This is the true policy of settlers on the dry southern prai- rie where crops may suffer from a June drought, or those along the Saskatchewan where early frosts and cool winds are engendered by the proximity of forests or muskegs. As I have said fall wheat as sown in Ontario will never do on the prairie, but late fall sowing for spring growth will an- swer every purpose, and it requires no prophet to foresee it. Much might be written about the future and calculations made regarding the wheat production of years to come, but such speculations are needless. In a very few years the crop will be limited by the means of export, and just as the carrying capacity of the roads increases, so will the crop. -li itiili ! ■ ■ ■ ' 1 I i » I [I'i 214 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. No sane man can doubt this, for a glance at the map will tell him that there is actually no limit, but the want of a market, to the wheat crop of the North-West. When the rulers oi England awake, as they soon must, to the fact that within the Dominion of Canada exist to-day, as virgi i soil, three- fourths of the wheat lands of North America, and that it is to her they must look for their future supplies of food, whether it be beef or flour, we will receive that amount oi attention and consideration which, as England's greatest colony, we deserve. What we want is men and money, and both these a judiciously framed emigrant policy on the part of Great Britain would give us. Year after year her people are passing by thousands into the United States, there to become alienated from the parent state, whilst one of her own colonies offers superior advantages, and reconciles every dissatisfied son to the old mother-land across the water. The hand writing is on the wall and few care to read it, but it stands there in flaming characters, — Give us land for it is the people'.*— it is ours. A few short years and the words change, und now they are — We tike the land which is ours by our heritage of labor, — and we will ge+ it. A few millions given now to assist emigration to the new North-West would relieve the pressure and convert re- bellious sons into loving grateful children. There is land enough for all, and there is no reason why we should not receive men for our offer of free land. Farmers' Testimony respecting the Soil. NAHB. POST OFFICE. DBPTH OF BOIL. Ben Hartley St Charles Black loam from 16 to 20 inches. John Dilworth High Bluff „ „ 18 to 24 inches. George Cadman „ „ „ about 15 inches. W.Jackson „ „ „ „ 18 inches. A. Gillespie Greenwood My farm is chiefly bush land. William Eados Stonewall Black loam 4 feet. J. C. Higginson Oakland „ 2 feet. J. Sutherland Kildonan East „ from 3 to 10 feet Allan Bell Portage la Prairie. . „ » 18 inches to 2 feet RAISING WHEAT. 215 I 1 NAME. Jamen Sutton A D. Cadenheod . . Adam Nelson . . . , A. J. Hinker . . Kcv. T Cook ... F. Ogletree . . T. Hy. Brown . . G. A. Tucker . . A. V. Bccksted A. C. Harvey G. C. Hall P. McKay U. G. Lowe , A. J. Nugent W. B. Hall G. Turner J. G. Maley A. Hepburn A. Poison , G. Tidsbury James Fullerton . F. B. Robinson . . A. Nelson W. Hill N. McLeod H. HoER ACRI . Aver'jto woiKnt porbsh. 1877. 1878. 1879. 18S0 John Dilworth High Bluff 60 75 40 55 54 30 60 70 75 G^ 100 52 80 76 30 75 60 40 40 15 100 37 60 60 75 60 60 75 50 80 65 40 60 90 75 75 35 50 57 35 60 60 70 45 45 85 60 30 80 56 36 40 60 100 37 56 70 60 40 40 100 50 80 70 50 62 75 60 80 35 60 58 50 60 60 65 45 85 60 75 65 65 68 60 40 40 80 80 40 60 90 60 40 60 90 60 80 73 50 62 60 70 60 40 60 50 60 70 57 6- 50 80 65 75 65 40 70 50 40 40 60 75 50 65 75 50 60 60 60 60 100 65 50 65 60 40 W JackBon Stonewall. 35 W.Eiigles S. C. Higginson John Sutherland U. E.Mitchell 35 Oakland 39 Kildonan Cook's Creek 38 38 Wm. M08B M Owenfl High Bluff II 36 42 John Ferguson R. Fisher II Stonewall 36 38 J. W. Adshead Roht Black St. Charles Birds Hill 33 42 James Armison High Bluff 42 Wm. Corbett Springfield 38 J. G. Rent Cook's Creek 38 John Brvdon Portage la Prairie Nelsonville 38 A. J. Moore 36 J. Geddes Kildonan 34 A. McDonald Gladstone 36 D. Gillesoie Plympton 40 A. P. Stevenson Nelsonville 40 James Stewart Cook's Creek 40 Ed Scott Portage la Prairie Gladstone Portage la Prairie Poplar Point 35 P. Fursnison 36 F. Ogletree T. H. Brown 38 34 G. A. Tucker.... A. V. Becksted Portage la Prairie Emerson 37 40 A. J. Nugent West Lynne 34 H. B Hall Headingly High Bluff 40 G. Granby Alex. Poison, Jr 38 Kildonan 38 Thomas Sigsons James Munroe Portage la Piwrie Kildonan 38 40 l\ • I 220 MANITOBA AND THE UUKAT NOIITH-WKST. KAIIIt. John Tiiylor. . . . ThotniiH Ditlzull. . J. DavidHuu A1«!X. AtluiuH. . , . Jolin Ilotiriu. . . . CliiirleH 8tt!wart. W. A. Farmer. . . J. Htowiirt llobt. lU'll JiiH. SiiH'lair M. Ferritt J. W. Carlton... . M. Owi'iiK NelHon Urown. . H, P. Bradley... John McKinnon. John AVinster... . ADDRMB. AVKHAUK HKK ACHK. 1877. 1«7H, I 187». lliiadiiiKly . Uigli liluft'. Clear HprlnffH St. Anne'M Meadow Lea HeadiiiKly Hixh BlufT liurnHide (JreenwiKwl nurnHide Clear SprinKH High Bluff tt St. Pie '.'...'. Portage hi Prairie High Bluff 25} 06 60 60 40 70 62 66 76 64 60 36 70 80 60 50 85 :to 80 80 74} 60 60 61 76 76 60 46 40 40 80 80 50 80 25 76 75 66 40 60 50 75 76 60 60 46 60 60 90 50 8,'-) 1H,S0. Avnr'ge wtiislit |ii>r l)Mh. 30 80 80 70 40 20 60 76 76 66 40 35 57 50 70 60 80 35 40} 30 38 38 30 40 41 38 40 40 36 42 34 40 38 Tlio average yield for the four years rangea from 58 to 02 bushels per acre. The comparison between the Cana- dian North-West and some of the American States as res- pects the yield of oats is as follows : — Canadian North-West, say avemge (50 bushelH per acre. Minnenota 37 „ Iowa 28 „ Ohio 23 „ The oats grown are very superior in quality, being plump and heavy, averaging in weight about 381bs. to the bushel. The yield per acre is simply enormous, an average of over eiglit}" bushels to the acre being no uncommon thing, and in a few exceptional cases even one hundred bushels have been realized. For newly broken ground, I am of opinion that oats will be found the most remunerative crop, and there is always a ready home market for ail that can be raised. Evidence is at hand to show the enormous crops of pota- toes that are raised. Some specimens have been obtained weighing over five pounds each, and it is no unfrequent occurrence to have 600 bushels to the acre. "When it is con- sidered that potatoes range in price from 80 cents to $1.50 per bushel, it is no exaggeration for a Manitoba farmer to say that he could make more wdth a potato patch in the CROPS, HARVESTS, AND ROADS. 221 North-West than he could with a hirge larin in Ontario. The average yield of over 100 in«tanee8 for 1877-SU inclu- sive waH 318 buBheln to the acre. Potatoes in every part of the country are a .sure crop, growing along the whores of Hudson's Bay, and producing a fair average at Fort Good Hope, on the Mackenzie River, north of the Arctic Circle. In my travels up and down the country I never saw a rotten one, and never came on a tract where they would not succeed. In the forest country north of the Saskatchewan, the Chipweyans locate themselves on the banks of the various rivers and lakes, erect houses, put in a small patch of potatoes, carrots, and turnips, and during the latter part of the summer and fall, revel in luxuries, having the finest whitefish for the taking and lovely pota- toes for the gathering. Everywhere it is the same, and whether the soil is clay, loam, or sand, crops beyond descrip- tion are taken off witliout costing the cultivator one tithe ol' the labor required in the east. In 1879, while at Hay Lakes, 800 miles west of "Winni- peg, I went into a potato field and measured two specimens of two varieties. The white variety measured on an average 17^ inches and the purple variety 15^ inches, in circumference. Two measurements were taken in each case, and the length was only an inch greater than the breadth. This was on the 26tli September and many of the leaves were still green. At Isle La Crosse Lake, in lat 57° north, I found potatoes still growing on September 22nd, 1875, and I had the pleasure of eating new potatoes in the shadow of the Rocky Mountains, in lat. 5G° 12' north, on the 21st of June of the same year. Feeding stock with roots will be an easy mutter, as the crops of turnips and carrots are simply amazing. These grow everywhere in the north, and always give large re- turns. Governor Morris told me that he saw fine pumpkins and melons growing at the north end of Lake Winnipeg. 1 . ; 'I ! i' ' t 222 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT N01:T1I-WEST. li I found quantities of ripe cucumbers at Little Red River, grown from English seed, in lat. 58' 30', on the 14th August, 1875. At Fort Simpson, Mr. Hardisty informed me that they grew melons every year, and had no difl&culty with them when started under glass. This Fort is situated at the confluence of the Liard and Mackenzie Rivers, north of Great Slave Lake, and is 'situated in lat. 62°, or two degrees further north than St. Petersburg. The great extent of country under discussion may be realized when I state that the above locality (Fort Simpson) is over 1200 miles, as the crow flies, northwesterly from "Winnipeg, and is due north of the American boundary over 900 miles. It is extremely diflicult for one unacquainted with the subject to grasp the extent and capacity of tlie country. It is practically boundless as far as this generation is concerned, and long after our bones are mouldered into dust there will still be millions of acres untrodden by the foot of the hus- bandman. Pages could be written at this point filled with what would seem highly -colored and extravagant adjectives, and yet these would not reach the reality. The potential powers of the soil can be best illustrated by letting the residents speak for themselves : — W. H. J. Swain, of Morris, Hag 'produced 800 to 1000 bushels of turnips to the acre, and sixty bushels of beans have alfo been raised by liim per acre. S. C. Higginson, of Oakland, Has produced cabbages weighing 17^ lbs. eadi. Allan Bell, of Poi tage la Prairie, Has had cabbages forty-five inches in <;ircumferen(?e, and turnips weighing 25 lbs. eaci:. Thomas B. Patterson, Has realized forty tons of turnips to the acre, some of them weighing as much as 20 lbs. each. Robert E. Mitchell, of Cook's Creek. Raised a squash of six weeks growth, measuring five feet six inches around the centre. CROPS, IlAliVESTS, AND KOADS. 223 William Moss, of lligli Blufi", Has produced carrots weighing 1 1 lbs. oacli, and turnips measuring thirty- six inclios in circumference. James Airth, of Stonewall, states tliat the common weight of turnij-s is 12 lbs. each, and some of them have gone as higli as 32^ lbs. Isaac Cassoii, of Green Ridge, Has raised 270 bushels of onions to the acre. John Geddis, of Kildonan, states he has raised 300 bushels ofcarrots and 800 bushels ofturnips per acre. John Kelly, of Morris, Has produced 800 to 1000 bushels of tuinips to the acre. Joshua Appleyard, of Stonewall, Also states his crop of turnips to have been 1000 bushels per acre, the com« mon weight being 12 lbs. each. Edward Scott, of Portage la Prairie, Raised 400 bushels of turnips from half an acre of land. W. H. J. Swain, of Morris, Had citrons weighing 18 lbs. each. Francis Ogletrne, of Portage la Prairie, Produced onions measuring 4J inches through the ce»itr« A. V. Beckstead, of Emerson, Gives his experience as followo: — Mangle Wurzels weighing 27 lbs. each, Beeta 23 lbs., Cabbages 49 lbs., Onions each 1^ lbs. in weight. W. B. Hall, of Headingly, Has raised carrots three inches in diameter, beets weighing 20 lbs. each, and gives the weight of his turnips generally at 12 lbs. each. Philip McKay, of Portage la Prairie, Took 200 b''8hels of turnips from one quarter of an acre of land, some (tf them weighing 25 lbs. each. Ho has produced carrots four inches in diameter and fourteen inches long, has had cabbages measuring twenty-six inches in diameter, solid head, and four feet with the leaves on. His onions have meus- ured 16 inches in circumference, and cauliflower heads nineteen inches in diameter. James Laurie & Bro., of Morris, Have produced turnips thirty inches in circumference, onions fourteen inches and melons thirty inches. He had one squash which measured about the same sisse as an ordinary flour barrel. James Owens, of Point du Chene, Had turnips 30 lbs. each, onions fourteen inches around, and cucumbers eighteen inches long. iiji 1 I ;> 1; t ' t 224 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. Neil Henderson, of Cook's Creek, Has raiHcd 1000 buHholH of turnips to tho aero, carrots five inches in diameter and eighteen inches long, while his onions have frequently measured five inches through . James Bedford, of Emerson, Has raised 1000 bushels of turnips to the acre. It must be remembered, that none of the farmers men- tioned above used any special cultivation to produce the results described, and out of nearly 200 reports which we have received from settlers concerning the growth of roots and vegetables in the North- West, not one has been unfa- vorable. Timothy has been grown for many years by farmers in the older settled parts of the country, and all with one accord speak highly of it as a crop Thomas Dalzeli, of High Bluff, has grown timothy for eight years, and says he has had from two to three tons to the acre. It is often seen growing alongside the track on the prairie, and unlike the wild grasses the root leaves are always green. In the fall of 1880 this was notably so between Rat Creek and Portage la Prairie, where cattle were out on the timothy stubble eating the green leaves in the beginning of November. In the latter part of the same month, the preceding year, white clover and timothy were quite green along the roadside east of Portage la Prairie. Red clover must produce enormously, as many species of plants closely related to it grow every- where in the country. Wild hops are known to produce large quantities, said to be equal if not superior to any seen in cultivation. Flax and hemp were formerly cultivated, and produced large crops. Hemp has been grown twelve. feet high. In the future, large areas will be sown with these plants, as their fibre will be utilized for many pr poses, and flax seed will be required for making oilcake for fattening stock. The reason why all manner of vegetables succeed in the North-West is not far to seek. As has been shown in the CROPS, HARVESTS, AND ROADS 225 preceding chapter, the soil is the best in the world. The light rainfall prevents the land from becoming sour, and the severe and continued frost pulverizes the soil deeper than any other subsoiling process could possibly do. A rich soil, an unequalled seed-bed, a superior seed time, plenty of rain in the growing season, long sunny days, and clear dewy nights combine to produce crops of all sorts that cannot be equalled. Southern Russia has long been noted for the richness of its soil and its extraordinary crops of wheat. Our North- West is under the same parallels of latitude, is known to be a country of summer rains, and to have every peculiar- ity of the Russian Plain. Russia in past years has been famous for its wheat, shipped from Odessa. Riga is the port from which hides and tallow, hemp, flax, oilcake, lin- seed oil, and many other products have come, and it is not claiming too much to expect that our North-West will supply all these in coming years We have all the natural facilities, but we want men to till the soil. The questions put to people acquainted with the country are — When does spring commence ? When does winter set in ? When do you sow your seed ? What time does harvest commence ? When do you take up your roots ? From Winnipeg to Peace River, points fully 1300 miles apart, spring commences about the same time. Taking one year with another, the first spring flowers make their ap- pearance about April 15th. Captain Butler found the w^hole hillside covered with beautiful Anemones {Anemone ^^tens) on April 22nd, in lat 56" north. The same year spring commenced in the neighborhood of Winnipeg at the same date. Red River, in lat. 48°, does not break up earlier than the middle of April, and Peace River, eight degrees further north, is not later. Winter sets in, as far as the closing of Red River is con- cerned, some time during the first ten days of November. 15 III \\ 1 i il^ ■■n i-i !:i! a 'II I 220 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. lit r » I Peace River closes much later, as it is only at this date that the first ice is seen in the river. Often very cold weather conies in October, and snow lies on the ground for eight or ten days, but it passes away and usually a beautiful season commences which lasts far into December. At this time the nights are more or less frosty, with clear, calm and most delightful days. The latter part of December and January are generally very cold, and during this period the ther- mometer falls very low. Seed time in the North-West continues from the first of April to the middle of June, that is from the very earliest time when seeding can take place to the latest period when it is wise to sow At Battleford seeding has been done in March, but this is so exceptional that it should only be noticed. After talking with many farmers, I found that May is the general time for all spring work, but that wheat sowed as late as June lOtli generally escapes the frost, ond tliat barley will produce a crop ten days later. All good farmers say that grain should not be sown later than June first On Peace River, in lat 5G", work commences about Ai)ril 20tli, and after this time potatoes are planted, and grain sown. Still farther north, at Vermilion, there is little gju'dening until after the first of May. At Fort Chipweyan, on Luke Athabasca, scarcely anything is done until May lOtli. About 90 days are required on Peace River to ripen liarley, but early sown seed takes less time. 1 larvest depends altogether on the time of sowing Early 80WM1 gram ripens in fewer days than late sown, as it has all the hot woather to mature in. A great and permanent full of teni})erature always takes place about the middle of August, and after this grain is slow to ripen. Throughout the whole valley of the Qu'Appelle, spring time and harvest time are earlier than in Manitoba. This is partly caused by the Avarnier soil and drier atmosphere of that region. In 1879 strawl)erries were in abundance CROPS, HARVESTS, AND ROADS. 227 a by the middle of June at Fort Ellice. The spring was fully ten days earlier than at Whinipeg. At Qu'Appelle 130 miles west of Fort Ellice, Mr. Marcus Smith, C. E., found barley cut and stored by July 27th" in the same year. From time immemorial Indian corn has been grown in the valley, and all kinds of garden vegetables are cultivated by the Missionaries. Mr. Sette the English Church Missionary on the Little Touchwood Hills, says that in that section crops are always cut early and never injured by frost. At Prince Albert, wheat ripened the same year about the mid- dle of August, and at Battleford a few days earlier. Edmon- ton was later, and it seems a settled matter that there are from twelve to twenty days difference in the ripening of grain between the valley of the Qu'Appelle and that of the Saskatchewan. Potatoes are stored by careful people before the 10th October, as after this date there may come a few day,-" of hard frost, and do much injury to them. Beets require to be cared for at the same time, but carrots and turnips can be left till November. Root cellars are easily cons- tructed and there is no difficulty in saving all kinds of roots. Many farmers in the west take up their potatoes in the latter part of September, and experience shows that this is the safest plan. I subjoin a few statements from settlers regarding seed time and harvest. These all refer to Manitoba. John McKinnon, Three Creeks, Portage la Prairie, says : — '• The usual time of sowing wheat, oats, and peas is frc^m the beginning of April to tlie middle of May, barley from middle of May till the beginning of June. The weather during seeding and harvest is generally dry. The usual time to harvest is from the middle of August till Se[)tember."' John W. Carlton, of Clear Springs, says : — "Land ought to be ploughed in the fall, and sown as early as possible in the spring. Seeding is from 10th to l.jth of April, and liar\i'st from lOth of August to l.'")th September. The Mennonites here grow all their tobuoeo, and it stands about four feet high." 1:1 'n i\ ! I l!i !! 't IM il ' li !■ / ill « I ,i mJ h 228 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOKTII-WEST. James Sinclair, of Cfrecmvood, says: — » Thy compass and passed every obstruction, even rivers nearly half a mile wide without any assistance other than ©urown ingenuity, I can say that prairie travelling is an exceed- ingly simple matter when a few grains of common sense are included in the process. Ten years ago there wore very few trails in the country other than those made by tho Indians. The main trail for the west started from Winnipeg and at Portage la Prairie forked. Ono branch went by tho White Mud past West- bourne, Palestine, Gladstone, and Odanah and met tlio other a few miles cast of Salt Lake. Tho other road, called tho South Trail, continued to the west, crossed Rat Creek and McKinnon's, and passed on to tho " Big Plain " beyond Pine Creek. Hero a branch left the trail and going still farther south crossed tho Assiuiboine at Brandon and passed up the right bank of the river to Fort EUice. At Brandon ,i branch went still farther south and lost itself on tho Souris Plain. From tho " Big Plain" the road continued westward joining the north trail at tho above mentioned point. Passing Shoal Lake and Birtlo it struck the Assinilx)ino above the mouth of the Qu'AppoUo. Crossing the river it continued on northwesterly to tho Touchwood Ilills and thence to the South Saskatchewan. Crossing it at Batocho's ferry, the trail passed by Duck Lake to Carlton. Here it again forked, and one branch crossed the north Saskatchewan and con- tinued up to Edmonton. The other passed in the direction of Battleford and on to Edmonton. This southern road was CHOI'S, IIAKVKSTS, AND KOADS. 2:U I:' tieldom tnivelknl tcMi yeavH ago, uh fearH wore entertained of Indian raids. From Edmonton the trail contiinied 90 miles I'artlier to Fort Assiniboine on the Athabasea River. Fort KUice was a central point, and trails passed from it to every point. One went np the right bank of the Assiniboine to Fort Pelly, 140 miles to the north. Anoth(>r passed to the west and threw oil' a branch when opposite Qu'Appelle, which passed through Qn'Apppelle and north to the Touclnvood Hills. The main trail passed wesi^ward to Moose Jaw Creek and from thence to the Cypress Hills where it ceased or merged into another which followed tlu; right bank of the Sonth Saskatchewan from Batoche's ferry to the country on the Milk River. From Fort Ellicc! another led to the southwest, by Moose Mountain to Wood Mountain, and was the usual route taken by the Half-breeds when going out to hunt the bulTalo. Of late years many cross trails have beeji added to these, but with the exception of the above, and a trail leading south from each of the Hudson's Bay Company's forts on the Saskatchewan to the bulFalo plains, scarcely any others existed. These trails were seldom direct. Travellers had to mean- der from side to side according as wood and water could be found. Indian trails on the contrary led from hill top to hill top and jMiy where on the buffalo plains a high hill has an Indian trail passing over or near it. Often, when travelling without a trail, we have been able to strike one almost [)ar- allel to our line by studying the topography of tiie country, and deducing the direction in Avhicli they should run. On the prairie west of the Red River Valley, roads such as we have in Ontario will never be needed as the soil is naturally dry and only during the month of June is the rainfall great. In the fall, winter, and spring, all roails are hi good order and will remain so when the mud holes are ditched and drained. The future traffic roads are iron ones and all others will be built with local labor as the country roads of Ontario are constructed i I I :l ! I CHAPTER XIV. Grasses of the Plains, Forcsfs^ o)ul Mountains, PaaturoH of the rniirii-s— Thiii/ Viil»;o in Viuiinis Si'ction.s — Ihsigii of tho Chaptc — List of (!iii88«^H, tlunr HabitiitH - MhI. of ("ypi-iMicn', thi'ir HiilutatN — List of HuHhoa— List of l.pgmiiinoHas (Pea Fsviiiily) Why Cfrliiin (iiiiHscs liavo Various Namos — EffectH of H irninf{ tlio Orass— " Wild O.it" of Sontliwfstt'rn Manitoba ,i Uugbuar — Sliccj) Killing by its Awns a Myth -Description of the Grass — How it Injures Man or HeiMt— Hay xwaAc of this Grass— its KlTccts on Horsos— Really the best Grass on the nains — Hiiy Grasses -Manitoba Hay — Practical Remarks on Manitoba Hay — Testi- mony of Residents Uegaiiling the Hay (-rop— Santl Hill (Irassos — lUmch Onissos— Hull'alo Grasses — "Grama-grass" —Grasses of the Alkali Lands— Valuable Grasflns— (Jnisses of the How River Conntry — .Spring Food of Horses — Summer Food — Winter (Jrassof the Prairii-— Winter Pasture in the'l'orost — Only one Poor Grass in Ninety- six— Vali'n of the Pea Family — Artemisia Frigida as a Forage Plant — EuroU lunata— Analyses of Grasses. All the prairie is pasture latid, but all is not equally g(.K>d pastui'e. The pastures tliat are exceptionally gootl this yeai will be poor the next. The pasture on burnt praii'i'' Is good all su:nnier. But this cannot be said of thii wliich is unburnt. The same species of grass extend through 20" of longilade and sonu'tinies 10" of latitude, and a grass spoken of very highly in one locality may be condemned in another. The pastures of Bow River are highly praised while thofe farther east with the same species are despised, because public opinion has not been roused in their favor. I purpose in the following list to give all the grasses of the plains, so that both scientific and practical men may recognize the value of those wonderful pastures, extending for nearly 1,000 miles from east to west. Follow- ing^ the true grasses I shall give the CyperaceaD or sedges which constitute much of the hay and the greater part of the vegetation of the ponds, and lastly a list of the Leguminosije, which include the vetches, peas, and all other plants of the order looked upon in all lands as of the most nutritious character. As so little is known GRASSES OF TIIK I'LAINS, FOUKSTS, AND MOUNTAINS. 233 of the roiil value of tlj(» fj^raHHen and other phuitH of the region I nhall eolleet analyHeH of a iiumher of the ed Orass. Muhlenbergia glomerata. Drop-seed Orass. " sylvatica. Sylvan Mulileubergia. Calumagrostis stricta. Reed Bent Grass. «• longifolia. " Canadensis. Blue Joint Grass. " LangsdortTii. " sylvatica. •' Porteri. Ericoma cuspidata. Oryzopsis Canadensis. Canada Rice Grass. " asperifolia. Rough Leaved Rice Grass. Stipa spartea. " Wild Oat," Buffalo Grass. " viridula. Feather Grass. " Ricliardsonii. " comata. Spartina gracilis. Graceful Salt Mnrsh Grass. " glabra. Salt Marsh Grass. " cynosuroides. Fresh Water Cord Grass. Boutoloua oligostachya. Buffalo Grass. Graphephonim melicoides. " festucaceum. Koeleria cristata. Eatouiaobtusata. " Ponnsylvanica. MelicaHallii. Hall's Melio Grass. Glyceria airoides. Narrow Leaved Spear Grass " tenuitlora. Meadow Spear Grass. Si !(•. .' ' !i n :i i I :!!^ it \- if. 234 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NUUTII-WEST. • I II II II II II II II „; > . ', nOTANICAI. N.UIK. (ilycurin in'rvata. " ai|iiiiti(tii. " Ihiitaiia. " (liHtHIlM. " luuiriflorft. Urizojiynim spicatum. Ciitnbrosa iiquatica. Munroa squnrrosa. Pun aiinim. <' i)ratt'nHi8. tcnnifolia. iilpina Btrutiun, laxa. Andina, t'd'Hia. iifinoralis. Katun i, FcHtiKii ovina. » Thuiberi. " tend 1ft. BromiiH ciliatug. " Kalmii, " liiivi-aristfttus, Phmpiiiitis coinmunis, Li'ptunis iHiniiulatus. Trititinii rt'ians. " dasystailiyum. " violaceiim. " ciininum. " strigosum. Hordeum jubatinn. " jiratense. Elymuy Canadensis. « Sibiiiciis. mollis, condensfttus. striatus. Virpinitiis. dasyntuchgum. parviflorum. Danthonin, Kpicata. « intermedia. " Californica. « sericea. Aira cjEspitosa, Avena (striata, Aveua pratensis. « (I i< II II niMMON .VAMK. Water Spfar CtraHii. Com won Munna GraxM. Spiko (irasM. Annual Spear Grass. June (JraHs, Slender leaved Poa. f'oul Meadow. Wavy Meadow Grass. Wood Meadow Grass. Sheep's Fcscno. Thurber'H Fescue. Small Feseuc Grass. Fringed Ihomc Grass. Wild Chest. Common Reed Grass. Cotuh Grass. Soft Wheat Grass. Squirrel Tail Grass. Canadian Lyme Grass. Siberian Lyme Grass. Smooth Lyme Grass. Slender Hairy Lyme. Lyme Grass. Soft Lyme Grass. Wild Oat Grass. Prairie Oat Grass. Californiau Oat Grass. Silky Oat (Jrass. Hassock Grass. Wood Oat Grass. Meadow Gat t J rasa. vx.kcr, or urowth. Damp puHturcs ami pofils. lu pools. In standing; wutcr. Salt marshrg. Northern river bottonm. Salt inarahes. In spring riviiluta. Red Deer Valley. Near Winnii)eg. Very common, Fine pasture grass. Cypress Hills. Abundant in wet places. Manitoba prairies. Western prairies. Prairies, many forms. Cypress Hills. II II Sandy soil. Brandon and \vestward. Cyi)res8 Hills. Damp jmiiries and thickets. Thicket and i)ruirie. Cypress Hills. Bogs and Marshes. Dry Idllsides. Salt marshes. Forest openinK-i Manitoba i)lain Tliii'kets, rivi'i li;mks. Cypress Hills. Salt marshes. Salt marshes, rare. River banks and thickets. Cypress Hills. Lake Winnipegoosis. Southern Plains. Thickets. Moist river bottoms. Mountain Woods. Rich prairies. Forest openings. Rich prairies. Cypress Hills. Bow River. River banks. Thickets. Brandon and wc tward. GRASSES OF THE PLAINS, FORESTS, AND MOUNTAINS. 235 nOTANirAI, NAMR. TiiHctuni HiihHplciitnni. IlicriH'liloa Ixiri'iiIiH. riiiilariH iiriiniliimcea. HtM kiiwmniii inn ivformiB. rani<'iim virgutiim, " xiinthoiihyRum. « (leiimiperiitum. « (lichutnmnm. " pmuiflonim. Anilropogon furcatus. « scoparius. COMMON NAMR. i\ (»r Scnecrt (iratii). Kecd Caimiy (imHH. Bcc'kninnn'H (irnKf. Tall Smooth Panic. nOTANICAL NAUK. CypcniH Schwt'initzii. Elcoihftilii paluHtris. <• ac'icularis. " tcnnuiB. SciripuH cJL'npito8ii8 " paiicifloruB. « raaritimus. " pungens. » atrovirens. " validus. " fluviatilis. « microcarpus. Eriophoruiii alpinnm. " vaginatum. " polyHtachyon, " gracilo. Carcx adnsta. " aperta. " alpina. << nquatilis. • arctata. ■' arida, aristata. •' aiirea. " Backil. " canestens. « caitillaris. " concinna. « C'rawei. '< debilis. « cristata. « Deweyana, Finger Spiked Woo»10\«8^ Purplo Wood Ornss. Table II. Cyperacece. COMMON NAME. Bohweintiz'B Gallingall. Comjuon Spike RuhH. Hair Club RuhIi. Slender Club Rush. Scabyntalked Club Rush. Sea Bulrush. Chair Bottom Rush. Bulnish. River Rush. \Vo(xl Rush. Cotton Grass. Harestail. Broad leaved Cotton Grass. Narrow leaved Cotton Grass. ri.ArK or orowti. Row contained much sand, and at times passed into isolated patches of blown sand without any vegetation what- ever upon them. In this sandy country water was very scarce, and one salt lake was met with where the water stank so that the horses would not diiiik it, although they had been nearly four*:een hours witliout any. This lake was over tan miles in length, and lay in a depression which con- nected at its northern end with Island Lake, and seciried to extend out to the base of the Cypress Hills at the south. Around the northern end we passed, and for about thirty miles travelled over a very dry region with scarctdy any good water, and very little of any kind. The soil was im- varying sandy loam — never pure sand — with boulders often on the hill tops. After a careful perusal of the above it will be seen that these hills offer advantages equal, if not superior, to those found in the Bow River country. Fine rich grass, pure spring water, elevation in the heat, and absence of tiies are assured for sununer. In the winter there are shelter from storms, and abundance of hay and fine pasture on the exposed hills, where the buffalo has wintered from time immemorial. Every part of the Nr>rth-West produces excellent pasture for summer, but only certain sections are suited for tlie vviii- tering of stock wholly or partly without hay. In winter there must be a combination of advantages, and although in places where buffalo wintered in the past, cattle can do ihe seme now. still shelter is necessary and this cannot be ollained without wood. The b 'st pastures therefore are STOCK RAISING. 265 those near Turtle Mountain, Moose Mountain, Wood Moun- tain, the Cypress Hills, the valley of the South Saskatche- wan and its tributaries, Tail Creek, and along the eastern base of the mountains for forty miles north of Bow River. Without entering into details regarding these localities, I may state that, as I have shown when speaking of the grasses, all have nearly the same species and consequently are equally valuable as pasture. Ponies can winter out without difficulty on any part of the prairie, or mixed forest and prairie, between Winnipeg and the Rocky Mountains. These animals use their feet and icrape away the snow even if it be two feet deep, and get all tlie food they require. The heats of August and the light rainfall of the autumn, taken in connection with the small amount of snow, which seldom thaws but evaporates under the action of the wintry sun even at a temperature below zero, produce every season, an immense amount of fodder equal to hay, over an area not less than 300,000 square miles in extent. It is the light rainfall of the autumn and the .setting in of winter without it, which gives the nutritious hay -grass that cattle and horses eat on the plains all winter. This is the reason that accounts for these animals coming in fat from the plains in spring. Cattle, fed when the snow gets a crust on it in March, would winter just as well as horses. All that has been said and written about the "utritious grasses of the North- West resolves itself into thi.« he frosts and suns of October dry the grass; while tin November snows cover it to a depth of a few inches, and ho it remains till spring, if not eaten in the meantime. In summer ponies eat great quantities of gi . and never liaving tasted oats do not look for surh luxuru^s. Canadian liorses, on the other hand, when turned out of harness eat the grass for a short time and then return to camp for oats. Should they get none they hang around the camp, and are often put in harness still hungry. A very few weeks settle il! I I 256 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. Ii I H ^4 rn » I Mi the question. They either take to the grass or they die, like many others, from over work with insufficient food. In the winter they cannot get their food as they never use their feet to paw away the snow. Put them on native hay, and you are met by the same difficulty as in summer, — they will not eat enough. Farmers know that horses fed on grass have necessarily a large paunch, while those fed on hay and oats have a small one, hence the majority of Cana> dian horses die in a year or two if they are not properly fed. It is not the climate that kills Canadian horses but insufficient food. Mr. Kenneth Mackenzie, who has been in the country for over ten years, says " that twenty per cent, of the horses die or are useless the two first years after being in Manitoba," and advises they should not be brought thither until more timothy and oats are raised in the country. This advice was given six years ago, but its force remains the same, as imported stock must be fed. Ponies can live anywhere in the north, and so can Canadian horses as regards climate, but the hitter must get oats if ibs^y are expected to live and thrive. Cattle, whetlier native or imported, as long as they are grass raised ones, will succeed well in the country in any part, and not be injured by climate nor by the food obtained by therasel v es. As cattle use the nose instead of the hoof to clear away the snow, they cannot support themselvea when the snow gets too deep or covered with a crust, as it sometimes does in the Saskatchewan country. It then be- comes imperative to lay up at least a partial supply of hay in most if not all sections of the country, to protect the cat- tle from either of the above contingencies. I wish to be clearly understood on this point, and therefore repeat that cold does not cause the death of either horses or cattle, but all deaths arise from either being over worked or under fed, or both. STOCK RAISING. 257 While on the plains, in the winter of 1875, we were caught in a severe snowstorm, and many of our horsen gave out, and one died. One night when the thermometer sank below zero a mare dropped a colt, and the next morning I drove it and its mother into camp. The mare was harnessed in the cart and the colt put inside, and we travelled on. Three days afterwards we left both at Rat Creek alive and well. In 1874 A. R. C. Selwyn, F.R.S., Director of the Geological Survey, examined the country, and in his report of the following year wrote of the Saskatchewan district : — '* At present there are comparatively few cattle in the country, and it is customary to house and feed them on hay during the winter, the prevailing opinion being that they cannot otherwise survive. There is, however, every reason to believe that this is a mistake, and that if a hardy race of cattle suitable to the climate were introduced, they would speedily become acclimated, and not only u- <,ble to survive, but would thrive through the winter without the aid of ar- tificial feeding and shelter ; and if so, vast herds might soon be reared on these rich and boundless pastures, reanimating the now deserted feeding grounds of the buflalo, and be- coming a source of la^'ge profit to the settler, as well as affording a ready and cheap means of providing for the In- dians, who are now frequently reduced to the verge of starvation, owing to the annually increasing scarcity of buffalo, upon which they are at present entirely dependent. I took some trouble to inquire into this subject, and though I found the prevalent belief to be as I have stated, yet I WHS informed of several instances of cattle having been lost in the fall, and in every case they had not only survived but had been recovered in excellent condition in the follow- ing spring." Dr. George M. Dawson, in his Report of 1874. says: — " In July of last summer I saw a band of cattle in the vicinity of the Line, south of Wood Mountain, which 17 i! 1 h I ; 258^ MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTU-WEST. ' I III m liad Htrayed from one of the United State's forts to the Month. They were quite wild, and almost as difficult to u|)))roach as the buffalo ; and notwithstanding the fact that they had originally come from Texas, and were unaccus- tomed to frost and snow, they had passed through the win- ter, and were in capital condition," All the requirements for stock-raising are found wher- ever there is a sufficiency of shelter in the winter, as all the prairie affi)rds good pasture in the summer. Winter pasture i,H surest wherever there are high rolling or sharp hills, but the snowfall is generally so light that cattle and horses can pasture almost anywhere south of, lat. 52° west of the lOGtli meridian. Although all eyes are turned at present to the Bow River country, there are just as fine locations in other parts of the territory. I have described the Cypress Hills, cited Wood Mountain and other points, and will now ^ive a general review of the more salient points in connec- tion with the other portions of the region in question. Westward of the Cypress Hills and extending towards Kort Macleod, the country is very much cut up with coulees (liivines) and gravel hills with intervening spaces of rich l)a5ture land, which by reason of wood being very scarce is n(>t a desirable country in winter. Northwest from the hills the Saskatchewan divides into the Red Deer, Bow, and Belly Rivers. The vallevs of these streams being from 200 to 500 feet in depth, with abundance of brush and groves of trees with many branching coulees opening into them, will give shelter to many thousand head of cattle during the se- \'erest storms of winter, while in mild weather they can find abundance of pasture on the hills outside the river valleys. The Hand Hills district on the Red Deer River soutnwest from Battleford, in former years was noted for its rich pas- tures and for the enormous herds of buffalo wintering in its neigh liorhood. At pre.sent the buffalo are all gone, the In- dians have disappeared with them, the whole region is with- STOCK RAISING 259 I ooniiec- out inhabitant, and nothing is left but the waving grass on the hillsides and the water fowl in the marshy flats. This region is thus described by Captain Palliser twenty-five years ago, when the land was eaten bare by vast herds of buffalo : — ** The plain all around the base of these hills is bare and arid, but the high level of the hills bears a very fair and almost rich pasture, being 680 feet higher than the plain, and 3,400 feet above the sea: it also contains lakes of pure fresh water, and gullies with small groves of poplar." While exploring the hills in 1879 I was much impress- ed with the value of this region as a fine country for stock of all kinds It may be described as a land of brooks, small lakes and ponds, grass marshes, and rich bottoms lying be- tween rolling or sharp, rounded hills, which are covered with nutritive grass in summer, and in winter with the same grass but now converted into excellent hay. Standing on a hill-top and looking over a wide area of grass-covered hills and valleys which stretched out to the horizon on every hand, and which could be extended almost indefinitely in any direction, is it too much to say that here was room for millions of cattle to roam at will and get fat on the very richest grass ? No man looking over such a country could doubt its value, for were the grass of the hills to become too dry the succulent pasture along the lake or pond was closO at hand, and if that of the salt marsh was preferred it waB there also. On the south side of the hills and about 400 feet above the plain is a fine spring of clear crystal water about twenty yards across. This was the favorite camping ground of the Crees, and between it and Red Deer River extended a plain, broken into low bills with intervening ponds and meadows. In the Cree language this plain was called the ''Store," as buffalo in the palmy days of the past were never wanting from it. In those days he would walk out of his tent and look over the plain to where the herds were graz- ing, mount his \)ony, go out and shoot a fat cow, and return !ir > 1 .' 260 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOKTU-WEST. • I |! I 't \ i I i f' i 1 j 1 with his moat to camp. It requires no stretch of imagina- tion to see all this a reality again, but instead of the Indian and bufl'alo it will be the white man and his flocks and herds. Lying west from Sounding Lake and the Hand Hills a magnificent pastoral country extends to and beyond Tail Creek, the outlet of Buffalo Lake. Timber in groves is found north of lat. 52°, and the whole region is unequalled for its paHturage, water, and its shelter. For many years Tail Creek was a favorite wintering ground for the Half-breeds when the buffalo roamed in countless thousands around them, but with the disappearance of the latter the former also passed away. Their houses in many ca^es have been burned down, and nothing is left but the mud chimney to tell the story of man's occupation. On many parts of the exposed plain the stone circles indicate where the tepees of the In- dians have stood, and often the larger circle will show where che chief's tent was pitched, with his warriors close to him. One day, in 1879, we came upon the remains of a former camp, indicated by the stone circles, and here were the ghastly sights of a past massacre or battle, sculls and jaw bones being nearly perfect, all the other bones having either disappeared altogether or been much gnawed by wolves or The Bow River country is only a part of a great whole that extends from the Boundary northward for 200 miles, and eastward from the base of the Rockies for at least 150 miles. In altitude this region is from 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the sea, and principally consists of rolling hills and rich valleys or river bottoms. The soil of these valleys is generally very rich and much natural hay grows luxuri- antly in the bottoms and along the sides, while the upper elopes when not covered with wood are very often strewed over with shingle (quartzite drift) to the depth of a few inches or many feet. Although grain can be and is raised STOCK RAISING. 261 in many localities in this area, and the soil is exception- ally good, yet, owing to its general altitude and proxi'inity to the mountains, it cannot be highly recommended as a farming country. I know that many parties will be found to contradict the above statement and aver that it is gener- ally an excellent farming country, and MorleyviUe will be cited as an instance, but I can say I have seen MorleyviUe and the vicinity, and while I bear testimony to its value from an agricultural standpoint, I still affirm that its natu- ral advantages make it more of a pastoral country. Leaving out the climate, which is spoken of in another chapter, we may describe this country as a region of clear mountain streams, spring brooks, and large rivers flowing over beds of sand or gravel and literally filled with the finest trout. As the larger streams debouch on the plain they lose their limpid character and become milky from the wearing away of the clays along their banks. When the water begins to change, trout become scarce and soon disap- pear, but now I ike (jack-fish) and gold eyes take their place. In the valleys and along the streams natural hay can be procured in abundance, while the drier uplands wil\ be cov- ered all srmmer long with rich green grass, owing to the frequent showers and heavy dews. Where the timber has been lately burnt off pea-vine and vetch, with other tall growing plants, grow so thick that it is extremely difficult to walk through them, and cattle, either in summer or win- ter, find abundant and agreeable food. Owing to the warm winds which frequently prevail in winter, little hay is needed, but if it were, enough could be procured with very little effort. All farmers, in every section of the country, say that perhaps in no other part of the American continent do root crops come to such excellence as they do in the North- West. Turnips and carrots grow to a fabulous size, and potatoes surpass anything ever seen by an Irishman in his own coun- i ! ip! Jf IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 ■30 |28 |25 |2.2 1^ m Ao 12.0 'Am, 6" TA M /. Hiotographic Sciences Corporatiori 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 145U (716) 872-4503 <^ It'.'l 262 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. Vi '! 'fl!i I « ' I try. The rich river bottoms are just the places to raise these, and every ranche (cattle farm) will eveutually have its thousands of bushels of roots raised at a nominal cost to sup- plement the hay or grass of the hill pastures. Although I have mentioned many points as being well- suited for stock farming on a large scale, it does not follow that these are the only locations. "Wherever settlements are formed in the future there will always be abundance of stock, as farmers soon learn that cattle and their products are a source of constant income in any country. Experi- ence has taught farmers already that severe cold never injures their stock if they are regularly supplied with food when they cannot obtain it themselves. Intense cold is generally accompanied with clear skies and little wind, and neither horses nor cattle seem to care for it. Sleety storms, such as often take place in Ontario are unknown, and during the winter cattle are seldom if ever wet. Extreme cold is never accompanied with chilliness in the west, and as nature provides a thicker and therefore a warmer coat, no fears need be entertained of stock suffering from this cause. In- sufficient food — and this alone — causes the death of horses and cattle throughout the west. A mild winter and deep snow cause many deaths, while a severe winter and light snowfall have scarcely any death record. It is after a win- ter of this kind that the " animals come out fat " in the spring. Many believe that sheep-raising will not pay owing to the "wild oat" {Stipa spartea), but that idea has been exploded within the last few years. The objection may have some force in it, but I confess that I am sceptical on the point. A late writer says that lambs are dropped too soon, and owing to the length of the winter this cannot be prevented. Winter certainly does not set in earlier than November and it ends as early as it does in Ontario, yet I have never heard such a complaint made in Ontario, except STOCK llAISING. 263 by a nhiftless person. Residents know that in March and April hardly any rain or snow falls in the North-West, and I fail to see where the injurious effects of the weather comes in. Barley and peas are the usual food for hogs, and Mr. Yeo- mans, of Burnside, told me he found no difficulty in fattening them, nor in keeping them over. His Berkshires were as fine in the last of October as they would be in Ontario at the same time. Naturalists are well aware that animals put on more fat in cold countries than they do in warm ones. In fact to be fat is the normal condition of all northern animals when in health. With this fact before us let us consider why there should be any doubt of the fattening power of the northern grasses. On other occasions I have proved that climate, besides thit;kening the coat, actually fattened the animal, and this has been borne out by the importation of Texas cattle into Montana. These cattle actually become fatter on the Montana plains in winter than on their own native plains in summer. Grass-fattened cattle in the north make just as fine beef as the stall fed ones of the south ; and the ex- ports of Riga show that Russia for many years has derived a large income from the export of her hides and tallow, tiie grass fed products of her interior plains. It is surely time that the cloud which has hung so long over our great interior plains should be lifted, and the world at large know of their great value as food producers. Let a man settle where he may, between Winnipeg on the east and the Rocky Mountains on the west, and the International Boundary on the south and the parallel of 60° north, and he will find no difficulty in procuring food. Should the soil give no returns tlie lakes and rivers teem with fish, and every marsh and pool swarms with water fowl. If he prefers the south he can raise tat cattle without an hour's labor, and if he tries the middle region a prolific soil will more than supply his wants. Here \\,\ II i SI 4 i ! J I 1 ! \i\ ,1 : I i:!) I I i 'I I ■'' ' i 1 1 1 * ii ' I 1^1 264 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTU-WEST. on an area of 350,000 square miles is everything to supply a va^t population, and all that is needed is a mere scratching of the soil or the placing of a net in the water to supply a houseliold with food. Want, either present or future, is not to be feared, and man living in a healthy and soul invigo- rating atmosphere will attain his highest development, and a nation will yet arise on these plains that will have no supe- rior on the American continent. In conclusion I will add a few extracts from reports of gentleme^i of experience who travelled extensively in the country a few years since. The following extract is taken from the report of Mr. R. H. B. P Anderson, of Listowel, County Kerry, Ireland: — "■ Cattle, sheep, and horses thrive well, and in spite of the long winter during which they must be housed. Stock- raising is found very profitable, hay can be had in abundance, and cattle keep their condition well on it. I see no reason why they could not be shipped to England from Manitoba wlien the Canadian Pacific Railway is finished. At present there are not many well-bred cattle or sheep in the country, l>ut the number is increasing rapidly year by year. I made searching inquiries regarding the danger of spear-grass {/Stqya spartea) to sheep, and found it was very much exaggerated; it is only to the careless or lazy farmer it presents any diffi- culty ; it IS by no lAeans common, and in the districts where it grows it can be rendered harmless by eating it down early, or by running a mowing machine over the patches of ground covered by it I heard some complaints about the difficulty of keeping horses' in Manitoba. In niy opinion, and I judge by what I «aw, it would be entirely obviated by supplying plenty of good hay and oats. Horses cannot live on the prairie grass. Mules are extremely good, some of them magnificent brutes, standing sevent'^en hands high ; they seemed to grow fat on the grass, and are altogether hardier and more adapted to the country in its present state (till I STOCK RAISING. 265 more timothy and oats are grown) than the horse, but they jiie much dearer. Oxen, however, are the mainstay of the farmer in cultivating his farm, in fact, in breaking the prairie he could scarcely do without them, they are powerful brutes, and for oxen are wonderfully active ; they cost nothing for keep, and also have the advantage of being cheaper than either horses or mules. An ox costs about .£14, a horse about £25, and a mule about .£35. Good milch cows can be had for about £8, sheep 12s. to 18s. each. I forgot to say that the pig seems to be at home here as everywhere else. I saw some prize Berkshires eighty miles from Winnipeg, that had been brought from Ontario, and seemed happy in their new quarters. The ordinary diseases to which stock are liable in Ireland are unknown in any part of Canada, nor is there any, that I have heard of, peculiar to the country." Mr. Thomas Spence, Clerk in the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba, in an article published last year says while speaking of stock-raising : — " The experience of many years shows that no physical impediment arising from climate or soil exists to prevent the prairies of our North- West becoming one of the bt !t grazing countries in the world, and with the introduction of immigration, in a few years, the beautiful prairies of the North- West will be enlivened by numerous flocks and herds, and the cattle trade already springing into importance will rapidly increase, or, without much difficulty, be diverted into a southern channel. For raising cattle and horses this country is equal to the State of Illinois, and for sheep-raising it is far superior. The quality of the beef and mutton raised upon our northern grasses has been pronounced of superior excellence. Among the pecu- liar advantages of Manitoba for stock-raising and wool growing, the most prominent are : — Ist. The riohneHS and luxuriance of tho native grasses. The grass is mainly cut oil the swamps and meadow.s, which chequer the prairies or It '''i ; Jl! I I ! t \ 1:1 \ M ! ) 1 1 ' III il :' > liH it i H Mi' ■! « I i ! f. ^ i': j i i 1 i I ■■ 266 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH- WEST. fringe the streams and lakes ; 2nd. The great extent of un- occupied land, affording for many years to come a wide range of free pasturage ; 3rd. The remarkable dryness and health- fulness of the winter. The cold dry air sharpens the appe- tite and promotes a rapid secretion of fat and a vigorous mus- cular development. All these point to stock-raising as one of the most important and promising of the diversified channels into which the industry of the immigrant and capitalist is to be directed. Notwithstanding the expensiveness and difficulty of stocking farms in a new country like this, where animals must be procured at a distance of hundreds of miles, the progress already made in this direction affords a gratify- ing proof of the rapid growth of this important interest. SHEEP AND WOOL GROWING. Tl'here is not room in this guide to give the subject of wool- growing the attention which its importance deserves. The experience of forty years, and of some who have been en- gaged in the business in Australia, established beyond a reasonable doubt the following conclusions: — 1. That from the nature of our climate and the general undulating char- acter of the prairies, the richness of the grasses, and the purity of the waters, this country is adapted in an eminent degree to the healthful and profitable breeding of sheep; 2. That sheep are entirely free from the diseases which cut them off so largely in more southern climates ; 3. That the characteristic dryness of our winters, not only protect them from the casualties to which they are exposed in moister win- ter climates, but stimulates them to a more healthy and vig- orous growth ; 4. That the naturalization of sheep impor- ted from Illinois, Ohio, and other middle States of America, improves the quality of their wool ; 5. That it is by far the most profitable branch of industry in which the settler with capital can engage, especially in connection with stock-raising. The average product of wool is not subject to fluctuation. STOCK RAISING. 2G7 and the price also is far steadier than that of breadstuffs. Well-fed ewes produce fleeces from three to three and a half pounds. Wethers produce fleeces from six to eight pounds, the wool being of a good quality. All breeds stand the win- ter cold well, but the Cotswold the best. An instance came to the knowledge of the writer where a flock of about twenty strayed away in the beginning of winter, and were found in the spring fat, and none missing, but an addition to the flock in lambs. An experienced settler writes as follows: — I believe this to be equal to any country for sheep growing. I prefer the Cotswold breed to any other for this country, as they are good shearers, prolific breeders, and good for mutton. My sheep have been troubled with no disease, but the dogs have killed and wounded some. I believe that in this branch of husbandry this country has few equals, and no superiors in any country on the globe." Having shown the great natural advantages of the North- West as a stock-raising district, it may be asked how all those cattle are to reach a market. To many of the ranche- men along the base of the mountains this question will soon be of paramount importance. In two years the Canadian Pacific Railway will reach the base of the Rocky Mountains, and the surplus cattle will begin to come eastward. For many years cattle shippers have felt that a great wrong -yas done by the promiscuous shipping of cattle in badly constructed cars. Inventors set to work and numbers of cars were constucted, but none seemed to meet the approval of both railway men and shippers, as they were generally far too expensive. The large amount of capital invested in the business, from $25,000,000 to $30,000,000 annually, and the great yearly loss by death and disease from torture and abuse, caused by the ordinary mode of transmission, not taking into consideration the amount of unhealthy meat consumed, stimulated those who fully realized the impor- tance of the matter to provide a remedy This has been I; i I ! il ; f 268 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. • I M f/l fU found in the " Hunter Cattle Car," which now carries cattle from Chicago to Boston, Halilax, and other Eastern iX)rtH with a great saving of shrinkage in weight and of time, as owing to its peculiar construction the cattle can lie down or stand up at will The Grand Trunk authorities are so well satisfied of its merits, that they are fitting up a number of these cars to test their practicability, and it is believed that this style of car will soon come into general use. Should this be so our stock-raisers need have no fear for the success of their business, as they are assured of at least ten per cent, increase on the value of their stock. Shippers can calculate to a certainty on their probable loss, and hence will be able to give better prices. From a humanitarian aspect this improvement in the transportation of cattle must be greatly appreciated. Testimony of Settlers regarding the effect of Gold on Cattle. Benjamin Hartley St. Charles . ... Animals do not suffer so much here as in Enffland. A. Gillespie Greenwood Animals do well here in winter. S. C. Higginson , Oakland The winters are dry ; animals do not suffer from cold. J ames Sturton Nelsunvilie Climate being drier, animals 8ta.:d cold better than in Ontario. S. Ballantyne West Lynne Although last winter was very cold stock wintered well. John Begg Morris I have known young cattle to winter at the straw pile. Thomas Sigsons Portage la Prairie. . The winters being dry and frosty are favorable to cattle. Thomas Dalzell High Bluff The winter is not hard on cattle here. John Frazer Kildonan The winter though cold is uniform. W. A. Farmer Headingly The winter is not severe on animals^ they are very healthy. W. A. Mann Bird's Hill Cattle do better here in a cold steady winter than in a mild one. M. Owens High Bluff The winters here are less severe on cattle than in Ontario. Nelsou Brown High Bluff The winters here have the same effect on animals as in Ontario. H. 0. (irahain Stonewall The dryness of the atmosphere neutral- izes the cold. Matthew Ferris Biinisjtlu The winter not much severer here than iji Ontario. CHAPTER XVI Stock Raising in the Boic River District compared mth Montana. [This Chapter was Written by Alex. Beoo, Esq.] American Writers Ignore our North-West, or Speak of its Sterility — Bow River District Defined — Montana Stock-raisers Testify to the Superiority of the Bow River District —Description of North-Westem Montana — It Improves as We Go North — Cattle now in the Bow River Country — No Loss from Winter Storms — Renting Grazing Lands — Statistics of Stock in Montana — Chinook Winds — Description of the Rocky Mountains — How to Stock a Ranche — Sort of Cattle to Choose — Comparison of Varieties of Stock — Capital Necessary to Establish a Ranche — Size of a Ranche — The Rate of Increase — Profits on the Investment — Will There be a Market? — Another Estimate of Coet and Profit — Is it Wise to Lay in Some Hay — Sort of Men for Herds- men — Men and Cattle Should be Comfortable — The C P. R. to cross the Bow River District — Sheep-farming as a Future Business — Every Requirement in the Region in Question — A Perfect Sheep's Paradise — No Sheep Ever Lost by Severe Weather in Montana — Little Disease among Sheep — Profit from Sheep Farming in Colorado — Equally as Good in Bow River Country — Breeding and Rearing Horses — Conclusion. In a United States work on Stock-raising, published in 1881, the author says : — " There are but five great national grazing grounds in the whole world, viz., in Central Asia, South Africa, South America, and the Plains of North America. The first is larger in extent than all Europe, the second is as great, the third half as much, the fourth is as large as South America, and the fifth the boundless Plains of the United States, containing 1,650,000 square miles, with over a billion of acres." The writer referred to does not include in his estimate the vast provinces of British North America, with the fertile slopes and sheltered foot hills east of the Rocky Mountains, embracing a larger, richer, and more valuable area of grazing lands than those of the neighboring territories to the south. The whole of the northern country is ignored ; as speaking of Montana, he says, " it has for its boundary on the north the bleak and almost limitless British possessions." True, they are almost limitless, but not so bleak as the greater \n II !■ 1 1 TT f 270 MANITOBA AND TllK GREAT NOBTII-WEST. li ' • I fir part of Montana, which he rcprcijonts as the best grazing district of the United States. The best pasturage lands belonging to the Dominion of Canada, are, as far as yet ascertained, to be found in what is generally known as the Bow River District. It lies east of the Rocky Mountains, commencing at the base of " The Rockies," near where the 114th degree of longitude, west of Greenwich, or the fifth principal meridian of the North-West surveys, intersects the international boundary line, which conventionally separates the district from Montana territory. Those grazing lands extend, in more or less perfection, eastward along the boundary line for over a hundred miles, as far as the Cypress Hills, and northwards parallel to the Rocky Mountain range, across the head waters and along the valleys of the North Saskatchewan, Athabasca, Peace, and the Mackenzie Rivers. This vast region, especially along Peace River, although not fully explored, is on account of isothermal lines, reported to be milder than Montana in winter, less subject to summer frost, as rich as the lands on the head waters of the South Saskatchewan and Bow River, if not richer, and well adapted for stock-raising and farming. As a stock-raising country the Bow River district is the best in America. I say this advisedly, as I journeyed through a large portion of Montana and through the Bow River district, as far north as Edmonton (about 600 miles north of Fort Benton), in August, September, and October, 1881, and closely observed the capabilities of each section along the route. Cattle owners from Montana and Texas, who have resided in the Bow River district for the past six or eight years, and raised stock west of Fort McLeod and north towards Calgarry, testified freely to the superior grazing properties of the country ; whilst the excellent con- dition of the cattle which had all wintered out in the severe winter of 1880-1, was ocular demonstration of the truth of their statements. STOCK RAISING. STOCK RAISING IN THE BOW RIVER DISTRICT. 271 Bordering on the Missouri River as far as Fort Benton, which is more than halfway west through Montana, the coun- try is almost destitute of running streams. The grass, when I passed through in August, was stunted, crisp, and dried up. The soil is chiefly a close, retentive adob6 clay, which be- comes exceedingly soft when wet, but when dry bakes like brick. The consequence is that on many of the upper pla- teaux during fall and spring small pools are formed, which dry up in early summer, leaving the surface almost bare of vegetation. Cactus and sage brush abound. Hundreds of thousands of acres of what is denominated " bad lands " are bare, and large tracts of the " better lands " are only about one-quarter covered with grass. From Fort Benton northward, nearly to the boundary line, there is not much improvement in the general pastur- age qualities of the country, except along the narrow valleys of the Teton and Marias rivers, where there are some small ranches. Near the international boundary line there is a percep- tible change for the better, more especially after leaving the " alkali flats " and reaching the plateau above the " rocky springs," which extends to and beyond Milk River. Farther north and westerly the land improves, and nearer the foot hills of the Rocky Mountains the whole country is better watered, and is more moist. The grass is more closely rooted and greener all the year round. Stock-raising in this region is only in its infancy. Up to April, 1881, the number of cattle in the Bow River district only amounted to about 3,000 ; since then, up to spring 1882, they have increased by importation and the formation of new ranches to nearly 15,000. By the spring 1883,it is ex- pected the numbers will reach 75,000. 300 breeding mares were imported by " The Cochrane Ranch Co." in 1881. ^ii is I ;. 1 ). i . i ;■ I i. V' • I • I 272 MANITOHA AND THE GREAT NoUTll-WEST. TliiH progress is considerod HiitiMfactory The cattle have so far wintered out remarkably well. None were lost throu^j^h severe weather diirinj^ tlie winter 18S()-1 in tlie Bow Kiver district, altiiough many perished in Montana and farther south. Reports for 18S1-2 are favorable — not much snow, and stock in excellent condition. Provision is now made by the Dominion Government to lease sections of grazing lands as ranches for a term of twenty- one years, at the very moderate rent of one cent per acre. Ten acres are allowed to each head of cattle, to be placed ou the ground leased within three years of the granting of the lease. A large number of applications have been made for ranches, and as stock of all kinds for breeding purposes are admitted free of duty, the increase during the next few years will be very large. In Montana the business of stock-raising has increased to a large extent, and has been profitable to those engaged in the trade. A return by the assessors of the territory gave the following as the number and the value of live stock in Montana in the year 1877, viz. : — NnMBER. VALUE. Cattle 100,647 $1,812,920 Horses .... 26,496 851,674 Mules 1,688 105,648 Sheep 51,5.')8 .... 148,894 Hogs 4,642 20,698 245,031 $2,939,734 Since then the stock there has been doubled. There is nothing to hinder equal progress in the Canadian North- West. The natural features of the country are most favor- able. Nutritious grasses in the greatest abundance, up to the base of the snow-capped " Rockies," penetrate gorges which frequently open into valleys walled in by perpendicular cliffs, or grow in lovely glades amongst evergreen spruce and other trees which clothe their lofty sides. Sheltered coulees and ravines leading from the bottom lands or valleys STOCK IJAISfNTf. 27:J of crooks juul rivors, to tlio liii-lior lovolsoltlu' i»riiino, iillonl iim|»lo protootioii from stoi-ins wlioii tliov ocnir ••Chinook wiiid.s " from tlio Pacific coast nisli tliroiigh tho Kootaiiio, Crow's Nost, Bow liivor, and nuiiioroiis other passos. ;ilon,!j; tlic head wators of litimlrods of crystal streams and aionnd the ends of longitndiniil ridgts, whieii divide tho mountain ninges, forming channels or condnetors foi* those warm winds to increase the toiiiporatnre and dissolve the snow as if hy luiigic. From Chief Moniitain, which rises like a hnge pyramid near tho international honndary, the serrated crest line of the "Rockies" continues in pictnres«|uo and Alpine grandonr to Mount Hooker, which is 15,500 feet high, where the head waters of tho North Saskatchewan have their rise, and some distance farther nt)rth, at Mount Brown, 15,!)!l0 foot high, is tho feeder of the river Athabasca. Beyond this point the crest gradually declines in level to the Arcti*- ocean. In lat. 02" its height is estimated at between 3,000 and 4,000 feet Northward of lat. 55" the main eastern riuigo ceases to bo the water shed of the drainage of the country between Hudson's Bay, tho Arctic, and the Pacilir. Peace and Mackenzie rivers cleave this great chain and have tiicir sources in ranges farther west. This seems to acconnr for the geniality of the climate in tho neighborhood of those rivers, although so far north. In reference to the beat way of proceeding to stock a ranch in the North-West, I cannot do better than (piote from a lecture delivered 1)y Professor W. Brown, of the Ontario xVgricultural College, Guelpli, before the Fanners' Clul) at Markham, Ontario, 6th December, 1881. Mr. Brown had given considerable attention to the subject, as parties had been in correspondence with him as to the character and standing of the entirely new line of cattle grazing opening ill the North- West territory. After preliminary remarks lie said : — '' I would recommend the agreement of three 18 n ■1' i l^M (n i:, r w ' I 274 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. young practical stockmen, in possession, let us say, of $5,000 t'sich, making a joint purse of $15,000. Having chosen by actual inspection the particular district, in view of (1) future railway communication, (2) shelter, (3) water supply, (4) rich, enduring grasses, (5) the necessity, ultimately, of fen- cing cheaply by utilizing any natural advantages, such as rivers, (6) the very model of a choice home cattle station, and (7) the easy extension of the ranch, should everything wnile — we should then consider a sutiable breeding stock." Speaking of suitable cattle for the plains, Mr. Brown said, '' the selection of cows and heifers must necessarily be confined to what can be had in the United States, and Canada — from among those grades or native stock, that by their whole stamp as regards roominess, form and disposition would throw the best possible grazer by the use of some thoroughbred bull The character of such a cow, otherwise, should be a good ranger, that is action in searching for tho best patches of grass; a good nurse, able to defend herself and her charge; not a wanderer; a home-comer when re- quired ; hardy as regards changes of climate, and keeping up well on indifferent pasture if necessary. Such are plentiful all over the continent at prices ranging from $25 to $40 per head. No difficulty exists, therefore, in knowing what kind of cows to use ; the trouble, if any, lies in telling exactly what breed of bulls will clearly give us what we want from such cows and their offspring." A table was submitted by the Professor, showing the maximum value of points of the Hereford, Aberdeen Poll, Short Horn, and Galloway bulls, taken at 100, as respects their reliability as breeders, impression power, giving early maturity, giving weight, grazing disposition, hardiness, least offal, quality of flesh, and permanency of character. Their tests stood — Hereford 87, Aberdeen Poll 87, Short Horn 83, Galloway 82. He was much in favor of Herefords, and said — " We find that while back somewhat in early V 1 STOCK RAISING. 275 maturing, and considerably so in weight, this breed, which has * breadth and depth without height ' is, after all, second to none in view of the probabilities of our North-West graz- ings ; they are so strong and impressive in power, hardiness, and especially in making flesh upon grass, that I am strongl}' of opinion we should look i.o them to lead in this great enterprise." The capital required for establishing a ranch and carrying it on for two years was next considered. It included all set- tling down, house building, fencing of cattle station, enclosing corrals, in addition to the necessary number and variety of live stock, household maintenance, and some implements for ordinary cultivation. After this two year period some reve- nue should be accruing, though not necessarily so much as the annual average to be afterwards expected; because in place of selling all heifers along with the steers, the greater number would be retained to increase the breeding stock. The following is his estimate : — Personal expenHes of one examining ground and securing lease. . . . ( 400 Price of four yearling bulls 1,600 Price of three thoroughbred heifers , 900 Price of 250 cows and heifers at $25 6,250 Price of two yoke of oxen 300 I Twelve saddle liorHcs (natives) 600 Total for live stock 10,060 Cost of dwelling house, stables, and shed 600 Fencing 100 acres as cattle station, the home property 500 Enclosing two corrals 1 50 Agricultural implements, tools, saddles, &c 1,000 Unenumerated 300 Total for building, fencing, Ac . . 2.550 Household raaintcmmctu and personal expenses of three principals during two years 7r>< 1 : .' ] I i ■ 280 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTIMVEST lliiily-five to forty cents per lb. It required only one man to herd the Hock, and I pay him $45 per month, including board. The bucks I keep in an inclosed pasture, commenc- ing May 1st, and to be continued to December 1st of each year. I divide my herd, putting the breedii.g ewes in a separate flock from the wethers and lambs, requiring two herders, one for each flock; but I think it pays to incur the additional expense, and I shall keep it up in future. My average increase is about seventy-five per cent, for the ewes, or fifty per cent, for the whole flock per annum. In five years' experience I have never fed any hay or grain to my stock, and depend entirely on the native grasses, with a few exceptions, as in cases of sickness or some fine blooded bucks or ewes." Wool has been carried by railroad from San Francisco for $1.10 per 100 lbs Double-decked sheep cars, carrying 200 sheep, can be had from the base of the Mountains to Chicago markets for $150, thereby putting fat wethers in market at seventy -five cents per head. Dressed mutton carcases are delivered from the Rocky Mountains to New York at $1.75 per 100 lbs., carload rates. As soon as stock is ready to be sent from Bow River district, equal facilities, if not better, will be furnished to all eastern markets by the Canadian Pacific Railway. Oregon ewes and Spanish Merino and Cotswolds would doubtless thrive in the Bow River district. Their clip in Montana is given at from four to six pounds, according to the grade with Cotswold thoroughbred rams. There is no question about horse raising proving a very profitable enterprise in the North-West. Native horses always winter out and keep in excellent condition. A few mares and thoroughbred stallions have already been imported. This season a large importation is expected from Oregon. Montana, and British Columbia. Horses raised in this country suit better for all sorts of work than those imported. one man STOCK RAISING. 281 The Canadian North-\Ve«+ from its situation and advan- tages, it is evident, is destined to become the chief stock- raising country in America. In a few years it will be difficult to find a vacant range in Wyoming, Nebraska, or Montana suitable or capable of sustaining 5,000 head of cattle. The Dominion of Csmada, on the other, hand has "limitless" ranges waiting to be taken up and occupied. I !i CHAPTER XVII. Water Supply. H if i I Supposed Insutficicnt liainfall — Souris Plain Thought to be « l)e8«rt--fiettlem*^nt Proves the t^ntrary — Urackish and Pure Water — Whem Saline Lakes and Ponds arc Situated — Want of Kunning Streams Accounted for — Rainfall quite Suflicicnt— Prairie Fin>8 the Cause of Apparent Scarcity — Surface Water Scarce in many Locali- ties — Brackish Water always Prtifcrnul by Horses and Cattle — Moderately deep Well* Supply good Water — Cause of I'oor Water on the Manitoba or lied River Prairie — Artesian Wells a Success at Winnipeg — How to Obtain good Water in any Part of the Country — Statements of Actual Settlers Regarding the Water Supply. It is extremely difficult to give in a HniuU space a com- prehensive picture of a most important aiul practical mat- ter, such as all conversant with the North- West must con- sider the water supply to l)e. Writers who only consider the average rainfall say without hesitation that the rainfall is insuificient. Why ? Because there is less rainfall than in Ontario and other places where the country often suffers from drought. Others who visit the country in June and July, or even any time during the summer of the last two years, say there is too much. Formerly it was the fashion to say the country was a desert, and Palliser in writing of the Souris Plain, South-Western Manitoba, says : — " This central desert extends, however, but a short distance into the British territory, forming a triangle, having for its base the 49th parallel from long. 100° to 114" west, with its apex reaching to the 52iid parallel." Following Palliser, other writers reiterated his statements, until it became an article of belief that this country was a desert caused by insuffi- cient rMiiifnll. Advance of settlement wi;stward from Emerson showed that these condemned plains were exceptionally fertile, and to-day no lands are so highly s])oken of During the sum- !■ WATER SUPPLY. 283 mers of 1879 and 1880 I was sent to the southern prairies to explore, and at the Hame time examine into the various meteorological phenomena of the region in cinestion. My reiK)rtH were favorable and showed millionij of acres of fer- tile land in a region regarded by public opinion as a desert. Last year the "Syndicate" decided on running the C.P.R. through this very region, and the Government sent in scores of surveyors to lay out the land, whose reports are now before the Government, and these without exception are favorable as regards tlio fertility of the soil and the richness of the prairie vegetation. Concerning the water rtjipply there is much diversity of opiniim, owing to the want of running streams in the greater part of the country. Many of the pools late in the season become brackish, itnd o. hers dry up, leaving wide stretches without a drop of gooil water on the surface. Actujil settlement alone will decide tliis ([ui^stion, and as settlers increase the scarcity of good water will decrease, because every man will dig his own well and get his own siipply. For years the water supply has been a prominent thought, and during my frecpieut jotirneys I paid attention to every matter connected with it. Salt or brackish water was found in close proximity to fresh water, and caused many ccmjectures to be expressed rc^garding its occurrence, pjvery salt lake, from the Riding Mountains westward, was found to have a hard gravelly bottom, and a careful examina- tion revealed the fact that all were on depressions in the drift with their bottoms in Cretaceous clay, which is known to underlie the whole country. These lakes are fed partly by water running on the surface, but principally by springs issuing from Cretaceous clay close to the water. All the lines of salt lakes throughout the country will be found resting on these clays. Salt Lake, ten miles east of Shoal Lake, is a case in point. On one side of the road is the lake surrounded by a pebbly beach, on the other side, '!! ' ;h !; 284 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. It/ II I I 1 \ i 1' ' f 1 i ■i 1 higher up, is a fresh water pool, from which all travellers get their supply. Now it may be set down as an axiom that all water in pools surrounded by mud is fit to drink ; but that, at certain seasons, those ponds, with a bare gravelly margin, should be shunned. Good water can be obtained, m my opinion, anywhere in thv> drift ; but as soon as the Cretaceous clay either crops out or is reached by digging, poor, if not very bad, water will be found. This accounts lor McKernan getting bad water at Hay Lakes, when he sank through the drift and penetrated into the Cretaceous clay. 1 am aware it has been said that the frequent fires burning the vegetation, and the rains washing the liberated salts into the hollows, cause these accumulations of saline matter. 1 know that terrestrial plants produce potsish when burned, but not the salts which are found in the soils. The dry, arid tract, around the Hand Hills, has more creeks, with flowing water,^than are to be found in the much larger area of the Great Plain, where the soil is of a dil- i'erent character. Here, near the Hand Hills, flowing water and cactus, with dried-up grass, and poor soil, gave another proof that the Cretaceous clay was a factor in more problems than one. It had been a question for a long time unanswered, why there were no creeks in the country farther to the eastward where the rainfall was greater. Here, where the rainfall is light, were numerous creeks, and the answer came at once ; the impervious clay would not allow the rain to enter the earth, which therefore made its way to the creek and so to the river. In no other section of the country did we ever lind the water running in streams on the surface after a storin, except in this locality. I account for the absence of creeks by the fact that the winter frost exerts a surprising pulverizing effect on friable soil, which permits both roots and rain to penetrate to a great depth. Scarcely any running water, and little of what could be WATER SUPPLY. 285 called pure, is found on the Groat Plain ; but many pontU remain throughout the season, giving evidence that tliey are supplied from springs. Tliose that retain water all sum- mer are easily known by their vegetation, River Weed iPotamoyeton graminem), Bladder Wort {Lftrictdaria viiU garis), and a few other species being found in most of them. The level country on the other hand retains no moisture on it ji surface, except as marshes, the slightly undulating having possibly abundance in the early summer in wide depressions, yet by the middle of August, this disappearing to a great extent. It was on the gently rolling country, with a more or less clay surface soil, that difficulty wa.s experienced in finding water. On rolling prairies or rolling hills, water was* always abundant throughout the season, and the higher tho knoll, the more certain we were that water in a deep pool lay at its base. The rainfall, as I have stated in another place, is quite sufficient for all purposes, and pure water has been obtained without any difficulty wherever a settlement ha^j been formed on the Second Prairie Steppo. Although we would travel sometimes one hundred miles without seeing flowing water, and often ten miles without seeing a drop of any kind, this was no proof of its scarcity. From Pine Creek to Boggy Creek, there are sixteen miles of prairie. Upon this prairie there was not a drop of surface water, when we crossed in 1875. Now, settlers are on every part of it, and abundance of water has been found at an average depth of fourteen feet. To the question why, in a country which I assert to have a sufficient rainfall, there are no running brooks ? I answer, that so long as the face of the land is covered with tall, or close matted grass or thick sward, the water cannot run off, and no brooks or stream valleys can be formed. The rain- flill, taking place only in summer, is almost immediately absorbed into the soil and disappears. It was a noticeable i| I i:' :'!! I ! / • I 1 ! •I 28(; MANITOhA ANl» TIIK IJUKAT NOUTIl-WKSf. fiict tliat Hig ('lit Anil Cicfk was vi'ry liltlo afli»ot«'(l l»v tin- nlniost oiiitiiuKiiiM niiiiN ol .liiiir, and yai all tlu; poiulH iiimI liiiirslu'H wiMV full, «m (In- |niiiri»', liOll IW't nbovo liio bod ol tlio crook WIhmi wo n»tmiuMJ njiniii, in tiio latter part ol as high as in .lime. Tho water hein^' uhsorhed by tlie soil remains in it, as it would in the fiiu'h pulverized earth of a llower pot, and is eitluu* taken up by tin; nH)ts, which juMietrate to a vi'ry griMit depth, or passes down into the sub-soil No one, who has not lived on the plains, can properly appreciate the ])ulverizing ellect (►!* frost on tlu; western prairies, where the snowfall is m light nnd tlu; penetrating power of frost st) great Lot the sward bo taken oflf by firo, or any other moans, nnd instead of rain penetrating into tho soil, it will run oil' into the hollows, and tho land without grasM will boc^uiic drier. Clay soil that bake« without cracking, and land without sward, will necessarily allow tho rain water to run olf, and small streams will be found in tho hollows, and eventually ►.troam valleys will bo the consoquonco. These wo ftmnd at tho Hand Hills, under tho above conditions, To roceive tho water, then, tho surftico must either bi- broken up or covered with a thick carpet of grass, whicii would act as a mulch ; this mulch the soil linds in the old grass. It is quite true that horses prefer tho young grass to the old and young mixed together, but it is just as true tliut fires passing over tho country, wlioro tho rainfall is light, pre- vent nearly all the grass from seeding that year, and it is onl\ tho soamd year after a firo that seed in any quantity can bo obtained. When collecting grasses and carices, I always obtained my specimens on tho unburnt ground. It is quite possible that the plain appears loss arid now than when Pallisor cro.s.sed it, as owing to tho absence of tlie enormous herds of buflalo, tho grass now remains from yoiu to year, if not burnt olf. The term, " short, crisp grass of WATKH SUITLT. 287 the pniirio," whit^li Iiiih Ikt(»iii«' ii Iioiih<>I|(>|(1 pliriiMt^ will not 1(0 a|i|>liai1>lo iih H(K»ii iim l\w. fircM (hmihu, and wlioro tlio watur rtiiiH off now, it will pnHH into tlio noil tliroiigli tlu; old graHH ((ir iiiiilcli). Tlir(M> ^<>arH witlioui lin>H would (rlningo tUv. growth (if gruHH ho iniicli that many wonld think tho rain- fall had iiKTcaHcd, when it wiim only rt'tiiintMl hy natnro'n own covering. On tin- prairii? raHt of Lon^ Liik«', whoro the (in^ had not Ikmmi, the gniHH whh twice aH long ('Inly ttli) iiH when; it had Immmi hurnt over; hnt th<> hornoH alwayH wont to tho now gruHH, although <|nitc> Hhort in ooinpariHon to tho other. Here, the rre(|nont fir(*H ha I !i I ; 1 1 i' If ,1 rK 292 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. » I NAMS. ADDRR8S. W. Jackson High Bluff . . Wm. Eagles Stonewall A. Gillespie Greenwood 8. C. Higgenson Oakland Allan Bell Portage la Prairie Jas. Stirton Nelsonville R. E. Mitchell Cook's Creek . , , A. J. Hunker Green Ridge F. Ogletree . . . . , Portage la Prairie. Geo. C. Tucker Portage la Prairie. A V. Beckstead Emerson A. C. Hervey Poplar Point Philip McKay Portage la Prairie Angus Pol.son Kildonan Geo. Tidslmry High Bluff Thos. Sigsons Portage la Prairie. Tho.s. Dalzell High Bluff. Amb. Wilson Stonewall R. Sutherland Portage la Prairie. G. Stranger Poplar Point Wm. Hill Woodlands Niel McLeod Victoria A. Ay Imer St. Leon B. Bell Rockwood , A good supply of water by digging twelve feet. . By drilling the rock we obtained good water. . I have sunk two wells twenty-two feet deep and have plenty of water. . I got the very best of water by digging seven feet. . Excellent water can be obtained by dig- ging fourteen feet. , A spring creek runs throiigh my land Plenty of water at fourteen feet. . The water supply is good. I dig to th(» depth of fifteen feet. , I get very good drinking water from ^ well twelve feet deep. . T can get plenty of good water by dig- ging fifteen feet. , I have to dig from twelve to eigliteeu feet. My water is good. . T have good water from a well eiglitoen feet deep. , A gooDKK88. HiKh IJluflf..,, Jan. iStewart High Bluff. . . .. , Wm. M088 High Bluff... M. Owens Higli Bluft... . . James Stewart Meadow Lea . . . Jus Ferguson Hif,'»i Bluff..... JttH. Airth Stouewall K W. .loluiston Springfield.. . . . (» Taylor Poplar Point Walter Grierson Meadow Lea J. Brydon Portage la Prairie , A, Macdonald Stonewall A.J.Moore Nelsonville ,S. Ballantyne West Lynne J. Appleyard Stonewall ... ... Edward Scott Portage la Prairie. 0. F. Knight Ridgeville 0. Logan Portage la Prairie, Max. Wilson High Bluff. John Troop Portage la Prairie. A Nelson, Jr NelBonville I have plenty of good water from a well twelve to fourteen ft-et deep. I have plenty of water from a well ten to twelve feet deep. I have a never failing supply of water at a depth of fourteen feet. I have tound good water at a depth of ten feet. I have found good water at a depth of sixteen feet. I have found good water at a depth of twelve feet. I have a good supply of water, after dig- ging and blasting twenty-four feet. I have good surface water, standing six or eight feet deep, and spring water at twenty-flve feet. Good water can be had at a depth of ten feet. Good water can be had at a depth of sixteen feet. An abundance of water at a depth of ten feet. An abundance of water at a depth of ten feet. Oood water can be got from wells at a depth of fourteen feet. Oood water can be got at a depth of ten to fifteen feet. I can get plenty of water at twenty feet. I have good water in a well seven feet deep. Plenty of good water can be got from ten to fifteen feet. I obtain good water at a depth of fifteen feet. I obtain good water at a depth of nine feet I obtain good water at a. depth of ten feet. I got very good water from a well four- teen feet deep. iiil t \ ill i I ! P il "jr I 1 CHAPTER XVIII. « I 4 * w^ Fuel Supplies. Scarcity of Fuel not Real — Views of the Canadian, the Englishman, and the Yankee — Supply of Southwestern Manitoba — Turtle Mountain — Moose Mountaiu a Source of Supply— Scarcity of Wood West of This— Cypress Hills— Government Rcserveii Fuel —Fuel Generally Sufficient in Manitoba — Supply for Plicasant Plain— Scarcity of Wood West of Toucliwood Hills— Eagle Hills Supply— Fuel Abundant North of the Prairie— Peat Deposits Abundant — Their Distribution — Peat on nearly all Farms now — Mineral Fuels near the Boundary — Analyses of Coals — Value of the Lignites — St. Mary's River Coal — Analyses of Coals by Prof. Haauel — Souris Coal Field — Coal at Cypress Hills — Coal on Bow River — Its Value as Fuel — Red Deer River Coals- Crawling Valley Coal — Saskatchewan Coal — Eighteen feet Seam above Edmonton- Analyses of these Coals — 211 Miles of Coal Exposures on the Saskatchewan— 25,000 Square Miles of a Coal Field — Edmonton the Centre of this Coal Field— Coal on the Pembina River — Peace River Coal — Coal at the Arctic Sea — Extent of Coal Field- No want of Fuel in the Future. One of the chief obstacles to settlement in any country is the absence or scarcity of fuel. This objection has been urged with truth against settling on the Great Souris Plain, yet when ftiirly examined the objection loses nearly all its force. By many the absence of forests is considered an element of success. Each individual reasons from his own stand point. The dweller in Ontario feels that to be out of sight of woods is a calamity. He also believes that land covered with forest is new and therefore richer than the prairie, and rejects the latter and takes to hriish and forest. An old countryman looks to the picturesque, and prefers some locality pleasing to the eye regardless of any other considerations. A practical Yankee will take a farm where experience tells him he can raise the greatest amount of wheat with the least possible expenditure of labor. He knows this to be on the open prairie, where there is no brush, very little water, and a gently rolling surface. Perhaps twenty miles or more from his location is the ere is no FUEL SUPPLIES. 205 source of his fuel supply, and he knows right well that the extra labor i equired to bring this to his home is more than saved by the ease with which he gets his land ready for the seed and the enhanced value of the crops he raises. Should a railway pass within twenty miles of him he gets his fuel by means of it and feels content. But there is no necessity for any person to be so far away from wood or a railway in the Canadian North- West, and, therefore, the fuel objection can be set aside, though I would impress on every settler the absolute necessity of knowing the exact position of his fuel supply before he locates. Settlers in Southwestern Manitoba will get their fuel for many years to come from Turtle Mountain. Here there is not less than 300 square miles of woodland north of the boundary. The wood is chiefly poplar (aspen and balsam). Oak occurs abundantly on the flanks of the " mountain," and in many protected localities throughout the country. Crossing the Souris Plain, the most wooded section, other than the valley of the Souris and its tributaries, is Moose Mountain, where there is abundance of fuel for a very large settlement for years to come. Like that on Turtle Moun- tain it is principally aspen and balsam poplar, with occa- sional oak, ash, and ash-leaved maple along the slopes. In the Valley of Pipestone Creek, and on the "Weedy, Wolf, and Squirrel Hills, there is sufficient aspen of small size to answer all purposes for fuel. West from this to the Rocky Mountains all large settlements must be supplied with coal until sufficient wood is grown by the settlers them- selves. In the ravines along the east, north and west sides of the Cypress ilills there are very fine groves, which, with caro, will serve that section for a long time, but here wood is not a necessity, as coal in inexhaustible quantities can easily be obtained. There are very few sections of Manitoba far away from fuel. Where there are large open prairies, only a few I ii' hi ';! «1f ■i t 1 • p. < i 1 1 ' 296 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. ■I « miles off, the Government has reserved wood for fuel for the settlers on these lands. T' 'enty acres of woodland is sold to each person settling on a prairie quarter sec- tion. All the country north of the Assiniboine, west of Portage la Prairie, has a sufficiency of wood, and this remark applies to the Little Saskatchewan, Bird Tail Creek, and Shell River River districts. West of the Assiniboine and up the Qu' Appelle Valley as far as the Fishing Lakes, there is enough for present use, but the Pheasant Plain, which for twenty-five miles on the Carlton trail is without a twig, must draw its supplies from the Pheasant and File Hills, which are densely wooded with aspen and balsam poplar. Lying west and southwest of the Touchwood Hil's an immense tract without a bush extends to the source of the Qu' Appelle by way of Long Lake, and westerly to the South Saskatchewan. Wood procured on the Touchwood Hills must supply this district until coal is brought down the South Saskatchewan from above the mouth of Red Deer River. Except the little wood found in the valley of the Saskatchewan, no more, south of lat. 52°, is seen until we reach the foot hills of the Rockv Mountains. Much fine aspen and balsam poplar are found on the Eagle Hills, which extend from Eagle Creek to and beyond Battle- ford. In these hills all the fuel needed on the greav: plain south of Battleford can be obtained. Southwesterly on Beaver Dam Creek, an affluent of Battle River, there are fine outcrops of coal. Settlers north of the districts which have been par- ticularly mentioned will never experience a scarcity of fuel. Settlement will cause the fires to cease, and the groves of young wood scattered everywhere over the country will soon become of great value for fuel and fencing. Peat in inexhaustible quantities is found in all muskegs, and one source from which Winnipeg must draw her future PI'' PUEL SUPPLIES. 297 supplies of fuel, will be the immense peat beds along the Canadian Pacific Railway east of Selkirk. All the true mus- kegs are formed out of the same material as the peat mosses of Ireland and Scotland. Peat moss {Sphagnum acutifolium £t cymbi/olium) is the basis, and Ericaceous shrubs and other bog plants make up the balance. Throughout the district be- tween Lake Superior and Lake Winnipeg these bogs cover large portions of the hollows which are not now filled with water. West of Lake Winnipeg large tracts along the base of the Duck, Porcupine, and Pas Mountains are either quak- ing bogs or muskegs, and therefore all peat deposits. On all the watersheds lying to the northwest of the Saskatchewan, and extending to the extreme north down Peace river, peat bogs under the " generic " title of muskeg, are to be found. This source of supply is of more importance at the present time than many seem to believe. Many farmers living on prairie farms could at the present time supply themselves with excellent fuel by cutting and drying the black muck of the marshy spots on their lots, as it is a fact that few farms are without more or less marsh, and when the country was forest this was almost certainly bog. In this connection I purpose reproducing an article on the (joal deposits of the North- West from the pen of Dr. George M. Dawson, which, besides giving analyses of the coals of the Souris District, discusses the coal question in such an ex- iiaustive manner that I give it almost entire : " The mineral fuels met with in the neighborhood of the Line, fall naturally into two distinct categories. The first, including all except one, must be called lignites ; the second, represented by a single example only, is a true bituminous coal. The first class includes not only, therefore, the great majority of the fuels met with in the vicinity of the forty- ninth parallel, but also almost all known in the interior region of the continent, both north and south of this line. They are emphatically lignites or brown coaUy and though I 1 1 ii i ) hi' 1 !i ■' 'I i: ? M I i 1 < 1 ,/ ^ it I ': !'■ I I 298 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT N0RTII-\7EST. they may be designated by the name lignite coaly inflomuch as they come under the generic class of coals ; they certainly cannot properly be named by the latter word alone, as by it an entirely different kind of material is generally under- stood. The vast ar.'J(» .'■|(» ((2 44 r,i 48.3(» 42 40 33.!)8 31.01 43.02 3 t "Ml 44 It,-) 44 48 3,-. 1 4 30.97 3,5 08 2 7»! r,.'X2 0.47 ,5 :\r) 4.88 2.8H 4.71 7.40 5.43 4.411 K! 4.MI) o.(;(i 11.70 7.70 Remark! on Aih, HeddiHh White V'ellow-hrown Vellowisli Li^rht YellowiHh (ireyiHh-whitc Yellow Yellowish White UetldiHh (hey (ivvy Wiiite YellowiHh White Lif^lit (Jrey VVliite Yellowish Grey ^^ Second — Lignite more or less distinctly horizontally lami- nated, showing little apparent woody structure, but some- times a not inconsiderable quantity of mineral charcoal. Not very tough under the pick, and on weathering breaking up along the planes. This form is probably also in almost all cases composed of wood, but the material has undergone more thorough decay before the deposit of the next highest beds " Tliird — Soft and friable ; often with much mineral charcoal, but frequently brownish and containing harder masses in some places. This variety no doubt often results from the thorough decomposition by the weather of either of the others, and beds with this appearance would probably change their character for the better, more or less completely, if penetrated beyond the outcrop. There appear, however, to be some beds of this nature throughout, and these have !i^ 300 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOKTII-WEST. Mr 11 » I u f been tormod from peaty accumulatioiiH, with little wood. ThiH (;luHs it is wiiicli is most apt to contuin much ush, and the l)eds under it sometimes do not show clear lines of junc- tion with the enclosinjr clays, but graduate into them. " In the assays above given it has not been thought neceH- sary to restrict the examination of those beds which are ol' workable thickness, as a general comparison of the various fieams, thick or thin, is of more value in giving an idea of the average quality of the lignites of the formation now l-.nown, and those which future exploration may bring to light in the stime region. The analyses, therefore, include a collection from the various sections, and several beds of good quality and thickness, with many of an inferior char- acter, are unrepresented. " Though giving the actual amount of hygroscopic and combined water, as found by analysis, it must be premised that it depends entirely on the conditions to which the lig- nites have previously been subjected, and that, by prolonged exposure to dry air, it might have been in many cases very considerably reduced. It has, therefore, been advisable in an- other i)lace to reduce tlie results of all analyses to correspond to a certiiin percentage of moisture, that they may be better compared with each other and with foreign lignites. The water content has been taker* in the table at twelve per cent., which has been adopted u.. .,he probable practical limit of dessication by dry air, under ordinary circumstances, of most of the samples. The lignites, it will be observed, are on the whole uniform in composition, and contain an average of over forty per cent, of fixed carbon when the water i^ estimated at twelve per cent. They thus fall somewhat behind the lignites found in the vicinity of the Union Pacific Railway, but it must be remembered that these onlv represent those seams which have been selected as workable from their good quality and thickness ; and also that many of them belong to the extreme western part of the interior FUEL SUPPLIES. 301 continental region, and to the better class of lignites found in the vicinity of the Rocky Mountains, which are but slenderly represented in my collections. None of the lig- nites yield a proper coke. They merely shrink somewhat in size during the expulsion of the volatile combustible matter, and turn out of the crucible in a dry incoherent powder. The whole volatile matter is as might be expected, comparatively poor in luminous gases, and the lignites would, ccmsequently, be of little use in the manufacture of iUuminating gas. " The ash is generally of pale colors, grey and white, passing into yellowish-white, being the prevailing shades. One or two only yield a deeply-colored ash, which is then brick-red. It is small in amount in most of the specimens, and does not usually appear of a nature to form troublesome clinkers. The lignites when burning yield a peculiar em- pyrumatic odor, but no smell of sulphur, and indeed, as might be foreseen from the nature of the ash, the quantity of sulphur present is very small. " The proximate analyses give in a general way the means of estimating the value of the lignites as fuels, but there are niany other considerations which require attention. The ash is not greater, and in many cases less, than that contained in most ordinary coals, and cannot therefore be supposed to detract specially from the quality of the lignites. The amount of water present is, however, the most serious drawback, as it not only counts as so much combustible ma- terial, being already oxidized, but absorbs and reiwlers latent a considerable quantity of heat which is necessary to convert it into the form of steam. Thus not only the total thermal effect of the fuel suffers, but the pyrometric intensity is reduced, which is a matter of special importance in meta- lurgical operations, and in the use of a fuel for raising steam, when the space allotted to the combustion is limited Be- sides the quantity of oxygen present in these fuels, already 302 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. tl f If, in combination with hydrogen to form water, there is an additional quantity, — not inconsiderable in amount and pro- bably in the form of various bituminous compounds with carbon and hydrogen, — which as soon as combustion begins, combines also with the latter to form water. The weight of this oxygen, and the hydrogen necessary for its satu- ration, must thus also be deducted, together with the nitro- gen, which is usually present in greater quantity than in true coals. We have then remaining a proportion of carbon and hydrogen which may be counted on for the useful pro- duction of heat, considerably less than that found in the same way for most true coals, but much in excess of that for wood or peat. "By taking into account all these circumstances, with others of less importance, and applying the knowledge to the examination of the results of ultimate analyses of fuels, very exact estimates of their capabilities may be formed. Of the lignites of the interior regions of this continent, un- fortunately but few reliable ultimate analyses are to be found, and of these only two apply to those of British North America. I had hoped to have added such analyses of some of the more important lignites of the forty -ninth parallel to this Report, but the time at my disposal has not sufficed. The analyses referred to are from specimens collected b^ Dr. Hector, and are as follows : — I. II. Carbon 56.50 50.60 Hydrogen 3.65 3.24 Oxygen 18.91 14.41 Nitrogen 0.80 0.90 Sulphur 0.60 0.42 Ash 5.62 15.93 Water (hygroscopic) 13.92 14 50 100.00 100.00 " No. I. From the Souris River, near La Roche Perc(^e. No. II. From a six-foot seam occurring near Fort Edmonton, on the north Saskatchewan. The calorific power of these FUEL SUPPLIES. 303 two lignites, as compared with that of pure carbon taken o,t 100, is fifty-nine and fifty -three per cent, respectively. " One of the most important practical difficulties which has arisen in connection with the use of the lignites of the Western States, has been the cracking up of the material, on parting with its water, and its speedy reduction to frag- ments when exposed to the weather. It has, therefore, been found preferable to use the lignites, as soon as rossible, after their extraction from the mine, even at the expense of an additional quantity of heat, lost in evaporating hy- groscopic water. As the lignites do not form a coherent (". P. K — VuviolicH of Tiinlicr- WhiMi' l.<>i\»ti'iii Pi)|ilin ("oKoiiwooii «»i»k I'.liii A^h " Sufjiir Mii|>li' " IHiili, 'ritiimiui' miil iMn.k W ill«>« Tmi'nor o\\ \Vmni|i('f{ooHis Su|i|tly for Uiipiil <'ily, Miniii'ilosu, Oti.'itiikli, Kirilc liiiliiig Moiiiitiuti -n\i<-k luiil l'oriMi|)iiii> MouiititiiiH 'I'iiiilH'i- Noiili of the S;(ski»l<'hi'\v:in Atlinlnvsiii Viillfv — M Kilinoiiloii »lii 'I'lirllf Moiiniuiii I'vi'i""*,") Mills S(. Miuv'n KiviT -Timlii r in How Uivcr ('oniilry riiciiMniil, Kil,., mill Tou.hwooil Hillx Kiijili' Hill)* -Milt tl«< Uiv«>r — KimI Dimt Hivcr 'riilnilurj.-H of South Siiskitti'liowttii -('oiii'luNion. Tmk tiiuluM' supply lor tho North-VVost nigum's a\ prosiMJt tlu' allontion of nismy tlum«;;lir Pino iir<< 'INuniirnc niid ItliicU S|tni«'«< mo rniiiid ill till* HWMiiipH. At Hilt I'orln^p mid l*)ti^l(> Kivn* urn HiiwniillH wliicli iiimiiirnrhnr Imgo (|iimililirM of iniitrriiil usrd on tin* 0. IV H.,nnd nnicli llml in diMlriliii|«Ml over Iho ('(Hiiih'V, iiH I'nr wchI uh I'orln^r In Pinirio. Kuj, |'(irlii|r4f Ihim (ii<> r>iu>Hl water powrr in tlio wuild mid Ihmo in lli<> i'litnro iiiiiiKMiMt* (|nnntilioH of lluiir will Im* gronnd lor IImmmihIciii iimrkt'tH. llrrrn'M Hivri(>M, onr liniittHl knowl(Mlgn proVMnlH nM I'roni iihium'- lllinin^^ No nnitlrirM found womI. of I lint. iH tin; liiuikHimi I'iiic {/'hiiiN /i(tn/tniunn.). VVIiilo (N'diir ('riinja nrr'nlm- IiiIIh) iH lonnd in hiiimII (|iiiintity on tJic hIioich of (U'dnr L.'ikt', iiorlli of t Im> licii.d of Winnipo^ooHiH, l»iit no (iirtlior wcsl. 'V\n' rollowinjr lint of tin' triM-H of tin; plniiiH mid IIh; iKtillMTn foroHlH niny Im' rrlicd on iih iilmolnlfdy tttni'ci. Wliil«' SpiiK'o {AhtrH iillm,) rniiy l)(; it)it )i,r<; in (iccord with ciiMtcrn idfiiM. In itn norllM^rn Iioiim! ii iH a Htiitoly triM-r iHinj/, with jitth- diini- iiiitioii in Hi'/,o, t,o till! lMd/i;ht. of MH) l'«M't,and olYon hiivin^'; n, rliiiiiK t. I : i! 314 MANITOBA AND TlIK GREAT XORTH-WKST. M it J N • I thiH Hpt^cieH ji toot in dianioter in luiy part of Ontario, but after puHHrng north of lat. iiA", it was found nearly tliret- feet in diameter Houtli of Green Lai^e. As tliis is cer- tainly the most northern species of lir, it is probable that tbc spruce forests, noith of lat. 57% may be composed exclus- ively of this tree. In Ontarit), it loves the deep, ((k)!, peaty swamps, but west of Princt^ Albert it leaves the bogs and is found on dry but mossy ground. Banksian Pine (PImis limihsiomi) lias otten been con- founded with Norway or lied Pine It iind Finns fottfarfa are the '' Cypre " of the l[alf-))reeds. Tlie Cypress Hills get their name from the groves of tbe latter species ut their western extremity. The tormer loves almost pure sand for a habitat, and hence, wherever there is a barren or sandy tract in the forest regicm of the North-West, this species is sure to be there. It is seen at Point aux Pins, west of Sault Ste. Marie, and attains a large size in many places along the Dawson Route, west of Lake Superior, and along the Thunder Bay Branch of the C. P. R., to and beyond Rat Portage. It is common between Duck Lake and Prince Albert, and near Fort a la Corne and in all the sandy country west and north of the Saskatchewan River. Cypress, Sugar Pine, Black Pine or Twisted Pine {Pinn-'i contorta) grows in fine and extensive groves on the western end of the Cypress Hills, but disappears about 500 feet below the summit, or 3,500 feet above the sea. About the same altitude, on suitable soil (it delights in poor soil), it is found ah)ng the eastern base of the Rockies, as far north as lat. 56% In northern British Columbia, it is the must abundant forest tree. Neither of the last two species ever attain a large size, being seldom over 18 inches in diameter. Balsam Poplar (^ P size. It is the last remnant of the former forests of the south. Its thick coarse bark, like that of the Oak, preserves it from the repeated assaults of the annual fires, and enables it to escape when thin-barked trees succumb. The Oak ( Quercus macrocarpa. var.) grows to a large size in many parts of Manitoba, but is unknown to the west of it. In that part of Manitoba, south of the Assiniboine and west of the Pembina Mountain, there are luunerous groves of fine trees and much of the timber is valuable for a varie- ty of purposes. It is also common on the White Mud River, and is frequently seen in groves along Lake Manitoba. Elm ( Ulimis Americana) is never found outside of river Dottoms, excerii along Likes Manitoba and Winnipegoosis. It grows to a very large size in the valleys of the Red and Assiniboine Rivers, and often forms groves of large extent. In lat. 53% along the Red Deer River which empties into the northern end of Lake Winnipegoosis, are large groves of very fine elm^i often four feet in diameter. It is found in some abundance on Carrot River and the Saskatchewan, but is confined to low alluvial flats. TIMBER SUPPJiT. 317 Ash {i''raxinu8 pubescens) grows in the valleys of the Assiniboine and Red Rivers, often forming groves, but the timber, though frequently tall, never attains a large size. It is scattered throughout all the prairie country, and i» found as a small tree in the river valleys and along the broken face of the Coteau and Cypress Hills. It is of no value for timber, but makes excellent firewood even when green. "Sugar Maple," or Ash Leaved Maple (Negundo ace- roides) is found in more or less abundance in all the river valleys, as far west as the 110th Meridian, and probably farther. When dry, it makes good firewood, but the fact that it becomes very crooked with age, in the wild state, prevents it from being of any value as a timber tree, even if it should attain the dimensions of one. Indians frequently make sugar from its sap, but the amount made is of little account, as groves of this tree are infrequent in most locali- ties. In St. Paul it has been largely planted as a shade tree and grows very rapidly. It has a very handsome appear- ance, forms a fine head and has abundance of loaves. Within the last four years, these trees have been planted along many of the streets of Winnipeg. I would recommend every settler to sow a bushel of the seed of this tree the very first fall he arrives on the ground, as this is the tree of the future in Manitoba. It produces large quantities of seed which can be easily collected, and four years after it is sown, the trees are large enough to be planted out. The trees, not needed by the settler himself, can be read- ily sold to his less thoughtful neighbors. In the foregoing synopsis, all species peculiar to the plains have been noticed, except Tamarac {Larix Ameri' cawi) and Bhick Willow (^Salix nigra). The latter fre- quently becomes a tree in the river valleys, but is scarce and of no value as wood, for it rots in the centre long be- fore it shows signs of decay on the outside. The Tamarac ill 318 MANITOBA \NI) THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. li ( |i; i: ! nBW'Sf irt forms line groves of tall, Htraight trees in many parts, especially on the watersheds, and in basin-like depressions found in the northern forests. In the swamps the trees are generally small, but on the dryer margins and mixing with the White Spruce on the hillsides or in riyer valleys are numerous fine trees often forming groves of many acres in extent. Birch {Betula papyracea) is frequent in tho north, jind a very excellent syrup is made from its sap by the northern Indians in spring. Along the rivers flowing into Lake Winnipegoosis, on islands in that lake, on the Fairford River, and at Ebb and Flow Lake are numerous groves of fine Spruce which, up to the present, are untouched, except the little taken out on the Fairford River and at Ebb and Flow Lake by Mr. Pratt, who owns a sawmill at Totogon. Enough Spruce grows in the neighborhood of these lakes to supply the country to the south for many years Were sawmills erect- ed at Lake Francis, the southern end of Lake Manitoba, and a tramway built thence to the C. P. R. — less than eight miles — a never-failing source of supply to the whole country would be opened up. Besides the above, very valuable timlier, — Spruce, Aspen, Tamarac, Jind Balsam Poplar, — grows continuously along the eastern face of the Riding and Duck Mountains. All this timber can be drawn to the before-mentioned lakes, and so reach a market with- out difficulty. Rapid City, Minnedosa, and Odanah will receive their supply from the Riding Mountain by the Little Saskat- chewan, while Birtle and the adjoining (H)untry will obtiiin theirs from the same region, by means of Bird Tail Creek, on which tliere is a sawmill at present. Shell River penetrates the Duck Mountain, and fine Spruce wius floated down this river and the Assiniboine to Brandon last Fall, where it is now being sawn into lumber for the use of settlers. On the head waters of the Assiniboine, TIMBER SUPPLY. 319 (( there are groves of great extent in which, besides Spruce and Taraarac, both species of Pophir attain a large me. My own observations and all the knowledge I could pick up from other sources, lead me to believe that valuable Spruce and Poplar forests are found around every points of the Porcupine Mountain. 1 know that the eastern and northern sides are continuous Spruce forests, along the bane and far up the slopes. At tlie southern end 1 penetrated the hills, and found fine Spruce in groves of very consid- erable size occupying the slopes of the hilly or undulating country where I was, and forests crowning their summits. Dr. Bell's assistant readied the top of the range at the head of Salt River, and reported Spruce trees 42 inches in diameter. Dr. Smith, who explored here in 1879, says : — Careful exploration of the country north of the Reserve, for 12 miles, revealed a magnificent district, land excellent and much large Poplar, 24 to 30 inches in diameter. This was the character of all the region from the junction of Thunder River with Woody River and far northward, while southward, there was a stretch of rich but wet land, extending to Swan River. Westward of the Reserve, the country was heavily wooded with very fine timber, Poplar, Spruce, and Tamarac." The country spoken of above was that to the north and west of Thunder Hill on Swan River. From a point, a little east of Fort h, la Come, and north- wards, toward Green Lake, valuable Spruce, Tamarac, and Pophir forests, without a break, extend westward to near Lac la Biche. Nortlieast of Carlton and north of Prince Albert are tine forests which are easy of access at present, and on that account more vahiable than those farther north. Much fine Spruce exists in tlie valley of the Athabasca and on its upper tributaries, but, without the aid of a railway, as the river tiows to the north it will be of little vahie for commercial purposes. I i I I 320 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 1 i « I Above Edmonton, on the Brazeau and all the upp'jr trib- utaries of it and the north Saskatchewan, are fine forests of Spruce, Tamarac, and Balsam Poplar. Here a large arou will be found, well suited for lumbering purposes, as it is protected from fire by numerous marshes, and up to the present has remained in a primitive state. Returning to the south, we find wood of considerable value in many parts of Southwestern Manitoba ; as mucli of this has fallen into private hands, it will be well pre- served and become invaluable in the course of a few years. Oak and Poplar are the principal trees. On Little Cypress River, which flows into the Assiniboine, there is some Spruce. At Milford, on Cypress river, a sawmill has been built, which is a great boon to the settlers in the vicinity. On Turtle Mountain and Moose Mountain, Aspen and Balsiim Poplar, large enough to be sawn into boards, are to be found in considerable quantity, and most probably «oiiio enterprising individual will start a " city" by building a sawmill at one of those points. As I have remarked in another place, there is a largo quantity of" Cypre " (Pinus contortd) between Fort Walsh and the western end of the Cypress Hills, but more esixic- iully Avithiii the Assiniboine Reserve, at the " Head of the Mountain." The trees are all tall and straight, but the greater portion does not average above a foot in diameter, although many reach eighteen inches. With care, this tree could be made available for many years for the stock- men and others coming into the country. On the St. Mary's River, close to the boundary. Dr. G. M. Dawson saw Fintwi contorta in some abundance, but not of large size. lie says, in speaking of the Rocky Mountains tliat, " For this part of the country, the mountains form an inexluuistiblo source of wood for fuel and constructicnis, though extensive areas are known to be underlaid by coal. The timbor in the mountains is eliietly coniferous and not TIMBER SUPPLY. 321 of large size, except in certain .secluded valleyn. The Douglas Pine {Ahies Dowjlasil) occurs on both sides of tins watershed but is generally small. The largest timber obHcrved was in some of the higher and more secluded valleys. The trees resembled the Black Spruce, but were ])robably Ahiee Evyehmmidy Toward the heads of other branches of Belly River, Col. McLeod says, " good Pine is found on the slopes of the mountains and for some dis- tance from their base, while Cottonwood trees of good size grow along the river bottoms." While in the mountains at Bow River in 1879, I made a careful examination of the timber in the valley, as far as time would permit. The principal species were Douglas Pine and beautiful Spruce, — the latter growing tall arid straight and forming groves on the flats. The other Mpecies preferred the rocky slopes, and were often of a largrf size, numbers being seen three feet in diameter. Fii\e groves of timber were observed on the south side of the Pow River, from the mouth of the Kananaskis up its i)aHS and over the mountains between the two rivers. From the sit- uation of the timber, I believe it to be principally Douglas Pine. I was informed that much finer timber could be Been higher up the river. By being carefully husbanded, there is enough timber on this river and its tributaries to supply all the prairie country as far as the Elbow of the South Saskatchewan. All the water-power necessary to convert it into lumber exists close to Morleyville. The river is so placid for its whole length that the lumber could be rafted to any point without loss. In the Pheasant and File Hills, and throughout the Touch- wood Hills, as also a tract of country lying east of Hum- boldt, there is abundance of wood for the prairie settlers for many miles on all sides of the hills. This wood is poplar of two species, and can be used in house building for walls, roofs, and floors. 21 ■!■' ¥ 'l-fi i i iih 322 MANITOBA AND TlIK GREAT NORTH-WEST. West of the Stiskntchewan, the Eagle Hills will furnish ji supply for the northern part of the Great Plain. Battle River, throughout its entire length, will supply wood for all purposes to tlie country on hotli sides of it. Spruce, in some abundance, can be obtained on its upper waters ami Hoated down to any required point. Red Deer River pusses through a country more or less covered with forest, as lar south as hit. 52", but, after that, to its conHuence with Bow River the only wood in the country it passes througli is found in its own valley, or its bordering coulees. This is so small in (quantity, in comparison to the distri(\t to be supplied, that it need merely be mentioned, but not taken into account. No doubt large quantities of Spruce exist on the upper waters of the river, and can be lioateii down to any point on the stream. There are no obstructions of any kind anywhere in the river, but on the lower part of its course it would be extremely difficult to get loaded wag- ons out of the valley which is not less than 500 feet deep. Bow River, on the other hand, does not tiow through forest on any part of its course east of the mountains, yet it contains ma^iy fine groves of Poplar from a few miles below the Blackfoot Crossing to the mountains, both in its valley and the coulees opening into it. Balsam Poplar and Cottonwood (^Pajyiilns moxili/era) are found of a large size at the Blackfoot Crossing, and numerous groves of Spruce are seen above Calgarry. The whole country, on botii sides of the river, is absolutely without wood, except in the tributary valleys, on the south of the main stream. Quantities of very good Spruce and Douglas Pine can be obtained on Dead Man s River on the north, on the Kaii- anaskis on the south, and up the valley of the main stream for at least sixty miles above Morleyville. No difficulty will be experienced in floating down either logs or boards, as the river for many miles into the Rocky Mountains is free from dungerous rapids. TIMBER SUPPLY. 323 It will be seen by the foregoing remarks that wood is scarce in the southern part of the prairie section, })ut this is in some degree compensated for by the immense deposits of lignite or bituminous coal known to exist. On St. Mary's, Belly, Bow, Red Deer, and Battle Rivers, these crop out in many places, and specimens burnt on the ground, and others brought home, testify to their value for fuel. As men- tioned on another page, a trader and farmer luimed French has burned coal, taken from a six-foot seam at the Black- foot Crossing, for two years. lie finds it ))urn well in self-feeding (base burners) coal stoves, ol" which he has two. While travelling in the country we used it in our camp Jiufl found it to burn etiually well and for a long time on au open fire. !■■,! I! ! ■ ' 5 ■I i 'i i > ] i 1 1 '/« CHAPTER XX. Mammab of the North- West. W { « I Introduction— Enumeration of the Carnivom, of the Uiigulatn, of the Chiroptera, of the Insectivora, of tlie Kodentiii — The American Panther, its General Aiii)euran('t! and Rango — Tiic Canadian Lynx, its Descviption and Distribution — Hunting on Peace River — Foxes, Anecdotes Respecting thcni — AVolves — Tlie Coyott^ — The Grey Wolf, his Habits — Occurrence on the Plains — When easily Taken — Anecilotes Illustrative of their Cunning and Tenacity of Lifi — Pine Marten and Fisher — Wolverines, thi- Enemies of the Trapprs— Anecdotes of the Wolverine — Mink and Otter — Skunks- Eaten by Hunters — 13adgers and their Habits — Danger of Hiding on llorsc^biuk— Mode of Killing Badgers— Notes on the Black Bear — Their Habits — The Terrible Grizzly — Fears of the Indians on Peace River^Nearly all Carry Sears Inflicted by Beiirs —Description of One Killed at the Hand Hills — Indian Woman Killed by a Grizzly— The Cabree or Prong-Korned Antelope — Black Tailed Deer — AVapiti or American iilk, its Distribution — The Moose — Hunting Moose an Art— Starvation on Peaee River in 1875— Caribou Found in the North — Hunting on the Barren Grounds— The Rockr Mountain Goat — Description of It — Hunting in Bow River Pass — The Big Horn or Rocky Mountain Sheej) — Measurement of their Horns — Musk Ox of the I5nrren Grounds — Its general Appearance and Habits — Warmth of its Covering — The BulFalo, its Distribution — Wood Buffalo on the Athabasca — Their Present Scarcity — liuiralo Hunting in the Past — Mode of Camx>ing in the Indian Country — Mode of Ruuniug Buffalo — Exciting Scenes — The Charge, Conflict and Pursuit — The Buffalo Pound in Former Days — How the Indians Slaughtered the Bufl'alo — Doctor Hector's Account- Moles and Shrews, Rich Soil where they Are — Gophers and Prairie Dogs, their Habit* — Mode of Catching Prairie Dogs — Beaver — Stories Related of their Instinct— Cou- struction of their Dams — Beaver Houses — Their Construction — Muskrats, their Num- bers and Habits — Character of Country they Inhabit — Muskrats as Weather Prophets — The Foolishness of the Prophets — How the Muskrat Builds his House — Pouched Gopher and Jumping Mice — Porcupines and their Habits — The Prairie »l'1 Woodland Hareg — Great Numbers of the Latter — Rocky Mountain Hare. Owing to our limited space very little more than a bare enumeration of species can be attempted, yet it is to be hoped that the few notes thus hastily thrown together may be of such interest as to cause many with an inclination for natural history to take up the work with zest and add much to our future know^ledge. In the three following chapters will be found all the mammals, birds, reptiles, and fishes, with a few of the insects found in the North-West. MAMMALS OF THE NOUTII-WEST. 325 To any one desirouH of getting a full and complete account of tlie natural history of the country, I would refer him to Sir John Richardson's Fauna Boreali Americana, or the voluminous reports of the United States Zoologists. In the following epitome, however, I shall endeavor to give any person unac(piainted with the subject a fair knowledge of the species with their distribution in the country, and occa- sional notes regarding their habits and peculiarities. SYNOPSIS OF THE MAMMALS. OllDKKS. Familikh. Ornkra. Sprcirs. rnrnivora (Flesh Eaters) 1 11 8 2 1 17 26 iTnmilivtn. (Hoofed Mauiinuls) 10 riilrnnf-prft ^tllC Dats^ 2 TtiqomH vnra ^ItlflRP.t £a.tGrs^ • ........ 5 Prtilpntifi {fhe Rodents^ 32 Total 5 14 39 76 LIST OP THE SPECIES. /. Order Candvora. (^Flesli Eaters.) Faviily I. Felidte.. (the Vats.) Felis concoloiT, L. (Cougcr or Americiin Piiuther.) Lynx rufus, Raf. (Wild Cat.) " Canadensis, lljif. (Canada Lynx.) Familji If. Canidne. (t/ir /int/s.y 4 VulpoK fiilvus var. lulvuH. (lltui Fox.) 5. " " ■• decussatus. (Crot*K Fo.v.) ti " •• argontens. (Sihcr and lUack Fox.) 7 " macronruR, Baird. (Prairie Fox.) 8. " velox, And. and Itech. (Kit Fox.) y. " lagopuB, llich. (Arctic Fox.) 10. Canis lupus, L. (White and Gray Wolf.) 11 '• latrans, Say. (Coyote or Prairie Wolf.) family III. Mustelidce. {The Weasels.) 12. MuKtela Pennantii, Erxl. (Fisher, Black Cat.) i;;. " Americana, Turton. (Pine Marten, American Sable.) 14 I'utoriuH pusillus, And A Bach. (Least Weasel.) 15. •• Cicognanii, Baird. (Small Brown Weasel.) IC. Ricbardsouii, Bon. (Little Ermine.) ;ll ll ill ' M [If:: llii! • I T 826 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOUTII-WEST. 17. Piitori.18 longioatidit, Hicli. (Lo.ir tniled WwihuI.) 18. " vison, llich. f Brown Mink.) 19. (iulo luHciiB, KuMnc. (Wolverine.) 20. Lutra CiumdcnHiH, .Sabine. (American Otter.; 21. Mei>hitlHme|)hitii'a, Kaird. (Common Skunk.) 22. Taxidea Amcritfunii, Bnird. (Misho-.H Badger.) Pamily IV. Unidce. {The Jienm.) 23. rrniis lioribilis, Ord. (Grizzlj Bear.) 24. " AmiMicanns, TallaK. (Blatk Bear.) 25. <■ (iiinanionciiR, Aud. k Baih. (Cinnamon Bear.) 26. '• )ii.:rilimus, Linn. (White or Polar Bear.) I J. Order Jhujulata. ( lln' Ihiafvd Afnnmah.) Family V. Cervida: (The Deer.) Alco Amerieamis, Jardinc. (American Moose.) Ilangifcr Ciru'nlandicus, Baird. (Barren Gromid Carihoii.) Ccrviia CanadcHKis, Erxl. (American Elk.) " VirgiuianuB, Bod. (CLiiuruon Deer.) •' ColurabianuH, lUch. (Black-tailed Deer.) Antilocapru Americana, Ord. (Antel('j)e, Cabree.) Aploceni8 montanuH, Rich. (Mountain Qoat.) Ovis montana, Cu. (Moimtain Sheep. Big-horn.) Ovibos, moKohalUH, BlainK. (Musk Ox.) Bos Americanus, Omelin. (American Buffalo.) Order III. Ohiroptera. {The Bats.) Faviily VI Vesj ertilionida'. (Common Hats.) ubulatus, Say. (Little J5ro\vn Bat.) (Hoary Bats.) Order IV. Insectiiora. ( The Bats.) Famihj VH. Soricidoe. (The Shrews.) 'jorex pachyurus, Baird. (Thick tailed Shrew.) " ForKt^ri, Rich. (Forster's Shiew.) •• Uichardsonii, Bachra. (Richardson's Shrew.) palustris, Rich. (Marsh Shrew.) jiarvus, Say. (Least Shrew.) Order V. Rodentia. {The Rodents.) Family VIII. Sciurida. (The Squirrels.) 44. Sciurus Hudsonius, Pall. (Red Squirrel.) 45. " Richardfionii, Bach. (Richardson's Squirrel.) 46. Pteromys alpinus, Rich. (Rocky Mo'mtain Flying Squirrel.) 47. Tamias quadri\ ittatus, Rich. (Missouri Striped Squirrel.) 48. Spermophilus Franklini, Rich. (Gray Gopher.) 49. •• Richardsonii, Baird. (Yellow Gopher.) 50. " tridecem-lineatus, Ai d Bach. (Striped Gopher.) 27. 26. 29. 30. n. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. •}3, Vespertilio Acalapha cincreus, Coues. MAMMALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 327 6;, Cynoinyi* ludoviriuniiN Huinl (Pmirif Dog ,) CJ. ArcttiniyM Hiivivcnkr, Biuhiu. (Ycllfiw-fli! ({(iphfr.) Fdinili/ X/. /ii/ioili<{n\ (Jum/iiiii/ Mire.) 6H Ziipiifi HudKoiiiuH, C'oiitK (.limipiiij; Mouse. ) Family XII. Miiridir. (The Mice.) 5!i HcsperomyH louoopuK, Utif. (White footed Mouse.) r;n " MicliigiinensiH, Wag. (Prairie Mouse.) CI. '• ieucoKaster, Baird. (MisRouri Mouse.) ( fij. N'cotoma cinerea, Baird. (Uocky Mountain Rat.) r,3 Arvicola gapperi, Vigors. (Red-Backed MouBe.) 04 " rinnamonea, Baird. (Cinnamon colored Mouhc.) i;5. borealiB, Rich. (Northern Field Mouse.) r.f,. •• Druramondii, And. (Rocky M. F. Mouse.) iu. RichardKonii. Dekay. (Richardson's Jlouse.) i;.'^. •• .xanthognathus, Leach. (Hudson Bay Mouse.) i:it. Filler jsihcthicus, Cuv. (Musk Rat.) Family XIII. Spalacopodiiltr. {The Porcufnnes.) 70 Hiithizon dorsatiw, F. Cuv. (White haired Porcupine.) 71 •• t'pi.xanthuH, Brandt. (Y'ellow-haire '!' » I i }. . . : 1 ' ■ • : 334 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. every direction. When descending the Assiniboine, last September, we saw numbers of them playing around with- ouc any signs of fear, and exposing themselves to instant death had we been so inclined. The Half-Breeds loose no chance of shooting them, and say they are excellent eating. When in my company, I noticed they took off the skin and the body was then hung under a cart for four or five d.ays, and allowed to swing in the wind, befcre being cooked. Archbishop Tjiche says : " When the animal (the Skunk) is carefully skinned, its liesh is far from being unpalatable. I have enjoyed a meal of it, and shall eat of it again when- ever I shall have opportunity." It is curious that Chicago should literally mean the Land of Skunks. It is said to come from chicak of the Crees meaning Skunk. Badgers were formerly very common on the plains, but of late years, they are far from common. On some parts of the southern plain it is extremely dangerous to ride on horseback at a rapid rate, owing to the multiplicity of bad- ger-holes which dot the plain and are often concealed by the long grass Ponies are so accustomed to these holes that if they are allowed to choose their own step, few mis- haps occur But when a gallant rider from the east mounts an eastern horse or a pony, and affects to guide him in eastern style, laughable scenes often occur. I once crossed the plain with a company of gentlemen, and not a day >,psed but some one was in trouble. Usually the horse juld put his forefoot in a badger-hole as he trotted along, h id the rider would tioat over his head. When he reached the grass, he would scramble for some distance on his hands and feet, dreading the hoofs of the horse which never fol- lowed him. As soon as the horse was relieved of his rider, he galloped off to join the band of loose horses that were driven with the party. No persuasion would entice the horse to give himself up, and it was only by the use of the MAMMALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 335 lariat (lasso) that he could be caught, and the gentleman remounted. One day, near the Hand Hills, my Chief of Staff was chasing a horse on foot, and the horse was gallop- ing round with his eye on the man. While going at great speed, he put his foot in a badger-hole and turned a com- plete somersault. When he rose to his feet, he walked up to the man and gave himself up, looking quite crest- fallen. Badgers are shy, and as soon as they see a traveller, take to their hole. After descending to the bottom, the animal at once comes up to the surface and peeps about to see what was the cause of his fright. Taking advantage of this, the Half-breeds run up to the hole and wait with the muzzle of the gun ready, so as to sivoot him on his return. If he is not killed outright, it is almost impossible to get him out of the hole, he has such power in his hind legs. Although Bears are quite plentiful in many parts of the country, they are seldom seen, except by hunters who go specially to look for them. They are ever on the alert, and on the least noise retreat into the nearest thicket with great alacrity. Black Bears are perfectly harmless, and are never known to attack human beings, although they would steal a young pig without any hesitation. Their food consists principally of berries and larvae of ants and other insects, which they ^et by breaking in pieces or turning over the rotten logs strewed about in the woods. Scarcely a rotten log or billet of wood can be seen that has not the marks of a bear's claws upon it. Nor even a clump of berry bushes that have not been denuded of their fruit by them, yet in all last summer's explorations only one was seen, although we knew they were quite common in tlie bushes that filled the river valley. The fruit of the •'Harouge" or Dog Wood {Gornus stolonifera) was their principal food in the valleys of the Swan and Assiniboine t , rivers. u » < • I 336 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. Peace River is, however, the home of the bear, as within the Rocky Mountains the tr.rrible grizzly makes his habita- tion, and often conies down to the phiin and strikes terror into the hearts of the hunters. One night, in October 1872, I sk^pt with an old Indian Cliief on the bank of the Peace River, at Hudson's Hope, and it was only by the most elo- quent appeals that I could prevail on him to stay with me and guard the provisions. All the other men crossed tlie river to the Hudson's Bay Company's post, to be safe Irom the bears. Next evening, I rode over the Portage, a distance of twelve miles, with Charette who had charge of the post. While crossing, darkness settled down on the woods, and to protect us from the bears, dogs were sent* ahead and otlicrs kept behind, so as to give us notice of their prox- imity. I could not learn that they ever came up to attack a man, but it was certain they never left his path, and it met at any time a fight ensued, unless the man retreated. Grizzlys were never hunted by the Beaver Indiiuus, except in revenge for the death or maiming of a friend, and then it was done as a matter of duty. The size of their feet and the length of their claws make them terri))le to encounter, as one blow from such an animal would tear a inan almost to pieces. I have often seen claws six inches in length, worn as neckhices by the Indian girls, and con- sidered as valuable medieine. Many stories have been related about the terrible encoun- ters which have t;ikcn place between this animal and the Indians. Scarcely a Beaver Indian could be found who had not scars on some \yk j)lace at that time about where ihe line of the (Janadian Pucific Railway crosses the Bow liiver : — " Several Indians from the Blood Indian c^imp carne up whore we had crossed to the south side aiul invited us to their camp. At about eight miles distance on our way there, we met a number of young men riding at fidl speed up the river to a point where a fearful accident was just K>iM»rted to have occurred. Some women had been gathering berries there and came upon a bear. He at once seized one ol them iuul dragged her into the bushes, one of the women having jumped upon a horse returned to camp with the news. The young men succeeded in killing the bear, but reported the WDHuui not only dead Init frightfully mangled." The Cabree, a Prong-horned Antelope, was fornu'rly abun- dant on the great buffalo plains, but within the last few vears ncNirly all have been killed by the; starvinu; Indians. South ()(■ Battleford, in 1S79, they were in drov(>s of ten to iinccii, but last year tiie} had nearly all disappeared. Its ('W'H carriage, beautiful mild eyes, and energetic motions ffivi' it a very pleasing apj)earance whether in motion or at rest. It is wonderfully lleet and can easily outrun a horse, butafter running sonu time it will suddenly stop, and if the huntiT jiides, it will return and fall an easy i)rcy. In the 22 i • ! i );. 338 M.WITOHA AND THK (JUKAT N()HT1I-\V KST. I I rutting HiMiHon it i.s .still iiioro iiKpiisitivo, and sImmiM it ,so(> a travollor or a hnntor, will approach «(uit«'('lo.Mi' jmhI exam. ino ohjocts without r«'ar. In tho Houtli wi'Ht, but nioro particularly in tiu' I)u.h|i\ ixmntry, the Hlack-tailod or Mulo IKu'r is ocvaHiouiilly iiu>t with. Tlu' Wapiti, or Anicriwin Klk, was forniorly vers abundant on ilic prairio in tho iUMj:;hborhood of ehnn| s of wood, but is fast disai)poaring with tho advaniv' i»f civiliza- tion. M(H)s«" A^ountain and the ravines alonjjj the Cotcmi and >!)r< Mi. is still shelter a few, but like the bulValo they v^'V f^oon pass from the prairie forever. Their nunibet ix* r iPMlly decrea-sing- both in the forest and along the ba.se of the iuc'nitains, and a whole sea.son nuiy be pass- ed without encountering one. A finer sight is seldom .seen than !i number of these animals careering over the plains. They stand alnuit five feet high and are over eight feet long. Their horns are a grand object, being very .symniel- rical and altogether unlike the clumay head of the iiujoso. On the Peace River plains and within the Rocky Monn- tains, the Moose is very abundant, and forms the stall' ol' life f(«' the greater number of inL.ibitants on that rivor. Tliis is the largest species of deer and stands higher than a horse, but is much slu)rter. Its Hesh to my palate is eiinal to that of the buffalo, and pemmican nuule from itiseipniilv as good. Hunting moose is quite an art, as the aninud is furnished with a long nose and large ears, which give verv acute powers of hearing and a very fine .sen.se of .smelling. At all the Hudson's Bay Company's [)osts on Peace river, one or more hunters are constantly employed .supidying tlio residents with meat. Sometimes animals are not ea.sily obtained or the hunters are lazy. At such times food becomes very scarce and tlio post master and his himil^' are reduced to great straits. In the spring of 187'J the hunters failed to procure f(»od, and Mr. McAulev,who had charge of the post on Battle river MAMMALS OF THK N«M(TII-\VKST. 331) (a brancli of tlic Pcaro), iiiid Iuh wIioK^ liiiiiily, wiM'i^ roducod to the vory vorgo of Htarviiiioii. After (luting up (»vcry mcrap of what we gonerally call food, tlio cliildreii roaHknl ,siii('\v and greun liido and lived on tlicin for days. When tlii'y were at the hiHt extremity a moose wan killed, and they at once pasHcd from ntarvation to ftiaHting, In AnguHt when I Haw them they had all regained their lleHJi, and could laugh over their former distreHH. Many think that with the wcmkIh full of game it iH not possible to starve, hut it is just as well to remember that trained hunters arc not jilways safe, then how about unuiteurs? Passing to the northward we enter the region of the Cariliou. What is usually called the Barr '. ^Vounds is their summer resort, and here they live in I erdt-' 'at aggre- gate many Miousands. In spring and fall, -it hey pass and icjMiHS to their feeding grounds, they are met '* , the hunters and slaughtered in thousands. Should *hc fall hunt be a failure, as it is sometimes, all the Hudsoi Tiay Company's IMjsts in the Mackenzie River District are in danger of starva- tion, and the fisheries are then their chief dependence. Caribou flesh is not so nourishing as moose, but still it is very good when not too lean. Its tongue is considered a great dainty, and is much relished by the natives and others. The Mountain Goat is common on the Roart at the tip, they measured fifteen and d half inches in circumference at the base, and twenty -eight inches in length around the curve. They weigh eighteen and a half pounds with the perfectly clean skull, lacking the end of the nose and the lower jaw. In the specimen brought by Captain Stansbury from the Rocky Mountains, however, the horns are eighteen inches in circumference at the base, the horn along the convexity measures thirty -six and a half inches, and the tips are eighteen inches apart." Closely related to the Mountain Sheep is the Musk Ox of the Barren Grounds. This animal is often spoken of by Arctic traVv^Uers, bit is almost unknown to the generalitj' of readers. Archbishop Tache says : — " This animal is limit- ed to the northernmost part of the continent, and is to be met on our most icy deserts. It is of the size of a small ox, and has most remarkable horns ; these are very large and come ^ close together, at least in the male, as to unite into one horn at the base. I have seen plates a foot in diameter made of Musk-Ox horn. This ruminant, like all others in this department having heavy horns, is almost tailless. Its short legs do not prevent it from being very fleet ; it des- cends very abrupt declivities with astonishin;; agility, and climbs them too with very great ease. The rocky character of some of the plains on which it lives does not interfere with its walking or even running. Like the Caribou it feeds on herbs and lichens. Providence, who placed this animal 342 MAMTOIIA AND TIIK <;Ur:\T VOUTII-W'EST, H ; I I in tho polar ro^ioiis niul on pcrfi'i'tlv \v«mmIU'hh plniiiM, hiw clotluMl it witli till' very wurmoMt of coat h. Tlio MuhI^-Ox in covortui witli a a))|H'aninco of a l)utralo, hut its coat in longer and nior«> nilky, and (»n itn back tlioro in a ligl»t-c«)lt)n'd covering. The under luiir is clone and Hue wool, and protectn the animal agamnt the nevcrity of the clinnitc. Wen? this wool manu- factured it wouhl make very excellent cloth. Ah a vo\h* nothing can he preferable to the Munk-Ox hide. I anj in- debted t(» a nol)h» friend for one of these robes, made for my sleigh; it is made of four skins; it not only protects uiv. against cold, but 1 should have regarded it as too luxurious had it not been given to me as it was." The IJison or Ihiffalo, in former times, covered the great plains. lM)th in sununer and winter, and, to-day, their l)ones lie bleaching on the prairies from Pemlnna to the Rocky Mountains, and from the International Boundary to Peace River. It is doubtt"ul whether the great herds passed con- stantly from the Saskatchewan to Peace River, but this, at any rate, is certain their bones lie on those northern prai- ries, and their paths yet seam the foot ' ills of th.' Rocky Mountains, In the winter of 1870, the last buft'alo were killed north of Peace River, but in 1875, about 1000 head w^ere still in existence between the Athabasca and Peace Rivers, north of Little Slave Lake. These are called Wood Buffalo by the hunters, but differ only in size from those of the plain. During the last three years, the great hrras have been kept south of our Boundary, and as the result of this, our Indians have been on the verge of starvation. Where the hills were covered with countless thousands in 1877, the lUackfeet were dying of starvation in 1879. A few returned last fall, but they are only the remnants of the former mA'riads, and soon these will disappear never to re- turn. While on the i)lains with the Half-breeds, many ii six>t has been pointed out where they had a splendid " run." MAMMAI.S OK TJIi: Nninil-\Vi;.ST. 348 As tlu'y ivlatcd \\w im-itU'iitH of roitjflrf tlu'ir vyvn would glow iiiul ihv'w whole (IciiuMiiior would cliiinvc, ho that they iippcari'd difU'riMit Immii^m IVom whiit tliry were a IVw iiiiiiiilrM Ixdoro. Hiitlalo hunting; in ronn(>r dayn, wiih pccutiarly exciting and jritvo a /ost to prairio lilt' that wuh uiont hi'witt^hin^ Ui the youn^ and advent ur<»UH. 'i'wicc ;i year, huiidredn of rmiiilu's would aHHend>le on the lied Kiver pJaiiiH, aiui |)j;u'inj; theiUHcdveH under the leadernliip of tried huntnrH and I'uarloHH Indian traders, start (or the hull'aht plainH. When they entered tln^ Indian country they coralled their iuiiinals every night, and set r^'gular watches like soldi^Ts in an eneniy's country. Ol'tcn, liv«' or six hundred carts would he in the train, and every ev(?ning when they utopped lor the night, these carts would he fornu'd in a circle with their shafts inwards. After the hors<'H had fed, they were brought within the circle and tin; watch was set. All men in the party were auienahle to the same laws and asHisted at the making of them, so that a Kall-hreed en- campment was a small military republic. When the party struck bufl'alo a perimment camp was pitched, and the '" buflfalo runners" (hors«;s trained to hunt liull'alo) were caught and examined. Scouts were sent out to locate a herd, and on their return, all the men intending to take part in the " run " presented themselves mounted, with gun on arm and whip in hand or rather hung by a, thong to the wrist. Under direction of their Captain, they quietly separate in skirmishing order, and advancing under cover of the swells, almost if not altogether surround the lierd. M a given signjil all dash forward, as they charge, the light of battle shines in their faces, and their very steeds (pii\ er with excitement. Ilurrving to the top of a hill, a non-comhatanl sceri a wide and almost circular plain filled with horsemi;?! and wild terror-stricken animals, dashing hither and thtber, and I 1 I'ri !h 1 344 MANITOBA AND TilE GREAT NOKTll-WEST. 4 I/- J' I I i 1 I ! over all the confused tumult, the bellowing of bulls, and the Hharp crack of the rifles are heard. Apparently the horses are moving without guidance. See that beautiful black dash up to a fat (row and almost halt, while his rider sends the dcutli dealing bullet. Like a Hash, the bullalo turns and chargt's the horse, but a slight pressure of the knee causes him like- wise to swerve, and the bi'ffalo dashes past. In another instant, the horse is again alongside, and another shot roll^i her over dead. While we have been watching this episode a number ol' old bulls have led the way over the rise, and few minutes elapse before the grassy plain is left untenanted, except by the dead and dying. The women now come on the scene and set to work, each apparently knowing thosu killed by her friends. On the return of the hunters it is fo»uid that over two hundred animals have fallen, and hy the camp iires that night enough anecdotes of former * runs' and reminiscences of Indian ftghts are told to fill a volume. Alter witnessing one buffalo hunt I cannot blame the Half- breed and the Indian for leaving the farm, and wildly making for the plains when it is reported that buffalo have crossed '^ the border." Doctor Hector gives the following account of what he savr oi» the morning of the 20th December, 1857, about sixtj miles to t!ie west ot Fort Pitt, in the valley of the Vermiliou River: — "This morning we were off by 4.80 a.m., and had gone a considerable distance when we saw fresh traces of Indians, and soon heard the bawling and screaming of an immense (rarii[), all iii a high state of excitement. Di f{ring from our path to pay them a visit, we found that .ey had succeeded in driving a large band of buffaloes ..ito their "pound" during the night, and were now engaged in slaughtering them The scene was more pulsive than pleasant ov exciting The jwund is a circular strong fencing about fifty yards m diameter, made of stakes with boughs int<.»rhu5»'d, and into tliis place wen- crammed more than 100 MAMMALS OF TllK NUHTII-WEST. 345 buffaloes, bulls, coW8, aiid nilves. A giuat luiinber were iil- rcatl} killed, and the live ones were tiimbliii<»; about I'urious- ly over the dead bodies of their eonipauions, and I hardly think the space would have held them all alive without some being on the top of the others, and, in addition, the bottom of the pound was strewn with fragments of carcasses left from former slaughters in the sjime plaee. It was on a slope, and the upper part of the fencing was increased in height by skins stretched on poh's, for the purpose of frightening the buffaloes from jumping out. This is not needed at the lower part of the enclosure, as the animals always endeavor w jump up hill. The entrance' to the enclosure is by an inclined plane made of rough logs leading to a gap, through which the buffaloes suddenly juinj) about six feet into the ring, and then they cannot return. To this entrance con- verge lines of little heaps of buffaloes' dung or brush for several miles into the prairie which surrounds the clump of w(M)d in which the pound is concealed. These lines serve t(t lead the buffalo in the required direction when they have been driven into the neighborhood. When first ca])tured ;uul driven hiU) the pound, which dillicult matter is effected by strategy, the buffaloes run round and round violently, and the Indians affirm, always with the sun. Crouching on the fencing were the Indians, even mere boys and young girls, all busy plying bows and arrows, guns and spears, and even knives to accomplish the destruction of the buffaloes. After firing their arrows they generally succeeded in extract- ing tlieiu again by a noose on the end of a pole, and some had even the pluck to jump into the area and pull them out with their hands ; but if an old bull or a cow happened to observe theui they had to be very active in getting out again. The scene was a busy but a bloody one, and had to be car- ried on until every animal was killed, to enable them to get the meat. I helped by trying the penetrating power of ritle balls on the shaggy skulls of the animals with invari- , 346 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. II If ^ » I able success ; and it is the least cruel way of killing them, as they drop at once. There are many superstitions con- nected with the whole business, and the Indians always consider their success in procuring buffaloes in this manner depends on the pleasure of the Manito, to whom they al- ways make offerings, which they place under the entrance of the pound where I saw a collection of Indian valuables, among which were bridles, powder horns, tobacco, beads, and the like, placed there by the believing Indians, onlv to be stolen by the first scamp in the camp who could maiiaer8 and Snipe in Myriads — Bitterns and Cranes often Numerous — Enuun'iatinn of thi' Duekn, Oeese, nnil Swa'i: — Their Breeding Places — Notes on the Kiver Ducks — Countless Myriads in the Fall — fJanie Birds Around or in a Pond — A Common Sight — How to Procun* a Supj)er — The Jlcr. gansifrs or Sheldrakes — Pelicans, their Habits and Breeding Places — Their Modes of Fishing — Gulls and Terns — Very Abundant on the larger Lakes — Their Summer Haunts — Loons, Grebe and Dab-chicks — Habits of the Grebe— The (Jreat Western Orelie — Synoptical Table of the Birds — Notes on the Prairie Birds — Birds near Bran- dan in 1880 — At Flat Creek — At Moose Mountain — Souris Plain — Around Salt Ponds — Multitudes of Ducks and Prairie Chickens — Taking fo tlie Stubble Fields- Notes un the Hawks — On tiie Owls — On the Gulls. r "■ . I I" Birds are a most important element in the present and future of the North-West Having watched their liahits and obtained their skins I am enabled to speak with cer- tainty of many birds hitherto unknown in the interior, As they nre better known by their families I shall intro- duce them in that way and take the highest order first. Order I. Passeren. This order is divided into two sub-orders, the Oscinesand Clamatores. The sub-order Oscines, or Singing-birds, is composed of nineteen Families, sixty Genera and ninety-five Species enumerated below : — Hobin, VAried Thrush, Hermit Thrush, Tardus, migratoriut, L Turdut, ntevius, Bon. Tardus, Pallasi, Cab. BIRDS OF TlIK NORTH-WEST. 366 Notes on the [ tho Cow-bird the Species— rest Species— rairie — Iluwki) iiirie Chicken, ill Species and lads — Hittenisi Swan.': — Their ic Fall — Game iper — The Mer- 'heir Modes of •Their Summer (treat Western inls near Bran- —Around Salt tulible Fields— 01iTe-bftokewned Warbler. Tennessee Warbler, Summer Yellow Bird, ycllow-rumped Warbler, Black and Yellow Warbler, Black Poll Warbler, Orange-throiitod Warbler, Yellow Red-roll Warbler, (iohUn-irowncd Thrush. Water Thrush, Maryland Yellow Throat, Mourning Warbler, Oreen Black-capped Fly-Catching Warbh Canada Fly-Catching Warbler, Redstart, Barn Sv, allow, White-bellied Swallow, Cliff Swallow, Bank Swallow, I'un>h' Martin, Bohemian Chatterer, Ccrdar Bird, Red Kyed Vireo, Brotherly Love Virco, Butcher Bird, Wliite-rumped Shrike, Evening Grosbeak, Pine Grosbeak, Purple Finch, American Red CroRsbill, White Winged CrosBbill, Uruy Crowued Fincli, 7\irdu» Siraitnonii, liaird. Thirdun/unre^rftm, liaird. J[ar}>orh;/nchu» ri{/ii«, f?ab. Mimu* Carolinrnsin, draff. Sialia arcfira, Swainn. Cmelus Mnicanu*, Swaint. Regulm calendula, Lirhl Pantn alrirapillii», L I'arus Iludtonicu*, Forster, TroyloJifteg tedon, Vieill. Anorthura fror//odi/teg, Coue». Cistothorus paluxtris, liaird. Eremophila alpestrit, lioie, Anthui ludovieianiis, Licht A'eocori/.i Spraffwi, Sel, Mniotilta varia, Vifill. Jlelminthophiiija ruficapilla, JJltird. " irlata, Baird. " peri-grina, Cab, Dendree.ea rstiva, Baird. " coronafa, Oray. " maculosa, Baird. •* striata, Baird. " Blackbumiae, Baird. " palmarum, Baird. Siurus auricapillut, Swaim. " nievius, Coues. (ifolhli/pin trirhai. Cab. " Philadelphia, Baird. Myiodiuctfx Canadenm, Aud. " pusiltut, Bon. Setophaga ruticilla, Sivaini. Jlirundo horreorum, Barton. Tachyeineta bicolor, Cab. Petrochelidon lunt/rons, Cab. Cotyle riparia, Bote. Progne purpurea, Bote. Ampelia garrulua, L. " cedrorum, Baird. Vireo olivacea, Bon. " Philadelphica, Com Lanius borealis, Vieill. " exeubitoroidea, Swain*. Heiperiphona veapertina, Bote. Pinieola enculeator, Cab. Carpodacui purpureua, Boie. Loxia curviroatra, L. " leueoptera, Chnel. Ijeucoaticte tephroetii, Sm. \ 1 v. V] m. ■^> w '^i IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 ■so 1^ 1.1 £ l£ 110 IH^ '/ Photographic Sciences Corporation {./ ^"J^ ^ i^^'^ 1.25 11.4 III 1.6 ^= 1^ 11^ ^ ^ 6" ► s? \ iV <^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 (716)172-4503 K c^ ^ 11 ■ ¥1 ill ! I I 1 I I 356 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. Red Poll Linnet, Mealy Red Poll, Yellow Bird, " Canary, " Snow Bunting, Lapland LongRpiir, Painted Lark r>unting, Chestnut Collared Bunting, Baird's Sparrow, Savanna Sparrow. Grass Bird, Lecontc's Sparrow, fiintoln's Sparrow. Swamp Sparrow, Song Sparrow, Snow Bird, Oregon Snow Bird, Tree Sparrow, Chipping Sparrow, Field Sparrow, Clay-colored Sparrow, White-throated Sparrow, White-crowned Sparrow, Black-throated Sparrow, Fox-colored Sparrow, White-winged Blackbird, Ilose-breasted Grosbeak, Arctic-spotted Towhee, Bob-o-Link, Cow-bird, Red-winged Blackbird, Yellow-headed Blackbird, Meadow Lark, Western Meadow Lark, Baltimore Oriole, Rusty Grackle, Blue-hoadcd Grarow, Common <]row, American Nut Cracker. American Magpie, Blue Jay, Whiskey Jack. .fjffiothus linariuK, Cah. " canescens, (lould. Vhrysomitris tristis, Jionap. Plectrophane.s nivalin, Meyer. " Lapponirus, Sel. " pictua, Swaim. •• ornatus, Townt Centronyz Bairdii, Bon. Paaserculn.i iSavanna, lion. I'oxcetes yramineus, Buird. Coturniculus Lerontci, Jion .Vrlogpiiu l.inroltu, Jlun. " palustri.i, JJaird. •• molodia, Jiainl. ■htnco lii/i'mii/i.t, ScL " Oregimux, Scl. Spizella moulicnla, UairJ " Kocialis, lion. " f)usil/a, Jion. pallida, Jion. Znnotrichia. alhirolli.i, Jion Unicophrys, Strains. " i/uentla, Gam. I'asaere/la iliara. Swains. Calamoapiza hicolor, lion. Goniaphfa Licdoniciana, /Jmr.l. Pipilo arclirii, Swaia.s. Dolirlioin/x ori/zivorit.f, Swa'ii.f. .}folot/iniK prconis, Sivains. . Ir/eliriis phoenicens, Vieill. .Van/liorrphiilu.i irteroctphali.^'. /laird. ■'me distance ahead, keeping tliis up for miles. 01' the seventeen warbh'rs none belong exclusively to the prairie All are binls of the thickets, and being very shy are not often seen except by tlie collector, who follows them to their haunts and occasionally gets a glimpse of their bright colors as they retire to the thickest coverts on his approach. When going up or down a river the Bank and Cliff Swiillows are often seen in myriads circling around. The former, where the bank is alluvium often perforates it to the depth of two or three feet, while the latter will cover the hard face of a clay cliff with thousands of nests, and as vou glide past, from every nest one or more heads are pro- truded to gaze on the passing stranger. The Red Eyed Vireo fills the forest with its song, and were it not carefully watched would be taken for a variety of birds, as it has (juite a variety of notes in its song. The Finches as usual are well represented both by forest and prairie species. Many of these birds are very beautiful, especially the Evening and Rose-breasted Grosbeaks. These birds live in the thick forests, and the song of the latter is often heard answering that of the Baltimore Oriole, which breeds in the same localities. On the plains near Old Wives Lakes the White Winged Blackbird and the Missouri Skylark are common, and will at once attract the attention. The former by its uncommon plumage, and the latter by its peculiar flight which might be correctly termed undulating. I . I! I! ii 358 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 1 i ■i \ ; • . If; i {■I If Mlii • I Of all the birds on the prairie none will attract more attention than the Cow-birds, As they build no nests thej are great travellers, often keeping with a train of carts crossing the trackless plains for weeks together. Both in 1879 and 1880, while travelling without a trail, these birds have kept with us for weeks. When on the march they would fly alongside the carts and light in the grass, and immediately pounce on any grasshopper which lit near them. In July when Bull-dogs {Gad-files) were troublesome thoMe birds would sit on the horses' backs and pick them off. Often one would take up its position on the horse's rump and catch every lly that dared approach. At night .hey would some- times sit in the grass, on the carts, or even perch on tlie horses, if no bushes were in the vicinity. No birds to-day, are such nuisances in the North-We.st as the various species of Blackbirds. These birds, in man) parts of Manitoba, are a heavy tax at present on farmers, but as settlements increase, their power to injure will de- crease, as they will have more fields to attack and possibly be fewer in number. Meadow Larks and Bob-o-Links are very beautiful birds, and are found on almost every part of the prairie. The Magpie is verv commcm to the west of tlic Touchwood Hills, but seems never to come east of the As- siniboine River, at Fort Ellice. The Whiskey Jack w Canada Jay is the first to greet the lonely traveller, when he stops for the night in any pai't of the forest, and in the morning, it salutes him with the first streak of dawn, and bid>i him good-bye when he leaves. The Cow-bird, the Whiskey Jack, and the Indian are all a'ike sociable, and wherever the white man stops, there these congregate — for food. The next sub-order is the Chiniafores, or Flycatchers. They are represented by one Family, five Genera, and eight Species enumerated below : — Kingbird, Tyrannus Carolinenais, Term. ArkansaH Fly-catclier, " verticabis, Say. Say's Fly-catfhcr, Sayornm Sayut, Baird. Phebe Bird, " fuscun, Baird. BIRDS OF THE NORTIJ-WEST 369 Conotopui bofealit, liaird. " Ric/iardsoni, Baini. Empidonax Trnillii, Baird. " ininmus, Baird. Olive-Hided Fly-catcher, WcKlern Wood Powee, Traill's Fly-catcher, Least Fly-catcher, The Kingbird is common throughout the territory, a»d well deserves his name of " tyrant," as lie guards carefully his own domain, and chases away every bird that would in- jure either his mate or her young. On and around the Cypress Hills, the Arkansas Fly-catcher is quite coiunion^ but seems to extend no farther north. The Least Fly- catcher is very abundant in the damp northern forest, and often in a tall tree is indistinguishable from the Red-Eyed Vireo, which, however, is a much larger bird. Order IL Picarue. This order has few representatives in the North-West, but they are interesting though few. In our limits, it is represented by six Families, eleven Genera, and fourteen Species, as follows : — Antroslotnus roci/eruK, Bon. Cfionleiles Virgininnns, Bon Cho'tura pelagint, Baird. Trochilnx cohibri.i, Jj. Ceryle Alcyoii, Bon. Coccyi/un erythropht/ialmus, Bon. Hylotomus pHealfiK, Baird. Picus villoKUf, L ,, /itibescen.', I, f'icoides arclicuf, Gray. ,, Americanus, Breh. ifphyrapicus variiis, Baird. " thyroideus, Baird. Oolaptes auratiis, Swains. All of these are birds of the thicket or forest, though they may be seen on the prairie when in pursuit of food. I have noticed the Humming bird as far north as lat. 59°, in the vicinity of Lake Athabasca. Sir John Richardson places its northern limit in lat. i"'7° All the Wood-peckers, as their naine indicates, live in the woods. None were observed in the south, except the Hairy Wood-pecker and High-holdr<.>use, I'rairit' Hen, • Partridge," il>iT. licast Sandpiper, ItairilB Sandpiper, Jack Snipe, Whitc-rumped Sandpiper, gandcrling, Ureat Marbled Jodwit, IJliuk-taiU'd ',Todwit, ■(|uimaux Curlew. Ereurutet jiiisilliia, Cast. Tringa minutilla, Vieill. " Jiairdii. Coitet. " mnculata, Vieill. /uscicollis, Vieill. Calidris arenaria, III. Limosa/eiha, Ord. " Ifiid.ionica, Swaitu. Totanus temipalmatus, T. " melanoleucu*, Vieill. '• jlavipe», Vieill. " .folitarius, And TVinff aides macularius. Gray. Actiturus liartramiux, Jion. .Viimenius longirostris. WiU. •' Hudsonicus, Lath. •• borealis, Lath. liioat Blue Heron. (ireen Heron. Hittcrn, //. Sxth-Oriler. Hcrndione^, Ardea kerodias, L. vireKcen.i, L. HotauTUi minor, Boie. HI. SulhOrder. Alfctoriden. Whito or Whooping Crane, Sandhill or Brown Crane. Virginia Kail, Carolina Rail, Coot. Mud Hon, (trus Americana, Tern. Orus Canadensis, Ten. Halliis Viryinianus, L. Porzana Carolina, Cab Fulica Americana, Om.r The Plover lirst come to our notice. Late or early in September, the Golden Plover descend to the plains, and here they may be seen in large flocks, feeding on the open prairie or along the borders of a marsh. Killdeer and Seniipalraated Plover breed in the country, and can be shot at any time. On the borders of brackish ponds or wading in the shallow water, the beautiful Avocet and Great Marbled Godwit may be found all summer. Around every pond and on every saline marsh are various species of Sand- piper and Snipe. As the month of August draws to a close, these appear in countless numbers and fill the air with their various calls, and a sportsman, if no better game were near, 'Would consider himself in paradise. ,1 ; ih.:^ Ui MANITOIIA AND TIIK GUKAT NOKTli-WEST. n I; 1 m I I BitteniH are very common in the graHs marshes at all seasons. The Great BUu; Heron frequents river margins, and often surprises tlie belated voyager when seen standin" on the upper limbs of a dead tree, peering down at him a« he silently glides underneath. Cranes are seldom seen in thjcks, except in September, when they congregate prior to their southern fliglit. They are always the first to migrate and long lines of them will be seen high up moving south- ward in the latter part of September. Order VII. LamelUroatreH. 'rr\imiH't«ir Swuu. WliiHtling Swun, Snow (JooKC Wuvy, Caimdii (r(M>si!, Milliard or Stock Duck, I'iii'.uil Uiick, CJadwoll. (ircy Duck, Anuirican Widj^eon, Grunn Winged Toal. Blu«! Winged Toal, Cinnamon Teal, Shoveller. Spoon Bill, Wood Duck, Blue Hill, Hroad Bill. Little Hlaok Head. Ring Nec^ked Duck. Red He Paridiu Trofxlodytidn . . Alaudid.T Motiicillidic . . . . Sylvicolida?. . . . llinmdiuidjc. . . Ampclidai VireoiiidiB T.ani.idfn Friii^'illida'. .... Ictt'iidif C'drvidin Tyirannidii' . . . - - — — ' — "JKNKK.V. SI'KOIES i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 *» 1 1 1 1 I i 7 1 1 :! 1 -JO :',:! K 10 .") 6 1 >5 illl BIRDS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 369 ORUKR. PicanflB liaptori'S. Columbfln.. GalliniD . . (JralliUores. Lamellirostres StrpanopodoK . Longipennes. TygopodcH . . II (IRDKRti' Passeres Picari.-B Raptorcs t'olumbse CrallinaB UrallatorcB, . . . Lamellirostres. SteganopodcK... Longipennes... Pygopodcs. .. . KAMILY. Cyp8elida9 CaprimuligidaB . . . TrochilidcT Alccdinidio Cuculida) PicidiD StrigidfB FuUtmida' Catliurtidiv Culunibidae Tctiaoiiida) Chavadriidae Keturvirostiida;. . . Plialaropodidii' . . . Scolopacidao Ardeidte (iruida? JUllida^ Anatidic Polccanidu! I'halacroconic'idie . LaridcC ( 'olymbidflR Podi('ii)id!n OENERA. SPKCIES. Herapitalatioti . PAMILIEij. 10 17 6 :? 1 I 7 I 2 1 2 41 (iENKRA. 65 . II 18 1 14 2 3 :} II 2 I :{ u 1 1 .SHECIKS- 103 14 24 1 12 36 2(> 2 !) 8 S 9 14 1 I 12 5 1 2 20 A 2 3 26 1 146 235 I have been careful to introduce no species into the fore- going catalogue of which I had not seen specimens east of the Rocky Mountains and west of Winnipeg. When ji better knowledge is obtained of the country a few species will be added, so that we may say the Avi-fauna of the territory, leaving out the Arctic birds, is about 250 species. The few notes appended will be read with interest by man}' parties settlin.i'' in the country, as they were written on the ground. 2i i !' 1 1 1 370 MANITOBA AND TlIK GREAT NURTII-WEST. I I While encamped jit Grand Valley (now Brandon) on the Assiniboine, numerous birds, common in Ontario, were ob- served, such as Meadow Larks, Robins, Blackbirds, Cow Birds, Bob-o-links, Bitterns, and immerous finches, whicli were breeding (hither on the prairie or in the bush along th^ river. On the prairie the Kill Deer Plover was noticed, and on the drier upland the " Prairie Plover" or Bartram's Tatt- ler was occasionally seen. Farther west these birds were quite common, the latter on the prairie and the Ibrmer along the lakes or ponds throughout the country. One evening in July we pitched our camp close to the nest of a Kill Deer Plover, at this time one little bird being hatched out and the other emerging from the shell. In our presence she assisted the chick out of the shell, and as soon as both were able to stand she coaxed them away from the nest, and before dark had them safely hidden away in the sedges bordering the pond from which we obtained our water. On the sand hills at Flat Creek two fine specimens of the Long Billed Curlew were obtained. One or two others were shot near the Cypress Hills, but it was a very rare bird and seldom seen. In the marshes east of Moose Mountain both the Sand Hill (hane and the White Crane were breeding, together with the Phalaropes. These beautiful and interest- ing birds were quite numerous near Moose Mountain. The Shoveller or Spoonbill Duck, the American Widgeon, the Green Winged Teal, the Blue Winged Teal, and the Mal- lard were breeding in or ne^vr the marshes, and their eggs were occasionally obtained. Skimming over these eastern marshes, and occasionally darting down to the surface, was the beautiful Black Tern. On the great plain west of Moose Mountain few birds were met with, but on the eastern side flocks of the Yellow Headed Blackbirds were seen around ponds, and on the western part near Moose Jaw Creek, the rare and interest- ing White Winged Blackbird was met with. The common- BIRDS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 371 est bird on this prairie was the Chestnut Collared Banting, although never recognized after this. In the vicinity of the Coteau we reached a few salt water ponds, and here obtained numerous specimens of the beauti- ful Avocet, which were very plentiful around all the salt lakes on the western plains, and so fearless that we had no difficulty in shooting all the specimens we desired. On the same pools were the Marbled Godwit and the Willet or Stone Snipe, both large and beautiful birds. Numerous sand- pipers and many of the smaller snipe were abundant, and during the months of August and September could have been shot by the hundred as they waded or swam in the various pools or lakes we passed. After the middle of August we began to shoot ducks, and besides the species mentioned above, the Gadwell or Grey Duck and Red-breasted Merganser bred in numbers on the plains. Coots or Mud Hens^nd Pied Billed Grebe were in oreat numbers, and afforded fine sport, as we had to wade almost up to our neck to obtain our specimens, as they were very difficult to kill owing to their diving power. Alter the middle of September the sea ducks began to arrive, and it is no figure of speech to say that the ponds and lakelets were alive with them. For the following six weeks feathered game of every kind were so abundant that any person in a week could have shot enough ducks and geese to have lasted a family all winter. The abundance of water fowl in the interior is of such importance at this time when Indians are being fed by the Government, that they should be compelled to lay in a stock of food for themselves during the winter. To see hunters perishing of hunger, or living on supplies furnished by the Government, and at the same time surrounded by millions of birds is, a paradox ; but these men carry rifles, and bird shooting to them is a small business after buffalo hunting. Within a day's journey of the Cree Reserve on the nortli side of the Cypress Hills, is n !'i h'' [i m 1 1 i ! ' i i 372 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. Vi • I if I • V \\ a IsirgG lake named by mc Gull Lake, which during the last days of August was literally alive with birds, and when one shot was enough to supply six of us with a dinner, yet tlioso Indians were largely depending on the Government rations at this time, and Colonel McDonald could scarcely persuade some young men to go and kill a few ducks by liberal offers of ix)wder and shot. At the Assiniboine Reserve it was just the same, plenty of birds in the neighborhovere shot on Gull Lake, a large .sheet of water north of the Cvprcss Hills. Franklin's Rosy Gull was secured in fine plumage, and many of the others in various states and different ages, so that in twenty specimens one would be led to believe there were at least ten species. • it . ?:; ! i ■\ ■A , ,1 i I: ) I CHATTER XXll. Notes on lieptileH, Fishefi, and hisects. Lint of R(iptiloH — Sntikcs in Spiiiifj; mui Autuinii — ( lutlioiiiif^ of Snakes at Ijivinghlonf;— SnakoK in BullrtiKh Lake — FiHliing for Sirodons — KattlotsnakcK — Liitardti Toads and FrofjH — List of Fisiics — The Penhos — Tlu' ''Dorc" — Carp Family — Tiiw. wreat Numbers — Not ( ^)nsidere(l Gooir Allies-. Grasshopper Plague — Its Causes and Prevtintion — Conclusion. Reptiles are far from numerous in the North- West, yet wonderful stories are told of the immense numbers of Garter Snakes {Eutamia drtalifi) in some localities. At Stony Mountain, sixteen miles from Winnipeg, they are seen in myriads in early spring and in September. During these periods they lie in the sun and coil into terrible look- ing objects, but are perfectly harmless. Last autumn they were gathering for their winter sleep when I was at Livingstone (Swan River Barracks), and as they were said to be numerous I went to see them. All accounts I had ever read fell far short of the reality. They were congregated in and around three basin shaped hol- lows, which were partly filled with very large boulders, and bordered by a few clumps of bushes. The grass for rods around was filled with them, and the stones completely covered. xVs we approached, a hiss that caused a shudder to pass through me, greeted us from all sides. i\. few hurried steps and Inspector Griesbach, of the Mounted Police and I, stood on the great boulder, in the centre NOTES ON REPTILES, FISHES, AND INSECTS. 375 of the hollow, from which the or.akes Hlid as we took poH- .Mcssion. As soon as ray excited nerves allowed me to look intelligently around, I sjiw a sight never to be forgotten. (>)iled on every bush and forming cables from the size of a fiawser u]) to withing masses three feet in diameter, were snakes from one to live feet in length. Around the liollow, Init more particularly on the sunny side, they lay in great heaps, so closely packed together that nothing l)ut heads could be seen. It was terrible to look upon the glittering eyes that were fixed upon us by thou- sands, and see the forked tongues thrust out and withdrawn as the perpetual hiss unceasingly fell upon our ears. After a few minutes we became more accustomed to each other's society, and now instead of being disgusted with the writh- ing mai^ses, we saw beauty in every fold. The rays oi' the western sun falling on their bodies at every angle, caused a mingling of color that none but a master pen could depict. At Bullrush Lake, on the prairie west of Old Wives Lakes, during the month of July, Bald Headed Eagles and Rough Legged Hawks were feasting on snakes. The snakes were catching their food in the lake. I cut one open and discovered the remains of an animal like a lizard. Having abundance of fishing lines with us, we set some lines baited with pork, and next morning hauled out a strange looking animal. Having seen the Menobranchus ( Necturun lateralis) of the Great Lakes, I took this animal to be a species of Sircdon, possibly Siredon /Ichenode-s.^ which has been ob- tained south of the })oundary. The specimen looked very much like an overgrown lizard, but the pronunent gills showed it to be a denizen of the water. It is extremely probable that many, if not all tiie Lizard Lakes in the North- West, get their names from this animal. Between the Forks of the Bow and Red Deer Rivers, a species of rattle snake is said to find a home, but I have never seen it. ^ I • ' 1 I 1 ! 1 i 1 1 i H7('. MANITOHA AND TIIK OREAT NOKTII-WKST i:! < I I liiivi' heanl many storicH iilxnit tlic miinhor of li/anJs ill C(M'taiii l(H*allt,ios, Imt must (hjhIohs to a (lisboliel' iu tin- inmiber. While paHsing through the Touchwood Hills witli JIair-bro(«l.s, ] have always heard of uiultitudeH of li/unls. but never »aw one. During the many summers I huvc siH'iit on the prairies. I have observed not more than hall" a dozen, iind these were very small, seldom attaining a lengtli of six incluis. Arehbisho]) Taehe, in his work on the Nortli- West, spcakiiig of li/ards, says : — '' Our li'zards are of two species — one, rather hirger tliiui the other, is marked witli green ; the other is altogetlici grey. These animals are very harmless, and are chielh found in the centre of the prairie region. They are most numerous in the small lakes, and in the neighborhood of the Touchwood Hills. Their only unpleasant points iirc their a}>pearance, and desire to appnjach travellers, Wiien camping, nt certain seasons of the year, it is necessary to surround one's tent with a small dit<'h, of wdiich the inner side is cut vertically, as these lizards climb up only geiith' slopes. Unless this precaution is taken, they come into tlu^ tents in every direction ; and there are many who would dislike to lie either awake, or asleep, on a bed covered with lizards.'' Toads and frogs are al>unda,nt, especially the latter. It is probable that there are at least half a dozen species of small frogs on the southern prairies. Many of them are very beautiful, and their bright colors were much ad- mired as we marched lu^ross the monotonous plains of the south. A large frog was seldom seen, except in the woods or along the rivers of the plains. The only troublesome animal met with is the leach, which infests all running streams and most of the lakes. They are of two species, — one from three to four inches, the other quite small. While wading around in the ponds, collecting aquatic plants, my legs have often been covered NOTES ON KEPTII.KS, FISHES, AND INSECTS. 37T with the smaller Hpecies, but these were easily taken off by scraping with a knife. Last season, when ascending lied Deer River, the men were nuich troubled with the larger species, whicli inl'ested the mud and other debris found in the river bed. Usually, the men wore old shoes, witliout socks, and the leeches would get into the shoes, and then attach themselves to the ankles or feet. Often they crawled between the toes, and caused great incon- venience, as it was extremely difficult to get them oif. Wlien taken off, the blood would flow freely for some time, but no ill effects followed. In the enumeration of the fishes, I shall be as accurate as possible, where no authorities on the subject are attainable, Richardson's work being so rare, that it is practically beyond mv reach. The value of the fishes of the northern rivers and lakes is so little known to the world, that some of the statements regarding their innnbers may be looked upow with suspicion. CATALOGUE OF WESTERN FISHES. Order. Teleocephali . {The Typical Fishes.) I. Sub-Order. Acanthoptt-ri. (The Spiny-rnyod Fishes.) Fuinilti I. Prreufit. {The Percfies.) 1. Peroa Americana, Schrank. (Common Yellow Perch.) 2. Stizostethium vitreum. Jorden & Copcland. (Wall-eyed Pike. Dory Pickerel.) Faniiifill. Cen/rarchidtf. (The Sun Fixhe.i.) ?. KiipouKitis. (iill 4 Jurdoii. (Common Sun Fish.) I'dinilii III. Sr/ifHidtf. ( Tlif A/aif/i'es.) 4. Hajiliiidonotus grunniens, Kaf. (Bubblers. Drum. White Perch.) Family IV. Cottidie. (The Scnlpim.) b. C!ottus ( oguatus, Rich. (Northern Sculpin.) //. Suh-Order. Anacanthini. {The Jugular Fishes.) Family V. Gadidse. (The Cod Fishes.) a. Lota maculosus, Less. (Methy Burbot.) " •' compress£i, Less. (Ling or Eel-Pout.) li 11 . \i i 378 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. ■ j I fii ,i I I ///. Sub-Order. Hemihranchi. {The Half-GUhd Fi^hm.) Family VI. (JasUroiitfidir. ( Th«i StiekUhaekn.) 8. OastoroBtouH concinnuH, Rich. (Thf Ktickltilmck.) IV. Sub-Order. Ilajdotni ( T/ir Toothed Mitntoim.) h'nmily Vfl. F.KvoKhr. {'/'hi' J'ikes.) 9. Ebox nobilior, Thoiup. (Muskiilliinnf.) 10. " ImiuH, Linn. (Tike nr Juck-Fisli.) V. Sub-Order. Iso^poudyli. {The Trout-like Fishes.) Fmiljf I Iff. Salmonulii. (The Trout.) 11. Salmo Milar. L. ((Iroat Sea Siilmon.) " ({uinnat, lUch. (Tlie Columbia llivor Salmon ) " Scoulori, Uioh. (The Ekcwan or BritiHh Columbia Salmon.) " RoHHii, lUch. (Uohs'h Ant.'i! Salmon.) " Hcarnii, llit^h. (Coppermine Uiver Salmon ) ' namayiush, Block. (Great Lake Trout.) siscowet, AgaKKin. (Lake Superior Trout) Mackonzii, Rich. (The Inconnu.) Lewisi, Ord. (Large Rocky Mountiiin TnMit) ' tsuppitch, Rich. (Western Salmon Trout ; ' Gairdneri, Rich. (Columbia River Trout. ) ■• Clarkii, Rich. (Clark'8 WeHtern Trout.) ' fontinalis, Mitchell. (Common Brook Trout.) ' stellatUK, (ird. (Rocky Mountain Brook Tinut.) ' Iloodii, Rich. (Hood's Nortiiern Trout.) .T). Thymallus signifer, Rich. (Bach's Grayling.) " thymalloidcK, Rich. (Lesser Grayling.) Coregonus albus, Le Seur. (White Fish.) " Couesii, Milher. (Chief Mountain White Kiish.) " quadrilateralis, Rich. (Round Fish.) « lucidus, Rich. (Bear Lake White Fish.) « artod), Le Seur. (Lake Herring.) Family IX. Ilyodontidir. {The Afnon Eir.-..) Hyodon chrysopsis, Rich. (Golden Eye.) " tergisus, Lc Seur. (Silver Bass. Moon Eye > 17. S(d)-Order. Eventognathi. {The Carp-like Fishes.) Family JT. Cyprinidw. {The Minnows.) .'(,'). Luxilus cornutus, Jordon. (Common Shiner.) 36. Nc" iiinls biguttiitus, Kirt. (Horned Chub.) Family A'l. OatoMomidie. {The Suckci.'<.) .17. Catostorms longirostrum, Le Seiu'. (Red Sucking < arp.) 38. " Forsterianus, Aga«. (Grey Sucking C:!rp.) 39. « Sueurii, Rich. (Le Seur's Carp.) 12. 13. 14. 16. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. id. 24. 25. 28. 20. 30. 31. 32. 34. NOTES ON REI'TILKS, FISIIKS, AND INSECTS. 370 Onhir. Xtmiitoynathl. ( The Sfimf b'islwH,) Familif .17/. Siluriihi. 40, SiluruK lioroiliH, Uicli. (Lnruo Oii»-FiKh.) Order, (y/ioni/rontrl. [The (^trfiltnjitious (fdnoldM.) h'limiltf Xll I. .Wififniendi . (T/ie Slurifinnii.) i\. A" ipiiMHT niliiciindiiH, \a' Suit, (I.akt! StiirKr-on.) -Ji. UujM^rtiiiniiH, Uiili. (Wt-slcrn Stiirufoii.) In the preceding catalogue I have eninuerated only those .species which I have })cen able to identify from the writings of variouH travellern and my own obnervationH. The com- mon Yellow Perch Heems to be abundant in all the large liikes, but is seldom caught, as few fish with a hook and line, and the nets in use have too large meshes. I ()l)tained this Hsh last summer in Lake Winnipegoosis, Swan Lake, and in small lakes at the head of Red Deer River. The Pickerel stands next to the white fish as food and is much valued by the Indians who live on Lakes Winnipeg, Manitoba, and Winnipegoosis. During the sum- mer the White Fish seems to retire into deep water, and at this season the Pickerel is taken in great numb«irs, either with the hook and line or by means of short nets .set on the shallows or bars in the lakes. Last sunnner while exploring these lakes and Red Deer River, we scarcely ever failed to cutch all the fish we wanted by setting our net on a shoal in the lake or across an eddy in the river. The Ling or Burbot is common in all the lakes on both sides of the mountai.is, but is seldom if ever used for food. Sfr John Richardson refers to this fish in the folhnving words : — " The Methy Lake and Portage are named from tlie Cree designation of the Burbot i^LoUi maculosa- Li i Joche of the Canadians), which abounds in these waters, and often supplies a poor and watery food to voyageurs whose provisions are exhausted. Though the fish is less prized tlum any other in the country, its roe is one of the best, and with a small addition of flour, makes a palatable and very n 1 1 1 380 MANITOBA AND TIIK (JKKAT NOKTII-WKST. liom'iHhing l)riMi(l." Another writer myn of it : — " Gorged witli food or full ol' roe itH naturally .short hody becoineH in- ordinately enlarged ; and its tail, very nuieh like an eel, matches very })adly with the thick body. The Methy has wMiles, ])Ut they are ho small and ho deeply imbedded in gelatinous epidermis that they can barely be distinguished in very numy specimens. This lisii is a cause of a great annoyance to fishermen in winter ; it fixes itself with fishing lines in the most wonderful way. and entangles them most i)erfectlv. When taken out of the water it alternately wriggles and straightens itseli' so as to make it a diflicull task to unhook. Its smooth and sticky skin is so nnicli <'older than that of other inhalntants of the water, that the fisherman who shivers for hours together in the intensest ^old on the lakes, is not very happy when he finds a Methy on the line he draws from under the ice. They are gener- ally thrown away to feed crows ; only the roe and liver arc retained. At the posts in the interior, the roe is pounded and made int^ a kind of biscuit, to which whatever name strikes the fancy is given. The liver, which is rich and delicate, is also made into food, unless it becomes necessary to extract the oil for use in lamps, by which one can only half see. and which have, besides, anything but an agreeable smell." Wliile at Fort MeLeod, in the northern part of British Columbia, in November, 1872, numbers of these fishes were caught in a large wicker basket placed in the stream. In almost every case, they were found with the small western white-fish in their mouth and stomach, the tail only being visible. It is possible that they gorged themselves when caught in the trap with the others. Carp are taken in great numbers in every part of the North-West, but in all cases, they are looked upon as the next step to actual starvation. Wherever I have been, I have noticed that they are always selected for the dogs, "i NOTES ON RKPTILKH, KISIIKS, AND IMSKCTS. ;i«l and novcr ciiUmi by tlu; [iidians or HiiU'-l)nHMl.s, (»X(5opt in niHCS of actiml hunger. In tlu; fall, thoH(! iinh nvo dried by tlicinHelv(»H, and kept lor bait for Marten traps or lor the (I<)J5H. Last year, we caught great nninberM of the Red Finned Sucker, but after the firHt attiled, perhaps, in the water it wsus born in, without sauce or salt, or tuldition of any kind, — one quickly tires of the fish, and when this is frequently repeated, the simple name of the animal suflRces to excite repulsion. The head of the carp is, beyond comparison, preferable to the body ; but man}* heads would be required t« satisfy an appetite excited b}' work and fatigue, and one soon tires of sucking these small b(mes. All the species abound in this country, and par- ticularly the Red and Grey Suckers. This fish spawns in the month of June, and, several weeks previous, they are f«een and killed in great numbers. When spawning is over, ! r ' i! !' * ■(' I i 382 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. particularly in shallows or stony river beds, they assemble in such numbers that their crowded dorsal fins, showing above the water, make it appear as if all the fish were artificially attached to one another, and they can then be killed with a stick. It is easy to understand tliat, in such circumstances as these, Indians cannot absolutely starve, but they invariably look upon the necessit}' lor feeding on Carp as starvation. The vitality of the Carp is so great, that many true tales about it would be I'egarded as fabulous. A Carp may be frozen, thawed and then decapitated, and yet not die immediately ; and they are seen to strike with their tails, and jump about for a long time after they have suffered such mutilation as would be apparently most likely to quiet them, and to cause immediate death," Pike or Jack Fish are found in every river and small stream throughout the country, and although not par- ticularly disliked by the Indians and Half-breeds, yet are considered only second rate food. When fresh caught and cooked until they are crisp, they are, in my opinion, excellent food. Last summer, we ate them almost every day, and relished them. No difficulty was experienced in catching them upon a hook baited with a small bit of pork. When in camp, at Fort Calgarry, in 1879, numbers were caught in Bow River by merely throwing the trawl into the river and drawing it out again. For a couple of days, we fed two families of Sarcies by means of one line, yet when we gave the line to them, they could not catch a fish. Small Pike, eight or ten inches long, were noticed in all the small brooks crossed on the plains, and in many marshes they were frequently observed amongst the grass. It is a curious fact that certain fish are caught in nets at one time of the day, and other species are caught at other times, in the same place. During the six days I was in camp on Swan Lake, last summer, I paid particular attention to the fisheries. The Indians and Half-breeds had many sinull NOTES ON REPTILES, FISHES, AND INSECTS. 383 nets set in the lake, which they examined night and morning. The nets were quite short, and set with one end towards the beach and the other towards the hike. Stakes were driven into the gravel, never in more than eight feet of water, and to these the nets were attached. Stones were employed for sinkers, and pieces of spruce for floats. Every evening, large numbers of Pike were found in the nets, but not another fish of any kind. In the morning, Gold Eyes, Carp, and occasionally White-lisli were found, but no Pike. Seeing this occur day after day, I was led to watch the habits of the lake fish, and found that Pike, and the various species of Trout were day feeders, and retired to the depths at night, while the other fish came into the shallows at that time. By this, it would appear that carnivorous fish, un- like carnivorous mammals, feed in the day time, while the other and less voracious fish come out at night. If all fed at the same time, in a very few years the largest carnivor- ous species would utterly devour the smaller. During certain seasons, great numbers of Pike are caught in Lake Winnipeg. Many have been taken which weighed over thirty pounds, but the usual weight is between six and ten pounds. They vary much in color, but those obtained in Peace River seemed to be exactly the same species as those drawn from the rivers of the plain. In the northern lakes they are particularly abundant, and from the numoer of lakes named after this fish, I am quite sure that it is the predom- inant species. The Catfish is found in some abundance in the Saskatch- ewan, below the forks, but is not common in the upper part cf the stream. It is quite common in Lake Winnipeg, and the smaller lakes connected with it, but is seldom caught except by lines set at night. It is the Salmon Family, however, that are most highly valued by the natives of tho interior. I am woU aware that there are species in many of the lakes, which have never I; ^ ii.i 1 i \ > \ '\ ' 1 1 i I ■ i I I I I I !i| 1^1 ; i \ i'l.: I 1 i 384 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. been described. By casting the eye over any map of the country north of the prairie region, it will be seen that lakes lire a very marked feature of the surface. Now, if it be understood that there is scarcely a lake throughout the vast interior, far north of the Arctic Circle, which does not teem with White-fish, a proximate idea may be formed of the vast food resources of the country. I have never seen a lake in the forest region that did not teem with magnifi- cent fish, and of such excellent flavor tliat they are never distasteful to the appetite. In tlie valley of Qu'Appelle, are the four Fishing Lakes, Crooked Lake, and Round Lake, making in all a continuous lake over thirty miles long and nearly a mile wide, with water in many places over fifty feet deep. Long Lake, forty miles long, and averaging one and a half miles in width, may be said to be part of the same river. These seven lakes are filled with White-fish of the very best quality, and are taken, in the latter lake, in great numbers by the Touchwood Indians, every fall. In 1879, I picked up fish skeletons on the shores of Long Lake, that measured seven and three-fourths inches across the eyes, and nine and a half inches from the intersection of the neck to the end of the jaw. At various times, I have seen multitudes caught in Lakes Manitoba, Winnipegoosis, Little Slave Lake, Lake St. Ann's, Lac la Biche, Green Lake, Isle la Crosse Lake, Clear Water Lake, Buffalo Lake, Metliy Lake, Lake Athabasca, and many other small lakes. I have seen Methy River so full of White-fish, that we killed them with common poles, and, finally^ 1 may say I never heard of a lake, in the forest region, which did not contain them in myriads. Others have spoken of them in connection with their explorations, and these I will quote at; confirmatory of my statements. H. J. Cambio. C. E,, when speaking of the fish at Little Slave Lake, says : "We were presented with a supply of White Fish, weighing from three to four pounds each, similar in ap of the seen that Now, if it ghout the h does not formed of lever seen li magnifi- are never lu'Appelle, )iind Lake, •i long and over fifty iragiug one )art of the White-fish hitter hike, every fall. Bs of Long ches across ntersection lit in Lakes St. Ann's, lear Water Ibasca, and Iver so full poles, and, the forest 8, Others Iplorations, tements. ji at Little ly of White 1 similar in NOTES ON REPTILES, FISHES, AND INSECTS. 385 every respect to those found in the great North American Lakes." At Moberly Lake, in lat. 46°, close to the Rocky Mountains he found the White Fish very abundant in Sep- tember, 1879. They varied from four to six pounds each in weight, were very fat and seemed quite equal to the far- famed White Fish of Lake Huron. Archbishop Tach6, so often quoted, speaking of this fish says: " Without exception, it is incontestably the most pala- table of all our fishes, and is the only one which is tolerable as a sole food. The Attihawmeg is found throughout the country ; the lakes, large and small, are nearly all frequent- ed by them, and they providentially swarm in some of the little lakes, otherwise, without this resource, many pai'ts of the country would be uninhabitable. I am entitled to speak on the subject, for I have lived for whole years on White Fish as a principal food, and frequently the only one. It is not to be understood that living wholly upon one kind of food is not tiring, but this particular fish does not pall, nor does it excite the aversion generally caused by all other kinds. " The White Fish generally weighs only three or four pounds ; but they are occasionally caught weighing as much as fourteen pounds, and in this case their flesh would delight the most experienced judges of this kind of food. Without dressing or sauce of any kind, these fine fish are much superior to any I have tasted elsewhere, even when most artistically cooked. The White Fish spawns in autumn, and this is also the season for great fishing expeditions, although the fish is in its worst condition. The Attihawmeg, caught in autumn, are preserved in a very peculiar but simple man- ner : a frame work is set up, and on its top strong poles are laid three feet apart. Small rods, rather longer than the space intervening between the poles, are next prepared. As the fish are thrown on to the bank, a hole is cut through their tail-ends, and using this, ten are threaded on to each 25 ;ir ■ M i ! m^ ; ill i I ^A ^ 1 1 1 ! i j • . 1 1 ' ■ .1 . 1 i y ' 386 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. rod, tliUH forming what is cjiUed a broche (as/«7) the ends of which arc placed on two of the poles. The fish, now hang- ing head downwards, have their throats cut with a slash of a knife, to free the blood, and to allow water to escape readily. " The sharp nights at the end of October, assist to harden the fish, and to preserve them. When the season is not ex- ceptionally warm, hung fish (a la penie) is excellent. Of course the flavor is injured by prolonged heat, and naturally it is only in autumn that this process can be adopted." Sir John Richardson thus describes the mode of fishing practised by the Northern Indians : " The nets, formed like those used in the herring fishery, measure, before mounting, one hundred and twenty yards in length, but are gathered in to eighty yards by the intro- duction of the backing-line along the upper edge. The depth of the net varies with that of the waters in which it is to be employed, from two to four yards. For the capture of White Fish, of the ordinary size of three or four pounds, the mesh is five and a half inches long, and where these fisli are very large it is increased to six. For taking the Bear Lake herring, and the small coregoni of other localities, the meshes vary from two inches to two and three-quarters. In open waters the nets are short, as in the herring fishery; the upper margin being buoyed with cedar or fir floats, and the lower one depressed by stones. The fish hang them- selves in the meshes, being unable, from the form of the gill-plates, to withdraw their heads after having once passed them through. Trout of 15 lbs. weight may be taken in the White Fish nets, and also inconnu {Salmo mackenzU) weighing 20 lbs. ; but the meshes will not admit the heads of the larger trouts (iiamay-cush), which weigh from 30 to 50 lbs. These are caught with Cod-hooks. " In winter the nets are set under the ice. The first step is to make a series of holes, about fifteen feet apart. A pole NOTES ON REPTILES, FISHES, AND INSECTS. 387 is then introduced, and conducted along the surface of the water from hole to hole, carrying with it a line, which serves to haul in a string of nets, properly buoyed and loaded but seldom exceeding five in number. The rope is thei. detached, and each end of the net is fastened to a piece of wood, laid across its respective hole, or to a stake driven into the ice. On visiting the netsJ next day only the extreme holes are opened, the rope is attached anew at one end, and is veered away as the nets are withdrawn by the opposite hole. The fish that have been caught being removed, the nets are drawn back to their places by the line. A line of nets reaches about 400 yards, and the fisherman generally endeavors to carry it entirely across a strait or pass in the lake which fish are known to frequent. " Every second or third day, fishermen who are careful take their nets out of the water to dry and repair them. If this be not attended to, the threads swell and rot and few fish enter the meshes ; the floats also become water-logged if not often dried. In severe weather, the fisherman erects a canvas or skin screen to windward, to shelter him while he overhauls his nets. Esquimo snow barricades are much more effective, but pride will not permit the Orkney or Canadian fisherman to turn the useful expedients of the Esquimaux to account." On the west side of the Rocky Mountains, families of Indians may be found, both in winter and summer, living where a small stream leaves or enters a lake. They use no nets. The stream is staked from both sides towards the centre, sloping with the water. In the centre is placed a wicker basket, which is often of a large size. One that was placed in the river, at Fort Macleod, was oblong in form, eight feet long and four feet in diameter. The open end was placed down stream, as the fish were now (November) running up stream. From the rim of the open end, a cone of wicker work extended 1:1 i i. 388 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. I , fl inwards about four feet. This cone tapered to an opening about six inches in diameter, and through this the fish passed into the basket. There being no egress, but by the way they came, they remain in the basket. When the basket is lifted into a boat or taken on shore, a lid is opened in the top, and the fish turned out. The proceeds of one day and night were 177 very nice fish, and although none of them were large, the majority were fit for the table. Fresh water Herring were most numerous, then Suckers, three or four Chub, and one Ling or Burbot. Later in the season, the large fish were caught. In summer. Trout were the principal fish ; at this time, they were always running down stream. East of the mountains I have never seen the basket used, but fish wiers are common. Last season, two families of Indians were catching large numbers of Pike and other fish, at the forks of the Red Deer and Etoimomi Rivers, by means of one. They had constructed a dam about three feet high, all the way across the river, except in one spot. Below this opening, they had hammered in sharp- ened stakes and woven willows around them, so that a complete paddock was formed. At pleasure, they could run the water oflf and take out the fish. After White-fish, Trout are reckoned the best, and, cer- tainly, they are the most sought after. Both east and west of the Rocky Mountains, they are in great numbers, and are easily caught by the fly or a piece of pork on a common hook. In northern British Columbia, they are in multi- tudes in every stream, are fine flavored and quite large. Their flesh is generally salmon-colored and very firm. Within the Rocky Mountains, we caught numbers of a beau- tiful trout, which was called by the Half-breeds, the " Arctic Trout." Its flesh, however, was white and soft, and far inferior to the commoner species. In all the mountain streams, which unite to form the South Saskatchewan, there are multitudes of beautiful trout NOTES ON RKl'TILES, FISHES, AND INSECTS. 389 Three 8pe> les are very common, and easily taken by means of a small piece of pork on a hook. One species is very common in the small brooks, and may be regarded as a large sized brook trout. Another species, rather larger, has soft white flesh, and is not so palatable as the other. In the larger streams, and in the mountain lakes and tarns is a third species, which may be looked upon as the Mountain salmon, on account of its size and flesh, and the sport it gives the angler before its capture. This is the fish for sportsmen, as its size and agility make it a difficult fish to capture, and as it is from five to thirty pounds in weight, it requires more than common ability in the angler to land it. Our mode of catching these, in Bow River, was to wade into the stream and fish for them in the rapids. When one was hooked, it required all our dexterity to land it, and very often, a souse in the water, on account of the slippery stones, was all we received for our arduous labor. On one occasion, one of the men was standing on a log close to the margin of the river, when an enormous fish took the hook, and before he was aware of it, he was sprawling in the water. He had been using the trawling line which we use for pike, and although he was considerably startled by the plunge in the ice cold water, he held on to the line, and three of us shortly after landed a noble fish about twenty- five pounds weight. To the sportsman, and the lover of picturesque and sub- Ihne scenery, there is no place on the American Continent that holds out inducements equal to those to be found in the Bow River country. Hunting or fishing, as he turns his gaze to the west, he will see towering up to the skies, peak over peak, the everlasting hills. If he watch the clouds forming around the snowy peaks, and dispersing as they float towards the plain, he will see beautifully exemplified the great laws of condensation and evaporation. Should he be an artist, the various Ints of color, as the clouds come and il s |!| 1 111 i i I i ■tmrfiiniiiwwi \'l' ■ ) ! I . i ■!'-W' I 1 ,! i li-lli. I ( i!f. ( I 1 390 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTU-WEST. go, will fill his heart with delight, and he will desire to live under their shadows for ever And should the mountains become tiresome, he has only to turn to the east, and l^- katchewan, Red, and Assiniboine Rivers. There are two f ! " ! , I 404 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. I I i! concealed. About three miles below the falls Little Red River comes in on the right bank, and, at its outlet, a dif- ferent rock formation presents itself. The beds are composed almobt altogether of many species of corals. There is a good exposure, and, as we took a day here to rest, I made a large collection. The lower layers are of fine texture, thin bedded, and without fossils. These are followed by beds almost wholly made up of those branching corals (Alveolites) so common in Devonian rocks, intermixed with a species of Zaphrentls in great abundance, some of the higher strata being largely made up of these, but occasionally associated with others of a rounded form. Above the latter there are, at least, six feet of rock holding large corals, in which the fine structure was nearly obliterated by the crystallization of the mass. Others were observed in concentric layers ; and some, when broken, fell apart as if formed in successive laminae. Another outcrop occurs about a quarter of a mile up Red River. No fossils were observed here, but the rock, which is heavy -bedded and in a nearly horizontal position, appears to overlie those just described, and adds a few feet to the total thickness exposed. The rock at this point seems to overlie that at the chuttes. Approaching '*• Rapid Bouill^ " the banks of the river begin to attain some elevation, but no rocks are exposed until the head of the rapid is passed ; then limestone crops out, but so much broken and contorted that its dip is not apparent. Many fossils were found at this point, both loose and in the rock. A few yards below this, fine white gypsum crops out, and continues as the lowest rock in the section for the next twenty miles. This is overlaid by a ] ight grey granular rock, largely made up of gypsum ; perhaps a limestone was observed in it, but there were no fossils. Descending the rapid the rock rjes higher and higher along the shore, and by the time tiie lower end is reached, MINERALS OF THE NORTU-WEST. 406 it has attained a height of at least fifty feet above the water. At the foot of the rapid the river is divided into two channels by a high rocky island, which stands almost in the centre of the river. In many places the gypsum attains a thickness of from ten to fifteen feet, and is as clear and white us snow. The banks of the river and the islands from here to Peace Point, a distance of fifteen miles, show this rock generally much contorted, but seldom broken." At one point on the high bank the beds have been upheaved without being broken, to the height of at least forty feet, and show a very fine example of curved strata. On the Athabasca there are large deposits of bituminous shale, which are the source of the petroleum or mineral tar so frequently spoken of in connection with that river. I passed up the river in September, 1876, and noted down what I saw. After entering the river from Lake Athabasca we gradually padsed from mud to sand, but we went fully fifty miles before we saw anything like a pebble The first indications of "tar" were in the shape of pebbles composed of sand and tar, formed above and carried down by ice About two miles below Echo's home we came upon the first gravel beach, and at Echo's the true bank showed for the first time on the left, but it was noticed about a mile above Embarras River on the right, and many times after- wards, showing that the river was eroding its right bank, while forming new land on the left. At this point the soil on both sides of the river is good, and the banks have the reddish tinge observed at Vermillion. Later in the day Birch Mountain showed blue in the distance, bearing about southwest. As we ascended, the river banks kept increasing in height, and the country began to assume the appearance of a good agricultural region. No rock was seen, but the "tar conglomerate " became very abundant, often being in beds two feet thick. Early on the afternoon of September ! ■ !!■ ■ I I ftf: II itjii =t-M II I m 406 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 7th wc came upon the Hhale })edH which produce the tarry matter. After passing along thoiii for about two miles, we stopped to trade for some dried meat, when I had an oppor- tunity of examining them. 1 found below a light grey sand- stone, partly saturated with tar, and overlying this there was at least fifteen feet of it completely saturated, and over this again shale largely charged with alkaline matter. This was the sequence all the way, although at times there was much more exposed. Where we landed, the ooze from the bank had flowed down the slope into the water and formed a tarred surface extending along the beach over one hun- dred yards, and as hard as iron ; but in bright sunshine the surface is quite soft, and the men when tracking along shore often sink in it up to their ankles. During the remain- der of the afternoon we sailed past other rock exposures, but observed no change in their aspect or mode of occur- rence, though very often they were much higher. Next morning we had travelled about two hours when we stopped at a tar spring to procure the tar which was obtained last winter. The rock here was just the same as that seen yesterday. Instead of getting the tar on the beach, as I expected, I was led up the hill until we attained the height of forty feet; here we found a small pool of water, and underneath it the pure tar. I noticed a little stream of water flowing into the pool, which was coated with an oily scum, and under the stream there was an abundance of tar. Along the beach it was seen oozing out in many places, and by gathering and washing the sand saturated with it, we obtained just as '"ure tar as we brought from the spring on the hill-side. Bluish concretionary limestone, in appearance like that at Little Red River, crops out on both sides of the river at Point of Rocks, forming cliffs twenty-five feet high. The upper beds are thick and withstand the weather, but about six feet from the top, these gave place to rock which MINERALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 407 crumbles exactly like that containing the large coralH at lied River. For more than twenty miles this rock was observed, and it was from it that the tbssils were obtained, labelled " thirty miles below the forks." After about twenty miles, we again came on the tar shale, and passed the place where the Hudson's Bay Company get their sup- ply for the boats. All the limestone passed to-day was cream colored or light grey, and was heavily bedded on top, but had much the appearance of shale below. The frost disintegrates the latter, and it separates into fragments suitable for road-making. Nearly all the strata show graceful curves, the folds never rising higher than ten feet. The dip is about north and south, the strike crossing tlu; river at nearly right angles. Within ten miles of the forks, a very fine section of the rock is exposed, showing the limestone, and then about ten feet of yellowish clay, followed by at least 100 feet of black lihale, which looked like sandstone, and in the di» tance resembled the shale between Dunvegan and Smoky River. Alkaline springs were observed cny/ing out of these strata, but there was no tar. I have no doubt but that the shale, out of which the tar comes, overlies the coral formation observed at Red River. Exactly at the forks, the latter rises out of the water, capped by at least 150 feet of black shale, from which the tar oozes, and these are surmounted by a few beds producing an alkaline efflorescence. Mr. Moberly told me that the tar beds extended up the Athabasca to near the mouth of Lac la Biche River, and I fo nd that they still continued up the Clearwater, but eventually sank beneath the soil. About ten miles up the Clearwater, the men pointed out a tar spring in the stream, from which tar was very often obtained. Before passing the Pembina River, we came upon sand- stone which is suitable for making grindstones. This rock was occasionally seen for about two miles, when signs of Ijijii ! ! i ; 1 t1 li I I; i 408 MANITOBA AND TIIK OBEAT NORTH-WEST. tar ugain appeared. TheHe })aHHcd awny, and limcHtone waH oox'-aHionally neen, and towardH evening, 1 procured thoHO line foasilH wliieli were ho niiu^h admired. For nearly a day after tluH, no rock (^\po.sureH appeared, but when we came upon tlie rocks again, tliey diilered from any 1 had yet ohserved. They were cream-colored, nhaly, non-foHHilil- erous limestoneH. Al'ter pasHing thene, we (;ame to the Hulphur HpringH. Four little creekH discharge thcHC HpringH, They are said to l)e very hitter, aud tlieir margins are lined with sulphur. Sir John Kohinson, in his narrative, says: " At eight, we came to a sulphurous spring, which issues from the limestone on the hank of the river. Its channel is lined with a snow-white incrustation, the taste of the water is moderately saline and sulphurous, and, from its coolness, rather agreeable than otherwise. It has H slight odor of sulphurated hydrogen." Speaking of the bitumen, Sir John says : " About thirty miles below the Clearwater River, the limestone beds are covered by a bituminous deposit upwards of one hundred feet lhi(!k, whose lower member is a conglomerate, having an earthy basis much stained with iron, and colored by bitumen. Many small grains and angular fragments of transparent and translucent quartz compose a large part of the conglomerate, which also contains water-worn pebbles of white, grecii, and otherwise colored quartz, from a minute size up to that of a hen's egg or larger. Pieces of green-stone and nodules of clay-ironstone also enter into the composition of this rock, which, in some places, is rather friable, and in others, possesses much hardness and tenacity. Some of the beds above this stone are nearly plastic, from the quantity of the mineral pitch they con- tain. Roots of living trees and herbaceous plants push themselves deep into beds highly impregnated with bit- umen ; and the forest where that mineral is most abundant does not suffer in its growth. MINERALS OF TUK NORTH-WEST. 409 The Hhalu baiikH arc diHcontinued for a Hpacc, in the neighborhood of Deren'H IIouHe, whero thin bedB of Ihne- Btone c-omc to the surface, and form cWiVa twenty or thirty feet higii at the water'H edge. Still farther down the river, or a)K>ut three niileH beh)W the lied River, where there wan once a trading eHtablinh- ment, now remembered as Le vienx Fort tie la Rimh't Houije, a copious spring of mineral [)itch issues fnmi a cre- vice in a cliff (Composed of sand and bitumen. It lies a few hundred yards back from the river, in the middle of a thick wood. Several small birds were found suffocated in the pitch. At the deserted post, named Pierre an Calmet, cream- colored and white limesttme cliffs are covered by thick beds of bituminous sand. Below this, there is a bituminous cliff, in the middle of which lies a thick bed of the same white earth, which I had seen higher up the river in con- tact with the limestone, and following the undulations of its surface. A few miles farther on, the cliffs for some distance are sandy, and the different beds contain variable quantities of bitumen. Some of the lower layers were so full of that mineral as to soften in the liand, while the upper strata, containing less, were so cemented by iron as to form a firm dark-brown sandstone of much hardness. The cliff is, in most places, capped by sand containing boulders of lime- stone. Every bituminous bed, care full < examined with the microscope, was found to consist, in addition to the bitumen, of small grains of transparent quartz, unmixed with other rock, but enclosing a few minute fragments of the pearly lining of a shell. A similar bed in another locality contained, besides the quartz, many scales of mica. The whole country, for many miles, is so full of ])ltumen that it flows readily into a pit dug a few feet below the surface. •';i ( ' I 1 f 1 i M <^ ! 410 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. \m I!i I I I I M ' ; ; i,[ i 1 r Dr. George M. Dawson, Assistant Director of the Geolog- ical Survey of Canada, in his report on the geology of the 49tli parallel, thus speaks of the distribution of the Creta- ceouy Rocks in the North-West Territories : — " The Cretaceous rocks, corresponding in age with the great chalk formations of Europe, though very different from them in mineral character, are those which spread over by far the greatest surface. Except in a few localities, and those chiefly in proximity to the Rocky Mountain region of uplift, they are still almost as perfectly horizontal as when originally deposited. The eastern edge of this formation partly overlaps the underlying Silurian and Devonian beds, and runs nearly parallel with the base of the Laurentian range, at a distance of about one hundred and thirty miles, from the fifty-third to tL fiftieth parallel of latitude. Southward, it tends to the east, and probably crosses the forty-ninth parallel east of Red River ; while in south-western Minnesota, Cretaceous rocks repose directly in some places on granites, which are no doubt Laurentian " The general course of the eastern outcrop is consequently about north-north-east; and it is ma,rked broadly, by a series of escarpments and elevations, including — from south to north — Pembina, Riding, Duck, Porcupine, and Basquia Mountains. All these appear to be composed for the most part, if not entirely, of Cretaceous rocks, though the ex- treme edge of the formation raay often stretch beyond them. These so-called " mountains " are, more correctly ypeaking, — as already shown — salient points of the edge of the second plateau, and the generally horizontal position of the b'Dds thus suddenly cut off to the east, attests the immense denudation which must have taken place in com- paratively modern times. " North of the Basquia Mountain, from the very scanty information we at present possess, the edge of the Cretaceous would appear to run westward, and cross the Saskatchewan MINERALS OF TUE NORTH-WEST. 411 River, near Fort h. la Come, where at Cole's Falls a dark- colored shale which has been referred to the lowest mem- ber of the series, occurs. It may very probably be nearly conterminous with the edge of the second plateau, which, according to Dr. Selwyn, crosses the river forty-five miles below +he Fort. The western border of the Cretaceous seems, in some places, to follow closely along the base of the Rocky Mountain Range, but many circumstances arise to complicate the question in that region, and it will only be after the accumulation of much more information than is at present in our possession, that the line can be laid down with any accuracy. In some parts of the range, Cre- taceous rocks have been included among the mountains themselves, and considerably altered ; but the greater part of the newer strata, which must have covered the pal98- ozoic rocks of this region when the uplift first took place, have been removed by denudation. " The Cretaceous rocks thus defined in breadth, north of the boundary line, have been noted by Professor Hind, Dr. Hector, Dr. Selwyn, and Prof. Beii, in many localities on the second prairie level, some of which are more par- ticularly referred to in the sequel, and are known to extend in a broad zone from the North Saskatchewan to the Mexican frontier and southward. " Our knowledge of the Cretaceous beds oeyond the North Saskatchewan, is as yet very limited, and depends almost entirely on the observations of Sir J. Richardson, aided by chance notes of other explorers not professed geol- ogists. It is likely, however, that a trough or series of more or less isolated basins of lignite and coal-bearing strata, follows near the eastern base of the mountains the whole way to the Arctic Sea. A part of these beds is known to represent the Lignite Tertiary of the south, but judging from their association elsewhere, they will probably be found to rest on Cretaceous rocks throughout. Indeed, !i : M - ■ > , . hi i ! 412 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. I I f M > II f : t' ' from the fragmentary nature of the information concerning the great northern region, and the unsettled questions with regard to the age of the coal series of the analogous region, near the mountains and south of the North Saskatche- wan, it is impossible to decide whether some of the ca;ils and lignites described, may not belong to the Cretaceous formation itself. The existence of Cretaceous beds has, however, only been determined with certainty at a single locality, on the Bear Lake River, near its junction with the Mackenzie. Sir J. Richardson, here, discovered an Ammonite among sandstones and shales which he states resembles those of the coal measures." The subdivision of the Cretaceous, as it occurs in Mani- toba and the North-West Territories, will require dis- cussion after the systematic description of the localities in which it has been examined. From its close general re- semblance, however, to that which has been studied in the western part of the United States, it will be useful to have the Upper Missouri Section of Meek and Hayden, which has now become typical, as a standard of comparison. The formation is there composed as follows in descending order : — Later Cretaceous. No 6. Fox HaL Bkds.— Orey, ferruginous and yellowish sandstones and arenaceous clays. MartM Shells f>0() feet No. 4 FoHT I'lKRRK Oroup. — Dark grey and blucish plastic clays Marine shells, gypsum and jish remains 100 feet Earlier Cretaceous. No. 3. Niobrara Group. — Calcareous marls, Marino shells, fish remains, For- aminifera, &<. L'U'J feet No. 2. Fort Bknton Group. — Dark grey laminated clays with some limestone Manneihells 800 feet No. 1. Dakota Group. — Yelhwisli, reddish, and whitish sandstones, and clay, with occasional lignites. Marine and some fresh water shells an I Awfiospermous leaves 400 feet Giving as an approximate thickness of the formation in that region, 2600 feet. noo iVel 700 feet MINERALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 413 The Lignite Tertiary rocks north of the line are not bounded by any great phyHical features of tlie country, but adhere closely to the upper members of the Cretaceous, and behave as an upper member of that formation might be expected to do. Though no doubt originally deposited in extensive basin-like depressions of the Cretaceous strata, these are now generally found forming slightly elevated plateaux. Denudation must have acted on these rocks on a vast scale, but they still cover an imiiunise area and con- tain the grea,test stores of mineral fuel known to occur in the vicinity of the forty-ninth parallel. The line of their eastern edge crosses the parallel near the 102nd meridian, and thence appears to pursue a northwestward course, remaining for some distance nearly parallel with the edge of the third plateau. Beyond the Elbow of the South Saskatchewan, though the same physical feature continues to the north, it is not known what relation it may bear to the outcrop of this formation, nor has its northern limit been ascertained. Between the North and South branches of the Saskatchewan River there is a great tract of country, the geological features of which are still very imperfectly known, but where it is highly probable, outlyers, if not direct extensions of this Lignite formation will be met with. To the west, it appears to extend, at least in some places, nearly to the base of the Rocky Mountains. " A thick mantle of sands and clays, referable to tlie glacial period, and to former great lakes, covers almost the entire surface of the plains. A geologist may often travel a hundred miles without once being able to observe a section of the underlying Creatceous or Tertiary rocks, and but for their great uniformity and simplicity of structure, it would be a very difficult task to unravel the geology of so vast a region. The very monotony of the plains is, however, to a great extent, a corollary of the attitude of the strata ! I, i;^ , \ 414 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. i I between them, and of their unconsolidated and homogenioua character." In many parts of the country particularly along the upper slopes of the coulees and river banks there are numerous boulders of various kinds of rock. About one- third are white limestone and the remainder various kinds of metamorphic rocks particularly gniess. Lines of bould- ers are to be found along the Little Saskatchewan in the vicinity of Rapid City, and much of the land is very seri- ously encumbered by them. The same complaint is made at Birtle on Bird Tail Creek and westward in the direction of Fort Ellice. Brandon has its share, and when the excite- ment, which is now at fever heat, begins to die out many will complain of the multitudes of stones which encumber their lots. Fort Ellice and almost every town or village laid out on the bank of a river is in the same category. Boulders are found in ridges on many parts of the Second Prairie Steppe and often extend for miles in almost straiglit lines. When the country is more thoroughly examined these ridges will be found to indicate the margins of great depressions, possibly of lake basins of a former period. In the valley that stretches from the source of the Qu'Appelle to the South Saskatchewan there are multitudes of en- ormous boulders. One of these was measured by Prof Hind, and was found to be 78 feet in circumference and at least 14 feet in altitude. The next largest was one of limestone, seen on the prairie below the Moose Woods. It is about 16 feet high and at least 60 feet in circumference. In the valley of the Souris near the boundary they are in immense numbers and all appear to lie on the surface. At Livingstone, Swan River, and Banicks they lie so close that no cultivation of the soil could be effected. Scores of places might bo enumerated where they lie thickly on the ground and extensive tracts where not one can be seen in a day's journey. . i MINERALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 415 All the interior lakes be they large or Hmall are margined by a wall of boulders which are pressed into position as perfectly as if they had been placed there by man. Ice is certainly the cause of this in every case and a careful observer cannot fail to be struck with the uniformity with which it acts. While encamped on the shores of Long Lake in July, 1879, my attention was called to a point of rocks which extended into the Lake near its northern end. Two large boulders lay at the base of the heap and between them and the lake were two deep grooves which they had made in the spring when being shoved out of the Lake by ice. Each stone had been forced by ice out of the depths of the lake and left its record behind. A careful measure- ment was made, and it was found that the stones had been shoved 47 yards or more. We traced the drove into water three feet ii depth but how much farther it extended we could not determine. Gravel and sand are not wanting in any pait of the country, although there are wide areas where none appears on the surface. All water obtained from gravel is excellent, and many ponds fed by springs are found where gravel mounds predominate. Nearly all the gravel on the Second Prairie Steppe is coated with carbonate of lime, but on the Third Plateau the character of the gravel changes and is a quartzite with the pebbles so smooth that it seems but as yesterday when it was an old sea beach. In many places, notably the Cypress Hills and elevations over 2000 feet above the sea, along the eastern base of the Rocky Moun- tains, this gravel is spread as a thin sheet over the surface. I have often noticed it less than three inches in depth, and covering the surface conformably to the undulations. This is the gravel that prevents much of the land south of lat. 60' and in the Bow River District from being fit for agriculture. Sand is another feature of the plains, and may be said to be a characteristic of the whole country west of Red River !l) > i.) \ . )\\ I "!5 .| ■i\ I ■i!!i I, : \Ui \\h i. 1 • 1 416 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. Plain. Sand dunes are found in front of the Second Prraiie Steppe, between the Pembina Mountain and Riding Moun- tain, and are well developed on the line of the Canadian Pacific Railway east of De Winton. By means of these dunes the Railway is carried from the lower to the upper plain, and all travellers must notice the striking resemblance that these hills bear to those along our great lakes on the Ocean itself. Along the Souris, especially southwest of Brandon, there are numerous sand hills which in many places are little else than moving masses of sand. At Flat Creek, on the line of the Canadian Pacific Railway and southwesterly in the direction of Oak Lake, sand hills are largely 'developed and are a characteristic feature of the country. At the head of the Qu'Appelle are three groups of sand hills which are gradually shifting eastward by the action of the wind. Along the east and northern faces of the group on the north side of the Qu'Appelle are a series of shallow pools or salt lakes which are dry or nearly so in summer, and from which when the wind blows the saline encrustations rise like smoke and disappoint ihe weary traveller as he looks anxiously around for a pool of good water. Enticed by the vapor he hastens on, and instead of a camp fire by a pool of refreshing water, he finds a dried up lake and its surface covered with saline crystals. My party became entangled in these sandy wastes on the lltli July, 1879, and before we could extricate ourselves and find water both men and horses suffered severely. Inside the line of ponds spoken of above the sand begins to rise into hills, which are being constantly blown away to form others. The movement is constantly from west to east, and the hollows and little hills with their trees and bushes are being continually filled up by the eastward move- ment of the sand. The second group of hills crosses the South Saskatchewan about three miles south of the Elbow, MINERALS OF THK NORTH-WEST. 417 and shortly after develops into an extensive sandy tract with sand hills 100 feet hip;h towering up on every hand. The hills were without a partical of vegetation, and were very steep except on the western face where they were furrowed by the wind. Another extensive group lies north of the Cypress Hills near Gull Lake, and are of the same general character. On their southern side surrounded hy sand, and in many cases standing in it is a grove of large cottcmwood trees These are probably the last remains of the former forrest, yet at present neither tree nor shrub exists within many miles of them. Other groups of sand 1 1 ills are to be met with, but in general they are all Ike, and seem to have been produced by the same cause — currents and eddies when the land was submerged after the close of the glacial period. The sandy country in all cases is above the general level of fhe district where they rxisi. About twenty-live miles north of the Boundary, where the Boyne River cuts through the Pembina escarpment, limestone beds are seen, which Dr. G. M. Dawson refers to is the Niobrara division of the cretaceous rocks. The rock a cream-colored or nearly white limestone, breaking easily along horizontal planes, parallel to the surfaceei of the shells of Ostrea and Inoceramus, of which it is in great part com- posed. The same rock seems to crop out on the Assiniboine, about ten miles below the mouth of the Souris, where it shows fine exposures of nearly horizontal vstrata. Above Brandon, beds of apparently the same character have been observed, but owing to slides in the river bank, the ex- posures cannot be properly examined. In the chapter on fuel, will be found a full account of the coal as it occurs in the North-West, and, therefore, we will only give in this place the extent of the Lignite Tertiary, as shown by Dr. Dawson, in his exhaustive rojx)rt. 2T n 418 MANtTOHA AND THE GRKAT NOUTII-WEST. I I Vl\ M I J ! i ,. i i': i • ! 1 ; .'1; i.ii i i i( Tlie toUii area of the western part of tlie Prairie region, between the forty-ninth and fifty-fourth parallels, now known by more or Ichs connected lines of observation, to be underlaid by the lignite and coal-bearing formation oi- formations, does not fall short of 80,000 square miles ; and should future investigation result in affixing some of the fuels to the lower cretaceous, it must be much greater. The importance of these great deposits of fuel, in a country naturally so destitute of wood over great areas, cannot be exaggerated." Since this was written, our knowledge has increased, borings have been made in the Souris Coal Field, and work- able seams are now known to exist there. Peace River has been furth«r explored, and here^ likewise, excellent coal has been obtained. In both cases, these coals belong to the lower cretaceous, and hence the remark in the pre- ceding paragraph, about the extension of the coal fields, is more than carried out, and it is now probable that the area will be nearly doubled. Bn)wn hematite, in more or less abundance, is known to exist over a very wide extent of the prairie section, and has been observed by myself cropping out in many places on the Saskatchewan and its tributaries, and in numerous places on Peace River It is generally in thin layers or slightly connected nodular masses, and from the appended analyses, it may be considered a valuable and rich ore. Dr. Dawson thus speaks of its occurrence and value : — '* The ironstones of the Lignite Tertiary formation, to which frequ(int reference has been made, though occurring very often in the same sections and in close proximity to the lignites, have not been observed in any part of the area examined to (xxjur in considerable tliicknes.s. They gener- ally appear in nodular sheets or scattered nodule.s, follow- ing certain horizons in the clays and argillaceous sands, and are found in greater or less abundance in nearly all the MINERALS OF THE NOKTII-WEST. 419 sections examined. Externally they weather to various shades of chocolate-brown and reddish-brown, but are hard and compact in structure, and within preserve their bluish- grey or yellowish-grey color. " The subjoined partial analyses of specimens collected in 1878, were published in the "Report of Progress" for that year. I regret that the time at my disposal prevents the examination of other specimens subsequently obtained : — /. Clay Ironatont, (Souris Valle^ .) Protoxide of Iron 49.00 Water loBt at 115° C 121 Carbonic Acid lost on ignition 28.57 Siliceous matter insol. in H. CI 17 04 PhotphoruB Trace. Uetallic Iron per cent., in raw ore :<0 1 1 Metallic Iron, in calcined ore 54.27 //. Clay Ironstone. (Great Valley.) Protoxide of Iron 46.72 Water loat at 115<» C 3 57 Carbonic Acid lost on ignition 21 .23 Siliceous matter insol. in H. CI 8 72 Sulphuric Acid 0.30 Phosphorus 0.03 Metallic Iron, in raw ore 36.34 Metallic Iron, in calcined ore 49.90 " A small quantity of iron is present as peroxide, in each ore, but I have not thought it necessary to make a separate estimation of this. " It would appear that the iron ores of this formation rank high in the class to which they belong, and that if occurring in sufficient quantity, they might eventually be- come of great economic importance. I have no. seen, however, in the vicinity of the Line, any place in which they are so abundant as to warrant the hope of the profit- able production of iron. In some localities, great surfaces are more or less thickly covered with nodules which have m\ 420 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. f I 1!^ hi- "been Icl't b<.iuind by the eroHion of the containing rocks ; and it iH, of course, posnible tliat further search may lead to the discovery of sections in which so many bands occur, as to render it profitable to work over the entire bank for their extraction. If the manufacture of iron is ever to be carried on on a large scale, for the supply of the interior region of the conti- nent, it will naturally be con('.ucted towards the base of the ErOcky Mountains. There the fuels are better suited for thi;s purpose, and ironstone probably occurs quite as abundantly in the formation. There, too, it may be confidently ex- pected that search will bring to light deposits of the richer classes of ores, among the palojozoic rocks of the mountains. Gold, in small quantities, has been obtained, both above and below Edmonton, on the North Saskatchewan. It is found amongst the sand and gravel of the river bed, at the lowest stage of the v/ater. Experienced miners make fair wages for a few weeks, before the setting in of winter, but, in no case, has a sufficient amount been realized to warrant the belief that large deposits exist. The gold is exceed- ingly fine, and seems to be deposited every season, as the same bars will produce a small quantity of it each year. » That found on Peace River is of the same character, and occurs in the same situations, but in much greater quantities. This remark applies only to that part of the river west of the Rocky Mountains. Without gold in greater quantities and in more accessible .situations can be obtained by those who seek for it, this industry will never be profitable in the North-West. Up to 1873 brickniaking was never attempted in Manitoba. During the summer of that year a beginning was made to manufacture them, but the success of the experiment was very indifferent and many prophesied the failure of the enterprise. Other attempts were made next year with the most gratifying success, and since then no difficulty has been IflNKRALS OF THE NORTII-WKST. 421 •experienced in producing not only a good but very Huperior article. At flnierson, Portage la Prairie, Pi,apid City, and all other pointH good brick have been produced, and now it is 'i well ascertained fact that in every dintrict br'ck clayn abound. BesideH its superior soil the North-West contains enor- mous deposits of coal underlying at least 150,000 square miles of surface. Immense deposits of salt exist on Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegoosis, and on Salt River in the vicinity of Great Slave Lake. Numerous petroleum springs are seen for many miles along the Athabasca ; and gold and iron in some abundance in certain parts of the country, so that, altogether, we are safe in saying that our vast interior is rich in those minerals which add most to the comfort and wealth of civilized man. h It ' I I ( i'l in i . ■ i CHAPTER XXIV. HUtory of the North- Wf'»t, from the fHxrortrff of Amfvica to the year 1821. Fint Voyage of Jacques Oartier— What he Intondnd Doing— Sncond Voyii^c -The Dia- coTPiy of the St. Lawrence — Montreal Reached — Roberval'fl Attempt at Si-ttlnment — His Want of Sucrcfw — Chanipluin Founds Quebec, in lfl08 — Interferes in Indian QnarrrlB — Lake Superior heard of, in lrtl6 — Missionaries Traverse its Shores, 1641— Frenchmen Cross by the Dawson Route and Lake Winnipeg to Hudson Hay, in 1666— Oflers of Service to the Quebec Merchants, Renewed in Pans, Accepted in Kngland— Oillam's Voyage — Formation of Hudson's Bay Company, in 1670- -KHtablishmeiit of Forts on the Bay— Quarrels with the French — English Left in PossesHion of the Bay French Trade Extended Westward— Dnluth on Lake Supirior— Red River Roaohcil and Forts Erected, 1732 — Fort a la Come Reached, before 1763— Cession of the Coun- try — Canadian Traders in the West— Hudson's Bay ('ornpany move Inland, in 1774- Canadians in the Interior Nearly 100 years Before them — The Athabasca Reached by the Canadians — Hudson's Bay Company Reach Red River, in 1793— The Trade open to all Parties— Formation of the North- West Company, 1783— Fort William, on Lake Superior, their Head-quarters — Quarrels with the Hudson's Bay Company --Lord Sel. kirk Buys Shares, gets Control of the Concern, Obtains a Grant of Land, and Attempts Settlement — The North-West Company Deny his Right to the Land, and Claim Prior Rights — They publicly state their Determination to Fight — Counter {'reparations by the Hudson's Bay Company — Settlers Leave for Canada, in 1816 — Arrival of Governor Semple— Preparations to Expel the North-West Company — Both Sides Prepare for War — Forts Gibraltar and Pembina Taken by Semple— North-West Property Confiscated — Red River Blockaded — Attempt to Provision the Boats — Governor Semple Interferes and Loses his Life — Hudson's Bay Company Account of the Fight — Opposite Account — Apathy of the British Government before the Fight — Warned Repeatedly by the North- Westers — Lord Selkirk's Preparations — Takes Possession of Fort William — The Colony Re>e8tablished m 1817 — Troubles with the Grasshoppers— Union of the Companies, in 1821. In the spring of 1534 Jacques Cartier, an able and experienced seaman of St. Malo, wtis sent out by Francis I of France to explore the northeast coast of America, and if possible find a route to India, which at that time attracted the attention of the mercantile world. In the latter part of the preceeding century Columbus and Cabot had made their celebrated voyages, and Spanish adventurers were now engaged in overthrowing the old empires of the southern HISTORY J>F THE NORTH-WKST, TO 1821 42:J part of the oontinoni. Unlike the SpaniMh, the KngliHh made no attempt to follow up the diHcoverieH of Cal)ot, and Jit the time of Cartier'H voyage Btill reposed on their laurels art the discovererH of the American coiitinent. Prior t*) hit* voyage, in the year 15'U, lie luul nailed along the eoast from Carolina to the northern part of Nova Scotia. Cartier'fl intention HecmH to have been either to Htrike the VAXUii north of thip, or find the pasHago ho anxiously sought for. Enteruig the Gulf of St. Lawrence he passed between the Magdalen Isles and crossed to the Bay of Chaleurs. Landing on its shores he took possession of the surrounding country in the name of the King of France. While at Gaep4 he took on board two Indians and sailed for France. Although close to the entrance of the St. Lawrence he does not seem to have recognized the existence ot' the river, but learned it from the Indians he carried away In May, 1535, he again set sail and crossed the Gulf of St Lawrence, piloted by natives of the country, possibly those he had taken away the proceeding year. After a voyage of some length he reached the Island of Orleans, where he got supplies of Indian corn, fish, and fruits He next visited Stadicona (now Quebec), and pushed on with part of his men to Hochelaga, on the same island where Montreal now stands. After ascending to the summit of the mountain on the island, and viewing thence a great extent of country-', he gave the hill the name of Mount Royal, which hjis now become Montreal. Returning to the mouth of the St. Charles, where he had left his men, he prepared to winter at that point During the winter, scurvy in its most malig- nant form broke out amongst them, and one-quarter of his ships' companies died. On the return of spring Cartier sjiiled for France, taking with him Daiuicona the king of the country . The Sieur de Roberval, a nobleman of Picardy, having obtitined a commis-sion from the king and liberty to establish I . I MM ' ' iil I I' 'i, r i , 1 I u I1 n •'I'i 424 MANITOBA ANI> THE GKEAT NORTH-WEST. a permanent colony in the country, sent out Cartier with the colonirtta in 1541. He attempted to get up the Lachine Rnpidh, but failed, and then turned his attention to wintering in the country. In the spring he embarked his colonists for France, and meeting Roberval coming out with a larger hand the two disagreed, Cartier going on to France and Roberval proceeding on his voyage. Various causes pre- vented the complete establishment of the colony, and Canada seems to have been almost forgotten for over fifty years. Acadia (Nova Scotia) had been attracting some attention during this time, but in the year 1607 the Sieur de Monts abandoned Acadia and turned his attention to Canada. The next yejir his Lieutenant, Champlain, laid the foundation of Quebec and the first permanent settlement was formed. At this time the Algonquins were engaged in a deadly struggle with tilt: Iroquois confederacy. The former applied to Champlain for assistance, which was readily granted, and in 1609 the French and their allies had their first fight with the Iroquois. Firearms settled the question, and the red man fell before the murderous weapon. This one act of Cham- plain brought untold woes iipoKi the French colonists in future years During the summer of 1615 Champlain ascended the Ottawa and cmssing to Lake Nipiasingp passed down French River to Lake Huron. While on this expedition he heard of Lake Superior; but it was twenty -six years after this before a Frenchman launched his canoe on the Great Lake. Two missionaries of the Society of Jesus reached the lake in 1641, or just 100 years after the first attempt at settlement Twenty-five years later, or in 1666, two French gentltv men, Oe Grosselier and Raddison, passed around Lakt; Sujierior, ascended the Kaministiqua, and crossed to the waters of Rainy River, down which they floated to the Lake 'of the Woods Following Winnipesr river to its outlet iii V HISTORY OF THE NORTH-WEST, TO 1821. 425 the lake ol' the name name, they turned north an«l demunuling the Nelson from Lake Winnipeg to Hudson's Bay, demonstrated the existence of a water route from Lake Superior to Hudson's Bay. Before this there is no doubt but tliat traders had penetrated far to the north by the Ottawa and other streams, and possibly had reached the Bay. The Assiniboines seem to have been well acquainted with the route, for history informs us that they conducted .-these gentlemen from Lake Superior to the sea, and brought them back in safety. On their return to Quebec they offered to conduct ships into Hudson's Bay, and by this means reach the heart of the " Fur Countries" by water, and save the canoe route by Lake Superior. Their proposal was rejected, and a subse- (|uent one to the Frencli Government met the same fate. While in Paris they met the British Ambassador, who advised them to go to London, Here they were favorably received by a number of i .^rchants and persons of standing, and a Mr Gillam, connected with the Newfoundland trade, was commissioned to prosecute the discovery Mr. Gillnm sailed in the Notistwh, ketch, in 1667, into Baffin's Bay, to the height of 75° north, and from thence southward to 51', whence he entered a river, to which he gave the name of Prince Rupert's, and, finding the Indians friendly, he erected a small fort. The persons interested in this vessel, upon the return of Gillam, applied to Charles Second for a Patent, who granted them the Hudson's Bay Company's Charter, dated the 2nd May, 1670. In the siune year a Mr. Bailey was sent out as Governor and established Forts Rupert and Nelson. By the year 1686 the Hudson's Bay Company had increased their establishments to five, viz., Albany, Moose, Rupert, Nelson, and Severn. Already the French disputed their claim to sovereignty. In 1682 the Hudson's Bay Company tm)k jMjssession of Nelson River, and shortly after the French reached St. Thereae I I \^ 426 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. ii! . 11 I I ! or Hayes River. During the next four years there were constant disputes, and in 1680 the Chevalier de Troyes, in time of peace, took possession of the forts on James' Bay viz., Rupert, Moose, tuid Albany Factories. All tlie forts were captured and retaken in succeeding years. The troaty of Ryswick was signed in 1697, and left the French in possession of all forts on James' Bay, except Albany. During the next seventeen year.s an inconsiderable trade was carried on by the English. By the Treaty of Utrecht all the territories on the Bay were ceded to them. The tenth article of the treaty ceded all the lands and forts on the Bay to Queen Anne, but expressly sti- pulated that the " Company of Quebec and all other subjects of the Most Christian King whatsoever, could go by land or by sea, whithersoever they pleased." A wooden fort was erected at the mouth of the Churchill in 1718, and named Fort Prince of Wales Twenty-four years later we find the English ascending the Albany River and building a trad- ing post 150 miles from the coast to serve as a check to tiie Indians who were in the habit of ascending that river to meet the French traders. Daniel Greysolon du Luth, in the year 1678, built a small house at the mouth of the Kaministiqua and traded with both the Dacotahs and Assiniboines, and deservedly the first city at the head of the lake was named in his honor. Some Montreal merchants formed a company in the year 1731 and sent M. Verendrys and P^re Messager as their agents t Uho -), "are making for the settlers;" on wliich the Governor said, " we nnist go out and meet these people, let twenty men follow me.' We proceeded by the old road HISTORY OF THE NORTH-WEST, TO 1821. 433 leading down to the settlement. As we were going along we met many of the settlers running to the fort, crying " the Half-breeds, the Half-breeds." When we were ad- vanced about three (juarters of a mile along the settlement, we saw some people on horseback behind a point of woods. On a nearer approach the party appeared to be more numer- ous, on which the Governor made a halt and sent for a field piece, which, delaying to arrive, he ordered us to advance. We had not proceeded far before the Half-breeds on horse- bfick, with their faces painted in the most hideous manner, and in the dress of Indian warriors, came forward and sur- rounded us in the form of a half-moon. We then extended our line and moved more into the plain, and m ly advanced, we retreated a few steps backwards and tl.'^u s a Canadian named E tuchier ride up to us waving ^-s i and, and calling out, " What do you want ?" The Governv r replied, '• What do i/oii want?" To which Bouchier p^swered, '' We want our Fort," to which the Governor said, jro to your Fort." They were by this time near ejich other and consequently spoke too low for me to hear. Being at some little distance to the right of the Governor, I saw him take hold of Bouchier' s gun and in a moment a discharge of fire-arms t(K)k place; but whether it hcjran on our side or by the enemy it was impossible to distinguish. My attention was then directed towards my personal defence. In a few moments, almost all our people were killed or wounded. Captain Rogers having fallen, rose up again and vnmtt towards me, when, not seeing one of our party that was not e'ither killed or woimded, I called to him, " For God's sake jrive yourself up." He ran towards the enemy for that pur- pose, myself following him. He raised up his hands, and ill English and broken French, called out for mercy ; a Half- breed, son of Colonel William McKay, shot hin* through the head, and another ripped open his belly with a knife while uttering the most horrid imprecations. Fortunately for me, 28 I I i: llll t t I |! I J) 434 MANITORA AND TIIK GRKAT NORTH-WEST. ; 5 , : 1 i 1 ' ' 1 1:1 III ' II I , I h I 1 i I A Canaxlijin iminod Lavigno joincHl lii.s ontroatieH with mine and HJivod mo, tliougli with the greatest difliculty, troiii uhariiig the fate of my friend at that moment. I was reHOued from death, in the most providential manner, no \vha than .six time.s, on my road to and at the Frog Phiin, the head-t a lur-trader, winlied to Mettl** the country and eii- courage agriculture, whih- tiie North-West (Jonipanv dcMired to preserve the t'ur-trade. Miles Maicdonell, wiio had gone up to Ked Kiver in the Hpring. reached there a lew day.s alter the light, and at .'ce returned with the news to Lord Selkirk, whom he met at the entrance to Lake Superioi-. On receii)t of the new.s. Lord Selkirk innnediately headed tor Fort William, the lieadquarterM ol'the North-We.st (Company, where he weized everything in the Fort, and converted it to his own UHe. Besides appropriating the goods, he took all the olKcers pri- .Honers. and in every way conducted himself as a coniiueror. During the winter the Fort, on Point Douglas, was sur- pri.sed, and again Lord Selkirk reigned at Red River After the fight, in June, the settlers retreated to Jack River at the foot of Lake Winnipeg. . They remained there until the spring of 1817, when an express arrived with the news that the fort was taken and thev were invited to return. In hopes that peace might finally be established, they retraced their steps and connnenced work anew. l)ut there was not a plough in the colony, and all the work had to be done with the hoe. His Lordship now set to work to consolidate the colony, and in August, 1817, each of the settlers obtained his land. The settlement was named Kildonan, after their old parish ill Scotland. Peace had now been ratified by the Imperial Cuh nissioners, and the people thouglit their troubles at an end ; but on the 18th of July, 1818, clouds of grasshoppers settled down on the colony and ate up every green thing. Auaiii they had to retreat to Pendjina whers' tho> had lived the preceeding winter, and to hunt the buftalo for their subsistence. Farming was tried in the ;-i[>i'ing of 18] 'J. Is i I : l.i 'M 438 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. but again the cropn iveio eaten up by grasshoppers. Many of the young men had now become good hunters, and no fears were felt when they saw their hopes bhisted for another season. Retreating once more to Pembina, tliey subsisted by the chase all winter and laid up a store of food for the coming summer. The country still being alive with grasshoppers no land was cultivated in 1820, and all lived on the products of the chase, or upon fish caught in the rivers or lakes. In February 1821, a party started for Prairie du Cliieu, under the cojnmand of a Mr. Laidlaw, and purchased 250 bushels of wheat. This they loaded on Hat boats, and when the ice left the Red River in spring, floated it down to the colony. This was sown and a good crop followed, ;md the food troubles of the Red River setthnnents were at an end. Both parties now began to see the error of their ways, and negotiations were entered into which terminated with the amalgamation of the two companies in the year 1821. Up to the time of the union the greater part of the exploring and ma})ping out of the country was done by the Nortli- West Company, and no matter what may be said to the con- trary, the honor of exploring this country to the Pacific belongs to Canadians. Thompson, the geographer of the Company, named and laid down numy rivers, and gave us our first knowledge of British Columbijj. Others navigated the Fraser and Columbia, esta])lished posts on both rivers, t»'aded with Japan and China, and sent vessels round Cape Horn. By the co-partnership entered into (March 2Gth- ^821,) it was agreed that forty shares of the one hundred, into which the comj)any was divided, should belong to the Nortli- West Company, and sixty to the Hudson's Bay Company. This agreement was to continue for twenty-one years. In 1834 this agreement was re-affirmed and it was decided to continue it for an unlimited ])eriod. Many and no 3ted for la, tliey ! of food ive with lived on le rivers •airie du urchased oats, and it down bllowed, i were at vays, and with the B21. Up xploring North- the con- ic Piuiilit' r of the i gave us lavi gated th rivers, and Cape u- ^821,) red, hito le North- fouipany. iars. In icided to c I I i I UjW I i ll f , i »;'i I r 1 1 1 «- >^ ■;>■ i «• ^ r^^^^' I* # .i- ,\« 1 i CHAPTER XXV. History front 1821 U> 1S70. ArrivMl ot tin- Swiss — Sfttlfnieiitof the olf Assiniboia Formed — Duty Imposed on Imports and Exports — Regulars Sent into the Colony — People Petition for tlieir Rights — They take the Law into their (.>\vn Hands and Trade beccjmes Free — Red River Flood of 1852 — Captain Palliser's Expeilition — FIxpeilition under Dawson and Hind — Arrival of Dr. Schultz — The .V'«/-- HV.v/f'/- Estjiblished — Hudson's Bay Company's Opjwsition — The Dominion Established — A Demand nuide for the North-West Territories — Country Systenniti- cally Be-little(! — Bishop Tache's Book — He sees no GoikI in the Country — Purchase of the Territory — Steamboat on Red River — Dr. Schultz Imprisoned — The Power of the Company Broken — Portage la Prairie — Grasshopper Plagues — Caniula Takes Steps to Acquire Possession of the Country — Conflictimr Interests — Mutteringsof the Storm in the Fall of 180!»— The Claims of the French Half-breeds — Surveyors Stopped by Louis Ricl — Hudson s Bay Company and Roman Catholic Fathers Decline to Interfere — An attempt at Independence — Fort lii ity withthe Rebels Almost Admitteod8, groceries, amnninition, tobac^x), etc., etc. " These b<.>ld adventurers considered themselves entitled to exemption from import duty on two grounds : 1st. On jiccount of their having establish(;d ('(munerciul intercourse with the neighboring States. 2nd. On juxM»unt of the great danger incurred on their journey to and fro. Their demand fell on deaf ears, the Colonial Governor and his Council were exclusionists and all interested to defeat every at- tempt to export the produce of the country, or to introduce foreign manufactured goods, except vid Hudson's Bay. Yet these hostile demonstrations and demands were not unpro- ductive of some advantage, especially to intending settlers, as the salutary fear which they impressed on our men in power, was the cause of reducing the price of land from twelve shillings and sixpence to seven shillings and six- pence. And at the same time, to please the native youth, it was decided by the land agents, that each young man on settling on land should receive twenty-five acres gratis.** The population of the country had increased so much at this time, that Sir George Simpson, who was then Governor, decided on forming a Council of the leading men of the settlement. None were chosen except those who were either in the pay of the Hudson's Bay Company or had been at some time connected with them. This circumstance caused the settlers to look upon it, if not with suspicion, with very little confidence. At this meeting, it was de- cided to raise a volunteer force, to divide the country into districts, 1,0 appoint Magistrates, to organize Ci^al and Criminal Courts, and to erect public buildings. At the close of the session, Sir George Simpson announced the grant of £300 by the Company, in aid of public works at Red River. 29 e>. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /y # .^ .<^;r.. ^/ ^..^>^^^^. 1.0 I.I JiiMM 12.5 2.0 !!: 1^ 1.25 1 1.4 1.6 ^ 6" ► d? / Photographic Sciences Corporation M ^ ^v <> '^^>^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 145S0 (716) 872-4503 'V- L4> ' i I i I ! Il^f I I ' I I 450 MANfTOBA AND THE GKKAT ^f()RTII-WEST. This gift came at a very opportune time, as it enabled the autLjrities to build a Court House and Goal. It was also decided to charge a duty of Tg per cent on all goods of foreign manufacture imported into the Colony whether for sale or for use, and still worse they decided to charge an export duty of 7^ per cent on all goods, provisions or live stock, being the growth, produ(!e, or manufacture of the Red River Colony. The impartial reader at this date sees in whose interests these laws wei'e made and the ardent desire the Company liad to encourage home production. Before this time (ISoG) considerable trade had taken place between St. Paul in Minnesota and the Red River colonists, and they saw or thought they saw the destruction of their trade aimed at by the late euactments. The French Hall- breeds and Canadians )iad never taken kindly to the rights or assumptions of the H. B. Co'y,and they writhed under tlie export duty and took every opportunity of evading it. FY'aring that an outbreak might take place a large force ol' regulars was sent out and quartered in the colony in the Autumn of 18G4. After remaining two years they were ordered home and 140 pensioners sent up to take their place. The coming of the soldiers gave new life to the colony and almost for the first time money circulated in the neighl)or- hood of the future Winnipeg. Mr. Isbester of London, who was a native of the colony commenced at this time an agitation in favor of the country and interested a large number of the British House of Com- mons in its favor. Petition after petition had been sent home craving the right of trading with the Indians, but no redress could be obtained. Tired of (piiet submission they waited for a chance of asserting their rights by force and it came, and, as in 181 G, the Company and the Government awoke. " In the spring of 1849 William Sayre, a French Half- breed, had been arrested and imprisoned for trading furs. IIISTORV FROM 18'21 TO 1870. 451 Three other Metis — McGiiinis, Laronde and GuilU'tto — had been arrested on the same charge, but held to bail to stand their trial at the first criminal court. The charge against them, namely, their accepting furs Irom the Indians in ex- change for goods, was considered as contrary to the rules of the Company's charter, wherein it is stated the Hudson's Bay Company sliall have the sole trade and connnerce of all the territories within Rupert's Land. For some time it had been rumored that the party to which the culprits in question belonged were preparing to resist any attempt at tlie punishment of these men by an armed force, and on the 17th May, on the day appointed to sit upon this celebrated case, the Metis were seen collecting in armed bands from all parts of the country. This movement took place about half-past ten o'clock. Those in command of these armed parties simply stated the object of the gathering to be to resist the infliction of any punishment, whether fine or imprisonment, upon the offenders. They conducted them- selves in the most orderly manner, merely surrounding the Court House, and by their presence showing their intentions. It is to be noticed that there was no attempt on their part to interfere with the trial, now about to be in progress; nor was there any attempt made to rescue the prisoner.^ from the hands of the Authorities. When the trial proceeded, Sayre confessed that he had traded furs with the Indians. A verdict of " Guilty " was found against him, and there- upon Sayre proved that one oi' the officers of the Hudson's Bay Company had given him perndssion to tralfic ; and on this pretext he was discharged. Tlie cases of McGinnis, Laronde, and Guillette were not proceeded with and they all left the court together, greeted with groat applause. '' It was perfectly patent to the Half-breeds who were directly interested in the trial of this suit, as well as the white settlers, who looked with very considerable interest upon it, that the Hudson's Bay Company fearing to provoke " ' 452 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. I ; I a collision, which they knew iriust inevitably occur, had made use of a subterfuge to quietly get Say re out of the scrape, with [it least the semblance of the dignity of the law ; and so firmly were all convinced that at least this arbitrary in- justice of right was forever broken that the cries of " Vive la liherte" and "Trade is free " were heard from all sides. Guns were discharged, hands were shaken, and three volleys given in testimony of the victory." In 1851 Governor Ramsey, of Minnesota, visited Pembina and made a treaty with the Sioux for the extinction of their claims to the land. On his return to St. Paul he re- ported that the Red River settlers were raising so much and had such a limited market that they were metaphorically speaking " smothering in their own fat." The year 1852 was another black-letter year. Early in May the river began to rise and by the 7th it was eight feet above the usual high-water mark. It continued to rise until the 22nd when it reached within eighteen inches of the flood of 1826. Again the people had to leave their homes and wide-spread ruin met them on every hand, but by the 12th of June many were back to their fields and at work putting in a little crop. By the end of the year it had almost passed from the minds of the people and all things went on as usual. A census of the colony was taken in 1849, which showed it to contain 5,391 inhabitants of all ages and nationalities. Of live stock there was 2,085 horses and mares, 6,014 cattle of all ages, 1,565 pigs, and 3,096 sheep. There were likewise 6,329 acres of land under cultivation. These figures show that the colony had made very material pro- gress, and was not as many yet believe, a land where live stock could not thrive owing to the severity of its Arctic winters. Although 3,000 sheep were in the colony thirty- two years ago, many say in our day that the country is iin- suited for them, and they cannot survive the long winters. HISTORY FROM 1821 TO 1870. 453 The fullncsH of time arrived in 1857, and the Imperial Government sent out an expedition under Captain Palliser, which explored the greater part of the interior, and during three years gathered sufficient material to warrant him to report favourably on the country, and through his as- sistants Doctor Hector and Mons Bourgeau to give the outside world a knowledge of its geology and botany. He reported highly on the Saskatchewan country, and since his day it has been called the '•'' Fertile Belt." In the same year (1857) the Legislature of Canada fitted out an expedition, and placed it under the conimand of S. J. Dawson, C.E., and Professor Henry Y. Hind. During the succeeding two years these gentlemen examined the country between Lake Superior and the South Saskatchewan. Their report, which was published in 1859, attracted nuich atten- tion, and a number of Canadians were induced to settle in the country. Among others who went there at this time was Dr. Schultz, then a student of Queen's College, Kingston. Being at that time under the tuition of Dr. George Lawson, now of Dalhousie College, Nova Scotia, he had imbibed an ardent love of botan} , which was the favorite pursuit of that gentleman. While crossing the plains from Crow Wing to Pembina he made a collection of plants which attracted my attention and led me to study the geographical distribution of plants. The result of this investigation showed me that the summer climate of the Red River country was suitable for the growth of all cereals. In after years I had the opportunity of proving this. The same year that Dr. Schultz came to Red River two Canadians — Mr. W. Buckingham and Mr. Caldwell — brought in a printing press. The end was now approaching rapidly, and the ever astute Hudson's Bay Company saw it, and at once set to work to counteract the effects of a newspaper. Efforts were made to induce the people not to patronize the " Nor' -Wester," the name given to the newspaper, but iiiti I ! M I : 454 MANITOHA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. tM. ' these failed. While the print iii,i^ press was doing its work another [)<)wer was rising whicli soon swept down the bar- riers tliiit interest and ignorance had raised against a better aecpiaintance with the west. In 1807 Canadian patriots established the Dominion of Canada, and at once a cry was raised for our rights in the west. A determined stand was now made, and most extraordinary stories were told in Kngland before a Committee; of the Ilonse of Commons, tallowing that tlu^ country was little better than an iceberg. In 1868 Bishop Tache published his sketch of the North- West, and he, too, like the Hudson's Bay Company, looked upon the country as scarcely suited for civilized man. Its rivers were unsuited for navigation, and its climate hyper- borean. Not one section is spoken of as being suited to a farming community. Indeed on page sixty-three, when discussing the probabilities as to who the future owners of the country would be, he says : — " For my own part, as there are extremel}^ great difficulties in the way of colonizing the few points in this vast territory capable of cultivation, \ acknowledge frankly that I woidd as soon — perhaps prefer- ably — see the country remain as it is as see it change, if the changes are to be such, as it appears to me, they would inevitably be." The italics are mine. The Bishop had lived many years in the country, had seen more of it than any other man, and in 1868 he writes as above, yet he had read Lord Selkirk's statement made fifty -five years before that the country was capable of supporting 30,000,000 of people. Neither the avowed desire of the Bishop nor the representations of the Hudson's Bay Company could prevail on Canadians to relinquish the desire to obtain this useless region, so the Imperial Government took the matter up, and the Hudson's Bay Company's rights were purchased for £300,000 sterling. Although the country was of no value for farming purposes, according to their own showing, they took can? to reserve one twentieth of the r; I li HISTORY FROM 1821 TO 1870. 455 " Fertile Belt," when they dispoHecl of the nniuiining terri- tory, and now advcTtise 7,000,000 acres of land I'or wale an their share of it. But to resume, the advent of a few Canadians and the establishment of a newspaper began to work wonders. In 1862 a light draft steamboat was placed upon the river, l)ut the Sioux massacre taking place ii little later so unsettled everything that it was not a success as a commercial venture. Public opinion was constantly becoming more opposed to the rule of the Hudson's Bay Company, and measures had to be adopted to counteract this. Dr. Schultz having got control of the *' Nor'-Wester," became very out-spoken against the monopoly, and measures at once were taken to silence him. In February of the year 18G6 he was brought before the Quarterly Court on an action of indebtedness for £300 sterling, but in the absence of the prosecution the case was deferred. The case v/as brought on again in May, but Dr. Schultz desiring to plead his own cause, and the court not allowing it, judgment was given against him without trial. In the spring of 1867 a large and influential petition was sent in to the Hudson's Bay Company's authorities asking to have Dr. Schultz appointed on the Council instead of Mr. Caairs, a councillor lately deceased. '• So strong was the petition in question that it was felt that this man must be got rid of in some way or another." History is said to re- peat itself,. and now after a lapse of fifty years the North- West Company (Canada), as represented by Dr. Schultz, stands face to face witi? the Hudson's Bay Company. The sheriff, W'tli a posse, proceeded to the trading post of Dr. Schultz in February, 1868, for the purpose of putting in force the judgment of the court recorded against him in Ma_y , 18G7. A scuffle ensued and the sheriff jind his men were ejected, but shortly after the Doctor gave himself up, and asked to be tried by the authorities. Tuttle, in his history of Manitoba, thus describes the sequel :— 1 456 MANITOBA AND TllK GKKAT XORTU-WEST. 1 M : C .«!' 1: ! I " The siuthoriticH, believing hira"to be a dangerous subject, bound him securely with ropes and conveyed him in a cari- olo to the Hudson's Bay Justice of the Peace, before whom he WHS charged with having assaulted the sheriff in tlie dis- charge; ol" liis duty. He admitted that he had defended his I)roi)erty in the absence of any legil method of protection to resist the judgment of the court given against him with- out the intervention of a jury, and in which he had no opportunity to plead his case ; and stated that he was willing to abide by the result of a new trial, if a new trial before a jury of the inhabitants was granted. The Hudson's Bay Company, however, hnding their dangerous enemy in their power, forthwith consigned him to prison. This occurred early in the day, and before night the inhabitants in the neighl)orhood, to whom Dr. Schultz had been endeared by his steadfast advocacy of their rights, and his intrepid con- duct under oppression, immediatel\ collected, and after an imprisonment of four hours he was released by them, after they had torn down the jail walls and battered in the prison door. The lavge number who had collected for this purpose were thoroughly excited, and proposed to visit in a body the Hudson's Bay Company authorities, who, from the walls of their fort had witnessed the breaking in of the jail, which was only a few yards distant. The Doctor, however, calmed their feeling by proposing to go alone and unattended, to visit within the fort walls the magistrate who had submitted him to such ignominious procedure. This he did, and stated distinctly that he was still willing t I ! i : 1 1 1 ^1 !i : :^ 1 1 ■ 1 i M'^ , 1 ' I If r 464 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. with profesHions of peaco towards oursolvos, forcibly billeted upon an establishment such as this. Their intentions in coming to the Fort they have never definitely expressed, nor have they yet specified the danger from which their presence wjis mesint to protect the place. We are, there- fore, left in some measure to conjectures, and by these we are strongly led to believe that you were expected to come to the Fort, and that by thus having previous possession of the gates, they felt that they would be sure of keeping you out.' The extreme simplicity of the Governor of Hudson's Bay Company in being led to believe that the object of Kiel, in taking possessicm of the Fort, was to keep Mr. Macdougall out, is certainly refreshing — especially as he had been informed ten days before, that the capture of the Fort was intended for that very purpose." Shortly after this letter was written, W. B. O'Donohue, an Irishman, joined the movement and assumed the duties of Treasurer, collecting the import duty of four per cent, on all merchandise not imported by the Hudson's Bay Com- pany. This man, after the rebellion was crushed, being banished from the country, wrote the following letter to the Speaker of the Dominion Parliament, on the 26th February, 1875, What gives point to his statements is the fact that he was private tutor tt) Governor McTavish's children, and, therefore, intimate with him. lie writes : " I make the following statement of facts, which I can prove most con- clusively : — " The insurrection was advised by Governor McTavish, who, with other officers of the Hudson's Bay Company, also aided and abetted it from its inception up to the very hour it ceased to exist. That Kiel was in constant com- munication with Governor McTavish, and on man}' occa- sions under his instructions. That he. Governor McTavish, fully recognized the Provisional Government. That Donald A. Smith, on arriving at Fort Garry, recognized the Crov- HISTORY FROM 1821 TO 1870. 465 billeted itioTis in Impressed, ich their re, there- these we i to come session of iping you Hudson's object of keep Mr. lly as he lire of the I'Donohue, the duties )er cent, on Bay Corn- ed, being tter to the February, e fact that dren, and, make the most con- [cTavish, I Company, ) the very Itant com- ^an}' occa- VIcTavish, liat Dtmald the Gov- ernment also in my own hearing, and, with Governor McTavish, was Kiel's adviser during his stay at the Fort, and after the departure of both of these from the couu ry, Kiel continued to hold counsel with John McTavish, who then represented the Hudson's Bay Company." After December 1st, " The Bill of Rights " was drawn up jwid sanctioned by the French party and their adherents. This Bill was evidently what Bishop Tacjh^ had in his mind before the trouble commenced, and when too late, the Hudson's Bay Company saw they were playing into the hands of men opposed to their pretensions as well as to those of the Canadians. When the " Bill of Rights " was passed, it became apparent to the most oblivious that wiser heads than a few French Half-breeds were guiding the movement, and the people of Canada woke up to a right understanding of the matter. During the winter Riel carried matters with a high hand^ and attempts were made to break or modify his power, but without avail. The Canadians were taken prisoners and lodged in Fort Garry, the Fenian flag was hoisted, and all connection with Canada declared at an end. The few Americans in the country used their influence to have an annexation movement begun, and a newspaper was started to promulgate these views. In the meantime Bishop Tach^ was on his way from Rome, and strong hopes were enter- tained that on his arrival quietness would reign. One of the Canadians named Thomas Scott had made himself ob- noxious to Riel by his outspoken loyalty, and this man Riel determined to put to death. Without a show of a trial he was condemned to be shot, and on the 4th of March at noon he was taken outside of the Fort and brutally murdered. On the 9th of March Bishop Tach6 reached Fort Garry, and at once poured oil on the troubled waters. Riel offered to give up all the Hudson's Bay Company's property on the 28th of the same month, and about that date the annexation 30 I ) *■>» w j i i i 466 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. sheet ceased to appear. Acting under Bishop Tach^'s advice the "Fenian Flag" was hauled down and the Union Jack was hoisted in its stead. Riel now became very loyal, and ** God save the Queen " was played by his band The regulars and Canadian militia were now mustering on the west end of Lake Superior, and shortly after started on their long and arduous expedition through the wilderness. On the 24th of August Colonel Wolseley's troops arrived at Fort Garry, and the same morning Riel and his valiant band disappeared. I I fl ■: tV I'l !■'• ^'s advice lion Jack oyal, and nustering er started ildernes8. arrived at Lis valiant CHAPTER XXVI. Ten Years Reminiscences and Notes on the Various Settlements and Villages. Purport of the Chapter — Manitoba and Winnipeg us They Wero in 1872 — Grasshopper Plague — Crop of 1875 — Stage Bide in the Winter of 1876 — Disappearance of the Grasshoppers — Settlements Extend to the Second Plateau — Nelsonville Founded — Wet Seasons Commence — Many ObserveiB Condemn the Country — Rapid City Com- menced in 1878 — Land in the Neighborhood Bapidly Settled — The Assiniboine Ascended to Fort EUice in May, 1879 — Crowds enter the Country East of Fort EUice — Birtle Founded — Rock Lake Settlement — Winter of 1879-80 — Odanah and Minnedosa the Rage in the Spring of 1880 — Grand Valley Comes into Notice — Stiff-necked and Soft-hearted Immigrants — Mosquitoes Prove too Much for Them — English Ideas of Canadian Kindness — Canadian Notions Regarding Englishmen's Inability to Fall in with the Ways of the Country — No Stealing on the Plains —Settlements North of Butle— Formation of the " Syndicate"— The "Boom" at Portage la Prairie — Winnipeg and Emerson take the Fever — Route of the C.P.R. Changed in the Spring of 1881 — Brandon Founded on the Assiniboine — Vigor of the Syndicate — Railway Opened to Brandon — Speculation at Fever Heat— Conflict- ing Statements Regarding the Country — Short Notices of Selkirk, Emerson, Portage la Prairie, Morris, Brandon, Rapid City, Minnedosa, Odanah, Birtle, etc., etc. It is not the purpose of this Chapter to give a history of the last ten years, but merely to indicate the successive steps by which the country was opened up and the various villages laid out. In the chapters on the History and Pro- gress of Winnipeg, Education and Religion, Steamboats and Navigation, Railways and their development much of the history will be introduced, so that this chapter will be merely complimentary to them. During 1872 numerous settlers came to the country by the Dawson route via Lake Superior, while others came on the Northern Pacific to Fargo and either descended the Red River in boats or drove their own horses over the prairie to Manitoba. The preceding year the smallpox had raged on the plains and many Indians had died near Edmonton of th*» disease. Captain Butler had just pub- ! i '1 1} ni ' I Ml' i m i ' !; !!. 'H J I ' I ii ;■ "i I iM 468 MANITOBA AND THE OREAT NORTH-WEST. lished his " Great Lone Land" and with the volume in my hand I entered for the first time the portals of the great plains. Winnipeg was a small village near Point Douglas and half a mile of prairie intervened between it and Fort Garry. Eastern Portage la Prairie consisted of one house and the western end could boast of one or two small houses around the Hudson's Bay Company's store. Grant and Mackenzie had settled on Rat Creek, nine miles to the west, but no settler had crossed the creek except the former. This season a few settlers took the road to the White Mud and laid the foundation of the settlements that sprang up there during the next year or two. For the next three years the grasshopper plague was upon the whole province and no wheat or next to none was raised in 1875. Many got a crop of potatoes, but the country was on the verge of starvation, and all the seed wheat had to be brought from Minnesota. Dufferin had been laid out on the boundary in 1873, but no progress was made. West Lynne on the west side of the Red River was a place of some importance as the high road to St. Paul passed near it. Stage-coaches were not infrequent in their transit through the village carrying their loads of shivering passengers to or from the bleak prairies of Dakota. A winter stage-coach ride of fifty-eight conse- cutive hours from Winnipeg to Fargo made the most lasting impression. Night and day we kept on, and enjoy- ing a nap in a stage coach with the temperature at zero was the greatest luxury we had. Our waking moments were full of torture, but sleep, such as it was, made us oblivious to suffering. The very marrow in our bones seemed to freeze, and as I write I shudder at the recollection. A new era dawned in 1876. The grasshoppers disap- peared, a large immigration took place, heavy crops were produced and the laud rejoiced. This year settlement extended beyond the Pembina Mountains, Nelsonville was TEN years' reminiscences AND NOTES. 469 founded, the people learned that the upper plain was aa fertile as the lower, and the land along the boundary be- came tliicklj settled. A aeries of wet years now set in. Man\- parts of Manitoba were little better than a bog or a lake and numerous individuals, who had gone out to take up land, returned with evil reports. In 1877, settlement reached the " Big Plain" beyond Pino Creek, and the next year Rapid City, on the Little Saskatchewan, was founded by J. C. Whclhenis. The summer of 1878 saw a large immigration to the country around Rapid City, and to meet the demands of trade an attempt was made to ascend the Assiniboine to a point whence goods could be taken to the settlements on both sides of the river. The boats ascended without difficulty to a point about eight miles above the mouth of the Souris and discharged their cargoes at the foot of the " Rapid." Tliis location obtained the name of " Rapid City Landing" as all goods destined for that point were landed here. Captain Webber, of the steamboat " Manitoba," examined the " Rapid," and pronounced his determination of taking freight and passengers to Fort EUice. This was in May, 1879. His attempt was successful, although the wise ones at once condemned the whole undertaking. While he was getting his cargo I reached Winnipeg, and learned that the roads were in a terrible state for at least 150 miles. He promised to wait a day for me, and in the meantime I bought all my outfit for the plains, and we started at the appointed time. We reached Fort EUice all right, and a high- way was opened to the interior. The attention of both specu- lators and farmers was now turned to the river, and a large number settled a little east of Fort Ellice, and Birtle was founded by a gentleman, named Chambers, from St. Catherines. The Souris Plam was a great point of attrac- tion, and many settlers took up claims and began farming around Rock Lake. i'l \\ ii 470 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. i !■■ During the winter of 1879-80, interested parties got up some excitement about Odanah and Minnedosa, two embryo cities, located where the " North Trail " crosses the Little Saskatchewan. In the spring, a rush took place, and the boats on the Assiniboine River were loaded with freight and crowded with passengers, destined for those two " cities." Instead of using " Rapid City Landing," as in the spring of the preceding year, the boats now ascended the river to " Grand Valley," six miles above the rapid, and here the nucleus of a new city was established. Hundreds of tons of freight came up the river in t'le spring of 1880, numerous inmiigrants arrived, and things looked lively. While in camp a week, at the " Grand Valley," I had ample opportunity of studying the peculiarities of the people. Camped by themselves were a number of English families, the members of which kept themselves apart from all others, and seemed to court seclusion. No attempt was made to gain information, and as a natural result, none was proffered. One day, two young men with their outfit started off for Rapid City. Owing to the heavy rain which had been falling for some days, the trail {Road) was very bad in many places. Lacking experience, and being unaccus- tomed either to ask or take advice, they made little pro- gress and camped less than a mile from the " Landing," after having loaded and unloaded their waggon four times. Scarcely any progress was made the next day, and the second night they camped at a water-hole in a little hollow. A Canadian passing by told them to pitch their tent on an adjoining hill, as the mosquitoes would be bad that night. In response he was informed that they knew their own business. How they passed the night is not known, but early the next forenoon they reached the " Landing" again, sold their outfit for what they could get and were off for more congenial companionship in Winnipeg. On the same boat which took them back we cheered a number of ! i TEN YEARS KEMIIIISCENCES AND NOTES. 471 others who, through ignorance, nelf-will or cowardice, had given lip the attempt at settlement and had left in disgust. My camp was on the south side of the river and late one evening three young Englishmen crossed the river with two heavy loads of goods in two poor carts. While we were remarking on their foolishness for starting so late they passed us without a word and proceeded on their way towards the Brandon Hills to which they were bound. They had not gone two hundred yards when an axle broke and their load fell to the ground. We went up to see what was the matter, and as soon as I leaiiied the nature of the accident I offered to lend them a cart and had my mei. assist them to load up, but advised them either to stop all night where they were or leave part of their loads. The leader of the party now asked me my charge for the cart and assistance, and as I only laughed at him, he said they had been told before they left England to hold no communication with Canadians as they would charge an exhorbitant price for everything they sold and do nothing without pay. We became more confidential, and 1 told him what we thought of them and how we looked on their proceedings. As I advised him to leave potatoes and flour, and a large trunk in his broken cart till the next day, he asked, would it not be stolen ? I informed him that only white men stole, and that Indians and Half-breeds, no matter what was said to the contrary, were strictly honest and as a matter of principle did not appropriate anything found on the prairie. I relate the above incidents as specimens of certain classes of occurrences that are constantly taking place, and a little less reserve on the one hand and much less contemptuous criticism on the other, would wonderfully assist in smoothing over the difliculties and privations incidental to settling in a new country. Acting on advice given by me, many Englishmen settled to the northwest of " Grand Valley " in the spring of 1880. Owing to the surveys that were now !, 472 MANITOBA AND THE GRKAT NORTII-WKST. Mi ' I i '!!J!t|i being proHOCuted with vigor, many .settlerH went northwent from Birtle to Shell River and located there. In the summer of 1880 Sir John Macdonald went to England with the avowed purpose of making arrangements with capitalists for the building of the Canada Pacific Railway. On his return in the autumn he announced his success, and in the early part of the winter the Canadian Parliament ratified the bargain. During the winter indica- tions were seen of an advance in real estate throughout the country. Sir Charles Tupper in November had informed the people of Portage la Prairie that the Railway would be located close to the village. In response to this the value of real estate almost doubled at a bound, and the excitement spreading *^o Winnipeg the people there were at fever heat before spring. Emerson followed suit, and every little village throughout the South-west grew into a city. As spring advanced speculators and actual settlers poured into the country, and as the cars were now running to Portage la Prairie there was no difficulty in reaching the centre of the new movement. The " Syndicate " decided to change the location of the road, and at once all eyes turned to "Grand Valley" as a possible point for profitable invest- ment. McVicars, who owned the land at the "Grand Valley," refused to sell except at an extravagant price, and the " Syndicate " decided to build their town one and a half miles farther up stream, and in a few days the new city of Brandon, 145 miles west of Winnipeg, was in the market. The works on the Canada Pacific Railway were pushed on with great vigor, and the public were informed that the cars would be running south of the Assiniboine before August. People poured in by the hundred. All the land south of the Assiniboine along the line of railway was taken up, and hundreds of lots sold in Brandon at fabulous prices. Stores, hotels, dwelling-houses, and other buildings were run up as if by magic, and where nothing but prairie was seen ■*^t TKX YKAUS UKMINISCKNCKS AND NOTES. 473 in the Hpring tho nuclou.s of a tliriviiijj; city with all civil- ized applianceH appeared heft)re the short Huminer waH passed. In September, regular railway couununication was opened between Winnipeg and Brandon, and 140 miles of easy transit into the interior established. South of the Assini- boine the whole plain was prospected, and many locations were taken up by speculators and others. New railroads were projected, cities were laid out on paper, others which had better claims were thrown on the market, and a period of feverish activity set in which still continues and seems to become intensified every day. Like all new countries many conflicting accounts were given of Manitoba and the North-West. Travellers and others whose names, out of deference to their standing in society, I shall not mention, wrote strange stories about the country. Manitoba was declared to be little else than a bog or marsh. The Souris Plain was shown conclusively to be a desert/ — a sandy barren waste condemned as sterile by these men, but still rich by nature. Because I refuted this fallacy, one gentleman in Nova Scotia, who has not looked on the country for twenty -four years, and does not know that south- western Manitoba is at present considered the garden of the West, said in a newspaper article last summer that the Government paid me for writing falsehoods regarding it. Others passing hurriedly' over its various trails, and seeing sand or gravel in the ruts or around badger holes, write : " The whole region passed over to-day possesses a sandy or gravelly soil and an arid climate, and is worthless for agri- cultural purposes." The writer and the lands are both in existence. The former still writes as intelligently about other matters. In the hands of practical farmers the latter has so changed its appearance that another class of writers say it is unequalled for farming purposes in the North-West. My work in the past has been to refute false statements regarding the country, its climate, soil, capabilities and re- rii^ ' ( i f ,' 1 1 1 1 ■ < 1 ii 1 1 1 474 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. sources. By wlioiiisoi^vor a fiilHO HtatcniLMit Iuih been miulc, I havo iiu't it witli proiuj)! denial and have always given my reasoMH for so doing. There is one elasH of speakers, how- ever, to whom I have mtulu no answer. This class are representativeH of the people, and if they make statementH at variance with known factu, it is not my province to dis- pute them. Prcvioua to 1874, the site of the present city of Emi^son was merely a prairie with small cultivated patches here and there, and no indications of a city in the future were apparent. The nearest point at which any signs of a settle- ment were visible was where the old Hudson's Bay Com- pany's post existed, just across the boundary line, while three miles distant, on the American side also, was the hamlet of Pembina, and the united settlers at both places, at the beginning of the year we have mentioned, did not exceed 150 persons. In the spring of this year, Messrs. Thomas Carney and W. N. Fairbanks had 640 acres of the present city site laid out into lots, and the same summer Mr. F. T. Bradley and Captain Ash laid out 200 acres more. Thus the original town plot of the city included 840 acres, an extent un- usually large and certainly indicative of great faith on the part of the founders of the city. People in other portions of the North-West began to believe that it was possible for a town to exist here, and before the winter of 1874 had set in quite a few business institutions of various descrip- tions were permanently located in the village. The proprietors of the town site of Emerson acted with a spirit of great liberality in those days. They sold their lots quite cheap, and assisted in the establishment of a school and the regular ordinances of religion. In the summer of 1875 the population was about 100 all told. During 1879 the growth of the village was very rapid. The opening of the railway between it and St. Paul in the spring had given TEN VEAllS UKMINISCKNCES AND NOTES. 17.'> a groat iinpotiiH to iniinigration, aiul KinurHon and the Hiir- rounding country received great add it ionH to their ninnberH. The cloHe of the year found EnierHon with a popuhition of over 800, and that Hteady Htreaui of proBperity now Het in which haH continued ever Hince. Early in the Bpring of 1880 Emorson was incorporated a» a city, and at once the iidiabitantn taxed tliemHelvcH to })uihl a bridge across the Red River, so that farmers living on the west side of the river miglit bring the produce of their farms to the city. A steam planing mill and steam flouring mill were now in operation, and numerous other manufacturing industries were established. The summer and autumn of 1880 were busy times in Emerson, several brick blcxjks were erected, and churches began to rise in various parts of the city. The close of the year saw a jwpulation of almost 1,400 in Emerson, while her business places numlwred not lens than seventy-five, the trade operations extending for 200 miles to the westward. Last year (1881) the progress of the city was remarkable. Many fine buildings were erected, lumber mills were es- tablished, and the Emerson Agricultural Works were put in operation. At the close of the year her population had increased to fully 2,500, and six denominations of Christians were holding weekly services, while her public school was attended by nearly 200 pupils and taught by three teachers. That Emerson is destined to be a city of considerable im- portance can be seen at a glance over any of the late maps, and the possibilities are thus set forth by a recent writer ; " The Gate City is practically the southern key to all the Canada Pacific Railway Company's lines, and from it two trains are run daily direct to Winnipeg, and directly through to Portage la Prairie and Brandon. That Emerson will long remain this Company's base of operations is evident from the commodious depot arrangements which they have made here. Their freight and passenger arrangements are not f t •4\ innnnnnnnnnnnnnL innnnnnnDnannnDL" jnnnnnnnnnnnnDaL ]nannnp[7^^nnnnDQ[ ]Dnnann[^c^nnDnnD[ ID innnnnanDCTaDDnni ■ nnnDnnDnnnnDa[ ^riDCinnnnnnnni nnnnnnnni nnnDDnnn □DDDDD nnnnDn 1 U-_l U DDL DDL' DDL I1Q[ DD[ 3Q1 nn[ D r'l. i-,i ! ■ I !'; I ■ 'Mi TEN YEARS REMINISCENCES AND NOTES. 477 those of a wayside station, but are as extensive as any in Manitoba. Such are the present advantages conferred by this railway on the Gate City, but these are small compared with those which will arise from the extension to be made in the near future. By the close of 1882 the Pembina branch will be extended into the city and westward there- from through the Turtle Mountain and Rock Lake Districts, and thereafter onward to the Souris Valley coal fields. This extension will open up ^.je richest district of the North-West, and v/ill make Emer,s(jn the point of entry from which emigration will flow westward into tlie same. It will lay the whole country open commercially to the merchants of Emerson, and lay the coals of the Souris Valley down in the city, to assist in building up her manufactures. In short it will make the Gate City a main point of distribution in the work of settling up and developing the great North- West." The business of Emerson has increased even faster than its population, and during the last year it attained great di- mensions. As would be expected in a western city the real estate business is a leading and profitable one. The manu- facturing establishments are still in their infancy, but they turned out work worth $607,200 last year. The build- ing trade alone reached the neighborhood of $200,000, and in the coming year it will more than double. The country commercially tributary to Emerson extends over 300 miles west, and many houses in the city have an extensive trade over the intervening country. Within the city limits there are fifty -eight houses engaged in trade, some of which are doing a very extensive business. The total value of the sales of those fifty-eight houses during the past year amounts to $1,399,400, besides giving employment to 170 hands. The total value of the business done in the city by all parties in the year ending February 28th, 1882, was $2,549,400. Eight years before, this same locality waa with- 478 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST, ,'i I 1/ i m: ' I P'f- III t'.'. 'i '■' out a house ; now it is a busy hive of ambitious pushing men who are laying the foundations of a future commercial centre. Next in importance to Emerson is Portage la Prairie, situated on the neck of land between the Assiniboine and Lake Manitoba. It is rather more than fifty miles west of Winnipeg on the main line of the Canada Pacific Railway. As early as 1855 Archdeacon Cochrane had built a church in the neighborhood, but with this exception little was done until 1861, when the Hudson's Bay Campany started a store at the west end of the present town. Ten years more pass away and in the meantime the country is transferred to the Dominion, Kiel's rebellion has blown over, and people are settling down to the actual business of life. The lands in the vicinity are taken up, stores and other places of busi- ness are established, and a regular stage is put on the route between Winnipeg and the Portage by Mr. Michael Blake, so that by 1875 Portage la Prairie was considered a place of some importance. In 1876 the Prince Rupert, a steamboat of 120 tons burden, ascended the river Assiniboine from Winnipeg, and communication by river was established. The places of business in the fall of this year numbered about twenty, and included a few very extensive " concerns " for a frontier village. At this time two regular church organizations were at work in the village, a well-managed school was in operation, and the population of the place was a little under 300 people. Next year two large flouring mills were in operation with a capacity of nearly 200 barrels in twenty- four hours. During the greater part of the year their powers were tested to the utmost in supplying the imme- diate neighborhood and the far interior with flour. After many vexatious delays the Canadp Pacific Rail- way reached the village in the early part of the winter of 1880. At once a general advance in real estate commenced, which has continued ever since. At the close of this TEN YEARS REMINISCENCES AND NOTES. 479 year the population was about 800, and was increasing wonderfully. There were almost sixty business places, in- cluding two banks ; two lumber and two flour mills, all run with steam power ; one brick and various other smallei manufacturing establishments. A recent writer, describing the wonderful growth of the place, says : — " With the opening of the spring of 1881 the rapid growth of Portage la Prairie commenced, When it became known in May that the Canada Pacific had passed into the hands of a syndicate, who would loose no time in pushing the work to completion. Portage la Prairie became a point where a great amount of speculative attention was centred. Its location on the narrow strip of land between the Assini- boine River and Lake Manitoba, across which all railway lines from the lower Red River Valley, whose objective points are in the great North- West, must pass, gave it im- mense advantages geographically, and the fact that around no other town in Manitoba can a richer agricultural country be found, settled the question of its becoming a city of im- portance in the near future. That the Canadian Pacific Railway Syndicate recognized their advantages may be inferred by the rapidity with which they constructed the Air Line between this city and Winnipeg, thus materially shortening the route between the two cities, and making a track as proof against snowblocks as engineering skill can secure. Their energy in extending westward from the city, reaching Brandon, a distance of seventy -eight miles, by August, and the amount of other grading done before the close of the year convinced the most incredulous that Portage la Prairie was in a few years to become a prominent city on the great main line of railway which will connect the Atlantic and Pacific provinces of the Canadian Dominion. " In May, 1881, a third bank was established in Portage, and business institutions of every class multiplied with a magic rapidity, and were only limited by the building re- '1 1 y r, i j :.^^ 480 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. f : 1 i I' w i n H, sources of the city. In August the " Tribune," a second newspaper, was established, and has since made its appearance weekly. Landed property of every description, in and around the city, has since the spring of 1881 risen rapidly in price, and many old settlers, who had for many years struggled along at farming, suddenly found their lands becoming of great value, and themselves lifted from comparative poverty to opulence. The limits of the town increased with its business growth, and its wide streets are giving evidences of soon becoming busy thoroughfares. " During all this rapid advance in business and the value of property, the population of the Portage has been making equally rapid strides. By the close of 1881 over 2,700 souls resided within the city limits, and now, with the opening of the spring of 1882, the number cannot be under 3,500." When we consider that the "Portage" has more than trebled its population in one year, and that there are indica- tions of its being doubled again the present year, we are not the least surprised at the enthusiasm of its inhabitants and the prophecies we hear regarding its future greatness. The Portage, Westbourne and North-Western Railway Company are pushing on their road to the west and have at the present writing 36 miles of tlr; road graded and purpose having trains running to Odanah mA Minnedosa at the cross- ing of the Little Saskatchewan by the first of September, 1882. By the terms of their charter this Company have a land grant of 6400 acres for every mile of road they shall have constructed within a certain date, and as their survey runs through one of the richest belts of land to be found in Manitoba, the lands at their disposal will offer the very best attractions for settlers of the farming class. Other roads are projected and from the situation of the " city " there is no doubt of its becoming a railway centre in the near future. The town of Selkirk has an excellent situation on the TEN TEARS REMINISCENCES AND NOTES. 481 I, second pearance d around in price, itruggled oraing of 5 poverty with its idences of the value n making 1,700 souls opening of 3,500." nore than are indica- ar, we are ihabitants greatness. I Railway id have at id purpose ; the cross- ieptember, ly have a |they shall ir survey found in the very IS. Other e "city" ,re in the Ion on the west side of the Red River, twenty-four miles from the city of Wi.inipeg. Its origin dates from the year 1875. In that year the offices of the Canada Pacific Railway were located on the west bank and about the same time the first store (then called the "Warehouse") was built by J. & F. W. Colcleugh. Selkirk, being directly on the main line of the Canada Pacific Railway and at the point where that Railway was to cross tlio Red River, speedily attracted atten- tion. In the following year (1876) many other stores as well as hotels were erected and Selkirk's future was brighter than any other place in the then comparatively unknown province of Manitoba. The most determined opposition, however, was raised by the people of Winnipeg who, aware of the manifold advantages of Selkirk, did all in their power to retard its progress and build up their own city at its expense. When the change of (jrovernment occurred in 1878 and it was decided to make use of the Railway bridge about to be built at Winnipeg, and to run a line west from that city, a severe blow was struck at the future prospects of the town under notice. Those interested in the town, however, did not despair of its ultimate progress, and early in the present year a by-law granting a bonus of $70,000 to the C. P. R. Syndicate for the purpose of building n. line of railway along the west bank of tlie Red River to Winnipeg- was submitted to the Municipality of St. Andrews and passed. A Company to build a railroad west to Poplar Point and Portage la Prairie was also formed, and the charter will be applied for at the present session of the Local Legislature. Among the many natural advantages possessed by Selkirk are two harbors of great depth, caused by " sloughs" running back on each side of the river sufficient to accommodate vessels of any size. The town is practically at the head of deep water navigation on the Red River, owing to the rapids at St. Andrews, a few miles south. The lumber trade 31 w. 482 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. If ' ' I "f I El- ; of Lake Winnipeg i» growing in importance, und Selkirk without doubt will become the shippii; ; point for the western country. The district around Selkirk will furnish an in- exhaustable supply of cordwood, while in the immediate neighborhood are several excellent freestone quarries and gravel pits. It is also in the centre of a first class agri- cultural country. One great advantage, possessed by Selkirk over almost e\ cry other place on the Red lliver, is its situation on a high ridge of laud, which connuences twelve miles to the south and runs as many miles to the north. This ridge was almost the only i)art left uncovered by the Hoods of 1820 and 1852, when the site of the present city of Winnipeg was com- })letely submerged. This spring the height reached by the water was such as had not been attained for nuiny years. The high water level at Selkirk was sixteen inches above that made during the flood of 1852. The town was then found by measurement to be fourteen feet above the water. At the present time Selkirk contains, besides a large ninnber of dwidling-houses, live general stores, one drug store and telegrtiph oflice, and numerous other businesses. Besides thes(; there are four churches and schools suitable for the population. It is scarcely wise in a matter of fact man like myself to become a prophet, but I may state t\iat I see so far into the future as to say that, about the middle of the coming summer, the iron horse will reach Selkirk on its v.'ay to the west, and as it turns south its drivers, who will be many and very strong, will be asked why turn ye away from the river, and they will answer, like the men of old, because there is no passage for our steed and the train that follows it. Then a very learned man shall stand forth and say, listen unto me, ye men of might who drive the iron liorse, behold a straight line is the shortest way between two points. They will be astonished at this and take down their measuring instruments, and behold the scales will fall TEN YEARS REMINISCENCES AND NOTES. 483 from their eyes, and they will see that it is so, and a passage for their steed will be built, and it will go on its way to the west without turning either to the right hand or to the left. Then will the head of the Selkirk be lifted up, and she will stand on her feet and be much talked of among the people, because there will be a boom there. Behold this must come to pass because it is written on the tablets of the future. Rapid City was the next village which came into exis- tence. An English company had obtained a few townships from the Government on certain conditions of settlement, and in accordance therewith a village or town plot was sur- veyed in 1877, and settlers were brought out from England and located on the lands. Being beautifully situated on the Little Saskatchewan, about 150 miles west of Winnipeg, and on the "high road" to the interior, it quickly attracted attention, and the country in the vicinity was soon in the hands of industrious settlers. Through the energy of Mr. Whelhems, who had charge of the colony, it was established on a secure basis, and during the summer of 1879 was with- out a rival in the estimation of western people. At present four railroads are projected either to pass through it or to start from it, and its future promises to be a prosperous one. In the spring of 1879 the Assiniboine was ascended to Fort Ellice, a distance of 210 miles west of Winnipeg, and many settlers came to that neighborhood. The point where the main trail to the west crosses Bird Tail Creek, twelve miles east of Fort Ellice, was selected as a site for a village by a gentleman named Chambers, and a number of houses were erected. The selection was a good one, and now the village is erected into a town under the name of Birtle. On ac- count of the supplies of timber in the Riding Mountain, which are being utilized by the people of the neighborhood in the erection of buildings at the present time, this section of countrv will or ought to be always attractive. In the sum- 11' 1' 484 MANITOBA AND TllK GREAT NORTH-WEST. 1 ' I mer of 1880 a steam saw and grist mill was put in operation, which at present supplies all the wants of the settlers in both lines. Railroad communication will develop this dis- trict of country in a short time. Rumours that the Canada Pacific Railway was to cross the Little Saskatchewan, about twenty miles north of Rapid City were industriously spread during the winter of 1879, and in the following spring, two cities appeared on paper, named respectively Odanah and Minnedosa, the former being on the east side of the stream and the latter (m the west. As a matter of course a rush took place, and a steady stream of people flowed in all that sunmier. Owing to the certainty of the Portage la Prairie and Westbourne Railway passing through these villages their future prosperity is secured. The formation of the " Syndicate " in the autumn of 1880, and the transference of the Canada Pacific Railway to it in the spring, upset the speculations of many die seekers, and turned their attention to the more southern district. The announcement that the " Syndicate " was about to take the p^uthern route was soon followed by the selection of Brandon as the site for a future city. Mr. Sandford Fleming in his Railway Report for 1880, advised the Government to adopt this route, and to found a city at this very point. The following extract is taken from page 248 of the report : — " I have carefully examined all the data at command, and I think that a modification of the latter line points to a scheme worthy the consideration of the Government. If the railway be carried to a point in the valley of the As- siniboine, near the mouth of the Little Saskatchewan, where the land remains unsurveyed and ungranted, there might here be established the site of a city which would shortly become important." After giving various reasons in favor of this scheme, he says, on page 240 : — TEN YEARS REMINISCENCES AND NOTES. 486 " The adoption of the lines to the point I have indicated in the valley of the Assiniboine near the mouth of the Little Saskatchewan, would provide 150 miles of an excellent trunk line leading from Winnipeg and Selkirk to the coal deposits, and would to that extent make provision for the supply of fuel, where no timber exists, and tlius anticipate a want sorely felt in many quarters. The laying out of a city at the point mentioned, and the location ol' stations at regular intervals on other uugranted hinds along the line, would secure to the Government all the benefit arising from the enhanced value which would be given to the land, to assist in meeting the cost of the railway." It will be seen by the foregoing extracts that both the Government and its officials were aware of the importance of Brandon as a railway centre, and had the Government ht Id control of the road, they would most undoubtedly have carried out the above suggestions. It will be seen then that Brandon is not a speculative point, but one where naturally a large city would spring up. In the spring of last year the town plot was laid out on the south side of the Assiniboine and in a few days houses began to rise as if by magic. All through the summer the excitement kept up and with the setting in of winter there was no cessation. Last September North Brandon was surveyed and many other additions have since been made on both sides of the river, so that specula- tion has created, on paper at least, a city of extraordinary dimensions where nature intended there should be at least a very important one. The situation of Brandon is very fine and with the picturesque hills on both sides of the river presents, even now, a fine appearance from any point of ap- proach. The site is well chosen in every respect and unlike Winnipeg is secure from floods, commands any quantity of excellent water and will always prove healthy as drainage is quite practicable. Taken as a whole the situation of Brandon is a favorable one in every respect, and there cannot be the I ' I 480 MANITOHA ANI) THE GREAT NOUTII-WEST. BlighteHt doubt regarding itH future importance both as a railway centre and the emporium of a fine farming country in the immediate neigliborliood. At present writing it contains 1500 houses. Many other "cities," towns and viUages have sprung up in various parts of Manito})a, anil their promoters speak in high terms of their future prospects. I shall mention no names and hence make no comparisons, but just state two elements necessary to the wellbeing of every city. I refer to water and drainage. It would be as well for parties purchasing lots in these embryo cities to consider these two requirements, as no great city can exist without them. The planting of a town or city, on an open prairie without a run- ning stream means death to the inhabitants by disease or the destruction of the place by lire should one occur. 4i th as a x)untry ting it rung up ipeuk in ition no ate two I refer partiew lese two tn. The Lit a run- sease or ir. CHAPTER XXVII. Description and HUstory of Winnipeg. [A Chapter Wbittkn by J. C. McImoan, Esq.] Poaition of Winniiieg— Fort Rouge— Fort Selkirk— The Founders of Winnipeg— Winni- peg in 1870— Railway Surveys— Pembina Branch—Winniijeg the Outlet of the Inter- ior Trade— The " Boom " in T881— Statistics of the Trade of Winning— Knumeration o' the Chief Buildings— Presen L Area of the City— The Business Corporations— City Schools— Former Trade with "W.unipeg— Contrasted with the Present— Railway Grounds and OflSces- Postal Faclities Past and Present — Leading Societies— The Press of Winnipeg— Agricultural Society— Extracts From Lord Dufferin'r Speeches— Geographical Position— Rivers and Lakes of Canada— Meunonites and Icelanders— The Future of the City— Appearance of Winnipeg to a New Comer— How Business is Transacted— Preponderance of Males— Occupation of the People— Their Steady Habits. The City of Winnipeg is situated nearly in longitude \)T west, and latitude 50° north, at the confluence of the Red and Assiniboine rivers, which at present form the eastern and southern boundaries of the city. At the southern ex- tremity of Main street is Fort Garry, for many years the most important trading post occupied by the Hudson's Bay Company. The old fort yet stands, and although to some extent dismantled, yet is an object of much attention and interest to the ma^^y strangers and travellers who visit the city and the great " Lone Land " of the far We»t. The old residence of Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company has been occupied as " Government House," and in it the occupant of the gubernatorial chair has resided since Canada acquired the country. A new and more preten- tious building is being erected for His Honor. Fort Garry ere long will then pass out of existence, a step rendered necessary in consequence of the site being needed for a continuation of Main Street to the Assiniboine bridge, and for the erection of buildings more suitable to the valu- able site it occupieSc The fort and the many .stirring I n H It I ' I I I SI ' 488 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. and interesting events which have taken place around its wooden palisades, are so closely identified with the history of the country in its early days, that to write a complete record thereof would occupy more space than the limits of this chapter will permit. Suffice it to say, however, that the history of Fort Garry is almost that of the North- West. Previous to Lord Selkirk's occupancy of the country, a party of adventurers in the year 1734 established a fort known as Fort Rouge, at the angle of the Red and Assi- niboine rivers. This is now the property of Stewart Mul- vey, Esq., and forms part of the parish of West St. Boniface, one of the rising subnrbs of Winnipeg. The first fort, or trading post, established by the Hudson's Bay Company was at Point Douglas, and then known as Fort Selkirk. During the conflict between the Company's forces and those of the North- West Fur Company at Seven Oaks, in the Parish of Kildonan, this post was destroyed. Another was built in the year 1817 at the angle of the Red and Assiniboine rivers, where the grist mill at present stands. The famed Fort Garry was completed and occupied by the Company in 1835, and was then considered the greatest wonder of the western plains. The site for the future Metropolis of the North- West Country was wisely chosen by the early traders and founders of the present-Winnipeg. The country surround- ing it for many miles is perfectly level, yet sufficiently elevated above the rivers already named to admit of easy drainage. Few places possessed the natural advantages that did the site adjoining Fort Garry, for it had rivers navigable from south to north many hundreds of miles, and from east to west far into the interior of the great " fertile belt." These streams formed part of a chain of navigable waters, extending from the centre of Minnesota to the base of the Rocky Mountains, and from Winnipeg to Fort Pelly, DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF WINNIPEG. 489 embrticiiig Lake Winnipeg and Lake of the Woods and the many .streams tributary thereto. The Red River channel at Winnipeg iw very different now to what it was when the first settlers came in. The soil is alluvial and the continual action of the water on the banks is having the effect of increasing the width of the water-way. It is said that the lately deceased Mr. McDermot first crossed the stream on a small oak tree that had fallen into the channel. To-day several trees would be necessary to span the river for the width is about three hundred yards on an average. It is equally certain that the same gentleman kept a small skiff in readiness for any emergency that might arise during the spring and summer freshets. He had seen the entire country surrounding Winnipeg inundated twice, and determined to be prepared should such a calamity occur again. The license giving the Hudson's Bay Company exclusive control of the trade of the country expired in 1859. Shortly thereafter several enterprising, intrepid pioneers and traders, knowing that the trade of the Company was very profitable, entered into competition with that powerful mon- opoly for a share of the vast fur trade. These men termed themselves " free traders." Following these, a few settlers came and took up land and began its cultivation. The traders erected stores in close proximity to the Fort. Many of them are still residents in the city, occupying leading and responsible positions as merchants, professional men, and citizens. They were the founders of Winnipeg. The stores they had erected around the Fort formed the nucleus of a small village, which in 1862 began to increase. Year by year — though far remote from the centres of trade and the outer world — the embryo village spread its limits; slowly, it is true, but always holding its own, until the- transfer of the country was made to Canada in 1870. At fiiiii -ii t 490 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. that time there were about thirty buildings outside the Fort, embracing eight stores, two saloons, two hotels, a mill, and a churcK; the total population being 215 souls. Then the great " Lone Land," which, according to Lord Beacons- field, is a land of " illimitable possibilities," became part of the Canadian Confederation. About this time the Fort and its neighbourhood was the scene of the troublous events of the Red River rebellion, the movement being headed by Louis Riel and others. This was a critiail period for the little colony on the banks of the Red River. In consequence of its very isolated position, Winni- peg, or Fort Garry, was at all times a difficult point to reach. From the south the route was entirely through foreign territory. To the north ther" was a route via Hudson's Bay and the Nelson River to Lake Winnipeg, thence to Fort Garry by the Red River. A voyage from the motherland by this route occupied a whole season. The numerous portages to be encountered rendered it all but impracticable. To the west, for thousands of miles, stretched vast prairies, — the Rocky Mountains, and Selkirk and Coast Ranges on the Pacific, forming natural barriers over which no transportation could possibly take place. From the east an attempt had been made to enter the country by way of Lake Superior, and thence across intervening water stretches and portages. This route was the one adopted by the military authorities when they sent ^troops to quell the rebellion. On the 14th of May, 1870, Companies ''One" and "Four" of the Ontario Battalion, under command of Col. Boulton, sailed from Col- lingwood en route for Fort Garry. On the 21st of the same month Company G of the 60th Rifles, under command of Col. Wolseley (now Adjutant-General Sir Garnet Wolseley, K.C.M.G.), embarked at the same point. After encounter- i '|)olis. Tlir AHsinil)oiiu' will liki'wistM'iirry oil its Im>houi, for liundrctlH «>rinil(>H iiiliiiid, vcKsclHof iiu'diuiii dr!iii.i!:li( loiidi'd widi vjdiiiiM*' rri'i^Ut. Wliili' iiwjiy to tln' soulli, t«) the liciid wiitcr.sorilio l{od Itivcr, far into MiniicNotii iiiid Didvolii, lliis j>i*riit nutnrid wiitcruay will lu» the nicd- iiuii to ciirrv Iriillic to Winiii|)('}f. A net work of milwjiys will concrnlratc in Winniju'^; as in (Hiica^o. Kach new project — vlicllicr for new lines (M* cxti'iinions of those estahlislied — will point to Winnipe}:; as the haven whicli it desires to reach. Winnipej^ must lu'conie a jj:;reat dis- trihutin}:; ein[)oriuin lor an urea snnici««nl to j;row as nnicli wheat as is now raised in the United Stales and Canada coin- bined — a country entitled to he named the " j^ranary of the world." With these increaised facilities for transportation it is safe to say that the position of Winnipej^ will not he (»\e(dle(l l)\ that of any other city in the country. Iler i)opulation is already increasing at an enormously ra|)id rate. Thoui;li hut an infant in years her trade already is of gi«' ion it i!^ HalV |U)\)ulatiou is tv, 'riH)»ii!;li /ijrantic \)Yo- ada[)tod I'ov are rentcil ,rt ar*^' i^t>t, to f houHOH aro 'JT' 'luaiul. Irtt real estate ever bo lor o Ids of dollar^! Vast Ibi- Imeiit Hproml pd profesHion- Itheir callings the niodorn as numerous ;ii! 406 MANITOB\ AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. il , I ' 1 1> , 111 I i ! M the windn on tho sea Hhore. The efliicaterl and refined, as well an the illiterate, took part in land trannaetionH. No regard was paid aH to whether the vendor had a right to Hell or not. Everything was taken for grant<'d. At the time we write the *' lM)oni" .still rages, thongh in a some- what abated form. In no better way can the progrens of any city, town, or country be judged than by ntatintics. The case of Winnipeg is one of which her citizens have a right to feel proud. Beginning her career in the sisterhood of cities in 1874 with a population of 2,000, the census of 1878 gave her 7,000, and this in 1880 had increased to 10,000. At the time we write the number must be 18,000. The assessed value of the rateable property of the city in 1874 was $2,676,018; 1879, $3,415,065; 1881, $0,230,435. It is supposed the assessment of 1882 will run close upon $22,000,000. These figures are exclusive of the exempted property which embraces churches. Government, Canada Pacific Railway, and Corporation buildings. Notwithstanding the vast amount of public improve- ments carried on by the corporation, the erection of bridges, schools, and a bonus of $200,000 to the Canadian Pacific Railway, the debt of the rity is but $620,000— a bagatelle as compared with its resources. Representing this debt as an asset, the City has her City Hall and Market Square, the Central and Ward Schools, the Louise Iron Bridge, one hundred miles of the Canadian Pacific Railway towards the Pembina Mountain country and the workshops connected therewith. Hitherto the rate levied has not exceeded one cent on the dollar of the assessed value, and this covered school as well as municipal purposes. During the present year it is intended to pave part of Main Street with block cedar, and to enlarge the City Hall. Other improvements are likewise certain to follow. The City is prepared to deal liberally with any person or I-WEST. Uh\ and rofin«d, run Had ion H. No r had a right to rrantcd. At the umgh in a soino- my city, town, or 'QiiHC of Winnipeg ht to feel proud, of citiew in 1874 of 1878 gave her , 10,000. At the 00. The aHseHsed city in 1874 was ^9,230,435. It iH [ run clowe upon e of the exempted /ernment, Canada puhlic improve- rection of bridges, Canadian Pacific but $620,000— a Representing Ir City Hall and ^ihools, the Louise Canadian Pacific country and the lo the rate levied of the assessed inicipal purposes, to pave part of Ige the City Hall. Ito follow. th any person or DESCUII'TIUN AND m,STt)lty :),045 900,557 1,100,000 3,795,978 192,480 1,018,106 950,000 3,183,000 223,530 1,374,311 1,050,000 3,.595,416 274,235 2,206,085 700,000 4,272,372 207.709 3,599,980 562,714 5,698,620 And for the year ending December 31st, 1881, the value )l foreign imports and duties collected for the several months were .- liiniiaiy.. .. FcbruHry . . . Miiri-h , April May Mine . . , . .'uly AllfC'JBt . ... September . . (Molwr N'ovomber 1 >c(t'mbei . . Value iMronTs $70,021 49,649 174,206 183,137 384,596 400,344 200,272 292,756 300,695 . 355,022 284,720 233,354 Duty $14,440.88 10,384.43 39,302.99 The incTtiHe in duties 40,049.05 ptiid in the last Kix 86,264 22 inon'ihs of the year 114,221.33 l>oirif,' : — 49,257.91 $2(».,507 40 52,391.81 29,979 44 70,706.02 51,306.69 62,508.07 37,298.30 60,985 86 42,;il7 18 51,719 11 :!1,111.27 $652,898 28 Total $2,994,838 The increase in duties collected for the month of January, 32 H^ f . :■ I HwHm i498 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NURTII-WEST. m I V ■■ 1 I ( '^ 1882, over Jamiary, 1881, amounted to $28,790 70, the figures being : Junuary, 1882 $4;{,246.58 " 1881., 14,440.88 $28,790.70 A tx)iTeHjj()ii(liiig increase in the general volume of busi- ness transaetetl in the city has likewise taken place; the trade with interior towns being a large and profitable one The failures were of a minor nature, involving no large sums and were but few in number. Mr. Stewart Miilvey, Collector ol Inland Revenue tor Manitoba and the North-West Territory, has supplied us with the following comparative statements of malt used and beer manufactured tor tiie respective yt^ars naii-^ed Yhak. 1373-74. 1875-76. 1877-78 1879-80. Malt used, lbs. 97,690 104,060 177,734 337,739 Spirits ex-warehoused for consumption, for Ykak. Proof Qallons. 1873-71 4,044 60 ..... . 1875-76 13,066 45 ir,77-73 17,685 06 1879-80 53,001 1-1 Tobac(M) t^x-warehoused for consumption, for Ybak. 1874-75 1876-70 1877-78, 1879-80 . lbs. 1,840 33,987i 90,848i 202,366 Beer made, galls. 33,584 41,289 02,614 116,672 Duty. .$ 2,548.10 11,753.15 . 15.913.10 . 53,001 7*2 Duty. .$:i2o.00 0,707.50 Ls.lOl) 70 52,473.20 In 18G8 there were not more than thirty buildinjjfs outside the Fort. Instead of ri^gular streets, there wiu'e only "trails." About this date it was deemed expedi(!nt to lay out a town plot. A wise precaution was adopted by the founders of the <^ity, in making Mam Street and Portage Avenue wide thoroughfares. Both of these streets luive an average width of 132 feet. The former runs from the Assiniboine, paralb.d with the lied River, toward.s Kildonan, a distance of thre-; miles. It is as level as a board the entire distance. This street is the main 128,790.70 uine of busi- n place; the rofitable one no large sunw Revenue tor J supplied us nalt used and flip fiip Wmm. ''''■' •■71/ '■''''' "' ' mm mm mm ■Miiii — -%m vljif ■i.;ii i''' 'Ml'; ' , ii iil i i I •■'I 600 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. I 1' ! :i: 'i! Ii n\ i tlioroughiarc of the city and will remain so for many years to come. Beginning near the Fort are to be found the Land and other Offices of the Canadian Pacific Railway Com- pany ; the Pacific Hotel ; the Customs House and Inland Revenue Office ; the Dominion Lands Office ; the Emigra- tion Office ; all of them handsome white brick structures. By all odds the handsomest building in the city is the new warehouse and stores of the Hudson's Bay Company Another fine structure is being erected by Governor Cauchon, immediately opposite The Post Office and City Hall are likewise on Main street, also the Bank of Montreal, the Ontario Bank, Merchants' Bank, the Imperial Bank, the Dominion Savings Bank, as well as many private banking institutions, and the offices of Loaning and Investment Socie- ties, and of several Insurance Companies. Every brpiich of trade is represented by the mercantile firms on this street. Many of the stores are palatial in appearance internally and externally Wooden structures are giving way to elegant edifices, embracing all modern conveniences In a few years Main street will be to Winnipeg what Broadway is to New York. Portage Avenue, running from the Red River in a westerly direction parallel with the Assiniboine, is also a very fine street, and certain to be one of the most important in the city. Already it boasts of several handsome buildings. Next are Notre Dame and Princess streets, both coming prominently to the front as business streets. Broadway is destined to be the Fifth Avenue of Winnipeg, and will be the fashionable quarter of the city Everywhere buildings are in process of erec- tion The sound of the hammer and trowel are to be heard from dawn to darkness. On every side the hum of activity greets the ear In 1880, over 400 buildings were erected, at a cost of about $1,000,000. In 1881, 700 were built, in- volving an expenditure of $2,1' /,000. For the present year the sum to be expended will probably exceed $5,000,000. DESCRIPTlOi; ANU HISTORY OF WINNIPEG. 501 The present area of the city covers nearly three square miles. It is bounded on the South and East by the Assini- boine and Red Rivers; on the "West by Boundary and McPhillips streets, and on the North by the Parish of St. Johns. These limits must be enlarged ere long, to embrace South and West St. Boniface, part of the parishes of St. James, St. Johns, and Kildonan. A comprehensive system of drainage will then be inaugurated ; streets laid out and sidewalks constructed, and improvements in boulevarding and tree-planting will be carried forward from year to year, until Winnipeg yj»ecomes a forest or garden city, as well as the great city of the prairies. Already there are a large number of companies and corporate bodies within her borders. A Gas Light Com- pany has its works already erected, pipes and mains laid, and services to houses supplied. A Water Works Company is equally far advanced. The Street Railway Company expects to have cars in operation in a few months. The North-West Omnibus and Transfer Company has been carrying on business for some time. Most of the business houses are connected by telephone. Electric lights and fire alarms are to be erected in different parts of the city. Bridge Companies are throwing structures across the rivers at different points. As the city increased in size, population, and influence, her educational facilities were not allowed to fall behind. The city now boasts of a large Central School Building and a number of ward schools, which are all well attended. The first school was opened on Monday, 30th October, 1871, in a small wooden building 16x20, with a thatched roof. The school population then was fifty, and the average attendance twenty-five Mr. W. F. Buxton was the first regularly appointed teacher by a board of trustees. Equally great is the contrast between the means of transportation in 1878 and 1882 For some years previous ii 1 i 502 MANITOBA AND TIM': (JliKAT NORTH-WEST. I I I ! I to 1870, the lludson's Bay Coiri]){Uiy luid a Hiriall stoamor by which they (H)nv(;ye(l their merehaiuliHi? from Ge<'fge- town to Fort Garry. So tedious was th(^ jouriK^y that but two trips each way were made in a season. Traders out- side the Company were compelled to Irejglit their goods by ox carts over the prairies from St. (^loud, the (jom- pany declining to cH|n'ntionir papiM' was called tlie " Nor-Wesjer." It eontinned to e\i,sl Tor a nnnd>er of years, changin}^ pj'«?pi'ietors seviM'jil liiih'.^. Oilier ventnres (»n the jonrnalistie sea liave hoen made, ,son»e of wliii'li lived lor yeiirs, while others wcu'e opheineral. Mesid(\s the lu'wspapcr oHi<'es. Ihen» are .several well ort;ani/ed {oh olliees in I he cilv- Thi> I'rovineial .Vi^riciilhiral Sot'ii'ty has its hea(l-<{narters ill Winnipei;-. It dales ils eslahlishnu'nt as far hack as IS7I, and is now a very prosperons inslitnliou. The S»)ciety re- eoivos an annnal urant IVom the (lovenmionl (tr.f>'J,0()0 ; I his, with uienihiM's' sid)s('riptions and ujein'roiis donations 'Voin private parties, (Miahles it to oiVer liheral pri/es. The exhi- bition is held at dillerent points in I he IVoviinn . (^or- ri*s|>ondene«» is kept up with I he various Fileetoral Division Societies, whoso exhihilions they eneonraj;e hy ofVering 51H>('ial i>ri/es and diplomas. The Society also otlcrs prizes iVom time to time for e.s.says on snhjects pertinent to Agricnlture. This is a feature which nnght well be imi- tated bv stn'ietic'S in the older Provinci's of tin; Dominion. ft' The Ciovernment has ]>romised to the society a grant of twenty-dve acres of land in the city, on which it is proj)ose(l to erect permanent buildings lor exhibition purposes. The lit jouniivl. inoiitliM in iirror. Tl»»^ v«'ll. Tlu^ H'P in w«'ll- IiH'kru/ic'H ' StM'rrliin Wiimipt');, 'iollH IM'WH- > y oiVoring also olVcrs U jHTtincnt Ivcll 1)0 inii- Doniinion. a <)Kl'!S. Tli(' 11 60S MANITDHA AND Til': (!KKAT NOKTII-WKST. onorgctic Socrt'tary ol' tlie Sooi^Jt \ i» Mr. C. Acton Burrnvrs. Nothiiif^ iioed bo said liorn with roleronoe to the Church and the higher iMhication of Winnipeg i.nd the country, us un ji])|)en(Hx is to hv devoted to these HiibjectH. An it may prove ol' interent to thi reader we cannot close tliis chapter withiAit quoting some of the remarkH made by Lord DuiVerin, Govt.'rnor-General of Canada, during his visit to the city in August, 1877. In answer to the civic address presented by the city, he said : — " T beg to thank you most warmly for the kind and hearty welcome you have extended to me, on my arrival in youi- nourishing city, which you rightly desigiuite the metroi)olis of the North-West, the living centre which is destined to animate with its vitjil onergies the rich alluvial region wliose only limit seems to be an ever-receding hori- zon. I am not by any means unac(piainted with the record ol' your achievements; indeed, it is probable that there is no Province in the DoiMinion with whose situation I am better accpiainted, so far as inlbrmation in such res- pects cj'ji be obtained fnmi books and Parliamentary pa- pers; and it is t«) perfect verify, and extend that knowledge by personal ' itercourse with your leading citizens, and by an inspection of the richness of your territory, that I have come amongst you I have no doubt that this city and Province generally, nay. the wliole territory of the North- West, is now illuminated by the dawn of a great advance- ment. Althougli it may not be my good fortune personally to preside nnich longer over your destinies, I need not assure you that your future will always command my warmest sympatliies and continue to attract my closest attention , and I trust that, though at a distance, I may live to see the fulfilment of many of your aspirations." On the occasion of the vice-regal visit drawing to a close, the citizens of Winnipeg invited His Excellency to a public oaiiquct, at which he made a speech in review of his per- DESCUirTlON AND HISTOUY OF WlNNll'KG. 001) Hunal observations of tin; country, and tlu^ ijicts lie had gathered, fVoni wliicli tlie following are extracts : " From its /jfeogra|>lii(^al j)osition, and its peculiar cluirac- teristicH, Manitoba nuiy be regarded as the keystone of that inij'hty arch of sister Provinites which spaiiK tlu; continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It was here tluit (Jnnada, emerging from lier woods and forests, lirst gji/ed upon her rolling prairies and unexplored North-Wesl, iind Icnrnt as by an unex])ected revelation that her historical terriloritss of the Canadas, Ium' eastern seaboards of New IJrunswick, Labrador, and Nova Scotia, her Laurentijin lakes and val- leys, corn lands and [)astures, though tliemsidves more extensive tlian half a dozen European kingdoms, were but the vestibules and ante Tm-; (ilCKAT NnUril-WKST. mill) or a Kn»iiclniijiii, the Si'scru or I In- 'IMdiiim'm, tlu^ Soinu or tlio lllioiic, would appciir t'onsidcnihlc stri'iiiiiH, Ixit in till' Ottawa, a iiicrc aflliUMil of tlic St. Ijawri'iict', an alllutint, inort'ovor, wliicli rcarlii'.s llic parent Mtr«'ani nix luindrod mill's from its month, we Inivr a river nrarlv livf ImndrtMl and lil'ty miles long, and three or lonr times as l)ig aH any ol them. *' IJnt, even after having astu'nded the St. Lawrence itHelT t^) Lake ()ntari(», and pursned it aeross Lake llnron, tln^ Niagara, tlu' St. Olair, and Lake Snperi«>r to Thunder IJa}', a distance ofoni' thonsand nine hnndred mih's, where are we ? Tn the estimation of tlu' person who has made tliu journey, at the «M»d of all things; but to uh who know better,, scared \ at the connnencemtMit of the great llnviid systems of tiie Dominion ; fin*, fn)m that spot — that is to say, iVuin 'riiniid»'r \l,\\ — we are able at once to shij) our astonislied traveller on to the Kaministi(juia, a rivi^r of Home hundred miles long. Thence, almost in aHtraightline, we launcii him on to Lake Sheban|)OMt' \vt; iiav*' laiid»'d oiir travidicr al tlu' town ol VVinnijK'ij;, tln« half-way house ol tho (tontinciit, the (!a|)ital ol" the Prairie Province, and I trust the future '' uinhilicus " of the Dominion. Having had ho niueh of water, having now readied the home ol tin* hulValo, like thu attenuated l^'alHtall", In^ naturally " habhhss of green fields" and eareerH in imagination over the priuieval graHHeH of the prairie. Not at all. Kwiorted by Mr. Mayor and the Town Conncil, we take him down to your '[uay, and awk him which he will ascend first, the Red Kiver or the Assiniboine, two HtreamH, the one five hundred milew long, tlie other four hundred and eighty, which ho happily mingle their waterM within your ; uunity of interests, the sense of being engaged in a CO! mon undertaking, the obvious degree in which the pros- perity of any one man Is a gain to liis neighbours, has amal- gamated the various sections of the population of this Pro- vince, originally so diverse in race, origin, and religion, into a patriotic, closely-welded, and united whole. " In no part of Canada have I found a better feeling pre- vailing between all classes and sections of the community. It is in a great measure owing to this widespread sentiment DESCRIPTION ANr) HISTORV OF WINNIPEG 617 of brotherluKMl that on a recent occawon great troubles have been averted, while at the present moment it is finding its crowning and most triumphant exp^'ession m the establish- ment ol'a University under conditions which have been found impossible of application in any other Province of Canada- — 1 may say in any other counti-y in the world — for nowheve else, either in Europe or on this continent, as far as I am aware, have the bishops and heads of tlie various religious communities into which the (Jhristian world is unhappily divided, combined to erect an Alma Mater to which all the denominational colleges of the Province are to be affiliated and whose statutes and degrees are to be regulated and dis- pensed under the joint ausp'oes of a governing body in which all the churches of the land will be represented. " An jichievement of this kind speaks volumes in favour of the wisdom, liberality, and Christian charity of those de- voted men by whom in this distant land the consciences of the population are led and enlightened, and long may they be spared to see the efforts of their exertions and magnani- mous sacrifices in the good conduct and grateful devotion of their respective flocks. Nor, I an. happy to think, is this good fellowship, upon which I have so much cause to congrat- ulate you, confined either within the limits of the Province or even within those of the Dominion. " In a word, apart, secluded from all extraneous influences, nestling at the feet of her majestic mother, Canada dreams her dream, and forbodes her destiny — a dream of ever- broadening harvests, multiplying towns and villages, and expanding pastures ; of page after page of honorable history added as her contribution to the annals of the Mother Country and to the glories of the British race ; of a perpet- uation for all time upon this continent of that temperate and well-balanced system of Government which combines in one mighty whole, as the eternal possession of all English- men, the brilliant history and the traditions of the past, i: ■ t : i ; i J 1 ^1 ! 1 i 1 ! I:i 618 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. with the freest and most untrammelled liberty of action in the future. " Most heartily do I congratulate you upon all that you are cJoing, and upon the glorious prospect which is opening out on every side of you. Though elsewhere in the Domin- ion stagnation of trade and commerce has checked for a year or two the general advance of Canada, here at least you have escaped the effects of such sinister incidents, for your welfare being based upon the most solid of all foundations, the cultivation of the soil, you are in a position to pursue the even tenor of your way untroubled by those alterna- tions of fortune which disturb the world of trade and manu- facture. You have been blessed with an abundant harvest, and soon, I trust, will a railway come to carry to those who need it the surplus of your produce, now, as my own t "es have witnessed, imprisoned in your storehouses for want cf the means of transport. May the expanding finances of the country soon place the Government in a position to gratify your just and natural expectations." The Winnipeg of to-day — as is well evidenced by what we have already said of its rise and progress — forms a marked contrast tx) that of a few years ago. Its progress has been such as scarcely to be credited by those who have not been actual witnesses of its wonderful growth. To the new-comer, from the older Provinces of the Dominion, or the old countries of Europe, for the first time setting foot in this metropolis of the great North- West, the appearance of the city, the scenes witnessed on its crowded thoroughfares, and in its still more crowded hotels and places of resort and business, are striking and novel. Stepping from the crowded train at the railway station, or from the steamer at the landing, a short walk brings the traveller to the principal thoroughfare of the city. At the places of debarkation, on the arrival of train or boat, all is bustle and excitement. Cabmen and " bus " Ih I J h £ , J' I ^1 -III ' 1 I i. DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF WINNIPEG. 519 drivers ply their vocation with lungs as lusty, and witli as much assiduity as in the older cities. Immeiii-ie piles of baggage almost block up every available space. Speculators with long purses rub shoulder to shoulder, amid the jostling throng upon the crowded platform, with those in less independent circumstances, who have come to carve out a home by the labor of their hands and the 8weat of their brow. If the traveller arrive during the winter season — and if the weather be favorable — he will find the fine wide streets of the city crowded with conveyances of all descriptions — magnificent turnouts with coachmen and footmen fully equipped ; less pretentious rigs, not so grand as those of the nabobs, but the very essence of comfort withal ; farmers from the adjacent country with spanking teams, in many cases brought with them from the east ; natives with a pro- cession of ox-sleds, laden with wood or produce, going to or returning from market. The sleds are as a rule drawn by a single member of the bovine race, but harnessed in "shaga- nappi " and altogether in a more comfortable way equipped for draft than with the old fashioned wooden yoke of by-gone days. Shaganappi, it might be well to explain here, is the name given to the niw buffalo hide from which the ox harness is made. Now and then dog trains, either starting out or returning from long trips to the far west, pass by at a rapid rate. There are usually from six to eight dogs attached to a toboggan; and their continual yelping, together with the shouting of the Indian or Half-breed driver, make up a scene at once novel and picturesque. On the sidewalks the excitement that generally pre- vails attracts attention, and the student of human nature finds ample scope for the exercise of his penchant. Men, old and young, hurry along with anxious look — eagerly intent on business — and, as a rule, a roll of plans under the arm or a note book in the hand may be detected. Some who may have done a good day's business and added a few l>l M i It 520 MANITOBA AND THE GRKAT NORTH-WEST. thousjuulK to their capital, have u satisfied appearance, while otherH, who.se properties may be a little hIow in moving, ap- pear in a corresponding degree de8jx)ndent. The real eHtatt^ officeH — of which the number is legion — are thronged from early morn till late in the night. The maps and plans displayed to view are a constant subject of study, and trans- actions involving thousands of dollart^ are made and settled up with a i)romptness and rapidity that would surprise the more slowgoiig and cautious people of other and older cou ^ne' In this great turmoil of business, men of all natioji'tlitH.H meet — for what country or clime is not represented Ui Uils grand gathering of the nations in this new country ? A noticeable feature on the streets, and it is even more discernible in the churches, is the large preponderance of the male jx)pulation. At the time of writing it is cal- culated that two-thirds of the population of the city are males. This is, of course, accounted for by the fact that the recent influx of immigration has consisted very largely of young unmarried men, who have come here to seek their fortune before entering into matrimonial bonds. There are also many who have left their families in Ontario or else- where until spring, by which time they expect to become permanently settled. To attend one of the large churches of the city is to witness a sight not to be seen out of Winni- peg. They are crowded to the door — and the vast con- gregation is comix)sed of the very bone and sinew of other lands — strong men with will and determination stamped upon every feature, and in the majority of cases comfoi- tably situated financially. Such audiences must inspire any man who rises to address them. The people of Winnipeg are eminently a church-going community. On the Sabbath morn, except when the bells in the church towers call the citizens forth to worship, the streets are very quiet, and from then until the hour of dismissal the same quiet prevails. DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF WINNIPEG. 621 Tliere are other novel features in this wonderful city. Tlie old aborigines are not by any means extinct, and now and then one meets an Indian mother — a representative of a fast departing race — her papoose strapped tightly on her buck, and covered with a ])lanket, the little urchin as a rule indicating very unmistakable objections to such close con- finement by violent protestations audible from underneath its woollen protection. The almost entire absence of pauperism, or anything approaching to sc^ualor, is a noticeable feature of life in Winnipeg. Every one from the laboring man up is well and comfortably clad, and seems to be perfectly satisfied with the country in which his lot has been cast. Tl, . ^^atement is corroborated by the fact that during the p-uA y r the City Council w«^re required to expend less thrvi '^150 for chari- table purposes. In the evening after the stores and other places of busi- ness are closed, the hotels and real esta; riotion rooms are tlie centres around which the great mass of the people con- gregate. Every large hotel has a real estate office in con- nection with it. The excitement then is even more intense than during the day — and many of the largest transactions then take place. The auction rooms are generally crowded, and the amount of property sometimes disposed of is very large. There mechanics and workingmen, whose time is otherwise occupied during the day, mingle with those whose only business is to speculate, and venture a portion of their hard earned savings in a piece of Manitoba earth, which often in the course of a few days realizes the purchaser a hand- some profit. The whole community seems to be permeated with a desire for speculation. Scarcely one in the city but has benefitted somewhat by the " boom " that has existed', and in many cases a very satisfactory nucleus for a future competence, has accrued to the fortunate investor. All who come are satisfied that the prospects are great, and many ■ iiiiij MI'i ! I . 1 i 622 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. doubting Thomases who came to see, remained to buy. In a week or two they are deep in the maelstrom of land speculation. Socially, Winnipeg may be said to be as near what it ought to be as any city in existence. People of all classes and creeds, natives and foreigners, alike work together in perfect accord, with a single aim to further the resources of the great country tributary to it. And thus are Winnipeg and the North-West working out their mauiiest destiny. CHAPTER XXVIII. ChurcheH auil iSchooh in the North-West. [A Chaptkr Wkittkn by (). M. Ohant, I».1)., Pkincipai. of Qukkn-'h T'mvkrhity, KisosTON, Ont.J First Settler* in Manitoba PreHbyterianii — Tiicir Piety — Attachment to tlie C'lmrch of their FutherH — First Anglican MiHHionaricH — Their Zeal and Prudence — IIi;;h- land Tenacit)' — Arrival of Rev. John Black — Kildonan Church — Uoman Cutiio- lic MiHHionH — EHtabliHhment of ChurcheH and HchoolK by MiriKJonaricH from tlie Church of Kn^land — Ruport'M Land Divided into Four DioceHCH — One Episcopal Church for Canada — MethodiHt MiHsionariex — lU-v. George Miudougnl — R'V. George Young — Mothodiut Churches in Winnipeg — MiHHionH of the PreHbyterian Church — Knox and Ht. Andrew's Churches — A Common Mission Board for the Protestant Churches Required — First School Act — Its Provisions and Amendments on it — Educational Development — Difficulties Caused by Sparse Settlement — Hiuh School Work — Colleges — St. Boniface — St. John's — Manitoba College — Manitoba University — Harmonious Co-operation in it of all Churches and Colleges — Hupjiy Solution of Difficulties Considered Insuperable Elsewhere — Omens for the Future, Roman Catholic Missions, by Archbishop Tache's Secretary — Missions of St. Boniface — East St. Boni&ce — Colleges — Charitable Institutions. The celebrated book on snakes in Ireland commenced with the words " There are no Snakes in Ireland." Had a chapter on churches and schools in the North West been written half a century ago it would have opened in much the same way. But now, with regard to churches and schools, Manitoba styles herself the " Banner Province of the Do- minion." Our young sister in the North- West has not had to pass through the initial era of social chaos, that character- ised the history of many of the West'irn States. Her immi- grants at the first were a God-fearing people, and so in the main they have always been and still are. Avoiding op|X)- site fanaticisms in education^ she has escaped the Scylla of sectarianism, and the Charybdis of anti-sectarianism. The settler is not expected to come without a live coal from his own venerated altar-fires, and he and his neighbors may well build school-houses, for one-eighteenth of the land has been set apart as an endowment for the st*-hoolmaster. i n 1 524 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. I I i i 1^1 The Highlanders, whom the Lowhuid Karl of Selkirk brought from Scotland in 1812 and 1810, were Preshy- teriaiiH. Religion waH the principle of their liven, and theii religion was inextricably bound up with the nimple forms of the (Church of their fathers. They would not have left their mountains and glens for the prairies that, Lork Selkirk told them, were ready for the plough in the heart of an unknown continent, had he not promised that a minister of their chuch would accompany them to their new home. His Lordship arranged that the son of the parish minister of Resolis should go with them. At the last moment the young licentiate drew back, and the colonists had to set out with a lay catechist, one of the class emphatically styled " the men," as their spiritual guide. This lay missionary, James Sutherland by name, did his duty faithfully while with them, but the hostile influences of the North-west Company secured his removal after a few years, and the pious Highlanders were left with no man to care for their .souls. They had, however, resoui'ces within themselves, and these did not fail them. They had their GaBlic Bibles, and could read them. Family worship was observed as regularly as the sun rose and set. They sang the psalm.s of David in Gtelic to those plaintive tunes that reach to the very marrow of the Highland nature, and prayed as men pray who believe that the living God can be moved by prayer. It might be supposed that men who could pray in public extempore, and exhort with an amazing combination of doctrinal knowledge and emotional fervor, would come to feel themselves independent of ministers of religion. Not at all. No men revere the ministerial office more than Highlanders. Consequently, as no minister of their own persuasion came to the distant Red River of the North, the settlers gave a hearty welcome to the missionaries of the Church of England. The Rev. John West, who arrived in 1820, was the first of these. He was succeeded by the Rev. J CHURCHES AND SCHOOLS IN THE NORTH-WEST. o20 P. T. JonoH. Tlu'Ho mon, and thone who fuliowt'd did all that could he done to attach the Sootcliiiien to Anglican fbrmH. They used IIouhc'h verHion of the Psalms, and held one of the services in the church on the Lord's Day according to the Presbyterian form. In lS4(i, tin? Bishopri* of Rupert's Land, embracing the vast area from the (Jousl of Labrador to the Rocky Mt)initains, was founded, and the Reverend Mr. Anderson, a Scotchman, was its lirst bisho;* lie resigned in ISf)-!, and another Scotchman, Bishoi) Machray, succeeded him. But, though the Highlanders attended their ministrations, and were nmrried and had their children baptized according to the Anglican mode, they clung to the memory of the Church of their Fatherland. Those simple forms styled bald and cold by ajsthetical religionists had a shiguhir charm for those spiritually minded men, and they clung with extraordinary tenacity to the hope of some day seeing among them a minister of their own Church. 1 know nothing of the kind in recent Church History more touching than this fidelity, that no neglect and no disappointments could chill. Here are the words, taken from an affidavit made by them, in which they state how bootless all their efforts had been : — " Over and over again have wo applied to every governor in the colony since its commencement, to Mr. Halkett, also to his lordship's kins- man, and to the Governor-in-Chief of Rupert's Land ; and time after time petitioned the men in power among us; but all to no effect." The Church of England had done more than its duty, but the Church of Scotland seemed deaf. At length, the Canada Presbyterian Church heard their cry, and in 1852 Hcnt the Rev. John Black to minister to them. We travel trom U )ronto to Winnipeg in two or three days. Thirty years ago, it took Mr. Black eight weeks to make the journey. And, had it not been for the aid of Governor Ruiiisay of Minnesota, the young minister would have been longer on the road. Illinois mud was as bad as Manitoba 7uud is now. !'! i'! Mi !l 526 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. If ' i ll ; 1 The Highlanders welcomed Mr. Black with a Highland welcome. Their eyes .saw the teacher they had longed to aee. In one day, three hundred left the Episcopal Church, without reproach on the part of the Bishop, and with no feel- ings in their hearts for him save gratitude and respect. Soon, manse and school-house and the stone church of Kildonan were built. The steeple rose into the air, a sign seen from afar on the level prairie ever since. " There ! " exclaimed the mason as he gazed on the solid structure with loving eyes, "keep pouther and ill hands aff her, and she '11 stand for a hunner years and mair!" During the next fifteen years nothing more was done by the Presbyterian Churches for the religious development of the North-west. Mr. Black was Presbyter and Bishop. He alone represented the cause of the old blue banner and he did it in a way that secured for liira the siffection and respect of all men. His congregation dwelt on the banks of the Red River, from Fort Garry downwards. Ribands of land extending from the river away into the prairie, " as far distant as could be seen from under a horse's belly," had been given to the immigrants. This distance was supposed to be tv/o miles, but two miles more were claimed as a reserve for hay, and the claim was subsequently allowed. Each immigrant had a river frontage, and the houses were built along the river bank. This system of colonization, whicli resembled the old French settlements on the St. Lawrence and its tributaries, gave an appearance of dense population, very different from that picture of loneliness now commonly presented to the eye, of vast prairies dotted here and th^^'c with small and mean-looking houses. It was admirably adapted for the cultivation of good fellowship among neigh- bors, but put good farming out of the question. A line of block houses extended down the banks of the Red River. Cultivated fields gradually broke in upon that undeviating monotony which the virgin praii'ie had maintained for CHURCHES AND SCHOOLS IN THE NORTH-WEST. 527 13 prairie, " as couiitless centuries. Those same fields have raised wheat con- tinuously ever since. Crofters, ejected by Highland lairds who thought more of red deer and grouse than of the old sons of the grand Scottish mountains, disbanded soldiers anart of the country arc nominally Christians. Keep whiskey fnmi them, and they ;ire better Christians practically than average white men. Five or six hundred Indian church members an; eonnected with Norway House and its stations. Sixty or seventy miles north of the l)end of the North Saskatchewan, an important mission has been establislied a,t White-fish Lake. 34 ' • 630 MANITOBA AND TUB GREAT NORTH-WEST. 141 ll 'I' Here, the clergyman, Rev. Mr. Steinhaur, is a full-blooded Ojibbway, and his Cree ttock are gradually abandoning their numadic habits and becoming farmers. A gratifying feature of mission-work in the North-west is the fact that the diffe- rent Protestant Churches do not interfere with ea^h other. Tliey respect each other too much to compete for converts, even when there is a temptation in tlie way. For instance, last summer, a deputation of Indians from a district under the care of the Church of England requested the Methodist Superintendent to send them a minister. Inquiry was made at the proper (jiiarter into the cause, and it being ascertained that tlie Indians had taken offence, because an erring but popular Half-breed clergyman had been disciplin- ed, their request was courteously declined. The Methodist Church of Canada is preparing to follow the stream of immigration with wonted energy. It lia.s taken a comprehensive view of the whole c/mntry, and will send ministers to the most important points, and wiierever its people call tor the ordinances of religion to In* dispensed to them according to tlie ritual to which they have been accustomed. In 1808, Rev. George Young arrived in Winnipeg, and made application to the H. B. Company for a site for a church and mission house. The Company, in accordance with its traditional policy of deal'ng liberal!} with all Churches, allowed him to select an acre from its reserve. He selected so judiciously that the site has now a frontage of 420 feet on jViain Street. A neat church was erected, but a year or two ago the congregation, belie ving that tliey could worship in a less valuable h)caUty, rented tlir church for worldly uses and built stores along side, wliicli bring in rent enough to maintain an Arclibishop. Th' congregation betook itself to the Drill-shed, and then to a rail over the stores, until they should decide wliere to build a Metro])olitan churcli. Tliey own land on Notre Daiiu' Street, but \l also is becoming so valuable as a business site CHURCHES AND SCHOOLS IN THE NORTH-WEST. 531 that some think it a pity to waste it on a church. The second Methodist church is near Point Douglas. A valuable farm in West St. Boniface has been bequeathed recently by the Rev. D. Morrow, a minister of the Church, to enable it to establish a Denominational College, when the time comes for taking such a step. Both the Methodist and the M. E. Churches have already secured the necessary charters for Colleges. Everything indic&,tes that the Methodist Church will take as prominent a place in Manitoba as it occupies in Ontario. The Reverend Mr. Nesbit was the first missionary to the Indians sent out by the Canada Presbyterian Church. He established his headquarters at Prince Albert, on the North Saskatchewan, in 1866, and did good work until he died at his post in 1874. Prince Albert is destined to be an im- portant centre, and the Church has therefore recently sent Rev. Mr. Sieveright, who is building at various points in the surrounding country with the zeal of a St. Boniface or Columbanus. The Presbyterian Church is atoning for past neglect by the energy which it has displayed in North- west work since its union in 1875. Their congregation in Winnipeg built, on Portage Avenue, Knox church, a beauti- ful specimen of Gothic architecture, whose tall graceful spire has ever since been the landmark of the city to travellers far out on the prairie. Knox congregation ecame so large that a number of its energetic young men dt rmined to form a second congregation, to be called St. An' ws. They did 80 last year, parting from the parent co ^regation in the most friendly spirit. Both parties were actuated by a desire for the common good, and then >tlier congregation determined therefore to move away from the centre of the city to a site near Manitoba College, the better to divide Winnipeg into two parishes. The trustees, Kirk-session and congregation of Knox, instead of complaining of the loss they would sustain by the formation of tn ^ second congre- i ' 1 liv 632 MANITOBA AND TlIK GREAT NOKTll-WEST. gation, voted the offshoot $10,000 towards tho erection of their proposed new church, and subsequently when Knox was sold for a larger sum than was expected, the gift was increased to $25,000, They do big things in the North-west. The size of the country may have its influence on the minds of the people. For instance, the members of Knox church contributed in 1881 between forty and fifty thousand dollars for religious and charitable objects. And in tlie first months of 1882, a new scheme for building churches and manses having been proposed, they subscribed towards it in a few days over $20,000. All this in a city less than ten years old ! In the summer of 1881, the Presbyterian Church had thirty-eight ordained ministers and student catechists in the North-west. In 1882 it intends to have fifty. Ten years ago it had about a dozen preaching stations. Now it has over one hundred and fifty. There is room in the North-west for all the Churches and lor all that they can do. B*'i; where so much has to be done, an understanding is most desirable, to prevent collisions and cross firing. In Austr.ilia the Episcopal, Methodist, and Presbyterian Cburches economize their strength and give practical proof of their underlying unity and brotherly spirit by an agreement not to interfere with each other's work in the Home mission field, and by the establishment of a board that endeavors to harmonize the action of the respective Churches. A joint committee that would organize a fair distribution of missionaries in our North-west would be an unspeakable blessing. Anyone who has had opportunities of seeing what communities become where no ministers of religion hold up a banner for God, morality sind purity of life, would gladly sacrifice all the shibboleths of his sect to secure a resident clergyman in every settled township in the North-w(!st. The verv existence of a church in a com- munity is a witness of higher , things than the material. The CHURCHES AND SCHOOLS IN THE NORTH-WEST. 533 presence of a minister of religion is a guarantee of social order. The Presbyterian Church has recently taken a ste}) that not only renders its own administration more prompt and effective, but facilitates the carrying out of a cx)mmon understanding between different Churches. It appointed last year a Superintendent of missions for the whole North- west, and the presbytery or court constitutionally charged with the work that he has to do, far from viewing the new office with suspicion as an encroachment on its own jurisdic- tion, pressed for its creation. The Reverend James Robert- son, pastor of Knox church, Winnipeg, was appointed Supe- rintendent by the General Assembly. His capacity for organization and his knowledge of the country, especially of its religious and educational necessities, marked him out for the post to which he was apppointed by unanimous consent. Perhaps the most satisfactory chapter in the history of Manitoba is its peaceful and harmonious educational develop- ment. In every other province oi xKe Dominion long and angry wars have been waged over common schools, academies and Colleges. Well may the province that has no history in this respect be called happy. During the firs^ session of the first parliament of Manitoba lield in 1871, th(i act that is the basis of the present system of common school education was passed. The act has been amended from time to time, and there is now virtually a general school system connected with the municipal code in- troduced a year or two ago. A board of education, composed of Roman Catholic and Protestant sections, was established in 1S71. T)ie Reverend W. Cyprian Pinkham and Mr. Eli Tasse were appointed superintendents of the Protestant and Roman Catholic s Mjickenzie River, three thousand miles away. The Bishop of Rupert's Land is at the head of these institutions, and is indefatigable in his efforts to promote their welfare. Manito)>a College- in connection with the Presbyteriiui Church in Canada — was established in 1871, in Kildonuu ClILUCliKS AND hCllUULS IN TIIK NOKTil-WEST. 537 and wuH shortly aftorwards ivmovtHl to more wuitable pif- iiu.si'K in tho city of ^Vinnipt'g. Tiiesc were disponed of in 18S1, and luuidsonie new buildings erected in the western part of the city between Portage Avenue and Notre Dame Street. The corner stone of the new College was laid by the Governor-General, Lord Lome, in August last. The structure is of brick, rock stone foundations, and three storeys in height. Four acres and a (quarter of land form the College grounds. The cost, including furnishings, will be about $40,000. The Board of Management consists of the follow- ing : — Hon. A. G. B. Bannatyno, Chairman ; Prof. Bryc«' ; Prof. Hart; Revs. Thos. McGuire, A. Matheson, James Kobertson, Alex. Campbell, Allan Bell; Hon. D. A. Smith; Hon. G. McMicken; H. McMillan, M.P.P. ; A. W. Ross, M.P.P. ; Messrs. D. McArthur, and John Sutherland. The faculty consists of: Rev. George Bryce, M.A., LL.B., Pro- fessor of Science and Literature; Rev. Thomas Hart, M.A.. B.I)., Professor of Classics and French ; Rev. R. Y. Thom[»- son, B.A., Lecturer in Science and Literature; Mr. R. G. MacBeth, University of Manitoba, Lecturer in Classics and French ; Mr. R. W. Jameson, B.A., (Cantab.), Lecturer in Higher Mathematics; Mr. A. M. Campbell, University of Manitoba, Lecturer in Ordinary Mathematics. Tlie Senate con.sitJts of Rev. D. M. Gordon, B.D. ; Professor Hart ; Pro- fessor Bryce, James Robertson, C. B. Pitblads, and Alex. Campbell. The objects of the College are to give such higher education as the requirements of the country may demand, and to prepare students for the ministry under the super- vision of the Presbytery of Manitoba. This College takes a foremost place among the educational institutions of the country. In 1877, the Universityof Manitoba was established with its seat at Winnipeg, '•' for the purpose," as set forth in the preamble to the Act of Incorporation, " of raising the standard of higher education in the Province, and enabling itl! \ i% %, ^> %^.. ^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 ■ 50 "^^ 1^ 2.2 2.0 18 1-4 IIIIII.6 V ^3 '^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 145S0 (716) •72-4503 4% \ »*. ;\ ^V '%^ ill ii il 638 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. all denominations and classes to obtain academical degrees." The three denominational Colleges are affiliated to the University, and as the country develops, others will spring into existence and take advantage of its privileges. The University is governed by a Council consisting of a Chan- cellor and Vice-Chancellor, of representatives for each of the Colleges that may be affiliated, three representatives elected by the Convention of Graduates, and two representatives of the Board of Education. Degrees in Arts, Law, and Medi- cine are conferred by the University, and power is given to the several Colleges, with the consent of the religious bodies with which they are connected, to establish separate faculties in theology, and grant the Degrees of Bachelor of Divinity and Doctor of Divinity. The Chancellor of the University is the Bishop of Rupert's Land; the Vice-Chancellor, Hon. Joseph Royal, M. P. ; Registrar, Thomas Bernier, Esq. ; Board of Studies — Chairman, The Bishop of Rupert's Land ; Secretary, Prof. Hart, M.A., B.D. Manitoba has shown that it is possible to organize Univer- sity education on a basis that does equal justice to denomi- national and to non-denominational effi)rts. The harmonious co-operation of the Colleges, and their willingness to make changes in their respective ideals, are signal proofs of the wisdom and catholic spirit of the men who govern them. Thus, St. Boniface College introduced more mathematics and more of physical and natural science into its curriculum than the Archbishop thought desirable, in order to meet the views of the other Colleges. Manitoba College, again, gave more prominence to classics than it might otherwise have done. The tolerant spirit of the council is also shown by its allowing separate papers on logic, natural and moral philosophy, and history to be set for the students of St. Boniface who come up to the University examinations. Educational problems considered insoluble in other countries and provinces have thus been quickly solved in Manitoba. The evil spirit of 5T. CHURCHES AND SCHOOLS IN THE NORTH-AVEST. 539 . »» cal degrees.' ated to the 8 will spring vileges. The 5 of a Chan- 3r each of the sitives elected Bsentatives of LW, and Medi- er is given to sligious bodies arate faculties )r of Divinity he University ancellor, Hon. Vernier, Esq.; lupert's Land ; sectarianism has been exorcised, not by the ostrich like wis- dom of ignoring sects, but by frankly acknowledging the good work they have done, and securing their co-operation in common objects. Justice is done to all, and in conse- quence, Colleges with different histories, ideals and modes of government gladly send their alumni to one centre to be stamped with the common stamp of the University of Manitoba. May the spirit that has presided over the Uni- versity in the days of its poverty not desert its authorities when through the development of the country it becomes wealthy and powerful ! lis -I janize Univer- ice to denomi- he harmonious sness to make proofs of the govern them, ithematics and irriculum than aeet the views tin, gave more se have done. »y its allowing ilosophy, and •ace who come onal problems Irovinces have evil spirit of '1 i I 540 MANITOBA AND THE GKLaT NORTH-WEST. Roman Catholic Missions of /SV. Boniface^ Manitoba. nh m i' ft j [This Article was Wkittkn by Archbishop Tachk's Skcrrtakv.J It has been the scene of heroic efforts for general good which have brought about the most distinguished feature of the hjcality, that of its religious, educational, and benevolent Institutions. Lord Selkirk, anxious to attract to his colony the French Canadians dispersed throughout the country, took the ne- cessary steps to secure the services of two priests. Bishop Plessis, the then Bishop of Quebec, willingly acceded to the request and proposed the important mission to the Reverend J. N. Provencher, and the Reverend S. Dumoulin, who gen- erously accepted it. The Reverend gentlemen travelled in birch canoes and reached Point Douglas, now Winnipeg, on the 16th of July, 1818. Shortly after they crossed the Red River and began the settlement to which they gave the name of St, Boniface, the Apostle of Germany, as a mark of regard for the Catholic German soldiers who had accompanied Lord Selkirk and who were located in the neighborhood. The Reverend Mr. Dumoulin went to Pembina where there was at the time a large settlement of French Canadians and Half-breeds. The Reverend Mr. Provencher was consecrated Bishop on the 12th of May, 1822, and remained in St. Boniface until his death which occurred on the 7th of June, 1853. Conse- quently he had been thirty -seven years at the head of the diocese of St. Boniface. He sent missionaries to the Saskatch- ewan country, to Athabasca, to British Columbia and Oregon. The establishment of St. Boniface may be justly considered as the head-quarters of the immense field which extends to the Pacific and Arctic Oceans. ROMAN CATHOLIC MISSIONS OF ST. BONIFACE. 541 The first Church in the country was erected by Bishop Provencher, shortly after his arrival, in 1818. It was a modest wooden building and served at the same time as a dwelling and school-house. Five years later the prelate raised a more spacious construction, and in 1832 laid the foundation stone of the handsome cathedral which was destroyed by fire in 1800. After having toiled during twenty -six years with a very limited clergy, Bishop Provencher succeeded iii securing for his diocese the services of the Oblate Fathers. The Rever- end Father Aubert, the first Oblate missionary of Red River, arrived at St. Bcmiface on the 25th of August, 1845, in company with a novice of the same order, then in his 22nd year, consequently under age to be promoted to the priest- hood. This novice was, by the leadings of Providtaice, to become the immediate successor of the first Bishop of St. Boni- face. In October, 1845, the Reverend Father Tach6 was ordained priest and appointed to the remote mission of Isle a la Crosse. The zeal and ability of the young missionary could not fail to be noticed and the fast declining health of Bishop Provencher rendering it necessary to obtain a co-adjutor, the choice fell on the Reverend Father Tache, then only twenty -six years of age. The elect received the episcopal consecration in the Cathedral of Viviers (France) on the 23rd of November, 1851. The new and exalted dignity only served to invigorate the ardor of the missionary-bishop for the salvation of souls. He speedily returned to his mission of Isle a la Crosse. They only, who have witnessed or experienced the like, can form an idea of the fatigue and sufferings he endured while travelling, especially during the long and severe winters of the far north. Equally difficult would it be to enumerate the privations endured in every shape. After the death of Bishop Provencher, Bishop Tach6 suc- ceeded to the see of St. Boniface. The diocese then compre- ^ ■ 1" t ~ *(• 542 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 1 I hended an immense extent of territory. It has been divided since, and in 1871 Bishop Tach^ was named Arch- bisliop of a new ecclesiastical province, which includes the Archdiocese of St. Boniface, the diocese of St. Albert, the districts of Athabasca and Mackenzie and British Columbia. Archbishop Tach6 has been in the country thirty-seven years. Fire, floods, and famine have, in turn, spread destruction and desolation, but at the same time served to give striking proof of the energy and self denial of the father of his flock and the friend of all. As already stated the Cathedral of St. Boniface was con- sumed by fire in 1860. Bishop Tach6 had it replaced by a stone edifice of fine design to be entirely completed this year. It possesses a splendid organ, the gift of the numerous friends of the Archbishop in the province of Quebec, on the occasion of the twenty -fifth anniversary of his election to the episcopate in 1875. East St. Boniface. What Brooklyn is to New York, Birkenhead to Liver- pool, and Oakland to San Francisco, East St. Boniface will be to Winnipeg. Already a large number of fine private residences and manufactories as well as business premises, the property of citizens belonging to Winnipeg, have been erected. The ground on which the rising city is to be built is high, dry and particularly inviting for suburban residences. A fine iron bridge has been constructed across the Red River, connecting Broadway in Winnipeg, and Provencher Avenue, in St. Boniface, in which it is expected tramways will be in operation in a few months. St. Boni- face, undoubtedly was one of the most interesting settle- ments of Lord Selkirk in the Red River country. The Archbishop's residence, which replaces that burnt with the Cathedral in 1860, is a nice dwelling-house built of stone, having in front walks planted with trees. ROMAN CATHOLIC MISSIONS OP ST. BONirACE. 543 It is not only the abode of the Archbishop and his clergy, but the hospitalities of the dwelling are also gladly proffered to missionaries worn out by hardships and toil. Residents : His Grace the Most Reverend A. Tache, Archbishop of St. Boniface ; Rev. Father J. Tissot, 0. M. I., Vicar-General ; Rev. Father A. Maisonneuve, 0. M. I. ; Rev. G. Dugast; Rev. Father J. McCarthy, 0. M. I., Secretary. Schools of St. Boniface. From the beginning of the establishment of St. Boniface peculiar advantages have been afforded for the instruction and education of youth. The College. A portion of his residence was reserved by Bishop Pro- vencher on his arrival in the country to begin the fir.st college of St. Boniface, and the devoted prelate all his life time, added the teaching of children to his other numerous and important occupations. To his successor. Bishop Tache, it was reserved to build the College still to be seen on the banks of the Red River, and, within the two last years, the magnificent edifice just completed, for the same purpose. While the location, the construction, the playgrounds, and everything connected with the new college are conducive to health and comfort, nothing is spared, on the other hand, to promote the mental advancement of the pupils. The course of studies is all that is necessary to fit a young man for commercial and scientific pursuits. It also includes all the branches of science required by the University programme for taking degrees, thus preparing the student for the study of the liberal professions. Members of the Corporation : His Grace the Most Rever- end A. Tach6, Archbishop of St. Boniface ; Rev. A. A. Cherrier, B. S., Principal of the College ; Rev. G. Dugast ; I' 11 544 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. Kc'V. J. T. Lavoio,0. M. J., and Rev. J. McCarthy, 0. M. I.; Staff: Rov, A. A. Cherrier, B. S., Professor of Divinity and General Superintendent of Studies; Rev. G. Cloutier, Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy and High Mathe- matics ; Rev. S. Moreau, Professor of Natural Science and French Literature ; Rev. T. Quevillon and Rev. J. Dufresne^ Professors of Classics and Modern Languages; Messrs. Melodic and Morin, Professors of English Literature and P^nglish Commercial Course. Assistant teachers : Messrs. Rev. T. L. Rene, J. Messier, J. (). Barrett, and A. Berul)6 ; Prefect of Discipline ; Rev. N. Jutras. The nnisical depart- ment is under the direction of the celebrated violinist, Mr. F. Boucher ; Rev. J. Doucet is Bursar and Steward. His Grace Archbishop Tach6, in addition to building the College, has founded several scholarshii)s in favor of promising stud- ents. His Excellency tin; Governor General of Canada yearly grants a medal of honor to the most successful student in Greek. The collegiate year embraces two terms. The first begin- ning in August and the second in February. Convent of St. Boniface. Sisters Valade, Lagrave, Coutlee, and Lafrance, members of the Grey Nunnery of Montreal came, at the call of the first Bishop of St. Boniface, in 1844, to found a branch of their Order in St. Boniface. The Convent generally known as the General Hospital of St. Boniface is the mother house of the establishments of Sisters in St. Francois Xavier, St. Vital, and St. Norbert. The Superior has also jurisdiction over the Convents of St. Albert, Lac laBiche, Ivsle a la Crosse, and MacKenzie River. There are at present in the province of Manitoba 37 professed Sisters and 6 novices- Principal officers : Sister Hamel, Superior ; Sister Lany, Assistant and Mistress of Novices ; Sister Curran, Secretary ; and Sister St. Placide, Bursar. BST. ROMAN CATHOLIC MISSIONS OF ST. BONIFACE. 545 •hy,O.M. I.; of Divinity G. Cloutior, High Mathc- Sciencc and . J. Dufresne, (TCH ; Messrs. tcrature and kers: Messrs. d A. Beriil)6 ; \isical depart- violinist. Mr. ;teward. His ig the College, romising stwd- ral of Canada cessful student he first begin- ance, members ;he call of the d a branch of erally known mother house is Xavier, St. so jurisdiction che, Isle a la present in the ,nd 6 novices. Sister Lany, an, Secretary •, St. Boniface Academy. The chief objtct Bishop Provencher had in view when inviting Sisters to his diocese was to afford means of in- struction to youth. Upon their arrival, in 1844, the Sisters opened their school, which has been largely attended ever since, crowning their efforto with complete success. Besides upwards of 40 boarding pupils there is an average attendance of over 100 day scholars. The course of studies is made in P^nglish and French, vocal and instrumental music, drawing, and plain and fancy needlework are also taught. In a word, everything that tends to form accomplished young ladies is attended to. Sister Royal, Directress ; Teachers : Sisters Dunn, McDougall, Desnoyers, Bourassa, Brouillet, and Tru- teau. Charitable Institutions. Although the Sisters of Charity were called upon chiefly for the instruction of youth, they have coiistantly exercised corporal works of mercy, — taking cariitioii of tlm Chanter — Kxtiiictinii of Indian TitlfH — Kiinmnmlion of Different Indiun TmutifH liCH-.alion of tlio liUnkU Coded — Ounerul TcrniH of tlic ViiriouM Tntul- ii'H Indian C'haracteriHticH — Fornmr HiibitH— lIorHe .Stealing no Crime- ("onsideri'da Virtue and Htill Indulged in — How t'onducted around the CypreHH HiUh in 1«8() — How I Saved my HorscM — The Union Jack Versus the Staraand StripeH— Settlers need have no Keur — IndiauHand their Uccupations on Lakes Manitoba and Winni])egooHiH — Food, Game, and Fure — I'otatoes and (larden Vegetables — Indian U(!H('rve at Fort Pelly — Cote's Medal — K Indians found in the forest country stretching from Lake Winnipeg to Portage la Loche. The chief article of diet for all these Indians is fish, and their mode of cooking is- the same everywhere. During the summer they are found encamped in small parties at the discharges of lakes or on the shores of small bays where there are sandy or gravelly shallows or at the foot of rapids or rivers. Here they set their nets and draw from the water day by day their neces- sary food. Excursions are frequently made for the purpose of hunting, but their chief dependence is on fish. Cooking amongst the Indif.n tribes is a very simple process, yet they can roast a duck or other fowl to suit the taste of any gour- mand. Should a little flour be obtained at a fishing station, a number of fish are cut up and put in a pot with water and a handful of flour, and boiled for a short time. The pot is then taken off" and all gather round, and the contents are eaten with great gusto, and they drink the liquid with evident relish. Seeing a family eating in this way after you have had a hearty meal is certainly disgusting, but should you be hungry you are altogether oblivious to the mode, as you see only the food. In 18G9 I saw the Indians at the Pic on the northeast coast of Lake Superior eat fish as I have described and considered their habits filthy in the extreme, yet in 1875, when starving at Buffalo Lake, I considered boiled fish and fish broth without flour a rich treat, and could see nothing wrong except in its scarcity. Very little dried fish seems to be eaten by the eastern Indians, but those west of the Rocky Mountains dry enor- mous quantities for winter use. As these fish are dried without salt, and eaten without being cooked, I may say that dried fish " straight " was the most unpalatable food I ever ate. An old Frenchman at Fort St. James on Stewart's Lake told me he had lived on dried fish for nearly forty years, and showed how his teeth were worn chewing them. His son and an Indian boy when travelling with us caught INDIANS OP THE PRAIRIE AND THE FOREST. 551 fish for a few days, every evening and morning, lor their breakfast and supper, but when they found that these meals came independently of the fish they ceased to catch them. Indians know very little of being prepared for a scarcity, and they are therefore either in a state of afttuence or in want. Their work consists in procuring food, and if they can beg it from a white man or get it from a relative, they will lie around all day and make no effort to help them- selves. In one sense Indians are not lazy as they will travel immense distances for very little, but in these cases a proper incentive was held out to them. As soon as Indians can be .4.wakened to a sense of individual rights in property, and that lazy relatives must depend upon themselves, an im- provement will take place. At present food seems to be common property, and as long as it remains such little attempt will be made by the majority to get out of their periodic states of semi-starvation. Their apparent laziness springs from precisely the same cause as that of a child whose wants are all supplied by the parent. Cut off the supply and nature asserts her wants and necessity causes action. Indians, if incorporated with the whites as Negroes have been, would work just as well, but boing isolated and partly supported by the Government, they seldom rise above the level of dependents. A change of policy will cause a change in their character, and when missionaries learn to teach the young people to speak, and therefore think, in English, much of the work will be performed. The present system only perpetuates their misery, and the christianized Indian who cannot speak English is apparently — if not lower — as low in the scale as his pagan neighbors. Indians ciui be raised in the social scale by teaching them English, but I question very mui^h the benefits arising from mere prciiching, without the civilizing intiuence of our language and literature. There is no reason why an Indian child should not read the same stories, see the same pictures. ti^ u n 552 MANITOBA AND THE GRKAT NORTH-WEST. have the same teacliing, and, therelbre, tliink the same thoughts, as our own children. As a rule, Indian children are more intelligent l(X)king than those ol'the lower class of Whites, and certainly they show a greater aptitude to learn, but they get no chance, and hence, they remain as their fathers were, or worse. The Indian language nuist be dropped, and nothing s[)oken but English, and as a result, in two years the Indian question would be settled. Through- out the North-West, wherever I found an Indian could talk English, I found one who wore white man's clothing, and Avho tried to attach himself to the Whites. Should the Government compel every Indian child, under sixteen, t<. attend the schools, either established on the Reserves or about to be established, the Indian question would settle itself in the course of the next ten years ; but should their education not bo compulsory, very little change will bo effected, as Indian nature resembles human nature the world over. Missionary enterprise must take a more practical sliape than it has hitherto done, before much permanent good will be effected, I speak from a knowledge of Mission- ary work from the Pacific to the Sault Ste. Marie, and I write advisedly when I say that only earnest, wise, and prac- tically good men should be sent into the Mission field. Good men are very well in their place, but more than goodness is wanted in a western Missionary. Indi.ans have been accused of having loose morals, as re- gards the marriage relation, of being liars, of being thieves, of being malicious cut-throats, of being lazy, and of being drunkards. Before answering this question, I would sa}- tht.t the majority of the Whites, having dealings with tlio Indians in past years, were of this type. At present, when an Indian is worse than his fellows, at whose door is tlu^ fault laid ? Certainly not at that of the untutored savag(;. but of the evil-minded white man who led him astray lor his own selfish ends. INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIE AND THE FOREST. 553 Marriage amongst the Indians has never been looked upon by them in the same liglit as it has bi^en by us. All Indian women are slaves, and they know t and act a(x:ord- ingly. The will of tlie man is supreme, and no woman ever thinks of opposing him in the slightest. Men, as a rule, take as many wives as they can feed, and too often, when they are tired of them, " throw them off." This is the universal custom, and is practised from Lake Superior to the Pacific. The husband liunts, and the women do all the other work. Very often, one wife will be the favorite, and the others will have to provide for themselves and children. Last season, I saw one man who had five wives and a very large number of children, and who, on this account, was a rich man, as the Government paid him five dollars ($5) a head for his wives and children. The woman is little less than a beast of burden, and amongst converted Indians, her condition is very little improved. As regards the chastity of the Indian women, much could be said in their favor. They, as well as the men, are modest, and if their morals are not as elevated as ours, the fault is not theirs, but the state of society in which they are compelled by present circumstances to live. In all my travels, I never found an uncivilized Indian who could not be depended upon, but I have seen Indians, who were deceived by white men, try to follow their ex- ample. The northern Indians still retain their truthful- ness, and Mr. Macfarlane, the Chief Factor in charge of the Mackenzie River District, warned me to keep my promises to the Indians, and I might depend on them doing the same to me. The Hudson's Bay Company's officers have always been particular in keeping faith with the Indians, and to- day the Indians look up to them and trust them in every- thing. It is a fact that no men are more particular about paying their debts than the Indians, and those having deal- ings with them, bjfore they learn the ways of the Whites, 1 1 654 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. i • - ,1 . j ; 1 : 1 r i' are unanimous in speaking of their promptness in paying their debts. I have travelled among the Indians on both sides of the mountains, and have found them always honest. I have gone into the Blackfeet camp, when they were dying of starvation, and left my provisions in the carts, exposed to the gaze of every person, and yet not a bit of anything was touched. I have been for months on the prairie with my provisions always in the carts, and although at times surrounded by prowling bands of Indians, I have gone to rest in peace and have risen to find signs of their presence, but not an article touched. If an article were lost on the prairie, it was almost sure to be returned in a day or two, and a small present of tea would be accepted as ample remuneration for their trouble. Some parties reading the above paragraph will say that their experience is altogether different from mine. I do not doubt it, as Indians invariably treat others as they have been treated. I went into their country as an employee of the Government, and always carried a small Union Jack on a pole on one of my carts, and although they did not recognize me, they knew the flag and respected the em- blem. Traders take advantage of the natives, and no Indian should be blamed if he should treat them all as he does the Americans. Ten years since, no white man, pass- ing from Montana into our North- West Territories, was sjife ; but if he were travelling soutli, both himself and his horses were respected. Just as long as our people treat the Indians like men, and keep faith with them, just so long will peace reign in the land ; but let justice cease to pre- vail, and bitterly will our people rue the day they forgot that in God's sight the Indian has equal rights with the white man. Formerly horse stealing was looked upon by the plain Indians as an essential part of their education. No young INDIANS OP THE PRAIRIE AND THE FOREST. 555 IS in paying man was considered fit to take part in any matter which cam^ before the tribe, who could not show a brilliant record in this line. War parties and horse stealing parties were altogether diflferent, and any traveller could tell the one from the other at a glance. When a war party is organized the braves are mounted on their best horses, they are daubed all over with paint and depart with much ceremony. It is not so with horse stealers. One or two or more start off on foot, often without arms, furnished only with a lariat wound round their loins. These men thus poorly equipped will push into the heart of the enemies' country, lie around a camp and take the horses tied at a lodge door from under the very eyes of the guard. While exploring in the summer of 1880 I came to a camp of Assiniboins on the western end of the Cypress Hills. The camp consisted of about 120 tents arranged in a circle. Each chief had his own band near himself, but no opening was over ten feet wide. Within the circle of tents the horses were picketed every night, and during the day every hill top had one or more sentries posted on them to watch the herds and give notice of the approach of danger. One night two Pagans who had been lying around for days approached the camp, and one stripping himself naked crawled into the midst of the enclosure and cut the picket rope of two of the horses. All around him were the tents of his enemies, and in the centre the soldiers tent (guard house) where they were on watch. After cutting the ropes he moved off to one side until the ropes tightened when he pulled gently. The horses came towards him eating as they came, and by degrees he brought them to the edge of the enclosure, when bound- ing on the back of one and leading the other he dashed away. This feat was performed by an unarmed Indian before the very eyes of his deadly enemies, armed with Winchester rifles, not merely for the sake of the horses, but that he might be considered an honorable man in his tribe. I i \ '' m W-l !•: I ' ; I 1- 656 MANTTOBA AND TTTE GREAT NORTn-WEST. I for one honor hira for his pluck, and consider such heroism just as worthy of being recorded as any of the doughty deeds of our ancestors. Two weeks before I reached Fort Walsh the Pagans (as was supposed) stole every horse in the valley belonging to traders, but took none that belonged to the police. I was advised to place a guard over ray horses at night or I would be left without any, but believing that I understood the Indian character better than my informants, I merely indi- cated b}'^ the Union Jack that I was no trader and my horses remained unmolested. More than once we have observed traces of Indiaub having been around us in the night, but none ever attempted to take anything from us. One day in the month of September, 1880, we were suddenly sur- rounded by Indians. Simultaneously every hill top was instinct with life, and an Indian and his horse were picketed on the summit. Without paying any attention to them wo kept on our way and stopped for dinner shortly after. 1 took a shot gun and started for the nearest one, who when he saw me approach mounted his horse and came towards me. When he came up I saw by his dress he was one of Sitting Bull's Sioux and invited him to dinner. As soon as we met the others disappeared and were seen no more. Three days before this same party stole nearly all the horses from Setter's Reserve at the north side of the Cypress Hills. No attempt was made to molest us because they re- spected our flag. Settlers need have no fear on account of injury from Indians. They respect the law everywhere better than the white men, and good treatment will always be reciprocated. Should the American doctrine be adopted that all Indians are mere cumberers of the ground, and have no rights that a white man is bound to respect, then will there be danger from the aborigines Food and clothing are the necessities of the Indians. INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIE AND THE FOREST. 55T the Indians. Supply them ..ith these and they will pass through life with scarcely an effort. For many generations they have li\od and died without any higher aim than the physical promptings of nature. To eat, smoke, and sleep has been their sole end in life, and this it will be until, as I have shown in another place, they are lifted into our civil- ization. An Indian clothed as a white man is half civilized, and when he acquires a good command of English lie is ready for work. The Indians on Lakes Manitoba and Wiiinipegoosis may be taken as a fair sample of the forest Indians all tl.rough the north. As soon as spring comes and the rivers and lakes are open, innumerable water fowl fill every pond and lakelet. The Indian leaves the forest and pitches his tent near one of these resorts, and a time of feasting sets in which lasts up to the end of May. During June and the latter half of May the marshes yield myriads of eggs, and these with white fish are their principal, if not their sole food. The summer is spent near a good fishing ground. A sufficiency of nets is kept in the water to enable them to have a constant supply of fresh fish of the very best quality. Should a family make an excursion to any part of the lake a net, a tin pail or two, and a few rolls of birch bark, complete their equipment. On the approach of winter, they go to the regular fishing grounds, and take white-fish in such numbers that, were any one to give figures, it would seem fabulous. These are dried and packed for winter use, and when the ponds are frozen, each family retires to its winter hunting ground, and pro- cures furs for the purpose of paying off their score with the Hudson's Bay Company. In spring, the same round com- mences again, and thus it has gone on for generations. The cultivation of potatoes has been introduced of late years, but the usual improvidence of Indians causes them, in too many instances, to eat up their seed, so thai every springy a fresh supply has to be sent to them by the Government. I Vi nns MAVITOHA ANI» TIIK (IKKAT NORTII-WKHT. or Into yoai'H, iminy Iiuliuii laniiH liavo boon oHia)>1iHho(], and th<«Ho arc ioiu* bo oarri(>H on farming in iho moHt ap- |>rovod Ntybv I viHitod ITih farm hiHt autninn, and fbnnd an oxo(dbM)t rooi-lionHo in whii^ii to Htoro hiH potatooH, tnrnipM, carrot.s, and otiior rootH. IliH |)otat(K?H woro woU borovo(l lasbion. With ovidont prid(» ho hIiowojI mo ovor bin [K)HHOH.sionH, «unl obnoklod in prop(»r Indian Htyb^ vvlion I pniisod what bo bad dono. Whon tlio (iiovornor (Jonoral waH on liiH Nortb-WoHl tour last yoar, bo oallod togotbor a largo nnmbor of IndiaiiH, and gavo a boaulifnl nilvor modal to tho b(?Ht farmor amongsl thorn, (volti roooiv(»d tlio modal, and now lio hIiowh it to bis visitors with as much prido as any whito man. WImm-c thoro is })rido Iboro is bopo, and woro tho IiidianH on the Uosorvos givon a slight roeognition for HuccoHsfnl farmiim oaob yoar, a wondorlnl improvomont would bo soon in !i short timo. At privsont, marriago-* aro mon» froqiiont than formorly, and not a fow Indians tako moro than ono wifo. Oni^ old follow, OP Liiko Winnipogoosis, bad six wivos, and whon quostionod about it, ailniittod that tlioy woro a source of profit. Aoooriling to tho torms of tho Indian Troatios, all mombors of an Indian's family aro ontitlod to fivo dollars por yoar oach, and ono with four or five wives and twoiilv obildron or loss, would draw a large sum from the Gov«^rn- mont. Taking advantage of an Indian's natural desire for gain, nuicb might be done by opening up sources of profit to rKrtT. INDIANS OF TIIK I'KAIItlK AND TIIK FOUKHT. 559 ro tliiiii iiiiuiy r a grrat pari inn, th(!y h fj \h an iiiHtaiicr w farm in Oot^r's n ilio niuHt a|>- I, and ibnnd an tatouH, turnips, 5 well IhumI, Imh H, and propjM'ly nioHt approviMl mo over his Htylo wlicn 1 liH Norili-WcHi nher of IndianH, farnior amongst hIiowh it to liis man, WIum-c IndianH on tlic 'AiHsfnl ^armin^ d bo Hoon in w than forniorl), wifo. On(^ old vi^H, and when oro a Honrcc of :in TnMitioH, all to (ivo dollars OH and twoiitv .m tho Gov(^ni- tural dcniro lor rcoH of profit to him, which, in no way, would oonfliot with tho whito hihoror. No hottor liiirdHmon oouhl ho found, an thoir poworH of ohHorvation aro far Huporior to thoH*; of a whit«'- man and thoir wantn an; oxtromoly fow. Ah farm lalM)rorH, liowovor, tho prowuit gonoration aro, with fow «'X(;optionH, UHcdoHH. Aftor tim Minnt in thr roiiHtruc.tion of th(^s<; tlit^y lliought l\i(ty bmi iibundanec of tiiin^ to <;H4',ii|M; witb tlirir stolcMi hors(>H far beyond th<^ ftMir of |)urHuit. 'IMk- l{liic,kr«M!t, bow., 24tli Jutiiiary, 1H«2. AMHiHtant Surncoim ; UoIktI Millt-r, M l>., 2i»lli (►( UiImt, IHTTi ; OwirKo A Ken- nedy, Ml) , iHt OctolitT, IH7H. lnH|M'readth, and from 250 to 300 feet in depth. Less than fifty miles from the mouth of the river is Round Lake, which varies from one mile to half a mile in width, and about five miles in length. Its mean depth is about twenty-eight feet. At its head are sand banks, which are the resort of large numbers of water fowl. Eight or ten miles higher up the river is Crooked Lake — a most lovely si)()t but nearly all included in an Indian Reserve. This lake is rather longer than the other but scarcely so wide and much deeper, having a mean depth of thirty -one feet, though some soundings give forty feet. The Four Fishing Lakes are very beautiful, and as if it were to enhance their value and add to their beauty, the Qu' Appelle Mission and Hudson's Bay Company's Stores, the Police Barracks, and many other buildings are placed between the Second and Third Lakes. The consecutive length of the four lakes is over twenty-four miles, with the village nearly in the centre. The mean depth varies from thirty -two feet in the second lake to fifty-two feet in the first lake. In the future many fine residences will be built along these lakes, and yachts and steamboats will be seen gliding over their waters. Unless a channel be cleared out in the rapid below Round Lake, no steamboat can «scend higher than that point, Avhich as I said above, is fifty miles from the mouth of the river. RIVER AND LAKE NAVIGATION. 687 While exploring the great Buffalo PlainH in 1879, I was particular to make inquirieH regarding the navigation of the South Saskatchewan, and in my report to the Government for that year made alluHion to it in the following words : — " We pitched our camp on the hill-top, about a mile and a half from the river, near a good spring in a coul6e. Be- neath us lay the mighty Saskatchewan, rolling itH turbid flood between banks 250 feet high, seeming altogether out of place in this arid region. The river at our crossing was 770 yards wide, and the main channel over which our horses had to swim was not less than 500 yards. Shoals and sand- bars were numerous, with occasional islands, but nothing to indicate that the river at this point was unsuited for navi- gation." Why the south branch should be tnought unfit for navi- gation, 1 cannot understand. Mr. Hind who passed down the river in August, 1858, never speaks of its depth sis being less than seven and a half feet ; and the current as never more than three miles an hour, except when close to the North Branch. Palliser, who crossed the river about twenty miles above me, on 28th September, 1857, states that the water in the middle of the channel, where they lost their waggon, was twenty feet deep. While on the plains I never heard of the river being fordable below the mouth of the Red Deer River. Palliser crossed it on a raft, 22nd July, 1859, about sixty miles above that point where the river was 250 yards wide, and from five to eight feet deep. When at the Blackf(K)t Crossing of the Bow River, a branch of the South Saskatchewan, 27th August, 1879, I found that it was with the utmost difficulty that horses could cross without swimming. No person ever mentions a rapid being anywhere in the river below this, so that I have come to the conclusion that there is nothing to prevent all the supplies wanted for the southwest being ! \ ! m 588 MANITOBA AND TlIK GREAT NOKTH-WEST. I : I 1 I sent up the South Sawkatchewan. Coal \h abundant in the river banks at the TUucklbot Crosning and farther eastward, BO that there will be no difficuHy as to fuel for steamers. Should an attempt be made to navigate the river, it will be found to lijive better water for a longer period of the year than the North Saskatchewan, as its head waters drain a greater extent of the mountains. Further on in the same report I say : " In my Journal, 1 showed why I believed the South Saskatchewan was navi- gable, and I now reiterate the statement, after a careful review of all said for and against it. When its navigation is an accomplished fact, all supplies for the police and In- dians can be taken to within less than thirty miles of Fort Walsh at Cypress Hills, and those for Fort McLeod, landed at the Forks of Bow and Belly Rivers within two short days' journey of the Fort. Here (at the Fort) is abund- ance of coal, so that there will be an ample supply of fuel for all purposes. It is currently reported that all the settlers in the vicinity of the Fort, burn this coal. Messrs. Patrick and Nelson, two surveyors whom I met at Morleyville, told me that they had discovered coal in numerous places south of my line of exploration. In view of the difficulty of sup- plying the Indians, and the importance of opening up the country, I would sug<5est that an attempt be made, at an early day, to solve the problem, by sending one of the steamers now plying on the Assiniboine on that service. That the ascent can be made without any more difficulty than that experienced in ascending the North Saskatchewan, I am quite sure, as I have had an opportunity of seeing both rivers. Red Deer, Bow, and Belly Rivers, all issuing from the mountains, nmst send more water into the main channel late in the season, than the north Branch, and, therefore, this river will be longer open for navigation every seas<3n. If the coal deposits can be developed by this means, all the prairie land seen by me will Ijecome, in the course of years, RIVER AND LAKE NAVKJATION. 589 thickly settled with a prosperous population, as there is no physical defect in the country but the want of wfK)d." For five years past, an iron steamboat, named the " Lily," has been running on the North Saskatchewan, and has been generally successful. No survey of the river having ever been made, it is a matter for congratulation that success, so far, has crowned the efforts of the Hudson's Bay Company. During the coming year, owing to the extension of .settle- ment and the increase of trade, a number of boats are to lie placed on the river above the Grand Rapid, part of which are intended to run on the South Saskatchewan, and part on the North Saskatchewan. The Grand Rapid alluded to above is situated less thr'> three miles from Lake Winnipeg. Its total length is two miles and three quarters, and the total descent forty-three feet and a half. The breadth of the river varies in the rapid, being at the head about twenty chains, at the nar- rowest part ten chains, and at the foot of the rapid twenty- five chains. The above measurements are taken uom the Report of Mr. John Fleming, C. E., who thus relates his experience in running the rapid : — " In running the rapid, we followed, as clcsely as possible, the instructions given to us by our old guide on the Plains (John Spence), who had often piloted the old North-West Company's " North " canoes down its entire length. In attempting, Jiccording to his directions, to cross from the north to the south side of the rapid, in orde.* to get into what was reported, to be the best channel for a small canoe, such was the fierceness of the current, and the turbulence of the greav surges and breakers in the middle, that we were nearly engulfed ; and although every nerve was strained, we were swept down with impetuous velocity, and did not get near the other side till we were about three quarters of a mile below our starting point. We were then impelled with astonishing swiftness along the south side of the tor- 690 MANITOBA AND TI[E OREAT NORTH-WEST. r' '' ,' I; / rent, often in dangerous proximity to the rugged wall of rockH Ixmnding the channel, and now and then whizzing — almost grazing — sharp rocky points jutting out into the river, against which the thundering waters seethed and foamed in their fury. During tiie descent, the voyageurs exerted themselves to the utmost of their strength, and evinced an admirable degree of coolness and dexterity." An approximate estimate of the nunU)er of cubic feet of water passing down the South IJranch, the North Branch, and the Main Saskatchewan, made by Prof. II. Y. Ilind, in 1858, gives the following result : — CUniC FKIT PKR HOCB. South Branch 123,426,616 North Branch 91,011,360 Main Saukatchewan, at Fort ik la Corno 214,441 ,290 " « near Duariug Kiver 200,975,000 The Athabasca, like the Saskatchewan, is a first-class river, and being without rapids, is far more suitable to steamboat navigation than the latter. This river rises in the Rocky Mountains, above Jasper House, and shortly after issuing from the mountains, becomes an important stream. At Fort Assiniboine, ninety miles northwest of Fort Edmonton, the Athabasca is a much larger stream than the North Saskatchewan. Here it is not less than 300 yards wide, and so deep that our horses had to swim from bank to bank. From here to Lake Athabasca, a dis- tance of over 400 miles, there is not the slightest impedi- ment to steamboat navigation, except a short rapid a little north of Lake la Biche. While at the Forks of the Athabasca and Clear Water, in 1875, Mr. Moberly, who was in charge of Fort McMur- ray at the Forks, informed me that he had sounded the Athabasca, at the instance of the Hudson's Bay Company, all the way from the Forks to the Lake, a distance of 180 miles. The soundings were made at the lowest stage of water, and he reported that a steamboat drawing six RIVER AND LAKE NAVIGATION. 501 feet of water could run at any wtugo of the water. Helow the Forkfl it iH a uiajeMtic Htreain, iiiid Mowh with a quiet, steady motion, witli an average breadtli of a (quarter of a mile. ItH current \n ho Hlight that, in 1875, we nailed up the river with three York boats belonging to the IIudHon'.H Bay Company. No difficulty, ho sayH Mr. Moberly, will be experienced in ancending the river far above Fort AHHini- boine, as the river is remarkably free from barH and other obstructioiiH. The same 8teamlK)at could run from the forks of the Athabasca and Clearwater, a distance of 180 miles, the whole length of the Lake Athabasca, at least 250 miles, up the Peace River to Little Red River as far as the rapids, in all, not less than 700 miles of river navigation could be per- formed without any difficulty by the same boat. When we consider the development that would follow from the open- ing up of the Athabasca we can easily conceive that this mat er will not be long delayed. Seven years since the Hudson's Bay Company ctuitemplated placing a boat on this route, but it is presumed tiiat the great and sudden develop- ment of the eastern part of the (country has left this section in the background for the present. Peace River, between Hudson's Hope and Little Red River, a distance of 500 miles, is without an obstruction of any kind except occasional short rapids or strong currents caused by gravel bars in the river. These disappear about 100 miles east of Dun vegan, and until the Falls at Little Red River are readied, the majestic stream is without the slightest obstruction. It winds in graceful curves with scarcely any current through a beautiful valley, and having a lovely country on either hand. The volume of Peace River is evidently greater than iliat of the united Saskatchewan, und owing to its sources being far west of the mountains and in a country with a greater rainfall than that to the eastward, it ought to be less sub- ■; hi 1 il' a 1 11^ 592 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. ject to low water. That this is the case seems probable from the fact that the water was so high in October, 1872, that the Hudson's Bay Company's boats could not be taken above Dun vegan, the bars being all covered with water. Having descended the river from the mountains to Lake Athabasca, I can speak with certainty of its value as a navigable stream. After passing the rapids on Slave River there seems to be no furtlier impediment between that point and the Arctic sea, a distance of nearly 1000 miles, except the " Rapid " which is north of the Arctic Circle. Much has been written about the advantage to Siberia of the opening up of the rivers Lena and Yenesei, yet the accessibility of the Mac- kenzie from Behring's Straits nas been strangely overlooked. No Arctic explorer ever found any difficulty in bringing his shii)s to the eastward of the mouth of the Mackenzie, and there is no valid reason wiiy steamships could not run between Behring's Straits and the mouth of the river every season. These vessels could ascend the river possibly 1000 miles and winter at Fort Simpson if necessary, or they could spend the summer catching whales off the coast, and retreat to the river before winter set in. Very few years will elapse before some adventurous person will prove the eaae with which the voyage can be made, and the mists that have hung for ages over this distant region will forever be dispelled. Sir John Richardson writes of the navigation on the rivers at the " Rapid " in the following words : — " In the earlier part of the summer a steamboat could ascend the rapid without difficulty, and this great river might be navi- g'ited by vessels of considerable burden, from the Portage of the Drowned in Slave River, down to its junction with the sea, being a navigation of from 1,200 to 1,300 miles. " In a dilatation of the river, about ten miles below the rapid, bituminous shale lies horizontally in the liollows of indiilated beds of limestone. Having cooked supper at this ppct we embarked to drift for the remainder of the night. VEST. 5 probable from , 1872, that the )e taken above svrater. Having ,ake Athabasca, vigable stream, lere seems to be and the Arctic t the "Rapid" as been written ming up of the [ity of the Mac- rely overlooked. r in bringing his Mackenzie, and could not run ■ the river every er possibly 1000 |ry, or they could ioast, and retreat [years will elapse e the ease with that have hung be dispelled, ■vigation on the ords :— " In the 'ould ascend the r might be navi- [rom the Portage ts junction with 1,300 miles. miles below the In the liollows of id supper at this of the night. RIVER AND LAKE NAVIGATION. 593 " At five in the morning of the 28th we were at the com- mencement of the Ramparts, where the river is hemmed in to the width of from 400 to 800 yards, and has a strong current. This is the " second rapid " of Mackenzie, who states that it is fifty fathome deep ; but in obtaining such soundings his lead must have fallen into a crevice or have been carried down the channel of the stream by the strength of the current ; for gentlemen of the Hudson's Bay Com- pany ,who are well acquainted with the locality, informed me that a bed of stone crosses the stream, and at the close of the summer when the river is at the lowest, produces a fall, ex- cept on the east side where there is a channel that boats can ascend by towing." Scarcely ten years have elapsed since steamboats began to run regularly on Red River, and now there is a large fleet, which is every year increasing and extending its lines of traffic. The following summary of the lake and river navig- able waters of the interior may be interesting if not instruc- tive. At present the construction of railways, and the activity imparted to many lines of business on that account, will cause more attention to be paid to numerous rivers, which have been scarcely thought of for the purpose of trade. Stmimary of Navigable Waters. UILBB. Lake Winnipeg 300 Lakes Manitoba and WinnipegooBis 230 Bed River, (within Manitoba) 90 Assiniboine River 350 Bouris River (Probable) 120 Qu'Appelle River and Lakes 200 Long Lake 40 Main Saskatchewan 400 North Saskatchewan 800 South Saskatchewan 1000 Athabasca River and Lake 500 Peace River 700 Mackenzie River and Slave Lake 1500 Little Slave Lake 75 Total 8306 38 1 1 I- \: i 594 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. !i r m 'Ik As a fitting conclusion to this chapter, I give the follow- ing extracts from the evidence of Prof. H. Y. Hind, before a Committee of the House of Commons, in the year 1878. The pamphlet from which they are taken is entitled: " Navigation of Hudson's Bay," and was published by authority in Ottawa, in that year. The extracts are con- densed, but the words are those of Prof. Hind, who cer- tainly knows of what he speaks : — Letter to Colonel Dennis. "Deah Coi' vei, Dennis, — Your very interesting letter of the 18th inst., is just re- ceived, and I hasten to reply t ice, the establishment of a signal station on Resolution Island, and one on one of Button's Islands, to indicate the position of the open channels, is of the first importance in the navigation of these waters early in the season. Winds may press the floe ice on the south or north shore, according to their direction, and while the north passage may be closed by westerly winds driving the ice on to the south- easterly coast, the south or Labrador shore may be free from ice, and open water may exist early in June. On the other hand, northerly winds will drive the ice to the southern or Labrador shore, and the channels on the north side, or near Cape Best, or through Gabriel Straits, will be open. Once within the entrance the navigation becomes compara- tively easy. * * * The GJiaracier of the Navigation in the HudaorCs Straits. In 1814 Lieutenant Edward Chappell, R.N., of H. M. S. " Rosamond," visited Hudson's Bay, and in the narrative of his voyage, published in 1817, he pointedly adverts to the advisability of merchants sending a strongly-built brig into Hudson's Straits early in the rnonth of June, so as to reach Cape Saddleback before the Company's ships arrive, HISTORY, AND FUTURE OP OUR RAILWAYS. 599 with a view to trade with the Esquimaux of those coasts. He also states that a vessel intended for this trade should not remain later than the beginning of October in Uie Straits. The period included between " early in June " and the "beginning of October " within the limits of Hudson's Strait, sufficiently establishes the fact that, in the opinion of Lieutenant Chappell, as derived from practical observation in the " Rosamond," and a careful study of the subject, the navigation of the straits is safe for a strong brig f )i- a period of about four months, or during June, July, August, and September — say from the 10th June U) the 5th October, or four lunar months. If for a " strong brig " we substitute a strong steamer, and fit her with modem and really inexpen- sive magneto-electric lights for night work, the difficulties Lieutenant Chappell encountered would be vastly diminished and very probably an additional ten days added thereby to the season for navigation in October, making the period ex- ceed four calendar months, for Lieutenant Cliappell states that it is not to he expected that ships during their return to Europe from Hudson's Bay will ever meet with loose ice ; that is with floe or pan ice. He is writing of the Hudson's Bay Company's ships, which are stated to start from York Factory homewards by the 20th of September, and so exact is he in his statements that ice is not to be expected to be met V ith by sailing vessels on their homeward voyage, that he enumerates the different kinds ot work done on arrival at York Factory, close to Port lielson, in the follow- ing words : — " It is not to be expected that ships during their return to Europe will ever meet with loose ice ; therefore as soon as our Khip anchored on York Flats, we undid all the preparations which had been made for manoeuvreing while amongst the ice ; such as re-stowing our anchors and putting below ice- ropes, ice-anchors, ice-axes, &c., and we rejoiced in being rid of them." *»« 600 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 1 If 11' El' III This is a most important consideration in relation to the navigation of the Hudson's Straits in the fall of the year. In fact, it reduces ice precautions to the early or summer voyages only, and besides conferring unexpected safety upon the homeward voyage, it prolongs the season of nav- igation, so that steamers may remain at York Factory or Port Nelson, until the new ice begins to be formed about the harbor or mouth of Nelson River. The use of the magneto-electric light, on approaching either entrance to the straits, or the establishment of land signal stations there, provided with powerful magneto-electric lights, would greatly assist in promoting safe and speedy naviga- tion during the long nights of the fall of the year. In June and part of July, there is little or no night. Once within the eastern entrance, the Straits are seen to expand into a broad open Bay, well-known as Ungava Bay. Green Island lies about half-way between the North or Terra Nivea sliore juid Akpatok Island, at the entrance to Ungava Bay, the clear sea way, on either side of Green Island, being about fifty miles in width. In traversing the Straits, Ellis says : " If I have to give any directions for avoiding the thickest of the ice in these Straits, it would be to keep pretty near the North Shore, for we always observed that side much the clearest, us not only the winds blow mostly from thence, but currents too come out of most of those large openings which are on that side. * * * The Ice of Hudson's Bay and Straits, and on the Labrador. The extent to which ice forms in Hudson's Bay is not known, but judging from the statements of Hearne, whose opportunities for acquiring information were excellent, ten miles from the shore may be the extreme limit in the deeper and northwesterly portions. The southern part of the bay, and the eastern portion probably freeze over a much larger area than the northwest portion, where the HISTOKV, AND FUTUUK OF OUK UAILWAVS. 001 water is not only deep, but there are excellent reasons for supposing that a warm under-current comes to the surface there, forming a polynia, as in some parts of the extreme north, such as at the entrance to Smith's Sound, also in Bel lot's Straits, in the Spitzbergen Seas, and on the west coast of Behring's Straits. The cause of these polynias will be found in any of the recent Arctic explorations by sea. Hearne states that in the northern part of Hudson's Bay and Straits, " the sea is frozen over several miles from the shore." He is referring to a statem'^nt of the ornithologist Pennant, who, when describing the habits of the Black GuUemots, or Sea Pigeons, remarks that these birds, " brave the coldest winters in those parts by keeping at the edge of the ice in the open water." This passage, as illustrating a physical phenomenon of grea j importance in the naviga- tion of Hudson's Bay in the early summer m nths, is of especial interest, and may be citod at length. " Black GuUemots, are known in Hudson's Bay by the name of Sea Pigeon. Those birds frequent the shores of Hudson's Bay and Straits in considerable numbers, but more particularly the northern parts, where they fly in large flocks; to the southward they are only seen in pairs. * * * jyjy friend, Mr. Pennant, says they brave the coldest winters in those parts, by keeping at the edge of the ice, near the open water ; but as the sea at that season is frozen over several miles from the shore, I believe no one's curiosity ever tempted him to confirm the truth of this, and it is well known they never mnke their appearance near the land after the frost becomes severe." Hearne had so many opi)c)rtunities at the Prince of Wales Fort, near the 'mouth of Churchill River, of making observations upon the ice in the northwestern part of Hudson's Bay, that his statement respecting the distance it is formed from the coast line, may be accepted without fear of exaggeration one way or the other. f 1 4 1 ■ 1 ! 1 i : 1 ^!« < 'i h' i I) In t h 1 I \ I f I ^ I C02 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. The objective point in Hudson's Straits, it is desirable to attain at the en.rliest possible date in the summer, is North Bluff, in the rear of the Upper Savage Islands, from which place, as already stated, the Hudson's Bay Company's ships generally take their departure across the Straits into Hud- son's Bay. Baffin anchored here, in 1615. On Parry's Chart, the Savage Islands are represenied as a small group, eleven in number, protecting the entrance to North Bay, a deep opening in their rear. In his work is a sketch of the largest island, which he examined and described, in 1821. The cliffs of the eastern island rise between four and five hundred feet above the sea, and the highest portion to which Parry ascended, is from six to eight hundred feet above the ocean, hence the group is a conspicuous object, and affords anchorage ground. Hore, Parry took his ob- servations on the tides, which shewed them to rise, neaps about thirty feet, as stated elsewhere. North Bay, in the rear, was entirely free from ice. The great rise and fall of the tides in such a narrow strait, give color to the statement that ice never forms en- tirely across it, for it is well known that no agent is so powerful in preventing the formation of ice in northern latitudes as strong «md continual tidal currents. Hence the suggestion of Lieutenants Chappell and Kobson, that Hud- son's Straits should be entered early in June, before the ice breaks up in the Bay and is carried into the Straits, acquires special importance in connection with the shelter afforded by the Savage Inlands and North Bay. Here, if necessary, steamers might wait for the disruption of the ice in Hudson's Bay, supposing that open water does not exist throughout the winter or in the early spring between Mansfield and the adjacent large island thirty miles distant. It is, however, extremely improbable that at this entrance to Hudson's Bay, where the water is deep, ice forms a continuous barrier at any period. The statement of Hearne that in the northern i ■ M HISTORY, AND FUTURE OF OUR RAILWAYS. 603 parts ice forms only "several miles" from the shore is en- tirely opposed to this view, and conjointly with the great range of the tides it may reasonably be supposed Captain Jnmes alleges that where he wintered, in the southern part of James Bay, ice was formed as far as the eye could see. This is very probable, for James Bay, though much farther to the south, is very shallow, and its waters for miles from the shore are brackish only. * * * Danger Arising from Ice. Sir Edward Parry states that " the effects to be appre- hended from exposure to the swell of the main ocean consti- tute the peculiar danger of first entering the ice about the mouth of the Hudson's Straits, which is completely open to the influence of the whole i'i.tlantic. A very considerable quantity of loose ice is ufRcient to shelter a ship from the sea, provided it be closely packed; but w, en the masses are separated by wind and tide, so as to admit the swell, the concussions soon become too violent for a ship, strengthened in the ordinary way, to withstand for any length of time. On this account it is prudent not to enter the ice without a fair prospect of getting seven or eight leagues within the margin. For the same reason also, when likely to be beset near the sea, it is better to make a ship fast to small rather than to large pieces, in order to avoid the heavier concus- sions occasioned by the latter. The Newfoundland, the Dundee, and the Norwegian seal- ing steamers being properly protected, push their way into the apparently illimitable fields of ice in March and April in pursuit of seals, seeking the ice, for it is there only that they can capture the seals. There are now five and twenty sealing steamers of large size in Newfoundland waters, and during th e past ten years they have nearly driven the sail- ing sealing craft from this, formerly -styled, hazardous enter- prise. It is not unreasonable to suppose that at the present i 1 ' I I I. 604 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. day, when ice navigation is so thoioughly understood, not only by the captains of sealing vessels but by steam whalers, that the passage through Hudson's Strait, successfully accom- plished for 200 years by bulky and unwieldy sailing vessels and vessels of war, should now become an easy problem. Two and often three Hudson's Bay ships have for a period of nearly two centuries annually passed through Hudson's Straits and Bay, and for a considerable part of the time they were conveyed by the cumbrous men of war of old times. Numerous whaling vessels have also traversed these waters, and it is announced that this year an American house is about to send again a whaler to that well-known ground north of Churchill, Marble Island, and the coast towards Rowe's Welcome, to seek for the reported remains of Sir John Franklin. The French not unfrequently sent vessels of war into Hudson's Bay, and once they destroyed the forts. All these facts show that old-fashioned sailing craft successfully accomplished frr nearly two centuries, for the purposes of a limited trade, a supposed obstructed and hazardous navigation which the interests of a country as large as the empire of Germany now invite us to encounter with the modem pro- tected steamer, the magneto-electric light, and the experience of trained and skilled men. * * * * It is doubtful whether the northern portion of the Bay ever freezes more than " several miles" from the shore, and it remains to be seen whether much or indeed any ice does come out of Hudson's Bay. It is probable that the ice spoken of as coming from the Bay really comes down Fox CI . nnel, as shown by the drift of H. M. S. " Terror," repres^n' 3d on the accompanying Admiralty chart. There are two reasons for supposing that very little ice comes from Hudson's Bay ; the first is, it would imply the constant occurrence of strong southerly winds and a considerable space of time to carry the ice from so large a surface as Hudson's Bay through the con- fined channels leading into Hudson's Straits, and experience HISTORY, AND FUTURE OF OUR RAILWAYS. 605 teaches tliat ice is rarely met with after paHwing Charles Island, except towards the centre of the Bay. Moreover, from the description of the ice met in Hudson's Straits, it is largely composed of hununocky or }»eavy arctic ice, which comes down Fox Channel from the north. It is more prohahle that the Hudson's Bay ice melts and disapi)ear« within the limits of the Bay itself. The second reason i.s, that the early opening of the ice on the west coast of the Bay, admitting the 8al;non and caplin to the shores in the latter part of June, even so far north as Churchill, and six weeks before the Northern Labrador is free from coast ice, appears to show that local dissolution is the chief if not the only cause of the disappearance of the Bay ice, and its renniant is occasivially found in the eddy near the centre of the Bay in July. If the Bay ice found its way into Hudson's Straits, these would be most liable to be blocked up between Mansfield and Digges Islands, but this part is represented to be always clear. * * ^ tl \ ! 1 . \- ''. I'll i 'H i I ■ \ t i, '^- III CHAPTER XXXII. J%e Past, Present, and Future of our Railway Systems, Palliser's Expeditio- — ''W^ Report on the Country and Mountain Passes — Canada acquinc the Hudson's Bay Compftuy's Territories— British Columbia unites with ihe Domin* ion — Sandford Fleming appointed Chief Engineer — Yellow Head Pass — Trip of the Chief Engineer — My trip to Peace River — "Ocean to Ocean " published — My report on the Flora and Climate — Continuation of the Surveys — My second Report — Called before a Committee of the House — My third Report considered Extravagant — Surreys draw to a Close — Diverse Opinions regarding the Country — My views regarding Peace River Confirmed — Exploration of the Buffalo Plains — Sir Charles Tupper Endorses my Statements — A General Awakening as to the Value of the Country — Railway Commu- nication EflFccted with Winnipeg — Formation of the " Syndicate" — Review of the Surveys and their Results — Construction of the Lake Superior Branch — Lines Sur- veyed — Cost of Surveys — 'acreased value of the Country — " Syndicate " carry the Road South — Brandon Located— Lines Located by the " Syndicate " — Lines in Opera- tion — South "Western Colonization Railway Company — A ret work of Railways Contemplated— Only Two Outlets Calculated at Present- The Future Traffic— The Nelson River Route — The Churchill and Saskatchewan Route — Prince Albert and Peace River— The Great City of the Future. Her Majesty's Government being anxious to obtain correct information with respect to the facilities or difficulties of communication between the Canadas and the country west of Lake Superior, and north of the 49th parallel, sent out an expedition under the command of Captain Palliser in the summer of 1857, to explore the interior and see if any means could be adopted to shorten the route to it, or if there were any practicable passes in the Rocky Mountains by which horses could cross to British Columbia. After spending the summers of 1857, 1858, and 1859 in exploring the country, he reported on his mission. His conclusions regarding the passes through the mountains, were a^ accurate as his conclu- sions regarding the lands. On page sixteen of his report is this paragraph : " The connection therefore of the Saskatch- ewan plains, east of the Rocky Mountains, with a known route through British Columbia, has been effected by the ex- HISTORY, AND FUTURE OP OUR RAILWAYS. GOT pedition under my command, without our having been under the necessity of passing through any portion of the United States Territory. Still the knowledge of the country on the whole would never lead me to advocate a line of com- munication from Canada, across the continent to the Pacific, exclusively through British Territory. The time has now forever gone hy for eflfecting such an object, and the unfor- tunate choice of an astronomical boundary line has complete" ly isolated the Central American possessions of Great Brit- ain from Canada in the east, and also almost debarred them from any eligible access from the i. acific coast on the west." The years came and went. Canada acquired control of the interior, united with British Columbia, and as a part of the contract agreed to build a railroad through the mountain barrier declared by Palliser impassable. Parties were or- ganized in the month of June, 1871, for the purpose of making an instrumental survey and gathering that knowl- edge of the vast tract of little known country extending from Ottawa lo the Pacific, that would enable our engineers to locate a railway line that would combine directness with an easy grade from west to east. Mr. Sandford Fleming, was appointed Chief Engineer, and with characteristic energy, he set to work. Parties were at once organized and the first detachment left by the River Ottawa for the interior on the 10th June. Those for the region north of Lake Superior left CoUingwood on the 20th June. In the west, a portion of the staff left Victoria for the mountains the very day that British Columbia entered the Union, July 20th, 1871. Besides examining the country generally, two of the Rocky Mountain Passes were to be carefully explored; the Yellow Head Pass entering the Mountains by the Athabasca River and Howe's Pass, which is the source of the North Saskatchewan. The discovery of a practicable and very favorable route from the summit of the Rocky Mountains to Kamloops, in r M It \m m Ml 608 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-^EST. the interior of British Columbia, vid the Yellow Head Pass and TSte Jaune Cache, caused the further examination of House Pass to be abandoned, as it had been ascertained that the approaches, on the west side, were of a very difficult nature. The year 1871 closed with the knowledge that no insuperable barrier prevented the uaion of British Columbia with the east, by an iron road. The magnitude of the un- dertaking now became apparent, and the insanity of build- ing a road for 2,730 miles, through a hitherto almost wholly unknown region, was laughed at in the United States, and the project was looked upon as chimerical by the people of the Mother country. Early in the summer of 1872, the Chief Engineer decided on crossing the continent himself, so that he might form some idea of the general character of the country through which the railroad was to pass. The Rev. G. M. Grant, M.A., of Halifax, Nova Scotia (now Principal of Queen's College, Kingston, Ontario), accompanied him as Secretary, or rather took that title in his admirable work, " Ocean to Ocean," which gave an account of the trip. I had the good fortune to be attached to the party as botanist, and by a mere ac- cident became an actor in the development of the North- West. On our arrival at Edmonton the party separated, and Mr. Charles Horetzki and myself were sent to explore the country bordering on the Great Peace River, examine its Pass, and reach the Pacific Coast by the best means in our power. Learning all we could about the country, at Edmonton, we started for Peace River, and reached it after infinite difficulty, on October 1st, near the mouth of Smoky River. Another month of hardship found us west of the Rocky Mountains, and instead of one Pass, we had found two — the Peace River and Pine River Pass. On his return the Rev. G. M. Grant published his work— " Ocean to Ocean," — and at once the eyes of the reading HISTORY, AND FUTURE OF OUR RAILWAYS. 609 public were turned to this wonderfal country which he de- scribed in such glowing terms. My report of what I saw was published in 1874, and as I frequently stsvted what I belie v I my report was much criticised, my statements and con- clusions being at variance with popular opinion. In that report I showed from the flora that the summer climate of Peace River in lat. 56° north, was almost equal to, if not better than, that of Belleville, Ontario, in lat. 44°. Two years more passed away, line after line had been sur- veyed, and knowledge had spread regarding the country. I had been in British Columbia, had seeu the Peace River country in summer, and had gone down the mighty stream to Lake Athabasca. Again, I reported on the country and this time stronger than ever, showing at the same time the products of the soil in testimony of my statements. In the spring of 1876 I was called before a committee of the Dominion Parliament to give evidence as to the character of the country between Winnipeg and the Pacific, and although held up to ridicule by some of tlie members for my extrava- gant statements, Mr. James Trow, chairman of the committee, endorsed the greater part of my extravagancies and next year crossed the country to the Saskatchewan and saw for himself. By the year 1877, the surveys were apparently drawing to a close, and this year I was invited to write a report or^ the whole country for the information of the Minister of Public Works, and cautioned in plain words not to draw on my wtaginaticyti. In response to this I wrote as much truth about the country as I dared for I saw that even yet my best friends believed me rather wild on the " illimitable possibilities " of the country . When summing up the various areas I reached thf^ enormous figures 200,000,000 acres, I recoiled from their publication on the ground that their very immensity would deny me that amount of credence I desired, so as a stdve t(» my conscience I kept to the large number of 200,000,000 acres, but said that there were 39 II ' « i i ■ I > ^'1 :-^^ 610 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 79,920,000 acres of arable land, and 120,400,000 acrei of pastures, swamps, and lakes. At this time politics engrossed the minds of the people, the surveys seemed endless, the expense was enormous, the construction of the Lake Superior Branch was found to be a slow and extremely costly undertaking, and many members of the house and at least one leader became so conservative that he considered British Columbia was bought at too high a price. My statements were looked upon as those of an honest but crack-br-iined enthusiast and little attention was paid to them. Tlie country was declared to be largely an irreclaiuiable waste Where not too arid for the growth of grain there would be extreme danger from frost, and the severity of the winter and periodical visitations from grass- hoppers were brought in to do duty in aid of the speaker, who might oppose me. A change of ministry took place and Sir Charles Tupper at once called for a report on the state of our knowledge of the country. It was seen to be extremely limited and as my statements regarding the Peace River and the north generally lacked corroboration, a number of parties were sent north of the Saskatchewan and Doctor George M. Dawson, Assistant Director of the Geological Survey was instructed to report on the Peace River region. I was sent to the prairie region with instructions to examine the Great Buffalo Plains, lying between the Qu' A.ppelle and the Rocky Mountains. During the summer myself and assistant travel- led over 3,000 miles in making traverses through this immense wilderness. Instead of it being an arid desert, us Palliser had described it, we found it covered with tall rich grass, with often a scarcity of water on the surface, and for hundreds of miles an almost total absence of wood. Very little observation was necessary to correct Palliser's mistake, which at best was a hasty conclusion come to by the absence of trees and scarcity of water. EST. HISTORY, AND FUTURE OP OUR RAILWAYS. 611 iO,000 acred of the people, the enormous, the ras found to be many members so conservative ight at too high as those of an e attention was o be largely an )r the growth of n frost, and the Lions from grass- of the speaker, • Charles Tupper )ur knowledge of kr limited and as - and the north of parties were Kjtor George M ;ical Survey was ;ion. I was sent camine the Great lie and the Rocky assistant travel- jes through this an arid desert, as red with tall rich ^e surface, and for of wood. Very 'alliser's mistake, to by the absence On my return to Winnipeg I announced the discoveries I had made, and in the presence of nearly one thousand of her citizens with the Chief Justice of Manitoba as chairman, fear- lessly announced that the so called and country was one of un- surpassed fertility and that it was literally the garden of the country. I then called attention to the Qu' Appelle country and showed that at least 12,000,000 acres of farming lands were in one solid block on both sides of the river. During the winter of 1879 all our reports were laid before the Government, and Dr. Dawson more than confirmed my former report of the Peace River country. Sir Charles Tupper, as Minister of Railways, formally acknowledged his belief in m\ statements, and in his great speech on the Pacific Railway in the spring of 1880 accepted my figures as the basis of his calculations, but not before he had satisfied himself that my statements were not the guesses of an ill- informed enthusiast. A number of gentlemen had taken up the Railway Route by Pine Pass in preference to that by the Yellow Head Pass, and considered it their duty to belittle my statements, and in one or two instances to make counter ones. In my report of this year I classified the lands on the basis of all the knowledge hitherto obtained, and showed that there were 150,000,000 acres suitable for pastures and wheat culture. The country was now thoroughly aroused. Americans for some years had cast longing eyes to the north, and the citizens of Minneapolis and St. Paul had pushed a railway up through Minnesota to the boundary, while our own people completed the Pembina Branch, and in the spring of 1879 Railway communication with the east was opened up to Winnipeg. In the fall of that year Manitoba wheat reached Minneapolis and St. Paul and at once throughout the length and breadth of the Union, the " New North-West " was pro- claimed as the Eldorado from which the supply of wheat for the manufacture of fine flour was to come. With the ■r :;\ H I 612 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. eye of prescience the directors of the St. Paul and Mani- toba Road saw that the country, which Consul Taylor of Winnipeg and many others, had pronounced the wheat garden of the world, was about to become so in reality. "Without any delay they set to work and consolidated their lines and as soon as the announcement was made by the Government that they were going to ask for tenders for the building of the whole road they were at the front with their offer. It is needless to say that owing to political necessity or a state of chronic obliviousness the discussions on the Pacific Railway resolutions brought out the fact that a large section of the House of Commons doubted, or affected to doubt, my carefully compiled report on the extent and fertility of the country. As a proof of this I may state that in an interview I had with the Premier in May, 1880^ he said, " Mr. Macoun, I think you are very enthusiastic regarding the country." I said, " It may be so. Sir John, but my enthusiasm is bred of belief" Both Mr. Mackenzie and Mr. Blake had showed that the country was of little value in their speeches during the session just closed. Sir John, I could see, scarcely allowed himself to accept as fact that which was so ardently to be desired, but Sir Charles Tupper entertained no doubts, but encouraged me to do my duty and stick to what I conceived to be the truth. During the summer of 1880 I was sent still farther south, and again I returned with increased faith in the value and fertility of the country. In the meantime negotiations had been opened with the " Syndicate " for the construction of tile road, and the parties entered into the arrangement with every element in favor of the " Syndicate " making a good bargain. Our own people had done their best to show that the road would never pay running expenses when built, and that "^-he country through which it would pass was in many places a howling wilderness and would remain so. With Nl (VEST. ;>aul and Mani- nsul Taylor of 3ed the wheat 5 so in reality, isolidated their IS made by the tenders for the the front with ing to political the discussions )ut the fact that bted, or affected the extent and interview I had Macoun, I think untry." I said, dasm is bred of had showed that Bches during the scarcely allowed ardently to be i no doubts, but irhat I conceived ill farther south, n the value and negotiations had construction of Tangement with ' making a good )est to show that when built, and Eiss was in many main so. With HISTORY, AND FUTURE OF OUR RAILWAYS. 613 these weapons in their hands, and in addition, with a knowl- edge of the country, which when laid before them, one sec- tion of our people had persistently rejected and refused to believe, the " Syndicate" entered the light. Instead of being astonished at the liberal terms granted the " Syndicate," we ought to feel the country came off well, when we realize the amount of ignorance and misrepresenta- tion, which combined to strengthen their hands when they asked for the terms of the contract. By its terms they got certain parts of the road which are now completed, and other sections, now under contract, when completed, 25,000,000 acres of land and $25,000,000 in cash. They agree to com- plete and operate the road between Ottawa and the Pacific within ten years, and afterwards operate it for ten years longer under forfeiture of their charter. Thus after almost ten years of constant anxiety to the Government, the great undertaking passed from their control to that of a Syndicate, consisting of men of known financial ability and business habits. So that the magnitude of the undertaking may be properly estimated, we will give a review of what had been done during the continuance of the surveys from their inception to the close of 1879. In June, 1871, the country was still in the state it had been in for ages. Annual fires crossed the plains, periodical quarrels occurred amongst the Indian tribes, the buffalo came and went, and the long cold winter passed away, and was succeeded by the genial warmth of spring. In 1873 the Boundary Commission commenced operations at the Lake of the Woods, and in the two succeed- ing yejiro continued their work west to the Rocky Moun- tains. Early in 1874 the Mounted Police were organized and sent out, and law and order at once reigned on the plaint^. The first money appropriated for the survey of the Cana- dian Pacific Railway was in the session of 1871. Callander Station, close to Nipissing, was the initial point fixed upon. 1 ' 614 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOUTII-WEST. From this point the line was projected to go north of Lake Superior, and from thence passing the Lake of the Woods reach Red River at Selkirk. As soon as the state of the surveys permitted, work was commenced at the eastern end of the Lake Superior branch, and immediately afterwards at Selkirk the western end. Owing to the morasses, lakes, rivers, and generally rocky character of the country immense sums were sunk in the works and apparently little progress was made, but in the end the eastern and western sections w .re wmpleted, and during the coming summer the whole lr^3 from Thunder Bay on Lake Superior (o Selkirk, a dis- iwiue of 410 miles will be completed, and before the end of the pi « sent season immigrants will travel all the way to Winnipeg on our own highway. West of Winnipeg on the prairie section the line was pro- jected to cross the Narrows of Lake Manitoba, pass through the low country along the base of Duck Mountain, up the valley of Swan River, and westward from Livingstone (Swan River Barracks) to the elbow of the North Saskatche- wan, and from thence westward to Battleford, Hay Lakes (Edmonton), and so on to the Rocky Mountains at Jasper's House. Between Thunder Bay and Tete Jaune Cache the actual measured distance is 1,452 miles or over 1,000 miles west of Winnipeg. In the spring of 1879 other surveys were made of the country south of Lake Manitoba for the purpose of running the line south of the Riding and Duck Mountains, and therefore through a region better suited for settlement. Two summers were spent on these surveys, and the line definitely located for two hundred mile? and one hundred of this placed under construction. West of the Rocky Mountains the surveys were carried on year after year for nine successive summers, and eventually that known as the Burrard Inlet Route was adopted. This line passes from Port Moody to Yale and thence by the valleys of the Fraser and Thompson Rivers to Kamloops, HISTORY, AND FUTURE OP OUR RAILWAYS. 613 and thence to T6te Jaune Cache at the sunimit of the Rocky Mountains. In the spring of 1880, 127 miles of this section was placed under contract, and up to the present considerable progress has been made. By the route above given the distance from Jj^jk . Nipiw- sing to Burrard Inlet is 2,500 miles. In surveying t; . ^ various lines 12,000 miles were actually chained, and over 40,000 miles of lines examined at a cost to the country of not less than $3,000,000. The various reports form a small library in themselves, and the surveys although costing so much leave a country which was purchased for $1,500,000 in 1869, worth at least $250,000,000 in 1881. Had the Canadian Pacific Railway never been n ^ted very little improvement would have taken place, and to ^y no American Railway would be near the frontier> The bargain with the S> adicate " was scarcely con- cluded, when they showeri ihSit determination to carry the road still farther south. :'tliig on my report of the pre- ceding year, they sent Engineers south of the Assiniboine, and examined the country westward. Brandon was located, and their examination of the country was so satisfactory, that they sent engineers into the Rocky Mountains to ex- amine the Bow River Pass, or as it is called iu the reix)rts, the Kicking Horse Pass. These engineers have reported, and it is believed that the road may be cjirried through the mountains at that point. At present, the road is located from Winnipeg to Moose Jaw Creek, a distance of 404 miles. From this point they can go west to Calgarry, or turn to the northwest in the direction of Battleford. A branch extends southwesterly from Winnipeg, passing to the vicinity of Turtle Mountain, and thence westward to the Souris coal fields. This line is located 220 miles, and construction is far advanced on eighty-nine miles. From Brandon, another branch leads out southwesterly, for a dis- tance of 195 miles. In all, since the Company got posses- ; 1 : t \\ ii 016 MANITOBA AND TllK GKKAT NORTH-WEST. m. .;:!: I.. Bioii, on thu first of May, 1881, they have located 819 miles, con.structed about 300 mileH, and have regular trains on 161 miles. During the coming summer, they are going to push on the work still more rapidly, so that by the fall of 1883, they may reach the base of the Rocky Mountains. As soon as the Syndicate obtained control, last spring, they set to work with an energy which astonished many, and before winter, had regular trains running from Winni- peg to Brandon, a distance of 145 miles. This place had no existence last spring, and, at present, has a population of over 1,000. Churches have been built, schools have been organized, and all the machinery of civilization has been put in force in the comparatively short space of six months. Grading has been pushed on with great vigor beyond Bran- don, and it is confidently expected that the line will be opened to Qu'Appelle by the first of June, which point is at least 200 miles west of Brandon, and in the heart of a rich cultivated region. With the opening of the Lake Superior Branch, and only that part of their lines which are graded, this one Company will have, before the end of next summer, not less than 1,000 miles of railway in operation in the Canadian North- West. These lines are built in the very best manner, the ties are nearly all larch (tamarac), the rails are all steel of the best (quality, and furnished with fish plates, bolts, and spikes of superior make. For some years, the South Western Railway Company has held a charter, to build a road from Winnipeg to the Souris coal field, southwest of Manitoba. Acting on their charter, they built or assisted to build the magnificent Louisa iron bridge, across the Red River, within the limits of the city of Winnipeg. Over this bridge, the whole railway traffic, both east and west, passes. It may be mentioned here, that Winnipeg is on the left or west bank of the Red River, and that St. Boniface is exactly opposite, on the east EST. HISTORY, AND FUTURE OF OUR RAILWAYS. C17 ted 819 miles, trains on 161 going to push 3 fall of 1883, ains. I, last spring, mished many, from Winni- s place had no population of ioIh have been tion has been of six months. beyond Bran- 3 line will be lich point is at heart of a rich anch, and only one Company not less than nadian North- it manner, the ire all steel of ites. bolts, and way Company innipeg to the eting on their nificent Louisa limits of the rvhole railway be mentioned ik of the Red te, on the east or right bank. Owing to financial difficulties, the road made little progress until last summer, when it passed under a new management, and this, with the aid of unlimited cash, has pushed the grading of the road rapidly to the south. Last spring, another railway was projected to run from Portage la Prairie to the western boundary of Manitoba. It was named the Westbourne and Rocky Mountain Rail- way, and is intended to pass by Westbourne, Gladstone, Odanah, and westward to Prince Albert, on the Saskatch- ewan. Part of this line has been placed under construction and as the whole line for 600 miles has been projected through a rich and, to my knowledge, fertile country, there can be no doubt of its ultimate success. In view of future possibilities, a charter was obtained, two years since, to run a railway from Hudson's Bay to Lake Winnipeg. This road is called the Nelson River Railway, and explorations carried on last summer, show that the road can be easily built. This is not the only pro- jected road, as numerous others are chartered or will be chartered this winter, and with the branch lines that the Syndicate are permitted to build under their charter, the country will be filled with a complete network of roads. At present, there are only two outlets in contemplation : one to the south leading to St. Paul, 480 miles distant from Winnipeg ; the other to the east, which will be completed during the present year, leading to Prince Arthur's Landing, 430 miles from Winnipeg. A charter was granted last year by the Local Legislature of Manitoba, to a company to build a road called the Winnipeg and South Eastern Rail- way. The termini of this road are Winnipeg and Duluth. As this road was altogether in the interests of the Amer- icans, and intended to draw the trade of our North- West to Chicago and New York, it was very properly disallowed by the Governor in Council. Sooner or later this road will be built, and not it alone, but others not yet thought of. If I < ;!■ 618 MANITOBA AND Tli£ OKEAT NORTH-WEST. ^11 u 1 Li- the trade of the interior is going to require bo many branch lines to fulfill its roquiieinuntH, it follows, as a matter of course, that two roads are not enough to carry the products of the interior to eastern markets. There being no wood nor very great manufacturing facilities in the North-West, the western bound freight will be very nearly equal to that going east, lor many years to come. All manufactured articles having to be brought into the country, would it not be well for the people of Ontario to awake to this fact, and make preparations to supply them? Ten years will not elapse when the wheat, barley, an I oats of the West, will come pouring into this Province, and whether prepared or unprepared, the farmers must take the consequences. Tariff or no tariff, manufactured articles must be sent West, and the sooner the Ontario people wake up to the fact that their supremacy, as a farming people, is in danger of passing away, the better it will be for them. While there is time, then put more money in factories and other industries, and be prepared to reap the golden harvest which is already at your doors ! The northern outlet, at present, engages the attention of many far-seeing men, but, up to the present time, nothing certain is known regarding the navigation of Hudson's Bay. Dr. Robert Bell, of the Geological Survey, in his coming report, is expected to throw considerable light on the sub- ject, but the report not being published, it is not available at present. In the preceding chapter will be found the latest published notices of the navigation, and other mat- ters pertaining to that great inland sea. Two years since, a charter was obtained from the Dominion Government, for the purpose of connecting the navigable waters of Hud- son's Bay with those of Lake Winnipeg, by a railway up the valley of the Nelson River. Careful examination has shown that the route is practicable, but the harbor of Port Nelson, at the mouth of the Nelson River, is far from being h HISTORY, Al^D FUTURE OP OUR RAILWAYS. 619 as good as reported. The promoters of the route are still sanguine of its ultimate success, but later explorations point to the Churchill as the real outlet of the interior plains. In view of the adoption of the Churchill route, a charter has been obtained to run a railway from the mouth of that river to some point on the Saskatchewan. From various articles which have appeared from time to time, in our leading papers, it seems that the intention is to strike the Saskatchewan at some point east of Cumberland House. Should this be attempted, it will result in fiiilure, as east of that point, the country is very low on both sides of the river for many miles. The true route is to ascend the right bank of the Churchill to the mouth of the Little Churchill, and then ytrike southwest almost in a straight line to Fort h. la Corne. From information I have picked up from various sources, there will be no difficulty in find- ing a suitable route, as there is a tract of rather sandy country which stretches almost continuously from near Fort h, la Corne to the southern bend of the Churchill, on the 100th Meridian. The proposed line would keep north of the chain of lakes which form the Burntwood River, a tributary of the Nelson. A short distance above Fort k la Corne, there is an excel- lent crossing of the Saskatchewan, to which many lines will converge in the future, as no attempt will be made to bridge the South Saskatchewan nearer than the Moose Woods, one hundred miles to the south. All roads intended to pass to the northwest or north of the Saskatchewan, must start from this point. This being the case, and I speak from a full knowledge of the subject, the future dis- tributing centre of the North-west, will be located below the Forks of the Saskatchewan, close to or above Fort a la Corne. Granting the successful navigation of Hudson's Bay, of which there can be no reasonable dou>>t, it follows. i ■| as a natural consequence, that tluj mouth of the Churchill t 1 1 ■ ! ■ !'i •l ' . ■!! I • \ I 020 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. will be selected as the terminus for the railway which will shortly follow. My other point, below the Forks of the Saskatchewan, of necessity must be the next objective as here the country is high and dry, and there is a good crossing of the main river. Many parties, who have only a partial idea of the subject, point to Prince Albert as the real objective point for the terminus on the Saskatchewan, but its claims for this distinction pass away, when the sub- ject is only partially understood. Prince Albert, being on the North Saskatchewan, is cut off from all participation in the eastern or southern railway traffic and the trade of the South Saskatchewan. The more that is known of the country, the greater will appear the engineering difficulties in regard to river crossings west of the 106th Meridian, and fewer will be the points selected by practical men for that purpose. In conclusion, I desire to call the attention of thinking men to the prospective future of our interior Plains. Skept- icism regarding the capabilities of the country lias nearly passed away, and the future lines of trade are being studied and examined with a critical eye. Englishmen are awaking to an appreciation of the evident future of our country, and it were well that amongst other less momentous matters, the value of the North-west, as a store-house for meat and grain, obtain greater consideration. In case of a war between England and Russia, it is scarcely a remote possibility that the United States might be tempted to stop the supply of Eng- land with food, and in that event, two years would flcarcely be necessary to bring the people of the islands to the verge of starvation. Such a contingency could "^ot happen were the Hudson's Bay proved to be navigable, as the whole of the i'es(>ni-ces of our vast interior would be at the disposal of Britain, and cattle and grain under convoy could be carried thither in a very few days. This is only a prospective matter, but there is another that is a reality, and one which, in a year or two, will attract much attention. Let any person HISTORY, AND FUTURE OF OUR RAILWAYS. 621 take a map of North America, and look at the situation of San Francisco. By following the line of the Union Pacific Railway eastward, he will see Ogden over 900 miles east of San Francisco, and 1,000 miles farther east, Omaha, on the Missouri. Chicago is about 2,500 miles by rail from San Francisco, and five days continuous travel is necessary be- tween the two points. This is the present short lino to the east, and when the Canada Pocific is opened, we know that it will be much shorter, as it crosses the Meridians where they have less breadth. The route of the future is nmch shorter. From Ogden a branch line has been built northwa ' vnd has now reached Helena the capital of Montana, an ex- pected to reach Fort Benton during the coming year where it will intersect the Northern Pacific. Between Benton and the Canada Pacific Railway as now projected there is only about 200 miles, which in a very few years will be open for traffic. By keeping the Canada Pacific for over 100 miles to the eastward and building a branch line from near Old Wives Lakes to Fort a la Corne, direct communication will be obtained with the line leading to Hudson's Bay, and by the time a passenger or freight going east reaches Chicago either one or the other going north will be close to Hudson's Bay. The construction of the two short lines spoke.i of will be extremely easy as there are no water courses to cross nor hills to ascend. It is so self-evident that this is the future line of trafiic that nothing further need be said in its favor excej,'. to note that this line will tap the Union Pacific, the Northern Pacific, and the Canada Pacific, and carry for a certainty all freight destined for the European market. When this line is opened our stockmen \/ill kill their own cattle and send the meat to Europe as the northern route will be colder and the meat not subject to a high tempera- ture in transit. The above is the main line of the future, and Saskatchewan City will be the capital of the North- west, and Fort Churchill the New Archangel of Canada. li I) ' M m !,M ' i (f ill ■ i ' , .Is I i CHAPTER XXXIII. Advice to Immigrants both as Regards Reaching the Cowntry and What to do when Tliey get there. Where laformation can be Obtained — Fare to Canada — Articles Required on the Voyage — From Whom to get Information — A Ooverument OflScer at each Ship* ping Port — How to Label Bonded and other Gooda — How to Act on Board Ship- Articles Needed for the Voyage — Household Articles to be Bought — Mechanics' fools— Farmers Should bring no Furniture-~Warm Clothing to be Brought — Routes from Quebec to Manitoba — Agent at Duluth — 4gents in Manitoba — Fare from Quebec to Manitoba— Carrying Heavy Freight a Mistake— Ajronts' Duties — Dominion Land Offices — Correspondence with Officials — How to Address Letters — Points to be Noted — Cautions to Immigrants — No Purchase of Homestead Land Valid until Title la Obtained — All Titles or Assignments should be Registered at Ottawa — Bounty War- rants and Land Scrip — Duties of Homesteaders — Make Entry of Homestead as soon as Possible — See that no One has any Claim to the Land Selected — Titles to all LaudD Purchased should be Examined into — Land Guides will Assist at Selections of Lauds — How to Select Good Land— How to get Grood Sweet Water — Hay and Wood Secon- dary to Gootl Soil and Water — Spring best Time to Emigrate — Good Crops Raised on Spring Ploughing— New Plan of Sowing in Spring — Old Country People should fall into the Ways of the Country — Deep Ploughing in Manitoba a Mistake— How tu Bring Money and Where to Place it —Illustrations of How much nan be Saved in Five Years— Success DejMjnds on the Settler — Canadian North- west Compared with Dakota and Minnesota — Opening of Canadian Pacific Railway —Statements of Settlei-s Regarding ("itfit — Mode of Proceiluro — Prices — Amount of Money Necessary Success— inFarmiug — I'limtitt — Wintering Cattle, Oxen, and Horses — The Kind of Settlors Needed. How to reach the North-west is a question constantly asked by emigrants, and one not easily answered in their own country, but very easily answered in Canada. Should the questioner live in Great Britain or Ireland the necessary information can be obtained by writing to any one of the following gentlemen, who are the accredited agents of the Dominion Government in the mother coui\tries : — London. — Sir A. T. Galt, G. C. M. G., &c., High Commis- sioner for the Dominion, 10 Victoria Chambers, London, S.W. Mr. J. Colmer, Private Secretary (same address). Liverpool .—Mr. John Dyke, 25 Water street. Glasgow. — Mr. Thomas Grahame, 40 Enoch Square. ADVICE TO IMMIGRANTS. 623 11 ng the Country Belfast. — Mr. Charles Foy, 29 Victoria Place. Dublin. — Mr. Thomas Connolly, Northumberland House. Reliable information having been obtained on the ;)ointis doBired, the next step is to purchase a ticket if possible before leaving home. Always take your ticket, if in sum- mer, to Quebec or Montreal, not to Halifax, or St. John's, and never to any point in the United States, because should you do so you have a long railway route ahead of you. The better plan if going to Manitoba direct is to book right through, but never go faster than your lug- gage. The greater part of the following instructions taken from recently issued publications, may be relied on for their accuracy : — When it has been decided to go to Canada, one of the Canadian steamship lines, whose advertisements can be found in the newspapers, should be written to, so as to secure a berth. There are vessels sailing from Liverpool, London, Bristol, Glasgow, Londonderry, and Cork. The fare from any of the places named to Quebec, depends upon the class of passage taken. The saloon fare ranges from £10 to £18 ; the intermediate is £8 8s. ; and the ordinary steerage passage is £6 6s., but agricul- turists and domestic servants have the benefit of a lower rate. This can be ascertained from the steamship offices, and they will also supply the necessary forms to be filled up ; children under ten years are charged half fare, and infants under one year a nominal sum. The fares include a plentiful supply of food, and good sleeping accommoda- tionon board. To Manitoba through tickets are issued by the steamship companies. The fare from London or Liverpool to Winni- peg ranges from £9 5s. assisted steerage, to £28 the saloon passage. Passengers are advised to take advantage of these tickets. « 624 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. !;•! I' I ( To secure a berth in the steamer it is necessary to send a deposit of £b for a saloon passage ; £1 for an intermediate or a steerage passage. Twenty cubic feet of higgage are allowed to each saloon passenger, ten to etwh intermediate, and ten to each steerage. Any information or advice as to the most useful things to take to Canada, or upon any other subject, may be obtained at the offices of the Steamship Companies, or at any of the Canadian Government offices. Steerage passengers have to provide bedding and certain utensils for use on board, which are enumerated in the bills of the Steamship Companies. They can be purchased at the port of ejiibarkation, or hired for the voyage, from some lines — for a few shillings — leaving bed-covering only (a rug or blanket) to J>e provided by the passenger. Government agents are stationed at the principal places in Canada, and they should be enquired for on arrival. They will furnish information as to free grant and other lands open for settlement in their respective provinces and dis- tricts, farms for sale, demand for labor, rates of wages, route to travel, distances, expenses of conveyance ; receive and forward letters and remittances for settlers, and give any other information that may l>e required. Persons with capital should not be in a hurry to invest their mone}' . They can get good interest for it by deposit- ing it in the banks, and can give themselves time to look around before settling. There is good banking accommo- dation in most of the towns, and letters of credit can be obtained from any of tlio English banks. An officer of the Canadian Government, at Liverpool, will see the emigrants on ^)oard the ocean steamers in condition to ensure their comfort and safety during the passage to America He will render tliem any advice and assistance in hisix)wer. The name and address of tliis officer is— John Dyke, 15, Water Street, LiveriX)ol. ADVICE TO IMMIGRANTS. 625 y to send a terinediate each saloon ?h steerage, ul things to be obtained any of the and certain , in the bills hased at the , from some r only (a rug . ncipal places rrival. They other lands [ices and dis- wages, route receive and ,nd give any rry to invest t by deposit- time to look |ng accommo- jredit can be I Liverpool. This officer may be written to for any desired information respecting removal to Canada. Intending settlers in the Canadian North-west will be met on their arrival, either at Quebec or Halifax, by a re- gular authorized officer of the Dominion Government, who will at once take them in charge, have their luggage properly looked after, and will see them safely on board the railway train for the "West. Settlers effects, in use, will be passed free through the Custom House, and any necessary bonding arrangements will be made which will thus prevent any delay, inconve- nience, or loss occurring. Each passenger, before his de- parture from the port in Great Britain, should be provided with address cards as follows : — Mr of England, Passenger to Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. In Bond and he should see that one is pasted on each of his packages of luggage. As soon as the passenger gets on board he should read the lules he is expected to obey whilst at sea. He v/ill find them hung up in the steerage, and should do liis best to carry them out, and to be well-behaved and keep himself clean, as this will add much to his own comfort and health, as also to the comfort and heii h of others. If he have any grievance < the passage, he should go an Captain. The arrangemen* eal cause of complaint during inake it known at 'mce to the are, however, now so perfect lor securing comfort and ^,)eed on the great ocean steam lines, that complaints are ulom or never heard. All boxes and luggage .^liould be plainly marked with the ])aHsenger'8 name and the phice he is going to. They will be stowed away in the lK)l(i of the vessel, so whatever is wanted on the voyage should be put into a trunk, carpet 40 WW ...?^M >■ 1 1:1 62v] MANITOBA AND THE (JUKAT NORTH-WEST. I i li. ll' ) > orth. Emigrants are often induced to make a clean sweep and part with everything they have before leaving the Old Country, because it is said the charge, for extra luggage are so large that they would come to more than the things are worth. Now there are many little household necessaries which when sold would not bring nuich, but these same things if kept would be exceedingly valuable in the new country or the bush, and prove a great comfort to the family as well. It is not, therefore, always advisable to leave them behind ; they would not take up nnich room, and the cost ot freight would be little compared to the comfort they will bring. The personal effects of emigrants are not liable to custom duty in Canada. Extra luggage (unless very bulky) is seldom charged for on the Canadian railways. Lay in as good a stock of clothes before leaving home as you possibly can. Woollen clothing and other kinds of wearing apparel, blui'.:ets, household linen, etc., are cheaper iii tin* United Kingdom tiian in (^anadii. The emigrant's beddinu, if it is good, should be brought ; and if he has an old pi'u jacket or great coat he should keep it l)y him, for he will find it most useful on board ship. Agiicultural laborers need not bring their tools witii them, as these can be easily got in (.'anada, of the best (Us- cription, and suited to the needs of the country. Mechanics are advised to l)rin,u' such tools as thev liavc. particularly if s[)ecially adapted to their trades. Both classes must, however, bear in mind that there is no difficulty in buying any ordinary tools in the priix ijial towns at reasonable prices, and that it is better to hav means of puidiasing what they want after reachijiu' tl destinations, than to be liann)ere(l with a heavy lot of lug- gage oil thi'ir journey through the country. It mu.-l" lui- rv. It must ;il>o 'tinada will lik<'ly itrv. ADVICE TO IMMIGRANTS. 627 Farmers and others with means, going out as saloon pas- sengers, sometimes take with them the greater portion of their household furniture, bedsteads, tables, pianos, and other heavy and cumbersome articles. Nothing (;ould be more absurd than this. The cost is very great, tlie articles are liable to be damaged on the voyage ; and even should they reach Canada uninjured, many of them will be found to bo out of place and next to useless. All heavy household furniture should be sold off; it is nnicli better to make a clean sweep of it and to go out, so to speak, " in high march- ing order." Furniture of all kinds can be bought in Canada as cheaply as in England. The pianos made in Canada are second to none. Everything in the way of house furnishing is to be had at reasonable prices, and nmch better suited to the country than the English-made articles. By following out the advice given above, one may go to Canada with ease and comfort. The voyage is a short one, from eight to ten dr, > • the steamships are of the very best cl.'iss, and the wants .aid welfare of the passengers are ctire- fully and constantly looked after. In fact it is little else than a pleasure trip on a large scale. It may be mentioned that there are two routes by which an intending settler can reach Manitoba from Quebec, or my other Canadian port, namely : the " all rail route," md Detroit, Chicago, and St. Paul to Winnipeg, or by what uS called the Lake Rt)ute, that is by railway to Sarnia or Col ling wood on Luke Huron, thence by steamer to Duluth oil Lake Sui)eri()i-, and by rail from Duluth lo Winnipeg. The journey by the former route is quicker by about a day, hut the latter is more eeonotuical. By either of these routes the settler will be met by tiie agents of American land and railway companies, who will endeavor to persuade settle- ment in the United States as preferable to Canada ; but the settler is advised to proceed direct to his intended destina- tion, and decide upon his location after personal inspection. '1 ill ^ Ij ■' I \ 62S MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. In 1882, a line of railway will be completed from Thun- der Bay (Lake Superior) to Winnipeg, and westward. It will pass entirely through Canadian Territory, and its benefits both to new and old settlers will be very great. It may be added that most of the rivers and lakes in Man- itoba and the North-west are navigable, and that steamers now ply during the season on the River Saskatchewan, be- tween Winnipeg and Edmonton, a distance by water of about 1,200 miles, wHh passengers and freight, calling at Prince Albert, Carlton, Battleford, and other places on the way. Steamers also run regularly between Winnipeg, St. Vincent, and other places on the Red River. There is also steam communication on the river Assiniboine, between Fort Ellice and Winnipeg. At Duluth, during the season of navigation, a special agent is placed, Mr. W. C. B. Grahame. He will be in at- tendance on the arrival of all steamers, to assist emigrants in the bonding of their baggage, and otherwise to give them information. All emigrants should be implicitly guided by his disinterested official advice, in preference to listening to persons whom they do not know, who may have interest to deceive them. Agents in Manitoba. Etturton J. E. T6tu Winnipeg W. HcBpelei . These agents will give emigrants all possible information and advice. The emigrant, or second class fare, in 1880, from Quebec to Winnipeg via Duluth was $25.50, and by the rail route viii Chicago and St. Paul, $30.50. First-class tickets are from $52.00 to $59.25. Children under thirteen are taken at half price, and 150 pounds of luggage is allowed to each adult. There will probably be very little, if any, differ- ence in the above rates, in 1882. In the case of a colony going together, the settlers might hire a railway car for the f!< 1 ADVICE TO IMMIGRANTS. 629 carriage of their effects, other than their higgage, to the point of the steamboat port, or continuously, and by this means, get a cheaper rate of freight. Many of the settlers from the older parts of Canada do this. It is not recommended to the settler who is travelling to Manitoba, to burden himself with heavy furniture and lug- gage, as the freight of these would probably cost him as much as they are worth. As a rule, the emigrants should be advised not to take with them either furniture or agri- cultural implements. The latter particularly, specially adapted to the country, can be cheaply purchased at Emer- son or Winnipeg ; but a plentiful ^' ipply of clothing and bedding should bo taken, together with such articles of general use as can be conveniently and easily packed. Of course, artizans who go will take their own special tools with them ; but they must remember that this may be expensive if they are heavy. The emigrants will be met at Winnipeg by Mr. Hespeler, the Government Agent, who will give them every possible information and assistance, and give them directions how to proceed to their lands ; or if they take Emerson, as the point in the Province from which they start, they will find a shed at the Railway Station, and buildings at Dufferin at which they can rest, while Mr. T^tu, the Government agent, will give them information. Dominion Lands Offices. The following is a list of the official names of the Loca Districts, together with the Post-Office address of the Local Agent : Winnipeg Winnipeg. Gladstone Gladatone. Birtle Birtle. Dufferin Nelsonville. Turtle Mountain Turtle Mountain. Souris Souris-Mouth. Little Saskatchewan Odanah. PriDce Albert Prince Albert, N. W. T. t . 1 I 1 \ i! ( ' 630 MANITOHA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. The Head-Offices of the Dominion Lands is at Winnipeg, being a branch of the Department of the Interior. Correspondence loith Officials. Observance of the following hints for conducting cor- respondence with officers connected with the Department of the Interior, will save time and trouble to the official staff, facilitate the submission of applications for decision, and, consequently, tend to diminish the period in which replies may be looked for : — I. AddresR no letters on official buHincHH by t:ame to the Minister, or any one else conncctod with the department, as letters i o person ;lly addressed may be deemed private torrosiMindenci', and, in the possible absence of the person to whom they are directed, remain iinoi)ened till his return. II. All letters to the Authorities at Ottawa on land matters should be addressed, in a plain hand, to Tub Ho>.. thk Ministir, Department of the Interior, Ottawa. Dominion Land Branch. No stamp is required for letters directed to the official head of the D partment, such communications being " free." III. In correspondence with any of the local Officers, a letter should be addressed «B follows Three-Cent Thk Local Agent, Stamp. Dominion Lands Office, In this case the ordinary postage rules apply. IV. Write in a concise and courteous manner, upon foolscap paper, on one side of the paper only, leaving a margin of at least an inch on left-hand side. V. In the right-hand top corner of the first page write distinctly the official name of the post office to which a reply is to Ih) addressed, together with the date of your letter. If the matter occupies more than one page, see that the pages are numbered; and be sure that your signature is legible. VI. Never deal with more than one subject in a single communication ; but write a separate letter for each. VII. On receiving a reply, if you respond to it, do not fail to quote the reference number of the official file, which you will observe on the left-hand top corner of the first page {i.e., at the head of your letter put In reply to No ) VIII. Keep copies of all your correspondence with the Department or Local Offices. IX. All remittances to pay for Doniinil'-j---'' -' I ADVICE TO IMMIGRANTS. 633 any one year likely to be asserted, than to go into disputed possession of a superior location. In the one case, the settler can con- fidently proceed with his improvements ; in the other, he will be hindered by the delay and uncertainty involved in obtaining a decision. Purchasers of land in Manitoba and the North-west Ter- ritories that has been already patented from the Crown, should nevor pay any portion of the price agreed upon, without first satisfying themselves, by obtaining an abstract of title from the Registry Office for the Registration Dis- trict in which the lands are situated, that no agreements, mortgages, judgments, or other incumbrances are recorded against it; also, that no arrears of taxes are due upon such property. It should also be remembered that, as the law attaches the greatest possib-; importance to priority of registration, no delay should be allowed to in irvene be- tween the signing of the deed and seeing that it is duly registered. A Registrar's fee, in Manitoba, for registering an ordinary conveyance is $2.20 ; he charges fifty cents for a search, and for an abstract, according to the number of the entries of documents affecting the property. Persons travelling in the North-west are required to be particularly careful to extinguish their camp-fires before leaving them, so that the destructive consequences of a prairie fire may be prevented. Both in Manitoba and the Territories, legislation has provided adequate penalties for the punishment of criminal negligence in this respect. Should it happen, however, that a party of immigrants are threatened by a prairie-fire approaching them, and no other means of escape are available, the danger may be effectually overcome by setting fire to the prairie to leeward of the party, and moving the travellers, with their outfit, into the ground so burnt over. When one or more persons have reached a district where they purpose looking for land, the better plan is to go at, il< ! \i I 634 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. BH II U once to the Agent and ask for the numbers of vacant sections in the various townships. Attached to each agency is a " Land Guide," whose duty is to take charge of strangers and show them where the vacant lands are, and give them infor- mation as to the quality of the soil, the presence of water, and any other matter about which he may be questioned. As most people prefer to select lands for themselves, advice on this point may seem out of place, still a few hints may benefit some. The first requisite is a dry level or gently rolling surftice free from brush on at least two-thirds of the lot. The next necessity is permanent and pure water. Should there ue ponds on the lot an examination is abso- lutely necessary, to see whether the water is pure or saline. The best and simplest test is to wash with soap in the water. If it forms a suds the water is good, if curds in the dry season, the water is bad. I speak of ponds in this con- nection, as brooks and rivers contain hard water in nearly every case. Another test is the grass. Should grass in the middle of a pond be green at the latter part of September the water is permanently good, if rotted the water is unfit for use at that time. Wood and hay lands are really secondary objects, as it is much better for a farmer to have a good wheat farm which he can at once break up and from which he can begin to make money, than to clear the land of brush and young wood, and waste time in draining. As is shown in another place any party taking a prairie lot is entitled to twenty acres of wood land. Few lots are without hay lands, as all hollows con- tain more or less hay. Now, when railways are extending into the country, it is much better to come out in early spring if a crop is desired the first year. Any party reaching their land by the middle of May can have potatoes, wheat, and garden vegetables that same season. All that is necessary is to procure the land, pitch a tent, and set to work. ADVICE TO IMMIGRANTS. 635 Recently it has been discovered by successful experiments, that seeds sown on the prairie grass and then ploughed lightly, will yield good crops the same season. This is a most important discovery, as it shows that an immigrant arriving on his claim in the spring can begin to realize a return from his labors almost as quickly jis if the land had already been cultivated and improved. The following is an account of the experiments made in this respect, and they will be found worthy the consideration of every farmer con- templating the " breaking " of new lands. An experiment in raising grain on fresh sod has been tried in the vicinity of Big Stone Lake for the past two sea- sons with such marked success, that it is worthy of exten- sive trials. We are not informed who the first experimenter was, but at any rate, in the vicinity of Big Stone City, there are farmers so confidt nt of success that they have put in considerable quantities of small grain in the '.'esh sod dur- ing the past season, and in every case, so far as we could learn, with the most beneficial result. The novelty of the operation is that the grain is first sown on the prairie grass, and then the " breaking" is done. A rather light sod is turned, and the buried grain quickly finds its way through. In a few weeks the sod is as rotten as need be, and can be kicked to pieces easily with the foot. Now for an illustration : A Mr. Daly, near Big Stone City, in the vicinity of Big Stone Lake, sowed ten acres of oats this last year. He put two bushels and a peck to the acre, and broke his land. Last fall, from ten acres he harvested 420 bushels of oats which were worth sufficient to pay for the breaking, and leave him some seventy-five dollars besides. This year he sowed forty- five acres in this way with equally good success, the yield, according to estimate, as he had not threshed when we got there, not being less than 1,000 bushels on the piece. An- other gentleman near him sowed buckwheat in the latter part of May in the same way, and he has every promise of 1 if 1 1 » 1 i J ; : 1 i ^- ■; i c i f ^^ i ' 1 ; .■ t J 636 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. ii I f i ( ! i j I'- a magnificent crop. Another tried corn, dropping a few ker- nels in every fourth furrow. Wheat has not been tried, but will be another year. It has been found that grain can be sowed on the prairie early and the sod rotted as readily as if sowed in June, as the growing crop shades it and but little grass starts. This is a valuable discovery and will be worth much to new beginners who, thus far, with the exception of potatoes, have not expected anything before the second year. It will be of value also to larger farmers who are obliged to go to a heavy outlay each year for breaking, for the oat crop not only pays for the labor, but leaves a good margin besides. It is an experiment certainly worth a trial. The immigrant settling in a new country will understand the value of this discovery which will enable him to realize sufficient for his expenses the first year, and perhaps will enable him to place a sum of money aside for future use. The new settler when he arrives in the country ought to locate his farm with as little delay as possible, and then set to work to break as much land as he can for the ensuing year's seeding. If he should be in time to sow on the sod as already described, by all means let him do so, but if not he should break as much as possible for cultivation the following year. He and his family can very well camp out in tents during the summer, and in the fall there will be plenty of time to erect a warm house and stables for the winter. It is of the greatest importance that old countrymen should fall into the methods of old settlers on the prairie Too often they allow their prejudices to lead them into practices which the experience of practical men show to be altogether unsuitable to a prairie country. For instance, with respect to ploughing, or as it is called, " breaking" the prairie, the method, in Manitoba, is quite different from that in an old country. The prairie is cov- ered with a rank vegetable growth, and the question is how ADVICE TO IMMIGRANTS. 6o> to subdue this, and so make the land available for fa -ming purposes. Experience has proved that the best way is to plough not deeper than two inches, and turn over a furrow from twelve to sixteen inches wide. This is well done during the months of June and July. It is found that the sod is effectually killed when turned over during these two months. It has happened that some farmers from older countries, in love at home with deep ploughing, have de- spised the methods of the country, and tried deep ploughing in Manitoba. These men have come to learn wisdom from practical disappointment, but this is an unnecessarily ex- pensive lesson. "We have already advised intending settlers to avoid bur- dening themselves with an unnecessary amount of luggage. We would, however, recommend them to bring with them as much of their clothing as they conveniently can, as it packs in small compass, and saves outlay in the new land. Be sure, however, to bring your money, or that portion of it which you will not require to use on the way, in the form of a draft or bill-of-exchange. If you lose the draft or bill, you can always have it replaced. If you bring gold, silver, or bank notes, and lose it, you will probably never recover your loss. There are four large banking institu- tions in Winnipeg, any one of which will be able to cash your draft or bill on your arrival. As soon as you reach Winnipeg, by placing yourself in the hands of the Govern- ment guides, you will be able to make your purchases at reasonable prices, and will be secure from any imposition in that respect. The following figures may prove of interest to intending settlers, as showing what can be done in the Canadian North-west. Farms can be purchased at almost any price from one dollar per acre upwards, and one hundred and sixty acres can be secured as a homestead free, on payment of ten dollars entry fee. We will, however, base our cal- |.i' I E,< I I' 638 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. culations on the Government price for pre-emptions of one dollar, and we will illustrate a term of five years occupancy : First Year. Expenditure of settler with family of Bay five, for provisions, 4c., one year $250.00 One yoke of oxen 125.00 One cow 36.00 Breaking plough and harrow 35.00 Waggon 80.00 Implements, kc 25.00 Cook stove, Ac, complete 25.00 Furniture 25.00 Tent 10.00 Sundries, say 50.00 Outlay for First Year $660.00 At the end of the year, he will have a comfortable log- house, barn, &c., cattle implements, and say twenty acres of land broken, ready for seed. Second Year. Will realize from twenty acres — 600 bushels of grain at 60c., which is ,i low figure $360.00 Expenditure, say 300.00 To the good $60.00 And he will have an additional twenty acres of land broken. Third Year. Forty acres will give him 1,200 bushels of grain, at 60c $720.00 Will pay for land $160.00 Expenditure, including additional stock and implements. . 500.00 660.00 To the good $60.00 And he will, with his increased stock and other facilities, be able to break at least thirty acres. Fourth Year. Seventy acres will give him 2,700 bushels of grain, at 60c $1,260.00 Less expenditure for further stock, implements, and other neces- saries GOO.OO To the good $660.00 And another thirty acres broken. H-WEST. 3-emptions of one years occupancy : vrisiona, kc, $260.00 126.00 36.00 35.00 80.00 26.00 25.00 25.00 10.00 50.00 1660.00 I comfortable log- ly twenty acres of 60c., which , $360.00 300.00 $60.00 nty acres of land ! $720.00 ... $160.00 18.. 500.00 660.00 $6().()i) md other facilities, 60c $1,260.00 ther neces- GOO.OO $660.00 ADVICE TO IMMIGRANTS. 639 Fifth Year. 100 acres will give him 3,000 busheln of grain, at eOc $1,800.00 Less, same expenditure as previous year 6'>0.00 To the good $1,200.00 At thf, end of the fifth year, he will stand as follows : — Cusn, or its equivalent on hand $1,980.00 160 acres of land increased in value to at least $5 per acre 800.00 House and barn, low appraisal 250.00 Stock, including cattle and horses 600.00 Machinery and farm implements, 50 per cent, of cost, say 200.00 Furniture, &e 150 00 $3,980.00 Less — outlay first year . . . *. 660.00 To credit of farm $3,320.00 In these calculations, we have endeavored to be as near the truth as possible. We have increased the number of acres broken during the three years, because with an increase i\i stock and other facilities for breaking, the settler can break more. This has been the experience of farmers here. Then we have placed the expenditure high, while the price i^uoted for the grain is much lower than is paid at present by buyers. We show a profit of $3,000, after paying for everything, in five years ; but we can cite numerous cases \n which settlers have cleared more than $4,000 and $5,000 )n the same time, and in which in many instances they had not $100 to commence with. The whole success of the new settler depends upon his economical management perseverance, and untiring industry. If he pays more than §1 per acre for his land, he may be sure it will rise corres- pondingly in value as the country progresses. The intend- ing settler, however, must never forget that he can always obtain 160 acres of land free, from tlie Government, in iiddition to that which he purchases. There is one point we desire to impress upon intending wettlers, and that is the large yield of grain in the Canadian 1 1 '1 i ■i i . ■ i ! i ; L 640 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. J , It North-west. From this time, no immigrant need settle at any great distance from railway communication unless he desires to do so, so that he can always be within easy reach of a steady market. We may safely place the average yield per acre, at thirty bushels of wheat after the second year, and can also safely say that grain will fetch as high prices as in Minnesota or Dakota. In the Canadian North-west, however, allowing prices to be equal, how does the settler stand, as compared with those south of the boundary line. Average yield, per acre, in the Canadian North-west, 30 bushels, say at 80c $24.00 Average yield in Minnesota, 17 bushels, say at 80c 13.00 In favor of Canadian settler. $10.40 This is a considerable difference which is borne out by facts, and when it is considered that the cost of living is less than in the United States, the difference becomes still greater. It simply resolves itself into this, that settlers in the Canadian North-west can afford to sell their grain, owing to their large returns at fully 50 per cent, lower than those in the United States, and still be as well off, or they can (prices being equal) realize the same percentage more than their neighbors south of the boundary line. The opening of the Canadian Pacific Railway to Lake Superior, next year, will give the North-west equal ship- ping facilities with the Western States. What more can we say for the information of those who are looking for new homes to guide them to this " Land of Promise," but a simple word in conclusion. The Canadian Pacific Rail- way is to be pushed forward at a rapid rate during the next few years, and will give employment to thousands of men. A very large amount of grain and other supplies will be required to carry on the extensive public works of the Canadian North-west, and farmers will be kep>'. busy in order to supply this home demand for years to come. ! I i i ADVICE TO IMMIGRANTS. 6dl jttler... $10.40 In addition to this, i unigrants will be able to find plenty of work for themselves and their teams, during their spare time, so that the sooner settlers make up their minds to come here, the better it will be for themselves. The next ten years in the Canadian North-west will assuredly be a time of great progress and prosperity. In conclusion, we submit the following evidence of set- tlers on certain points connected with outfit and farming : Statements of Actual Settlers. Nelson Brown of High Bluff, says : — ''In my opinion the month of Stiptemhi-r is tho mont fiivorable for settlera to como here, and in no case hIiouUI they como earlier tlian May. Let them bring good medium-sized cloHe-made horsen witli them. Have been liere eight years and know the reqnirements pretty well." Henry West of Clear Springs, says : — "I have been in the coimtry six years and liav«n(l Idot'y tho Cnituil StiitoH for wunploH i.t' gniiii of ull kinilH. They liiivo only tlio Htiirt of um in frtiitH, but wo 1110 ;)fof{r('HHing well in tliiit icsih'cI. If IoIUk would work fou" months in tho your thoy might ho in/ J I bcgnn to cultlvato ler ctiUlvation, with i* for one of my quarter 50 to back ray words jine and wo tht'rofon> The land is not flat ell watered by ruimiiiK iHt June, and in clKhi 100 buHlu-'lH to the acre Any man who wiHho.-i thi« country, and if ho ing ft comfortable ami y day that I first landcl Geo. Fidsbury of High IJlulT, miys: — " I would not udviHu any man coming out hero t<^ ferm to bring any mON luggage witii him tliiin he ciiu actually help, 1 have HomctimeH weighed rooU hero and found them to HurpaxH any I ever grew in Canada. I do not think there is any uho telling the immigrantH the weightn uh they will hardly believe it, Tt in cnoiich ffir them to kn.'>w thiit thin <'>iintry can produce more to tii* acri with luiu cultivation tiiau uuy part ot ( uutda.'* iking the soil. Horsert can bo worked on tho country Ih well adapted ir. Abundance of buy } winter well, and I'oiuc fV lorses as they can bo fix! on grass and good hay." nd $300 to come to this ith oxen as they are lci« k than horses. 1 woiihl I but procure the best of < country." ,ys : — that intends living l>y r away his time in other each yearwith his labor itate of New York, and I ^ i I il 1 li I CHAPTER XXXIV Advice to Settlers and Travellers. I .X ill J Ilii M i n \yl Protection againKt Sudden Storms in Winter — Thunder, Rain, or Wind Storms in Sum- mer — How to Protect Horses and Cattle from Flies — Smudges — Keeping ,the Tent Clear of Mosquitoes — Care of Horses when Travelling — How to Find Lost Horses — Precautions to b*" Used — AVTiere to Pitch a Camp in Summer — In Winter — How to Find Water — How to Know Sweet Water— Protection against Prairie Fires — Saving Hay and Fences — How to Travel Over the Prairie With or Without a Road — White Mud Swamps — Carelessness of Travellers as Regards their Personal Comfort — How to Pro- rent a Prairie Fire — Penalty for Starting One — Crossing Streams with Bridges — How to Cross, Ac, &c. Occasionally notices appear in the public prints of travellers and others who have lost their lives by being caught on an exposed prairie in a winter storm or blizzard. Should old travellers be caught in one of these storms no attempt is made to proceed to their destination, but an immediate halt is called or an effort is made to reach the nearest shelter. Should none be near, the nearest ravine or coulee is entered and the banks of snow made to do duty for a house. Instances have been known where Haljf- breeds have lain comfortably in the drifts for days and saved themselves and horses, when if they had proceeded they would have been frozen to death. In the win- ter of 1875 I was travelling with a company of Half-breeds when a terrible snow-storm came on accompanied with a fierce gale, which drove the icy particles into our eyes with such force that they scarcely left us the power to see. We were sixteen miles from wood, and it was decided to attempt to reach it. Failing in this, we were to make a break wind of our carts, and camp in a favorable hollow. Knowing what we intended to do we pushed on, our leader merely taking the direction of the wind mi his cheek I Beaching the wood and penetrating it some distance we ; ! ADVICE TO SETTLERS AND TRAVELLERS. 645 discovered a little pond where we unharnessed our horses, built a roaring fire and thawed the ice out of our beards and hair. We now built booths of poles and w Hows, and thatched them over with the long grass of the pond, and for the next thirty-six hours enjoyed ourselves amazingly. A few visits to the edge of the wood showed the storm still raging on the prairie, and for two nights and a day we were snow-bound. We obtained abundance of food for our horses in the grassy glades, and scarcely gave a thought to the blizzard that swept the prairie a quarter of a mile away. All travellers should carry matches summer and winter. Those should always be placed in an inner breast pocket so as to be dry and handy. Inexperience says they are not necessary, or, we know a friend who has them. Wisdom says, carry them yourself. In winter, besides matches, dried grass, or the outer bark of the canoe birch, should always be carried so that not an instant need be lost in lighting a fire if the necessity for it should arise. In the winter of 1872 when travelling in Northern British Columbia, the weather was intensely cold and the lakes were frozen over, but in some places the rivers discharging them were covered with only a thin film of ice. We reached a small river, discharging Carrier Lake, which I crossed in safety. An old Indian following me broke through, and by the time he was out he was like an icicle. In an instant every pack was on the ground, a fire was lit and while he changed his clothes, a cup of hot tea was got ready and scarcely fifteen minutes elapsed before we were again on the way. The cause of settlers and others losing their lives in win- ter can always be shown to arise from their desire to reach home or from persistently fighting the storm, until their vitality and animal heat are so far exhausted that they sink down and fall into a deep sleep and never awake. On the t ( I 1 V. : 646 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. ij: other hand, if a man lies down and gets cold when asleep, he will surely wake up with a change of temperature. All parties caught in a severe storm should conserve their powers, instead of weakening them by persistent efforts, and this can be done by at once fleeing to shelter, and if no fire can be lighted, wrapping the body up in warm clothing, and remaining passive until the storm ceases. During the past winter, a number of individuals lost their lives by not fully recognizing the danger they ran in exposing them- selves on the prairie, when a severe wind storm (Blizzard) was in progress. Owing to its force and the icy particles that fill the air, it is next to impossible to make progress, except before the wind, and too often this is in the wrong direction. It is, therefore, absolutely necessary for all parties travelling in a thinly settled part of the country, any time after the beginning of October, to carry matches with them, and if caught in a storm, to retreat at once to a thicket, and build a fire and remain there quietly until the storm is past. Summer storms are often very severe, and frequently accompanied by terrific thunder and wind. I consider a prairie thunder storm as one of the most appalling occur- rences which a traveller on the plain has to encounter, and one which he has no means to escape. There are few days in June and July, when thunder is not heard from some point of the compass. Most of the storms are merely local, and last but a short time. They generally take place after three o'clock in the afternoon, and no matter how severe the night storm may be, the air is clear and calm in the morning. Should a series of storms take place, the tempera- ture is considerably lowered, and a cloudy and windy day will likely follow. All travellers should have a strong cover for each waggon or cart, and see that it is securely fastened every night before retiring to his tent. Very frequently, the traveller EST. ADVICE TO SETTLERS AND TRAYELLKRS. 617 when asleep, perature. All «nserve their sistent efforts, 3lter, and if no warm clothing, . During the jir lives by not ixposing them- orm (Blizzard) le icy particles make progress, 8 in the wrong jessary for all )f the country, ) carry matches eat at once to a uietly until the and frequently I consider a tippalling occur- encounter, and •re are few days eard from some ire merely local, take place after ter how severe lid calm in the ce, the tempera- and windy day for each waggon ed every night ly, the traveller may retire to rest with not a speck of cloud any wlierc above the horizon, and wake up a little after midnight, with the incessant roll of thunder in his ears, ad his eyes blinded with the vivid lightning. It is now tnat the un- wary traveller pays the penalty for being ignorant. Care- lessly pitched tents are blown down, or the rain pours through, and everything is thoroughly soaked. Morning breaks, and the goods are found injured by the rain, and to complete the disaster, the horses have stampeded and are nowhere to be found. Nearly all travellers relate such occurrences as happening to themselves, and fsoem to see no way of preventing the disaster. Prevention is very easy, and the careful traveller is never caught unprepared. When seeking a camping place for the night, any time during the summer, an elevated spot, near a pool of water, should be chosen, so that comparative freedom from mos- quitoes may be secured if there should be a little wind. Feed and shelter for the horses are absolutely necessary-, as both may be needed any night. All the conveyances should be placed west of the tents, and each tent securely tied to a cart by a guy rope passing over the end of the ridge-pole. The rear of the tents should be next to the carts, so that should a storm arise in the night, there would be no danger of the tents being blown down. By taking these precautions, no storm can do much damage, and men fall into the habit of doing this as a matter of routine. In the latter part of June, 1879, I encamped on the prairie, just west of Qu'Appelle, but on the plateau above the river valley. About three hundred yards distant, another exploring party stopped for the night. We ar- ranged our camp in our usual manner, and retired to rest. About two o'clock, a.m., a terrific rain, thunder, and wind storm broke over us, and for five hours we lay and listened to tilt' terrific uproar. After the rain ceased we attempted to make a fire, but could not succeed for some time owinir to 648 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. t i the force of the wind and wetness of the wood. Our tents had withstood the tempest's power and kept us perfectly dry. Not so with our friends in the other camp. Their tent had been blown down at the commencement of the storm, and there was not a man in the camp that had a dry rag. Of course, in letters to their friends, they omitted to state that tlieir wretchedness was the result of their own carelessness. I visited their camp and found that the storm was altogether unexpected and had caught them un- prepared, and their tents tumbled about their ears in a few minutes. Horses will not face a severe rain and wind storm on the prairie, so that it is absolutely necessary to stop if the storm is meeting you. On the approach of a thunder storm in the day time, which may be of short duration, it is only necessary to turn the horses heads away from the storm, and they will stand perfectly quiet. The men can get under the carts or stand out in the rain, as it suits them. Care must be taken that horses do not stampede in a storm, as many travellers througli the carelessness of their team- sters lose much time through this cause. All through the summer, mosquitoes are very trouble, some at night, and often put the horses almost wild. Ever\- evening, it is necessary to make a " smudge " to keep oft the flies and enable the horses to eat a little during the night. It is made by lighting a fire with a little dry wood, and then putting on green sticks and covering all up with sods, so as to make a continuous smoke. When flies are troublesome and a little wind stirring, horses always feed head to wind, and it is necessary to note the direction of the wind before retiring to rest, as it is nothing unusual to find that the horses have gone off miles during the night. By noting how the wind blows in the evening and how it is in the morning, a man of some experience will always go straight to the horses, even if they are miles i i I ! ADVICES TO SETTLERS AND TRAVELLERS. 649 away. Many parties think it cruel to hobble horses every night after having been in harness all day, but experience proves that horses eat more and wander less by adopting tlii.^ practice. My practice was always to make a smudge, hobble my horses in good pasture, and trust U their being all right in the morning. By following this practice I never lost a horse, and during two summers, travelled 4,300 miles up and down the prairie chiefly by compass. Besides looking to the comfort of our horses, we should he careful of ourselves and always take pains to make our- selves comfortable. The chief trouble of the North-West is the mosquito, and to a sensitive person, they are a source of constant torture. I have seen men so punished by them, that their eyes were closed, their necks swollen, and they suffered great agony. There .3 no use in disguising the fact of their constant presence, ani of their being a :eal plague. Settlers on the prairie must expect them for yeais to come, but with the progress of settlement they will in a great measure disappear. Tents can be kept clear of mosquitoes only by closing every aperture by which they can enter, as one small hole will often admit more flies than two men can dispose of. They enter tents just in the same way that bees enter a hive, and should one make its way in it will be followed by hundreds in a short time. After closing the tent so that none could enter, a man, with a lighted candle, soon singed the wings of those within, and for the evening and night we had immunity from their attacks. On account of the flies the rule is to pitch the tent in summer always on a knoll, but in winter or after the flies have disappeared in a lo>v sheltered spot. In the depth of winter, tents are not used by travellers except they are supplied with a small stove. A winter camping place is chosen in a thicket or grove where wood is abundant. Should the party be travelling where there is spruce or any coniferous trees, onj section of the party gets wood while :i ill .;: 650 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. I i f. ! . I I I ; ! ! i the other clears away the snow from whjre the sleeping place and fire are to be. Brush is strewn thickly for a bed and in the direction of the wind it is piled rp to make a wind-break. The fire is built in front and along the back a piece of canvas is stretched which keeps out the wind and reflects the heat. Buffalo robes and blankets are now spread on the boughs, and although the temperature of the air may be far below zero, comfort and genuine pleasure reign in the bivouac, and no thought of discomfort enters the mind of any one. I have lain in such camps when the temperature was very low, and never experienced any real discomfort. White men always lie with their feet to the fire, but very frequently the Indians lie with their side to it, and when one side gets cold they get up, put on a fresh log, and lie down in the opposite direction. Some years since it was rather difficult to obtain good water on many of the trails, and few ventured to leave them in search of it. A Half-breed's plan of getting good water is to taste it, and if it is no worse than a weak in- fusion of Epsom salts he will pronounce it very good for tea. After some experience and close observation I discovered that where a certain species of sedge {Garen aristata) grew in profusion there I might look for good water at any season if the grass remained green. Late in the fall many pools that contained good water in the summer become brackish. This was formerly the case in and around the Touchwood Hills, and much difficulty was experienced in obtaining sweet water. In the fall of 1879 I noticed every pond that con- tained green sedge had sweet water. On the other hand those where the sedge was rotting and apparently dying invariably had brackish or very poor water. Since then I have carefully noted the water pools, and in all cases the sedge gave the same results. When the seasons become drier than they are at present many pools in Moose Moun- taj and the Touchwood Hills and other localities, which at ADVICE TO SETTLERS AND TRAVELLERS. 651 present have comparatively pure wr.ter, become brackish in the autumn. Prairie fires are dangi;rous both to settlers and travellers, but especially to the former. During the month of August the grass begins to dry up owing to the great heat and the dryness of the atmosphere. September completes what August commenced, and by the first week in October all the grass is dry, and for hundreds of miles a continuous hay meadow extends without a break. At this time scarcely a shower falls, and in the middle of the day it is very warm and often the wind is strong. A party of travellers stop for dinner, and without due precaution light a fire, or a smoker throws down a lighted match. In an instant the grass is in a blaze, and before a person has time to think the fire is rods away and speeding ovf r the prairie as fast as a horse can gallop. Numerous fires started as abov*^ have been known to run over 100 miles without stopping. Should the fire reach a trail in the night it will scarcely ever cross it as the ruts stop it most effectually. A fire on our buffalo plains is not the formidable affair that novelists and many travel- lers make it. The grass is generally short, seldom over a foot high, and on this account the fire never attains much volume. Although many times quite close to fires, in only one in- stance did I have to protect myself from them. While lying in camp on the plain nearly 100 miles southwest of Battle- ford on the first Sabbath of October, 1879, my assistant noticed huge volumes of smoke rising in the southwest, but a great distance off". He and I were travelling alone, and naturally felt some fear of the fire reaching us. Without any hesitation he ran for the horses, and besides hobbling them we fastened a long line to each of them and tied them to the carts. We at once took down our tent and packed everything up, putting all our stuff" in the carts. We saw that the fire was coming straight for us, and that a very ( \ ' t 1 i i ', I; Mi I' ii l! 652 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. short time would elapse before it would be upon us. The sun was setting and before dark we harnessed the horses and placed them in the carts and moved to a small patch of sandy ground where the grass was quite thin and waited for the enemy. The lurid glare in the heavens kept increas- ing as the shadows of evening fell, and darkness had not settled over the prairie before we saw long tongues of flame thrown uji against the sky from a distant ridge ; these dis- appeared and the bright glare only remained. A few min- utes pass and a nearer ridge is reached and a long line of fire is seen to cross it an^ disappear. Horses and men are now aroused, and I try if the grass where we are will carry fire and find it will not. We at once move to its outer edge and securely fasten our horses, so that they may not break loose and leave us. A few minutes more and the fire has passed the last ridge, and with the speed of a fast horse it bears down upon us. As it came near us the whirling smoke and leaping flames seemed to take the forms of living things that were in terrible agony and added largely to the sublimity of the spectacle. When it reached our oasis it swept past on either side, and a few gulps of smoke, accompanied with a strong hot wind, were the only discomforts it caused us. When it was past we saw that it kept an even front, and wherever the grass was long and thick the flame continued for some time after the first rush had passed. A stiff gale had been blowing all day and continued through the night, and before the next evening, this fire reached the Eagle Hills, and burnt up all the hay cut by Red Pheasant's band. Where it burnt the hay, it was fully 130 miles to the northeast of us. This same fire swept up between the two Saskatchewans the next night, and burnt up the tent of a party of the Mounted Police who barely escaped with their lives, as the fire came upon them when they were asleep. Ten days after, I crossed the same tract, and for twenty-four miles our horses never obtained a mouthful of food, as the fire had licked it all up. ADVICE TO SETTLERS ANF) TRAVELLERS. 653 Settlers can easily protect their houses, barns, and stocks by ploughing a few furrows around them, and without this or something else is done there is no safety. Burning a, ring of grass, in the evening, outside of the ploughing is more effectual, but this should be done during a calm even- ing, and the fire stopped after it has burned the required breadth. Many new comers think these precautions are unnecessary, and hence the doleful accounts of the loss of hay and even, houses, which we read of from time to time. While travelling on the prairie, in September and Octo- ber, no fire should be lit in t' e middle of the day, without two or three persons are standing ready to extinguish the grass when sufficient ground is burnt over, for safety. No fire should be left uncovered when the party moves away, and it is the duty of the leader to see personally that all fire is either extinguished or covered up. There is a pen- jiliy of $200 for the starting of a prairie fire, and as the informer gets half the fine, Indians and Half-breeds are constantly on the alert, during the dangerous season, to pounce on any delinquent. Many people blame the Indians for setting the prairie on fire, but my experience leads me to lay the blame on white men, especially the young bloods who go shooting in the fall. A stump of a cigar dropped on the prairie is much more dangerous than an Indian fire. Travelling on the prairie is an easy matter with or with- out a road. Experience combined with intelligence, how- ever, are necessary to ensure success. My plan is never to combat a difficulty without seeing my way to overcome it. Most people, when travelling, take a guide or a man who has been over the country before, and who knows or pro- fesses to know where the water-pools are. As a rule, these men have not a high order of intelligence, and dare not venture off the beaten track. They know nothing of the use of the compass, and laugh at any person thinking to cross the country by the aid of one. Should these parties i I . ,; i .; ! .«.: 654 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 91 I I) ■ i i f^r get into a region not visited by them before they are per- fectly helpless, and will do more harm than good. When the Mounted Police first entered the country, they always took a guide when moving from point to point. On one occasion, when Colonel Irvine and party were passing from Fort Walsh to the Saskatchewan, in the direction of Battleford, they camped on the open plain. In the morning, when they started off, the atmosphere was cloudy and the sun obscured. After travelling steadily all day, they reached their old camping place in the evening, although they thought they were forty miles away from it. When ques- tioned, the old guide explained that he had travelled with the wind on his right hand all day, and could not be blamed if it changed. Numerous instances of a like nature could be related, each instance showing that guides are mere en- cumberances when in an unknown district. Should any per- son be travelling in the surveyed districts. Captain Allen's Prospector's Manual will be found invaluable, as it is supe- rior to a whole army of unlettered guides, and will never lead any one astray. Outside of the surveys, a map and pocket compass are necessary, and these should be studied constantly until the mind takes in the whole country, and a traverse of an unknown region becomes only a pleasurable excitement. Owing to the absence of woods and the rolling character of the country, parties may cross it in any direc- tion, provided they take the risk of finding water at con- venient distances. White mud swamps are the terror of both Indians and Half-breeds. Should a person incautiously attempt to cross one or even lead a horse to the margin to drink, he will find it a difficult matter to get on firm ground again. In the south, where the rainfall is light, these swamps, in the dry season, are hard baked clay flats, covered with a sprink- ling of saline plants. Proceeding northward, these gradu- ally change their character, and pass into the much dreaded \ ADVICE TO SETTLERS AND TKAVELLERS. 655 swamp. One of the worst kind has a dry surface which will not bear the weight of a horse, and into which he sinks deeper at every step, until he lies down from sheer exhaus- tion. The much dreaded salt plain west of the Touchwood Hills, contains a number of swamps of the very worst de- scription. Southwest of the hills we became entangled in a series of these, in the autumn of 1880, and it was only by hard work and much ingenuity that we saved our horses. When we entered on the clay flat it seemed quite hard, but first, one horse went down and then another, until nine were lying panting on the yielding surface. By the time we got across, both men and horses wore almost worn out, as all the carts had to be taken over by hand, and the men had to assist the poor horses when they sunk down com- pletely exhausted. Nearly all the " sloughs " spoken of by travellers are embryo white mud swamps. In every case, they are merely saturated Cretaceous clay, and pass from liquid " white " mud in the north to hard baked clay flats in the south. These constitute the " bad lands " of the south, and the saline swamps and " sloughs " of the north. As a rule, creature comforts are provided in abundance by all travellers, and yet very few know how to make them- selves comfortable under all circumstances. Tea and suffi- cient food of any kind will suit on the plains as all parties are blessed with a gootl appetite. Food, however, is not all that is necessary. In no case should a tent be pitched care- lessly or with the door to the west. Many storms come up suddenly from that quarter in the night, and a carelessly pitched tent admits the rain or what is much worse the tent is blown down in the midst of the storm and every possession is sent to the four winds or is thoroughly soaked. No careful traveller will retire except he feels assured that he is secure for the night. When the camping place is M • " 666 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. i! ;f' reached the evening may be beautiful and a gentle wind blowing, so that the mosquito is not abroad and the tired and possibly lazy travellers may decide to sleep under the canopy of hea/en. After they get asleep the wind falls and they are awakened by the myriads of flies which cause them such discomfort that ever after when they think of that terrible night they shudder involuntarily. Flies and storms should always be expected in summer and always guarded against. No person need have any fear of catching cold on the plains by exposure to the night air, as such a thing never happens. When preparing the tent for the night a water- proof blanket should always be placed next the ground and over that a buffalo robe with the hair side up. After this any kind of covering will do. Care must be taken on the return to civilization that the traveller does not catch cold by sleeping in a close room, as experience teaches that such rooms are extremely dangerous. It is wise to open the window and door of the room even if the temperature of the air is at zero, uo that you may escape a severe cold. After the first season I always did this and by so doing es. caped the colds that all surveyors complain of when th'jy return to civilization. Travellers should always have a five or ten gallon keg with them, and see that this is filled with good water at least once a day. When travelling without a guide this is absolutely necessary, as water may be extremely scarce in the district where a person may chance to be and great suffering may result. In July, 1880, myself and party were thirty hours without water owing to the carelessness of the men whose business it was to see that a supply was on hand. We were never without water again, and I gave no instruc- tions regarding it. The above incident happened on the western part of the Great Souris Plain. The plain for sixty miles east of the Canadian Pacific Railway crossing Moose ADVICE TO SETTLERS AND TRAVELLERS. 657 Jaw Creek in almoHt waterlcBS, and groat caution is necessary when traversing it. Mtriy other localities where water is scarce might be cited, but it is unnecessary to mention them as wise men will be prepared for all such while fools will run to their own destruction, or like my party suffer for their neglect of known duty. Water .suited for horses is generally obtainable at least once a day, but that for culi- nary purposes is much more scarce than many imagine. I speak of surface water. It is not necessary to enumerate all the little things travellers should carry, but axes, a saw, an augur, a drawing knife, a spade, rope, and twine are absolutely required, wire of two sizes, a hammer, and clout nails or tacks should always be taken. Medicines are seldom needed, but salve and plaister for cuts should never be dispensed with as the traveller is liable at any moment to meet with an accident. The cooking utensils should be in charge of one man even if only for a day at a time, and should be counted after every meal. Knives, forks, spoons, and many other small articles get into the grass and without constant watchful- ness and extreme care get lost. Axes, whetstones, and knives are left lying around by most travellers, and are just the things most required on a long journey. In every well- organized party one man is detailed to go over every part of the camping ground after the others have started and pick up all the odds and ends that may have been left. The chief difficulty experienced in traversing the country is the crossing of rivers and small streams. Besides the crossing there is the descent into the valley and the ascent out of it. With loaded carts and too often baulky horses this is no easy matter. At this time the spade is always useful to dig down the bank so that the water may be reached. Sometimes the stream may only be a few feet wide but have a quagmire on either side and not a bush for miles. 42 068 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. I I it i In a case of this kind long grass or sedge is cut and a track made for the horse to walk on, and although he may tremble in every limb on account of the shaking of the bog he takes his load across. The others foHow and that difficulty is sur- mounted. Another time a creek is reached that is quite narrow but running in a deep trench. The horses are taken from the carts, the ridge poles of the tents are stretched across the creek and the carts drawn across by hand. In August, 1880, we reached the dry bed of a creek on the north side of the Cypress Hills, and after examining it for miles, found it apparently impassable. The banks of the creek were perpendicular, and the ,bed a quicksand. So •soft was the sand that the man who tried it had to cross on his hands and knees. A brief consultation was held, and while one party cut down willows to bridge the quicksand, another dug down the banks. In an hour we were across and ready for our next difficulty which soon came The day was extremely warm, men and horses were thirsty, and as it drew on towards noon, I climbed a hill and saw scarcely a mile away, a beautiful lake glistening in the sun. With joyful hearts we hurried on, and unhitched close to the lake. The horses naturally went to the water, but to our astonisL'ment would not touch it. An examina- tion showed that our beautiful lake was liquid mud, with scarcely an inch of water on the surface. We had our din- ner, as we carried our own supply, but it was sun.^^wn before our utmost endeavors could find any for the horses. On the 13th July, 1879, we reached the elbow of the South Saskatchewan, at the head of the Qu'Appelle valley. At this point, the river was 770 yards wide, and flowing with a steady current. Sixty miles to the north, there was a ferry, and forty miles to the south, Palliser had crossed, twenty-three years before, but with the loss of a waggon. After examining the river carefully, both above and below the Elbow, we decided to cross at that point. The means { i ADVICE TO SETTLERS AND TRAVELLERS. 659 it was sun. ^wii was the next consideration. There was no timber to con- struct a raft, so we decided to build a boat. We had no boards, but we had a large tent, water proof blankets, and cart covers. John Matheson, of Winnipeg, who had charge of the horses and outfit generally, made a wooden frame about nine feet long and four and a half feet wide at the stern, shaped like the letter A, and interlaced it with willows. Over this we put the tent, and over all we nailed the water-proof blankets. By means of this frail boat, we purposed taking across a river nearly half a mile wide, four months provisions, all our camp equipage, four carts, and two buckboards, besides risking our own lives. The night before we undertook to cross was an anxious one, and shortly after sunrise we were ready to make the attempt. Our boat was found to leak considerably, but one man bailing could keep it afloat. A small load was put on board, and one man pulling two small oars and another bailing, they started. After crossing a small branch close to us, they drew the boat for a long distance up the river by walking on a sand bar. When they thought they had ascended far enough, they attempted to cross the main channel, but the width (over 500 yards) being much greater than they expected, they were unable to make the shore, and landed the stuff on an island near the further side. In coming back, they were carried over half a mile below our camp, and had to haul the boat up. They were in good spirits, however, as the boat was quite safe, and by going further up the bar they were sure they could make the land. Another load was soon on board and hauled far up the sand bar, and was easily taken across. All working with a will, the greater part of the provisions and baggage were across before night. Much time was lost in getting the horses across, as they frequently turned back when almost half across. One or two were nearly drowned, be- i! ! I ■■ 660 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. if I! ;■ 1 ! • 1 ■< , '4 •■ I :\ ! 1 1 1 I *■ i [ I f ing unable to stem the current for 500 yards on a stretch. These, after resting a while on a bar some distance below us, finally reached the shore. The next forenoon, we brought over the remainder of our outfit, and by sundown camped on the crest of the valley, with the mighty river sweeping in graceful curves at our feet. Behind us lay the river, and in our front those illimitable plains which on our maps were shown as a waterless and treeless desert. On the morrow, we entered on the great plain which we eventually traversed in every direction, and lifted the veil which had enshrouded it for many years. I! f il^ ) % I ! ■ ;i 1 i ^EST. I Oil a stretch, listance below forenoon, we 1 by sundown ! mighty river lind us lay the 3 which on our IS desert. On a,in which we and lifted the 8. w li Hiis Diagram is intended to illustrate the uni- form disposition of Free Grant and Pre-emption Lands, also of Railway or Public Lands as the ca^e may he, in each Township in Manitoba and the J^orth- West Territories. I -^i- - ^Q— 10- T ^2 - School I Lahos -^,3- -28-" -20 I -18 -7-- 6- %Xjti^uamtuA 21 --34— --"3,^---- — -27 2^ I I 17- r I HBiCos I ---8 5 1 -16 --- li 9 I I 1,0 HBICOS 2 6 I Lamos __^g__ -14 SCMJOOL 11 I LaMOS ^,6 "25^ —24 — 1:5^- -12 -1 Homestead and Pre-emption Lands. Railway or Public Lands, as the casemay he. CHAPTER XXXV North-West Land Regulations and Mode of Survey. Inauguration of the Surveys — The Interaational Boundary — Principal Meridians — Siza of Townships — Numbering of Ranges and Townships — Base Lines — Correction Lines^ Size of Townships — Road Allowances — How Survey Lines are Marked on the Ground — Dominion Land Regulations — Diagram showing the Division of a Township into Sections— General Regulations— Homesteads and Pre-emptions — Colonization Plan Number One— Plan Number Two— Timber for Settlers— Pasturage Lands— General Provisions— Canadian Pacific Railway Lands — Conditions of Sale — Liberality of Canadian Land Regulations— Hudson's Bay Company's Lands— School Lands — Lauda at Private Sale. Immediately after the preliminaries for the transfer of the North-West Territories had been arranged between the Imperial and Dominion Governments, Colonel J. S. Dennis, D.L.S. (late Deputy Minister of the Interior), was, on the 10th July, 1869, directed by the Hon. William Macdougall, Minister of Public Works, to repair to the Red River and prepare a plan for laying out the country into Townships. After visiting the country and consulting with the Crown Lands Department of the Dominion and the Public Lands Department of the United States, a plan of survey was drawn up and adopted by the Minister of the Interior. During the summer of 1873 the International Boundary, lat. 49°, was established by the Boundary Commission ap- pointed by the Imperial and United States Governments. This line was fixed upon as the base of the surveys, and was thereafter known as the " First Base." From this line others were run at right angles northward and named Principal Meridians. The First Principal Meridian runs northward from a point on the International Boundary, about eleven miles west of the town of Emerson. The Second Principal Meridian is established upon the 102nd meridian of west longitude, passing about thirty miles west i if 662 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. iliili "f II of Fort Ellice. The Third, Fourth, and Fifth Principal Meridians are identical with the 106th, 110th and 114th Meridians respectively. The latter passes close to Forts Calgarry and Edmonton. After mature deliberation it was decided to lay out the country in four-.sided townships of almost a square form. Each township measures on its east and west sides from centre to centre of the road allowances, v/hich form its actual boundaries, exactly 483 chains, and on its north and south sides 486 chains more or less, subject to the deficiency or surplus resulting from the convergence or divergi nee of the meridians, as the case may be, caused by the curvature of the surface of the earth. In numbering these townships certain terms were adopted which gave precision to each township no matter where situated. Starting at the First Principal Meridian on the International Boundary, the first township west of the Meridian was termed Range I, the next west, Range II, and so on till the Second Princi- pal Meridian was reached, when the numbering commenced again. It will thus be seen that the first township west of any Principal Meridian is in Range I west, and so on in regular order. The next step was to give position, and the first township was numbered Township 1, the next north Township 2, and so on as far as the surveys extend to the north. After establishing the First Base, or International Boundary, other lines were run twenty-four miles apart, parallel to this one and numbered Second,Third, Fourth, and Fifth Base as far as the surveys extend to the north. The country is afterwards laid out into blocks twenty -four miles square, or nearly that, each block containing sixteen town- ships. These blocks are contained between four straight lines, having a Base Line at the north and at the south. Exactly twelve miles from either Base a line is run east and west, named a" Correction Line," and on this line all correc- ! i h I ST. 'th Principal th and 114th lose to Forts ;o lay out the square form. ist sides from hich form its its north and the deficiency divergince of the curvature ese townships cision to each arting at the aal Boundary, termed Range Second Princi- [ng commenced township west it, and so on in i position, and p 1, the next Lirveys extend International ir miles apart, rd. Fourth, and he north. The enty-four miles sixteen town- i four straight at the south. is run east and line all correc- w t n S 1^....^..,.^... ... ........ • ' I i I I ■ •?-"f-«- *— :— •5---. \y »8 --< y—Z".t ■%■•'' .„.u -•»• ■» l"-f «.-,'... [ ' '• I I • 4-i-4'^ ■ I I • * . I IE r-— •»" ,» ! iir' COfi MANITOBA AM) TIIK (MIFAT Nf)UTII-\VEST. of postH govorn tlu^ ri'liitivo poHition of tlic^ cornerH on the opposito Hides of tho road allowjiiuu' (or road allowancon) on which thoy ntand, whotlicr the name may he those of adjacent townnhipH, Hections, or quarter Hections. (See dia- gram No. 2.") On correction lint^H, liowever, the boundaries on hnth sirfrj^ of the road aUowance are planted with monuments indicat- ing the township, section, and quarter-sectiim corners. ** The kind of monuniejit eniph)yed varies somewhat, according to the material available in the locality surveyed; but the position in which all such are placed is governed by unalterable rules, and the inscriptions or marks are all in conformity. " In a tlmhercd dHinfrt/, a post, three inches scjuare, and showing two feet above ground is lirmly planted at the township or section corner to be indicated, and it bears marks as hereafter described. The post distinguishing a cpiarter-section corner in such a rcgin is three inches wide, being flattened on two sides and it st nds eighteen inches (uily above the surface, with the llattened sides at right angles to the line on which it stauil)^. In a wooded region where stone abounds, corners are sometimes detined by simple sttmes correctly planted and properly marked. The position of all such corners are indicated by simple monuments, such as a post or stone, and further defined by the astronomical bearing, and dis- tance therefrom being marked in red chalk upon some ad- jacent tree, the side of which nearest to the monument is also inscribi'd with the letters " B. T." cut into the trunk." *' In a prairie roHufrtf, the posts stand in the centre of mounds, generally of earth, thrown up in the form of right- angled pyramids. At the corners of townships, these mounds are three feet high, their bases being six feet square ; at the corners of sections or quarter-sections the mounds stand at two feet and six inches high, and their EST. NORTH-WEST LAND RKGULATfONS. 6G7 oriicrH on the d allowancen) ,y be those of )n«. (See dia- ofl on hoth sidrs imentH indicat- i coriHM'H. riefl somewhat) ality surveyed ; I is governed by narks are all in hes s()viare, and planted at the (d, and it bears corner in such a id on two sides, he surface, with iiie on which it abounds, corners •orrectly planted all such corners ,n a post or stone, bearing, and dis- c upon some ad- he monument is into the trunk." ill the centre of the form of right- townships, these s being six feet iirter-sections the high, and their bascB are five feet wiuare. In tlie formation of these mounds, the earth is taken from four scpiare pits, each lieing opposite one of the four sides of the mound. In a )>rairio country, that is also stony, the mounds are often built of stones, piled up around the posts, so as to conform, as nearly as possible, to the earth mounds in size and shape. " If a township or other corner fall in a ravijie, the bed of a stream, or some similar situation where it wouh' lie im- possible to erect a monument of a permanent chanicler, and should a " bearing tree" not be obtainable the surveyor in- dicates the position of such (!ornei by erecting at tlu^ lUMirest suitable spot a " witness mound." In this vmhv. th(; mound is in the form of a cone 2ft. Gin. high, its base having a dia- meter of 6ft. The post in the centre is marked " W. M." and also inscribed, in red cb ilk, with the bearing and dis- tance to such corner. " The posts in all mounds show at least ten inches al)ove the apex of the same, whether the latter have been built of earth or stones. " On ordinary surveyed lines the posts and mounds are so placed that their angles rest upon the line on which they stand. " On correction lines, however, the post and mounds are erected square with the line, which passes through the centre of two sides of the mound. " Iron posts, which are placed at every imiyiifilnp corner, consist of either iron bars or tubes, driven into the ground with a sledge, and inscribed, by means of a cold chisel, with the necessary marks. The mounds in connection with such monuments form an exception to the general rule, in that they are so placed that the iron post stands at the northern angle thereof. There is, however, with iron posts, the usual difference in respect to monuments on correction lines, the mounds in connectioa with which are built with their bases facing the cardinal points of thecompas.s, the iron post r €68 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. m^ l:.i being established in the centre of the base of the mound fronting the road allowance. " The letters, marks, and figures on posts and trees aro distinctly cut in with a knife or scribing iron ; those on iron posts and stone corners with a cold chisel. " Quarter-section corner posts are simply marked with the conventional sign " \ " to indicate their character, and bear no inscription showing to what township or range they belong. " Posts or stone monuments indicating all other corners bear sufficient marks to thoroughly indicate the position they are intended to legally establish ; and must always be read from the top of the post downwards. " On township corners the upper figure on either side of the post indicates the number of the township which that side of the post faces, and the next figure indicates the range. " On all other section corners, whether on township lines or in the interior of a township, the numbers of the sections only are to be found on the corresponding faces of three sides of the post ; but in addition to the section number, the number of the township and that of the range appear on the fourth face, which is invariably the south-west one. " The posts planted along the corre. .Ion lines simply ex- hibit marks to show the number of the townships and sections the boundaries of which they form respectively. Township corners have the number of the section shown on the west side of the post, and the numbers of the township and range on its north side. In cases where the posts stand in the northern limit of the road allowance, the letter " R " for road alone is marked on the other two sides. A correspond- ingly opposite plan will be found to have been adopted in marking the township corner posts in the southern limit of the road allowance on correction lines. Section corner posts on correction lines have 'he numbers of the sections on (TEST. 3 of the mound 8 and trees are Li ; those on iron narked with the tracter, and bear or range they U other corners ite the position ,nd must always 8. on either side of iship which that re indicates the an township lines era of the sections [ig faces of three ction number, the nge appear on the i-west one. I lines simply ex- ships and sections ively. Townshq) ,own on the west iwnship and range ists stand in the letter " R " for IS. A correspond- been adopted in southern limit of \ection corner posts f the sections on NORTH-WEST LAND REGULATIONS. GfiO their east and west sides, the letter " 11 " on the side fiicing the roadway, and on the fourth side the number of the township and range. " In ranges numbered from the First Principal Meridian the letters "E" or "W" are marked on the post after the number of the range, to denote that it is east or west of that meridian " The settler from the United Kingdom will at first find the nomenclature of this system of survey a little new and strange ; but he will, on slight acquaintance with it, be- come charmed with its simplicity and accuracy. The surveys are marked on the prairie itself by iron and other kinds of monuments and posts at the corners of the divisions and subdivisions ; and so soon as the settler makes himself acquainted with these, he will instantly understand the position and extent of his own farm on the prairie, or of any other in the country ; or when travelling in any part of the country these posts will tell him at a glance exactly where he is. A settler may obtain a grant of 160 acres of land free, or even numbered sections, on the condition of three years con- tinued residence, and payment of the ofl&ce fees amounting to ten dollars, and he may purchase on reasonable terms adjoining portions of sections. A settler should obtain from the Government Agents general information as to lands open for settlement. All even numbered sections (except 8 and 26, which are Hudson's Bay Company's Lands) belong to the Government, and are open, being specially reserved, for free homesteads and pre-emptions. Odd numbered sections (with exception of 11 and 29, which are School Lands) for twenty-four miles on each side of the Canadian Pacific Railway, may be generally stated to be railway lands, purchasable from the Company, and not open to homestead and pre-emptions. 670 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. i IS I I i I IS ' i. m -i ■ >. lilrilil DOMINION LAND REGULATIONS. DUORAU shewing the division of a Township into sections. Each section — a square mil*— ia tubdivided into quarter sections of 160 acres. Those shaded green are reserved for Ftm Orant Homesteads and their attached Pre-emptions. -:o:- The following Regulations for the sale and settlement of Dominion Lands in the Province of Manitoba and the North-West Territories shall, on and after the first day of January, 1882, be substituted for the Regulations now in force, bearing date the twenty -fifth day of May, 1881 : — 1. The surveyed lands in Mauitoba and the North-West Territories shall, for the purposes of these Regulations, be classified an follows : Clots A. — Lands within twenty-four miles of the main line or any branch line of the Canadian Paciftc Railway, on either side thereof. Class B — Lands within twenty miles, on either side, of any projected line of railway (other than the Canadian Pacific Railway) approved by Order in Council published in the " Canada Gazette." Class C. — Lands south of the main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway not included in Class A or B. Class D. — Lands other than those in Classes A, fi, and C. 2. The even-numbered sections in all the foregoing classes are to be held exclusively for homesteads and pre-emptions. a. Except in Class D, where they may be affected by colonization agreements as hereinafter provided ; b. Except where it may be necessary, out of them, to j-.ovide wood lota for settlers ; c. Except in cases where the Minister of the Interior, under provisions of the Dominion Land Acts, may deem it expedient to withdraw certain lands, and sell them at public auction or otherwise deal with them as the Qovemor in Council may direct. 3. The odd-numbered sections in Class A are reserved for the Canadian Pacific Rail- way Comp-vny. 4. The odd-numbered sections in Classes B and C shall be for sale at $2.50 per acre payable at time of sale ; a. Except where they ha7e been or may be dealt with otherwiM by the Governor General in Council. &. The odd-nimibered sections in Class D shall be for sale at $2 per acre, payable at time of sale, C. Except where they have been or may be dealt with otherwise by the Governor in Council. b. Except lands affected by colonization agreements, as hereinafter provided 6. Persons who, subsequent to survey, but before the issue of the Order in Council of 9th October, 1879, excluding odd-numbered sections from homestead entry, took pos8c»- sion of land in odd- numbered sections by residing on and cultivating the same, sh^ll, if continuing so to occupy them, be permitted to obtain homestead and pre-emptiou «ntrie8 as if they were on even-numbered sections. EST. ONS. ,eotion-a8fluareinil«- regervedforFwOtMit d settlement of aitoba and the the first day of ulations now in May, 1881 :— erritories Bhall, for th« >r any branch line of tho projected line of railway in Council published in ific Railway not included aretobeheldexcluBlvely colonization agreements to r .ovide wood lots (or )r under provisions of the lin lands, and sell them lor in Council may direct, the Canadian Pacific Rail- 1 for sale at $2.50 per acre [it with otherwistt by the lat $2 per acre, payable at lit with otherwise by tho „, as hereinafter provided [of the Order in Council of jiestead entry, took poBses. iltivating the same, shall, Uestead and pre-emptiou NORTH-WEST LAND REGULATIONS. 671 PRE-EMPTIONS. 7. The prices for pre*emption lots shall be as follows : For lands in Clugses A, B and C, $2.50 per acre. For lands in Class D, $2.00 per acre. Payments shall be made in one sum at the end of three years from the date of entry, or at such earlier date as a settler may, under the provisions of th« Dominion Land Acts, obtain a patent for the homestoad to which such pro< emption lot belongs. (COLONIZATION. Plan Number One. 8. Agreements may be entered into with any company or person (hereinafter called the party) to coJonize and settle tracts of land on the following conditions : a. The party applying must satisfy the Qovemment of its good faitli and ability to fulfil the stipulations contained in these regulations. b. The tract of land granted to any party shall be in Class D. 9. The odd-numbered sections within such tract may 'je sold to the party at $2 per acre, payable, one-fifth in cash at the time of entering into the contract, and the balance in fom- equal annual instalments from and after that time. The party shall also pay to the Government five cents per acre for the survey of the land jiurchased by it, the same to be payable in four equal annual instalments at the same times as the instalments of the purchase money. Interest, at the rate of six per cent, per annum shall be charged on all past due instalments. a. The party shall, within five years from the e paid before the issue of the lease. GENERAL PROVISIONS. 18. Payments for land may be in cash, scrip, or police or military bounty warrants 19. These regulations shall not apply to lands valuable for town plots, or to coal or other mineral lands, or to stone or marble quarries, or to lands having water power thereon ; or to sections 1 1 and 29 in each Township, which are School Lands, or Sections 8 and 26, which belong to the Hudson's Bay Company. By order, Oepartmbnt op the Interior, LINDSAY RUSSELL, Ottawa, 23rd December, 1881 Surveyor OmeraL -:o;- CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY LANDS. The land subsidy to the Canadian Pacific Railway Com- pany consisting of 25,000,000 acres, the odd numbered sec- tions are set aside for the purpose of this grant, for twenty- lour miles on each side of the Canadian Pacific Railway (see Clause 2 of the Official Land Regulations). As these sections everywhere alternate with the even numbered ones held by the Government for free grants and pre-emp- tions, it is advisable to give here the regulations of the Pacific Railway for the sale and disposal of their lands. The following is a copy : — The Canadian Pacific Railway Company, Montreal, Canada, Nov. 24ti,092 29,f.82 28,805 20,716 21,545 15,826 12 407 8,107 7,864 7,570 7,306 6,878 6,691 6,006 5,873 6,636 6,114 6,102 4,611. 4,408 4,313 4,253 4,049 3,982 3,827 3,746 2,197 241 .3,270 12,520 8,807 4,432 1881. 140,747 62,446 86,415 36,100 26,127 36,961 27,412 19,746 14,091 9,616 9,631 9,296 9,516 9,890 7,597 6,218 7,873 5,791 5,585 7,609 6,812 6,874 8,239 6,561 6,080 5,373 5,187 5,321 8,367 6,890 5,321 7,985 5,925 16,226 11,485 7,227 6,416 Table I. — ORIGINS OF THE PEOPLE. In this table will be found only those claiming origin from English, Scotch, Irish, French, German, or Indian parentage. All others will be excluded as not necessary to our present purpose. 5ST. OVER 6,000 • 1881. 25 140,747 99 62,44« 92 86,416 >S'2 36,100 !05 26,127 fUJ 36,961 ^45 27,412 S20 19,746 407 14,091 107 9,616 864 9,631 570 9,296 305 9,516 878 9,890 6iil 7,597 006 6,218 ,873 7,873 ,636 5,791 ,114 5,585 ,102 7,609 ,611. 6,812 ,408 6,874 ,313 1 8,239 ,253 6,561 ,049 5,080 ,982 5,373 ,827 5,187 ,746 5,321 ,197 8,367 6,890 5,321 241 7,985 1,270 5,925 !,520 15,226 ),807 11,485 1,432 7,227 6,416 »LE. 3laiming origin lan, or Indian lot necessary to STATISTICS. POPULATION BY PROVINCES. 681 PHOVINCKH. BNOUBU. Ontario Quebec Now BruiiHwick Nova Scotirt Prince .'dwiird laluud. Manitoba Britiiih Columbia Tb«jN. W TerritorifB. TotalB. 635,835 81,515 93,387 128,986 21,4)4 11,503 7,297 1,374 881,311 HOOTCH. IRIHH KHKNCU. 378,636 64.«.!S 40,829 146,027 48,933 16,506 3,892 1,217 699,86:i 627,262 123,749 101,284 66,067 25,4 1.^! 10,173 3,172 281 957,403 102,743 1,073,820 56,035 41,219 10,751 9,949 910 2,896 (IHHMA.N. 1,298,929 210,667 9,719 10,083 42,262 1,308 9,168 952 3 J INDIAN. 284,731 15,326 7,515 1 401 2,125 281 6,767 16,661 49,472 108,547 POPULATION OP CITIES AND TOWNS OVER 5,000. CIT1«H. Montreal Quebec Toronto Halifax St Jobn Hamilton Ottawa London Portland KingHton Chiirlottetown Brantford St. Catberines. . , Tbree Rivers. . . Belleville Guelph L6vi8 Fredericton Chatham • St.rel Port Hope Brock ville . Peterborough . . Sherbrooke St Jear. Baptiste Stratfoi'd Windsoi . ... Lindsay Woodstock Gait . . . St Hyacinthe . St. Thomas Hull Moncton , Winnipeg Victoria . ... St Henri . . . . ENULIHH. HOOTCH. 16,407 3,437 34,608 11,707 8,499 13,569 4,895 8,617 3,679 4,039 3,716 4,081 2,934 288 3,482 3,866 290 1,934 2,594 163 2,606 1,842 1,948 1,774 178 2,954 2.066 1,174 2,544 1,294 64 3,798 257 2,251 2,352 2,318 326 12,531 1,683 13,754 6,640 3,.343 7,716 2.922 3,543 2,077 1,932 3,160 1,668 1,342 2.56 1,1.36 2,434 147 987 1,2,56 82 564 987 1,156 612 114 1,849 884 509 1,768 2,634 41 1,723 259 1,169 2,470 917 174 IRIHII. 28,995 10,224 32,177 12,814 12.863 10,787 9,593 6,062 8,448 7,069 4,059 2,658 3,804 182 3,384 2,810 431 2,690 1,607 90 2,146 3,665 2,952 799 193 2 '•73 1,.',61 2,749 671 764 58 1,972 .^71 967 1,864 831 346 imiCNOH. OBRMAN. 78,684 1,476 46,444 263 1,230 2,212 936 2,292 239 503 500 2,306 9,384 353 223 439 124 370 480 377 215 441 133 .584 189 829 8,537 46 545 868 82 517 6,681 10 82 226 583 361 .5,427 9 94 162 456 269 624 100 3,957 17 5,334 35 64 436 Hll 413 316 202 52 205 28 423 5,089 8 128 503 5,933 49 363 158 4.50 191 145 332 5,519 22 NROHOSH. 71 7 593 1,039 315 505 14 261 84 73 83 175 336 8 107 9 162 781 1 2 > « • • 26 995 9 42 13 ■ • • 58 8 4 137 1 TOTAL. 140,747 62,446 86,415 .36,100 26,127 35,916 27,412 19,746 15,226 14,091 11,486 9,616 ii,631 8,670 9,516 9,890 7,697 6,218 7,873 5,791 6,585 7,609 6,812 7,227 .5,874 8,239 6,561 5,080 5,373 5.187 6.321 8,367 6,890 5,032 7,985 5,925 ^.',415 I' 11 V .1 : 4 !^ ■ I] I ,:i M : 682 ' :| "1 O H P4 H B O CO s M O MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WtST. 'IIITXOl 'MOHOArawu m n 'Tranaioa muiHH •TBOXUITK 'aNTlBI OHViiOl laHtUd -sauiSKaua min CO op ^ t^ 1*^ 'S I-H -f <0 -H . IM -H ^ c4 • oT •1 ^ e ao O ^ r> (O 00 U? ft a> '-' "O c>^ e^oi 00 ^ p» PI rt 2 Jfi «^ to t- CO >H >4 "& •<•• p 0> M C'l •* ^ a> i 00 ^ M <0 (O lA CI I «p M 01 M CO o o "C >o t^ «o «- M -1 00 ■^ O I _ _ , «- * rt «^ W I r- oTao" « o" I <# o m i-> ^4 o V o l3> O >rt «- r-< O *-^ « lO « 00 ■-- jO'«ti-OJM co.coco«oco<'4ie4 (jjocM ^ o ^ CO to «0 <-i so •TI1008 TAON C4 to o .»-ceo>>0(j>ioi-couptot-ooao>0'-i — -n so w « M >« to x» to f >a>ao>-A ' m"oo"'h"q" ci'te" N •* to «n o CO oi^"-!.-^ c^. '3iaiab -H t» to >rt O CO -^ t- «C5^00^0> r-Tcrfoo" OO t- o ._^.^COO^S«lt-iAlOCOO • >ot-t-cofOtoo>'^cioo»t-cooo 2e«teco^a>irtNteooooosocoooaoo>^to p^ao_i^co^ eo^M_«e n t- ic>,>cj_e<» co^ci^ci_s>j Cfl d ICi C^ 00 '^ • — ~~' ""^ '^^ *** ~~* ^~~ <-* (M CO O 00 >a r4 I— I I N to I 00 co C* to F-4 t- .ST. _ ^ I- OO <# « O ■* ^ -^ ■* a> «< 2 ^ e 00 It ^ S 5 5 a> M c-j 8 318. 5 ---55 tS^S a> 00 e^ ■^ "V -— — -^ 00 r-^ '^ ^ lO © « oil. 1 OO to «o ■* -; 2 '5 )oe«e»»aoag2:i2 ■^ la >o N M «^«i.1 en I ^ 8. E ^ 5 ^ STATISTICS 68$ 7}lA?f5 //. — RELIGIONS or THE PEOPLE. In thii T»bIo I iipwup together aU B«ptiiitis Methodirtu, and FrnRbjrteriani, and take a column for each. Pagans and thoae of no religion I place in the Rixth column. RELIGIONS BT PROVINCES. PROTINCM- Ontario Quul)ec Now Bninswick .... Nova Scotia Prince Edward Ihla'd Manitoba BritiHh Columbia. . . N, W. Torritoriea... Bngliih. 366,&39 68,797 46,768 60,255 687 14,297 7,804 3,166 PrMby'iani 417,749 60,287 42,888 122,488 8,395 14,262 4,016 631 MethodiiU 692,103 39,221 34,644 60,811 1,686 9,470 3,516 461 R.CathoUoi 320,839 1,170,718 109,091 117,483 13,794 12,246 10,043 4,443 BaptiiU. NoIUliflon 106,680 8,853 81,092 83,761 1,713 9,440 434 20 3,225 438 lis 121 14 2,189 617 363 RELIGIONS or CITIES AND TOWNS OVER 5,000. Montreal Quebec Toronto Halifax Ht. John Hamilton Ottawa Loudon Portland KingHtoa Chorlottetown Brantford St. Catherines Three Rivers. BeUeviUe Ouelph L6vi8 Fredericton Chatham Sorel Port Hope Brockville Peterborough Sherbrooke St. Jean Baptiste . . . Stratford. Windsor Lindsay Woodstock Gait St. Hyacinthe St Thomas Hull Moncton Winnipeg Victoria St Henri Bngllih. Preaby'lani Methodiits. 14,338 11,697 3,328 1,344 30,913 14,612 9,332 4,992 6,980 3,654 9,605 7,879 4,825 3,069 6,602 3,257 3,756 1,872 3,816 3,600 1,670 2,197 3,023 1,467 3,439 1,474 101 209 2,343 1,490 1,901 3,422 230 98 1,656 822 1,804 1,181 130 49 1,891 972 2,176 1,382 1,376 1,431 1,270 482 89 103 2,364 2,087 1,635 693 1,207 674 1,303 1,680 18} 2,632 46 68 1,995 1,466 263 156 637 1,038 3,373 2,366 1,720 908 179 169 R CatholioB 5,337 883 16,367 3,711 3,387 1,317 3,173 4,963 1,796 3,398 3,604 2,481 2,217 68 3,329 2,442 71 993 2,498 17 1,765 1,691 1,845 481 42 1,394 1,746 1,373 1,388 862 3 3,431 118 875 1,370 706 86 103,679 66,255 16,716 14,705 8,701 7,134 15,901 3,284 4,600 4,451 4,384 1,471 2,583 8,831 3.164 1,895 7,186 1,621 1,506 5,626 603 1,9.W 1,887 4.6U 6,596 l,54i'' 1,878 1,643 302 528 6,165 952 6,234 976 1,020 866 5,920 Baptisti. 1,402 174 3,667 3,704 3,737 1,066 461 885 1,856 300 473 1,570 627 115 482 7 1,189 T29 • • • • 330 360 256 63 9 417 364 315 647 336 11 1,065 79 1,367 S49 114 18 NoIUtUioti 39 5 69 8 3 69 30 23 i I 3 1 3 16 15 2 15 7 3 1 179 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. f • i. f rnl i .^^ 'SaiHOlIHHSX XSKii-HlHOK O s N o o c •J H •viawmoo U8IXIHS fl 50 wi (M **eo w • CO •* • a> ■ <» fH i-i O CO o ■« © iH C4 r-t i>.co-^>AcocO'«r-4a»^aoOrH«oc4eo'^aaaoOr-« ■« O t» 04 0» O A i-l r* l-l CO 00 CO lA (M Oft rH ua . ffjcjcoi^ o»io e< ■if^fM-^) oo .Oieo eoooeot-"*>oeoooooo«Dt>. "^ "■ "' -^ — — — 5, « rH 8^ CO ©feo CO 00 00 rH 00 -"^ tA <0 t>. »a (T* o -^ CO -H rH Oi 04 OS PH rH rH X) H»«Ofl000i»'^O OOIO • -OOWtOrH rHt»COrHO ©•^» •COOrHOO rHrH » » • « * Ck rH 04 . , «H«< rH . .04 OOOteO .-*rHa004-l^mrHC4 ^ CO • © ''#* CO CO >>A<0<0©0»0>'^aoe004>-l •©t>.©rH>Ot->aOCOtArHOO CO'^fi-H •rH00m©O4O»rHCOrH-*eO i— •<0Ht^;Ot>>>n(Mr-> U3 rH CO • 04 -<>< 94 kft 00 «0 04 p-t -^ • to >A rH (O CO rH CO rHCO©" : t>r©'eOr^ XSCT I -«(ruf ©I' ^" torn . rHCO »a m<»w-t 'aaaxab •OIUTX«0 o »H o a ■^a0'«»0»©rHO»eOrH pHCOCO-^USOOOJ© CO >_ , _ 3i H^ to *0 »--T V^ V.I ^- -* -^ coo>04-*t>.anmco©« 00 ■♦"co'tocTc^CO CO 00 »-< 04 CO rH r^ CO 00 C0rHt>.lA«0>0©0>C4-4^©rHCOOOi« rHato>>at»tor»'oo>AeoAcoo4eoa>to rH'toCtTi-H'ciJto'eo't-J'ofto CC" ofceTrH^r^cTrH' CO CO © Ol 04 © rH CO o OS 5T. STATISTICS. 685 5 3 S 0 rH r-1 O • o> cu • S t^ • (O • -♦ « ^-^ — cf . (N ■>«<■* e^ w '-' 53 0^" ) «0 r-t 1-1 t^ m 1-1 o ^ rH OO W i-H .eO-o>n>nt»t» 0>. o CO ▼laHfllOO HSIXIHS CO lO'«*^t00^'^>O'^i-IC0->»<00C^e0OlOi-lr-»>»lM«>.i-li— i!3>'^l>.OT(M»--a4i-l»-IK5 (M(M mcoeou) 1-1 e4i-ico ntMco t^ i-H r-l r-l ftlrtO>OlN3^i-lOe0i-li-l"(Mi-1J>.>ci.t>. ^ CO •oNvisT -a 'd; ao>Au:}-^i>>cot>->a ' CO us -* o» c^ n ■ ■* n i-H 1-1 0> rl 00 OO rl O r1 O^ CO OO 00 o •VI1009 TAOM ei90ooa»j>.iMi-oo t^lNlOeOrHClr-tOCO-fl^ «0 M C4 rH O Tl tM 'xaiAvsKaaa mhk -^OOOlAOOOtoOrHOOOICOeQeOC^CO' »^»QCDi-l<»"*0*i-< eocooc"" »-teoi-ir-f-icOT-ieo -^ ci V CO* -♦ fff ce" tC eo r1 t^ ' •* 00 a» w o ' -* O lO (M O •oaaanb oat»cDeoiMu30>ec4i-ii-HOao>Akaco»fti-i-«»«fOco ACOAaO(NOE4 ■♦^Ol O CO (>■» W ■* « CO eftCcr rloT—, I-H cfr-T oT I-H «IH W »-• 01 o CO •OIUVIKO iH *C0CO«O-lt^t~*fl0(M'*QOCOrH eoa>i>- aooo©'«t«co-^»oo-rtir^«>.-*»Oi-t © © n CO »>. 00 >«< CO i-H CO Ul U) US o 00 "♦ eo 9 A CO ©r V s iS* s of ©" c? oT ©" »C CO* V 1— * w eo 00 00 US o CO ■^ eo 00 CO eo rH of r1 © er -^ (^ • 1 I99LM.-HXHOK I-« >a C4 c» rH r-l 6* •H >-« CO at Oi CO «o >n CO rH •^ t» T-« H(< eo t^ « >a o >A A ©» N rH « •^ A O A ■* •* xs A "«" eo 00 «^ r^ 00 (M !a i^_^ •viawflioo HBiiiaa o* oT oT oT 00 tC w r-i ©* r-l r-l o i-i •V « rH rH r^ f-i eo $Zi o o o> •* t>. t« 00 eo rH © a o> A us -44 «> ■a © •* '* •* a> eo rH ■^ . eo O I-I «o CO M r^ f^ « IM t-i ■* e !zi eo i-t o> (N CO w o CO ■>* H«l o> C4 .-H eo o at 00 t>. rH eo eo »>. 01 00 © rH A © •« .« .« •» n ^ .^ «>. 00 V ■* »o us <^ J-t C4 00 \a -w" »\ i^ o u» \a rH T-l eo CO eo t» to aavMaa aoKiwa »-t 00 00 o> H»< rH (M eo w ■^ CO CO 00 Hji cc ■■* eo rH rH CO ■>* © r^ 00 a ■^ 00 eo CO rH rH eo CO »^ Oi CO "i us eo A rs 'XOIMSNaHS AiBK « f— t V »» oT oT 00 -^ 00 >a •* •* a> t-i rH A © o eo rH r-« rH . *< i dJ !>. eo eo CO o> us 00 r-l A A eo ^ 00 CO 00 «M © 00 A oo > p g s •< m •> • * • « « m P-i a> o o o i-T r^ la >* eo 00 t^ 00 co" t-. ■^ ff» (N CO CO eo r-l rH ■* CO 00 •* « C4 rl rH ri a* CO i-i »^ to eo CO t-l »>. US s^ r^ U ■^ ■* CO o> US CO CO • eo A o> A CO © t^ *> M « tt «w H •«(? a> 00 © 00 t>. CO CO r-< 00 Ol rH eo M ta U3 »^ 00 r-l r-* eo I-i eo ■^ H»< eo 1^. D » US © CO CO 5. c^ t^ us CO r»i ec 00 eo . rH CD 5 to'eo^^'DoToTorof O rH HjT oc cT 1 g 'O (M r^ ■^ © © T^ > r«o rO ^ 1 )9uatjninf\ pu« •8 8T98 •pau "H •paMO PTM. 1 aaipiuo J I I s (7J 4> 1 i I a- 4. i ,1 !l 1 1 'c J 1 '1 1 3 c E- i > ^»m^ i.i! " l:i. .-I AGENTS WANTED ! AGENTS WANTED BY The World Publishing Co. GUELPH, ONTARIO. TEACHERS, BUSINESS MEN, Smart Toung Men from the Country. \E publish and sell only the best books, as we are the most extensive publishers in Canada, selling twice as many books as all other subscription houses in Canada put together. The public and our agents can F.ae that we can sell a better article for less money than any other house. 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