^rV '^;' ' \ :. ^U£ GAGNON ^v- «'M- :( ,1 / . , . J .• THE PEOPLING OF EUROPE. BY JOHN c a:\ipbell, m.a. ' (.1 x\ ■^ I -# " L if^ pi".* ■ ,• - - ■>■ !<:;> fft;( V.((-.. 1 ^^ ■t*,*-""*^' 4 'K >-■ ■"; /.'i ,'-■ ■ '.r ■V.^ ...ly' I ' / .V\.:.7;: THE Peopling of Europe. A LECTURE INTRODUCTORY TO THE COURSE IN DELIVERED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE LADIES EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF MONTREAL. BY JOHN CAMPBELL, M. A., JJ^l4gu6 Ginirnl de "Institutifm Ethnooraphique of Paris ; Hon. hoc. Sec. Victoria Institute, London ; Pres. Onor. delta Lega Filellenica of Turin ; Member of the Canadian Institute. Toronto, and the Society of Biblical Archaeology, London ; Corresponding Member of the Soci^ti Amiricaine de France, the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, &c., d:c. Professor in the Presbyterian College, Montreal. Montreal : printed by mitchell & wilson, 140 st. peter street. 1880. I "' \ ' ^' irii.i"' )(iV r~ 1 1 I .1 ^■7iV>'*? V -. 7 Jo She d^resident^ She Officers and Jt&mhen of the S£adie!^ Sducational S4ssociatio7i of Montreal and S'o the Students of the bourse in She Sarhj Wistory ayid SBiterature of Surope Shis S£ecture IS respectfully inscribed. (!3tt. h\\, 1880. I > ,' ( MIL. ) "■» ■A- EARLY HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF EUROPE. INTRODUCTORY LECTURE. In a previous course of lectures which I had the honour of delivering within these walls, we passed in review the great civiliza- tions of antiquity. Egypt, the cradle of the arts and sciences ; Chaldea, the birthplace of literature and tradition ; Assyria, the home of cruel conquerors ; Palestine, the temple of faith ; Phoenicia, the mistress of the seas ; Persia, the generous abode of Aryan pride and luxury ; Greece, the school of art and philosophy ; Rome, the world's great lawgiver : these, and yet more distant seats of culture and of empire, constituted the theme of our studies. How small a portion of the habitable world they occupied, until Rome brought every civilized land and many a barbarous region under her imperial sway ! But they were the educators of the whole human race, and almost all that remains of ancient art and literature was theirs. Their history is, in great part, an open book before our eyes, and, as if they comprehended all nations, we call it the ancient history of the world. Yet they were not all the world, we know, nor even that part with which we are most concerned. We long, therefore, to learn how it fared in these far-off days with other peoples, and notably with those who had the honour to be our ancestors. The very seats of empire had, in most cases, been gained by the displacement of tribes that had no history. The records of even the most peaceful of the world's civilizers were largely records of conquest, and that not always of known powers but freciuently of unknown races. We inspect the figures of captives and inimical tribes, pictured on the monuments of Thebes and Abusimbel, as they stand in opposition, or kneel in subjection to the red Egyptians, who proudly called themselves Rotn Rom, the race of man. These yellow figures with Semitic features are Arabs and Syrians ; these black woolly-headed creatures represent the aboriginal negro. But there are veritable Tartars, with shaven heads and pig-tails and long mustachoes ; and there, Malays, carrying creeses and wearing broad grass hats ; and there again, strange warriors, whose dress, and helmet tightly strapped under the chin, find their counterpart only on the monuments of Central America. I'all muscular figures loosely clad in the skins of wild beasts, men with rounded features and light hair and blue eyes, appear among them. Pelasgians, some Egyptologists call them, but they might as well belong to any other European stock. The old ruling races of Babylonia soon disappeared from the page of history, and the speech of Sumerians and Accadians became the dead lan- guage of their Assyrian concjuerors, out of which they translated the wonderful legends which the late George Smith and others have given us in English dress. What became of these Accadians ; and of the Gambulians who dwelt in the marshes ; and the warlike Hup- uskians of Armenia ; and the great empire of the Patinians in Syria, of whom the Assyrian records treat ; as well as of hundreds of other tribes with strange names, that find no place in the tables of modern ethnography ? The same may be said of the Canaanitic tribes ex- pelled by the Israelites ; of the Hittites and Hamathites who long dwelt upon their borders, whose literary remains are the great sub- ject of philological research at the present time. Nobody knows certainly who now represent the Scythians and Cimmerians of the father of history, although some, like Professor Rawlinson, get rid of the difficulty by supposing the former to have been long ago exterminated. Far more reasonable is the theory, though it is but a theory, that finds on our own continent some remains of the scalping Scyths, and that recognizes in the Cymri of Wales the bearers of the Cimmerian name. Our subject, however, is the ancient history and literature of non- classical Europe. Spite of the anticjuity of the Greek traditions, there are no remains of genuine Grecian art or architecture that take us back much beyond 700 h. c, or to about the time that Roman tradition marks as the era of the foundation of the imperial city. All more ancient remains are the work of prehistoric peoples. How late a date this is ! No European history till the time of Isaiah's prophecy, of the downfall of the Kingdom of Israel, of the declining power of Egypt, of the near approach to dissolution of the great Assyrian Empire ! What of the long ages before ? Is there any voice that calls to us from an earlier period in the first of all the continents, the teacher and the mistress of the modern world ? There are indeed such voices, but are they to be believed, for many false spirits have gone forth into the world of history ! The old Welsh legends take us back to the heroes of Troy, and the Scandinavian, to iioo v,. c. The Scottish begin at a time not long after the Exodus ; and the Irish ascend to a more remote anticjuity, for they tell us th X Banba a daughter of Cain, landed in Ireland several hundred years before the flood, and that Bith Fiontan, accompanied by his wife Ceasar and a retinue, building an ark in imitation of Noah, survived the Deluge, landed in Connaught, and became the first king of the Green Isle. We smile at these pretensions to antiquity and treat them with the incredulity that most of them deserve ; but we have little to put in their place beyond vague conjecture. That Celts, Germans and Sclaves came originally from the east, is a truth requiring little more ingenuity to discover than that the dawn springs in the same quarter into day. But how they were known in the east, and how they travelled westward, and when they reached their present seats, or their historic homes ; these are questions that are still almost un- answered. There was a time not very far distant from our own, when information of the most precise and definite character was sought regarding the migration and settlement of nations ; and, being sought, it was, according to the principle governing demand and supply, abundantly furnished. Taking as their basis the Toldoth 8 or genealogies of the tenth chapter of Genesis, and adding thereto the Jewish traditions preserved by Josephus and others, scholarly men, well versed in classical lore, soon divided to the nations their inheritance and settled the bounds of their habitation. They re- presented the sons of Japheth as taking their westward way from Shinar in little bands, through arid plains and tangled forests and vast dismal swamps, over lofty mountains and broad rivers and seas, till they reached the European countries that worthless tradition connects with their names, there to become first settlers and begin a national life. Thus Tiras occupies Thrace, and Javan with his four sons, Greece ; Elisha giving his name to Elis and the Attic Eleusis, Tarshish travelling far west to Tartessus in Spain, Kittim founding the Macedonian monarchy, and Dodanim either establishing the oracle of Dodona in Epirus, or changing his name to Rhodanim, as the first inhabitant of the island of Rhodes. In Meshech, of course, we are asked to recognize the Muscovites and all their brother Sclaves ; while Gomer, most adventurous of the sons of Japheth, takes all western Europe to himself as the ancestr.'' alike of Germans and Celts. We, who live in a country but partially reclaimed from its wilder- ness state, know how slowly and painfully bodies of men, women and children, seeking their sustenance as they go, move in any given direction ; how a broad river, a mountain range, a tract of rock, or sand or marshy ground, turns them aside, till the growth of popula- tion presses upon them, and increasing prosperity furnishes the great public works by which new fields for settlement are opened up. Thus slowly, save in a region of broad steppes or prairie land, even in the case of hunting tribes and nomadic hordes, must the world have been occupied by its so-called aborigines. But to this wild yet apparently simple theory of the occupation of Europe, there is a stronger objection. It does not take into account the facts of archaeology, and deals only with the most recent populations. The beginning of history in any given place is like what is said concerning the discovery of the North Pole. He 9 who arrives at the top of the earth's axis is to find a Scotchman or an Irishman or a Yankee agent, or some other adventurous spirit sitting there before him. It may safely be said in regard to every European country that somebody was there long before history began. Even here, in this new land, the oldest traditions of Algonqums and Iroquois are not of peaceful settlement in the unbroken wilderness, but of conquest over the great vanished nation of the Allighewi. The prehistoric races of Europe are known to us by their works and, in some cases, by their human remains. The oldest of these are the cave-men of England and France, of Belgium and Western Germany. These large robust hunters, the contemporaries of the mammoth and the cave-bear, the fashioners of the rudest of stone implements, were the pioneers of humanity in north-western Europe. When did they arrive there ? We cannot tell. Some writers call them pre-Adamites, others antediluvians, while Principal Dawson finds in their human remains nothing that should separate them from existing races. A later population of smaller size, approaching in character to the Esquimaux if we may judge from their works, appears to have lived along the shores of the Baltic, where they became fishers and acquired maritime habits. They were the raisers of shell-heaps, or kitcheii-^niddens as they are termed, which are so far from being peculiar to Europe as to be found in the islands of the Aleutian chain, along the shores of Alaska, and on the whole Atlantic coast from Labrador south to Patagonia. Like the Esquimaux they had domesticated the dog ; and the wild ox, now extinct, furnished an occasional change to their diet of fish. Contemporary in part with this race of stunted fishermen, and probably surviving in Europe after they had passed to other regions, semi-civilized communities appear, in the mound-builders, whose works are called barrows and tumuli, and the erectors of rude stone monuments known as cromlechs and dolmens. These were the first agriculturists. They also pos- sessed some domestic animals. Mounds similar to theirs are found in Northern Asia, in Japan, and throughout this continent ; while dolmens of the same type as those of Salisbury Plain and Carnac 10 meet us in India, Persia, Arabia, Northern Africa, the Canary Islands, and even on lake Titicaca in Peru. There can be little doubt that the builders of these rude stone monuments constituted a primitive yet important element in the historic race known as the Celtic. Last of the prehistoric peoples come the lake-dwellers of Switzerland and Northern Italy, whose houses were erected on piles set in the water. They cultivated many kinds of grain, vegetables and fruit- trees, kept in stalls many domestic animals, and made themselves clothes of linen. Such lake-dwellers are mentioned in the Assyrian inscriptions as inhabiting the marshes of Babylonia, and by Herodotus as situated upon lake Prasias in Thrace ; while in Borneo and in South America their pile-houses may still be seen in living occupa- tion. All the phenomena of European prehistoric life are found reproduced upon this continent ; so that there is nothing improbable in the supposition that tribes similar to, and of the same origin with, those who inhabited the New World, were, in the Old, the predecessors of modern historic races. The cave-men, the raisers of shell-heaps, the mound-builders, the erectors of rude stone monuments, the lake dwellers, have no place in Europe now save in archreological collec- tions. They are gone as peoples — exterminated some tell us, as Professor Rawlinson says of that great family the Scythians — but more likely rolled away before the encroaching tide of stronger races and more complete civilization into distant corners of the earth, or amalgamated with the dominant tribes, as many of our Indians with their white neighbours and masters. The blood of cave-men and mound-builders and lake-dwellers may still flow in the veins of those who are proud of their Celtic and Teutonic and Latin descent. If this be the case, however, it must have been transmitted not directly but through the oldest existing European stock, which is Turanian. The term Turanian has little scientific value. It is a convenient one by which to designate a vast number of peoples and languages that do not necessarily bear any relation to one another, but simply agree in being neither Aryan nor Semitic. The Turks are Turanian, and the aborigines of Hindostan, and the Chinese, 11 and many black Africans, and Siberians, and Malays, and Americans. Differing as these do among themselves, they also differ widely from the Celts, the Germans and Scandinavians, the Sclaves, and the des- cendants of ancient Greeks and Romans, who, together with Hindoos, Persians and /Armenians, in the east, make up the Aryan family. The only Shemites who ever gained a foothold in Europe were the Arabs of Spain, whom Charles Martel checked in their progress northward, and who were finally expelled to the opposite shore of Africa by Ferdinand and Isabella. We classify the languages of Europe as Classical, Celtic, Ger- manic and Sclavonic ; and these four divisions include nearly all European speech. It is true that Turkish is spoken over a large area ; that there are Tartars and Kalmuks speaking Turkish and Mongol dialects in Russia ; and that the national language of Hungary is the Majiar. These Turanian tongues, however, were introduced into their present areas during the historical period. But, belonging to the same Turanian sub-family as the Majiar, are some of the oldest of European languages and peoples. Such are the Lapp and Finn of northern Norway, Sweden and Russia ; the Esthonian and Tivonian on the Baltic ; the Permic, Siranian and Votiak on the line of the Ural mountains ; and the Mordwin, Tcheremiss and Tshuvatsh on the Volga. These, together with the Hungarian and some Siberian dialects, make up the Ugrian division of the Turanian languages. One language only, if we except the old Etruscan and the Albanian, remains, and that, not in eastern but in western Europe, not in the north, like the Lapp and Finn, but in the south. It is the Basque of northern Spain and southern France, the language of the Pyrenees. It belongs to no family, has no relationships, stands alone, not only among European, but, it has been said and often repeated, among all languages. It is Turanian, but neither Ugrian nor Tartar, nor Mongol, nor Dravidian ; it is more like an American language than anything else, and may prove to be a distant cousin of the Iroquois. These Ugrians, on the one hand, and Basques, on the other, have no tradition of their origin or derivation. The time of their 12 arrival in their European seats is too far back in the past to admit of this. All they know is that they have been encroached upon and their area greatly diminished. But, in the case of the Ugrians, philology comes in to point out their probable starting place. It is agreed by Lenormant and most other Assyriologists, that the family to which the Accad, or old language of Chaldea belongs, is the Ugrian. The ancient Accadirns who spoke this language early dis- appeared from the basin of the Euphrates and Tigris, and all trace of them seems to have been lost. What more unlikely than to meet with their representatives among the feeblest and least cultured of European peoples I How came they into the utmost corners of the continent ? If, in a corner of your garden, you were to find growing spon- taneously such wild flowers as the saxifrage and the columbine, the anemone and the cranesbill, you would be slow to conclude that they had come in over the heads of your exotics ; rather would you recog- nize in them some remains of the old forest or field vegetation that once covered the whole of your garden ground, and, in the corner where they grew, a spot that had escaped the ravage of plough and spade, of hoe and rake. Such was the reasoning of Arndt, and sub- sequently of Rask, the Dane, regarding the Ugrians and the Basques. According to Rask's Finnic hypothesis, as it is called, all Europe was once peopled by a Ugrian stock ; and, little by little, Celt and Teuton and Sclave uprooted and destroyed, or overlaid and displaced it. We know that it was so in the case of the Celts. During the historical period they were found in Asia Minor, on the northern shores of the Black Sea, on the confines of Greece, which they more than once invaded, in Hungary and lUyria, in parts of southern Germany, throughout Italy, Spain, B'rance, Belgium, and the British Islands, even up towards Scandinavia. Now when we look for the Celtic dialects, how few they are and how small the area they cover ! Romans, Teutons, Sclaves, even Majiars, have overlaid or displaced the peoples and driven their language into a few remote corners in France and the British Isles. 13 It is unquestionable that the whole of the Scandinavian penin- sula, with the adjoining Baltic coast, was occupied by a Ugrian population prior to the advent of the Norsemen, whose most ancient traditions tell of wars and other intercourse witli the Permians and Lapps and Finns. Many British archaeologists have conjectured that the Celtic population of England and Scotland was preceded by one of Ugrian origin, and that to it belong the short skulls found in the most ancient tumuli. The Celtic and Ugrian languages have many words in common, and the same is true to a lesser exteh. of the Ugrian and Scandinavian. With the Basques of the Pyrenees it is altogether different. True, many writers have supposed them to be a remnant of the ancient Iberians, who, during the classical period, occupied almost the whole of Spain. But of this there is no evidence. No traces survive of their presence or influence at any great distance beyond their existing boundaries. Their language seems to have communicated little to those of surrounding peoples, although it has itself been more or less affected by the Celtic and the Latin. One of the most remarkable loans that it has made to foreign tongues is the word Jingo, so popular in England a short time ago. Those who employed the word were doubtless innocent of intentional profanity, but Jingo nevertheless is Jinkoa, the Basque name for the Deity. British sailors in the famous Bay of Biscay were probably attracted by the quaint sound of the word, uttered thoughtlessly or as a pious ejaculation, and transplanted it to English soil. We must, therefore, dismiss the Basques from the place which Rask assigned them in his Finnic hypothesis, and either suppose them to be a remnant of some earlier stratum of humanity, so well covered elsewhere by later deposits as to be altogether invisible, or regard them as having entered Europe contemporaneously with the Ugrians but by a different route, and at such a point that no inter- course took place between the widely different peoples. This only they had in common, the enmity of Celtic and Teutonic foes. It seems now to be generally agreed that the earliest abode of the Aryan race, to which the remaining and principal peoples of u Europe belong, was in Bactria, situated on the borders of the modern Afghanistan and Independent Tartary. This is certainly not a Biblical view ; but it is contended that the Bible, being a Semitic book, naturally placed the centre of dispersion in a Semitic country ; and that the Aryan bible is a safer guide for Aryan affairs. The Aryan bible is the Zend Avesta of the Persians, who were the Aryans par excellence ; and as this book states that the Aryans had their first settlement in a region, which is not indeed called Bactria, but which is supposed to have been such judging from its surroundings, the conclusion is drawn that the Japhetic stock originated on the banks of the Oxus, The foundation of this generally accepted opinion is an exceedingly slender one. Beside it, there is no proof whatever that Pelasgic Greeks and Romans, Celts, Teutons, and Sclaves, ever dwelt so far to the east of the region which the book of Genesis makes the second birthplace of the human race. That the Celts, who followed the Pelasgians into Europe, did, at one time, inhabit Albania and Iberia in the Caucasus, as Lenormant and other writers, who adopt the view I have mentioned, assert, is more than probable ; but this they may easily have done, without traversing even the southern shore of the Caspian. If we identify the Celtic Cymri with the Gimiri of the Persian inscriptions, as Professor Rawiinson has, we find them to have been near neighbours of the Assyrians. The time of their migration towards Europe seems to have been be- tween 700 B. c. and 600 B. c. Then, driven westward by so-called Scythian tribes, they changed their retreat into a triumphal march of conquest. They overran Asia Minor and the northern shores of the Black Sea, occupied Thrace, Hungary, and the whole of western Europe, driving before them, or incorporating with them, the teebler Ugrians and other unknown tribes. Greece trembled at their ap- proach, and Rome fell for a brief moment before their victorious arms. The Celt in these days was the master of Europe. Two great enemies soon arose against him, and, little by little, weakened his power. One was the Roman republic ; the other, the Teutonic race. Not long after the Celts passed into Europe, the 15 Germans must have followed, for, according to Herodotus, there were Goths in Thrace 500 13. c. Thence, passing along the Carpa- thians into northern Europe, they expelled the Celts who stood in their way, subdued the remnant of the Ugrians, occupied Scandi- navia, made the Rhine their western boundary, and 113 B.C., measured their strength for the first time with the warriors of Rome. When, five hundred years later, Rome went the way of all great empires, it was the Germanic tribes tliat overran her western provinces and brought every Celtic people into subjection. Last of all came the Sclaves. While the Teutonic nations dwelt in Thrace, they inhabited the southern part of Russia, on the northern shores of the Black Sea. A mild, inoffensive, unwarlike people, they were not formed for conquest ; but Celts and Germans had so thoroughly subdued all opposing forces, that the way was clear for these new-comers to enter upon the possession of the broad lands that the conquerors had left behind them. The Ugrian tribes found a refuge among them, and with these and with immigrants from Tar- tary they freely intermingled, so that there is truth in the saying that if you scratch a Russian you will find a Tartar, But such a thing as Sclavonic conquest was, in the early history of their settlements, unknown. Not only throughout Russia they spread, but into Poland and Lithuania and Prussia, into Wallachia and Moldavia, into Dal- matia, Bohemia, and other parts of the present Austrian empire. It was not till the ninth century that the Majiars, a Ugrian rem- nant from the Ural Mountains, joining with fierce Tartar tribes, who communicated to them doubtless their larger frame and warlike spirit, pushed their Avay westward through the mild Sclavonians, and occu- pied Hungary, where they were long the terror of surrounding nations. The very word Hungary is but the Ugrian name, for the interpolated 11 meets us in many ancient records, which speak of the Ugri or Ungri as a fierce, intractable people. And, to complete our survey of European populations, it was in the middle of the fifteenth century that another ruling power of Turanian origin established itself in Europe, replacing the cross of the Eastern Empire with the crescent of the conquering Turk. 16 Of the language and traditions of the pre-historic peoples of Europe nothing is at present known. The traces they have left, even the monuments of some of them, are silent, and we have no indica- tion that they possessed the art of communicating and transmitting thtir thoughts in writing. But, if that theory be a correct one which makes them akin to the savage and semi-civilized tribes of Northern Asia and of this continent, it may yet be possible to tell how they spoke and thought. The science of geology may illustrate this pos- sibility. The relative ages of formations are settled by their fossil remains. When we find that the fossils of one formation pass over into another, so that those which are numerous in the one begin to die out in the other, or those which first appear in the upper strata of the one become increasingly plentiful and rise to perfection in the other, then we decide that the latter is the most recent. Now put- ting words and myths embodied in words in the place of fossils, we may determine the relative ages of human strata. We know, for instance, that the Accadians of Chaldea were the predecessors of the Semitic Assyrians and later Babylonians, because borrowed Accadian words survive in their languages, and their mythology is very largely Accadian. By similar reasoning, apart from history, we may prove that the Ugrians were the forerunners in Northern Europe of the Celts and Scandinavians. What if the Ugrians can be shown to have bor- rowed from the Samoyeds of Archangel and Siberia, and they again from the Esquimaux ? May we not thus, in the languages and tradi- tions of Samoyeds and Esquimaux, recover those of the prehistoric peoples with whom we desire to become better acquainted ? I do not say that it has been done, or that, when accomplished, the peoples I have mentioned will be found in the positions indicated ; but there is nothing improbable in its accomplishment. The Rev. Isaac Taylor, in his Etruscan Researches, seems very conclusively to prove that the ancient civilized race of Tuscany, from which Rome learnt so much, was of Samoyed origin. We find Samoyeds in Northern Russia immediately to the east of the Ugrian Lapps, so that the theory of a very ancient Samoyedic occupation of Europe may be a fitting com- , plement to Rask's Finnic hypothesis. , t 17 I have thus directed your attention to very ancient and almost unknown races, lest it might be supposed that the sources of pAiro- pean culture are limited to historical peoples. We cannot tell how much we owe, even as regards words in common use, the traditional elements of poetry, and modes of thought and expression, to mound- builders and lake-villagers, kitchen-midden communities, and even cave men. Every age leaves its impress on that which follows it, and, be that impress small or great, it is often the mould which gives shape to larger destiny as time rolls on. That the present Germanic peoples of Europe have, many of them, been largely influenced by the Celts they conquered, and that these Celts again were similarly influenced by the inferior Ugrians we know ; so that passing, as we are forced to do, from known to unknown quantities, we may still find reason to preserve the relation that subsists between the known, and, taking back the chain of influence from one stratum of humanity to another, find in the old artist of the cave of La Madelaine who scratched the mammoth's picture on the mammoth's tusk, a humble yet real factor in the culture of to-day. It may excite a smile to hear that rude cave-dwellers, belonging to a period of great antiquity, should exercise an influence on modern culture. But these cave-dwellers were no more barbarous than were originally many of our American Indian tribes, who have, to some extent, affected the culture as well as the physical character of Ameri- can populations. The difference also between the successors of Algonquins and Iroquois on this continent and the races they super- seded, is immeasurably greater than that between the successive waves of early European populations. The process of borrowing is easier the nearer the two peoples, borrower and lender, are in the social scale ; so that the Ugrian would be far more likely to adopt from the Samoyed and the Esquimaux, or from the mound-builder and lake-dweller, than the white American from his red brother. Yet we have adopted many words, to say nothing of customs, sports and implements, that will probably remain in the language long after the tribes that originally used them have passed away. The Narra- 18 gansets indeed are gone, but their word succotash remains, and doubt- less will as long as Indian corn is cooked. Similar loans are toma- hawk, caluvict, pcnwiicaii, moccasin, ivigioam, pow-umv. Canoe has come all the way from the Caribbean Sea to become so well domes- ticated, that many lexicographers derive it from the Latin canna, a reed. Expressions in large number have been adopted from the same source, such as fire-water, medicine-man, the great Spirit, the happy hunting grounds, the calumet of peace, bury the hatchet, go on the war path, and hundreds of others, that are to be found every day in the newspapers of the Western states, where they are employed without any reference to Indian affairs. Even with our present knowledge of pre-Aryan settlement in Europe, some words can be traced far beyond the time of Aryan immigration. Thus the French Iwuc, a he-goat, which appears also in the German bock and the English buck, is neither of Latin nor of Gothic origin. French and German have alike borrowed it from the Celtic, in which it is boc, just as the French borrowed ^rt!/"f^// from the Celtic garsan, popularly called gossoon. But among the Aymaras of Peru, who erected the vast stonehenge of Tihuanaco, we find the same word in the form paca. This might be a mere coincidence. When, however, we discover that the Gaelic boc, a goat, caora, a sheep, and uan, a lamb, are represented by the Aymara paca, ccaura and una, almost identical forms, the idea of coincidence vanishes. Then are the Aymaras Celts ? No, the structure of their language forbids this, and proves them Turanian. But they belong doubtless to the family of agriculturists who built the rude stone monuments prior to the Celtic invasion of western Europe. From them the Celts picked up their Turanian names for domestic animals, and passed one of them on to later colonists. How much of language, of religion and mythology, of poetic and proverbial expression, of ways of viewing the world, passed down in a similar manner, we shall never fully be able to tell, nor is it necessary to know more than the fact, that culture has been transmitted from the beginning, to enlarge and in- tensify our human sympathies. ' ' 19 Here, however, we must leave all speculation behind us, and enter upon a survey of the two Turanian stocks that come into view as the dawn of history rises upon ancient Europe, stocks that have lost their once wide-spreading branches, and one of which has long been separated from its fellows, but which still flourish in a green and vigorous old age. Their story will lead us on to that of the conquering Celts, and theirs again to that of the more formidable Germanic family ; and, in the fusion of these various peoples and of their culture, we shall discover the origin of that chivalry, whose romances are to constitute our closing theme. In our progress we shall find the key to much of the classical literature of modern times ; and learn to read with greater appreciation the Lear and Macbeth of Shakespeare, the Hiawatha of Longfellow and the Idylls of Tennyson, after we have come face to face with their Celtic and Finnic originals. [ • ■-'. .-, I > Outline of the other Lectures of the Course : THE BASQUES — diHtribntion — chnractcr — suppoBed Africiiii origin. Lan- giuiKO polysynthctit; — conipar«d»with Aincriortn laiiKHiigus. Literature — no Al))hnK't — improvisation — Hong of Lelo, ancient — of Altahiscar, mo- dern. Legendary tales — Red sea legends — legends of Tartiiro — other groups — wide diHtribntion of legends. Antl»iuity of the Basquo stoek. Call selves Euskara. 1'FIE UQUIANS — appearance and culture. Language iticorporating — divi- Hions are Ciiudic, Permic, Bulgaric, Ugric. Nunie Ugrian not native, but derived from Sclavonic' The Accad t)f ancient Chaldca, u Ugri.in language. Migrations — from Armenia to ItuHsin — the llhoxolani — wide extension in eastern and northern Europe — Bulgnrians in seventh cen- tury — Mujiars 900 A.D. Kingdom of Permia — llyperborenuR — Beoniias > of Norsemen — remains — the great temple — comnujrce — .St. Steplien in fourtcfiitli century — subdued 1472. Otlier tribes — Finns, Esths, &c. Religion — Shamanism. Arts — some lost. Literature — runic characters — oral tradition — language adapted to poetry — KaluM'iila, Finnic Epic • v^^V collected by Topelius and Lonnrot since 1820 — 3 heroes of Kaleva are Wainamoinen, Ilmarinen and Lemminkainen, who war with Pohjola, the northland and Tuouela, land of death. Ugriun influence. THE CELTS — division of Celtic peoples and languages — dlsticrsloti. ' .^j*V < " ' /" / "^ ^ 1. The Wki,.s» AND Cklts or ENofiANn — peoi)ling of England — Druidism. i'''xJJ •'• ' Legendary history from Armoripa — told by Geoffrey of Monmouth. / " TV Legends of Brutus the Trojan — African journey — Albion occupied — -,,' "J^l. •j» s founders of provinces and cities — King Lear — Mohuutius and his laws y, '■'ii* fi>.: ., •• — Brennius — C.Tsar's invasion — Lucius, the Christian king — Vortigern ,,^'*. :'^ - ;f and the Saxons — Merlin and his prophecy — Aurelius Ambr(,)siu8 and ly-f Stonehenge — Arthur and Mhdred — Retreat to Brittany — St. Ursula, 'y.^;, ■ p.',\ , , Welsh princes. Literature'—the Bards — Triads — Aneurin — Taliessin — ^K'? '^li Llvwarch Hen — the Mabinogion. • , ,^ . , .. ,;•,'>' '.^Vj-.j^, 2. THK''CELTa OF TuKLAND— early notice of— suppot^ed otigiri. Legendary, •; >' ^, /{. P 4^, history from chronicles — early inhabitants— the Firb(dg — the Tuatlias yi^^X. ■i .:?r. x — the Fenians, Gadelians or Milesians — Parliament of Tara — Labhradh i'>v' -' ^ t, W^.* Loingseach — Connor, king of Ulster— BMonn M'Cumhal and the Irish ' ''. *» '.'CuiVi* militia — C'ormac the longhaired — St. Patrick — St. CoUum — Bryen Boir- ■•" -i'>',"' '/ ■'' oimhe. Erse Literature — Fenian schools — Ogham alphabets — unruly M poets — Psalter of Tara — Cormac's advice to Kings — St. Beneau and the !^i • Book of Rights — Dalian Forguill—^Adamnanus — Cormac MacCuileannain .'^-^vA and the Psalter of Cashel — An^als of Tighernach— Books ofLeinster ^ . ., and Ballymote- — Annals of Innisfal^en — Books of Lecan and Fermoy — Annals of Ulst^ij^Bopk of Mun&ter — Annals of Four MastB^rs— Lost books., ,' .i'l^i.v^,' -■ ; '■■^^fcV-; V ■ 3. The Celts of Scotland— eorinection with Ireland and England — pre- decessors of the Celts. Legendary History — Rothesay the first colonist ' -(-the Picts — Fergus, the first king and the coronation stone — Donald ...fi^i ,, , ^ _ ^. -■^■-^ ' '^V.^^^ •.:•■'•■;> -:.;.-v^ 'u ' ■ V . .•.•■'•\ • '^^ •.?:■ -C- .^•' ■ix<^\ . -^^"■^ .\. S .€J \ ■■Is; '^ V ' / V, the firnt Christian king — Tnimijimtion of noble fnmilioK — Achaius find the French league — Kinneth the Great — Macbeth — ^ralcolm Canm(»re. Y Gaelic Literature — lost chronicles preserved in Fordun — Ossian and the Oissianic controversy — the Albanic'Diiau. .• • ..' i;', •.f.-i, ' ^-' a'ij?%;''>"'V THE TEUTONS ''^'- ~ ' ■, ■' • - '• ' ' '' -■■ '< '• ' - '•i^i|' >'" / 1. Of Scandinavia — legendary liistory from Iceland — prehistoric popula- .^■'■i^i-'- tion — Odin, the ancestral king — Ynglingians of SwedC-n and Norway — ■•«:■. Skjoldiingians of Dcnniiuk — the Vikings — RegnarLodbrog — Halfdnn the ^'',,- Black. Early voyages — colonization of Iceland — discovery of America. I Scamliiuiviiin Literature — runes — the poetical and prose Eddas — Skaldic .■■,"',•' literature — the Sagas. .'■ , ' -. . ' : '.■.•■/,-'"■ 2. Oi'Ger.ma.nv — obscurity of history — Jornande.s — early historical notices ' ' — origin same as that of Scandinavians. Germanic Literature — lost ballads . . . '>,' , ', — other p(»cms collected by Charlemagne — Hildebrand, \V;iltliar of Aqui- . "'' ►. tuine — Beowulf^ — the Niebelungen Lied — the Ileldenbuch. ROMANCES OF CHIVALRY— chielly derived from Geoffrey's History and the clironicle of Tnrpin — work of Trouveres — supposed i)olitical design — Arabian infineuce. Britto-Norman Romances — romance of Brutus — Qf Arthur — of Holy Grail — of Lancelot — ofTristam. Carlovingiun Ro- mances — of St. Denis — of Turpin — of Adenea. Hispano-Gallic Roman- ces — the Ama