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T.IE CUKW Ol rllE "1IAN8A" DKAGOISU TIIEIB I10AT8 ACROSS THE ICE. 
 
 Set f.ttr JJ7. 
 
 ■^.^ ,. ..^.^.... . .,.A^i.-..: ,. ^.^^ ...... ...■. 
 
j *li#M H »*lii T . -.wg w 
 
 ■^irfu:.w';,aww^MaiWMBMiBi 
 
 ■uM.ui..j^u4kuj«,iiiiiMjiiiiiiujiiiiui.t.. I iiiwmi 
 
 THE 
 
 ARCTIC WORLD 
 
 ITS PLANTS, ANIMALS, AND NATURAL PHENOMHNA. 
 
 82Iith n Distoricnl Sketch of Jlrctic iiscobcru, 
 
 DOWN TO THE 
 
 BR'TISH • POLAR EXPEDITION: 
 •875-76. . 
 
 I'ikm. 
 
 • liA< Ir- ilie bUiawa MUfen. aiid have: rnt. -COLB&IDCB 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 T. NELSON AND SONS, PATERNOSTER ROW; 
 
 EDINBURGH; AND NEW YORK. 
 
;4 {:>1)-) V 
 
 •-.# 
 
P 11 E F A C E. 
 
 JWT^CJNGLISHMEN have always felt a special interest in the regions of tiie icy North, from 
 11,^^ tlie days when Dr. Thome first proposed the search after a ptissage to the Polo, down 
 to these present times, when the Expedition under Captains Nares and Stephenson 
 has shown that such a passage is virtually impracticable. Tiio interest originally kindled hy 
 commercial considerations has been maintained by purer and loftier motives,— by the thirst after 
 knowledge, and the sympathy with the brave deeds of brave men. And it must be admitied 
 thri our national virtues of resolute perseverance and patient courage have never been more 
 happily displayed than in the prosecution of the great work of Arctic Discovery. ( )ur ex[)lorefs 
 ha\'o refused to know when they were beaten ; and in defiance of a terrible climate, of icebergs 
 and ice-floes, of hurricanes and driving snow-storms, of obstacles, dangers, and difficulties, have 
 pressed onward, until the latest adventurers have crossed the Threshold of the Unknown Region, 
 and confronted the immense plain of ice that extends for four hundred miles from the Pole. 
 Their labours, indeed, have been attended by the shadows of melancholy disastei-s, and the long 
 Arctic night closes over the graves of many whom England was loath to lose ; !jut in their 
 successful issue they have brought us acquainted wifli the phenomena of a strange and wonderful 
 world, and opened up to us a succession of sctiiios of the most remarkable character. 
 
 There can be no question that in the frozeii wastes and snowy wildernesses lurks a powerful 
 fascination, which proves almost irresistible to the advt .iturous sjjirit. He who has once entered 
 the Arctic World, however great his sufferings, is restless until he returns to it. Whether 
 the spell lies in the weird magnificence of the scenery, in the splendours of the heavens, in the 
 mystery which still hovers over those far-off seas of ice and remote bays, or in the excitement 
 of a continual struggle with the forces of Nature, or whether all these influences are at work, wo 
 cannot stop to inquire. But it seems to us certain that the Arctic World has a romance and an 
 attraction about it, which are far more powerful over the minds of men than tlie rich glowing 
 lands of the Tropics, or the 
 
 " Sumnior-isles of Kden lying iu dark-purple spheres of .sea," 
 
 which are crowned with the bread-fruit and the palm, the spontaneous gifts of a liberal soil. 
 We follow with far deeper interest the footprints of a Parry and ii Franklin than those of a 
 Wallis, a Carteret, or even a Cook. 
 
1^ 
 
 i 
 
 Jv IMiKFAfR. 
 
 Thu yeneriil reader, then fore, may not be displun-sed at the attempt of the present writer to 
 |)ut before him, with bohl touches, and in outline rather than in detail, a picture of that Polar 
 World which is so awful and yet so fascinating. In the following pages he will find its principal 
 ft'utures sketched, its chief characters legibly and clearly traced. They are not intended for the 
 Bcien Ific, — though it is hoped the scientific, if they fall in with them, will find no ground for 
 censure. They aim at describing the wonders of sky and sea and land ; the glories of the 
 aurora ; the beauty of the starry Arctic night ; the majesty of iceberg and glacier ; the rugged 
 drcaritiess of the hummocky fields of ice ; the habits of the Polar bear, the seal, and the walrus ; 
 and the manners and customs of the various tribes which frequent the shores of the Polar seas 
 and straits, or dwell on the border-land of the Frigid Zone. In a word, it has been the writer's 
 object to bring together just such particulars as might enable the intelligent reader to realize to 
 himself the true character of the world which extends around the North Pole. In carrying 
 out this object, he haa necessarily had recourse to the voyages of numerous explorers and the 
 narratives of sundry scientific authorities ; and he believes that not a statement has been 
 ventured wliich could not claim their support. 
 
 ,•5;' ,'V • ' 1 
 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 rHAPI'EH I. 
 
 VaHouH routes lietu'tjt-n tlie Atlantic ami V.'uific Orcaim (lt;.scril)e(l 
 Advanta^eH of a North-Weal riusBage, if practicable— ».' at i« to b« 
 tfuineil from further Arctic exploration— What zooloijy would i 'n 
 —The problem of the mitfratiouof birds— About tlie Knots— Hound- 
 aries of the North PoUr Regions— ITieir principal geographical 
 featurea—Diviaions into two zones, or sections— Tlio stony tundras 
 —The flora of the Nortli— The Siberian desert — Limits of pfriwtual 
 snow- (leneral ch;u-aoter of life in thf Pohir World 9-21 
 
 OHAPTEU 11. , . .; 
 
 An imaginary voyage — View of the lireunland coast — A Bplendid 
 picture of land and sea—The winter night and its atmospheric 
 phenomena— The aurora borenlis described— Its {wculiarities and 
 [Missible causes- Winds and whirlwinds- -Phenomena of refraction 
 — ITie *' ice-blink "— Characteristics of the Arctic night— Described 
 by Dr. Kane— Hemarkable atmospheric conditions— Effect of pro- 
 longed <larknes8 on animal life— Characteristics of tiie Arctic Hj>ring 
 — A spring landscape described by Pr, Hayes — Summer in the 
 North— The Northern heavens and the Pole-Star— List of Northern 
 constellations— The Great Bear— Some conspicuous stars L'*_' 40 
 
 CHAFTER IIL 
 
 The Polar seas -Fonnation of icebergs— Their dimensions and appear- 
 ance — Description of colossal bergs— Their danger to navigation — 
 Adventures with bergs- Quotations from various writers— Disaolu* 
 tion of an iceberg— Icebergs in Melville Bay— How icebergs are 
 formed— Reference to icebergs in the Alpine lakes— J*rofessor Tyn- 
 dall quoted— Breaking up of a berg described by Dr. Hayes— A 
 vision of icebergs- Their range— The "pack-ice" described— Ex- 
 tent of the ice-fields—" Taking the pack"— An incident described 
 by Admiral Beechey— Dangerous jKisitioa of Captain Paity's ships 
 —Character of an ice-field— Crossing an ice-field— Its extraordinary 
 dimensions ~ Animal life in the Polar seas —Walnis-hunting — 
 Quotation from Mr. Lamont— A disagreeable process— Natural 
 history of the walrus — The walrus and the Polar bear- Historical 
 sketch of the walrus-fishery— Adventure with walruses— A walnis- 
 hunt described— Hunting in an Arctic gale— The Phocidae family 
 —Natural history of the seal— Different genera— Seal's flesh, and 
 its uses— An incident in Dr. Kane's exi)edition— An Eskimo hut— 
 An Eskimo seal-hunter— The whale, and all about it— ITie Green- 
 land whale— What is whalebone ?—j?ood of the whale — The Nor- 
 thern rorqual — Eskimo whale-fishers- About tiie narwhal— The 
 
 black dolphin The ore, or grampus—The Polar Iwar -Bears an' 
 seals Particulars of the huhils of the Polar bear -His vor .■•i'y-- 
 Affection of the bear for her yoimg - An ep'-KHlo described— Battle 
 with a bear The bear and the Eskimo dogs— it e Arctic ni^iht - 
 Its various phases- Coming of the sun Hetuni of the birds- 
 Guillemots and aulu' About the puttins 'L'he mergansers — Ths 
 Mmew, or white nun— The eider duck described -Eider dueks in 
 Iceland— CoUectin.'i eider down— The wild awaii- Fable« a)x>ut its 
 death-song -The Arctic waters, and their teeming life — .Mi.:,Tations 
 offish 1U107 
 
 (iHAn'KR IV. 
 
 The fonnation of snow described- Snow -crystals Elfeets of the crys- 
 tallizing force—Ice-Howers— Sir David Brewster's exi^riment with 
 Is>lari8ed light— Regelation and moulding of ice - ('haracteristics of 
 glacier-ice— Cleavage in compact ice— l'he aN|H)ctof glaciers— On 
 the motion of glaciers— History of its discovery— Moraines de- 
 scribed—Theory of glacier-motion — Quotation fnmi ProfesfMtr 
 Tyndall— Glaciers of the Polar Rfgions Glacier in Bell Sound- 
 Formation of icebergs— Icebergs in Baffin Buy— Glacier de«cril>«l 
 by Dr. Hayes -The Greenland Mer de Glace— Ghicier of Henniat- 
 sialik- The great Humboldt (ilacier— Discovered by Dr. Kane- 
 Description of its features— Kane's theory of icelwrgs— Notes on 
 the glacier >....10»-13< 
 
 CHAFTER V. 
 
 Red snow, what is it?— First forms of v^'etable life The lichens, 
 their variety— Reindeer moss— Rock-hair— Rock trii»e, or tripe de 
 rocfie — Used as food — Iceland moss and its proiHirties — llie mosses 
 of the Arctic Regions — Scurvy -grass— The fly agaric— Microscopic 
 vegetation— A memorial of Franklin -I'hienogamous plants of ths 
 North- Cryptogamous plants— Vegetation ia Novaia Zumlaia~In 
 Spitzbtrgen — In Kamtschatka — The Frilallaria sarrana — ITie 
 wooded and desert zones— Forms of animal life- Natural history 
 of the reindeer— His usefulness— His footl— Reindeer and wolves- 
 Cunning of the Arctic wolf— Domesticity of the wolf-Tlie musk- 
 ox described— Captain M'Clintock quoted-Tlie Arctic fox— His 
 wariness— A fox-trap- The bear and the fox— The Arctic hare— 
 The Alpine hare — The Hudson Bay lemming— 'l'he Mustelidn 
 family— The marten— The sable — The iwlecat- About the gtuttuii, 
 or wolverine— anecdotes of his extraordinary sagacity— A great 
 enemy to thi? trapiwr— The biter bit— Arctio birds — The falcons — 
 The crows— Distribution of animals 135-161 
 
f 
 
 CONTKNTS. 
 
 ni AITKIl VI. 
 
 Icplaml, iU i-xtcrit It« IjiriU.ry lu vul. luioi-" Mnkla ami it« ftup- 
 liniiM Kni|.tioii of th« Sk;i|itii .'"kill 'Hie iffymn, nr l"iilin|{ 
 uprinifn Tl»-ir irliwumicna ili-*Til>i'il AniMint nf tlif Htrcikr- 
 CoMtH and vall.y" "' I'tIihhI 'I'Im' ■I'liiiiKViUlii :)i'»iri|itinii ol 
 Raiklavik, the tapiul -Clmriu tir ■>( the Irvl.iii.l r Ilia Imyiiiak- 
 iiig (iiwrfttlom -HU ilwolliiist ilencrilml— An Ki'liuulk- cliim:h- 
 Icelanillo clergy -TravKlllng In Iceliinil - lU iniionvenlence" - 
 K"n1in« llie «tTOiin» Fialiin^ hi Iri'lanil 102-174 
 
 CHAPTKK VII. 
 
 I'lic lanil of ttu> i:»kimo!i -Itangc nf tho so-calli'd Arctic IIiKlilaiii|i.T!i- 
 DaniHli Kcttleinint* in (Irecnlaml -Tiwrnavik ilcacrilwd -Jacolw- 
 hav'n ■ (JciiUiavii Thnir K«kilno inlialiitantu -The .Moravian 
 MinilniiH-("hariul.riitic» .if tlic nmnwlic KHkimiis -'I'hcir |ihy«ii-Bl 
 iinalitiM Their nuMlii nf dretm -An Kitkiinn hut— The V'liino 
 knvnk, nr rniioc -'I'licir weuiHrnn and ini|ili'liicntj*- HoHtlltty be- 
 tween llic K«kiiiiiis ami lied IndiaiiH -Eskimo nettleni nt at Ana- 
 toak IJikiiiKi ninKiiiK-Kooil of the K»I.iino!> -Dr. H.iye.i' inter- 
 conmc with the Knkinion — The story of Hans the Hunter - "he 
 Kskimn dii)pi- Anecdote of Toodla - The Eskimo sledj;c -Eiiiii| 
 nient of the sledtfo— K'lnipmcnt of an Kskimo hunter— General 
 cliaraclei of the KHkimoa 175-19fi 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Lapland, itji divisions, extent, and Iwundaries— Its climate -Its in- 
 haliitaiitri — Tlieir physical characteriatica —Dress of the LapjiB — 
 Their HiiiK'rstitioiiH - 'I'he Mountain I.apiis — Their nii},'rat<«ry 
 hahila Their Imjurid, or huts, dcacrilioil— Milkinj,' tlie reindeer 
 — .Sledjfiiij? and skating; -.-V I<app's skatea— A Lapp's sleiljie — 
 The Lapp hunters -Encounter with a hear - lutein [icrance of 
 till' Mountain Lajips -Tho Forest I,ap|w- Interior economy of a 
 Lapland hut - Lapjw at lijorkholm -Itjvcial charactcristicg of the 
 Lapiw IlabitM and maiuiers of the Lapps -The Lapp dialect— 
 Tho I^piM and the Qm^nes — The stationary Ijapjis, and their 
 gAnU 197-207 
 
 OHAITRK IX. 
 
 The Saniojodes Their de^;radin^• sn|s!istilions -Saniojede idol at Wal- 
 i!at7. The Tmlihlaiiii, or spirita Influence of the Tmliht, or sor- 
 cerer lUs iniide of incantation Customs of the SaniojiMles -The 
 Ostiaks 'I'heir Sehnilnnn and SihnmiiM Itesidence of the ()»tiak» 
 Hunting the white hear -Kanit«hatka descrihed -Its inhalii- 
 taiits 'I'heir physical |«'culiarities -The dot; of Kanitschatka 
 His (pialities -His usefulness -How he is trained Silieria and its 
 trihos The .lakuts -Their jm-ls, or huts— Their hardy h.ir»c« 
 Tho character of tho .lakuts— .laknt travellers -.laknt iiiercliants 
 and their caravans - Drearineaa of the country they inhabit- 
 limiting the reindeer - At Kolymsk The Tungusi- His mode of 
 travellinu His fisid The Tchuktche, ami their land — Their 
 aitivity a» tnwleni— Tobacco, a staple nf conimctte Visit to a 
 T'hukUlie family -The Tcnnu.yk and the Onkilon 208-'i21 
 
 CIIAPTER X. 
 
 IIi.<tory of Discovery in the Arctic Uegions— Expeditions of Thome 
 and Horo— Of Sir Hugh Willonghby— Martin Frobislier and his 
 adventures -Discovericsof Davis— Hudson, hisdiscovery of Hudson 
 I!ay, Jan Mayen, and Cape Wolstenholm — His fate— liaflin's 
 voyages -Hinhway to the North Pole— Expedition of Itoss and 
 Parry -Parry's second expedition— Ixiss of the /'hiv/— Ovcrhiiid 
 journeys— Franklin's last cxiiudition— The search after I'rnnklin— 
 Discovery of relics — Caiitain Penny's expedition — Sir liobeit 
 .M'Clure's discovery f^ the North-Wcst Passage — Voyage of 
 .M'Clintock— Lieutenant "^fnbsou'a ,:i»coveric.?— Dr. Kane's ex- 
 pedition— Explores Smith Hound— Uncovers the Humboldt (■ lacier 
 and Kennedy Channel— Wintering in the Arctic Regions— Dr. 
 1 laycs' exiwdition— Voyage of the Ucrmania and the //a;i»a— Loss 
 of the latter— EscajH; of the crew on an ieeraft— Arrival at (ireen- 
 land— Adventurcsofthe(Jorm<inta—I!aient« and Carlson — Austrian 
 expedition under Payor— Voyage of the i'ofann— Death of Hall- 
 Tyson's voyage on an ice-raft— Rescued by the T'lj/rcM— Captain 
 lluddington abandons the /Wnris -His winter nuartcrs— lioat 
 voyage— Safe arrival— liritish expedition of 1875-71)— Departure of 
 the Ahrl and Wjcmyi-ji— Narrative of the expeilition —Winter 
 Huuisemeiits — Tho sledging-parties — lii'iiortant discoveries No 
 roail to the Pole — Return home — Cruise of the Pancforo.. ..222-337 
 
 f.' 
 
%\5\ of Jllustrations. 
 
 11. 
 
 M. 
 13. 
 U. 
 IS. 
 10. 
 17 
 18 
 
 1U 
 20. 
 21. 
 
 a. 
 
 23. 
 24 
 25. 
 
 (a. 
 
 «7. 
 23. 
 29 
 SO. 
 81. 
 
 THK CIIKW lir TlIK "M.\Mm" DRAOQINU THBIll IIHATH AOIIOSS 
 
 TUB ICK (KHONTmriKCK). 
 A DKNEUT (IF ICE IN TllK AllUTIO BEfllON, 
 TUB hWAMI'H OF THK Olll, 
 
 IM THE roHEBT JOKE OF THE NOBTll (Fm.I.-FAaE), ... 
 THK MinNIOHT SUN (FULL-rAQE), .. 
 OFF THE COAST OF dllEENlAND, ... 
 HOOMLIOHT IN THE TOLAll WORM), 
 THE AUROKA BOIIEAI.IJI, ... 
 THE AURORA nOREAI.IH -THE CORONA, 
 ATMOBPHEHIO IMIENOMKNA IN THK AROTIO IIEOIONS : — UKFr.EC- 
 
 TION OF ICEBERaa, ... 
 ADVENT OF SPRIKO IN THE FOI.AU REOIONh, 
 TIBHA MAJOR AND ORSA MINOR, ... 
 NtUULA IN ANDROMEDA, ... 
 
 ARCHED ICEBERO OFF THE GREENLAND COAST, 
 
 AMONG THE BERGS— A NARROW ESCAPE, ... 
 
 ICEBERG AND ICEFIELD, MELVILLE BAY, fillEENLANi , 
 
 ORIGIN OF ICEBEU08 - EXTENSION OF A OL,\CIER RKAWARDS, 
 
 THE Al.ETSCIl GLACIEII, BWITZEHLAND, FROM THE .tOOISCH- 
 HOIIN, SHOWING ITS J.OIIAINES, 
 
 THE MAIIJELEN SEA, SWITZERLAND, 
 
 FALL OF AN ICEBERG (FOLL-PAOE), 
 
 IN AN ICE-PACK, MELVILLE B.IY, ... 
 
 OIUNNEL IN AN ICEFIELD, ... ... .., 
 
 "hipped" Ih AN ICE-FIELD, 
 
 AMONG THE ICK-HUMMuCKS (FULL-PAGE), .. 
 
 HUNTING THE WALRUS, ... 
 
 THE WALRUS, OR MOUSE, 
 
 A WALRUS FAMILY, 
 
 FIUIIT BETWEEN A WALRUS AND A POI.AK BEAR, ... 
 
 BOAT ATTACKED BY A WALRUS (FULL-PAGE), 
 
 riOHT WITH A WAiRUS, ... 
 
 HERD OF SEALS, NEAR THE DEVII.'S THUMB, BAFFIN SEA, 
 GREENLAND, 
 
 THE COMMON SEAL, ... ... ... ... ... 
 
 SHOOTING A SEAL, 
 
 THE OTABY, 
 
 13 
 
 ii; 
 17 
 23 
 2.*i 
 20 
 28 
 20 
 
 32 
 3r. 
 30 
 30 
 ii 
 43 
 45 
 47 
 
 4S 
 4.S 
 61 
 
 ri3 
 
 !ii 
 M 
 
 3J). 
 
 30. 
 
 87. 
 
 88. 
 
 SO. 
 
 40. 
 
 41 
 
 42 
 
 43. 
 
 44 
 
 4I>. 
 
 M 
 
 47. 
 
 48 
 
 40. 
 
 60. 
 
 51. 
 
 62. 
 
 63 
 
 M. 
 
 50, 
 67. 
 58. 
 60. 
 CO. 
 
 CI. 
 
 02 
 (13. 
 04 
 05. 
 .,0 
 07. 
 03. 
 09. 
 70. 
 71. 
 
 THE HOODED SEAL, 
 
 AN ESKIMO HEAL-HUNTKR, 
 
 THE GREENLAND WHALE, 
 
 NARWHALS, MALE AND FEMAI E, ... 
 
 A SHOAL OF IHILI'HINH, ... 
 
 POLAR BEABS, ... 
 
 MtAU CATCHING A REAL, 
 
 BEARS DERTIlOVINi; A CACHE, 
 
 FIGHT WITH A WHITE BEAR (FULL PAGE), 
 
 HTALKIMI A BKAR, 
 
 HEA-BIRDS IN THE POLAR BKGIONS, 
 
 THE (nil'.lT AUK—UAZOK-BII.LR -THE PUFFIN, 
 
 PUFFINS, ,„ ... ... ... ••• »^ 
 
 THE GOOSANDER, 
 
 A BIRD "bazaar" IN NOVAIA ZEMI.AIA (FULL-PAGE), 
 
 TllK BLACKB.VCKED GULL, ,„ ,.. ... ..V 
 
 TllK EiDKR-DUCK, 
 
 THE HAUNT OF THE WILD SWAN, ... 
 
 VARIOUS FOBMB OF 8NOW-CRY8TAL.S, 
 
 EXHIBITION OF KEFLOWEIIR BY PROJECTION, 
 
 ICE-FLOWERS, 
 
 MOULDING ICE, .. .„ u, 
 
 A POLAR GLACIER, 
 
 GLACIER, ENGLISH BAY, SPITZBEBUEN, 
 
 GLACIER, BELL SOUND, SPITZBEBUEN, 
 
 STEAMER "charging" AN ICEBERO, UPERNAVIK, liREKSLAND 
 (FULL-PAGE), 
 
 FORCING A PAS.fAOE THIIO'JGH THE ICE (FULL-PAGE), 
 
 THE OLACIKR OF SERMIATSIALIK, GREENLAND (FULL-PAQK), ... 
 
 PR0TO0O0CU8 NIVALIS, ... ... ... ,., .„ 
 
 WILD BF.l.VDEER, ... .. ... ... 
 
 THE MUSK OX, ... ... ... .- 
 
 ARCTIC FOXES, ... 
 
 A FOX TRAP, 
 
 THE ERMINE, OR SABLE MARTEN, . . 
 
 THE GLUTTON, OR WOLVERINE, 
 
 PTARMIGAN, 
 
 AN ICELANDIC LANDSCAPE, 
 
 7f 
 77 
 70 
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 88 
 84 
 80 
 
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 97 
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 111 
 
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 121 
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 too 
 
 103 
 
MHT hK II.MIHTKATIONS. 
 
 Tl MOUNT iini.A, rK'iM th« vai.ki nr hkvit*. 
 71 Till aimAT imrHiiii, 
 
 71. HAmHlDR or NCIKIAVIK, .. .■• 
 
 7> ICKI.ANI'IIUI rillllKO t"ll NAHWHAL, 
 
 It ttl'KKNAVIK, OIICr.NI.ANII, 
 
 71 IIIHOO im.Allll, ORKRMI.ANIl, 
 
 Til OonilAV'H, IIIHCil IKlAilll, (IHEKSIASI), 
 
 7» DAMioH nrrri.KMiiKT or jacoiwhav n, (iK«iim.A»n, 
 
 aO nilll.lllXO AK IWKPMH HUT, 
 
 ■I TIIK P.HKIMri KATAK, 
 
 Bl TtlK RHKIMO OOHIAK, ., ... ... t(* 
 
 Kl llH. IIAVm r\ I.S IN WITH HANK TIIR Hl'NTBH {rlM.I.PAOK), 
 
 M rxKIMO IM)(1«, ... 
 
 M ImKlMH (ILilKlK ANI' TFAll (HIM. PAOB), . 
 
 m llltlNIIKKH IN I.AI'I.ANIl. 
 
 »7 TIlAVr.I.I.INn IN I.API.ANO, 
 
 Wl riHIlKIt I.AITH, . 
 
 80 HAHiUKIlK MIITH ON WAKIAT)! mi.AND, 
 
 DO A HAMIUKOK FAMILY, 
 
 «1. JAKCT HIINTKB ANI> PKAIl, 
 
 W KAMTSCHATKANB, 
 
 (a A KAMTHCHATKAN Kl.ienCK AND TRAM, ... 
 
 M THE I.OH» or TIIK "bQIIIRIIEI,," ... 
 
 Wl KHIP or TUB RRVeNTEENTH CgNTOBT, 
 
 HB SrKNERT or .IAN MATEN, 
 
 VI. THK "IHOLa" and "rUKV" WINTSRINO AT WISTEK ISLAND, 
 
 W. THE "KURT" ABANDONKD DT PARRY, 
 
 W DIHCOVERT or THE CAIRN OONTAINI.SO SIR .lOHN FKANKI.IN'a 
 I'Al'BRH, 
 
 100 RELICS or THE PRANXLIN EXPEDITION BROUOIIT BACK TO 
 
 ENQLANIl, ... ... M> ••• , 
 
 101 niHlOVKBT or ONK or THP BOATS OP THK FRANKLIN EX- 
 
 PKDITION, ... 
 
 lOi! THE "THREE BROTHER T0RBE1 " ... ... .<> 
 
 108 MORTON ON THE 8II0RB Or THE SUPPOSED POLAR OCEAN, ... 
 
 104 1)11. KANE PATINO A VISIT TO AN ESKIMO HUT AT ETAH, ... 
 
 106 TRVINO TO LASSO A BEAR (FrLL-PAOE), ... ... 
 
 lOa THK MIDNIOHT HUN, OREESLANI), 
 
 107 A BEAR AT ANCHOR, 
 
 104 
 
 IIM 
 
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 120 
 
 t09 
 
 121. 
 
 300 
 
 122 
 
 210 
 
 123 
 
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 124 
 
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 215 
 
 126 
 
 224 
 
 127 
 
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 220 
 
 129. 
 
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 130 
 
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 132 
 
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 230 
 
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 240 
 
 139. 
 
 241 
 
 140 
 
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 143. 
 
 HEATINO orP TIIK COAST OP OHERNI.ANII, 
 
 SNOW LINNETS AND BUNTIKOB TISlTINd THE CMKW or THE 
 
 "llAN^A," 
 THE CREW or THE " HAHSA " BIVOUAOKIIIO ON THE ICE 
 (rrLLPAOE), .« ... .. •» 
 
 A BAKH INTRIllir.R. 
 
 IIFAU HIISTINO, (IHEKNLANn, 
 
 " INTO A WATEHOAP," .. 
 
 THE (HEW OP THK " IIERMANIA " IN A SNOW-STORM (El LL- 
 
 PAIIE), 
 MArEUlALS E"R THE HOUSE, 
 ATTACK ON A BEAU, 
 HETTINO roX-TRAPH, 
 HELIEVKM, 
 
 EUNKRAL or CAPTAIN HALL (rULL-PAOE), 
 AN ARCTIC SNiiWSTiiRM, 
 
 THE CASTAWAYS ON THE ICE (PULLPAOE), 
 ADRIFT ON THE ICE-PLOK, 
 
 RECOVERY or THE BOAT BV CAPTAIN TYSON, 
 I0I.0E8 CONBTIlUrTEn BV THE CASTAWAYS, 
 HANS MISTAKEN FOR A BEAR, 
 DIFPIOULT TBAVr.I.LINO (FULL-PAOE), 
 THE nUinlNO LIOHT, 
 DRAaalNO A SEAL, 
 RETURN OF THE SUN (FULL-PAOE), ... ..t 
 
 SHOOTINO NARWHAL, 
 
 DKACIdlNa THE OOOJOOK, 
 
 SUNLIOHT EFFECT IN THE ARCTIC HEOIOM (FULL-PAOE), ... 
 
 FIRST BIOHT OF A WHALE, 
 
 F.VOE TO F."'E WITH A POLAR BEAR, 
 
 AN ARCTIC ICE-SCAPE (FUI.r.-rAOI.,, ... .«., , 
 
 , ON BOARD THE B0.»;"; ... 
 BREAKINO UP OF THE ICE, 
 .lOE CAPTURES A SEAL, ... .. ... «. 
 
 . A NIOIIT OF FEAR (PUI.LPAOF.), ... 
 
 A "HELL OF W.VTERS," ... 
 . DRAQOINO THE BOAT ON TO A FLOE, ... ... ... 
 
 . CLINOINO TO THE BOAT (FULI.-PAOE), 
 BAYED I (. ■;LL-PAaE), ... 
 
 m 
 
 9M 
 ?Ut 
 MO 
 
 201 
 
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 M7 
 
 268 
 
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•wmmmwrnrnm^mmmmm 
 
 jiiiMKPlMIPlipimpiH 
 
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 ■•'■»,.. i^ ',•■.-. I '' i ' "* 
 
 = r ■;« „. 
 
 '». ■• 'v 
 
 THE ARCTIC WORLD. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THB NORTH POLE — TI1UE8II0LD OK TlIK UNKNOWN WOULD — THK CIllOUMPOLAR UKQIONS IIIK KLORA 
 OF THE NORTH — LIKE IN TIIK POLAR WORLD -THE NORTH-WEST AND NORTH-EAST PAH8AOE8. 
 
 EJi!?S|S the reader knows, the Poles are the two extremities of the axis round which tlie Earth 
 DfA w revolves. It is to the North Pole, and the regions surrounding it, that the following 
 Ir t Tt' i lB pages will bo devoted. 
 
 The inhabitants of Western Europe, and more particularly those of the British Isles, have 
 a peculiar interest in the North Polar Regions. Deriving their wealth and importance from 
 their commercial enterjirise, and that commercial enterprise leading their ships and seamen into 
 the furthest seas, they have necessarily a vital concern in the discovery of the shortest possible 
 route from that side of the Earth which they inhabit to the other, or eastern side ; and vhis, 
 more particularly, because the East is rich in natural productions which are of high value to 
 the peoples of the West. 
 
 Now a glance at the map will show the reader that the traders of Western Europe — the 
 British, the French, the Dutch, the Scandinavians — are situated on the northern shores of the 
 Atlantic Ocean, and that, to reach the Pacific Ocean or the Indian, only two routes are at 
 present open. For instance, they may cross the Atlantic to the American coast, and, keeping 
 southward, strike through Magellan's stormy Strait or round the bleak promontory of C'ape 
 Horn into the Pacific, and then, over some thousands of miles of water, proceed to Australia or 
 Hindustan or China ; or they may keep along the African coast to the Cape of Good Hope, its 
 southernmost point, and so stretch across the warm Tropical seas to India and the Eastern 
 Archipelago. A third, an artificial route, has indeed of late years been opened up ; and ships, 
 entering the Mediterranean, may pass through the Suez Canal into the Red Sea. But this 
 last-named route is unsuitable for sailing-ships, and all three routes are laborious and slow. How 
 greatly the distance would be shortened were it possible to navigate the Northern Seas, and, 
 keeping along the north coast of the American continent, to descend Behring's Strait into the 
 Pacific ! In other words, w^/e that North- West Passage practicable, which, for three centuries, 
 our geographers and explor >^ so assiduously and courageously toiled to discover ! But a still 
 shorter route would be opened up, if we could follow a Une drawn from the British Islands 
 
r 
 
 10 
 
 KXTKNT OK THK UNKNOWN REGION. 
 
 ' 
 
 I 
 
 stiaif^ht acrosH the North I'olu to Bohriiijf'H Sea and the Aleutian Archipelago. This line would 
 not oxLotd 5000 inile.s in leiij^th, and would brinf» Japan, China, and India within a very shoi-t 
 voyage from Great Britain. Wo should bo able to reach Japan in three or four weeks, to the 
 obvious advantaj^e of our extensive commerce. 
 
 Hitherto, however, all efforts to fallow out this route, and to throw open this great ocean- 
 high .vay between Kurope and Asia, have failed. Man has been baffled by Nature ; by ice, and 
 froht, and wind.s, and climatic intluenccs. With heroic perseverance he haa sought to gain the 
 open sea which, it is believed, surrounds the Pole, but a barrier of ice has invariably arrested his 
 [)rogrcss. Tlis researches have carried him within about 500 miles of the coveted point ; but he is 
 na yet unable to move a stop beyond this furthest limit of geographical discovery. Immediately 
 around the North Polo, within a radius of eight to ten degrees or more, according to locality, 
 still lies ail Unknown Rogion, on the threshold of which Science stands expectant, eagerly look 
 ing forward to the day when human skill and human courage shall penetrate its solitudes and 
 reveal its secrets. 
 
 'i'iiis Unknown Ro^fion comprises an area of 2,500,000 square miles ; an immense portion of 
 tlio terrestrial surface to bo shut out from the knowledge of Civilized Man. Its further explor- 
 ation, if practicable, cannot but be rich in valuable results. Not only would it furnish the 
 shortest route from the West to the East, from progressive Europe to conservative Asia, from 
 the Atlantic to the Pacific, but it could not fail to add in a very important degree to our stores 
 of scientific information. Sir Edward Sabine is surely right vhen he says, that it is the greatest 
 goograjihical achievement which can be attempted, and that it will be the crowning enterprise of 
 those Arctic researches in which England has hitherto hfid the pre-eminence. 
 
 ' • We may briefly indicate to the reader some of the advantages which might be expected 
 from exploration in the Unknown Region. It would unquestionably advance the science of 
 liydrography, and lead to a solution of some of the more difficult problems connected with the 
 I'^quatorial and Polar ocean-currents, those great movements of the waters of which, as yet, we 
 know so little. 
 
 A series of pendulum observations, it is said, at and near the North Pole, would be of 
 essential service to the science of geology. We are unable, at present, for want of sufficient 
 data, to fomi a mathematical theory of the physical condition of the Earth, and to ascertain its 
 exact configuration. No pendulum observations have been taken nearer than 600 or 620 miles 
 to the North Pole. 
 
 Again : what precious information respecting the strange and wonderful pheaomena of 
 magnetism and atmospheric electricity would certainly be acquired ! How much we have yet to 
 learn in reference to the Aurora, which can be learned only in high latitudes, and at or near the 
 point which apparently represents a magnetic focus or centre I 
 
 It has also been pointed out by Mr. Markham that the climate of Europe is largely affected 
 by the atmospheric conditions of the Polar area, in which the development of extremely low 
 temperatures necessarily leads to corresponding extreme changes of pressure, asd other atmos- 
 pheric disturbances, who.se influence extends far into the Temperate Zone. For the satisfactory 
 appreciation of these phenomena, says Mr. Markham, a precise knowledge is required of the 
 distribution of land and water within the Polar Region ; and any addition to our knowledge of its 
 unknown area, accompanied by suitable conservations of ita meteorology, cannot fail to afford 
 
 ■MM 
 
 mmiiiKii 
 
PROBABLE RESULTS OF CONTINUED POLAR EXPLORATION. U 
 
 improved means of understanding the meteorology of our own countrj', and of the Karth 
 generally. 
 
 There can be no doubt, too, that geology would profit, if we noukl push our retseiirohea 
 nearer to the Pole, and force our way through the great barrier of the Polar ice. It ii hij^hly 
 desirable, too, that we should know more of that interesting class of animals, the Mollusoa, 
 both terrestrial and aquatic, fresh-water and salt-water. Again : what a wide field of inquiry is 
 opened up by the Polar glaciei"s ; their extent, their elevation, their rargo, and tho eflbcts 
 produced by the slow but continuous motion of those huge ice-rivers over the surface of the 
 country. And the botanist has a right to calculate upon the discovery of many precious 
 forms of vegetable life in the Unknown Region. The Arctic flora is by no means abundant, 
 but it is peculiarly interesting. In Greenland, besides numerous mosses, lichens, algte, and 
 the like, flourish three hundred kinds of flowering plants, all of which are natives of the 
 Scandinavian peninsula; and Dr. Joseph Hooker remarks that they exhibit scarcely any 
 admixture of American types, though these are found on the opposite coast of Labrador. It 
 would seem probable that in the warm period which preceded the Glacial Age, the Scandinavian 
 flora spread over the entire area of the Polar Regions ; but that during the Age of Ice it was 
 gradually driven within its present limits, only the hardier types surviving the blight of the 
 long lingering winter. 
 
 And what would be the gain to the zoologist ? Why, it is a well-known fact that life 
 abounds in the Arctic waters, and especially those minute organisms which play so important a 
 part in the formation of sedimentary deposits, and help to build up the terrestrial crust. We 
 have much to learn, moreover, of the habits and habitats of the fish, the echinodorms, the 
 molluscs, the corals, the sponges of the extreme Northern Seas. 
 
 There are questions connected with the migrations of birds which can be elucidated only 
 by an exploration of the Unknown Region. Multitudes which annually visit our shores in 
 the winter and spring, return in summer to the far North. This is their regular custom, 
 and obviously would not have become a custom unless it had been found beneficial. Therefore 
 we may assume that in the zone they frequent they find some water which is not alwfiys 
 frozen ; some land on which they can rest their weary feet ; and an adequate supply of 
 nourishing food. 
 
 From Professor Newton we adopt, in connection with this consideration, a brief accoimt of 
 the movements of ona class of migratory birds, — the Knots.* 
 
 The knot, or sandpiper, is something half-way between a snipe and a plover. It is a very 
 active and graceful bird, with rather long legs, moderately long wings, and a very short tail. It 
 swims admirably, but is not often seen in the water; preferring to assemble with its fellows on the 
 sandy sea-shores, where it gropes in the sand for food, or fishes in the rock-pools and shallow 
 waters for the small cmstaceans. It is known both as the red and the ash-coloured sandpiper, 
 because it changes the colour of its plumage according to the season of the year ; a bright red in 
 summer, a sober ashen-gray in winter, Now, in the spring the knot seeks our island in inmicnse 
 flocks, and after remaining on the coasts for about a fortnight, can be traced proceeding gradually 
 northwards, until it finally takes leave of us. It has been noticed in Iceland and Greenland, but 
 not to stay; the summer there would be too rigorous for its liking, and it goes further and 
 
 * The Tringa canutut uf uruitliologUta. 
 
13 THRESHOLD OF THE UNKNOWN WORLD. 
 
 further no.th. WhitJicr? Whore does it build its nest, and hatch its young? Wo lose all 
 trace of it for some weeks : wliat becomes of it ? 
 
 Towards the end of summer back it comes to us in larger tiocks than before, and both old 
 birds and young birds remain upon our coasts until November, or, in mild seasons, even later. 
 Then it wings its flight to the south, and luxuriates in lilue skies and balmy airs until the follow- 
 ing spring, when it resumes the order of its migrations. 
 
 Commenting upon these facts. Professor Newton infers that the lands visited by the knot 
 in the middle of summer are less sterile than Iceland or Greenland ; for certainly it would not 
 pass over these countries, which are known to be the breeding-places for swarms of water-birds, to 
 resort to regions not so well provided with supplies of food. The food, however, chiefly depends 
 on the climate. Wherefore we conclude that beyond the northern tracts already explored lies a 
 region enjoying in summer a climate more genial than they possess. 
 
 Do any races of men with which we are now unacquainted inhabit the Unknown Kegion ? 
 Mr. Markham observes that although scarcely one-half of the Arctic world has been explored, 
 yet numerous traces of former inhabitiints have been found in wastes which are at present abai.- 
 doncd to the silence and solitude. Man would seem to migrate as well as the inferior animals, 
 and it is possible that tribes may be dwelling in the mysterious inner zone between the Pole and 
 the known Polar countries. 
 
 The extreme points reached by our explorers on the ice-bound Greenland coast are in J»out 
 82° on the west, and * u ^>xx t^'^ east side ; these two points lying about six hundred miles apart. 
 As man has dwelt at both these points, and as they are separated from the settlements further 
 south by a dreary, desolate, uninliabitable interval, it is not an extravagant conjecture that the 
 unknown land to the north has been or is inhabited. In 1818 a small tribe was discovered on 
 the bleak Greenland coa.st between 76° and 79° N. ; their southward range being bounded by the 
 glaciers of Melville Bay, and their northward by the colossal mass of the Humboldt Glacier, 
 while iidand their way is barred by the Sernik-sook, a great glacier of the interior. These 
 so-called Arctic Highlanders number about one hundred and forty souls, and their existence 
 " dei>ends on open pools and lanes of water throughout the winter, which attract animal life." 
 Wlierever such conditions as these are found, man may be found. 
 
 We know that tliero are or have been inhabitants north of the Humboldt Glacier, on the 
 very threshold of the Unknown Region ; for Dr. Kane's expedition discovered the runner of a 
 sledge made of bone lying on the beach immediately to the north of it. The Arctic Highlanders, 
 moreover, cherish a tradition that herds of musk-oxen frequent an island situated far away to the 
 north in an iculess sea. Traces of these animals were found by Captain Hall's expedition, in 
 1871-72, as far north as 81° 30'; and similar indications have been noted on the eastern side 
 of Greenland. In 1823, Captain Clavering found twelve natives at Cape Borlase Warren, in 
 lat. 79° N. ; but when Captain Koldewey, of the German expedition, wintered in the same neigh- 
 bourhood, in 1869, they had disajipeared, though thei'e were traces of their occupancy, and ample 
 means of subsistence. Yet they cannot have gone southward, owing to insuperable natural 
 obstacles ; they must have moved towards the North Pole. 
 
 We have thus indicated some of the results which may be anticipated from further researches 
 in the Unknown Region. It is not to be forgotten, however, that "the unexpected always 
 happens," and it is impossible to calculate definitely the consequences which may ensue from a 
 
 MMHIIki 
 
LIMITS OF THE NORTH POLAR REGION. 
 
 II 
 
 more extensive investigation. " Columbus," it has been justly said, " found very few to sym- 
 pathize with him, or perceive the utility of the effort on his part to go out into tlio unknown 
 waste of waters beyond the Strait of Gibraltar, in search of a new country. Who can, at this 
 time, estimate the advantages which have followed upon that adventure ? If now it should be 
 possible to reach the Pole, and to make accurate observations at that point, from the relation 
 which the Earth bears to the sun and to the whole stellar universe, the most useful results are 
 very likely to follow, in a more thorough knowledge of our globe." 
 
 The reader has now before him the particulars which will enable him to fonn an idea of 
 the extent and character of the undiscovered region of the Pole. Roughly speaking, it is 
 bounded by the 80th parallel of latitude on the European side, except at a few poii\ts where our 
 
 A DESERT OF ICE IN TUK ARCTIC REOION. 
 
 gallant explorers have succeeded in crossing the threshold ; on the Asiatic side it descends as low 
 as 75°; and to the west of Behring Strait as low as 72°. Thus, it varies from 500 or GOO to 
 1400 or 1500 miles across. Below these parallels, and bounded bj' the Arctic Circle, or, in some 
 places, by the 60th parallel, extends a vast belt of land and water which is generally known aa 
 the Arctic or Circumpolar Regions. These have been more or less thoroughly explored ; and it is 
 to a description of their principal features, their forms of animal and vegetable life, and their 
 natural phenomena, that we propose to devote the present volume. 
 
 It is important to remember that the northern shores of Europe, Asia, and America are 
 skirted by the parallel of 70°, and that the belt between the 70th and 80th parallels, having Ijeen 
 partially explored by the seamen and travellers of various nations, intervenes as a kind of neutral 
 ground between the known and the unknown. We may, indeed, formulate our statement thus ; 
 
14 OKOOHAPIIY OK THE NORTH POLAU UKOlONS. 
 
 from the Pole to the 80th degree stretches the unknown ; from the 80th to the 70th, the 
 [tartially known ; while, Houth of the 70th, we traverse the lands and seas which human enter- 
 prim; has complctoly conquorod. 
 
 The Circumiiolar Zone includes the northernmost portions of the three great continents, 
 pjuroi)e, Asia, and America ; and by sea it has three approaches or gateways : one, through the 
 Northern Ocean, between Norway and Greenland ; another, through Davis Strait,- both these 
 being from the Atlantic ; and a third, through Behring Strait,— the entrance from the Pacific. 
 
 It will bo seen that the Circunipolar Regions, as they are now understood, and as we shall 
 describe thoin in the following ]' iges, extend to the south of that imaginary line drawn by 
 geognaphoi's round the North Polt it a distance from it equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic, or 
 23' 30'. Within this circle, howev 'lore is a jjeriod of the year when the sun does not set; 
 while there is another when he is never seen, when a settled gloom spreads over the face of nature, 
 — this period being longor or shorter at any given point according as that point is nearer to or 
 further from the Pole. 
 
 But as animal and vegetable life are largely atte(!ted by climate, it may be justly said that 
 wherever an Arctic climate prevails there we shall find an Arctic or Polar region ; and, hence, 
 many countries below even the 60th parallel, such as Kamtschatka, Labrador, and South Green- 
 land, fall within the Circumpolar boundary. 
 
 The waters surrounding the North Pole bear the general designation of the Arctic Ocean. 
 But here again it is almost impossible to particularize any uniform limit southward. It joins the 
 Pacific at Behring Strait in about lat. 66° N., and consequently in this quarter extends fully 
 half a degree beyond the Arctic Circle. At Scoresby Sound, as at North Cape, where it meets 
 the Atlantic, it is intersected by the parallel of 71°, and consequently falls .short of the Arctic 
 Circle by about 4° 30'. 
 
 In the Old World, the Polar Ocean, if we include its gulfs, extends, in the White Sea, fully 
 two degrees beyond the Arctic Circle ; while at Cape Severe, the northernmost point of Asia, in 
 lat. 78° 25' N., it is 11° 55' distance from it. Finally, in the New World it is everywhere con- 
 fined mthin the Circle; as much as 5° at Point Barrow, about 7° 30' at Barrow Strait, and 
 about 3° at the Hecla and Fury Strait. 
 
 We may add that, so far as temperature is concerned, the great gulfs known, in memory 
 of their discoverers, as Davis Strait, Baffin Bay, and Hudson Bay, are portions of the Arctic 
 Ocean. 
 
 Of the more southerly area of tliis great ocean, the only sectioi? which has been adequately 
 explored to a distance from the continent, and in the direction of the Pole, is that which washes 
 the north-ea.st of America. Here we meet, under the collective name of the Polar i'l.rchipelago, 
 with the following islands : — Banks Land, Wollaston Land, Prince Albert Land, Victoria Land, 
 I'rince Patrick Island, Princess Royal Islands, Melville Island, Cornwallis Island, North Devoi., 
 Beechey Island, Grinnell Land, and North Lincoln. Further to the east lie Spitzbergen, Jan 
 Mayen Island, Novaia Zemlaia, New Siberia, and the Liakhov Islands. The chief straits and 
 inlets are Lancaster Sound, Barrow Strait, Smith Sound, Regent Inlet, Hecla and Fury 
 Strait, Wellington Channel, and Cumberland Sound ; while further westward are Belcher 
 Channel, Melville Sountl, M'Clintock Channel, Banks Strait, and Prince of Wales Strait. 
 
THK STONY TUNDKA8. 16 
 
 The Arctic Lands comprehend two well-defined sections, or zones ; that of the forests, and 
 the treeless wastes. 
 
 To the latter belong the islands within the Arctic Circle, and also a consitlerablo tract of the 
 northern continents, forming the " barrens " of North America, and the " tundras " ar.d " steppes " 
 of European Russia and Siberia. 
 
 The treeless character of this vast area of wilderness is owing to the bleak sea-winds which 
 drive, without let or hindrance, across the islands and level shores of the Polar Ocean, compelling 
 even the most vigorous plant to bend before them and creep along the ground. 
 
 Drearier scenes are nowhere presented than these st<jny tundras, or their boundless swamps. 
 Almost the only vegetation are a few gray lichens, a few dull blackish-looking mosses ; the 
 stunted flowers or crawling grasses that here and there occur do not relieve the unifonu desola- 
 tion, — they serve simply to enhance its gloomy character. In summer, indeed, the tundras are 
 full of life ; for the spawning instinct of the salmon and the sturgeon impels them to enter their 
 rivers and seek the quiet recesses of their mysterious lakes. The reindeer assemble in numerous 
 herds to feed on the herbage warmed into temporary vitality by the upward-slanting sun ; the 
 whirr of countless wings announces the coming of the migratory birds to breed, and feed their 
 young, on the river-banks and the level shores ; and in their trail arrive the eagle and the hawk, 
 intent on prey. 
 
 But with the first days of September a change passes over the scene. Animal life hastens 
 to the more genial south ; the birds abandon the frozen wastes ; the reindeer retires to the shelter 
 of the forests ; the fish desert the ice-bound streams ; and a terrible silence reigns in the desolate 
 wilderness, broken only by the hai-sh yelp of a fox or the melancholy hooting of a snow-owl. 
 For some eight or nine months a deep shroud or pall of snow lies on the whxtened plains. No 
 cheerful sunbeams irradiate it with a rosy glow ; the sky is dull and dark ; and it seems aa if 
 Nature had been abandoned to etenial Night. 
 
 But blank and dreary as the limitless expanse of snow appears, it is the security of man in 
 these far northern regions. It affords the necessary protection to the scanty vegetable life against 
 the rigour of the long winter season. In Rensselaer Bay, Dr. Kane found, when the surface 
 temperature had sunk to — 30°, a temperature at two feet deep of - 8°, at four feet deep of 
 -I- 2", and at eight feet deep of + 26°, or no more than 6° below freezing-point. Hence, under- 
 neath their thick frozen pall, the Arctic grasses and lichens maintain a struggling existence, and 
 are able to maintain it until thoroughly, resuscitated by the summer sun. It is owing to this wise 
 and beneficent provision that, in the highest latitudes, the explorer discovers some feeble forms of 
 vegetation. Thus, as Hartwig reminds us, Morton gathered a crucifer at Cape Constinution, in 
 lat. 80° 45' N. ; and Dr. Kane, on the banks of the Minturn River, in lat. 78° 52', met with a 
 flower-growth which, though fully Arctic in its type, was gaily and richly coloured — including 
 the purple lychnis, the starry chickweed, and the hesperis, among the festuca and other tufted 
 grasses. 
 
 In the tundras, the most abundant vegetable forms, next to the lichens and mosses, are the 
 grasses, the crucifers, the saxifrages, the caryophyles, and the compositis. These grow fewer and 
 fewer as we move towards the north, but the number of individual plants does not decrease. 
 Where the soil is fairly dry, we shall find an extensive growth of lichens ; in raoister grounds, 
 these are intermingled with the well-known Iceland moss. Lichens are everywhere, except in 
 
It 
 
 THE REGIONS OF THE "BARKENS." 
 
 tho Hparno triw;ts of nuiidow liiiul lyiiif,' at the foot of shelteriixj: IhUh, or ii; those alluvial inundated 
 hollows wiiiih air fhickly jilaiiti'd with " whisiieriii^' roods" and dwarf willows. 
 
 It is not easy to trace ex.oetly the boundary botweoa the tundras and tlie forest zone. Tho 
 former diseend to tho south, and the latter advances to the north, according to the climatic influ- 
 ences which |irevail ; following the isotherniic lines of uniform temperature, and not the mathe- 
 matical limits of the geo(ria|ilii<al parallels of latitude. Where the ground undulates, and hilly 
 riilges liieak the fury of the icy bliusts, the forests encroach on tho stony treeless region ; hut the 
 desolate pliiins strike into the wooded zone in places whore the ocean-wimls range with unchecked 
 sway. 
 
 The southernmost limit of the "barrens" is found in Labrador, where they descend to lat. 
 .•i?" ; nor is this to be wondered at, when wo remember the peculiar position of that gloomy penin- 
 sula, witli icy seas wa.shing it on three sMes, and cold winds sweojiing over it from tlu north. 
 «.>n the opposite coasts of Hudson Jiay they <lo not strike lower than GO^; and they orrtinue t^ 
 
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 THE SWAMPS OF THK OBI. 
 
 rise as we jiroceed westward, until in the Mackenzie Valley we find tho tall forest growth reach- 
 ing as far north as G8° or even 70°. Thence they recede gradually, until, on the bleak shore of 
 liehring Sea, they do not rise higher than 65°. Crossing into the eastern continent, we find 
 them begiiming, in the land of tho Tuski (or Tchi\ktcho), in G3°, and from thence encroaching 
 gradually upon the tundras until, at the Lena, they reach as high as 71°. From the Lena to 
 the Obi the tundras gain upon the forests, and in the Obi Valley descend below the Arctic Circle ; 
 but from the Obi to the Scandinavian coast the forests gain upon the tundras, terminating, after 
 many variations, in lat. 70°. 
 
 The rt ;lt to w hicli this rapid survey brings us is, that the " tundras " or " barrens " of 
 Europe, Asia, and America occupy an area larger than the whole of Europe. The Siberian 
 wilderness is more extensive than the African Sahara or the South American Pampas. But of 
 still vaster area are the Arctic forest regions, which stretch in an "almost continuous belt" 
 
THE FLORA oF TIFK NORTH. \9 
 
 throii<j;li three quarters of tho world, with a l)ri'aclth of from 15° to 20' — that in, of 1000 to 1400 
 miles. And it ia a peculiarity of those Circumpolar woods, tliat tiicy art* almost wiiolly composed 
 of conifers, and that frequently a wide apace of (ground is covered for liai,'ius upon li;a<,Mus with a 
 single kind of tir oi ]iine. 
 
 " This irt tlio rciicMt priiiunal. Tlio niiiimiiiiiig |)iue9 aiiil tliu IhmuIdcIu, 
 iilc.iileil with inoH^, ami iu K'li'iui'iits ^rei'ii, iiiili.stiiK't in tho twili;(lit, , 
 
 Stniicl lilje IJiiiiiis of olii, witli vuiirs sail iiiiil |iro|ilic'tlo, 
 Stand liltc harpcin lioar, with 1 aids tliat it»t on lliiMr boHoruti." 
 
 The American species, however, differ froni the Asiatic or Europenn. While in tho Hudson 
 Bay territories j^row the white and black spruce,* the Canadian larch,t and tho gray pine ; t in 
 Scandinavia and Siberia, the Siberian fir and larch,!;} the /Vcci. olovata, an! the Pi nun umbra 
 flourisli. But both in the Old World and the New the birch advances beyond tiie fir and niiio, 
 and on the banks of the rivei-s and the shores of the lakes dwarf willows form imnieiiso ;m<\ 
 almost impenetrable thickets. Tho Arctic forests also include various kinds of ash, elder, ami 
 the service tree ; and though orchard trees are wholly wanting, both man and beast find a 
 great boon in the bilberries, cranberries, bog-berries, and the like, which grow plentifully in 
 many localities. 
 
 The area of the Arctic flora comprises Greenland, in the western hemisphere, and extends 
 considerably to the south of the Arctic Circle, especially on the coasts, where it reaches the 
 parallel of G0° N. lat., and even ovei-passes it. 
 
 In Greenland the vegetation ia more truly of an Arctic character than even in Iceland. The 
 valleys are covered with marsh-plants and dingy mosses ; the gloomy rocks are encrusted with 
 lichens; while the grasses on the meadow-lands that border the fiords and inlets are nearly four 
 times less varied than those of Iceland. 
 
 The flora of Iceland is approximative to that of Great Britain ; yet only one in every four of 
 British plants is included in it. The total number of species may be computed at eight hundred 
 and seventy, of which more than half blossom ; this proportion is greater than [irevails in Scotland, 
 but then only thirty-two are of woody texture. They are scattered about in grcjiips ai-cording as 
 they prefer a marshy, volcanic, dry, or marine soil. Many bloom in the immediate vicinity of the 
 hot springs ; some not far from the brink of the basin of the Great Geyser, where every other 
 plant is petrified ; and several species of confervaj flourish in a spring the waters of which are 
 hot enough, it is said, to boil an egg. 
 
 From the nature of the Arctic forests, the reader will be prepared to learn that they are n(jt 
 inhabited, like those of the Tropics, by swarms of animals ; or made musical by the songs of birds, 
 like our European woods. Even the echoes are silent, except when the hoarse wind bears to 
 them the peculiar cry of the reindeer, the howl of the wolf, or the sharp scream of some bird of 
 prey. Insect life, however, is active and abundant ; and our Arctic travellers have suffered 
 greatly from the legions of gnats which haunt their swampy recesses. 
 
 Passing from the forest region into the treeless wastes, we may glance once again at their 
 strikingly impressive features. North of the G2nd parallel no corn can ripen, on account of tho 
 fatal power of the winds Avhich pour down from the Arctic Ocean. As we advance to the north- 
 
 * Abia alba et nigra. + Larix Canadensia. % IHntu lianktiatux, J Abim Sibirica, iMric Hibirioi. 
 
19 OI,()()M i>K TIIK SlItKHIAN Dl-XKUT 
 
 whkI, a wide .sjtiiad aicii nf flcsulaticiii JstiitclioH hot'din us: Hult stoppoH, Htouy ; ' iiiH, IxiUIkIIubs 
 swamps, and lakoH uf wilt aiui tresli water. So terrible ih the cold that the spoiif^y hoil \h per- 
 petually fVi)zrii tci tin' d(;pth of suuie huiidrrd feet helow the surface ; and the surface iUteH', thouj^h 
 not thawed until the end of .luni', is aj^ain ice-hound hy the middle oi' Septeniher. ()n(' of the 
 most Lrra|ihic skitclics with wliicli we are acipiainted of the extreme Siiierian desert is furnished 
 hv Admiral von Wraiij;"], who travelled iluring the winter from the mouth of the Kolyma to 
 JJehriu),' Strait. 
 
 Idle, he says, endle.sn Hnt>W8 and ice-crusted rocks bound the horizon ; Nature lies shrouded 
 in all but perjietual winter; life is a constant conflict with ])rivation and with the terrors of cold 
 and hnni,'er; the jrrave of Nature, containin<x only the bones of another world. The people, and 
 even the snow, throw off a continual vapour; and this evaporation is instantly chanjred into 
 millions of needles of ice, which make a noise in the air like the sound of torn satin or the i-ustlt 
 of thick silk. The ri'indeer take to the forest, or crowd togi^the'r for heat ; and the raven alone, the 
 dark bird of winter, still smites the frosty air with heavy laborious winjf, leavinj^ behind him a 
 lon<^ trail of thin vapour to mark the course of his solitary fliijht. The trunks of the thickest 
 trees arc^ ri'iit with a loud elaiif,', masses of rock are torn from their sites, the j^round in the 
 valleys is .split into a myriad fissures, from which the waters that are underneath bubble up, 
 throwiuij otr ;i cloud of smoke, and immediately confjealing into ice. The atmosphere grows 
 dense; the glisti'uini,' stars are dimmed. The dogs outside the huts of the Siberians burrow 
 in the snow, and their howling, at intervals of six or eight hours, interrupts the general silence 
 of winti^r. 
 
 The abundance of fur-bearing animals in the less rigorous parts of the tundras has induced 
 the haidy Russians to colonize and build towns on these confines of tht .'Vozon World. Yakut.sk, 
 on the river Tjciia, in 6:2° 1' 30" N., may be regarded, perhaps, as the coldest town on the Earth. 
 The groimd is perpetually frozen to the depth of more than 400 feet, of which three feet oidy are 
 thawe<l in summer, when Fahrenheit's thermometer frequently marks 77° in the shade. Yet 
 in winter the rigour of the climate is so extreme that mercury is constantly frozen for two and 
 occasionally even for three months. -, , • 
 
 Fi- ini the data set forth in the preceding pages, the reader will conclude that, as indeed 
 results from iiliysical laws, the line of perpetual snow will be found to descend lower and lower 
 on advancing to the Pole. By the line of peqjetual snow we mean, of course, the limit above 
 which a continual frost endures. Now, this limit varies according to climate. The lower the 
 temperature, the lower the snow-line ; the higher the temperature, the higher the snow-line. In 
 the Tropics it does not sink below the summits of the loftiest mountains. Thus, at 1° from the 
 I'iquator, where the mean temperature at the sea-level is 84°.2, the snow-line must be sought at 
 the elevation of 15,203 feet ; in 51° 30' lat., the latitude of London, it is usually found at about 
 5900 feet ; in lat. 80°, where the mean temperature is 33°.6, it sinks to 457 feet. These figures, 
 however, rei)resent its normal elevations ; but temperature, as we all know, is greatly affected by 
 local circumstances, and therefore the perpetual snow-line varies greatly in height. Owinc to 
 causes already explained, the snow-line in the Circumpolar Regions sinks to a very low level ; 
 and, therefore, many mountainous regions or elevated table-lands, such as Spitzbergen, Greenland, 
 and Novaia Zemlaia, which, in a more temperate climate, would bloom with emerald slopes and 
 
I.IKK IN rilK I'(»LA1! Wolll.li, Ut 
 
 waving wooiIh, mo covered with liugo j^liu'iiTH and tieldH uf icf, with apparently inti rniinahle 
 reaches of uiitroddun nnow. 
 
 It Khould he noted, however, that nowhere docs the pcrpc tiiiil .-^nnw line diwend tn the 
 water's edge ; nowhoro has the spell of winter ahsohitely erushed the life out i>f all ve;,'(tation. 
 Lichens and ftrasses, on which the reindeer j,'ains its hardy suhsistentr, air fnind n. ar lat. 80'; 
 even on the awful plains of Melville Island the snow melts at inidsuiiiint r ; and llif di serts nf 
 New Siheria afford food for considerahle mnnhers of leniinini^M. As far as man has rt'aehed l<i 
 the north, says a popular and accurate writer, vegetation, when fostered hy a shelttud situatinn 
 and the refraction of solar heat from the rocks, has everywhere heeii found to rise to a intisidtinihio 
 altitude ab' the level of the sea; and should there he land at tln' North I'ule, wc may 
 reasonably supi)ose that it is destitute neither of animal nor vegetable life. It would 1m' <piite 
 wrong to conclude that the cohl of winter invariably increases as we approach the l^»l(^ the 
 temperature of a land being controlled by many other causes besides its latitudi'. Kviii in the 
 most northern regions visited by man, the influence of the sea, particularly where lavnurcd by 
 warn\ currents, considerably mitigates the severity of the winter, while at the same timc! it 
 diminishes the heat of summer. On the other hand, the large continental tracts of Asia ^r 
 America that slope towards the Polo, possess a more rigorous winter and a fiercer summer than 
 many coast lands or islamis situated far nearer to the Pole. For example : the western shores 
 of Novaia Zemlaia, fronting a wide expanse of sea, have an average winter temperature of only 
 — 4°, and a mean summer temperature which rises very little above the freezing-j)oint of water 
 ( r 36° 30') ; while Yakutsk, situated in the centre of Siberia, and 20" nearer to the Ecjuator, has 
 a winter temperature of — 36° 6', and a summer of + 66' 6'. 
 
 But though such are the physical conditions of the Polar Regions, it must not be supposed 
 that Nature wears only a severe and repellent aspect. There is something l)eautiful in the vast 
 ex])an.se of snowy plain when seen by the light of a cloudless moon ; something majestic in the 
 colossal glaciers which fill up the remote Arctic valleys ; something picturesque in the numenjus 
 icebergs which grandly sail down the dark Polar waters ; something mysterious and wonilerful in 
 the coruscations of the Auror.a, which illuminates the darkness of the winter nights with the glory 
 of the celestial fires. The law of compensation prevails in the far North, aa in the glowing anil 
 exuberant regions of the Tropics. 
 
CHAITKI! II. 
 
 TIIK AHC'TIO IIKAVKNS : ATMOHI'IIKIIIO ANMI METKOIIIC I'llKNOMKNA. 
 
 k'l^jd I'"r tho roiulur fancy liiinsclf— hIkjuIiI Im l)u readin<» tlieso pa^^s on a warm sumiuor's day, 
 nBfW *'" '"'"'^ ^^'" ""*' '"' uriplcaHant !— lut tho reader fancy himself on board a well- 
 "•"■ -* fmind, stoutly-huilt wlialiiij^-vessol, and rapidly approaching tho coast of Greenland. 
 Hut liic 111 (ivy mist lian<,'s over the Ictjt'iid-haimted shores, and we can hut catch the sound of 
 the claiij^inj,' surf as it rolls u[)on them. All around us spreads the mist, — dense, impenetrable. 
 What is that before us? 'J'lic di-ad white mass of an iceber<,', slowly drifting with the current, 
 and almost upon us before the look-out man discovered it. But the helm has been shai-ply 
 handled ; our good ship has put about ; and wo sail clear of the mighty pyramid. Fully ono 
 huiidrcd and fifty feet high, we can assure you, and twice as broad at its base. A sudden 
 break in tho mist reveals its radiant spire, with white cloud-wreaths circling and dancing round 
 it in the sunlight. 
 
 And now, as we steadily move forward, the fog is lifted up like a curtain, and before us, 
 iiko a scene in a panorama, looms tho Greenland coast in all its austere magnificence : yonder 
 are its broad ice-filled valleys, its snow-clad ravines, its noble mountains, its iron-bound range 
 of cliffs, its general aspect of solemn desolation. 
 
 Away over the westward sea fly the scattered vapours, disclosing iceberg after iceberg, like 
 tho magical towers in some of Turner's pictures. We seem to have been drawn by some irre- 
 sistible spell into a world of enchantment, and all the old Norse romance comes back upon tho 
 memory, with its picturesque associations. Yonder lies the Valhalla of the ancient ocean- 
 rovers ; yonder the dazzling city of the sun-god Freya, one of the most popular of the Scandina- 
 vian divinities, as well he might be ; yonder the elfin caves of Alfheim ; and Glitner, with its 
 walls of gold and roofs of silver ; and the radiant Gimele, the home of the blessed ; and there, 
 too, towering above the clouds, the bridge Bifrost, by which the heroes ascended from earth to 
 heaven. Heimdall, who can see for fully a hundred leagues, as well by night as by day, stands 
 sentinel upon it, prepared to sound his h(irn Gjallar, if intruders should attempt to cress it ! 
 
 The sea is smooth as glass; not a ripple breaks the wonderful calmness of its surface. 
 It is midnight, but in this strange Arctic world the sun still hangs close upon the northern 
 horizon; tho icebergs rear their dazzling crests around, like floating spires, and turrets, and 
 many-towered minsters ; tho dark headlands are boldly outlined against the sky ; and sea, and 
 sky, and mountains, and icebergs are suffused in a wildly beautiful atr.osphere of crimson, gold, 
 and pui-ple. The picture is like a poet's vision; and so startlingly unreal, that it is difficult 
 for the unaccustomed spectator to believe it ot'.er than an illusion. 
 
 i 
 
f 
 
 i. 
 
 >S 
 
It 
 
A 0U)K10UH LANDHCAI'K AND SEASCAPE. 
 
 'J^ 
 
 4- 
 
 We adopt the followin;,' description from tlu; vivid languajjjc of Dr. Haves, who di.splays a 
 keen feeling for the beauties of tlie Polar world. 
 
 The air was warm, he says, ahnost a.s a summer't* ni^lit at liome, and yet there \\i\v the 
 icebergs and the bleak mountains, with which the fancy, in our own la?K? of green hills and wav- 
 ing 'voods, can associate nothing but what is cold and repellent. Bright was the sky, and suit 
 and strangely inspiring as the skies of Italy. The bergs had wholly lost their chilly asjdct, and, 
 glittering in the blaze of the brilliant heavens, seemed, in the distance, like niiusses of burniHlud 
 metal or solid flame. Nearer at hand they were huge blocks of I'arian marble, encrusted with 
 colossal gems of pearl and opal. One in particular exhibited the perfection of grandiiir. Its 
 
 t, 
 
 \ 
 
 t.&mnosillV» 
 
 OFF THE COAST OF GREENLAND. 
 
 form was not unlike that of the Coliseum, and it lay so far away that half its height was buried 
 beneath the line of blood-red waters. The sun, slow moving along its path of glory, passed 
 behind it, and the old Roman ruin seemed suddenly to break into flame ! 
 
 Nothing, indeed, but the pencil of the artist could depict the wonderful richness of this com- 
 bined landscape and seascape. Church, in his great jiicture of " The Icebergs," has grandly 
 exhibited a scene not unlike that we have attempted to describe. 
 
 In the shadows of " e bergs the water was a ricli green, and nothing could, be more soft and 
 tender than the gradations of colour made by the sea shoaling on the sloping tongues of some of 
 these floating masses. The tint increased in intensity where the ice overhung the wat^M-s, and a 
 deep cavern in one of them exhibited thi' solid colour of the malachite mingled with the trans 
 
43 
 
 CONTIUSTS IN THE POLAR WORLD. 
 
 parency of the emerald, while, in strange contrast, a broad belt of cobalt blue shot diagonally 
 through its body. 
 
 The enchantment of the scene was heightened by a thousand little casctides which flashed 
 into the sea from the icebergs, the water being discharged from basins of melted sr.ow and ice 
 which tranquilly reposed far up in the hollows of their topmost surface. From other bergs large 
 bouldera were occasionall" detached, and those plunged into the water with •>. deafening din, 
 while the roll and rush o ' the ocean resounded like the music of a solemn dirge through thnir 
 broken archways. r, •;;^ 
 
 The contrasts and combinations of colour in the Polar world are, indeed, among its jmrti- 
 cular attractions, and of their kind they cannot be surpassed or imitated even in the gorgeous 
 realms of the Tropics. The pale azure gleam of the ice, the dazzling whiteness of the snow, the 
 vivid verdure of the sunlit plains, the deep emerald tints, crossed with sapphire and ultramarine, 
 of the waters, would in themselves afford a multiplicity of rich and beautiful effects ; but to these 
 we must add the magical influences of the coruscations of the Arctic heavens, with the glories of 
 the midni<'ht sun and the wonders of the Aurora. 
 
 
 HOUNLIOHT IN THE POLAR WORLD. 
 
 Even moonlight in the Polar world is unlike moonlight anywhere else ; it has a character 
 all its own, — strange, weird, supernatural. Night after night the sky will be free from cloud or 
 shadow, and the radiant stars shine out with a singular intensity, seeming to cut the air like 
 keen swords. The moonbeams are thrown back with a pale lustre by ice-floe and glacier and 
 snow-drift, and the only relief to the brightness is where the dark cliffs throw a shadow over the 
 
 iMMM 
 
I 
 
 IN THE LONG WINTEK-NIOHT l» 
 
 landscape. Gloriously beautiful look the snow-clad mountains, as the moonlight pours upon 
 them its serene splendour, interrupted only by the occasional passage of a wrcatli of mist, whiih 
 is soon transformed into sparkling silver. The whole scene produces an impression of awe on 
 the mind of the thoughtful spectator, and he feels as if brought face to face with the visible 
 presence of anothei world. 
 
 The prolonged winter night is in itself well calculated to aft'ect the imagination of the Euro- 
 pean. He reads of it in travels and books of astronomy ; but to know what it is, and what it 
 means, he must submit himself to its influence, — he must " winter" in the Polar Regions. Not to 
 see sunrise and sunset, and the changes they bring with them, day after day, enlivening, inspirit- 
 ing, strengthening, is felt at first as an intolerable burden. The stars shining at all hours with 
 equal brilliancy, and the lasting darkness which reigns for twenty days of each winter month 
 when the moon is below the horizon, become a weariness and a discomfort. The traveller 
 longs for the reappearance of the moon ; and yet before she has ran her ten days' course, he feels 
 fatigued by the uniform illumination. 
 
 But sometimes a relief is supplied by the phenomenon of the Aurora Borealis. We inha- 
 bitants of the United Kingdom know something of the rare beauty of the " northern lights," 
 when the heavens kindle with a mysterious play of colours which reminds us of the strange 
 weird radiance that occasionally kindles in our dreams; yet these are poor and trivial when 
 compared with the auroral display. Let us endeavour to realize it from the glowing description 
 painted by one of the mjst eloquent and observant of Arctic explorers. 
 
 He was groping his way among the ice-hummocks, in the deep obscurity of the mid-winter, 
 when suddenly a bright ray darted up from behind the black cloud which lay low down on the 
 horizon before him. It lasted but an instant, and, having filled the air with a stiange illumina- 
 tion, it died away, leaving the darkness even greater darkness than before. Presently an arc 
 of coloured light sprang across the sky, and the aurora became gradually more fixed. The space 
 enclosed by the arc was very dark, and was filled with the cloud. The play of the rays which 
 rose from its gradually brightening border was for some time very capricious, modifying the 
 burst of flame from what seemed a conflagration of the heaver to the soft glow of early morn. 
 
 Gradually the light grew more and more intense, and from irregular bursts it settled into 
 an almost steady sheet of splendour. This sheet, however, was far from uniform, and may best 
 be described as " a flood of mingling and variously-tinted streaks." 
 
 The exhibition, at first tame and quiet, developed by degrees into startling brilliancy. The 
 broad dome of night seemed all a-blaze. Lurid fires, fiercer than those which reddened the 
 heavens from burning Troy, flashed angrily across the zenith. The stars waned before the mar- 
 vellous outburst, and seemed to recede further and further from the Earth ; " as when the chariot 
 of the sun, driven by Phaeton, and carried from its beaten track by the ungovernable steeds, 
 rushed madly through the skies, parching the world and withering the constellations. The 
 gentle Andromeda flies trembling from the flame ; Perseus, with his flashing sword and Gorgon 
 shield, retreats in fear ; the Pole-Star is chased from the night ; and the Great Bear, faithful 
 sentinel of the North, quits his g .ardian watch, following the feeble trail." 
 
 The colour of the light was chiefly red, but this was not permanent, and every hue mingled 
 in the wonderful display. 
 
 Blue and yellow streamers shot athwart the lurid fire ; and, sometimes starting side by side 
 
 % 
 
28 
 
 A VISION OF MANY COLOURS. 
 
 ! \ 
 
 from tlio wide fx pause of the illumined arc, they melted into each other, and flung a weird 
 f^laro of j^rocn over the landscape. 
 
 Ai,'ain this fjreen overcame the red ; blue and yellow blended with each other in their swift 
 fli^'lit ; violet-tinted arrows flashed thri>Uf,d» a liroad j^low of orange, and countless tongues of 
 wliiti' flame, fiirincd tif Muse uniting streams, rushed ahjft and clasj)ed the skies. The effect of 
 the many-colnurtd lustre upon th(! surrounding objects was singularly wonderful. The weird 
 forms of inimmorable icebergs, singly and in clusters, loomed above the sea, and around their 
 Hummits hovered the strange gleam, like the fires of Vesuvius over the villas and temjiles of 
 
 T'^tVi. «.»*w».«ap' 
 
 TUR AURORA noREALtS. 
 
 Pompeii. .Vll along the white sui-faoe of the frozen sea, upon the mountain-peaks and the lofty 
 clifTs, the I'jjht glowed and dinunod and glowed again, as if the air were filled with graveyard 
 meteors, flitting wildly above some vast illimitable city of the dead. The scene was noiseless, yet 
 the senses were deeeivetl, for sounds not of earth or sea seemed to follow the swift coruscations, 
 and to fall upon the ear like 
 
 '• The trend 
 Of pliaiituiuM ilrend, 
 , ,- . Witli bnuuer, aud sjiear, .iiid iliime." 
 
 Though the details, so to speak, are not always the same, the general character of the aurora 
 changes very slightly, and, from a comparison of numerous accounts, the gradation of the pheno- 
 menon would seem to be iis follows : — 
 
 The sky slowly assumes a tint of brown, on which, as on a background, is soon developed a 
 nebulous segment, bordered by a spacious arc of dazzling whiteness, which seems incessantly 
 
•i. 
 
 i ' 
 
 :■{ ■ 
 
 CHANGES OF THE AURORA BOREALIS. tl 
 
 agitated by a tremulous motion. From tliis arc an increilible number of sluift.s and lays of li<4lit 
 Knip upwards to the zunitii. These luminous columns pass tlirou;;ii all tlie hues of the raiiiliow, 
 — from softest violet and intensest sapphire to green and purple-red. Sometimes tlu; rays issue 
 from the resplendent arc mingled with darker flashes ; sometimes they rise simultaneously at 
 different points of the horizon, and unite in one broad sea of (lame pcrvaiKiI by rapid undulations. 
 On other occasions it would seem as if invisible hands were unfurlin<^ tiny dnzzliii'.,' b.imn is, to 
 
 THE AURORA RORKALIS — THE CORONA. 
 
 stream, like meteors, in the troubled air. A kind of canoj)y, of soft and tranquil li,y:bt, wiiicii is 
 known as the corona, indicates the close of the marvellous exhil)itioii , and shortly after its 
 appearance the luminous rays begin to decrease in splendour, tlie richly-colouiod arcs dissolve 
 and die out, and soon of all the gorgeous spectacle nothing remains but a whitish cloudy haze in 
 those parts of the finuament which, but a few minutes before, l)lazed with the mysterious fires 
 of the aurora borealis. 
 
 The arc of the aurora is only part of a broad circle of light, which is elevated considerably 
 above the surface of our globe, and the centre of which is situated in the vicinity of the Polo. 
 It is not difficult, therefore, to account for the different aspects under whiili it is pre.sentefl to 
 observers placed at different angles to f,he focus of the display. A person some degrees si>iith of 
 the ring necessarily sees but a very small arc of it towards the north, owing to the interposition 
 of the earth between him and it ; if he stood nearer the north, the arc would appear larger and 
 
30 I'HKNOMENA OF THE AUKORA. 
 
 highor ; if iinincdiatcly below it, ho would hco it apparently traversing the zenith ; or if within 
 tlio riiij,', and Htill furtlior north, he would sec it culminating in the south. It has been supposed 
 that the centre of the ring corresponds with the magnetic north pole in the island of Boothia 
 Felix. 
 
 Generally the phenomenon lasts for several hours, and at times it will be varied by peculiar 
 features. Now it will seem to present the hemispherical segment of a coloasfd wheel ; now it 
 will wave and droop like a rich tapestry of many-coloured light, in a thousand prismatic folds ; 
 and now it exhibits the array of innumerable dazzling streamers, waving in the dark and 
 intense sky. 
 
 The arc varies in elevation, but is seldom more than ninety miles above the terrestrial sur- 
 face. Its diameter, however, must be enormous, for it has been known to extend southward to 
 Italy, and has been simultaneously visible in Sardinia, Connecticut, and at New Orleans. 
 
 According to some authorities, the phenomenon is accompanied by noises resembling the 
 discharge of fireworks, or the crackling of silk when one piece is folded over another ; but this 
 statement is discredited by the most trustworthy observers. 
 
 Mrs. Soinerville's description is worth quoting, as taking up more emphatically some points 
 to which we have already alluded : — 
 
 The aurora, she says, is decidedly an electrical (or, more strictly speaking, a magneto- 
 electrical) phenomenon. It generally appears soon after sunset in the form of a luminous arc 
 stretching more or less from east to west, the most elevated point being always in the magnetic 
 meridian of the place of the observer ; across the arc the coruscations are rapid, vivid, and of 
 various colours, darting like lightning to the zenith, and at the same time flitting laterally with 
 incessant velocity. The brightness of the rays varies in an instant ; they sometimes surpass the 
 sj)lendour of stars of the first magnitude, and often exhibit colours of admirable transparency, — 
 blood-red at the base, emerald-green in the middle, and clear yellow towards their extremity. 
 Sometimes one, and sometimes a quick succession of luminous currents run from one end of the 
 arc or bow to the other, so that the rays rapidly increase in brightness ; but it is impossible to 
 say whether the coruscations themselves are actually affected by a horizontal motion of transla- 
 tion, or whether the more vivid light is conveyed from ray to ray. The rays occasionally dart 
 far past the zenith, vanish, suddenly reappear, and, being joined by others from the arc, form a 
 magnificent corona or immense dome of light. The segment of the sky below the arc is quite 
 black, as if formed by dense clouds ; yet M. Struve is said to have seen stars in it, and so it 
 would appear that the blackness of which several observers speak must be the effect of contrast. 
 The lower edge of the arc is evenly defined ; its upper margin is fringed by the coruscations, 
 their convergence towards the north, and that of the arc itself, being probably an effect of 
 perspective. 
 
 The aurora exercises a remarkable influence on the magnetic needle, even in places where 
 the display is not visible. Its vibrations seem to be slower or quicker according as the auroral 
 light is quiescent or in motion, and the variations of the compass during the day show that the 
 aurora is not peculiar to night. It has been ascertained by careful observations that the 
 disturbances of the magnetic needle and the auroral displays were simultaneous at Toronto, in 
 
ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMKNA DESCRIBED. It 
 
 Canada, on thirteen days out of twenty-four, the remaining days having been oloudiil ; r.nd 
 contemporaneous observations show that in these thirteen days there were also niagnetii' dis- 
 turbances at Prague and Tasmania; so that the occurrence of auroral phenomena at Tnninto on 
 these occasions may be viewed as a local manifestation connected with magnetic etfeits, wliich, 
 whatever may have been their origin, probably prevailed on the same day over (he irhule surface 
 of the globe. 
 
 Among the atmospheric phenomena of the outer world we are justified in reckoning the 
 Winds, which are remarkable for their variability. Their force is considerably diminished when 
 they pass over a wide surface of ice ; sometimes the ice seems even to beat back the breeze, and 
 turn it in a contrary direction. The warm airs from the south grow cool as they sweep across the 
 frozen expanse, and give up their moisture in the form of snow. In a region so bleak and chill 
 it is not often that clouds are created, the atmospheric vapours being condensed into snow or hail 
 without passing through any intermediate condition. 
 
 Whirlwinds of frozen snow are formidable enemies to the seaman forced to traverse the itte 
 on foot, or in a sledge drawn by Eskimo dogs. Dense showers lash and sting the unfortunate 
 traveller's face, penetrate his mouth and nostrils, freeze together his very eyelids, and almost 
 blind him. His skin assumes a bluish tint, and bums as if scarred by the keen thongs of a knout. 
 
 An optical illusion of frequent occurrence in the P6lar liegions makes objects apj)ear of 
 dimensions much larger than they really possess. A fox ossnmes the proportions of a bear ; l(tw 
 banks of ice are elevated into lofty mountains. The eye is fatigued by dwelling upon the horizon 
 of lands which are never approached. Just as in the sandy deserts of the Sahara the distances 
 of real objects are apparently diminished, so the Arctic explorer, misled by the aerial illusion, 
 advances towards a goal which seems always near at hand, but is never attained. 
 
 Another source of error, common both to the Arctic and the Tropical deserts, is the 
 mirage, a phenomenon of refraction, wliich represents as suspended in air the images of remote 
 objects, and thus gives rise to the most curious illusions and fantastic scenes. Dr. Scoresby one 
 day perceived in the air the reversed representation of a ship which he recognized a.s the Fame, 
 commanded by his father. He afterwards discovered that it had been lying moored in a creek 
 about ten leagues from the point where the mirage had played with his imagination. 
 
 Again, in approaching a field of ice or snow, the traveller invariably descries a belt of 
 resplendent white immediately above the horizon. This is known as the " ice-blink," and it 
 reveals to the Arctic navigator beforehand the character of the ice he is approaching. At times, 
 too, a range of icebergs, or of broken masses of ice, will be reflected in colossal shadows on the 
 sky, with a strange and even weird effect. 
 
 But, after all, the special distinction between the Arctic lands and the other regions of the 
 globe is their long day and longer night. Describing an immense spiral curve upon the horizon, 
 the sun gradually mounts to 30°, the highest point of its course ; then, in the same maimer, it 
 returns towards the horizon, and bids farewell to the wildernesses of the North, slowl}' passing 
 away behind the veil of a gloomy and ghastly twilight. 
 
 When the navigator, says Captain Parry, finds himself for the first time buried in the silent 
 shadows of the Arctic night, he cannot conquer an involuntary emotion of dread ; he feels 
 
M 
 
 A .MOONLiailT NIOIIT IN THE NOHTH. 
 
 ATUOSrilERIC rnENOMENON IN TIIK ARCTIC UEOIONS : — REFLECTION OK IC'KUERUS. 
 
 transported out of the sphere of ordinary, coninionplaec existence. The deadly and sombre 
 deserts of the Polo seem like those uncreated voids which ^lilton has placed between the realms 
 of life and death. The very animals arc affected by the profound melancholy which saddens the 
 face of Nature. 
 
 Will) can read without emotion the following passages from Di'. Kane's Journal ? — 
 
 " October 28, Friday. — The moon has reached her greatest northern declination of about 
 25° 35'. She is a glorious object ; sweeping around the heavens, at the lowest part of her curve 
 she is still 14" above the horizon. For eight days she has been making her circuit with nearly 
 unvarying brightness. It is one of those sparkling nights that bring back the memory of sleigh- 
 bells and songs and glad communings of hearts in lands that are far away. 
 
 " The weather outside is at 25' below zero." 
 
 A few days later, and the heroic explorer writes : — 
 
 -SBS 
 
SINGULAR ATMOSPHEHIC CONDITIONS. 3| 
 
 '' iVoreiitbi-r 7, ^fo^H^^tl/.--'^'he darkness in coniini,' on with insidious stt-adinoss, nnd its 
 advanws can lio jioiwivid only by coniparini,' onu day with its iMIow of soini- tini.- hack. Wo 
 still read tho tliernionit'ter at noonday witliout a hjjfht, and tlio hlack nia.sHcs (.f tlic hills aiv plain 
 for about fivo liours with their ghu'wg patches of snow ; but all the rust is darkness. Lanterna 
 are always on the spar-deck, and the lard-hinips never e.\tinj,'uished below. The stars of the 
 si.xth magnitude shine out at noonday. 
 
 "Our darkness has ninety days to run before we shall ,t,'et back again even U, the cc.ntested 
 twilight of to-day. Altogether, our winter will have been sunless for one hundred and forty 
 days." 
 
 Here is another significant passage ; yet all its significance can scarcely be appreciated by 
 the dwellers in temperate climes : — 
 
 •'Xovember 37, Sumla)/.-— The thermometer was in the neighbourliMod ol' 10 bi-Iow zero, 
 and the day was too dark to read at noon." 
 
 "December 15, Thursdai/.—We have lost the last vestige of (jur midday twilight. Wo 
 caimot see print, and hardly paper : the fingers cannot be counted a foot from the eyes. No.jn- 
 day and midnight are alike ; and, except a vague glimmer on the sky that seems to define the 
 hill outlines to the south, we have nothing to tell us that this Arctic world of ours has a sun." 
 
 On the 11th of -January (1854), Dr. Kane's thermometer stood at 49° below zero; and on 
 the 20th the rango of those at the observatory was at - G 4° to - 07'. On the 5th of February 
 they began to show an unexampled temperature. They ranged from 60° to 75° below zero, and 
 one very admirable instrument on the tatfrail of the brig stood at - G5°. The reduced mean of 
 the best spirit-standards gave - G7°, or 97° below the freezing-point of water. 
 
 At these temperatures chloric ether became solid, and caiefully prepared chloroform exhi- 
 bited a grarudar film or pellicle on its surface. Spirit of naphtha froze at - 54', and oil of 
 sassafras at - 49°. 'J'he oil of winter-green assumes a floccident appearance at - 50°, and solid at 
 - G3° and - G5°. 
 
 Some further details, borrowed from Dr. Kane's experiences, will illustrate still more power- 
 fully the singular atmospheric conditions of the Arctic winter. 
 
 The exhalations from the surface of the body invested any exposed or partially-clad part 
 with a wreath of vapour. The air had a perceptible pungency when inspired, but Dr. Kane did 
 not undergo the painful sensation described by some Siberian travellers. When breathed for 
 any length of time it imparted a sensation of dryness to the air-passages ; and J)r. Kane observed 
 that all his party, as it were involuntarily, breathed gradually, and with compressed lips. 
 
 It was at noon on the 21st of January that the first glimmer of returning light became 
 visible, the southern horizon being touched for a short time with a distinct orange hue. The 
 sun had, perhaps, afforded them a kind of illumination before, but if so, it was not to lie distin- 
 guished from the "cold light of stars." They had been Hearing the sunshine for thirty-two days, 
 and had just reached that degree of mitigated darkness which made the extreme midnight of Sir 
 Edward Parry in lat. 74° 47'. 
 
 We have already alluded to the depressing influence exercised by the jn-olonged and intense 
 darkness of the Arctic night, and we have referred to the singular eflect it has upon animals. 
 
S4 C'llAUAfrrKlilSTICS OV TMK AltCTIC WINTKI!. 
 
 Dr. Knne'H dogn, tho ijjli inoHt of tlitm wore luitivuH of the Arctic Circle, proved unable to bear 
 up ttfjaiimt it. Most of tliom diod IVdim an aiioinalouH form of cliseaHe, to which the absence of 
 lij,'ht would Hoeni to have contributed an much as the extreme cold. This circumstance seems 
 worthy of fulltn- notice, and wc (|uote, therefore, Dr. Kane's observation upon it : — 
 
 " JuniKirif -20. — Tiiis morninjf at five o'clock — for 1 am so afflicted with the iVisowmium of 
 tliis eternal nii,'ht, that I rise at any time between midnif,'ht and noon— I went upon deck. It 
 was absolutely dark, the cold not permitting,' a swinj^ing lamp. There was not a glimmer came 
 to me through the ice-cru.sted window-panes of the cabin. Whihi I was feeling my way, hah 
 puzzled as to the best method of steering clear of whatever might be before mc, two of my 
 Newfoundland dogs |)ut tiuir cold noses against my hand, and instantly commenced the most 
 exuberant antics of satisfaction. It tlien occurred to me how vely dreary and forlorn must these 
 poor animals be, at atmo.sj)heres + 1 0° in-doors and - 50' without, — living in darkness, howling at 
 an accidtintal light, as if it reminded them of the moon, — and with nothing, either of instinct or 
 sensation, to tell tiiem of the passing hours, or to explain the long-lost daylight." 
 
 The etfect of the j)rolonged daikness upon these animals was most extraordinary. Every 
 attention was jjaid to their wants ; they were kept below, tended, fed, cleansed, caressed, and 
 iloctoird ; still they grew worse and worse. Strange to say, their disease was as clearly mental 
 as in the case of any human being. There was no physical disorganization ; they ate voiaciously ; 
 they slept soundly, they retained their strength, ^^ut first they were stricken by epilepsy, and 
 this was followed by true lunacy. They barked .nziedly at nothing; they walked in straight 
 and curved lines with anxious and unwearying })erseverance. They fawned on the seamen, but 
 without seeming to appreciate any caresses bestowed upon them ; pushing their head against the 
 fiiend who noticed them, or oscillating with a strange pantomime of fear. Their most intelligent 
 actions seemed of an automatic character ; sometimes they clawed at their masters, as if seeking 
 to burrow into their seal-skins ; sometimes they preserved for hours a moody silence, and then 
 started off howling, as if pursued, and ran to and fro for a considerable period 
 
 When spring retunied Dr. Kane had to mourn the loss of nine splendid Newfoundland 
 and thirty-five Eskimo dogs ; of the whole pack only six survived, and one of these was unfit for 
 draught. 
 
 Having dwelt at some length on the characteristics of the Arctic winter, we now turn to 
 consider those of the Arctic spring. This begins in April, but does not exhibit itself in all the 
 freshness of its beauty until May. The temperature rises daily in the interval ; the winter fall 
 of snow, which has so long shrouded the gaunt hills and lain upon the valleys, rolls up before the 
 rays of the rising sun ; and the melted snow pours in noisy torrents and flashing cascades 
 through the rugged ravines and over the dark sides of the lofty cliffs : everywhere the air 
 resounds with the din of falling watei-s. Early in June the traveller sees with delight the signs 
 of returning vegetation. The willow-stems grow green ^vith the fresh and living sap ; mosses, 
 and poppies, and saxifrages, and the cochlearia, with other hardy plants, begin to sprout ; the 
 welcome whirr of wings is brought upon the breeze ; the cliff's are alive with the little auks ; 
 flocks of stately eider-ducks sail into the creeks and sounds ; the graceful tenis scream and dart 
 over the sea ; the burgomasters and the gyifalcons move to and fro with greater dignitj' ; the 
 long-tailed duck fills the echoes with its shrill voice ; the snipes liover about the fresh-water 
 
A I'OLAH I.ANDSCAl'K IN Sl'HIN(i. 
 
 (wols ; the sparrows chirp from rock to rock ; loiijf linuH of ciickliii!^ gccso sail in tlio blue cluar- 
 rioss ovcrlu'nfi on tlicir witv to a niiiotfr north ; tliu wuhiis i nd the soul hank on the i('t>-flo«^n 
 
 Al>VKSr UK HI'lll.Nd IN TlIK I'UI.AIl IlKlllUNS. 
 
 which have brokoii up into small rafts, and drift lazily with the currents ; and a Hcet of icebergs 
 move southwards in solemn and stately procession, their spires and towens flashing and 
 coruscating: in the suidisht. 
 
 We transcribe a sketcli of a spring landscape in the Polar world from the pages of Dr. 
 Hayes : — 
 
 We arrived at the lake, lie says, in the midst of a very enlivening scene. The snow 
 had mainly disappeared from the valley, and, altlKJUgh no flowers had yet aj^peared, the early 
 vegetation was covering the banks witii green, and the feeble growths opened their little leaves 
 almost under the very snow, and stood alive and fresh in tlie frozen turf, looking as glad of the 
 spring as their more ambitious cousins of the warm South. Numerous small herds of reindeer 
 had come down from the mountains to fatten on this newly budding life. Gushing rivulets and 
 fantastic waterfalls mingled their pleasant nmsic with the ceaseless hum of birds, myriads of 
 which sat upon the rocks of the hill-side, or were perched upon the cliffs, or sailed through the 
 air in swarms so thick that they seemed like a dark cloud passing before the sun. These birds 
 were the little auk, a water-fowl not larger than a quail. The swift flutter of their wings and 
 their constant cry filled the air with a roar like that of a storm advancing among the forest trees. 
 The valley was glowing with the sunlight of the early morning, v hich streamed in over the 
 glacier, and robed hill, mountain, and plain in brightnes,s. 
 
 Spring passes into summer, and all nature seems endowed with a new life. The death- 
 like silence, the oppressive darkness, the sense of fear and despondency, all have passed away ; 
 
 
M 
 
 AlloUT TIIK Nonril lol.K. 
 
 ami raitli mill . :tli'i° i tlin v\ iili rlifii fill viiii'i.'s, llii' lanilM(-ii|iL' i.s liiitlii-<l in a i^'lorioiiH radiiiiice, 
 tliu huiiiiiii Niiiil is roii.sriiir.tH of a Hciitiiiii'iit uf iiu|)i) and exju'ctiitiun. 'I'lic \vint< r is puHt mid 
 Koiir ; till' lliwds a|i|Mar mi the laiili ; tlio tinn- ortiii; wiiigiiij^ of liirdw is ckiiic, Thu smiw luui 
 iiicltt'd I'loni till' liills, and the strt'iiniN run witli u niuriy imisic, and tlio .seunty Hma of tlio tar 
 niiitlitrii wuild attains iU lull devel<i|iMU'nt. J\v day and ni^dit thu sun pnurs furth itM in- 
 vi;roiatinj( rays, and ivcn the liutterHy is oiicourai^ed to Hport ainonj; tlio blossonis. Thu Aurora 
 no longer i-xliiliits its niany-roiouri'd lirus, and tho sky is a« clear and i-loudluss as in genial Italy. 
 Jiut this siason of liff and warmth is of Hlmrt duration, and when July has passed the sun 
 liigins to sink lower and lower, as if to visit another world ; a shadow gradually steals over the 
 sky; winds hli.v. fiercely, and hring with them hlinding showerH of sleet and icicles; the 
 fountains and the streams cease their pleasant tlow ; the broad crust of ice spreads over the 
 imprisoned sea; the snow-mantle rests on tho hill-sides and tho valleys; the birds wing their 
 way to till' warmer Smith ; and the Polar world is once raoro given over to the silence, the 
 ioiu'liness, aiii' the glomii of the long Arctic night. 
 
 Tuining niir .dtintimi now to the "starry heavens," we oUserve that conspicuous among the 
 glorious host is tho North Star, which, from earliest times, hn« been the friend and guide of tho 
 navigator. 
 
 The J*ole-8tar, or Polaris, is the star a in the constellation of Ursa Minor, and is the nearest 
 li'.rge star to the noiih polo of the celestial equator. Wo say the " nearest," because it does not 
 actually mark the jiosition of the pole, but is about 1° 30' from it. Owing, however, to the 
 motion of the pole of the celestial efjuator round that of the ecliptic, it will, in about 2000 A.n., 
 approach within 28' of the' north jiole ; but after renching this point of ajiproxiniation it will 
 begin to ii'cede. At the time of Hipparchus it was 12" di.stant from it (that is, in 15G n.c); in 
 1785, 2' 2'. You may easily find its place in the " stellar firmament," for a line drawn between 
 tho stars a and /8 (hence called the " Pointer.s ") of the constellation Ursa Major, or the Great 
 Bear, and produced in :i northerly direction for about four and a half times its own length, will 
 almost touch the Pole-Star. Two thou.sand years this post of honour, so to speak, was occupied 
 by the star ft of Ur.sa Major ; while, in about twelve thousand years, it will be occupied by the 
 star Vega in Li/ra, which will be within 5° of the noiih pole. 
 
 Till' constellation of ifrsa Major is always above the horizon of Europe, and henco it has 
 been an object of curiosity to its inhabitants from the remotest antiquity. Our readers may 
 
 easily recognize it by three stars which form a 
 triangle in its tail, while four more form a quad- 
 rangle in the body of the imaginary bear. In the 
 triangle, the first star at the tip of the tail is 
 Benetnasch, of the second magnitude ; the second, 
 Mizar ; and the third, Alioth. In tlie quadrangle, 
 nisA MAj.m AN,. 1III.SA MINOR. tho first star at the root of the tail is named 
 
 Megrez ; the second below it, Phad ; tht !l;.id, in a horizontal direction, Merak ; and the fourth, 
 above the latter, Dublie, of tiio first magnitude. 
 
 In Ursa Minor the only conspicuous star is Polaris, of which we have rjcently spoken. 
 We subjoin a list of the northern constellations, including the names of those who 
 
A MST OF NoltTllhliN (« •NSIKI.I.A III »NS. 
 
 17 
 
 formed them. (!.,■ niimlur of their visihl,. stais, iiii.l th.' iuviiuh cf thi- m<.>t iiii|M)itiiiit .luA 
 conspii'iious. 
 
 NUUTII KIIN t.uMlTICLLATIONII. 
 
 OonmiAnovi. 
 
 ITrsn Minor, llip r.e»»i.r lliur 
 
 I'rsa Mnjnr. thr (!mit IWnr 
 
 PtTBiMn, luiil llciul (if MmliuK 
 
 AuriK'ifc, tlie \Va^'K'"m■r 
 
 Dui>tett, tlio llvnUiiittn ,,... 
 
 Uratn, the Drn^rnn ... . 
 
 Ci'iiheus ^ ^ 
 
 Caiif, Voimli.i, thn (irivli"iin.l, Char* and Aateria.. 
 
 (W ( 'iipiili, Ilcurt cif ( 'luu-l,.., It 
 
 Trinntjuliiiii. IIil' Trian;(lu 
 
 Trlnii|,'iiliini Minu.i, tlm Ia-mit Triansla 
 
 Miii4i-H, the Kly 
 
 Lynx 
 
 .-.q 
 
 Loti Minor, the LemT TJon 
 
 Coma liiTfnIiT.H, Ik'rcnice'H Itair .. 
 
 r'anii'li'opanlalln, the (itrairH ,., 
 
 Monn .Mcriflaus, Mount Mtni'lam 
 
 forona liori'ali'.. tho Xorthirn Crown 
 
 Ht-riK'nH, tilt! HeriMtnt . 
 
 Suutnni Sol)ioj.ki, Holiii^aki's Shield 
 
 Hert'iiK-K. with Ccrlu-ruH 
 
 Ser|«intariiM, or (l|iliiuchii«, thu Herpent-licarer . 
 TauriiH 1'oniatowi.lii. or thf Hull of Ponlatowski 
 
 I.yra, tliu Harp 
 
 Vnlpftulu.i ft AnsiT, the Fox and tlio Gouse 
 
 Sa^'ittn, thu Arrow ...,_ 
 
 Acpiila. the Kai;h', with Antiuoua 
 
 Delphinus, thu Dolphin 
 
 C'yt'niH. thiiHwan 
 
 Oaasio|)fia, the La/ly in hur Chair 
 
 Kquulua, the Home's Ij 'ad 
 
 I.acerta, thu I.i/anI 
 
 Peganus, the Flying Horw 
 
 Andromeda 
 
 Turandua, the Uuindeer 
 
 No or 
 8r«iu. 
 
 Almtiu. 
 
 21 
 
 Aratiu. 
 
 f7 
 
 Aratiu. 
 
 59 
 
 Arntna. 
 
 nil 
 
 Aratiia. 
 
 I'll 
 
 Aratna. 
 
 M 
 
 Arotua. 
 
 M 
 
 Hevvlina, 
 
 23 
 
 Hnlley. 
 
 3 
 
 Aratua. 
 
 16 
 
 Ileviliua. 
 
 10 
 
 IlMle. 
 
 A 
 
 Heveliu.H. 
 
 41 
 
 Heveliua. 
 
 U 
 
 'ry< ho llrahe. 
 
 4.1 
 
 Heveliua, 
 
 M 
 
 lleveliila. 
 
 11 
 
 Aratim. 
 
 21 
 
 A rati] M, 
 
 04 
 
 Hevelius. 
 
 S 
 
 AratiiM. 
 
 11. 1 
 
 Aratu--*. 
 
 74 
 
 Poezohat. 
 
 7 
 
 Aratun. 
 
 •h} 
 
 Heveliuif. 
 
 a7 
 
 Aratiw. 
 
 18 
 
 AratuB. 
 
 71 
 
 Aratud. 
 
 18 
 
 AratuH. 
 
 M 
 
 AratuK. 
 
 W 
 
 Ptolemy. 
 
 10 
 
 Hevelin*. 
 
 10 
 
 ArattiH. 
 
 Ml 
 
 Ar.atn.-. 
 
 di 
 
 Lemonnier. 
 
 12 
 
 P«iiiar«i Staw 
 
 Pularia, 2. 
 
 l)ul>he, 1 : Alloth, 2. 
 Alxenib, 2; Algol. 2. 
 Ca|wlla, 1. 
 ArcturiH. 1. 
 lta<«tal>i'n, 'A. 
 Alileramln. it, 
 
 ll.ui Aluratha. S. 
 Ihut Aliiigua, 2. 
 
 \'cf!a, 1. 
 
 AlLiir, 1. 
 Deneli, 1. 
 
 Afarkab, 2. 
 Altnooc, 2. 
 
 A few remark.s in reference to some of these con.stellations, and the glorious orbs which they 
 help to indicate to mortal eyes, may Ktly close this chapter. 
 
 We have already alluded to Ursa Major, which forms one of the most conspicuous objects 
 of the northern heavens. It has borne diflereut names, at different times, and among different 
 peoples. It was the "ApKro, ^ey,i\n of the Greeks ; the " Septem triones " of the Latins. It is 
 known in some parts a.s David's Ciiariot ; the Chinese cull it, T< ficuu-pei/. 
 
 Night and day this constellation watches above the northern horizon, revolving, witii sl.nv 
 and majestic march, around Polaris, in four and twenty hours. The quadrangle of stu in the 
 body of the Great Bear forms the wheels of the chariot;, the triangle in its tail, the ch^riot-pole. 
 Above the second of the three latter shines the small star Alcor, also named the Horseman. 
 The Arabs call it Saidak, or " the Test," because they use it to try the range and strength <^f a 
 person's vision. 
 
 This brilliant north-^rn constellation, composed, with the excepticjii of S, of stars of the 
 second magnitude, has frequently been celebrated by poets. We may paraphrase, for the 
 advantage of our readers, a glowing apostrophe from the pen of the American Ware :— 
 
 With what grand and majestic steps, he says, it moves forward in its eternal circle, following 
 among the stars its regal Avay in a slow and silent splendour ! Mighty creation, I salute thee 1 
 
 
S8 THE "POETRY OF HEAVEN." 
 
 I lovo to sec thoe wiuidorin<r in the Hhining paths like a ^ant jnoud of his strong girdle — severe 
 indit'atigabii', ruKolvod — whoso fcet never lag in tiio road which lies before them. Other tribes 
 abandon their nocturnal course ""d rest their wearj* orbs under the waves ; but thou, thou never 
 closest thy burning cyi's, and never suspendest thy determined steps. Forward, ever forward ! 
 AVliile systems changi', and suns retire, and worlds fall to .sleep and awake again, thou pursuest 
 thy eudle.ss march. The near horizon attempts to check thee, but in vain. A watchful sentinel, 
 thou ni'ver cpiittest thy age-Ion^' duty ; but, without allowing thyself to be surprised by sleep, 
 thou guardest tiio fixed light of the univereo, and preventest the north from ever forgetting its 
 place. 
 
 Seven stare dwell in that shining company ; the eye embraces them all at a single glance ; 
 tlii'ir distances from one another, however, are not less than the distance of eacli from Earth. 
 And tliis again is the reciprocal distance of the celestial centres or foci. From depths of heaven, 
 unexplored by thought the piercing rays dart across the void, revealing to our senses innumer- 
 able worlds and systems. Let us arm our vision with the telescope, and let u,s survey the 
 firmament. The skies open wide ; a shower of sparkling fires descends ui)on our head ; tlie stars 
 close up their ranks, are condensed in regions so remote that their swift rays (swifter than aught 
 else in creation) must travel for centuries before they can reach our Earth. Earth, sun, and ye 
 constellations, what are ye among this infinite immensity and the multitude of the Divine works! 
 
 If we face towards the Pole-Star, which, as we have seen, preserves its place in the centre 
 of the northern region of the .sky, we have the south behind us, the east is on our right, the west 
 upon our left. All the stars revolving round the Pole-Star, from riglit to left, should be 
 recognized accordin-^ to their mutual relations rather thai referred to the cardinal points. On 
 the other side of Polaris, as compared with the Grea! Bear, we find another constellation which 
 is easily recognized. If from the central star S we carry a line to the Pole, and then prolong it 
 for an efjuil distance, we traverse the constellation of Cassiopeia, composed of five stars of the 
 third magnitude, disposed somewhat like the outer jambs of the letter M. The small star x. 
 terminating the square, gives it also tho form of a chair. This group occupies every possible 
 situation in revolving round the Pole, being at one time above it, at another below, now on the 
 left, and then on the right ; but it is always readily found, because, like Ursa Major, to wliich it 
 is invariably oi)posite, it never sets. The Pole-Star is the axle round which these two constella- 
 tions revolve. 
 
 I f we now draw, from the stars a and S in Ursa Major, ^wo lines meeting at the Pole, and 
 afterwards extend them beyond Cassiopeia, they will abut on the square of Pegasus, which is 
 bounded on one of its sides by a group, or series, of three stars resembling the triangle in Ursa 
 Major. These three belong to the constellation of Andromeda (a, ^, and y), and themselves 
 abut on another three-orbed group, that of Perseus. 
 
 The last star in the square of Perseus is also the first a of Andromeda : the other three are 
 named, Algcnib, y ; Markab, o ; and S'heat, ^. To the north of Andromeda j8, and near a small 
 star, 1', the Arctic traveller will discern an oblong nebula, which may be compared to the light of 
 a tajier seen through a sheet oi horn ; this is the first nebula to which any allusion occurs in the 
 annals of astronomy. Tn Peisevs n, an orb of great brilliancy, on the prolonged plane of the 
 three principal stars of Andromeda, shines with steady lustre between two less dazzling spheres, 
 
 Ji 
 
VIEW OF THE NORTHERN CONSTELLATIONS. 
 
 30 
 
 \f 
 J 
 
 and forms in conjunction with thuni a concave are very easily disti guishcd. Of this arc wc 
 
 may avail ourselvos as a new point of duparture. By prolonjjfing it in the direction of (J, wo conu' 
 
 to a very brijflit star of the first mai^mitudo, the Goat. 
 
 By forming a right angle to this ]>rolongation in a 
 
 southerly direction we come to that glorious mass <>[ 
 
 stai-8, not very frei,uent!y above the Polar horizon, the 
 
 Pleiads. These were held in evil repute among the 
 
 ancients. Their appearance was supposed to be ominous 
 
 of violent storms, and Valerius Flaccus speaks of them as 
 
 fatal to ships. 
 
 Algol, or Medusa's Head, known to astronomers a^ 
 Perseus ^, belongs to the singular class of Variable Starb. 
 Instead of shining with a constant lustre, like other orbs, 
 it is soinethnos very brilliant, and sometimes very pale ; 
 passing, apparently, from the second to the fourth magni- 
 tude. According to Goodricke, its period of variation is 
 2 days 20 hours 48 minutes. This phenomenal chara'-ter 
 was fiist observed by Maraldi in 1GK4 ; but the duration 
 of the change vas determined by Goodricke in 1782. For 
 two days and fourteen hours it continues at its brightest, 
 
 and shines a glory in the heavens. Then its lustre suddenly begins to wane, and in thice hours 
 and a half is reduced to its minimum. Its weakest period, however, does not last more than 
 about fifteen minutes. It then begins to increase in brightness, and in three houis and a half 
 more it is restored to its full splendour ; ■ iius passing through its succession of changes in 2 days 
 20 hours 48 minutes. 
 
 This singular periodicity suggested to Goodricke the idea of some opaque body revolving 
 around the star, and by interposing between it and the Earth cutting off a portion of its light. 
 Algol is one of the most interesting of the welcome stars which kindle in the long Arcti<' 
 darkness. 
 
 The star ^ in Perseus, situated above the " stormy Pleiads," is double ; that is, a binary 
 star. ^ in Ursa Major is also a twin-star ; and so is Polaris, the second and smaller star appear- 
 ing a mere speck in comparison with its companion. 
 
 KRBUl.A IS ASBROKBDA. 
 
 These are the principal stars and starry groups in the Circumpolar Regions of the heavens, 
 on one side ; let us now turn our attention to the other. 
 
 For this purpose we must again take the Great Bear as our starting-point. Prolonging 
 the tail in its curvature, the Arctic traveller notes, at some distance from it, a star of the 
 fir- "^ -nagnitude, Arcturus, or Bootes a. This star, though without any authority, was at 
 one time considered the nearest to the Earth of all the starry host. About 10° to the north- 
 east of it is Mirac, or e Bootes ; one of the most beautiful objects in the heavens, on account 
 of the contrasted hues, yellow and azure, of the two stars composing it. Unfortunately, 
 the twin-orbs cannot be distinctly seen except with a telescope of two hundred magnifying 
 power. 
 
40 
 
 VIKW OK TllK NOUTHKUN CONSTELLATIONS. 
 
 J. 
 
 A Kinull liii!,' of Htar« to tlie left of Booths is appropriately known as Corona liorealis, or 
 
 the Nortliern Crown. 
 
 The (u.nstellation of Bootes forms a pentagon ; and the stars coniposiug it are all of the 
 third nrngnloude, with the exception ..f a, which is of the Hrst. Arcturus, a. we have said, was 
 anciently considered the star nearest to the Earth. It is, at all events, one of the nearest, and 
 belongs to the small number of those whose distance our astronomers have succeeded m calculat 
 ing. It is 61 trillions, 712,000 millions of leagues from our planet ; a distance of which we can 
 form no appreciable conception. Moreover, it is a coloured star; on examining it through a 
 telescope we see that it is of the same hue as the " red planet Mars." 
 
 By carrying a line from the Polar Star to Arcturus, and raising a pei-pendicular in the 
 middle of thi.s line, opposite to Ursa Major, the observer of the Arctic skies will discover one of 
 the most lumin..us orbs of night, Ve<ja, or a Lyra, near the Milky Way. The star /3 Lyra, 
 or Sheliak, is a variable star, changing from the third to the fifth magnitude, and accomplishmg 
 its variatimi in 6 days 10 hours and 34 minutes. /? and ^ Lyra are quadruple systems, each 
 composed of binary or twin-stars. 
 
 The line drawn from Arcturus to Vega cuts the constellation of Hercules. 
 
 Between Ursa Major and Ursa Minor may be observed a prolonged series of small stars, 
 coiling, as it were, in a number of convolutions, and extending towards Vega : these belong to 
 the constellation of the Dragon. 
 
 ■ Such are the principal objects which attract the attention of the traveller, when contemplat- 
 ing tliu star-studded firmament of the Arctic night. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE POLAR SEAS : ICEIIERGS — ICE-FLOKS — THE SEAL — THE WALRUS — THE NARWHAL — TIIE WHALE- 
 SUNDRY FORMS OF MARINE LIFE. 
 
 HOSE masses of ice wliich, towering to a considerable elevation above the surface dI' 
 the water, are carried hither and thither by the currents of the Polar Sea, are known 
 as Icebergs. They are fresh-water formations, originating in the great glaciers of the 
 northern highlands. For as the rivers continuously pour their waters into the ocean, so do the 
 glaciers incessantly glide downward from the head of the valleys which they occupy, until, 
 arrivii!"' on the coa.st, they throw oft' their terminal projections, to be carried afar by the action 
 of the tidal waves. 
 
 These bergs, or floating mountains, are sometimes 250 to 300 feet above the level of the sea, 
 and their capacity or bulk is invariably equal to their height. From their specific gravity it has 
 been calculated that the volume of an iceberg below the water is eight times that of the portion 
 rising above it. They are frequently of the most imposing magnitude. Ross, in his first expe- 
 dition, fell in with one in Baffin Bay, at a distance of seven leagues from land, which had gone 
 aground in sixty-one fathoms water. Its dimensions, according to Lieutenant Parry, were 4,1 GO 
 yards in length, 3,869 yards in breadth, and 51 feet in height. Its configuration is described as 
 resembling that of the back of the Isle of Wight, while its elift's recalled those chalky ram})art.s 
 which stretch their glittering line to the west of Dover. Its weight was computed at 1,292,397,073 
 tons. Captain Graab examined a mass, on the west coast of Greenland, which rose 120 feet out 
 of the water, measured 4,000 feet in circumference at the base, and was calculated to be equal in 
 bulk to upwards of 900,000,000 cubic feet. Dr. Hayes took the measurements of a berg which 
 had stranded off the little harbour of Tessuissak, to the north of Melville Bay. The square w all 
 which faced towards his base of triangulation was somewhat more than three-quarters of a mile 
 in length, and 315 feet in height. As it was nearly square-sided above the sea, it would be of 
 the same shape beneath it ; and, according to the ratio already given, nmst have drifted aground 
 in a depth of fully half a mile. lii other words, from base to summit it must have stood as high 
 as the peak of Snowdon. Its cubical contents cannot have been less than about 27,000,000,000 
 feet, nor its weight than 2,000,000,000 tons ! 
 
 When seen from a distance, the spectacle of any considerable number of these slowly-moving 
 mountains is very impressive, and it becomes particularly magnificent if it should be lit up by the 
 splendour of the midnight sun. They are not only majestic in size, but sublime in appearance, 
 at one time assuming the likeness of a grand cathedral church, at another, of a lofty obelisk ; 
 now of a dazzling pyramid, and now of a cluster of lofty towers. Nature would seem to have 
 
4S 
 
 DR. RANK'S ADVENTURE. 
 
 AIUHKU lUKIlKIlii OKK TIIK (ir,KKNI..\XI) CO.VST. 
 
 lavished uj)oii thoin all hor architectural fancy ; and as they are grandly swept along, 
 one might be pardoned for supposing them to be the sea-washed palaces of a race of 
 ocean Titans 
 
 In Xrolvillo Bay, Dr. Kane's ship anchored to an iceberg, which protected it from the fury 
 of a violent gak'. But ho had not long enjoyed the tranquil shelter it afforded, when a din of 
 loud crackling sounds was heard above ; and small fragments of ice, not larger than a walnut, 
 began to dot the water, like the first big drops of a thunder-shower. Dr. Kane and his crew did 
 not neglect these indications ; they had barely time to cast off, however, before the face of the 
 icy cliff fell in ruins, crashing like near artillery. 
 
FLOATING ISLES OF ICE. 
 
 43 
 
 ,^ r '•- .- ,. 
 
 Ai'terwards ho made fast to a larger berg, which he describes as a moving bruaivwuter, and 
 of gigantic jjroportions ; it kept its course steadily towards the north. 
 
 When he got under weigh, and made for the north-east, through a labyrinth of ice-floes, 
 he Was favoured with a gorgeous spectacle, which hardly any excitement of i)eril could 
 have induced him to overlook. The midnight sun came out over the northern crest of the 
 huge berg, kindling variously-coloured fires on every part of its surface, and making the ice 
 around one sublime transparency of illuminated gem-work, blazing carbuncles, and rubies and 
 molten gold. 
 
 Dr. Hayes describes an immense berg which rese' in its general aspect (he West- 
 
 minster Palace of Sir Charles Barry's creation. 
 It went to ruin before his eyes. First one tall 
 tower tumbled headlong into the water, start- 
 ing from its surface an innumerable swarm of 
 gulls ; then another followed ; and at length, 
 after five hours of terrible disruption and 
 crashing, not a fragment that rose fifty feet 
 above the water remained of this architectural 
 colossus of ice. 
 
 These floating isles of ice are carried 
 southward fully two thousand miles from their 
 parent glaciers, to melt in the Atlantic, where 
 they commimicate a perceptible coldness to the 
 water for thirty or forty miles around, while 
 their influence on the atmospheric temperature 
 may be recognized at a greater distance. 
 Their number is extraordinary. As many as 
 seven hundred bergs, each loftier than the 
 dome of St. Paul's, some than the cross of St. Peter's, have been seen at once in the Polar 
 basin ; as if the Frost King had despatched an armada to oppose the rash enterprise of man 
 in penetrating within his dominions. The waves break against them as against an iron-bound 
 coast, and often the spray is flung over their very summits, like the spray of the rolling waters 
 of the Channel over the crest of the Eddystone Lighthouse. The ice crumbles from their face, 
 and tumbles down into the sea with a roar like that of artillery ; and as they waste away, 
 through the combined action of air and water, they occasionally lose their equilibrium and 
 topple over, j)roducing a swell and a violent commotion which break up the neighbouring ice- 
 fields ; the tunuilt spreads far and wide, and thunder seems to peal around. 
 
 The fractures or rents frequently visible in the glittering clifts of the icebergs are of an omc- 
 rald green, and look like patches of beautiful fresh sward on clifis of chalk ; while pools of water 
 of the most exquisite sapphirine blue shine resplendent on their 8ur%ce, or leap down their 
 craggy sides in luminous cascades. Even in the night they are readi' distinguished from afar 
 by their effulgence ; and in foggy, hazy weather, by a peculiar blackness in the atmosi)here. 
 As the Greenland Current frequently drifts them to the south of Newfoundland, and even to the 
 40th or 39th parallel of latitude, the ships and steamei-s crossing between Europe and America 
 
 AMONO THB nEllOS— A NARdOW ESOAFK. 
 
44 ADVENTUKKS WITH ICEBERGS. 
 
 soiiictiiiii-s iiiwt tliciii on their triu-k. To coino into collision witli them is certain destruction ; 
 and it is probiildu tlmt some of tliose ill-fated vessels which have left their liarbours in safety, 
 hut have never since been heard of,— as, for example, the steamer President, —hayo perished 
 throngli tliis cause. 
 
 But if they are sometimes dangerous to the mariner, they often prove his security. As 
 most of tiuir Imlk lies below the water-surface, they are either carried along by under-currents 
 against the wind, or else from their colossal size they are able to defy the strongest gale, and to 
 move along with majestic slowness when every other kind of ice is driven swiftly past them. 
 And hence it happens tliat, when the wind is contrary, the whaler is glad to bring his ship into 
 smooth water under their lee. In describing the difficulties of his passage through the loose 
 Mild (IriVting ice near Cape York, and the broken ice-tields, Dr. Kane records tlie assistance he 
 derived from the large icebergs, to which he moored his vessel, and thus was enabled, he says, to 
 hold his- own, however rai)idly the suiface-floes were passing by him to the south. 
 
 Yet anchoring to a berg brings with it an occasional peril. As we have already said, largo 
 pieces frecjueutly loosen themselves from the summit or sides, and fall into the sea with a far- 
 resounding crash. When this operation, " calving," as it is called, takes place, woe to the unfor- 
 tunate ship which lies beneath ! 
 
 All ice becomes excessively brittle under the influence of the sun or of a temperate atmos- 
 l)here, and a single blow from an axe will suffice to split a huge berg asunder, burying the heed- 
 less adventurer beneath the ruin.s, or hurling him into the yawning chasm. 
 
 Dr. Seorosby records the adventure of two sailors who had been sent to attach an anchor to 
 a borg. They set to work to hew a hole in the ice, but scarcely had the first blow been struck, 
 when the colo.ssal mass rent from top to bottom and fell asunder, the two halves falling in oppo- 
 site directions with a tremendous uproar. One of the sailors, with i-eniarkable presence of mind, 
 instantly clambered up the huge fragment on which he was sitting, and remained rocking to and 
 fro on the dizzy summit until its equilibrium was restored ; the other, falling between the 
 masses, would probably have been crushed to death if the current caused by their commotion 
 luul not swept him within reach of the boat that was waiting for them. 
 
 Fiistening to a berg, savs Sherard Osborn, has its risks and dangers. Sometimes the first 
 stroke of the man setting the ice-anchor, by its concussion, causes the iceberg to break up, and 
 the people so employed run great risk of being injured ; at another time, vessels obliged to make 
 fast under the steep side of a berg have been seriously damaged by pieces detaching themselves 
 fiom owrhead ; and, again, the projecting masses, called tongues, which form under water the 
 base of the berg, have been known to break off, and strike a vessel so severely as to sink her. 
 All these perils are duly detailed by every Aictic navigator, who is always mindful, in mooring 
 to an iceberg, to look for a side which is low and sloping, without any tongues under water. 
 
 Ca])t4vin Parry was once witness of that sublime spect^clo, which, though of frequent occur- 
 rence, is seldom seen by human eyes, the entire dissolution of an enormous iceberg. 
 
 Its huge size and massiveness had been specially remarked, and men thought that it might 
 well resist "a century of sun and thaw." It looked as large as Westminster Abbey. All on 
 board Captain Parry's ship described as a most wonderful spectacle this iceberg, without any 
 warning, completely breaking up. The sea around it became a seething caldron, from the 
 violent j)lunging of the masses, as they broke and re-broke in a thousand pieces. The floes, torn 
 
 Ji 
 
IN MELVILLE BAY. 
 
 45 
 
 up for a distaiuo of two miles around it, by tho violent action of the rollinif waters, threatened, 
 from the agitation of the ice, to destroy any vessel that had heen ani(>n>,'st tin in ; and ( 'aptain 
 Parry and his crew conLjratulated theniselvoa that they were sutticiently far from the seme to 
 witness its sublimity without being involved in its danger. 
 
 Icebergs chieHy abound in Baffin Bay, and in the gulfs and inlets connected with it. 
 They are particularly numerous in the great indentation known as ^felville Bay, tho whole inte- 
 rior of the country bordering upon it being the seat of immense glaciers, and these are constantly 
 "shedding off" icebergs of the largest dimensions. The greater hulk of thes(! is, as we have 
 explained, below the water-line ; and the conseijuent depth to which they sink when floating 
 
 ICEBEllO AND ICEFIELD, MELVILLE BAY, UllKK.Sl.ANU 
 
 subjects them to the action of the deeper oceiin-currents, while their broad surface abcjve the 
 water is, of course, acted on by the wind. It happens, therefore, as Dr. Kane remarks, that 
 they are found not infrequently moving in difl'erent directions from the floes around them, and 
 preventing them for a time from freezing into a united mass. Still, in the late wintei-, when 
 the cold has thoroughly set in, Mebille Bay becomes a continuous mass of ice, from Cape York 
 to the Devil's Thumb. At other times, this region justifies the name the whalers h.ave bestowed 
 upon it of " Bergy Hole." 
 
 Captain Beechey, in his voyage with Buchan, in 1818, had an opportunity of witnessing the 
 formation of a " berg," or rather of two of these innnense masses. In Magdalena Bay he had 
 
 [MliiiiililMaMllib 
 
40 A COLOSSAL ICEUKRO. 
 
 taken the ship's launch near the shore to examine a magnificent glacier, when the discharge of a 
 gun cau.sed an instantaneous disruption of its bulk. A noise resembling thunder was heard in 
 the direction of the glacier, and in a few seconds more an immense piece broke away, and fell 
 headlong into the sea. The crew of the launch, supposing themselves beyond the reach of its 
 influence, quietly looked upon the scene, when a sea arose and rolled towards the shore with 
 such rapidity tiiat the boat was washed upon the beach and filled. As soon as their astonish- 
 ment had subsided, they examined the boat, and found her so badly stove that it was necessary 
 to repair her before they could return to their ship. They had also the curiosity to measure the 
 distance the boat had been carried by the wave, and ascertained that it was ninety-six feet. 
 
 A short time afterwards, when Captain Beechey and Lieutenant Franklin had approached 
 one of these stupendous walls of ice, and were endeavouring to search into the innermost recess 
 of a deep cavern that lay near the foot of the glacier, they suddenly heard a report, as of a 
 cannon, and turning to the quarter whence it proceeded, perceived an immense section of the 
 front of the glacier sliding down from the height of two hundred feet at least into the sea, and 
 dispersing the water in every direction, accompanied by a loud grinding noise, and followed by 
 an f)utflow of water, which, being previously lodged in the fissures, now made its escape in innu- 
 merable tiny fla.shing rills and cataracts. 
 
 The mass thus disengaged at first disappeared wholly under water, and nothing could be 
 seen but a violent seething of the sea, and the ascent of clouds of glittering spray, such as that 
 which occurs at the foot of a great waterfall. But after a short time it re-appeared, raising its 
 head fully a himdred feet above the surface, with water streaming down on every side ; and then 
 labouring, as if doubtful which way it should fall, it rolled over, rocked to and fro for a few 
 minutes, and finally became settled. 
 
 On approaching and measuring it, Beechey found it to be nearly a quarter of a mile in 
 circumference, and sixty feet out of the water. Knowing its specific gravity, and making a fair 
 allowance for its inequalities, he computed its weight at 421,660 tons. 
 
 In Parry's first voyage he passed in one day fifty icebergs of large dimensions, just after 
 crossing the Arctic Circle ; and on the following day a still more extended chain of ice-peaks of 
 still larger size, against which a heavy southerly swell was violently driven, dashing the loose 
 ice with tremendous force, sometimes flinging a white spray over them to the height of more 
 than one hundred feet, and accompanied by a loud noise " exactly resembling the roar of distant 
 thunder. ' 
 
 Between one of these bergs and a detached floe the Hecla, Parry's ship, had nearly, as the 
 w hiilei-s say, been " nipped," or crushed. The berg was about one hundred and forty feet high, 
 and aground in one hundred and twenty fathoms, so that its whole height must have exceeded 
 eight hundred feet ; that is, it was of a bulk equal to St. Catherine's Down in the Isle of Wight. 
 
 In his second voyage Parry speaks of fifty-four icebergs visible at one time, some of which 
 were not less than two hundred feet above the sea ; ajid again of thirty of these huge masses, 
 many of them whirled about by the tides like straws on a mill-stream. 
 
 IceL3rgs can originate only in regions where glaciers abound : the foi-mer are the offspring of 
 the latter, and where land unsuitable to the production of the latter does not exist, the former are 
 never found. Hence, in Baffin Bay, where steep cliffs of cold granite frown over almost 
 fathomless waters, the " monarch of glacial fonnations " floats slowly from the ravine which has 
 
(ILAOIEHH AND ICEBEHOS. 
 
 47 
 
 been its biith-pluce, until iliirly Inunchcd into tlvo depths of ocean, and, "after Ion<,' years," 
 drifts into the wanner reffions of the Atlantic to assist in the preservation of Nature's laws of 
 equilibrium of temperature of the air and water. 
 
 There was p time when men of science, and, amongst otl ers, the French i)lulo8opher St. 
 Pierre, believed that icebergs were the snow and ice of ages accunndated ujton an Arctic sea, 
 which, forming at the Poles, detached themselves from the jiarent nia.-ts. Such an hy]>othcsis 
 naturally gave rise to many theories, not less ingenious than startling, as to the eft'ect an 
 incessant accmnulation of ice must ])'oduee on the globe itself; and St. Pierre hinted at the 
 possibility of the huge "domes of ice" — which, as he supposed, rose to an immense height in 
 the keen frosty heavens of the Prdes— suddenly launching towards the Equator, dissolving 
 under a trojjical sun, and resulting in a second deluge ! 
 
 In simple language Professor Tyndall furnishes an explanation of the origin of icebergs, 
 which we may transfer to these pages as supplementary to the preceding remarks. 
 
 What is their origin ? he asks ; and he rej)lies, as we have done, the Arctic glaciers. 
 From the mountains in the interior the indurated snows slide into the valleys, and fill them 
 with ice. The glaciers thus created move, like the Swiss ones, incessantly downward. I3ut 
 tlie Arctic glaciers descend to the sea, and 
 even enter it, frequently ploughing up its 
 bottom into submarine moraines. Under- 
 mined by the continuous action of the 
 waves, and unable to resist the pressure 
 of their own weight, they break across, 
 and discharge enormous masses into the 
 ocean. Some of these drift on the 
 adjacent shores, and often maintain them- 
 selves for years. Others float away to 
 the southward, and pass into the broad 
 Atlantic, where they are finally dissolved. 
 But a vast amount of heat is demanded 
 for the simple liquefaction of ice, and the melting of icebergs is on this account so slow that, 
 when large, they sometimes maintain themselves till they have been drifted two thousand miles 
 from their place of birth. 
 
 Icebergs, then, are fresh-water formations ; and though they are found on a colossal scale 
 only hi the Polar seas, yet they are by no means uncommon among the lofty Alpine lakes. 
 
 The monarch of European ice-rivera is the great Aletsch glacier, at the head of the valley 
 of the Khonc. It is about twenty miles in length, and collects its materials from the snow- 
 drifts of the grandest mountains of the Bernese Oberland— the Jungfrau, the Monch, the Trug- 
 berg, the Aletschhorn, the Breithorn, and the Gletscherhorn. 
 
 From the peak of the ^ggischhorn the Alpine traveller obtains a fine view of its river-like 
 coui-se ; and he sees beneath him, on the right hand, and suiTounded by sheltering mountains, an 
 object of almost startling beauty. " Yonder," says Tyndall,'' " we sec the naked side of the 
 glacier, exposing glistening ice-cliflPs sixty or seventy feet high. It would seem as if the Aletsch 
 
 * Tyndall, " Forms of Water," p. 137. 
 
 ORIOIN OF ICEBERns — EXTENSION OF A OLACIEB SKAWAnDS, 
 
48 
 
 (a.ACIKK.S IN SWrrZKItLAND. 
 
 THE At.KTHCII Ut.AriKR, BWITZKRl.ANn, FtlOM TUB .K(i(ll SOU HORN, SIIOWINO ITS MOnAlNK-". 
 
 here 
 so; 
 
 the 
 The 
 
 were I'li^fmid ill the vain attini|pt tu thnist an arm thrDUgh a lateral valley. It onee did 
 
 hnt the arm is now incessantly inokfn idl' close to the body of the glacier, a great space 
 
 formerly covered hy the ice being oecui)ied 
 ^ by its water of li(|iiefaction. In this way 
 a lake of the lovidiest bine is formed, 
 wliich reaches (|nite to the base of the 
 ice-clirts, saps them, as the Arctic waves 
 sa|) the Greenland glaciers, and receives 
 from tliem the broken masses which it 
 has nnderniined. As we look down upon 
 the lake, small icebergs sail over the 
 ^_^^_J tranquil surface, each resembling a snowy 
 swan accompanied by its shadow." 
 
 This lake is the Miirjelen Sea of the 
 Swiss. 
 
 Professor Tyndall goes on to describe 
 a spectacle which he witnessed, and which, 
 as we have seen, is of frequent occurrence 
 in the Arctic seas. A large and lonely 
 iceberg was floating in the middle of the 
 lake. Suddenly he heard a sound like 
 that of a cataract, and on looking towards 
 
 iceberg could see the water teeming from its sides. Whence came the water? 
 
 berg had become top-heavy through the melting underneath; it was in the act 
 
 TIIK MAHJKI.KX SKA, SWITZERLAND. 
 
llJiKAKfNd IP OK A HKI!(i. 
 
 (9 
 
 of jJL'rformiiijf a Honiomuilt, iiiui in rollini,' nvcr fiiriitd with it ii vii.st qunntity <>\' wator, wliifh 
 ruHlied like a watorfall down itn nitlcs. And tlie ii't'l)oiXi wliirli, hut a nioini-nt hulori;, wiw mmwy 
 white, now I'xhilited tlic (h-licate hliu' (•(•Iniir charaftcristic of ('iiniitaft it•^^ It wnnld smm, how- 
 ever, he rendered white aj;aia l>y tliu action of the fsun. 
 
 Wo may eontrant this picture of tlio solitary icelierj^ in the centre of the dark hlue lake with 
 one which Dr. Hayes dcscrihes in his jjicturesijuo voyage in the ojien Polar Sea. 
 
 After passing' Upernavik ho wvw a heavy lino of icehergH lyiiif; acnms hin course, and haviii;,' 
 no alternative, shot in ainoni; them. 8onu^ of them proved to lu' of immenwo nize — upwaidw of 
 two hundred I'eet in height, and a mile in length ; otherH were not larger than the .schooner which 
 wound her way amongnt them. Their forms were as various as thi'ir dimensions, from solid wall- 
 sided masses of dcotl whiteness, with waterfalls tumlding from them, to an old weather-worn 
 accunmlution of Gothic spires, whcso crystal jiiaks and sharp angles meltiil into the hlue sky. 
 They seemed to he endless and innumerahle, and so close together that at a little distance tiny 
 appeared to form upon the sea iui unhroken canoj)y of ice. 
 
 Dr. Hayes records an adventure which may serve to give the reader an idea of the nature 
 of the perils encountered hy the Arctic explorer. The ocean-current was cariying his schooner 
 towards a lahyrinth of icebergs at an uncomfortahly rapid rate. A hoat was therefore lowered, 
 to moor a cable to a berg which lay grounded at about a hundi'ed yards distant. While this 
 was being done the schooner absolutely grazed the side of a berg which rose a hundred feet 
 above her topma.st,s, and then slipped past another of smaller dimensions. But a strong eddy at 
 this nK>.iient carried her against a huge floating mass, and though the shock was slight, it proved 
 sutfic'jut to disengftg some fragments of ice largo enough to have crushed the vessel hod they 
 stride her. The bt.g then began to revolve, slowly and ponderously, and to settle slowly over 
 the threatened ship, whoso destruction .seemed a thing of certainty. 
 
 1'. >rtunatoly, she was saved by the action of the berg. An immeii.se mass broke off 
 from that part which lay beneath the water-surface, and this colo.s.sal fragment, a dozen times 
 larger than the schooner, came rushing up within a few yards of them, sending a vast volume of 
 foam and water flying from its sides. This rupture arrested the rotatory motion of the berg, 
 which then began to settle in another directif)n, and the schooner was able to .sheer off. 
 
 At this moment the crew were startled by a loud report. Another and another followed 
 in quick succession, until the din grew deafening, and the whole air seemed a reservoir of chaotic 
 sounds. The opposite side of the berg had .split off", piece after piece, toppling a vast volume of 
 ice into the sea, and sending the berg revolving back upon the ship. Then the side nearest to 
 them underwent the same singular process of disruption, and came plunging wildly down into 
 the sea, sending over thorn a shower of spray, and raising a swell which rocked the sh.,j to and 
 fro as in a gale of wind, and left her grinding in the debris of the crumbling ruin. 
 
 " The ice wiw here. 
 The ice was Iheiv, 
 
 Tlie ice wiw .'ili aroiiiH] ; 
 It cre.iked and prowleil, 
 Aud roared and howled. 
 
 Like demons iii a swoiiud." 
 
 It is im possible, we should say, for any one who has not had actual experience of tho 
 conditions of the Arctic world, to comprehend or imagine the immense (luantitv of ice upborne 
 
(0 A VIHION OK Ii'KHKICIH. 
 
 (Ill iU (Mild hlciik wiitciM. Till' iii.ic ••iiuiiicriitioii of tin- tlofitinij htirgs lit tiiuoH di-tles tlie 
 rmvii,'at(ir. I )i. llnyi.'M oncf cuiintoil as t'lir as five liuii(!i d, niid tlifii ^'avo up in di'sfmir. Near 
 hy tln'V htiMid Dut, lie HiiyH, in nil tlit' nijfncd liarMiiiierfs of tiieir sliiirj) mitiincs ; and from this, 
 w.riJiiiiiir witli tlic di.Htanco, tiicy melted awftv into tho dear gray Hky ; and there, far off upon 
 the HI a (if li<|uiil HJivt r, tin' iina>,'inution uonjured up the Htrangost and mo8t wonderful groups 
 and olijeitH. Iiirdsand hoiiHt.s and liumaii forma and architectural designs took shape in the 
 dintant iiia.sscs of hliie anil white. Tin; dome of St. Peter's was reeognizable here ; then the 
 Mpire of a sillage eliuicli rosr ,'<liarp and distinct; and under the shadow of the Pyramids nestled 
 a liyzantiiie tower and a 'irecian temple. 
 
 "To the eastward," ,iys Dr. Hayes, describing a similar scone, " the sea was dotted with 
 little islets— dark s]>eiks upon a brilliant sui-face. Icebergs, great and small, crowded through 
 the chamiclH which divided them, until in the far distance they appeared massed together, termi- 
 nating agaiii.st a snow-ii)vere<l plain that sloped upward until it was lost in a dim line of bluish 
 whiteness. This line could be traced behind tho serrated coa:4 as far to the north and south 
 08 tho eye could carr\'. 1 1 was the great M<')' cle Glace* w hich covers the length and breadth of 
 the (Jreonland continent. The snow-covered slope was i glacier descending therefrom —the 
 parent stem from which had been discharged, at irregular intervals, many of the icebergs which 
 trouliii'd us so much." 
 
 We liavt 'W brought together a suHicieiit number of data to assist tho reader in forming a 
 vivid I'once' hose monsters of tho Polar Seas, tho icebergs; and to enable him, uidesa he 
 
 is verv agination, to realize to hini.self what they arc, and what their general aspect is. 
 
 But add one interesting detail, noticed by Mr. Lamont, the persevering seal-hunter, 
 
 whic. .ery generally overlooked. 
 
 In the course of the brief Arctic summer the increased sol if warmth has a perceptible effect 
 upon the solid ice, and it becomes undermined and honeycombed, or, as the sailors call it, 
 "rotten," like a chalk cliff. It deirays fastest, apparently, "between wind and water," so that 
 enormous caverns are excavated in the sides of the bergs. 
 
 I'oets never dreamed of anything more beautiful than these crystal vaults, which sometimes 
 appear of a deep ultramarine blue, and at others of an emerald-green tint. One could fancy them 
 the favourite haunts of mermaids and mermen, and of every kind of sea monster ; but, in 
 truth, no annual ever enters them ; the water dashing in and out through their icy caves and 
 tunnels makes a sonorous but rather monotonous and melancholy sound In moderately calm 
 weather many of these excavated bergs assume the form of gigantic mushrooms, and all kinds of 
 fantmitic outlines ; but as soon as a breeze of wind arises they break up into little pieces with 
 great ra|)i(lity. 
 
 Icebergs are met with on every side of the Southern Pole, and on every meridian of the 
 great Antarctic Ocean. But such is not the case in tho North. In the (JOth meridian of longi- 
 tude which intersects the parallel of 70° N., icebergs spread over an extent only of about fifty- 
 five degrees, and this is immediately in and about Greenland and Baffin Bay. Or, as Admiral 
 Osljorn puts it, for 1,375 miles of longitude we have icebergs, and then for 7,G35 geographical 
 miles none are met with. This ftict is, as the same writer calls it, most interesting, and points 
 strongly to the probability that no extensive area of land exists about the North Pole ; a sup- 
 
 * The name given to a pl.iin of ice near Mont Blatic. 
 

 
 
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 ^.^i..^..-,-.J.-:;--.;~:^vi^^'.'i3-J-- 
 
PERILS OF I'ACKlCa 
 
 93 
 
 position streugthened by another fact, that tho vast ice-fields off Spitzbeigen sliow no signs of 
 ever having been in contact with land or gravel. 
 
 Another difficulty which besets the Arctic navigator id the " pack-ice." 
 In winter, the ice from the North Pole descends so far south as to render the coast of 
 Newfoundland inaccessible; it envelops Greenland, sometimes even Iceland, and always sur- 
 rounds and blocks up Spitzbergen and Novaia Zemlaia. But as the sun comes north this vast 
 frozen expanse, which stretches over several thousands of square miles, bieaks up into enormous 
 masses. When these extend horizontally for a considerable distance they are called ice-fudds. 
 
 
 \-» AN ICE I'ACK, MKI.VII.I.E IIAV. 
 
 Kfloe is a detached portion of a field ; a large area of floes, closely compact together, is known 
 as pachi'ce ; while drift-ice is loose ice in motion, .and not so firmly welded as to prevent a ship 
 from forcing her way through the yielding fragments. 
 
 This " pack-ice," however, is the great obstacle to Arctic exploration ; and frequently it pre- 
 sents a barrier whicli no human enterprise or skill can overpass. At times, it luis been found 
 possible to cut a channel througli it, or it breaks up and opens a water-way through which the 
 bold adventurer steers. In 1800, Captain Scoresby forced his ship through two liundrtd and 
 fifty nriles of pack-ice, in inmiinent jaril, until he reached the parallel of 81° 50, his nearest 
 approach to the Pole, in 1827, Sir Edward Parry gained the latitude of 82° 45', by dragging 
 
54 
 
 THE ICE-FIELDS OF THE NORTH. 
 
 a Ixjiit over the ico-fiolds, but was then conipollcd to abandon his daring and hazardous attempt, 
 because the current carried the ice soutliward more rapidly than he could traverse it to the north. 
 In warm summers this mass of ice will suddenly clear away and leave an open streak of silver 
 sea alonjj the west coast of Spitzbergcn, varyinjj in width from sixty to one hundred and fifty miles, 
 and reaching as high as HO or 80' W N. latitude. It was through this channel that Scoresby bore 
 is ship on the expedition to wliich we have just alluded. A direct course from the Thames, 
 
 CH.\!fSEL IN AN ICE-FIELD. 
 
 across the Pole, to Behring Strait is 2,570 geographical miles ; by Lancaster Sound it is 4,GG0 
 miles. The Russians would saved a voyage of 18,000 geographical miles could they strike 
 across the Polo and through Reining Strait to British Columbia, instead of going by Cape Horn. 
 Ice-fields, twenty to thirty miles across are of frequent occurrence in the great Northern 
 Ocean ; sometimes they extend fully one hundred miles, so closely and solidly packed that no 
 opening, even for a boat, intervenes between them ; they vary in thickness from ten to forty or 
 even fifty feet. At times these fields, which are many thousand millions of tons in weight, 
 acquire a rajiid rotatory motion, and dash against one another with a fury of which no words 
 
 can give an accurate idea. The reader knows 
 what awful results are j)roduced by the collision 
 of two railway trains, and may succeed, perhaps, 
 in forming some feeble conception of this still 
 nore appalling scene when he remembers the huge 
 dimensions and solidity of the opposing forces. 
 The waters seethe and foam, as if lashed by a 
 tremendous tempest ; the air is .smitten into still- 
 ness by the chaos of sounds, the creaking, and 
 rending, and cracking, and heaving, as the two 
 i<?e-fields are hurled against each other. 
 
 Woe to the ship caught between these grinding 
 
 "XII'I'KH" IX AN K'F-FIKI.D. 
 
"TAKING THE PACK." W 
 
 masses ! No vessel ever built by liununi hands could r it their pressure ; and luauy a whaler, 
 navigating amid the floating fields, especially in foggy weather, has thus been doomed to destruc- 
 tion. Some have been caught up like reeds, and flung helplessly upon the ice ; others have been 
 overrun by the ice, and buried beneath the accumulated fragments ; others have been daslicd to 
 pieces, and have gone down suddenly with all on board. 
 
 The records of Arctic exploration are full of stories of " hairbreadth escapes ' from the perils 
 of the ice-field and the ice-floe. Here is one which we borrow from the voyage of the Dorothea 
 and the Trent, under Captain Buchan and Lieutenant Franklin. 
 
 The two vessels were making for Magdalena Bay, when they were caught in a violent storm, 
 and compelled to heave-to under storm stay-sails. Next morning (June 30) the ice was seen 
 along the lee, with a furious sea breaking upon it. Close-reefed sails were out in the hope of 
 weatherin<>' the danger. When Buchan found that this could not be efibcted by his ship, a slow 
 and heavy sailer, he resolved on the desperate expedient of " taking the jiack," in preference to 
 falling, broadside on, among the roaring breakers and crashing ice. "Heaven help them !" was 
 the involuntary cry of those on board the Trent, and the prayer was all the more earnest fiom 
 the conviction that a similar fate would soon be their own. 
 
 The Dorothea wore, and, impelled by wind and sea, rushed towards what seemed inevitable 
 destruction ; those in the Trent held their breath while they watched the perilous ex])loit. The 
 suspense lasted but a moment, for the vessel, like a snow-flake before the storm, drove into the 
 a-'\'ful scene of foam, and spray, and broken ice, which formed a wall impenetrable to mortal eye- 
 sight. Whether she was lost or saved, the gallant hearts on board the Trent would never know 
 until they too were forced into a manoeuvre which appeared like rushing into the jaws of deatli. 
 But it was inevitable ; and when Franklin had made all his preparations, he gave, in firm, decisive 
 tones, the order to " put up the helm." 
 
 No language, says Admiral Beechey, who was then serving as a lieutenant on board tlie 
 Trent, can convey an adequate idea of the terrific grandeur of the effects produced by the collision 
 of the ice and the tempestuous ocean. No language, on the other hand, can convey an idea of the 
 heroic calmness and resolution of Franklin and his crew. As they ai)proached the terri'ule scene, 
 Franklin watched for one opening less hazardous than another ; but there was none. Before 
 them stretched one long line of frightful breakers, immense blocks of ice heaving, rearing, and 
 hurtlino- ao-ainst one another with a din which rendered the loud voice of the gallant commfinder 
 almost inaudible. On the crest of a huge billow the little Trent rushed into the horrible turmoil ; 
 a shock, which quivered through the ship from stem to stern, and the crew were flung up(m tlie 
 deck, and the masts bent like willow wands. 
 
 "Hold on, for your lives, and stand to the helm, lads!" shouted Franklin. "Ay, ay, sir," 
 was the steady response from many a heroic heart. A billow came thundering against the stern of 
 the brig ; would the brig be engulfed, or would she drive before it ? Hapi)ily, she forged ahead, 
 though shaking like a spent race-horse, and with every timber straining and creaking. Now, 
 thrown broadside on, her side was remorselessly battered by the floe pieces ; then, tosscrl l>y the sea 
 over ice-block after ice-block, she seemed like a plaything in the grasp of an irresistible power. V^n- 
 some houi-s this severe trial of strength and fortitude endured ; then the storm subsided as raj)idly 
 as it had arisen, and their gratitude for their own escape was mingled with joy at the safety of 
 the Dorothea, which they could see in the distance, still afloat, and with her crew in safety. 
 
50 PEUILOUS POSITION OF PARKY'S SHIPS. 
 
 On ('iiptiiiii I'iirry's socoiid oxpodition, in 1822, his ships, tho Ilecla und tho Fury, were 
 j)hico(l ill a position < it' scarcely loss ilanifor. 
 
 Thus wu read of tho Ilt'clu, which at tho tiiiio had boon made fast by moans of cables to the 
 land it-o, that a very iioavy and oxtonsivc flou cauj^iit hoi' on lior broadside, and, being backed by 
 unotlicr laij^o Ixxly of ice, giaihially lifted her s<>ern as if by tho action of a wedge. The weight 
 every moment increasing, her crow were obliged to veer on the hawsers, whose friction was so 
 giviit as nearly to cut through the bitt-hoads, and ultimately set them on tiro, so that it became 
 i('i|uisito to pour upon thorn buckets of water. Vt length the pressure proved irresistible; the 
 cables snapped ; but as tho .sea was too full of ico to allow tho ship to drive, the only way in 
 wliicii .she could yield to the enormous burden bidught to bear upon her was by leaning over the 
 land-ice,. while her stern at the same time was lifted clean out of the water for fully five feet. 
 
 Had another floe backed the one which lifted her, the ship must inevitably have lolled 
 broadside over, or lieeii rent in twain. But tho pressure which had boon so dangerous eventually 
 proved its safety ; for, owing to its incroasing weight, tho floe on which she w.-is carried burst 
 upwards, unable to resist its force. The I/ech( then righted, and a small channel opening up 
 amid tho driving ice, she was soon got into comparatively smooth water. 
 
 On the following day, shortly before noon, a heavy floe, measuring some miles in length, 
 came down towards the Fiiri/, exciting the gravest apprehensions for her safety. In a few 
 minutes it came in contact, at the rate of a mile and a half an hour, with a point of the land-ice, 
 breaking it up with a tremendous roar, and forcing numberless innuense masses, perhaps many 
 tons in weight, to tho height of fifty or sixty feet ; whence they again rolled down on the inner 
 or land side, and wore (juickly succeeded by a frosh supply. While they were compelled to remain 
 ])assivo spectators of this grand but terrific sight, being within five or six hundred yards of the 
 point, the danger they incurred was twofold : first, lost the floe shoulil swing in and serve the ship 
 in the .same unceremonious manner ; and, secondly, lest its pressure should detach the land-ice to 
 which they were secured, and cast tlieni adrift at the mercy of the tides. Fortunately, neither 
 of those terrible alternatives occurred, the floe remaining stationary for the re.st of the tide, and 
 setting off with tho ebb when tho tide sotni afterwards turned. 
 
 Tho reader must not imagine that an ice-field is a smooth and uniform plain, as level as an 
 Knglish meadow ; it is, on tho contrary, a rugged succe.ssion of hollows, and of protuberances called 
 " hiiinmoeks,"' interspersed with pools of water, and occa.sionally intersected by deep fissures. In 
 many parts it can bo com})ared only to a promiscuous accumulation of rocks closely packed 
 together, and piled up over the extensive dreary space in groat hea])S and endless ridges, leaving 
 scarcely a foot of level surface, and compelling the traveller to thread his way as best he can 
 among the perplexing inequalities ; .sometimes mounting unavoidable obstructions to an elevation 
 of ten, and a''ain more than a hundred foot, above the sjenoral level. 
 
 Tho interspaces between tho.si! closely accunudated ice-masses are filled up to some extent 
 with drifted snow. 
 
 Now, iet tho reader endeavour to form a definite idea of the scene presented by an ice-field. 
 Let him watch the slow progress of the sledges as they wind through the labyrinth of broken ice- 
 tables, tho men and dogs pulling and pushing up their respective loads, iis Napoleon's soldiers 
 may have done when drawing their artillery through the rugged Alpine passes, or Lord Napier's 
 
-1 
 
 ■'•ft 
 
 *# 
 
FniiMATIOK OK AN ICK I'l.OK. RQ 
 
 heroes when they scaled thf steep Abyssinian lieij^hts. He will sco them clambering over the 
 very summit of lofty ridges, where no gap occurs, and again descending on the other side, the 
 sledge frequently toppling over a precipice, sometimes capsizing, and sometinics l)rcaking. 
 
 Again : he will see the adventurons party, when liaHlcd in their attemjit to cross or find a 
 pass, breaking a track with shovel and handspike ; or, again, unable even with these appliances 
 to accomplish their end, they retreat to seek an easier route. Perhaps they are fortunate enough 
 to discover a kind of gap or gateway, and upon its winding and uneven surface accomplish a 
 mile or so with comparative ease. The snow-drifts sometimes prove an assistance, but more fre- 
 quently an obstruction ; for though their surface is always hard, it is not always Hrm to tlu' foot. 
 Then the crast gives way, and the foot sinks at the very moment when the other is lifted. But, 
 worse than this, the chasms between the liummocks may be overarched with snow in such a 
 manner as to leave a considerable space at the bottom void and empty ; then, when everything 
 looks auspicious, down sinks one of the hapless explorers to his waist, another to the neck, a third 
 is " lost to sight," the sledge gives way, and all is confusion worse confounded I To educe order 
 out of the chaos is probably the work of hours ; especially if the sledge, as is often the case, must 
 bo unloaded. Not unfrequently it is necessary to carry the cargo in two or three loafls ; tlie 
 sledges are coming and going continually : and the day is one " endless pull and haul." 
 
 Dr. Hayes speaks of an ice-floe, crested with hummocks, and covered with crusted snow, the 
 solid contents of which he estimated, in round numbers, at 6,000,000,000 of tons, its depth being 
 about one hundred and sixty feet. All around its border was banked up a kind of rampart of 
 last year's ice, the loftiest pinnacle of which rose fully one hundred and twenty feet above the sea- 
 level. This ice-tower consisted of blocks of ice of every shape and size, piled one upon an- 
 other in the greatest disorder. Numerous other towers, or bastions, equally rugged, though of 
 less elevation, sprang from the same ridge, and from every part of this desolate area ; and " if a 
 thousand Lisbons were crowded together and tumbled to pieces by the shock of an earthquake, 
 the scene could hardly be more rugged, nor to cross the ruins a severer task," 
 
 We must date the origin of a floe like this back to a very remote period. I'robably it \vaa 
 cradled, at the outset, in some deep recess of the land, where it remained until it had accun)ulatod 
 to a thickness which defied the summer's sun and the winter's winds. Then it would grow, as the 
 glacier grows, from above ; for, like the glacier, it is wholly composed of fresh ice — that is, of 
 frozen snow. Thus it will be seen, to quote Dr. Hayes once more, that the accumulation of ice 
 upon the mountain-tojis is in nowise ditferent from the accumulation which takes place upon these 
 floating field,s, where every recurring year marks an addition to their depth. Vast as they are to 
 the sight, and pigmies as they are compared with the inland Mer de Glace, yet, in all that con- 
 cerns their growth, they are truly glaciers, dwarf floating glaciers. That only in this manner 
 can they grow to so great a depth will at once be conceded by the reader, if he recollects that ice 
 soon reaches a maximum thickness by direct freezing, and that its growth is arrested by a natural 
 law. Necessarily, this maximum thickness varies according to the temperature of the locality : 
 but the ice is in itself the sea's protection. The cold air cannot absorb the warmth of the water 
 through more than a certain thickness of ice, and that thickness attains a final limit long before 
 the winter has reached its close. The depth of ice formed on the first night is greater than that 
 formed on the second ; on the second is greater than on the third ; on the third greater than on 
 
flO VVALHUHHUNTINO. 
 
 the fourth ; mid ho it coiitinufs, until tho iucronHo no longer takes jihice. In other words, the 
 ratio of increase of tlie tiiiekness of ico is in inverse proportion to the duration of the period of 
 freezin;,'. There ciinies ii time when the water V)eneath tiu; ice no lon<(er conj,'eals, hecause the 
 iee-cru.st ahove it protects it from the action of the atmo.spiiere. J)r. Hayes asserts tiiat he 
 never saw an Arcti<" m-ta.\)\(! Jhrmcd hij diri'ct frcezinfj i\mi exceeded eighteen feet; and he justly 
 adds, that were it not for this all-wise provision of the Deity, — this natural law, as our men of 
 science term it, — tlio Arctic waters would, ages ago, have heen solid seas of ice to their pro- 
 
 foundest depths. 
 
 Having said tlais nnich about the various forms which the ice assumes in the Polar seaa, — 
 ahout till ir ieuhergs and ice-fields, pack-ice and drift-ice, and the thick belt of ice which surrounds 
 tlieir sliores, — we n)ay now direct the remlcr's attention to their Animal Life ; to the creatures 
 wliieli inliabit them, walrus and seal and whalo, the fishes, the molluscs, and even minuter 
 organisms. 
 
 And first wo shall begin with the Walrus, which finds a congenial homo in the Arctic 
 wildernesses. ;■''.' ^ - .,";■; </' .: -; :; :.; ■ ':■. : ^-^.'^,■ -/u,-" 
 
 Walrus hunting is the principal, or at all events the most lucrative, occupation of the Norse 
 fishermen, who annually betake themselves to the cheerless shores of Spitzbergen in search of 
 booty. Their life is a terribly hard and dangerous one ; and Mr. Lament, who has had much 
 experience i<\' tlieni, observes that they all have a restless, weary look about the eyes, — a look as 
 if contracted by being perpetually in the presence of peril. They are wild, rough, and reckless ; 
 but they are also bold, hardy, and enduring of cold, hunger, fatigue ; active and energetic while 
 at sea, thougii sadly intemperate during their winter-holiday. 
 
 The vessels engaged in the seal-fi.shery and walrus-hunting are fitted out by the merchants 
 iif TinTnsiie and Hanmierfest, who have, of late years, adopted the system of sharing their proceeds 
 witli their crew,'', thus giving them a direct interest in the pro.spcrity of the expedition. The 
 sliip is fitted out and provisioned by the owners, who also advance to the men what money they 
 may rei|iiire to purchase clothing and to make provision for their families during their absence. 
 Then tluv allot one-third of the gross receipts of the adventure to the crew, dividing it into 
 shares, three foi- the captain, two for the hai-pooneer, and one each for the common men. So that 
 if a fairly successful voyiige should realize in .skins, blubber, and ivory a sum of two thousand 
 dollars, and the number of hands amounts to ten, the usual strength of a seal-shiji's cre\v, 
 eacli will receive forty-seven and a half dollars, or about £10, — a very considerable sum for a 
 Norwegian. 
 
 Each shi]) carries a couple of boats, and a walrus-boat, capable of holding five men, which 
 measnri's twenty-one feet in length by five feet be.am, having her main breadth at about seven 
 feet from the bow. She is bow shaped at both ends, pnd so built as to turn easily on her own 
 centre, besides being strong, light, and ea.sy to row. Each man plies a pair of oars hung in 
 "grunnuets" to stout thole-pins; the steersman directs the boat by also rowing a pair of oare, 
 but w ith his face to the bow ; and as there are six thwarts, he can, if necessary, sit and row like 
 the others. By this arrangement the strength of the men is economized, and the boat is more 
 swiftly turned when in pursuit of the walrus. 
 
AVALias IllNl'INC. 
 
 «1 
 
 Tho steersman also acts as harpoonecM", iiml, of ciMirsc, sits in thr linw. 'Uw. st n mnrcMt man in 
 tiie boat is usually placed next to him, to hoi . and liiinl in the line wiicn a walrus is struck, and 
 it is his duty ti) hand the har|)oons and lances to <he harpooneer as re<|uired. 
 
 Kach hoat -wiiii'h, hy tho way, is paintrd white, so as to ri'semhle the icf ani(in<rst wliich it 
 moves — is usually provided with three harpoon-litads inside llie Imw, <>n ini'li side : these fit info 
 little racks of painted canvas, so that their keen |ioints and edt,'es may not 1k^ hlunted, and to 
 prevent them from injurinpr the men. The liarpoons serve ecpially well for seal and Widrus, and, 
 simple as they seem and are, answer a(lniiral)ly th(^ purpose for which tiiey are desi^fued. The 
 weapon is thrust into the animal ; its struggles tii^iilen the lino ; tlie larfje outer harh then 
 catches up a loop of its tenacious iiide. or the tousfh reticulated fibres containing' its hlulilur; 
 
 HUNTING THE WAI.BDS. 
 
 while the small inner barb, like that of a fisli-hook, prevents it from being detached or loosened, 
 When a walrus has lieen properly struck, and the line hauled taut, it rarely escapes. To catih 
 hai'poon a line of twelve or fifteen fathoms long is attached : a sufficient length, as the Avalrus ia 
 seldom found in water more than fifteen fathoms deep ; and even if the water should exceed that 
 depth, it cannot drag the boat under, because it is unable to exert its full strength when subjected 
 to the pressure of twelve or fifteen fathoms of water. 
 
 Besides the harpoons, each boat is provided witli four or five enormous lances ; the shaft 
 being made of pine-wood, nine feet long, and one inch and a half thick at the handle, increasing 
 upwards to a thickness of two inches and a half where it enters the iron socket. This would seem 
 
fi2 ■ . A i>is.\(;i;kk.\i;i.i; ri;i»('(:H«, 
 
 * ., ::,«■ 
 
 u iunuiUublc WLMiiKiii, anil foriiiitlalili.' it is in tlio Mtmit lititnU ot'u Nor«u harpooneor; yet, fiL'(|ueutly, 
 tlio iron Hliank is l)i iit <loui)li!, or I'm stiDii;^ siiiil't snapipod liku a ixoil, in tiiu vi>(lfnt rusistaneu of 
 tlic sia liorsc ; and, tlicrt lure, to pruvent tiu: licad Ipcin^j lost, it is tiistcned to the shaft by a 
 doiililv llmn;^ of raw >• 'al-skin, tied roinxl t\u- sliank and nailed to the handle for about throe feet 
 lip. 'riie shaft may >eeni of disproportionate leni,'tii, hut it is necessary to give the buoyancy 
 HuHiiient for tloatiiif,' the heavy iron sficar if it should fall into the water. This spear, or lance, 
 is ni>< used for seals, bc'cause it would spoil the skins. 
 
 Xotwithstiindini,' tlie destruction itferted liy the yearly expeditions of the walrus-hunters, the 
 sea-horses are still found in laii,'e herds in many ]iarts of the Polar world. Mr. Lamont describes 
 a eurious and exciting .spectacle, where four large flat icebergs were seen to be so closely packed 
 with these animals that they were sunk almost level with the water, and presented the appear- 
 ance of "solid i.slands of walrus I" The walrus lay with their heads reclining on one another's 
 bai'ks and hind-(iuarters, just as rhinocenwes lie asleep in the dense shade of the African forests, 
 or, to use a more commonplace but familiar comparison, as hogs slumber and wallow in a British 
 farmyard. 
 
 Such a sight was a temptation not to be withstood by a walrus-hunter, and Mr. Laniont and 
 his h.ti]MM)iieer speedily disturbed the repo.se of the monsters, which chiefly consisted of cows and 
 young bulls. After slaying their victims, and getting them on board, came the disagreeable but 
 tuicessary task of separating the blubber from the skins to stow it in the barrels; a process which 
 is j)erfornicd in the following manner ; — 
 
 Across the ship's deck, immediately aft the hatchway, is erected a kind of framework or 
 stage of stout timber, about four feet in height, but sloping down at an angle of about sixty 
 degrees, with the deck at the forward side: on the other side it is perpendicular, and there the two 
 specli-nioiiirr.'i (or " blubber-cutters ") post themselves, clad, not in armour, but in oil-skin from top 
 to toe, and armed with large keen knives, curved on the edge. Then the skins are hoisted out of 
 the hold, and, two at a time, are suspended across the frame, with tlie blubber side uppermost : the 
 fat, or blubber, is next removed by a kind of moiviny motion of the knife, which is held in both 
 hands, and swayed from left to right. Only long practice, and great steadiness of wrist, can give 
 tlie dexterity requisite for the due peiformance of this difficult operation. Even in skinning a 
 walrus, skill is imperative. 
 
 As tlie blubber is mown off, it is divided into slabs, weighing twenty or thirty pounds each, 
 and flung down the hatchway, where two men are stationed to receive it, and pack it into the 
 casks, which when full are securely fastened up. 
 
 The skin, which is taken off the animal in two longitudinal halves, is a valuable commodity, 
 and sells at the rate of from two to four dollars per half skin. The principal purchasers are the 
 Russian and Swedish merchants, and its principal uses are for harness and sole leather. It is 
 also twisted into tiller ropes, and employed to ])rotect the rigging of ships from friction. The 
 ()lubber is valued on account of the oil ; but neither has the walrus so much blubber, in propor- 
 tion to its size, as the seal, nor does the blubber afford so good an oil. A seal of 600 lbs. will 
 carry 200 to 250 lbs. weight of fat ; an ordinary walrus, weighing 2000 lbs., will not carry any 
 more. 
 
 The most profitable portion of the unfortunate sea-hoi-se is its tusks, which are composed of 
 vory hard, dense, and white ivory. This ivoiy is not so good, and consequently does not com- 
 

 ABOUT I UK WAI.UI'S M 
 
 luand Hi) high a pricu, an ulophiuit ivory, l)tit is in hii,'h ii-jiiito for the inauufactun! of falHo tocth, 
 cheHHinon, unilirella handles, whistles, and otlier small artielis. 
 
 The tusks are not an extra pair of teeth, but a develoj)inent and modification of thr canines. 
 For about six or seven inches of their length they are solidly set in the mass of hard bone which 
 forms the animal's upper jaw. So far as they are imbedded in the head they are hollow, but 
 mostly filled up with a cellular osseous substance containing much oil ; tlu; remainder of tlie 
 tusk is hard and solid throughout. 
 
 The young walrus, or calf, has no tusks in its first year of existence; but in its second, 
 when it is about the size of a large seal, it has a pair of mucii the same size as the canines of a 
 lion. In the third year the tusks measure about six inches in length. 
 
 In size and shape they vary greatly, according to the animal's age and sex. A good pair 
 of bull's tusks, says Mr. Laniont, will be twenty-four inches each in length, and four pounds 
 each in weight; but larger and heavier specimens are f)f frequent occurrence. Cows' tusks, it is 
 said, will avoraco fidly as long as those of the Ijulls, because less liable to be broken, but seldom 
 weigh more than three pounds. They are generally set nmch closer together than the bull's 
 tusks, sometimes even overlapping one another at the points ; while those of the bull will often 
 diverge as much as fifteen inches. 
 
 ■Tt ^n^ ^^.'SSA 
 
 In scientific language the walrus, morse, or sea-horse (Trichecun), belongs to a genus t)f 
 amphibious mammals of the family Phocuhe, a family including the well-known seals. It agrees 
 with the other members of that family 
 in the general configuration of the body 
 and limbs, but distinctly differe from 
 them in the head, which is remarkable, — 
 as we have seen, — -for the extraordinary 
 development of the canine teeth of the 
 upper jaw, as also for the protuberant 
 or swollen appearance of the muzzle, — 
 due to the size of their sockets and the 
 thickness of the upper lip. This upper 
 lip is thickly set with strong, transparent, 
 bristly hairs, which measure about six 
 inches in length, and are as thick as a 
 crow-quill. The terrific moustache, with 
 the long white curving tusks, the thick 
 projecting muzzle, and the fierce and 
 bloodshot eyes, give Rosmarus trichccus 
 a weird and almost demoniacal aspect as 
 it rears its head above the waves, and 
 goes far to account for some of the 
 legends of sea-monsters which embellish the Scandinavian mythology. 
 
 The walrus has no canine teeth in the lower jaw. Its incisors are small, and ten in number ; 
 six in the upper and four in the lower jaw. The molars, at first five on each side in each jaw, 
 
 6 
 
 THE WALRUS, OR MOR8R. 
 
fit 
 
 THE WALRUS AND THE POLAR BEAR. 
 
 but fewer in the adult, are Mimide and not larj^o ; their crowuH are obliquely worn. The noHtrilH 
 would Heeni to be diHpiaced by the Hockots of the tuskn ; at leant they both open alinont directly 
 ujtwardH at Home diHtaiice from the nmzzle. 'I'h<' even iirc small, but savage ; tlitie are no 
 external ears. 
 
 The Arctic walrus in the sole known species of the genus. It is a gregarious aninuil, 
 alwavH assembling in large herds, which occasionally leave the water to take their rest upon the 
 
 A WAUIUS K.MIII.V. 
 
 shore or on the ice ; and it is at such times the hunters chiefly attack them, since their move- 
 ments out of the water arc very laborious a-id awkward. 
 
 They defend themselves against their enemies, 
 of which the Polar bear is chief, with their for- 
 midable tusks ; and these they also use in their 
 herco combats with one another. They fight with 
 great determination and ferocity, using their tusks 
 niuch in the same manner as game-cocks use their 
 beaks. From the unwieldy appearance of the 
 animal, and the position of its tusks, an inexperi- 
 enced spectator would suppose that the latter 
 could be employed only in a dowmvard stroke ; 
 but, on the contrary, it turns its neck with so 
 much ease and rapidity that it can strike in all 
 directions with equal force. 
 
 Old bulls very frequently have one or both of 
 
 ^i^^t^^^^^^^^^^^m 
 
 ilHHI^I^^^"^'^t 
 
 HH^^^^^^^^^^I 
 
 
 !■■ 
 
 ^n^ 
 
 ^m\ 
 
 jwbi 
 
 
 ^^^^^H^^^S^^fe* 
 
 ii^, ^j^'-' ^^^^^ 
 
 ,^»)iw(#?tOTH^>WiJ 
 
 ^^Hl^t-~-' '^-"^ 
 
 
 IHH^MHI 
 
 
 FIUIIT IIKTWKKS A WALlltS AND A POLAR DKAR. 
 
1 
 
V: 
 
EARLY HISTORY OF THE WALKUS-FISHERY. 67 
 
 their tusks broken ; w hieh may arise either from fighting or from using tliem to assist in scaling 
 the rocks and ice-floes. But these broken tusks are soon worn down again and sharpened to a 
 point by the action of the sand, as the wah'us, like tlie elephant, employs its tusk.s in digging its 
 food out of the ground, — that is, out of the ocean-bed. Its food princii)ally consists of starfish, 
 shrimps, sandworms, clams, cockles, and algce ; and Scoresby relates that he has i'ound the 
 remains of young seals in its stomach. 
 
 In reference to the gradual decay, or, more correctly speaking, ext>;rmination of the wall us, 
 the following particulars seem to be authentic. 
 
 When the pursuit of the walrus was first systematically organized from Tronisiic and Ham- 
 mcrfest, much larger vessels were employed than are now in vogue ; and it Wivs usual for them to 
 obtain their first cargo about Bear Island early in the season, and two additional cargoes at 
 Spitzbergen before the summer passed away. This regular and wholesale slaughter drove away 
 the sea-horse herds from t'eir haunts about Bear Island ; but even afterwards it was not a rare 
 occurrence to procure three cargoes in a season at Spitzbeigen, and less than two full cargoes 
 was regarded as a lamentable misha]). Now, however, more than one cargo in a sea-son is 
 very seldom obtained, and many vessels return, after four months' absence, oidy half full. 
 
 It is estimated that about one thousand walrus and twice that number of bearded seals 
 {Phoca harhata) are annually captured in the seas about Spitzbergen, exclusive of those which 
 sink or may die of their wounds. Some idea, therefore, may be formed of the number of sea- 
 horses which still ride the waves of the I'olar seas. But it is ([uite clear that they are under- 
 going a rapid diminution of numbers, and also that they are gradually withdrnwing in*" the 
 inaccessible solitudes of the remotest North. 
 
 We learn from the voyage of Ohthero, which was undertaken tun centuries ago, that the 
 walrus then aboimded even on the very coast of Finmarken. They have abandoned that region, 
 however, for some centuries, though individual stragglere were captured up to within the la.st forty 
 yeai-s. After their desertion of Finmarken, they retreated to Bear Island; thence they were 
 driven to the Thousand Islands, Hope Island, and Ryk-Yse Island ; and thence, again, to the 
 banlcs and skerries to the north of Spitzbergen. It is fortunate for the persecuted walrus that 
 the lat*"" districts are accessible only in open seasons, or perhaps once in every threr or four 
 summers ; so that they obtain a respite and t; :;« to breed and replenish their numbers. Other- 
 wise the end of the present century would mark also the total extinction of the walrus on the 
 island-shores of Northern Europe. 
 
 We agree with Dr. Kane that the resemblance of the walrus to man has been absurdly 
 overstated. Yet the notion is put forward in some of our systematic treatises, and accompanied 
 by the suggestion that we are to look fur the type of the mennan and mermaid in this animal. 
 I L" we look we shall not find. The walrus has a square-shaped head, with a fi-ontal bone presenting 
 
 i a steep descent to the eyes, and any likeness to humanity must exist in the imagination of the 
 
 "f spectator. Some of the seals exhibit a much greater resemblance : the size of the head, the 
 
 I regularity of the facial oval, the di Doping shoulders, even the movements of the seal, remind us 
 
 % impressively of man. And certainly, when seen at a distance, with head raised above the waves, 
 
 it affords some justification for the fanciful conception of tlie nymphs of ocean, the mermaids who 
 fignre so attractively in song and legend. 
 
eS ADVKXTUKKS WITH WALRUSES. 
 
 Dr. Kane remarks that the instinct of attack, which is strong in the walrus, though so 
 f'oeJilc in the seal, and is a well-known characteristic of the pachydeiTOs, is interesting to the 
 naturahst, as assisting to estal)li.sh the affinity of the walrus to the latter. When wounded, it 
 rears its body high out of the water, plunges heavily against the ice, and strives to raise itself 
 upon the surface by uieiins of its fore-flippers. As the ice gives way under its weight, its 
 countenance assumes a truly ferocious expression, its bark changes to a roar, and the foam poure 
 out from its jaws till it froths its beard. 
 
 _____ Even when not excited, the walrus manages 
 
 its tusks bravely. So strong are they that 
 they serve as grappling-irons with which to 
 hold on to the surface of the steep rocks and 
 ice-banks it loves to climb ; and thus it can 
 ascend rocky islands that are sixty or a hun- 
 dred feet above the sea-level. It can deal an 
 opponent a fearful blow, but it prefers to 
 charge, like a veteran warrior ; and man, un- 
 less well armed, often comes off second best 
 ii^, the contest. 
 
 Governor Flaischer told Dr. Kane that, in 
 1830, a brown walrus — and the Eskimos say 
 that the brown walruses are the fiercest — after 
 being speared and wounded near Upernavik, 
 put to flight its numerous assailants, and drove 
 them in fear to seek help from the Danish 
 settlement. So violent were its movements 
 as to jerk out the harpoons that were launched 
 into its body. The governor slew it with 
 much difficulty after it had received several 
 rifle-shots and lance-wounds from his whale- 
 boat. 
 '"^^"^it"'^'-'', " .iiiJili^ ^^" another occasion, a young and adven- 
 
 ^ "^'--^s/^Is^ImPhX^ *'"'"""'" !'!""'* plunged his nalcgeit into a brown 
 
 KioiiT WITH A wAi.iii's. walrus ; but, alarmed by the savage demeanour 
 
 of the beast, called for help before using the 
 lance. In vain the older and mo.'e wary hunters advised him to forbear. " It is a brown 
 walrus : •• they cried : " A,h-nk-kaiok ! Hold bad: ! " Finding the caution disregarded, his only 
 brother rowed forward, and hurled tlie second harpoon. Almost instantaneously the infuriated 
 beast charged, like the wild boar, on the unfortunate young Innuit, and ripped open his body. 
 Here is a description oi' a walrus-hunt : — 
 
 On first setting out, the hunters listen eagerly for some sounds by which to discover the 
 habitat o\' tlie animal. The walrus, like amateur vocalists, is partial to its own music, and will 
 lie for hours enjoying the monotonous vocalization in which it is accustomed to indulge. This 
 is described m something between the nooing of a cow and the deepest baying of a mastiff; ver,' 
 
 MaiiHBa 
 
AN ESKIMO HUNTER. W 
 
 round and lull, with its " barks " or " detaciied notes " repeated seven to nine times in rather 
 quick succession. 
 
 The hunters hear the bellow, and press forward in single file ; winding behind ice-hunmiocks 
 and ridges in a serpentine approach towards a group of "pond-like discolorations," recently 
 frozen ice-spots, which are surrounded by older and firmer ice. .: - 
 
 In a few minutes they come in sight of the walrus. There they are, five in number, rising 
 at intervals through the ice in a body, and breaking it up with an explosion which sounds like 
 the report of heavy ordnance. Conspicuous as the leaders of the herd are two large and fierce- 
 looking males. 
 
 Now for a display of dexterity and skill. While the walrus remains above water, the 
 hunter lies flat and motionless ; when it begins to sink, behold, the hunter is alert and ready to 
 spring. In fact, scarcely is the tusked head below the water-line before every man is in a rapid 
 run ; while, as if by instinct, before it returns all are prone behind protecting knolls of ice. 
 They seem to guess intuitively, not only how long it will be absent, but the very point at which 
 it will reappear. And, in this way, hiding and advancing by turns, they reach a plate of thin 
 ice, scarcely strong enough to bear a man's weight, on the very brink of the dark pool in which 
 the walrus are gambolling. 
 
 The phlegmatic Eskimo harpooneer now wake:is into a novel ccjndition of excrement. His 
 coil of walrus-hide, a weil-trimmed line of many fathoms length, lies at his side. He attaches 
 one end to an iron barb, and this he fastens loosely, by a socket, to a shaft of unicorn's horn ; 
 the other end is already loosed. It is the work of a second ! He has grasped the harpoon. 
 The water eddies and whirls ; puffing and panting, up comes the unwieldy sea-horse. The 
 Eskimo rises slowly ; his right arm thrown back, his left hanging close to his side. The walrus 
 looks about him, and throws the water off his crest ; the Eskimo launches the fatal weapon, and 
 it sinks deep into the animal's side. 
 
 Down goes the wounded awah, but the Eskimo is already speeding with winged feet from 
 the scene of combat, letting his coil run out freely, but clutching the final loop with a desperate 
 grip. As he runs, he seizes a small stick of bone, roughly pointed with iron, and by a swift 
 strong movement thrusts it into the ice ; he twists his line around it, and prepares for a struggle. 
 
 The wounded walrus plunges desperately, and churns the ice-pool into foam ; meantime, the 
 line is hauled tight at one moment, and loosened the next ; for the hunter has kept his station. 
 But the ice crashes ; and a couple of walrus rear up through it, not many yards from the spot 
 where he stands. One of them, a male, is excited, angry, partly alarmed ; the other, a female, 
 looks calm, but bent on revenge. Down, after a rapid survey of the field, they go again into the 
 ocean-depths ; and immediately the harpooneer has chosen his position, carrying with him his coil, 
 and fixing it anew. 
 
 Scarcely is the manoeuvre accomplished before the pair have once more risen, i)reaking up 
 an area of ten feet in diameter about the very spot he loft. They sink for a second time, and 
 a second time he changes his place. And thus continues the battle between the strength of 
 the beast and the address of the man, till the former, half exhausted, receives a second wound, 
 and gives up llie contest. 
 
 The Eskimos regard the walrus with a certain degree of superstitious reverence, and it is 
 their belief that it is under the guardianship of a special representative or prototype, who does 
 
ta ; • ak akctic galk. 
 
 not, indeed, interfere to protect it from being hunted, but is careful that it shall be hunted undei 
 tolerably fair conditionH. They assert that near a remarkable conical peak, which rises in the 
 solitudes of Force Bay, a great walrus lives all alone, and when the moon is absent, creeps out 
 t<j tliu blink of a ravine, where he bellows with a voice of tremendous power. 
 
 The walrus-hunter, unless he keeps to the sea-shore, and the ice-floes within reach of a boat, 
 naust be prepared to undergo many hardships, and to confront with a calm heart the most baffling 
 and terrible dangers. He may be overtaken by a gale ; and a gale in the wild remote North, far 
 from any shelter, — a gale which drives before it the blinding snow and pitiless icicles, — a gale 
 which sweeps unresisted and irresistible over leagues of frozen snow, — a gale which comes down 
 from tli« mountain-recesses where the glaciers take their rise, — is .something so dread, so ghastlj', 
 tliat the dweller in temperate regions can form no idea of it. 
 
 We remember that one of the gallant seekers after Franklin describes an Arctic gale, and 
 its offiM'ts. lie says that the ice, at a short distance from the shore, had in many places been 
 swept bare of snow by the driving blast; and over the glassy sheet he and his companiu/is were 
 helplessly carried along before the gale. The dogs, seldom stretching their traces, ran howling 
 in front of the sledges, which pressed upon their heels. 
 
 Wild was the scene, and dark. The moon had sunk far behind the snow-shrouded moun- 
 tains, and the travellers had no other light than the shimmer of stars. The deep shadows of the 
 cliffs, towering a tliou.sand feet above their heads, la}' heavily upon them, and enhanced the 
 midnight gUxmi. The patches of snow clinging to the sharp angles of the colossal wall ; the 
 white shroud lying on its lofty summit; the glaciers which here and there protruded through its 
 clefts, brought out into striking relief the blackness of its cavernous recesses. The air was filled 
 witli clouds of drift, which sometimes completely hid the land, and swept relentlessly before the 
 explona-s, as they tottered across the ft-ozen plain. 
 
 Suddenly a dark lino became visible across their path ; its true nature revealed by circling 
 wreaths of "frost-smoke." " Emerk! emerk!" (Water I water!) shouted the drivers, checking 
 as suddoidy as possible the headway of the sledges, but not until the party were within a few 
 feet of a recently opened and rapidly widening crack, — a fissure in the ice-crust, already twenty 
 feet across. 
 
 Some of the travellers now clambered to the summit of a pile of hummocks, and endeavoured 
 to pierce the obscurity. A headland, laid down on the map as Cape Alexander, lay only a few 
 miles in advance. The ice in the shallow bay on its southern side was rent in all directions ; 
 while beyond, from the foot of the cape, a broad sheet of water extended westward. The wind 
 divoi-sified its dark surface Wich ridges of snowy spray ; while here and there a frosty surf 
 tumbled in breakers over a small berg or drifting floe. The pieces of ice lying along its margin 
 were in motion, and the crash of their har<l surfaces could be heard as they came into constant 
 collision. Their strident clamour, the cea.seless wasliing of the surface, the moaning of the wind, 
 the steely rush of the drift, the jiiteous wail of the <l(igs, and all the strange noises and voices of 
 tho storm, added to the gloom and awful molandioly of that moonless night. 
 
 We need not wonder tliat the Eskimos of the Arctic wilderness are as feart'ul of a tempest 
 as are the Bedouins of the African desert. It overwhelms the one with a cloud of snow, and it 
 buries tho other in a cloud of sand ; and each demands and receives its quota of victims. 
 
THK GltKAT PUOCID.t FAMILY. 
 
 n 
 
 That seal-hunting should be more extensively pursued than walrus-hunting Ib natural ; for 
 if less exciting, it is also less dangerous ; and tha seal is not only a more valuable prey than the 
 walrus, but is more easily captured. v 
 
 The PhocidtB are well represented in the Arctic waters. In Behring Sea we encounter 
 the sea-lion and the sea-bear ; while froui the Parry Islands to Novaia Zemlaia extends the 
 range of the harp seal [Phoca Groenlandica) , the bearded seal {Phoca harhuta), and the hispid seal 
 {Phoca hispida). The skins of all these species are more or less valuable ; their oil is nnich 
 esteemed ; and their flesh supplies the wild northern tribes with one of their principal articles 
 of subsistence. 
 
 The structure of the seal is admirably adapted in every detail to an aquatic life. It lives 
 
 IlKl'.O (IF SE.VI.S, NKAIl TFIK UEVII,'s THUMB, IIAFFIN SEA, UREENLASD. 
 
 chiefly in the water, where its motions are always easy and graceful ; but it spends a part of its 
 time in enjoying the sunshine on ice-fieldti, open shores, rocks, and sandy beaches ; and the female 
 brings forth her young on land. 
 
 The body of the seal is elongated, and tapers considerably from the chest to the tail. The 
 head has been compared to that of the dog ; the brain is generally voluminous. The feet ai'e 
 short, and little more than the paw extends beyond the integument of the body ; they are 
 webbed, and pentadactylous, or five-toed : the fore feet are set like those of other quadrupeds ; 
 but the hind feet are directed backwards, with toes which can be spread out widely to act aa 
 paddles. Tlie tail is short. 
 
72 niFFKIJENT GENEKA OK SEAI^. 
 
 The niotioiia of the hwiI on land are constrained and peculiar. The fore feet are but little 
 used, and the body is thrown forward in a succession of jerks produced by a contraction of the 
 spine. Awkward as this mode of proj^ression seems, it is, nevertheless, exceedinjrly vapid. The 
 seal, iiowever, never ventures far from the shore, and the moment it is disturbed or alarmed it 
 plunf^es into tiie water. 
 
 The physiof^nomy of the animal is in perfect accord with its character, and expresses a con- 
 siderable degree of intelligence combined with much mildness of dispo.sition. The eyes are largo, 
 black, and brilliant ; the nose is broad, with oblong nostrils ; and there are large whiskers. The 
 seal has no external ears, but in the auricular orifices exists a valve which can be closed at will, 
 and protects the internal organi.sm from the water; the nostrils pos.sess a similar valve. The 
 l)ody is thickly garnished with .stift' glossy hairs, very closely set against the skin, and plentifully' 
 lubricated with an oily secretion, so that the surface is always smooth, and unaffected by water. 
 The teeth differ in different genera, but in all are specially adapted for the seizure of fi.sh and 
 other slippery l>rey, tliough the seals are omnivorous in their habits, and will partake both of 
 vegetable and animal food. There are either six or four incisors in the upper, and four or two 
 in the lower jaw ; the canines are invariably large and strong ; and tiie molars, usually five or 
 six on either side, in each jaw, are .sharp-edged or conical, and bristle with points. The seal is 
 fond of swallowing large stones : for what purpose is not certain, but, probably, to assist 
 digestion. 
 
 Seals live in herds, more or less numerous, along the frozen shores of the Arctic seas : 
 and on the lonely deserted coasts they bring forth their young, over which they watch with 
 singular affection. They swim with much rapidity, and can remain a considerable time under 
 water. They arc migratory in their habits, and at least four species visit our British waters. 
 ( )n the northern coasts of Greenland they are observed to take their departure in July and to 
 return again in September. Tiiey produce two or three young at a time, and suckle them for 
 six or sever weeks in remote caverns and sequestered recesses ; after which they take to the sea. 
 The young exhibit a remarkable degree of tractability ; will recognize and obey the maternal 
 summons ; and assist each other in distress or danger. Many, if not all, of the species are 
 polygamous, and the males frequently contend with desperate courage for the possession of a 
 favourite female. 
 
 There is not much difference in the habits of the different genera or species of the Phocidue ; 
 but while the great Arctic seal dives like the walrus, making a kind of semi-revolution as it goes 
 down, the common seal {Phoea vituUna), called by the huntei-s the stein-cohhe, from its custom 
 of basking on the rocks, dives by suddenly dropping under water, its nose being the last part of 
 its body which disappears, instead of its tail. 
 
 ; The common seal has a very fine spotted skin, and weighs about sixty or seventy pounds. 
 It is much fatter, in proportion to its size, than the bearded seal, and its carcass, consequently, 
 having less specific gravity, floats much longer on the water after death. 
 
 A third kind of seal found in the Spitzbergen seas is, probably, the Phoca hispida, though 
 the hunters know it only by the names of the " springer," and Jan Mayen seal. In the spring 
 months it is killed in large numbers by the whalers among the vast ice-fields which encircle the 
 solitary rocks of Jan Mayen Island. 
 
 Mr. Lamont observes that these seals, though existing in such enormous numbers to the 
 
'^mmmmmmmm 
 
 THE J'lfOCA IlISl'IDA, OR "SPRINtiKR." 
 
 T8 
 
 ^^=^^ 
 
 west, are not nearly so numerous in Spitzltorgen as the great, or even as the much less abumlaiit 
 
 common seal. They are gregarious, wliicli neither of the other varieties is, and geneially 
 
 consort in bands of fifty to five hundred. They .Te extremely difficult to kill, as during the 
 
 summer months tjicy very seldom go ujkhi thc^ ice; they seem much less curious tliMU the 
 
 othei- seals, and go at such a rapid pace 
 
 through the water as to defy pui-suit from ,-.-«,^ •-_ ' * 
 
 a boat. On coming up to breathe, these %i • li . ■ 
 
 seals do not, like their congeners, take a 
 
 deliberate breath and a leisurely survey, but 
 
 the whole troop make a sort of sinndtaneous 
 
 flying leap through the air like a shoal of 
 
 porpoises, as they go along, and reappear 
 
 again at an incredible distance from their 
 
 preceding breathing - place. • Hence the 
 
 name of " springers " given to them by the 
 
 whalers. 
 
 The Jan Mayen seal weighs from 200 
 to 300 lbs., and is described as the fattest 
 and most buoyant of the Arctic mammals. 
 
 We have spoken of seal's flesh as an 
 important article of subsistence to the 
 Eskimo tribes. Our Arctic voyagers and 
 explorers have frequently been glad to 
 
 nourish themselves upon it, and speak of it as somewhat resembling veal in flavour. Not once 
 or twice, but several times, it has saved the hardy pioneer of civilization from destruction, and 
 the discovery of a stray seal has been the means of preserving a whole expedition. 
 
 There is a very striking incident of this kind in the narrative of Dr. Kane. He and liis 
 party had reached Cape York on their way to the Danish settlements, after their long but fruit- 
 less search for Sir John Franklin. They were spent with fatigue, and half-dead from imnger. 
 A kind of low fever crippled their energies, and they were unable to sleep. In their frail and 
 unseaworthy boats, which were scarcely kept afloat by constant bailing, they made but slow 
 progress across the open bay ; when, at this crisis of their fortunes, they descried a large seal 
 floating, as is the wont of these animals, on a small patch of ice, and apparently asleep, — a seal 
 80 large that at first they mistook it for a walrus. 
 
 Trembling with anxiety, Kane and his companions prepared to creep down ujion the 
 monster. 
 
 One of the men, Petersen, with a large English rifle, was stationed in the bow of the boat, 
 and stockings were drawn over the oars as muftlers. As they approached the animal, their 
 excitement became so intense that the men could hardly keep stroke, That no sound might be 
 heard, Dr. Kane communicated his orders by signal ; and when about three hundred yards off" 
 the oars were taken in, and they moved on, stealthily and silently, with a single scull astern. 
 
 The seal was not asleep, for he reared his head when his enemies were almost within rifle- 
 shot ; and long afterwards Dr. Kane could remendier the hard, careworn, almo.^t despairing 
 
 I'HK COMMON SliAL. 
 
74 
 
 DR. KANE'S NARRATIVE. 
 
 expression ot' the inen'H hiij^gaid faces as they saw him move ; their lives depended ou his capture. 
 Dr. Kane lowered his hand, as a signal ibr Petersen to fire. M'Gorry, who was rowing, hung, 
 ho says, upon liis oar, and tlie boat slowly but noiselessly forging ahead, did not suem within 
 range. Looking at Petersen, he saw tliat the poor fellow was paralyzed by his anxiety, and was 
 s'ainly seeking to find a rest for his gun against the cut-water of the boat. The seal rose on his 
 (iippor.H, gazed at his antagonists for a moment with mingled curiosity -and alarm, and coiled 
 himself fur a i)lunge. At that moment, simultaneously with the crack of the rifle, he relaxed his 
 iiuge hulk on the ice, and, at the very brink of the water, his head fell helplessly on one si'le. 
 
 SHOOTING A REAL. 
 
 Dr. Kane would have ordered another shot, but no discipline could have controlled his men. 
 With a wild yell, each vociferating according tt) his own impulse, they urged both boats upon the 
 does. A crowd of hands seized the precious booty, and bore it up to safer ice. The men seemed 
 half crazy, tlicy had been so reduced by famine. They ran over the floe, crying and laughing, 
 and brandishing their knives. Beibre five minutes had elapsed, each man was sucking his 
 streaming fingers or mouthing long strips of raw blubber. ■■ - \ ; " - , 
 
 Not an ounce of this seal was wasted 1 
 
 The intestines found their way into the soup-kettles without any observance of the pre- 
 liminary home-processes. The cartilaginous parts of the fore-flippers were cut off" in the vielce, 
 and passed round for the operation of chewing ; and even the liver, warm and raw as it was, bade 
 fair to be eaten before it had seen the pot. That night, on the large halting-floe to which, in 
 contempt of the dangers of drifting, the happy adventurers had hauled their boats, two entire 
 planks of the Red Eric were devoted to the kindling of a large cooking-fire, and they enjoyed 
 u bountiful and savasje feast. 
 
A SA<HKI) noMlOII.K. 
 
 T» 
 
 Such in an experience of Arctic iil'c : of tin- liimlsliijis cndiirefl l>y tlic luToic men wlio go 
 forth to do thi' \\iiri< nf Science and Civiliaitioii. 
 
 Returninji; to the senls, we may remark that, according to a Hcientific authority, tlif angle 
 of weedy rock on whidi ;. plioca iH acfust<inu'<l to rest with his family comes to be regarded oh 
 his property, and no other individuals of his species are entitled to lay claim to it. Altliough 
 in the water thene animals congregate together in numerous herds, and protect and courageously 
 defend one another, yt^t, when tlioy have once einerge<l from their favourite element, they regani 
 themselves on their own space of rock as in a sacred domicile, where no connado has a right to 
 intrude on their domestic tranquillity. Ff any stranger approach this family centre, the chief — 
 or shall we call him the father ? — prepares to repel hy force what he considers an unwarrantahle 
 encroachment; and a terrible combat invariably ensues, which terminates only with the death 
 of the lord of the rock, or the conipulsory retreat of the intruder. 
 
 But a family never seizes upon a 
 larger tract than it absolutely requires, and ^ 
 
 lives peaceably with neighbouring families, 
 from which it is seldom separated by a 
 greater intei-val than forty or fifty jiaces. 
 If compelled by necessity, they will even 
 live on amicable terms at much closer 
 quarters. Three or four families will share 
 a rock, a cavern, or an ice-tloe ; but each 
 occupies the place allotted to it at the 
 original apportionment, and shuts himself 
 within it, so to speak, nor ever meddles 
 with individuals of another family. 
 
 Our modern naturalists divide the 
 PhocidsB into two distinct ordtjrs : the 
 Phocw properly so called, which have no 
 external ears, but only an auditory orifice 
 on the surface of the head ; and the Otariw, 
 which .are provided with external organs. 
 
 The remarks we have been making 
 apply more particularly to the common seal 
 
 {Phoca vitulina), or small Spitzbergen seal, which measures from four to five feet in length. 
 The Greenland or harp seal {Phoca Grcenlanclica), to which we have already alluded, is larger 
 and fatter, and is distinguished by the changes of colom* it undergoes before it reaches maturity. 
 We have also spoken of the bearded seal (Phoca barbata), which sometimes attains a length of 
 ten feet, and is known, not only by its size, but by its thick and strong moustache. The hooded 
 seal (Stemmatopm cri.-i.'tm) is distinguished by the globular and expansible .sac situated on the 
 summit of the head of the males. This species grows to the length of seven or eight feet, and 
 inhabits the waters of Newfoundland and Greenland. 
 
 THE OTART. 
 
7« 
 
 AN ESKIMU UUT. 
 
 ' xs.'S-SCt 
 
 The valuo of the aeal t<j tlio Eskiiiio tribes will best be uiitluistoutl fitjin a cleseiiptloii of the 
 UHUH to wliirh vnriouH parts r)f liie aiiiiiml aiv ;i|i|i|ic<l in an Eskimo hut. 
 
 \Vu will siipjjo.He this hut to measure 
 aliout five or live and a half feet iu height, 
 and about ten feet in diaiueter. The walla 
 are made uf utonea, niuaa, and the bunea of 
 seals, narwhals, whales, and other ocean- 
 creatures. They are not arched, but approach 
 each other gradually from the foundation, 
 and are capped by long oblong slabs of 
 slate -stone extending from aide to aide. 
 We enter : the Hooring consists of thin flat 
 stones. At the back part of the hut the 
 tloor rises about a foot, and this hreek, as 
 the elevation is called serves both as couch 
 and seat, being coverei with a thick layer 
 of dried mo.ss and grass, under seal-skins, 
 dog-skins, and bear-skins. Similar eleva- 
 tions are placed at the corners in front ; 
 under one of which will lie, perhaps, a 
 litter of pups with their mother, and under 
 the other a portion of seal's meat. In the square front of the hut, above the passage-way, a 
 window is inserted ; the light being admitted through a square sheet of strips of dried 
 inti'stincs, sewed together. The entrance is in the Hoor, close to the front wall, and is covered 
 witli a piece of seal-skin. Seal-skins are hung about the walls to dry. At the edge of the 
 hrt'ck, on cither side, sits a woman, each busily engaged in attending to a smoky lamp, fed with 
 h^oal's oil. These lamps are made of soa|)stono, and in shape resemble a clam-shell, being about 
 eight inches in diameter. The cavity is tilled with oil obtained from seal's blubber ; and on the 
 straight edge the flame burns qu'te vividly, the wick which furnishes it being made of moss. 
 The bvLsincss of the women is apparently to prevent the lamps from smoking, and to keep them 
 8 ij^plied with Itlublier, large pieces of which are placed in the cavity, the heat drawing out the 
 oil. About three inches above this flame hangs, suspended from the ceiling, an oblong square 
 pot made of the same material as the lamp, in which a joint of seal is simmering slowly. 
 Alxne this Jiangs a rack, made of bare rib-bones, bound together crosswise, on which stockings 
 and mittens, and various garmcnta made of seal-skin, are laid to dry. Xo other Are can be 
 seen than that which the lami)s supjjly, nor is any other needed. So many persons are crowded 
 into the confined interior that it is insufterably hot, while the whole place reeks with the smell 
 of seal-tlesli, seal-oil, and seal-skin ! 
 
 TIIK nOODKD SKiM.. 
 
 It is natural enough fnat we should here introdu ;e ai account of the Eskimo mode of 
 catching seals. The great season of the seal-hunt is the spring, when the inoflfensive i^hoca 
 gambol and siiort in the open water-ways near the coasts, or clan^ber on the ice-floes to enjoy the 
 rays of the tardy sun. They are of a wary and timid disposition, and we may suppose that their 
 
rill:; KSKIMU SEALUUNTKU. 
 
 7» 
 
 tnulitioiis liavo taiii,'lit them to be on their guard against man ; but an all their habits and ways 
 are well known to tlu' Kskiuio, they do not Hucceed in eluding lii.s dexterous perseverance. Some- 
 times the hunter attires himself in a se.d-skiu, and so exactly imitates their apjiearanco and 
 movements that he ai)proaehe3 within spear range oi' them before the disguise is detecti'd ; or else 
 he creeps into th ir haunts behind a white screen, which is proi)elled in front of liim by moans of 
 a sledge. As the season verges upon midsummer less j)recaution becomes necessary ; the eyes of 
 the seals being so congested by the tierce radiance of the sun that they are often nearly blind. In 
 winter they are assailed while labouring at their breathing-holes, or when they lise for the pur- 
 pose of resjiiration. 
 
 If an Eskimo satisfies himself that a seal is working away beneath the ice, he takes u|) his 
 station at the suspected point, and seldom ([uits it, howevir severe the weather, until he has 
 captured the aninu\l. To jnotect himself from the freezing blast, he throws up a snow-wall iilmut 
 
 AS ESKIMO SEAL-UUNTKU. 
 
 four feet in height, and seating himself in its shade, he rests his spears, lines, and other appliances 
 on a number of little forked sticks inserted into the snow, in order that he may move them, when 
 wanted, without making the slightest noise. Ho carries his caution to such an I'xcess, that he 
 even ties his own knees together with a thong to prevent his garments from rustling 1 
 
 To discover whether the seal is still gnawing at the ice, our patient watcher makes use of 
 his kccp-huttuk ; a slender rod of bone, no thicker than ordinary bell-wire, cleverly rounded, with 
 a knob at one end and a sharp point at the other. 
 
 This implement he thrusts into the ice, and the knob, which remains above the surface, 
 informs liim by its motion whether the animal is still engaged in making his hole ; if it does not 
 move, the attempt is given up in that place, and the hunter betakes himself elsewhere. When 
 ho supposes the hole to be nearly comoleted, he stealthily raises his spear, and as soon as he can 
 hear the blowing of the seal, and knows therefore that the ice-crust is very thin, he drives it 
 into the unsuspecting animal with all his might ; ami then liacks away with his sharp-edged 
 
fa AbOL'T THK WHAl.i;. 
 
 IpiU^itr i>ninia, thi» inuTV»<ninf( itc, ho hh to repeat liis Mows, uml Htumro Iiis vii-tiiii. Tho iirilid; 
 or Phora hisjiida, Itcinj^ tli<^ Hinalk'Ht soal, in held wliilo Htni;,'j;lin),f, titliur liy tlie liaiid, or 
 \>y 11 lint? oiic! L'liil of wliifli is twisted round a Hpiar driven into tho ico. In tlio caHo of tlie 
 heardt'd hwiI, or oijitka, the lino is ooilod round tiic Iimittr's Icj^ or arm ; for a wairuH, round 
 hiH hoily, tho foot boing at tho waiuo tinio firmly iilantcd a;,'ainMt a hunnnock of ice, so as to 
 inc'reaw the capaliiiily of roHiHtanec. A hoy of fifteen ciin kill a iieitid; Itut tho larger aninialw 
 can be nia.stiired only by a robuMt and experienced adult. 
 
 We come now t(» speak of tho Whale, which, in size, is the Hovereign of tho Arctic seas, and 
 tho grandest type of marine life. 
 
 Wliales (Cftdci'd) are, as nicst persons now-a-day« know, an order of aquatic mammals, 
 distinguished b}- their fin-like anterior extremities, and by the peculiarity that the place of the 
 posterior extremities i.s supplied by a large horizontal caudal fin, or tail ; while tho cervical 
 bones are so compressed that tho animal, externally at least, seems to have no neck. 
 
 The general form of the whale, notwithstanding its position among the Mammalia, is similar 
 to that of the lislies, and the horizontal elongation of the body, tlie smooth and rounded surface, 
 tho gradual attenuation of the extremities of ^he trunk, and the magnitude of the fins and tail, 
 are sjiecially adapted to easy and swift motion in the water. The arrangement of tho bones 
 composing the anterior limb is very curious. The whole of the fin consists of exactly the same 
 parts as those which we find in the human hand and arm ; but they are so concealed beneath the 
 thick cutaneous or integumentary envelope, that not a trace of bone is visible. In this respect an 
 intermediate organization is shown by the fore limbs of the seal. 
 
 The posterior extremity, in all the Cetacea, is either absolutely deficient, or else rudimentary. 
 If rudimentary, its sole vestige consists of certain small bones, tho imperfect representation of a 
 pelvis, suspended, an it were, in the flesh, and unconnected with the spinal column. Here we 
 n>ay observe a remarkable difference between the whale and the seal : in the latter, as we have 
 seen, there is a short tail, and the posterior extremities perform the office of a true caudal fin ; in 
 the former this important organ of progression consists, to use Mr. Bell's words, of " an extremely 
 broad and powerful horizontal disc, varying in figure in the different genera, but in all con- 
 stituting the principal instrument of locomotion." In fishes the tail is set vertically, but in whales 
 horizontally ; and it has been well said that the admirable adaptation of such a peculiarity in its 
 position to the requirements of the animal forms a fresh and beautiful illustration of the infinite 
 resource and foresight of the Creative Wisdom. " f ''s, : 
 
 Thus : the fishes, respiring only the air contained in the dense liquid medium in which they 
 live, require no access to the atmosphere ; and, therefore, their progression is chiefly confined to 
 the same region. But the whales, breathing atmospheric air, must necessarily come to tho 
 surface for each respiration ; and hence they need a powerful instrument or lever, the position of 
 which shall apply its impulse in a vertical direction, so as to impel their colossal bulk from the 
 lowest depths of ocean to the surface every time the lungs require to receive a fresh supply of 
 atmospheric air. The greatest rapidity of motion is effected by alternate strokes of the tail 
 against the water, upwards and downwards ; but the usual progression is accomplished by an 
 obliciue lateral and downward impulse, first on one side and then on the other, just as a boat is 
 propelled by a man with a single oar in the art of " sculling." The extent of the tail in some of 
 
TIIK iilti:K.NI,ANH WIIAl.K. 
 
 Vi 
 
 tho luiKor rt|iucioti \h roally iiniuoiiHo; tliu suiwrticius boiii^' no li-ss tlmii abiMit iv liiimlri'd w|unre 
 foot, iind its breotUh coiwidi nildy t'X('oe<linR twenty fcot. 
 
 Tho c'omnion, rijjlit, di- ( Jrooulainl wlmU' {/inlifiin ini/sticeliis) liiis lu'on, for ii'iituricH, tlic 
 nlijict (if iiian'w HyMtfiuatic iiurwiiit, on account of itn valual>lo oil and scarctdy lesH valualilo 
 baliH'ii. 
 
 Thin wlialo seldom oxrocdrt fifty to sixty twt in Icnj^'tli, or tliiity to forty in ijirlli, and, tlicio- 
 foio, is l)y no nioaiiH tin; head of its family. Ah in othor spi'iMcs, the Ixidy is thick and bulky 
 forwards, lai>,'eHt about tiio middle, and tapers suddenly t<iwards the tail. The head is eolos.sal ; 
 broad, flat, and rounded beneath, and narrow above ; it forms about a third of the animal's entire 
 lentfth, and is al)out ten or twelve feet broad. Its lips -such lips I are five or six feet thick. 
 Thev do not cover liny teeth, but they protect a pair of very forniidablf jaws. The cavernou.s 
 
 TIIE ORRKNt.AND WRALK. 
 
 interior (jf the mouth is filled up with two series of whalebone lamina?, about three hundred in 
 each, which re(|uire particular description. Tlie whalebone, or baleen, a.s it is called, consists of 
 numerous parallel plates, layers, or laminic, each of which is formed of a central coarse fibrous 
 layer lying between two that are compact and externally polishctl. But this outer part does 
 not completely cover the inner ; a kind of edge is exposed, and this edge terminates in a loose 
 fringed or fibrous extremity. Moreover, at the base of each plate of baleen lies a conical cavity, 
 covering a pulp which corresponds with it ; and this pulp is sunk within the substance of the gum 
 or buccal membrane stretched over the palate and upper jaw. 
 
 The comjmct outer layers of the baleen plate are continuous with a white homy layer of the 
 gum, which passes on to the surface of each plate ; and the pulp may be regarded, therefore, as 
 the secreting organ of the internal coarse structure only. The filaments of the fringe are 
 exceedingly numerous, and so fill up the mouth-cavity as to form a very efficient and ingenious, 
 sieve or strainer; and as the esophagus, or "swallow," of the whale is so confined as to be 
 unable to admit of the passage even of the smaller fish, and the food of the whale consequently 
 
80 TIIK NOliTHEKN KOKQUAL. 
 
 is limited to minute (iri,'iiiiiisiiis, .siicii as tlie inedusic, tiiis skilfully devised construction ia abso- 
 lutely leciuisite in order to retain the whole of those which are take** into the mouth. 
 
 The mode in which the whale feeds may be thus described : — 
 
 The broad waters of the Arctic seas teem with innismerable shoals of molluscous, radiate, 
 and crustaceous animals, and these are frequently so numerous as absolutely to colour che wave 
 surface. 
 
 When a whale, therefore, desires food, it opens its colossal mouth, and a host of these 
 organisms is, as it were, swept up by the great expanse of the lower jaw : as the mouth closes, 
 the water is ejected, and the life it contained is imprisoned by the appliance we have attempted 
 to describe. 
 
 If we consider the number of whales found in the Northern seas, and tlie mighty bulk of 
 each individual, our imag-nation entirely fails to appreciate the countless myriads of minute 
 organisms which mu.st be sacrificed to their due nourishment. 
 
 One of the principal products of the Greenland whale is its baleen, or whalebone, with the 
 domestic uses of which our readers \'i\\ be familiar ; but the large quantities of oil which it yields 
 arc still more valuable. A whale si\ty feet in length will supply fully twenty tons of pure oil. 
 
 Besides the common whale, cur hunters find in the seas of the Nortli the razor-backed 
 whale, or northern rorqual (Br.lCBnoptera phy sab's), characterized by the prominent lidge 
 which extends filong its mighty back Thi.s monster of the deep attains a lengthy it is said, of 
 one hundred feet, and measures from thirty to thirty-five feet in circumference. But its yield of 
 oil and baleen is less than that of the right or Greenland whale, and as its capture is a task of 
 difliculty and danger, the whalers seldom attack ll. !;• its movements it is more rapid and 
 restless, and when harpooned it frequently plunges downward with such force and velocity us to 
 break tlie line. In several respects it differs from the Greenland species ; and particularly in the 
 nature of its food, for it feeds upon fishes of considerable size. 
 
 Some of our naturalists affirm that several species of rorquals exist in the Arctic seas ; and 
 the 'tiivo whale, "o called from tl' resemblance of its mouth to that of a pike, i^ fre(iuently 
 described as in independe t opecies. Others, however, are of opinion that the pike is simply the 
 young of tlie monster we have been describing. The rorqual i"^ very voracious, and preys 
 extensi'. ely uuon fishes ; as irany as six hundred cod, to say nothing of smaller " fry," having 
 been found in the sf niacli of a single individual. 
 
 Wiiile the Greenland whale is being rapidly driven I ack into the icy Wildernesses beyond 
 Bchring Straiv., on the west and the creeks and gulfs heyoiid Baffin Bay, on tlic east, the 
 rorqualS; including the Balcencptera rostrattts (or beaked whale), Balwnoptera musculus, and 
 Balxenoptera hoops, still frequent the open wa'.,trs, — their pursuit being, as we have ,nho\vn, more 
 difficult and 1' ss profitable. They arc generally found in attendance on the hoinng-.si.cJs, of 
 which they are the assiduous and destructive enemies. Off Greenland, Snitzbergen, and Novai v 
 Zemlaia they are founii in considerable numbers. 
 
 Our whalers go fortli every year in well-provided ships, and sujjplicd with the best and 
 most formidable weapons which scientific ingenuity can devise. Still they find the enterprise 
 one of peri) and hard.sh'p, and it is universally recognized as requiring in those who embark in 
 it no ..rdinaiy powers of endurance, as well as courage, patience , and perseverance. Yet the 
 Asiatic and American tribes do not fear to confront the oceau-leviathan with the simplest of 
 
 MmiUM 
 
WHALE-FISHERY tN THE NuKTHEHN WATERS. 
 
 81 
 
 arms. The Aleilt embarks in his little skift", or baidar, and catchinir sight of his pro}', stealthily 
 approaches it from behind until he nearly reaches the monster's head. Then he suddenly and 
 dexterously drives his short syie&r into the huge flank, just under the fore tin, anil retreats as 
 biviftly as his well-plied oars can carry him. If the spear has sunk into the flesh, the whale is 
 doomed ; within the next two or three days it will perish, and the currents and the waves will 
 hurl the vast bulk on the nearest shore, to be claimed by its gallant conqueror. And as each 
 spear bears its owner's peculiar mark, the claim is never disputed. 
 
 Occasionally the baidar does not escape in time, and the exasperated leviathan, furiously 
 lashing the waters with its tail, hurls the frail boat high up into the air, as if it were a reed, or 
 sinks it with one cru-shing blow. No wonder that those of their race who undertake so hazardous 
 a calling are held in high repute among the Aleuts. To sally forth alone, and encounter the 
 whale in the icy waters of the Polar Sea, is a task demanding the utmost intrepidity and the 
 utmost tranquillity of nerve. 
 
 Many of the whales thus daringly harpooned are lost. It is on record that, in the summer 
 of 1831, one hundred and eighteen whales were struck near Kadjack, and of these only forty- 
 three were found. The others either drifted to far-oft" shores and lonely unknown isles, or became 
 the prey of sharks and ocean-birds. Wrangell states that of late years the Russians have intro- 
 duced the use of the harpoon, and engaged some English harpooneers to teach the Aloiits the 
 secret of their craft ; and, therefore, the older and more hazardous method, which the Aleiits had 
 learned from their forefathers, will soon be a tiling of the past. 
 
 The Eskimos devote the month of August to the whale-hshery, and for this purpose they 
 a'^'^emble in companies, aud plant a colony of huts on some bold headland of the Polar coast, 
 where the water is of depth sufficient to flo it their destined victim. 
 
 As soon as a whale's colossal bulk is seen outstretched on the water, a dozan kayaks or more 
 cautiously paddle up in the rear, until one of them, shooting ahead, comes near eno'.igh on one 
 side for the men to drive the spear into its flesh with all the force of both arms. To the spear 
 "e attached an inflated seal-skin and a long coil of thong. The whale dives immediat(jly it is 
 stricken. After awhile it reappears, and the signal being given by the floatin<v seal-skin buoy, all 
 the canoes again paddle towards their prey. Again the opportunity is seized for launching the 
 fatal «7>ears ; and this process is repeated until the exhausted whale rises more and more fre- 
 q. ■ .itly to the surface, is finally killed, and towed ashore. 
 
 Captain M'Clure fell in with an Eskimo tribe off C pe Bathurst which hunted the whale in 
 this primitive fashion, but the females, as well as the men, engaged in tli<i piirsuit. An omcdal; 
 or w iman's boat, he &ays, is " manned by ladies," having is harpooneer a chosen man of the tribe; 
 and a shoal of small fiy, in the form of kaifaks, or sin^'o-men canoes, p.re in attendance. The 
 hai-pooneer single? mt "a fish," drives into its flesh his weapon, to which an inflat(!(i seal-skin is 
 attached by mcars ol a walrus-hide thong. The wounded fish is then inecs.santly harassed by the 
 men in the ka,yacl with weapons of a similar description ; and a number of these, driven into 
 the unfortunate whale, b, le its efforts to escape, and wear out its strength, until, in che course 
 of a day, it dies front exhaustion and loss of blood. 
 
 Sherard Osborn tells us that the haipooneer, when successful, becomes a very great personage 
 indeed, and is invariably decorated with the Eskimo order of tiie Blue Ribbon ; that is, a blue 
 
U2 
 
 AB(->UT TIIK NAl;w;iAI,. 
 
 lino is (Imwn acrDss liis i'nw uvor tlie l-iid-ri' ut' liis iiosu. This is tiio )iii,'hust honour known to 
 tiio lierocs of Ciii)C Biitiiurst ; but it carries alonj; with it tiie i)rivilego of the decorated individual 
 being allowed to take unto liiniself a second wife I 
 
 In the waters c.t No\aia Zendaia, Greenland, and Spitzbergen is found the narwhal, or sea 
 unicorn (Moiiodon uioiiocero.s), which was at one time the tlienie of so many extravagant legends. 
 It belongs to the (Atacca, but differs from the whale in having no teeth, properly so called, and 
 in being armed with a formidai)le horn, projecting straight forward from the upper jaw, in a 
 direct line with the bcidy. This horn, or tusk, the use of which has not been satisfactorily ascer- 
 tained, is harder and wliiter than ivory, spirally .striated from base to point, tapers throughout, and 
 mea.snn;8 from si\ to ten feet iti length. IMr. Bell remarks that it would lie a strange anomaly 
 
 rrJK-- 
 
 '^m 
 
 '% 
 
 t !>j^- 
 
 SAItWIlAl.s. MAl.K ANn FKMAt.K. 
 
 if the apparent singleness of this weapon were real. In truth, both teeth are invariably found 
 in till' jaw, not only of tiie male, but of the female also; but in ordinary (thougli not in all) ca.ses 
 one only, and tliis in the male, is fully developed, the other remaining in a rudimentary condition 
 — even as both do in the female. 
 
 The narwhal, from moutli to tail, is abmit twenty f(!et long, though individuals meas iring 
 thirty feet are sonii'times met witli. Its head i.s short, and the upper jiart convex; its mouth 
 small : its s])ii'acle, or resjiiratory vent, duplicate within ; its tongue long ; the pectt)ral fins small, 
 '{'he back, which is convex and rather wide, has no fins, and siiarpens gr.adu.Uly towards the tail, 
 whidi, as in other C'etacea, is horizontal. The food of the narwhal, whose habits are remarkably 
 |)acific, consists uf medus.e, the smaller hinds of flat fisli, ant' other marine animals. 
 
 A striking .spectacle which fretpiently greets the eye of the voyager hi the Arctic .seas is tliat 
 of a shod of dolphins gambolling and leaping, as if in the ve.y heyday of enjoyment. The 
 '.M^uga, sometimes called the white whale {Dv^phinus leucos), attracts attention by tl' ; dazzling 
 whiteness of its body and the swiftness of its -noversents. It fiequer.ts the estuaries of the Obi 
 
 ^■"^'^ 
 

 T(1E BLACK DOLPHIN. 
 
 83 
 
 and the Irtish, the Muokt'iizio ami the Coppermine, wliieh it sometimes ascends to a considerable 
 distance in pnrsiiit of tlie salmon, its len<,'th varies from twelve tn twenty feet : it ha.s no <lorsal 
 tin; and its iiead is round, with a broad truncated sncHit. 
 
 The black dolphin {(rlohiccphalus yloh'ceps) is also an inhabitant of tin- Polar seas, butli 
 Sey^nd Behring Strait, and between Greenland and Spitzbergen. It is, however, tVequently 
 met with in waters further south. Its length averages about twenty-four feet, and its circumfer- 
 
 A SHOAL OF noi.riiiNS. _ ■^i- 
 
 ence ter. .jet. Its smooth oily skin is bluish-black on the iqijier, ami an obscure white on the 
 lower, parts of the body. Twenty-^ ivo oi' twenty four strong interlocking teeth in each jaw form 
 its formidable apjiaratus of offence and d- ^'ence ; its dorsal fin is about iifteen inchc high ; its tail 
 five feet broad; the pectoral fins are long and narrow, and well adapted to assist their owner in 
 its rapid movements. It consorts with its kind in herds of several hundreds, under the guidance 
 of some old and wa'-y males, whom the icai follow as doc' " • as a Hock of shee]) their bell-wether ; 
 hence the Shetlanders term it tin; "ca'ing whale." Large shoals are frequently stranded on the 
 shores of Norway, Iceland, an(' tln' (trkney. Faroe, and Shetland Isles, furnishing the inhabitants 
 with a welcome booty. 
 
 To the same latitudes belong the ferocious ore or grampus (Delj)liiiius r,ri-(t), the tiger of the 
 seas, which not only attacks the porpoise and dolphin, but even the colossal whale. Its broa<l 
 deep body is black above and white beneath ; the sides are marbled with black and white. Then^ 
 are thirty teeth in each jaw, those in front being blunt, round, and slender, while tho.se behind are 
 shai-p and thick ; and between each is a space fitted to receive those of the ()))posite jaw when the 
 
84 
 
 THE rOI-AR BEAU. 
 
 i 
 
 mouth ib closed. Tlio buck fin of the <,'rauipu.s is of great size ; sometimes measuring as much aa 
 six feet in IfUgtli, from the base to the tip. The grampus generally voyages in small squadrons 
 of foui- or five individuals, following each other in single file, and alternately rising and sinking in 
 such a manner as to resemble the undulatory motions of a huge kraken or sea-serpent. 
 
 Anion" the inhabitants of the Polar Ucean must certainly be included the Polar bear 
 (TlKilKssavctos maritimus), since it swims and dives with great dexterity, and, moreover, is often 
 found on the drifting ice-fioes at a distance of eighty to one hundred miles from land. It is a 
 creature of great strength, great fierceness, and great courage, though we may not accept the 
 exaggerated accounts of it which eidiven the narratives of the earlier voyagers. 
 
 ^V noble creature is the Polar bear, says Sherard Osborn, whether we speak of him by the 
 
 I'OLAR BEARS. 
 
 1 
 
 learned titles of " Unsus maritimus,'' " Thalussarctus nuiritimu.s, ' or the sailors' more expressive 
 nomenclature of "Jack Rough ! With all her many w-onders, continues this lively writer, never 
 dill Nature create a creature more admirably adapted to the life it has to lead. Half flesh, half 
 fish, the seaman wandering in i!:e inhospitable regions of the North cannot but be struck with 
 the a]ipearanco of latent eneigy and power its every action atte.sts, as it rolls in a lithe and swrg- 
 geri.ig way over the rough surface of the frozen sea; or, during the brief Arctic summer, haunts 
 the broken and treacherous "pack " in se.^rch of its prey. 
 
 When not too loadeil with fi\t — and it seems to fatten readily — the pace of the bear is leisurely 
 and easy, yet at its slowest it is equal to that cf a good pedestrian ; and when alarmed or irritated, 
 its .sppod is surprising, though not graceful. On lev:' ice, it flings itself ahead, as it were, by a 
 violent jerking motion of the jiowerful fore paws, in what has been described as an "ungainly 
 gallop ; ' but it always makes, when it can, for rough ice, where its strength and agility are best 
 
 J 
 
BHAli AND SEAL U 
 
 displayed, and where neither man nor dog can overtake it. In the Queen's Channel, durini,' 
 Captain M'Clure's expedition, more than one bear was seen niakinjif its way over broken-up ice, 
 rugged and precipitous as the mind can picture, with a truly wonderful facility ; their powerful 
 fore paws and hind legs enabling them to spring from piece to piece, scaling one fragment and 
 sliding down another with the activity of a huge quadrumane rather than that of a quadruped. 
 Evidently it is conscious of its superiority in such rough and perilous ground, and is generally 
 found at the edge of the belts of hummocks or broken ice which intersect most ice-fields, or else 
 amongst the frozen pack-ice of channels such as Barrow's antl the Queen's. 
 
 There is, however, another reason why beare keep among hummocks and pack-ice — namely, 
 that near such spots water usually first makes its appearance in the sunnner. Seals, consequently, 
 are most numerous there ; while the inequalities of the Hoe afford .shelter to the bears in approach- 
 ing their ]n(iy. During summer the colour of the Polar bear is of a dull yellowish hue, clo.scly 
 resembling that of decaying snow or ice. The fur is then thin, and the hair on the soles of their 
 feet almost wholly rubbed off, as with the other animals of Arctic climes ; but in the autunm, 
 when the body has recovered from the privations of the previous winter, and a thick coating of 
 blubber o\ erlays his carcass to meet the exigencies of another season of scanty fare, the feet, as 
 the season advances, are beautifully incased and feathered with hair, and the animal's colour 
 usually turns to a very pale straw, which, from particular points of view, as the light strikes it, 
 looks white, or nearly so. The nose and lips are of a jetty black ; the eyes vary in colour. Brown 
 is conunon, but some have been seen with eyes of a pale gray. 'J'heir sense of smell is peculiarly 
 acute, facilitated no doubt by the ])ecuUai' niannrr in which the pure keen air of the North carries 
 .scent to very considerable distances. 
 
 Sherard Osborn states that bears have beeix seen to follow up a scent, exactly as dogs would 
 do; and the floes about Lowther Island, in 1851, looked as if the beara had quartered there in 
 search of seals, after the fashion of a pointer in the green fields of England. The snorting noise 
 which till V make as they ajiproach near indicates how much more confidence the}' place in their 
 scent tlian in their vision ; though '.inth, when the hunter is concerned, are apt to deceive them. 
 
 The Polar bear attains to very foiiuidable proi)ortions ; but when seamen speak of monsters 
 fifteen feet in length, their auditors may be excused for withholding their belief. Ten feet would 
 seem to be a maximum; and the bear need be iiuge, strotig, and muscular to master the large 
 Arctic seal, esjx cially the saddle-back and bladder-nosu species. For though it nw'rv well and 
 dives well, it neither swims no'' divct us well as the seal, and would therefore have but little 
 chance of obtaining a suliicient livelihood if it could not attuck and capture its victim on the 
 ice-floes. 
 
 The seal, on the other hand, fully aware of its danger, and of the only means of escaping 
 from it, always keeps close to the water, whether it be the hole it has gnawed and broken through 
 the ice, or the open sea at the floe edge. 
 
 And when it lies basking on the floating ice, and apparently apathetic and lethargic, nothing 
 can exceed its vigilance. With its magnificent eyes it is able to sweep a wide range of the 
 horizon, however slightly it tui us its head ; its keenness of hearing adds to its security. There is 
 something peculiarly striking in its continuous watchfulness. Now it raises its head and looks 
 around ; now it is intent on the slightest sound that travels over the crisp surface of the ice ; now 
 it gazes and listens down its hcle, a needful precaution against so subtle a Iiun^er as old Bruin I 
 
m 
 
 MANY A SLIP." 
 
 It would Heuiii iiii}M>H8ible to surprise an iuiiiual so vi<j[iliint and so wary ; and, indeed, in circuni- 
 ventinj,' its prev the bear exliibits an astuteness and a skill wliicli overpass the bounds of instinct, 
 and approach ck)sely to those of reason. 
 
 Fioni its scent and by its <iuick stronif vision the bear apprehends the position of the seal. 
 Then it throws itself prone upon the ice, and profitin<( by inequalities which are invisible to human 
 (iyes, },nadually steals upon its destined victim by a soft and scarcely perceptible movement of the 
 hind feet. To hide its black nmzzle, it constjintly uses its fore feet ; and thus, only the dinj^y 
 white of its coat beint,' visible, it is scarcely to be distin<;uislied from the general mass of tiie floe. 
 Patiently it draws nearer and nearer ; the seal, mistakin<f it for one of its own congeners, or else 
 
 yielding to a fatal curiosity, delaying until its 
 assailant, with one spring, is upon it. 
 
 Yet, as the old adage says, there is many a 
 slip; and even in these circumstances the bear 
 does not always secure its feast. It is disap- 
 pointed sometimes just as the prey seems \\itli- 
 in its grasp ; and how keen the disappointment 
 is can be a[)preciated only, we are told, by hapless 
 Arctic travellers, " who have been hours crawlinix 
 uf), dreaming of delicious seal's fry and overtlow- 
 ing fuel bags, and seen the prey pop down a hole 
 when within a hundred yards of it." The great 
 muscular power of the seal frequently enables 
 it to tling itself into the water in spite of the 
 bear's eftbrts to hold it on the floe ; Bruin, how- 
 ever, retains his grip, for his diving powers are 
 not much inferior to those of the seal, and down 
 they go together ! Sometimes the boar jiroves 
 victorious, owing to mortal injuries intlicted upon 
 the seal before it reaches the water ; sometimes 
 it may be seen reappeaiiiig at another hole in the 
 floe, or clambering up another loose piece of 
 ice, ajiparently mucli mortified by its want of 
 success. 
 A we have .said, the bear dives well, and is nearly as much at home in the water as 
 upon the ice. If it catches sight of a seal upon a drifting Adc, it will slide quietly into the 
 sea, swim with only the tip of its nose above the water, and, diving under the floe, reach 
 the very spot which the hapless seal has regarded as an oasis of safety. It is this stratagem 
 of its enemy which has taught the seal to watch its hole so warily. Even on extensive ice- 
 fields fast * .he land, where the bear cannot conceal its approach by taking advantage of 
 hummocks or other inequalities, the seal is not safe ; for then Bruin drops down a hole, and 
 swims along under the ice-crust until it reaches the one where the poor seal is all unwittingly 
 enjoying its last rays of sunshine. 
 
 The bear's season of plenty 1 egins with the coming of the spring. In February and March 
 
 I1K.\R rATClnivri A SK.M.. 
 
ABOUT THK UKAl! 
 
 87 
 
 the seal ia giving birth to liur young, wlio are bmii liliiid and heljiless, and I'nr ton day.-* are uiiablr 
 to take to the water. The poor niotliers use every effort to protect them, but, in 8i)ite of their 
 affectionate exertions, a perfect massacre of the innocents takes place, in which, not improbably, 
 the Arctic wolf is not less guilty than the Arctic bear. 
 
 Voracity, however, frequently proves its own Nemesis, and the bear, in its eager pursuit of 
 prey, often involves itself in serious disaster. The seal instinctively breeds as close as possible 
 to the open water. But the ice-floes, during the early equinocti^ . gales, will sometimes break U]i 
 and drift away in the form of pack-ice; a matter of indifference, says Osborn, to the seal, but a 
 question of life and death to the bear. Borne afar on their little islets of ice, rocked by tem- 
 pestuous waters, buffeted by icy gales, numbers of these castaways are lost along the whole area 
 of the Polar Sea. It is said that when the gales blow down from the north, bears are some- 
 times stranded in such numbers on the shores of Iceland as to endanger the safety of th»; flocks 
 and herds of the Icelandic peasants; and they have been known to reach the coasts of Norway. 
 
 Bears drifting about at a considerable distance from the land are often enough .«eeu by tlie 
 whalers. They have been discovered fully sixty miles from shore, in Davis Strait, witlxjut any 
 ice in sight, and utterly exhausted by long swinniiing. It is thus that Nature checks their too 
 rapid increase ; for beyond the possibility of the wolf hunting it in packs and destroying the cubs, 
 there seems no other limitation of their numbers. The Eskimos arc too few, and too badly pro- 
 vided with weapons, to slaughter them very extensively. Wherever seals abound, so do bears ; 
 in Barrow Strait and in the Queen's Channel they have been seen in very numerous troops. Tlie 
 Danes assert that they are plentiful about the northern settlement of Upernavik in Greenland, 
 for nine months in the year; and from the united testimony of the natives inhabiting the nortli- 
 eastern portion of Baflin Bay, and that of Dr. Kane, who wintered in Smith Sound, it is 
 evident that they are plentiful about Wie polynias, or open pools, formed there by the action of 
 the tides. 
 
 In the summer months, when the bear is loaded with fat, it is easily hunted down, for then 
 it can neither move swiftly nor run long ; l)ut in deep winter its voracity and its great strength 
 render it a formidable enemy to uncivilized and unarmed man. Usuallj^ it av(jids coming into 
 contact with our British seamen, though instances are on record of fiercely contested engagement.^, 
 in \\]iic'li Bruin has with difficulty been defeated. 
 
 It is folly, says Sherard Osborn, to talk of the Polar bear hibernating : whatever bears 
 may do on the Amei'ican continent, there is only one Arctic navigator who ever saw a bear's 
 nest ! Bears were seen at all points visited by our sailors in the course of M'Clure's expeilition ; 
 at all times and in all temperatures; males or females, and sometimes females with their cubs. 
 In mid-winter, as well as in : uid-summei-, they evidently frequented spots where tifles or currents 
 occasioned either water to constantly exist, or only allowed such a thin coating of ice to form that 
 the seal or walrus could easily break througli. 
 
 That the Polar bear does not willingly attack man, except when hotly pursued or when suf 
 fering from extreme want, is asserted by several good authorities, and confirmed by an experience 
 which Dr. Hayes relates. He was strolling one day along the shore, and observing witli much 
 interest the effect of the recent spring-tides upon the ice-foot, when, rounding a point of land, lie 
 suddenly found himself confronted in t!ie full moonlight by an enormoiis bear. It had just 
 sprung down from *^!io land-ice, antl met Dr. Hayes at full trot, so that they cauglit siglit <if each 
 
S8 
 
 A VOUACIOUS INTltUUKl!. 
 
 otiif- :iiiiii and brute, at thu aaiiiu iiioiiiuiit. liuing without a HHo or other means of defence, 
 Dr. Haye» suddenly wheeled towards his sliip, witii iiiucli the same reflections, probably, about 
 discretiuM ami valour as occurred to old Jack Falstaff when the Douglas set upon him ; but 
 discovering, after a few lengtiiy strides, that he was not "gobbled up," he looked back over his 
 slioulder, wlieii, to his gratification as well as surprise, he saw the bear speeding towards the 
 ojien water with a celerity which left no doubt as to the state of its mind. It woukl bo difficult 
 to detennine wliidi. on this occasion, was the more frightened, the bear or Dr. Hayes '. 
 
 A curious illustration of the combined voracity and epicureanism of Bruin is recorded by 
 Dr. Kane. A cache, or depot of provisions, which had been constructed by one of his exiiloring 
 parties with great care, and was intended to supply them with stores on their return journey, 
 they found completely destroyed. It had been built, with every possible j)rccaution, of rocks 
 brought togetlier l)y heavy labour, and adjusted in the most skilful manner. So far as tiie 
 ine.ms of the laiiiders |>ermitted, the entire construction was most effective and resisting. Yet 
 
 these " tiofers of the ice" seemed tf have 
 scarcely encountered an obstacle. Not a 
 morsel of pemmican (preserved meat) re- 
 mained, excei)t in the iron cases, which, 
 l)eing round, with conical ends, defied both 
 claws and teetii. These they had rolled and 
 pawed in every direction — to.->sing them 
 about like foot-balls, although upwards of 
 ei'ditv iiounds in weight. An alcohol-case, 
 strongly iron-bound, was dashed into small 
 fragments ; and a tin can of liquor twisted 
 almost into a ball. The bears' strong claws 
 had perforated the metal, and torn it up as 
 with a chisel. 
 But the Ijurglars were too dainty for salt meats. For ground cofi'ee they had evidently a 
 relish ; old canvas was also a favourite, — dc (jtistibit.s non ent dispi.itandum ; even the flag which 
 bad been reared " to take possession " uf the icy wilderness, was gnawed down to the very 
 .staff'. It seemed that the bears had enjiiyed a regular frolic; rolling the bread-barrels over the 
 ice-fout and into the broken outside ice ; and finding themselves unable to masticate the heavy 
 India-rubber cloth, tliey liad amused themselves by tying it up in unimaginable hard knots. 
 
 The she-bear displays a strong pftection for her young, which she will not desert even in 
 the extremity of peril. The explorer already (juoted furnishes an interesting narrative of a 
 iJUi-suit of UKjther and cub, in which the former's maternal (jualities were toucliingly exhibited. 
 
 On the appearance of the hunting jiarty and their dogs, the bear fled ; but the little one 
 being unable either to keep ahead of the dogs or to niaintai;> the same rate of speed as its 
 motlier, 'he latte" turned back, and putting luu' head under its haunches, threw it .some distancf" 
 forward. The cub being thus safe for the moment, she would wheel rounil and face the dogs, so 
 as to give it a chance to run away ; lutt it always sti>pped where it had alighted, until its mother 
 
 riK.illS PKSTi:()VIN(; A CACilE. 
 
i; 
 
 I 
 
 ' 
 
 \ 
 
THK UKAICH MATKKNAI, AFKKOTION 
 
 91 
 
 caino up, mul ^aw it another forward iiiipulHe ; it Huoint'tl to expect her aid, and wouUl not go forward 
 without it. Soinctinies the mother wouhl run a few yards in advance, as if to coax her cuh >ip to 
 her, anil wlicn the doi,'s approacfied she would turn fiercely upon them, and drive tlu>n\ hack. 
 Then, a,s they dodged her lilown, .slie would rejoin the cuh, and jiush it on,— Hometimes putting 
 hor head under it, Homotimes seizing it in her mouth hy the nape of its nock. 
 
 For some time she conducted her retreat with equal skill and ceKrity, having tlie two 
 hunters far in the rear. They had sighted her on the land-ice ; hut she led the dogs inshore, uji 
 a small stony valley which penetrated into the interior. After going a nule and a half, however, 
 her pace slackened, and, the little one being spent, she soon came to a halt, evidently determined 
 not to desert it. 
 
 At this moment the men were only half a mile behind ; and, running at full speed, they soon 
 reached the spot where the dogs were holding her at l)ay. The fight then grew d<!spenite. Tln^ 
 mother never moved more tl an two yards ahead, constantly and affectionately looking at lur 
 cub. When the dogs drew near, she .«at upon her liaunche.s, and taking the little one between 
 her hind legs, she fought her as.sailants with her paws, roaring so loudly that she could have 
 been heard a mile off. She would stretch her neck and snap desperately at the nearest dog 
 with her shining teeth, whirling hor paws like the sails of a windmill. If .she missed lun- aim, not 
 daring to jjursue one dog le.st the others should pounce ujion her cub, she uttered a deep howl of 
 battled rage, and on .she went, pawing and snapping, anil facing the ring, grinning at them with 
 wide-opened jiws. 
 
 When the hunters came up, the little one apparently had recovered its strength a little, for 
 it was able to turn round with its dam, however quickly she moved, .so as always to keep in 
 front of hor belly. Meantime the dogs were actively junqjing about the she-bear, tormenting her 
 like so many gadflies ; indeed, it was difficult to fi'-o at her without running the risk of killing the 
 dogs. But Hans, one of the hunters, resting on bis elbow, took a quiet, steady aim, and shot 
 her through the head. She droj)ped at once, and rolled over dead, without moving a muscle. 
 
 Immediately tlie dogs .sprang towards her; but the cub junq)ed upon her body and i eared 
 up, for the fir.st time growling hoar.sely. They seemed quite afraid of the little creature, she 
 fought so actively, and made so much noise ; and, while tearing mouthfuls of hair from the dead 
 mother, they would spring aside the minute the cub turned towards them. The men drove the 
 dogs ofi' for a time, but were compelled to shoot the cub at last, as she would not quit the body. 
 
 A still more stirring episode is recorded by Dr. Kane, which will fitly conclude our account 
 of the Polar bear. 
 
 " Nannook! nannook!" (A bear ! a bear!) With this welcome shout, Hans and Morton, 
 two of his attendants, roused Dr. Kane one fine Saturday morning. 
 
 To the scandal of his domestic regulations, the guns were all impracticable. While the men 
 were loading and capping anew, llr. Kane seized his pillow-companion six-shooter, and ran on 
 deck, to discover a medium-sized bear, with, a four-months' cub, in active warfare with the dogs. 
 They were hanging on her skirts, and she, with remarkable alertness, was picking out one victim 
 after another, snatching him by the nape of the neck, and flinging him many feet, or rather yards, 
 by a scarcely perceptible movement of her head. 
 
 Tudea, the best dog, was already horn de combat : he had been tossed twice. Jenny, another 
 
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 A HATTLE WITH A HEAR. 
 
 of the pat;k, luadf lui uxtraordinary somerset of nearly fifty feet, and alighted senseless. Old 
 Whitcy, a veteran comhatant, stanch, but not "bear-wise," had been foremost in the battle; 
 w>on he lay yelping, helj)lcssly, on the snow. 
 
 It seemed as if the battle were at an end ; and nannooi v.ertainly thought so, for she turned 
 aside to the beef-ijarrels, and began with the utmost composure to turn them over, and nose out 
 their fatness. A bear more innocent of fear does not figure in the old, old stories of Barents 
 and the SpitzbtTgen explorers. 
 
 Dr. Kane now lodged a jiistol-ball in the side of the cub. .A.t v-^nce the mother placed her 
 little one between her hind legs, and, shoving it along, made her way to the rear of the store or 
 " beef-housL'." As she went she received a rifle-shot, but scarcely seemed to notice it. By the 
 unaided ctfortw of her fore arms she tore down the barrels of frozen beef which made the triple 
 walls of the storehouse, mounted the rubbish, and snatching up a half barrel of herrings, carried 
 it down in her t«eth, and prepared to slip away. It was obviously time to arrest her movements, 
 (ioing up within half pistol-range, Dr. Kane gave her six buck-shot. She dropped, but instantly 
 rose, and getting her cub into its former position, away she sped ! 
 
 And tl'.is time she would undoubtedly have effected her escape, but for the admirable tactics 
 of Dr. Kane's canine Eskimo allies. The Smith Sound c'ogs, he says, are educated more 
 thoroughly than any of their more southern brethren. Next to the seal and the walrus, the 
 bear su]ii)lies the staple diet of the tiibes of the North, and, except the fox, furnishes the most 
 important element of their wardrobe. Unlike the dogs Dr. Kane had brought with him from 
 liafhn Bay, the Smith Sound dogs were trained, not to attack, but to embarrass. They 
 revolved in circles round the perplexed bear, and when pursued would keep ahead with regulated 
 gait, their comrades accomplishing a diversion <at the critical moment by a nip at the nannook's 
 hind-quarters. This was done in the most systematic manner possible, and with a truly wonder- 
 ful composure. " T have seen bear-dogs elsewhere," ^ays Dr. Kane, " that had been drilled to 
 relieve each other in the mSlee, ind avoid the direct assault ; but here, two dogs, without even a 
 demonstration of attack, would put themselves before the path of the animal, and retreating right 
 and left, lead him into a profitless pursuit that checked his advance completely." 
 
 The unfortunate animal was still fighting, and still retreating, embarrassed by the dogs, yet 
 affectionately carrying along her wounded cub, and though wounded, bleeding, and fatigued, 
 gaining ground uj)on her pursuei-s, when Hans and Dr. Kane secured the victory, such as it was, 
 for their own side, by delivering a couple of rifle-balls. She staggered in front of her young one, 
 confronted her assailants in death-like defiance, and did not sink until pierced by six more 
 bullets. 
 
 When her l)ody was skinned, no fewer than nine balls were discovered. She proved to be 
 of mediimi size, very lean, and without a particle of food in her stomach. Hunger, probably, had 
 stinnilated her courage to desperation. The net weight of the cleansed carcass was 300 pounds ; 
 that of the entire animal, G50 pounds ; her length, only 7 feet 8 inches. 
 
 It is said that l)ears in this lean condition are more palatable and wholesome than when fat ; 
 and that the impregnation of fatty oil through the cellular tissues makes a well-fed bear nearly 
 uneatable. The flesh of a famished beast, though less nutritious as body-fuel or as a stimulating 
 diet, is rather sweet and tender than otherwise. Moral: starve your bear before you eat him ! 
 
 The little cub was larger than the qualifying adjective would imply. She was taller than 
 
ESKIMO nO(iS AND POLAR BEARS. 
 
 03 
 
 a do", and her wei<flit 114 ll)s. She sprang upon the corpse of her slaughtered mother, and rent 
 the air with woful lamentations. All efforts to noose her she '•npdled with singular ferocity ; 
 but at la.st, being completelj' muzzled witii a line fastened by a running knot between her jaws 
 and the back of hei- head, she was dragged off to the brig amitl the ujiroar of the dogs. 
 
 Dr. Kane asserts that during this fight, and the conipuls'v>ry somersets which it involved, 
 not a dog suffered seriou-.ly. He expected, from his knowlcdj.^o of the hugging i)ropensity of tiie 
 plantigrades, that the animal would rear, or if she did not rear, would at least use her fore arms ; 
 but she invariably seized the dogs with her teeth, and after disposing of them for a time, refrained 
 from following up her advantage, — probably because she hail her cub to take care of. The 
 Eskimos state that this is the habit of the hunted bear. One of the Smith Sound dogs made no 
 exertion whatever when he was seized, but allowed himself to be flung, with all his muscles 
 relaxed, a really fearful distance ; the next instant he rose and renewed the attack. According 
 to the Eskimos, the dogs soon learn this " possum-playing " liabit. 
 
 It would seem that the higher the latitude, the more ferocious the bear, or that he increases 
 in ferocity as he recedes from the usual hunting-fields. 
 
 At Oominak, one winter day, an Eskimo and his son were nearly killed by a bear that had 
 housed himself in an iceberg. They attacked him with the lance, but he boldly tumod on them, 
 and handled them severely before they could make their escape. 
 
 The continued hostility of man, however, has had, in Dr. Kane's opinion, a modifying 
 influence upon the ursine character in South Greenland ; at all events, the bears of that region 
 never attack, and even in self-defence seldom inflict injury upon, the hunters. Many instances 
 have occurred where they have defended themselves, and even charged after having been 
 wounded, but in none of them was life lost. 
 
 A stout Eskimo, an assistant to a Danish cooper of Upernavik, fired at a she-bear, and the 
 animal closed at the instant of receiving the ball. The man had the presence of mind to fling 
 himself prone on the ground, extending his arm to protect his head, and afterwards lying perfectly 
 motionless. The beast was deceived. She gave the arm a bite or two, but finding her enemy 
 did not stir, she reti-ed a few paces, and sat vipon her haunches to watch. But her watch was 
 not as wary as it should have been, for the hunter dexterously reloaded his rifle, and slew her 
 with the second shot. 
 
 It has been pointed out that in approaching the bear the hunters should take advantiige of 
 the cover afforded by the inequalities of the frozen surface, such as its ridges and hillocks. These 
 vary in height, from ten foot to a hundred, and frequently are packed so closely together as to 
 leave scarcely a yard of level surface. It is in such a region that the Polar bear exhibits his 
 utmost speed, and in such a region his pursuit is attended with no slight difficulty. 
 
 And after the day's labour comes the night's rest ; but what a night ! We know what night 
 is in these temperate climos, or in the genial southern lands ; a night of stars, with a deep blue 
 sky overspreading the happy earth like a dome of sapphire : a night of brightness and serene 
 glory, when the moon is high in the heaven, and its soft radiance seems to touch tree and stream, 
 hill and vale, with a tint of liver ; a night of storm, when the clouds hang low and heavily, 
 and the rain descends, and a wailing rushing vfind loses itself in the recesses of the shuddering 
 
94 
 
 THK AKC'TIC NKiHT. 
 
 woods; wo kiK.w wluit iii^'ht is, in these temperate regions, under all its various aspects,- now 
 mild and l)eatitii'ul, now frlooniy and sad, low ffrand and tempestuous ; the long dark night of 
 winter with its fmsty airs, and its drooping shadows thrown hack by the dead surfa'-e of the 
 snow ; tlu; brief bright niglit of summer, which fomis so short a pause between the evening of 
 one day and the morning of anr.ther, that it seems intended only to afford the busy earth a breath- 
 j„jr.ti,i,o ;— but we can form no idea of what an Arctic Niyht is, in al! its mystery, magnificence. 
 1111(1 wonder. Strange stai-s light up the heavens ; the forms of earth are strange ; all is unfami- 
 har. and ahiiust uiiint(;lligible. 
 
 STALKINU A UEAR. 
 
 It is not that the Arctic night makes a heavy demand on our physical faculties. Against 
 its rigour man is able to defend himself; but it is less easy to provide against its strain on the 
 moral and intclloetual faculties. The darkness which clothes Nature for so long a period reveals 
 to tlu! senses of the European explorer what is virtually a new world, and the senses do not well 
 adapt themselves to that world. The cheering influences of the rising sun, which invite to 
 labour ; the soothing influences of the evening twiligjlit, which beguile to rest ; that quick change 
 fiom day to night, and night lo day, which so lightens the burden of existence in our temperate 
 clime to mind and soul and body, kindling the hope and renewing the courage, — all these 
 are wanting in the Polar world, and man suflTers and languishes accordingly. The grandeur of 
 Natiirc, says Dr. Hayes, ceases to give delight to the dulled sympathies, and the heart longs con- 
 
 1 
 
ITS VA1UOU8 PHASES. 
 
 95 
 
 tinually for now associations, new hopes, new objects, new sources of interest ami plousure. 
 The solitude is so dark and drear as to oppress the understanding; ; the inaa<;ination is 
 haunted by the desolation which everywnere prevails ; and the silence is so absolute as to 
 become a terror. 
 
 The lover of Natuie will, of course, fird much that is attractive in the Arctic ni<;'\t; in the 
 mysterious cora.scations of the aurora, in the flow of the moonlight over the hills and iceberfrs, in 
 the keen clearness of the starlight, in the sublimity of the mountr.ins and th'' gla. lers, in the 
 awful wildncss of the stonns ; but it must be owned that they speak a language which is rough, 
 rugged, and severe. 
 
 All t lings seem built up on a colossal scale in the Arctic world. Colossal are those dark and 
 tempeHt-benter cliffs which oppose their grim rampart to tlie ceaseless roll and rush of the ico 
 clad waters. Colossal are those mountain-peaks which raise their crests, white with unnunibeied 
 winters, into the very heavens. Colossal are those huge ice-rivers, those glaciers, which, born 
 long ago in the depths of the far-.off valleys, have gradually moved their pondei ;)us masses down 
 to the ocean's brink. Colossal are those floating islands of ice, which, outrivalling the puny arclii- 
 tecture of man, his temples, palaces, and pyramids, drift away into the wide waste of waters, as 
 if abandoned by the Hand that called them into existence. Coir 'isal is that vast sheet of frozen, 
 frosty snow, shimmering with a crystalline lustre, which covers the icy plains for countless 
 leagues, and stretches away, perhaps, to the very border of the ea that is supposed to encircle 
 the unattained Pole. 
 
 In Dr. Hayes' account of ais voyage of discovery towards the North Pole occurs a fine pa.s- 
 sage descriptive of the various phases of the Arctic night. " 1 have gone out often," he says, 
 " into its darkness, and viewed Nature under different aspects. I have rejoiced with her in her 
 strength, and communed with her in her repose. I have seen the wild burst (>f her anger, have 
 watched her sportive play, and have beheld her robed in silence. I have walked abroad in 
 the darkness when the winds were roaring through the hills and crashing over the plain. I 
 have strolled along the beach when the only sound that broke the stillness was the dull creaking 
 of the ice-floes, as they rose and fell lazily with the tide. I have wandered far out upon the 
 frozen sea, and listened to the voice of the icebergs bewailing their imprisonment ; along the 
 glacier, where forms and falls the avalanche ; upon the hill-top, wiiere the drifting snow, coursing 
 over the rocks, sung its plaintive song ; and again, I have wandered away to some distant valley 
 where all these sounds were hushed, and the air was still and solemn as the tomb." 
 
 Whoever has been overtaken by a winter night, when crossing some snowy plain, or making 
 his way over the hills and through the valleys, in the deep drifts, and with the icicles pendent 
 from the leafless boughs, and the white mantle overspreading eveiy object dimly discernible in 
 the darkness, will have felt the awe and mystery of the silence that then and there prevails. 
 Both the sky above and the earth beneath reveal only an endless and unfathomable quiet. This, 
 too, is the peculiar characteristic of the Arctic night. Evidence there is none of life or motion. 
 No footfall of living thing breaks on the longing ear. No cry of bird enlivens the scene ; there 
 is no tree, among the branches of which the wind may sigh and moan. And hence it is that one 
 who had travelled much, and seen many dangers, and witnessed Nature in many phases, was led 
 to say that he had seen no ej^pression on the face of Nature so filled with terror as the silence 
 of the Arctic night. 
 
00 ADVENT OF THE SUN. 
 
 But by degrees the darkness grows less intense, and the coming of the day is announced by 
 the prt(valence of a kind of twilight, which increases more and more rapidly as winter passes into 
 spring. Tliere are signs that Nature is awakening once more to life and motion. The foxes 
 come i>ut upon ihr. hill side, both blue and white, and gall»)]i hither and thither in search of food, 
 — following ill tli(^ track of the bear, to feed on the refuse which the " tiger of the ice" throws 
 aside. Thr walrus and the seal come more frcfpiently to land ; and the latter begins to assemble 
 on tile ice-floes, and select its breeding-places. At length, early in February, bniad daylight 
 comes at iKHiii, and then the weary explorer rejoices to know that Jhe end is near. Flocks of 
 Hjicckird birds iinivc, mid sliclter tlieiiiselvos under the lee of the shore ; chiefly (lovc-kii's, as they 
 are called in Soiithe.n Greunland—the Uria (jrijlle of the naturalist. At last, on the 18th or 
 litth of February, the sun once more makes its appearance above the southern horizon, and is 
 welcomed as one welcomes a friend wht) has been long lost, and is found again. Upon the crests 
 of the hills light clouds are floating lazily, and through th^sc the glorious orb is pouring a 
 stream of golden fire, and all the southern sky (piivers, as it were, with the shooting, shifting 
 spleii(!our.s of the coming day. Presently a soft bright ray breaks through the vaporous haze, 
 kindling it into a purple sea, and touches the silvery sunmiits of the lofty icebergs until they 
 Hoem like domes and jiinnaclcs of flame. Nearer and nearer comes that auspicious .-ay, and widens 
 a» it comes ; and that ])urple sea enlarges in every direction ; and those domes and ^.iimacles of 
 flame multiply in quick succession as they feel the passage of the quickening light ; and the dark 
 red clitls are warmod with an indescrilmble glow ; and a mysterious change passes over the face 
 of the ocean ; and all Nature acknowledges the presence of the sun ! 
 
 •' The ])areut of light and life everywhere," says Dr. Hayes, " he is the same within these 
 solitudes. The germ awaits him here as in the Orient ; but there it rests only through the short 
 hours rif a summer night, while here it reposes for months under a sheet of snows. But Jifter a 
 whilf the bright sun will tear this sheet asundei-, and will tumble it in gushing fountains to the 
 sea, and w ill kiss the cold earth, and give it warmth and life ; and the flowers will bud and 
 bloom, and will turn their tiny faces smilingly and gratefully up to him, as he wandeis over 
 these ancient hills in the long summer. The very glaciers will weop tears of joy at his coming. 
 The ice will loose its iron grip upon the waters, and will let the Avild waves play in freedom. 
 The reindeer will ski; gleefully over the mountains to welcome his return, and will look longingly 
 to him for the green pastures. The sea-fowls, knowing that he will give them a resting-place for 
 their feet on the rocky islands, will come to seek the moss-beds which he spreads for their nests ; 
 and the sparrows will come on his life-giving rays, and will sing their love-songs through the 
 endless day." 
 
 With the sun return the Arctic birds, and before we quit the realm of waters we propose to 
 glance at a few of those which frequent the cliffs and shores during the brief Polar summer. 
 
 Among the first-comers is the dove-kie or black guillemot {Uria grylle), which migrates 
 to the temperate climates on the approach of winter, visiting Labrador, Norway, Scotland I, and 
 even descending as far south as Yorkshire. In fact, we know of no better place where to 
 observe its habits than along the immense range of perpendicular cliffs stretching from Flam- 
 borough Head tc Filey Bay. Here, on the bare ledges of this colossal ocean-wall, the guillemot 
 
O'JILLBMOTS ANM) AUKS 
 
 »T 
 
 lays its eggs, but without the protection of a nest ; some of them parallel with the edge of the 
 shelf, others nearly so, and otiiers with thtir blunt and sharp ends indiscriniinately pointing to 
 the sea. They are not affixed to the rock liy any glutinous matter, or any foreign substance 
 whatever. You may see as many as nine or ten, or sometimes twelve, old guillemots in a line, so 
 near to each other that their wings almost touch. The eggs vary greatly in size and shape and 
 colour. Some are largo, others small ; some exceedingly sharp at one end, others rotund and 
 globular. It is said that, if undisturbed, the guillemot never lays more than one egg; but if 
 that be taken away, she will lay another, and so on. But Audubon a.s.'^erts that he has seen 
 these birds sitting on as many as three 3ggs at a time. 
 
 BEA-BIKDS IN TUB rOLAK REOIONo 
 
 The black guillemot differs from the foolish guillemot {Uria troile) only in the colour of 
 its plumage, which, with the exception of a large white patch on the coverts of each wing, is 
 black, silky, and glossy ; the feathers appearing to be all vinwebbed, like silky filaments or fine 
 hair. The bill, in all the species, is slender, strong, and pointed ; the upper mandiblo bending 
 slightly near the end, and the base covered with soft short leathers. The food of the guillemot 
 consists of fish and other marine products. 
 
 The Alcidw, or auks, are also included amongst the Arctic birds. The little auk (Arctica 
 (die) frequent.s the countries stretching northwards from our latitudes to the regions of perpetual 
 ice, and is found in the Polar Regions both of the Old Worl'^ nd the New. Here, indeed, they 
 congregate in almost innumerable flocks. At early morn they sally fort^ to get their breakfast, 
 which consists of different varieties of marine invertebrates, chiefly crustaceans, with which the 
 Arctic waters teem. Then they return to the shoie in immense swarms. It would be impos- 
 
ATKH AND STARAKIR 
 
 fiiblu, Kiiys till Arctic v(iyag«r, to convey an adequato idea of the nunibera of theHO birds wliiih 
 Hwanncd around bini. Tlio Hloi.e . >i Ix.th niduH of the valley in which ho liad pitclied his camp 
 rose at an an},'h! of nl)out forty-fiv- doffrees to a distance of from 300 to 500 feet, where it met 
 the cUfis, wliich Htood about 700 feet higher. Tiiese hill-sides are comi)osed of the loose rocks 
 detached from tiie ditfs by the action of the frost. The birds crawl anions these rocks, winding 
 
 far in through nan'ow places, and there 
 deposit their eggs and hatch their young, 
 secure from their great enemy the Arctic 
 fox. 
 
 On one occasion, they were congre- 
 gated along a slope, fully a mile in 
 length, and over this slope rushed a 
 constant stream of birds, only a few feet 
 above the stones ; and, after making in 
 their rapid flight the whole length of the 
 hill, they returned higher in the air, 
 performing over and over again the com- 
 plete circuit. Occasionally a few hun- 
 dreds or thousands of them would drop 
 down, as if follow ing some leader ; and 
 in an instant the rocks, for a space of 
 several rods, would swarm all over with 
 them, their bliuL backs and pure white 
 breasts speckling the hill very prettilj^ 
 Though quantities are destroyed by 
 the crews of vessels as well as by the Eskimos, their numbers never seem to decrease. Their 
 flesh is both wholesome and delicate, and affords a welcome change of diet to the mariner 
 weary of salt meat and pemmican. They are very tame, and easily captured, — in some places 
 being actually caught in hand-nets, like moths or butterflies ; and they pass a gi"eat portion 
 of thei' time on the ocean, where they disport themselves with equal grace and self- 
 possession. 
 
 The starakis {Plmlendince) inhabit the archipelagoes which lie between China and North 
 America. They assemble in small flocks, and swim about in quest of the crustaceans, molluscs, 
 and other marine animals on which they feed. At nightfall they return to land, where they 
 find shelter imder the ledges of the rocks, or in burrows dug with their bill and feet. The 
 female lays a solitary egg. 
 
 The auks abound in the high northern latitudes. They are all ocean-birds, and are never 
 found, like the divers, in fresh-water streams and lakes. Those species which possess the power 
 of flight nestle on the rocky cliffs and icebergs, where they lay a single egg, of conical form ; a 
 shape which prevents it from rolling away, or moving, except within a very narrow circle, on 
 the bare rocky ledge where it is deposited. 
 
 The puflSns (Fraten-ola), which in winter abound on our own shores, live chiefly on the water. 
 They dive and swim with dexterity, but, owing to the shortness of their wings, are capable only 
 
 1. TIIK I.^KAT AUK.- 2. RAZOR-BILLS.— 8. THE PUFFIN. 
 
I'UFFINS AND ME150ANSEUS. 
 
 09 
 
 of limited flight. Their pluiuago is thick, smooth, and dense, and so completely throws oft' the 
 water that it is quite imjjervious to wet ; while their deep, compressed, and pointed beak, 
 resembling exactly a double keel, is i 'mirably adapted as an instrument for cutting the waves 
 when the bird wishes to dive. 
 
 The puffins live principally upon sprats and other small fishes ; and the fo \ intended for 
 their young they retain until partially digested, when they disgorge it into their mouths. Like 
 all the auks, the mother-bird lays but one egg. 
 
 The appearance of an island or iceberg frequented by these birds is very vividly skctchc*) 
 by Audubon, than whom no naturalist has ever more completely attained a thorough acquaint- 
 ance with the Bird- World. 
 
 He tells us that on every crag or stone stood a puffin, at the entrance of every hole another, 
 and yot the sea was covered and the air filled with them. The burrows were all inhabited by 
 young birds, of different ages and sizes; and clouds '^f puffins flew over us, each individual hold- 
 
 ing a small fish by the head. The burrows all conniiunicated with each other in vari(jus ways, 
 so that the whole island sgemed to be perforated by a multitude of subterranean labyrinths, over 
 which it wap mipossible to run without the risk of falling at almost every step. The voices of 
 the young sounded beneath the traveller's foot like voices from the grave, and the stench was 
 exceedingly disagreeable. 
 
 Something must next be said of the mergansers {Meryinob), a sub-family of the palmipeds, 
 which also belong to the Polar wo.'ld. Their principal characters may thus be stated : a straight 
 bill, much compressed on the sides, .and convex towards the tip, which is furnished with a broad 
 and much-hooked nail ; the wings are moderate, and pointed ; the tail is short and rounded ; the 
 tarsi are short, and the toes moderate, the outer being as long as the middle, the three anterior 
 ones united by a full web, while the hind toe is moderate, elevated, and provided with % broad 
 web on its margin. 
 
 From these characters it is easy to infer that the bird is aquatic in its habits ; that it can 
 swim and dive well ; that it is also capable of strong, swift flight ; and that its food \n\l consist 
 chiefly of fishes. 
 
 The dun diver or goosander (Mergus merganser) is widely distributed throughout the 
 Polai Regions both of the eastern and western continents. During its southern migration, it 
 
::» 
 
 100 
 
 THE WHITE MERGANSER. 
 
 TIIK nOOSANDER. 
 
 vi«itH tlio Unitffl Stuten. hh wt-ll hh Kniii.v, Hnllmul. and Germany; but on the ii|.i.roach of 
 mininuT it rutiroH to Siburiii and Kaintsclintka, I.x-land, Greenland, and the Arcti.- Hhores of 
 
 North America. 
 
 In these loealiti.'« it coiiHtnict.s itn nest -alvvayn near the cd^e <'<" the water; huihlinf,' it up 
 of irnvHH, roots, and similar materials, with little rej,'ard to symmetry, and lining it with down. 
 
 It is placed sometimes among the 
 mossy, weedy stones ; and sometimes 
 it is concealed in the long grass, or 
 under the cover of hushes, or in the 
 stumps or hollows of decayed trees. 
 The female lays from twelve to fourtt-eii 
 eggs, of a cream-yellow colour ; tluir 
 form is a long oval, both ends being 
 (■(jually obtuse. The goosander may be 
 said to spend its time in the air and 
 on the water ; and in truth, on the 
 land it moves but laboriously and awk- 
 wardly, owing to the backward position 
 of its legs. It rises with difficulty from 
 the jxround ; but when once on the 
 wing, its course is swift, strong, and 
 steady. As it lives mainly upon fish, its flesh is oily and ill-flavoured ; a circumstance which 
 goes far to compensate the s])ortsman for the frecpient failure of his attempts to captui'e it. It 
 is a wild and wury bird, and as it swims witli rapidity and dives with ease, it generally effects 
 its escape from all but the most experienced hunters. 
 
 Anotlier species which abounds in northern latitudes is the smew (Mergtis alhelhis), also 
 known as the white mm or white merganser. This palmiped is about the size of a widgeon ; 
 is of elegant form ; and its plumage beautifully coloured with black and white. Its bill is of a 
 dusky blue, nearly two inches long, tiiickest at the base, and tapering into a slenderer and more 
 nariow shaj)e towards the point. An oval black patch, glossed with gnjen, marks each side of 
 the head ; the under part of the crest is black ; but all the rest of the head and neck, as well as 
 the graieful breast and the belly, are white as snow, with the exception of a curved black line 
 on each side of the upper i)art of the breast, and similar marks on the lower part ; the back, the 
 coverts on the ridge of the wings, and the primary quills are black ; the secondaiies and greater 
 coverts are white-tipped ; while the sides of the body, under the wings to the tail, exhibit a 
 curious variegation of dark wavy lines. The le,<j^ and feet are of a leaden blue. 
 
 The range of the smew is very extensiv, , for it migrates as far southward as the Mediter- 
 ranean, while it is found everywhere in the Arctic Regions. 
 
 On the shores of Novaia Zendaia, as on those of Spitzbergen, the sep birds arrive in count- 
 less hosts as soon as the summer sun has removed the long and dreary spell under which Nature 
 labours through the winter months. The narrow rock-ledges on which they congregate, and 
 where auks and guillemots assemble in thousands, the Russians call " a bazaar." The large gi'ay 
 
A BIRD ''bazaar" IN NOVAIA ZEHLAIA. 
 
ABOUT THE EIDEK-DUCK. 
 
 IU3 
 
 v^r* 
 
 TITP. IlLACK llACKKn Cll'l,!,. 
 
 Hen-mow {f.'iniii (flauciin), the " liiirKonia«tor " of tin- Dutch wliiiltTx, proforM the loiioly fcUiiiinitjt 
 of iwolatcd clirt'M, whero it can roign the moiiniTh of nil it survoy«. Tho ivory gull (lAtnm 
 fhiirnvun) in wfldoiu found in higii northern 
 latitudes ; hut the common jfull {Imi-uh cunus) 
 and tho l)lack-i)acked gull {lAtrus marinm) 
 arc nhnoHt aH abundant as guillemots. 
 
 In Iceland, one of the most useful, and 
 certainly not the least hcautiful, of the birds, 
 is tho eider-duck (Somntenn molligdma), 
 which also frecjuents the shores of Baftiii 
 and Hudson Bays, Lapland, Greenland, and 
 Spitzhergen. It loves to breed on the small 
 flat islands which lie off the coast, such as 
 Akeney, Flutry, and Videy, where it is 
 secure from the attacks of the Arctic fox. Its breeding-places in Iceland are private j)roperty, 
 and some of them have been for centuries in the possession of the same families, which owe to 
 tho birds all their wealth and prosperity. Hence they are very vigilantly guarded. Whoever 
 kills one is fined thirty dollars ; and to secrete an egg, or pocket a few downs, is an offence 
 punishable by law. The chief occupation of some of tho proprietors is to examine tlirough theii 
 telescopes all tho boats that approach, so as -s*-- _ 
 
 to be sure that there are no guns on board. 
 
 As the birds on theso islands are quite 
 tame, the eider-down is easily collected. 
 The female having laid five or six pale 
 greenish-olive eggs, in a nest fashioned with 
 marine plants, and thickly lined with down 
 of the most exquisite delicacy, the collectors 
 carefully remove her, rob the nest of its 
 precious lining, and then replace the bird. 
 Immediately she begins to lay afresh, and 
 •igain has recourse to the down on her body 
 to protect her eggs ; and should her owh 
 stock be exhausted, as is not un^requently 
 the case, she is furnished with an auxiliary 
 supply by the male. Even this second 
 lining is often taken away, and the poor 
 
 bird a third time repeats the process, both as regards the eggs and the down ; but if tho 
 plunderers do not spare her now, she afterwards abandons the nest, and seeks a home in some 
 more sequestered nook. 
 
 As it comes to the European markets, tius down, which is highly valued on account of its 
 lightness, plasticity, and wannth, occurs in ^alls about the size of a man's fist, and weighing 
 from thrt ^o four pounds. Such is its fineness and elastic quality, that when a ball is o];ened, 
 
 THK EIDBR-DCCK. 
 
mmtm^ 
 
 104 
 
 ElbEK-DUCKS IN ICELAND. 
 
 and cautiously laid near the fire to expand, it will completely till a quilt five feet square. It 
 should be noted, however, that the down from dead birds is of comparatively little value, having 
 lost its elasticity. 
 
 An interesting account of a visit to Vigr in the IsaQardardjufs, a favourite resort of the 
 eider-duck in he north of Iceland, is furnished by Mr. Shepherd : — 
 
 As he '.pproached the island, he says, he could see flocks upon flocks of the sacred birds, 
 and could hear their cooings at a great distance. Landing on a rocky wave-worn shore, against 
 which the waters scarcely rippled, he set ott' to survey the island. The shore he describes as 
 " the most wonderfid ornithological sight imaginable." The ducks and their nests were every- 
 where, (hviit brown ducks started up under his feet at every step ; and it was with difficulty 
 tliat he av-ided treading on some of the nests. As the island is but three-quarters of a mile 
 across, the opjiositc shore is soon reached. On the coast was a wall built up of large stones, just 
 above the high water-mark, about three feet high, and of considerable thickness. At the bottom, 
 on Ijoth sides of it, alternate stones had been left out, forming a series of square compartments in 
 which the ducks might make their nests. Almost every compartment was occupied ; and as the 
 human intnuler walked along the shore, a long line of startled ducks flew out one after the other. 
 The surface of the water also was white with ducks, who welcomed their "brown wives" with 
 loud and clamorous cooing. 
 
 ifr. Shepherd, on arriving at the farmhouse, was received in the most hospitable manner, 
 hospitality being one of the special virtues of the Icelander. He was much impressed by the 
 a])pearancc of the house, which seemed to be converted into one large duckery. The earthen 
 wall surrounding it, and the window-embrasures, were filled with ducks; on the ground, 
 encircling the house, was a ring of ducks ; on the sloping roof were seated ducks ; and a duck 
 was perclied on the door-scraper I 
 
 A grassy bank close by had been cut into square patches like a chess-board (a square of turf 
 of about eighteen inches being removed, and a hollow excavated), and all these squares were 
 occupied by ducks. A windmill was infested with them, and so were all the out-'iouses, mounds, 
 rocks, and crevices. In fact, the ducks were everywhere. Many of them were so tame as to 
 allow the stranger to stroke them on their nests ; and their mistress said thei*e was scarcely a 
 duck on the island which would not allow her to take its eggs without flight or fear. When she 
 liist became possessor of the island, the produce of down from the ducks did not exceed fifteen 
 pounds weight in the year, but under her careful nurture it had risen, in twenty years, to nearly 
 one hundred pounds annually. About a pound and a half are required to make a coverlet for a 
 single bed ; and the down is worth from twelve to fifteen shillings per pound. Most of the eggs 
 are taken and pickled for winter consumption, one or two only being left to hatch. 
 
 Elider-ducks congregate in numerous fiocks, generally in deep water ; they dive with 
 wonderful force, and thus are enabled to capture the shell-fish which form their piincipal fiiod. 
 If a storm threatens, they retire to the rocky shores where they love to breed and rest. The 
 Greenlanders kill them with darts, pursuing them in their little boats, watching their course by 
 the air-bubbles that come floating upward when they dive, and dexterously aiming at them as 
 soon as they rise to the surface wearied. Their flesh is eaten by the Greenlanders, but it is not 
 well-flavoured ; their eggs, however, are hold in high esteem. 
 
THE WILD SWAN. 
 
 lOS 
 
 The king eider {Somatet^a spectabilin) belongs to the same genus as the former. 
 
 We suppose that every reader is acquainted with the beautiful lines in which Tennyson has 
 embodied the fable of the dying swan singing its own dirge ; - 
 
 " With nil iuuer voice the river ran, 
 Aduwn it floated a dyiug swan, 
 
 Auil loudly did lameut 
 
 The wild gwau's death-hyiuu took the soul 
 Of that waste place with joy 
 Hidden in sorrow : at first, to the ear 
 
 The warble was low, and full, and clear ; 
 
 But anon her awful jubilant voice. 
 With a music stninge and ninnifold. 
 
 Flowed forth on a carol free and bold 
 
 And tlie creeping mosses and claiulx'ring weedi<. 
 And the willow-branches hoar anil dunk, 
 And the wavy swell of the soughing reeds, 
 And the wave- worn horns of the echoing bank. 
 And the silvery marisli-flowers that tlirong 
 The desolate creeks and |>o<>ls among. 
 Were flooded over with eddying song." 
 
 But the wild swan's voice, even in its death-hour, has no such musical sweetness as the poet 
 here sets forth. It is always harsh and dissonant, and when it breaks on the silence of the 
 Arctic skies carries with it an almost painful impression. 
 
 rnB IIAt'NT OF THK WILD SWAN. 
 
 The lakes of Iceland, and its streams, abound with these beautiful bird.?. They arc very 
 numerous on the Myvatn, or Great Lake, as well as the wild duck, the scoter, the common 
 goosander, the red-breasted merganser, the scaup duck, and other anserines. The wild swaji is 
 shot or caught for its feathers, which are highly prized for ornamental purposes. It is sometimes 
 found in large flocks, sometimes in single pairs ; and besides the lakes and streams, it frequents 
 the salt and brackish waters along the coast. It is chiefly at the jjairing season, or at tlio 
 approach of winter, that it assembles in multitudes ; and as the winter advances it mounts high 
 in air, and shapes its course in search of milder climates. 
 
 The famale builds her nest of the withered leaves and stalks of reeds and rushes, in lonely 
 and sequestered places. She usually lays six or seven thick-shelled eggs, which are hatched 
 
106 
 
 Tin: AUCTIC WATEUS. 
 
 in about six wuolts, when both parents assiduously guard and feed the cygnets. When <ull- 
 grown, this fiiio bird measures nearly five feet in length, and above seven in breadth across 
 its extended wings ; it weighs about fifteen pounds. The entire plumage is of a pure white, and 
 ne.xt to the skin lies a coat of thick fine down. 
 
 The wealth of the Arctic and sub-Arctic seas is apparently inexhaustible. In many parts 
 cod are plentiful, and supply the Grecnlanders with a valuable article of food. The capelin 
 [MuUotus I'itlosus), which in May and June frequents the Greenland waters, is eaten both fresh 
 and dried ; in the latter case forming a useful winter provision. The halibut is found of a large 
 size ; and ocean also contributes the Norway haddock, the salmon-trout, the lump-fish, and the 
 bull-)iead. Nor are the Crustacea unrepresented : long-tailed crabs being abundant, while the 
 common mussel may be gathered almost everywhere at ebb-tide. The seas, however, grow 
 jjoorer as we advance towards the Pole, and many important species of fish do not penetrate 
 further north than the Arctic Circle. 
 
 Yet even where these are wanting, the ocean-wate"8 t'?em witii life ; and a recent writer is 
 I'ully justified in remarking that the vast multitudes of animated beings which people them fomi 
 a remarkable contrast to the nakedness of their bleak and desolate shores. The colder surface- 
 waters are, as he says, almost perpetually exposed to a cold atmosphere, and being frequently 
 covered, even in summer, with floating ice, they are not favourable to the development of 
 organic life; but this adverse mnue..?'" is modified by the higher temperature which constantly 
 prevails at a greater depth. Contrary to the rule in the Equatorial seas, we find in the Polar 
 ocean an increase of temperature from the surface downwards, in consequence of the wanner 
 under-currents, flowing from the south northwards, and passing beneath the cold waters of the 
 supei-ficial Arctic current. 
 
 Hence the awful rigour of the Arctic winter, which strikes the earth with a death-blight, 
 is not i)erceptible in the ocean-depths, where myriads of organisms find a secure retreat from 
 the frost, and whence they emerge during the long summer's day, either to haunt the shores 
 or ascend the broad rivers of the Polar world. Between the parallels of 74° and 80°, Dr. Scoresby 
 observed that tlie colour of the Greenland sea varies from the purest ultramarine to olive-green, 
 and from crystalline transparency to striking opacity ; and these api>earances are not transitory, 
 liut permanent.* The aspect of this green semi-opaque water, which varies in its locality with the 
 currents, -often forming isolated stripes, and so'.netimes spreading over two or three degrees of 
 latitude, — is mainly due to small medusas and nudibranchiate molluscs. Many thousands of 
 square miles must literally run riot with life, since the coloured waters we speak of are calculated 
 to form one-fourth of the sea between the 74th and 80th parallels. 
 
 On the Greenland coast, where the transparency of the waters is so great that the bottom 
 and every object upon it are clearly discernible, even at a depth of eighty fathoms, the ocean-bed 
 is covered with gigantic tangles, so as to reuund the spectator of the ocean-gardens of the 
 Tropical Zone. Alcyonians, sertularians, ascidians, nullipores, mussels, and a variety of other 
 sessile animals incrust every stone, or congregate in every fissure and hollow of the rocky ground. 
 A dea<l seal or fish flung into the sea is .soon converted into a skeleton, it is said, by the myriads 
 
 ♦ Scoresby cilcul.ited tliat it would reqiiiro 80,000 iwrsons, labouring coiUinuouBly from the crc.itioii of man to the present 
 Jay, to count the number of oritauums coutniued in two miles of the gi'ecn water. 
 
MAF.INK LIFR. 
 
 107 
 
 of small crustaceans whii-li infest these northern ^vater8, and, like the ants in the equatorial 
 forests, perform the part of scavengers of the deep. 
 
 It is evident, from the observations of Professor Forbes, that dejHh hais a very considerable 
 influence in the distribution of marine life. From the surface to the depth of 1 380 feet eight 
 distinct zones or regions have been mapped out in the sea, each of which has its own vegetati«)n 
 and inhabitants ; and the number of these regions must now bo increased, after the astonishing 
 results of the deep-sea soundings of Dr. Carpenter and Professor Wyville Thomson. The 
 changes in the diftei'ent zones are not abruj>t : some of the creaturt-s of an under region always 
 ap[)ear before those of the region above it vanish ; and though there are a few species the same 
 in some of the eight zones, only two are common to all Tt is to be observed that those near the 
 surface have forms and colours analogf)us to the inhabitants of southern latitudes, while those at 
 a greater depth are analogous to the animals of northern waters. Hence, in the .sea, depth 
 corresponds with latitude, as heujht doe.«i on land. ^Irs. Somerville adds, in language of mvM'h 
 terseness, that the extent of the geographical distribution of any species is proportioned to the 
 depth at which it lives. Consequently, those which live near the surface are less widely 
 dispersed than those inhabiting deep water. 
 
 The larger and more active inhabitants of the seas obey the same laws with tho ret,', of 
 creation, though their provinces, or regions, are in some instances very extensive. Above the 
 44th parallel the Atlantic species fre(j[uently correspond with those of the Pacific. The salmon 
 of America is identical with that of the British Isles, and the coasts of Sweden and Norway ; the 
 same is true of the Gadidw, or cod. The Cottas, or bull-head tribe, are also the same on both 
 sides of the Atlantic ; increasing in numbers and specific differences on approaching the Arctic 
 seas. The same law holds good in the North Pacific, but the generic forms difier from those in 
 the Atlantic. From the propinquity of the coasts ^f America and Asia at Behring Strait, 
 the fish on both sides are nearly alike, down to Admiralty Inlet on the one side, and the Sea of 
 Okhotsk on the other. 
 
■HH 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 'iLACIKIlS. 
 
 |S introductory to a description of the Arctic Glaciers, a few words on the formation ot 
 snow seem necessary. Briefly, it may be said that snow is the result of the crystal- 
 lization of water. 
 
 The molecules and atoms of all substances, when not constrained by so^.ie external power, 
 build tliem.selvcs up into crystals. This is true of the metals and minerals, if, after having 
 been melted, they are allowed to cool gradually. Bisnmth develops the process in a very 
 impressive manner, and when properly fused and solidified exhibits large-sized crystals of 
 singular beauty. 
 
 In like manner, sugar dissolved in water produces, after evaporation has taken place, 
 crystals of sugar-candy. The ready crystallization of alum is known to every school-boy who has 
 (hibbled in "chemical experiments." Chalk dissolved and crystallized becomes Iceland spar, 
 and assumes a variety of fanciful and graceful shapes. The diamond is crystallized carbon ; and 
 the crystallizing power is inherent in all our precious stones, — sapphire, topaz, emerald, beryl, 
 amethyst, ruby. 
 
 In the process of crystallization, it is found that the minutest particle of matter is possessed 
 of an attractive and a repellent pole, and that by their natural action the form and structure of 
 the crystal are determined. 
 
 The attracting poles, in the solid condition of any given substance, are firmly interlocked ; 
 but dissolve the cohesion by the application of sufficient heat, and the poles will recede so far as 
 to be practically beyond each other's range. And thus the natural tendency of the molecules 
 to build themselves together is neutralized. 
 
 Water, for example, as a liquid is, to all appearance, without form ; but when sufficiently 
 cooled, its molecules are brought under the influence of the crystallizing force, and then arrange 
 themselves in the most varied and beautiful shapes. When snow falls in calm air, tlie icy 
 particles present themselves in the form of six-rayed stars. From this type there is no departure, 
 though the appearance of the snow-stars in other respects is infinitely varied. 
 
 It is worth pausing, as Professor Tyndall remarks, to think what wonderful work is going 
 on in the atmosphere during the formation and descent of every snow-shower : what " building 
 power " is brought into play I and how imperfect seem the productions of human minds and 
 hands when compared with those produced by the forces of Nature I 
 
 We have spoken of attracting and repelling poles ; but a few words of explanation seem 
 
CKY8TALMZIN(; FOKCE .N ICE. 
 
 100 
 
 (lesirablo. Every magnet possesses two such poles ; and if iron tilings bo scattered over a magnet, 
 each particle becomes also endowed with two poles. Now suppose that similar particles, devoid 
 of weight, and floating in the atmos- 
 phere, come together, what will 
 happen ? Obviously, the repellent 
 poles will retreat from each other, 
 while the attractive will approach, 
 and ultimately interlock. Further : 
 if the particles, instead of a single 
 pair, possess several pairs of poles 
 iuranged at definite pcjints over their 
 .suifaces, you can then picture them, 
 in obedience to their mutual attrac- 
 tions and repulsions, building theni- 
 selves together in masses of definite 
 shape and stiucture. 
 
 \ )u have, then, only to imagine 
 the aqueous particles in cold calm air 
 to be gifted with poles of this descrip- 
 tion, compelling the said particles to 
 
 assume certain definite aggregates, and you have before your mind's eye the invisible architecture 
 which creates the visible and beautiful crystals of the snow. 
 
 VARI0D3 FORMS OT SNOW-CRTSTALS. 
 
 The important part played by this crystallizing force in ice as well as snow, will bo under- 
 stood from the following remarks by Professor Tynda'.l, who may justly be described as the most 
 eminent living authority on the subject :— 
 
 At any temperature above 32' F., — that is, freezing-point, — the movement of heat is 
 sufficient to loosen the molecules of water from their rigid bonds of cohesion. But at 32° the 
 movement is so diminished that the atoms lock themselves together, and unite in a solid. This 
 act of union, however, is controlled by well-known laws. To the unintelligent eye a block of ice 
 seems neither more interesting nor more beautiful than a sheet of glass ; but to the instructed 
 mind the ice is to the glass what an oratorio of Handel is to the scream of a ballad-singer. Ice 
 is music, glass is noise ; ice represents order, glass confusion. In the latter, the molecular forces 
 have brought about an inextricable intertangled network ; in the former, they have woven a rich 
 and regular embroidery, the designs of which are infinitely beautiful. 
 
 Lot us suppose ourselves examining a block of ice. In what way shall we get at its 
 structure ? A sunbeam, or if that be wanting, a ray of electric light is the anatomist to which 
 we must confide the work of dissection. We direct this ray straight from our lamp across the 
 plate of transparent ice. 
 
 It shivers into pieces the icy edifice, exactly reveraing the order of its architecture. 
 
 The crystallizing force, for example, had silently and systematically built up atom after 
 atom ; the electric ray dislocates them (so to speak) just as silently and systematically. 
 
 We elevate the ice- block in front of the lamp, so that the light may now pass through its 
 
110 
 
 8IX-KAYKD ICE-FLOWEIiS. 
 
 flul)Mtancc. Compare the ray as it enters with the ray as it makes its exit ; to the eye there is 
 no perceptible difference, and its intensity seems scarcely diminished. But not so with its heat. 
 As a thermic agent, the ray was more powerful before its entrance than it was after its emer- 
 gence. A portion of its heat is arrested, is detained in the ice, and of this portion we now 
 proceed to avail ourselves. What will it effect ? 
 
 We place a lens in front of the ice upon the screen. Now, observe this image (see lUustra 
 tion), the beauty of wliich is still very far from the real effect. Here is one star ; yonder is 
 
 E.XIIiniTIOX OF ICE-FLOWERS BT PROJECTION. 
 
 another ; and in proportion as the action continues, the ice appears to resolve itself more and 
 more into stars, all of six rays, like snow-crystals, and resembling a beautiful flower. By 
 moving the lens in and out, we bring new stars into sight ; and while the action continues, the 
 cilge of the pet.als is covered with indentations like those of the leaf of a fern. Probably, few of 
 our readers have any conception of the magical beauties concealed in a block of ice ! Let 
 them remember that prodigal Nature works in this way throughout the whole world. Every 
 
 % 
 
 "«u* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 
 ICE-FLOWERS. 
 
 atom of the solid crust which covers the frozen waters of the North, has been wrought out in 
 obedience to the law we have enunciated. Nature is always and everywhere harmonious ; and 
 it is the mission of Science to awaken us to an appreciation of its concords. 
 
 There is another point of our experiment to which the reader's attention must be directed. 
 He sees the flc ers illuminated by the ray which traverses them. But if he examines them, 
 while turning upon them a ray which they will reflect and send back to his own eye, he vdW 
 see in the centre of each a spot with the brightness of burnished silver. He will be tempted 
 
SIK DAVID BHKWSTKK'S KXl'KKIMKNT. 
 
 Ill 
 
 to think that this spot is a bubble of iiir ; but, by immei-sing the ice in hot water, you can melt 
 the ice all around the spot, — and when it alone remains, you will see it diminish and disappear 
 without any trace of air. 'J'he spot is a vacuum. Such is the faithfulness to herself with which 
 Nature operates ; thus, in all her operations, does she submit to her own laws. We know that 
 ice, in meltinjj, contracts ; and here we arrest the contraction, a", it were, in the very act. The 
 water of the flowers cannot fill the space occupied by the ice whidi by its fusion has j^ivcn liirtii 
 to them ; hence the production of a vacuum, the inseparable companion of each liquid flower. 
 
 The fragment of compact ice whose elements assume such beautiful crystalline forms is itself 
 a crystal. This was shown by Sir David Brewster, who employed for the purpose of analysis 
 that modified form of light which we call polai'ist'd li<jht. It is singularly well adapted to bring 
 out the peculiarities of the main structure of substances, owing to the coloured figures which 
 it outlines on a screen after passing through them. All crystals witii an axis — such, for instance, 
 as Iceland sjiar — yield a series of brilliantly-tinted rings, traversed by a regularly-foriiied cro.ss 
 entirely black. As ice produces the same figures, we are justified in attributing to it the same 
 kind of crystallization. We must note, however, that we are referring now to the thick ice 
 formed on our canals and lakes. If we examined the first film formed on the surface of the water, 
 we should discover in it a completely irregular crystallization, the ray of polarised light jirodufing 
 only a mosaic of varied tints, distributed without any order. But it is easy to explain the way 
 in which this j)rimary crust or film is produced. Those portions of the fluid mass in contact with 
 the air are the first to freeze, but each molecule of ice abandons its heat to the contiguous water, 
 which thereby is slightly raised in temperature, and the result is a partial congelation. The 
 surface we are examining then presents a network of fine needles intercrossed in every direction, 
 aiid fonning a kind of delicate lace, the meshes or intervals of which are gradually filled up. 
 When the network is transformed into a continuous sheet, the loss of heat is diminished more 
 and more as this external crust grows thicker and thicker ; but the development of the ice 
 invariably takes place by means of long interlaced needles, as the reader may see for himself by 
 breaking off a portion from the nearest pond (in winter), and examining the sectional surface. 
 
 Having said thus much in reference to the crystallization of id id snow, we proceed to 
 explain the reyelation and moulding of ice. Some years ago, Faraday astonished the scientific 
 world by a very curious experiment. Splitting into two parts a piece of ice, he brought together 
 the parts at the moment that fusion took place on their surfaces, and they united immediately. 
 How are we to account for this effect, which can be produced even in hot water ? 
 
 When the temperature of water rises, the surface molecules first become liquid, then 
 gaseous ; being placed beyond the coercitive action of the surrounding particles, they are easily 
 set free ; transported, on the contrary, into the centre of the mass, they are brought absolutely 
 under the influence of this action, which induces a new solidification, — or, to use the scientific 
 term, a regelation. In this way it becomes easy to understand how very various forms can be 
 communicated by simple pressure to a fragment of ice. If the observer successively places a 
 straight bar in moulds of increasing curvature, he may easily compel it to assume the shape of 
 a ring or even of a knot. In each mould, it is true, the ice breaks ; but if the pressure is kept 
 up, the surfaces of the fragments are brought into contact, and adhere so as to re-establish a 
 
112 
 
 CHARACTKRS OF GLACIFK-ICE. 
 
 coiuiition of continuity. A snowball may thus bn converted into a sphere of ico, anil the sphoro, 
 
 by constant pressure, into a cup or a statue. 
 
 Professor Tyndall refers to a remarkable instance of re{,'elation which he observed one day 
 
 in early sprin;,'. A layer of snow, not quite two inches thick, had fallen on the glass roof of a 
 
 small conservatory, and the internal air, warming the 
 panes, had melted the sn so far as it was in im- 
 mediate contact with them. I'lie enJre layer had 
 slipped down the pane, and projected beyond the 
 edge of the roof, without falling, and had bent and 
 curved as required, just like a flexible body. 
 
 --^^f<i^.'^^-'^-^, 1.^,^. 
 
 MOULDINO ICK. 
 
 The snow-fields which overspread the upper part 
 of every glacier, whothoi in the Arctic Regions or 
 elsewhere, are composed of crystallized snow, whose 
 fragile, delicate, and fairy-like architecture endures so long as it remains dry, but undergoes a 
 great transformation when the sun, melting the upper stratum, allows the water to interpene- 
 trate its substance. The fluid, congealing anew during the night, transforms the snow into the 
 condition technically known as neve; a terra given by the Swiss physicists to a granular mass 
 composed of small rounded icicles, disaggregated, but more adhesive than snow-flakes, and of a 
 density intermediate between that of sn w and that of ice. Under the pressure of new layers, 
 and as a result of infiltrations of \\i< >i\ the nev4 imites, and solders into ice of constantly 
 increasing compactness. 
 
 But glacier-ice presents some other curious peculiarities. Every abundant snowfall on the 
 summit of the mountains forms a layer easily distinguishable from preceding layers — which, in 
 most cases, have already passed into the 7idvd condition. This stratification becomes more 
 apparent when the whiteness of the surface has been sullied by dirt or dust wafted or " the 
 wings of the \vind." It is perceptible also in ice ; but here we must not confound it with another 
 phenomenon of which the cause is different, the veined structure. 
 
 In places where glaciers have been accidentally cut down in an almost vertical direction, 
 the section is found to exhibit a series of parallel veins, foniied by a beautiful and very 
 transparent azure ice in the midst of the general mass, which is of a whitish colour, and 
 slightly opac^ue. 
 
 In different glaciei-s, and in different parts of the same glacier, these blue veins will vary in 
 number and intensity of colouring. They are specially beautiful in crevasses of recent formation, 
 and on the sides of channels excavated in the ice by tiny rills resulting from superficial fusion 
 Not a few glaciers exhibit this remarkable veined structure throughout their entire extent. 
 When a vertical cutting exposes the delicate azure network to atmospheric influences, the softer 
 ice melts prior to the fusion of the blue ice which then remains in their detached leaflets. On 
 examining these attentively, we cannot fail to remark' the absence, or, at all events, the extreme 
 mrity, of air-bubbles, though they are so plentiful in the coarser ice. 
 
 Professor Tyndall's explanation of this phenomenon is as interesting as it is ingenious. M'hile 
 on a visit of inspection to the slate-quarries of Wales, he had occasion to study the cleavaje of 
 the rocks which compete them ; in other words, their faculty of dividing naturally, a projierty 
 
CLEAVA(JE IN COMrACT KK 
 
 113 
 
 inherent in all crystjils. The HchiHtous Hiato HCparates onHily into sheetjH, and in trnvei"sinij diHeient 
 quarries one secH that all the planes of cleavage are parallel in each. From this circuniMtanec 
 our men of science wore at first induced to look ujwn slates as the products of the stnitiHcation of 
 different deposit^t. Such an explanation, howc>ver, could not he accei>ted by 'i'y'idall, when he 
 observed that the minute fossils embedded in them were constantly misshapen and tlattt-ncd in the 
 direction of the plane of cleavage, because the great modification they had undergone could not 
 have taken place in superimposed strata at the bottom of the primeval sea. He concluded that 
 these schists, therefore, must have been subjected to a considerable pressure ; and further, that 
 this pressure must havb been exorcised at right angles with the plane of separation of tl e different 
 layers. 
 
 A long series of experiments proved that many bodies, when forcibly compressed, cxinbit in 
 their structure a very distinctly marked lamination, and frequently veins of very great beauty. 
 
 He carefully examined iron which had passed under the steam-hammer, or through the 
 rolling-mill ; clay and wax were subjected to the hydraulic press. In all cases he dete<;ted signs 
 of cleavage ; and hence we are justified in the inference that the phenomenon is invariably j)ro- 
 duced by pressure in all bodies of irregular internal structure. Such is the result with glacier- 
 ice, from whose mass the air-bubbles introduced by the snow aro gradually expelled. At first 
 of brilliant whiteness, it assumes, in the parallel layers corresponding to the planes of cleavage, 
 those beautiful azure tints which characterize the veined structure. So little has it to do with 
 stratification, that in places where this is apparent it has given rise to a series of horizontal lines, 
 while the parallel veinings, in the same masses of ice, are all inclined at an angle of about 60". 
 
 The tendency to cleavage in compact ice would seem to explain the regular form of those 
 fragments or detached pieces with which some parts of the glaciers aro covered. Usually they 
 occur as cubes, or as rectangular parallelepipeds. The Alpine mountaineers name them sdracs, 
 — in allusion to their resemblance to certain cheeses which bear this name, and which are manu- 
 factured in rectangular boxes. They have been found in many parts of a really colossal size, 
 measuring fifty feet in length, breadth, and depth, and as regular in shape a« if they hud been 
 hewn with a chisel. 
 
 There are many interesting points connected with the formation and constitution of glaciei-s 
 which we should gladly discuss, but we are confined by our limits to remarks of a general char- 
 acter, and we must now pass on to speak of the phenomena attendant upon their motion. No 
 doubt, the traveller who for the first time comes in sight of one of these huge ice-rivers, and 
 sees the mighty mass apparently rooted to its valley-bed, solid, unchangeable, adamantine, 
 finds it hard to believe that it moves onward with a certain and an unresting, though a 
 gradual progress. It looks like a noble river, suddenly petrified by some overwhelming force : 
 congealed, as it flowed, in a moment, by some irresistible spell ! Such, indeed, is the conception 
 of the poet : — 
 
 " Ye ice-falla I ye timt from the moiuitiiiu'D btow 
 Ailuwu euuriuous itiviues slu|)e iininiii.... 
 Torreutii, iiietliiuks, tliut lieiiitl ii iiiighty vuice, 
 Alid stupijej at ouce amid tlieir maddest phiiigi' ! 
 MotioulesH turreutA ! aileut catiinictji I " 
 
 And this conception is justified by the aspect of the glacier. Thus, of the Glacier du G<5ant, 
 
114 HKNDU UPON ni.AniKHH. 
 
 I'rofoBflor Tyndftll Hays: — "It HtietchoH Hiiioothly tor ii long distance, then beconicH uiHturbed, 
 and then changes to a groat frozen cascade, down which the ico appears to tumble in wild 
 confusion. Above the cascade you see an expanse of shining snow, occupying an area of some 
 square miles." But we shall see that here, as in the world of man, appearances are deceitful, 
 and that the glacier well deserves tf> be called .mi ice-river, in allusion to its regular and 
 continuous motion. 
 
 Between the snow-fall in the higher regions of the globe, and the quantity of snow which 
 every summer disapj)ears through liquefaction, the difference is very considerable. The supply, 
 so to speak, exceeds the demand, and a residuum is aimually left. It is oidy below the perpetual 
 snow-line that the snow created and accumulated in winter is wholly melted in the warm season, 
 And, therefore, if for any considerable period the excess upon any particular mountain contirmed 
 to accumulate, immense masses of ice would gradually rise to the extreme height in the atmos- 
 phere affected by acjueous phenomena. 
 
 Hendu, the Itoman ("atholii prelate, who first led the way to the discovery of the hue 
 nature of glaciers, says, very justly, — "The economy of the world would be soon destroyed, it at 
 certain points accumulations of matter prevailed. The centre of gravity of the globe would be 
 insensibly displaced, and the admirable regularity of its movements would be succeeded by dis- 
 order and perturbation. If the Poles did not send back to the Equatorial seas the waters which, 
 leduced into vapour, issue daily from these burning regions, to be converted into ice in the 
 Arctic and Antarctic Zones, ocean would be drained dry, and life would cease, as well as water, 
 to circulate throughout our world. The Creator, however, in order to ensure the permanence of 
 His almighty work, has called into existence the vast and powerful law of circulation, and 
 this law the careful observer sees reproduced in all the economy of Nature. The water ciiculates 
 from the ocean into the air, from the air it spreads over the earth, and from the earth it passe.s 
 into the seas. The rivers return from whence they came, in order that they may issue forth 
 anew ; the air circulates around the globe, and, as it were, upon itself, passing and repassing 
 successively at all the altitudes of the atmospheric column. The elements of every organic 
 substance circulates in changing from the solid to the liquid or aeriform state, and in returning 
 from the latter to the state of solidity or organization. It is not improbable that the universal 
 agent wliich we designate under the name of fire, light, electricity, and magnetism, has pro- 
 bably also a circle of circulalluu as extensive as the universe. Should its movements ever be 
 known to us more than they now are, it is probaW. Lhat they would afford the solution of a host 
 of problems which still defy the intellect of man. Jirculation is the law of life, the method of 
 action employed by Providence in the administration of the universe. In the insect, as in the 
 plant, as in the human body, we find a circulation, or rather several circulations, — blood, humours, 
 elements, fire, all which enter into the composition of the individual." 
 
 However fanciful may be some of the amiable prelate's speculations, it is certain that the 
 glaciers obey this law of circulation. The snow-accumulations in the upper regions are to some 
 extent reduced by the descent of the avalanches, — that is, of masses of snow and ice which detach 
 themselves from the mountain-sides and dash headlong into the valleys below, where they are 
 rapidly n -jlted by the warmer atmosphere. But this would, in itself, be wholly insufficient. 
 Another movement, at once more efficacious and more regular, is necessary ; a movement which 
 
 L 
 
VARIOUS KINDS (»K MOHAINKH 
 
 115 
 
 uiubnictiH thu L'utiru systuin of the icc-masaes, and which carrioH the j^lacici-H below thu puiiMjtual 
 aiiow-liiio, HO that ovory year they nmy givo up a portion of their torniinal oxtroniitifH. Tho 
 discovory of this ^'oneral proj^rt'snioii it* one of tho niOHt fortilo with whith, of h»to yoai-H, the 
 physics of the jflobo have been enriched. 
 
 I'rofu8«or ryndall rightly obwt rves that tht re tiro nuinerouH obvious indications of thu exist- 
 once of glacior-motion, though it is too slow to catch the eye at once. The crevasses change within 
 certain limits from year to year, and sometimes from month to month ; an<l this could not bt; if 
 the ice did not move. Rocks and stones also are observed, which have been plainly torn from 
 the mountain-sides. Blocks seen to fall from particidar points are afterwards noticed lower 
 down. On the moraines roch o fo'.nd of a totally dittereiit inineralogical character from those 
 composing the mountains righi and left ; and in all such cases strata of the same character are 
 found bordering the glacier higher up. Hence the conclusion that the foreign honldf t have been 
 Jloated down by the ice. Further, the ends or • rmouts " oi many glaciers wi, like ploughshares 
 on the land in front of them, overturning with irresistible energy the huts and chAlet.s that lie in 
 their path. Facta like these have been long known to the inhabitants of tlu; High Alps, who 
 were thus made acquainted in a vague and general way with the motion of the glaciers. But 
 Science cannot deal with generalities : it re(|uires precise and aceuiat*,' infonnation ; and tliis 
 information, so far as the jirogression of the glaciers is concerned, has boon obtained through tho 
 ])atient labours of Rendu, Charpentior, Agassiz, Desor, Vogt, Professor Forbes, Bravais, Charles 
 Martins, Hopkins, Professor Tyndall, Colomb, John Ball, and Schlagintweit. Their experiments 
 and observations ' a,ve established the truth of certain immutable principles, and proved the 
 existence of general law of movement. 
 
 The accunmlation of the dt^bris hurled headlong by the mountains forms on the glacier-surface 
 long lines of stone and earth, which are called momines ; these diverge in certain directions, 
 according to the circumstances we now come to explain. 
 
 The landslips which occur on the banks or edges of the glacier give rise to the lateral 
 moraines, which are enlarged and extended daily by the twofold effect of the fall of stones and 
 debris, and the progressive movement which carries them along with the whole mass of ice. 
 Towards th^ centre of the great glaciers, in almost every case, is found a medial moraine ; the 
 result of the encounter of the lateral moraines of two glaciers which have united into one. These 
 superficial moraines participating in the movement of the glacier, each of their blocks eventually 
 rolls to the foot of the terminal precipice, and thus a frontal moraine is formed on the very soil 
 of the valley, like an embankment raised to prohibit the further advance of the ice. And, la,stly, 
 the bed of sand, gravel, pebbles, and detritus which is found beneath the glacier, and over which 
 it glides, is called the profound moraine. 
 
 The furrows wrought by this last-named stratum on the bottom of the glacier-channeis 
 show the wonderful force of friction which the glacier exercises during its descent. The dept);s 
 of these furrows depends entirely on the hardness of the debris carried down by the glacier, and 
 the nature of the rocks submitted to the fiiction. The polish a,ssumed by these rocks when they 
 are sufficiently solid to resist the thunderous march of the glacier, indicates the enormous 
 pressure which it exercises on the slopes of the valley through which it forces its way. This 
 effort, bearing principally on the side of the rocks turned in the direction of their crests, impresses 
 
|t« A KIVER OF ICE. 
 
 ii|M)ii thoiu a jHtculiar rounded form, ho liko the npiwarance of n flock of Bheep {moutona) that De 
 SiiUHMurt! jfavu tlieiii t' j iiaiiio of rochi's moutoniurn. 
 
 Coriiiootod with tho si-ientific ovidonec of the j)rt)Krt'BMivo niovcmoiit of Klaciors, a ghicior in 
 thii JlcrniMt' (Mx-rhmd will for ever bo inoniorahle. Two branch ^jiacitrH, tho Lauternar and tho 
 Finntcnuir, unito at a jiroinontory called tho Alwchwunf,' to fonn tho trunk-glacier of tho 
 Untoraar, which carrion a ^,'reat medial moraine alonj,' itn colosHal hack. 
 I Here in 18-7, an " intrepiil and onthuHiaHtic" SwIhs professor, Hugi, of Solothurm (or 
 
 \ .Soleure), erect. (I a small cabin <if stones for the purpose of observations up<in the glacier. Tho 
 
 1 hut moved, and ho took stops to nieaaure its motion. In throo years, 1827 to 1830, it movod 
 
 j 330 feet downwards. In 1836 it hatl descended 2354 feet; and in 1841, it had accomplislied o 
 
 1 journey of 4712 foot. [This wa« at tho rate of about 33G foot a year.] 
 
 I . In 1810, M. AKassiz, with some scientific friends, Messrs. Dosor, Vogt, and Nicolieb, 
 
 I OHtablisl'ed themsolves under a proat ovorhan},'ing slab of rock on tho same moraine, and by 
 
 moans of side walls, and other a,.]»liancos, constructed a rough abode which, because some of those 
 men of scionco came from Noufchiltel, they named tho " Hcitol dos NeuchAtelois." 
 
 In two years after its erection, Agassiz discovered that it hod movod downwards no less a 
 distance than 480 feet. 
 
 These and some similar measurements brought to light a very important fact. The reader 
 will observe that the middle numbers, correspond ing to the central portion of tho glacier, are tho 
 laiyest : hence it was obvious that the centre of a glacier, like that of a nvei; moves more 
 rapidly tfuin the sides. 
 
 Owing to tho greater central motion of a glacier, its crevasses invariably assume a curved 
 outline, of which the convexity advances towards the bottom of the valley. 
 
 It has also been ascortniued that the aupei-ficial part of a glacier moves more rapidly than 
 its base. 
 
 Again : Tyndall and Hirst, by employing instruments of great precision, have demonstrated 
 that the maxinmm of motion is not to be found exactly in the centre, but that, according to the 
 windings of the valley through which the glacier flows, it moves sometimes to the right of the 
 centre, and sometimes to the left. Now, the progression of a river exhibits all the cliaracters we 
 have just enumerated, and the truth foreshadowed by Rendu has been confirmed in every detail. 
 The glacier is a " river of ice." 
 
 The reader will naturally ask, How can a substance of such apparent rigidity as ice obey, as it 
 does obej', tho same laws which regulate the movement of fluids ? I can understand, he may say, 
 how wattir flows in such and such a manner : it is a liquid, and its molecules are deficient in the 
 property of cohesion ; but that so solid, and firm, and unimpressible a substance as ice should be 
 capable of motion seems impossible. 1 can understand very easily that a mass of ice, when 
 loosened or detached from its resting-place, will glide downwards until arrested by some 
 adequate obstacle ; but this is not the kind of motion you are describing. According to your 
 ey.planations, every constituent portion of the glacier moves, and the central faster than the lateral, 
 and the surface faster than the base. 
 
 Those objections were advanced by men of science when the motion of glaciers was first put 
 forv.ard as a theory; and the answer given by Scheuchzer was, that a glacier might be com- 
 
^ 
 
 *t 
 
 TIIKUKY OF OI-ACtKlt. MOTION ^ lit 
 
 (^tU'od, in the Huminer hoosoii, to a Hixjnjfo Haturatod witli water, wliieh, wliun iifterwiirds coiijjealed 
 by tlio cold temperaturo of aiituinii and winter, ex[)aiided, and produced a dilatatinn of the niuHH 
 in every direction. Then, as it could not recede, a« it could not ivaiicend its valley-slope, tho 
 augmentation of size would necessarily take place in its lower :")rtion. 
 
 It is unnecessary for us to explain why this answer was unsatisfactory. Subsequent obser- 
 vations, however, proved its impossibility, and I'rofessor Forbes then put forward his ideas of 
 tho vUcouti character of ice. But these, too, did not meet the conditions of the phenomenon ; 
 and the view now adopted is that of Professor Tyndall, who has shown that it is the result of 
 the regelation we have already described. 
 
 Professor Forbes enuncin ted his theory in words to the following eH'ect : " A glacier is an 
 imperfect fluid or viscous body, which is urged down slopes of certain inclinat'on by the natural 
 pressure of its parts." But we know the exceeding brittleiiess of ice, and Iiow is vi.scosity com- 
 patible with brittleness ? We know, too, that crevasses and fissures will suddenly form on a 
 glacier, like the cracks on a pane of glass. But if ice were viscous, and could exp. ad, dilate, or 
 stretch as viscous substances do, these crevasses would be impossible. They would gradually 
 I close up, like an indent in a mass of jelly. And yet it cannot be denied that a glacier does uiove 
 
 like a viscous body ; the centre flowing past the sides, the top flowing over the bottom, while tho 
 motion through a curved valley corresponds to fluid motion. How are we to reconcile these 
 apparently conflicting circumstances ? 
 
 By Professor Tyndall's regelation theory, which is founded on a fact already mentioned ; 
 namely, that when two pieces of thawing ice are brought in contact, they freeze together. 
 
 This yac<, and its ai)[iIication irrespective of the caune of regelation, may be thus illustrated : 
 " Saw two slabs from a block of ice, and bring their flat surfaces into contact ; they i.amediately 
 freeze together. Two plates of ice, laid one upon the other, with flannel round them «i" jrnight, 
 are sou itimes so firmly frozen in the morning that they will rather break elsewhere .^. long 
 their surface of junction. If you enter one of the dripping ice-caves of Switzerland, you have 
 only to press for a momeni i slab of ice against the roof of the cave to cause it to freeze there and 
 stick to the roof. 
 
 " Place a number of fragments of ice in a basin of water and cause them to touch each 
 other ; they freeze together where they torch. You can form a chain of such fragments ; and 
 then, by taking hold of one end of the chain, you can draw the whole series after it. Chains of 
 icebergs are sometimes formed in this way in the Arctic seas." 
 
 From these observations we deduce the following result : — Snow consists of small particles 
 of ice. Now, if by pressure we squeeze out the air entangled in thawing snow, and bring the 
 little ice-granules into close contact, they may be expected, as they do, to freeze together ; and 
 shoiUd the expulsion of tho air be complete, the squeezed snow will assume the appear..nce of 
 compact ice. 
 
 It is in this way tVat the consolidation of the snows takes place in the Arctic as in the 
 higher Alpine regions. The deeper layers of the n^e are converted into more or less perfect ice 
 by the pressure of the superjacent layers ; and further, they are made to assume the shape of tho 
 valley which they fill, by the slow and continuous pressure of its sides. 
 
 In glaciers, as Professor Tyndall points out, we have ample illustrations of rude fracture and 
 regelation ; as, for example, in the opening and closing of crevasses. The glacier is broken on 
 
118 
 
 OLACIEKS OF THE POLAR WORLD. 
 
 tho cascades, and mended at their bases. When two branch glaciers lay their sidtjs together, 
 the regulation is so firm that they begin immediately to flow in the trunk glacier as in a single 
 stream. The merlial moraine gives no indication by its slowness of motion that it is derived from 
 the sluggish ice of the sides of the branch glaciers. 
 
 We may sum up tho regelation theory in few words. The ice of glaciers changes its form 
 and retains its continuity imder pressure which keeps its particles together. But when subjected 
 to tdtsion, sooner than stretch, it breeds, and behaves no longer as a viscous Ixirly. 
 
 I'hese are Professor Tyndall's words, and the fact which they embody it would be difficult 
 to set forth more clearly or more concisely. 
 
 A I'OI.AU OLACIEIt. 
 
 Having said thus much of the struciture, causes, characteristics, and movement of 
 glaciers, we proceed to consider some of the more remarkable of those which are situated in 
 the Arctic World. 
 
 The glaciers of the Polar Regions do not differ in structure or uiode of formation from those 
 of other countries. Yet they possess some peculiar features, and to a superficial observer might 
 seem independent of the physical laws we have attempted to explain. That this is not the case 
 has been shown by Charles Martins, who carefully studied the glaciers of Spitzbergen on the 
 cHJcasion of the exjiloring voyage of the Recherche to tliat island, and has demonstrated that their 
 differences are but a j)articular case of the general phenomenon. 
 
 As special characters he points out, firat, the rarity of needles and prisms of ice, which he 
 
ICK-CAVEKNS AND GLACIEKS. 
 
 U9 
 
 attributes to the slight inclination and the unifonnity of the slopes, as well as to the diiainution 
 <,i the solar heat, which, even in the long summer days, does not melt the surtacc. Tliort! are no 
 rills or streams capable of hollowing out crevasses and moulding jjrotuberances or projections. 
 But transversal crevasses produced bv the movement of the glaciers arc numerous, and those are 
 often very wide and very deep. 
 
 In the terminal escarpment, which melts in proportion as it plunges into the sen, immense 
 caverns are sometimes seen ; caverns so immense that the azure-gloaming grottoes of the Arveiron 
 and Grindelwald, so much admin-d by European travellers, are but miniatnies. " Oie day,"' says 
 Charles Martins, " after having afecertamed the temperature of the sea off the great glacier of Bell 
 Sound. I proposed to tlie sailors who accomps^'iied me to carry our boat into il< cavern. I 
 explained to them the risk we should incur, being unwilling to attempt anything without their 
 consent. When our boat had crossed the threshold, we found ourselves in an iinnieiiso (jlothic 
 
 OI.AL'IKIl. KNlJI.lKIl IIAV, Sl'IT/.IIKUUKS. 
 
 cathedral ; long conical-pointed cylinders of ice descendeil from the roof ; the recesses seemed S(j 
 many chapels opening out cf the principal nave ; broad fissures divided the walls, and the open 
 intervals, like arches, sprang towards the sumn.'ts ; azure gleams played over the icy surface, and 
 were reflected in the water. The sailors, like myself, were dumb with admiration. But a too 
 prolonged contemplation would have been dangerous ; we soon regained the narrow opening 
 through which we had penetrated into this winter temple, and, returning on boanl our vessel, 
 preserved a discreet silence respecting an escapade which might have been justly blamed. In the 
 evening, we saw from the shore our cathedral of the morning slowly bend forwai-ds, detach itself 
 from the parent glacier, crash into the waves, and reappear in a chousand blocks and fragments of 
 ice, which the retiring tide carried slowly out to sea.' 
 
110 
 
 FORMATION OF ICEBERGS. 
 
 OLACIKR, nBLL SOUND, SPITZDKROKN. 
 
 The Spitzborgen glaciers do not exhibit those numerous moraines which are observed on the 
 majority of those of Switzerland. 
 
 'J'he inountains, not being very lofty, are buried, as it were, under their burden of glaciers, 
 instead of preponderating over them, and seem with difficulty to lift their peaks out of the mass 
 
 of ice and snow surrounding them. Con- 
 sequently, there are no consideraMe land- 
 slips or falls of earth and stone, which, 
 accumulating along the borders of the 
 glaciers, might form moraines. Martins 'i 
 of opinion that the Spitzbergcn glaciers 
 correspond to the upper part of the glaciers 
 of Switzerland ; to so much, that is to say, 
 as lies above the perpetual snow-line. 
 
 Now, he says, the higher we ascend on 
 an Alpine gla/jier, the more do the lateral 
 and medial moraines diminish in width and 
 form, until they taper away and finally disappear under the high 7idvds of the amphitheatres from 
 which the glacier issues, just as the mountain torrents often take their rise in one or in several 
 lakes terraced one above the other. 
 
 For all these reasons, he adds, the medial and lateral moraines are scarcely conspicuous on 
 the glaciers of Spitzbergen ; a number of stones and boulders may be seen along their sides, and 
 sometimes in their centre, but the ice is never hidden, as in the Alps, under the mass of debris 
 accumulated upon it. As for the terminal moraines, they must be sought at the bottom of the sea, 
 since the terminal escarpment nearly always overhangs it. Hence, the blocks of stone fall simul- 
 taneously with the blocks of ice, and form a submarine frontal moraine, of which the two 
 extremitias are occasionally visible upon the shore. 
 
 In a previous chapter we have alluded to the manner in which icebergs are formed by the 
 detachment from the seaward extremity of the glacier of huge masses of ice, which the current 
 carries out into the open sea* To the description already given, we may here add that which 
 Charles Martins furnishes in his valuable and interesting record of peraevering scientific enterprise, 
 " Du Spitzberg au Sahara" : — In Spitzbergen, he says, the glacier, after a traject of more or less con- 
 siderable duration, reaches the sea. If the shore bo rectilineal, it advances no further ; but, in the 
 recess of a biiy, where the shore is curved, it continues its progression, supporting its bulk on the 
 sides of the bay, and advancing above the water, which it overhangs. Tliis is easily understood. 
 In summer the sea-water at the bottom of the bays is always at a temperature a little above 32° ; 
 on coming in contact with this comparatively warm water the glacier melts, and, at low tide, an 
 interval is perceptible between the ice and the suri'ace of tlie water. The glacier being no longer 
 suppoited, partially crumbles and gives way ; immense blocks detach themselves, fall into the 
 sea, disappear beneath the water, reappear revolving on. their own axes, and oscillate for a few 
 moments until they have taken up their position of equilibrium. The blocks thus detached 
 from the floating masses, of all sizes and shapes, are called icebergs. 
 
 Our traveller records that twice a day, in Magdalena Bay and Bell Sound, he was an eye- 
 witness of this partial ruin of the extremity of the glaciers. Their fall was accompanied by a 
 

10EBERU8 AS IMI'KDIMENTS TO NAVIGATION. 183 
 
 noise like that of thunder ; the swollen sea rushed upon the shore in a succession of gigantic waves ; 
 the gulf was covered with icehergs, which, caught in the swirl and eddy, issued out of the bay. 
 like immense fleets, to gain the sea beyond, or were stmnded here and there at jwints where thu 
 water was shallow. The icebergs seen by M. Martins were not, however, of any surprising 
 magnitude ; he estimates their average height at thirteen to sixteen feet. Wo have seen that 
 those of Baffin Bay are tenfold more considerable and imposing ; but then, in that bay the tem- 
 perature of the sea is below 32°; the glacier does not melt when it entere the water ; it sinks to 
 the bottom of the sea ; and the pi >itions detached from it are all of greater height than even the 
 submerged part of the icebergs wl 'ch drift to and fro in the bays and gulfs of Spitzbergen. 
 
 We may follow up this description with some observations by Lieutenant Bellot, the 
 chivalrous young Frenchman who perished in one of the expeditions despatched in search of Sir 
 John Franklin and his companions. He is speaking of the masses of ice his ship encountered 
 soon after doubling Cape Farewell, the south point of Greenland, and he remarks, that a« Bafhn 
 Bay narrows towards f^e south, the icebergs, first set in motion higher up the bay by the northern 
 gales, necessarily tend to accumulate in the gorge thus formed, and so to impede and block uj) 
 Davis Strait, even when the higher wnt^rs are quite free. It is only through a series of alternate 
 movements of advance and recession ^nat the bergs finally pass beyond the barrier, and float out 
 into the Atlantic, to undergo a slow process of dissolution. 
 
 The mobility of the bergs, though necessary to navigation, forms at the same time its peculiar 
 danger, since a vessel is often placed between the shore and the colossal masses driven forward by 
 the wind, or between these and the solid ice which as yet has not broken up. It is useless to 
 dwell upon the immense force possessed by masses which are frequently several squar(< leagues in 
 extent, and which, once in movement, cannot be stayed by any human resistance. A sailing- 
 vessel finds herself placed in conditions all the more unfavourable, because the winds blow from 
 the very direction which she is bound to take in order to open up a way through the floes. Now, 
 if the gale is violent, it is perilous indeed to push forward in the midst of a labyrinth of bergs, 
 which form so many floating rocks ; if a calm prevails, a ship can move forward only by laborious 
 hauling or towed by the boats. The application of the screw-propeller to steam-ships has given 
 to them a great superiority, because they are not liable to any accident to paddle-wheels, exposed 
 as such must be to collision with the floating ice. It is recorded that, on one occasion, a screw- 
 steamer, near Upemavik, on the coast of Greenland, actually charged an iceberg, and drove 
 right through it, as a railway-engine might crash through a fence or hurdle. Of course, the 
 berg was of no great elevation ; but its solid mass yielded to the imm'?nae force of the steam-ship, 
 and split into large fragments. 
 
 In the convulsions caused by furious tempests, which are far from being so rare within the 
 Arctic Circle as is popularly supposed, the shape of the bergs becomes very irregular, and the 
 configuration of the ice-fields is constantly undergoing modification. Hence it often happens that 
 the voyager sees before him an open basin of water of greater or less extent, from which he is 
 separated only by a narrow strip of ice. In such a case he endeavours to efiect an opening, either 
 by driving his ship at full speed against the weakest pare of the ice, or with the help of immense 
 saws, twenty feet in length, which are worked with a rope and pulley placed at the top of a 
 triangle formed of long poles ; or, finally, by exploding a mine. When the ice is not very solid. 
 
1S4 MOVING ISLANDS IX BAFFIN BAY. 
 
 Iho Hhip is f'nrwd into the opoiiiiip, a«,'nin8t tho sides of whirli it acts like a wodge. It will some- 
 times occur, in the course of tho operation, that the ice-fields, set in motion by the wind or the 
 rurrcnts, close in together, after havin„' treacherously separated for a moment, and the vessel is 
 then sul)jecte<l to a dangerous pressure. Unhappy the mariner who does not foresee or sufficiently 
 note the waiiiing signs of tliis accident, which is almost always accorai)anied by fatal consequences. 
 The ice, which nothing can check, passing underneath tho ship, capsizes it, — or, if it resists, 
 crushes it. 
 
 We iiave alluded to the colosstvl bergs of Baffin Bay. These are thrown ott" from the 
 northern glaciers, and particularly from tho enormous ice-river named after Humboldt, which 
 cumbers the declivities of the Greenland Alps, beyond the 79th parallel. It has been a frequent 
 source- of suiprise to navigators that these mighty masses should float in a contrary direction to 
 that of the ice-fields which descend with the Polar current towards tho Atlantic. They reascend 
 with such rapidity that they shatter the so-called " ice-foot," or belt of ice, still adhering to the 
 shore. Cajjtain Maury has collected numerous observations on this important subject, and he 
 quotes the ca.se of a ship which was being laboriously hauled against tho current, when an enor- 
 mous floating mountain coming up from the south steered against it, but fortunately did not come 
 into collision with it, and forging ahead, very quickly disappeared. How is such an incident to 
 be explained ? By the existence of a submarine counter-current, acting on tho lower extremity 
 of the submerged portion of the berg, which, as we have stated, is always seven or eight times 
 larger than the bulk above the surface of the waves. 
 
 Our whalers, in their hazardous expeditions, often derive assistance from these moving islands. 
 They seek shelter under their lee when sudden storms arise ; for the huge bergs are scarcely 
 aftected by the most violent gales. They find their shelter valuable also during certain operations 
 of the fishery for which rest and quiet are necessary. Yet it is not absolutely exempt from 
 danger. The seeming friend may prove to be a concealed foe. The iceberg may collapse, or be 
 capsized ; or formidable fragments, loosened from their sides or summits, may topple headlong and 
 threaten to overwhelm the ship beneath : but as on these and other accidents we have already 
 dwelt at length, we refrain from wearying our readers with a twice-told tale. The repetition in 
 which, to some extent, we have indulged, was needful, in order to show the reader in what way 
 the dis-solution of the lower extremity of the glaciers is effected in the Arctic world. 
 
 In the neighbourhood of Cape Aley.nder, one of the headlands of Smith Strait, Dr. Hayes 
 met with a glacier, of which he gives an interesting description in his narrative of an " Arctic 
 Boat Journey," (1854):— 
 
 It was the first, protruding into the ocean, which he had had an opportunity of inspecting 
 closely ; and though small, compared with other similar formations, it had nevertheless all their 
 principal characteristics. It presented to the sea a convex mural face, seventy feet in height and 
 about two miles in length, its centre projecting into the water beyond the general line of the 
 coast to the east and west of it. The surface rose abruptly to the height of about two hundred 
 feet, and, sloping thence backward with a gentle inclination, seemed to be connected with an 
 extensive mer de glace above. Several fissures or crevasses, apparently of great depth, struck 
 vertically through its body, and extended far up into its interior; and others, more shallow, which 
 
THE AUCTiC MKK I)E GLACE. U7 
 
 seemed to have been formed by the utreams of melted snow that poured in cutaracts down into 
 the sea. Dr. Hayes remarks that ho was impressed by its viscous appearance ; hut we have 
 shown that a certain amount of > iscosity naturally appertains t<i glacier ice. 
 
 Parallel with its convex face ran a succession of indistinctly marked lines, which gave it the 
 aspect of a semi-fluid mass moving downward upon an inclined surface ; and this idea wiu* con- 
 firmed by its appearance about the rocks on either side. Over these it seemed to have flowed ; 
 and, fitting accurately into all their inequalities, it gave the ett'ect of a huge moving mass of 
 partially solidified matter suddenly cngealed. 
 
 Of still greater interest is the same adventurous explorer's description of the great Arctic 
 Mer lie Glace which lies inland from Rensselaer Bay, in about lat. 79° N., and long. G8° W. 
 
 Dr. Hayes and his party had set out on an expedition into the interior, anil after pa.ssing 
 through a really picturesque landscape, enriched with beds of moss and turf, patches of purple 
 andromeda, and the trailing branches of the dwarf-willow, they emerged upon a broad i)lain or 
 valley, in the heart of which reposed a- frozen lake, about two miles in length by half a mile in 
 width. They traversed its transparent surface. On either side of them rose rugged bluffs, that 
 stretched off into long lines of hills, culminating in series in a broad-topped mountain-ridge, wliich, 
 rumung away to right and left, waa cut by a gap several miles wide that opened directly before 
 them. Immediately in front was a low hill, around the base of which flowetl on either side the 
 branches of a stream whose course th^y had followed. Leaving the rivci'-bed just above the lake, 
 they climbed to the summit of this hillock ; and there a sight burst upon them, grand and inqjos- 
 iug beyond the power of words adequately to describe. From the rocky bed, only a few miles in 
 advance, a sloping wall of pure whiteness rose to a broad level plain of ice, which, apparently 
 without limits, stretched away toward the unknown east. It was the great mer de glace of the 
 Arctic continent. 
 
 Here then was, in reality, the counterpart of the river-systems of other lands. From behind 
 the granite hills the congealed drainings of the interior water-sheds, the atmospheric precipitations 
 of ages, were moving in a mass, which, though solid, was plastic, moving down through every 
 gap in the mountains, swallowing up the rocks, filling the valleys, submerging the hills : an 
 onward, irresistible, crystal tide, swelling to the ocean. The surface was intersected by numerous 
 vertical crevasses, some of considerable depth, which had drained off the melted snow. 
 
 It was midnight when the explorers approached this colossal reservoir. The sun was 
 several degrees beneath the horizon, and afforded a faint twilight-gleam. Stars of the second 
 magnitude were dimly perceptible in the cold, steel-blue Arctic heavens. When they were 
 within about half a mile of the icy wall, a brilliant meteor fell before them, and, by its reflection 
 upon the glassy surface beneath, greatly increased the magical effect of the scene ; while louil 
 reports, like distant thunder or the roll of artillery, broke at intervals from the depths of the 
 frozen sea. 
 
 On closer inspection it was found that the face of the glacier ascended at an angle of from 
 
 30° to 35°. At its base lay a high bank of snow, and the wanderers clambered up it about sixty 
 
 feet ; but beyond this their efforts were defied by the exceeding smoothness of the ice. The 
 
 mountains, which stood on either hand like giant-warders, were overlapped, and to some extent 
 
 submerged, by the glacier. From the face of the huge ice-river innumerable little rivulets ran 
 
 9 
 
138 OLAC'IKlt OK HKllMIATSJALIK. 
 
 down tlie chnnnulH ;liiir action had ^'nidimlly excavated, or f,'iirplod from henuath the ice ; Ibnn 
 iiiy, on till! level laiidn helow, a M.vt ut" marsh, not twenty yards from the icy wall, lioro, in 
 Btran^'o contnwt, bloomed bods of vurihiroiw moss ; and in thoso, tufts of dwarf-willows were 
 wreathin^f their tiny arms and rootlets about tho feebler Hower-growths ; and there, clustered 
 tog* th r, erout'hini,' amoiij^ tliu fi;raHn, and sheltered by the leaves, and foedinj^ on tho bed of 
 lichens, Ihjiirisiied a tiny, white-blossomed draba and a white chiekweed. l^ottinjjf tho few feet 
 of ;(reen around mi^dit be seen the yellow Hower.s of the more liardy poppy, tho purple pv)tentilla, 
 and saxifrages yellow, purple, and white. 
 
 The f^eat glacier of Sormiatsialik is one of the arms, or outlets, of this immense reservoir of 
 i(!0. It occupies the bed of a valley, varying from three and a half to five miles in width, and 
 attaining at certain j)oii>ts a depth of upwards of three hundred and seventy feet. This valley 
 opens upon the fiord of Sermiatsialik, which is separated from that of Julianshaab by tho range 
 of mountains culminating in the peak of Kedkammon. 
 
 We owe to ])r. Hayes a lively description of the Sermiatsialik glacier, which he thinks 
 must at some j)laces be more than seven hundred and fifty feet in depth, overfiowing tho borders 
 of the valley like a swollen torrent. For upwards of four leagues, the icebergs which throng the 
 fiord, or gulf, are those of the glacier itself, and terminating in a wedge-like outline, disappear in 
 the vast sea of ice expanding to right and left above the loftiest summits, and drawing irresist- 
 ibly the eye to its rippled surface, — boundless, apparently 3 that of ocean. As the voyager 
 sails up the gulf, he gradually loses sight of the frozen . " i^e, and then of the white line of the 
 mei' lie rfhtce : he finds himself in front of an immense cliflP, from one hundred to two hundred 
 feet in height, diaphanous as the purest crystals, and reflecting all tho hues of heaven. 
 
 One almost shudders ns one approaches this vast domain of Winter. Collecting in copious 
 streams, the ice and snow melted on the surface of tho glacier pour over its brink, forming float- 
 ing clouds of spray, irradiated by minbow colours. The din of these cascades fills tho air. At 
 intervals, the loud rej>orts of tho internal convulsions of the glacier are repeated by every echo. 
 
 The cliflF is entirely vertical ; but its face, far from being smooth, is broken up into an infi- 
 nite variety of forms : into unfathomable cavernous hollows, symmetrical sjiires, ogives, pinnacles, 
 and d(;op fissures, where tho eye plunges into a transparent blue, which changes every second 
 its fleeting, opaline tints ; tints so soft, and yet so vivid, that they dofy tho skill of the artist to 
 reproduce them. The lustre of the " dark eye of woman" is not more difficult to seize. A deep 
 dark green, less delicate but not less splendid, colours all the recesses where the ice overliangs 
 the waters. In the sunlight one sees the surface of these huge crystals shining with the white- 
 ness of tho jiurest snow ; except, indeed, where recent fractures have taken place. They suggest 
 to the mind tho idea of the gleams and reflections of a piece of satin ; the undulatory lustre and 
 shifting sparkle being produced by the different angles under wliich the light is reflected. 
 
 But let us suppose that we have landed; with much diflSculty have ascended the cliffs; and 
 have clambered up the glacier to its very summit. The scene before us, how shall we convey to 
 the mind of the reader ? 
 
 Imagine, if you can, the rapids of the Upper Niagara congealed even to their lowest depths; 
 imagine the falls, and the broad river, and the great Lake Erie all frozen into solid ice ; with 
 
UL^VCIKU OF HKIt.MlATSlAl.lK. 131 
 
 l)erj^ aliovo tho cataract tnworiti;; us hijjli n» tho luwcr biiiikH ; hui>im.su that you, the fi|K.'ctat<ir, 
 liaviiij.' ukoii yinir wtaml u|miii tin," ni|ii<lK, with the Krit! so innr tliiit mhi can we its civstalliztil 
 surface, and jfou will liavo a picture, on a reduced stale, oC the sea of ice now s|)rea(lin),' far hefore 
 us. The rapids will ropresisnt tho jjlacier ; tho (!rcat Fidl tho clilf which it i)rojccts into the sea 
 (only that tho colohratcd "horHc-shoo" iu hero turned outwards) ; ;h • river which liroadeiis into 
 tho Ontario will bo tno fiord ; and tho Ontario, that dark j^riin ofcan into which the ),rii,'antio 
 borgs dutachod from tho niiji,'hty icc-cascado are slowly niakinjf their way I 
 
 Wo must indicate, howover, ono roinarkable dissimilarity, lor which our previous oliMrva- 
 tions on tho nature of j,dacierH will have prepared tho roodor. From one bank to the other, the 
 surface of a river is always horizontaJ, but that of a fjlacier is sli<,'htly convrx, 
 
 'I'hrouf^h tho narrow <,den, or ravine, formed by this curvature of tho {jflacier, a kind of lateral 
 troujfh or ffully, bounded by tlie escarpment of the soil, we reach tho sea. Tlie dcsci iit is not 
 without its danfjei-s, for at every point crevasses open, separated by slippery projections. These 
 deep flashes, at some points, are only a. few yards apart; and they incessantly cross each other, 
 and run into one another, so as to form a perfect labyrinth, in tho windings of which tho adven- 
 turous traveller is ajit to feel bewildered. 
 
 The border of tho glacier once cro.sscd, tho way becomes less difficult ; for a mile tuid a half 
 the level is almost perfect, and tho ice but little broken »ip. Tho frozen desert, however, 
 impresses us with an almost solemn feeling, and there is something terrible in the desolation of 
 uuch a Sahara of snow I 
 
 Moreover, the traveller is irresistibly affected by the continual roar or growling of tho enor- 
 mous mass, which seems to stir and shake u.;dcr our very feet. He would nt)t be surj)rist:d if a 
 vast chasm sudaenly yawned before him ! These harsh deep voices of tho glacier, liowever, are 
 not tho only sounds avo hear. On every side rises tho murmur of brooks which trace their fur- 
 rows acrOiHs the crystalline plain. Some of these gradually convcgc, and, uniting, forui a con- 
 siderable torrent, which leaps with a clang from icy crag to icy ledge, until it is lost in a 
 crevasse, or precipitated over tho frozen cliff into tho waters of the fiord. 'J'he Koluude of tho 
 scene is complete, but not tho silence. The air is as full of " noises" as ever was Prospeio's isle. 
 
 Such aro the principal features of tlu^ glacier of Sermiatsialik. 
 
 About ninety miles north-east of Rensselaer Bay lies tho great Humboldt Glacier, which 
 scorns to servo as a connecting-link between tho Old World and the New. 
 
 It lies between the 79th and 80th parallels north, and between tho 64th and C5th meridians 
 west, skirting the shore of Peabody Bay, which is a bold indentation of the east coast of Kane Sea. 
 
 It was discovered in Dr. Kane's expedition, and is probably ono of the grandest spectacles 
 in the Arctic world. Dr. Kane acknowledges himself unable to do justice to its magnificent 
 a-spect. He can speak only of its " long, ever-sliining line of cliff diminished to a well-j)ointed 
 wedge in the perspective;" of its "face of glistening ice, sweeping in a long curve from tho low 
 interior, the facets in front intensely illuminated by the sun." 
 
 This line of clivf rises, like a sohd wall of glass, three hundred feet above the water-level, 
 with an unknown, unfathomable depth below it ; and its curved face, sixty miles in length, dis- 
 appears into unknown space at not more than a single day's railroad-travel from the Pole. The 
 
132 THE HUMBOLDT GLACIER. 
 
 interior with which it eomniunicatea, and from wliiclv it issues, is an unexplored mer de glace, 
 an ico-occan, of apparently boundless dimensions. 
 
 Such is the " mi;'htv crj'.Htal hridfjjo " which connects the two continents of America and 
 Grconhiiid. Wo say, continents; for (j!k nland, as Dr. Kane remarks, however insulated it 
 may ultimately prove to be, is in mass strictly continental. Its least possible axis, measured 
 from Cape Farewell to the line of the Humboldt Glacier, in the neighbourhood of the 80th 
 parallel, {.''ves a length of upwards of twelve hundred miles, — not materially less than that of 
 Australia from its northern to its southern cape. 
 
 Imagine the centre of such a continent, says Dr. Knne, occupied through nearly its whole 
 extent by a deep, unbroken sea of ice, that gathers perennial increase from the water-shed of vast 
 snow-covered mountaina and all the precipitations of the atmosphere upon its own surface. 
 Imagine tliis, moving onward like a great glacial river, seeking outlets at every fiord and valley, 
 rolling icy cataracts into the Atlantic aid Greenland seas ; and, having at last reached the 
 northern limit of the land that has jorne it up, pouring out a mighty frozen torrent into unknown 
 Arctic space. 
 
 " It is thus," remarks Dr. Kane, " and only thus, that we must form a just conception of a 
 phenomenon like this great glaeier. I had looked in my own mind for such an appearance, 
 should I ever be fortunate enough to reach the northern coast of Greenland. But now that it 
 was before me, I could hardly realize it. I had recognized, in my quiet library at home, the 
 beautiful analogies which Forbes and Studer have developed between the glacier and the river; 
 but 1 could not compreliend at first this complete substitution of ice for water. 
 
 "It was slowly the convic^tion dawned on me that I was looking upon the counterpart of 
 the great river-system of Arctic Asia and America. Yet here were no water-feeders from the 
 south. Every particle of moisture had its origin within the Polar Circle, and had been converted 
 into ice. There were no vast alluvions, no forest or animal tiaces borne down by liquid torrents. 
 Hero was a plastic, moving, semi-solid mass, obliterating life, swallowing rocks and islands, and 
 ploughing its way with irresistible march through the crust of an investing sea." 
 
 When, at a later period. Dr. Kane made a closer examination of this great natural wonder, 
 lie found that previously he had not realized the full grandeur of the spectacle. He noted that 
 the trend of the glacier was a few degrees to the west of north ; and he remarks, as the 
 peculiarity of its aspect, that it did not indicate repose, but activity, energy, movement. 
 
 Its surface seemed to follow that of the basis-country over which it flowed. It was undulat- 
 ing on and about the horizon, but as it descended towards the sea it represented a broken plain 
 with a general inclination of some nine degrees, still diminishing toward the foreground. Crev- 
 asses, which in the distance seemed like mere wrinkles, expanded as they came nearer, and were 
 intersected almost pt right angles by long continuous lines of fracture parallel with the face of 
 the glacier. 
 
 These lines, too, scarcely perceptible in the far distance, widened as they approached the 
 sea until they formed a gigantic stairway. It see nod as though the ice had lost its support 
 below, and that the mass was let down from above in a series of steps ; and such an action is the 
 necessary result of the heat thrown out by the soil, the excessive surface-drainage, and the con- 
 stant abrasion of the sea. 
 
DR. KANE'S THKOKY OF It'EBEKOS. 133 
 
 The indication of a great propeliintf agency seemed to be just commencing at th- time that 
 Dr, Kane visited the great glacier. Tlie split-off lines of ice were evidently in motion, pressed 
 on by those behind, but still broadening their fissures, as if the impelling action grew more and 
 more energetic nearer the water, till ai last they floated away in the form of icebergs. Long 
 files of these detached masses might bo seen, like the ranks of a stately armada, slowly sailing 
 out into the remote sea, their sepai.ition marked by dark parallel si ''ows ; broad and spacious 
 avenues near the eye, but narrowed in the perspective to mere furrows. A more impressive 
 illustration of the forces of nature it would be diflficult to conceive. 
 
 Dr. Kane's view of the formation of icebergs differs considorrbly from that which most 
 physicists entertain. 
 
 He dees not believe that the berg falls into the sea, broken by its weight from the parent 
 glacier; he is of opinion that it rises from the sea. The process is at onco gradual and compara- 
 tively quiet. " The idea of icebergs being discharged, so universal among systematic writers, 
 seems to me at variance with the regulated and progressive actions of Nature Developed by 
 such a process, the thousands of bergs which throng the Polar seas should keep the air and 
 water in nerpctuai commotion, one fearful succession of explosive detonations and propagated 
 waves. But it is only the lesser masses falling into deep waters which could justify the popular 
 opinion. The enormous masses of the great glacier are propelled, step by step and year by year, 
 until, reaching water capable c supporting them, they are floated off to be lost in the tempera- 
 tures of other regions." 
 
 The Humboldt Glacier did not differ in structure from the Alpine and Norwegian ice- 
 growths ; and its face presented nearly all the characteristic features of the latter. The overjlow, 
 or viscous overlapping of the surface, was very strongly marked. " When clo.so to the island 
 rocks," says- Kane, "and looking out upon the upper tab'' of the glacier, I was struck with the 
 homely ansilogy of the batter-cake spreading itself out under the ladle of the housewife, the upper 
 surface less affected by friction, and rolling forward in consequence." 
 
 The crevasses bore the nrirks of direct fracture, as well as of the more gradual action of 
 surface-drainage. The extensive water-shed between their converging i)lanes gave to the icy 
 surface most of the hydrographic features of a river-system. The ice-born rivers which divided 
 them were margined occasionally with spires of discoloured ice, and generally lost themselves in 
 the central areas of the glacier before reaching its foreground. Occasionally, too, the face of 
 the glacier was cut by vertical lines, which, as in the Alpine examples, were evidently outlets for 
 the surface drainage. 
 
 The height of this ice- wall at the nearest point was about three hundred feet, measured from 
 the water's edge ; and the unbroken right line of its diminishing perspective showed that this 
 might be regarded as its constant measurement. It seemed, in fact, a great icy table-land, 
 abuttino- with a clean precipice against tiie sea. This, indeed, is the great characteristic of all 
 those Arctic glafiei.s which issue from central reservoirs or mers de glace upon the fiords or bays, 
 and is strikin^-ly in contiust with the dependent or hanging glacier of the ravines, where every 
 line and furrow and chasm seem to indicate the movement of descent and the mechanical 
 disturbances which have imp^ ded and delayed it. 
 
 Dr. Kane named this monster glacier after Alexander Von Humboldt, to whose labours 
 
'^' NOTES <»N TirK OLACIEU. 
 
 I'liysical Scionco is ho largely indebted ; and the cape which flanks it on the Greenland coast 
 alter the distingui.shed ii.-ituraliHt, wliom the world has so recently lost, Professor Agassiz. 
 
 Tlui point at which tlio irumboldt Glacier enters the "Land of Washington " affords even 
 ut a distance very clear indications of its plastic or semi-solid character. The observer finds it 
 impossible to resist the impression of fluidity conveyed by its peculiar markings. Dr. Kane very 
 appropriately named it Cape Forbes, in honour of the illustrious son of Scotia who contributed 
 so largely to our true knowledge of the structure and mode of progression of glaciers. 
 
 As the surface of tlie glacier, adds its discoverer, receded to the south, its face seemed 
 l)roken with piles of earth and rock-stained rubbish, until far back in the interior it was concealed 
 lV..ni view by the slope of a hill. But even beyond this point its continued extension was shown 
 by the white glare or ice-blink in the sky above. 
 
 Its outline to the northward could not bo so easily traced, on account of the enormous dis- 
 -harges at its ba«e. The talus of its descent from the interior, looking far off to the east, ranged 
 fr(jm r to 15^ so interrupted by the crcva.sses, however, as only in the distance to produce the 
 effect of an inclined plane. A few black protuberances rose above the glittering surface of the 
 snow, like islands in a foamy sea 
 
 It could bo seen, from the general inequalities of its surface, how well the huge mass 
 adapted itself to the inequalities of the basis-country beneath. The same modifications of hill 
 an.l dale were discernible a. upon land. Thus grand and various in its imposing aspect, it 
 st.v.t..hes to the north until it touches the new Land of Washington, cementing together by an 
 apparently iHissoluble tie the Greenland of the Norse Vikings and the America of the An<rlo- 
 8a.\on coloiiists. " 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE ARCTIC LANDS — FAUNA — FLORA — GRF.ENLANl) — ICELAND — NOVAIA ZEMLAIA—SIDKBIA. 
 
 ifiVUIE have already pointed out that in the northernmost regions of the Arctic lands the 
 WwBj year is divided into one prolonged and bitterly cold night of several months' duration, 
 IMMlii and one glorious summer's day extending over nine or ten weeks, which brings the 
 scanty vegetation to a sudden maturity. We have indicated that even witliin the limits of 
 pei-potual snow the life of Nature is not altogether crushed out ; and in support of this statement 
 we may refer to the "red snow" which figures so often in the pages of our Arctic voyagers, 
 tiiough its true character was not at first .apprehended. 
 
 This so-called "red snow" was found by Sir John Ross, in his first Arctic expedition in 
 1808, on a range of cliffs rising about 800 feet above the sea-level, and extending eight miles in 
 length (hit. 75° N.). It was also discovered by Sir W. E. Parry in his overland expedition in 
 1827. The snow was tinged to the depth of several inches. Moreover, if the surface of the 
 snow-plain, though previously of its usual spotless purity, was crushed by the pressure of the 
 sledges and of the footsteps of the party, blood-like st<ains instantly arose ; the impressions being 
 sometimes of an orange hue, and sometimes more like a pale salmon tint. 
 
 It has been ascertained that this singular variation of colour is due to an immense aggrega- 
 tion of minute plants of the species called Protococcus nivalis ; the generic name alluding to the 
 extreme primitiveness of its organization, and the specific to the peculiar nature of its habitat. 
 If we place a small quantity of red snow on a piece of white paper, and allow it to melt and 
 evaporate, here will be left a residuum of granules sufficient to communicate a faint crimson tint 
 to the paper. Examine these granules under a microscope, and they will prove to be spherical 
 purple colls of almost inappreciable size, not more than the three-thousandth to one-thousandth 
 part of an inch in diameter. Look more closely, and you will see that each cell has an opening, 
 surrounded by indented or serrated lines, the smallest diameter of which measures only the five- 
 thousandth part of an incL When perfect, the plant, as Dr. Macmillan observes, bears a 
 resemblance to a red-currant berry ; as it decays, the red colouring matter fades into a deej) 
 orange, which is finally resolved into a brownish hue. The thickness of the wall of the cell is 
 estimated at the twenty-thousandth part of an inch, and three hundred to four hundred of these 
 cells might be grouped together in a smaller space than a shilling would cover. Yet each cell is 
 a distinct individual plant ; perfectly independent of othera with which it may be massed ; fully 
 capable of peifomiing for and by itself all the functions of growth and reproduction ; pos.sessing 
 " a containing membrane which absorbs liquids and gases from the surrounding matrix or elements, 
 
136 F0KM8 OF VKOETAULK LIFE. 
 
 ii contfiiiiod fluid of peculiar character formed out of these materials, and a number of excessively 
 niinuto granules equivalent to spores, or, as some would say, to cellular buds, which are to become 
 
 the genns of new plants." Dr. Mat millan adds : " That 
 
 - ^^— ^^^ ^^^j ^j^^ same primitive cell should thu.s minister 
 
 ^^ ^^^•jSC^jflJL^n^ ^^ ^ equally to absori)tion, lutrition, and reproduction, is an 
 
 _•■ #, WKf^ _. extraordinary illustration of the fact that the smallest and 
 
 3;^:;^kL-~, ;,>,^^^- . "if \ ■ simplest organized object is in itself, and, for the part it 
 
 ,'.\I^.^%^y;(*|«ii^^^ was created to perform in the operations of nati -e, as 
 
 admirably adapted as the lareest and most complicated." 
 
 pnoTOCOCCDs NIVALIS. J r o r 
 
 Tlio firet vegetable forms to make their appearance at the limits of the snow-line, whether 
 in higl.i latitudes or on mountain-summits, are lichens ; which flourish on rocks, or stones, or trees, 
 or whc jver they can obtain sufficient moisture to support existence. Upwards of two thousand 
 four hundred species iiru known. The same kinds prevail throughout the Arctic Regions, and 
 the species common to both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres are very numerous. They 
 lend the beauty of colour to many an Arctic scene which would otherwise be inexpressibly 
 dreary ; the most rugged rock acquiring a certain air of picturesqueness through their luxuriant dis- 
 play. Their forms are wonderfully varied ; so that they present to the student of Nature an almost 
 inexhaustible field of inquiry. In their most rudimentary aspects they seem to consist of nothing 
 more than a collection of powdery granules, so minute that the figure of each is scarcely distin- 
 guishable, and so dry and so deficient in organization that we caimot but wonder how they live 
 and maintain life. Now they are seen like ink-spots on the trunks of fallen trees ; now they are 
 freely sprinkled in white dust over rocks and withered tufts of moss ; others appear in gray filmy 
 patches ; others again like knots or rosettes of various tints ; and some are pulpy and gelatinous, 
 like aerial seorwceds which the receding tide leaves bare and naked on inland rocks. A greater 
 complexity of structure, however, is visible in the higher order of lichens, — and we find them 
 either tufted and shrubby, like miniature trees ; or in clustering cups, which, Hebe-like, present 
 their " dewy offerings to the sun." 
 
 In the Polar World, and its regions of eternal winter, where snow and ice, and dark drear 
 waters, huge glacier and colossal berg, combine to form an aAvful and impressive picture, the 
 traveller is thankful for the abundance of these humble and primitive forms, which communicate 
 the freshness and variety of life to the otherwise painful and death-like uniformity of the frost- 
 bound Nature. It is true that here, 
 
 " Above, around, below, 
 Ou niouutjiiii or in glen, 
 Nor tree, nor shrub, nor plant, nor flower," 
 
 may be found in the lands beyond the line of perpetual snow ; it is true that 
 
 " All is rocks at random thrown, 
 Black wavea, bare orngs, and banks of stone ; 
 As if were here denied 
 
 Tlie summer's sun, the spring's sweet dew, 
 
 That clothe with many a varied hue 
 The bleakest mountain-side ; " 
 
 but vegetation is not absolutely wanting, and the lichens are so largely developed and so widely 
 distributed as to impart quite a peculiar and distinctive character to the scenery. 
 
LICHENS AND TIIEIK CHAUACTEKS. 137 
 
 A lichen which is discovered in almost every zone of altitude and latitude, which ranges 
 t'rom the wild shores of Melville Island in the Arctic to those of Deception Island in the 
 Antarctic circle, — which blooms on the crests of the Himalayas, on the lofty peak of Chiniboi-azo, 
 and was found by Aj^assiz near the top of Mont Blanc, — is the Lecidea geograplnca, a beautiful 
 bright-green lichen, whose clusters assume almost a kaleidoscopic appearance. 
 
 A lichen of great importance in the Arctic world is the well-known Cladonin rangiferina, 
 or reindeer moss, which forms the .staple food of that animal during the long Arctic winter. In 
 the vast tundras, or steppes, of Lapland it flourishes in the greatest profusion completely covering 
 the ground with its snowy tufts, which look like the silvery sprays ame magic plant. 
 
 According to Linnaeus, it thrives more luxuriantly than any other pn- „ in the pine-forests of 
 Lapland, the surface of the soil being carpeted with it for many miles in extent ; and if the forests 
 are accidentally burned to the ground, it quickly reappears, and grows with all its original vigour. 
 These plains, which seem to the traveller smitten with the curse of desolation, the Laplander 
 regards as fertile pastures ; and here vast herds of reindeer roam at will, thriving where the 
 horse, the elephant, and even the camel would perish. This useful animal is dependent almost 
 entirely on a lichen for support. What a deep interest is thus attached to it ! That vast 
 numbers of families, living in pastoral simplicity in the cheerless and inhospitable Polar Regions, 
 should depend for their subsistence upon the uncultured and abundant supply of a plant so low 
 in the scale of organization as thi.s, is, says Dr. Macniillan, a striking proof of the great importance 
 of even the smallest and meanest objects in nature. 
 
 When the ground is crusted with a hard and frozen snow, which prevents it from obtaining 
 its usual food, the reindeer turns to another lichen, called rock-hair (Alectoria jubata), that grows 
 in long bearded tufts on almost every tree. In winters of extreme rigour, the Laplanders cut 
 down whole forests of the largest trees, that their herds may browse freely on the tufts which 
 clothe the higher branches. Hence it has been justly said that "the vast dreary pine-forests of 
 Lapland possess a character which is peculiarly their own, and are perhaps more singular in the 
 eyes of the traveller than any other feature in the landscapes of that remote and desolate region. 
 This character they owe to the immense number of lichens with which they abound. The ground, 
 instead of grass, is carpeted with dense tufts of the reindeer moss, white as a shower of new 
 fallen snow ; while the trunks and branches of the trees are swollen far beyond their natural 
 dimensions with huge, dusky, funereal branches of the rock-hair, hanging down in masses, 
 exhaling a damp earthy smell, like an old cellar, or stretching from tree to tree in long festoons, 
 waving with every breath of wind, and creating a perpetual melancholy sound." 
 
 In regions furthest north are found various species of lichens belonging to the genera 
 Gyrophova and Umhilicuria, and known in the records of Arctic travel as rock tripe, or tnpe 
 de roche ; a name given to them in consequence of their blistered thallus, which bears a faint 
 resemblance to the animal substance so called. They afford a coarse kind of food, and proved 
 of the greatest service to the expeditions under Sir John Franklin ; though their • utritious 
 properties are not considerable, and, such as they are, are unfortunately impaired by th( presence 
 of a bitter principle which is apt to induce diarrhoea. In Franklin and Richardson's terrible 
 overland journey from the Coppermine River to Fort Enterprise it was almost the sole support, 
 at one time, of the heroic little company. Dr. Richardson says they gathered four species of 
 
 . 
 
138 nOCK-LlCHKN, OU STONK-MOSS. 
 
 (t'l/rophora,* and used them all as articles of food ; " but not having the means of extracting the 
 liittcr principle from them, thoy ])rovod nauseous to all, and noxious to several of the party, 
 prcMlufiiig severe howol complaints." Franklin on one occasion remarks : " This was the sixth 
 day since we had enjoyed a good meal ; the tri/w iJc mche, even when wo got enough, only 
 serving to allay the pangs of hunger for a short time." Again, we read : " The want of tnpe 
 de roche catised us to go suppcrless to bed." 
 
 Dr. Hayes, in the course of his " Arctic Boat Journey," was compelled to have recourse to 
 the same unsatisfactory fare. The rock-lichen, or stone-moss, as he calls it, he describes as about 
 an inch in diameter at its maximum growth, and of the thickness of a wafer. It is black exter- 
 nally, but when broken the interior appears white. When boiled it makes a glutinous fluid, 
 which is slightly nutritious. 
 
 " Although in some places it grows very tabundantly," writes Dr. Hayes, " yet in one 
 locality it, like the game, was scarce. Most of the rocks had none upon them ; and there Avero 
 \cry few from whicli we could collect as much as a quart. The difficulty of gathering it was 
 much augmented b}' its crispness, and the firmness of its attachment. 
 
 " For this plant, poor though it was, we were compelled to dig. The rocks in every case 
 were to be cleared from snow, and often our pains went unrewarded. The first time tliis food 
 was tried it seemed to answer well, — it at least filled the stomach, and tlius kept off the horrid 
 sensation of hunger until we goV to sleep ; but it was found to produce afterwards a painful 
 diarrhoea. Besides this unpleasant effect, fragments of gravel, which were mixed with the moss, 
 tried our teeth. We picked the plants from the rock with our knives, or a piece of hoop-iron ; 
 and we con not avoid breaking off some particles of the stone." 
 
 These lichens are black and leather-like, studded with small black points like "coiled wire 
 buttons," and attached either by an umbilical root or by short and tenacious fibres to the rocks. 
 Some of them maj-^ be comjiared to a piece of shagreen, while tithers resemble a fragment of 
 burned skin. They are met with in cold bleak localities, on Alpine heights of granite or 
 micaceous schist, in almost all parts of the world, — on the Scottish mountains, on the Andes, on 
 the Himalaj^as ; but it is in the Polar World that they most abound, spreading over the surface 
 of every rock a sombre Plutonian vegetation, that seems to have been scathed by fire and flame, 
 until all its beauty and richness were shrivelled up. 
 
 Some of the lichens in the less remote latitudes — as, for instance, in Sweden — are far 
 superior in usefulness to any of those we have hitherto described. The Swedish peasant finds 
 in them his pharmacy, his dyeing materials, his food. With the various lichens that grow upon 
 the trees and rocks, says Frederika Bremer, he cures the virulent diseases which sometimes 
 afflict him, dyes the articles of clothing which he wears, and poisons the noxious and dangerous 
 animals which annoy him. The juniper and cranberry giv-e him their berries, Avhich he brews 
 into drink ; he makes a conserve of them, and mixes their juices with his dry salt-meat, and is 
 healthful .and cheerful with these and with his labour, of which he makes a pleasure. 
 
 The only lichen which has retained its place in modern pharmacy is the well-known " Iceland 
 moss." It is still employed as a tonic and febrifuge in ague; but more largely, when added to 
 soups and chocolate, as an article of diet for the feeble and consumptive. In Iceland the 
 
 ♦ So culled from its circular form, and because the surface of the leaf is marked with curved Hues. 
 
MOSSES IN THE ARCTIC KE010N8. 139 
 
 Cetraria Islandica is higlily valuod by the inhabitants. Wliat barley, rye, and oats are to the 
 Indo-Caucasian races of Asia and Wostorn Europe ; the olive, the fig, and the grape to the 
 inhabitants of the Mediterranean basin ; rice to the Hindu ; the tea-plant to the native of the 
 Flowery Land; and the date palm to the Arab, — is Iceland moss to the Icelander, the Lapp, 
 and the Eskimo. 
 
 It is found on some of the loftiest peaks of the Scottish Highlands ; but in Iceland it 
 overspreads the whole country, flourishing more abundantly and attaining to a larger growth on 
 the volcanic soil of the western coast than elsewhere. It is collected tricnnially, for it retpiire-s 
 three years to reach maturity, after the spots where it thrives have been cleared. We are told 
 that the meal obtained from it, when mixed with wheat-flour, produces a greater quantity, 
 though perhaps a loss nutritious quality, of bread than can be manufactured from wlieat-flour 
 alone. The great objection to it is its bitterness, arising from its peculiar astringent principle, 
 cetraria. However, the Lapps and Icelanders remove this disagreeable pungency by a 
 simple process. They cliop the lichen to pieces, and macerate it for several days in. water mixe<l 
 with salt of tartar or quicklime, which it absorbs very readily ; next they dry it, and pulverize 
 it; then, mixed with the flour of the common knot-grass, it is made into a cake, or boiled, and 
 eaten with reindeer's milk. 
 
 Mosses are abundant in the Arctic Regions, increasing in number and beauty as we approach 
 the Polo, and covering the desert land with a thin veil of verdure, which refreshes the eye and 
 gladdens the heart of the traveller. On the hills of Lapland and Greenland, they are exten- 
 sively distributed ; and the landscape owes most of its interest to the charming contrasts they 
 afford. Of all the genera, perhaps the bog-mosses. Sphagna, are the most luxuriant ; but at the 
 same time they are the least attractive, and the plains which they cover are even drearier i-han 
 the naked rock. In Melville Island these mosses form upwards of a fourth part of the whole 
 flora. Much finer to the sight is the common hair-moss {Pohjtrichum commune), which extends 
 over the levels of Lapland, and is used by the Lapps, when they are bound on long journeys, for 
 a temporary couch. We may mention also the fork-moss (Dieranum), which the Eskimos 
 twist into wicks for their rude lamps. 
 
 We have not space to dwell upon the grasses and fungi, though those are numerous, and 
 some of them interesting. The cochlearia, or scurvy-grass, has often proved of groat utility to 
 Arctic explorers ; and Dr. Kane on more than one occasion availed himself of its medicinal 
 properties. Fungi extend almost to the very limits of Arctic vegetation. The Greonlanders and 
 Lapps make use of them for tinder, or as styptics for stopping the flow of blood, and allaying 
 pain. In Siberia they abound. Frequently, in the high latitudes, they take the form of "snow 
 mould," and are found growing on the barren and ungenial snow. These species are warmed 
 into life only when the sun has grown suflScient to melt the superficial snow-crust, witliout 
 producing a general thaw, and then they spread far and wide in glittering wool-like patches, 
 dotted with specks of red or green. When the onow melts, they overspread the grass beneath 
 like a film of cobweb, and in a day or two disap lear. 
 
 In Siberia grows the fly-agaric (Agai-icus muscarius), from which the inhabitants obtain an 
 intoxicating liquor of peculiarly dangerous character. It has a tall white stem, surmounted by a 
 dome of rich orange scarlet, studded with white scaly tubercles, and in some parts of Kamt- 
 
140 A MKMOKIAL OF FKANKLIN. 
 
 schatka iind the northern districts of Siberia is so abundant that the j^round Hparkles and shines 
 as if covered with a scarlet caqx-t. The natives collect it durin<( the hot summer months, and dry 
 it. Steiped in the juice of the whortleberry, it forms a powerful mtoxicatinj^ wine; or rolled up 
 like a bolus, and swallowed without chewinj^, it produces nuuli the same effect as opium. On 
 some, however, it acts as an excitant, and induces active muscular exertion. A talkative person, 
 under its influence, cannot keep silence or secrets ; one fond of music, sings incessantly ; and if a 
 person who has partaken of it wishes to step over a straw or small stick, he takes a stride or 
 jump Hurticient to clear the trunk of a tree ! 
 
 'J'iie Koriaks and Kamtschatkans personify this fungus, under the name of Mocho Moro, as 
 one of their penates, or household gods ; and if they are impelled by its effects to commit any 
 dreadful crime, they pretend they act oidy in obedience to commands which may not be disputed. 
 'J'o (pialify themselves for nmrder or suicide, they drink additional doses of "this intoxicating 
 j)roduct of decay and corruption." 
 
 During Captain Penny's voyage in search of Sir John Frankhn, he picked up two pieces of 
 floating drift-wood, far beyond the usual limit of Eskimo occupation, which, from their peculiar 
 appearance, excited a lively curiosity. The one was found in Robert Bay, oft" Hamilton 
 Island, lat. 70' 2,' north, and long. 7G° west, — that is, in the route which Franklin's ships, it is 
 suj)j«)sed, had followed, — and was plainly a fragment of wrought elm plank, which had been part 
 of a ship's timbers. It exhibited three kinds of surface, — one that had been planed and pitched, 
 one roughly sawn, and the third split with an axe. The second piece of drift-wood was picked 
 up on the north side of Cornwallis Island, in lat. 75° 36' north, and long. 96^ west. It was a 
 i)ranch of white spruce, much bleached in some places, and in others charred and blackened as if 
 it had been u.sud for fuel. 
 
 On both i'ragnients traces of microscopic vegetation were discovered ; and as it was thought 
 they might, if carefully examined, afford some clue to the fate of Franklin's expedition, they 
 were submitted to Air. Berkeley, a well-known natumlist. In the report which he addressed to 
 the Admiralty, he stated that the vegetation in both cases resembled the dark olive mottled 
 patches with wliich wooden structures in this country, if exposed to atmospheric influences, are 
 speedily covered. The bleached cells and fibres of the fragment of elm were filled up with 
 slender fungoid forms, mycelial; while on its different surfaces appeared several dark -coloured 
 specks, belonging to the genus Phoma. As it was not probable that plants so minute could have 
 retained, through the terrible severity of an Arctic winter, their delicate naked spores in the 
 perfect condition in which they were found, Mr. Berkeley concluded that they must have been 
 developed through tiiat same summer ; wliile from three to four years, in those high latitudes 
 and amid the rigour of stormy ice-covered seas, would sutfice to produce the bleached appearance 
 of the wood. Hence he inferred that the plank had not been long exposed. 
 
 (Jn the other fragment of drift-wood he discovered some deeply-embedded minute black 
 fungoid forms, called Spovidcmnium leprcma. Uidike the phomas, which are very ephemeral, 
 these plants possess the longevity of the lichens, and the same patches last for years unchanged on 
 the stxme pieces of wood, while their traces are discernible for a still longer period. From their 
 condition, Mr. Berkeley inferred that the fungi on the drifted wood had not been recently developed, 
 but that, on the contrary, they were the remains of the species which existed on the drift-wood 
 when used for fuel by the unfortunate crews of Franklin's ships, the Erebus and the Teiror. 
 
I'H^NOOAMOUS PLANTS OF THE NOHTII, 111 
 
 There can be no doubt whatever, as Dr. Macmillan remarks, conMidtrinj^ the circumstnncoa 
 in which thoy were discovered, and the reniarkablo appoaraucen tiioy prcsuntod — tliuro can be no 
 reasonable doubt that both fragments of drift-wood belonged to, or were connected with, the lost 
 ships ; and the curious information regarding the course they pursued at a ce:tain time, furnished 
 by witnesses so extraordinary and unlikely as a few tiny dark specks of cryptogamio vegetation 
 on floating drift-wood, was confirmed, in a wonderful manner, by the after-discovery of the first 
 authentic account ever obtained of the sad and pathetic histoiy of Franklin's expedition. 
 
 The reader will not expect to find the tundras of Northern Asia or the shores of the Polar 
 Sea rich in bud and bloom, yet even these dreary wastes are not absolutely without floral decora- 
 tion. Selinum and cerathium, as well as the poppy and sorrel, androineda, and several species of 
 heath, are mentioned by Dr. Kane as blooming in the neighbourhooil of Smith Strait. On the 
 south coast of the Polar Sea Dr. Richardson found a considerable variety of vegetation. We 
 noticed, he says, about one hundred and seventy phrenogamous or flowering plants ; being one- 
 fifth of the number of species which exist fifteen degrees of latitude further to the southward. 
 He adds : — The grasses, bents, and rushes constitute only one-fifth of the number of species 
 on the coast, but the two former tribes actually cover more ground than all the rest of the vege- 
 tation. The crucifene, or cross-like tribe, aftbrd one-seventh of the species, and the compound 
 flowers are nearly as numerous. The shruhhy j)lants that reach the sea-coast are the common 
 juniper, two species of willow, the dwarf-birch, the common alder, the hippophae, a gooseberry, 
 the red bear berry {arbutus uva ursi), the Labrador tea-plant, the Lapland rose, the bog- 
 whortleberry, and the crowberry. The kidney-leaved oxyria grows in great abundance there, 
 and occasionally furnished us with an agreeable addition to our meals, as it resembles the garden- 
 sorrel in flavour, but is more juicy and tender. It is eaten by the natives, and nmst, as well as 
 many of the cress-like plants, prove an excellent corrective of the gross, oily, rancid, and fre- 
 quently putrid meat on which they subsist. The small balls of the Alpine bistort, and the long, 
 succulent, and sweet roots of many of the astragaleas, which gi'ow on the sandy shores, are 
 eatable ; but it does not seem that the Eskimos are acquainted with their use. A few clumps of 
 white spruce- fir, with some straggling black spruces and canoe-birches, grow at the distance of 
 twenty or tliirty miles from the sea, in sheltered situations on the banks of rivers. 
 
 It has been pointed out that the principal characteristic of the vegetation of the Arctic 
 Regions is the predominance of perennial and cryptogamous plants ; but further southward, where 
 night begins to alternate with day, or in Avhat may be called the sub-arctic zone, a diflerence of 
 species appears which greatly enliances the beauty of the landscape. A rich and vividly-coloured 
 flora adorns these latitudes in Europe as well as in Asia during their brief but ardent sununer, 
 with its intense radiance and intense warmth, — consisting of potentillas, gentians, starry chick- 
 weeds, spreading saxifrages and sedums, spirfeas, drabas, artemisias, and the like. The power 
 of the sun is so great, and the consequent rapidity of growth so extraordinary, that these 
 plants spring up, and blossom, and germinate, and perish in six weeks. In a lower latitude 
 many ligneous plants are found, — as berry-bearing shrubs, the glaucous kalmia, the trailing 
 azalea, the full-blossomed rhododendron. The Siberian flora differs from tlie European in the 
 same latitudes by the inclusion of the North American genera, phlox, mitella, and claytonia, 
 
 
Ut VEaETATiON IN THK POLAR WOULD. 
 
 and l»y tlif luxiiriaiict' of its (wtoiH, HpiriwiH, iiiilk-vetchuH, nml the Malino plants gooHofoot and 
 Mjiltwort. 
 
 lu Novaia Znnilaia and otlior nortliorn ri'j^ioMH tlio vojjotation is so stunted that it baroly 
 lovtrs tlxo j^'ioimd, but a niucli groator viuioty of niinuto plants of considorablo boauty aro aj,'gre- 
 f,'ated thoro iii a limited spaco than in tho Alpino climos of Europe where the same jjenera occur. 
 This is due to the feebleness of tho vegetation ; lor in the Swiss Alps the same plant frccjuently 
 usurp.s a large area, and drives out every other,— as the dark blue gentian, the violet-tinted pan.sy, 
 and the yellow and pink stone-crops. Jiut in tho far north, where vitality is weak and tho seeds 
 do not ripen, thirty different species, it has been observed, may be seen "crowded together in a 
 brilliant mass," no one being poweiful enough to overcome its companions. In these frozen cli- 
 mates j)lants may be said to live between tho air and tho earth, for they scarcely raise their heads 
 above the soil, and their roots, utiablo to penetrate it, creep along the surface. All the woody 
 plants — as the betula nava, the reticulated willow, andronieda tetragona, with a few bacciferous 
 shrubs — trail upon the ground, and never rise more than an inch or two above it. Tho Sulix 
 lunata, the giant of the Arctic forests, is about five inches in height ; while its stem, ten or twelve 
 feet long, lies hidden among tho mo.s8, and owes shelter, almost life, to its humble neighbour. 
 
 From Novaia Zomlaia wo pass to Spitzbergen, whose ilora contains about ninety-throo 
 species of Howering or phfonogamous plants, which, like those already mentioned, generally grow 
 in tufts or patches, as if for the sake of mutual protection. Tho delicate mosses which clothe tho 
 moist lowlands, and the hardy lichens which incrust tho rocks up to the remotest limits of vege- 
 tation, are very numerous. Some of the Spitzbergen plants aro found on tho Alps, at elevations 
 varying from 1)000 to 10,000 feet above the sea-level ; such as the Arenaria hijlora, tho Cerastium 
 (ill)inum, and tho Ranunculus glacialis. The only esculent plant is the GocMearia fenestrata, 
 which here loses its bitter principles, so nmch complained of by our Arctic explorers, and may be 
 eaten as a salad. Iceland moss and several grasses afford sustenance for the reindeer. 
 
 A very dift'orent description is given of Kamtschatka, to which we are once more brought in 
 tho course of our rapid survey. Its climate is nmch more temperate and uniform than that of 
 Siberia, and as the air is humid, the herbaceous vegetiition is extraordinarily luxuriant. Not 
 only along the banks of the rivers and lakes, but in the avenues and copses of the woodlands, tho 
 grass attains a height of fully twelve feet, while the size of some of the compositoe and umbelH- 
 feroj is really colos?"',!. For example, the Ileraclium dulce and tho Senecio cannahifolms frc- 
 (juently grow so tall aa to overtop a rider upon horseback. The pasturage is so rich that tho 
 grass generally yields three crops every summer. A species of lily, the dark purple Fritallaria 
 sarrana, is very abundant, and the inhabitants use its tubers instead of bread and meal. If the 
 fruits of the bread-fruit tree are pre-eminent among all others, as affording man a perfect substi- 
 tute for bread, the roots of the sarrana, which are very similar in taste, rank perhaps immediately 
 after them. The collection of these tubers in the meadows is an important summer occupation 
 of the women, and one which is rather troublesome, as the plant never grows gregariously, so 
 that each root has to be dug out separately with a knife. Fortunately the work of gathering the 
 tubers is nmch lightened by the activity of the Siberian field-vole, which excavates an ample 
 
r 
 
 THE WOODED AND DESERT ZONES. 14.1 
 
 burrow, and stores it for winter proviHion with a largo supply of roots, chieHy those of the 
 sarrana. 
 
 To sum up : — 
 
 What may be called the Arctic eliuiate extends over nearly the whole of Danish Aniorioa, 
 the newly-acquired possessions of the United States, the original Hudson Bay Territory, and 
 Labrador, down to thiit unimportant watershed which separates from the tributaries of }[utlson 
 Bay the three great bnjsins of the St. Lawrence, the five great lakes, an<l the Mississijipi. This 
 line of watershed undulates between the 52nd and 49th parallels of latitude, from Belle Isle 
 Strait to the sources of the Saskatchewan, in the Rocky Mountains, where it inHects towards the 
 Pacific Ocean, skirting on the north the basin of the Columbia. 
 
 Thus bounded on the south, the Arctic lands of America, including the groups of islands 
 lying to the north and north-east, cannot occupy less than 560,000 square leagues. They exceed, 
 therefore, the supei-ficial area of the European lands, estimated at about 490,000 square 
 leagues. 
 
 We propose to divide these lands into two zones or regions, the wooded and the desert 
 zones : the former, in America, includes the basins of the Upper Mackenzie, the Churchill, the 
 Nelson, and the Severn. 
 
 In the wooded zone the thermometer does not rise above zero until the month of May. 
 Then, under the influence of a more genial temperature, the breath of life passes into the slum- 
 bering, inert vegetr .;ion. Then the reddish shoots of the willows, the poplars, and the birches 
 hang out their 'ong cottony cat) >8 ; a pleasant greenness spreads over copse and thicket ; the 
 dandelion, the I'urdock, and the saxifrages lift their heads in the shelter of the rocks ; the sweet- 
 brier fills the air with fragrance, and the gooseberry and the strawberry are put forth by a 
 kindly nature ; while me valleys bloom and the hill-sides are glad with the beauty of the thuja, 
 the larch, and the pine. 
 
 The boundary between the wooded zone and the barren would be shown by a line drawn 
 from the mouth of the Churchill in Hudson Bay to Mount St. Eliiu* on tlie Pacific coast, 
 traversing the southern shores of the Bear and the Slave Lakes. To tha north, this barren zone 
 touches on eternal snow, and includes the ice-bound coasts of the Parry Arcliipelago ; to tlie east 
 and the north-east, identity of climate and uniform character of soil bring within it the greatest 
 part of Labrador and all Greenland. 
 
 In Asia the isothermal line of 0° descends towards the 55th parallel of latitude, one lower 
 than in America, — though to the north of it some important towns are situated, as Tobolsk, lat. 
 58" 11'; Irkutsk, lat. 58° 16'; and Yakutsk, lat. 62°. 
 
 In Continental Europe, the only Arctic lands properly so called, and distinguished by an 
 Arctic flora, are Russian Lapland and the deeply-indented coast of Northern Russia. Far away 
 to the north, and separated from the continent by a narrow arm of the sea, lie the throe almost 
 contiguous islands known as Novaia Zemlaia (lat. 68° 50' to 76° N.). And still further north, 
 almost equidistant from the Old World and the New, lies the gloomy mountainous archipelago 
 of Spitzbergen (lat. 77° to 81°, and long. 10° to 24°). 
 
 We have now only to recapitulate the general characters of the Arctic flora, as they would 
 
 10 
 
144 roKMH or ANIMAL LIFE. 
 
 pruHunt thuiiisolvus to a traveller lulvHticing from the wooded zone into the desert, and thenoe to 
 the bordtTH of tho Polar Sea. 
 
 On tho Houthom margin of tho wooded region, us in Sweden, RuHMiu, and Siberia, extend 
 ItnmenHe forentM, chiefly < f coniferoUH trees. As we move towards tho north those forests 
 dwindle into scattered woods and isolated coppices, composed chiefly of stunted poplars and 
 dwarf birches and willows. The sub-alpine myrtle, and a small creeping honeysuckle with 
 rounded leaves, are met with in favourable situations. Continuing our northerly progress, we 
 wholly leave behind the arborescent species; but the rocks and cliffs are bright with plants 
 belonging to tho fuinilies of the ranunculuceaa, saxifragaceae, cruciferae, and grauiinea;. To the 
 dwarf firs and pigmy willow.s suc(;(;od a few scattered shrubs — such as t^o gooseberry, tho straw- 
 berry, the raspberry, pseudo-mulberry {Jiubua chanicemorua) — indigenous to this region, and the 
 La|)l(ind olean<ler {li/iododendron laponicum). 
 
 Still advancing northward, wo find, at the extreme limits of the mainland, some drabas 
 (CrucifercB), potentilliis {liosacew), burweods and rushes (Cyperacew), and lastly a great abun- 
 dance of mosses and licheim. The commonest mosses are the Splechnum, which resembles small 
 umbels ; and, in moist places, the Sphagnum, or bog-moss, whose successive accumulations, from a 
 remote epoch, have formed, with the detritus of the Cyperacew, extensive areas of peat, which at 
 a future day will perhaps be utilized for fuel. 
 
 We come now tr> ihe forms of Animal Life which exist ancfer the conditions of 
 
 climate and veget- . , e been describing. 
 
 Foremost w place tho animal which, in the Arctic World, occupies much the same 
 
 position as the camei in tho Tropical, — the reindeer {Cer^vus turandus). 
 
 In size the reindeer resembles the English stag, but his form is less giaceful and more com- 
 pressed. He stands about four feet six inches in height. Long, slender, branching horns 
 embellish his head. Tho upper part of his body is of a brown colour, the under part is white ; 
 but as the animal advances in years his entire coat changes to a grayish-white, and, in not a 
 few cases, is pure white. The nether part of the neck, or dewlap, droops like a pendent beard. 
 The hoofs are large, long, and black ; and so are the secondary hoofs on the hind feet. The 
 latter, when the animal is running, make by their collision a curious clattering sound, wliich may 
 be heard at a considerable distance. 
 
 The reindeer anciently invaded Europe and Asia to a comparatively low latitude; and 
 Julius Csesar includes it among the animals of the great Hercynian forest. Even in our own 
 time large herds traverse the wooded heights of the southern prolongation of the Ouralian range. 
 Between the Volga and the Don they descend to the 46th parallel ; and they extend their 
 wanderings as far as the very foot of the Caucasus, on the banks of the Kouma. Still, the 
 proper habitat of the reindeer is that region of ice and snow bounded by the Arctic Circle, — or, 
 more exactly, by the isothermal line of 0° C. 
 
 Both the wild and the tame species change their feeding-gi'ouuds with the seasons. In 
 winter they come down into the plains and valleys; in summer they retire to the mountains, 
 where the wild herds gain the most elevated terraces, in order to escape the pertinacious attacks 
 of their insect-enemies. It is a fact worthy of note that every species of animal is infested by a 
 parasitical insect. The oestre so terrifies the reindeer that the mere appearance of one in the air 
 
 * 
 
USEKULNESS OV THE UKINDEKK. 
 
 148 
 
 will infuriate a troop of a thonwind auimaJH. In thu moulting HoaMon these insects dupuHit their 
 eggs in the sicin of the unfortunate atiinial, and there the \&r\i!0 lodge and multiply ad injinituw, 
 incessantly renewing centres of suppuration. 
 
 To the natives of North America thu reindeer is invaluable. There is hardly a part of the 
 animal not made available for some useful purpose. Clothing made of its nkin is, according to 
 ^ir J. Richardson, so impervious to cold, that, with th^ addition of a coverlet made of the »tiuxo 
 J terial, any one so protected may bivouac on the snow with safety in the most intense cold of 
 the Arctic night. The venison, when in high condition, huH several inches of fat on the haunches, 
 and is said to equal that of the fallow-deer in our English parks ; the tongue, and a portion of 
 the tripe, are reckoned most delicious morsels. Pemmican is made by pouring one-third part of 
 
 ^m-iifji_ 
 
 WILD REINDKKR. 
 
 fat over two-third parts of the pounded meat, and mixing fat and meat thoroughly together. The 
 Eskimos and Greenlanders consider the stomach, or paunch, with its contents, a special delicacy ; 
 and Captain Sir James Ross says that the contents form the only vegetable food ever tasted by 
 the natives of Boothia. For the reindeer is a herbivorous animal, and feeds upon the mosses 
 and grasses. 
 
 The reindeer is by no means a graceful animal ; its joints are large, and powerful in propor- 
 tion to its size ; the divided hoofs are very large, and as the animal is compelled to lift its feet 
 high when going over the snow, its gallop has none of tliat beautiful elastic spring which char- 
 acterizes the deer of our own islands, though its pace is " telling," and soon carries it ahead of 
 everything but the ag-winded, long-legged wolf. 
 
 The stags cast their antlers, and the does drop their young, in May or June, about the time 
 of the first thaw. The males and females are then very seldom found together ; the female deer 
 collecting in small herds with their young ; the little creatures, which seem all eyes, ears, and 
 
 I 
 
140 HERBIVOROUS ANIMALS AND THEIR FOOD. 
 
 legs, taking alarm at any unaccustomed sound or the slightest appearance of danger. The 
 summer vegetation fattens the bucks and does amazingly, and the fawns thrive and develop ; 
 all three, says Osbom, having a comparative holiday, and getting into condition to face the trials 
 of the CO winter; while the wolf and the fox, their sworn enemies, are pursuing the infant 
 
 s(jaIiK ; ' bears, or attending to their own little domestic duties. But when the autumn frost 
 sets in, and hardens the ground, and the dense snow once more overspreads the dreary northern 
 h^rdscape, the wolves resume their attacks on the unfortunate deer. 
 
 For warmth or protection, and following the natural instincts of gregarious animals, they 
 now begin to collect together in large herds of bucks, does, and fawns, numbering as many as 
 sixty and seventy hea*l. The stags seem to undertake the discipline of these large companies, as 
 well as to be responsible for their safety. 
 
 Captain Mecham relates that, in October 1852, when crossing that part of Melville Island 
 which intervenes between Liddon Gulf and Winter Harbour, he fell in with as many as three 
 hundred head of deer ; and he adds that reindeer were always in sight, in herds varying from ten 
 to sixty in number. One of these herds, containing twenty males, he tried to stalk up to on the 
 7th of October, but failed in getting a shot at them ; for although the does, Avith the inherent 
 weakness of their sex, showed an excessive curiosity, and made one or two efforts to desert the 
 herd and exrraine the stranger, the stags would in nowise tolerate such conduct, but chastised 
 them smartly with their antlers, and kept the herd together and in motion by running rapidly 
 round and round, uttering at the same time a strange noise which seemed to alarm the herd, and 
 keep it flying from the suspected danger. 
 
 The coat of the reindeer in summer-time is remarkably thin, and adapted admirably in 
 colour to that of the snow-denuded soil ; but as winter approaches, it thickens, and gradually 
 resumes its snowy whiteness. Though not, strictly speaking, a/wr, it forms an admirable non- 
 conducting substance. 
 
 As winter, ' ruler of the inverted year," extends his sway over the Polar World, and food 
 grows scarce and indifferent, and has to be sought over larger areas, the herds break up into 
 companies of ten or twenty animals; the lich-ns, the reindeer moss already described {Cetraria 
 Islandica), and the sprouts of the creeping willow forming their principal food. 
 
 On this branch of our subject Admiral Sherard Osbom makes two suggestive remarks. 
 
 Arctic vegetation, he observes, has no time in the autumn to wither or decay — while in full 
 bloom, and before the juices have time to return into the parent root or be otherwise dissipated, 
 the "magic hand of the frost king" strikes them; and thus the wisdom of the Creator has 
 provided for the nourishment of his creatures a fresh and warmth-creating food, lying hid under 
 a mantle of snow, which the instinct of those Arctic animals teaches them to remove and reach 
 the stores so beneacently preserved beneath. 
 
 Moreover, most herbivorous animals have a slow system of digestion, even in a domestic 
 state ; ns, for instivnce, our cattle and sheep. This appears to be more conspicuously the case in 
 the musk-ox, the reindeer, and the Arctic hare, and is of great utility in lands where vegetation 
 is scanty and widespread, and the weather occasionally so severe as to compel these creatures, for 
 two or three days at a time, to think only of their safety by seeking shelter from the snow-storm-^ 
 in deep ravines or under lofty cliffs. It appears in their case as if Nature extracted from their 
 food a greater quantity of nourishment than she does from that of animals in more southern 
 
KEINDEER AND THE WOLVES. U7 
 
 latitudes ; or possibly, the food, by the mere act of reniaiiiinjj in the stomach or intestines, serves 
 to check the cravings of appetite, though no further nutriment should be extracted. 
 
 Most of the musk-oxen and deer shot in Captain M'Clintock's expedition, and especially the 
 musk-oxen, had their entrails distended with food apparently quite digested, while tlie surround- 
 ing country in many cases was absolutely barren and lifeless, — inducing the conclusion that these 
 creatures had been a long time collecting their supplies, as also that it had been a long time 
 swallowed, and necessitated the full activity of the vital principle to prevent the food from proving 
 a source of disease. This, indeed, was clearly proved in the case of the musk-oxen, which, if 
 shot, and left twelve hours without being disembowelled, grew tainted throughout with a strong 
 musky odour, rendering the flesh uneatable. 
 
 It may also be stated, as an illustration of the facility with which the reinaeer can winter in 
 high latitudos, that in Lapland, where they are used as beasts of draught, a daily sujjply of four 
 pounds of lichen {Ceiiomyce rangifenna) is considered ample for a working animal ; and on 
 dietaiy a reindeer will be in sufficiently good condition to go without food occasionally for two 
 or three days, and yet, to all appearance, not to be d stressed. 
 
 Thus, as regards its stores of food, and its provision against the severity of the Arctic winter, 
 the reindeer would seem to be suitably and amply endowed ; and its greatest trial is the incessant 
 rapacity of the wolves that follow its track throughout the winter season. As that season 
 advances, the unfortunate animal apparently resigns itself to an evil which it cannot avoid or 
 avert ; and the calm composure with which a small troop of these creatures will graze with an 
 entourage of half a dozen wolves is not less curious to the observer than philosophical on the 
 part of the reindeer I 
 
 " A herd of deer," says an eye-witness, " thus surrounded by the wolves, who were too great 
 cowards to rush in upon their prey, would be startled every now and then by the long-drawn 
 unearthly howl of the hungry brutes ; sometimes a frightened deer, horror-stricken at the abomi- 
 nable chant, dashes madly away from the herd, — away all, or a portion, of the wolfish fraternity 
 go after it. In many cases the scene may be briefly summed up with the old three-volume 
 denouement of — a riish, a shriek, a cranching of bones, and snarling of beasts of prey, and all is 
 over I for the wonderful powers of swallow and horrid voracity of an Arctic wolf nmst be seen 
 to b* understood ; no writer would peril his reputation for veracity by repeating what has been 
 seen on that head. But sometimes the frightened deer gains the open country, and goes 
 wonderful distances dogged by the persevering wolf, who assuredly has it, unless another herd is 
 met which admits the hunted deer into its ranks. 
 
 " Occasionally, whilst a herd of deer are grazing, one of them may happen to hit upon a spot 
 where the food is plentiful ; it naturally lingers there, while the herd is moving slowly on against 
 the wind. The wolves immediately mark the straggler, and stealthily crawl on, their object 
 being to cut him off from the herd ; that eflfected, there is a howl and a rush, which if the deer 
 does not evade by extraordinary exertions, his fate is instantly sealed." 
 
 Thes-j scenes are enacted throughout the long Arctic winter. When sight is rendered 
 useless, scent comes to the aid of the rapacious destroyer ; and we can well believe that many 
 an explorer, in the December darkness of the frozen wastes, has often wished his olfactory nerves 
 were as sensitively organized as those of the wolf. For although he can then hear the reindeer, 
 it is impossible to see them, except when they hurry across the dark but snowy landscape ; and 
 
IM CUNNING OF THE ARCTIC WOLF. 
 
 many a bad shot has been made by a hungry seaman at a large pair of melancholy eyes which 
 peered out of the enveloping mist, because he could not tell, for the life of him, whether the 
 animal was distant two or twenty yards. 
 
 In the dreadful winter of 1852-53, the deer approached close to the exploring-ship Inves- 
 tigator, having quitted the land and traversed the belt of ice. It is difficult to say whether 
 this was done with a view of seeking the warmth which instinct, if not scent, told them radiated 
 from the Vtooels, — the vessels, compared with the temperature everywhere prevailing (namely, 
 9" 5' below freezing-point), being complete volcanoes of heat ; or whether it was for security against 
 their wolfish enemies. Probably, it was for the first-named reason ; inasmuch as it is recorded 
 that the foxes of Leopold Harbour, in 1848, soon became aware of the warmer atmosphere pro- 
 duced by the presence of Sir James Ross's squadron, and sagaciously burrowed and bred in the 
 embankments thrown up around the ships. 
 
 But, at length, winter and its sorrows pass away, and early in the new year a happier life 
 dawns on the much-tried reindeer. In February and March the seals begin to breed, and as the 
 attention of the wolves and other beasts of prey is then drawn to the helpless young, which are 
 truly "delicious morsels," the holidays of the reindeer may be said to commence. We may 
 remind the reader also that the Arctic hare and the lemming winter in the icy north, and yield 
 occasional meals to wolf and fox. 
 
 The spring returns, and as the sun rises above the horizon, the great herds gradually break 
 up and scatter abroad ; and the deer may then be seen in wandering groups of three or four, I'.ncil 
 once more the autumn-twilight deepens, and they reassemble in numerous companies. 
 
 As the reindeer is the camel of the Polar World, so the Arctic wolf may be said to occupy 
 the place of the tiger ; so daring is its courage, and so fierce its lust of blood. Assembling in 
 large packs, they are not afraid to haunt the immediate neighbourhood of man. In Captain 
 M'Cliutock's expedition, they gathered re -id the Investigator at such close quarters, that it was 
 unsafe for the crew to leave the ship, un.ess in companies, and well-armed ; and with their 
 melancholy howls they made night hideous. Five of them attempted to pounce on an Eskimo 
 dog which had long been the pet of the Investigator. One of these brutes is described as a 
 " perfect giant," standing nearly four feet high at the shoulder, and having a footmark as big as 
 a reindeer's. 
 
 Our English seamen planned many a clever scheme to entrap these wary creatures, but all 
 failed, while some of the encounters with them were unpleasantly close, and the risk very con- 
 siderable. One day, the boatswain, while out shooting, broke by a shot two of the legs of a fine 
 buck reindeer. Evening coming on, and he knowing the animal could not drag itself far, 
 ix,tumed to the ship. Next morning, he started at an early hour to secure his prize. What was 
 his disgust, when he arrived at the place, to find his booty in the possession of five large wolves 
 and several foxes ! Determined to have, at all events, a share, the boatswain advanced, shouting 
 with all his might, and hurling at the thieves every opprobrious phrase he could invent, yet 
 afraid to fire his single-barrelled gun at any one of them, for fear the rest should serve hi n as 
 they were serving the buck ; more particularly as they appeared inclined to show fight, and made 
 no sign of retreat until he was within four yards. Even then only four had the grace to move 
 away, sitting down a pistol-shot off, and howling most lamentably. 
 
 The boatswain picked up a leg of the deer, which had been dismembered, and then 
 
DOMESTICITY OF THE WOLF. 149 
 
 grasped one end of the half-devoured carcass, while a large she-'^olt tugged against him at 
 the other. 
 
 It must be owned that this position was a disagreeable one, and had the howling of thi four 
 wolves brought others of their kind to the rescue, the consequences of this aflray between hungry 
 wolves and a no less hungry sailor might have proved serious. Fortunately, the interpreter, who 
 chanced likewise to be out shooting on a neighbouring hill, had his attention attracted by the 
 noise of the brutes, and made his appearance on the scene. He afterwards described it as the 
 strangest he had ever witnessed. So close were the boatswain and the carnivora in their struggle 
 for the meat, that he fancied the latter had actually attacked the former. On the arrival of this 
 reinforcement the wolves decamped, leaving the gallant boatswain with only twenty pounds 
 weight of meat, instead of the one hundred and twenty his prize must have originally weighed. 
 
 The identities between the Arctic dog and the Arctic wolf are so important that Dr. Kane 
 agrees with Mr. Broderip in assigning to these animals a family origin. The oblique position of 
 the wolf's eye is not uncommon among the Eskimo dogs. Dr. Kane had a slut, one of the tamest 
 and most aflectionate of his team, who had the long legs, the compact body, the drooping tail, and 
 the wild scared expression of the eye, which some naturalists have supposed to distinguish the 
 wolf alone. When domesticated early — and it is easy to domesticate him — the wolf follows and 
 loves you like a dog. " That they are fond of wandering proves nothing ; many of our pack will 
 stray for weeks," says Kane, " into the wilderness of ice ; yet they cannot be persuaded, when 
 they come i^ack, to inhabit the kennel we have built for them only a few hundred yards off. 
 They crouch around for the companionship of men." Both animals howl in unison alike ; and. 
 in most parts, their footprint is the same. 
 
 The musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) is one of the largest of the Polar ruminants. As its 
 zoological name indicates, it is an intermediary between the ox and the sheep. Smaller than the 
 former, larger than the latter, it reminds us of both in its shape and general appearance. It has 
 an obtuse nose ; horns broad at the base, covering the forehead and crown of the head, and curv- 
 ing downwards between the eye and ear until about the level of the mouth, where they turn 
 upwards ; the tail is short, and almost hidden by the thickness of the shaggy hair, which is 
 generally of a dark brown, and of two kinds, as with all the animals of the Polar Regions ; a long 
 hair, which on some parts of the body is thick and curled, and, underneath, a fine kind of soft, 
 ash-coloured wool ; the legs are short and thick, and furnished with narrow hoofs, like those of 
 the moose. The female is smaller than the male, and her horns are smaller. Her general colour 
 is black, except that the legs are whitish, and along the back runs an elevated ridge or mane of 
 dusky hair. 
 
 The musk-ox, us his name implies, throws out a strong odour of musk,— with which, indeed, 
 his very flesh is impregnated, so that the scent is communicated to the knife used in cutting up 
 the animal. Not the less is he regarded as a valuable booty by the Indians and the Eskimos, 
 who hunt him eagerly. He wanders in small troops over the rocky prairies which extend to the 
 north of the great lakes of North America. He is a fierce-tempered animal, and in defence of 
 his female will fight desperately. 
 
 His general habits resemble strongly those of the reindeer ; but his range appears to be prin- 
 cipally limited to Melville Island, Banks Land, and the large islands to the south-east of the latter. 
 
'ISO 
 
 ABOUT THK MUSK-OX. 
 
 One of our Arctic explorers ilcHcribes the musk-oxen as all very wild in April, and as 
 generally seen in large herds from ten to seventy in number. In June they were stupidly tamo, 
 and seemed to be oppressed by their heavy coats of wool, which wore hanging loosely down their 
 shoulders and hind-quarters in large quantities ; the herds much smaller, and generally composed 
 of cows and calves. 
 
 Tlie heavy coat of wool with which the musk-oxen are provided, is a perfect protection 
 against any temperature. It consists of a long fine black hair, and in some cases white (for it is 
 not ascertained that these oxen change their colour during the winter), with a beautiful fine wool 
 or fur umlerneath, softer and richer than the finest alpaca wool, as well as much longer in the staple. 
 This mantle apjiarently touches the ground ; and the little creature looks, it is said, like a bale of 
 
 
 
 Mim4^ 
 
 ^:m^ 
 
 -a-^S'v^i^- 
 
 ;^"^//,yw 
 
 / 
 
 Till: MITRK-OX. 
 
 black wool, mounted on four short nervous goat-like legs, with two very bright eyes, an<l a pair 
 of sharp " wicked-shaped " horns peering out of one end of it. 
 
 They seem to be of very uncertain temper, sometimes standing stupidly glaring at their 
 assailants, whetting their horns against their fore legs ; at other times, they will rush furiously 
 against their hunters. 
 
 Captain Mecham discovered very great nunxbers of musk-oxen near the head of Hardy Bay, 
 Melville Island. On one plain he observed as many as seventy grazing within a circuit of two 
 miles ; on his approach, they divided into herds of about fifteen eachj headed by two or three 
 enormous bulls. Their manoeuvres, he says, were so quick and regular that they might be more 
 fittingly compared to squadrons of cavalry than anything else he could think of One herd 
 moved forward at a gallop, several times within rifle-shot, and formed in perfect line with bulls in 
 the van,' presenting a formidable array of horns. The laat time they advanced at a gallop until 
 
AN ENCOUNTEU WITH A MUSK-OX. 1S1 
 
 within about sixty yards, when they formed in line, the bulls snortin}^ wildly, and tearing up the 
 snow. But as soon as Captain Mecham fired they wheeled round promptly, rejoined the main 
 body, and made off out of sight, only waiting occasionally for the wounded animal. 
 
 The following graphic account of an encounter with a musk-ox is given by Captain 
 M'Clintock :— 
 
 " We saw and shot two very large blflls — a well-timed supply, as the last of the venison was 
 used up ; we found them to be in better condition than any we had ever seen. I shall never for- 
 get the death-struggle of one of these noble bulls ; a Spanish bull-fight gives no idea of it. and 
 even the slaughter of the bear is tame in comparison. This animal was shot through the lungs, 
 and blood gushed from his nostrils upon the snow. As it stood fiercely watching us, prepared 
 yet unable to charge, its small but fixed glaring eyes were almost concealed by masses of shaggv 
 hair, and its whole frame was fearfully convulsed with agony ; the tremulous motion was com- 
 municated to its enormous covering of tangled wool and hair ; even the coarse thick mane socincd 
 to rise indignant, and slowly waved from side to side. It seemed as if the very fury of its passion 
 was pent up within it for one final and revenge'ful charge. There was no roaring ; the majestic 
 beast was dumb ; but the wild gleam of savage fire which shot from his eyes, and his menacing 
 attitude, were far more terrible than the most hideous bellow. We watched in silence, for time 
 was doing our work, nor did we venture to lower our guns until, his strength becoming exhausted, 
 he reeled and fell. 
 
 " I have never witnessed such an intensity of rage, nor imagined for one moment that such 
 
 I an apparently stupid brute, under any circumstances of pain and passion, could have presented 
 
 ! such a tmly appalling spectacle. It is almost impossible to conceive a more terrific sight than 
 
 that which was presented to us in the dying moments of this matchless denizen of the northern 
 
 I wilds." 
 
 ! It seems doubtful whether the wolf, which is naturally a most cowardly creature, can act on 
 
 the offensive against the musk-ox ; and most Arctic navigators seem of opinion that it attacks 
 only lame or sickly cattle. 
 
 I The activity of these oxen, and their goat-like power of climbing, is very remarkable, and 
 
 j much at variance with their clumsy appearance. They have been seen making their way, when 
 
 frightened, up the face of a cliff which defied all human efforts, and going down the precipitous 
 sides of ravines by alternately sliding upon their hams, or pitching and arresting their downward 
 course, as Sherard Osbom remarks, by the use of the magnificent shield of horn which spreads 
 
 ^ across their foreheads, in a manner to excite the liveliest astonishment of the spectator. 
 
 The Arctic Fox {Canis lagopus) cannot compare with either of the preceding animals in 
 importance or interest, yet it figures very largely in the journals of our Arctic explorers. It is 
 smaller than the common European fox ; has a sharp nose, and short rounded ears, almost con- 
 cealed in its fur ; the legs are short, and the toes covered both above and below with a thick soft 
 fur ; the tail is shorter than that of the common fox, but more bushy. Its range is very exten- 
 sive, for it is found in the lands bordering on the Polar Sea in both continents. As winter 
 approaches, its coat of hair grows thick and ragged ; until at length it becomes as white as snow 
 —the change of colour taking place last on the ridge of the back and the tip of the tail. Its food 
 
1st 
 
 WARINESS OP THE AROTIP FOX. 
 
 •f-ffh "' '' - 
 
 >:'.i*/«^f^^-=CC^ 
 
 ARCTIC rOXES. 
 
 consista of various small quadrupeds,— such as the Arctic hare and the Itimming,— on all kinds of 
 water-fowl and their eggs, on the carcasses of fish, shell-fish, and the refuse of the young seals 
 killed and devoured by the Polar bear. In the track of the latter it seems to hunt systematically. 
 
 It swims with dexterity, and will 
 cross from island to island in 
 fsoarch of prey. Its fur is light 
 and warm, though not very durable, 
 and for the sake of this fur it is 
 pursued l)oth in Arctic Asia, 
 Greenland, and Hudson Bay. It 
 is a wary animal, however, and 
 not easily caught. 
 
 Dr. Hayes affords us an illus- 
 tration of this statement. 
 
 As he and a follower, named 
 Bonsall, on one occasion were ex- 
 ploring in Northumberland Island, they discovered a fox scampering away over the plain. 
 Bonsall gave chase, but could not arrive within shooting distance. Another was then heard 
 barking overhead at them. Dr. Hayes seized his gun, and climbing over some huge boulders 
 which filled the bottom of the gorge, endeavoured, by crawling behind a rock, to overtake or 
 approach the animal ; but it seemed to be aware of his intentions, and scampering away, led him 
 a wild chase across the plain. The astute Reynard first made off, so that his assailant "could 
 not cover him upon the cliff;" and when out of danger, perched upon a stone, and barked at 
 him in the most tantalizing manner. The doctor approached within long range. Immediately, 
 as he was about to bring his gun to his shoulder, it dropped behind the stone and fled to 
 another, where it set up the same rapid chatter, — a shrill " Huk ! huk ! huk ! " sounding like a 
 mixture of anger and defiance. Again Dr. Hayes tried to approach it, but with no better 
 success ; round and round it ran, until at length, weary of following it, Dr. Hayes fired. Some 
 of the shot probably touched it, for it screamed loudly ; but it fled with remarkable rapidity, and 
 finally baffled its pursuer. 
 
 As the flesh of the fox is by no means to be despised, and, indeed, ranks as a dainty in the 
 bill of fare of an Arctic navigator, a hot pursuit of it is often maintained, and traps are constructed 
 to ensure its capture. These are usually built on much the same principle as a rabbit-trap. 
 Selecting a smooth level rock, the trappers arrange some flat stones of about six inches thick, so 
 as to enclose on three sides an area of six inches by two feet and a half. Over this enclosure 
 other flat stones are laid ; and between the two used to close up one of the ends a peg is inserted, 
 so as to project about an inch within the trap. 
 
 To this peg, by means of a loop, is loosely hung a small piece of meat ; and to the same peg, 
 outside, is atUiched another loop made at the end of a cord, the cord being carried up through the 
 rear of the trap, and over the top to the front, where it is fastened round a thin flat flag of slate, 
 which moves freely up and down, being guided and held by a couple of large blocks placed one 
 on either side of the entrance. 
 
 The way in which this machinery works is very simple : — 
 
 1 
 
t 
 
 TRAPPING A FOX. 
 
 158 
 
 A FOX TRAl'. 
 
 The fox enters under the slide or trap-door, advnnces to the rear, seizes the bait, and 
 attempts to back out. The bait, of course, is pulled from the peg, and with it the looj) hui>- 
 porting the door comes off. As soon as its support is removed down comes the door, and 
 Master Reynard is entrapped. Everything 
 now depends on the manner in which the 
 cracks have been closed up ; for if the animal 
 can thrust its little nose between a couple of 
 stones, it will assuredly effect its escape. Nor 
 is it less important that the enclosure should 
 not be sufficiently large to enable the fox to 
 turn round ; for in that case it generally con- 
 trives to loosen the door, and depart in infinite 
 glee. 
 
 The Arctic fox is described by Dr. Hayes 
 as the prettiest and most provoking of living 
 creatures. One which he unsuccessfully chased 
 for fully three hours was about the size of a 
 domestic cat, round and plump, white as the 
 
 snow, with a long pointed nose, and a trailing bushy tail, which seemed to be its particular pride. 
 It was quite evident that it enjoyed the perplexities of its hunters, as it leaped from rock to 
 rock, or circled round and about them, and showed the utmost indifference to the miseries of their 
 famished condition. It rolled and tossed about among the loose drifl, now springing into the 
 air, now bounding away, now stopping short, and now cocking its head to one side and elevating 
 one foot, as if listening, seeming all the time to be intent on exhibiting its " points " to its 
 enemies, for whom it did not care the value of the minutest part of its very pretty tail. Weary 
 and exhausted, Dr. Hayes abandoned the pursuit, and returned to his camp, followed by the 
 fox, though always at a safe distance ; and when they last caught sight of it, as they looked 
 back from the rocks above the hut, it was mounted on an elevation, uttering its shrill shurp cry, 
 in apparent mockery of their defeat. 
 
 Of the supposed relations between the bear and the fox. Dr. Kane remarks that he once 
 thought his observations had confirmed them. It is certain that they are frequently found 
 together ; the bear striding on ahead with his prey, the fox behind gathering in the crumbs 
 as they fall ; and Dr. Kane often saw the parasite licking at the traces of a wounded seal 
 which his champion had borne off over the snow. The story is that the two hunt in couples. 
 This may well be doubted, though it is clear that the inferior animal rejoices in his associa- 
 tion with the superior, at least for the profits, if not the sympathy it brings to him. " I 
 once wounded a bear," says Dr. Kane, " when I was out with Morton, and follov/ed him for 
 twelve miles over the ice. A miserable little fox travelled close behind his patron, and licked 
 up the blood wherever he lay dewn. The bear at last made the water ; and as we returned 
 from our fruitless chase, we saw the fox running at full speed along the edge of the thin ice as 
 if to rejoin him." 
 
IM THK KAItK AND TIIK I.KMMINU. 
 
 A welcfjiiio addition to tho meajfru faro of the Arctic navii,'ator iH furiiiHhed by thu Arctic 
 Haro (Lcpuji (jlucialin), which, like the reindeer, collects in herds or troops as winter approaches. 
 Ah many iw two hundred have been seen at a time ; and at one of their favourite haunts — Cape 
 J)un(la«, Melville Island — mif^ht bo seen a complete highway, three yards broad, which the tread 
 of their numbers had beaten through the snow. In winter they seek their food and burrow for 
 prijtcction under tho snow-crust. Captain M'Clintock states that they are ubiquitous in the Polar 
 Regions, but that, of course, they are most numerous where the pasture is most abundant, as on 
 Hanks Land and Melville Island. The sportsmen of the two discovery ships. Resolute and Intrepid, 
 hliot one hundred and sixty-one hares in a twelvemonth on Melville Island ; their average weight, 
 when fit for the table, was seven pounds, and from ten to twelve pounds including skin and offal. 
 
 In the warm brief summer the hare takes refuge from the pursuit of beasts of prey under 
 large boulders, or in the steep face of rocky ravines. It is then found in groups of from twelve 
 to twenty. So delicate is their skin, that though the winter fur is of exceeding beauty and bril- 
 liant whiteness, it cannot be applied to any purpose of utility. They do not hibernate ; and our 
 explorers generally found them amongst the heavy hummocks of the floe-ice, as if they fled to that 
 rugged ground from the wolves or foxes. 
 
 In the range of the Altai, and extending even into Kamtschatka, we meet with the Alpine 
 Hare {Latjomys Alpinus); a small rodent, scarcely exceeding a guinea-pig in size, and measuring 
 in length nine inches only : it has a long head, with short, broad, and rounded ears. Its favourite 
 places of sojourn are among tho rocks and cataracts of wild wooded regions, where it forms 
 burrows beneath the rocks, or inhabits their fissures. When the sky is bright, and the sunshine 
 genial, they seldom leave their holes in the day-time ; but in dull weather they may be seen 
 bounding among the rocks, and making the echoes resound with their low whistle or bird-like 
 chirp. In tb ' autumn they make ready against winter need by collecting a large assortment of 
 the most nutritious herbs and grasses, which, after drying in the sun, they arrange in heaps of 
 various sizes, according to the number of animals engaged in the task ; and as these heaps are 
 often several feet in height and breadth, they may be easily distinguished even through the deep 
 snow, and frequently prove of great service to the Siberian sable-hunters, whose horses would 
 perish but for the supplies thus strangely aftbrded. Hence, wherever a Siberian or a Tartar tribe 
 is found, the Alpine haro possesses a distinctive name, — and, notwithstanding its diminutiveness, 
 is highly valued. 
 
 Another rodent which deserves to be remembered in these pages, is the Arctic or Hudson 
 Bay Lemming {Myodus lemmus), Wuich is found in Labrador, and on all the American mainland 
 washed by the cold waters of the Arctic Ocean. It has been described as " a perfect diamond 
 edition of the guinea-pig." In habits it resembles the hare very closely, except that it is more 
 gregarious, and is generally found in large families. In summer it is of an ashy colour, with a 
 tawny tinge on the bock, a dusky streak along its middle, and a pale stripe on either side. It 
 has the repute of being exceedingly inoffensive ; and is tamed so easily that, when caught, it 
 becomes reconciled to its captivity in a day or two, and will soon show itself sensible of its master's 
 caresses. In winter it is perfectly white, — white as snow, from which it can be distinguished 
 only by the keen scent of the fox or the Eskimo dog. 
 
ABOUT THE LEMMING. tW 
 
 About the end of May, or early in June, it leaves the land and seeks the floating ice ; for 
 what purpose does not seem as yet to bo accurately ,i i ortained. Is it due to an instinct of 
 migration, such as the Norwegian lemming so powerfully exhibits? It may be that the thaws 
 force them from the laud, or that, as the seamen say, " Them blessed little lemmings nmst be 
 arter salt I" They have often been fou!id steering of shore from the north coast of Melville 
 Island, leaving comparative plenty in their rear ; and, so far as could be made out, on a clear day, 
 from land of considerable height, there was nothing in the shape of terra Jirmti in the direction 
 they were taking. When thus exposed upon the open floe, owls, gulls, and foxes pick thom uf) 
 for food. Can it be that Providence occasions, or has ordained this exodus for the pur])ose of 
 feeding these creatures, and of thinning down the numbers of an animal which would otherwise 
 multiply exceedingly, and devour all the vegetation of a naturally barren region ? 
 
 From an Arctic journal it would appear that the lemmings are preyed upon by the Polar 
 bear We transcribe a graphic passage in further illustration of the habits of that remarkable 
 carnivore : — 
 
 " Seeing some drift-wood lying about," says a gallant navigator, " which it waa important 
 should be examined, I halted and encamped, dispersing the men along the beach to bring all 
 in they could find. Walking landward to obtain a view from a hill, I was startled to see 
 a she-bear and two cubs some distance inland. Watching them carefully, I was not a little 
 interested to see the mother applying her gigantic muscular power to turning over the 
 large blocks of sandstone which strewed the plain, and under which the unlucky lemmings 
 at this season take shelter. Directly the she-bear lifted the stones, which she did by sitting 
 upon her hams and pulling them towards her with her fore paws, the cubs rushed in and 
 seized their prey, tossing them up in the air in their wantonness. After repeating this 
 operation until the young fry must have made a very good meal, I was glad to witness the 
 bear's mode of suckling her young — a sight, I should think, rarely seen. Seated on her haunches, 
 with the backbone arched, so as to bring the breasts (which were situated between the shoulders) 
 as low as possible, the youngsters sucked away in a standing attitude. Anxious to secure this 
 family-party, we proceeded to bum all sorts of strong-smelling articles ; and at last she brought 
 her babes down, though very warily, and when more than one hundred yards ofl" turned away, 
 evidently suspicious." 
 
 In the sub-Arctic regions are found some of those animals which furnish commerce with 
 the costliest furs. They all belong, however, to the family Mustelida, represented in temperate 
 climes by the common weasel (Musteles). 
 
 The marten of North America is, in fact, the cousin-german of the weasel, and not less 
 ferocious in its habits. In the forests of fir and birch which it loves to frequent, it preys upon 
 the small rodents, the birds, and, if its appetite is very keen, upon the reptiles. It scales trees 
 as nimbly as the cat ; and its flexible body enables it to insinuate itself into the smallest 
 openings, where a cat could not pass, and into the burrows and hollows of the trees or rocks in 
 which its victims seek shelter. It is, however, a pretty animal, with vivacious ways, an astute 
 physiognomy, and a rich coat of fur. 
 
 In the wooded zone which borders on the desert region of the Polar World are found both 
 the Pine Marten {Miistela martea) and Pennant's Marten {Miistela Canadensis). The fur of 
 
lU 
 
 THK MARTEN AND THE 8AHLK. 
 
 tho fonnor w of a. vory Huperior (juality, and its skin forms a great article of commerce. It 
 l)urrowH in tho (,noun(i, and foods upon mice, rabbits, and partridges. Tho Canadian marten is 
 larger than tho preceding; longer and stronger. It lives in the woods, preferring damp places 
 to dry ; and climhs with a remarkable amount of ease and dexterity. 
 
 The Sable {Mustela zibelUnu) is much more highly esteemed for its fur than any other of 
 tho weasel trite. It has long whiskers, rounded ears, large feet (the soles of which are covered 
 with fur), white claws, and a long bushy tail. Tho general colour of tho fur is brown, more or 
 less brilliant, but the lower parts of the throat and neck are grayish. 
 
 A vivacious and nimble animal is the sable, 
 which dwells in the remotest recesses of the 
 forests, beneath the roots of trees, and in holes of 
 tho earth, and penetrates to the very borders of 
 tho realm of perpetual snow. Prodigious numbers 
 are killed in Siberia, during the months of 
 November, December, and January. The hunters 
 assemble in large companies, and make their way 
 down the great rivers in boats, carrying sufficient 
 supplies of provisions for a three months' absence. 
 On reaching the appointed place of rendezvous, 
 the different companies, each under tho direction 
 of a leader, fix upon their respective quarters, 
 erect huts of trees, and build up the snow around 
 them. In the neighbourhood of these they lay 
 their snares; and then, advancing another mile 
 or so, they set a further quantity ; and thus they 
 proceed, until they have covered a considerable 
 area of ground ; building huts in each locality, 
 and returning in due order to each set of snares to collect their prey. These snares are of 
 the simplest construction ; nothing more than small pits or cavities, loosely covered with rough 
 planks or branches of trees, and baited with fish or fiesh. When the game grows scarce, the 
 trappore follow the sable to their retreats by tracking their footprints over the fresh-fallen snow ; 
 place nets at their entrances ; and quietly wait, if it be for two or three days, until the animals 
 make their appearance. 
 
 The fur of the sable is distinguished from all other furs by this singular property : the hair 
 has no particular inclination, but may be laid down indiflerently in any direction whatever. 
 
 THE KBUINK ANU H.VIILK HAIITEN. 
 
 The genus Polecat {Mustela putarius) comprehends the smallest of all known carnivores, — 
 namely, tho weasel, tho ferret, and the ermine. The temperate countries of Europe possess a 
 variety of the latter species ; but the ermines of the remot« North yield the fullest and softest 
 fur. These animals, like many others in high latitudes, change the colour of their coat according 
 to the season. They have been adopted by poets, on account of the spotless whiteness of their 
 fur, as emblematic of purity ; but, in truth, they merit that honour only in the winter : in 
 
i(i»i8WWWI"»!!f«l^i|P«I^PIWP"W»!pwi!Piippii|ppp 
 
 i^liPpPW" 
 
 i^fifrffi^imvmmm.m m 
 
 ABOUT THE WOLVERINE. 
 
 IH 
 
 the summer their colour is a clear maroon. The tail, at all times, is of a beautiful brilliant 
 black. 
 
 Another carnivorous quadruped which haunts the northern forests is the Glutton {Gulo 
 Arcticus), or Wolverine ; it owes its former and more popular name to its extreme voracity. 
 But it is at least as remarkable for its strength and fierceness, inasmuch as it does not fear to 
 dispute their prey with the wolf and bear ; and for its cunning, since it baffles again and again 
 the most carefully devised stratagems of the hunter. Tt is a slow and somewhat unwieldy 
 
 THK GI.rTTON, OR WOLVERINE. 
 
 animal ; but it is determined and persevering, and will proceed at a steady pace for miles in 
 search of prey, stealing unawares upon hares, marmots, and birds ; and surprising even the 
 larger quadrupeds, such as the elk and the reindeer, when asleep. 
 
 The stories told of this remarkable animal's shrewdness, which far exceeds that commonly 
 attributed to the fox, would seem incredible, were they not confirmed by good authority. It is 
 in allusion to its extraordinary cunning that the Indians call it Kekioaharhess, or the " Evil 
 One." With an energy that never flags it hunts day and night for the trail of men, which, 
 when found, it follows up unerringly. On coming to a lake, where the track is generally drifted 
 over, it continues its steady gallop round the shores, to discover the point at which the track 
 re-enters the woods, when it again pursues it until it arrives at one of the wooden traps set for 
 
\M ITS llKMAUKAni,K HAUAOITY. 
 
 the marten or the mink, thu ormino or tho muttk-rut. Cautiously avoiding the door, it effects 
 vi<>l(!iit untruncu at thu hack, and Hoizi'M thu Itait with impunity ; or, if thu trap contains an 
 animal, (hilars it out, and, with wanton maluvolunco, mauls it, and hidus it at aomu distance in thu 
 underwood or at tho top of somo lofty pine. If hard pressud by hunger, it duvours the victim. 
 Ami in tluH mamuir it dumoIiHhfs tho whole suries of traps; ho that when once a wolverine has 
 (HtahliHhcd itsulf on a trapping-walk, the hunter's only chance of success is to change his ground, 
 and huihl a fn^sh lot of traps, in thu hope of securing a few furs before tho new path is discovered 
 by his industrious enomy. 
 
 Some interusting paiticulars of tho habits and ways of the glutton are recorded by Lord 
 Afilton and J)r. Chuadio in their lively nan.itivi^ of an expedition from the Atlantic to tho 
 I'acific C' Tho North-Wust Passage by Land "). Tliuy tell us that it is never caught in the 
 ordinary pit-fall. Occasionally one is poisoned, or caught in a steel trap ; but so great is the 
 creature's strength, that many traps strong enough to liold securely a largo wolf will not retain 
 tho wolverine. When caught in this way, it does not, like the fox and the mink, proceed to 
 amputate thu limb, but, assisting to carry tlu^ trM|> with its mouth, hastens to reach a lake or 
 river, where its progress will bo unimpeded l)y trees or fallen wood. After travelling to a 
 sufficient distance to bo safe from pursuit for a time, it sets to work to extricate its imprisoned 
 lind), and very frequently succeeds in the attempt. 
 
 Occasionally the glutton is killed by a gun placed so as to bear on a bait, to which is 
 attached a string conmiunicating with the trigger. But a trapper assured Lord Milton and his 
 companion, tluit very often the animal had proved too cunning for him, first approaching tho 
 gun and gnawing in two the cord communicating with the trigger, and then securely devouring 
 the bait. 
 
 In one instance, when all the trapper's devices to beguile his enemy had been seen through, 
 and clearly foiled, he adopted the plan of placing the gun in a tree, with the muzzle pointing 
 vertically downwards upon the bait. This \va8 suspended from a brancli, at such a height that 
 the animal could not secure it without jumping ; and, moreover, it was completely screened by 
 the boughs. Now, the wolverine's curiosity almost equals its voracity. 1 1 shows a disposition 
 to investigate everything ; an old moccasin flung aside in tho bushes, or a knife lost in the snow, 
 must be ferreted out and examined, and any object suspended almost out of reach generally 
 proves irresistible as a temptation. In this instance, however, the caution of the glutton 
 exceeded its curiosity and restrained its hunger ; it climbed the tree, cut the fastenings of the 
 gun, which then tumbled to the ground, and, descending, it secured the bait with impunity. 
 
 Lord Milton's party were personal sufferers by, and witnesses to, the animal'c cunning. One 
 day, when setting out to visit their traps, they observed the footprints of a very large wolverine 
 wliich had followed their trail, and I^a Ronde, their trapper, at once exclaimed, " Cest fini, 
 monsieur; il a cass^ toutes n6tres dtrappes, vous allez voir;" and so it proved. As they came 
 to each in succession, they found it broken open at the back, and the bait taken ; and, where an 
 animal had been caught, it was carried off. Throughout the whole line every one had been 
 demolished ; and the tails were discovered of no fewer than ten martens, the bodies of which had 
 apparently been devoured by the hungry and astute wolverine. 
 
 With one more illustration we must be content, and turn to another branch of our subject, 
 though we do not suppose that our readers will weary of the relation of facts which throw so 
 
"THK BITKIt lUT" 15* 
 
 vivid u light on tho ititclligonco, as dlHtinct from, ftnd Huperior to, tho instinct of nnirnaU. And, 
 certainly, tho manner in which tho glutton foils the ingenious stratagems of tho trapiiers must 
 bo ascribed to intelligence ratiier than to instinct. In the following anecdote we Miink it is 
 plainly shown that tho latter coulil not have sufficed to guard the animal against the machina- 
 tions of its persevering foes. 
 
 Dr. Cheadle, accompanied by an Indian boy, named Misquapasnayoo, started off for tho 
 woods, bent upon proving his superior acuteness to the wolverine. They found that tho latter 
 ha<l renewed his visits along the lino of traps, and broken all which had been reconstructed, 
 devouring tho animals found in them. Dr. Cheadle thereupon adopted a device which could not 
 fail, he thought, to catch his enemy in hi** own toils. All the broken traps were repaired and 
 8ot again, and poisoned baits substituted for tho ordinary ones in the traps ; not in every 
 instance, but hero and there along the line. 
 
 The forest was here of great extent, and seemed to stretch away to the frozen North with- 
 out let or hindrance, tho mass of timber being broken only by numerous lakes and swamps, or 
 clearances which had been caused by conflagrations. The traveller always .seeks the lakes ; not 
 only because they enable him to travel more rapidly, and penetrate further into the less hunted 
 regions, but also because the edges of the lakes, and the portages between them, are favourite 
 haunts of the fox, the fisher, and the mink. On one of these lakes a curious circuinstanco was 
 noted. The lake was about half a mile in length, and of nearly equal breadth, but of no great 
 depth. The water had seemingly frozen to the bottom, except at one end, whore a spring 
 bubbled up, and a hole of about a yard in diameter existed in the ice-crust, which was there oidy 
 a few inches thick. In this hole the water was crowded witii myriads of small fish, most of them 
 not much larger than a man's finger, and so closely packed that tuey could not move freely. < )n 
 thrusting in an arm, it seemed like plunging it into "a mass of thick stir-about." All around 
 tho snow had been trodden down hard and level by the feet of tho numerous animals attracted 
 to this Lenten banquet ; and tracks converged to it from every side. The footprints could be 
 recognized of the cross or silver fox, delicately impressed in the snow as he trotted daintily along 
 with light and airy tread ; the rough marks of the clumsier fisher ; the clear and sharply-defined 
 track of the nimble mink ; and the great '♦-oss trail of tho ubi(|uitous glutton. On the trees 
 around scores of crows were sleepily digesting their abundant meals. 
 
 When Dr. Cheadle and his companion turned homewards, they found that their enemy had 
 been in active pursuit. Along the ground they had traversed on the previous day, every trap 
 was already demolished, and all the baits were abstracted. Dr. Cheadle at first imagined that 
 ho had at last outwitted and destroyed his enemy ; but the Indian's keener eyes discovered each 
 of tho baits which had been poisoned, lying close at hand, bitten in two and rejected, while all 
 the others had disappeared. The baits, nevertheless, had beon very carefully prepared ; tho 
 strychnine being inserted into the centre of the meat by a small hole, and when frozen it was 
 impossible to distinguish them from the harmless ones by any peculiarity of appearance. It 
 seemed as if the animal suspected poison, and bit in two and tasted every morsel before swallow- 
 ing it. The baits had purposely been made very small, so that in the ordinary course they 
 would have been swallowed whole. That the same wolverine had followed up their path from 
 the first, they knew perfectly well, because it was one of unusually large size, as shown by its 
 
 tracks, which were readily distinguished from those of smaller animals. 
 
 11 
 
 
I.i.'. 
 
 TiiK AncTic Biiina 
 
 The distribution of JJirds in tlio Polar Kei^ions, is n suhjoct on which it seoms desirable to 
 ollitr a few rcnmrks, so that our reiulers may bo able to form an accurate concei-tion of the 
 character and variety of the animal life peculiar to them. 
 
 Of the l)irds of Greenland and Iceland, it may be affinned that fully three-fourths of the 
 species, and a still larger proportion of individuals, are more or less aquatic, and many of the 
 remainder are only summer visitorF. The largest bird that ventures far north is the Aquila 
 ulbicilln, or fitshing-eagle, which buiMs its eyrie on the loftiest crags of the ocean-cliffs, and feeds 
 on salmon and trout. The Falco Islamlicns, or gyrfalcon, though a native of Iceland, is now 
 very rarely met with. The snowy owl inhabits the glaciers which fill the deep inland valleys 
 of Greenland, and Its range extendi as far southwards as the Orkneya Particular kinds of 
 grouse are confined to the high latitudes ; and more particularly the pt^irmigan, or white grouse. 
 
 ITARMIOAN. 
 
 which supplies a welcome suidition to the scanty bill of fare of the Arctic navigators. It is 
 found, even in the depths of winter, on Melville Island ; burrowing under the snow, perhaps, for 
 warmth, protection, and food. But it appears to bo most numerous in April, when it is found 
 in pairs ; in September it collects in coveys, sometimes of as many as fifteen or twenty birds, 
 preparatory to their southern migration. 
 
 Of the Cormthn, the only species which ventures beyond the Arctic Circle is the lloyston 
 crow, and th.it only in summer. 
 
 The raven, however, is found in all the wide Polar realm, and is larger, stronger, and more 
 voracious in tlie Arctic Islands ihan elsewhere. It drives the eider-ducks from their nests in 
 order to prey on their young or feast on theii eggs, aid it unites in flocks to expel intruding 
 birds from thtir abode. 
 
DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 161 
 
 The Grallatores are more numerous than land-birds in the Arctic World. The snipo and the 
 golden plover arc only visitors ; but the oyster-catcher is a denizen of Iceland, where, building 
 its nest on the reedy banks of the streams, it wages war with the crow tribe. The lieron, 
 curlew, plover, and most of the other waders, ^.migrate ; sand-pipers and the water-ousel remain 
 "all the year round." 
 
 The Cygnus musiciis, or whistling swan, is specially famous for its migrations. It measures 
 five feet from the tip of the bill to the <nid of the tail, and eight feet across its noble extended 
 wings ; its plumage is white as snow, with a slight tinge of orange or yellow on the head. Some 
 of these swans winter in Iceland ; and in the long Arctic night their song, as they 'lass in flocks, 
 falls on the ear of the listener like the notes of a violin. 
 
 The distribution of animals is, of course, regulated by laws analogous to those which regu- 
 late the distribution of plants, insects, birds, and fishes. Each continent, and even different 
 portions of the same continent, are.ti "^ centres of zoological families, which have always existed 
 there, and nowhere else ; each group being almost always specifically different from all others. 
 As the Arctic World includes a district common to Europe, Asia, and America, with uniform 
 climatic conditions, the animals inhabiting the high latitudes of these continents are frequently 
 very similar and sometimes identical ; and, in fact, no genus of quadrupeds exists in the Arctic 
 regions that is not found in all three continents, though there are only twenty-seven species 
 common to all, and these mostly fur-bearing animals. The carnivores, as we have seen, are very 
 few in number, and of these the n;ost important is the Polar bear. Of the herbivores the 
 reindeer is the most valuable ; its southern limit in Europe is the Baltic Sea, in America the 
 latitud(3 of Quebec. 
 
 There are fully eight varieties of American dogs, several of which are natives of the far 
 North. The lacjopus, or isatis, a native of Spitzbergen and Greenland, extends over all the 
 Arctic regions of America and Asia, and is found in some of the Kurile Islands. Dogs are 
 employed to draw sledges in Newfoundland and Canada ; and the Eskimo dogs, used for this 
 purpose by the Arctic explorers, are famous for their strength, their docility, and power of 
 endurance. They were mute, until they learned to bark from European dogs on board the 
 discovery ships. 
 
CHAPTER VT. , _ 
 
 ICELANP AND THE ICELANDERS. '^^^ 
 
 |UST within the Arctic region, but nearly on the limits of what geographers call the 
 Atlantic Ocean, lies an island which, since its colonization in the ninth century, has 
 not ceased to excite the interest of the explorer and the man of science. 
 
 Iceland — which measures about 300 miles at its greatest length, from cast to west, and 
 about 200 miles at its greatest breadth, from north to south — is situated in lat. G3° 23'-GG° 33' N., 
 and long. 13' 'J2'-24° 35' W. ; at a distance of 600 miles from the nearest point of Norway, 250 
 from the Faroe Isles, 250 from Greenland, and above 500 miles from the northern extremity of 
 Scotland. As early as the eighth Christian century it was discovered by some European 
 emigrants ; though, indeed, the Landnana Book, one of the earliest of the island-records, asserts 
 that they found the memorials of a yet earlier settlement in various Christian relics, such as 
 wooden crosses, which appeared to be of Irish origin. At all events, the first really successful 
 attempt at colonization was made by Ingolf, a Norwegian, who planted himself and his followers 
 at Reykjavik in 874. In the following century a somewhat extensive immigration took place of 
 Norwegians who resented the changes of polity introduced by Harold Haarfager, and all the 
 habitable jjoints on the coast were occupied by about 950 a.d. Fifty years afterwards, though 
 not without much opposition, Christianity was legally established, and the bishoprics of Holar 
 and Skalholt were founded. The government assumed the character of an aristocratic republic, 
 with a po})ular assembly, called the Althing, meeting every summer in the valley of Thingvellir. 
 Commerce was encouraged, and the Icelanders early distinguished themselves by the boldness of 
 their maritime enterprise, and the extent of their ocean fisheries. 
 
 About the year 932 they discovered Greenland, and about 986 a portion of the North 
 American coast, which they called " Vineland." They did not confine their voyages to the north, 
 but sent their ships even as far south as the Mediterranean. From 1 1 50 to 1 250 is rightly con- 
 sidered the most flourishing period of Icelandic literature and commerce. After the conquest of 
 tlie island by Haeo VI. of Norway, much of the old si)irit seemed to die out. When Norway 
 was united to Denmark in 1380, Iceland was included in the bond, and it is still regarded as a 
 dependency of the latter kingdom. In 1540 it embraced the principles of Lutheran Protestant- 
 ism. Its population at one time numbered 100,000, but it gradually diminished until, in 1840, 
 it was reduced to 57,094 : but a slow increase has taken place of late years, and it now amounts 
 to about 70,000. The language spoken is the old Norse. 
 
 Iceland is a fifth part larger than Ireland, and its superficial area is estimated at 39,207 
 
VOLCANOES OF ICELAND. 
 
 tea 
 
 square miles. Not more than 4000 miles, however, are habitable, all the rest being ice and lava ; 
 for the island seems to be little more than a mass of trachyte, snow-shrouded and frost-bound, 
 resting on a sea of fire. It consists of two vast parallel table-lands, the foundations of ranges of 
 lofty mountains, most of which are active volcanoes ; and these table-lands strike across the 
 centre of the island, from north-east to south-west, at a distance from one another of ninety to 
 one hundred miles. Their mountainous summits are not pyramidal, as is generally the case in 
 Europe, but rounded like domes, as in the Andes of South America. Their sides, however, are 
 broken up by precipitous masses of tufa and conglomerate, intersected by deep ravines of the 
 gloomiest character. They are covered with a thick shroud of ice and snow, but in their wombs 
 seethe the fiery elements which ever and anon break forth into terrible activity. The eastern 
 
 .VN ICKLANDIC LANDSCAPE. 
 
 table-land and its mountain range is the mo.'st extensive, and contains Oerafa, the culminating 
 point of Iceland. It is visible from a great distance at sea, like a white cloud suspended above 
 the island. Its height is 6426 feet, and it springs from a vast mountain-ma-ss ; no fewer than 
 3000 square miles being perpetually burdened with ice and snow, at an altitude varying from 3000 
 to 6000 feet. 
 
 A very considerable portion of the island is occupied by the large glaciers which descend 
 from the mountains, like frozen torrents, pushing forwaixl into the lowlands, and even to the 
 margin of the sea. These act as almost impassable barriers to communication between tho 
 various inhabited districts. 
 
164 
 
 A CIRCLE OF ICE. 
 
 We liave spoken of the two ranges of table-lands as about ninety to one hundred miles apart. 
 The interspace forms a losv broad valley, whirh opens at either extremity on the sea— an awful 
 waste, a region of desolation, where man is utterly powerless ; where the elements of fire and 
 frost maintain a perpetual antagoni.sm ; where blade of grass is never seen, nor drop of water ; 
 where bird never wings its way, and no sign of life can be detected. It seems a realization of 
 Dante's "circle of ice" in the "Inferno." The surface consists of lava streams, fissured by 
 inimmerable crevices; of rocks piled on rocks; of dreary glaciers, relieved by low volcanic cones. 
 It is supposed that some remote portions of the inaccessible interior ai-e less barren, because 
 herds of reindeer have been seen feeding on the Iceland moss that fringes the bordora of this 
 dreary legion. But there is no reason to believe that it can ever be inhabited by man. 
 
 M 
 
 UOUNT lIKKt.A, FROM TUB VALLKV OK IIKVITA. 
 
 The extremities of the valleys, where they approach the ocean, are the principal theatres of 
 volcanic activity. At the southern end the best-known volcano is that of Hekla, wliich has 
 attiiined a sinister repute from the terrific character of its eruptions. Of these six-andtwenty 
 are recorded, tiie last having occurred in 1845-4G. One lasted for six yeare, spreading devasta- 
 tion over a country which hatl formerly been the seat of a prosperous colony, burying the fields 
 beneath a flood of lava, scorite, and ii-shes. During the eruption of September 2, 1845, to Apiil 
 184G, three new craters were formed, from which columns of fire sprang to the height of 14,000 
 feet. The lava accuumlated in formidable hills, and fragments of scoriaj and pumice-stone, weigh- 
 ing two hundredweight, were thrown to a distance of a league and a half ; while the ice and snow 
 
EKUPTION OF THE SKAPTAR JOKUl.L. 105 
 
 which had lain on the mountain for centuries were iinuetied, and poured down into the phiins in 
 devastating torrents. 
 
 But the eruption of another of these terrible volcanoes, the Skaptiir Jokuli, which broke 
 out on tlie 8th of May 1783, and lasted until August, was of a still more awful character. At 
 that time the volcanic fire under Europe must have raged most violently, for a tremendous earth- 
 quake shattered a wide extent of Calabria in the same year, and a submarine volcano had flamed 
 fiercely for many weeks in the ocean, thirty miles from the south-west capo of Iceland. 
 
 Its fires ceased suddenly ; a series of earthquakes shook the island ; and then Skaptdr broke 
 forth into sudden and destructive activity. 
 
 For months the sun was hidden by dense clouds of vapour, and clouds of volcanic dust were 
 carried many hundreds of miles to sea, extending even to England and Holland. Sand and 
 ashes, raised to an enormous height in the atmosphere, spread in all directions, and overwhelmed 
 thousands of acres of fertile pasturage. The sulphurous exhalations blighted the grass of tho 
 field, and tainted the waters of river, lake, and sea, so that not only the herds and flocks perished, 
 but the fish died in their poisoned element 
 
 The quantity of matter ejected by the rent and shivered mountain was computed at fifty or 
 sixty thousand millions of cubic yards. The molten lava flowed in a stream which in some 
 places was twenty to thirty miles in breadth, and of enormous thickness ; a seething, hissing 
 torrent, which filled the beds of rivers, poured into tho sea nearly fifty miles from its points of 
 eruption, and destroyed the fishing on the coast. Some of the island-rivers were heated, it is 
 said, to ebullition ; others were dried up ; the condensed vapour " " in whirls of snow and storms 
 of rain. But dreadful as was the eruption itself, with its sublime but awful phenomena, far more 
 dreadful were its consequence.s. The country within its range was one wide ghastly desert, a 
 fire-blighted wilderness ; and, partly- from want of food, partly owing to the unwholesome con- 
 dition of the atmosphere, no fewer than 933G men,* 28,000 horses, ll,4Gl cattle, and 190,000 
 sheep, were swept away in the short space of two years. Even yet Iceland has scarcely recovered 
 from the blow. 
 
 At the northern end of the great central valley the focus of igneous phenomena is found in 
 a semicircle of volcanic heights which slope towards tho eastern shore of the Lake Myvatn. Two 
 of these are very formidable, — namely, Leirhnukr and Krabla on the north-east. After years of 
 inaction, they suddenly broke out with tremendous fury, pouring such a quantity of lava into the 
 Lake Myvatn, which measures twenty miles in circuit, that the water was in a state of ebullition 
 for many days. On the sides of Mount Krabla, and at the base of this group of mountains, are 
 situated various caldrons of boiling mineral pitch, the ruined craters of ancient volcanoes ; and 
 from their depths are thrown up jets of the molten matter, enveloped in clouds of steam, and 
 accompanied by loud explosions at regular intervals. 
 
 But the most singular phenomena in this singular country, where frost and fire are con- 
 tiimally disputing the preeminence, are the Gei/sivs, or eruptive boiling springs. These all occur 
 in the trachytic formation, are characterized by their high temperature, by holding siliceous 
 matter in solution, which they deposit in the form of siliceous sinter, and by evolving large 
 quantities of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. 
 
 Upwards of fifty geysirs have been counted in the space of a few acn-es at the southern end 
 
 * A more motlei-ate estiiiKite s.iys !3i>0 pei-scma 
 
 
1 
 
 1C6 
 
 PHENOMENA OF THE GEYS1R.S. 
 
 of t J groat valley. Some are constant, sonio ijoriodieal, some stagnant, some only slightly 
 agitated. The grande.st and most celebrated are the Great Goysir and Strokkr, thirty-five miles 
 north-west IVoni liekla. These, at regular intervals, hurl into the air immense columns of 
 
 boiling water, to the height of one hundred feet, accom- 
 panied by clouds of steam and deafening noises. In the 
 case of the Great Geysir, the jet issues from a shaft about 
 seventy-five feet deej), and ten in diameter, whicli opens 
 into the centre of a shallow ba.sin, about one hundred and 
 fifty feet in circumference. The basin is alternately emptied 
 and filled : when filled, loud explosions are heard, tlie ground 
 ([uivers, and the boiling water is forced upwards in gigantic 
 columns. Thus the basin is emptied, and the explosions 
 cease until it is refilled. 
 
 Messrs. Descloiseaux and Bunsen, who, according to 
 Mrs. Somerville, visited Iceland in ] 84G, found the tempera- 
 ture of the Great Geysir, at the depth of seventy-two feet, 
 to equal 260° 30' F. prior to a great eruption, reduced, after 
 the eruption, to 251° 30' F.; an interval of twenty -eight 
 hours passing in silence. 
 
 About one hundred and forty yards distant is the 
 Strokkr (from droka, to agitate), a circular well, forty- 
 four feet deep, with a tube eight feet wide at its mouth, 
 diminishing to little more than ten inches at a depth of 
 twenty-seven feet. The surface of the water is in constant 
 ebullition, while at the bottom the temperature exceeds 
 that of boiling water by about twenty-four degrees. It appears, from experiments made by 
 Donny, that water, l(>ng boiled, becomes more and more free from air, and that thus the 
 cohesion of the particles is so much increased, that when the heat is sufficiently increased to 
 overcome that cohesion, the production of steam is so considerable and so instantaneous as to 
 induce an explosion. In this circumstance M. Donny finds an explanation of the phenomena of 
 the Geysirs, which are in constant ebullition for many hours, until, being almost purified from 
 air, the intense internal or subterranean heat ovei'comes the cohesion of the particles, and thus 
 an explosion takes place. 
 
 Lord Dufferin describes an eruption which he witnessed on the occasion of his visit to the 
 Geysirs, but for which he waited three days. Like pilgrims round some ancient shrine, he says, 
 ho anil his friends kept patient watch ; but the Great Geysir scarcely deigned to vouchsafe the 
 slightest manifestation of its latent energies. Two or three times they heard a sound as of sub- 
 terranean cannonading, and once an eruption to the height of about ten feet occurred. On the 
 morning of the fourth day a cry from the guides made them start to their feet, and with one 
 common impulse rush towards the basin. The usual underground thunder had already com- 
 menced. A violent agitation was disturbing the centre of the pool. Suddenly a dome of water 
 lifted itself up to the height of eight or ten feet, then burst, and fell ; immediately after which a 
 shining liquid column, or rather a sheaf of columns, wreathed in robes of vapour, sprang into 
 
 THK OREAT OETSIR. 
 
ACriON OF THE "8TR0KKU." 181 
 
 the air, and in a succession of jerking leaps, each higher than thi; liust, fluni,' their silvor crests 
 against the sky. For a few minutes tiie fountain held itu own, then all at ome a|)|)t'ared to lose 
 its ascending power. The unstable waters faltered, drooped, fell, " like a broken purpose," back 
 upon themaelvi's, and were immediately sucked down into the receasos of their pipe. 
 
 The spectiu lo was one uf great magnificence ; but no description can give an accurate idea of 
 its most striking features. The enormous wealth of water, its vitality, its hidden power, the illimit- 
 able breadth of sunlit vapour, rolling out in e.xhaustless profusion, — these combine to impress tlie 
 spectator with an almost painful sense of the stupendous energy of nature's slightest movements. 
 
 According to Captain Burton, the name of the Strokkr has been generally misinterpreted. 
 Dillon calls it the piston, or churning-staff ; Barrow, the " shaker : " it is simply the " hand-churn," 
 whose upright shaft is worked up and down — the cliiirn-like column of water suggesting the 
 resemblance. This feature, perhaps the " New Geysir ' of Sir John Stanley and Henderson, 
 formerly erupted naturally, and had all the amiable eccentricity of youth : now it must be teased 
 or coaxed. Stanley gave it 130 feet of jet; Henderson, 50 to 80; Symington, 100 to 150 feet; 
 Bryson, "upwards of 100 ;" and Baring-Gould, "rather higher than the Geysir." Burton found 
 it lying 275 feet (Mackenzie, 131 yards) south of the Big Brother, of which it is a mean replica. 
 The outer diameter of the saucer is only 7 feet, the inner about 18 ; and it is too well drained by 
 its silex-floored channel ever to remain full. A funnel or inverted cone, it gives the popular idea 
 of a crater : the upper bore is 8 feet 4 inches to 9 feet, the depth 44 to 49, and about half-way 
 down it narrows to about 11 inches. The surface is an ugly area of spluttering and even boiling 
 water. A " fulminating dose " of turfs and stones brings on the usual tame display of " bou(juets 
 d'eau in sheaves, gerbes, lanceolations, and volutes," the highest rising at most 40 feet : travellers 
 give twelve minutes for the operation ; others see it "almost instantaneously." Burton waited nioie 
 than an hour. Bryson explains the action by organic matter causing violent ebullition, like the 
 mucus or albumen of eggs, which make the pot boil over, or like the vesicles in foam or custard 
 confining atmospheric oxygen. But a second experiment with stones only, and the want of sudden- 
 ness in the outburst, made Burton fall back upon the homely old theory — namely, that stoji])iiig 
 the narrow tube enables the water to overcome the pressure of the upper column. 
 
 A region resembling the Jeseri mountain-mass we have been describing stretches westward to 
 the extremity of the Snaefell Syssel ridge, terminating in the remarkable cone of Sniiefell Jtiknll. 
 
 The island coasts exhibit a singularly brcken outline, and the deep loclis or fiords, like those 
 of Norway, only less romantic, dip into the interior for many mile.-;, and throw off" numerous 
 branches. These fiords are wild and gloomy ; dark, still inlets, with precipices on either side, 
 a thousand feet in height, and the silence unbroken, save by the occasional wash of the waters, or 
 the scream of a solitary ocean-bird. Inland, however, they assume a gentler character : they end 
 in long narrow valleys, watered by pleasant streams, and bright with pasture. In these bits of 
 Arcadia the inhabitants have built their towns and villages. 
 
 In the valleys on the north coast, which are adorned by clumps of willow and juniper, the 
 soil is comparatively fertile ; but the most genial scenery is found on the east, where, in some 
 places, the birch-trees reach a height of twenty feet, and are of sufficient size to be used in house- 
 building. The fuel used by the Icelanders is the drift-wood which the Gulf Stream biings from 
 Mexico, the Carolinas, Virginia, and the River St. Lawrence. 
 
168 DKHCKIPTION OF THINOVELLIK 
 
 In tho w>uth of tho JHltind the uiean touipuraturu is about .')9°; in tho centml districts, 3G°; 
 in tliu north it rarely rises above 32", or freezinsf-point. 'rhun<ler-storms, though rare in high 
 hititudus, are n(jt unconinion in Iceland ; a circumstance whicli is duo, no iloubt, to tiie atmos- 
 pheric disturbances caused by the volcanic phenoniena. Hurricanes are ire(|Uent, and the days 
 are few when tho island is free from sea-mists. At the nortliern end the sun is always above the 
 horizon in tho middle of summer, and under it in the middle of winter ; but absolute darkness 
 does not prevail. 
 
 One of the most interesting places in Iceland is Thingvellir, where of old the " Althing," 
 or supreme pailiament, was wont to hold its annual assemblies, under the " Logmathurman," or 
 president of tho republic. 
 
 It is nothing more than a broad plain on the bank of tlie River Oxard, near the jjoint where 
 the swift waters, after forming a noble cascade, sweep into the Lake of Thingvallavatn. Only a 
 plain ; but the scenery around it is indescribably grand and solemn. On either side lies a barren 
 plateau, above whicii rises a range of snowy mountains, and frrni the plateaus the plain is cut 
 off by deep chasms, — that of Almannagja on the east, and the Hrafnagjd on the west. It 
 measures eight miles in breadth, and its surface is covered by a network of innumerable fissures 
 and crevices of great depth and breadth. At the foot of the plain lies a lake, about tiiirty miles 
 in circumference, in the cei '.re of which two small crater- islands, the result of some ancient 
 eruption, are situated. The mountains on its south bank have a romantic aspect, and that their 
 volcanic fires are not extinct is showii by the clouds of vapour evolved from the hot springs that 
 pour down their rugged sides. The actual meeting-place of the Althing was an irregular oval 
 area, about two hundred feet by fiftj', almost entirely surrounded by a crevice so broad and deep 
 as to be inipsussable, except where a narrow causeway connected it with the adjacent plain, and 
 permitted access to its interior. At one other point, indeed, the encircling chasm is so narn>w 
 that it may possibly be cleared at a leap ; and the story runs that one Flosi, when hotly pursued 
 liy his enemies, did in this way escape them ; but as falling an inch short would mean sure death 
 in the green waters below, the chasm may be regarded as a tolerably sure barrier against 
 intrudei-s. 
 
 The ancient capital of the island was Skalholt, where, in the eleventh century, was founded 
 the first school; an episcopal seat; the birthplace of a long line of Norse worthies, Islief the 
 chronicler, Gissur the linguist, and Finnur Jolmson the historian. But its glories have passed 
 away ; its noble cathedral has ceased t(i exist ; and three or four cottages alone perpetuate the 
 name of the once flourishing city. 
 
 The present capital is Reykjavik, to which, in 1797, wore transferred the united bishoi^rics 
 of Stoolum and Skalholt. It consists of a collection of wooden sheds, one story high, rising here 
 and there into a gable end of greater pretensions, extending along a tract of dreary lava, and 
 flanked at either end by a suburb of turf huts. On every side of it stretches a dreary lava-plain, 
 and the gloom of the scorched and ghastly landscape is unrelieved by tree or bush. The white 
 mountains are too distant to serve as a background to the buildings, but before the door of each 
 merchant's house, facing the sea, streams a bright little pennon ; and as the traveller paces the 
 silent streets, whose dust no carriage- wheel has ever desecrated, the rows of flower-pots peeping 
 out of tho windows, between white nmslin curtains, at once convince iiim that, notwithstanding 
 
ABOUT KEYKJAVIK. 
 
 169 
 
 * 
 
 their unostentatious appoarance, within each dwelling reigr "the elegance and comfort of ii 
 woiuan-teuded home. " 
 
 The prosperity of lioykjavik is chiefly due to its excellent harbour, and to the fish-hunks in 
 its neighbourhood, which supply it with an important commercial staple. In the summer and 
 early autunm it is much visited by tourists, wiio start from thence to admire the won<Ier8 of 
 Hekla, Skaptilr, and the Geysirs ; but its busiest time is in July, when the annual fair draws 
 thither a crowd of fisher-folk and peasants. From a distance of forty and fifty leagues they come, 
 with long trains of pack-horses, their stock-fish slung loose across the animals' backs, and their 
 other wares packed closely in boxes or bags of reindeer-skin. 
 
 The Icelander is honest, temperate, hospitable, possessed with a fervent spirit of patriotism, 
 and strongly wedded to the ancient usages. He is also industrious ; and though his industry 
 
 
 IIAHBUL'H UF KEVKJAVIK. 
 
 is but scantily remunerated, he earns enough to satisfy bJs simple tiistes. In the interior his 
 chief dependence is on his cattle ; and as grass is the main produce of his farm, his anxiety during 
 the haymaking season is extreme. A bad crop would be almost ruin. He is, however, wofuUy 
 ignorant of agriculture as a science, does but little for the improvement of the soil, and employs 
 implements of the most primitive character. The process of haymaking in Iceland is thus 
 described : — 
 
 The best crops are gathered from the " tdn," a kind of home park or paddock, comprising 
 the lands contiguous to the farmstead — the only portion of his demesne to which the owner 
 gives any special attention, and on the improvement of which he bestows any labour. This 
 " tun " is enclosed within a wall oi" stone or turf, and averages an extent of two or three acres, 
 though sometimes it reaches to ten. Its surface is usually a series of closely-packed mounds, 
 like an overcrowded graveyard, with channels or water-runs between, about two feet deep. 
 
J7U AN ICELANDKK'a UWKLLINO. 
 
 Hither overy person employod on thu funn, or whom the farmer can enfjage, resorts, with short 
 bhulud scythe and rake, and proceedH to cut down the coarse tliicit grass, and rnko it up into 
 little lieajis. 
 
 Afterwards the mowers hasten to clear the neighbouring hill-sides and undrained marshes. 
 
 This primitive haymaking, so unlike the systematic operation which bears that name in 
 P^ngland, is carried on throughout the twenty-four hours of the long summer day. The hay, 
 when .sufficiently dried, is made up into bundles, and tied with cords and thongs, and packed on 
 the back of ponies, which carry it to the clay-built stalls or sheds prepared for it. And a curious 
 sight it is to see a long string of hay-ladeu ponies returning home. Each pony's halter is made 
 fast to the tail of his predecessor ; and the little animals are so overshadowed and overwhelmed 
 by their burdens, that their hoofs and the connecting ropes alone are vi.sible, and they seem like 
 so many animated haycocks, feeling themselves sufficiently made up, and leisurely betaking 
 themselves to their resting-places. 
 
 During the protracted winter the Icelander, of course, can attend to no out-of-door labour, 
 and i>asses his time within his hut, which, in many parts of the island, is not much superior to 
 an Irish "cabin." 
 
 The lower part is built of rough stones up to a height of four feet, and between each 
 course a layer of turf is placed, which serves instead of mortar, and helps to keep out the cold. 
 The roof, made of any available wood, is covered with turf and sods On the southern side the 
 Ituilding is ornamented with doors and gable-ends, each of which is crowned by a weathercock. 
 Tiiose doors are the entrances to the dwelling-rooms and various offices, such as the cowshed, 
 .store-house, and smithy. The dwelling-rooms are connected by a long, dark, narrow passage, and 
 arc separated from each other by strong walls of tuif. As each apartment has its own roof, the 
 building is, in eflect, an aggregate of several low huts, which receive their light through small 
 windows in the front, or holes in the roof, covered with a piece of glass or skin. The floors are 
 of stamped earth; the fireplace is made of a few stones, rudely packed together, while the smoke 
 escapes through a hole in the roof, or through a cask or barrel, with the ends knocked out, 
 which acts as chimney. 
 
 In some parts of the island lava is used instead of stones, and instead of wood the rafters 
 are made of the ribs of whales. A horse's skull is the best seat provided for a visitor. Too 
 often the sane room serves as the dining, sitting, and sleeping place for the whole family, and 
 the beds are merely boxes filled with feathers or sea-weed. There are, however, a few houses of 
 a superior character, in which the arrangements are not much unlike those of a good old-fashioned 
 English farm-house ; the walls being wainscotted with deal, and the doors and staircase of the 
 same material. A few prints and photographs, some book-shelves, one or two little pictures, 
 decorate the sitting-room, and a neat iron stove, and massive chests of drawers, furnish it 
 sufficiently. 
 
 From the houses we turn to the churches. In Reykjavik the church is a stone building, 
 the only stone building in the town ; but this is exceptional :, most of the churches are not much 
 better than the houses. We will be content, therefore, with a visit to tLe Reikiavik sanctuary, 
 which is a neat and unpretending erection, capable of accommodating three or four hundred persons. 
 The Icelanders are not opposed to a "decent ritual/' and the Luthemn minister wears a black 
 gown with a ruff round his neck. The majority of the congregation, here as everywhere else. 
 
. 
 
 CHIJU(J11ES AND ('LKIttJY IN ICKI-ANI). 171 
 
 consistB of women ; somo fow dressed in bonnots, and the re«t wearinjj the national black nilii 
 HkuU-cap, act jauntily on one aide of the luad, with a lonj,' black tassel drooping to the shoulder, 
 or else a quaint niitre-likc structure of white linen, almost as imposing as the heod-dress of a 
 Normandy peasant. The remainder of an Icelandic lady's costume, we may add, consists of a 
 black bodice, fastened in fiont with silver clasps, over which is drawn a cloth jacket, gay with 
 innumerable silver buttons; round the neck goes a stiff ruft" of velvet, embroidered with silver 
 lace ; and a silver belt, often beautifully chased, binds the long dark wadmal petticoat round the 
 waist. Sometimes the ornaments are of gold, instead of silver, and very costly. 
 
 Towards the end of the Lutheran service, the preacher descends from the pulpit, and attiring 
 himself in a splendid crimson velvet cope, turns his back to the congregation, and chants somo 
 liatin .sentences. 
 
 Though still retaining in their ceremonies, says a recent traveller, a few vestiges of the old 
 religion, though altars, candles, pictures, and crucifixes yet remain in many of their churches, the 
 Icelanders are stanch Protestants, and singularly devout, innocent, and pure-hearted. Crini(\ 
 theft, debauchery, cruelty are unknown amongst them ; they have neither prison, gallows, soldiers, 
 nor i)olice ; and in the manner of their lives mingles something of a patriarchal simplicity, that 
 remi'uls one of the Old World princes, of whom it has been said, that they were " upright and 
 jierfeet, eschewing evil, and in their hearts no guile." 
 
 In the rural districts, if such a phrase can properly be applied to any part of Iceland, the 
 . hurch is scarcely distinguishable from any other building, except by the cross planted on its roof. 
 It measures, generally, from eight to ten feet in width, and from eighteen to twenty-four feet in 
 length ; but of this space about eight feet are devoted to the altai', which is divided oft" by a 
 wooden partition stretching across the church, just behind the pulpit. The conmiunion-table is 
 nothing more than a small wooden chest or cupboard, placed at the end of the building, between 
 two small square windows, each fonncd by a single common-sized pane of glass. Over the table 
 is suspended a sorry daub, on wood, intended to represent the Last Supper. The walls, which 
 are wainscotted, are about six feet high ; and stout beams of wood stretch from side to side. On 
 these are carelessly scattered a number of old Bibles, psalters, and loose leaves of soiled and anti- 
 quated manuscripts. The interior of the roof, the rafters of which rest on the walls, is also lined 
 with wood. Accommodation, in the shape of a few rough benches, is provided for a congregation 
 of thirty or forty souls. 
 
 Poor as arc the churches, the pastors are still poorer. The best benefice in the island is 
 worth not much more than £40 per annum; the average value is £10. The bishop himself does 
 not receive more than £200. The principal support of the clergy, therefore, is derived from their 
 glebe-land, eked out by the small fees charged for baptisms, marriages, and funerals. 
 
 Such being the case, the reader will not be surprised to learn that the Icelandic clergy live 
 miserably and work hard. They assist in the haymaking ; they hire themselves out as herdsmen ; 
 they act as the leaders of the caravans of pack-horses which carry the produce of the island to 
 the ports, and return loaded with domestic necessaries ; and they distinguish themselves as black- 
 smiths, OS veterinarians, and sheers of horses. 
 
 Dr. Henderson gives an interesting and graphic account of a visit he paid to one of these 
 " poor parsons," Jon Thorlaksson, who, while supporting himself by drudgery of this painful kind, 
 translated Milton's " Paradise Lost " and Pope's " Essay on Man " into Icelandic. 
 
 ■HM 
 
172 THAVKI-MNO IN ICKI-AND. 
 
 " Liko most of liiH brothrcn, at thin hwimom nf the yoar," sayH Dr. Ht^iulerson, " we fciiind him 
 in tliu inemliiw nM<iHtiti)^ hit* pooplo ut liitymiikiii<;. On hearing of our arrival lio niadu all tho 
 hasti' home which his age and infirmity would alU)W, and liidding us weleonjo to his lowly 
 alxtdo, ushercil us into tho humbii! apartment where ho translated my countrymen into Icelandic. 
 'I'hu dooi- WHS not (juite four feet in height, and tho room might he about eight feet in length by 
 MX in breadth. At tho inner end was the poet's bed ; and close to the door, over against a small 
 window, not exceeding two feet scjuare, was a table where ho committed to pai)or tho effusions of 
 his mu.se. ( )n my telling him that my countrymtni would not have forgiven me, nor could I 
 have forgiven myself, had I passed through this part of the island without paying him a visit, he 
 replied that the translation of Milton had yielded him many a pleasant hour, and often given him 
 occasion to think of England." 
 
 It is" true that this passage was written some fifty-five yoare ago, but tho condition of tho 
 clergy of Iceland has not much improved in tho interval. 
 
 Travelling in Iceland, oven under tho more favourable conditions brought about by a con- 
 stant influx of touri.sts, is not to bo achieved without difficulty and discomfort. Not only is tho 
 c^ountry destitute, ncce8.sarily, of inns and tho usual arrangements for tho convenience of travellers, 
 but nuieli, very much, depends upon the weather. With a bright sky overhead, it is possible to 
 regard as trivial and unworthy of notice tho small dvsagrcmetit.i which, in bad weather, develop 
 into very serious annoyances. The only mode of travelling is on horseback, for as theio are no 
 roads, carriages would bo useless ; while tho distances between tho various points of interest are 
 too great, the rivers too violent, and the swamps too extensive for pedestrian tours to bo under 
 taken. Even the most moderate-minded tourist requires a couple of riding-horses for himself, a 
 couple for his guide, and a couple of pack-horses ; and when a larger company travels, it expands 
 into a cavalciulo of from twenty to thirty horses, tied head to tail, which slowly pick their way 
 over rugged lava-bods or dangerous boggy ground. 
 
 It is one thing, as liord Dufferin remarks, to ride forty miles a day through the most singular 
 scenery in the world, when a glorious sun brings out every feature of tho landscape into startling 
 distinctness, transmuting the dull tormented earth into towers, domes, and pinnacles of shining 
 metal, and clothes each peak in a robe of many-coloured light, such as the " Debatable Mountains " 
 must have been in Bunyan's dream ; and another to plod over the same forty miles, wet to the 
 skin, seeing nothing but the dim gray bases of the hills, which rise you know not how, f,nd care 
 not whore. " If, in addition to this, you have to wait, as very often must bo tho case, for many 
 houis after your own arrival, wet, tired, hungry, until tho baggage-train, with tho tents and food, 
 shall have como up, with no alternative in tho meantime but to lie shivering inside a grass-roofed 
 house, or to share the quarters of some farmer's family, whose domestic arrangements resemble 
 in every particular those which Macaulay describes as prevailing among the Scottish Highlanders 
 a hundred years ago ; and if, finally, after vainly waiting for some days to see an eruption which 
 never takes place, you journey back to Reykjavik under the same melancholy conditions, it will 
 not .)e unnatural that, on returning to your native land, you should proclaim Iceland, with her 
 gcysir, to be a sham, a delusion, and a snare ! " 
 
 There are no bridges in Iceland ; no bridges, except, indeed, a few planks flung across the 
 Briianl, and a swing-bridge, or kldfe, which spans the JokUlsa ; and, as is still the case in some 
 
! 
 
 KoKDINCi TIIK STKKA.MS. IJJ 
 
 purls of till) Si'()tti«h lEi^'lilaiuls, tlio tmvullor iiuint t'onl tho Htroanis, which arc always mjiid, and 
 HoinotiiiiDM iiKunvciiitiiitly i\w\}. Tliu j)aHHa^'(! of a rivor is, theiefon , a foiiiii(lal)le oiiK'rpriw, an 
 may bo iiiforicd IVoin tlie oxpurionct's of Mr. Hollaiul and otlior travollers. 
 
 Till) f^uidi! leads tlio way, and the caravan follow oltcdiiiitly in his wake, sti'nimin;^, oh b(«t 
 thoy can, tho swift impetuous toiTeiit. Often the IxiilinjUf water rises hij^h ajfainst the linrHo's 
 Hhouldom, and daslitis clouds of 8|nay in tho face of tho riders. The stream i.s ho furiously fat«t 
 that it is inipossiblo to follow the individual waves as thoy sweep by, and to look down at it 
 almost makes one dizzy. Now, if ever, is the time for a firm hand, a sure scat, and a steady eye : 
 not only is the current strong, but its bed is full of largo stones, which the horse cannot aio 
 through the dark waters ; and should ho fall, the torrent will carry you down to the sea, whose 
 white breakers aro plainly visible as they crawl along the resounding beach at a mile's distance. 
 Ilajipily, though hungry for prey, they will not be satisfied. Swimming woultl l)o of no use, 
 but an " Icelandic wator-horse" seldom blundera or makes a false stop. But another danger lies 
 in tho masses of ice swept down by, tho whirling waves, many of which aro sufficiently large to 
 t<ipplo over horso and rider. 
 
 How the horses are able to stand against such a stream is every traveller's wonder ; nor 
 would tlioy do so unless they were inured to tho enterprise from their very youth. Tho Icilanders 
 who live in the interior keep horses known for their qualities in fording difficult riverp, and never 
 venture to cro.ss a dangerous stream unless mounted on an experienced " water-horse." 
 
 The action of the Icelandic horses in crossing a swift river is very peculiar. They lean all 
 their weight against tho current, so as to oppose it as much as possible, and move onwards with 
 a characteristic side-step. This motion is not agreeable. It feels as if your horse were marking 
 time, like soldiers at drill, without gaining ground, and as the progress mode is really very slow, 
 the shore from which you started seemn to recede from you, while that to which you are bounil 
 does not seem to draw nearer." 
 
 In the midstream the roar of the waters is frequently so groat that tho travellers cannot 
 make their voices audible to one anothoi. There is the swirl of tho torrent, the soothing of the 
 spray, the crunching of the floating ice, the roll of stones and boulders against tho bottom, — and 
 all those sounds combine in one confused chaotic din. Up to this point, a diagonal line, rather 
 down stream, is cautiously followed ; but when the middle is reached, the horses' heads are turned 
 slightly towards the current, and after much eftbrt and many risks the opposite bank is reached 
 in safety. 
 
 Lord Dufferin says, with much truth, that the traveller in Iceland is constivntly reminded of 
 tho East. From tho earliest ages tho Icelanders have been a people dwelling in tents. In the 
 days of the ancient Althing, the legislators, during tho entire session, lay encamped in movable 
 booths around the place of council. There is something patriarchal in their domestic polity, and 
 tho very migration of their ancestors from Norway was a protest against the antagonistic principle 
 of feudalism. No Arab could be prouder of his high-mettled steed than tho Icelander of his little 
 stalwart, sure-footed pony : no Oriental could pay greater attention to tho duties of hospitality ; 
 while the solemn salutation exchanged between two companies of travellers, as they pass each 
 other in what is universally called " the desert," is not unworthy of the stately courtesy of the 
 gravest of Arabian sheikhs. 
 
 It is difficult to imagine anything more multifarious than the cargo which these caravans 
 
174 
 
 I'RODUCTIONS OF THE ISLAND. 
 
 import into the inland districts : deal boards, rope, kegs of brandy, sacks of rye or wheaten flour, 
 salt, 8onp. sugar, snuff, tobacco, coffee ; everything, in truth, which is necessary for domestic con- 
 sumption during the dreary winter season. In exchange for these commodities the Icelanders 
 give raw wool, knitted stockings, mittens, cured cod, fish-oil, whale-b'ubber, fox-skins, eider- 
 down, feathers, and Iceland moss. The exports of the island in wool amount to upwards of 
 1,200,000 lbs. of wool yearly, and 500,000 pairs of stockings and mittens. 
 
 ICBLAMP^RS FISHiy IIR rARWlIAL. 
 
 Iceland offers abundant sport to the enthusiast in fishing. The streams are well supplied 
 with salmon; while tlio .\t,.ghbouring seas abound in aeals, torsk, and herrings. The narwhal- 
 fishery is also cai. ,d on, and ha? its strange and exciting features. The implement used is 
 simply a three-pronged h.'.rpoon, like a trident, with which the fisherman strikes at the fa h as 
 they rise to the surface; a.j his dexterity and coolness arc so great that he seldom misses 
 his aim. . . . , 
 
 NuiMC'ous works 'n English, have been written upon Iceland and the Icelanders; the mo.st 
 trust wor by are those by Dr. Henderson, Professor Foi'oOib, Holland, Chambers, Lord Dufferin, 
 and Capt."'n Richard ]^urton.* Tiie King of Denmark visited Iceland in 1874. 
 
 * Ciipt.iiu IJurtou iiL-ikes kuI li.-ivoc with some of tlie stiiUjuieuts of his predeccasora (see liis " Ultim.i Thiile "). Bui hia 
 criticisms must be taken cum grano salit. He writes iu too determined a spirit of depreciation. 
 
CHAPTER Vll. 
 
 THE ESKIMOS. 
 
 |HE land of the Eskimos is of very wide extent. From Greenland and Labrador they 
 range over all the coasts of Arctic America to the extreme north-eastern point of Afia. 
 Several of the Eskimo tiibes are independent ; others acknowledge the rule of Groat 
 Britain, Denmark, Russia, and more recently of the United States. The whaler ineets with them 
 on the shores of Baffin Bay, and in the icy sea beyond Behring Sti aits ; the ex[)loror has tracked 
 them as far as Smith Sound, the highway to the Nortli Pole ; and while they descend as low as 
 the latitude of Vienna, they rove as far north as the 81st and 82nd parallels. They are tlic 
 aborigines of the deserts of ice and snow, the ancient masters of the Arctic \\'ilderness, and all 
 Polar America is their long-acknowledged domain. To a certain extent they are nomadic in 
 their habits ; compelled to migrate by the conditions of the climate in which they live, and 
 forced to seek their scanty sustenpnce in a new locality when thoy have exliausted the capa- 
 bilities of an^ chosen habitat. As Mr. Markham telli • us, traces of former inhabitants are found 
 throughout the gloomiest wastes of the Arctic regions, in sterile and silent tracts where now only 
 solitude prevails. These wilds, it is known, have been uninhabited for centuries ; yet tliey are 
 covered with memorials of wanderers or of sojourners of a bygone age. Here and there, in 
 Greenland, mi Boothia, on tlie American coast, where life is possible, the desc^iudants of former 
 nomads are still to be found. 
 
 Arctic discovery, as yet, has stopped short at about 82° on the west coa.jt, and 76° on the 
 east, of Greenland. These two points are about six hundi'cd miles apart. There liave been 
 inhabitants botli points, though tliey are separated by an uninhabitable interval fron. 
 settlements further south ; we may conclude, then, tha'^ the terra ^'^cognita further north is also 
 or has been inhabited. In 1818 i'.. was discovered tliat a small tribe of Eskimos inlialited the 
 bleak west coaf t of Greenlanii between 70° and 79° N. They could not penetrate to the south 
 on account of the glaciers of Melville Bay; tliey could not penet'ate to the north, l)ecause al! 
 progress in that direction is f rbidden by the great Humboldt glacier; while tlie liugc interit;r 
 o-lacier of the Sernik-sook pent hem in upon the narrow belt of the sea-coast. These so-called 
 " Arctic Higiilandcrs " luinil, abo't one hundred and forty .souls, and throughout the winter their 
 precarious livelihood depends on tiit feh they catch in the open pools and water-ways. Under 
 similai' conditions, it is probable tliat Eskimo tribes may be existing still further nortli ; ir if, as 
 geographers sujipose, an open sea really surrounds the Pole, and a warmer atmosphere prevails, 
 
 the conditions of their existence will necessarily be more favourable. 
 
 ' 18 
 
176 
 
 AT UPEUNAVIK. 
 
 Before we come to speak of the cliaracteristifs of tlie Eskimos, we must briefly notice the 
 Danish settlements in Greenland, which are gradually nttractinjif no inconsiderable number of 
 them within the hounds of civilization. These are dotted along the coast, like so many centres 
 of light and life ; but the most important, from a commercial point of view, are Upornavik, 
 Jacobuhav'n, and (iodhav'n. 
 
 Upernavik is the chief town of a district which extends from the 70th to the 74th degree of 
 north latitude, and enjoys the distinction of being the most northerly civilized region in the 
 world. Its northern boundary represents the furthest advance of civilization in its long warfare 
 against the Arctic climate. 
 
 The town of U])ernavik is situated on the summit of a mossy hill which slopes to the head 
 of a smalj but sheltered harbour. It contains a government-house, plastered with pitch and tar; 
 a shop or two ; lodging-houses for the Danish officials ; some timber huts, inhabited by Danes ; 
 
 e i»jiiunB 
 
 UPKRNAVIK, GREKNL.VND. 
 
 and a number of huts of stone and turf, intermingled with seal-skin tents, which accommodate 
 the natives. Its principal evidences of civilization are its neat little church and parsonage. 
 
 The inhabitants are chiefly occupied in fishing and hunting, and in the manufacture of suit- 
 able clothing for the protection of the human frame acTi'inst the winter cold. Keindcer, seal, and 
 dog skins are deftly converted into hoods, jackets, trousers, and boots. The last-named are 
 triumphs of ingenuity. They are made of seal-skin which has been hardened by alternate freezing 
 and thawing ; are sowed with sinew, and " crimped " and fitted to the foot with equal taste and 
 skill. Dr. Hayes informs us that the Greenland women, not exempt from the lo/e of finery 
 characteristic of their sex, trim their own boots in a pertectly "ol witching manner, and adopt 
 the gayest of coloure. Red boots, or white, trimmed with red, ite says, seemed most generally 
 worn, though there was no more limit to the variety than to the capriciousness of the fancy which 
 suggested it. And it would be difficult to imagine a more grotesque spectacle than is presented 
 by tlie crowd of red, and yellow, and white, and purple, uiv blue-legged women who crowd the 
 beach wlienever a strange ship enters the harbour. 
 
DISCO ISLAND. 
 
 177 
 
 The population of Upernavik numbers now about two hundred and fifty souls ; cuni])risinq 
 some forty or fifty Danes, a larger number of half-breeds, the remainder beint^ native Green- 
 landers, — that is, Eskimos. 
 
 DISCO ISLAND, QREENLANIi. 
 
 In describing one Danish settlement we describe all, for they present exactly the same 
 characteristics, the diffei-ence between them being only a question of population. 
 
 Jacobshav'n and Godhav'n are situated on the island of Disco, which is separated from tlie 
 
 QODHAVN, UlSCO ISLAND, OItEKNt.AND. 
 
 west coast of Greenland by Wcygat Strait, and has bceii described as one of tlie most icniarkabl 3 
 localities in the Arctic Wcrld. The tradition runs that it was translated from a southern region 
 to its present position by a potent sorcerer ; and an enormous hole in the rock is pointed out aa 
 
178 
 
 JACOBSHAV'N IN GREENLAND. 
 
 tliu j,'ully through wliich lie passed his rope. It is a lofty ishmd, and its coast is bolted round by 
 liigh traj) cliiis, of the most imposing aspect. Near its south-west extremity, in lat. G9° S., a low 
 rugged spur or tongue of granite projects into the sea for about a mile and a half, — a peninsula 
 at low water, and an island at high water, — and forms the snug little recess of Godhav'n, or 
 (Jood Harbour. To the north of the l)ay, in face of rocky cliffs, which rise perpendicularly 
 from the sea to a height of 2000 feet, lies the town of the same name, which our English 
 whalers know as Lievely, probably a corruption of the adjective lively; for the tiny colony is the 
 metropolis of Northern Greenland ; and since the beginning of the present century has been the 
 favourite rendezvous of the fishing Heets and expeditions of discovery. 
 
 Further to the nortli lies Jacobshav'n, which possesses a celebrity of its own as one of the 
 most ancient of the Moravian mission-stations in the north of Greenland. JJesides a church, it 
 
 IiANlslI .■SKTTl.KMKXT OK JAlOlllsllAV X, llKKKXI.ANIl. 
 
 boasts of a college for the education and trainnig of n.atives who desire to be of service to their 
 fellow-countrymen in the capacity of catechists or teachers. So great has been the industry, and 
 so well deserved is the influence of the missionaries, that it is difficult now to find an Eskimo 
 woman in this part of Greenland who cannot read and write. Prior to the Danish colonisation 
 iif Greenland, the language of the natives was exclusively oral. Only through the medium of 
 speech could they represent their simplest ideas ; and the picture-writing of the North American 
 Indians was beyond their skill. But the missionavies have raised the Eskimo tongue into the 
 111 Ilk of written languages. At Godthaab a printing-nress is in full operation, and has already 
 pniduced some very interesting historical narratives and Eskimo traditions. 
 
 As is the case with all the Greenland colonie.s, Jacol.-ihav'n owes its prosperity to the seal- 
 tlshing. Mor(>()vor, the Greenland, or " right " whale, in its ami'>al migrations southward, enters 
 the neighbouring waters during the montli of September, and fun.i.hes employment to the fish- 
 ing p ipuliition. ' ' '■' ''"'' ' ' ' ' "" i ' " "' - ' ■" •'•:'; 
 
 III the neighbourhood of Jacobshav'n an enormous glacier, one of the offshoots of the great 
 
CHAUACfKlUSTlfS OF TIIK K.SKIM08. It9 
 
 central mer de glace of Greenland, finds its way to the sea. Yot the tcniporaturo is said to l>t' 
 milder than at Godliav'n. 
 
 The following remarks apply, of course, to those Eskimos who still lead a nomadic life, and 
 have profited little or nothing by the Clu'lstian civilization of the Danisli settlements and 
 Moravian missions. 
 
 Among themselves the Eskimos are known as Inuits, or " men ;" the seamen of the Jludsoii 
 Bay ships have long been accustomed to call them Seijmos or Suckemos — names derived from the 
 cries of Seymo or Teijmo with which they hail the arrival of the traders ; while tlie old Norse- 
 men designated them, in allusion to their discordant shouts, or by way of expressing their infinite 
 contempt, Skraelingers, " screamers " or " wretches." 
 
 Tlie European feels impelled to pity the hard fate which condemns them to inhabit one of 
 the dreariest and most inhospitable regions of the globe, where only a few mosses and lichens, or 
 plants scarcely higher in the scale of creation, can maintain a struggling existence ; where land 
 animals and birds are few in number ; and where human life would l)e impossible but for the 
 provision which the ocean waters so abundantly supply. As they live in a great degree upon 
 lish and the cetaceans, they dwell almost always near the coast, and never penetrate inland to 
 any considerable distance. 
 
 In the east the Eskimos, for several centuries, have been subjected to the civihzing inthiences 
 of the English and the Dutch ; iii the west, they have long been under the iron rule of the Mus- 
 covite. Tn the north and the centre their interf-ourse with Europeans has always been casual and 
 inconsiderable. It will therefore be understood that the different branches of this wide-.spread 
 race must necessarily exhibit .some diversity of ch-ivacter, and that the .same description of man- 
 ners and mode of life will not in all points apply with equal accuracy to the savage and heathen 
 Eskimos of the extreme northern shores and islands, the Greek Catholic Alelits, the faithful 
 servants of the Hudson Bay Company, and the disciples of the Moravian Brethren in Ijabrador 
 or Greenland. Yet the differences are by no means important, and it may be doubted whether 
 any other race, living under sucli peculiar conditions, and extending over so vast an area, can 
 •show so few and such inconsiderable specific varieties. When one thinks of an Eskimo, one 
 natui'all; calls up a certain image to one's mind : that of a man of moderate stature or under 
 medium size, with a broad flat face, narrow tapering forehead, and narrow or more or Icod 
 oblique eyes ; and this image or type will be found to bo realized thiv ghout the length and 
 breadth of Eskimo America. The E.skimo, generally speaking, would .seem to have sprang from 
 a Mongol stock ; at all events, he can claim no kin.ship with the Red Indians, Haj)pily for 
 Europeans, if inferior to the latter in physical qualities, he is superior in generosity and amiability 
 ot disposition. 
 
 The Eskin.os are sometimes .spoken of as if they were dwarfs or Lilliputians, but sut'h is not 
 the case. Thiy are shorter than the averagtj Frenchman or Englishman, but individuals 
 measuring fr >m five feet ten inches to six feet have been found in Camden Bay. Dr. Kane 
 speaks of Eskimos in Smith Strait who were fully a foot taller than himself. It is true ^f the 
 females, however, that they are comparatively little. 
 
 The Eskimos are a stalwai t, broad-shouldered rai e, considerably stronger than any other 
 uf the races of North Ame-ica. In both sexes the hand and feet are small and wull-shajied. 
 
18ft HOW TO DliKSS IN Till". AliCTIC! KKOIONS. 
 
 'riii'ir inuscluH art; stronj^ly dcvelopud, owing to coiiMtiuit uxurcise in liunting the sua! and the 
 waliuH. Tlioy aiu also i)owi,'rt"ul wroHth-rs, and on no uin'(|iml terms couKl eonipeto with tliu athletic 
 colfhritics of Devon and Cornwall. Their iihysiognoni}-, notwithstanding its lack of heauty, is 
 far from displeasing ; its expression is cheerful and good-tempered, and the long winter night 
 does not seem to sadden their spirits or oppress their energies. The females are well made, and 
 though not handsome, are scarcely to be stigmatized as ugly. Their teeth are very white and 
 regular ; and their complexion is warm, clear, and good. It is true that it cannot be seen to 
 advantage, owing to the layers of dirt by which it is obscured ; but it is not much darker tlian a 
 dark brunette, and as for the dirt — well, perhaps, it is preferable to cosmetics ! 
 
 Even in the Arctic World, woman seems conscious of the influence of her charms, and man 
 seems willing to recognize it. They plait their blaek and glossy hair — these Eskimo beauties ! — 
 with much "care and taste ; and they tattoo their forehead, cheeks, and chin with a few curved 
 lines, which produce a not altogether unpleasant effect. 
 
 From Behiing Straits eastward, as far a« the river Mackenzie, the males pierce the lower 
 lip near each angle of the mouth, in order to suspend to it ornaments of blue or green quartz, or 
 of ivory, shaped like buttons. Some insert a small ivory quill or dentalium shell in the carti- 
 lage of the nose. They decorate themselves, moreover, witli strings of glass beads ; or when and 
 where these cannot be obtained, with strings of the teeth of the musk-ox, wolf, or fox ; hanging 
 them to the tail of the jacket, or twining them round the waist like a girdle. 
 
 The influence of climate upon dress is a subject which we commend to the notice of art-critics 
 and iBsthetic philosopher. Within the Arctic Circle the problem to be solved is, how to obtain 
 the greatest amount of protection for the person, without rendering the costume too heavy or 
 cumbrous ; and the Eskimos have succeeded in solving it satisfactorily. They can defy the 
 rigour of the Arctic winter, its extreme cold, its severest gales, and pursue their avocations in 
 the open air even in the dreariness of the early winter twilight, so cleverly adapted is their garb 
 to the conditions under which they live. Their boots, made of seal-skin, and lined with the 
 downy skins of birds, are thoroughly waterproof; their gloves are large, but defend the hands 
 from frost-bite : they wear two pair of breeches, made of reindeer or seal-skin, of which the under 
 |)aij' has the close, warm, stimulating hair close to the flesh ; and two jackets, of which the upper 
 one is provided with a large liood, completely enveloping the head and face, all but the eyes. 
 The women are similarly attireJ, except that their outer jacket is a little longer, and the hood, in 
 whi(!h they carry their children, considerably larger ; and that, in summer, they substitute for 
 the skin-jacket a water-tight shirt, or kamleibi, made of the entrails of the seal or walrus. They 
 sew their boots so tig}"tly as to render them impervious to moisture, and so neatly that they may 
 almost be included in the category of works of art. In Labrador the women carry their infants 
 in their boots, which have a long pointed flap in front for the purpose. 
 
 In a preceding chapter we have spoken incidentally of the Eskimo huts. These, like the 
 Eskimo dress, are admirably adapted to the circumstances of the country and the nature of the 
 climate. The materials us'^ ,re either frozen snow, earth, stones, or tlrift-wood. The snow-hut 
 is a dome-shaped edifice, constructed in the following manner : — 
 
 First, the buildei-s trace a circle on tin,' smooth level surface of the snow, and the snow 
 gathered within the area thus defired is cut into slabs, and used for building tho walls, leaving 
 the ice underneatii to serve as tlxe flooring. 
 
AN KSKIMo HUT. 
 
 181 
 
 The crevices between the slabs, and any accidental fissures, are closed ii|> bv tbrowinyf ;i few 
 shovelfuls of loose snow over tiie buildiiij,'. Two men are generally I'Ugaj^ed in the work ; and 
 when the dome is completed, the one within cuts a low door, through which he creeps. As the 
 walls are not more than three or four inches thick, they admit a soft subdued light into the 
 interior, but a window of transparent ice is generally added. Not only the hut, but the furniture 
 inside it, is made of snow ; snow seats, snow tables, snow couches — the latter rendered comfort- 
 able by coverings of skins. To exclude the cold outer air, the entrance i.' ,)rotected by an ante 
 chamber and a porch ; and for the purposes of intercommunication, covered piussages are carried 
 from one hut to another. 
 
 Tlio rapidity with which these snow-huts are raised is quite surprising, and certainly attbrds 
 a vivid illustration of the old saying that "practice brings perfection."' C'aptain ^['Clintock for 
 
 fm*^^^f**if' 
 
 BUILDING AN ESKIMO IIUT. 
 
 1- 
 
 a few nails hired four Eskimos to erect a hut for his ship's crew ; and though it wa.'s twenty-four 
 feet in circumference, and five and a half feet in height, it was erected in a single day. 
 
 Much ingenuity is frequently displayed in their construction. 
 
 Dr. Scoresby, in 1824, found some deserted huts on the east coast of Greenland, which 
 showed no little con.-^tructive skill on the part of their builders. 
 
 A horizontal tunnel, about liftoen foot in length, and so low that a person entering it wiw 
 compelled to crawl on his hands and knees, opened with one end to the south, while the other 
 end terminated in the interior of the hut. This rose but slightly above the surface of the earth, 
 and being generally overgrown with moss or grass, could scarcely be distinguished from the 
 neighbouring soil. It resembled, indeed, a large ant-hill, or tlie work of a manmioth mole I In 
 some cases the floor of the tunnel was on a level with tliat of the hut ; but more frequently it 
 slanted downward> and upwards, so that the colder, and consequently heavier, atmospheric air 
 was still more completely prevented from mixing too quickly with the warmer air within. The 
 
182 
 
 I 
 
 TIIK KSKIMO AT SKA. 
 
 iitlicr arran(?oniorit» •.xhibitwi the same iiigomiity in providing against the inconveniences of a 
 rigorous cliuiatu. 
 
 From the huts of the EskiiiK)s we pass to their boats. 
 
 The kaijtik or baiilar is as good in its way as the light and swift canoe of the Polynesian 
 islanders. It consists of a narrow, long, and light wooden framework, covered water-tight with 
 seal-skin, with a central aperture for the body of the rower. Sometimes the frame is made of 
 seal or walrus bone. The Eskimo takes his seat in his buoyant craft, with legs outstretched, 
 and binds a sack — which is made from the intestines of the whale, or the skins of young seals — 
 so tightiv rouiiil his waist, that even in a rolling sea the boat remains water-tight. Dexterously 
 and rai>idly using his padille, with his .s|)ear or harpoon before him, and preserving his equili- 
 brium witli marvellous steadines.s, he darts over the waves like an arrow ; and even if upset. 
 
 TIIK KSKIMO KAYAK. 
 
 speedily rigiits himself and his buoyant skifl". The oomial; or woman's boat, consists in like 
 manner of a framework covered with seal-skins ; but it is large enough to accommodate ten or 
 twelve people, with b-^nches for the women who row or paddle. The ma-st supports a triangular 
 sail, made of the entrails of seals, and easily distended by the wind. 
 
 It tins been observed that a similar degree of inventive and executive skill is displayed by 
 the Eskimos in tlu spears and harpoons, their fishing and hunting implements. Their oars are 
 tastefully inlaid with walrus teeth; they have several kinds of spears or darts, i".?cording to the 
 character of the animal they intend to hunt ; and Uieir bows, with strings of seal-gut, are so 
 strong and elastic as to drive a six-foot arrow a really consideralde distance. The harpoons and 
 spears used in killing whales or seals have long shafts of wood or lione, and the bprbed point is 
 

 ESKIMOS AND liKD INDIANS. 
 
 IBS 
 
 80 constructed that, when loclj,'C(l in the hody of an animal, it remains imbedded, while the shiift 
 attached to it by a strinji; is loosened from the socket, and acts iw a buoy. Seal skins tilled with 
 air, like bladdera, arc also employed as buoys for the whale-spears, l)oinj^ stripped from the 
 animal with such address that all the natural apertures arc easily made air-ti;,dit. 
 
 Fish-hook8, knives, and spear or harpoon heads, the Eskimos make of the horns and bones of 
 the deer. In constructin<j their sledges, and rootinj,' their huts, they have recourse to the ribs of 
 the whale, when drift-wood is not available. Strips of seal-skin hide are a capital sub.stitute 
 for cordage, and cords for nets and bow-strings are manipulated from the sinews of musk- 
 oxen and deer. 
 
 TIIK KSKIMil OOMIAK. 
 
 A strange and deadly antagonism prevails between the Eskimos and the Red Indians. ( )ii 
 the part of the latter it would seem to originate in jealousy, for the Eskimos are superior in skill, 
 social habits, general intelligence, personal courage, and strength ; on the part of the latter, in 
 the necessity for self-defence and the provocations they have received from a sanguinary enemy. 
 
 Hence, the Indians inhabiting the borders of the Pobr World seek eveiy opportunity of 
 surprising and massacring the inoffensive Eskimos. Hearne relates that, in the course of his 
 expedition to the Coppermine River, the Indians who accompaiued him obtained information 
 that a party of Eskimos had raised their summer huts near the river-mouth. In spite of his 
 generous eft'orts, they resolved on destroying tlic peaceful settlomeit. Stealthily they made 
 their approach, and when the midnight sun touched the horizon, they swooped down, with 
 
HP 
 
 IRI AT ANATOAK. 
 
 a fiii^littul }ull, ijii tluir uiif'ortuiiatu viutiniH, not one of whom twapod. W'itli tliat lovo of 
 torturo which mudiiis iiihoreiit in tlio Rod Indian, they did their utuiottt to intunwify and prolont; 
 the ngouius of the BuftuiuiH ; and one aj^ed woman had ))otli her eyes torn out before Hho 
 received lier dcath-hlow. The wene where thin crufi HhiU]i^liter took place is known to tills 
 (lay a8 tin; " liluudy Kails." 
 
 Dr. Kane supi)lie8 Home iiiterestinj^ particulai«i of a party tA' Eskimos with whom he became 
 accpiainted ihirinjLj his memorable expedition. The intimacy began under unfavourable circum- 
 Htances, for three of the party had been detected in a scandalous theft, had attempted to carry 
 oft' their plunder, were |)urKUud, overtaken, and punished. Soon afterwards, Metek, the head 
 man or chief, arrived on the scene, and a treaty of peace wiw concluded. 
 
 On the part of the fnuit, or Eskimos, it ran as follows :— 
 
 " We promise that we will not steal. We promise we will bring you fresh meat. We pro- 
 mise we will sell or lend you dogs. We will keep you company whenever you want us, and 
 show you where to find the game." 
 
 On the part of the A'ablunah, or white men, it ran as follows :- 
 
 " We promise that we will not visit you with death or sorcery, nor do you any hurt or mis- 
 chief whatsoever. Wo will shoot for you on our hunts. You shall be made welcome aboard 
 ship. We will give you presents i^f needles, pins, two kinds of knife, a hoop, three bits of hard 
 wood, some fat, an awl, and some sewing-thread ; and we will trade with you of these and every- 
 thing else you want for walrus and seal meat of the tirst quality." 
 
 The treaty, says Dr. Kane, was not solemnised by an oath ; but it was never broken. 
 
 The Eskimo settlement at Anatoak, lat. 78° N.,on the shore of Smith Strait, near Cape 
 liiglefield, seems to merit description. 
 
 The hut or igloii was a single rude elliptical apartment, built not unskilfully of stone, the 
 outside lined with sods. At its further end, a rude platform, also of stone, was raised about a 
 foot above the entering ftoor. The roof was irregularly curved. It was composed of flat stones, 
 remarkably laige and heavy, arranged so as to overlap each other, but apparently without any 
 intelligent application of the principle of the arch. The height of this cave-like abode barely 
 |)eniiitted one to sit upright. Its length was eight feet, its breadth seven feet, and an expansion 
 of the tunnelled entrance made an appendage of perhiips two feet more. 
 
 The true winter-entrance is called the tos.mt. It is a walled tunnel, ten feet long, and so 
 narrow that a man can hardly crawl along it. It opens outside below the level of the igloe, into 
 which it leads by a gradual ascent. 
 
 Thus the reader will see that the hut at An.atoak was constructed on the same principles as 
 the huts discovered by Dr. Scoresby. 
 
 Time had done its w ork, says Dr. Kane, on the igloe of Anatoak, as among the palatial 
 structures of more southern deserts. The entire front of the dome had fallen in, closing up the 
 tossut, or tunnel, and forcing visitors and residents to enter at the solitary window above it. 
 The breach was wide enough to admit a sledge-teai.. ; but the Eskimos showed no anxiety to 
 close it up. Their clotlies (saturated with the freezing water of the Hoes, these men of iron 
 gathered round a Hre of hissing and flaring whaie's blubber, and steamed away in apjjarent com- 
 fort. The only departure from their usual routine was suggested probably b}' the open roof and 
 
MANNKIIS ANn (ITMTOMH. 1S« 
 
 the blfakncBS of the ni;,'ht ; and therefore they refniined from Htrippinj,' theiuwdveH imktd Ik Ibrc 
 coming into the hut, iind hnngini,' up thiir (hii)i>iiig veHtmeiitH to dry, like a votive otfirin^ to 
 the ;^od of the Hea. 
 
 Their kitchen impleinenis were remarkable for .Hinipliiity. " A rude .saucci- shaped cup id 
 Heal-wkin, to gather and liold water in, was the solitary uteimil tluvt could hi; digniKed as t»l)le- 
 fumiture. A Hat stone, a fixture of the hut, supported by other stones just above the shouldi-r 
 blade of a walrus, — the stone slightly inclined, the cavity of the bone large enough to hold a 
 moss-wick and some blubber ; a scjuare block of snow was placed on tiie stone, and, as the liot 
 smoke circled round it, the seal-skin saucer caught the water tiiat dripped from the edge. Tiny 
 had no vessel for boiling; what they did not eat raw they baked upon a hot stone. A solitary 
 coil of walrus-line, fastened to a movable lance-head (noon-ghak), with the well-worn and wdl- 
 soaked clothes on their backs, completed the inventory of their ett'eets." 
 
 The Eskimos entertained Dr. Kan*, and his companions with a choral performance, singing 
 their rude, monotonous song of " Anina Ayah" till the unfortunate white men were almost mad- 
 dened by the discord. They improvised, moreover, a special chant in tlieir honou'-. which they 
 repeated with great gravity of utterance, invariably concluding with the sonorous and compli- 
 mentary refrain of "Nalegak! nalegak! ludegak-soak ! " — "Captain! captain! great captain!" 
 The chant ran as follows : — 
 
 gf^^^i^^^ig^plj 
 
 Am • iia • yah ! Am - na ■ yah ! Am • iia • yoli I Am • tin • yah I 
 
 In the early spring the Eskimos resume their hunting expeditions, and their snow-covered 
 huts are transformed into scenes of the liveliest activity. Stacks of jointed meat, chiefly walrus, 
 are piled upon the ice-foot ; the women stretch the hide for sole-leather, and the men collect a 
 store of hai-poon-lines for the winter. Tusky walrus heads stare at the spectacle from the snow- 
 bank, where they are stowed for their ivory ; the dogs are tethered to the ice ; and the children, 
 each one armed with the curved rib of some big walrus or seal, play ball and bat among tlie 
 snow-drifts. 
 
 The quantity of walrus meat which the Eskimos accumulate during a season of plenty should 
 certainly raise them above all risk of winter want ; but other causes than improvidence render 
 their supplies scanty. They are never idle ; they hunt incessantly without the loss of a day. 
 When the storms prevent the use of the sledge, they occupy themselves in stowing away the 
 spoils of previous hunts. For this purpose they 'ig a pit either on the mainland, or, which is 
 preferred, on an island inaccessible to foxes, and the jointed meat is stacked inside, and covered 
 with heavy stones. 
 
 The true explanation of the scarcity from wliich these people so frequently suffer is the 
 excessive consumption iu which they indulge during the summer season. J3y their ancient laws 
 all share in couuuou ; and since they migrate in numbers when their necessities press them, the 
 tax on each separate settlement is excessive. The quantity which the members of a family con- 
 sume seems excessive to a stranger ; yet it is not the result of inconsiderate gluttony, but due 
 to their peculiarities of life and organization. In active exercise, and under the influence of 
 exposure to a severe temperature, tha waste of carbon must be enormous. 
 
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# 
 
 
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 23 WEST MAIN STREET 
 
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186 AN KSKIMO COIJPLK. 
 
 Wlieu indoors, and at rest, cn}^aj,a(l upon tlioir ivory harnoss-riiigs, fowl-nets, or other 
 liousohold j,'car, they eat, as many eat in more civilized lands, for mere animal enjoyment, and to 
 paHH away tlie time. But when enffngcd in the clmse, they take but one ir al a day, and that 
 not luitii tiie day's labour is ended. They go out upon the ice without breakfas^t, and seldom eat 
 anytliiiij,' until their return. Dr. Kane estimates the average ration of an E.skimo in a season 
 of plenty at eight to ten pounds of meat a day, with soup and water to the extent of half a 
 gallon. Such an allowance might almo.st have satisfied the appetite of Gargantua ! 
 
 ])r. Hayes, in tiie course of his adventurous Arctic boat-journey, held much intercourse with 
 the Eskimos, and his impressions, on the whole, would seem to have been highly favourable. 
 
 His sketch of a couple whom he met in *^^he neighbourhood of the pjskimo colony of Nctlik 
 is very amusing. 
 
 He describes thorn a.s a most ?»ihumau-looking pair. Everything on and about them told of 
 the battle thoj' fought so gallantly and patiently with the elements. From head to foot they 
 were invested in a coat of ice and snow. Shapeless lumps of whiteness, they resembled the 
 snow-kings or statues which boys delight in making, except that they possessed the faculty of 
 motion. Their long, heavy fox-skin coats, reacliing nearly to the knees, and surmounted by a 
 liood, covering, like a round lump, all of the hciui but the face, the bear-skin pantaloons and boots 
 and mittens were saturated with snow. Their long, black hair, which fell from beneath their hoods 
 over their eyes and cheeks, their eyelashes, the few haira growing upon their chins, the rim of fur 
 around their faces, all glittered with white frost — the frozen moisture of their breath. Each 
 cariied in his right hand a whip, and in his left a lump of frozen meat and blubber. The meat 
 Ihey Hung down on the floor of Dr. Hayes' hut; then, without pausing for an invitation, they 
 thrust their whipstocks under the rafters, and divesting themselves of their mittens and outer 
 garments, hung them thereon. Underneath their frosty coats they wore a warm, close shirt of 
 bird-skins. 
 
 In the same bold explorer's narrative of his voyage of discovery in 18C0, two other Eskimos 
 figure very conspicuously • and one of these, named Hans, would stem to have been a verj'^ fair 
 typo of the Eskimo character. Hans, we may observe, had originally served in Dr. Kane's 
 expedition, and had then gained the confidence of Dr. Hayes ; so that when the latter undertook 
 his own memorabL voyage, he became anxious to secure the Eskimo's services. 
 
 When his ship had crossed Melville Bay, and lay in the grim shadows of Cape York, Dr. 
 Hayes bethought himself of the Eskimo hunter. He remembered to have heard that Hans had 
 fallen in love, and taken a wife, and repaired, with her at his side, to share the fortunes of the 
 wild Eskimos who inhabit the remote northern shores of Baffin Bay. 
 
 But Dr. Hayes felt confident that the hunter, having known something of the superior 
 comfort and hajipiness of the social life of civilization, would soon weary of his voluntary banish- 
 ment, and of the penury and hardships of the existence of the Eskimo nomads. He made up 
 his mind that Hans would return to Cape York, and there take up his residence, in the hope of 
 being picked up by some passing ship. 
 
 So Dr. Hayes stood close mshore, to find that his conjectures were completely realized. As 
 he sailed along the coast he discovered a group of human beings eagerly endeavouring by signs 
 and gestures to attract attention. Heaving the schooner to, he and his second in command, Mr. 
 
DK. HAVES FALLS IN WITH HANS TIIK HUNTEB. 
 
DIt. HAYKS, AND HANS THK HUNTKIi. 189 
 
 Sountag, went ashore in a boat, and there was Hans ! The Eskiiiiu recognizetl both nf thorn 
 immediately, and called them by nauic. 
 
 We may adopt the remainder of Dr. Hayes' interesting little e]»isodo, because it illustrates 
 the ingrained selfishness, or self-concentration, of the Fskimo character. 
 
 Hans had deteriorated greatly during his residence with the wild Eskimos, and he had .><unk 
 to their level of filthy ugliness. He was accompanied by his wife, who carried her tirst-born in 
 a hood i.pon her back ; his wife's brother, a ouick-eyed boy of twelve years ; and his wife's 
 mother, "an ancient dame with voluble and flippant tongue." They were all attired in the usual 
 Eskimo dress of skins ; objects of interest and curiosity, but not " things of be.iuty." 
 
 Hans led his visitors, over rough rocks and throti'^h deep drifts of snow, to iiis rude hut, 
 which stood on the cold hill-top, about two hundred feet above the sea-level. An excellent 
 position for a " look-out," but as inconvenient for a hunter as can well be imagined. Here he 
 had watched and waited for many a di-eary month ; surveying the sea day after day, in the faint 
 hope of discovering some European vessel. But none came , summer pa.ssed into winter, and 
 winter lengthened into summer; and still Hans watched and waited, yearning after his southern 
 home and the friends of his youth. 
 
 His tent — for it was rather a tent than a hut — was made of seal-skins, and its capacity was 
 scarcely sufficient to accommodate his little family. 
 
 Dr. Hayes asked him if he would accompany the expedition. 
 
 " Yes." 
 
 Would he take his wife and baby ? 
 
 "Yes." 
 
 Would he go without them ? 
 
 " Yes." 
 
 This last answer reveals the curious unimpressionableness of the Eskimo, who endures with 
 calmness, nay, even with indifference, those partings which try the heartstrings of the European. 
 It is, perhaps, a result of the con'^tant wai fare he maintains against an uncongenial and austere 
 Nature that he comes to regard himself as his first and chief, as almost his only concern. So 
 long af his wife and children surround liim, he shows no evident want of affection ; but he has no 
 objection to part from them, if the separation will prove to his individual interest. 
 
 As Dr. Hayes had no leisure to examine critically into the state of his mind, and as ho 
 cherished a conviction that the permanent separation of husband and wife was to bo regarded 
 as a painful event, he determined oa giving the Eskimo mother the benefit of this conventional 
 suspicion. Both husband and wife, therefore, were carried on board the schooner, as well tvs 
 their baby, their tent, and all their household goods. The bright-eyed boy and the ancient dame 
 cried to accompany them ; but Dr. Hayes had no further room, and waa compelloil to leave them 
 to the care of their tribe, who, about twenty in munber, had discovered the schooner, and with 
 a merry shout had come across the hill. After bestowing upon them some useful gifts, Dr. 
 Hayes returned to his vessel. 
 
 He adds that Hans was the only unconcerned person in the party. At a later period the 
 thought crossed his commander's mind that he would by no means have boon displeased hatl wife 
 and child been left to the charity of their savage kin : while Dr. Hayes hatl abundant reason, 
 
190 ABOUT TilK KSKIMO DOGS. 
 
 durinj,' the course of the expedition, to wish that he liad left the selfish and indolent Eskimo to 
 liiijffi- in his seal-nkin tent anion<^ the hill.i and rocks of Cai>e York. 
 
 Tlie .same traveller describes the hunting ecjuipment of a party of Eskimos setting out in 
 pursuit of beai-s. 
 
 First, the dogs. These were j»icketed, each team separately, on a convenient area of level 
 ground; and on the approach of Dr. Hayes and his companions they sprang up from the knotted 
 heap, in which they liad been lying through the night, with a wild, fierce yell, which died away 
 into a low whine and impatient snarl. They evidently were hungry, and their masters seemed 
 desirous of feeding them ; for, going to their sledges, each one brought up a flat piece of some- 
 thing which looked singularly like plate-iron, but, upon examination, was found to be walrus- 
 hide, three-quarters of an inch thick, and frozen intensely hard. Throwing it upon the snow a 
 few feet in advance of their respective teams, they drew their knives from their capacious boots, 
 and attempted to cut up the skin ; but its hardness defied all their efforts, and Dr. Hayes had 
 to fetch hatchet and saw before the work of division could be completed. 
 
 During the few minutes thus occupied, the dogs had become almost frantic. They en- 
 deavoured to break loose ; pulling on tlieir traces, running back and springing forward, straining 
 and choking themselves until their eyes shot fire, and the foam flew from their mouths. The 
 sight of food had stimulated their wolfish jiassions, and they seemed ready to eat each other. Not 
 a moment pa-ssed that two or more of them were not flying at each other's throats, and, grappling 
 together, rolled, and tossed, and tumbled over the snow. 
 
 The Eskimos looked on apparently unconcerned, except when there ajjpeared a risk of one 
 of the dogs being injured, and then they secured a temporary calm by uttering an angry nasal 
 "Ay! Ay!" 
 
 When at length the food was thrown, the dogs uttered a greedy scream, which was followed 
 by a moment's silenci while the pieces were falling, then by a scuffle, and the hard, frozen 
 chunks had vanished. How they were swallowed, or how they were digested, was, to the 
 spectator, inexplicable I f^nough t^ say that " the jaws of darkness did devour them up," and 
 calm instantaneously succeeded to ibe storm. 
 
 The Eskimo dog is of mtdiuni sizo, and squarely built ; in fact, he is a reclaimed wolf, and 
 exhibits that variety of colour which, after a few generations, generally characterizes tame animals. 
 Gray, which is often seen, was probably at one time the predominating colour. Some of the dogs 
 are black, with white breasts; some are wholly wl'ite; others are reddi.sh or yellowish; but, 
 indeed, almost every shade may be seen amongst them. Their skin is covered witli a coarse, com- 
 pact fur, and is much valued by the natives for tlie purposes of clothing. In the form of the 
 animals the variety is considerable ; but the general characters would seem to be a pointed nose, 
 short ears, a cowardly, treacherous eye, and a hanging tail. But exceptions occasionally occur, 
 and one figiu-es in Dr. Hayes' narrative under the name of Toodlamik, or, more briefly, Toodla. 
 
 lie difl'ered from his kind in having a more compact he.ad, a less pointed nose, an eye denot- 
 ing aff'ection and reliance, and an erect, bold, fearless carriage. Dr. Hayes, however, expresses 
 some doubt as to his purity of blood. From the beginning to the end of the cruise he was master 
 of nil the dogs that were brought to the ship. In this connection it is worthy of remark, that in 
 every pack one dog invariably attains the mastership of the whole — a kind of major-generalship; 
 
A CANINE ' CIIARACTEK." 
 
 101 
 
 and in each team, one who is master of his comrades, a general of brigade. Once master, always 
 master; but the post of honour is gained at the cost ci iiany a lame leg and ghtvatly wountl, and 
 is held only by doing daily battle against all comers. These could easily gain the ascendancy in 
 every case, but for their own petty jealousies, which often prevent their union for such a purpose. 
 If a combination, however, does happen to be brought about, and the leader is hopelessly beaten, 
 he is never worth anything afterward ; his spirit is completely prostrated, the poor follow pines 
 away, and dies at last of a broken heart. 
 
 ESKIMO DOGS. 
 
 Toodla, says Dr. Hayes, was a character in his way. He was a tyrant of no mean pretension. 
 
 Apparently he thought it his special duty to attack every dog, great or jmall, that was added to 
 
 the pack : if the animal was a large one, in order, probably, that he might at once be forced to 
 
 fenl that he had a master ; if a small one, in order that the others might hold him in the greater 
 
 awe. It was sometimes quite amusing to see him set otf in pursuit of a strange 'og, his head 
 
 erect, his tail curled gracefully over his back ; slowly and deliberately he went straight at his 
 
 mark, with the confident, defiant air of one who recognizes the power and importance of his office. 
 
 13 
 
'I fl" 
 
 I 
 
 103 
 
 THE ESKIMO'S SLEDGE. 
 
 Leagues and conspiracies were not unfrefjuently iormed against him, induced, no doubt, by a 
 feeling' of despair ; but ho always Hueceedud in overthrowing them, — not, it is true, without 
 o<'casional assistance from " without ; " for the sailors, who petted him greatly, would sometimes 
 take his part when the struggle was manifestly unequal. 
 
 But we must leave the dogs, and turn to the sledge. 
 
 This was, in very tiuth, an ingenious specimen of native mechanical skill. It was made 
 wholly of bone and leather. The runners, which were square behind and rounded upward in 
 front, and about five feet long, seven inches high, and three-fourths of an inch thick, were slabs 
 of bone; not solid, but made up of a number of pieces of various shapes and sizes, dexterously 
 fitted ant'.' tightly lashed together. Some of these were not larger than one's two fingers; some 
 were three or four inches square : others were as large a,« one's hand, and tiiangular in shape ; 
 others, again, were several inches in length, and two or three in breadth. They all fitted into their 
 several places as exactly as the blocks of a Chinese puzzle. Near their margins ran rows of 
 little holes, and through these strings of seal-skin were inserted, by which the blocks were 
 fastened together, until the whole was as firm as a board. 
 
 The marvel of the thing is that all these pieces are flattened and cut into the required shape, 
 not with nicely contrived instruments and tools, but with stones. The labour must be inunense. 
 The grinding needed to muke a single runner must be the wcrlc of months. The construction of 
 an entirely new sledge would probably occupy the lifetime of a generation ; and hence a vehicle 
 of this kind becomes a family heirloom, and is handed down irom father to son, and son to grand- 
 son, and is constantly undergoing repair and restoration ; a new piece here, another there, until 
 as little remains of the original structure as of the sailor's old knife, when it had had a new bhule 
 and a new haniUe ! The origin of some of the Eskimo sledges is lost in the mists of a remote 
 antiquity. 
 
 The 1 nuers are usually shod with ivory from the tusk of the walrus. The said ivory had 
 likewise been ground flat, and its corners made square, with stones; and it was fastened to the 
 1 unuoi- by a string looped through two counter-sunk holes. The pieces of which it was composed 
 were numerous; but tbd surface was wonderfully uniform, and as smooth as glass. 
 
 The runners stood about fourteen inches apart, and were fastened together by bones, tightly 
 lashed to them ; the bones used being the femur of the bear, the antlers of the reindeer, and the 
 ribs of the narwhal. Two walras-ribs, lashed one to the after-end of each runner, served as 
 upstanders, and were braced by a piece of reindeer rntler, secured across the top. 
 
 Having thus disposed of the team and the sledge, we now come to the equipment. 
 
 First, one of the Eskimo hutiters spread a piece of seal-skin over the sledge, fastening it 
 securely by little strings attached to its margin. On this he placed a small piece of walrus-skin, 
 as a provision for the dogs ; a piece of blubber for fuel ; t^nd of meat for his own lunch. During 
 liis absence he would cook no food, but he would want water ; and therefore he carried his 
 kollul; or lamp — namely, a small stone dish ; a lump of mannek or dried moss, designed for tlie 
 wick ; and some willow-blossoms (na-owinals) for tinder. To ignite the tinder, he had a piece of 
 iron-stone and a small sharp Cragment of flint. 
 
 We may follow him on his route, and ascertain the use he makes of these appliances. 
 
'I'lIK HUNTKU'S KcjUil'MKNT. IM 
 
 Wliuii lio f^rowH thir«ty, ho halts; scnvpea nwny the snow until liis lays Imii' tlio solid iro 
 beneath ; and painfully scoojw in it a small cavity. Next, he fetches a block of fivsh-water ico 
 from a ni "' 'ibouring berg, lights his lamp, and, using the blubber for fuel, proceeds to place tlio 
 block .>n tlio edge of the cavity. As it slowly thaws, the water trickles down into the hole ; an«l 
 when the Eskimo thinks the (juantity collected is sufficient to quench his thirst, he removes the 
 ruile apparatus, and, stooping down, drinks the soot-stained fluid. If ho feels hungry, he breaks 
 off a few chips from his lump of frozen walrus-beef, cuts a few slices from the blubber, and enjoys 
 his unsatisfactory meal. The inhabitant of the Arctic desert knows nothing of epicurean tastes : 
 and if he did, ho has no mcanb of gratifying them. 
 
 To return to the equipment. The hunter carried with him an extra pair of boots, another 
 of dog-skin stockings, and another of mittens, to bo used in case ho should be unfortunate 
 enough to get on thin ice, and the ice should break through. 
 
 The entire equipment being placed upon the sledge, he threw over them a piece of bear-skin, 
 which Avas doubled, so that, when opened, it would be large enough to wrap about his body and 
 protect it from the snow, if he wished to lie down and rest. Then ho drew forth a long line, 
 fastened an end of it through a hole in the fore part of one of tho runners, ran it across 
 diagonally to the opposite runner, passed it through a hole there, and so continued, to and fro, 
 from side to side, until ho reached the other end of the sledge. There he made fast the lino, and 
 thus the cargo was secured against all risk of loss from an upset. Next he hung to one 
 upstandor a coil of heavy line, and to the other a lighter coil, tying them fast with a small 
 string. The former was his harpoon-line for catching walrus ; the latter, for catching seal. His 
 harpoon staff v/aa made from the tusk of the narwhal ; measured five feet in length, and two 
 inches in diameter at one end, tapering to a point at the other. 
 
 All being ready, the team, consisting of seven dogs, was brought up. The harness was of a 
 very primitive description. It consisted of two doubled strips of bear-skin, one of which was 
 placed on either side of the animal's body, the two being fastened together on tho top of the neck 
 and at the breast, so as to form a collar. Thence they passed inside of the dog's fore legs and up 
 along his flanks to the tail, where the four ends meeting together were attached to a trace 
 eighteen feet in length. 
 
 The trace was connected with the sledge by a line four feet long, of which one end was 
 attached to each runner. And to the middle of the line a stout string was fastened, running 
 through bone rings at the ends of the traces, and secured by a slip-knot, easily untied — an 
 arrangement designed with the view of ensuring safety in bear-hunting. The bear is hotly pur- 
 sued until the sledge arrives within about fifty yards ; the hunter then leans forward and slips 
 the knot ; the dogs, set loose from the sledge, quickly bring the brute to bay. If tho knot gets 
 fouled, serious accidents are not unlikely to occur. The hunter vainly endeavours to extricate it, 
 and before he can draw his knife to cut it — supposing he is fortunate enough to have such an 
 instrument — man, a^^d dogs, and sledge are all among the bear's legs, in a huddled and tangled 
 heap, and at the mercy of the enraged monster. 
 
 The dogs were cold, and eager to start. In a moment they were yoked to the sledge ; the 
 hunter with his right hand threw out the coils of his long whip-lash, with his left he seized an 
 upstander, and propelling the sledge a few paces, he uttered at tho same moment the shrill 
 
 

 |9fi CIIAIIACTKI; (»K TIIK KfSKIMOS. 
 
 HtHiliii^{-ory, " Kii ! kii 1 -kii! ki; ! wliicli neiit tlio doj^.s in ii IhhiikI to tiioir [ilaccs, and away 
 Micy (IuhIiimI over tliu r\\iim>(\ '"i'- 'l'"' l'i"'te'' Hkilfully jfiiidud IiIh slodj^'o aiuonf? tlm hnnunockH, 
 modi lilt ih!,' tile iin|iftiiiwity of ]m team witli tho nasal "Ay I ay I" wliicli thuy peiCwtly undor- 
 Htiirid. < III niuliinj,' tlio HMiootli ici', Iw. droppofl upon tho hUhIj^o, allowed Iuh whip-lash to trail 
 after iiiin on tlit; snow, sliouti^d " Ka I ka I -ka ! ka I " to his Havago team, and disajipoared in as 
 wild a (gallop as over was taken hy the demon huntsman of German lejjend ! 
 
 It does not appear tliat tiio Kskimos have maLfiHtratos or laws, yet the utmost good order 
 privails in thoir communities, and rpiarrels are rare. AViicn these do oeeur, one or other of the 
 dissatisfit.'d |)artie8 collects his little stole, and migrates to a different settlement. Tho constitu- 
 i ■*! tion (){' thefi" society is rightly descrilted as patriarchal, but tho ruler does not seem to bo elected : 
 
 he attains his post by proving his possession of superior strengtii, address, and courage. As soon 
 as his physical powers give way, or old age enfeebles his mind, he deposes himself, takes his seat 
 in the (loinidk, or woman's boat, and is relegated by common consent to female companionship. 
 Ijiki' all savage tribes, the E.skimos have their mystory-inen, or angekoks, who resort to the usual 
 deccjttions to acquire and retain supremacy, swallowing knives, resorting to ventriloquial artifices, 
 and conversing in a mysterious jargon, unintelligible to " the common herd." They profess to 
 liold inteiconrsc with certain [)otent .spirits, and to employ their agency in rewarding or punish- 
 ing their dupes; and oven tho influence of the Christian missionaries has hardly rooted out the 
 belief in the superstitions originated and fostered by these men. 
 
 Notwithstanding the hard conditions of their life, and tho dreariness of tho region which 
 they inhabit, the Eskimos are a cheerful people. They are keenly sensible of the charms of 
 music, though their own vocalization is inconceivably melancholy ; and they are partial to many 
 rude pastimes, mostly of a gymnastic character. 
 
 Their good nature has been praised by jnany travellers ; but they show the usual in- 
 humanity oi" the savage towards tho aged t d infirm. Weakness is no title to tho sympathy of 
 the Eskimr ; he respects strength, but he u.erly disregards and cruelly oppresses the feeble. 
 He is ungrateful towards his benefactors, and in his intercourse with .'■trangers his fidelity can be 
 relied upon only so long as he knows that any broach of faith will be severely punished. He 
 does not steal f'-om his own people, and "Tiglikpok," " ho is a thief," is a reproach among tho 
 Eskimos as among ourselves ; but no shame attaches to him if he robs the white man, though 
 the latter may have loaded him with favours. 
 
 If wo add that they di.splay a strong afl'ection for their children, and that the children are 
 singularly docile and obedient to their parents, we shall have said enough to assist the reader in 
 forming an accurate conception of tho characteristics of the inhabitants of the Eskimo Land.* 
 
 * Tlic iKMler will fiud some intenwtiuf; particulani in Dr. fiiiik's "Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo " (edit. 1875). 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 LAPLAND AND TIIK LAPPS. 
 
 Ki||a|APLAND, or the Land of tlio Lapim, which the Lapps theinsolvcs call Sanicanda or 
 H ^3 Soinellacla, forms tho north and north-eastern portions of tlio Scandinavian peninsula, 
 '''"**^^ and is divided between Sweden and Russia. Norwc(,nan Lapland includes tho pro- 
 vinces of Norrland and Finmark ; Swedish, of North and South Bothtiia ; and Russian, of Kola 
 and Kemi. The last-named has an area of 11,300 square miles, with a population of 9000 ; 
 Swedish Lapland, an area of 50,600 square miles, with 4000 inhabitants ; and Norwegian, an 
 area of 20,500 square miles, with a population of 5000. We are hero referring to the number of 
 true Lapps ; in each division the population would be largely increased if we included Films, 
 Russians, Swedes, Norwegians. 
 
 Lapland, for nine months in the year, is bliglited by the rigour of a winter climate. Tho 
 summer months, when the sun docs not set for several weeks, are July and August ; and these 
 are preceded bj a brief spring, and followed by even a briefer autumn. Cereals do not thrive 
 higher than the sixty-si.^th parallel, with the exception of barley, which is cultivated a.s far 
 no"th as the seventieth. The greater part of the country comes within that wooded zone 
 which we described in an earlier chapter, and the forests, consisting of birch, pine, fir, and 
 alder, spread over a very extensive area. On the mosses and lichens which grow abundantly 
 in their shelter, are fed the immon o herds of reindeer which constitute the principal wealth of 
 
 the inhabitants. 
 
 Tho Lapps may almost be regarded as a nation of Lilliputians. Their men seldom exceed 
 five feet in height, while the majority are some inches below that very moderate sUture ; and 
 the women are even shorter. They are, however, a robust race, with muscular limbs, and 
 unusual girth of body, the circumference of their chest being nearly equal to their height. Their 
 complexion is dark, tawny, or copper-coloured ; their dark, piercing, deep-sunken eyes are set 
 very wide apart, so as to communicate a peculiar character to tho physiognomy. The wdd, 
 strange effect is further increased by the unkempt masses of dark, lank, straight hair which 
 droop on either side of the whiskerless, beardless face. The cheek-bones are prominent, like 
 those of a Celtic Highlander ; the nose is flat ; the raoti^h wide, with thin compressed lips. It 
 may be supposed that the Lapps, from these iuJications, are rot models of maaculine or feminine 
 beauty ; and Dr. Clarke asserts that, when aged, many of them, if exposed in a menagerie, might 
 be mistaken for ' long-lost transitional form intermediate between man and ape. And, cer- 
 tainly, there is something repulsive in the constant blinking of eyes rendered sore by the pungent 
 
^ r 
 
 108 Ar.rONG THE LA ITS. 
 
 smoke of their huts, or the white glare of the snow, as well as in the expression of obstinacy and 
 low cunning which one reafls in every feature. 
 
 .A.n aristocrat iniglit be ]>r(iU(l of their small and finoiy-shaped hands ; but their arms, like 
 their logs, are di.sproportionately short, clumsy, and thick. Clumsy, we mean, in shape; cer- 
 tainly not in movement, for the extraordinary flexibility of their limbs is one of the traits by 
 which a Lapp i.s easily dist'iiguished. 
 
 Of the dress of the Lapps it is needless to say much. In winter it consists of bears' skins, 
 in which both male and female wrap themselves up, with the fur outward. In summer the men 
 wear a sort of tunic, tJie jmesk, made of coarse light-coloured woollen cloth, depending to the 
 knee, but bound about tlie waist with a belt or girdle. Their head-gear consists of a kind of fez, 
 made of wool, and adornt.J with a red worsted band round the rim, and a bright red tassel. 
 Their boots or shoes are cut from the raw skin of the reindeer, with the hair outwards, and they 
 are peaked in shape. They are thin, and they have no lining ; but the Lapp defends his feet 
 and ankles from the cold by stuffing the vacant space of the boot with the broad leaves of the 
 Carex vesicaria, or Cyperus grass, which he cuts in summer, rubs in his hands, and dries before 
 using. The female costume resemblo,s that of the males, but their girdles are gayer with rings 
 and chains. 
 
 The Lapps are a superstitious race. Like all the Norse tribes, they believe in witchcraft ; 
 and of old the Lapland witches had a reputation which extended to England, for being able 
 to ward off rain or disperse storms. The English seamen trading to Archangel frequently 
 visited their coast in order to buy a favourable wind. 
 
 Many of the Lapps claim the ability to foretell future events, and fall, or pretend to fall, 
 into a trance or ecstasy, during which they see visions, utter prophecies, and unlock the secrets 
 of those who trust to their divination. They also read the fortunes of inquiring dupes by means 
 of a cup of liquor, or by the vulgarest jargon of palmistry. Superatition is the daughter of 
 Ignorance. It is also the sister of Fear, for the superstitious are invariably prone to see 
 supernatural eigns and wonders in the appearances of the heavens, or to hear unearthly voices 
 borne upon tlie midnight wind, and in everything they cannot understand to imagine the 
 presence of some antagonistic power. As the American natives were panic-stricken at the 
 occurrence of an eclipse, so the liapps are filled with dread when the sky glows with the 
 coruscations of the aurora. 
 
 These superstitions prevail in spite of the exertions of priests and schoolmasters. They are 
 nourished in secret even when they are not openly proclaimed ; and the Lapp, after listening 
 de .'outly to the harangue of his pastor, will return home to offer homage to his saidas, or wooden 
 idols ; to cower at the name of Trolls, the evil spirit of the forest ; and to be deluded by the 
 artifices of any so-called witch or fortune-teller. 
 
 There are Lapps, and Lapps ; each, according to the region he inliabits, bearing his dis- 
 tinctive characteristics, and preserving his individual habits. Thus, there are tlie Fjiilllappars, 
 or Mountain Lapps ; the Skogslappars, or Wood Lapps ; and the Fisherlapps. 
 
 From the nature of the country the reader will expect, and will be right in expecting, that 
 the Fjalllappars form the most numerous section. They are the nomads of Lapland, and their 
 mode of life is entirely pastoral. As the Arabs with their flocks move from one oasis to another, 
 or the Tai-tars with their cattle, so the Lapps migrate from place to place, compelled by the 
 
THE LAPP AND HIS HUT l»l» 
 
 necessity of finding sustenance for their herds of reindeer. The mosses and lichens on which 
 these animals feed are soon exhausted, and some time elapses before (he half-frozen soil replaces 
 them. The same cause operates to prevent the Lapps from assembling in large comnmnities. 
 Seldom more than three, four, or five families encamp in the same noighliourhooil. 
 
 It will not be supposed that the temporary abode of a nomad exhibits any architectural 
 completeness. Their tuguria, or huts, are of the rudest construction. They raise a conical frame- 
 work, composed of the flexible stems of trees, and this they cover with a coarse kind of canvas, 
 and in winter with the skins of reindeer and other animals. No doorway is required, and egress 
 and ingress are provided for by turning up a portion of the canvas at the bottom, so as to form a 
 triangular gap ; and the portion so turned up is let down again at night. In the centre of the 
 interior some large stones are piled together for r. fireplace, and a square opening in the roof 
 above carries off the smoke, and lets in the light and air — not to say rain, snow, and fog, when 
 these prevail. 
 
 The tent or hut we have described generally measures about six feet in diameter, and eighteen 
 to twenty in circumference. It does not exceed ten feet in height. There is no floor, but the 
 ground is covered with reindeer skins, and upon these the inhabitants sit or crouch by day, and 
 huddle themselves up at night. The household utensils, irii[ilements, and weapons are suspended 
 from the sides of the hut ; and the clothing of the family, no very extensive stock, i.s preserved 
 in a chest. 
 
 On a shelf or platform, raised liij/h above the reach of dogs and wolves, between two neigh 
 bouring trees, the Lapp keeps his store of dried reindeer flesh, and cheese, and curds ; for his diet 
 is as plain as his general habit of living. His herd of reindeer he puts up at night, or w 'len tliey 
 are required for milking, in a large enclosuie, about four hundred to five hundred feet in circuit, 
 formed by a barrier of posts and stumps of trees, supporting a row of horizontal poles. Against 
 the latter birch poles and branches of trees are placed diagonally, forming a kind of abattis, which 
 is found to be a sufficient security against the attacks of wolves. 
 
 It is said that the milking of a herd of reindeer affords a lively and picturesque spectacle. 
 Wlaen they have been driven within the area, and all the outlets closed, a Lapp, selecting a long 
 cord or thong, twists both ends round his left hand, and then in his right gathers the thong itself 
 in loose coils. Fixing on a reindeer, he flings the coils over its antlers. Sometimes the latter 
 offers no resistance ; but generally, on feeling the touch of the thong, it darts away, and its 
 pursuer, in order to secure it, is called upf>n for the most vigorous efforts. And the scene is 
 animated indeed, when half-a-dozen reindeer, pursued by as many Lapps, sweep round and round 
 the enclosure, until the former are finally overcome, or, as now and then happens, wrest the cord 
 from the hands of the discomfited Lapp, and leave him prostrate on the ground. When the 
 animal is secured, his master takes a dexterous hitch of the thong round his muzzle and head, 
 and then fastens him to the trunk of a prostrate tree. The operation of milking is performed by 
 both men and women. 
 
 As soon as the pasture in the neighbourhood is exhausted, the encampment is broken up, 
 and the little company migrate to some fresh station. The rude tuguria are dismantled in less 
 than half an hour, and paeked with all the household furniture on the backs of the reindeer, who, 
 by long training, are inured to serve as beasts of burden. On the journey they are bound 
 together, five and five, with leather thongs, and led by the women over the mounti.ins ; while the 
 
too 
 
 SLKIKJINO AND SKATING. 
 
 riithur of thu family pioccdos the iniuch to select a suitable site for the new encampment, and his 
 sons or servants follow with the remainder of the herd. 
 
 As sprin^f vorf,'es upon summer, the Lapps abandon their mountain pastures, and move 
 towards tiio shore. No sooner do the reindeer scent the keen sea-air than, breaking loose from 
 all control, they da.sh headlong into the briny waves of the fiord, and drink long draughts of the 
 salt sea-water. The Lapps con.sider this sea-side migration essential to the health of their herds. 
 AVIun suninu'r reaches its meridian, and the snow melts, they return to the pleasant mountain- 
 solitudes, ascending higher and higher, according to the increase of temperature. Then, on the 
 .•i|ipn).uli of winter, they retire into the woods, where thiur great difficulty is to defend their herds 
 and tlieniselves from the attacks of the wolves. In this incessant warfare they derive much 
 
 -^'^^■»»--i**i"»'»«='^°*' 
 
 KEINDKEK IN LAI'LAND. 
 
 assistance from the courage of their dogs. These are about the size of a Scotch terrier, with long 
 shaggy hair, and a head bearing a curiously close resemblance to that of a lynx. 
 
 In the winter the Lapp accomplishes his journeys cither by sledging or skating. 
 
 Their skr.tes are not exactly things of beauty, but they answer their purpose admirably. 
 One is as long as the person who wears it ; the other is about a foot shorter. The feet of the 
 wearer are placed in the middle, and the skates, or skidas. fastened to them by thongs or withes. 
 They are maxle of fir-wood, and covered with the skins of reindeer, which check any backward 
 movement by acting like bristles against the snow. It is astonishing with what speed the Lapp, 
 thus equipped, can traverse the frozen ground. The most dexterous skater on the canals of 
 Holland could not outstrip him. He runs down the swiftest wild beasts ; and the exercise so 
 stimulates and warms his frame that, even in midwinter, when pursuing one of these lightning- 
 like courses, he can dispense with his garment of furs. When he wishes to stop, he makes use of 
 
T 
 
 TllAVELLlNCi IN LAPI.AND. 
 
 801 
 
 a long pole, which is provided with a round ball of wood near tho end, to ])rovent it fVoni 
 sinking too deep into the snow. 
 
 He is no less expert as a sledger. His vehicle, or pnlka, is fasliioned like a boat, with a 
 convex bottom, so as to slip over the snow with all the jfreater ease ; the prow is sliarp and 
 pointed, but the hind part flat. Perhaps it may better be compared to a punt than a boat. At 
 all events, in this curious vehicle the Lapp is bound and swatlicd, like an infant in its cradle. 
 To preserve its equilibrium, he trusts to 
 the dexterity with which he moves his 
 body to and fro, and from side to side, as 
 may be needed ; and he guides it by 
 means of a stout pole. His steed, a 
 reindeer, is fastened to it by traces 
 attached to its collar, and connected with 
 the fore part of the sledge ; the reins are 
 twisted round its horns ; and all about 
 its trappings are hung a number of little 
 bells, in the tintinnabulation of which the 
 animal greatly delights. Thus accoutred, 
 it will perfonn a journey of fifty or sixty 
 miles a day ; sometimes travelling fifty 
 miles without pause, and with no other 
 refreshment than an occasional mouthful 
 of snow. 
 
 With wonderful accuracy the Lapp 
 will guide himself and his steed through 
 a seemingly labyrinthine wilderness, when 
 
 the usual signs and characters of the landscape are buried deep in snow. But his memor} is 
 tenacious, and a bhghted tree, or a projecting crag, or a clump of firs, affords him a snflHcient 
 indication of the correctness of his course. He frequently continues his rapid journey through- 
 out the night, when the moon invests the gleaming plains with a strange brilliancy, or the aurora 
 fills both earth and heaven with the reflection of its wondrous fires. 
 
 A French traveller, M. de Saint-Blaize, is of opinion that the Lapps, like all savage and 
 semi-civilized races, are rapidly diminishing in nundiers. Yet this diminution is hardly owing 
 to the conditions under which they live. Their life, to the civilized European, seems severe and 
 almost intolerable ; but though it is marked by privation and fatigue, it is not without its charms. 
 It is free and independent, and without anxiety. As for the privation and fatigue, the Lanp is 
 hardly conscious of them, because his capacity of endurance is great, and he is accustomed to them 
 from his earliest years. Temperate, active, and inured to exertion, his physical frame is wonder- 
 fully vigorous, and he knows nothing of the majority of maladies which afflict the dweller in cities. 
 One tenible disease, indeed, he does not escape, and this may have had much to do with their 
 decline, — the smallpox. Otherwise, they are a healthy as well as a hardy race. If during a 
 journey a Lapp woman gives birth to a child, she places the new-born in a frame of hollow 
 wood, in which a hole has been cut to receive the little one's head ; then slings this rude cradlb 
 
 Ti' WELLING IN LAFLANll. 
 
202 TlIK I,/V1T HUNTKIJS. 
 
 Oil her back, and continues ber inarch. When she luilts, she suspends tlie infant and its cradle U) a 
 tree, the wirework witli which it is covered affording a sufficient protection against wild beasts. 
 
 ProfesHor Forbes, however, describes a more comfortable cradle, which is cut out of solid 
 wood, and covered witli leather, in flaps so arranged as to lace across the top with leathern 
 thongs ; the inside is lined with reindeer moss, and a pillow, also of reindeer moss, is provided 
 for the head of the infant, who fits the space so exactly that It cau .^tii neiclici hand nor foot 
 
 The Lapp is a bold hunter, and will encounter the bear single-handed. Like the Siberian, 
 he entertains a supei-stitious reverence for this powerful animal, which he regards as the wisest 
 and most acute of all the beasts of the field, and supposes o know and hear all that is said about 
 it; but as Its fur is valuable and its flesh well-favoured, ii does not refrain from pursuing it to 
 the death, though careful, so to speak, to kill it with the h'., t respect. 
 
 Early in winter the bear retires to a rocky cave, or a covert of branches, leaves, and moss, 
 and there remains, without food, and iu a state cf torpidity, until the spring recalls him to active 
 life. After the first snowfall, the Lapp hunters seek the forest, and search for traces of their 
 enemy. These being found, the spot is carefully marked, and after a few weeks they return, 
 arouse the slumbering brute, and stimulate it to an attack; for to shoot it while asleep, or, indetjd, 
 to use any weapon but a lance, is considered dishonourable. 
 
 Hogguer, whose narrative is quoted by Hartwig, accompanied a couple of Lapps, well armed 
 with axes and stout lances, on one of these dangerous expeditiona When about a hundred paces 
 from the bear's den, the party halted, and one of the Lapps advanced shouting, and his comrades 
 made all the din they could. He ventured within twenty paces of the cavern, and then threw 
 stones into it. For awhile all was quiet, and Hogguer began to think they had come upon an 
 empty den ; but suddenly an angry growl was heard. 
 
 The hunters now renewed and redoubled their clamour, until slowly, like an honest citizen 
 roused from his virtuous sleep by a company of roisterers the animal came forth from his lair. 
 
 At first he seemed indifferent and lethargic ; but, catching sight of his nearest enemy, he was 
 filled with rage, uttered a short but terrible roar, and rushed headlong upon him. The Lapp, 
 with his lance in rest, awaited the onset calmly, while the bear, coming to close quarters, reared 
 himself on his haunches, and struck at his antagonist with his fore paws. 
 
 To avoid these powerful strokes, the daring huntsman crouched, and then, with a sudden 
 s]iring, drove his lance, impelled by a sturdy arm, and guided by a sure eye, into the creature's 
 heart. 
 
 The victor escaped with only a slight wound on the hand, but the marks of the bear's teeth 
 were found deeply impressed on the iron spear-head. 
 
 According to an old custom, the wives of the hunters assemble in one of their huts, and as 
 soon as they hear them returning, raise a loud discordant chant in honour of the bear. When 
 the men, loaded with their booty of skin and flesh, draw near, it is considered necessary to 
 receive them with words of reproach and insult, and they are not allowed to enter through the 
 door ; thej are compelled, therefore, to obtain admission through a hole in the wall. But when 
 the animal's manes have been thus propitiated, the women are not less eager than the men to 
 make the most of its carcass ; and after the skin, fat, and flesh have been removed, they cut up 
 the body, and bury it with great ceremony, the head first, then the neck, next the fore paws, 
 
INTEMPEKANCE OF THE LAPPS. 
 
 SOS 
 
 and so on, clown to the animal's " last," — its tail. This is done IVoni a wild belief that the bear 
 rises from the dead, and if it has been properly interred, will kindly allow itaelf to bo killtd a 
 second time by the same hunter ! 
 
 The principal article of food of the Lapps is reindeer venison. This they boil, and it sup- 
 plies them both with meat and broth. In summer they vary their bill of fare with cheese and 
 reindeer milk ; and the rich eat a kind of bread or cake, baked upon hot iron plates or " girdles." 
 For luxuries they resort to brandy and tobacco ; and these are not less appreciated by the women 
 than by the men. As for the latter, they are never seen without a pipe, except at meals ; and 
 the first salutation which a Lapp addresses to a stranger is a demand for " tabak " or " braendi." 
 Dr. Clarke tells us that on paying a visit to one of their tents, he gave the father of the family 
 about a pint of brandy, and as he saw him place it behind his bed, near the margin of the tent, he 
 concluded it would be economically used. In a few minutes the daughter entered, and asked for 
 a dram, on the ground that she had lost her share while engaged upon domestic duties outside. 
 The o.u Lapp made no reply, but slily crept round the exterior of the tent until he came to 
 the place where the brandy was concealed. Then, thrusting in his arm, he drew forth the precious 
 bottle, and emptied its contents at a draught. 
 
 We find no great diftbrence of habits 
 existing betwetn the Mountain Lapp and 
 the Skogs or Forest Lapp, except that the 
 latter takes up fishing as a summer pursuit, 
 and devotes the winter months to his herds 
 and the chase. But in course of time his 
 herds demanding more attention than he 
 can give to them, he is transfonned into a 
 Fisher Lapp, who dwells always upon the 
 sea-coast, and is at once the filthiest and 
 least civilized of the race. He resembles 
 the Mountsiin Lapp in his love of tobacco 
 and brandy. He differs from him in never 
 migrating, and in wholly abandoning the 
 pastoral life. 
 
 A picture of what the artists call a Lap- 
 land "interior," of the domestic economy 
 of a Lapp hut, is painted for us by the 
 author of a recent book of travel, entitled 
 " Try Lapland." 
 
 After a long day's journey, in the neighbourhood of Lake Randejaur, weary and cold, 
 he and his companions came upon a small hut, and hiul visions of ol)taining a night's rest; 
 but a closer acquaintance with the hut convinced them that such a proceeding would bo 
 undesirable. 
 
 For, knocking at the door, and pulling up the latch, they entered, to see before them a 
 family scene I 
 
 FI8IIER t.APPS. 
 
; \ 
 
 201 A LAPP INTERIOl!. 
 
 In an inconcuivably dirty room stood a still dirtier beldame, making coffee. Her husband, 
 an old man of seventy, sat on one side ; while a hideous, deformed little Lapp, whether man or 
 woman thi;y could hardly tell, squatted on the flour on the other, in full costume, consisting <■>{ 
 high-peaked blue cloth cap, and reindeer skin dress, ornamented with beads and spangle) Her 
 i'ace was Itrown as a berry, long lanky black hair streamed down her cheeks; and, staring at the 
 intrudere, she begged for "penge" (money). Two young men were snoring in one bed, and two 
 boys in another placed opposite to it, each being covered with a few reindeer-skins. 
 
 The entrance of the strangers aroused the sleepei-s to give one hasty look, and then they 
 snored again. 
 
 The lady of the house offered coffee ; and though everything looked so dirty as to create a 
 positive I'eeling of disgust, the travellers could not afford to be particular, and accepted her offer, 
 which put her in a perfect ecstasy of delight. 
 
 Quickly she scuttled off to the well for water, and, filling her kettle, set to work to roast 
 fresh coffee. 
 
 The old man got up and endeavoured to rouse the sleepers, when he understood that the 
 strangers were in immediate want of boats and rowers. 
 
 Leaving him to make the necessary preparations, they went out to take a look at the sur- 
 rounding .scenery ; and returning in a quarter of an hour, expected to find them preparing the 
 boats, which lay two or three hundred yards off. But, to their surprise, not the slightest change 
 had occurred in the position of the sleepers ; and, after drinking their coffee out of the one cup 
 the Lapps possessed, they grew impatient, and stormed at the young men, trying even to pull 
 them out of bed — but they would not budge. 
 
 " The father," says our authority, " who protested great love for the English, but turned out 
 the biggest rascal we had come across, was as anxious as we were that his sons should get up and 
 row us ; — but not a bit of it ! He told us that they had been out three days and three nights on 
 the Fells, and were thoroughly exhausted. What was to be done, we could not think. It was 
 getting serious ; we certainly could not sleep in this dreadful hole, and there was no other shelter 
 near. 
 
 " Money had no power : though I showed the almighty dollar to the weary slumberers, (they 
 had surely never been in America I ) they turned away with a grunt. 
 
 " Then, happy thought, I recollected the brandy ; and bringing my keg to the bedside, 
 I tapped it, and offered them a glass if they would get up. This was quite another thing ; they 
 yawned, stretched their limbs, and stood upon the floor. Poor fellows ! we then saw how ill and 
 faggod the}'^ looked, though they were splendid specimens of the human race. 
 
 " Pouring a glass of the fiery compound down their throats, they put on their coats, and 
 followed us like sleepy dogs ; but in a few moments were rowing us like heroes." 
 
 All travellers agree in bearing witness to the passion of the Lapps for alcoholic liquors. 
 If we could .spare our apostles of temperance and advocates pf Good Templarism, which, alas ! wo 
 caimot afford to do, few better fieHs could be found for their admirable labours than Lapland. 
 
 Captain Hutchinson, however, has more pleasant experiences to relate, and more agreeable 
 " interiors " to sketch, than the preceding. Let us accompany liim, for instance, on a visit to the 
 island of Bjorkholm. 
 
RACIAL OHAltACTERISTICS OK THE LAPPS. SOS 
 
 Tho settleiut'iit here is very sniall, consistinj^ ot" only two or three houses, ami a few barns 
 and sheds. The inhabitants, after the usual manner of the Lapps, support themselves by tisliini,' 
 in suminer, and by the reindeer in winter. Not a tree or shrub jjrows upon the islanil ; only 
 grass. 
 
 The hostess, on this occasion, was an active, good-natured little woman, not more than four 
 feet high, who flew to and fro with a really wonderful agility. At one moment she was mounttil 
 on the dresser, searching for forks and spoons ; at another, almost buried in a deep bo.\, diving 
 for sheets and table-cloth. Crockery was decidedly scarce ; and a china slop-basin, with a wreath 
 of prettily painted little flowers round the margin, had really a hard time of it. 
 
 It was first pre.sented to Captain Hutchinson and his party for tho purpose of washing tlitir 
 hands; at supper it appeared tilled with chocolate ; in the morning it reappeared as their joi;it 
 washing-basin. 
 
 However, the little Lapp entertained them right royally, with hot kippered salmon, pan- 
 cakes, dried reindeer, and eggs. 
 
 The beds were very comfortable, the mattresses of hay, with the whitest of sheets. And 
 tiiough the hostess and her family seemed very poor, relics of former grandeur were visible in the 
 silver spoons, teapot, goblet, and cream-jug. 
 
 A recent writer observes that the inferiority of the Lapp race is as conspicuous from the 
 mtellectual as from the physical point of view. This is evident from the most cursory glfinco at 
 their lives and manners. The Lapp is, on the whole, a simple, timid, regular, honest creature. 
 To his great defect we have already adverted, — that excessive partiality for strong liquors, which 
 would bo sufficient to bring about the annihilation of his race within a more or less limited period, 
 even if his days were not numbered from every other concurrent cause. He is essentially nomadic. 
 He is perfectly free and independent throughout the solitary wastes which extend from the North 
 Cape to the sixty-fourth degree of latitude ; he plants his tent where he pleases, generally close 
 to a v.ood or lake ; and he moves on when the moss all around it has been eaten up. Such a mode 
 of life is, of course, incompatible with the progress of Swedish, Norwegian, and even Finlandish 
 civili:.;ation, which, year by year, curtails the territory given up to the migration of the nomadic 
 Lapps. 
 
 There is about the life of the Lapps, in summer, says Count D'Almeida, a certain charm ol 
 independence, which might prove seductive to certain minds, weary of civilization and unwitting 
 of mosquitoes. But in winter, no being of any other race could with impunity endiue such 
 privations and sufferings as they undergo. They are compelled to keep a careful watch upon 
 their herds, which are in constant danger from the snow-storms and the wolves. In the hard 
 frosts, when the snow is upwards of three feet in depth, tuey are compelled to dig it up with 
 their axes, so as to obtain access for their reindeer to the moss, which constitutes their only food 
 in winter. Their vigorous .constitutions and their power of enduring privation and climatic 
 rigour, explain how it was that man, in the Glacial Age, though without any of the appliances 
 of civilization, could endure its tremendous severity. What the Lapps can bear in point of toil 
 and want is almost incredible. They suffer, and are strong, in a sense the poet never contem- 
 plated. It frequently happens that they are surprised by a snow-hurricane; they sleep on tlie 
 ground, covered with snow-flakes, which, on awaking, they simply shake off, and pursue their 
 
 ,1^ 
 
 Am 
 
306 
 
 THK LAPPS AND QUENE8. 
 
 way. In uii excesH of cold wliich would chill our blood, even if we were ruiiniujj at the top of 
 our speed, they will fall, in a fit of intoxication, on the ground, and lie there with impunity for 
 hours. It in said that in niid-wintor, women, suddenly seized with the pains of childbirth while 
 on the road, are delivered in tho snow, withtmt any ill result, either to them or their offspring. 
 
 But, as the same writer remarks, human strength cannot exceed certain limits. Tho Lapp 
 ages early in life, and dies young. When he attains an advanced age, his fate is still l. > lament- 
 able. It is said that if an old man falls sick while a tribe is accomplishing one of its customary 
 migrations, liis children frequently abandon him,— leaving him with some provisions at the foot 
 (if a tree, or on the bank of a stream, with the ter ibie prospect before him of dying of starvation, 
 or falling a prey to wild beasts. The Lapp is always poor even when he may bo called 
 rich ; for it is calculated that to maintain a family of four persons, a herd of fully four hundred 
 reindeer is necessary, representing a capital of about £160. 
 
 Tho Lapp dialect is described as resembling tho Finnish. When we remember that the 
 Lapps and tho Queues, or Finns, wear a similar costume, are distinguished by very similar cus- 
 toms, and that the two people call themselves by the same generic name, Suomi, we can under- 
 stand why soine travellers persist in regarding them as sprung from the same common stock. 
 But a careful investigation shows the absolute distinctness of the Lapps from the Finns, notwith- 
 standing this similarity of name and language — a similarity due, as in many other countries, to 
 the influences of conquest or colonization. Some ethnologists, and among them M. D'Omalins, 
 include the Finns among the white, or Cau'^asian race, and leave the Lapps among the inferior 
 branches of the great Mongol family. It seems certain that a greater difference exists between 
 the Quf^nes and the liapps of Northern Norway than between the Queues and the Scandinavians 
 of the same region. 
 
 Tho Qudnes have adapted themselves completely to sedentary and agricultural habits, while 
 the Lapps, as yet, have not made a single advance in the direction of raising themselves above a 
 pastoral and nomadic life. On the other hand, Finns constantly intermarry with the Swedes or 
 Norwegians ; while unions between Lapps and Scandinavians, or even between Lapps and Finns, 
 are regaided throughout the entire country as monstrous anomalies. Lastly : laying aside the 
 arguments founded upois the physical conformation of the Lapps and the Finns, an important 
 historical considcnition seems to prove their distinct co-existence from a periou far anterior to the 
 settlement of the Suiones and the Goths in the peninsula ; it is that in the Finnish mythology 
 we constantly meet with legends of battles between dwarfs and giants. It is impossible that these 
 can refer to the warfare between the Finns and the Scandinavians, for the latter were of the same 
 stature as the former ; and it is in comparison with the Lapps only that *.he Finns could relatively 
 be called giants. 
 
 We borrow from Count D'Alviella a few particulars relating to the stationary Lapps, who 
 inhabit the region of West Bothnia, or Westerbotten, a long, narrow strip of land dividing the 
 Gulf of Bothnia from Lapland proper. These Lapps seem to be the product of a mixture of 
 races in which the Scandinavian element predominates. They are of an ordinary stature, robust, 
 with regular features, light hair, and clear gray eyes. 
 
 The country in which they dwell has a strange, an original, but a monotonous character. 
 
THE STATIONAKY LAI'l'S. 'in? 
 
 It is its monotony which wuarie.s the travellor, thouj^li iit tirst he will hu inipiosstd by its t'rosh, 
 yot severe beauty. The forests of birch and fir seem endless, and the great lakes in their depths 
 fatigue the eye with their wastes of cold, drear water. Occasionally, however, the traveller comes 
 upon a smiling plain, enamelled with myo.sotis, and brightened by a silver-shining, music-mur- 
 nuiring stream. Here and there the wood is thinner, and lean cows may be seen feeding among 
 the half-stripped stems. Next comes a clearing, where the forest has been swept away by fire , 
 a clearing with fields of rye and barley ; a palisade enclosure, and a ^roup of chAlets, with a con>- 
 parativcly sj)aci()us and undilapidated building in the centre. 
 
 These ffdrds, as they ore called, closely resemble each other throughout the North. Neitl er 
 material nor space is begrudged to the West Bothnian architectH. Bjven the smallest farm 
 comprises three or four buildings, wiiich generally form a square on the four sides of an inner 
 court. These buildings — how unlike the wretched, filthy hut of the nomadic Lapp I — comprise 
 three living-rooms, kitchen, and stables ; and are divided from each other only by a partition of 
 horizontally-laid planks, the interstices being filled up by moss. The furniture is simple, con- 
 venient, suitable, and shining with cleanliness, like a Dutch kitchen. Around the hearth is hung 
 a series of brightly-coloured prints, representing either a Scriptural scene or events in the life of 
 an illustrious personage, — King Charles XV., or the bishop of the diocese, side by side with the 
 universal legendary figures,- Napoleon I. and Garibaldi. Close by stands the old hereditary 
 locker, in which the husband accumulates his money and the wife deposits her trinkets ; to the 
 wall is suspended a complete trophy of knives, pipes, belts with silver buckles, sledge-bells, and a 
 whip with a carved horn handle. The whole scene is one of order and the proprieties of family life. 
 
 All these dwellings, it may be added, do not wear the same aspect of prosperous neatness ; 
 but even where poverty is present, it is unaccompanied by that sullen gloom and melancholy 
 squalidness which, in other countries, is the painful indication and result of long-endured privation. 
 And here, we must also remember, poverty and famine are not always inseparable companions. 
 The shadow of hunger frequently darkens the rich man's door, and a man might perish for want 
 of food on a sack of gold. One winter, the wealtliiest members of the community were reduced 
 to the necessity of eating bread mode of bark mixed with moss. 
 
 Still, we see how wide a difference separates the stationary from the nomadic Lapp, and how 
 impossible it is for a wandering population to acquire or appreciate the coniforts of civilized life. 
 A pastoral race, in the present age of the world, is, and must be, a decaying, because a barbarous 
 race. If it touches the borders of civilization, it is only to become infected with its vices, and 
 thus to hasten its inevitable decay. 
 
 U 
 
UHArTEIl IX. 
 
 TflK 8AMOJEI1KS AND OTIIKU TRIUE3 OK AUCTIO ASIA. 
 
 HFj Siiinojcdes are tho immediate noi'Mihours of the Lapps. Like them, they are 
 noiniulcs ; l)ut they are even less civilized, and iiave profited les.s by the arduous and 
 entliunia.stic labours of the Christian missionaries. They range over the forests and 
 stony tundras of Northern Russia and Western Siberia; driving their reindeer herds from the 
 banks of the Chatanga to the icy shores of tho White Sea, or hunting the wild beasts in the 
 dense woods which extend between tho Obi and the Yenisei. 
 
 They are sunk far deeper than the Lapps in a coarse and debasing superstition. It is true 
 that they believe in a supreme deity — Num, or Jilibeambaertje, who resides in the air, and, like 
 the Greek Zeus, sends down thunder and hghtning, rain and snow ; and they evince that latent 
 capacity for poetical feeling which is indicated even by the most barbarous tribes in their descrip- 
 tion of the rainbow as " the hem of his garment." They regard him, however, as so elevated 
 above the world of man, and so coldly indifferent to humanity, that it is useless to seek to propi- 
 tiate him cither by prayer or sacrifice ; and they have recourse, accordingly, to the inferior gods, 
 — who, as they believe, have the direction of human affairs, and are influenced by incantations, 
 vows, or special homage. 
 
 The chief of all the Samojede idols is still supposed to consecrate with its presence, as in the 
 days of the adventurous Barentz, the bleak and ice-bound island of Waigatz. It is a block of 
 stone, pointed at the summit, and bearing some rude resemblance to a human head, having been 
 fashioned after this likenek-s by a freak of nature. This has formed the model for the Samojede 
 sculptors, who have multiplied its effigy in wood and stone ; and the idols thus easily created 
 they call sjadmi, because they wear a human (or semi-human) countenance (sja). They attire 
 them in reindeer-skins, and embellish them with innumerable coloured rags. In addition to the 
 sjadmi, they adopt as idols any cu.nously contorted tree or irregularly shaped stone ; and the 
 household idol (Hahe) they carry abuut with them, carefully wrapped up, in a sledge reserved 
 for the purpose, the hahengaa One of the said penates is supposed to be the guardian of 
 wedded happiness, another of the fishery, a third of the health of his worshippers, a fourth of 
 their herds of reindeer. When his services are required, the Hahe is removed from his resting- 
 place, and erected in tiie tent or on the pastare-ground, in the wood or on the river's bank. 
 Then his mouth is s'neared with oil or blood, and before him is set a dish of flesh or fish, in 
 return for which repast it is expected that he will use his power on behalf of his entertainers. 
 His aid being no longer needed, he is returned to the bahengan. 
 
Slil-KHSTITIONS OF TH K SAMOJEOKS. 
 
 M 
 
 SAMOJKDB HUTS (ly WAIOATZ ISLAND. 
 
 BosidoH tlicso ohlijriiis,' iloiticH, Mh; Siunojodo beliuvcH in tlio existoiico of an onlor of inviHil>Io 
 spiritH which iio <'allH Ta<M>t.Hio.i. Thoso aro over and ovoiywhoro around iiini. and IkiiI lathor 
 upon hia injury tlian bin 
 welfare. It beconius iin 
 portant, therefore, to |)ro- 
 pitiate thuni ; but this can 
 be done only throujjh the 
 interposition of a Tndibc, 
 or sorcerer ; who, on occa- 
 sion, stimulates himself into 
 a state of wild excitement, 
 like the frenzy of the Py- 
 thian or Deljihic priestess. 
 When his aid is invoked by 
 the credulous Samojede, hia 
 first care is to attire him- 
 self in full magician's 
 costume— a kind of shirt, 
 made of reindeer leather, 
 and hemmed with red cloth. Its seams are trimmed in like manner ; and the shoulders are also 
 decorated with red cloth ags, or epaulettes. A piece of red cloth is worn over the face as a 
 mask, and a plate oi polished metal gleams upon his breast. 
 
 Thus costumed, the Tadibe takes his drum of reindeer-ski: i, ornamented with brass rings, 
 and, attended by a neophyte, walks round and round with great stateliness, while invoking the 
 presence of the spirits by a discordant rattle. This gratlually increases in violence, and is 
 accompanied by the droning intonation of the words of enchantment. The spirits in due time 
 appear, and the Tadibe proceeds to consult them ; beating his drum more gently, and occasionally 
 pausing in his doleful chant, — which, however, the novice is careful not to interrupt, — to listen, 
 as is supposed, to the answers of the aerial divinities. At length the conversation ceases ; the 
 chant breaks into k fierce howl ; the drum rattles more and more loudly ; the Tadibe seems 
 under a supernatural influence ; his body quivers, and foam gathers on his lips. Then suddenly 
 the frenzy ceases, and the Tadibe utters the will of the Tadebtsios, and gives advice how a 
 straying reindeer may be recovered, or the disease of the Samojede worshipper relieved, or the 
 fisherman's labour rewarded with an abundant " harvest of the sea." 
 
 The office of the Tadibe is usually transmitted from father to son ; but occasionally some 
 individual, predisposed by nature to fits of excitement, and endowed with a vivid imagination, is 
 initiated into its mysteries. His morbid fancy is worked upon by long solitary self-communings 
 and protracted fasts and vigils, and his frame by the use ot' pernicious narcotics and stimulants, 
 until he persuades himself that he has been visited by the spirits. He is then received as a 
 Tadibe with many ceremonies, which take place at midnight, and he ia invested with the magic 
 drum. It will be seen, therefore, that the Tadibe, if he deceives others, partly deceives himself. 
 But he does not disdain to have recourse to the commonest tricks of the conjuror, with the view 
 of imposing upon his ignorant couniLrymen. Among these is the famous rope-trick, introduced 
 
aio 
 
 CURIOUM fUSTO.M.M MK THK HAMoJKDEW. 
 
 into Kii;,'laii(l liy the Duvoiipurt Bi 'thorn, and muho lopoattul by mi iiuiriy luolbsHioiittl iiocro- 
 iiinrifiTH. With IiIh haiuiN and fwt raHteniul, ho nitM down on a iar|)<t of ivindt'tT-Hkin, niid, tho 
 lij,''its liciii),' |iiit nut, invok's tJir spiiitH to ronic to his assiMtanfo. Soon tliuir prcHonco in made 
 known l)_v stran<,'c tioiMfs ; Mi|iiiiTfIs Hccni to niHth>, snakcH to hiHH, and hwirH to fjrowl. At 
 Irn>,Hh tlio diHtuii)an<c ccaMCM, tho hj^litu are ro-kindled, and tho TaiUhc Htops forward \inbuiind ; 
 the HpcctatorM, of courHc, Iwliivinj,' that ho has hoon ansiHtod by tho TudobtmoH. 
 
 As IwirbaronH, miyn Dr. Ilartwig — to wlio.so pajj^os wo aro hero indebted- aw barbarous as 
 tho poor wrotchcM wlio Hubniit to his jjuidanoo, tho Tadibe w inoapablo of iniprovin;^ their moral 
 condition, an<l lia.s no wisli to (hi so. IJndor varioim nanien, — SvlmiiKdi.s anionjf tho Tnnfjusi, 
 Aiiijiiiiku atnctnj,' tho KHkinios, .]ff(liriiw-ni)'ii anionj» tho CrecH and Chepewyans, — wo find mniihir 
 niaf(ii'iaiin or inipoNtors aHHuniinij; a Hpiritna! dictatorsliip over all tho Arctic nations of tho Old 
 and tlio Now World, whor jvor their authority has not been broken by Christianity or Buddliisni ; 
 and this droary faitii still extends its influor'^e over at least half a million of souls, from the 
 White Sill to tho extremity fif Asia, and from tho Pacifie to Hudson Bay. 
 
 Tho Samojedos, like the Siberian tribes, offer up satnificea to the dead, and perform various 
 eeremonios in honour of their memory. Like tho North American Indians, they believe that 
 the desires and ])ursuits of tho departed continue to be tho same as.thoy were on earth; and 
 honco, that they nuiy not bo in want of weapons or inijiloments, they deposit in or about their 
 j^'ravos a slodj^'o, a spear, a eooking-pot, a knife, and an axe. At the funeral, and for several years 
 afterwards, the kinsmen sacrifice reindeer over the grave. When a prince dies, a Starschina, tho 
 owner, perhaps, of several herds of reindeer, his nearest relatives fashion an image, which is kept 
 in tho tont of the deceased, and to which as much respect is paid as was paid to the man himselt 
 in his lifetime. It occupies his usual seat at every meal ; every evening it is undressed, and laid 
 
 down in his bed. For three years these 
 honours are kept up, and then the image 
 is buried, from a belief that the body by 
 that time must have decayed, and lost all 
 recollection of the past. Only the souls 
 of the Tadibes, and of those who have 
 died a violent death, are privileged with 
 immortality, and hover about the air as 
 disembodied spirits. 
 
 The Samojedos are scattered — to the 
 number of about a thousand families — over 
 their wild and inhospitable region. Ethno- 
 logists generally consider them to have a 
 common origin with tho Finns of Europe. In 
 stature they are somewhat taller than the 
 Lappi;, and their colour is more of a tawny. 
 The marked features of their countenance 
 recall the Hindu type. The forehead is high, 
 the hair black, (he nose long, the mouth well- 
 
 A SAHOJEDK FAMILY. 
 
■fMlil 
 
 THE OHTIAKM AND THEIR MANNERM 211 
 
 foniied ; out the sunken eye, veiled by « Iiciivy li<l, rx|H('Msts ii iiial and pcrtidi' .:•< nature. 'I'lio 
 manners i)f the SaniDJodea are brutal ; mid in cliaracter tliey r.'o tiereo and funnin^y. They are 
 uhepherdM, hunterH, traderH — and when (ipportunity wrves, rubbers. I/iki^ tiie nther Antio 
 peopli's, they clothe theinselveH in reindeer-skins. Tiiey shave oH' tin ! • hair, e.xcipt a tolerably 
 large tut't which they allow to flourish on the top of the head ; and they phiek out the beard 
 as fast as it jnrrows. 'I'lie women decorate their persons with a belt of gilded copper, and with 
 a profusion of glass beads and nietallic ornaments. 
 
 (?()ntinuing our progress eastward, we come to tht> Ostiaks, a people spreadim,' over the 
 northernmost parts of Siberia, from th ) ( hnal Mountains to Kamtschatka. 
 
 Some interesting particulars of tiieir habits and customs are recorded by Madame Kelinska, 
 a Polish lady whom the Russian Government condemned to a long exile in Siberia. 
 
 One day, when she wivs seeking a pathway through a wood, she foil in with a couple of 
 Ontia''s on the point of performing their devotions. These are of the simplest kind : the wor 
 shipper places himself before a tree (the larch, by preference) in the den.sest recess of the forest, 
 and indulges in a succession of extravagant gestures and contortions. As this form of worship 
 is prohibited by the Russian Government, the Ostiak can resort to it only in secret, lie professes, 
 indeed, to have accepted Christianity, but there is too nmch reason to fear that the majority of 
 the race are still attached to their heathen creed. 
 
 Nearly every Ostiak carries about his j)erson a rude imago of '>';e of the deities which he 
 adores under the name of SrIiaUan ; but this does not prevent him from wearing a small crucifix of 
 copper on his breast. The Scfiaitan is a rough imitation of the human figure, carved out of wood. 
 It is of different sizes, according to the various uses for which it is intended : if for carrying on 
 the person, it is a miniature doll ; but for decorating the Ostiak 's hut an image can be had on 
 larger seal'". It is always attired in seven pearl-embroidered che'uises, and suspended to tne 
 neck by a string of silver coins. The wooden deity occupies the place of honour in every hut, 
 — sometimes in company with an image of the Virgin Mary or some saint, — and before begimiing 
 a repast the Ostiaks are careful to offer it the daintiest morsels, smearing its lips with fish or raw 
 game ; this sacred duty performed, they finish their meal in contentment 
 
 The priests of the Ostiaks are called Scliamam ; their immense influence they employ to 
 promote their own personal interests, and maintain the meanest superstitions. 
 
 In summer the Ostiak fixes his residence on the banks of the Obi or one of its t-ibutaries. 
 It is generally square in form, with low stone walls, and a high pointed roof made of willow - 
 branches, and covered with pieces of bark. These having been softened by boiling, are sewn 
 together so as to form large mats or carpets, which are easily rolled up and carried I'rom place t(j 
 plivce. The hearth is in the centre ; it consists of a few stones sot round a cavity in the soil. 
 Here the Ostiak lives ; supporting nimself on fish, which he frequently eats without cooking — and 
 purchasing a few occasional lux' vies, such as tobacco and drink, with the .salmon and sturgeon 
 caught by his dexterity. 
 
 In winter he withdraws into the woods, to hunt the sable or the squirrel, or to pasture the 
 herds of reindeer which some of them possess. He builds his jurt on a small eminence near the 
 bank of a stream, but out of reach of its spring inundations. It is low, small, squalid : its walla 
 plastered with clay ; its window made of a thin sheet of ice. 
 
913 
 
 HUNTING THK WHITE BEAR. 
 
 The Ostiaka are rjjnerally of mnall stature, dark-complexioned, and with black hair, like 
 the Samojedes ; but this is not invariably tlio case. They seem to belonij to the same family as 
 the Samojedes and Finns. They are honest, good-natured, inert, and extremely careless and 
 dirty in their habits; though it may be conceded that their huts are not filthier than the 
 " interiors" of the Icelandic fishermen. Their women are not much better treated than African 
 slaves, and are given in marriage to tlio highest bidder. The price necessarily Varies according 
 to the condition of the parent ; the daughter of a rich man sells for fifty reindeer, of a poor man 
 for half-a-dozen dried sturgeon and a handful of squirrel-skhis. 
 
 The Ostiaks and the Samojedes are great 
 liunters of the white bear. It is the same 
 with the Jakuts (or Yakouts), a people 
 dwelling near the Bouriats, and, like them, 
 approximating to the Mongol type. Their 
 object in the chase, however, is not always 
 to kill the animal, but to fake it alive. 
 Madame Felinska asserts that, one day, 
 she saw a considerable herd of bears con- 
 ducted to Bt5r^zov, like a herd of tame 
 oattle, and apjtarently quite as inoffensive. 
 She does not inform us, however, by what 
 means they had been reduced to such a 
 desirable state of subjection. Frecjuently 
 the Ostiaks and the Jakuts attack the white 
 bears body to body, without any other 
 weapon tlian a hatchet or long cutlass. 
 They require to strike their formidable 
 antagonist with immense vigour, and to 
 slay it at the first blow, or their own danger is extreme. Should the hunter miss his stroke, 
 his sole resource is to fling himself on the ground and lie motionless, until the bear, while 
 smelling his body and turning him over, incautiously offers himself again to his attack. 
 
 JAKDT HUNTER AND BEAR. 
 
 We now reach the peninsula of Kamtschatka. In area it is equal to Great Britain, and its 
 natural resources are abundant ; yet, owing to the ravages of small-pox, and excessive brandy- 
 drinking, its population does not exceed seven or eight thousand souls. Its climate is much 
 milder than that of the interior of Siberia, being favourably affected by the warm breezes from 
 the sea ; and though cereals do not flourish, its pasture-grounds are rich and ample, and its herba- 
 ceous vegetation is exceedingly abundant. 
 
 The fisheries of Kamtschatka enjoy a well-deserved reputation. In spring the salmon 
 ascend its rivera in such astonishingly numerous legions, that if you plunge a dart into the water 
 you will surely strike a fish ; and Steller asserts that the bears and dogs in this fortunate region 
 catch on the banks with their paws and mouths more fish than in less favoured countries the 
 most skilful anglers can ensnare by all the devices of piscatorial science. Hermann also refers to 
 
ABOUT THE KAMTSCHATKANS. 
 
 213 
 
 the teeming myriads of the Kamtschatka waters. In a stream only six inches deep he saw 
 countless hosts of chackos (Slagocephalus), two or three feet in length, partly stranded on the 
 grassy banks, partly attempting to force a passage through the shallows. 
 
 The coasts of Kamtschatka swarm in like manner with aquatic birds, which roosu and breed 
 on every crag and ledge, in every niche and hollow, and at the slightest alarm rise from their 
 resting-places with a whirr of wings and a clamour of voices repeated by a thousand echoes. 
 
 The Kamtschatkans display in the pursuit of thesr^ birds and their eggs a skill and a daring 
 not inferior to the intrepid.cy and dexterity of the inhabitants of the Faroe Isles or the Hebrides. 
 Barefooted, and without even the aid of ropes, they venture to descend the most awful declivi- 
 ties, Avhich the foaming waters render inaccessible from below. On the left arm hangs a bxskot, 
 to be filled with eggs as they advance ; in the right hand they carry a short iron hook, \ ith 
 which to drag the birds from their rocky roosts. When a bird is caught, the fowler wrings its 
 neck, slings it to his girdle, and lowers himself still further down the rugged precipice. 
 
 The Kamtschatkans are of small stature, but strong-limbed and broad-shouldered. Their 
 cheek-bones are high, their jaws massive, broad and prominent, their eyes small and black, their 
 noses small, theii" lips very full. The 
 prevailing colour of the men is a dark 
 brown, sometimes approaching to tawny ; 
 the complexion of the women is fairer ; 
 and to preserve it from the sun, they 
 embeUish it with beai's guts, adhering to 
 the face by means of fish-Ume. Thr ^Iso 
 paint their cheeks a brilliant red with a 
 sea-weed. 
 
 Kamtschatka boasts of a very valu- 
 able domestic animal in its dog. Mr. Hill 
 is of opinion that he must be considered 
 indigenous to the country, whore he roves 
 wild upon the hills, and obtains his exist- 
 ence in exactly the same manner as the 
 wolf In his nature, both physically and in 
 respect to his temper and disposition, ho 
 seenio about equally to resemble that tame- 
 less animal and the mastiff; yet not alto- 
 gether in the suaie maruier that might be 
 supposed to arise from the cross breed of 
 the two species, but rather as possessing 
 
 some of the qualities of both, neither confounded nor modified, but distinctly marked, and 
 perhaps in equal perfection to the same qualities possessed severally by those animals. He 
 is about the size of the ordinary mastifl", and his colour is usually buff or silver-gray, with the 
 several darker or lighter shades of these colours as an invariable basis. In the form of his 
 body, too, he resembles the mastiff, but his head is more like that of the wolf 
 
 KAMTSiriATKANS. 
 
 Still more do 
 
su 
 
 THK DOO OF KAMTSCHATKA. 
 
 we recoj^nize the wolfish character in the eye, which is cruel and furtive, as well as in his habits 
 and disposition. Like his fellow-rover, he sleeps more by day than by night, and he sees better 
 through the scanty light afforded by the stars or moon than in the full radiance of the sun : this 
 has given rise to the same vulgar error concerning his vision which, in Britain, prevails respect- 
 ing that of the cat, — that he can see in the dark. 
 
 If there be any exception, says Mr. I^ill, to the distinct manner in which the dog of 
 Kamtfschatka possesses the character and qualities of both the wolf and mastiff, it is in regard to 
 his voice, which is heard in loud cries and undistinguishable sounds, something between the 
 bark of the one and the howl of the other. 
 
 In all things connected with the labour in which he is engaged, the Kamtschatka dog dis- 
 plays a niore than ordinary intelligence. He is very eager to work, and obedient, like the canine 
 species generally, to one master only; but he gives no indications of that attachment which, 
 more or less, in all other species of the dog, enables man to sympathize with them, end some- 
 times even excites a degree of friendship which not every one of his own species is able to 
 inspire. Thus, every pack or team of dogs must always be driven by the same hand and guided 
 by the same voice, which the whip, and not caresses, has taught them to remember and obey. 
 
 With these qualities, the dog becomes in this country a very serviceable animal. Whatever, 
 indeed, our horses and bullocks perform for us here in Britain, if we except carrying us on their 
 hacks and ploughing our arable land, the dogs perform for the Kamtschatkans. There is not 
 much employment for them, however, in the summer ; and at that season they are allowed +o 
 range about and secure their food, which they usually find in the rivers, in the best way they 
 can. Some pains are at all times necessary to keep them in good temper and at peace with their 
 neighboura, whether canine or human. And therefore all Kamtschatkans who keep a team 
 near their houses are careful, when the snow is on the ground, to drive a number of stakes 
 into the earth, or poles set up in the same manner as the frame of a hut or wigwam ; and to 
 these the dogs are attached singly or in pairs. But when paired, whether at the stakes or in 
 harness, it is requisite that those yoked together should be not only of the same family, but 
 of the same litter, or at all events they should have been paired when they were puppies. It is 
 at no time safe to leave the greater part of them loose ; and the younger dogs are described as 
 the most dangerous in this way. They will not only at all times kill domestic fowls, — which the 
 Kamtschatkans, therefore, are unable to breed, — and dogs of the smaller species that may chance 
 to be brought to the pla e, but they have been known to destroy children. While they do not 
 work chey are tolerably fat, and have usually an allowance of half a dried salmon, or a portion 
 weighing about two pounds, a day ; but when they labour they are worse treated and more 
 stinted than the Siberian horses, and receive only half the quantity of food apportioned to them 
 when at rest ; yet they will, under this treatment, perform journeys of three or four weeks' dura- 
 tion with much less repose than the horses require. Nay, they will even, upon a journey of four 
 or five days' duration, work for fourteen or sixteen hours out of the twenty-four without tasting 
 any food whatsoever, and without appearing to suffer any diminution of strength ; and the univer- 
 sal opinion seems to be, that the less food they receive on this side of starvation, when travel- 
 ling, the better. 
 
 Five of these dogs will draw a sledge carrying three full-grown persons and sixty pounds 
 weight of luggage. When lightly loaded, such a sledge will travel from thirty to forty versts in 
 
TKAVELLING AND TRAINING. 
 
 21ft 
 
 a day over bad roads and through the deep snow, m hile on even roads it will accomplish eighty 
 to one hundred and twenty. And herein lies the inestimable value of the Kaiutschatkan dogs, 
 for the horse would be useless in sledging : in the deep snow it would sink ; and it would be unable, 
 on account of its weight, to cross the rivers and streams which are covered only with a thin sheet 
 of ice. 
 
 A KAMTSCIIATKAN SI.KDCIE AND TKAM. 
 
 But travelling with dogs is by no means easy. Instead of the whip, the driver uscj a 
 crooked stick with iron rings, which, by their jingling, supply the leader of the tea? with the 
 necessary signals. If the dogs show symptoms of relaxing in their efforts, the stick is cast 
 among them to rouse them to greater speed ; and the driver dexterously picks it up again as liis 
 sledge shoots by. In a snowstorm they keep their master comfortably warm, and will lie round 
 about him quietly for hours. They are experienced weather- jjrophets too, for if, when rusting, 
 they dig holes in 'jhe snow, it is a certain sign of a storm. 
 
 The tra'.ning ^2 iLese dogs begins at a very early age. Soon after their birth they are 
 placed with their mother in a deep pit, so as to see neither man nor beast ; and after being 
 weaned, they are stHl condenmed to a touvl exclusion from "the madding crowd." A probation 
 of six months having expired, they are attached to a sledge with older dogs, and being extremely 
 shy, they run at their very fastest. On returning iionie they undergo another period of pit-life, 
 until they are considered perfectly trained, and capable of performing a long journey. They are 
 then allowed to enjoy their summer freedom. Such a u. ,de of training may render them docile 
 and obedient, but it renders them also gloomy, mistrustful, and ill-tempered. 
 
 Siberia, so far as the valley of the Lena is concerned, and even eastward to the Kolima and 
 
319 ABOUT THE JAKU'm 
 
 westward to thu Yenisei, is inhabited by the bold and vigorous race of the Jakuts. Their 
 number is computed at about 200,000, and they inhabit the extensive but dreary province of 
 Jakutsk, with a chief town of the same name. 
 
 'I'ho Jakuts are to a great extent a pastoral people, but as they trade in horses and cattle, 
 and also carry on a brisk fur-trnde with the Russians, they have attained a far higher level of 
 civilization than is common among pastoral races. In summer they live in light conical tents 
 ("urossy"), which are fixed upon polos, and covered with birch rind. These they pitch in the 
 open plains and valleys, and then devote themselves to gathering supplies of hay against the 
 coming winter. This is with them a very important labour, for their chief wealth is in their 
 herds of cattle, and to find a sufficient provision for them in the bleak climate of the Lena basin, 
 and on the borders of the Arctic World, is a task of groat difficulty. Often, indeed, the supply 
 fails before the return of spring, and the oxen must then be fed upon the young shoots and 
 saplings of the birch and willow. 
 
 When winter approaches, the Jakut removes from his tent into a warm, timber-built hut, or 
 jart, which assumes the form of a truncated pyramid, and has an exterior covering of turf and 
 clay. Its windows are made of thin sheets of ice ; which, as soon aa a thaw sets in, are replaced 
 by fish-bladders or paper steeped in oil. The floor is of earth, very rarely boarded, and generally 
 sunk two or three feet below the surface of the ground. The seats and sleeping-berths are 
 arranged along the sides ; the hearth, or tscheitoal, occupies the centre, and its smoke finds an 
 exit through an aperture in the roof Clothes and weapons are suspended from the walls, and 
 the general appearance of the interior is squalid and disorderly. 
 
 Near the jart are stalls for the cows ; but when the cold is very intense, they, like the Irish- 
 man's pigs, find accommodation indoors. As for the horses, they remain night and day in the 
 open air, though the weather may be so severe that even mercury freezes ; and they have no 
 other food than the decayed autumn grass, which they find under the snow. 
 
 The capacity of endurance which the Jakut horses exhibit is almost incredible. Like other 
 quadrupeds in the Arctic regions, they change their hair in summer. Traversing, month after 
 month, the dreary wilderness where the only vegetation is a scanty and half-rotten grass, they 
 still retain their strength and energy ; and notwithstanding the hard conditions of their lives, 
 they do not age so (juickly cs our own more carefully-tended steeds. To aim at improving the 
 Jakut horse would be, in the opinion of many travellers, to gild refined gold, and perfume " thrown 
 on the violet." He will continue a steady trot for hours, over roads of which no Englishman can 
 form an idea, and stop to take his rest with no other food but the bark of the larch and willow, 
 or a little hard grass, no covering protecting his foaming sides from the cold, and the tempera- 
 ture down at 40°. 
 
 As the horse, so the master. The Jakut is the very personification of hardiness. He seems 
 able to endure anything, and to attempt everything. On the longest winter-journey he carries 
 neither tents nor extra coverings with him, not even one of the large fur-dresses, such as the 
 Siberians generally use. He contents himself, in fact, with his usual dress ; in this he generally 
 sleeps in the open air : his bed, a hoise-rug stretched upon the snow ; his pillow, a wooden 
 satldle. With the same fur jacket which serves him by daytime as a dress, and which he pulls 
 off when he lies down for the night, he defends his back and shoulders, while the front part of 
 his body is turned towards the fire, almost without any covering. He then stops his nose and 
 
CHARACTER OF THE JAKUTS. 217 
 
 ears with small pieces of skin, and covers his face so as to leave only a small aperture for 
 breathing ; these are all the precautions ho takes against tlie severest cold. Even in Siberia the 
 Jakuts are known as " iron men." 
 
 The horse to the Jakut is as valuable and as important aa the camel to the Arab or the 
 reindeer to the Lapp. It is not only his steed, which seems incapable of weariness, — his buast of 
 draught, patient under heavy loads, — but its skin provides him with articles of dress ; with its 
 hair he makes his fishing-nets ; boileil horse meat is his favourite food, and sour mare's milk, or 
 koumis, his principal beverage. By mixing this milk with rye flour, or the inner rind of the fir 
 or larch, he makes a thick porridge, whi h he flavours with berries, or dried fish, or rancid fat. 
 
 Before commerce had been diverted into the valley of the Amur, thousands of pack-liorses, 
 under the guidance of Jakuts, annually crossed the Stanowoi hills on the way to Ochotsk ; a 
 journey of terrible difiiculty, which might appal the stoutest nerves. But the Jakut endures the 
 extremes of cold and hunger with a wonderful equanimity. He fears neither the stormy winds, 
 the darkened heavens, the depth of the treacherous morass, nor the darkness and silence of the 
 forest. Nothing appals him but the unseen presence of " Ljeschei," the spirit of the mountain 
 and the forest. The traveller frequently comes upon a fir-crowned hillock, and from the branches 
 of one of the oldest firs sees suspended innunierable tufts of horse-hair. What does it mean ? 
 He needs not to inquire, for, lo I his Jakr' driver, dismounting from his steed, hastens to pluck 
 a few hairs from his horse's mane, and then, with much reverence, attaches them to the nearest 
 bough, in order to propitiate the terrible Ljeschei. Even Jakuts who have been baptized, and 
 are nominally enrolled among the Christian population, are guilty of this silly bit of superstition ; 
 while it is suspected, on good grounds, that they still cherish their belief in Schamani.Hin, and 
 their ancient dread of evil spirits. When we remember, however, the absurd beliefs and vulgar 
 enors still lingering in many parts of our own land, we ai'e unable to pass a very severe verdict 
 on the credulity of the Jakuts. 
 
 When on the road they beguile the tedium of the way by singing songs of the most doleful 
 character, corresponding to the habitual melancholy which they seem to have inherited from 
 their forefathers ; a melancholy suggested, probably, by the gloom of the landscape, the cliilling 
 aspect of the sky, the inclemency of the climate, and the prolonged battle in which their lives 
 are passed. Their songs, not the less, are songs worthy of a bold and intelligent people, and, 
 like the poetry of the Norsemen, are replete with images borrowed from nature. They constantly 
 describe in glowing language the lofty magnificence of the snow-crowned mountains, the starry 
 beauty of the night, the roll and rush of the river, the wail of the wind as it streams through a 
 forest of pines. The Jakut minstrels are mostly improvisatores ; and, to secure the favour of tlie 
 Ljeschei, they will extol the charms of the wilderness over which it rules, as if that wilderness 
 were a portion of Elysium. 
 
 The Jakut merchants are remarkable for their enterprise. Their capital is Jakutsk, on 
 the Lena, and thence they extend their operations in all directions. In the rigour of winter they 
 will lead their caravans to Ochotsk, or Kjachta, or Ostrownoje. 
 
 Yet the country they traverse is at all times a desert. The mean temperature of the year is 
 only -t-14°. In November the thermometer sinks to -40°, or 72° below freezing-point. The Yann, 
 at Nishni Kolymsk, freezes early in September ; and lower down, where the current is sluggish, 
 
dl8 
 
 HUNTING THE KEINDEER. 
 
 hmded hoi-Hus cnti crosH its frozen surtace as early us the middle of August : yet the ice does not 
 niult l)eforo Juno. The sun ruiuniiis, it is true, about fifty-two days above the horizon ; but its 
 light, slirouded l)y almost continual mists, is attundeil by but little heat,— and its orb, compressod 
 by refraction into an elliptical form, may be examined by the naked eye without inconvenience. 
 
 As the climate, s<j the vegetation. Dwarfish willow-shrubs, stunted grass, moss, and a few 
 berry-lx-aring jilants compose the flora of the cheerless tundras. There is greater abundance and 
 more vsiriuty in the neighbouring and better sheltered valleys of the Aniuj ; the poplar, birch, 
 thyme, absinth, and low creeping cedar enliven their slopes ; but even in these places Nature is 
 most niggardly of her gifts. Such is not the case, however, with the fauna of Arctic Siberia. 
 The forests are tenanted by numbers of reindeer, elks, bears, foxes, sablcd, and gray squirrels ; 
 while in .the low grounds stone foxes make their burrows. With the return of spring come 
 immense flightf! of swans, geese, and ducks, which build their nests in the most sequestered 
 corners. The sea-coast is frequented by eagles, owls, and gulls ; the brushwood by the white 
 ptarmigan ; the brooks by hundreds of little snipes. Even the songs of the finch are not wanting 
 in .spring, nor is the thrush wholly silent in autumn. 
 
 Summing up the details recorded by Admiral Wrangell, a recent w)iter draws an impressive 
 picture of the mode of life of the people of this desolate waste, and observes : " All denotes that 
 here the limits of the habitable earth are passed ; and one asks with astonishment, What could 
 induce human beings to take up their abode in so comfortless a region ? " 
 
 The chief resource of the Sullaheris of the River Aniuj is, he says, the reindeer chase, — the 
 success of which mainly determines whether famine or some degree of plenty is to be their lot 
 during the coming winter. The passage of the reindeer takes place twice a year : in spring, when 
 the mosquito-swarms drive them to the sea-coast, where they feed on the moss of the tundra ; 
 and in autumn, when the increasing cold forces them to retire inland. The spring migration, 
 which begins about the middle of May, is not very profitable ; partly because the animals are 
 then in poor conditioti, and partly because it is more difficult to kill them as they dash across 
 the frozen rivers. The chief hunting takes place in August and September, when the herds, 
 each numbering several thousand deer, return to the forests. They invaiiably cross the river at 
 a particular spot, where a flat sandy bank enables them to land with comparative ease ; and here 
 they close up their ranks, a-s it were, under the guidance of the stalwart veterans of the herd. 
 
 After a brief pause of hesitation the herd plunge into the waters, and in a few minutes the 
 surface of the river seems alive with swimming reindeer. Now is the hunter's time ; and out 
 from his concealment in the reedy creek he darts in his little boat, wounding as many animals as 
 he can. While he and his comrades are thus engaged, they run some risk of being capsized in 
 the turmoil, for the bucks gallantly defend themselves with horns, and teeth, and hind legs, 
 while the roes usually attempt to spring with their fore feet upon the gunwale of the boat. If 
 the hunt«r should be overset, his sole chance of safety is to cling to a strong animal, which will 
 carry him securely across the stream. Such an accident, however, is of rare occurrence. A 
 good hunter will kill a hundred reindeer, or even more, in half an hour. Meantime, the other 
 boats seize the slaughtered animals, which become the property of their crews ; while those that 
 are merely wounded and swim ashore belong to the huntere, who, in the midst of the uproar, 
 when all their strength is tasked to the uttermost, so aim their strokes as only to wound severely 
 
ABOUT THK TITNGUSI. 210 
 
 the larger aniiiialM. Tliu noise of the horna striking against each othur, tlio " incanuuiinod ' 
 waters, the shouts of the hunters, the cries of pain, rage, and ahirui of the struggling animals, all 
 form a scene which, once seen, is not easily forgotton. 
 
 While the men f)f Kolymsk are thus engaged during thu hricf summer-time in hunting, 
 fishing, and hay-making, the women wander over the country, and climb the sides of the moun- 
 tains, for the purpose of gathering edible roots, aromati'; herbs, and various kinds of berries — 
 though the last do not ripen every year. The beiry-plucking season at Kolymsk, like the 
 vintage in France or Italy, is a season of mirth, a holiday interval in a hard and laborious life. 
 The young women and girls form large parties, and spend whole days and nights in tlic opon aii. 
 When the berries are collected, cold water is poured over them, anil tiiey are presurvetl in a 
 frozen state as an addicion to the scanty winter fare. We are told that " social parties" are not 
 unknown at Kolym.sk, and probably afford as much or as little entertainment there as in more 
 favoured and more civilized communities. The staple luxury is a deluge of weak tea — very 
 weak, for the aromatic leaves whioh cheer but not inebriate are s ery dear at Kolymsk ; and as 
 sugar is also a costly article, every guest takes a lump of candy in his mouth, lets the tea which 
 he sips flow by, and then replaces it upon the saucer. It «fould be considered a breach of cour- 
 tesy if he consumed the entire lump, which thus is made to do duty at more than one soiree. 
 Next to tea, but not less esteemed, the principal requisite for a Kolymsk entertainment i.s 
 brandy. 
 
 Another important Siberian people are the Tungusi, who spread from the basins of the 
 Upper, Middle, and Lower Tunguska to the western shores of the Sea of Ochotsk, and from the 
 Chinese frontiers and the Baikal to the Polar Ocean. Their number does not exceed thirty 
 thousand. According to their avocations, and the domestic animals which constitute their 
 wealth, they are known as the Reindeer, Horse, Dog, Forest, and River Tungusi. Those who 
 keep or rear horses and cattle are but a few ; the majority depend on the reindeer. The condi- 
 tion of all is deplorably wretched. The Tungusi has no resource but fishing or hunting. When 
 the rivers are frozen, he withdraws into the forest. Here his misery is so great and his need so 
 extreme that he frequently becomes a cannibal, and attacks the wives and children of his more 
 fortunate countrymen. In happier circumstances he is remarkable for the readiness of his wit, 
 the vivacity of his manner, and the blithesome carelessness of his disposition. It is asserted, 
 however, that he is both malignant and deceitful. He is vain ; and loves to decorate his person 
 with strings and ornaments of glass beads, from his small Tartar cap to the tips of his shoes. 
 When hunting the reindeer, or travelling through the forests, however, he puts on large water- 
 tight boots, or sari, well greased with fat ; and he carries, on these occasions, a small axe, a 
 kettle, a leathern wallet containing some dried fish, and a short gun, or a bow and a sling. He 
 is always accompanied by his faithful dog. 
 
 "With the assistance of his long and narrow snow-shoes, he flies over the dazzling 
 plain ; and protects his eyes, like the Jakut, with a net made of black horse-hair. He never 
 hesitates to attack the bear single-handed, and generally masters him. The nomad Tungusi 
 naturally requires a movable dwelling. His tent is covered with leather, or large pieces of 
 pliable bark, which are easily rolled up, and transported from place to place. Thejart of the 
 sedentary Tungusi resembles that of the Jakut, and is so small that it can be very quickly and 
 
S9U AHOUT THE TCmiKTCHK. 
 
 thorouj,'l)ly wniiiioci by a fire kindlud on tho Htono hearth in the centre. In his food the Tungusi 
 is by no means dainty. One of his favourite dishes consitas of the contents of a reindeer's 
 stomach mixed with wild berries, and spreofl out in thin cakes on the rind of trees, to be dried 
 in the air or in tho sun. Those wlio have settled on the Wilnj and in tho neighbourhood 
 of Nertschinsk likewise consume large quantities of birch tea, which they boil with fat and 
 berries into a thick porridge ; and this unwholesome food adds, no doubt, to the yellowness of 
 their complexion." 
 
 We shall now, and lastly, take a glance at the Tchuktche (or Tuski), who inhabit the north- 
 eastern i)oint of Asia, with the ico-coverod waters of the Polar Sea on one side, and those of 
 Bchring Sea on tho other. Their land is but seldom visited ; all, however, who have ventured 
 thither agree in describing it as one of the most melancholy regions of the eai-th. The soil is 
 barren, and half-frozen, yielding no other vegetation than mosses and lichens, the vaccinium, and 
 tho dwarf birch and willow, — except in the low grounds, where the reedy marshes are frequented 
 in the summer by geese, and swans, and ducks, and wading-birds. The climate is so rigorous that 
 one wonders man can make up his mind to endure it. There is no summer earlier than the 20th 
 of July ; and on the 20th of August the shadow of winter comes upon the earth. Animal life, 
 however, if not vei-y varied, is abundant : walruses, sea-lions, and seals inhabit the coasts ; and tho 
 reindeer, the wolf, the argali, and the Arctic fox are found in the interior. 
 
 The Tchuktche are an enterprising people, and fond of independence. Unlike their neigh- 
 bours, the Koriaks, they have always maintained their freedom against the encroachments of 
 Russia. They are active and spirited traders. In skin-covered boats 'they cross Behring 
 Straits, and barter furs and walrus-teeth with the natives of America. In long caravans, their 
 sledges drawn by reindeer, they repair to the great fair of Ostrownoje, and carry on a vigorous 
 commerce with the Russian merchants. In their train follow sledges laden with supplies of 
 lichen and moss for the reindeer, as in their wanderings, however circuitous these may be, they 
 are compelled to traverse broad spaces of stony desert, where even these abstemious animals can 
 obtain no food. As their movements are regulated by the necessities of their herds, they 
 occupy five or six months in a journey which, m a straight line, would not exceed a thousand 
 versts in length ; they are almost always migrating from place to place, yet, as they invariably 
 I carry their dwellings with them, they never leave home. A caravan generally consists of fifty 
 
 or sixty families ; and as soon as one fair is at an end, they depart to make their preparations for 
 the next. 
 
 The great staple of the trade at Ostrownoje is tobacco. To secure a small supply of the 
 narcotic which forms the sole luxury of their dreary lives, the Eskimos of North America, 
 extending from the Icy Cape to Bristol Bay, send their articles of barter from hand to hand as 
 far as the Gwosdus Islands in Behring Strait, where the Tchuktche purchase them with tobacco 
 bought at Ostrownoje. Thus, in the icy regions of the extreme north, tobacco is the source and 
 support of considerable commerce ; and the narcotic weed which Raleigh and his contemporaries 
 introduced from America into Europe, and which from Europe made its way into Asia, is 
 exported from Asia for the use of American tribes. 
 
 The balance of trade, however, seems entirely against the latter. We are told that the 
 skins which a Tchuktche purchases of an Eskimo for half a pood (eighteen pounds) of tobacco- 
 
 J 
 
A TCHUKTCH INTERlOl!. Ml 
 
 leaves, ho sells to the Russian for two poods (seventy-two pounds) ; and these skins, costing the 
 Russian about one hundred and sixty roubles, the latter sells at Jakutsk for two hundred and 
 sixty, and at St. Petersburg for upwards of five hundred roubles. 
 
 The furs sold at Ostrownoje are chioHy those of stone foxes, black and silver-gray foxes, 
 gluttons, lynxes, otters, beavers, and martens. Other products brought thither by the Tchuktcho 
 are bear-skins, walrus-teeth, and thongs, sledge-runners (made of whale ribs), and dresses of rein- 
 deer-skin. The Russians, besides tobacco, dispose of kettles, axes, knives, guns, tea, and sugar. 
 
 A visit to the family of a Tchuktche chief is thus described by one o{ Admiral Wrangell's 
 companions : — 
 
 We entered the outer tent, or namet, consisting of tanned reindeer-skins outstretched on a 
 slender framework. An opening at the top to give egress to the smoke, and a kettle on the 
 hearth in the centre, showed that antechamber and kitchen were here harmoniously *^lended into 
 one. But where might be the inmates ? Most probably in that large sack made of the finest 
 skins of reindeer calves, which occupied, near the kettle, the centre of the namet. To penetrate 
 into this "sanctum sanctorum" of the Tchuktch household, we raised the loose flap which served 
 as a door, crept on all fours through the opening, cautiously refastened the flap by tucking it 
 under the floor-skin, and found ourselves in the jwlog — that is, the reception or withdrawing-room. 
 A snug box, no doubt, for a cold climate, but rather low, as we were unable to stand upright in 
 it ; nor was it quite so well ventilated a« a sanitary commissioner would require, as it had posi- 
 tively no opening for light or air. A suffocating smoke met us on entering : we rubbed our 
 eyes ; and when they had at length got accustomed to the pungent atmosphere, we perceived, by 
 the gloomy light of a train-oil lamp, the worthy family sitting on the floor in a state of almost 
 complete nudity. Without being in the least embarrassed, Madame Leiitt and her daughter 
 received us in their primitive costume ; but to show us that the Tchuktche knew how to receive 
 company, and to do honour to their guests, they immediately inserted strings of glass beads in 
 their hair. 
 
 Their hospitality equalled their politeness ; for, instead of a cold reception, a hot dish 
 of boiled reindeer flesh, copiously irrigated with rancid train-oil by the experienced hand of 
 the mistress of the household, was soon after smoking before them. The culinary taste of the 
 Russians, however, could not appreciate this work of art, and the LeUtt family were left to do 
 justice to it unaided. 
 
 The Tchuktche are polygamous. Their women are regarded as slaves, but are not badly 
 treated. Most of the Tchuktche have been baptized, but they cling in secret to their heathen 
 creed, and own the power of the shamans, or necromancers. They form two great divisions : the 
 reindeer, or wandering Tchuktche, who call themselves Tennygk ; and the stationary Tchuktche, 
 or Oukilon, who exhibit affinities with the Eskimos, and subsist by hunting the whale, the 
 walrus, and the seal. The Oukilon are supposed to number 10,000, and the Tennygk 
 about 20,000. 
 
 ■■■■MMHi 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 HIHTORIOAL 8KKTCII OK AROTIO DISCOVERY. 
 
 UgroylN tho reign uf liuiiry VI 11., Dr. Robert Thorne declared that "if he had facultie to his 
 kI d3 ^'"' ^^^ ^"^^ thing he would understande, even to attempt, would be if our seas 
 IiMIltNI iiorthwardo be navigable to the Pole or no." And it is said that the king, at his 
 inHtigntion, " sent two fair ships, well-manned and victualled, having in them divers cunning 
 men, to seek strange regions ; and so they set forth out of the Thames, the 20th day of May, 
 in tho nineteenth year of his roign, which was tho year of our Lord 1527." Of the details of 
 this expedition, however, we have no record, except that one of the vessels was wrecked on the 
 coast of Newfoundland. 
 
 In 1536, a second Arctic voyage was undertaken by a London gentleman, named Hore, 
 accompanied by thirty members of the Inns of Law, and about the same number of adventurers 
 of a lower estate. They reached Newfoundland, which, according to some authorities, was dis- 
 covered by Sebastian Cabot in 1496, and here they suffered terrible distress; in the extremity 
 of their need being reduced to cannibalism. After the deaths of a great portion of the crew, the 
 survivors captured by surprise a French vessel which had arrived on the coast, and navigated 
 her in safety to Enifland. 
 
 But the true history of Arctic Discovery dates, as Mr. Markham observes, from the day when 
 the veteran navigator, Sebastian Cabot, explained to young Edward VI. the phenomena of the 
 variation of the needle. On the same day the aged sailor received a pension ; and immediately 
 afterwards three discovery-ships were fitted out by the Muscovy Company under his direction. 
 Sir Hugh Willoughby was appointed to their command, with Richard Chancellor in the Edward 
 lionadventure as hi.« second. The latter, soon after quitting England, was separated from the 
 squadron, and sailing in a northerly direction, gained at last a spacious harbour on the Muscovy 
 coast. Sir Hugh's ship, and her companion, the Boiux Conjidentia, were cast away on a desolate 
 part of the Lapland coast, at the mouth of the river Arzina. They entered the river on Sep- 
 t<>mbcr 18, 1563, and remained there for a week ; and "seeing the year far spent, and also very 
 I evil weather, as frost, snow, and hail, as though it had been the deep of winter, they thought it 
 
 best to winter there." But as day followed day, and week followed week, in those grim solitudes 
 of ice and snow, the brave ad venturer perished one by one ; and many months afterwards their 
 bleached bones were discovered by some Russian fishermen. 
 
 In the spring of 1556, Stephen Burrough, afterwards chief pilot of England, fitted out the 
 " Search-thrift " pinnace, and sailed away for the remote north. He discovered the strait leading 
 
FROBISHKH'S VOYAOEa 223 
 
 into tho sea of Kara, between Novaia Zonilaia and the iHlantI Wai^atz ; but ho uiado up hiu 
 mind to return, because, first, of the north winds, which blow continually; socond, " tho f,'rfat and 
 terrible abundance of ico which wo saw with our eyes ; " and third, bocauwo the nij^hts waxed 
 dark. Ho arrived at Ardiangol on September 1 1, wintered there, and returned to Kiijjland in 
 the following year. 
 
 Twenty years later, on a bright May morning, Queen Kliuibeth waveil a farewell to Martin 
 Frobisher and his gallant company, as thoy dropped down tlio Thames in two small barkH, tho 
 Gabriel and tho Michael, each of thirty tons, together with a pinnace of ten tons. Thoy gained 
 the shores of Friesland on the 11th of July; and sailing to the south-west, reached I^abrador. 
 Then, striking northward, they discovefed "a great gut, bay, or pnasage," which they named 
 Frobisher Strait (lat 63° 8' N.), and fell into the error of supposing that it connected the 
 Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific. Here thoy came into contact with some EskimoH ; aii<l 
 Frobisher describes them as "strange infidels, whose like was never seen, read, nor heard 
 of before ; with long black hair, broad faces and flat noses, and tawny in colour, wearing seal- 
 skins, the women marked in the face with blue streaks down the cheeks, and round about 
 tho eyes." 
 
 Frobisher's discoveries produced so great an impression on the public mind, that in the 
 following year he was placed at the head of a larger expedition, in the hope that ho would 
 throw open to English enterprise the weuHh of "far Cathay." About the end jf May 1577, 
 he sailed from Gravesend with the Ayde of one hundred tons, the Gabriel of 'thirty, and the 
 Michael of thirty, carrying crews of ninety men in all, besides about thirty merchants, miners, 
 refiners, and artisans. He returned >n September with two hundred tons of what was supposed 
 to be gold ore, and met with a warm reception. It was considered almost certain that he had 
 fallen in with some portion of the Indian coast, and Queen Elizabeth, naming it Meta Incognita, 
 resolved to establish there a colony. For this purpose, Frobisher was dispatched with fifteen 
 well-equipped ships, three of which were to remain for a twelvemonth at the new settlement, 
 while the others, taking on board a cargo of the precious ore, were to return to England. 
 
 In the third week of June Frobisher arrived at Friesland, of which he took poissossion in the 
 queen's name. Steering for Frobisher Strait, he found its entrance blocked up with colossal 
 icebergs ; and the bark Dennis, which carried the wooden houses and stores for the colony, coming 
 in collision with one of these, unfortunately sank. Then, in a great storm, the fleet was scattered 
 far and wide, — some of the vessels drifting, out to sea, some being driven into the strait ; and 
 when most of them rejoined their admiral, it was found they had suffered so severely that no help 
 remained but to abandon the project of a colony. They collected fresh supplies of ore, however, 
 and then made their way back to England as best they could. Here they were met with the 
 unwelcome intelligence that the supposed gold ore contained no gold at all, and wa.s, in truth, 
 mere dross and refuse. 
 
 The dream of a northern passage to Cathay was not to be dissipated, however, by an 
 
 occasional misadventure. Even a man of the keen intellect of Sir Humphrey Gilbert felt -j'^r- 
 
 suaded that through the northern seas lay the shortest route to the treasures of the East ; and 
 
 having obtained from Queen Elizabeth a patent authorizing him to undertake north-western 
 
 discoveries, and to acquire possession of any lands not inhabited or colonized by Christian princes 
 
 or their subjects, he equipped, in 1583, with the help of his friends, a squadron of five small ships, 
 
 IS 
 
134 
 
 PKATll OK HIR HUMPHREY GILBERT. 
 
 Hiid Huileil from Knj^laiul full i>f brijjiit viBionH arul sanguino anticipationH. On board hiu fleet 
 wero HtnithH, uiid inr|toiit«!rH, and Hhipwri(,'htH, und iimHonH, and refinors, and " mineral men ; " not 
 to Hpcak (if one Stiiphun rarnifnio, a learned I luiigarian, who wuh Iwund to chronicle in Honoroua 
 Latin all •' trvniH and thing's wortliy of ronu'inliranco." 
 
 Sir liiiniiihrcy furnied a Hottluuieiit at Newfou dland ; and then, embarking on board the 
 .*vyium/, a littlo pinnaco of tun tona burden, and taking' with him the Golilen Iliml and the 
 
 Uditjht, he proceeded on a. voyage of exploration. 
 Unhappily, the Deliyht ran aahoro on the ahoalii 
 near Sable fjand, and all her crew except twelve 
 men, and all her stores, were lost. Tlie disaster 
 determined Sir Humphrey to return to England ; 
 and his companions implored him to embark on 
 board the Golden Hind, representing that the 
 S([uirrel was unfit for so long a voyage. " I will 
 not forsake," replied the chivalrous adventurer, 
 " the brave and free companions with whom I 
 have undergone so many storms and perils." 
 Soon after passing the Azores, they were over- 
 taken by a terrible tempest, in wliich the tiny 
 pinnace was tossed about by the waves like a 
 straw. The Golden Hind kept as near her as 
 the rolling billows permitted ; and her captain 
 has left on record that he could see Sir Hum- 
 l)hrey sitting calmly in the stern reading a book. 
 He was heard to exclaim — " Courage, my lads ; 
 we are as near Heaven by sea as by land ! " 
 Then night came on, with its shadows and its 
 silence, and next morning it was perceived that 
 the pinnace and her gallant freight had gone 
 to swell the sum of the irrecoverable treasures of the deep. 
 
 But neither Frobisher's mishap nor Sir Humphrey Gilbert's melancholy fate could check 
 tliat eunent of English enterprise which had set in for the North. There was an irresistible 
 attraction in these remote northern seas and distant mist-shrouded lands, with all their possibilities 
 of wealth and glory ; and Arctic Discovery had already begun to exercise on the mind of the 
 English people that singular fascination wliich the course of centuries has not weakened, which 
 endures even to the present day^ So, in 1585, Sir Adrian Gilbert and some other gentlemen of 
 DevontLire raised funds sufficient to fit out a couple of vessels — the Sunshine of fifty, and the 
 Moonshine of thirty -five tons — for the great work of discovery ; and they gave the command to a 
 veteran mariner and capable navigator. Captain John Davip « countryman, or county-man, of 
 their own. Towards the end of July he reached the west c juau of Greenland, and its cheerless 
 aspect induced him to christen it the " Land of Desolation." His intercourse with the Eskimos, 
 however, was of the friendliest character. Standing away to the north-west, he discovered and 
 crossed the strait which still bears his name ; and to the headland on its western coast he gave 
 
 V'^ifti^ 
 
 THE LOSS OK TIIK "8<JUIBBEL. 
 
IIUDBON'8 KlUHT VUYAdK. ttt 
 
 the name of Capo Walmnffhain. Hnviiij,' thus upt'iiLcl up, thoui^'h unwittiii)^ly, the (front lii),'hwny 
 to tlio I'olnr a, ho Hailod for Knjfhind, whoro ho arrived on tho 'JOth of Scptoinhor. 
 
 Ill hix socoiul voyaf,'i;, in 15H(!, whuii, in addition to tho Siinnhiiif and thi- Mooimhine, ho had 
 with liini tho .\firinaiil of on« hundred and twenty touH, and tho North Star pinnace of ton, lie 
 retraced hiu route of the previous year. Tlio Sunn/tine and tho North Star, 1 owover, he oni|)Ioyoil 
 in cruisint,' alonjj tho eaat coast of Clroonhmd ; and they am-ondod, it is said, as lii^'h as lat. 80' N. 
 
 Davis in his third voyajjo pushed further to the north, ro)u;hin>f as far iw tlio U)hl promon- 
 tory which ho named (Jape Sanderson. He also crossed the groat channel afterwards known as 
 Hudson Bay. 
 
 The next Englishman who ventured into tho frozen seas was one Captani VVaymouth, in 
 1602 ; but ho added nothing to the scanty information already acquired. An Knglishman, .lames 
 Hall, was tho chief pilot of an ox|iediti(m fitted out in lOOf) by the King of Denmark, wiiich 
 o.\plorod some portion of the (ireenland coast. Ho mado throe successive voyages; but while 
 e.\hibiting his own courage and resolution, he contributed nothing to the stores of geographical 
 knowledge. 
 
 Wo now arrive at a name which deservedly ranks among the foremost of Arctic explorers 
 that of Henry Hudson. He contributed more to our acquaintance with tho Polar seas than any 
 one who had preceded him, and few of his successors have surpassed him in the extent and 
 thoroughness of his researches. 
 
 He first appears, says Mr. Markham, fitting out a little cock-boat for tho Muscovy Company, 
 called the Hopewell (of eighty tons), to discover a passage by the North Pole. On the 1st of 
 May 1607 he sailed fro'u Greenwich. " When we consider the means 
 with which he was provided for the achievement of this great dis- 
 covery, we are astonished at the fearless audacity of the attempt. 
 Here was a crew of twelve men and a boy, in a wretched little 
 craft of eighty tons, coolly talking of sailing right across the Pole to 
 Japan, and actually making as careful and judicious a trial of tho 
 possibility of doing so as has ever been ofiected by the best equipped 
 
 modern expeditions Imagine this bold seaman sailing from 
 
 Gravesend, bound for the North Pole, in a craft about the size of one 
 
 of the smallest of modem collier brigs. We can form a good idea 
 
 of her general appearance, because three such vessels are delineated 
 
 on the chart drawn by Hudson himself. The Ilopeioell was more 
 
 like an old Surat buggalow than anything else that now sails the 
 
 seas, with high stem, and low pointed bow ; she had no head-sails 
 
 on her bowsprit, but, to make up for this, the foremast was stepped chock forward. There was a 
 
 cabin under the high and narrow poop, where Hudson and his little son were accommodated ; 
 
 and the crew were crowded forward." 
 
 Hudson first sighted land beyond the Arctic Circle in lat. 70°. It was the cold, grim coast 
 of East Greenland. Three degrees further north a chain of lofty peaks, all bare of snow, rose 
 upon the horizon, and Hudson's men noted that the temperature daily increased in mildness. 
 Steering to the north-east, the great navigator arrived oft' the shores of Spitzbergen. where some 
 
 BUir OF TIIK HEVENTKICNTII CKNTUIIY. 
 
22fi 
 
 HIS IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES. 
 
 of his men landed and picked up various fragments of whalebone, horns of deer, walrus-teeth, and 
 relics of other animals. To the north-west point of Spitzbergen he gave the name which it still 
 bears— Hakluyt's Headland. At one time he found himself as far north as 81°; and it seems 
 probable that he discovered the Seven Islands : he remarked that the sea was in some places 
 green, in others blue ; and he says, " Our green sea we found to be freest from ice, and our azure- 
 blue sea to be our icy sea ; " an observation not confirmed by later navigators. The greenness 
 was [)r(jbably due to the presence of minute organisii'^. 
 
 Having completed a survey of 
 the west coast of Spitzbergen, he 
 resolved on sailing round the north 
 end of Greenland, which he sup- 
 posed to be an island, and return- 
 ing to England by Davis Strait. 
 With this view he again examined 
 the sea between Spitzbergen and 
 G I eenland, but from the strong ice- 
 blink along the northern horizon 
 felt convinced that there was no 
 passage in that direction. Af^er 
 sighting Spitzbergen, therefore, he 
 determined to return to England ; 
 tind on his homeward voyage dis- 
 covered an islai ' in lat. 71° N., 
 which he n^med Hudson Sutchea, 
 and which has since been impro- 
 perly named Jan Mayen. The 
 Hopewell arrived in the Thames on 
 the 1 5th of September. 
 
 The results of this voyage, says 
 Mr. Markham, were very import- 
 ant, both in a geographical and a 
 commercial point of view. Hudson 
 had discovered a p- rtion of the east 
 coast of Greenland ; he had exa 
 mined the edge of the ice between 
 Greenland and Spitzbergen twice 
 — in June and in the end of July ; 
 and he had sailed to the northward of Spitzbergen until he was stopped by the ice, reaching 
 almost as iiigh a latitude as Scoresby in 1806, which wa? 81° 12' 42" N. Hudson's highest 
 latitude by observation was 80° 23', but he sailed for two more days in a north-easterly direction. 
 The practical consequence of his voyage was that hio account of the quantities of whales and sea- 
 horses in the Spitzbergen seas led to the establishment of a rich and prosperous fishery, which 
 continued to flourish for two centuries. 
 
 SCRNKllV ir JAN MATES. 
 
BYLOT AND BAFFIN. 287 
 
 In the following year Hudson made a second voyage, in the hope of discovering a n'^.ih 
 eastern passage to China between Spitzbergen and Novaia Zemlaia. He exhibited liis charac- 
 teristic resolution, and forced his way to the very gate of the unknown region, which is still 
 closed against human enterprise by an impenetrable barrier of ice ; but all his eftbrts proved in 
 vain, and he returned to Gravesend on the 26th of August. 
 
 In 1610, in a vessel of fifty-five to» s, he once more entered the Polar sen-s, and gained the 
 extreme point of Labrador, which he named Cape Wolstenholm. Here burst upon him the view 
 of that magnificent sea which has since been associated with his name ; and there can be no doubt 
 that his enterprise would Lave anticipated the discoveries of later navigators, but for the mutiny 
 which broke out among his crew, and eventually led to his being sent adrift, with nine faithful 
 companions, in a small open boat. He was never again heard of. 
 
 The spirit of commercial enterprise and the love of maritime adventure were still strong 
 cuou,?;h in England to induce the equipment of further expeditions. In 1612 sai' Captain 
 Button, — Avbo discovered a stream, and named it Nelson River ; where, at a later date, the 
 Hudson Bay Company planted their first settlement. Here he wintered. In April 1613, on 
 the breaking up of the ice, he resumed his work of exploration, and discovered, in lat. 65°, an 
 island group, which he named Manuel, now known as Mansfield, Islands. Then he bore away 
 for England, arriving in the Thames yarly in September. 
 
 Robert Bylot and William Bafiin undertook a voyage in 1615. The latter had had some 
 previous experience of Arctic navigation, which he turned to advantage in 1616, when he 
 accompanied Bylot on a second expedition. Their ship, the Discovery, of fifty-five tons, reached 
 Cape Hope Sanderson, the furthest point attained by Davis, on the 30th of May ; and after 
 meeting with some obstruction from the ice, proceeded northw"rds to 72° 45', where she dropped 
 anchor for awhile among the Women's Islands. Baffin kept to the north until he found ice in 
 74° 15' N., and he then ascended Melville Bay, touching the head of the great basin now known 
 by his name, and sailing down its western coast. He prrived in Dover Roads on the 30th of 
 August, after a brilliantly successful voyage, which had opened up the principal north-west 
 channels into the Arctic Sea. 
 
 It is necessary here to interpolate a few remarks in explanation of the difficulties which 
 beset the Baffin Bay route of Arctic exploration. Geographers assert, and the assertion seems 
 confirmed by the experience of navigators, that a surface-current is constantly flowing down thi'j 
 bay, and carrying great fleets of icebergs and shoals of ice-floes into the Atlantic from its southern 
 channels — Lancaster, Jones, and Smith Sounds. Hence, at the head of the bay there exists a 
 considerable open and navigable expanse, which extends for some distance up Lancaster and 
 Smith Sounds during the summer and early winter, and is known as the " North Water." But 
 between this open expanse and Davis Strait lies an immense mass of ice, averaging from one 
 hundred and seventy *o ^wo hundred miles in width, and blocking up the centre of Baffin Bay, so 
 as to interrupt the approach to the north-west end. This is known as the " middle pack," and 
 consists of some ancient floe-pieces of great thickness, which may have been brought down from 
 a distant part of the Arctic seas; of a wide extent of ice accumulated during each winter, about 
 six or eight feet in thickness ; and of the grand and gigantic icebergs which are so characteristic 
 
228 VOYAGE OF ROSS AND PARRY. 
 
 a foaturo of the Mulvillo Bay scenery. A very iarge quantity of this pack is destroyed in each 
 succeeding summer by the thaws, or by the swell and warm temperature of the Atlantic as the 
 ice drifts southward. 
 
 It is remarked of the Baffin Bay ice, that it is much lighter than that found in the Spitz- 
 bergen seas. The latter often occurc in single sheets, solid, transparent, and from twenty to 
 thirty, and even forty, feet in thickness. In Baffin Bay the average thickness of the floes does 
 not exceed five or six feet, and eight or ten feet is of very rare occurrence. 
 
 From Baffin's voyage, in 1616, until 1 8 1 7, no attempt was made to force this " middle pack " 
 and enter the North Water; but now the voyage is made every year, and three routes have 
 l>een opened up. The first is called the " North-about Passage," and lies along the Greenland 
 coast ; the- second, or " Middle Passage," only possible late in the season, is by entering the drift- 
 ice i'l the centre of the bay; and the third, or "Southern Passage," also only possible late in the 
 seafon, along the west side of Baffin Bay. Once in the North Water, whichever route be 
 attempted, all obstacles to an exploration of the unknown region may be considered at an end. 
 From Cape York to Smith Sound the sea is always navigable in the summer months. 
 
 It will thus be seen that the great highways to the Pole were discovered by William 
 Baffin. 
 
 Our limits compel us to pass over t'le voyages of Stephen Bennet (1603-1610), Jonas Poole 
 (1610-1613), and Captain Luke Fox (1631). In 1631 the merchants of Bristol despatched 
 Captain Thomas James, but he made no additions to the discoveries of his predecessors. And 
 then for nearly tw enturies England abandoned her efforts to open up a communication between 
 the Atlantic and the Pacific. 
 
 In 1818, however, the question of the existence of a North- West Passage once more occupied 
 the public mind ; and the British Government accordingly fitted out an exploring expedition, the 
 Isabella and the Alexander, under the command of Captain Ross and Lieutenant Parry. 
 
 They sailed from England on the 1 8th of April, reached the southern edge of the Baffin Bay 
 ice on the 2nd of July, and, after a detention of thirty-eight days, reached the North Water on 
 August 8th. The capes on each side of the mouth of Smith Sound, Ross named after his two 
 ships ; and having accomplished this much, he affirmed that ho saw land against the horizon at a 
 distance of eight leagues, and then retraced his course, and sailed for England. 
 
 The British Government, however, refused to be discouraged by the failure of an expedition 
 which had obviously been conducted with an entire absence of vigour and enterprise. They 
 therefore equipped the Hecla and the Griper, and gave the command to Lieutenant Parry ; who 
 sailed from the Thames on the 5th of May 1819, and on the 15th of June sighted Cape Fare- 
 well. Striking northward, up Davis Strait and Baffin Bay, he found himself checked by the ice- 
 barrier in lat. 73° N. A man of dauntless resolution, he came to the determination of forcing a 
 passage at all hazards ; and in seven days, by the exercise of a strong will, great sagacity, and 
 first-rate seamanship, he succeeded in carrying his ships through the pack of ice, which measured 
 eighty miles in breadth. 
 
 Ho was then able to enter Sir James Lancaster Sound ; and up this noble inlet he pro- 
 ceeded with a fair wind, hopeful of entering the great Polar Sea. But after advancing a con- 
 siderable distance, he was once more met by the frozen powers of the North, and this time he 
 was forced to own himself vanquished. He accordingly returned towards the south, discovering 
 
PARRY'S SECOND EXPEDITION. 
 
 329 
 
 Barrow Strait ; and, more to the westward, an inlet which has since figured conspicuously in 
 Arctic voyages — Wellington Channel. Bathurrt Island he also added to the map ; and afterwards 
 he came in sight of Melville Island. On the 4th of September he attained the meridian of 
 110° W. long., and thus became entitled to the Parliamentary grant of £5000. A convenient 
 harbour in the vicinity was named the " Bay of the Hecla and the Griper," and here Lieutenant 
 Parry resolved upon passing the winter. 
 
 In the following spring he resumed his adventurous course, and completed a very careful 
 survey of the shores of Baffin Sea ; after which he repaired to England, and reached the Thames 
 in safety, with his crews in good health, and his ships in excellent condition, about the middle of 
 November 1820. 
 
 THE ''hecla" and " TORT " WINTERINO AT WINTER ISLAND. 
 
 Having doi ' so much and so well, it was natural that Captain Parry should again be selected 
 for employment in the Arctic seas in the following year. He hoisted his flag in his old ship, 
 the Hecla, and was accompanied by the Fury ; both vessels being equipped in the most liberal 
 manner. He sailed from the Nore on the 8th of May 1821 ; he returned to the Shetland 
 Islands on the 10th of October 1823. In the interval, a period of seven-aiid-twenty months, he 
 discovered the Duke of York Bay, the numerous inlets which break up the northern coast-line 
 of the American continent, Winter Island, the islands of Anatoak and Ooght, the Strait of the 
 Fury and Hecla, Melville Peninsula, and Cockbum Island. During their winter sojourn on 
 Winter Island, the English crews were surprised by a visit from a party of Eskimos, whose 
 settlement Captain Parry visited in his turn. He found it an establishment of five huts, with 
 canoes, sledges, dogs, and above sixty men, women, and children, as regularly, and, to all appear- 
 ance, aa permanently fixed as if they had occupied the same spot the whole winter. "If the firet 
 view," says Parry, " of the exterior of this little village was such as to create astonishment, that 
 
230 
 
 AN ESKIMO HUT. 
 
 Cooling was in uo small degree heightened on accepting the invitation soon given ua to enter these 
 extraordinary houses, in the construction of which we observed that not a single material was 
 used but snow and ice. After creeping through two low passages, having each its arched door- 
 way, wo came to a small circular apartment, of which the roof was a perfect arched dome. From 
 this three doorways, also arched, and of larger dimensions than the Oitward ones, led into as 
 many inhabited apaiiin :its — one on each side, and the other facing us as we entered. The 
 interior of these presoiiiod a scene no less novel than interesting : the women were seated on the 
 beds at the sides of the huts, each having her little fireplace or lamp, with all her domestic 
 utonsils about her. The children crept behind their mothers, and the dogs shrank past us in 
 
 dismay. The construction of this inhabited part 
 of the hut waa similar to that of the outer apart- 
 ment, — being a dome, formed by separate blocks 
 of snow laid with great regularity and no small 
 art, each being cut into the shape requisite to 
 form a substantial arch, from seven to eight feet 
 high in the centre, and ha\ing no support what- 
 ever but what this principle of building supplies. 
 Sufficient light was admitted into these curious 
 edifices by a circular window of ice, neatly fitted 
 into the roof of each apartment." 
 
 In 1824-25 Captain Parry undertook a third 
 voyage, but with less than his usual success. 
 The Fury was driven ashore by the pressure of 
 the pack-ice, and so damaged, that I'arry found 
 it needful to abandon her, and remove her crew 
 and stores to the Ilecla. 
 
 Sir John Parry's fourth and last expedition, 
 in 1827, was characterized by his bold attempt 
 to cross the icy sea in light boats and sledges ; 
 resorting to the former when his progress was 
 interrupted by pools of water, and to the latter 
 in traversing the unbroken surface of the ice- 
 fields. He was soon compelled, however, to 
 abandon the sledges, on account of the hum- 
 mocks and irregularities of the ice. 
 We agree with Mr. Cooley, that voluntarily to undertake the toil and brave the danger 
 of such an expedition, required a zeal little short of enthusiasm. When the travellers reached a 
 water-way, they were obliged to launch their boats and embark. On reaching the opposite side, 
 their boats were then to be dragged, frequently up steep and perilous cliflTs, their lading being firet 
 removed. By this laborious process, pei-severed in with little intermission, they contrived to 
 accomplish eight miles in five days. They travelled only during the night, by which means they 
 were less incommoded with snow-blindness ; they found the ice more firm and consistent ; and 
 had the great advantage of lying down to sleep during the warmer portion of the twenty-four 
 
 THE '• FURY " AUANDONKD BT PARRT— IBl. 
 
AN OVERLAND EXPEDITION. SSI 
 
 hours. Shortly after sunset they took their breakfast ; then they laboured for a few hours before 
 taking their principal meal. A little after midnight, towards sunrise, they halted as if for the 
 night, smoked their pipes, looked over the icy desert in the direction in which the journey was 
 to be resumed ; and then, v/apping themselves in their furs, lay down to rest. Advancing as 
 far north as 82' 40', they were then compelled by the drifting of the snow-fields to retrace their 
 steps. They regained their ships on the 2l8t of August, and sailed for England. 
 
 We must now go back a few years. In May 1811), an overland expedition "'"s despatched 
 to ascertain the exact position of the Coppermine River, to descend it to its mou .d to explore 
 the coast of the Arctic Sea on either hand. The command was given to Lie..^nant Franklin, 
 who was accompanied by Dr. Jlichardson the naturalist, by Messrs. Hood and Back, two English 
 midshipmen, and two picked seamen. Tlio expedition was spread over a period of two years and 
 a half, and the narrative of what was accomplished and endured by its members reads like a 
 romance. They reached the mouth of the Coppermine, and then launched their little barks on 
 the chill waters of the Polar Sea. With much perseverance, and after encountering some serious 
 obstacles, they made their way along its shores in a westerly direction as far as Point Turnagain, 
 in lat. 68° 30' N. Between this headland on the east, and Cape Barrow on the west, opens a 
 deep gulf, stretching inland as far as the Arctic Circle. Franklin named it George the Fourth's 
 Coronation Gulf; and describes it as studded with numerous islands, and indented with sounds 
 affording excellent harbours, all of them supplied with small rivers of fresh water, abounding with 
 salmon, trout, and other fish. 
 
 Passing over Franklin's after-labours in the great cause of Arctic Discovery, labours which 
 secured him the well-merited reward of knighthood, we come to that last voyage, which helped, 
 as we shall see, to solve the problem of a North- West Passage, but was the cause of one of the 
 saddest chapters in the history of Maritime Enterprise. 
 
 It was in the spring of 1845 that Sir John Franklin, in command of the Erebus and the 
 Terror, with Captain Crozier, an experienced Arctic navigator, as his lieutenant, and at the head 
 of one hundred and thirty -seven picked seamen, brave, resolute, and hardy, once more sailed for 
 the Polar waters. 
 
 On the 8th of June he left the Orkneys, and a month later arrived in Baffin Bay. About 
 the end of July some whaling-ships in Melville Bay saw the Erebus and TeiTor contending 
 gallantly with the ice which impeded their progress to Lancaster Sound. On the evening of the 
 26th the ice opened up, and the two discovery-ships sailed away into the north-western seas. 
 
 Two years passed, and no news reached England of Franklin and his companions. As day 
 succeeded day, and week followed week, and still no tidings came, men grew anxious, and then 
 alarmed ; " expectation darkened into anxiety, anxiety into dread." At last, it was determined 
 to institute a search for the missing heroes. An expedition was sent out under Sir James R< » ; 
 another under Sir John Richardson ; but neither obtained any information. By many all I pe 
 was then abandoned ; and the fate of Franklin was regarded as one of those mysteries which the 
 historian in vain attempts to unravel. He and his men had perished ; of that there could be no 
 reasonable doubt. Yet a few were sanguine euough to believe that they had taken refuge among 
 
232 SEARCHING FOR SIR JOHN FRANKLIN. 
 
 the EHkimos, or were «lragji^ng out a weary existence in some remote wilderness, m expectation 
 of help from home. Franklin's brave and noble wife was one of those who, whatever they feared 
 or hoped, were, at all events, determined not to rest until some accurate information had been 
 gained. And round her gathered the most eminent scientific men of the day, whose influence 
 combined with the general sympathy of the people to encourage the Government in a further 
 effort. 
 
 it was in 1850 that the first clue to the position of the Erebus and Terror was secured in 
 Bcechey Island, through the accidental detention there of the searching expeditions of Captains 
 Austin and Penny. 
 
 They 'were bound for Melville Island, but on reaching the entrance of Wellington Channel 
 (August 1850), were met by such immense fields of ice sweeping down it and out of Barrow 
 Strait, that they were glad to seek shelter in a great bay at the eastern end of the channel, — 
 a bay almost bisected, as it were, by Beechey Island. On the 23rd, a boat from Captain 
 Ommaney's ship, the Assistance, happened to land on one of the extreme points of the bay ; and 
 the crew, in the course of their wanderings, were not a little surprised to discover traces of a 
 former visit from Europeans. Under the lofty cliff of Cape Riley they came upon the ground- 
 work of a tent, scraps of canvas and rope, a quantity of birds' bones and feathers, and a long- 
 handled rake which, apparently, had been jsed for collecting the rich rare weeds that cover the 
 bott<om of the Arctic waters. 
 
 That Europeans had been encamped there, was certain, but not a name or record associated 
 the remains with 1 mklin's expedition. News of the discovery, however, reached Captain 
 Penny, an Aberdeen seaman, who had been employed by the British Admiralty as leader. of a 
 separate expedition ; and in conjunction with Lieutenant de Haven, of the United States Navy, 
 who was in command of the expedition liberally equipped by Mr. Grinnell, of New York, he 
 resolved to examine the east coast of Wellington Channel with minute care, in the belief that 
 some memorials of Franklin would thus be discovered. 
 
 From a point called Cape Spenser, the Americans, on foot, pursued the trail of a sledge up 
 the east side of Wellington Channel, until, at one day's journey beyond Cape Innis, it suddenly 
 ceased, as if the party had there turned back again. A bottle and a piece of The Times news- 
 paper were the only relics which fell into the hands of the searchers. Meantime, Captain Penny 
 had anchored his ships under the western point of Beechey Island, and despatched a boat to take 
 up the clue at Cape Riley, and follow it to the eastward, in the event of the traces being those 
 of a party retreating from the ships, supposing them to have been ice-bound in the north-west, to 
 Baffin Bay. This boat-party eventually returned unsuccessful ; but, one afternoon, some men 
 belonging to the Lady Franklin asked leave, and obtained it, for the purpose of a ramble over 
 Beechey Island. They sauntered along towards the low projecting portion of the island which 
 extends northward, choosing a convenient spot to cross the huge ridges of ice which lay piled up 
 along the beach ; they were seen to mount the acclivity or backbone of the point. In a minute 
 afterwards their friends on board the ships (says Admiral Sherard Osbom) saw the party rush 
 simultaneously towards a dark object, round which they collected, with signs of great excitement. 
 Presently one ran hither, one thither. Feverish with anxiety, those on board knew immediately 
 that some fresh traces had been found, and a general sortie took place to Beechey Island. " Eh, 
 
DISCOVERY OP RKMCS. SS8 
 
 air," said a gallant Scotch mariner, when relating the discovery — " eh, sir, my heart waw in my 
 mouth, and I didna ken I could rin so fast afore." 
 
 And what had been found ? 
 
 A cairn, of a pyramidal form, which had evidently been constructed with nmch care. The 
 base consisted of a series of preserved-meat tins, filled with gravel and sand ; and more tins were 
 so arranged as to taper gradually upwards to the .summit of the cairn, in which was planted the 
 fragment of a broken boarding-pike. To all appearance it had been purposely raised for the 
 reception of some documental record, yet nothing could be found in or about the spot, in spite of 
 the most persevering efforts. But presently looking along the northern slope of the island, 
 other strange objects caught the eye. Another rush of anxious excited beings, and they stood 
 before three graves ; and many of them brushed away the unwonted tear as they read upon their 
 humble tablets the words Erebus and TeiTor, 
 
 Captain Austin followed up Captain Penny in liis explorations of the Arctic wastes, but no 
 further information was obtained of Franklin's movements. It was impossible to determine 
 whether on his way home he had perished in Baffin Bay ; whether he had struck to the north- 
 west by Wellington Channel ; or whether he was haply imprisoned in Melville Island. 
 
 We have no space, nor is it necessary, to dwell on the records of the various searching expe- 
 ditions fitted out by the Government, or by Lady Franklin and her friends. It must be noted, 
 however, that one of these, led by Captain (afterwards Sir) Robert M'Clure, succeeded in accom- 
 plishing the enterprise in which Franklin perished, and, entering the Northern Ocean by Behring 
 Strait, actually forced its way, through snow and ice, into the Atlantic. The North-West 
 Passage, so long sought, waa thus discovered ; but the discovery, though interesting and valuable 
 from a geographical point of view, was followed by no commercial results. In truth, it proved 
 that the route along the north-west of the American Continent could never be practicable for 
 ordinary vessels. 
 
 It may be assorted that nearly all men had abandoned hope and expectation of ascertaining 
 any exact particulars of the fate of Franklin and his followers, when, towards the close of the 
 autumn of 1854, Dr. E«e, a well-known traveller and Arctic explorer, suddenly appeared in 
 England, bringing with him the most curious evidence of the disasters which had overwhelmed a 
 party that had evidently been travelling from the ice-bound Erebus and Terror towards the Great 
 Fish River. Dr. Rae had ascertained from some Eskimos with whom he had been travelling 
 that this party numbered forty persons, and that all had died of starvation four years prior to Dr. 
 Rae's visit. The unfortunate " white men " had been first seen on King V/illiam's Land ; later 
 in the same year their dead bodies had been observed near or about the mouth of the Great Fish 
 River (1850). Dr. Rae brought home numerous pieces of silver plate obtained from the Eskimos, 
 which were marked with the names of officers of the two ships. Lady Franklin waa encouraged 
 by this intelligence to urge upon the Government the propriety of despatching an expedition to 
 the points indicated by the Eskimos ; but the Gover iment contented themselves with applying 
 to the Hudson Bay Company. The result was an overland expedition in 1855 to the mouth of 
 the Great Fish River, by Mr. Anderson, one of the Company's chief officers. He had no boat 
 with him capable of reaching King William's Land, though it was only sixty miles distant from 
 
234 VOYAGE OP M'CLTNTOCK. 
 
 the point ho attained, nor was he accomiiiinied by an EHkiuio interpreter. He ascertained, how- 
 ever, that only a portion of the officers and men of the Erebus and Terror had reached the Great 
 Fish River — some forty of them, very possibly, as Dr. Rae had been infi)rmed ; these forty, with 
 the three graves upon Beechoy Island, still leaving ninety-five persons unaccounted for. 
 
 Lady Franklin and her friends continued to press upon Government the need for further 
 inquiry ; but finding the responsible ministers unwilling to interfere in what they had come to 
 consider a hopeless enterprise, they contrived, with some help from the public, to purchase and 
 fit out a strongly-built screw-schooner, of which Captain M'Clintock volunteered to take the 
 command. 
 
 He sdiled froiu England in the summer of 1857 ; reached Melville Bay in safety, but was 
 then held fast by the Heating ice. The winter, however, came and went without any injury to 
 him and his gallant band ; and on the 27th of July 1858, the Fox stretched across to Lancaster 
 Sound. On the Hth of August she arrived at Beechey Island, and replenished her diminished 
 stores from the depAts left there by previous expeditions. Then she pushed to the westward, 
 past Cape Hotham and Griffith Island, southward through Sir Robert Peel Channel, and so 
 into Prince Regent Inlet. Having arrived oflf the eastern entrance of Bellot Strait, she found it 
 blocked up by a wall of ice, and from the 20th of August to the 6th of September she watched 
 for an opportunity of breaking through it. On the 6th she made the passage, but only to find 
 the other end obstructed by an impassable ice-barrier; and, after five fruitless attempts, her 
 captain brought her to anchor for the winter in Port Kennedy, on the northern side of the strait. 
 
 When the new year opened, M'Clintock resolved on undertaking sledge excursions in various 
 directions, with the view of obtaining some information of Franklin aud his expedition. In one 
 of tbom, at Cape Victoria, on the west coast of Boothia (lat. 69° 50' N., long. 96° W.), he ascer- 
 tained from the natives that, several years previously, a ship had been wrecked off the northern 
 shores of King William's Land ; that all her crew landed safely, and set off on a journey to the 
 Great Fish River, where they died. Again : in April, falling in with the same party of Eskimos, 
 they learned further, that besides the ship which hod sunk in deep water, another had been 
 driven ashore by the ice. Captain M'Clintock thereupon crossed to Montreal Island, trav iUed 
 round the estuary of the Great Fish River, and visited Point Ogle and Barrow Island. On May 7, 
 he fell in with an old Eskimo woman, who told him that many of the white men dropped by 
 the way as they made towards the Great Fish River ; that some were buried, and some were not 
 Proceeding in what he conceived to have been the route of the retreating crews, he discovered, 
 near Point Herschel, a bleached skeleton ; evidently that of one who had fallen behind the main 
 body, from weakness and fatigue, and had died where he had fallen. 
 
 Meanwhile, Lieutenant Hobson, who had started with another sledging party, had made the 
 important discovery of a record, giving a brief account of the Franklin expedition up to the time 
 when the ships were lost. It was found within a cairn constructed on Point Victory, and it set 
 forth the following particulars : — 
 
 The Erebus and Terror spent their first winter at Beechey Island, in the spot discovered by 
 Penny and Austin's expedition ; but they had previously explored Wellington Channel as far as 
 73" N., and passed down again into Barrow Strait, between Comwallis and Bathurst Land. In 
 1846 the two ships seem to have sailed through Peel Channel, until caught in the ice off King 
 
THE OAIRN ON POINT VICTORY. 
 
 MS 
 
 William's Land, on the 12th of September. In May 1847, Lieutenant Graham Oore and Mr. 
 des Voeux landed, and erected a cairn a few miles south of Point Victory, and deposited in it a 
 
 DISCOVKRT or THE CAIRN COMTAININO IIB JOHN FRANKMN's PAFKR8. 
 
 document which stated that, on that day, all were well, with Sir J. Franklin in command. 
 Within a month, however, that illustrious navigator died (June 11), and thus was spared the 
 
 RELICS OK TlIK FRANKLIN EXPEDITION BRODQHT DACK TO KNQLAND. 
 
 terrible trials which afflicted his followers. The ice did not move, and the winter of 1847-'!rf 
 closed in upon them. It proved fatal to nine officers and fifteen men. On April 22, 1845, the 
 
236 
 
 IJKUTKNANT IIOBSON'S DISCOVERIES. 
 
 two BhipH, whicli had boon iinpriiMned for upwards of nineteen months, were deserted, and the 
 ortifors and crews, one hundred and five in number, under the command of Captains Crozier and 
 FitzjainuM, started for the Great Fisli River. 
 
 At the cairn and all about it lay a great quantity of clothing and other articles, which the 
 surturerH had found from experience of three days to be a heavier weight than their enfoebled 
 strength was able to drag. 
 
 From this point to a spot about midway between Point Victory and Point Herschel nothing 
 of much im{)ortance was discovered, and the skeletons as well as relics were deeply embedded in 
 snow. At this midway station, however, the top of a piece of wood projecting out of the snow 
 was seen by Ijioutenant Hobson, and on digging round it a boat was discovered. It stood on a 
 very heavy sledge, and within it were a couple of skeletons. The one in the bottom of the stern 
 
 DISCOVER? OF ONK OK THE IIOATS OF THE t'RANKLIM EXrEUlTION. 
 
 sheets was covered with a great quantity of thrown-off clothing ; the other, in the bows, seemed 
 to have been that of some poor fellow who had crept there to look out, and in that position fallen 
 into his lost sleep. A coupK of guns, loaded and ready cocked, stood upright to hand, as if they 
 had been prepared for use against wild animals. Around this boat was another accumulation of 
 cast-off articles ; and it was the belief of M'Clintock that the party in charge of her were return- 
 ing to the ships, as if they discovered their strength unequal to the terrible journey before them. 
 It may be assumed, however, that the stronger portion of the crews still pushed on with another 
 boat, and that some reached Montreal Island and ascended the Great Fish River. 
 
 The point, says Sherard Osborn, at which the fatal imprisonment of the Erebus and Terror 
 in 1846 took place, was only ninety miles from the spot reached by Dease and Simpson in their 
 boats in 1 838-39, coming from the east. Ninety miles more of open water, and Franklin and 
 his gallant crew would have not only won the prize they sought, but reached their homes to 
 
DR. HANK'S ADVENTUKEa HI 
 
 wear their well-earned honours. " It was not to be ho. Let us bow in humility and awe to the 
 inscrutable decrees of that Providence who ruled it otherwise. They were to discover the frrant 
 highway between the Pacific and the Atlantic. It was given them to win for their country a 
 discovery for which she had riukcd her sons and lavishly spent her wealth through many centuries; 
 but the^ were to die in accomplishing their last great earthly ta.sk : and, still more strange, but 
 for the energy and devotion of the wife of their chief and leader, it would in all probability never 
 have been known that they were indeed the First Diacoverera of the North- Weat Paaaaye. 
 
 We have thought it for the convenience of our readers to set before them an uninterrupted 
 narrative of the exertions made to ascertain the fate of Franklin and his companions by ICnglish 
 seamen under English influence; but we must now retuni to 1853, to chronicle the American 
 expedition under Dr. Kane — which did not, indeed, succeed in its primary object, but made sotne 
 remarkable additions to our knowledge of the Polar Kegions. 
 
 Dr. Elisha Kane sailed from, Boston in 1853, in command of the Advance, with a crew 
 of seventeen officers and men, to whom two Greenlanders wore subsequently added. 
 
 On the 7th of August he passed the two great headlands which guard the entrance of 
 Smith Sound, — Cape Isabella and Cape Alexander, discovered and named in the preceding year 
 by Captain Inglefield,— and after a voyage of equal difficulty and danger reached Rensselaer Bay 
 on the east coast of the sound, where he passed the winter. A few extracts from his diary will 
 show under what conditions, and in what circumstances, Kane and his followers passed the long 
 and dreary winter monthf : — 
 
 " October 28th. — Tlie moon has re hed her greatest northern declination of about 25° 35'. 
 She is a glorious olject; sweeping a.ound the heavens, at the lowest part of her curve, she 
 is still 14° above the horizon. For eight days she has been making her circuit with nearly 
 unvarying brightness, it '« one of those sparkling nights that bring back the memory of sleigh- 
 bells and songs, and glad communings of hearts in lands that are far away. 
 
 " November 7th. — The darkness is coming on with insidious steadiness, and its advances can 
 only be perceived by comparing one day with its fellow of some time back. We still read the 
 thermometer at noonday without a light, and the black masses of the hills are plain for about 
 five hours, with their glaring patches of snow ; but all the rest is darkness. The stars of the 
 sixth magnitude shine out at noonday. Except upon the island of Spitzbergen, which has the 
 advantages of an insular climate, and tempered by ocean-currents, no Christians have wintered 
 in so high a latitude as this. They are Russian sailors who mode the encounter there — men 
 inured to hardships and cold. Our darkness has ninety days to run before we shall get back 
 again even to the contested twilight of to-day. Altogether our winter will have been sunless 
 for one hundred and forty days. 
 
 " Decembei' 16th. — We have lost the last vestige of our mid-day twilight. We cannot see 
 print, and hardly paper; the fingers cannot be counted a foot from the eyes. Noonday and 
 midnight are alike ; and, except a vague glimmer in the sky that seems to define the hill outlines 
 to the south, we have nothing to tell us that this Arctic world of ours has a sun. I n the dark- 
 ness, and consequent inaction, it is almost in vain that we seek to create topics of thought, and, 
 by a forced excitement, to ward off the encroachments of disease." 
 
 But in due time the long Arctic night passed away, and the season came round for under- 
 
ass 
 
 KAST COAST OK HMITW SOUND. 
 
 taking tho 8lu(lj,'o jouriioys which were tho main object of tho expedition. But Dr. Kano wm 
 then mot hy a now difficulty. Out of tho nine nplondid Newfoundland and thirty-five EHkimo 
 dd^^s which ho had orij^inally posHOHsed, only six had Hurvived a peculiar malady that had Hoizcd 
 them durinjj tho winter ; and thou,rh Honio froHh purchaseH were made from the EHkimos who 
 visited llonHsclatir Harbour early in April, bin moans of transport romainod wholly inadequate. 
 
 Kane, inoroovor, who thou},'li ntronj^ of heart was weak of body, hiul Huffered much from tho 
 rigour of tho climate, and wa« in a sadly feeble condition when, on tho 25th of April 1854, ho 
 Htartod on his northward journey. Ho found the Greenland coast, as he ivjcondod Kano Sea, 
 full of romantic surprises ; tho clifTs rising to a height of ten hundred and eleven hundred feet, 
 and presenting the boldest and most fantastic outlines. This character is conti"ued as far as the 
 (Jreat Htimboldt Glacier. Tho coast is indented by four great bays, all of them communicating 
 with deep gorges, which are watered by streams from the interior ice-fields. Tho mean height 
 of the table-land, till it roaches tho bed of tho Great Glacier, Dr. Kane estimated, in round 
 numbers, at 900 feet; its tallest sunmiit near tho water at 1300, and the rise of tho background 
 above tho general level at GOO more. Tho face of this stupendous ice-mass, as it defined tho 
 coast, was everywhere an abrupt and threatening precipice, only broken by clefts and deep 
 ravines, giving breadth and interest to its wild expression. 
 
 ■jn m tia— , m^jmL: ■'-^'^' •^*'^® informs us that the most 
 
 picturesque portion of the coast occurs in 
 the neighbourhood of Dallas Bay. Hero 
 the red sandstones contrast very favour- 
 ably with the blank whiteness, and associate 
 the warm colours of more southern lands 
 with the cold tints of the Arctic scenery. 
 The seasons have acted on the different 
 layere of the cliff so as to give them all the 
 appearance of jointed masonry, and the 
 narrow stratum of greenstone at tho top 
 surmounts them with boldly-designed battle- 
 ments. To one of these " interesting freaks 
 of Nature" Kane gave the name of the 
 "Three Brother Turrets." The crumbled 
 ruin at the foot of the coast-wall led up, 
 like an artificial causeway, to a ravine that blazed at noonday with the glow of the southern 
 sun, when everywhere else the rock lay in blackest shadow. Just at the edge of this lane of 
 light rose the semblance of a castle, flanked with triple towers, completely isolated and defined. 
 These were the Three Turrets. 
 
 Still further to the north, a solitary cliff of greenstone, marked by the slaty limestone that 
 once encased it, sprang from a mass of broken sandstone, like the rough-hewn rampart of an 
 ancient city. At its northern extremity, on the brink of a deep ravine, wrought out among the 
 ruin, stood a solitary column, or minaret-tower, the pedestal of which was not less than 280 feet 
 in height, while the shaft was fully 480 feet. Dr. Kane associated this remarkable beacon with 
 the name of the poet Tennyson. 
 
 TUB "TimEB IIROTIIER TURKKTS." 
 
KRNNKDY CHANNKL Ml 
 
 Dr. Kanu cuiitiiiuu«l his ndvancu, and on thu 4th of Miiy ii|i|iroiu'hc«l tiio (irent (SIncier. 
 This projrioss, howovor, was dearly oarnod. Owiiij^ to Uio oxcl'smIvi; cold and lal)our, iiiont of ills 
 party Hidlbred from painful proBtration , thrt'o wuro attacked with Hiiow-bliii<ln»H.s ; and all were 
 troubled with dropnical MSvellinjfH. {)i\' Cape Kent, whiK takiiii^ an obwrvation for latitude, 
 Kane hitnsolf vrwi seized with a sudden pain, and fainted. IUh linibH became ri^nd. lie was 
 Htrappoi ipon the sledge, and insisted that tiio march should bj continued. But, on the 5tli, ho 
 grew del. jus, and fainting every time that ho was taken from the tent to the sledgo, he suc- 
 cumbed entirely. 
 
 "My eomrodos," writes this heroic man, than whom no braver or mort; resolute spirit 
 ever ventured into the dreary Northern wilds, " would kindly persuade mo that, even had I con- 
 tinued sound, wo could not have proceeded on our journey. Tho snows wore very heavy, and 
 increasing as we went ; some of the drifts |)or{ectly impassable, and the level Hoes often four 
 feet deep in yielding snow. Tho scurvy had already broken out ameng the men, with syiii|>- 
 toms like my own; and Morton,, our strongest man, was beginning to give way. It is tlie 
 reverse of comfort to mo that they shared my wea'-ness. All that I should rememl)er with 
 pleasurable feeling is, that to five bravo men, themf' ives scarcely able to travel, I owe my pre- 
 servation." 
 
 They carried liim back to the brig at Rensselaer Harbour, and for several days he lay 
 fluctuating between life and death. As tho summer came on, however, his health slowly 
 improved ; and though unable to undertake any sledge excursions in person, he organized a series 
 of expeditions in which his stronger companions took part. Dr. Hayes crossed the strait in a 
 nor;,h-easterly direction, reached the opposite coast of Grinnell Land, where tho cliffs varied 
 from 1200 to 2000 feet in height, and surveyed it as far as Capo Fruaer, in lat. 79" 45'. 
 
 He returned on June Ist, and, a few days later, Morton departed to survey the Greenland 
 shore beyond the Humboldt Glacier. His journey was a difficult one, for the obstacles offered 
 by the ice hummocks were sometimes almost insurmountable, and tho ice-field was intersected 
 by chasms and water-lanes frequently four feet in width. After skirting the coast of what is 
 now known as Morris Bay, Morton's party came upon easier ground ; and presently a long low 
 country opened on the land-ice, a wide plain between largo headlands, with rolling hills through 
 it. A flock of brent goose came do tn this valley, with a wliirr of wings, and ducks were seen in 
 c-owds upon the open water. Eiders and dove-kies also made their appearance ; and tern were 
 very numerous, and exceedingly tamo, flying high overhead, their notes echoing from tlio 
 rocks, were largo white birds, which Morton supposed to be burgomasters. There were also 
 ivory gulls and mollemokes ; the fonner flying very high, and the latter winging tiieir way far 
 out to sea. 
 
 The channel (Kennedy Channel) was here unobstructed by ice, and its waves rolled freely 
 
 and noisily on the shore. Along its verdant margin Morton proceeded warily, and on the 2()th 
 
 of June, 1854, reached the striking headland of Cape Constitution, about 2000 feet In height. 
 
 Its base was washed by a tremendous surf, through which it was impossible to pass — the ne plus 
 
 ultra, as it seemed, of hum . enterprise. Climbing from rock to rock, he contrived to reach an 
 
 elevation of 300 feet ; from which he was able to trace the outline of the coast for fifty miles to 
 
 the north. In the distance rose a range of mountains, very lofty, and rounded at their summits. 
 
 To the north-west might be seen a bare peak, striated vertically with protruding ridges, and 
 
 IC 
 
340 
 
 I'UKrAltINO FOU WINTER, 
 
 MORTON ON THE SHORE or THE SUPPOSED POLAR OCEAN. 
 
 Boarinj^ to an altitude of between 2500 and 3000 feet. This peak, the most remote northern 
 land then known upon the globe, was named after the great pioneer of Arctic travel. Sir Edward 
 Parry. 
 
 The range (Victoria and Albert Mountains) with which it waa connected was much higher, 
 Morton thought, than any they had seen on the s'"- tLem or Greenland side of the bay. The 
 summits wore generally rounded, resembling a succession of sugar-loaves and stacked cannon- 
 balls declining blowly in the perspective. 
 
 All the sledge-parties were now once more aboard the brig, and the season of Arctic travel 
 had ended. The short summer was rapidly 'vearing away, and yet the ice remained a rigid and 
 impenetrable barrier. 1 1 was evident that the ship could not be liberated, and Kane found him- 
 self compelled to decide between two equally dismal alternatives, — the abandonment of the ship, 
 or another winter among the Polar snows. For himself, he resolved to remain ; but to those 
 who were willing to venture on the attempt to reach the Danish settlement at Upemavik, he 
 left the choice open. Out of the seventeen survivors ot the party, eight, like Dr. Kane, decided 
 to stand by the brig ; the othere, to push southward to Upemavik. These werr provided with 
 all the provi-sions and appliances that could be spared, and took their departu.e on Monday, 
 August 28th ; carrying with them a written assurance of a brother's welcome should they be 
 driven back — an assurance amply redeemed when severe trials had prepared them to share again 
 ttiti fortunes of their commander. 
 
KANE'S WINTER QUARTERS. 
 
 241 
 
 Dr. Kane confronted the winter with equal sagacity and resolution. He had carefully 
 studied the Eskimo-s, and concluded that their form of habitation and peculiarities of diet, with- 
 out their unthrift and filth, were the safest thai, could be adojitcd. He turned the brig, there- 
 fore, into a kind of igloe, or hut. The quarter-deck was well padded with moss and tuif, and the 
 cabin below, a space some eighteen feet square, was inclosed and packed from floor to ceiling 
 with inner walls of the same material. The floor itself was carefully calked with plaster of 
 Paris and common psiste, and covered two inches deep with Manilla oakum and a canviw carpet. 
 The entrance was from the hold by a low, moss-lined tunnel, the tossut of the native luit«, with 
 as many doors and curtains to close it up as ingenuity could devise. This was their sitting-room, 
 dining-room, sleeping-room ; but there were only ten of them, and the closer the warmer. 
 
 DR. KANK PATINO A VISIT TO AN EHKIMO HUT AT KTAH. 
 
 While they were engaged in these defences against the enemy, they contrived to open up 
 a friendly intercourse with tlie Eskimos^ visiting them in their snow-huts at the settlements of 
 Etah and Anatoak, distant about thirty and seventy miles from the brig ; and, in return for 
 presents of needles, pins, and knives, they undertook to show the white strangers where game 
 was to be procured, as well as to furnish walrus and fresh seal meat. The assistance rendered 
 by the Eskimos was of the greatest value, and we may infer that, without it. Dr. Kane and 
 his followers must have succumbed to the hardships of that dreadful winter. 
 
 On the 12th of December, the party which had abandoned the ship suddenly reappeared, 
 finding it impossible to penetrate to the south. They had suffered severely ; were covered with 
 riiae and snow, and fainting with hunger. It was necessary to use much caution in conveying 
 them below ; for after an exposure of such fearful intensity and duration as they had undergone, 
 the warmth of the cabin would have prostrated them completely. They had journeyed three 
 
943 DAYS IN WINTER. 
 
 hundred and fifty miles ; and tlieir last run from the bay near Etah, some seventy miles in a 
 right lino, was through the hummocks with the thermometer at —50°. "One by one," says 
 Kane, " they all came in and were housed. Poor fellows I as they threw open their Eskimo 
 garments by the stove, how they relished the scanty luxuries which we had to offer. The coffee, 
 and the meat-biscuit .soup, and the molasses, and the wheat-bread, even the salt pork, which our 
 scurvy forbade the •►^st of us to touch — how they relished it all ! For more than two months 
 they had lived on trozen seal and walrus meat." 
 
 We cannot dwell on the various little incidents which marked that sad and terrible winter, 
 but an extract or two from Dr. Kane's journal will show the reader how much the imprisoned 
 explorei-8 endured, and in what spirit they bore their trials : — 
 
 " Ihcenibcr 1, Friday. — I am writing at midnight. I have the watch from eight to two. 
 It is day in the moonlight cm deck, the thermometer getting up again to 36° below zero. As I 
 come down to the cabin — for so we still call this little moss-lined igloe of ours — every one is 
 a.sleep, snoring, gritting his teeth, or talking in his dreams. This is pathognomonic ; it tells of 
 Arctic winter, and its companion, scurvy. Tom Hickey, our good-humoured, blundering cabin- 
 boy, decorated with the dimities of cook, is in that little dirty cot on the starboard side ; the 
 rest are bedded in rows. Mr. Brooks and myself chock aft. Our bunks are close against the 
 frozen moss-wall, where we can take in the entire family at a glance. The apartment measures 
 twenty feet by eighteen ; its height six feet four inches at one place, but diversified elsewhere by 
 beams crossing at different distances from the floor. The avenue by which it is approached is 
 barely to be seen in the raoss-wall forward ; twenty feet of air-tight space make misty distance, 
 for the puff of outside temperature that came in with mc has filled our atmosphere with vesicles 
 of vapour. The avenue — Ben-Djerback is our poetic name for it — closes on the inside with a 
 door well-patched with flannel, from which, stooping upon all fours, you back down a descent of 
 four feet in twelve through a tunnel three feet \ ^, and two feet six inches biojd. Arrived at 
 the bottom, you straighten yourself, and a second door admits you into the dr^ik and soiTowing 
 hold, empty of stores, ard stripped to its naked ceiling for firewood. From this we grope our 
 way to the main hatch, und mount by a rude stairway of boxes into the open air." 
 
 " February 21, Wednesday. — To-day the crests of the north-east headland were gilded by 
 true sunshine, and all v ho were able ascended on deck to greet it. The sun rose above the 
 horinjr., though still scrt ened from our eyes by intervening hills. Although the powerful refrac- 
 tion of Polar latitudes heralds his direct appearance by brilliant light, this is as far removed 
 from the glorious tints of day as it is from the mere twilight. Nevertheless, for the past ten 
 days we liave been watching the growing warmth of our landscape, as it emerged from buried 
 shadow, through all the stages of distinctness of an India-ink wa.shing, step by step, into the 
 sharp, bold definition of our desolo^o harbour scene. We have marked every dash of colour 
 which the great Painter in his benevolence vouchsafed to us ; and now the empurpled blue, 
 clear, unmistakable, the spreading lake, the flickering yellow ; peering at all these, poor wretches ! 
 everything seemed superlative lustre and unsurpassable glory. We had so grovelled in darkness, 
 that we ove'.-saw the light. 
 
 " Mr Wilson has caught cold, and relapsed. Mr. Ohlsen, after a suspicious day, startles 
 mo by an attack of partial epilepsy ; one of those strange, indescribable spells, fits, seizures. 
 
WINTER EXPERIENCES. 348 
 
 whatever name the jargon gives them, which indicate deep disturbance. T conceal his case an 
 far as I can ; but it adds to my heavy pack of troubles to anticipate tlie gloc .y scenes (if epileptic 
 transport introduced into our one apartment. ' 
 
 " February 28, Wednesday. — February closes: thank God for the lai)8e of its twenty-eight 
 days I Should the thirty-one of the coming March not drl^f us further dowinvard, we may hope 
 for a successful close to this dreary drama. By the 10th of April we should have seal ; and 
 when they come, if we remain to welcome them, we can call ourselves saved. 
 
 " But a fair review of our prospects tells me that I must look the lion in the face. The 
 scurvy is steadily gaining on us. I do my best to sustain the more desperate cases ; but lus fast 
 as I partially build up one, another is stricken down. The disease is perhajjs less malignant tlism 
 it was, but it is more diffused throughout our party. Except William Morton, who is disabled 
 by a frozen heel, not one of our eighteen is exempt. Of the six workera of our party, as I 
 counted them a month ago, two are unable to do out-door work, and the remaining four divide 
 the duties of the ship among them. Hans musters his remaining energies to conduct the liunt. 
 Petersen is his disheartened, moping assistant. The other two, Bonsall and myself, have all the 
 daily offices of household and hospital. We chop five large sacks of ice, cut six fothoms of eight- 
 inch hawser into junks of a foot each (for fuel), serve out the meat when wo have it, hack at the 
 molasses, and hew out with crowbar and axe the pork and dried apples, pass up the foul slops 
 and cleansings of our dormitory ; and, in a word, cook, scxdlionize, and attend the sick. Added 
 to this, for five nights running I have kept watch from 8 p.m. to 4 a.m., catching cat-naps iis I 
 could in the day without changing my clothes, but carefully waking every hour to note ther- 
 mometers. 
 
 " Such is the condition in which February leaves us, with forty-one days more ahead of just 
 the same character in prospect as the twenty-eight which, thank God I are numbered now with the 
 past. It is saddening to think how much those twenty-eight days have impaired our capacities 
 of endurance. If Hans and myself can only hold on, we may work our way through. All rests 
 upon destiny, or the Power which controls it." 
 
 It is useless, however, to dwell longer on this raelaneholy record. Kane saw that to abandon 
 the brig was now the only resource : the ice held it fiist, there was no probability of its being 
 released, and a third winter in Rensselaer Bay would have been death to the whole party. As 
 soon, therefore, as the return of spring in some measure recruited the health of his followers, he 
 made the necessary preparations for departure ; and on the 20th of May the entire ship's com- 
 pany bade farewell to the Advaiice, and set out on their homeward route. With considerable 
 difficulty and arduous labour they hauled their boats across the rough, hummocky ice, and reached 
 the open sea. On the 17th of June they embarked, and steered for Upernavik, which port they 
 calculated upon reaching in fifty-six days. When they got fairly clear of the land, and in tiie 
 couwe of the great ice-drift southward, they found their boats so frail and leaky that they could 
 be kept afloat only by constant bailing ; a labour which told heavilj'^ on men already weakened 
 with disease and want. Starvation stared them in the face, when happily they fell in with and 
 captured a large seal, which they devoured voraciously ; and this opportune help recruited their 
 failing energies. Thenceforth they were in no lack of food, as seals were plentiful ; and early in 
 
244 HAYES' SLEDGE JOURNEY. 
 
 August, after living for eighty-four days in the open air, they found themselves under the com- 
 fortable roofs of Upernavik, enjoying the hospitable welcome of the generous Danes. 
 
 Dr. Kane returned to New York on the 11th of October 1855, after an absence of thirty 
 months. His discoveries had been important, liis heroism worthy of the race from which he 
 sprung, !>:id none can deny that he had well merited the honours he received. Unfortunately, 
 a frame never very robust had been broken down by the trials of two Arctic winters ; and 
 this gallant e.\plorer puiisod away on the 16th of February 1857, in the thirty-seventh year of 
 his age. 
 
 In 18G0, Dr. Hayes, the companion of Dr. Kane, took the command of an expedition 
 intended -to complete the survey of Kennedy Channel, and to reach, if it were possible, the 
 North Pole. His schooner, the United States, was brought up for the winter at Port Foulke, 
 about twenty miles south of Rensselaer Harbour ; and early in the following April, Dr. Hayes 
 set out on a sledge and boat journey across the sound, and along the shores of Grinnell Land. 
 
 From the eloquent record of his adventures, which does so much credit to his literary skill, 
 " An Arctic Boat Journey," we have already quoted some stirring passages ; but the following 
 extract we may be allowed to repeat, on account of the clear light it throws upon the nature of 
 the difficulties Hayes encountered on his northward advance : — 
 
 " Tlio track," he says, " was rough, past description. I can compare it to nothing but a 
 promiccuous accunmlation of rocks closely packed together, and piled up over a vast plain in great 
 heaps and endless ridges, leaving scarcely a foot of level surface. The interstices between these 
 closely accumulated ice-masses are filled up, to some extent, with drifted snow. The reader will 
 easily imagine the rest. He will see the sledges winding through the tangled wilderness of 
 broken ice-tables, tlie men and dogs pulling and pushing up their respective loads. He will see 
 them clambering over the very summit of lofty ridges, through which there is no opening, and 
 again descending on the other side — the sledge often plunging over a precipice, sometimes cap- 
 sizing, and frequently breaking. Again he will see the party, baflfled in their attempt to cross 
 or find a pass, breaking a track with shovel and handspike ; or, again, unable even with these 
 appliances to accomplisli thoir end, they retreat to seek a better track : and they may bo lucky 
 enough to find a sort of gap or gateway, upon the winding and uneven surface of which they will 
 make a mile or so with comparative ease. The snow-drifts are :.ometimes a help and sometimes 
 a hindrance. Their surface is uniformly hard, but not always firm to the foot. The crust 
 frequently gives way, and in a most tiresome and provoking manner. It will not quite bear 
 the weight, and the foot sinks at the very moment when the other is lifted. But, worse than 
 this, the chasms between the hummocks are frequently bridged over with snow in such a manner 
 as to leave a considerable space at the bottom quite unfilled ; and at the very moment when all 
 looks promising, down sinks one man to his middle, another to the neck, another is buried out of 
 sight ; the sledge gives way, — and to extricate the whole from this unhappy predicament is 
 probably the labour of hours. It would be difficult to imagine any kind of labour more dis- 
 heartening, or which would sooner sap the energies of both men and animals." 
 
 After encountering difficulties like these, which wore out the strength ot most of his party, 
 Bo that they were compelled to return to the schooner, Dr. Hayes succeeded in crossing the 
 
THE GERMAN AKCTIC EXPEDITION. 24:) 
 
 sound, and began his journey along the coast But the difficulties did not abatu, and made such 
 demands on the powers of endurance of the travellers, that the strongest among them broke 
 down, and had to be left behind in charge of another of the party. The resolute Hayes then 
 pushed on, accompanied by Kuorr, and on the 18th of May reached the margin of a deep jjuif. 
 where further progress was rendered impossible by the rotten ice and broad water-ways. From 
 this point, however, he could see, on the other side of the channel, and immediately opposite to 
 him, the lofty peak of Mount Parry, discovered in 1854 by the gallant Morton ; and more to the 
 north, a bold conspicuous headland, which he named Cape Union, the most northern known land 
 upon the globe. Beyond it, he thought he saw the open sea of the Pole, which, from Cape 
 Union, is not distant five hundred miles ; but the voyage of the Polaris, at a later date, has 
 shown that what he saw was only a land-locked bay. 
 
 On the 12th of July, the schooner was set free from the ice, but she proved to be too much 
 damaged to continue her dangerous voyage ; and satisfied with having proved that a direct and 
 not impracticable route to the Pole lies up Smith Sound and Kennedy Channel, Dr. Hayes 
 returned to Boston. 
 
 It is the opinion, however, of some geographers, though scarcely warranted by ascertained 
 facts, that the Pole may more easily be reached by what is known as the Spitzbergen route. 
 They argue that to the east of this snow-crowned archipelago the influence of the Gulf Stream 
 makes itself felt ; and they conclude that this great warm current possibly strikes as far as the 
 Pole itself. It is known that Parry, to the north of Spitzbergen, attained the latitude of 82' 45' ; 
 and it is recorded that a Hull whaler, the True-Love, in 1837, navigated an open sea in lat. 82° 
 30' N., and long. 15° E. ; so that she might probably have solved the problem and have gained 
 the Pole, had she continued on her northerly course. 
 
 Holding this belief, the illustrious German geographer. Dr. Petermann, succeeded in raising 
 funds for a German expedition in 1868; and the Germanta, a brig of eighty tons, under the 
 command of Captain Koldewey, sailed from Bergen on the 24th of May, for Shannon Island, in 
 lat. 75° 14' N., the furthest point on the Greenland coast reached by Sabine in 1823. She was 
 accompanied by the Hansa, Captain Hegemann ; and both ships were equipped in the most 
 careful manner, and liberally supplied with appliances and stores. 
 
 On the 9th of July the expedition was oft' the island of Jan Mayen, and at midnight on 
 that day was sailing direct to the northward. A heavj' fog came on, and the two ships, 
 even when sailing side by side, could hot see one another, and communication could bo main- 
 tained only by the use of the speaking-trumpet. Their crews might then conceive an idea of 
 that impenetrable chaos which, according to Pythias, terminated tlio world beyond Thulo, and 
 which is neither air, nor earth, nor sea. It is impossible to imagine anything more melancholy 
 than this gray, uniform, infinite veil or canopy ; ocean itself, far as the eye can reach, is gray 
 and gloomy. 
 
 For five successive days the weather remained in this condition, the fog alone varying in 
 intensity, and growing thicker and thicker. On the 14th a calm prevailed, and the Germania 
 lowered a boat to pick up drift-wood and hunt the sea-gulls. The ice-bli»k on the horizon 
 showed that the ships were drawing near the great ice-fields of the Polar Ocean ; and another sign 
 of their proximity was the appearance of the ivory gull {Lartis ebwneus), which never wanderw 
 
246 THE "OERMANIA" AND THE " HAN8A." 
 
 far froui the ice. Occasionally the shipH fell in with a rorqual, or nord-caper, as the seamen call 
 it,- -a species t>f whale distini^uishud by tlie presence of a dorsal fin. 
 
 On the niorninj^ of tlie 15th of July a liffht breeze blew up from the south, and the two 
 ships sailed steadily on their north-western course through a sea covered with Hoating ice. An 
 accustoniod ear could already distinguish a distant murmur, which seemed to draw nearer and 
 yet nearer ; it was the swell of tiio sea breaking on the far-ott" ice-field. Nearer and yet nearer I 
 Kverybody gathered upon deck ; and, suddenly, as if in virtue of some spell, the mists cleared 
 away, and tlie adventurers saw before them, within a few hundred yards, the ice 1 It formed a 
 long line, like a clift'-wall of broken and rugged rocks, whose azure-tinted precipices glittered in 
 the sun, and rejjclled, unmoved, the rush of the foamy waves. The summit was covered with a 
 deep layer of blinding snow. 
 
 They gazed on the splendid panorama in silence. It was a solemn moment, and in every 
 mind new thoughts and new impressions were awakened, in which both hope and doubt were 
 blended. 
 
 The point where the Germania had struck the ice was lat. 74° 47' N. and long. 11° 50' K, 
 and the icy barrier stretched almost directly from north to south. The Hansa touched the ice 
 on the same day, but in lat. 74° 57' N., and long. 9° 41' E. 
 
 The two ships, which had separated in the fog, effected a union on the 18th, and the 
 Oei'mania taking the Hansa in tow, they made towards Sabine Island. After awhile, the 
 towing-rope was thrown oif, the Germania finding it necessary to extinguish her fires and 
 proceed under canvas. They then followed up, in a southerly direction, the great icy barrier, 
 seeking for an opening which might att'ord them a chance of steering westward. 
 
 On the 20th, the Geitnania found the ice so thick in the south-west that she adopted a 
 westerly course, and hoisted a signal for the captain of the Hansa to come on board to a confer- 
 ence. The latter, however, misinterpreted it, .and instead of reading the signal as "Come within 
 hail," read it as " Long stay a peak ; " crowded on all sail, and speedily disappeared in the fog, 
 which grew wonderfully intense before the Germania could follow her. Through this curious 
 error the two ships were separated, and for fourteen months the crew of the Germania remained 
 in ignorance of the fate of their comrades. 
 
 Before following the Germania on her voyage of discovery, we propose to see what befell 
 the Hansa among the Arctic ice. 
 
 Captain Hegemann had understood the signal of his senior officer to mean that the ships 
 were to push on as far as possible to the westward, and, as we have seen, he crowded on all sail. 
 But when the fog closed in, and he found himself out of sight of the Germania, he lay-to, in the 
 hope that the latter might rejoin him. Disappointed in this, he kept on his way, and on the 
 28th of July sighted the rocky and gloomy coast of East Greenland, from Cape Broer-Ruys to 
 Cajte .lames. 
 
 The weather continued fine. By the light of the midnight sun, which illuminated the 
 fantastic outlines of the bergs, the adventurers eng.aged in a narwhal-hunt. Nothing is more 
 extraordinary than the effect of the rays of the midnight sun penetrating into an ocean covered 
 with floating ice. The warm and cold tones strike against each other in all directions ; the sea 
 is orange, leaden-gray, or dark green ; the reefs of ice are tinged with a delicate rose-bloom ; 
 
a 
 
J 
 
 i 
 
VOYAGE OF THE " HA NBA." 
 
 240 
 
 broad shadows spread over the snow, and the most varied effects of mirage are produced every- 
 where in the tranquil waters. 
 
 On the 9th of September, the Hansa found the channel of free water in which she had been 
 
 THE MfDKIOHT 9UX. ORKENLAMD. 
 
 navigating closed by a huge mass of ice, and to protect her against the drift of the floating bergs 
 she was moored to it with stout hawsers. A few days later, the ice was broken up by a gale of 
 wind from the north-east, and the hawsers snapped. The ice accumulating behind the ship 
 
 A BEAR AT ANCHOR. 
 
 raised it a foot and a half. On a contiguous sheet of ice, the explorers discovered a she-bear 
 with her cub, and a boat was despatched in pursuit. The couple soon caught sight of it, and 
 began to trot along the edge of the ice beside the boat, the mother grinding her teeth and 
 
MO 
 
 ENCOUNTER WITH POLAR BEARS. 
 
 liekinj,' her board. Hor enoriiius liiiided, and tired, and the bear tell in the snow, mortally 
 wounded. While tlie eub wa.s engaj^ed in tenderly lickinjj and caressing hor, several attempts 
 wore made to capture it with a la.s8o ; but it always contrived to extricate itself, and at last took 
 to flight, crying and nioiuiing bitterly. Though struck witli a bullet, it succeeded in elFeciting 
 it.s 08Cttj)e. 
 
 On the 12th they again saw a couple of bears coming from the east, and returning from the 
 sea towards the land. The mother fell a victim to their guns, but the cub was captured, and 
 chained to an anchor which they had driven into the ice. It ai)pcared exceedingly restless and 
 disturbed, but not the less did it greedily devour a slice of its mother's flesh which the sailors 
 threw to it. A snow wigwam was liastily constructed for its acconmiodation, and the floor covered 
 with a layer of shavings ; but the cub despised the.se luxuries of civilization, and preferred to 
 encamp on the snow, like a true inhabitant of the Polar Regions. A few days afterwards it 
 disaj>peared with its chain, which it had contrived to detach from the anchor ; and the weight 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '■U 
 
 
 
 
 r ■■.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^P4r: -^^^a^-^-^J- - : - -i^C . ^ 
 
 ' ""^'^^'''^^^:,,„^__ 
 
 r-'—^ss^^s^ =-^^fe — ^ 
 
 #^-^^-^4*-»a^^BJi^y^a| 
 
 1 •' •• 'i 
 
 R;'-^ --^-^ -^:s^ :_■::! 
 
 Ms-/^-; - :;;_;•" -^^ 
 
 ~-=..-^ 
 
 SKATING — OFF THE COAST OF GREENLAND. 
 
 The Ilansa was now set fast in the ice, and no hope was entertained of her release until the 
 coming of the spring. Her crew amused themselves with skating, and, when the weather 
 permitted, with all kinds of gymnastic exercises. It became necessary, however, to consider 
 
THIC " II ANSA " UK HOUND. 231 
 
 whiit propivratioiis hIiouUI ho iniulo for cncouiitoriiij^ thu Arctic winter, ono of the bittoroHt 
 enomios with which man is ciiilcd upon to contend. Tiio llaimi wiis Htronjjiy built, hut hor 
 commander feand Hho niij^ht not ho ahlo to onduro the inoro and rnoro J'roquent prcHsuro of tho 
 ice. \i first, it was proposed to cover the boats with sail-cloth and convert them into winter- 
 (juarters ; but it was felt that they would not aftbrd a suthcient protection af^ainst the rigour of 
 tho Polar climate, its furious winds, its excess of cold, its wild whirlwinds of snow. And there- 
 fore it was resolved to erect on tho ice-Hoo a suitable winter-hut, constructed of blocks of coal. 
 Bricks made of this material have the double advantage of absorbing humidity, and retlecting 
 tho heat which they receive. Water and snow would serve for mortar ; and a roof could be 
 made with the covering which protected the deck of the llansa from the snow. 
 
 The ground-plan of tho house was designed by Cajttain Hegemann ; it moaaured twenty 
 feet in length, and fourteen feet in width ; tho ridge of the roof was eight feet and a half, and 
 tho side walls four feet eight inche.^' in elevation. These walls were composed of a double row 
 of bricks nine inches wide up to .a height of two feet, after which a single row was used. They 
 were cemented in a peculiarly novel fashion. The joints and fissures were filled up with dry 
 snow, on which water was poured, and in ten minutes it hardened into a compact mass, fronj 
 which it would have been exceedingly difficult to extract a solitary brick. Tho roof consisted of 
 sails and mats, covered with a layer of snow. The door was two and a half feet wide, and 
 the floor was paved with slabs of coal. Into this house, which was completed in seven days, 
 provisions for two months wore carried, including four hundred pounds of bread, two dozen boxes 
 of preserved meat, a flitch of bacon, some coffee and brandy, besides a supply of firing-wood, 
 and some tons of coal. 
 
 On the 8th of October, after the completion of the house, a violent snowstorm broke out, 
 which would assuredly have rendered its construction impossible, and which, in five days, com- 
 pletely buried both the ship and the hut. Such immense piles of snow accunmlated on the deck 
 of the Ilansa, that it was with the greatest difficulty the seamen could reach their berths. 
 
 From the 5th to the 14th of October the drift of the current was so strong, that the ice- 
 bound ship was carried no fewer than seventy-two miles towards the south-south-east. 
 
 Meantime, the pressure of the ice continued to increase, and the Ilansa seemed held in the 
 tightening grasp of an invincible giant. Huge masses rose in front, and behind, and on botli 
 sides, and underneath, imtil she was raised seventeen feet higher than her original position. 
 Afiairs seemed so critical, that Captain Hegemann hastened to disembark the stores of clothing, 
 the scientific instmments, charts, log-book, and diaries. It was found that through the constant 
 strain on her timbers the ship had begun to leak badly, and on sounding, two feet of water were 
 found in the pumps. All hands to work I But after half an hour's vigorous exertions, the water 
 continued to rise, slowly but surely ; and the most careful search failed to indicate the locality 
 of the leak. It was painfully evident that the good ship could not be saved. 
 
 " Though much affected," says the chronicler of the expedition, " by this sad catastrophe, we 
 endured it with firmness. Res'gnation was indispensable. The coal hut, constructed on the 
 shifting ice-floe, was thenceforward our sole refuge in the long nights of an Arctic winter, and 
 waa destined, perhaps, to become our tomb. 
 
 " But we had not a minute to lose, and we set to work. At nine o'clock p.m. the snow-fall 
 
Ml I-U8H OK TIIK "HANHA." 
 
 ccfuud ; tho Hky ;,'litt<ro(l with stiirH, tho moon illiiiiiinattKl with hf r rndiiuipo thi' iiiiinonHfl wildor- 
 nt'HH of m\ and tho layH i>f tiiu Aurora HuroaliH hurt) and thori) li>,'ht»!d up tiio finiiainont with 
 thoir C()h)nrod coruwationH. Tho frost w.is Hovore ; durinjf tlio iiij,'ht the therMiomotcr sank to 
 - 20" I!. < )iii! half tho crow contiiuiod to work at tho punipn ; tho otlior woh actively cnjfa>,'od in 
 diKcniharkini^ on tlio ieo tlio most nocoHnary articloa Thero could he no tliou^dit of Hlcop, for in 
 our friyhtful situation tlio mind wuh hosct hy tho numt ('onilirtinj,' apprdionHionH, What wouhl 
 hoiMJUio of us at tho vory outKot of a Hoawon .>hich thruatonod to ho oiu! of oxcoHxivo rigour ? In 
 vain wi! ondoavourod to iniaj^ino soino moans of saving oursolvos. It was not poHsihlo to think 
 BoriouHly of an attempt to gain the land. Perhaps wo might have succeeded, in the midst of the 
 greatest dangers, in reaching the coast hy opening up ;i way across tho ice-floes, hut wo had no 
 moans of tra«sj)orting thithtr our provisions; and it appeared, from the reports of Scoroshy, that 
 we coulil not count on finding any Eskimo cstablishnujiits, —so that our only prosj)ect then would 
 have been to die of hunger." 
 
 Tho sole resource ren)aiiiing to the oxjdorcrs was to drift to tho south on their moving ice- 
 floe, and confine themselves, meantime, to their coal imi. If their ice-raft proved of sufiicient 
 strength, thoy might hope to reach in tho spring tho I'^skimo settlement in tho south of Green- 
 land, or come to gain tho coiutt of Iceland by traversing its cincture of ice. 
 
 It was on the 22nd of October, in lat. 70" 50' N., and long. 21° W., that tho Ilanm sank 
 beneath the ice. Dr. Laubo writes : " Wo made ourselves as snug as possible, and, once our 
 little house was completely embanked with snow, we had not to complain of tho cold. Wo 
 enjoyed perfect health, and occupied the time with long walks and with our books, of which we 
 had many. We made a Christmas-tree of birch-twigs, and enibellished it with fragments of 
 wax taper." 
 
 To prevent attacks of disease, and to maintain tho cheerfulness of the men, the officers of 
 tho expedition stimidated them to every kind of active employment, and laid down strict rules 
 for the due division of the day. 
 
 At seven in tho morning, they were aroused by tho watch. They rose, attired themselves 
 in their warm thick woollen clothing, washed in water procured by melting snow, and then took 
 thoir morning cup of coffee, with a piece of hard bread. Various occupations succeeded : tho 
 construction of such useful utensils as proved to be necessary ; stitching sailcloth, mending 
 clothes, writing up the day's journal, and reading. When the weather permitted, astronomical 
 observations and calculations were not forgotten. At noon, all hands were summoned to dinner, 
 at which a good rich soup formed the principal dish ; and as they had an abundance of preserved 
 vegetables, the bill of fare was frequently changed. In the use of alcoholic liquors tho most 
 rigid economy was observed, and it was on Sunday only that each person received a glass of port. 
 
 The ice-floe on which their cabin stood was assiduously and carefully explored in all direc- 
 tions. 1 1 was about seven miles in circuit, and its average diameter measured nearly two miles. 
 
 The out-of-door amusements consisted chiefly of skating, and building up huge images of 
 snow — Egyptian sphynxes and the like. 
 
 The borders of the ice-floe, especially to the west and south-west, presented a curious aspect ; 
 the attrition and pressure of the floating ice had built up about it high glittering walls, upwards 
 of ten feet in elevation. The snow-crystals flashed and radiated in the sun like myriads of 
 
TIIK lll'T OK TIIK CASTAWAYS. 5HS 
 
 diaiiKiiidH. Thu red ^linni uf iiiuriiiti^ and evening cnHt a Htran^^u omuruld tint on tho wliito 
 Kiirtiui! of tho liuulMca|M', Thf iiii^litn wcro nm]i,niiti('cnt. Tlir }^Ii)\viii|L^ firniaiiifnt, and tin; snow 
 wliii'li ruflucted its Iiistro, iirodurcd so intciiNi' ii liritr)itnt .sh, tluit it whh pDHsilili^ to wtid witlmut 
 tiiti^iui tliu fiiiCHt imndwritin^, and t(i diMtini^riiish runintc iil)joctK. 'I'lu' pliononifnon of thu Atiri>ra 
 BorcaliH wa« of constant occurrcncf, and on ono owuHion woa ho wondirfully luniinoUH that it 
 (lalcd tltu radianco of thu stars, and uverythin;; upon thu ico-tloo cast u shadow, a.s if it htul been 
 tiio Bun Hhininijf. 
 
 Near thu coal-cabin stood two hUiall Iiuts, onu of wiiich sorvi'd lor al)lutions, tliu otlnr 
 as a shed. Round this i.uclous of tliu little thipwrcckud colony wuro situatud at convenient points 
 tho pilus of wood for fuel, the boats, and the barrels of patent fuel and pork. To prevent 
 the wind and snow froni entering the dwelling-hut, a vestibule v/aa constructed, with a winding 
 entrance. 
 
 Tho greatest cold experienced was - 29'' 30' F., and this was in December. After Christmas 
 tho little settlement was visited by several severe storms, and their ice-raft drifted close along tlm 
 shore, sometimes within eight or nine miles, amidst nnich ice-crushing, — which so reduced it on 
 all sides, that by the 4th of January 1870 it did not measure more than one-eighth of its 
 original dimensions. 
 
 On tho Gth of January, when they had descended as far south as 66° 45' N. lat., the sun 
 reappeared, and was joyfully welcomed. 
 
 On the night of tho 15th of January, the colony was stricken by a sudden and terrible 
 alarm. The ice yawned asunder, immediately beneath tho hut. and its occupants had but just 
 time to take refuge in their boats. Here they lay in a miserable eondiiion, unable to clear out 
 the snow, and sheltered very imperfectly from the driving, furious tei _)ost. But on the 17th 
 tho gale moderated, and as soon a» tho weather permitted they set to work to reconstruct out of 
 tho ruins of the old hut a new but much smaller one. ft was not larg*" enough to accommodate 
 more than half tho colony ; and the other half took up their residence in the boats. 
 
 February was calm and fine, and the floe still continued to drift southward along the land. 
 Tho nights were gorgeous with auroral displays. Luminous sheaves expanded themselves on the 
 deep blue firmament like the folds of a fan, or the petals of a flower. 
 
 March was very snowy, and mostly dull. On the 4th, the ice-raft passed within twenty-five 
 miles of the glacier Kolberger-Heide. A day or two later, it nearly came into collision with a 
 large grounded iceberg. Tho portion ni;arest to the drifting colony formed an immense o\ er- 
 hanging mass ; its principal body had been wrought by the action of tho sun and the waves into 
 the most capricious forms, and seemed an aggregate of rocks and pinnacles, towers and gateways. 
 The castaways could have seized its projecting angles as they floated past. They thought their 
 destruction certain, but the fragments of ice which surrounded the raft served as " bufl'ers," and 
 saved it from a fatal collision. 
 
 On the 29th of March, they found themselves in the latitude of Nukarbik, tho island where 
 Graab, the explorer, wintered, from September 3rd, 1827, to April 5th, 1830. They had 
 cherished the hope that from this spot they might be able to take to their boats, and start for 
 Friedrichstal, a Moravian missionary station on the south coast of Greenland. However, the 
 ice was as yet too compact for any such venture to be attempted. 
 
 For four weeks they were detained in the bay of Nukarbik, only two or three miles from 
 
9B4 
 
 DRIFTING ON THE lOE-RAFT. 
 
 tho ahorc, aixl yc^t uiiablo to roach it. Tlieir raft was caught in a kind of eddy, and BonietimeA 
 tacrked to the south, sometimes to tho north. The rising tide carried it towards the shore, the 
 el)i)in<( tide H(jated it out again to pea. During this detention thoy were visited by small troops 
 of birds, snow linnets and snow buntings. Tho seamen threw them a small quantity of oats, 
 wliich tliey greedily devoured. They were so tame that they allowed themselves to be caught 
 by tho hand. 
 
 SNOW LINNETS AND BUNTIN08 VISITINO THE CBEW OF THE " IIANSA." 
 
 From the end of March to the 17th of April, the voyagers continued their dreary vacillation 
 between Skieldunge Island and Cape Moltko ; a storm then drove them rapidly to the south. 
 Tlie co!v.st, with its bold littoral mountain-chain, its deep bays, its inlets, its islands, and its 
 romautii! headlands, offered a succession of novel and impressive scenes ; and specially imposing 
 was the great glacier of Puisortok, a mighty ice-river which skirts the shore for upwards of 
 thirty miles. 
 
 Early in May they had reached lat. 61° 12'. 
 
 On tlio 7th, some water-lanes opened for them a way to the shore ; and abandoning the ice- 
 raft, they took to tlieir boats, with the intention of progressing southward along the coast. At 
 first they met with consider-able difficulty, being frequently compelled to haul up the boats on an 
 ice-floe, and so pass the night, or wait until the wind was favo arable. As this necessitated a 
 continual utdoading and reloading of the boats, the work was very severe. At one time they 
 
^ 
 
DRIFTING ON THE ICE-RAtT. 257 
 
 were detained for six days on the ice, owing to bad weather, violent jxalcs, and heavy snow- 
 showers. The temperature varied from + 2° during the day to - 5° R. during the niglit. 
 
 Their rations at this period wore thus distributed :-- In the morning, a cup of coifoe, with a 
 piece of dry bread. At noon, for dinner, soup and broth ; in the evening, a few mouthfiils of 
 cocoa, of course witliout milk and sugar. 
 
 They were compelled to observe the most rigid economy in the use of their pnivisions, lest, 
 before reaching any settlement, they should be reduced to the extremities of famine. Yet their 
 appetite was very keen ; a circumstance easily explained, for they were necessarily very sparing 
 in their allowance of meat and fat, which in the rigorous Arctic climate are indispensable as 
 nourishment. 
 
 As no change took place in the position of the masses of ice which surrounded them, they 
 resolved to drag their boats towards the island of Illiudlek, ahout three marine miles distant, 
 They began this enterprise on the evening of the 20th, making use of some stout cal>les which 
 they had manufactured during the winter, and harnessing thi mselves by means of a brace 
 passed across the shoulders. That evening they accomplished three hundred paces. Snow fill 
 heavily, and melted as fast as it fell, so that during their night-b.vouae they suffered much from 
 damp. 
 
 The next day they found before them such a labyrinth of blocks and fragments of ice, float- 
 ing ice-fields, and water-channels, that thev tvere constrained to give up the idea of hauling their 
 boats across it, and resolved to wait for the spring tide — which, they knew, would occur in a few 
 days. The delay was very wearisome. To beguile the time, some of the seamen set to work at 
 wood-carving, while the officers and scientific gentlemen manufactured the pieces for a game of 
 chess. Others prepared some fishing-lines, eighty fathoms long, in the hope of catching a desir- 
 able addition to their scanty bill of fare. 
 
 On the 24th, the weather was splendid. The sun shone in a cloudless sky, and wherever- its 
 genial radiance fell the thermometer marked + 28° 5' R. This was an excellent opportunity for 
 drying their clothes, which, as well as their linen, had been thoroughly soaked innumerable time."*. 
 The coverings were removed from the boats, which, in the warm sunshine, exhaled great clouds 
 of vapour. The cook endeavoured to add to his stores of provisions ; but the seals churlishly 
 refused to make their appearance, the fish disdained to nibble at the fat-bt ite<l hooks, and the 
 stupid guillemots were cunning enough to escape the best directed shots. 
 
 M. Hildebrandt, with two seamen, made an attempt — in which they succeeded — to reach the 
 island of Illiudlek, which lay about three miles off, and is from 450 to 500 feet in height. They 
 found it a desert ; not a trace of vegetation ; its shores very steej), and at some points precipitous ; 
 its surface torn with crevasses and ravines. The only accessible part seemed on the north ; liut as 
 the evening was drawing in, thej' had no time for exploration, and made haste to return to tiie 
 boats. 
 
 The castaways now came to a resolution to seek a tem[)orary refuge on this desolate isle. 
 As the heat of the sun was sufficient to render their labour very painful, and they suffered umch 
 from the effects of the snow upon their eyes, they went to work at night, dragging their boats 
 forward with many a weary effort, and rested during the daytime. In this way they reached 
 the island on the 4th of June. 
 
9fi8 VOYAGE OF THE "OERMANIA." 
 
 IJ rtre tlicy moored their boats in a small bay sheltered by a wall of rocks from the north 
 wind, which they named Hansa-Hafcn. Next day they shot two-and-twenty divers, which 
 [iroviddd them with a couple of good dinners. The supply was very valuable, as the stock of 
 provisions on hand would not last above a fortnight. 
 
 After a brief rest, the adventurers resumed their voyage, keeping close in-shore, and 
 struggling perseveringly amidst ice and stones — and further checked by an inaccifrate chart, 
 which led them into a deep fiord, instead of King Christian IV. Sound. On the 13th of June, 
 he T'ever, they arrived at the Moravian missionary station of Friedrichstal, where their country- 
 men received them with a hearty welcome. For two hundred days they had sojourned upon a 
 drifting ice-field, experiencing all the hardships of an Arctic winter, aggravated by an insuf- 
 ficiency of food. 
 
 They reached Julianshaab on the 2l8t of June ; embarked on board the Danish brig Con- 
 stance; and were landed at Copenhagen on the 1st of September. 
 
 We must now return to the Germania. 
 
 Captain Koldewey made several bold attempts to penetrate the pack-ice, but proved unsuc- 
 cessful in all until, on the Ist of August, he reached lat. 74°, where he contrived to effect a 
 passage ; and tliough much delayed by a succession of fogs and calms, he made his way to 
 Sabine Island, — and dropped anchor on its southern side, in lat. 74° 30' N., and long. 29° W., 
 on the 5th of August. 
 
 On the 10th he again passed towards the north, keeping along the Gree'L-land shore until, 
 in lat. 75° 31' N., his advance was checked by a mass of closely-packed ice, which stretched from 
 the coast of the mainland out to Shannon Island, a long unbroken line of fourteen miles. It 
 presented a very formidable appearance, being edged in some places with a fringe of broken ice, 
 boulders, and blocks, rising in heaps and hummocks forty feet high. 
 
 The Germania remained in this position for several days. As nothing but ice was visible 
 to the northward, and no prospect opened up of further progress in that direction. Captain 
 j Koldewey moved his ship to the south side of the island on the IGth of August, and dropped 
 
 I anchor close to Cape Philip Broke. 
 
 i Eleven days were spent in a careful exploration of Shannon Island, during which time a 
 
 I musk-ox was shot, and close watch was kept from an elevated point on the ice lying to the north- 
 
 I ward. But as it continued solid and immovable, and the end of the season was at hand. Captain 
 
 ! Koldewey returned northward, and brought his vessel to anchor on the south side of Pendulum 
 
 Island on the 27th of August. 
 
 When it became necessary to make preparations for facing the coming winter, Captain 
 Koldewey moved his ship on the 1 3tli of September into the little harbour he had occupied on 
 the 5th of August. Their subsequent experience showed it to be the only secure one between 
 the parallels of 74° and 77°. A few days later the ship was frozen in. 
 
 The firat sledging-party was despatched on the 14th of September, and remained out for 
 eight days. After reaching the mainland, they travelled for four days up a newly-discovered 
 fiord, finding many petrifactions and much lignite. They also saw large herds of musk-oxen. 
 Vegetation was abundant, but chiefly composed of species of Andromeda. In the course of this 
 excursion, our explorers had one or two adventures with bears. First, a female, with her two 
 
 i^sm 
 
THE GERMAN RXPEDITION. 
 
 259 
 
 cubs, paid them a visit, but being received with some volleys of musketry, quickly beat a retreat 
 On another occasion, a daring intruder found his way into their tent His temerity, however, 
 cost him his life ; and the Germans banqueted gaily on the fat and flesh with which he incon 
 tinently supplied theia 
 
 A RABII INTRUDER. 
 
 When the winter preparations were completed. Captain Koldewey organized several shoot- 
 mg parties, who made good booty of reindeer and musk-oxen, and added most satisfactorily to 
 the provision-supplies ; no fewer than fifteen hundred pounds of good beef and venison attesting 
 the skill and good fortune of the hunters. But after the beginning of November, neither musk- 
 oxen, reindeer, nor bears were visible. 
 
 A second siedge journey was undertaken towards the end of October in a southerly 
 direction. The party discovered another fiord, and returned on the 4th of November. On the 
 
3A0 
 
 AN AltCTIU C1IHISTMA8. 
 
 (ollowiiitr (lay tlio sun disappeared altoijc'tlicr, and tho droary Arctic nitfht of three months' 
 duration overtook them. 
 
 The close of the year was marked by a succession of violent ntorms, and the temperature 
 rose to 25' F. It soon fell ajrain to zero, however; but it was not until 1870 that it indicated tho 
 niaxiiMUm of cold experienced throughout the winter, — namely, 40" F. Of tlie December gales, 
 tlii^ mo.st furious broke out on the IGth, and lasted until the 20th. It set free the ice in the 
 harliour, and even to within three hundred yards of the ship; but fortunately she had been 
 anchored in the most sheltered part of the bay, and close to the shore, in only ten feet of water ; 
 otherwise the cruslied-up ice, moving with the currents, would probably have carried her away 
 to almost certain destruction. 
 
 The heroic little company, however, were nowise disheartened by the gloom and hardship of 
 their situation. From Captain Koldewey's account, they would seem to have spent a right merry 
 Christmas, after the hearty German fashion. They danced by starlight upon the ice ; they celc- 
 
 HEAR-nuNTINO — OREKNI.AND. 
 
 brated Christmas Eve with open doors, the temperature being 25'' F. ; with the evergreen Andro- 
 meda they made a famous Christmas-tree ; they decorated the cabin with flags, and spread out 
 upon their tables the gifts 'prepared for the occasion by kindly hands : each received his shave, 
 and each joined in and contributed to the general merriment. 
 
 Tiie Yule-tide festivities over, they made ready the equipments for their sledging expeditions 
 in the ensuing spring, — the object of the most important of these being to attain the highest 
 possible degi-ee of north latitude. 
 
 1 n February the sun returned, and with it tho bears ; and the daily excursions upon the 
 islatwl, undertaken by the scientific members of the expedition, were rendered dangerous by their 
 audacity. Every one was required to go armed, yet some accidents occurred. One of the 
 " scientists " was severely wounded in the head, and dragged upwards of four hundred paces 
 bofoio his comrades rescued him from the bear. After the lapse of a few weeks, however, he 
 recovered from his wounds. 
 
 mmi 
 
TIIK "OKRMANIA" AMONci THK ICE. 
 
 361 
 
 On the 24th of Marcli, the fimt slcdfje-party left the whip, iiiid travollfd northwanl iiiilil, mi 
 the 15th of April, they reached 77' 1' N. lat. Then the wild northerly j,'ales compelled them to 
 retrace their steps. On their return they were fortunate cnoULfh to slioot sonitj iu-ar.-*, whoso 
 hluhber supplied tli in with fuel to warm their food; and tliu wind iiliinj,' the sails which tliey 
 had hoisted on their sledges, they progressed with such rapidity as to reach the ship on the 
 27th of April. 
 
 At the northernmost point attained by this party, — lat. 77° 1', — the bolt of land-ice which 
 skirted the shore seemed to the travellers to he four miles in width and several years old. They 
 speak of it as a " bulwark built for eternity." Out to seaward, the ice, which was very hum- 
 mocky, stretched in an unbroken expanse. 
 
 INTO A WATEK-OAP. 
 
 Two other slcdge-partics were sent out early in May : one of these was employed in making 
 geographical and scientific explorations of the neighbouring coast of Greenland ; the otlier in 
 attempting the measurement of an arc of the meridian. Their journeys were difficult enough 
 and troublesome enough, and made large demands on the energies of those who undertook 
 them. Crossing hummocks and rugged ice was \Veary work, and sometimes the whole party 
 plunged into deep drifts of snow. On one occasion, the sledge was precipitated into a water gap, 
 or crevasse ; and before it could be recovered and hauled up on the ice-fioe, they were compelled 
 to unload it, and remove each aiticlc, one by one. Then again they would have to make tlieir 
 
363 VOYAGE OF THK "OKHMANIA." 
 
 way tlirou;,'h a storm of" pitiluHH violence ; the north wind driving the frozen snow into thcii 
 fiiccH with a fury that ahnost hhndod them. Up to their knees in the new snow, they pressed 
 forward with a do{/ped intrepidity ; enduring hardsliips and triumphing over obstacles of which 
 the "moo of gentlemen wlio stay at home at ease" can form no adequate conception. 
 
 The bears now increased in immbers and in boldness, as if they had determined to 
 besiege the small company now left on board the ship. The greatest caution was necessary 
 to j)rovent accndents ; and though several were shot, their death did not appear to terrify the 
 survivors. 
 
 Tlie thaw began about tlio middle of May, and towards the close of the month the sledge- 
 parties were forced to wade through the water which flooded the surface of the sea-ice. 
 
 In June, large portions of land-ice were continually breaking oft", and much oj)en water could 
 be descried in the south-east. But it was not until the 10th of July that the ice around the ship 
 broke up. Four days later, boating became practicable, and a voyage wns made to the Eskimo 
 village on Clavering Island. It ended in di.sappointment, — the village having been deserted, 
 and the huts having fallen into ruin. 
 
 On the 22nd of July, the Germania once more steamed to the northward, to renew the 
 attempt of tiio preceding year. Her boiler-tubes, however, leaked so seriou.sly, that it was evident 
 tlu! boiler would speedily fail altogether. After some delay it was temporarily'^ patclied up ; and 
 by following a narrow channel between the loose pack-ice and the firm ice-be!t of the coast, she 
 contrived to push forward to the north-east cape of Shannon Island, in lat. 75° 29' N. Here the 
 ice barrier showed itself compact, solid, and insuperable. The Germania, therefore, on the 30th 
 of July, made for the southward, and continued her explorations in that direction. The 
 "Mackenzie Inlet," which Captain Clavering discovered in 1823, was found to have disappeared; 
 its place being occupied by a low, flat plain, on which herds of reindeer were pasturing. So 
 unaccustomed were they to the sight of man, and so fearless of danger, that five of them were 
 speedily shot. 
 
 On the 6th of August, the Germania discovered and entered a broad, deep fiord in 
 lat. 73° 13'. It was perfectly free from ice; but a fleet of huge icebergs was sailing out of it 
 with the current. It was soon noticed that the farther they ascended this picturesque sea-arm, 
 the warmer became the temperature of the air and of the surface water. It threw off several 
 branches, and these wound in and out among lofty mountains. Their declivities were washed 
 by cascades, and their ravines filled with glaciers; so that the prospect thus unexpectedly opened 
 up of the interior of Greenland was singularly romantic and impressive. 
 
 Some of the adventurers ascended a mountain 7000 feet in height ; but even from this lofty 
 watch-tower no limit could be discerned to the western or principal arm of the fiord. In about 
 32° W. long, the mountain- range rose, it was ascertained, to an elevation of 14,000 feet. The 
 Germania penetrated for seventy-two miles into this remarkable inlet, and reached 2C° W. long. ; 
 but her boiler acting irregularly, and Captain Koldewey being apprehensive of the consequences 
 if it wholly failed, commenced his homeward voyage on the 17th of August. He re-entered the 
 pack-ice at the mouth of the fiord, and was occupied until the 24th in forcing his way through it, 
 — reaching the open, iceless sea in lat. 72° N. and long. 14" W. 
 
 The Germania, owing to the uselessness of her boiler, made the rest of her voyage under sail, 
 and arrived at Bremen in safety on the 11th of September, with all well on board. It is worth 
 
TBI CREW or THE "oERMANIa" IN A SNOW-STORM. 
 
T 
 
 MIORATIONS OF TMK KHKIMOS. 2fift 
 
 nuticc that, with tho excoptiitii of two accidental wouikIh, this intoroHtitu^ oX]HMiitiitii wiut nccoiii- 
 plished without any kind of sicknosH, — a circumstaiico which upeaks hi<,'hly for the forctliouf^ht 
 and carofuhiess of tlioso enj^ajjed in equippin<f and ponductin<( it. 
 
 We have been indebted fur our brief notice of tlie voyaj^e of the Ucnnanln to a paper liy 
 Captiiin Sir Leopold M'Clintock, who sums up its resultH in a condensed and iiitilli,i,'ilih! form ; 
 and to tho narratives by Captain Koldowey and his oflicern, translated by Mr. Mcrcier, ami 
 published under the direction of Mr. H. W. Bates. 
 
 Tho Greenland shore, undor the seventy-fifth parallel of latitude, is not the frozen desert 
 which it has hitherto been supposed to bo. It is frequented by large herds of reindeer, aa 
 many as fifty having been sighted at a time. Musk-oxen were by no means rare, but made 
 their appearance in troops of fifteen or sixteen ; while smaller animals, such as ermines and 
 lemmings, were also met with. Birds were not numerous ; shoals of walruses were noticed, 
 but no whales. 
 
 Geographically speaking, the voyage was valuable from the observations obtained in refer- 
 ence to a region which previously was almost unknown. 
 
 The absence of natives, and of all recent traces of them, is a remarkable fact. In 1 81!!), 
 Captain Graab found the northern Grcenlanders ranging as high as (54° 15' N. lat. ; but they 
 knew nothing of any human beings living further north; nor could they themselves travel in 
 that direction, the way being blocked up by huge impassable glaciers. 
 
 In 1822, when Scoresby partially explored tho Greenland coast between the parallels of 
 70° and 72° 30', he discovered many ruined habitations and graves, but no recent indications of 
 human beings. 
 
 In tho following year, Captain Clavering mot with a party of Eskimos in 74°; but neither 
 ho nor Scoresby found reindeer or musk-oxen ; and the fact ascertained by the (Jermduia that, 
 in 1869, these animals were numerous, and devoid of any fear of man, gives reason to suppose 
 that few, if any, of this isolated tribe of Eskimos are now in existence. Now, a« the musk- 
 oxen, and also the reindeer, seem to have wandered hither from the northward, we may con- 
 jecture that the natives followed the same route. 
 
 "If it be true," says M'Clintock, "that this migration of men and animals was effected 
 from west to east along the northern shore of Greenland, wo naturally assume that it does not 
 extend far towards the Pole; that, probably, its most northern po;nt is at the eastern outlet of 
 Kennedy Channel, and that it turns from thence sharply towards the east and north-east,— 
 the distance, in a straight line, to the most northern point reached by Koldewey, is not more 
 than six hundred miles. It is not less strange than sad to find that a peaceable and once 
 numerous tribe, inhabiting a coast-line of at least 7° of latitude in extent, has died out, or has 
 almost died out, whilst at the same time we find, by the diminution of the glaciers and increase 
 of animal life, that the terrible severity of the climate has undergone considerable modification 
 We feel this saddening interest with greater force when wo reflect that tho distance of 
 Clavering's village from the coast of Scotland is under one thousand miles 1 Thoy wore our 
 nearest neighbours of the New World." 
 
 Returning suddenly to the sixteenth century, we find the names of some Dutch seamen of 
 eminence inscribed in the record of early Arctic Discovery, and amongst these the most illustrious 
 
166 
 
 A DVTvn KXI'KDITION. 
 
 Ih tlwit of Willimii niirontH. Wu rt'fur to him Iuth, l»orn\mo lio Ih connected with OiirlHon'H 
 voyiij^t! ill I8(ii), which wtnit ovor much tlio hiiiuo ^jrouiiil aw tluit which the Dutdi isxploior liad 
 Hiirvt^yod iit'iirly thrco huiulicd yciiiM Iwforo. 
 
 Tho inorchantH of AmHterdam liavinj^ fitted out a ship — tho Mevcurius, of one hundred tonn 
 — to atttitiipt a iiaHHajfo round tho northorn end of Novaia Zonilaia, the command wan yiven 
 to William HiirciitH ; wlio accordinf^ly sailed from tho Texel on the 4th of June If)!)!. 
 
 lie Hif,'lite(l N'ovaia Zemluia, in hit. 73° 25' N., on tho 4th of July, sailed alonp its pfiim 
 <^a\int coast, doiihled Cape Nassau on tho 10th, and struck the edt^o of tho northern ice on the 
 13th. For sovoral days ho skirted this formidable barrier, vainly seekiiif^ for an opening; and in 
 quest of a channel into tho further soa, he sailed porsoverinifly from Cape Nii.ssau to tl)o Orange 
 IhIiiiuIs. • 1 fe went over no fewer tliaii seventeen hundred miles of trroinid in his assiduous search, 
 
 MATKRIAI.S KllH TIIK IIOrSE. 
 
 and put his ship about onoand-eighty times. He discovered also the long line of coast between 
 the two points we have named, laying it down with an exactness which has been acknowledged 
 by later exjdorers. His men wearying of labour which seemed to yield no positive results, 
 Barents was under the necessity of returning home. 
 
 In 1596 the Amsterdammers fitted out another expedition, consisting of two strongly-built 
 ships, under Jacob van Heemskerch and Jan Cornelizoon Rijp, with Barents as pilot, though 
 really in command. 
 
 In thi'' voyage the adventurers kept away from the land, in order to avoid the pack-ice, and 
 sailing to the westward, discovered Bear Island on the 9th of June. Then they steered to the 
 northward, and hove in sight of Spitzbergen exactly ten days later. They supposed, however, 
 that it was only a part of Greenland, and were led to bear away to the north-west — a course which 
 was speedily arrested by the eternal icy barrier. Barents then coasted along the western side of 
 
BARKNT8 AT NOVAIA ZKMLAFA. 
 
 ter 
 
 Sjdtzborjifen ; ami tho north-western hendlHud hoinj; friujuontcd hy nn iiniiU'MHo niitnher of binln, 
 ho called it Vo^'tisiuif^. 
 
 On tho iMt (if .Inly 1h' iif^iiin niiuUt Benr TkIiuuI, luid Ikto ho and T^ijp atfrocd to Hoparnlo. 
 Of thu latter wo know unly that ho was unHUccossful in an attonipt to lind an tiptiiint^ in tho ico 
 on tho oaHt of (Jroonland, and that ho roturnod to Holland in tho winio yoar. Of thi* fornior tho 
 narrativu in {minfully full and intoroHtint^. 
 
 Quittinj^ lit-nr iHland, ho reached Novaia Ziinlaia on tho 17th of July Hi^htinn; the coast 
 in hit. 74° 40' N. Kct pini,' alonj,' it witii charai'teristii' porsovoranco until tho 7th of AusjUMt, ho 
 passed Capo Comfort ; but only to iind himself once more face to face with tho dreary spectacle of 
 tho far-reachinj^ I'olar ice. Tt ho luMnmod and fenced him in on every Bide, that he was unable 
 to extricate hifl vessel from it ; and being ilriven into a bay, which he named ic<' Haven, " there 
 
 ATTACK ON A IIEAII. 
 
 they were forced, in «^roat cold, poverty, misery, and j^riefe, to stay all the winter." For the 
 heavy pack-ice drifting into the bay closed it up, and closed around the ship until she was hold 
 fast as in iron bonds. 
 
 Barents and his sixteen followers now prepared to encounter with a good heart the trials of 
 tha long Arctic v/inter-night. They displayed, in truth, a courage, a patience, and a good fellow- 
 ship which were heroic. Finding a large supply of drift-wood, they constructed, with the holj) of 
 planks from the poop and forecastle of the vessel, a sufficiently commodious house, into which thoy 
 removed all their stores and provisions. They fixed a chimney in tho centre of the roof ; a Dutch 
 clock was set up and duly struck the weary hours ; tho sleeping-berths were ranged along the 
 walls ; a wine-cask was converted into a bath. All these ingenious devices, however, availed 
 but little against the terrible feeling of depression which is induced by the continuance for so 
 many weeks of a blank and cheerless darkness. 
 
^M 
 
 KXPEDITION UNDER BARENTS. 
 
 The sun disappeared on the 4th of November, and the cold thereafter increased until it waa 
 almost intolerable. Their wine and beer were frozen, and lost all their stren<^th. By means of 
 i^rcat fires, by apjilyiiij,' boated stones to their feet, and oy wrappinj^ themselves up in double 
 fox-r.kin coats, they barely contrived tfi keep off the deadly cold. In searchinL( for drift-wood they 
 endured the sharpest j)ain, and often braved innninent danger. To add to tlieii troubles, they 
 had much ado to defend themselves against the bears, which made frequent assaults on their hut. 
 However, they contrived to slaughter some of the audacious animals, and their fat pi'ovided them 
 with oil for their lamjjs. When the sun disappeared the bears departed, and then the white 
 foxes came in great nundjcrs. They were much more welcome visitors, and being caught in 
 traps, set in the vicinity of the house, supplied the ice-bound voyagers with food and clothing. 
 
 When the 1' Ji of Docend)er arrived, they found some comfort in the reflection that half 
 
 SKTTISII KOX-TIUPS. 
 
 the dreary season of darkness had passed away, and that they could now count every day as 
 bringing them nearer to the joyful taring. They suffered much, but endured tneir sufferings 
 bravely; and celebrated Twelfth Night with a little ^ack, two pounds of me it, ar.d some merry 
 games. The gun ic- drew the prize, and became King of Novaia Zcmlaia, "which is at least 
 two hundred mile, long, and lyeth between two seas." .• ;. ' 
 
 On the 27th ,.*" January every heart I'ejoiced, for the glowing disc of the sun reappeared 
 aj>. vo the horizon. Bui, it brought with it their old enemies the bears-, against whom they found 
 it nece"3ary lo exercise the greatest vigilance. 
 
 On the 22nd of February they again saw " mu?h open water in the sea, which in long time 
 they had not seene." Daring the whole month violent storms broke out, and the snow fell in 
 enormous qi- iti- ies. : 
 
 On the 12th of March a gale from th ; north-enst brou^dit back tlio ice, and the open water 
 
■3 ■'*■ 
 
 nKATII OF BAUKNTS. 
 
 369 
 
 disappeared ; the ice drivinjij in with much fury and a iniyhty noise, the pieces craHhiiii,' a<,'iunst 
 each other, " fearful to hear." Up to the 8th of May tlie ice was everywhere, and tiieir satl eyes 
 'ould look forth on no jjleasant or hopeful scene. Then it began to break up, and the fifaunt, 
 weary explorers prepared to tempt the sea on'>e more. They set to work t(j repaii- their two 
 boats, for their ship was so crippled and strained by the ice that she waa injured beyond their 
 ability to repair. 
 
 On the 14th of June they quitted the place of their long captivity ; Barents, bc'ure they set 
 out, drawing up in writing a list of their names, with a brief record of their oxpfc.icnces, and 
 depositing it in the wooden hut. He himself Wus so reduced with sickness, want, and anxiety 
 that he was unable to stand, and had to be carried into the boat. On the 1 (ith, the captain, 
 hailing from the other boat, inquired how the pilot fared. " Quite well, mate," Barents replied ; 
 
 # 
 
 " 1 still hope to n^ id '^efore we get to Wardhouse," — VVardhouse being an island on the coast 
 of Lapland. But lie died on the 19th' (or, as some authorities .say, on the i!Otli), to the great 
 grief of his comrades, who appreciated ';iis maiily character, and placea great reliance on his 
 experience and skill. 
 
 The adventurers met with many dithcultieis from the ice, — sometimes being carried out fur 
 from the ice-belt, and at others being compelled to haul the boats for long distances over the rough 
 surface of the Hoes to reach open wa',er. It has been well observed that there are niait" instances 
 on record of long ocean-voyages p formed in open boats, but that, i)erhaps, not one is of so 
 extraordinary a character as that whicii we are describing,- when two small and crazy craft 
 ventured to cross tho frozen seas for eleven hundred miles, continually cmiangered by huge Hoat- 
 ing ice-maases, threatened by bears, and exposed for forty days to the combined trials of sickness, 
 famine, cold, and fatigue. "^' P:: ^;r Tr^'r''"''~"~''"~~'"'"^^-TTT?t^r — • --t^-r^ 
 
270 CARLSEN AT NOVAIA ZKMLAIA. 
 
 At length they arrived at Kola, in Lapland, towards the end of August ; and, strangely 
 enough, were taken on board a Dutch vessel commanded by the very Cornelizoon Rijp who 
 had coniuiaiuled the sister discovery-ship in the previous year. They reached the Maas in safety 
 in October 1597. 
 
 No voyager appears to have sailed in the track of Barents, or, at all events, to have visited 
 the place where he wintered, until 1871. No on'j but he had rounded the north-east point of 
 bleak Novaia Zemlaia. In 18G9, however, and on the 16th of May, Captain Carlsen, a Nor 
 wegian of iinicli exi)erionce in tlie North Sea trade, sailed from Hamnierfest in a sloop of si y 
 tons, called tlio Solid. On the 7th of September he reached Ice Haven, and on the 9th 
 discovered a rude wooden house standing at the head of the bay. Its dimensions were 32 feet 
 by 20, and it was constructed of planks measuring from 14 to IG inches in breadth, and li inches 
 thick. These, it was evident, had belonged to a ship, and amongst them were several oak beams. 
 Heaps of bones of seal, bear, reindeer, and walrus, as well as several largo puncheons, were 
 collected round the hut. It was the winter-prison of Barents and his companions, and had never 
 been entered by human foot since they had abandoned it. The cooking-pans stood over the 
 fiieplace, the old clock hung against the wall ; there were the books, and implements, and tools, 
 and weapons which had been of so much service two hundred and seventy-eight years before. 
 It was an Arctic reproduction of the legend of the hundred year* sleep of the fairy princess. 
 
 Captain Carlsen gives the following list of articles found in the lone hut on tlie she re of 
 Novaia Zemlaia : — 
 
 Iron frame over the fireplace, with sliifting bar ; two ship cooking-pans of copper, found standing on tlie iron frame, 
 with the remains of a copper scoop ; copper bands, probably at one time fa-stcnod round pails ; bar of iron ; iron crowbar ; 
 one long and two small gun-barrels ; two bores or angora, each throe feet in length ; chisel, padlock, caidking-iron, three 
 gouges, and six files ; ])lato of zinc ; earthenware jar ; tanki, d, with zinc liil ; lower half of another tankar<l ; six fragments 
 of pepper-pots; tin meat-strainer; pair of boots; sword; fragments of old engravings, with Latin cou|)lets underneath 
 them ; three Dutch books ; a small piece of nietid ; nineteen cartridge cases, some still full of powder ; iron chest, with lid, 
 and intricate lock-work ; fragments of metal handle of same; grindstone; an eight-pound iron weight; small cannon-ball; 
 gun-lock, with hammer and llint ; clock, l>ell of clock, and striker ; rasp ; small auger ; snuiU narrow strips of copper 
 band ; two salt and popper jwls, about eight inches high ; two paira of compasses ; fragment of ii-ou-haudled knife ; three 
 spoons ; borer ; hone ; one wootlen, and one bronze tap ; two wooden stoppei-s for gun nuizzles ; two spear or ice poh? heads ; 
 four navigation instruments ; a fluto ; lock and key ; another lock ; sledge-hammer head ; clock weight ; twenty -six pewter 
 candlesticks and fragments, six in a complete state of imwervatiou ; pitcher of Ktruscan shape, beautifully engraved ; upper 
 half (if another pitclier ; wooden trencher, coloured red ; clock alarum ; three sc.des ; four nuvlallions, circular, about eight 
 inches in diameter, three of them mouuted in oak frames ; a string of buttons ; hilt of sword, and a foot of its bliule ; 
 liallienl head ; and two carved pieces of wood, one with the haft of a knife in it 
 
 On the 14th of September Captain Carlsen sailed from the Ice Haven, and kept along tlie 
 east coast of Novaia Zemlaia, encountering bail weatlier and contrary' winds, but succeetling in 
 his chief object, the circumnavigation of the island, which he accomplished on the 6th of Octobtf. 
 1 le returned to Hamnierfest early in November. 
 
 Our I'liioiiological suiiiniary now brings us to th6 Austrian Polar i}xi)e(iition of 1872. The 
 comiiiand was intrusted to Lieutenant Payer, an acconipiished seama.i who had served under 
 Captain Koldewey ; Carlseti was engaged as pilot ; and tlie steamer Teycthoff was carefully and 
 abuutlantly equippui! for the voyage. The plan laid down by 1 ieutenant Payer was well-con- 
 ceived ; namely, to round the north-ea.?tern point of Novaia Zenlaia. nod sail eastward 'intil he 
 
 
VOYAGE OF THE "rOLARIS," 271 
 
 made the extreme north of ^'beria, where he proposed to winter. In tlio spring, travollini,'- 
 parties would be sent out on exploring journeys ; and the voyage, in summer, would be con- 
 tinued as far as Behring Strait. 
 
 The Tegethoff steamed ouh of Tromso Harbour on tht 13th of July ; first fell in with the 
 ice on the 25th, in hi. 74° 15' N. ; and on the 29th sighted the coast of Novai.i Zenilaia. Hero 
 she was caught in the pack ; but steam being got up, repeated charges were made at the enemy, 
 and she was carried bravely into an open water-way, about twenty miles wide, to the north of 
 the Matochkia Strait. On the 12th of August she was joined by the Ishijorn yaolit, with Count 
 Wilczck and some friends on board. The two ve.ssel.s anchored close to the shore, in lat. 70° 
 30' N., and on the 18th celebrated the Emperor of Austria's birthday. Daily excursions wore 
 made by sledge-parties to the adjoining islands, resulting in an accumulation of botanical and 
 geological specimens, besides slaughtered bears and foxes, and quantities of drift-wood. On the 
 23rd the vessels parted company, — the Tegethoff steaming to the northward, and the Ishi/iiru 
 endeavouring to push southward along the coast. On reaching the mouth of the Petchora, 
 Count Wilczck and his friends left her to proceed on the return voyage to Tromso, while they 
 ascended the Petchora in small boats to Perm, and returned to Vienna by way of Moscow. 
 
 The Tegetlioff sTpent the winters of 1872 and ' 873 in the Icy Sea, and made some discoveries 
 of interest. Tt returned in safety in the summer of 1874. 
 
 In 1871 an American expedition was fitted out under the command of Captain Charles 
 Francis Hall, who had already gained distinction by his explorations in the Polar regions and 
 his long residence among the Eskimos. Through the liberality of Mr. Grinnell, assisted by the 
 United States Government, he was provided with a stout and well-found steamer, the Polaris, 
 which sailed from Brooklyn on the 29th of June. She carried a crew of seventeen officors 
 and men, — Mr. Buddington being sailing and ice master, and Mr. Tyson assistant navigator, — 
 besides six adult Eskimos and two children ; and a scientific staff consisting of Dr. Emil Bessel, 
 Mr. Bryan, and Mr. Frederick Meyers. 
 
 A few days previoi 3 the sailing of the expedition, Mr. Grinnell presented Hall with the 
 historic flag which Lieut nant Wilkes, in 1838, had borne nearer to the South Pole than any 
 Amer can flag had been before, — which Lieutenar . De Haven, and afterwards Dr. Kane, and 
 lastly Dr. Hayes, had carried further north than any ot'er ensign. Captain Hall, ui receiving 
 it, expressed his conviction that, in the spring of 1872, "it would float over a new world, in 
 which the North Pole Star is the crowning jewel." 
 
 On the 3rd of July the Polaris entered the land-1 )cked harbour c "'. John's, Newfound- 
 land, where she remained a week while her machinery underwent some repairs. Then she 
 proceeded north to Holsteinberg, in Greenland ; but ff'.led m procuring a supply of coal or a 
 stock of reindeer furs, both of which were much d 3.'':aerated. On the 4th of August she iirrivod 
 at the Danish settlement of Godhavcn, and happily found the United States steamer Congress, 
 which had been despatched with extra stores and supplier Thence she steamed northward to 
 Upemavik, which was reached on the 18th. So far her progress seemed to have been peculiarly 
 Ibrtunate ; but already dissensions had broken ont among the officers, which augured ill for 
 the eventual success of the expedition. In his despatches home, however, Captain Hall made 
 no allusion to this disr^ouraging circumstance ; and hi.s biograjiher explains this silence by " his 
 
m "THANK (JOD IIAHBOUIl." 
 
 idiosyncrasy, which enabled Iiiiu to sink uvLTythint,' else in the cue idea of pushing on to the 
 far north," 
 
 Upornavik, with its little colony of Danish officials and Eskimo natives, was left behind on 
 the 21st of August, and the Polaris continued her adventurous course. Six days later, she 
 arrived at Kane's winter-quarters in 1853-55, and at the point where he abandoned his little 
 vessel, tlie Advance. Next day her crew found a iuige wall of ice in front of them, and doubled 
 round it by steering to the west-north-west. Then again putting their ve.ssel's head to the north- 
 ward, they made their way up Kennedy Channel, and gained the threshold of what Dr. Kane 
 had supposed to be the Open Polar Sea. They discovered, however, that it was bounded by 
 land on either side, with a vast expanse of ice stretching far beyond it. Careful observation 
 sjiowed that it was, in reality, a bai/, which Kane had mistaken for the open sea when its land- 
 boundaries were hidden by fog. It is about forty-five miles wide. 
 
 Thence they entered a channel similar to that of Kennedy, which measured about seventeen 
 miles in breadth, and was obstructed by heavy ice. Their progress now waa slow and difficult, 
 and many of the crew wore rueful countenances, as if they were going " to sail off the edge of the 
 world." A more serious obstacle was the timidity of Ca])taiii Buddington, who showed himself 
 oj)posed to pushing further northward. Hall, therefore, resolved to carry the steamer inshore, 
 land some of his stores, and prepare for wintering at this advanced point of " Ultima Thule." 
 
 At midnight, on the 4th of September, Captain Hall raised an American flag on this land, 
 the northGrnmo.st site on which any civilized flag had been planted. When it was waving in 
 the breeze, he proclaimed that he took possession of the surrounding region of snow and ice " in 
 the name of the Lord, and for the President of the United States." He then returned on board 
 the Polaris, and her anchor waa let go. The place was only a bend in the coast, and afforded 
 no protection as a harbour ; they therefore steamed through the open water, and searched further 
 to the southward ; but finding no more sheltered quarters, they returned to their former anchor- 
 age, and began to land provisions,— the wind moaning sadly, and the snow falling in heavy 
 showers. 
 
 On the 7th, they weighed anchor and steamed in nearer to the shore ; bringing the ship 
 round behind an iceberg, which lay aground in thirteen fathoms of water. This huge mass of 
 ice proved to be about 450 feet in length, 300 feet in breadth, and GO feet in height; lat 81° 
 38' N., long, or 45' W. The berg was named "Providence Berg," and the cove in which they 
 had established themselves, " Thank God Harbour." On surveying the surrounding country 
 they found nothing calculated to brighten the prosj:)ects of the coming winter. The coast-hills 
 rose from nine to thirteen hundred feet in height, ami were furrowed and scarred with great 
 cracks and fissures, which bore witness to the rough usage of frost and ice, wind and weather. 
 To the south lay a largo glacier, which swept round !■: a wide circuit, and fell into the bay 
 iiumediatoly north of thtir anchorage. Traces of Eskin.os were discernible here and there ; 
 circles of stones, indicating where they had pitched their teniis. The landscape was all of a dull 
 neutral tint, a kind of cold gray ; for, as yet, the winter snow had not clothed it with its mantle 
 of dazzling whiteness. For this, however, the adveutureis had n )t long to wait. A snow-storm 
 began on the 27th of September, and lasted i'or six-and tliirty hours. 
 
 On (li ' loth of October Captiiiii Jfall organized a sledging expedition, as a preliminary to 
 an extended journey in the spring. There were two sledges, each drawn by seven dogs; Captain 
 
KONERA' or CAPTAIN MALI. 
 
 dmUi 
 
mm 
 
I 
 
 i 
 
 DEATH OK OAVTAIN HALU 37R 
 
 Hall and Eskimo Joe in one sledge, and Mr. Chester and Eskimo Hans iu tlu; utlier. Tlioy 
 were absent until the 24th, but owing to the roughness of the ice had accomplished only fifty 
 miles, and had made no discovery. 
 
 Meantime, the crtw had been engaged in banking up the ice around the ship, in order to 
 protect it from collision with drifting ttoes ; the deck was partly roofed over, and covered with 
 canvas; and other preparations were made to resist the turriblo inclemency of an Antic winter. 
 These, however, were temporarily suspended by the sudden illness of Captain Uiiil. On the 
 Ist of November he was a little better, but on the 3rd his malady, whicli appears to hiuve been 
 a form of paralysis, took a turn for the worse ; and the end came so rapidly that tlio eagor- 
 hoarted, enthusiastic explorer, who had braved so many harsh experiences in the I'olar World, 
 "fell asleep" early on the morning of the 8th. A grave was immediately ])reparc(l for tlie 
 reception of his remains about half a mile inland ; a shallow grave, for the ground was frozen 
 so hard that it was scarcely possible to break it up, even with picks; and on the lltli, the 
 funeral took place. The time chosen was half-past eleven in the morning ; yet it was so dark 
 that Mr. Bryan read prayers by the light "of a lantern dimly burning. " All the siiip's company 
 were present. The coffin was hauled on a sledge, over which, by way of pall, was spread tlie 
 American flag with its stars and stripes. The captain and officers, Dr. Bessel, and Mr. Meyers, 
 followed as mourners ; and strange and picturesque must the melancholy procession have 
 appeared, as it wound its way through ice and snow, wliile a weird boreal light or gleam in the 
 air revealed the outlines of the distant hills, rising like a ramjiart on the edge of tlie snow- 
 covered plain, and flickered every now and then over the frozen expanse of the ice-bound bay. 
 
 Tiius, says Captain Tyson, thus ended poor Hall's ambitious projects ; thus wa.s stilled tlic 
 effervescing enthusiasm of his ardent nature. " Wise ho might not always have been, but liis 
 soul was in his work ; .and had he lived till spring, I think lie would have gone as far as mortal 
 man could go to accomplish his mission. But with his death, I fear that all hopes of further 
 progress will have to be abandoned." That Tyson was right in his conjecture, our narrative 
 will show. 
 
 Captain Buddington succeeded to the command, and one of his first meaaures was to dis- 
 continue the Sunday service, for reasons which he does not a( em t-i have explained, and we are 
 unable to imagine. So far as we can gather from the published records of the expedition, he 
 was a man unfitted to bear responsibility, — a man without enthusiasm in himself, and incajjable, 
 therefore, of stimulating it in others.' Nor could he secure the obedience of hia inferiors. Sea- 
 men are always prompt to detect the weakness of theii officers ; and the crew of the Polaris 
 soon assured themselves that their new cajitain was deficient both in courage and resolution. 
 
 However, the winter gradually clescu in upon the little ice-bound company of the Polaris, 
 and they were called upon to endure, with such patience as was at their command, the severities 
 of the long Arctic night. It was very dark, yet not totally dark. For an hour or two at noon 
 it was possible to wander a short distance from the snow-roofed vessel ; but, once away from 
 it, the gloom and silence of everything a>-ound settled down on the wanderer like a pall. There 
 were none of the usual sounds of Nature to relieve the deep oppression of the scene. " The 
 other evening," says Tyson, " I had wandered away from the ship, disgusted with the confusion 
 and noise, and longing for a mo. cent's quiet. Once beyoiul range of the men's voices, there was 
 
 SS?'*?'"'" 
 
«7< 
 
 WINTKK HOUND. 
 
 absolutely no other Honnrl -hatevor. It was quite calm — no wind, no movement of any living 
 creature ; nothing but a leaden sky above, ice beneath tny feet, and silence every wl ere. It 
 hung I'ko a pah over everything. So painfully oppressive did it become at last, that I was 
 frequently tempted to shout aloud, to break the spell. At last I did ; but no response came, 
 not even an echo. 
 
 ' Tlifi space wiia voiil ; there I atood, 
 And the sole xpectre was the Holitmle.' " 
 
 On the Ift of January 1 872, it is rocoidcd that eighty days had elapsed since the adven- 
 turers had seen the .sun. Tlio internal economy of the Polaris, meantime, was pitiably dis 
 
 ,\N Aiil'TIC KNOW-STDllM. 
 
 organized. There wn no discipline, no order, no method. The men did what they pleased, 
 and i.'onsequently made night hideous by their prolonged carousals. The officers disagreed 
 among themselves, and tiie object of the expedition appeared to have been lost .sight of, or no 
 longer to e.'.cite any deep or permanent interest. It was even discussed as a proper and prob- 
 able course to abandon the proposed northward exploration, and, as soon as the ice broke up, to 
 make all haste back to Now York. 
 
 Early in February, thf* daylight began to gain ui)ou tlie night a little, and the Eskimos 
 hunted for seals, as they could be heard under the ice maki.ig their breathing-holes. Storms 
 were very frequent — storms which drove the snow afnr in dense, blinding clouds ; and false 
 moons and other atmosphe-ic phenomena attracted the attention of tlu curious observer. On 
 
HLKIMihMulIUNKYa ITT 
 
 tlio 28th, aftor an absoncu of oiiu Imiulitd and tliiitytivo days, tlio sun rfapponii'd ; and nuvor 
 was royal ynust nioru uajfoily wulcoined l)y a loy.il [(ouplu. Its rays sfonicd to liiin;^ witli tlu'in 
 a proiniBO of now life. Mon's hearts f^rew li},diter in spito of themselves, and all felt as if thoy 
 hivd been relieved from a heavy and intt)lerabie burden. Not tiiat the teinjieraturo Bhowed any 
 perceptible (lifferenee. The thornionieter indicated ;}7 l)elo\v zer(j on the Ist of March I 
 
 Pa.ssin<^ over a couple of months whicii present no incidents of importance, wo tind tliat on 
 the 9th of May tiie monotonous diilno.ss of the e.vpedition was broken by a sledi^e-jotirnoy to 
 the north, undertaken by Captain Tyson, with Meyers, Joe, and JIaim as companions. 'I'hoy 
 were absent from the ship six days ; striking inland, in an east-north-east direction, to Newman 
 Hay, and thentre keepintf more to tiie north, until tliey reached lat. 8;i° !*'. Mr. Meyers surveyed 
 the shores of Newman Bay, and Captain 'Jyson en<lcavoured to secure .some i^ame. One day 
 they came on a large lierd of nuisk-o.veii. These animals act very curiously when an attack is 
 madi^ upon them. They form a circle, stern to stern, and await the a.ssault of their enemies. 
 The dogs surround them, and keep them at bay. Not unfrecpiently a dog gets to.sRed. Though 
 Joe and the caj>tain Hreil anrl reloaded as fast as tliey could, the poor brutes otFered no resist- 
 ance ; but when eight had fallen, the remainder took to flight. The slaughtered oxen were then 
 tlayed, and the best pieces cut up for conveyance to the ship. 
 
 These cattle develop their gieat size and weight on what might bo supposed to form a very 
 slender diet. Their food is the mosses and lichens which grow on the rocks; and to oI)tiiin it, 
 thoy must first .scrape away the snow witli their hoofs. At the first sign f)f danger, the calves 
 slielter themselves under their parents' body ; and theii' hair is so long as to atl'ord the young a 
 very complete and satisfactory screen. The musk-ox is an animal of considerable l)ulk. Several 
 of those shot by Tyson and the Eskimos weighed from 500 to 600 lbs. each. In proportion to 
 their size and weight, their legs are very short. 
 
 Early in June, Captain Buddington I'esolved to despatch a couple of boats, for the p\u*poso 
 of exploring the neighbouring coast, and di.scovering, if possible, an open water channel to the 
 north. One of these was placed under the conmiand of Mr. Chester ; the other, of Captain 
 Tyson. Mr. Chester's boat was nipped in an ice-floe, and crushed to pieces. The crew escaped 
 with difficulty, but the historical flag was lost. Captain Tyson pushed forward to Newman 
 Bay, where some eider-ducks, gulls, and dovekies were shot. Joined by Mr. Chester — who 
 had returned to the ship, and secured the safety-boat — he found his further progress arrested liy 
 that compact, insuperable field of ice which is the despair of Arctic navigators. All attempts 
 to get further to the imrth proved- in vain ; and orders to return having arrived from Captain 
 Buddington, there was nothing to be done but to rejoin the Polaris. 
 
 The summer passed away, and still the Pohms lay beset among the ice ; or, rather, drifted 
 slowly to the southward, along with the floe to which it was attached. No sledge-expeditions 
 were organized ; and Captain Buddington's sole concern was to watch for an opportunity of 
 gottir • out into the open channel, and returning to New York. Some slight progress south- 
 ward was occasionally made ; but towards the end of October it became evident that the 
 explorers would have to spend a second winter in their frozen captivit". They had been carried 
 beyond Ren.sselaer Harbour, where Dr. Kane wintered during 1853-55, and began the construc- 
 tion of a storehouse for provisions, in case the ship should be endangered by the drifting ice. 
 
 This dreaded catastrophe did indeed occur, on the night of the 15th. The pressure of the 
 
 i> 
 
878 ADKIFT ON TIIK ICK. 
 
 floe wiw troniondous, but tho Polaris buio it bravely, though j^roaiiiug and cruakiug iu every 
 thiiber. After awhilo, huwover, it was found that Hho had Hturted a leak aft, and that tho water 
 wan gaining on the puiiii^. Tho discovery seems to have startled Buddington out of all coolness 
 or reflottioii. He threw up his arras, and cried out to "throw everything on the ice." Ini- 
 uiudiiitfly all was chaos. The men seized whatever lay near to their hands, and threw it 
 overboard. A (juantity of stores had been previfjusly placed on tho deck, in anticipation of such 
 an event ; but these were now hurled on the (loo in indiscriminate confusion, and with consider- 
 able loss. Captain Tyson and some of the men got overboard, with tho view of arranging things 
 in, at least, a semblance of order ; but while ho was thus engaged, the ice commenced cracking. 
 Shortly afterwards it exploded under his feet, and broke in many jilaces ; the ship drove away 
 in the djirkness, and Tyson and his companions immediately lost sight of her. 
 
 It was a terrible night. The wind blew a hurricane, and the snow fell heavily in drifting, 
 whirling masses. " We did not know," says Tyson, " who was on the ice, or who was on the 
 ship ; " but seeing some musk-ox skins lying across a wide crack in the ice, he pulled them 
 towards him to save them — and behold, rolled up in one of them were two or three of the 
 children of Hans the Eskimo ! Some of the men were afloat on small pieces of ico, but by 
 nie«ins of the whale-boat these were rescued ; and when the gray light of morning dawned on the 
 scene, Tyson ascertained that eighteen persons, besides himself, were castaways. These were — 
 Mr. Meyers, meteorologist ; Heron, steward ; Jackson, cook ; six seamen ; Joe and Hans, the 
 Eskimos, and their wives and children. 
 
 The piece of the tloe on which they were cast was nearly circular, and about four miles in 
 circumference. It was not level, but full of hillocks, and of ponds or small lakes, which had 
 been formed by the molting of the ice during the short summer. The ice varied greatly in 
 thickness. Some of the mounds, or hills, were probably thirty feet thick ; the flat parts not 
 more than ten or fifteen. The surface was exceedingly rugged, and the hummocks were white 
 
 with uUOW. ,; 
 
 Tyson's first task was to inspect the stock of provisions that had been collected on the floe. 
 It consisted of fourteen cans of pemmican, eleven and a half bags of bread, one can of dried 
 apples, and fourteen hams ; and if the ship did not return for them, they might have to support 
 themselves upon this supply all through the dreary winter, or die of starvation. Fortunately, 
 they had a couple of boats ; and Tyson's second care was to load these, embark his little company, 
 and endeavour to reach the shore. In this attempt they were balked by the drifting ice ; and 
 before they could repeat it they caught sight of the Polaris. Immediately they ran up a rough 
 and ready signal ; but no one seemed to be keeping a look-out, and the castaways had the 
 mortification of seeing her drop away behind Littleton I sland, without undertaking any search 
 for her missing crew. ,?• --, - ■ 
 
 Tyson therefore resolved to cross to the other side of the floe, and make for the land, 
 perhaps lower down than the Polaris was, so as to intercept her. Everything was thrown 
 away, except two or three days' jjrovisions, and the boats were got ready. But the men were 
 slow and reluctant ; oars were wanting ; a violent 5;ale arose ; and as night was coming on, 
 Tyson found himself compelled to abandon his inte-ition. On the followi?ig day, the ice again 
 broke ; and now the adventurers were drifting with one boat on one piece of ice, while the other 
 

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 THE BOAT KKOOVKUEI). 
 
 SSI 
 
 boat, a part of their provisions, and an extemporized luit of poles, remained on tiie main ]iart of 
 the original floa. The ice-raft whicii carried Tyson and his companions measured about 150 
 yards each way. 
 
 On the 2l8t, however, the boat and provisions were recovered. Joe, with the keen eye of 
 an Eskimo, caught sight of the bow of the l>oat, projecting from a fragment of the broken ii;c. 
 Folio ved by his faithful aily, Tyson went in search of it, leaping like a chamois hunter fron) 
 crag to crag. Six of the dogs had accon)panied him. These were harne.ssed to tlio boat, and 
 with the help of sturdy arms dragged it over the disrupted floe. The whole party then removed 
 to the large floe, where some snow-houses were speedily erected. They formed (piite aii cncain|i 
 
 ADIUFT ON THE ICE-FI.OE. 
 
 ment : one hut, or rather a sort of half-hut, for Mr. Meyers and Captain Tyson ; Joe's hut for 
 himself, his wife, and their adopted daughter ; a hut for the men ; a storehouse for provisions, and 
 a cook-house,— all united by arched galleries, built of consolidated snow, with one main entrance, 
 and smaller ones branching off to the several apartments or huts. Hans built his i</loe 
 separately, but close by. All were constructed after the Eskimo fashion— that is, the ground 
 being levelled oft", one half of the floor toward the end furthest from the entrance was slightly 
 raised above the other or front half. The raised part, as we have previously explained, serves as 
 parlour and bedroom ; the lower area, as workshop and kitchen. The walls and arched roof 
 were bui.o up of square blocks of hard snow, packed hard and close by the force of the wind, A 
 square of about eighteen inches of this compressed snow or ice served for window. 
 
282 
 
 TAKING STOCK 
 
 This good v/ork done, Tyson took stock. Successive expeditions had gathered togetlier 
 nearly all tliat was on the ice when the Polaris drifted from them, and he found that their 
 stores included two boats — one of which, however, was being broken up tor fuel — and one 
 kayaik, a good suj ply of powder and -shot, eleven and a half bags of bread, fourteen cans of 
 pcraniioan, fourteen hams, ten dozer cans of meats and soups, one can of dried apples, and about 
 twenty pounds of chocolate and sugar mixed. The pemmican cases werf' Irrge, each weighing 
 forty-five pounds , the meats and soups were only one and two pound cans ; the hams wore 
 small ; tlio dried-apple can counted for twenty-two pounds. Evidently, when divided among 
 ninetoon'people, this supply could not last mar ^r weeks; and unless they reached the land, or 
 
 BrxOVERV OK THE BOAT BY CAPTAIN TTSON. 
 
 could catch seals, starvation seemed their probable ultimate fate. The allowance was reduced to 
 eleven ounces for each adult, and half that amount for the children, — rations painfully in- 
 adequate to the proper support of the human frame in a Polar region and during an Arctic 
 winter. 
 
 On the 23rd of Octobei" they lost sight of the sun. At this time they were about eight or 
 ten miles off-shore, and forty to fifty miles west of Northumberland Island, in lat. 77° 30' nearly. 
 The Eskimos were on the watch for seals day after day, but without success. In truth, it is not 
 easy to find the seal in winter, as they live principally under the ice, and can be seen cnly when 
 it cracks. A v/arm-blooded animal, it cannot always remain beneath the frozen surface without 
 breatiiing, and for this purpose they make air-holes through the ice and snow. These, however. 
 
I 
 
 MISTAKEN FOR A PEAK. 
 
 MS 
 
 are so small at the surface, not exceeding two and a half inches across, that they are not easily 
 distinguished, especially in the twilight-gloom uf an Arcti winter day. 
 
 The floe, o»- ice-raft, on which the ci ow of the Polaris had found shelter, continued to drift 
 slowly to the southward, impelled by wind and cur. ont. The weather was so sevt ; e that it was 
 worse than useless to ati ;mpt to reach the shore. The castaways therefore huddled themselves 
 together in their iyloes, or huts of snow, or took such diversion as hunting for fox or seal 
 afforded. Or when a gleam of fair weather afforded an opportunity, Tyson took a short drive 
 in his sledge, and explored as much as he dared of the ice lying towards the shore. On the 
 Ist of November an attempt was made to reach the land, the dogs being harnessed to the 
 sledge, and the boat loaded witli the most essential articles ; but the state of the ice rendered 
 all efforts of this kind fruitless. 
 
 One day, Joe and Hans, the Eskiiiios, went out in quest of game. In wandering through 
 the hummocks they lost one another, and Joe, after trying his luck alone, made his way back 
 
 lOLOEB CONSTRUCTKD IT TBE CABTAWATS. 
 
 towards the hut before night came on ; he fully anticipated to find that Hans had preceded him, 
 and was much alarmed when he heard that he had not returned. Accompanied by Robert, 
 he started in search of him. As they sped along through the rapidly-gathering darkness, they 
 saw what appeared to be a Polar bear approaching them ; loaded their pistols, and prepared to 
 give him a warm reception, when, fortunately, the creature throwing up his arms, and standing 
 erect, they perceived that it was their missing comrade. He had used both hands and feet in 
 climbing the rough hummocks, and his fur clothing being covered with snow, the deception was 
 tolerably complete. 
 
 On the 2 Ist of November, Captain Tyson writes in his diary : " We are living now on. as 
 little as the human frame can endure without succumbing ; some tremble with weakness when 
 they try to walk. Mr. Meyers suffers much from this cause ; he was not well when he came on 
 the ice, and the regimen here has not improved him. He lives with the men now ; they are 
 mostly Germans, and so is he, and the affinity of blood draws them together, I suppose. Since 
 
 Jl 
 
284 
 
 SUFFEUINGS OF THK CASTAWAYS. 
 
 liu has liuustd with tho men, I have livod in tliu hut with Joe, Hannah, and Puney. Puney, 
 liuor (.Iiild, is often luin{,My ; indued, all the children often cry with hunger. We yive them all 
 that it is safe to use. I can do no more, however sorry I may feel for them." 
 
 But it is unnecessary to trace the misfortunes and sufferings of Captain Tyson's little com- 
 pany day by day. Their wretched cun<lition — adrift on a raft of ice, insufficiently clothed, insuffi- 
 ciently fed, poorly hou.sed, without any of the comfurts that generally make an Arctic expedition 
 endurable, buffeted by snow-storm and tempest, in constant apprehension lest their insecure raft 
 should break up — requiies no exaggeration of colouring to produce its full impression on the 
 reader. In January 1873, it was found that the provisions were diminishing with terrible 
 rapidity.; and this was due not so nuich to the regular daily consumption as to the secret pilfer- 
 ings of the crew, who were not controlled by any bunds of discipline, and yielded Captain Tyson 
 an imperfect and reluctant obedience. They were all Germans, except Heron, an Englishman, 
 
 MANS MISTAKEN FOR A HEAR. 
 
 and the cook, a man of colour, and their conduct was a disgrace to their nationality. • They 
 seem to have thought that their raft was carrying them swiftly towards Disco in Greenland, 
 where abundant supplies could easily be obtained ; but, in truth, they were drifting in the 
 direction of Labrador, and the safety of all demanded the sternest economy of their small stock 
 of provisions. 
 
 The cold was now excessive, —35° below zero at noon, and 37° at midnight. On the 13th, 
 it sank below 40°. On the following day, however, a strong westerly gale blew up ; the cold 
 became more moderate — the temperature rose to —14°. Under the influence of the gale, the ice 
 began to crack and grind and break up; the natives launched a kayack ; a seal was hunted 
 down, and the castaways feasted gloriouslj'. This, however, was but a transient i^ieam of good 
 fortune. On the 17th the glass again sank to 38", and no more seals were visible. The men 
 were now reduced to less than twelve ounces of food daily, which was not sufficient to furnish 
 internal warmth, or to strengthen the system against the terrible effects of the Arctic climate. 
 

A HUNTING EXPEDITION. 
 
 Wf 
 
 The 1 9th was, to some extent, a, day of hope ; for, after an absence of eighty-three days, 
 tlie sun once more rose above the misty horizon. Kskimo Joe took mlvantaj^'e of tho biUHt of 
 daylight to undertake hunting expedition. About five mile.s from the hut J\o fouad open 
 water, and shot two seaU, but could land only one ; the young ice carried the other away. En- 
 couraged by the cheerful glow of the sun, he stayed out later than usual, and it was very dark 
 before he returned. A light of burning blubber was kindled to guide him to the hut. It shone 
 out upon tho gloom <tf the niglit like u pharos. 
 
 The 25th of January marked the one hundred and third day of the castaways' voyage on the 
 
 THE OUIDINQ LIOIIT. 
 
 ice-raft, and they severely felt the monotonous wretchedness of their existence. Tt wtis a beau- 
 tiful day, and perfectly calm ; but the thermometer indicated 40° below zero. At midnight the 
 heavens were illuminated with all the glories of a brilliant aurora. They seemed to be al)laze : 
 from tlie south-west to the north-east, from the horizon to the zenith, the magnetic fires shot 
 here and there, and wavered and undulated, like flame driven by a strong wind. At one time 
 the splendour was almost overjwwering, and the straining eye was fain to seek relief in darkness. 
 On the 1st of February a violent gale arose, blowing from the north-west, and the ice, 
 rolling and rocking beneath its influence, split up into great cracks and fissures which threat- 
 ened the safety of the castaways. Huge blocks fell off" from the floe ; and the vast bergs 
 which had hitherto accompanied, and partly sheltered it, moved rapidly before the wind. 
 
 19 
 
S88 
 
 I'lCTUltE OF AN INTKfJlOR 
 
 Kvt;rytliinp acknowledijod tlio niijijht of tho stornj ; but as yet the adventurers had not been 
 iliHtuibwl, thou;,'li Hurroiiiidcd by mountains of ice heavy enough, if driven against tlieir 
 iin(!Hin|)incnt, to have crushod thoin to atoms. Thus far they had floated safely, but the 
 position was one to cause reflection : at some time or other the ice must break up, they knew ; 
 but whether they wouhl survive tho catastrophe was beyond conjecture. Tiiey could only 
 wait and hope. 
 
 Here is a picture of the interior of one of the igloes, or snow-huts : — 
 
 " Joe and Hannah are sitting in front of the lamp, playing checkers on an old piece ot 
 
 canvas, the squares being marked out with Tyson's pencil. They use buttons for men, as they 
 have nothing better. The natives easily learn any sort of game ; some of them can even play a 
 respectable game of chess ; and cards they understand aa well as the ' heathen Chinee.' Cards 
 go wherever sailors go, and the first lessons that the natives of any uncivilized country get are 
 usually from sailors. 
 
 " Little Puney, Joe and Hannah's adopted child, a li' Ae girl, is sitting wrapped in a 
 musk-ox skin ; every few minutes she says to her mother, ' I am so hungry !' The children often 
 cry with hunger. It makes one's heart ache, but they are obliged to bear it with the rest." 
 
 The gale continued on the 2nd, with blinding showers of snow — fine, penetrating, pungent. 
 
/ 
 
 f 
 
LANTASTIC FOIJMS oK I(!KIlKltf!8. 
 
 Ml 
 
 Next day the weat'ner modcnitcd, mid tlio jjlass roHO to 15 liulow zero. Dark clouds lowori'd in 
 the horizon, provontini^ tho hind t'rnm htinu; seen, if iiny shon? wtirt' nt>ar. Hut tho rnpifl riHC in 
 the temperature, after ho stron^y a north-west >(ale, allowod Tynoii to hoju^ that tl>e wind had 
 mastered tho current, and was forcinjj thonj towardH the flrecnla".;! shore. 
 
 Though all around notliing was visible hut ice and icebergs, Mh' <ceno had a certaifi heanty 
 of ita own — a strange weird beauty, like that of a dream-jticture. When the sun shone on the 
 bergs, and lighted up their massive or fantastic forms, all the prisniatic; coloir of the raiid)ow 
 flashed through the "crystal pendants "or " projecting peaks." The interest of the scene was 
 enhanced by the variety of its forms. Every berg appeared to have had its individual history, 
 and its broken outline and furrowed surface bore witness to the experienci's it had undergone — 
 storm and rain, wind and water. Some rose u|) around the castaways like solid ramparts ; others 
 represented the spire uf a (Jothic cathedral, the pinnacle of a Turkish minart>t, the glittering 
 
 SUOOTINO MARWHAL. 
 
 walls of a palace : all were beautiful, yet terrible in their beauty, conveying a profouiul feeling of 
 might and destructive power. 
 
 On the 5th, and again on the 7th, a seal was caught, and the little <!onipany enjoyed a plen- 
 tiful meal. On the latter day a couple of narwhals were shot, but both sank before they could 
 be reached. These narwhals are sometimes called sea-unicorns, or monodons, in allusion U) the 
 long horn, six to eight feet in measurement— or, rather, the elongated tooth -which projects 
 from the upper jaw ; a formidable weapon, tapering "rom base to point, with a spiral twist from 
 left to right. Strange stories were told of these sea-unicorns by the early navigators ; but science 
 has made short work of legend and fable. 
 
 Day after day, tht history of our navigators was the same ; no stirring romance, but harsh 
 reality : — -wind and snov, snow and wind — a wind which almost froze the life-blood of those 
 exposed to it, and snow which fell so fast and thick as to wrap the scene in the gloom of desola- 
 
 i 
 
2n2 
 
 DKiniNG SOUTHWARD. 
 
 tion. Siill, the ico-rArt driftuJ .southward ; .slowly but surely drifted throui^h the darkness of the 
 night and the twiii<,dit obscurity of the day ; while the little company it carried suffered much 
 from iiitreasing weakness, though better provided with food than formerly, owing to the frequent 
 i-apturc of narwhal and seal. Occasionally the mists cleared oft', and the sun streamed out in 
 meridian sphMidouv, lighting up every feature of the " ite-scape "— mjvy we coin the word? — 
 aroi'nd them. But, too frequently, " snow and blow, blow and snow," wa.s, as Tyson renuirks, 
 " the order of the day." 
 
 Hope lives eternal in the human brea.st ; and though it had sunk very low in the hearts of 
 our adventurers, it suddenly rekindled on the 19th of February, when they caught sight of the 
 west coast, at no greater distance than thirty-eight or forty miles. Its flame was kept alive on 
 the 2l8t by the discovery that tin thermometer had risen to 3° above zero. Next day it had risen 
 to 20", or within 12" of freezing-point; and men inured to the rigour of an Arctic winter spoke 
 
 DIIAGUIXO TIIK OOOJOOK (.SEE IWOE J96). 
 
 of such weather with cheeriness as " very comfortable." The cloud upon the prospect now was 
 the want of food, for the game had begun to fail. The hunters went forth every morning, bat 
 returned empty-handed. 1'he feebleness of the party increased in an alarming degree. It took 
 several men to carry a light Eskimo kayack, which for an ordinary man is not even a burden. 
 What was to be done ? The only chance of life seemed to lie in reaching the shore ; but how 
 were these gaunt, frail skeletons to convey their boat across the rugged ice until they reached 
 the open water ? 
 
 They decided, however, on making the attempt, in the hope of reaching a place called 
 Siiaumen, a little to the north of Cape Mercy, m lat 65° N., where game, and sometimes 
 Eskimos, were to bo found. In spite of all their efforts, they were foiled by a succession of 
 blinding, lashing, beating snow-storms. The mercury sank again to 24° below zero, and their 
 [losition grew desperate. They were reduced to one meal — and such a meal ! — per diem. Great 
 was their joy on the 28th when the hunters brought in thirty-seven dovekies, or two apiece. 
 

BREAK UP OF THE FLOE. 
 
 S95 
 
 -> 
 
 They were cooked without delay, and eaten up to the last morsel, except tho feathers. Greater 
 still was their joy on the 2nd (of March), when Eskimo Joo shot a monster oo<yi)ok (a lartjo 
 kind of seal), the largest they had ever seen— such a monster tliat it took all liand.s to draj( ita 
 carcass to the huts. Peter danced and sunjj in the exuberance of his delight, and everybody 
 felt that for a time they were saved from starvation. On measurement, this glorious oogjodk 
 proved to be seven feet nine inches in length, or fully nine feet including the tail. 
 
 The ice-raft was now apj)roaching Cumberland Gulf, and Tyson calculated that tliey Iiad 
 reached lat. 65° N. They drifted more and more rapidly ; and if they did not die of famine, — if 
 the ice did not break up too suddenly, — there was a probability of their reaching the whaling 
 
 rmsT SKiiiT OF A wn.\i,K. 
 
 ground, and falling in with some friendly ship. The gales, however, were frequent and severe ; 
 the thermometer continued very low — 32° to 34° below zero ; and tlie sutterings of tlie whole 
 company were intense. Even the Eskimos were sorely afflicted ; though w itiiout these bold and 
 patient hunters, the white men must certainly have perished. 
 
 On the 7th of March there were indications of the breaking up of the floe. It cracked and 
 snapped beneath them, with a sound like that of distant thunder. So far as the surface wa« con- 
 cerned, however, no signs of fracture were visible ; the eye, straining in every direction, saw 
 nothing but an unbroken expanse of ice. And thus it continued until the 12th, when, during a 
 terrible storm, the threatened catastrophe took place, the ice-raft being shattered suddenly into 
 
 hundreds of pieces, on one of which, not more that one hundred yards by seventy-five, the 
 
 20 
 
s«« 
 
 ADVKNTUUE WITH A DEAU. 
 
 adventurers found themselves adrift ! Oh, what a night of dread anxiety they passed, expecting 
 every moment that this j iece too would give way, and plunge them into ruin! But it held 
 together ; and when the wind abated, and the nnow ceased ti) fall, and the wild hurtling of the 
 broken ice was hushed, they could look around them, and realize their position. The condition 
 of the ice had undergone an absolute change ; the " Hoes " were driven up into a " pack," and 
 hugt! blocks, of all shapes and sizes, were heaped up and jammed together in inextricable 
 confusion. 
 
 Noting that cm the 21st of March seven seals replenished the empty larder of our adven- 
 turera, and tlrnt on the 26th wllilI<^s were visible for the first time, — a welcome sign, as indicating 
 
 FACE TO F.VCE WITH A I'OLAB UEAll. 
 
 their approach to the fishing-grounds, — we pass on to the 29th, which was marked by a curious 
 incident. Shortly after dark, Tyson heard a noise outside his hut ; he had just taken off his boots, 
 preparing for rest ; Joe, too, was on the point of retiring, but thinking the ice was breaking up, 
 he went out to view the " situation." In a few seconds he hastily returned, pallid and frightened, 
 and exclaiming, " There is a Vjar close to my kayack ! " The kayack lay within ten feet of the 
 entrance to the hut. Both Joe and Tyson's rifles were outside ; Joe's within the kayack, and 
 Tyson's lying close to it ; but Joe had his pistol in the hut. The captain put on his boots, and 
 then both crept cautiously out Seal-skins and lumps of blubber were lying about in all direc- 
 tions ; and Biuin, having dragged some of these about thirty feet from the kayack, was banquet- 
 ing at his ease. Joe crept into the sailora' hut to alarm them. Meantime Tyson crawled 
 
REACHING THE PACK-ICE. 
 
 299 
 
 stealthily to his rifle, but in taking it knocked down a shot-gun standing by. The bear h(?ard it, 
 but Tyson's rifle already covered him ; he growled ; Tyson pulled the trigger, but the gun would 
 not go off" ; a second, and a third time — it did not go ; but Tyson did, for the bear now rushed 
 full upon him. Retiring to the hut, he put another cartridge in, and then again crept out into 
 the open, taking up a position where he co\dd see the animal, although the night was dark. The 
 bear, too, saw his assailant, and faced towards him ; but this time the rifle-ball went straight to 
 its mark ; the bear ran about two rods, and fell dead. 
 
 The victim was a "sea-bear," Ursus maritimus, and supplied the company on the ice-raft 
 with a welcome change of diet. 
 
 OS no.VRD THE BOAT. 
 
 As the piece of ice was gradually wearing away, tlie adventurers of the Polaris resolved 
 on an effort to regain the main pack, which would necessarily be safer. With their sleeping- 
 gear, tent, and a supply of shot and powder, they embarked on board the boat, and stood to 
 the westward ; and on the 4th of April, after a succession of rough experiences, reached 
 the "pack." Here they were not much better off", for a violent gale blowing from the north- 
 east, the ice began to break off" in huge fragments ; and soon the area at the command of 
 the navigators was so small, that they were compelled to reload the boat, and prepare for a 
 hurried departure. The wind, however, subsided, the pack closed up, and things returned to 
 their normal condition. 
 
 On the 18th of April the castaways were somewhat reinvigorated by the capture of a seal. 
 
|00 
 
 CAUGHT IN A 8T0KM. 
 
 which J 00 brought a«hore in his kayack, and by tho appearance of land to the south-wost. But 
 in thiu wild Arctic region the weather in spring is subject to surprising changes, and on 
 tlic 20th another gale began to blow. Such was its fury that it drove a heavy swell of sea 
 
 IIIIKAKINU Ur OF TUB ILK. 
 
 lUToss tile ico-rnft, which washed away every article that was loose. Billow after billow followed 
 with evt'i-incrcasing violence ; and tent, and skins, and nearly all the bed-gear, were swept intc 
 
 JOB C.VrTt'RES A SEAL. 
 
 the boiling waters. Only a few articles were saved, which, along with the women and children, 
 had been stowed in the boat. To save the boat tasked the energies of all the party, who had to 
 hold on to it, with might and main, to prevent it from being carried out to sea. All through the 
 
 mtmm 
 
1 
 
■3hu 
 
A NIOHT OK KKAI!. 
 
 103 
 
 dreadful ui^ht tin* men wit*; on thu watch a^aiiiHt tluH crowning' diMi.stor>; all throUj^'h tliu dn-ary 
 night, from !) p.m. until 7 a.m., straining ovory nurve, calling into pliiy every rocourco of energy. 
 Ever and anon, one of the treinondouH hillowH would phnv^'u downward, luul lift the l)nat hodily, 
 and the men with it, and carry it and tliem forward on the ice, alnumt to tlic (.ppositi' cdgr of 
 the Heating raft ; several times the boat heeled ,'artly (jvur, and wiih liauled l';i«k oidy by ilio 
 more than human strength which the crow derived from a knowledge of their position. The boat 
 gone, all was lost I Terrible was the work ; had the waters been smooth, the task would not have 
 been easy; but they were filled with loose ice, which rolled about in blocks of all sliapcs und 
 sizes, and with almost every wave these came toppling and rolling and diiving forward like an 
 
 ' HULL OF WATKllH. 
 
 avalanche, and fell about the heads and limbs of the men as they clung desperately to the boat. 
 
 But God mercifully supplied them with the strength they needed ; and so, labouring to the 
 
 uttermost, they waited and watched for the day. For twelve houi-s scarcely a sound was uttered 
 
 except the crying of the children, and Tyson's stern command to "Hold on," or " Bear down," 
 
 with the responsive " Ay, ay, sir " of the men. 
 
 Day dawned at last, with a dull gray light over the restless sea, and Tyson saw with in 
 
 describable thankfulness a large raft of ice floating within reach. He determined to make for it, 
 
 though the men hesitated to launch the boat into such a "hell of waters." But it was done; 
 
 the women and children were first got on board, and then all the men embarked in safety. By 
 
 dint of hard pulling, they gained the ice, landed, refreshed themselves with a morsel of food, 
 
 21 
 
S04 
 
 TAK1N{» TO THK BOAT. 
 
 and thou, o-- thiH now ice-ruft, luid down to ruMt. Tho following niorninj? found tlicin " Bafe and 
 Hoiind," alitor all thoir trialH, with tho oxce|ition of a few bruiHoa and contuwiuns. 
 
 On tho U^iid of Ajiiil unotliur hiar wan killi-d ; itn<l juHt ii. tiuif, for tho wholo party were 
 without a uiorHfl of food. Thin lawtid thorn for thrio or four days ; and thon, on tho 2r)th, a8 
 .starvation ont-o inoro starod thoni in tho face, thoy rosolvod on a doHporato effort to luako tho 
 land. What oIho woro they to do { The rain foil in torrontH ; the wind blow a hurricar" ; the 
 ico-raft waa conHtantly wasting' away ; they had no proviMions. True, the boat was frail and 
 leaky, and tho hoj> ran liif,'h ; but as the ico would not much lonj^er aftbrd them oven a footing, 
 a docision was forced upon thoiu. 
 
 So in their crippled, ovorloadod boat thoy set out, the wind blowing a gale, and a tremon- 
 tlous Hoa running, full of small knife-like blades of ice. After eight hours* labour at tho oars, 
 ( hoy came to a piece of floe, and encamped upon it for the night. At daylight on tho 28th they 
 
 DRAOOINU THK UO,\T ON TO A ri,OB. 
 
 again launched their boat ; and after much weary work in threading their way through a fleet of 
 icel)ergs, they got into comparatively open water. 
 
 At half-past four, a joyful sight ! — a steamer right ahead, and bearing north of them. The 
 castaways hoisted their colours, and pulled towards her. She was a sealer, going south-west, and 
 making her way through the floating ice. The hearts of the castaways beat with joy at the 
 prospect of speedy relief; but, alas, they were doomed t<j disappointment I She did not see the 
 miserable little company in the overloaded boat ; and it was impossible for them to overtake her. 
 Night gathered over the sea, and she disappeared. 
 
 Reaching a suitable piece of floe, they boarded it, and again encamped for the night, under 
 a sky which wa« clear and calm, and shone with the glory of stars. The sea, too, was tranquil, 
 and, notwithstanding their disappointment, they felt more hopeful than before ; it was evident 
 thoy had '•cached the borders of civilization, and might rely upon obtaining help. With seals' 
 blubber they kindled beacon-fires on the ze ; and divided their men into two watches. 
 
OLIKOINO TO THE BOAT (SEE PAOE »(»), 
 
 J. 
 
HESCUED HY THK "TlORESa." 307 
 
 Tho next day they sighted another steamer, launched their boat, and pulled lustily towards 
 her. In vain : she did not see them, and after a couple of hours' hard work they were hemmed 
 in by the ice, and could make no progress. They landed on a floe, and hoisted their colours ; 
 collected and loaded all their rifles and pistols, and filled the echoes with the ringing report of 
 three simultaneous volleys. They heard three shots in reply, and — glorious si^'.it I — saw the 
 steamer directing her course towards them. They shouted with all their might ; but in tho keen 
 air their voices seemed to p?ss away soundlessly. Presently the steamer changed her course, 
 tacking south, then north, then west, as if she were vainly cndeavo . ring to force a passage through 
 the accumulated ice. Yet there seemed no insuperable obstacle in her path. The fugitives fired 
 again, and again ; but she came no nearer, and late in the afteri.oon steamed away to the south- 
 west. 
 
 At sunset they descried land in the same direction, about thirty-five miles distant. 
 
 On the following day, the 30th of April, Tyson was lying in the boat, his watch having just 
 ended, when the look-out raised a sudden shout : " There's a steamer ! there's a steamer ! " As 
 if fresh life had been poured into his veins, Tyson sprang to his feet, ordered all the guns to be 
 fired, joined his companions in a loud simultaneous cry, and raised their colours to the head of 
 the boat's mast. Hans leaped into his kayack, and was despatched to intercept the ship, if pos- 
 sible, as there was some danger of losing sight of her in the fog which prevailed ; but, happily, 
 she bore down towards them. Hans paddled on, and in his broken English shouted, " American 
 steamer." He was not understood by those on board, but they kept their course, and in a few 
 minutes lay alongside of the ice-isle which sheltered Tyson and his company. Oh, what three 
 loud, hearty, joyful cheers acknowledged their deliverance 1 These w 2re immediately returned 
 by the cr. of the steamer, which proved to be the sealer Tigress, of Conception Bay, New- 
 foundland. 
 
 Wo quote from Captain Tyson's simply-worded narrative : — 
 
 "Two or three of their small seal-boats were instantly 'owered. We, however, now that 
 relief was certain, threw everything from our own boat, and in a minute's time she was in the 
 water ; while the boats of the Tigress came on, and the crews got on our bit of ice, and peeped 
 curiously into the dirty pans we had used over the oil-fires. We had been making soup out of 
 the blood and entrails of the last little seal which Hans had shot. They soon saw enough to 
 convince them that we were in sore need. No words were required to make that plain. 
 
 " Taking the women and nhildren in their boats, wo tumbled into our own, and were soon 
 alongside of the Tigress. We left &11 we had behind, and our all was simply a few battered 
 smoky tin pans and the debris of our last seal. It had already become offal in our eyes, though 
 we had often been glad enougli to get such fare. 
 
 " On stepping on boa. i, I was at once surrounded by a curious lot of people — I mean men 
 filled with curii,sity to know our story, and all asking questions of me and the men. I told them 
 who I was, find where we were from. But when they asked me, ' How long have you been on 
 the ice?' and I answered, 'Since the 15th of last October,' they were so astonished that they 
 fairly looked blank with wonder. 
 
 " One of the party, looking at me with open-eyed surprise, exclaimed, — 
 
 " ' And was you on it night and day t ' 
 
 " The peculiar expression of the tone, with the absurdity of the question, was too much for 
 
Jos IN SEARCH OF THE " POLARIS. " 
 
 my politenesH. I laughed in spite of myself, and my long unexercised risibles thrilled with an 
 unwonted sensation." 
 
 Tyson and his party were picked up in lat. 53" 35' N.; a fact which will give the reader 
 some idea of the wonderful voyage they had accomplished on their various ice-rafts. 
 
 They were trea.od with thoughtful kindness on board the Tigress, w..ich on the 7th of M 
 turned her heat! towards Newfoundland. On the following day she put into Concep* on Ba, 
 where the Americans landed, and remained until the 12th. They then started for St. John's; 
 and the news of their remarkable experiences having preceded them, found themselves on their 
 arrival the objects of a very general and lively curiosity. After a short stay, they were conveyed 
 to Wa.shington on board the United States steamship Frolic. And here ends their strange, 
 eventful history. 
 
 We must now return to the Polaris. 
 
 When she drifted away in the darkness of that stormy night, she had on board fourteen 
 persons : CaptJiin Buddington, Dr. Emil Bepsel, Messrs. Bryan and Chester, and ten officers and 
 seamen. What had become of them and their vessel ? Such was the natural question which 
 arose on the safe arrival at Washington of Tyson and his companions ; and the American Govern- 
 ment quickly came to the determination of organizing a relieving party to seek for and bring 
 back the survivors and remains, if any, of the Polaris expedition. The steamship Juniata was 
 immediately despatched to form a dep6t of supplies on the coast of Greenland in advance. She 
 reached Upernavik on the 31st of July, and there brought into use her steam-launch, the Little 
 Juniata ; which, manned by a gallant crew, pushed forward into the icy waters of Melville Bay, 
 but without coming upon any traces of the missing explorers. Meantime, the American Govern- 
 ment purchased the Tigress, and fitted her up for a thorough cruise in the Arctic seas. With 
 Captain Greer in command, and Mr. Tyson as acting-lieutenant, and a crew of eleven officers 
 and forty-two men, "all told," the Tigress set sail on the evening of July 14th, and dropped 
 anchor at St. John's on the morning of the 23rd. 
 
 On the 11th of August we find her at Upernavik, where she took on board a supply of coal 
 from the Juniata. She then proceeded northward, falling in with the heavy pack-ice near Cape 
 York. The 14th saw her ofi" the Eskimo settlement of Netlik. She was now approaching 
 Northumberland Island, in the neighbourhood of which, or of Littleton Island, it was supposed 
 the Polaris had parted from the ice-floe. Captain Greer carefully examined Northumberland 
 Island, but without success. He then made for Littleton Island ; and a boat was lowered to go 
 on shore, carrying Lieutenant White, Captain Tyson, and other officers. What was their sur- 
 prise, as they approached, to discover some human figures and a couple of tents on the mainland, 
 near Littleton Island. The figures proved to be Eskimos ; and through the agency of Eskimo 
 Joe, who was on board the Tigress, it was soon ascertained that Captain Buddington had deserted 
 the Polaris on the day after her separation from the floe ; that ho and his companions had erected 
 a house on the mainland, and wintered therein ; had fitted it up with sleeping-berths for fourteen 
 men, the full number, and furnished it with stove, table, chairs, and other articles removed from 
 the abandoned ship ; that during the winter the party had built and equipped a couple of sailing- 
 boats ; and that " about the time when the ducks begin to hatch " they had departed for the south. 
 
SAVBDl 
 
BUDDINOTON AND HIS CHEW. 311 
 
 The Eskimo chief, or leader, added that Captain Buddington had uiadc him a present of 
 the Folatis ; but that the gift proved of no effect, for in a violent gale she broke loose from the 
 ice, drifted out into the channel, and foundered. 
 
 Further search brought the crew of the Tigress to the winter-camp of the Polaris crew. 
 It was situated in lat. 78" 23' N., and long. 73° 4C W. Some manuscripts were found there, with 
 the log-book, the medical stores, and remains of instruments ; and these, with whatever else that 
 seemed of intrinsic value, having been removed on board the Tigreiss, the expedition bore away 
 to the southward, and on the 16th of October reached St. John's, Newfoundland, where they 
 received the w Icome intelligence of the rescue of the Polaris party under the circumstances wo 
 shall now relate. 
 
 We return to the eventful night of the 15th of October 1872. During the tremendous 
 gale that then raged along the Arctic coast, the bow-hawser of the Polaris snapped like a 
 " pack-thread," the anchors slipped, and the ship drifted away into the darknes.s. The wind 
 for': ^d her in a north-easterly direction; and next morning those on board found her "a little 
 north of Litt'eton Island, in Smith Sound, having been exactly abreast of Sutherland Island 
 during a portion of +he night." 
 
 As she waf .eaking rapidly the pumps were set to work ; and the fires with much difficulty 
 being lighted, the ship was got to obey her helm. It was then found that the following officers 
 and men remained on board : — Captain Buddington ; Mr. Chester, chief mate ; William Merton, 
 second mate ; Emil Schuman, chief engineer ; Odell, assistant-engineer ; Campbell and Booth, 
 firemen ; Coffin, carpenter ; Sieman, Hobby, Hays, and Manch, seamen ; Dr. Emil Bessel, 
 meteorologist ; and Mr. Bryan, astronomer and chaplain. 
 
 A look-out was kept, it is said, for the nineteen who were missing, but no signs of them 
 being discovered, Captain Buddington came to the comfortable conclusion that they had saved 
 themselves in the boats. Doubting the feasibility of carrying the Polaris to the southward, he 
 determined to abandon her, and winter on shore. With this view she was run in as near land 
 as possible, and finally grounded in Kane's Life-boat Cove, lat. 78° 23' 30" N., and long. 73° 
 21' W. Here, on the 17th of October, Captain Buddington prepared to establish a winter- 
 camp ; and the next few days were occupied in removing from the stranded vessel all the food 
 and fuel, and such articles as could conduce to the comfort and sustenance of the party through 
 the ensuing winter. 
 
 With spars, bulk-heads, and canvas brought from the Polaris a commodious house was 
 erected, measuring twenty-two feet in length, and fourteen feet in width. It was thoroughly 
 water-tight ; warmed inside by a stove ; and banked outside with masses of compact snow. In 
 the interior th3 sides were lined with fourteen sleeping-berths. A table and chairs and lamjis 
 added to the general comfort ; so that our explorers were prepared to brave a Polar winter 
 under more favourable conditions than those experienced by most Arctic navigators. 
 
 In the course of a few days a party of native Eskimos, with five sledges, made their 
 appearance, and their friendly labours were found of no little value. They considered them- 
 selves amply repaid by a few presents of knives, needles, and the like, and after a short stay 
 returned to their settlement at Etah. However, others soon took their place ; and event\ially 
 
818 . COMFORTABLK WINTER-QUARTERS. 
 
 two or three familieH built their igloes in the neighbourhood of the American camp. The 
 EHkimo women made themselves very useful by making and repairing clothing, and rendering 
 other feminine courtesies ; while the men, when game became plentiful, supplied the little 
 settlement with a welcome abundance of fresh meat. Nor was this the only advantage derived 
 from the presence of the Eskimos ; on the contrary, it had an excellent effect on the morale of 
 the men, who did not feel that utter isolation, that sense of being cut off from human companion- 
 ship, and separated from the rest of the rid, which is one of the severest trials of wintering 
 in the Arctic regions. The heavy pressi e of the long, dark Polar night was wonderfully 
 lightened by the kindly attentions and mirthful society of the Eskimos. 
 
 It is probable that some of the Polaiis cre\t' never spent a happier winter. There was no 
 want of food, no suffering from cold ; their quarters were warm, cheerful, and well-lighted. 
 Time did not hang heavily on their hands ; for when the house-work was done, when the fires 
 were replenished, the lamps trimmed, and the day's provisions cooked, they amused themselves 
 with reading or writing, or played at chess, draughts, and cards. It is true they had no com- 
 munication with the world witliout, and no intelligence could reach them from friends or kinsmen ; 
 but, sxirgit amari aliqutd — in the cup of human happiness a bitter drop is always found ! 
 
 When the worst of the winter was past, they began, under the direction of the carpenter, 
 to construct a couple of boats, with the view of returning homeward as soon as the ice broke up. 
 Each was twenty-five feet long, square fore and aft, and five feet beam ; capable, that is, of 
 carrying seven men, with provisions for about two months, in which time they might reasonably 
 calculate on reaching the civilized settlements. It was the end of May before the condition of 
 the ice enabled them to set out. Then they broke up their camp, rewarded their Eskimo friends, 
 carried on board stores and provisions ; and, finally, early on the morning of the 1st of June 
 they bade farewell to their winter-home, and sailed out into the waters of Smith Sound. 
 
 Their voyage was unmarked by any disastrous incident, and presents a strange contrast to 
 the dangerous experiences of Tyson and his companions. Wherever they landed, they obtained 
 an abundant supply of aquatic birds, seal, and other game. They were all in good health, well- 
 fed, well-clothed. Their boats were sound and strong. The winter had long passed away, and 
 the glorious summer sun poured its full radiance on the calm surface of the Arctic sea. Sailing 
 pleasantly along, they touched at Hakluyt Island, and subsequently landed on the west shore 
 of Northumberland Island. The pack-ice detained them there until the 10th. They then 
 entered a water-way toward Cape Parry, but were subsequently forced back by the ice to the 
 place whence they had started. On the 1 2th the channel was clearer. They set sail again ; 
 crossed the southern part of Murchison Sound ; doubled Cape Parry ; and halted for rest and 
 refreshment on Blackwood Point, near Fitz Clarence Rock. Thence they made, in due 
 succession, for Wolstenholme Island, and Cape York, — names which recall the adventures of 
 the earlier explorers. 
 
 Their course now assumed a more difficult character, as they had come face to face with 
 the ice of Melville Bay, — that great expanse of Arctic waters which is surrounded by glacier- 
 loaded shores, and has always been a favourite " whaling-ground." Here they encountered some 
 difficulty with the "pack;" the "leads," or water-ways, curiously intersecting one another, and 
 striking far into the ice, and so closing up that it was often necessary to haul their boats across 
 a kind of promontory, or tongue, from one lead to another. Their troubles, however, were of 
 
ON BOAKD THK "KAVEN8CRAUJ." 317 
 
 brief duration. On the twentieth day after leaving Life-boat Cove, they slKhte*! a steamer, 
 beset in the ice, at a distance of thirty or thirty-five miles from Cape York. She could not 
 come to them, it was true, but they could go to her ; and this they prepared to do. They had not 
 traversed half the distance, however, before they met p. body of eighteen men from the ship ; for 
 they too had been seen, and recognized as white men, and relief immediately desjiatohcd. The 
 friendly vessel proved to be the Kavenscraiy of Dundee, Captain Allen, lying in lat. 75° 38' N., 
 and long. 65° 35' W. 
 
 It waa now found, according to the narrative of the expedition, that the relief did not come 
 much too soon, for the boats had been considerably injured by contact \^ itli the rough hummocky 
 ice. And the fatigue of hauling them over such a surface may be inferred from the fact that it 
 took the Polans crew, with their eighteen relief-men from the liavenscraig, six hours to reach 
 the latter vessel. The difficulty was increased by a deep slushy snow, which lay thick upon the 
 ice, and which was not only heavy and disagreeable to the wayfarer, but exceedingly dangerous, 
 as more than one found by sinking into the pitfalls it treacherously concealed. 
 
 But they reached the Ravenscraig a,t midnight, and received a hearty welcome from Captain 
 Allen, who Wiis able also to communicate the grateful intelligence that their comrades, the little 
 company sent adrift on the ice-raft, were all in safety. 
 
 It has been well said that the Polaris expedition proved curiously prolific of startling and 
 exciting incidents. From the time when Captain Bartlett of the Tigress rescued the " exhausted 
 waifs " of the ice-floe, until the last scene in this romantic drama was enacted, the public mind 
 had been kept in a condition of continual expectancy by the progress of events connected with 
 the story of these Arctic explorers. The lamentable death of Captain Hall, — the long voyage on 
 the ice-floe through the gloom of the Polar night, — the return of the nineteen castaways after so 
 many hair-breadth escapes and wonderful adventures, — the departure of the Tigress, — the dis- 
 covery of Buddington's winter-camp, — and now the rescue of him and his crew by the Dundee 
 whaler, formed a series of surprising and exciting events, which, if not of epical interest, would 
 certainly seem to furnish matter for a poet's song. Even the early annals of Arctic exploration, 
 with their narratives of the achievements and sufferings of Hudson, Davis, Barentz, present no 
 incidents of a more remarkable character. As men dwelt upon them, they came to acknowledge 
 that the " age of romance " was not ended yet. 
 
 On the 18th of September 1873, the Arctic whaling-steamer arrived at Dundee with eleven 
 of the Polans survivors, who had been transferred to her from the Ravenscraig, as the latter wa." 
 not homeward bound. Three others reached America in the Intrepid ; and thus the expedition 
 of the Polaris terminated without any loss of life, if we except the unfortunate death of her 
 enthusiastic commander, Captain Hall. 
 
 It added nothing, it is true, to our geographical knowledge of the Arctic World ; and yet it was 
 not without some useful results. The Polaris, at all events, approached nearer to the North Pole 
 than any one of her predecessors ; and men of science were thenceforth justified in asserting that 
 the hope of complete success was no longer chimerical. The distance to the pole from the point 
 reached by the Polaris was comparatively so trivial, as to afford good reason for believing that it 
 would not long baffle human resolution and enterprise. Then, again, it was established as a fact 
 beyond doubt that Europeans could securely winter in a latitude of 81° 38'; that a ship well built 
 
iH THK BRITISH EXPEDITION. 
 
 and well equipped might push northward as far us 82° 1 6'; and that no induperablo obstacles to 
 its further advance could then be detected. It was also shown that the temperature, even in 
 lat. 82°, was not of a nature to overcome the energy and enthusiasm of men accustomed to life 
 and adventure in the Arctic World. These data, so conclusively established by experience, con- 
 stituted a source of great encouragement to future navigators, and permit the conclusion that the 
 Polai-is expedition, with all its disasters and mismanagement, helped forward the great work of 
 discovering the North Pole. 
 
 " Wo now know," says Mr. Markham, '' that the American vessel commanded by Captain 
 Hall passed up the strait, in one working season, for a direct distance of two hundred and fifty 
 miles, without a check of any kind, reaching lat 82° 16' N. ; and that at her furthest point the 
 sea was still navigable, with a water-sky to the northward." 
 
 The Polaris, however, was nothing better than a river-steamer of small power, ill adapted 
 for encountering the perils of Arctic navigation, — with a crew, all told, of thirty men, women, 
 and children, including eight Eskimos. If she could accomplish such a voyage without difficulty, 
 and could attain so high a latitude, it was reasonable to anticipate th, a properly equipped 
 English expedition, under equally favourable circumstances, would do, not only as much, but 
 much more, and carry the British flag into the waters of the circumpolar sea, if such existed. 
 With this view, the Admiralty fitted out the Alert and the Discovery, under Captains Nares 
 and Stephenson. Every precaution that icience could suggest was adopted to ensure the com- 
 pleteness of their equipment; and the itro ships, accompanied as far as Disco by H.M.S. Valm'ous 
 as a tender, left England on the 29th May 1875. 
 
 The British Expedition, consisting of the Alert and the Discovery, did not succeed in all it 
 was intended to accomplish ; and yet it can hardly be spoken of as a failure. It did not reach 
 that conventional point of geographers, the North Pole, but it penetrated within four hundred 
 miles of it ; and it ascertained the exact nature of the obstacles which render access impossible, 
 except under conditions not at present in existence. We agree with a thoughtful writer in the 
 Spectator that this was a most important service rendered both to Science and the State. We 
 now know that by the Smith Sound route a ship may attain to within 450 mile^ of the Pole ; 
 and that, afterwards, a journey about as long as from London to Edinburgh must be undertaken, 
 in a rigorous climate, with the thermometer 50° below zero, over ice packed up into hillocks and 
 hummocks which render sledge-travelling almost impracticable, or practicable only by hewing 
 out a path with the pickaxe at the rate of a mile and a half a day. And further : the work 
 would have to be begun and completed in four months, or, from lack of light and warmth, it 
 could not be done at all. These are serious difficulties, and whether it is worth while for men to 
 encounter them, where the gain would be problematical, we need not here inquire. Before any 
 attempt can be made, some provision must be discovered for protecting those who make it 
 against the excessive cold, and for a surer and swifter mode of conveyance than the sledge 
 affords. The journalist to whom we have referred speculates that science may furnish future 
 expeditions with undreamt-of resources, — with portable light and heat, for instance, from the 
 newly-discovered mines at Disco ; preventives against scurvy ; electric lights ; supplies of dyna- 
 mite for blowing up the ice ; and a traction-engine to traverse the road thus constructed ; but, in 
 
PANQEllS AND DIFFICULTIE8. 31ft 
 
 the meantime, these appliances are not ut uur command. We must be content with tlio measure 
 of success achieved by Captain Nares and his galhmt followers. 
 
 And these well detserve the gratitude of all who think the fame and honour of a nation are 
 precious possessions. They have shown clearly that the " race " has not degoneratud ; that 
 Englishmen can do and suffer now as they did and suflered in the old time. Tliey diH|tliiyod a 
 courage and a fortitude of truly heroic proportions. And the exi)criences of Arctic v()yaj,'ing arc 
 always of a nature to require the highest courage and the sternest fortitude. 'Yhv long Arctic 
 night is in itself ,s severe a test of true manhood as can well be devised. The miner works 
 under conditions far less laborious than those to which the Arctic explorer submits, for he 
 enjoys an alternation of light and darkness; his underground toil lasts but for n few hours at a 
 time. Yet we know that it tries a man's manly qualities sorely ! What, then, must it be to 
 keep brave and cheerful and true throughout a prolonged night of one hundred and forty-two 
 days — that apparently endless darkness, almost the darkn^w of a sunless world ? 
 
 We know, too, that continuous work, without relaxation, for month after month, will break 
 down the nerves and shatter the intellect of the strongest. Yet we read that the men of the 
 Alert toiled like slaves, on one occasion, for seventy-two days, in cold so extreme that the reader 
 can form no conception of its severity, and with the dread constantly hanging over them of that 
 terrible and most depressing disease, scurvy. Owing to their inability to procure any fresh 
 game, as most former expeditions had done, each of the extended sledge-parties, when at their 
 farthest distance from any help, was attacked by it. The return-journeys were, therefore, a 
 prolonged homeward struggle of men who grew weaker at every step, the available force to 
 draw the sledge continually decreasing, and the weight to be dragged as steadily increasing, as, 
 one after another, the men stricken down had to be carried by their enfeebled comrades. 
 
 It has been well said that in such exploits as these there is a sustained heroism which we 
 cannot fully appreciate, because we cannot fully realize the terrible character of the sacrifices 
 involved. But it is comparatively easy for us to understand, and therefore to admire, the 
 courage of Lieutenant Parr, when he started alone on a journey of thirty-five miles, with no 
 other guide for his adventurous steps than the frech track of a wandering wolf over the ice and 
 snow, in order to carry help and comfort to his failing comrades. It is easy to understand, and 
 therefore to admire, the devotion of Mr. Egerton and Lieutenant Rawson, when, at the immi- 
 nent risk of their own lives, they nursed Petersen, the interpreter, while travelling from the 
 Alert to the Discovei'y, with the temperature 40° below zero. Petersen, who had accompanied 
 them with the dog-sledge, fell ill ; and with a noble unselfishness they succeeded in retaining 
 heat in the poor fellow's body by alternately lying one at a time alongside of him, while the 
 other by exercise was recovering his own vital warmth. We can also acknowledge and admire 
 the constancy of Captain Nares, who, in that horrible climate, lived thirty-six days in the 
 " crow's-nest," while his ship laboured among the grinding, shivering, crushing ice, until exhaus- 
 tion overcame him. And we can acknowledge and admire the bravery and faithfulness of the 
 men of the sledge-parties who, for days and weeks, drew the sledges and their comrades, with 
 gloom above and around them, ice and snow everywhere bounding the prospect, and in a 
 temperature which seemed to freeze the blood and benumb the heart. 
 
 What a tale, says a writer in the Tivnes, what a tale of unrequited suffering it is ! Surely 
 not " unrequited ; " for those who suffered, suffered at the call of duty, and have been rewarded 
 
31fl HEROIC 8UFFERIN0S. 
 
 by thti approval of their cuuntryinon, and by the consciuuHness of having done something groat, 
 of not Imvinjjf lived in vain, " How lightly do all talk of glory ; how little do they know what 
 it means ! The little army had to cut its way through the iue-burriers, dragging heavily-laden 
 Hl«;dgeH, and going to and fro, the whole force being often required for each sledge, content to 
 make a mile and a quaiier a day, in pursuit of an object still four hundred miles off, through 
 increasing difficulties, and with barely five months, or one hundred and fifty days, wherein to go 
 and return. The labour is a dreadful reality ; the scheme itself a nightmare, the phantasy of a 
 disordered brain. Even the smaller and subsidiary expedition for planting u dep6t last autumn 
 cost three amputations. The cold was beyond all former experience for intensity and length, 
 and the physical effect of a long winter spent in the ships under such conditions is particularized 
 OS one reason why the men were less able to endure cold, labour, and the want of proper food. 
 Every one of the expeditions, whatever +he direction, came back in the saddest plight, — some 
 dragging the rest, and in one case only reaching the ship through the heroism of an officer 
 pushing on many miles alone to announce ^is returning comrades, and to procure the aid by 
 which alone they were saved from destruction. These are episodes, but they are the matter 
 which redeems the story and makes its truest value. They tell us what Englishmen will do on 
 occasions beyond our feeble homo apprehensions, \('hen once they have accepted a call, and are 
 in duty bound." 
 
 At the time we write no elaborate • .^rd of the expedition has been published, and the 
 materials of the following sketch are collected therefore from various narratives which have 
 appeared in the daily journals. We shall begin by endeavouring to place before the reader, 
 with the assistance of Mr. Clements R. Markham, a rapid summary of what the expedition 
 accomplished. And then we shall describe its more interesting incidents. 
 
 The object of Captain Nares and his followers was to discover and explore as considerable a 
 portion of the unknown area in the Polar Regions as ws" possible with reference to the moans 
 at their disposal, and to the positions the vessels succeeded in reaching as starting-points. The 
 theories about open Polar basins and navigable waters which once obtained have long been dis- 
 carded by practical Arctic geographera A coast-lire, however, is needful as a means of progress 
 to " the threshold of work ; " and it is needful, too, in order to secure the desired results of 
 Arctic discovery in the various departments of scientific inquiry. 
 
 The expedition, then, in the first place, had to force its way through the ice-encumbered 
 channel which connects Baffin Bay with the Polar Ocean ; a channel which successively bears 
 the names of Smith Sound, Kane Basin, Kennedy Channel, Hall Basin, and Robeson Strait. 
 Smith Sound opens out of Baffin Bay between Capes Alexander and Isabella. The Alert and 
 the Discovei-y passed these famous headlands and entered the Sound on July 29, 1875; and 
 from that date until September 1, when the Alert crossed the Threshold of the Unknown 
 Region, they fought one continuous battle with the ice. The Polmis, it is true, had made a 
 rapid passage on the occasion of its memorable voyage ; but the circumstances were exceptional. 
 Generally the Sound is blocked up by heavy floes, with winding waters caused by the action of 
 wind and tide. With great difficulty our two ships forced the barrier ; but their success was due 
 in no small measure to the skill and vigilance of Captain Nares, who allowed himself no rest 
 
THE WINTER WORK. Stf 
 
 uutil they were out of danger. At length, after many Iniirbreadth eHcupea, ami many hihorioiw 
 nights and days, and much energy and devotion on the part of the otticers, and equal tourajje and 
 industry on the part of the men, the expedition reached the north shore of Laily Franklin Inlet, 
 and found a safe, commodious harbour in hit. 81 41' N. Here the Dincovrri/ took up htr winter 
 quarters, as had previously been arranged ; and the Alfit, after a brief interval of repose, con- 
 tinued lier northward progress. 
 
 This she was enabled to do through the opportune opening up of a water-lane between the 
 shore and the ice. Bravely she dashed ahead, rounded Cape Union, so named by the men of 
 the Polans expedition, and entered the open Polar Ocean. Then, in hit. 82° 20' N., the white 
 ensign was hoisted on board a British man-of-war in a latitude furthtir north than the nhip of 
 any nation had reached before. Soon afterwards the solid masses of the Polar pack-ice began to 
 close around the adventurous vessel ; and on the 3rd of September 1875, the Alert was fust lixeil 
 in her winter quarters, on the ice-bound shore of tlie inhospitable Polar Sea in lat 82° 27' N. 
 
 This, says Mr. Markham,* WuS the first grand success ; and it assured the eventual comple- 
 tion of the work. For, owing to the admirable seamanship of Captain Nares, and to the zeal 
 and devotion of the officers and crew, the Alert had been carried across the Threshold, and was 
 toithin the Unknown Region. A point of departure was thus obtained, which rendered certain 
 the achievement of complete success ; inasmuch as in whatever direction the sledge-parties 
 travelled, valuable discoveries could not fail to be the result. 
 
 The autumnal excursions, during which dep6ts of provisions were established for use in the 
 work of the coming spring, were not performed without a very considerable amount of suH'ering. 
 Lieutenant May and two seamen were so severely frost-bitten, that, to save their lives, amputa- 
 tion was found necessary. 
 
 As will be seen from the latitude given, the ships wintered further north than any ships 
 had ever previously wintered. The cold exceeded anything previously registered, and darkness 
 extended over a dreary period. The winter, however, was not spent idly : observatories were 
 erected, and a mass of valuable scientific data industriously accumulated. 
 
 " But the crowning glories of this ever-memorable campaign were," as Mr. Markham 
 exclaims, " achieved during the spring." Tliree main sledge-expeditions were organized : one, 
 under Commander Markham and Lieutenant Parr, instructed to keep due north, as far as 
 possible, into the newly-discovered Polar Ocean ; another, under Lieutenant Aldrich, to explore 
 the American coast, westward ; and the third, under Lieutenant Beaumont of the Discovery, to 
 survey the north coast of Greenland, facing eastward. Each party consisted of two sledges ; 
 and the six, with their gallant crews, set out on the 3rd of Ajjril 1876, determined to vindicate 
 and maintain the reputation of British seamen. They separated at Cape Joseph Henry ; and 
 before they again met, this was what they achieved : — 
 
 Commander Markham and Lieutenant Parr pushed northward as far as lat. 83° 20' 20" N. ; 
 being the most northerly point which any explorers have attained. They may therefore be 
 fairly and justly regarded as " the Champions " of Arctic Discove' y, until some successors, more 
 fortunate than they, shall surpass their glorious feat 
 
 Lieutenant Aldrich struck westward ; rounded Cape Colombia in lat. 83 7' N. ; and 
 explored 220 miles of the American coast-line, previously not laid down on any map. 
 
 * The Academy, November 4, MG, p. 463. 
 
mmmmmmm 
 
 SIB WHAT WAH ACOOMri-ISIIKD 
 
 Lii'utviiniit Becuiuuitt cruMttcd Kohenun iStruit, and Hurveyud the iiurthurn coast of Ureen- 
 land for about Hovonty niilew. 
 
 " I II ordor," it in miii\, " that tliuHe three main purtioM might do their work HUcceHsfull y, 
 every houI in t)u( two Mhi|m wan lu'tivoly emjiloyed. The dopAt and leliovinjj partioH did moHt 
 anltiouN work, and the oH.jors vied with eacli other in proraotinjj the objects of the expedition, 
 whilo tlio most jjerffct harmony and unanimity prevailed. Captain Feildeii and Mr. Hart were 
 unpocially active in making natural luMtory collections ; and LieutenantH (jifiiird, Archer, 
 ; |i| liawHon, ?i|;erton, and (Jonybearo did admirable work in exploring and kecpin^^ open communi- 
 
 cations." When the Hlpd^'e-partie8 returned to the ships. Captain Nares found that they had 
 Huttbred terribly ; but he also found that their success had been complete. They had solved a 
 geot^raphical problem ; no open sea surrounded the Polo, ns so many sanjjuine spirits had antici- 
 pated. The way northward was over a waste of ice — of ice broken up into hummocks and 
 ponderous masses. And with the appliances they possessed further progress was impossible ; 
 the expedition had reached its iie plus ultra. 
 
 The work was done, and Captain Nares perceived that nothing more could be gained, whilo 
 valuable lives might be lost by remaining longer in the Polar Ocean. He decided upon return- 
 ing to England, with the following rich results to show as the reward of an heroic enterprise : — 
 
 First, the expedition had discovered a great Polar Ocean, a knowledge of which cannot fail 
 to prove of exceeding value to the hydrographer. Next, the shores of this ocean had been 
 explored along fifty degrees of longitude, and important collections formed of specimens of the 
 Arctic fauna, flora, and geology. The channel connecting the Polar Ocean with Smith Sound 
 had also been carefully surveyed, and an accurate delineation effected of either shore. Geologi- 
 cal discoveries of high value had also been made ; as, for example, that of the former existence 
 of an evergreen forest in lat. 82° 44' N., — a fact significant of vast climatic changes. And, 
 lastly, interesting observations in meteorology, magnetism, tidal and electric phenomena, and 
 spectrum analysis had been carefully recorded. The expedition of 1875-7G must, therefore, in 
 view of these results, be classed among the most successful which ever adventured into Arctic 
 waters ; though it failed, like its predecessors, to gain the North Pole. 
 
 The Alert and the Discovery left the shores of England in May 1875. After a voyage of 
 five weeks' duration they arrived at Lievely, the port of Disco Island, on the west coast of 
 Greenland. This small settlement numbers about ninety-six inhabitants, Danes and Eskimos, 
 — generally speaking, a mixed raee. The Danish In.spector of North Greenland resides here, 
 and he received the expedition with a salute from three brass cannon planted in front of his 
 house. There is a well-conducted school, attended by nbout sixteen children; and a small 
 church, where the schoolmaster reads the Lutheran service on Sundays, — the priest coming 
 over from Upernavik occasionally, to perform marriages, christenings, and other religious 
 services. 
 
 The Alert having taken o'. "j(.i.''d thirty Eskimo dogs and a driver, the expedition left 
 Disco at one o'clock on July 16th, and next morning reached Kiltenbunto, about thirty miles 
 further north. 
 
 Kiltenbunto is a little island in the Strait of Weigattet, between Disco and the mainland. 
 Here the Discovery took on board thirty dogs; and shooting-parties from both ships made a 
 
WINTER QUAItTKIlS. 319 
 
 (loHccnt on II " luoinory," or " Itinl hiizaiir," IVwiuoriti'd liy (^uilU'inotH, kittiwiikt-M. mid otliir (mcmii 
 birdH. Two or three dii.VH lator tlio oxpudition iirrivxd nt a Htittlfmciit imiiifd Piovtn. whcif it 
 was joined by the Eskimo doj^-drivor, Ilium ( ;iuintiiin, the attondnnt of Kiinc, HaycH, and 
 Hall, in their Hoviral oxpeditiohH, At I'rovea the atlvoiituronj rei-oived and annwered tlieir 
 ituit lotterB from " homo." 
 
 Strikinjf northward throuf^li Baffin Bay, thoy reached Capo York on tin- -Jfjlli of .luly, 
 and met with a company of the miHnamcd Arctic J£ii,'ldandorH, who traverKed the ico-HoeH in 
 their dop-BleilguH, and soon fraternized with the Hoamon, A narwhal havinjf Ihsuii harpoomd, 
 a quantity of the skin and hlublior was given to thiso KskimoH. Mr. Hodmtn, the clmplain m 
 tlio DUcooerij, duscribos them as cxcoediiiKly ^I'l't-'dy and barbarous, eatinj,' wfiatovi-r fell in 
 their way, but living chiuHy upon seals. Thoy were lu-t ho far advanced in civili/Jition as to be 
 able to construct kayacks, and apparently they had never before seen Europeans. They wore 
 trousera of bear-skin, and an upper garment of seal-skin. 
 
 Proceeding northward by Dr. K line's ('rinison Cliffs, they soon reached that brave ex 
 plorer's celebrated winter (|uarters. Port Ft>ulke, and took advantage of a day's <lelay to visit 
 the Brother John Glacier. They found Dr. Kane's journal, but no relics; shot a reindeer, 
 and a largo number of birds. 
 
 Between Melville Bay and the entrance to Smith Sound no ice was met with ; but on the 
 30th of July the " pack " was sighted, off Cape Sabine, in lat. 78' 41' N. Here, at Port Payer, 
 the ships were fast held by the ice for several days. An attempt to proceed further north- 
 ward was made to the west of the islands in Hayes Sound; but the water-way not leading in 
 the right direction, the ships returned. On the 6th of August they made a fresh start, and 
 thenceforward maintained an uninterrupted struggle with the ice. The Alert led the way, with 
 (Japtain Nares in her " crow's-nest," anxiously looking out for practicable channels. At Ca])o 
 Frazer the huge solid mass again delayed them. Then they succeeded in crossing Kennedy 
 Channel to the east side, and taking shelter in Petermann Fiord — so named after the great 
 German geographer. After a few days they again pushed nortiiward; and on the 25th of 
 August, after many narrow escapes from being crushed in the ice, a well-sheltered harbour re- 
 ceived them, on the west side of Hall Basin, north of Lady Franklin Sound, in lat. 81' 44' N. 
 This was at once selected as the winter quarters of the Discovei'y. Her sister-ship, continuing her 
 course, rounded the north-east point of Grant Land; but instead of falling in with a continuous 
 coast-line, stretching one hundred miles further towards the north, as all had anticipated, found 
 herself on the border of what was evidently a very extensive sea, with impenetrable ice on every 
 side. As no harbour could be found, the ship was secured as far north as pos,s" le, inside a 
 kind of embankmrnt of grounded ice close to the land. There she passed tht winter; and 
 during the eleven months of her detention no navigable water-way, through which she could 
 move further to the north, presented itself. 
 
 Far from meeting with the " great Polar Sea " dreamed of by Kane and Hayes, our ad- 
 venturers discovered hat the ice-barrier before them was unusually thick and solid. It looked 
 as if composed of floating icebergs which had gradually been jammed and welded together. 
 Henceforth it will be known on our maps as the Palseocrystic Sea, or Sea of Ancient Ice; and 
 a stranded mass of ice disrupted from an ice-floe is to be termed a floeberg. 
 
 Ordinary ice does not exceed ten feet in thickness; but in the Polar Sea, generation after 
 _^'-^ 22 
 
320 STORY OF THE "DISCOVERY." 
 
 generation, layer has been superimposed on layer, until the whole mass measures from eighty 
 feet to one hundred and twenty feet; it floats with its surface nowhere less than fifteen feet above 
 the water-line. It was tJ^'s wonderful thickness which prevented the Alert from driving ashore. 
 Owing to its great depth of flotation, sixty feet to one hundred feet, the mass grounded on 
 coming into shallow water, and formed a breakwater within which the ship was comparatively 
 secure. " When two pieces of ordinary ice are driven one against the other, and the edges 
 broken up, the crushed {'.eces are raised by the pressure into a high, long, wall-like hedge of 
 ice. When two of the ancient floes of the Polar Sea meet, the intermediate lighter broken-up 
 ice which may happen to be floating about between them alone suffers; it is pressed up between 
 the two closing masses to a great height, producing a chaotic wilderness of angular blocks of all 
 shapes and sizes, varying in height up to fifty feet above water, and frequently covering an area 
 upwards uf a mile in diameter. 
 
 We must now return to the Discovery. As soon as she had taken up her winter quarters, 
 her crew began to unload her, landing the boats, stores, and spare spars, and otherwise preparing 
 for the winter. The first day ashorf they shot a herd of eleven musk-oxen. A few days after- 
 wards the sea was frozen all round the ship, so that they could freely move to and fro about the 
 ice. A week later they saw a large number of musk-oxen, and shot about forty —thus laying in 
 a considerable supply of provisions. 
 
 ;i Their winter port, which was surrounded by snow-clad hills, about two thousand feet high, 
 
 j! they christened Discovery Harbour. 
 
 As soon as the sea was completely frozen over, the sledging-parties were organized and duly 
 despatched ; but as the autumn was rapidly pas«iin_^ very little could be done in this direction. 
 The usual preparations on the part of Arctic explorers were then made for "hybernating." 
 Houses were built ; also a magnetic observatory and a theatre of ice — recalling the glittering 
 ediiloo constructed by Catherine II. of Russia on the Neva, and celebrated by Cowper in the 
 well-known lines, — 
 
 " No forest fell 
 Wlien tbou wouIJat Ijuild, uo quarry sent its stores 
 To enrich thy walls ; but thou didst hew the floods, 
 Aud make thy marble of the glassy wave." 
 
 A smithy was erected on the llth of November, being the first the Arctic ice had ever 
 borne. Its roof was made of coal-bags, cemented w"»h ice. The ship's stoker reigned supreme 
 in it as blacksmith ; and when we consider the accessories, — the ice, the snow, the darkness, — 
 we must admit that his blazing forge must have made a curious picture. The chaplain tells us, 
 humorously, that the smith adorned the interior wall with a good many holes, as each time 
 that his iron wanted cooling he simply thrust it into the ice I 
 
 As for the theatre, which, as we know, has always been a favourite source of amusement 
 with Arctic explorers when winter-bound, it was sixty feet long and twenty-seven feet broad ; 
 and, in honour of the Princess of Wales, was named "The Alexandra." Her birthday was 
 selected as the day of opening — December Ist ; and the opening piece was a popular farce — 
 "My Turn Next." As sailors i, .e generally adepts at dramatic personations, we may conceive 
 that the piece " went well," and that the different actors received the applause they merited. It 
 
 'ii 
 
m 
 
 WINTER AMUSEMENTS. SSI 
 
 is recorded that foremost among them was the engineer, Mr. Mi '.f , who appears to have been, 
 emphatically, the Folar Star. Several of the men sung songs ; and recitations, old and new, were 
 occasionally introduced ; the result of the whole being to divert the minds and keep up the 
 spirits of the ship's company during the long, long Arctic night. 
 
 The Fifth of November and its time-honoured associations were not forgotten. A huge 
 bonfire blazed on the ice ; a " Guy Fawkes " was manufactured and dressed in the most approved 
 fashion ; and the silence of the frozen solitudes was broken by the sounds of a grand display of 
 fireworks and the cheering of the spectators. 
 
 A fine level promenade had been constructed on the ice, about a mile in length, by sweeping 
 away the snow ; and this served as a daily exercise ground. A skating-rink was also constructed. 
 A free hole in the ice, for the sa)'e of better ventilation, was carefully kept up. Whenever it 
 closed, through a process of gradual congelation, the ice-saws were set in motion to open it up 
 again, or it was blasted with gunpowder. The dogs lived on the ice-floe all the winter. It must 
 not be thought that the cold was uniform day after day. P ably it is not the loiv temperature 
 so much as the varutble temperature that makes an Arctic winter so very trying to the European. 
 In a few hours the change would be no less than 60°. The cold reached its height — or depth — 
 in winter, when the thermometer marked 70i° below zero ; the greatest cold ever experienced 
 by any Polar expedition. It is difficult for the human frame to bear up against this exce.48 of 
 rigour, eveii with the help of good fires, good food, and good clothing. Not only the physical 
 but the mental faculties are debilitated and depressed. 
 
 Our ice-bound seamen, however, managed to keep Christmas merrily. Early on the day so 
 dear to Christian memories "the waits" went their usual rounds, — a sergeant of marines, the 
 chief boatswain's mates, and three other volunteers, — singing Christmas carols, and making " a 
 special stay outside the captain's cabv " In the forenoon prayers were said on the lower deck ; 
 after which the captain and officers vi.sited the men's mess, tasting the Christmas pudding, and 
 examining the tasteful decorations which had been improvised. Then the gifts which, in 
 anticipation of the diy, had been sent out by kindly English hearts, were distributed by the 
 captain, — to each gift the name of the recipient havmg been previously attached. This was an 
 aflPecting scene ; and hearty, though not without a touch of pathos in them, were the cheers given 
 as the distribution took place ; a distribution recalling so many "old familiar faces," and all the 
 sweet associations and gentle thoughts of home 1 Cheers were also raised for the captain and 
 men of the far-away Alert. Next, a choir was formed, and echo resounded with the strains of 
 " O the Roast Beef of Old England I " of which, no doubt, many of the singers entertained a 
 very affectionate remembrance. The men dined at twelve and the officers at five, and the day 
 seems in every respect to have been most successful as a festival. 
 
 A few particulars of the " situation " may here be given in the chaplain's own words : — 
 " We had brought fish, beef, and mutton from England," he says, " all of which we hung uj) 
 — one of the masts, and it was soon as hard as a brick, and perfectly preserved. We had 
 also brought some sheep from England with us, and they were killed from time to time. 
 When we arrived in Discovery Bay, as we called it, six of them were alive ; but on being 
 landed they were worried by the dogs, and had to be slaughtered. During the winter the 
 men had to fetch ice from a berg about half a mile distant from the ship, in order to melt it 
 for fresh water." 
 
•^-mwrntrnm 
 
 322 GOING A-SLEDOINO. 
 
 At last the long A.rctic niglit camo to an end. It was with emotions of hope and gratitude 
 and joy that the explorers welcomed the first rays of the returning sun on the laut day of 
 February. For four months they had lived in obscurity and gloom, with the exception of such 
 relic'i as the stars and the moon had occasionally afforded. On the day of the sun's return to the 
 Polar World, it was known that it would rise at about twelve o'clock, and everybody ascended 
 the hills for the purpose of hailing the glorious spectacle. The mists and fogs, however, baffled 
 their expectations ; and though they felt its influence, they did not see it for some days after it 
 had mounted above the horizon. 
 
 News was brought from the Alert by two officers and two n)en towards the end of March. 
 They had accomplished the journey with the thermometer at 40° below zero, and had occupied 
 six days in making it. The officers were Lieutenant Rawson and Mr. Egerton, who had started 
 at first in company with Petersen, the interpreter, but had been compelled to return with him, 
 as already narrated, because he was severely frost-bitten. Directly they returned to the 
 Discovery, preparations were made for sending out the sledge-parties. Two officers and three 
 men, with a dog-sledge, started across Robeson Channel to Hall's Rest, the winter quarters of 
 the Polarit, to report on the stores left by the American vessel, which the United States Govern- 
 ment had plp.ced at the disposal of the British expedition. They reappeared on the fifth day, 
 with the inf jrmation that they had found biscuit, pemmican, preserved meat, molasses, and other 
 articles. They had lived in a wooden observatory that they found erected there. Captain 
 Hall's grave was in excellent preservation ; and they set up a head-board, with an inscription on 
 it, to mark its situation. 
 
 Lieutenant Beaumont and Mr. Coppinger, the surgeon, each with an eight-man sledge — 
 or, rather, with seven men besides themselves — started for the Alert, in quest of the other sledge 
 which had wintered with that vessel ; their design being to cross Robeson Channel, and explore 
 the North Greenland coast. In this journey, owing to the "hummocky" character of the ice, 
 they spent twelve days. 
 
 Two days later, a third party, consisting of a twelve-man sledge and an eight-man sledge, 
 with two officers, proceeded to survey the shores of Lady Franklin Sound. The captain accom- 
 panied them in the eight-man sledge, and was absent about a week ; but the twelve-man sledge, 
 which had gone merely to carry stores and provisions for the other, did not return for a fort- 
 night, the sledge having been damaged, and one of the marines severely frost-bitten in the heel. 
 The other sledge, after an absence of about four weeks, returned in safety, — having discovered 
 that Lady Franklin Strait, as the Americans call it, was a sound or fiord about sixty miles long. 
 They had fallen in with some musk-oxen, which were too wild to be got at ; and had seen three 
 or four glaciers, and hills three thousand feet in height. 
 
 About June the warm summer began to assert itself, and in the rays of the sun their ice- 
 houses melted away, like the baseless fabric of a vision. So the sledging-party last spoken of 
 adventured across the ice to Polaris Bay, taking with them a life-boat as a precaution (for the 
 ice might at any time have broken up), and a supply of provisions for the use of the North 
 Greenland expedition. This work done, they returned to the ship, leaving behind them two 
 officers and three men, who pushed up Petermann Fiord for about eight miles, until arrested by 
 the impenetrable barrier of a huge glacier. 
 
 On returning from their explorations they found that Lieutenant Newsome, with four men, 
 
"HALL'S HOSPITAL." 323 
 
 of whom one had dieil of scurvy on the way, had accidentally Hejiaratod from the North (.Jreen- 
 land party, and reached Petermann Fiord on the 3rd of June. All were Heriou.sly ill of scurvy, 
 except Mr. Rawson and a marine. Under Dr. Coppinger's skill and care, however, they 
 recovered. As soon as possible, the doctor, with Mr. Newsonie and the Eskimos, started in a 
 dog-sledge to gather some information about the other membei-s of the North Greenland party. 
 In a day or two they fell in with them ; and not too soon, for all were thoroughly exhausted. 
 They had abandoned everything, and when the doctor arrived were without food. Four of 
 them, who were accommodated on the sledge, were broken down with scurvy, and two others 
 had been attacked slightly. What was to be done in this critical position of aftairs ? At first 
 it was thought advisable to remain on the spot for a while, and see if the Eskimos could shoot a 
 seal. But a day's experience showed that this plan would not answer ; and they then resolved 
 to carry the two worst invalids on the dog-sledge to Hall's Rest. This was accomplished, and 
 the poor fellows seemed to grow better when nourished by seal-soup and proper food ; but on 
 the following morning one of them sank and died. The life of the other hung for some time in 
 the balance. The whole company were now invalided ; and Hall's Rest might fitly have been 
 termed Hall's Hospital. 
 
 A few days — weary, melancholy days — having elapsed, an officer, with a couple of men, 
 was sent across to the ship to report the serious condition of affairs. As it was the end of June, 
 the ice had broken up in many places, and the traject of the strait was not accomplished without 
 difficulty, and frequent immersions in the water. No sooner did Captain Stephenson learn how 
 the party were situated, than he set out, with seven men, to carry a supply of medicines, pro 
 visions, and various comforts. They had with them a boat and a sledge on a four-wheeled car, 
 and in this they crossed the land to the margin of the sea, a distance of about six miles. Some- 
 times the boat was called into requisition to carry themselves and the sledge from floe to floe. 
 With half of the men they returned in a few days, leaving the rest in charge of Lieutenant 
 Beaumont and Dr. Coppinger, until they had made more progress towards recovery. 
 
 Early in August an officer arrived from the Alei-t, to report that she had moved southward, 
 and was only about ten miles distant ; and that Captain Nares, considering the main objects of 
 the expedition secured, had decided on returning to England. About the same time returned 
 the North Greenland party, their provisions having failed them. A few days later, and, 
 having made her way through the broken ice, the Alert joined the Discover>j in Discovery Bay. 
 Mr. Beaumont's party next arrived ; and both vessels prepared for the homeward voyage. 
 They left Discovery Bay, as we shall see, on the 28th of August. 
 
 Let us now return to the Alert, which we left embedded in the ice of the North Polar 
 Ocean. 
 
 Her crew made shift to spend a tolerably merry winter, availing themselves of the usual 
 resources of Arctic explorers under similar conditions. The day's order was much as follows : — 
 At 6.45 A.M. the commander was called, and all hands were piped up on deck ; and the ham- 
 mocks having been previously stowed away and the decks cleansed, everybody sat down, with 
 vigorous appetite, to breakfast. The steerage and lower deck were afterwards cleared up, and 
 scon after 9 a.m. the men were told off" for their respective daily duties. At 10 a.m. another 
 general parade of the crew was summoned, and, as a preventive against scurvy, the day's dose of 
 
S94 
 
 THE "ROYAL ARCTIC THEATRE." 
 
 liinu juice wa« adiuiiiistureil. Tbon the crew went to quarters ; the usual careful inspection took 
 place ; and the chaplain read prayers. At one o'clock the deck was cleared, and " dinner 
 smoked upon the board." On days when the darkness was not too intense the crew turned out 
 to work upon the ice, or took their turn at walking exercise and aniusemenbS. They were thus 
 occupied until supper, which was served at about five o'clock ; and followed by evening school, 
 the duties of which proved equally agreeable to the officers who taught and the men who learned. 
 Soon after nine the officers in charge inspected the ship to see that all was quiet for the night. 
 At ten out went the lights of the chief petty officers, and at eleven tho^e of the wardroom. 
 
 This daily routine was freely interrupted on festival occasions. Guy Fawkes' Day was 
 celebrated as hilariously as by the men of the Discovery ; and it is a curious illustration of the 
 strength of old English traditions, that the merry-making customs of the Fifth of November 
 should be tlius closely observed by both the ice-bound vessels. Due honours were also paid to 
 Father Christmas ; nor was New-Year's Day forgotten. Dramatic talent existed among the 
 men of the Alert in sufficient force to provide a regular dramatic company. The " Royal Arctic 
 Theatre " was erected in Funnel Row, and entertainments given weekly. The programmes of 
 the " Thursday Pops," as they were commonly called, were thrown oft" at a printing-press estab- 
 lished in Trap Lane by Messrs. Giffard and Simmons ; and from one of these we gather that the 
 Royal Arctic Theatre opened for the season " under the distinguished patronage of Captain 
 Narjs, the membera of the Arctic Expedition, and all the nobility and gentry of the neighbour- 
 hood," on the I8th of November 1875. The orchestra consisted of one eminent pianist. Signer 
 Aldrichi (Lieutenant Aldrich) ; and the scenic artist was Dr. Moss. The performances com- 
 menced at 7.30; and "sledges" might be ordered at nine o'clock. They were by no means 
 wholly dramatic. The bill of fare included scientific and historical lectures, readings and recita- 
 tions, songs and in/itrumental music, ranging from grave to gay, from lively to severe ; and now 
 and then, to draw a bumper house, some such attraction as feats of legerdemain by " the real 
 Wizard of the North, on his way to the Hyperborean Regions ; " acrobatic feats by " the 
 Bounding Brothers of the Frigid Zone ; " or the vocal performances of the " Pale-o'-Christy 
 Minstrels," who " never sing in London." The plays produced were an original burlesque 
 (tperetta, "The Vulgar Little Boy; or. Weeping Bill" (founded on Barham's popular "Misad- 
 ventures at Margate"), written expressly by the ship's chaplain, the Rev. W. H. Pullen, author 
 of the well-known political squib, " Dame Europa's School ; " " Aladdin ; or. The Wonderful 
 Scamp;" "Boots at the Swan;" and "The Area Belle." The last and grand night was 
 March 2nd, 1 876, — when Captain Nares lectured on " The Palaeocrystic Sea, and Sledging 
 Experiences ; " and after a variety of songs and readings, the company and audience sang a 
 grand choral strain, "The Palaeocrystic Chorus," which we borrow from the pages of the 
 Graphic : — 
 
 " Not very long ago, 
 
 Ou the six-foot floe 
 Of the Palneocrystic Sea, 
 
 Two shipe did ride 
 
 'Mid the crushing of the tide, 
 Th"; Alfrt nud the DUcovery. 
 
 " Tlie sun never shone 
 Their gallant crews upon 
 For a hundred and forty-two days ; 
 
A OHAND CHORUS. 3M 
 
 But no (larkueiw ami no litiinniocku 
 Tlicir merry hearts ooulii Hiiiiimox, 
 So tliey let to work ami actcil playn. 
 
 " There wan music and song 
 
 To help the hoiira along, 
 Brought forth from the good ship's store ; 
 
 And each man did liis beat 
 
 To amuse and cheer the rest, 
 And 'nobody can't do more.' 
 
 " Here's a health to Marco Po'- ■ 
 
 May he reach his northerr i ! 
 
 And advance the ilag of En- ,o realms uuknowii ; 
 
 May the C/iallenffer be th^.e 
 
 All coui'ses bold to dare, 
 And Victoria be victorioim in the Frozen Zone. 
 
 " May our I'oppie be in sight 
 
 With her colours streaming bright ; 
 And the BvUdog tug on merrily from strand to strand ; 
 
 And the Alexandra brave 
 
 .See our banner proudly wave, 
 O'er the highest cliH's and snnmiits of the northernmost land. 
 
 " Here's a health to Hercnies, 
 
 Whom the autumn blast did freeze, 
 And all onr gallant fellows by the frost laid low. 
 
 Just wait a little longer, 
 
 Till they get a trifle stronger, 
 And they'll never pull the woi-se for having lost a Uio, 
 
 " Here's a health with three times three 
 
 To the brave Diaroeeri/, 
 And our merry, merry guests so truly welcome hero ; 
 
 And a brimming bumper vet 
 
 To our gallant little pet, 
 The lively Clements Muriham with its bold charioteer. 
 
 " Here's a health to all true blue. 
 
 To the officei-s and crew. 
 Who man this exiredition neat and handy oh ! 
 
 And may they ever prove, 
 
 Both in Sledging and in Love, 
 That the tars of old Britannia are the dandy oh ! " 
 
 In explanation of some passages in the foregoing spirited effusion, we may statu that the 
 six sledges belonging to the Alert were named respectively, Marco Polo, Victoria, Challemjer, 
 Foppie, Bulldog, and Alexandra. " Hercules " appears to have been the nickname of one of the 
 strong men of the ship. 
 
 The Alert wintered so far north, that its officers and men failed to meet with some of the 
 usual accessories of a Polar expedition. There were no Polar bears ; no Eskimos ; even auroral 
 displays were infrequent. On the other hand, the darkness is described as not having been 
 particularly dense. The reflection of the snow, and the keen " ight of stars," considerably 
 mitigated the "deep obscure;" and once in every fourteen dayt the splendour of the moon 
 illuminated the weird outlines of the monotonous Arctic scenery. 
 
 Some sledging was done in the autumn, though spring is the season when it can best be 
 undertaken. The Alert was no sooner made all snug in her winter quarters, than sledging-parties 
 
SS6 MORE SLEDGING. 
 
 carried provisions and boats along the shore both northward and westward, ready for use by 
 expeditions in the following spring ; the depAt being planted within a mile of the farthest 
 northern position hitherto attained by civilized man. After a terrible journey of twenty days' 
 duration, the travellers returned on the 14th of October, just two days after the disappearance c?' 
 the sun. The snow fell heavily, and, by protecting the sloppy ice from the intense frost, rendered 
 travelling difficult. The men's shoes got thoroughly wot ; hence several were frost-bitten, and 
 one officer and two men, on their return, were compelled to undergo amputation. Beneath the 
 cliffs lay great dense, deep snow-wreaths, and in many places a road had to be excavated to the 
 depth of six feet. The men sunk to their waists. The sledge was often completely buried. It 
 needed all Lieutenant Rawson's resolution and patience to bring back his little company in safety. 
 The main .sledging-party, under Commander Markham, with Lieutenants Parr and May, 
 and twenty-five men, left the Alert on the 25th of September, for the purpose of establishing a 
 dep6t at Cape Joseph Henry. They advanced three miles beyond Sir Edward Parry's northern- 
 most point, and, from a mountain 2000 feet high, sighted land towards the west-north-west, as 
 far as lat. 83° 7' N., but saw none to the northward. 
 
 With the return of the sun on the 29th of February, Captain Nares began his preparations 
 for the spring sledging-expeditions, organizing two main detachments : one, bound northward, 
 under Commander Markham and Lieutenant Parr, with fifteen men, supported by Dr. Moss and 
 Mr. White, with two seven-man sledges ; and another, bound westward, consisting of two seven- 
 man sledges, led by Lieutenants Aldrich and Giffard. 
 
 On the 12th of March, Lieutenant Rawson and Mr. Egerton, as already narrated, started 
 off to open up communication with the Discovery, but were compelled to return by the illness of 
 Petersen, whom they nursed on the way with womanlike tenderness and devotion. In the 
 following week, accompanied by Simmons, of the Alert, and Regan, of the Discovery, they 
 resumed their adventurous track across the hummocky ice, with the temperature 40° below zero, 
 enduring much, but pushing forward undauntedly. When their comrades of the Discovery 
 condoled with them on account of frost-bitten cheeks, and noses, and fingers, it was with the 
 frank, blithe heroism of the true British seaman that Lieutenant Rawson replied, — "Well, at 
 lesist we feel that the cheers from Southsea beach have been fairly earned." 
 
 The sledging-expeditions began in earnest in the first week of April, only a few men being 
 left on board each ship. Captain Stephenson, of the Discovery, paid a visit to the Alert, and 
 also crossed Hall's Basin twice to Greenland. Captain Nares, with Captain Feilden, was not 
 less energetic ; and for a considerable area round the two ships all was activity and motion. 
 When at Polaris Bay, Captain Stephenson, in memory of the gallant and unfortunate Hall, 
 hoisted the American ensign, and erected a brass tablet above the explorer's lonely grave. It 
 bears the following inscription : — 
 
 " Sacred to the memory of Captain C. F. Hall, of the U.S. ship Polaris, who sacrificed hic 
 life in the advancement of science on November 8, 1871. This tablet has been erected by the 
 British Polar Expedition of 1875, who, following in his footsteps, have profited by his 
 experience." 
 
 It may be noted here, in ilhistration of the labour attendant on the equipment of an Arctic 
 
THE NOHTIIEliN SLEDGE-PARTY. 3liV 
 
 sledgo-paity, and tho despatch of provisioiifi tor tlieir susteiianeu, that, in order to support the 
 expeditions on the north coast of Greenland and in Poteriuann Fiord, " Robeson Cliannol was 
 crossed eleven times from the position of the Alert Ut a dep6t established north of Cape Brevoort, 
 and Hall's Basin eleven times between Discovery Bay and Polaris Bay ; making a total of 
 twenty-two sledge-parties crossing the straits, including the transporting of two boats. The main 
 dep6t at Cape Joseph Henry, for the support of the northern and western divisions, thirty-seven 
 miles from the Alei-t, was visited by sixteen different sledges." 
 
 Our travellers did not fail to examine the various cairns erected by the seamen of tlie 
 Polaris. At one place a box chronometer was found to be in excellent order, though it had 
 undergone the test of four Arctic winters. And some wheat, which the Polaris had l)rought out 
 in order to ascertain the effect upon it of exposure to extreme cold, was successfully cultivated 
 under a glass shade by Dr. Ninnis — almost as interesting an experiment in its way hh the sowing 
 and successful harvesting of Mummy wheat, the grains found in ancient Egyptian sepulchres. 
 
 The British expedition had advanced so far north that it was beyond the life-limit of boars, 
 birds, and even seals ; and the sledging-parties, unable therefore to obtain any fresii game, were 
 severely attacked by scurvy. This fell disease invariably broke out when its victims were 
 farthest from any assistance. The journeys back to the ships were consequently undertaken, as 
 we have already pointed out, by men whose strength decreased daily ; and the burden became 
 all the greater as man after man was smitten down, and, to save his life, placed upon the sledge. 
 Great was the alarm on board the Alert, when, towards the close of the 8th of June, Lieutenant 
 Parr suddenly presented himself. He was alone. Where were his comrades ? What calamity 
 liad befallen them ? He soon explained that he had undertaken a journey of thirty-five miles, 
 toiling for twenty-two hours through mist and drift and snow, and guided only by the fresh track 
 of a stray wolf, to convey the news of the prostrated condition of the members of the northern 
 expedition. Preparations were immediately made for hastening to their assistance. With the 
 iielp of the officers, who all volunteered to drag the sledges, Captain Nares was able by 
 midnight to start with two strong relief-parties — Messrs. Egerton, Conybeare, Wootton, and 
 White, the officers who could best be spared from the ship, taking their places at the drag-ropes ; 
 and Lieutenant May and Dr. Moss pushing forward with a supply of medicines in the dog-sledge. 
 
 Such was the alacrity and energy of the two latter, that they contrived to reach Commander 
 Markham's encampment within fifty houra of the departure of Lieutenant Parr ; though, unfor- 
 tunately, not in time to save the life of one of the marines, who but a few hours before had 
 expired and been buried in the floe. On the remainder of the stricken company, their arrival, 
 however, had a most beneficial influence ; and when, early the next day, Captain Nares came uj) 
 to their relief, their courage and resolution, which had never deserted them, were quickened to 
 the utmost, and even the invalids threw off that dread depression an attack of scurvy invariably 
 produces. On the morning of the 1 4th all were once more safe on board the ship, and offering 
 ap their heartfelt thanksgiving to God. 
 
 Captain Nares furnis'ies some particulars which illustrate very vividly the terrible 
 experiences of the adventirous sledge-])arty, and also the ravages which scurvy never fails to 
 commit. He says that of the seventeen officers and men who originally left the A/rrl, only five 
 — namely, three officers and two men— were able to drag the sledges alongside. Three others — 
 heroes as true as any of those whom Homer has made famous ! — manfully kept on their feet to 
 
S38 TflK ANCIENT POLAU ICE. 
 
 tliu lust, eiiduriiip the extrcino of pain and fatigue rather than, by riding on the sludges, increase 
 the burden their weakened companions had tc drag. They were just able to crawl on board 
 ship without assistance. The remaining > ight had struggled gallantly, but the disease had 
 jtroved too much for them, and they were carried on the sledges. Out of the whole number, 
 only two officers escaped the ravages of scurvy. After due rest and medical attention, the chief 
 tar|)entor'8 mate returned to his duty, and three others recovered so as to be able to wait on 
 their sick comrades ; but Jollifte, a petty officer, who had nobly borne up against the disease 
 while actively (unployed, when his legs became cramped from resting on board proved to be one 
 of the most lingering cases. 
 
 Surely the nation will never begrudge the cost of expeditions which give such occasion for 
 tlie display of the most generous unselfishness and the noblest devotion 1 
 
 These sledge-journoys wore performed in the face of tremendous difficulties. Beyond the 
 mere coast-belt, there was little smooth ice ; the tolerably level floes or fields, usually about six 
 feet above the neighbouring ice, seldom measured a mile across. Their surfaces were thickly 
 covered with rounded blue-topped ice-humps, averaging twenty feet high ; which lay sometimes 
 in ranges, and sometimes a hundred to two hundred yards apart, the intervening spaces being 
 filled with wind-driven snow, and the whole resembling a gusty ocean suddenly stiffened into 
 rest.* Between these floes, like an embankment of rude formation, extended a vast pile of the 
 wreck and refuse of previous summers' broken-up pack-ice, regelated during the winter into one 
 rugged and confused mass of angular blocks of various heights up to forty and fifty feet, and 
 of every imaginable variety of configuration, like the disrupted lava at the mouth of a crater. 
 These were interspersed with a continuous series of " steep-sided snow-drifts," which stretched 
 downwards from the highest summit of the ice-chaos until lost in the general level at a distance 
 of about one hundred yards. It may be conceived that it was not easy to find a passage for the 
 sledges through these labyrinths of ice and snow. The snow-slopes were by no means an assist- 
 ance, for the winter-winds coming chiefly from the west, and the course of the sledges being due 
 north, they had to be encountered almost at right angles. Consequently, the journey was an 
 incessant struggle with ever-recurring obstacles ; as fast as one had been conquered, another 
 presented itself. The pickaxes were in constant requisition, eicher to cut a way through the 
 packed-up ice, or out of the perpendicular side of the high floes. Instead of a steady advance, 
 the whole party were frequently detained half a day by the necessity of facing the sledge and 
 hauling it forward a few feet at a time. These considerations will enable the reader to judge 
 how great must have been the " pluck," persistence, and energy which could accomplish a 
 journey of seventy miles in such exceptional circumstances. 
 
 Captain Nares observes — and his eulogium will be endorsed by the reader — that no two 
 officers could have accomplished this laborious entei-prise with greater ability or courage than 
 Commander Markham and Lieutenant Parr. And it is but just that the services of Rawlings 
 and Lawrence, the captains of the two sledges, should be put on record. In addition to their 
 general cheerfulness and good-humour, — qualities which always help to lighten difficult work, — 
 to their care and skill were due the safe return of the sledges, on which the lives of all depended 
 — safe, uninjured, and in as serviceable a state as when they left the ship, notwithstanding the 
 terrible character of the road they had travelled. To such men as these, and to the bravo, 
 
 * " Hera lat the billowa stiffen and have tvet."— Colkkidoe. 
 
NO ROAD TO TICK I'OLK 3:>'J 
 
 patient, rosoluto uledgocrows generally, wo owe tlio tribute of our praise. However Mevt-re 
 their privations, they never complained. During this memorable journey to penetrate to tlie 
 north over the rugged Polar Oceanic ice, a journey in which tlie "pluck" and detenniniitiou of 
 the British seaman were most conspicuously displayed, day after day, against obstacles which 
 might well have been regarded as insurmountable, the two officers and their brave followers 
 succeeded in advancing the Union Jack to latitude 83' 20' 26" N.,— or within four Immlred miles 
 of the North Polo. 
 
 In order to attain this advanced post, the present boundary-mark of geograpliicul research 
 in that direction, the total distance travelled was two hundred and seventy-six miles on the 
 outward, and two hundred and forty-five miles on the liomeward journey, though the fartiiest 
 direct distance from the ship did not exceed v venty-three miles. The result of labour so 
 colossal and sufferings so severe would seem to be, that we must consider a long journey over 
 the Polar pack-ice, with sledge and boat, to be impracticable at any season of the year. As the 
 sledges were necessarily advanced each stage singly, we are able to calculate the exact rate of 
 progression which may be expected, if it should be thought desirable to push forward with light 
 sledges, without any additional means of returning later in the season in the event of a 
 disruption of ice in the rear. The maximum attained by Commander Markhara was two and 
 three-quarter miles a day ; the mean rate being one mile and a quarter. 
 
 The outbreak of scurvy rendered Captain Nures very anxious as to the welfare of 
 Lieutenant Aldrich's company on their return from the westward ; and the more so, when it 
 was found that the cairn erected over his dep6t of provisions, thirty miles to the north-west, 
 remained untouched on the day appointed for his arrival there. Lieutenant May, with the dog- 
 sledge, and three robust men, were therefore sent to meet him. On the 20th of June the two 
 parties met at the depdt, and signalled the welcome fact to Captain Nares. It was fortunate 
 that Lieutenant Aldrich returned v hen he did, for on the following day a rapid thaw set in, 
 with the wind from the southwi"rd, and the snow-valleys were rendered impassable for sledges 
 for the rest of the season. His party, like Commander Markham's, were stricken with scurvy, 
 four of them lying helpless on the dog-sledge ; and Lieutenant May's arrival proved most 
 opportune. 
 
 Having now assembled all his company on board the Alert, Captain Nares was called upon 
 to decide whether it was possible to carry the work of exploration further, or whether the 
 expedition should return to England. Owing to the absence of any land with a northward 
 trend, and the innavigable character of the Polar pack-ice, he- concluded that on neither side of 
 Smith Sound could any ship advance further northward than the Alert had done ; and also, that 
 from no secure position in Smith Sound was it possible for sledges to advance nearer to the 
 Pole. If the expedition remained in the vicinity for another season, the exploration of the 
 shores of Grant Land might be pursued to the south-west, and of Greenland to the north-east, 
 but not more than fifty miles beyond the points already attained. In the weakened condition 
 of the crew, and for so small an additional gain, Captain Nares decided that it would be 
 unwise to risk another winter. As soon as the ice broke up, " Ho for merry England! " 
 
 A regular thaw did not set in until the last week of June. Water flowed in the ravines on 
 
810 ' AMUNC TIIK It'K. 
 
 the Int of July. After that date tho tlmvv gradually extended, and increaMed in rapidity ; and 
 on till! ii3rd a Htronj^ Houth-west wind «lrovo tho pack a mile away from tho shore. On the 2Gth 
 a cairn was erected on the shore, and a record of tho work of the expedition deposited in it ; and 
 on tho Slst, a passage having been cleared through tho winter-barrier of icebergs, the Alert, with 
 a strong south-west wind filling her canvas, pushed out into Robeson Channel on her homeward 
 voyage. After a run of two miles along-shore, through a fairly open way between the pack-ice 
 and what Dr. Kane calls " the ice-foot," nlie was checked in her course by a heavy floe one and 
 a half mile in diatnoter, which almost touched the land ; and no other shelter being available, dhe 
 lay up in a small cove or creek, among a group of icebergs that had gone ashore in the shal . ws. 
 
 The obstruijtive floe showed signs of movement early on the morning of August Ist; and 
 soon afterwards wont away to the northward at tho rate of a mile and a half an hour, grinding 
 along the ice-foot somewhat alarmingly as it advanced towards the ship. Steam being up, 
 however, the Alert cast off" her moorings, and succeeded in edging between the land and the floe; 
 while the latter swung round in-shore with a violent jerk, close to the position which the ship 
 had previously occupied. 
 
 Wo may note here the dift'eronco which Captain Nares insists upon between an ordinary 
 floe, such as is commonly met with in Arctic waters, and the ancient Polar Sea ice. The 
 former seldom exceeds six feet in thickness, and breaks into fragments against an obstruction, or 
 may be charged by a steam-ship ; but the latter, being some eighty or one hundred feet thick, 
 lifts all impediments out of its course, — or, so to speak, throws them disdainfully away. 
 " Such was the case on this occasion : the Polar floe, which," says Captain Nares, " we only 
 escaped by a few yards, on nipping against the heavy breastwork of isolated floebergs lining 
 tho coast, some of them forty feet high and many thousand tons in weight, which had lately 
 formed our protection from the smaller ice-pieces, tilted them over one after another, and forced 
 them higher up the land-slope, like a giant at play, without receiving the slightest harm itself 
 — ^not a piece breaking away. It was most providential that, by its twisting round, the Alert 
 was enabled to escape out of the trap in which she was enclosed." 
 
 The shore here presented a formidable line of ice-cliff, from twenty to forty feet in height, 
 striking down into clear blue water ten to twenty fathoms deep. The Alert kept onward, so 
 close to the cliff" that the boats hung at her quarter frequently touched it, until again brought to 
 a stop near Cape Union by the accumulation of the pack. Her captain, however, was able here 
 to secure her abreast of a large stream, the current of which had undermined the ice-cliflf for 
 8' Jie fifty yards, and floated it off" to sea, leaving a kind of cove or harbour where the ship could 
 bo laid alongside the beach in such a manner that, if the pack struck her, it could only force her 
 on shore. The retuler of Arctic voyages will remember that a somewhat similar position was 
 once occupied by Sir Edward Parry's ship, under somewhat similar circumstances. 
 
 When the tide had turned, and began to flow southward, it broke up the ice all around 
 Cape Union, and formed a narrow water-way, which offered Captain Nares a chance of escape. 
 Steam was got up immediately, but, owing to unavoidable delay in shipping the rudder, the ice 
 closed in before the ship could be carried round. Her last stage was worse than her first ; for 
 she was now cut oft' from her safe little port, and no better shelter was available than a slight 
 liollow or break in the ice-cliff'. Here, however, she was brouglit-to, with the ice-blocks swirling 
 past her at a distance of twenty yards. At low water Captain Nares cast off) and bored some 
 
ICl-nOOND. 331 
 
 way into tho pack, ro that tho Alert inif^ht drift round tiio iiipo with tho Houthorn tide. At 
 about a quarter of a milo from tho land, sho drove alonj^ witli tho ico ; an<l wliun thi- tide 
 Mluekoiicd, Hteainud out of tho pack before it Iw^an to sot to the nortlisvtird. Then, keeping ilnse 
 in to tho ico-foot, Hho kopt Hloviy on her eourno to tlie nouthward, tho wator way broaden inj,' us 
 she approached Lincohi Bay, which was crossed witiiout (hthculty. When within Hve miIIch of 
 Cape ik'uchoy, the tide turned ; but after a short dohiy a channel opened, allowing,' the slii|) to 
 round the cape. At this point tho ico-diff ends, and tiio land slopes K^^'O^'y to tho shoitj whidi 
 is p<-otected by a barrier of Hoebermrs, similar to, but smaller than, those which lino the slioro of 
 the Polar Sea. Here tho ship was made fast in three fathoms water, witliin twonty yards of 
 the shore, about a milo to tho south of tho cape. 
 
 We dwell on these y)articulars in order tiiat our readers may form some idea of tlie <litH- 
 culties of Arctic voyaging. The words, " She forced her way through tho ice," attbrd no concej)- 
 tion whatever of the obstacles that have to be overcome, and the dangers that have to be 
 avoided, by a ship navigating in the midst of pack-ico and ice-Hoes ; or of tho skill and vigilance 
 and patience on tho part of ofHcers and men, by which only can the enterprise bo brought to a 
 successful issue. 
 
 We are told that on August tho 4th snow-squalls blew liom tho south-wi'st As the ice 
 had closed in around the ship, holding it in a vice, tho sportsmen of the party landed, and visited 
 some neighbouring lakes in search of game. They found a number of wild geeso, and killed 
 fifty-seven, which supplied a welcome addition to the ordinary hill of fare. Mr. Kgerton and a 
 seaman were sint off to the Discovery, then about twenty miles distant, with orders for her to 
 prepare for th ^lomeward voyage. We have already related how they reached the ship in safety. 
 
 While the Alert was thus imprisoned, the huge pack-ice in the offing was carried up and 
 down the strait by the tidal movement, the wind having the eft'ect of increasing the velocity of 
 the current and the duration of its flow both northward and southward. The ice generally was 
 of a lighter character than that in the Polar Sea ; but many heavy Polar floes were driven 
 southward by the gale, and set into liady Franklin Sound and Archer Fiord rather than down 
 Kennedy Channel. Lady Franklin Sound, indeed, seems to be the receptacle of all the heavy 
 ice that comes south through Robeson Channel ; retaining it until tho prevailing westerly winds 
 carry it once more to the northward, and empty the Sound, previous to its being refilled on tlio 
 return of the northerly gales. It is only, says Captain Nares, in seasons when northerly winds 
 occur more frequently than westerly ones, that any considerable quantities of the huge Polar ico 
 are drifted into Smith Sound and Baffin Bay. 
 
 The gale of the 6th of August was very violeni The tide rushing southward, drove a 
 succession of heavy floe-pieces against the small bergs that protected the ship, and capsized one 
 of them completely. It was firmly aground when struck by the point of a large floe ; but such 
 was the force of the collision that it was reared erect in the air to its full height of at least .sixty 
 feet above water, when, turning a complete somersault, like a practised gymnast, it came down 
 on its back with a shock that shattered it into pieces, and raised a wave sufficient to roll the shij) 
 considerably. Into the gap thus caused moved the ice, until at last it nipped the Alert, though 
 not dangerously. 
 
 That same evening Lieutenant Rawson and two seamen arrived from the Discovery, with 
 news of the ill-fortune that had overtaken the Greenland sledge-party. 
 
tM THi;: TWO nmva. 
 
 It soon bocnine apparent t}iat thuni wax no cliancu uf ruluasin^^ tliu ice-buund Hhip except by 
 cutting down tin; lu-avy tlo« that hulu hur priMoner ; anil accortlin^^ly all hantlH woro not to work. 
 Aftur throe days' toil, ho much of thu Hoc was hewn away that at hi^li water it tloatod and Hot 
 the ship free ; at the saino time the main pack moved oH', and the Alert uteaiued onward, rejoin- 
 m^ her consort, the Discovery, on the 1 1th of Auj^ust. 
 
 All the invalids on board the Alert woro now removed to the Discovery, and Captain Naros 
 remained at the entrance to the harbour, prei)arod to CiOhh to Polaris Bay, as soon as the ice 
 permitted, U) relieve Lioiiteiiant Beaumont As before stated, however, he arrived on the 14th, 
 and relieved the commander of the ex[)edition of a serious anxiety. Both vessels were now 
 reiwly to start, but the state of the ico detained them until the 20th, when, a " lead " offorin}^ 
 throufi;h the pack, away they steamed, and arrived close to Cape Lawrence without encounterinjf 
 any serious obstacle. Here their old enemy, the ice, again opposed them ; and Captain Nares 
 found only the famous " three courses " of a well-known statesman open to him : either to return 
 nortli, to drive ahead into the pack, or make fast the ships to some of the grounded floebergs. 
 This Iiwt expedient was adopted, and in a. land-locked inner basin the Alert and the Duwoveri/ 
 were accordingly secured. But, unfortunately, at the fall of high water a piece of ice pressed 
 ogainst t' ^lert, and at the same time its protecting Hoeberg drove ashore. Result : the Alert 
 was nr -ward, but with deep water under the stern. And before she could be released, 
 
 t^ /iallen fourteen feet, so that the ship lay over at an angle of 22°, with fore-foot and 
 
 .jsed as far aft as the fore-channels. Nothing could be done until the tide rose. Then 
 ii.. jbip was lightened, and afterwards hauled oft" without having undergone any damage. 
 
 A passage again opened on the 22nd of August, and 'he two ships steamed as far southward 
 as Cape CoUinson, with no other troubles than dense snow-storms, mists, and strong head-winds. 
 But off' the cape, the Alert having to back to escape a nip, she fouled the Discovery for a moment; 
 the latter escaping, however, with nothing worse than the loss of a boat's davit. 
 
 The ice gradually breaking up before a strong south-west wind, the two ships crosstd Scoresby 
 Bay, which was perfectly clear, but rolled with a heavy sea. As they approached Cape Frazer, 
 they were buffeted by a terrible gale, and put in to Maury Bay, anchoring among a quantity of 
 grounded ice. Three days were spent in arduous efforts to double Cape Frazer, — one of the hetes 
 noires of Arctic navigators, because it is the meeting-point of the flood-tides, north and south, 
 one from the Polar Ocean and the other from tlie Atlantic, — and Cape Hayes, the boundary- 
 mark of the channel. Then the voyagers, with glad hearts, passed into Smith Sound ; and 
 hugging the shore as closely as was safe, arrived on the 29th at Prince Imperial Island, in 
 Dobbin Bay, " every one heartily thankful to be out of the pack, clear of the straggling icebergs, 
 and for the ships to be secured to fixed ice once more." 
 
 The temperature now sunk again below freezing-point The brief Arctic summe^- was over, 
 and day and night the young sea-ice formed continuously. The mists that had hitherto accom- 
 panied the ships cleared away before a brisk northerly wind, and revealed a magnificent pano- 
 rama of lofty mountains, white with shrouds of snow, and deep valleys filled with colossal 
 glaciers. One of these stretched downwards to the shore, and threw off great icebergs which 
 floated or stranded in Dobbin Bay. It was named after the Empress Eugenie, who had taken a 
 lively personal interest in the expedition. 
 
ARRIVAL AT DISCO. 3S3 
 
 CroHsinf^ Dohbin Bay on the let of Soptuiulxir, the voyaf^era came within a quarter of a 
 mile uf a depAt of proviHiunn cHtahliHhed near Capo IlawkH in the previouH autumn, and huo> 
 coeded in removinji^ a portion. A day or two later (Japtain Nnrex landed on Wasliin^'ton Ixlaiid, 
 and vimted a cairn whicii lie had raixetl tiiure on the \'2tU of Au^'U^tt IBiif). liu visited, also, 
 two old cairiiH erected by former explororH ; the lichenu with which they were ^ray provi-d that 
 they were of earlier date than Dr. HayuH* exjjudition. 
 
 On tlie 3rd of September, by dint of steaminf.^ anbiduously, the Hhips rammed tiieir vay 
 through a lane of water to the westward of Capo Hawks, which was inconveniently til)stnuted 
 by loose pieces of old ice. After roundinj^ the cape, says the captain, the piu-k l)y driftinj^ away 
 fron the land had left unfrozen water and iiumeroiw detached small Hoes, wliidi forced tliem to 
 make a very serpentine course, and occasionally to |)ass within thirty yanls of the low ice foot on 
 the shore, fortunately always findinj^ deep water. In this way they reached AUman Bay, half 
 way b'jtween Capo Hawks and Franklin Pierce Bay. Meeting hero with a bolt of new ice, the 
 Discovery was sent ahead ; and under full steam she forced a canal throuj^h the ice, which was 
 from one to three inches thick, From the lofty hills in the interior a huge glacier leads down 
 to Allma.'i Bay ; and it is s aoticeablo fact tiiat always in the neighbourhood of a glacier-stream 
 the water was found nearly frosh, and of the temperature of 32°. 
 
 On the 7th our homeward-bound ships reached Norman Lockyer Island, on the margin of 
 Princess Marie Bay. The season was now far advanced, and as the slightest mistake might 
 have led to the vessels being ice-bound for the winter, the two captains awcended to the liigiitst 
 point of the island to obtain some idea of the prospect before them. They were much relieved 
 by seeing a large area of open water some twenty miles distant, which they conjectured would 
 extend to the mouth of Smith Sound. No time was lost in getting under way ; and the sliip" 
 crossed two-thirds of the distance before they fell in with ice. By charging it under full steam, 
 they cleared the obstacle, and then, through an open-water channel, ran on to Cajie Sabine. 
 
 On the 9th of September they arrived ofi' Cape Isabella, where they found a small packet 
 of letters and newspapers which had been left at the depAc by the Pandora. The weather was 
 now calm, and the wind favourable. Sail was hoisted, therefore, as the supply of coal began to 
 run short, and on the evening of the I2th the expedition reached Bardin Bay. During the 13th 
 and the 7 4th they worked southward into Wolstenholm Sound; and thence, with a south- 
 easterly wind, crossed to Cape Byam Martin, which they reached on the 1 6th. Two days later 
 they entered the well-known waters of Melville Bay ; on the 25th they arrived at Disco, where, 
 and afterwards at Egedesminde, they obtained some small supplies of coal. 
 
 Egedesminde was left behind on the 2nd of October, and on the 4th the two ships recrossed 
 the Arctic Circle — exactly fifteen months from the time of crossing it on the outward voyage. 
 Experiencing adverse winds, they made but slow progress to the southward ; and as the weather 
 became warmer and damper, a few of the men suffered from rheumatism and catarrhs. During 
 a heavy gale on the 19th, the two ships separated; but Loth, aa we have seen, reached the 
 ah'^res of England in safety, where their gallant oflBcers and crews met with the hearty welcome 
 so thoroughly merited by their courage, perseverance, and heroic industry. 
 
 Some notes on the general results obtained by the expedition in zoology, botany, and geo- 
 logy, have appeared in the Academy. The two naturalists under whose care these departments 
 
334 RESULTS OF THE EXPEDITION. 
 
 were placed, — ('a|>tiiin Feilden, in the Alert, and Mr. p[ait, in the Discover/, — worked with 
 luiHaf^giiij^ enerf,'y and no Hmall success. 
 
 Of nianiinalH, the species found fartliest nortli wore the Arctic fox, the wolf, the ermine, 
 the Polar hare, the lemming, and the musk-ox,— all of which wore seen on the shores of the great 
 Polar Basin or I'alseocrystic Sea. No cetaceans were sighted north of Payer Harbour, near 
 Cape Sabine ; a fact which renders all the more serious the gradual process of extermination of 
 the Greenland (or right) whale in more southern latitudes. 'Che only seal found beyond Cape 
 Union, in lat. 82" 15' N., was the little ringed seal or " floe-rat" {Phoca hispida). 
 
 So far as the land extended, bird life prevailed ; the species being the snowy owl, the snow- 
 bunting, and the ptarmigan. Full collections were made of all the birds frequenting Smith 
 Sound ; and our naturalists had the satisfaction of discovering the long-sought-for breeding- 
 haunts of the knott and sanderling.* 
 
 Few species of marine fish were obtained, but "an interesting small salmonoid" was met 
 with in fresh-water lakes as far north as lat. 82° 35'. A fine collection of marine invertebrates 
 was secured by dredging and trawling ; and the character of the sea-bottom from Baffin Bay 
 up to hi>. 83° 19' N. Nvas accurately ascertained by a series of careful soundings. 
 
 In the department of botany our naturalists were rewarded by the discovery of between 
 twenty and thirty species of phanerogamic plants between the parallels of 82° and 83°. Much 
 richer and more varied results were obtained in the cryptogamic flora. 
 
 Geologically, the facts arrived at were of the utmost value. " The whole west coast of 
 Smith Sound, from Cape Isabella to Cape Union, has been fully surveyed and mapped, and 
 large collections have been made both of fossils and rock-specimens ; while the sledge-parties 
 which explored the shore of the Polar Basin, both to east and west, brought back sufficient 
 material to determine the geological character of the country. Silurian limestones, richly fossili- 
 ferous, were the prevailing rocks along Smith Sound. Miocene deposits, including a twenty-foot 
 seam of coal, were found as far north as lat. 81° 44'. From the shales and sandstones of this 
 formation a beautiful series of leaf-impressions were collected, illustrating the characteristic flora 
 of the epoch, and presenting a remarkable demonstration of the existence of a temperate climate 
 within five hundred miles of the present Pole at a comparatively recent geological time. Not 
 les3 important are the indications of great recent changes in the elevation of the land afforded by 
 the discovery of thick post-pliocene deposits, lying at a considerable elevation above the sea- 
 level, and containing fossils similar to the existing marine fauna. Lastly, very interesting and 
 suggestive observations have been made on glaciation and ice-action in general." 
 
 This, of course, is but a summary, and a very brief and condensed one, of researches which 
 have evidently been of the highest importance. And it might almost be said of th'i late expedi- 
 tion, that even had its geographical discoveries been less valuable, its scientific results would 
 ij ■ iiavo entitled it to a foremost place in the annals of Arctic. Enterprise. 
 
 Our record of Arctic expeditions will fitly close with a sketch of the cruise of the Pandora, 
 a screw-yacht commanded by Captain Allen Young, which left England in the summer of 187G, 
 in order to open up communications with the Admiralty expedition. 
 
 ' 'I'lie scarcity of nninial life in tlie remote Xnrtii in shuwu by the ftinall quantity of game Hliot liy tlie tiiiortsmen of the expedition after reach- 
 ing winter qnartent :--8ix miuk-oxen, twenty hares, seventy geese, twi-nty-ftix ducks, ten ptarmigan, and three foxea. 
 
•9 
 
CRUISE OF THE "PANDOIJA." 335 
 
 Captain Young left Upemavik on the eveninc of tlie 19th of July, and stood away to the 
 northward — in bad weather, and with the wind bloiving a gale. Through vast fieldH of ice he 
 threaded his way, sometimes under sail, sometimes under steam, until, on the morning of the 
 24th, he found his ship completely surrounded, in lat. 75° 10' N. 
 
 No time was lost in endeavouring to effect an escape by charging the ice at full speed, — 
 again and again returning to the onset ; and a slow but steady progress was being made, when 
 the field in wliich they were held fast, drifting before the gale, " collic'.;d " with a group of 
 grounded bergs, and exposed the little vessel to such severe pressure, that preparations wore 
 made for abandoning her. Provisions, ammunition, camping and travelling gear, all were made 
 ready, and the boats were lowered as far as possible at the davits. Meantime, heavy charges of 
 gunpowder were used to blast the ice where it pressed the ship most severely ; and the borgs 
 taking a different direction, the Pandora began to recover herself, and before night settled down 
 nearly to her usual level. In the darkness of the night, with the wind howling, and the snow 
 and sleet driving in heavy showers, she moved ahead with the pack ; and in this way continued 
 her progress until the 27th, when the weather cleared, and Captain Young discovered that he 
 had advanced right into the heart of Melville Bay, with no water in sight. Full in view were 
 Capes Walker and Melville, the Peaked Hill, and huge glacier-streams embedded in tiie inter- 
 vening valleys. All around was one vast monotonous sheet of rugged ice. It was not until the 
 29th that the Pandora, after many hairbreadth escapes, got into open water, in lat. 75" 50' N., 
 and long. 64° 55' W. While thus imprisoned in the grasp of the floe, the explorers killed only 
 one Polar bear, four seals, and a few little auks. 
 
 In a clear sea they now stood away to the westward, passing Capes Dudley, Digges, anil 
 Athol, and other headlands familiar in the records of Arctic adventure. At noon on the 31st, 
 when off Wolstenholm Island, another gale overtook them, increasing rapidly to almost hurri- 
 cane fury. This was an unpleasant experience ; for the deck was washed by heavy seas, and it 
 was with the greatest difficulty they avoided coming into collision with the icebergs which 
 drifted rapidly through the snow and spray. 
 
 Reaching Cary Island, they landed to examine Captain Nares' dep6t of ^)rovisions, and 
 found it in good preservation. The cairn had not been visited since Young's call at the island 
 on the 10th of September in the previous year. Afterwards they made for Sutherland Island, 
 where they found a record of the American explorer. Captain Hartstene, dated August 10, 
 1855. It is with a curious feeling that, in these regions of almost perpetual winter, the voyager 
 comes upon such faint memorials of men who, like him, have dared all the perils of icefloes and 
 icebergs, and adventured into seas far beyond the track of ordinary commercial enterprise. 
 
 On Littleton Island, a record of the expedition was found. The document was dated July 
 28, 1875, and signed by Captain Nares; and it indicated the course about to be taken by tiie 
 ships under his orders. Owing to the ice-encumbored condition of the straits, however, Captain 
 Young could not follow it up ; and instead of crossing to Cape Isabella, he resolved to examine 
 the coast in Hartstene Bay, in order to seek a harbour for the relief-ship which the Admiralty 
 had intended to send out in 1877, in case of the non-return of the Polar Expedition. This was 
 found on the 4th of August, not far from the Eskimo settlement of Etah, and named after tiie 
 Pandora. It would seem to offer every advantage as winter quarters for Arctic discovery- 
 ships ; the surrounding hills are " dotted with Arctic hares, appearing like snow-balls on the 
 
mmmmmmmmmimmimmmmmmmmmmmMiiim 
 
 .m TWKLVK HUUllS KXl'KHIKNOE. 
 
 luxurious ve},'ot4itioii. " The little auk breeds in thousands on the cliffs, eider fowl and guillemots 
 haunt the waters, and the adjacent valleys and pastures are frequented by reindeer. 
 
 Captain Young next nir.de for Cape Isabella, which he reached on the Gth of August. 
 Watchful eyes soon discovered a large cairn on the summit of this headland. A boat was 
 lowered, and the contents of the cairn soon obtained, while despatches and letters for Captain 
 Nares' expedition were left in their stead. Then the Pandora steamed to the northward ; but, 
 owing to the adverse winds and the accumulated ice, could make no way, and was forced back 
 to Cape Isaljella. Another attempt was made to the eastward, and for several days the gallant 
 little ship crossed and recrossed the straits, through the pack, always beset with ice, and 
 fn^quently enshrouded in impenetrable fogs. No fewer than three times was she compelled to 
 take shelter in Pandora Harbour. On the 19th she was driven back to the northward of 
 Littleton Island, and Captain Young and some of his officers took the opportunity of visiting 
 tlio Polaris camp. Nothing remained of the house erected by Captain Buddington except a 
 few broken boards. The rocks were strewn with pieces of metal, fragments of clothing, and 
 other waifs and strays. The cache in which the retreating party had deposited their books and 
 instruments was also examined ; but the only relics were a brass bowl of a seven-inch compass, 
 a tin tube, and |)arts of a telescope. Some cases and casks, containing records for the use of 
 Captain Nares, were securely placed among the rocks on the western point of the island ; and 
 Captain Young then returned to Cape Isabell.o. 
 
 Finding nothing here of any interest, and convinced that no travelling or boat party had 
 reached that po.sition from the Polar ships, the Pandora bore away to the northward under 
 canvas. " It was very dark and thick," says Captain Young, " but sufficiently clear to enable 
 us to avoid the heavy ice. By nine a.m. we were up to Lecomte Island, when we were stopped 
 by a fog until eleven o'clock, when I could see from aloft that the main pack extended across 
 the straits intt) Kosse Bay. We were in a lake of land water, with close-packed and heavy ice 
 all round, from so\ith to north, and again closing on the land from the eastward. Our only 
 chance of moving seemed to be through a narrow lead or slack place, running first to the east- 
 north-east, and then again apparently towards the east coast. We entered the pack, and 
 succeeded by five p.m. in again escaping into the land water in Hartstene Bay." Such are the 
 experiences of twelve hours in the ice-clogged waters of the North ! But we need not delay 
 the retuler with these minute particulars, notwithstanding their interest as illustrative of the 
 nature of the struggle waged with so much persistency of purpose by the Arctic explorer. The 
 sea was now covered everywhere with ice and bergs. Storms were of frequent occurrence ; and 
 the wiiiil and wave beaten Pandora was forced back into Baffin Bay. 
 
 Here, on the 28th of August, her captain could see that the solid ice had filled the straits 
 and the head of the bay right across to Cape Alexandei". The way north being thus obstructed. 
 Captain Young resolved on proceeding towards Upernavik, in North Greenland, hoping to find 
 that the last ship had not already sailed for Denmark, and in that case to send an officer home 
 with despatches, while the Pandora returned to Smith Strait. 
 
 On the 29th she was oflf Hakluyt Island, and steered for Bardin Bay in Whale Sound. 
 On entering the bay, a summer tent could be seen, and some Eskimos, with their dogs, running 
 to and fro, evidently with the view of attracting the attention of the visitors. Captivin Young 
 accordingly landed, with some of his officers, and accompanied by Christian, his Eskimo 
 
KSKIMO TRKASURKS. ;);I7 
 
 interpreter. The natives met them with the utmost confidence and fearlessness, assistiii'j to 
 haul their boat up on the shore. They were ten in number, and all members of one family. 
 Food appeared to be plentiful with them, but they were jtrofuse in their thanks for some walrus 
 flesh given by Captiiin Younj^. Their maimers wore frank and communicative, and they 
 showed considerable vivacity, rejoicing over the results of a very good hunting soa.son. Neither 
 European ships nor white men had they seen for years; but they said that an old man, who, 
 with his family, inhabited Northumberland Island, told of two ships wliich had passed to the 
 northward "last summer." How lonely must be the life led by these poor savages! Never 
 gladdened by the sight of a sail; but, year after year, shut up in their frozen .solitudes, and 
 without atiy other object or purpose before them than to obtain just enough food to avoid a 
 premitture and miserable death! 
 
 Among their treasures Captain Young observed a ship's bucket, half the top of a mahogany 
 table, the paddle of a Greenlander's kayack, much ice-worn, and a piece of packing-case marked 
 " Lime juice — Leith ;" all of which, they said, had drifted into the bay at different times from 
 the southward. These people seemed to Captain Young of a kind and simple disposition, while 
 they were evidently robust and healthy. All that they had — and it was little enough — they 
 freely pressed upon their visitor; and when asked what present they would like, their chief 
 selected only some gimlets and a fifteen-foot ash oar. The latter, he said, would split up into 
 spear-shafts; the former he wanted for boring bone and ivory. Captain Young, however, gave 
 them several other useful articles; accepting in return some narwhal horns, specimens of their 
 pot-stone cooking-kettles, and of the iron pyrites which they used for striking fire. An exchange 
 of dogs also took place ; five of the dogs belonging to the Pandora being given for three of the 
 finest bear-hunting and tame dogs of the Eskimos. 
 
 At Upernavik, the Pandora, after a stormy and dangerous passage, arrived on the evening 
 of September the 7th, but found that the last ship had sailed for Europe. As there were no 
 means, therefore, of communicating with England, and as, without such communication, Capti\in 
 Young did not feel authorized to winter in the North, a supply of fresh water was taken on 
 board, and the ship steered for home. From the 15th to the 21st she tarried at Goodhav'n, in 
 Disco Island. In Davis Strait she encountered large quantities of heavy Spitzbergen drift-ice, 
 and weathered a severe south-ea.sterly gale. On the Kith of October, in lat. 54° 38' N., and 
 long, ii" 30' W., she sighted the Arctic ships. Alert and Discovery, and hastened to communi- 
 cate with them. They kept together until the 19th. On the following day, the Pandora 
 was buffeted by another hurricane; but the rest of her voyage was accomplished in safety, and 
 was marked by no incidents of importance. 
 
 Here, for the present, terminates the record of 13ritish enterprise and adventure in the 
 Arctic World. It is difficult to believe, however, that the nation will rest until the " heart of 
 the mystery has b<3en plucked out," the Secret finally mastered, and the British flag hoisted on 
 that remote point which is conventionally known as the Noeth Pole. 
 
uHiitW 
 
 mm 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ■ 
 
 AqABVIUR IIUII0ARID8, 139. 
 
 Ai(iii«Hi7., ('x|H-rinionU of, 110. 
 
 Alt'i'toriii jiihatn, V\7. 
 
 Ak'txfh jjlacier, ♦be, ik'Hi'rilHMl, 47. 
 
 All,'"], "r MfcluHftH }Uiu\, :». 
 
 /Vrutic Ilitjlilandcni, 12. 
 
 Arctic night, llic, chnrncteriatics of, 32-34, 93- 
 
 '.)3. 
 Arctic region, extent of, 13, 14. 
 Atmonpheric plienoniena, 31. 
 Aiik, the, descrilicil, 97, «8. 
 Aunira liiircaliM, the, phcnonicnii of, 27 ; tlieory 
 
 of, '!!l. 
 
 BaI'I'IN, (liHcoveries of, 227. 
 
 HarentM, mlventnrcH of, 2fi0-269. 
 
 IlarreiiH, the, re^nn of, de8cribc<l, 10. 
 
 lU'iir, INplnr, natural history of the, 8.')-!)3 ; 
 hunting nealu, H(i ; voracity of, 88 ; affec- 
 tion for itH young, 88, 89. 
 
 Heechey, C*aptivin, (pioted, 4.^, 46, 65. 
 
 Jiell, iiuotod, 78. 
 
 liellot. Lieutenant, ijuoted, 123. 
 
 liennet, Stei)hcn, voyage of, 228. 
 
 Ilerkeley, quoted, 140. 
 
 lUrdrt, niigratiouH of, 11. 
 
 IJoiites, constellation of, 40. 
 
 I'reiner, Freilcrili i, ({noted, l.'tS. 
 
 BrewHterV, Sir David, ex]>eriment with ixdar- 
 ined light, 111. 
 
 Knddington, (*aptain, adventurvs of, 308-311. 
 
 Hurrough, Stephen, voyage of, 222, 223. 
 
 Button, C*aptain, voyage of, 227. 
 
 Bylot, Kobcrt, voyage of, 227. 
 
 (.'AnitsKN, ( 'aptain, voyage of, 270. 
 Cla^lcmia riingiferina, 137. 
 Clarke, Dr., quote. 1, 20,S. 
 Clavering, Captain, referretl to, 12. 
 Cochlearia, or scurvy-grasH, uses of, 139. 
 Coleridge, quoted, 09. 
 Contttellations, northern, list of, 37. 
 (\K)ley, Mr., quoted, 230. 
 Corvidffi, the, natural history of, 100. 
 (.Vyj>toganiim8 plants of the north, 141, 142. 
 Crystallization, process of, 108. 
 Cygnus musicuii, 161. 
 
 U'Aliikiua, Count, quoted, 205, 206. 
 Davis, Captain John, voyages of, 224, 225w 
 
 Dolphins, the, natural history of, 82, 83. 
 Ik/rttthta^ the, narrow escafio of, 55. 
 DulTerin, liOrd, quoted, 106, 107, 172. 
 
 ElUEIl DDCKB, the, natural history of, 103 ; in 
 
 Iceland, 104. 
 Kskinio dog, the, description of, 190. 
 Eskimo, the, hunting the walrus, 68, 69 ; hut 
 
 of, 76. 
 Kskimo kayak descriljed, 182. 
 Kskiino scaMiunt, an, described, 77, 78. 
 Eskimo sledge, the, de))cril>ed, 192-196. 
 Eskimos, the, iMundaries of, 175 ; character, 
 
 manners, customs, and clothing, 170-196. 
 
 Faix;on, the, natural history of, lliO. 
 
 Faraday, ingenious experiment of, 111. 
 
 Felinska, Madame, quoted, 211. 
 
 Fish in the Arctic seas, 106. 
 
 Flora of the Arctic lands, 19. 
 
 Fox, Luke, voyage of, 228. 
 
 Fox, the Arctic, natural history of, 161-153. 
 
 FoX'trap, a, described, 152. 
 
 Franklin, Sir *T., overland journey of, 231 ; last 
 
 expedition of, 231 ; relics of, discovered, 
 
 233, 235, 236. 
 Fritallaria sarrana, the, properties of, 142, 143. 
 Frobisher, Sir Martin, voyage of, 223. 
 Frobisher Strait discovered, 22^t. 
 
 nALE, an Arctic, described, 70. 
 
 G&rds of Lapland, described, 207. 
 
 Otrmania, the, expedition of, 245-20.5. 
 
 Geysere, the, phenomena of, 16.5-167. 
 
 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, death of, 224. 
 
 Glacier-ice, |>eculiarities of, 112. 
 
 Glacier in Smith Strait, 124, 127 ; of Sermiat- 
 sialik, 128, 129. 
 
 Glaciers, characteristics of, 47 ; motion of, 113- 
 115 ; phenomena connected with, 115-118 ; 
 of the Arctic regions, 118-133; of Spits- 
 bergen, 120, 123. 
 
 Godhav'n, 107. 
 
 Grampus, the, natural history of, 83, 84. 
 
 Greenland, scenery on the coast of, 22. 
 
 Guillemot, the, described, 96, 97. 
 
 Gull, the, describe<l, IKt. 
 
 Hail, Captain, expedition and death of, 271, 
 272. 
 
 Uatua, the, voyage and loss of, 245-251. 
 
 Ifans the HunU'r, 180-189, 284. 
 
 Hare, the Arctic, 154. 
 
 Hartwig, Dr., quoted, 15. 
 
 Hayes, Dr., quoted, 23, ,T6, 43, 49, 50, 59, 87, 
 
 95, 96, 124, 12.5, 127, 128, 138, 152, 163, 
 
 186, 191, 192, 244 ; Arctic exiHidition of, 
 
 244, 24.5. 
 Heame, quoted, 183. 
 Uetia, the, and the Furji, danger of, 56. 
 Hegemann, Captain, 245. 
 Hekla, eruption of, 104. 
 Henderson, Dr., quotcil, 172. 
 Hill, Mr., quote<l, 213, 214. 
 Holison, Lieutenant, discovers Franklin relics, 
 
 234-236. 
 Holland, Mr., quoted, 173. 
 Hore, Mr., voyage of, 222. 
 Hudson, Henry, discoveries of, 225-228. 
 Humlwldt Glacier, description of, 131-134, 238. 
 Hutchinson, Captain, quoted, 205. 
 
 Icebergs, their dimensions, 41 ; their magnifi- 
 cent appearance, 42, 43 ; danger to naviga- 
 tion from, 44, 123; breaking up of, 49; 
 range of, 60, 51 ; in Baffin Bay, 124. 
 
 Ice-fields, extent and character of, 54, 56, 57. 
 
 Ice-Howers, characteristics of, 108. 
 
 Iceland, dimensions of, 162 ; history of, 162 ; 
 volcanoes of, 163; dreary landscajies of, 
 164 ; geysers of, 166, 167 ; houses and 
 churches of, 170 ; travelling in, 172; horse* 
 of, 173. 
 
 Iceland moss, uses of, 138, 139. 
 
 Jacobshav'h, 168. 
 
 Jakut merchants, the, enterprise of, 217. 
 
 Jakuts, the, as bear-hunters, 212; manners and 
 
 customs of, 216, 217. 
 James, Captain Thomas, voyage of, 228. 
 Joe the Eskimo, with Captain Tyson, 278, 
 
 a tqq. 
 
 Kahtschatka, fisheries of, 212; the dog of, 
 
 214, 215. 
 Kamtschatkans, the, characteristics of, 213, 214. 
 Kane, Dr., quoted, 16, 32, 33, 34, 42, 68, 73, 74, 
 
 88, 91, 92, 131-134, 149, 153, 184, 186, 237, 
 
 239, 242, 243 ; Arctic explorations of, 237- 
 
 244. 
 
 / 
 
INDKX. 
 
 3;i9 
 
 i 
 
 Knota, the, habits of, 11, 12. 
 Koldewuy, Captain, refurreil to, 12 ; voyage of, 
 245. 
 
 Lauofub, tlie, 161. 
 
 Lamont, Mr., iiuotix), 00, 62, 
 
 Lapland, diviaionH and extent of, 197 ; clinmto 
 
 of, 197 ; inhaliitanta of, 197 ; the relndeiT 
 
 tn, 200 ; Hled|,'iiiK in, 201 ; an interior in, 
 
 20), 20,"). 
 Lapp dialect, the, 206. 
 Lapp huntont, the, boldness nf, 202. 
 Lapiie, the, dress, manners, and custonis of, 
 
 198. 
 Lapiw, the Monntain, (^Itarneter of, 199, 2(M>. 
 Lapps of West Bothnia, 206, 207. 
 I.ttube, Dr., qnoted, 2.52. 
 fiemmlng, the Arctic, IM. 
 
 iMACMii.t.AN, Dr., quoted, 1.15, 130, 137, HI. 
 Markhani, C, quotcil, 10, 175, 225, 226, 273. 
 Marten, the, 155. 
 
 Martins, M. Charles, quoted, 119. 120, 121. 
 M'f Ilintock, Captain Sir Uodericlc, (pioted, 148, 
 
 161, 181, 265 ; voyage of, 231. 
 M'Cluru, Sir Ilobert, qiioto<l, 81 ; discovers 
 
 North-west PaasaKc, Za. 
 Mechani, ('aptain, quoted, 146, 150. 
 Mcr de Olate of Cireonland, 127, 128. 
 Mer^janser, the natural history of, 99. 
 Milton, Lord, aud Dr. Clieudle, ipioted, 158- 
 
 160. 
 Moonliijbt iu tlie I'olar World, 26, 
 Moraines, deHeriI)cd, 115. 
 Moravian mission-stations in Urcenland, 179. 
 Mosses in the Arctic re^ona, 139. 
 Musk-ox, the, natural liistory of, 149, 1.50. 
 Miistclidie family, the, in the .\rctio regions, 
 
 155. 
 
 Nareh, Captain, expedition of, 314, el si/ii. 
 Nanvlial, the, natural history of, 82. 
 Newfoundland colonized, 224. 
 North- West Viissage, utility of, 9. 
 Novaia /emhvia, temperature of, 21. 
 
 Ohdohn, Admiral Shcrard, quoted, 44, 81, S4, 
 
 85, 87, 146, 151, 2.32, 2:!6, 237. 
 Ostiaks, the, manners and customs of, 211, 212, 
 Ostrownoje, trade at, 220. 
 Oxyria, the, uses of, 141. 
 
 Pack-IOI, deaciiption of, 53. 
 
 Parry, Captain, ipioted, 44, 46, 86, ■£VI j voy- 
 
 ages of, 228, 229, 230. 
 Payer, ' 'vutenant, voyage of, 270, 271. 
 Penny, Captain, voyage of, 232 -234. 
 ^'ha^nogamouH plants of the north, 141. 
 Phocida), the.— See Skal. 
 Plant-life of Spitztiergtn, 142; of KamtschaS 
 
 ka, 142, 14:i. 
 PlcIaiU, the, 39. 
 
 Polarit, the, voyage of, 271-313. 
 Polecat, the, in the Arctic regions, Ififl, 157. 
 Pole-Star, the, i>osition of, 36. 
 Poole, Jonas, voyage of, 228. 
 Putlin, the, natural history of, 99. 
 
 QuKNKa, or Finns, the, 20IS. 
 
 Rak, Dr., finds relics of Franklin, 23.3. 
 lied snow, phenomenon of, explained, i;r>. 
 liefraction, phenomena of, 31. 
 ll«gelation, wliat it is. 111. 
 Reikiavik, description of, 168, 169. 
 Reindeer, the, natural history of, 144 ; useful 
 
 nessof, 145 j food of, 146 ; ami wolves, 147 ; 
 
 in Silieria, 218, 219. 
 Reindeer mosH, 137. 
 Rendu, Bishop, quoted, 114. 
 Richardson, Sir J., quoted, 14i>. 
 Itock-hair, 137. 
 Rorqual, the, 80. 
 Ross, Sir James, quoted, Iiri 
 Rosa, Sir John, voyages of, 228, 231. 
 
 Sabink, Sir Kdward, quoted, 10. 
 
 Sable, the, natural history of, 1.56. 
 
 Samojedes, the, superstitions of, 20S, '2(19 ; man- 
 ners and customs of, 210, 211. 
 
 Schaltan, an Ostiak idol, 211. 
 
 Scoresby, Dr., quoteil, 44, 106, 186. 
 
 Seal, the, natural history of, 71-73; Hesh of, 
 73, 74 ; different genera of, 75. 
 
 Serraiatsialik, glacier of, 127, 128. 
 
 Shepherd, Mr., quote<l, 101. 
 
 Skaptii Jokid, eruption of, 165. 
 
 Smew, the, natur.tl hiatory of, 100, 
 
 Smith Sound, route by, 228. 
 
 Snow, formation of, 108. 
 
 Snow-cryatala, described, \ifX 
 
 Snow-line, lindt of, 20. 
 
 Somerville, Mrs., quoted, :i0, 107. 
 
 Souther, quoted, 136. 
 Sporiilesmtum lepraria, 140. 
 Spring iu the Arctic regioiu, 34. 
 Starakis, the, deacrilied, 98. 
 Stephenson, Captain, of the iJuciiiiij/, 314. 
 Sununer in the Arctic rcgi<ms, 30. 
 Swan, the wild, natural history of, lOS ; the 
 whistling, 161. 
 
 Tadebthioh, or Samojede (lemons, 209. 
 
 Tadibe, the Samojede priest, 209. 
 
 Tchuktche, the, manneni and customs of, 220. 
 
 Temperature of Arctic winter, Xi, 
 
 Tennyson, (pioted, 10.5. 
 
 Thingvalla, the, iu Irelauil, 168. 
 
 Thome, Dr. RoWrt, Anglic exploration pro- 
 
 jiosed by, 222. 
 Tripe do rwhe, 137, 138. 
 Tundras, the stony, deacribcd, 15, 16. 
 Timguai, the, cluiracteriatics of, 219, 220. 
 TyndiUl, Professor, quoted, 47, 43, 108. IIRI 
 
 111, 112, 113, 11.5, 117, lis. 
 Tyson, Captain, narrativts of, 278-308. 
 
 Unknowm Region, extent of, 10. 
 Upernavik, described, 176. 
 Ursa Major, constellation of, 3<i; description 
 of, 37, 38. 
 
 WAKiA'ra, island of, 208. 
 
 Walrus, the, natural bislory of, 63 ; courage 
 of, 64 ; gradual decay of, 67. 
 
 Walnis-hunt, a. described, IW, 69. 
 
 Walrus-hunting, how carried on, 60; proceeds 
 of, 62. 
 
 Ware, cpiotwl, 37, 38. 
 
 Whale, the, natural hiatory of, 78 ; character- 
 istics of the (ireenlaud, 79, 80; the Razor- 
 backed, 80. 
 
 Whalebone, what it is, described, 79. 
 
 Whale-fishery of the Kskinios, 81. 
 
 Whirlwinds of the north, 31. 
 
 Willoughby, Sir Hugh, loss <,f, 222. 
 
 Wolf, the Arctic, natural history of, 1 18. 
 
 Wolverine, the, cunning of, 1.57 ; ani.ii.itcs of, 
 168-160. 
 
 Wooded zone of the Arctic regions, 143. 
 
 Wrangel, Admiral von, (luoted, 20, 81, 218, 221. 
 
 Yakutsk, temiwrature of, 2t'i. 
 
 Young, Captain, cnusc of, in the I'nndura, 'Xi\.