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GOLD:

ITS OCCURRENCE AND EXTRACTION.

INW

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AUSTRALASIA : SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

615

Palmer districts. — An expedition in search of gold and other minerals
in the Palmer dis^^ricts, N. Queensland, was made by James V. Mulligan
and party in April-September, 1875. The auriferous indications met
with may be summarized as follows.

Byer's Creek. — All auriferous country, and little gullies and ravines
have been worked.

St. George river. — On the upper waters, the formation passed over
is mostly slate, but contains no indications of gold.

Hodgkinson river. — Between here and the Mi«:chcll river is auri-
ferous looking country, and the party found about 8 gr., and believed
that more was to be had by searching. On another branch, colours were
found, and a gold-field is suspected in the neighbourhood. Folio ving
another branch or feeder, some dishes of wash-dirt gave over 20 colours,
yet not amounting to i gr. Mulligan believes there is a great extent of
similar country, and that there are payable gullies, though they might be
in little dabs. The formation is a foliated sandstone or slate, with hard
bars running across, containing iron-pyrites in great abundance.

Mitchell river. — After crossing the Mitchell, an abundance of quartz,
iron, and ironstones were met with. Innumerable colours were got in the
dish, and specks sometimes as big as pins' heads, but no payable prospects,
though there is a splendid wash. The position by observation was
16° 51' 15" S. Payable gold will be found not far from here, and this
piece of country is highly auriferous. Farther on, colours and specks
like pin-heads were met with everywhere, but no payable prospects.

Tate river. — On a creek running into the Tate, shotty colours of
gold were found ; and numerous colours in the Tate itself. Also colours
of the finest description in Pint Pot Creek.

No payable deposits are reported throughout, but such doubtless
exist at no great distance.

South Australia. — Several gold-fields have been discovered and
worked ; but although gold is to be found in nearly every part of South
Australia, none of the deposits of the precious metals has so far proved
of great extent. The bed of the river Torrens has yielded a small
quantity ; but none of the finds has proved of an enduring character.
The Echunga gold-fields, which were discovered in 1852, were the only
ones of any value which had been worked up to that time ; but they only
gave employment to a comparatively small number of diggers. The
same may be said of the Jupiter Creek diggings, in the same locality.
The Barossa gold-fields, distant about 35 miles from Adelaide in a N.E.
direction, were the next discovered ; but these did not prove very rich as
compared with the deposits in the sister colonies. Alluvial gold-
digging was carried on for years at Barossa, and something has been
done there in the way of mining. About 3 years ago, however, opera-

r fT

6i6

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

tions at the Lady Alice mine, which had been profitably worked for some
years, and had yielded very rich quartz, were discontinued, capital not
being forthcoming for carrying on deep-sinking. Gold has also been
found in the Waukaringa district, in the North, where, for some years,
several reefs were worked with fairly satisfactory results. An effort is
now being made to obtain money for reviving operations in the district,
and the prospects of success are p- omising. According to the Statistical
Register for 1876, the gold exported to Victoria in that year was
2501 oz., value 9888/. ; in 1875, the figures were 1802 J oz., value 7034/.
The Chief Secretary at Adelaide kindly adds that he telegraphed to the
Resident at Palmcrston on the loth December, 1881, and was informed
in reply that up to that date inclusive, 132,000 oz., valued at 456,000/.,
had been exported.

The following account of the several gold-fields is taken from Ulrich's
report, dated 6th April, 1872, for a copy of which, among many other
kindnesses, the author is indebted to that talented mining geologist.

Barossa. — This gold-field exhibits in its topographical and geological
features a close resemblance to parts of Bendigo, Campbell's Creek, also
to Dundley and other Victorian gold-fields, where the protective covering
of basaltic lava is absent. Its principal gold-deposit is probably of Older
Pliocene age, and consists of rounded quartz pebble and boulder drift,
enclosing larger and smaller layer-like patches of ferruginous quartz
conglomerate. At the head of an extensive valley. Spike's Gully, a real
main lead is formed by a number of branch leads coming to a junction ;
and this main lead, in its course down the valley, is cut up by alluvial
gullies into a number of hills of greater or less extent, and showing a
depth of drift varying in thickness from 20 to nearly 100 ft. Both the
older drift and the alluvial drift of the gullies are auriferous ; but regard-
ing the latter, several circumstances prove that the gold it contains was
mainly derived from denuded portions of the former. Foremost amongst
these may be mentioned the generally much water-worn character of the
gold, and that the branch gullies are only auriferous where they pass
between older drift hills. Higher up, beyond the latter, they cease to be
so (a similar case as at the White Hills of Campbell's Creek, near Castle-
maine). T'^e richness of the main, or Spike's Gully, is due partly to the
branch gullies having carried gold into it, partly to its intersecting the
old lead in many places itself.

At the lower part of the diggings, private property stops the advance
of the miner ; but it seems quite certain that both the older and alluvial
drifts continue to carry payable gold, and from the apparent strong dip
of the older lead, it appears also probable that a so-called deep lead
exists in the flats lower down the valley, i. e. the older drift may rest on
the bottom of the valley, and be covered by alluvial drift, in which case

AUSTRALASIA : SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

617

there is a HkelihoDd of the existence of two auriferous layers — that of the
alluvial drift, resting on a false bottom, the top of the older drift ; that
of the latter on the true rock bottom. The branch leads at the head of
Spike's Gully run over one of the highest ranges, in fact the watershed
of the district, and are lost, i. e. washed a^vay beyond the range by a
strong creek, which thereby became auriferct:.s as proved by the alluvial
workings, yielding water-worn gold down its course. Considering that
they have once been creek beds, enclosed between ranges, but lie at
present at a higher level than the ranges for some distance beyond, here
is an instance of the enormous amount of denudation the country has
suffered in bygone times. Ranges are worn down to below the beds of
the creeks that traversed them, and the drainage of the country is quite
altered, in fact partly turned in the opposite direction.

It is evidently quite impossible to determine the exact locality of the
quartz reefs, whence the gold of the old leads was derived. So much is
certain from the perfectly rounded character of the quartz pebbles and
boulders, that the material must have travelled a considerable distance ;
and the occurrence of highly micaceous clays and occasional pebbles of
metamorphic sandstone, in the heaps of drift round some of the shafts,
indicates besides that it came from a district composed of metamorphic
rocks, perhaps from part of the same belt of metamorphic ranges in
which the Blumberg gold-field is situated ; for at Barossa, the rocks
show no, or but slight, traces of metamorphic action.

From the fact that some of the gold found in the alluvial drift is less
water-worn than the rest, there is, no doubt, also a probability of auri-
ferous quartz reefs existing within the area of the gold-field itself, and
one large " blow " of a quartz reef cropping through the old drift deposits
has been tunnelled into and prospected by shafts, but whether gold was
found, Ulrich co ild not ascertain. In looking at the extent and nature
of the workings in the old drift hills, it seems that a number of them are
but partially worked, and therefore — as is done at similar places in
Victoria — tunnelling into them, and sluicing the washing stuff of the
banks left standing between the old claims, might prove a profitable
undertaking, the contour of the country being very favourable for the
construction of reservoirs at no great expense.

Blumberg. — The rocks comprising^ this field, as far as traversed, are
both of eruptive and metamorphic character. They consist of mica-
schist and hard micaceous quartzose sand and flagstones, here and there
traversed by massive dykes, and showing protrusions of a very coarse-
grained granite, which is characterized by containing only white mica in
large plates, and to which no doubt the metamorphic character of the
rocks is due.

Criterion reef —This reef is supposed to traverse a lowish hill, on the

6i8

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

iii

1 f '

top of which, a large crushing-plant is at present in course of erection.
Owing to the manager's absence, and the shaft being inaccessible on
account of water, Ulrich was not able to gain much information about the
nature of this reef At the place where it originally cropped out, at the
western foot of the hill, close to a small creek, and was found very rich in
coarse gold, is a trench-like excavation ; but the bottom of it being
covered with mullock, the reef could not be seen. According to the
nature and direction of this cutting, the strike of the latter seems to be
W. 25° to 30° N., and its dip N. 25° to 30° E., at a rather flat angle. The
quartz lying near this place is good-looking, being somewhat seamy, and
strongly impregnated with iron-pyrites and brown iron-ore. Empty
cubical cavities, caused by the decomposition of the pyrites, impart to
some fragments quite a cellular texture. The country consists of highly
micaceous sandstones, alternating with mica-schist, and is decomposed,
and easily brought near the surface, but becomes very hard and tough in
depth ; strike, N. 30° W. ; dip, apparently E. 30° N. at 45° to 50°

Beyond the excavation up-hill there is no outcrop of a reef observable
at the surface ; but at a distance of about 2 chains up the slope lies a
vertical shaft in which, according to Williams (the former proprietor of
the ground, and original discoverer of the rich outcrop), a strong quartz
vein was struck at some depth down ; but whether it was found auri-
ferous he could not tell. A large and deep shaft, sunk in front of the
machinery shed, lies considerably out of the line of strike and dip of the
reef, as indicated by the first-mentioned excavation, and is therefore,
perhaps, only intended for a water-shaft. There are, in different parts of
the hill near ttn: machinery, shallow holes and trenches in which strong
quartz leaders are exposed, differing in strike from the supposed line of
the reef About their character, whether gold-bearing or not, Ulrich
could not gain any information. On reviewing the results of his inspec-
tion, they are certainly unsatisfactory, regarding the character of this
reef, and the prospects of the place generally ; still, considering the large
expenditure which the proprietors incur in the erection of the crushing-
plant, previous to a proper opening of the reef and leaders, it must be
concluded that they are thoroughly satisfied touching their gold-bearing
character and capabilities, as exhibited in the workings executed.

The alluvial gully, running close past the rich outcrop, and crossing
the supposed line of the reef, has not as yet been tested, though it has
every prospect of being auriferous below that line.

German reef — Having in Melbourne frequently heard credible
accounts as to the richness of this reef, and actually seen splendid gold
specimens obtained from it, Ulrich was not a little surprised to find it
quite neglected, and a fine crushing-plant, erected close by, doomed to
inactivity and slow decay. «

AUSTRALASIA: SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

619

The iccf shows a well-defined outcrop for above 20 chains in length,
running over a long, gently-sloping hill, across a gully, and up another
hill, at a strike of N. 15° E., and dipping W. 15° N., !n places stcplike,
steeper and flatter at angles varying from 25° to 50". The rocks which
it traverses strike N. 40° E., and dip W. 40° N. at 55°, and consist, as at
the Criterion reef, of highly micaceous metamorphic sandstone, alterna-
ting with mica-schist.

With regard to the auriferous character of the reef, a man in charge
of the place (who was employed as a miner during the whole period the
reef was worked), gave Ulrich all the information embodied in the
following description. Gold was found in the outcrop for a distance of
at least 10 chains, and in two places extremely rich. At one of these
places, low down the slope of the first long hill, the reef has been worked
on the underlie to a depth of about 40 ft, and for above 100 ft. in
length. It shows in the faces tolerably well-defined walls, and an
alternating flatter and steeper dip. The thickness of the portion removed
varied from 2 to 6 ft., and the quartz became rapidly poorer in depth —
the average yield of that last raised having been 3 to 5 dwt, per ton.
The second place where "-ich gold was found lies on the top of the hill,
but the outcrop has here only partially been worked. There exists,
however, a fine vertical shaft, which struck the reef at a depth of between
90 and 100 ft, but rather poor, and only about 6 in. thick, whilst its
thickness at the top ranged from 2 to 5 ft. in places. The quartz all
along the outcrop is rich in iron-pyrites, and some shows by its cellular
texture and very ferruginous character, that much of this ore has been
decomposed. The latter, becomes, however, still more abundant in
depth, and the fine, seamy quartz raised from the large vertical shaft, on
top of the hill, contains it perhaps at the rate of 25 to 30 per cent. In
cases of such strong increase, in connection with a decrease of free gold
in depth, it has generally been found in Victoria that the pyrites is
payably and sometimes even richly auriferous. Matthew Barker, the
late mining manager of the reef, evidently remembered this fact from his
Victorian experience, for, by a simple contrivance, attached to the crush-
ing-machine, he saved several tons of the ore, which are stacked in bags
near the plant Should an average sample of this have been assayed
with the result at the rate of not less than 2 oz. per ton, its treatment, in
the manner practised at Clunes and Bendigo, would no doubt be a
payable undertaking, and might render the reef profitable to work. But,
irrespective of this, on considering the fine development of the reef, the
large extent of it as yet unworked, though proved auriferous, and that a
fine crushing-plant is at hand, supplied with good gold-saving appliances
and plenty of water at command, Ulrich cannot help thinking that
another attempt at working it — with special attention being paid to the

620

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

possible occurrence of the gold in shoots — would be advisable, and might
be attended with better results than the first. For opening it at greater
depth than hitherto reached, there would be required, however, another
main shaft, lower down the hill towards the first workings, and farther off
in the direction of its underlie, than the one existing on top of
the hill.

The surface round the reefs, and the adjacent gullies have not, as yet,
been worked, though they are in all probability payably auriferous.

Alluvial Deposits. — Of these, Ulrich inspected a small gully worked
by several parties — one of the claims belonging to Mines, who kindly
supplied Ulrich with all the information he asked concerning the
occurrence of the gold. The alluvion of this gully is 3 to 5 ft. thick, and
consists at the top of brown or brown and yellow mottled sandy clay,
and beneath of l to 2 ft. of clayey angular quartz gravel, which rests on
a veiy soft bottom, composed of mica-schist. Where it thins out on one
of the bounding rises, the surface is found payably auriferous up to a
spot covered with a number of loose quartz blocks ; and as the gold
obtained is throughout of a crystalline, rather spongy character — not
the least water-worn — it must have been derived from a quartz reef lying
in Close vicinity ; and this supposition is strengthened by the frequent
occurrence of specimens, both of brown iron-ore and quartz, thickly
impregnated with gold.

A quartz reef struck below the alluvial at 2 places by Hines, and
which apparently strikes right for the spot where the gold was lost and
the loose blocks of quartz appear on the surface, is therefore most likely
the one which supplied the gold to this portion of the alluvial diift, and
certainly deserves to be opened up.

From the fact, however, that the gully continues payably auriferous
beyond this point, towards the top of the range, it must be concluded
that the gold there occurring in it has been derived from one or several
other quartz reefs lying in that diiection. Considering that the stuff
in its entire thickness pays well, though it has to be carried a
di-stance of fully i mile to a puddling-machine erected at the river
Torrens, and moreover that, according to the warden, Peterswald, a
number of similar small gullies, all payable, have been opened over a
belt of country of nearly 14 miles in length, Ulrich thinks sufficient
evidence is afforded to consider the gold generally well distributed (most
likely in the line of a zone of auriferous quartz reefs, including the
German, Criterion, and other reefs discovered), and that there is every
probability of its existence in payable quantities in the intervening
gullies.

What in Victoria have generally proved to contain the richer alluvial
deposits — the main gullies — to which the just-noticed small gullies form

tif*'

/ m

AUSTRALASIA : SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

621

tributaries, ha\'c not been as yet tried, and present therefore 11 promisin^^
field to the prospector. As regards the older gold-deposits — rounded
quartz, pobble drifts, and conj^loinerates — Ulrich found no traces of their
existence in the part of the country traversed. They mij^dit possibly
occur on the tops and slopes of the hi{j[hest hills and ranjjes, and are not
easily recognizable on account of the dense vegetation ; but from
ob-servations made at Barossa and Echunga, he is more inclined to
believe that they are absent ; if once in existence, they have since been
entirely removed by denudation. Notwithstanding, however, this defect,
he considers from the features observed, that this gold-field, as far as
regards alluvial drifts and quartz reefs, is a highly promising one, and
only requires a rush of enterprising miners for its proper development.

In conclusion, Ulrich mentions that he saw in Stratford's collection of
samples of alhivial gold from this field one that much resembles the
so-called spider-leg gold, Vnown from some of the northern gold-fields
of Queensland ; and as thi . kind of gold occurs there, not only in
alluvial drift, but also in fc'spathic greenstone and elvan dykes, from
which the drift-gold is derived, there is a strong probability that such
is the case on this gold-field also, and prospectors ought therefore to
keep a sharp look - out for and carefully examine any such dykes
found.

Echunga. Old Echunga diggings. — Here obtain to a great extent
the same geological features as observed at Barossa, i.e. a probably
Older Pliocene drift-lead, composed of rounded quartz, pebble drift and
conglomerate, occupying the tops and slopes of pretty high ranges.
Payable and even rich water-worn geld was found in this deposit, and
whetc it has been denuded along the slopes of the hills, and by gullies
intersecting it, as, for instance, at the Chapel and Pedlar's hills —
enclosing the Poorman's and Christmas leads — two deeper runs of drift
separated by a high rise — by Fclthouse's Flat and Chapman's Gully,
and farther on the Bell's Point lead, by Long Gully — rich surface and
alluvial drifts are the result. There is, however, this difference from
Barossa, that a great part of the gold washed from these latter deposits
(at Felthouse Plat and Chapman's Gully), is not water-worn like the
rest, but hackly and crystalline — a circumstance which clearly indicates
that, whilst the water-worn portion came from denuded older drift, the
hackly one was derived from quartz in the immediate vicinity. Where
the workings of Chapman's Gully terminate, at the boundary of private
property, there is indeed a strong quartz reef crossing the gully at a
strike of N. 25° E., which has been tried in several places, and in which
gold is said to have been found, though not in payable quantity. The
trials made are, however, neither very judicious nor extensive enough ;
and Ulrich believes, therefore, that another attempt at opening this reef,

I' I

E!il

I ■ }1

I i! t

■i

632

GEOGRAnilCAL DISTRIBUTION.

more especially at a deeper level, and where it crosses the gully, would
be attended with a better result.

The quartz is throughout very good-looking, and impregnated with
irrn-pyrites at the surface. It is much to be deplored, regarding the
development and prosperity of this field, that the further working of the
alluvial deposits, both at Fclthousc Flat and Chapman's Gully, is stopped
by private property, the owner of which will not allow the miner to enter
on any terms ; for there cannot be any doubt that both flat and gully
continue to carry payable if not rich gold in that direction. That, in
Pedlar's Hill, the gold ceases at a hard sandstone bar, does not, as some
miners suppose, arise from a throw or fault of the lead ; but is simply
explained by the fact that the sandstone bar forms the lateral boundary
of the old river channel, the continuation of which longitudinally, beyond
the hill, either side, has been completely denuded — the hill, in fact, is the
result or a remnant of this denudation.

The so-called Long Gully crosses, as already noticed, part of the
same old lead, which was found to contain several rich runs, called by
special names, that named Bill's Point, having proved the richest ; and
from the fact that the gully is not payable above, and becomes rapidly
poorer in its downward course below the old lead, and its gold being
nearly throughout water-worn, it must be concluded that the latter came
mainly, if not wholly, from the denuded part of that lead. In the con-
tinuation of the latter, on the opposite hillside, some payable claims
have been worked ; but farther on, where it deepens, it was found too
poor to pay, and is, therefore, left untouched for a considerable distance
down towards Jupiter Creek. Considering the short distance of the
point where the workings terminate, from the rich runs just noticed, it
seems not at all likely that a lasting impoverishment of the lead from
that point onward is well established by the few holes scattered about,
and another trial of it would therefore not only be an advisable, but also
a promising undertaking.

In Long Gully are 2 fine reservoirs full of water, each of which lies
close to a neglected crushing-machine, erected for the purpose of crushing
the conglomerate, or " cement," as it is usually called, forming part of
the older drift. Such conglomerates very rarely appear, according to
Victorian experience, in long continuous layers ; but occur as larger or
smaller cake-like masses on the bottom, and more frequently higher up
the drift deposit. Yet they are only richly or payably aurifeious where
they occupy the former position, or, in reality, represent the washing-
stuff. The ill success of both the crushing enterprises named arose simply
from the fact that cither no heed was taken of this latter circumstance,
or that it was unknown. All conglomerate was considered worth
working ; and as but little of the rich bottom conglomerate was left by

3
I

AUSTRALASIA: SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

623

the diggers in the workcd-out lead, the higher-lying cakes next attacked
proved quite unpayable.

Jupiter Creek.— One, perhaps the chief, part of the gold of this creek
has likewise been derived from denuded older drifts, as indicated by the
rich cement cakes and the rich surface patch, composed of rounded quartz
pebble drift, worked on the hill slope on its left side (looking down
stream), and which lead into the creek flat just at the point where the
latter proved richest. The source of the other part of the gold of this
rich spot lies, however, in the range on tho right side, from which,
straight opposite the surface patch, a small auriferous alluvial gully
descends into it. For the gold found in this gully being thoroughly
hackly or but vt^ry slightly water-worn, and auriferous quartz specimens
frequent, it is quite certain that there exists one or perhaps several
auriferous quartz reefs somewhere about the head of the gully. Some
miners have already prospected the locality for this reef, but without
success. Still the certainty of its existence should prompt to further
search, until the discovery be accomplished.

From the circumstance that, at the upper margin of the rich surface
and cement patch, both drift and cement are dipping into the hill, it
seems that here is the commencement of a small " older drift lead," the
gold of which was also probably derived from the same auriferous quartz
reef that supplied the alluvial gully.

It appears very strange that this lead has not as yet been followed by
tunnels farther into the hill, where it is bound to join the old main
lead, trending down from Long Gully along the top and slope of the
range. There can be no doubt that this part of the gold-field presents
encouraging prospects to the enterprising miner.

At one side and near the top of the rich surface patch, exist the
ruins of a crushing establishment, with a deep pump-shaft close by.
This venture, Ulrich heard, was intended for working an adjoining
ferruginous, slaty, sandstone reef, much traversed by quartz veins, from
which the rich gold of the surface patch and creek flat was thought to
have been derived.

Considering that, as above shown, the gold did undoubtedly come
from denuded older drift, that the sandstone reef was found non-auri-
ferous, and that there was besides not sufficient water for crushing, the
want of success of this enterprise is easily explained.

Sterling reef — This is, as far as Ulrich could learn, the only auri-
ferous reef worked in the neighbourhood of the old Echunga diggings,
though its position renders it very doubtful whether it furnished any
gold to the auriferous drifts there occurring. It lies about 3 miles from
the diggings, on top of a tolerably high range on the W. side cf the
Oiikapariiiga river, and runs between micaceous sandy slate and massive

624

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

ill !

beds of coarse felspathic quartz grit, at a strike of N. 30° E., dipping
apparently vertical, whilst slate and grit, though showing the same strike,
dip E. 30° S. at 60° to 65°.

As regards its character, it is in reality not a genuine quartz reef,
but conforms more to what are called mullock reefs in Victoria. One
may compare it to a large fissure, in places 30 to 40 ft. wide, filled con-
fusedly with larger and smaller masses of the wall-rocks — grit and slate
— and the interstices between these masses occupied by mullock, enclos-
ing irregular pockets and veins of quartz, through which (but more
especially through the quartz) rather solid crystalline specks of gold are
distributed. Iron-pyrites has not as yet been observed. The mullocky
portions (irregular veins, as it were) cross the reef-mass in all directions
(horizontally, vertically, and obliquely), and on this account, as each
vein cannot be specially followed, the workings have to be carried on by
quarrying the reef out en masse, and classifying the stuff aftenvards, —
a rather troublesome work, during which it cannot be prevented that a
large amount of poor or non-auriferous matter becomes mixed with the
quartzose mullock ; hence the low yield of the latter of only 2 to 2^ dwt.
per ton on the average.

The workings extend at present about 6 chains along the strike of
the reef, the principal one being a wide quarry-like open cutting, several
chains in length, and 10 to 14 ft. deep at the up-hill end ; farther on,
follows a large open pit, and beyond this, right on the top of the spur,
are several shafts, in all of which the auriferous mullock has been
struck.

Several small shallow gullies descending from the reef down the slope
of the hill have been found payably auriferous, and there can be no doubt
that this reef contributed largely by denudation to the gold found in the
Onkaparinga river, not far off, and more especially at and below the
point where its line of strike crosses the latter.

All considered, Ulrich believes it might profitably be worked on a
larger scale than is at present the case, and that there is a chance of its
becoming much better defined in depth. That this reef is the only
auriferous one in the district is also very unlikely, and careful pro-
specting of the neighbourhood would therefore be an advisable and
promising un-^'^'-taking.

The auriferous mullock of the reef is crushed by a 5-head battery,
erected at the foot of the range, close to the Onkaparinga river, which
latter would furnish plenty of water for any number of stamps in
addition.

The amalgamating appliances of this machine are very elaborate,
but the blanket-strakes (the great advantage of which has been long and
satisfactorily demonstrated in Victoria) are wanting ; there is also too

AUSTRALASIA: SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

625

little water used for crushing, and the speed of the latter is too slow —
hardly 60 strokes per minute. That the water used is insufficient in
quantity is, on account of the softness and clayey nature of the stuff,
especially detrimental, for it leads to an accumulation of the slimy
tailings in the mercury-troughs and on the copper plates, in conse-
quence of which the gold cannot properly come into contact with the
mercury, and is liable to be carried off by the strong narrow currents of
water originated. Besides this, the mercury itself is in danger of being
splashed out of the troughs whenever the sludgey accumulations are
being removed. With sufficient water, and a speed of about 80 stamper-
strokes per minute, nearly double the present quantity of stuff might,
perhaps, be crushed during the same time ; whilst the addition of
blan'^'^'j-strakes to the amalgamating appliances would more satisfactorily
ensure the saving of the fine gold, at present, no doubt, lost to a great
extent.

Ulooloo. — This gold-field is of special interest in a geological point
of view, on account of its position — some 25 miles N. of the Burra Burra
mine — i. e. within a rock area forming part of the extensive N. mountain
region, considered and proved favourable for copper-ore, but in which the
existence of gold was altogether doubted.

The rocks of thi.s field, throughout the part examined, consist of
fl^Sgy> grcy, brown, and bluish slates, alternatinr, with massive quartzite
and gritty sandstones, all traversed by quartz veins, — a series which,
lithologically, is not distinguishable from that met with several hundred
miles farther N., and noticed as showing an auriferous aspect. The non-
discovery of fossils both there and here precludes, unfortunately, the
establishment of their true geological relations.

The field, as far as opened, exhibits shingly creek deposits, brought
down since ages past from the bounding ranges, and which may accord-
ingly be divided into recent and older ones.

The recent deposits are those shingly drift layers occupying the beds
of the creeks, which beds have mostly been washed out several feet deep
in the slate rocks ; and as the surface of the latter is generally hard,
very uneven, and much jointed and cleaved, the obtaining of the richer
wash-dirt is very troublesome, as careful scraping and brushing out of
the hollows and cavities — in fact, regular fossicking — has to be
resorted to.

Regarding the older deposits, they form banks of 6 to above 20 ft.
in thickness, composed of clay, sand, shingle, &c., between the main
and branch creeks, and are, apparently, the richest in gold. The chief
diggings extend for about i mile up a dry main branch of the Ulooloo
Creek, running nearly N. and S. in the strike of the rocks —some parties
working the creek bed, and others, and they form the greater number,

2 s

I! '!

ill

m :

!:!

i i

626

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

operating in the adjoining banks of older drift by shafts and drives.
There can hardly be a doubt, however, that other branches of the Ulooloo
Creek and the latter itself are auriferous, and will soon be attacked.
Touching the gold found, it is generally coarse and solid, frequently
even nuggety in character, and resembles somewhat that of Daisy Hill,
in Victoria.

A serious difficulty under which the miners labour is want of water,
for the washing-stuff has to be carted a considerable distance to some
water-holes in the Ulooloo Creek, and these, it is to be feared, will in a
dry season soon give out. Some other water-holes lower down the creek
might then, perhaps, be still available ; but the, no doubt, much higher
rate of rirtage would greatly affect the earnings of the diggers. Judging
from the character of the stuff, it appears very favourable for sluicing or
working in the long-tom ; and with plenty of water at command, a con-
siderable amount of gold might be produced in a short time by attacking
the older creek deposits en masse ; for it seems from the arrangement of
the drift, incident to its mode of deposition by floods and creek currents,
that not only the bottom layer, but also intermediate higher layers, are
very likely to contain gold — a point at present overlooked. As regards
older hill deposits, i.e. rounded quartz-pebble [drifts and conglomerates,
no evidence of their existence is apparent, nor is there a likelihood of
the occurrence of deep leads, except it might be at the point where the
Ulooloo Creek passes out of the ranges into the E. plain ; and whether
the gold did exist there in large enough quantity to pay for the far
more troublesome and expensive modes of working required, is doubt-
ful, considering that its higher sources have hitherto not proved rich.
The main hope for the permanency of this gold-field lies undoubtedly in
the discovery of the quartz reefs from which the drift-gold has been
derived, and these have to be searched for in the ranges bounding the
main creek and its branches.

According to the but slightly water-worn character of the gold found
at the present principal diggings, the reefs that there supplied the
metal can indeed not lie far off, and the intended prospecting by some
enterprising rriners of several well-defined reefs higher up the creek has
good chance o," proving successful, more especially as auriferous quar*^'
specimens have been found in close neighbourhood to these reefs.

The country round the diggings is generally well wooded, and the
miner can therefore easily provide the necessary timber for rendering his
shafts and drives safe for working.

The Northe'ni Territory. — Taking the overland telegraph as a base
line, the gold-fields at present known extend from Ae Stapleton to the
Driffield, a distance of more than 100 miles in a S.S.E. direction. The
main road from Port Darwin to the reefs runs pretty close to the

AUSTRALASIA : SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

627

tclcgraph-linc, and the gold-workings, as a rule, are a few miles to the E.
or VV. of this road. The width of auriferous country has recently been
proved by prospecting parties to be much greater than was formerly
supposed, Chinaman's Rush being over 20 miles from the telegraph-line.

From this, it will be seen that gold is distributed over a very large
area, and wherever slate and quartz are met with, the precious metal is
usually to be found in minute grains ; but the rich patches which lure
the digger from one country to another are deposited in a very puzzling
and uncertain manner. There are no long leads of auriferous drift —
most of the alluvial gold being found in short gullies and ravines — so
that a great deal of prospecting has to be done before payable ground is
usually reached. Occasionally rich pockets are met with, which suddenly
reward the miner for months of unremunerative toil ; but the prizes are
not Scattered with a too lavish hand, and gold-digging in the Territory,
as nearly everywhere else, becomes a matter of working for something
like a living. In the rainy season, when water is abundant, the Chinese
do a large amount of " surfacing," often washing fine gold out of the
earth-bound roots of the grass. During the dry months, many of the
more energetic miners stack their wash-dirt, and sluice it when the heavy
rains of the following wet season begin to fall.

Quartz reefs and leaders are numerous in the following districts : —
Stapleton Bridge Creek, Howley, John Bull, Britannia, Fountain Head,
Yam Creek, Chinaman's Rush, Extended Union, Union Lady Alice,
Pine Creek, Driffield, &c. Some of these may be traced for miles, and
many yield payable percentages of gold ; but none has been tested
below 200 ft., and only a few have gone down more than half that depth.
The proper development of the reefs depends, as with all other industries,
on railway communication. When cheap and easy conveyance reduces
the cost of carriage and of food, tens of thousands of tons of stone,
bearing i to | oz. of gold to the ton, will be manipulated by powerful
machinery, and made to pay handsomely.

Rich leaders, carrying 10 to 50 oz. of gold to the ton, are occasionally
met with, and return large yields of treasure ; but they almost invariably
die out, and are, therefore, not to be regarded as possessing the perma-
nent value of quartz lodes. The average yield of all the quartz which
has been crushed has been about i^ oz. of gold from the ton of stone.

Some of the hills are interlaced with leaders and veins that are too
thin to work upon separately ; but the day will come when great faces
will be opened out, the workmen taking all before them, as at the Black
Hill at Ballarat, and the 'ole mass — good, bad, and indifferent — passed
through the crushing-mill -vith satisfactory results.

Quartz-reefing is now carried on by small parties of working miners,
so that there is but little chance of any deep shafts being sunk in order

2 8 2

628

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

Pi:

|j' :

1 '!!

to determine whether the lodes go down and carry gold. It has been
suggested by the Chief Warden, on more than one occasion, that the
Government should follow the example of other colonies, and offer a
substantial reward for the discovery of a payable reef not less than i8 in.
wide, at a depth of 300 ft. Should such a thing be found, and further
researches demonstrate that the reefs, like those in Victoria, carry gold
down to a great depth, new life and vigour would be infused into the
mining community, and money would be easily obtained to work the
claims on a large and systematic scale.

The mining regulations are exceedingly liberal, and the only permit
required is a miner's right, which costs 10s. per annum. One man can
take up a block of ground, for alluvial digging, 25 yd. by 25 yd. ; and
two men can work on a claim 50 yd. by 30 yd. Miners who go out
prospecting and find a new gold-field are entitled to take up very large
areas by virtue of being the first discoverers.

With rejrard to reefing, the regulations are still more liberal, two men
being allowed tu hold 200 yd. on the length of the reef by a width of
250 yd. Leases of ground may be obtained for quartz claims and land
on which there is deep sinking. These leases give the holders complete
security of tenure for 21 years, at a rental of los. per acre per annum.
Dams and machinery sites may occupy 10 acres, and J acre is allowed
for a residence site. The Warden's c I'np is about the centre of the
present known gold-fields.

From the report of the Surveyor-general, written at Port Darwin in
September 1869, the credit of being the first discoverer of gold in the
Northern Territory is given to Litchfield. R. C. Burton subsequently
searched for gold under the direction of Goyder, and found fair
prospects.

In 1880, Price reported that there were about 150 Europeans and
1 500 Chinese on the reefs engaged in mining ; and the export of gold,
as far as could be ascertained, was fully 20,000 oz. per year. Nearly half
of this finds its way to Hong Kong in private hands, the Chinese being
very fond of remitting small parcels by their friends for the support of
their families. Several Europeans who stuck to the alluvial have gone
away well satisfied with their takings ; and a number of Chinese have
returned to their country with a sufficient capital to set them up in
business. A new rush has taken place lately on the Margaret river,
and there about 400 Chinese are doing well — some very well ; and one
reef on the place, called the Twelve-mile Rush, is turning out well, so
well, indeed, that the owners have called it Pay-me-well reef, and with
good cause, if they get future crushings like their first.

In 1 88 1, the arrival of 3000 more Chinese was expected. The rule is
that the Chinese population always goes on increasing during the wet

)'■

AUSTRALASIA : TASMANIA.

629

season, from November to March, and decreasing during the dry season,
from April to October ; but the decrease is small in comparison to the
increase, so each year increases the number of Chinese on the whole.
The population was given as : Chinese, 3690 ; Europeans, 660 ; Malays,
30. The revenue from miners' rights reached 676/. The amount
of gold exported since July i, 1880, was 28,471^^ oz. The discovery of
a new gold-field at Bridge Creek came just at the right time, as the
question previously was how to tide over the dry season. The last wet
season on the gold-fields was the worst ever known, as water was scarce
all the season, except during the months of February and March, con-
sequently it was a difficult problem how to get through the 6 dry
months ; but at Bridge Creek, which is 24 miles from Yam Creek, there
was sufficient water to start with. This field has been very successful,
although there have not been such heavy finds as at the Margaret ; still,
as a gold-field, it is much superior, being of greater extent, and this time
the Europeans are securing their fair share of gold. Until next wet
season, when water will be plentiful, it cannot be fully developed, nor the
full extent ascertained ; but in the meantime it is supporting a population
of over 100 Europeans and about 1500 Chinese, and there is a fair pro-
spect of its being a permanent gold-field for some time. Another new
gold-field, 45 miles E. of Pine Creek, and known as Sanders' Rush, has
been deserted for want of water ; but, from various reports, it will be a
very valuable field in the wet season, as, during the short time the water
lasted after its discovery, a large quantity of gold was raised. These two
new discoveries will probably bring a large increase to the Chinese
population next wet season. A fair amount of gold was being raised
from the other reefs, and one very rich patch at the Margaret yielded
520 oz. pounded in a pestle and mortar from less than a ton of quartz ;
and in another reef close by 2 tons of quartz yielded 216 oz. The
payment of the 500/. bonus to D. B. Tennant for his discovery of the
Margaret had given very general satisfaction.

Tasmania. — Gold-mining was more actively pursued in 1878 than
ever before. The average number of persons employed in this industry
was 1050, the next highest number having been 530 in 1872. The
approximate value of mining plant was: in 1878, 46,000/.; in 1872,
19,500/. From alluvial operations, 1 1,462 oz. of gold, valued at 45,750/,
were produced, against 4020 oz., valued at 15,768/., in 1871, the highest
yield previously. The number of tons of quartz crushed in 1878 was
15.805, yielding 13,787 oz. of gold, valued at 54,250/ ; the average value
per oz. was 3/. 1 8s. 8d., and the average yield per ton of quartz, 1 7 dwt.
12 gr. The largest quantity of stone crushed previously in one year was
8516 tons in 1877 ; the largest yield, 11,007 oz., in 1876 ; and the highest
average per ton, i oz. 8 dwt. 3 gr., in 1876. The total quantity of gold

f'li«

1:^:

i!!'!

i'r

630

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUIION.

produced in 1878, so far as it could be ascertained, was 25,249 oz.,
valued at 100,000/.

The Commissioner of Gold-fields, in a report (dated 4th September),
after referring to the impossibility of ascertaining the exact amount of
alluvial gold obtained, and stating that the quantity returned was within
the actual yield, thus proceeds : — Since the beginning of this year (1879),
two important discoveries of gold in alluvial deposit have been made ;
one, near Mount Arthur, named Lisle, and the other at the Pieman
river, near the W. coast. At Lisle, mining operations are being carried
on in a most active manner, and there cannot be less than 1500 men
employed. The gold is in shallow deposit, easily obtained, and is of a
good quality. It is roughly estimated that not less than 20,000 oz. have
already been procured. As usual, the miners seldom sell more in the
colony than provides funds to pay current expenses, and many send
large parcels by private hand to Melbourne, where it realizes a higher
price. Gold transmitted in this manner is seldom or never entered at
the Customs, and the Customs returns of gold exported are therefore no
indication whatever of the actual produce of the colony in that metal.
On the W. coast a limited number of miners are engaged, principally on
the river Pieman, and several hundred oz. of gold of a very superior
quality have been procured ; but the almost inaccessible nature of the
place, the extraordinarily rough and scrubby country, and the severely
wet climate, have prevented any extensive prospecting during the winter
months.

Several batteries have been erected at Beaconsfield to crush a species
of auriferous conglomerate, locally termed " cement," with every prospect
of success. No change worthy of notice has taken place in the condition
of the mining industry on any of the other gold-fields since the close of

1878. The number of miners' rights issued since ist of January, 1879,
is 2300, and there are 2000 men engaged in gold-mining pursuits
throughout the colony. The yield of gold from quartz since 1st January,

1879, was 14,500 oz., valued at about 58,000/.

Gold was obtained from Fingal in considerable quantities by odd
stragglers with very rude machinery for years. A reef was worked by
the Fingal Quartz Mining Co., which produced 20, 30, and 40 oz. per
week ; but on erecting new machinery the affair failed.

West Tamar district. — The geology of the West Tamar district of
Tasmania was described by Norman Taylor, in 1 878. Gold is said to
have been found in the Middle Arm Creek. The only reefs known to
be auriferous are those at Brandy Creek, but at the time of Taylor's
visit the only reef yielding good returns was the celebrated " Tasmania."
Other reefs struck good payable-looking stone, but had to wait the
advent of a long-promised crushing company.

:ii;

U '..'■

AUSTRALASIA : TIMOR.

631

An Older Pliocene Tertiary drift, derived from the denudation of the
Silurian rocks and their contained reefs, covers the entire area of the
higher portions of the low country between the two arms, almost com-
pletely obscuring the underlying rocks. It also caps the Silurian and
serpentine hills up to elevations of nearly 300 ft. above sea-level, between
the Cabbage-tree range and Anderson's rivulet. It is very widely
spread ; but Taylor has little doubt but that leads would be found, if
looked for, in some portions of it. The Italian's and Scotchman's Co.
tunnelled into it on a head o*" Brandy Creek, W. of the Cabbage-tree
range, and struck a lead with good prospects ; but were driven out by
water, " Made hills " occur along the valleys of the Yorktown and other
creeks running up into the Silurian and Metamorphic ranges.

On the E. side of the Brandy Creek or Cabbage-tree range occur
some small leads, consisting of a reef-wash from the Tasmania reef,
which probably belongs to the Older Middle Pliocene period. Brown's
party were on good gold at a depth of 60 ft. ; while only a', out I J chains
to the E. the Grand Junction Co. were down 118 ft. without bottom,
showing the existence of a ledge between the two, with a very steep
vertical fall.

In conclusion, Taylor briefly mentions one or two other occurrences
in connection with the reefs of Brandy Creek. Victorian reefs in general
run in, or nearly so, the strike of the country ; but here they make an
angle of 30° to 40° with the strike, or nearly E. and W. The often-
occurring carbonaceous or black schists forming the casings in many
Victorian reefs are here represented by a brown, sometimes hard and
siliceous, and at other times earthy-looking, light and friable sandstone,
containing distinct plant-impressions, in the softer rock sometimes
converted into coal. This occurrence has not been hitherto noticed, and
is of great interest. This bed is said to form the hanging-wall in con-
nection with the " Cabbage-tree " conglomerate of the " Tasmania " reef,
and Taylor obtained specimens from their top shaft. The same rock
also occurs in the shaft of the Providence Co. on the top of the range.
In the Grand Junction Co.'s shaft, on the E. side of the range, it also
occurs as boulders in the drift, and contains quartz pebbles, having no
doubt been washed down from the reef in Middle Pliocene times. It
contains gold in itself, and was being saved for crushing. Is it possible
that these carbonaceous selvages to reefs have had any influence on or
been the cause of the formation and segregation of gold in the reefs ?
Although much has been done by Professor Cosmo Newbery towards
a solution of this puzzle, a great deal yet remains to be accomplished
before an answer can be given to this important question.

Timor. — According to Moor (1837), gold is found in several of the
rivers of Timor, both in lumps and dust, some pieces weighing 2 oz.

l!::i

632

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

Two of the most productive rivers rise in the centre of the island, and
one falls into the northern, the other into the southern, sea. From a
superstitious motive, the natives have an objection to any person taking
the gold from these rivers, and except in very rare instances, do not ever
touch it themselves. On those occasions, they do not presume to
remove it until they have sacrificed a human being to the deity of the
river, and then take only a very small quantity, never using it in traffic.

This is corroborated by Van Hogendorp, in his 'Description de
Timor ' (' Annales dcs Voyages,' vi. 280).

Victoria. — The following tables representing the development and
condition of the gold-mining industry of this important colony are
condensed from the voluminous report of its mineral statistics for 1879.

Fio. 22.

•S^^irrtaad

'KiJdatlm

1*)«»

■SM^

» '5

Ifiwta^

}r\miarmlaU

Bi\ddtlij\

Jh-

^ArnHnitt

i^inmrnft

j«t

.i>^

Ontth

Sketch-map of Victoria Gold-fields.

Estimates of gold raised in Victoria during 6 years : —

1874.

1875.

1876.

1877.

1878.

1879.

Exported, according to
Customs Returns.

Received at the Mel-
bourne Mint.

Raised, according to
estimates of Mming
Registrars.

Purchased, according
tu returns of banks.

oz. dwt.
904,154

•.097.644
1,105,115

oz. dwt. gr.
709,914 18

585,852 1

1,068,418

1,077,276 5 5

oz. dwt. gr.
506,145 6

427,878 16

965,760

949,468 12 17

oz. dwt. gr.
508,691 2

290,919 17

809,655 4 16

790,147 8 10

oz. dwt. gr.
J46,?.59 10

422,609 14

758,040 15 19

772, J02 15 20

oz. dwt. gr.
214,197 16

495,062 4

758,947 5 n

7J6.'55 7 "

il-

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

633

The estimated yield of gold for 1879 is 906 oz. 10 dwt. more than
the quantity obtained during 1878.

Estimated yields of gold from alluvial and quartz mines, since the
year 1 867 : —

Year.

Alluvial.

Quartz.

Year.

Alluvial.

Quarti.

oz.

1868 ..

1,087,502

597. 4>6

1874 ..

433.283

664,360
641,806

1869 ..

934,082

610,674

1875 ..

426,611

1870 ..

718,729

585.575

1876 ..

357,901
■89.754

605,859

1871 ..

698,190

670.752

1877 ..

519,899

1872 ..

639.551

691,826

1878 ..

264.453

493,587

1873 ..

504,250

666,147

1879 ..

293, 3'o

465.637

For the first time during 1 1 years the estimated yield of gold from
alluvial mines shows an increase on that of the preceding year, due
principally to a better water-supply for sluicing operations, and to the
opening up of deep mining ground near Beaufort ; but owing to the
exhaustion of the auriferous drifts in the older workings of the gold-
fields, it is hardly to be expected that yields from this class of mining
will show any lasting improvement. There is still a slight falling off in
the yields from quartz mines. The year 1879 shows no alteration in
that respect from those that preceded it back to the year 1871, except
that the diminished yields of 1879 and of 1878 are comparatively small.
It is, however, to quartz mining that we have to look hopefully for
future progress, and it is confidently anticipated that the recent dis-
coveries of extensive and highly auriferous quartz veins at Baiiarat, in
close contiguity to the deep alluvial leads so long and profitably wrought
on that gold-field, together with a great improvement in the prospects of
vein mining at Maldon and other places, will cause an increase in the
yields from this class of mining.

Yields of gold from parcels of quartz in the 6 years 1 874-79 : —

Year.

Crushed or treated.

Produce.

Average per ton.

tons cwt.

oz. dwt. gr.

1874 ..

967,069 9

573,220 17 5

II 20-51

1875 ..

949,468 12

565,561 10 10

II 21-92

1876 ..

1,011,808 4

534.328 6 19

10 13-48

'in •■

965,573 IS

453,372 19 9

9 9-38

1878 ..

874,717 6

417,306 I 16

9 12-99

1879 ..

849,324 16

372,946 22

8 18-77

Quantities of quartz tailings, mullock, &c., crushed and treated, and
results obtained therefrom, during the 6 years 1874-79 : —

Year.

1874 ..

1875 ..

1876 ..

1877 ..

1878 ..

1879 ..

Quartz Tailings,
Mullock, &c., crushed.

tons
69.439

3».299
34,028

28,435
38.281

37.301

cwt.
O

7
o

Produce.

oz.
6,866

4,432
3.281

2.938
3.502
3.028

dwt.
II

IS
10

gr.
10

23
22

5
12
21

Average per ton.

dwt.
I
2
I
2
I
I

23-46
19-98

21 49

I -60

19-92

14-96

.■I I

!l:

Qkh"

I fllll

iliJir

■iiiii:

634

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIDUTION,

Quantities of pyrites, blanketings, &c., treated during the 6 years
1874-79, and gold obtained : —

Pyrites
and nianketinns

Year.

Produce.

Average per ton.

treated.

Ions cwt.

or. dwt. gr.

oz. dwt. gr.

1874 ..

6,72s IS

18,941 14 13

2 16 7-82

187s ..

7.499 S

18,565 18 2

2 9 12-34

1876 ..

7.057 3
7.359 5

17.538 19 21

2 9 16-93

>877 ..

'3.64s 3 S

I 16 21-65

1878 ..

S.37S

13,589 14 23

13,014 II 8

2 10 13-59

1879 ..

S.304 3

2 9 I • 75

During the 11 years 1869-79, 58,040 tons 6 cwt. of pyrites were
operated on, and a total yield of 146,905 oz. 8 dwt. i gr. of gold
obtained, equal to an average of 2 oz. 10 dwt. 14 •92 gr. per ton.

Quantities of vein-quartz crushed, and average yield of gold per ton,
during the 6 years 1874-79, in the several districts : —

1874.

1875.

1876.

District.

Qu.-rtz
crushed.

Average
Y: •'•f;old
pe.

Quartz
crushed.

Average

Yield of Gold

per ton.

Quartz

crushed.

Average

Yield of Gold

per ton.

tons cwt.'oz. dwt. ,r.

tons cwt

oz. dwt, gr.

tons cwt, oz. dwt. gr.

Aramt . .

63.757

18 c, 80

75.467

17 23-16

88,729

i6 22-47

IJallarat

276,409

16 7 15-88

283,668

8 i7'6o

3«S.407

606 14-46

Beechworth

73.125

15' 10 5-26

64,042

n 1-93

65,638

12' II 6-6i

Castlemaine

156,146

10, 9 16-98

117,504

8 4*09

111,716

10' 7 14-4S

Gippsland ..

42,234

8; 1 3 1279

43.426

I 4 7*94

40,784

6 I 3 J2-58
008 18-66

Maryborough

31.903

009 10-77

33.671

10 13-48

32.605

Sandhurst . .

323.493

14 6-35

331,688

13 609

356,927

10 II 22-86

1877.

1878.

1879-

Ararat . .

77,798

13 18 4-04

74.221

14 8*67

76,323

II 17-73

Ballarat

350.761

006 2069

337,797

6 16-97

346,540

6 18-44

Beechworth

64,471

12 10 23-41

54.764

10 21-94

55.092

10 11-04

Castlemaine

94.463

006 13-90

75.397

6 1-91

75.692

5 18-45

Gippsland . .

35.517

I I 12-24

35.518

I 21-69

26,991

I 2 18-66

Maryl)orough

40,409

12 602

38,261

17 10-38

36,603

II 22-67

Sandhurst . .

302,153

10 8 19-20

258.758

9 20-41

232,081

9 8-09

It will be observed that for 1879, the Gippsland district still holds
the first place in regard to high average yields of gold, but the number
of tons crushed is small as compared with the quantity treated in other
districts.

The continuous decrease in the number of alluvial miners has ceased.
The number employed in 1879 was 265 more than in the year 1878 ; the
number of men enga£ d in quartz mining since the same year has
increased 652. The increase in the number of both classes of miners,
comparing the return for 1879 with that for 1878, is 917. The number

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

635

of Chinese engaged in mining operations on 31st of December, 1879, was
9110. There is a decrease of 528 in the return for the past as compared
with that of the preceding year. Dividing the value of the gold exported
and received into the mint amongst the mean number of miners
employed in the year 1879, the average per man is "jdl. \s. 2\d, The
averages for 6 years are shown in the following statement : —

Year.

1874 ..

1875 ..

1876 ..

1877 ..

1878 ..

1879 ..

Alluvial Miners.

Earnings per man
per annum.

58 9

n 5

51 10

47 8
47 3

6«

48 10 1}

Quartz Miners.

Karninus per man
per annum.

Average Karninga

|)er man

per annum.

£, t. d.

183 o 9

182 17

f6o 17

8
9i

139 12 o\

138 7
118 8

7i
7

C '■ </.

99 8 3 07

104 4 4'02

89 19 684

82 6 I 69

82 12 II '38

76 I 2-32

Number of quartz reefs proved to be auriferous, and the total extent
of auriferous alluvial and quartz ground worked upon, in the several
mining districts, in 1879: —

Mining Districts.

Arar.it ,,

Ballarat

Ueechworth ..

Castlemaine ..

Gippsland

Maryborough

Sandhurst

Totals

Number of
Quartz Reefs
proved to be

auriferous.

347
865
404
SOI
613
772

3.582

Square miles of

Auriferous Alluvi.il

and Quartz Ground

worked upon.

87J

iS9i

34PJ

164

209 J

127

146

1.234

NOTB. — The number of quartz reefs cannot be strictly correC, as parts of the same reef, in some localities, are
held to be distinct isefs, and named accordingly. As the reefs are further explored, it is found, too, that what were
supposed to be separate reefs are not really distinct. The extent of auriferous ground is here put down from
estimates made by the Mining Surveyors and Registrars, not from actual surveys ; and in a few instances the
estimates of the present Surveyors and Registrars differ from those made by their predecessors. The figures vary
from yiar to year ; and as the shallow alluvions of the older gold-fields are abandoned by the miners, they are
taken up and occupied under the provisions of the Lund Act, by agriculturists and gardeners ; consequently
ground which one year was included in the estimated area of gold-workings is excluded in another.

Gold obtained from quartz veins and alluvial workings during the
year 1879: —

From quartz veins
From alluvial workings

Total gold exported and minted

oz. dwt.

433.925 lO

273.334 10

707,260 o

Note.— The above figures are but rough approximations. The Mining Surveyors and Registrars can furnish
only estimates based on information afforded by the banks and gold-buyers, and on their own knowledge of the
character of the workings in their districts. The check on the returns— and not a sufficient one — is that afforded
by the returns of quartz and quartz tailings crushed, pyrites operated on, and wash-dirt and cement treated, which,
however, cannot and do not comprise information respecting all the stuff put through the mills.

' :• 'i
■:.j

1 .

i' :• i

1 ■ . '
j

11':, i

lii

!ii;i:l

■* ■ . !

fiHi

636

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

Average Yield of Gold from Parcels of Quartz crushed in 1879 : —

Mining districts.

Tons crushed.

Total produce.

Average yield per ton.

Ararat

Ballarat

Beechworth

Castlemaine

Gippsland

Maryborough

Sandhurst

tons CNvt.

76,323 9
346,540 s
55,092 16
75.692
26,991 12
36,603 14
232,081

or. dwt. gr.

44,798 10 I

116,767 17 4

28,803 IS 8

21,833 3 6

30,531 16 15

2i,S6i 7 8

108,349 II 4

01. dwt. gr.
II 17-73

6 18-44
10 11*04

5 18-45

1 2 18-66
II 22-67
9 8-09

Totals

849,324 16

372,946 22

8 '8-77

Note.— The above table does not show the total quantity of quartz crushed in the several localities, but only
the yield of certain "cru^hings," respecting which the Mining Surveyors and Registrars have been able to obtain
information. Owing to the circunisi.ince that many of the machine-owners are unable to give, or are precluded
from giving, information, it is impossible to give complete returns from every district.

Since the first publication of the statistics, information has been obtained concerning 16,092,530 tons 19 cwt.
which have been crushed, and yielded 8,791,155 oz. 5 dwt. 4 gr. of gold, being an average of 10 dwt. aa'al gr.
per ton.

Average Yield of Gold from Parcels of Quartz Tailings, Mullock, &c.,

crushed in 1879 : —

Mining districts.

Ararat . .

Ballarat

Beechworth

Castlemaine

Gippsland ..

Maryborough

Sandhurst . .

Totals

Tons crushed.

tuns
1,100

15,291

1,963

13,002

637
3.290
2,018

cwt.

O
15

37.301 15

Total produce.

1,064 19

299 17

772 13

163 19

dwt. gr.
12 iS

9
o
o
o
377 10 18
257 9 o

3,028

O 21

Average yield
per ton.

oz. dwt.
O I

o
o
o
o
o

gr.
15-98

9'43
1-32
4-52

3-54
7-06

I3"23

14-96

NoTE.^From iS'i^ to 1879, inclusive, 1,832,977 tons 16 cut. of quartz tailings, &c., were crushed, and
yielded 316,300 oz. 14 dwt. 13 gr, of gold, being an average of 3 dwt. 10-82 gr. per ton.

III':'

, ^' - I

Average Yiztld of Gold from Parcels of Wash-dirt
Puddled and Sluiced in 1879 : —

Mining districts.

Ararat , .

Ballarat

Beechworth

Castlemaine

Gippsland ..

Maryborough

Sandhurst , .

Totals

Tons puddl<;d or
sluiced.

tons

37,644

49,!^93

152,229

321,007

cwt.

o
10

53,767 o

614,540 10

Total produce.

6,262

4.873

9.748

20,389

dwt,

gr.

9
3
o

11,017 '7 '8

52,291 13 10

Average yield
per ton.

dwt.

3
I
I
I

7-85
22*88

6-73
2-75

2*36

16-84

Note. — ^I'he above table does not show the total quantity of wash-dirt puddled or sluiced in the several
localities, but only the yi<.ld of certain " washings " respecting which the Mining Surveyors and Registrars have
been able to 'btain information.

The collection of the statistical information relating to the yield of gold from wash-dirt was commenced during
the quarter ending 30th June, 1872, from which period to 1879, inclusive, 6,622,831 tons 9 cwt. of wash-dirt were
puddled and sluiced, and yielded 404,853 oz. 6 dwt. 15 gr. of gold, being an average of i dwt, 5*34 gr.per ton.

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA. 637

Average Yield of Gold from Parcels o'' Cement crushed in 1879 : —

Mining districts.

Ararat . ,

Ballarat

Beechworth

Castlemaine

Gippsland . .

Maryborough

Sandhurst . .

Totals

Quantity crushed.

tons cwt.

10,654 3

2,72s 5

4,034 o

757
384

o
o

i8,5S4 8

Total produ. 'e.

oz. dwt. gr.

2,4C6 12 21

352 16 16

367 8 12

96 13 3

44 12 12

3.328 3 16

Average yield
per ton.

oz. dwt. gr.

o I 9"7i

o 2 14*14

o I i9"7i

o
o

2 i3"28

2 7-78

o 3 14-09

Note. — The collection of the statistical information in the above table in a separate form was commenced
during the quarter ending 30th June, 1872. In previous years, it has been included with qu.irtz tailings, mullock,
&c., crushed. From 187a to 1879, inclusive, 314,884 tons 5 cwt. of cement were crushed, and yielded 68,359 oz.
9 dwt. 8 gr. of gold, being an average of 4 dwt. 8'2o gr. per ton.

Average Yield of Gold from Parcels of Pyrites and Blanketings

Ol'ERATED ON IN 1S79 : —

Mining districts.

Ararat

Ballarat

Beechworth

Castlemaine

Gippsland . .

Maryborough

Sandhurst . .

Totals

Quar=-:
operatcQ on.

tons cwt.

1,287 IS

256 ID

496 13
178

3,036 10

S,304 3

Total produce.

oz. dwt. gr.

4,581 o

229 17

955 13 12

398 5

127 S

6,722 9

Average yield
per ton.

oz. dwt.

gr-

3
O
I

2
2
2

" 3-54

17 22-15

18 11-63

4 15 "89

12 14-23

4 6-83

13,014 II

i'75

Note.— From 1869 to 1879, inclusive, 58,040 tons 6 cwt. of pyrites, &c., were operated on, and yielded
146,905 oz. 8 dwt. 1 gr. of gold, being an average of 2 oz. 10 dwt. I4'g2 gr. per ton.

Quantity of Victorian Cold Exported during 1879, as Returned by
THE Customs DErARXMicNT.

oz. dwt.
214,197 16

Note.— In addition to the above, 91,758 oz. 2 dwt. of New Zealand gold were shipped from this colony during
the year.

Price of Gold per oz. during the Quarter ended 31ST December, 1879 :

Mining districts.

Ararat

Ballarat

Beechworth

Castlemaine

Gippsland

Maryborough

Sandhurst

Lowest and highest prices

From

3
3

3
3
3
3

13
16

7
15
14

rf.
o
6
o
o
o
o
6

4
4
4
4
4
4
4

3
3
2

3
o

2
I

ti.
O
O

o
6
6

111

If:

[!!■!

I^r:^'

Il'l!

J!:!

T '■ f

638 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

Revenue directly derived from the Gold-fields during the Year 1879 : —

Amount received for Miners' Rights

Amount received for Business Licences

Amount received for Leases of Auriferous and

Mineral Lands

Amount received for Water-right and Searching

Licences '

Total

£ s. d.

4,989 10 o

570 o o

9,278 16 9

803 10 o

£iSM^ i6 9

NoTB. — Moneys received from holders of and applicants for Mining Leases under the heads of fees, fines, and
forfeitures, are not included in this return.

Length of Water-races and their Approximate Cost,
ON the 3IST OF December, 1879.

Mining districts.

Ararat ..
Ballarat
Beech worth
Castlemaine
Gippsland . .
Maryborough
Sandhurst . .

Totals

Length of races.

Approximate cost.

miles chains

X. d

113

7,260

289 25

31,040

962

167,700

233 12

17,702

162 19

10,316

107 37

1,778

6,400

1.936 13

242,196 o

Note.- The great cost of races in some districts as compared with others is due to the construction of very
expensive tunnels and tail-races.

m i''\

The following particulars, which have been collected by the Mining
Surveyors and Registrars, relate to the weight and cost of the stamp-
heads and shanks or lifters made use of in some of the principal gold-
mines in the several mining districts, and supply additional information
connected with the process of crushing quartz during the year 1879.

Ararat district : stamp-heads and shanks vary in weight from 2
to 9 cwt, and cost i/. 2s. to 4/. per cwt. ; fall of the stamp-head, 6
to 10 in. ; number of strokes made per minute, 60 to 75 ; quantity
of quartz crushed per head per diem of 24 hours, i ton to 2 ton 10 cwt. ;
number of holes per sq. in. in the gratings used, 1 20 to 342 ; horse-power
required to work each stamper, 0*5 to I '25 ; quantity of water used per
stamp-head in crushing, 160 to 900 gal. per hour ; quantity of mercury
used in the ripples per stamper, 20 to 70 lb. ; quantity of mercury lost
per stamp-head per week, i '6 to 29 oz.

Ballarat district : stamp-heads and shah^-.s vary in weight from
5 to II cwt, and cost I2J. 6d to i/. per cwt. ; fall of stamp-head, 6 to
II in. ; number of strokes made per minute, 50 to 85; quantity of quartz
crushed per head per diem of 24 hours, i ton to 3 ton 13 cwt. ; number
of holes per sq. in. in the gratings used, 64 to 256 ; horse-power required

I , , I

I . I

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

639

to work each stamper, | to i^; quantity of water used per stamp-head
in crushing, 300 to 600 gal. per hour ; quantity of mercury used in the
ripples per stamper, 5 to 34 lb. ; quantity of mercury lost per stamp-head
per week, i to 6 oz.

Beechworth district : stamp-heads and shanks vary in weight from

4 to 9 cwt, and cost i/. 4s. to 13/. per cwt. ; fall of stamp-head, 2 to
12 in. ; number of strokes made per minute, 50 to 80 ; quantity of quartz
crushed per head per diem of 24 hours, i ton to 2 ton 10 cwt. ; number
of holes per sq. in. in the gratings used, 80 to 225 ; horse-power required
to work each stamper, j to 2 ; quantity of water used per stamp-head in
crushing, 50 to 1200 gal. per hour ; quantity of mercury used in the ripples
per stamper, 12 to 1 00 lb. ; quantity of mercury lost per stamp-head per
week, J to 2 oz.

Castlemaine district : stamp-heads and shanks vary in weight from

5 cwt. 2 qr. to 8 cwt. i qr., and cost l6s. 6d. to i/. I25-. per cwt. ;
fall of the stamp-head, 7 to 12 in. ; number of strokes made per minute,
60 to So ; quantity of quartz crushed per head per diem of 24 hours,
1 ton I cwt. to 2 tons ; number of holes per sq. in. in the gratings used,
80 to 160 ; horse-power required to work each stamper, § to i ; quantity
of water used per stamp-head in crushing, 30 to 666 gal. per hour ;
quantity of mercury used in the ripples per stamp-head, 4 to 20 lb. ;
quantity of mercury lost per stamp-head per week, ^ to 12 oz.

Gippsland district : stamp-heads and shanks vary in weight from

6 to 8 cwt. ; and cost l/. 12s. to 3/. per cwt. ; fall of stamp-head, 6 to 12 in. ;
number of strokes made per minute, 45 to 84 ; quantity of quartz crushed
per head per diem of 24 hours, i ton 2 cwt. to 2 ton 16 cwt. ; number of
holes per sq. in. in the gratings, 81 to 240; horse-power required to work
each stamper, l to 2 ; quantity of water used per stamp-head in crush-
ing, 1 50 to 630 gal. per hour ; quantity of mercury used in the ripples
per stamper, 9 to 45 lb. ; quantity of mercury lost per stamp-head per
week, I to 8 oz.

Maryborough district : stamp-heads and shanks vary in weight
from 6 to 8 cwt, and cost i6s. to l/. lis. 6d. per cwt. ; fall of stamp-
head, 9 to 12 in. ; number of strokes made per minute, 50 to 85 ; quantity
of quartz crushed per head per diem of 24 hours, i ton 3 cwt. to 2 tons
14 cwt. ; number of holes per sq. in. in the gratings used, 80 to 200 ;
horse-power required to work each stamper, 0*85 to l;^; quantity of
water used per stamp-head in crushing, 60 to 480 gal. per hour ; quantity
of mercury used in the ripples per stamper, 10 to 32 lb. ; quantity of
mercury lost per stamp-head per week, ^ to 8 oz.

Sandhurst district : stamp-heads and shanks vary in weight from
4 to 8 cwt, and cost i8.r. to \l. xos. per cwt ; fall of stamp-head, 9
to 12 in.; number of strokes made per minute, 60 to 65 ; quantity of

m
III

iH i t

^:1! i

!-■;;

"ill '11,: * ■
■I 1

I •>■*■

640

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

quartz crushed per head per diem of 24 hours, i to 8 tons ; number of
holes per sq. in. in the gratings used, 80 to 800 ; horse-power required to
work each stamper, J to i ; quantity of water used per stamp-head in
crushing, 1 50 to 25 5 gal. per hour ; quantity of mercury used in the
ripples per stamper, 1 5 to 36 lb. ; quantity of mercury lost per stamp-
head per week, I oz.

According to the Mineral Statistics for 1880, the quantity of gold
raised during t!.e year was 829,121 oz. 5 dwt., being 70,173 oz. 19" dwt.
more than in 1 879, and larger than any yearly yield since 1 876. The
estimated yield from alluvial mines was 299,926 oz., and from quartz
mines 529,195 oz. Notwithstanding the further exhaustion of the auri-
ferous deposits of the older gold-fields, the estimated yield of gold from
alluvial mines shows an increase upon that of the preceding year. This
increase is supposed to be due to the opening up of new gold-producing
areas, in which the rich deposits have been hitherto hidden beneath deep
flows of volcanic rocks. The discoveries in these tracts have been greatly
facilitated by the operations of the diamond drills imported and worked
by the Government ; the rapid borings through dense basalt by these
machines, and the information disclosed by the cores of rock obtained,
have given a great impetus to alluvial mining, and have enabled mining
companies to determine the downward courses of auriferous leads at
distant points, and to sink shafts with precision either upon or in close
proximity thereto. The principal increase in the yield of gold has,
however, been obtained from quartz mines. An improvement in this
class of mining, both in respect to the quantity of quartz crushed and to
the average yield of gold per ton, has taken place in the Sandhurst and
Castlemaine districts ; but the greatest improvement is visible in the
returns relating to the Ballarat district, in which the yields from quartz
are shown to be far ii. excess of those of any previous year. The
quantity of quartz raised from the mines during the past year is estimated
at 968,883 tons 9 cwt, as compared with the estimate of 849,324 tons
16 cwt. for 1879. Of quartz tailings, mullock, &c., there were crushed
29,140 tons, yielding 2357 oz. of gold ; and 8038 tons of pyrites, blanket-
ings, &c., were treated, yielding 13483 oz. of gold. The quar!ity of
vein-quartz crushed and the average yield of gold per ton in the several
districts of the Colony were as follow: — Ararat : quartz crushed, 83,853
tons ; yield per ton, 19 dwt. 15*05 gr. ; Ballarat : 448,841 tons ; 7 dwt.
I4"48gr. ; Beechworth : 48,020 tons; 12 dwt. 21 "54 gr. ; Castlemaine:
80,720 tons; 8 dwt. 20*64 gf- J Gippsland : 23,767 tons; i oz. 3 dwt.
11-69 gr. ; Maryborough: 43,587 tons; 12 dwt. Il*l8gr. ; Sandhurst:
239,894 tons; 10 dwt. i8*68 gr. Apart from the large quantities of
quartz crushed, these returns show a gratifying increase on the average
yields of gold per ton in every mining district except Ararat. The

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

641

numbers of miners employed in alluvial and quartz mining on December
31, 1880, were as follows: — Ararat: alluvial, 2049, and quartz, 801;
Ballarat : 4225 and 491 1 ; Becchworth : 3706 and 1347 ; Castlcmainc : 3360
and 1393; Gippsland : 1891 and 470; Maryborough: 5673 and 2154;
Sandhurst: 2012 and 4576. Total alluvial miners, 22,916; quartz,
15,652; grand total, 38,568, being an increase of looo over 1879. The
number of Chinese engaged in mining operations in Victoria continues to
decrease; on December 31, the number was 8486, or 624 less than in
1879. Dividing the quantity of gold exported and received into the
Mint among the miners employed in 1880, the average per man in
alluvial mines is 49/. 14s. 2d. ; and in quartz mines, 129/. \\s. 'j%d. The
approximate area of auriferous ground over which mining operations
have extended up to the end of 1880 is 1235 sq. miles ; and the number
of distinct quartz reefs proved to be auriferous is 3630. The total area
occupied as " mining claims " under the provisions of the bye-laws of the
several mining boards was 35,126 acres, and the area held under leases
from the Crown was 24,430 acres. In the exploration of the country
for quartz veins, shafts continue to be extended in depth throughout the
gold-fields.

The total quant ity of gold raised in Victoria from the period of its
first discovery in 1851 to the end of 1880 is given by two official state-
ments respectively as follows : —

a. 49,549,051 oz. 16 dwt., value, at 4/. per oz., 198,196,206/.

b. 49,646,71702., ,, „ „ 198,586,062/,

The table on pp. 642-3 shows the yield of gold from parcels of quartz
raised during the ist quarter of 1880 from some of the deepest mines in
Victoria, with the depth of their deepest shafts.

Victoria auriferous reefs. — The characteristics of the auriferous quartz
reefs or veins of Victoria have been carefully studied by William
Nicholas, whose observations exhibit many facts of great value. Quartz
mining is now the most important branch of gold-mining in Victoria, the
yield from the reefs exceeding that from the alluvions by many thousand
ounces per annum. Reefs are worked on .several gold-fields at more
than 1000 ft. beneath the surface ; shafts, levels, and cross-cuts can be
measured by hundreds of miles ; and the outlay of capital necessary to
the development of quartz mines can be calculated by millions of pounds
sterling. A study of the characteristics of the auriferous quartz veins,
and the laws which regulate them, is therefore highly interesting ; and
Nicholas for many years devoted leisure time in collecting important
facts relating to the strike, dip or underlie, and width of reefs, and the
dip of the shoot of gold and quartz in the reefs, in order that he might
render quartz mining less a matter of chance than it has been in the

2 T

! J

I! i

•3

[■Ml

Hi : ..

■ \

ii^

642

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

District, division,

and

subdivision.

Ararat.

Ararat div.

Ballarat.

Central div

Southern div

Buninyong div

Creswick div <

Steiglitz subdiv

Blackwood div. and Blue Moun-
tain S. subdiv.

Beechworth.
Beechworth div

Yackandandah S. subdiv

Buckland div <

Alexandra subdiv.

Gaffney's Creek subdiv

Wood's Point subdiv

Big Kivcr subdiv

Jamieson subdiv

Castlemaine.
Castlemaine div

Fryer's Creek div i

Hepburn div

Taradale and Kyneton subdiv.

Tarrangower div <

GiPPSLAND.

Mitchell R. and Boggy Ck. sub-
div.
Crooked R. div

Stringer's Creek div

Marvqorouch.

Maryborough div

Amherst div

DunoUy and Tarnagulla div.

Sandhurst.
Sandhurst div

Name of company.

Heathcote div. and Waranga S.
subdiv.

Pleasant Creek
Oriental . . . .

Temperance . • . .
New Kangaroo . .
Imperial Q. M. ..

Port Phillip . . . .

New North Clunes
Cleary's Freehold
Sultan

Reform

Shackenburg Bros
Davis and Co.
J. A. Wallace
Page and Co.
J. Ferguson . .
Lauraville
Sir John Franklin
Londonderry
Clancy's

Central Wattle

Gully.
New Era . .
Rowe Bros, . .
Rising Star . .
United Kingdom
North British
German Reef

Galloway
Long Tunnel

Bristol Hill .. ..

Union

ueen's Birthday
elcome . . . .

North Birthday . .

Garden Gully
United.

Unity

Little Chum . . . .
Central Catherine

Alabama and But-
ler.

Name of reef.

( Scotchman's Hat

I Cross

Scotchman's.. ..

Band of ffope
StaflTordshire. .
Hiscock's

Clunes
Clunes

Sultan and others

Reform, Myrtle-
ford.
Morning Star
Tiddlede-addledee
Land Tax . . . .

Accident . . . .
Homeward Bound

Ford's

Railway

Glceson's Lease . .

Wattle Gully

Ferron's..
Cattle's .. .. ,
Wilson's.. .. ,
United Kingdom
Parkin's Keef
German . . . .

Depth at

which

quartz got.

Galloway
Cohen's . .

( Western Reef
} Eastern Reef
Church Hill..
Bealiba . . . .
Welcome
Bealiba . . . .

Garden Gully

Garden Gully
New Chum . .
Catherine

Butler's .

ft.

1,200

850

I, ISO

400 to 950

278

XI2

Bo to 990

aoo to HOC

140
400 to 7SQ

4SO

60
350
600
340

55
150
200
300
170

350

70 to 400
160 to a6o

'95
50IO

500
360

'^343 to 623

500 to 550
270 to 300

250
400 to 530

240
200 to 300

75°

800

580

580, 640, 700

450

Quantity
crushed.

1,128
1.354
a. 579

1,500
1.753

3,J03

«4.523

2,052

1,665

1,430

S03

6,336
1.673

ISO

'43
45»
369

4.07a

S»8
342

1,710

53
','56

H.O'S
843

134

'•359
480

Average
yield of gold
per ton. 1

Width
of reef.

oz. dwt. gr. 1

I 15 3
t 6 o
I 10 19

ft. in.

6 to 13

5 23-'* a to 30
10

o I

13 12

3 to 7 O I

6 in. to loiii.**
6 in. to 6 ft.

o 6 15

«4

I 18 3

'58

4 16 7

180

I 10

2 4 5

a 7 21

4 20

150

600

039

396

10 o
4 °

I o

8 08

o 6 33 irregular"

6 in to 20 ft.
5 to 20 o

4 aa
4 '5
3 16
3 '
19 12
'7 3

6 13

I 4 »3

o 4 14
o a 20
5 '3 I

Q 14 14

4 2 19
X 4 16

I 9 II

6 ai

1 6 I
o 7 i6

I to 60
6in.to4ft.'*

18 in. to 4 ft.

3 to 10

I 6
I to 3

o 6

1 Still sinking.

s A well-defined lode.

* Lode well-defined at 950-ft. level.

* Not working at present.
> Including pyrites.

* This reef was first struck on the surface, and the trial

crushing yielded 3 oz. to the ton.

7 Sinking has been stopped for the present for the pur-
pose of prospecting at the 900-ft. level. Another plunger
has been put in, and there are now four plungers at work in
the shaft.

B Granite formation.

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

643

Average '

yield ur);uld

per ton. 1

Widlh
of reef.

oz.dwt.gr.

I 15 3

I 6 o I

I 10 19 !

042
O 6 21

o s 235

O 10 2^
400
O 13 12

6 15

1 18 2

4 16 7

1 lo o

a 4 5

2 7 21
o 4 20
o 16 o

039
396

a to 30

2 to 7

-3B

6 in. to loiii.'^

'■";OT

6 in. to 6 fi.

:*M

'■"'5

• ^^

:^^

'v^-

'ti

■p

I o
8 08

o 6 23 irregular"
I

6 in to 20 ft.
5 to 20 o

4 22
4 <5
3 16
3 «
ig 12

'7 3

6 12

4 23

4 14
2 20

13 I
u 14 14
2 ig
4 16

I 9 II

6 21

6 I

7 16

I to 60
6in.t0 4ft.'5
I o
6 o
I 9
3 o

18 in. to 4 ft.

3 to 10 o

I 6

I to 3 o

o 6

present for the pur-
I. Another plunger
• plungers at work in

Dip

of reef.

Dip

of quartz.

W. 3 ft. in 6 ft.

W. 70°

E. 66°

( 4 reefs E. 30°

( a reefs W. 30^

W. 15°

E. and W.

Varies

\V.

W. 80°

S.W. 30°
Westerly
S.W. 70*
Vertical
E.

E. 36°
W.so"
W. 60"

W.'8o°
E. 78°

W. 80°

W.65O

W.35°

N.36°

E. and W.

N. I in 4

Strike
of reef.

N.
S.

Varies

S.
Vertical

S.W. 30°
N.W. 33°
S.W. 70°

N. I in 8
8.30°

S.4S°

N.30°

E. and W.

S.
N. and S.

N. and S.

N. 8=' W.
W. 15°
N. 8° E.

N. 11° W.

Northerly
N. 10° E.

N. 22° W.
N.W. 33°
N. 52° SV.8
N. 3,° W.
N. 27° W.

N. 14° W.

N. s° E.
N. 20° W.

N. 12° W.
N. 15° W.

N.W. 19°

N. 12° W.
N. 10° E.

N.
N. iS-^W.
N. 16OW.
N. i8°W.

Name of company.

,Magdala<

Newington

Prince Patrick . . . .
Prince Alfred' . .
Cruwn Cross United . .

Oriental'

South Scotchman's . .
Pleasant Creek . . . .
Extended Cross R„ef
West Scotchman's . .
^Si.Jtchman's United . .

Temperance

Little Hopewell . .
Imperial Q. M

Port Phillip

New North Clunes . .

Sultan

Dale and Co.
Bigelow and Clingan.

New Era
Rowe Bros.

Eaglehawk Union
North British

Good Hope'a . . . .
J Long Tunnel . . . .
tWalhalla

I Bristol Hill

Union

I Queen's Birthday ..
(King's Birthday

Lansell's 180 . . . .

Great Extended Hust-
ler's.

Carlisle, N. Garden
Gully, and Passby
United.

Great Extended Hust-
ler's Reef Tribute.

Alabama and Butler. .

Name of reef.

Band of Hope"
Staffordshire
Hiscock' ■ ..

Clunes . . . .

Clunes . .

Sultan and others'

Excelsior, Woora-

gee.
Homeward Bound

Perron's.
Cattle's .

Eaglehawk".
Parkin's" .

Good Hope
Cohen's . .
Cohen's . .

(Western Reef
(Eastern Reef
Church Hill . .

Bealiba'
Bealiba'

Victoria"
HusUer's'7 . .

Garden Gully"

Hustler's" . .
Butler's Reef

Depth

of
shaft.

ft.
'333
1940
1784
1614
1313
"75
1262
1220
1170
1052
1018

955
520
410

"93

1 105

914

310
450

514

320

1220
500

700

735
615

628
310
254

556
390

1476
1368

1340

1264
570

Depth of

deepest

level.

» Leaders extending 130 ft. W. of foot-wall.
'0 A new shaft sunk during the quarter.
>' Driving E. to strike the reef.

•• Commenced sinking below joo-ft. level.
'» Preparing machinery, &c., to drive the No. 4 level.

ft.
2002
iS'o
1500
1026
1000
1238
1252
1200
1070

800
1000

950
500
400

logo

1 105

900

180
420

500
'75

lOOO

500

723

585

600

300
250

520

233

1200

• 350
854

1200

500

Depth of
deepest
cross-cut.

ft.
2002
1510
■ Soo
1026
1000
»238
1252
1200
1070

800
1000

950
500
400

1090

1 10s

900

310

SOO
«75

1200
500

700
723
585

600
303
350

520
333

1460
1350

1320

1250
500

•♦ Below adit level.
" Broken and irregular.
" Not sinking.

'7 Not sinking. Reef struck at 1240-rt. and 1350-rt.
cross-cuts, but shows no gold.

2 T 2

il'

m :.

liSII; •!

«ii;

■iil'^'K

644

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

past. The data collected have been classified under two principal
divisions, viz. reefs that occur in Lower Silurian and in Upper Silurian
rocks.

Strike of reefs. — Of 998 reefs, 841 are situated in the Lower, and 157
in the Upper Silurian rocks. These are subdivided into reefs bearing
W. of N. and E. of N. Of those in the first-named class of rocks, 554
had an average strike of N. 20° W., and 117 in the latter had an average
strike of N. 34° W. ; whilst there were 287 reefs in the Lower Silurian
that possessed a strike E. of N. averaging N. 1 1° E., and 40 reefs in the
Upper which had a strike of N. 27° E. From these figures, it will be
seen that out of a total number of 998 veins in both formations, 67 1 had
a direction W. of N. and only 327 ran E. of N. The variation of these
reefs to W. and E. of the true N. point in the Lower Silurian was just
one-half that in the Upper Silurian rocks ; or, to put it in other words,
in the first-named rocks, the average strike of the reefs W. and E. of N.
added together makes but 31", whilst that of those in the second makes
61°. It appears then that the auriferous veins in the Lower Silurian
formation are much more nearly N. and S. than those in the Upper. As
a rule, the auriferous veins run parallel with the strata in which they are
enclosed, and the greater number of the most extensively wrought and
richest veins in Victoria strike W. of N.

Groups of reefs. — When the reefs on the gold-fields are plotted on a
geological sketch-map of Victoria, it becomes manifest that they are
naturally divided into seven groups, of which two are important and five
of less importance. The two main groups or belts are well defined, have
a general direction N. and S., and are in the Lower Silurian strata. The
E. one embraces (commencing from the N. extremity and going S.) the
undermentioned gold-fields, viz. — Kamarooka, Raywood, Sandhurst,
Marong, Castlemaine, Fryer's Creek, Maldon, Newstcad, Yandoit, Tara-
dale, Daylesford, Gordon, Blackwood, Ballan, and Steiglitz, at the S.
extremity. It contains 774 distinct quartz reefs actually proved to be
auriferous. The W. main group or belt comprises — Wedderburn, at the
N. end ; Kingower, Inglewood, TarnaguUa, Dunolly, Maryborough,
Talbot, Clunes, Creswick, Ballarat, Buninyong, Smythesdale, and Bull-
dog, at the S. end. There are 535 known auriferous reefs in this belt.
These two great belts are separated by the 144th meridian of longitude
on the map of Victoria, and physically by a barren and depressed strip
of strata 15 miles in width.

Of the five groups of lesser importance, two lie in the Upper Silurian
and three in the Lower Silurian rocks.

In the first group (which lies E. of the main belts) are the following
gold-fields, commencing with the most N. : — Rushworth, Whroo, Coy's
diggings, Redcastle, Heathcote, Tooborac, Kilmore, Yea, St. Andrews,

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

645

and Mornington. (Near the last-named place arc 2 undeveloped auri-
ferous reefs.) It contains 530 distinct auriferous reefs.

The second group in the Upper Silurian contains, beginning at the
S. end and going N. : — Stockyard Creek gold-field, Red Hill diggings,
Russell's Crcrk, Walhalla, Jericho, Donnelly's Creek, Wood's Toint,
Gaffney's Creek, Big River, Jamicson, Alexandra ; and on the N.
of the great granite outcrop, Baddaginnie, near which place there are
reported to be 6 auriferous reefs which have been but slightly wrought.
The auriferous reefs in this group number 323, and the course of the
group is N.W. In these two lesser groups, many considerable tracts of
Upper Silurian strata intervene between the gold-fields, and are either
deficient in auriferous reefs, or the reefs in them are not proved.

The third group to the E. is in what is believed to be Lower
Silurian rocks, and it is the most considerable of the five smaller groups.
Commencing at its N. extremity and running S., it comprises the
Chiltcrn gold-field, Beechworth, Yackandandah, Myrtleford, Morse's
Creek [Bright], Harrietville, Mitta Mitta, Omeo, Crooked River, and
Boggy Creek. This group strikes W. of N., and contains 893 known
auriferous reefs.

On the W. side of the two great belts, lie the fourth and fifth groups
of lesser importance in Lower Silurian strata.

The fourth contains St. Arnaud, Stuartmill, Rcdbank, Landsborough,
Avoca, Barkly, and Raglan; in which gold-fields, 151 distinct quartz
reefs have been proved to be auriferous.

The fifth, last, and most W. group comprises the Stawell gold-fields,
Great Western, Ararat, and Moyston ; and in this group are 63 distinct
auriferous reefs.

With the exception of some 10 unimportant auriferous reefs, all that
are known to exist in Victoria are included in one or other of the seven
groups above described.

In Victoria, the veins run at right angles to the main dividing range ;
but it will be found that they run parallel with the principal spurs or
tributary ranges of the main divide, and by a study of the map it will be
noticed that the general direction of these ranges or spurs on the gold-
fields is N. or N.W. at about right angles to the main dividing range. For
example, in the E. part of Victoria, where the divide bends round to
N.E., and is well marked, the groups (as has been noticed) have a course
N.W. In the central part of Victoria, where the divide runs almost due
E. and W., the reefs in the two great groups or belts run more nearly N.
and S. ; whilst in the W. groups, where the divide is low and not well
defined, the course of the comparatively important tributary spurs is
N.W., and to them the reefs run parallel. Also, several of the groups are
more or less separated by low depressed country, in which are the valleys

646

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

U 'I

of rivers : another physical proof that the high lands trend in a N. and
S. direction.

Cross-reefs. — Auriferous cross-reefs occur in the Lower Silurian
formation at Steiglitz, Ovens district, Maryborough, Redbank, Dunolly,
St. Arnaud, Heathcote, Pleasant Creek, Grant, and Crooked River, to
the number of 61, of which 53 have an average strike of N. 60° W., and
8 have an average strike of N. 74° E. In the Upper Silurian, cross-reefs
are found at Rushworth, Whroo, Coy's diggings, and Redcastle, to the
number of 24, of which 15 have an average strike of N. 85" W., and 9 of
N. 71° E. These figures exemplify that Victoria is not destitute of veins
running E. and W., which in other countries is the direction of the pre-
dominating strike of mineral and metalliferous lodes or veins. R. A. F.
Murray mentions the discovery of 2 cross-reefs at Wilson's Promontory,
which have a strike of N. 55° W., and dip S. 35° W., but they had not
been proved auriferous. Only one of them, however, had been pro-
spected, and that to a slight extent. Krause reported an auriferous cross-
reef at Ararat, 18 in. wide, with a strike of W. 30° S. (across the strike of
the bounding rock), and a dip of N. 80° ; it was worked to a depth of
240 ft. below the surface, and the highest yield of gold obtained from it
was 2j oz. per ton.

Dip [Underlie] of reefs. — Of the dips of auriferous veins in 134
instances, 78 in the Lower Silurian had an average of 61° W., and 22 of
62° E. ; and 19 in the Upper Silurian formation averaged 72° W., and 15
had a mean dip of 49° E. Out of the 1 34, 97 dipped to W., and 37 to E.
In addition, Nicholas got the direction of the dip, but was not able to
obtain the angle, of 41 other reefs situated in the Lower Silurian, 33 of
which underlay to W. and 8 to E. ; and also found records of 16 vertical
reefs. From the limited data and information gathered, it does not
appear that the richness or poverty of auriferous reefs is affected by the
variation of the angle of underlie. The greater number of the reefs seem,
however, to have a dip of about 60°. The majority of the most impor-
tant reefs in Victoria appear to have* a W. underlie, although there are
many rich reefs that dip E. Nicholas also mentions that the saddle-
formed reefs so characteristic of the master lodes of the Sandhurst gold-
field are not confined to that field, but occur also at Clunes, Blackwood,
Lauriston, Hepburn, Inglewood, and in the Bonang Range in Gippsland.

Shoot of gold. — Respecting the shoot of gold, Nicholas got particu-
lars of the dip of 57 " pay chimneys " (as they are called in California)
or shoots, 25 of which dipped to N., 28 to S., and 4 were vertical ; the
prevailing angle of the N. and S. shoots was between 25° and 50°, The
information obtainable under this head is unsatisfactory, as there are
apparently but few persons who have thought this subject of sufficient
importance to have qualified themselves to be able ta say, even approxi-

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

647

mately, whether the general direction of the shoot of gold is N., S., or
vertical. Too frequently, when remarks are made on this subject, in-
quirers are checked by finding it stated that the shoot of gold varies.
There will probably be some difficulty in defining the dip of the shoot in
reefs that contain fine gold evenly distributed ; but in all cases, if a
longitudinal or working section were kept, the course of the vein worked
out would show the dip of the shoot of quartz, with which the shoot of
gold usually conforms. In Nicholas' own experience, he has found that
the shoot of quartz is invariably at right angles to the lines of striation
on the walls or laminations of reefs, or to the heads or joints in the
bounding rocks. In California, it has been observed that the pay-
chimneys run with the lines of striation. That the dip of the shoot of
quartz or gold should be known, is a matter of the first importance in
the working of all mines, and especially to adjoining mines.

Width of reefs. — Nicholas gathered the widths of 286 reefs. Of
these, 237 were in Lower Siluriap rocks, and 49 in Upper Silurian. He
divided these widths into three divisions, viz. (i) under 5 ft, (2) over
5 and under 10 ft., (3) over 10 ft. Of the 237 reefs in the Lower Silurian,
168 were under 5 ft, and averaged 2 ft 5 in. ; 45 were over 5 ft, and
averaged 6 ft. 8 in. ; and 24 were over 10 ft., and averaged 29 ft. Of the
49 reefs in the Upper Silurian, 44 were under 5 ft, and averaged 2 ft.
I in. ; I was over 5 ft. (or 8 ft. 5 in.) ; and 4 were over 10 ft., and averaged
15 ft. 6 in. From the above figures, it will be seen that the reels in the
Lower Silurian are much wider than those in the Upper Silurian forma-
tion, and it is found that the thickest reefs have proved the richest and
most extensively worked in Victoria.

Laminated reefs. — In the catalogue of auriferous quartz specimens
(Victorian) in the collection of the Survey department, of 108 of the most
important reefs, from which fair samples were obtained, 59 had a lami-
nated structure. The same data show that, of the 108 reefs, 48 contained
gold in cavities ; 9 specimens only were found to contain gold in the
solid quartz ; and in the laminations, gold was observed to occur in 24
reefs. These facts point out that the greater part of the free gold in our
reefs is not enveloped in solid quartz, but occurs in a comparatively loose
state in the cavities and laminations, with clay-slate, galena, pyrites, and
zinc-blende : from which, an inference may be drawn, that the freer are
the tailings run off from a quartz-crushing mill from any other substance
than quartz, the less is the loss of gold.

Dykes. — It is well known that basaltic dykes are associated with the
main lodes of the Bendigo gold-field, but they are not confined in this
respect to that field. In other gold-mining districts, in the Lower
Silurian rocks, they have also been found ; for example, at Castlemaine,
a basalt dyke, 2 ft. in width, has been discovered in working the Eureka

648

GKOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

Ii|ii

lii ' :;t

Mir,

reef; another dyke, varying in width from 18 in. to 2 ft., has been met
with in mining the Shclback reef, Barker's Creek ; and a third, having a
regular course, and a tiiickness of 6 to 24 in,, was discovered in the
Wheal Terrill mine. Wattle Gully. Murray reports that, at liallarat, a
few dykes similar to those found at Sandhurst occur ; Norman Taylor,
that black basaltic dykes were <"ound in the Waterloo, Argyle, Albion,
and South Scotchman mines al Pleasant Creek.

These dykes appear to conform in strike [direction] with the auri-
ferous veins with which they arc associated ; they cut through the veins
and strata at all angles ; have a tortuous winding course ; occasionally,
when they have been intercepted by a reef, they follow its underlie for
short distances ; or they are found more frequently to fault the reefs; in
width, they arc irregular, varying from 1 in. to 9 ft. 6 in. ; and dykes
have been found to split into two or more streams. Some dykes consist
of compact hard basalt containing olivine, and it would be difficult, if not
impossible, to distinguish the rock of which they are composed from the
newer basalts which arc spread over such large areas in Victoria ; whilst
others are decomposed into white, yellow, grey, and speckled brownish
clays. By miners, they are now considered certain guides to reefs, and
Nicholas pointed this out as far back as 1863. If dykes can be said to
have a dip, it is found, in working reefs, most frequently to be opposite
to that of the reefs they intersect ; but their general direction will no
doubt prove to be vertical. These dykes record, by lines of striation and
polished faces, movements on either side of them in the strata.

Of auriferous lodes or reefs in other countries, it is observed that the
strike most common is N. and S., and that there are a half-dozen mines
in which the lodes may be classed as E. and W. or cross-reefs. It is
stated, however, that the veins in Minas Geraes, Brazil, strike most
frequently E. and W. In Northern Mexico, and in Virginia, Orange,
and Buckingharn counties. United States of America, the strike of the
veins deviates to the E. of N., whilst those in California, British North
America, and Oregon, U.S.A., strike either N. and S. or deviate to the W.
The E. and W. lodes are generally poor when compared with the N.
and S. The fact noted tiy Henwood, that the veins in Brazil run parallel
with the mountain chaii.s. has also been observed to be true in California.
The lodes dip both E. and W., and the average dip of those of which the
angle is given is 55°.

Of 28 veins, 8 under 5 ft. averaged 2 ft. 9 in. ; 3 over 5 ft. averaged
7 ft. ; and 17 over 10 ft. averaged 27 ft. In common with Victorian reefs,
these lodes or veins are proved to be ever varying in thickness, to have
rich gold-bearing shoots or pay-chimneys, and poor zones, which succeed
one another vertically or horizontally ; to be laminated, have slicken-
sides, dykes, and slides ; to be nipped out — the walls of the veins coming

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AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

649

together ; and to possess the same mineral composition, consistinjr most
commonly of quartz, arsenical and iron-pyrites, galena, zinc-blende,
copper-pyrites, silver, antimony, calcspar. With regard to the last-
named mineral, in Nicholas' opinion, although it has hitherto only rarely
been found in auriferous veins in Victoria, and then mostly in small
quantities, it will be found to occur commonly and in quantity as the
reefs are mined to greater depths. In support of this opinion, he
mentions that the mineral has been found in nearly solid quartz, got from
1687 ft. in depth, in the Magdala mine. Pleasant Creek ; in compact
quartz, from 560 ft. in depth in the Victoria reef, Sandhurst ; and it has
been observed in quartz from the Garden Gully reef. Hustler's, Brown's ;
"lava dyke, " on the Johnson's, at Sandhurst; in a "lava dyke" asso-
ciated with the Wattle Gully reef, Castlemaine ; and in all these mines
at considerable depth.s. It has also been found (in quantity) in the
Shamrock claim, Gooley's Creek, and other Gippsland mines. The
calcitc observed in the quartz fr )m the Magdala mine and Victoria reef
occurred in thin veins in compact quartz, and was only discovered after
careful examination ; in some of the other cases mentioned, it was found
in cavities. In the " lava dykes," it sometimes occurs in thick scams.
Whether the occurrence of this mineral in quantity in our reefs will have
any effect on their auriferous character, is a matter of speculation ; but it
is not likely that the reefs will be richer for its presence. It is, however,
probable that the reefs will contain more metals and minerals, such
as silver, copper, lead-ore, and pyrites. But as calcspar has not yet
been found to exist to any large extent in the reefs down to 1000 ft,
it is not desirable at present to speculate on its favourable or non-
favourable influence on the gold-bearing qualities of the reefs. Calcite
is associated with gold in the veins worked in Queensland, Brazil, and
Virginia.

Passing from generalities, separate accounts will now be given of the
most interesting gold-fields, ranging them alphabetically under their
districts.

Ararat. — According to Krause's report (Oct. 7, 1874), a marked
feature, at once noticed by a visitor from the central gold-fields, is the
absence of shallow alluvial " ground " in this district — a feature which
is certainly not to be attributed to a lesser amount of denudation during
Post-Tertiary times, but rather to the character of the denuded material
itself. At Castlemaine, Sandhurst, and other fields, the newly-eroded
valleys were filled by the detritus of highly auriferous Pliocene gravels,
and the abrased caps of rich quartz lodes. On this field, the denuded
rocks were Silurian schist, quartz reefs, and, principally, the Upper
Newer Pliocene drifts, neither of which appears to have possessed the
precious metal in quantity. Except in the immediate proximity to Older

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GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

Tertiary hills, the alluvium in Ararat gullies and creeks is therefore, as a
rule, absolutely barren.

From the large extent of country occupied by the drifts of the Upper
Newer Pliocene (recent gold-drift), and the equable manner of their
deposition, there is little doubt as to their m?,nne origin, and that they
have been 16ft by a slowly receding sea. They consist of mixed clay and
angular gravel, from a capping to upwards of 100 ft. in thickness, and
layers of ferruginous cement, the constituent gravels of which are angular.
They first occur at an elevation of iiooft. above the sea, and have their
largest extent N. and N.E. cf the township of Ararat, where they cover
''deep ground, at the Lower Wet lead, Sawpit Flat, Three-mile Creek,
&c. The configuraiion of the Older Pliocene surface has been greatly
modified by the levelling influence of these latter deposits, and a con-
siderable breadth of, no doubt, richly auriferous country is as effectually
hidden beneath the clay drifts as under the lava plains of the Hopkins
farther S. Indeed, observing from a miner's point of view, the search for
the deep leads under the drift mantle, while accompanied by the same
amount of uncertainty which attaches to the position and mining capa-
bilities of the sub-basaltic gutters, is rendered even more difficult by the
extra labour requisite in securing the mine against the lat-i al thrust of a
permeable stratum. Here and there, where the newer cement rests
directly on the bed-rock, it has been removed for crushing ; but the
results have in all cases been discouraging to the miner, and it would
appear that no gold in workable quantities has been found in any of the
Upper Newer Pliocene beds.

Most of the " leads " now working in this mining division are referable
to the Lower Newer Pliocene (older gold-drift) period. They frequently
rise at an elevation of 1250 ft. above sea-level, and have been traced
downwards to 800 ft. At their heads, they follow pretty generally the
course of existing drainage-channels ; but as the latter gain the low land,
covered by newer drift, and the Silurian rock forms no longer the banks
of the valleys, then the leads cca^e to conform, and their course is often
transverse to existing watershed lines. From the manner of their occur-
rence, these deposits are clearly the result of fluviatile agency ; yet the
fact of large sub-angular boulders of quartz being found aeposited at the
very source of certain leads, where little or no fluvial action can have
taken place, tends to show either that they are the denuded remnants of
Older Pliocene beds removed from a much higher altitude, or else that
the upper valleys of the leads were inlets to a Lower Pliocene ocean.

With one exception, the Dividing Range forms the main axis alike for
the In ewer Tertiary and the modern drainage systems. On the seaward
side are two main courses of aijiriferous leads trending S. towards a
junction u-^low the Burrumbecp Preemptive Section. The E. course

4
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AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

651

starts from the valley of the Warayatkin Creek, receives the Mullock
Bank, Upper Wet, Ararat, and Kangaroo Range leads, with their
network of tributaries, and immerges under the basalt immediately E. of
the township of Ararat. The W. course begins under the Main Range
in the valley of the Deenicull Creek, and admits the Blackman's, Sydney
Flat, Phillips', Gibson's, Cathcart, and other leads. The lower portion
of the E. course is covered by basalt ; that of the W. course, by Upper
Newer Pliocene drift. On both leads, the miner has encountered such
difficulties, chiefly in the excessive influ < of water, as to submit to the
cessation of mine work at a compa;atively early stage. It is an im-
portant fact, however, that most or all of the main leads have proved
remuneratively auriferous up to the time of their abandonment. With
respect to this locality, it is, in Krause's opinion, infinitely less a matter
of scientific conjecture as to the existence and position of auriferous deep
leads, than a simple question of procuring capital for the resumption of
mining operations.

On the W. side of the Main Range, are principally the Rocky Point,
Opossum Gully, and Port Curtis leads, which have been profitably
wrought for a length of several miles over a granite bed-rock. In their
lower course, the leads are confined within the steep rock_, banks of the
present valleys, and as the fall of the latter increases, the older drift has
been in places removed by the scour of the modern stream, and re-
distributed as a shallow alluvium, which contains the gold so fine and
scattered as to become practically unworkable. This is the only instance
in which the mining term " lost lead " assumes a geological meaning.

Independently of palaeontological evidence, and judging from their
physical distribution only, the lowest gold-drifts (Older Pliocene) have
always been classed as marine deposits, and "t is impossible to come to
any other conclusion when the formation is studied on this gold-field.
They occur at uniform levels: first, as outliers 11 00 ft. above sea-level,
occupying the crests of isolated hills, often several miles aivander, on
either side of the Main Range ; then, as the country falls S. away from
the great axis, their atline increases around hills and flanks of ridges ;
and finally, at an altitude of 600 ft. stretch in an unbroken gently-sloping
plain down to the Wimmera basin. By imagining an inclined plane
between the highest point at which the drifts appear at Ararat, and the
lowest level to which the Four-post lead at Stawell has been traced —
whether this inclination be due to the natural configuration of the surface
of the Palaeozoic rocks, or caused by subsequent gradual upheaval, does not
matter at present — the geological horizon of the Older Pliocene era is
obtained. Five miles north of Stawell, as far as present information goes,
are the uppermost beds of the group, consisting of soft, mottled, brecciated
sandstones, and ferruginous sand and loam with concretionary ironstone,

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GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

shelly conglomerate and fossil marine shells (chiefly Astarte and casts of
univalves). Below this are well-rounded quartz gravels, conglomerate
(cement), and coarse grit — the oldest gold-drift. At Ararat are only
deposits of the latter description — the upper beds have either been
removed by denudation or (if the declivity pre-existed) were never
precipitaed along the shallow margin of the Pliocene ocean. A few
miles fartiicr N. of the Stawell leads, beds of marine shells of pronounced
Miocene age are said to occur, and this would complete the analogy
between the Te'tiaries of these gold-fields and those exposed in cKfif
sections near Point Castries, and probably also those of the Moorabool
valley, near Maude.

The older leacs, though but sparingly represented on the S. side of
the Dividing Range, have proved to be exceedingly rich in gold. Bridal
Hill, Canton lead, Flint Hill, Union Jack lead. Surface Hill, and
Cathcart Hill are the principal representatives of the oldest drift In the
neighbourhood of Ararat. The depth of the Flint Hill drift is fron: 20
to 40 ft., and contains gold distributed throughout the whole thickness.
The coarse " shotty " gold is usually, but not invariably, on the bottom or
bea-rock. Another characteristic instance of the imm^- liai ' ' ysical
relation of the Pliocene gold-drifts is offered in the localii; 01 cathcart.
This hill is composed of a cemented drift of gravel and metamorphic
schist, 30 ft. in thickness, nearly the whole of which is more or less
auriferous.

It is a noteworthy fact that not a single well-defined quartz reef in
the neighbourhood of Ararat has been found payably auriferous at the
levels to which they have been tested. The only lodes that have been
worked to advantage are those irregular veins showing no defined casings,
and the latter much disturbed, and leaving spaces which are filled up with
the rubble of the adjoining rock mass. It is, however, necessary to state
that in no instance has the depth to which the quartz workings extend
been below the level of the older goM-drifts in the immediate vicinity of
the reef. These remarl 3 refer simp;y to the reefs within the area of tb
S. half-sheet of the survey, and do not apply to the Moyston, Rhymney
and Port Curtis reefs. Campbell's reef and Rhymney reef are tolerably
well-defined lodes, that have been profitably wrought at 600 ft. and 200 ft.
respectively. Both are in metamorphic-schist country. Bourke's reef,
although it has proved highly auriferous at a shallower level than the
contiguous older leads, is a very irregular flat lode cutting through
decomposed granite.

A second report by Krause, dated July I, 1875, deals with the N.
portion of this gold-field. Examination of the mode of occurrence of the
Tertiary and Post-Tertiary rocks in the N. area of the survey did not
augment to any great degree the knowledge previously neld. £\\v.

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AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

653

information gained is with regard to the extent of the deposits, affecting
the economic bearing of the inquiry.

1. The Warayatkin fluvial leads, in the valleys of the Sawpit Flat and
Three-mile Creek, underlie the alluvial flats just mentioned, and trend
towards a junction beneath the basalt at the Green Hill swamp. The
sinking is principally through clays, partly sandy, partly unctuous and
bituminous ; fine su'^-angular gravel of quartz and ironstone containing
drift-wood, and layers of plastic clay containing an abundance of nodules
of bisulphuret of iron, 4 to 8 ft. thick. The total depth is 90 to 1 50 ft.
In the bottom layer of clay, thin patches and streaks of blue iron earth
(phosphate of iron) are found. This mineral (vivianite) has been hitherto
found in this colony only in conjunction with volcanic rocks, and it is
probable that in this instance, too, it has been derived from disintegrated
basalt, a flow of which (now covered by the newer clay-drift) extends up
the lead-Volley some distance from the visible basalt boundary.

2. The Main Hopkins lead lies under the basaltic plain on the E. side
of the river Hopkins, from Ararat to Jackson's Creek, a length of about
7 miles. A union of the Black, Caledonian, and Warayatkin leads
probably takes place at or near the Racecourse Reserve. Tributaries
join on the VV. from the Kangaroo Range, and on the E. from the valleys
of the Gorrinn and Jackson's creeks. The former have been proved to
be highly auriferous ; of the latter nothing is known beyond the fact that
they rise in Silurian country, which is intersected by quartz ri.efs and
capped by quartz gravel-drift not hitherto worked upon. The trunk
lead runs S., and most likely passes under the va^'ey of Jackson's Creek,
at a point about a mile above its confluence with the river Hopkins.
Beyond this place, indications are wanting. The possibility is that the
sub-basaltic Silurian rocks at>. auriferous, and may contribute towads
the " feeding " of the main drainage channel ; but a glance at the sketch-
map shows it to be more probable that from Jackson's Creek for several
miles S. the bed-rock is granite. The sinking on to the main lead will
be 200 to 300 ft. through basaltic rock, which occurs in 3 or moe layers
with intervening thin beds of clay, gravel, and scoriae.

3. The Main Cathcart lead is in the valley of DeenicuU Creek, and
under the basaltic flow S. of the Burrumbeep station, along the river
Hopkins to Jackson's Creek. The Cathcart having been joined by the
Phillips' Flat and Nil Dcsperandum leads, meet probably at, or S. of, the
Burrumbeep station. From here, the lead bears apparently to a pomt
some 20 chains E. of the confluence of Jackson's Creek and the Hopkins,
and thence S. towards a grand junction with the Main Hopkins. The
si. '.king on the upper portion of this lead is through 65 to 150 ft. of clay
and intermixed clay and gravel ; on the lower course, through perhaps not
less than 1 50 to 300 ft. of basaltic rock.

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654

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

4. In the Concongclla lead, in the valley of the like-named creek,
from Armstrong's to and past the township of Great Western, the strata
to be sunk through are alluvial silt resulting from the operation of creeks,
and clay and gravel beds 50 to 100 ft. thick resting on granite bed-rock.

5. The granite country lying S.W. and W. of the township of Great
Western, between Concongella Creek and the S. spur of the Black Range,
and containing the Pliocene drainage deposits from Jonathan Gully and
numerous other leads, has received but scanty attention from the miner.
The sinking is through granitic detritus, local drift, and clay and gravel
beds varying from 20 to 50 ft. in depth, but deepening N. towards the
Concongella lead.

6. The Great Western elevated plateau N. and E. of the existing gold-
workings is composed of Older Pliocene gravel-drift resting upon
decomposed granite. The lead itself has been worked for a length of 2
miles, and a width which exceeds in places 1200 ft. From the alternate
dry ■■:!='• ?nd accumulation of saline waters, and the undulations, both
longi'. Uy and laterally, of the bed-rock, it seems conclusive that
the " lea' ' is simply a depression in a former sea bottom. Similar
depressions, filled, no doubt, with auriferous gravels, occur prob?.bly again
in other places under the plateau, which extends N. towards the Wimmera
river, and offers a highly promising field to the prospector. The gold in
the Great Western lead, as in the older drifts generally, occurs in fine
scales ; pieces weighing I dwt. are rare, and the largest " nugget " obtained
hardly exceeded 5 dwt. With the exception of the Great Western, which
is variably wet and dry, all the leads enumerated are more or less heavily
charged with drift water, and demand superior skill, appliances, and
capital for their proper working.

The number of quartz lodes in the Ararat division that have been
mined upon at various times is 23. But of these, many have long since
been abandoned, and respecting them no information could be obtained,
owing to the state of inaccessibility of the deserted shafts and workings.

I. Mitchell's reef is a vein 6 to 10 in. thick ; in places, the walls of
the looe bulge out to a width of 24 in., and the lode-stuff then occurs in
thin bands encasing strings and riders of slate rock. The whole material
is removed for crushing, and the miners speak of the reef being 2 ft. wide,
which is, of course, not strictly correct, more particularly as the gold
seldom enters into the slate here. The greatest persistency, both in
thickness and yield, is at the depth of 40 to 60 ft. Elsewhere the gold
occurs unevenly, generally very sparingly distributed, or it occupies
nests, from which now and then some rich specimens were removed, that
led to the sinking of a disproportionately large number of shafts ; but
the highest yield obtained has in no crushing exceeded 1 5 dwt. per ton.
The greatest depth to which the reef has been worked does not reach to

t>ik ."I

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

655

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the level of the " alluvial " leads in the neighbourhood. Setting aside the
disadvantage arising from an undue amou it of dead labour which has to
be expended in the working of all small veins, it may fairly be questioned
— not only in this instance, but with regard to several other reefs in this
district similarly situated — whether the workings should not be carried
down at once to a depth below that of the leads within the immediate
drainage area, in order to ascertain the character of the stone in country
that has not been affected by the receding of mineral waters during
Newer Tertiary times. About ij mile S. of the prospecting shaft, the
lode is again visible on the surface, and is being worked under the name
of Port Fairy Gap reef. Here the stone yields 12 dwt. per ton, at a
depth of 30 ft. from the surface.

2. Moore's reef is a collective name given to a series of quartz veins
which traverse the low hilly country 2^ miles N.E. of Ararat. The work-
ings in claim No. .3 S. show, on a width of 48 in., 3 veins of 5, 9, and 8 in.
respectively, separated by soft slate rock, which is again interstratified
by numerous auriferous quartz bands. The entire thickness (4 ft.) of
stone is being treated under the crushing-mill. There are many other
quartz veins in this mine, but no indication of gold in them has been
observed. In claim No. i N. 2 groups of veins have been worked upon.
The W. group consists of 4 veins, 2 to 8 in. thick, which unite into a
tolerably homogeneous lode 22 in. thick at 72 ft. from the surface. It
has proved pe.sistent down to the water-level at 120 ft., at which depth
work was suspended. The stone has yielded 7 dwt. to the ton. The E.
group is represented by 3 veins of 8, 7, and 18 in., separated respectively
by 9 in. and 6 ft. of slate. The eastmost vein crops out on the surface,
and has yielded in one place 2 oz. 16 dwt. of gold per ton of quartz. At
a distance of 30 ft. S. of where the section is taken, the entire thickness
of 8 ft. i'' occupied by innumerable veins and bands of quartz, and has
been wholly removed for crushing. The enclosed slate bands proved
highly auriferous on being washed in the dish. The greatest depth
reached on Moore's reef is that of the Noah's Ark shaft, which was sunk
to 200 ft., without, however, striking the veins, "x was subsequently
connected on the E. with the 80-ft. level of an a jandoned shaft, from
which the E. group of reefs was then worked,

3. New Year's reef is a well-defined lode lying about 48 chains W, of
Moore's. A single shaft has been sunk. At 25 ft. from the surface,
some promising specimens of gold were obtained both from the quartz
and slate casings ; but at 40 ft, not a colour was visible, and, without any
trial crushing being made, the shaft was abandoned. The quartz, being
vitreous, shows a marked difference in appearance from the opaque stone
of Moore's and other veins in this locality.

4. Pioneer reef lies still farther W. in the same locality as the two

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GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

last-mentioned reefs, and presents an accumulation of veins similar io
that at Moore's. In the prospecting claim, 4 veins, 30, 7, 22, and 2+ in.
thick respectively, were worked at a depth of 170 ft. In a shaft some
short distance S. of the prospector's, these 4 veins split up into a net-
work of branches, and form, with the included slate bands, a broad
" mullock reef " 7 ft. thick. Other irregular deviations from parallelism
in the walls of the lode are said to occur in different parts on this line of
reef ; but the workings whereby such features are stated to have been
disclosed are no longer accessible to examination.

5. Golden Hope reef is situate at the head of California Gully. Two
prospecting shafts have been sunk on this reef, which runs in massive
slate country. A trial crushing of 20 tons of stone gave an average
yield of 3^ dwt. of gold per ton. The quartz is rich in cubical pyrites,
and below the water-level this mineral becomes very abundant, both in
the quartz and the slate. A small parcel of this pyrites has been treated,
yielding at the rate of upwards of 1 3 oz. to the ton. The outcrops of 2
other quartz veins are visible within a distance of 90 ft. W. of the Golden
Hope ; but nothing has been done in the way of ascertaining their
mining value.

6. Bourke's reef, at Port Curtis, is a flat vein, 6 to 14 in. thick, cutting
through granite. It has yielded some exceedingly rich stone, and has
been worked to the water-level at 78 ft. The low angle under which the
vein dips requires it to be worked like a seam, although the nature of
the hanging-wall renders this mode of working very unsafe and costly.
With the increasing depth, the rock becomes harder, the stone poorer,
and the vein less regular, splitting up into several branches. Morgan's,
Amalia, and Honeysuckle reefs, in the same locality, are similar thin
veins in g' anite, and where the rock is disintegrated the stone yielded
as high as 6 oz. of gold to the ton. The Silurian rock along the granite
boundary at Port Curtis is only altered for a limited distance, nowhere,
apparently, exceeding 20 or 30 yd. Outside that girdle, the ordinary
blue and yellowish-grey clay-slates prevail. It is probable that the
jutting portion of granite at Port Curtis is merely completely altered
schist, as the grey, granular ternary granite typical of the Lexington area
is not met with for 40 or 50 chains from the W. boundary of the strati-
fied rocks at Wattle Gully.

7. Rhymney reef offers, up to the present period of mining, the sole
instance of a " cross reef" in this division. It is a lode 18 in. wide, bearing
W. 30° S. across the strike of the bordering rock, and dips N. at 80°.
It has been worked to a depth of 240 ft. The " run " of gold occupies
a zone 20 to 40 ft. in width, and was first met with on the cap of the
reef close to the working shaft of the Rhymney Co., whence it shoots
rapidly W. Outside this zone, the lode contains little or no gold. The

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

657

reef has been cut in several pits E. of the working shaft, but it proved to
be barren, and beyond a distance of 200 ft. was altogether lost. The
highest yield of gold obtained was 2j oz. per ton. From the discovery
of the reef in 1870, till the permanent cessation of work in 1874, the
quantity of quartz raised from this lode amounted to 1963 tons, the pro-
ceeds of which were 1440 oz. of gold.

8. Eaglehawk is a reef 18 in. to 3^ ft. thick, dips W. at 64", and has
been worked to a depth of 240 ft. The average yield of gold has been
4^ dwt. per ton. Below the water level at 115 ft, both the lode-stuff and
the encasing blue slate rock are heavily impregnated with iron-pyrites.
A laboratory treatment of 6 lb. of pyrites resulted in the yield of 2 dwt.
of gold.

9. Campbell's reef, Moyston, is a lode in metamorphic schist, 7 to
15 in. thick, dipping E. 12° N. at 75° to W. 24° S. at 85°. From the
discovery of the reef in September 1857, to the last crushing in May
1875, it is estimated that 106,000 tons of quartz, yielding 76,000 oz. of
gold, were raised from this lode. In the Kangaroo Co.'s mine, the reef
dipped regularly at 79° E. within well-defined walls to a depth of 480 ft.
At this level, the lode became pinched, and at 540 ft. the stone died out,
although the smooth backs were still clearly defined, and (the " track of
the reef") persistently followed on by the miners. At 230 ft. from the
surface, a cross-cut was driven VV. for 148 ft, but discontinued on account
of the extreme density of the crystalline schists. The quartz in this
mine yielded 2 oz. 2 dwt per ton at 250 ft. ; i oz. at 400 ft. ; and only
5 dwt at 510 ft In Morgan's claim, the yield was — at 250 ft., 2 oz.
12 dwt ; at 450 ft, 16 dwt ; and at 510 ft., 6J dwt per ton. In the
Invincible Co.'s mine, the lode averages 10 in. thick, and dips 80° E. to a
depth of 400 ft., where it changes to 84° W. The best payable quartz
was gpt from a "shoot" about 150 ft wide, dipping N. At the lower
level, the stone within the shoot yielded 1 3 dwt. per ton, while the quartz
raised from outside the auriferous belt scarcely paid the cost of mining
and crushing. The Perseverance Co. crushed stone from their 400-ft
level which averaged 2 oz. 3 dwt. a ton ; the Extended Southern Cross
Co., from a depth of 580 ft, 4 dwt 21 gr. per ton ; and the North Star
Co., in one of the most N. shafts on this line of reef, obtained but 3 dwt.
5 gr. per ton. The run of gold evidently shoots N., and, supposing
it to be persistent, would be met with in the N. claims at considerably
lower depths than have been reached by any shafts in this locality.

10. About 50 chains S. of the original prospecting claim on Camp-
bell's reef, and approximately corresponding with the extended strike of
the latter, is a lode worked by the Sir George Bowen Co., 6 to 1 5 in. thick.
It splits up into various branches in the iQD-ft. level. The shaft of this
company is sunk in an elvan dyke (quartz porphyry), the thickness of

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GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

which has not yet been ascertained. At the place where the branching
off of the vein occurs, the clvanite is closely studded with cubic pyrites,
and the quartz leaders streaked with veins of galena. The character of
the country is quite different from that of the N. claims, and it seems all
but certain that the lode in this mine is distinct from Campbell's. The
proper mode of exploring this mine would be to ascertain by E. and W.
cross-cuts the extent of the dyke laterally, and the nature of the country
adjoining.

1 1. The Silurian ranges at the sources of the Six-mile Creek, in the
parish of Bulgana, are traversed by numerous quartz reefs, none of
which has hitherto been tested. The apparent absence of faults or splits,
the great thickness of some of these reefs, and the persistence and
regularity of their strike, distinguish this country from that in which the
lodes of the Ararat gold-field proper have been thus far worked. This
area recommends itself as a favourable field for lode prospecting.

Ballarat. — From R. A. F. Murray's report on the geology and mineral
resources of Ballarat, dated Mar. 29, 1873, the following valuable infor-
mation is derived.

Tertiary Gold-drifts. — Under the term " drift," are here included all
detrital deposits of clay, sand, and gravel, water-worn or angular, loose
or cemented. In naming the Tertiary gold-drifts, their nomenclature,
according to European classification, has been deferred until more
extended research shall have brought to light evidence as to the precise
periods to which they are referable. There are 4 clearly defined epochs
of gold-drift in the Ballarat district, whose relative local positions have
been indicated by the names " oldest," " older," " recent," and " most
recent," referring to the periods rather than to the drifts themselves.
The " oldest " period included the deposit of drifts clearly antecedent to
the time at which the lead-channels were eroded to their present depth.
The " older " period embraced the deep-lead drifts, those intervening
between the lava-flows and the lava-flows themselves, the uppermost
lava-flow closing the period. Deposits of " recent " age are those that
were deposited immediately after the uppermost lava-flow or ' first rock."
"Most recent" drifts are those in recently eroded gullies, or such deposits
of clay, sand, and gravel as have accumulated subsequently to the
" recent " period.

The term " oldest," as applied to the period to which certain drifts
more ancient than the deep-lead drifts are referable, is here used relatively,
and does not imply necessarily the absence of auriferous drifts of greater
antiquity in other localities. Lithologically the principal forms are as
follows : — (i) Loose quartz gravel, with well and partially rounded
pebbles and boulders ; (2) water-worn and angular gravel and sand, more
or less cemented with ferruginous and siliceous matter ; (3) sandy iron-

i<:l

■I

ijk W

iPiii;'''! I'

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

659

Stone, with occasional layers and patches of quartz gravel ; (4) hard
siliceous ck, sometimes pure and sometimes enclosing angular or water-
worn quartz fragments. These forms frequently blend with one another.
Rolled fragments of other rock than quartz are very rare, and the least
water-worn pebbles are met with at the more elevated points or margins
of terraces where the drift occurs. The first two forms prevail near
Ballarat : isolated patches cap various points of considerable, but not the
highest, elevation, on either side of the Leigh valley, as on parts of the
Warrenheip range to the E., and various points near Napoleon on the W.
These patches occur neither on the highest points nor on the lowest spurs
of the Silurian ranges, but on those of medium elevation.

The northernmost and most elevated appearance of this drift is on
the Warrenheip range, outside the E. borough boundary, at an altitude
above sea-level of 1750 ft. The least-elevated exposed points on which
these vestiges remain are those nearest to the main line of depression, as
at Golden Point, Pennyweight Hill, Clayton's Hill, Slaughterhouse Hill,
near Buninyong, and the Hard Hills, near Scotchman's. In these localities
the gravel is very coarse, and immense rounded boulders of quartz are fre-
quent. Some of the extensive " reef-washes " beneath the basalt are of
similar character, and are probably of this epoch. Patches occur as terraces
on either side down the Leigh valley, S. from Buninyong and on the fall
towards Williamson's Creek. It is traceable as passing beneath the
Mount Mercer lava-flow along the N. boundary of the latter, and in the
natural section on the banks of the Leigh river to within a few miles of
Shelford. With the fall of the country, the deposit becomes more
extensive, and forms plateaux on either side of the Leigh river near its
junction with Williamson's Creek, passing beneath the basalt E. of the
latter. It caps the ranges, or is traceable beneath the basalt, from the
Leigh river to Meredith, and thence to the ranges around Steiglitz.
Plateaux of this deposit exist as far E. as Stony Creek reservoir, and it
is probably traceable still farther towards Bacchus Marsh. The third
form is most common in these S. localities, and the pebbles are highly
water-worn. The hard siliceous rock described as one of the forms
assumed by this drift is of great scientific interest, as the solution of its
origin will throw light on that ot the gravelly beds.

It is met with in detached outliers and small plateaux on the
ranges falling towards Williamson's Creek from the W. ; it is sometimes
pure, but more frequently contains imbedded quartz pebbles, and is
associated with or passes into ferruginous, sandy, and cement layers.
Rock of similar character, but pure, occurs in thick beds associated with
the marine Miocene strata and older basalt of the Moorabool and
Sutherland's Creek, near Maude ; also between Steiglitz and Morrison's
and between Meredith and Elaine. Whether these various beds are of

2 u 2

P: '

r .ill

:,.:i

660

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

the same geological age is unknown ; their similarity in lithological
character is striking. No fossils have yet been found in the siliceous beds,
except occasional imperfect fragments of stems, valueless as palreonto-
logical evidence. Wilkinson traced a course of drift in the form of a
wide shallow lead from near Steiglitz to and under the marine Miocene
beds exposed in natural section on the W. bank of the Moorabool river
above Maude. He was of opinion that this drift was older than the
widespread layers here referred to as " oldest, " and classified the former
as Miocene, the latter as Older Pliocene. Their exact relations, however,
are not fully worked out, and they may eventually prove to be of the
same age, the drift traced by Wilkinson simply occupying a somewhat
deeper depression in the Silurian rocks than the adjacent beds. Were
this established, the " oldest " could be justifiably classed as Miocene.

Dissimilarity in lithological character and unequal degrees of eleva-
tion above sea-level are not infallible evidence that drifts are of different
epochs. Deposits now in actual progress occupy all elevations, from the
sea to the highest mountain slopes, and vary in lithological character with
their parent rocks ; but their identity in geological age is indisputable.
This has to be kept in view while examining the Tertiaries, especially
those not of a decidedly marine character. To arrive at any justifiable
conclusions as to the respective ages of the drifts; the siliceous deposits,
and the Miocene beds, it would be necessary to investigate closely the
connection between the beds from Steiglitz to the Moorabool, near
Maude, and the relationship between the Steiglitz drifts, the Bacchus
Marsh Tertiaries, and the deep-lying deposits of Lal-lal and Morrison's.
The drift traced by Wilkinson was the " non-auriferous Miocene gravel "
described in Selwyn's work on the physical geography and geology of
Victoria. It was set down as non-auriferous on the ground that no gold
was found in the few shafts and tunnels worked by the Geological Survey
party. Murray, then an assistant in the party, sank one of the shafts
personally, and did obtain the " colour." The same amount of work,
with the same result, might be done on any gold-field within a few feet
of rich ground. The oldest drift near Ballarat barely yields the " colour "
in some places, while in others it is richly auriferous. These differences
are owing to causes treated of subsequently under the head of Gold-
workings (p. 664).

Taking into consideration the modes in which the oldest drift occurs,
there is good reason to infer that, towards the close of the period, a
valley had been eroded corresponding in outline to that now traversed by
the Yarrowee ; that the drift spread almost uninterruptedly from the
Warrenheip range to Pennyweight and Clayton's hills, and Golden Point,
then the bed of the depression, probably capping a portion of the White-
horse Range at the head of Canadian, where occasional rounded pebbles

tel'ii

AUSl RALASIA : VICTORIA.

66 1

occur in the workings ; that it overspread the area now traversed by the
deep leads from Ballarat S. to Scotchman's, Napoleon, and Buninyong,
thence down the valley to near Shelford ; that the spread of the drift was
wide but shallow down to Buninyong, thence to Hardie's Hill com-
paratively narrow, but, farther S., extending over a vast area ; that it also
overlaid a wide tract W. and N. from Ballarat, though no exposed
vestiges are now identifiable. Marine action on gradually rising land
appears to have been the principal force which disintegrated, rounded,
and deposited the fragments composing the drift. As the land rose,
already existing depression.s — due to the softer nature of a portion of the
underlying Silurian — would become deeper and more defined ; the scour
in these depressions would increase, and, consequently, the drift would be
heavier in their beds, as at Golden Point and other places. No remains
of wood appear to have been met th in the gold-workings in this drift,
either in the exposed portions, or in such sub-basaltic " reef-washes " as
are referable to the same period. The character of the drift is such as
would render the preservation of shells or other remains of marine fauna
almost an impossibility. The powerful nature of the denuding forces
is evidenced by the absence of any large fragments other than quartz,
and the quantity of this shows how greatly the Silurian hills must
have been denuded below their original height. The theory of marine
action is, therefore, based upon the physical conditions under which the
drift occurs, and which certainly indicate marine rather than fluviatile
agency.

Under the term "older," are here included the gutter-drifts, the
volcanic lava-flows, and the drift-deposits intervening between the latter.
It is evident, therefore, that this period might be subdivided into a
number of epochs, each bounded by a lava-flow, but it is preferable, in
the present instance, to include them all as a group under one denomina-
tion. The lowest of the series is the gutter-drift of the deep leads. It
occupies well-defined channels in the Silurian bed-rock, more or less
tortuous in their course, with a steady fall towards the seaboard. The
drift in contact with the Silurian is generally the heaviest, and consists
principally of fragments of quartz, and the more durable varieties of slate
and sandstone, intermixed with sand and clay ; rolled fragments of hard
cement, probably derived from the " oldest," are also met with. Most of
the quartz and other fragments are water-worn, while some are but
partly so, or angular. In some places, beds of sand and clay overlie .the
gravel ; in others, the basaltic rock is in immediate contact with it.
Numerous remains of vegetation occur in the gutter-drift. Large trunks
of trees, branches, and fragments of wood, and in some instances trees in
situ, their roots imbedded in the ancient soil, and their upper portion
enveloped in lava, are met with in the gold-workings.

;l.

It,; :

If'

I Hi"

■''it' ,
ill >8lWi:

; 'I

662

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

The older drift rarely occurs as a surface-deposit, being generally
covered by lava or recent accumulations. Next to the gutter-wash
comes the " fourth rock " of the miners, really the first lava-flow, which
took its course along the principal lead-valleys, extending a short distance
up some of the tributaries. It is confined to the deepest ground, of
which It is a sure indication. As far as can be ascertained, the " fourth
rock " does not extend farther up the Golden Point lead than the Koh-i-
noor Co.'s No. 2 shaft. It overlies the tributary gutters W. worked by
the Saints and Winter's Freehold companies, and has been proved by
bores to exist in the North Park claim W. from Wendouree, on the
supposed continuation of the Inkerman lead ; it is also mentioned as
having been struck in the Great North-west shaft. S. from Sebastopol,
it appears to maintain its ijosition as the lowest basaltic stratum as far
as the Main Trunk lead has been worked, though, as will presently be
shown, it becomes the third instead of the fourth "rock." On this
basaltic layer are various deposits of clay, sand, and gravel, separating it
from the " third rock," or second lava-flow.

Experienced miners say that the intervening deposits, though fre-
quently thin, are nevertheless distinct, sometimes in the form of an
ancient surface soil with remains of vegetation, sometimes consisting of
clays, sand, or gravel. The "third rock," or second lava-flow, occurs
similarly to the last described, but spreads more widely. Still, being
confined between the high Silurian banks on either side of ' :jutters, it
does not appear to have been sunk through on the Gold int lead

farther up than the Koh-i-noor No. 2 shaft ; but it probably extends
considerably farther up the lead than that point, having been escaped by
shafts that bottomed at some distance from the lead. This, like the
" fourth rock," is overlaid by varying thicknesses of clay and drift.

The " second rock " or third lava-flow underlies nearly all the W.
plateau, extending over the Gravel Pits lead beyond the present limits
of the uppermost flow. It has been struck N. of Mount Rowan in the
Rodney shaft, and in a bore at Dowling Forest racecourse over a third
and fourth layer of the same description. The " second rock " is over-
laid principally by clays, which separate it from the " first rock " or
uppermc"^ lava-flow. This latter is the surface rock of the W. plateau
from Ballarat westward and northward. Southward it does not appear
to have extended farther than Winter's Creek near the Bonshaw shaft.
The reasons for this assumption are that, while 4 distinct layers of " rock "
or basalt occur in the Prince of Wales claim over the gutter, only 3 are
met with in the Bonshaw. The surface fall from the Prince of Wales to
the Bonshaw is 71 ft., about the average thickness of the "first rock."
From the Bonshaw downwards along the lead, only 3 basaltic layers
occur, and it therefore seems probable that the first, second, and third

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

663

" rocks " in the Bonshaw and claims S. thereof are the second, third, and
fourth of the Scbastopol plateau.

Many of the principal gullies trending from the main divide and its
spurs contain the true gutter-drift in the beds of their channels, overlaid
by recent accumulations. These were evidently eroded during, if not
previous to, the " older " period ; and indeed it may safely be assumed
that the physical features of the country at the close of the period differed
little from what they are now, as regards the portions that are unaltered
by the lava-flows. The physical character of the deep leads and the
remains of vegetation found in them, especially the occurrence of trees in
situ, are good evidence that before the first lava-flow the country had
risen above the reach of marine action. Referring to the theory of
marine action on rising land, advanced as the operative force in forming
the " oldest " drift, it would appear that, with the rise of the land above
sea-level, fluviatile began to take the place of marine action. If, as is
assumed, the rise was gradual, the latter agency, in its retreat, did a
portion of the work of denuding the " oldest " drift, and wore out deeper
channels in the Silurian. As river action came into play, the main
vallc were cut deeper, into more tortuous courses, and acquired new
tribuL, ries. The oldest drift was removed from all but a few points, and
either carried away or re-dc (osited in the gutters or on their banks.

The lava-flows exerted an important influence on the physical and
geological features of the country. Each successive layer formed a sort
of dam, behind which were a ;cumulated thick deposits of clay, sand, and
drift. The flow of water over the surface of the basalt caused the
deposits on it of clay, sand, &c., and in some places cut fresh channels,
usually along its line of contact with the Silurian. In this way, some of
the " reef-washes " above the level of the third and fourth " rocks "
appear to have been formed. On the Eureka lead, a layer of black clay
over the gutter commenced near the junction of Ashe's lead ; at junction
of Red Hill lead, and thence to Gum-tree Flat, 2 layers ; thence to Red
Streak lead, 3 layers of black clay were met with, until basalt took the
place of the upper layer. These appear to have been the surface soils
at periods immediately following the 3 lower basaltic flows. The upper-
most lava-flow formed a strong dam across the valley traversed by the
Eureka, Canadian, and Gravel Pits leads, and that area was probably for
some time a lake, until an outlet was cut by the overflowing waters,
which gradually eroded the existing course of the Yarrowec.

The mode of deposit of the " recent " clays and gravels (subsequent
to the uppermost lava-flow) appears to havo been analogous to that of
the intercalated layers between the fourth and third, third and second,
and second and first " rocks," the result of the temporary damming back
caused by the lava. The force of the water-currents being retarded, their

664

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

Br '!!*■' ?!

beds were f.lled up, nearly to the surface-level of the basalt, with detritus
brought down from the neighbouring hills, covering the " older " clays
and gravels. Denudation continued the removal of " oldest " and " older "
deposits from the higher lands, and re-distributed them in the valleys.
The lithological character of the beds supports the theory advanced as to
their origin. Clays, sandy deposits, angular drift, and occasionally
rounded gravels (the last where " older " and " oldest " have been re-distri-
buted), showing little sign of stratification, but intermixed and irregularly
deposited beneath a general covering of clay, form tolerably level flats,
such as that from Ballarat towards Brown Hill, traversed by the Eureka
and Caledonia leads, and the Deadhorse flat, extending from the New
Cemetery to Mount Rowan. The capping of gravel and clay on the brow
of the hill at the Ballarat Post Oflice is of the " recen'. period, and is
evidently the vestige of a continuous deposit connected with the beds on
the other side of the Yarrowee. The close of this period witnessed the
erosion of the Yarrowee channel at Ballarat to nearly its present depth,
the drainr^e-line following the contact of the Silurian and the uppermost
lava-flow : a few patches of the latter have been left on the E. side of the
river, near Ballarat and Scbastopol. Thence S. the coarse of the river is
sometimes entirely through basalt, sometimes along the line of contact
with the Silurian on either side.

The " most recent " drift consists of loam, clay, and gravel, and
occupies the beds of rr>f-'?"<^ly eroded gullies, or forms coverings over
" oldest," " older," and " recent " deposits, from the denudation of which
it is principally derived.

Gold-workings. — The surface workings are usually on the slopes of
hills and spurs ; the g(jld is sometimes in the few inches of surface so.'l
and angular rubble overlying the Silurian on or near auriferous quarts,
veins, as at the Black Hill, Whitchor.se Hill, &c. In ot'ier places, a few
scattered rounded quartz pcbbLs .^liuw that "oldest" or 'older" drift
once rested on the Silurian, and was removed by denudation, the accom-
panying gold, from its superior weight, remaining in the crevices of the
bed-rock. Surfacing is sometimes worked on a " false bottom " of clay
covering deeper deposits of auriferous drift ; this al.so occurs most
frequently in close proximity to quartz veins. At Kitty's, near
Napoleon, tolerably large nuggets have been found in clay sevcal
feet above the " true bottom." The thicker deposits at the foot of the
hills and in the gullies intersected by auriferous lines of reef are
frequently gold-bearing from surface to oottom, owing to the proximity
of the matrix. It is stated that at Rotten Gully, near the Band of
Hope reef. Little Bcndigo, where the sinking is about 70 ft, 40 ft. was
payable.

The drifts in the upin-r portions of gullies are usuall\- of " recent" or

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

665

" most recent " age ; as they expand into flats, the sinking becomes
deeper, and the lead-drift of the " older " period occupies their ancient
beds. In working these i<-!ads in wide flats, tributaries have frequently
been found of which no surface indications existed. Thus the Caledonia
and other leads joining the Eureka in the extensive flat of Ballarat East
were discovered from the underground workings of the latter. Occa-
sional instances occur in which the head of an " older " lead is above the
level of the gully into whicli it subsequently trends. y\s the leads arc
followed down, they become deeper, and pass beneath the various
basaltic layers.

" Reef-washes " are deposits of chift above the level of the gutters,
and are of several kinds and geological ages, of which the following are
the principal : — (i) " Oldest " drift /// situ, as the Webster-street Freehold
" reef-wash " and that S. of the Inkerman lead ; (2) the slopes towards the
leads covered with debris from the oldest, deposited during the erosion
of .:e gutters ; (3) the ancient .soil on sub-basaltic Silurian slopes and
hills, where quartz reefs occur analogous to the surface workings of
Whitehorse Hill, &c. ; (4) deposits subsequent to the different lava-
flows, usually along their line of contact with the Silurian, from the
denudation of which, with its overlying drifts, their material is derived.
These occasionally overlie the basaltic layers, b 't do not appear to have
been found remunerative when in that position.

Leads. — A map of the Ballarat leads at once suggests their true
character, viz. an ancient system of rivers corresponding approximately
to existing drainage courses. There are 3 great lead systems near
Ballarat : the Southern, corresponding to the Yarrowee, the Western to
the Burrumbcet, and the Eastern to the Moorabool watersheds.

The Southern is the Golden Point system, the main trunk of which is
formed at Ballarat by the junction of the United Gravel Pits, Eureka,
Caledonian, Canadian, and other leads with the small tributary from
Golden Point, whence the main lead takes its name. This lead, fed
by its tributaries, the Nightin<jalc, Malakoff, and Redan leads, has a
generally S. course to near the Band and Albion Consols .'^ift. From
this point, a lead has been worked W. to Winter's Freehold. The S.
course of the lead winds through Sebastopol, the Bonshaw paddock, and
Cambrian Hill, W. of but pai 'lei with the Yarrowee. Several unnamed
t*-ibutaries join from the W and from the E. it receives the Woolshed,
Frenchman's, Cobbler's, Ciawfish, Black, and Suffolk leads, all of which
have several minor tributaries. Near the Leviathan No. 2 shaft, at
Rosse's Creek, the Napoleon lead joins from the S., and the main lead,
crossing the Yarrowee several times, winds S.E. to the S.W. portion of
the Buninyong Estate, where it receives the combination of Scotchman's
and the Buninyr ng leads from the N.E., and Kitty's and the Durham

!rj:l!l

666

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

from the W. Thence it is known as the Durham lead; and follows
the Yarrowee valley, receiving a few more tributaries to a point N.E.
from Mount Mercer, where it turns to the S.W. beneath extensive
basaltic plains, under which its precise course is unknown, the Yarrowee
holding an independent course S.

The question whether the Southern lead just described, or the
Western lead worked from the Band and Albion Company's No. 3 shaft,
is the main outlet of the Golden Point lead, is, in the opinion of many,
still unsolved. Some high mining authorities maintain that the Western
lead is the main outlet, and the Southern only a bye-wash of the Golden
Point lead. Others consider that the Southern is the main course, and
the Western a tributary to it. The reasons for the Western theory are,
the deepening of the Western lead towards Winter's Freehold, and the
insignificance, compared with it, of the Southern lead until the latter is
augmented by the Woolshed gutter. The geological reason for ad-
herence to the Southern theory is that, as already shown, a valley to the
S. was formed during the " oldest " period, long anterior to the erosion of
the leads ; and whatever minor deviations may have taken place, the
main drainage course would not leave so marked a depression. In reply
to the arguments for the Western outlet, it is advanced that, as has been
already shown, the leads were rivers, and as such assuredly varied with
icspect to the depth and width of gravel in their beds, precisely as
existing rivers do. As regards the fall W., stated to be 12 ft. from No. 3
shaft to Winter's Freehold boundary, this cannot be taken alone as
evidence, without ascertaining the continuity of the fall. Existing rivers
with rocky beds frequently have reaches of which the upper end is
deeper than the lower. Such a reach, filled with gravel, appears to have
existed at the point referred to. With the exception of the leads being
worked in Winter's Freehold, those at the Buninyong Estate, and a few
other tributaries, the Golden Point system of leads is practically worked
out down to Hardic's Hill, and has been partially worked, with varying
results, for several miles farther. Extensive areas of reef-wash still
remain, and will afford remunerative employment for a long time to
come. The basalt extending W. from the Emperor shaft probably
overlies a lead.

The Western system of leads has only been partially explored, and
is looked to as the future hope of Ballarat in alluvial mining. The heads
of a number of leads trending from the main divide W. have been more
or less profitably worked. The Sulky lead heads from the Whitehorse
reef near Green Leek Gully, and has a N. course, at first along the side
of a range, where there is no surface trace of its existence ; thence down
the Sulky Gully to the Creswick road, receiving several tributaries. At
the Creswick road, it crosses the main divide, and trends towards the N.

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

667

of Mount Pisgah ; but the results where last worked do not seem to
have encouraged furtht • exploration. From the surface ?t its head, it
speedily deepens to 70 ft. on the slope of the range. Ai the Creswick
road, the depth is about 100 ft., and it passes beneath the basalt N.W.
from the main divide.

The Britannia lead occupies a gully heading from very near the
Sulky lead, and from a depth of 10 ft. reaches that of 90 ft. at the
Creswick road, where basalt begins to overlie the gutter. The Roxburgh
Castle Co. sank a shaft for this lead some distance W. from the road.
At a depth of 165 ft, a drive S.W., at a distance of 600 or 700 ft. from
the shaft, with a rise of about 3 ft., had wash under foot, as proved by
blind shaft, to a depth of 14 ft. ; the colour of gold was seen, but the
gutter was never keached. The deepest ground was dry ; water in the
rocks was heavy.

Green Leek Gully was worked to where it opened out into a flat,
the depth of sinking being 20 to 40 ft. The extension of this lead was
not traced ; but some distance VV. the Dauntless, Ophir, and Rodney
Cos. worked a gutter supposed to be formed by the junction of Green
Leek with other leads from neighbouring gullies. The Dauntless shaft
was 140 ft. deep, through various layers of clay and drift. No basalt
reported in this or the Ophir shaft, which bottomed through similar
strata at a depth of 145 ft. In the Dauntless claim, the gold was for
some time remunerative ; but the workings w'^'"e stopped on reaching a
poor sandy patch. A quartz /cef in the bed-rock was met with a short
distance E. from the shaft. Work in the Ophir claim was stopped on
losing the level in the drive. The Rodney Co. sank a shaft by the E.
side of the Creswick road through 26 ft. of surface soil and clay, 20 ft. of
first rock, 4 ft. of clay ; i ft. of second rock, 59 ft. of clay, drift, and
wash, with a little gold ; 6 n.. of " false bottom " like broken " reef, " and
2 ft. of quartz gravel (wash-dirt); t tal, 156 ft. This claim was aban-
doned, owing, by all accounts, to dispu' s among he shareholders and
tributers. A small amount of copper was found in the wash-dirt, and
the water of the mine is reported to have possessed ihe property of
magnetizing iron, as rods worked for some time in the water would
possess sufficient magnetism to lift small piece.- of iron. The Deadhorse
lead was worked only a short distance below the junction of California
Frenchman's, and Jenkins' gullies, which form its hi id ; it is reported
to have become poor, but at present further exiloration is for some
distance prevented by the occupation of the land for agricultural
purposes. Farther W. the lead was struck and worked by the Ballarat
Extension, Rose Hill, and Northern Junction Cos. The depth of the
gutter increased from 260 ft. in the first to about 300 in the last named
claim. In all these, one basaltic layer only, varying from 50 to 90 ft.

T-"M

M!'l,i

668

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

seems to have been passed through, the remainder of the sinking being
principally clay ; several tributaries join from the N. and E. ; one of
these, called the Northumberland lead, is being worked for by the Rose
Hill Co.

The Suburban lead has only been partially traced from one shaft, E.
of the Crcswick road. The depth of sinking is 137 ft, with one layer of
basalt ; it is apparently tributary to the Deadhorse lead. With the
exception of Sulky lead, which may take a N. c()urs< , all the leads just
described trend W. Judging from the racecourse bore, and a W. out-
crop of Silurian near Miners' Rest, the main trunk lead of the system
would appear to trend from Mount Pisgah S., beneath the Clunes road
and the Burrumbcct Creek, to about W. from Mount Rowan, whence it
will turn S.W. towards Burrumbeet. It is needless to expatiate on the
advantages that will accrue from the successful development of this
system of leads. The Essex Swamp and Inkerman leads are now being
prospected for. Whether these leads belong to the Western or Southern
system is uncertain ; their present trend indicates the former. The
possibility exists that all 3 may unite, and go W. or S., or theit the
Inkerman lead may go S. and the others W. ; this can only be proved
by the working of the Pioneer claims.

The Eastern lead system is but little known, the only workings being
those now abandoned at the Rich Hill and Rosser's Freehold. Vestiges
of " older " drift, once a portion of these leads, are traceable on the
ranges W. of the Gong-gong Creek, the bed of which is at the Rich Hill
deeper than that of the drift. Two small leads, known as the China-
man's and Spring's, pass beneath the basalt escarpment E. of the creek,
and unite under the Rich Hill, a tongue of the E. »'!dteau. The ground
was partly worked by tunnels, b"*- t'^'-.^ pioved too shallow as the lead
deepened E. The deepest portion explored was 195 ft. below the level
of the plateau. One thick basaltic layer was passed through in a shaft
sunk to that depth. Several other small tributaries were profitably
followed from the escarpment E. into Rosser's Freehold by Cane,
Donelly, and Richard's parties. The dip of the leads E. was in all cases
very strong. The depth of sinking was about 170 ft, through one layer
of basalt and a considerable thickness of clay, sand, and drift The
yields appear to have been moderately remunerative ; but from some
cause the companies stopped work, and the plants were removed. There
is abundant evidence that the E. plateau, extending as it does from Fell-
monger's to Gordon, covers a system of leads probably superior in extent
to that of the Ballarat and Sebastopol plateau. The deep ground will
have a general trend down the valley of the Moorabool towards
Morrison's.

The range separating the Little Bendige) aom the Gong-gong Creek

R!"': ,

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

669

was once continuous with the Warrenheip range, and divided the Eastern
from the Southern and Western systems. The lava-flows from Warren-
heip and Wombat Hill caused a partial change in the line of drainage.
The Gong-gong Creek cut its way along the margin of the basalt and,
uniting with the Yarrowee, turned W. The divide between the Moora-
bool and Yarrowee watersheds is in that neighbourhood farther E. than
that of the period before the lava-flows. The E. basaltic area is covered
in many places with ferruginous deposits, apparently precipitated from
water percolating the basalt.

The connection of Tertiary drifts underlying the basalt of the Eastern
plateau with those of Lal-lal and Morrison's is an interesting geological
problem, the solution of which depends greatly on whether mining
operations are ever carried on in the area referred to. Whether profitable
workings are likely to be found in this or the unexplored Southern and
Western areas is next considered. The principles to be kept in view are
thoroughly established and recognized. They are — (i) That the supply
of alluvial gold was derived from quartz reefs, broken and disintegrated
by denuding action during the various drift periods ; (2) that, except in
very fine particles, gold in alluvions has not travelled far from the point
where it was separated from its matrix. All the Ballarat gold-workings
testify to the truth of these principles. The richest ground is always in
the neighbourhood of quartz reefs or veins ; even in cases where suc-
cessive drift-deposits have been removed and re-deposited, the gold
contained in the first deposit appears merely to have dropped deeper.
Any gold that has travelled seems to have done so while attached to
quartz or enclosed in clay. A large proportion of the alluvial gold was
probably disintegrated from its matrix during the " oldest " period ; as
the lead-channels were eroded, the " oldest " gravels were in a manner
sluiced down, and their gold re-deposited in the river-beds, together with
the fresh supply from the further disintegration of the Silurian.

The Golden Point lead traverses the line of several known gold-
bearing reefs, and the quality of the lead \ as found to vary with its
position as to these, becoming poorer when at a distance from them, and
richer when again in their vicinity. It seems very improbable that, as
regards coarse gold, the supply in the Golden Point lead at Sebastopol
was in any way connected with the richness of the principal leads. The
quality of the various "reef-washes" varies similarly. In those ap-
parently of marine origin of the " oldest " period, the gold is more
equally distributed, as might be expected from the different nature of
the depositing agencies.

The occurrence of nuggets on " high reef," above the level of the
gutters, simply indicates that their weight enabled them to remain in
their position during the deeper erosion of the neighbouring gutter, and

IV- ■ ■

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670

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

that their original matrix is at no great distance. The inevitable con-
clusion is that on the character of the quartz reefs or veins in their
immediate vicinity depends that of the gravels. This appears to be the
true explanation of the barren quality of some of the gravels, such as
the " non-auriferous Miocene gravels " already referred to : they have
simply been deposited along a line of poor quartz reefs ; and were the
Steiglitz gravels prospected on the line of strike of some of the known
auriferous reefs, they would in all likelihood be found gold-bearing, if
not remuneratively so.

The lead s/(?//<9w?«^ the course of lines of auriferous quartz are more
likely to maintain a continuous and equal yield than those crossing a
number of reefs at various intervals. Gold in quartz veins frequently
occurs in " shoots," alternating with barren portions ; this feature also
causes variations in the amount of alluvial gold. Believers in the theory
of the Western outlet of the Golden Point lead appear to exaggerate the
importance of its bearing on the future of Ballarat alluvial mining.
That there are leads, and extensive ones, trending W., is beyond a doubt.
If the quartz reefs intersected by them are gold-bearing, they will be
quite as remunerative as the Golden Point lead would be if it trended W.
The character of the quartz reefs is the main consideration ; and a
feature in connection with these requires particular notice. This is the
occurrence of wide alternate auriferous and non-auriferous (or at least
very poor) belts of quartz reefs, noticeable at Sandhurst, Ballarat, and
other gold-fields. A great auriferous belt extends from Creswick^
through Ballarat, S. to Scotchman's, Kitty's, and Buninyong. The E
boundary of this belt appears to be a little within the E. borough
boundary, and is traceable with tolerable clearness N. to Slaty Creek,
and S. to the E. of Buninyong. With a few breaks, owing probably to
the unequal distribution of the " shoots " of gold in the reefs, all the
gullies W. of this line have been profitably worked. E. of the line,
most of the gullies, and many of the quartz reefs, ha.ve been prospected
from Slaty Creek down to the Warrenheip range, and thence to William-
son's Creek, and in no case has more than the colour, or a few specks,
been obtained. The auriferous belt appears to narrow and contain fewer
" shoots " S., as only a few tributary leads, and very little shallow
working, have been found on either side of the Yarrowee S. from the
Garibaldi claim.

The richness of the Western and Eastern systems of leads will
depend, in a great measure, upon the occurrence of barren belts. The
workings at Winter's Freehold have proved aurifeious drift coming from
the W. — an auspicious indication of the existence of gold-bearing reefs
in that direction, and the probable improvement of the gravels, and, in
fact, a more prosperous sign than if the main outlet of the Golden Point

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

671

lead was W. It is also a favourable augury as to the character of the
Western leads, of which the North Park and the City of Ballarat Cos.
are the Pioneer claims. Even should these fail to get payable gold,
further prospecting W. is highly to be recommended, as another strike of
gold-bearing reefs is likely to be intersected on a line N. from Haddon.

The depth of sinking W. is not unlikely to decrease, instead of
increasing, as the surface fall is considerable. The depth of the main
Southern lead at Scotchman's is about 100 ft. less than at Sebastopol,
showing the fall of the lead to be less than that of the surface. The
same may prove to be the case W. The extension of the main
Southern lead will pass through Bell's and probably Graham's properties.
In the latter property, the " oldest " drift beneath the basalt has been
partially exposed by tunnelling from the W. bank of the Yarrowee.
Gold was found in considerable but not quite payable quantity in
numerous disconnected " runs " and hollows in the Silurian. The river-
bed below has been extensively and profitably worked, and it seems likely
that gold-bearing veins may exist in the locality, and that payable work-
ings may yet be opened beneath the plains. As long as the bed of the
main lead continues to be .'n Silurian rock intersected by auriferous
quartz veins, the alluvial gold will continue. The yields from the Leigh
Grand Junction claim, though poor, were not of so utterly discouraging
a nature as to prohibit further enterprise, and an increase is not less
probable than a diminution of yield as the lead travels S. The miner
alone can ascertair the true character.

As regards the Eastern system, it is known that granite underlies a
portion of the basaltic area, and may form the bed of some of the leads.
Nevertheless, a large extent of Silurian country is to be expected, and,
in so wide an area, the occurrence of auriferous " belts " of quartz reef is
very probable. On such occurrences will depend the character of the
leads. Deep ground, tributary to the Eastern system, undoubtedly exists
beneath the lava-streams N.E. from the Green Hill and S.E. from Mount
Buninyong. As no quartz reefs or shallow workings have yet been
proved payable near these flows, the auriferous quality of their under-
lying drift is problematical.

Quartz reefs. — As the alluvial drifts owe their auriferous character to
neighbouring quartz reefs, the quality of the former might be considered
a fair indication of that of the latter. Such, at first glance, would not
appear to be the case at Ballarat, where the quartz workings hitherto
have been limited, compared with the alluvial, and the general average
quartz yield has been far below that of other districts. That the reefs
generally, so far as proved, are as a rule poor, there is no doubt, and the
explanation as to the great quantity of alluvial gold is the enormous
denudation to which the Silurian rocks were subjected during the

672

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

fit. ''

" oldest " period, and the concentrating effects of subsequent agencies.
The small proportion of quartz to the bulk of the Silurian ."hist, coupled
with the predominance of the former in the gravels, indicates the
incalculable quantity of quartz that has been broken into fragments and
rounded into pebbles, and the still greater amount of shale, sandstone,
&c., that has been reduced to silt and sand and carried away to the
ancient seaboard. Were all the quartz but slightly auriferous, the
amount of gold set free would necessarily be large ; but it has not been
uncommon to meet with very rich " shoots " and patches, as well as
occasional nuggets, in the Ballarat reefs, so that many such " shoots "
may have contributed to the alluvial supply.

Although in many cases the great size of the Ballarat lodes
compensates for their poverty, and this branch of mining may be said to
be slowly but surely progressing, it is complained that the reefs arc not
solid and defined like those of Sandhurst, but consist of a number of
leaders and veins, and do not partake of the character of true lodes.
This certainly is the case with many of the reefs at high elevations, but it
also appears that they are best defined and most solid where deepest
worked. In the Sovereign and Victoria claims, indications of increased
permanence are met with in the deeper levels, and the shaft of the
former is to be sunk to 1000 ft.

The Burra-Burra reef, below the basaltic table-land, is reported to be
solid, of great jize, and to give a payable average yield. The Prince of
Wales Co. are working a reef upwards of 600 ft. from the surface, which,
with the surface fall, would equal a depth of nea*-''' 900 ft. at the
Sovereign claim. The reef is here described as of a permanent and
remunerative character. The reef worked by the Temperance Co. at
Little Bendigo, is considered by many to bo the only true lode near
Ballarat ; it certainly has a more persistent character, and gives a better
general yield, than most of the reefs in the district.

The Black Hill reef is generally described as showing no characteristics
of a true lode. It is composed of a number of " flat leaders," dipping
E., confined between well-defined walls, underlying W. The same was
the case in the upper workings on the Bird's reef, Sandhurst ; but at
a considerable depth, the cap of a solid lode, 35 ft. thick, was struck, and
worked with highly remunerative results. The Black Hill veins may
similarly develop into a permanent lode at a great depth.

If quartz reefs are of subterranean origin, their general increase in
size and richness downwards is highly probable. The reefs of Sandhurst
are at surface about the level of the deepest workings at Ballarat, as
regards height above sea-level, and it is likely that, when the level of the
Sandhurst reefs is reached in the Ballarat workings, the reefs of the latter
will assume an equally permanent character with those of the former

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

^72,

gold-field. A great tract from Slaty Creek to Scotchman's, with a width of
3 to 5 miles, is open to the quartz miner. The alluvial workings through-
out have been highly productive. Special attention may be drawn to
the country immediately S. from Slaty Creek ; numerous quartz reefs are
exposed by the workings in the beds of rich alluvial deposits, and not a
shaft appears to have been sunk to test the former. The figures given
by Wood join with the natural indications in predicting a long and
prosperous future for Ballarat in quartz mining on the ranges and
beneath the basalt.

Until recently, no discoveries of dioritc dykes have been made ne. •
Ballarat ; ouch dykes, sometimes of great size, traverse the Lower Silurian
in many localities, and are not, as many suppose, confined to the Upper
Silurian. In the Upper, they are more plentiful, and more frequently
accompany or contain auriferous quartz veins. A diorite dyke has lately
been struck in the Band and Albion Consols No. 4 shaft, now being sunk
for a quartz reef proved in the alluvial workings. The connection
between the dyke and the quartz reef is not yet established. Feather-
stone, when working in alluvial, drove through what appears to have been
a decomposed diorite dyke ; a quartz reef parallel with the dyke traversed
the bed-rock about 50 ft. W., and the wash-dirt in the vicinity was
exceedingly rich. The dyke has, as far as can be seen in the shaft, a N.
and S. bearing. This is worthy of note, as it may lead to valuable
discoveries.

Few lava dykes like those of Sandhurst have yet been met with ; one
has lately been struck in a shaft now sinking for a quartz reef at a depth
of 200 ft, 140 of which is through Silurian schist. This is at the W.
boundary of the Buninyong Estate.

At the Buninyong Estate Co.'s No. 8 shaft, a somewhat unusual
occurrence was met with in the workings. From the shaft at a level of
270 ft, a run of wash was followed for a considerable distance S.W. until
the fall of the wash caused loss of level ; the bed-rock was the usual
Silurian slate and shale. From a depth in the shaft of 340 ft, a drive
was put in W. 423 ft, and a S. level was driven thence to meet the
continuation of the wash. This drive at 410 ft suddenly entered a mixed
mass of clay, angular fragments of Silurian, from a small size up to
several feet in diameter, angular quartz, and immense blocks of exceed-
ingly hard dense lava, piled on one another or isolated throughout the
mass. Some of the Silurian fragments were reddish in colour, as if
exposed on the surface ; others were in character like the rock met with
in very deep workings. A few isolated nests of quartz gravel were en-
countered, and a iay er of basalt resembling a flow was passed through,
and dipped under foot S. ; beyond it, the same stuff continued, but with
more numerous blocks of lava. Silurian was again struck at 960 ft. from

2 X

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674

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

the W. drive. At 460 ft. in the S. drive, another drive W. passed through
150 ft. of the material described into a mass of broken Silurian rubble,
containing much water where the drive ceased. A blind shaft was sunk
40 ft. in the S. drive without change. Similar material occurs on the
surface by the dam, and thence S. across the road ; it has every
appearance of being a volcanic outlet-pipe.

Becclnvorth. — The following observations on the deep leads of the
Ovens district arc taken from some notes by A. VV. Howitt.

The alluvial gold worked in the Becchworth district has been derived
from the Silurian strata, and not from the granites. The area of Murray
Tertiaries, in which the Ovens and Murray rivers flow and ultimately
join, and into which the deep leads have been traced, was probably once
a hill country, sculptured by streams in highly inclined strata of Silurian
age. Including the whole of the area embraced within the Silurian hills
bounding the confluence of the Ovens and Murray rivers, there cannot
be less than 500 sq. miles of country which has thus been subject to
denudation and erosion, and in which as yet no gold-workings have been
sought for. It is quite a legitimate inference that whatever gold was
contained in those strata has been deposited somewhere within that area,
and in all probability in the drift-deposits of former streams. Were it
possible for gold to travel any distance in a horizontal direction under
the ordinary denuding and eroding agencies of nature, then it wou' 1 not
be possible for man to retain it with the apparatus such as the sluices and
boxes which he employs. Many of the operations practised for purposes
of mining, are only those used on a gigantic scale by nature. We are
now, as it were, but washing up huge natural ground-sluices, and the
Tertiary beds of the Murray and Ovens valleys may be likened to an
immense tailing-dam, under which other ground-sluices probably are
hidden.

It is of course not possible to point out where, underneath the over-
lying deposits, the ancient water-courses (deep leads) may be situated.
There are no sufficient data, nor can any one at present say whether they
may be found conjoined in one stream, or following separate courses, such
as the Murray, the Ovens, and their confluents do now ; neither can any
one forecast whether the gold deposited in that area is much or little,
whether it is concentrated in leads or widely spread in drifts. The
proper practical investigation of this question would be by carrying out
a series of borings on a carefully considered plan, for instance, com-
mencing at the N. edge of the trough at Wahgunyah, and skirting the
hills to the Springs between Chiltern and Eldorado, thence crossing to
Putter's Range, W. of Wangaratta. This would reveal the contour of the
bottom, the position of the deep ground, and probably furnish sufficient
data as to the payable nature or otherwise of any auriferous deposits

'■I I;

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

675

crossed. It would also give a key, not only to the entire valleys of the
Murray and Ovens rivers, but also furnish valuable data in respect to
other similar localities. The results viewed practically could not fail to
be important : if disclosing the existence of payable auriferous leads, the
area opened would be immense ; if, on the contrary, the results showed
that the ancient stream-beds were non-aurifcrous, or too poor to pay for
working, then the result would be so far advantageous that it would
prevent a future useless expenditure and loss of capital which might be
more profitably employed elsewhere. Howitt thinks that the inferences
to be drawn in respect to the area are on the whole favourable.

Gippsland \North\ Dargo district. — In numerous places, surrounding
the escarped edge of the plateau, in the valley of the Dargo or of the
Crooked River, water-worn quartz gravel has been found resting upon the
older rocks, and covered by the masses fallen from the basalts. These
gravels are generally auriferous to a greater or less extent, and claims
have been opened for the purpose of working them. In descending from
the Dargo high plains to what is called the Mayford spur, the basalts
are found to fall in height in the usual steplike manner, and to cease at
about 1000 ft. elevation above the Dargo river, where nearly vertical
pale-coloured slates and sandstones, evidently the continuations of the
auriferous series of Crooked River, reappear with the normal strike.
The dip is here to W. at about 70°. For \ mile or more along the line
of contact, a considerable amount of well-rounded pebbles of quartz and
sandstone covers the ground. Two claims have been opened here.
Several cuts have been taken into the face of the hill, laying open tne
gravel beds, the underlying rock, and the overlying thick talus from the
basalt sheet. The solid basalt has as yet not been reached. The total
thickness of the gravels is 30 to 40 ft. They are mostly rounded
vein-quartz and pale sandstone, with a few pebbles of quartz derived from
the crystalline schists E. of the Dargo river. The gold is generally fine,
and diffused through the gravels in amount sufficient to pay working
expenses while prospecting — say at the rate of 30J. per man per week.

Between the Silurian bed-rock, and the auriferous quartz gravel, was
found a plant-bed, and specimens of the fossils were determined by
Professor McCoy as beir.g of Miocene age, one being Cinnainomum
polymorphoides. The plants, together with wood which is occasionally
altered to lignite, are found in sandy clay, immediately overlying a sand-
bed on the rock. The auriferous quartz drifts overlie the plant-bed, and
show tolerably regular arrangement, such as is to be seen in eroded beds
of river gravel. Here is thus an ancient river-co irse of Miocene times,
which was covered over by a flow of basalt. Since th at period, a new valley
about 1000 ft. in depth has been excavated to the E. of the old river.
Outcrops of similar quartz gravels arc to be met with down the course

2x2

676

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

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of the Dargo, in that of the Little Dargo, and in the valleys of the
Crooked River sources. At the edge of the basalt sheet near Mount
Table-top, denudation has completely laid bare the old channel, and the
gravels have been washed and concentrated into gullies running towards
the Dargo. The workings have laid bare the rim-rock for .some distance,
which has a course of about S, 40° W., in the supposed direction of the
stream. The width of the channel is here not over 70 yd., and the bed-
rock where laid bare shows it to have been rugged and uneven in the
extreme. It seems .somewhat difficult to imagine how the gravel can
have been deposited with even that regularity which it exhibit.s. The
bed-rock is pale-coloured slate and sandstone, dipping S.W. at about 60".
The gold found is principally on the fall inward of the rim-rock, on
the right side going down stream, and is very flaky and laminated,
bringing 3/. igs. 6a' per oz. in Bright. During the two years ending
17th November, 1875, the yield was 154 oz. 2 dwt., but it has sirce
fallen off. From the small width of the channel at Table-top, and the
diminished body of gravel as compared with that at Mayford spur, this
is probably only a branch.

The thickness of the basalt at Table-top, which may be taken as a
fair average, is not less than 400 ft. On the N. side of this mountain,
traces of quartz gravel are apparent, and it is not improbable that the
course of the old stream may be here underneath the basalt itself From
this point for a little distance, the volcanic rock has been denuded, and
the bed-rock of slates and sandstone rises in height. The basalt, recom-
mencing (being here distinctly augitic), continues to the summit of the
flat ridge separating the Dargo and Cobungra rivers.

In descending from the basalt plateau to the Lower Palseozoic
rocks, quartz gravels, similar in character to those already described, are
found at the contact. The appearances are similar, but on a larger scale.
The quartz gravels have been much denuded and concentrated in gullies
running down towards the Cobungra river, and have been worked with
good results.

It seems probable that the auriferous gravels at Mayford spur.
Table-top, and at Morris's, are parts of an ancient river, whose course was
some thousand feet above that now followed by the existing Dargo. A
section taken across the present valley at Mayford would show a profile
similar to that shown by the Cobungra. If the conclusions that the
present Dargo and Cobungra are the representatives of the Miocene
rivers are well founded, it will follow that in both cases the valleys have
shifted to the E., and now occupy the place of the former watersheds.
The consideration of these Miocene rivers becomes an important one, in
view of their auriferous character. Whether the gold-workings in the
Cobungra and those in the Dargo form part of one and the same stream.

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

677

or are parts of two distinct streams, affects this part of the question but
little. It seems probable that the drainage-areas of the former rivers
were essentially those of the existinjr ri\ers : and that therefore, althouj^h
the Daryo has cut to the E. into the former divide, the sources of the
Miocene Dargo would empty into the Dargo valley, and those of the
Miocene Cobunfjra into the Cobun{jjra valley. In any case, whether the
drainages have been dist'nct, or whether the stream worked in White's
claim communicated with the stream worked at Sinnott's, by way of
Morris's, one fact becf'mes clear — that all the " leads " whatsoever must
somewhere or other find their exit from under the basaltic sheets into one
or other of the great existing valleys. Here is the key to future mining
operations. The search for these old streams can only be properly
carried out by seeking for their outlets, and working in from such points.
In this view, there are no obstacles to the prospecting of these Miocene
auriferous deposits by miners, beyond such as have been ordinarily
overcome by them ; but as to the results to be obtained, doubts may be
felt. The Whites have certainly raised a considerable amount of gold
from their claim at the Cobungra, but their workings have as yet been
only at the surface. There exist no reasons for concluding that these
ancient streams have been more richly auriferous than existing streams
in North Gippsland ; and it is doubtful whether in that case the labour
of extracting the hard cemented quartz wash by tunnelling would be very
remunerative. That wages may be made, and apparently good wages,
seems probable from the data procurable. The field for prospecting is
tolerably extensive, and in the existing condition of gold-mining it is such
places as the Dargo high plains that must be looked to for new ground.

At Morris's claim, below Boiler Plain, the richest gold was got in the
little isolated remnant of gravel first found, and the gold was here heavy
and coarse ; at the workings, where the tunnel advised to be driven by
Brough Smyth was put in along the bed of the lead, the gold was found
coarse and of a good sample on the high reef on the W. slope of the
gutter. Previous to the contractors' commencing the tunnel, the Govern-
ment prospecting party commenced a shaft which would probably have
reached the deepest ground within 20 ft. of the surface, but on arrange-
ments being completed to drive the tunnel to test the same ground, and
on finding the tools they then had were insufficient to get through the
hard cement reached at 10 ft., they desisted from further sinking. The
last 6 ft. of the shaft passed through coarse heavy gravel, and in every
dish tried, 20 to 50 specks of fine gold were obtained, and the last, from
the cement, was of somewhat heavier character than that washed from
the stuff above. The prospects since obtained by the men who drove the
tunnel show a still further improvement, though not equal to the prospects
reported from the higher reef ; this, however, is by no means uncommon

678

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

in r lining exi.erience, as it is frequent both in deep and shallow alluvial
Hiining to find the richest deposits of gold on points and slopes of the
bed-rock, as well as in the deepest portions of the bed.

Many of the creeks and gullies draining the plateaux, though patchy,
have yielded good returns belcw where they have cut through the courses
of the old gravels ; the Twenty-five-mile Creek, in particular, is stated to
have been best close up to the junction of the Silurian and basalt, and
was worked until the number and size of the fallen blocks of the latter
prevented the diggers from going farther. The general information
obtained all leads to the conclusion that the gravels are auriferous
throughout, but that, from their great thickness, and the dissemination of
the gold through a great portion of that thickness, they can only be
profitably worked on a large scale, and by means of an ample water-
supply for ground-sluicing or hydraulicing. The latter method will
only be available within certain limits near the exposures of the gravels
on the hill-sides ; for as they are worked in towards the hills, the
enormous thickness of overlying c^ivs and sands, with the basalt above,
will be too much even for the Califorman hose to compete with effectively.
Ultimately, therefore, the working of the gravel will have to be accom-
plished by mean'' of tunnels, near the entrances of which water will have
to be conducted in sufficient volume to form powerful sluices, into which
the wash-dirt can be tipped as brought out. Even with the short races
now in use, an over-abundant supply of water is available during the wet
season ; but this runs short during the dry months, so that, to enable
regular work to be carried on, races of great length, tapping springs and
the heads of constantly running streams, would be ncjc^sary to ensure a
supply during the whole year.

Subjoined is an estimate of the lengths of the portions of the main
lead and its principal W. tributary which remain undenuded S. of the
Cobungra, too little being known of the deposits under the basalt of the
Bogong plateau to admit of their being included : — Cobungra plateau,
3 rrilcu ; Boiler Plain, i mile ; S.W. side of Table-top, 1 mile ; Mayford
spur, i^ mile ; between Pyke's Creek and Little Dargo, i mile ; W.
^•••anch from direction of Thirty-mile Creek, 5 miles — total, 12 miles.
Other small leads concealed beneath the basalt might possibly increase
the actual length of workable grounu to 20 miles. The width and thick-
ness of workable gravel will of course vary greatly, bi I may be estimated
at 20 to 100 ft. for thf loimer, and 2 to 10 ft. for the latter. Murray
considers that there is good reason for the opinion that fairly remunera-
t>- c, and, in places, rich yields, are likely to be obtained, but that, owing
to the scarcity ot quartz reefs in the adjacent country, there are no
giounds for expecting" that they will approach in value the returns froni
the leads of the western gold-fields, which are situated in country

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA,

679

traversed by great belts of auriferous quartz reefs. Assuming the gravel
included in the above estimate to afford a fair margin of profit over
working expenses, there is certainly a great field open to the enterprise
of the mining public.

Mitchell river. — The gold-workings are confined at present to the
creeks and the older alluvions on their banks. Auriferous quartz-veins
have been discovered, and are now being worked, higher up Boggy Creek.
The gold found in the creek, where it flows through strata of Silurian age,
has precisely the same coarse and nuggety character as that obtained
from similar sites at the Crooked, Dargo, and Nicholson rivers. Whm
the creek, however, passes from the slates and sandstone with quartz
veins to the Mount Taylor porphyries, the character of the gold changes,
and is laminated, scaly, and in fine dust.

It would be of the greatest interest to the geologist, and of the
greatest importance to the miner, were it possible to connect the alluvial
gold of Lower Boggy Creek, either with the porphyries or the over-
lying Upper Palaiozoic grits and conglouierates, which doubtless have
been derived from the waste of older sedimentary rocks bearing quartz
veins. Much of the conglomerate consists of hardened slates, sandstone,
and vein-quartz. To connect the gold with the porphyries would
probably affect the immense area of similar rocks on the Buchan and
Snowy rivers ; to trace it to the Avon sandstone would equally affect a
very large tract extending N. between the Mitchell and McAlistcr
rivers, and in the S. part of which the Freestone and Maximilian Creek
gold-workings are situated.

No success attended Howii'"'s researches as to the porphyries ; and
the small streams and gullies leaaing from Mount Taylor, Mount Look-
out, and Mount Alfred are not auriferous, excepting where their lower
portions come within the influence of causes which have affected the
main stream ; nor hu- any gold been yet found either in the Upper Pa-
laeozoic conglomerates, or in the gravel immediately resulting from their
waste. But an examination of the distinctive characteristics and fineness
of the alluvial gold found in North Gippsland, led him to entertain the
belief that within certain limits the physical character of the gold and its
fineness remain constant in respect to the geological formation from
which it is derived. This is summed up in the subjoined tabulated form.
The examples have been selected from a considerable number, so as to
compare gold from similar geological formations in localities separated
as widely as possible from each other. It appears to him that the
following deductions ma)' be made : —

I. From the Lower Silurians, the atomic ratio of the gold to silver
varies from 22 to i to G to i, and the gold is nuggety, laminated, ragged,
and more rarely in scales.

^•^

1 "t

'''

'!'■*

!Mil :'l i

'>!

'■I-' ;l ?■

iil;

68o

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

2. From the crystalline schists of Omeo (metamorphic), the atomic
ratio \ ries from 4 to i to i to i, and the gold found is laminated,
ragged, and in scales.

3. From some metamorphic slates and sandstones, the atomic ratio
varies from 5 to i to 3 to i, and the gold found is in scales and grains.

4. The more nearly the formation approaches the crystalline schists
in character, the more equal the ratio of gold to silver becomes.

Table showing Fineness of Alluvial Gold from Localities in N. Gippsland.

Gold.

64-97

86'a6
86-93
84-96

89-36
91-05

93 "97
94-01

95""

q6-8o

97 "54
94' ij
94"9S

94 "77

Silver.

34 '30

13-14

"■57
14-13

9-84

8-62

5-62
5'^9

4-56

2-70

2-46

5-25
4-85

S'23

Locality.

Swift's Creek, Omeo .

Dry Gully, Omeo
liijj River, Omeo
Dargo Flat, Dargo I

River. I

Policeman's Creek, |

D.irgo River. )

Tucker Creek, Went-

worth River.
Dclegcte River . .
Combyingbar Creek,

licm River.
Shady Creek, Tambo

River.
Good LuckCreek,

Crooked River.
Upper lioggy Creek . .
Upper Iioggy Creek ..
Lower 13oggy Creek . .

Lower Boggy Creek . .

Geological Formation of
Locality, &c.

Metamorphic ; mica-schist, gneiss,
granite ; pierced by greenstone
and felbtone dykes.
Ditto ditto ditto
Ditto ditto ditto
Hornblendic granite, flanked by
metamorphic slates and sandstones,
passing on either side into Lower
Silurian.
Lower Silurian

Ditto ditto and granite .. ..
Ditto ditto

Ditto ditto adjoining a granite

area.
Ditto ditto

Ditto ditto

Ditto dillo

Torpliyry overlaid by Upper Palaj-

ozoic shales, sandstones, and grit.

Ditto ditto

Character of Gold.

Ragged and laminated.

Ditto
Ditto

ditto,
ditto.

Fine, scaly, and in
grains.

Nuggetyand laminated;

Fine and scaly.
Nuggety and laminated.

Ragged and laminated.

Nuggety and laminated.

Ditto ditto.

Fine laminated-
Ditto ditto.

Examples 4 and 5 connect both series by the physical character of
the gold and by the ratio of the metals. The belt of metamorphic slates
and sandstones which furnish the examples 4 and 5 flank an area of
hornblendic granite, traversed by dykes of eurite, greenstone, and syenite-
porphyry. They present in places a marked resemblance in texture to
some of the fine-grained examples of gneissoid schists of the Omeo
district. On the other hand. No. 14 illustrates a different set of con-
ditions, where the Lower Silurian strata are highly silicified, and are cut
off by the granite without assuming any of the characteristics of the
cry.stallinc schists. In this instance, the gold belongs to the Lc> :-
Silurian series, according to its ratio, but departs from the usual charactei
of such gold in the district by being fine-scaly.

Applying these tests to the examples No, 13 and 14 from Lower
Boggy Creek, it would appear that the gold comes within the 1st series.
It thus seems to be the more probable conclusion that the gold has been
derived from the upper part of the watershed of Boggy Creek ; and the
difficulty which may present itself as to the transport of the gold down

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA,

68 1

the rocky and tortuous bed of the stream will probably be met by the
assumption that the detrital materials were at first deposited as marine
beds on a rocky coast, and subsequently, on the elevation of the coast-
line, gradually " ground-sluiced " into the present valley. This assump-
tion is not contrary to the facts already stated, nor to the inference to be
drawn from them.

The extension of the payable gold-workings into the marine Tcrtiarics
is a question of great interest and moment. In considering it, these facts
present themselves. During the earlier part of the Upper Tertiary
period, and during what may be termed the deep-lead epoch, it seems
that streams flowed from the mountains much as they do now, but that
they emptied themselves into the Tertiary sea, which probably over-
spread the area now occupied — for instance, by the Murray Tertiaries to
the N. of the mountains, and the Gippsland marine Tertiaries to the S.
These streams, or the lower portions of them, are now known as deep
leads, such as the Welcome lead at Glenorchy, and the leads of H addon,
Chiltern, and Eldorado.

Howitt sees no leason to doubt that during the greater part of the
Tertiary age, the main drainage features of North Gippsland were much
as they now are ; or that, in other words, the river Mitchell followed the
same course through the hills that it does now, but at a higher level. He
is inclined to believe that the auriferous deposits of Lower Boggy Creek
have been rearranged, and the gold concentrated at and since the close
of the Upper Tertiary period ; but, if the Moitun Creek beds arc of the
same epoch as, or possibly the equivalent of, those at Glenorchy, then
there should be fluvial or marine auriferous deposits of far earlier date
than those from which the alluvial gold of Lower Boggy Creek appears
to have been derived.

These deposits, it seems to him, might be found close to the old coast-
line, as at the mouths of streams ; but would be now nowhere visible,
being covered up by a great depth of marine beds of late Tertiary or
Post-Tertiary age. It is also possible that the conditions of the then
land may have been such that the courses of the streams extended
beyond the present line of hills on to which those marine beds thin out.
In that case, auriferous deposits, if they exist, might be found as deep
leads ; or otherwise might resemble the beach-workings of New Zealand.
It is only by a series of borings that the question can be determined ;
but in any case, the results could scarcely fail to be of great interest, and
possibly might pr«. ^e of great value.

In examining uie country between Clifton and the Nicholson river,
Howitt observed, as marking approximately the boundary between the
Tertiary and older formations, that there are very widespread deposits of
rounded quartz. These not only cover the hills as surface or form beds

IWM

682

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

■in. t

m
m

li
If

in the streams, but in places constitute " made hills." This tract has
been but little prospected, and may be indicated as well worth some
examination. In older Post-Tertiary times (Pleistocene ?), this tract
evidently formed an extensive and shallow land-locked bay, to which
Mount Lookout and Mount Taylor on the one side, and the Granite Hill
and its connected range on the other side, marked the inlet. The greater
part of this area is even now generally filled by Post-Tertiary and
Tertiary deposits, among which quartz gravels are often predominant.
These quartz gravels have evidently two origins : mainly perhaps from
the E. extensions of the Upper Devonian (Iguana Creek) beds, which
have now been entirely denuded, but also from the wearing down of the
Silurian hills which surround this tract on 3 sides. There arc grounds
for the belief that the conglomerate and grits of the Iguana Creek beds
are auriferous, and have supplied the gold obtained at Lower Boggy
Creek, the Lower Mitchell, and elsewhere. These gravels may therefore
be auriferous from this source, or as being directly derived from the
Silurian strata. Thus the concentrated deposits from Clifton and the
Nicholson would probably ret?.:;i such gold as was set free in the process
of wearing down the older formations, whether Devonian or Silurian.
The question would be whether the amount of gold has been sufficiently
concentrated to pay for working. As yet there are no data to decide
this, nor can such data be obtained, except by actually prospecting the
ground. The solution of the question is certainly of importance, as the
formation referred to extends from Clifton Creek to a distance of some
miles beyond the Nicholson river. An examination of it would in fact
afford conclusions as to similar formations elsewhere in North Gippsland.

Gippsland \Scmth-West\ — According to Murray's report, the quartz
workings are as yet few, and in the earlier stages of development. As is
generally the case in Upper Silurian rocks, all the known auriferous
quartz reefs are associated with dykes of granite, diorite, or rocks of that
class, and the long persistent lines of quartz reefs which intersect the
Lower Silurian rocks of the Western gold-fields are here wanting.
These dykes, which are often traceable for long distances, arc clearly of
igneous origin, and intersect the Silurian strata both with and across the
line of strike of the latter. The quartz veins traverse the dykes in
various ways — vertically, from wall to wall across the dyke ; vertically,
parallel to it, cither along the walls or in the body of the stone ; and
horizontally, or nearly so, from wall to wall. In exceptional instances,
the quartz veins penetrate into the " country " beyond the dyke-walls,
and occasionally well-defined quartz reefs cut right across the dykes,
passing into the schistose rocks on either side.

These forms are also met with in combination, and small strings and
leaders of quartz sometimes form a network between the larger veins.

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

683

Portions of the dykes are sometimes devoid of quartz veins ; and another
feature is that occasionally, though the line of fissure and walls remain
distinctly traceable, the dyke-stone itself is absent, and its place occupied
by broken-up rubbly shale or slate, with thin quart/ leaders.

The great dyke worked by the Walhalla and Long Tunnel companies
exhibits the most extensive dyke workings in the colony, and nowhere
else can a finer study of this class of mining be obtained. It runs slightly
W. of N., parallel with the Silurian strata, and consists of a hard diorite,
more or less impregnated with arsenical and iron-pyrites. Two large
quartz lodes, meeting in an apex or cap, and known as the E. and W.
lodes, accompany the dyke along or near to and within its walls, while
others intersect the body of the dyke, which is also crossed in all direc-
tions by small strings and veins of quartz. The apex of the two main
lodes, the cap of the quartziferous dyke-stone, and the " shoot " of
auriferous quartz, ail din N., the underlie being W. At the lower levels
in the Long Tunnel mine, near the shaft, the walls of the dyke continue
plainly defined, but the dyke-stone is replaced by soft rubbly shale, with
small quartz strings. On driving N. along this " track " of the dyke, the
diorite and auriferous quartz lodes arc found to " make " .again, the
di.stance to be driven N. from the shaft to strike them increasing with
the depth of level.

The arsenical and iron-pyrites accompany the auriferous shoot, the
proximity of which, the latter especially, is regarded as a sure indication
in the two mines referred to. It appears likely that there are several
such shoots along this line of dyke, of which that worked in these mines
is the most explored, and that they may eventually be found to join in
one main body.

The quartz mines of Foster exhibit another phase of dyke workings.
A large well-defined dyke, which was found in the alluvial workings in
the flat below, crosses the W. slope of the Kaffir's Hill, and has been
traced for about 4 mile N. towards Turton's Creek. This dyke consists
of a soft greyish-white decomposed granite of quartz, felspar, and a little
white mica ; its general '^^ uring is N. 5" W., and its thickness varies from
a few ft. to nearly 250 ft. The quartz veins in the dyke are nearly
horizontal, but curved and inclining slightly W., and one has been proved
to extend for a long distance into the W. schistose wall. Their extent
longitudinally along the dyke is as yet unproved.

The workings of the Golden Bar and No. I S. claims show 3 of these
flat veins to exist within the depth already worked — about 100 ft. ; they
rarely exceed 6 in. in thickness, and have few small tributary veins or
strings ; but from their highly auriferous character, and the ease with
which they are worked in the soft dyke-stone, they yield fair returns.
In the No. i S. claim, the vein traced W. into the schistose country

684

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

Uv^

rn'^l'^

i'-' ■■'

liiiS.

liii
p.

attained a thickness of lO in., yielding handsome returns and a number of
very rich specimens. It is quite likely that sinking deeper on this dyke
will show other flat veins to exist below those known at present. In the
Bcnnison Flat claim are 2 quartz veins in the metamorphic schist ; they
have a N.E. strike, and both underlie with the strata N.W. Their
appearance, and that of the schist, indicates the proximity of a dyke into
which they will probably be found to trend. There is every indication
of a line of auriferous quartz reef traversing the line of the New Zealand
and Cement hills, which has been the source of the gold in the drifts
which cap them, and of that obtained in Whipstick Gully. Explorations
in search of this line are advisable.

The now abandoned workings on the Columbia reef, near Russell's
Creek, show the existence of a decomposed diorite dyke. A diorite
dyke with slightly auriferous quartz veins crosses the head of California
Gully, Tangil, but has not been much worked. At Crossover, the work-
ings of the Albion claim are on a quartz reef 6 in. to 2 ft. thick, bearing
about N. 20° E., which cut across a micaceous diorite dyke, bearing about
N. 70° W. From another shaft, the Happy, on the same line of dyke,
another similarly occurring reef is reported to have been worked. In
the Albion, the micaceous dyke-stone is in one portion of the workings
replaced, between the still continuous walls, by a hard, black, gritty, finely
micaceous rock, a hand specimen of which Cosmo Newbery describes as
a " dense metamorphic highly siliceous shale." There are many untried
dykes to which prospectors might advantageously pay attention ; the
best portions of the auriferous gravels of Tangil are in immediate prox-
imity to dykes traversing the bed-rock ; and in the scattered shallow
diggings between the Tangil and Tarwcen rivers, pieces of dyke-stone
are found in the wash-dirt, indicating neighbouring dykes as the source
of the alluvial gold, which, by its character, also suggests the same origin.

At Turton's Creek, careful prospecting is especially to be recom-
mended along a line of dyke which appears to be the only source whence
the wonderfully rich yields from the alluvions could have been derived.
This dyke crosses the head of all the gold-workings ; no gold has been
found in any quantity above it ; and when its course and that of the
creek diverge, the quantity of gold in the bed of the latter becomes less
and less. The dyke has a N.E. course, and is a dense decomposed
doleritic rock, consisting, according to Cosmo Ncwbery's report, "of
augite and felspar, yielding, on qualitative analysis, silica, magnesia, iron,
alumina, and lime." The dyke is accompanied on its N.W. side by a
soft, black, shaly band containing thin strings of quartz. No quartz has
yet been found in the dyke itself, though small veins of ca;C'te occur.
The black band has been prospected in two or three places, and the
dyke was cut and driven into in one place, but unsuccessfully. The

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

685

evidence is nevertheless very strong in favour of the source of the
alluvial gold being in or connected with the dyke ; there is no other
apparent matrix, and similar dykes cross Livingstone Gully, a tributary
of Turton's Creek, at the heads of various small alluvial workings. There
are also in Livingstone Gully loose blocks of an extremely hard siliceous
dyke-stone which Cosmo Newbery describes as " a dense siliceous elvan,
containing magnetic and copper-pyrites, some portions consisting of
nearly pure silica in the form of chalcedony." Howitt, who examined
a specimen microscopically, believes it to be " truly a siliceous dyke, con-
taining some iron diffused in an amorphous state." A miner acquainted
with New South Wales gold-fields assured Murray that he had seen
similar stone in that colony highly auriferous.

The alluvions in this part of Gippsland consist of shallow workings
itx old gravels on hills, as at Kaffir's and New Zealand hills at Foster ;
river, creek, gully, and high bank or terrace workings, where the deposits
are the result of recent geological action, and the gold has been either
derived from immediate erosion of local matrices during such action, or
from the denudation and re-distribution of more ancient drifts ; lead
workings in gravels referable to the Miocene and Pliocene drift periods,
of which some are above and some below the level of existing drainage
channels. The principal river-workings are in the Tanveen and Tangil
rivers, in both of which the richest deposits of gold were found below
where old gravels had been denuded, as at the mouth of Langridge's
Gully, on the Tarween, and immediately below the tunnel cement work-
ings on the Tangil. There are numerous other workings of greater or less
extent and richness throughout the district, as Crossover, Deadhorse,
and Livchorse gullies, Russell's Creek, Turton's Creek, and others of
less note.

As regards leads, the oldest is that referred to as occurrmg beneath
older volcanic and lignite, at the head of Langridge's Gully, W. of the
Tarween river. This lead is narrow but well defined as far as followed ;
its presence is an indication of the existence of other similar leads
beneath the neighbouring volcanic areas ; fragments of dyke-stone in
the gravel indicate neighbouring auriferous dykes as the probable source
of the gold.

The Tangil lead is, at its upper portion, near the township, consider-
ably above the river level ; the actual head of the lead, which once pro-
bably extended as far back as that of the present river, has been
removed and its course obliterated during the erosion of the latter.
Having a more rapid fall than the river, the lowest workings, those of
the Pioneer claim, are 60 ft. from the surface, and somewhat below the
river-bed, and there is every prospect of a gradually increasing distance
between the two levels. The further course of the lead, traceable by the

.J,l ■'-

r. '

1 ■■

686

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

overlying volcanic rock down to the Haunted Hill, is likely to be auri-
ferous for that distance, though to what extent will depend on the
character of any dykes or quartz veins that have been denuded in or near
its channel. The Foster lead, which underlies the alluvial flat of Stock-
yard Creek, is 30 to 60 ft. in depth from the surface, and consists of the
usual clay, drift, and gravel deposits, which are newer than the gravel
cappings on New Zealand and Cement hills, coloured as Older Pliocene,
though the age of both is doubtful.

The excess of water and want of machinery have hitherto prevented
its continuation from being properly prospected far below the township ;
but the rich yields already obtained are surely a warrant for the outlay
of capital for this purpose. From the great size and defined character
of the granite dyke, whence the alluvial gold has evidently been derived,
it seems likely to continue S. for a great distance farther than already
traced, and to have other "shoots" of gold-bearing stone. Should the
lead, therefore, continue along the dyke, it is very likely to renew its
auriferous character as it passes such shoots, and even if not, there are
other lines of auriferous quartz likely to be intersected.

In considering the prospects of Western Gippsland as a mining
district, the marked difference between the Lower and Upper Silurian
gold-fields should be kept in view. The Lower Silurian rocks of the
great Western gold-fields are traversed by wide belts of auriferous quartz
reefs, many miles in length, in which the lodes and veins are large and
persistent, and though they also contain their gold in "shoots" and
patches, these are not far apart, and a little gold exists through the
whole body of quartz. Consequently all leads, creeks, and gullies, within
such belts, contain auriferous drifts, and when they run parallel to, or
cross and recross a single line of reef, or cut a number of reefs and veins
at short intervals, the supply of gold has been found continuous. In
Murray's report on the geology of Ballarat, the difficulty with which
any but very fine free gold can be moved by water was advanced as a
reason for maintaining that the quality of wash-dirt must depend chiefly
on the character of the local auriferous matrices. The concentrating
re-distribution of old drifts has, in some cases, caused the conveyance of
associated gold some distance from any apparent matrix, and much gold
has evidently travelled a long way while attached to quartz or clay ; but
this would only partially affect the auriferous character of a drift.

In country, therefore, where the quartz veins are small and few in
number, and the shoots of gold, though rich, at wide intervals and of
small surface extent, the gravel in leads, creeks, and gullies may be
expected to be of corresponding character. In Upper Silurian rocks, such
as those of Western Gippsland, no large belts of quartz reef have yet
been proved. A few small lines of quartz reefs, traceable for compara-

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

687

lively short distances, or lines of dyke with auriferous quartz veins in
widely separated shoots, are the usual features of Upper Silurian quartz
workings in general, and those of Western Gippsland are no exception
to this rule. Some of the shoots arc of great richness, and, in some
instances, are now being traced to considerable depths, as at Walhalla,
though they only recur at wide intervals on the surface ; and the alluvial
workings, though exceedingly rich in patches, cease to be remunerative
when followed far from the perhaps solitary reef or dyke whence the
gold was derived.

In the case of Western Gippsland, it can only be pointed out that,
wherever Silurian forms the bed-rock, there is a chance of alluvial gold-
workings of limited extent being found in the creeks, gullies, and gravel
cappings. The country between Foster and Cape Liptrap, and from
the Tarween to the Thomson, comprises many wide unprospected areas,
in which there is hope of finding gold, though extensive tracks are likely
to be barren. The dykes and quartz reefs already proved gold-bearing
are of such a character as to justify energetic labour in tracing the auri-
ferous shoots downwards, as it is highly probable that they will increase
in size and richness with their depth from the surface. In fact, it may
be said that the mining future of this part of the country depends on the
success of deep-lead mining. Each isolated alluvial working may be
regarded as evidence of a neighbouring auriferous matrix, for which
diligent search should be made. The advisability of this search is recog-
nized by most of the miners in such places ; but the majority of them
are not in a position to undertake prospecting work, which does not
afford a hope of speedy returns.

Among the areas recommended for prospecting, those occupied by
Mesozoic rocks are not included. There are certainly places where, in
quartz gravels resting on them, fine gold has been obtained, and, as
reported, in some cases almost in payable quantity ; but such gold must
have travelled with the gravels for long distances, as there are no quartz
veins whatever discoverable in the Mesozoic rocks, nor are there indica-
tions of lodes or veins of other minerals likely to be auriferous. To
Murray's knowledge, the South Gippsland Ranges have been very much
prospected during the last 2 years, and the unvarying answer to inquiries
made was, that no fresh outcrops of Silurian, like that at Turton's Creek,
could be found, and that no gold could be obtained except in the vicinity
of some of the quartz gravels, and then only in minute quantity. Pre-
cisely the same results have been obtained under similar conditions by
prospectors in the Mesozoic ranges of the Cape Otway district. The
search for other outcrops of Silurian in the South Gippsland Ranges
would not be hopeless, as many tracts, much greater than that occupied
by the Turton's Creek outcrop, are unexplored ; but it would appear

688

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

■:i f

:s^S'

hopeless to prospect unless such outcrops arc discovered. It is quite
likely that the Mcsozoic beds may be auriferous at their contact with the
Silurian, but whether payably so must depend on local conditions ; also
that the dykes and quartz reefs on the Silurian may eventually be
worked beneath the Mcsozoic. The assumption of the non-auriferous
character of the latter is based not on geological age, but on the absence
of any mineral veins in which gold or other metals might be expected
to occur.

Stawell gold-field. — According to Norman Taylor's report, dated
Dec. 14, 1875, this district is alone in the extraordinary complications
and want of regularity in the occurrence of its reefs.

There are two main lines of so-called vertical reef — the Cross and the
Scotchman — running in the strike of the country about N.W., and
dipping or underlying at various angles from 60" to 90° S.W. They
have also a dip in strike N. at about the same angle as the Flat reef.
Besides these, are the Upper and Lower Flat reefs, at right angles to the
last and possibly connecting them, as well as other flat reefs to the E.
again of the Scotchman's vertical reef. These flat reefs should more
correctly be called cross reefs, as they cross the strike of the country.
Indications of faults are not uncommon, throwing the upper portion of
the vertical reefs off to the W. ; these n ■ • locally termed " slides " and
" floors " ; they come in from the S.W. iu an angle of about 45°, with a
N. and N.E. dip. "Breaks" in the reefs are also frequent, and are pro-
bably lines of fault — the quartz is fractured, and the angular pieces are
cemented by carbonate of lime, derived from the water which flows
through the interstices, and which is, in some places, in great quantity.
A similar break is met with in the cross-cut in the E. workings (646 ft.)
of the Albion Co., where the breccia is cemented by secondary pyrites.
Another peculiarity is the manner in which the reefs wedge or cut out,
new " slabs " of stone making in one or other of the walls. This also is
probably due to a line of fault. The upheaval of the mass of intrusive
granite to the S. has probably caused these lateral faults or slides, and
the same forces which operated to cause them, possibly also at the same
time caused the fissures, since filled by the flat reefs, which were again
faulted at a later period. Taylor concludes that the granite is an
intrusive mass, as it sends veins into the adjoining schists, and contains
schorl or tourmaline, a mineral containing boracic acid, and a product of
igneous agency. The vertical reefs are, as a rule, much poorer in gold
than the flat reefs, and all are poorer in depth than they were in the old
surface workings. This is due most likely to the decomposition of the
pyritous schists above the water-level, and the liberation of their con-
tained gold, to be afterwards acted upon by other agencies, and collected
by segregation into the reefs.

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

689

690

GEOGRAnilCAL DISTRIBUTION.

The schistose rocks here arc much decomposed to some depth, and arc
converted into l<aolin, and contain traces, in veins and patches, of blue
phosphate of iron. The water percolating through the reefs holds
carbonate of lime, sulphates of lime and magnesia, and sulphate and
chloride of sodium, in solution. Efflorescences of sulphate of magnesia
occur on walls of the drives along the Scotchman's line of reef The
el vans or granitic dykes are probably older than the reefs, and have had
no influence upon them, as in the claim of the Ncwington and Pleasant
Creek Co., the reef passes through the clvan, and in the drives at dificrent
levels the elvan sometimes forms the head- and sometimes the foot-wall.
The basalt dykes arc stated by Newbery to closely resemble the basalts
of the Sandhurst dykes. They contain large plates of brown mica and
other minerals, and the joints are coated with carbonate of iron. They
soon decompose on exposure to atmospheric influences. With regard to
the water-level, some curious instances have been noticed. The old shaft
in No. 7 Crown Cross United Co.'s claim was swamped out at 400 ft.
some years ago, while the shaft in No. 4 in the same ground was quite
dry at Soo ft. In the North Scotchman's pumping-shaft the water stood
originally (in 1865) at 240 ft. from the surface. The line has since been
pumped dry. At the S. end of the Scotchman's line, the water-line is
now said to stand at about 300 ft. In the Emerald Isle claim, the
water-level had not varied from 360 ft. for 12 months, notwithstanding
the pumping in Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5 South Scotchman's.

Table of Yield of Gold from Pleasant Creek Cross Reef Quartz-mining

Co.'s Property.

Date.

Tons
crushed.

Yield

fGoId

Dividends
declared.

07.

dwt.

gr-

X. rf.

Half-year

ending 30th June, 1870 ..

1,675

3.406

9.992

I 9

31st December, 1870 ..

7,671

10,452

28,500

30th June, 1 87 1 ..

9,402

12,667

32,250

30th December, 1 87 1 ..

12,131

24,495

73.500

30th June, 1872 ..

9.265

17.031

49,500

31st December, 1872 ,.

13,006

20,682

59,000

30th June, 1873 ••

9,292

14,188

40,500

6th January, 1874 .,

13.971

15,081

36,000

30th June, 1874 ..

14,020

17,894

45,000

31st December, 1874 ..

12,969

20,766

50,000

30th June, 187s .. ..

11.253

14,542

35,000

Three nioi

iths ending 30lh September, 1875
Totals

6,271

6,731

23,000

120,926

177,940

490,242

I 9

Total average of i oz. 9 dwt. 10 gr. per ton.

Satidhnrst. North Waranga. — This district was reported on by
William Nicholas, in September 1877. The Waranga gold-fields were
first opened in the latter part of the year 1853. They may therefore be
reckoned amongst the oldest of Victorian gold-fields ; and, by this time,

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

691

as may well be understood, nearly all the gullies arc wrought, and some
worked over again and again, still yield a livelihood to a considerable
number of miners. The name was obtained from the native title of the
squatter's run on which the first gold-discoveries were made.

The most N. and most important gold-workings arc at and in the
vicinity of Rushworth, where, at the close of the September quarter of
^^77y 513 alluvial miners were employed in mining. The principal
alluvial workings are, or have been, on the Old lead. The head of the
lead is in Growler's Gully, at the back and to the W. of the township.
This lead trends E., and probably terminates in the Waranga Swamp.
Many rich tributaries flow into it, but those joining it on the S. side are
the most considerable. This lead has yielded more gold than any other
in the district ; it is but shallow, as the deepest shafts sunk on it are only
35 to 55 ft. in depth. The character of the cement and wash-dirt in the
lead is very like the Deep lead at Bcndigo, and both are probably of the
same age (Older Pliocene : oldest gold-drift). Other minor auriferous
streams flow into the Waranga Swamp, but they have as yet received
little attention. Whether Waranga Swamp, the receptacle of these
golden creeks, will ever pay to work, is a matter that can only be decided
by the miner. It is, however, not unreasonable to conjecture that the
basin occupied by it is auriferous.

To the W. of Rushworth, is situated the Castle Lonely lead ; the
sinking here ranged from 20 to 30 ft. in depth, and the wash-dirt was
I ft. to 2 ft. 6 in. thick. This lead appears to be connected with
Chinaman's Flat and Old Ned's Gully, and it has been inferred that if
the lead were followed farther towards the N., the widespread wash-drift
would be found to become concentrated and form into a more regular lead.

Nuggety Gully, the main feeder or tributary to the Old lead, crosses
lae Nuggety reef in its N. course. This gully was very rich ; the gold
found in it was of a rather pale colour, and little, if at ali, water-worn ;
the wash-dirt was of a very ferruginous character, and contained a large
quantity of bean iron-ore (magnetic) ; there was also sub-angnjiir quartz.
The very ferruginous character of the wash-dirt is not sut-prising, seeing
that the Nuggety reef, at the head of the gully, contained such a large
proportion of iron-ore.

Rushworth alluvial gold ranges in assay between 21 '31 and 22 "i]^
carats, with a loss in melting of it^ per cent. The average buying price
(with standard at yys.) is y^s. gd. to 77s.

About 4 miles S. of Rushworth are situated the auriferous deposits at
Whroo, in a distinct but adjoining basin. Alluvial mining here has been
carried on principally in the Main Gully, the Union lead and its
tributaries. These auriferous streams take their rise in the neighbour-
hood of Balaclava Hill, and trend in a S.R. direction towards the P.eedy

2 \- 2

692

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

-■' i

Swamp. The overflow waters of this swamp pour into the Goulburn river.
The deepest smking in the alluvions is on the Union lead, and ranges
from 35 to 55 ft. in depth. This lead has been trn.ccd nearly to the
swamp, and nearer to it than the operations carried on thus far upon the
Main Gully. The wash-drifts of all the gullies on the S.E. fall from
Whroo arc connected with the Union lead. The cement and wash-dirt of
the lead are of much the same character as those found in the Old lead
at Rushworth.

The wash-dirt in the Cemetery lead, at Whroo, was 18 in. thick, and
yielded as much as i oz. of gold to the load. Whroo alluvial gold is
much better than that from Rushworth. The average assay is 22* i|
carats; buying price, yys. 6d. Loss in melting i^ per cent. The gold
from some gullies assays as much as 22 '31 carats.

Coy's diggings lie to the S. of Whroo, arid are d'stant from it about
6 miles. A non-aurifcrous low barren range, composed of arenaceous
sandstone, separates the gold-workings of these two fields. The shallow
alluvial gullies at Coy's trend in a N.E. direction into the same water-
shed as the Whroo auriferous drifts ; so far as they have been developed
these deposits are of little importance. The operations have been almost
confined to Coy's, Burr-^ns', and Hard-scrabble gullies. In the hitter,
the wash-dirt was 10 to 12 in. thick. The depth of sinking generally
ranged from 4 to 12 ft, and the yields during the first 12 months' nn'ning
varied from 4 dwt. to i oz. 4 dwt. per load of wash-dirt. The rocks
forming the hills round which the gullies trend are more argillaceous than
those prevailing at Whroo and Rushworth.

The alluvial works at Cherry-tree Flat, which lie about 2 miles to the
S.E. of Coy's diggings, are confined to the flat and two small gullies
which fall into it. The alluvial deposits are relatively unimportant as
compared with the auriferous quartz reefs.

To the W. of Whroo, and about 5 miles distant, on the M'lvor road,
are situated the Nine-mile Creek diggings. The deptli of the alluvium
at this place varies from 6 to 25 f^. A section of the .inking at the latter
depth is made up of surface soil, clay, white cement, a very heavy deposit
of quartz boulders and wash-dirt (12 to 20 in. thick, which yielded
4 to 18 dwt. to the load). The hills here are of the kind named by
miners " made hills," and they are probably of the same age as the
White Hills of Bcndigo (Older Pliocene : oldest gold-drift). The main
lead has been worked for 2 miles in length, and tributary gullies have also
been mined. On this lead, the shallow sinking was at a lower level as
regards surface elevation than the deep sinking, and the cement and
wash-dirt were less in thickness, width, and richness than at higher levels,
where the auriferous wash was found at greater depths. Like circum-
stances are not uncommon in some of the important Western gold-fields

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

693

of Victoria. In this instance, it appears to have been caused by the new
watershed deviating from the old one, crossing it at a low level, removing
and re-distributing the overlying detritus and the wash-dirt.

The thickness of the alluvium at Good Friday Creek, which is
situated a few miles S. of the Nine-mile, is 40 ft. It consists of surface
soil and gravel, cemented clay and gravel, and a "ompact argillaceous
sand deposit i^false bottom) and wash-dirt, 6 to 12 ii.. thick.

At Fontainebleau, which lies midway between the Nine-mile and Good
Friday, a little alluvial mining has been done.

The only large nugget discovered in any of these Waranga gold-
fields was one which weighed 60 oz. It was found at Siberia, in October
1863. The scarcity of nuggets exceeding 5 oz. in weight is a remarkable
feature in connection v ith the history of these gold-fields. The
auriferous alluvial deposits at Siberia are confined to two small patches,
each of about ^ mile in length, which are separated by a range through
which runs an E. and W. quartz reef.

At Friesland (North Spring Creek), which is situated on the E. branch
of Spring Creek, the sinking was 20 to 30 ft. in depth, the wash-dirt was
about 15 in. thick, and the yield of gold was 5 dwt. to the load.

Shallow alluvial mining has been carried on to a considerable extent
in the numerous gullies which wind between chc Buffalo Ranges. These
lie E. of Whroo, and between it and the Goulburn river. Ti.c "old
lead," here at 25 ft. in depth, proved to be narrow, only .ibout 8 ft. in
width ; the wash-dirt was 18 in. to 4 ft. thick. At 4 miles N. of this lead,
wash dirt was found i ft. thick at G ft. in depth, and yielded over 12 dwt.
to the load. The want of permanent water is the oiie great difficulty
which retards the development of the undoubtedly payable auriferous
deposits at the Buffalo Ranges.

Nf:ar Mount Black, a little gold has been obtained by a uvial
prospc ctors.

Immense deposits of cement cover considerable .ueas of the countrj'
about Rushworth, Whroo, Nine-n.ile, and Fontainebleau. The cement
lies exposed on the surface in places, and has never been found at other
than what may be considered shallow depths. It has been extensively
worked at the under-mentioned places, yielding remunerative quantities of
gold, and frequently rich patches — Chinaman s Hill, Gravel Tits, Old
lead, Nuggety, Cockatoo, Rushworth t(nvnship, Butcher'- Gully, &c.
Crushings of several hundreds of tons have from time to time been
recorded, which have produced 6 to 10 dwt. of gold to the ton, and there
can be little doubt that as rich cement still remains to be crushed as has
been put through the mills in the past.

The quartz reefs near Rushv.orth, with only 3 exceptions, have an E.
and W. direction in conformity with the strike of the strata in which they

f'i i|

ill-'- > '^

694

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRTIiuTION.

occur. The reefs, however, underlie to the N. very quickly and irregularly,
whilst the strata are nearly vertical. A transverse section would show
the dip of the reefs to be broken like a series of steps. There are about
40 reefs which, by reason of their E. and W. strike, may be called cross-
reefs, as they run at right angles to the prevailing strike of the auriferous
reefs in Victoria. They are characterized by very rich patches of golden
stone. The go'd in the reefs which run N. and S. is evenly distributed,
and the reefs dip both E. and W., but do not show evidence of " saddle ''
formation. The veins range in thickness from 6 in. to 6 ft.

Taisle of Quartz Reefs near Rushworth.

N.imc of Reef

Perse jiance . .

Nut'f.ety

Soul a Devon ..
Sout'i Nuggety

Scrub

■•frenchman's . .
Lclipse
Mongolian
Main Gully
A hern's
Mousey's ..
Lancashire
Charcoal . .
Welcome ..
Belfast .. ..
Sons of Freedom

Luna

East Nuggety ..
Union

Westiakc ., ..
Specimen Hill ..
DuwJojj's . .
Dunloj 's ..
Result or Black
lloi)e of Denmark
Scandinavian ..
West Growler's
Corrol)ore(!

Forlorn Hope ..

Anstead's ..
Schles wig- Holstein
Black Joe's
Cumberland
Growler's ..
Crocker's ..
Chinaman's
Fossil

Diamond . .
Cockatoo . .
Erin-go-Bra!^h . .
Camp
Ilit-or-Miss

J. O. R

(iood Luck
Bowman ..

Strike (magnetic).

Dip.

Width.

Depth uf shaft.

ft.

in.

ft.

E. and W.

, ,

573

N. 88° E.

2 to 3

N 88° E.

, ,

N. 87° E.

3104

. ,

N. 87° E.

N. 82° E.

, ,

240

N. 82° E.

, ,

, .

N. 82° E.

, ,

N. 82° E.

, ,

N. 79" E.

, ,

N. 79° E.

, ,

. .

E. and W.

, ,

N. 78° E.

E. and W.

, ,

N. 74° E.

, ,

E. and W.

^ ,

, ,

E. and W.

, ,

E. and W.

, ,

, .

E. and W.

, ,

N. and S.

, ,

F. and W.

, ,

E. and W.

, ,

N. and .S.

••

E. and W.

, ,

14s

E. and W.

, ,

. .

E. and W.

7 to 17

130

F. and W.

E. and W.

1 oto

E. and W.

, ,

^ ,

E. and W.

200

E. and W.

, .

, ,

E. r..id W.

, ,

• •

N. and S.

, ,

E. and W.

, ,

E, and \V.

, ,

E. and W.

, ,

!•;. ami W.

, ,

, .

E. and W.

, .

E. and W.

170

K. and W.

, ,

E. an.l W.

, ,

170

E. and W.

. ,

E. and W.

J ,

v.. and W.

AUSTRALASIA : VICTORIA.

695

There has been but one deep shaft sunk on a quartz reef, and that
reached a depth of 573 ft. It is situated on the Nuggcty reef This
shaft was sunk by the Persevenncc Co., who obtained 9 oz. of gold to the
ton at 330 ft. in depth ; i oz. to I oz. 5 dwt. to the ton of quartz raised
from 450 and 460 ft. ; i oz. 15 dwt. 18 gr. of gold from 651 tons got from
510 ft in depth ; and good yields from various other considerable depths.
Scarcely a shaft has been sunk below the water-level on any of the other
reefs, although many of them have proved very rich above that level.
The quartz of the veins above the water-line is of a dull vitreous appear-
ance ; the natural fractures of the vein-stone are more or less covered by
ferruginous clay and oxide of iron, which latter is at times a full inch in
thicknc<^, and very little pyrites is visible. Galena occurs in small
quantities with fine gold in the solid quartz in the Doctor's reef at the
White Hills.

7'he auriferous reefs at Whroo, in general terms, may be said to
differ but little from those at Ru.-hvvorth. The only noticeable exceptions
are :he Balaclava Hill veins, the Albert reef, and the Stockyard reef In
each of these lodes, the occurrence of antimony veins, or the association
of antimony ores in the auriferous veins, is a marked feature.

Tai!le ov Reefs near Wiiroo.

Name of Reef.

Prince of Wales
Victoria

Carr's .. ..

Johnson's ..

Albert . . . .

Ilappy-go-Lucky
King David
Stociiyard..
Mulaklioff.. ..

Balaclava ..

Peep-o'-.Oay

Anglo-Fr-'nch ..

Scctciiman':

Woodward's

Blacl-

Je.ry': .. ..
Welch s . . . .
Rose of Denmark

Strike

N.
N.

N.
N.
N.
N.
N.

N.
N.
N.
N.
E.
E.
N.

r:.

(magnetic).

Dip.

88° E.

87° E.

45"

87° E.

N. i

and S.

78° E.
59° E.
38° W.
20° W. j

anil }

15° E. 1
65° E.
and S.

N.
W.

25° W.
anil W.

and W.

60°

■md S.

and W.

N. 60°

and W.

Wdth.

It.

6
o

t'l

in.

o
6

Depth of shaft.

Broken veins
o " 6

Not known *

o
6
o
8

200

i'40

180

450

200
130
150
180
220

300
40

* Xelwurk of quartz veins and spurs as much as t'x> ft. in width has hcen broken and crushed.

iiS< 4-j

^g^'iiiJil JW 'i. WI I

>»(.'
n

696

GKOGUAPIIICAL DISTRIDUTION.
Tablk of Rkeks at Coy's Dicginc.s.

Name of Kccf.

Coy's

Ilit-di-Miss

Murray*

London

lUackwall

Hyron

Hick's

Wilionie

(Siioinsi-y

Morning Star . .

Inifcr*

^VIlistIer's

Wluic Elephant

All)ion

Bailey ami Mason's..
Myers and Fyplo's ..
Taylor r.nd Murray's

Liverpool

Corbelt and O'Brien's

Strike (iiuignciii).

Dip.

\Vi

N. S2^ E.

N. 07" I-:.

N. 2° W.
N. 2" W.
N. 2" \V.

N. 24° W.

N.
N.
N
N.
N.

32''
4f
4.S"
and
N.W
N.W

and
and
and
and
and

W.
W.
W.
\V.

w.
\v.
w.

w.
w.
w.

\v.

ft.

o
I

o
o

I
I

o
o
o
o
I
o
o

o
o
o

3
3
o

2
2

l>c|>th uf slialt.
ft.

220

185

170

>7S

149

95
70
90
130
90

* These ([iiart/ reefs conlaiii antiniony.

TAni.K SHOWING AVKRAGE YlKI.D OK GOI.P KROM PARCELS OF QUARTZ CRUSHED
DURIM; 10 YKARS ENDED 1S76 IN THE WaR'.NGA NoRTH SUBDIVISION.

Year.

Tons cru.slied.

Total proJucc.

Average yield
per ton.

Ions cwt.

0/. dwt. gr.

07. (hvt. gr.

1867

14,760

9221 18

12 119

1868

14,854

6.(34 16

8 15-93

1869

10,029

5631 3 16

II 5-51

1S70

IS, HI

6824 13 6

9 o"78

1871

9, 001

4732 I 21

10 9*85

1S72

7,803

3113 2

7 23-50

1S73

8,321

3341 18 20

8 0-78

1874

5,058

37.;7 17 6

14 18-72

1875

2,442

2654 7 4

I I 17-74

1S76

2,307 10

2371 14 I

I 13-36

VVkstern Australia.— According to Brown's report (1873) on the
geology of that portion of the cohony lying S. of the Murchison river,
and W. of Ksperance Bay, gold ha.s been found in small quantities at
I'eterwangy, on the Irwin river, and at several other places all over the
colony, but as yet not in payable quantities. At I'eterwangy, it occurs
in alluvial detritus, the bed-rock being a quartzosc granite (with no mica),
pierced by grccnstonc-trap tlykes; these are overlaid towards the lower
ground by beds of nodular ironstone, sandstone, and grit. The difficulty
encountered in sinking through the overlying deposits, and the expense,
have hitherto prevented the deep ground being tested. To prove the
ground, a series of shafts would have to be sunk through the hard sand-

AUSIKALASIA : VVKSTKKN AUSTRALIA.

697

■ s

stones, fjn'ts, &c., on to the ^^ranitc ; these would show whether old water-
courses existed on tlie bed-rock, and whether tliey contain wash-dirt.
The formation does not resemble any auriferous formation that Hrown
had ever seen, antl, owin^ to the hardness of the ^rround, it is likely to
be a lon^ time before it will be tested. The result of the prospecting^
operations which he superintended there was the discovery of a few
colours of ^old in quartz in f^reenstone. A shaft was also sunk 47 ft.
through .sandstone and hard grit, without reaching the bed-rock. The
influx of water prevented any greater depth being reached.

The country which he thinks most likely to be auriferous has in many
places bed-rock and quartz veins identical in character and position (with
regard to the granite) with the auriferous rocks of Victoria. It is highly
probable, that as we hear of gold being found at Port Darwin and other
places to the N.K. in South Australian territory, the auriferous country
may extend into this colony. The following list includes most of the
places which arc likely localities for gold : — Murchi.son river, near the
Great Hend ; Tallering district ; Weld Range ; Blue Mountains, and
eastward ; Stirling Range ; Mount Barren and ICyre Ranges ; Phillips and
Jerdicart rivers. As these localities are, most of them, at a distance from
settlements, and difficult to reach except in favourable .sea.sons, pro-
specting them would cost much time and money, unless indeed a surface
examination was alone made, by washing the drift material in the beds
and banks of creeks and guUie.s.

Malcolm Fraser, E.sq., Surveyor-General of the colony, in forwarding
a copy of the geological report from which the above information is
gathered, very kindly adds : — " A somewhat extensive search v/as made,
following on the publication of this report, by three parties of miners who
came, subsidized by this Government, from Victoria. There were no
good results, although the colour has been got at the places indicated on
the map.

" I have had some experience myself in gold-field.s, and feel rather
astonished that payable gold has not been found in the reefs. As yet
they have all proved barren, although numerous samples have been
analysed in Victoria, and some crushed there, besides a good deal crushed
in this colony in a 5-stamper battery that was obtained from Ballarat.

"The little scaly gold that was found at Peterwangy in 1870 was
got in shallow paddocks, No lead was ever found, and wages could not
be made at it."

698

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

fa-

EUROPE. .

AUSTRO-HUNGARY.— Dr. Soetbeer gives the following table of the
relative gold-production of Austria and Hungary in the years 1860-75 • —

Year.

Austria.

Hungary.

Total.

lb.

i860

39'S

3151-2

3190-7

1861

417

3134-5

3176-2

1862

42-6

34J7-3

3459-9

1863

3i'3

2996 • 2

3027-5

1864

51-2

3546-8

.•?598-

1865

53-4

3594-5

3647-9

1866

48-

3229-

3277-

1867

47-6

3654-6

3702-2

1868

42-8

3321-4

3364-2

1869

32-

3114-7

3146-7

1870

32 "2

2964-7

2996-9

1871

17-9

2784-3

2802 - 2

1872

19 -2

2868-3

2887 -s

1873

106

2466-8

2477-4

1874

29 '2

2582-

2611-2

1875

29-

3153-9

3182-9

In 1862, the gold-yield of the various districts was : — Tyrol and
Salzburg, 42*7 lb.; Neusohl [Beszterczebdnya], 665*3 lb.; Kaschau,
15 "3 lb.; Nagybdnya, 71 '7 lb. ; Oravicza, 23*9 lb. ; Zalathna (Transyl-
vania), 2350*3 lb.

The total gold-production of the Austro-Hungarian empire in the
years 1493-1875 is stated by Dr. Soetbeer in German weights and
values, which may be translated as follows : —

Periods.

No. of
Years.

Total.

Annual Average.

lb.

1493-1520

123,200

4400

279,000

1521-1544

79,200

3300

209,250

1545-1560

35,200

2200

139,500

1561-1580

44,000

2200

139,500

I581-160O

44,000

2200

139,500

1601-1620

44,000

2200

139.500

1621-164O

44,000

2200

139,500

164I-1660

44,000

2200

139,500

1661-1680

44,000

2200

139,500

1681-1700

44,000

2200

139,500

1701-1720

44,000

2200

139,500

1721-1740

44,000

2200

139,500

1741-1760

44,000

2200

139,500

1761-1780

44,000

2200

139,500

1781-1800

56,320

2816

178,560

1S0I-1810

21, 120

2112

133,920

181I-182O

22,000

2200

139,500

1S2I-1830

24,970

2497

158,332

1S31-1840

35.750

3575

226,687

1841-1850

42,900

4290

272,025

1851-1855

19.525

3905

247,612

1856-1860

17,160

3432

217,620

-4

ii m

\ '■ : ',"M.

.1 1.

liiit;,i.

EUROPE : AUSTRO-IIUNGARY.

699

Periuds.

No. of
Years.

1861-1865

1866-1870
1871-1875

I493-185O
I851-1875

1493 187s

5
5
5

358
25

Total.

Annual Average.

383

lb. lb. C

i8,S90 3718 235,755

18,150 3630 230,172

15.345 3069 194,602

Total prodiictlun.

924,160 lb., value 58,631,850/.

88,770 „ ,, 5,028,800

1 ,013,430 lb., value 64,260,650/.

The production of gold-yielding ores in 1875 w iioi metric
centners (of iiO;^ lb.), value 11,500 florins (of \s. i<jd.) ; in 1876,
1750 met. cent., value 12,200 fl. The production of gold in 1875
was 0T4 met. cent, value 15,3000.; in 1876, 0'i3 met. cent., value
17,500 fl.

The production of auriferous ores in 1 878 was as follows : —

County Mining
District.

Produce.

Value.

Aver-ige value per

weight unit at the

mine.

State.

Private.

Total.

Ores containing
gold,silver,lead,
and copper.

Hungary —
Neusohl ..
Zalathua . .

Total ..

Hungary —
Neusohl . ,
N.igybdnya
Oravicza ,.
Zalathna . .

Total ,.

Hungary—
Nagybdnya

kilo.

1.577.275
2.148,553

kilo.

654.377
1,484,284

kilo.

2,231,652
3.632,837

Jl. kr.

410,303 14
587,023 45

Jl. kr.

100 kilo. 18 38-5

16 159

3,725,828

2,138,661

5.864,489

997,326 59

Gold and silver
stamp ores.

72,027,400
632,526

29.445,700

I31.312

2,510,000

101,473.100

763.838

2,510,000

517,525 95

75,435 93

8,488 80

100 kilo. 51

9 87-5
32-9

72,659,92632,087,012

104,746,938

601,450 68

Gold " Schlich,"
small ore.

1,819,987 2,419,609

4,239.596

236,088 86

100 kilo. 5 56-8

The kilo. = 3-2 lb. ; they?. = is. lod. ; the kr. = ^d.

The production of metallic gold in 1878 was : —

County Mining

Produce.

Value.

Average value per

weight unit at the

mine.

District.

State.

Private.

Total.

Hungary —
Neusohl
Buda-Pest ..
Nai;ybanya ..
OfiMicza
Zab.thna

kilo.
166-3883
119-9930

355 '1861

kilo.

57-3692

1-6806

217-5004

2-9280

886- 1539

kilo.

223-7575
1-6806

337-4934

2-9280

1,241-3400

Jl. kr.

312,141 85

2,239 65

470,803 46

3.953 10
1,731,669 30

Jl. kr.

I kilo. 1,395
1,332 65
1,395
1,350
1,395

'::'otal

641-5674

1,165-6321

1,807-1995

2,520,807 36

■X\Ml

*. I

" : t\

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

<>.-*!^

1.0 ^K£ m

1.1 ?.'"ia

Uft

lyi „U |K6

►

>>.^

^VIV'*'

Hiotographic

Sdences
Corporation

^■H WR* M.4IN STMIT

Vvtfi^^TM.N.Y. MSM

(716) •72-4503

'^<i.

H 700 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

H The surface-mining measures in work in 1878, stated in i
H (of ID "76 sq. ft), for gold, silver, and copper, were : —

sq. metre:

County Mining District.

State.

Private.

Hungary —

Neusohl

Nagybanya

Zalathna

Grand total in 1878 ,.
„ in 1877 ..

sq. m.

575. 464-2
119,8400

sq. m.

89,196-9

26,866-0

391.879-4

695,304-2
695,304-2

507.942-3
340,124-3

M The true mining measures in work for the same period and same 1
n metals were : — 1

County Mining District.

State.

Priv.->te.

Hungary —

Neusohl

Buda-Pest

Nagybdnya

Orav'cza

Szepes Iglo

Zalathna

Grand total in 1878 ..
„ „ in 1877 ..

More in 1878 ..
Less in 1878 ..

sq. m.

35,084,848-7

8,611,761-0

568^045-8
1.738.385-4

sq. m.

18,147,179-5

1.507.349-5
9,609,891-0
8.892,438-6
7,984.338-8
8,639,826-6

46,003,040-9
46,048,087-2

54,781,024-0
52,181,600-2

45.046-3

2,599.423 "

i It may be approximately said that the chief places where gold is
1 worked in the Austro-Hungarian empire are (i) Zalathna, in Tran-
1 sylvania, and the streams fed from the neighbouring hills ; (2) the
1 Schemnitz and Kremnitz district, in Hungary proper ; (3) Pribram and

I j Joachimsthal, in Bohemia. Nearly 1 50,000 tons of auriferous and argen-
il! tiferous ore is raised yearly, affording 60,000 to 70,000 oz. of gold and

II about 1,500,000 oz. of silver. Of the total gold, 54 per cent, is produced
, in Transylvania, and 44 in Hungary.

1 Boliemia. — The gold-mines and -washings of Bohemia were alluded
to by Agricola already in 1546, especially those at Teschelwitz, Eule,
Stechowitz, and Pless. Bohemia, in 1870, produced 156 cwt. of gold-ore.
In the sixteenth century, under Friedrich III., there ws a not un-
important mining industry in the neighbourhood of Alt-Albenrcut, and
a small quantity of 22-carat gold was produced, but it has been
declining ever since. Another locality is named Goldbriindl, to the N.
of Griin, near the Saxon border, where grains of gold are found. la the
li so-called Goldau, S.W. of Unter-Rothau, gold has been procured for 70
H or 80 years. It is also evident that between 1575 and 1600, besides

EUROPE : AUSTRO-HUNGARY.

701

silver, copper, &c., gold was obtained in the district of Graslitz. Traces
of it have likewise been met with in the neighbourhood of Gotteshab
and Flatten, and between Joachimsthal and Arletzgriin.

At Eule, about 12 miles from Prague, gold-mining operations were
abandoned for a considerable time, owing to the great diflficulties of
working, but were resumed in 1864, after the completion of an adit
level. Besides their local importance, these workings also present points
of general interest. The gold is found in lodes and small branches,
varying from i in. to several ft. in width, which occur in a crystalline
clay-slate bordering the granite. The vein-mass is arranged in a banded
form, and is priixipally composed of quartz, less frequently of calcspar,
and still less frequently of chlorite. The veins are also sometimes filled
up with clay intermixed with fragments of the neighbouring rock. The
only ores occurring are iron-pyrites, with its products of decomposition,
and native gold. This latter is found finely disseminated through the
large compact masses of quartz, in grains in the smaller quartz branches,
and in a laminated or crystalline form in the decomposed quartz ;
accompanied, in each case, by the products of the decomposed iron-
pyrites. There is an intimate connection between the occurrence of the
iron-pyrites and that of the gold ; and the former is not only contained
in the lode, but also in the country-rock. The gold is mostly found in
the branches at their points of contact with branches of quartz.

According to Posepny, the central gneiss of the Hohen Tauern
(apparently embracing the Rhaetian and Noric Alps), and the later
crystalline schists which flank it, are traversed by auriferous veins, which
are mostly true " deep-fissures." The filling or vein-material is not
always distinctly arranged, as in the typical fissure-veins of banded
structure ; but this is a peculiarity in the gold-quartz veins of other
regions of similar country-rock. The vein-material consists chiefly of
quartz, deposited from aqueous solution, and the products of friction
between the vein-walls. The quartz, as is everywhere the case in the
gold-bearing veins which traverse the crystalline schists, is permeated by
little cracks or veinlets, which are filled with quartzose cement, usually
of dark colour, and sometimes show gold, or sulphurets of other metals.
This marbled or ribboned quartz is familiar to gold-miners in California
also, as a favourable material. Among the minerals are schcclite, molyb-
denite, stibnite, and even (very rarely) true silver ores. But all these
occur comparatively seldom. The principal ores arc the sulphurets of
iron, copper, lead, and zinc; gold exists in the same veins, and often
intimately associated with these minerals.

In his discussion of the auriferous character of these deposits,
Posepny makes two principal groups of gold-occurrences, distinguished,
in his view, by the methods of treatment they require rather than by a

& a ,.;

702

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

real difference in the chemical condition of the gold. The first group
comprises the gold which can be won by crude amalgamation, and which
is generally termed " free gold." But his Freigold is that only which is
visible to the naked eye ; the rest of this group constitutes his class of
" mill-gold " {Muhlgold). The second group comprises the gold which
escapes amalgamation. Here also he makes two classes : the " pulp
gold" {Sch/ichgold), which is found in the heavy parts of the pulp or tail-
ings ; and the " ore gold " {Erzgohf), which is not crushed in the battery
at all, but, occurring in the more massive sulphurets, which are sorted
out by hand, is sent with these to the smelting-works.

Bosnia. — According to Lieut. Arbuthnot (1862) Tahir Pacha, the
Governor of Bosnia, was about this time informed of the existence of
some gold-mines near Travnik, and ordered Hadji AH to obtain samples
for transmission to the Porte. This he did, taking care to retain all the
valuable specimens, and forwarding those of inferior quality, which, on
their arrival at Constantinople, were declared worthless. No sooner was
this decision arrived at, than Hadji AH imported the necessary machinery
and an Austrian mechanic, to separate the gold from the ores, and in this
way amassed immense wealth.

Carinthia. — Strabo (bk. iv. c. vi. § 12 : Bohn's library, i. 310) says
Polybius tells us that in his time the gold-mines were so rich at Aquileia
(at the head of the Adriatic), but particularly in the countries of the
Taurisci Norici (comparing ancient and modern maps, these people seem
to hav2 occupied Carinthia and Styria), that on digging 2 ft. below the
surface, gold was found, and the diggings generally were not deeper than
15 ft. In some instances, the gold was found pure in lumps about the
size of a bean, and which diminished in the fire only about \ ; and in
others, though requiring more fusion, was still very profitable. Certain
Italians aiding the barbarians in working the mines, in the space of 2
months the value of gold was diminished throughout the whole of Italy
by \. The Taurisci, on discovering this, drove out their fellow-labourers,
and only sold the gold themselves. Now, however, the Romans possess
all the gold-mines. Here, too, as well as in Iberia [Spain], the rivers yield
gold-dust as well as the diggings, though not in such large quantities.

Prof. H. Hofer, of Pribram, has compiled the following estimate of
the gold-production of Carinthia : —

Periods.

No. of
Years.

Total.

Annual Average.

lb.

1493-1520

1521-1544

S.26S

219

13.919

1545-1560

7,700

484

30,550

I561-1580

8,360

418

26,585

1581-1600

3,355

165

10,636

I60I-162O

363

17I

1,157

EUROPE : AUSTRO-HUNGARY.

703

These figures would necessitate a proportionate addition to Dr.
Soetbeer's comprehensive table on pp. 698-9.

Hungary and Transylvania. — The chief gold-producing centres of
Hungary and Transylvania are (i) Zalathna and Abrudbdnya, with
the neighbouring streams, (2) Kremnitz, (3) Schemnitz, (4) Nagybdnya,
(5) Felsobdnya, (6) Zips, and (7) the Bannat. Agricola speaks of these
miles in the sixteenth century as having been worked over icxx) years,
which would date them back to the sixth century, while other accounts
give the eighth century. They have continued to be exploited to the
present with apparatus of the most primitive simplicity.

Trajan allowed the Dacian gold-mines to be worked by a sort of
joint-stock company {collegium aurarionun). Between the first Punic
war and the Emp're, there was an immense production of metal, great
waste in the extraction, and consequent exhaustion of the mines. This
the emperors tried to remedy by taking the mines into their own hands
to work ; but this applied only to those already opened : they allowed
private adventurers to discover and explore new ones. From the silence
of the later historians, it may be inferred that mining in the Roman
empire declined rapidly after the third century, and ceased entirely after
the barbarian invasions in the fifth century. It would seem from some
of Pliny's remarks, that the ancient form of the modern hydraulicing, so
extensively carried on in Spain, was not unknown in Hungary.
Chalmers (1880) remarks that for a century and a half, Transylvania
became to the Romans what Mexico afterwards was to Spain. Much
of the gold that glittered on the tables of the wealthy patricians, or
adorned the reigning beautibs at the gladiatorial shows, was dug from
the hills of Abrudbdnya, or washed from the sands of the Aranyos
and other streams. During the culminating epoch of Roman luxury,
Transylvania was regarded as a vast treasure-house to be ransacked for
wealth.

The old traveller Clarke (181 8), alluding to the Wallachian Gipsies,
says they are not an idle race ; they ought rather to be described as a
laborious people ; and the majority honestly endeavour to earn a liveli-
hood. It is this part of them who work as gold-washers. They have
great skill in finding the metal. Their implements consist of a board
2 or 3 ft. wide, and 4 or 5 ft. long, with grooves cut transversely ; and it
is edged on both sides with a wooden rim : woollen cloths are some-
times spread upon this board, which being held as an inc'i' 'd plane,
the sands of the river are poured, mixed with water, upon it ; the
weightier sediment falls into the grooves, or it is retained by the cloth,
which is afterwards washed in a water-cask ; and then, by a common
severing-trough, the sand is separated from the gold. But they are
often skilful enough to collect auriferous pebbles, stamping them, and
washing the powder. The surface of the plains consists of sand and

704

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

pebbles, containing gold. Fig. 23 shows the Gip.sies practising their art.
Generally they sell the gold thus found, in the form of dust ; but some
of them, who have been accustomed to work as blacksmiths, have
ingenuity enough to smelt the gold into sm.all ingots, using for that
purpose, little low furnaces, and blowing the tire by portable bellows,
made of buckskin. The construction of these bellows is as simple as
it is ancient : they are made by fixing an iron air-pipe into the skin of
the neck of the animal, and by fastening 2 wooden handles to that part
of it that covered the feet. Baron Born, describing the iron-works of
the Wallachian Gipsies, cites a mineralogical writer of the name of

Fig. 23.

Hungarian Gipsies Washing fok Gold.

Fridwalsky, who, in proving their antiquity, tells of an inscription found
near Ostrow, relating to a collegium frabrorum, adding, that probably
" the denomination of the Poita Ferrea, given to a pass on the Turkish
frontier, is hence derived. "

The officer of the Customs had a few of the ores of gold, from the
Boitza mines ; and particularly that extraordinary and rare association
of the native gold with crystallized sulphuret of antimony, then peculiar
to the mines in the neighbourhood of this place. The mountains of
Boitza are connected with r. chain that stretches on both sides of the
river Maros, the Marisus of Strabo. From this place, as far as Deva,

EUROPE : AUSTRO-HUNGARV.

705

they consist of syenite-porphyry (the saxnm wetallifcriim of Born),
covered with limesconc, slate, or sand. The principal mire of lioitza is
worked in a variety of the syenite-porphyry, differing from the common
variety, in having large pieces of felspar scattered through its substance.
The uppermost gallery, when Baron Born visited these mines, was
excavated in limestone, which is superincumbent on the porphyry ; but
the deeper gallery ran in sandstone, until it reached the argillaceous
rocks. The veins and fissures consist of the sulphurcts of zinc (blende)
and lead (galena) containing both gold and silver. Some specimens
exhibit the native gold, adhering, at the same time, to the zinc and to the
lead. A cwt. of the ore of lioitza, after stamping, yields 8 lb. of metallic
powder, containing 2 to 6 jerman oz. of silver ; and, as all the silver of
Transylvania and Hungary contains gold, that of Boitza averages 2 oz.
of gold to every I lb. of silver.

A Wallachian, whose name was Arminian John, came to Clarke's
father, then possessed of a rich silver-mine at Csertcs, telling him that as
he constantly observed a flame issuing from, and playing upon, a fissure
in the Nagyag forests, he was of opinion that rich ores must be hid under
ground. His father drove a gallery in the ground which the Wallachian
had pointed out. The work went on some years without any success ;
but at last the adit hit the rich black and lamcUated gold-ores, which
were first looked upon as iron-pyrites.

Soon after, other fissures were discovered, all running parallel to each
other, in the direction of the valley of Nagyag, from S. to N., and dipping
from W. to E. The veins break ofif as soon as they reach the red slate
with which all the valleys are covered. When Born visited Nagyag, the
mine had only been worked to the depth of 60 fathoms : its depth is now
1 50. The mountains are entirely composed of porphyry, covered with
red clay, or red argillaceous schist, and sandstone. The vein-rocks
consist of red felspar and white quartz, of that kind which is vulgarly
called "fat quartz." The richer ores are laminary, splendent, of a
dark-grey colour, approaching to black, and in some instances quite
black. The lamcllne may be separated with a needle ; and they are
malleable and ductile in a certain degree. There is also here found
a very rich kind of ore, which is finely woven into the texture of
a reddish felspar, resembling the arsenical white ore of Saxony.
Among the rich ores, native silver sometimes occurs, mixed with gold.
Another variety is called, by the miners, " cotton ore " : it consists of
little native silvery-gold grains, in tellurium, adhering to an argillaceous
matrix.

But in all the richer ores (which are so productive of precious metal
that the smallest particle being placed, with a little borax, upon the tube
of a common tobacco-pipe, and submitted to the blow-pipe, becomes

2 /

7o6

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

easily reduced to a bead of pure gold), not a particle of native gold can
be discovered, even by the aid of the most powerful microscope. From
the resemblance of its laminary form and splendent grey colour to anti-
mony, it was at first considered as an ore of that metal ; and for a long
time, under the names of auriim problematicum and aiirum paradoxuin, it
puzzled all the chemists of Europe. Sometimes an effect of crystalliza-
tion has given to this laminary substance a rude resemblance of Hebrew
characters ; and to such appearances the name auriiiii graphiciiin was
given. When Klaproth detected, in the analysis of this ore, the presence
of a new metal, and bestowed upon it the name of tellurium, its real
nature became more fully developed.

The Gipsies of the Bannat get their livelihood, like those of Wallachia,
by rambling about as blacksmiths and musicians. In winter, they cut
.spoons, ladle.s, troughs, and other implements of wood. During summer
they go nearly naked, and are then employed in washing gold from the
sand of the rivers and plains. Their manipulation has been fully
described by Francis Dcmbsher, in an appendix to the Letters of Born
to Fcrber : its very simplicity denotes its antiquity ; and it is probably
practised now, by these Gipsies, as it was by the Romans in the same
country. It consists in nothing more than pouring the sand, mixed
with water, over an inclined plane, the heavier particles of the gold
remaining upon the surface, while the lighter siliceous particles and
impurities are washed away. This, in fact, is the plan pursued in the
great washing-houses at Schemnitz, only upon a larger scale. Some-
times the inclined plane is covered with woollen cloth, to which the
gold adheres : wanting the cloth, the Gipsies now and then use, for the
same purpose, the more ancient substitute of a fleece. The manner of
collecting gold-dust in sheep's fleeces, upon inclined planes, is represented
in the ciu'ious old work of Agricola.

In the rivers of Colchis, the custom is still retained of placing
sheep-skins in the beds of the Phasis, and other auriferous streams, to
collect particles of gold : hence the dedication of such fleeces to the
Gods, and the fabulous history of the Argonautae as far as it related to
the golden fleece. The more common manipulation among the Gipsies
of the Bannat is very like that of Wallachia, already described. It is
performed by mci.ns of a plank of lime-tree, 6 ft. in length and \\ in. in
thickness. At the upper extremity, is a small trough ; and across the
board, are lo or 12 grooves or furrows cut in the wood. This plank is
elevated at one end, at an angle of about 45°. The sand is put into the
trough, at the upper end ; and thence, by plenty of water, washed down
the sloping of the board. The gold-dust falls, during this process, into
the higher grooves, whence it is scraped or brushed oflT. It might be
supposed that a great deal of gold is lost by this careless method of

EUROPE : AUSTRO-IIUNGARY.

707

collecting it ; but long experience has made the Gipsies very expert :
they know how to distinguish the richer from the poorer sands ; and a
careful examination of the sand, after they have washed it, proves that
hardly a particle of gold escapes them during the operation. The
families supported by gold-washing are very numerous ; but the gains
of each are vory inconsiderable, being barely sufficient to excite their
industry, although the value of many thousands of florins of gold be
annually produced in this manner. The auriferous sand is not only
taken from the beds of the rivers, but likewise from the banks, and even
from pits in the adjacent ground. These pits are commonly 4 ft. or
more in depth. In digging them, the workmen find 4 strata. The first
is a stratum of vegetable mould ; the second, loam, and an alluvial
deposit of pebbles ; the third consists of the auriferous sand and
pebbles ; and the fourth of slate, clay, marl, and coal. The auriferous
stratum is constantly parallel to the bed of vegetable mould, and the
coal as constantly lies below it. The gold obtained by washing is
always native, and in the form of a fine dust ; the sand containing it is
also mixed with black and splendent particles of highly magnetic iron,
garnets, and mica.

The inhabitants consider their mine of Bakabanya as ranking next
in importance to those of Cremnitz, not only for the gold it annually
yields, but also for the silver. In the tellurium mine at Nagyag, occur
some instances where the ores of gold do not contain silver ; otherwise
it might be stated as a general observation, applying to all the mines,
whether of the north of Hungary, of the Bannat, or of Transylvania, that
every ore containing gold, contains also a certain portion of silver.
This was also stated by Prof. Passern at Schemnitz, and by others
acquainted with Hungarian mines, as an observation admitting of no
exception. And every mineral considered as an ore of silver, how-
ever pure the silver may appear, is also said to contain gold ; even
the richest sul)>hurets of that metal, called \itreous and ductile
silver-ore.

The ore dug here consists of clay and ochreous quartz. It is richer
in gold than that of any other mine in all Hungary ; but it does not
hence follow that this is the most productive mine. Owing to the rich
quality of the Bakabanya ores, they have a method of estimating their
value which reverses the method of calculation used at Schemnitz. The
ores of the latter are called silver-ores, those of the former, gold-ores.
The miners of Schemnitz calculate that one mark of their silver contains
so many derniers of gold : those at Bakabanya, that a certain weight of
their gold contains so many lotos of silver. The mountain itself is an
abutment of argillaceous schist, dipping into the great plain which
extends towards Tyrnaw, and to the Danube.

2 z 2

7o8

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

Crcmnitz is the oldest mining town in all Hungary. Clarke was
conducted to the vein of gold-ore in the principal mine, by levels kept
everywhere clean and dry. The miners were then employed in digging
this ore ; and had laid open a very rich part of it. It consisted of white
quartz, containing auriferous silver-ore, and auriferous pyrites. The
latter, when properly stamped and washed, yielded 2 to 3 drachms of
gold in the hundred. The direction of the vein was N. and S., being
at the same time inclined from the W. towards the E., according
to an angle which varies from 25° to 30° and 40°. Like many of the
Hungarian auriferous ores, this consists of clay, quartz, galena, and
the oxide of iron, traversing a porphyritic rock beneath a stratum
of slate.

There are several mines at Cremnitz, some belonging to individuals,
others to the Crown. Cremnitz is the oldest of all the towns where there
are mines : and of the 7 famous mining districts — those of Schemnitz,
Crcmnitz, Neusohl, Konigsbcrg, Bakabdnya, Libeten, and Tilu — Crem-
nitz, although not the mo.st abundant in precious ore, is said to be
the richest. Its deejDest mine has been worked to the depth of 300
fathoms.

All the metallic veins of Schemnitz extend N. and S., their inclination

or dip being from W. to E., at an angle of about 60°. They run parallel

to each other. The principal veins are 6 in number; but there are

many smaller ramifications from these, which often prove very rich. The

house or lavatory for the ores consists of a series of washing-

^ns, ranged one below another, from the roof to the floor of the build-
ing, having iron sieves at the bottom, increasing in the width and coarse-
ness of their texture, from the lower to the higher sieve; the highest sieve
is wide enough to let stones of a certain size pass through, while through
the lower sieves nothing passes but gravel, and ultimately nothing but
sand. A wheelbarrow, filled with the waste of the mines, is emptied
into the upper trough and there washed. All the stones that do not
pass through the first sieve arc then taken to the first table to be
examined, and the ores picked out ; those that are caught by the second
sieve, to the second table ; and so on with the rest. In this manner, an
immense quantity of discarded ores, that were cast away when mines
were less economically worked, are recovered and prepared for smelting.
But the sand which ultimately escapes through the lower sieve is directed
with the streams of water through channels, until it is made to fall over
inclined planes covered with woollen cloths ; and thus a very consider-
able quantity of wash-gold is arrested in its progress by the cloths, in
the same manner that the Gipsies of Transylvania and Wallachia obtain
gold-dust, by washing the sands of their rivers.

Salzburg, — The gold produced in Gastein and Rauris formerly

EUROPE : FRANCE.

709

possessed some importance, and Noric gold was known to the Romans.
The industry reached its maximum in 1460-1560, when the yearly yield
is supposed to have been about 4000 marks (2472 lb.) gold and 8000
marks (4944 lb.) silver, in Gastein alone. At Kauris, the gold occrs in
quartz veins traversing gneissic rocks. It averages 8 dwt. pet von.
Formerly, there were gold-washings in the Siechenbach and Salzach, and
many other streams in Salzburg, enumerated by Poscpny, which yielded,
in 1600-99, 1^.977 lb. of gold; and in 1700-96, 38,480 lb.; total,
57.457 lb.

Styria. — According- to Strabo (bk. v. c. i. § 8 : Hohn's library, i. 319),
the country of the Hcneti was bounded by a river which flows from the
Alps, and is navigable for a distance of 1200 stadia, as far as the city of
Noreia (the modern Fricsach in Styria). This place contains five stations
for gold-washings.

Tyrol. — The Tyrolese gold-workings are at Zcll, in the Zillerthal.
The metal occurs in quartz veins, traversing chiefly clay-slate, and is
present in the proportion of about 9 dwt. per ton.

France. — Peuchet (1805) says that there arc no valuable gold-mines
in France, but that certain .ureams roll down grains of gold 18 to 22
carats fine, e. g. the Rhine, Rh6ne, Doubs, Ccv.c, Gardon, Ariege,
Garonne, Salat, and Tarn. This gold cannot be taken into account in
estimating the national wealth, but gives a profit to those who wash the
sands for it.

Debombourg (1868) gives the following details of gold in France.
It is found chiefly in the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Cevennes ; and
the water-courses from these mountains are constantly bringing down
particles of the precious metal, disaggregated from the rocks. Probably
there does not exist in the whole country more than one real vein of
gold, that in La Gardette (Is^re), discovered in 1700, and worked, up to
1 841, at an expense infinitely greater than the produce. The principal
gold-bearing rivers of the Alps arc the Rhine, the Rh6ne, and the Arve ;
of the Pyrenees, the Ariege, the Garonne, and the Salat ; of the
Cevennes, the Ardeche, the Ceze, the Gardon, and the Herault. The
Rh6ne brings down not only gold-dust but nuggets, as it did even in the
Celtic period, when the inhabitants found the shining metal on the river-
banks amongst the sand and pebbles. The auriferous wealth of that
river preserved its importance for a long period, and gave rise to a
branch of industry called that of the " Orpailleur.s," those engaged in
which the edicts of Louis XI. and Louis XIV. term " Cueilleurs de
paillettes d'or." There were orpailleurs at Rache-de-Glun, La Voulte,
St. Pierre-de-Boeuf, Condrieu, Givors, and Mirabel. In the Michaille
and a part of the Gex district, the people were accustomed, when the
water was low, to seek gold-particles on the banks, whore they usually

\ :

710

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

found them with little trouble. In 1809, a field labourer at Tronquoy,
near St. Ouentin, struck with his plou^dishare a large mineral mass which
he thought was iron. Me took it home, where for 20 years it served as
a support to his pot-au-fcu, in the fire-place. One day he discovered
some yellow streaks in it, and he said to himself they might possibly be
copper. A coppersmith, to whom he sold it for 2 francs, could never
succeed in melting it, and at last he took the mass back to the
peasant from whom he had bought it. A dispute arose, which the
Juge de I'aix directed to be deckled by an expert in chemistry. The
latter declared that the article which the seller would not receive
back was pure gold, and worth 30,000 francs. The buyer thereupon
reclaimed his property, but the other contested the claim, and the case
subsequently went before the Civil Tribunal, which awarded the nugget
to the finder.

Engelhardt observes that Julius Coesar found the inVabitants of Gaul
possessed of great wealth, and m the time of Augustus it paid con-
siderable quantities of gold into the Roman treasury.

Strabo (bk. iv. c. i. § 13 : Bohn's library, i. 279) says "the Tectosages
dwell near to the Pyrenees, bordering for a small space the N. side of
the Cevcnnes [between Lodeve and Toulouse ; it must be remembered
that Strabo supposed the chain of the Cevenncs to run VV. and E.] ; the
land they inhabit is rich in gold."

And again (bk. iv. c. ii. § i : Bohn, i. 283-4), " Here is the gulf which,
with that on the coast of Narbonne, forms the isthmus. Both these
gulfs (of Gascony and Lyons) go by the name of the Galatic gulf. The
former gulf belongs to the Tarbelli [who occupied the sea-coast from the
Pyrenees to the Lake of Arcachon]. These people possess the richest
gold-mines ; masses of gold as big as the fist can contain, and requiring
hardly any purifying, being found in diggings scarcely beneath the
surface of the earth, the remainder consisting of dust and lumps, which
likewise require but little working."

In his history of Rumilly, F. Croisollet records that about the year
1770 a gold-seeker named Cocrair met with his death in the cavern
which bears his name, and which is situated at 6 kilometres (3J miles)
W. of Rumilly, on the territory of Moye, and on the flanks of Mont-
Clairgeon (Haute-Savoie). A stream, on whose banks the sand is
mixed with grains of gold, traverses the bottom of this cavern at a depth
of about 33 metres (18 fathoms). This auriferous sand was the aim of
the unfortunate man's repeated descents into the cavern, which ultimately
resulted in his being entombed there. The gold-washing seems to have
been neglected ever since ; but the cavern was visited by a party from
the Alpine Club of Rumilly on August 20 and 21, 1875, and an account
published by A. E. Gallet.

/ ^

EUROPE : GERMANY.

711

Germany. — Dr. Soetbeer gives the following figures concerning the
gold-production of Germany : —

lb.

1849 .

• 5-72

1859

1850 .

■ 8-36

i860

I8SI .

. 20-68

1 86 1

1X52 .

. 2992

1862

•853 •

. 42 90

1863

•854 •

. 28-38

1864

185s ■

. 34" 54

1865

1856 .

■ I9"^4

1866

'in •

• 3234

1867

1858 .

• 33-44

lb.
45-10

94-60
62 - 70
21-56
loi -20
92-62

77-88

23 1 ■ 22
186-56

1868

1S69
1870
I871
1S72

1873
1874

•875
1876

lb.
253-22

1 73- So
149-82
181 06
720-50
639-00

803 -22
731-06
618-86

The gold occurs in the lead- and copper-ores in very minute quanti-
ties. In 1866, the auriferous ore raised amounted to 310,133 lb., value
141,791 thalers\ of this, 661b. came from Hanover, 96301b. from Prussia
and Brunswick, and 234,502 lb. from Saxony. The lead-mines of
Wiesbaden gave I57'46i lb. <.r gold in 1874, and 202*425 lb. in 1875.
Clausthal gold in the same year was 64-479 lb. from Lautcnthaler,
40-394 lb. from the Altenhaur Hutte, and 22*975 lb. from Halle. The
Oberharz raised 257-186 lb. of g'ld in 1874, and 116-405 lb. in 1875.

The gold produced in Prussia, which is a very small quantity, is
obtained by an interesting process invented by Guttler, of Reichcnstein,
in Silesia. He impregnates the peroxide of iron, obtained in roasting
the arsenical gravel, with chlorine gas, extracts it with water, and precipi-
tates the gold with hydrosulphuric gas. The precipitate of sulphide of
gold is roasted, again extracted with hydrochloric acid, and smelted with
borax and saltpetre. Guttler obtained in 1859 a mining licence for the
whole district of auriferous sand in Lower Silesia, at Goldberg and
Lowenberg, where, in the ninth and tenth centuries, gold-mining was
in a flourishing condition. This auriferous sand contains only a small
quantity of gold, — 0-0016 per cent. — but extends over some 20 German
sq. miles.

The Rhine. — The Rhine is notoriously auriferous in Baden, Bavaria,
and part of France. Several essays have been written upon it, the
latest and most complete being Daubree's (1846), from which the
following notes are condensed in translation.

Between B^le and Bingen, the Rhine winds through a wide deposit
of gravel, composed of very various rock-debris, part of which appears to
come from the Vosges and Black Forest, but a large part, including the
schistose quartz, is of alpine origin, while some is from the Jura, and a
little from the volcanic Kaiserstuhl. Gold is exploited in some parts of
the Upper Rhine, above Constance, as between Coire and Mayenfeld ;
in the neighbourhood of Waldhut, not far from the confluence of the Aar,
the metal has been extracted from the bed of the river at various times ;
but it is especially from Bdle to Mannheim, a distance of some 1 50 miles.

712

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

that the Rhine is regularly auriferous. Thurneisser also cites Mayence
as one of the places where gold-washing was conducted. In the vicinity
of Istein, ♦^^hcn in the neighbourhood of Nieffcrn on the left bank, and
of Petit-Kcmbs and Rheinwillcr on the right, gold-washers are met with
at intervals. Near Nambscim, Gcisswasser, and Vieux-Brisach, the
gravel is sometimes quite rich, but very irregularly so. It is chiefly
lower down, about 62 miles from Kale, that the workings have always
been numerous, and they are particularly concentrated from a few
kilometres above Kehl, to Daxland, near Carlsruhe.

The washers make a preliminary test of the gravel by rudely panning

Fig. 27.

»!'<««':«« ■ «

Fig. 28.

^mmmmm^mi^i^smmmm^

Rhine Gold-deposits and Washing Apparatus.

a sample, and if they find as many as 10 or 12 " colours " in this way, they
reckon to earn about i^/r. (iS^-) by their day's labour. The method of
panning has nothing singular about it ; the instrument used is made of
wood, charred black on the inside to facilitate discovery of the gold-
grains, and of the shape indicated in Fig. 24, measuring about 16^ in. in

EUROPE : GERMANY.

713

total length, 4^ in. in width at the mouth, and ^ in. deep in the dish.
The apparatus employed in washing the gravel has not varied from that
described by Heberer in 1582, and illustrated in Fig. 25. It consists of
an inclined table about 2 yd. long and i yd. wide, covered with a cloth
made of long-stapled wool, set at an angle of 10° to 12°. At the head
of the table is a sieve or hurdle made of osiers, the orifices in which are
not more than | in. in diameter ;. when this is filled with gravel, the
operator washes it with water from a hand-bucket till all the smaller
material has passed through the interstices, leaving the stones exceeding
J in. in diameter, which are then thrown out. The fine sand and gold-
grains remain for the most part caught in the wool, while the stones cither
roll away at once or are brushed out. When this has been done several
times, the blanket is removed from the table and washed in a tub of
clean water, by which the sand and gold-grains are dislodged from the
fabric. This mixture of sand and gold is generally carried home to be
separated, which is effected in the wooden boat-like vessel, termed a
Schiff in Seltz and a Sass in Baden, shown in Fig. 26, and measuring
about 4 ft. 6 in. long and i ft. 6 in. deep.

The cloth used on the table is that known locally as drap de Souabe •
or Schwabentuch, and is the same as the Tyrolese and the German
waggoners used for cloaks. It endures about i year, if turned when the
first side is worn out. The grains of gold are driven with some force by
the water into the meshes of the cloth, and sometimes even completely
through, in which case they are arrested by a second cloth of cotton or
linen, on which the blanket rests. This duplicate cloth is only neces-
sary below the hurdle : the greater part of the gold stops at the lower
edge of the grating. A man working 1 2 hours a day can treat about
4 cub. yd. in this manner. About 10 per cent, of the gold is lost in
ordinary gravel at this stage ; it might be diminished by reducing the
angle of the table, but that would also lower the daily outturn. The
gold collected subsequently in the Schiff is amalgamated with about
\ its weight of mercury.

With regard to the distribution of the metal in the gravel banks, this
follows certain rules which appear to be well understood by the gold-
washers, (i) The most highly auriferous spots, termed Goldgriinde, are
those formed by the re-distribution of gravel banks or islands, as indi-
cated in Fig. 27, thus : A is a bank of poor gravel, the portion A' of
which has been carried away by the stream and formed into a bank B,
whose richest spots will be ^ ^ ^, the gold always being found where the
largest and heaviest stones have rested. (2) Spots behind artificial ob-
structions in the river are often rich. (3) Banks re-formed in the midule
of the river far from their source arc generally poor. (4) Sometimes in
the poorest deposits occur comparatively rich strips, due to local re-

714

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

'A,

arrangement after or during the formation, occupying the down-stream
edge of the bank, as shown in Fig. 2& : m u p is a poor bank, termi-
nating in a rich patch at/ r, just above the water-line, (s) Not a trace
of gold can be found in the fine sand. The proportion of gold is
greater according as the river has fallen more slowly. According to
Daubree's researches the maximum and minimum gold-yield may be
stated thus : —

Quantity of Gravel.

Depth of
Deposit.

Volume

washed per

9 hours.

Weight
of Gravel.

Yield of

Auriferous

Sand.

Gold in
I cub. ft.

Yield of
Gold.

Value of Gold

per 9 hours'

work.

First

Second

Third (average^

worked) . , /
Fourth (poorest^

worked) . . /

in.

S-8S
2-73

3-51
10-92

cub. ft.
121
118

114
109

lb,
13,662
13.205
12,826

12,236

lb.
22
21

11-72

0-61

gr.
15-59

6-75
3-6i

0*22

J. d.

8 9
3 7
2

The gravel at d, Fig. 27, is no longer payably auriferous.

It is not only in the bed of the Rhine, that gold is met with ; it
occurs in the gravel at various points distant 5 or 6 miles from the
stream, and appears to be generally disseminated throughout all the
alpine gravel constituting the plain of the Rhine, as well as in the
ancient alluvions of the river, and in those of the 111, which are similar.
But the proportions are too small to admit of working at a profit by
existing means.

The average assay of the Rhine gold is o • 934 gold and o • 066 silver.
Dobereiner found 0*00069 of platinum. Daubrde estimates the total
production at 40,000 to 45,000 /r. (1583/. to 1786/.) per annum, divided
among about 500 gold-washers.

Greece. — The islands in which the Greeks carried on gold-mining
operations included Thasos, Cyprus, and Siphnos [Siphanto] ; to these,
Tournefort adds Naxos, stating that the natives " pretended " that gold-
and silver-mines existed near the castle of Naxia. Rawlinson (Herodotus,
ii. 57 ; Thalia, iii. 57) says that lead was still abundant in Siphanto in
the time of Tournefo'-*", hut the gold- and silver-mines had failed before
the time of Pausanias. The words of Pausanias (bk. x. c. xi. : vol. iii.
pp. II 5-6) are, "The island Siphnos had gold-mines; and they were
ordered by Apollo to send a tenth of the produce of these mines to Del-
phos ; in consequence of which they built a treasury, and sent with it a
tenth of the produce of their mines. Afterwards, however, through their
immoderate desire of accumulating wealth, they neglected to send the
tenth of their riches to Delphos ; and in consequence of this their gold-
mines were destroyed by an inundation of the sea." Laurent (Herodotus,

EUROPE : GREECE, ICELAND, ITALY.

715

i. 225 : Thalia, iii. 57) says, " The affairs of the Siphnians about this time
were in the most flourishing state : they were the richest of the islanders ;
having in their island, mines of gold and silver, so productive, that out of
the tithe of the coin accruing from them a treasury is dedicated at
Delphi, comparable to the richest. They divided among themselves,
every year, the product of these mines."

Col. Leake says that Belon, who visited the mines of Sidherokdpsa
in the middle of the sixteenth century, asserts that he found 500 or 600
furnaces in different parts of the mountain, that besides silver, gold was
extracted here from pyrites, that 6000 workmen were then employed
and that the mines sometimes returned to the Turkish Government a
monthly profit of 30,000 ducats of gold.

ICEL -ND. — The suspected occurrence of gold in Iceland is thus
alluded to by the editor of the present work in a previous volume on
that island. " A lump of mineral carelessly gathered by one of the
members of our expedition on the brink of the Kettle crater, showed, on
analysis by Mr. White, of Finsbury, the following composition ; —

Silver
Gold

14 oz. 14 dwt. per ton of mineral,
o t, 9*19 >i »

" The mineral was a brownish-black colourer!, vesicular, cindery,
easily powdered mass, and was generally suppose-^ to be a sample of
palagonite conglomerate, which had been subjected to great heat sub-
sequently to its deposition. In the crevices and cavities of the mass, the
precious metals were found native."

Unfortunately, diligent search failed to procure a second specimen,
which is the more to be regretted, as it leaves a doubt resting over the
genuineness of the first, while if duly authenticated, it would be evidence
of the actual formation of the metal within almost historical times.

Italy. — According to Strabo (bk. iv. c. vi. § 7 : Bohn's library, i. 305),
the country of the Salassi (in ancient Gallia Transpadana, in modern
Piedmont) contains gold-mines, of which formerly, in the days of their
power, they were masters, as well as of the passes. The river Doria
Baltea (ancient name Duria) afforded them great facility in obtaining
the metal by supplying them with water for washing the gold, and they
have emptied the main bed by the numerous trenches cut for drawing
the water to different places. This operation, though advantageous in
gold-hunting, was injurious to the agriculturists below, as it deprived
them of the irrigation of a river, which, by the height of its position,
was capable of watering their plains. This gave rise to frequent wars
between the two nations ; when the Romans gained the dominion, the
Salassi lost both their gold-works and their country ; but as they still
possessed the mountains, they continued to sell water to the public con-

;

7i6

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

tractors of the gold-mines, with whom there were continual disputes, on
account of the avarice of the contractors, and thus the Roman generals
sent into the country were ever able to find a pretext for commencing war.

Again (bk. v. c. i. § 12 : Bohn, i. 325) he says the mines of Cisalpine
Gaul (which included modern Piedmont and Lombardy) are not worked
now so diligently, because not equally profitable with those of Trans-
alpine Keltica and Iberia ; but formerly they must have been, since there
were gold-diggings even in Vercelli, near to Ictimuli [probably Victi-
moloj, both which villages are near to Placentia [Piacenza]. And
(bk. V. c. iv. § 9 : Bohn, i. 368), Pithecussae [Ischia] was very prosperous,
on account of the fertility of the soil and the productive gold-mines.

Pliny (bk. iii. c. 24 : Bohn's library, i. 257) declares that in abundance
of metals of every Kind, Italy yields to no land whatever ; but all search
for them has been prohibited by an ancient decree of the senate, who
gave orders thereby that Italy shall be exempted from such treatment.
But it is diflScult to say what is the exact force of " parci" here; whether
in fact it means that Italy shall be wholly exempted from such treat-
ment, as an indignity offered to her soil, or whether her minerals were to
be strictly kept in reserve as a last resource : Ajasson, in his translation,
seems to take the former view ; Littre, the latter.

According to Giulio Axerio, the mountains of Valsesia and Ossola
yield gold. The precious metal is found in auriferous iron-pyrites, in
the native state, in quartz, and also associated with copper-ore. By
washing the solid residuum of river and mountain torrents, sufficient is
produced annually to prove that " golden sands " are not quite a fable.
About 60,000/. represents the annual value of the gold of Italy, which is
extracted by the amalgamation process.

Tapt. Smyth (1828), alluding to the tradition of gold in Sardinia,
explains the name Luogo d'Oro as a corruption of Luogo Doria. But
the argentiferous galena mines are renowned, and probably some gold
is extracted from these ores.

Hartmann, in i860, placed the yearly gold-production of Italy at
about 220 lb. ; Roswag made it 418 lb. In 1868, the official estimate of
the gold-yield of Mont*^ Rosa and Corsente was about 94^ lb. A
British Consular Report fir 1877 states the value of the gold extracted
at 257,400 lire (10,188/. 15^.), and of iron-pyrites, 78,520 lire (3108/.).

Through the very kind instrumentality of Commander Felix Gioro-
lano. Chief Director of the metallic mines of the kingdom, the
author has been furnished with a special report on the gold-workings of
Italy in 1882, illustrated by the accompanying sketch-map. Fig. 29,
which may be translated as follows.

Gold-veins exist in several localities in northern Italy, especially in
the W. Alps, in the neighbourhood of the Simplon, Monte Rosa, and

EUROPE : ITALY.

717

Mont Blanc, as well as at several points in the Ligurian Apennines, N.

and N.E. of Genoa. But these veins are of no great richness, their total

yield having rarely exceeded 2 lb. of gold daily, and being generally

below that figure. The m >st

extensively worked veins are in ^' '°' ^9-

the before-mentioned groups

of the W. Alps, especially in

the valleys descending from

Monte Rosa and the Simplon

towards the E. into the basin

of the Toce, and thence into

the La JO Maggiore. They

are th' . valleys of Antigorio,

Antrona, Anzasca, and Toppa

or Marmazza. Also at Alagna,

at the head of the valley of

the Sesia, on the S. foot of

Monte Rosa.

The veins in these valleys
consist of numerous threads
of iron-pyrites and quartz,
traversing quartzites and mica-
schists passing into gneiss.
Their general direction is N.
and S., or N.N.W. and S.S.E.
The gold is usually dissemi-
nated invisibly in the iron-
pyrites, and is rarely to be
seen in tiny grains in the
white quartz, as in some of
the veins in the Val Toppa. The ores accompanying the auriferous
pyrites are copper-pyrites, mispickel [arsenical pyrites], grey copper-ore,
galena, and blende. Their proportions vary with the locality : sometimes
the mispickel is very abundant, as in the mine called Cani, the ore from
which is treated at the Battigio works, Valle Anzasca.

Occasionally, native gold is found in the beds of copper-pyrites at
Ollomont, in the valley of Aosta, but in very small isolated patches of no
permanence, while the veins of the Monte Rosa valleys, however vari-
able in richness, have a ce-' ain continuity. The gold-yield of the pyritous
ores is not commonly very high. The richest reaches 2J to 3 oz. per
ton, but i^ oz. is considered a high figure, and it often descends to 13 dwt.
or less. It is sometimes worked at a profit when even lower than this.
The gold gained by amalgamation contains about 25 per cent, of silver.

Sketch-map of Italian Gold-fields.

718

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

The veins have been an object of exploitation for a very long time.
Formerly, the Government itself worked some mines, as those of Alagna,
in the valley of the Sesia, where is a group of very interesting veins ;
but it has generally been left to private enterprise. According to the
mining laws of Upper Italy, mines, being considered res Jtullius, are the
object of concessions, granted gratis by the Government to those willing
to take them, precedence being given to the discoverer. More than 60
localities are known where operations have been undertaken, generally
on Government concessions; but a great part have been abandoned.
There remain about 26 concessions in force, but the number of mines
actually at work is not more than 5 or 6.

As a rule, in former days, operations were conducted on a very
modest scale. The ore was first pounded under stamps, then amalga-
mated with mercury in little mills established on the water-courses of
the neighbouring valleys, and capable of treating 120 to 132 lb. of
pyrites per 24. hours. But at Pestarena, in the Valle Anzasca, was a
considerable undertaking, with an adit cutting several veins, and a
works of some importance.

During the last 20 years, the small isolated exploitations have given
place to larger works by their combination. Two English companies
have acquired these rights and conducted operations on a grand scale
with improved means. The Pestarena United Gola-mining Co. (Taylor &
Co.) took the mines of Valle Anzasca and Val Toppa, with their reduc-
tion-works at Macugnaga, Pestarena, Battigio, and Fomarco, at the Pi^-
di-Mulera. The other, called the Val Antigorio Gold-mining Co., took
those in the valleys farther E., with the works at Crodo. These com-
panies have established wire-rope tramways for the economic transport
of the ore across the valleys and spurs to the works. The latter are
provided with powerful crushing apparatus and mills, capable of treating
II 00 to 1320 lb. of ore per diem.

The production of these mines has nevertheless always been very
modest. The official statistics of the resident engineers, perhaps a little
below the mark, but always sufficiently near, for many years past show a
mean total rarely exceeding 440 lb. annually of gold of 75 per cent, fine-
ness, and sometimes less than that. Since the operations of the two
before-mentioned English companies, the production has increased a
little ; 2^ to 3^ lb. daily has been spoken of, but even that has not been
continuous, and an annual yield of 660 lb. seems to have been seldom
reached. Meantime some mines have been abandoned, as that of Cani,
with the works at Battigio, in 1875 ; the Antigorio Co. has closed the
Crodo works, and a part of its territory has passed to the Pestarena
Co., which continues working on a mediocre scale. It nevertheless
would seem not a bad enterprise to resuscitate the mines of Alagna.

EUROPE : ROUMANIA.

719

In a valley of the Ligurian Apennines called Val Corsente, between
Alexandria and Genoa, in the arrondissement of Novi, exists a group of
auriferous quartz veins traversing serpentine rocks, which have been
experimentally worked. A reduction-works has been erected at Casa-
Icggio, near the said valley; but the production of this locality has
always been very trifling, and operations are now suspended. Mention
may also be made, though rather as a matter of curiosity, of some
nuggets of crystallized native gold found some years since in the copper-
pyrites mine of Monte Loreto, above Sestri-Levante (E. Ligurian
Riviera). One of these nuggets weighed several lb., but it was quite of
isolated occurrence, and similar finds have not recurred.

In Upper Italy, gold is also found in the form of small grains and
spangles in the ancient alluvions covering the foot of the W. Alps, where
exist the veins already described. They are, especially the valleys
of the Oreo, the Dora-Baltea (valley of Aosta), the Scsia, and the Ticino,
descending from the Graian and Pennine Alps, which possess auriferous
alluvions. There are reasons for believing that the ancient or deep
alluvion, which is found beneath the level of this part of the valley of the
Po, at the foot of the W. Alps, is in places rich in gold. There exist
historic traditions leading to the conclusion that at the time of the
Roman Empire, considerable works were here carried on. In the plain
stretching E. of the Dora-Baltea are traces of these operations, even adits
driven in the alluvion. An ancient document speaks of thousands of
workmen (slaves) who mined gold in these regions. But to-day there is
not a single work in progress.

There exist also alluvions of some importance in the before-mentioned
valley of the Corsente, and in that of the Orba, which receives this
torrent : alluvions which bear also evidences of ancient work ; but
their riches, which seem sufficiently small, do not encourage modern
enterprise.

Alluvions containing metalliferous sands belong in Piedmont to the
owner of the soil. As to the beds of rivers, permission is given to
search and wash the sands, under regulations for preventing damage to
the public water-supply. At present, however, no undertaking of
importance is on foot. A few individuals only, armed with a wooden
bowl, occasionally wash the sands of the before-named Alpine rivers,
extracting a meagre return, the total annual value not exceeding a few
thousand francs.

ROUMANIA. — Gold is found in most of the rivers flowing from the
Carpathians, but chiefly in the Olto and Ardgeche and their tributaries.
These placers were formerly worked by state slaves, and the proceeds
belonged to the reigning princesses. Vein-gold is found in the mountains
of Ardgeche, Rucar, Tergoviste, Bacau, Niamtzo, and Suciara. Some

720

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

very coarse alluvial gold from Roumania was shown at the Paris
Exhibition of 1867.

Russia in Europe. — In 1874, gold-washing was begun on the tribu-
taries of the Tana, in the district of Uleaborg, where 400 lb. of the
precious metal was obtained in the following year, the process employed
being modelled after the Californian sluices. The country where the
gold was obtained forms part of Russian Lapland, between the 70th
parallel and the Arctic Circle, a region unsuited by climate and nature
for the development of mining industry, and difficult of access, owing to
the want of roads, from the towns of Torncii and Kola, about equidistant
from the placers. At first, experiments were made for transporting
supplies to the prospecting parties of gold-seekers by means of reindeer,
but these were found too costly. Whenever diggings were opened on
the Tana and Ivalo, the yield proved disappointing ; while in Finland
(see p. 724) the search was altogether unsuccessful. It is, however,
premature to conclude that rich deposits of gold are not contained in
Finland and Lapland, which may be only awaiting a fortunate, or perhaps
a more experienced, discoverer.

Where the granites of Finland border on the governments of
Archangel and Olonetz, they are associated with crystalline schists, and
these probably contain gold. In the district of Kem, at Voitsk, on the
Vyg, a river flowing through Lake Vyg before emptying into the White
Sea, auriferous quartz was found in veins crossing the talcose schists.
But the attempts to work the mine, though repeated for several years,
failed, and in the end it was abandoned, in 1794, after having produced
169 lb. of the precious metal. This was the earliest of the gold dis-
coveries in Russia.

In the Olonetz government the search for gold has been hitherto
unsuccessful, notwithstanding the extensive crystalline azoic fDrmations
which should contam gold ; and the same may be said of Kola, the
borders of the governments of Archangel and Olonetz with Finland, the
Timan range. Cape Kanin, the Kalguief Islands, Vaigatch and Nova
Zembla, among the least visited parts of the solitudes of Northern
Russia. The granites of Olonetz lie generally in a north-east and
south-west direction, parallel with the water-parting of the rivers flowing
into the Baltic and Arctic seas.

Servia. — According to Paton (1845), the lessees of the gold- and
silver-mines of Servia, as well as the workmen of the State mint, were
Venetians.

Spain. — According to Strabo (bk. iii. c. ii. § 3, 8 : Bohn's library, i.
214, 219-20), there are copper and gold about the Cotinae [Cotillas,
or perhaps Constantina, near Almaden]. These mountains are on the
left as you sail up the river Guadalquiver. Turdetania is intersected by

EUKOl'E : RUSSIA, SKRVIA, SI'AIN.

721

the Guadalquiver, and contains the towns of Cordova in Andalusia,
Cadiz, and Seville. It abounds in metals. Gold is not only dug from
the mines, but likewise collected, sand containing gold being washed
down by the rivers and torrents. It is frequently met with in arid
districts, but here the gold is not visible to the sight, whereas in those
which are overflowed the grains of gold are seen glittering. On this
account, they cause water to flow over the arid places in order to make
the grains shine ; they also dig pits, and make use of other contrivances
for washing the sand, and separating the gold from it ; so that at the
present day more gold is procured by washing than by digging it from
the mines. The Galatae afllirm that the mines along the Kemmenus
mountains [Cevennes] and their side of the Pyrenees are superior; but
most people prefer those on this side. They say that sometimes amongst
the grains of gold lumps have been found weighing y lb. : these they
csWpalce; they need but little refining They also say that in splitting
open stones they find small lumps resembling paps. In the beds of the
rivers, the sand is either collected and washed in boats close by, or else
a pit is dug to which the earth is carried and there washed. Certain of
the copper-mines are called gold-mines, which would seem to show that
formerly gold was dug from them.

Pliny (bk. xxxiii. c. 21 : Bohn's library, vi. 99-104) gives a more
detailed account. According to him, " gold is found in our own part of
the world ; not to mention the gold extracted from the earth in India by
the ants, and in Scythia by the griffins. Among us, it is procured in
three diflerent ways ; the first of which is, in the shape of dust, found
in running streams, the Tagus in Spain for instance, the Padus in Italy,
the Hebrus in Thracia, the Pactolus in Asia, and the Ganges in India ;
indeed, there is no gold found in a more perfect state than this,
thoroughly polished as it is by the continual attrition of the current.

" A second mode of obtaining gold is by sinking shafts or seeking it
among the debris of mountains , both of which methods it will be as
well to describe. The persons in search of gold in the first place remove
the segutilum " (Ajasson remarks that the Castilians still call the surface
earth of auriferous deposits by the name of segttllo), "such being the name
of the earth which gives indication of the presence of gold. This done,
a bed is made, the sand of which is washed, and, according to the residue
found after washing, a conjecture is formed as to the richness of the vein.
Sometimes, indeed, gold is found at once in the surface earth, a success,
however, but rarely experienced. Recently, for instance, in the reign of
Nero, a vein was discovered in Dalmatia, which yielded daily as much as
50 lb. weight of gold. The gold that is thus found in the surface crust
is known as tahitiiim, in cases where there is auriferous earth beneath.
The mountains of Spain " (we learn from Ajasson that numerous pits or

3 A

722

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

shafts are still to be seen in Spain, from which the Romans extracted
gold. At Riotinto, he says, there are several of them), " in other respects
arid and sterile, and productive of nothing whatever, are thus constrained
by man to be fertile, in supplying him with this precious commodity.

" The gold that is extracted from shafts is known by some persons as
canalicinm, and by others as caualicusc " (both meaning " channel-gold ") ;
" it is found adhering to the gritty crust of marble " {tnarmoris glarea,
under which name he no doubt means quartz and schist), "and altogether
different from the form in which it sparkles in the sapphirus of the East,
and in the stone of Thcbais and other gems, it is seen interlaced with the
molecules of the marble. The channels of these veins are found running
in various directions along the sides of the shafts, and hence the name
of the gold they yield — canaliciuvi " (channel-gold or trench-gold). " In
these shafts, too, the superincumbent earth is kept from falling in by
means of wooden pillars. The substance that is extracted is first broken
up, and then washed ; after which it is subjected to the action of fire,
and ground to a fine powder. This powder is known as apitascudes.

" The third method of obtaining gold is by the aid of galleries driven
to a long distance ; . . . these mines are known as artngice" (deep mines
in Spain are still called arriigia, a term also used to signify gold beneath
the surface) ; ..." in this kind of mining, arches are left at frequent
intervals for the purpose of supporting the weight of the mountain above.
In mining either by shaft or by gallery, barriers of silex are met with,
which have to be driven asunder by the aid of fire and vinegar ; or
more frequently, as this method fills the galleries with suffocating
vapours and smoke, to be broken in pieces with bruising-machines shod
with pieces of iron weighing 150 lb. : which done, the fragments are
carried out on the workmen's shoulders, night and day, each man passing
them on to his neighbour in the dark, it being only those at the pit's
mouth that ever sec the light. . . . When these operations are all com-
pleted, beginning at the last, they cut away the wooden pillars at the
point where they support the roof : the coming downfall gives warning,
which is instantly perceived by the sentinel, and by him only, who is
set to watch upon a peak of the same mountain. By voice as well as by
signals, he orders the workmen to be immediately summoned from their
labours, and at the same moment takes to flight himself. The mountain,
rent to pieces, is cleft asunder, hurling its debris to a distance with a
crash, which it is impossible for the human imagination to conceive ; and
from the midst of a cloud of dust, of a density quite incredible, the
victorious miners gaze uijon this downfall of Nature. Nor yet even then
are they sure of gold, nor indeed were they by any means certain that
there was any to be found when they first began to excavate, it being
quite sufficient, as an inducement to undergo such perils and to incur

EUROPE : SPAIN.

723

such vast expense, to entertain the hope that they shall obtain what they
so eagerly desire.

" Another labour too, quite equal to this, and one which entails even
greater expense, is that of bringing rivers from the more elevated moun-
tain heights, a distance in many instances of 100 miles perhaps, for the pur-
pose of washing these debris. . . . Then, too, vallics and crevasses have to
be united by the aid of aqueducts, and in another place impassable rocks
have to be hewn away, and forced to make room for hollowed troughs of
wood ; the persons hewing them hanging suspended all the time with
ropes." When the water reaches the level ground, trenches have to be
dug for its passage, which are lined with planks and covered at the bottom,
at regular intervals, with a layer of itlex, *' a plant like rosemary in appear-
ance, rough and prickly, and well adapted for arresting any pieces of
gold that may be carried along. . . . The earth, carried onwards in the
stream, arrives at the sea at last, and thus is the shattered mountain
washed away, causes which have greatly tended to extend the shores of
Spain by these encroachments upon the deep." Whether shafts or
galleries are used, the gold obtained is pure gold, and is often found " in
lumps, sometimes exceeding 10 lb. even. The names given to these
lumps zx&palagcB diX\6 palaciirnce, while the gold found in small grains is
known as balncc. The ulex that is used for the above purpose is dried
and burnt, after which the ashes of it are washed upon a bed of grassy turf,
in order that the gold may be deposited thereupon. Asturia, Ga'iaecia,
and Lusitania furnish in this manner, yearly, according to some authori-
ties, 20,000 lb. weight of gold, the produce of Asturia forming the major
part. Indeed, there is no part of the world that for centuries has main-
tained such a continuous fertility in gold. I have already mentioned
that by an ancient decree of the senate, the soil of Italy has been pro-
tected from these researches ; otherwise, there would be no land more
fertile in metals. There is extant also a censorial law relative to the
gold-mines of Victumulae, in the territory of VcrcelliE, by which the
farmers of the revenue were forbidden to employ more than 5000 men at
the works."

Livy mentions that the gold of the splendid ornaments of fine gold
worn by the Roman matrons, came from the district of Tamaya, in
Spain. Recent attempts have been made to discover the mine whence
it came, and an old shaft was found, which, when cleaned out, laid open
extensive Roman galleries. A lode of ferruginous conglomerate, 32 in.
wide, was discovered, containing visible gold, and samples are said to
have given by assay, 22 to 24 oz. of gold per metric quintal (less than
2 cwt).

Cardonne informs us that " The mines of gold and silver which
existed in Spain were a great source of wealth to the Arabs ; they

3 A 2

724

GLOURAI'HICAL DISTRIHUTION.

employed a large number of workmen, and extracted a great quantity of
those metals." The chief mines of the Arabs appear to have been in
the province of Jaen, where, even now, on the hills, more than 5CX) shafts
may be seen.

Piquet says that in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the
province of Santander was known to contain mines of gold, the localities
of which are mentioned in the archives of Simancas.

According to Laur's report, Post-Tertiary extinct river-beds, like
the dead-river deep leads of California, cover many sq. leagues in Spain,
in some places capped by volcanic rocks. Samples were taken from 2
districts : — C<5n6s, in the hill which separates the Rio Daro from the Rio
Genii; and Huetor, on the plateau between the valley of the Genii and
that of Monachil (in and around the town of Granada). The deposit
extends far to the N. of the Nevada of Granada, as well as E., W., and
S.W., lying on the lower part of the slopes of the hills, and underlying
the more recent deposits of the plain of the Vega.

Roswag states the yearly gold-production ot Spain at a maximum of
7CX) lb.

Sweden and Norway. Lipland. — The history of the Lapland
gold-discoveries is as follows, li. ""Cy, the Swedish engineer Dahl,
while exploring the district of Lap^ arken, on the borders of Russia,
came upon auriferous alluvions in the river Tana. Crossing into Russian
territory, he discovered gold along the right affluents of this river, and on
the Ivalo, discharging into Lake Ehnareh, and ultimately falling into the
Arctic Sea. Two Californian miners extracted 60 oz. of gold here as
the result of a summer's work in 1869. The official statistics of the yield
of the 8 years' washing in Finnish Lappmarken are : —

1870 .

oz.

. 615

1874 .

oz.

• 72s

1871 .

. 1822

1875 .

• 546

1872 .

. 1770

1876 .

. 318

1873 .

. 1030

1877 •

. 224

This gives a total of 7050 oz. The relative proportions from different
streams were : — 6388 oz. from the Ivalajoki, 566 oz. from the Palsioja,
86 oz. from other little streams falling into the Ivalajoki, and 10 oz. from
the Luttajoki. The largest nugget yet found weighed about 65 gr.

Switzerland. — Switzerland possesses no gold-mines nor -washings
at the present moment, though it would appear that much of the
alluvial gold worked in the streams just over the border in France (p. 709)
and Italy (p. 715) is really derived from a Swiss source. Formerly small
quantities were found at the foot of Mount Calanda, close to Feldsberg,
near Chur, enclosed in schistose quartz and calcspar. Remunerative
washings used also to be carried on in both the rivers Emmen, and in the
Reuss, as well as in the Rhine, near Bale.

* \

EUROPE: SWEDEN AND NORWAY, SWITZERLAND, TURKEY. 725

Turkey in Europe.— According to Strabo (fragment 33, 34:
Bohn's library, i. 512), "There are about the Strymonic Gulf other cities
also, as . . . and Datum, which has an excellent and most productive
soil, dockyards for ship-building, and gold-mines. There are numerous
gold-mines among the Crcnidcs, where the city of Philip now stands,
near Mount Pangneus. Panga;us itself, and the country on the E. of the
Strymon, and on the VV. as far as Pceonia, contains gold- and silver-mines.
Particles of gold, it is said, are found in Ptvonia in ploughing the land."

The Abbd' Bartholemy places the date of Cadmus' first working of the
gold-mines in Pangneus at 1549 B.C. Philip of Macedon worked them
in 358 B.C., and derived most of his treasure from them. The yield of
Thracian gold in his day has been estimated at lOCXD talents a year, equal
to 340,0CK)/. or to 5,000,000/., according to the value given to the talent.

Herodotus says (bk. vi. c. 46-7 : Rawlinson, iii. 436-7), " They were
masters of the gold-mines of Scaptd-Hyle, the yearly produce of which
amounted in all to 80 talents." Scapt6-Hyle is said by Stephen to have
been a town upon the Thracian coast, opposite Thasos. It was probably
near Datum, to which its gold-mines seem sometimes to be ascribed.
The wife of Thucydidcs was, we are told, a native of this place, and the
owner of some of its mines. Thasos is said to have been called Chrysa
by the early Greeks, on account of its gold-mines. Also, "These
Phoenician workings are in Thasos itself, between Coenyra and a place
called JE.x\yrdi, over against Samothrace : a huge mountain has been
turned upside down in the search for ores." That is on the S.E. side of
the island. Coenyra .still remains in the modern Kinyra. The site of
./Enyra cannot be fixed.

Again (bk. vii. c, 112 : Rawlinson, iv. 93), "with the long high range
of Pangaium upon his right, a tract in which there are mines both of gold
and silver." The whole region from Philippi and Datum on the E. to
Dysorum on the W. was most rich in the precious metals. Aristotle
relates that after heavy rains " nuggets " of virgin gold were often found
of above i lb. weight. There were two — one of 3 and one of 5 lb. — in the
possession of the Macedonian kings. And (bk. ix. c. 75 : Rawlinson, iv. 433),
" in a battle with the Edonians near Datum, about the go'd-mines there,
he [Sophanes] was slain." Datum or Datus was a Thasian colony on the
coast of Thrace, lying between Abdera and Ncapolis. The battle here
mentioned was fought about the year u.C. 465, on occasion of the first
attempt which the Athenians made to colonize Amphipolis.

Pisistratus, when he obtained possession of Athens, was in receipt of
funds from the country itself and " from the Strymon river " (Clio, i. 64 :
Laurent, i. 31). The country between the Strymon and Nestus
abounded in mines of gold and silver. Nestus is in long. 24° 40', lat. 4l^
A river of Thrace, it comes from the E. extremity of Mount Scomius,

I I
I I

n
ii

726

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

flows between Mounts Rhodope and Pang.xus and falls into the ^gean
at 60 miles from the mouth of the Strymon, called by the Turks Cara
Soui". Strymon, long. 23" 50', lat. 40° 50', a river of Thrace, rises in
Mount Scomius, and falls into a bay of the JEgean Sea, of which the
modern name is Contesa or Orphani.

A German mining engineer named 1' ischbach. in the Turkish service,
gave Davis (1879) an interesting account of his discovery of the ancient
gold-mines, worked by Philip of Macedon and Alexander the Great,
some 7 to 8 hours from Salonica, on the river Kilik. There was a great
number of chambers connected by galleries, many of which were so low
and narrow that they could only be explored by crawling. He had
observed in one place a rich vein of silver, which the old miners had
neglected : they must therefore have found something more precious ; but
he could discover nothin;^ except oxide of iron, mixed with an earth ; he
had tried some of this with mercury, and obtained a small quantity of
gold, enough to " pay " ; but the Turkish Government refused to give a
concession for working the mine. Fischbach thought the old miners
worked in a rough and wasteful way, by washing the mineral, and gathering
the gold as it was precipitated down the course of the stream, so that
much must have been lost.

As the part of the mainland opposite Thasos was famed in ancient
times for gold-mines, Tozer (1869) inquired whether any minerals were
discovered at the present day ; all, however, that he could learn was that
quartz is found all about Cavalla, and that therefore it is likely enough
that there is gold, but that no traces of mines had been discovered.

On the slopes of Olympus, in the vale of Tempe, an English company
has for many years been engaged in mining operations, chiefly among
the silver- and gold-depos'ts. A celebrated Russian writer says the
Pactolus would pay to work now, if not as great as it did to Croesus, yet
in quantities that would astonish the world.

Woodward ( 1 873) says that no ores of any kind are known at Despoto-
Dagh, save small quantities of gold which are washed out of the alluvium
near Balukkioi. He adds that gold in small quantities is obtained by
washing near Slatica.

United Kingdom. — Gold and silver are enumerated by Strabo
(iv. 279) among the products of Great Britain. The Romans were
acquainted with this, and our precious metals proved one incentive to
their ambition in effecting our conquest. Thus Agricola, in his oration
to his soldiers before the battle of the Grampian Hills, excites them to
victory by reminding ^hem " Fert Britannia aurum et argentum, et alia
metalla pretium victoriae." On their first landing in Britain, the Romans
found the inhabitants in possession of gold and gold coin. But Murchison
has expressed a belief that " in our own country, as in many others, the

EUROPE : UNITED KINGDOM.

727

quantity of gold originally imparted to the rocks was small, and has to
a great extent been exhausted." Modern ofificial statistics of the total
gold-production of these islands are : —

Year.

Oz.

£,

Year.

Oz.

^ i

1861

2784

10,816

1869

1862

5299

20,390

1870

191

750

1863

552

1.747

1871

1864

2887

9.991

1S72

1865

1664

5,824

1S73

1866

743

2,656

1874

385

1540

1867

1520

5,890

1875

579

2105

1 868

1612

3.522

England. Cornwall. — Pennant (1810) observes that gold is to this
day found in Cornwall, mixed with tin and other substances. The largest
piece then discovered was equal "" weight to 3 guineas. He thinks it
probable that it was Cornish gold which proved the lure to the Romans,
for it was impossible that they or the Phoenicians could have been
ignorant of it.

Sir Christopher Hawkins, Bart. (181 8), describes a piece of gold found
in streaming for tin, in a moor near the church of the parish of Ladock.
The specimen of gold intermixed with quartz appears to have formed a
part of, and to have been broken off from, a lode ; pieces of quartz inter-
mixed witl- jold have no been frequently found. In streaming the
moor from S. to N., the gold, probably washed down by the river, was
not found to the N. of a certain line ; the lode therefore must cross the
valley near this line, above which no gold was found in an E. and W.
direction.

Pattison (1854) remarks of the parish of Davidstowe, in the north of
Cornwall, situated at the edge of the granitic boss of Roughtor, that the
Devonian rocks are here traversed by siliceous bands in the form of veins
of coarse quartz. These are subordinate quartzose portions of the slate
rocks, not cross-courses or strings, but metamorphic conditions ac-
companying fissures in the line of the bedding and strike, and attended
with the segregation or addition of various minerals. They were
produced by a cause affecting apparently the whole mass. The veins
are variable in character as regards the admixtures present with the
quartz. Trappean matter is often visible, usually mica, rarely pyrites.
In some places, the quartz is much intersected by ferruginous partings
and hollows ; these contain " gossan," varying in colour from light pink to
dark red-brown. It is these gossaniferous pSrtions in the vicinity of
trappean matter which have been found to be auriferous. In the
summer of 1852, from a portion of a quartz vein at Davidstowe, he

-; Mi

728

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

obtained a trace of gold. Other samples have given 1 1 oz. 13 dwt. 8 gr.
of gold per ton.

Devonshire. — In Devonshire also, the red and brown gossans contain
a percentage which some think will pay the cost of extraction. The
Britannia gossan from Devonshire yielded by experiments in 1853,
1 3 dwt. and i oz. o dwt. 20 gr. per ton. The Poltimorc gossan has given
17 to 32 dwt. per ton, and other Devonshire ores 9 oz. to the ton.

Lancashire. — The geological features of the Australian gold-fields
have been declared similar to the quartz veins in the Silurian rocks of
Seathwaite, near Broughton-in-Furness, in this county, which are
auriferous, and which have several times been proposed to be wrought
for gold. In Australia, as well as in Lanca.shire, the quartz veins are in
Silurian deposits in the vicinity of granite ; in the latter county, near
the granitic district of Ravenglass. The size of the quartz veins here has
prevented their being wrought with success.

Somerset. — Stoddart has described (1876) the unusual occurrence of
the presence of gold and silver in a sample of Carboniferous limestone
taken from a quarry in the neighbourhood of Clevedon. He remarked
the absence of sulphur and silica, which so often accompany gold-
deposits. Analysis gave : — silver, '0023 ; gold, a trace. The amount
of silver varies from 94 gr. per ton to nearly i oz. ; the gold from
3 to 5 gr. per toh.

Worcester. — At Bromsgrove Lickey, near Birmingham, has been found
(1864) siliceous rock impregnated with the precious metals, and it would
appear from some accounts that the only difficulty is the treatment
which the rock should be subjected to, to obtain profitable results, as
samples of ore taken out of a .stone-pit by the roadside going up the hill
were found to contain both gold and silver.

Ireland, — Towards the close of 1796, gold was accidentally discovered
in the Ballinvalley — since called the Gold Mine — brook, a tributary of the
river Aughrim, which rises on the E. slope of Croghan Kinshela, and falls
into the Avoca at the Wooden-bridge. Several hundred peoi)le dug and
.searched for gold in the banks and bed of the stream, thus collecting a con-
siderable quantity, for nearly 6 weeks ; the Government then took posses-
sion, and carried on the working with some little advantage until 1798,
when their works were destroyed by the rebels. In 1801, proceedings were
resumed at Ballinvalley, and examinjitions were commenced at Croghan
Moira, Ballycreen, and Jkillynaca[)ogue. At Croghai Moira, gold was
obtained, tliough in very small quantity ; at Ballycreen, iniimte particles
of gold were found ; in Ballynacapogue brook, small particles of gold were
obtained, but as the re-opened stream-works became less productive, and
as the other localities had afforded very little gold, operations were dis-
continued in 1802. Since then, the neighbouring cottagers have obtained

EUROPE : UNITED KINGDOM.

729

a little gold from the refuse of the Government works and the beds of the
streams, but scarcely sufficient to afford them the means of subsistence.
In several other parts of the district, S. of the sulphur-course, particles of
gold have been found ; but they have not tempted the discoverers to
extend their operations. The detrital matter is, for the most part,
shallow enough to be conveniently wrought by open-cutting ; although in
one instance at least, its depth is so great that it has been worked, in
shafts sunk to the rock ("shelf") and by drifts (levels) extending along its
surface, more cheaply than by the removal of the whole ovcrburthen.

The deposit consists, in great measure, of gravel, shingle, boulders,
and angular blocks of various slates, mixed, here and there, with
pebbles of granite, and smaller quantities of many other earthy sub-
stances, as well as with masses of several ferruginous minerals, some
amount of tinstone, small fragments of sundry other ores, and gold in
minute proportions ; all imbedded in sand and clay, the debris of neigh-
bouring rocks. Some of the earlier nuggets weighed several oz. apiece ;
but, even then, most of the gold consisted, and now the v/hole consists,
of scales and granules of merely a few gr. each. In many of the speci-
mens, however, metallic threads interlace a matrix of wolfram, or of
brown iron-ore. Whether the masses are, large or small, of auriferous
matrix or of pure metal, mostly they seem to have suffered great
attrition ; yet amongst them, small well preserved crystals of gold have
been sometimes obtained. The gold procured by Government ranged
from 2l8 to 21J carats fine. It is believed that the peasantry collected
during tne 6 weeks in 179C, about 800 oz. of gold ; the Government,
from 1796 to 1 8o2, obtained 944 oz. 4 dwt. 15 gr., value 3675/. js. wld. ;
from 1857 to 1862, the Carysfort Mining Co. extracted about 85 oz. It
is impo.ssible to ascertain the amount secured by the cottagers since
1802.

At liallymurtagh, gold is associated with the earthy brown iron-
ore which abounds in the upper portions of both the sulphur-courses ;
but the only reliable analysis shows that it averages less than i^ oz.
(o "000010 per cent.) to the ton of veinstone. The more deeply-seated
pyritous parts of both formations arc also auriferous, but in a still smaller
degree. In 1854, a considerable quantity of gossan, carefully selected
from shallow parts of the Great North sulphur-course in Ballymurtagh,
was submitted to operation in 2 machines then newly invented for
washing gold. The results reported to have been obtained were — in the
first machine, at the rate of 17 dwt. 12 gr. (o* 000027 per cent.) of gold
per ton of ore ; in the second machine, 7 dwt. 12 gr. (o'ooooi i per cent.)
of gold per ton ; another experiment in the second machine gave more
than I oz. per ton. The Directors of the VVicklow Copper Mines Co.,
having little confidence in such conflicting results from the very same

H I

E^K i

730

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

■*■

ore, placed other samples of it in the hands of Prof Apjohn, whose
analysis showed much smaller proportions of gold than the lowest of
those reported by the machinists. Gold is sprinkled through the iron-
pyrites in both the sulphur-courses ; but the proportion is even smaller
than in the gossan.

Gilbert Sanders has remarked in the gold-valleys of Wicklow a close
geological similarity to those of New Zealand. The drift-gold, however,
of which there is plenty, nad not yet been clearly traced to any one of the
quartz veins in Croghan Kinshela mountain, neither by the Carysfort
Mining Co., nor when Government formerly worked the district. Mag-
netic iron appears also in Wicklow, as at Auckland and elsewhere, with
the gold-rocks. Dr. Haughton states that Croghan Kinshela, on the
flanks of which are the gold-streams, is a granite mountain of an extra-
ordinary diversity of composition.

Scotland. — The most complete and scientific account of the gold-
fields of Scotland is given by Dr. Lauder Lindsay, who, while visiting, in
1 86 1, the auriferous districts of the province of Otago, New Zealand,
was much struck with the similarity, as respects physical geography and
geology, between that country and many parts of Scotland. It occurred
to him that, in so far as the physical conformation obtained, and the
same geological structure existed in many parts of Scotland, there
should be a co-equal diffusion of gold as respects at least its area, and
he proposed to himself to determine how far this suggestion or belief
would be borne out by actual investigation. Since that period, he has
given all the attention that opportunity permitted to the subject of the
diffusion of gold in Scotland, both as regards its area and quantity. In
1863, he paid a special visit to the Leadhills district, which, some
centuries ago, yielded to systemr'-ic working upwards of half a million's
worth of gold, and which, regarded by the test of its then productiveness,
is fairly entitled to the appellation of a " gold-field." In order to com-
pare the Scottish gold and gold-rocks with those of other auriferous
countries, he made a special examination of the International Exhibition
of 1862, and of all the museums accessible to him in Britain, Australia,
and New Zealand. His general results or conclusions are : —

1. That gold is much more extensively or generally diffused in Scot-
land than has been supposed.

2. That the area of diffusion, and the extent to which it occurs, can
only be determined by systematic investigation, equivalent at least to
the " prospecting " of gold-diggers.

3. That hitherto, and with certain limited and local exceptions, there
has been no such systematic prospecting in Scotland ; and

4. That there are indications, if they do not always amount to
proofs, of the existence in Scotland both of auriferous quartzites — that

EUROPE : UNITED KINGDOM.

731

is, of gold in situ — and of auriferous " drifts," using the term " drift " in
its most comprehensive sense.

Before making general observations on the Scottish gold-fields, or
comparing them, as regards their richness or extent, with those of other
auriferous countries, which are better known. Dr. Lindsay gives briefly
the principal results of his observations and inquiries at and concerning
what he denominates the Crawford or Leadhills " gold-fields "; the whole
of that moorland and hill region of the southern highlands — Upper
Clydesdale — the southern extremity of Lanarkshire, variously known as
Crawford, Crawford Moor, or Crawford-Lindsay, which includes the dis-
trict now known as the Leadhills, and forms the watershed of the 4 great
southern rivers (the Clyde, Nith, Tweed, and Annan), has repeatedly, and
in various ways, proved to be more or less auriferous. Calvert prospected
the whole Leadhills district, and found gold in every gully and valley.

Griffin also prospected the whole district with the similar result, that
he found gold in dust or grams "everywhere." But long prior to tl.^ir
modern system of prospecting, some of the Leadhills valleys were the
scene of the far-famed alluvial washings under Sir Bevis Bulmcr in
1578-92, and it was from the produce of such washings that the Scottish
Regalia were fashioned in 1 542, and Kings James IV. and V.'s celebrated
bonnet-pieces corned. Bulmer's chief washings are said to have been in
the valley of the Elvan, and he is also represented as having washed the
whole bed of the Glengonner water. But vestiges of ancient " diggins,"
precisely similar to those of Otago, are to be met with in many parts of
the Leadhills district. For instance, Lindsay found the haugh or " flat "
on the banks of the Glengonner water above Abington and immediately
below Glencaple Burn, covered with a series of quartz-like mounds,
exactly resembling those with which he was familiar in the famous
Gabriel's Gully at Tuapeka in Otago, and which are said really to mark
the site, or one of the sites, of Bulmer's celebrated workinp;s. It was the
gold-prospecting in this district, it is said, that led to the discovery of
the lead, which has proved so much more permanent a source of
prosperity to the district, to which it has, moreover, given its distinctive
modern name of late years ; and at present gold is systematically
collected by the Leadhills miners chiefly in certain localities, viz. in
the Windgatc or Windygate Burn, in Langcleuch Burn, in Bellgall Burn,
in the whole course of the Elvan and Glengonner from the Clyde to
theit* source.

The gold occurs chiefly in the gravelly clay, locally known as " till,"
as this coats the flanks of all the Leadhills valleys ; but it is also to
be found in the shingle, gravels, or clays of the stream-beds. Several
of the miners have considerable 'eputation as skilful and successful
gold-finders, and their practised eyes are constantly finding gold in both

732

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

•

localities, the hill-sides and the stream-beds. This gold is invariably
known as " drift " or "alluvial " gold. There is no present local evidence
of the existence of auriferous quartzites. But in 1803, the late Prof.
Traill of Edinburgh found gold in a vein of quartz in situ at Wanlock-
head. All the gold belonging to this district which Lindsay has seen is
of a granular or nuggety character, and quite comparable with the usual
produce of Otago, or other auriferous countries. Some of the nuggets
found in former times, and preserved in the cabinets of local proprietors,
are of considerable size and value. The cabinet of the late Lord
Hopetoun contains two — one of them weighing 2 lb. 3 oz. = 27 oz., or
1 2,960 gr., which at the current price of gold in Australia, 4/. per oz., is
worth 108/., collected, it is said, about 1502, prior to the systematic
workings of Bulmer ; the other, weighing i oz. id dwt., or 720 gr. The
first would appear to be by far the largest mass of native gold ever
found in Scotland. Since, however, systematic gold workings on a large
scale were discontinued, the size of the Leadhills nuggets has been much
smaller, the largest seldom now exceeding 2 or 3 gr., though they are
frequently found of that size. Just previous to Lindsay's visit in the
autumn of 1863, a nugget of 30 gr. had been found, and another single
nugget, whose weight he failed to ascertain, sold for 25^. at Abington.
More generally the gold occurs here as rough granules, coarser and
larger than those constituting what could properly be called " dust," and
of this considerable quantities are frequently collected in limited periods
for special purposes, such as marriage gifts or jewellery, to or for the
local proprietors. Thus, in a fortnight in 1862, 975 gr. were collected
for the Countess of Hopetoun, and on another occasion 600 gr. in 6
weeks by 30 men at spare hours, 1 5 working in the forenoon, and the
other half in the afternoon. About Abington, in 1858, similar quantities
were collected under similar circumstances, to furnish marriage jewellery
for Lady Colebrookc. Between May and October 1863, three miners in
the intervals of leisure from their usual work, collected for Dr. Lindsay
33 gf-* which they found in the "till," about 40 yd. above the bed of the
stream, half-way down the Langcleuch Burn, between Leadhills and
Elvanfoot : their charge was 20s., that is, at the rate of about 1 5/.
per oz., or y^i. per gr. During the last 5 years, the price of crude gold
in Australia and New Zealand has averaged 3/. 17^. 6d. to 4/. per 07., so
that the Scottish diggers obtained for their produce nearly 4 times as
much as the New Zealand or Australian diggers got for theirs. The price
appears at first sight to be extremely and disproportionally high ; but the
cases are by no means parallel ; for in the case of the Leadhills gold,
the collection is made to meet demands for cabinet specimens, or for
jewellery materials, under circumstances quite exceptional. The Lead-
hills miners collect their gold mostly to order ; it is thus at once disposed

EUROPE : UNITED KINGDOM.

733

of, and hence gold is seldom to be found there for sale, or only in
very small quantities. On one occasion Lindsay was offered a sample
of 140 to 160 gr. for 5/., that is, at the rate at which he purchased his
smaller sample, but the miners rarely have so much in their possession
unsold. In the summer of 1862, by way of holiday work, the miners
frequently collected quantities of 1 5 to 54 gr. The able-bodied Lead-
hills miner never, however, gives up !ms usual labour, at which he earns
i^s. per week, for the mo e precarious gains to be derived from gold-
finding. To gold-seeking he devotes only his spare hours, his holiday
time, or his periods of sickness or debility. Th'^ director of the mines at
Leadhills has such an opinion of the abundance of the gold, the facility
with which it may be collected, and the probable remuncrativencss of
the gold-working, that with a favourable lease of the ground, he and
many others would at once combine to commence systematic operations.
Other local authorities are, however, much less sanguine of profitable
results from working the gold on a larger scale, or by whatever
means, though there is unanimity of opinion as to the general prevalence
of gold, and its easy accessibility, throughout the district.

The method of collecting gold by washing at Leadhills is essentially
that employed in the early history of gold-diggings in all auriferous
countries ; but there can be no doubt that collection would be facilitated,
the produce increased, and the remunerativeness of the operation
improved by the application of the most modern machinery now used
in countries where gold-mining has long been a settled industry.

The Scottish gold-fields may be divided geographically or topo-
graphically into three — the Northern, Central, and Southern.

1. The Northern comprises the greater part of the counties of
Sutherland, Ross, Inverness, and Argyle, north of the Caledonian Canal.
It occupies the longitudinal axis of the northern peninsula of Scotland,
is second in size only to the central area, and has yet almost entirely to
be explored.

2. The Central lies between the Caledonian Canal and the valley of
the Tay ; includes a great part of the shires of Inverness (southern half),
Aberdeen, Banff, Kincardine, Perth, Forfar, Argyle, Stirling, and Dum-
barton. It is far the largest of the 3 areas. Like the Southern gold-
field, it forms a transverse belt across Scotland, and much of it remains
to be explored.

The Southern comprises great part of Dumfries, Kircudbright, Wig-
town, Ayr, Selkirk, Peebles, and Lanarkshire, and includes more par-
ticularly parts of the districts of Nithsdale, Annandale, Eskdale,
Ettrickdale, Tweeddale, and Clydesdale, and the Lammermuirs (in Had-
dington and Berwick). It is the smallest of the 3 areas, but it is the
best known, and, so far as ascertained, the richest.

;r-;f

< ' I

734

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

Geologically, the area of these 3 great gold-fields is that occupied in
Scotland by the Lower Silurian strata and their drifts. These strata are
divisible, however, only into 2 great groups, viz. the Southern, corre-
sponding to the Southern gold-field as above delineated, characterized by
the greywackes of the Southern ; and the Northern, comprising that
above described as the Northern and Central gold-fields, characterized
by the micaceous schists of the Grampians.

At many localities throughout the area which Dr. Lindsay assigns
to the Scottish gold-fields, actual finds of gold have been made in recent
or former times, and this is one of the strongest arguments for their
thorough exploration. Of such gold-finds, the following will suffice as
illustrations : —

1. Northern Gold-field.

I. Sutherlandshire. — Helmsdale water. A nugget found here in
former times weighed 10 dwt., or 240 gr.

IL Central Gold-field.

1. Perthshire. — (A.) Breadalbane, area of LochTay, and head-waters
of the Tay. A nugget found in former times weighed 2 oz., or 960 gr.
Sir James Simpson was shown a specimen of gold, with its matrix
(quartz), by the late Marquis of Breadalbane, from Lyndrum. In 1861,
Prof Tennent of London found gold in quartz, associated with iron-
pyrites, at Taymouth.

(B.) Upper Strathearn, area of Loch Earn, and the head-waters of the
Earn. Glen Lcdnoch (Ritchie) ; streams falling from the north into
Loch Earn (Ritchie) ; Ardvoirlich, south side of Loch Earn.

(C.) Glcnalmond (Mercer) ; Glenquoich and other valleys of the
Grampians.

2. Forfarshire. — Clova district, areas of Angus, Edzell, and Glenesk.

3. Aberdeenshire, area of the Dee, Braemar, Invercauid, coast about
Aberdeen, and in the sea-sand.

In New Zealand, and other auriferous countries, gold is very com-
monly associated with magnetic-iron sand, containing or not, titanium
and other minerals, or with iron sulphides. It is of interest to know
that the sands of the Dee, which consist mainly of the debris of granite
and gneiss, contain considerable quantities of magnetic-iron sand and
iserine, with which are associated smaller amounts of titanium, uranium,
and arsenic. The gneiss of Braemar often contains much magnetite in
place of mica (Nicol), while iron or oxides or sulphides are common in
all the schists and granite of Aberdeenshire (Nicol).

4. Argyleshire. — Dunoon.

EUROPE : UNITED KINGDOM.

735

III. Southern Gold-field.

1. Head-waters of the Clyde, including the Ech, Crawford Moor or
Leadhills district ; Elvan water, Glengonner, Glencaple, Winloch, Short
Cleuch, Lamington Burn.

2. Head-waters of the Tweed ; Manor water, which flows north to
the Tweed ; Mcggat water, which flows south to St. Mary's Loch ; other
feeders of the Yarrow and Glengaber.

There are traces of prospecting and digging in former days in Mcggat
water valley, similar to those which occur in Leadhills. In the British
Museum, Lindsay saw two specimens of Twccddalc gold, the one
nuggety, and in quartz, a very rich sample, the other granular rather
than nuggety. Griffin prospected St. Mary's Loch district, and found
gold in dust or granules everywhere.

3. Head-waters of the Annan, Mofifatdale ; streams falling into
Moffat water; Hartfell range, about Dobbs Linn, several small finds of
gold were made in the summer of 1863, and one small nugget, weighing
about 6 gr., was exhibited in Mofiat {Scotsman, Aug. 10, 1863).

Speaking in greater detail of the Fifeshire gold-diggings of 1852,
Dr. Lauder Lindsay says the Lomond gold-digging mania occurred in
May 1852, and lasted about a month. There was a daily average of 300
diggers — at least 5000 to 6000 in all. Many of them were coal and iron
miners, who were earning 1 5 j. per week or upwards, and who had thrown
up their employment to embark in the alluring lottery of gold-seeking.
The excitement extended over an area of 20 miles, including the
opposite shores of the Forth and Tay. The origin of the mania was the
statement of a convict, a native of Kinnesswood, who wrote from
Australia to the friends he had in the Kinross-shire village, that he had
often seen gold at home in the lime-quarries above Kinnesswood, in the
Bishop's Hill, similar to what was being dug in Australia. At this parti-
cular time, the public mind was in a condition of great excitement, pro-
duced by the brilliant auriferous discoveries in California in 1847, inten-
sified and revivified by the no less splendid results of gold-digging in
Australia in Sept. 1851 ; added to which, there were certain floating
local popular traditions or proverbs which gave a spurious weight or
significance to the convict's rash and inconsiderate assertion. The centre
of attraction to the Fifeshire diggers — the chief scene of their labours —
appears to have been a quany of Carboniferous limestone, known in the
district as the Clattering, or Clattering Well. This quarry is situated
right above the village, and north-west of Kinnesswood in Kinross-shire,
" about a gun-shot back from the brow of the Bishop's Hill," near its
summit. Its locality is on the south base of the West Lomond Hill,
overlooking Loch Leven. Superjacent to the limestone, which is richly
fossiliferous, is a bed of ochre, abounding in globular masses of iron-

736

GEOURAPHICAL DISTRIDUTION.

pyrites, known to the quarrymen as " fairy balls," from the size of a fist
to that of a man's head. Incredible as it may appear, these iron-pyrites
were dug out and carried away in large quantities in the mistaken belief
that they were lumps of gold.

Alluding to a sample of Sutherlandshire gold found at Kildonan,
Dr. Lauder Lindsay compared it with (i) those of many hundred speci-
mens of native gold which he had opportunity of examining from all the
principal auriferous countries of the world, of whose characters he made
memoranda at the time, and (2) with those of the gold specimens in his
private cabinet, minerals from (a) New Zealand, (6) Nova Scotia, and
(t) Scotland (Lcadhills) ; and, as the result of the comparative examina-
tion, states his opinion that the Kildonan gold is of average quality, and
that in particular, it so closely resembles gold he brought from the
famous Gabriel's gully, in Otago, New Zealand, in 1862, that it is indis-
tinguishable therefrom by the eye, even aided by the lens. It may be
safely accepted as proved, he says, that the Sutherland gold now being
obtained is of excellent quality. What has yet to be proved is the
amount in which it occurs ; and this can be done only by experienced
gold-miners — by shaft-sinking and quartz-crushing — by co-operation of
labour and investment of capital. The Kildonan gold he has seen is
mostly in the form of flattened nuggets, of small size, smaller than those
in his cabinet from Leadhills. The size of individual nuggets is of little
consequence, compared with the total amount distributed in drifts or
quartzites ; for in the latter, gold may be present in amount that will
pay extraction when it is, nevertheless, invisible to the naked eye.

A specimen of gold, consisting of " dust " and " grains," from the
Kildonan Burn, Sutherland, examined by David Forbes, gave the
following results of two separate analyses : —

Gold 81 -M

Silver 18-45

Silica (quartz) . . 0*44

lOO'OO

81-27

18-47

0-26

ICWOO

The largest particle weighed 4* 6 troy gr. A specimen of alluvial
gold, in " grains," procured by Alexr. Grigor, from the estuarine mud of
the river Molyneux, Otago, New Zealand, bore a very great resemblance
to the Kildonan gold. P. G. Wilson says (Feb. 1869), that the gold
which has yet been found is in small grains. A few nuggets have
occurred weighing i, 2, and 3 dwt., and one has been got of 5 dwt. ; but
the largest quantity is in dust, with pretty much magnetic-iron dust.

According to Thost (i860), at Loch Earn Head, several galena- veins,
of inferior importance, have been discovered in a stratum of calcareous
schist. Their outcrop is overlain by gossan, in which particles of native

EUROPE : UNITED KINGDOM.

737

gold appear to have been found. Certain it is that arsenical pyrites,
which was at one time met with as an accessory mineral, contained 6 oz.
of gold per ton.

William Cameron (1870), pointing out the chief geological features
of the Sutherlandshire gold-fields, says that, with the exception of
certain strips and peaks of Old Red Sandstone, large-grained granite,
and Oolite, the whole of the country immediately surrounding the
diggings consists of metamorphic Lower Silurian rocks. No discovery
of gold in situ has yet been achieved, so that the question as to what is
the true matrix of the Sutherland gold is somewhat perplexing, and is
exciting amongst geologists a considerable degree of interest. The
drifts in which it is found are various, fine-grained gold and even small
nuggets having been obtained in various strata, from the bed-rock to
the roots of the heather. It exists in bands of black ferruginous drift,
almost of the nature of cement, containing washed boulders of gneiss,
granite, and schists. There are occasionally two distinct bands of this
drift, with intervening beds of sand, drift, or felspathic clay, the lower
one, which is always on the bed-rock, containing very large unwieldy
boulders.

Gold was found in some half-dozen of the tributaries flowing into
the UUie from the north. Mining operations, however, had been con-
fined chiefly to the Kildonan, the Suisgill, and the Torrish, — the i.vro
former being the more favourite grounds. Respecting the origin of the
gold. Sir Roderick Murchison takes us to the grand central plateau of
Sutherland, whilst Campbell of Islay, who has written a pamphlet on the
subject, hesitates whether to travel a little farther, and carry us to
Lapland and the Polar regions. Sir Roderick attributes the gold to the
abrasion of the granites and metamorphic Lower Silurian rocks, in the
interior, which have been carried by glacial action down the E. slopes of
Sutherland and deposited in straths and valleys, such as those of the
UUie and its burns, the Kildonan, Suisgill, Torrish, &c. ; whilst Campbell
points to the fact of gold being found in Unst in Shetland, and in river-
drifts in Scandinavia and Lapland, — and, referring to data collected by
himself and others respecting the curves of the glacial flow, suggests the
possibility of the gold being brought by icebergs and glaciers from these
Boreal regions. The Rev. Mr. Joass is inclined to infer that the granite
may yet be found to be the matrix of the gold, and remarks that the
material in which granular gold occurs, namely, the detritus, is not neces-
sarily far travelled, for it includes boulders of apparently local origin.

Cameron, whilst admitting all conclusions as yet to be more or less
conjectural, is inclined to agree with Joass in ascribing the gold to a local
origin, and probably to a granite matrix. With respect to the question
as to whether the Sutherland gold-fields would pay to work, Cameron

3 B

738

GKOGKAnilCAl, DISTKIDUTION.

says, upon the whole, whilst doubting the desirability of these fields for
individual labour, he was disposed to believe that with united enterprise
and combined labour and capital, and with systematic and economical
working, which would be vastly aided by the great natural advantages
of the country, satisfactory results would be obtained.

Prof Ileddle (1880), in dealing with the geognosy and mineralogy of
Scotland, having himself no means of sifting from the many reports in
newspapers the true from the false as regards the finding of gold in the
streams of Caithness, applied to Dr. Joass, of Golspie, and found that his
experience was confined to an unsuccessful search in the Duke of
Portland's land, and in the neighbourhood of the Scarabins, while he
indicates reasons for receiving with caution and doubt all reported finds.
Prof. Heddle then wrote to Dr. Lauder Lindsay, who has long taken an
enthusiastic interest in the matter, and from him received the following
list of reputed finds according to the newspapers of 1869-70, especially
the Northern Ensign (Wick), in March and April, 1869 : —

1. In the beds, over the banks of the Beriedele water, throughout its
course, down to the sea-beach.

2. In the Ord Burn, "in fair paying quantities."

3. In the Ansdalc Burn, in fair paying quantities.

4. On the Braemore estate (Sir Robert Anstruther's), through which
the Beriedele flows.

5. On the Langwell estate, on the flanks of the Scarabin Hills, by
Gilchrist, the originator of the Kildonan diggings of 1869.

6. In the Langwell water.

7. In the Dunbeath water, and

8. In the Burn of Hasten

9. In the Lathcrnwheel Burn.

10. Various localities, the parish of Lathern : " existence proven."

11. In the Thurso river, at various points, such as Weydale,
Acharvadale, Halkirk, the Glut.

1 2. In streams rising on Braemore.

13. In Strathmore, on Sir J. G. T. Sinclair's property.

Special references to the Caithness gold-localities are to be found in
the Northern Ensign of Feb, 4th, March 4th and 2Sth, and April ist, 15th,
and 22nd, all 1869.

In Nov. 1870, Sir J. G. T. Sinclair wrote to the Northern Ensign,
about gold that had been found on his property at Strathmore. Several
other newspaper correspondents describe the Caithness gold, comparing
it with that of Kildonan ; but they do not give their names, so that the
only " authentics " that can be cited in connection with Caithness gold
are Gilchrist and Sinclair.

Dr. Lindsay thus reduces the " authentics " to two, and, as it is very

r.ukorK : unitf.d kingdom.

739

improbable that Sir J. G. T. Sinclair personally found or even sought for
gold, it is probable that the " find " was of the same character as the
other "newspaper" ones. So that the flanks of the Scarabins would
seem to stand as the only indubitable Caithness locality.

French (i8So) says that the alluvium over an area of about 50 sq.
miles around Leadhills, in Lanarkshire, is auriferous. In many places,
the precious metal may be rendered visible after 15 or 20 minutes'
washing with the primitive wooden trough employed by the local
gold-seekers. Frequently nuggets have been found weighing from i to
4 or 5 dwt., and these are often either contained in pieces of loose
quartz, or have quartz fragments attached to them ; there are therefore
good reasons to believe that the gold found in the stratum of red clay
lying immediately above the rock has been derived from the numerous
quartz-veins which traverse the district. It is a rather remarkable
feature of the Leadhills district that the lead and gold-bearing ground
is bounded on four sides by particular forms of silica. On the S.
boundary, Lydian stone occurs in great abundance. On the N., at
Abington, red jasper prevails ; towards Crawfordjohn, on the W., agates
and cornelians are found, — these arc sometimes of great beauty ; and on
the E., near where a specimen of pasty silica was found, chalcedony is
often met with.

Wales. — According to Ansted, there can be little doubt that gold
has been obtained in former times by washing the sands of several of the
rivers that come down from the slate rocks in part of Wales. The
Romans got gold from quartz lumps in slaty rocks at South Gogofan,
about 10 miles W. of Llandovery. They also appear to have ground
down the iron-pyrites of the same district, which they afterwards washed
for gold. But it was not until 1843 that the Cwmheisian mines near
Dolgelly, in Merionethshire, were first noticed by Arthur Dean, as con-
taining something like a complete system of auriferous veins. An
account of this discovery was communicated at the meeting of the
British Association at York, in 1844. Since then, the mines have been
partially worked. The Mowddach Valley and some of its small tribu-
taries close to the town of Dolgelly, contain the chief mines that have
been found to possess any quantity of gold. The metal occurs as usual
in a native state, but is found in veins and flukany cross-courses,
parallel and at right angles to the porphyry range, which here runs N.
and S. through Merionethshire. The nearest fossiliferous rocks are the
Lingula-beds of the Lower Silurian series, and the veins usually occur in
underlying metamorphic schists. The matrix of the veins is quartzy, and
the associated minerals are either galena and blende, or iron- and copper-
pyrites. In addition to the gold in the vein-stone, minuLc particles are
disseminated through the pyrites. Ansted noticed particularly that

;,r tt

*'i

740

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

wherever any gold was present in veins, more or less magnesian mineral
(generally chlorite or steatite) is found in the immediate vicinity. At
the time of his visit, one of the strings of gold-bearing quartz in chloritic
schist was opened, and he obtained from a few =.»ecimens of quartz,
struck off whilst he was underground, very distinct threads and grains of
gold, the general yield of the small quantity thus removed being at the
rate of 60 oz. of gold to the ton of matrix. Further researches, however,
failed to discover any q aantity worth working. At Clogau, not very far
off, other auriferous specimens, far richer, were obtained a year or two
after his visit. Generally, it may be said that the gold-districts of
Wales are limited to those places where the rocks are not only schistose
but chloritic or steatic. They present a very marked resemblance to
those of other countries where gold occurs more abundantly, but more
especially to those of the S.E. states of N.America, where almost all the
indications of the associated rocks and minerals are precisely similar.
No doubt in former times, when nearly all the rivers of Western Europe
brought down appreciable quantities of gold, or at least when the
accumulations of ages were still untouched, the Welsh streams, as well
as the German, French, and Spanish rivers, were rich in golden sands.
These have long since been removed, and in Ansted's opinion, " at the
present price of labour, and with the extreme irregularity of distribution
that seems always to obtain wher-; native metal exists, it is almost a
hopeless chance to expect profit from mining or reducing establish-
ments on a large scale."

The gold-bearing district of Merionethshire, lying between Dolgelly
and the Mcelwyn and Manod range, N. of Festiniog, was made the
subject of a long report by Ramsay, in 1854, from which the following
notes are taken.

N. and W. of the lower part of the river Mov.'ddach, lie the lower
portion of the Lingula-flags and the Cambrian rocks. The latter consist
of the coarse, thick-bedded, grccni^h-grey grits of Barmouth and
Harlech. These grits are overlaid by that part of the Lower Silurian
rocks known as the Lingula-flags, which here consist mostly of blue
slaty beds, generally more or less arenaceous, and partly inierstratified
with courses of sandstone. Both Cambrian and Silurian rocks have
been penetrated by numerous greenstone-dj'kes. Many of them are of
a light-grey colour and highly calcareous. Others assume the colour and
texture of ordinary greenstone. Some of them are magnetic. Among
the Cambrian sandstones, they run in all directions, sometimes with, but
more generally across, the strike. In the Silurian region, they usually
run more or less parallel with the lines of bedding. In the hard and
solid Cambrian sandstones, the fractures into which they were injected
were capricious and irregular ; while in the Silurian shales, they have

EUROPE : UNITED KINGDOM.

741

more frequently been intruded between the beds. Some of them fill
cracks which pass into lines of lode.

The country in which the Dol-y-frwynogr mine lies is interesting. A
mass of very felspathic greenstone here breaks through a low part of the
Lingula-beds. Three of the lodes yielding copper lie on its E. slopes ;
and a very little gold was detected in one of tnem, in the year 1836, by
O'Neil. For 4 or 5 miles N. of this area, several other lodes occur in
the Lingula-flags and their associated traps, on the banks of the Mowd-
dach and the Afon-wen. The Cv^mbrian grits, dipping E. at angles
varying from 40° to 60°, are overlaid conformably by slaty beds of the
Lingula-flags, traversed by greenstone dykes on the hills immediately
N. of Pigswcli. They are succeeded by a mass of intrusive greenstone,
which is bounded on the N. by an E. and W. fault and lode on the N.
part of Moel-Hafod-Owen. From this point, the greciistone passes S.,
with 2 interruptions, by Tyn-y-Ben-rhos to Moel Cynwch, about 2 miles
farther S. E. of this greenstone are a set oi rocks which possess a very
peculiar Hthological character, and which occur very sparingly elsewhere,
either among the Lingula-flags or in any other geological area in Wales.

It is in a lode traversing this " country " that the most important of the
gold discoverie? has been made. The rock comi.iences at what may be
called the S.W. angle of Moel-Hafod-Owen, above Buarth. The same
E. and W. fault that bounds the greenstone, limits it on the N. A line
of fault drawn S. thence to where the brooks join, nearly opposite Dolaii,
forms its E. boundary so far. Thence, the Afon-wen forms, its boundary
for nearly i^ mile S. It is not improbable that this may also be a
continuation of the same line of fault. The boundary-line then crosses
the strea.n, and still passes S. to the ground that lies between Cefn-
mawr, and the precipitous rocks that overhang Mowddach above Dol-y-
clochydd. The rock itself is one of those problematical masses to
which it is difficult to give a definite name. In some places it is so hard
and massive, that a hand-specimen is difficult to distinguish from some
of the felspathic trap-, of the neighbouring country. Even then, how-
ever, it is more or less flaky, and constantly passes into a talcose rock,
which in places at the surface and in the lodes decomposes into a kind of
talcose unctuous clay. In many places, it graduates in the line of strike
into ordinary slaty rocks, which then become largely interstratified with it.
As it runs S. it becomes more and more slaty and sandy, and passes by
degrees into rocks possessing all the characters of the Lingula-flags
of the district. On the E., it is bounded by slaty Lingula-flags, on
which rests the greenstone mass of RhobcU-Fawr. Several lodes occur
in this country in the neighbourhood of Dol-y-frwynog and Cwm Eison.
The gold at Cwm Eisen was discovered in 1843, by Arth r Dean. It has
been several times worked, but never with a steady prolit. The gold is

i]'

■ ' M

-m

rrSr-Si

J|f!L

742

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

found in a branching lode containing lead. Its principal branch runs
N.E., and is mostly composed of exceedingly hard quartz, which crosses
the river ab-)ut i mile above Rhaiadr Mowddach.

When Ramsay inspected the geology of this country in the spring of
1853, the most remarkable and promising lode was the new gold-lode at
Dol-y-frwynog. It runs about W.N.W. and E.S.E. in the low ground
S. of Moel-Hafod-0 ven on the E. watershed. It is principally com-
posed of a white saccharoid quartz, irregularly traversed by numerous
small loose joints. Chlorite, decomposing talcose matter, and pink
carbonate of lime are intermingled with it. In parts the quartz assumes
a semi-granulated aspect, profusely intermingled with soft, unctuous,
decomposing talc. It is largely charged with iron-pyrites. As a rule,
the substance of the lode is easily shivered into fragments, a great
advantage both in the original working of the lode and in subsequent
operations. On examining a heap of quirtz which lay at the mouth of
the shaft, and turning over a few pieces, Ramsay readily saw with the
naked eye, gold in small flakes and grains, irregularly disscraiPi ted
through the quartz. In a more select heap of quartz, on all i\j pu . , it
was distinctly visible to the unassisted eye ; and one mass in j-.;xitiL.aiar,
heavier than a strong man could lift, was literally spangled all across
its surfaces with rich gliit'iring gold. Gold has also been detected by
Byers in the matrix of th<; copper-bearing lodes about a mile farther S.,
and in the West Dol-y-frwynog lode these occur in the same talcose
rock.

On the banks of Afon-wen, about a mile above the bridge, are some
ruins of buildings, and below them, close to the river, the remains of
charcoal-ashes and bits of bones, mostly covered with herbage. This
place has a very singular, and, in conjunction with the gold discoveries, a
very significant name, which it has maintained from time immemorial,
expressive of gold having been melted or worked there. This name,
Merddyn Coch'r aur, signif^js "tlie ruini. of red gold." The t/adition is,
that the Romans formerly worked gold there.

Ramsay states on the authority of Byers, that in several spots in this
neighbourhood where quartz-lodes occur, associated with copper, blende,
lead, and talc, there gold has been found, instances of which he cites as
occurring at Tyn-y-llwyn, near Moel Ispri, and other localities, prin-
cipally in the Lingula-flags between Tyn-y-groes and the Mowddach,
towards Barmouth, all in the area containing lead- and copper-lodes.
It is also stated that gold has been detected in several other places N.
of Cwm Eisen ; as, for instance, at Pcnmacn, and at Gelli-gain, about
3 miles S.S.E. of Trawsfynydd ; also in the Newborough mine, in an E.
and W. lode immediately N.E. of Manod, and on the S. side cf Moel
wyn, in blende and gossan. The whole of these lie either in the Lingula-

EUROPE : UNITED KINGDOM.

743

flags or in the beds immediately adjoining above or below ; and they lend
some additional evidence to the views that have often been promulgated
by Sir Roderick Murchison.

Whether all the reports in circulation of the occurrence of gold be
actually true or not, it is at all events a fact that at Dol-y-frwynog it
has been found in an unusual quantity, and also that its existence is
certain in various other places. If in the lodes a considerable amount be
scattered through the country, then Ramsay would expect that gold
would be detected by washing the marine drift that rises on the moun-
tains of North Wales to a height of over 2000 ft. In this drift it might
in places be somewhat concentrated, partly by an ancient natural
process of sea-shore washing, and partly by the more modern action of
rivers, as in the case of the stream-tin of Cornwall, and of the gold in the
superficial deposits of the Ural, of Australia, of California, and in those
of Canada, some years ago discovered by Logan. Gold, in appreciable
quantities, was, indeed, found by washing in the bed of the Mowd-
dach, in the summer of 1852, by the Hon. Fred. Waipole and Sir
Augustus Webster. Ramsay thinks it probable that in this river
attempts might probably be most successful immediately bclov/ the con-
fluence of the Mowddach with Afon-wen, and in places in the bed of
the Wen, on the E. and S. watershed of the range of hills that runs
from Tyn-y-Ben-rhos N. towards Moel-Hafod-Owen. In favourable
apots, it might be well worth the pains to wash the detritus on the
Mowddach between Dol-fawr and Gelli-gamlyn, and in the bed of the
Wen from thence to Dol-y-frwynog. This opinion is founded on the
fact that the talcose rocks which the Dol-y-frwynog lode traverses lie on
the E. watershed of the above-mentioned range ; and, if gold lie in them
elsewhere in any parallel quantity between Moel-Hafod-Owen and the
lower part of the Llanfachreth valley, then it might be expected in the
detritus in the bed of the stream oi the Dolan and the Gelli-gamlyn,
nearly opposite to which, streams that traverse the talcose rocks empty
themselves into the Mowddach.

Readwin observes that gold has been found in the mines known as
Vigra, Clogau, Caegwian, Wellington, Victoria, Lachfraith, Cambrian,
Prince of Wales, West Prince of Wales, Glasdin, Tyddyng-wladis,
Dol-y-frwynog, North Dol-y-frwynog, Cwmheisian, Bcrthllwyd, and Cacr-
wernog. He himself found gold in quartz, carbonate of lime, slate,
chlorite-schist, blende, galena, copper-pyrites, iron-pyrites, tctradymite,
and bismuthine ; and of its occasional occurrence in extraordinary rich-
ness in the Clogau, Cambrian, and Dol-y-frwynog mines, he possesses
remarkable proofs. To his own knowledge, so recently as 1856, as
much as 14^ oz. of gold were obtained from 100 lb. weight of quartz,
taken from the Clogau mine, and many samples of 141b. weight from

•f

744

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

the Clogau and Cambrian mines have yielded in the proportion of I to
10 oz. to the ton of quartz.

Following is a statement of the return of gold from the Clogau mine : —

1861. Ore crushed.

Pure Gold.

i86a.

Ore crushed.

Pure Gold.

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September . .

tons cwt.
2

28 Hi
40 i8i
38 5
24 18

32 4
28 2
13 6
61 2
S4 18
S8 SJ
75 4

02.
63

I89J

i6if

i8ii

142J

2571

144!

304

358i

363

546

January
February ..
March

April

May

June

Total .. ..

tons cwt.

S3 7
67 IS

71 i8
62 13
88 14

72 13

oz.

400

463

S29i
S66i

759
641

417 tons.

3360

October

November ..
December ..

1863 .. 2886 oz., value io,8i6/. I7f.

Total . . ..

455 tons.

2884

1878 •■ 697 oz

45 oz. 16 dwt. V, i said to have been got from a parcel weighing less
than I ton.

Alluvial gold is found in the river Mowddach, near Dolgelly, from
Rhaiadr Mowddach down to Cummer Abbey — a distance of fully
6 miles — gradually becoming less coarse as the river descends.

According to David Forbes, the Clogau lode occurs in the Lower
Silurian Lingula-beds, close to their junction with the Cambrian strata
of the Geological Survey; it runs about 18° N. of E. and dips at an
angle of 88° to S., cutting through both fossiliferous strata and the
intruded diabases, which are described as greenstones in the Survey ;
and it is, consequently, of later geological age than both these rocks, and
is not improbably yojnger than the Silurian formation as a whole. The
explorations appear to indicate that the lode is more auriferous at the
parts where it cuts through the Lingula-beds, with their accompanying
diabases, than at greater depth where it traverses the Cambrian grits.
Among the a*, -essory minerals found in the lode are tetradymite, iron-
pyrites, chalco-pyrite, galena, chlorite, calcite, dolomite, chalybite, and
heavy spar, which, as well as the gold, are distributed very irregularly in
the quartz. When the quartz contains calcite, dolomite, and chalybite,
or includes fragments of neighbouring clay-slate, it is regarded as likely
to be more auriferous than when the lode consists of quartz only. When
isolated fragments of the slate are found in the quartz of the lode, the
gold and other metallic minerals are commonly found adhering to, or
ciystallizing on their under surfaces, which may have arrested these
minerals in the act of being carried into lode-fissures from below with the
stream of liquid quartz. The specific gravity of one specimen of gold

EUROPE : UNITED KINGDOM.

745

was found to be 17*26, and 2 analyses showed the percentage com-
position of gold 90, silver 9*25, the remainder being quartz. Another
alloy, lighter in colour and probably richer in silver, is sometimes met
with in the lode.

A specimen of the dust washed from the bed of the Mowddach near
Gwynfynydd, 8 miles from Dolgelly, contained small, flattened, elongated
spangles of gold, the largest having the size of a pin's head, accompanied
by abundance of fine, black sand, supposed to be magnetite, but found
to be titanoferrite, together with some small particles of quartz, slate
rock, mica, iron-pyrites, and galena. The gold was found to have a
specific gravity of 1 5 * 79, and the following composition : gold, 84 ' 89 ;
silver, 13*99 ; iron, 0*34; and quartz, o 43. Several spangles had a
peculiarly rich yellow colour, due to a thin film of sesquioxide of iron
adhering to their surface.

( 746 )

CHAPTER II.

|i
j

GEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE AND MINERALOGICAL ASSOCIATION.

It is probably no exaggeration to say that preconceived notions and
hasty theories concerning the formation and geological age of gold have
done more to retard the gold-mining industry than to advance it, and that
many of the most important discoveries of recent years have been in
direct opposition to the dicta of the greatest authorities. This, indeed,
is hardly surprising when we reflect what a very small proportion of the
earth's crust has ever been examined at all, and observe the absence of
uniformity among geologists even in the names bestowed upon the rocks
that have been examined. In the belief that our knowledge is still quite
inadequate to account satisfactorily for the manner in which metalliferous
veins are formed, and to define the laws which govern their formation, no
attempt will be made in this volume to promulgate any new theory on
the subject, nor to give precedence to any one in particular of the
existing theories. The half-dozen most recent opinions of men best
entitled to discuss the question will be concisely stated, so far as they
deal especially with gold ; and this will be followed by a full yet simple
categorical statement of the geological formations in which gold has been
found, incorporating all details of scientific or industrial value ; as well
as with a similu.' account of the various mineral associates of gold,
especially with a view to elucidating the character of the association.
It is believed that by thus confining remarks to a clear arrangement of
ascertained facts, this chapter will be found much more valuable for
purposes of reference, and may form a foundation on which to build
other facts as acquired, and thus pave the way for future theories and
deductions.

Origin and Formation.

The first notable recent attempt to explain the origin of auriferous
quartz veins was Henry Rosales' prizc-cssay, written for the Victorian
Government, in 1 860. It is substantially as follows : —

"Auriferous quartz lodes are unlike most other lodes, which are
'crevices more or less vertical, caused by contraction during drying, or
by metamorphism, or by mechanical disturbance of a rock, this crevice
having been subsequently filled up.' They are in their origin anterior to

ORIGIN AND FORMATION,

747

all those forces, some of which accompanied the eruption of granitic
rocks, and which have been thoughtlessly applied by some to explain
the origin of quartz lodes. The fact that the quartz lodes are of an
earlier date than the granite, forces a further investigation of the subject
to a remote period of the earth's history, when the granitic rocks, not
yet having made their appearance, tl'e Cambro-Silurian beds were still
undisturbed in their original horizontal position. The Cambro-Silurian n
system of Australia presents a scries of coarse- and fine-grained sand-
stone, containing few marks of slaty structure ; slaty sandstone of-^
different colours, alternating with bands of slate of perfect cleavage, also of^
different colours, but generally exhibiting a greenish hue, and white when^
decomposed. Organic remains seem to be of rare occurrence in this'/ ^
formation. This far and widely spread Palaeozoic series of rocks — the / 'i
waste and refuse of the primitive cooling crust of the earth's surface,/^
was deposited slowly, gradually, and without interruption in horizontal/^
beds, which thus attained the enormous thickness they now present^
during that protracted period, when peculiar cosmic and telluric agencicsyj
all as yet singularly averse to organic life, were at work. While, how-/
ever, there are no apparent signs of mechanical disturbances during the
long period that elapsed from the cooling of the earth's surface to t'-^.e
deposition of the Silurian and Cambrian systems, it is to be presumes
that the internal igneous activity of the earth's crust was in full force, so
that on the inner side of it, in obedience to the laws of specific gravity,
chemical attraction, and centrifugal force, a great segregation of silica in^
a molten state took place. This molten silica continually accumulating,^
spreading and pressing against the horizontal Cambro-Silurian beds /
during a long period, at length forced its way through the superin-'
cumbent strata in all directions ; and it is abundantly evident, under the'
conditions of this force and the resistance offered to its action, that the
line it would and must choose would be along any continuous and slightly
inclined diagonal, at times crossing the strata of the schists, though /
generally preferring to develop itself and egress between the cleavage /i
planes and dividing seams of the different schistose beds. Thus were //
formed in a more or less horizontal position, in all directions, innumer- '/
able flakes and extensive sheets of quartz rock, apparently interstratifi-//
cations as regards their strike, but only apparently such, for they /;
distinctly traverse and intersect the underlie of the slate rocks, being f, ■
thicker between the schistose planes, and narrower when intersecting/'
them. From the quartz rock started quartz veins, some (/3) running \
almost parallel with, and others (7) perpendicular to its position, while \
other veins (8) shot out in capricious planes and directions. These veins
or leaders all thin and run out in comparatively short distances,
especially such veins as cut across the slates at the line of the greatest

748

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

resistance. Simultaneously with the upheaval by the granitic rocks of
the Cambro-Silurian slates in average meridional line, the approximately
horizontal main quartz belts were upheaved and placed on edge along
with the schist strata by this general disturbance. It is in consequence
of this change that the quartz belts are apparently interstratified, while
in reality, they are merely intersecting. The positions having been
altered, what formerly was or approached the horizontal, became perpen-
dicular, and vice versd, so that horizontal sheets of quartz reefs which
had been forced between the schistose cleavages and different strata,
appeared as almost perpendicular quartz lodes, their strike being con-
formable to the general meridional bearing of the schist, and the coin-
cident line of upheaval, their underlie intersecting that of the slates to
the E. or to the W., the veins (/S) which ran parallel, following the main
course of the quartz rock, the perpendicular veins (7) becoming hori-
zontal or flat, while the other veins (8) would take their respective
analogous positions. In the same manner, the horizontal sheets of
quartz rock, when upheaved in the medial line of action, would show
along their approximate meridional line a varying shoot to the N. or to
the S. ; a N.E, or N.W. horizontal development of quartz rock would
thus necessarily, when upheaved, have its shoot northerly, while a S.E.
or S.W. stretch would present a southerly shoot, and a lateral upheaval
would, of course, reverse the above order. In quartz lodes where there
is no noticeable or well-defined shoot in either direction, it may be
inferred that their original development was indifferently either N., S.,
E., or W. ; and this is precisely the appearance which auriferous quartz
lodes present in nature to the miner and geologist ; they form innumer-
able more or less perpendicular quartz dykes and extensive quartz rock
belts which strike, but with few exceptions, in an approximate meridional
line, thus disclosing to view, on a gigantic scale, that remarkable
parallelism which, after all, is but a natural feature necessarily consequent
on the almost unvarying strike above alluded to. These auriferous
quartz lodes intersect the strata of the slate rocks, and are cased with
walls of slate and sandstone ; they have quartz veins issuing from Ih.^m
in various directions across the country as leaders, flat veins, &c. They
sometimes form themselves into irregular masses of veins, at other times
they appear as massive bodies of quartz rock which dwindle into strings
that serve as the connecting links with some other quartz blocks. These
facts go to show that the quartz lodes when forcing their egress often
disturbed, fissured, and rent the enclosing schists, the openings so effected
being instantly filled by the quartz stone, thus giving rise to those
capricious irregular or zigzag shapes vulgarly termed E. and W. veins, &c.,
which are frequently met with in underground workings.

"But there are other than the cosmic and geological conditions

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

749

mentioned which prevailed at the time of the origin of quartz lodes, and
the ' also equally indicate the plutonic character of this dyke formation.
,'' Under this head is to be reckoned the occurrence of felspar in quartz**
veins, for it is an established scientific fact that mica, felspar, and '"
amphibole or augite, are all minerals none of which can be formed apart ♦'"
from igneo-chemical action. This single fact would alone go far to *
indicate the originally molten state of the silica of quartz lodes. ^
Another argument to the same end may be drawn from the fact that the
auriferous quartz lodes have exercised a manifest metamorphic action on
the adjacent walls or casing ; they have done so partly in a mineralo-
gical sense, but generally there has been a metamorphic alteration of the
rock. Hence it is that in the immediate contact of the quartz lodes the
schist or fragments of it are generally more or less micaceous or altered
into their laminae of mica, crystalline laminae of nacrit or of chlorite,
which has invariably tinged the adjoining quartz with a green colour.
Among these minerals is one at times disintegrated which shows the
cleavage of orthoclase. There are but few minerals found at the contact
of the schist and quartz rocks. This, however, is only natural, for the
interchanging rocks were of simple chemical composition. The meta-
morphic influence exercised by the quartz rocks on the bordering strata
is very striking, though it is not easy to distinguish it all over them ; it is
pre-eminent in the mining district of Tarrangower, where all the quartz
lodes are separately checked and walled by distinct accompanying strata
of dark siliceous schist or Lydian stone, evidently slate and sandstone
schists hardened by the metamorphic action of the quartz lodes, in the
same manner as when acted on by igneous or volcanic rocks, apparently
changing the physical conditions without altering the chemical quantities.
This metamorphic action is observable in the Tarrangower district for
many miles. In the Bendigo district, the metamorphic action is also
to be seen, quartz rock belts being often carried in between hard fer-
ruginous schists which, however, are generally disintegrated, and do not
therefore present any very prominent metamorphic features. In the
Ballarat district, the metamorphic action of the quartz lodes may also be
detected, although the rocks there are even more disintegrated than at
Bendigo ; it is not very easy, therefore, to distinguish their mineralogical
composition with any tolerable degree of accuracy. The hard, compact,
partially disintegrated strata of Ballarat, which separate the quartz belts
from each other, may be considered to correspond geologically with the
metamorphic siliceous slate of Tarrangower. The same metamorphic
action can be traced throughout the districts of Amherst, Avoca, Cres-
wick, &c. Another reason for the igneous origin of the auriferous quartz
lodes consists in the mechanical disturbance caused by the protrusion of
the quartz lodes themselves. It is to be constantly observed that the

750

GEOLOGY AND MINEKALOGV.

m ■

strata of the schistose rocks are more or less contorted — that their
underlie is variable to the E. or to the W. — that fragments of them arc
entangled in and metamorphosed by the quartz lodes, and that in con-
sequence the adjacent ' country,' to use a mining expression, is frequently
broken up into fragments, forming a breccia of commingled slate and
sandstone, whilst the quartz lodes and veins traverse the same country
intact and unbroken. The inevitable inference is that the disturbance
was caused by the forcible protrusion of the quartz lodes. From the
above facts and deductions, it can therefore be maintained that the
gangue of the auriferous quartz lodes is of igneous origin, and not the
result of the gradual deposition of quartz from a siliceous solution. In
addition to the positive arguments already adduced, which base them-
selves on geological observations, there are also negative ones, the result
of scientific deductions, which lead to the same conclusion. Starting
from the established fact that silica is soluble in water and watery
vapour, during its separation from alkalies, the first considerations which
present themselves are in reference to the supply of the great quantity
of alkaline silicates, which at that time could only be of a felspathic
nature. How under the then existing circumstances could the enormous
quantities of water or water-vapours, requisite to dissolve the immense
mass of quartz which was to form the innumerable quartz lodes now
existing, continuously find their way into the bowels of the earth ? The
number of these quartz lodes could hardly be attributed to aqueous
agency, as a solution contains no intrinsic forcing power, and could there-
fore have but comparatively few outlets. More than this, the felspathic
rocks having been deprived of their alkaline silicates to form silica, there
would remain an immense bulk of clay, and the disposal of this residuary
mass is not accounted for in any way. It is another weighty consideration
also, that the formation of quartz iodes by the deposition of silica, from
an aqueous solution, would necessarily involve the production of hydrous
silicates, zeolites, hyalite, opal, &c., which are always present in the
deposits made by siliceous thermal springs, as in the ' geysers ' in Ice-
land, and indeed in all volcanic eruptions in which there were aqueous
vapours : it is so in basalt, &c. These are all minerals which authenticate
the presence of water-vapours at the time of their formation, and are to
be found in the gangue of many metalliferous lodes, as at Andreasberg ;
Stronsian, in Scotland ; Ciclowa, near Oravicza, in the Bannat ; Huelgoet,
in Brittany; Kongsberg, in Norway, &c. The quartz lodes of this
country show a character quite distinct from that just now referred to ; for
nowhere are the hydrous silicates, or the other minerals named, to be
detected in them ; and it is therefore to be inferred that their non-
existence demonstrates the impossibility of the origin of quartz lodes
being due to an aqueous solution.

j-aJrryi^

ORIGIN AND FOKM^'^ION,

75'

"The next question is as to the metalliferous character of the quartz
lodes. There are but few metals or metallic minerals to be found in
them : they are gold, iron, and arsenical pyrites, the last two in some
instances in great quantities ; copper-pyrites, zinc-blende, galena, molyb-
denite, pharmacosidcrite, hematite or glaskopf, and malachite ; the last
three, however, are oxygenated, and are therefore to be looked on only
as minerals of secondary formation, the result of the disintegration of the
primitive minerals, which are arseniurets and sulphu'-ets. "These minerals r
ascended simultaneously with the quartz ;^nd the contemporaneous /}
formation of the quartz gangue, arseniurets, and sulphurets implies
, -the forcing up of these minerals in a sublimated state. The heat of the
■t-A^^rru /f5i<:^ijjolten siHca would necessarily'volatllize the gold as a vapour of purple
7'</»j!*- colour, and would also^ blim ate the arseniurets and sulphurets, which
are all volatilizable without b> ^ decomposed, at a much less temperature
than gold, air being excluded. They are found decomposed only near the
surface. Thus the p iTrplc'fume s^o f metal! Fc gold and sublimated vapours ''•
of the arseniurets and sulphurets of other metals, entering the quartz^
gangue, permeated it as gaseous vapours, forming veins, shoots and^
streaks, interlacing the gangue in the direction of its stretch, penetrating f-
also into the recesses of the quartz veins and leaders, the gold being pre- *■
cipitated in gold-leaves, film, &c., on comparatively cold bodies, such as^
the sides of the lodes, or entangled pieces of schist, and accompanied by::^
the sulphurets and arseniurets. The sulphurets, arseniurets, and others
volatile metals influenced the volatilization of gold, and in this way xt-f-
was carried into and lodged in the crevices, joints, and sides of the lodes,/;;
where it could not have reached unless accompanied by the sulphurets *■
and arseniurets. Hence we find gold in its metallic state mixed >
mechanically with iron- and arsenical pyrites ; sometimes it is even per-'^i
ceptible to the naked eye, at other times it is not ; and it is also founds?
mixed with galena and zinc-blende. Indeed it is scarcely possible to findl^
either of these two minerals without at the same time finding gold in*
contact with them. Of the minerals enumerated, iron- and arsenical ,5,
pyrites are found in large quantities in the quartz gangue ; but copper-
pyrites, galena, and zinc-blende, are seldom found, and then in insignifi- ^ J.'Luo.
cant quantities. It is to be remarked that the affimty'of these diff'erenlf'^'f^fj^'
*, minerals is according to the following scale — first, galena, then and\ (L.yrrvuA'C^^
almost if not quite equally, zinc-blende, arsenical pyrites comes next, and 1^ O/W'T^^
iron-pyrites follows ; and therefore gold is contained in the gangue along
the shoot of these metalliferous ores ; but where the gangue is far apart
from the metalliferous indications, it is generally barren. On this theory,
it is not difficult to account for the flat leaders and the running out of
the quartz stretches, now the caps of the reefs, being often richer than
the rest of the gangue, or to account for the poverty or richness of

lA*

!.;

p:*,

752

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

reefs, when they suddenly become contracted for a certain length, con-
formable to the greater or less opportunity offered to the gold to pre-
cipitate according to the physical circumstances, such as mechanical
impediments, change of temperature, &c.

" It has been attempted to explain the origin of gold as being the
result of precipitation by iron from its solution, under the influence of
electricity. Without entering into the chemical part of this theory, it
may be sufficient to remark that the theory in question is one-sided, only
accounting for the formation of gold, but not of the sulphurets which
would be decomposed. Strictly, then, the simultaneous deposition of
gold, sulphurets, and arseniurets, goes to prove chiefly that a very feeble
electrical agency was at work ' 1 the formation of the quartz lodts.
However, it was owing to the subsequent electrical influence, at first an
electro-chemical one evolved by the disintegration of the primitive
minerals, that even remote substances were decomposed, and that new
combinations were formed — the secondary minerals, such as cube ore,
pseudomorphous hematite, &c. ; their elements being transferred by
electrical currents even through moist non-conducting solids, and in some
cases during the process they were deprived of their chemical properties,
or in other ways influenced by electric agency. It is to the action of these
currents of electricity, whose intrication Fox has so well described, that
the present^ partiallyor enti rely disintegrated state of the upper '-^vels
of the quartz lodes is chiefly to be attributed. From the igneoi qfin

of auriferous quartz lodes and metallic ores, it would be correctly . ..^ed
that the gangue would exhibit a fiomogeneous" character ; this, however,

Sn.'ry.a. Ift^ci. ^g j^Q^ always the case, although it is so generally. Where it is not so, it
is no doubt due to the subsequent reopening of the gangue fissures,
more recent protrusions of quartz rock having almost disconnected the
more ancient veins, or else formed a new body in their midst, and so
giving to the whole, for some distance, a flaky, laminated, or seamy
appearance, which is greatly increased by entangled schistose fragments
and veins of metallic substances, either decomposed or otherwise. But
that order of deposition of different substances, corresponding with the
faithful parallelism from the sides of the lode towards its centre, cannot
be found, though it is a remarkable feature in many veins containing
carbonates of lime, iron, &c. Werner first called attention to this striking
arrangement, of which Weissenbach has given numerous examples, and
which was evidently caused by the agency of water. Thence it is that

\ the seamy appearance in some portion of the quartz lodes does not point

■ to the conclusion of an aqueous origin, for it is irregular, however

apparently otherwise at first sight, as it does not fulfil the above-described
conditions of_parallelism. In some districts the quartz lodes have been

fhi^^9^riJ- ■ . disturbed by felspathic or igneous rocks, forming dykes of a more recent

d^-

trr-

.ri

<»'''

,•

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

753

J*"'

epoch. Hitherto the ftlspathic dykes of Rendigoand Maryborough have '>
received the most attention ; in the former district, they arc found at ^
times traversing the quartz lodes, following their strike, or faulting them \/}.
and in other cises, separating their course from them, they crop out on thc-^
surface. They are greatly disintegrated, so much so that it is not possible ^
at present to give their mineralogical composition with accuracy, or to
determine their geological age beyond what has been already advanced.
They do not seem to contain zeolites, but appear to be intimately
connected with the subsequent changes in quartz lodes, such as the re-
opening of the quartz veins, and also the occurrence of large masses of
arsenical pyrites, which, and it is a most interesting fact, as it shows the
connection of this metalliferous ore with heat, contain a fclspathic
-. mineral, as already stated. In the latter district, they have been called
, « I 'quartZ'^porphyi% and seem to be of precisely the same character as those

, J^*^;^^^^'^ of Bendigo; they disturb and are connected with the quartz lodes in a
Jt'^ aH'^' similar manner, and are in a state of partial disintegration ; their minera-

(>| ' logical character may be somewhat different, as their name — quartz-

.^porphyry — indicates. It is, nevertheless, probable that both these igneous
r :ks are contemporaneous. At Ballarat no igneous dykes have been
yet observed, either on the surface or underground ; thus disturbances as
'faults' are of rare ocmrrence ; up to the present time, none of any
consequence have been found, and it is a remarkable fact, also, that
arsenical pyrites has not been found there, cither in small or large
quantities, as at Bendigo, Tarrangower, &c. In the sandstone walls of a
very few quartz lodes, the empty impressions of arseniurct of iron have
been found. Would the absence of igneous dykes not seem to pre-
suppose that the quartz lodes have not been reopened, and that,
therefore, arseniuretted masses of auriferous character could not have been
injected ? And might not the comparative poverty of the Ballarat quartz
lodes be also thence presumed ? From what has been stated as to the
theory of the igneous origin of auriferous quartz lodes, it may be logically
deduced that the presence of sulphurets and arseniurets in a quartz lode
is an empirical test of its comparative auriferous character ; that the
appearance of igneous dykes in connection with quartz lodes, and
contemporaneous with those mentioned, would give a more auriferous
stamp to any district ; and that auriferous quartz lodes are to be expected,
intersecting the schistose formation, at any depth. The last statement is
borne out by the following considerations : first, it can be easily imagined,
if the enormous abrasion be taken into account, how deep the present
surface with its yet auriferous quartz lodes, must have been under that
which existed before abrasion took place ; again, the granite which
simultaneously upheaved the Cambro-Silurian and auriferous quartz
rocks, disturbed the thick schistose formation with such gigantic force

3 C

jli

lill

'ijjrt

M« V *riiitn

754

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

t "

that it contorted and placed the beds on edge, thereby causing enormous
convulsions and faults, on a scale too grand to be noticed by the miner ;
and it is evident that in some instances strata of the schistose and
quartzose formation which, before the upheaval of the granite, were far
below the formerly existing surface, have been disclosed by that upheaval,
and that these strata contain quartz lodes in no wise less auriferous. It
may, therefore, be maintained that to as great a depth as the quartz
miner can ever penetrate, he will find auriferous quartz lodes, and that
deeper still there are others equally auriferous."

Another view of the question is taken by Richard Daintree, in his
report on the geology of the district of Ballan, Victoria, 'm_i866, when
discussing whether the drifts underlying the old amygdaloid, jf Bacchus V^^'^^^^^V
Marsh are theoretically likely to contain drift-gold. Tae problems ^*^2^^^X--^((,rtt
proposed for solution were " (i) the age and origin of quartz reefs, (2) n^^-*^
and whether the gold is contemporaneous with their formation. To
answer the fir«t question, in regard to age, he sought sections where strata
of determined age containing quartz reefs are seen overlaid unconformably
by other sedimentary strata of known age. Such are to be found in the
Werribee gorge, where the quartz strings and reefs traversing Silurian
slates, &c., cease abruptly at the junction of the ' Lower Mesozoic,' from
which '.nay be inferred that these quartz reefs at least were formed prior
to the superincumbent strata. In Gippsland, again, Upper Devonian con-
glomerates, with their associated claystones and sandstones, enclosing
Lepidodendra, &c., are barren of quariz reefs, while the Silurian on which
they rest have reefs well defined." He then quotes Hartt, on the " Cold
of Nova Scotia of pre-Carboniferous age," as follows : —

'At Corbitt's Mills, about 4 miles N. of Gay's river, Colchester
county. Nova Scotia, auriferous clay-slates of the same character as
those of the other gold-districts of the province, are overlaid urxonform-
ably by nearly horizontal beds of grey and red conglomerate, grit, and
sandstone, of Lower Carboniferous (probably lower coal measures) age.
At the mills, these last are only a few feet in thickness. They in turn
are overlaid by a mass of drift, and by beds of stratified sand and
clay of variable thickness. As to the Carboniferous age of the con-
glomerate and sandstones there can be no doubt. They cannot be
Silurian, for they overlie unconformably rocks of this age. They are
totally unlike any Devonian rocks occurring in the province, while they
agree perfectly with the Lower Carboniferous conglomerates and sand-
stones of the Carboniferous basin on the margin of which they lie. They
contain i few ill-preserved fossil plants like those found in similar
Carboniferous beds. Between the Carboniferous and the Drift the only
formation occurring in Nova Scotia is the New Red Sandstone, to the
rocks of which the beds under consideration bear no resemblance. They

iV,.

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

/55

• y

cannot be of Drift age, for their fragments form rounded boulders in that
deposit They show no signs of having suffered metamorphism. The
lower part of the beds of conglomerate or grit, at their junction with the
slates, is richly auriferous, the gold occurring principally in the form of
flattened scales, sometimes ^ in. in diameter, disseminated through the
rock. I have seen many fragments of the conglomerate, not i cub. in. in
size, on the surface of which 20 or 30 scales of gold could be counted
with the naked eye. Gold has been washed from the drift overlying the
conglomerate. The source whence thf^ gold was derived was doubtless
quartz veins in the clay-slates. Only one vein, about ^ in. thick, has
been discovered beneath the conglomerate. It is richly auriferous, and
has a strike of about N. and S., and a dip of 70° E. Non-auriferous quartz
veins are very numerous in the slate hills of the vicinitv. That this vein
is older than the Carboniferous strata is plain from its endii.g abruptly at
.i2 junction with the slates. From the above facts, I think there can be
no doubt that the gold of Corbitt's Mills is of pre-Carboniferous origin,
and since the gold of that locality was derived from strata precisely
similar in character to those of the other gold-regions of Nova Scotia, and
which strata are but the reappearance northward of the gold-bearing
rocks of the gold-fields of Renfrew and Oldhain, and of the metamorphic
band of the Atlantic coast, I think that the pre-Carboniferous age of
the gold of Nova Scotia is clearly indicated. It is a very generally
accepted theory, propounded by Sir Roderick Murchison, that whilst
gold is confined to Lower Silurian strata, it did not make its appearance
therein until just before the time of the Drift. As the gold of Nova
Scotia was probably introduced into or assumed its present form in the
quartz veins at the time of the metamorphism of the Silurian rocks,
which metamorphism was pre-Carboniferous, I have doubted the
correctness of this theory. The occurrence of gold in the Carboniferous
rocks of Corbitt's Mill shows that it is not to be applied to the province
of Nova Scotia.'

" On Keelbottom Creek and Star river, tributaries of the Burdekin
river, in the district of North Kennedy, Queensland, is a great thickness of
Devonian rocks, resting on, and no doubt the c. use of metamorphism in,
underlying gold-bearing ^.leiss, mica-schists, and hornblende slates.
These are associated wit;, very thick beds of quartz rock, rarely with
quartz reefs ; thoagh traversed with innumerable thin strings and veins
of quartz, such reefs and veins never pass into the Devonian series.
Although the gold is most abundant in the loose drift resting on the
metamorphic rocks, still, where Devonian conglomerates occur, more or
less alluvial gold is found in their debris, even where an outcrop of meta-
morphic rocks 1 many miles distant. The geological survey of California
has ascertained ' that a large portion of the auriferous rocks of California

* c 2

i 'K:

756

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

li.
I'i

J I

consist of metamorphic Triassic and Jurassic strata.' It is evident that
the reefs in these rocks are more recent than those of Hartt in Nova
Scotia, or than those of the Werribee gorge, or the Upper Burdekin.

" No subject has perhaps been more discussed than the formation of
mineral veins ; laying claim to no original ideas on the subject, I shall
simply bring forward the published statements, which most coincide with
the results I have arrived at by independent observation. I had long
ago come to the conclusion, that most, if not all, the gold in the quartz
reefs was derived from the rocks in which these reefs occur. That the
strata themselves received their supply of gold at the period of their
deposition from the ocean in which they were deposited. That organic
matter, and the gases generated therefrom on decomposition, sulphuretted
hydrogen, &c., were the cause of the precipitation ; and that the amount
of metallic deposit was in proportion to the amount of organic matter
deposited with the oceanic sediment. That subsequent plication and
desiccation of the sediment caused fissures, into which the mineral waters
percolating the boundary rocks flowed and were decomposed, and their
mineral contents were precipitated, possibly by magnetic currents, thus
causing mineral veins.

" Sir W. Logan says : —

' The observations among the gold-bearing rocks of the Southern
S tates seem to show that the precious metal was originally deposited in
the beds of various sedimentary rocks, such as slates, quartzites, and
limestones ; and that by a subsequent process, it has been, in some
instances, accumulated in the veins which intersect these rocks. The
formation of these veins would seem to be subsequent to the Silurian
period.'

" Again, T. Sterry Hunt says : —

' The reducing power of organic matter is further shown in the forma-
tion of metallic sulphurets, the reduction of sulphates having precipitated
in this insoluble form, the heavy metals — copper, lead, and zinc — which,
with iron, appear to have been in solu*:ion in the waters of early times; but
arc now, by this means also abstracted from circulation, and accumulated
in beds and fahlbands, or by a subsequent process have been re-dissolved
and deposited in veins. All analogies lead us to the conclusion, that the
primeval condition of the metals and of sulphur was like that of carbon,
one of oxidation ; and that the vegetable life has been the sole medium
of their reduction.'

" And as a corollary to the same ideas, expressed in different words,
the same author says : —

' The intervention of intense heat, sublimation, and similar hypotheses,
to explain the origin of metallic ores, we conceive to be uncalled for.
The solvent powers of solutions of alkaline carbonates, chlorides, and

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

757

sulphurets, at elevated temperatures, taken in connectirn with the notions
above enunciated, and with De Senarmont's and iJaubree's beautiful
experiments on the crystallization of certain mineral species in the moist
way, will suffice to form the basis of a satisfactory theory of metallic
deposits.'

" Having now considered the age and origin of quartz reefs, let us turn
to the other question of contemporaneity of reefs, and their associated
gold. Let us first consider if solution and re-precipitation of gold is still
gomg on. We can then better form conclusions on this subject. In
testing a solid mass of iron-pyrites, given me by the Director of the
Geological Survey, gold was found throughout. The mass retained the
structure of a tree-stem, and was a replacement of the organic structure
by pyrites, and had been taken from the Ballarat drift. The same
experiment on another tree-stem, taken from the same drift, was repeated
by Newbery, the Geological Survey analyst, with a liko result. Unless
this gold was carried in a soluble form into the pores of the wood, and
there precipitated with the pyrites, it would be difficult to account
for its presence. Foord, the well-known chemist and metallurgist of
Melbourne, has repeatedly informed me that, in operating on the St.
Arnaud silver-ores with hyposulphite of soda, and precipitating the
dissolved metals from the solution, he had usually found that an appre-
ciable amount of gold had been dissolved with the silver, indicating that
in that mine, at least, gold may exist as an ore.

" Whether this fact points to the real solvent of the gold and silver
precipitates, from their first storehouses in the sediments to their accumu-
lation and re-precipitatinn as metal in the reefs, is worthy of consideratior ;
certain it is, that whi fnund in the sediments themselves, the noble
metals are usually assoc; ■ J with sulphur compound ir^ in-pyrites, &c.,
and there is no reason why hyposulphites of thi- alkalies should not be
formed in the mineral waters percolating thesi strata. At the same
time, it is possible the St. Arnaud case may indicate more the possibility
of gold as a chloride combined with chlorobromide of Ivor.

" In whatever direction we look for the cai:^c of the original precipi-
tation and re-solution for after-deposit in mineral veins, we must never
lose sight of the fact that the first agent must have been potent to pre-
cipitate both gold and silver, and the second to r< dissolve the united
precipitates, as no gold has yet been found in n't- unalloyed with silver.
That sulphur compounds have played an impoi lant part in the reactions
which we have endeavoured to explain is evidenced by the fact that
scarcely ever has pyrites taken from the Silurian slates of Sandhurst,
Maryborough, and other localities, failed to yield gold.

" It is a point of great interest to determine the constituents of
Victorian mine-waters, as tending to throw light on such questions as

\ !■

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758

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY,

these introduced, and as to whether the large nuggets found in the drifts
have been built up by continuous aggregation of precipitate from mine-
water. Microscopic examination of thin sections of such nuggets should
be obtained. It should also be ascertained if they enclosed foreign
material. That the waters percolating our drifts have, in many instances,
a strong solvent action on some metals and metallic oxides, we have
constant evidence in seeing the blue slates of the 1 ill-slopes, where
covered with drift in the valleys, converted into white pipe-clay. Was
this solvent carbonic acid, or have we at times a stronger acid in operation
capable of acting on silver, and so affording a reason for the fact that
the alluvial gold of a district usually assays higher than the reef-gold cf
the same district ?

" Sufficient evidence has, I think, been shown, that, up to com-
paratively recent times, solution and re-deposit of gold and silver have
taken place ; although the main concentrated deposit occurred with the
accumulation of the quartz itself, in the reefs, still much of the ' casing '
gold on the walls of reefs may be of subsequent deposit. If, then, it is a
logical deduction from what has preceded, that auriferous quartz reefs
have derived their minerals from the bounding rocks, and that auriferous
quartz reefs may be of all ages, how shall any one assert that drift-gold
may not be found in any sedimentary deposit, derived from rocks
traversed by auriferous quartz reefs ? At the same time, it is likely to
be rare that workable gold-deposits will be found in any marine beds
derived from pre-existing rocks, unless entirely made up of the debris of
such auriferous rocks. The Nova Scotia Carboniferous conglomerates
answer this condition, and are worked, according to Hartt, to a profit. In
Victoria, no strictly marine sediment has \rp*- been found to contain
workable gold-drifts. All our lertiaries in which marine fossils have
been found, also the ' Lower Mesozoic ' of Bacchus Marsh, and the
Mesozoic carbonaceous of Otway, Cape Patterson, &c., are composed of
sediments of various rock formations. We have as yet no evidence to
prove that any workable auriferous drift deposit, of Victoria, has been
swept by either of the oceans which deposited strata containing marine
fossils in other localities. This seems also to be the case in Califcnia.
Whitney, says : —

' The vast Tertiary formations on the flanks of the Sierra Nevada, so
important as being the locality of the hydraulic mining operations, are
not of marine origin, as has been so often asserted. ... In the first
place, these deposits are not of marine origin, as is proved by the fact,
that, although frequently found to contain impressions of leaves, masses
of wood, and imperfect coal, and even whole buried forests, as well as the
remains of land animals, and, occasionally, 'hose of fresh water, not a
trace of any marine production has ever been found in them.' "

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

759

The next important contribution is Wilkinson's paper on the Theory
of the Formation of Gold-nuggets in Drift, written in 1866.

" It has hitherto been a moot question, and one which has elicited no
small degree of discussion, respectin;^ the occurrence of larger nuggets of
gold in the drifts than have yet beuii discovered in any quartz reef; and
that alluvial gold is generally of a higher standard than that obtained
from the reefs.

'' Many theories have been introduced to account for these phenomena :
among them is one which does not appear to have received that amount
of attention it evidently merits. I allude to that advanced by Selwyn,
the Government geologist, suggesting the probability of gold existing in
solution in the mineral water permeating the Silurian rocks and the gold-
drifts ; and that this water in its passage through the drifts, became
by some unknown means decomposed, influencing the precipitation of
the gold, which concreted, so to speak, around the most congenial nuclei
presented to it, such as the particles or pieces of reef-gold existing in the
drifts, or any other metallic substances for which it had an affinity.

" Daintree, formerly of our Geological Survey, had on one occasion
prepared for photographic use a solution of chloride of gold, leaving in it
a small piece of metallic gold undissolved. Accidentally some extraneous
substance, supposed to be a piece of cork, had fallen into the solution,
decomposing it, and causing the gold to precipitate, which decomposed
in the metallic state, as in the electro-plating process, around the small
piece of undissolved gold, increasing it in size to 2 or 3 times its original
dimensions.

" Considering this accidental experiment of Daintree's as in some
measure bearing out Selwyn's hypothesis, I was indi'ced to make a few
simple experiments.

" Using the most convenient salt of gold, the terchloride, and employ-
ing wood as the decomposing agent, in order to imitate as closely as
possible the organic matter supposed to decompose the solution circu-
lating through the drifts, I first immersed a piece of cubic iron-pyrites
taken from the coal formation of Cape Otway, far distant from any of
our gold-rocks, and therefore less likely to contain gold than other pyrites.
This specimen (No. i) was kept in a dilute solution for about 3 weeks,
and is.completely covered with a bright film of gold. I afterwards filed
oft* the gold from one side of a cube crystal to show the pyrites itself,
and the thickness of the surrounding coating, which is thicker than
ordinary note paper. If the conditions had continued favourable for a
very lengthened period, this specimen would doubtless have formed the
nucleus of a large nugget. Crystals of gold have been found to contain
nuclei of brown iron-ore and undccomposcd iron-pyrites.

" No. 2 specimen contains iron-pyrites, and was immersed in a solution

'ilil

76o

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

fii

I--' 1

of about 4 gr. of the chloride of gold to i oz. of water ; in a short time,
however, it was found that in such a strong solution, the pyrites began to
decompose ; but after diluting to about 2 gr. to i oz. of water, this
decomposition apparently ceased, and metallic gold deposited wherever
a particle of the sulphide existed, alike in crevices as on the surface of
the quartz, and also in a remarkable mammillary form. This was in the
solution for a week.

"No. 3 contains iron-pyrites and galena, on both of which the gold
has deposited, so that I cannot now distinguish one sulphide from
another. It remained in a solution of i gr. of chloride to i oz. of water
for 8 days.

" Nos. 4 and 5 are similar specimens to the last mentioned, the same
strength of solution being used ; but they were only dipped half-way
into it, so that the immersed part coated with gold may be compared
with the other half on which the pyrites remains unaltered.

" I may here remark that a weak solution produces more perfect
results than a strong one ; with the latter, the sulphides are partly
decomposed, and the gold is covered with a dark-brown powdery film, as
observed in some of the above specimens. This film does not prevent
the growth of the gold in the solution, and it may easily be rubbed off.

" Nos. 6 to 13. — Iron-, copper-, and arsenical pyrites, antimony, galena,
molybdenite, zinc-blende, and wolfram were treated in the above manner
with similar results.

" Brown iron-ore and quartz covered with peroxide of iron were also
tried in the same way, but the gold was deposited only as a fine metallic
powder.

" In the above experiments, a small chip of wood was employed as
the decomposing agent. In one instance I used a bit of leather. All
through the wood and leather, gold was disseminated in fine particles,
and when cut through, the characteristic metallic lustre is brightly
reflected.

"The first six of these sulphides were also operated upon simply in
the solution without organic matter, but they remained unaltered.

" Iron-pyrites was tried with metallic copper, zinc, and iron as decom-
posing agents ; but metallic gold was deposited only as a fine powder,
which settled at the bottom of the vessel.

" From these experiments, it would appear that organic matter is the
necessary chemical agent to decompose a solution of the chloride of gold,
in order to precipitate the gold as a coherent coating around a nucleus
presented to it ; and that so far as we have yet tried, iron-, copper-, and
arsenical pyrites, galena, antimony, molybdenite, blende, wolfram, and
metallic gold, constitute especially favourable nuclei to demonstrate this
chemical reaction.

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

761

" Organic substances, such as fragments of wood, roots of trees, &c.,
exist abundantly in the gold-drifts. It remains therefore a point of
great importance to decide whether gold is actually in solution in the
meteoric water circulating through our rocks and drifts. I am not aware
of direct experiments having been made to solve this question, but that
gold will most probably be found, is indicated by analysis made by
Daintree (already quoted on p. 757, line 10).

" I referred to the mammillary form the gold assumes in No. 2
specimen, which appears to be analogous to that presented by the surface
of nuggets. Analogy, however, though generally a truthful guide, if
relied upon too implicitly in outward semblances, may lead to erroneous
conclusions. Nevertheless the striking similarity in the surface of the
artificial production to that of the natural gold is a point worth noticing.
For if the form of the latter is the result of abrasion of its surface by the
material carried along by the streams that once swept down the courses
of our old ' leads,' then our analogy will not hold good. Yet when we
have no evidence of the existence of such large nuggets in the reefs, and
this theory introduces a means of producing results like those in nature,
we are justified, in the absence of such evidence, to attribute these results
to analogous causes. Otherwise to what origin shall we ascribe the pre-
sence of gold in pyrites that has been formed in wood imbedded in the
auriferous drifts, and the fact that sometimes gold encloses a nucleus of
brown iron-ore &c., unless it was deposited from solution ?

" That golu may be greatly purified by dissolving and reprecipitating
it, is strong evidence in favour of the theory attributing to a similar
cause the greater purity or higher standard generally of alluvial than
reef gold.

" It would be premature for me to speculate further on the hypothesis
of the growth of gold — the formation of nuggets in the drift, on which
the above recorded few simple experiments may perhaps throw some
light — until the result of more comprehensive and systematic experi-
ments which are now being conducted by Newbery are known. In con-
clusion, I beg to acknowledge my indebtedness for some points in the
foregoing to a Report on the Minerals of Victoria, just completed, by
G. H. F. Ulrich, of the Geological Survey."

The experiments just alluded to are those described by Prof J. Cosmo
Newbery, in his paper on the Introduction of Gold to, and the Formation
of Nuggets in, the Auriferous Drifts, written in 1868. He says : —

" Before describing my experiments and their results, it may be well
for me to give an abstract of the arguments used for and against the
denudation theory and in favour of what seems to some a rather
ludicrous idea — the growth of nuggets in the drifts.

" Through the kindness of Mr. Ulrich, I have been able to read the

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762

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

latest ideas of the eminent chemical geologist, Prof. BischofT, from whom
I shall freely quote.

" That some portion of the gold found in the drifts has been derived
from the quartz reefs at the same time that the reefs themselves were
formed, there can be no doubt ; but the absence of large nuggets in the
reefs and the marked difference that exists between much of the drift
gold and that from the reefs, tends to make us believe that some portion
of it had some other origin, or was transferred from the reefs to the
drifts by some means other than denudation. Even if we admit that the
large nuggets may have been derived from the reefs by denudation —
(for there is a theory that the reefs were much richer in the portions
removed to form the drifts, than they are as they now exist) — we must
remember that the nuggets consist of nearly the heaviest known matter,
offering but a very small surface of attack, when compared with the other
materials acted on by the same force and at the same time ; it therefore
appears strange that these heavy masses should be found at such great
distances from any known reef, as nearly all the large nuggets have been.
Another point which attracts attention is, tiiat they are sometimes found
in the sand overlying the gravel, which is quite inexplicable, if they ever
were in motion with the rest of the drift, which usually has a regular
arrangement from top to bottom : first clay, then sand, and fine and
coarse gravel.

" These objections to the denudation theory are not easily explained
away. And then comes the great fact that gold is contained in the iron-
pyrites which is found in the drifts, assuming the ""orm of roots and
branches of trees, and also replacing the carbonaceous matter of the
other drift-wood. Every sample of this pyrites that has been examined
has been found to contain gold : in some instances, in a quantity equal
to 40 or more oz. per ton, and this in samples in which no particles
could have collected in crevices or cracks.

"This proves that gold did exist in the meteoric waters which
deposited the pyrites in Tertiary times.

" Based on these arguments, Selwyn, some years ago, advanced the
hypothesis, ' That nuggets may be formed and that particles of gold may
increase in size through the deposition of gold from the meteoric waters
percolating the drifts, which water, during the time of our extensive
basaltic eruptions, must have been of a thermal and probably of a highly
saline character, favourable to their carrying gold in solution.'

" As Ulrich points out in his essay on the Mineralogy of Victoria,
this view of the character of the meteoric waters in earlier times receives
aid from the fact that on our western gold-fields only, where tremendous
basaltic eruptions have taken place, all the large nuggets have been
found, while on the eastern and northern fields, where basaltic rocks are

! ill !

lLi»»M

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

763

wanting, or only of very limited extent, the gold is usual'y fine, and
nuggets of more than i oz. in weight are very rare.

" That gold does exist in solution in some saline waters of the
present day has been proved by several analyses ; and Daintree fo- nd
gold in solution in water taken from a mine in this colony.

" Further proof of gold having been in solution at a comparatively
recent date, I found when examining the pebbles of the Miocene drifts ;
they are chiefly quartz, and are coated over with manganiferous brown
iron-ore, in which I found gold, though I never could detect any in the
pebbles when their surfaces were carefully cleaned.

" What the gold salt was, whether a chloride, silicate, or sulphide, we
have no means at present of ascertaining. And as it may have been in
the same solution that deposited the pyrites, which probably contained
its iron in the form of protocarbonate with sulphates, it was not easy at
first to imagine any ordinary salt of iron ; but this I find can be accom-
plished with very dilute solutions in the presence of an alkaline carbonate
and a large excess of carbonic acid, both of which are common con-
stituents of mineral waters, especially in Victoria. This is true of
chloride of gold, and if the sulphide is required in solution, it is only
necessary to charge the solution with an excess of sulphuretted hydrogen ;
in this manner, both sulphides may be retained in the same solution,
depositing gradually with the escape of the carbonic acid.

" Prof Bischoff has suggested the occurrence of sulphide of gold in
meteoric waters, and by experiment he found that 't was slightly soluble
in pure water. Once formed and present in the water, it is, like all other
gold salts, easily decomposed. In an experiment I have made, the
sulphide of gold was held in a solution by a small quantity of an alkaline
bicarbonate. A cube of iron-pyrites and a chip of wood were introduced,
and in a few days small irregular grains of metallic gold were deposited
on the pyrites.

" What part the organic matter took in the reaction is not clear, but
the gold was not deposited without it.

" In Chas. Wilkinson's paper (see pp. 759-61), a series of experiments
are described in which gold was deposited in the metallic form upon a
nucleus, from a solution of the chloride by the reducing agency of
organic matter, the nuclei being either gold itself, or iron-, copper-, and
arsenical pyrites, galena, zinc-blende, sulphide of antimony, &c. Organic
matter has long been known as an agent for precipitating gold in the
metallic state from its solutions.

" Rose states that oxalic acid precipitates it in metallic laminae.
This I have tailed to produce. When boiled with a solution of chloride,
I got purple and red precipitates ; but when allowed to remain at the
temperature of the air for some hours, a film of gold floated on the

ti-'.?

(I*

764

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

surface of the liquid, and the bottom and sides of the vessel were gilded.
Tartaric, citric, and other organic acids have much the same effect.
With wood, bark, charcoal and like substances, the reduction is much
slower. No carbonic acid is seen rising, and the gold is deposited in the
pores of the reducing agent, if the solution is dilute. But it was not
known until the experiment of Daintree, and the following ones made
by Wilkinson, that this deposit would take place on a nucleus, and be
continued as long as gold remained in solution. If this action went on
in the drifts, it would account for the greater purity of the gold and for
the nucleus of brown iron-ore so often found in nuggets and crystals.
Strong solutions of gold immediately began to decompose the pyrites,
and interfere with the regular deposition of gold. By a strong solution,
I refer to one containing more than i gr. of chloride of gold to i oz. of
water. A weaker solution than this also decomposes the pyrites, but so
slowly as not to interfere with the deposit taking place regularly ; all the
other sulphides are also decomposed. In the experiment in which galena
was used as a nucleus, this decomposition was best marked. Some-
what more than a year ago, I placed a cube of galena in a solution of
chloride of gold, with free access of air, and put in organic matter : gold
was deposited as usual, in a bright metallic film, apparently completely
coating the cube. After a few months, the film burst along the edges of
the cube, and remained in this state with the cracks open, without any
further alteration in size or form being apparent. Upon removing it
from the liquid a few days ago, and breaking it open, I found that a
large portion of the galena had been decomposed, forming chloride and
sulphate of lead, and free sulphur, which were mixed together, encasing
a small nucleus of undecomposed sulphate of lead. The formation of
these salts had exerted sufficient force to burst open the gold coating,
which upon the outside had the mam miliary form noticed by Wilkinson,
while the inside was rough and irregular, with crystals forcing their way
into the lead salts.

" Had this action continued undisturbed, the result would have been
a nugget with a nucleus of lead salts, or, if theie had been a current to
remove the results of the decomposition, a nugget without a nucleus of
foreign matter. If, instead of galena, we had had a piece of pyrites to
start with, the decomposition would have gone on in the same way, but
the result would have been brov/n iron-ore in place of lead salts. This
decomposition gives a ^/ery simple means of accounting for the oxide of
iron, so often found in the nuggets and crystals of gold, the latter
especially, as shown by the experiments of the late Dr. Becker, by
cutting them in halves, and by their established low specific gravity, and
their loss in weight suffered in smelting.

" Finding the brown iron-ore of the Miocene drifts contained gold, I

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

765

was led to suppose that though I could not make gold deposit on it,
I might succeed in making them deposit together, which was the case. I
arranged a mass of sand, with chips of organic matter in it, in a vessel,
and slowly filtered through it a dilute nearly neutral solution of sesqui-
chloride of iron, containing a few drops of chloride of gold, and as it passed
through repeated the dose. This continued for some weeks without any
appreciable change taking place ; but after some months, thin bands of
hydrated sesqui-oxide nf iron began to form across the mass about the
centre, parallel with the surface. As they increased in size, they assumed
a botryoidal appearance, like the ' ferro-manganese ore ' which occurs in
the quartz reefs, and in many parts were coated with a bright film of
metallic gold. Every further addition to the mixed solution produced
another layer of oxide and gold, so that in time it appeared stratified.
If the gold had been continued alone after once having started its
deposition, the result would have been the same as in the case of the
decomposition of pyrites. On the other hand, if the iron solution was in :>,
excess after a deposit of gold had been formed, it would have produced "^
what is so often found in the alluvial workings, a nugget coated with^
iron-ore, commonly known as ' black gold.' "^

" This mixed solution is one which we should not expect to find in
nature, but there is no difficulty in supposing the transfer of gold with
iron that would deposit as oxide, even, if we need to introduce carbonic
acid. If a solution of sesqui-chloride of iron and chloride of iron are
heated together, the whole of the gold, in a very finely divided state,
with a portion of the iron as sesqui-oxide, is deposited in a brownish-
yellow precipitate.

" Though the processes I have described will account for the forma-
tion of nuggets, it does not account for the appearance of gold in pyrites.
I have examined about 100 samples, in none of which do I find any
tendency on the part of the gold to assume the form of a coating, it
being usually in irregular grains, and small octahedral crystals, seldom
to be detected, even with the aid of the microscope, until nearly all the
pyrites has been oxidized and decomposed. In a few exceptional cases,
pieces have been found projecting ; but all tends to prove the priority of
the deposition of the gold, and that instead of pyrites having formed a
nucleus for the gold, the reverse has in the majority of instances been
the case.

"It may also have been the first to deposit in the drift-wood, for in ^
all the experiments by Wilkinson and m;i self the organic structure *^
became so impregnated with gold that when ignited (so as to burn off <!-
the undecomposed organic matter) a golden model remained. Flies, -2^
which fell into some of my experiments, and were useful in keeping up
a supply of fresh organic matter, became so thoroughly impregnated

! 1

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766

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

;;!:?)

that in some cases the finest hairs on their backs and legs were to be
seen in bright gold after ignition. Conditions such as these (before igni-
tion) would be very favourable to the formation of pyrites, offering to a
ferruginous water containing sulphates, a reducing agent, and congenial
nuclei for the crystals to form on. Crystalline gold is very easily made,
by simply introducing a chip of wood into a solution of chloride of gold,
containing 5 or 6 per cent, of the salt. The crystals are first seen on the
surface of the liquid as a thin film, which, as it grows heavier, falls to the
bottom, where it assumes a moss-like appearance ; if this is examined
under the microscope, it will be found to be a network of octahedral
crystals, resembling very closely the gold-crystals from pyrites. These
crystals have been repeatedly made in a carefully-closed vessel, so that
no dust might enter, and falling on the crystals form nuclei for them.
With these crystals I sometimes found irregular pieces of gold, some in
places showing plaiies of octahedrons. In these experiments, as in all
the others, organic matter is necessary, the action ceasing when it was
removed, starting again immediately with a fresh addition.

" These experiments are based on the assumption that the gold exists
in the pyrites in the metallic form, and not as .sulphide, as has been
supposed to be the case by some. Daintree got gold in solution by
digesting some of the pyrites from Cluncs In sulphide of ammonium ;
but I have always failed to prove the presence of it as negative evidence
against it. I have the result of experiments made by digesting the
pyrites with an oxidizing agent, washing the residue free from impurities,
weighing the gold, and comparing the result with that got from a portion
of the same sample made by the ordinary fire assay and finding that
they agreed.

" If sulphide of gold had existed in the metallic waters, we might
expect in some cases to find it ; but, as before noticed, it is so easily
decomposed, that it is not possible for much to have resisted the heat
caused by the basaltic eruptions.

" I have experiments now in progress which contain the sulphides of
iron and gold in solution, but up to the present time without any result,
in this direction. Like some of the others I have spoken of, they may
require a year or more to accomplish the end wished for.

" Prof. B'schoff suggests silica as the medium for the transmission of
gold to the quartz reefs. Gold, as he points out, certainly has a great
affinity for silica, always being found in connection with it in mineral
veins in the drifts and even in the pyrites, where I have always found
silica as grains, and minute nearly perfect hexagonal crystals ; the
occurrence of which I have always been at a loss to account for.

" The Professor's experiment is a very instructive one. He reports it
as follows : — ' On adding to a solution of chloride of gold a solution of

i«! ■

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

767

silicate of potassa, the yellow colour of the for.ner disappears. After ^
an hour the fluid turns blue, and in time a gelatinous dark-blue precipi-
tate appears, which adheres firmly to the vessel. After the lap.se of some
days, mo.ss-likc forms are to be seen on the surface of the precipitate,
like an efflorescence ; on exposure to sunli.t;ht, no reduction takes place,
but after the lapse of .some months, if the precipitate is allowed to remain
undisturbed undc water, a decomposition takes place, and in the silicate
of gold, appear minute partly microscopical specks of gold.'

"If this is the method by which the gold reached the lode.s, as the
Professor argues, the origin of the silica may also be that of the gold.
The origin of the former we now believe to be the silicates of the rocks,
by the decomposition of which by mineral waters the silica is conducted
to the lode crack.s. In these silicates, we have therefore to look for gold,
and it is possible that it is contained in them as silicate. To prove this
is almost impossible, for if we even found the gold, it would be in a
quantity too small to determine whether it was in combination or not.

" Silicate of gold is extremely insoluble in water, but if we assume
that its solubility is in the same ratio to the solubility of silica as the
gold of even our richest reefs is to the silica in the reef, we shall find no
difficulty in admitting that silicate of gold may exist in .solution. nn

" In several instances, an*amethystine"colour has been observed, both7'^»^^^,
in the quartz reefs and in the wash-dirt of the drifts. Aplin tells me
that he observed it in a lead of wash-dirt near Beechworth. When pieces ^
of the clay so coloured were first broken out, no gold was to be seen ;^
but after exposure to the light and air for a short time, the colour dis-i
appeared, and it was seen to be full of very finely divided gold. Ulrich^;
also tells me that this colour and phenomena were observed by Clement,.-^
a successful quartz miner, of Maldon, who described having found dark- c.
blue clayey bands in the centre of a quartz reef, some 10 ft. thick, at a -J
depth of about 70 ft. from the surface. The colour in this case, as in 5
that reported by Aplin, disappeared when exposed to air and light, and *
gold became visible. It is to be regretted that no chemical examination *
was made, as there was undoubtedly a compound of gold present. *

" Be this as it may, there can be no doubt that nearly all the native
sulphides contain gold, especially those which also contain silver. I
have found it with this metal in every sample of iron-, copper- and
arsenical pyrites, galena, sulphide of antimony and zinc-blende, which I
have examined from the rocks of this colony ; and Dr. Percy proved its
existence in every sample of galena he examined, even though they con-
tained little or no silver.

" Bischoff, in reviewing facts like these, says that it has been
repeatedly proved that in the decomposition of ore lodes, the silver takes
part in the oxidation processes, and is removed in soluble combinations

i' Ml

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I, J

768

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY,

iii:

i i-

II: :,.^i'

y/f

If such ores are auriferous, and after such a decomposition the lodes
undergo mechanical destruction, the gold will, as it is in a very minute
state, be carried off with the results of the decomposition. The argen-
tiferous character of the native gold, and the auriferous character of
native silver, show that though one metal passed into a soluble form and
the other remained metallic, the separation was not complete.

" In this very minute state, gold maj' possess properties differing from
those which it has when in mass. Iron, for instance, when reduced by
hydrogen from the oxide, has such a great affinity for oxygen, that, if
dropped through the air at the ordinary temperature, it takes fire, whilst
ordinary iron-filings, under similar circumstances, are not affected.

" It is therefore possible that gold, under certain circumstances, may,
by the presence of silica in solution, become disposed to combine with
oxygen, and then to form with the silica a silicate of gold.

" If further -experiments prove that alkaline silicates favour the
solubility of silicate of gold, thl: s'lica theory will be open to but few
objections, and the difficulties to impede our progress in solving this
most interesting problem in chemical geology will be greatly diminished,
as it will not \ squire the presence of strong chemical agents, which are
not to be found either in the rocks or in the meteoric waters percolating
through them."

The next to attack the subject of the formation of gold-nuggets in
drift was W. Skey, Analyst to the Geological Survey of New Zealand,
in a paper read in 1872. He remarks : —

"The first theory broached to account for Lhe presence of these
nuggets in drifts was that they had been broken off some rich reef and
transported by water bodily to the positions in which they are now found
by us. At first sight, this appears very plausible ; but there are several
considerations which, when allowed to have their due weight, rather tend
to shake our belief in its competency to explain the case. These con-
siderations have been discussed pretty freely, so I need not detail them
here, but vnll only state that, briefly put, the chief of them are as
follows : — The large size of many of ♦ihese nuggets as compared with any
of the masses of gold yet found in our reefs ; their position in the drifts,
lying soti-etimes as the)' do in the upper layers ; and their superior
fineness of quality as compared with that of any of the reef-gold found
in their vicinity.

"T«r.^iessed by these facts, Selvvyn proposed another theory for
explaining the origin of these nilggets, and one which certainly appears
to meet the question upon the particular points just cited (already
quoted, p. 759, line 10).

" At the time this idea was broached, nothing systematic or thorough
had been undertaken towards invrestigating this matter as to the probable

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

769

presence of gold in those meteoric or saline waters referred to, and
nothing whatever had been accomplished towards showing any likely
means by which gold, depositing from such solutions, would be deter-
mined upon itself as a continuous coating, and in such quantity as
occasionally to form nuggets of the enormous size we find them in surh
drifts, nor did Selwyn indeed make any suggestion on this matter ;
perhaps considering the initiation of such an idea sufficient for his part,
he left the support of it to the ingenuity of chemists, to whom in fact
such a labour rightfully belonged ; in reality, so little was known in
support of this theory at the time of its evolution that it seemed in the
highest degree chimerical. Since then, however, chemical investigations
have given us results greatly in favour of this idea. Thus in the first
place, as regards the presence of gold in a soluble state in the waters per-
colating our drifts, it appears that Daintree found gold in pyrites which
had obviously replaced the organic structure of a tree occurring in a
drift-bed, and Newbery, Analyst to the Geological Survey of Victoria,
afterwards obtained the same results upon other pyrites occurring in
a similar manner, both results showing that gold must have been
' presented to the pyrites in a soluble form.'

" Since that time, gold has been by no means unfrequcntly discovered
to be present in certain mineral and mine waters, and indeed Daintree
has recently found gold while testing the water of a mine in Victoria.

"Perhaps, though, the most important communication we have
relative to this subject is ,'hat of E. Sonstadt, ' On the Presence of Gold
in Sea-water' {Chemical l\'''"ws, 4th October, 1872). This metal has
indeed before this been alleged to exist in sea-water, but these allega-
tions have not been sustained with such evidence and accompanied v/ith
such detailed description of processes employed as entitled them to an
unreserved belief on our part. Sonstadt's experiments, on the other
hand, are detailed minutely, and his statements arc supported by the
results of different processes.

" The amount of gold present in the vvater taken from Ramsey Bay
he states to be very minute, ' less than i gr. in the ton,' still the fact of
its presence at all in such water is exceedingly interesting as showing an
escape of gold from the land seaward, and so confirms the correctness of
the various allegations I have referred to respecting the auriferous
character of certain of our springs and mine-waters.

" Thus in different ways, the first question involved in SeKvyn's
theory is answered in a most satisfactory manner.

" As to the means by which the gold present in these waters has been
reduced therefrom and aggregated in masses, solid, homogeneous, and
occasionally of considerable size, we have no lack of substances certain
to be present in these drifts, and capable of effecting the reduction of

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770

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY

gol " and silver from the kind of solutions likely to be present there. In
various kinds of organic matter and in sulphate of iron, we have sub-
stances which will effect this with facility ; but we have no sure evidence
as yet to show that cither of these substances will aggregate the gold
which they reduce, or locate it in a marked manner, or preferentially,
upon the gold already reduced.

" That gold will be reduced by these substances is certain, but all our
present experience in regard to the deposition of gold by them shows ,t7^'r'
that gold so reduced will be dispersed rather than"aggFegafe'd,*so that it£|^[>55 '^^ "
would appear that nuggets of gold could not well be formed in this^ u^>^
manner.

" In our mineral sulphurets, however, we have agents which are not
only capable of reducing gold and silver from solution, but besides are
capable of locating them when so reduced in coherent and bulky masses.

" I may state that their nuclear action upon gold depositing from ^
solution by aid of organic matter was suggested by Wilkinson, while «
their competency to reduce the gold from solution without addition of -jL
organic matter was shown by me ; thus the aggregation of the nuggety ^v
forms of gold from solution becomes a still more simple matter, only one ^
reagent being necessary, so that there is a greater probability of such jf
depositions obtaining than were a double process necessary.

" Knowing the action of sulphides, the manner or the mode of forma-
tion of a portion at least of these nuggets seems apparent. Conceive a
stream or river fed by springs rising in a country intersected by
auriferous reefs, and consequently in this case carrying gold in solution ;
the drift of such a country must be to a greater or lesser extent pyritous,
so that the debris forming the beds of these streams or rivers will
certainly contain nodules of such matters disseminated, or even topping
them in actual contact with the flow of water.

" It follows then from what has been previously affirmed, that there
will be a reduction of gold by these nodules, and that the metal thus
reduced will be firmly attached to them, at first in minute spangles
isolated from each other, but afterwards accumulating and connecting in
a gradual manner at that point of the pyritous mass most subject to the
current, until a continuous film of some size appears ; this being formed,
the pyrites and gold arc to a certain extent polarized, the film or Ui . '"Uir
but connected mass of gold forming the ncga .ive, and the pyrites aie
positive end of a voltaic pair ; and so a jcording as the polariziition is
advanced to completion, the further deposition of gold is chatiged in its
manner from an indiscriminate to an orderly and selective deposition
concentrated upon the negative or gold plate.

" The deposition of gold being thus controlled, its loss by dispersion
or trom the crumbling away of the sustaining pyrites is nearly or quite

), II

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

771

prevented — a conservative effect, which we could scarcely expect to
obtain if organic matter were the reducing agent.

" Meanwhile there is a gradual wasting away of the pyrites or positive
pole, its sulphur being oxidized to sulphuric acid, and its iron to sesqui-
oxide of iron or hematite, a s\ ibstance very generally associated with
gold-nuggets. According to the original size of the pyritous mass, the
protection it receives from the action of oxidizing substances other than
gold, the strength of the gold-solution, length of exposure to it, and rate
of supply (velocity of stream), will be the size of the gold-nugget.

" As to the size of a pyritous mass necessary to produce in this
manner a large nugget, it is by no means considerable. A mass of
common pyrites (bisulphide of iron) weighing only about 12 lb. is com-
petent for the construction of the famous ' Welcome nugget,' an Aus-
tralian find, having weight equal to 152 lb. avoirdupois.

" Such masses of pyrites are by no means uncommon in our drifts or
the beds of our mountain streams. The general velocity of the current
flowing over such pyritous matters would in all probability be such as
would prevent the development of any crystalline form in the gold thus
deposited, as we know very well that for such development motion is
unfavourable. The form most likely to be assumed by these deposits
then would be the mammillary, precisely that in which our nuggets as a
rule occur.

" Upon this mode of accounting for the presence of large nuggets in
our drifts, their occasional great superiority in point of size to any
auriferous mass as yet found in our reefs, and their superior fineness to
such reef-gold, admits of easy explanation.

" Firstly, as regards their comparative size, if we only admit that reef-
gold is also deposited by pyrites, and if wc assume that the strength of
the gold-solutions forming these varieties of gold respectively was not
greatly different, it is only reasonable to suppose that the gold-masses
formed in this manner in drift would attain the greatest dimensions, for
in the first place this gold in depositing would certainly aggregate more,
as the pyrites in the drifts or river-beds would be less continuous and
more sparsely distributed than that in reefs.

" Further, the supply of gold to pyrites lying in these drifts or river-
beds (and so exposed to rapidly changing waters) would be far more
copious than to pyrites cooped up in a rocky fissure, and so in contact
only with water .tagnant or nearly so.

" And, scCv,i.o.y, as regards the generally superior quality of these
nuggets to gold found in the reefs, it will, I think, appear from the
following considerations that such a difference in favour of drift-gold is
to be expected.

" I have previously shown that silver is deposited with greatest

3 D 2

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772

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

).:;,ni

rapidity and certainty upon pyrites from solutions which arc alkah'ne
from presence of the fixed alkalies or alkaline earths, and that as such
solutions are passed from this condition to an acid one, the silver present
in them is retained in solution ; any gold, however, that may be mixed
with such silver is deposited upon this reducing agent, no matter which
of these conditions the solvent is in.
/ji^/i/eW' " Now this alkaline 'condition is precisely that in which, as far as we

can ascertain, our lodes or rocks must have been at the time of the deposi-
tion of the gold and silver now found in them, and this alkalinity would
especially manifest itself in those reefs which traverse rocks of a basic
nature, such as diorites or serpentines : hence, by the way, the large
proportion of silver alloying the gold found in these reefs, as compared
with that alloying the gold found in the lodes of our schists or older
formations.

" But though the waters percolating our reefs must be to a more or
less extent of an alkaline nature, the drainage waters issuing from them
will lose a portion of this alkalinity as they are exposed to the air, or to
the products of decomposing organic matters, from having absorbed a
quantity of carbonic or other acids (sulphuric, humic, &c.), thus in some
measure, according to the distance such waters have travelled from their
springs, will their condition be changed until their alkalinity may give
way to neutrality, or even acidity, either of which conditions is, as I
have stated, uiifavourable to the liberal deposition of silver along with
gold from such waters. Hence it is apparent that from the instant the
waters percolating rocks or lodes leave them to form springs, &c., they
are continually passing from 'a favourable condition to one eminently
unfavourable for the deposition upon pyrites of what silver they may
contain. Consequently the deposition of gold from solution being as we
know unaffected, or but slightly so (comparatively), by the condition of
the solvent, the great purity of gold deposited from these surface waters
is explained.

" The above explanation of the greater purity of our alluvial or drift
gold over gold found in the reef is, I think, much more plausible than that
which attributes this difference to the interaction of solutions of gold
upon the auriferous masses transported from the reef, whereby the silver
of these masses is replaced by gold and so removed, leaving the mass
correspondingly richer in gold. That this process can be continued until
our largest auriferous masses can be thus affected throughout appears to
me impossible when we consider the imperviousness of such metallic
mas.ses to liquids, and how nearly the atomic volumes of gold and silver
approximate. That a superficial change, however, in this direction may
occur is by no means improbable, but such would escape detection unless
it were especially sought for. Thus the hypothesis advanced by Selwyn

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

773

as to the manner in which the nuggets of our drifts may have been
formed receives support upon all those points which appear of any
importance.

"That nuggets of some size may, however, be in a few instances
transported bodily from these matrices into the drifts or water-courses is
by no means improbable, but in this case they would, I thuik, partake of
the usual quality of the reef-gold of the country about, and so would be
inferior in this respect to gold formed in the manner above described.

" Whatever may be the origin, however, of any particular nugget, or
of nuggets generally, when we consider the auriferous nature of many
mine-waters, also that of sea-water, together with the decomposing and
aggregating action of metallic sulphurets upon the gold of these waters,
we cannot avoid the conclusion that gold is now being deposited and
aggregated in many of our drifts, and that such depositions have been
going on from remotest times.

" In conclusion, the questions as to the source of the gold of our
nuggets, the nature of the agencies by which it is dissolved, and the precise
chemical state in which it exists in our auriferous waters, are subjects
which it is not incumbent upon me to discuss here. I will, however, take
leave to make a few observations upon them now.

" As regards their source I think this is rather in gold as disseminated
in certain of our slates, sandstone, or schist rocks, than in that of our
reefs.

" In reference to the nature of the solvent, I have shown that sul-
phuretted hydrogen attacks gold at ordinary temperatures, forming a
sulphide of the metal, and we know that all the sulphides of this metal
we have to this time formed are soluble in alkaline sulphides ; therefore,
as both these agents are generally present in waters situated at some
depth in our rocks, we may very reasonably suppose that a portion, if not
all, of our gold has been brought into solution by these agents.

"The state to which such auriferous solutions might pass when
exposed to air and carb^'Ic acid is not easy to determine, but of this we
may be certain, that it could not well be one unfavourable to the exercise
of the reducing properties of metallic sulphurets upon the gold compound
present in them."

In more recent laboratory reports, Cosmo Newbery returns to the
subject of the deposition of the gold in veins. He says : —

" The main practical interest in this subject is the attempt to discover
some of the natural laws by which the deposits of gold and auriferous
minerals in the quartz lodes and auriferous strata have been governed,
and by so doing to aid the mining interests of the country. Most
geological observers arc agreed that our auriferous deposits are of aqueous
origin ; in fact that is the only way of reconciling the various phenomena.

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774

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY,

And observations have proved that gold is deposited in and with recent
mineral formations. The first question is — What sort of a solution is
necessary to carry the gold and associated minerals, and have we in the
natural waters of the mines this necessary solvent ? This fluid must have
the power of holding a number of minerals in solution at the same
time, in such a manner that they may be all deposited together, or at
any rate holding certain elements or compounds which, by reacting on
minerals already deposited, will produce the minerals as we find them.

" H. Miiller, in his description of the ore deposits of Freiberg, notes
that the deposits of ore vary with the rock through which the lode passes,
and Von Cotta has adopted the term ' ore-carriers ' for those rocks
exerting a favourable influence on the deposit of ores. He remarks
that, although the lodes are not always rich while passing through the
rocks conducive to the deposit of ore, and indeed are very frequently
barren, still when the lodes do contain ore it is only when in these rocks.
This all points to these rocks either supplying the waters with their
mineral contents, or exerting some influence to make them deposit what
they held.

" Ulrich has on several occasions drawn attention to the necessity for
the study of the rocks through which the quartz reefs pass, and the
probability of the ' shoots ' of gold being in some way connected with the
nature of the wall-rock of the vein where the shoot occurs. He says
that, although Victorian reefs on casual observation appear to be layers
running with the strike and in the bedding of the Silurian rocks, closer
examination shows that this is not the case — they are a variety of layer
lodes. The greater number certainly lie within the line of strike, but
uncurlie at varying angles through the bedding of the rock, a feature
which results in the ' reef pajsin<i- more or less gradually from one bed
to another. The greater the r.nglc of difference, and the more regular
the dip of the reef in strike, the quicker this passage will be. The points
to be ascertained are — Do one or more particular beds of rock enclose
the shoots of gold .' and if so, does the rock in any way differ from that
enclosing the barren parts of the reef? The physic?.! character of the
rock, as well as its mineral composition, may play an important part.
Ulrich mentions that the richness of the reefs in the Upper Silurian
rocks is often increased when they pass into or are in the vicinity of a
certain class of rocks which have a mineral composition differing from
the ordinary shales, &c. ; while in the Lower Silurian, the differences in
the rock are apparently only physical. In some instances, it is found
that, where the rock becomes soft, the quartz reef , /idcns, and is richer
in gold than where the rock is hard and the reef narrow. This is
reversed in quite as many, if not more cases, the reef being poor where
it is wide in soft rocl?, and rich where it is narrow in hard rock. When

2'i i 1

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

775

the latter occurs, it is usually assumed that a simple concentration has
taken place ; but there are so many instances of the richness increasing
with the width of the reef that some other reason must be sought for.

" Where the mineral components of the rock change, as with the
occurrence of dykes and masses of intrusive rock in the Upper Silurian
of Wood's Point, Crossover Creek, Walhalla, Alexandra, &c., a notable
increase in the richness occurs in the quartz as it passes from the slates
towards or into the dyke. By the examination of carefully prepared
microscopic sections, Ulrich shows that these rocks having a good
influence are of one special variety — they are hornblendic, true dioritcs ;
while all the rock masses and dykes, which are augitic diabase, have
hitherto been proved to be non-aurifcrous. Until Ulrich's observations,
all these rocks were classed and mapped as diorites. It is very difficult
to distinguish one from the other except in microscopic sections. So far
as the examination has gone, this rule of the diorite favourably influencing
quartz veins, and diabase having no such influence, holds good not only
for Victoria, but also for Tasmania and Queensland.

"Where decomposition or changes of character, cither chemical or
physical, have been caused by aqueous action, there is a difficulty in
separating those which may have taken place at the period of the
formation of the quartz veins from those of more recent date. In some
instances the actions in the past may have differed materially from recent
actions ; but all the evidence we have must incline us to the belief that
in the majority of cases the actions were similar."

Again —

" Some auriferous specimens examined lately have afforded further
evidence as to the probable deposition, at very recent oeriods, of at any
rate part of the gold of the alluvial and quartz mines, and of a deposi-
tion now going on in many mines.

" Considerable difficulty is experienced in conducting the experiments
on this subject, as extreme care is requisite to exclude all possible chance
of the presence of finely-divided gold which has been held in suspension
in mine-water, either by itself or with pyrites, quartz, and earthy matter.
A sample of mud deposited from the water of a mine on the Hustler's
line of reef, Sandhurst, was examined by careful washing, and it was
found that the heavier portion consisted of auriferous pyrites and free
gold. The particles of the latter were of sufficient size to be recognized
by means of the microscope. They were irregular grains apparently
flattened, having been in all probability reduced to their present condition
by the wear and tear of mining operations, or perhaps in part derived
from the clayey casings of the quartz lode. This mud was not pumped
out of the mine with the water, but had been deposited in the workings.
Other instances of auriferous mud carried many miles by running water

1r;:;f''i

776

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

i;!l

are not wanting. Samples collected from the silt in the creek, several
miles below Clunes, gave an appreciable amount of gold to an ordinary
assay of lOOO gr., and were also found to contain iron-pyrites. These and
other similar determinations have made it necessary to discard a certain
portion of the evidence which had been collected to prove that the mine-
waters of the present day carry gold in solution, and deposit it whenever
the circumstances are favourable, either in the quartz veins or alluvial
drifts.

" The following determinations (qualitative) have been made : — ist —
Incrustations from steam-boilers using mine-water at Maryborough.
The residue, after removal of all soluble matter, showed no gold with
the microscope, and but (ew grains of silica. It was a fine powder of
grey-brown colour. Fused with pure litharge and assayed, it gave an
easily recognizable button of gold. The incrustation consisted of chloride
of sodium, sulphate of magnesia, and sulphate of lime. 2nd — Mine
timbers collected from the following mines : —

No. I — Spanhake Company, Ballarat
No. 2— Ulack Hill „ „

No. 3 — Gravel Pits, ,,

No. 4 — Energetic ,, Sandhurst

No. 5 — Koch's Pioneer, ,,

No. 6— Great Extended Hustler's, „

No. 7 — \

No 8—1 ^'^^'^^'''s Reef, Sandhurst

No. 9— Thanet Mine, ,,

No. lo— Koch's Pioneer, ,,
No. II — Bute Mine, Scarsdale.
No. 12 — Reliance, ,,

No. 13 — Ellesmere claim, Scarsdale.

" The samples of timber were for the most part quite sound ; one or
two were slightly decomposed for somewhat less than an inch from the
surface. Though the whole of them were traversed in all directions by
cracks, only to be detected by thoroughly drying them, these cracks were
in all instances found to contain ferruginous clayey matter, and in several
cases iron-pyrites. The soundest samples were taken and burnt in a
clean new muffle, first having split the timber into small pieces, and cut
away as carefully as possible all the outer portion, the clayey cracks
referred to, and any parts that were soft or decayed, which might have
taken up by absorption any auriferous mud while the timbers were in the
mine. The ash obtained was of a red colour, owing to the presence of
oxide of iron. It was washed with water and weak hydrochloric acic' and
then examined microscopically. No gold was detected, but it might
have been easily hidden by the earthy insoluble matter of the ash.
The whole was then fused with a weighed quantity of pure litharge, and
cupelled, and gold was detected readily. The button was dissolved, and
confirmatory reactions obtained from the solution.

" These experiments were repeated with similar results. In the
residues examined by the microscope, were seen a number of angular
grains of silica, and as these rendered it possible that some crack or

■>■• J

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

fissure which had absorbed muddy water had been overlooked, some thin
chips were cut from the wood where it was perfectly solid ; these were
burnt, and a similar red ash with the grains of silica was obtained.

" Another quantity of chips was boiled in water, and yielded sulphates
and chlorides of the alkalies and magnesia ; these were completely
removed by successive waters, and the wood oxidized, so as to form
sulphuric" acid from any pyrites that might be present. This acid and
iron were then detected in the solution. These tests prove that gold has
found its way into the dense unchanged wood of the mine timbers, and
that it must have got there in solution ; for it is impossible to suppose
that grains of gold anc* pyrites can have been drawn into the wood by
capillary action. The grains of quartz were angular and transparent ;
and I can only explain their presence as has been done in the case of other
wood in which they are found, and which has not been in mines, by
supposing them to have been enclosed during the growth of the tree.

" By discarding all the soft portions of the wood and the cracks from
these tests, I have omitted all the parts where chemical action would be
most active and the best results obtained : 8 lb. of specimen No. lo gave
o*002 gr. of parted gold : an average of specimen No. 13, weighing 8 J lb.,
o • 002 gr. of pure gold : 4 lb. of the external soft wood gave o • 01 gr. of gold.
This shows a much larger amount of gold than the internal portions ;
and as the pyrites obtained is crystalline (not loose broken fragments),
showing a surface resembling what is termed ' secondary ' pyrites, and
is firmly fixed on and in the woody matter, I believe it is due to chemical
deposition, and not accidentally absorbed.

" I cannot at present say whether the gold is in the pyrites or as free
gold ; but as I have been unable to detect any microscopically, I think it
is with the pyrites.

" Attempts have been made to determine the actual presence of gold
in mine-water by depositing it on plates of copper connected with a
galvanic apparatus ; but, though gold was found in the crust which
coated the plates, the trial could not be relied on, as no test had been
made of the copper before the experiment was begun. These experi-
ments will be repeated, with a specially devised apparatus, so that not
only shall the copper be pure, but the flow of water made to pass
through a filter in order to remove any suspended matter.

" It is also proposed to make some trials similar to those by which
Sonstadt proved the presence of gold in sea-water. The evidence of its
presence and the continued deposition may be classified under the
following heads : —

" I. Gold found with pyrites in the wood of the deep leads, and in the
charcoal enclosed in the lower parts of the basalt flow covering the leads,
first noted, I believe, by R. Daintree.

■' (

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778

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

" 2. Gold found in the trunks of trees converted into pyrites in the
same leads, and in the pyrites cementing together the quartz pebbles of
the drift, as well as the pyrites forming stalactitic masses on the lower
side of the basalt over the lead.

" 3. The incrustations from steam-boilers fed with mine-water.

" 4. The gold found in mine-water by Daintree.

" 5. Gold and pyrites in mine timber.

"6. Gold in the secondary pyrites coating the joints and filling
fissures in the quartz of the lodes.

" Some persons who have reviewed the experiments made by Daintree
and Wilkinson, have been inclined to doubt the part played by organic
matter ; and William Skey, of the Geological Survey of New Zealand,
states that the action of organic matter in the solutions of gold is simply
to cause a general reduction and distribution of the gold, causing it to
deposit on the bottom of the vessel as a powder, but not in any way
aiding in the formation of nuggets or crystals. I have tried many
experiments with organic matter in solution of gold, and though some
have been as he describes, many have been otherwise ; and I still believe
that organic matter has played an important part. In examining the
organic matter which I have had in the solutions, I find that it becomes
impregnated with gold, so much so * hat when cut it has a metallic lustre,
and may be burnished, and yet litlic gold was deposited as a crust on
the vessel or as a powder. In solutions where no nucleus was placed for
the gold to deposit on, films were formed, which floated on the surface,
gradually increased in size and thickness, and then sank ; on examining
these, they were found to be masses of small crystals. Unfortunately, I
did not see Skey's interesting papers till long after they were published,
and have only lately returned to these experiments. The crystalline gold
has been replaced in the solutions with and without organic matter.
Gold plates, having had the surface roughened by the action of acid,
have also been placed in similar solutions of chloride of gold, and the
results will be duly recorded.

"Like Skey, I have not found that hammered discs of gold increase'^
in size, but I have little doubt of the others with a rough or natural
surface doing so. Daintree's discovery, upon which all these experi-
ments have been based, the observation of which Skey somewhat
severely criticises, was not made with a hammered disc of gold, but with
a rough fragment. Ulrich, who was present when Daintree discovered
the enlarged piece of gold, related the circumstances to me thus. The
gold originally placed in the bottle was a small fragment which had
remained undissolved after making some chloride, and the bottle was
closed with a cork ; when again observed, the solution was colourless,
and the fragment of gold of such a size that it could not be removed

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

779

' from the bottle, through the narrow neck. I'inding that a part of the
cork was floating in the bottle, it was suj^L^cstcd that the orjjanic matter
had call. :d the gold to deposit, and that the organic matter of the
auriferous leads might play an important part in the formation of nuggets.
Wilkinson then successfully repeated the experiment.

" Upon examining numerous samples of auriferous Tertiary or recent
pyrites, I find that the gold is distributed throughout the mass, and
that there is really no more evidence of the pyrites having acted as a
nucleus for the gold than there is for the reverse, i.e. the gold for the
pyrites. Further, we ha\ ■, so far as I know, no evidence in nature of
gold coating pyrites; it occurs in pyrites, or attached to pyrites. In fact
they are found imbedded in each other, but with no further relation than
that they were deposited together. Now we know that, under ordinary
circumstances and from laboratory .solutions, gold is deposited on pyrites,
and, as Skey has pointed f»ut, the pyrites proportionately decomposed ;
there must have been other conditions and affinities which prevented our
laboratory reactions taking place, for we do not find gilded pyrites.
Brown iron-ore, quartz, ani-l iron-pyrites have been found separately in
the centre of gold-crystals ; may not all these minerals have acted simply
as inert nuclei ? Skeleton crystals of gold in the form of the rhombic
dodecahedron have also been observed over the pentagonal dodecahedron
of pyrites, showing that the process here involved is actual crystallization,
and not plating or coating, which would have merely covered the faces of
the pentagonal dodecahedron."

Prof Whitney (1880) states it as his confirmed opinion, after many
years of careful examination of important mining regions in various
countries, that the occurrence of metalliferous ores is rather a surface
phenomenon than a deep-seated one. "The conditions favourable to
the formation of veins and vein-like or segregated masses are more likely
to have existed near the surface than deep down below it. Such
conditions would be — in part at lea.st — diminution of temperature, relief
from pressure, and, in the case of true veins, the existence of fissures.
The history of mining operations shows beyond dispute that bodies of
ore occurring in the segregated form are, on the whole, not to be
depended on for persistence. And even true fissure-veins must event-
ually give out in depth, if for no other reason than the change in the
character of the enclosing rock brought about by intense heat. Neither
would fissures be likely to continue to exist, nor the materials filling
them to retain a distinct form, where the temperature was above the
melting-point. Thus, whatever theories we may adopt for the formation
of mineral veins, we are led to the conclusion that they must, as a
general rule, be better developed near the surface than at great depths.
The fact that in some important mining regions the very upper portion

'* a

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GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

o{ the veins has been oxidized, and then dissolved away by water, is
very easy of comprehension, and not in conflict with what has been
stated above.

" The fact is not to be ignored that the two by far most important
and productive gold-mining districts of the world are regions of former
intense volcanic activity. Australia and California exhibit the same
phenomenon of rich auriferous detritus buried beneath masses of lava.
Although the eruptive rocks, in these cases, are not the direct reposi-
tories of the precious metal, there would seem to be strong reasons for
believing that there is a genetic connection between the volcanic activity
and the enrichment of the adjacent strata.

" The ranges of the Andes and of the North American Cordilleras
certainly surpass all other regions in the world in metallic wealth ; for
hundreds of years they have been supplying the world with a large part
of its silver, and no inconsiderable proportion of its gold. The richness
of the Peruvian mines long since became proverbial, and the word
' bonanza ' is now familiar to all from its association with the mines on
the Comstock lode and others of the Far West. These regions have
been the seat of the most intense volcanic activity during Tertiary times,
and in all probability in previous geological epochs. It is hardly
possible therefore, in view of all the facts, not to admit that there is
likely to be some genetic connection between the manifestations of
igneous forces and the impregnation of the rocks with the precious
metals and metalliferous ores.

" Quite a number of theories relating to the geological epochs at
which the various metals have made their appearance, or been introduced
into the formations where we now find them, have been put forth by
chemists and geologists. Gold has been specially favoured in this
respect. No theoretical views regarding this metal have been so widely
promulgated and generally accepted as those of Murchison. According
to this eminent autViority, gold in paying quantities is exclusively con-
fined to the Palaeozoic rocks, into which, however, it was introduced at a
very late geological epoch. It was also a favourite dictum of this
geologist that auriferous quartz veins are a superficial phenomenon, and
that mines of this metal would not hold in depth as persistently as those
of other metals. The discoveries of the California Survey in regard to
the age of the gold-bearing formations of that State have entirely refuted
the (until 1864) generally accepted theory of the exclusively Palaeozoic
age of rocks of this kind, although this fact was not admitted by
Murchison in his latest publications.

" The great depth to which some gold-mines have been wrought, with
profit, both in California and Australia, in connection with many other
facts observed in various parts of the world, justifies us in asserting that

I*;

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

781

auriferous quartz veins are as persistent, on the average, as those worked
for the other metals. That the impregnation of the rock with gold took
place at a comparatively recent geological epoch, at least in certain
prominent and important mining regions, cannot be denied. These arc
regions of former intense volcanic activity, and the period to which that
belongs is unquestionably Tertiary. In regard to mining districts where
gold and other metals and metalliferous ores have been found in consider-
able quantity, and where there have been no striking manifestations of
volcanism, accompanied by ejections of lava, as, for instance, along the
greater portion of the Appalachian Chain, and especially on its eastern
border, no definite statement can be made in regard to the geological
period of the metalliferous impregnation. It would appear, however, that
the evidence is, on the whole, in favour of this having taken place at the
time of, or shortly after, the upheaval of the ranges themselves. To
prove that the rocks of such ranges as the Appalachian and Scandinavian,
which are surrounded by entirely unaltered Cretaceous and Tertiary strata,
have been the scene of extensive chemical reactions during those later
periods, would be a difficult task. Under any circumstances, there is no
basis for Murchison's idea that gold was — to use his own words — 'the
last formed of the metals ' ; for the impregnation of the quartz veins,
or rather its segregation, at the same time w'th the quartz, into veins
or vein-like masses, was merely a collecting together of particles
previously existing in the rock, and not by any means a new creation
of them.

" It does appear as if there was some truth in the idea that the
finding of large pieces of gold in the gravel is not justified by what we
sec of the occurrence of the metal in the quartz. It is certain, at all
events, that the form of the ordinary nugget is something different from
that which is offered by the gold as originally deposited.

" The larger part of the gold contained in ttic quartz exists in the
form of particles invisible to the naked eye ; and there arc many mines
which are producing largely and paying handsomely, w'.icro free gold
can hardly ever be seen at all in the rock going to the stamps. Indeed,
there is a general belief among the miners that, ' specimen mines ' — or
those where the free gold is segregated from the quartz so as to form
handsome specimens — are not likely to be persistent.

" Where the gold is visible to the eye in the quartz, the predomi-
nating form which it exhibits is that which is best expressed by the term
' scaly,' — a word used by the placer and hydraulic miners in describing
the small, rounded, flattened pieces with which they so frequently meet.

" It seems to be the fact that the gold in the quartz never has the
proper ' nuggety ' character. The metal does not occur as deposited
from solution, in solid, smooth, and rounded masses, but in scaly, foliated,

1 !

'» i

782

GEOLOGY AND MIXERALOGY.

filamentary, irboresccnt, or crystalline forms. The question arises, then,
how has this change been brought about ? And connected with this is
the inquiry whether there is really ground for believing that pieces of
gold, after being separated from their original matrix, do increase in size,
cither by chemical or mechanical causes.

"The finding (.,f large nuggets in the hydraulic mines of California
seems, so far as ascertained by the investigations of the Geological Survey,
to be of very rare occr.rcnce. Tlicre have been, however, occasional
statements, in books and newspapers, of .such lucky finds in the ordinary
placer mines. M<xst of these, of course, took place many years ago. The
largest nugget of which the writer has ever heard is one said to have
been found at Valiecito, in 1852, which weighed 25 lb. It is stated by
W. Birkmyrc, in his list of great nuggets found in various parts of the
world, that tneic is in the collection of the Bank of England a nugget
found in Carson Creek, 'n 1850, and weighing 18 lb. 3 oz. The above-
mentioned find at Valiecito is given on the same authority. Nothing
is known of its form or of the character of its surface. Such finds seem to
be much more common in Australia than they ever were in California,
judging from the lists which have been given in the official publications
of the Geological Survey of Victoria.

" Large masses of gold have occasionally been found in the quartz
and in the bed-rock in California. The occurrence of such at Spanish
J3ry Diggings has been mentioned. Carson Hill is another locality from
which similar facts ha\'e been reported. As far as the results of his o\\ n
investigations in California are concerned, the writer is not able to find
sufficient evidence to ' upport the opinion that the large size of the
nuggets in the grave! presents difficulties requiring the aid of chemi.stry
for their solution. If it be true, as the writer believes, that quartz veins
as well as all others, as a general rule, have been richer near the surface
than they arc at great depths, then the occasional finding of large
nuggets in the gravel would not be a matter of surp.isc. Heavy masses
of gold arc found, even now, in some of the quartz veins, and somewhat
heavier ones may have existed nearer the surface.

" With regard to the manner in wliidi the gold in the quartz loses its
characteristic forms, so as to become transformed into the smooth
rounded masses occasionally found in the placer mines, there seems to
be no theoretical difficulty. In the first place, however, it may be stated
that by no means all the nuggets have this character. Many of them
exhibit more of their original character than would be expected to be
found remaining after ages of pounding between the boulders of the
gravel. 'This is particularly true of .specimens collected by Professor
Pettec from the hydraulic mines during his last year's investigations, and
which have been carefully examined by Wadsworth and the present

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

783

writer. The same fact has also been stated by Ulrich — who appears to
be a close observer — in regard to the Australian nuggets.

"There seems to be no doubt that a 'scraggy' — to use a com.non
miner's term — piece of gold can be transformed into a rounded smooth
nugget by a sufficient amount of the right k'nd of rubbing and hammer-
ing, which must have taken place as these great piles of detritus were
being shifted from place to place by currents of water. Some of the
specimens collected exhibit in the most interesting and convir.jing
manner the transitional form between the rough crystalline form and the
smooth rounded one. One in particular, from an unknown localit)-,
purchased by the writer in a shop at San Francisco, has one side almost
perfectly smooth, -nd rounded edges turned over upon the back, which
itself is covcrci ' '>>ith crystalline branchings, still retaining a large part
of their original delicacy. It is evident, in this case, that the specimen
has been protected on one side, while the other has been subjected to
abrasion and pounding, the result being a nugget presenting at the same
time and in most remarkable perfection, the characteristic forms of
quartz-gold and placer-gold.

" That the masses of gold, when they have been released from the
quartz veins and have begun to be rolled about in the gravel, cou'l by
any po.ssibility be so situated as to become subjected t^ any chemical
influences by which their mass could be enlarged, -ecm.s — to the writer,
at least — highly improbable. That occasionally [)icces of the metal may
be united by pressure or by hammeri'-;g between the gravel boulders, and
that thus a larger mass maybe formed by the union of two or more
smaller ones, through purely mechanical agencies, seems not impossible ;
and some observations of \Vads\' irth appear to corroborate '■'ais view."

In 1881, Prof. T Egle.ston, of the New York Schf...! of Mines.
published his views of the formation of gold nuggets and piaccr deposits.'
His paper may be summarized thus : —

" The origin of gold i^oth in piaccr deposits and in veins, and
especially the origin of nuggets, has been the subject of repeated di.scus-
sions and investigations. In 1874, I made somi' examinations of the
hydraulic mines of California, and was very much struck with the
distribution of the gold throughout these deep placers, which were
almost invariably poor on the surface, while gradually growing richer
toward.' the bed-rock. The constant presence of fossil wood, and the
large quantity of organic matter contained even low down in the.se beds,
was also remarkable. Not being satisfied with the various theories
advanced to account for the formation of these deposits, I began an
investigation early in 1879 on the conditions of .solubility of gold and the
cau.scs of the less in wo'king gold-ore in a large way. The researclies
which I have undertaken show that irold must be considered a soluble

*^l

*i<^;

"!*•'

784

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

K !

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" rather than an insoluble metal, and that the conditions of solution are
ff such as will be found anywhere where gold is likely to occur, and the
j solution may take place even under the ordinary circumstances of surface
', drainage, and may be going on freely even where the presence of gold
f has never been suspected, and that there are causes enough in nature to
I produce the solution of the gold in sufficient quantities to account for all
t the phenomena of both the vein and placer formations.

" The general theory with regard to the formation of these placer
deposits and nuggets has been that they were the result of the destruc-
tion of pre-existing vein-matter, which does not accord with the facts as
shown in the deep placer deposits. The gold in such case would be
distributed in layers of unequal richness throughout the bed, the richness
depe iding on the amount of deposition taking place at any one time,
am. would not occur in increasing richness from the top to the bottom.
Further, every particle of gold of whatever size would have a rounded
form, resulting from its abrasion against the harder rocks, which is not
the case, the small as well as the large grains being of very irregular shape.
It must also be borne in mind that most of the veins from which the gold
is supposed to have come had a gangue of quartz. The gold is much
softer than the rock ; the quantity of precious metal contained in the
vein would also be very much less than the rock, so that in the destruc-
tion of the formations there would be a very small amount of gold being
abraded and ground in a very large quantity of rock. It is therefore likely
that the coarse particles of gold, which is so much softer, would be com-
minuted at least as fine as the rock, and the smaller cnes much finer
than the rock, so that the difference in density would hardly tend to
m^e a concentration by any subsequent action of wind or watei, s'l ;e
the small particles of gold would tend to float away and thus prevent the
concentration. Where the large particles are not in sufficient quantity to
make an extended natural concentration possible, and where the deposi-
tion of the sediment of" the rivers is taking place, the result would be a
very small quantity of almost .mpalpably fine gold distributed uniformly
in a very large amount of comminuted rock, or a production of clays
resembling that used to make brick around Philadelphia, which contains
very small amounts of gold uniformly distributed through it (see p. i8i).
The structure, too, of each one of these particles would be the same as
that of the rock with which it was abraded, and would be uniform. It
is, however, well known that the grains of gold found in the placers are
not uniform ; some of them are flattened with rounded edges, others
rounded, and most are mammillary, all of which forms are not probable,
and hardly possible, under the conditions suggested. A nugget rounded
like a water-worn pebble is a great exception in any of the placer
deposits.

11;;.

' n

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

'85

" While the theory of vein destruction might in some cases account
for the presence of gold in small quantities throughout the sands in
grains large enough to admit of concentration, it could never account
for the presence of large nuggets, which if they had been transported any
distance by water would have lost their mammillary form. Admitting
the greater size and force of the ancient rivers, it is impossible to
conceive that such large and irregularly shaped nuggets as those from
Australia, Siberia, and from this country could ever have been so
transported by water as to be entirely relieved of all their gangue,
without having themselves assumed much more regular surfaces and a
more uniformly cobble-stone shape. On the other hand, slow accumula-
tions from solutions of varying strength and a deposition of unequal
rapidity continued for a great length of tiine, accounts perfectly both for
the form and for all the attendant phenomena. It is a fact, moreover,
that very large masses such as these nuggets have never been found in
veins, and are confined exclusively to placer deposits. The detrital
theory accounts still less for the fact that in many of the deposits,
especially where the bed-rock is soft and porous, the gold often enters it
to the depth of nearly a foot, and it is frequently the rich '.. part of the
deposit.

"In 1867, Wilkinson (sec p. 759), of Australia, made a series of
researches with reference to the effect of organic material on the
deposition of gold. Sonstadt (p. 769) also made a series of researches
on the presence of gold in sea-water, and found it to be present in the
ratio of about i gr. to the ton of water, or about $1 (4s. zd.) for every
25 tons of water.

"Up to this time, gold had always been considered as a very insoluble
substance, because it was insoluble or very nearly so in most mineral
acids. Ingenious metallurgic?! processes based on this insolubility have
been invented, and are still in constant use ; but it does not follow that
because gold is not affected by the ordinary acids it is therefore not
soluble in other substances much more likely to be found in nature.
The action of organic acids and of the alkalies were left out of view, and
also the fact that the solution of infinitesimal quantities may acquire
great significance in a geological sense.

" Bisrhoff (p. 763) found that sulphide of gold is slightly soluble in
meteoric waters, and much more soluble in a saturated solution of
sulphurctt^f^d hydrogen in water. It has also been ascertained that
chloride of gold in minute quantity in an alcoholic solution may remain
in solution in the presence of proto-salts of iron, and that metallic gold
is slightly soluble in solutions of the per-salts of iron. But the theories
founded on these discoveries supposed that gold was much less soluble
than it really is, and that the solution required peculiar agencies and a

3 K

786

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

set of circumstances not likely to occur everywhere. Its diffusion in
sea-water was accounted for by the presence of chlorine, iodine, bromine,
and of alkalies, and these conditions were not thought to be of general
application in the explanation of the phenomena exhibited in mineral
veins.

" Selwyn, the government geologist of Victoria, proposed a theory of
solution (already described on p. 762).

" These researches and theories, however, did not attract very much
attention, and the old theory of the destruction of pre-existing veins
was still adhered to. It is to be observed, however, that when gold
does come from the destruction of veins, the surfaces are rounded and
worn smooth, as is shown in the larger boulder of quartz containing gold
detached from a vein in Venezuela, which is now in the collection of the
School of Mines. This is in entire contradiction to the mammillary
structure of the nugget.". If they had been transported far by water,
they would have been rounded and water-worn to much more regular
surfaces. These worn surfaces would of course have been confined
entirely to the outside of the nuggets, any cavities existing in the
interior of the piece would have been in the condition in which they
left the vein, and the edges of any crystals found there would have been
sharp ; while in the nuggets, the mammillary form exists even in the
cavities of the interior, and even where crystals or the commencement
of crystallization is observed, the edges of the crystal are very often
blunted or rounded, showing both deposition and solution on these
edges.

" It is also to be noticed that the analyses of nearly all the samples
of gold taken from veins show it to be much less pure than the nuggets
found in the placer mines of the same district. If the gold of the
placers had come from eroded rocks, it would be of the same composition
as that of the veins of the district in which it was found. It is well
known that most of the gold nuggets are pure, while the gold of the
veins is of a much lower grade, containing considerable quantities of
silver and other foreign metals. Thus the Ballarat nuggets are 992' 5
fine, the Australian nuggets vary from 960 to 966 ; those from veins in
California from 875 to 885 ; in Transylvania, 600 with 399of silver ; and
in Nevada there are some of 554 of gold and 429 of silver, and others
only 333 of gold with 666 of silver.

" It must be remembered also that the violence of the old pl-^ccr
currents was very much greater than that of the ordinary streams of
these days. The rivers were not only larger and deeper, but r ..re
rapid, and the results of their action would have been an almost com-
plete comminution of the gold by its rubbing against the harder rocks.
If this were the wliole of the process, and no further action had taken

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

787

place, the gold would be found in the sands in this comminuted con-
dition exclusively, and few if any of the particles would have escaped
the battering and pounding process incident to long exposure to rolling
rocks, and the deposits resulting from it would be iound on the bed of
the stream.

" Gold is, however, also found as nuggets, and in small particles in
rocks which have never been disturbed from their original positions, but
which have been decomposed to a considerable depth, and it then has
the same rounded form, occupying positions which make it evident that
it must have been formed in situ, and never have undergone any
abrasive action. The nugget found in 1828, in Cabarrus County, N.C.,
which weighed 37 lb., and the one found in the valley of Taschku
Targanka, near Miask, in Siberia, which weighed 96 lb., were both found
under such circumstances in a decomposed dioritic rock. In some few
cases, it has been definitely ascertained that the gold has been dissolved
and precipitated in the decomposed rocks, for it has penetrated only just
so far as the decomposition has allowed it, the yield in gold ceasing
entirely at the point where the rock allowed no further filtration ; while
in other rocks of a more porous nature in the same district, the gold has
penetrated to a depth not yet ascertained. Such a condition of things
is not uncommon in the gold-belts of the Southern States.

" Admitting that heavier masses of gold did exist in the veins dis-
integrated by the ancient rivers, gravity alone cannot account for the
bottom deposits (which are often 300 ft. from the surface) being the
richest. It would have required greater agitation of the earth than we
have any evidence for believing ever took place to sift the coarse particles
even through 50 ft. depth of earth, and there is no indication that these
deposits after they were once made were ever disturbed. It is un-
doubtedly true that in shallow placers, where the bed-rock comes near
the surface, the surface-soil is rich ; but it is the invariable rule that in
the deep placers the richest deposits are near the bed-rock, and at a
great distance from the surface.

" There is a tradition, which is prevalent in all the gold-mines of the
South, and in those of some other districts, to the effect that gold grows,
so that every few years the tailings of the old mines are re-worked,
generally with a profit ; the quantity separated each time, according to
the local tradition, being in proportio/r to the Icngtli . •" ime the material
has remained undisturbed. As there is no opportunity for the gold in
these sands to accumulate by gravit)-, the people of the region believe
that gold grows like a plant.

" It would not, however, be rational to deny a theory so easily
explained as the formation of placers by the destruction of vein-matter
without having some other to replace it. If the theory of the destruction

.3 F, 2

'■•-:>$■%

788

GEOLOGY AND MINERAl jGY,

ml:

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of pre-existing veins is not tenable, we arc bound to eMamine carefully
whether there are causes in nature sufficient to account for solution, and
what are the agencies that render the gold soluble. A scries of experi-
ments have been made on this subject lasting over many months, both
synthetical and analytical, which seem to be of considerable importance
in the study of the origin both of placer and vein phenomena. In this
investigation, most of the known salts of gold were prepared ; but as the
chloride is most easily made, this was made the basis of almost all the
solutions. While making the chloride of gold for the solutions, some
sponge-gold was placed in a tube and heated in a current of chlorine-gas
until the chloride of gold formed was entirely sublimed. It deposited
at the upper part of the tube directly over the gold, and as the tube
cooled, on the gold also in fine tran.sparent crystals J in. long. This
tube, when cool, was closed while full of chlorine, by replacing the glass
tubes by glass rods, and the joints were made tight with paraffin. In
5 months, the crystals were melted into a mass ; and in a year, the
whole of the chloride had been transformed into metallic gold, with
occasional nodules of chloride throu^i it ; but the whole of it could be
readily amalgamated.

" In order to ascertain the effect of different organic substances on
salts of gold in solution, 5 portions of 50 c. c. each of a solution containing
O' S gnn. of chloride of gold were treated in different ways. The first
was covered with I c. c. of petroleum. In the second, \ gnn. of cork was
placed ; in the third, J grm. of peat ; in the fourth, J gnn. of leather ; in
the fifth. \ grin, of leaves. These solutions were put in a dark place,
and were left for 3 months before examination. When the solution
containing the petroleum was brought to the light, the liquid had lost its
colour, and there were suspended in it a number of very fine and long
crystals of gold, distributed nearly uniformly from the top to the
bottom, and floating almost perpendicularly in the water. They had the
appearance of the hexagonal crystals described by Professor Chester.
As soon as the liquid was agitated, they fell to the bottom. The
solutions containing the cork, leather, and leaves had also been rendered
colourless, but the gold had entered into these substances, replacing the
organic matter, so that they were pseudomorphed into gold. The
solution in which the peat was placed was also colourless ; but the gold
was precipitated in the form of very small mammillary masses, recalling
perfectly the form of nuggets.

" To ascertain the degree of solubility of gold, a quantity of pure
spongy goW was prepared, and placed in a variety of solutions. Some
of these were left exposed to the air ; others were sealed at the ordinary
temperature and pressure of the air for periods of 6 to 8 months ; others
were exposed to heat and pressure under varying conditions in an air-

XtA-s:.

ORIGIN AND FO::?MATION.

789

bath, arranged in such a way that the temperature could be kept
constant for a number of hours at a time. Many of these last tubes
burst after the liquid had acquired a tint. Of some of these, the contents
were entirely lost; of others, a sufficient quantity of the liquid was left
to test for gold.

" Solutions of salt, sulphate of ammonia, chloride of ammonium,
chloride and bromide of potassium in sealed tubes, after 8 months, gave
no reaction. Heated for 5 hours at temperatures varying from 1 50° to
200° C. (302° to 392^ F.), none of them, except the bromide of potassium,
gave any reaction, and that reacted very strongly. In the sealed tubes,
the solution of salt, in which a few drops of nitric acid had been placed,
reacted for gold ; the iodide of potassium gave no immediate reaction,
but when evaporated to dryness left a purple residue, soluble in bromine,
which reacted for gold. Heated to a temperature of 100" to 1 70*^ C.
(212'^ to 338° F.), the iodide of potassium tube gave a reaction for gold
not much stronger than the solution before heating.

" A solution of commercial nitrate of ammonia, which contained
some chloride of ammonium as an impurity, kept in an open tube at the
ordinary temperature and pressure for 4J months, coloured the solution
bright-yellow, and reacted strongly for gold. Two solutions were made,
each containing 5 grin, of nitrate of ammonia and \ grin, of chloride of
ammomum in 200 c. c. of distilled water. One of the solutions was left
in an open room and the other put in a dark place, and left for 1 1 days.
At the end of that time, both reacted strongly and with equal intensity
for gold.

" Pure sponge-gold was then placed in the following solutions, con-
tained in sealed tubes at the ordinary temperature and pressure for
3 months. Sulphide of ammonium produced no change and no reaction.
With sulphide of potassium, a black precipitate was formed, and a strong
reaction for gold was given by the liquid. Sulphide of sodium gave a
black precipitate and a strong reaction for gold. Cyanide of potassium
gave a yellow solution, a brown precipitate and smell of ammonia, and
a strong reaction for gold. Chloride of magnesium, after nearly
3 months, gave a gelatinous precipitate, but no gold. Sulphate of soda,
after the same length of time, produced no change and no reaction. The
sulphate of copper produced no change after 2 J months.

"Spongy gold was then put into solutions of the following substances,
and heated for 6^ hours between 145° and 180'' C. (293" to 356° F.).
Sulphide of ammonium showed no apparent change, but reacted strongly
for gold. The solution of sulphide of potassium attacked the glass
strongly ; it looked greenish, and the liquid reacted for gold ; a black
precipitate was formed, which was dissolved in b'"oniine, and reacted for
gold. The solution of sulphide of sodium acted slightly on the glass,

.i;:ii':;l
■M

Vik ,M

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790

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

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'i^f

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and acquired a greenish tint ; a pink film was found on the glass, and a
slight precipitate was formed. This film reacted slightly, and the solu-
tion very strongly for gold ; there was not enough of the precipitate to
examine. The solution of chloride of magnesium attacked the glass
.strongly, from which scales fell, but no gold was dissolved. The solution
of sulphate of soda gave a cloudy, flocculent precipitate, but no reaction
for gold. Commercial sulphuric acid and .solutions of sulphate of potash,
iron, and manganese gave white scales, but no reaction for gold.
Solutions of sulphate and nitrate of soda gave no change and no reaction.
The solution of permanganate of potash produced no reaction. In the
solution of cyanide of potassium, the brown precipitate which was formed
in the previous experiment dissolved, reducing the gold in the solution
so that no gold was Hnmd dissolved.

"A mixture of nitrate of silver and sulphuric acid produced no change
after 2 months. A mixture of the sulphates of potash, iron, manganese,
and commercial sulphuric acid produced no change after 2 months.
The permanganate of potash and sulphuric acid gave a black precipitate
and coloured the liquid slightly pink, but gave no gold.

" In order to test the effect of organic matter in solution, ^ ^rm. of
chloride of gold was placed in 2 /ifres of Croton water in two large
bottles. One of these was left exposed to the sunlight, and from this all
the gold was precipitated in less than a week ; the other was placed in a
dark room and left there ; at the end of 8 months, a small amount of
gold was precipitated. When solid organic matter was placed in the
bottle, the precipitation was quite rapid ; and when the bottle was then
brought into the sunlight, all the gold was precipitated in about 48 hours.

" To ascertain the effects of the different soils on weak gold-solutions,
\ gnu. of chloride of gold was dissolved in 10 litres of filtered Croton
water, ana made to pass continuously over the 3 mixtures given below
arranged in glass funnels. The apparatus was so arranged that the
liquid would flow drop by drop on the filters : — No. i contained 30 grin.
of quartz sand ; No. 2, 20 grm. of sand and 10 of soil ; No. 3, 10 grtn. of
magnetic iron sand and 10 of quartz sand.

" The filters were left exposed in a room where there was considerable
du.st arising, and where there was also the smoke from passing trains.
In 2 days, most of the gold had been precipitated in the filters, and the
water had a greenish look. Then J gnu. of chloride of gold was dissolved
in ID Hires of distilled water, and filtered in the same way over 2,0 grm.
of quartz sand, a mixture of 20 of sand and 10 of soil, and a mixture^of
ID of sand and 30 of magnetic sand. These filters were carefully covered
so as to prevent any dust settling on them, so that they were protected
from all organic matter except such as was contained in them. At the
end of 2 months, the clean sand and the mixture of magnetic and clean

dr'

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

791

sand had reduced a small quantity of gold (a little more in the latter
than the former) in concretionary shapes, which, owing to the rapidity of
the action, were not coherent, but could be crushed with the pressure of
the finger. In the mixture with the soil, the whole had been reduced,
and was distributed through the sand as an impalpable powder, no
indication of any concretionary form being observed.

" The attempt was then made to dissolve gold in a manner similar
to that which was supposed to take place in nature. For this purpose,
tilters were prepared of 30 gn)i. each of clean quartz sand ; in one of
these I" 161 gnu. of sponge-gold was placed and carefully mixed with
the sand ; in each of the other two, ^ grin, of very fine gold was
mixed. Over the sponge-gold, 10 litres of distilled water, containing
30 grm. of common salt and 5 grin, of nitrate of soda, was made to
filter constantly for 2 months ; but no observable change took place.
For the second solution, 6 litres of Crotoii water were taken, in which
9gt'»i- of nitrate of ammonia and i grin, of chloride of ammonium were
dissolved. This was made to filter constantly for one month, but no
gold was dissolved. For the last experiment, i grin, of nitrate of
ammonia and 9 grin, of chloride of ammonium were used, but no gold
was dissolved.

• " It was the intention to continue these filtrations for 6 months at a
time, and with all the conditions of natural waters, but the difficulty of
making the experiments continuous decided the abandonment of them
after a number of the other results had boen obtained. The failure to
dissolve gold in this short time does not prove that there is no action, as
the other experiments show. An amount equal to a little less than that
in sea-water might easily escape detection. In these experiments there
is lacking the certainty that all the conditions necessary to success will
be fulfilled. It was found in one of the experiments, made in the early
stages of the investigation, that the fine dust circulating in the room was
sufficient to precipitate the gold from a dilute solution. All these
researches had to be made in a room to which many persons had access,
and it is quite possible that the organic matter precipitated the gold in
these last experiments as fast as it was dissolved ; for in the experiments
for the production of the placers the organic matter did deposit the gold
in the sand. It is greatly to be regretted that these experiments could
not have been made in the complete absence of dust.

" In order to test the effect of organic life in such solutions, a plant
was watered with a very weak solution of gold, but, as is often the case
in such experiments, the plant died of too much watering. In the
anxiety to produce the kind of absorption by plants described by
Durocher and Malaguti, the experiment was made a failure by too
much enterprise. The examination of the ashes of the plant showed a

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792

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

small amount of gold, but most of the gold precipitated was in the soil
around the plant, being thrown down there by the organic material
in the earth. This experiment indicates the origin of the thin plates
of gold which are sometimes found in the grass roots of certain placer
countries.

" It will be observed that in almost all the cases where gold was
dissolved, chlorine and some nitrogenous substances were found together
in the presence of alkaline waters. These same conditions are favourable
also to the separation and solution of silica. It has been proven by
these e.xperiments that the alkaline sulphides act on gold as well as the
substances enumerated above, and it is quite easy to imagine the
conditions under which the gold, already in solution in excessively small
quantities, coming in contact either with solid or liquid organic matter,
may precipitate all the metal.

" In Grass Valley, California, I have known of gold being thrown
down in the filter of a Plattner's vat by the organic matter contained in
the very impure water used there for the solution of the gold rendered
.soluble by the action of the chlorine. The filter was full of metallic
gold, and there was no means of ascertaining how much of it had been
lost. Several oz. of a brown deposit were taken from it, which was
nearly pure gold. This cause of deposition, and of loss in large opera-
tions, has, I believe, been entirely overlooked. It is quite easy to
explain the presence of gold in alluvial sands by the action of sunlight
alone on the waters containing the gold in solution ; and to account for
the gold on the bed-rock, by the solutions coming in contact with
organic or mineral matter, such as the lignites, fossil woods, or the
pyrites, which is everywhere found in deep placer deposits. The waters
not being able to pass the bed-rock, remain there in contact with the
organic matter until all the gold is precipitated. The same would be
true of the decomposing rocks, or of slaty strata coming up to the
bottom of the deposit at an angle. The deposition would be rendered
much more rapid by any electrical currents that might pass through the
.strata.

" In all of these phenomena, time, which in the operations of nature
is unlimited, is one of the chief factors. In any laboratory experiment,
the limit of time must of necessity be short, but there is no such limit in
nature. That this solution goes on on a large scale there is every reason
to suppose. That it may be connected with vein phenomena the
California nugget shows, since in this case both the formation of the
quartz and of the nugget are evidently posterior to that of the blue
gravel.

" It will be seen from the.se reactions that many of the conditions
favourable to the solution of gold are also favourable for the solution of

:i!

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

793

silica, and that, as Professor Kerr shows, the rocks may be actually
ciecoinposed and the ^old deposited, formiriff in this way shallow
deposits called veins, in which the gold disappears entirely beyond a
few ft.

" Nothinj^ is more likely than that the infiltration of water throu^di
rocks undergoing decomposi'Jon, of which there are enormous quantities
in the gold-region, should take up the alkalies, and, slowly passing over
the gold, should dissolve it. The composition of these alkaline salts
would depend on the nature of the rock through which the waters
passed, but it is more than likely that they would be mixtures of many
of the compounds likely to attack the gold an' ;arry it off in solution,
and not alkaline carbonates and sulphides alone, although these would
be likely not only to be present, but to be powerful agents in carrying
on the work of solution, In some cases, the decay of the rocks is so
rapid that the phenomena may, as it were, be caught in the act. The .
agencies producing the decomposition of the rock, penetrating it beyond
the limits of local drainage, and carrying off the soluble parts, leave the
debris in a condition easily penetrated by the infiltrating solution.s, and
ready to receive any deposit which these solutions may from any cause
leave behind them. A source of these deposits in the deep placers of
California is the trap which sometimes covers the old river deposits to a
depth of 150 ft. In the deep placers, these waters would be capable of
holding the gold in solution until they met some decomposing element,
such as particles of metallic compounds, native metals, or organic matter,
which is always present in large quantities in the deep placers. If a
nucleus of metal were present, the gold would be precipitated on it, and
if none were present, then the gold would come down as a powder,
each grain of which, however small, would serve as a nucleus for future
aggregations.

" Admitting the solutions to be even more dilute than the sea-water
near the coast of England, yet unlimited time and quantity would
evidently produce these effects, re-distributing the gold. Iodine, which
is a solvent of gold, is found in many of the plants of the gold-region,
and in considerable quantities in sea-water. Sonstadt supposes that
gold is kept in solution in the water of the sea by the slow rate at which
iodate of calcium is decomposed in the sea-water of the temperate zones,
but suggests that where the decomposition of the iodate, whose presence
is necessary to keep the small amount of gold in solution, is very rapid,
as in hot countries, the liberation of the nascent iodine, and consequent
rapid solution of the gold, and subsequent precipitation by organic
matter, is quite suilficient to account for the great richness of the gold-
deposits of tropical countries.

" It seems by the experiments already ctcd, to be clearly proved

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GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

that gold is not only not insoluble, but that in nature it is constantly
being dissolved out of the rocks and placers, the waters of filtration
dissolving out of the rocks in their passage through them all the
materials necessary for the solution of the gold, and carrying it in very
dilute solutions until it meets some substance that precipitates it. It
seems to be proved that when the action is slow and localized, we have
the phenomena of placers with large or small nuggets and irregularly
shaped pieces ; and when the action is rapid, we find the gold in small
particles distributed through the sands. We have reason to suppose
that these phenomena arc now taking place in such a way as to con-
centrate the gold by infiltration and precipitation in the tailings of
mines which cannot be concentrated by mechanical means. Some of
these phenomena can be accounted for by the simple action of sunlight ;
but others, mostly those of the deep placer deposits, have their cause in
the large amount of organic material contained in them. The use of a
charcoal filter to precipitate the gold from relatively concentrated solu-
tions, in one of the recently invented metallurgical processes, is a very
suggestive idea of the means nature may have used on an immense scale
on very attenuated solutions.

" The same conditions which cause the solution of gold in certain
cases cause also the solution of silica. This explains the phenomenon
of mammillary and apparently water-worn nuggets (like that from Placer
county) encased in quartz, while both the gold and the quartz have
been formed posterior to the blue gravel. It also explains th presence
of 'putty stones,' as the soft pieces of decomposed rock constantly
found in placer deposits are calhd. Many of the causes which produce
the precipitation of the gold would also produce the reduction of soluble
sulphates to insoluble sulphides, the gold being retained in the mass.
This would account for the almost constant presence of gold in pyrites,
or the occurrence of some of the copper-ores of Texas in the form of
trees, the ore containing both gold and silver ; also for the constant
presence of gold in the iron-ores of Brazil, the so-called Jacutinga, and
for the presence of trees transformed into iron-ore carrying gold in some
of our Western States. In many of the deep placers of California, the
heavy cap of basalt is quite sufficient to account for many of the
phenomena which occur not only beneath but around it.

" The fact that gold has not as yet been found in potable waters may
be simply due to the extreme difficulty attendant on its "etection in
minute quantity. It is more than likely that many of the geological
phenomena on a large scale were produced by very dilute solutions or
very slight forces acting for a very long time. How far the electrical
currents of the earth may have been a factor in t'lcse phenomena it is
impossible to surmise. It is, however, more than probable that they

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

795

were the result, not of one alone, but of all the causes mentioned, and
perhaps many others which h.ave as yet escaped our attention. No
single agent is so powerful a solvent of gold as chlorine. Very few
drainage-waters are free from some compound of it, and no soil is
without the nitrogenous materials necessary to set the chlorine free, and
therefore capable fS attacking the gold and rendering it soluble. The
experiments show that a trace of it is quite sufficient to dissolve enough
gold to colour a solution so that the eye can detect it after a few weeks'
exposure.

" In the nugget of Placer county, it would have been impossible for
cither the gold or the silica to have got into its position except by
solution. The iron of the blue gravel in this case seems to have been
the first cause of precipitation, and subsequently the gold itself was an
active agent in increasing its own weight. The general absence of
crystals, and their rounded edges where thoy are found, can be easily
accounted for by the fact of the rapid action possible in the placers.
The readiness of filtration through the easily permeated gravel causes
the gold to precipitate so rapidly that there is no time for any but a
mammillary deposit ; while in vein deposits, the extreme slowness of the
deposition allows the gold to assume a crystalline shape. When we
consider that two-thirds of all the gold produced in the world comes
from alluvial deposits, it seems difficult to account for its presence in the
sands in any other way than by solution."

The last writer to be quoted on this subject is Prof J. S. Newberry,
whose paper on the Genesis and Distribution of Gold was published late
in 1 88 1. It runs as follows : —

"Gold occurs in three classes of deposits : ist, placers ; 2nd, segre-
gated quartz veins in metamorphic rocks ; 3rd, in fissure-veins, or
repositories connected with them, where it is mingled with the ores of
iron, lead, tellurium, silver, copper, &c.

" Placer Deposits.

" Nine-tenths, and possibly ninety-nine hundredths, of all the gold
which has come into the possession of man, have been obtained from
superficial deposits. These are called placers by the Spaniards, from
whom we have adopted this as we have so many other mining
terms.

" The gold here occurs in beds of sand, gravel, and boulders, which
have plainly been washed down from higher ground, usually from
neighbouring mountain slopes, composed of metamorphic rocks, con-
taining auriferous quartz veins. This relationship is so constant that
most persons who have observed or read much of placer-gold deposits
have been satisfied with the simple and obvious inference that the gold

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796

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

has been derived from the erosion of higher rocks and the breaking
down of quartz veins, the dctrital materials having been sorted by water
according to their specific gravity. Probably this view would have been
universally accepted, the array of facts in its support is so convincing,
if it had not happened that men arc so constituted that it is impossible
for all to think alike on any subject. Among other fruits of this con-
stitutional heterodoxy is the coinage of a new theory to account for the
genesis of gold in placers, namely, that the grains and nuggets are
formed where found by precipitation from chemical solution.

" The facts by which the advocates of this theory have attempted to
sustain it are: ist, the rarity of nuggets or gold masses of any con-
siderable size in quartz veins ; 2nd, the greater purity of the fine gold of
placers than that of the neighbouring veins ; 3rd, the frosted character
of the surface of some gold nuggets ; 4th, instances of deposition of gold
in organic substances buried in the gold placers; and 5th, the solubility
of gold as proved by laboratory experiments.

" In arguing from these facts, it is stated that nuggets of gold of
large size have been not unfrequently met with in all the great placers :
such as the Sarah Sands and Welcome nuggets of Australia, which
weighed respectively 233 and 184 lb. ; the great nugget from Miask, in
the Ural Mountains, which weighs 96 lb. ; and others ranging from
25 to 50 lb., taken from the placers of Australia, New Zealand, and
California ; while ' no masses of gold of anything like the size of these
have been found in quartz veins.' This latter statement is, however,
erroneous ; for the largest mass of gold yet found on this continent was
taken from a quartz vein in the Monumental mine, at the Sierra Buttes,
12 miles N. of Downievillc, Cal. It weighed 95 J lb., and is said to have
been originally larger, weighing 140 lb. This discovery is well authen-
ticated, and is reported in detail in Professor Raymond's Report on
Mines and Mining for 1870 (Ex. Doc. No. 207, page 63). This, then,
was one of the largest nuggets of gold found in the world, and proves
that large nuggets can and do occur in quartz veins. Nor is this rarity
of nuggets in quartz veins any proof of the truth of this new theory ; for
it is certain that the amount of nugget-gold taken from mineral veins is
in fair proportion to the whole gold yield of such veins when compared
with the proportions of nugget- and dust-gold in the placers. When it is
remembered that from the slopes of the Sierra Nevada, over large areas
containing auriferous quartz veins, a sheet of material, perhaps thousands
of feet in thickness, has been removed by erosion, it will not be surprising
that a considerable number of masses of gold have been taken from the
resulting debris ; and when we compare the insignificant excavations
made by man in quartz veins with the gigantic mining operations of
nature, we can only wonder that he has met with any of these large and

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

797

rare masses of gold. The nugget argument, therefore, has no support,
and falls to the ground.

" It is true, as has been asserted by the advocates of the chemical
theory of the genesis of gold, that the fine gold in some places is of
higher grade than that of the neighbouring quartz veins. This difference
is, however, not marked, and something of this sort was inevitable, from
the fact that all gold in quartz veins and placers is alloyed with silver.
When Tiinutely divided, and exposed to the action of chlorine and
other agents which dissolve silver — so generally prevalent in the atmo-
sphere and superficial deposits that silver is never found there in the
metallic state, — some portion of the silver would naturally be removed
from the surface of the particles of gold.

" It should also be said that the fine gold of placer deposits is usually
purer than the coarse gold and nuggets, and the reason is, that the scales
and fine grains of gold present more surface to be acted on by the agents
which remove the silver. This process, which is essentially that called
'pickling' by the jewellers, with the fact that gold itself does not
perfectly resist chemical agents, also affords an explanation of the frosted
appearance which the surface of some placer-gold exhibits, and which
has been hastily taken as proof that all such masses were chemically
precipitated.

" Gold is usually said to be soluble only in aqua regia, and the idea
is prevalent that it would remain for ever unaffected by any of the
chemical agents in nature's laboratory. This is, however, far from tri ^,
as by the experiments of modern chemists it has been shown that it
forms a great variety of chemical combinations. J. P. Pratt, epitomizing
the results of his experiments, says {Journal de Pharmacie et de CJiUnie,
August 1870) : 'Gold can be readily oxidized and salified by oxacids.
There exists a liquid and volatile chloride of gold containing more
chlorine than the sesqui-chloridCT There exists, likewise, a sesqui-oxide
and a carbonate of gold ; and lastly, gold behaves in many instances
like some of the other metals.' While all this is undoubtedly true, and
it is also true that in the gossans of some of our Western mines gold
exists in other than metallic form, these facts lend no confirmation to
the theory of the chemical origin of placer nuggets. A more interesting
fact, proving the solubility of gold by natural processes, is reported from
the placers of California, namely, that the bark of some of the tree-trunks
found buried in the blue gravel was largely replaced by iron-pyrites,
which was rich in gold. Hence, we cannot deny that some gold has
been deposited in the placers from solution ; but this *certainly cc not
include the nuggets and gold-dust. The facts which distinctly militate
against that theory are briefly as follows :

" First. Deposits of placer-gold are always found adjacent to and

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798 GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

lying below districts traversed by auriferous veins, and nowhere
else.

" Second. The areas where the quartz veins occur have certainly
suffered great erosion, and mechanical forces have there been in action
tending to break down and comminute the quartz, and to liberate and
wash the contained gold.

" Third. The conditions in which the placer-gold is found — namely,
mingled with rolled fragments of quartz and in the irregularities of the
surface of the bed-rock, where a washing process on a large scale has
been in action, and where such washing processes would have left it —
prove the accumulations of gold to be mechanical rather than chemical.
A deposit from chemical solution would not thus be circumstanced and
localized.

" Fourth. The distribution of gold in placer deposits is also demon-
strative of its mechanical origin ; for in all cases known to me the
nuggets and coarsest gold are found nearest the outcrops of the quartz
veins that have supplied them ; while the particles become gradually
finer and finer as the line of drainage is followed from this point.
Hundreds of instances of this kind might be cited — enough, indeed, to
form the basis of a mechanical law in itself an unanswerable argument
to the chemical theory.

" Fifth. Nothing is more common than to find, in the placers, pebbles
and fragments of gold-bearing quartz, which must have been derived
from the neighbouring veins, and most of the nuggets have more or less
quartz, just like that of the veins, still adhering to them.

" Sixth. The surfaces of nuggets almost always bear incontestable
evidence to the battering they have sustained. They are generally
rolled and rounded, and the surface is such as could be produced only
by blows and friction. The cases where the surface of the nuggets is
rough and frosted, as though from partial solution, are extremely rare,
and afford no support to the chemical theory.

" Seventh. If the gold of placers were deposited from solution, we
should necessarily find much of it crystallized, and forming strings and
sheets running through the porous material ; whereas, as a matter of
fact, crystals are never found in placer-gold, nor are sheets or threads.
Scales, grains, pebble-like nodules, round, battered masses, these are
what we find ; in other words, sand, gravel, and boulders of fjold formed
and transported by mechanical means.

" I cannot better illustrate the occurrence of gold in placers than by
describing an isolated placer I have recently visited, which combines all
the normal features of this class of deposits, and bears, in unmistakable
characters, the record of its history. It is located at Osceola, Nev., and
lies on the west flank of Mour, t Wheeler, said to be the highest mountain

ORIGIN AND FORMATION.

799

in the State. The central mass of Mount Wheeler is granite, but on its
flanks occur upturned and metamorphosed PaLxozoic rocks, ouartzites,
slates, and limestones. A spur, which extends N. from the main peak,
consists at its N. extremity of high, rough, and ragged masses of
quartzite. These arc succeeded on the S. by a belt of talcose slate
several miles in length, forming a ridge which rises 4000 ft. above Spring
Valley, its W. boundary. At its S. extremity, the slate belt is overlain
by limestone. All these rocks arc cut by veins of quartz, biit those in
the quartzite and limestone seem to be barren. The quartz veins in the
slate belt are, however, numerous, and many of them are rich in gold.

" In the course of ages, the slate area has been extensively worn
away, forming a 'cirque,' or semicircle, drained by several gulches,
which combine below in one, and through which all the material removed
from the mountain side has been spread over the slope to the valley
below. In some places, the mass of debris is 300 ft. or more in thickness ;
above, it is narrowed between ridges of rim-rock, below spread out into
a fan-shaped delta. The detrital material consists chiefly of rolled
boulders and pebbles of quartzite and vein-quartz mixed with sand and
a cementing clay derived from the decomposition of the slate. All this
contains gold ; near the head of the gulch, that which is coarse ; that
below becoming finer and finer toward the valley.

" The climate of this region is now excessively dry, no water flowing
through the gulch, except during a week or two in the spring, when the
snows are melting on the mountain above. The temporary streams
thus formed have cut narrow channels through the beds of gravel and
boulders in the upper part of the gulch to the bed-rock below, only in
the loose material. These modern channels have revealed the existence
of others that are much older and broader, now filled, and in places
deeply buried. These old channels would seem to have been produced
at a time when the climate wa» more moist and the flow of water from
the mountain much greater than now. As usual in such cases, the old
channels are rich placer ground, the gold having accumulated in the
depressions of the irregular bed-rock.

•' The number of nuggets and the quantity of coarse gold taken from
this placer is remarkable. The largest nugget found weighed 24 lb., and
many others have been met with, weighing ^ to 2 lb. At the time of
my visit, two nuggets, weighing over 10 oz. each, were purchased, which
had been found by one man on September 15th. Between |2CX),ooo
and 300,000 (40,000 to 60,000/.) have been taken from this placer within
the last 4 years, all by hand labour, and for the most part during the
brief interval when a little water was flowing down the gulch. The
nuggets have all been found toward the head of the gulch. Many of
them have vein-quartz still adhering to them, and their derivation from

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8oo

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

the quartz veins which crop out on the mountain side above cannot be
doubted. The whole of this placer has been purchased by parties who
are about to bring water on to it from streams which drain the S. slope
of Mount Wheeler. These streams run in gulches, which have the same
general character with that at Osceola ; but none of them contains gold,
simply because the slopes they drain are not composed of auriferous
rock.

" The significance of the facts I have given, and their bearing on the
question discussed on the preceding pages, may be briefly summed up as
follows : — Mount Wheeler is a very high mountain, which, though located
in an exceedingly dry region, has through ages received on its summit
sufficient precipitated moisture to form torrents that drain and have
deeply scored its different sides. The material excavated is all spread in
the vicinity, forming slopes of gravel and boulders at the mouths of all
the gulches.

"In one of these gulches, the detritus is rich in gold; in all the
others, it is barren. The rich one has received all the debris from a
portion of the mountain, composed of talcose slate, cut in every direction
by auriferous quartz veins. The other gulches contain no gold, and
there are no gold-veins at their heads. In the rich gulch, the gold
becomes coarser and coarser toward the head as the outcrops of the
quartz veins are approached. When to this is added that not a crystal
of gold has been found in this placer, nor any gold that could be fairly
considered a chemical deposit — but, on the contrary, all the masses are
rolled and battered, often with adhering quartz — we have an array of
evidence in favour of the mechanical deposition of the gold which cannot
be gainsaid.

" Segregated Veins.

" Most of the quartz veins which carry gold belong to the class of
what are called segregated veins. These occur only in metamorphic
rocks, are lenticular sheets, limited in depth and lateral extension, and
generally showing little of the banded structure so characteristic of
fissure-veins. They consist mainly of quartz, in which the gold is some-
times free, but more commonly contained in iron-pyrites, with which
yellow copper is often associated. Sometimes the gold is not strictly
confined to the quart? veins, but extends more or less into the enclosing
rocks, which are oftener than otherwise magnesian slates.

" The gold in segregated veins would seem to be indigenous to the
formation in which it occurs, and not, as in fissure-veins, to have been
derived from some foreign source. It is usually supposed that, before
they were metamorphosed, the rocks which enclose the segregated veins
contained gold generally, though sparsely, disseminated through them,

ORIGIN AND FORMATIOX.

80 1

and that, in the process of the scprccjation of the silicc(. matter to
form sheets of quartz, the gold was somehow gathered and concentrated
by it.

" Sir Roderick Murchison, guided by his study of the gold-deposits of
the Ural Mountains, supposed that auriferous quartz veins were confined
to Palncozoic rocks, but that the gold-impregnation had taken place at a
comparatively recent date. It was demonstrated, however, by Professor
Whitney, in the prosecution of the geological survey of California, that
the metamorphic slates which carry gold in the Sierra Nevada are of
Triassic and Jurassic age ; and in the light of later observations, we may
say that metamorphic rocks of all ages contain auriferous veins. Nearly
all the great mountain chains of the world contain more or less of such
veins, and as these mountain chains have been the great condensers of
moisture, and ero.sion has been constantly wearing down their slopes,
placer deposits have been formed which ha\e supplied most of the gold
yielded by the earth to man. As it can be procured from them by the
simplest methods, the work of its extraction was begun by prehistoric
races, and the Altai, the Himalayas, the Ural Mountains, the Australian
Alps, the Sierra Nevada, and the Rocky Mountains, have in turn con-
tributed their millions to the treasuries of the world. These mountain
chains are of very different ages, and we have abundant evidence
that gold has existed in some of them from the earliest geological
times. The oldest mountains of which we have any knowledge — the
Laurentian, of Canada, now nearly removed by erosion — contained
auriferous quartz veins that have supplied gold to all the successive
formations which have been derived from their ruins. The gold-
impregnation of the Laurentian rocks dates back certainly to the
period of their metamorphism ; and this was pre-Silurian, for the un-
disturbed Lower Silurian strata overlap and partially cover these gold-
bearing rocks.

"In the same way, the gold at the Black Hills is proved to be pre-
Silurian, since the Potsdam sandstone which abuts against the Archean
nucleus of the hills in places contains rolled fragments of the Archean
rocks, and gold washed from them in such abundance as to form rich
mining ground — the so-called cement deposits of that region. The
distribution of gold from the Archean rocks has probably been constantly
going on from the Silurian age to the present day. This is shown in
the almost universal dissemination of gold through the drift of New
England, New York, Ohio, &c., where the superficial materials have been
largely derived from the Canadian highlands. Tti Ohio, gold is found in
the drift clays, sands, and gravels, and locally in as great quantity as
in the poorer placers of California. There is little doubt that the
mechanical sediments derived from the wear of the Archean rocks all

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802

GK(n.U{iV AND MINEUALOI.V.

contain Rolil, and since it has been proved that ^old exists in sea-water,
it has probably impregnated all the organic marine sedimentary rocks as
well. In the Mubscciuont metamorphism of some of these strata it has
been concentrated in such a way as to produce auriferous quartz veins
rich enough to be worked.

" From these facts it will be seen that there is no geological age
which can be called the age of gold. It existed in the oldest rocks
known, and from them and their derivatives, more modern rocks, it has
been, and is now being, constantly distributed by both mechanical and
chemical processes. Even some of the igneous rocks of the Western
country are said to contain minute quantities of gold ; and this is not
surprising, if, as is supposed, much of our volcanic material is a fused
condition of .sedimentary rocks.

" Gold in Fissure-veins.

" As is well known, gold is a frequent constituent of the fissure-veins
of the r'ar West. The ore of the Comstock vein has yielded about
47 per cent, of gold and 53 per cent, of silver ; and it is probable that
one-half of the .so-called silver veins contain gold in sufficient quantity
to be of practical value. In some true fissure-veins, gold is the only
valuable ingredient, but more generally it is associated with .several
other metals. The Revenue mine, at Tuscarora, Nev., contains silver
in the form of arsenical and antimonial sulphide, and gold in iron-pyrites
frequently crystallized lining cavities. At Eureka, the ore occurs in
chpniHors, which were originally filled from a solution issuing through
fi.s from below and deposited as argentiferous galena and auriferous

py..t. , the silver aiiJ crold being in nearly equal proportions. In the
great veins of Bingham Caiion, and at the Cave mine, near Frisco, in
Utah, the combination is the same, and as at Eureka, the sulphides have
been decomposed to a spongy, rusty gossan. At the Bassick mine, in
Colorado, gold exists free, or in combination with tellurium, and
associated with zinc, copper, and iron. In all these, and many other
cases which might be cited, the gold has been brought up in a hot
solution impregnated with mineral matter far below, and deposited as
the temperature and pressure were reduced. The formation of this class
of auriferous deposit is well illustrated by the Steamboat Spring, in
Western Nevada, where hot water, flowing out through fissures produced
by subterranean forces, is depositing a siliceous veinstone, containing
sulphides of iron, copper, oxide of manganese, and metallic gold. There
is little doubt that, in the great mineral belt lying between the Sierra
Nevada and the Rocky Mountains, where, in Tertiary times, volcanic
activity was exhibited on a grand scale — sedimentary rocks upheaved
and fissured in every direction, with great outflows of fused material —

;!■ I

(;E(jLC)tiir.\i. m;e.

hot spring's, like the Steainbo.it, were everywhere busy, doinj^ similar
work". Hurstiiij^ out at difTercnt places and times, and flowiiif;- from
different sources, the solutions they carried and the ores they deposited
varied greatly ; but the methods of accumulation, transi^ortation, and
deposition were essentially the same, namely, the leaching of various
rocks by steam and hot water under great pressure, by which silica and
sparsely-disseminated metals were gathered and driven toward the
surface, to be deposited as the pressure and temperature were re-
duced. Gold collected in this manner was unquestionably taken into
chemical solution, and in the resulting vein deposits we find it in
strings, scales, and irregular masses, often beautifully crystallized and
associated with other crystallized minerals which are certainly chemical
precipitates.

" Wc may sum up the teachings of geology in regard to the genesis
and di.stribution of gold by saying : —

" First. Gold exists in the oldest known rocks, and has been thence
distributed through all strata derived from them.

" Second. In the metamorphosis of these derived rocks it has been
concentrated into segregated quartz veins by some process not yet
understood.

" Third. It is a constituent of fissure-veins of all geological ages,
where it has been deposited from hot chemical .solutions, which have
leached deeply-buried rocks of various kinds, gathering from them gold
with other metallic minerals.

" Fourth. By the erosion of strata containing auriferous veins,
segregated or fissure, gold has been accumulated by mechanical agents
in placer deposits, economically the most important of all the sources
of gold."

Geological Age.

In attempting a classification according to geological age of the gold-
deposits now known to exist, the statements of various authors have to
be taken at what they may be worth, and it is quite possible that future
exploration in some fields will modify present views. For instance, it is
often assumed that when veins cease upwards of the line of contact of
two formations this is a proof that they existed before the deposition of
the superior formation, which is by no means always assured. Again, in
reference to the volcanic rocks associated with gold, it must be borne in
mind that scarcely two geologists apply exactly the same name to the
same rock ; indeed, it becomes only too obvious that the present system
of geological nomenclature is no system at all. With these facts in view,
this section must be considered in some respects as tentative only, and it
is to be hoped that its incompleteness will incite all interested to furnish

3 I'' 2

iiPI

8o4

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGV,

more exact details of what they observe in future. The classification
adopted is as follows : —

Metamorphic

Laurentian

Cambrian

Silurian

Devonian

Carboniferous

Triassic

Jurassic

Cretaceous

Tertiary, Miocene

Tertiary, N Mi-Miocenc

Igneous.

Metamorphic. — " Metamorphic liiicstone" is stated by Probert to
be the country-rock of the celebrated Richmond mine, in Nevada.
Russians ascribe the Siberian alluvial gold to the ferruginous quartz of
the metamorphic schists. In Mayti, every stream running through the
metamorphic rocks in the immediate vicinity of masses of syenite carries
gold, while those running exclusively in syenites, or at a great distance
from them, are without the precious metal (p. 19c). The gold of India
is mainly derived from quartz reefs traversing metamorphic and sub-
metamorphic rocks, and occasionally from gneiss, chloritic schists, and
quartzites showing no quartz. The placer gold of Yesso, Japan, is
derived from metamorphic strata (p. 351). The mountains forming the
water-shed between the Chirchik, Tersi and Talas rivers, in Siberia, all
of which carry gold, are mainly composed of metamorphic schists,
veined with diorite, syenite, and quartz (p. 377). The prevailing forma-
tions of the Yeniseisk gold-fields, Siberia, are metamorphic .schists, clay-
slates predominating. The gold of the Trans-Caucasus is of metamorphic
origin. That of New Caledonia is found in mica-schists.

According to Prof Newton, the gold-ledges in the schists and slates
of the Black Hills of Dakota are of Archaean age (Archaean being the
term founded by Dana for the older non-fossiliferous strata, mostly
composed of crystalline and metamorphic rocks — granite, syenite, gneiss
and micaceous, talcose, hornblendic, and cb'oritic rocks), and were
formed during the folding of the metamorphic rocks. The whole area
of the gold-field in the Black Hills was, at the time of the upheaval of
the range, covered by the Potsdam [Cambrian : Lower Silurian] and
subsequent formations. It is probable that the Potsdam conglomerate,
formed by the primary erosion of the metamorphic rocks and their
enclosed auriferous quartz ledges, contained considerable quantities of
gold, and by the disintegration and denudation of this conglomerate
since the elevation of the Hills, the gold which it contained has been
set free and concentrated anew in the placer gravels. This may in part
account for the richness of some of the older and more elevated gravel
deposits along the valleys of the present streams.

(iEO LOGICAL AfiK.

805

Jenncy consiilcrs the mctamorphic neks of the Bl.ick Hills as
separable into two distinct [groups, whose lithological characters are
marked and persistent : a western scries, or ^roup of schists, and an eastern
series, or group of slates, the line of separation being only imperfectly
indicated. The western scries consists of quartzose schist and garnetifer-
ous, quartzo. .*, and ferruginous mica-schists, together with some gneiss,
chloritic and talcose (or hydrous mica-) schists, hornblendic schist, and
quartzite. The whole series is coarse in texture and highly crystalline,
and it contains many seams or veins of quartz traversing the schists
conformably with the stratification, and having usually a swelling or
lenticular structure. These veins are interlaminated, and arc not often
of any great width ; they contain finely disseminated gold, and have
probably afforded by their disintegration the larger portion of the gold
found in the valleys and gulches. The granite masses are wholly within
the area of the schistose rocks. The eastern series is composed of
mctamorphic rocks, distinguished from the western mainly by their
exceedingly fine :iiid compac*^ <-"xture, though, as shown by Caswell,
their ultimate mineral composition ' ; quite similar. The rocks arc mainly
micaceous clay-slate, clay-slate, sil'cious slate, and quartzite. The last
forms persistent strata, 50 to 200 and sometimes 500 ft. in thickness,
which may often be traced for long distances with little variation. The
quartzite frequently contains scams or veins of interlaminated or ribbon
quartz, and with them arc associated large deposits of hematite or
specular iron-ore, also interlaminated with quartz. Frequently the
quartz seams are highly ferruginous, and in places they have been found
to contain undecomposcd pyrites. Unquestionably they are often
auriferous. In many instances, the quartz veins are undoubtedly
auriferous, and the larger portion of the gold found in the gravels of the
Hills has originated from them ; but by reason of its sparse dissemina-
tion in the vein-matter, specimens containing visible particles are not
often met with. The very fine state in which the gold is found in the
gravels of the southern end of the Hills is also an evidence of the fine
state of division in which it occurs in the veins. The gold encountered in
the ancient gravels of the Potsdam formation must be referred, together
with that obtained from gravels of the most recent formation, to the
quartzes of the Archaean as its source.

In some of the valleys in the northern end of the Hills, where rich
deposits of placer-gold have been found, the bed-rock of the stream is
Potsdam sandstone. The auriferous gravels may in such cases have
been derived directly from the wearing down of the schists and slates on
the upper courses of the creeks ; but it is more probable that they came
indirectly from the same source through the medium of the Potsdam.
The streams which drain the Archaean area are concentrating the gold

i '!

,S ^■■

'\l

8o6

GEOLOGY AND MINERA1,0GY.

by a method not very dissimilar from that of the Potsdam waves, and it
is reasonable to suppose that dirt which has been first rocked by the
waves and then sluiced by the creeks will hold its gold in a more
concentrated condition than that which has had the benefit of but one
process.

Foote divides the metamorphic rocks of the known auriferous area
of India (pp. 317-8) into 3 groups, distinguished by the local names of
Dhoni, Kappatgode, and Surtur, while 2 other groups, the Gulduck and
Mulgund, are apparently barren. Quartz reefs occur in all the series ;
but according to the natives, it is only streams draining the Surtur series
that carry gold, and these lie entirely in an area of chlorite-schists and
diorite.

Laurentian.— E. McCarthy (Min. Jl., July ist, 1882), speaking of
the three formations in which gold occurs on the African Gold Coast,
mentions quartz reefs traversing the older rocks of clay and talcose slates
and schists, upon which the second series of rocks (sandstones and
conglomerates often so metamorphosed as to pass into gneiss) are laid,
and in almost every case they are auriferous, while the more recent
quartz reefs traversing the second series of rocks, and sometimes even the
gravel beds, are non-auriferous. The older rocks he considers may be of
Laurentian and Cambrian age. Williamson likens the auriferous rocks
of Parahyba, Brazil, to the Laurentian of Canada.

Cambrian. — Notwithstanding all that has been published by the
various geologists who have studied the gold-region of Minas Gerac,
Hartt considers that the exact ?'iccession of the different members of the
metamorphic series lying just inside of the gneiss belt has never been
satisfactorily worked out. The clay and talcose schists, the itacolumite,
itabirite, and other associated metamorphic rocks of this region appear to
him to be Lower Palaeozoic in age. He has called attention to the striking
resemblance borne by the clay-slates and associated quartzites to the
gold-bearing rocks of Nova Scotia, and has suggested that they may be
the equivalents of the Quebec group of North America. The gold-
bearing rocks in Minas Geraes resemble the similar auriferous series of
the southern Atlantic States, in which itacolumite occurs. Clay-slates
with auriferous veins occur in other parts of Brazil besides Minas, as, for
instance, in Goyaz, and in the vicinity cf Cuiaba in Matto Grosso. These
rocks are everywhere so metamorphosed, that all trace of fossils has
been completely obliterated. The characters of the auriferous rocks are
described on pp. 219-22, 229.

According to Selwyn, the gold-bearing series in Nova Scotia (pp.
85, 8y) resembles the Cambrian and Lingula-flag series of N. Wales

(pp. 739-44)-

Silurian. — It is quite unnecessary to insist upon the gold-yielding

ir|;ii''

" .1 :l

GEOLOGICAL AGE.

807

capabilities of the strata of Silurian age, so long thought to be the only
auriferous formation. Though its claim to a monopoly of gold-veins is
now quite disproved, it maintains the first rank in point of importance in
that respect. Ulrich remarks that in Victoria (pp. 644-5), the Silurian,
as a wliolc, is the most important rock-formation to the gold-miner, on
account of its containing the matrix of the gold in the countless number
of veins, lodes, or reefs of quartz that traverse it — the number of those
actually proved gold-bearing amounting already, according to Brough
Smyth's Mining Statistics of 30th June, 1874, to 3367, and being still
steadily on the increase, through the untiring prospecting energy of the
miners. These reefs vary from less than i in. to above 100 ft. in thick-
ness, whilst their longitudinal extent ranges from less than 100 ft. to
several miles. Their mean strike is, in the Lower Silurian scries,
generally conformable to that of the strata ; reefs that cross the latter
being very scarce (Taradale and Stawell are the chief localities where
cross reefs occur — one at the latter place being celebrated for its richness
in gold). In the Upper Silurian are more exceptions to this rule ; and
it must also be remarked that this series is not by far as rich in genuine
quartz-reefs, and those found — though on the average, perhaps, richer in
gold per ton of stone — are not as thick and persistent as those of the
lower series. The greater amount of quartz-gold produced by Upper
Silurian districts comes from irregular blocks and veins that traverse, or
are closely associated with, dykes of diorite-greenstone. Regarding the
dip or underlie of the reefs, it varies at all angles between nearly hori-
zontal and vertical, and coincides not only in most cases in direction
with the dip of the strata, i. e., either E. or W., but its angle is often so
nearly identical with that of the latter, as to impart to the reefs the
appearance of interstratified deposits. If it were not for the frequency
of lateral branches — "leaders" — ^joining the main bodies at all angles,
both at their hanging- and foot-walls, they would in reality have to
be considered as " layers " or interbedded deposits ; but, as it is, they
represent in these cases so-called " layer- or bedded lodes."

Another feature of importance is, that many reefs show, from the
surface downwards, an endlong dip, or a dip in strike either N. or S.,
sometimes in both directions, whence follows an expansion in depth.
Prominent amongst the former are the so-called "block reefs," i.e., reefs
which in their longitudinal extent show frequent contractions, consisting,
as it were, of a series of — in horizontal section — lenticular-shaped blocks,
frequently of considerable thickness in the centre, which are connected at
longer or shorter distances, sometimes by thin veins of quartz, sometimes
by ferruginous clay-casings only, and each block dipping from its outcrop
at a certain angle — rarely at right-angles — to the line of strike cither N.
or S., i.e., the blocks of one and the same reef, and generally of all the

I' V ■ I

8o8

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY,

I!'

reefs in a district, show invariably the same direction of dip — northward
being the most frequent. The expression, often used by Victorian
miners, " that it requires a shaft of a certain depth, either N. or S. of an
outcrop, to strike the ' cap ' of a reef," refers to this feature, and will thus
be easily understood. A peculiar and interesting occurrence are the so-
called ' saddle reefs/ described in another section. As the term indicates,
a reef of this class presents, in E. and W. section, the shape of a, saddle,
i. e., a generally very thick central part with a certain flat dip in strike,
either N. or S. bends — whilst decreasing in thickness — sharply downward
on either side ; and of these lateral parts, the so-called eastern and
western legs, one dips generally with the strata, whilst the other opposite
one crosses them.

The mode of occurrence of the gold in reefs can be brought under the
following main heads : —

1. The metal is equally distributed throughout the whole thickness and
extent of the reef. This seems to be the rarest occurrence. Generally,
richer and poorer places alternate, especially where the thickness of the
reef changes, the contracted portions being mostly richer than the wider
ones ; but the contrary having also been found to be the case, in a
marked manner in some reefs, no rule can be established in this respect.

2. It exists in irregular larger and smaller patches, both in strike and
dip, throughout the reef More frequent than the former,

3. It occurs most frequently in so-called " shoots," i. e., in stripe or
band-like areas or portions of the reef of various widths, which dip at
various angles, either N. or S. in strike ; rarely at right-angles to the
latter. Both the width and angle of dip of the shoots vary in each
individual case generally but little, allowing thus tolerably accurate
calculations to be made as to the depth at which a shaft, for instance,
situated some distance from its outcrop, ought to strike such a shoot in
the direction of its dip.

4. A not uncommon case, especially in strong reefs, is that Lhe
auriferous portions, either irregular patches or shoots, occupy only a
certain width along the hanging- or foot-walls, more rarely along both
walls, whilst the remainder of the reef is barren. Some exceptional
cases have also been observed, however, of the gold being confined to a
certain width in the centre of strong reefs, the quartz along both walls
proving worthless. Most ^f these occurrences form structural features of
the respective reefs, inasmuch as the gold-bearing portions represent
separate bands, divided by thin black casings from the rest ; they appear,
in fact, different in date of formation from the latter, either older or
newer, thus indicating a re-opening and successive filling of the reef
fissures.

Touching the depth to which the gold extends in Victorian reefs, the

GEOLOGICAL AGE.

809

hypothesis advanced by high authority in the early days of the gold-
fields, namely, " that the metal would be found to quickly decrease in
quantity, and entirely to disappear at a limited depth," has, fortunately
for the prosperity of the quartz-mining industry, proved, in the main, in-
correct. For depths of between 500 and over 1000 ft, at which payable
stone is being worked in many mines already, and with no unfavourable
signs, even in the deepest, of its termination lower down, can surely not
be called limited. That the quartz becomes, on the average, poorer in
gold with increasing depth from the surface seems, however, to be the
case in a great number of the deep mines, though exceptions of an
actual improvement are not wanting. In fact, in many deep mines,
profitable working is at present only carried on by great economy and
improvements in the system of mining and the machinery, especially that
for crushing the quartz, combined with the gold-saving appliances ; and
last, though not least, by the saving and treatment of the auriferous
pyrites — iron-, arsenical, and magnetic pyrites, — ores which generally
appear at or beneath the water-level, and seem to increase in quantity in
depth, whilst the free gold gradually decreases.

The yield of gold directly and indirectly drawn from Upper and Lower
Silurian rocks in Victoria has reached approximately 6o,cxx),ooo oz., value
250,000,000/. Pegler places the gold area of French Guiana in Silurian.
Most or all of that found in the Andes would seem to be of similar age.
Probably the whole of the Siberian gold is derived from the Silurian
limestones and schists, which are penetrated and in some places meta-
morphosed by granites, porphyries, serpentine and diorite. Part of the
New Zealand gold-fields are in Lower Silurian hornblende rocks, and
part in Upper Silurian Batow river slates (p. 521). Many of the
Queensland reefs are in Silurian metamorphic rocks (p. 579).

Devonian. — The gold-workings of the Devonian areas of North
Gippsland have been ably described by A. W. Howitt. The localities
in which the auriferous deposits are being worked are as follows : —
(i) Lower Boggy Creek; (2) The Mitchell river, between Tabberabbera
and Lindenow Flat; (3) Maximilian Creek.

It is a question of no less moment from an economic than of interest
from a scientific point of view whether the gold found and worked in the
" claims " of the above localities is of local or extraneous origin. If it is
possible to show reasons for the belief that the gold is local, and not
derived frorr the waste of Silurian areas, then an inference is justified
that similar auriferous deposits may exist, and may be discovered,
throughout these formations at a distance from the older Palzeozoic
rocks,

Howitt gives the following table of assays of alluvial gold from the
above localities. The assays were carefully made before the blowpipe.

8io

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

and each one consists of the mean of two or more nearly accordant
assays of the same gold.

Comparative Table showing the Fineness of Alluvial Gold from various Middle
AND UiTER Devonian Localities in North Gii-pslani).

No.

Au.

Ag.

Oxidi-
zable

McluU
and
Loss.

Locality.

Geological Formation.

Character of Gold.

1 94 "95" 4*850

2 96" 137; 3'378

3 96-322 3-668;

4 96*340 3 "660]

5 97' 174 2-174

6 '97-070 2-386

I I

7 '83-87216-128

8 '84-2I4IS-57I

I I

•200

•48s
•010

•652 '{
•S44 {

Lower Boggy Creek ..

Tabberabbera, 4 miles)
bove Wentworth)

1 iver I

Ditto, 3 miles aboveii

Wentworth river ,. /,
Ditto,junction of Went- j !

wortli and Mitchell}

I Upper Devonian, rest- 1
ing upon trappean

I porphyries .. .. |

1 Middle Devonian, with
U pper Devonian out-

I liers ]

Ditto

rivers ){

Ditto, 2 miles belowi'j^'^'^'^J;,^;^^^^""'^"'
Wentworth river ../i Devonian ^

■n

Upper

■215

'aSlS.^'°:1>PPer Devonian .. {

Maximilian Creek, Up-^ fDitto, resting on older

per Gladstone . . . . / \ rocks
Ditto, Lower Gladstone I Upper Devonian

)(

Fine, laminated,
and scaly.

Fine, scaly.

Ditto.

Scaly, a few small
quartz speci-
mens.

Laminated and
scaly.

Nuggety and
ruunded.

Ditto.

■■A

(l.) Lower Boggy Creek. — This stream, after leaving the Silurian
auriferous quartz-bearing strata of its upper course, enters a tract where
the bed-rock is a peculiar quartz-porphyi-y, and the only overlying strata,
exclusive of marine beds of Upper Tertiary (Pliocene) age, belong to the
Upper Devonian group. The gold found in Lower Boggy Creek differs
completely in its physical character from that met with where the upper
part of the stream flows over Silurian rocks. It is finely laminated or
scaly, while that of the upper creek is coarse and nuggety.

In considering this question, it seemed to Howitt, from the facts
with which he was then acquainted, that the gold found in Lower Boggy
Creek might have been derived from the wearing down and rearrange-
ment — in fact the " ground-sluicing " — of great accumulation of waste
from the Silurian hills, whe i the later Tertiary coast-line extended far
up the valley of Boggy Creek. As already noted, it is worthy of remark
that the physical character of the gold found at Lower Boggy Creek
differs very greatly from that of the Upper Silurian, and it is to be added
that the change in character is coincident with the change in the forma-
tions, and that it entirely i- xords with the character of the gold found
throughout the gold-workings in rocks of the Devonian age of the
Mitchell from Tabberabbera downwards. These and other facts which
will be shown in respect to other localities may require this hypothesis

GEOLOGICAL AGE.

8ll

to be somewhat modified, by adding to the auriferous material also the
waste of the Iguana Creek beds themselves.

(2.) Mitchell river. — Gold workings exist at the Mitchell river from
some miles above Tabberabbcra down to within 2 miles of the commence-
ment of the wide valley of Lindenow Flat. The claims arc all worked
on the banks, on the points of the spurs, and, when the water is suffi-
ciently low, in the river-bed. But they are much scattered, and, owing to
the great difficulty experienced in constructing water-races for sluicing,
the extraction of the gold is mostly performed by the primitive method
of " cradling," and consequently does not remunerate miners as it other-
wise would do. So far as it is possible to judge from the few claims
opened, and from the surface indications seen elsewhere, there can be
but little doub . that the whole extent of river mentioned is more or less
auriferous.

This extent may be divided into three portions : —

(a.) Middle Devonian (Tabberabbcra shales), with mere traces of

the Upper Devonian.
(k) Middle Devonian (Tabberabbera shales), overlaid by a great

thickness of Upper Devonian (Iguana Creek beds) ; and
(c.) Upper Devonian (Iguana Creek beds).
The first portion (a) is situated about Tabberabbera, being perhaps
4 miles above and the same distance below the junction of the rivers
Mitchell and Wentworth. The character and fineness of the gold found
will be seen from the tabulated form given.

The second portion (d) extends down to near Cobbannah Creek,
where the nearly vertical beds, which Howitt regards as belonging to the
Tabberabbera shales group, dip out of sight. Three or four claims
have been worked in this area, but no particulars as to results are
available.

The third portion (c) may be said to extend down to Lindenow Flat.
Claims have been worked in various places, and gold in small quantities
also obtained in some branch gullies. Here the sole formation is the
Upper Devonian, whose conglomerates, shales, and sandstones form the
hills through which the Mitchell river has forced its course.

Howitt visited the claim of TurnbuU and Howarth, near Stony
Creek. The ground washed by them is along the narrow flat bordering
the river. The " wash-dirt " consists of sand, gravel, and boulders,
derived from the Iguana Creek beds. The nature of the ground neces-
sitates cradling, and the proprietors informed him that in consequence
they were unable to make more i n 2/. per man per week. Were water
available for sluicing in the usual method, the yield would be more than
double. The character of the gold and its fineness are given in the table ;
in appearance, it is indistinguishable from that found at Lower Boggy

,t\

I ''''■
i:

8l2

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

Creek or at Tabberabbera. Over the river, but slightly higher up
stream, is the claim of Pope and Poore, on a point of land. The river
being then up, Howitt was unable to visit it. Poore, however, informed
him that the gold found was of two kinds — one of the usual scaly
character, the other ragged and unworn. It is to be noted here that for
many miles round there are, so far as known, no older rocks than the
Iguana Creek beds.

(3.) Maximilian Creek. — At Maximilian Creek, the formation is
essentially Upper Devonian. For, although in the upper workings at
Blink Bonny Gully the underlying older nearly vertical quartzites have
just been laid bare, they disappear very soon in following the creek, so
that thenceforward down to Freestone Creek the only formation met
with, being the bed-rock, consists, with a great felstone sheet of the
alternating conglomerates, sandstones, and shales, of the Upper Devonian.
The gold is in character nuggety, much worn and rounded, and of a low
standard. Its physical appearance would suggest that it has travelled ;
but it seems to Howitt utterly incompatible with the laws of gravitation
that such masses of gold could have been transported from the Older
Pal.'EOzoic areas by the streams which have excavated valleys such as
that of Maximilian Creek. These Older Palaeozoic areas are to be found
only at the source of Maximilian Creek, and have never yielded any
gold, so far as known. Howitt can, however, "cnceive that all the
appearances suggestive of transport of the gold would arise from a
gradual subsidence of the masses as the valleys were excavated. There
are no means of estimating the vertical height above present levels at
which the matrix from which the gold has been derived may have been
situated.

It is said further that quartz veins bearing some gold, both in the
quartz, and free in the casing and rubble, have been opened at Maxi-
milian Creek, in Long Pat's Gully, and at the Crystal reef, Stewart's
Gully. A fragment of quartz containing gold was given to Howitt as
from the former spot ; but he has no personal knowledge of the facts, and
gives these statements to be taken for what they may be worth. It
may be, however, borne in mind, that quartz veins are not at all rare
passing through the sandstones and conglomerates of the Iguana Creek
group.

Howitt thinks the following deductions may be made from the above
statements : — (1.) That gold is found in alluvial deposits which are
derived from purely Devonian formations, as, for instance, the Iguana
Creek beds. (2.) That the gold found throughout a great part of this
area possesses certain physical characters and a common ratio of gold
and silver within certain bounds.

This being the case, the question may be asked, why should it be

GEOLOGICAL /.GL.

813

regarded as necessary in Victoria to restrict auriferous deposits to the
Lower Palaeozoic rocks, and to exclude the Devonian formations from
the gold-bearing series ? The explanation may be, that the richest
deposits have certainly been met with here in Silurian areas, or in granite
tracts which once were covered by strata of that age. No doubt it is the
Lower Palaeozoic rocks which have here, as in many other countries,
been richest in gold ; but facts collected from other parts of the world
now show that they are not exclusively so.

There are no good grounds for assuming that gold is confined to one
geological formation, or that the production of auriferous quartz veins
has been limited to any period. At all periods it is probable that the
causes which have produced gold-bearing veins have been more or less
active, and may be still in operation under conditions which we are
unable to examine. But we may observe the effects produced by such
causes in more recent time than the geological eras mentioned above.
For instance, iron-pyrites of auriferous character occur in the leads of
Ballarat, Clunes, Daylesford, &c., which show the shapes of roots and
branches of trees, and are therefore of very recent origin.

It may be that much of the gold, if not all, found in these Devonian
areas of Gippsland, has been derived from the conglomerates and quartz
grits which are themselves the result of the degradation of older and
probably Silurian strata. Some part of the gold of the Mitchell river is
laminated, and may have been disseminated throughout the quartz con-
glomerates as one of their constituents, similarly to the gold which is
found in spangles in the base of the conglomerates of the Carboniferous
series of Nova Scotia. And it suggests itself that our Devonian con-
glomerates, or even the conglomerates of the Avon sandstones of Lower
Carboniferous age, may be worth examination for such deposits. But
another part of the gold is either ragged or else attached to small frag-
ments of quartz. This gold would therefore seem to have been set free
from veins ifi situ, and lends force to the statement that auriferous quartz
has been found at Maximilian Creek.

It may hardly be necessary to point out that, in accordance with
views which are now received among geologists as to the probable origin
of auriferous quartz veins, there can be no sufficient reasons given why
the quartz veins of the Lower or of the Upper Devonian strata should
not also be auriferous. It was assumed formerly by some geologists, and
the belief still lingers, that the granites and diorites have been the chief
gold-producers, and that the auriferous quartz bands in the Palaeozoic
rocks are also the result of heat and chemical agency. But even the
exponent of these views did not attribute the product of gold always to
Palaeozoic times. Sir Roderick Murchison states, in speaking of the Ural
— " We are led to believe that in this region the noble metal, carried up

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GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGV.

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by igneous rocks, was only brought together hi rich veins at comparatively
recent periods."

In Victoria, the position of the gold-bearing quartz reefs of the Lower
Palaeozoic rocks shows that they are anterior in age to the Upper
Pah-eozoic formations, which rest unconformably upon the strata in
which they are contained, and together with which they have been
denuded.

Howitt considers it undoubted that Victorian auriferous quartz reefs
are due to deposition from aqueous solution. The investigation of vein-
quartz by means of the microscope shows that it still contains portions of
the fluid menstruum in minute cavities. Sorby has found that the fluid
in the cavities of vein-quartz often contains a very considerable quantity
of the chlorides of potassium and sodium, the sulphates of potash, soda,
and lime, and sometimes free acids ; and he clearly states, as his opinion,
that every peculiarity in the structure of the quartz of veins can be most
completely explained by supposing that it was deposited from water
holding various salts and acids in solution. It would follow that the
associated minerals, and even the gold, have the same derivation,
liischoff, in his great work on Chemical Geology, says that there seems
to be an intimate connection between gold and iron, either in the state of
sulphide or oxide, and likewise between quartz and gold. A silicate of
gold may be prepared artificially, and it appears that, under certain
circumstances, it may be dissolved in sensible amount. The silica con-
stitutin ; the quartz associated with gold certainly originates from the
decomposition of silicates in rocks, and it may be conjectured that the
gold has the same origin, possibly existing as a silicate.

The occurrence of gold as small crystals and as capillary masses is
indicative of processes of reduction from compounds, and its frequent
occurrence in quar^"/ indicates the deposition of such gold-compounds
from the water that deposited the quartz. The accidental discovery
made by Daintree (p. 759) that a speck of gold, lying in a solution of
chloride of gold, increased to several times its original size after a small
piece of cork had by accident fallen into the solution, suggests also that
gold may be distributed throughout the meteoric waters as a chloride ;
and an experiment made by the great chemist, Bischoff, before quoted,
shows that, in adding to a solution of chloride of gold a solution of
silicate of potassa, if the resulting precipitate is allowed to remain undis-
turbed for some months under water, a decomposition takes place, and
in the silicate appear minute partly microscopical specks of gold. In
remarking on this, Cosmo Newbery says that, if this is the method by
which the gold reached the quartz lodes, the origin of the silica is also
that of the gold. Howitt therefore feels justified in believing that the
auriferous quartz reefs have been deposited from aqueous solutions

GEOLOGICAL AGK.

815

permeating — say, for instance — the Silurian strata, and it follows that
we may expect to find similar deposits throughout those formations which
have been similarly affected. Although not directly bearing on the
Devonian formations, it may not be uninteresting to follow these sugges-
tions a step further in enquiring to what depth the auriferous reefs of
Victoria may possibly be expected to descend. Very many questions
would have to be considered, and the subject is obscure and difficult of
reply. Assuming, however, that the depth to which the now remaining
strata of Silurian age descend below any given datum-line is comparable
with the height to which the granites, which have invaded and cut off
that formation, rise above that same level, we may at the same time
arrive at a rude estimate as to the depth to which it may be expected
our auriferous quartz reefs may descend.

Looking at the Gippsland mountains for an illustration, Howitt finds
that Mount Baldhead may be taken as the highest granite mass south
of the Silurian area of the Crooked river country, while to the north-
ward of the Great Dividing Range the same auriferous tract extends to
Mount Buffalo, which may be regarded as the nearest highest granite
mass to the north. About the Crooked river, the Upper Dargo, and
the Upper Ovens, no granite is anywhere visible at the surface ; but,
from the structure of the country, as well as on general geological con-
siderations, it may be certainly assumed as existing beneath, at an
undefined depth. Taking the heights of Mount Baldhead and Mount
Buffalo as being 4000 to 5000 ft. above the river-levels at the Crooked
river, and regarding those mountains as part of the rim of the granite
trough or basin including the Silurian area, he roughly assumes that the
depth to which the Lower Palaeozoic formations there descend below the
datum-level may possibly be equal to the height of the granite above it ;
or, in other words, that the denuded Silurian strata, in their folded and
compressed condition, may possibly have a thickness of 4000 to 5000 ft.
Such inference applied generally would lead to the belief that the auri-
ferous quartz reefs of Victoria may extend to greater depths than human
appliances can at present follow them.

The same consideration as to the origin of the auriferous veins in the
Silurian formations would show that the presence of such in the Devonian
rocks presents no improbability. These formations exhibit the effects of
metamorphism, and of the extensive infiltration of silicious waters,
although to a less extent than the Lower Palaeozoic rocks.

That the Devonian formations are universally or richly auriferous is
questionable ; but Howitt does not in the least doubt that many other
places than those now mined will be profitably worked for gold in the
Iguana Creek group ; and that for the future the Upper Devonian, or
even the kindred Lower Carboniferous formations into which they appear

■l;it;i

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8i6

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY,

'4 ■'

I'!

to gradiatc in Gippsland, will not be entirely avoided by prospectors as
being barren.

The gold of Minusinsk, Siberia, is partly ascribed to Devonian strata,
(p. 410). Some of the New South Wales reefs, too, are in Devonian
strata (p. 496). The Tc Anau auriferous beds of New Zealand are
doubtfully referred to Upper Devonian (p. 521). The Gympie and
other gold-fields of Queensland are in Devonian (pp. 590-1). Some of
the Cornish gold is ascribed to silicious bands in Devonian rocks
(p. 727).

Carboniferous. — Mention has just been made of Howitt's belief
that the gold of the Upper Devonian rocks of Gippsland may be found
passing also into the Lower Carboniferous strata, into which they appear
to gradiatc.

Gold-fields have been worked in Queensland within areas where
Carboniferous rocks are said to prevail.

According to S. Herbert Cox, the auriferous reefs and cements of the
Tuapeka district, in New Zealand, are partially of Lower Carboniferous
age. The oldest beds met with in the district are those which belong to
the Wanaka formation of Captain Hutton. They consist chiefly of
coarse-grained mica-schists, with frequent veins of quartz traversing them
in all directions ; and in certain places they form the country in which
quartz reefs carrying gold and other minerals have been found. In the
district examined, the most notable places in .vhich gold occurs in this
formation are the hills around Waipori, and again at Beaumont, on the
N.E. side of the Molyneux river ; but very little is known of the reefs
in the latter locality. There are in connection with this formation beds
of chert, &c., and these appear to be reproduced in the rocks which form
the auriferous cements of the Blue Spur, and it seems probable that
from them the auriferous cements just mentioned have derived their
gold.

The Kakanui series, which is only, in point of fact, the higher beds of
the Wanaka formation, consists of fine-grained mica-schists. But few
quartz reefs have as yet been found in these beds of an auriferous
character ; but one which is worthy of mention occurred between the
Blue Spur (Gabriel's Gully) and Weatherstone's. This reef was worked
for a short time, and yielded payable gold, but it was eventually cut off
by a slide, and the mine was abandoned.

The auriferous cement deposits which are at present known, and of
which some are worked, follow a N.W. and S.E. line, the Blue Spur
being the furthest point to the N.W. at present known. Between the
Blue Spur, which is situated at the head of Gabriel's Gully, and Weather-
stone's, the next deposit to the S.E., is a narrow ridge of the Kakanui
schists, and it is here that the quartz reef mentioned above occurred.

GEOLOGICAL AGE.

817

The next deposit of importance is Waitahuna, although a few patches of
cement do occur between these points, and have received a certain
amount of attention from prospectors. After passing Waitahuna in a
S.E. direction, no work of importance has been done on these beds.

At the Blue Spur, the cements are enclosed in a trough, or, perhaps
more correctly, a basin, as, in addition to the bed-rock on which they
rest as in a trough, the schists to the N.VV. and S.E. respectively rise to
form hills of greater elevation than the cements themselves assume at
the present time. The bed-rock on the N.E. side oi tne basin or trough
is very steep, while on the S.W. side it is more shelving, the total thick-
ness of the cements being certainly not less than 300 ft. An enormous
quantity of this spur has now been removed. Formerly all the claims
in this locality were sluicing claims, putting the whole of the cement
through a process of ground-sluicing ; but this has not in every case
proved remunerative : besides which it has been shown that a good
deal of gold, which might have been saved, was lost in this process, and
accordingly several of the claims have now erected batteries, and crush
the cement, in certain cases putting everything through the stampers,
and in others only certain parts of the stone which are known to be
somewhat richer than the general run of the deposits.

Passing over the ridge between Gabriel's Gully and Wcathcrstone's,
no cements are met with until after crossing the summit ; but on the
spurs falling into Weatherstonc's, beds or benches of cement have been
found, which yielded in some cases a considerable quantity of gold, while
in the gullies below them no gold was to be found. This fact would
point to more than one rearrangement of the beds since the gold was
originally deposited with the cements. At Weatherst6nc's, the cements
appear again, covering a considerable area of ground, but lying much
lower than the Blue Spur.

The cement has been traced all through the flat towards Lawrence,
and at a place called the Mound a shaft has been sunk to a depth of
500 ft. through these cements ; but it has not received further attention
since the bottom was reached, so that probably the results obtained were
not so satisfactory as could be wished. It is calculated that in the
Weatherstonc's field, l^ dwt. of gold per ton would pay well, which, when
it is considered that at the Blue Spur ^ dwt. to the ton is extracted,
would appear probable.

At places the prospects of the wash-dirt are very rich, some returning
2 oz. 17 dwt. of gold per ton, and doubtless there is some richer even than
this. It has, however, been ascertained by experience that the gold is by
no means evenly distributed ; but runs in patches without apparently
any set rule, so that any estimate as to the richness of the deposit
from mere assays is nearly, if not entirely, useless. The blue cements of

3 'i

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8i8

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

Weatherstone's are capped by red ones, which, however, are only due to
the oxidation of the pyrites which has taken place near the surface, as
they partake of all the characteristics of the true cements, varying only
in colour, and most assuredly not being a rewash of these beds. The
same remarks apply equally well to the cements of the Blue Spur and
Waitahuna.

The bottom on which the cements rest is very irregular, running in
at least three gutters ; the yield of gold also varies greatly with the
bottom ; and it is worthy of note that in the alluvial workings, where
gold has been got at the junction of the schists and the cements, or in
the passage from a true to a false bottom, known locally as the " feather
edge," the yield has frequently been very high. At Waitahuna, the
cements are, to all intents and purposes, the same as those before
described.

The character of the cements in the Somerset claim is very different
from that of those in other parts of the field, being very brown, and the
schists much decomposed. At Coombe's claim, between Adams's Flat
and Waitahuna, grits occur which resemble the coal-grits as developed
at Pascall's {} Cretaceous). As far as can be judged, these beds are
younger than the cements themselves, -e the coal at Pascall's no doubt
overlies the cements, and the grits r. . into hills in the surrounding
district (quartz hills) between Adams's Flat and the Tokomairiro Plains.

From Adams's P'lat, the best idea can be obtained of the flow of the
glacier which deposited these beds, for from here a distinct depression in
the country can be seen in the direction of Waitahuna and Weather-
stone's. Moreover, the character of the beds is so identical along this
line as to leave no doubt in Cox's mind that the rocks constitutirg the
cements have travelled in this direction — namely, from N.W. to S.E.,
and also that the means of transport has been glacier ice.

The coal formation is the one next met with in ascending order, and
it is not very clear whether or no the coals of Kaitangata and Elliot
Vale, of the Mount Misery coal-field, are of the same age or no as the
lignites of Lovell's Flat and Pascall's, near Adams's Flat. Certain it is
that these beds are separated by the Tokomairiro Plains, so that no
absolute junction can be seen between them, nor can they be proved to
be the same stratigraphically in this district.

It is true that a considerable difference exists between the con-
glomerates which cover the coal at Kaitangata, and the grits which over-
lie the lignite on the other side of the Plains ; but this might be due to
the lignites being the deposits on the sides of the basin, while the coals
and conglomerates were deposited in the centre of the same.

There is another point to be taken into consideration — viz. that at
Weatherstone's there are thin beds of coal below the cements or inter-

GEOLOGICAL AGE.

819

bedded with them, and in the district of Lawrence there is a basin of
lignite, as also at Evans's Flat, which is certainly unconformably younger
than the cements. Cox leans to the opinion that the coals of the Mount
Misery field were formed during the deposition of the cements, and that
the lignites are younger than and unconformable to them, and that the
grits covering these have been formed by a rc-wash of the conglomerates
and cements.

The auriferous Maitai slates of New Zealand are referred to Lower
Carboniferous (pp. 521, 553, 570).

The Rev. W. B. Clarke also observes that one of the Nelson gold-
fields, in New Zealand, is along the Waimangardha river, and that river
not only rises in the Carboniferous formation (which is based on granite),
but runs altogether through a coal-field ; and this was reported to the
Nelson Government by Clouston, in September 18C2. Sections across
the gold-field show no interpolation of intermediate formations. Further,
Gould has reported to the Tasmanian Government that he had actually
found a particle of gold in a coal-seam, and this he exhibited to the Royal
Society of Tasmania. Perhaps this was set free by the decomposition
of bisulphuret of iron, so common in coal, and a source of gold in older
rocks.

Visible gold is found in quartz pebbles in Carboniferous conglomerate
in New Brunswick (see p. 88). Gold likewise occurs in Lower Carbon-
iferous conglomerate at Gay's river. Nova Scotia (pp. 89, 90-1). In New
Mexico, it is met with in strata of quartzose sandstone probably of
Carboniferous age.

Some of the quartz reefs in Ladak traverse rocks of Carboniferous
^S^ (PP- 30S> 360). The gold of Minusinsk, Siberia, is partly ascribed to
Carboniferous strata (p. 410). The Tertiary alluvial gold of the Talla-
wang field, New South Wales, has been mostly derived from coal-
measure conglomerates (pp. 5 1 5-6). Traces of gold have been found in
Carboniferous limestone in Somerset (p. 728).

Several groups of the Gondwana system of India (p. 305), which is
considered coeval with the Permian system of Europe, are believed to
contain detrital gold, especially the Talchir beds (p. 320), with probably
Kamthis (pp. 323, 333, 345) and Barakars (p. 345).

Jurassic. — The gold in the Secondary rocks of the Fitzroy Downs,
and at the head of the Barcoo river, in Queensland, is referred to by
Rev. W. B. C^irke as probably of Jurassic ago. Belemnites and ammonites
are found in the same beds with the gold-bearing quartz pebbles.
Forbes, whose views concerning gold-impregnated intrusive rocks are
stated in greater detail under Diorite (p. 832), and Granite (p. 834), con-
siders the dioritic series to be nowhere earlier than the Oolitic, nor later
than early Cretaceous. Deicke places the gold-veins found in chlorite-

3 G 2

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820

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

i.'

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schist on the Callanda, in Graubiinden, in strata of Jurassic age. He
also mentions the occurrence of gold in Lias limestone at Grave, Hautcs
Alpes, France. The metamorphosed slates and limestones of the richest
placers of Sonora, Mexico, are probably Jurassic (p. 113).

Triassic. — Professor Whitney has shown that much of the gold of
California is contained in rocks of Triassic age. The Triassic system
forms mountain groups in Sonora, Mexico, and wherever metamorphosed
is auriferous (p. 113).

Cretaceous. — The gold contained in the trachytes of the nvorthern
part of the Black Hills, Dakota, and in the Bear Lodge range, has been
deposited in these rocks at the time of the intrusion, which Prof. Newton
thinks was probably coeval with the elevation of the range at the close
of the Cretaceous period.

Cox is uncertain whether a portion of the auriferous cements of
Tuapeka county, New Zealand, described under Carboniferous (p. 816)
are not of this age. The auriferous coal formation and propylite breccias
are referred to Cretaceo-Tertiary (p. 521).

Professor Whitney declares that the greatest amount of the gold in
California belongs to the altered rocks of the Cretaceous epoch.

It is doubtful whether the gold found in Secondary rocks of the
Fitzroy Downs, Queensland, belongs to Cretaceous, or Jurassic, or Triassic
straca.

Griesbach (Mem. Geol. Survey India, xviii. pt. i. 45-7) determines the
auriferous deposits of Afghanistan (p. 27c) and the Hungarian Bannat to
be in Cretaceous (hippuritic) limestone, which has been transformed into
finely crystalline marble by the intrusion of syenitic, granitic, and trap-
poid rocks, since erupted through ; and metalliferous quartz veins occur
along the contact-zone. The veins carry copper, lead, silver, and gold ;
nickel and cobalt being generally also present, and sometimes even
forming the leading minerals of the auriferous area.

Forbes thinks some of the dioritic auriferous rocks (p. 832) may be
as late as early Cretaceous.

Tertiary. — The vast gravel deposits of Tertiary age, resulting from
the degradation of older strata containing auriferous veins, have formed
and still form the chief depository whence man has drawn his supplies
of the precious metal. Many of these Tertiary deposits have yielded
no fossils which would enable their date to be more accurately referred
to the several periods of the Tertiary time. But as yet, none seems to
have been considered of Eocene age, and few of Miocene j and the great
mass would appear to be divided between the Pliocene and Pleistocene,
whose relations are hitherto but little determined in the chief localities of
auriferous alluvions. In addition, not a few of the igneous rocks carrying
gold or influencing its occurrence are referable to Tertiary time. The

GEOLOGICAL AGE.

821

most convenient subdivision of this section, therefore, will be : Miocene
arul Non-Miocene.

Miocene. — Al'out \ mile S.S. from the gold-work ngs on Mayford
spur, along the slope towards the Dargo, in Gippsland, Victoria (pp. 675-7),
are abandoned workings, known as Synnot's claim, where several
extensive excavations were made into the side of the hill, revealing
a great thickness of gravel with some bands of foliated clay, in which
Howitt found Cinuavwimim polymorphoides, identified by Prof McCoy as
belonging to a fossil flora of Miocene age.

The Gippsland deposits lying between the basalt and the Silurian
consist of hard silicious cement, ferruginous cement, coarse and fine
gravels, clays, and occasionally impure lignites. In the report on South-
Western Gippsland, it was shown that the silicious rock and cement
(classed as Miocene) was older than the gravel in the lead ; and the
latter, on the evidence of the fossil fruit found in it, was referred to the
Pliocene era, to which the leads of Ballarat are also supposed to belong.
Subsequent investigations, the results oi which have been published in
reports on the geology of Glenmaggie, Dargo, and other parts of Gipps-
land, show that the silicious cement referred to is of Miocene age, and
that it is somewhat older than the gravel deposits in the lead beds ; it
always occupies a position along the edges of the ancient channels, whose
deeper portions appear to have cut through it ; at the same time the
difference in age is not more than the difference between the upper and
lower layers of any deposit 'brmed within a certain epoch. Both
silicious rock ana gravels are o/erlaid by basalt, which appears unques-
tionably to belong to the Older Volcanic period (Miocene), and this being
the case, the -position of the gravels as Miocene is established. In the
vvorkings of the Blue Rock (late Pioneer) claim, on the Tangil lead,
where it descends below the existing river-level, are found fossil fruits,
among which Baron Von Mueller identified Spondylostrobus Smythii,
Phytnatocaryon Mackayi, Celyphina McCoyi, Conchotheca tiirgida, and
Platycoila Sullivani — all identical with those found in the leads of the
Pallarat district. On this evidence, the Tangil lead gravel was, in the
previous report, referred to the same age as the Ballarat leads, and its
overlying basalt to the Newer Volcanic period. There is, however, no
evidence to show that Miocene flora may not have continued to flourish
into the Pliocene epoch ; and though the leads of Ballarat and Tangil
be of different ages, the vestiges of similar flora may be discovered in
them. It is very probable that the outlines of all the main cl ainage
courses of the Tertiary period, whether Miocene or Pliocene, were formed
early in the former epoch. As regards the auriferous character of the
Miocene gravels, the only place >vhere they have been worked, or even
pre .pected, is where a section of the old lead — cut through at either end

Si' ;ii

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822

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

by, and included within a large bend of, the existing river — remains
about I mile S. of the Tangil township. The gravels beneath the
basalt were here easily detected and their quality tested. The greatest
thickness of the Victorian beds of Miocene age is probably more than
600 ft

Professor Judd concludes his remarks on the ancient volcano of
Schemnitz, Hungary, by saying that the " mineral veins of Hungary and
Transylvania, with their rich deposits of gold and silver, cannot be of
older date than the Miocene, while some of them are certainly more
recent than the Pliocene. Hence these deposits of ore must all have
been formed at a later period than the clays and sands on which London
stands ; while in some cases they appear to be of even younger date
than the gravelly beds of our Crags ! "

Gold is found in the Miocene metamorphosed rocks in Costa Rica
(p. 98). Miocene is stated by some authorities to be the age of the
mineralization of the Ruby Hill ore deposits, Comstock lode, &c. (p. 176).
The auriferous Ross beds of New Zealand are referred to Lower Miocene
(p. 521). Some of the Ballarat leads are considered to be Miocene
(pp. 659-60).

Non-Miocene. — It is considered certain by others that the whole
series of volcanic outbursts in the Comstock lode rocks are since the
Miocene epoch.

The alluvial leads of India (pp. 306, 343, 344, 345, 347) are found in
Siwalik (Pliocene) beds.

The Desert Sandstone of Queensland has not yet afforded fossils
enabling its age to be fixed. What may be its value for free gold is at
present unsolved, but Daintree thinks the nature of its deposition seems
to preclude the idea that the metal will be found in paying quantities,
except where direct local abrasion of a rich auriferous vein-stone has
furnished the supply.

The Geological Survey Reports of Victoria divide the auriferous into
older drifts [Middle Pliocene] and oldest drifts [Lower Pliocene]. The
former are in many places covered by sheets of volcanic lava. Fossil
fruits, some of a coniferous genus, allied to Cupressinites of Bower-
bank, are abundant in the clays overlying drifts in Victoria, New South
Wales, aid Queensland. These drifts are found at depths varying from
50 to 400 ft The so-called oldest drifts of Victoria are considered
undoubtedly of marine origin. Silurian bed-rock, reser ling that of a
rocky seashore, and masses of quartz (some 4 ft by 5 ft;, well rounded,
and large boulders, together with drift, much water-worn, constitute the
auriferous stratum. The gold is in many places distributed through 20 ft.
or more of drift. The observed thickness of this drift is 25 to 35 ft
where much eroded, probably reaching 100 ft elsewhere.

t! '1

GEOLOGICAL AGE.

823

Ulrich classes the Victorian gold-drifts under three heads, and
describes them as follows : —

" I. The Older Pliocene or Lower Gold-drift.

"The special character of this drift is that its gravelly portion is
principally composed of quartz pebbles or boulders, which, as well as the
gold contained in it, are perfectly rounded or water-worn. Although it
is in some places — as, for instance, in the White Hills at Bendigo, the
Loddon valley hills, &c. — well arranged according to size — i. c. from
small to large, from the top downward — still it is more frequently
observed that though the coarsest — the real bouldcr-drift — lies at the
bottom, the superincumbent portion is variously composed in different
localities. In our western gold-fields — Ballarat, Castlemaine, Avoca, S-c.
— it consists of layers of sand and clay, of sandy and clayey, coarse and
fine gravel, and where filling deep valleys and carrying the present
surface drainage channels, beds of real drift-sand are not unfrequent. In
the large deposits of this drift discovered on the Tangil river, Gippsland,
the pebble drift, or rounded quartz-gravel, is only a few ft. thick, but ,

covered in places by over lOO ft. in thickness of an indurated,*yellow or /va^^ --
brown, very arenaceous clay, which so closely resembles the soft, yellow,
Silurian sandstone — the rock-bottom of the district-^that, except for its ^
horizontal bedding, and the absence in it of small qu artz-veins that are |
alw ayg_present in the t rue bottom-rock , it might be easily mistaken forj>
the latter.

" The predominating colours of this drift are either white or brown,
or white and brown mottled, whilst the bottom layer or wash-dirt is often
rich in a black carbonaceous clay, or shows a covering of this clay, in
which remnants of trees — as branches, roots, trunks, leaves, seed-vessels,
&c., all more or less carbonized, or sometimes wholly or partially con-
verted into iron-pyrites — are often found enclosed. In some places, beds
of real lignite, or brown coal, have al^o been found above the wash-dirt.
Layers of hard ferruginous conglomerate, from a few in. to several ft. in
thickness, and requiring blasting operations in working, arc hardly ever
absent, especially near the bottom of the deposit ; and a peculiar, ex-
tremely hard and dense silicious cement — a real quartzite — is sometimes
observed in cakes near and at the top along basalt escarpments, or where
the drift deposit is exposed near basalt-flows. The fact that these
cement cakes, which are often many ft. thick, do not extend beneath the
basalt, but occur only where the drift was exposed to the atmosphere
through denudation of the basalt, would tend to indicate that they are,
as it were, the products of local metamorphism of sandy clay or sand, in
which silicious waters, produced through the denudation of the basalt,

I:'::

>Hi' I

824

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

11 J

in connection with atmospheric agencies, performed important parts.
Touching the mode of occurrence of the drift it is twofold : —

" (a) As Hi/Is, cither solitary or in series, more or less connected,
bounding gullies and flats, or more rarely rising in the centre of flats
— as, for instance, the White Hills, Maryborough, a hill in the
Loddon river flat below Guildford, &c. Where these hills are covered
by basalt, they are generally of far larger size than where exposed
(Loddon valley outliers, &c ), which is owing to the protection against
denudation afforded by this rock to the drift : for the mode of occur-
rence of the latter as hills is plainly a result of denudation, the deposit
having once filled old valleys in unbroken streams; but whilst first
being indirectly raised through the formation of new valleys along-
side, it was in aftertimes laterally cut into, and thus divided into parts
(the present hills) by small gullies (the present drainage channels). The
rock-bottom of these hills lies, in the higher parts of the gold-fields,
generally high above the surface of the flats and gullies ; but it is
frequently the case that, towards the lower parts, it gradually sinks
lower and lower, and not only disappears beneath the surface of the
flats, but runs at last actually far lower than the rock-bottom of the
latter above and below ics limits, thereby proving conclusively that the
old valleys had a steeper fall than the present ones. As regards the
character of their mass, hills contain nearly always (and frequently strong)
layers of conglomerate, whilst soft clay and sand-beds are less common.

" (d) As so-called Deep Leads. — In this case, the drift fills deep valleys
and channels, which carry the present surface drainage, a mode of occur-
rence well exemplified at Ballarat, Bagshot, near Sandhurst, Eldorado,
Beechworth, &c. The term ' lead ' was originally intended only for the
continuous run of paying washing-stufl", occupying mostly the deepest
part of the channel, the so-called gutter ' ; but it is now generally
applied not only to the whole extent of this kind of deposit and to series
of connected hills, but also to similar hills and drift channels of the
Newer Pliocene, next to be considered. As will have been gleaned from
the description of the hill deposits, the genuine Older Pliocene deep
leads are continuations of the latter, and, to attach a stricter meaning
geologically to the term ' deep lead,' they ought to be considered to
commence where the top of the deposit becomes level with the adjoining
flats or gullies, whilst its rock-bottom runs at a lower level than that of
the latter, or, where the deposit enters the flats, and becomes overlaid by
more recent gold drifts. The deep leads are divided into main-trunk
leads, main leads, main-branch leads, branch leads, according to their
topographical relations to each other. At Ballarat, for instance, several
strong basaltic flows cover extensive old watersheds, comprising a great
number of branch leads, joining main-branch leads, which unite to

GEOLOGICAL AGE.

825

several main leads, and these ultimately to the main-trunk leads. The
line of drainage of the deep leads does not generally agree with, and is
in some cases quite the reverse of, that of the present surface. A fine
instance of this is observable close to Malmsbury. The old Belltoppcr
lead runs there across the present Back Creek, and joins the old Coliban
river lead close to the township, not far from the point where the old
Taradale leads also join the old river lead, which latter runs from there
right across the present Coliban river valley in the direction of the
valley of the river Campaspc. This peculiar relation is easily under-
stood from the geological features of the district ; namely, whilst the
extensive basaltic stream that covers the drift of the old valleys appears
at gradually increasing heights above the present Coliban river-bed in
the upper part of its course, it forms below Malmsbury the bed of the
river itself, which consequently proves that the drift must lie at a con-
siderable depth beneath the river. But as there is no evidence lower
down the latter of any such deep outlet, and as, besides, the Taradale
leads run S., whilst it runs N., the only conclusion we can come to is
that the old river channel — the main lead — trends E. towards the Green
Hill, in which direction it must join the old valley of the Campaspe
river.

"The discovery of the payably auriferous portions of deep leads
gutter or rise, as the case may be, is, especially in wide extensive valleys
covered by basalt, a matter of great difficulty and expense, and can only
be accomplished in an economic manner by systematic boring operations,
as already introduced at Ballarat, Beechworth, and other gold-fields.
There are many places in the western gold-districts where extensive
deep leads do no doubt exist, and prospecting by boring would be
highly advisable. A most promising one is the large tract of basalt
country bounded by the Clunes, Carisbrook, Hepburn, Glengower, &c.,
gold-fields, and called, beyond Joyce's Creek, the Bay of Biscay. All
the old drainage channels of the area must, according to the topo-
graphical and geological features, join the old Loddon river ; and as
the basalt-covered valley of the latter is in the neighbourhood of
Eddington hardly a mile in width, this locality is no doubt the most
favourable one for prospecting the old main-trunk lead. A bore was in
fact commenced here some years ago, but the breaking of the boring-
rods caused it to be abandoned before it had reached the rock-bottom.

'■ ti

" n. The Newer Pliocene, or Middle Gold-drift.

"This drift is generally not so extensively developed as the other
gold-drifts, though it is doubtful whether what arc on some gold-fields
considered as the older deep leads, may not, in reality, belong to it as

i - . ^i-^^ i

■I

826

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

regards geological age, a point to be noticed further on. It occurs, like
the older gold-drift, both as hills and deep leads, and its connection with
that drift is very various. For instance, where both drifts occur as hills,
the older drift lies sometimes considerably higher — as, for instance, at
Fryer's Creek, Sailor's Flat, near Vaughan, &c. ; or, as at Forest Creek
and Barker's Creek, they lie side by side, either quite separate or the
younger overlapping the older ; or, as at Maldon, where the middle drift
covers the older. At some gold-fields, the older drift forms hills along-
side of or within flats that contain channels or leads of the middle gold-
drift, covered by the upper gold-drift — for instance, at Talbot, Mary-
borough, Sandy Creek, near Maldon, &c. The rarest case is of both
drifts occurring as deep leads in flats, the older drift resting on the
bottom, being overlaid by the middle drift, and this again covered by
the upper gold-drift. An instance of this exists in the lower part of
Sandy Creek flat, near Newstead.

"Touching the character of its mass, the middle gold-drift differs
from the older drift by the imperfectly rounded state of its quartz-
pebbles and gold-particles, by a considerable admixture of Silurian
rock-pebbles, and by striking colours, such as red, blue, greenish-yellow,
&c., often all shades, marble-like mottled. Its mode of arrangement
from top to bottom is rarely also as perfect according to size as is the
case with the older drift. Where occurring as deep leads, it frequently
contains layers of carbonaceous clay, full of fragments of wood and
plant impressions ; yet the wood is not nearly so carbonized as that of
the older drift. So-called cement or conglomerate layers occur also
frequently, more especially in hill deposits ; their character is different,
however, from that of the puddingstone of the older drift, being more
that of a ' breccia,' whilst the cementing medium is hardly ever hydrous
oxide of iron (brown iron-ore) in a pure state, but generally consists of a
small percentage of it permeated through silicate of alumina, i.e. of
indurated ferruginous clay. In some cases it is also calcareous, or
consists of pure carbonate of lime, as, for instance, in some parts of the
Sandy Creek lead, near Maldon.

"As regards the supposition previously advanced, that some of the
deep leads classed under the older drift might, as regards geological age,
belong to this middle gold-drift, the deep lead of Epsom Flat, near
Sandhurst, and some of the Ballarat leads, may be instanced, 'i he
White Hills of the former locality belong undoubtedly to the older drift,
consisting nearly throughout — the seventh White Hill, for example — of
above 60 ft. of more or less cemented, perfectly water-worn gravel,
arranged tolerably well, according to size, from fine gravel at the top to
arge boulders at the bottom. On the N. base of this White Hill, the
Epsom lead, covered by upper gold-drift, commences; but it contains

GEOLOGICAL AGE.

827

only a few ft. of cemented, rounded quartz-gravel and boulder-drift at
the bottom, the remainder consisting of white or variously-coloured
arenaceous clay layers, which have no regular connection with the
seventh White Hill gravel; whilst, moreover, the bottom of the lead lies
considerably lower than that of the White Hill. Considering these
features in connection with the occurrence of small patches of genuine
older drift conglomerate on the rises bounding Epsom Flat, it seems
very probable that the deep lead channel is, in its upper part at least, of
later formation than the hills, having been washed out in an apparently
wide expanse of the older drift, and partly filled with re-washed material
of the latter. At Ballarat the discovery has been made in later years
that there exists a ' high-rise ' gravel along some of the deep gutters,
which latter are mostly filled with clay and drift sand, and but a few ft.
of boulder-wash at the bottom, evidently analogous features and relations
to those just described of and between the White Hills and Epsom lead.
Similar occurrences obtain probably also at other gold-fields. Touching
the determination of the exact boundaries between the two drifts in cases
like the Epsom Flat lead, it is quite impossible, on account of the never-
absent covering of upper gold-drift and the great similarity in the
material. This does not, however, affect the miner, for to him the dis-
tinction between the two drifts has little practical value.

iin'

"HI. The Post-Pliocene, or Upper Gold-drift.

" Under this head are comprised three different deposits, viz. : (a) the
Alluvial-drift, or simply ' Alluvial,' as the digger calls it ; (If) Recent
River-drift ; and (c) Surface.

" (a) TJie Alluvial drift fills every flat and gully throughout the gold-
fields, and is covered by soil and vegetation. It is generally composed
of alternating layers of tough brown or bluish clays, indurated, ferru-
ginous sands, and clayey gravel, which latter is mostly coarsest at the
bottom, representing the 'washing-stuff,' and consists of a mixture of
angular, or but very slightly rounded fragments and pebbles of quartz
and all kinds of rocks, derived from the bounding rises and ranges of the
flats and gullies. Sometimes it shows only i or 2 ft of tough, sandy
ferruginous clay at the top, and the remainder is formed throughout of
clayey gravel, which only becomes somewhat coarser towards the bottom.
Again, there are gullies showing from less than i to several ft. of auri-
ferous gravel at the bottom, covered by a far greater thickness of tough
and sandy clays in alternating layers. As regards its thickness, it varies
from a few to above 60 ft. in different localities. In the lower parts of
gullies and flats it is always the thickest, thinning out towards the com-
mencement of the gullies in the ranges. The gold it contains is generally

I '■'>-

828

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

but little water-worn ; only in those gullies tliat separate the older or the
middle drifts into scries of hills occur often rich deposits of water-worn
gold, in a gravel composed of more rounded quartz and rock-pebbles,
evidently the remnants of the denuded older drifts. Touching the
position of this drift, if in contact with the older drifts, it covers them
without exception where they form deep leads and no basalt intervenes.
As in cases of this kind the probability of the existence of two payable
wash-dirt layers is given — namely, of one immediately resting on the
older drift — the so-called ' false bottom ' ; of the other lying on the true
rock-bottom — careful prospecting of the upper floor is highly advisable.

" {b) Recent River-drift^ as the name implies, consists of the
occasional, generally patchy accumulations by floods of shingle, sand,
and clay along the courses of creeks and rivers, and is but rarely payably
auriferous. It rests on the creek and river banks upon the soil covering
the upper gold-drift; and, if happening to escape denudation by recurring
floods, it may in course of time become also covered by a thin layer of
soil and vegetation. This explains what is not unfrequently found in
some river flats (Coliban, Ovens, Loddon rivers, &c.), viz. of two or more
shingly or sandy beds, with thin layers of old humus or former surface
soil intervening, having to be sunk through before the genuine clayey
alluvial gold-drift is reached. To this recent drift belongs also the
shingly material occupying the old watercourses that generally traverse
most flats and wide gullies. Filling these old channels in most cases
right up level with their banks, and being covered by soil and vegetation,
this drift is seldom recognisable at the surface ; and as it sometimes
extends right down to the rock bottom, the miner working a claim on
it has but a poor prospect for gold, though claims close adjoining, outside
the old watercourse, may prove very rich. In deposits of this drift,
broken and perfect shells of the common Unio are frequent, and so are
trunks and other remnants of trees of the kinds lining the banks of the
rivers and watercourses.

" (c). Surface deposit, which derives its name from its occurrence right
at the top of the ground, is the most far-spread of our gold-drifts.
Being a result of the disintegration of the Silurian rocks in situ, and,
owing to the general softness of the latter, it covers nearly every hill and
range of these rocks, though being — with one exception, to be mentioned
farther on — only payably auriferous in the neighbourhood of auriferous
quartz reefs. Its thickness varies from a few in. to above i or 2 ft.,
according to the less or more decomposable nature of the underlying
rocks ; and it consists generally of clayey and sandy matter, mixed with
angular fragments of quartz, sandstone, and slate, and carrying some
humus supporting vegetation. The gold it contains is quite angular,
hackly or ciystalline, and is derived from auriferous quartz reefs or

'^il

GEOLOGICAL AGE.

829

leaders existing in the immediate vicinity. For this reason it affords,
by prospecting and washing, the best guide in the search for such reefs.
Whilst the auriferous character of the Older and Newer Pliocene drifts
offers only a general certainty, as it were, of the existence of gold-bearing
reefs in a district, ;ullies filled with auriferous alluvial, especially their
upper portions, afford undoubted proofs that auriferous reefs occur in the
neighbouring hills and ranges ; but only the prospecting of the surface
on the slopes of these hills and ranges will in most cases actually lead to
the discovery of the reefs themselves. The exception previously spoken
of comes here, however, under consideration. It refers to auriferous
surface composed of disturbed Older and Newer Pliocene drift — in fact,
remnants of imperfect denudation of these deposits — always betraying
its character by the very waterworn condition of the gold it contains,
and generally, though not always, by smooth rounded quartz pebbles.
It occurs mostly on the slopes of and in the gaps between the hills, the
tops of which carry patches of the older drifts ; sometimes, however,
any undisturbed remains of the latter may be entirely absent in the
immediate vicinity. Such surface has been worked in many parts of
Maldon, Fryer's Creek, Campbell's Creek, and other districts ; and the
misunderstanding of its true nature has led to frequent vain attempts to
discover in the neighbourhood the quartz reefs its contained gold was
supposed to be derived from.

" With regard to the comparative richness in gold of the different drift
deposits just described, it may be affirmed that, comparing different
areas, the Older Pliocene drift is the richest ; but, on taking the entire
extent of each of the drifts into calculation, it seems indeed very
probable that the alluvial drift, as the more extensively developed,
furnishes more gold than any of the other deposits.

" The site of the richer washing-stuff in the course of the leads and
alluvial gullies and flats is, according to experience, connected with
certain features of the rock bottom and surrounding country. As some
of the rules deducible in this respect may be mentioned the following :
Rich wash-stuff occurs — (i) Where the bottom suddenly assumes a
flatter inclination or fall than it had previously. (2) Generally in the
upper or commencing parts of the deposits, for the lower downward in
the channels, the slower and broader the original current, the finer and
more scattered the gold particles, more especially if, as it frequently
happens, there are junctions of branch leads and gullies that only furnish
an accession of poor or barren material. (3) At such points where the
current of the water was, through some local impediment, intercepted or
danimed up, suffering thereby a retardation of its velocity, and permitting
in consequence a deposition of the heavier particles previously carried
along — for instance both in front of and beyond narrow places in the

J ; m

830

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

channels, and where the latter make sharp bends. It happens, in bends
especially, often that the gold, on account of the break in the current, is
found thrown high up on the opposing rise, whilst in straight portions of
the channels it lies more in the deepest parts or ' gutters.' Where bars
or rises of the bottom rock traverse gutters, it is not unfrequently found
that the richest, though generally thinnest, wash-stuff rests right on top
of the bars or rises, and that the slope of the latter facing the current
carries lower and poorer wash-stuff than the opposite one. (4) Rich
wash-stuff may always be expected at the junctions of two or more
leads or gullies, each of which is payably auriferous by itself. (5) Where
auriferous quartz reefs traverse leads and alluvial gullies, either laterally
or longitudinally. In the first case, the greater richness of the wash-
stuff extends generally only for some limited distance below the reefs ;
but whilst the extent is greater if the angle of traverse is acute, the
most favourable result is produced in the second case, where the reefs
run actually in the channels of the drift deposits. Much depends in
these respects, of course, upon the thickness and quality of the reefs, the
fall of the channels, &c. (6) In the cracks and pits ('dips,' in miners'
phrase) of an uneven bottom, the gold having there found a resting-
place protected against the currents of the water. On this account it is
also often observed that those portions of alluvial gullies and leads that
run across or at right angles to the strike of the bottom rocks, especially
where these are rather hard and jointed, and therefo»-e expose the
serrated edges of the beds, are richer, or contain frequently at least
richer patches, than where the drift deposits run with the rocks. As a
general rule, drift miners prefer, however, a soft bottom to a hard one.

" Various other conditions and circumstances connected with the
deposition of rich wash-stuff might be mentioned, but a consideration of
all leads to the general conclusion that such deposits are very irregular,
and, both as regards superficial extent and thickness, subject to frequently
very sudden changes. At one place it forms stripes, at another, irregular
nests and patches, whilst its thickness may decrease from several ft. to
hardly as many in. ; sometimes it is sharply defined, and abruptly
terminating ; sometimes without any distinct boundary, and gradually
running out all round."

Whitney's opinion of the high gravels of the Sierra Nevada of
California is that they are the work of rivers of Tertiary age. That
volcanic agencies have played an important part during the gravel epoch,
and especially towards its close, is also perfectly clear, the heavy covering
of lava over the gravels acting as a mechanical protection to that which
is beneath. It may be set down, too, as established beyond any
possibility of doubt, that ice had nothing to do with any part of the
erosion of the gravel period. Different conditions prevail in different

;i6

GEOLOGICAL AGE.

831

portions of the range with reference to the development of the volcanic
formation and gravel. The portion S. from Mariposa contains hardly
any rocks which can properly be called slaty, and has never been found
sufficiently auriferous to make either surface or vein mining profitable.
The distinguished " red " and " blue " gravels have been shown to be one,
the former being merely the result of oxidation of the latter. The gold
is almost exclusively limited to the quartz and metamorphic gravel. It
is a general rule, with only rare exceptions, that in a given bank the
richest portion of the gravel, as well as that containing the coarsest
gold, lies immediately on the surface of the bed-rock. Whitney believes
that this is correctly explained by the hypothesis that neither the
coarsest gold nor the largest boulders were ever transported very far
from the spots whence they were originally derived. On the other hand,
it is an invariable rule that the coarser the gold the less is its market
value, by reason of the greater proportion of silver in the native
alloy.

Igneous. — Diorite. — In the mining districts of Transylvania and
Hungary occur volcanic rocks of compact porphyritic or crystalline-
granular structure, and composed of plagioclase felspar, together with
hornblende or with mica, and often with quartz. They have been
variously described, both as to character and geological age, but are
now " recognized as hornblende or mica andesites, or quartz-andesiiwS
[dacites]. They resemble in a remarkable manner the porphyrites, the
diorites, and the quartz-diorites of pre-Tcrtiary age."

According to one authority, the Comstock lode is in andesite.
Mount Davidson acted as a most powerful agent " in determining the
position and character of the Comstock lode. . . . No place offers such
conditions of easy fracture as the contact-plane between the ancient and
deeply-bedded formations, and those later and less coherent eruptive
rocks which have been superimposed upon their bases. Accordingly
along this important junction occur the relics of a dyke of andesite,
which seems to have been the first foreign substance to invade the
contact-plane and start the system of intruded materials which has
finally resulted in the Comstock lode."

Wilkinson notices in some of the New South Wales gold-fields that
hornblendic granites and intrusive greenstone or diorite are the original
source whence the gold found in the alluvial deposits has been derived.
At Grenfell this is very marked, a large mass of porphyrite intruding
Upper Silurian schists. Quartz reefs, varying in thickness from that of
a mere thread to over 10 ft., traverse the intrusive rock in a N.E. direc-
tion, and in some instances pass into the adjoining schists ; but though
richly auriferous while in the former rocks, they cease to be so imme-
diately on entering the schists.

; %i If i

1- >|:^

: f .

832

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

At Gympic, D'Oyly Aplin has shown that the reefs are closely
associated with greenstone dykes, and that where these do not occur, the
drifts are comparatively barren.

Many of the reefs at Swift's Creek, Victoria, are situated (i) in the
line of contact between intrusive masses of diorite and sedimentary rocks,
and (2) in the regionally metamorphosed Silurian beyond the contact.
The former penetrate through the contact into the underlying quartz-
diorites ; they have been found to be the richest near the surface, to
dwindle away as they penetrate deeper, and to become less auriferous or
cease at no great depth from the surface. It may, perhaps, be of some
sig.iificance that, where the reefs discontinue, the dioritic rocks, as a rule,
cease to be decomposed. Some few auriferous reefs have been discovered
and worked within the diorite area ; but in these cases, isolated patches
of contact schists associated with them prove that the general absence
of these rocks is in reality only due to denudation.

Among the modes of occurrence of gold in E. Australia, Daintrec
mentions pyritous diorites, as at the Gooroomjam diggings, Queensland ;
alluvial drifts from these contain gold in paying quantity.

The second appearance of gold in S. America, according to Forbes, is
totally distinct from the first (see p. 835) in mineral character, as well
as in geological age, and results from the eruption of dioritic (green-
stone) rocks, composed of hornblende and felspar (without quartz), which
break through strata even as late as those containing Oolitic fossils, and
consequently must be regarded as younger than the Oolitic period, but
as far as researches have yet shown, are probably not posterior to the
deposition of the Cretaceous strata. In this case, instead of quartz-
veins carrying the gold from the granite into the neighbouring strata,
veins of metallic sulphides and arsenides act in the same manner, and the
fjold is found imbedded in its metallic state in the compounds of sulphur
and arsenic with iron, copper, &c. ; and from some unknown cause the
more superficial parts of these veins appear as a rule to be much richer
in gold, which by the miners is generally supposed to decrease in depth.
The minerals commonly found in these veins are not the same as in the
metallic veins mentioned as occurring with the granitic rocks under the
first head, and, as far as observatio.us have gone, the metals, tin, tellurium,
tungsten, titanium, selenium. Sic, are never found in the auriferous veins
of later dates. Nothing could be more conclusive than the totally
distinct age of these two sets of auriferous eruptive rocks, which Forbes
believes to represent the only ages at which gold has been introduced
into the upper crust of the globe, and thinks it probable that this
generalization may be carried into other parts of the world, if it be
not altogether universal.

In his later extension of his theories to all the gold-deposits of the

the

c;ia)i,()tiiCAi, AciL'.

833

world, as stated under " Granite " (p. 835), Forbes deals with dioritic gold
in the following terms ; —

" The newer, or dioritic, oulljurst I have called Post-Oolitic, as the
veins containing gold, and which proceed from its centres, cut through
strata containing fossils of decided Post-Oolitic forms, and possibly may
be as late as early Cretaceous. These strata arc frequently much
^.Itered and metamorphosed by the contact of the igneous diorite, and at
such points often become auriferous, or arc cut by auriferous veins
proceeding from the diorite head mass. Although the results of an
extended examination of these deposits in Chili, Bolivia, and Peru,
occupying me from 1857 to 1863, arc extremely interesting, I have only
had time to publish comparatively few of the observations made. Since
my return to Europe, however, I have been able to collect sufficient data
to show me that this occurrence of gold is not at all confined to South
America, as I had at first imagined, but appears also to be common to
all the other quarters of the world. I have seen auriferous diorites from
Italy, and some auriferous rocks of this class are known to occur in the
Ural ; and, as before mentioned, I have specimens from California, and
some time back received very similar specimens, through Lieut. Aytoun,
from the gold districts of India ; and lastly, within a very few days, I
have had the opportunity of examining a fine series sent over to the
Jermyn Street Museum by Mr. Aveline, the head of the Geological
Survey in Victoria, which are all strikingly similar to those examined by
myself in various parts of South America."

Professor Judd, when describing the ancient volcano of the district of ^
Schemnitz, Hungary, says that " in every instance " of the centres of f
igneous activity in Hungary and Transylvania, "we find proofs that
the more deeply-seated masses of andesitic lava have, in consolidating,
assumed a highly porphyritic or granitiform structure, and that the action
upon these of acid gases and vapours has resulted in the decomposition
of the mass, with the dififusicu of valuable metallic ores throughout the
substance of the rock, and their accumulation in considerable quantities
wherever a suitable fissure occurred in it." And he concludes with a
remark that there is the most complete and insensible transition from
the granitic rocks to the true lavas ; " and the whole of them are of
Miocene date.'"

Diorite is the country-rock of some of the chief gold veins of
Venezuela (p. 267). Gold is found in the disintegrated diorites of
Khutel, Turkestan (p. 473). The placer-gold of the Urals, according to
Murchison, lies chiefly on a greenstone bed-rock (p. 427). Greenstone or
diorite is the main source of much of the gold of New Guinea and New
South Wales. At Temora, gold is found in the reefs travers'pg diorite,
but not in those in the slate (p. 516). Some of the reefs on the Thames

3 II

v'*'

■i'dt,.

w
'if

l.Wi

834

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

gold-field, New Zealand, are \n diorite (p. 553). Dioritic dykes accompany
many of the Ballarat (p. 673), Gippsland (pp. 6Sj, 684), and Western
Australian (p. 696) veins.

Granite. — The lodes around Central City, Gilpin county, Colorado,
are said to be all enclosed in rock which is of one corr.mon type, chiefly
granitic, with some gneissic vaneties. Gold has been found in true
granite, closely resembling the variety called protogiiie, abundant in
some parts of the Alps, at S'^ndy Creek, Victoria. Some of the specimens
are very rich, and would ^sjay several c/. per ton.

D'Oyly Aplin, in 1864, reported on the occurrence of auriferous
quartz veins, varying in thickness from a few in. to several ft., at Wood's
Point, Upper Goulbourn, Victoria, traversing in a more or less horizontal
direction, and at different levels, a rock of granitoid, or rather syenitic,
character, but which, existing as a broad dyke with well-defined walls,
differs essentially, as a geological feature, from granite in its ordinary
position as a rock mass. The rock constituting the dyke is a mixture of
hornblende and felspar, with but little quartz, and occasionally mica, and
might perhaps more correctly be called syenitic diorite. Crossing the
dyke at different levels, some 60 or 70 ft. apart, are 3 horizontal '-ands
or veins of quartz, more or less undulating in their course, and varying
in thickness from i to 12 ft. As they approach the walls of the dyke,
they exhibit a tendency to split up and become attenuated, but become
exceedingly rich on entering the slates.

Interesting and apparently valuable discoveries of metalliferous lodes
in granitic rocks have been made at Bethanga, E. of the junction of
the Mitta-Mitta with the Murray river, Victoria. The veins are of
exceptional character in Victoria, inasmuch as they contain in quantity
the 3 metals, gold, silver, and copper, but they closely resemble some
auriferous veins found in Queensland. The walls of the lodes are well
defined. The yield of the stuff has averaged over i oz. per ton, the vein
being 2 to 7 ft. wide. The stufif is a f';rri'ginous gossan containing gold,
silver, and copper, distributed through the ore without any apparent
order.

Morton says of the gold-bearing veins of the Virginia Gold l.clt that
they are generally of two classes: — (i) Veins in the slate, striking N.E.
and S.W. ; (2) veins in the syenite, striking S.E. and N.W. approxi-
mately, the larger veins occurring in the syenite. The characters of the
veins differ in this : that in the syenite they are more persistent in length,
and dip at 1 nearly verti'.al angle, while in the slate they are more
irregular in length, and dip at various angles, from 25° to 80° from the
horizon. The characters of the ore also differ, inasmuch as in the slate
the quartz is more laminated than in the syenite, and the quantity of free
gold is greater than in ores of equal assay value from the syenite.

(;E01,Ot;iCAl. AGK.

835

At Kaffir's Hill, Stockyard Creek, Victoria, auriferous quartz-veins
occur in a granitic dyke, and extend into the slate country on cither
side, which is also, together with the quartz, much impregnated by iron-
pyrites.

Among the modes of occurrence of gold in Eastern Australia,
Daintree specifies the granite of Bowenfels and 'lartley, New South
Wales.

David Forbes, F.R.S., after 7 years' study of the gold deposits of
S. America, classes them in two cat'jgories. " Under the first head
belongs all gold derived from the disintegration of granitic rocks of an
age later than much, if not all, of the Silurian strata, but probably not
later than the De: onian period. The largest gold-washings of S. America,
and probably of the whole world, I look upon as derived from this
source, as well as the auriferous quartz-veins, as they can be traced to
the proximity of the granite, and which I believe to have originated in
or been injected from the granite into the neighbouring strata, carrying
the gold, which is a normal constituent of the granite itself, along with
it. This granite, wherever met with, is invariably auriferoi s in itself;
and although it would not pay to grind down granite mountains, and
work out the gold in them, yet in many parts of S. America, in Brazil,
near Valparaiso, &c., the granite, apparently solid, is frequently decom-
posed in situ to depths of even over 200 ft., as shown frequently in
railway cuttings, and then it sometimes repays the labour of washing the
whole mass for the sake of the gold in it. To this class a! .0 belong
many metallic veins injected from the granite into the neighbouring
Silurian strata, which contain gold, and are remarkable for the presence
of other min'^'-als, very characteristic, as oxide and sulphides of tin, tin-
pyrites, copper-pyrites, compounds of bismuth, tellurium, selenium, &c,,
many of which are seldom or never met with in later rocks."

Subsequently Forbes extended his conclusions so far as to enunciate
two epochs of auriferous impregnation throughout the whole world :
(i) the older or granite ou jurst, and (2) the younger or diorite (see p. 832)
outburst. Concerning the former he says as follows : " The older or
auriferous granite intrusion appears to have occurred at some time be-
tween the Silurian and Carboniferous period, certainly not older than the
Upper Silurian, nor younger than the Carboniferous strata, probably not
younger than the deposition of the first members of the latter formation.

" Gold formations belonging to this period present themselves in
Australia,* Bohemia, Bolivia,* Brazil, Buenos Ayres, Chili,* Cornwall,
Ecuador, Hungary, Mexico,* New Granada, Norway, Peru,* Sweden,
Ural,* Wicklow.

Note. — These so (*) marked, as well, I believe, as California and many • hers, have gold
deposits of both ages.

3 II 2

U : t

■¥

'I I'

836

CIEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

" To this period and cause I also attribute most of such deposits of
gold as arc found intruded as quartz nodules and veins in many places,
as if intcrstratified in the Cambrian and Silurian (and probably also
Laurcntian and Devonian) systems, which I believe to have arisen and
been rendered aurifcous solely from their proximity to invisible or now
superficial granites."

Speaking of the celebiated Nuggety reef, Maldon, Victoria, Ulrich
says, " the granite of all tho veins, and that of the bottom floor, differs
but slightly in universal ch,^rac^.er from the main mass of the rock in the
immediate neighbourhood (it appears in the veins to be perhaps some-
what more quartzose, and to contain less mica), and there can hardly be
a doubt that the second and third veins were once connected with the
main mass, whilst the remainder and the bottom floor are still so, and
may lead up to it if followed northward. Yet the assumption of,
especially, the hrst 3 veins being intrusive is strangely at variance,
touching their mineral connection with the reef, for there is a complete
absence of any division-line between the quartz and granite — a feature
generally observable between intrusive dykes and the surroundiup^ ;ck
The granite appears here, in fact, not at all unlike a zone of im^.,og-
nation, inasmuch as the quartz above the veins shows, first, scattered
crystals and pieces of felspar ; these increase gradually in quantity ;
plates and nests of black mica make their appearance, and, whilst their
number also augments, the mixture becomes more and more fine-
grained, and the passage to typical granite is insensibly completed ; the
reverse process of change to reef-quartz commencing again a few ft.
below. Even the gold takes part in the passage, for it has been found
impregnated several in. deep in the granite."

At Beresof, 10 miles N.E. of Ekacerinburg, gold-quartz veins occur
in dykes of very fine-grained granite, called bcresite. The celebrated
auriferous mispickel veins of Marmora, Ontario, Canada (see p. 79), are
true fissures in sycnitic granite, with micaceous or talcoid slates fo/ming
the walls of and horses in the veins.

Granite is associated with the gold-mines on Jackfish and Partridge

Lakes, Canada (pp. 79-80). On ascending the Saskatchewan, the gold

declines with the disappearance of granitic and gneissic rocks (p. 81).

Some of the auriferous veins in S. Carolina are in coarse crystallized

•i^- granite. In the Hi basin, Turkestan, gold is only found in the affluents

^ which issue from syenitic granite spurs ; in the waters abrading the

,> schistose rocks, there is no gold (p. 473). The Serdjiller gold-mine,

Asiu. Minor, is in syenite and mica-schist (p. 475). The gold-reefs at

Poverty Point, Clarence district, New South Wales, are in granitic dykes

(p. 487). The shallow Four-mile diggings, in the Kiandra district, have

a granitic bed-rock (p. 506). A granitic dyk-c has yielded the gold of

>"/

GEOLOGICAL AGE.

837

'n the deep leads of the Lachlan district (pp. 5 1 2-3). The Charters Towers
gold-field, Queensland, occupies the edge of an area of granite and
syenite (p. 585). The Black Snake gold-workings are in granite (p. 591)'
Granite and syenite form the country-rock in the Marengo gold-field
(PP- 593. 595. 596, 610, 611, 612). Granite is the bed-rock of some of
the Victorian leads, and country-rock of some of the veins (pp. 651, 652,
653. 654. 656, 682).

Porphyry. — Wl^'te states that the " Bolivia " lodes, in the Frontino
and Bolivia Co.V mines, in the United States of Colombia, are " in first-
class metalliferous porphyry,"

Daintree describes the occurrence of gold in porphyry at Paddy's and
Sharper's Gullies, on the Cape River gold-field, Queensland. These
gullies are short ravines joining the main creek about 3 miles above the
junction of Running Creek and Specimen Gully. The shallow alluvial
deposits in these watercourses were very rich ; the material composing
the drift was entirely made up of fragments of decomposed felstone-
porphyry, and the rock-mass through which they had cut their channels
was the solid representative of the debris in the gullies. The surface
rubble on the hill-side near the head of Sharper's Gully, which is simply
broken-up felstone-porphyry, was sluiced with remunerative results.
The gold is of the class called by miners " dirty" or "black" gold. In
the one case, it is encased in material similar to the wash-dirt from which
it is separated ; in the other, the coating is manganic oxide S iron,
similar to the black gold of Canoona. As no portions of either of these
gullies traverse the rock, and as none of the gold has quartz attached, or
shows signs of having been transported from a distance, and as, when-
ever it is collected with adhering particles of matrix, they are invariably
similar to the rock-mass which bounds the ravines, the gold has clea'ly
been derived from the destruction of the felstone-porphyry, which here
forms the bottom-rock of the miner, as its disintegrated particles make
up his wash-dirt.

At another place, great care was taken in tracing the course of a
peculiar porphyritic dyke, and it was found that wherever it traversed
the slates on its extension, as it does where it crosses Golden Gully, near
the " Dam," there the richest gold-deposits were found. A patch of
surface ground was worked at the head of a right-hand branch of Golden
Gully, with " wash-dirt " and gold both similar to those in Paddy's
Gully, and there can be little doubt that the red clay soil at the head of
Nuggety Gully indicates the presence of this peculiar feature, and
suggests the origin of its alluvial wealth. That these porphyritic elvan
courses have influenced the local production of gold in the area under
discussion, is further evidenced by the fact that none of the gullies
between Nuggety and Specimen have been gold-producers, though the

■« r ' \.\

iL..

i ii

u \

838

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

mica-slates through which they force their way differ in no respects
from those worked to a profit than in the absence of these same intrusive
dykes. Again, if these have not played the important part here
assigned them, how shall the comparative barrenness in mineral be
accounted for in the extension to the N.W. of the same schistose rocks ?

Porphyritic dykes are the source of the alluvial gold in Borneo
(p. 290). Some of the veins on the Thames gold-field, New Zealand,
are in porphyry (p. 553). So are a few in Queensland (pp. 581, 614)
and in Victoria (p. 657).

Serpentine. — At Native-Dog Creek, the bed-rock is Silurian shales
and conglomerates, with serpentine cliffs ; the shales are traversed by a
dyke of quartz-porphyry. Near this dyke the rock was very rich, and
gold was found in payable quantity as far as the schist and serpentine
extended, but not beyond. Some of the heaviest gold was found on the
schists, close to their junction with the serpentine.

At Canoo Queensland, the gold was found to follow the course of
a dyke of serp*.!-, Some of the Queensland reefs are in serpentine-

slate. Gold occui n the serpentine cf the Quebec group. Lower
Silurian, in Newfoundland (p. 84).

Trachyte. — Gold is contained in the trachytes of the northern part of
the Black Hills, Dakota, and in the Bear Lodge Range.

The Report of the U. S. Geological Exploration of the 40th parallel
places some of the prominent (auriferous) silver districts of the Car-
pathians, Mexico, and the United States (Comstock lode, Aurora
district, Silver Mountain, Moss lode) in direct association with trachyte.

Preliminary crushings of decomposed pyritous trachytes or felsites
from the Tunnel and Green's reefs. Upper Cape, Queensland, yielded
about 12 dwt. of gold per ton. A closely similar property is the
Peninsular reef, Portobello, Otago, where the diffused auriferous pyrites
in greyish-white trachyte gave varying quantities cf gold, from 3 to
1 1 dwt. per ton.

Von Cotta, speaking of the celebrated mine of Verespatak, the
" Eldorado of Tiansylvania," Hungary, connects its gold-veins in some
measure with the trachytic outburst of the Csetatye.

Most of the reefs on the Otago gold-field. New Zealand, are in
trachyte (pp. S37, 53^-9, S^o).

Mineral Associates.

The following is a brief summary of the metallic and other minerals
found associated with gold and auriferous rocks, arranged alphabetically,
with some remarks on the influence apparently exerted by them upon
the characters of the ores.

Antimony. — Antimony sulphide (stibnite) occurs at Cata Branca,

. I

MINERAL ASSOCIATES.

839

Minas Geraes, Brazil ; at Paciencia and Coelho, Minas Geraes, with
tellurium and iron-pyrites ; with auriferous iron-pyrites and mispickel
at Gold-Kronach, in the Fichtclgebirge ; and in many of the Transyl-
vanian (p. 704) gold-ores.

Sulphide and oxide of antimony with free gold, are found at Heath-
cote, Whroo, Tcmplestowe, Caledonia, Anderson's Creek, Donovan's
Creek, in the basin of the Yarra, Ruthcrglen, Maryborough, Blackwood,
Wood's Point, Maldon, Daylcsford, Ballarat, and other Victorian locali-
ties. The yield of gold from a vein of quartz and antimony sulphide at
Sunbury averaged 2 oz. per ton. The antimony-mines of Costerficld
gave considerable quantities of gold from every vein. The ore here
consists of sulphuret seamed with brown and white oxide of antimony,
combined with a small proportion of auriferous quartz : below the natural
water-level no oxide is found. The gold and antimony yields of some
samples are thus stated : —

Locality.

Variety.

Antimony.

I per cent.

Ringwood j Sulphide 33

Costerfield | ,, 45

> ) 1 ) ) 42

Sandhurst j ,, 63

Whroo , ,, I 65

Costerfield : Oxide .. 36

Newcastle, N.S.W. ., | Sulphide

Gold.

oz. dwt. gr.

2 5 17

2 l<j O

1 19 O

I 10 O

18 O

10 16

IS o

The Costerficld sulphide on smelting gave antimony containing
silver, lead, copper, bismuth, arsenic, cadmium, manganese, cobalt, nickel,
chromium and iron.

In Victoria, antimony occurs native, in combination with sulphur
(stibnite), as oxide (cervantite), as white antimony (valentinite), as red
antimony (kermesit?), and in some complex minerals, such as tetra-
hedrite and boulungerite. It accompanies gold in the veins of San
Diego CO., Calif >rnia. Some of the gold of the Argentine Republic is
associated with antimony (p. 208) ; also much of that in Bolivia (p. 209).
Antimony is abundantly associated with the vein-gold <-{ Borneo (p. 289),
and occasionally with that of Sado, Japan (p. 356). Veins of auriferous
stibnite occur at Langdon's Creek, New Zealand (p. 519), and in the
Hohcn Tauern, Bohemia (p. 701).

Arsenic. — Mispickel, arsenopyrite, or arsenical iron-pyrites, is very
commonly the especially auriferous ingredient of a mixed lode, e. g. the
Richmond mine, Nevada.

Mispickel, having the composition of about 55 per cent, iron, 25 arsenic,
and 20 sulphur, contains the greater pnrt of the gold for v/hich the rich
and well-known veins at Marmora, Ontario, Canada, are worked. Some
examples have shown very high proportions of gold (p. 79).

if J if

840

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

''Hi!

BismutJi. — The sulphide of bismuth occurs at Cata Branca, Minas
Gcracs, Brazil. Metallic bismuth is found in the Victorian deep leads.
Bismuthite is met with in the Victorian deep leads ; and at the Chester-
field gold-district, S. Carolina.

At Nuggety reef, Maldon, Victoria, both in the neighbourhood of the
granite veins (p. 836) and a few in. deep in the granite itself, occurs the
rare mineral maldonite, an alloy of bismuth and gold. Hence the gold
from this mine contains considerable proportions of bismuth.

Bismuth occurs with gold in Charlotte co., New Brunswick, giving
10 per cent, of bismuth and \l. worth of gold per ton (p. 83). The
auriferous deposits of the Yeniseisk, Siberia, contain bismuth (p. 379).
Some of the Queensland reefs carry bismuth (p. 582).

Calcium. — It has been observed by Von Cotta that lime is generally
conspicuously absent from rocks associated with gold. On the other
hand, in some districts of New South Wales (as Nundle and Denison,
Upper Peel and Hunter rivers), the auriferous veins are composed rather
of calcareous than silicious minerals, and have been yielding gold for
over 20 years. The deep leads of the Lachlan, Australia, are opened on
the flanks of a limestone belt ; nuggets of gold weighing 2 to 9 oz. are
frequently obtained from these leads, enveloped in what appears to be a
dccorhposed silicate of lime. There was a cavern found in the limestone,
60 ft. wide and 120 ft. long, full of ordinary wash-dirt. The influence of
calcspar on the veins of Victoria is discussed on p. 649.

Two localities in the Sierra Nevada, California, are recorded as
having gold in calcite or dolomite. Auriferous quartz-veins in Dog
Island, Manitoba, are in dolomite (p. 80). Most of the rich quartz reefs
at Gympie, Queensland, contain abundance of calcite in strong veins and
patches, often richly impregnated with gold. A fine spccim.^n from
these shows actual veins of largish gold specks irregularly distributed
through white opaque calcite. Calcite also occurs in some of the New
South Wales (p. 494) and Victorian (p. 684) reefs, and in Bohemia (p. 701).

Ajjatite is found traversing the auriferous quartz at Peche, Ottawa
(p. 80). The metamorphic Jurassic limestone of Sonora, Mexico, includes
the richest gold-placers (p. 113). The Atlantic Cable mine, Deer Lodge
CO., Montana, is in "a zone or dyke of crystalline limestone which is
enclosed by granite" (p. 173). Both calcite and aragonite occur in some
of the veins of the Thames gold-field, New Zealand (p. 555). In the
Queensland reef, carbonate of lime, gypsum, and selenite are often met
with (pp. 582, 583, 584, 591, 592) ; the Devonian reefs in Queensland are
only fairly auriferous when lime or magnesia is present, and cease to be
productive on entering a silicious area (pp. 590-1).

Cobalt.- — Cobalt occurs with nickel in the Cretaceous gold-veins in
Hungary and Afghanistan (p. 270).

MINERAL ASSOCIATES.

841

Copper. — Native copper In grains is found in the gravels of the Sierra
Nevada, California. Copper-ores occur in the Victorian deep leads. In
Colorado, very little of the gold is found free in the quartz vein-stone,
but is mostly combined or intimately associated with the pyrites, the
copper-pyrites being very much richer than the iron-pyrites. The
coi)pcr of the Sierra Madre, Sonora, Mexico, is said to be sent to China,
and to fetch a high price on account of the gold in it (p. 109). In
Hayti, gold is found in nests of purple sulphide of copper (sec assays,
p. 196). Some ore of copper is associated with almost all the gold
found in the Argentine Republic. At Coquimbo, Chili, gold is found in
a matrix of carbonate of copper. All the gold of the Indian Archipelago
contains more or less copper (for assays, see p. 283). The copper of
Singhbhum is auriferous (p. 331). Copper is associated with the vein-
gold of Japan (p. 353). Copper-ore and native copper occur at a placer
on the Murojnaia, Siberia (p. 399). The copper-ores of New Caledonia
contain gold (p. 477). Copper-pyrites and the carbonates occur in many
Queensland reefs (pp. 581, 584, 592, 593, 594, 595, 596, 602, 603, 605,
610, 61 1, 613). Copper-ores accompany the gold in some parts of South
Australia (p. 625), Victoria (pp. ^Gy, 685), Bohemia (p. 701), Germany
(p. 711), Italy (p. 717), and Spain (pp. 720-1).

Diamond. — In the deep leads of Victoria, about 60 small diamonds
have been found in the Becchworth district, in the ordinary wash-dirt.

In the placers of Siberia, in those along the flanks of the Appalachian
chain, and in those of the Sierra Nevada, California, diamonds occur, as
well as at the Cherokee mines, Butte co., California (p. 130).

The frequency of diamonds in the Brazilian gold-placers is quite
familiar. They occur, too, in the rivers of N.W. Borneo (p. 284) and
Matan (p. 286), in the Mahanadi, India (p. 320), and in Gangpur States,
India (p. 324).

Felspar. — Felspar, sometimes porphyritic in character, commonly
forms a large portion of the gangue in the auriferous quartz-veins in
Colorado.

Garnet. — Garnets are common in the Sierra Nevada gravels, Cali-
fornia, in the Victorian deep leads, and in the S. Saskatchewan gold-
fields ; in the Yeniseisk gold-fields (pp. 379, 387) ; and in Hungary

(p. 707).

Iridium. — Iridosmine [osmiridium] occurs in the gravels of the Sierra
Nevada, California, in the deep leads of Victoria, and in the gold-washings
of Minas Geraes, Brazil.

Iron. — Chromite occurs in the Victorian deep leads. Iron forms an
important ingredient in the celebrated yczc«//;/^«, the auriferous rock of
Brazil (p. 221). Magnetite is found in the Victorian deep leads.
Limonitc and earthy red haematite, or other ferruginous minerals, are the

842

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

chief constituent of the auriferous moco de hierro of Venezuela (p. 265).
In the S. Yeniseisk gold-fields, Siberia, the gold is not unfrequently
covered with a thin crust of oxide of iron (p. 397). Carbonate of iron
occurs in some of the veins of the Thames gold-field. New Zealand
(P- 555)» o" the Normanby gold-field, Queensland (p. 606), and in Victoria
(p. 690).

Pyrite [iron-pyrites] occurs plentifully on almost all gold-fields, and
is rarely free from traces of gold. At Sandhurst, Victoria, it forms the
vein-stuff in some places. In California, it may be said that there is
hardly any productive quartz-vein which has not some pyrites dis-
seminated through it, yet the quantity is usually small as compared with
the quartz, while in the majority of instances it is much richer in gold.
Some interesting tables of comparative values of gold from raw and
decomposed mundic are given on p. 589.

The " black " gold of Canoona, and some of that of Sharper's Gully,
both in Queensland, is coated with manganic oxide of iron. Vivianite
(phosphate of iron) occurs in the Victorian leads (p. 653).

Lead. — Metallic lead is very rare in gold-veins, but the ores of lead,
such as galena, antimonial lead, sulphate of lead, carbonate of lead,
arseniate of lead, and phosphate of lead, are often met with.

Mimetite, an arseniate of lead combined with a chloride, is found
in the Richmond mine, Nevada, always rich in gold. The ore of the
Richmond mine is an argentiferous carbonate of lead, with nodules of
galena interspersed through it, together with a considerable amount of
decomposed arsenical pyrites, which is gold-bearing. Galena is associated
with gold in some of the reefs in New South Wales (pp. 493, 495), with
those of Otago, New Zealand (p. 532), of Queensland (pp. 583, 584, 592),
of Victoria -(pp. 649, 658), of Hungary (p. 705), of Germany (p. 711),
Italy (p. 717), and Scotland (p. 736).

Though payably auriferous lead-mines are exceptional, no sample of
ordinary lead-ore (galena) yet examined has failed to exhibit traces at
least of gold. Galena is an important constituent of the gold-ores of
many parts of Transylvania (p. 705). The vein-gold of Arizona is almcst
all in argentiferous galena (p. 129).

In the auriferous veins of chloro-bromide of silver at St. Arnaud,
Victoria, mimetite (arsenic pentoxide 23 '20, lead oxide 74*96, chlorine
2 • 39) appears to be pretty abundant.

The argentiferous galenas of Kulu contain gold (p. 347). Galena is
associated with the vein-gold of Japan (p. 353). The Balgar-Dagh mines,
Turkey, give ores containing 2 1 per cent, of lead, and 4 gr. of gold per
108 oz. (p. 474).

Magnesia, — Gold occurs in felsite magnesian slate in Newfoundland
(p. 84).

il!i

MINERAL ASSOCIATES.

843

Manganese. — Some of the vein-gold in the slates of the Chaudi6re ^
valley, Lower Canada, is " tarnished by a black earthy coating of oxide
of manga„^se." Manganese is an ingredient of the auriferous Brazilian
jaaitinga (p. 229). Iron manganese occurs in the Yeniseisk placers,
Siberia (p. 400). The " black gold " of Canoona, and some of that of
Sharper's Gully, Queensland, is coated with manganic oxide of iron.

Mercury. — Rolled fragments of cinnabar occur with the stream-gold
in Borneo (p. 290).

Molybdenitvi. — Molybdenite occurs at the Excelsior gold-mine, ^
California, and in the Hohen Tauern, Bohemia (p. 701).

Nickel. — Native nickel occurs in minute rounded grains, containing
traces of iron and cobalt, at Trinity Bar, 5 miles below Fort Yale, on the
Fraser river. Also, with cobalt, in the Cretaceous gold-veins in Hungary
and Afghanistan (p. 270).

Ostiiiuin. — Laurite [sulphuret of osmium and ruthenium] occurs in the
gravels of the Sierra Nevada, California. Irid-osmium occurs in the
gold-washings of Minas Geraes, Brazil.

Palladiuin. — Palladium forms 5 to 8 per cent, of the gold-alloy in the
Minas Geraes mines. Some assays made at the Rio de Janeiro mint
gave the following results : —

Gold ..
Palladium

88-9
in

9.
90-25
9-75

92-3

7-7

Platinum. — Platinum occurs in some abundance, with its alloys, in
the gravels of the Sierra Nevada, California. The chief is native
platinum, alloyed with iridium, rhodium, paladium, &c. ; and platin-
iridium. It is frequent with gold in the Ural placers, at Nijny Tagilsk,
Bissersk, Bilimbaycwsk, Bogoslofsk, Kushvinsky, Newyansk, Wereh-
Yssetzk, Kischtrinsk, and Mias'c. Also in the Cherokee mines, Butte co.,
California (p. 130), and in the Pranquille river, British Columbia (p. 51).
Much of the Brazilian gold is alloyed with platinum (p. 223). It is found
also in Choco, United States of Colombia (p. 236), in the rivers of Assam
(p. 280), in Mysore (p. 341), and in the Rhine (p. 714).

Silica. — It is probably unnecessary to mention quartz as the most
universally auriferous veinstone; but it must not be supposed that all
quartz is auriferous, nor that all gold is quartzose. Other matrices are
described in this section.

In New Zealand, " gold sometimes occurs so mixed with silicious
particles as to constitute with them a golden sandstone." In Victoria,
one pyritous vein consists largely of nearly pure silica, in the form of
chalcedony (p. 685).

A portion, at any rate, of the so-called ' rusty " gold of the miners
would seem to be coated with a film of sonic silicious mineral, probably

)

<• ; m. i

844

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

Ill

silicate of iron, which prevents its amalgamation. Actual samples
showing this feature have been gathered from a large deposit of tailings
in the Feather river, below Oroville, in Butte county, California ; some
were wholly, others only partially coated ; and while the coating in some
cases was opaque, and hid the gold, in others it was semi-transparent, and
revealed the metal. Similar specimens have been described by Attwood
from Guayana, Venezuela.

R/zdj'. — Rubies are found in the Victorian deep leads ; some of poor
quality occur in the Ayakta alluvia, Siberia (p. 407).

Sapphim. — Sapphires occur in the Victorian gold-drifts : in the bed of
the Tubba Rubba Creek, Mornington, and at other places, they have
been found of a fine blue colour. Blue and green sapphires occur in the
Mount Werong field. New South Wales (p. 514).

Silver. — Silver in some form is so universally present in gold of all
qualities, varying only in its proportions, that enumeration is quite
impossible. It may also be said that no silver-ore is quite free from
gold.

In the reefs of the St. Arnaud district, Victoria, the gold is associated
mainly with chloro-bromide of silver, which has shown, on analysis,
65 •14 silver, 24* 16 bromine, and io*73 chlorine; while the embolite
from South American mines gives 66*562 silver, 20 "088 bromine, and
1 3 • 050 chlorine.

Telluriuin. — Tellurium is met with at Paciencia and Coelho, Minas
Geraes, Brazil, with antimony sulphide and iron-pyrites. Tellurium is
associated with some of the gold of Asia Minor (p. 475).

In many of the mines of Western Transylvania (p. 705), the occur-
rence of the gold in combination with tellurium is the common feature.
Prominent examples are Nagyag (p. 707), Ofifenbanya, &c. The chief
forms are nagyagite (consisting of lead, tellurium, gold, sulphur, and
small quantities of copper and silver) and sylvanite (containing
tellurium, gold, and silver). These minerals are also found in the
Melones and Stanislaus mines, Calaveras, California, and in the Red
Cloud mine, Colorado.

Tin. — Rutile, anatase, brookite, and cassiterite occur in the Victorian
deep leads. Stream-tin is found with alluvial gold in Borneo (p. 287)
and Perak (p. 365), and in the Great Penchenga valley, Siberia (p. 400).

Titanium. — Menaccanite occurs in the Victorian deep leads, in thi;
gold-sands of California, in the Yeniseisk gold-fields (p. 379), and in
the auriferous sands of the Dee (p. 734).

Topaz. — Topazes are found in the washings from Morris Ravine,
Sierra Nevada, California, and in the drifts of Victoria, some of the latter
specimens being very good.

Tourinalinc. — This mineral is met with in the Victorian deep leads ;

MINERAL ASSOCIATES.

845

in the Yeniseisk placers (p. 400), notably on the Ayakta (p. 407) ; and in
some Victorian reefs (p. 688).

Tungsten. — Wolfram occurs in the Victorian deep leads, and in the
Irish auriferous pyrites veins (p. 728).

bchcelite [calcic tungstate] was found as a gang.ic for gold by Dr. C.
Le Neve Foster in the Italian Alps, at the Val Toppa mine (p. 717), in
the Val d'Ossola, near Piedimulera, and is called by the miners marnior
rossa ("red marble"). Prof. Silliman received a sample of gold in
schcelite from the Charity mine, Idaho. Scheelite occurs in the auriferous
veins of the Hohen Tauern, Bohemia (p. 701).

Vanadium. — Dr. James Blake found gold associated in considerable
quantity with a vanadium ore which has been named roscoelite, at the
Sam Simms and Big Red Ravine mines, near Coloma, El Dorado county,
California. The gold is found inter'' itified with laminae of the mineral,
or imbedded in it, in pieces varyuig from the minutest microscopic
particles upwards.

Zinc. — Blende occurs in most of the gold-ores of Transylvania
(p. 705). It is sometimes found to be auriferous in Lower Silurian veins
in Lower Canada. Auriferous blende is found in some parts of Madura^
India (p. 334), and in Japan (p. 353). Zinc is associated with some of
the gold of Asia Minor (p. 474), of Otago, New Zealand (p. 532), of
Queensland (pp. 581, 583), of Victoria (p. 649), and of Italy (p. 717).

Zircon. — Zircon is common, in minute crystals, in the Sierra Nevada,
California ; in the Victorian deep leads ; in the Gavrilof placer, Yeni-
seisk, Siberia (p. 387), and on the Ayakta (p. 407) ; in the Eucumbene
river, New South Wales (p. 505) ; and in the Mount Werong field
(p. 514)-

ir- •!

( S46 )

CHAPTER III.

'!b'

SHALLOW PLACERS AND LIVE RIVERS.

The two preceding chapters have been devoted to an account of the
geographical and geological localities of auriferous formations, coupled
with some opinions as to their ori in and cause : they have., in fact,
dealt with the subject in its broad general outlines. The next con-
sideration will be the specific characters of the several formations : and
the means employed in extracting the gold from them, occupying the
remaining chapters of the book.

Definition. — The term "shallow placers" is applied to auriferous
deposits in alluvial ground overlying the "country-rock," and reaching
to depths varying from a few in. to many ft. Such are always of recent
formation, as opposed to the so-called " deep leads," to be considered in
the next cliapter. The working of these deposits is often known as
" surfacing."

Importance. — It was in these superficial accumulations that gol
first found by colonists near the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, as .._ii
as in the creeks and gullies of Australia ; and so rich were they, that
even with the primitive appliances in vogue in the early days of the gold
industry, 36,000,000/. are said to have been got out of the Californian
diggings during the first 5 years' work. In fact, until quite recently,
since such great progress has been made in quartz mining, at least two-
thirds of the gold produced in English-speaking lands has been by
washing this superficial detritus, and all the Siberian product to this day
is obtained from the same source. The reason for this is not far to seek.

Formation. — In these shallow diggings, Nature has for ages been per-
forming the work for which the quartz miner must invent all manner of
machinery, and employ a vast amount of capital and skilled labour — the
disintegration of the gold-bearing rock and the concentration of the
metal. Consequently, the unskilled labourer, whose capital is represented
by his own strength and a few of the simplest possible tools, is unable to
extract on a remunerative scale immense quantities of gold, which
under its original condition, disseminated through quartz and other hard
rocks, often in invisible proportions, would have needed vast amounts of
capital and much machinery for its elimination, and would in many
instances not have repaid the outlay.

Hi:

DEFINITION, IMPORTANCE, FORMATION, DIXI.INF., CIIARACTF.RS. 847

Decline. — The exhaustion of the shallow placers of the older gold-
fields is fast approaching, that class of mining being abandoned to the
"more patient though less skilful Chinese." In New Zealand, surface
washing is now almost entirely a Chinese occupation, the careful
Celestials being satisfied with the leavings of Europeans, and content to
wash the tailings whence the bulk of the g(-ld has been extracted.

But, besides the enormous yield of gold from the shallow washings
themselves, which gave men confidence and capital necessary for under-
taking the less obviously beneficial exploration of deep leads and quartz
veins, they have actually led the miner up to the very doors of these
hidden store-houses of wealth. In New South Wales, as in Victoria
and California, the deep leads have nearly all been discovered by
prosecuting the surfacings on the hill-slopes, and indeed in many
instances the outcrops of quartz veins have been accidentally discovered
in placer-diggings by teamsters and other similarly unscientific gold-
seekers.

Though placer-mining, for many reasons, does not now occupy the
leading oosition it once held, it must still remain highly important, and
will cc tinue to take the foremost place in all new gold-fields, whether in
old 01 new countries. For this reason, it is fully deserving of the
attention here bestowed upon it.

Characters. — The origin, occurrence, and character of shallow placer-
diggings vary considerably. Von Cotta has laid down half-a-dozen
rules deduced from the method of formation of placer-diggings which
have been singularly verified in practice : —

1. Placers in loco will be likely to carry metals in quantity and
distribution like the original deposits on which they lie.

2. Alluvial placers of accumulation will be richest in those places
where the current of the stream was interrupted by a diminution in its
fall, by sudden change of direction, or by the entrance of a tributary ;
also by reefs, bars, and eddies. The absolute richness, however, de-
pends upon local circumstances, and the size and weight of the floated
masses must be taken into consideration.

3. Of course the small depressions, creases, holes, and fissures of the
bed-rock over which the current passed are frequently especially rich.

4. The lowest layers of each " period of deposition " {Scliwemviperiode)
are usually the richest.

5. Sometimes, however, several periods of deposition have succeeded
each other ; and thus several rich strata may oc( i r in the same ground.

6. Not only the courses of present streams, but also, and especially,
the ancient channels, now forsaken, are the localities of placers.*

* This paragraph refers to deep leads, which are described in the next chapter.

848

SHALLOW PLACERS.

A " period of deposition " may be understood as the time during
which all the mass of alluvial material was subjected to the influence of
water. By the cementing process which will be presently described, or
by an interruption in the aqueous action, the alluvial layers may become
so consolidated as to form an apparently new bed-rock, then termed a
" false bottom " ; or the accumulation in depth may even be such that
the stream fails to have any effect upon the bottom stratum. Wherever
shallow placers have been worked, experience has shown that there
are frequently two or three " bottoms " and corresponding strata of
maximum richness alternating with others comparatively barren. Many
old diggings in all parts of the world, supposed to have been quite
exhausted, will yet be worked and yield as great riches as befo' , when
this fact is thoroughly appreciated and acted upon.

There cannot 00 a doubt that in mechanical and not in chemical
processes have originated all alluvial gold-deposits, that they have been
primarily derived from the disintegration and wearing away of auriferous
veins of quartz, &c., exposed to the influence of the weather and other
agencies, at or near the then surface of the ground. As a rule, the
detrittis thus formed has been distributed by the power of running
water; but that has not always been the case, for sometimes placer-
diggings are found on the very outcrops of auriferous veins or reefs,
constituting what Von Cottacall« " placers ««/i3<:(?." These last, not having
undergone any appreciable amount of mechanical concentration and
accumulation, are generally, if not universally, much less rich in metal
than the placers where the concentrating agency of a stream has been at
work. Some placers even are attributed to glacial action (see pp. 222,

224, 737)-

It must not be forgotten that this erosion of gold-bearing mireral veins,
and the distribution of the drift thus pruduced, has taken place at two
distinct geological epochs, both comparatively recent, but separated by
many ages of time. The first series in point of age includes the so-
called " deep leads " (described in the next chapter), and is the work of a
river-system quite different from, that now existing. The second series,
of which we are now particularly treating, is entirely due to the streams
of to-day, and is being continued by them at this m.oment. The modern
rivers in cutting through (almost always crossing, and frequently at right
angles to) the channels of the long extinct wa;:er-courses, have redistri-
buted their golden sands and gravels, and in this all the modern placers
have immediately originated, except those few which are derived directly
from minert-J veins.

As may be gathered from what has already been said, placers are
generally much richer in their richest parts than the veins from which
they have been derived. Moreover, there appeared to be good reasons

CHARACTERS.

849

for supposing that the gold-dust, under favourable conditions, will
amalgamate and form nug(^-ts such as are rarely or never found in veins
(see pp. 796-7). But, under certain circumstances, the veins may be more
productive than the placers to which they have given rise ; for example,
if the auriferous rock be so hard as to resist disintegration more
effectually than the country-rock, so that for a very small amount of the
latter eroded there will be an immense mass of the former. But such
instances are very rare. On the other hand, however, the amount of
material to be removed for obtaining a given quantity of gold s is
generally much greater in placer than in Acin deposits, especially in the
case of deep leads and hydraulic workings.

Numerous instances might be given where shallow placers are entirely
due to the degradation of quartz veins. In all such cases, the drift will
prove barren above the point where the reef crosses it. In come placers
in tbf* Sierra Nevada, there is very little alluvium cr drift, the gold
having all come from ledges near by, which cint-'iin auriferous veins.
The occurrence of gold-placers below the outcrops of silver-mines is
illustrated by the Comstock ledge, which was discovered by following up
the alluvial gold-workings to their source. This vein has ever since
produced a highly auriterous ?ilver-ore (see p. 173). but argentiferous ores
much less rich in gold may in time produce valuable gold-placers, because
the silver rapidly disappears by oxidation and solution, while the gold
remains unattackcd.

In character, placer-diggings manifest almost as great variety as vein
deposits. In one case, on the Ballarat gold-fitld, Victoria, the " wash-
dirt " or auriferous alluvium runs in a series of leads of varying width,
stalling from nearly the same point, and trending in different (.sometimes
opposite) directions towards the deep leads. In another placer, on the
same field, the width of the " gutter " and " reef-wash " was about 100 ft.,
the depth of the " pay-dirt " about 5 ft. The " leadings " or barren drift
overlying the pay-dirt was of black clay, the reef of green slate, and the
bottom of sandstone. At a thiru, the wash-dirt, 4 to 6 ft. thi'^V, was a
loose dark-coloured gravei, intermixed with black conglomerate and
sandstone boulders. In a fourth instance, the wash-dirt on one lead was
a dark-blue or black gravel on : green slate botto.n ; but there was a
second and shallower lead alongside, where the wash-dirt was much
lighter in colour. This latter ^"as supposed by some to have been the
original water-course, and the former to have been caused by the stream
being displaced from its proper channel. By others, it was regarded as
a " reef-wash." The Wood's Point district, lying about 90 miles N.E.
of Melbourne, has some interesting peculiarities. The formation is
schistose, the rocks belonging to the Upper Silurian seiies, and is
traversed by dykes ihat have copped out on the surface and are

3 I

-■;»-. i'a

'<■',!;■'': ^BS' I

■

i '-V

' 9

(■: .1:

I i.

850

SHALLOW PLACERS.

generally richly metalliferous. The valleys are very narrow, and the
beds of rivers and creeks are rockbound and rarely exceeding 20 yd. in
width. Deep leads are entirely wanting ; the wash through which the
alluvial miner works down to the beds of the creeks consists invariably of
layers of water-worn stones, varying in size from that of boulders to that
of pebbles, and is 2 to 1 2 ft. deep. The gold lies sometimes, but rarely,
in a thin layer of sand or pipe-clay on the surface of the bed-rock ; more
generally, in the crevices of the rock itself, often more or less rotten,
which is broken up to a depth of 12 to 20 in., and is occasionally found
in what are termed " pot-holes," from the fact that they are of the form
and size of a camp pot, say 15 to 18 in. in diameter and 6 to 10 in. deep.
In the latter instance, tl:'; bed-rock is either a very hard blue schist or
soft rotten granite.

In the first instance mentioned, the course of the stream is generally
across the " strike " of the rocks, and the gold is found below a hard
"bar," as shown in Fig. 30, or on one side of the creek, as in Fig. 31. In
the second and '.hird instances (Figs. 32, 33), the stream generally runs

Fig. 30.

Fig. 31.

^.i

/ ' "T // 'i/ f/ ' V' *■/

Fig. 32.

Fig. 33.

with the strike of the rocks, or at a slight angle ; but the " dip " is nearly
perpendicular in those ifistances where " pot-holes " have been known to
occur. The alluvial gold on these bank workings or creek beds, as
already stated, is found chiefly in the bed-rock, which is slate, striking
N.W. and S.E., and dipping nearly 90°. Some of these slates are soft
and rotten to a depth of 3 ft. or more ; others are indurated and

SECTIONS OF STRATA.

851

crystalline from the surface downwards. These differences occur within
50 yd. or less, and it is on the soft rock only that the prer'ous metal is
found. The gold is scaly or flattened. Nuggets are ciitained in soft
clay lying on the face of the bed-rock, at no great distance from it, say
3 or 4 ft. at most. Whether found in situ or drifted, they are believed to
be of later date than the reef-gold, or gold found in the bed-rock. In
the Goulburn, the bed-rock is commonly covered by a soft layer of heavy
slate and granite boulders, in pipe-clay, some 2 to 6 ft. deep ; and above
this is frequently found a bed of clay and pebbles, a few in. to 2 ft. thick ;
and then a drift composed of large flat stones, much water-worn,
cemented with clay and ironstone grit, sometimes 6 to 8 ft. thick. The
stones are flat, weighing as much as 2 cwt., and elongated, their longer
axis lying with the current, and their pointed ends up the stream. The
last two drifts mentioned are sometimes absent, and in their stead is a
heavy bed of red clay, with ..mall quartz and slate breccia. The " colour "
is got in all the drifts, but the best results are obtained from the bed-
rock, from which may perhaps be inferred that the chief and earliest
deposits of gold in these ranges are contemporary with the first great
denudation of the granitic dykes, which are much more numerous than at
present appears. At the heads of the water-courses thereabouts, granite
is never entirely absent, and the miners look for a greasy wash near the
bottom as the most favourable symptom. Small deposits of wash are
found high up on the spurs even to 1200 ft. The gold lies in these
cases in a soft clay, and is " sliotty " and without quartz. Nearer the
bed of the river, however, where some of the bank claims have proved
very rich, the gold is again found chiefly in the slate ; and the drift
above the bed-rock is composed of slate boulders and clay, the granite
boulders being less freq it and not .s(^ large as in the bed of the
river.

It is a curious fact that deep ])' " Is under waterfalls in auriferous
streams seldom contain an appreciable [uantity of gold. Many such
have been worked out if expectation of a rich harvest, but with dis-
appointing results. All large auriferous rivers show anah^^ous cases; in
them the gold is always found on the bars or poinN, and not in the deep
pools or bends.

Sections of strata. — Brough Smyth, from whom much of the informa-
tion in this and the succeeding chapters is derived, jii y observes with
regard to sections of the strata found in placer 111 ir that, though they
may be and arc generally uninteresting to the geologist, they are never-
theless highly valuable to the miner, and that if there had been many
such sections procurable at the time when the placer -diggings of
Victoria were first opened, much useless expenditure of time, capital,
and labour would have been avoided. No apology, therefore, is needed

3 I 2

852

SHALLOW PLACERS.

or introducing
fields : —

a few sections here, principally from the Victorian

ft.

to I

I. Original surface — dark loam.. ., .. .. .. .. 6 in

Sand, with very small fragments of slate and quartz, very sharp and
angular . . . ■ . . , . . . . . . . , . i ft. to 2

Compact sandy gravel, changing gradually to quartz gravel, particles

increasing in size towards the base of the stratum .. .. .. 5

Sand and gravel, principally sand, without quartz pebbles . . . . i

Auriferous drift — gravel, and with very fine quartz, and a small pro-
portion of sandstone intermixed with large quartz boulders, 6 to 12 in.
in diameter .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. I ft. to 5

Decomposed bed-rock, very compact white clay . . . . . . 9 in. to i

Surface soil, say

Sand mixed with fragments of quartz and sandstone (not water-worn) I ft.

Hard dark clay

Red and yellow indurated clay in alternate layers of about 2 in. in

thickness
Gravel intermixed with fine quartz .. .. .. .. .. 6 in.

Layers of red and yellow indurated clay, sand and soft sandstone in

alternate layers, 3 to 4 in. thick ..
Fine gravel with fragments of angular quartz
Auriferous drift — coarse gravel with fine quartz, and a small quantity

of sandstone (not water-worn), and large quartz boulders .. 3 ft.

Decomposed bed-rock, pipe-clay . . . . , . . . . . 6 in.

in.

o
o

to 2

to I

to 4

to I

II 6

WrV

1^1

f lit'

Surface soil, say ,. .. .. ., .. .. .. .. 10

Hard sandy soil slightly mixed with gravel and a small proportion of

very fine angular quartz .. ,. .. .. .. .. .. 80

Auriferous drift — loose gravel intermixed with fine quartz and sandstone

in small proportion, and large quartz boulders .. .. 8 in. to i o

Decomposed bed-rock, pipe-clay . . . . . .■ . . . . 6 in. to o 8

10 8

Surface soil, say .. .. .. .. .. .. ,. .. 10

Sand mixed with angular fragments of (juartz and sandstone . . I ft. to 2 o

Hard dark clay of reddish-brown colour . . . . . . , . 4 ft. to 5 o

Loose gravel intermixed with fine quartz .. .. .. ,. 8 in. to i o

Loose sandy gravel, more compact in the lower part ., ,, 5 ft. to 6 o

Sand, gravel, and quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Auriferous drift — loose gravel with sand and small angular fragments

of quartz and schist . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 ft. to 7 o

Decomposed bed-rock — pipe-clay , . . . . . . . . . 6 in. to I o

Of this last drift, it is remarked that the ground gradually deepens as it
is followed northwards, until it becomes a " deep lead." In som*^ parts,
it would seem that the older drift has been much denuded, and only the
lower layers left, upon which newer auriferous cifts have been super-

SECTIONS OF STRATA.

853

imposed. The miners not infrequently penetrate a " false bottom,"
which is covered as usual with rich wash-dirt and, after sinking through
sand, gravel, and clay, reach another layer of wash-dirt immediately
overlying the true bed-rock. It is only by a careful survey, and noting
the sections, that it is possible to say how many auriferous layers may
exist in an alluvial digging.

ft. in.

5. Surface soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

White indurated clay .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 20 o

Light-brown sandy gravel .. .. .. .. .. .. i ft. to 5 o

Conglomerate red and brown, and water-worn quartz , . , . I in. to o 4

Wash-dirt with rough reef-gold mostly attached to fragments of quartz

6 in. to 2 o

Loam ..

Red clay and gravel . .
Reddish clay . .
White clay and sand . .
Red gravel and sand . .
White clay and gravel

The wash-dirt, composed of white clay and gravel and small pebbles of
quartz, is about I ft. in thickness.

7. Yellow clay on the surface, with layers of red and white gravel inter-

mixed with a heavy wash of boulders and gravel on the bottom — com-
posed of alate and soft pipe-clay (decomposed mudstone). The wash-
dirt taken out at the first rush varied from I to 3 ft. in thickness, but
since then many parts of the strata reaching from the surface to a
■ depth of 20 ft. have paid for washing.

8. The depth of the shaft was 85 ft., through stiff clay, gravel, and cement.

The wash-dirt was white gravel, intermixed with heavy boulders on a
soft pipe-clay bottom ; its thickness being 2 to 5 ft.

9. Top soil . . . .
Red clay

Quartz gravel and red clay . .

Greyish-coloured sand

Gravel and quartz boulders, ironstone and pieces of slaty rock cemented

with clay
Fine red gravel and ferruginous clay — auriferous . ,
Soft yellow-coloured clay-slate

10. Top soil
Red clay

Red gravel find cement
Sandy clay and gr.avel — wash-dirt ..
Argillaceous schist covered with pipe-clay

29 4

4 o

iS o

12 o

8 o

7 o

62 o

6
o
o

31 6

6
o
o
o

If)

854

SHALLOW PLACERS.

i,ii

I ' •

The greatest depths mentioned by no means indicate the maximum
limits of the thickness of placer-diggings, for shafts have been sunk
through similar strata to the extent of 300 ft. without reaching the true
" bottom " or " bed-rock."

Conditions, favourable and Jinfavourablc. — The first great desideratum
in placer-working is water, for mechanically removing the valueless con-
stituents of the " i^ay-dirt " or " wash-dirt," i. e. the auriferous stratum
and leaving the gold behind. Without the possibility of obtaining
an abundant supply of water, diggings of high promise may be quite
unavailable.* The merits of an auriferous patch may therefore be
summed up in a great measure by the ease and cheapness with which a
sufficiency of the clement may be obtained. But a second and equally
important point is the disposal of the " tailings " or waste material from
wTiich the gold has been extracted, or which has had to be removed in
order to reach the gold-bearing layer. The neglect of this second point
has often entailed fruitless expenditure. Of course, both conditions
apply with redoubled significance to hydraulic mining ; but it may be
well to cite a few instances proving their weightiness even in shallow
placers.

In the Government Reports on the gold-fields of New Zealand, for
example, are to be found such remarks as the following : —

" Sluicing operations are brought to a standstill from a dread of
damages consequent upon the deposit of tailings " on other people's
property.

Again, "The ground thus occupied has long been known to be
auriferous, but for want of fall it could not be worked. None of the
claims can be wrought until the opening of a channel affords the long-
desired means of sending away the waste water aad tailings from the
workings."

The falling-off in production at another diggings is attributed
"principally to want of water" ; and again, "the claims can only be
worked by running the tailings through private property, and in course
of time the lowest-lying portion of the ground must be covered up with
the waste of sluicing if the workings continue."

On the other hand, floods are equally injurious, and, where prevalent,
must be provided for by what is known as a " storm-channel," otherwise
the whole " plant " on a diggings may be carried away in a few hours.

In Australia, too, flatness of the ground is a great obstacle in some
cases, though not necessarily insuperable.

Similarly, in the Western States of America, the depression in
placer-mining in 1870 was caused in a great measure, according to Ray-

* Some plans of " dry washing " are described on p. 881, but they do not seem to have
achieved great success.

CONDITIONS ; INFLUENCE OF BED-ROCK ; OBJECT.

855

mond, by " the filling and choking up with tailings, after a few seasons
of washing, of the ravines, gulches, and rivers which served as outlets
from the ground, thus preventing the maintenance of ' flumes ' of
sufficient length and grade to disintegrate the hard cement found under-
lying the top dirt, and rendering imperative the construction of long
tunnels to the nearest deep stream, requiring, in some cases, years of labour
and the disbursement of large sums without immediate returns." So in
another instance — " The future of the region under consideration will
depend to a great degree upon finding an outlet for its vast quantity of
hydraulic dirt. This can be obtained in some places by ' bed-rock
tunnels ' ; but at other points these arc impracticable, and effectual
accommodation can only be had by emptying the streams and gulches of
their accumulations of tailings." A prominent example of the extent of
these accumulations is the Bear river, in California. " This stream has
been filled to a depth of nearly 80 ft. in the centre, and its former banks
so far covered that tall pine-trees, formerly far above the stream, have
been gradually engulfed season by season, until now only the top
branches appear above the current." The quantity of tailings here,
estimating " an average width of 300 ft, a depth of 75 ft., and a length of
ID miles, would be 44 million cub. yd. It is believed that these tailings
contain enough gold and quicksilver to pay a handsome profit for their
removal, if an outlet could be found."

The presence of bed-rocks cropping out on the surface is a valuable
guide to explorers, enabling them to follow the trend of such alluvial
patches as they m.ny discover. As a rule, the gullies or little rivulets
having their sources near the outcrops of auriferous quartz veins may be
expected to be rich. Victorian miners believe that hills with quartz
gravel and quartz boulders on the surface are most likely to prove
auriferous.

Influence of bed-rock. — It will have been noticed already that the
character of the bed-rock exercises an important influence upon the
nature of the deposit. Slate forms one of the richest bed-rocks, as the
gold accumulates behird the natural " riffles " or checks produced by its
edges. In some of the chief diggings in Victoria, it has been noticed
that hard sandstone bottoms were the richest ; and in many cases, the
gold has been found to penetrate as deep as 3 or 4 ft. in narrow crevices.
The slates, and decomposed mudstone and clay bottoms were less rich
in comparison. In one case, the gold in the deep ground was quite
black, while that from the shallow parts was clean and bright.

Object in placer-mining. — The object which has hitherto guided the
operations of the placer-miner has almost always been to take the cream,
if one may use such an expression, and to leave the skimmed milk, to
hurry through the ground, taking out the bulk of the gold with the

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856

SHALLOW PLACERS.

greatest possible economy of time and labour, and to let the rest go.
This is one great reason why the patient Chinese can make a living out
of ground that has been abandoned by Europeans. The evils "*" such a
practice are self-evident : very much of what is left is so disseminated,
and the ground is rendered so unworkable, that it is doubtful whether it
can ever be recovered. Men are now, however, beginning to realize the
importance of taking a little more care to save as much as possible of
the precious metal, and the various improvements in machinery, &c.,
which have been attempted, especially for catching the fine gold, will
be described in detail.

Principle of gold-tvashing. — The whole theory and practice of
separating alluvial gold from the earthy matters and minerals with
which it is found is dependent upon the high specific gravity of the
precious metal ; and all apparatus used in the operation is constructed
and arranged on the principle that, while water has the power of removing
the base material, the gold is almost entirely left behind.

Pans and panning. — The gold-digger's " pan " resembles a frying-pan
without a handle (Fig. 34) ; indeed, in the early days of gold-washing,

KiG. 34.

lOvxa - ■

Goi.n-wAsiiiNG Pan.

that humble household article was very frequently appropriated to the
purpose. It is generally made circular in form, 10 to 14 in. in diameter
at the bottom, but 3 or 4 in. wider at the top, as the sides, which are
about 5 in. deep, are made to slope outwards to that extent. It may be
made either of stout tin-plate or thin sheet-iron. The latter material is
preferable, as well on account of its greater strength, as because it is not
attacked by mercury, which it is sometimes convenient to use. The
best pans now used in California are stamped out of one piece of
Russian iron of the finest quality, and strengthened by a stout wire in
the rim.

Simple as the process of panning appears to be, dexterity is only
acquired by considerable experience. In outline it is as follows (see also
pp. 28, 33, 100, 121) : — A quantity of the dirt to be washed is placed in
the pan, sufficient to occupy about two-thirds of its capacity, and the pan
with its contents is then immersed in water, either in a hole or in a rivulet,
of such a depth that the miner can conveniently reach the pan with his

PRINCIPLE OF GOLD-WASHING ; PANS.

857

hands while it rests on the bottom. The object of this is to give the
operator free use of both his hands for stirring up the mass, so that
every particle may become thoroughly sodden and disintegrated. Of
course the pan may be held in one hand, and its contents stirred by the
other, but the disadvantages of such a method arc obvious. When the
dirt has become thoroughly soaked and permeated by the water, the pan
is taken in both hands, one on either side, and a little inside of its
greatest diameter, and, without allowing it to emerge from the water, it
is suspended in <-hc hands, not quite level, but tipping somewhat away
from the person. In this position, it is shaken so as to allow the water
to disengage all the light earthy particles, and carry them away. When
this has been concluded, there will remain in the pan varying proportions
of gold-dust, heavy sand, lumps of clay, and gravel-stones. These last
accumulate on the surface, and are picked off by hand and thrown
aside ; the lumps of clay must be crumbled and reduced by rubbing, so
as to be carried off by the water during the next immersion of the pan.
A neat turn of the wrist is required to allow the muddy matters to
escape in driblets over the depressed edge of the pan, without exercising
so much force as to send the lighter portions of the gold after them.
At last, nothing remains in the pan but the gold-dust, with usually some
heavy black sand and a little earthy matter. By the final careful
washing with plenty of clean water, the earthy matters can be com-
pletely removed ; but the heavy iron-sand cannot be got rid of by any
method based upon its specific gravity relatively to that of gold.

Removing iron-sand. — To effect this, one of two eminently simple
plans must be adopted. If the iron-sand be magnetic, as is usually the
case, it may be eliminated to the last grain by stirring the mass carefully
with a powerful magnet, care being taken that no particles of gold
become mechanically suspended among the black sand. Where this is
ineffectual, recourse must be had to " blowing." For this purpose, the
mass of gold-dust and iron-sand is allowed to become perfectly dry, and
small quantities at a time are placed in an instrument called a
" blower," — a sort of shallow scoop, made of tin and open at one end.
Holding the " blower " with its mouth pointing away from him, and
gently shaking it so as constantly to change the position of the particles,
the operator blows gently along the surface of the contents, regulating
the force and direction of his breath so as to remove the sand without
disturbing the gold.

Despite the many improvements introduced from time to time in
gold-washing appliances, the pan yet remains an essential part of the
gold miner's outfit. Many million pounds sterling were in the early days
extracted by its aiJ clone, and it is still used for final panning out the
rich mass of gold or amalgam collected in the various apparatus now

'dj

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; I

858

SHALLOW TLACKkS.

employed. On new gold-fields, it continues to be the principal implement
in use, as men are not able to carry machines to a " rush," and have no
time to make them when they arrive at the scene of operations. As a
receptacle for gold, amalgam, or very rich dirt, it is always handy.

Batca. — A modification of the pan is the batea, used principally in the
Brazilian gold-washings and mines (see p. 217). It is a shallow circular
plate, usually turned out of a single piece of wood, about 20 in. in
diameter and 2\ in. deep in the centre, the slope being gradual and
regular to the outer edge. It requires peculiar manipulation and some
degree of skill.

Horn spoon. — Another simple contrivance similarly applied is the
horn spoon. It is made by cutting a piece obliquely out of a large ox-
horn, so as to measure about 8 or 10 in. long and 3 in. wide, and is then
scraped down to a suitable thickness. A horn that is black at one end
makes the best spoon, as the gold is so much more readily seen against
a black surface. It possesses many good qualities, and is a favourite
among prospectors ; the desired qualities are chiefly lightness, durability,
and its not becoming enfilmed with air or grease, so as to prevent the
perfect contact of the water on its surface.

Cradle or rocker, — The methods and implements chosen in working
alluvial gold-diggings are almost entirely dependent upon the supply of
water at command. The pan requires the least water of all, and properly
stands first in the list of apparatus ; but if sufficient water be available,
it may be discarded in favour of the cradle. This apparatus is so called
partly from its outward resemblance to an ordinary nursery cradle, and
partly because it is provided with similar rockers, and is caused to

oscillate in a like manner.
^'^- 35- Fig. 35 shows a longitudinal

section of a cradle, which is
usually about 40 in. long and
20 in. wide, the back end
1 5 in. to 2 ft. in height, and
the sides sloping down from
that to about a couple of in.
at the mouth. The movable
riddle or hopper a fits exactly
into the top of the cradle, so
as to sit steady when the letter is in motion. It is about 20 in. square
and 6 in. deep, with a bottom of sheet iron closely perforated with ^-in.
holes — at least that is the general size, though not necessarily adhered
to when the pay-dirt is very fine. Below the grating, hangs a curtain or
apron b, of canvas, blanketing, or other suitable material. This is made
by stretching a piece of cloth, or whatever the material may be, on a

Gold-washing Ciadie.

HATEA, SPOON, CRADLES.

859

framework, which is introduced from the mouth of the cradle, and rests
on fillets on the sides, sloping from the mouth of the cradle towards
the angle formed by the junction of the bottom and the back. Crossing
the bottom of the cradle, are nailed a couple of " riffle-bars " c, one
near the middle, the other towards the outside edge, and each ubouc
\ in. high. The apparatus stands on rockers d.

The mode of working with this apparatus is as follows. Some
auriferous earth is thrown into the riddle, and the operator then proceeds
to rock the machine with one hand while he pours water over the dirt
with the other. Under these continued influences, the dirt disintegrates
rapidly, penetrates the bottom of the riddle, and, falling on the apron, is
conveyed to the inner end of the cradle floor, whence it flows back over
the riffle-bars and out of the mouth, the cradle being placed on an
inclined plane when at work, so that the difference in level at the hopper
end and the mouth end shall be commonly about 2\ in. ; but this is
subject to modifications to suit special kinds of dirt and the fineness of
the gold. Almost all pay-dirt contains more or less stones of various
sizes, which will be retained in the riddle, unless small enough to pass
through the grating. Those which are so large as to interfere with the
working of the cradle are at once picked out and thrown aside, without
checking the operation ; but the smaller ones are allowed to accumulate,
both because their removal in bulk wastes less time, and their presence
in the riddle assists the process of disintegration of the earthy matters
found in the gravel. When the hopper has become quite full of stones,
all washed clean, they are tipped out and carefully looked over for any
nuggets of gold which may be among them. The finer particles of gold
will collect behind the rifile-bars on the bed of the cradle, while a certain
amount of the very fine gold will be caught by the hairs of the blanket-
apron. From these receptacles, the gold, heavy iron-sand, &c., have to
be gathered periodically, the intervals depending upon the nature and
richness of the auriferous earth under treatment. This proceeding is
termed " cleaning up," and generally needs to be done two or three times
a day. The hopper is removed, and the apron is then withdrawn and
carefully washed in a bucket or other vessel containing clean water,
which dislodges the gold that may be entangled among the hairs, so that
it can be recovered from the bottom of the vessel. Next, the gold and
other matters which have collected behind the riffle-bars are scraped up
with an iron spoon, and subsequently panned out.

As the weight of water required for cradling is at least three times as
great as that of the material to be treated, it is better to carry the latter
to the former than vice versd. Of course to be able to convey the water
by its own gravitation to the spot where the washing is to be done is of
immense advantage. Care must be observed to have sufficient fall and

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86o

SHALLOW I'LACKKS.

outlet for the " tailings." The water may be concUicted into a little pit
to serve as a reservoir near at hand for the cradler to ladle it out, or it
may be more conveniently laid on by pipes or wooden gutters so as to
flow into the top of the riddle.

It is possible for one man to work with a cradle ; but it is dispro-
portionately inconvenient, as he has to be stopping repeatedly to intro-
duce fresh supplies of dirt and to empty the riddle, and during these
delays the sand will pack hard and fast behind the riffle-bars, and have
to be removed each time before operations can be recommenced.
Nevertheless one man can wash i to 3 cub. yd. daily, according to the
clayey nature of the dirt under treatment. A division of the labour
between two men is much more economical, as one can be constantly
rocking and supplying or regulating the supply of water, while the
second keeps the riddle fed with fresh dirt.

Cradling is neither expeditious nor economical . it loses fine gold,
the sand has a great tendency to pack behind the riftle-bars, and Its
working capacity is not more than one-fifth of that of the tom and
less than a tenth of that of an ordinary sluice ; but it is very cheap,
requires little water, and is eminently portable. For these reasons, it is
especially adapted for washing in gullies where the gold is coarse, and
water scarce or uncertain, as is commonly the case in Australia, and
there the cradle is still a valuable implement. It is a great favourite with
the Chinese in California also. The use of mercury in the cradle is not
advisable.

Burke rocker. — The Rurkc rocker, of S. Carolina, is longer than the
ordinary rocker, and has a perforated plate of sheet iron, with holes ^ in.
in diameter, in the upper part, through which the fine materials fall into
a riffle-box below, formed of shallow compartments, 5 in. apart, wherein
mercury is placed. The machine, set on an incline, is rocked by means
of a lever attached to the side, whilst a second person throws on the dirt,
and removes the coarser gravel. It is said by Tuomey to do twice the
work of the ordinary rocker. The Burke rocker as used in Virginia is
described on p. 188.

Toms — These followed next after cradles or rockers, and have been
made of several different forms. The old-fashioned "long-tom," now
probably extinct, was made about 14 ft. long and with a uniform width
of about 18 in. ; but this gave way to the Victorian, Jenny Lind, or
broad-tom, usually about 6 or 7 ft. long, 1 2 in. wide at the upper end,
and 3 ft. at the lower. It really consists of two distinct troughs or boxes
placed one above the other, as shown in Fig. 36. A stream of water
flows in by the spout d, just over the place where the dirt is introduced
into the upper box or " tom " proper a. The dirt is constantly thrown
in by one man, while a second is occupied in stirring it about with a

TOMS.

R6i

squarc-mouthcd shovel, or a fork with several blunt prongs, which is
more useful for pitching out the heavy boulclcrs thnt sometimes occur,
and for tossing back undissolved lumps .if clay ngainst the current. To
save wear and tear, the floor of the totn l-. lined with i-in. sheet iron.

I'"i(i. 36.

rr^

GoLii-wAsiiiNfi Tom.

The lower end of the tom is cut off obliquely, so that the mouth may be
stopped by a sheet of perforated iron, such as forms the bottom of the
cradle-riddle already described. The apparatus being placed on an
incline amounting generally to about 12 in., the materials all gravitate
with the water towards this .sloping grating at the mouth, everything
passing through it save the large stones, which gather on the grating
and arc removed as often as necessary. Beneath this grating /;, stands
the riffle-box, into which all the fine matters, including the gold, descend.
The rifile-box, like the tom proper, is made of rough plank, and is also
placed on an incline, but only just so that the water passing over it will
allow of the bottom becoming and remaining covered with a thin coating
of fine mud. In this way, the gold and a few of the heaviest minerals
will find their way to the bottom and rest there, especially by the help
of the rifile-bars c, which give their name to the apparatus. Sometimes
a little mercury is put behind the rifiles, so as to assi.st in retaining the
gold, and occasionally the riffle-box is supplemented by a scries of
blankets, which are useful for catching the very fine gold. The Cali-
fornian tom, which is the one shown above, differs from the Victorian
only in proportions, being generally about 12 ft. long, 20 in. wide at the
upper end, and widened gradually to 30 in. at the mouth. Toms are
supported on stones, logs, or trestles, as occasion may demand. They
are cleaned up periodically, and the gold and amalgam are panned out
as with cradles. They employ 2 to 4 men, according to the character of
the dirt and the supply of water. They are applicable to diggings
where the gold is coarse ; but, though generally free from the drawback
of the cradle — the caking of the sand — they are quite incapable of saving
all the fine gold.

In Dutch Guiana, as I am kindly informed by J. Jewell, the long-torn

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862

SHALLOW PLACERS.

used ■-. 10 ft. long and 2 ft. wide inside (built of ij-in. plank), to which is
attached a contrivance called a " torpedo." A false bottom is put on the
floor of the long-torn, consisting of |-in. plank, which is removed each
time a clean-up is made. The torpedo is a sloping (upwards) iron plate
4 it. long, of the same width as the floor of the torn where it is joined to
the latter, but narrowing considerably towards the end where it meets a
riffle. The plate is perforated with A -in. holes placed i^ in. from centre
to centre ; the plate is ^ in. thick There is a false bottom similarly-
perforated in the torpedo, and another in the launder leading away from
the rifile, and measuring 10 to 14 ft, long. If the torpedo is properly
arranged, no gold should be found beyond tl^e riffle.

Sluices. — Sluices were introduced ve.*/ .oon after the torn, and
quickly supplanted it in general use. There are several essentially dif-
ferent forms of sluice, whose peculiarities will be noticed in due course ;
but every sluice consists mainly of an inclined channel, through which
flows a stream of wat' r, breaking up the rarth which is thrown into it,
carrying away the light barren matters, rd leaving the gold and heavy
minerals. Generally, they may be classified as " bo^-sluices " and
"ground-sluices," the former being raised above the surface and necessi-
tating the lifting of .he pay-dirt into them, the latter being sunk below
the surface.

Box-sluices. — The box-sluice or board-sluice, as it is also called, is a
long wooden trough or series of troughs, and is now probably the mo.st
important iniplement used in placer-mining. Its length varies from 50
to several hundred or even several thousand ft., its width is n^^ver less than
I ft. nor more than 5 ft., being generally 16 to 18 in., and the height of
the sides varies from 8 in. to 2 ft. For convenience and speed in con-
struction and removal, the sluice is made in sections or lengths of about
12 or 14 ft. It is built of i^-in. rough planks, the bottom boards
being sawn 4 in, wider at one end than at the other, so that the narrow
end oi one box telescopes into the broad end of the next throughout
the wliole series, and beyond this no nailing nor fixing of any kind
is required. This line of troughs rests on trestles, and is so arranged
thav there is a descent throughout the whole series. The amount
of this descent, incline, or "grade" ra-'ges from 8 to 18 in. per 12 ft.
A fall of 8 in. in 12 ft. is called an "eight-inch grade," and so on.
Generally the grade is uniform throughout, but that is not invariably
the ease. Many points have to be considered in deciding the grade of
a sluice, ^r,d it is inadmissible to have less than 8 or more than 20 in.
fall in each 12-ft. length. It is important that the sluice should be
conveniently near the level of the ground at the point where the pay-dirt
is introduced, and this will natu.ally have a bearing upon the grade, as
will also the character of the pay-dirt and the length of the sluice. The

SLUICES.

86-

steeprr the grade the more quickly the dirt is disintegrated, but the
more likely is the fine gold to be washed away by the force of the water.
The tougher the dirt the steeper must the grade be; tough clay,
for instance, does not dissolve so quickly in a slow current as in a rapid
one. The shorter the sluice the smaller the grade should be, as there is
more danger of the fine gold being lost in a short sluice than in a long
one. The steeper the grade the greater the amount of work it can do.
As ordinary pay-dirt is generally completely dissolved in the first 200 ft.
of a moderately low-grade sluice, the extra length is useful only for
catching the gold ; sometimes therefore the grade of the last part of the
sluice is reduced. Occasionally it happens that the clay is so tough that
it will roll for ^ mile in large balls, not only refusing to break up, but
also doing much mischief by picking up the gold in its passage. Such
clay must not be put through a sluice, but submitted to a puddling
process, to be described hereafter.

The sluice-box used in Dutch Guiana is thus described to me by
J. Jewell. A large box on the line of the sluice receives the auriferous
alluvium ; here a man stands with a wooden rake to keep the clayey and
sandy matters in motion. The sluice is^made in lo-ft. or 12-ft. sections,
about I ft. wide, and with a total length of 80 to 100 ft. if possible.
Riffles are placed at each junction. At the third length of the sluice
stands a boy, whose duty it is to catch all lumps of clay and transfer
them to a small puddling-box, 5 ft. x 3 ft, which is joined to the side of
the first length of the sluice ; here they are thoroughly broken down by
mearns of water brought in froi."" the main supply, and are finally let out
as soft mud into the first length o^ the sluice, to be washed again like the
other material.

False bottoms and riffles. — When the grade of a sluice is very low —
say I in 40 or 50 — the gold is easily caught, and much of it would rest
even on the compa'^alively smooth floor of the sluice ; but additional
means of catching it are always adopted. When stones are plentiful in
the wash -dirt, a small bar may be placed across the lower end of each
trough, to prevent the bottom from being run bare. From such sluices, it is
usual to throw out all stones as large as a doubled fist, for which purpose
p fork ".vith several blunt prongs, called a "sluice-fork," is used. The
same serves to loosen occasionally the materials which have collected
behind the bars, and in all sluices watchfulness has to be exercised that
the boxes do not choke, and thus send the contents over the sides to be
lost.

Some kind of false bottom is almost always used in the sluice,
destined to catch the gold and save the wear and tear on the floor of the
sluice itself In Victoria, where the v;ater supply is limited and the
sluices are of moderate scope — often only 25 to Co ft. — boards bored

H' '!

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864

SHALLOW PLACERS.

with as many i-in. or i^-in. holes as there is room for are fitted into the
troughs. In California and elsewhere, the false bottoms are generally
composed of longitudinal riffle-bars, about 6 ft. long, 3 to 7 in. wide, 2 to
4 in. thick, two sets being required for each length of the trough or sluice.
Fig. n shows the mode of arranging the riffle-bars a in the sluice. They
are kept in place by cross wedges b, at a distance of i to 2 in. apart, and
are not nailed, as they have to be removed at every cleaning up. Into
the spaces thus formed, the gold and other heavy bodies will fall, always

Fig. 37.

Box Sluice, showing False Bottom.

\l\\

sinking through the lighter particles to the bottom. When the sluice-
boxes are no longer fit to be used, or for any reason are not to be used
any more, they arc dried and burned, and, by very carefully washing the
ashes, enough gold is often got to buy a new set of boxes.

Block- and zigzag-riffles. — Where there is a great quantity of pebbles
and boulders in the pay-dirt, the riffles just described are worn away very
rapidly, sometimes in a week or less. It is then advisable to use "block "
riffles which, though more expensive, last three times as long, and there-
fore save much labour. Instead of being sawn longitudinally with the
grain of the wood, they are cut across the grain, so that the fibres stand
upright in the sluice-box as in the living tree. But it is difficult to
procure these riffle-bars more than 3 ft. long, and they are therefore
fixed transversely about 2 in. apart.

f i.

Fig. 38.

Zigzag Riffles.

The arrangement of zigzag-riffles is illustrated by Fig. 38. The
first bar is nailed to the bottom at an angle of 45° to the side of the

!■ 11 Ml

AMALGAMATION.

865

sluice, and reaches diagonally across to within an inch or so of the other
side. Immediately below this space a, another bar is fixed at a right
angle to the first, and reaching from that side of the sluice-box to within
an inch or so of the other side, and so on alternately for a considerable
distance. The sluice always terminates, however, with a certain stretch
of the ordinary longitudinal riffles, as the gold and heavy matters
are not completely caught by the zigzag-riffles, but only caused to
.follow a tortuous course, while the lighter materials are swept right over
them.

Rowland's riffle. — Rowland's riffle, made by Morey and Spcrry, 92,
Liberty St., New York, is made in sections, of cast iron. Each section
forms an anticlinal ridge, and is corrugated with parallel channels
running up and down the inclined sides, and contains a number of troughs
for holding mercury. The eddies produced by these riffles are claimed
to present great facility for the valuable matters to exercise their superior
specific gravity, and sink into the grooves, while there is considerable
exposure of mercury, with which the gold is thoroughly brought into
contact.

Amalgamation. — Though the heavy particles of gold would be
effectually caught by the contrivances mentioned, an immense amount
of fine gold would undoubtedly escape, but for some additional safe-
guard. One of the means best adapted to this end is to form an amalgam,
by introducing mercury to the presence of the gold. This is done in
several different ways. When using zigzag-riffles, as last mentioned, a
vessel containing mercury and pierced by a small hole which allows the
metal to escape in minute portions, is placed near the head of the sluice.
Trickling down from riffle to riffle, it overtakes the gold, absorbs, and
retains it, the amalgam thus formed being caught in the longitudinal
riffles farther down. In the ordinary longitudinal riffle-sluice, some
mercury is poured in at the head of the sluice about I J or 2 hours after
starting the washing, and gradually finds its way down with the current,
but remains principally in the upper boxes. Smaller quantities are
introduced at intervals lower down, the quantity being increased in
direct proportion to the amount of fine gold present. Another plan
consists in impregnatmg the pores of the wood forming the riffle-bars
with mercury. This is effected by driving a piece of gas-piping ground
thin at one end into the wood, and filling it with mercury : the
pressure of the column forces a certain amount into the fibres of the
wood. This catches ne gold, and the resulting amalgam only needs to
be scraped off <,he surface of the wood. The method is rarely used,
however, and not generally recommended.

Copper plates. — A fourth plan, of whose efficacy glowing accounts have
been given, especially when there is much exceedingly fine gold in the

3 K

866

SHALLOW PLACERS.

w ir- ■ ■ C

wash-dirt, is the amalgamated copper plate. It is considered as effective
for saving fine gold as an equal surface of mercury, being at the same
time cheaper and more easily managed. It measures generally 3 ft.
wide and 6 ft. long, varying in accordance with the capacity of the sluice.
Sometimes the stream is split and carried over 2 or 3 separate plates.
It is placed nearly level, and at a considerable distance from the head
of the sluice, as it is intended only for catching the very fine or " float "
gold, and for this reason also a sheet-iron screen perforated with holes
■g in. X tV i"- is placed in front of it, so that only the finest particles pass
over it. It is amalgamated by first washing over its upper surface with
weak nitric acid, and then applying some mercury, which has been
treated with dilute nitric acid, to form a little nitrate of mercury. If the
operation is once effectually performed, it will never need repetition,
some fresh mercury only being dropped on it as fast as the gold
converts it into amalgam. Two points essential to success are that the
current be slow and shallow, so that every particle of gold may come
into contact with the face of the plate, which is the principal reason
for dividing the stream when the sluice is a large one. A freshly-
amalgamated plate is liable to become coated with a green slime
due to the formation of subsalts of copper, and is then incapable of
absorbing the gold. This slime must be carefully scraped off, and the
place where it has been must be rubbed with fresh mercury. It has
been observed in ;jractice that when a grain of gold has attached itself to
the surface of a copper plate, other particles gather around it, evincing a
marked preference for those portions to which gold has already adhered
over those which are still free from it ; therefore the amount of amalgam
allowed to collect without being cleaned off will depend chiefly on the
means that can be adopted to prevent its being stolen. To remove the
amalgam, the plate is taken up and heated to such a degree that the
hand cannot be borne on it, except momentarily ; this suffices to render
the amalgam soft and loose, and it may then be easily scraped off.
The plate is allowed to cool, and is again rubbed with a little ordinary
mercury, to make it ready for further use. The plate employed should
not be less than j\ in., and must be handled with great care, as the effect
of the mercury is to render it as brittle as glass.

Cleaning n/>. — The cleaning up of the gold, mercury, and amalgam
caught in a sluice is usually effected after every 6 or 7 days' run, though
it is sometimes protracted to every 10 days, or even till the riffle-bars
require replacing, the delay entailed by it being avoided as long as
possible. Affording a light, half day's work, it is commonly reserved
for Sundays. The first step necessary is to cease feeding in the pay-
dirt and to let the water run through till it issues in a clean stream.
Commencing then at the head of the sluice, 5 or 6 sets of riffle-bars arc

CLEANING up; MULTIPI-E AND UNDER-CQRRENT SLUICES. 867

Fig. 39.

removed, and the dirt dislodged is washed down while the valuable
metals lodge against the first remaining set of riffles, and are scraped
out with a spoon and placed in a receptacle. The next half-dozen sets
are treated in the same way, and thus the process continues to the end.
Sometimes the riffles are removed more rapidly by taking up all save
one at each 30 to 40 ft. The amalgam and mercury taken out must be
pressed through buckskin or canvas, to remove the excess of mercury,
which will run into a vessel placed to catch it. The remaining sponge -
like mass of amalgam must be retorted to extract the gold.

Multiple sluices, — Among the modifications of box-sluices may be
mentioned the double sluice. In this, the boxes or troughs are made
of double the usual width, and divided by a longitudinal partition.
They enable one section to be kept at work while the other is being
cleaned up, and are useful where the supply of water is at some seasons
sufficient for both channels and at others only for one. A modification
of this, successfully adopted for the purpose of
saving fine gold, is illustrated in Fig. 39. The plan
consists in dividing the sluice at, say, the centre of
its length, shifting the lower part on one side a
distance of half its width, and placing another sluice
of the same size beside it, so that the two " tail-
sluices," as they may be called, cover equal parts
of the lower end of the sluice. At the end of the
single or head sluice, a grating a should be fixed,
to prevent coarse gravel washing into the double
or tail-sluices. The object is the division of the
stream of water when it leaves the head-sluice into
two equal parts, and spreading it over double the
area of bottom board, so as to decrease its force, and thus lead to
the saving of much of the fine and light gold, which is lost by the
ordinary sluice. A further elaboration of the same idea is known as the
" fantail-sluice " (see Fig. 39), wherein the tail-sluice is again sub-divided,
a second grating a being placv.i at the junction, as before.

Under-current sluice. — An important apparatus, known as the '' under-
current " sluice, is represented in Fig. 40. The bottom of the la.su box of
the sluice is partly covered with an iron grating, whilst underneath the
grating another sluice is introduced, furnished with a fresh supply of
water, and set at 1 lower grade. The end of the last box of the upper
sluice being left open, all the large stones which will not pass readily
through the rrating are carried by their own impetus out of the sluice,
and a pit or other accommodation must be provided for their disposal.
The fine matters, together with a portion of the water, will fall through
the grating into the under-sluice, where a low grade and consequently

3 K 2

Multiple Sluices.

*" li

V, i!

868

SHALLOW PLACERS.

slow current causes the arrest of much fine gold that otherwise would
have escaped.

Fig. 40.

Under-Current Sluice.

Evans and Frcfs Sluice. — The sluice invented by Evans, and im-
proved by Dr. Frey, of Sacramento, is made of cast iron, with transverse
corrugations on the bottom, semicircular in .shape, and 3 in. deep. At
the bottom of each alternate corrugation is a narrow slit, through which
the heavier material falls down into another riffle below, with larger cor-
rugations. Both riffles arc set on the same grade, which should be about
I ft. in 12. The lower box is charged with mercury. These sluices are
said not .0 cake, nor to require any attention beyond cleaning up once a
week, while they are reputed to have stood the test of use below all
other contrivances for saving gold.

Ground-sbiice. — It sometimes happens that the amount of water
available is not constantly sufficient for a box-sluice, but that a " head "
can only be got for a short period, immediately subsequent to heavy
rains. In such a case, it would not pay to erect a box-slui, e ; but
recourse may be had to a ground-sluice, provided there i'^ an abundant
fall and outlet for the tailings. It also requires when working about six
times as much water as the box-sluice to do the same amount of work.
It consists simply of a gutter, formed partly by taking the stream through
it, and assisted by loosening the earth with a pick. When the gutter
has reached suitable dimensions, the pay-dirt is either washed in by the
stream, or conveyed thither by manual labour. If the bottom be a hard
and uneven bed-rock, its inequalities will suffice to arrc^*- the gold ; if
not, a number of boulders too heavy to be moved by the stream must be
thrown carelessly into the sluice. No mercury is used, no planking, and

GROUND-SLUICE ; RESULTS ; PUDDLING-MACHINES.

869

no riffles. It is never intended for continuous working, nor will it save
any but the coarse gold. In order to clean up, the water is diverted
from the channel, and the auriferous matters are collected, to be panned
out, or washed through a cradle, tom, or short box-sluice.

Working results. — The amount of earth which can be washed through
a box-sluice in a day per man employed will be limited by the capa-
bility of the men. When the height of the lift is 4J to 5 ft, and 4 men
are employed, 24 cub, yd. will be a good day's work, or say 6 yd. per
man. With free earth, the tom may do as much ; but it cannot exceed
that figure, as the men are not able to lift more. In ground-sluicing, on
the other hand, the quantity of water, character of the dirt, and inclina-
tion of the sluice, govern the result. Any number of men up to 6 may
.:? employed, but the common numbers are 2 and 3. The quantity
ished per man ranges between 20 and 50 yd. daily, the average being
^jrobably about 25 yd. per man per diem.

Puddling-machines. — As may be imagined, the machines hitherto
described are quite unfitted for dealing with tenacious clay, which often
occurs abundantly in alluvial formations, and is frequently highly
auriferous. Special implements have therefore been devised for treating
such gold-bearing clays, and these are known as puddling-machines.
The original and most simple form is the puddling-box, — a rough wooden
box about 6 ft. square and 18 in. deep; or even half a large barrel is
commonly used, where operations are conducted on a small scale. Into
this the clay is thrown, and supplied with plenty of water. The mixture
is then stirred constantly with a shovel, prong, or rake, till the clay is
thoroughly disintegrated and suspended in the water, when a plug
inserted near the bottom of the tub is withdrawn, and the thin mud or
rather muddy water is allowed to escape. A fresh supply of clay and

water is now admitted, and the

stirnng

process is re|^«-ated ; this

continues until the box has become filled with gravel, sand, &c., to the
level of the plug-hole, when operations are suspended, and the deposit
containing the gold, if there was any in the material treated, is taken out
and washed up in a cradle or pan. Where operations are more extended,
an upright shaft furnished with strong arms is placed in the centre of the
tub, and set in motion by a mitre-wheel driven by horse- or steam-power.
In California, puddling is seldom resorted to, because there is generally
a sufficient head of water for hydraulicing, wherein the water force is so
great as to break up the clay pretty effectually. In Australia, on the
other hand, water is not so plentiful, and there the puddling-machine is
in common use. The form is generally that shown in Fig. 41. It
consists of a circular space, whose sides and bottom are lined with hard
wood or iron, and in the centre of which revolves a perpendicular shaft
worked by horse-power. From the cross-beam on this shaft depend two

870

SHALLOW PLACERS.

harrows, which are dragged round the circle, and puddle the dirt on their
way. Sufficient water must of, course be continually supplied. The
gold and sandy matters collect at the bottom of the circle, and are
removed at intervals and panned out. a is the water-supply drain ; b,
discharge drain ; c, horse-walk ; d, roadway. Occasionally steam is used
in lieu of horse-power. On one occasion, a considerable quantity of silt

Fig. 41.

lil

Horse-power Poddling-Machine,

was taken out of a sludge-drain, and subjected to crushing and amalga-
mation ; it yielded an average of nearly 2 dwt. per ton, which was con-
sidered by competent authorities to represent about the average loss from
puddling-machines used at Sandhurst, an indication of the richness of
the dirt.

Hart's patent cylinder piiddling-inachine. — This machine was so con-
structed that the stones and other refuse could be cleared away without
disturbing the gold, which was cleaned up only once a week. For some
reason, it never came into general use ; but it probably suggested the
idea of a cylindrical puddling-machine and sluice combined.

Combined cradle and piiddling-viachine. — Sketch, plan and sections of
this machine are shown in Fig. 42. The necessary power is derived from
an overshot water-wheel 8 ft. in diameter, which communicates with the
puddling-shaft by two drums and a belt, and with the cradle by means

PUDDLING-MA JHINES.
Fig. 42.

871

WT?!^'

Combined Cradle and Puddling-Machinf.

-■r

m
tip?

•j.

■1!

ll a''

;lii

,i.

872

SHALLOW PLACERS.

Ll ■! :

IVt

of a rod connected with a crank fixed at the other end of the puddling-
shaft. The wash-dirt is thrown into the puddlinfj-trough, which is
supph'ed with water, and in which revolves an axle furnished with 25
iron arms. Hence the wash-dirt mi.xed with water flows into the hopper
at the top end of the cradle. The bottom of this hopper is of sheet
iron perforated with T^^^-in. holes. In the cradle are 7 tiers of blanket-
tables, made of ^-in. pine boards, and varyin^^ in length so that each one
receives its due proportion of sludge from the hopper. The blankets arc
washed 3 times a week, and the slime is concentrated in an ordinary-
small cradle, the gold being finally amalgamated. The plan and sections
are drawn to a scale of 6 ft.= i in. The cradle has an inclination of
6 in., and an oscillation of 12 in.

Buddies. — These are very rarely used in placer-mining, though
common enough in quartz-mining. They will be described in
Chapter VI.

Whips and Whims. — Many contrivances are employed for raising
earth from such depths as are beyond the limit of the level whence men
can conveniently throw it out with shovels. One of the first means
adopted in the earliest days of Australian gold-mining was that of
erecting platforms or stages at convenient intervals, and the dirt was
thrown from one up to the next by relays of men on each stage.
Immediately succeeding this came the ooden windlass, a rude imple-
ment made entirely of wood.

Hand-whip. — This was soon followed by the German lever or hand-
whip, an arrangement exactly resembling the chadous of Egypt, and
already represented in Fig. i,p. 9. It consists of a long, straight sapling,
fastened by a rope to a rough post fixed vertically in the ground, or to a
living tree if it be sufficiently near. This sapling is made fast at about
the centre, and to its thin end is affixed a rope terminating in an iron
hook for holding the bucket, while to the thick end is tied a log, or
boulder, or bag of sand, sufficient to counterbalance the weight of a bucket
of dirt. Two men are required, one filling the buckets below, while a
second on the surface hauls them up as fast as they are filled. The
weight on the thick end of the sapling enables him to do this with ease.

Horse-whip. — Whilst a variety of improvements were being made in
the construction of windlasses, the horse-whip was introduced. In the
most simple form, it consists of a post about 20 ft. long, fixed at an angle of
about 45° to the ground, and firmly imbedded in it. The smaller end of
the post should rise about 8 ft. above the centre of the mouth of the shaft.
On this end is fixed an iron wheel or sheave, with a grooved circumference
in which a rope runs. Another form consists of a set of legs with cross-
logs on the top, and a pulley-wheel working on an axle fitted into the
cross-logs, similar to the poppet-heads now in use. The rope passes over

WHIPS AND whims; DRAINING.

873

the pulley-whccl, and is made fast at one end to the harness, while the
other is lowered down the shaft. The horse is then driven from the shaft
along a road laid down for the purpose, till the bucket which had been
hooked on to clie rope at the end that w.is lowered into the shaft is raised
to the proper height. When the bucket has been emptied, the rope is
unhooked from the swingle-tree, the horse turned round, the rope hooked
on to the horse's collar, and, as the horse walks towards the shaft, the
bucket is lowered again. I- or the purpose of emptying the dirt from the
bucket, a hook or pair of pincers, attached to a rope made fast to the
framework, is inserted into a ring or band at the bottom of the bucket,
which is rai-sed nearly to the p alley-wheel for that purpose, and then, as
the bucket is lowered by backing the horse, it is drawn aside from over
the shaft, and as the rope by which it has been drawn up the shaft is
slackened, the rope attached to the bottom of the bucket being tight, the
bucket is capsized, and the contents shot into a barrow or truck placed
to recci\c them ; the bucket being emptied, the hooks or pincers are
removed from the bottom, and it is lowered into the shaft again.

Water-power derrick. — Raymond mentions a curious water-power

derrick, where " the power is transmitted more than 40 ft. by means of

a rope from a small

overshot wheel to the " ^^'

pulleys of the crane."
Horse-whim. — This

is represented in plan

and section in Fig. 43.

A strong framework

a of timber holds in

position a large drum

d which works hori-
zontally, and around

which are wound the

ropes attached to the Horse-Whim.

buckets working in

the shaft. Underneath the drum is a long beam c, with shafts to which

the horses are harnessed.

Draining the zvorkings. — The means which first suggested itself for

getting rid of the water from alluvial diggings was as rude as the

manner of raising the pay-dirt. Buckets, or skins looped up with iron

rings, were either drawn up by hand or by the windlass. Two simple

and effective methods have been much used where the configuration of

the ground was suitable— the Californian pump, and syphons.

Californian pump. — The Californian pump is essentially a chain

pump. A rectangular box, about 10 in. x 3 i"- inside measurement, and

» i.V;

■:A SB;

':%

874

SHALLOW PLACERS.

I'k

V/:i

varying from lo to 30 ft. in length, according to need, is traversed by an
endless flexible band or belt of canvas, on one side of which are securely
fixed at intervals wooden discs nearly as large as the inside of the box.
The lower end of the box is furnished with a roller, round which the belt
passes, and is immersed in the water to be raised from the pit, while the
upper end delivers the water into a trough or launder, by which it is
carried away. At the upper end, the belt passes round a second roller or
drum, which is made to revolve by either hand- or water-power. In
Fig. 44 is shown one driven by a water-wheel : « is a flat wooden pipe or

Fig. 44.

T"RrT'Wf7»'»TW^I»W^lZr5'l

Californian Pump.

box, open at both ends, forming the pump ; 6, the pump-belt, carrying
the wooden stops, faced with leather, called the buckets or suckers d ;
c, the ends of the belt, joined together by lacing ; /i, the drum fixed on the
axle of the water-wheel zu and turning ; t, entrance of water pumped
up ; e, exit of same ; /, launder or race to convey the water from the
pump and wheel clear of the working ; g; a sluice-box set in a head-
race to bring the water necessary for driving the wheel.

Chinese pump. — A modification of this pump, known as the " Chinese "
pump, differs from it only in being made entirely of wood, the belt even
being composed of short pieces of wood hinged together by wocJen
pins.

Syphons. — Syphons may often be used for draining the workings
when it is not necessary to rise the water to a great height, and where the
necessary fall for the delivery end can be had. Raymond describes
one used in California of unusual dimensions. It was over 1000 ft. long
and 4 in. in diameter. The pipe was made of No. 24 galvanized iron, in
sections 30 in. long, riveted and soldered together. The water was raised
1 8 ft., and the outlet end had a fall of 40 ft., so that the delivery was

■i ■«

MODES OF WORKING.

875

22 ft. lower than the inlet of the syphon. The two ends were fitted with
4-in. brass taps, which were closed when the syphon was to be filled.
This operaticjn was easily performed in about 2 hours by means of a 3-in.
Dou^das force-pump, throwing water in at the luLjhcst point through a
vent-cock, by which also smaller quantities of water might be supplied
from time to time to disi)lace the air that gradually found its way i-i
through leaks. An air-chamber at the bend was projected, but not found
necessary, as by shutting the 4-in. traps at either end, it was easy to fill
the syphons by means of the pump during the men's meal-hours. The
flow was easily controlled by the taps, the lower or delivery-tap being
usually left fully open, while the inlet-tap was partly closed. The
velocity of the current was such as to carry out tons of coarse sand and
gravel, some of the stones being as large as walnuts, and thesluicc-bcxes
set at the usual slope were kept half full of water. There was no trouble
in keeping the water within 2 in. of the inlet or receiving end, and this
was plunged to within 5 in. of the bottom of the shaft.

Modes of ivorking alluvial deposits. — The apparatus employed in
recovering the gold from the wash-dirt has been already described ; but
it is also necessary to state that the manner of reaching the gold-bearing
stratum or of raising the wash-dirt for treatment, is not in all cases alike,
varying as may be dictated by the nature of the deposit. The essentially
different methods are two — " Stripping," and working through " shafts "
and " drives." Where the nature of the ground and the supply of water
admit of it, hydraulicing is much cheaper then either; but that branch
of mining is so important as to deserve a special chapter.

Stripping. — This mode of working must be adopted when the alluvial
matters overlying the wash-dirt are soft and friable, or saturated with
water from underground drainage. It consists in stripping off and taking
away the whole of the non-auriferous superstratum, often having a depth
of 20 to 30 ft., and thus laying bare the pay-dirt. Operations are begun
by bringing a tail-race or drainage-channel up to the workings at such a
level as to draw off the water from the bottom. This done, a " p?.udock "
or patch is opened, the superincumbent earth removed and c?.rted away
and the layer of wash-dirt extracted and treated by sluicing, as already
described, to separate the gold. The tail-race is carried on up the creek
or washing, and carefully timbered, covered in, and protected, so that the
waste earth may be thrown on it without fear of damage. Care must be
taken to prevent floods, by means of dams to confine the water to a
regular channel. Sometimes pumps and syphons will be necessary to
keep the workings dry. The most advantageous plan is to fill the first
paddock or space with the over-burden or refuse earth from the second,
and so on ; thus no part of it has to be removed any great distance, nor to
be lifted to a considerable height. In one of the reports on gold-mining in

.? ^''Jf

' 'T''^

■-■:*S

■i '

i."*.

876

SHALLOW PLACERS.

New South Wale J, a shallow placer is mentioned which employs 70 men
and 45 horses, besides 3 powerful engines. One of these last is engaged
in hauling up trucks of wash-dirt to the sluice-boxes, a second in hauling
lip trucks of refuse to the tips, and the third in pumping. The trucks
are hauled up by a wire rope on a tramway laid on an incline, and this
application of the tramvvay has been found to secure an immense saving
of labour.

Working by shafts and t^,^:\:s. — In many respects this is precisely
similar to ordinary mining for any mineral — such as coal, for instance —
a shaft being sunk on to the layer of pay-dirt, and tunnels or adits driven
from the bottom along the deposit in all directions. This can only be
done where the earth possesses a certain degree of stability. Generally,
if not always, the shafts and adits require timbering, to k-^ep loose earth
and water from falling.

Slabbing a drift. — Difficu'tics may sometimes arise by the shaft tapping
a drift or wet sandy stratum. The following plan was successfully adopted
for dealing with a case of this kind on the Ballarat gold-field. The drift
was cut away much larger than the proposed size of the shaft, slabs were
then put in of the size of the shaft, and puddle-clay w;is thrown in and
rammed down behind the slabs. In sinking deeper, however, a second
drift vvas encountered, also containing much water, and this could not be
overcome in the same manner as the first, on account of the impossibility
of keeping the sand back while sinking through and putting in the puddle-
clay. The following plan therefore was devised. Four slabs were
fastened together in a square of smaller dimensions than the shaft,
placed in the centre of it, a id driven down into the drift ; the last set of
slabs in the solid ground above the drift were then removed, the walls of
the shaft cut a\vay a foot or more into the " country," and longer slabs
fitted in the place of those which had been taken out. The shaft was
then cut down of the increased size and slabbed, the four small slabs in
the centre being always kept below the lowest set of long slabs, and the
drift between the box of short slabs and slabbed sides of the shaft only
being removed so as to make room for the slabs until the set had been
placed in position and made fast. The diift between the box in the
centre and the long slabs was then taken out, the box lowered, and the
same process followed with each set of slabs, until they got through the
drift into solid ground again. They then commenced to slab upwards
from the bottom with slabs the proper size of the shaft, and as each set
wa':> put in, puddle-clay was filled in behind, and rammed down, the long
slabs, called "drift "-slabs, keeping back the drift. When completed, the
shaft was the same size all the way down, and there was a wall of puddle-
clay between the double sets of slabs, extending a foot or more above,
and the same distance below the drift. This was generally effectual in

WGRKTXG BY SHAFTS AND DRIVES.

877

stopping back the water, but in some cases it forced a passage through,
and recourse was then had to caulking the seams between the slabs.
These last were split, and at first were fitted into sets by notching the
ends ; but this plan was not suitable in wet ground, and gave way to that
of boring holes through the ends of the side-slabs with an auger, and
driving pegs in to keep the end-slabs in posit'on. Instead of caulking
the leaks, plugging was sometimes resorted to. This was managed by
boring holes through the slabs with an auger, and then forcing through
plu^ s of puddle-clay, prepared and rolled to suit the size of the holes, by
means of a rammer, until it was impossible to force any more, or the leak
was stopped.

Piling. — Another plan sometimes followed is that known as " piling."
The shaft is " opened jut," as already described, a little above the drift,
a frame is m.adc ha\ iug nearly the same dimensions as the shaft where
opened out, or enlarged and placed in the latter, and slabs pointed at one
end are then driven down behind this frame as far as possible into the
drift immediately below. Sinking is then continued in the drift, always
keeping the points of the slabs driven into the drift below the spot where
sinking is going on. When deep enough, another frame is put in to
support the lower ends of the slabs against the inward pressure of the
drift, and the next set of slabs are ther driven down between the second
frame and the lower ends of the firs'; set of slabs, and so on throughout
till the solid ground is reached again. The slabs thu driven arc called
" piles." Sometimes, when sinking through such a drift, a box is driven
d wn in the centre of the shaft, which helps to .support the points of the
slabs against being forced into the shaft. The greatest difficulty is
occasionally experienced in keeping the frames in positim, becauo the
pressi'ie from the drift may not always be equal on all s i.cs, and
cimsequently the frames and piles may be carried out of pl.imb ; and
now and then the drift will burst into the shaft from one side or the
ot'ier, in spite of all precautions. As fast as this is removed, to enable
the men to make good the tiinbering, more may run in, so that a large
cavity is made on one side, and, the pressure against the frames being
unequal, may even twist them half-way round. Despite the twist, it is
possible in some ca'^es to continue sinking tc the firm ground by rilling
up the cavity with bark, clay, and other materials, then, having drained
the water from the drift to some extent, but before puddling up so far,
the shaft may be repaired so th^it the slabbing and puddling up may
proceed in cuch a manner that the shaft may be plumb when finished.
In other cases it may not be possible to stop the running-in of the drift,
nor to repair the damage done to the timbering ; then the shaft may be
filled up with earth to the kivel of the top of the drift, and a fre.sh sinking
commenced from that point, taking out the old timber where necessary

iiiii

'^H

878

SHALLOW PLACERS.

as the descent progresses. When the solid ground is reached, the
slabbing and puddling up may be carried on as already indicated.

Drawing slabs. — For the purpose of taking out the slabs from a shaft
which it is no longer intended to use, a stage is made to suit the shape of
the shaft, and small pnou^rh to be raised or lowered itiside the slabbing
of the shaft. This is lowered into the shaft by ropes, and secured. A
man is then let down the shaft by a windlass, and as fast as he draws out
the slabs he sends them up by it. As soon as a few sets have been
drawn out, the stage must be raised level with or above the top of the
space from which the slabs have been drawn, so that in case of the sides
thus left falling in, the earth might descend into the shaft below the
stage.

Iron cylinders in lieu of slabs. — In consequence of the difficulty met
with ir sinkMng a shaft by the ordinary means through an unusually
troublesome drift, the idea was conceived of using sheet iron instead of
woo'^cn slabs. It was formed into large cylinders the size of the shaft,
the latter was cut down to the proper size, and the cylinders were let
down one above another, with the intention, when the drift was reached,
of forcing the cylinders into the drift in advance of the sinking ; and it
rvas reckoned that, by keeping the cylinders well driven down below the
point at which sinking was proceeding, the drift would be prevented
from running into the shaft. The cylinders answered vjry v/ell in
sinking through the solid ground so long as they had sufficient play ;
but when the clay began to .swell, they became fixed and oould not be
forced down. Cj'linders were then prepared of less diameier, and 'et
down inside of those which had become fixed, and thus a depth of about
30 ft. was reached ; but where gre-.t pressure came against the sheet
iron it buckled, and wrought iron would not stand the pressure necessary
to force it through a drift

Boxing — Where the material overlying the wash-dirt is of a loose
nature, it v,ill be necessary to slab the drives or adits much in the same
manner as the shafts. This operction is termed "boxing " in Victoria.
" Sets of timber," or legs and c.ips ftted together by means of grooves in
the cap-piece and shoulders on the legs, are commonly used.

Paddocks and paddinking. — It has already been explained that the
term " paddock " is applied to a patch of wash-dirt lying in situ. It has
also another meaning. Sometimes, instead of washing the pay-dirt
from a digging as fast as it is raised, the miners stack it in " paddocks,"
which are spaces alongside the shaft strongly fenced in with slabs, until
the claim or property is exhausted, and then hold a general washing up.
This .system of working is called " paddocking."

IVorlif/j^ Rei'/-7i'{Ts/'cs.--ln the case of reef-washes or benches, the
alKn'ial wash-dirt may lie 300 or 400 ft. above the present level 'if the

MMii

PADDOCKS ; REEF-WASHES ; SLUICING ; COVERED TAIL-RACES. 879

stream, to which it must be conveyed for treatment. A simple method
of transporting it is described by Ben. B. Spargo, of Snowy Creek,
Victoria, in a letter to the nithor, and consists in shooting it in green
hide bags down sawn timber shoots.

Sl!iicifi([. — The advantages of sluicing an alluvial deposit arc mani-
festly great, as when once the races or wa er-channels are made, very
little labour is required for carrying on the work. Under varying con-
ditions, there will be varying results. In one instance, 6 men have been
able to sluice away an acre a fortnight ; in another, 8 men got through
an acre a month. The following principles arc recommended to be
obser\ed when it is intended to sluice away the whole length, breadth
and depth of an auriferous deposit : —

1. To get a proper and sufficient fall in the tail-races (or channels
for carrying off the light particles of waste materials) for boxes of large
dimensions.

2. To have a large flow of water to keep the tail-race clear and in
working order.

3. To have small wash which will easily run off, and to strip the
ground by water-power. Wherever this can be accomplished, a very
small amount of gold will leave a profit.

Water-soaked flats can only be worked by a tail-race with sufficient
fall and large boxes thoroughly draining the ground. Sometimes these
tail-races have a very low grade or inclination. An important one
alluded to in the reports on the New Zealand gold-fields was carried for
Smiles at a grade of i in 62' 11, and was then continued for some
reason at i in 59*2; this alteration in the grade is very questionably
wise, as the ordinary experience of miners is that if a tail-race starts with
a quick fall and becomes flatter as it advances, it is very liable to choke
at the lower end

Covered tail-races. — For the following description and illustrations of
the method of working with covered tail-races, first practiseil by the
Chinese at Kycburn, and since adopted by some Europeans, tl c author
is deeply indebted to H. W. Robinson, Warden of the Mount Ida division
of the Otago gold-field. New Zealand.

The Kycburn river is a mountain stream, ordinarily of no great
volume, that finds its way through a shingly bed fiUi ig the channel. It
is subject to heavy floods, which come on with great suddenness but
subside as quickly. The ordinary state of the river is that of a smallish
stream of water meandering at a rapid pace through a wide expanse of
sh'ngly gravel. At a deptl. of a few ft. below the surface of this gravel
bed is a rather more compact layer of similar gravel, in which gold is
thinly distributed. The problem was how to work this auriferous layer
to advantage. When an open pit, called by miners a " paddock," was

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880

SHALLOW PLACERS.

sunk in the shingle below the level of the flowing; stream, the water
filtering through the loose gravel quickly filled it up. It was possible to
keep the water under by baling or pumping, but both these modes were
too expensive. Tail-races, that is to say, open ditches carried through
the shingle down the river, would drain the excavations, but these were

Fig. 45.

■Unwork'-ed:

lyWoi^4^(hvmid

}hi-:^&^^^Jf(^<'dJiuoe'^;

Sluicing through Covered Tail-Races.

liable to be lost at any moment, as whenever a flood came down they
would be filled up and obliterated. To remedy these difficulties, the plan
was devised of bringing up a tail-race to drain a paddock, to build it
carefully as a covered drain, and to fill in the loose shingle over it at
once, thus securing it from damage by floods. The method will be
better understood by reference to Fig. 45.

The gravel is thrown into a sluice-box, to one end of which water is
conducted by hose or otherwise. The force of the water carries it along.
A man on the box keeps it stirred with a sluice-fo'-k, Jind throws out all
stones large enough to be lifted by the fork. At the end is a slight drop.

DRY WASHING.

88 I

where another man with a shovel is constantly employed lifting the finer
gravel, and only what the water can hold in solution or suspension
escapes down the tail-race. The tail-race is lengthened as the workings
proceed up the course of the river, all debris being heaped over it. The
paddock is constantly moving up. All gold is saved in the sluice-box
only. The tail-race is simply a drain.

Dry washing. — This somewhat contradictory term is applied to pro-
cesses for separating the gold from the dirt without the aid of water-
One is practised, principally by Mexicans and Indians in the Western
States of A oierica, where a supply of the liquid element is unobtainable.
Only the richest pay-dirt is treated by this process, which is conducted
as follows. The dirt is spread on a raw hide, and allowed to become
perfectly dry ; next it is powdered up by rubbing it with the hands, and all
the larger pebbles and bits of stone arc picked out and cast away. The
residue is then placed in a batea, already described, and the lighter
particles of base matters arc winnowed from the gold by tossing the
contents repeatedly into the air with a circular motion, which enables the
wind to disperse the light bodies while the heavier gold falls back into
the batea. When this has been continued till the heavy residuum
consists largely of the precious metal, the purification is completed by
blowing, which process has been alluded to on a previous page. When
two men or more are working in company, a hide or blanket may be
used for the winnowing. Nothing but very rich stuff can be worked
remuneratively by this system, and the miner never goes very much
deeper than his own height in search of the pay-dirt. Frequentlyi
instead of stripping off the worthless overburden or overlying stratum of
earth, he sinks a little shaft or pit about 6 to 8 ft. deep, and then drives
or burrows on the wash-dirt beneath. This system of working is known
in America as " coyoting," from the resemblance of the diggings to the
underground houses of the coyote, and is not always confined to the
operations of the dry-washing miner.

Quite recently a new form of winnowing-machinc for separating
gold from sand, called the " Eureka concentrator," has been introduced
for working dry placers, which cover a boundless area in Tropical
America, Australia, Siberia, &c. It weighs about 250 lb., and measures
3 ft. by 4 ft. by 4 ft. The ore-table is stationary, not having a side or
end shake of any kind, Under it, is a peculiar double acting bellows,
which forces a pulsating blast of air up through the canva ^ which, on top
of a wire frame, forms the ore-tabir Riffles are formed on this inclined
table to catch the heavier particles. A peculiar and valuable feature of
the appliance is an apparatus which keeps the coarser gravel, &c.,
moving on downwatxl to the dischaij^c end. The machine is constructed
to stand the dry hot winds of Arizona and New Mexico, and has no

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S82

SIIALl.CAV ri.ACKkS.

leather or boards used in its construction. By simple means, feed- and
tailing-elevators are attached, by which the hopper is fed with the sand
or j^ravel, and the tailings are removed out of the way. With these
attached, a mule or horse runs the machine, doing the work of 3 men.
The No. I machine is equal to 40 in. of water in sluices, and works dirt
as cheaply as sluicing with water at „'Jc. (i^^^.) an in. Light machines
arc made for a man to run by hand. The apparatus works very rapidly,
and has a capacity of 3 tons per hour. Ordinary placer-gold is readily
caught in its riffles. The concentrator is quite simple in construction,
not liable to get out of order, is well adapted for its work. More or less
blast can be given to work heavier or lighter stuffs. A hard graphite
lubricator is used on the journals, and is applied in a peculiar way.
This is of great advantage in hot climates, where ordinary lubricators do
not answer. There arc in these countries thousands of acres of ground
which cannot be worked except with machines of this kind, but which
can be made available when worked dry.

The Colonies and India, of June 2, 1882, records that the Mines
Department of New South Wales " has tried a ne^v dry-blowing machine
imported from California. About 4 dwt. of gold was rni.xed with 50 lb.
of earth ; in 3 minutes the dirt was fanned off, and it was then found
that less than i gr. of gold was lost. This machine will be very valuable
in places where water is scarce."

Other forms of apparatus have been introduced, in which mercury
plays an important part. The one which has been most prominently
before the public operates by throwing the auriferous material by centri-
fugal force against a wall of mercury (why not amalgamated plates ?).
The material is placed in a sort of hopper, from whose taper end it is
allowed to pour between two curved copper plates, situated horizontally,
and revolved at a speed of 65 to 80 revolutions a minute. Passing
between these plate.s, the sand is driven by centrifugal force against a
" wall " of mercury, which is also maintained through the action of
centrifugal force. Surrounding the copper plates is an iron casting like
an enormous stew-pan, with the greater part of the bottom cut out, so
that its half section resembles a letter L. This is connected with an
axis by 4 hollow arms, each of which is made to contain about 50 lb. of
mercury. The whole arrangement is revolved in a direction contrary to
that of the plates, and, by the rotary force, the mercury runs from the
arms through grooves provided, and climbs' along the upright surface,
corresponding with the upright stroke of the L, thus forming a perfect
wall. Every particle of gold as it is thrown against this wall instantly
amalgamates with it, while the sand is partly thrown off by its own
rebound and partly blown away by a series of pipes attached to a
blower used in connection with the machine. When whatever quantity

UlVi:i<-MlNIN(,.

S83

of sand the operator chooses is passed through, the niacliine is stopped,
the mercury is withdrawn by a tap from the arms, into which it falls the
instant the rotation ceases. The operation results in the recovery of the
gold without sensible loss, and the advantages claimed for the plan are : —
(i) that it extracts every particle of gold from the matter passed through
it, and (2) that it does so without serious loss of mercury. It is claimed
that it will render it possible to work over again with profit the " tailings "
of mines operated under old sy.stems.

There is no available information as to the working cost of any of
these methods. Their success depends entirely upon their ability to
perform the necessary operation on a large scale at a cost not exceeding
2^^. to 5c/. a ton.

River-mining. — There are two distinct kinds of river-mining, one
being pro.sccuted by emptying the river-bed of its water before com-
mencing operations, the other conducted while the river is in the
occupation of its bed. The former consists in turning the .stream out of
its course by means of a dam into a new channel, which may be either
a ditch cut in the ground, or a wooden flume. Of course, only small
brooks and rivulets can be treated in this way, and the working even in
them can only be carried on with safety during the dry .season, when the
water is low and not liable to sudden flooding, as a freshet might carry
away tools and implements, and undo all that the miner had done, in a
very short time. Moreover the little tributary streams from the hills,
which come in on every hand, give a deal of trouble, and necessitate
pumping. Arrangements must also be provided for removing the huge
boulders which often encumber the bed of a stream, and hide much of
the gold. The pay-dirt is excavated and run through a sluice to extract
the gold. The drawbacks and risks connected with this kind of mining
have to be taken into consideration, but it has sometimes yielded very
remunerative results. In California, the rich river-bars have been all
but exhausted; yet as late as 1875, some Chine.se were washing the
banks and bars of the Yuba river in this way, and making it pay, though
the same ground had already been worked three or four times by whites.
Fig. 46 illustrates the river claim of Trent, Diamante & Co., alluded to
on p. 573, which is worked in this manner ; further details will be found
on the page indicated. Guinne.ss speaks of the plan as being most
successfully used when reaches of some extent and of small depth occur,
and when only a moderate depth of shingle overlies the solid rock forming
the bed of the river. Considerable areas may sometimes be made
available by cutting a new channel through an isthmus, and working
the bed of the bend thus laid bare.

Lifting rivers. — A plan known as " river lifting " is practised in
British Columbia. It is applicable to streams not exceeding 10 to 15 ft.

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SHALLOW I'LACF-kS.

wide and 2 ft. deep, and consists in providing a temporary artificial bed
for the stream to flow over while the actual bed is being worked out.
Two essential conditions are, — an abundant and cheap supply of timber,
and an adcciuatc fall in the stream. The first step is to drive stout piles
into the ground on both sides and in the centre of the stream at a few ft.
apart, joining the members of each side row by means of stout quarter-
ing spiked to their upper part. Joists are then laid across the river with
their ends resting on the lateral bars, so that each triplet of piles is

I'lC. 46.

Draining a River Claim by Californian Pumt.

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*••■■■•!■•'

joined transversely. Next, planking is nailed on the transverse bars
inside the piles and carried up to the tops of the piles themselves,
forming a wooden sluice or launder just above (say 2 or 3 in.) the
stream, and of a capacity to accommodate the stream. When the sluice,
which may be ^ or ^ mile long, is complete, the river is lifted into it in the
following way. At the upper or inlet end of the sluice, the stream is
gradually dammed b)- driving piles in so that their heads are flush with
the floor of the sluice. The piles should be commenced with spaces
between, and these gradually filled up, so as not to concentrate the

i<ivi;r-mimn(;.

8^>!

stream into one narrow channel. As soon as the dammin<; is completed,
the stream, unable to flow in its old bed, t,rradiially rises till it enters the
sluice, and then, if the fall is sufficient, it fills the sluice and flows bodily
throu<,di it. While the river occupies the sluice, the bed is worked out
and cradled or sluiced. In case of a freshet occurring, the damming
piles may be pulled up and the stream allowed to re-occupy its bed, thus
reducing the risk of having the sluice destroyed. This docs not prevent
the dam being reconstructed and work resumed when the freshet is
over.

The banks of the creek or stream must be sufficiently steep to pre-
vent the water ruiming away in a lateral direction ; when this is not the
case, the stream has to be banked in for some distance above the dam.

y\tmospheric Cylinders. — .\nother plan of removing the water from
the bed to be worked is by means of atmospheric cylinders. This
sy.stem is described by Warden Allen, of I'icton, as fijUows. "The
cylinders are large enough for a man to work in. They are made in
lengths, the length used depending upon the depth of the river. A
powerful air-pump is attached to the apparatus, and air is forced into the
cylinders when they are placed in the river. The air forces out the
water, and the man in the cylinder is able to collect the drift for washing.
I am told it is very trying work for the men. Dredges would answer
better."

Subsequently, Warden Allen kindly furnished the following addi-
tional particulars. " I am inclined to think that the apparatus is useless
for all practical mining purpo.ses, excepting p\obably prospecting shingle
beds of shallow rivers. I am informed as follows.

" That the apparatus consists of 2 powerful air-pumps, a sufficient quan-
tity of indiarubber tubing, and iron cylinder in lengths of about 3 or 4 ft.
each, and a crane and windlass for raising and lowering the cylinder into
the river. The cylinder is composed at the top of an air-tight compartment
about 5 or 6 ft. high, of the same diameter as the cylinder (about 3 ft.) ;
to this upper compartment the tubes connected with the air-pumps arc
attached, and there is an escape-valve to allow the air to escape when
the pressure is found too great. On the floor of this upper compartment is
a man-hole that can be opened and closed at any time, and of course
must be so fitted as to be water-tight. To this upper compartment the
workmen can affix by rivets as many lengths of iron cylinder as they
require, according to the depth of the river. These lengths of cylinder
arc simply plain iron tubes, about 4 or 5 ft. long and 3 ft. in diameter.
When a sufficient length of cylinder has been attached to the upper
compartment, the apparatus is lowered into the river and rests upon the
bottom. The men who are to work enter the upper compartment
through a man-hole in the side or top, and the lid is replaced and

^Mm

886

SHALLOW I'LACKKS.

fastened by screw-bolts so as to make the compartment water-tij^ht.
The inner man-hole in the floor is then opened, and air is pumped into
the cylinder in sufficient quantity to force out the water in the cylinder,
and leave the bottom of the cylinder as nearly as possible free from
water. One man descends, and a bucket fixed to a block and tackle
inside the upper compartment is also lowered. The man below fills this
bucket with the wash-dirt (gravel or mudj, and it is hoisted up to the
upper compartment. When sufficient dirt has been raised, the apparatus
is drawn up, and the proceeds are landed to be cradled or cleaned up in
any way adopted by the parties at work. The escape-valve in the upper
compartment previously mentioned is used as a regulator to protect
the men at work, for too great a pressure of air would cause serious
consequences to them.

" As I before informed you, the apparatus has not been at work for
many months, in fact has not been properly tried, and is not likely to
be used now, for a new company has been formed to divert the course of
the river, and work the ground in the ordinary manner, and this apparatus
is to be set aside. I am inclined to think it would not pay any company
to work this atmospheric cylinder."

Dredging. — Rivers proper cannot, of course, be turned in this way, as
the expense and risk would be greatly magnified ; they are, however,
worked by dredging up the bed without disturbing the course of the water.
Dredges built much after the fashion of harbour-dredges, and driven by
a current-wheel, have been used for a long time and with considerable
success, especially in New Zealand, where one at work on the Clutha
river yielded 4/. a week each to 4 men for over 5 years ; but they are
liable in a certain degree to be interfered with by floods, they cannot
work in eddies (where the gold is largely deposited), and their effective
capacity is limited.

Warden Allen, of Picton, to whom the author is indebted for many
kindnesses, sends the following account. " I have obtained from Mr.
Warden Carew, of Lawrence, the following description of the dredges
u.sed in the Molyncux and Clutha district.

" There are three water-power wheel-dredges on the river, answering
admirably, and giving very good returns. So far as I can learn, these
dredges are on the ladder and bucket principle ; 25 buckets and some-
times more, according to the length of the ladder used, are mechanically
connected by a heavy link chain revolving round a series of rollers
attached to the ladder, acting as auxiliaries to two large tumblers, the
heaviest of which, weighing 6 cwt., is attached to the bottom end of the
ladder, round which the buckets revolve, and carry up the auriferous
gravel. The tumbler at the top of the ladder discharges the gravel into
a shoot emptying into a cradle rocked by hand. This primitive method

•r'*

IJKKDGING.

887

for saving the gold coukl in my opinion be easily improved upon by
means of excentric wheels to suit the different strengths of the current,
putting a series of shaking tables in motion, say, one with a contra action
to the other. If this system of saving gold could be adopted, and I can
see no reason why it should not, it would in my opinion be a much more
economical method, dispose of more gravel, and save a great deal more
gold.

"These dredges can raise 100 to 160 tons of gravel in 24 hours, and
the depth of water in which they can work is 4 to 12 ft. ; length of
ladder, about 37 ft. The greatest depth in which they can work in
ordinary currents is about 20 ft.

"The average strength of the current is about 6 kn ; an hour by the
log, but the dredges can v.'ork with greater safety and more regularity in
a 3-knot current.

" I believe these dredges are the most suitable for this river, as the
gold principally is obtained in the current, and there is little or no gold
where the river is sluggish ; 5 gr. of gold per ton will pay good wages,
and there are miles of such ground in the river. Although there are
some rich patches, there is no regular or distinct ' run ' of gold. Generally
the gold is sparsely disseminated through the gravel. (The foregoing
description was obtained by Mr. Warden Carcw from Mr. Nicholson.)

" Mr. Carevv adds as follows. In addition to the information he has
given, I may add that a dredge is formed with two flat-bottomed boats,
each of about 12 tons, and that the ladder upon which the buckets revolve
is fixed between the two boats. The buckets are made of iron, steel-
tipped, and lift i to ij cwt. each. There are 4 current-wheel dredges in
the river, besides two steam-dredges of 25 and 22 tons (ordinary small
steam-boats specially fitted up for dredging), and there are two new
dredges being built, one of iron, and it is said will be fitted with a
different kind of machinery, costing when complete about 6000/.

" The larger of the 2 steam-dredges now working is 10 horse-power,
lifts 50 tons of drift per hour, and puts it through the cradle. The
cradle is 13 ft. 6 in. long by 4 ft. 6 in. wide, and in addition has wide
sluice-boxes from tail of cradle to the water. This boat has not been
long in operation, but the miners estimate that when fairly at work in
a good position i gr. of gold per ton will pay."

Dredges working by steam-power possess manifest advantages in
being independent of the current ; but even with them, a great impediment
has proved to be that the least flood in the river brings down an immense
quantity of tailings and other debris, which fill up the drcdging-buckets
to the exclusion of the much more highly auriferous older deposits on
the bottom.

Vacuum-dredges. — These are of many forms, varying chiefly in the

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SHALLOW PLACERS.

means adopted for producing the necessary vacuum. The Bazin dredge
was one of the first worked on this principle. In it the buckets necessary
for ordinary dredging are replaced by a simple tube. The principle upon
which the vacuum is produced may be illustrated thus. Suppose an
empty vessel, say a ship's hull, to be immersed in a body of water, either
by its own weight or by weight applied to it, so that there is a difference of
level between the water outside and the bottom of the hull, and suppose
now a hole to be opened in the bottom of the hull, there will immediately
be an inrush of water. But suppose the hole to be prolonged by a pipe
just reaching to the bed on which the water rests, it will be the lowest
layers of water that will find their way up the pipe, and if the pressure
around be sufficient, the speed or force will be such that some portions
of the subjacent soil will be carried along with the water. But this
process would soon defeat itself by filling the hull. This is easily e. voided,
however. A specially constructed centrifugal pump is so adjusted to the

Fig. 47.

ja g^i^a^ —

Bazin Dredgi.

apparatus that, without break of journey, it receives all the matters which
are forced into the tube, and, adding fresh impulse to their progress,
delivers them over the side of the hull. Its construction is shown in

Fig- 47-

It was first used for clearing silted-up wrecks in the Bay ol Biscay, in
12 to 16 fathoms of water. One used at the Leith Docks was said to
put 76 tons of sand on board in 45 minutes, or about ic>"> tons per hour,
while the prime cost was less than one third of that of ordinary dredging
apparatus. It soon became evident that this machine might be applied
to raising auriferous dirt from river-beds. One set to work "on the

DREDGING.

889

Feather river, in Maine," is fixed on a boat 90 ft long and 20 ft. wide.
The deck is about 3 ft. above the water-level, and on it is a house where
the workmen eat and sleep. A 12-H.P. engine hoists and lowers the
tube or cylinder by means of pulleys fixed to a common derrick. Run-
ning along the side of the boat, and fastened securely to it, is an ordinary
flume, 100 ft. long by 20 in. wide, provided with the usual appliances for
catching the gold. At the upper end is a pump worked by steam, that
pours a constant stream of 1 00 miners' in. of water into the flume. The
quantity of earth taken up is about 300 tons in 10 hours, and it is said
that more could be brought up, but no more can be washed in the present
sluices with the amount of water used. The work has been carried on in
water running 6 to 16 f\ deep. Of course the only difference necessi-
tated by the greater depth is an increased length in the cylinder or tube.

Fig. 48.

Nozzles for Vacuum-Dredges.

The gravel is so thoroughly pulverized that all the gold is said to be
washed in a very short sluice. Several forms of nozzle are used, according
to the nature of the bed, as shown in Fig. 48.

A disadvantage of this form of dredge is that it requires a consider-
able depth of water in order to produce the requisite amount of vacuum
for efficient work. This has led to the introduction of steam-vacuum
dredges of various forms, the most successful of which is shown in
Fig. 49, and is at work on the Fraser river, British Columbia, the Snake
river, Idaho, and on several Brazilian streams. The apparatus is placed
on the deck of a flat boat or scow a, 80 to 100 ft. long and about 30 ft.
wide. Atmospheric pressure governs the operation of the apparatus.
This pressure being about 1 5 ft to the sq. in. the force with which a column
of water and gravel is driven up the draught-pipe can be readily com-
puted : an 8-in. pipe has an end area of about 50 sq. in. ; in such a pipe,
therefore, the pressure up the tube is 750 lb. ; for a 12-in. pipe, the force
would be 1700 lb. ; for an i8-in. pipe, 3800 lb. ; and for a 24-in. pipe,
6700 lb. The principal parts •f the machine are a vacuum-chamber d c,
which rests on hollow trunnions c, upon which it oscillates, and through

890

SHALLOW PLACERS.

which steam- {e) and water (/) connections with the top and upper part
of the vacuum-chamber are made ; a draught-pipe d, which rests on the
bottom, and through which the solid material is brought up into the
vacuum-chamber ; and a water-gate below the water-line in the draught-
pipe, through which water is admitted when desired.

Upon the dredge-boat is also a boiler-house containing a boiler and
steam-pump, each connected vvit'i the vacuum-chamber. A winch or

Fig. 49.

Steam-Vacuum Dredge.

hoisting-engine g, for raising and lowering the draught-pipe, and a long
sluice // to receive the contents of the vacuum-chamber and wash out the
gold, complete the equipment.

To operate the machine, the draught-pipe is lowered until its open
end rests upon the bottom. Steam is then let into the vacuum-chamber,
expelling the air through the air-valve. The air-valve is then closed,
and a jet of water is forced upon a perforated disc in the upper part of
the vacuum-chamber, condensing the steam and forming a vacuum, into
which the water at the bottom of the draught-pipe instantly rushes,
carrying with it gravel, sand, stones, or whatever else may be at the end
of the pipe ; and as these pass up and into the vacuum-chamber, the pipe
burrows into the bottom, the vacuum-chamber swinging slightly forward
on its trunnions as the pipe goes down. The suction is even capable of
dislodging gold from pot-holes in the bed-rock.

DliAClI-MINING.

891

A delivery-door / at the bottom of the chamber is instantly opened
by means of a cam-lever, and the contents fall into the sluice. The
delivery-door is then closed, the chamber filled with steam as before,
the steam condensed, and another load of solid material brought up ;
and this operrition is repeated as often as may be desired, i to 5 tons of
gravel, &c. being raised every 5 minutes, varying with the size of the
vacuum-chamber and draught-pipe.

That nothing may become lodged in the pipe, it is made smaller at
the lower end, and whatever enters there readily passes up into the
chamber. Another excellent feature is the method of introducing the
steam and water. The pipes by which these enter the vacuum-chamber
proceed from the upper side of the hollow trunnions. The steam-pipe
from the boiler enters thi end of one of the trunnions by a packed,
steam-tight joint, and the cold-water pipe enters the other trunnion in
the same manner, thus allowing the chamber to swing freely on the
trunnions, and at the same time doing away with flexible pipes. The
extreme simplicity of this dredge also commends it. There are no com-
plicated or delicate parts o get out of order ; it is easily operated,
requiring only 4 or 5 men upon the dredge-boat ; and the entire working
expense will not exceed $20 or $25 (4 or 5/.) per diem.

Inquiries concerning the working of this apparatus, addressed by the
author to Professors J. D. Hague, R. W. Raymond, and VV. A Skidmore,
elicited the following remarks, " As regards any gold-bearing rivers in
Maine, you are in error. There is no such river in that state, A
machine on this principle was used at Oroville, on the Feather river of
California, a few years since, Skidmore saw the machine in operation at
Oroville, Butte co., at that time, i.,nd thinks that if there had been any
coarse gold or nuggets in the matter raised, it would have brought them
to the sluice-box. He happened to have smelted the resulting gold, and
found the nett proceeds to be about $16 50c., after an expenditure of
$100,000, As a gold-mining appliance under the conditions of our
streams (gorged with tailings to a depth of 20 or more ft), it must and
did prove a failure, for reasons too obvious to enumerate ; but he thinks
that under conditions which may be imagined, but which are never
found to exist, it would prove a success, viz. given a virgin river bottom,
with 6 to 10 ft, of gold-bearing gravel on the bed-rock (averaging about
$3 per cub, yd.), and with water enough to float the scow and her
machinery. We have no such streams here, and :t may be said t}u
here at least it is a practical failure."

Beach-mining or beach-combing. — On the Pacific shores of America,
extending in patches for a considerable distance (see pp. 151-3), are a
number of auriferous deposits, kjjown as " ocean-placers." Similar forma-
tions exist also in Nevtr Zealand (see pp. 526, 570), The beach sands

892

SHALLOW PLACERS.

Ell !

contain minute scales of gold and platinum, and a large percentage of mag-
netic iron or black sand, intermixed with the common beach sand, com-
posed principally of quartz. The gold occurs in sufficient quantities to make
mining for it remunerative at certain places. In beach-mining, consider-
able aid is derived from the natural causes at work — the winds, tides, and
surf, — which act as a natural separator in parting the light and useless
from the heavy and valuable particles. The force of the wind drives
heavy swells upon the beach at high tide, and with them a certain
amount of sandy matters ; while at the ebb of the tide, the surf lashes the
beach and carries back the light portions of the mass with the undertow,
leaving some of the iron-sand, gold, and platinum, whose "greater specific
gravity enables them to resist the force. At low water, the miners go
down on the beach and scrape up the iron-sand, which is generally left in
thin layers, stacking it back from the reach of the surf, and subsequently
washing out the gold. The position of the sands is liable to be changed
at every tide, so that a fresh survey has to be made each day before com-
mencing operations. When the richest spot has been chosen, mules
laden with empty alforjas or raw-hide sacks are led down to it at low
water, and the most specious-looking portions are hastily gathered for
treatment at leisure, a couple of days often sufficing to wash the harvest
of a month. For a long time, the common mode of washing was with a
small stream of water in a sluice, terminating on an apron or tonr., with
turned r,p sides and ends, the bottom perforated with small holes, and
underneath a wooden box set slightly sloping, and floored with a covering
of amalgamated sheet copper. The auriferous sand is washed upon the
apron, and, passing through the small holes, strikes vertically upon the
copper below, the gold adhering to the copper, while the worthless sand
passes off through an opening in the lower end of the box. This process
is manifestly imperfect, as all the gold that does not instantly adhere to
the copper is washed off and lost. As the particles of magnetic oxide
are very nearly of the average diameter of the gold-particles, and are
moreover rounded, whereas the gold is scaly, the great difference in their
specific gravity (say 5 -.19) has really but little influence on their separation.
The ordinary blanketrsluice, or a combination of amalgamated copper
plates, riffles, hanging-plates, &c., such as the Russel amalgamator, were
for a long time relied on for catching the gold. But when the miners
assayed their tailings, they found that in most cases fully \ of the gold had
been lost in the treatment Not only was the separation based on a dif-
ference of specific gravity quite unavailing, but examination showed that
the gold-specks were coated with " rust," which prevented amalgamation.
Experiments were then instituted on all hands. Chlorination and other
chemical processes were found tco expensive, but confirmed the richness
of the sand, showing that much of it was worth 2/. to 6/. per ton, and

BEACn-MlNING.

S93

some a great deal more. The quantity yielding i/. to 2/. per ton is said
to be practically inexhaustible. A company owning a lai^e extent of
these diggings is reported to have elaborated a process (Sublett's) capable
of saving 90 per cent, of the fine or flour gold, and costing only 8 to
I2s. per ton, including mining, which is often only nominal. This process
will be described under the head of " Fine gold " (see p. 903). Skldmore
states that this machine "for saving gold from the ocean sands has never
amounted to anything that I know of" He declares that the variable
character of the sands prevents such an enterprise being carried on
successfully for any length of time.

In New Zealand a considerable amount of "beach-combing" is
carried on where water is available, and with most satisfactory results.
At North Beach, a head race was carried 5 miles from the Maori river,
costing 600/., and the washing yielded i oz. a day per man. At Seven-
teen-mile Beach, near Greymouth, are over 10 miles of auriferous sea-
shore, with at least 4 lines of pay-dirt, and extensive operations are now
being carried on. About 2 miles N. of Charleston is a settlement of
Shetlanders, whose working time is divided between small farm cultiva-
tion and the working of fine gold from the sea-sands, which, after heavy
weather, are easily got at and found to be highly auriferous. These
beach-claims are deemed valuable property, and are kept carefully
registered. Two double-area claims, each having 200 ft. frontage, with
all working appliances, and a large water-race heading from the Little
Totara river, fetched 1000/. in February, 1882. The claims alone are
commonly sold for 200 to 300/. each, independently of water-race and
appliances.

The following account of beach-mining, as here conducted, has been
very obligingly contributed by Warden Revell, in response to a special
application on the subject.

Fig. 50 gives a sketch of a " beach-box," which is a fair representative
of those now in use. The frame a is built entirely of timber, and from
end to end measures 14 ft. The hind legs are 2 ft. high, and at the lower
end the floor is 18 in. from the ground. The fall is regulated by raising
the legs or wheels as may be necessary. The " hose " ^ is 3 in. in dia-
meter, made of stout canvas — generally tarred to preserve it and render
it watertight — through which the water is brought and conveyed up the
" leader " c, thence emptying into the hopper d. The bottom of the hopper
is a sheet of perforated iron, 2 ft. sq. — the size of the hopper. The perfora-
tions are ^ in. in diameter, and generally about i in. apart. The sand is
shovelled into the hopper, and the finer part of it is carried through the
perforations by the water, and drops upon the " slide " e (shown on the
sketch by dotted lines), within the box below the hopper. A copper
plate is laid over this .slide, coated with mercury, to which the gold

;: :;;! ill

I, ; i

894

SHALLOW PLACERS.

'oaj

jiii»

attaches itself. This slide is 2 ft. wide and 3 ft. long ; at its lower end
an opening is left 2 in. from the plate beneath it, and the same space

from the end of the box, so that the water
may drop on the next plate/ and from that
over plates g and //, which are also overlaid
with mercury. At the bottom of plates/^ //,
" riffles " i k I arc placed ; i and k are formed
by leaving a space between the plates, so as
to form a hollow into which the water must
drop before reaching the next plate. Above
these two riffles, slides are placed to break the
impetus of the water when it reaches them,
and force it more gently under them. The
last riffle-box is of different construction from
those above. It is $ in. in depth at the
upper side, 13 in. on the lower, and 5 in.
wide. In the centre a slide is placed, and
pushed down to within 2^ or 3 in. of the
^ bottom of the riffle-box. The sand and water
\ drop into this box, and are forced out again
5 at the lower side of the " slides," thence run-
\ ning over the last table or " tail-board " ;;/.
3 The object of the two first riffles is to break
3 the force of the water, and that of the riffle-
5 box is to catch any loose mercury that may
5 come off the plates above it, and which, on
5 account of its weight, cannot be forced out
again by the water. On the " tail-board,"
instead of mercury, " baize " or blanket is
placed, to catch all "rusty" gold that the
mercury will not take. On the lower side of
each riffle, a " flange " is nailed so as to over-
lap the plate below and thus prevent the water
passing beneath. The plates are secured to the
frame by battens, and are nailed at top and
bottom. Each plate usually weighs about 14 lb.
When sufficiently rich, the plates are taken
from the frame and set on end, so that the
loose mercury may run off. They are then
scraped with a chisel, both gold and amalgam
being taken off. After all the mercury possible
has been squeezed from the amalgam, the
latter is retorted in the usual manner to free

FI.UME fOR TRANSPORTING TlMllKR.

895

the gold of the mercury c.itirely. Should any of the copper have been
scraped off with the mercury, it will remain with the gold, which latter has
then to undergo the process of refining at the banks.

The working results of these claims are various, and almost impossible
to estimate, the beaches being often unworkable for months, for it is
only heavy seas and strong winds that bring payable gold upon them.
Revell thinks, however, that the average wages throughout the year
would not be less than 2/. 10s. per week.

When, by reason of long duration of calm weather, the claims are
rendered unworkable, the holders may obtain " protection " from the

Fig. si.

■I k^: fi

Shetlanders working Beach-Diggings in New Zealand.

Warden for any period not exceeding 6 months. Many avail them-
selves of this privilege to cultivate the ground round about their cottages
— their "Miner's Right" entitling them to hold 24 x 48 ft. without regis-
tration, or to the extent of an acre upon registration being granted them
by the Warden. Fig. 51 shows a party of Shetlanders working the
black sands on the Nine-mile beach, Charleston.

Many of the " beach-combers " are of opinion that the gold on their
claims comes from the depths of the sea during the storms, and not from
the inland workings, as many others suppose. It is, however, a difficult
question to determine.

Flume for transporting timb^. — As a considerable quantity of timber

li.i

II f

896

SHALLOW PLACERS.

is consumed in the construction of box-sluices and most other mining
or washing implements and machinery, and the difficulty and cost of
conveying the timber to the spot where it is required are often con-
siderable, no apology is needed for inserting here a description of a flume
used for carrying timber to the Virginia and Truckle railroad, in Nevada,
which might often be adopted with advantage.

It consists of a V-shaped launder or trough, made of 2-in. plank,
18 to 20 in. wide, supported by a light trestle-work, in which a rapidly
flowing stream of water carries down cordwood or timber, of such lengths
as the curves of the flume will allow passage to, from the head of the cation
to its mouth. In a flume of this description, light timber or plank 10 ft
in length is easily floated and transported. The average grade of the
flume is 5° to 6° ; the minimum employed is i : 64, though that is rather
too slight ; I : 33 or 3 ft. in 100 ft. is a very good grade with a fair
volume of water. The flume referred to is 5 miles long : cordwood is
said to make the entire journey in 18 minutes, and 51 cords of wood
have been transported from the upper end of the flume to the place of
delivery in 6 hours. At the end of the flume is an iron grating, having
the reverse shape of the trough, and inclining upwards from the bottom
to the upper edge of the flume. The water passes through this grating,
while the wood shoots up on it and falls over the edge of the flume to
the ground, where it is piled up or loaded upon the car. This simple
method of handling wood cheapens its delivery very much. No men
are required, except those who supply the wood to the flume at the
upper .nd those who receive and stock it at the lower end. Along

the CO. . A the flume, feeding streams are brought in from side carions
at intervals of i to 2 miles, to increase the supply of water, and compen-
sate for the wastage occasioned by leaks or over-running. In some of
the steeper side caiions, it is possible to use "dry shoots" or similar
flumes without water feeding the main flume, the inclination in their case
being sufficient to enable the material to slide by the force of gravity
alone. By this means, wood is easily delivered from points where roads
are impracticable.

Cost of alluvial mining. — The following notes of the cost of alluvial
mining in a variety of instances cannot fail to be interesting, as they
aflbrd the means of comparison for new undertakings.

At Ballarat the average cost of raising and puddling wash-dirt and
getting out the gold in several mining properties is "js. 2,d. per ton, and
the cost of puddling and sluicing in two instances is \s. J^d. per ton.

At Clunes, the average cost in one alluvial mine is id^d. per ton for
puddling, and the average cost of sluicing is 3^^. per ton.

At Sandhurst, the average cost of raising " cement " is 3J. 6d. per ton ;
the average cost of carting, crushing, and extracting the gold is 8j. per

COST OF ALLUVIAL MLVIXG. CEMENT

897

ton ; and the average cost of puddling or sluicing is ^s. per ton, including
cartage.

At Maryborough, the average cost in three instances of raising cement
is 2is. S(/, per ton ; puddling, 2s. 6d. per ton.

At Castlcmaine, the average cost, in one claim, of breaking cement is
2\s. per ton ; raising it to the surface and delivering it at the machine,
4J. 9^/. per ton ; crushing the cement and extracting the gold, 3^. 9^/.
per ton. The average cost of puddling by one party of miners is \s. 2d.
per ton.

At Maldon, the average cost, in one mine, of raising cement and
deliver'ng it at the machine, is \s. 6\d. per ton ; and the cost of cnishing
and extracting the gold is 2s. per ton. At the Forty-foot lead, the
average cost of raising, carting, and puddling is 6s. 6d. per ton.

At Hurdle Flat, Ovens district, ground \6 ft. 6 in. deep, .sluice in
rock, 4 gr. of gold (or 6d. per load) pays well ; 4 men get down and wash
I ton of dirt every 5 minutes.

These figures all refer to Victoria, and arc mostly taken from Brough
Smyth.

Cement : its occurrence, treatment, and yield. — On nearly all alluvial
gold-fields, whether shallow placers or deep leads, is found a stratum of
ferruginous conglomerate, composed principally of rounded and angular
fragments of quartz of all sizes, cemented (hence the name) together by
the oxide of iron with which the mass is impregnated, and often so hard
as to resist everything but blasting. It overlies the bed-rock, in some
places resting on it, in others several in. or even ft. above it. In
thickness it fluctuates considerably, from 6 in. to 8 ft. or more. Its
character varies but little. On the fields near the site of the present
town of Maryborough, in Victoria, the depth of the cement was 10 to
13 ft., and it occupied the miners 2 to 3 weeks to get through it by the
use of gads. The bottom was a soft, white pipe-clay, and though the
wash-dirt taken out at that time was only 6 to 9 in. deep, the nuggets
which could be picked out paid the men well. On another part of the
same field, the depth was 16 to 24 ft., and the 4 to 6 in. of pay-dirt taken
out was full of nuggets. A rush set in, and within 3 months from the
date when the first prospector's tent was pitched on the site of Mary-
borough, at least 30,000 miners occupied the ground. At first, the
cement was washed in a long-torn, which was, of course, quite unfitted
for extracting the gold, and very much therefore was lost in the tailings.
In some instances, a quantity of debris is found overlying the cement,
and pays well for washing, as, though not so rich as the solid mass, it is
more easily worked. When the miners realized the fact that the gold
was imbedded in the cement in such a manner that mere washing would
not dislodge it, they began to put it through the quartz-mills, with

3 M

,1,1

898

SHALLOW PLACERS.

greatly improved results, and an immense amount of gold was got out
of the tailings that had previously been cjist aside. Where crushing-
machinery was not at hand, the cement was often thrown out of the
way, and huge heaps of it might be found about some of the older gold-
fields.

Stamping. — The class of machinery first used for reducing cement
was the ordinary stamp-battery employed in quartz-crushing ; but an
improved modification was adopted at some mills, viz. the holes in the
screens were made ^ in. instead of 4 in. as usual, thus increasing the
crushing capacity 25 per cent, without affecting the product of the
cement. Warden Carew reports from the Tuapeka district of New
Zealand that quartz-stamps provided with a screen made of a kind of
wire netting, with |-in. meshes, as a substitute for the ordinary quartz
screen of 120 holes to the in., are working very successfully on cement.

For a long time no other plan was tried, as this succeeded in
liberating all the gold. Latterly, however, various devices have been
proposed as cheaper substitutes for stamping.

A company owning many acres of rich cement, said to be 40 ft.
thick, in Nevada, have brought a tunnel 2000 ft. long and 10 ft. wide
with the intention of putting down two flumes throughout the entire
length of the tunnel, and extending them as far beyond the mouth as
may be desirable, there being plenty of fall for " dumps " (i. e. perpen-
dicular drops of considerable height, where the concussion of the fall
serves to break up the agglutinated masses) and under-currents. They
calculate that by this means the cement, which has hitherto been crushed
in stamp-mills, will be completely disintegrated, and the gold set free.

At Amelia, in Eastern Oregon, are cement beds of a known length of
10 or 12 miles, and varying in thickness from 10 in. to 10 ft. and upwards.
They lie near the surface, and every rivulet cutting through them has
yielded pay-dirt, and in some cases much riches. The bed-rock imme-
diately beneath the cement has often yielded ..y. :o i/. per pan, A short
wet season induced the owners to try a novel method of treatment.
During the winter, the cement was excavated and tl" ••own up in heaps,
where it slaked and disintegrated under the influence of alternate frost
and thaw, and in the spring it was run through sluices, and gave very
profitable results. Raymond expresses himself as " not certain that this
method will not prove, after all, the best ; though with a continuous
supply of water throughout the larger portion of the year, it may not be
necessary to confine the period of extraction to the winter, nor the
period of working to a few weeks in the spring. Probably the disinte-
gration of the cement could be effected at any season by allowing it to
lie a certain time, and occasionally wetting it down."

Drake's cement-mill. — A new mill for reducing cement, known as

CKMENT.

S99

Dra'^e's cement-mill, has been made by Prescott, Scott & Co., Union Iron
Works, San Francisco, for the New York and Calaveras Gold Co. It is
in the form of a «■• ^e, 40 ft. long, the staves of which are 5-in. T-rail bars.
At the upper end of this tubular cage, the cement as broken from the
mine is " dumped," or allowed to fall a considerable height from iron ca-s.
When the machine is in motion, the gravitation of the cement drives it
against the sharp edges of the T-bars, by which it is disintegrated. At the
same time, a large body of water is allowed to enter the upper part of the
tube. This helps the work of separation, and carries the finer material
and gold between the bars to an apron beneath, which conveys it into the
amalgamating-sluices. The boulders and coarse material slide gradually
down the machine, over thf; central and lower riffles, and out to the waste-
heap. The machine weighs about 55 tons as it stands, and will be driven
by a 50-H.P. engine, with a i4-in. x 24-in. cylinder, and supplied with
steam from a boiler 16 ft. long and 1,0 uv diameter.

Cox's pan. — Another apparatus, for 1 educing cement by grinding and
friction instead of by crushing, is km-ivn .is the Cox pan. The boulders,
which rarely contain gold, are crushed under the stamps with great waste
of time and power. This pan was invented to avoid the necessity for
that step. It is about 5 ft. in diameter and 2 ft. high, and is intended
to hold a charge of about J ton. The rim is made of boiler-plate and
the bottom of perforated cast iron, through which the finer sand and
auriferous materials fall into the sluice-boxes, or other gold-saving
appliances provided for their reception. The boulders and large pebbles
are discharged at intervals through a section of the bottom of the pan,
which is opened like a trap-door by means of a lever, when they have
accumulated to such an extent as to retard the operations. Four
revolving arms are attached to a shaft, which passes perpendiculaily
through the centre of the pan. On these arms are fastened steel
teeth, something like plough-shares in appearance, which, in the rapid
revolution of the arms, break up the cement. An abundant supply of
water is distributed while the pan is in motion, and materially aids in
the disintegration.

At Table Mountain, in California, a company are using this pan for
cement. The gravel is fed in continuously from a hopper, the feeding
being interrupted only long enough to discharge the boulders. The dirt
released by the action of the pan passes through the apertures in the
bottom, whence it runs through 300 ft. of sluice-boxes. The proprietors
speak highly o! the pan after 2 years' constant use. At a neighbouring
digging, two Cox pans are used, worked by 50 in. of water in an over-
shot wheel 30 ft. in diameter. Each pan will treat 40 cart-loads - 40 tons
per day. It is fed in continuou^y, about 10 in. of gravel being kept con-
stantly in the bottom of the pan, which is charged with a little mercury,

3 M 2

!(l

! !

i f
111

900

SHALLOW PLACERS.

ll
kf

while lOO to roo ft. of sluice are used below the pan. D. M. Hughes,
the manager at this mine, has used the pan for several years, and
effected some improvements in it, especially in distributing the water
through the pvlp while in motion. He says it will work any cement
soft enough to yield to the pick, and work it better than any other
process ; but he admits the loss of a considerable percentage of the
fine gold — which, it may be remarked, is not necessarily attributable
to the pan.

Raymond gives some further particulars, furnished by another miner
at Dutch Flat, where the cement is that known as " blue," and considered
as hard as any in the State. The cement is dumped or tipped into a
hopper with an inclined bottom, whence it is loaded into the pan by a gate
worked by the man in charge of the pan, thus requiring only one handling*
which is a great saving of cost. About looo to 1200 lb. are usually put
into the pan at once, while it is in motion. In the top of the rim of the pan
is constantly a stream of 4 to 5 in. of water, which carries the pulverized
cement down through the small openings of the bottom of the pan into
the sluices, &c., below. The pan is set in motion, and the gate of the
hopper is raised to gradually let the charge of cement enter the pan,
generally completed in about 2 minutes. It is run about 4 minutes
longer, then stopped to open the trap-door, and then again set in motion,
so that all the boulders and stones are driven out and fall into a rock-sluice,
the fine auriferous matters having already passed through the bottom of
the pan. The operation is then repeated as before. Softer material re-
quires less time. The pan will readily work 100 to 125 tons (of 20 cub. ft.
to the ton) per 24 hours, and at a cost, including water-power, labour, &c.,
of about S^- pcf ton. The hardest cement requires the pan to be
worked at 65 revolutions per minute, consuming 8 H.P. This particular
one is run by a " hurdy-gurdy " wheel, 10 ft. in diameter. Those
previously mentioned are driven by similar wheels ; but as the cement
is not so hard in their case, the cost is 3^//. to 4-^^/. per ton. It is said to
do its work very thoroughly and cheaply, every stone being perfectly
cleaned, and the cement so pulverized that it is difficult to find the colour
of gold in the tailings. The inventor c'aims that one pan will do the
work of a 25-stamp mill. Its cost is small compared with that of the
latter, being about 240/. The wear and tear is estimated at 5</ per day.
The cement can be worked for about yV the expense entailed by stamping,
which costs 4s. to ^s. per ton, and is not so efficient.

Prof Skidmorc says that the Cox pan works wcl! under certain con-
ditio.is, but those conditions are rarely found. It is now nearly obsolete ;
the only two known to be in use have been erected at the Dcrbcc mine,
near North liloonificld, Nevada co., of which mine, the inventor of the
pan, J. B. Cox, is superintendent.

SAVING FINE, FLOUR-, AND FLOAT-GOLD.

901

Cement yields. — The yields obtained from cement are of course various,
as in all classes of mining. At one place, 4 men crushed 4 loads of cement
and got 1 84 oz. of gold, and another party 63 oz. from 1 5 loads. The
wash-dirt with which the cement was intermixed was highly auriferous,
and gold was found throughout from the surface to the cement encrusted
on the bottom-rock. Other Victoria diggings have given : — 5 dwt. ;
over 14 dwt. ; 6 dwt. to ^ oz. ; 12 oz. ; i to 2 oz. ; 5 to 8 dwt. ; 4 oz. ; 6 oz. ;
7 oz. ; 8 oz. ; and 2 to 8 oz. — per ton ; 5 tons gave 3 oz. 5 dwt. ; 20 tons
gave 360 oz. ; 2 oz. per load were sometimes obtained ; also 5 dwt. per
load, much being lost ; ^ to i oz. per load, much being lost ; and 4 dwt.
per ton, when 1 30 lb. of tailings gave 1 7 gr. One of the wardens on the
Otago gold-field. New Zealand, states that in the Tuapcka district " a
single pennyweight of gold to a cubic yard of conglomerate (cement)
will leave a handsome margin of profit."

Saving fine, flour-, and float-gold. — In adopting measures for saving
very fine gold, it is necessary not only to remember that the specific
gravity of a grain determines its tendency to subside, but also its size,
shape, and affinity for other bodies must be taken into consideration.
Iron is specifically far heavier than quartz, yet fine iron-filings will float
on water while the finest quartz-sand will sink. Gold has a still greater
specific gravity than iron, yet if fine gold and fine quartz-sand be placed
in water, many particles of the former will be seen floating while the sand
sinks at once. Observers have remarked that all metals seem to have a
tendency to float on water when in a very fine state, though not always
in the same degree. One way of accounting for this phenomenon is by
supposing that minute globules of air or vapour attach themselves to the
grain of metal, and thus overcome the force of gravitation. It is even
asserted that this property or affinity is most strongly developed in the
precious metals, while in compounds it is altogether wanting. Experi-
ments have shown that fine particles of gold would remain afloat in water
of ordinary temperature for over 24 hours, but that when the temperature
was raised to boiling-point or nearly so, the suspended particles of metal
sank. One train of re-.soning deduced from this is that the heat causes
the bubbles of vapour to expand and escape. Another theorist denies
that the " film of air which may adhere to the surface of a particle of
metal has very much to do with its buoyancy in water," and prefers to
seek an explanation on the ground that the "metals when in small
particles, are more or less in the state of lamince" this shape preventing
them from overcoming the cohesion of the atoms of the fluid. Thus they
remain suspended until some disturbance of the liquid turns them
edgewise, when they sink, till accident or cause turns them flat again.
The effect produced by heating the water is also ascribed to the expan-
sion of the atoms lessening their cohesion, and therefore more readily

% .. f

902

SHALLOW PLACERS.

yielding to the grains of metal ; the commotion also would constantly
change the position of the grains.

Water. — Brough Smyth gives a practical illustration of the well-
established fact that brackish or salt water, such as is frequently pumped
out of mines, is quite unfitted for gold-washing. He remarks of the
Chinese washing at Sandhurst, in Victoria, that " in ordinary cases, the
waters of the creek enable them to pursue their labours profitably ; but
where even clear water pumped out of the mines is diverted into the
creek, they are obliged to seek for supplies elsewhere. With rain-water,
they can recover very fine gold ; but with brackish water, they get from
a fourth to a third less." Smyth is disposed to think that the increased
specific gravity of the water may partly account for this, that of the
" water got out of the claims at Sandhurst " being " certainly not much
below that of sea-water," and " Dr. Schweitzer's examinations of the
water of the British Channel, show that the specific gravity is i'0274
at 60° F."

Copper plates. — On p. 865 have been given some details of the
amalgamated copper plates specially devised to save the fine gold.
These same plates, which have been the subject of much praise in
Ajnierica, were tried in Australia, and proved — by assays of the tailings —
to be far inferior to the blankets commonly in use. Under the subject
of Beach-combing (p. 892) are some remarks as to the inefficiency of the
plates employed in that branch of gold-mining in California, yet with
some modifications these plates are still in vogue. Grease or resin in the
water greatly interferes with the process ; so also does a low temperature.
It is said that a solution of cyanide or prussiate of potash is much better
than nitric acid for use in applying the mercury to the plates, as there is
then no trouble with the green spots of nitrate of copper. Kiistel gives
another mode of amalgamating the copper plates. He says " a good
result is obtained by putting the copper plates into a wooden vessel with
sufficient water to cover the uppermost plate 2 or 3 in. Very little
sulphuric acid is added to the water — so much as to make it taste like
strong vinegar. After 6 to 1 2 hours, the plates are taken out, washed in
the same liquid, and the mercury rubbed over the surface before the plate
becomes dry. Washed in cold water, the copper plate is then prepared
for use."

McDougall's plan. — McDougall, .some years since, patented in
America a machine for saving fine gold, which was employed for several
months at least in extracting gold from the waste-water of the Eureka and
Idaho mines. It consists of 6 troughs, each 12 ft. x 2\ ft, inclined at a
slight angle, and having the bottoms covered with copper plates amalga-
mated and thickly studded with square iron pegs, about 4 in. high and
\ in. square. 0\'cr these pegs, close-fitting copper caps, whose outer

SAVING FINE GOLD.

903

surface is amalgamated, are placed in such a manner that their corners
are presented to the stream. The waste-water, from which has been
extracted all the gold that blankets, copper plates, rubbers, pans, riffles,
buddies, &c., were capable of getting, is brought into McDougall's works,
and runs through the troughs just described. Striking against the pegs,
of which the 6 troughs contain 5000, the water surges and eddies about,
so that every atom comes into contact with the amalgamated surfaces.
The precipitation of the gold is said to be greatly increased by the
" electrical action induced by the diflferenccs in latent heat between the
different metals, copper, iron, and quicksilver. Amalgam forms rapidly,
and 2 men are kept constantly employed in cleaning the copper caps and
plates. Owing to the almost microscopical iineness of the gold-particles
thus saved, the amalgam obtained does not contain as much gold to the
ounce as that ordinarily obtained at the quartz-mills. This is, of course,
to be expected. McDougall can tell almost instantly what grade of ore
is being worked at the mills above him. When they are running what
they call " poor " rock, his contrivance saves the most gold ; when they
are crushing rich rock, he does not do as well. The explanation is, that
the rock which they call poor may contain as much gold as the rich
rock, but it exists in such very fine particles that their mill process
cannot arrest it. It is these nne particles that he saves. In their rich
rock, their gold being coarse, they save a greater proportion of it."
(Raymond.)

Professors Raymond and Skidmore write at a subsequent date that
McDougall's machine realized a good living for the owner for about 2 years.
When the rock of the Eureka got poor, McDougall sold his invention
to the company for $700. It paid the company well for a few months,
but was discarded when the ores ran to low grade. It may be con-
sidered a success when the ore is rich and the loss great. The invention
is practically defunct.

Sublett's plan. — The process alluded to on p. 893, under the head
" Beach-combing," is as follows. The sand is first screened in order to
reduce its bulk, and is then subjected for about 24 hours to a solution of
caustic potash and common salt. This is to remove any oxide or film
that may be upon the gold, and to destroy sulphur and other base
substances which would spoil the mercury. The mass is then placed in
a pan, and constantly stirred while being heated by a jet of steam for a
few minutes. The mercury is then added, and the steam and agitation
again applied for 1 5 to 30 minutes, when the gold becomes thoroughly
amalgamated, and the mass, or " pulp," as it is called, is discharged into
a vat to cool before putting it through the separating-sluice. The heat
expands or partially evaporates the mercury, and, assisted by the agita-
tion, distributes it through the mass in minute globules, where it meets

904

SHALLOW PLACERS.

and amalgamates with the equally fine and widely disseminated grains
of gold. Too great a heat must be avoided, as liable to ilour the mercury
more than is necessary, and thus increase the difficulty of re-Collecting
it. Considering that the amount of heat required to raise the tempera-
ture of I lb. of water from 32° to 212" F. will raise that of about 30 lb.
of mercury through the same range, the reason for this caution is obvious.
Great care must be taken to purify the merciry each time it is used, as
success depends much upon this. Retorting alone is not always sufficient,
as some of the base metals volatilize and pass over with the mercury.
The most difficult part of the process is that of separating the fine par-
ticles of amalgam and mercury from the heavy black sand, for the plan
adopted with quartz-" pulp " is not available for the heavier black sand.
The valuable particles ^ ill not be precipitated by any concentrating
motion, on account of their lightness and minuteness as compared with
the magnetic oxide. The difficulty is said to be overcome, and the
separation effected without material loss, by means of a system of
galvanized copper rollers, grooved spirally, and placed side by side and
in layers one above another, so as to break joints and not quite touch,
and extending across the sluice, which is 3 ft. or more wide. A screen is
placed over the rollers, to distribute the sand and water as they fall, and
a galvanized copper plate is put beneath, to catch the mercury as it drips
from the rollers. Two or three tiers of these rollers are thus arranged at
two or more places, a few ft. apart in the sluice, and drop-riffles or wells
are sunk across the bottom, a little below the copper plates, to receive
and retain the mercury as it runs from them. The rollers are i ft. long,
14 in. in diameter, and hollow ; 6 or 8 are laid side by side and end to
end, extending across the width of the sluice. These and the copper
plates are kept in a highly sensitized condition and free from verdigris,
and as the pulp passes down> over and between their multiplied surfaces,
it necessarily brings the fine particles of mercury into contact with some
one of them, to which they will adhere, before passing through the whole
of them as arranged in the sluice. As the mercury accumulates upon
the rollers, it drops from the under side, and the amalgam is cleaned
from them in the same manner as from the plates. These amalgamating
rollers and their application bcth to the cradle and the sluice arc the
invention of William Sublett, who has applied for a patent for them.

Flycatching. — It has been found at Charleston, New Zealand, that
the gold does not all settle in the tail-race, but that on the union of the
waters of several tail-races a small percentage, well worth saving, floats
away. This is arrested by a method termed " flycatching," which
consists of a series of blanket-tal 'es placed across stream, like weirs, so
that the waters shall flow over each table in succession. The tables
are washed in turn, and the gold is streamed from the sand, and caught

SAVING FINE GOLD.

905

up by mercury. Many of these " claims " are very valuable, yielding 4/.
to 7/. a week with little labour. In the Charleston district, flycatching
has become quite an industry in itself ; the following description and
accompanying illustrations are due to the kindness of Warden Rcvell, of
that district.

The tables are constructed entirely of timber. Piles 2 or 3 ft. in
length arc driven firmly into the bed of the creek, and on these arc
nailed lengths of stout quartering, covered over with I -in. boards laid close
together, so as to form a smooth table. Pieces of lighter quartering arc
then placed over the boards from top to bottom, forming divisions about
4 ft. in width. Blanketing or cloth — ordinary corn-sacks opened out arc
frequently used, — is next spread smoothly along these divisions, and
securely fasten d down by small strips of wood. The tables vary in
length from 7 012 ft., and are placed in the creeks at intervals of 60 to
100 ft., extending quite acro.ss the stream. The proprietors of these
rights realise during rainy- weather very good returns, varying from 2/.
to 61. a week, according to the nature of the workings on the terraces

Fig. 52.

" Fl.YCATCIIlNG " TaHI.KS.

above, and the number of tables : in the creek. The tables are costly,
and liable to be damaged by floods, and not unfrequently by cattle
crossing the creek.

Fig. 52 shows one set of tables as set in the creek, with the water

li ki]

906

SHALLOW PLACERS.

running over. Fig. 53 is a view of the tables in full work. The owner
has turned off the water from one compartment prior to lifting the
blankets for washing out. Spare cloths are kept to replace those lifted,
which, when washed out, are reaoy to fill the places of those in the next
compartment. The men wash out the cloths in a large zinc box at

Fro. 53.

Lifting the Blankets from " Flycatciiing " Tables.

the side of the creek. The cloths are generally washed out once a day.
The fine tailings pass over several sets of tables in their course down the
creek. In the illustrations, there are about 1 2 sets of tables belonging to
one man, and some 5 or 6 proprietors of similar rights occupy positions
farther up the stream. The creek is named Darkie's Creek, and empties
into the Nile river about 10 chains from where the man is standing in

Fig. 53-

Yields of shalloxv placers. — The following figures will convey some
idea of the amounts of gold which have been obtained from various
surface-washings in different parts of the world. In Victoria, at Dirty
Dick's Gully, the miners worked all the alluvium 6 in. to 6 ft. in depth,
and got 10 to 16 oz. per tub of 4 small buckets, while there were pockets
containing 100 oz. and more. In Donkey Gully, the yield at the sides
was 4 to 6 oz. per tub, in the middle 12 to 20 oz. ; within a length of
about \ mile, more than a ton of gold has been taken from this gully.

YIELDS.

907

At Red Hill, the average was 12 oz. per tub, while 600 oz. were found in
one pocket, and 30,000/. worth was extracted from a single chiim. At
another pocket, 1800 oz. were discovered. In Golden Gully, 18 to 20 oz.
to the tub were common ; and 456 oz. were gathered from one hole. On
Dinah Flat, 252 oz. were taken from one bucketful of dirt. At some
places, pounds' weight of gold were not uncommon ; 4068 oz. were taken
by one party from a claim measuring 1 8 ft. by 12 ft, and some of their
neighbours did even better. At Hundredweight Hill, as much as
360 oz. were washed out of one tub of surface soil. On workings 8 ft.
deep at Forty-foot Hill, a claim 8 ft. sq. usually gave 3600 oz. of gold.
Even with that rude implement the puddling-machinc, 4 men at
Castlemair.e got gold at the rate of 100/. per week. At Sandhurst, the
average amount of gold left in the tailings from puddling-machines was
about 2 dwt. per ton. One man got 5000/. gold in 9 days. Nuggets of
22 lb., 108 oz., and 99 oz. are recorded. At Ballarat East, a tin-dishful
of dirt taken from the surface of a hill gave as much as 168 oz. of gold.
These figures are quoted from Brough Smyth, and are absolutely
reliable.

In the Westport district of New Zealand, a party of 6 men got 800 oz.
in 4 months ; another party of 3, 100 oz. in 14 weeks ; and a third party
of 6, 140 oz. in the same time.

From California, come similar figures. One company took out
20,000/. per season for two or three seasons. A panful of bar gravel
sometimes contained 20/ worth of scale gold. The average yield of
the companies working on bars in one district was about 20 oz. a day.
Individuals have been known to make 6000/. a season. A man with a
rocker would make 200/ to 300/ per season. Many companies at Rose's
Bar made 1 5,000/. per season in the rivers. At the mouth of the Rabb
Ravine, near Timbuctoo, the yield was 20/. a day per man ; there were 20
men at Timbuctoo who made an average total of 80/ per diem, without
any proper facilities. On the Cement Mine Ravine, 2 oz. a day to the
man was very common. At Square Creek Ravine, some companies
made runs of 18 days, in which 3 or 4 men usually netted looo/ to
1200/ At other spots, surfacers made 10/. to 20/. a day to the hand.
One authority estimates the average yield of placers over a large area at
a minimum of 2/ per diem per man, and thinks 3/. more nearly correct.
Some individuals made 6000/ to 8000/, and then left. These accounts
show only the bright side of the picture, and it is scarcely necessary to
remark that there have been instances where the cost of working was not
even repaid by the gold found.

( 908 )

CHAPTER IV.

DEEP LEADS OR DEAD RIVERS.

Definition. — A " deep lead " is a deposit of auriferous gravel, lying at a
considerable depth beneath the surface, and often covered by beds of
lava or basalt, hundreds and even thousands of feet thick. This de-
posit is to be distinguished from a shallow placer or surface washing
by the fact that it has been the work of a drainage system which no
longer exists. Like the modern placer diggings, deep leads are generally,
though not always, fluviatile or riverine.* In California, indeed, they are
known as '' dead rivers," a term which is applied only to channels which
were occupied by running streams in past geological ages, and are now
filled up with earthy or rocky matter. They are not to be confounded
with channels that are open and remain dry during a part of the year from
lack of water, or which have been abandoned by their streams for other
channels. A dry river-bed is not a dead river. In almost all instances,
these ancient deposits have been discovered by following up a modern
auriferous stream, and tracing the wash-dirt onwards into the deeper
ground, whence part of it had been dislodged by the recent stream.
It is often easy to judge whether the gold in a modern placer or shallow
washing has been derived directly from a quartz reef or from a deep
lead, as that from the reefs is generally coarse, heavy, and not much
water-worn, while that from the leads is usually fine and rounded.

The erosion due to ri.ers, and, perhaps, also sea-waves, has destroyed
the veins, and formed a great deposit of mud and clay in the valleys ;
while in many cases the gold-bearing veins, the streams which wore them
away, and the deposit formed by the streams, have all disappeared, and
the gold has to be sought in more recent accumulations, which have
undergone a variety of changes and perturbations.

It is scarcely possible to do more than guess at the age of the Ter-
tiary rocks in which the deep leads are found, and the evidence on this
head has to be sought rather in the relations borne by these deposits to
the adjacent formations than in any fossils which they may yield. Still
the limits are often sufficiently well marked to meet practical demands.
The deep leads were long supposed to be in no case older than Pliocene ;

* An exception is to be found in the lacustrine deposits of the Otago gold-field. New
Zealand (see pp. S49-50).

DEFINITION.

909

no marine relic has apparently been found in auriferous drifts, and no
gold-mining is known to be carried on in drifts underlying marine
fossiliferous strata. But the greatest distrust must be maintained
towards these dogmas ; the deep leads and otiicr strata have only been
very imperfectly studied, and at any moment gold may be discovered in
Secondary or Tertiary fossiliferous rocks. Indeed, since this work has
been in preparation, the Fifth Report of Progress of the Geological
Survey of Victoria states that extensive and rich gold-washings have
been found and partly worked in distinctly fossiliferous Miocene strata,
overlaid by a capping of basalt, in some places 700 ft. thick.

Rarely is it possible to trace the course of a deep lead within such
limits as will serve the turn of the gold-miner, merely by the indications
furnished by the natural surface of the land overlying them. The
course of a channel originating in a range of Palaeozoic rocks may for
some distance be well marked by strata of gravel, sand, and water-worn
quartz pebbles filling up the lower part of the valley ; but when it is
followed out into the low plains, through which the modern stream has
cut its way, the strata may, and almost certainly will, increase in thick-
ness, so that it becomes impossible any longer to follow the trend of the
ancient river-bed. By noting the direction of the boundary ridges, it
may be possible to indicate the limits of the deviations of the channel ;
but where the distance between them is considerable, which is very
generally the case, much money may be fruitlessly spent in sinking in
search of the lead. In Victoria, some little guidance may be derived
from the fact that it has hitherto been found that almost all the leads
run parallel to the modern rivers, whereas in California they are more
commonly at right angles to the latter; and even under the best con-
ditions, the sinuosities of the ancient channel cannot be taken into calcu-
lation, neither is it possible to foretell where the bed may widen and
where it may become narrow, points which, as will be seen presently,
have a vital bearing upon the payable character or richness of the
auriferous lead. When a lead is overlaid by basalt, the miner's diflfi-
culties are increased. In some localities, it is true, the direction can be
determined within limits sufficiently restricted for theoretical purposes,
because the outcrops of the bed-rocks are visible on either hand, and
their elevation above the valley or plain can be fixed. But to the miner,
only two courses present themselves : if he will ascertain the course of
the lead with accuracy, he must undertake expensive subterranean
explorations ; approximately, he may succeed by putting down borings.
Yet even when the general trend is known, and the width reaches a mile
or two, nothing is easier than to miss the richest part of the lead. The
undulations of the surface afford no clue, and are often very misleading ;
and when the lowest depressions of the underlying strata have been

9IO

DEEP LEADS.

il ii

found at the expense of boring, it may chance that the richest deposits
of the gold do not lie there, but in the " reef-washes " or " benches " at
the higher levels. A " reef-wash " is a deposit of wash-dirt spread over
an expanse of flat or undulating "reef" or bed-rock, or lodged in a
hollow in it above the level of the " gutter " or true bed of the water-
course. For instance, towards the junction of two leads, the wall of reef
or bed-rock by which the two leads are separated appears in some cases
to be worn or broken down, and a stretch of comparatively flat rock is
left between them : if covered by a layer of wash-dirt, and raised above
the level of the water-courses, this would be called a " reef-wash." Also
where the rock on one side of the water-course spreads out at a higher
level, and a channel containing wash-dirt is found running alongside the
true gutter, and between the gutter and the wall of the bed-rock, it is
called " reef-wash." Several instances have occurred in Victoria where
considerable alluvial gold deposits have been found and worked at dis-
tances of 200 and 300 yd. from the gutter, which had already been
exhausted and deserted. Sometimes the outcrops of deep leads may be
discovered by prospecting along the edges of the basalts. It seems to
be considered as an established fact that there are no auriferous quartz
veins in the mesozoic strata of Victoria, and therefore it may be assumed
that any gold found resting upon them must have been conveyed from
older rocks containing auriferous matrices ; this is considered to preclude
the probability of any rich deposit of gold being found on them.

Formation. — Auriferous leads seem, so far as is known, to present
closely similar features wherever they may be found, whether exposed,
or covered by basalt or recent sedimentary deposits. It must be re-
membered that even the hardest rocks are worn away by the combined
action of air, rain, wind, sun, dew, and frost, and are rendered capable of
transport by streams. These latter act in two ways : they cut into the
rocks through which they flow, and at the same time they deposit in
their courses the heavier particles of material brought down from
the neighbouring elevations. In this way, alluvions are formed. If the
stream is powerful, the fall not very great, and the rocks soft, a com-
paratively wide deposit of drifts and clays will be arranged, according
to the specific gravity of the materials, modified, however, by the size
and shape of the particles ; and these strata will gradually increase in
thickness till the lower part of the stream begins to acquire greater force
from the steeper fall there produced, and scoops out a deeper channel
for itself. In time, it will wear back towards the source, and a new and
deeper course will be cut through the alluvions and bed-rock. The
action is illustrated in Fig. 54. The stream a represents the " gutter "
of a lead ; the drifts b, the " reef-wash " ; c, newer drift ; d, older drift
cut through and carried away ; e, bed-rock. It is often supposed that

FORMATION.

911

the reef-wash must necessarily be younger than the drift in the gutter,
but it is quite possible that it may even be older in some instances.
Evidently many successive layers of different ages may be formed in
the same way, and where it can be proved that the stream has always

Fir.. 54.

'')'

U',

Section showing " Rekf-wash."

been cutting a deeper channel, it may be assumed with certainty that
the upper drifts or reef-washes are older than those lying deeper down.
A stream will seldom continue to make a deposit in the direction of its
course for a lengthened period and until its channel is changed ; but this
does occasionally happen where the bounding ridges are low. In such a
case, the bed will gradually be silted up, and it will be almost impossible
to ascertain the relative ages of the deposits, especially when the litho-
logical features remain the same throughout.

The rate at which alterations are effected by streams of water depends
in a great measure upon the nature of the rocks exposed to their action.
When the strata are inclined, and composed of soft sandstones and
argillaceous rocks, materials will be transported and new channels
excavated in a manner which is not known when the rocks are hard or
lie almost horizontally. The stream a, shown in Fig. 55, would rapidly
erode the rock against which it impinges, and would be assisted by every
shower of rain, the upper portions falling down as fast as the lower parts
were worn away. The bed would constantly move towards the right,
and the earthy materials of all kinds would be disintegrated and trans-
ported to form a new deposit in some portion of the bed of the stream.

In Fig. 56 may be observed the effects of another co-operation of
forces. The stream a, wearing away the rocks on the right, would cause
masses to fall from time to time, and landslips would also take place.
Surface water percolating through the layers of clay at c would facilitate
this, and an insignificant rivulet would soon materially change its bed.
When claystones form a part of the strata in such cases, the layers will
not hold together, and large masses will slide down at a time.

Ill

I 11 .: 1

I w.

Hifi'

912

DEEP LEADS.

This kind of erosion often gives rise to important changes, of which
a common example is shown in Fig. 57. Sometimes, by examining an
ordinary horseshoe bend, it will be seen that the stream has at various
times overflowed and denuded nearly every part of the surface of the
peninsula c, which thus becomes much lower than the adjacent country.
The stream having finally cut its bed, as indicated, continues to wear
away the sides of the range at a and if, in the manner represented, until
at last the isthmus is cut through, the channel deepened, and, in the
course of time, the old bed surrounding the peninsula is almost
obliterated.

I' HI. 55

KiG. 57,

Sections showing ERObivE Action of Rivers.

It is commonly remarked of the Victorian rivers which run through
basalt and Silurian claystone districts, that their beds are cut along the
line of junction of the two formations. This is due to the softness of the
argillaceous claystones. Rain falling on the claystone ranges would first
settle in the hollows of the line of junction, decompo.sition and disinte-
gration would follow, and a channel would soon be cut in the softer rocks
in the line of the depression.

I'OKMA'liUN,

913

The diagrams just given are from actual sections by Hrough Smyth,
but they only represent the simplest changes met with. A deep study
of and intimate acquaintance with the geological disturbances which
have been developed in a district, must always prove of immense
assistance to the seeker after deep leads. It is, in fact, the point which
demands the greatest attention, and ought to form the basis for all
mining operations undertaken in this class of deposits. The following
diagrams, therefore, cannot fail to be found exceedingly interesting and
instructive. They are due to Captain Couchman, chief mining surveyor
in the Maryborough district.

In that district, the shallowness of the auriferous alluvions on the
summits and slopes of the clay-slate ranges and the regularity of their
direction arc generally remarkable. They afford also evidence of the
great changes that have been developed in many of the drainage
channels. They arc commonly found in or near the present water-
courses, but there are many exceptions to this rule, one of the most
important of which is illustrated in Fig. 58. Here the old valley beds

Fig. 58.

\\<3

'^U

Df-KI'LY-sii/ied Gutters far from trksknt Stri'.am.

have been silted up to high levels, forming wide alluvial flats, and
the wash-dirt l> c is found far from the present water-course a, though
still in the same flat. This feature seems to have originated in a
constant shifting of the bed of the stream during the time that the
valley was being silted up, as evidenced by the successive layers of
clay, shingle, ard sand.

It sometimes happens that after old channels containing auriferous
alluvial deposits have been silted up in a great measure, deeper valleys
are worn down on either side, so that what was formerly a valley is
made to assume the appearance of a hill, as shown in Fig. 59. The hill
from which this illustration is taken has the outward appearance of a
clay-slate spur, but really consists chiefly of alluvial deposits, in which
gold has been found immediately under the summit ; a c are modern
water-courses, b is wash-dirt.

Where flows of basaltic lava have wholly or partially covered the
Silurian claystones, &c., the courses of the modern streams often vary

3 N

914

DEEP LEADS.

widely from the direction of the older valleys beneath, though exhibiting
conformity in the general tendency of the main drainage between the
watersheds and the sea or the chief rivers.

Gutter hidden by Alluvial Hill.

An instance of complete capping with basalt is shown in Fig. 60.
New river channels c have cut their way in the basalt in the lines
governed by the depressions and slopes on its surface, while beneath, as

Fig. 60.

Gutter completely capped by Basalt.

at a and b, deep leads of auriferous alluvium occupy the beds of the
ancient river system.

Where the basalt is of an indurated description, and its flow has been
restricted within the limits of a narrow valley, the formation will assume
the character illustrated in Fig. 61. The basalt was confined to the bed
of an alluvial valley in the older sedimentary rocks, probably bounded
on either side by hills sloping in the direction of the dotted lines, the
volcanic rock conforming with the level of the horizontal broken line.
The basalt has succumbed to the degrading influences of the elements
much less readily than the adjacent claystones, and thus newer valley
beds have been eroded at each side to a lower level, and the ancient river
channel with its coping of basalt is left standing as a hill or small
plateau ; a c, wash-dirt ; b d, existing water-courses. In all parts of
Victoria where the leads have been explored, it has been noticed that the
existing main-drainage channels have been determined by the form of

■5rf*^*^'

sMis**-r

FORMATION.

915

the surface of the Palaeozoic rocks. Recent lava-flows h^ve modified the
valleys, and varied the courses of the streams ; but the main features,
resulting from the aqueous agencies it work previous to an i during the
formation of the leads, remain, though difficult to trace.

With regard to the shallow, auriferous hill deposits before spoken of,
miners commonly suppose them to be of more recent formation than the

Fig. 61.

eds of the

Gutter keneath eroded Hasalt Hilu

leads in the valleys, and consider them to result from a later disintegra-
tion of richly auriferous quartz veins in ti.e immediate vicinity. This
may possibly be a correct view of some of those deposits which do not
lie directly on the bed-rock ; but where they are in actual contact with
the Silurian strata, and the gold and quartz detritus bear a water-worn
appearance, attesting a process of friction and disturbance such as the
materials forming the valley leads have been subjected to, there is no
room for such a theory, and they must rather be taken as special
illuhirations of the extraordinary changes that have been effected in the
river-beds of the olde. sedimentarj rocks by ordinary agencies still at
work. The chief causes which have governed the changes that have

Kid. 62.

fM^

Section showinc. change of River-hed.

taken place in many of the valleys in schistose formations may be briefly
stated as the greater disintegration of the argillaceous rocks over ti e
others in the same drainage area ; the tendency of rocks to wear chiefly
in the direction of the dip of the strata (as illustrated by Fig. 62), owing
to the more direct and powerful influence of the elements upon the
exposed dges ; the more swift erosion of the steepest hills, on account

3 N 2

■M

S^*'!

)

|K<!s

9i6

DEEP LEADS,

of the rapidity of the drainage and the redoubled scouring action of rain-
storms on the slopes ; the shifting of water-courses from one valley to
another lower, by a channel being cut through the dividing range ;
and the action of streams from tributary valleys in a lateral direction
across the main valleys. In Fig. 62, a c are old hills ; b, an old valley ;
</, a new valley ; e, existing water-course.

The positions occupied by the gold in the leads are very diversified :
in some strata, it is scattered throughout from surface to bed-rock ; in
others, it is peculiar to the thin layer of quartz pebbles and alluvial
drift lying on the bed-rock ; in many places, false bottoms occur.

It might be supposed that in the case of a rich stratum of gold being
found actually lying upon the bed-rock, the whole of the auriferous
deposit had accumulated at one time, and that the barren alluvium was
subsequently superimposed. This was, however, by no means the case.
It is evident that the flow of water and earthy matters contained from
first to last a certain proportion of atoms of gold, whose size was
governed by the dimensions of its original matrix, and the degree of
abrasion and reduction to which it had been subjected, the latter de-
pending on the force of the motive power, and the obstacles met with.
Having stopped in some hollow, the superior weight of the precious
atoms would cause them to sink through the moist surrounding matters,
till a hard layer wa:> met with. The recurrence of this process would
constantly add to the deposit, the gold always gravitating towards the
bottom, quickly or slowly, according to circumstances. If water was
held long enough to soften the previously deposited material, the
bottom would soon be reached ; but if the water passed off at once, the
gold would remain principally on the surface of the last layer, or partly
scattered through the newly deposited mass, and thus the heaviest and
smallest particles — their shape being favourable — would continue to
descend, so that in course of time the largest proportion must accumu-
late in the lowest parts, and above strata that are impermeable to
water, — generally the bed-rock. Time -and circumstances may render
it probable that several strata of gold maj^^ be found, independent of a
considerable amount pervading tiie whole alluvial deposit, through not
having had an opportunity of settling down.

Surprise has often been expressed at the discovery of large water-
worn boulders of quartz and other rocks in the alluvions of little
channels, where the stream is insignificant even in we veather, and
certainly incapable of moving them under ordinary circumstances. Their
abrasion and transportation are generally to be attributed to floods, often
occurring where the formations resemble those shown in Figs. 55, 56.
Sometimes also the detritus has been derived from drainage areas no
longer in connection with the modern stream. When a lead is struck,

SECTIONS.

917

much uncertainty must surround its relation to other leads, until it has
been opened up to some extent. Short of actual exploration, perhaps the
safest guides are the character of the detrital matter in the gutter or bed
of the lead, and the direction of the fall of the water ; but they are not
infallible, for the colour, character, and even mode of occurrence of the
strata may vary greatly in the same lead, owing to the influence of
tributary streams, and water may in a similar manner be introduced in
large quantities, and thus give rise to serious errors. It is very necessary
to bear in mind that the gutter or actual bed of the stream does not
represent by any means the distribution of the auriferous ground ; the
width of the lead is not confined to the gutter, and sometimes the yield
of gold is greater from other parts of the lead than from the gutter itself.
Sections. — Sections of the strata cut through in reaching deep leads
are very interesting, both to the miner and the geologist. Those here-
after given are principally on the authority of Brough Smyth, and refer
to Victoria : —

ft.

Black soil 4

Red gravel 2

Red clay 13

Drift 34

Boulders 3

Cement and sand 3

Auriferous drift 2

III.
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Bottom : Micaceous sandstone.

2. Red clay 1 o

Basalt go o

Boulders 9 o

Auriferous drift 30

109 o

Bottom : Green slate.

Soil 70

Red clay 80

Black clay 35 o

Decom;'.osed basalt 10 o

Black clay 11 o

Boulders 15 o

Auriferous drift 80

94 o

Bottom : Schistose.

4. Surface soil 20

Stiff yellow clay 80

Drift (dry) 13 o

ft. ill.

Stiff yellow clay 90

Fine sand 20

Ditto, darker colour, with a little

grave! 40

Fine white sand 40

Cement of drift granite and

sand 14 o

Arenaceous clay 23 o

Fine yellow clay 3 o

Coarse drift 12 o

Fine drift sand and clay .. .. 10

White and yellow cl.iy . . . . 20

Fine drift (no water) . . 40

Very tenacious white pipe-c'ay 3 o

Dark-yellow clay and grit .. 90
Very fine running drifL (inui:h

water) '5 o

S'ifT blue and red chiy .. .. 20

Light-coloured drift 10

Stiff blue clay 10

Tough black clay mixed with

charcoal 5

Blue clay 20

Very tough clay 40

Red clay with streaks of white

and yellow 112 o

Cement (false bottom) .. .. 26

Hard cemented granite ilrift .. 30

Coarse gravel 3 o

Auriferous coarse drift gravel 7 o

270 6

Bottom : Soft white slate and
pipe-clay.

,.v»r

9i8

DEEP LEADS.

ft. in.

, Surface soil 20

Sandy clay 18 o

Brown sandy clay 18 o

White sand 20

Yellow clay 20 o

White pipe-clay 20

Red sandy clay 20

Dark-brown sandy clay .. .. 14 o

Water r o

Variegated sandy clay . . . . 90

Red sandy clay 20

Yellow clay 10 o

Yellow sandy clay (more water) 19 o

Red sandy drift 10 o

Yellow clay 10 o

Red clay with streaks of white

and yellow 8i o

221

Bottom : Yellow slate rock.
No drift, no gravel, and no
gold.

6. Surface soil 20

Stiff yellow clay 18 o

Coarse granite drift, very hard 4 o

Stiff yellow clay 16 o

Very fine sand 40

Coarse granite drift with clay

and fine sand 140

Stiff variegated clay .. .. 20

Hard red granite drift . . . . 40

Very stiff variegated clay . . 30

Hard red granite drift . . . . 40

Red and white clay, very hard 4 o

Stiff yellow clay 90

Hard granite mixed with a little

clay 70

Hard red granite drift ,. .. 10

White clay and fine sand . . 20

Fine s 3ft yellow clay .. .. 20

Granite drift and clay .. .. 30

Soft white and yellow clay . . 20

Granite drifi with a little water 9 o

Red and yellow clay .. .. 15 o

Red, white, and yellow clay .. 20
Very fine (dry) light -coloured

clay 30

Fine dark-coloured drift with

charcoal 30

White clay with quartz .. .. 30
Red clay with strecks of white

and yellow 120 o

Red sand (cement) 06

ft. in.
Coarse granite drift, very hard,

with very little water .... 26
Auriferous drift, colour of gold

obtained 20

261 o

Bottom : Yellow slate rock.

7. Surface soil 20

Clay and sand 38 o

Drift 14 o

Clay 27 o

Drift 60

Clay II o

Clay, sand, and drift .. .. IS o

Clay mixed with drift .. .. 25 o

Black stiff clay 40

Yellow and blue clay .. .. 18 o
Red clay with streaks of white

and yellow 102 o

Auriferous drift gravel mixed

with cement 40

266 o
Bottom : Soft white slate and pipe-clay.

8, Surface soil 10

Red sandy gravel mixed with

fine quartz 40 o

Fine quartz gravel, not water-
worn 10 o

Very fine white indurated clay,
with a slight appearance of
stratification and verging to-
wards cement at the base . . 43 o

Compact sand 30

Quartzose gravel . . . . 3 to 5 o
Auriferous drift resting on

Silurian bed-rock 5

107 o

9. Loam and clay . . .. 2 ft. to 4 o
Ferruginous cement .. 2 ft. to 4 o
Gravel, sand, and angular frag-
ments of quartz . . 20 ft. to 30 o

Fine compact gravel . , . . 20
Cement (sometimes wanting)

3 in. to I 3
Auriferous drift .. 5 ft. to 12 o
Very fine compact indurated

clay (false bottom) 20 ft. to 50 o
Auriferous ferruginous cement
lying on clay-slate (true
bottom) ., .. 6 ft. to 10 o

Maximum 113 3

ra-.

SECTIONS.

919

Only the lower part of either stratum in No. 9 is very rich in gold.
Towards the sides of the gutter, near the bounding ranges, the two
bottoms do not seem to be found ; but this is not made clear. Invari-
ably the two bottoms are met with wherever a tributary enters the main
lead. Probably the two gutters do not follow the same direction, or the
lower lead may be wider than the upper.

10. Black surface soil

ft. in.

o 9

II. Black surface soil

Clay with quartz-gravel .. 10 o

Basalt 48 o

Stiffclay 80

Quartz drift 20

Wash-dirt (quartz-gravel) 9 in. to 2 o

70 9

Fall of the gutter : 3 ft. in every
100 ft. Ferruginous cement
sometimes met with.

Clay with quartz ^

Basalt 52

Stiff black clay 9

Quartz drift 3

Wash-dirt 8 in to 3

Width of gutter : 200 ft. and not
fully explore!. Fall : 3 ft. in
every 100 ft. Ground very wet.

76 o

Fig. 63

1000 Feel

.<Kv\ 4.^ .^.■'•■•■---w^iia.'."-";---*'-^*.?

Miocene Leads at Tea-tree Creek.

Fig. 63 represents a section of the leads at Tea-tree Creek, Moorabool^
which are believed to be of Miocene age. All the ordinary gold-work-
ings, as here shown, are carried on in a recent drift, immediately under-
lying the basalt and overlying the older btrata. The gold is fine, but

920

DEEP LEADS.

11'

generally distributed, and has been profitably worked for several years.
The reference letters indicate as follows : — a, black clay and loam ;
b, gravel containing considerable quantities of fine gold ; c, 320 ft. of
cement, quartz boulders, &c. ; d, 9 ft. of drift ; e, dark clay with imbedded
trees and fine gold ; f, cement drift with layers interspersed with gold ;
gy basalt ; h, schist ; /', reef containing coarse heavy gold ; k, creek ;
/, shaft 460 ft. deep. The Golden-Rivers Company sank 460 ft. in order
to reach the bottom, in the hopes of finding richer ground than the lead
on the false bottom which they were working. After passing through a
drift containing small well-rounded pieces of quartz and a great deal of
pyrites, a seam of black clay was struck, enclosing fossil trees and a little
fine gold, and beneath this a thick layer of grey sandy clay with small
fragments of fossil wood. On the hard yellow sandstone bed-rock, every
sample taken from the lead yielded gold, and the precious metal was
found to be present wherever the true bottom was laid bare, but not in
sufficient quantity to pay for working.
Another section near here shows : —

Upper basalt rock, about 25 to 30 ft.

Pliocene gravel, about 50 to 60 ft.

Miocene gravel, &c. (the " false bottom "), gravel, sand, clay and boulders, with fossil

leaves and wood, about 400 ft.
Silurian slates, &c.

A third section runs : —

Upper basalt, 49 ft.

Sandy Pliocene grit, 10 to 15 ft.

Upper coralline limestone, 13 ft. j

Older basalt containing bands of hard compact limestone with fossils. [ Miocene.

Sandy limestones, with fossils, 30 ft. )

Rounded quartz pebble drift, and hard silicious conglomerate rock with fossil wood,

lower part gravel and boulder drift, 90 ft.
Silurian slate and sandstone with quartz veins.

Figs. 64 and 65 show a plan and section of the leads in the neigh-
bourhood of the Murray river, Victoria, copied from Brough Smyth's
work. The horizontal scale is 30 chains to i in. ; the vertical, 200 ft. to
I in. The break between the two portions of Fig. 65, representing the
area occupied by the probable ancient bed of the Murray river, may be
understood to have a width of 150 chains. The letters of indication on
Fig. 65 have the following reference : — a, red-chocolate coloured soil,
with a few rounded and sub-angular quartz pebbles ; b, the surface of
this flat consists of a tenacious marly clay, overlying the ordinary river
drifts, probably of no great depth ; c, banks consist of nearly perpendi-
cular rock about 50 ft. above the present level of the stream, composed
of brown, white, and red sandstone and slate-rock ; ferruginous quartz
vc. : particularly numerous, having every direction from perpendicular

"iiT-B*w"wai

SECTIONS.

921

to horizontal ; d, red soil, overlying clay-slate and sandstone rock ; e,
marly clay, used in brick-making ; /, surface covered with vast quantities
of rounded and sub-angular quartz pebbles ; gold has been found in the
stone ; g, a drain in this gully shows a considerable quantity of surface
limestone nodules ; //, quartz pebbles : brown and red clay soil ; /, total
depth of shaft said to be 235 ft. ; the width of the lead never exceeds
40 ft.; when it runs out in a fine drift 2 ft. 6 hi. thick, the wash-dirt is
about 5 ft. 6 in. thick ; bed-rock of the usual schistose formation ; y, a
quartz-prospecting shaft sunk on this hill shows 3 ft. of alluvium overlying
the sandstone and slate rock, intersected by several ver;, narrow quartz
veins, running down quite perpendicularly ; k, quartz pebbles very

Fig. 64.

iff*?*'

"«5Wamp

DOT

aOntW

c-!J>iJ?-

•\y ry ifj

•MU

Plan of Murray River Leads.

plentiful on this hill ; no exposure of rock ; /, shaft about 60 ft. deep ;
the lead very poor and unimportant ; m, the veins are very small, the
largest not more than 4 or 5 in. thick ; n, this has been one of the most
productive leads in the district ; the depth of the last shaft sunk was
285 ft, the wash-dirt was 2^ to 5^ ft. thick, and the width of the lead
was 40 to 80 ft. ; 0, there is no exposure of rock on the sectional line, but
on the apex of the hill several quartz veins have been extensively
worked ; /, this lead seems to have originated in the quartz veins inter-
secting the apex of the low Silurian range ; the depth of sinking is 260 ft,
with wash-dirt 60 ft wide and 2 to 5 ft. deep ; g, close here is a thin
deposit of alluvium covering schistose rock intersected by quartz veins ;

922

DEEl' LEADS

.* y

•o

^T"

Osj

<>)

-^-

- — '-l al ffT B'^

SECTIONS. 923

r, a highly payable lead for a distance of 1 54 ft. west from the shaft ;
drift chiefly composed of sub-angular fragments of quartz.

In the main lead, at Bendigo, are two layers of cement, one formed on
the top of the wash-dirt, i to 7 ft. from the bed-rock, where the gold is
so fine as to be called " paint-gold ," yet so abundantly and thoroughly
disseminated through the rock that it averages 5 to 6 dwt. per ton, and
sometimes reaches l\ oz. It is exceedingly hard, and has to be broken
down with sledge-hammers, as the loose, sandy character of the over-
lying stratum precludes the use of gunpowder. The other layer of
cement lies on the bed-rock, and is only i to 4 in. thick. Some of it is
brittle and even friable, and it has been found exceedingly rich in places,
seams of it running for 18 in. into the bed-rock, while its average yield
has been i oz. per ton. The strata are about as follows : —

^ ft. in.

Sandy loam 16

Sandy clay lo ft. to 12 o

Gravel like road-n1et.1l 30 o

Sand in layers 30 o

Tough clay 4 ft. to 6 o

Fine drift sand 11 6

Gravel and boulders 3 ft. to 9 o

In the Daylesford district, the lines of the outflows of volcanic matter
can be distinctly traced, notwithstanding the changes effected by denu-
dation. The alterations in the contour due to riverine action are partly
referable to the great extent of heavily wooded country lying to the
south, on and near the Main Spur, where rain falls nearly all the year
round. The streams fed from this source have cut deeply into the

Fig. 66.

Deep Leads in the Daylesford District.

basaUs and Palaeozoic clay-stones, and the leads or ancient river-beds
have to be sought for in the bounding ranges of the present valleys
rather than deep beneath the surface of the latter. The modes of occur-
rence of most of the deep leads in this district are represented by the
actual sections depicted in Figs. 66 and 67. In Fig. 66, a is basalt;

1;^

r jrl

|iB| f

924

DKKI' LEADS.

d, Palaeozoic claystones, &c. ; c, modern water-course ; d, lead. In Fig. 6;,
a, are modern water-courses ; b, Pal.xozoic clay-stones ; c, basalt ; d, clay
and sand ; e, sand and quartz pebbles ; /, auriferous drift.

Fig. 67.

Deep Leads in the Dayleskord District.

:,r''^^" '■'

Fig. 68.

Basaltic Pipe cutting Lead.

One property here, shown in Fig. 68, possessed a novel feature, in the
shape of a dyke or pipe of basalt, which puzzled the miners considerably.

SECTIONS.

925

Believing it to be an ordinary cliff, they sank down beside it for about
140 ft. at a, but found no bottom, and they afterwards drove through it,
and discovered the bottom on the other side. The dyke is about 50 ft.
thick, and the overlying basalt has a considerable thickness. It is
possible that this dyke or pipe may be the outlet of an ancient crater.
From a report, it seems that the shaft No. i was sunk to a depth of
130 ft., passing through surface soil 10 ft. ; basalt 80 ft.; and Silurian
.slate 40 ft. A drive was then opened out and pushed 390 ft. due E. till
reaching the basaltic dyke running S. E. After sinking 170 ft. down the
western edge at I), and finding no termination of the intruded rock, the
original drive was continued S.E., and the gutter found abruptly ending
at the edge of the dyke.

In the lower part of the Coliban, it is noticed that wherever a basalt
capping exists, the drift beneath is more or less auriferous. A shaft in
that district shows, — Surface soil, i ft. ; clay with fragments of quartz,
6 ft; quartz-gravel, 13 ft. The bottom is pipe-clay; width of gutter, 6
to 8 ft; thickness of wash-dirt, i to 3 ft ; fall of gutter, 3 ft in every
100 ft The wash-dirt consists of quartz boulders, clay and sand, and a
portion of the pipe-clay bottom. The gold is coarse and not much
water-worn.

A neighbouring shaft has cut through, — Black soil, 6 ft. ; basalt, 80 ft. ;
stiff clay, 68 ft ; drift, 6 ft ; coarse pebbly wash, 3 ft Width of gutter
about 20 ft. ; the gold not much water-worn.

At Vaughan, near the junction of Fryer's Creek and the river Loddon,
the aurifcroui* leads occur as shown in Fig. 69. The reference letters

Fig. 69.

Leaos on Frver's Creek.

have the following significations : — a, basalt ; b, gravel with large quartz
boulders ; c, auriferous drift ; d, cement ; e, alluvial ; /, river Loddon ;
g, Kangaroo Flat.

In Fig. 70, is seen a diagram of a tunnel driven through auriferous
strata on the Upper Dargo river. The " rim-rock, " or edge of the ancient
channel, generally to be observed in the terrace deposits occurring at
various heights above the present river-beds, has been cut through to a
depth of several ft. The reference letters are — a, Silurian ; b, plant-bed ;
c, auriferous quartz-gravel ; d, basalt talus. The total thickness of the
gravels is about 30 to 40 ft They consist principally of water-worn
vein-quartz and pale sandstone, with a few pebbles of quartz. The gold
is generally fine, and was disseminated throughout the gravels traversed
by the tunnel in sufficient abundance to pay the working expen.ses of

» ''a

926

DF.KP I,1;AI)S.

prospecting. The specimens found in the plant-bed have been deter-
mined as of Miocene age. The careful examination and study of these

Miocene rivers becomes of

Fic. 70.

importance, now
are proved to be

c -

rUNMtL

* -^ Scale,4^A-1tny. *

Lkad on Ui'I'ER Daroo River.

immense
that they
auriferous.

Some information con-
cerning theauriferous Tertiary
beds at Newtown Hill is to
be gathered from the shafts
undertaken recently in that
district. The first was put
down through drift and
ferruginous cement, 20 ft. ;
bottomed on blue slate reef.
No. 2 sank 67 ft. through drift
and large rounded quartz boulders, bottomed on slate reef, sank in slate
to 82 ft,, drove in it eastwards go ft., jumped up 15 ft., and broke into
a wash yielding fine and (so-called) " coarse " gold, the latter but little
water-worn. No. 3 shaft was sunk through strata similar to No. 2,
bottomed at 85 ft. on blue slate reef, opened out at 94 ft., drove east-
wards 72 ft., descended 5 ft. on to slate reef at 120 ft., sank 12 ft. on to
slate, and at 180 ft. sank 31 ft. on to hard slate reef. The "reef,"
standing on edge, had an E. slope throughout and a thin capping of
auriferous drift. Other 3 shafts were sunk on the southern slope of
Mercer Hill. No. i was through surface soil 10 ft. ; brown burnt clay,
40 ft.; drift and boulders, l> ft. Bottomed at 65 ft. on blue slate reef
sloping E. No. 2 penetrated surface soil, 4 ft. ; burnt clay, 50 ft. ; drift
with basaltic boulders, 37 ft. ; fine gravel drift, 6 in. ; blue slate reef, 21 ft.
Opened out at 112 ft. 6 in. ; drove E. 65 ft. and broke into wash, the
reef scill inclining E. i to 3 ; drove another 85 ft. in boulder drift, leaving
the wash under foot. No. 3 section is as follows : —

ft.

Alluvial Surface soil 4

Newer Pliocene . . Brown sandy clay witl. cl>arred wood 45

Newer V'olcanic .. Vesicular basalt 12*

/ Rounded quartz-pebble drift, with a shingle of
quartz, gneiss, tlvanite arid bluish-black fissile
metamor^ic slate, occasionally streaked with

quartz .. .. '. 7

Drift of small rounded grains of transparent

((uartz, in a base of white felspathic clay . , 30

Coarse quartz-gravel 2

Whitish sandy clay 6,

Sand drift with quartz-gravel 18

^ Sandy clay 2

Older Pliocene

126

SECTIONS.

927

The material composing the older drift has undoubtedly been derived
from granite and the contiguous metamorphic rocks, and the lower beds
of the last section are very similar to those of the Great Western lead,
where the auriferous leads rest on granite. The " coarse " gold mentioned
above should probably be termed " scaly " rather. The presence of
coarse gold is supposed to imply the proximity of the Older Palaiozoic
rocks, while fine gold may be carried a considerable distance from its
source, and occur in small quantities overlying indiscriminately rocks of
any formation older than the drift with which it is associated. If it can
be shown that the bed-rock at Newtown Hill is a carbonaceous rock,
with or without overlying Miocene beds, it is deemed u.seless to expect
remunerative results from gold searching ; but if Silurian rocks underlie
the Tertiaries and Newer Volcanic beds, then, say geologists, " the
principal conditions of a gold-field may be admitted to be present."

From the Stony Creek down to and through the Glenmaggie pre-
emptive right, are distinct indications of an old river-bed now filled up
with ba.salt. In the natural sections exposed, the basalt rests occasionally
directly on Silurian formation, but in other places is separated from it
by thick beds of intensely hard, cherty, silicious rock and conglomerate.
The silicious rock thins out as the Silurian rocks rise on either side of the
channel, and docs not appear to occupy the river-bed, which probably
contains a gravel cfeposit, as a few indications of such are met with.
This gravel would therefore seem to be somewhat more recent than the
silicious rock, and the section, if exposed, is believed to be as shown in

River-bed filled by Uasalt.

pig_ 71 ;—a, Silurian ; b, silicious rock ; c, gravels in the lead ; d, basalt ;
e, most recent alluvial deposits. The actual sections are shown in Figs.
72, 73, and 74 \—a, Silurian ; b, silicious rock ; b\ gravel of apparently
the same age ; c, gravel in lead ; d, basalt ; e, alluvial deposits. Rolled
boulders of the silicious rock, polished like glass, are frequent in some
places. There is also a deposit of gravel forming hills above the level of
the volcanic formation, but traceable to lower elevations and beneath the
volcanic rock. This gravel may be of the same age as the silicious rock
beds, or the gravel in the old channel, but as yet no definite opinion can
be expressed. The modes of occurrence and doubtful character of the

928

DEEP LEADS.

relations of the gravel and r,ilicious rock are illustrated in Fig. "ji. The
volcanic rock, when solid, is a dense, hard, dark basalt, but is usually
much decomposed. To the south of the Glenmaggie Creek, are tracts

Fig. 72.

Fig. 73.

/.•iG. 74,

Sections at Stony Creek.

of country consisting of quartz-gravel and ferruginous cement, somewhat
higher than the basaltic hills, and sloping southwards towards the plains.
I'hey sometimes rest on Silurian rocks, and are visible in one place
resting on the middle Tertiary silicious rock. At the junction with the
basalt, however, the surface indications so blend the characteristics of

both formations that it

Fig. 75.

Fig. 76.

Sections at Glenmaggie Creek.

is impossible to tell
whether the gravels rest
on the basalt or vice
versd. These two pos-
sible relations are indi-
cated in Figs. 75 and
76. The former view is
adopted, because a few
miles distant a clear
section isfoundof simf r
gravels overlying basalt,
which is again underlaid by other gravels, as shown in Fig, yy. The refer-
ence letters are— «, Silurian ; b, gravel on hills ; c, gravel in lead ; d, basalt.
The sedimentary deposits of the Upper Pliocene period are principally
a result of the arrest, overflow, or diversion of drainage due to the surface
alteration caused by the lava-flows, and they are therefore chiefly
noticed in the neighbourhood of volcanic rocks, whose limits they often
hide. They form widespread layers of brown and mottled clay and
sandy loam, with angular pieces of quartz and nodular masses of clay-
marl, exceeding in places 70 ft. in thicknc^-nS, and rest indiscriminately

SECTIONS.

929

I I

upon Palaeozoic, Pliocene and volcanic rocks. Their occurrence is well
illustrated in Fig. 78 :—a, Upper Pliocene, mottled sandy clay with

Fig. 78.

'f^m^mffrnmi

Upfer Pliocene Leads.

ironstone gravel ; d, Newer Volcanic ; c, Middle Miocene, auriferous
quartz-gravel ; d, Palaeozoic.

Fig. 79 is a sketch section of a number of lava streams met with in a
distance of about 2^ miles : — a, Upper Pliocene (clay drift) ; ^, ist lava

930

DEEP LEADS.

c, 2nd lava flow ; d, Middle Pliocene (Lewer's lead) ; e^ Silurian, along
the strike of the beds.

In Fig. 8 1 is set n a third section, about i| miles in length, showing
the gold-drifts or ai^riferous leads of the Middle Pliocene :—«;, Post

Fig. 8i.

-MOO

Middle Tliocene Lkads.

Pliocene ; b, Middle Pliocene ; c, Newer Volcanic ; d, Lower Pliocene ;
e, Silurian.

The lithological character of the basalt varies but little in different
localities, Thro'.'.ghout the district there is the same granular dolerit?^.
changing in one locality only to a glassy, more than ordinarily felspatHc
rock, and in another spot a quarry has exposed l8 ft. of porphyritic
dolerite. Around the points of eruption prevail the usual varieties of
cellular lava, scoiiae, volcanic ash, ard breccia.

The material composing the river leads of the Middle Pliocene
period, or older gold-drift, of this district is principally a coarse, much
water-worn quartz and ironstone gravel, which appears to have been
derived chiefly from the denuded Older Pliocene beds. As a rule, the
deepest " gutter-drift " of this gold-field is poor as compared with the
auriferous " reef-wash " on the higher levels. There are evidently
deposits belonging to two distinct epochs, which may be classified as
"newer middle" and "older middle" Pliocene. The newer middle
Pliocene occupies the channels scooped out subsequently to the deposi-
tion of the older middle drift, which rests on the Hanks, or forms terraces,
or has often been altogether denuded away during the newer middle
epoch, as represented in Fig. 82.

A good example of the occurrence of both drifts is afforded in Carter's
Company's mine, Ryrie's Creek. There two narrow gutters trend north-
wards towards a junction with the main Spring Hill Lead, Between
.lese two gutters is an older channel drift, crossing the others obliquely,
as seen in Fig. 83, The darker portion b of the plan (Fig. 83) shows the
older lead, which is clayey, contains ironstone gravel, and has proved
highly a . iferous. The lighter portion a represents the deep wet gravel
l',ads of more recent formation. They are generally poor, except where
they have cut through the older leads. The older drift south of Carter's

SECTiONS.

931

BOO

e
h
n
e

shaf: - is probably not less than 50 ft. above the level of the gutter.
The main lead and the lower part of the tributary leads are covered by
basalt.

Marine deposits of the Lower Pliocene or oldest gold-drift are limited
to the watershed of the lower part of Slaty Creek and the upper part of
Creswick Creek, where they form coverings 4 to 60 ft. thick on many of
the hills, ranging in elevatior. from 1700 to 1420 ft. above sea-level. The
material composing these drifts consists of brown clay, with quartz gravel ;
coarse quartz pebbles and boulders, either loosely aggregated, or bound

Fig. 82.

^^ J.-

'I'll' t(iiflnT^fe>^vC^o-T\^^ V

Relations of Newer and Older Middle Pliocene.

by ferruginous cement ; shingle of Silurian sandstone and ironstone.
No fossils have been found in them. At two hills the boulder drift has
water-worn blocks of quartz over a ton in weight and upwards of 4 ft. in
diameter. The gold is coarse, rounded, and generally coated with black
manganese. At Hard Hill, a nugget weighing 120 oz. 1.^ said to have
been found, while pieces of 5 and 10 oz. weight were numerous. The
reference letters in Figs. 82 and 83 are : — a, Newer Middle Pliocene ; d.
Older Middle Pliocene ; c, Newer Volcanic ; (f, Silurian.

In one instance, in New South Wales, two leads were discovered
not 100 yd. apart, parallel to each other, cont .ining exactly similar
wash-dirt, but at different levels. The one at 140 to 160 ft had no gold,
whilst that at Soto 90 ft. yielded 10 to 15 dwt. per load. From the
nature of the country, it is declared that many more deep leads will be
discovered when the miners acquire a more perfect knowledge of the
rocks of the district, the inode of occurrence of the auriferous veins, the
conditions under which they are disintegrated and decomposed, the
jHisition of the original drainage channels, how they have been silted up,
and the manner in which the ancient plains and valleys have been buried
beneath an alluvial deposit 50 to 150 ft. thick. The plains of the Lachlan
become alluvial gold-fields wherever gold-bearing reefs or veins, however
poor, are found to occupy elevated positions in their vicinity, and where
on those highlands rocks of Silurian or Devonian age exhibit traces of
transmutation or disturbance by eruptive trappcan rocks.

302

•■'^i

932

DEEP LEADS.

In New South Wales and Victoria, the underlying geological for-
mation is believed to control the richness of the deep leads. Selwyn
says that while the leads are richly auriferous when chiefly derived
from and directly resting on Silurian rocks, " they gradually cease to
be so when they become underlaid by rocks newer than Silurian."
This is undoubtedly true in the majority of instances, but it is not
infallibly so.

In the Canadian lead, the wash-dirt often exceeds 40 ft. in depth,
which appears to be due to crevasses or fissures in the limestone bed-
rock. The immense deposit contains gold uniformly throughout.

At Bushman's lead, the gold from a deep lead resting on sandstone
and diorite was worth 3/. 14s. 6d. per oz., while that obtained from
intrusive dykes and small veins intersecting the rock subjacent to the
drift is worth only 3/. 5^. per oz.

It is important to notice that in deep leads the deepest ground is by
no means alwaj ; the best. This is easily accounted for by the fact that
ancient watercou .= e modern ones, may be moderately inclined at

their commencemei > tnd then become very precipitous; the gold
would lodge easily in the ded when moderately level, but in the banks
when precipitous. Subsequent drifts might sweep these banks, and,
becoming mixed with them, scatter a portion of their gold throughout
the lead.

The Nacka Nacka Creek winds in one portion of its course through
narrow alluvial flats, from which rocky hills rise on either side to an
elevation of 500 ft. Resting on some of the spurs, at 10 to 70 ft. above
the creek, are patches of Tertiary water-worn quartz-pebble drift, the
remnants of the ancient creek bed, which once descended in an unbroken
course along the valley, but which has since been cut through during
the erosion and deepening of the valley. Consequently the auriferous
contents of the denuded portions of the old drift have been, as it were,
naturally " ground-sluiced " and redistributed in the alluvial deposits
along the course of the present creek. The latter should therefore be
payably auriferous, .eeing that the older drift has yielded up to \ oz.
gold per load. The section shows chocolate-coloured soil, i ft.; sub-
angular quartz-pebble drift, containing fine gold in payable quantity,
8 ft. ; stiff white clay and sand, micaceous, 4 ft. ; fine and coarse rounded
quartz-drift, ferruginous, yielding up to \ oz. gold per load, 8 ft.

At Grenfell are three deep leads which were the beds of rivers that
flowed in Newer Pliocene times. They are crossed by a porphyritic
dyke, and are only payably auriferous for a mile below it, and not
payable immediately above it, which proves the gold to be derived
from the disintegration of the dyke, or veins in it.

The richness of the lead is often an indication of the proximity of reefs

SECTIONS.

933

whence the gold was originally derived, and, conversely, the nature of
the rocks forming the hills indicates whether or not the alluvial deposits
in the intervening valleys are likely to be auriferous.

In the Happy Valley lead, the bed-rock is crystalline limestone ; the
sinking is through clay and gravel with cement, 120 ft. ; black clay, 12 ft. ;
clay and gravel, 10 ft. ; coarse quartz-pebble wash, yielding 9 dwt. gold
per load, ij ft.; quartz-pebble drift and fine micaceous clay, mingled
with limestone boulders, which are often coated with black oxide of
manganese and brown oxide of iron, gold averaging i i to 2 dwt. per
load throughout the drift, 30 ft. ; total 173^ ft.

Immense deposits of richly auriferous wash-dirt have been discovered
in Victoria, on the sides and ledges of deep leads : only a small propor-
tion of the gold of the deep leads of Ballarat was taken from what is
termed the lead proper — deepest channel or " gutter," — but by far the
greatest quantity of gold was subsequently found to have lodged on
either side of the ancient river banks, whav is familiarly termed in the
deep alluvial districts " reef-wash."

Subjoined is a sketch-section (Fig. 84), of the Wallaby diggings in
Victoria. The reference letters indicate as follows : — a, Palaeozoic ;

Fig. 84.

Sketch-section of Wallaby Diggings.

b, Older Pliocene ; c, Middle Pliocene ; d, Newer Volcanic ; e, Upper
Pliocene. The gold in these leads has been derived from quartz veins
traversing the "idge, and which have been exposed by the alluvial
operations and since worked.

In the neighbourhood of volcanic centres, it is usual to 'ind that the
greatest extent of the latest Tertiary deposit occupies p'aces on and
around the basalt boundaries where the clay drift fills up the inequalities
in the surface caused by the lava-streams. In most of the watercourses
which are scooped out on, or adjacent to, the sites of Middle Pliocene
leads, are found Upper Pliocene drift banks, consisting in great part of
the redistributed material of the denuded older drift. Red, brown, blue
and mottled clays, with angular quartz fragments, form the matrix, with
which are mixed up well-worn pebbles and boulders of quartz, and
shingle of slate and sandstone. In many places, where a layer of lava has

934

DEEP LEADS.

been intersected by later erosion, as in Fig. 85, pebbles and larger
masses of completely-rounded basalt form a not inconsiderable adjunct
to the drift. The reference letters are : — a, Upper Pliocene (recent
gold-drift) ; b, Middle Pliocene (older gold-drift) ; c, Newer Volcanic ;
d, Palaeozoic.

It often happens that accumulations of debris make it impossible to

Fig. 85.

Fig

Upper Pliocene Drift Banks.

find the exact level at which to drive into the gravel of a deep lead. The
first object should then be to find the contact of the gravel and bed-rock

in situ in the deepest part of the lead, and this
can only be done by experimental cuttings and
shafts, whose site must be selected according to
the appearances of the ground, the exposures of
clay and sand beds above the gravel, &c. These
difficulties, and the method of dealing with
them, are illustrated in the accompanying sketch-
section, Fig. 86. Once the actual bed of the lead
is found, subsequent operations are simple
enough. The reference letters indicate : — a, ba-
; c, gravel in situ ; d, bed-rock ; e, fallen d^b "is ;

Lead hidden by Debris.

salt ; b, sand, clay, &c.
f, prospecting shaft.

Fig. Zy shows an instance of three pay-channels at different eleva-

FiG. 87.

f^mf);^ ___

Three Pay-channels at different Elevations.

tions : — a is the oldest drift, worked for gold ; b, an auriferous deep lead,
200 ft. or more in depth, resting on Silurian bed-rock d ; c, auriferous
shallow lead, about 12 ft. in depth, and resting on a false bottom;

SECTIONS,

935

e, watercourse. The deep lead, in the lower part of its course, is covered
by Newer Volcanic rock.

Fig. 88, on a scale of i6o ft. = i in., is a section showing the Tangil
lead, as proved in the workings of the Tangil Gold-mining Co., about
I J miles S. of Tangil township -.—a, surface soil ; b. Pliocene drift above

Fig. 88.

Tangil Lead.

volcanic ; c, volcanic (decomposed basalt) ; d, Miocene clays, gravels,
&c., beneath volcanic ; e. Upper Silurian ; f, shafts.

In California, the modes of occurrence of the gravel deposits are
various. Sometimes they exist in well-defined ancient river-beds under
a capping of basalt, which has filled the channels of the rivers of past
ages ; again, they appear in isolated mounds or hillocks, evidently the
remains of such channels, which, being unprotected by a covering of lava,
have been broken up by the action of the elements ; also, in basins or
fiats which have received and held the wash of these disintegrating
rivers ; and in low, rolling hills, near the base of the Sierras, and beyond
the reach of the lava-flow.

One of the most remarkable and important leads in America is that

Fig. 89.

Scale, SOOft-liuih.

"- K t Tn H j tihna a juoL ShaXes, hjOftztriWxHy stratiAelh

pfSpfifllpp

s'M'y

Vi-

s
i

Table Mountain.

beneath Table Mountain in Tuolumne county, which is represented in
the accompanying section (Fig. 89).

Many auriferous gravel deposits exist in various parts of California,

936

DEEP LEADS.

particularly near the limestone belt, in basins or flats. These, like the
detrital matter in the foot-hills, are probably the result of secondary
deposition in a recent geological epoch — the effects of the distribution
by water of the ancient beds, and the denudation of the surrounding
country.

The dead rivers of California, so far as known, are on the western
slopes of the Sierra Nevada, and 500 to 7000 ft. above the sea-level.
They are all auriferous, and have been sought for and examined. The
largest and richest of them all is the " Big Blue " lead, which has been
traced with certainty for a length of 65 miles, and is believed to have
been followed for a distance of no miles. Its course is S.S.E., about
30 miles west of and parallel with the main divide of the Sierra Nevada.
The elevation is about 5000 ft. above the sea at one end and 28cx5 at the
other, giving an average fall of 33 ft. per mile. The live or modern rivers
of the Sierra run at right angles to it, cutting cailons 1500 to 3000 ft.
deep, and separated by ridges 3 to 6 miles apart, and as high as the
caiions are deep. The Blue lead runs across these ridges at 200 to
1000 ft. below their summits, without in any way altering their appear-
ance, or giving any clue to its whereabouts. It was discovered in detail
by the same process which has revealed the existence of most deep
leads — surface washing. The miners found that the modern streams
were richly auriferous up to a certain point, increasing as it was
approached, but ceasing when it was passed. These points were more
or less in a line on the different streams, and by following up various
indications, the lead was ultimately struck in several sections, and
tunnelled out.

The auriferous deposit is composed of gravel, boulders, clay and sand,
varying from lOO to 300 ft. in depth, and lying in strata distinguished
from one another by differences in colour, in the size of the boulders and
gravel, and in the number and size of the particles of gold. The pre-
dominant colour is bluish-grey, lightest at the top and deepening to a
bright indigo at the bottom (hence the name). This colour is supposed
to be derived from the bed-rock, the grinding away of which afforded the
pigment to dye the quartz, &c., sulphides of iron assisting to make the
colour fast. A reddish tinge in those places that have long been exposed
to the air shows the presence of iron. The material composing the
boulders, gravel and sand is almost exclusively quartz. The bed may be
roughly estimated at i mile wide throughout, and the gravel beds some
200 ft. thick. All the pebbles, many of which weigh a ton, and some even
20 tons, are worn perfectly smooth. The gold is coarser, and contains
more silver at the bottom than at the top. The finer grains are in the
upper strata, and as they have a larger surface proportionately, the silver
is eaten out by the sulphurous acid which is developed in the gravel by

SECTIONS,

937

the oxidation of pyrites. The whole deposit is formed as in existing
rivers. Ther are banks, bars, eddies, falls, rapids, and riffles. There is
much gold in the eddies, and little in the rapids. The space between
the boulders is filled up with sand, clay, and gravel, which contains the
gold. The bed is of slate rock, and the banks are 50 to 300 ft. high ; but
there are few places where they have been examined, as the gravel has
rarely or nowhere been washed away from the whole width of the bed.
There is no doubt that the cause of the death of the Big Blue river was
the upheaval of the Sierra Nevada range. Many of the hills pierced by
the Big Blue lead are capped with basaltic lava, which covered much
of the country from near the summit of the range to about 3000 ft.
above the sea. It would seem that the river first silted up its bed ;
that the mountain range then began to rise, and volcanoes broke out
along it ; that the lava from the latter ran down and covered the
land to the line of the dead river and beyond it, and finally, that the
mountains rose still higher, and the streams running down their sides
cut through and made deep caiions in the lava, and washed away a
great portion of the ancient river deposit, scattering its gold among their
own alluvia.

The upper quartz gravel, some 250 to 300 ft. thick, of which the
main body of the Tancow or Butte county Table Mountain is com-
posed, consists entirely of quartz pebbles and quartz sand, and carries
very fine grains of gold. The two lower strata, however, known as the
" rotten boulders " and the " blue lead " or gravel, are mixed more or less
with different rocks, consisting in the former of clay-slate, and in the
latter of talc-schist. Both these strata are very rich in gold, and
average 5 to 25 ft. in thickness, each. The " rotten boulders," so called
on account of their softness, have jo far been the chief resources for the
miners, as they were easily reached. This stratum is said to be peculiar
to the Tancow deposit.

Hitherto, attention has been given to leads covered with only one
layer of basalt, or with no volcanic covering at all ; but in some places
there are 3 and even 4 distinct layers of basalt overlying the leads.
Though 3 or 4 strata of basaltic rock may be cut through, it is not
certain that they always represent separate and distinct outflows. If
the line of separation contain a bed of waterworn gravel, however, the
disconnection of the two basaltic beds may be considered established ;
but if the material intervening be simply white or red clay, with a few
fragments of angular rocks, the phenomenon will more probably be due
to decomposition of the basalt, for it is known that the rock decomposes
in situ where water finds its way through it. The true bottom is never
basalt, and the richest lead is almost always that lying beneath the
lowest volcanic stratum.

938

DEEP LEADS.

The following tables of strata are taken from sections of formations
with a plurality of basaltic beds : —

ft. in.

Three courses of basalt, sepa-
rated by layers of clay . . 200 o

Black and blue clay with quartz

fragments lO o

Quartz gravel and boulders . . 80

Bottomed on sandstone at

218 o

2. Alluvial 1$ O

Basalt

22 8

Clay, &c 16 6

Basalt 72 6

Reef 07

127 3

3. Alluvial 20 9

Basalt 16 o

Alluvial 17 3

Basalt 66 2

Alluvial 10 4

130 6

4. First rock 135 o

Clay 10 o

Second rock 80 o

False bottom
Drift .. ..
Wash-dirt ,.

ft. in.

IS o

10 o

6 o

256 o

Clay II o

Basalt 28 o

Red clay 80

Black clay (extremely light) .. 15 o

Basalt 92 o

Black clay 30

Green stuff, like reef . . . . 90

Sandy fine drift 40

Basalt 12 o

182 o

C, Surface soil 9

Rotten basalt 20

Massive blocks of basalt . . .. 14

Red sandy clay 8

Basalt 51

Gravel and clay 13

lis o

7. Basalt, 36 ft. ; red clay, 6 ft. ; basalt, 59 ft. ; clay, 4 ft. ; total, lOS ft.

8. Surface earth, 7 ft. ; basalt, 130 ft. ; stiff clay, 18 ft. ; basalt, 29 ft. ; mixed clay, gravel

and drift, 83 ft. ; wash-dirt, 5 ft. ; total, 272 ft. Width of gutter, 100 to 2So ft. j depth
of wash-dirt, 4 to 7 ft. The wash-dirt was a dark-coloured coarse gravel, mixed with clay,
containing large quartz boulders, charcoal, and decayed wood.

9. Basalt, 160 ft. ; very hard sandstone conglomerate, zo ft. ; second layer of basalt, contain-

ing a large quantity of water ; layer of

Fig. 90.

grey clay ; and a layer of black clay,
so largely composed of vegetable matter
as to resemble coal in appearance and
structure. On the Ballarat gold-field,
this black clay nearly always overlies
the " gutter," and its presence used to
be regarded by the miners as a certain
indication that the shaft would bottom
in or near the gutter.

Fig. 90 is a sketch-section
showing the occurrence of
lava-streams at the Hawkins'
lead : — a, ist rock ; b, 2nd rock ; c, clay ; d, schist.

Fig. 91 is an ideal section showing the position of the Durham lead
under the Mount Mercer plains : — a, Mount Mercer lava-flow ; d, Older

Lava-streams at Hawkins' Lead.

'!i-f

SECTIONS,

939

Pliocene ; c, Durham lead (2nd rock) ; d, middle drift ; e, Durham
lead (3rd rock) ; / lower drift ; g, Silurian bed-rock.

Fig. 91.

Durham Lead under . junt Mercer Plains.

Fig. 92 is a sketch-section showing the occurrence of the strata in the
celebrated Ballarat district, Victoria : — a, 1st rock or lava ; b, clay ;
c, 2nd rock ; d, clay ; e, 3rd rock ; f, clay, sand, &c. ; g, 4th rock ; h, clay,
sand, and gravel (gutter drift) ; i, Lower Silurian bed-rock.

Fig. 92

Oiitst /iti:»«iMit/>trr-<t

Sketch-section of Strata at Ballarat.

Fig. 93 is a section across the two arms of the lead known as the
Golden Point Gutter, and the Woolshed lead, on the Ballarat gold-
field : — a, surface soil ; b, basalt ; c, black or red clays ; d, sandy drift ;
e, light -coloured clays ; /, auriferous drift ; g, Palaeozoic bed-rock.

Special features or peculiarities are constantly being noted, and
should receive the most careful attention. Some will be found scattered
already throughout this chapter, but others remain to be mentioned.

At Ballarat, the reef was generally pipe-clay ; but in some places,
sandstone bottom was found: in the latter case, the lead was much
poorer than in the former, that is to say, it had not offered such great
obstruction to the passage of the gold down stream.

940

DEEP LEADS.

It is commonly believed that where dead-river beds meet, the wash-
dirt must necessarily be rich and abundant, and it is usual for miners to
rush to secure ground where leads are supposed to unite. Where all

Q
M
S
yi

ei
Id
H
H
D

M
O

Cfi

MODES OF WORKINO.

94'

1-^!

the leads tending to the junction are known to be rich, these expectations
arc not likely to be disappointed ; but, in most instances, the miner
should carefully ascertain the character of the main leads and their
tributaries. A very rich lead is often rendered worthless by the influx
from a tributary, of great quantities of water charged with w^«-auriferous
sands and gravels, derived from a large drainage area barren of gold-
bearing rocks. The greater force of united currents, too, will scatter
over a wide surface and through a great mass that which was before
confined within smaller limits.

Where the Palaiozoic rocks are exposed by the denudations which
have swept away the basaltic lavas, it will be possible to reach the
gutters of the deep leads with exceptional ease.

An instance has been known of a deep lead trending in the opposite
direction to the flow of the modern stream above it, that is to say, that
the dead river unmistakably ran northwards, while the living one flows
southwards. This is, of course, due to alterations in the configuration of
the country.

In t' ing to sink through a false bottom on one claim, there was
discover !, at a depth of 90 ft., a vein of wash-dirt almost perpendicular,
or dipping slightly, like a quart/, reef.

There is a peculiarity noticeable about the wash-dirt in a lead in
Montana, that, wherever it is composed of quartzite and quartzitc slate,
it pays well, but where it is largely made up of granitic rocks, little or no
gold is found in it.

Where the lead becomes very narrow, dips fast, and is enclosed
between steep walls, the gold will be very sparingly distributed in holes
and behind ridges, and will be coarse in size.

On the Creswick gold-field, in Victoria, it is observed that, as a rule,
the deepest gutter drifts (Newer Middle Pliocene) are poor as compared
with the reef-washes (Older Middle Pliocene) of the higher levels.
This seems to show that the older drainage courses have been the
receptacles of gold derived from a much greater denudation of the
surrounding country than those of the more recent period which now
occupy the lower levels.

The occurrence of auriferous drifts between layers of volcanic rock
has previously been noted in a few instances ; but it is rare that the gold
exists there in very payable quantity. Krause, however, draws attention
to a specific place where such a deposit is yielding J dwt. of gold to
every machine-ful of wash-dirt.

Modes of Working. — It is deemed unnecessary to occupy space here
with a discussion of boring, shafting, tunnelling, and other matters inci-
dental to mining in general, as such subjects have been already suffi-
ciently well treated in other works, notably Andre's treatises on Mining

v't^

942

DEEP LEADS.

Maciiineiy, and on Coal Mining. Special attention may be directed to
his description of Chaudron's shaft-.sinking machine, a Belgian invention
of great value. There remain for consideration a number of points, more
or less impo'.tant, having a special bearing upon the extraction of gold
from deep leads.

The method of reaching the auriferous stratum or wash-dirt on the
bottom or banks of the lead is not always the same. In places where
the beds of the modern streams are lower than the level of ths wash-
dirt, horizontal tunnels will generally, though not always, be found the
most economical. These must be driven with such a slope upwards
from the mouth that the water accumulating in the tunnel will naturally
find an outlet by running along the bottom of the tunnel. In nios'.
cases, the tunnel requires some sort of timbering to support the sides and
roof. It is quite impossible to give the slightest clue to the cost of
tunnelling, as it depends upon so many conditions, which vary in every
instance. The wetness or dryness of the ground; the degree of hardness
of the rock ; the facilities for, or difficulties in the way of, procuring
suitable timber for props, cap-pieces, and slabs, where necessary: all
tend to increase or decrease the cost, just as the circumstances are
favourable or othenvise.

The following description of a system of blocking-out followed in the
alluvial mines at Huntly and Bagshot, Bendigo, during the past 7 years,
is taken from a special report on ihe subject by H. B. Nicholas,
Irjpector of Mines at Sandhurst. He says that lo accident has occurred
from a fall of ground since the system was first introduced in these
mines. The main and block drives are timbered, as shown in Figs. 94
and 95. The blocks are commenced at 16 ft. from the main drive, as
thai distance is considered necessary for the security of the permanent
works. In Figs. 94 and 95, the laths overlap ;!"d aie placed, in dry
ground, the distance apart shown ; whilst in very soft or wet ground,
each lath stands separately on its own timber, and close together, as
shown in Figs. 96 and 97. In each case, the laths and props decrease in
size from the drive towards the back of the block, because it is considered
desirable to allow the ground at the back of the block to collapse as soon
as possible after the "bottom" (wash-dirt) is taken off. The maximum
thicknesses of the props and slabs used near to the drives are 5 in. and
i^ in. respectively, and the minl.-num thicknesses at the back of the blocks
are i^ in. for props and J in. for slabs. If the block or roof stands up
any time, is swaying, or, to use the miners' term, " talking," the props are
knocked from under the back laths, and the block is let down, thus
relieving the front laths of the weight, and saving the drive from crushing.
This method of blocking is the safest and cheapest way to work alluvial
ground. The safest because each lath stands on its own timber, and

MODES OF WORKING,

943

there is no shaking of the roof by driving laths, and no fear of knocking
the timber out ; and the cheapest, because the timber is lighter to
handle, cheaper in price, no false sets are used, nor anything cumber-
some. If the ground is very soft or heavy, the blocking drives are put
in first, and the miners then block back on both sides, and let the
ground down in working back. In dry ground, they take the block up on
one side of the drive, as shown in Fig. 94, and bring it back on the other,
always letting the roof down at the back.

BLOCriNG-OUT IJEKP LEADS.

In driving, the sets shown in Figs. 94 and 95 are considered the best ;
if the ground is very heavy, the ca; of the set, over w' ich the laths are
to be driven, is dogged with two p*^rong iron dogs to the back sets which
have V eight, and a horned false "et is used. This is very quickly done,
if, when the set is made, an auger-hole is bored in each end of the cap ;
it will then be ready for dogging, and when the set is up the dogs arc
easily withdrawn. In driving through heavy ground, 4-ft. slabs are
generally used, and occasionally slabs of 4 ft. 6 in. In blocking-out,
however, 4-ft. 6-in. sbbs are always used.

When the alluvial 'uift in which Inc mining operations arc carried on

; < >: 1

p ': ; <{,

I 'I 'I

t( • ■.,

■a

^»i'

944

DEEP LEADS.

?«'.

becomes very heavy, between each set a " dummy " prop and cap are
added. The props are 8 to 12 in. diameter, and the caps used are 2 to

3 ft. long by 6 to 8 in. diameter ; these are put in to protect the drive, as
shown in Fig. 98.

In working very soft ground by this system, and supposing the miner
to be in the face or commencing to block out, he takes a lath 6 to 8 in.
wide and a prop about 2 in. diameter, each of the required length ; he
places the prop under the centre of the lath, which he holds with one
hand against the face, and, with a light pick in the other hand, he
scratches away the drift (sand) in front of the lath until it is in the
full width, then, placing a prop under each end of the lath, he removes
the centre prop, and takes out the wash-dirt. One manager of long
experience in this division, in describing this method of working soft
ground, says, " I have seen miners put in laths by holding the centre in
one hand, forcing the lath against the face, and with the fingers of the
other hand work out the sand until the lath was in its place, then prop
the ends, remove the centre, and take out the wash." He further
mentioned, to .how the superiority of this system as compared with the
old one, that "ha had seen a miner working in ordinary ground, using
2-ft. 9-in. props, excavate a block 4 ft. wide by 16 ft. in length in
8 hours, and, at the same time, as his work progressed, he put in 16 laths
and 20 props. This was in dry ground, where the laths lapped, and were
placed I ft apart." Under the old system of blocking-out, an excavation

4 ft. wide by 8 ft. long is considered a good 8 hours' work.

Where the tunnel would have to be of great length in order to reach
the deposit, it may often be found less expensive to sink a shaft directly
on to the lead, though that necessitates increased machinery for raising
the wash-dirt to bank, and for draining the mine of water, by pumps or
other well-known contrivances. When there is no convenience for a
horizontal tunnel, a shaft becomes a necessity. In opening new and
unknown leads, it is advisable to bore first, in order to find the position
of the lead and the most suitable spot for a shaft, then to sink a shaft to
ascertain the character of the lead, supplementing it with tunnels or drives
in different directions if considered desirable. Fig. 99 illustrates the
method of sinking and driving as carried out on the South Lead Gold-
mining C~.*s property, at Forbes, New South Wales, sketched by De
Lacy Richards, R.N., from pencil delineations by Phillip Davies, to whom
the author is indebted. The reference letters indicate : a, surface soil ;
b, clay with limestone clinkers ; c, very fine drift containing much water ;
d, rotten clay ; e, gravelly drift ; f, hard brown clay ; g, slate ; //, wash-
dirt.

The Table mountain in Tuolumne county, California, already
described (see p. 935), was first worked by horizontal tunnels, costing

MODES OF WORKING.

945

enormous sums of money, on account of their great length. In some
cases, these tunnels have b en discarded for mining purpose i, and
allowed simply to serve as drains for the workings, while diagonal
tunnels or inclined shafts have been put down on the face of the rim-rock
and between it and the basaltic capping. Tunnels or drives radiate from
the foot of the incline.

The manner in which the pay-dirt is worked when it has been reached
by the tunnel shaft also varies according to circumstances. Perhaps the

KiG. 9->.

l^ff|«Wti«v

I ,»,

Sinking and Driving on Deep Leads.

most general plan is that known as " drifting." This "onsists in working
out the auriferous gravel by a sy^^tem of tunnels and galleries, and
raising it to the surface so as to run it through sluices or cradles for
extracting the gold. In this case, nothing but the i;old-bearing earth or
gravel is removed. The main 'innel is carried on upstream and the
galleries are run to either bank rim). The gravel is worked out . and
the galleries are generally allowcu to fall in .i.s the work advances, the
main tunnel being secured by timbering. Kaymond says that the depth
of gravel which it is found will pay to work b;- this syst' m is 3 to 5 ft.,
but it is obviously impossible *■ j lay down any hard-and-f^ist rule.

At the Bald Mountain in California, the sluice for washing Jie deep-
lead gravels is 6600 ft. long, 17 in. wide, and 18 in. high, paved with
blocks 16 in. square and 4 in. thick. The gold, bein- coarse, settles in
the interstices between the blocks. The usual head of water is 100 to
150 in. The flume is cleaned up in sections twice a n ath, and a
general clean-up is made twice a year, when the worn i blocks are
turned over or replaced. A .set of blocks will last about 10 months, but
during this time they are turned over. The flume is built on a grade of
6 in. in 12 ft. The main tunnel is 6 ft. 3 in. wide at the bottom, 3 ft. 8 in.
wide at the top, and 6 ft. high. It is substantially timbered, and laid
with iron tramway-rails. The cars are 4^ ft. long, 2 ft. wide and 2J ft.

3 1'

h ■ ■ r-H

946

DEEP LEADS.

high, holding i cub. yd. of loose dirt. The ordinary car-load is about
16 cub. ft. or I ton, and, according to the ideas of Californian miners, the
pay-dirt should yield 2 to 4s. per car-load to make drifting profitable ;
I cub. yd. of rock or hard gravel, &c., will generally occupy about 2 cub.
yd. when broken down. " Drifting " is compulsory where there is not
sufficient water for hydraulicing, as well as enough fall and accommoda-
tion for the immense masses of tailings caused by that process.

Multifi-irious devices are employed for conveying the dirt along the
drives to the shafts : — throwing it by shovels, carrying it in buckets,
wheeling it in hand-barrows, running it in trucks travelling on rails, and
either emptying on flats for the dirt to be shovelled to the hoisting
apparatus or fitting into cages and raised bodily to the surface. The
trucks may be pushed by hand or dragged by ponies, mules, or donkeys,
as circumstances dictate. For turning trucks from one drive into
another, a plain sheet of iron is preferred to a turn-table. Either water
or steam power may be used for raising the dirt, which is usually tipped
into enormous receptacles placed at such a height above the ground as is
rendered necessary by the fall of the sluice, which must be sufficiently
great to carry away the tailings. Sometimes the water raised from the
mine is utilized in the sluices ; but objections to this plan have already
been mentioned (p. 902). Where a considerable fall is necessary, it is
sometimes obtained by building a tower, to the top of which the cars are
run on inclined planes, and there tipped into the sluice. Occasionally
these inclined planes are made to radiate to different parts of the working,
where the top soil is stripped off as in a shallow placer.

The wash-dirt obtained in driving is either sluiced or puddled, in fact
the process becomes identical with that of the shallow p'-oer mining.
Sometimes the clearings-up of puddling- „.„ J.. lues, pebbles, quartzites,
&c., are treated by the ordinary cradle ; the heaps are first sifted, and
the fine stuff brought to water and cradled.

When the supply of water, amount of fall, &c., admit of hydraulicing,
as described in the next chapter, it is preferred to drifting, as being less
costly and capable of turning out much greater quantities. In this
system, shafts are unnecessary, unless it may be now and again for
ventilating purposes. The water is introduced at the point where the
gravel is being taken out, and the tunnel is made into a sluice, through
which all the dirt, auriferous or otherwise, must pass. In one deep lead
in California, the gravel is dropped down a shaft 200 ft. deep into the
main tunnel. Thence it is washed through 8000 ft. of sluices in the
tunnel, and an additional 4000 ft. outside, over the creek-bed and under-
currents to the South Yuba, where it is swept down the great cafion in';o
the valley below. Water for power is brought throu":h a sheet-iron
main, 15 in. to 7 in. diameter, and branches (7-in.) aggregating 9960 ft.

MODES OF WORKING.

947

in length, and discharged against "hurdy-gurdy" wheels, 17 to 21 ft.
diameter, under pressures varying from 285 to 549 ft. The water-pipe
was put together stove-pipe fashion, and gave little trouble by leaking or
otherwise.

In a deep lead at You Bet, Nevada cour'^y, the cement is overlaid
by gravel which is richly auriferous. The cement is being extracted by
drifting, and put through sluices. The timbers are taken out as fast as
the cement is worked out, and the superincumbent gravel is allowed to
fall in, the intention being to treat this gravel by the hydraulic system,
when the cement is finished. The cement is crushed in a mill of
8 stamps of 850 lb. each, arranged in two mortars. The lift is 12 in. ;
56 drops per minute ; discharge, 5 in. above dies ; sieves made out of
No. 18 iron with |-in. punched holes; size of sieves, 48 in. by 16 in.
Most of the gold is caught by mercury in the mortars, the rest by copper
plates below. The hoisting and pumping are done by the same water-
wheel that drives the stamps.

A useful hint for taking water from a river, without the risk inci-
dental to a high dam, consists in digging a cut along the side of the river
large enough to contain a box-flume, which will be covered with rock
and dirt, leaving the bank of the river in its natural state. Around rocky
points, a stone wall is commenced far enough down the banks to get a
perfectly solid foundation. This is continued up to the top of the ditch,
and is made 4 or 5 ft, thick, then an inner wall 2 ft. wide and 2 ft,
distant from the outer one is built 4 ft. high from the bottom of the
ditch ; clay is then tamped between these two walls, so as to make the
ditch watertight.

Ventilation. — A few of the simplest modes of ventilating are worthy
of passing notice. One of the earliest plans adopted for ventilating a
shaft was by means of a calico windsail, such as is uscd on ships for
taking air down into the hold, suspended from a pole, the wings kept
open by means of cords fastened to pegs, and the pipe hanging down the
shaft. This apparatus is not capable of forcing air along the drives.
The "fanner" consists of a spindle furnished with wings, which is made
to revolve by an endless cord passing round the wheel on the spindle,
and another which is turned by hand, water, or steam power. The
piping may be of calico, tin, or galvanized iron. A third plan consists
in dividing the shaft by a partition running down the centre and parting
the main drive in a similar manner. In order to clear the drives of foul
air, a quantity of water is thrown down one compartment of the shaft, so
as to displace the air and force it through the drive and up the other
compartment of the shaft. Other plans which have been used are : —
carrying air-drives in the same direction as the main drives at a higher
level, and constructing openings at various points from one drive to the

3 P 2

948

DEEP LEADS.

other ; building a furnace underground in connection with the air-drives ;
erecting an air-stack over n: air-shaft, connected with one of the com-
partments of the main shaft. Besides these, there are the air-duct, and
air-engines of all descriptions.

Apparatus. — The gold-extracting apparatus generally used where the
deep leads are worked by drifting consists of puddling-machines, sluices,
&c. At one large Victorian works, 2 puddling-machines each 16 ft. in
diameter, and a sluice-box 60 ft. long and 10^ in. wide, were used, the
average quantity of wash-dirt put through each machine per 24 hours
being 300 trucks or 60 tons. At another lead on the Ballarat gold-field,
the plant consisted of 5 iron puddling-machines, 2 sludge-machines,
2 buddies, and 2 sluices. The sluices were for separating the gold from
the dirt after it had been through the puddling-machines, and the sludge-
machines and buddies were used for saving the fine gold carried off in
the sludge from the puddling-machines. The sides and bottoms of the
puddling-machines are sometimes covered with ^-in. sheet-iron. In a
third instance, are 4 cast-iron puddling-machines, fixed so as to form
a square ; each machine is 16 ft. 6 in. in diameter and 2 ft. 6 in. deep, and
worked by Hunt and Opie's patent chain and pulleys. Above the
machines is a stage connected with the brace, which is about 40 ft. above
the surface, and upon this stage the trucks are run and the dirt emptied
into the machines. In the bottom of each machine are two cast-iron
doors, about i ft. 6 in. x 2 ft., hung so as to open below, for the purpose
of cleaning them out. These doors are fastened with 4 screws, and
when the machines have been filled and the dirt sufficiently puddled, the
doors are opened from below, a barrow and scrape are attached to the
machinery, and by means of these the dirt is cleaned out of the machine
through the doors in about 30 minutes. Below the machines is the
sluice-house, where are 4 sluice-heads, one under each machine; these
lead into the centre or main sluice. The dirt, when puddled, falls
through the holes or doors in the bottoms of the machines close to the
sluice-heads, so that the men can conveniently feed the sluice. In the
centre sluice is a fork worked by machinery, for the purpose of separating
the dirt. The four machines are tended and cleaned out by 2 men in
each shift, and all the dirt is sluiced during daytime by 2 men and i boy.
The stones taken from the machines as the dirt is puddled, are passed
through the centres of the machines, so that no trucks or barrows are
required on the machine floor. The two iron sludge-machines are about
14 ft. in diameter and 2 ft. deep ; the sludge as it leaves the puddling-
machines passes into them, and the sand taken from these machines is
passed through a sluice and over a blanket surface ; the stuff washed
from the blanket is put through the amalgamating barrel.

Yields. — A few figures concerning the yields of gold from various

YIELDS.

949

deep leads may be interesting, thougli afifording no guide to the possible
returns of any new field of operations. One field of 20 acres produced
16,440 oz. of gold ; the average at another diggings was 2 dwt. 22 gr.
per ton ; at a third, i to li^ dwt. per load ; at a fourth, 5 dwt. per ton ;
at a fifth, 6 dwt. per ton; at a sixth, 15 dwt. per load. In a seventh
instance, one mile of lead yielded 170,000 oz., equal to 32 oz. per lineal
ft. These figures all refer to Victoria, and are on the authority of
Brough Smyth. In California, 50 c. (say 2s.) per cub. yd. seems to be
the average value of the wash-dirt in the deep leads ; but Raymond
mentions four Companies which made respectively $10 "So, $8" 10, $9*45,
$7 "38 per sq. yd., which gives an average of 95 c. (3.y. il\d.) per sq. ft.
of ground 4^ ft. high, or $5 "70 {-l^- 9^-) per cub. yd. of gravel.

In one of the Government Surveyor's Reports on New South Wales,
the dimensions and prospects of a particular lead are succinctly placed
before the reader. The width of the lead is about 200 ft. ; thickness of
wash-dirt, 3 ft. ; yield of gold, low — 5 dwt. per ton ; every 100 ft. run
would produce 60,000 cub. ft. of wash-dirt, or 2500 loads of 24 cub. ft. to
the load, which, at 5 dwt., would yield 625 oz. or about 2500/. per 100 ft.
This authority says that deep leads can be worked (in New South Wales)
at a cost of about los. per load, including puddling the wash-dirt by
steam-power ; 30 to 40 men could work on a lead 200 ft. wide, and 30
men should produce 360 loads per week, yielding 180/. clear profit per
week, after paying los. per ton for working expenses. Hundreds of
thousands of tons of wash-dirt have been worked at Ballarat, in Victoria,
for considerably less than los. per ton.

;"''-ffl

I:,

( 950 )

CHAPTER V.

IIYDRAULICING.

Origin. — In the last* chapter were discussed the features of deep leads,
and the means adopted for extracting their gold by the aid of hand-
labour and moderate supplies of water. But hundreds of square miles
of auriferous gravels exist whose gold is so fine and so widely distributed
that its extraction could not by these means be made to pay. The
disintegrating and removing power of water is patent in every-day life ;
it has been the great agent in forming the deep and shallow placers ; and
without it the modern miner would be unable to separate the gold from
the baser bodies with which it is mixed up in the leads, and in quartz
veins. A sharp-witted American, foreseeing that the effects of an
ordinary stream of water, acting by its own gravitation as in a gentle
current in a sluice, would be many times magnified by causing the water
to fall from a considerable height, constructed an apparatus which was
the initiation of hydraulicing. He cut a small ditch in the side of a hill,
and built a flume from it to a point 40 ft. above the place wherv le was
working. Here the water entered a common barrel, whose bottom was
filled with a cowhide hose 6 in. in diameter, ending in a tin tube 4 ft. long
tapering to a i-in. nozzle. The advantages of the plan were quickly
realized, canvas * superseded cowhide, to be replaced in its turn by iron
piping, and from the rude attempts of an obscure American miner a new
science has grown, termed " hydraulicing " (hydraulicking was the original
spelling) in America, and " ground sluicing " in New Zealand.

Advantages. — It has already been shown that, as a general rule, with
very few exceptions, the gravels of a lead are very poorly auriferous
throughout the upper strata, and that the gold is found almost entirely
in a layer of a few in. or a few ft. on the bed-rock. Where the gravels
have to be removed by hand for treatment in the sluices and other
apparatus, it becomes important to confine the labour to the rich bottom
stratum. In hydraulicing, on the other hand, the whole depth of the
deposit down to the bed-rock must be taken away, no matter how great
the depth may be. This has to be performed by the force of a powerful
jet of water, which same water must effect the disintegration of the

* Canvas hose and brass nozzles are still in use in New Zealand in localities where a
moderate pressure only is needed.

ORIGIN, ADVANTAGES, ESSENTIAL CONDITIONS. 95 1

gravels in the sluices. Consequently the first and greatest desideratum
is a large and constant supply of water. The supply of water once
ensured, the process of the washing is conducted with astonishing
economy. Laur,* who was sent to California to report on the gold-mines
there to the French Government, estimated that the cost of treating
I cub. yd. of auriferous gravel by the various methods, would be about
as follows : —

£ s. d.
With the pan, about 400

,, rocker, about 100

,, long-torn, about 040

,, hydraulic process, about .. 002}

These prices are assuming the rate of wages to be about i6j. a day.
The figure for the hydraulic process includes the cost of water.

Essential conditions. — Before commencing a hydraulic washing, the
first thing to be done is to ascertain the total depth of the deposit from
the surface to the bed-rock, and to test the richness of the strata
throughout, as this will be found to vary from \d. to 4 or 5.?. per cub. yd.
As the whole deposit must be removed and treated, it is essential to
study these points with great care, in order to form an estimate of the
probable returns, before expending large sums of money. For these
purposes, mere boring, though useful as a preliminary guide, is not
sufficient. Shafts must be sunk at such points as will indicate the depth
and extent of the deposit, the richness of the various strata, and the
character of the bottom-rock, in order to be sure that the quantity and
qualify of the gravel are such as to warrant the undertaking, which will
require the expenditure of thousands of pounds without giving any
return perhaps for several years. Besides these precautions, accurate
topographical surveys must be made, with the view of ascertaining (l)
what head or fall of water can be got, and (2) what outlet can be secured
for the tailings. These two considerations have equally important
bearings upon the success of a hydraulic washing, and, unless they
receive proper attention, disappointment and loss are sure to follow.
The first point is seldom suffered to escape due attention ; but nothing
is more common than to see works stopped, and the expenditure of
enormous sums of money rendered fruitless, by a neglect to provide
sufficient accommodation for the gigantic masses of earth which are
removed. The outlay entailed by a hydraulic mine cannot be justified,
except the work be permanent and sufficient gravel be at hand to last
for several years' operations, consequently " dump " fall or outlet must
be secured for the millions of cubic yards of earth displaced, and it must
not be forgotten that, in a loosened condition, it will probably occupy

♦ Laur's estimate as quoted by the Commissioners for Victoria at the Philadelphia Exhi-
bition is,— Pan, 3/. ; rocker, \bs. ; long-torn, ^r. ; sluice, \s. t>d. ; hydraulicing, ^d.

'-\',

:/j \

952

HYDRAULICING.

twice the space which it filled in situ. Numbers of valuable undertakings
are suspended through careless inattention to this precaution, and many
more would be but for the spring freshets, which help so much to remove
the accumulated deposits. Frequently it happens that sufficient fall
cannot be obtained from the bed-rock — and of course the drainage must
take place from the bed-rock or lowest part of the working — without
driving tunnels (it may be several miles in length) under the bed-rock,
and even under valleys and through hills, in order to reach a river-valley
lying at a level low enough to receive the drainage, and of a capacity
adequate to the accommodation of the tailings. The primary cost of
oper-ng a hydraulic working, without taking into consideration any
exp -ises for water, will often reach 10,000/., and is sometimes double
that amount. It is not too much to say that, other conditions being
equal, this sum is risked upon the judgment and care with whic!i the
mine nas been laid out. The location and inclination of the tunnels and
sluices have almost a greater bearing upon the success or failure of a
hydraulic mine than has the proportion of gold contained in the gravels,
for while 2d. worth of gold per cub. yd. has given good returns under
favourable conditions, scarcely any amount within the range of what past
experience has made known could pay for elementary blunders in the
laying out of the workings.

Water siipply. — Primarily then, the success of working deep placers
is dependent less upon the yield of gold than upon the constancy and
amount of the water supply. In America, where hydraulicing is prin-
cipally developed, this has given rise to a number of so-called Ditch
Companies. Originally the corporations of miners collected water solely
for use on their own diggings ; then they found willing purchasers for
any excess they might have beyond their own particular needs ; and
soon it became evident that to be purveyors of water was more profitable
and Lss risky than to consume it in working gold-diggings. Thus many
companies which started as gold companies have in time become ditch
companies, and look upon the gold-getting as a secondary consideration.
As an illustration of this, mention may be made of a company which
expended about 9000/. in preliminary operations (before the bed-rock
tunnel had been driven), and took out about 10,800/. in gold, leaving a
profit of 1800/ Had it sold the water instead at about 8^. per in. per
24 hours, it would have reaped a profit of about 8000/

Division of the sicbject. — There are thus two distinct phases in
hydraulicing : — (i) Collecting and conducting the water to the diggings ;
(2) applying the water to the extraction of the gold. When the under-
taking is of a limited description, these operations may be conveniently
combined ; but in the Western States of America, the enterprises are
generally of such magnitude, and the water-supply question is of such

WATER SUPPLY, MINERS INCH.

953

weight, that there is a growing disposition to keep the two branches of
the industry distinct, the ditch company selling its water for every
purpose to which it may be applied, and the gold company buying its
water from the ditch company, and confining its attention to the mining
proper. The water is sold generally at prices varying between $d and
lOr/. (lO to 20C.) per " miners' inch " per diem, the day being variously
estimated from lO to 12 hours.

Miners' " i/ic/i." — It may be well here to state what a " miners' inch " is.
It is an arbitrary measure of the quantity of water which will flow
through a given space in a given time, adopted in the early days of
American gold-mining, and established by the law of each miners' camp,
without any attempt at a universal scale. Thus there are scarcely two
localities where the miners' inch has the same signification, the size and
shape of the outlet and the manner of discharging the water varying
constantly.

The most common way of estimating the " inch " is the amount of
water which will pass through an opening i in. square in a plank 2 in.
thick, with a pressure of 6 in. above the opening or 7 in. over the centre.
The thickness of the plank is sometimes 3 in. The lower front end of
the discharge is usually chamfered. Raymond says that with an aperture
of I sq. in. and a pressure of 6 in., the " inch" will equal 94-7 cub. ft. per
hour. In other localities, the pressure used is 10 in., making 109* i cub.
ft. per hour. The average Californian miners' "inch" he puts at lOO
cub. ft. per hour, or 1000 cub. ft. per day of 10 hours. He adds the
following table of the standard miners' inch : —

Pressure from Surface

Cub. Ft. (each 6'23 Gal.)

to Top or M iddle

Miners' in.

Authority.

of Orilice.

Per Second.

Per Minute.

Per Hour.

Per 24 Hours.

in.

0-039

2.33

140

3>36o

Hittell.

»,

0*026

1-57

94" 7

2,274

Carpenter.

I'OOO

6o-oo

3600-0

86,400

,»

l»

1000

26J

1580

94.700

2,274,000

0-03

1-8

109-1

2,6i8

6 to 10

0-027

1-6
16

166

100

2,400

1 Standard

»i

10
100

0-27

2-7

1,000
10,000

24,000

240,000

2,400,000

>experimental

1000

1666

100,000

1 miners' in.

The Milton Co. reckon a flow through an aperture 12 in. wide and
I2f in. high, when the water stands 6 in. above the top of the opening,
as 200 " inches.''

Raymond observes that the "usual acceptation of tl.e miners' inch is
that given by Hittell," and he quotes the following formula from Haswell
for making the calculation : —

"■I

1.^;

'4:
I

■i

-t6^2g{AWA'-A^f^)C = y■.

954

IIYDRAULICING.

b being the breadth, h the distance from the sill to the surface, and h the
distance from the top of the opening to the surface in feet, while C is the
coefficient of discharge assumed at 0'750, and V the volume in cub. ft.
per second ; thus —

4 X iV V27(A V .V - A VTT) X O' 750 = 0-031 nearly.

He thinks the coefficient of discharge is perhaps a little too high.

Egleston states that the " quantity of water which will flow from an
opening i in. square will be 93 lb. per minute. The opening, however, is
never made i in. square, but is always longer or higher, which will neces-
sarily increase the quantity of water which will issue from each sq. in.
Thus the quantity of water which is given by a single sq. in. opening
will be 93 lb. per minute, i.nd from an opening i in. x 2 in. will be
196J lb., and with i in. x 100 in. each inch will pass in lb. Sometimes
the opening is 2 in. high. At North Bloomfield, it is 48 in. long x
2 in. high, with a pressure of 9 in. above the opening.
Each square inch will thus furnish 4252 cub. ft. per
24 hours. At Eureka, the opening is the same, 48 in.
X 2 in., with 6 in. pressure above the top of the open-
ing, so that each .square inch will furnish 3240 cub. ft.
per 24 hours. . . . The La Grange inch is equal to
2*159 ^'^- ^^- To determine the value of the North
Bloomfield * inch,' the water was made to discharge
through a 3-in. plank The bottom of the opening
was above the bottom of the tank holding the water
(Fig. icxd), and was chamfered off i in. from the out-
side, so that the outside opening was 4 in. high. The
value of this ' inch ' is given in " the following table, which " shows,
according to Bowie, the variations in some of the 'inches' and their
supply : —

Miners' Inch.

Name of Mine.

Height of
Opening.

Length of
Opening.

Pressure over
Centre of
Opening.

Quantity dis- i Quantity

charged by i sq. in.' discharged in

per minute. ' 24 hours.

Smartsville ..
Park Mining Co. ..
North Bloomfield
Eureka

in.

2
2

in.
t

in.

7
7

cub. ft.

1-76
1-39

cub. ft.
2534-4

• •

• The bottom of the aperture is on a level with the bottom of the box.

t An opening 250 in. long X 4 in. wide will discharge looo Smartsville " inches."

The day is usually reckoned as 11 hours.

One miners' in. discharges in i second
,, ,, I minute

„ „ I hour

,, ,, 24 hours

Ratio of actual to l^ieoretical discharge

H. Smith, 1874.

A. J. Bowie, 1876.

cub. ft.

0'2624 ..

0-2409

1-5744 ••

1-4994

94-4640 ..

89-9640

2267-1360 ,.

2159-1460

61 -60 per cent.

59*05 per cent."

MhNERS INCH,

On the same subject, Raymond remarks in anothc
discrepancies among different companies : thus —

Hei«ht of p„„uro.
Apcrtuie.

Eureka Co. ,. 2 in. .. 6 in.

955
report the

Excelsior 10 ,,

Scars 10 ,,

Mukclumnc 4 m

Campo Seco 4 ,,

I'iKcnix .. .. 3 in. .. 4 ,,

Guld Hill .. 2 ,, ., 4 ,,

Another .. .. 3 „ .. none

The amount delivered by tliem through
20 in. X 2 in. is considered 40 in,

■ ■ > Measured from centre of orifice.

Over the orifice.
An inch wide.
An inch wide.

Heads in feet . .
Inches to horse-power

"At Smartsville, water is sold with a head of 9 in,, with a 14-in.
opening 125 in. long, giving ii*8 per cent, for an 'inch' more than is
usually given. The quantity discharged through an opening 4 in, deep,
with a 9-in, head over the middle of the opening, with the coefficient of
discharge = o'o6l5 is 106 "6 cub. ft. per hour, or \-yy6y cub. ft, per
minute. A 'head of water* is 500 in, daily for 10 hours, and is the
quantity required for a first-class hydraulic operation,"

Egleston gives the theoretical horse-power of the miners' " inch " as

follows : —

100 90 80 70 60 50 40
30 20 15 10 5 3 I

325 3-61 4-06 4-64 5-41 6-50 8'12
10-8 i6-2 21-6 32-5 65 108 325

Raymond estimates that " with a moderate ditch delivery of 4000 in.,
or 5 heads at 800 in., the work done may be i cub, chain or ic,ooo cub,
yd. per day, or in a 10 days' run, an acre i chain deep or 100,000
cub, yd. Taking an average of 2000 cub, yd. per day of 10 hours, moved
by 300 in. of water, 5 days would move a cub, chain or 10,000 cub. yd. ;
800 in. at 100 ft. head working 10 hours = 800 lO-ft. cubes of water =
800,000 cub, ft,, weighing 24,880 tons, without adding the pressure arising
from the head employed. This will move through ordinary sluices, at a
grade of 8 to 12 in, per box, 3006 cub. yd. of loosened gravel, or 2000
cub, yd. of ordinary uncemented bank gravel, say an average of
2500 cub. yd., weighing 8300 tons or %¥/ = i of the weight of the
water employed. Reckoned by ' inches,' the amount of gravel moved
= 3 times as many cub. yd, as there are miners' ' inches ' used.

"A cub. ft. of water at 62° F. weighs 63 "321 lb. ; 1000 cub. ft. =
31 • 160 tons.

cub. ft. = 4800 per yd.

Clay

Sand, dry
„ wet
Trap rock
Basalt
Quartz
Shale.. ,
Slate (clay)

= 120 lb. pei
= 88-6
= 118
= 170
= 187-3
= 165
= 162
= 180

Decomposed shale)

estimated

= 4500

= 5060

= 4450
= 4370

= 4800
= 2700

Sp. gr

= I "92

(Water I'oo)

= 1-42

— I 90

= 2-72

= 3-00

= 2-65

= 2"6o

= 2*90
= i-8o

y'ij

956

HYDRAULICING.

tr:22l

" The breadth, depth, ^nd velocity of a stream in feet per minute as
travelled by a chip, may be estimated by the eye. The sectional u» ;a
being reduced to sq. ft. and decimals, we have multiple x 60 = cub. ft.
per hou«* ; divided by lOO = miners' 'inches.' Or, observe 6 seconds,
and the distance x area X 6 = miners' ' inches.'

" The miners' ' pan * contains about 400 cub. in. of loose dirt."
The results of some interesting evperiments to test the relative
carrying powers of one 20-in. sluice and two lo-in. sluices, communicated
by F. L. Vinton to the ' Engineering and Mining Journal,' of New York,
may be summarized in the following tables : —

/^/rsi Experiment — Sluice Level.

Area of discharge .. ,, o'i39 sq.ft.

Velocity I 985 ft.

Mean depih 0-13 ,,

Actual discharge .. .. 0*276 cub. ft.
Theoretical discharge by j

formulae 5-6 a " T ""^^ "

Second Experiment — Sbiic ^t.od.

Area of discharge
Velocity
Mean depth

0-347 sq. ft.
2 '02 ft.
^•23 „

Actual discharge
Theoretical discharge

0*702 cub. ft.
0-716 „

First Experiment on Graded Sluices ; grade \ in. to box of \i.ft. = -jl^j = 0-0017.

.. 0-657 cub. ft.

Area of discharge .. .. 0-295 sq. ft.

V elocity 2 - 22 ft.

Perimeter 2*02 ,,

Grade 0-0017 ft.

Area of discharge .. .. 0-147 sq.ft.

Velocity 1-9 ft-

Perimeter i'i8 ,,

Actual discharge
Theoretical grade by 1

C 1 • ^ 172 ^ I0-OO33 ft.

formula sin. ■=. — V | ■'-'

A 1000)

Grade 0-0017 ft.

Actual discharge .. .. 0-279 cub. ft.
Theoretical grade .. .. o'oo28 ,,

Double sluice carries o" 177 mor, than twice the single on this grade.

Second Experiment on Grade; grade \ in. to 12 J f. = 0-0035.

Area of rl'scharge .. .. 0-295 sq. ft. Grade

Velocity . 2-?7i ft.

Perimeter 2-02 ,,

Area of "scharge .. .. 0-147 sq.ft.

Velocity 2-00 ft.

Perimeter I'i8 ,,

Actual discharge
Theoretical g' ade

Grade

Actual discharge

Tlieoretic. '. grade

Discharge of double sluice i? o- 168 more than t ,vo single on this grade.

Third Experiment o» Grade; grade 1 in. to 12 ft. = 0-0052.

'■ rea of dischair''
Veloci ;
Perimeter . .

0-295 sq. ft-

2-8 ft.
202 ,,

Grade

Actual discharge

Theoretical grade

Area of discharge . . . . o- 147 -q. ft.

Velocity 2-21 ft.

Perimeter i'i8 ,,

Grade

J xtual discharge

Theoretical grade
Discharge of double sluice is 0-272 more tlian two single on this grade.

0-0035 ft-
o'67i cub. ft.
0-0035 ..

0-0035 ft.
0-287 cub. ft.
0-0032 „

0-0052 ft,
0-827 cub. ft.
00053 „

0-0052 ft.
0-325 cub. ft.
00035 „

SECURING WATER ; DAMS AND RESERVOIRS.

957

Seairing Water Supply. — The greatest engineering skill is required
in hydraulicing. In choosing the site and line for a "ditch," the first
consideration must be that it shall have a full supply of water all the
year round. To secure this object, no outlay should be considered too
great. The summer supply is more important than it seems at first
sight. The days are then long, and the workmen less exposed to the
inclemencies of the weather. The heat of the sun renders the water
almost tepid, and on this account the mercury is much more free and
energetic in its action, giving a proportionately larger yield of gold.
The natural supplies of water vary with the seasons : at one time there
may be a heavy flood, at another a long drought ; for this reason, dams
and reservoirs have to be built, to catch and deliver the water as it may
be needed.

Dams and reservoirs. — The object of these constructions is to take in
not only the running water supply, but all the water from rains, floods,
and snows melting on the hills, and to store it iii die ap.'ng and summer
months fcr use during the dry season. Dams are usually built where the
opening is narrow and rock-walled, the material used varying with the
natr.re of the local supply. Sometimes cut granite blocks are keyed
together for the face, the backing being composed of puddled clay and
earth. Wooden dams arc often made by cutting down the neighbouring
trees, running them from shore to shore, 6 to 8 ft. apart for a width of
40 to 50 ft., then placing other trees at right angles to these, about the
same di;*tance apart, building up a .^ort of crib. Where the trees cross,
the}' are fastened together with bolts, ana the intervals are filled in with
rubble. The trees lying parallel with the stream are usually put in with
part of their branches on, and heading up stream. It should, if pcasible,
be arranged for the outlet to be in solid rock.

The following details oo.icerning one of the largest dams in America
possess great interest. The dam was first built to a height of 72 ft., as
indicated in Fig. loi, consisting of a timber crib of unhewn logs of cedar
and tamarack woods, notched and securely bolted together, and filled in
with loose rubble. A water-tight lining was formed by spiking pine
planking to the water face. Subsequently the height was increased to
96;^ ft. above datum line (100 ft. total height) ; but at 85 ft, it was
thought advisable to let a stream of water, 50 to 75 cub. ft. per second,
flow over the summit and percolate through the stone embankment, so
as to settle the structure before adding the top courses.

The increased height was effected by filling in a stone embank-
ment on the lower side of the old structure, faced with heavy walls
of dry rubble of large size. The lower face wall is 15 to 18 ft.
thick at bottom, diminishing to 6 to 8 ft. at top, the stones varying
from 5 to 4^ tons each in weight, with many equally large stones

^^5

If!

■ i

958

HYDRAULICING.

in the backinj,. The under portion is 17^ ft. high, with a 15 percent,
batter, built of heavy stones in horizontal layers, and the face stone tied
to the backing with iron dowels. The upper part of the wall is sloped at
45°, and the face stone is embedded at 22^°, thus dividing the angle
between a horizontal bed and a bed at right angles to the face, no
attempt at ranging being made in this portion. Above the 68-ft. line,
rib;; of flattened cedar 8 in. thick are built into the upper face wall, and
tied to it by iron rods 5 ft. long x I in. diameter, and to these ribs is

Fig. ioi.

-^.^^^.M'Afi>

i^fe^jpmfeMM^J^^ "1^

'ii'^Y/i'/T^'y'':/''-^^ ■■■.::■:■ ''■^y'.; :y

Dam for Hydraulic Reservoir.

firmly spiked a planking of heart sugar pine 3 in. thick X 8 in. wide,
with planed edges fitted with an outgage like ships' planking. The
planking was put on almost thoroughly seasoned, and would swell suffi-
ciently to make the face practically water-tight without caulking or
battening the joints. The openings at the joints made by the outgage
suck in small particles of vegetable matter, which in a great measure take
the place of caulking.

At the bottom, the plank is fitted neatly to firm bed-rock, and caulked
with pine wedges. There are thre.e thicknesses of plank (total 9 in.) on
the lowest 25 ft, two thicknesses (e in.) on the next 35 ft., and one thick-
ness on the uppermost 36 ft. Experience justifies the beliet that this will
remain sound for at least 20 years, when it can easil}' be renewed. The
dam is traversed by a culvert, through which the water is drawn from the
reservoir. This is built of heavy dry rubble foundation and walls, and
covered with granite slabs 6\ ft. long x 16 to 18 in. thick. Three No. J 2
wrought-iron pipes, each 1 8 in. diameter, penetrate the water face of the
dam, whose upper mouths are protected by a strainer of 2-in. plank,

DITCHES.

959

It.
2d
at
:le

lo
le,
Jd
is

anchored to the bed-rock. A separate valve or gate is placed at the
lower end of each pipe ; the water passing through the three gates,
amounting to 280 cub. ft. per second, discharges into a covered timber
sluice 7^ ft. wide x ij ft. high, reaching the lower edge of the dam, and
opening on to the solid bed-rock of the creek bed. The gates are
reached by a man-way ubove the sluice.

The crest of the dam will be formed by a coping of hewn heart cedar
timbers, i8 in. wide on top, and fastened securely to the stone wall
below by means of iron bolts. In building the lower face wall, care has
been taken that it shall be able to resist a large stream of water passing
over the crest. In such a case, much water would enter the structure,
owing to the inclined beds of the face stone and the flat slope of the wall,
and would seek escape through the interstices purposely left in the nearly
vertical portion of the lower wall. To prevent the consequent hydrostatic
pressure, which would accumulate at the base of the dam to perhaps
20 lb, per sq. in., from forcing out the lower face of the wall, the careful
building and tying with iron rods was adopted. The dam is built
V-shaped, with the vertex of the angle of 1 5° pointing upstream. The
flat slope of 45° was adopted for the walls, as the supply of material was
abundant, and it allowed much lighter face-walls to be used.

In connection with the main dam is a waste dam (Fig. 102), which
consists of a series of cribs of round cedar timbers, 1 2 to 30 in. diameter,
notched down to heart wood at the
joints, and firmly bolted with f-in. and
I -in. long drift bolts, the foundation
logs being fastened to the bed-rock
with li-in. iron dowels. The cribs are
Solidly filled up with granite rubble of
all sizes, from several tons to a few
lb., no sand or fine stuff being used.
The water-tight lining resembles that
on the main dam, being a plank facing
of 3-in. heart sugar pine. The crest
of the dam is gz^ ft. above datum
line ; in it are cut 28 waste-ways, each 4 ft. wide, and 7 ft. deep below the
crest. When all danger from freshets has passed, they are closed with
boards 2 in. thick x 8 in. wide x 4^ ft. long, placed horizontally, and
sliding to their seats on above the other on the incline of the water
face. This style of gutc .s the simplest known, and has been proved by
long experience to be the best. The structure is believed to be suffi-
ciently strong to allow a flood of 16,000 cub. ft. of water per second to
pass through the wastes and over the crest, without causing damage.

Ditches. — The two great points to be borne in mind when laying out

Fig. 102.

Waste Dam.

• 1

'{{i

'*Vj1

960

HYDRAULICING.

a " ditch," are that it shall have a full supply of water all the year round,
and that it shall have the greatest possible elevation where it reaches the
point at which the water is to be used, the object being not only to supply
the diggings in immediate contemplation with water at high pressure, but
to be prepared to take advantage of other diggings which may be opened

Fig. 103.

Fir. 105.

Fig. 104.

Ditches and Flumes.

later. The selection of the route to be followed by the ditch is a matter
calling forth the greatest skill and judgment of the engineer. By neglect
in the first construction, an amount of repairs may be necessitated that in
a few years may exceed the original cost of the ditch ; in fact, it is almost
impossible to remedy primary defects, and economy in the first instance
is always the most expensive in the long run.

An effort should be made to keep the ditch as far as possible between
earthen banks, and it must not be forgotten that, until the stream itself
has filled the pores of the ground through which it passes, it is sure to
give much trouble. The greatest care must be taken to select ground
which is solid, and to avoid such as is likely to produce slides. Often it
happens that the nature of the ground will not permit the outside bank
to be of earth, in which case masonry may best be substituted, as shown
in Fig. 103, or the ditch may be temporarily suspended, and a wooden
flume (Fig. 105) run in its stead. In fact, a variety of means may have to
be adopted in order to secure the desired line ; it may be necessary to
cut a tunnel through a hill, or to employ iron piping in order to cross a
valley. The ditch should not be built on very steep inclines, and should,
if possible, be put so far into the hillside as to have a sufficiently strong
bank for its protection outside. The snow-line should at all times be
avoided, if possible, as well as those spots where the snow is likely to
drift heavily. Where such are unavoidable, provision must be made for

DITCHES.

961

the protection of the ditch, by means of snow-sheds or other suitable
covering.

Fig. 104 shows the ordinary mode of constructing a ditch. It is graded
in from slope-pegs from 6 to 36 in. All trees within 15 to 25 ft. of the
edge of the upper bank are rooted up ; also the logs, brush, and leaves
from the lower bank, under the artificial bank, are carefully removed.

Fig. 105 shows the method of posting along cliffs, where the foundation
is occasionally narrower than the flume. Where flumes connect with the
ditch, the posts of the flumes for a distance of several boxes are 4 and 4^ ft.
high, allowing an additional side plank. The planking is 2 in. thick.

It is generally preferable to make the ditch deep rather than wide, on
account of evaporation. A swift current through a narrow ditch can be
made to deliver as much water as a slow current through a wide one, and
has the advantage of keeping the ditch free from snow, ice, fallen leaves,
and other encumbrances liable to clog it at various seasons. But it is not
always possible to observe this rule, for it may happen that, by coming too
near the bed-rock, there will be greater leakage than evaporation, so that
the reverse plan must be adopted. Great sources of leakage are the holes
left by decayed roots, and the filtration of the water beside the roots left
in the ground. This is especially the case when the trees found on the
line of the ditch are cut down, as is so commonly done, and may be in a
great measure remedied by undermining the trees, cutting off the small
roots, and rolling the tree, roots and all, down the hillside.

During the summer, the supply of water is often reduced to one-third
of its normal amount, a result due to increased leakage and evaporation, as
well as diminished rainfall. To overcome the evil as much as possible, all
the streams met with on the line of the ditch are made to flow into it as
tributaries ; but where torrents are encountered, the ditch should be taken
over them at a sufficient height to escape the greatest freshets that occur.

As the stream and reservoir supplies combined will probably furnish
an excess of water during the wet season, flood-gates must be provided
at suitable distances, so as to relieve the pressure, which might endanger
the ditch. They also admit of the ditch being rapidly repaired, as the
water may be turned out of any section, as required. Overflows must
also be constructed, so that a slight flush of water may not injure the
banks. All these water outlets must be so arranged and protected as to
avoid the possibility of the water undermining the banks of the ditch.
The ditch is generally built in sections, which must be connected as
rapidly as possible, to be used for the transportation of material. Li
process of time, the banks of the ditches settle, and become covered in
many instances by a permanent growth of grass and bushes, so that a
serious break, even during the severest storms, is very improbable. As
to the grade of the ditch, Egleston recommends that 10 ft. per mile

3 Q

■5 If

'UM

962

HYDRAULICING.

I ii

should be adopted, as having been proved by Californian experience to
be the best on the whole, and one which, while giving the proper
velocity, will least endanger the banks. Ditches having a grade of 1 5
to 20 ft. per mile, delivering 80 cub. ft. per second, have been successfully
used ; but they are exceptional. The grade, once determined, must or
should be adhered to throughout.

The following table will illustrate the degree to which ditches differ
in their proportions : —

Name.

Milton

North Bloomfield ..

(I.)

Spring Valley .. .. (2.)

Hendrick's

San Juan

South Yuba .. .. (3.)

Excelsior

La Grange . . . . (4.)

Eureka Lake

Union

Boyer

(5-)

(6.)

Length

Width of

Depth

Cost

Aver<ige

Top of

liottom

Grade

Ditch.

...f JJitch.

Ditch.

per Mile.

miles

ft.

•

100

3'5

52,000

145

8-65

3'5

84,000

. .

3-5

, ,

46-5

27,000

9-6

59. 000

90,000

7'S

86,000

3-5

. ,

3-5

6-5

II-2

••

•■

••

Discharge

in Miners'

Inches.

3000
3200
2200
2000

1300

1700
3000
2800
1200
1200
3000
2000

1. On the line of the ditch are 4 miles of iron pipe, J3-in. diameter, one section of which conducts the water
across a branch of a river. It is laid as an inverted syphon, and has a vertical depression of 856 ft. The receiving
arm has a head of 180 ft. vertical pressure ; length of syphon, li miles.

2. This has 3^ miles of jo-in. iron pipe.

}. With a subsidiary ditch, grade 10 ft. per mile, current H ft. deep. It is carried across a narrow canon by
a wire suspension flume, and across another by a truss flume with a span of 60 ft.

4. Most of this ditch is hewn in granite.

J. The line is graded ""i ft. wide, and excavation made close into the bank, leaving not less than I ft. of solid
earth on the outside.

6. To cross a creek the water is led into a 27-in. pipe, 420 ft long, and with a depression and elevation of
75 ft.

Flumes. — It sometimes happens that the ditch must cross ravines of
some depth, or be carried over a long stretch of level ground, in order to
deliver the water at the proper height. In such cases, wooden flumes ot
launders are often used to conduct the water. Their employment
should be avoided on all possible occasions, as they are very expensive
to build, need constant repair, are very liable to burn down in summer,
and in winter are very likely to freeze solid, especially where they are
exposed to all winds. Formerly they were much more favoured than
now, because wood was plentiful and cheap, iron dear and difficult of
transport ; but no engineer nowadays would think of copying such
gigantic and expensive structures as that built near Smartsville, and
which has served to adorn numberless pages. Nevertheless, :^i~ialler
constructions of the kind are a common feature in the mining districts,
despite their objections. They are generally made smaller than the
ditch, and therefore of much higher grade, in order to accommodate the

FLUMES.

963

same quantity of water. A common grade is 30 to 35 ft. per mile, and
they should be set in as straight lines as possible ; if a curve must be
made, it should be of very wide radius. The utmost attention should
be paid to the foundations, and to placing the uprights so that they shall
not settle, as nothing is so detrimental to a proper water-supply as a
change of grade in the flumes through settling. Where the grade
changes, the water is almost sure to freeze solid, and thousands of feet
have sometimes to be cut out for that reason. The posts should be
placed above the ground, so as not to rot ; the planking is 12 in. to 18 in.
wid"" .nd i^ to 2 in. thick. The joints are covered on the outside by
s*^ ' ■• 'n wide and l J in. thick. The flume is supported at every 4 ft.

Fig. 106.

SCANDINAVUN WaTER-RACE, NeW ZEALAND.

by a framing of 4 in. x 4 in. timber ; the sills in the heavy flumes extend
18 in., and are braced to the side, the lighter ones are braced to the
uprights. An example erected in New Zealand is shown in Fig. 106.

When very high, flumes should be anchored with wire rope, as a safe-
guard against swaying with the wind. They should be built in an open
country, if possible, as a protection against forest fires ; and brushwood
and other inflammable material should be removed from their vicinity.
When it is impossible to put them in open country, they should be
carried as close as possible to the bank, so that, in the event of snow-
slides, &c., the snow may pass over, and not against them. Under the
best conditions, free from ordinary accidents, flumes will not last longer

3 Q 2

I V

in ■

■'ii

964

HYDRAULICING.

than 10 to 15 years. This is emphatically the case where they run dry
during a portion of the year, for it is a well-known fact that wood which
is sometimes wet and sometimes dry will last a much shorter time than
that which is always wet or always dry. The alternate expansions and
contractions destroy the fibre of the wood, and start the nails and
wedges. The average cost of repairs to a flume will almost double that
of an equal length of ditch. On this account, attempts have been made
to replace the wooden flume by one of sheet iron, but the policy is
doubtfully wise, and does not seem to have had many adherents.

Pipes. — There is no doubt that wherever it is possible to do so,
wooden flumes may best be supplanted by iron pipes. These are
generally made of No. 12 to No. 16 sheet iron, in variable lengths, which
are joined together when placed in position on the ground. At first the
" length" was rescricted to 12 ft, but now 15 ft., 20 ft. and even more
are common figures. These pipes are very light in comparison with
their strength, and have the important advantage of being easily removed,
by simply cutting the joints and rejoining them in their new position.
Repairs are facilitated by the same reason, and a few extra lengths are
always kept on hand so as to avoid delays. The pipes are best buried
in the earth, at a sufficient depth to escape the expanding and con-
tracting effects of the weather ; when above ground, they are borne on
trestles. Sometimes it is inconvenient to carry a flume across a place,
or to run the pipe as a siphon, in which case the pipe may be led across
on frames, built like a flume, with only a floor and a top board. The
pipes are generally riveted together, and will stand very great pressure,
more frequently collapsing than bursting.

The Spring Valley Water Co. has 17 miles of 30-in. riveted vvrought-
iron pipe, which carries water across depressions of 150 ft, 200 ft, and
250 ft. in vertical height ; and 14,000 ft of 30-in. pipe was laid across a
valley nearly lOOO ft. deep. In such a case, the water must be discharged
into a head-box at a point high enough above the discharge-level to
give pressure sufficient to overcome the friction, which in this instance
was estimated at 20 ft

Raymond mentions 2 miles of pipe made of sheet iron, in 20-ft
sections, slipping one into another, and tapering from the reservoir to
the workings from 22 in. to 8 in. In another case, the joints were
fastened together by a riveted sheet-iron collar, made of No. 16 iron,
3 in. wide, daubed over with melted asphaltum, slipped over the joints
and held in place by the adhesion of the asphaltum. As originally con-
structed, a portion of the pipe was intended to withstand a pressure of
650 ft. in crossing a sag in the mountain ; but when the water was
turned on, the pressure forced it all out of the joints. Leading the joints
was next tried, but with no better success ; and as the efficacy of an

PIPES.

965

inside collar, as usually applied in such cases, was not known, the pipe
had to be taken up and run round the mountain.

The same authority gives some details of the construction of another
pipe, which cannot fail to be interesting. The inlet to the pipe was
1 50 ft. above the outlet, with a vertical height of 900 ft. from the lowest
point to grade line. The pipe was 30 in. diameter, and intended to
carry 1900 miners' "inches" of water. The thickness of iron used was
No. 14 for iso-ft. pressure, No. 12 for 2y$-h., No. 10 for 350-ft., No. 7
for 42S-ft., I in. for 6cx)-ft., ^\ in. for 8so-ft., and | in. for 900-ft. The
water was admitted at the uppv.; end from a cistern with sand-box, &c.,
for settling any sand or gravel brought in from the ditch. Here the
pipe had an elbow dipping into the water, to prevent the entrance of
air, and at 50 ft. from the inlet there was a standpipe to permit the

Fig. 107.

Head-box.

escape of any air accidentally imprisoned. The pipe was laid in a trench
5 ft. deep, and covered with earth to prevent undue expansion and con-
traction in hot and cold weather. The sections were 23 ft. long, and
were riveted one to another continuously, manholes being placed at every
1000 ft. to allow of the entrance of the workmen. The rivets used were,
for No. 14 iron, ^-in. wire ; No. 12, ^-in. ; No. 11, Vrri"- '■> No. 9, ^-in. ;
and No. 7, ^-in., driven cold. The \-\n. iron was machine-riveted cold,
hand-riveted hot ; y^, f, |, 5 driven hot. A steam riveting-machine was
principally used, and found much superior to hand. The §-in. ivrought
iron here sustains a pressure of 385 lb. per sq. in., which would require
nearly 3-in. cast iron.

The supply-pipes discharge into a head-box, such as is shown in
Fig. 107. This box, which is made of great strength, is usually about

- «

it*.

^rr-

[i I

u <

966

HYDRAULICING.

8 ft. deep, and is provided with ai\ iron grating, to keep out floating
matters. The greater the depth of water in the bulkhead over the mouth
of the pipe, the less air can enter it. There should never be less than
4 ft., and 5 or 6 ft. is much better.

The feed-piping is made sometimes of canvas, sometimes of iron :
canvas hose is only used in inaccessible places, or on very small claims,
and is made of heavy duck sewn together. With ordinary sewing, it will
bear a pressure of 50 ft. perpendicular without other support. When
greater pressure is needed, it is surrounded by iron rings, about 3 in.
apart, and connected by cords, then called " crinoline " hose, and equal
to a pressure of 1 80 ft. of water. Failing iron rings, a netting of J-in. or
^-in. rope, with meshes about 2 in. sq., may be used, and is almost
equally strong. Pipe of this description can be easily shortened,
lengthened, repaired, and transported, and seemed, at the time of its
invention, to be the perfection of a water-conduit ; but it was not long
before iron piping generally supplanted it.

The ordinary dimensions of iron feed-pipes are as follow : —

Diameter of

Pressure.

Number of

Thickness of Iron in

Pipe.

Iron.

Decimals of an inch.

in.

ft.

ISO

o"o6o

150 to 250

0-078

250 to 310

0*098

ISO

0-078

150 to 275

0-098

160

••

0-236

The iron used varies generally from No. 16 to No. 1 1, according to the
pressure, the best iron only being employed. The size of the pipe will
depend upon the supply of water ; with 1 500 to 2000 in. of water, a
22-in. pipe will suffice ; where the supply is 3000 in., a 30-in. pipe must
be used, and so on.

The feed-pipe should pass from the bulkhead to the workings in as
direct a line as possible, and upon an even grade, and .should be furnished
with air-valves about 2 in. in diameter at about every 100 ft. of its
length. These valves are of paramount importance, for in case there
should be any depression in the pipe, the water would be retained there,
and if it should be discharged faster than it can enter the pipe, a collapse
must take place, unless the valves are in their places and working to
prevent the formation of a vacuum. They should be of brass, and never
of wood, for the latter have been known to swell, and become so tight as
not to act, resulting in a collapse of the pipe, against which every
precaution should be taken, as the least inconvenience it can occasion
will be a serious delay.

The feed-pipe terminates in a distributor, generally a cast-iron box

NOZZLES.

967

provided with openings, to wliich are attached the pipes carrying the
nozzles. These openings are closed by ordinary water-gates, which are
worked through a screw on the outside, by which the water is supplied
to or shut off from any one of the nozzles. The distributors have as
many as 4 gates when the water-supply is adequate for 4 nozzles from a
single box. When the site for the distributor has been chosen, it is
permanently fixed there. The pipes heading from the distributor to the
nozzles arc 10 in. to 15 in. in diameter, made of No. 14 to No. 12 .sheet
iron in 12-ft. lengths, composed of sections, 18 in. long, riveted together.
The lengths, or "boxes," as they art also called, in imitation of the
12-ft. lengths of the sluices, are occasionally connected by flanges, or by
hooks and wire, and in some cases are simply telescoped together like
stove-piping. Another plan is to use bolts and nuts, so that the structure
may be easily set up or taken apart. In all cases, the joints must be made
quite tight. The pipe is generally supported so as to avoid bends ; if laid
on the ground, great attention must be paid to the air-valves, and each
" box " should be well painted with coal-tar. The miners always repair their
own pipes, a workshop and appliances being maintained for the purpose.

Nozzles. — Passing mention has already been made of "nozzles." Their
use is to concentrate the water so that it shall be discharged against the
bank with sufficient force. Several kinds of nozzle have been introduced
from time to time, one of the first being that shown in Fig. 108, and known
as a " goose-neck." It consists of two elbows of iron pipe a, working one
over another, with a flexible joint b between them, which admits of a
certain amount of rotation in a horizontal plane ; while the piece of hose
f, inserted between the upper elbow and the nozzle d, permits a moderate
vertical movement. The facility of moving in all directions constitutes a
great improvement on the straight nozzle; but the sharp double bend
of the elbow reduces the force of the water, and the flexible joint is
liable to get hard and " buck."

Craig's "monitor," Fig. 109, was devised to remedy these defects. Its
principal parts are : a hollow globe a provided with two openings, one
at the side for admitting the main supply-pipe, and a second on the top
for feeding the nozzle. The latt^ has an elbow with a hemispherical
attachment b, turned, so as to exactly fit the inside of the flange c, which
is bolted to the globe, and, with the leather packing, makes a water-
tight joint. The nozzle is thus movable in any direction at will, to the
extent of nearly 40" vertically and 360° horizontally. The apparatus is
bolted firmly to the timber structure d. The nozzle is comiDoscd of a
wrought-iron tube e, 10 ft. long, to the end of which is screwed the
nozzle proper, made of cast iron, and 6 to 8 in. inside diameter. When
the direction has been determined, the nozzle is commonly tied in place ;
but with i8o-ft. pressure, it needs no support.

^^^1

968

IIYDRAULICING.

I?*'

Fisher's " knuckle-joint," Fig. 1 10, consists of two elbows g, placed
together in the form of an S, and arranged to rotate horizontally by
means of a ring-joint a furnished with friction-rollers. The ring is
slipped down over the lower elbow, and held in place by a flange on the
pipe ; then bolted to a flange on the top elbow, joining the two, but

Fig, III

Hydraulic Hose Nozzles.

allowing the latter free action. Indiarubber is used to make the joints
water-tight. The nozzle is secured to the upper elbow by means of
a knuckle-joint b. Movement in all directions is easy, and can be
instantaneously effected, vertically by a series of levers c d, the main
arm of which is 10 to 12 ft. long, and held in place by a ratchet e. The
elbow and knuckle-joint are of cast iron, | in. to | in. thick ; the pipe f
is of No. 16 sheet iron, 8 ft. long, the nozzle of cast iron. The pipe does
good work to a range of 200 f1.., and keeps its position when in use.

Two forms of nozzle have been invented by Hoskins, and both are
extensively employed. The earlier form was the " dictator," which

TUNNELS AND SHAFTS.

969

differed from Craig's monitor principally in that the joint was external
instead of internal, causing the water to have a tendency to force the
joints apart rather than together. Indiarubber packing is used in the
joint, and friction wheels are introduced to reduce the friction, so that
the pressure being all against elastic packing, the nozzle is easily
managed, and its movements are easy. It has the same motions as
Craig's, but its construction is more complicated, and the sharp bends of
the joint cause a loss of power. The later and most popular form is the
"little giant," shown in Fig. lii. It is very simple, easily repaired, has
no sharp curves, and is said to discharge the greatest amount of water
with the least resistance. Horizontally it rotates completely, and moves
vertically on the knuckle-joint a, which is kept in place by a counter-
poise at b. Leather is used for packing the joints water-tight, and the
inside of the nozzle is fitted with three rifle-plates, which force the water
to issue in a straight line, and prevent its acquiring that rotary motion
which is so common when the velocity is high, and which causes the
stream to break up and lose much of its effectiveness. A 6-in. " little
giant " nozzle has been worked with a pressure of 435 ft.

The discharge of water through these nozzles will be lOOO to 1500
cub. ft. per second, according to the pressure and to the size of t'le
nozzle, the velocity reaching 150 ft. per second, and beinrr such as can
be compaiCf'. only with the force of artillery. The size of the nozzle and
the pressure of the water must be regulated in each case according to
the circumstances, the amount of water required varying greatly with
the situation and character of the bank, and the size and grade of the
sluices. The supply can be regulated from the distributor. It will
generally be found best to arrange for a maximum supply and pressure ;
in low-grade sluices, as much as i J cub. yd. per miners' " inch " may be
washed, while in high-grade sluices, it may reach 5 cub. yd. With a fall
of J^ in. per ft., 7 cub. ft. of water will be needed to work i cub. ft. of gravel.

Tunnels and shafts. — The next point to be considered is the loca-
tion and construction of the tunnel and shafts through which the gold-
bearing gravels have to be washed. The line of the tunnel will have
been chosen during the preliminary survey of the ground, and with the
object of meeting the following requirements : — (i) It must be perfectly
straight, so as to be as short and simple as possible ; (2) it should be
driven so as to reach the lowest possible point of the bed-rock that is to
be worked ; (3) it should be taken as near as possible to the centre of
the basin containing the gravels, before any attempt is made to connect
it with the surface ; (4) it must be provided with efficient ventilation ;
and (5) the grade, generally 4 to 7 per cent., must be consistent
throughout, and it is better to have too steep a grade than too low,
because the former may be remedied while the latter cannot.

970

HYDRAULICING.

The tunnel forms the outlet of the workings, and in it (as well as
beyond it) are placed the sluice-boxes for catching the gold. The
dimensions of the tunnel will therefore depend on those of the sluices,
allowing about 2 to 2^ ft. of extra room ; and the .^i/e of the sluices will
vary in proportion to tlie quantity of material and water to be passed
through them, and the duration of the mining season. For single sluices
about 6 it. square, running 8 or 9 months in the year, a tunnel 8 ft. high
and 7 ft. wide is commonly macL, v>hich at 4 per cent, grade will
consume 2000 to 2500 miners' "inches" of water. I"or a consumption
of 3000 to 3500 miners' "inches" of water, larger tunnels and double
sets of sluices are preferable. The grade should be as high as can safely
be used, both for the purpose of breaking up the material thoroughly,
and to ensure ag-^inst choking, at the same time that it must .lot be so
steep as to create undue vv-ear and tear of the sluices ; it will vary, in
inverse proportion to the size r f the sluice, from 4 to 7 per cent.,
commonly the former, and with very light and friable dirt even 3^ per
cent, may suffice. In length, tunnels vary according to circumstances
from hundreds to thousands of feet ; and the depth between their outlet
and where they abut on the shaft bottom should be 50 to 70 ft., it being
seldom easy to get more. For ventilation, an air-shaft or air-boxes
muGt be prcivided, and when the tunnel is of great length, it would be
good policy to have both.

When the tunnel has been run as far as possible towards the centre
of the basin, a shaft may be opened in connection with it ; but care
should always be taken to avoid opening on the edge of the basin, or
near the rim-rock, on account of ' iie likelihood of meeting with quick-
sands and poor ground, and because, while the expenses and difficulties
will be nearly the same in both cases, ground opened in the middle of
the deposit will last for a long time, whereas that on the edge wi'.l be
quickly exhausted. Considerable judgment is required in mak-ng this
connection. The first precaution necessary is to run a drill down, in
order to test the ground and gain an idea of its character. If hard, no
difficulty need be apprehended ; but if soft, and stil! worse, if quicksandy,
the greatest caution must be observed in condu:_i.ing the workings, and
it may even be wise to abandon the proposed shaft, and seek a new
place for an opening. It is preferable, where possible, to make the
connection by means of a vertical shaft ; but where the ground is soft, it
is sometimes necessary to drive the bottom portion of the shaft on an
incline ; and when very wet, the end of the slope must be pr^-tected, and
provision made for the water to drain off without disturbing the solid
materir.ls. When the Lhaft drains itself, there will be little trouble in
getting through sand or gravel ; but failing this, pumping may have to
be resorted to, or a druinagc-outlet to the tunnel may be made by

L'JICES, DROIS; GRIZZLIES, UNDER-CURRENTS.

971

putting down a borc-holc. Pormanence and security must be sought in
the construction of the shaft, and it must therefore be heavily and
strongly timbered, and lined insido in such a way as to protect the
timbers, more especially at the bottom, where very stout material must
be used.

The following table will give some idea of 'he scale of the
undertakinsT : —

N;iine.

Length of
Tunnel.

Average Grade of Tunnel.

In. per Sluice-box. [Kt. per 100.!

Cost
(reported).

North Bloomfiekl
American
Fiench Corral
Bedrock ..
Farrell . .
SwL'ctl.ind Creek
Manzinita
lioston
English mine ..

ft.
8000
-900
3500
2600
2200
2200
1740
1600
1400

(>i in. per 12 ft.

loj „

8 „

9 ..

6 „
8 „

7 „
loj ,,
12 ,,

14..
14 ..
14. 1
14 ..
14,.
14..
12 ,,

14 ..

4i
6i
4.?
5i
3i
4f
4k
7i
7

100,000

28, OCXS

33.000

18,000

12,000

8,000

When once the connection between the tunnel and the shaft is
established, such modifications as appear advisable may be readily
accomplished. An incline may be turned into a shaft, or a shaft into a
scries of terraces. The latter are considered by some engineers Lo be
more effective in breaking up cement and firm gravel than :i single deep
drop; when used, they should be arranged so that the fall decreases as
they descend : — thus, with lOO ft. fall, the firsi may be ;o ft, the second
25 ft., the third 20 ft., the fourth 15 ft, the fiflh /^ ft., and the last, into
the sluice, 2}^ ft It now and again happens that the lay of the ground
and the thickness of the deposit (say 200 to 300 ft. in the centre) vi-.dy
render it possible to commence operations without the aid of a tunn-^i, by
arring ng ditches so that the gravel is being w orked and returns made
while t.)e driving of the tunnel is j rocceding. The shaft should alwaj-s
have a safe, water-tight, and well-v>_Ptilated comipartment, by which the
workmen can ascend and descend, for the tunnel must not terminate at
the bottom of the shaft, but be prosecuted through to the farther rim-
rock, connection between the inner and outer portions of the tunnel
being suspended meantime.

S/unrs, ttro/>s,£-ri.za/ic's, undr-airrents, &c — The tunnel completed and
connected with the shaft, the next obj( ct of attention will Ix the sluices.
Already much has been said in preceding chapters, pp. 868-9. '^/Q-Si,
concerning sluices ; but though the principle of their construction and
function remains the same in all cases, the sluices for hydraulicing
require to be of a character in proportion 10 the increased work expected
of them. The sluice-boxes aie laid throughout and beyond the tunnel

i'x If

:14 ■■■

l;:si

I t

972

HYDRAULICING.

to the point where the tailings are to be deposited or " dumped." The
chief objects of attention in laying them out are their grade, and to make
them at once permanently strong yet easily movable.

The first set of sluice-boxes will be placed in the tunnel, being either
single or double, according to the capacity of the tunnel, and arranged
in such a way as to take the largest possible quantity of gravel. When
it is intended to wash very large quantities of gravel, the sluices are
made double, resting on the same sleepers, and parted by water-gates so
placed that the two sections may be worked simultaneously, or the full
stream be turned into one partition to the exclusion of the other. These
gates are useful also in allowing one part of the sluice to be cleaned up
while the other is working, and they greatly facilitate repairs for the
same reason, Vindlasses and ropes are required to move them when
the sluice is fu'.l of water. The sluice is sometimes made double only in
that section wtiere repairs are anticipated.

The sluices outside the tunnel will vary in length, according to the
nature of the dirt being washed, and must be determined in each instance
by actual experiment, an increase being necessary if assays of the tailings
show a loss of gold. The sluice is generally run on a wide curve, the
outside edge being raised J to i in. to equalize the wear and tear, because
in a stiaight sluice the velocity of the current would be likely to carry
away much of the dirt without disintegi'ating it. The dimensions of the
sluice are determined by the quantity of material to be treated, which is
governed by the water supply. One 6 ft. wide x 3 ft. deep, w'th a
4 to 5 per cent, grade, will take about 3500 miners' " inches ;" one 4 ft.
wide X 2^ ft. deep, with 2^ per cent, grade, 1200 to iSoo; or with 4 p«r
cent, grade, 2/>oo miners' " inches." The 'vater must be in sufficient
depth to cover the largest boulder likely to be encountered, so that the
body required will vary with the coarHcness or fineness of the dirt. With
too much water, the riffles are likely to pack, and the yield of gold will
be less, increasing with low grade and small body of water. If water is
plentiful and cheap, it will to a certain extent atone for low grade ; but
with water scarce and dear, a high grade is essential. Generally speaking,
ordinary gravel needs 4 per cent, and coarse gravel 6 to 7 per cent, the
heavier the gravel the steeper the grade and the more water necessary ;
4 per cent, is very commonly used, increased to 6 and even 8 for clay,
and reduced sometimes to i J per cent, for very light dirt.

Water consumed. — At the " No. 8 " mine of the North Bloomfield
Gravel-Mining Co., during the time from Jan. i, 1875, to Oct. 3, 1877,
7,071,630 cub. yd. of gravel were washed, with an expenditure of
3,750,797,560 cub. ft. of water. This gives an average of 534 cub. ft. of
water required to wash i cub yd, of gravel ; or, in other words, the
gravel at this locality required tor m 3ving it an cxpeuJiturc of water nearly

SLUICES, DROPS, GRIZZLIES, UNDER-CURRENTS.

973

equal to 20 times its bulk. At the Blue Tent Co.'s mine, where careful
record has been kept of the amount of gravel washed, water used, &c., for
the past few years, the various kinds of gravel met with were moved at
the rate of from 2 • 38 to lo" 12 cub. yd. per miners' " 24-hour inch " (which
is considered on the San Juan Divide equal to 22^"0 cub. ft. of water ; in
the Bear River mines, about 2200), or, in other words, the gravel required,
according to its condition, from 8 to 34 times its volume of water to
disintegrate it and carry it into the sluices. That which demanded the
largest quantity of water specified is described as being " hard, indurated,
and clayey."

Hague adopted 7 cub. yd. as the amount of gravel which, on the
average, in the divide between the South and the Middle Yuba, could be
moved by a " 24-hour inch " of water, and this is said by Professor
Pettee to be corroborated by the results obtained at SmartsviUe ; 7 cub.
yd. to the " 24-hour inch " gives an amount of gravel not quite y^ of the
volume of the water used. Ashburner considered that a " 24-hour inch "
of water would move only about 3 J cub. yd. of the lower portion of the
gravel deposit in Bear river and its tributaries. This gravel may be
considered as representing the hardest kind ordinarily worked by the
hydraulic method.

It appears, therefore, that a " 24-hour inch " of water will disintegrate
and carry into the sluices 2 to 10 cub. yd. of gravel, according to the
character of the material. This, with the data previously given, will
give an idea of the amount of water required in hydraulicing operations.

When suspending washing operations, it will still be advisable to keep
a stream of water flowing through the sluice, to prevent the joints
opening, and a consequent loss of mercury and amalgam on resuming
work.

Erecting sluice. — After laying ori. the line and grade of the sluice out-
side the tunnel, sills measuring 4 in. x 6 in. at least, and 1 5 ft. long for a
double sluice, are placed on the ground 4 ft. apart. Posts 4 to 6 in. sq. and
3 to 2>h ft. long are then fixed, and braced together with i^-in. planks ; a
single 8-in. plank is run from sill to sill on each side to serve as a foot-
board, and facilitate and strengthen the construction. The bottom and
sides I." re of ij-in. planking, battens being nailed outside over the joints
to close the interstices. Next, the lining and paving are introduced.

Paving. — The paving is of various descriptions. In Fig. 112 are seen
two sections of a sluice paved with stones. These are oval, placed edge-
wise, and set with a slant in t^e direction of the current, their thickness
being usually 9 to 12 in. No stones should be used of less than 20 lb. in
weight, or the pow cr of the water will displace them. When quarried
rock is used, it is laid in the box with a thickness of 15 to 18 in. One
man CfJi lay in a day 8 boxes 12 ft. long, with stone 15 in. deep, the

<<.

'h >

mtu

974

HYDRAULICING.

width of the box being not less than 3 ft. nor more than 4 ft. The
paving is done in compartments, each 6 to 8 ft. long, and held in place
by pieces of stout planking fixed across the sluice. This precaution
prevents the pavement getting loose, and facilitates repairs when needed.
The larger spaces betut-cn the stones are filled by running through waste
gravel, while the smaller interstices on the top serve the purpose of
riffles. Paving of this kind will weigh about 8 tons per every lO ft. of a
double sluice, nticessitating a strong structure. A side lining a, of 2-in.
plank or worn wooden blocks, is nailed on the inside of the sluice,
projecting about 2 in. below the surface of the stones, and rising about
10 to 15 in. up the sides; the wear on this is partly saved by an
additional lining d, 6 to 8 in. wide ; r is the boarding of the sluice itself ;
d, the footboard on either side. A run with a rock bottom may last for
100 to 150 days.

Fig. 113.

Fig. 112.

Paving for Sluices.

Another mode of paving is with pine blocks, 12 to 18 in. sq., cut
across the grain of the wood, and 10 to 12 in. high. They are arranged
as shown in Fig. 113, secured by a plank ij in. thick x 6 in. high, nailed
to the lower part of the blocks with headless nails, which stand up about
I in., the succeeding blocks being driven down on the projecting nails so
that they come close to the cross-piece. When the sluice has thus been
filled with blocks, the side lining a is introduced. The spaces between
the rows of blocks correspond '.'ith the ij-in. cross-pieces. The wood
preferred at Smartsville is that of the "digger" pine {Piniis Sabiniana),
and the blocks arc cut 7 in. thick. A run lasts 20 to 30 days, when the
bottom becomes so uneven that repairs and a clean-up are necessary.

Sometimes the heaviness and character of the wash-dirt compel the
use of riffles laid longitudinally, instead of horizontally. The best are
old railway-rails, when procurable ; but a moderately good substitute
may be made by covering wooden rails with strap-iron. Iron rails are

SLUICES, DROPS, GRIZZLIES, UNDER-CURRENTS.

975

laid close together, easily placed
and easily retained in place, and
give excellent results.

With regard to the relative
claims of these several kinds of
riffles: — Wood is expensive to build,
presents the least catching surface,
and lasts but little more than a
month, the rapid wear rendering it
likely that the gold may be ground
out and washed away. Stone is the
cheapest material, but expensive
to pack in and remove ; it wears
slowly, and may be most conve-
niently used outside the tunnel,
where room for piling the stones is
at hand, and it presents the greatest
opportunities for catching the gold,
so that on the whole it is probably
superior to wood. Iron rails have
perhaps given the best results of
any, and are becoming veiy popular.

Undcr-currents. — In setting out
the sluice, provision will have been
made for a sufficient number of
under-currents. These, as shown in
Fig. 1 14, may be likened to shallow
ponds c, varying in form from ob-
longs or triangles to no regular
shape, and in size from 10 to 40 A,
wide and 30 to 100 ft. long. They
are put outside the tunnel, as cir-
cumstances of the ground will per-
mit, about 75 to ICK) ft. apart, the
main object being to secure a space
of some 500 to 1 500 sq. ft, without
much regard to its exact shape.
The duty of the under-current has
been already explained on p. 867.
The sand and water are conducted
into it by boxes 15 to 18 in. wide,
placed in the bottom oi the sluice,
the outlet being fitted with a grating

o
to

iU?/i H

'' .,'1

oi
M
Q
Z

J If

* Is

1 l^
'P

n :n:

! '! 1 1

li 1

<\ i

976

HYDRAULICING.

of I -in. square steel bars set i in. apart. The gold-bearing muddy
waters thus rush into the under-current at considerable velocity, and
spread themselves out over its broad surface, which is furnished with
riffles of different kinds, whose effect is to check the current, and cause
the deposition of the gold and heavy matters, the former being caught by
the amalgam and mercury placed there for the purpose. The riffles arc
arranged in such a way that the removal of a few slabs enables all or
any part of them to be taken up. The grades of under-currents vary
from 10 to 17 in. per 12 ft. Being very wide, check-boards are set at
the upper end, to distribute the stream as evenly as possible over the
whole floor ; and as a considerable quantity of water is thus withdrawn
from the sluice, its width is commonly reduced by 6 to 12 in. for the
length of the under-current, resuming the full width again beyond. The
lay of the ground and the amount of grade will determine whether the
under-current shall be all on one side, on alternate sides, or on both sides
at once of the sluice ; in the last mentioned case, the sluice must be
narrowed twice as much.

The discharge of the sluice and the under- urrent is usually made
into a drop-box a (Fig. 114), which is much wider than the sluice, built of
stout timber to withstand rough usage, and covered at bottom with a
heavy stone paving, 4 or 5 ft. below the level of the sluice, and deeper
than the continuation of the sluice, so as to serve as a receptacle for
heavy matters. The depth of the drop is often ruled by the length of
the under-current, which generally discharges into it over the side ; but
occasionally it is governed by the lay of the ground, so that the under-
current will discharge from an end sluice. When a fall of 40 to 50 ft. is
possible, the drop is placed directly under the sluice, which is continued
either from one side at right-angles to its direction above, or, when the
ground allows, in the same line, the continuation of the sluice being
merely a contraction of the drop-box.

Grizzlies. — The "grizzly" d (Fig. 114) is a projection of the main
sluice beyond and over the drop-box, and is an admirably simple con-
trivance for getting rid of the boulders and stones, which contain no gold,
require much waler, and only wear out the sluice. It can be availed of
only when there is abundant natural accommodation for the debris thus
ejected. The projection of the sluice over the drop-box is floored with
railway-rails set 6 in. apart, and is inclined at an angle of 25" to 30°, to
give the large bodies sufficient impetus to ensure their passing over ;
while everything small enough to go between the rails finds its way into
the drop-box.

General arrangement. — The under-currcnts, drops and grizzlies are
repeated as often as circumstances permit or require. At one works, there
were 10 miles of sluice 4 to 6 ft. wide, and 23 under-currents 10 to 40 ft.

GENERAL ARRANGEMENT.

wide. A sluice intended for running off and re-
washinn; the tailings that had been accumulated
for 20 years was 6 miles long, 16 ft. wide, and
1 2 ft. high, built of heavy lumber, and anchored
to the bed-rock with iron bolts. It was divided
into two compartments, one 10 ft, the other 6 ft.
wide, both being used when water was abundant,
only one when it was scarce, or the other was
being cleaned up.

On the North Bloomfield Company's work-
ings, the arrangement of the sluices and under-
currents is as .shown in Fig. 115. A sluice paved
with rock starts from the mouth of the tunnel a,
and thence a variety of cuts and sluices conducts
the current over several under-currents set on
different grades, paved in turn with rock, blocks,
and longitudinal riffles covered with strap-iron.
The grizzlies used are made of 4-in. X i-in.
wrought iron, set on edge. The discharge from
the under-currrcnts is taken up by the main
sluice and subsequently redischarged over the
succeeding under-currents, till the last sluice and
under-current deposit the tailings finally in a
cafion. The under-currents are as follows : —

1. Size, 24 X 36 ft. ; grade, 13 in. per 12 ft. ;
chute, 2 ft. wide at opening, contracted to 10
in. ; iron rail riffles. Yield of amalgam of the
various compartments : — /;, 108^ oz. ; r, 83f ;
d, 46J ; e,ii\\ chute, 46^ ; total, 3 1 6J oz. in
three clean-up.s.

2. Size, 24 ft. X 24 ft. ; grade, 12 in. per
12 ft. ; chute, 2\ ft. wide at opening, contracted
to 2 ft. ; iron rail riffles. Yield :— /;, 48|- ; r, i^\ ;
d, 2o| ; e, 23^ ; chute, 14 ; total, 143J oz. in two
clean-ups.

3. Size, 24 ft. X 36 ft. ; grade, 15 in. per 12
ft. ; chute, 2\ ft. wide at opening, contracted to
2 ft. ; rock riffles. Yield :— /;, 50J ; c, 35 J ; c/, 18^ ;
e,\6\ chute, 8 J ; total, 128 J oz. in two clean-ups.

4. Size, 20 ft. X 36 ft. ; grade, 12 in. per 12
ft. ; rock riffles. Yield, 71 J oz.

5. Size, 24 ft. X 24 ft; grade, 12 in. per 12
ft. ; chute, 2\ ft. wide at opening, contracted to

977

U
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978

IIVDRAULICING.

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2 ft. ; riffles, 4-in. X i J-in. lumber covered with strap-iron and placed i in.
apart. Yield : — b, ^ \c,^\\ fl^, 5 ; e, 6'^ ; total, 25 oz. in one clean-up.

6. Size, 24 ft. X 36 ft. ; grade, 17 in. per 12 ft. ; chute, 2^ ft. wide at
openiiifT, contracted to 2 ft. ; rock riffles. Yield : — b, 8 ; f, 5 ; rt', 3^ ; A 3 ;
total, 19I oz. in one clean -up.

The water used was 350,000 miners' " inches " of 24 hours each ; the
total yield in 6 months was about 700/. worth of gold, of which about
630/. were taken from the first 150 ft. of the sluice down to the first
under-current, and the balance from the remainder of the sluice.

Ti/l-shiiccs. — Of the innncnse mass of material washed into the
sluice, but a small portion only is removed by the grizzlies, and all the
remainder has to be disposed of For this purpose, " tail- " sluices are
run, if possible to a large river which will be capable of carrying away
ihc tailings, or failing that to a smaller stream or a ravine. The tail-
sluice must be stoutly and securely built, at the same time that it is
easily taken down and transported as the exigencies of the case may
require. Nothing needs more careful attention than the tail-sluice, for
the body of barren material which has to be got rid of is so enormous,
that rivers 500 ft. wide, 14 ft. deep in mid-channel, and with a fall of
1 8 ft. per mile, have been quite filled in 21 months of hydraulic washing;
and it must be borne in mind that the moment it is impossible to get rid
of the tailings, the works must be shut up.

Blasting.— -TXxfi removal of the bank of gravel which is to be washed
should be effected as far as possible by the aid of water alone ; but
under certain circumstances, water may not suffice for the operation, as,
for instance, when the gravel is very hard or cemented, or the bank so high
that the nozzle cannot safely be put within close enough range, or for the
purpose of accolerati.ig the action of the water. In such cases, recourse
is had to blasting, with the object of shaking and loosening the earth.

There are two ways of effecting the blast, either by a shaft or by
drifts. In the former case, the shaft is either enlarged somewhat at the
bottom, or a few little drifts are run from it ; the effects of such blasts
being necessarily restricted to a small area, they are fit only for limited
operations. Such shafts are occasionally used to loosen the upper
gravel when the bottom stratum is a tough cement. In this way, the
top is worked off first, and the bottom afterwards blasted by cross-drifts.
They are usually 4 to 5 ft. in diameter, and are tamped with the material
excavated. In the latter case, a number of drifts are run in proportion
to the extent of ground to be blasted — which may be of almost
any desired size. Egleston recommends that the main drift .should be
as small as it can well be worked, say 4 ft. high by 3 ft. wide, of the
same length as the bank is high, and crossed by one or more auxiliary
drifts, according to the size of the blast, one placed across the end and

TAIL-SLUICKS ; liLASTING

979

about half as long as the main drift, the second (if only two) across the
middle and about one-third as long as the main. For a bank 8o to
120 ft. high, about 600 kegs of powder of 25 lb. each will be needed, of
which there should be distributed two-thirds in the cross drifts at the
end of the main drift, and one-third in the half-way cross-drift. A bank
of 80 to 85 ft. will take 400 to 500 kegs ; one 250 ft. high, i 500 to 2000
kegs. Bowie says that the main drift should be run for a length equal
to two-thirds the height of the bank, and cross-drifts from the end of the
main drift should be carried parallel with the face of the bank, the length
being determined by the extent of ground to be blasted. A single
X •■'' all that is needed. The powder needed will vary according to the
character of the bank and gravel from J to -^ keg (minimum) per looo cub.
ft. of ground, which may be estimated as the height of the bank x the
length of the main drift X the length of the cross drifts. The quantity
of powder used should in any case be thoroughly suflicient to do the
work, and had better be in excess than too little, as a blast inefficiently
performed will not repay the cost and trouble of cutting the drifts.

Usually the powder is emptied out of the kegs into long boxes, which
are then provided with fuzes at intervals corresponding to about 50 kegs,
this plan tending to secure the complete and simultaneous combustion
of the powder. When there is water in the drifts, these boxes must be
well tarred, and the holes for the fuzes should be made in them and
closed and coated with wax. Sometimes the heads are simply knocked
out of the kegs and a fuze is placed in each, but vIic uncertainties of
simultaneous combustion are then increased, by reason of the greater
number of fuzes necessary. When the fuzes have been fixed, wires
connecting with the battery are laid in place, and the main drift is
sejurely closed at the first cross-drift by means of stout timbers, and
then filled up to its mouth with damped sand. The fuzes are fired by
an electric battery. A variety of explosives have been tried for blasting,
but powder is the general favourite, on account of safety and ease of
transportation.

Giant powder is much used for breaking up the boulders found in
hydraulic banks, so that the fragments will pass through the sluices.
The cartridges are broken open and the powder poured on to the rock,
and sometimes built over with clay to hold it in place or increase the
effect of the blast, a fuze and cap being used to explode. the charge.
Boulders which could not be reduced by sledge hammers, nor blasicd by
black powder without drilling, are thus easily broken down to such
sizes that they will be carried away in the sluice. Pipe-clay also is now
overcome by blasting with giant powder. The lumps of clay rolled
down from the face of the washing are bored to the centre by a clay
auger, and charged with ^ or more of a cartridge of giant powder, with

3 1^ 2

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980

IIYDRAL'I, ICING.

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ill

fuze attnchctl. The shots arc fired by a hot-iron and rod. This disin-
tej,n-atcs the masses so that the water can completely reduce them.

Conduct of Operations. — When cverythin^^ has been made ready, the
washing operations commence. The fn'st step is to remove the upper
timbers of the shaft to a depth of some feet, and to shape out the ground
around the shaft into a basin, the water and dirt being all washed down
tile shaft and through the tunnel, and helping to fill up the spaces
between the riffies, and the cracks and openings in the sluices. This
basin must be shaped as rapidly as j^ossible, so as to get a space for the
nozzles to work ; but care must be taken not to choke the shaft. The
successful future working of the bank depends in a great measure upon
the care bestowed on the preliminary opening. To wash down a bank,
two nozzles are commonly u.sed, and made to play at the foot of the
bank, at an obtuse angle, one on either side. Sometimes a third nozzle
will be needed to wash away what the other two bring down, and some-
times one does the cutting down and a second the washing away. At
first the water spreads and splashes all abroad, but soon it commences
to bury itself, and gradually works out an arched cave in the bank,
whose depth is regulated by the judgment and experience of the miner.

When one cave is finished, a second is commenced ; and when several
are matle, the portions left standing between them arc washed away, and
the upper part of the bank falls down. The operation is illustrated in
the frontispiece. The fidlen material is washed into the sluice or sluices
connecting with the top of the shaft, and thence into the tunnel (if there
be one, which is not the case in the example shown) and sluices for
extracting the gold. At Reefton, New Zealand, it is finally run over the
blanket-tables shown in Fig. 116. It is important that the supply of
earth should be kept as regular as possible. The ground is worked in
the shape of a funnel, whose leg is the shaft ; and sometimes the shaft
itself is washed away, so that only a deep basin exists, with the tunnel
for an outlet at the bottom. It is most economical to work several
nozzles in the same general direction. Rubbish which is not worth
putting through the sluice-boxes should be deposited where it may
remain and not need removal. Boulders too large for the sluice must be
broken down by hammers or powder.

An important precaution in washing a bank is to keep its face square,
as it is then cheaper, easier, and safer to work. If the banks are allowed
to overhang, the men's lives are in danger from a sudden fall of earth,
which they could not avoid. When the banks are very high, they are
best worked in terraces of about 125 to 150 ft. high each ; 200-ft. banks
are sometimes washed off at once, but they are very dangerous. The
bank generally gives warning of an approaching fall, and the water
should then be shut off, for if it be allowed to play upon the falling mass,
the dirt would run, and the men might have great difficulty in avoiding

Ji»fc

CONDIUT i)V ori'.KATloNS.

9S1

it ; whereas with proper precaution, the boulders only will run, dm] tlu)-
can be seen and escaped. Falls, or "caves," as they are technically
called, are usually effected before ni[,du, to yivc time for reinedyiiiL;
accidents before the next day's work. In very lan^e washin:_;s, work is

Fin. lift.

IJLANKliT-TABLES AT EnU OF IIyDRAUI. ICING Sl.UIClC.

continued at ni^ht to run throuj^h the " cave," but in small ones night-
work is unusual, except the pay-dirt be very rich, when, to use I^gleston's
own words, "the work is continued as much to prevent clean-u[)s [by
other people] as to get the pay in a shorter time."

A method of moving very large boulders is to undermine them and
let them roll. Boulders 6 ft. in diameter are sometimes moved thousands
of feet in this way ; but the i)lan is eminently dangerous, despite the
possibility of judging what direction the rock will take. It is better to
use a 'iinple derrick, mast about 100 ft. high, set in iron sill, and sup-
pi rtcd ijy guys, and boom about 90 ft. long. This can be easily moved
wiiiiuiit taking down, and will lift anything up to 10 or 11 tons; larger
bouldi.,rs must be blasted. The power used for the derrick is generally
a simple overshot water-wheel.

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IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

1.1

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£ Its 12.0

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1-25 11114

ffiotographic

Sdences
Corporation

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WEBSTM, ^.Y. MS80

(716) •72-4S03

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982

IlYDRAUMCINr,.

When commencing with new sluice-boxes, light gravel must be
washed through with a full head of water for a day or two, to fill up the
greater part of the spaces and hollows in the paving, otherwise the
mercury when added would sink out of reach of the gold. Before begin-
ning the washing proper, the current of water is reduced, and 500 to
600 lb. of mercury is introduced for a sluice 5000 ft. in length. The
bulk of this will be placed in the upper portion of the sluices, as the
stream always washes it down more or less ; and it should be sprinkled
so as to fall in little globules. The whole quantity is not introduced at
once, but in little driblets, till it is visible behind the riffles. Sometimes
the quantity is progressively diminished during the final weeks of a
" run " ; but a better plan is to carefully watch the sluices, and add
whatever may appear necessary up to the last moment. The sluices are
usually attended to twice a day, and a little mercury is added.

General clean-ups are not usually undertaken more than once or
twice a year, when the whole operations are suspended, and the paving
and riffles are removed from the sluices : but partial clean-ups, especially
in the upper part of the sluices, occur about once a fortnight. When
the clean-up is to be made, the sluice is run empty, and sections of the
paving are taken up in succession, commencing at the top. Riffles are
then put across the sluice, a little mercury is poured in to collect the
amalgam, and the fine heavy matters collected are washed down with a
small stream. The amalgam is scraped up, as in any ;.her sluice. To
guard against stealing, the sluices are sometimes filled with gravel before
turning off the water, and this is removed by hand, section after section
as the cleaning up progresses ; in other cases, a stream of water is kept
running through, or armed sentinels are placed on guard.

Working Results. — Under favourable conditions for hydraulic washing,
two men can do all the work required, in a washing that uses 300 miners'
" inches " of water. Under such circumstances, i pipe will break down
as much as 3 can wash away ; on the other hand, 3 pipes are sometimes
required to break down what i can wash away. The water is generally
considered capable of carrying away i of its own weight of gravel.

The average cost for the La Grange Company, according to Bowie,
may be roundly stated as follows : —

Per ot. of Metal produced.

Watrr

Labour

Material

Officers

Contingent cxpensts
Taxes

rf.
10

4
6
II
I
4

Per cub. vH. treated.

Water
Labour

Material
Officers

and

expenses

contingenfl

04
1-8

o'3

47 o

WORKING RESULTS.

9S3

The above refer to light pressure and low grade. For heavy pressure
and 4 per cent, grade, an example may be found in the North Bloomfield
Company's figures, per oz. of metal produced : —

s. d.

Labour 16 o

Blocks and lumber 20

Explosives 40

Materials 3 ^

General expenses 2 1 1

Water 80

3ft 7

The following promiscuous costs per yd. may also be quoted : — y1. ;
\\d. ; \\d.\ \d.; l I. ; averaging from \d. to 2^d. per cub. yd.

Of the yield from hydraulic workings, those lying between the Middle
and South Yuba have averaged, according to L aur, ?>d. per cub. yd., and
according to Prof. Silliman, \$d. per cub. yd. Various yields have
been :— 2J. 1 1^^. ; 2s. 6d. \ \2\d.\ j\d.\ (>\d.\ ld.\ 2%d. The last-
mentioned figure refers to the Gold Run district, where all the conditions
were extraordinarily favourable. The average yield of the Smartsville
gravel is stated by Whitney at about 23c. {\\\d^ per cub. yd.

The hydraulic method has been in use on the Sierra Nevada over
20 years, and the experience of this period affords a means of judging the
value of the gravel and the profit in working it. The general results
have been very satisfactory. Wherever the richer blue gravel has been
accessible, as at the Flats, Badger Hill, and below San Juan, it has, with
very rare exceptions, paid profits, and sometimes large profits, to its
owners. The top gravel, though much poorer than the blue, has often
been found very rich in streaks (due to concentration by surface streams),
and has, in general, paid large sums of money to the ditch companies fur-
nishing the water, leaving something besides for the owners of the ground.
There are few trustworthy records showing in detail the costs and profits
or losses of the business in the earlier years of hydraul icing-; but so far
as the top gravel is considered, the price paid for the water used in mining
is some indication of the result obtained.

In early years, the price of water was 25c. (i2j^.) per " inch " for 10
hours' flow. This price has fallen, by gradual reductions, to 20c., i6§c.,
\2)f.., loic. per "inch" for 10 hou»-s, the price at present varying from
8c. (4//.) to I2^c. {^\d) per "inch " for »o hours, or twice that price for
24 hours. In many claims, in which top gravel only was washed, the
water was paid for at 20c. to 25c. per "inch" for 10 hours, and instances
are reported in which, after paying these charges, the owners retained
handsome profits ; such cases were, however, exceptional. On the other
hand, it is well known that under the high rates charged for water in
early days, many attempts to wash the top gravel resulted In loss.

984

IIYDUAULICING.

At the present day, where the top gravel only is washed, it is thought
to do very well if it yields loc. to 15c. ($(/. to ^Ifd.) per " inch " of water
for 10 hours. On the North Bloomficld Co.'s mine in 1870-71, the yield
of surface gravel was i6c. (8^/.) per " 24-hour inch," or 6/5C. per " lO-hour
inch." From 1870 to 1874, the yield was only iSi'oC. per " 24-hour inch,"
equal to SiVoC- pc " lO-hour inch." In 1875, the top gravel, including a
little blue gravel, but nothing within 40 ft. of the bed-rock, yielded
i9T'rtC- per "24-hour inch," or 8c. per " 1 0-hour inch." It is quite pro-
bable, however, that the water in this mine, furnished as it is from the
company's own ditch, is much more lavishly used than in mines where it
is purchased, and the relation of water to product would, on that account,
be an unfair criterion for other mines. At Columbia Hill, where only
top gravel has been washed, its yield in several instances has varied from
about 20c. (lOr/.) to 58c. (2g(/.) per "24-hour inch," affording in the
instance last referred to exceptionally good profits.

Some of the mines below San Juan afford the most satisfactory
examples of the results of washing the entire bank, including together the
top and bottom gravels. The record of their observations during the past
4 years, where they can be obtained, furnish the best data for judging the
value of the ground. Of this portion of the channel, some 2 or 3 miles
have been already washed out. The American mine has been worked
for a length of about 3000 ft. along the channel. The width of the cut,
from rim to rim, is probably looo ft, and the workings about 140 or 150
ft. From some data furnished from the company's books, a few years
since, it appears that the gross product of the mine from December 9,
i860, to August 6, 1.S72, was $1,241,240 30c. (258,591/. 14J. yd). The
water used in this period was 1,454,174 "inches " of 10 hours, and the
yield per " lo-hour inch " would accordingly be 86c. (p. jd). The price
paid for the water varied from i6§c. to I2ic. per " lo-hour inch,"
amounting in the aggregate to |2i8,749 58c. (45,572/. i6s. yd.), or 30*6
per cent, of the whole working expense. The last-named item was
$714,771 04c. (148,910/. I2S. 8d.), and the nett proceeds $526,469 27c.
(109,681/. IS. lid.), or 42'4i per cent, of the product. In 1871,
Hamilton Smith estimated that the yield of this ground amounted to
24c. (is.) per cub. yd., and that each linear ft. of channel worked had
paid at least $750 (150/).

These examples might be supplemented by others, but enough has
been said to warrant the conclusion that the top gravel alone usually
contains gold enough to pay the expenses of mining, and leaves a profit
for the owner of the water ; and, further, that where the blue or bottom
gravel has been washed, it has, with very rare exceptions, made satis-
factory profits for the owner ; finally, in order to reach the blue gravel,
the top gravel must be removed.

LOSSES.

985

Four companies at Howland Flat and I'otosi — the Down East, Union,
Hawkcye, and Pittsburgh — took from 2,^6^,000 sq. ft. of surface,
$2,251,653 95c. (470,094/. 6s. 5</.)> the pay-gravel being estimated at 4^ ft.
in thickness. This would give an average of 95c. (3^. 1 1^(/.) per sq. ft. of
surfp.ce, or $5 70c. (23.^. gd) per cub. yd. of gravel washed. This material
wf s mined, it is stated, at a cost of 47c. (23^^/.), leaving a profit of 48c.
(2^-.) per sq. ft. At Grass Flat, in the Pioneer Company's ground, the
yield per cub. yd. of gravel is said to have been $1 59c. (6s. 7^d.).

At Allan's Flat, Yackandandah, Victoria, the ground washed off was

about 30 ft. deep, the water used was 500 gal. a minute, and the inclination

of the sluice was i in 25 ; 3 men worked 150 cub. yd. per diem. The

daily expenses of u claim were : —

£ s- d.
3 men at &r i 40

360,000 gal. of w.iter at o'33(/. .. o 10 o

Wear and tear 060

200

Consequently a yield of \ gr. of gold per cub. yd. covered all expenses.

A hydraulicing claim on Dunedin Flat, Kumara, New Zealand,
yielded 1 73 5 oz. of gold from a block of 22,403 cub. yd., or an average of
31 gr. per cub. yd., working a face 35 ft. deep. Shares in tiiis cl"im .sell
readily at 400/. each.

Losses. — The basis on which hydraulicing is pursued, at least in
America, is that it pays better to treat a great quantity of gravel with a
great loss of gold than a small quantity with a small loss. The con-
sequence is that the waate of gold is really enormous. The coarse gold
is probably caught pretty effectually ; but the greater part of the fine and
rusty gold is undoubtedly lost, and it is not too much to say that 1 5 to 20
per cent, of the total amount of gold present in the gravel is by this
.system scattered throughout the watercourses of the country in such a way
that it is lost, not only to the miner of to-day, but to succeeding genera-
tions. One party who took the trouble to wash some of their tailings in
a rocker got $5 (i/.) worth of gold from 60 bucketfuls of tailings, or an
average of 4^/. per bucket. This loss does not consist either of gold
alone. Of the mercury put into the sluices for amalgamating with the
gold, 10 to 25 per cent, passes away with the tailings. This is due partly
to the flouring of the mercury, from the constant attrition * > which it
is subjected ; but is also owing in a great measure to carelessness in
watching the sluices and keeping them in repair. Instances are not
unknown where many lb. of mercury have been taken from a single
pocket where it had gathered in the tailings. Considerable profit has
been derived in some cases from rewashing deposits of tailings, the

986

HYDRAULICING.

conduct of the process being rendered vastly cheaper than other sluicing,
by reason of the abundance of mercury present.

As to the loss of gold in the operations carried on in the Smartsville
district, in the opinion of some well-informed miners, it is not over 20 per
cent, while others set the amount as high as 50 per cent., and express a
belief that the bars of the Yuba, into which the tailings are run, would be
found to be as well worth working as they were in 1849.

Seam diggings. — In some districts, innumerable small stringers and
seams of quartz, frequently much decomposed, and all carrying more or
less gold, are found permeating a soft easily-disintegrated slate formation ;
and it has been proved feasible to treat this formation by hydraulic
washing, as the gold has been thoroughly liberated from its matrix by
natural processes. Hydraulicing is conducted on somewhat different
principles in the case of seam diggings. The sluices are set at a steep
grade, even 18 in. per 12 ft; the whole formation cannot always be
washed away indiscriminately, for sometimes barren earth only would
be passing through the sluices, and at other times the gold might be too
plentiful to be properly caught. The pay-dirt does not run horizontally,
as in gravel deposits, but vertically, in a narrow channel of quartz seams
related to a well-defined wall or fissure, which always pitches at a steep
angle, and often dissects all the veins on one side. The auriferous rock
is not always closely confined between two perfect walls, but is often
spread out 20 to 50 ft. on one side of the main fissure. It is commonly
associated with a series of lenticular masses of quartz, crossing or lying
parallel with each other, and having the same dip ; also in the form of
chimneys, where courses of seamlets cross each other. There is a great
tendency to form lenticular masses, often measuring only a few ft each
way, but occasionally 40 ft. long and wide, and a few ft thick. When
near the surface and the ground is decomposed, and the pay-seams are
numerous and widely distributed, it is best to hydraulic away the whole
hill ; but as soon as the deposit is beyond the reach of water, the seams
must be followed by shafts and drives, and the working generally assumes
the character of an ordinary vein-mine, the stringers becoming harder and
more strongly marked as the region is reached where surface influences
have not been at work.

A somewhat similar plan was adopted by Stackpoole in dealing with
a soft granite dyke containing veins of poorly auriferous quartz, at
Wood's Point, Victoria, for an account of which the author is indebted
to A. B. Ainsworth, C.E., of Alexandra. Water to the extent of 6 or 8
sluice-heads (say 1200 to 1600 gal. a minute) was available at an altitude
of about 80 ft. above the creek draining the outcrop of the dyke. The
loose stuff was run through sluice-boxes with false bottoms, and the
quartzose debris was crushed. The lumps of quartz were turned into a

SEAM DIGGINGS ; CRUSHING ; HYDRAULIC F.LF.VATORS.

987

paddock at the end of the sluice-boxes during the sluicinfj operation, by
means of a " grizzly " made of timber rails 3 or 4 in. apan. A couple of
forkers were employed in the paddock pitching away the stones and
rocks known to be valueless In the course of 2 or 3 weeks, some 3CX)
or 400 tons of material accumulated in the paddock ; this, trammed to
the stamps, and crushed at an average cost of is. 6d. per ton by water-
power, yielded 2 dwt. of gold per ton, in addition to the loose gold
caught in the sluice. About 9 men were occupied Jn the sluicing and
paddocking.

Crushing process. — In some places where water has not been found in
sufficiently constant abundance, and also where difficulty has been
encountered in finding outlet for the tailings, hydraulicing has been
superseded by other methods. One of these consists in removing, not the
whole depth of the auriferous ground, as is necessitated by hydraulic
operations, but only a few ft. of the richest stratum from the bed-rock
upwards. This permits a portion of the gold to be extracted from ground
which must otherwise lie unworked, and in some instances the immediate
return for outlay is much greater than would be the case with hydraulicing ;
but the less auriferous ground left will probably be found too poor to pay
for working alone by hydraulic or any other process at a future date. The
pay-dirt extracted has to be put through a crushing process in order to
liberate the gold. Raymond mentions a Californian com.pany as the only
one working successfully in this way, and gives the following particulars
of their operations: — Men employed, 25 ; wages, 12s. per day; output,
40 to 50 carloads per 24 hours, according to nature of ground ; motive
power, water — 75 in. with a head of 80 ft, projected against a lo-ft.
hurdy-gurdy wheel.

J. d. s. d. s. d.

Average yield per carload (19 J cub. ft.), 15 8J ; cost, 8 s| ; profit, 7 3

„ „ tonof20C»ll). .. 19 7J; „ 10 7 ; „ 9 oj

>. I. cub. yd 22 oj; „ 12 I ; „ 9 ii)

Drake's cement-mill (see p. 898) is sometimes applied to this purpose.
It is so set in connection with the sluice-boxes that such portion of the
gravel as may have become fine by the washing and blasting flows
through a grizzly leading under the mill to the opposite end, while the
hard gravel passes into the mill ; it is there disintegrated, discharged into
the sluice, and passed to the under-currents. This obviates the necessity
of having " drops " to break up the material. It is stated that " the whole
expense of working cement by this machine, when put in with cars, is
about 25c. (12^^,) per sq. yd., when working 1000 to 2000 tons per diem.
When put in through the sluices, some 5000 tons or more a day can be
put through at a cost of between 2c. and 3c. (say i^d.) per yd."

hydraulic elei'ators. — Cranston's hydraulic elevator (Fig. 117) is
devised to overcome the difficulty of washing gravel lying below the

Ki:

988

IIYDRAUMCING.

natural outlet of the basin that contains it. A closed flume a is placed
on an upward incline, and fitted with a horizontal one If of cast-iron, into
which is introduced a hydraulic nozzle c, pointing in the direction which
the gravel is required to take. The horizontal portion of the apparatus
has an open end ff behind the nozzle by which the gravel and water enter.
The gravel is washed in as it might be into any other flume, but a grizzly
e is arranged to turn off the large stones at the mouth. The gravel and
water pass from the closed flume into an ordinary sluice at the top, and

Fig. 117.

Cranston's Hydraulic Elevator.

it is said that they have been run through the flume as thick as the water
will carry the gravel through a sluice set on a 24-in. grade, and that it
was found impossible to choke the apparatus by any head of water it was
calculated to carry ; also that it washes the gravel as well as ^ mile of
ordinary sluice would do. Under-currents are placed at a short distance
down the sluice from where the elevator-spout discharges into it, drawing
all the heavy materials — gold, mercury, &c. — from the sluice as soon as
it has time to settle from the agitation produced by the discharge. This
under-current is so near the head of the sluice that it saves most of the
gold, and can be cleaned up every day if desired, without stopping the
apparatus. To recover the elevating water, and le-use it for driving the
gravel into the machine, a settling-tank is made on the side of the sluice,
just far enough down from where the spout discharges to allow the surface
water to become settled a little. The side of the flume next the settling-
tank is cut away, and bars are placed lengthwise at short intervals apart
across the opening into the flume. The surface of the water containing
but little gravel flows over into the .settling-tank. The bars prevent the
stones and boulders from passing over, and keep them in the main flume.
It is claimed for the process that wherever hydraulic pressure can be had
— say 100 to 3CX) ft. — a mine can be worked 20 to 50 ft. deep to as good
advantage as through an open cut or tunnel.

The following general instructions may be useful. The machine
should be set 5 ft. deep in the bed-rock, in a timbered room or box. The
water-lifter should be set on one side of the box, 2 ft. lower than the
elevator, and should be set before the elevator, and used as a pump and
to run out the dirt, gravel, &c. in the excavation where the elevator is

IIYUKAULIC ELEVATORS.

989

set. The elevator should be set on bed-picces put crossways of the shaft
or box. The box should be for a 12- or i6-in. machine, 12 ft. long and
6 ft. wide in the clear inside, so as to allow of turning a wrench between
the machine and the side of the box. For a 20-in. machine, it should be
16 by 7 ft. ins'de. The water lifter should be set outside of this box. The
incline of the discharge spout is 45° ; 17 in. in length of this spout make
1 ft. high. This spout should be made of 3-in. plank, and large enough
for a set of blocks to go inside ; and the top or lid should be held on by
clamps, and not nailed ; the bottom and two sides should be nailed
together with 6-in. spikes. The spout should have a curve at the top, so
as to discharge straight into the flume. This curve should be 8 ft. long,
and should rise in its length 3 ft. for a 12- or i6-in. machine ; for a 20-in.
machine, it should rise 4 ft in its length. In calculating the length of
the discharge spout, deduct this amount ; also deduct the curve in the
discharge end of the machine, which is as follows : for a 1 2-in. machine,
there is a rise in the machine itself of 18 in. ; in a i6-in. machine, there
is 26 in. rise ; in a 20-in. machine, there is 4 ft. rise in the machine — so
this much, with the curve on the machine, should be deducted from the
amount required to rise, and the spout be made accordingly. The
grizzly or feed-box should be — for a 1 2-in. machine, 3 ft. 9 in. long ; for
a 1 6-in. machine, it should be 4^ ft. long ; and for a 20-in. machine, it
should be 5 J ft. long. Its grade should be, in its length — for a i2-in.
machine, 10 in.; for a i6-in. machine, 12 in. ; and for a 20-in. machine,
16 in. The flume should be — for a 12-in. machine, 30 in. ; for the top
flume, with whatever grade the ground will admit of, giving sufficient
dump. The feed-sluice in the bottom should be 24 in. wide, and should
have at least 6 in. '^rade to 12 ft, and as much more as the ground will
admit of. These grades will do for all the larger sizes ; but the size of
the flume should be as follows : a i6-in. machine wants a 3-ft discharge
and a 30-in. feed-flume ; and a 20-in. machine wants a 4-ft. discharge-
flume, and a 3-ft feed-flume in the bottom. The sizes of "giants"
required are as follows: a i2-in. machine wants a No. 2 giant; a i6-in.
machine wants two No. 2, or one No. 3 or 4 giant ; and a 20-in. machine
wants two No. 4 or 5 giants. The main pipes should be the size of the
machine or larger — that is, a 12-in. machine should have a 12- or 15-in.
main ; a i6-in. machine should have a 16- or i8-in. main — 18 in. would
be better ; a 20-in. machine should have a 20- or 22-in. main. Forks or
crotchets are better than distributors for the lower end of the main pipes,
and want regular screw water-gates.

Concerning Cranston's elevator. Prof. Skidmore obligingly writes that
it is most successfully used in working ground with a light grade. There
are at least a dozen in use in California alone. He has not seen any
treating gravel "considerably below the ground level." Those seen

II „
ill :>

990

IIYnRAULICINC;.

were dealing with {ground about 3 ft. in depth, where the grade was so
light that water would scarcely run. The elevator raised the gravel in one
instance 18 ft., and in another 13 ft. to the sluice-box. Win. T. Ucwey
says that a water-pressure of 180 ft. (miners' measurement) will give a
lift of 15 ft., and 300 ft. a lift of 25 ft, and so on. Skidmore states that
when he has seen the elevator in operation, the amount of water used
has been 160 to 240 " inches," and the lift 13 to 23 ft.

Perry's elevator. — The working of Terry's elevator, which has already
been alluded to on p. 525, is thus described by Warden Carew. The
works consist of a drainage-race, pipes to lead head-water, an elevating-
pipe, and sluice-boxes. The drainage-race is made of sheet iron, forming
a pipe 30 in. diameter. At the lower end of the race, this pipe is laid on
th? surface of the tailings, and it is extended up the gully through a
channel opened in the tailings, with just sufficient inclination to allow
water to drain down the gully. This pipe is continued for a distance of
1500 ft. up the claim, and is at that point a considerable depth from the
surface of the tailings, and 2 or 3 ft. into the bed-rock. By means of
this race, the object sought for — thorough drainage — is effectually
secured, and the race can be now extended as tlie workings advance up
the gully, by simply cutting a channel in the rock, the distance and
depth required, and covering it with suitable material. Near the present
head of the drainage-race, operations at sluicing the ground have been
porr.--«nced. A large open space was first made down to the rock
L 1, and the elevating apparatus placed in position. This consists of
a a. c.ble pipe 15 m. :'iameter, made of sheet iron, joined with a half
circular cast-iron elbow of larger diameter than the pipe, and perforated
at the angle with an aperture of 12 or 14 in. diameter. The elbow is
placed in a hollow, or shallow well-hole, in the rock, and the ends rise
nearly perpendicular 12 or 15 ft. above the surface of the tailings. One
end of this pipe is joined to another pipe of the same diameter, which
conveys water from a supply-dam situate at an elevation of 294 ft, thus
affording great pressure. The other end of the pipe is made to discharge
into the head of a long line of sluice-boxes supported on trestles over the
bed of the gully. When water is let in from the supply dam, it passes
down through the water-pipe, and then rushes up the elevating-pipe,
drawing, as it does so, through the aperture in the elbow, all gravel,
cement, earth, or water within reach. With a sufficient supply of water,
the process seems capable of lifting an enormous quantity of stuff, and it
is projected up the pipe with immense velocity, estimated at a mile a
minute, by which means all unbroken lumps of cement strike a thick
plate of iron placed for that purpose at the top of the pipe, and, by force
of the blow, become pulverized. Everything reaching the head of the
pipe then flows through an aperture into the sluice-boxes, which, being

HYDRAULIC ELEVATORS.

991

raised as explained, can be so arranged as to discharj^e debris at any
locality or distance, as occasion may require. Another appliance is a
line of 15-in. piping, about 3000 ft. in length, which conveys water from
a lagoon at the head of the gully to near the face of the workings. The
pipe is there fitted with a patent nozzle, with which the water is played
upon the face, sides, and bottom of the workings, and forces the earth
and tailings in large quantities towards the aperture in the elbow of the
elevating-pipe, whence all is drawn up the pipe and deposited in the
sluice-bo.xes. When the claim is properly opened out, and the process

ric:. 118.

PiiRRY's Hydraulic Elkvator at Work.

complete, the gravel and earth will be first elevated on to a platform by
means of buckets travelling on a band, worked by a turbine wheel, and
be there discharged on to a grating for the purpose of separating all
large stones ; these will fall on to a travelling chain-belt, and be de-
posited in any convenient spot out of the way of the workings. The
fine stuff will fall through the grating on to a hopper at the base of the
elevating-pipe, be drawn through the aperture, and lifted a further 20 to
40 ft. as may be necessary, to afford sufficient space for deposit of debris
from the sluice-boxes. The apparatus is shown in full work in Fig. 118.

992

HYDRAUI-ICING.

Booming. — The term " booming " 's .applied, in the Western States of
America, to an operation much resembling the old process of " hushing,"
as used in Yorkshire for discovering lead-lodes. A reservoir is first con-
structed at the head of the ground to be worked ; into this, water is
conducted, from the most convenient source still higher up, by flumes or
ditches. These reservoirs vary in size from a small pond to an acre or
two lake, and the ditches are often 8, lo, and 12 miles long. When the
basin is full, and a continuous heaJ of water is in running operation, gates
are opened, letting loose the whole volume of the liquid, which tears
down the mountain side in a huge volume, sweeping everything before it,
carrying tons of boulders, gravel, and dirt down to the gulch below. If
auriferous ground is to be worked, a long and massive wooden flume is
built at the foot of the hill, into which the debris is carried, with all the
force of the falling waters and the sand and rocks w.\shed along in its
course, while the gold is deposited by its own gravity, behind the rifiles
in the bottom of the race. These flumes are often thousands of feet long,
and as rocks of all sizes and weights are carried along in them, they
must be built with great strength and solidity, to withstand the immense
wear.

The self-acting gate, now considered the best (whereby the opening
and shutting of the gate of the reservoir is made automatic), consists of a
water-box suspended in guides, the rope from which passes over two
pulleys, one of 1 2 ft. and one of 5 ft, to the lower edge of the canvas gate
(barred with strips of iron or 2-in. timber). When the water in the
reservoir reaches the proper height, a small flume conducts it to the box,
which, when full of water, has weight enough to roll up the canvas gate
at the bottom of the reservoir from the bottom, allowing the water in the
reservoir to issue through a gate (generally 4 x 6 ft. in size). By the
time the reservoir is nearly empty, the water in the weight-box has dis-
charged itself through holes made for that purpose in the bottom, and a
weighted arm on the second pulley drops the gate to its place, when the
pressure of the water keeps it in place water-tight. One man is now
considered ample force to run a boom, and his duties consist mostly in
clearing timber from the ground to be worked and in breaking the larger
boulders into sizes small enough to go through the flume, which is usually
4 ft. wide with a grade of i ft. in 1 2 ft. The use of a boom permits the
working of ground that could by no other means be made to pay. The
experience of the Summit County miners goes to prove that, notwith-
standing the large amount of water used and the velocity with which it
rushes through the flume, the gold collects readily in the upper boxes of
the flume, in which mercury is generally placed. Booming permits the
working of claims that would otherwise be valueless.

Utilizing river-currents for Sluicing. — J. T. Thomson suggests the

UTILIZING RIVER-CURRENTS. DRAWUACKS TO IIYDRAULICINC. 993

following method for utilizing the current of large rivers for gold-sluicing.
A screw 8 ft. in diameter will give 8 H.l'., and can be immersed and
attached t .my fi.xturc. It will raise one Otago sluice-head of water
(equal to 95 cub. ft. of water delivered per minute) to an elevation of
70 ft., or 7 heads 10 ft, without intermission. The screw may he made
of timber, and can be put together by any blacksmith or carpenter.
Minor scientific faults in its form are compensated by an excess of
current-power. The accessories requiring skill in their construction are
a brass fores-pump and some indiarubbcr tubing. With a screw or fan
15 in. in diameter, with blades set at an angle of 20"" to the disc, in a
2-mile current, the revolutions are nearly i per second ; the pistons of
the pump are worked by a crank, propelling the contents once per
second ; the diameter of the cylinder is j in. ; stroke of piston, 2 '7 in. ;
quantity of water per stroke, i • 1925 cub. in., or 71 "55 cub. in. per
minute, or 59*5 cub. ft. or 368 w '/n\. per 24 hours ; cost 4 or 5/. The
capacity and cost increase, of course, with the size. The whole apparatus
is easily repaired, and can be removed at will.

Dratvbacks to HydrauUciug. — The main difficulty with hydraulicing
is to find an outlet for the refuse, and were it not for this, there would be
greater activity in this description of mining. The difficulty, fortunately,
does not affect all mines, as some have facilities for disposing of their
" tailings " in valleys or gulches, without making use of rivers or creeks.
One Californian company has spent a large sum of money in purchasing
the land they required for their debris, and others no doubt will do the
same. Two or three suits havf been brought against hydraulic mining
companies by farmers, who have had their land deteriorated in value, or
rendered entirely valueless by the deposit from the mines, but all the
suits have gone against them. . Although no one can doubt really from
the character of the deposit that the damage done is due to the action of
the miners, the difficulty appears to be to fix the liability upon any
particular copipanies. The damage done to the lands bordering on the
rivers will sooner or later be settled, either by action of the Legislature,
or by an arrangement between the parties interested ; but the more
serious question cropping up is as to the damage done to the navigation
on the rivers and bays. This question is receiving the attention of the
Federal authorities in Washington, at the instance of the Chief of Bureau
of Engineering, who has reported that the arm of San Pablo Bay,
separating Mare Island from Vallejo, and forming the Navy Yard
Harbour, is filling, and that he attributed it to the .system of hydrau-
licing. Steps have been taken to have a full investigation of the matter.
When the mining companies realise that they have to combine upon
some plan to dispose of their ddbris, other than in constructing a tunnel
to carry it to the nearest river, the difficulty in most cases will not be of

3 s

994

HYDRAULICING.

' ,• 1 .

such a formidable character as to impede operations materially. There
are large tracts of " tule " land which would be benefited by receiving
these deposits, and the heavy adobe soils could be improved by a limited
supply. An engineer who has studied the question thoroughly has lately
written a letter to one of the local papers, and the following extracts will
be read with interest : —

" For several years past I have made a special study of the subject of
mining debris and its effect upon the harbours, rivers, and agricultural
lands of the State. In 1870, I had occasion to make a reconnaissance of
the Bear River country and its hydraulic mines. This year I made a
detailed instrumental survey of the Yuba River and its tributaries,
extending from its mouth at the city of Marysville to the head of the
hydraulic mining belt in the Sierra. In this connection I have already
surveyed, and otherwise examined, all the hydraulic mines located in the
watershed of the Yuba, and depositing their tailings into the same. I
am enabled, therefore, to submit a few leading facts and figures relating
to this important matter, that may tend to disperse many of the random
statements and positive misrepresentations that have been made to your
Honourable Committee, either by parties grossly ignorant of the subject,
or by parties holding large interests in hydraulic mines. One of your
informants states, for example, ' that the value of farming lands destroyed
by hydraulic mining, when compared with the value of the mines, is not
over 2 per cent.,' and in twe next sentence he declares that ' the debris of
the mines is, on the whole, beneficial to farming lands.' Now, from
accurate surveys made by the State Engineer of California, it has been
ascertained that over 1 8,000 acres of valley land on the Yuba — land that
was once the finest bottom land in the State — have been utterly destroyed
and buried beneath the mining debris ; so that now this vast area has
been transformed into a barren desert of sand and slickings, alternating
with impenetrable jungles of willow swamp. Probably as much if not
more of equally good land has been similarly destroyed on Bear River.
Although these lands have been exposed to sunshine and rain for years,
they produce not a blade of grass — nothing but willows, and kindred
semi-aquatic plants, that derive their nourishment chiefly from the
stratum of water percolating underneath the surface, and not from the
soil itself. This gentleman further says, ' fully 95 per cent, of the tailings
are lodged in the caiions (gorges) or near the mines, and the remaining
5 per cent, finds its way down the lower portions of the mining rivers.'
The reverse of this percentage would be nearer the truth. From the
beginning of hydraulic mining down to the present time, the enormous
aggregate of 162,000,000 cub. yd. of material has been sluiced out of the
hydraulic mines into the Yuba and its tributaries ; while the amount now
retained in the river, above the valley, or lodged in the cafions, will not

DRAWBACKS.

995

exceed 12,000,000 cub. yd. This we have from actual surveys. Thus
1 50,000,000 cub. yd. of solid material have passed the foot-hills, and have
been deposited on the bottom lands of the Yuba, into the waters of the
Feather and Sacramento rivers, the Bays of Suisun and San Pablo, and
finally into the Bay of San Francisco. (One company alone — the
' Excelsior Hydraulic Mining Company,' at Smartsville — admit in a
published circular that they have sluiced 18,600,000 cub. yd. into the
Yuba.) To present to the mind this enormous mass of 1 50,000,000 cub.
yd. of material in a more familiar form, it may be stated that such a
mass deposited on a farm of 150 acres would cover it to a depth of 581 ft. ;
or if spread evenlj' 1 ft. in depth, would cover 93,000 acres, or 145 sq.
miles of land, and absolutely destroy it for agricultural or any other
purpose. The bed of the Yuba at Marysville is now filled up to the level
of the streets of that city, where prior to the era of hydraulic mining there
was a well-defined channel of clear water, 20 to 25 ft. in depth. The
authorities of Marysville have just closed a contract amounting to $50,000
(10,000/.) for raising its levees, and protecting the city from the further
encroachment of the mining debris. The Feather and Sacramento rivers
have shoaled in a lesser degree, but still almost sufficiently to destroy
their usefulness as highways of commerce. A re-survey of Suisun Bay,
recently made under direction of the United States Coast Survey Depart-
ment, has developed the fact that tules {Scirptis lacustris) are now growing
at points where 1 5 years ago there were several fathoms of water. The
complete filling up of the bay is a mere question of a few short years,
after which San Pablo Bay will become the next settling reservoir, to be
followed finally by the rapid shoaling of San Francisco Bay, and the
eventual destruction of its harbour. These results are sure to follow ; the
laws of nature make them inevitable, unless, indeed, hydraulic mining is
discontinued, or unless some adequate works be devised for arresting the
tailings before they reach the valleys, or enter the navigable waters of the
State. On this head, our survey has given us sufficient data to warrant
the belief that such works are not only feasible, but entirely within the
bounds of a reasonable expenditure of money.

" Your informant further avers that of the material deposited in the
rivers, the farmers contribute 12 or 15 yd., where the miners contribute
I yd., an assertion so palpably absurd as scarcely to admit of argument.
The farming lands of California are exceptionally free from wash, the
soil being generally of a resisting and tenacious quality, with a com-
paratively level surface. Moreover, nearly all the farming lands adjacent
to the rivers actually lie below the plane of the present river banks, so
that 'farming debris,' if any there be, must run up hill to enter the rivcis.
As to the few scattering farms in the foot-hills or on the mountains, their
aggregate area is too insignificant to cut a figure in the case. Indeed, I

3 s 2

996

HYDRAULICING.

■H

a?'

have failed to discover any material wash in any of them, and I have
seen them nearly all in the course of my explorations. The same may
be said of the washings from wagon roads. One of your informants says,
' the cutting of wagon roads along mountain sides is a fruitful source of
sediment, large masses of earth being washed down from them during
winter rains.' Now I have travelled hundreds of miles over these
mountain roads, and have observed them closely, but have found no
slides or washing worthy of mention. It is evident that if the roads were
subject to slides to any extent they would soon become impassable, while
in point of fact they are almost without exception in a very fair condition.
Any tendency to slides or washings is promptly checked by the owners
if they are toll-roads, or by the authorities if county roads.

" Now, as to the present condition of the Yuba and its hydraulic
mines, it is estimated that during the dry season 17,000 miners' 'inches'
of water are used daily by the hydraulic mines of the Yuba, and that
each miners' ' inch ' removes at least 3 yd. of material in 24 hours. This
gives a daily total of 51,000 cub. yd. Fully one-half of this is held in
suspension by the running waters, and carried down the river in the
shape of muddy water, or, more correctly speaking, liquid mud, and is
deposited, as before stated, partly on the bottom lands of the Yuba, and
partly into the rivers and bays beyond. That is to say — and I wish to
emphasise this fact — 25,000 cub. yd. of earth and sand, say 43,750 tons,
are daily poured from the mountains into the valleys by the hydraulic
mines. To use a familiar illustration, suppose it were required to
transport that amount on railroad cars, it would take 1 10 trains of 40
cars each (one train every 13 minutes) to accomplish the daily task. In
the rainy season, more water is used, and correspondingly more material
is sent down ; moreover, the winter freshets invariably clean out the
caiions, and sweep away the heavier material that has accumulated at the
mining dumps during the low stages of the river. The lighter material
runs down with the stream, the heavier material rolls along the bottom
with varying velocities, depending on the height and volume of the
freshets, and in due course of time finds its way to the level reaches of
the river in the foot-hills and the valley."

( 997 )

CHAPTER VI.

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

The occurrence of gold in mineral veins and lodes has already been
discussed from its geological and mineralogical standpoints (see
Chapter II.). It remains to consider here some peculiarities in the veins,
which nave a bearing upon the mode of mining, as well as the whole
subject of the nature of the association between the gold and its matrix,
and the means adapted for extracting it from that matrix.

Sections of Veins. — There would appear to be no actual limit to the
variety of forms exhibited by auriferous veins of quartz and other
minerals, and it would require a large volume to describe even a portion
of the variations met with in any one mining district. It must suffice
to illustrate some few of the most remarkable examples, which may be
done within a convenient space.

Fig. I20.

Contorted Veins in thk Caribou District.

Fig. 1 19 shows a contorted vein worked in the Caribou district of
Nova Scotia. It consists of an anticlinal fold having a subordinate
synclinal fold at the apex. The dip of the axis of the anticlinal is E.
The gold is followed by stopes, and the quartz removed by a process of

998

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

long wall. The yield is about 4 oz. of gold per ton. The veins a c are

about i to I in. thick ; b varies from \ in. to 4 in. The country-rock is

a soft slate, in places a sandy shale ; the slate underlying b is auriferous

in patches. Fig. 120 illustrates more clearly

the curious contortions of the vein b.

Daintree says of the reefs of the Cape

river district, Queensland, that they are situated

on a flat at the foot of a high ridge, which

follows the course of an elvan dyke of

quartziferous porphyry. Branch veins from

this intrusive mass have been injected into

the surrounding slates, and it would almost

seem that, in some cases, the rich quartz veins

were a continuation to the surface of the

elvan veins themselves. Sections (Fig. 121)

taken in one of the shafts in the reef appear to warrant this assertion :

«, reef ; b, elvan dyke ; Cy slates.

Fig. 124.
Fig. 122.

Ei.vAN Dykes.

;.;

Quartz V"ins in Diorites and Granites.

Figs. 122 to 126 illustrate the occurrences of quartz veins in the
diorites and granites, and their contact zones, at Swift's Creek, Victoria.

SECTIONS OF VEINS.

999

In Fig. 122, a is a. horse of silicious felsitic rock, containing much
ordinary and arsenical pyrites ; d, finely crystalline foliated contact-rock,
with a little pyrites, and very micaceous in places ; c, white translucent
vein-quartz, about 8 in. wide with arsenical pyrites, yielding about i oz.
per ton ; d, quartz-diorite. In Fig. 123,^ is coarse gneissic quartz-diorite,
very much decomposed ; d, schistose hornfels ; c, auriferous quartz vein,
4 in. wide. In Fig. 1 24, a is Silurian (? Upper) mudstones ; d, granitic
dyke ; c, auriferous quartz veins. The veins pass through the dyke and
penetrate the sedimentary rocks on each side ; the dyke varies in width
from a few ft. to 200 ft., and is almost completely decomposed. In
Fig. 125, a is Silurian (? Upper) slates; d, dyke; c, auriferous quartz
veins. The dyke is a compact or fine-grained diorite of an almost
felsitic '.naracter, and is highly mineralized by arsenical and iron-pyrites.
In Fig. 126, a is the intrusive dioritic mass ; l>, Silurian sedi-
mentary rocks (contact schists) ; c, auriferous quartz veins ; d, plane of
contact.

Fig. 127 shows a few actual sections of veins in the Clunes district,
Victoria.

Fig. 127.

Sections of Veins at Clunes.

The Sandhurst gold-field, Victoria, is remarkable for the regular
saddle formation of its quartz reefs. In the Ncrth Garden Gully United
Co.'s main shaft, they underlie each other as shown in Fig. 128. They
are curiously faulted by an intrusive " lava " (composed of dense crystal-
line basaltic rock) dyke, ./hich follows irregularly along the strike of
the veins, and intersects them at various depths. The reference letters
indicate : a, caps of reefs ; d, " lava " dykes ; c, saddle reefs ; d, west leg
of reef ; e, Silurian strata. This mine has in 9 years paid over 600,000/.

lOOO

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

in dividends, and the market value is about 200,cxx)/. It is closely
resembled by the Great Extended Hustlers, which, in 8 years, paid
560,000/. in dividends. The ^haft has reached over 1400 ft. in depth
withort finding any productive reef below 733 ft.

Treatment of the Veinstuff.

Gold occurs in its matrix (the veinstuff) in a finely divided state and
distributed in irregular proportions, both in a " free " condition (i.e. not
associated with other metals or metallic salts), and in combination (of
a most intimate mechanical nature, but probably not chemical) with
other metals or their ores. The first step in effecting the extraction of
the gold from the veinstuff is to bring about its disengagement from its
associated mineral matters, firstly, by mechanical means, or disintegrating
the mass to such a degree of fineness as will enable the gold and other
metallic bodies to be liberated from the un-metalliferous ingredients ;
and secondly, by processes which will be described in the next chapter,
separating the gold from any base metal or ore accompanying it. The
former operation, here to be discussed, is termed " milling " in America,
and is conducted in an establishment generally known as a reduction
works.

Cmshing. — The work accomplished by th "; " stamps " is much
facilitated and increased by subjecting the mineral as it comes from the
mine (commonly called " stone," " rock," or " ore ") to the action of a
crusher, by which it is reduced to a more convenient size for feeding
into the " stamps." Crushers are of many forms. Besides the well-
known Blake crusher, made by H. R. Marsden of Leeds, and by the
Blake Crusher Co. of New Haven, Conn., now too familiar to need any
description, the following may be enumerated : — the Alden, made
by Copeland, Dodge & Co., 206, Broadway, New York ; Beckett &
McDowell's, 5, Cortlandt St., New York ; Colman's, made by Morey &
Sperry, 92, Liberty St., New York ; Dodge's, made by A. & F.
Brown, 57, Lewis St., New York ; Forster's, made by Totten & Co.,
24th St., Pittsburg, Pa. ; Hall's, made by the Savile Street Foundry
Co., Sheffield ; and Phelps', made by Copeland & Bacon, 85, Liberty
St., New York. One deserving special mention is that made by the
Sandycroft Foundry Co., near Chester, which presents unusual facilities
for transport and erection, and is credited with high working capacity.

Stamping. — The further comminution of the mineral is performed
by " batteries " or " sets " (any number up to 6, but usually 5) of
" stamps," which are heavy iron pestles, lifted to a height of some inches
(say 7 to 1 5 in.), and allowed to fall upon the matter intended to be
powdered. They work in a " mortar " or " coffer," an iron trough, con-
stantly and regularly supplied with ore and water, and from which the

CRUSHING, STAMPING.

1001

Fio. 128.

ya/

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'it

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4hlM

- "t ^i 4" 9

.'M

Fig. 129.

Saddle Reefs.

Cons 1 RUCTION of Battery.

I002

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

crushed material escapes, as soon as it is reduced to the desired degree
of fineness, in the form of a liquid mud or " pulp," through the meshes
of " screens " or " gratings " closely fitted in the sides of the " mortar."
This latter is generally of rectangular form, resting on a solid foundation,
and established in a substantial timber framework. The stamps are
successively lifted at regular intervals by means of revolving " cams " or
" wipers," arms of iron keyed to a cam-shaft, placed directly in front of
the battery, and receiving its motion from the driving-power of the mill.
The stamps move vertically between guides that form part of the
battery-frame. The general construction of the several parts of the
battery is shown in Fig. 129 (scale | in. - i ft.) : — a, foundation-timber
or mortar-block ; d, transverse sill ; c, battery-posts ; d, tie-timbers ; e,
braces ; / tie-rods ; g; mortar ; /t, feed-aperture : i, screen or grating ; /,
screen-frame ; k, lugs to secure frame ; /, wedge or key ; m, stamp-stem
or lifter ; «, stamp-head ; 0, shoe ; /, die ; g, tappet ; r, cam ; s, pulley
on cam-shaft ; t, driving-pulley ; u, tightener ; v, guides ; w, battery-
covers ; X, prop for supporting stamp when not at work.

Foundations. — The foundation-timber or mortar-block for batteries
of this character often consists of heavy vertical timbers, placed close
together, and firmly connected by cross-timbers and iron bolts. The
timbers may be 6 to 12 ft. long, according to the nature of the ground
and the proposed height of discharge from the mortar. Sometimes the
timbers are laid horizontally, so as to serve as the base of two or more
batteries. When the foundation-timbers are in place, the space about
them is packed and stamped as firmly as possible with clay or earth.
When the ground on which the batteries are to be built is a hard
compact gravel, or a firm clayey material, the surface is sometimes
levelled oflF so as to admit of laying the transverse sill-timber ^ of the
battery-frame, and ? narrow pit is then excavated, some 6 to 14 ft. deep,
and long and wide enough to receive the ends of the mortar-blocks ; the
posts or blocks are introduced into the pit in a vertical position, their
bottom ends resting directly on the ground without any intervening
horizontal timber. The remaining space in the pit is then compactly
filled with clay, which is pounded or stamped firmly into place. The
sill-timbers d and battery-posts c are securely bolted to the foundation-
timbers. The posts c are braced by the timbers e and rods /, and are
connected by the tie-timbers d, which also support guides v.

It must ever be borne in mind that the foundations are of prime
consequence. When improperly constructed, the battery cannot be run
at its full speed and capacity, without shaking itself to pieces, whereby
great delay, expense, and actual loss of metal are sure to arise. Extra
care in securing complete solidity for the battery in the first instance
will be amply repaid, while nothing will compensate for a rickety

FOUNDATIONS, FRAMES.

1003

structure. Often it is advisable to excavate the foundations down to the
solid rock, where that is not more than 14 ft. below the surface. At
some mills, the trench itself is cut in the solid bed-rock, leaving about
2 ft. all round for packing.

Fig. 1 30 shows the details of the foundations and framing in greater
detail. The mortar-blocks a are 30 in. square, and 12 to 14 ft. long.
They arc made quite true, and thoroughly coated with Stockholm tar,
applied hot, then bolted together by 6 ij-in. pins and nuts. The
transverse sills or foot-timbers are 18 in. square, 6 ft. long, and are let
6 in. into the mortar-block, freely tarred, and bolted together by 6 ij-in.

Details of Foundations and Frames.

pins after being squared. At 5 ft. from the top, the mortar-blocks are
cut to 59 in. by 29 in. The prepared blocks are let down upon the floor,
and levelled up by putting sand beneath. When in place, the height is
accurately determined, and a level run across the whole set. The tops
are planed smooth and dished about ^ in., to prevent the surface
becoming rounded ; they are kept covered till the mortar is fixed on
the top.

Frames. — In America, battery-frames are usually made of the best
red spruce {Abies rubra) or sugar-pine {Pinus Lambertiand). First, 3
battery-sills b (Fig. 130), 18 in. by 24 in., and 28 ft long, are placed
parallel to the direction of the cam-shaft, one being 5 ft. from centre to
centre behind the mortar-block, a second S ft. in front, and the third

I004

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

14 ft. from the second. They are secured by bolts 8 ft. long, keyed into
the masonry or to the bed-rock. In the latter case, holes 3 ft. deep and
1 1 in. diameter are bored in the rock ; the bolts are slotted at 6 in. from
the lower end, and wrought-iron wedges, | in. by I in., 5 in. long, with a
head i in. square, are made to fit the slots ; the bolts are inserted in the
holes, and driven so that the wedges enter up to their heads, when the
holes are filled up with molten brimstone. Cast-iron washers and nuts
retain the bolts in the sills. Next, the outside-line timbers c, measuring
20 in. by 14 in., and 28 ft. long, are wedged into the battery-sills, and
secured by bolts. The top of the sill should be 4 ft. above the top of the
mortar-block. The centre-line timbers measure 20 in. square and 28 ft.
long. The intermediate-line timbers measure 20 in. by 14 in. by 28 ft, and
are dressed on the upper side and reduced to 13^ in. and 19I in. where
they pass the battery-blocks ; they are let 3 in. into the sills, and are
secured by keys driven both ways and by 2 iron bolts 33 in. by i|^ in.
The outside battery-post measures 23 in. by 13^ in., and is tarred and let
into the sills. The posts for as many as 4 batteries may be raised
simultaneously. The middle one is usually of somewhat larger scantling,
say 23 in. by 19^ in. The posts are secured to the line-timbers by 2
I -in. joint-bolts, 44 in. long. In the upper part of the posts is cut the
cam-shaft journal-seat d. The posts are held together by the tie-timbers
</(Fig. 129), carrying the stamp-guides v. The bracing and tie-bars ef
are all arranged to ensure the greatest possible steadiness during work.
A travelling block and tackle suspended over the battery will be found
very useful for inserting and removing the stamps.

Mortars. — Mortars are now often fixed directly upon vertical mortar-
blocks, without any horizontal sill intervening. When the frame is ready,
the temporary covering is removed from the mortar-block, and the holes
for the mortar-rods are bored from the template taken from the bottom
of the mortar. All cracks in the block are filled up with molten brim-
stone, and its surface is again planed and tarred. In the Western States
of America, it is a favourite custom, before fixing the mortar, to cover the
top of the block with a triple thickness of common domestic blanket,
thoroughly tarred on both sides. Upon this cushion, the mortar is bolted
with \\-\Ti. pins «?(Fig. 131). This plan reduces the "jar" toa minimum,
and prevents the gradual loosening of the mortar from the block, and
consequent introduction of material into the space, whereby the perfect
level of the mortar is destroyed.

Mortars may be constructed partly of wood and partly of iron — the
sides and ends being of wood, and the bed-plate of solid iron — or they
may be entirely of iron. The latter plan is now general, as with the
compound method there is great trouble in keeping tight joints. The
form commonly adopted is an iron box or trough, 4 or 5 ft. long and deep,

MORTARS.

1005

and 12 in. wide inside, preferably cast in one piece, but sometimes made
in sections bolting together, where transport is difficult. The bottom is
always made very thick, as it has to bear the chief strain ; but in positions
remote from iron-foundries, it is an advantage to have the sides cast thin,
and to attach a lining which can be renewed at will. This form of mortar
is shown in Fig. 131. The feed-opening a is an aperture 3 or 4 in. wide,
and nearly as long as the mortar, by means of which the ore, suitably

Fig. 131.

Fig. 133.

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a « •fit*

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Fig. 133.

Mortars or Coffers of various Forms.

sized, is fed into the stamps. On the opposite side is the discharge,
furnished with a screen b, by which the " pulped " material escapes ; this
opening is almost as long as the mortar, and 12 to 1 8 in. deep, the lower
edge being 2 or 3 in. above the top of the die c. The bolts d hold the
mortar on the block e.

The Californian high mortar varies in weight from 3000 to 6000 lb. ;
it is usually about 4 ft. 7 in. long, 4 ft. 2 in. to 4 ft. 4 in. high, 12 in. wide

ioo6

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

IK4

• 4 *'

i". ;

inside where the dies are set, and 3 to 6 in. thick in the bottom. Mortars
which are made in sections are termed "section-mortars." The one
illustrated in Fig. 132 is 4 ft. long, and will take 5 stamps. The upper
portions a are of boiler-plate, strengthened with angle-iron ; the fccd-
opening is at ^ ; there is a double discharge with screens at c, the screens
being attached by movable lugs or clamps ; the bottom is cast in 4
sections i/, which are accurately fitted together with tongued and grooved
joints, planed, and held by heavy iron bolts e running through them from
end to end, and secured by strong nuts on the outside.

Donnell's mortar, much used in gold-ore crushing, is shown in Fig. 133.
The ore is fed in at a, and the discharge is at back and front. The
screen d is narrow, placed high above the dies, and occupies only a part
of the opening in front. The lower portion of this opening, and the
opening at the back, is closed by a wooden door c, covered on the inside
by a sheet of amalgamated copper.

Screens. — The action of the stamps, when properly supplied with ore
and water, results in the reduction of the solid matters to such a degree
of fineness as will enable them to flow off with the water, which wells and
splashes up, at each blow of the s. -^s, through the screens or gratings
placed at the exit from the mortar. he position of the screens in the
mortar has been already shown in Fig. 129. The screen should incline
outwards at the top, to facilitate the passage of the pulp through its
meshes. The length of the screens will vary with the length of the
mortar, and the width is usually 10 to 15 in.

The shape, disposition, and size of the orifices in the screens are
subject to the greatest possible variety. A few out of the many patterns
in use are shown in Fig. 134, drawn from actual samples kindly lent
for the purpose by John Patterson, Esq. The "gauge," or number of
orifices per sq. in., adopted in Victoria ranges between 60 and 800 ; in
America, it runs from 900 to 10,000. When the holes are round, their
size is graduated by the numbers of sewing-machine needles, from
o to 10 : thus No. 5 is about j\ in. diameter, and No. 8 about ^V ^^- When
the holes are slots, they are usually f in. long and of the same diameter
as a No. 6 needle. As regards material used in the construction of
screens, Americans are universally in favour of Russia sheet iron or sheet
steel, 35 i"- thick, weighing about i lb. per sq. ft., very soft and tough,
with a clean smooth surface, and perfect freedom from rust or flaws ; in
Australia, sheet copper is often employed, that at the Port Phillip works
being tV in- thick, with 84 holes per in. The holes should always
be punched. This operation le?ves one side in a rough state, like the
outside of a nutmeg-grater. The rough side is turned inwards, towards
the wear of the issuing pulp ; and, as the inner end of the orifice is smaller
than the outer, there can be no fear of the meshes becoming clogged, as

scuki:ns.

Fm. 134.

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1008

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.
Fig. 134 — continued.

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Screens or Gratings (actual size).

everything which enters from the inside can more readily escape on the
outside. A 5 -stamp battery usually requires 13 sets of screens per annum,
a set consisting of 5 sheets of i to i^ sq. ft.

The " stamp duty " or effective capacity of a battery is governed
entirely by the facility with which the pulp can escape. It is therefore
obvious that proper adjustment and gauge of the screens are most
important matters. The object sought is to reduce the mineral just suffi-
ciently to enable the gold to free itself from the gangue, and to thus
reduce the greatest possible quantity in a given time. Microscopical
examination of the ore and of the pulp will afford some guide in this
respect, as will also the same test applied to the tailings escaping from
the mill. It is hardly necessary to point out that the rate of discharge
will also be proportionate to the area of screen presented to the pulp,
whence it follows that the screens should be as deep and wide as possible.
The most rapid delivery would be attained by having a single stamp sur-
rounded by screen on all sides ; and every battery should at any rate
have a back and front delivery. Where the feed is on one side and the

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DIES, STAMPS.

1009

discharge on the other, the working power of the battery is reduced by
one-half The importance of this is apparently not > et recognized by some
engineers. Experiments have shown that pulp fed back into the mortar
takes nearly as long to escape through the screens as rock which has first
to be reduced to pulp. Fine stamping docs not necessitate the use of
fine-gauged screens, as the same result may be gained by elevating the
screen, though with a certain loss of effective capacity.

Dies. — In order to save the mortars fiom wear and tear, "dies" or
" false bottoms " are placed in them, to receive the blows from the stamps.
In America, the die is a cylindrical piece of cast iron, corresponding in
form to the shoe of the stamp that falls upon it, and 4 to 6 in. high.
Some mortars are made with circular recesses in the bottom, for the dies
to fit into. In others, to prevent the material from working in under the
die and displacing it, the circular recess in the bed-plate is cast with a
flange, and the die with a small projection or lug. A groove is also made
in the bottom of the mortar, so that the die may be introduced, with its
lugs dropping into the groove ; the die being then turned about 90°, the
lugs come under the flanges of the recess, and the die is thus held in
place. A simpler and more general plan is to cast the die with an upper
circular " boss " or die proper a, on a square flat " foot-plate " d (Fig. 135).
The bottom of the mortar is then also made flat, and the dies are dropped
in, resting on thei*- foot-plates, which just fill up the space in the floor of
the mortar. The corners of the foot-plates of the dies are bevelled off, so
as to allow -"f the insertio 1 of a pick for effecting their removal when
necessary. The foot-plate of American dies is usually i^ to 2 in. thick
and 10 to 12 in. square ; the boss is 3 to 5i in. high and 8 to 10 in. in
diameter. It is of hard tough cast iron, and is chilled down to the foot-
plate. In Victoria, it is found to be a good plan to allow the dies to rest
immediately upon a layer of finely-broken quartz, at least 3 in. deep, by
which means an opportunity is provided for the liberated gold particles
to get into the gravel, out of reach of the stamps, and whence they can
readily be recovered. In some localities, the die consists of a simple slab
of iron filling the whole mortar, and which is turned over when one side
is much worn ; but the wear is liable to be uneven, and the die often
breaks before it is worn out.

Stamps. — The stamp consists of a stem or lifter ; a head or socket
attached to the lower end of the stem, and furnished with a .shoe, a
movable part which sustains the force of the blows and the wear of the
operation ; and the collar or tappet, by means of which the revolving cam
lifts the stamp for its fall. The stem is a round bar of wrought iron,
about 3 in. in diameter, usually turned in a lathe. Its length is 10 or 12 ft.
Its lower end is slightly tapered, and corresponds in form to a socket
or conical hole in the upper part of the stamp-head. The rest of the stem

3 1'

V »»

^^^mifT^iffVW^

lOIO

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

is usually made round throughout its entire length, the method, now in
general use, of attaching the tappets to the stems not requiring any
modification in the form of the latter, as was formerly the case.

The stamp-head, illustrated in Fig. 136, is a cylindrical piece of tough
cast iron, about 8 in. in diameter and 15 in. high. In its upper end is a
socket, shown by dotted lines, corresponding with the axis of the cylinder,
and conical in form, designed to receive the slightly tapering end of the
stem, to the dimensions of which it must be adapted. This conical hole
or socket is about 7 in. deep. At its bottom is a hole or key-way a,
passing through the head at right angles to the cylindrical axis, by
which passage a key may be driven in to force the head from the stem
when necessary.

Fig. 135.

Fig. 136.

I IX- ';

:;;:;:::::;

; i

Fig. 137.

Die.

Stamp-head.

Shoe-fastening.

I'll "'

in:-!
i

To attach the stamp-head to the stem, the latter is placed in its
position between its guides, the head standing immediately under it.
The stem, being dropped, enters the socket, and a few blows of the
hammer drive it in with sufficient force to cause the head to be raised
when the stem is lifted. The stem and the head, being suffered to drop
together a few times, become firmly connected. In the lower end of the
head is a similar hole or socket d, but larger than the upper one, likewise
tapering or conical in form, made to receive the stem or shank of the shoe,
which is thus connected with the head in a similar manner ; a rect-
angular hole or passage c through the head at the end of this lower
socket, perm.its the removal of the shoe in the same ay as the stamp-
stem is forced out from the upper socket. A stout wrought-iron hoop
encircles each end of the stamp-head, being fitted and driven on when hot,
and allowed to shrink in place.

The shoe in common use is a cylindrical piece of cast iron about 8 in.
in diameter and 6 in. high, above which is a shank or stem, the base of

WEIGHT OF STAMPS ; DROP.

lOII

which is 4 or 5 in. in diameter, tapering in form, and about $ in. high. It
is made of the hardest white iron. It is attached to the head in manner
somewhat similar to that just described for connecting the head and the
stem, but is wedged on by means of strips of pine-wood. These strips,
which are cut about as long as the stem of the shoe, ^ in. thick and J in.
wide, are placed around the stem of the shoe, and tied with twine, as
shown in Fig. 137. They must be thick enough to wedge the stem of
the shoe firmly in its socket, without allowing the head to come into con-
tact with the body of the shoe. When the shoe is ready to be fixed to
the head, it is placed in proper position, with the stem of the shoe directly
under the socket of the head, and the stamp and head are then allowed
to drop upon it. If necessary, a few blows of a hammer are struck apon
the top of the stamp-stem. The whole may then be raised, the shoe
keeping its place, and suffered to fall repeatedly, until the shoe is firmly
established in its socket. During this operation, a piece of plank is
interposed between the die and the shoe, for the latter to strike upon.
When a shoe is worn out, it can be removed from the socket by driving
the key into the key-way c, and forcing it off. Care must be taken that
the shoe does not become so thin as to permit the head to sustain undue
wear, and so become weakened. Shoes should be renewed when worn
down to a thickness of i in.

It was at one time objected that the effective capacity of round
stamps was less than that of square ones ; but it has been proved, by
careful experiments under uniform conditions, that they are equal in this
respect. At the same time, the circular stamp possesses a great advan-
tage in that it can be caused to revolve on its own vertical axis while
at work, making a partial revolution at each blow, the rotary motion
being continued during the free fall of the stamp, which produces
a grinding effect upon the material between the shoe and the die,
increasing the effective duty of the stamp, and equalizing and reducing
the wear of the shoe. Bland declares himself satisfied that the square
heads used at the Port Phillip works are more efficient and economical,
the cam-barrel being simpler and more easily kept in order. Round
revolving stamps are almost a necessity when the feeding is done by
hand from the back only ; but with self-feeding all round the stamps, he
considers the square head the better.

Weight of stamps. — This is subject to great variation. In Victoria,
the figures usually range between 224 and 1232 lb. per head; in
America, 700 to 950 lb. Generally a medium weight of 560 to 672 lb.
best suits the character of the ore, but some ores are met with requiring
the higher figures.

Height of drop. — The height of the drop or fall of the stamps varies
from 2 to II in. in Victoria, and from 7 to ii in. in America. It should

3 T 2

I0I2

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

not be less than 7 in., and may be increased with advantage if the stamps
are light.

Speed. — The number of drops made by each stamp per minute is the
" speed " of the battery. In Victoria, it varies from 45 to 85 blows, 75 to
80 being generally considered most effective ; in America, 70 to lOO.

Order of drop. — The order in which the stamps drop varies in
different mills, but the desired conditions are (l) that the work of raising
the stamps shall be uniformly distributed on the cam-shaft, so that the
weight lifted shall be, as nearly as possible, the same at any period of
the revolution ; and (2) that each stamp shall fall effectively upon the
material to be crushed, and maintain its proper distribution in the
mortar. If all the stamps fell at the same time, the structure would soon
be knocked to pieces ; and if they fell in regular succession, from one
end of the batterj^ to the other, the material would accumulate at one
end, and the effective duty of all the stamps would be greatly diminished.
In a 5 -stamp battery, the common sequence is 3, 5, 2, 4, I, or, in other
words ; (i) the middle stamp, (2) the end one on the right, (3) the second
on the left, (4) the ser;ond on the right, (5) the end one on the left.
Another sequence, which makes a backward and forward wave, and thus
keeps the mortar very evenly filled, is 3, 4, 5, 2, I. Others which find
favour are— 3, 4, 2, i, 5 ; 2, 4, S, 3, i ; 3, 5, i, 4. 2 ; i, 5, 2, 4, 3 ; i. S, 4. 2, 3-
It is thought that the middle stamp dropping first secures the greatest
discharge, and that the end stamps dropping first effects the maximum
of work done.

Character of bloiv. — The character of the blow delivered by the stamp
upon the ore demands attention. The hardness of the mineral containing
gold is almost always so much greater than that of the gold itself, or
even of auriferous pyrites, that the same amount of stamping on the three
substances will render the two latter much finer than the former. But it
is of the utmost importance to prevent the gold being smashed too fine,
or beaten flat, for in those conditions it is very difficult to save effectively.
The tendency of slow heavy blows is to flatten the gold-particles, while
that of smart light blows is to effect disintegration without materially
altering the shape of the particles.

Tappets. — The collar or tappet is a projecting piece, firmly secured to
the upper part of the stem of the stamp, by means of which the revolving
cam may lift the stamp and let it fall upon the substance to be crushed.
Tappets vary in form and method of attachment to the stem, but that
which seems to combine the greatest number of advantages, and to have
been most generally adopted on the Pacific coast, is that which is known
as Wheeler's "gib-tappet." Fig. 138 shows an elevation and vertical
section of this contrivance. It is a piece of cast iron, cylindrical in form,
about 8 in. in height and diameter, and hollow at the centre, so as to

SPEED, ORDER, CHARACTER OF BLOW; TAPPETS; GUIDES. IOI3

receive the stamp-stem. To secure the tappet to the stem, there is a
gib g, about 2 in. wide, and nearly as long as the tappet, having its inside
face curved so as to correspond in form to the circular hole through which
the stem passes. The gib being fixed in its place in the tappet, and the
latter being upon the stem, it is pressed against the stem by means of
two keys k, driven into the key-ways with force sufficient to hold the
tappet and stem firmly together, and prevent slipping between them.
This is found to be a very effective method of securing the tappet, while
permitting it to be fixed at any desired point on the stem, according to
the wear of the shoe. The stem is uniform in size, and the work of
cutting facings, screw-threads and key-seats on the stem, required by
other methods, is thus avoided. The revolving cam, meeting the tappet,
and raising the stamp, causes it, while being lifted, to make a partial
revolution about its vertical axis.

Fig. 139.

TAi'rKT OR Collar.

Stamp-guides.

Guides. — The stamp is held vertically in its movement by guides,
between which the stem passes. These were formerly made of iron, but
such have been almost entirely replaced by wooden one? in Nevada and
California. One set of guides is placed below the tappet, about i ft.
above the top of the mortar ; the other set is placed near the top of the
stem, so that 6 in. or i ft. of the latter may project above the guides.
They are supported by the cross-timbers or ties «^(Fig. 129), which form
a part of the battery-frame, connecting the two uprights or posts. They
are usually made of pine, though hard wood is preferred, and arc 10 to
16 in. wide. One part of the guide is made in a single piece for the
whole battery, and bolted to the cross-timber ; the other may be in one
piece, like the first, or cut into as many pieces as there are stamps in the
battery, as in Fig. 1 39, which are then secured to the corresponding part
by bolts. In each part are cut semicircular recesses, which form, when
the two parts are put together so chat the recesses correspond, the holes
or stem-ways for the reception of the stamp-stems. When the guides are

' il

■■■(5

IOI4

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

I I

so much worn by friction as to permit too much motion of the stems,
they may be dressed down on iheir adjacent faces, by which means the
recesses are reduced to nearly the proper dimensions.

Cams. — The cam is a curved arm fixed to a shaft, which is so placed
in front of the battery that, by the revolution of the shaft, the cam is
brought into contact with the tappet of the stamp-stem, causing the
tappet to rise to a height determined by the length of the cam, and to
fall at the moment of its release from such contact.

In Nevada, the cams are made of tough cast iron, and are usually
" double-armed," that is, have two arms attached to one central hub.
Fig. 140 shows the form of cam generally in use : a is the hub ; l>, the
arms ; c, the face ; d, a strengthening rib.

The proper curve of the face of the cam, in order that it may perform
the required duty with the least friction, is the involute of a circle the
radius of which is equal to the distance between the centre of the cam-
shaft and the centre of the stamp-stem. This produces a line for the face
of the cam which meets, better than any other, the various requirements.
The bottom of the tappet is constantly perpendicular to the radius of the
curve of the cam ; the tappet, and with it the stamp, is lifted vertically
and uniformly, so that the lift of the stamp is always regularly propor-
tioned to the revolution of the cam-shaft.

The cam-curve may be constructed on paper by means of tangents,
as shown in Fig. 140. If c represents the centre of the cam-shaft, and
cr the distance from the centre of the cam-shaft to the centre of the
stamp-stem, the circle described about c, with c r us a. radius, is the
developing circle of the involute. The distance, representing the height
to which the stamp is to be lifted, is laid off upon the circumference of
this circle, as from the point i , which distance is subdivided into a con-
venient number of equal parts, determining, as in Fig. 140, the points
2, 3, 4, to 13. From each one of these points in the circle, a tangent is
drawn, on which is laid off a distance equal to the length of arc between
the point I and the point from which the tangent is drawn. All the
points thus determined in the tangent lines are points in the cam-curve,
and may be connected as shown in the figure, thus producing the line
for the face of the cam.

In practice, the line of curvature is produced by cutting from a Lhin
board a circular piece, the radius of which is equal to the horizontal
distance from the centre of the cam-shaft to the centre of the stamp-
stem. At a given point on the periphery of the circular piece is fixed
one end of a thread, which must have the length of the greatest desired
Mft of the stamp, and to the other end of which is attached a pencil-
point.

The circular piece, with the attached thread wound on the periphery

^i^M

CAMS, CAM-SHAFT.

1015

of the circle, is laid on a smooth board, on which the line is to be traced,
and the thread being constantly stretched to its farthest reach, is
unwound until it forms a tangent to the circle at the point where the
other end is attached. The line described by the pencil-point is the
desired curve.

Fig. 140.

Cam or Wiper.

Some builders slightly modify this curve, giving to the cam-arm a
greater curvature near each of its ends, in order that the cam in its
revolution may come into contact with the tappet at the least practicable
distance from the cam-shaft, where the concussion is less than at a greater
distance, and to diminish the friction between the extreme end of the
cam and the face of the tappet. The face of the cam is 2 or 2^ in. wide.
Its extreme end is fashioned so as to correspond to the outer edge of the
tappet, which is circular. The cam is placed as near the stamp-stem as
practicable without coming into contact with it. The cams are caused
to revolve by means of the cam-shaft, to which they are secured by one
or sometimes two keys or wedges.

Cam-shaft. — The cam-shaft is a round shaft of iron, which is smoothly
turned and finished, havmg one or two key-seats or grooves cut in it
lengthwise, for the purpose of securing the cams in their places. The
shaft rests in boxes, which are usually supported by shoulders cut on the
upright posts of the battery-frame. Cam-shafts vary in diameter from
4 to 6 or 7 in., according to the number of cams to be fixed upon them,
and the weight of the stamps to be raised. In some mills, a single cam-
shaft is made long enough to carry all the cams for as many batteries
as there may be. In Nevada and California, however, short cam-shafts

fi!

ioi6

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

are in general use, a separate shaft being employed for each battery, or,
in many cases, one shaft for two batteries. Separate cam-shafts are pre-
ferred, on account of the independence of each battery, so that if one be
stopped by any accident to the cams or stamps, or for repairs of any
kind, the operation of the others is uninterrupted. Each shaft in such
case is driven by its proper pulley, which receives its motion by means of
belting from a counter-shaft. The order in which the stamps are to fall
being determined, it is carried into effect by fixing the cams on the
shaft in such position that each cam, by the revolution of the shaft, will
lift its respective stamp at the desired moment. For this purpose, the
key-seats cut in the hub of the cam must be determined with care ; one
common key-seat being cut on the cam-shaft, when the desired position
of any given cam has been ascertained, the key-seat in the hub is cut to
correspond with that of the shaft.

Props. — When it becomes necessary to hang up a stamp so that the
cam may revolve without reaching the tappet, it is supported by a prop
or stud X (Fig. 129). The lower end of the stud, of which there is one for
each stamp, is pivoted on a small shaft fixed across the battery from end
to end, resting in boxes, which are secured to the uprights. Each stud
is just long enough to support the stamp, when placed under the tappet,
at a height which is about i in. above the highest lift given by the cam.
To bring the end of the stud into this position when desired, the work-
man lays a smooth stick on the face of the cam as it is rising to the
tappet, and holds it there while the stamp is lifted. The stick is as wide
as the face of the cam, and long enough to be held conveniently, and
i^ in. thick at the end which comes between the cam and tappet. By
this means the stamp is raised high enough for the stud to be put in
place, which being done, the stamp is supported above the reach of the
cam. To set it again in motion, the operation is repeated, the stud being
withdrawn at the moment when the stick on the face of the cam has
lifted the stamp clear of its support.

Feeding. — Much of the effectiveness of the stamps depends on the
degree of care devoted to keeping the working parts in good condition,
and on the regularity with which they are supplied with ore. This is
commonly done by hand labour, the rock being shovelled in at such a
rate as it is crushed and discharged. In some mills, however, automatic
feeders are employed, which give satisfaction. These consist of a hopper
filled with ore, from which a trough or chute leads to the feed-opening of
the battery, so inclined that the ore will slide down from the hopper to
the battery if the chute, which is hung on a pivot, be agitated. A rod is
attached to the chute, and so placed that the tappet of the stamp, when
the latter gets so low as to require an additional supply of rock, will
strike its upper end, thus giving a shock which causes the ore to move

PROPS ; FEEDING.

1017

down and fall into the battery. But a great objection to most automatic
feeders is that they are arranged to supply one constant quantity, and
make no difference in the work for the several parts of the mortar under
varying conditions. With hand-feeding, the ore is received into a large
bin or pocket, the floor of which is made in such a way that the ore will
run easily towards the mortar. Here, in a space of 6 to 12 ft., stand the
feeders, whose duty consists in keeping a constant amount (generally
2 in. deep) of ore between the shoes and dies, whereby the drop of the
stamps is maintained at an equable height.

Automatic ore-feeders are broadly of one type, as just described.
Stanford's feeder, as made by Joshua Hendy, 49, Fremont St., San
Francisco, is shown in Fig. 141. It consists of a hopper a with adjustable
spout d, swung on trunnions c, and attached to a cross-bar d, suspended
from an adjustable rod e. A feeding-tappet/ is keyed upon the battery-
post /t, and a lever ^ rotating on pivots is fixed to the rod e so as to be

Fig. 141.

'~>

1
3

Fig, 142

Stanford's Ore-feeder.

Tulloch's Ohe-feeder.

Struck by the cam-tappet, the lever g being forked that it may span the
stem. While the battery is supplied with suflficient ore, the tappet does
not descend far enough to strike the end of the feeding-rod ; when the
ore gets low, the tappet does strike the rod, and the effect is an oscillation
of the front spout on its trunnions, whereby the ore is thrown forward.
The apparatus being on wheels can be readily removed. It is simple in
construction and operation, maintains the feed at any desired degree, and
materially reduces the wear and tear of the stamps, while increasing their
duty, it is said, 25 per cent. It seems best adapted for dry-crushing.

The TuUoch feeder, also made by Hendy, is likewise largely used.
It is illustrated in Fig. 142.

ioi8

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

Hendy's " Challenge " feeder is perhaps the most popular for wet,

sticky ores. The mode of attaching it (to the second stamp in the

battery) is shown in Fig. 143 : a, tappet ; d, lever ; c, lower guide ;

d, hopper ; e, carrier-table ; /, shoot ; ^, bumper ; //, stamp-stem. This

feeder is said to effect a reduction of the wear and tear

Fig. 143. \^y I J per cent., and an increase of duty by 20 per cent.

Recently attempts have been made to introduce
automatic feeders for supplying mercury to the mortars
of batteries where the practice of having mercury in the
mortar prevails. Dubois' apparatus, made by Whitney &
Marshall, 22 Fremont St., San Francisco, seems to be the
only one in the market. There are obviously many
advantages to be derived from the automatic feeding of
mercury, that is to say if the practice of putting mercury
into the mortars deserves to be supported at all.

Water. — The quantity of water used in wet crushing
depends in a great measure upon
the character of the ore and the
degree of fineness to which it is
crushed. In Victoria, the propor-
tion varies from 30 to 1200 gal. per
stamp-head per hou- though 300 to
SCX) gal. would appear to satisfy all
requirements. In America, about
93 gal. is commonly thought suffi-
cient. Egleston says the consumption in Nevada
and California is 200 to 300 cub. ft* per ton of rock
stamped, or ^ to | cub. ft. per stamp per minute, for
all purposes, leaving probably about \ cub. ft. for
the batteries alone (or nearly 94 gal. per hour). In
Colorado, the amount is 28 cub. ft. per ton of rich
ore, and 33 cub. ft. per con of poor ore. The cub. ft.
of ore averaging 108 to 125 lb., this will give \ cub. ft. per stamp per
minute, or about the same as Nevada and California. When the water
used is purchased from a " ditch company," it is measured by the miners'
"inch" (see p. 953).

The water is fed to the stamps by horizontal piping just above the
feed-slot of the mortar, with orifices opposite each stamp, capable of
being closed if necessary ; or the main feed may be brought higher up,
and vertical supplies be carried from it down to each stamp, with valves
at the ends. The main is often a 3-in. gas-pipe. A second main of half
the size is placed in front, to help carry off the pulp. In America,

* I gal. = 277 J cub. in. ; 1728 cub. in. - i cub. ft.

Hendy's Ore-feeder.

WATER ; DIMENSIONS AND DUTY OF STAMPS ) SPECIAL FORMS. IOI9

arrangements arc always made to heat the water supplied to the stamps,
by waste steam or otherwise, during winter.

Tables of Dimensions and Duty. — The annexed tables reveal at a
glance the dimensions and working results of a number of mills in various
parts of the world, including some that may be considered representative.

Mill

District.

Grass Valley

ti
Eureka
Brunswick
Keystone
Idaho . ,
Metacom
Port Phillip

i»
Nova Scotia

Ballarat ..

Beechworth

Sandhurst . .

Maryborough

Castlemaine

Ararat

Gippsland . ,

*•"

lb.
850
700
950

750
950
900
672
896
650
cwt.
4-8i
4i-7i
5-8
4i-8
4J-8
S-6i
6-7*

•Sd
ag

SKi

61
68
80

7S-80
80
90
7S
75
5j

50-85
40-90
25-75
50-75
35-75
60-72
60-80

in.
10
10

9
10

6-9

7-10
5-14
6-18
6-22

6-iS

7i-io

7-10

ton.s.
40
32

160

75-80

20
20
60

56
40

56
24

tons.

2
I'I2
2J-3

2*2
3

1-4
J-4
i-3f
1-3
i-3i
il-ij

lJ-2

21d

^ i

B3 ■»

1-2

J-2J

V si
•3 crS

^2iLi

gal.

40-200 950-8640
60-140 720-11,520
64-140; 4000-8640
70-144 900-8640
40-1444800-12,960
90-1204320-12,960
70-2501600-25,000

'cii

lb.

5-75

S-70

10-40

3-30

6-40

6-47
10-- •

a- •"

1-8

J-8

i-Si
I J-8
J-24
i-7
i-32

—

Name of
Mill.

6 a
(5"

eS.

l^°

r°

^^^

.3 9

«^

ft.

in.

lb.

in.

lb.

in.

lb.

in.

lb.

Douglass . .

I2J

2J-

290

120

Cons. Virginia ..

3i-

320

9.5

, ,

Lincoln

3J^

320

119

Brunswick

,375

125

18 8

125

Electric

258

123

100

Eureka

450

160

• •

120

Keystone ..

100

, ,

. ,

Stanford ,. ..

. ,

, ,

. .

120

, ,

114

^ ,

Walhalla .. ..

lOj

••

a •

••

'•

••

Special forms of Stamp. — Within recent years, several forms of
stamp have been introduced which exhibit a departure from the ordinary
rules governing the construction of batteries. They are based mainly upon
one principle, which is to have at most 2 stamps in a battery, working
at great speed (150 to 200 blows a minute), and weighing only 2 to
4 cwt. each. They thus present several advantages, among which may be
specially mentioned (i) their lightness and consequent portability, (2) the
rapid discharge effected by the all-round delivery, and (3) the sharpness
of the blow. The principal forms will be described in alphabetic order.

Dunham's. — The chief feature of this stamper consists in the employ-

.;■'■

102O

AURIFKROUS VEINSTUKF.

Fig. 144,

o»iviha atLT

-•-O- -

_Em

f^Bl

fCT^

Scalt % ins 1H>

Dunham's Recoil Stami'.

DUNHAMS stamp; FISIIIiR S SIaMP.

I02I

ment of 2 plate-springs, balancing each other, mounted on bearings
placed in rear of the centre of their length, and driven at the short ends
by connecting-rods (whose length is adjusted to the wear of the shoes),
driving-shaft, and pulley, in the usual manner. The machine is shown
in Fig. 144, being of a size to crush 12 to 15 tons per 24 hours, at 250
blows a minute. Attached to the long arms of the springs a are
suspended cast-steel tupps d, with forged and tempered steel shoes c,
striking elastic blows on the material lying on the dies d. With some
qualities of material, each head can deliver 300 blows a minute. A
point in which this stamp excels all others is that the gratings are on
each of the 4 sides of the battery. The total weight of the machine is
1 1 ton, and the heaviest part is less than 3i cwt. The same patentee
has a much more portable machine for prospecting purposes, in which
the heaviest part is less than icxD lb. The machine shown in the illus-
tration is made by J. Copley & Cc, Middlesborough.

Fisher's. — Fisher's patent rotating-bed stamping mill differs essen-
tially from the other forms dealt with in this section, and is shown in
Fig. 145. It is the invention of John Fisher, 39A, Threadneedle St., E.C.
The working parts are as follows : — a strong cast-iron frame is bolted
to a substantial bed-plate d, and carrying at its upper end the cylinder c ;
in this is fitted a piston, which, by admitting steam or compressed air
through the supply-pipe, as shown, is made to reciprocate up and down
at a very high velocity, namely (according to the pressure used) from
400 to 800 strokes per minute. On the top of the piston is fixed a nut
working on a rifled or twisted bar, which passes through the upper end
of the cylinder, and i-j prolonged sufficiently far through the cover to
admit of a ratchet-wheel, shown at d, being keyed to it, into which a pall
is fitted in such a manner as to allow of the stamp-head e revolving
on its descent only, viz. when coming into contact with the material
under treatment. The piston and piston-rod are formed out of one
solid piece of steel, and the stamp-head is also of steel, with the
exception of that portion that actually strikes the material, which
is of chilled iron. It is very firmly secured to the piston-rod, and
can be disconnected and replaced in a few minutes at a trifling cost.
At / is a small horizontal oscillating cylinder, which is set in motion
by opening the cock ^, and supplying steam or air, as the case may
be, through the supply-pipe. The piston-rod being attached, as shown,
to a small disc-crank, causes the worm-wheel /i to revolve, giving
motion to the shaft i and friction-roller k, which latter, having a consider-
able bearing surface, causes by friction, the rotation on its bearing / of
the large rotating bed or anvil m, which is shown in section. It will be
noticed that the part of the bed immediately under the htamp-head is
made of great strength and solidity, the entire pan weighing about
1 5 cwt. At « is a hand-wheel, which enables the attendant to raise or

«'*.i

1022

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

lower the cylinder whilst the machine is in motion, thus diminishing or
increasing the distance bet\^een the bottom of the stamp-head and the
inner surface of the rotating bed, as may be desired, fr om J to 4J in.
The stamp-head not being allowed to strike the an'.il, it has simply
to overcome the resistance due to the crushing. The material to be
crushed, having been first reduced to pieces of a manageable size, is fed

Fisher's Rotating-bed Stamp.

into the vessel in whilst the stamp is working, and can be red .ced by
the latter in a very short time to any degree of fineness required, the
reduction being greatly assisted by the three combined motions, viz. : of
the revolution of the bed m (which ensures a constant change and fresh
supply of material at every stroke), the descending stamp, and the
revolving and consequently grinding motion of the same at the period
of contact, \,hich motions, being concentrated at the same moment on a
certain area of material, are said to have great effect in crushing, grinding,
and pulverizing, tither with or without water.

The material thus rapidly and effectually treated may be, in the
case of quartz, discliarged in the usual way, through the grating or wire

PATTERSONS STAMP.

1023

Si!

gauze surrounding the bed, as shown at 0, which, of course, can be of
any form or mesh required ; or, in the event of its being used as a flash
battery, could be dehVered through the pipe p, which can be made
adjustable. It need scarcely be added that mercury for amalgamation,
or other ordinary means for coUectmg gold contained in quartz, may be
applied in the usual way.

Fig. 146.

r tterson's "Elephant" Stamp.

Patterson's. — In Fig. 146 is shown the " elephant " stamp invented
by John Patterson, 9, Inverness Terrace, Kensington Gardens, which in
appearance and character differs widely from other types of stamp here-
tofore used, and is stated to suit equally well for either wet or dry
stamping. The most striking features in this stamp are the absence of
all guide-rods and bushes, and extreme compactness and Newness of
working parts, which reduce the friction and consequent wear, The two
stamp-heads a are fixed in the ordinary way into two hammered scrap-
iron levers l>, vhich are attached to a 2-throw crank-shaft c by the inter-
^'ention of two powerful semi-circular steel springs d. A ^reat economy
of power is effected by the peculiar action of the springs, storing up the

1024

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

force of the recoil from the blows of the stamp, which force is given out
on the next return of the cranks. The power is further conserved by
each stamp balancing its companion.

Some of the advantages said to be possessed by these stamps are
that they are poriible, can be taken to pieces and re-erected in a few
hours, and need nc special building. Foundations for the bed-plates e,
as also for the anvil-block /"under the coffer or mortar^, may consist of
stone, concrete, or wood. The stamps can be fixed in any situation
where there is a driving shaft or wheel, and are independent of the
position or. nature of the mof've power. All the parts are so strong as
to resist any unusual strain. /i.s the shoes or heads a wear, no alteration
is needed, as the springs and flexible connections allow for varying dis-
tances between the face of the stamp-head a and anvil //, whether due
to the wear of these parts or to the quantity of stuff on the anvil.

The quick napping nature of the blows ensures that there is no
sliming of the stuff. Each head delivers 130 to 140 blows per minute.
By varying the speed, the effect of the blows can be regulated at will to
suit the degree of hardness or toughness of the stuff operated upon. T' :
two heads will stamp 20 to 24 tons per diem of quartz, to <-he orr 'ivr-.
fineness. About 5 to 10 H.P. indicated will drive the stamps, according
to the speed required. The continuous flow of the stamped stuff, owing
to the quick action of these stamps, enables a much greater quantity to
pass in a given time through the screens : the screen area, however, is
about double what can be obtained in ordinary batteries per stamp-head.
Where stamping and amalgamation are carried on simultaneously, the
copper plates inside and outside the mortar require to present an area
for deposit proportional to the work being got through by these stamps,
so that the continuously discharged stuff may have ample time to be
distributed over the plates.

The makers enumerate the following points as needing attention in
erecting and working these st?mps. The 'oundation, as in all other
stamps, must be solid and unyielding. The die must possess sufficient
inertia to withstand the powerful blows of the stamps, and so secure the
maximum effect of the blows on the material operated upon, and not
let any of it be wasted on the surrounding ground.

After the foundations are prepared, the top is levelled, and the
holding-down bolts are in their places, the base-plate e is put into
position, levelled accurately, and fixed with the holding-down bolts ;
the side-frames i are erected with their stay-pipe and through-bolt,
and securely bolted to the base-plate already fixed ; pedestals are
put jn top of side frames, and the double-crank shaft c is dropped
in and the pulleys j strung on, seeing that they are clean and well
oiled ; the mortar-box g is let loosely into its place ; the stamp-

PATTERSONS STAMP.

1025

levers b are put in position, and the fulcrum-pin k and loose collar passed
in ; the connecting-rods and springs d are fixed ; in coupling up to the
levers b with the steel links and pins, the cramp is used for compressing
the springs. The mortar-box is fixed permanently by means of the
bolts into the vertical wood foundations ; the dies are dropped into their
places, and all round the.n are dropped a few pieces of broken stones,
some gravel or san^ to keep them from shifting; the shoes are fixed
into the lever-heids with strips or rings of copper round each shoe-
shank ; the crank-shaft is then turned round, and the levers, with shoes
attached, are let gently fall on the die-faces several times, to secure the
shoes home in their places. When placing the mortar-box and die in
position, the face of the die should be 2 to 2\ in. lower than the face of
the shoe, when the crank is turned to its lowest centre, the links being
straight, and the shoe home in its place in the lever-head. Attention
should be regularly given to keep the faces of the shoes and dies to this
distance apart, as they become worn, by inserting packing slips of wood
or iron between the undersides of the crank-brasses, and the upper ends of
the connecting-rods, the tightening-bolts being made sufficiently long to
effect this readily. The feed-shoot is fixed at such an angle as will cause
the mineral to self feed. Special care must be taken that there be always
some material on the die-faces for the shoes to hit, for if the dies get bare
of material, the shoes may get broken by striking the dies. The washers
on the bottom shaft must be a good fit between the levers, to prevent
staggering. The shoes are turned when necessary to equalize the wear.

The following comparative statement of the c st of ordinary gravi-
tation stamps, and elephant stamps capable of stamping 120 tons of
hard gold-quartz per day of 24 hours, fine enough to pass wet through
screens containing 900 holes pei sq. in., is given by the inventor.

Tons.

80 He.ids

Gravitation

Stamps.

20 Heads
Elephant

Stamps.

Cost delivered on rails at makers' works

4000 lion

Freight to and carriage in India Gravitation

,, ,, Elephant

Approximate cost of cutting ground and building foundations

erectinir

160
26

1 140

500
35°

1200

i85"5

200

Time occupied, four months for Gravitation stamps

,, twenty days for Elephant stamps

Approximate cost of building houses, platforms for ore, &c

500

7190 '3455 5

Cost of power to drive (whether steam or water) for yoo working
days of twenty-four hours each —

iighty heads Gravitation stamps, requiring 90 nominal horse-
power at Jrf. per hour per H.P

Twenty heads Elephant stamps, requiring 50 nominal horse-1
power at J(/. per hour per I LP /

1350

750

3 u

1026

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

The " elephant " stamp of slightly different pattern tried on the
Pacific coast of America did not give altogether satisfactory results ; but
the manufacturers now claim to have overcome the difficulties.

Sholl's. — ShoU's pneumatic stamp is shown in Fig, 147 : a, pneumatic
cylinder and ram ; b, crank-shaft ; c, forked connecting-rod. The prin-
cipal feature is the absence of glands, stuffing-boxes, and frictional
surfaces, into which the pulverized ore can be flashed. The weight of
the blow is varied by the speed. Great economy of power is obtained
by storing compressed air in the cylinders, which is again utilized by
expansion on the return of the crank, causing an elastic spring of air,

Sholl's Pneumatic Stamp.

released at every stroke. Ore which will pass through a 6-in. ring can
be fed in. The shoe will bear the loss of 2 cwt. of its face before needing
adjustment. A single head, to crush 12 to 15 tons per 24 hours, costs
about 210/. ; a double head, to crush 20 to 22 tons, 250/. The heaviest
piece need not exceed 3 cwt.

Pulverizers. — A class of machines, designed to avoid some of the draw-
backs to stamping batteries, has lately been introduced under the general
term of pulverizers. Some work on the principle of grinding or triturating
the material to a finely pulverulent condition, without the aid of blows, while
others rely upon repeated concussion. Their chief forms are as follows.

Rowland's. — The Howland pulverizer, as made by Morey &
Spcrry, Liberty St., New York, is shown in Fig. 148. a b c are the
wearing parts, which are made of the hardest iron, in duplicate, and can

SHOLLS STAMP. PULVERIZERS.

1027

be changed with less trouble than the shoes of the stamp-mill, no keys
or bolts being required to hold them, a k. an L'shapcd ring of the full
diameter of the inside of the machine, b are rings or rolls 10 in. in
diameter, 4^ in. face; 12 of these are used upon the disc-plate c, which
must run at 175 to 180 revolutions per minute; the rings b rest partly
upon the outer ring a, which is stationary. The motion of the disc-
plate c imparts a peculiar motion to the rings or rolls b, they turning as
it were upon a central axis, spinning like tops, while the whole 12 at the
same time run around the large circle, being thrown off by centrifugal
force. The pulverizing is done between the rolls or rings b and the
outer ring a. The aggregate weight of all the wearing parts is about
2135 lb. The machine will pulverize, it is said, 500 to 750 tons of ore to
40-mesh and finer, with one set of the wearing parts, which is less wear

Fig. 148.

Fig. 149.

HovvLAND Pulverizer.

Jordan's Pulverizer.

or loss of iron than in stamping the same amount of ore to same grade
of fineness. The ore is fed through the opening i'l the top of the
bonnet-casting; immediately on falling upon the revolving disc-plate, it
is carried outward by centrifugal force to the rings or rolls, and when
pulverized fine enough, is ejected through the screens to a circular
trough conveying it to copper plates for amalgamation, or run into
tanks for settling. The machine can also be constructed for dry pulver-
izing, when it will accomplish about one-fourth less work. The frame
for the machine is made of Southern pine timber, mortised and tenoned
throughout, and held by strong joint-bolts. An automatic feeder is pro-
vided especially for this machine, that will feed the ore continuously, as
well as a rock-breaker, adapted to breaking the ore to the proper size for
the machine, which must be no larger than i in. This machine is said

3 U 2

SIS

1028

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

to pulverize wet, hard quartz rock to a fineness that will pass through
a 40-mesh screen, at the rate of a ton per hour, and will pulverize dry, to
pass through a 6o-mesh screen, ^ to | ton per hour. Every exposed part
of what might be termed the wearing castings, namely, the pan-ring, the
revolving disc-plate, and the rolls, are continually passing and repassing
each other at different points with a rolling and grinding action, ensuring
a maximum of wear from a minimum of metal. These wearing castings
are not held in the machine by a single bolt, but simply by gravity alone,
hence are easy of removal when worn too thin for further use. It can
be set up and run in a few hours after arriving on the ground, and
requires no expensive foundation. To run the machine, 12 to 15 H.P.
is required. The weight of the machine, including frame complete, is
less than 7000 lb., and the weight of the heaviest piece is 855 lb. The
weights of the wearing parts are : — i outer ring, 765 lb. ; 1 disc-plate
655 lb. ; 12 rolls or rings, 714 lb. ; total, 2134 lb.

Jordan's. — The pulverizer made by T. B. Jordan & Son, 52 Grace-
church St., E.G., is shown in Fig. 149. Two circular dished castings a,
each having a long bearing b projecting from its centre, are bolted
together by their flanges c, and form the crushing-chamber d, which has
an inlet-opening on the top e, and two outlet-openings f, one on each
side. The two bearings carry short vvrought-iron spindles at b, which
meet end to end in the centre of the crushing-chamber. On the inner
end of each spindle is keyed a set of 4 arms h, the diameter of the
chamber, the surfaces of the one set of arms being so angled at 45° with
the horizontal centre line that they are parallel to and face those of the
other set. These arms pass in opposite directions close to each other,
and to the sides of the chamber, and their backs are so formed as to
create a blowing or fan action in the chamber, drawing aii through
openings in the sides and near the centre of the chamber. On the outer
end of the spindles, at b, are keyed pulleys for driving by belts, the
spindles and their arms and pulleys being quite free and independent of
each other to turn in reverse direction. One of the said spindles, at k,
has a worm engaging a wheel, and working the vertical shaft/; this
again drives at a given speed the automatic feeder m. By means of the
pulleys and driving-belts, the spindles and arms are revolved in reverse
directions at any suitable speed for the material to be crushed. The
material falling into the chamber from the automatic feeder m is struck
by one of the arms (owing to the angle of its face) into the path of those
revolving in the reverse direction, and is by them, for the same reason,
immediately returned, this operation being repeated as long as necessary.
The fineness of the material leaving the machine is regulated by the
current of air, which at once takes away all particles light enough for
its force to suspend, and the force of this current can be adjusted to the

ARRESTING THE METAL,

1029

greatest nicety by simply closing or opening the apertures in the casing
provided for the purpose. The machine is thus adapted only to dry
crushing.

Lucop's. — It is claimed for Lucop's pulverizer, made by Beverley &
Atkins, Wicker, Sheffield, that it will reduce 25 cwt. of quartz per hour
with a 4-H.P. portable engine working at 40 lb. pressure on the boiler and
1 50 rev. of crank-shaft, while the first cost of the D size machine is but
1 50/., and the repairs come to less than 2td- pc ton dealt with.

Thompson's. — The action of Thompson's pulverizer consists in the
use of a heavy ball within a revolving drum, the ball being thrown by
centrifugal force against the material to be crushed. The size weighing
5 tons, and running with a 190-lb. ball, requires 10 H.P., and pulverizes
60 tons per 24 hours to a degree that allows it to pass through a No. 60
screen.

Arresting the Metal.

General Principles. — The operations hitherto described have had
for their object the disintegration of the material containing the gold,
in order that the latter might be liberated from the worthless material
accompanying it in nature. The next step is to arrest and recover
the valuable portion thus set free. This valuable portion is not all
of one quality, but consists of two classes of material, one being
gold in a clean, uncontaminated, " free " state, the other composed
of various metallic sulphides (of iron, copper, lead, zinc, antimony, &c.),
commonly known generically as " pyrites," having more or less gold
concealed within and between its crystals or grains. The separation
or elimination of the valuable ingredients of the mass, the free gold
and the pyrites, is effected by a combination of two distinct processes.
The first consists in directing the pulverized or comminuted mass of ore
through, over, or among a body of mercury, which metal possesses the
peculiar property of absorbing all particles of free gold with which it
comes into sufficiently close contact. This absorption is known as " amal-
gamation," and as it constitutes the most certain and satisfactory method
of collecting the minute particles of gold, from which the mercury can
afterwards be separated without loss, and used an indefinite number of
times, the object of all preliminary operations is to prepare the gold for
amalgamation. The second half of the twin process of arresting the metal
is the provision of a number of checks or obstructions to the onward
flow of the matters leaving the reduction apparatus, with the object of
presenting abundant opportunities for the valuable matters to avail them-
selves of their comparatively greater specific gravity to come to rest,
while the worthless matters and a portion of the pyrites flow away in
the current of water, to undergo " rther treatment afterwards.

I030

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

The subject may be divided into the following heads : — (i) mercury
applied in its ordinary fluid condition, (2) mercury applied as a coating
on metallic surfaces, known as amalgamated plates, (3) special forms of
amalgamator, for rubbing up the material with the mercury, and (4)
blanket-tables.

Mercury. — Perhaps the commonest way of using mercury, and
certainly by far the most general in the United States, is to supply it in
regular or irregular quantities directly into the mortar or coffer of the
stamps, so that it may be pounded up with the mineral. When this
plan is adopted, amalgamated plates, to be described presently, are
almost invariably employed in the mortar. The use of mercury in this
manner would appear to be radically wrong. In the first place, the
smashing and splashing of the mercury under the stamps must cause a
considerable loss, for the simple reason that tiny particles of metal will
be carried away by the force of the current, without ever having an
opportunity to come into contact with the plates, or to deposit themselves
subsequently. In addition to this, it may be broadly said that every
gold-ore contains some pyrites. The stamping operation reduces this to
a very fine state, and even liberates some of the sulphur to such a degree
that it will form a coating over the globules of mercury and amalgam,
which is technically known as " flouring " or " sickening," and by which
the power of amalgamation with gold is destroyed, or reduced to a
minimum. When amalgamation is alone depended upon for catching
the gold, this circumstance will entail a triple loss, — a loss of gold which
has escaped amalgamation, and a loss of both the gold and mercury
which have become amalgamated, for the floured stuff, whether mercury
alone, or mercury which has absorbed some gold, cannot be caught by
contact with a fresh mercurial surface.

The second mode of exposing mercury to the crushed material may
be divided into two heads, " ripples " or " riffle^," and " troughs."
Mercury-ripples consist of grooves cut across the ripple-board tables,
inclined planes of wood, varying in length, placed in the route of the
materials leaving the stamps. These grooves are cut about 2\ ft. apart,
and are i in. deep at the lower side, diminishing till they are flush
with the surface of the bath at the upper edge, and about 3 in. wide.
While at work, they are kept nearly full of mercury. They are generally
used in combination with blanket-tables, and are most favoured in
Australia.

The mercury-trough may also be considered as essentially Australian.
A very effective arrangement of mercury-troughs and blanket-tables,
adopted by some of the largest Victorian companies, is as follows : — The
material leaving the stamps is led into a trough, having a perforated
plate at the bottom to keep back any coarse stuff, by which it is easily

USING MERCURY.

103 1

Fig, 150

Port Phillip Mercury-troughs.

distributed ; thence it passes into 3 connected troughs, containing
mercury, cropping from the first into the second, and from the second
into the third. Each of these troughs is fitted with a splash-board,
which, reaching down to within a certain distance of the bottom, compels
the falling matter to penetrate the mercury more or less, before escaping
over the lip of the trough. Each trough has a tap-hole on one side,
by means of which the
amalgam may be drawn
off. The whole of the con-
trivance is under lock and
key, which prevents steal-
ing. At the end of the
blanket - table, another
similar trough is placed,
through which the material
passes before entering the
waste-trough. The amal-
gam formed in all these
troughs is periodically re-
moved. Fig. 150 shows
the exact arrangement
adopted by the Port Phillip
Co., at Clunes : — a, stamper-box or mortar ; b, back escape ; c, per-
forated plate ; d, e, _/", mercury-troughs.

A malgainated Plates. — Amalgamated plates are prepared by a some-
what delicate and tedious process of covering one side of pieces of sheet
copper with a coating of mercury. That portion of the interior of the
batteries which is not occupied by the screens is lined with these plates,
fixed in an inclined position, and so as to be readily removed and
replaced. By the churning that takes place in the battery, particles of
gold, mercury, and amalgam are splashed upon these plates, and attach
themselves to the surfaces, which are periodically cleaned. Outside the
batteries are placed tables, covered with similar amalgamated plates,
adjusted at such an inclination as \/ill permit a ready flow of the materials
over the surface, without being so rapid as to wash away the gold and
amalgam, or prevent their adhesion to the plate. The inclination
necessarily differs according to the supply of water, and other conditions.
The gold and amalgam collected on these plates are removed in the
same way as from the others.

There are two ways of fixing these copper plates in such a position
as will bring them into constant contact with the crushed ore and the
thereby liberated particles of gold. Firstly, the mortars are cast pur-
posely to receive, on proper shelves, this copper-plate lining ; and,

jS>ji

i(fi

I032

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

secondly, the old boxes may be at once adapted for the same purpose
until a renewal is necessary, when the first-named should be obtained
and no other. It may be mentioned in passing that such mortars prevent
any possibility of peculation of amalgam.

The first-named kind of mortars (Fig. 151) are cast to a pattern, so ^s
to introduce beneath the rim for the gratings (inside the mortars) a kind
of sloping shelf 4 in. wide for the whole length of its front discharge, at
an angle of 30° to 35° towards the false bottoms. Into this shelf, 4 holes
e are drilled, or recesses cast J in. in diameter and \\ in. deep, which are
plugged with dry and soft wood. A copper plate of the exact size of
this shelf, \ in. thick, is laid on a strip of blanketing equal in size, and 4
copper screws are inserted through corresponding holes ^ in. diameter, in
the copper-plate and blanketing into the wooden plugs, which, on getting

Fig. 151.

Fig. 152.

Fixing Amalgamated Plates.

wet, will swell, and thus the plates are securely screwed down until the
next cleaning-ofif, when they are unscrewed, and so forth. Both the
upper and lower edges of the plates should receive a batter, in order to
make a good joint, and to prevent the finely-crushed ore getting behind.
Any subsequent repairs should be made with copper rivets, and, in fact,
the more battered these plates become, the better are they for the
interception of gold. The explanations of the illustration are : — a, shoe ;
b, die ; c, box ; e, holes plugged with soft wood ; f, copper plate ;
g, grating-frame ; h, line for grating ; i, screw countersunk in copper
plate.

The other method does not necessitate the immediate change in the
pattern of the boxes in use until they are unfit for use, and the adaptation
of old boxes for these copper plates does not interfere with their efficacy.
The ordinarj' frame g, which holds the gratings, is not quite so high, in
order that a piece of "oft wood d (Fig. 152) may be screwed on to its
lower part zX d \ it is i\ in. high and if in. wide ; and at the same time

AMALGAMATED PLATEa,

1033

the cast-iron lug c is made higher by broad strips of boiler-iron, so as to
catch both the wooden insertion and the grating-frame properly. At the
inner side of the piece of wooden insertion d, a triangular strip of soft
wood e is screwed on, which has the prepared copper plate /fixed to it,
and in this manner the plates will act nearly as well as in the other case.
The plates used inside the mortar are J to 4 in. thick, while outside ^V in.
sheet copper suffices.

When ordinary copper plates are to be employed, they are prepared
in the following way : — The copper must be of the very best quality, and
should not have been rolled to such an extent as to make the surface
bright and hard, as it will not then possess the necessary porosity for
absorbing the mercury. In such a case, it must be annealed before use,
which is generally done by heat'" -^ the plates beneath till wood will
ignite on the upper surface, taking care that the heating is uniform, and
avoiding oxidation of the upper surface during the process. The plate is
then flattened by beating it with a wooden mallet with a flat slab to bear
the blows, as direct blows would batter the surface. The fixing of the
plates in the mortar has already been described ; it may be noted, how-
ever, that the screws should be either of copper or extremely hard wood.
When the plate is secured, its surface is dressed smooth with the mallet
and slab, and then scoured with sand and wood-ashes, and rubbed
perfectly bright with very fine emery-cloth ; or it may be washed with a
strong soda solution, which removes grease and imparts a bright face.
Next it is washed with clean water, and rubbed over with a solution of
potassium cyanide, in the proportion of | oz. in i pint of water, taking
care to finally wash with warm water, as any excess of cyanide would
dull the surface. The bright clean plate is then ready for the mercury,
and is rubbed with a mixture of fine mill tailings or other fine sand and
powdered sal ammoniac, applied with a brush, while a little mercury is
sprinkled on the surface so long as the copper absorbs it. The addition
of the sal ammoniac to the sand for rubbing in removes the effects of
oxidation, which sets in very rapidly on the exposed surface, and prevents
amalgamation. The mixture is left on the plate for ^ hour, when the
latter is rewashed with cyanide solution, and more mercury is added
until absorption ceases. Gold-amalgam (or, failing it, silver-amalgam) is
then rubbed in with a piece of indiarubber belting, using sal ammoniac
solution to keep the surface bright.

When electro-silvered plates are used instead of simple copper ones,
they are prepared in the following manner. They are well cleaned and
burnished with very coarse sand-paper, after being straightened out ; a
coat of good beeswax is then applied to the side not cleaned, in
order to confine the process to one surface only. The plates thus
prepared are hung in a bath containing a solution of silver of regulated

li:

1034 AURIFEROUS VF.INSTUFF.

strength, then connected with a battery, and thus electro-plated with pure
or coin silver on one side, in such a manner and with such a quantity of
silver as will not amount to less than i to 3 oz. per sq. ft. ; any laiger
percentage is preferable, if the co;',ting presents as rough a surface as
possible. Thee? electro-silvered copper plates arc highly esteemed for
their amalgamating powers, as the copper and silver form, as soon as the
mercury is applied in the usual way (just described), a powerful galvanic
battery, the action of which is much heightened by the slightly acid
character imparted to the water by the crushing of pyritous matters.
A well-known maker of these silvered plates is E. G. Denniston,
653, Mission Street, San Francisco,

The cost of the ingredients uscw for a 5-stamp battery in 10 months,
at Californian prices, is thus given by Thureau : —

■,» c.

6 Bunsen's elements f4 00

4 glass cylimlers 3 20

5 lb. cyanide 4 25

I porous cup o 50

7 lb. nitric acid i 15

50 lb. cyanide (fused) 37 5°

14 lb. nitric acid 2 50

(14/. I2s. i}(/.) .. ..73 10

The highly favourable opinions first expressed with regard to am i-
mated plates have had to be modified by subsequent experience,
require constant attention, and to be kept free from film, which is very
liable to form on the surface, and will altogether prevent amalgamation
if not removed. For this purpose, sal ammoniac, potassium cyanide, and
ammonium chloride are used to wash the plates, they destroying greasy
adhesions and dissolving the oxides of copper and other metallic salts
caused by the action of the water employed in the battery, which almost
always contains mineral salts in solution. All things considered, under
ordinary circumstances, amalgamated plates probably never catch more
than 55 per cent, of the gold-assay of the ore, and when other appliances
are not adopted in conjunction with them, the loss of gold may amount
to half the original quantity present. It may be safely said that their
use has been abandoned on all properties where any pretence is made of
saving above 80 per cent, of the ascertained gold-contents of the ore.

Raymond expresses himself in the following terms concerning the
results of using amalgamated plates. The product of gold varies
between 30 and 50 per cent, of that in the ore, and averages 40 : 15 per
cent, of the total gold remains in the unredeemed portion of the ore, and
thus 45 per cent, actually freed still escapes the plates, — 7 per cent, being
dissolved in the § of the mercury charged, which also escapes, and 38
per cent, escaping as unamalgamated gold. Of the amalgam obtained,

AMALGAMATING PANS.

'035

the interior plates yield about 67 per cent, the outer 20 per cent., the
skimmings 13 per cent. ; or the inner plates yield 'l and the outer plates
\ of the amalgam obtained, or 30 and 10 per cent, respectively of the
gold contained in the ore. Reckoning by units of surface, the inner
plates collect 36 times as much gold as the outer.

Bland found amalgamated plates less efficient than mercuiy-drops
and blanket-tables for the Port Phillip treatment, but thinks they may
be useful where mercury is put into the mortars.

Amalgamating Pans. — The term "pan" is used generically to denote
a very large class of machines working on the same principle as the
snuff-muller. Some are intended only to rub the ore against a surface
of mercury, while others at the same time more thoroughly grind it. To
the former class belongs the Hungarian bowl or Tyrolese mill (p. 1041),
while the latter includes the arrasira, the Italian molinari, the Chilian
mill (described on p. 1038), &c.

Pans present a great variety in the details of their construction. The
common features are a round tub, usually of cast iron, but sometimes
with ooden sides, 4 to 6 ft. in diameter and about 2 ft. deep, having a
hollo\ pillar cast in the centre, within which is an upright shaft projecting
above the top of the pillar that may be set in revolution by gearing
below the pan. To the top of this shaft is attached, by means of a key
or feather, a yoke or driver by which the muUer or upper grinding surface
is set in motion. To the bottom of the par, on the inside, is fixed a
false bottom of iron, cast either in sections, commonly called dies, or in
one piece, having a diameter a little less than that of the pan, and with a
hole in the centre adapted to the central pillar. This serves as the
lower grinding surface. The muUer, forming the upper grinding surface,
is usually a circular plate of iron corresponding in size and form to the
false bottom just described, having a diameter nearly equal to that of
the pan, and a flat, conical, or conoidal form, according to the shape of
the pan-bottom. Its under side is furnished with shoes or facings of
iron, about i in. thick, that may be removed when worn down, and
replaced by new. The muUer is attached to the driver, which is put on
and over the central pillar of the pan, and, being connected with the
interior upright shaft as described, is thus caused to revolve. There are
various appliances for raising or lowering the muller, so that it may rest
with its whole weight upon the pan-bottom, in order to produce the
greatest grinding effect, or be maintained at any desired distance above
it, when less friction or more agitation is required. Various devices are
also in use for giving proper motion to the pulp, so that, when the muller
is in revolution, the material may be kept constantly in circulation,
passing between the grinding surfaces and coming into contact with the
mercury. Some pans are cast with a hollow chamber, i to 2 in. deep in

'in

ill

*k l.«IIJll U|L, |.

' mi

1036

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

the bottom, for the admission of steam, in order to heat the pulp, while
others employ only " live steam," which is delivered directly into the
pulp by a pipe for that purpose.

The quantity of ore with which a pan is charged for a single opera-
tion, varies from 600 or 800 to 4000 or 5000 lb., according to the size of
the pan. The ordinary charge of pans most generally in use at present
is 1200 to 1500 lb.

In charging the pan, the muller is raised a little from ii:he bottom, so
as to revolve freely at first ; water is supplied by a nose-pipe, and at the
same time the sand is thrown into the pan with a shovel. Steam is
admitted cither to the steam-chamber in the bottom of the pan or
directly into the pulp. In the former case, the temperature car 'lardly
be raised as high as in the latter ; but, on the other hand, when -tuam is
introduced directly, care is necessary to avoid reducing too much the
consistency of the pulp by the water of condensation. The pulp should
be sufficiently liquid to be kept in free circulation, but thick enough to
carry in suspension, throughout its entire mass, the finely divided
globules of mercury. In some mills, both the methods of heating arc
employed in the same pans, the temperature being first raised with each
charge by live steam, and afterwards sustained by admitting steam to
the chamber only. Some pans are covered with wooden covers to assist
in retaining the heat. When properly managed, the temperature may
be kept at or near 200° F. (93° C). When, in the use of live steam, the
pulp becomes too thin, the supply of iteam is cut off, the covers are
removed, and the pulp is allowed to thicken by the evaporation of the
water. The steam in the chamber may keep the temperature up to the
desired point in the meantime. Another advantage of the steam-
chamber is that exhaust-steam from the engine may be used in it, while
for use in the pulp it is better and customary to take steam directly from
the boilers, because that which comes from the cylinder of the engine is
charged with oil and is injurious to amalgamation.

The muller is gradually lowered after the commencement of the
grinding operation, and is allowed to make about 60 or 70 revolutions
per minute. In the course of an hour or two, the sand should be reduced
to a fine pulpy condition. When this has been accomplished, and by
some mill-men at a still earlier stage, even at the beginning of the opera-
tion, a supply of mer'^ury is introduced into the pan, the muller is
slightly raised from the bottom to avoid too great friction, which would
act to the disadvantage of the mercury, and the action is continued for
2 hours longer, during which the amalgamation is in progress. The
mercury is supplied by pressing it through canvas, so as to scatter it
upon the pulp in a finely-divided condition. The quantity varies greatly
in different mills, the ordinary supply being about 60 or 70 lb. to a charge

AMALGAMATING PANS.

1037

of ore consisting of 1200 or 1500 lb. In some mills, a quantity, varying
from 75 to 200 or even 300 lb., is put into a pan when starting after a
clean-up, and subsequently a regular addition of 50 or 60 lb. is made
with each charge.

Two hours having been devoted to the grinding, and two or three
more to amalgamation, the pan is discharged, and its contents are
received by a settler or separator. The discharge of the pan is usually
aided by a supply oC water, which dilutes the pulp and permits it to run
freely from the pan into the settler. The pan, being emptied and partly
washed out by the stream of water, is again charged with a fresh
quantity of sand, and the grinding operation is resumed without delay.

The main objects sought for by inventors of pans have been to
produce grinding surfaces of most effective form, securing the greatest
uniformity of wear with economy of power ; to obtain the most
favourable conditions for amalgamation, depeiding mainly on the free
circulation of the pulp, the uniform and thorough distribution of the
mercury, and the proper degree of heat ; and to combine, with these
requirements, simplicity and cheapness in construction, facility in
management and repair, large capacity, and economy of time, labour,
and materials in the perforrrance of duty.

The attempts that have been made to obtain these results have met
with varied success, the different devices of any one pan sometimes
obtaining a high degree of excellence in certain details at the cost of it
in others.

Among the differences in characteristic features of pans, the most
noticeable is that of the bottom and the grinding surfaces, some being
flat, and others variously curved ; other details, of more or less
importance, such as the construction of the mullcr and the method of
attaching it to the driver, the form of the shoes and dies, the means of
fixing them in place, of providing for the heating of the pulp, and for its
circulation during the grinding and amalgamating process, vary consider-
ably in the several patterns.

The opinions of practical mill-men are somewhat divided regarding
the comparative advantages of the different forms of pan-bottoms.
The prevailing opinion, howevr^ seems to be, all things considered, in
favour of the flat bottom. While other forms of grinding surface may
pof.sess superior advantages theoretically, their greater efficiency in
practice is often lost by the unequal wear of the surface of the mullcr,
usually resulting from the difficulty of keeping the other parts of the
machine, on which the grinding surfaces depend, in perfect order. The
various parts of the flat mullcr are simpler in form, more easily handled,
and more conveniently replaced when worn out. The flat-bottomed
muller involves ti; . expenditure of more power in carrying its load of

J ft

1038

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

thick pulp ; but this disadvantage is counterbalanced, in the opinion
of some, by the more complete distribution of the mercury, and the
consequently more perfect amalgamation.

The various forms may now be considered in alphabetic order.

Berdan's pan. — Berdan's was one of the earliest and crudest kinds of
pan, and is now almost obsolete. Its operation is very slow, only treating
about lo cwt. per 24 hours. It is occasionally employed on tailings.

Britten's pan. — This is one of the simplest forms of pan, consisting
only of a concave basin containing a muUer, which is rotated by means
of a manual fly-wheel and a pair of bevel-wheels.

Chilian mill. — The Chilian mill is nothing more nor less than an edge-
runner mortar-mill.

Denny & Roberts' pan. — The pan made by Denny & Roberts,
Ballarat, Victoria, is highly esteemed in Australia, extracting 90 to 95
per cent, of the gold from ordinary tailings, and 70 per cent, from con-
centrated pyrites. The top pan is keyed on to the main inclined spindle,
which makes 25 revolutions per minute when treating ordinary poor
tailings, and 20 to 22 revolutions for rich blanketings. The middle pan
runs about f of the speed of the top pan, and is driven by a belt from
the horizontal shaft, which gives motion to a small horizontal spindle
running in bearings bolted to the bottom frame of the machine. This
spiiidle has a pinion keyed on to its inner end, which engages with a
crown wheel that gives motion to the pan. The middle pan has no
connection with the main inclined spindle ; it is supported by a cast-iron
bracket, on which it revolves the opposite way to the top pan.

The lower pan makes a little more than ^rd of the revolutions of the
top pan ; it is also driven by a belt from the horizontal shaft, giving
motion to a horizontal spindle running in bearings bolted to the bottom
frame of the machine, having a pinion keyed on to its inner end, which
engages with a crown-wheel for giving the pan motion in the same
manner as the gear for the middle pan, only on the opposite side of the
machine.

The top pan has a rotary grinder, the section of which is made to
correspond with the section of the inclined pan, both having true conical
lines, thus ensuring perfect grinding between the two surfaces without
cauring much wear and tear of parts in contact. This rotary grinder
weighs about 7 cwt. ; its spindle runs in loose boxes ; these latter are
kept in place by steel springs, which are made to act as levers for
weighting the roller, by means of wheel-nuts. The operator may
increase the crushing power of the rotary grinder 50 per cent, by taking
a few turns on the wheel-nuts ; this is only necessary when crushing
the rough stuff left in the stamper-boxes on washing up, or any like
material.

AMALGAMATING PANS.

1039

In addition to the rotary grinder, there are two disintegrators fitted
opposite the main inclin ;d shaft on the down side (the rea''jr will under-
stand that the down side means that portion of the pan which when
revolving has passed the rotary grinder and is going to the lower side) ;
these disintegrators weigh about i cwt. each, and are fitted with a white-
metal shoe, which has a section corresponding with that of the pan.
This shoe when fitted into the disintegrator presents a surface to the
pan it stands in of only ^ in. ; when the shoe is in its place, the down
side of it is perpendicular to the surface of the pan it works in, and the
upper surface forms an angle of about 45° with the surface of the pan,
thus leaving a wedge opening of 45° for the material under treatment
to pass. In order to ensure the passing of the material under the
disintegrators, and co prevent its floating round the sides where it would
escape the disintegrating action, the shoes are made with a fluted or
corrugated surface, which admits the material under operation, thus
preventing any escape. The material to be operated on is admitted to
the top pan, between the rotary grinder and the disintegrator ;' then
whatever gold is liberated by the frictional action of the disintegrator
is carried by the revolutions of the pan directly to the mass of mercury
in the lower angle of the pan, which presents a broad surface to take it
up and amalgamate it, while the coarse matter is carried on and raised
by the revolution of the pan mixed with particles of mercury, and is
passed beneath the rotary grinder, which red-ces it to fine powder
preliminary to a successive action of the disintegrator and a successive
action of the mass of mercury. As there is a continual supply of water
to the upper pan, it overflows at its lower side, and the overflow, which
consists of water and par' les of matter fine enough or light enough
to be carried with it, passL. to the mercury amalgamating-uell, which
receives the liberated gold and silver. The particles of metal by their
specific gravity assist greatly in amal.,.imatincj with t!ie mercury in the
well, as in falling from the edge of the pan they, ha\ uig a perpendicular
fall of 10 in., plunge intc the mercury, where they are scoured. From
the mercury-well in the top pan, the pulverized matter and water
pass on to a cast-iron apron, which directs the ; to the inside of the
second pan, where they meet the upward current caused by the pan
revolving, and are then carried into the annular channel which contains
mercury, when they pass round by the revolutions of tl' pan, and meet
with the same action from this disintegrator and 1 . cury as in the top
pan. This second pan is fitted with 3 disintegrators, the same shape as
those in the top pan, but lighter. The particles of fine metal, still
associated with sand, pyrites, &c., that flow out of this pan, fall on to a
cast-iron apron, which directs them into the upward current of the lower
pan, when they are subjected to the same treatment as in the second

i !

I I

1040

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

pan. The top pan from its fast speed only liberates the coarse metal ;
the second pan, which revolves on a cast-iion bracket and has no
connection with the main inclined spindle that carries the top pan,
liberates the next heaviest of the remaining metal ; and the lower pan,
being large and having 4 disintegrators, besides a mercury-well, by its
slow speed causes scarcely any agitation in the water, so that the very
finest particles of metal are liberated and amalgamated. The dis-
integi'ators in the lower pan are of the same shape and wc.ght as those
in the middle pan, and the pan is supported by the same brackets as the
middle pan, only it revolves on a different surface or part of the bracket ;
like the middle pan, it has no connection with the main inclined spindle ;
it may thus be made to run any number of revolutions by changing the
pulleys.

Dickson's amalgamator. — This apparatus has a supply-hopper and a
series of downward and upward passages connecting with scroll-shaped
chambers, arranged so that the pulp from the stamp-mill is spread out
in thin sheets, and the current is made to revolve with great velocity, so
as to bring the gold and mercury in the chambers into intimate contact.
The amalgam remains in the chambers, but the lighter particles escape
from one chamber to another, and are finally allowed to pass away
through the discharge-sluice. The velocity of the water is regulated by
plugs in the side of the discharge-sluice.

Hepburn & Peterson's pan. — The bottom of this pan, Fig. 153, has
the form of an inverted cone, inclining toward the centre. The bottom is
covered with 4 dies of corrcsiDonding form, which are secured in a similar
manner to Wheeler's. Steam is introduced directly, without a steam-
chamber in the bottom. In the centre of the pan rises a hollow pillar,
through which passes the driving-.^^"*"*- Tuc snape of the muller
corresponds with that of the bottom ; at the centre it has an upright
hollow cone, by which means it is connected with the hub or driver. The
under side of the muller is furnished with shoes, between which, when
attached to the muller, is a channel or radial passage left for the circula-
tion of the pulp. The muller also contains radial grooves between the
shoes, so that, when the latter wear down, the channel may still be large
enough to permit an easy mcvemcni of the material. The muller is
raised or lowered by means of a screw and movable nut at the top of the
hub, the screw resting on the top of the driving-shaft to which the hub
is keyed. The circulation of the pulp in this pan is effected without the
use of wings or guides, such as are commonly employed in other pans
for this purpose. When the muller is in motion, the pulp, passing
between the grinding surfaces from the centre to the circumference of
the pan, descends again by its own weight towards the centre, on the
upper side of the muller: a movement promoted b\ the conical shape of

AMALGAMATING PANS.

1041

the muller-plate. In the use of guide-plates or wings to aid the
circulation, a difficulty is sometimes experienced in the tendency of
coarser sand to settle and pack firmly, if the pan is stopped for a little
while, giving much trouble in starting again. By thus dispensing with
the use of wings, some inconvenience is avoi led. The charge of the pan
is about 1 500 lb., usually working 4 hours on a charge. It runs at 60 to
70 revolutions a minute.

Fig. 153.

Fig. 154.

■t}t

Hepburn & Peterson's Pan.

Horn's Pan.

Horn's pan. — Horn's pan. Fig. 154, is cast in one piece, and has a
slightly flaring or irregularly concave surface. Around the dies is a
depressed annular space 3 in. wide, traversed, as the muUer rotates, by
an arm which reaches to the bottom. The muller is raised by a screw
at the top. The bottom is double, to afford an annular space for steam
to heat the charge.

Hungarian bowl. — The Hungarian bowl or Tyrolese mill. Fig. 155,
consists of 3 main parts — the basin or bowl, the runner which revolves
inside it, and the arrangement for transmission of power to the null.

The basin a is of cast iron, ^ in. thick, 6| in. high, 24 in. diameter at
top and 18 in. at the flat bottom inside. An iron cylinder or pipe d,
which rises for 4 or S in., is cast to the centre of the basin. This pipe
has 3-in. outer, and i^-in. inner diameter, and serves for the reception of
the lower pivot bearings c of the spindle d. These bearings c consist
generally of iron, and are protected against the influx of sand, &c., by a
mantle or hood of sheet iron e. About 3I in. above the bottom is a hole,
4 in. broad, in the rim of the basin, to which a tin or sheet-iron outlet /
is riveted. The fixing of the basin to the planks of the floor is effected

3 X

1042

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUBF.

in a simple manner, cither by screws through two ears, cast opposite to
each other on to its bottom, or the latter is cast with a projecting rim,
over which iron claws or hooks are driven into the floor.

The runner g is constructed of pine-wood, of the exact shape of the
inside of the basin, but of somewhat smaller size, and is furnished at top
with a wide funnel-shaped cavity, which communicates with a cylindrical
hole of 5 in, diameter through the centre. Its size and shape are such
that, when suspended centrally in its proper position in the basin— the
hole just mentioned allowing it to go freely over the cylinder above
described, — its surface is parallel to the inner surface of the basin, and
leaves an open space, 4 in. broad round the side, and i^^ in. at the
bottom, and it projects about i in. above the top of the basin. Two thin

Fig. 155.

Hungarian Bowl or Tyrolese Mill.

sheet-iron hoops round the circumference protect it against cracking, and
its bottom is armed with about 20 blades or knife-like scrapers //, of
sheet iron, \ in. thick and 2\ in. long, which are radially driven into the
wood, each projecting exactly \ in. The central connection of the runner
with the spindle is in some cases effected after the old method, by means
of a tripod ; but this will be gradually superseded by the generally
applied and more practical new arrangement of a wrought-iron fork i
with two prongs, which are driven through the runner and screwed tight,
whilst a square collar k, formed at their junction, is slid over a square
portion / of the spindle ; 6 or 7 in. below this part, the prongs are con-
nected by an iron cross-bar ;//, which fits with a flat, round collar over
the spindle, where the latter has, for several inches, screw turnings. Two
nuts 11, one above, the other below the collar, serve both for fixing the

f I

1 1

AMALGAMATING TANS.

1043

Ithe

Iner

ins

Lily

runner and to adjust it — i. e. to raise or lower it according to require-
ment. Each spindle has, a few inches above the upper collar, a coupling
for the purpose of throwing the runner out of action, without interfering
with those of the other mills.

For the transmission of motive power from the axle of the water-
wheel to the set of mills attached to a stamping-machine, three different"
methods are in use, viz. by endless straps and pulleys, by cranks, and
by mitre-wheels. The last arrangement is the one most approved, and
will therefore gradually replace the others ; for it ensures not only a
better and more undisturbed working of the mills, but, though more
expensive in the first instance, is ultimately cheaper as regards wear and
tear. The construction is as follows : The pivot at the upper extremity
of each spindle turning in a collar of white beechwood />, inserted in the
horizontal beam of the framing, carries, at its end that projects a few
inches above the beam, a small horizontal mitre-wheel ^, 6 in. in diameter,
with 2 1 teeth ; this wheel is turned smooth on its lower side, which rests
upon an equally smooth iron plate, let into and secured by screws to the
beam. Sometimes the end of the spindle is enlarged, and the rim rests
upon the iron plate. All the mitre-wheels of the mills standing in one
row arc connected with corresponding vertical ones r of the same size,
wedged over a horizontal iron axle that runs above the beam the whole
length of the row of mills, and turns in white beechwood bearings at the
points of support. According to the position of the two rows of mills,
with reference to the axle of the water-wheel (for instance, whether
parallel or at right-angles to it), mitre-wheels, the same size as those on
the spindles, are fixed either at one end or on some part of the length of
the horizontal axles. These are simultaneously turned, at the same time
moving the runners of all the mills, by two other mitre-wheels, 10 in. in
diameter, with 35 teeth, that are fixed on an iron axle, connected with
the axle of the water-wheel, either direct or by intermediate gearing.

The relative diameters and numbers of teeth of the large and small
mitre-wheels, viz. 10 : 6 and 35 : 21, are so calculated that if the water-
wheel goes at its fullest suitable speed — i. e. at 1 5 revolutions per minute —
the runners of the mills revolve 25 times during the same period. Their
general speed is, however, only 16 to 20 revolutions per minute, and the
motive-power required for one mill is but 0*04 H.P., or 25 mills can be
turned by i H.P. When the runners of a set of mills are properly
arranged, so that they revolve exactly vertical and central in the basins,
each of the latter receives 50 lb. of mercury (the mills of some establish-
ments receive only 30 lb., the reason for which will be given further on),
which forms a ring, 7 in. wide and ^ in. thick, at the bottom, round the
central pipe ; and then a most important adjustment has to be made,
namely, that of raising or lowering each runner, so that the lower edges

3x2

lit

I044

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

of the iron blades, projecting from its bottom, stand just ^ line above the
level of the mercury. This distance, together with the breadth of the
blades (J in., as above given), has, by experience, been ascertained to
ensure the greatest saving of gold and smallest loss of mercury. If once
in proper working order, a set of mills requires afterwards but little super-
vision. Small tin gutters, attached to the main launder, distribute the
crushed material equally to the mills, forming the first or upper row, and
introduce it into the large funnel-shaped cavity of the runners, where it
descends through the open space round the central pipe, and comes into
contact with the mercury. It then undergoes much whirling about
through the action of the iron blades — which, while promoting contact
with the mercury, prevents deposition, — and, gradually rising in the
annular space between the runner and the inner wall of the basin, it
passes out through the outlet spout into the mill straight in front, where
the same process is repeated. The crushed material which passes a gold-
mill in this manner, from a battery of 3 heavy stampers, amounts in the
average, per second, to o "015 cub. ft, containing ^ to f oz. of sand and
slimes.

On account of the ores being very poor in gold, and in order not
to lose unnecessary time and money by too frequent interruptions of the
process, the mills are allowed to run for 4 weeks at a stretch ; the runners
are then lifted out of the basins, and the whole of the mercury is removed.
During this work, which generally lasts several hours, any small defects
of the machinery are repaired, and all the different parts properly looked
after. The amalgam is pressed through specially cons^. acted double
filters of chamois leather or strong close canvas, and the filtered portion,
that still contains about f oz. of gold per cwt., is returned to the mills,
which are then set in action again. The mills of the lower rows are
generally supplied with distilled mercury, for reasons which will be
explained further on. The rather soft amalgam, obtained in the filters,
is repeatedly pressed through close canvas, with hot water, till it becomes
quite hard, when it is formed into balls of 3^ to 4 oz. in weight, which
are labelled and reserved for distillation. This amalgam contains about
25 to 33 per cent, of gold, and the relative quantities received from the
upper and lower rows of mills are, on the average, in the proportion of
64-5 per cent. : 35 ' 5 per cent.

When the mills at the end of a working period are opened, the
greater part of the amalgam is always found collected round the central
pipes of the basins. This fact led to the experiment of using smaller
basins, in which the ring of mercury, instead of 7 in., was only 3 in. broad,
reducing the quantity of mercury to be used from 50 lb. to 26 or 28 lb.
If this experiment had been generally successful, it would not only have
lessened the outlay for mercury considerably, but would also in a great

AMALGAMATING PANS.

1045

measure have reduced the loss of that metal ; it was, however, found that
from ores rich in galena — and they form by far the greater portion in
Hungary — the produce of gold was 20 to 25 per cent, less than formerly.
Only the ores of one mine — the Max shaft, on the Spitaler lode — which
are comparatively poor in galena, yielded the same quantity of gold,
whilst the loss of mercury was 50 per cent, less than previously, and they
are therefore the only ones treated in small basins, supplied with but
30 lb. of mercury. The average loss of mercury sustained by the mill
process is stated to be 20 oz. for 50 tons of ore rich in galena, and only
8^ to 9 oz. for the same quantity of ore from the mine just mentioned.
It is in reality, however, nearly 20 per cent, greater, for this amount is
recovered during subsequent operations.

Another fact, experimentally discovered, touching the mercury and
its use, as applied to the mill process, deserves mention : It is, that pure
distilled mercury seizes upon gold eagerly up to a certain point — the
limit of saturation — which is 3J oz. per 5 cwt. ; beyond that point, when
pasty amalgam commences to form, its action upon the gold is far less
energetic. Taking advantage of this fact, by supplying the mills of both
the upper and lower rows with pure mercury, and leaving it only in
action till it had acquired the above limit of saturation, the yield of gold
':iugmented 20 per cent, which, taking into account the smaller amount
extracted by the subsequent operations, represented still 6 "44 per cent,
increase on the total produce of gold. This profit, considerable as it
appears, was, however, much lessened by the expense and loss incident
upon the repeated distilling of the mercury, its transport, and the more
frequent interruptions of the process — the mills of the upper rows, for
instance, having to be cleared every 5 to 6 days. This caused a less
yearly produce, with a greater amount of manual labour, and therefore
this method of amalgamation has been discontinued as far as regards
the mills of the upper rows, but is still in operation for those of the lower
ones, because the stuff travelling through them is so much poorer in gold
that the limit of saturation of the mercury is only reached after every
28 to 30 days, when the mills of the upper rows have to be cleared
also.

Hunter's rubber. — This machine is thus described by Thureau. It
is rather complicated, combining, like most other American gold-saving
appliances, two or three different actions, viz. grinding, amalgamation,
and concentration. It has a similar appearance to the old shaking-
tables, and its motion is also similar ; but in detail it differs materially
from the former. From the well stayed frame -work depend two bearers,
by means of 4 bars of round iron, and these are rocked 50 times a minute
by 2 excentrics and pulleys, with a stroke of 5 to 7 in. Six pieces of
pine-wood are bolted to the bearers longitudinally, their tops being round

,m\

■\\

rii

1046

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF,

and the bottom square, where they are armed at the bottom with the
same number of shoes, all these being the really movable parts of the
machine. In a strong cast-iron box a false bottom is laid by means of
alternate strips of wood and cast-iron dies, in the same longitudinal
fashion, so that the shoes rub upon the dies and thereby grind the ores.
At the same time the tops of the wooden strips are covered with electro-
copper plates, " and as they are immersed, any, in fact nearly all the float
gold liberated by the grinding is collected at the apex of each cylindrical
copper plate, and the pyrites are also concentrated in this box. This is
a very valuable machine, as it collects from 10 to 12 per cent, of gold
that would otherwise float away with the blue slimy water, which it is
well known is allowed to escape elsewhere."

Jordan's pan. — In Jordan's " hydraulic amalgamator," the pulp
leaving the battery is washed over the blankets with a sufficient quantity
of water to carry it into the receiving hopper of the amalgamator, where
it meets a further regulated supply of water, made to whirl round the
inside of the hopper, and thus avoia all possibility of lodgment, passing
thence down the stand-pipe into the pan. This is formed of two parts,
the outer being a cast-iron pan containing about 3 cwt. of mercury, and
the inner pan or muller, which is fixed to the stand-pipe, and revolves
slowly in the mercury, being immersed in it to about an inch below the
surface of the bottom. The pulp, passing down the stand-pipe under
pressure of the column, is forced between the bottom surface of the
muller and the mercury, and, being spread out in a thin layer, is brought
into intimate contact with the latter.

McCone's pan. — This pan. Fig. 156, is 5 ft. in diameter and 28 in. deep.
It is flat-bottomed, and made either with or without a steam-chamber.
When the latter is desired, the false bottom is cast separately, with a
rim I in. deep, and is then bolted to the main pan-bottom, thus forming
ihe chamber. There are no standards or legs for the pan to stand upon,
the bottom being a square-cornered plate of iron, projecting beyond the
pan-rim, and it may be bolted directly to the timbers on which it is to
rest. The bottom, with its central hollow cone, may be cast in one piece
with the pan-rim, or, instead of the latter, a simple flange may be cast,
corresponding in size with the rim, to which flange the rim, which may
then be either a cast piece or be made of sheets of iron riveted together,
is bolted.

An improvement has lately been made to save the wear of the rim
or side of the pan, and prolong its usefulness, by placing in the bottom
of the pan a false rim or circular facing for the pan-side, about 9 in.
deep. This is cast in segments, and made to correspond in form to the
rim of the pan. When fixed in place, it saves the pan-rim from wear in
that part which would otherwise suffer the greatest degree of friction,

AMALGAMATING PANS.

1047

just as the shoes and dies protect the pan-bottom and muUcr-plate.
When worn thin by the friction of the pulp, the plates may be removed
and new ones substituted for them. The drivinpf shaft or spindle r
passes up from below through the central hollow cone l> ; but its point of
support is usually independent of the pan, resting, in such case, in a
step-box //, which is fixed on a timber below. Some, however, prefer to
have hangers bolted to the bottom of the pan, and furnishing the support
for the driving shaft, so that, if the foundations of the pan settle, the
relative position of the several parts is mwre readily maintained. The
step-box is cast in one piece, with a bearing for the end of the shaft on
which the vertical mitre-wheel and pulley of the common driving gear
are fixed.

Fig. 156.

Fig. 157.

— 1 J. Ji^i b ; A

McCone's Tan.

The driver or hub, which is secured to the vertical shaft, is in two
parts, an upper and a lower. The upper is fixed to the shaft by two
strong feathers or sliding keys. The base of the upper driver is cast
with lugs, or projections, which fit into corresponding recesses in the top
of the lower driver, by which means the latter is supported and set in
motion. Above the upper driver is a cap-piece, carrying the usual screw
and nut arrangement for raising and lowering the muUer, the bottom of
the screw resting on the upper end of the vertical shaft. The lower
part of the driver has three or four stout lugs, or projections, at its base,
which fit into carriers on the circular part of the muller. These carriers
are also made to serve as the means of aiding the circulation of the
pulp, as they assist in directing the current towards the centre when the
muller is revolving. For this purpose, they are sometimes cast 5 or 6 in.
high, presenting a curved surface, not shown in the case illustrated, to

i|^|;|

i§

Fill

1048

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

the pulp, and forcing it towards the centre of the pan. By this means,
the guide-plates or wings, usually fixed to the side of the pan, but which
to some extent obstruct the motion of the pulp, are dispensed with.
Grooves for attaching guide-plates, are, however, cast in the pan-rim, so
that those who prefer may use them. The dies and shoes used in this
pan resemble, in many respects, those of other pans. There is I J in.
space between the outer edge of the die and the edge of the pan, and
a similar space between the adjacent edges of the dies. The shoes,
between which are similar spaces, and which also have radial channels
or grooves on their under side, to facilitate circulation, have the same
radial width as the dies. The radial width of the muUer-plate is a little
less than that of the shoe and die, in order to allow a freer inlet and
outlet to the pulp. The mullcr makes 60 to 80 revolutions per minute.
The pan takes 4500 lb. cf pulp at an ordinary charge, and sometimes
more. It is set up very simply, being bolted to timber supports below,
and is put in motion or arrested by the application or withdrawal of a
tightener to the driving belt.

Patton's pan. — In Patton's pan, Fig. 157, the wooden sides are
vertical, and the staves are held by a strong iron hoop upon an iron
flange or shoulder of the bed-plate, which rises inside the pan as high as
the top of the muUer. The bottom is cast in one piece, and is provided
with a chamber beneath for the admission of steam to heat the pulp, and
thereby promote amalgamation. The pan is 5 ft. in diameter and 2 ft.
deep. The motion of the muller is communicated to it from below.
The distance between the grinding-surfaces is regulated by a screw on
the top of the vertical shaft.

Peck's amalgamator. — The novelty in Peck's amalgamator consists
in having the pans made of copper and amalgamated prior to use, the
pans being arranged in a descending series, and driven by a mechanical
arrangement which produces a vibratory motion in addition to the usual
rotary one.

Readwin's amalgamator. — In the amalgamator recently introduced
by Thomas Alison Readwin, so long known in connection with the
Welsh gold industry, a framing. Fig. 158, supports the pans i> ; c are
vertical shafts driven by gearing d from the driving shaft, the gearing
being disconnected when required by shifting the pinion out of gear
along the shaft by means of levers. The shafts c carry each a hooked
arm a, in which freely rests the axis or spindle/ of the pestle^, so as to
carry the pestle round, at the same time allowing it to rotate about its
axis, the half vertical section of the pan approaching approximately the
rounded surface of the pestle. The bearings of the vertical shafts c are
formed of hard wood, prepared asbestos, or other material which will
wear well when lubricated with water. The lubricant is supplied to the

AMALGAMATING PANS.

1049

bearings through holes formed in the bosses of the large gear wheels d.
The pestle-axis/ which is made of har^lened steel or phosphor-bronze,
is fitted to the pestle-body so as to be easily removable, and so that the
pestle-body can be shifted lengthwise of it at pleasure. The bottom of
each pan is recessed so as to receive a hardened steel or phosphor-
bronze cup //, in which works the lower end of the pestle-axis, and which
holds the mercury for amalgamating the gold. Eyed tap-screws i are
screwed into the bottom of the pans to allow of the mercury or amalgam
being run off. A vvnc or bar is passed through the eyes of the screws /,
and secured by a lock and key, so as to prevent unauthorized with-
drawal of the contents of any of the pans. A trough /, carried above

Fro. 158.

Fig. 159,

' 2

Readwin's Amalgamator.

VVhekler's Pan.

I*g

the pans, has a screw-bladed shaft in, which revolves by means of the
wheels n, driven from the shaft o, which screw feeds the crushed ore fed
from the hopper to each of the pans by means of shoots or spouts q.
The regulating tube e is capable of being shifted up or down, so as to
regulate the supply of crushed ore to the trough /. Sliding shutters,
fitted to the bottom of the trough, regulate the openings so as to allow
the requisite quantity of ore to pass through in a given time. An over-
flow pipe carries off the superfluous ore as it collects at the farther end
of the trough, whence it is returned to the feed-hopper. Overflow pipes
t allow the surplus water, together with the baser metals and gangue in
a finely-divided condition, to escape from the pans by troughs to
receivers. Two or more outlets may be applied to each pan when
required at different levels. Pipes v running the length of the pans
supply water.

I050

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

In '

The operation of the machine is as follows : — The cups Ji arc filled
with mercury. Water is then run into the pans up to the level '"'" '^he
outlets /. The pestles are then set in motion by throwing the bcvcl-
wheels d into gear. The hopper being filled with ore crushed to the
requii ed size, the ore falls into the trough / at such a rate as may be
allowed by the adjustment of the shutters of the shoot e. The :.crew in
being set in motion carries the ore along the trough, and causes it to
pass in a uniform layer over the adjustable apertures, the screw being so
connected with the shaft that it shall revolve at a proportionate rate
with the pestles, supplying the necessary quantity of ore per minute to
each of the pans. The ore will thus be supplied gradually and in the
proper quantities to the pans, and by the crushing and grinding action
of the pestles on the pans it will be reduced to a finely divided condi-
tion, in which state it is presented to the mercury in the cups h. The
mercury catches the a"'algamable portion of the precious metals con-
tained in the pulverized ore, and thus fom.s the required amalgam.
During the process, the water, together wit!, ihe baser metals and gangue,
is continually flowing through the overflow pipes t. When It is required
to withdraw the mercury and amalgam, the wire rope or rod is with-
drawn from the eyes of the tap-screws /, and the mercury and amalgam
are run off as required.

Wheeler's pan. — The Wheeler pan of ordinary size, Fig. 159, is about
4 ft. in diameter at the bottom, and 2 ft, or a little more, in depth, a is
the rim of the pa;-;, in the centre of which is the hollow cone b rising from
the bottom, with which it is cast in one piece. Through th'-' -"jne passes
the vertical shaft, which, being driven by the gearing below the pan,
gives motion to the muller by means of a driver keyed to the shaft. The
muller is provided, on its under -side, with shoes g that form the upper
grinding surface. They are attached to the muUer by means of two
lugs or projections yj which are received in corresponding apertures in
the mul'cr-plate, and securely wedged with pieces of wood. The lower
grinding surface is formed by the dies i, which are usually 4 or 8 in
number, covering the greater portion of the pan-bottom, and secured to
it in a i.ianner similar to that by which the shoes are fixed to the muller.
There is a radial slot or space between l.ie dies, which is commonly
filled with hard Avood. Below the bo'.tom is a stcam-chambe ■ for heating
the pulp. The vertical shaft or spindle rests in a step-box //, to which
oil i::. co'iveyed by the r.'p^ p. A vertical pin passes downward through
th' centre of t':^ step-box, in contact with the shaft and resting its lower
end on iC lever y'. This lever may be raised or lowered slightly by the
hand-wheel on the rod /(', thus raising the muller from the dies, if desired.
The shaft is also fn-nishcd with a sci^w c, by means of which the muller
may be raised w^ entirely above the lim of the pan for the purpose of

AMALGAMATING PANS.

IO5I

clean'.iig up or of changing the shoes and dies. In order to impart an
upward current or movement to the pulp, there are inclined ledges / on
the rim of the pan, and smaller ledges ;// on the periphery of the muller,
but inclined in the opposite direction. The pan is also provided with
wings or guide-plates n, 4 in number, which serve to direct the moving
pulp toward the centre. They are fitted into and may be removed at
pleasure from a X projection on the pan-rim. The muller is usually
caused to make about 60 revolutions a minute ; it requires 2^ to 3 H.P.
Its ordinary charge is 800 to 1000 lb. In some mills, a still larger
charge is worked. The capacity of the pan is sometimes augmented by
adding a rim of sheet iron, so as to increase the height of the side. The
treatment of the charge usually requires 4 hours. The shoes and dies wear
out in 3 to 6 weeks, though they are made to last longer in some mills,
their duration depending greatly upon the order in which the pan and all
its principal working parts arc kept. Neglect in oiling the working parts
of the running gear is apt to cause unequal .»cai, i.'.;e vertical shaft gets
loose and out of line, the grinding-surfaces cease to work together
evenly, and the efficiency of the pan is greatly impaired, while the costs
ot working are very much increased. Mill-men generally prefer a shoe
and die of moderate rather than excessive hardness. The former wear
out faster, but are thought to grina more efficiently. Such are usually
cast of an equal mixture of white and soft iron.

■I

I'li;, 160.

Fic. 161.

Wheeler's Pan.

Wheei.kr & Randall's Pan.

A more modern form of Wheeler's pan is shown in Fig. 160. It
bears considerable resemblance to Patton's, already described (p. 1048).

Wheeler & Randalls pan. — Fig. 161 presents a view of the
"excelsior" pan, devised by Wheeler & Randall. It differs from
others chiefly in the form of the bottom, which is conoidal, The object

m. I-

li'

1052

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

of this devrct "s to produce surfaces of such form as to ensure perfect
uniformity of wear and the highest degree of grinding effect. Its
efficiency, in this respect, is attested by the experience of practical mill-
men. It is not, however, so generally used as the ordinary Wheeler.

The dies, muller, and shoes, have a form corresponding to that of the
pan-bottom. They are secured in place in much the same way as in the
Wheeler pan. There are guide-plates to assist in directing the move-
ment of the pulp, and openings in the muller between the shoes for its
free passage between the grinding surfaces. The gearing of the pan,
step-box, and driving-shaft, and means of raising the muller, do not
differ materially from the common Wheeler pan. This pan is made of
various sizes ; the largest is 4^ ft. in diameter, and treats 3000 lb. of ore
at a single charge. It weighs 5000 lb.

Blanket-tables. — In Hungary, Victoria, and some parts of America,
the matters leaving the last row of pans or bowls fall into a narrow
trough, from which, by means of wooden shutters, tney are equally
distributed over a number of inclined tables or " strakes " clothed with
blanketing or canvas. When no pans or bowls are used, the tables
immediately succeed the battery.

The Victorian form consists of a wooden floor, with varying length,
and laid at a varying pitch or incline. It is fixed securely, and in such
a manner as will enable the pitch to be altered, always observing the
utmost regularity in its arrangement, and ensuring precisely the same
degree of pitch throughout the entire length. The surface of the table is
made perfectly smooth and true. By means of strips of wood 2\ in. wide
fastened to the floor, it is subdivided into " strakes," one for each stamp
in the battery, when pans or bowls are not employed ; these strips afford
a place for the man to step on who changes the blankets. Sometimes the
table is broken transversely into sections of 3 ft. or so, the upper edge of
each section being about 2 in. below the overlapping edge of the one
next above. The surface is covered throughout with closely-woven
baize or blanket, laid on with extreme care, so as to lie flat and cling to
the boards. The mixture of water, mercury, and disintegrated matters
passes over the surface of the blanketing in a thin stream. The high
specific gravity of the gold and pyrites causes them to descend to the
lowest stratum of this stream, by which they arc brought into contact
with the fibres of the blanketing, and are induced to settle among
them. From these they are subsequently dislodged by rolling up the
blankets in turn and washing them in clean water.

The Hungarian apparatus differs in that it is made even throughout
(without any steps), and that the covering medium is a very rough kind
of canvas, resembling sackcloth, and specially prepared for the purpose.
The length and breadth of the tables vary in different establishments

m
m

BLANKET-TABLES.

1053

from 6 to 12 ft. and from 13 to 18 in. respectively, with an inclination of

1 to 1 5- in. per ft; they are constructed by preparing an even flooring
of boards, laid crossways, of the required size and inclination. This is
divided into equal spaces by longitudinal partitions, 2 to 3 in. broad and

2 in. high, with cheeks of similar dimensions fixed along the sides. The
number of strakes constructed in connection with a certain number of
mills is usually in the relation of 6:8, with one table extra. Thus
8 mills have 7 tables, 6 of which are in action at a time, whilst the 7th is
opened when i of the 6 is closed for the purpose of washing the canvas
pieces. These pieces are generally cut of si'ch a size that 2, for instance,
cover a table 6 ft. in length, including the overlap. Numerous experiments
have proved this coarse canvas, partly as regards cheapness and partly in
efficiency, to be better than either blanketing or two other peculiar methods
of producing the required rough surface, viz. (i) by scratching the boards,
and (2) replacing the latter by finely corrugated iron plates. The wear
and tear of the cloth, which is prepared of a width to suit that of the
tables, is about 16 ft. for working 50 tons of matter, the pieces lasting
generally 6 to 8 weeks. They are washed in tanks, in the same manner
as the blanket-pieces used in Victoria. The operation is performed by
boys, every i to 3 hours, according as the supply of material is greater
or smaller, one V oy commonly sufficing to work 10 or 15 tables. The
stuff collected in this manner in the washing-tanks forms 2 to 3 per
cent, of the whole amount of ore crushed, and consists (in Hungary) of
finely-divided galena, pyrites, and gangue, through which are distributed
fine free gold and small globules of mercury, escaped from the mills.

Many conditions govern the success or failure of the blanket-table,
(i) When the gold is stamped to an excessive degree of fineness, or is
flattened into tiny thin plates, it becomes what is known as " float " gold,
i.e., owing to the minuteness of the particles, or their flattened shape,
other forces tend to counterbalance the effect of their great specific
gravity, and instead of sinking as usual they actually float away. (2)
The supply of water must be exactly adapted to the nature of the
material under treatment : if too little, the material will be unevenly
distributed, and will clog the blankets ; if too great, it will wash away
some of the gold. (3) Too rapid inclination of the tables is often a
source of loss : it should scarcely ever be greater than i in 14 to 16.
(4) The length of the table is of importance in reducing the inevitable
loss to a minimum ; for, though by far the largest proportion of the
valuable matters is '''. ■ osited on the first few ft. of the strakes, yet, how-
ever far the latter may have been continued, they will always catch some
particles. In practice, it would be inconvenient to much exceed 30 ft.,
but 20 ft. should be regarded as a minimum figure. (5) The interstices
of the blanketing would, in course of time, become choked with heavy

I054

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

matters, and would then cease to be a receptacle. The washing and
renewing must therefore be performed at sufficiently short intervals.
The frequency with which this is repeated will much depend upon the
character of the material, being increased when it is " slimy," and when
much pyrites is present. The first series of blankets may need changing
every hour, or even oftener ; the second, every 2 hours or so ; and the
remainder, every 6 to 12 hours. Much gold is lost through slovenliness
in thi«5 department. (6) Sufficient care is not generally exercised in the
selection of the fibrous material used for covering the strakes ; and
experiments with various kinds of hair and wool, and with different
classes of fabric, may be expected to throw considerable light upon the
subject.

Roasting. — The idea of roasting quartz before crushing was probably
borrov/ed from the habits of aboriginal natives in many parts of the world,
of burning rocks to facilitate their grinding in the imperfect appliances at
hand. The plan first adopted by Australian miners was to roast the
quartz in stacks in the open air, or in kilns, to oxidize the sulphides, and
so liberate the gold, while the quartz was rendered more friable and easy
to crush. After several years' trial, this system was given up, as it was
found to be rather injurious than otherwise. At a low heat, the pyrites
in the interior of the quartz was little changed, while the free gold was
coated with a film of some material, probably sulphur, which impeded the
action of the mercury on it. When the roasting was carried on with a
higher degree of heat, the oxide of iron formed on the exposed faces of the
quartz acted as a flux, and a glazed surface of slag was formed, in which
numerous minute globules of gold could be discerned under the micro-
scope, similar to those found in the waste tailings when crushing roasted
quartz. In the interior of the quartz only a portion of the sulphur was
given off, while black veins were formed by the melted mono-sulphide of
iron ; and other experiments led to the conclusion that a portion of the
melted gold was diffused through these black veins in a form which
rendered it more difficult to separate than when in its natural state.

But these objections do not apply to the roasting of quartz which is
free from pyrites, and Wilkinson, as early as 1861, established a furnace
(Fig. 162) at Anderson's Creek, Victoria, for this purpose ; this was the
subject of a report, which may be summarized as follows.

The quartz subjected to this peculiar calcination is exceedingly
friable, much more so than the best roasted quartz from open kilns.
That whose treatment was witnessed by the Board was very crystalline
and compact, and each piece of it after coming from the furnace could
easily be broken by the hand, in every direction, into small fragments.
From the experiments made with a view of referring this important
change in the hardness of the quartz to its legitimate cause, it seems to

ROASTING.

i055

be mainly attributable to the high temperature (a moderate white heat)
to which the quartz was subjected in the furnace. Wilkinson does not
attach much importance to suddenly cooling, or quenching the heated

F;g. 162.

CROUHO PLAN

Wilkinson's Quartz Furnace.

quartz with water ; but the Board are of opinion that a difference does
exist in favour of quartz thus treated over that which has been cooled
slowly : this difference is greatest when the quartz is only heated to a
dull-red, and becomes less marked when a bright-red or white heat is

■Hi

■H
ii

':1|

;? 1

1056

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

attained. It would also appear that the increased friability from this
cause is due more to the explosive force of the steam than to the sudden
change of temperature, for it should be borne in mind that it is difficult,
if not impossible, to effect the sudden cooling of masses of broken quartz
on the large scale, even when the quantity of water available is very
great, for the steam first generated forces the water from the interstices
between the pieces of stone, preventing actual contact, so that the cooling
is in reality much more gradual than it would at first sight appear to be.

The benefits to be derived from the friability of the quartz after
calcination are very evident : much lighter stamps will suffice to reduce
it than when the same is in a raw or imperfectly roasted condition. It is
also obvious that grinding machinery of every kind will perform its office
more efficiently and perfectly.

The high temperature obtained by Wilkinson gives rise to another
phenomenon of equal or greater value, influencing more materially the
ultimate result, viz., the change in the form of the auriferous particles.
A close examination of the fine gold extracted after calcination has
proved that it is all globular in form, or approximately so, and that the
more minute the metallic particles are the more perfect is their spherical
shape.* That this should be the case will not appear surprising, when it
is remembered that the temperature to which the gold is heated is far
above that necessary to effect its fusion, and that, being melted, the
molecular attraction between its atoms must determine the spherical
form, subject to the constraining influence exerted by the rigid material
in which it is embedded. While the metallic particles diffused through-
out the quartz are undergoing this change in situ, the heat also tends to
diminish the cohesion which gives the quartz its hardness, to expand its
mass, and to open the fissures in which the g-eater part of the gold is
doubtless deposited, thereby aiding the desirable change, inasmuch as it
lessens the constraining influences above referred to.

The Board are convinced that this change from the jagged or lami-
nated form to the smooth and globular, must exert a very beneficial
influence upon subsequent washing and amalgamating operation.<5, more
particularly in preventing a loss of fine gold, for as a particle in the
spheroidal form is contained within the least possible surface, it is plain
that it will be less acted upon by moving water, or by mixtures of water
and pulverized mineral matter, than when it is in a thin leafy or any
other attenuated form. The gold will, therefore, sink more readily to the
mercury, whereby a saving in time will be effected, and its amalgamation
will be rendered more certain and perfect. At the same time, it should

* A similar change in the form of gold, but to a very limited extent, affecting more
particularly the larger particles, has been observed in gold from quartz roasted in the ordinary
way.

ROASTING.

1057

le
n

not be forgotten that the rounded particles will roll on hard and sloping
surfaces, and modifications of some of the means in common use to
prevent their escape may be found necessary.

The experiments made upon the gases used by Wilkinson demon-
strate that when, as in his process, vapour of water is passed over red hot
charcoal in excess, enclosed in a retort or large tube, two gases only are
the ultimate result, namely, hydrogen and carbonic oxide ; they have
also shown that a dull-red heat is sufficient to effect the decomposition
of the water, although the charcoal may be made much hotter with
advantage. The manner in which the chemical changes take place is,
i>;obably, as follows : — The incandescent charcoal meeting with the
"Ti effects the decomposition of the same by combining with its
1, forming carbonic acid gas, and setting its hydrogen free ; the
fon. - of these gases is still further acted on by the large excess of
charcoal present, it parts with half its oxygen to a fresh portion of carbon
and gives rise to carbonic oxide ; these two gases are remarkable for the
heating powers they possess when subjected to combustion, more
especially when, as in Wilkinson's furnace, a hot blast is used ; they are
in consequence well adapted for producing a very intense heat without
the introduction of a large quantity of bulky fuel, and in a very short
time. The following items have been calculated with a view of placing
the circumstances under which these two gases are formed in a clearer
light :—

One hundred parts of water by weight require 06 • 6 parts of charcoal
to effect its complete decomposition and the production of the gases.
The two gases are produced in equal volumes, weighing together 166 "6
parts, while of this mixture IS5'5 parts by weight are carbonic oxide,
and II* I parts hydrogen — or, in other words, i lb. avoirdupois r*" water
(equivalent to about 28 cub. ft. of steam at 212° F.)will consume I0"65 oz.
avoirdupois of charcoal, and generate 42 cub. ft. of the mixed gases,
supposing the same to be cooled to the ordinary temperature of the air :
so far, however, from being cooled, the gases enter the furnace at a very
elevated temperature, and therefore much increased in bulk ; and there
meeting with the heated atmospheric air, all the conditions for rapid
combustion are established, while the heat is applied in a manner
calculated to permeate the closely-packed quartz. There can be no
doubt that a large portion of the heat in the furnace at Anderson's Creek
was obtained from the solid fuel (wood and charcoal) directly introduced ;
but the Board are of opinion that one half of this might have been saved
by better management of the furnace and with more perfect mechanical
arrangements for supplying the gases and blast.

It is probable that, besides acting as fuel, these gases play an impor-
tant part as chemical agents in relation to the gold and other contents of

3 Y

'\^

'ii

fl'^

i\\\

1058

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

the quartz, such as the metallic sulphides, arsenides, oxides, &c. Iron-
pyrites, for instance, is reduced to metallic iron, strongly magnetic and
containing but a small quantity of sulphur, an effect which could never
be produced in an ordinary furnace charged with charcoal and supplied
with a hot blast alone. In this case, there can be little doubt that the
hydrogen is the active agent, and that its reducing power is greatest
when, towards the close of the calcination, the admission of air is stopped,
and the gases are still allowed to play upon the quartz. The metallic
iron thus produced is, like the gold, found to assume the globular form ;
the specimens of it which the Board had assayed were shown to contain
gold in considerable quantities (in one case 0*03, and in another 0*07 per
cent), but whether more or less than the pyrites from^which it was derived
it is not possible to say.

Wilkinson claims for his process the credit of obviating the difficulty
caused by the presence of sulphides with the gold : how far a further
investigation of the peculiar reducing action of the hydrogen may tend to
throw light upon this subject, the Board are not in a position to state ;
but they do not think that Wilkinson can at present be said to have been
practically successful in working out this particular point, for although in
the case of iron-pyrites the sulphur has been almost completely expelled,
stiil a certain proportion of gold is left in combination with the iron, and
separate treatment will be necessary for its extraction. On theoretical
grounds, the Board believe that an investigation of the effects produced
by the mixed gases on arsenical pyrites, sulphide of lead (galena), and
sulphide of antimony — minerals which interfere materially with the
economical treatment of auriferous quartz — would lead to results of the
greatest importance.

As far as the amalgamation is concerned, the Board are convinced
that an imperfect roasting of the quartz, such as that commonly practised,
is almost invariably detrimental. On the other hand, they are distinctly
of opinion that the very high temperature obtained in Wilkinson's furnace
would entirely prevent the coating of the gold with sulphur, arsenic, or
other volatile matters, and that even if a deposit did exist, the action of
the unburned hydrogen in the latter part of the process, would, in most
cases, tend to remove it, whereby the gold would be sent to the mercury
with a pure metallic surface. In this respect, Wilkinson's process is a
very great improvement on those in which the ordinary roasting is
employed. An extract of a letter from Thompson of Clunes, annexed,
contains some positive information bearing upon this subject.

The question of cost, as far as the calcination is concerned, has been
discussed by comparing that incurred at Anderson's Creek, with that of
burning quartz in open kilns of 100 tons capacity at the Port Phillip and
Colonial Gold Mining Co.'s works at Clunes.

Dcen

|t of

and

ROASTING.

The following table will show the result obtained —

1059

Quantity of fuel
per ton of quartz.

Cost of fuel.

Cost of labour
per ton, charging
and discharging.

Total cost.

Wood.

Charcoal.

Wood.

Charcoal.

Anderson's Creek . . . .
Clunes

lb.
280

lb.
84

s. d.

1 3

*. d.
2 1}

s. d.

2 8
2 8

s. d.

5 7
3 "

In this table, the quantities of fuel are necessarily given by weight for
both localities, they must only be taken as approximate, as the weight of
a ton measurement or core of wood will vary in proportion as it is dry or
wet, while charcoal becomes much heavier on exposure to the air. The
heating power or efificiency of fuel will also depend on these circum-
stances ; the prices given are those which rule in each locality ; the cost
of the gases used by Wilkinson has not been added, because it could not
be estimated with any pretension to accuracy, and because the Board
were convinced, that in the calcination they witnessed, it formed an
inconsiderable item, the omission of which would not cause an important
error. The cost of labour has been assumed to be the same in both
cases. The Board have already stated their belief that half at least of
the fuel introduced directly into the furnace might be saved by more
perfect arrangements, and by calcining larger quantities at a time.
They regard the solid fuel only as an accessory means of heating the
quartz in the first instance, until the gases are properly ignited, and are
convinced that for this purpose the charcoal might be altogether dis-
pensed with, and that therefore the cost of Wilkinson's calcination might
be considerably reduced.

The quantity of quartz operated upon was 1600 lb. weight ; it was
very hard and crystalline, free from clay and " mullock," and was broken
to about a 4-in. gauge. Only a speck or two of gold was discernible as
it lay in the heap. The fuel used was 325 lb. of wood (peppermint
and stringy-bark gum, tolerably dry) and 60 lb. of charcoal. Charging
commenced in a cold furnace at 6 h. 30 m., a.m., and was completed at
7 h. 17 m. A good heat was then got up by the fan, and steam to the
retort was turned on at 8 h. 15 m. ; at 8 h. 50 m. the gases were shut ofif^
the blast having been stopped about 10 minutes previously. The con-
tents of the furnace having by this time obtained a moderate white or a
very bright-red heat, they were allowed to fall, by opening a trap-door
at the bottom of the furnace, into an iron tank, on wheels, placed to
receive them ; in this waggon they were rolled to the crushing floor, and
were quenched with water by playing upon them with a hose. The
quartz no\v presented the appearance of having been broken to a 2-in.

3 Y 2

■■<^

■T'l

io6o

Ai'RIFEROUS VEINSTUFF,

gauge ; the pieces wore much blackened on the surface, and were very
friable.

The various parts arc as follows : — a, air-fan for hot blast ; b, furnace
for hot blast and the gases ; c, generating and conducting pipes of hot
blast ; d, retort to generate the hydrogen and carbonic oxide gases ; e,
fire-bars ; f, conducting pipe of the gases ; g, chimney of gas-furnace ;
//, roasting-furnace for quartz; /, door for charging roasting-furnace ; _/',
platform for quartz and fuel ; k, truck for conveyance of calcined quartz ;
/, steam-pipe conveying steam to gas-retort ; o, nozzles by which the
gases enter the roasting-furnace \p, nozzles by which the hot blast enters
the roasting-furnace ; </, door of hot blast and gas furnace ; r, fire for
production of hot blast and gases; s, cast-iron Lottom plate of roasting-
furnace ; /, fulcrum of lever ; ?/, tramway for conveyance of calcined
quartz ; zi', cast-iron support of gas-retort. A lever and windlass for
opening and closing the bottom of the furnace are not shown.

Treatment of Blanket-sand.

Barrel -amalgamation. — The material gathered from the blanket-
strakes, consisting of grains of free gold, globules of mercury, and
particles of amalgam, which have been .■^j shed or washed from the
troughs, ripples, or plates, with a large quantity of pyrites, and some
worthless matter, is collectively termed "blanket-sand." It is usually
treated with mercury in a revolving barrel, the process being known as
" barrel-amalgamation."

When the proportion of free gold is considerable, and the operation
is properly conducted, it gives most satisfactory results. The barrels are
of wood or iron, and are constructed to revolve on a pivot at each end.
The charge is 8 to lO cwt. of the damp blanket-sand, and 200 to 300 lb.
of mercury. The charged barrel is set to revolve for about 8 hours, at a
speed of 14 to 16 revolutions a minute. After this, it is filled up with
hot water, and set to revolve again for another 4 hours, at a rate of 5 or
6 revolutions a minute. This concludes the operation, and the charge
may then be drawn off. The free mercury and most of the amalgam
are withdrawn first. The remainder of the contents is sent to a shaking-
table, or some similar contrivance, for effecting the separation of the
amalgam, pyrites and refuse. The two latter are treated the same as
the "tailings." Stones and pieces of iron arc sometimes put into the
barrel, on the erroneous assumption that by grinding the sand finer they
aid the amalgamation, whereas they are more likely to " sicken " the
mercury by grinding the pyrites present. When the blanket-sand
contains very little free gold, it is best treated like concentrated tailings,
instead of by barrel-amalgamation.

TREATMENT OF BLANKET-SAND AND TAILINGS.

IO61

e as
the
ley
the

and

Treatment of the Tailings.

Definition and C^neral Principles. — All tb.e stamped material re-
maining beyond the portions which arc caught by the blankets, plates,
riffles, and troughs, is collectively known as " tailings." It consists
principally of fine earthy matters, but contains also more or less of gold,
amalgam, mercury, and pyrites, chiefly the last. In some instances,
especiall> when the ore has been largely pyritous, the tailings have a
very high value ; in all cases, the recovery of the gold held by them
demands every attention from the m ner who desires to achieve success.
Unfortunately, their treatment is full of difficulty, and hence the only
too frequent disposition to neglect them totally or partially. It is only
where the poverty of the ores renders it imperative to extract all the
precious metal they contain, in order to obtain a remunerative result,
that any really effective and economical plans have been devised for the
purpose. When the ores are sufficiently rich to pay a good profit from
the more easily extracted portion, little attention has been given to this
question. Yet there can be no excuse for throwing away a quantity of
gold because the mine happens to pay well without it.

The treatment of the tailings should comprise three distinct opera-
tions, known as (i) "settling," or allowing the heavy valuable matters to
settle down in the mass, (2) "sizing," or classifying the matters into
several grades according to the size of the grains, and (3) "concentrating,"
or still further separating the various malijiials according to their specific
gravity.

The sands, pyrites, slime or slum, and water, which have escaped
from the blankets and other devices and passed into the waste-trough,
are sent into the "settlers," where the heaviest portions fall to the bottom.
The accumulated matters are cleared out periodically, and very frequently
supplied directly to a concentrator. But this is a reprehensible practice,
as is evident when it is borne in mind that all methods for the mechanical
concentration of ores, based upon the fact that the ore is specifically
heavier than the refuse, can only fully succeed when that superior
weight of the ore is most thoroughly availed of. On a previous page
allusion has been made to the circumstance that the relatively greater
specific gravity of the particles may lose its effect in the presence of
material of disproportionate size and shape. In other words, though
pyrites is very much lighter than gold, and quartz is lighter still, yet it is
easy to imagine pieces of pyrites or quartz whose size may be sufficiently
great to counterbalance their relative lightness. The shape of the
particles is determined by the crushing operation, and cannot be sub-
jected to control ; but the classification of the grains according to size,
at least within reasonable limits, is not difficult of attainment : indeed

i .1

in 3

'11

1062

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

many contrivances are in use for the purpose in the concentration of
such heavy ores as galena, tin-stone, &c. The value of these apparatus
for treating auriferous pyrites is intensified by the fact that the gravity
of the latter, as compared with that of quartz, presents far less contrast
than does the gravity of lead- or tin-ore to its gangue ; besides, the
pyrites is so much softer and more brittle than the quartz, that it is
crushed relatively much finer. For these reasons, the " sizing " of the
tailings, before any attempt is made to concentrate their valuable portion,
must evidently be of considerable advantage.

Settlers. — These differ somewhat in details of construction, but they
usually are round tubs of iron, or of wood with cast-iron bottoms, re-

FiG. 163.

Settler for Tailings.

sembling the pans in general features, but larger in diameter. A hollow
pillow or cone a, Fig. 163, is cast in the centre of the bottom, within
which is an upright shaft b. This shaft is caused to revolve by gearing
below the pan. To its upper end is attached a yoke or driver c, that
gives revolving motion to arms d, extending from the centre to the
circumference of the vessel. The arms carry a number of flows or
stirrers, of various devices, usually terminating in blocks of hard wood e,
that rest lightly on the bottom. No grinding is required in the operation,
but a gentle stirring or agitation of the pulp is desired in order to facili-
tate the settling of the amalgam and mercury. The stirring apparatus,
or muller, makes about 1 5 revolutions a minute.

SETTLERS.

1063

The settler is usually placed directly in front of the pan, and on a
lower level, so that the pan is readily discharged into it. In some mills,
two pans arc discharged into one settler, the operation of settling
occupying 4 hours, or the time required by the pan to grind and
amalgamate another charge. In other mills, the settling is allowed only
two hours, and the two pans connected with any one settler are dis-
charged alternately.

The consistency of the pulp in the settler is considerably diluted by
the water used in discharging the pan, and by a further supply, which in
many mills is kept up during the settling operation. In other mills,
however, the pulp is brought from the pan into the settler with the
addition of as little water as possible, and allowed to settle for a time by
the gentle agitation of the slowly revolving mullcr, after which cold
water is added in a constant stream. The quantity of water used,
affecting the consistency of the pulp, and the speed of the stirring
apparatus, are important matters in the operation of settling. Since the
object of the process is to allow the mercury and amalgam to .separate
themselves from the pulp and settle to the bottom of the vessel, it is
desirable that the consistency should be such that the lighter particles
may be kept in suspension by a gentle movement, while the heavier
particles fall to the bottom. If the pulp be too thick, the metal will
remain suspended: if it be too thin, the sand will settle with it. Too
rapid or too sbvv motion may produce similar results, becau.<,c, by too
violent motion, the mercury will not be allowed to come to rest on the
bottom, while, if the motion be too slow, the coarser sand will not be
kept in circulation.

A discharg'^-hole /, near the top of the settler, permits the water
carrying the lighter portion of the pulp to run off; and, at successive
inter'/ils, the point of discharge is lowered by withdrawing the plugs
from a series of similar holes, h, in the side of the settler, one below the
other, so that finally the entire mass is drawn off, leaving nothing in the
settler but the mercury and amalgam. There are various devices for
discharging these. Usually, there is a groove or canal in the bctLoni of
the vessel leading to a bowl g, from which the fluid amalgam may be
dipped or allowed to run out by withdrawing the plug from the outlet
pipe.

The agitators through which the pulp passes after leaving the settlers
are, in general, wooden tubs, that vary in size from 6 to 1 2 ft. in diameter
and 2 to 6 ft. in depth. The main object in letting the stream of pulp
pass through them is to retain and collect as much as possible of the
mercury and amalgam and heavy particles of undecomposed ore that
are carried out with the pulp discharged from the settler. A simple
stirring apparatus, somewhat resembling that of the settler, keeps the

1064

AUFlFEKOiJS VEINSTUFF.

Is!'!

material in a state of gentle agitation, the revolving shaft carrying
4 arms, to which a numocr of staves are attached. In some mi'ls, there
are several agitators, in most cases only one, and by some they are not
used at all. The stuff that accumulates on the bottom is shovelled out
from time to time, usually at intervals of 3 or 4 days, and worked over
in pans.

Sirjc-rs. Sieves. — Probably the most exact contrivances for classifying
according to size are inclined rotating sieve-drums. In these, the
material is introduced at the higher end, and passes through fmer and
coarser sieves in succession. But the objection to their use is that they
require a considerable amount of attention, so that they are not suited
fci a country where labour is dear ; nor have they the capacity for
treating the large bulk of material which accumulates at many gold-
mines. The spiral siev^ introduced by Schmitt-Manderbach of Dillen-
burg, and sold here by A. Dicl:, no, Cannon St., appears to be one of
the most successful.

Labyrinths. — The slime labyrinth is a German apparatus, and is used
in some Hungarian gold-mills. It consists of a number of contiguous,
connected settling-pits, which, if, for instance, in connectio;i with 3
batteries of 3 light stampers, incr'^ase in size from i to i j, i|-, and if ft.
sq. in transverse section, and respectively from 15 to 21, 24, and ^6 ft. in
length, with inclinations in the same sequence of |, |, and | in. per foot,
the largest being horizontal. Such a labyrinth classifies the .stuff into
4 portions, differing in oize of grain, which form deposits during the
passage from the smaller to the larger pits, the coarser grains depositing
in the former. This classification is, however, far from perfect, and is
besides attended with expenses on account of transport and re-puddling
of the settled stuf." previous to further treatment. It also entails a large
loss through escape and waste of fine material, that generally amounts to
10 or 12 per rjnt,, but may, in unfavourable cases, rise to 15 or ^.o per
cent. The labyrinths are therefore now in operation only in sop-.e of the
older and smaller establishments, where want of space or other circum-
stances prevent the use of either of the other two following classifying
apparatus, which, as far as experience goes, satisfy all requirements.

Pyramidal boxes. — -The pyramidal boxes or Sj>it.':kdsten of the
German gold-miners, Fig. 164, are, as their name implies, hollow,
generally rectangular, pyramids. They are constructed of strong boards,
well joined togetlier (strong sheet-iron may be employed also). The
sides are inclined at angles of not less than 50°, and there is a small hole
in one side close to the apex. They are fixed horizontally, in an inverted
position, and the crushed material is introduced at one of the narrow
sides, a few inches below the top, by means of a launder. The result is
that, as soon as the box is filled, a certain portion of the crushed matter —

C'IZERS.

1065

i. e. the coarsest and heaviest, which the water, on account of its
diminished velocity, is not able to carry farther — sinks and slides down
the inclined sides of the pyramid, and escapes through the small hole a
near the apex, whilst the finer and lighter matter passes off at the top
by an outlet b in the centre of the side, opposite to the point of entrance.
If now a second larger box be attached to the first, a thi-xl still larger to
the second, and so on — each succeeding box at a slightl) lower level, in
order to prevent any settlement of stuff in the passage-ways — it follows
not only tha' the same process of settling and escaping of the particles
from the apex will take place in every box, but also that their size will
decrease nearly in inverse proportion as the surface of a succeeding box
is larger than that of the preceding one, or directly as the velocity of the
water is diminished in it. Aci jrding to this principle of the boxes — if
they were made of only very gradually inci easing size, and the apex

Fig. 164.

■;.' ■«.

German Pyramidal Boxes or Stitzkastex.

holes proportionately small — it would be possible to classify the stuff
into a grci.t number of portions, diffcent in size of gram, before it had
entirely settled — i. e. till clear water pa:.3ed off from the last box. Expe-
rience has, however, shown, that for fine ore-dressing in general, classifi-
cation into 4 different sizes by an apparatus of 4 boxes is quite sufficient.
The sizes of the difterent boxes, in order to ensure the most perfect
classification, depend both on the amount oi material which has to pass
through them per second, and the :-ize and cl.uractcr of the grains; and
by theory and practice it has been found, that for the supply of every
cub. ft. of material, tlie width of the fir.st or smallest box must be x'o ft. —
i. e., for instance, for 20 cub. ft., 2 ft. — and for every succeeding box it
ought to be about double that of th( preceding one, or, generally, the
widths of the boxes must increase nearly in geometrical progression,
2 : 4 : 8, &c., and their lengths in a 1 arithmetical one, 3. 6, 9, &c.

1066

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

1'!,! \

iii

u ■ '•'''

■I ■

For the stuff under notice, their dimensions are thus in different large
estabh'shments as follow : —

The first box is 6 ft. long and i§ to if ft. wide.

,, second ,, 9 ,, 2^ to 3 ,,

„ third ,, 12 „ 4 to S ,,

,, fourth ,, 15 to 16 ,, 8 to 10 ,.

Their depths depend on the angle of inclination of the sides, which, as
already stated, is generally 50°, because if less, the stuff would be liable
to settle firmly and choke the central orifice, and if larger, unnecessarily
great height of the boxes would be required. The form of the two
smaller boxes is commonly such that the two short sides are inclined at
the above angle, and the two long ones, which would become far steeper,
lire broken — i. e. are for a certain depth from the top vertical, and after-
wards inclined .it the normal angle. This modification has, however, no
influence upon the action of the boxes, but simply facilitates sotnewhat
their construction and firm fixing. The sides of the larger boxes are
generally even throughout. The way in which the outlet-holes a at the
apexes are constructed has an important bearing on the operation of the
boxes. At these points, the hydrostatic pressure is considerable, and
the holes should naturally be kept small, in order to prevent too much
water passing with the particles of stuff; such small outlets are, however,
especially on the treatment of coarser material, very liable to become
choked. This difficulty has been met by the holes being made of con-
veniently large size, but connected with pipes c, ^ in. in diameter, which
rise up the sides of the boxes — i. e. of the smallest box to within 3 or
35 ft, and of the others to within 2 to 2^ ft. from the top — and are there
furnished with sn^all mouthpieces d, supplied xvith taps for regulating the
outflow. This arrangement, on account of the outlets being so much
higher, has the further advantage thci.t a considerable amount of fall is
gained (especial'y o.s regards the large boxes), which, for the subsequent
treatment of the material, is in some cases of special value. There are two
more points that require attention, in onloi to ensure good action of the
apparatus, namely, the introduction of tho material into the different
boxes equally and without splashing, and prevention of the entrance of
chips of wood, gravel, or other impurities that are likely to stop or
obstruct the outlets. The first point is met cither by having the supply-
launders expanded fan-like and furnished with dividinc^-ledges /?, or by
the interposition of small troughs, the sides of which nearest the box to
be supplied arc perforated near the bottom by equidistant, small holes.
The cleaning of the inatcrial, previous to its entering the first box, is
generally effected by the main supply-launder being made a little wider
near the point of entrance, anc' the insertion at this place of a fine wire-
sieve across the launder and somewhat inclined against the stream. This

SIZERS.

1067

Sieve must be occasionally looked after, to remove any impurities collected
in front, and this, in fact, is the chief attention the whole apparatus
requires ; for otherwise it needs hardly any supervision. If once in
proper working order, its action is constant and uniform, provided the
material introduced docs not change in amount and quality ; and it has
this further advantage, as compared with the slime lai>yrinths, that the
classified stuff can, from the outlets, be directly conveyed in small
launders to the concentration-machines for treatment, without any
previous preparation. One point, however, not in favour of the apparatus,
is that, having to be placed between the gold-mills and the concentration-
machines, a great fall of ground is required, to permit the direct introduc-
tion of the material and allow sufficient fall for the tailings ; and thus,
where local circumstances are unfavourable, it has to be erected at a
higher level, and necessitates the use of Jacob's laddc-rs or pumps for
lifting the stuff. The action of the different boxes on the material under
notice with regard to the percentage of f uid matter and the quantity and
character of its solid contents, which they respectively separate, is
according to experiment as follows : —

The small box separates 38 to 40 per cent., containing per cub. ft.,
16 to 18 lb. coarse sand.

The second box separates 20 to 22 per cent, containing per cub. ft.,
13 to 14 lb. fine sand.

The third box separates 18 to 20 per cent., containing per cub. ft,
15 to 16 lb. coarse slime.

The largest box separates 10' to 12 per cent, containing per cub. ft.,
10 to 12 ib. fine slime.

These are results in every respect satisfactory for the further concen-
tration of the ore. As regards the loss caused through the final escape
of impalpable ore from the last box, it amounts for rich galena-ores
to about 6 per cent, and for quartziferous silver-ores to about 2| per
cent.

Triangular Double Troughs. — Classification in the triangular double
troughs or Spitslntten, an invention by Rittinger, is based upon the prin-
ciple that, if material composed of particles differing in size and density
is exposed to a rising stream of water, the velocity of this stream may be
so regulated that particles of certain size and character sink .-.nd may
be conveyed off, whilst the remainder is carried upward by it ; and that,
consequently, by repeating this operation a certain number of times with
a gradually decreased veli.city of the rising stream each time, the material
can thereby •)e separated in as many different classes of grains. The
Spitslntten (Fig. 165), by which this action is now very simply produced,
are constructed as follows : — Within a triangular trough a of certain
length and v.idth, with two opposite sides vertical and two inclined at

i •■ .1-

in ■.A

ill'';

lily •

, '0'! p!
. .J

';,!

1068

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

angles of 60°, is a similar smaller one d, having the vertical sides in
common with the larger trough, but its inclined sides fixed at certain
equal distances from, and parallel to, those of the latter. There is thus
an open V^li^c space c left between the inclined sides of the two troughs,
representing, as it were, a rectangular pipe, sharply bent in the centre ;
and it is through this that the stream of material has to pass — i. e. to fall
and rise. The velocity of the stream depends on the size of this space,
and consequently so does the size of the particles that will rise or sink
in it. The cross- section and respective velocity stand in inverse relation
to each other, and their determination for each double trough of a com-

FiG. 165.

Triangular Double Troughs or SpixzLUTTiiN.

plete apparatus is a matter of mathematical calculation, in which the
size of the largest particles and the specific weight of the material to be
classified form the main figures. For galena-ores, such as those under
notice, and which are crushed so fine that the largest grains are not more
than 0"6 millimetre in diameter, the most satisfactory classification into
4 different kinds of grains is, according to Rittinger's calculation, arrived
at by a series of four double troughs, with the velocity of the stream
decreasing from the first to the succeeding troughs in the progression of
2 • 3, o*94, O' 37, O" 1 5 in. per second ; and if the width of the channel for
the first trough is I • i in., and its length 2 ft., the dimensions of that of
the second trough follow as 2*75 •"• : 2 ft. And as it is not advisable to

SIZERS.

1069

increase the width of the channels beyond 3 in., the channels of the third
and fourth troughs are each 3 in. wide, and respectively about 54*5 in.
and 135 in. long. The mean depth of the channels, measured from the
line of inflow of the material to the lowest part of the inside trough, is
for the two smaller double troughs about 3 ft. ; for the two larger ones,
4 to 6 ft. In order to carry off the coarse particles that sink in the
channels, the inclined sides of the outside troughs do not meet below, but
are continued downward, forming a long and narrow pyramidal opening
d, about i^ in. wide at top. The short sides e slope inwards at an angle
of not less than 50'', contracting the opening to a small hole /of about
I in. sq. at bottom, through which the material is discharged into a hori-
zontal pipe g, that extends both ways a small distance beyond the sides
of the apparatus, and is connected at the ends with vertical i-in. pipes.
One of these h servss for the outlet of the classified material, and is
carried up to within 36 to 21 in. of the water-level in the channel c,
according to the degree of fineness of the particles that have to pass
through it (the same as in the pyramidal boxes). At the top it is
supplied with a tap for the regulation of the outflow. The other pipe k
conveys a supply of clear water, furnished from a launder / supplied with
a tap ///, and as the water in the pipe stands 6 to 8 in. above the water-
level in the trough, a small uniform pressure is produced, causing a
forced influx of water at the point/ which is essential for good classifi-
cation. This water — opposing itself to the downward current, charged
with sediment in the pyramidal channel d — prevents all but the coarser
particles and pure water passing into the pipe /;, and thus only grains of
the desired size are carried to the outlet /. With regard to the relative
positions of the different double troughs of the series, they are fixed
exactly horizontal, and sufficiently below each other to prevent any
settlement of material in the communication-launders «, which are neces-
sarily very broad. Other particulars regarding proper working, super-
vision, &c., are the same as those given for the pyramidal boxes.
According to present experience, a series of 4 of these double troughs
classifies as well as, and, for the two coarser kinds of grains, even better
and cleaner than, a set of 4 pyramidal boxes, though for the fine slimes
these latter are generally preferred, as they effect the desired sef-tloment
of the stuff more completely. A complete apparatus of troughs requires
also less fall and space than one of pyramidal boxes, and is more easily
regulated in cases of increased or diminished influx of material. The
necessary additional supply of clear water might, however, u im a
drawback to its application in cases where this medium is scarce. As
regards the results of classification by the different troughs of the series,
they are stated to be as follows : — The first or smallest trough separates
about 30 per cent, of coarse sand ; the second, about 25 per cent, of fine

«i

('■ i-

■1 \

■ i-

%':>i

1070

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

i<:»-

sand ; the third, 20 per cent, of coarse slime ; the fourth, 15 per cent, of
fine slime.

Concentration. — Having classified the material according to size, the
next step is to submit each separate size to a process of concentration,
with the object of eliminating the valuable portion. For this purpose
many apparatus are in use, all working upon the principle of taking
advantage of the greater specific gravity of the part sought to be
saved.

Percussion-tables.— The most highly perfected of the various percus-
sion -tables or shaking-tables is Rittingcr's continuously-acting side-throw
percussion-table, shown in Fig. 166.

To simplify the construction and movement of these tables, they
are generally made so that they represent one large table, divided by a
cheek b in the centre into two {a} and a^), for the movement of which
consequently only one arrangement is required, rendering the percussion
simultaneous for both. The floor or platform of each table {a)- and a^),
measured inside the head-board and cheeks c, which are about 4 in. high
and \\ in. thick, is 8 ft. long and 50 in. wide. It ?s generally double
boarded, the upper surface being made of tongued-and-grooved \\-\n.
boards of some even, close-grained wood (generally sycamore), planed
as exactly as possible, and slightly blackened by weak sulphuric acid.
The boards are carefully laid crossways, and fixed with wooden pegs to
the lower floor, made of pine-boards tightly screwed to a stout wooden
frame, consisting of 4 or 5 bars ^lengthways, and 3 /across, which are
mortised and screwed together and secured by iron angle-braces. The
centre crossbar / is nearly double as strong as the others, and projects
on both sides a certain distance beyond the platform. It is called the
" tongue " or " percussion-bar," as it forms the part to which the side-
movement and percussion of the table is imparted. The double table
is suspended by 4 iron rods g, having adjusting shackles, and at either
enu eyes that are connected with hooks, the upper ones screwed into
stout uprights, that form part of a strong framing b, braced well together
at top and bottom ; the lower ones screwed into the sides of the platform
frame at about i ft. f'-om either end. The arrangement for imparting
the side-way motion and percussion to the tables consists, in the first
instance, of a wooden axle a, furnished with 4 or 5 cast-iron cams k^
opposite the centre of the table. This axle is turned by an endless strap
from a shaft connected with the axle of a water-wheel. The cams act
upon — i. e. pu.sh forward — the iron-faced projection of a vertically-
suspended wooden lever, which swings at its upper end on small iron
pivots between two crossbars connected with the framing, whilst its lower
end moves between guiding ledges, nailed to the floor of the building.
About level with the frame of the table the ends of 2 wrought-iron

^« r !

CONCENTRATORS.
Fill. i66.

IO7I

RlTTIN(;i.li'S rERCUSSlON-TAr.I.K.

■ Hi

■ i ■ ■)

■ ^

■:h.

' ^

'41

'■■,l;l

. ' i"

;• :J->

tWf'f

1072

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

ijr'

i^i

bridles arc joined to it by means of a screw-bolt. These bridles transfer
the forward movement of the lever to the table by being fixed with a
screw-collar over a horizontal screw-spindle, that is fastened and adjusted
on top of the projecting portion of the percussion-bar or tongue, and
by means of which the length of the forward movement — i. e. the side-
throw — can be regulated. The end of the projection of the percussion-
bar, being slightly rounded off in front and strengthened by an iron rim,
presses, when at rest, against the bumping-block ;// — a stout square
pillar — which is joined to a foot-piece, 5 or 6 ft. deep in the ground, and
well stayed at the back to resist the shocks, and its face, at the place of
contact witli the percussion-bar, is generally covered with leather for
the purpose of deadening the blows. The pressure of the percussion-
bar against the bumping-block is produced by a stout spring fi of iron or
some tough wood, attached to its prolonged end at the opposite side
of the table, and can be regulated by a screw, that adjusts the
tension of the spring. Both prolongations of the percussion-bar move
on each side between two uprights r, connected with the outside
framing, by which means the transversal movement of the double table
is guided.

The following is a somewhat more simple arrangement for moving
the table, and is similar to that used for the common percussion-table.
The cams of the driver are made to act against the iron-faced top end of
a lever, that moves on an axle at foot, and to which is attached, by means
of a regulating screw, a horizontal wooden bar. This slides between
guides, fixed on top of the bumping-block, and at the other end is in
contact with an oblong block of hard wood, screwed on top of the
prolongation of the percussion-bar. In order to prevent the horizontal
bar and lever from jumping back too far when the table strikes against
the bumping-block, the bar is furnished with a bolt, which ensures the
normal position by resting against guiding-ledges on top of the bumping-
block. The ether arrangements, as regards the spring, regulation of
pressure, &c., are the same.

The tables receive their supplies of classified material and of a
necessary amount of cleaning water, evenly distributed by means of
triangular inclined dividing-planes /\ &c., — furnished with wooden buttons
in the usual manner, — from separate troughs zu, into which the material
and water are conveyed by small launders or pipes ;/, from the respective
classifier and main water-launder. The whole of this arrangement,
inclusive of platforms x for the workmen to stand on, rest on a low
framing / above the head of the table. There are generally 3 or 4
dividing-planes t^ to ?'* for each table, one of which supplies the classified
material for a breadth of 8 to lO in. at that side of each table opposite
to where the percussion takes place, whilst 2 or 3 others provide the

llli

RITTINGER S PERCUSSION-TABLE.

1073

cleaning or washing water, the one nearest the percussion side always in
somewhat larger quantity.

The principle upon which the ore-concentration on these tables is
based, differs from that of the common percussion-tables mainly in the
side action of the percussion on the stuff treated, which produces two
movements of the particles, viz. one down the incline, the other forward ;
and in the mean direction resulting from this — i. c. diagonally downward,
— they pass off the table. As now the heavier particles — i. e. the ore — •
are not only thrown farther, but are also, on account of their stronger
friction on the boards, more or longer exposed to the forward move-
ment than lighter ones (waste) during the same interval of time, it
follows that they travel outside these, gradually separate according to
their specific weights into distinct bands, and that this separation becomes
more perfect, the nearer they approach the end of the table. The whole
of this action is at the same time enhanced by the " cleaning-water."
This prevents the stuff from spreading at once all over the table ; it
cleans the outside streaks of ore, and the stronger portion serves
specially for washing the ore finally ofif the apparatus. For securing the
partitions of the difTerent portions of ore, separated on the table, small,
pointed, movable pieces of wood d, called " tongues " or " pointers," are
screwed upon the table near its foot, by means of which the streaks of
ore are divided from that of the waste, and guided through narrow slits
in the table, furnished with sheet-iron lips, into separate launders //,
underneath, that discharge into settling- or catch-pits ; or else the ore
passes off the table over small movable strakes into launders placed in
front. The waste runs off the table in both cases over a broad strake
into a small launder in front, that conveys it to the main waste channel.
In this, and in all instances where the discharge takes place over the
front of the table, it is, like the slits above mentioned, provided with
sheet-iron lips, projecting about 2 in., in order to prevent the stuff licking
back underneath.

The result produced by the operation of these tables on any of the
four previously classified portions of the stuff under notice is, to divide
them into five products, viz. : —

1. Lead-ore, containing fine free gold.

2. Lead-ore, poor in gold.

3. Copper- and iron-pyrites, mixed with some lead-ore.

4. Poor ore-slime (i. e. imperfectly concentrated) ; and,

5. Waste.

These run in as many well-defined streaks down the tables, and are,
as above described, parted by the pointers d and guided, the first three,
into launders communicating with separate settling-pits ; the fourth,
into a strake, that conveys it to a catch-pit, from whence a Jacob's

■ U I

if I : J

fHlj

I074

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

ladder, or lifting-wheel, raises it into a small pyramidal box for re-
classification — the portion issuing from the apex orifice being then
conveyed to, and re-treated on, a separate table. The quality of the three
first portions of ore collected in the settling-pits is such as to render
them fit for direct metallurgical treatment, the auriferous portion being,
however, previously submitted to gold extraction, as will be seen here-
after. There are many conditions, as regards adjustment of stroke,
supply of material and washing-water, &c., necessary to ensure the
satisfactory working of this machine. This is shown by the following
table (prepared by Franz Rauen), which gives the results of practical
experience in treating the four classified portions of sands and slimes,
both of auriferous lead-ores and silver-ores.

Adjustments of Rittinger's continuously-acting Side-throw Percussion-tabi.e.

Description of Ores.

For Aurifehous Lead-okes.

Coarse Sand, ist Classifier

Fine do. 2nd do

Coarse Slime, 3rd do

Fine do. 4tli do

For SrLVER-ORES :

Coarse Sand, ist Classifier

Fine do. and do

Coarse andj j j ^ Classifiers

Fine Slimes S ' ^

Inclination

of
the Table.

Lines.

84
58

72
54
30

U '

lb.

140
no
106

100

2X3
183

Throw
or Stroke.

Lines
»4

)8
10

O 3

u C

C u

3 u

No.

73
85

100-105
I •2-130

76-78

86-88

Supply of material and cleaning water
per minute upon a double table.

Classified Ma

erial.

Cleaning

c "

U U U

" l.-

Solid
earn
wate

Cub. ft.

lb.

Ciib. ft.

0-392

23-51

2-665

1-023

0-333

20'09

1-763

1-093

0323

18-94

0-914

0-888

0-236

14-07

0-750

0-669

0-420

26-64

4-956

0-711

0-405

24-80

3*4io

0*256

0-261

16-55

3-580

0-313

. Cub. ft.

•251

•234

o-(,77

0-914

•187
0-677

0-708

Another condition, not less important than those just given, for good
concentration of the different classified portions of material, is the
proper regulation of the velocit)'- of the throw. For the tables applied
to the treatment of the two coarser sizes, it ought, in the average, not
to exceed i ft. per second, whilst slime-tables require a velocity of
stroke of only 0*5 ft. per second ; a greater velocity causes the tables
to slide, so to speak, from underneath the particles of ore, thus retarding
their progress.

The motive power required for working a double table is, by
dynamometric experiments proved to be, 0*26 H.P. ; and the working
effect per hour of a single table is 55 lb. of slimes and 300 lb. of sands.
Six continuously-acting double tables are capable of working in 24
hours 10 to 12J tons of crushed material, classified by four pyramidal
boxes. Four of these treat the four classified portions — i. e. each table

RITTINGERS ROTATING TABLE.

1075

is devoted to one particular class — and the two remaining ones arc
necessary for rc-\vorkin<f the intermediate products — i. e. the imperfectly
concentrated ore matter. As regards supervision and manual labour
required, one workman is quite sufficient for attending on two properly-
adjusted double tables. Mis principal work consists in looking after the
right position of the " pointers," and the steady and regular supply of
material and cleaning-water. On comparing the relative quantities of
ore produced and the loss sustained during the same time by this and
the old percussion-table, the produce of the former is 3 to 4 per cent,
smaller than that of the latter, and its loss of ore about 2 per cent,
larger — i.e. the new table loses 23 to 24 per cent., whilst the old one only
loses 21 to 22 per cent. These disadvantages of the new inventi ' arc,
however, more than compensated by the greater purity of its ore,
effecting a saving both in transport and smelting expenses, and more
especially by the greater amount of free gold contained in the auriferous
portion. But it greatly excels the old table on account of its continuous,
steady self-action ; and consequently its working expenses arc, without
regard to wear and tear, fully 60 per cent, lower than those of the
other.

Rotating table. — Rittinger's rotating table, Fig. 167, is specially
applicable for the concentration of fine slimes, and for this operation is
preferred to both the common and side-thrown percussion-tables. The
concentrating portion — i. e. the table proper — may be described as a
shallow, inverted-conical or flat funnel-.shaped ring, consisting of even-
grained, well-planed i-in. pine-boards. The outer diameter is 16 to
18 ft, and the inner 5 to 6 ft, with an inclination of 6 in. to its radial
width. It is furnished round the outer periphery with a rim of board
2 to 3 in. high, and is divided radially by narrow battens into 32 equal
segments, that are somewhat contracted at the inner periphery by the
ends of the battens being split, where, attached to the end of each
segment, is a funnel-shaped descending pipe of wood or sheet-iron v,
serving for discharge into receptacles beneath. This ring rests exactly
horizontal, or rather the boards which it consists of are fastened
horizontally crossways and watertight, upon 16 radial wooden bars or
arms r, attached by means of a cast-iron rosette <7 to a central vertical
wooden axle s of 16 in. diameter, to which (and consequently to the
table) a slow, steady revolving motion is imparted by means of a tangent-
screw, from a shaft, connected with the water-wheel. The tangent-screw
operates upon a finely toothed cast-iron wheel, about 2\ to 3 ft in
diame*:!-., fixed on top of the axle. The lower pivot of the latter turns
in strong casi-iron bearings, whilst the upper one revolves within an iron
collar ; the bearing and collar, being fixed to a strong framing, consisting
of 8 radial spars at top and bottom, connected, about i ft. outside the

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IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-S)

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1.0

I.I

125

^ ^ 12.0

Its I

IL25 i 1.4

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Hiotograptiic

Sciences

Corporation

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WiBSTER.N.Y. MStO

(716) «73-4S03

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1076

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

circumference of the table, by as many stout uprights w, and strengthened
above and below by 4 braces, forming squares, near the centre. To this
framing are attached all supplementary portions of the table, that take
no part in its motion, such as the troughs for supply of clear water and
material, triangular distributing-planes, &c.

The circular trough a that supplies the material consists of boards
or sheet-iron, is 3 to 4 in. wide, and extends over 20 segments of the
table. It rests horizontally on supports n, fastened to the uprights u of

Fig. 167.

•tl

Rittinger's Rotating Table.

the framing, within about 2\ ft. of the outer periphery of the table, and
at such a height above it that the triangular distributing-tables c, that
introduce the material close within its rim, have a fall r^ at least 20°.
The bottom of the circular trough, from the point where a launder k
introduces the material from the classifier — i. e. just at the centre of the
cui-ve, — is saddle-backed at a fall of about \ in. per ft, which prevents
the stuff from settling. Up the centre of the mouth of the launder k a
small movable tongue of wood is fixed to distribute the material equally

RITTINGERS ROTATING TABLE.

1077

towards both sides of the saddle. There are generally 4 — sometimes 5
— square openings b through the outer rim at the bottom of the trough,
also provided with tongues, to regulate the outflow of the material on to
as many triangular distributing-tabies £•'■»• 3. 4, the relative positions of
the openings being such that one is near each end of the trough, and
the other 2 or 3, 33 the case may be, are placed respectively at equal
distances from these and between each other. As regards the triangular
distributing-planes c, they are fastened with their pointed ends by means
of bolts and eyes underneath the trough, whilst their lower edges have
hook-like strips of sheet-iron attached, by means of which they hang
firmly on the inner rim of the main clear-water trough d, presently to be
described. This arrangement, though ensuring a fixed position of the
planes, yet permits tiieir easy removal in cases of access to the table
being required. They are, as usual, constructed of pine-boards, to which
oblong, wooden, distributing-buttons are fixed ; but they have, for the
more equal distribution of the material, attached io their lower edges
either pieces of sheet-iron with serrated lips, or are provided harrow-like
with a number of thin iron spikes. The width of these lower edges,
which are concentric with the table, is tV of the circumference of the
latter — i. e. each supplies 2 of the 32 segments at a time.

The main clear-water trough d, constructed of boards or sheet-iron,
is likewise circularly bent, and rests horizontally 3 or 4 in. above the
circumference of the table on flat iron supports, projecting from the
uprights u of the framing. Its inner rim lies just within the rim of the
table ; the outer one touches the uprights, and is attached to them. It
commences radially abreast of one of the ends of the feeding-trough a,
just level with the first distributing-plane c^, but it extends 4 segments
beyond the last distributing-plane c* at the opposite end of the trough a,
and encompasses in all 24 segments of the table. It is constantly and in
regulatable quantity kept supplied with clear water by means of a tap
b. The amount required for concentration runs from the trough on to
the circumference of the table through open cuts e^, e\ £\ e* in its
inner rim, 2^ in. deep, and as wide as suffices for the supply of 2 segments
of the table. For the equal distribution of the water, sheet-iron plates,
deeply serrated on both edges, are fixed in front of these cuts (indicated
by dark lines on the sketch). The teeth of the lower edges of the plates
stand about i^ to 2 in. off the surface of the table, whilst those of the
upper edges reach to within i^ in. of the level of the outer rim of
the trough. The number of the places of overflow ^'•'•3.4 corresponds
with that of the distributing-tables c furnishing the material, and they
are so arranged that if, for instance, there are 4 such tables, 3 over-
flows ^', e', e^ occupy the centres of the spaces — i. e. they supply the 2
middle segments of the 4 between these tables, whilst the fourth e^ lies

.'t"
■?:.

t ..',i

•I

1078

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

2 segments beyond the fourth table. Adjoining this last place of
outflow, and communicating by a short spout h with the main trough d,
a peculiarly-constructed special clear-water trough / commences and
extends horizontally in a flat curve across 6 segments of the table to
near the inner periphery of the latter, where its end rests on a strong
support 0, projecting from the nearest upright u of the framing. The
outer rim of this trough is even, but the inner one presents a succession
of deep notches or breaks, and the dark lines g signify the places lower
than the rest, where the clear water flows over the serrated sheet-iron
plates, that extend down to within 2 in. of the surface of the table. And
as they thus have to follow the inclination of the table, whilst the trough
lies level, they becon-,e gradually longer towards the end of the trough.
The special purpose which this trough serves for the material under
notice is the separation of the pyrites from the lead-ore. As regards the
arrangement for washing this ore off the table, it consists of a vertical
pipe /, that by means of a flat mouthpiece in, 10 lines wide and 3 lines
high, discharges, under a pressure of 8 to 9 ft. and at a very oblique
angle, a stream of clear water on to the table near its rim. This pipe is
closed at the bottom, and communicates at the top with a reservoir or
launder. It rests on a support / projecting from the nearest frame-
upright //, close outside the circumference of the table, and in the centre
of the space between the commencement of the main clear-water trough
d and the end of the special one / just described, a spot coinciding with
the centre of the middle one of the 3 remaining segments of the table.

For the separate reception of the three kinds of material — viz. waste,
pyrites, and lead-ore, — that run off the table at its inner periphery
(through the funnel-shaped pipes v attached to the contracted ends of
the segments), either one circular trough / divided by 2 partitions into

3 compartments, or else 2 separate troughs, one within the other, are
used, the outer one of which is devoted to the waste, whilst the inner one
receives the 2 kinds of ore into separate compartments by means of 2
short, shallow strakes, resting on top of the outer trough. The positions
and lengths of the respective compartments correspond, of course, with
the number and positions of the segments of the table, from which,
waste, pyrites, and lead-ore are washed off. The troughs rest on the
foundation-bars of the framing, and the compartments for the 3 products
communicate by holes in their bottoms with separate launders under-
neath, that conduct the ore to settling-pits outside the table, and the
waste into the main waste-channel.

The mode of action of this table is very simple, and its working
requires no manual labour whatever ; the machine is, in fact, like the
percussion-table — self-acting. The process of concentration on the two
segments i 2 is, for instance, as follows : — Being coated with material

RITTINGER S ROTATING TABLE.

1079

by the triangular plane f', they pass during the slow rotation of the
table underneath the first overflow e from the main clear-water trough </,
and the ore deposited on them is cleaned from the waste ; but, pro-
gressing farther, they receive a fresh supply of material from the second
distributing-table c', are again cleaned by the second overflow f' of
clear water, and after having undergone this double operation twice
more, they progress underneath the special cleaning-trough / On
account of the inwardly-bent form of this trough, the numerous streams
of clear water, issuing from it at g, act gradually on nearly the whole
surface of the segments, completely washing off the pyrites and leaving
them coated with pure lead-ore only, which, on farther progression, is
also removed by the forcible stream of water, discharged from the
mouthpiece in of the vertical pipe i. With this operation a full rotation
of the table is completed, and the whole process, as regards the 2
segments, commences again. But it will no doubt be understood, that
every 2 segments composing the table undergo the same operation in
steady regular succession, and that the concentration is thus continuous,
as long as the table rotates.

The conditions necessary for satisfactory working of the machine are
the following : —

1 . The supply of material for 4 to 5 simultaneous coatings ought not
to exceed o '6 to 0*7 cub. ft. per minute.

2. The solid contents per cub. ft. of supply must not amount to more
than I to 1*25 lb.

3. 2*25 to 2 '40 cub. ft. of clear water are required per minute, i.e.
0"75 to o*8o cub. ft. for separating the lead-ore from waste and pyrites,
and I • 5 to 1*6 cub. ft. per minute for washing it off the table.

4. The table must not rotate faster or slower than once every 10
minutes, i. e. 6 times per hour.

Comparative experiments touching the relative merits of this machine
and the old percussion-table for the treatment of slimes, have proved
that, whilst on the latter an amount of material holding 45 to 50 lb. of
solid contents can per hour be passed through all stages of concentration
to that of pure ore ; the rotating-table accomplishes the same result in
like time from a supply of similar stuff containing 90 to 120 lb. of solid
matter — i. e. it concentrates fully double the quantity in the same time.
The concentrated ore from both machines is equal, as regards purity, &c. ;
but comparing the relative amounts produced, viz. 80 per cent, by the
new and 72 per cent, by the old one from an equal quantity of material,
it follows that the old table loses 8 per cent, inore than the new r;^

As regards working expenses, the latter has also an important
advantage over the former ; for its supervision can be accomplished by
a boy, v/hilst the manipulation on the percussion-table requires a strong

'X\

I i

io8o

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF

and experienced person, whose wages are of course considerably higher,
or nearly in the proportion of six to one. The expenses for working an
amount of material with 5 tons of solid contents are, for instance, on
the old table about 12s., on the new one a trifle over 2s. The motive
power required for one of these tables is very small indeed, considering
the size of the machine: I H.P. is quite sufficient to turn 10 to 15 of
them.

There is a further special advantage connected with the construction
and mode of action of this rotating table, namely, that with some modi-
fication in the arrangement of the supply and clean-water troughs, &c.,
and some additions, two different classes of material can, if required, be
worked separately on one and the same table. For this purpose, 2 of
the 4 triangular distributing-planes have to be devoted to each class of
stuff. The supply- and reception-troughs have to be properly partitioned
off, and there are in addition required one special cleaning-trough and
one pipe for washing off the ore (both intermediate between the two
pair of triangular planes), also double the number of launders for
supplying stuff and conveying the products to their respective settling-
pits.

Buddies. — Buddies are made in considerable variety, but mostly for
dressing the ores of the base metals. The only one demanding notice
for concentrating auriferous pyrites is that known as Munday's improved
round buddle, shown in Fig. 168.

In this buddle, the sand enters the receiving trough fixed on the axle,
and is thence conveyed through pipes to the rim of the basin, where it is
discharged ; the heavier portion of the sand thus treated gradually
settles down to the bottom of the basin, while the lighter portion washes
away. The detention of the heavy sand is facilitated by the scrapers
being fixed angularly on the arms and intercepting the sand as it flows
down from the edge toward the centre, and causing it to return toward
the rim. The detention of the heavy sand is likewise facilitated by the
recesses formed by the circular ribs attached to the bottom of the basin.

The action of the scrapers is believed to be improved by arranging
them in a spiral form, one succeeding the other at about distances of

1 1 in.

The heaviest portion of the material treated is found to accumulate
within 2 ft. of the rim of the busin.

The circular basin may be made of wood, iron, or masonry, and of
any convenient size from 12 up to 24 ft. diameter. Motive power may
be communicated by belting or other means from existing machinery.
The power to drive a 24-ft. buddle may be estimated at from 2 to 4
H.P. ; the speed of the buddle is 5 revolutions a minute. Water from
the stamps to be regulated according to the nature of the sand. A

BUDDLES.
Fig. i68.

IO81

Munday's Round Buddlb.

buddle of 24 ft diameter will efficiently treat from 20 to 30 tons of sand
a day, taking it from the batteries. A slope of i in. to I ft is generally
given to the bottom of the basin. The angle at which the scrapers are
set with the arms is about 18° from the right angle.

r-t«f

I082

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

This buddle has been successfully adopted at the Port Phillip
Company's works and the New North Clunes claim, at Clunes; at
Llanberris, Ballarat ; Koch's crushing plant, Sandhurst ; the Walhalla
claim at Stringer's Creek, and at several other mining claims in Victoria.
But in some cases slight modifications are adopted. For instance, those
used at the Port Phillip works are constructed of brickwork and cement
instead ^f iron, and are then found to be cheaper while equally efficient.
The ribs marked • in the plan arc not used by Rosales at the Walhalla
works ; an.i the figures i to 7 show the position and angle at which the
scrapers are set, Nos. 4 and 7 being 17 in. long, i.e. i^ in. longer in front
and 2 in. longer at the back than the others : Rosales prefers this
arrangement to Munday's. The scrapers used by Rosales are of india-
rubber, and their shape is shown at B, Fig. 168.

Bradford's Jig. — H. Bradford, of 2CK)4 North Twenty-second St.,
Philadelphia, furnishes the following statement of results of a competitive
trial in Colorado, on several thousand tons of gold- and silver-ores,
between the German system of concentrating ores and his system. The
ores were divided as they left the screens, one-half of the ore going to
the German (Hartz) jig and the other half to the Bradford jig. The
result was as follows : —

The crude ore areraged per ton 44.00

Tailings from Hartz jigs contained 13.96

„ Bradford „ 4.11

Saving of Bradford over Hartz jig per ton 9.85

per cent.

Percentage of assay value of crude ore saved by Bradford jigs 90*66

„ „ „ HarU „ 68 30

Difference in favour of Bradford jigs .. .. 22*36

Which, at $9.85 per ton saving over Hartz jig, would, ^

on a 30-ton mill, amount per day to 295.50

„ 30 >i i> month to 7,683.00

>i 3° »> » year to 92,196.00

Which would be 6 per cent, interest on a capital of .. .. 1,536,600.00

Imlays state that the Bradford jig does good work on coarsely-
pulverized ores ; but they have re-pulverized the tailings from his jig,
and obtained another and a larger percentage of mineral.

Denny's Conce .trator. — Denny makes a " percussion separator and
concentrator " for treating auriferous wash-dirt and quartz tailings. It is
said to treat 10 cub. yd. of tailings per hour most effectually.

Dodge's Concentrator. — The concentrator introduced by M. B. Dodge,
and made by Malter, Lind, & Co., 189 Broadway, New York, is shown
in Fig. 169. The pulp from the batteries flows down the sluice a on to
the distributing-board d, which is provided with spreaders. The sluice

Bradford's, denny's, dodge's, frue concentrators. 1083

and distributing-board are inclined in an opposite direction from the
concentrating table c. The pulp is deposited evenly acros^ the table by
the spreader at a point just below the double arrow. Under the
spreading-board is a rififle, to arrest the downward movement of the
mineral when it leaves the spreader. An end shake is given by the
cam d against the lug or tappet e, moving the conccntrating-table
gently forward, when the springs /draw the table suddenly back, striking
on the upper corners of the table against the buffers g, which causes the
pulp to move upwards on the machine. The pipe h delivers clear water,

Fig. 169.

Dodge's Concentrator.

through cross pipes provided with small orifices, in jets against the head
of the table ; the water flows downward in a thin sheet against the pulp,
causing the gangue to move down and out of the table at the lower end,
as shown by the arrow ; while the mineral being heavier than the gangue,
moves upwards, as shown by the double arrow, against the clear water
into the depression and through the orifice. This orifice is provided
with a wooden plug, with a suitable passage for mineral, and water
enough to convey the cancentrations down the short sluice into the box
provided to receive them ; thus forming a continuous discharge of
mineral and gangue from the machine. At the lower end of the table is
a receptacle to receive any fine mineral and mercury that might be left
in the gangue while passing over it, which can be removed from time to
time, or discharged continuously. This is one of the great advantages
claimed for this concentrator over all others. The machine can be
regulated for different kinds or grades of ores, by the amount of clear
water turned on, and by the length of stroke, which is regulated by jam-
nuts on the buffers^; also, by means of the screws / the machine may
be raised or lowered to regulate the incline of the table. A great deal
depends on the pressure put on the springs /

Frue Vanner. — The Frue " vanner," made by Fraser and Chalmers,
145 Fulton St., Chicago, 111., and by the Golden State and Miners' Iron

1084

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

5»

Works, is shown in Fig. 170. a are the main rollers that carry the belt
and form the ends of the table ; each roller is 50 in. long and 1 3 in. in
diameter. In order that they may be light, yet strong and durable,
these rollers are made of No. 16 sheet-iron, riveted lengthways, and
crowned in the centre about J in. The roller is secured at the ends by
rivets to light cast-iron frames. The whole is galvanized when finished,
so that even the rivets are protected from rust. The roller when finished
is strong, and only weighs 70 lb. The bolts which fasten the boxes of a
to the ends of/ also fasten to /the chilled cast-iron supports of the flat

Fio. 170.

Frue Vanner.

bars of iron n. b and c are of the same diameter, and are made in the
same way as a. The belt e passes through water underneath b, depositing
its concentrations in the box 4 ; then, passing out of the water, the belt
e passes over the tightening-roller c. b and c are hung to the shaking-
frame /by straps/, which swing on the bolts fastening them to/ By
means of the hand-wheels, b and c can be swung on either side, thus
tightening and also controlling the belt.

The boxes holding a in place have slots, so that by drawing out or
shortening, a can be made to create a very strong influence on the belt e\
and as e sometimes travels too much toward one side, this tendency can
be stopped most quickly by lengthening or shortening on one end or the

FRUE VANNER.

1085

Other of a. The swinging of b and c out of line also controls the belt,
but neither has influence equal to a. The small wooden rollers d and
their support causes the belt e to form the surface of the evenly inclined
plane table. This movable and shaking table has a frame / of ash,
bolted together, and with a and a as its extremities. This frame is
braced by 5 cross-pieces (shown by dotted lines). The bolts holding
together the frames pass through the sides close to the cross-pieces ; the
cross-pieces are parallel with a and d, and their position can be under-
stood by the 3 flat spring connections r 0, which are bolted to 3 of
them, one to each, underneath the frame. The belt ^ is 4 ft. wide, 27J ft.
in entire length — being an endless belt of rubber with raised sides.

The stationary frame ^ is bound together by 3 cross-timbers, which
are extended on one side to support the crank-shaft /t. g supports the
whole machine, and the grade or inclination of the belt is given by
elevating or depressing the lower end of g. This is accomplished by
means of wedges ; for this frame rests on uprights 3, fastened to two
sills, which form the foundation of the machines in the mill, / is sup-
ported on g by uprights n, 3 on each side. These uprights are of flat
wrought iron, drawn to a knife-edge at each end, and case-hardened,
with bearings above and below of chilled cast iron ; each middle bearing
on /has one bolt-hole, and there are two of them, one on each side.
The end ones have two bolt-holes, and there are four of them, two on
each side. These bolts pass through the frame/, and hold to the frame
the bearings of a, which work in a slot. The bearings of the head-
roller are higher than those of the foot-roller ; i. e. tz is a trifle higher than
the regular plane of the table, and the first small roller d should be raised
a trifle.

The cross-timbers binding together g and resting on them are
extended on one side, and on these extensions rest with its connections
the main or crank-shaft //, in bearings x , the cranks are \ in. out of
centre, thus giving i in. throw. The driving-pulley i forms with its belt
the entire connection with the power. / is a cone-pulley on the crank-
shaft //. By shifting the small leather belt, the uphill travel of the main
belt e is increased or diminished at will. The small belt connects to /
the grooved pulley w, which is on the small shaft *&, and by means of
the hand wheel can be shifted on k and held in place. The two bearings
of k are fastened to the swing-box y, a cast-iron shell protecting the
worm z and worm-gear /; y turns on a bearing bolted to the outside of
g, and thus becomes a swing-box for swinging w and k. The object
gained by this is that the weight of iv and k (swinging with y) hangs on
the small leather belt, and keeps it tight, so that this small belt will last
for a year without slipping or breaking. Before this improvement, the
small belt was constantly breaking or slipping. In some cases, this

io86

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

movement is accomplished with step pulleys and flat belt. A hand-
wheel ;;/ is used to relieve the small belt from part of the wei^jht of k
and 'iO ; by screwing it up, k and w can also be raised, taking all the
strain off the small belt, and thus stopping the uphill travel, k terminates
in a worm s, which connects with a worm-gear /, travelling in a bearing
bolted to the outside of ^^ s and / are protected from dirt and water by
the cast-iron shell y enveloping both.

The short shaft which / revolves terminates in an arm s, which drives
a flat steel spring q (which is a section of a circle), connected with the
gudgeon oi a, r are 3 flat steel sp.ing connections bolted underneath the
cross-pieces of f, and attached to the cranks of the shaft h by brass-
boxes 0, These springs give the quick lateral motion — about 200 a
minute. / are two fly-wheels, v are two rods passing from the middle
cross-timber to the upper bearings of the lower uprights n. The cast-
iron washers on the bolts of the cross-timber have lugs cast on them, and
so have the bearings of the lower n. v pass through tliese lugs, and at
each end are nuts on each side of the lugs. Thus v prevent the whole
movable frame f from sliding either up or down, and by them f is
squared. 2 is the clear-water distributor, and is a wooden trough, which
is supplied with water by a perforated pipe ; the water discharges on the
belt in drops by grooves \\ in. apart. I is the ore-spreader, which moves
with/ and delivers the ore and water evenly on the belt. 3 are upright
posts, which are firmly fastened to two sills, forming the foundation for
any number of machines. 4 is the concentration-box, in which the water
is kept at the right height to wash the surface of the belt as it passes
through. 5 are the cocks to regulate the water from the pipes 6.

The ore is fed with water on the belt e by means of the spreader i.
Thus the feed is uniform across the belt. A small amount of clear water
is distributed by 2. A depth of \ in. of sand and water is constantly
kept on the table, and the table should receive about 200 shakes a
minute. The uphill travel or progressive motion varies from 3 ft. to
12 ft. a minute, according to the ore, and t»ie grade or inclination of the
table is from 4 to 1 2 in. in 12 ft, varying with the ore. As previously
explained, the inclination can be changed at will by wedges at the loot
of the machine, these wedges being under the lower end of ^, and resting
on uprights from the main timber of the mill. The amount of water
used, the grade, and the uphill travel must be regulated for every ore
individually ; but once established, no further trouble will be experienced
in the manipulation. In setting up the machine, everything must be in
line, except the tightener-roller c. The tightener-roller not only tightens
the belt, but regulates it and keeps it in place on the table. This wide
belt travels uphill very slowly, so that it takes several minutes to recover
its central position on the table, and at times one bearing may necessarily

FRUE VANNER.

1087

be several inches farther up than the bearing on the opposite side, thus
twisting c out of line. In treating; ore directly from the stamp, too much
w.'.ter may possibly be used by the stamps for proper treatment of the
sand by the machine. In such a case, there should be a box between
the stamps r* i the concentrator, from which the sand with the proper
amount of water can be drawn from the bottom, and the superfluous
water will pass away from the top of the box ; but as mineral wiP also
pass a'vay with this water, there should be settling-tanks for this water,
and the settlings can be worked from time to time as they accumulate.

The surface of the belt lasts for 3 months at least. As soon as the
belt shows wear, it should be preserved ; and the belt should never be
allowed to wear to the canvas. The belt is preserved by a coat of rubber
paint, prepared expressly for the purpose. Accidental breaks in the
belt may be repaired by rubber cement. In renewing the surface of the
belt, it must be dry. The paint should be thinned, if necessary, with
benzine and naphtha, so that it readily flows from the painter's brush.
The surface of the belt should be r'eaned with naphtha. Then, a man
standing at the lower end a paints liberally across the belt, and for 2 or
3 ft. up, as he can conveniently reach ; then revolves the belt in its usual
direction, i. e. upwards, for a short distance, and paints another short
piece. This operation is continued until the whole surface has been
painted. The rubber paint dries almost immediately, and in a very
short time the belt is ready for work again. Every two months this
should be repeated. The paint should be put on uniformly, but not so
hastily but that the portions painted have time to become nearly dry
before reaching the tightener c. In using the paint. It must be kept
well stirred. The main body of the belt suffers hardly any wear, since it
merely drags its own weight slowly around the freely revolving rollers ;
and the life of the belt is lengthened by this precaution, viz. to keep it
clean from sand at every point except the working surface, thus sand
cannot come between the belt and the various rollers.

The concentration-box 4, which is kept full of water, and through
which e passes, may be of any size or depth desired ; in front of it may
be an apron to catch any chance droppings of concentration from the
belt. Though not indispensable, it is best to have a few jets of water
playing above and underneath on the belt as it emerges from the water
in 4, so as to wash back any fine material adhering to the belt, and as
such a method will cause an overflow in 4, the waste water, being full of
finely divided mineral, should be settled carefully in a box outside.
Every few hours the concentration may be scraped out with a hoe, into a
small box that can be placed under the inclined end of 4, and if this box
be on wheels it can be readily run on a track to the place where the
concentrations are stored ; such a method seems clumsy, but there is

iM i

I'm

io88

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

ill

comparatively a small quantity to handle. Frequently the sand on the
belt forms a corner on each side, and to break up these corners and keep
a uniform consistency on the belt, a system of drops or small jets of
water can he used on each side to advantage. Such will help to increase
the capacity of the machine, and will enable it to do uniformly better
work.

Hendy's Concentrator. — This apparatus. Fig. 171, consists of a shallow
iron pan, 5 to 6 ft. in diameter, supported by a vertical shaft in the
centre, and made to oscillate to and fro by means of cranks on a shaft at
ont side, and joined by connecting-rods to the periphery of the pan.
The pan turns for a short distance at every revolution of the crank-shaft.
A frame supports the central pin and crank-shaft, as well as arched arms

Fig. 171.

Hendy's Concentrator.

h, which rise over the pan and sustain the upper end of the vertical
shaft b. The bottom of the pan is raised in the centre around the shaft,
nearly to the height of the rim, and thence descends towards the
periphery in a parabolic curve, by which the movement of the particles
from the centre towards the circumference is facilitated, and their passage
in the other direction obstructed.

When placed for operation, the apparatus should be perfectly level.
The stuff to be concentrated is delivered by the trough n to the hopper c,
whence it is fed through the pipe k and distributor d |pto the pan near
its outer edge. The feeding extends around the whole circumference by
causing the distributor to rotate around the vertical shaft, accomplished
by the movement of the pan. The upper edge of the pan is a continuous
ratchet, into which 2 pawis connected with d drop during the motion of

IMLAY CONCENTRATOR.

1089

the pan from the distributor, and in the return motion give a velocity to
the distributor equal to that of the pan. Continued impulses in this
way keep the distributor in regular rotation around the shaft. Rake-like
arms are bolted to a flange on the bottom of the hopper c, and are carried
around with the distributor, serving to separate the compact mass of sand
and pyrites as it settles, and breaking the scum that gathers on the
surface. The crank-shaft makes 200 to 220 revolutions a minute, thus
throwing the pan to and fro an equal number of times, and keeping the
materials in a constant state of agitation. The heavier substances, such
as the pyrites and any stray particles of mercury or amalgam, settle to
the bottom, and accumulate in the lowest parts of the pan, gradually
displacing the sand and lighter materials, which, with the excess of water,
flow over the raised bottom at the centre, and out of the pan by a central
discharge. The accumulated sulphurets are discharged at the gate e, the
opening of which is regulated by a small handle at the front of the
machine. The pyrites that are discharged may be received into boxes
or troughs.

These machines weigh about 1000 lb. each. They are run by a belt,
and usually set in pairs. The amount of water required is not large :
not more than what flows away from the batteries with the sands to be
concentrated. Each machine will receive and concentrate 5 tons of stuff
every 24 hours ; 8 tons have been put through in that time, but the
product was not entirely free from sand, the presence of which is not
objectionable in some processes of working, and if clean pyrites arc
desired, the discharge from 4 machines is delivered into a fifth, and this
gives a complete clean concentration.

Imlay Concentrator. — Favourable accounts are given of the Imlay
concentrator and amalgamator, shown in Fig. 172. Described generally,
the machine consists of a flat table having a copper surface, with 2 up-
turned sides and one similar end, the opposite end being open to permit
the discharge of the tailings. This table is set at an incline, varying
from ^ to 2 in., the waste discharge end being lowest. At its opposite
upper end, the table is provided with outlets for the reception and dis-
charge of the concentrations. The table is supported upon 4 arms, one
at or about each corner, which arms project upwardly from two trans-
verse rock shafts at either end of the machine and about i ft. below the
table ; when motion is duly communicated, these arms vibrate to and
fro, a longitudinal reciprocating movement, or a lengthwise movement of
the tables being thus effected.

If this to and fro movement were in equal time, the results would
not be those now obtained. Hence, a variable movement, which is the
peculiar characteristic of this machine, is obtained by a very ingenious
and yet Simple combination of mechanism. The main shaft of the

4 A

^'1

ill

I. t/ :

i:r

1090

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

machine is provided with an eccentric gear-wheel, which meshes with a
like gear on a counter-shaft, parallel with the main shaft. This counter-
shaft is an eccentric or crank-shaft, from which two connecting-rods lead
to the reciprocating-tablc. Ihe eccentric gears communicate a variable
rotary movement to the crank-shaft, and this, through the connecting-
rods, produces the variable reciprocating lengthwise movement of the
table. The effect of this movement is to cause any material above a

Imlay Concentrator,

given specific gravity, laid upon or fed to the table, to travel upwardly
upon the latter, while anything below such gravity will be caused to pass
down the same. As the pulp almost invariably carries some mercury,
the latter soon forms an amalgamated surface on the copper-plates.

Complete Mills.

Having described in detail the various operations incident to extracting
gold from quartz, it will be interesting to conclude this chapter with some
account of a few representative mills, both to convey a connected idea
of the conduct and order of the processes employed, and for purposes of
comparison of one with another.

Hite Mining Co.'s mill. — The Hite Mining Co.'s 40-stamp mill was
constructed by Malter, Lind, and Co., of Broadway, New York, and
California St., San Francisco, and contains all the recent improvements
introduced by this firm in the large gold-quartz mills erected in the
Black Hills, Dakota. The mill is established in Mariposa county,
California, and is shown in Fig. 173. It is worked by water power
derived from the south fork of the Mercer river. The ore from the mine
is loaded on cars in the stopes and run out through the tunnel down an

COMPLETE MILLS.

IO9I

incline into the ore-house of the mill, where it is dumped (shot) over
screens. The larger pieces of ore pass over the screen to the stone-
breakers ; the finer pieces go directly to the ore-bins and automatic
feeders which supply the 40-stamp batteries. Each stamp weighs
750 lb. ; 5 are placed in a set, and work in one mortar. They are
raised by cams, and drop about 8 in. Amalgamation is partly effected
in the mortars by means of electro-silvered amalgamated copper plates,

Fig. 173.

HiTE Mining Co.'s Mill.

and partly outside the mortars on copper tables coated with mercury.
The mill is estimated to work 100 tons of ore per diem, at a cost not
exceeding f I {4s. 2d.) per ton.

Placerville Co!s mill. — The following information concerning the
mill and processes of the Placerville Gold Quartz Mining Co., California,
has been very obligingly communicated by the Chairman and Manager
of the Company, in response to the author's request.

4 A 2

" « 1

1092

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

" The mill has 20 stamps, each stamp being of an average weight of
800 lb. ; each battery of 5 stamps is furnished with a self-feeder. The
self-feeders are connected with a large bin, having a capacity of 3CX) tons
of quartz ; the floor of this bin is placed at an angle of 50°, so that the
quartz slides by gravity to the self-feeders. The quartz is delivered
from the mine by a self-acting tramway to this bin, the fine material
passing through a grating, the coarser lumps remaining on the floor of
the rock-breaker, both the fine and cru -hed material falling by gravity
into the" fore-mentioned bin, so that the ore passes from the mouth of
the shaft into the battery without the aid of any manual labour, with
the exception of the labour in placing the large pieces of quartz into the
rock-breaker. The mortar has but one discharge, and that in front ; the
screens are made of thin slotted Russian iron, equal to 450 holes to
the sq. in. ; inside of each battery in front is a slip of silvered copper-
plate, 8 in. in width by the total length of the battery. Immediately in
front of the battery again is a large silver-plated copper-plate, equal to
the total width of the mortar, by 3 ft. in length, in front of which is placed
again 20 ft. of 1 8-in. sluice, the bottom of which is lined with silver-plated
copper-plates, constantly kept in a bright condition. The tailings are
passed over Hendy's concentrators (there being one for each 5-stamp
battery), again over 20 ft. of blanket sluices, and afterwards over 50 ft. of
coarse canvas sluices, or rather sluices lined with such material, and
finally over 64 ft. of riffle sluices. The material caught on the concen-
trators and blankets is passed through amalgamating-pan, settler, and
agitator. The material saved on the coarse canvas and riffle sluices are
further concentrated in a Cornish buddle, as are also all the tailings from
the amalgamating-pan and settler. The quantity of mercury placed in
the mortars or coffers is regulated by the appeararice of the copper-plate
in t!:e front of the battery ; the mercury is fed at intervals of half-an-hour.
The blankets are washed every hour ; the coarse canvas every 3 hours.
The general arrangement of the mill is represented in Fig. 174, The
tailings are regularly and carefully sampled ; the same have been
assayed with results varying from mere traces to 75 cents (3^. i^d.)
per ton ; in one instance only did they ever reach as high as $1^ (6s. id.)
per ton. We endeavour to arrange, as near as we possibly can, a speed
of some 75 drops to the stamps per minute. Of course this could be
largely increased, with co.isequent increase of crushing ; but this vvould
be at the expense of losing a much higher percentage of gold. We
have never had any trouble with the flouring of the mercury.

" I will now make what comments I deem necessary on Mr. Lock's
paper, read before the Society of Arts. I had read this paper before, as
I am a subscriber to the Journal of this Society for many years, (ist.)
In the matter of ' gauge of gratings or screens.' The size of the screens

COMPLETE MILLS.

1093

should depend entirely upon the fineness of the gold in the quartz. If
the gold should be diffused in a finely divided state through the quartz,

it is evident that finer crush! - must be had than if the gold were coarse.
I have given the size of the perforations of our screens. (2nd.) All the
protection to the mortar by having the dies rest upon a layer of sand has

1094

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

always been in use. We have not had any broken mortar as yet. The
stamp-heads and the dies upon which they strike are of the same size ;
this we consider a protection to the mortar and stamp-head, that is the
layer of sand under the dies. With such fine gold as we have had to
deal with at the Placerville, we could not expect much fine gold caught
in this ruaterial. We rely upon our amalgamated copper plates inside of
the battery for this purpose, and I have no hesitation in stating that this
is by farthe best way to catch the maximum amount of gold. In the
early days of gold-mining in California, the stamps were used simply for
the crushing of the ore, the amalgamation was conducted on the outside
entirely ; the only gold caught in the battery being coarse particles that
could not pass through the screens. Experience has taught the mill-men
here that this latter method is not only more expensive, but by far less
effective. I cannot agree with Mr. Lock when' he states, ' I venture to
assert that this system of putting mercury into the stamp coffers and
using amalgamating plates is radically wrong.' The difficulties that he
speaks of, viz. the loss of mercury flouring, does not trouble us. I also
claim that the particles cf amalgam passing through the screens are
caught either on the copper-plates in front, or on the Hendy concentrator,
and if any escapes here, why we have the blankets, coarse canvas and
riffle sluices, and finally the Cornish buddle.

" The last few weeks I have had some experience with the system
designated as 'mercury riffles' and mercury tro'chs, as fully described
in Mr. Lock's paper. I had to examine a mine where they were in use,
having been put in and erected by an experienced Australian mill-man.
I found the tailings containing an abnormal quantity of gold. The
owners found it necessary to change this system to amalgamation on
copper plates inside the battery, with the usual outside appendages,
already described. (3.) The statement that the gold is flattened out by
pulverization in the battery is not a fact, as the gold is really brittle, and
is rather pulverized into small irregular particles than beaten or
hammered out into thin plates. (4.) The flouring of the mercury is not
caused by the presence of sulphide of iron, so far as my experience goes,
but such is the case when sulphides of copper and lead are present in any
considerable quantity. In all our clean-ups at the Placerville mill, we
have never had any trouble with the ' flouring ' or the ' sickening ' of
the mercury. The system of concentrating on blankets, as done in some
places, collects not only the gold, but much of the metallic iron produced
by the wear and tear of the shoes and dies. (5.) The only way to
ascertain the true value of auriferous quartz, assaying only from J to i oz.
of gold per ton, when dealing with hundred of tons per month is, by a
careful system of sampling the tailings! The total clean-up, plus amount
in tailings, represent the total amount per ton. We sample our tailings

COMPLETE MILLS.

1095

at Placerville by taking a bucketful ci' tailings at regular intervals of
2 hours, water and all, from the final tailings through a large filter ; at
the end of each week the accumulated samples are averaged, and at the
end of the month the weekly samples are again mixed, and an average
sample taken, which I assay.

" Now, as to facts connected with the value of tailings from quartz
mills in California. During the last 18 years I have been in this country
I have had occasion to examine a very large number of gold quartz
mines. At a very large number of these mines large piles of tailings had
accumulated ; many of these piles I have had occasion to sample, as they
were represented to be very rich, but, as a rule, I did not find them suffi-
ciently rich to pay for the handling. It is a very popular thing for a
superintendent to say your mine is good, plenty of gold in the quartz, but
it is so rebellious that it is impossible to save the gold. Many such a
mine have I had occasion to examine, and, to the sorrow of the stock-
holders, found out that the rebellious character was due entirely to the
fact that the quartz contained but little gold. I have no hesitation in
stating that with proper care and attention the system I have described
as in our mill at Placerville is more effective for the quartz we have to
deal with than the one described by Mr. Lock. What gold we cannot
save on the mortar-plates, copper plates in front, Hendy's concentrator,
and the blankets and canvas, the riffle-boxes, and Cornish buddies will
catch. I have endeavoured to cover the whole subject, and if I have not,
please let me know, and I will give you any additional information I
may have.

"(Signed) THOMAS Price."

Port Phillip and Colonial Co.'s mill. — The Port Phillip and Colonial
Gold Mining Co.'s works at Clunes, Victoria, Australia, are among the
most perfect in the world, and their success is mainly due to the energy
of the talented manager, R. H. Bland, who has very kindly furnished the
following exhaustive account of the operations conducted under his
direction.

" Operations at this mine were commenced early in 1857. The first
battery of stamps was completed and got to work in May of that year,
and comprised 20 heads of light stamps. These were rebuilt and added
to from time to time as the supply of quartz increased. The present
reduction plant comprises 80 heads of heavier stamps, 2 stone-breaking
machines, and 7 buddies driven by one 24-in. cylinder engine, supplied
with steam by 5 multitubular boilers with a pressure of 60 lb., working
expansive, and condensing, with an indicated horse-power of 127.

" In addition to the above there are 5 cast-iron barrels for amal-
gamating the blanket sand, and 2 steam-barrels for saving ground-up

1096

AURIFEROUS VKINSTUFl' .

mercury, driven by a separate 12-in. engine; also a set of double-acting
lo-in. pumps capable of lifting 600 gal. of water per minute, driven by a
lo-in. engine.

"Stamping Batteries.— These are built on the old principle, fitted
with square-shaped stamps ; 24 of these weigh with the lifters about
8 cvvt. each, the remaining 56 weigh about 6] cwt each. The lifters are
made of 2| in. bar-iron, arc driven at a speed of about 80 blows per
minute, and crush an average of a little over 3 tons of quartz per head
per diem of 24 hours. Fig. 175 shows the construction of the batteries :
a, lifter ; b, self-feeding hopper ; c, spring ; d, water-trough ; e, escape ;
/, stamp-head ; g, die ; //, bottom box ; i, loose
bed ; J, perforated plate ; k, mercury-boxes ;
/, blanket-strakes ; in, distributing-trough ; «,
mercury-box ; 0, waste-trough. The ' coffer ' is
of cast iron of sufficient length for 4 stamp-
heads. A layer of broken quartz is first placed
in the coffer, and a wrought-iron block the width
of the stamp-head and long enough for two
heads is placed upon this, upon which the stamps

Fig. 175.

Port Phillip Battery.

work. By this method, the cast-iron coffer remains uninjured, and it has
the further advantage of allowing space for the coarser gold to accumu-
late directly it is liberated from the quartz without being further broken
up by the stamps. The escape plates, placed back and front, are made
of stout copper, perforated with a tapered punch, the smaller orifice
being placed inside to facilitate the delivery of the crushed material.
The water supplied to the stamps amounts to about 6 gal. per head per
minute. The crushed material is conveyed to the mercury-boxes and
over the blanket-strakes, and from thence to the buddies, where the
pyrites is separated from the sand and kept for further treatment.

" Pyrites. — The quantity of pyrites contained in the quartz from this
mine is estimated at about | per cent., equal to 15 cwt. to the ICXD tons.
After being concentrated in the buddies, it is sent to the furnace, and
roasted sufficiently to get rid of the sulphur and arsenic. It is then taken
to the Chilian mills and ground with mercury. This operation is carried
on as follows. Each mill-pan is charged with about I cwt. of roasted

COMPLKTE MILLS.

1097

pyrites and about 80 lb. of mercury, and sufficient water to damp the
material ; it is then ground for about 20 minutes. Water is then turned
on and grinding continued until the ground-up pyrites is washed away,
leaving the amalgam in the pan ; the process is then continued.

" The material washed from the pan is passed through a concentrator,
and thence over a cradle covered with blanket to further arrest any
particles of ground-up mercury and amalgam that may have escaped the
mills. The material so saved is placed in one of the steam-barrels and
kept revolving for two or three days. After making a good many trials,
we found the method we now adoot to answer the best.

" The bye-products, such as sulphur and arsenic, are, however, all
wasted ; but this cannot be avoided.

"Returns. — The accompanying return (No. i) shows the quantity of
quartz raised each year from 1858, together with the gold obtained and
the average yield. The total quartz raised and crushed for the 23 years
was 1,140,653 tons, and gold yield 471,203 oz. 4 dwt. 13 gr. ; value of the
same, 1,885,805/. 3^. 2d.

" No. 2 is a return of pyrites saved and treated, together with the
yield of gold, &c. The fluctuations in the yield are mainly due to the
varying nature of the quartz, some of the lodes containing more pyrites
than others.

"No. 3 is a return of the percentages of gold obtained from the
various sources, such as stamp-beds, mercury-boxes, blankets, mills. At
one time there was considerable difference of opinion as to comparative
efficiency of the blankets and buddies, some contending that the former
should be dispensed with. This was done for the greater part of two
years, and then resumed, and the coupled return shows the advantage
attending the use of both.

" Mine. — There are two engine-shafts at this mine. The north shaft
is down 1 193^ ft, and is supplied with a winding-engine of 24-in. cylinder
and a very complete set of winding-gear, one 24-in. pumping-cngine, and
one capstan-engine, which also drives one of Root's blowers for driving
air down the mine. These engines are supplied with steam from 4
tubular boilers. The south shaft is down 850 ft, and will be sunk at
once to 900 ft. This shaft is supplied with a winding-engine and one
boiler.

" The quartz from these two shafts is conveyed to the stamp-house
by a very complete system of tramways.

"Four quartz lodes appeared on the surface at this mine, called
respectively the * Western,' ' Robinson's,' ' Old Man,' and the ' Eastern."
Subsequently another lode was discovered under the basalt and called
the ' Welcome,' which, however, did not continue payable much below
No. 5 level. Another vein called the ' New Eastern ' was passed through

fll

1098

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

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COMPLETE MILLS.

1099

Return (No. 2) of

Pyrites Treated.

Year.

Tons.

Gold.

Average.

Proceeds.

Profit.

1857-58 \

1859

i860

No pyrites saved during these

years.

1861

1862 }

oz. dwt. gr.

oi. dwt. gr.

£ s. d.

1863

562

467 7

Badly dressed

1,817

1864

201

2 12 9

749

417

1865

271

762 13
796 8

2 16 6

3.031

2,255 17

1866

268

2 19 4

3.169

2,131 17 10

1867

215,

960 13

488

3.807

3,033 17

1868

369J

1,32: 13

3 '2 4

'^17

4. '57 18 6

1869

401 i

i.5'S "

3 IS >'

6,087

4.899 3

1870

4561

1,420 6

3 3 6

S.732

4,571 18

1871

561

2,290 I

4 I IS

9,248

7,668 I 5

1872

368

2,061 9

5 II 22

8,522

7,208 6 9

1873

294

1,268 17 12

4 6 7

5,182

4,211 2 4

1874

330

1,024

3 I 22

4.178

2,770 8 9

'!7S

236?

949 16

4 5

3,868

2,637 4 2

1876

224i

937 7

4 3 14

3.819

2,687 18 '

Six months toj

25th April, >

IS6

692 s

488

2,820

2,086 13 9

1877 )

4789!

16,670 6 12

3 9 IS

67,253

50,737 6 7

Six months to

loth Oct.,

165J

856 IS

S 3 13

3.491

2,731 8 II

1877

49SSJ

17,527 I 12

3 12 18

70,744

53,468 IS 6

1878

399I

I.93S 7

4 16 23

7,886

6,144 7

1879

421

2,018 I

4 IS 20

8,223

6,334 4 3

1880

390

1,625 2

4 3 8

6,624

5,028 10 6

6i65i

23,105 II 12

3 14 23

93,479

70,975 17 3

Return (No. 3) of Percentage of Gold obtained from —

Yeiir.

1857-58
1859
i860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
>873
1874
1875
1876

1877
1878

Beds.

Boxes.

Blankets.

Mills.

Blankets
and Mills.

Yield per Ton,
Quart?, &c.

The Gold during these years was not kept separate,

66-33
64-32
63 60
65-60
65-44
63-22

61-33
60-15
62-59
64-48
59 20

56-14
S4-8I
58-17

52-84
52-84

23 '33
23 93
22-09
21-63
22-50
24-03

24-77
26-69

25-39
21-60
20-67

22-54

25-14

21*24
21-56
17-12

10-34
11-75

10-55
8-73
8-48
8-n
8-02
2-74

1-06
10-35
1324
11-22
11-12
15-40
17-11

3-76
4-04

3-58

4-64

5-88

10-42

12*02

12-86

9-78

8 -08
8-83

9-47
10-20
12-93

14-31
12-77
12-06
12-75
13-90
13-16
12*02
13-92
20-13
21-32
20-05
20-59
25-60
30-04

dwt.

gr-

23I
13*
IS

8 23
7 i

20f
17

i7i

23i
li

23t

20J
20S

iioo

AURIFEROUS VEINSTUFF.

in sinking the north shaft near No. 9 level, and, though small, yielded
well for two levels. The Old Man and Western lodes have continued
the most defined in depth, and though very variable, continue to yield
fairly.

"This mine was worked almost wholly on the contract system until
1874, when the tribute system was commenced, and has been continued
to the present time, the results being more satisfactory to all parties
interested in the mine.

" The miners have the opportunity of exercising skill and industry,
and are paid in proportion to the results.

"(Signed) R. H. Bland."

Fio. 176.

.,.M.a.i ;....jz.« t

Rio Grande do Sul Co.'s Mill.

Rio Grande villi. — Fig. 176 ahows a gold-mill plant for mule power
designed by Harvey and Co., Hayle, Cornwall, for the Rio Grande do

COMPLETE MILLS.

IIOI

Sul Gold Mining Co., Brazil. The mill co.st 730/., and cru.shcs 7 to 8
tons of gold-cjuartz per 24 hours. The weight of btamp-head i.s 160 lb. ;
diameter, 5i in.; depth of shoe, 4J in.; throw of crank, 8 in. The
dimensions of the gratings are two i6| in. by 13.^ in., and one 16^ by
iij; the perforations number 144 per sq. in., and their diameter is
OX' in. The number of blows per minute is 150; fall of head, 12 in.;
weight of heaviest piece, 7 cwt. ; framework, wood ; water required,
2 cub. ft. per minute ; power required, 8 mules.

( II02 )

CHAPTER VII.

AURIFEROUS ORES.

The term "auriferous ores" is chosen for this chapter in preference to
the more common one of " pyrites," for while pyrites properly includes
only the sulphides of iron and of copper, there are many other metallic
ores which carry gold as a secondary constituent. In a previous chapter
(pp. 838-45), these ores have been catalogued in some detail, but it will
be well to repeat here that they comprise the sulphides, oxides, arsenides,
and carbonates of the following principal metals : — antimony, arsenic,
bismuth, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, manganese,
tellurium, and zinc. Native silver is also always present in alloy with
the gold. It may be said that there is not a single gold-mine in the
world but what produces one or more of the metallic compounds alluded
to in addition to its free gold, and consequently that the extraction
of the gold from such ores is of universal importance : indeed many
niines depend almost entirely upon " pyrites," and yield scarcely any free
gold at all. This problem of the economical separation of gold from the
ores of base metals is surrounded with difficulty, and has been the sub-
ject of much study and experiment. The results of these investigations
it is proposed to discuss in the following pages ; but first it will be
necessary to ascertain the composition of these so-called " refractory "
ores, and to examine the nature of the association between them and
the gold.

Composition of ores. —

I. Port Phillip (Victoria) PYRiTi;b (Johnson and Matthey).

Gold -035

Silver .. ., .. .. .. .. .. .. 'ooi

Arsenic .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 6*850

Sulphur .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 6 '460

Iron, part in combination with the arsenic, sulphur, and

oxygen, but chiefly in the metallic state .. .. .. 61*250

Silica .. .. .. ., .. .. .. .. 15*500

Oxygen .. .. .. .. .. .. ,, ,. 9*000

Water of con.bination, and loss .. ., .. .. *904

100*000

The gold=ii"425 oz., and the silver =0*325 oz., per ton of pyrites.

COMPOSITION.

IIO3

2. Clunes (Victoria) Pyrites (J. Cosmo Newhery).

Silica ..

Oxide of iron (FejOj)

Sulphur

Lime ,.
Carbonic acid

1st.

27-60
50 '90
I3S7

2'10

2nd.

27-10
61-40
14-48

(■not esti-
Imated.
not estimated

The mean results are 24-43 per cent, of iron-pyrites (FeS.J, and
44-35 per cent, of oxide of iron; this latter is present as ferric oxide
(FcjO,), magnetic oxide (Fe,OJ, and as carbonate (FcjCO,), with
some sulphate. The gold=4 02. 19 dwt. 23 gr. per ton of raw pyrites.

,1 .ra

•n

3. Mariner's Reef, Gympie (Queensland) Pyrites (Dixon).

Copper ..

Lead

Antimony

Gold and silver

Iron

Sulphur ..

Silica

Arsenic and loss

The gold=i2 oz. 10 dwt., and the silver- 62 oz. 9 dwt. 16 gr., per
ton of pyrites.

4. Grass Valley (California) Pyrites (J. A. Phillips).

Sulphur . .

Arsenic

Iron

Copper

GoH

Silver

Silica

46-700
0-310

41-650
trace
0037
0-036

10-970

99 '703

The gold = i2 oz. 2 dwt., the silver=ii oz. 16 dwt., per ton of pyrites.

Sulphur

Arsenic

Iron

Lead

Gold

Silica

SoNORA (California) Pyrites (J. A. Phillips).

37-250
8-490

36-540
0-400
0-302

17-180

100-162

The gold = 98 oz. 13 dwt. per ton of pyrites.

i'sM

^ ^*^4 AURIFEROUS ORES.

6. North Star (California) Pyrites {J. A. Phillips)
Sulphur ..
Arsenic . .
Iron
Copper
Gold
Silver
Cobalt ..
Silica

43' 720
1-360

39-250
0220

0'026

0-0I2

0150

14-230

98-968

The gold = 8 oz. 10 dvvt, and the silver = 3 oz. 18 dwt. per ton oT^^dl^s.

7. CoMSiocK (Nevada) Ores. Seep. 175.

8. Victorian Antimonial Ores.
Antimonial sulphide .. 33 to 65 per cent. | Gold .. , oz. ,0 dwt. to 3 oz. ,8 dwt. per ton.

9. Maldonite. Scv p. 840.

10. Rio Tinto (Spain) Roasted Pyrites (Gibhs).
Copper . .
Iron

Sulphur ..
Cupric oxide
Zinc

Lead ,,
Silver

Cobaltic oxide
Bismuth ,,
Calcium „
Ferric ,,
Sulphuric acid
Arsenic ,,
Insoluble residue

• Calcul.-,ted as Cu^S and Fe^Sa. Gold in quantity too small to es.imatr

11. TiiARsrs (Spain) Roasted Pyrites (Gibbs).

I-6S
3-64
3-53
2-7S
2-02
0-47
0-0037
0007
0013
020
77-40
6-10
0-24
'•45

99-47

Copper
Iron

Sulphur .,
Cupric oxide
Zinc

Lead ,,
Silver

Cobaltic oxide
Bismuth ,,
Calcium ,,
Ferric , ,
Sulphuric acid
Arsenic ,,

Insoluble residue

* C^ilcLiIated as Cu^S iind FC2S,.,.

1-50

3-23

3-iS
2-S6

0-70

0-0023

0-032

o-oio

0-25

77-00
5-25

0-17

5-85

100-25

ASSOCIATION OF THE GOLD TREATMENT.

IIO5

12. San Domingos (Portugal) Roasted Pyrites (Gibbs).

Copper
Iron

Sulphur ..
Cupric oxide
Zinc ,,
Lead ,,
Silver

Cobaltic oxide
Bismuth ,,
Calcium ,,
Ferric ,,
Sulphuric acid
Arsenic ,,
Insoluble residue

* Calculated as Cu^S and FeaSs.

13. Yttercen (Norway) Roasted Pyrites (Gibbs).
Copper
Iron

Sulphur ..
Cupric oxide
Zinc ,,
Lead „
Calcium,,
Ferric ,,

Sulphuric acid . , . ,

Arsenic ,,
Insoluble residue

• Calculated as CU2S and FeaSa.

'•55
3- 76

3"62

2' 70

047
0-84
0*0023

0033

o'oi3
0-28
78- 15
5-8o
0*25
1-85

9931

I -01

3*33
3-10
0-39
6-46
o*o6
2*30
68-06
6-56
o'o5
8-74

ioo*o6

Association of the Gold. — Bearing in mind what has (pp. 746-803)
been said on this subject, it seems to be generally agreed that the gold
present in pyrites exists as metallic gold (though Prof. E. J. Chapman of
Toronto asserts that the gold is present as an arsenide in the mispickel of
North Hastings). At the same time, microscopic examination shows the
gold to be an extremely finely-divided slate ; and the evidence of Cosmo
Newbery and Skey is to the effect that much of it is coated with a film
of pyrites, so thin as to make no appreciable difference to the colour and
lustre of the metal, yet sufficient to prevent its contact with the mercury,
even after grinding. The want of uniformity in the opinions of the best
authorities would seem to indicate that there is something yet to learn
on this question of the nature of the association of the gold.

Treatment of Complex Ores.

As the characters of the ingredients composing an ore must neces-
sarily govern the processes suitable for its treatment, it will be

4 B

iio6

AURIFEROUS ORES.

I ' ^

i »
tl
t f
I ^

convenient to discuss the subject in detail under the heads of the chief
components. In most cases, the process involves 3 operations — (i) dis-
engaging the sulphur, arsenic, &c., (2) amalgamating the liberated gold,
and (3) recovering some of the lost mercury.

Antimonial ores. — The occurrence of gold in antimonial ores has
been described on p. 838. From any of these it is possible to extract
both the gold and the antimony. According to Cosmo Nevvbery, the
following conditions are observed.

If antimonial ores are burnt in kilns or roasted in furnaces, either
for the purpose of rendering the quartz more friable, or for getting rid of
the antimony minerals, there is always a partial reduction, unless the
heat is very great, and free access is given to atmospheric air. This
reduction of ore producing metallic antimony is due to two causes —
(i) the carbon of the fuel coming in contact with antimony oxide, either
native oxide or that produced in the furnace by the oxidation of the
sulphide, reduci..j, it to a metallic condition ; (2) by the action of the
oxide on the sulphide, producing sulphurous acid and metallic antimony.

Metallic antimony has a great affinity for gold. It forms an alloy
either when the two metals are melted together, or when the vapour of
antimony is passed over heated gold. The alloy produced is grey in
colour and very brittle, and amalgamates with mercury only after long
contact and continual grinding, or by heating the two together. The
amalgam, when formed, floats on mercury, and gradually gives up
metallic antimony as a fine powder when agitated with water. This
antimonial powder carries off a quantity of mercury and gold-amalgam
entangled with it.

Antimony sulphide is perhaps the worst mineral with which the
quartz-crusher has to deal. It divides the mercury into a black "flour"
even more quickly than arseni ^1 pyrites; and if this flour is triturated
with the intention of bringing the globules of mercury together, a
chemical combination takes place. The mass gradually changes colour,
passing from the original blue-black or dark grey to a pure black, and
then through brown to a brown-red. Upon examination, Cosmo
Newbery finds that the remaining mercury contains antimony, and that
the brown-red non-metallic portion consists of a mixture of undecomposed
antimony sulphide and mercury sulphide.

Sodium amalgam he finds to be worse than useless in bringing
together the globules of mercury floured by antimony sulphide. When
only containing a small percentage of sodium, it has no action ; when
made stronger (sufficient sodium to cause a slight evolution of hydrogen
when the mercury is placed in water), it decomposes, " the antimony
sulphide forming sodium sulphide, an amalgam of antimony, mercury,
and sulphuretted hydrogen." Sodium amalgam also reduces the metal

ANTIMONIAL.

I 107

from antimony oxide. If antimony sulphide is fused with finely divided
gold, a portion of the gold enters into chemical combination with the
ore, and is dissolved with the antimony sulphide in alkaline solutions.
Antimony oxide has no effect on mercury or amalgam.

The process adopted by the Costerfield Co. for treating their ores,
consisting of sulphide and brown and white oxides of antimony (see
P- 839), is as follows. The portion of the ore free from quartz is picked
out and set aside for smelting, the remainder being crushed to extract
the gold. The tailings, which consist of antimony and a little quartz
sand, are then conveyed to heaps, and are subsequently prepared for
smelting by a process of huddling. A sluice-box, into which a stream of
water is turned, is fed with tailings, which are made to pass thence on to
a triangular tray forming an inclined plane, so arranged as to cause the
water and tailings to flow over it in a broad shallow stream, into an
oblong receiving-pit below ; the purest antimony-ore, from its greater
specific gravity, settles in the pit at the end nearest the tray ; as the
sediment recedes from this end, it gradually becomes mixed with an
increasing proportion of sand, but much of the latter is carried away in
the overflow of water from the pit.

On cleaning out the receiving-pit, that portion of its contents con-
taining quartz sand is returned to the heaps, to be again passed through
the buddle, and the pure ore is collected in bags, and sent to the boiler-
house to be dried ; it is then placed in a smelting-furnace, with equal
proportions of uncrushed ore, and reduced to crude antimony (sulphide),
the slag and cinder resulting from this process being further treated by
roasting or calcining in a reverberatory furnace to liberate lli" oxide,
which passes off in fumes from both furnaces into the oxide flue ; and as
the fumes cool on their passage to the smoke-stack, the oxide is deposited
in chambers constructed in the flue to receive it. The residue from the
reverberatory furnace is afterwards crushed to extract any gold it may
contain.

The gold obtained from the mineral defrays the whole of the com-
pany's working expenses, and the yield of crude antimony and oxide is
clear profit ; none of the latter has yet been brought into the market, but
the shipments of rough ore hitherto sent to England have realised g/. to
12/. per ton. The ore yields about 45 per cent, of crude antimony, which
it is expected will fetch 20/. to 22/. per ton in London.

The revolving furnaces used in the foregoing operations were devised
by H. Herrenschmidt and Borthwick, and treat 20 to 50 tons per diem.
Herrenschmidt's is shown in Fig. 177. It measures 35 ft. long, 3 ft. in
diameter at one end and 4 ft. at the other, and is made of ^-in. plate.

The process adopted for treating auriferous ores containing antimony
sulphide, by fusing the sulphide with a portion of metallic antimony, and

4 R 2

>. ;> ■ I

I' 1

sIlH' I

iio8

AURIFEROUS ORES.

using the same metal with fresh charges of the ore until it becomes rich
in gold, and then separating the two metals by the oxidation of the
antimony, while suitable for rich antimony-ores, will not answer for those

Fig. 177.

CBnss sirrioNTHKi » E

C»oas S€C»'On TwanCO

reo&b stc»'o»* f**fto tr

LONC'lUOINAL SCCTrQN

Herrenschmidt's Revolving Furnace.

containing less than 30 per cent, of the sulphide, as they are too silicious
to fuse. Hence very large quantities of the poorer auriferous antimony-
ores do not yield half their gold to ordinary processes, and do not return
any antimony when worked for gold.

Cosmo Newbery has introduced the following method for treating
such ores, which may also contain gold, silver, nickel, cobalt, sulphur,
and arsenic. The uncrushed ores are placed in a kiln or furnace, with a
quantity of salt sufficient to produce the amount of chlorine necessary to
get rid of the sulphur, antimony, and arsenic. As soon as the calcination
commences, a supply of steam or aqueous vapour is conducted to the
bottom of the kiln or into the furnace, in such quantities as to keep the
whole mass saturated. That it is so saturated is ascertainable by holding
a condensing surface, such as a piece of cold iron, over the calcining
mass : if the saturation is being effected, the surface will become damp.
The saturation is continued until there are neither antimonial nor
arsenical fumes, nor the smell of sulphurous acid or sulphuretted hydro-
gen. The process is then completed, and the charge is drawn ; it is
ready for any further treatment for extracting the precious metal.

A condenser for facilitating the solidification of the metallic vapours
given off in these roasting processes has been perfected b/ Cosmo
Newbery and John Lister Morley.

To accomplish this object, it is essential that the fumes should be
directed with considerable velocity against a series of solid resisting
surfaces, and finally against a web of permeable material, through which
the permanently gaseous portion may filter. The greater the force with

ANTIMONIAL.

I 109

Fig. 178

which such fumes impinge against a series of metallic discs, the larger is
the percentage of solids which attach themselves to such discs, and
ultimately fall into a receptacle beneath. Also, if such current of fumes
is concentrated so as to be compelled to pass through a narrow opening,
and then against a metallic disc, the effect is heightened. If the velocity
of the current be great enough, that is to say if the draught be strong
enough, by far the larger proportion of the solids will deposit themselves
on striking the discs, leaving only a small portion to be retained by the
final filter ; whilst on the other hand, if the discs were removed, the
whole of the solids would be retained by the final filter, but would give it
unnecessary work to do.

This filter is made of metallic gauze, which ma; be protected from
the action of the fumes by a coating of any non-volatile oxide infusible
at the temperature which it is required to withstand. The mesh of this
gauze is reduced to any requisite fineness by felting with asbestos or
covering with asbestos cloth, or, when
the fumes are sufficiently cool, with
wool or vegetable fibre.

An illustration of how an apparatus
might be constructed for the purpose
of carrying out this method is shown
in Fig. 178. In the flues a are a
series of resisting surfaces (discs) /;, c
being the orifices through which the
gaseous current would flow and im-
pinge on such surfaces, and d the final
filter ; e are the receptacles for the

solids which fall after impinging against the discs, and which can be
removed through a door f at the bottom. The necessary draught is
produced by artificial means, although it does not matter how it is
produced, so long as it is strong enough.

The apparatus is applicable to the condensation of fumes of antimony,
arsenic, bismuth, lead, and zinc. The process is simple, inexpensive, and
effective. The solid particles adhering to the plates, the arsenic, antimony,
and other volatile oxides, form a dense cone of such solidity that the
strongest current of air fails to dislodge any. Antimony oxide collected
in this manner is well suited for the manufacture of paint, if the tempera-
ture of the fume has been lowered from the heat of the furnace in which
it is generated till the vapour has been all condensed into solid particles
of oxide in suspension. If the vapour of the oxide condenses on the
plate, it is no longer suited for paint, being crystalline, and having no
" covering " power when mixed or ground with oil. The arsenic con-
densed by this method should also be a marketable commodity, and, as

Fume Condenser.

'<*'H

lip-

I, \ >?ii

AURIFEROUS ORES.

crude arsenic, become of value to the pyrites worker, instead of a public
nuisance.

Designolle's process. — Designolle's process is based upon the following
grounds : (i) that when an acid solution of any salt of mercury is
exposed to the action of an electric current, the salt will be decomposed,
and metallic mercury will be deposited at the negative pole, amalgama-
tion resulting when that pole is formed of gold ; (2) when scraps of clean
iron are in contact with a slightly acid solution of a salt of mercury, on
touching these with gold, the salt of mercury is decomposed, metallic
mercury combining with the gold ; (3) the great affinity of chlorine for
antimony and tellurium. Reasoning from these conditions, the process
consists in using a bichloride of mercury solution in water containing
sodium chloride, whereupon antimonial gold and thetelluride of gold are
decomposed, the chlorine uniting with the antimony and tellurium,
while the liberated metallic mercury amalgamates with the gold.

Arsenical ores. — Arsenic occurs largely in auriferous ores in com-
bination with iron and sulphur (as arsenical pyrites, or mispickel), also as
arseniates of lead, copper, and iron. From any of these minerals it may
be easily set free in the roasting-furnaces and quartz-kilns, especially the
latter, owing to the fuel, and the reducing gases produced by the
imperfect combustion, coming into contact with these ores. When the
arsenic is thus set free, it passes through the furnace as vapour, and is
readily taken up by the gold that may be present ; for when gold is
heated to redness, or any degree between that and its melting-point, it
takes up arsenic, with which it forms a grey, easily-fusible, brittle alloy ;
even when the arsenic is not in sufficient quantity to change the colour or
fusing-point of the gold, it still renders it very brittle ; one-thousandth
part renders gold so brittle that it may be ground to a powder. Gold
containing arsenic is more difficult to amalgamate than pure gold. If
much arsenic is present, the amalgam is powdery and black, and floats
on the surface of the mercury ; the black colour is due to the separation
of arsenic. This black powdery metallic arsenic does not unite at
ordinary temperatures with mercury to form an amalgam, but it mixes
with it, coating every globule with the black powder, thus preventing
their uniting with each other, or, in other words, causing the mercury " to
flour." Sodium amalgam aids the union of mercury floured by metallic
arsenic ; but if arsenious acid (common white arsenic) is present, it
reduces it to the state of metallic arsenic.

Arsenical pyrites acts seemingly in the same way as metallic arsenic
with mercury ; when ground together, a large amount of black floured
mercury is produced. If the pyrites is partly decomposed, this action is
more energetic than with the original mineral. Cosmo Newbery can
detect no actual combination with the mercury. The black coating,

ARSENICAL.

I 1 I I

examined under the microscope, only seems to be a mixture of pyrites-
grains and mercury-globules, both very finely divided. When mercury
covered thinly with this black coating is warmed, the coating is absorbed
into the mass, and is liberated again as the mercury cools.

The liberation of the arsenic from auriferous ores is most commonly
effected by means of roasting them in furnaces of various construction,
which will be now noticed, premising that Newbery's process described
under Antimony (p. 1108) is equally applicable.

Chapman's process. — The following process was introduced by Prof E.
J. Chapman for treating the mispickel ores of Marmora (see pp. 79, 839).
These ores contain 7 to 8 dwt. of free gold per ton, and a total of nearly
7 oz. per ton, but for a long time their treatment could not be made
remunerative.

Chapman discovered that by deflagrating the ore with nitrate of soda,
a most rapid absorption of oxygen takes place, and a large proportion of
the arsenic at once combines with the nitrate of soda, and becomes soluble
in hot water. The sulphur being burnt is, to a great extent, driven off,
and the iron by absorption of oxygen rapidly becomes magnetic. The
teachings of soluble arsenic subsequently obtained contain large quantities
of sulphate of soda, which, rapidly depositing in a crystalline form, admits
of the soluble arsenic being drawn off, precisely in the scale required for
the manufacture of Paris green, when combined with sulphate or other
salts of copper, in the ordinary manner. If the manufacture of orpiment
is required, the arseniate of soda combined with sulphuretted hydrogen
deposits a pigment of a beautiful yellow colour. In either case, the
resulting bye-product is worth the cost of the materials used in the
manufacture.

The process is carried out as follows. The ore, after being very
finely ground, is sifted through fine wire sieves, so as to prevent the
presence of any large particles. It has been found that whereas it will
require 1 2 hours' roasting to expel the arsenic from a cube of ore -^^ in.
square, if the cube be divided into 10 particles, one-tenth of the time will
suffice. The sifted ore is mixed with 10 per cent, of its weight of nitrate
of soda dissolved in water. The ore is then fed slowly into a peculiarly
shaped iron retort, constructed in 2 half-circles, with flanges at each side,
to withstand any tendency to warp, and also to form a resting-place for
the retort when set in brickwork. The retort is 10 ft. long by 30 in. in
diameter, cast in a peculiar manner, so as to avoid cracking and resist
wear. It is set in brickwork, with an inclination towards its mouth of
about 8 in. The fireplace is at the mouth, and the heat traverses the
entire length of the retort, ascends at the rear, and passes forward and
•//er the upper half, until it escapes into the chimney. The retort is thus
enveloped in fire sufficiently powerful to keep the contents at a dull-red

., :ty

III2

AURIFEROUS ORES.

heat. The fuel required is not much, as the combustion of the sulphur
and nitrate heats the ore to redness at once, and after it is hot, a very-
small fire will keep it so.

The ore, being fed into the rear end, gradually works its way down-
wards towards the mouth, each revolution of the internal machinery com-
bining with the inclination to produce this effect. The machinery that
generates this motion is a shaft that passes through the entire length of
the retort, and is made to revolve half round by means of a crank attached
to the projecting end ; strong arms are fastened to the shaft, and attached
to them are iron bars, so arranged that, as the shaft revolves half round,
these bars scrape the bottom of the retort, and carry the ore to and fro,
first to one side and then to the other, thus causing it to flow over each
bar during each revolution in a thin stream of red-hot ore, much the
same in appearance as a broad fall of water. This motion causes all the
disengaged arsenic to pass off very readily. Arsenic in this state prac-
tically sublimes at about 500° C. (932° F.) ; but it condenses quite easily,
and unless means are provided for its free disengagement, is a long time
before it passes quite away into the condenser provided to receive it.

Being fed into a red-hot retort, the ore instantly deflagrates, and the
furnace is filled with blue flame ; some arsenic begins to pass over into
the condenser, but a large proportion combines with the nitrate, and this
portion becomes soluble in hot water, and can readily be removed by the
filtration that takes place afterwards.

The speed of the shaft must be so arranged that the ore is delivered
at the mouth of the retort in about J hour. As the ore leaves the retort,
it falls — whilst red-hot — into water. The effect of this is to boil the water,
to dissolve out the arsenic made soluble by the nitrate, as well as to burst
the particles of ore and reduce them still further to a smooth paste, and
thus render the gold more attainable. The liquor that results from the
leaching rapidly deposits — in a crystalline form — quantities of sulphate of
soda. The remaining liquid is now fit to yield Paris green, or orpiment,
as required. After leaching, the ore is returned to the roasting-retort ;
this is very similarly constructed to that used for deflagrating, but, being
set at a less inclination, the ore does not reach the mouth of the retort
until it has had at least 2 hours' more roasting. The arsenic is now
altogether driven off, the ore assumes a deep-red colour, and the iron
having become magnetic and parted with all the arsenic, the combination
no longer influences the amalgamation of the mercury and gold.

Cule finds that the old German barrels give the best results as amal-
gamators. Their action is greatly assisted by the use of steam, which
Cule has applied in pipes that pass and repass through the barrel, and by
the heat keep the ore always at about 212° F. (100° C), consequently the
mercury is kept quite limpid, and in that state will more readily catch the

ARSENICAL.

III3

millions of minute particles of gold that pervade the prepared ore, and
which have been loosened, so to speak, from amongst the other con-
stituents of the mispickcl, by the oxidation of the ore, and destruction of
the combination of arsenic, sulphur, and iron that contained it. Cule
also uses stones, and finds their action most beneficial in reducing the
prepared ore to a still finer soft paste, and also in causing a certain abra-
sion or scouring of the surface of the particles of gold, rendered some-
what sullied by the roasting and nitrate, in which state the mercury does
not so readily attack it.

Cule finds the result of all this to be : that mispickel ores that contain
about 50 dwt. of gold to the ton can be readily made to yield at least
40 dwt. ; that the bye-products, soluble arsenic, arsenious acid, sulphate
of soda, and oxides of iron, arc believed to be fully as valuable as the
cost of manipulation of the ore, including mining, thus leaving the gold
as almost all profit. As a further bye-product, the sulphurous acid fumes
can be caught and condensed in chambers, and will be useful for the
manufacture of superphosphate of lime. The nitric acid also will be
forced into contact with lime, and a valuable manure will probably result
from this course.

While admitting the probable increase of gold return by this process
as compared with those in general use, Cosmo Newbery doubts its
applicability in Australia, for the following reasons. Assuming the
pyrites to contain 2 oz. of gold per ton, of which 80 per cent, (the Port
Phillip Co. extract 95 per cent.) is recovered, this would mean a 1 ^s of
8 dwt. of gold per ton, worth (at 4/. per oz.) 32V. The amount of nitrate
required is 2 cwt. per ton, costing 24-y. a cwt. (infinitely more since the
border difficulty in Peru and Chili), so that, excluding labour and fuel,
the ^2s. worth of gold would need 48.y. worth of nitrate of soda, even
supposing all the present loss to be saved. This loss of 16s. would have
to be recouped from the sale of arsenical pigments, which have as yet no
value in Australia.

Flude's furnace. — The author is indebted to Joseph Flude, Esq.,
Superintendent of Laboratories at the School of Mines, Ballarat, Vic-
toria, for the following observations, and description of Serjeant and
Flude's furnace :

" On all our gold-fields there is a considerable quantity of pyrites
associated with the quartz, in some cases existing as sulphides, in others
as arseno-sulphides. In order to extract the gold (which is always asso-
ciated with the pyrites) from them, various methods have from time to
time been devised ; but at present the most popular, and, I think, the
best, process is that of roasting to sweetness. This operation is performed
by submitting them to a dull-red heat for a lengthened period under con-
stant rabbling in long furnaces, the hearth of which is inclined at about

:« ;i

1 114

AURIFEROUS ORES.

1 in. per ft. ; the charge enters at the upper end and the fireplace is at the
lower end of the furnace ; the rabbling causes the charge to gradually
descend the inclined hearth, so that when it approaches the bridge of the
furnace it receives the greatest heat, and is finally discharged (by inter-
mittently withdrawing a slide) through the hearth into a chamber under
the bed of the furnace. By this method, when carefully conducted, the
pyrites can be roasted to almost perfect sweetness, so that by a cor-
responding care in the after-manipulation, nearly the whole of the gold
may be extracted.

" It may readily be seen that in such a furnace the sulphur and arsenic
in the pyrites take fire, are converted into sulphur dioxide and arsenious
oxide at the expense of atmospheric oxygen, pass away together with
carbon dioxide from the fire, and escape at the top of the chimney-stalk
into the air. The arsenic is more or less effectually condensed in a long
horizontal flue, between the furnace and the chimney-stalk ; these flues
are opened at stated periods and cleaned out, and the arsenious oxide is
deposited in any convenient place, so that it may be got rid of

" There are at least two objections to this plan of operations : (i) all
the sulphur and arsenic are lost ; (2) it is injurious to health and vegeta-
tion, by polluting the surrounding atmosphere and .streams of water.

"The furnace to be described (Fig. 179) is a modification of the
Brunton, and is intended to meet all objections to the furnaces as at
present in use in Australia. It is almost automatic, being self-acting in
so far as the feed and discharge are concerned, and, when set at work at
the proper speed, is continuous in its operation ; the only care required is
to keep the hopper a supplied with the material to be roasted, consisting
of pyrites which has passed through the stamper-box grating of say ICXJ
apertures to the sq. in., and afterwards concentrated to nearly clean
pyrites.

" The bed of the furnace is worked by belt aid pulley on a shaft con-
nected with tlie bevel-pinion b, and driven by the machinery which grinds
and amalgamates the roasted pyrites. On the same shaft is another belt
and pulley, which is intended to drive the self-acting feed-shaft c, the end
of which passes through the throat of the hopper, so arranged that
at every revolution a quantity of the pyrites is discharged into the
furnace, sufficient to keep it supplied with fresh material, which, by the
time it arrives at the periphery of the hearth, is completely roasted ;
thence it is discharged down fluming into a chamber below, where it is
allowed to cool, and is passed into the triturating-machine.

" The novelty of this furnace consists in the fact that no fire passes
over the materials when in course of roasting, but, instead, an abundant
supply of heated air is used, which passes through heated pipes in a
chamber d immediately over the fireplace, and cut off from the bed of the

ARSENICAL.

III5

furnace by closing a strong damper in front of the fire-bridge e. The
heated air from the pipes enters aflueyj which continues round the entire
crown of the furnace, communicates at intervals with the chamber g in the
crown, and leaves this chamber through perforations in the bricks, causing
the air to impinge on the hearth ; thus securing the thorough oxidation
of the arsenic as arsenious oxide (AsaOj), of the sulphur as sulphur
dioxide (SOa), and of the iron as ferric oxide (KCijOa).

" The SOa and vapour of As.jO.., pass into the chambers //, and the
arsenic as arsenious oxide (AsaOa) is condensed by means of steam-jets
i, while the sulphur dioxide continues through the furnace/,
where nitrous gas is generated ; the mixed gases of sulphur
dioxide, nitrous acid, and atmospheric air pass on into the
sulphuric acid chamber k, where they finally become con-
verted into sulphuric acid, the waste gases being allowed to
escape up the chimney-stalk /.

Serjeant and Flude's Furnace.

" The various parts are marked thus : — a, feed-hopper ; b, bevel-gear-
ing to drive furnace-bed and feeding apparatus ; c, shaft of self-feeder ;
d, hot-air pipes over fireplace ; e, fire-bridge ; /, hot-air flue commu-
nicating with chamber g ; g, chamber in crown of furnace ; h, condensing
chambers for arsenic ; z, steam-jets ; j, small oven for generating nitrous
gas ; k, leaden sulphuric-acid chamber ; /, chimney-stalk, 62 ft. high ;
nt, furnace hearth ; n, furnace crown ; 0, damper ; /, fireplace ; r, ash-
pit ; s, chamber to receive roasted pyrites ; /, flue for passage of mixed
gases into sulphuric-acid chamber ; u, chimney-stalk of furnace ; v,
discharge.

\v\

iii6

AURIFEROUS ORES.

Port Phillip Go's furnace. — The reverberatory furnace used by the
Port Phillip Co. for treating their arsenical pyrites is of the simplest
description, as illustrated in Fig. i8o. a are air-tubes for admitting air
above the fire ; b, fireplace ; c, fire-bridge ; d, discharge slot for burnt
pyrites ; e, roasting hearth ; /, holes for insertion of a sp'ide-bar to turn
the pyrites over ; g, hopper for charging pyrites into the furnace ; h, flue
descending to the pocket i^ where heavy condensable matters deposit ;

Fig. i8o.

Z3Z^^

Port Phillip Co.'s Furnace.

j, stops for checking the flow of gases ; k, leaden cistern wherein the
arsenious vapours can condense, the operation being aided by the
spray-pipes / ; m, chimney for final escj.pe of uncondensed vapours.

This furnace is perhaps better known as Latta and Thompson's, from
the names of its inventors. It requires only one attendant per shift, and
the labour may be reduced by making the furnace in 3 sections at right
angles to each other, so as to facilitate the operation of -vorking the
charge through. The roasting must be continued till all the sulphur and
arsenic are driven off, and the pyrites becomes " sweet "; but the heat
must not be carried too high, nor is it necessary to convert all the iron
present into sequioxide. The time occupied in the process is 12 to 18
hours, but efficiency must not be sacrificed to time, for partially de-
composed pyrites causes more flouring of the mercury, and greater loss
of gold and amalgam in the subsequent stages, than when ravv, The
sweetness is judged by the roasted material emitting neither odour nor
fumes, by its giving off no sparks while hot, by its turning red when
cold, and by its ceasing to run easily when stirred. About 4 to 4^ tons
of pyrites per diem can be treated in such a furnace. The consumption
of fuel will depend much upon the regularity of the stoking. Great
attention nic^t be paid to die draught of the furnace, as it is essential
that a steady current of air should pass over the surface of the pyrites, to
ensure thorough oxidation. Opinions are divided as to whether the

ti';

ARSENICAL.

III7

presence of a small percentage of sand with the pyrites is detrimental or
beneficial : on the one side, it is maintained that the sand tends to check
the agglutination or caking of the particles of pyrites, which, when once
begun, makes it very difficult, if not impossible, to roast properly ; on
the other hand, it is contended that the sand cuts up the mercury, and
causes a great loss in the subsequent process of amalgamation, especially
if a Chilian mill is used. Mixing charcoal with the pyrites in roasting
promotes its decomposition by the combination of the sulphur with the
carbon ; but a good furnace properly attended requires no such aid,
and when lead or antimony is present in the pyrites, the carbon acts
injuriously by reducing the metals from their ores.

The second step in the treatm mt is to grind and amalgamate the
calcined ore in the pan of a large Chilian mill (see p. 1038). Mercury is
added for this purpose, and the grinding helps to break up the mercury
and bring it into contact with the liberated gold particles.

The third stage is the collection of the particles of gold, mercury, and
amalgam escaping from the mill. This is effected by passing the whole
through a concentrator, or even two in succession, and then through a
mercury-trough and amalgamating-barrel, the tail-sand being run through
buddies. By these means, as high as 95 to 985 per cent, of the gold in
the pyrites has been extracted.

The following results were obtained with the pyrites treated at the
Port Phillip works for the year ending Oct. 10, 1 iy^ : —

Pyrites, raw
Gold produced . .
Average per ton (raw) . .

Loss iu weight roasting, say 20 per cent

Costs per ton —

Buddie expenses

Roasting — Labour, 13^. 3a?.; fuel, gs.

Grinding, labour

Mercury lost, I lb. 6 J oz., value

Total cost per ton , .

Coit per oz. ( ^ gold obtained .. .. ., .. o 13 2

Mercury and gold recovered in the steam barrel for 8 months in use —
Mercury, 185 lb. ; gold, 55 oz. S dwt.

At the Walhalla Co.'s works, the same treatment with slight altera-
tions was introduced in July 1868 and carried on until February 1876.
During that time, 141 1 tons of raw pyrites, yielding 942 tons of calcined
ore, were treated, which returned 2476 oz. 1 1 dwt. 6 gr. of standard gold,
or at the rate of 2 oz. 12 dwt. 14 gr. per ton of calcined ore ; the loss of
mercury being 1839^ lb., that is i '92 lb. per ton of calcined ore.

321 tc

ms 10 cwt.

1 549

3Z.

34 oz
■nt.

16 dwt

9Br

(/.

••

III8

AURIFEROUS ORES,

The cost of roasting the ore and other incidental expenses connected
therewith was —

s. d.

Firewood

Wages

16 7

Repairs, cleaning flue, &c. ..

4 2

33 9

It may be incidentally mentioned that while the average standard of
the vein-stone gold of Wa'halla is 20" if to 20' i| carats, the gold from
unroasted pyrites is only 19 "31 to 20 'Oi- carats, whereas that from
roasted pyrites is 22 "ol tc 22 ' i^ carats.

Revolving furnaces. — The inclined reverberatory furnace requires a
considerable expenditure of .abour for passing the clarge through, hence
several forms of mechanically revolving furnace have been introduced.
Hocking and Oxland's may be described as typical of this kind of
furnace. It is shown in Fig. 181, and consists of a fire-box a, whence

Hocking & Oxland's Reverberatory Furnace.

the heat and products of combustion pass through an iron tube b, made
of boiler-plate and lined with fire-bricks on edge. The tube, which is 30 to
40 ft. long, is supported in an inclined position, but varying m inclination
according to the character of the ore treated. It is supported on 3 pairs of
friction-wheels c, and rotated by gearing in the middle. It passes into the
fire-chamber, and is so arranged ii3 to deliver .he ore passing through it by
an opening e into the chamber d. At the upper end it communicates
with flues or condensing chambers f, and the ore is dried on cast-iron
plates g covering these chambers, being fed into the hopper h by a boy
who attends to the fire. The tube revolves at a rate of 3 to 8 revolutions
per minute. The ore is raised by 4 projecting lines of bricks parallel
with the axis, leaving room for the continuous running-in of the dry ore
from the hopper. When the ore has been raised sufficiently high on one
of these shelves, it falls off in thin streams through the hot gases passing
up the tube. It thus becomes sufficiently heated for the sulphur and
arsenic to take fire, and tc burn with such energy that before the ore

ARSENICAL.

I I 19

arrives halfway down the cylinder, the greater portion of the arsenic and
much of the sulphur is driven off. The heat evolved by the combustion
of arsenic and sulphur is thus rendered available for heating the upper
portion of the tube. Throughout the whole of the tube, the lines of shelf
perform the duty of passing the ore in finely-divided streams through the
heated gases in such a way that no particle can escape full exposure to
the oxidizing influences required for perfect calcination. It is found that
arsenic burns first, and that its removal is completed some time before
the last portions of sulphur are eliminated. The calcined ore, passing
from the lower ead of the tube into the burnt-ore chamber at a bright-
red heat, contains only traces of arsenic, and but a small proportion of
sulphur.

Resales' process. — In the belief that the expenditure for roasting the
pyrites, as just described, was unnecessary for the liberation of the gold,
Henry Rosales, the talented manager of the well-known Walhalla mine,
experimented in the direction of treating the pyrites by fine mechanical
subdivision without roasting. The outcome of his experiments was the
successful plan now to be described from documents very obligingly
furnished by him to the author.

The mode of operation without roasting is — (i) to grind the pyrites
to a fine pulp, in a Chilian mill for instance, and (2) to amalgamate in
separate vessels, such as dollies, in conjunction with improved Tyrolea'^
or Hungarian mills. At the Walhalla Co.'s works, the process is worked
in the following manner. (See Fig. 182.)

The concentrated pyrites, which has been exposed to the act 'on of the
atmospheric air* during 3 to 6 months, and consists mainly of iron-pyrites
(FeSa), arsenical pyrites, mispickel (FeS2 + FeAs2), and more or less
quartz-sand, is subjected to grinding in a Chilian mill a (the rollers of
which are 1 8 in. wide, making 1 3 J revolutions per minute) to a very fine
state of disintegration. This Is effected in the following manner. The
charge, consisting of 3 J buckets of dry pyrites, weighing 107 lb., is, after
7 pints of water (less if the stuff is a little moist) have been filled into
the pan, gradually emptied into the pan whilst it is revolving. Should
the stuff be too dry, and the rollers run on top of the pyrites ."or more
than 2 minutes, i to ^ pint of water is slowly poured on until the rollers get
on the bottom of the pan, which should be the case about 5 minutes after
the charge has been put in. The main thing after this is to keep the stuff
well together, forming a ridge in the middle of the pan by self-adjusting
scrapers placed on each side of the pan and of the rollers, and also

♦ This exposure might be supposed to cause a considerable oxidation of the pyritf s, but
Rosales assures the author that in this case it is not so, there being no appreciable change in the
composition, though the pyrites suffers a physical change which allows it to be ground to a
much finer and softer pulp.

i'i- K '

in ill

f 1 ''*

* I
^1

iflUiif

!!'

til

I 120

AURIFEROUS ORES.

scraping with a shovel those places which the scrapers have failed to
clean. About ^ hour after the charge has been working, 2 oz. of caustic
soda are distributed in the pan. After one hour's grinding, when the
stuff commences to get stiff, 3 to 3^ half-pints of water arc added at
different times during the last i^ hour that the stuff is being ground.
For the last 15 minutes, if the stuff has been properly attended to, its
appearance is a fine pulp having a glossy and silky appearance. It is
then ready to be shovelled out of the pan. But until its appearance is
glossy and silky, the charge should not be taken out, as it would not be
sufficiently ground.

RosALES* Mechanical Process.

The groun'l stuff is shovelled into a tub, where it is kept in a moist
and pasty state, not too stiff, and whence it is passed on to a basin
standing on a grating of 8 1 holes to the sq. in., through which it passes
with a stream of water delivered into the basin, at the rate of 36 gal. per
minute, and is conveyed into the top force dolly b, which is charged with
60 lb. of mercury, and revolves at the rate of 33^^ revolutions per
minute. Each charge is passed into this dolly from the tub in 2\ hours
in regular proportions of about \ shovelful at a time, so that the stream
of 36 gal. of water per minute should hold in suspension and carry w-th it
about I lb. of pyrites per minute.

From the top dolly, the stream flows into the bottom of the lower

ARSENICAL.

II2I

^•li

dolly c, which is also charged with 60 lb. of mercury, and revolves at
the same speed as the upper one. The overflow or the stream from the
lower dolly is divided into three sets of three Tyrolese mills (see p. 1 041)
each d, which are placed one below the other. Each mill is lined on the
working surfaces with amalgamated copper-plates, and is charged with
mercury to the lower edge of the copper-plates, which requires 27 to
35 lb. of mercury. The runner revolves at the rate of 19^ revolutions
per minute, and is set so that the bottoms of the arrows are ^ in. —
i. e. 2^ to 3 turns of screw on the spindle — above the mirror of the
mercury. Thus the stream passing through each set of Tyrolese mills
is equal to 12 gal. of water, carrying \ lb. of ground pyrites with it.

To ensure the proper working of the mercury in the dollies and mills,
sodium amalgam is used at the rate of 2^ lb. per 10 tons of dry pyrites
treated : that is to say, 4 oz. per ton. A small quantity (about the size
of a pea) is dropped every 8 hours into the mercury of each of the
lower Tyrolese mills, and slightly more into that of the upper ones and
of the dollies. The waste water from the third Tyrolese mill of each set
flows into the creek. This company, unfortunately, has no convenience
to erect settling-pits, &c., to catch the waste pyrites ; but where convenient,
and especially in a large establishment, it might be advantageous to save
the waste pyrites for after-treatment, as, owing to insufficient grinding, a
certain percentage of comparatively coarse pyrites could thus be saved.

As described, charge after charge is ground and subsequently run
through the amalgamating-mills duiing one working month — 26 days.
Every day, however, the light dross amalgam, which does not sink into
but floats on the surface of the mercury of the two dollies, is removed,
together with the heavier and not sufficiently-ground pyrites. The dross
amalgam or alloy is washed out in an enamelled dish, and kept by itself
until the end of the month, whilst the pyrites that has been removed
is at the end of the month re-ground with the last charges. The
quantity of pyrites thus daily collected is only one-third of an enamelled
bucket, about i 5 to 20 lb., if the stuff has been well ground. At the end
of every month, all the dollies and Tyrolese mills are emptied, washed,
and the mercury of each dolly and mill separately collected, passed
through a chamois-leather bag, and the amalgam in e.'.ch case separately
retorted. The returns obtained for several months are as per table on
pp. 1 1 22-3. From its perusal, it is obvious that whenever the ore has not
been sufficiently ground — be it on account of the mill not grinding well,
or because it was attempted to pass through too heavy a charge in a
given time, or that too little water was passed, or that too much ore was
rushed through the Tyrolese mills — a loss in mercury and gold was the
immediate result, as shown by comparing the returns for the months of
February and March, 1877, with those of the other months. As a proof

4 C

^? •

11?

II22

AURIFEROUS ORES.

Statement of Returns

Dry raw
pyrites.

Alloy.

Upper Dolly.

Lower Dolly.

First set Tyrolese

Mills.

Second set Tyrol
Mills.

ese
:ury

Third

•0
1

Mercury

•0
u

Mercury

•a

B
<

t:
2

Mercury

1
1

•d

Mer

•d

1876.

ton c. qr. lb.

oz. d.

lb.

oz. d.

lb.

oz. d.

lb.

oz. d.

lb.

oz. d.

July j
August 1

10 a

«4 14

6 18

13 3

4 14

2 12

14 14

49*

18 16

S 7

6Si

• •

August "^
September )

10 6

3 a6

17 19

6 19

3 9

S 10

I IS

18 I

S II

ai 2

S 9

• •

September |
October )

10 4

3 3

16 6

7 I

6 17

a 13

16 17

4 8

13 4

3 16

• •

October |
November )

13 8

21 10

9 18

S 4

a 3

S 9

1 7

19 10

7 17

as 6

4 a

II 7 ■■

December . .

9 9

31 9

9 18

7 2

3 S

6 12

a 8

13 16

3 5

14 10

3 7

12 10 ;

1877.

February • .

10 16

2 15

32 2

II 5

3 5

a 4

13 9

a S

I 13

3 14 <

March • •

8 I

I 7

23 10

5 9

I 13

I 9

5 16

3 a

ist

3 8 <

June

14 6

2 14

15 8

8 4

a 13

6oi

I IS

16 9

S I

33 I

6 9»

13 " ^

July

lo 3

3 27+

12 15

8 18

3 a

I 13

9 17

3 S

10 3

3 S

9 I 3

August

lo 10

I S

27 18

13 I

II 13

3 '4

a a

II 13

3 19

9 10

a 19

7 16 a

September .

9 I

1 19

22 5

10 7

10 8

3 5

a 13

I I

7 4

a a

'//

9 a

a 17

7 10 !

October . .

10 2

I 10

20 12

10 13

II 13

4 3

a 10

3 3

a IS

" S

3 8

8 16 :

1878.

March

»S 6

3 13

30 2

" 5

II 10

3 10

3 6

13 6

3 9

14 4

3 16

12 3 .

April

8 II

3 3

21 2

8 12

8 10

2 10

6oi

a 9

8 4

a S

9 «

a IS

6 IS

May

2 10

8 I

••

8 3

••

3 I

• •

3 17

••

1 7

June

7 4

I 14

20 10

9 «5

3 13

« IS

I 10

4 IS

3 6

761

4 II

• •

3 18

July

9 4

3 7

28 13

14 2

10 13

4 "

a 4

9 12

9 la

3 19

8 8

August

10 10

I 18

II 9

3 17

I II

I IS

8 4

a 10

10 7

3 19

9 S

August 30

9 5

I 9

sg 2

II 19

5 17

2 8

a 16

I I

II S

3 4

9 13

3 13

8 7
3

117 18

9 3

34 16

33 19

• New bottoms. Too little water, dry season, and insufficient grinding.

t Recovered some mercury from last parcel. Reduced the charge from 3t to 3^ buckets.
Grinding same time.

t i lb. lost actually, one of the mills working too close.

i 'I he quantity of silver not yet returned.

ARSENICAL.

II23

FROM ROSALKS' PROCESS,

!t Tyro
ills.

ese

Mercury

lb.

68*

7»

9»

•»"

■"■^

Third set Tyrolese
Mills.

1
ta

H
E

•0
"u
'>,

•a

1,1

Total
Return

of
Silver.

S
.3

1.5

•6

s
s

<4
rt

■3

d-g

;!
1

•a
s2

S
<

Mercury

•0

oz. d.

lb.

oz. d.

02. d.

oz. d.

oz.

lb.

oz. d.

oz. d. gr.

I s. d.

••

• •

••

63 12

31 15

3 3}

••

346

a44i

abt. 3s

19 10"

3 9 13

75 S

••

• •

••

74 "

as 3

a 4»

••

a4S

343!

30 9"

210

78 16 9

••

S5 17

17 18

I IS

••

346

246*

■•

16 3'

I 9 30

6a 4 4

II 7

» 7

s»

88 6

27 14

a 3i

••

398

296

24 I5>«

3 II 30

94 3 3

IS 10

3 9

74 19

34 13

3 13}

••

3i-

a9S5

a94l

30 19'^

3 4 8

80 IS 11*

3 '4

68 14

31 13

a9H

282

18 6'

70 10 ■:'"

a 8

5»

41 14

14 8J

I IS*

••

396}

379i

13 17'

■•

49 9 D'

13 12

4 ij

102 6

3S 8

a 7t

376*

381

■•

31 i6'«

••

133 6 9t

9 •

66 II

35 17

3 lot

37Si

37Sl

33 13"

••

87 19 S

7 i6

2 9

70 II

36 15

a I.J

37Si

375*

+
+

33 i8"

••

93 16 3

7 10

" 4

59 S

31 16

a 8i

37S

374*

19 10'

••

75 la 7

8 16

3 I

63 18

34 18

a 9l

(?)

37S

374^

••

33 6"

• •

85 18 10}

12 3

3 10

83 II

36 8

I lA

• .

. ,

376

374*

23 ll>'

• ■

90 16

6 IS

3 I

S6 a

18 16

a 4{i

••

37S

374*

••

17 0'

••

6S 10 S

1 7

••

33 13

8 7

3 Si

••

374

••

7 S'

••

37 18 9

3 18

••

38 17

14 16

I isU

••

37S

abt.3

37S*

••

13 3"

••

5° II 4 II

8 8

3 II

69 2

37 4

3 I8(

••

37S*

378II

34 9»

••

94 3 6

9 S

2 IS

60 8

21 4

I 16H

••

376

376*

••

18 18"

••

73 17 4tt

8 7

2 7

22 10

a m

••

37S

376

••

1 19 13"

• •

75 14 4Jt

37 19

a 6'

II Skimmed pyrites not put through.

ir The surplus from old barrel pyrites. The skimmed pyrites of this and last month were put through.
•• Gained.

ft Skimmed pyrites not put through.
%% The skimmed pyrites of this and last . -th were put through.

4 C 2

1*1^'

I I 24

AURIFEROUS ORES.

of the very satisfactory manner in which these improved Tyrolese mills
work, it may be pointed out that of 105 oz. 17 dwt. of gold, which, since
inclusive June 1877 — the period during which the process worked most
satisfactorily — passed through the second dolly, charged with 60 lb. of
mercury during the treatment of 1 18 tons of pyrites, only 9 oz. 3 dwt. of
gold were returned by the second dolly, whilst the

1st set of Tyrolese mills returned
2nd ,, „

3'tl M I.

Total from the 3 sets

34 oz. 16 dwt. of gold.
33 .. 19 •> ' .»

27 .. 19 >l M

96 oz. 14 dwt. of gold.

That is, that of 105 oz. 17 dwt. which passed through the second
dolly, it only saved 9 oz. 3 dwt. (8 • 5 per cent), whilst the balance, viz.
96 oz. 14 dwt., was recovered by the three sets of Tyrolese mills, most of
which, no doubt, would have been lost had the stuff been passed through
even a third dolly.

Taking the return of gold for the last 5 months, it is plain, since by
roasting the pyrites lose 33 '3 per cent, in weight, that the yield per ton
of calcined ore must be computed at one-half more gold than that re-
turned per ton of raw pyrites ; that is, that the yield of standard gold
for 54 tons 4 cwt. i qr. 19J lb. of raw pyrites having been at the rate of
2 oz. 4 dwt. 8 gr. per ton, the return per ton of calcined ore would be
equal to 3 oz. 6 dwt. 12 gr. — an average which was not obtained by
the calcining process, the return having been, as already stated, only
2 oz. 12 dwt. 14 gr., notwithstanding that the pyrites was clean, very well
calcined, and was obtained from richer stone than that from which the
54^ tons just mentioned, were obtained.

But, besides a larger percentage in gold, the new process saved 10^ oz.
of fine silver, value 2/. l is., whilst by the calcining process hardly any
silver is returned, at least of any commercial value. This in a great
measure explains the higher standard of the gold obtained by the latter
process.*

• The following are probably the reactions that take place during the calcining p-ooiss in the
Toasting-furnace, and explain how a certain quantity of silver is lost, and the gold obtained from
pyrites is of a higher standard if calcined previous to amalgamation in the Chilian mill, than
that obtained from pyrites not roasted previous to amalgamation. During the first hours that
the pyrites is exposed to an oxidizing fire — roasted — the nascent sulphur, the presence of which
is evidenced by the blue flames which constantly break through the charge, acts directly on the
finely-diffused particles of argentiferous gold, abstracting a certain portion of, if not all, the silver
from them, forming sulphide of silver, which is subsequently, towards the end of the roasting
process, altered into a soluble sulphate of silver, the temperature not being sufficient to change
the sulphate of silver into an oxide, much less into metallic silver. On treating and amalgamating
the thus roasted pyrites, grinding it wet in the pan of the Chilian mill, the soluble sulphate
of silver is washed out and carried off with the refuse ; and thus occurs the loss of silver, whilst,
on the other hand, its loss causes the gold obtained to be returned of a higher standard than it
was when first charged in the furnace, in its original state.

BISMUTH ; COBALT AND NICKEL.

II25

It may be that in those localities where large quantities of pyrites are
treated ar...jally in a central establishment, to which the cost of transit
from the mines is almost nominal, where the cost of machinery, materials
for building furnaces stores, fuel, &c., is low ; where good and cheap
labour can be obtained, and where all the bye-products produced, such as
sulphuric acid, white arsenic, sulphur, realgar, &c., can be readily sold at
a profit ; that the calcining process and the subsequent amalgamation or
chlorination or smelting of the roasted ore in conjunction with other ores
would be the more remunerative process, and technically would perhaps
be the more perfect ; but Rosales claims for the new process the following
advantages as regards the treatment of ordinary pyrites (iron- and arseni-
cal pyrites), viz. : — (i) That the pyrites at present allowed to run to waste
can easily be treated in small parcels on the premises of any mining
company situated in a mountainous district, or any other locality difficult
of access, as (2) no calcining-furnace is required, the erection of which
requires costly materials, not easily to be had in such places ; (3) that
the cost of manipulation is less than that of the system now in vogue,
which requires that the ore should be previously calcined in a reverbe-
ratory furnace, although tlie bye-products are valueless. (4) a, that a
larger average yield of gold is obtained per ton of ore ; and b that a
certain quantity of silver is obtained, which is lost by the ordinary
calcining process. (5) That the loss of mercury is practically nil,
whilst by the old process it varies from i| lb. to 2 lb. per ton of
calcined ore.

The Chilian mill used by Rosales is an improvement upon the
Peruvian trapiclie and on the edge-runner mills of Real del Monte and
Yendelaeneina in Spain, in that the two rollers are provided on the outside
face with a rim of white metal, and work on a revolving cast-iron pan
fitted with a white-metal false bottom, made in sections, which can easily
be replaced when worn out. The improvement in the Tyrolese mills
consists in the addition of metallic surfaces coated with mercury to the
faces of both runner and basin.

Bismuth. — The occurrence of auriferous bismuth-ores is compara-
tively rare (see p. 840). Bismuth alloys readily with mercury, but does
not seem to be so detrimental as antimony or arsenic. The sulphide
causes the mercury to separate into " flour," and gives rise to loss in the
same way as other sulphides. The sulphide of bismuth found at Maldon,
though containing up to 20 per cent, of gold, does not give it up to
mercury when triturated with the latter.

Cobalt and Nickel. — Cosmo Newbery's process for antimony-ores,
described on p. 11 08, embraces also the separation of cobalt and nickel as
chlorides. When they are associated with sulphur, arsenic, or antimony,
these latter are first removed by roasting ; when the cobalt and nickel

■*'.

\ •
"t

! .•:'■(:

l^'ilo I

1 126

AURIFEROUS ORES.

arc free from these associations, the ores are first pulverized or calcined,
then sufficient salt is added according to the assay, and the whole is
roasted in the presence of aqueous vapour till the cobalt and nickel are
converted into chlorides.

COPI'ER. — Copper is not injurious to the operations of recovering gold
from pyrites, except in reducing the standard of the gold with which it is
alloyed. On the other hand, by becoming amalgamated with mercury, it
may actually assist in collecting the fine particles of metal, in the same
way as amalgamated plates.

In dealing with auriferous ores containing copper, it should be borne
in mind that in some cases the copper- and magnetic pyrites are almost
free from gold, which is confined to the ordinary iron- and arsenical
pyrites. In such circumstances, careful mechanical dressing of the ore
might separate the auriferous non-cupreous from the cupreous non-au-
riferous portions, and each class could be treated alone for its particular
metal. But in other instances, the association and relative proportions of
the two kinds of pyrites do not admit of such a classification ; and again,
the cupreous pyrites are sometimes the most highly auriferous.

Under these latter conditions, metallurgical treatment must be re-
sorted to. The most simple plan is to smelt the ore, and produce a
copper regulus, which will contain most of the gold, sending the regulus
to Swansea for final treatment. This plan was long followed by the
owners of the Bethanga mines in Victoria. Their regulus contained 40
to 60 per cent, of copper, and 6 to 14 oz. of gold and 1 5 to 34 oz. of silver
per ton. The results were not satisfactory ; but much better returns were
got by reducing the stufif to coarse copper, containing 98 per cent, of
copper and 9 to 12 oz. of gold per ton.

Where cost of transport and other difficulties render this plan incon-
venient, recourse must be had to one of the many " processes " now to be
briefly described.

Claiidefs process.' — This process is carried out by Claudet and Phillips
for extracting the metals from the residue of Spanish cupreous pyrites,
used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, at Widnes, near Liverpool, in
the following manner, (i) The residue (burnt pyrites) is roasted at a
very low temperature, with the addition of common salt : the oxidation
of the metallic sulphides and the decomposition of the sodium chloride
give rise to the formation of sodium sulphate and soluble copper chloride,
with the chlorides of gold and silver, soluble in copper and sodium
chlorides. (2) The roasted mass is washed with water, to remove the
soluble chlorides, including those of the gold, silver, and copper. (3) A
weak solution of potassium or zinc iodide is added, to convert the soluble
silver chloride into insoluble. (4) The precipitated iodide of silver is
reduced by zinc plates, with formation of soluble zinc iodide, which is

COPPER.

I 127

utilized for precipitating the silver in subsequent operations. (5) The
reduced metals are melted, producing copper and auriferous silver.

By this process, the gold is obtained as a bye-product at very small
expense. But the conditions necessary for the success of the process
are probably present in no gold-mining district: they embrace (i) an
extensive manufacture of sulphuric acid, (2) an abundant and cheap
supply of salt, (3) a large demand for sodium sulphate, and (4) a ready
market for enormous quantities of iron oxide.

Henderson's process. — The Bcde Metal Co. formerly* adopted the
following method of separating the gold and silver from the solutions
obtained in lixiviating the calcined copper-ores, according to the wet
system originally introduced by W. Henderson. It depends on the fact
that when sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through a copper solution
containing a small proportion of 'ver, the latter metal is at first pre-
cipitated in much larger proportion than the former. In precipitating in
this way 5 or 6 per cent, of copper from ordinary copper liquors, con-
taining about 20 oz. of silver per ton of copper, no less than 80 per cent,
of the silver is precipitated. Sulphide of copper is obtained, containing
about 200 oz. of silver per ton of copper, and this is calcined and further
treated for the separation of the silver, ultimately yielding a residue con-
sisting of sulphates of lead and lime, oxide of iron, and chloride of silver,
the last-named metal amounting to 8 or 9 per cent, of the total weight of
residue. Henderson dilutes his solutions to 20° or 25° Tw., and adds a
very weak solution of lead acetate, by which he obtains a cream-coloured
precipitate containing about 53 per cent, of lead, 5 or 6 per cent, of silver,
and 3 oz. of gold to each ton of precipitate.

Hollwafs process. — Hollway's process for smelting the Spanish
copper-pyrites is based on the utilization of the sulphur in the sulphides
for conducting their combustion, and the application of the sulphurous
acid produced to the manufacture of sulphuric acid, or other purposes.
The first condition is that the whole of the oxygen of the air driven into
a thin stratum of protosulphide of iron (FeS) is utilized for oxidation ;
and the second, that by the heat evolved in the rapid oxidation of
sulphides, and without the use of extraneous fuel other than that
employed in producing a blast, — {a) about half the sulphur .contained in
the iron-pyrites (FeS2) is expelled in the free state ; {b) the remainder
of the sulphur, excepting that left with the regulus, is principally evolved
as sulphurous acid ; ic) though only about 20 per cent, of sulphur is
oxidized, the proportion of sulphurous acid to nitrogen is 14 '9, or larger

III

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* Thomas Gibb, Esq., President of the Tyne Chemical Society, in an obliging communi-
cation to the author, dated Dec. 4, 1880, states that this process is " now discontinued on
account of local circumstances. Claudet's process is now the only one used for treatment of
these liquors " in England.

II28

AURIFEROUS ORES.

than that commonly obtained by coppcr-smeltcrs who manufacture sul-
phuric acid ; {d) volatile metallic sulphides, such as arsenic and lead
sulphides, are distilled off with the sulphur ; {e) copper, silver, gold, and
nickel will be concentrated in the regulus, provided an excess of iron
sulphide is aivvays present. The quantity of coal necessary to produce
the blast, calculated on the oxygen requisite for the oxidation which
takes place, is l^ cwt. per ton of pyrites. The process seems chiefly
advantageous for copper-smelters treating rich copper-ores, and who can
utilize the sulphuric acid made.

Hunt and Douglas' process. — In the process invented by Prof Thomas
Sterry Hunt and James Douglas, the copper is removed from its ores in a
dissolved state, the solvent employed being an aqueous solution of neutral
iron protochloride and common salt. Most oxidized compounds of
copper, when digested in such a solution, are converted into a mixture of
protochloride and dichloride of copper, which are dissolved, while the
iron of the solvent separates in the form of insoluble hydrous peroxide of
iron. When the solution of the copper chlorides is brought into contact
with metallic iron, the copper is separated in a metallic crystalline state,
while the iron passes into solution, reproducing the iron protochloride,
which is fit for use on a fresh portion of copper-ore. The reactions
between the iron protochloride and the copper oxides may be thus
expressed : —

For the protoxide : 3 CujO, + 4 FeCl = 2 FcjO, + 2 Cu,Cl + 2 CuCl,

For the binoxide : 3 CujO + 2 FeCl = FejO, + 2 Cu,Cl + 2 Cu.

The metallic copper and protochloride react thus : 2 CuCl + 2 Cu = 2 CujCl.

The process is applicable to all ores of copper, but sulphuretted ores
must first be roasted. Auriferous and argentiferous ores, chlorinated by
this bath, may be subsequently treated either by dissolving the silver
from the washed residues by a solution of sodium hyposulphite or
chloride, or by amalgamation. The latter is preferable for ores carrying
gold : such should be treated with the bath in a raw state, or after simple
calcination. The process is very simple and inexpensive, is applicable to
all ores of cop^^er, requires no repeated addition of salts or acids, produces
a superior copper, and needs only f ton of iron for each i ton of copper
produced.

Mears' process. — The Mears' chlorination process is a modification of
the well-known Plattner's chlorination process, differing mainly in the
hastening of the combination of chlorine and metal by applying a con-
centrated solution of chlorine under pressure. Charges of pyrites of
about I ton each are treated in revolving, air-tight, lead-lined, iron
cylinders, 100 to 200 gal. of water being present with each charge.
When the chlorination is complete, the fluid mud is poured into a filter,

COPPER.

I 129

whence the gold chloride in solution runs to a precipitating-tank, where
it is thrown down by iron sulphate.

In this process, the ore has first to be de-sulphurizcd by roasting in a
reverbcratory or other furnace. The chlorine required may be generated
in whatever way is best adapted to the circumstances. When the chlori-
nation of a charge is completed, the excess of chlorine gas in the chlori-
nating cylinder and that absorbed by the water is withdrawn for rr-usc.
The chlorinated mass is leached to liberate the gold chloride in solution.
The gold is precipitated from the solution cither {a) by iron sulphate,
with subsequent washing with sulphuric acid and smelting with borax,
or (d) by filtering through charcoal, subsequently drying and incinerating
the mass, washing out the ashes, and smelting as before. It is said that
concentrated pyrites can be treated at a cost of less than $5 (bay i/.)
per ton in California.

Momtier's process. — Prof. Monnicr's sulphatization process is used at
the New Providence mine, Nevada. The ore is hand-picked and run
through Cornish rollers in the proportion of 80 per cent, of ore and 20
per c<^nt. of sulphate of soda, until it passes through screens with 576
hole^ )er sq. in. It is then fed into one of Bruckner's revolving roasting
furnaces, 40 ft. long by 5 ft. in diameter, with a fall of 6 in. for its length
towards the discharge end. The hearth is at the discharge end, and thus
the flames meet the slowly descending ores, whilst the furnace revolves
3 times a minute. The chemical reaction in this furnace is as follows.
The oxidation of sulphur produces sulphuric acid, which combines with
the soda, forming a bisulphate of soda, and when this substance ap-
proaches the vicinity of the hearth, near its final discharge from the
furnace, it is decomposed, and the bisulphate gives up sulphuric acid,
reacting on the sulphates and oxides that may have formed, at the same
time converting into soluble sulphates silver, copper, lead, &c., iron alone
remaining an oxide. The roasted ore is then placed in large tanks with
water for " lixiviation " or leaching, and the liquor obtained is passed
through layers of " cement copper " (pure) in other vats, in order to pre-
cipitate a portion of the sulphate of silver whilst the liquid retains a low
temperature. The remaining solution is then run through an evapo-
rating-pan, in order to regain the sulphate of soda for repetitionary use,
and in this manner the process is continued until insoluble residues are
obtained, which contain the gold and some silver ; these are carefully
ground in arrastras, and finally passed over electro-copper plates and
through mercury wells, upon and in which the more precious metals are
retained by amalgamation for subsequent retorting. The results obtained
are said to be at the rate of 88 to 93 per cent, on the assay for gold, 70
per cent, for silver, and the whole of the copper. An advantage claimed
for Monnier's process consists in the fact that in other processes the

"«(,v?

,lj

1130

AURIFEROUS ORES.

miners lose the silver during chlorination, and that chlorination of gold
takes 48 hours on the average, whereas, b}' this manipulation, all the
more valuable metals are collected, and this can be done in about half
the time.

PatiVs process. — The "electric dry amalgamating" process introduced
by Almarin B. Paul js widely adopted in California. It is mainly as
follows. The ore is first heated to dryness, and then reduced in the dry
way by any suitable machinery to a fineness that will allow it to pass
through No. 14 wire cloth. The crushed ore is next pulverized to fine
flour in a barrel, and thence conveyed to an iron, wooden, or earthen
cylinder, with the addition of 20 to 25 per cent, of mercury, the whole
being shaken up together for about an hour. The process '.' said to be
effective and cheap, and to entail only a small loss of mercury.

Plattner's process. — Plattner's original chlorination process has been
introduced with modifications by Deetken into Grass Valley, California,
and by the United Pyrites Co. into Sandhurst, Victoria. An account of
the modus operatidi of the latter has been most obligingly communicated
to the author by C. W. Chapman, the Co.'s manager, which may best be
reproduced in his own words.

" The operations to which concentrated pyrites is subjected are the
following : — (i) Oxidation and sometimes partial chlorination by roasting
in a revolving furnace ; (2) imorcgnation of the roasted pyrites in vats ;
(3) leaching with cold wate:, and filt-ation of the solution ; (4) precipita-
tion of the gold by sulphate of iron ; (j) smelting the auriferous residuum.
The finer the concentrates, the quicker and easier will the procesi, be
performed.

" By pyrites, is here meant the sulphides and arsenides of iron, copper,
zinc, and lead. The presence of galena, blende, or copper-pyrites does
not interfere with chlorination ; but when they are present, the roasting
must be protracted, and more carefully performed. Gold alloyed with
ID to 20 per cent, of silver is more easily obtained by this process than
when in a state of comparative purity. Coarse gold does not admit of
chlorination. Pan-tailings allow a perfect extraction of the gold by this
process. The presence of lime or magnesia makes chlorination of the
roasted pyrites troublesome ; the use of salt in roasting partially removes
this difficulty. If lime, baryta, &c., be present, hydiogen sulphide may
be used to precipitate the gold, and then the r.arthy metals will remain in
solution.

" The roasting is the most important part of the whole process, and
that on \. iiich the success of the subsequent operations depends. The
sooner after concentration that the pyrites is roasted the better, so that
no crusts or lumps may be formed by partial decomposition ; any hard
lumps must be sifted out, and subjected to some disintegrating process.

COPPER.

II3I

Not more than i per cent, of the sulphur shown by analysis should
remain after roasting in an unoxidized state.

" The construction of the furnace has but little influence on the
chemical results of roasting ; the best construction is that where the
flame of the fuel comes into direct contact with the pyrites. The chief
thing is to keep the cost down and this is obtained by revolving the
furnace, and so obtaining a mechanical stirring.

" In all furnaces, at the beginning of roasting at a low temperature,
the sulphur of the pyrites is set free, combining with the oxygen of the
air to form volatile sulphurous acid gas, which is well known by its odour.
The metals, by losing a part of their sulphur, are converted into oxides
and sulphates. Sulphate of iron is the precipitant of gold from the
chloride ; its presence is therefore objectionable, and it is necessary to
increase the heat by degrees in order to decompose the sulphates, and to
fo: oxides. Similar is the behaviour of arsenical nyiitcs ; arsenious
acia and sulphurous acid escape under the influence of heat and oxygen,
whilst oxides, arseniates, and sulphates remain, and are further decomposed
by increased heat. At the same time, all metallic iron derived from the
abrasion of the stamps must be converted into an oxide.

"After the sulphur and prsenic have been driven off, provided salt has
not been used, the gold remains free, and may bv. observed upon vanning
a sample. When salt is used, according to Plattner, AuCla is formed
below red-heat ; at 200° C. (392° F.), it changes to AuCl, and at a red-
heat it is converted into metallic gold.

" Assertions are made from time to time that gold is lost in roasting ;
but proofs are wanting : experiments only .show that gold in a very fine
state of division is carried to an inappreciable amount into the flue
by the draught.

" The furnaces used formerly by the United Pyrites Co. were rever-
beratory, 45 ft. long, 5 ft. 6 in. wide, with a sloping hearth, and port-holes
for stirring the pyrites during the roasting process. These answered the
purpose very well ; but desir .".'; a more economical roasting, a furnace
of boiler-plate has been built, in two sections, each lined wu'i brick, aiid
revolving independently. The total length is 90 ft. One section is 3 ft.
in diameter, and the other 4 ft, with a drop fror.^ one to the other.

" The time the pyrites o^-cupies in the furnace depends on its com-
position, and this may bo nearly enough ascertained by watching the
behaviour of a sample roasting in the muffle furnace. The faster or
slower the furnaces are revolved, the faster or slower will the pyrites be
passed through. The roasted pyrites runs into a truck, and is then
wheeled to the cooling-floor, where it is eventually moistened, and then
trucked to the thlorination-vats.

"The roastf_^ pyrites mi'.-st be moistened, so as to lie in an open

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II32

AURIFEROUS ORES.

working condition in the vat, and because the chlorine gas will act more
energetically upon the material in a moist condition than in the dry
state. The moistening may be conveniently done with a hose, turning
the mass over several times, so that no portion may remain dry ; and
the proper amount of moisture may be ascertained by compressing a
handful to form a lump, which should retain its shape until handled. If
too dry, more water may be added ; and if too wet, more dry material.

" The vats are made of wood, to hold i to 5 tons, and are shallow in
proportion to their diameter ; they are coated inside with a mixture of
pitch and tar, to prevent absorption of the gold solution : above the
bottom is an empty space about i in. high, covered with a false bottom
of perforated boards. The boards are supported by short pieces of wood,
leaving sufficient space for the chlorine gas to pass. Over the false
bottom a filter is made in the following manner : — ist layer, i- to i J-in.
quartz gravel ; 2nd layer, J-in. ; 3rd, |-in. ; then coarse sand ; and finally
fine sand ; making a filter about 5 in. thick ; this filter remains always in
the vat, unless repairs have to be effected. Under the false bottom are
three holes, two by which chlorine may be introduced, and the third for
the discharge of the lixivium. After a charge has been removed, the
filter retains a great deal of moisture, which is drawn up into the new
charge ; therefore some dry material is placed first upon it, to absorb
this moisture.

" The moistened pyrites is sifted into the vat, that it may be evenly
and loosely distributed, and to free it from any stones or crusts formed
during the roasting. This is done by pushing the sieve to and fro upon
two pieces of quartering over the vat.

"There are three lo-ft. vats, one 8-ft. and one 6-ft., all 3 ft. high.
The covers are made gas-tight and fit into a step, which is luted round
with linseed-meal when the gas rises to the top. They are raised and
lowered by a block and tackle.

" The chlorine gas is generated in an earthenware vessel of about
20 gal. capacity, like a large jar, only ihat the top, besides the central
large opening, has two smaller ones, one containing a pipe, bent some-
what like the letter S. with the outt;r end widened for a funnel, through
which the sulphuric acid is introduced ; the other conveys the chlorine
through a washing apparatus to the vat.

" The gas-generator stands on bricks in a wooden tub containing
water heated by steam, and this tub stands on a truck so that it may be
moved for cleaning the generator, or connecting with any one of the row
of vats.

" When a vat has been charged within 6 in. of it., top, two generators
are put into position, and connected with the vat. Into each generator,
for a lo-ft. vat, are put 16 lb. of manganese, 17 to 20 lb. of salt, 35 lb. of

?'■'.'

COPPER.

II33

sulphuric acid, and 20 lb. of water ; all but the sulphuric acid are intro-
duced through the cenf-'al opening, and lastly the sulphuric acid is run
through the leaden pipe referred to before. The chlorine ga'' iS not allowed
to pass directly to the vat,. but through a washing apparatus, made by
half filling a wash-basin with warm water, and conveying the gas from the
generator into it by a leaden pipe, the mouth of which is turned upwards,
and placed J in. under the water. Another pipe, turned the same way,
but with its mouth above water, leads into the vat ; over the mouths of
both these pipes, and reaching down into the water, is a Winchester
quart bottle with the bottom cut off. By this means the gas is washed
free from hydrochloric acid. Twice a day is often enough to change the
water, which is used warm because warm water absorbs less chlorine
than cold.

" The object of this apparatus is not only to wash the chlorine, but to
afford an indicator of the progress in the generator. The bottle must
show a greenish gas, and the bubbling should be lively ; should this
not be the case, the remedy is more sulphuric acid, until the last of
the allowance is used up ; afterwards steam is turned on in the tub to
heat the contents of the generator, and from time to time the contents
are stirred through the large opening to prevent caking. The vat, after
the pyrites has been sifted in as described, is left uncovered until the
gas reaches the top of the charge, which should be within 3 to 6 hours ;
progress is ascertained by the odour of samples, taken by hand, from
beneath the surface. When the gas has been within an inch or so of
the top, the cover is brought down and luted on with linseed-meal ; no
escape of gas is allowable, as the respiration of chlorine is not only
injurious but verj' disagreeable, so the cover must be quite impervious.
A small hole closed by irk is opened from time to time, to ascertain
if the gas is up to the top , Wis is done by presenting a glas, rod dipped
in ammonia at the hole, when, if chlorine is present, copious white fumes
are given off. The chlorine is now permitted to operate upon the gold
for 12 to 16 hours.

"After the allotted time, the cover is unluted and ra' cd by block and
tackle. A spout affixed to a piece of quartering is placed on the vat, and
the hose is turned into it. When the vat is full, nd no air-bubbles appear,
the outlet leaden tube is opened, and the water of lixiviation is allowed to
run from under the false bottom into 30-gal. earthonw ire pans, care being
taken that the hose delivers a quantity of water siin~ ,cnt to keep the vat
full, so that as' much may be replaced as runs uL below. The flow is
allowed into the earthenware precipitating-pans until about 90 gal. has
run after the last reaction was obtained in a test-tube with sulphate of
iron ; the supply through the hose is then stopped, and the vat is allowed
to drain until the time comes for throwing out the tailings.

•' In 'E

St":

»!■) 48

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II34

AURIFEROUS ORES.

" The precipitating-pans are of glazed earthenware, made at a local
pottery ; they are twice the height of their diameter, and have a
capacity of 30 gal. ; 5 stand on a turntable, on a truck, and their tops
are about 6 in. below the bottoms of the vats. After the addition of
sulphate of iron, they remain undisturbed all night ; in the morning, the
clear liquid is syphoned into a drain, and runs away, and the auriferous
deposit is concentrated into pans standing at a lower level.

" The sulphate of iron is made from scrap iron and dilute sulphuric
acid in a series of earthenware pans ; some is made every day, and the
clear solution from that made the week before comes into use.

" The quantity of sulphate of iron used is always in excess of that
supposed to be required, and the test of sufficiency is made by filtering
a small quantity of the liquid from the precipitating-vat, adding some
sulphate of iron solution, and noting whether the mixture darkens in
colour ; if it does, more sulphate of iron must be added. When all the
auriferous precipitate has been collected into one pan, a fine spray being
used finally within the upper series of pans, this is allowed to settle ; the
supernatant liquid is then syphoned off, and the precipitate is thrown on
filter-papers within large funnels, and filtered ; the precipitate is well
washed, dried in a hot-air oven, and finally smelted in Hessian crucibles,
a little nitre, carbonate of soda, borax, and salt being used as fluxes.

" The tailings from the vats are thrown out with a shovel into a trough,
and sluiced out of the building. This trough is laid down with coir
(coco-nut fibre) matting to arrest any stray particles of coarse gold which
have resisted chlorination ; the gold obtained from this source, though
small in amount per ton, reaches an appreciable quantity per annum.

" Remarks. — Blende is troublesome, on accour-*^ ^i the difficulty there
is in driving off the sulphur. Antunuiiy sulphide is still more so, because
it agglomerates, and fuses so readily. The presence of 6 per cent, of
galena does not prevent the gold being successfully obtained ; a higher
percentage has not been experienced.

" American and German writers give 95 per cent, of the assay as the
average yield from successful chlorination ; but percentages are delusive,
as the following will illustrate : —

oz. dwt. 02. dwt. gr. oz. dwt. gr.

Assay 10 o per ton .. 95 per cent =9 10 o ; loss 5 per cent = o 10 o
Assay o 10 per ton .. 95 per cent =0 9 i 2 ; loss 5 per cent = o o I2

" In dealing with percentages, the work has been done equally well in
both instances, which is absurd, as the loss in the first is equal to the
total amount as shown by assay in the second.

" The condition of the pyrites being the same, the loss is practically
constant, or about 2 dwt. per ton, no matter whether assaying 10 dwt. or
20 oz. per ton. Any increase in the loss is due to faulty condition, as

COPPER.

II35

coarse crushing, or lumps and accretions caused by partial decomposition
having set in.

" The United Pyrites Co.'s chlorination works have been established
for about 4 years, and have been in constant operation during that time ;
about 50 tons per week is the capacity. For 5 years previous to this,
the same company operated amalgamatioii works successfully.

" The progress of the work is — 2 vats are charged and 2 emptied
every day.

" The process, from the time the pyrites goes into the furnace to the
time when the gold is ready for sale, occupies 10 days on the average.
Over 3 tons is the average per diem through a month's or 12 months' run.

Prices of Materials with Carriage added.

f, s. d.

Manganese .. .. .. .. 60 o per ton in the lump.

Salt .. .. .. .. .. 3 10 o from neighbouring lakes.

Sulphuric acid 12 o o per ton (i'720 sp. gr.).

Labour, 35 j'. to 55^. per week.

Carpenters, masons, and bricklayers, 6of. per week.

Wages and supervision amount to about 20J. per ton."

The apparatus is shown in Figs. 183 and 184. The reference letters
indicate as follows. Fig. 183 : a, truck conveying roasted pyrites out-
side the building ; b, shoot to convey same inside ; c, heap of roasted

Fig. 183.

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Chlorination as conducted at Sandhurst.

ore ; d, truck for generator ; e, tub in which generator stands ; /, gene-
rator with stirrer ; g, sulphuric-acid pipe ; h, chlorine pipe ; i, wash-basin ;
_/, Winchester quart with bottom off; k, chlorine pipe ; /, vat filled to
within 6 in. of top ; m, filter bed ; «, space under the false bottom ;
<7, rope or chain for lifting the lid ; /, pipe for conveying lixivium into
precipitating-pans ; q, sluice-trough ; r, water main ; s, indiarubber hose ;
t, peg to hang up hose ; u, earthenware precipitating-pans ; v, turntable ;
w, truck for pans ; x, drain ; y, concentrating-pan ; z^ filter ; «', drying-

II36

AURIFEROUS ORES.

oven and muffle ; b\ steam-pipe ; d, hose. Fig. 184 : a, where the pyrites
is fed in by a boy ; b, drop on cast plate from upper to lower furnace ;
Cy supplementary fire for starting the upper furnace ; d, where the roasted

Fig. 184.

-»fcV

BUB^

Chlorination as conducted at Sandhurst,

pyrites runs into a truck ; e, fire-place ; /, air-flue ; ^, door for clearing the
dust away ; /i, flue leading to chimney ; k, cog-wheels to take driving-
gear ; m, wrought-iron hood over the junction.

Waskoe process. — The Comstock ores are divided into first, second,
and third classes, according to their treatment. The first class forms
but a small proportion. The ore of this class is crushed dry, roasted
with salt ( a modification of Plattner's chlorination), and amalgamated.
The ores of the second and third classes are subjected to the " Washoe
process " proper, which consists simply in reduction by wet crushing,
and subsequent pan-amalgamation, in the apparatus fully described in
the preceding chapter.

Iron ores. — Iron has no effect upon the amalgamating qualities of
mercury under ordinary conditions ; but mercury containing about i per
cent, of sodium-amalgam will decompose iron salts, and produce what is
termed " iron-amalgam." Hence the use of too much sodium may defeat
its own object by causing the mercury to take up (though only tempo-
rarily) the base metals.

In all gold-mining districts, immense quantities of iron-pyrites are
produced. It has often been suggested that this pyrites should be
treated in the same way as similar ores are dealt with in England for
the production of alum, sulphur, and sulphate of iron. Stacks could be
made of alternating thin layers of pyrites, aluminous shales, and fuel, and
thus the gold would be left in the residue in a condition suitable for
amalgamation. By simple exposure to the atmosphere and weather for
a prolonged period, the pyrites undergoes considerable oxidation, with
consequent liberation of the gold. Heaps of pyrites thus exposed are
often sold to Chinamen, who make a good profit by their manipulation.
But oxidation by natural means is necessarily a very slow operation,
and several forms of furnace have been introduced for hastening it.

IRON ORES : LEAD ORES.

1^37

Fig. 185.

Denny's Drop-furnace.

In Denny's self-acting drop-furnace (Fig. 185), the pyrites is delivered
into a hopper on the top plate of the furnace. This plate has a self-
acting grate, which, acting automatically, admits the necessary quantity
of pyrites on to the second floor. The arm a revolves with the shaft If,
and the loose rake c sweeps the py-
rites round the iron floor, thus present-
ing fresh particles of the matter under
treatment to the passing oxygen. The
top floor is for drying only. The next
floor retains a charge of about 4 cwt.
for 20 minutes, during which time it is
continually stirred by the revolving
arm, thus preventing caking, and
ensuring free access of the oxygen to
every particle of pyrites. At the end
of the time named, the boy in attend-
ance opens the hole in the floor by
shifting a slide d, when the revolving
arm sweeps the whole of the charge
round, dropping it on the next floor.
The operation of opening the slides
and allowing the charge to drop is
continued from floor to floor until it

reaches the bottor- thoroughly and completely oxidized. The furnace
is built on a brick foundation, which supports the lower plate e. The
next plate is 1 5 in. apart, and the others an equal distance. The shaft 6
passes through the centre of the plates, and is fitted with wrought-iron
arms, which have loose rakes attached to them for sweeping the floors.
The fuel is burnt on the bars ^, and the products of combustion pass
over the bridge /; into the first floor, thence into the second, as indicated
by arrows, and on the top. The free oxygen enters the hot-air furnace j,
and passes into the third and fourth floor, combining with the base
metals it comes into contact with. The carbon of the wood, having
entered into union with its full amount of oxygen in the furnace, cannot
take up any more. It therefore merely passes through the flues, heating
the pyrites it comes into contact with, thus preparing it for entering
into union with the free oxygen. The vertical shaft is driven by a pair
of bevel-wheels m, and causes the whole of the arms to revolve, k is the
fireplace, and /, the hopper.

Lead ores. — Various ores of lead, such as galena (sulphide), anti-
monial lead, sulphate, carbonate, arseniate, and phosphate of lead, are
often met with in auriferous veins. The metallic lead derived from
them has a highly detrimental effect upon the amalgamation process,

4 D

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1 138

AURIFEROUS ORES.

causing a loss of gold-amalgam and mercury, through the lead-amalgam
rising to the surface of the mercury as a frothy scum, Ctiiiying with it
any gold-amalgam that may be present, and, by forming a coating over
the mercury, preventing it taking up any gold that may pass over its
surface. The lead-amalgam, when thus brought to the top, is easily
broken up and carried away in a fine state of division by a stream of
water passing over it. The whole of the lead-amalgam does not rise at
once, and cannot be completely removed by simple skimming ; but the
more the mercury holding it is agitated, the quicker it rises. Metallic
lead is sure to be reduced from any of the ores by the operation of
roasting, and losses will therefore be increased in that way.

Austrian process. — At Lend, in Austria, a fusion process is used for
the very poor ores of Zell, Rauris, and Boeckstein (see pp. 708-9). These
ores contain arsenical pyrites, the sulphides of antimony, copper, iron,
lead, and zinc, and a very small proportion of gold and silver, alloying
15*33 gold ^"<^ 84*67 silver. The operations carried out are as
follows : — (i) Fusion for raw matte, (2) roasting of raw matte in stalls,
(3) fusion without lead for a more concentrated matte, (4) roasting 2nd
matte in stalls, (5) fusion with lead, (6) cupellation of rich lead.

The 1st fusion is in a furnace 24 ft. high, 3 ft. diam. of hearth, 4*5 ft.
diam. of boshes, 2 ft. diam. of throat ; 2 tuyeres ; |^ to ^ in. of mercury ;
worked with a black throat.

The 1st matte averages in composition: iron, 55' i; copper, 4*3;
zinc, 3"7 ; lead, 2* i ; nickel, cobalt, arsenic, and antimony, 4* 5 ; sulphur,
27-9 ;= 97 '6. It contains 30 to 40 oz. troy of aur. rous silver per ton.

The 1st matte is roasted 3 times in stalls containing 28 tons, and
then worked with most extreme care in a furnace with a larger hearth
and under much less pressure.

The 2nd matte is roasted as before, but with different conditions ;
when the hearth is full of melted matte, it is tapped, and the products run
into a basin, where they are well stirred with poles. The matte is then
partially taken off, the lead remaining until 600 to 700 lb. have collected.
For a perfect extraction of the silver, it is necessary to charge 1 20 to
130 lb. of lead for each i lb. of silver and gold, which extracts 75 per
cent, of these metals in one operation. The extraction of 75 per cent, of
auriferous silver means that more than 90 per cent, of the gold and 73
per cent, of the silvci has been obtained, A second operation removes
so much more that, including amalgamation, where the loss is very
great, more than 90 per cent, of the silver and 96 per cent, of the gold is
obtained. This second operation takes place only when the matte is
worked for copper. At other times, the gold and silver are obtained by
charging the matte back in the first operation. If the 3rd matte is rich
enough, it is fused with lead a second time ; if it contains 35 per cent, or

SILVER ; TELLURIUM ORES.

II39

more of copper, it is worked for that ; if under, it is roasted, and returned
as a flux to the first fusion for raw matte.

Cupellation is performed in a German furnace of peculiar construction
in a special way. Raymond recommends this process for the Colorado
ores which are of a similar character.

Richmond process. — The ore from the Richmond mine, Nevada, is put
into a blast furnace, and the lead, which is present chiefly in the form of
carbonate, runs out, carrying the silver and go' d. This alloy is afterwards
treated by a retining process, based on the Pattison process, but worked
by steam, after the .system of Luce fils et Rogan of Marseilles, which
separates it into soft lead free from precious metals, and a richer portion
containing all the precious metals ; the latter is cupelled in the usual way
till all the lead is driven off, and an alloy of silver and gold is left in the
cupel, to be run ofl" into bars (" dor6 " bars, so-called), and sent to market
as gold and silver alloys (see Silver).

Silver. — All native gold is alloyed with silver, the latter often form-
ing by far the greater proportion of the alloy. At Freiberg, the following
simple plan is adopted for their separation. The alloy is collected in a
granular form by allowing the molten metal to drop into water. The
silver is then dissolved out by heating with double its weight of sulphuric
acid in a cast-iron vessel in a reverberatory furnace. The gold remains
undissolved, and sinks to the bottom. When first collected, it is still
combined with much silver. It is washed with hot water, and again
heated with sulphuric acid, until purified from silver and acid.

The gold and silver alloy obtained from the Richmond ores (see
Lead) is granulated and thrown into a cast-iron vessel containing boiling
sulphuric acid, which attacks the silver (when the gold contents do not
exceed ^ or \ oi the silver), leaving the gold in a porous mass at the
bottom of the vessel. The gold is collected, squeezed under a hydraulic
press to remove the acid, melted, and refined. The silver solution (sul-
phate) is conveyed to a large leaden tank, in which are suspended copper
plates ; by them the silver is thrown down, and is subsequently collected,
squeezed, melted, and refined. The copper solution is then evaporated,
and the blue copperas is collected in the usual way, to be sold to silver-
mills, where it finds a use in the amalgamating-pans.

Tellurium ores. — The ores produced by the mines of NagyAg
and Offenbdnya, in Hungary, and by some others (see p. 844), are re-
markable as containing a comparatively large proportion of tellurium,
which, although it has hitherto been of no commercial importance, has
latterly been in some demand on account of a new application for the
construction of thermo-electric batteries. The following experiments
have been undertaken to discover a cheaper method of production than
those heretofore in use.

4 D 2

i ' k!

II40

AURIFEROUS ORES.

The ore, as delivered for smelting, was found to be of the following
average composition : quartz, 30 to 40 per cent.; carbonate of lime, 10 to
20 per cent. ; carbonate and sulphide of manganese, 1 5 to 20 per cent. ;
alumina, 5 to 8 per cent. ; galena, 5 to 8 per cent. ; copper-pyrites, i to
2^ per cent. ; blende, I to 4 per cent. ; and small quantities of cobalt,
nickel, antimony, arsenic, tellurium, gold, and silver.

When such a mixture of minerals is roasted, portions of the tellurium
and gold are volatilized, and may be recovered in properly-constructed
condensing-chambers. The manganese compounds are converted into
manganic oxide, while the greater part of the gold is reduced, so that
about 50 per cent, of the total amount may be saved by amalgamation.
By subsequent treatment of the roasted ore with weak hydrochloric acid,
which can be done in wooden vats lined with lead, chlorine is generated
in considerable quantity, through the action of the manganic oxide, and
the whole of the valuable metals present, with the c-.ception of silver,
which remains in the insoluble portion, are converted into soluble chlo-
rides. Any excess of chlorine produced in this operation is economized
by condensation in water, which gives a liquor that can be used for
redissolving the crude tellurium. The solution of chlorides obtained by
this treatment is next cleared from lime and lead, which are precipitated
as sulphates, by the addition of sulphuric acid. The separation of these
sulphates is effected by subsidence and decantation, as filtration is found
to present considerable difficulties.

Gold is next precipitated from the clear solution by the addition of a
solution of sulphate of iron ; and after filtration, tellurium, by the action
of metallic zinc, which produces a black, muddy precipitate. This may,
after washing with hydrochloric acid and rapid drying, be converted into
crude tellurium by fusion, with any flux, in a porcelain crucible ; but the
product so obtained invariably contains lead, copper, nickel, and anti-
mony, and it is therefore preferable to redissolve the first telluriferous
precipitate in chlorine-water, and subject the solution for a considerable
time to the action of sulphuric acid, whereby tellurium in a high state of
purity can be obtained.

The original residue of the chlorination treatment contains, in addition
to silver as chloride, some gold in a soluble state. By the addition of
sulphate of iron to these residues when in a moist condition, the gold
may be reduced, and the substance is then fit for treatment by amal-
gamation ; but fusion with lead, when it can be done, is generally
preferable.

The following results were obtained in an experiment conducted
according to the above principle: 14*5 lb. of tellurium ore, containing
14 dwt. of gold and 13-9 dwt. of silver, were roasted for lig hour in a
muffle-furnace. The loss of weight was equal to 7'2 per cent, and 0*35

ZINC ORES.

I 141

per cent, of gold and 3 • 8 per cent, of silver were computed as lost by
volatilization. The roasted ore weighed 14*3 lb., of which quantity
13*2 lb. were taken for subsequent treatment by chlorine. This was
effected by mixing it with 10*4 pints of water, 6'8 pints of crude hydro-
chloric acid (25° B.), and 10 "6 oz. of concentrated sulphuric acid. The
addition of the acid was attended with effervescence, owing to the rapid
evolution of carbonic acid and chlorine.

After 24 hours, the solution was diluted by the addition of 6' 8 pints
of water; the whole contents of the dissolving vat were stirred well
together and allowed to settle for two hours, when the clear liquor was
drawn off. This operation was repeated three times, giving a total
quantity of 2 gal. of liquor, which was then treated with a solution of
green vitriol (3*5 pints of 25° B.) in order to separate the gold. This
was completely effected in 24 hours, and the resulting gold, after being
washed, dried, and cupelled with lead, weighed I0"S dwt. or 82 '2 per
cent, of the total contents of the ore treated — an amount that might
have been increased to 90 per cent, if the washing of the residue had
been more completely carried out.

The liquor remaining after the separation of the gold was next
treated with 4-4 lb. of commercial zinc. The black mud precipitated,
after standing 24 hours, when washed, dried, and melted, yielded
19-3 dwt. of crude tellurium, or about 0-43 per cent, of the weight of
the ore operated upon. The consumption of zinc was about 3 per cent,
of the weight of the ore. The argentiferous residues were found to
contain 2' 5 dwt. of gold and 10*9 dwt. of silver. The final result
therefore, gave about 2 per cent, of gold in excess of that indicated by
assay, while the loss of silver was about 8 "9 per cent. These differences,
especially that of the gold, may be ascribed partly to the difificulty of
sampling, owing to the unequal distribution of very rich minerals in the
mass of earthy substances forming the ore, and partly to the irregular
loss by volatilization of the precious metals with the tellurium in the
assaying processes, which is always observed with these minerals. This
method is likely to be of considerable value to the Nagydg and Ofifen-
banya mines, in the event of a demand for tellurium arising on a large
scale.

Zinc. — If gold is exposed at a dull-red heat to the vapour of zinc, a
brittle alloy is formed, the zinc being taken up by the gold in the same
manner as arsenic. This alloy is easily amalgamated by mercury, but of
course reduces the standard value of the gold.

Auriferous ores containing zinc are genera'.ly also plumbiferous, and
are treated as described under Lead.

f U

II42

AURIFEROUS ORES.

Retorting Amalgam.

Except where the gold is collected as a salt or in a pure metallic
state, the final operation is to subject the mercurial amalgam to the
influence of heat, in order to disengage the mercury for further use, and
leave the gold in a separate state.

The heating of the amalgam is performed in retorts, built into fire-
brick furnaces, care being taken to construct the fireplaces so as to
allow the flames to have full play upon the retorts. The latter are of
cast iron, cylindrical in form, to permit their being turned round should
one side become burnt. The usual size at large works is 5 ft. long, the
inside cylindrical portion being 3 ft. long by I ft. in diameter, and made
of i^-in. cast iron. The neck gradually contracts to 2^ in. diameter for
a length of 2 ft., the; end of the neck being furnished with a flange, to
which the condcnsing-pipe is bolted. The condensing-pipe bends down-
wards, and passes through a body of water contained in a vessel con-
structed of boiler-iron, the water-supply and escape being continuous,
and thus ensuring constant coolness, so as to effect the condensation of
the volatilized mercury. The amalgam to be retorted is first squeezed
through chamois-leather to express the superfluous mercury which is
capable of separation in this way, and is then placed in the retorts in
cast-iron trays.

( i'43 )

APPENDIX TO CHAPTER I.

Additional notes on Chili (pp. 231-5).

The following trnnscript of a letter addressed by Alexander Bertrand,
Civil Engineer ot Mines, to Francisco Vidal y Gormaz, and kindly
forwarded by the latter gentleman to the author in response to a request
for information on gold in Chili, arrived from the translator's hands too
late for incorporation in the text.

"Santiago, Chili, 10 Dec. 1881.

" I have the pleasure of replying to your esteemed letter of the ist inst., in
which you ask for information concerning the gold-washing of Niblinto, of which
I have been manager throughout its working. In view of the object of your
inquiries, I shall be as brief as I can without omitting the notice of anything of
importance. I shall also annex to some technical terms the corresponding words
in English, in order to facilitate the translation to the person interested.

" The gold-washings (called in California " placers ") of Niblinto are situated in
36° 40' S., some 10 to 12 leagues to the east of the city of Chilian ; the auriferous
deposits lie between various ravines or gullies, which join a little below the said
gold-washings, forming one of the deep valleys which deliver their wateis into the
river Cato, an affluent in its turn of the larger river Truble. The rivers and
ravines mentioned determine the form of certain hills and ridges, which come
down from the Andes. This region was formerly a dense forest, but now the
greater part of it is cleared. The geological character of the locality is, in its
base, granitic, and especially fel^jjathic. In the bottoms of some ravines may be
seen the hard granite, granitic conglomerate, and homogeneous felspathic rock ;
but in the rocky hills these rocks have been decomposed to such a degree, that
the bed-rock of the 'gold-washing' is in general a kind of clay, spotted with grains
of mica, but which still retains the structure of its original rock, from which it
differs only in its softness. In the rocky hill itself, called ' of the Nalcas,' the
lower parts of which contain the auriferous deposits, the homogeneous felspathic
rock contains lodes and strings (or veins) carrying gold, and in the old workings
are found china-clays forming the side-walls of the lode. These lodes, the
probable source of the auriferous deposits of the present gold-washings, though
narrow, have been productive, and were abandoned by their primitive workers,
through having arrived at a depth at which the water flooded the work. Returning
to the gold-washing, it is to be noted that the surface of the bed-rock is irregular,
and that this irregularity, due to its origin, has been increased by the erosive
action which produced the deposit. This, which differs much from the auriferous
gravels, is rather a conglomerate, kept together by a clayey cement, which
contains many pebbles of an irregular and oblong form. These are of granite

'•''1'

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f'^'.\\

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*''■'■- ■•1

'Ji • ■' ■' 1

1144

APPENDIX TO CHAPTER I.

anf porphyry, of no great size, and their edges and corners indicate no long
exposure to the action of running water. This deposit does not extend
uniformly over all tne bed-rock, but lies in ' leads ' parallel to the ravines, and
also in irregular patches. As Domeyke mentions in his account ol nis travels
in 1848, ' neither pebbles of quartz, nor of iron-ore, nor of other mineral substances
which are usu.illy found in auriferous ground (meaning gold-washing ground) are
met with in tlris locality, but only round or reniform pieces of jasper and
chalcedony, which seem to result from the destruction of the secondary
porphyries, which throughout the Andes overlie the granite.' This stratum, or
manto as the miners call it, is the most auriferous part of the deposit, and the
only one that pays to work. It contains the gold in the forms of leaves and
spongy grains ("curly" gold they call it), frequently with adherent pieces of
quartz, having come, doubtless, from the lodes and veins. The value of the
produce in gold of this auriferous bed or manto has in some parts reached Sio
and even Hzc (of say 4J. each) per cub. mfetre. In others, it has been ^3 to 6,
and in the poorest part, which remains unwrought, falls to K2 or even to %h,
or less. There rre also in many places mantos barren of gold. These are
called there mantin -ones, and they generally contain less hard stones than
the productive bed.

'' The thickness of the manto or productive bed varies like its produce.
Generally net exceeding \\ mbtre, it in some places reaches 3 or 4 mfetres, but
does not retain I'e latter thick. less for any considerable distance. Above the
manto occur various strata of clays and china-clays, called there inasacotes, which
in some parts alternate and mingle with the muntos and manturrones ; and over
the ground thus formed extend various uniform alluvial strata of clayey earth
covered superficially by a stratum of vegetable soil, quite without calcareous
matter, known by the name of tnimao. In places these clay strata give a little
very minute gold (specks), reaching So '40 per cub. mfetre, br . cannot in general
be considered productive. In the lands bordering on the auriferous deposits,
the bed-rock is found immediately beneath the vegetable soil.

" This gold-washing was discovered, I believe, in 1845, and was in 1848
when Domeyke visited the mountains of Chilian, in its greatest activity, as the
village of ' the minef ' counted then 3000 to 4000 inhabitants. Domeyke thus
describes the process then employed by tho miners of the locality. ' Firoc a
cuning is made, near the lower end or side of the auriferous deposit, vertically
from the surface down to the bed-rock itself; from this point a trench is cut, of
sufficient width and fall to carry off the muddy water, to the nearest point at
which the ground may be low enough to afford it a free exit. Then water is
conducted from the nearest stream tha comes from the high lands, so as to fall,
as if from r. spout, over the inn>?r and deepei end of this cutting. The ground is
thus broken up and disintegrated, and the clay and other earthy matters are
waihed away by the r'^^ent, this effect being assisted by the use of rakes with
one Iroad '^uL pointed tooth, called ulmocdfrcs. When a convenient quantity of
..uund has been thus broken up and washed, the cutting is ' cleaned up,' that
is, the stones whicn lie heaped in the end of the cutting,' under the .^stream
of water, are collected by hand, and built into rude walls on either side of tl»e
excavation, so as to occupy the least space possible, if necessar}-, the stream of

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON CHILI.

"45

water is partially cut off while this is going on. The remaining deposit in the
bottom of the cutting will consist of small gravel, coarse sand (some of which is
ferruginous), and gold. The gravel and coarse non-ferruginous sand are separated
from the gold by washing by hand in wooden pans {bateas), and the ferruginous
sand (black) is taken out with a magnet. The gold alone then remains. The
operation of washing and breaking up ground is then resumed until another
cleaning-up day comes. When it becomes necessary, the stream of water is
shifted to the right or left, and carried forward so as to commence the attack on a
fresh strip of auriferous ground, and so on until the whole auriferous deposit be
worked out.'

" The extraction of the gold from the mineral of the lodes or veins used to be
accomplished by a very primitive method of amalgamation : grinding the auriferous
rock with mercury in certain stone mills, called marayes. As you know, the
process I have described has been the only one used at Niblinto for many years,
and there is no doubt that it is very rational, when applied to a deposit so
irregular. Less than lo years ago a company was formed to work this auriferous
ground by the hydraulic method ; unfortunately the preliminary examinations
were somewhat incomplete, and, relying on an inspection of the part already
worked, the extent and richness of the rf^rvrn'^Jngr auriferous ground was
exaggerated. The hydraulic machinery, with its pipes, giants, and nozzles, was
erected, a long canal was excavated, to bring the water to the height required to
obtain a sufficient pressure or * head,' and lastly also there was excavated and
constructed a sluice-box with block-pavement. But the first year's working of all
this revealed that the richest part of the deposit had been already worked out,
with the exception of some patches ; while the examinations made by myself
during my administration very much narrowed the limits of the auriferous ground.
On the other hand, the discontinuity of the vanto renders the hydraulic method
very expensive, owing to the g-eat length of pipes required. The company has
had to abandon, for the present l«: leaat, its enterprise, having sunk in it a sum of
money by no means inconsiderable.

" I have paid a visit to the gold-washing at Catapilco, not far from the coast, to
the North and near Valparaiso, and am able to add sonie particulars concerning
that locality. The bed-rock is a hard granite ; the lead oimanto crosses the upper
part of several raviPes, and is composed of a true coarse gravel, some of the
stones weighing several hundred lb, ; the cement is a hard clay ; it contains gold
in all ts thickness, but the largest grains are found close to the bed-rock, I
understand that the width of the lead is about 60 metres, I am not well
informed as to the [)roducc of this inanto, but it is not probably a high one, nor
is the ground suitable for hydraulic working, which has not been continued here,
and tlie establishment of which was even more costly than at Niblinto, It is to
be noticed also that the supply of water is more scanty at Catapilco than at
Niblinto. Hoping that these notes, though put together in haste, may be of some
utility, and regretting that I am not in a position to supply similar information
concerning other stream-works in Chili.

" I am, Sir, yours very faithfully,

"Alexander Bertrand,

"CV.v/ /','//;.//iV '■ 0/ Miiu.^."

%, i'

I *

I M

* 11

n ^ I

.1 f:

1146

APPENDIX TO CHAPTER I.

Additional Notes on Peru (pp. 248-53).

The following list of gold-producing localities, from Paz Soldan's
Geographical Dictionary of Peru, arrived from the translator too late for
incorporation in the text. The abbreviations are as follows : — Dpt. for
department, prov. for province, dist. for district, alt. for elevation in
English ft. The leagues mentioned are of 20,000 Spanish ft. = 5572
metres. The numerals which follow the word " produce " mean the
number of parts of metal contained in 1 2,000 parts of mineral.

Accocunca, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Patambuco. The sands of this
neighbourhood are worked for gold by inhabitants.

Aguados, gold-mine in Cerro of Tiquimbre to the E. of Alpacay, dpt.
Arequipa, prov. Condesuyos.

Alcayan, 3 mines of gold, copper and lead, 2 S.E. and the other N. of Uco,
dpt. Ancachs, prov. Huari, dist. Uco.

Alcotoral, mine of gold and silver, to the N.E. of village of Huari, dpt.
Ancachs, prov. and dist. Huari ; produce, 37 to 75.

Alcumbrera, rocky mountain containing gold-mineral, near Ocongate, dpt.
Cuzco, prov. Quispicanchi.

Algallama, mine of gold, silver and lead, dpt. Libertad, prov. Huamachuco,
dist. Mollepata,

Alta Gracia, gold-washing near the mineral-ground of Chaluma, and the place
called Versailles. Sands so rich that from 15 lb. there used to be taken 45 oz. of
gold (= //y, dpt. Puno, prov. Caravaya. Want of means and the very bad
roads prevent the extraction of the riches of Caravaya ; (reported) produce, 2250.

Ananca, stony mountains in the Andes, about 3 leagues from which are many
mines of gold-ore, now fallen in, that were worked before the conquest (say a.d.
1530) ; prov. Asdngaro, to the E. of village of that name.

Antonio, San, (i) gold-mine, dpt. Libertad, prov. Pataz, dist. Soledad, to the
E. of this village J produce, i.

Antonio, San, (2) stream-gold, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Poto.

Aporuma, ancient mineral-ground of gold, near the river Inambari, dpt. Puno,
prov. Caravaya.

Arguelles (probably Argiielles), gold mine in the mountain of Tiquimbre,
dpt. Arequipa, prov. Condesuyos, dist. Alpacay, to the E. of this village.

Arirahua, cerro with mineral of gold and silver, dpt. Arequipa, prov.
Condesuyos, dist. Salamanca ; yielded many fortunes.

Arzobispo, gold-mine in the rocky hill of Arapa, dpt. Ancachs, prov. Huaras,
dist. Recuay.

Asenta, gold-washing, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Phara.

Asiento, gold-washing, dpt. Puno, prov. Cara\iya, dist. Ollachea.

Asuncion, dpt. and prov. Cajamarca ; in its neighbourhood are mines cf gold ;
it is 8 leagues from Cajamarca.

Aviso, mine of gold, silver and lead, dpt. Libertad, prov. Huam.tchuco, dist.
Mollepata.

Banqueria, gold-mine, dpt. J,ibertad, prov. Pataz, dist. Chilia; produce.

- V^OXSTS'

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON PERU.

II47

Barbara, Santa, gold-mine in the rocky hill of Tancay, dpt. Ancachs, prov.
Huaylas, dist. Caras.

Bronce, El, gold-mine, dpt. Libertad, prov. and dist. Pataz, lies N. of
this village j produce, ^ = t^Itttt-

Bronce-Mayo, gold washing, dpt. Puno, prov. Caravaya, dist. Ituata.

Buyalmasi, rocky hill with mineral of gold in Castrovireyna, dpt. Huancavelica.

Cabana, gold-mine, dpt. Libertad, pre v. Pataz, dist. Parcoy, E. of Parcoy ;
produce, f = „^^,.

Cacha, gold-mine in the mineral-ground of Paeon, dpt. Ancachs, prov.

Huaylas, dist. Caras.

Cachimayo, Grande, 1 ,, ,. , „ ,,.„,.

Cachimayo, Pepuno, \' gol^-washrngs, dpt. Puno, prov. and dist. Sandia.

Cajatiri, gold-washing in river of same name, dpt. Puno, prov. Caravaya, dist.
Ayapata.

Cajon, El, gold-mine, dpt. Libertad, prov. Pataz, dist. Parcoy; produce,

T — 7

Calaorco, mine of gold, silver and lead, dpt. Libertad, prov. Huamachuco, dist.
Moilepata.

Callani, gold-washing, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Patambuco.

Camante, hill containing gold-mineral, prov. Caravaya, close to Marcapata,
considered very rich ; there was formerly a village at the foot of the hill, but now
all is deserted.

Cancarachi, a run of loose auriferous ground, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist.
Phara.

Cangah, very rich gold-washing, between Versailles and the Carrisal, dpt. Puno,
prov. Caravaya.

Capacurco, cerro said to be rich in gold, near Mercedes, dpt. Puno, prov.
Caravaya.

Caravaya, province in which mines and washings of gold are so abundant
that during the Spanish rule in Peru, they produced more than 33 millions of
dollars in value. Nuggets were found up to 100 lb. weight. Unfortunately (now)
these riches are rendered inaccessible by the horrible and dangerous tracks,
improperly called roads, which are the only means of transit over a great part of
this province, and which are impassable on horse or mule back. This renders the
conveyance of provisions and other necessaries for mining enormously expensive.

Carbon Mayo, gold-washing, dpt. Puno, prov. Caravaya, dist. Ituata.

Carhuapari, gold-mine, dpt. Libertad, prov. Pataz, dist. Parcoy; produce,

Caridad, gold-mine to the E. of Alpacay, in the Cerro of Tiquimbre, dpt.
Arequipa, prov. Condesuyos, dist. Yanaquihua.

Carmen, gold-mine, dpt. Libertad, prov. and dist. Huamachuco ; produce,

2 2

Cayetano, San, ^old-mine to the N. of Pataz, dpt. Libertad, prov. and dist.
Pataz; produce, z1 ■■■ ^^(ku-

Ccollota, gold-mine to the S. of village of Uco, dpt. Ancachs, prov. Huari ;

nroduce 1 '° i" = 1 '° 10
prouut-e, jy - , 020 0"

Cementerio, gold-mine near the mineral-ground of Chaluma, dpt. Puno,
prov. Sandia, dist. Phara.

4
^ I'll

14 'Ij

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1 148

APPENDIX TO CHAPTER I.

Cerro Blanco, hill containing mineral of gold and talc, 3 leagues N. of Nasca.
Was worked to a depth of 600 mbtres (? length) and has given great riches ; not
worked now, for want of a ventilating shaft.

Cerro Colorado, gold-mine and aventadero, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist.
Phara.

Cochacocha, mineral-ground of gold, in the rocky chain of hills of Ocongate,
dpt. Cuzco, prov. Quispicanchi, dist. Marcapata.

CoSamuro, gold-lodes and aventadero, dpt. Puno, prov. Caravaya, dist.
Usicayos.

Consuelo, gold mine in the rocky hill of Tiquimbre, dpt. Arequipa, prov.
Condesuyos, dist. Yanaquihua, E. of this village.

Contramina, gold-mine, dpt. Libertad, prov. Pataz, dist. Parcoy, lies to the N.
of this village ; produce, 4.

Corihuacta, gold-mine in the rocky hill of Julcani, dpt. Huancavelica, prov.
Angaraes, dist. Lircay.

Corte, gold-mine, dpt. Libertad, prov. and dist. Pataz, N. of this village ;
produce, i = --sifhjT-

Cotani, gold-lodes, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Phara.

Crucero, gold-mine dpt. Libertad, prov. Pataz, dist. Parcoy; produce, i.

Cuatro Velas, gold-mine in the rocky hill of Pumahuillca, dpt. Ancachs, prov.
Santa, dist. Casma.

Cuchipampa, gold-washing, dpt. Puno, prov, Sandia, dist. Patambuco.

Cunera, gold-mine, dpt. Libertad, prov. and dist. Pataz ; produce, 2^- = -y^rfinr-

Cutini, gold-washing and aventadero, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Phara.

Chaluma, rich and abundant lodes and washings of gold, but road to them
very bad, on rivf of the same name, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Phara.

Chanabaya, hills with minerals of gold and silver, adjoining the coast of
Chucumata, to the W. of Pica. Many and rich veins of both metals, which were
worked in ancient times, 22 leagues from Pica and 9 from Saromal, dpt.
Tarapacd.

Chaypi, the hills near this village contain many lodes of gold, silver, copper,
&c. ; alt, 10515 ft.; 14 leagues from Coracora, and 15 from Chala.

Chimboya, gold-lode, dpt. Puno, prov. Caravaya, dist. Corani.

Chinchil, hill with gold-mineral, J league W. of Parcoy, dpt. Libertad, prov.
Pataz, dist. Parcoy.

Chincho, mine of gold and silver, N.E. of village of San Marcos, dpt. Ancachs.
prov. Huari, dist. San Mdrcosj produce, 25 to 500.

Chinchuragra, gold-washing in the ravine of Ninamayhua, dpt. Ancachs, prov.
Huari, dist. Uco.

Chocto, mine of gold and silver, N.N.W. of the village of Chacas, dpt. Ancachs,
prov. Huari, dist. Chacas ; produce, 100 to 800.

Chontabamba, gold-washing and small farm, dpt. Puno, prov. and dist.
Sandia.

Chucaque, gold-mine, dpt. Libertad, prov. Pataz, dist. Soledad ; produce,

,3 _ 19

Chuchumaray, gold-mine, to the W. of Parcoy, dpt. Libertad, prov. Pataz,
dist. Parcoy.

Chuquibamba, gold-washing, at alt. 8934 ft.

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON PERU,

II49

Esplritu Santo, gold-mine in rocky hill of Tiquipa, E. of Alpacay, dpt. Arequipa,
prov. Condesuyos, dist. Alpacay.

Fraylones, gold-mine to the W. of Parcoy, dpt. Libertad, prov. Pataz, dist.
Parcoy, produce, 3.

Gallinazo, mine of gold, silver, and lead, dpt. Libertad, prov. Huamachuco,
dist. Mollepata.

Gigante, rocky hill containing gold of 1 7 carats, dpt. Piura, dist. Agabaca.

Huanacauri, rocky hill with gold -ore, at alt. 13,858 ft., dpt. Cuzco, prov.
Paucartambo, i league S. of Paucartambo.

Huanay, gold-lodes, locality not stated.

Huanca, rocky hill with gold-ore, dpt. Ancachs, prov. Huaylas, dist. Macate.

Huanco-calini, gold-lode, dpt Puno, prov. Caravaya, dist. Usicayos.

Huano-huano, rocky hill with gold-ore, dpt. Arequipa, prov. Camand, near
snowy mountain of Achatayhua.

Huarauya, mine of gold, silver, and lead, dpt. Libertad, prov. Huamachuco,
dist. Mollepata,

Huasacache, gold-mine in rocky hill of this name, dpt. and prov. Arequipa,
dist. Socabaya : produce, i J = s-^a^is-

Huaycho, gold-mines, dpt. Ancachs, prov. and dist. Pallasca.

Huayllura, gold-mining settlement discovered in 1827, dpt. Arequipa, prov.
de la Union, dist. Sayla, produced in three years more than six millions of
dollars : now is reduced almost to nothing by want of capital.

Huayna-potosi, gold-lode, dpt. Puno, prov. Caravaya, dist. Crucero.

Humpiri, aventadero, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Phara.

Huycho, or Llamoc, a mountain very rich in gold-ore, dpt. Ayacucho, prov.
Parinacochas, dist. Colta. At its foot runs the river Huancahuanca, whose sands
contain gold in grains and powder. For a length of 4 leagues along its slopes
its altitude is about 13,124 ft. It was worked with great profit before the year
1820 (i.e. before the War of Independence). This mountain lies between the
villages of Lampa, CorcuUa and Oyolo ; and serves as a boundary to these dis-
tricts. At its base lie deep ravines, through which flow the rivers Huancahuanca
and Pomatambos ; these ravines are almost inaccessible. To the mineral-ground
the only access is by way of Colta, and this by a dangerous and narrow defile.
When a road is made up to this mineral-ground, it is believed that it will be
another California.

Incacancha, rocky hill containing gold-ore; adjoining the estate of Churu,
dpt. Cuzco, prov. Paucartambo, ?.lt. 13,176 ft.

Janca, village 10 leagues from Huarmey, dpt. Ancachs, prov. Santa, dist.
Huarmey. Near it is the mouth of a mine on lode of ferruginous quartz with a
little gold.

Jancas, another village, dpt. Ancachs, prov. Santa, dist. Huarmey. Near it
in the ravine of Culebras is a poor gold-mine. At ^ a league from this same
village, and 3 leagues from the estate of Cusmo, are some mines of silver and
gold, which produce, silver i-8 = -r^yil^,^, and gold 1-37 = yifffoW-

Jebon ('e San Pedro, rocky mountain with gold-ore, dpt. Piura, prov. Ayabaca.
Juan, San, gold-mine in rocky hill of Tiquimbre, to the E. of Alpacay, dpt.
Arequipa, prov. Condesuyos, dist. Yanaquihua.

Juan, San, del Oro, gold-waohing, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, diot. Quiaca.

I'M

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ii[ii

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: : I

II50

APPENDIX TO CHAPTER I.

Lanconsillo, rocky hill with gold-ore, dpt. Ancachs, prov. and dist. Santa.

Lavador, gold-mine, dpt. Libertad, prov. Pataz, dist. Uchumarca ; produce, 7.

Llacuabamba, gold-mine, dpt. Libertad, prov. Pataz, dist. Soledad, produce, 15.

Lloqueta, gold-washing, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Patambuco.

Machicamani, river and gold-washing, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Phara.

Macon, rocky mountain with gold-ore, 5 leagues from Taquilpon, dpt.
Ancachs, prov. Huaylas, dist. Macate, which dist. is very rich in mountains
containing minerals of silver and other metals.

Maria, Santa, gold-mine, dpt. Libertad, prov. and dist. Pataz, N. of village of
Pataz; produce, 16; now full of water.

Milagro, rocky hill or mountain with gold and silver ore, 5 leagues from
Taquilpon, dpt. Ancachs, prov. Huaylas, dist. Macate.

Mina, Santa, mine of gold, silver, and lead, dpt. Libertad, prov. Huamachuco,
dist. Mollepata.

Mira, aventadero, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Phara.

Misrito, two gold-mines to the N. of Parcoy, dpt. Libertad, prov. Pataz, dist.
Soledad ; produce of one ^ = ^ j^,-. of the other | = tj^t^.

Mocha, gold-mine at the foot of the western or coast range of Andes, dpt.
and dist. Tanpacd.

Monserrate, aventadero, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist Phara.

Montebello, gold-mine and washing, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Phara.

Mucumayo, veins and washings of gold, dpt. Puno, prov. Caravaya, dist.
Ituata.

Naviceda, rocky hill or mountain with gold-ore, dpt. Piura, prov. Ayabaca.

Negro, aventadero, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Phara.

Ninamayhua, a ravine in which are various gold-washings. It lies behind the
mountain of San Cristdbal de Uchusinga, dpt. Ancachs, prov. Huari.

Ocobamba, gold-mine to the W. of Parcoy, dpt. Libertad, prov. Pataz, dist.
Parcoy.

C -.ongate, village or small town, capital of dist. of same name, in prov.
Quispicanchi, dpt. Cuzco, alt. 11,368 ft. In its neighbourhood are mines of gold.
There are gold-washings in the river, and gold is found in the sands of the water-
courses that supply the village.

Oroblanco, two gold-mines, dpt. Libertad, prov. Pataz, dist. Soledad; of
produce one gives 5, and the other 7 ; the latter has a " heading" driven.

Pablobamba, gold-mine, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Quioca.

Palmadera, mineral-ground containing gold-ore, dpt. Arcquipa, prov. de la
Union, dist. Sayla.

Pampa blanca, gold-washing, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Poto.

Pariahuanca, mine of gold, silver, and lead.

Pilcopata, or Huasampilla, river which, joined with the Pinipini, forms the
river Madre de Dios, near the estate of San Nazario. It has gold-washings, and
there are veins of gold-ore in the adjoining mountains. It rises in the snowy
mountains of Pucara, dpt. Cuzco.

Piquitiri, river tributary to the San Gavan. Its sandss are full of gold, of
which there are washings on it, dpt. Puno, prov. Caravaya.

Polvadera, gold-mine to the N. of Pataz ; produce, i ; dpt. Libertad, prov. and
dist. Pataz.

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON PERU.

II5I

Pomamachay, gold-mine, dpt. Libertad, prov. Pataz, dist. Parcoy ; produce, 3.

Pomemachui, rocky hill with gold -ore, dpt. Piura, prov. Ayabaca.

Poto, a district of the prov. Sandia (since 5 Feb. 1875), (formerly included
in prov. Asdngaro) dpt. Puno, noted for its many rich aventaderos or aventadores.

Potoche, rocky hill or mountain with veins of silver, copper, and gold, dpt.
and prov. Huancavelica.

Pucara, an estate in whose neighbourhood are mines of gold on the river
Huasampilla or Pilcopata, dpt. Cuzco, prov. Urubamba, dist. Maras.

Pucaracra, (i) gold-washing in the ravine of Ninamayhua, dpt. Ancachs,
prov. Huari, dist. Uco.

Pucaracra, (2) two gold-mines S. of the village Uco, dpt. Ancachs, prov.
Huari, dist. Uco ; produce, xV to | = J^-fo*^-

Pucaramayo, gold-washing, dpt. Puno, prov. and dist. Sandia.

Puihuan, see Puyhuan.

Pulipuli, gold-mine, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Phara.

Pullani, river and gold-washing, dpt. Puno, prov. Caravaya, dist. Usicayos.

Pusupunco, aventadero, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Phara.

Puyhuan, two gold-mines, to the N. of Parcoy ; produce of one of these was 50,
but it is now filled with water, of the other the produce is 4 ; dpt. Libertad, prov.
Pataz, dist. Parcoy.

Quello-mayo, gold-washing, dpt. Puno, prov. Caravaya, dist. Ayapata.

Quenamari, vein of gold-ore, dpt. Puno, prov. Caravaya, dist. Ajoyani.

Quinua, gold-mine ; produce i, dpt. Libertad, prov. Pataz, dist. Parcoy.

Quiquini, gold-washing, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Patambuco.

Quiquis, gold-mine to the S. of village of Uco, dpt. Ancachs, prov. Huari,
dist. Colasay.

Recompensadora, lodes and mine of gold, near Capacurco (9. v.), dpt. Puno,
prov. Caravaya.

Rey, (i) mine of gold, silver, and lead, dpt. Libertad, prov. Huamachuco,
dist. MoUepata.

Rey, (2) gold-mine in rocky mountain of Tiquimbre, E. of Alpacay, dpt.
Arequipa, prov. Condesuyos, dist. Alpacay.

Riqulsima, gold-mine in the rocky mountain of Tiquimbrt, to the E. of
Alpacay, dpt. Arequipa, prov. Condesuyos, dist. Alpacay.

Rosa, Santa, mine of gold and silver, to the N.E. of village of San Marcos;
produce, 25 to 500, dpt. Ancachs, prov. Huari, dist. San Mdrcos.

Rosario, (i) gold-mine, N. of Pataz; produce 3, dpt. Libertad, prov. and
dist. Pataz.

Rosario, (2) aventadero, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Phara.

Rosario de Guadalupe, rocky hill with gold-ore, dpt. Piura, prov. Ayabaca.

Rurichincha, mineral-ground very rich in silver and copper, with a little gold.
In the ravine of Mallas, S.W. of village W. of Huari, at foot of the western or
coast range of the Andes, dpt. Ancachs, prov. and dist. Huari ; some mines here
give as much produce as 50.

Sagrario, gold-washing, dpt. Puno, prov. Caravaya, dist. Usicayos.

Santiago, gold-washing, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Patambuco.

Sayllapata, aventadero, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Patambuco.

Sillicucho, vein of gold-ore, dpt. Puno, prov. Caravaya, dist. Crucero.

ml-^^

r:.'d

■!■ , ■ II-

:;: 1

II52

APPENDIX TO CHAPTER I.

Taccuma, gold-washing, dpt. Puno, prov. Caravaya, dist. Hsicayos.

Taquilpon, an estate 5 leagues from Macate, dpt. Ancachs, prov. Huaylas,
dist. Macate. In the neighbourhood of, and up to 10 leagues distance from this
place, are many mountains containing minerals of gold, silver, and other metals.

Tomas, Santo, mine of gold, silver, and lead, dpt. Libertad, prov.
Huamachuco, dist. MoUepata.

Torre, gold-mine, dpt. Libertad, prov. Pataz, dist. Parcoy ; produce, 2.

Tranca, aventadero, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Phara.

Trapiche, gold-washing, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Quiaca.

Tumapuquis, 2 mines of gold and silver, to the N.N.W. of village of Chacas ;
produce, 100 to 800, dpt. Ancachs, prov. Huari, dist. Chacas.

Uchusinga, San Cristdbal de, rocky hill or mountain containing gold-ore, at
i league from the village or small town of Uco, dpt. Ancachs, prov. Huari,
dist. Uco.

Uco, a district of the prov. Huari, dpt. Ancachs. Situated on the right-hand
side of the river Puccha, looking down-stream. Is very rich in mines of gold.

Ucucuntaya, gold-mine, dpt. Puno, prov. Caravaya, dist. Ayapata ; the lode
bears the same name.

Ujina, or Pereyra, a mountain in the western or coast range of the Andes,
near Huatacondo, dpt. Tarapacd. It has rich mines of copper, and on the surface
is found sand containing gold. On its slopes is found the rocky hill or mountain
of Chiclin de Sihua, a rich mineral-ground of gold, of magnetic iron-ore, and of
sulphate of alumina.

Umabamba, gold-lodes and aventadero, dpt. Puno, prov. Caravaya, dist.
Usicayos.

Venditani, gold-washing, dpt. Puno, prov. Caravaya, dist. Coasa.

Ventanilla, mine of gold and silver to the N.E. of the village of San Mdrcos ;
produce from 25 to 500, dpt. Ancachs, prov. Huari, dist. San Mdrcos.

Vicente, San, gold-mine, produce ij = 5^5^^, dpt. Libertad, prov. Pataz,
dist. Soledad.

Vilcabamba, gold-washing, dpt. Puno, prov. Sandia, dist. Patambuco.

Yanahuanca, mineral-ground, with silver-ore, and some veins that contain a
little gold, dpt. Ancachs, prov. Huaras, dist. Ayja.

Yanamayo, river and gold-washing, dpt. Puno, prov. Caravaya, dist. Coasa.

Yanaracra, gold-mine, dpt. Libertad, prov. Pataz, dist. Parcoy; produce

Yerbaverde, gold-mine, dpt. Libertad, prov. Huamachuco, dist. Mollepata,
lies E. of Mollepata.

Yucuri, gold-washing, dpt. Puno, prov. Caravaya, dist. Coasa.

( "5.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The following form a large proportion of the books, periodicals, and maps
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would be practically impossible ; indeed such papers as the Mining'
yo7irnal of London, the Engineering and Mining Journal and Mining
Record of New York, and the Mining and Scientific Press of San
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Agassiz (Louis)
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laume)
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Gold in Wales. Min. Jl, xxviii. 241.

Scenery, Science, and Art, pp. 283, 293. London, 1854.

In Search of Minerals, pp. 224, 225-6. London, 1880.

Goldseeker's Manual. London, 1849.

Report on a visit to Wood's Point, Upper Goulburn. Mel-
bourne, 1864.

4 K

r:h

'%■^

S,'^

'1; ;

'.1

jl ,

■0

MM
■ If J

'{:

■; jl

♦'I

\ '

'.'*

nil

"54

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Arbuthxot (G.) ..
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"55

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Howe)
Bankart (H.) .. ..

Barnes (Thomas) ..

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Bates (Henry Walter)

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Bell (Robert) ., ..

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4 E 2

!h '(I

'y '!

:tii

1 1

II56

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■it :.'■■'!

ih ■ V,\

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''■^^l^

.1 I

ii64

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II65

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JACOBY

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Mackenna (B.

Vicuna)
McLkod (John)
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Malcolm (Howard)
Marcoy (Paul) ..

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Markham (Clements
R.)

Markham (Clements

R.)
Markham (Clements

R.)

Markham (J.) ..

Marryat (Frank S.)

Marsden (William)
Marsh (O. C.) .. ..
Mason (F.)
Mathews (E. D.) ..

Matthew (G. F.) ..

Mawe (John) .. ..

Maxwell-Lyte

(Farnham)
Mell (P. H.) ,.

Mell (P. H.) ..
Michel (A.)

Miller (A.)

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MlNCHlN (J. B.)

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BIBLIOGRAPHY.

MOLLIEN (G.) .. ..

MoNTEiRO (Joachim

John)
MONTGOMERIE (T.

G.)
MONTGOMERIE (T.

G.)

Moor (J. H.) .. ..
Morton (J. H.)
Morton (J. H.)
MouHOT (Henri)

Mui-HALL (Michael

G.).
Muller (W. J.)

Mulligan (James V.)

Muniram

MUNRO (Henry S.) ..
MUNRO (Henry S.)-.

M URC K I s N (Roderick
Impey)

MURCHISON

(Roderick Impey)
MURCHISON
(Roderick Impey)

MURCHISON

(Roderick Impey)
Murray (Alexander)

Murray (Andrew) ..

Murray (Hugh),
Crawfurd (John),
&c.

MUSHKETOFF (J.) ..

Musters (George
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niBLIOGRAI'HY.

II7I

Napp (R.)

Neale (Ed. St.
John)

Newberry (J. S.) .,

Newbery (James
Cosmo)

Newbold (T. J.)

Newbold (T. J.) ..
Newbold (T.J.) ..

Newton (Henry) ..

Odernheimer

(Frederick)
Oldham (Thomas) ..

Oppert (Ernest)

Orton (James)

Ott (Adolph) .. ..

Page (David) .. ..

Palladius (the

Archimandrite)
Pallegoix (Mgr.) ..

Palmer (H. S.)
Palmer (H. S.)

Park (Mungo)
Paton (A. A.) ..
Pattison (S. R.)

Pausanias'
Paz Soldan (Mariano
Felipe)

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1876.
On the Discovery of New Gold Deposits in the District of

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The Genesis and Distribution of Gold. School of Mines

Qtli..iii.
The Introduction of Gold to, and the Formation of Nuggets

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52-60.
Political and Statistical Account of the British Settlements in

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London, 1839.
Account of the Sungie Ujong, Malacca. In Moor's Notices,

app. 78, 81.
A Visit to the Gold-mine at Battang Moring and summit of

Mount Ophir or Gunong Ledang, in the Malay Penin-
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Geology of the Black Hills of Dakota. In Rep. Geol. and

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On the Geology of part of the Peel River District in Australia.

Qt. Jl. Geol. Soc, xi. 399-402.
Note of Specimens of Gold and Gold Dust procured near

Shwc-gycng, Burma. Mem. Geol. Survey India, i. 94-6.
A Forbidden Land : X'oyages to the Corea, pp. 148, 171.

London, i88c.
The Andes and the Amazon, pp. 149, 196, 199, 224-5, 270.

New York, 1876.
On the Nature and Distribution of Gold in Metallic Sulphides.

Jl. Franklin Inst., 3rd ser., Ivii. 129-32.
Economic Geology. Sect, xviii. The Metals and Metallic

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An Expedition through Manchuria from Pekin to Blagovcst-

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Description du royaume Thai ou Siam, i. 118. Paris,

1854.
Remarks upon the Geography and Natural CapabiUtics of

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The Geography of British Columbia and the condition of the

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Scrvia, pp. 226-7. London, 1845.
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Description of Greece, iii. 115-6. London, 1824.
Diccionario Geogrilfico Esftadfstico del Peru. Lima, 1877.

4 I- 2

1 172

HIHLIOGRAPIIY.

Peacock (George) ..

Pennant (Thomas)

Pennant

Percy (John) ..

Perley (H.) ..

Peuchet (Jacques)
Phillips (John)

Phillips (John

Arthur)
Phillips (John

Arthur)
Phillips (J. S.)

PiM (Bedford)

PiM (Bedford) and

Seemann (Berthold)

PiNA (A. dc) .. ..

Pinkerton (John) ..

Pissis (A.).. ..
Plattner's
Playfair (Lyon)

Pliny

Plunkett (F. R.) ,
Pollard (Thomas) ,
Poole (Henry)

Poole (Henry S.) .

The Guinea or Gold Coast of Africa, formerly a Colony of
the Axumitcs, or ancient Abyssinians in the reign of
King Solomon, and the veritable Ophir of Scripture, now
an undisputed Colony of Great Britain. London, 1880.

Tours in Wales, pp. 89-92. London, 1810.

Scotland, p. 414.

Experiments on the Extraction of Gold and Silver from their
Ores by the wet way. Min. Jl., xx. 45, 57.

The metallurgical treatment and assaying of Gold Ores.
In Lectures on Gold.

On Gold-mines and Gold-mining in Nova Scotia. Canada
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Statis*ique dl^mentaire de la France, p. 350. Paris, 1805.

On the Gold-fields of Ballarat, Victoria. Qt. Jl. Geol. Soc,
xiv. 538.

Gold-mining and Assaying. London, 1852.

The Mining and Metallurgy of Gold and Silver. London,

1867.
A Contribution to the History of Mineral Veins. Qt. JL Geol.

Soc, xxxv. 390-6.
Gold-mining and the Gold-discoveries made since 185 1. Jl.

Soc. Arts, X. 419.
Chemical Geology of the Gold-fields of California. Amer.

Jl. Sci. and Arts, xlvii. 134.
The Explorers', Miners', and Metallurgists' Companion, &c,

San Francisco, 1873.
The Chontales Mining district, Nicaragua. Paper read

before Brit. Assoc, Dundee, 1867.
Dottings on the Roadside in Panama, Nicaragua, and Mos-
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Deux Ans dans le Pays des Epices. Paris, 1880.
A General Collection of the best and most interesting

Voyages and Travels, &c., vii. 687, viii. 461, ix. 230-1,

602,739, ''•• 33i-3» -"'•Y' 629, xvi. 704, 722, 832. London,

1808-14.
Description g^ologique dc la Rdpublique du Chili, p. 41.

Santiago, 1851.
Manual of Blowpipe Analysis, by Richter and Cookesley.

London, 1875.
1 he Chemical Properties of Gold, and the mode of distin-
guishing it from other substances resembling it. In

Lectures on Gold.
Bohn's Classical Library, iii. 38-9. Bk. xi. c. 36, § 31.
The Mines of Japan. Min. Jl., xlvi. 299.
The Gold Belt of Virginia.
On Gold-fields, Western Section. Rep. Geol. Survey Nova

Sco^, 1862.
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Price (Edward

William)
Price (Edward

WiUiam)

Prime

PRITCHETT (George

James)
PUMPELLY (Raphael)

PUYDT (Lucien de) ..

Raimondi (Antonio)
Raleigh (Walter) ..

Ramsay (A. C.)

Randall (P. M.) ..
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W.)

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W.)
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See Cotta.
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The Quartz Operator's Hand-book. New York, 1880.
Russians on the Amur, pp. 286, 452. London, 1861.
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N.B. — This is merely a reprint of the 4th Annual

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The Production of Gold and Silver in the United States.

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^'•■<R

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Ore Sampling. School of Mines Qly., iii. 253.

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RiCKARD (F. Ignacio)

RIEDL (E.) .. ..

RiTTlNGER (P. Ritter

von)
ROBB (Charles)

Robinson (William)
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ROTHWELL (Richard

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Adventures in Morocco, p. 334. London, 1874.
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Essay on the Origin and Distribution of Gold in quartz veins,

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In Victorian Geol. Prize Essays. Melbourne, 1861.
Reise nach dem Ural, dem Altai, und dem Kaspischen

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Report upon the property of the Canada Consolidated Gold-

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The Gold-bearing mispickel veins of Marmora, Ontario,

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Gold-mining in Southern India. Min. JL, Ii. 625.
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RUSSEOGEK

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St. Hilaire (A. de)

St. John (H. C.) ..
St. John (O.) .. ..

St. John (Spenser)

Saffray

Salt (Henry) .. ..
Sandemann (E. F.)

Sauvage (Ed.)..

Scherzer (Carl) ..

Schiern (Frederik)
Schmidt (A. R.)

SCHMIDTMEYER

(Peter)

SCHMITT MANDER-

BACH (Adolph)
ScHMiTT (Adolph W.)

Schneider

SCHROLL (C. M. B.)

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Sur I'origine de la tradition des foumiis qui ramassent Tor.

Copenhagen, 1873.
Bergbaue des Unter-Innthales, die Goldfiihrenden Lager von

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Travels into Chile, over the Andes, in the years 1820 and

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Das Spiralsieb. Dillenburg, 1878.

Der Schlamfanger, auch Kornfanger genannt, Dillenburg,
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Geologische Uebersicht iiber den hoUiindisch-ostindischen
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Ueber einige Salzburgische Goldvorkommcn. Moll's Jahrb.
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Richard Cecil)

Selwyn (Alfred

Richard Cecil)
Selwvn (Alfred

Richard Cecil)
Selwyn (Alfred

Richard Cecil)

Selwyn (Alfred

Richard Cecil), and
Ulrich (George H.
F.)

Selwyn (Alfred

Richard Cecil)

Selwyn (Alfred

Richard Cecil)

Sevin (Charles)

Sewell (Henry)
Shaw (Robert) ..

Shaw (Robert B.)

Shea (W. S.) ..
SiBREE (James)

SiLLIMAN (B.) ..
SiLLIMAN (B.) ..

SiMONIN (L.) .. ..

Simons (F. A. A.) ..

Skertchly (J. A.) ..
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Skey (William)

Skey (Wilham)

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Smyth (W. W.)
Smyth (William

Henry)
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SOLDAN

Spearman (H. R.) ,.
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Spons' (E, & F. N.)

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Baptista!

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Review of Geological Phenomena, and the deductions

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Virginia and Maryland, &c. Trans. Geol. Soc. Pennsyl.,

i. pt. ii. 3 '4-25-
Le Bosphore et Constantinople ; avec perspectives des pays

limitrophes, pp. 230-42. Paris, 1864.
Essai sur les consequences dventuelles de la ddcouverte des

gites aurif^res en Californie et en Australie. (?) Paris,

1853.
Ceylon : an account of the island, &c., i. 29. London, i860.

Stray Notes on the Metalliferous Resources of British Burma.

Rec Geol. Survey India, vi. 95, x. 155.
Notice sur les richesses mindrales de la Suisse. L'Emula-

tion Jurassienne, i. 53-64.
Narrative of an Official Visit to Guatemala from Mexico,

pp. 214, 520. London, 1829.
On the Extraction of Gold. Trans. R. Soc. Victoria, viii.

lS-26.

lUBLIOGRAI'lIY.

I I 79

Thomson (Thomas)
Thost (C. H. Gustav)

Thunberg (Charles

Peter)
Thurkau (G.) .. ..

tournefort ..
TowRSON (WiUiam)

TozER (Henry Fan-
shawe)

TROTTER (H.) .. ••

Trotter (H.) .. ..

TSCHUDI (Johann

Jakob von)
TscHUDi (J. J. von)
TUOMEV (M.) .. ..

Turner (Samuel) ..

Ulrich (George H.

F.)
Ulrich (George H.

F.)

Ulrich (George H.
F.)

Vennor (H. G.)

Verbeek (R. D.) ..

Western Himalaya and Tibet : a narrative of a journey

through the mountains of Northern India, during the

years 1847-8, pp. 212-3. London, 1852.
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the Marquess of Drcadalbane in the Highlands of Scot-
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Travels in Europe, Africa, and Asia, iii. 203, iv. 105.

London, 1795-6.
Synopsis of a Report on Mining in California and Nevada,

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Voyage into the Levant, pp. 136, 172.
Voyages to the Coast of Guinea and the Castle del Mina,

In Astley's Collection, 1745, pp. 162-76 ; and Hakluyt's

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1869.
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185-92.

■ (J'

. v,:.

\i:i

I'h

III

^l^\

ii8o

llIUI.IOGKArilY.

Vktu (P. J.)
VlfziAN

VlKRTHAl.ER (F. M.)

ViCNE (G. F.) .. ..

VlU,AVICENCIO

(Manuel)
Waoenen (T. F. van)

Wagner (Alexander)

Wagner (Moritz) and

Sciierzer (Carl)
Walker (J. T.)

Wall (G. P.) .. ••

Wallace

Ward(H. G.) .. ..

Wathen (G. H.) ..

Weddell (H. A.) ..

Whetham

White (Robert Blake)

Whitney (J. D.) ..

Whitney (J. D.)

WiLEMAN (Henry St.

John)
Wilkinson (C.)

Wilkinson (J. Fen-
wick)
Wilkinson (J. G.) ..
Williams (S. Wells)

Williamson (Alex-
ander)
Williamson (A.) ..

Williamson (E.) ..

Midden Sumatra, pp. 152-3. Leiden, 1880.

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i8;8.
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General Report on the Operations of the Great Trigono-
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Dehra Uoon, 1868.
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See, ix. 74.
Voyage dans le Nord de la Bolivie, pp. 39, 208-18, 228-9, 3'<>"

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See Boddam-Whetham.
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The Ancient Egyptians, p. 232. London, 1837.
The Middle Kingdom, &c., i. 244-5. New York and

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BinLIOGRAPIIY.

II81

Wilson (J. Lcighton)

Wilson Clamcs S.) ..
W()I-FK(G.) .. ..

W<)LI,NER (Franz) ..

Wood (John) .. .,

Woodward (Henry)

Wyld (James) .. ..

Yule (Henry) .. ..

YULK (Henry) ., ..
Yule (Henry) .. ..

ZiMMKRMANN (G. P.

H.)

Western Africa, its }listory, Conditions, and Prospects»

pp. 144-5, 187. Lo:idoii, 1856.
On thie (iold Kcgionsof Californi;-.. Qt. Jl. Geol. Soc, x. 308.
Has Australische Gold, seine Layerstiitten und seine

Associationen. Zeit. Deut. Geol. Ges., 1877.
Nachrichten iibcr den vorniali>;en Gold- und Silber-bcrgbau

in Oberkjirntcn. Kiirntnerischc Zcitsch., Bd. ii., 1820.
A Personal Narrative of a Journey to tlie Source of the

River Oxus, &c., p. 382. London, 1841.
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pp. 326-30. Ocean Highways, Nov. 1873.
Notes on the Distribution of Gold throughout the World, &c.

London, 1853.
Tlie book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian, ii. 40, 45, 47, 48,

62, 70. 76, 88, 89,99, 105, 236, 238, 246, 248, 257, 260, 264,

268, -i24, 332-3 399, 412. 2nd cd., London, 1875.
A Narrative of a Mission to the Court of Ava, &c., pp. 344-5.

London, 1858.
Cathay and the way tuither; being a Collection of the

Mediicval Notices oi" 1 liina, i, cc.xxxvi., ccl., 219, 220, ii.

442. London, iS*"/).
Bcschrijving van dc Kivicr ' de Surinanid' Tijdschrift van

het Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, Deel ii., pp. 350-1.

Amsterdam, 1877.

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American Institute Mining Engineers, Transactions. Easton, Pa., 1871-81.

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American Mining Gazette. New York.

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Berichte des Deutschen (resp. Preussischen) Konsulats in San Francisco, verofTent.

licht im Preussischen Handels-Archiv, 1 850-1878.

ill

■ ; ■' 13

. i.

i m

ill
.^1

'■I
I'i

iffe'

Il82

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

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Journal of Applied Science. London, 1870-1881.
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viii. 83, 92, 93, 295, 300.
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Vienna, 1852-1881 ; Verhandlungcn, Vienna, 1858-1881 ; Mineralogische Mitthcil-

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Metallurgical Review. New York, 1877-81.

Mineral Statistics of Victoria for the year 1879, pp. 7-45. Melbourne, 1880.
Minerals and Mineral Localities of North Carolina, being chapter i. of the 2nd

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Mines and Mineral Statistics. Annual Reports of the Department of Mines, New

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North China Branch Royal Asiatic Society, Journal- Shanghai.
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Montreal, 1864.

i' : ;

I- ;

ilv^Si

•■■'H

IP!

f'M

ii84

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Nova Scotia Institute, Transactions.

Ocean Highways. London, 1873.

Oesterreichische Zeitschrift fiir Berg- und Hiittenwesen. Vienna, 1853-1881.

Official Record Intercolonial Exhibition of Australasia, Melbourne, 1866-7. Mining

and Mineral Statistics of Victoria, Gold, pp. 112-33, Melbourne, 1867.
Polytechnic Review. New York, 1 878-1881.

Prospectus, &c., of the Leeds Mountain Gold and Silver Mining Co. Topeka, Kansas,
1881.

Prospectus of the Conrad Hill Gold and Copper Company. Baltimore, 1881.

Pyrites. Report of the Board appointed to report on the methods of treating pyrites

and pyritous vein-stuffs as practised on the Gold-fields, &c. Melbourne, 1874.
Quarterly Mining Review. London.

Reports on the Gold-fields of New Zealand. Wellington, N.Z., 1871-1881.
Reports of the Mining Surveyors and Registrars [of Victoria]. Melbourne.
Report of the Geological Exploration of the 40th Parallel, &c., voL iii.. Mining

Industry. Washington, 1870.
Report of the Governor of the Wyoming Territory for the year 1881, pp. 20-7.

Washington, 1882.
Report on the Geology and Resources of the Black Hills of Dakota. In U.S. Geol.

and Geogr. Survey. Washington, 1880.
Report on the Gold-fields of New Zealand. Wellington, 1875.
Report on the Gold-mines of the South-Eastern portion of the Wynaad and the Carcoor

Ghdt. London, 1880.
Reports of the Pestarena United Gold-mining Company. London, 1871-1881.
Reports of the Chief Inspector of Mines, Victoria, for the years 1875-9. Melbourne,

1876-80.
Reports of Department and Chief Commissioners of Mines for the province of Nova

Scotia. Halifax, N.S., 1868-1881.
Reports of Explorations and Surveys to ascertain the most practicable and economical

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Reports of Her Majesty's Consuls.
Reports of Her Majesty's Secretaries of Legation.
Reports of the Directors of the Colombian Mining Association, 1825-183/^., pp. 15, 16,

21, 29, 30, 32, 33, 37-42, 50-2, 58, 107-8, 122, 124, 126, 131-2, 291, 296. London,

1829-34.
Reports of the Mariquita and New Granada Mining Company. London, 1852-65.
Report of the Royal Commission appointed to enquire into the best method of

removing Sludge from the Gold-fields. Melbourne, 1859.
Reports of the Mining Surveyors and Registrars, Victoria. Melbourne, 1880.
Royal Asiatic Society, Journal.

Royal Geographical Society, Journal (1832-1881). Proceedings (1867-1882). London.
Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, Transactions. London, 1871-1882.
Royal Geological Society of Ireland.
Royal Society New South Wales, Transactions.
Royal Society Van Diemen's Land.

Royal Society of Victoria, Transactions. Melbourne, 1854-1881.
Scientific American (1846-1882) and Supplement (1876-1882). New York.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

I185

Silliman's Journal. See American Journal of Science and Art.

Socidtd de Gdographie, Bulletin. Paris.

Society of Arts, Journal. London, 1852-1882.

South Australia : its History, Progress, Resources, and Present Position, pp. 38-4>'

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MAPS.
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Colorado and Portions of Adjacent Territories : Geological

and Geographical Atlas. Washington.
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Baines (T.)
Bellville (A.)
Hayden (F. V.)

Lord (W. B.) .,

Mauch (Karl) .

Merensky
Mitchell .. .

f. 'ii.j*

4 Ci

( ii86 )

GLOSSARY.

Almocdfre (U. S. Colombia), a kind of hoe used in placer mining (p. 240).

Altai, &^c. (Mongol), gold.

Amalgamating barrel, %&&^. 1060.

Amas I'lchin (Sumatra), nugget-gold.

Amas muda „ inferior >,jld.

Amas s7tngei-abu „ nugget-gold.

Amas supayang „ vein-gold.

Amas urei „ gold-dust.

Amurang (Ceylon), gold-ore.

Anna (India) = i\d,

Areng (Borneo), pay-dirt, which is a yellowish gravelly earth, sometimes containing

also diamonds,
Arrastra, a circular enclosure paved with stones, about 12 ft. diam., on which

mineral is ground by mules dragging round large heavy stones. It is a very slow

and crude apparatus.
Arroba (Brazil) = 32 "37 lb.
Ariippiikaraus, a gold-washing caste in Madras.
Aventadero or aventador (in Peru), a slide of loose ground containing alluvial gold.

Bahar (Malay Pen.) = 4 cwt.

Bar, a hard ridge of rock crossing the bed of a stream, on the upper side of which

gold is likely to be deposited.
Barranco (Venezuela), a mining shaft.
Barrel quartz, quartz rock having a corrugated form.
Batea, a gold-washing bowl (see p. 858).
Battery, a set of stamps (see p. 1000).
Battu-uji (Malay), touchstone.

Batu kaivi (Sumatra), a red stone supposed to be an infallible sign of gold
Bed-rock, the solid hard rock underlying loose and incoherent strata.
Bench, a terrace on the side of a rivtr, and having at one time formed its bank.

Auriferous benches are termed reef-w.-sh (q. v.) in Australia.
Beneficio (Argentine Rep.), productive ore.
Beting, quartzose-gold matrix of the Malays.
Biliong, the Malayan adze.
Blanket-table, see p. 1052.

Block reefs (Australia), reefs showing fre "lent contractions longitudinally.
Bolivar (Venezuela) = i franc or <)\d.
Bonanza, an aggregation of rich ore in a mine.
Bongkal (Straits Set.), a gold weight = 832 "84 gr. ; 20 bongkals = i catty.

GLOSSARY.

I187

Mil i' i

Bottom, see Bed-rock.

Brownstone (Australia), decomposed iron-pyrites.
Buck stone (Australia), non-auriferous rock.
Buddie, see p. 1080.

Cacho de bateador (U. S. Colombia), a bo t-shaped piece of horn used in gold-
washing.
CacS (Brazil), white sugary quartz.
Cajon or Caxon (Bolivia) = 50 quintals.
„ (Peru) = 60 „

(Chili) =64
I mar CO of gold per caJon of ore = 2 oz. 14 dwt. io| gr. per ton.

Candareen (China) = ^^^d.

CVtw^rt (Brazil), a rock composed of sharp-cornered, angular (rarely slightly rounded)
fragments of mi :aceous iron, specular iron, and magnetic oxide of iron, held
together by reef, yellow, or brown ochreous cement ; it is often very auriferous,
and sometimes contains scales of talc and chlorite, and stray fragments of
itacolumite. It is widely and deeply distributed in valleys and on hill-slopes and
summits, and has resulted from glacial action.
Canoa (Brazil), a platform used in gold-washing.
Carga (Mexico), variously given as 3 quintals = 312 lb., 12 arrobas = 300 lb.,

and 1 2 panegas of 1 2 almudas = 1 8 bushels.
Cascajo (Venezuela), a decomposed schist, on which the pay-dirt lies.
Cascalho (Brazil), gravel, which, when auriferous, is composed of quartz fragments.

Cascalho virgem, the deeper and older gravel of a river-bed.
Cash (China) = ^^d.

Casifig, material found between a reef and its walls.
Catty (China) = i| lb. av.

Catty (Straits Set.), a gold weight = 2-9818 lb. troy.
Cement, very widely applied to all auriferous conglomerates.
Cerro (Spanish), a rocky hill. **^

Chinna (Kanada), gold.
Chacra (Bolivia), an inheritance of gold.
Changkul (Sumatra), a miners' hammer.
Chocque (Aymara), "gold," whence the local names Chuqueapo (now La Paz),

Chuqueaguillo, Chuquesaca (now Sucre).
Chonkole, the Malayan spade.
Clavo (Mexico), a very rich spot of small horizontal extent, but constant in depth, i. e.

a " pay chimney."
Colour, minute traces or individual specks of gold.
Contour-race, a leat or water-course following the contour of the country.
Country or country-rock, the geological strata on each side of a reef or vein.
Cradle, see p. 858.
Crevicing, picking out the gold caught in cracks aid crevices in the rocks over which

it has been washed.
Creadero (Span. Amen), an " indicatio ' of the existence of gold.
Crusade = i-i oz. of gold, value 2s. 6d., or = 400 reis = is. gid.
Curi (Ecuador), gold, whence Curardy river.

402

■-liMl

si,; h

' i ' ii

1^^i
k

ii88

GLOSSARY.

Dalama (Zambesi), gold.

Dark (Persian) = 123-7 gr . value i/. u. lo^rf.

Denounce (Mexico), to obtain a mining grant for a certain spot.

Dip, the downward inclination of a vein.

Doilia (Russia) = o-68£ gr.

Dolly (Australia), a springing pole about 50 ft. long, fixed to the tops of posts set in the
ground, and having at the small end a rope, handle and shoe attached, for
smashing rock on an anvil put beneath. The spring of the pole [greatly reduces
the labour. Another form is used in the Philippines (p. 368).

Dorongee \iiurnni'\ (Assam), a gold-washing trough.

Drift, (i) a level ; (2) very loose, friable, alluvial deposit, requiring close timbering to
work ; (3) glacial drift, alluvial deposits formed by ice.

Drifting, working a mine by means of driving tunnels on it.

Diiin, gold-washing dish used in Jashpur, India.

Dulan (Borneo), circular concave trays for washing gold.

Faiscadore (Brazil), a gcld-washer.

False bottom, (i) a movable bottom or floor in a buddle, battery, or sluice ; (2) in

alluvial mining, a stratum on whitli pay-dirt lies, but which has other bottoms

below it.

Feather-edge (New Zealand), a local term for the passage from a false to a true bottom

(p. 818).
Float-gold, gold in tiny thin scales, which float on running water.
Floating reef, masses of bed-rock found displaced and lying amongst alluvial detritus.
Florin (Holland) = \s. Zd.
Floured mercury, mercury which has become granulated and each grain coated with

a film of sulphide, destroying its amalgamating power (see p. 1030).
Flour-gold, the finest alluvial gold, sometimes found as a coating on quartz pebbles in

cement.
Fossicking, almost identical with crevicing (q. v.).
/"«a«^ (Cochin China) = l\d.

Gamella (Brazil), a wooden bowl, about 2 ft. wide at the mouth, and $ or 6 in. deep,
used for washing gold out of the auriferous matter collected in sluices and in
river-sands.

Garimpeiro (Brazil), a gold-seeker and smuggler.

Gogo (Philippines), a plant whose juice is said to catch fine gold.

Gouge (Nova Scotia), a narrow band of slate next the vein, which can be extracted by
a thin, long pointed stick, and yields gold (p. 88).

Grating, a perforated iron sheet or wire webbing, enclosing the stamper-box.

Gravel, any broken-down rock, auriferous gravel being generally quartzose.

Greda (Venezuela), pay-dirt — a yejlcw ferruginous clay, containing nuggets and small

grains of gold.
Ground-sluice, see p. 868. »

Gua (Huarpe), gold ; hcncQ guachi, mountain of gold j gualilan, land of gold.
Guaca (U. S. Colombia), a mining tunnel.
Gutter, the lowest portion of a lead, which contains the most highly auriferous dirt.

Hade, dip.

Hatter (New Zealand), a miner working on his own account.

GLOSSARY. I 1 89

Headings, coarse gravel or drift overlying the wash-dirt.
Head-race, an aqueduct for bringing a supply of water.
Hemma (Sanskrit), gold.
Honna (Kanada), gold.

Ita, Japanese gold-washing board.

/CaWr/V^ (Brazil), a rock composed of micaceous specular iron-ore (rarely laminated)

and a little oxide of iron and manganese with quartz disseminated ; in the

pulverulent form it is caWeAjaaitinga. Both carry free gold.
Itacolumite (Brazil), a rock composed chiefly of fine-grained quartz, united by thin

laminae of chlorite and talc.
Itambamba (Brazil), a plant (? Solatium sp.) whose juice is thought to help catch fine

gold.

Jacutinga (Brazil), a pulverulent variety of itabirite.

Jhoras, an Indian gold-washing caste (see pp. 325, 328, 329).

yoretty a scoop-shaped bamboo basket used for carrying auriferous gravel in Japan.

yulgars, an Indian caste whose employment is gold-washing.

Katouti, gold-washing trough of the N. W. Provinces, India.

Kisye (Malay), rattan sieves used in gold-washing.

Kopeck (Russia) = o-38</.

fCua, specially shaped hoes used for working gravel in the sluice in Japan.

Lamince (Span. Amer.), scale gold.

Lavadero (Span. Amer.), an alluvial gold-washing.

Lavra (Brazil), a small alluvial washing.

Le (China) = 486 • 176 yd.

Lead, a well-defined bed of pay-dirt.

Leadings (Australia), barren drift overlying pay-dirt.

League (Brazil) = 3J miles.

League (Spanish) = 20,000 Spanish ft. = 5572 metres = 6093 yd.

Liang (China) = i^ oz. av.

Ley de oro (Mexico, &c.), properly the fineness of the gold, but apparently also applied

to the assay value of an ore.
Lilin kalulut (Malay), a wax used by gold assayers (p. 364).
Long-torn, see pp. 860-2.

Mace (China) = yd.

Manta (Nicaragua), a surface deposit of broken quartz, worked for gold.

Maraye (Argentine Rep.), grinding mortar used by the Indians for reducing quartz.

Marco or Marc, see Spanish goldsmiths' weights.

Mark (Austria), old weight, o- 618 lb. av.

Mas mtida (Malay), " young" gold, or gold below 8 mutu.

Mas tuah (Malay), " old " gold, or gold from 8 to 10 mutu (p. 364).

Mergulhar (Brazil), washing auriferous river-sands.

Miam (Straits Set.), a gold weight = 52 gr. ; 16 miams = i bongkal.

Milreis (Brazil) = 2s. yl.

iiii

. 1 * :

:!|

IIQO

GLOSSARY.

Moco de hierro (Venezuela), a highly ferruginous rock, assuming the form of a con-
glomerate, a grit, a breccia, or even a pisolitic brown iron-ore ; it always consists
mainly of limonite and earthy red hematite, with pebbles and angular fragments
of quartz, schist, and felstone. In its decomposed form it is known as ticrra de
flor (q. v.).

Af onion (Mexico), 17 quintals = 1560 lb.

Mullock (Australia), angular ddbris of the country rock filling a fissure.

Mundic, iron-pyrites.

Mutu (Malay), a term denoting the degrees of fineness of gold (p. 364).

Napal, indurated white clay carrying auriferous quartz streaks in the Malay Peninsula.

Called also steatite.
Nariyas, gold-washers of the N.W. Provinces, India.
Nega (Thibet) = a lb.

Nekoza, straw-mats specially woven, used for catching gold in the sluices in Japan.
Nugget, a sizable rounded piece of native gold.

Oitavo (Brazil) = 55*34 gr. troy ; 8 oitavas = i onca.

Omorotchi (Russia), birch-bark skiffs.

Onca (Brazil) = 442-72 gr. troy.

Orang gulla (Sumatra), miners.

Oro cor, ido (U. S, Colombia), alluvial gold.

Paint-gold, gold coating quartz pebbles in cement.

Pan, see p. 856.

Panclla, see Ganiella.

Parct (Borneo), a mine.

iPrt/rtf/i (Brazil), 8-65^/.

Patea, see Batea.

Pay-dirt, that portion of an alluvial deposit which contains gold in paying quantity.

PcTia (U.S. Colombia), a more or less decomposed felspar or gneiss, coloured by iron,

and yielding gold as far as decomposition has taken place.
Pepita (Span. Amer.), a gold-grain.
Perjong, the Malayan crow-bar.
Peso (Mexico) = 4J.
Phdtdng (N. Himdlaya), a quantity of gold-dust melted into a lump, value about 8

rupees (i6j.), and used as currency.
Phukpa (Thibet), miners' caves.
Piastre (old Spanish) = 37 • 647^/.
/^/Vw/ (China) = 1331 lb. av.
Picul (Philippines, &c.) = 12,9\ lb.
Picul (Siam) = 135! lb.
Pie (India) = ^d.
Piedra niorada, see Porjiro.
Piedra negra (Venezuela), greenish-grey felstone.
Pillah (Bokhara), gold.
Playa (Span. Amer.), a level bank.
Polvillos (Mexico), tailings.

GLOSSARY.

II9I

PoH (Tamil), gold.

Por/iro or porfido (Venezuela), a reddish, pink, or brown ferruginous hornstone,
sometimes becoming jasper, occasionally containing crystals of iron-pyrites, or
cavities left by their decomposition, and rarely visible gold, but not in payable
quantity. It occurs throughout the Caratal district, and is regarded as a
favourable indication of gold. It is known also as qiiartzo morado M\dpiedra
vtorada.

Pozo (Mexico), winze.

Pud (Russia) = 36 lb. 2 oz. av.

Putti, a gold-washing tray used in Madras.

Putty-stones (America), soft pieces of decomposed rock found in placer deposits (p. 794).

Quartzo morado, see Porfiro.
Quebrada (Span. Amer.), a valley.
Quinto (Brazil), royalty on gold-mining.

Race, an artificial water-course.

Rang (Ceylon), gold, whence Rang-galle (from rang-welle, golden sand).

Ratrang (Ceylon), melted gold.

Reefing, working auriferous reefs or veins.

Reef-wash, a deposit of wash-dirt spread over an expanse of flat or undulating bed-
rock, or lodged in a hollow in bed-rock above the level of the gutter ; an Austrahan
term, apparently synonymous with bench (q. v.).

Rega (Brazil), a water conduit or launder.

Rei (Brazil) = -^^d,

Respaldo (Mexico), wall of a lode.

Riffle or ripple, a groove about i in. deep at the lower side, diminishing towards the
upper, with a width of about 3 in., cut across the riffle-board which forms a
false bottom to a sluice, and partly filled with mercury while at work ; also small
strips of wood nailed across and rising above the floor of a box-sluice.

Rock, often applied to igneous rock-flows met with in deep leads.

Ruble (Russia) = 3J. 2d.

Rupee (India) = 2J.

Saga (Straits Set.), a gold weight = 4^ gr. ; 16 sagas = i tniatn.

Sana birro (W. Africa), gold nuggets.

Sana ku (W. Africa), gold-washing.

Sana manko (W. Africa), gold powder.

Sana niira (W. Africa), gold-rust (? emery).

Sarshoo (Thibet) = f oz.

Scad (America), a term for a nugget, but not in general use.

Sepd (U. S. Colombia), a porphyroidal clay, stained with iron salts, sometimes covering

the auriferous peha, and usually of very limited thickness.
Shaking-table, see p. 1070.
Sickened mercury, see Floured mercury.

Sludge, mud flowing from a puddling-machine.

Sluice, see p. 862.

Sluice head, a definite measure of water drawn off for use.

Slum or slimes, the waste mud flowing from a quartz battery.

nil ' >)

ill

■ ^S Ml

■ i i

II92

GLOSSARY.

Spanish goldsmiths' lb. = g6oo granos of ^fg troy gr., thus divided : —
12 granos = i tomin. I 50 castellanos = i marco.
8 tomines = i castellano. | 2 marcos = i libra.
Spoiled (America, &c.), leads in which the gold is irregularly disseminated.
Stamp, a solid head or weight used for crushing mineral.
Stamper-box, a box, generally of cast-iron, in which the stamps work, and whose sides

are fitted with gratings-
Strake, see p. 1052.

Strike, the longitudinal direction of a vein.
Surfacing, working shallow auriferous alluvions.
Suvarna (Sanskrit), gold.

Tabah (Sumatra) a crow-bar used in gold-mining.

TVi^/ (China) = i^ oz. av.
„ „ - SJ. \od.

Tael (Straits Set.), a gold weight = 832-84 gr.

Tailings, the detrital mud flowing from gold-washing or crushing apparatus.

Tail-race, an aqueduct for conveying away dirty water and tailings.

Tambang (Sumatra), mines.

Tambikir quali (Malay), a black incrustation found on auriferous quartz.

Tan (China) = 133J lb. av.

Tapanhoacanga, see Canga.

Tharu, a gold-washing race in Champaran, Nepal.

Tial (Sumatra) = 6iOj gr.

Tical (Burma) = 252 gr.
„ „ = 2J. (>d.

Tical (Siam), for gold = 236 gr. troy, or nearly \ oz.

Tierra deflor (Venezuela), decomposed moco de hierro (q. v.), washed down the hill-
sides, occupying areas of 100 to 200 acres and 6 to 10 ft. thick, and probably
deriving its ferruginous matter from iron-pyrites. It is considered a good indi-
cation of alluvial gold.

Toise = 6-395 ft.

Tola (India) = 180 gr.

Torpedo (Dutch Guiana), a sloping iron perforated plate fixed between the long-tom
and the riffles in the sluice (p. 861).

Tosca (U. S. Colombia), a volcanic rock overlying the auriferous strata, and considered

a good indication.
Tsurtt, picks used for loosening the auriferous gravel for washing in Japan.

Underlie, dip.

Vara (Mexico, &c.) = 2*782 ft.
Ven^ro (U. S. Colombia), a vein or bed.
Volost (Russia), a commune of peasants.

Wash-dirt, the auriferous gravel, sand, clay, or cement in which the greatest propor-
tion of gold is found.

Zolotnik (Russia) = 65*83 gr.

( II93 )

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

AFRICA.

Africa, 2-37
Abeokuta, 27
Aboolfeda, 4, 5-10
Absab, 10
Abutu, II
Abyssinia, 4, 5
Accra, 30
Add, 5
Adowa, 5

Africa, Northern, 3-10
■ Southern, 10-26

Western, 26-37

Ahabante, 29
Akim, 29, 30
Aki-ta, 6
Akropong, 29, 30
Altahi, 7
Amandabele, 13
Amaswazi country, 22
Amooni, 29
Angola, 26
Apintoe, 29
Apollinopolis Magna, 7
Ashanti, 28, 29-35
Atlas, 4
Bafing, 36
Bahayreh, 7
Bakhouk, 36
Bambarra, 27
Bambouk, 27, 35
Barue, 13
Bazizulu, 12
Bega, land of, 4, 5-10
Bembees, 14
Bembesi, 18
Bengo, 26
Berbera, 5
Berem, 30
Berenice, 5

Panchrysos, 7

Bisharee, 4, 5-10
Blauwbank, 22
Blyde r., 22, 23
Bofoulaba, 36
Bojador, 26
Boure, 36
Boxa, IS
Bua, 13

Buffelspoort, 22
Buiriie, 15
Bure, 36
Buria, 36

A¥K\c\-~eoHiinueJ.
Caburamanga, 15
Cape Coast, 29
Cape Palinas, 27
Ceiga, 8, 9
Changamire, 15
Changani, 18
Chawanib, 9
Cootnassie, 29, 30
Coptos, 5
Croboe, 27
Crocodile r., 22
Dakkeh, 7
Derehib, 8,9, 10
Derow, 7
Dindiko, 27
Dinkira, 29
Drakensberg, 20
Duma, 15
Dupree's farm, 21
Dwars Berge, 22
Edfou, 5, 7
Edreesee, 4, 5-10
Eersteling, 20, 21, 22,
Egypt, 4-5. 5-10 [24
Elmina, 26
Emampanjene, 17
Essaham, 29
Etbaye, 5-10
Ethiopia, 4
Fanti, 27
Fazooglu, 4
Fernan Vaz, 27
Fez, 37
Fole, IS
Fura, 12, 13
Gaboon, 27
Gaman, 29
Ganyana, 18
Gebel Abdulla, 9

Essewed, 9

Matchouchelen-

naye, 9

Offene, 9

Ollagee, 7

om Cabrille, 9

Tellatabd, 9

Ghana, 26

Gold Coast, 26, 28,29-

35. 806
Golungo Alto, 26
Guenge, IS
Guinea, 29-3S
Gyni, 37

Apr ;ca — continued.
Hartley Hills, 19, 20
Inyati, 14
Inzinghazi, iS
Insizwa mts., 24
James Fort, 27
Java, 13

Kalahari des., 25
Kamalia, 36
Katanga, 25
Kelle, 10
Kenicba, 35
Khartum, 4
Komati, 24
Kom Ombo, 7
Kong mts., 27, 28, 35,
Kong-kadu, 27 [36
Kordofan, S
Kouban, 7
Krobo, 27
Kuma-khana, 36
Kumalo, 14
Kumasi, 29
Lagos, 34
Lebomba r., 22
Lhangani, 18
Lil)eria, 29
Libya, 4
Limpopo, 10, 13, 15,

16, 22, 24
Lipalula r., 20, 22
Loangwa, 2S
Lombige, 26
Luca, S
Luenya, 12, 16
Luia, 12

I,ydenburg, 10-25
Macanga, 15
Macedonia, 5
Macequece, 15
Machanacha, 15
Machanga, 12, 25
Mac-Mac, 20, 23
Macoronga, 10
Madagascar, 25
Maghoonda, 18, 20
Makapans Poort, 22
Manding, 28, 35
Mandingo, 36
Manica, 10, 12, 13, 15
Maraba-stadt, 20, 22,
Maraves, 13 [24

Marico, 22
Mashinga, 10, 12

Afp ■ . I — continued,
Mushona, 12
Masingua, 15
Matabcle, 13, 16, 1 7
Matouca, 14-15
Matuka, 15
Maycngo, 26
Mazavios, 12
Mazimbaoe, 21
Mazoe, 12
Mclli,37
Meroe, 4
Mesa, 3
Missalc, 15
M'Nyami, 18
Moero, 25
Mombas, 25
Monomotapa, 13, 15,
Monrovia, 34 [16

Morocco, 3-4, 37
Mosusurus, 12
Mozami)ique, 13, 16
Mucorumaze, 12
Mungora, 12
Murchison Hills, 21, 22
Muzozuros, 15
Natakoo, 35
Natal, lo, 21
Nhamucanga, 15
Niger, 27, 36
Nile, 4, S, 8
Nubia, 5
Nyassa, 13
Nylstroom, 22
Odoomassie, 29, 30
Olifant's r., 20, 22
Ollagee, 5-10
Ophir, 13, 25-6
Orange River sov., 24
Orobezes, 15
Oum Guereyatte, 9
Oum Teyour, 10
Pangxus, 5
Parda Pemba, 25
Pendico, 15
Pike's Kraal, 21 [23
Pilgrims' Rest, 20, 22,
Potchefstroom, 22, 23
Prah, 30
Pretoria, 22, 23
Quaequae, 18
Quathlamba, 20
Raft, 10
Ramakoban, 14

ijia

51 ■■ if

i: m

1194

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

A F» IC A — (ontinutd.
Redesieh, S
Red Sen, 4, S
Kuvue, 13
Rucuto, 13
Ruma, 27
Runga, 27
Sabia, 13
St. John s r., 24
Salati, 20, 21
Sangara, 36
SansanJing, 36
Sarua, 18
Sasu, 4

Schocn Spruit, 22
Sebaque, 18
Seecom, 27
Sego, 36
Seizabnn, 4
Sekelctu's dom., 25
Sena, 13
Senegal, 36
Senegal r,, 27
Senegambia, 35-7
Senga, 10
Scnnar, 4
Serankules, 36
Shashi, 15
Sheibon, 4, 5
Shrouda, 27
Sierra del Crystal, 27
Simbo, 19
Smithfield, 24
Sofala, 10, 13, IS
Somali country, 4, 5
Sophala, 13
Sophir, 13
Sophira, 13
Souakitn, 4
Soudan, 3, 4, 35-7
Spitz Kop, 24
Sus, 4
Susa, 3
Swaiswa, 1$
Tacquah, 31, 32
Takale, 4-5
Takla, 5
Tambuctu, 37
Tamille, 9
T iiganyika, 25
Tarudant, 3-4
Tati, 10, 13-7
'I'alin, 10
Tete, 10, II, 12, 13,

IS, 16, 17
Thati, 10, 15
Thrace, S
Timbuctoo, 37
Timbuktu, 37
Todd's creek, 17
Tombutto, 37
Transvaal, 10-25
Triegardt's Farm, 20
Tripoli, 4
Tueful, 29
Tugela, 21
Tumbutum, 37
Tunis, 37

A FRICA — eontinui'd,
Umbanjin, 17
Umrulinocr, 14
Umkomatie r., 32
Uinsaabi r., 22
Umvuli, 19, 20
Umzwerwie, 18
Urua, 2S
Venters, 21
Victoria, 10
Volta, 27
Vumba, 15
\Vady Adfawe, 10
Wady Alaki, 6
AVady Camolit, 10
Wady Chawanib, 10
Wady Dagueiia, 10
Wady Hagatte, lo
Wady Mourrat, 8
Wady Ollakee, 8
Wady Sohone, 10
Was jaw, 29, 30, 31-5
Waterberg, 22
Witwater's Rand, 22
Voruba, 27
Zahara nits., 4
Zambesi, 10, II, 13,

14, IS, l6, 19, 2S
Zambesi - Lydcnburg,

IO-2S

Zanguebar, 2S
Zanzibar, 2S
Zeila, 5
Zeuza, 26
Zimbabye, 21
Zimbaoe, 21
Zoutpansberg, 16, 31
Zumlx), 14, 19, 25

AMERICA.

Alaska, 37-8, 122, 126

Cook's Inlet, 37

Fort V'ukon, 37

Kadiak, 37

Kaknu, 37

Kenai, 37

Porcupine r., 37

Rat r., 37

Stickeen, 37

Tahco, 37

Taku, 37

Yukon, 37 [97

America, British, 38-
America, North, 37-

193
America, South, 193-
268
Andes, 122, 780, 809
Argentine Republic,
196-208, 83s, 839,
Argentina, 206 [841
Bragada, 208
Calchequi, 208
Caleca, 208
Carmen, 208
Catamarca, 207
Cerro Blanco, 200

America— continutd.
Cerro de I'ayen, 200

Morado, 207

Negro, 203

Cochinnco, 308
CompaHia m., 204
Cordova, 208
El Morado m., 206

Patacon, 208

Trapiche, 197

Esperanza ni., 206
Espina, 307
Famatina, 203, 206,

207, 208
Fort San Rafael, 200
Guachi, 202-3, 208
Gualilan, 200-2, 208
Guayco, 206
Jachal, 202, 208
Jujny, 207, 208
La Angelita, 196

Cailada Honda,

197-8

Carolina, 196-

200, 208

Mfjicana, 203-6

Misnata m., 202

Rioja, 206, 207,

208
Mfi' ""na m., 206
Menu 00,207,208

Merced , 199
Ojo de . ,aa, 206
Paramdlo, 200
Pifliera lode, 198-9
Pique m., 200
Pismanti, 208
Potro vein, 202
Restauradora m., 205
Rinconada, 207, 208
RincoD de la Mejicana

m., 203
Rio Colorado, 200

Grande, 196

Quinto, 196

Risco vein, 202
Rosario m., 206
Salta, 208
Sau Juan, 206

Luis, 197

— — Luis prov., 196-

200, 208
Santa Barbara, 106
Sierra de la Pumilla,
Tilcara, 208 [208

Tinibaya, 208
Tonialasta, 208
Tontal, 201, 207
Upulungo, 204, 208
Uspallata, 200
Verdiona m., 203
Bolivia, 209-12, 833,

83s. 839
Amazon, 210, 21 1, 212
rvncuma, 209
Apollo, 212
Ayopaya, 209
Beni, 212

A M E R IC \~continu(d.
Cajoncs, 310
Caupolican, 210
Cha(|uecamata, 309,
Chayanta, 211 [sio
Chiquitos, 212
Cliuchiplayn, 31 1
Chuquiabo, 212
Chuquisaca, 209
Chuquiyapu, 212
Cocliabamba, 209, 210
Condormanana, 212
Cordillera of Aucunia,
Iliimani, 209 [209
Itcncz, 211, 212
La l'a>, 209, 211, 212

Cordillera, 210

Larecaja, 209
Llisa, 213
Madeira, 212
Mamord, 212
Matto Grosso, 212
Potosi, 209
Puno, 211
Rinconada, 211
San Andres dc

Mochaca, 212

Javier, 212

Simon, 211

Santa Cruz, 209

Rosa, 212

Sierra de San Simon,
Sorata, 210, 211 [212
Sucre, 212
Tarija, 209

Tipuani, 209, 210, 211
Titicaca, 2ii
Vilaquil, 312
Yani, 210
Yungus, 212
Brazil, 212-31, 648,

649, 794, 806, 83s,

839, 841, 843, 1,44
Alagoas, 228
Anta, 218
Arassuahy, 218
Arraial da Chapada,

215,216, 217, 218
Bahia, 212, 215, 218,
Barbacena, 222 [228
Baturit^ 218
Bom Successo, 214,

215, 217
Brumado, 2i8
Cayapava, 212
Calhdo, 215 [214

California de Dentro,

de Fora, 214

Campo de Saramenha,

221
Cantagallo, 213, 214,

219, 225
Capivary, 214, 215
Cata Branca, 320, 333,

838, 840
Caxoeira, 226
Ceara, 312, 218, 238
Chapada, 315, 228

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

I 195

A MERICA— rOM/zV/Mrt/,

Coelho, 839, 844
Coiigonlms, 227

do Campo, 221

Conlilheira Gcral, 212
Crato, 218
Cruz Aha, 212
Cuiaba, 219, 806
Cufiapiru, 228
Dianiantina, 21$
Diainantino, 219
Doce, 213
Dom I'edro, North

Del key m., 223
Encrusilliada, 228
Espiritu Santo, 214
Gentio, 228 [-3

Gongo Suco, 221, 222
Goyaz, 212, 218-9,

221, 228, 806
Granja, 218
Ijuhy Guassu, 230
Ipu, 218
Itabira, 220, 221
Itacama nits., 219
Itapcmcrim, 214, 219
Itu, 2iq [226

TaraguA, 217, 219, 224,
Joazeiro, 218
Julgado de Crixas,

218-9 [217

Lavra da Santa Cruz,

do Batatal, 215

Lavras, 218
Ma<iuine, 223, 229
Maracassumu, 218
Maranhao, 212, 218,

227, 228
Mato Grosso, 228, 806
Minas das Caxoeira,

227
Geraes, 212, 214-

8, 220, 228, 230,

648, 806, 839, 840,

841, 843, 844
Novas, 214, 215,

216, 217
Missao-Velha, 218
Morro de Santa Anna,

223

do Calisto, 218

Velho, 220, 222

Mucury, 219
Natividade, 219
Ouro Fino, 218

Preto, 212, 222

Paciencia, 839, 844
Palmeira, 230
Para, 228
Paraguay val., 219
Parahyba, 212, 219,

227, 806
Paraiba, 226
Paraibuna, 226
Passo Fundo, 230
Pernambuco, 212
Pianco, 219, 227
Piauhy, 212

Am ER ICA — (ontinutd,
Piratiny, 228
Quoluz, 227
Kibcin\o de Ouro

Prcto, 230

ilo Mcio, 214

Rio liagagcm, 218

Uiuscus, 219, 227

Claro, 218

das Mortcs, 222

das Vclhas, 213,

222, 227

de Janeiro, 2 1 3-4

do Meio, 214

do Castcllo, 214

Fanada, 217

Grande do Sul,

212, 228

Jaguaribe, 218

Jc(iuitinhonhn,

215, 217

Mangarahy, 214

Pardo, 212

Preto, 226

Salgoda, 218

Setubal, 218

Tiete, 219

Vermelho, 218

Rossa Grande, 223
San Gabriel, 228
St. Vincent, 224
Santa liarbara, 230

Maria, 212

Rita, 214, 225,

Santos, 224 [227

S<\o Francisco, 224

Gonzalo, 230

Jo.is d'El Rei m.,

— — Jose, 222 [222
Paulo, 212, 217,

219, 228

Pedro do Sul, 228

Vicente, 220

Serra da Mantequeira,

226 [221

da Piedade, 220,

de I tardea, 2i8

do Grao Mogor,

214

do Macaco, 218

do Mar, 219

do Marto, 214

do Tapanhoa-

canga, 221

Dourado, 218

■ do Frio, 221

Sincora, 228
Sucuriii, 214
Termo de Milagres,
Thesouras, 218 [218
Tibaji, 219
Trahiras, 219
Turi, 218
Tury-assu, 212
Uruguay r., 230
Villa da Campanha,
das Lavras da

[230

Mangabeira, 218

A M K.R If A — eontiniu'il.
Villa de (iuarapuava,

Rica, 221 [219

Dritisii Coi.umhia, 38

64. 883 5
Amador cr., 59
Aurora cl., 58
Anderson cr., 59, 66-7

r., 40, 49, 63

Antler cr., 44, 46, 57,
Uald mt., 57 [60-7
ISallarat cl., 44
Barclay Sound, 64
Harkervillc, 44-5, 56,

57. 66-7
Barry cr., 66-7
Basford cr., 66-7
Beady cr., 59
Bear cr,, 57
Bear 1., 57
Begg's Gulch, 57
Big Bonanza, 59
Black-bear cr , 58
Black Jack Gulch, 56,

66-7
Boston Bar, 40, 49, 52,
Boundary cr., 63 [62
Bridge r., 62, 66-7
Buonaparte r., 63
Burn's or., 66-7
Burrard Inlet, 63
California Gulch, 57
Cameron cl., 44
Cameronton, 44
Campbell and White-
hall m., 44
Canadian cr., 58, 66-7
Cafion cr., 58-9
Cariboo, 39, 40-7, 5S,

56-9, 66-7
Game's or., 6i
Cascade range, 64
Cassiar, 39, 47-9, 59-

61, 66-7
Cedar cr., 58
Cherry cr., 53-5
Chilaeco r., 62
Chilicotin, 62
Chisholm cr., 59, 66-7
Cinnemousim Narrows,
Clinton, 55, 64 [55

r., 63

Columbia range, 40

r., 61

Comox, 64

Conklin Gulch, 56,

6&-7
Coquihalla, 52

r., 63

Costello m., 44
Cottonwood cr., 66-7
Coulter's cr., 66-7
Cowichen 1., 64
Cranberry 1., 62
Cunningham cr., 46,

57. 66-7
Davies cr., 60
Dease 1., 48

America— r(j«//;///,v/.
Dease r., 48, 59, 66-7
De l.iard r., 01
Dennis cr., 60
Discovery and Butcher

•"-. 43
Downic r., 61
Duck cr., 58
Dunbar ni., 43
Dunkeld, 47
Dulcli tV Siegel m., 43
I'-agle r., 59
Elmore Gulch, 61
Fiiidlay cr., 6i

r., 47, 62

Fort Simpson, 55
Fountain cr., 66-7
Eraser r., 40-1, 45, 48,

49. SO, 58. 62, 66-7,

843, 889
French cr., 58, 61
Germanseu cr., 61, 66-
Gold cr,, 60 [7

Harbour, 55

— — Range, 47, 54
Coldstream r., 64
Goose cr., 58
Great Bend, 6 1
Grouse cr., 57, 66-7
Grub Gulch, 56
Half-breed cl., 61
Hardscrabble cr., 66-7
Harriion 1., 62
Harvey's cr., 57
Hat cr., 63
Ilazeltine's cr., 58
Ilickson cr., 59, 66-7
Homalheo r., 64
Horse-fly r., 63
Jack of Clubs cr., 46,

56, 66-7
Jawbone cr., 59
Kamloops 1., 51, 62,

66-7
Kangaroo cr., 58
Keithly cr., 58, 66-7
Kelley's 1., 55

Lake cr., 64

Kettle r„ 63 [66-7
Kootenay, 47-9, 61,
Ladner's cr., 52
Laketon, 66-7 [66-7
Last Chance cr., 59,
Leech r., 40, 49, 64,

73-9
Lightning c'-., 41-6, 59,

m., 44 [66-7

Lillooet, 62, 66-7

r., 62

Lost cr., 61
Louis cr., 51, 62
Lovvtree cr., 56, 59,
Lytton, 49, 62 [66-7
McArthur's cr. 56
McCallum's Gulch, 56
McCuUer's cr., 61
McDame cr., 48, 59,

66-7

'1 I \

\r 5

li' 't

'li!'

1 196

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

America — continued,
McDougall's cl., 53
McGilvery cr., 66-7
MacKenzie r., 48
McLennan's cr., 62
Mansen r., 61
Mansion cr., 47
Manson cr., 66-7
Mink Gulch, 56
Mission cr., 52, 53, 63
Mitchell Harbour, 55,

64
Montgomery cr., 66-7
Moorhead cr., 58
Mosquito cr., 56, 59,

66-7
Nanaimo r., 64
Nation r., 61
Nechacco r., 62
Nehoialpitkwa r., 63
Nelson cr., 66-7
New cr., 66-7
Nicola r., 51, 63 [63
Nicommen, 49, 50-1,
Nijjger cr., 57-8
North Thompson r.,

51-2, 62
Okanagan 1., 53, 63

val., 52

Osoyoos I., 63
Palmer's Bar, 66-7
Parsnip r., 61, 82
Patterson cr., 60
Peace r., 62, 82
Perkin's Gulch, 66-7
Perry cr., 61, 66-7
Peter's ci., 66-7
Pierre r., 52
Pine cr., 57-8
Pleasant Val., 44, 57,
Point ni,, 44 [58

Port Kuper, 55
Prospect cr., 64
Puniledge 1., 64
Purcell, 40
Quartz cr., 60
Queen Charlotte Is.,

SS. 64
Quesnelle r., 58, 66-7
R.ipid r., 61
Red Gulch, 56
Richfield, 44, 59
Rock cr., 52, 63
Rocky Mountain range,
Rosella cr., Co [40

Ruchon cr., 66-7
Sayyeas cr., 60
Scotch cr., 55, 63
Selkirk, 40
Shuswap 1., 55, 63

1- 53

Similkameen r., 52, 63
Siska Flat, 49
Skagit r., C3
Slate cr., Co, 61
Slough cr., 66-7
Snow cr., 60
Snow-shoe cr., 58, 66-7

America — continued.
Somers cr., 60
South Thompson r., 62
South Wales m,, 44
Spring cr., 60
Spruce m., 44
Stedman, 59
Stevens' Gulch, 57
Stickeen, 37, 48, 59
Stout's Gulch, 56, 59,
Sugar cr., 57 [66-7
Swamp r , 57
Swift r., 58, 66-7
Tatlayoco 1., 64
Tete J.iune Cache, 62
Thibert's cr., 59, 66-7
Third North Fork of

McDame, 60 [63
Thompson r., 49, 50-1,
Tranquille r., 51, 62,

66-7, 843
Trinity bar, 843
Tulameen r., 52
Twenty-mile cr., 52
Una Point, 55
Vancouver I., 40, 49,

n., 44 [64

Van Winkle cr,, 59

m,, 41-2, 44

Vermilion Forks, 52
Victoria m., 44
Vital cr., 66-7
Vulcan m., 44
Walker's Gulch, 56
Weaver cr., 66-7
Whipsaw cr., 52, 56
Wild Horse cr., 47, 61,

66-7
Williams' cr., 41-6, 56,

57. 66-7
Willow r., 46, 56, 58-9
Wolf Gulch, 57
Yale, 45, 47, 66-7, 843
Canada, 64-80, 801,

806, 836, 839, 845
Aubert-Gallion, 72
Aubin-Delisle, 72
Bacon Bar, 75
Belleville, 77
Bras r., 70
Bridj;ewater, 76
Chaudiere r., 65, 68,

70, 72, 843
Davis cr., 59, 66-7
Dead-wood cr., 66-7
Defot cr., 66-7
De Lery m., 68-70, 73
Dcs Plantes r., 68-71
Devil's Grip, 74

Rapids, 65, 72

Dorset, 70

Du Loup r., 65, 70, 71,

72
Elzevir, 76
Empire m., 76
F"aniiHL' r., 70, 72
Forsyth, 72
Gilbert r., 68-71

America — continued.

Coldstream Bridge, 74

Guillaume r., 68

Hawkeye m., 77

Homestake m., 78

Huckleberry Rocks, 76

Iltasyonco, 50

Jackfish bay, 80

]., 79. 836

Jersey, 70, 72

Jordan r,, 64

Kennedy Flat, 74-5

Lac-des-mille-lacs, 79

Lake, 76

Lanibton, 72

Leeds, 72

Liniere, 72, 73

Madoc, 76, 77

Magog r., 71

Marlow, 70, 72

Marmora, 76, 77-9,
836, 839, nil

Melbourne, 71

Metgermette, 72

Minnehaha cl., 57

Moira, r., 77

Oliva r., 72 [66-7

Omineca, 40, 47-9, 61,

Ontario, 77, 836, 839

Ottawa, 80, 840

Palmerston, 76-7

Partridge 1., 79, 836

I'eche, 80, 840

Rat Portage, 80

Richardson m., 76

St. F'rancis val., 71

St. George, 72

St. Giles, 72

St. Joseph, 72

St. Sylvester, 72

Seymour cr., 63

Shebandowan 1., 79

Shenlcy, 70

Sherbrooke, 71, 72

Slate is., 80

Sooke r., 64, 73-6

Stirling, 77

Touffe-des-Pins r., 68

Tring, 70, 72

Vaudreuil, 7? 3

Victoria cape, 80

Wakefield, 80

Weedon, 71

Westbury, 71

Wolf cr., 74
Chili, 231-5, 833, 835,
841, 1143-5

Aconcagua, 232, 233

Aculeo, 233

Algiie, 233

Andacollo, 233, 235

Angol, 234

Aranco, 234

Caldera, 231

Canete, 234

Canquenes, 235

Caren, 232, 234

Catapilco, 1145

America — continued,
Catemo, 233
Cato, II 43
Cerro Chivato, 233
Cerros Amarillos, 233
Chacabuco, 234
Chilian, 234, 1143,

"44. "45
Chivato, 233
Chuchunco, 233
Colchagua, 234
Conception, 235
Copiapo, 232, 234
Coquimbo, 23'., 234,

235. 841
Durazno ni., 233
El Bronce de Petorca,
Guasco, 232 [232

lUapel, 233
Jajuel, 233
La Imperial, 234
La Leona, 233
Ligua, 232, 233
Los Cristales, 235

Homos, 232, 233

Magellan Straits, 234
Marga-Marga, 234
Nancagua, 233
Niblinto, 234, 1143,

"45
Osorno, 234
Petorca, 232, 233
Peumo, 233
Quilacoya, 234
Quillota, 233
Rancagua, 233
Santiago, 232, 234
Talca, 232
Tiltil, 232
Truble r., 1 143
Uspallata, 233
Valdivia, 234
Valparaiso, 232
Villarica, 234
Vaquil, 232
Colombia (U.S. of), 235-

44. 835. 837, 843
Almirante Bay, 238
Antioquia, 238
Atrato, 236, 239
Barbacoas, 239
Barrera, 241
Buenaventura, 238, 239
Caldas, 238
Call, 238

Cana, 236, 237, 238
Caribbean Sea, 239
Castillo de Oro, 237
Cerro del Kspiritu

Santo, 236, 237
Chrirco Azul, 238
Charera, 237
Chiriqui, 238
Chirna mt., 239 [843
Choco, 236, 238, 239,
Cibera, 239, 240
Cienaga Cirande, 239
Cocuyos, 241, 244

v^. «.» ,

;;: '1

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

II97

MEK\c\—confmued,
Catemo, 233
Cato, H43
Cerro Chivato, 233
Cerros Amarillos, 233
Chacabuco, 234
Chilian, 234, U43,

1 144, "45
Chivato, 233

Chuchunco, 233
Colchagua, 234
Conception, 235
Copiapo, 232, 234
Coc|uimbo, 23-?, 234,
235, 841 ^^'

Durazno ni., 233
El Bronce de Petorca,
Guasco, 232 [232

Illapel, 233
Jajuel, 233
La Imperial, 234
La Leona, 233
Ligua, 232, 233
Los Cristales, 235

Hornos, 232, 233

Magellan Straits, 234
Marga-Marga, 234
Nancagua, 233
Niblinto, 234, 1 143,

"45
Osorno, 234
Petorca, 232, 233
Peumo, 233
5uiIacoya, 234
^)uillota, 233
Rancagua, 233
Santiago, 232, 234
Falca, 232
nitil, 232
Fruble r., 1 143
Uspallata, 233
^''aldivia, 234
k'^alparaiso, 232
k'illarica, 234
r^aquil, 232

LOMBIA(U.S.of),235-

,44,835,837,843

ilmirante Bay, 238
^ntiotjuia, 238
Urato, 236, 239
tarbacoas, 239
tarrera, 241
luenaventura, 238, 239
laldas, 238
:ali, 238

'ana, 236, 237, 238
aribbean Sea, 239
astillo de Oro, 237
erro del l';spiritu
Santo, 236, 237
harco Aziil, 238
liaiera, 237
hiriqui, 238
hirna int., 239 [843
hoco, 236, 238, 239,
ibera, 239, 240
ienaga Grande, 239
ocuyos, 241, 244

A M ER ICA — continued.
Concepcion, 241
Coro, 239
Dagua, 238
Darien, 236, 237

r- 239

David, 238
El Dorado, 237, 239
Espiritu Santo, 236,
Estrella, 238 [237

Frio, 239
Giron, 236, 238
Guanavano, 238
Guinea, 241
Las Breiias, 238
Lebrija, 238
Magdalena, 238
Malineca, 236
Marcapana, 239
Marea r, 237
Mina Real, 236
Mosqifito, 238
Noveta, 240
Pampluna, 236, 238
Panama, 236, 237
Pequeni, 236
Piedecuesta, 238
Porto Bello, 236
Punta Burica, 238
Quibdo, 239, 240
Rio Andagada, 239

Bebera, 240

Cesar, 239

Dibulla, 239

Sevilla, 239

San Antonio, 241

Bartolomo, 241

Jago, ,"41

Marcos, 238

Maria, 236

Santa Fe, 236

Marta, 239

Rita, 236

Santiago, 241 [236
Santo Crux up Cana,
Sierra Nevada, ^39
Sp.inish Miiin, 237
Terrora, 238
Tierra Firnie, 237
Tissingal, 238
Tumaco, 239
Tuyra, 236
Vela del Rey, 242

Solida, 242

Veragua, 236
Vijes, 238
Yavisa, 236
Zapaterito, 241
Costa Rica, 98-9, 822
Aquacate, 98-9
Chiriqui, 99
Machuca, 99
Nicoya b., 99
Punta Arenas, 98, 99
Quebrada-Honda, 99
Sacra Familia m., 98
Talamanca, 98
Trinidad, q8

America — continued.
Ecuador, 244-5, 835

Bombonaza, 245

Curardy, 245

Esmeraldas, 245

Latacunga, 245

Llangaiiate, 245

Maraiion, 244

Napo, 244

Pongo de Manzeriche,

Sluina, 245 [244

Topo, 245

Verde, 245
Guatemala, 99-100

Motagua r., 100
Guiana, British, 245

Cuyuni, 245

Tupuquen, 245

Yuruari, 245
Guiana, Dutch, 245-6,
861-2, 863

Brokopondo, 245

Commewyne, 245

Paramaribo, 246

Predosengoe, 246

Saramacca r., 246
Guiana, French, 246-
7, 809

Comte, 247

Iracouljo, 247

Mana, 247

Maroni, 247

Orapa, 247

Oyac, 247^

Pas-trop-tot, 247

Sinnamary, 247

Tumac Humac, 247
Honduras, 100-2

Belize, loi, 102

Caimito P ■"ids, loi

CocksconiD range, 102

Comayagua, loi

Deep r., loi

Gua;-'7>e r., loo, loi,

Jalan r., loi [120

Machaquila r., loi

Malacate m., 100

Manguile r., loi

Minas de Oro, loi

Montserate m., loi

Moran Bar, 100

Olancho, 100, loi

Pacaya r., loi

Sanctissimo Sacramen-
to m., loi

Sulaco h., 100

r., loi

Yaguale r., loi

Yoco, loi

Yuscaran, loo-i
Manitoba, 80-2, 840
Mexico, 102-16, 648,
820, 835, 838, 840,

Aguage m., no [841

Alamos, 109

Altar, 113

Arava vein, 107

Arispe, no, iii

America — continued.
Atocha m., 114
Babiacora, no
Babicanora m., I14
Bancachi, in
Barisps r., 109
Batopillilas, 109
Batoscagachic, 1 1 1
Bolanos m., 114

vein, 107, 108

Cajurichic, 109 [113
Caiiada de la Higuera,

de la Iglesia, 113

Candelaria vein, 107,
Candelaro, 114 [108
Canelas, 106, 108
Carmen m., 114
Cerocahuic, 1 1 1
Cerro de San Felipe,

de San Pedro, 106

Gardo m., no

Chalco, 102
Chihuahua, 108-9, in,

112, 113
Churunibabi, no
Cienequilla, ill
Cinaloa, 109 no
Cinco Sonores vein,

107, 108
Cobriza m., 1 10
Comanja, no
Coronas vein, 103
Corralitos, in
Corral Viejo, 114
Cosala, 107, no
Cuencanie, 106
Culiacan, 1 10
Distrito de Mino, 114
Do' ores vein, 107, no
Dc . Amigos vein, 1 1 2
Durango, 102, 106,

107, 108, 113, 114
EI Doctor, 113
El Oro, 104, 106
El Pilar de la Cieni-

guita, 109

de la Milpillas,

El Potrero, 109 [109
El Puerto m , 114
El Rosario m., 104
Fuerte r., 112
Gavilanes, 106
Guanajato, 102, 103,

104, 105, 107, no
Guanasevi, 106
Guarisamey, 102, 106,

107, 108, 109, 113,
Guaymas, 109 [115
Horcasitas, in
Huacaivo, 112
Huacal m., no
Indee, 106

Jesus Maria, 109, in.
La Abra m., 108 [113
La Agame m., in
La Blanca m., 1 14
Laborde vein, 103

America — continued.
La Candelaria, 115
Lagos, no fin

l^agun.' de Guzman,
La Luz in., 115
La Purisi.na vein, 112
Los Virgil es vein, 104
Leon, 1 10
Los Bronces, II 3
Magdalen.i, 113
Mapimi, I06
Mazatlan, 113
Mescala r., 113
Mina del Rosario, III
Moris, 109
Mulatos, in
Nabosayguame, 109
Nacosari, no
Nuestra Senora de

Guadalupe, no
Oposura r., 109, no
Pachuca, 115
Papigochi, 112
Parral, 109
Petic, 109
Pinal m., Iio-I
Piramide vein, 107, 108
Qui pore, 109
Rancho del Oro, 104,
Rayas, 102, 105 [105
Real de la Cieneguita,

"3
Real Viejo, 113
Rio de los Casas

Grandes, in
Rio del Oro, 1 14
Rio Grande, 112
Rio Mayo, in
Rosario, 109

m., 114

San Antonio m., no
de la Huerta,

III, 113, 114
de los Ven-

tanas, 113
San Bernabe m., 115
San Dimas, 106, 108,

113. "4
San Francisco, 1 1 1
San Jose del Oro, 104
San Jose de Mulatos,

109
San Jose Tayoltita, 108
San Juan de Rayas, 105
San Luis Potosi, 106
San Marcos, 113
San Miguel ile Hor-
casitas, 109
San Pedro int.. Ill
San Vincente m., 105
Santa Anita ni.,105
Santa Barbara m., 114
Santa Juliana ni., 109,
in 'in

Santa Ludubigen m.,
Santa Theresa m., ill
Satesicochi, II3
Scntentrion, in

i »'

1 198

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

America — coyi tin ued.
Sianori, io6, 108
Sierra Madre, 106, 108,

109, III, 841
Siraloa, 1 14
Sonorn, 109, no, iii,

113, 820, 840, 841
Tamasula, 106, 108
Tapia vein, 107
Tasco, 1 1 3
Tecolota lode, 107
Tepcyac, 114
Tlalpujahua, 103, 104
Tubares, 112
Ures, 109

Vela Fornelli m., 113
Veta Madre, 104, 105,

107, no
Victoria, 106
Villalpando, 102, 104
Yuguivo, III
Zacatula, 113
Zimapan, 104
New Brunswick, 83-4,

819, 840
Albert co., 83
Bathurst, 84
Boiestown, 84
Carleton co., 83
Charlotte co., 83, 840
Main's Ledges, 84
Millstream, 84
Miramichi, 84
Nipisiguit r., 83-4
Northumberland co.,

83,84

Oliver Lodge, 83

Victoria co., 83

York CO., 83
Newfoundland, 84-5,
838, 842

Avaloii pen., 84

Brigus, 84-S

Conception b., 84

Fox h., 85

Notre-Dame b., 84
New Granada, see

Colombia (U.S. of).
Nicaragua, 116-21

Bluefield r., 120

Chontales, 116-21

Consuelo lode, 1 1 7

Dipilto, 119

Granada, 118

Guyappa, 120

Indian r., 120

{avali lode, 117
-a Leonesa ni., 1 19
La Luna m,, 1 19
Leon, 118
Lepaguare, 120
Liljertad, u8
Matagalpa, 119, 120
Monte Grande m., 119
Mosquito, 120
Kiieva Segovia, 120
Olancio, 120
Patook r.,. 120

America — continued.

Amkrjcx— continued.

Rio Coco, 120

Cross lode, 90, 91

Rio Escondido, 120

Crow's-nest m., 93

San Antonio lode, 117

Dartmouth, 91

San Benito lode, 117

Dewar lode, 93

San Juan, 120

Dominion m., 93

San Pablo m., 1 19

Dunbrack lode, 94

San Rafael m., 119

East r., 90

San Ramon, 119

Ecum-Secum, 95

Santa Rosa de Venci,

Enfield Station, 92

118

Field lode, 94

Santa Domingo, 1 16-8

Fifteen-mile r., 87, 90

Segovia, 120, 121

Flat lode, 90

Teustepet, 119

Forrest lode, 94

Truxillo, 120

Frankfort lode, 92

Ucalca m., 119

Gay's r., 89, 90-1, 97,

Upper Patook r., 120

754, 819

Wanks r., 120

Gold r., 95

North-west Ter., 80-2,

Grand 1., 92

Assiniboine r., 81 [840

Halifax Harbour, 91

Athabasca 1., 81, 82

Hall lode, 92

Brazeau r., 81

Hamilton's Corner, 90

Buffalo mts., 82

Ilarrigan Cove, 95

Cape Jones, 80

Hattie lode, 94

Carlton, 81

Hyde lode, 90

Dog is., 80, 840

Irving lode, 87

Fond-du-lac, 82

Isaac's Harbour, 93

Fort Edmonton, 81, 82

Lawrencetown, 91

Great Whale r., 80

Leary lode, 94

Lake Superior, 80, 81,

Loon 1., 91

Lunenberg co., 95

Lake of the Woods, 80

Middle r., 95

Little Whale r., 80

Montague, 88, 91, 96,

Manitoba 1., 81

Methy Portage, 82

Moose-head, 95

Red-ochre h., 82

Mooseland, 87

St. Martin's 1., 81

Moose r., 90

Saskatchewan r., 80,

Mulgrave lode, 93

81, 82, 836, 841

Musquodoboit r., 90

Vermilion, 82

New South lode, 92

Winnipeg 1., 81, 82

Nigger lode, 94

Nova Scotia, 85-97,

North lode, 90, 92

754, 755. 756, 758.

Ohio lode, 92

806, 813, 819, 1019

Oldham, 90, 92, 97,

American-hill lode, 92

Ovens, 95, 96 [755

Antigonish, 93

Preeper lode, 92

Aylmer, 72

Renfrew, 87, 90, 92-3,

Baddeck, 95

97, 755

Barrel lode, 92

Ritchie lode, 92

Belt lead, 88

Rose lode, 91

Belt lode, 91

St. Mary r., 93, 94

Blackie lode, 92

St. Patrick lode, 91

Britannia lode, 92

Sambro, 85

Brodie lode, 92

Sheet Harbour, 95

Brook lode, 92

Sherbrooke, 86, 90,

Bushing Area, 90

93. 94, 97

Canso, 85

Shubcnacadie Station,

Cape I3reton, 95

Ship Harbour, 95 [90

Cape Sable, 85 [91

Sim lode, 92

Capel Townsend m..

South lode, 92

Caribou, 90, 97, 997-8

South mts., 95

Chezzetcook, 95

Stewiacke, 95

Cobcquid mis., 95

Storniont, 93-4, 97

Cochran's h., 86, 93

Strawberry h., 94

Colchester, 754

Tangier, 87, 89, 90,

Copper 1., 94

94, 96. 97

Corbitt's mill, 754, 755

Taj lor lode, 92

Crookes' lode, gi

Tudor lode, 92

AilEKXCA— continued.
Uniacke mt., 87, 88,

94-S, 97
United lode, 92
Waddilow Group, 91
Waganiatcook, 95
Waverley, 85, 88, 89,

90, 92, 96, 97
Wellington m., 93
Wentworth m., 93
Werner m., 91
West 1., 88
Windsor Junction, 92
Wine Harbour, 94
Yarmouth, 85, 86, 95

Paraguay, 247

Patagonia, 122, 247
Brunswick penin., 247
Magellan Str., 247
Punta Arenas, 247

Peru, 248-53, 833, 835,
1 146-52
Alta-garcia, 251, 1146
Amazon, 252
Andes, 252
Aporuma, 250, 1 146
Beni, 252 [1147

Camante, 248, 249,
Capacurco, 251
Caravaya, 249, 250,

251, 1146-52
Chaluma, 251, 1 148
Collahuaya, 249
Cordilleras, 252
Crucero, 250, 1 148
Cuzco, 251
Garrote, 248
Huari-Huaii, 251
La Mina, 251
Lomas, 252
Madeira, 252
Madre de Dois, 249
Marcapata, 248, 249
Montebello, 251
Pablo-bamba, 252
Pacchani, 250
Paucartambo, 252
Phara, 250
Piquitiri, 252
Puno, 248
Purus, 249, 252
Quimza-mayu, 251
Sandia, 249
San Gavan, 249, 250

Juan del Oro, 249,

Sorrata, 252 [251

Taccuma, 251, 1152
Tipuani, 252
Ucayali, 252
■^ " --rsailles, 251

ca-mayu, 249
Vnambiri, 249, 251

Un'ted States, 121-91

Aiabama, 122, 123

AUeghanies, 122

Arizona, 124, 126, 127,

128-9, 842, 881

Accidental m., 128

GEOGR/kPHICAL INDEX.

1 199

America — continued.
Antelope h., 128
Big Bug r., 128
Cerbat raiij;;?, 129
CeiTO Colorado lode,
Ehicnberg, 129 [128
Gila, 124, 129
Greenwood m., 129
Hassayampa r., 128
Lynx Creek, 128
Mohave co., 129
Papago CO., 128
Patagonia lode, 128
Pima CO., 128
Prescott, 129
Santa Maria dist., 129
Santa Rita mt., 128
Sexton m., 128
Tombstone dist., 127
Tuscon, 128
Wallapai mts., 129
Weaver dist., 128
Yavapai co., 128
Yunn, CO., 129
California, 40, 47, 50,
123, 124, 125, 126,
127, 129-54, 509.
648, 701, 724, 755,
758, 780, 782, 7S3,
786, 792, 793, 794,
796, 797, 801, 820,
830-1, 833, 839,
840, 841, 842, 843,
844, 845, 846, 847,
855, 891. 907, 908-9,
935-6, 949. 1018,
1019
Albany h , 130
Amador, 129 [154

CO., 129-30, 137,

American r., 124, 147
Angel's, 130
Antelope m., 132
Arkansas cl., 146
Auburn, 133

ni., 134

Badger h., 983
Bald nit, 945
Banner dist., 134
Basin cl., 146
Bath, 142, 147
Bear r., 855, 973, 994
Big Blue lead, 936-7
Big Red Ravine m.,

.845
Big Spanish h., 150
Bodie, 127
Bottle h., 148
Brushy Cailon, 147
Buckeye m., 133
Buffalo cl., 148
Butte CO., 130, 137,
1 54. 841, 843, 844,

891, 937

Creek, 130

Byrd's Valley, 141
Calaveras co., 130, 137,

154. 844

America — contimied,
California (a) m., 132

{b) m., 133

Canada h., 141, 146,
Carson .1., 130 [782
Castle h., 142
Cedar Flat, 150
Cederberg m., 131
Cement Mill cl.. 141,

907
Cherokee, 130, 841,
Clay h., 150 [843

Clinton cl., 146
Coloma, 124, 845
Columbia h., 984
Confidence m., 135
Consolidated m., 134
Coon h., 150
Coon Hollow, 149
Cooper m , 133
Crandall m., 134
Crane's Gulch, 144
Crater m., 133
Cuyamac, 134
Damascus, 141
Daw cl., 143, 146
Deadwood, 146
Dei Norte co., 154
Dcrbec, 900
Devil's Basin, 146
Dick cl., 146
Downieville, 796
Dry Creek, 130
Drytown, 129
Dutch Flat, 900
Dutch Gulch, 146
El Dorado Caiion, 146,

147

CO., 130-1, 137,

154, 845

h., 141, 146

Elizabeth h., 145-6

m., 133

Empire m., 132, 147
English cl., 146 [129
Eureka and Badger m.,

m., 132, 902-3,

954-5, 1019

Excelsior cl., 142, 149,

150, 843, 955
Feather r., 130, 844,

891, 995

First Brushy Canon,
142, 147

Flat m., 146, 147, 983

Flora's m., 149

Forbestown Consoli-
dated vein, 130

Forest Hill, 142, 147

Franklin cl., 144, 147

French cl., 144

Fresno co., 154

Georgetown, 142, 143,
144, 148

Georgia Slide, 142

Gold Blossom m., 133

Gold run, 983

Golden Gate m., 135

America — continued.
Grass Valley, 131-2,

792,985, 1019, 1 103,

1130 [141

Green Valley Gorge,
Greenwood, 144
Grit cl., I43 [146

Grizzly Caiion, 141,
Hangtown h., 150
Hay ward's m., 129
Holder m., 1 33-4
Howland Flat, 985
Humboldt co., 154
Idaho m., 132, 902-3,

1019
Illinois Caiion, 142
Independence h., 149-

50
Indian Caiion, 141,

h., 150 [150

Inyo CO., 154
lowah., 140, 141, 145,

149-50

Hill ridge, 145

Italians' vein, 129
Jackson, 129
Johntown, 144
Julian dist., 134

■ m., 134

King's h., 145
Klamath co., 157

r., 137

I Ladies Caiion, 141
I Lassen co., 154
I Last Chance m., 146
Lebanon Tunnel, 140,

I 146

I Leviathan vein, 129-30
Little Spanish h., 150
Long Caiion, 149
Los Angelos co., 124,

154
Lower Rich Gulch, 130
Mad Caiion, 141
Mameluke h., 148
Mammoth vein, 130
Mariposa, 129, 831

CO., 131, 137, 154

estate, 131

Melones m., 844
Merced, 136
Michigan Bluff, 141,

146, 147
Middle Yuba r., 139
Mina Rica m., 133
Mokeluniiie r., 130,

139, 955
Mono CO., 154
Monumental m., 796
Morning Star m., 145,

146
Morris ravine, 844
Mother lode, 129,130,

136 [141

Mountain G.ate Tunnel,
Mount Pleasant m.,
Nahor's cl, 141 [131
Negro h., 150

America — continued.
Nevada CO., 129, 131-
3, 137. 154,900,947

■ 'm-. 132-3

New Jersey m., 142
New Vork Canon, 146
New York Hill m , 132
North Bloomfield, 900,

954-5,972,977,983,
984 11104

North Star cl., 145,
Ocean Side House, 5 1 1
Oneida m., 129
Orleans m., 134
Orovillc, 844, 891
Paragon m., 142, 147
Parker House, 149
Pittsburg m., 132
Placer CO., 129, 133-4,

137, 154, 794. 795
Placerville, 142, 149,

150-1, 509, 1091-5
Plumas CO., 129, 134,

137, 154 ,
Point San Pedro, 151
j Pond's cl., 148
Potosi, 985
Rabb ravine, 907
I Red Hill m., 146
\ Refuge Caiion, 146
Roanoke Channel, 148

Gulch, 148, 149

Rose's bar, 907
Sacramento r., 133, 995
Sailor's Canon, 141

Union cl., 145

St. Lawrence m., 133
St. Patrick m., 133
Sam Simms m., 845
San Andreas, 130
San Bernardino co., 1 54
San Bcrnaxdino nit.,
San Diego, 134 [137
San Diego co., 129,

134-5. 154. 839
San Fernando, 124
San Francisco, 125,

127. 995 [13s

San Francisco Caiion,
San Francisquito, 124
San Gabriel range, 137
San Joaquin Valley,

130
San Juan divide, 973,

983, 984 [995

San Pablo bay, 993,
Santa Isabella nit., 134
Scott m., 133
Second Brushy Caiion,

142, 147
Shady Side m., 134
Shasta co., 154
Shenanigan h., 143-4
Short Handle m., 144
Sierra Buttes, 796
Sierra co., 129, 137
Sierra Nevada, 122,

135-SI. 758. 796,

! : : :i|

iUI

.ii;!'

III

I200

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

Am erica — continued.
801,802, 830-1,840,
841, 843, 844, 845,
846, 849, 935-7

Siskiyou co., 154

Skunk Gulch, 147

Slab cl., 146

Smartsville, 13S, 955,
962, 973, 983, 986,

995
Smith's Flat, 150
Smith's Point, 142, 147
Solsie m,, 134
Sonora, 1 103
Spanish Dry Diggings,

143, 782
Spanish m., 133
Spanish Peak range.
Specimen cl., 141 [134
Spring valley, 130
Square creek, 907
Stanislaus CO., 136, 154

m., 844

Startown, 146
Sterrett's cl., 141
Steven's cl., 150
Stickner's Gulch, 147
Sucker Flat, 135
Sugar Loaf mt., 149-50
Suisun bay, 995
Sutler's Saw-mill, 124
Sutter, 129
Table mt., 130, 135,

890, 93S-6, 944
Tancow, 937
Taylor m., 131
Timbuctoo, 135, 907
Todd's valley, 147
Trinity co., 154
Tuolumne co., 130,

135. 137. 154. 944
Vallecito, 782
Vallejo, 993
Van Emmons cl., 141
Volcano, 129
Volcanoville, 149
Webber cl., 150
Weske's cl., 141, 146
White Rock Caiion,

ISO
White Rock Point, 150
Whitman vein, 129
Wiessler's cl., 140, 145
Wilcox cl., 149
Wisconsin h., 146
Woodside m., 131
Yankee Jim cl., 147
You bet, 947 [143

Young's Dry Diggings,
Yuba CO., 13^, 154
• r., 883, 946, 973,

983, 986, 994, 995,

996
Carolina, N., 123, 126,

1 54-8, 787
Carolina, S., 122, 123,

126, 158-9, 836,

840, 860

A M E R I c A — continued.

Carolina, Upper, 123
Abbeville, 122, 159
Alamance co., 154
Barnhardt m., 156
Season m., 156
Beaver Dam m,, 156
Blue Ridge, 158
Broad r., 159
Burke co., 154, 155
Cabarrus CO., 154, 156,

787
Caldwell co., 154, 155
Cansler and Shuford

m., 155
Catawba co., 154
Catawba r., 157
Chatham co., 154
Cherokee CO., 154, 157
Cherokee Valley, 159
Chesterfield m., 159,

840
Cleaveland co., 154
Conrad Hill m., 156
Crump m., 155
Davidson CO., 154, 155,
Davis m., 156 [156
Delft m., 15s
Dom m., 122
Dunn m., 157
Easteiwood Shoals,
Estatoe, 159 [159

Fair Forest m., 159
Fisher Hill m, 156
Franklin CO., 154, 156
Gardner m., 157
Gaston CO., 154, 155
Gold h., 155, 156
Granville co., 154
Guilford co., 154, 157
Harlan m., 156
Hearne m., 156
Hoover Hill m., 156
Howie m., 155
Jackson co., 154
Jones m., 155
King's Creek, 159
King's mt., 159
Lafflin m., 155
Lancaster m., 159
Lawson's Fork, 159
Lawson m., 155
Lemmond m., 155
Limestone Springs,
Lincoln co., 154 [159
Lindsey m., 156
Little John's m., 155,
Little r., 158 [159

McCuUoch m., 156
McDowell CO., 154
Mecklenburg co., I54>

157
Montgomery co., 154,

IS5. 156
Moore co., 154
Nash CO., 154
Norris's ro., 159
Nott's m., 159

America — continued.
Nuckols m., 159
Orchard m., 156
Parker m., 156
Pax h., 155
Pewter m., 155, 156
Phifer m., 1 56
Phoenix m., 156
Pioneer m., 156
Polk CO., 154
Poor mt., 158
Portis m., 156
Randolph co., 154
Rankin s, 158
Reed m., 123, 154, 156
Reynolds' m., 156
Roanoke r., 157
Robins m., 155
Rowan co., 154, 155,

156
Rudersill m., 157
Rutherford co., 154,
Rymer m., 156 [155
Sawyer m., 155
Shemwell vein, 155
Silver h., 155
Smith's Ford, 159
Spartanburg, 159
Stanly co., 154, 156
Stewart m., 155
Swift Island m., 155
Tomassic valley, 158
Transylvania co., 154
Tyger r., 158
Union CO., 154, 155,

156
Vanderburgh m., 156
Ward's m., 155, 156
Watanga co., 154
Weldon, 157
Yaokin r., 157
Cofachiqui, 122
Colorado, 124, '26, 127,
159-62, 802, 834,
•I, 844
Bassick m., 802
Bates lode, 159, 160-I
Black Hawk m., 160
Bobtail lode, 159-60
Boulder co., 162
Burroughs lode, 159,

161
California lode, 161-2
Central City, 834
Chaffee co., 162
Clear Creek co., 162
Coaley lode, 162
Custer CO., 162
Flack lode, 159, 161-2
Gardner lode, 159, 161
Gilpin CO, 1 59, 162,834

lode, 162

Gregory lode, 159, 160
Gunnell lode, 159
Illinois lode, 161
Indiana lode, 161-2
Lake co., 162
Mercer co. lode, 161-2

A M ERICA — continued.
Park CO., 162
Red Cloud m., 844
San Juan co., 162
Summit co., 162
Winnebago lode, 159
Dakota, 78, 126, 127,
162-70, 804-6, 820,
838
Amphibious cr., 163,

168, 170
Bear Butte cr., 166
Bear cr., 166 [838

Lodge, 167, 820,

range, 167

Black Hills, 78, 87,
122, 127, 162, 168-
70, 801, 804-6, 820,
838
Box-elder cr., 166-168
Camp Terry, 166
Castle cr., 165-6
Cheyenne r., 163, 170
Custer Gulch, 163, 164
Custer's Trail, 165
Deadwood cr., 166
Elk cr., 166
Floral val., 166
Foot-hills, 167-70
French cr., 162-4, 168,

170
Harvey Peak, 162, 169
Mammoth Ledge, 164-5
Minnekata cr., 163,

168, 170
N-^wton's Fork, 164
Rapid cr., 166, 168,
170 [167-8

Red Cafion cr., 163,
Rosebush Diggings, 169
South Cheyenne r., 168
Spear fish cr., 166
Spring cr., 164-5, '68
Stand-off Bar, 165
Terry cr., 166
Warren Peaks, 167
Whisky cr., 165, 168,

169
White r., 168
Whitewood cr., 166
Wiwi cr., 163, 168
Florida, 122
Georgia, 122, 123, 125,
126, 1 70-1
Allatoona h., 171
Broad r., 122
Burnt Hickory, 171
Cherokee co,, 171
Chestatee r., 170
Columbia co., 171
Dahlonega, 171
Dawson co., 171
Goshen, 171
Lincoln co., 171
Lumpkin co., 170, 171
Union co., 171
White CO., 171 [845
Idaho, 126, 127, 1 71-2,

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

I20I

A M E R I C A — continued.
Boise Basin, 124, 127
Charity m., 845
Oro Fino m., 124
Owyhee mts., 127, 171
Peu d'Oreille r., 124
Salmon r., 171
Snake r., 171, 889
Wood River dist., 127,

1 7 1-2
Yankee Fork, 127
Maine, 172

Bucksport, 172
Deer Isle m., 172
Fort Knox m., 172
Owl's Head m., 172
Penobscot b., 172

r., 172

Prospect, 172
Rockland, 172
Mississippi, 122
Missouri, 172
Adair co., 172
Chariton co., 172
Linn co., 172
Mercer co., 172
Putnam co., 172
Sullivan co., 172
Montana, 124, 126, 127,
172-3, 840, 941
Atlantic Cable m., 173

840
Bannack, 172, 173
Beaver Head co., 172-3
Blue Wing dist., 173
Cedar cr., 172
Confederate Gulch, 172
Deer Lodge 1.0., 172,

173, 840
Four Johns vein, 173
Gallatin co., 172
Jefferson, 172
Lewis and Clarke, 172
Madison co., 172
Meagher co., 172
Missoula CO., 172
Missouri r., 172 [173
North Atlantic vein,
North Pacific lode, 173
Old Alder Gulch, 172
Pittsburgh vein, 173
Pyrenees vein, 173
Quartz cr., 172 [173
Rosa Whitford vein,
Whin-Doodle vein, 173
Nevada, 124-5, 126, 127,
173-7. 786, 798, 799,
802, 804, 822, 839,
896, 898
Comstock lode, 125,
127.173-5.780,802,
822, 831, 838, 849,
1 136
Diamond range, 176
tlko, 173

Esmeralda, 173 [802
Eureka, 173, 175-7,
Gold Hill Level, 175

America — eontimted.
Hale Level, 175
Humboldt, 173 [177
Kentuck Workings,
Lander, 173
Lincoln, 173
Lyon, 173

Mt. Davidson, 174, 831
Mt. Wheeler, 798, 799,
800 [1129

New Providence m.,
Norcross Ltvel, 175
Nye, 173
Osceola, 798, 800
Pifion range, 176
Prospect mt., 177
Revenue m., 802
Richmond m., 175-7,
804, 839, 842, 1 1 39
Ruby h., 176, 177, 822
Savage Workings, 177
Spring Valley, 799
Steamboat Spring, 802,
Storey co., 173 [803
Tuscarora, 802
Washoe, 539, 1 136
White r., 173

New Hampshire, 177
Gardner's mt., 177
Grafton co., 177
layman, 177

h., 177

Mt. Monadnock, 177

New Mexico, xt.fy, 128,
177-8C, 819, 881
Albuquerque, 178
Arkansas r., 180
Bent's Fort, 180
Biggs m., 178
Elizabeth Town, 177
Fort Atkinson, 180
Gold mts, 178-80
Great Baldy, 177
Grouse Gulch, 177
Jacarilla mts., 177
La Mina del Oro, 1 79
Los Cerillos mts., 1 79
Mareno r., 177
New Placer, 178, 179
Old Placer, 179
Ortiz m., 178
Pike's Peak, 179, 180
Placer mts., 178-80
Santa Fe, 178, 179
Spanish Peaks, 180

New York, 180-1, 801
Alleghany co., 180
Appalachians, 180-1,

781, 841
Clinton, 180
Dutchess CO., 180-I
Erie co., 180
Fulton CO., 180
Hamilton co. , 180
Herkimer co., 180
Plattsburg, 180
Rhinebeck, 180
Rocl<lan(l co., 180

Kuv.v.\cs.— continued.
St. Lawrence r., 181
Saratoga co., 180
Washington co., 180
Westchester co., 180

Ohio, 181, 801
Licking co., i8l

Oregon, 124, 126, 127,
151, 181, 648, 898
Amelia, 898
Baker co., 127
Blue mts., 181
Calapooya mts., 181
Calapooya r., 181
Cascade range, i8l
Clackamas r., 181
Coast range, 181
Des Chutes r., 181
Molallar., 181
Puehla mts., 181
Santiani r., 181
Siskiyou mts., 181
Snow mts., i8i
Umpqua mts., 181
Willamette r., 181

Pacific Coast ran<;e, 122

Pennsylvania, 181
Philadelphia, 181, 784

Rocky mts., 62, 80, 81,
82, 122, 801

Sierra Madre, 122

Tennessee, 123

Texas, 794

Utah, 124-5, '26, 127,
181-2, 802 [2, 802
Bingham Caiion, 181-
Cave m., 802

Virginia, \7.% 126, 182-
90, 648, 649, 834,
Allen m., 184 [860
Alley Cooper m., 184
Appleton's m., 184
Appomattox co., 186
Ashe CO., 190
Baker m., 181 [186
Bancroft m., 184, 185,
Belzora m., 184
Bertha and Edith m..
Blue Ridge, 190 [184
Booker m., 1^4
Bowles m., 184
Brush cr., 182, 188-9
Buckingham co., 182,

183, 1 84, 648
Buckingham ra., 184
Carroll co., 189
Chickahoniiny r., 123
Copper Knob m., 190
Culpeperco., 182, 183,
De Sear m., 184 [185
Duncan's ui., 184
Elk cr., 189-90

Elk Knob m., 190
Ellis m., 184, 185, 188
Fairfax co., 182
Fauquier CO., 182, 183,

184, 185, i86
Fisher m., f84

America — eontiniu-d.
Floyd CO., 182, 189
Fluvanna CO., 182, 183,

184, 187-8
Fontaine m., 184 [185
Franklin m., 183, 184,
Gilmer m., 184
Goochland co., 184,

185, 187-8
Gray.son co., 189-90
Greeley ni., 184
Hobson m., 184
Home m., 186

Iron mt., 189
Jennings m., 184
Kidwell m., 185
L'Aigle d'Or m., 184
Laurel cr., 1 89

• Ridge, 189

Lightfoot m., 184
Louisa CO., 184
— m., 184
Luce m., 184
Marks m., 184
Mason Tract, 186
Melville m., 184, 185
Mill House vein, 186
Montgomery co., 182,

i88-9
Morrison m., 184
Moseley m., 184
Moss m., 184, 838
Mulatto mt., 190
New r., 190
Old Culpcper m., 185
Orange co., 182, 183,

184, 185, 648
Ore Knob lode, 190
Peach Bottom vein, 190
Perkins m., 184
Pilot House, 189

mt., 189

Point Lookout, 190
Profit m., 184
Rappahannock, 123
Roanoke r., 189
Hough and Ready m.,

184
Scisson m., 184
Slate Hill ni., 184
Sncad m., 184
Spotsylvania co., 182,

183, 184
Tabb m., 184
lellurium m., 184,

187-8
Tinder Flat m., 184
Tunnel vein, 186
Vaucluse m., 184, 185
Waller m., 184
Walnut Grove m., 184
Walton m.., 184
Wantanga co., ico
Wykoffm., 184, 185
Washington ter., 126,

127, 190
Upper Columbia, 127
Vakiina co., 127

4 "

■ w

I202

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

A M E R I c A — continued.
Wyoming, 126, 128,

1 90- 1
Bear Lodge mts., 191
Belle Fourche r., 191
Big Horn r., 191
Black h., 191
Centennial dist., 191
Clark's Fork, 191
Douglass cr., 191
Grace cr., 191
Jehu mt., 191
Laramie Peak, 191
Little Laramie r., 191
Medicine Bow mts.,

191
Nigger Gulch, 191
North Fork, 191
Rawhide Buttes, 191
Red mts., 191
Running Water, 191
Sand cr., 191
Shoshone mts., 191
Stinking Water, 191
Sweetwater co., 128
Yellowstone r., 191
Uruguay, 253-5
Banda Oriental, 253
Chico, 254
Corralles, 254
Grande r., 254, 255
Maldonado, 255
Montevideo, 255
Rio Grande, 254, 255
Salto, 253
Tacuaiembo, 254
Vknkzuei.a, 255-68,

786, 833, 842
Aguinaldo, 263
Angostura, 260
Arasiama, 260
Aroa, 266
Ban|uismeto, 266
Buena Ritero m., 258
Callao, 261
m., 256, 257, 258,

259, 260, 261-2,

267-8
Caratal, 259, 260, 261,

262, 264, 265
m., 256, 257, 258,

259, 260
Caroni, 260
Charapo, 260 [267
Chili m., 256, 262-3,
Cicapra, 259
Ciudad Bolivar, 259,

260
Concordia m., 258, 259
Corinna lode, 262
Cura, 266
Cuyuni, 266
Essequibo, 260 [260
Eureka m., 258, 259,
Guar?' 266-7

Guataj-jio, 261
Cruayana, 256-g
(iuri, 260

kuv.Vi\CK— continued.
Hansa m., 256, 257, 258
Independiente m., 259,
Lagunta, 263 [263
La Punta de Hicacos,
Las Tablas, 259 [266
Limones, 260
Mocupia m., 256, 257,

258, 259, 260, 262,

263
Nacupi m., 256, 257,

258
Nirgua, 266 [260

Nueva Hansa m., 257,
Nueva Providencia,

258, 261, 262, 263,

264, 266
Oranato, 261
Orinoco, 260, 267
Panama ni., 257, 258,

263, 267
Paragua, 266
Pastora, 260, 261, 266
Peru m., 262, 263
Planada, 264
Porvenir m., 259
Potosi m., 256, 257,

258, 259, 260, 262
Puerto Cabello, 266
Quebrada de Tucana,

267
Remington m., 257, 258
San Antonio m., 259,

263 [266

Felipe m., 262,

Luis m., 258, 259

Salvador m., 259

Santa Crux, 266
.South American m.,
Tesorero, 266-7 [259
Tigre lode, 262, 263
Tocuyo, 266
Tupuqucn, 261, 264
Union m., 258, 259
Upata, 261, 266
Yaracuy, 266
Yguana, 263
Yuruari, 261, 262, 263,

266, 268
West Indies, 191-6
Aruba, 191-2
Cuba, 192
Agabama, 192
Escawbray r., 192
Hayti, 192-6, 804, 841
Anones r., 194, 195
Honao Road, 192
Caballo r., 194, 195
Cibao mts., 193
Cuallo r., 195
llolguin r., 192
Jaina r., 192, 193, 194
Janiasa, 192
Jivana r., 195
La Horca, 194
Madrigal r., 193, 194
Majoma r., 193
Mano r., 193, 194

America — continued.

Medina r., 195

Monte Mates, 196

Nigua r., 192, 193, 194

Nizao r., 193

Ocoa r., 193

Sagua la Grande, 192

Santa Rosa, 193

Santiago, 193

Savana de las Lagunas,

Susua r., 195 [193

Vega, 193
Santo Domingo. See
Hayti.

ASIA..

Afghanistan, 269-71,
820, 840, 843

Amur, 271

Baba Wall, 269

Bamian, 271

Bokhara, 271

Haladat, 271

Hazara countiy, 270

Hindu Kush, 269

Tstalif, 271

Kabul, 271

Kabul r., 271

Kandahar, 269, 306

Kirman, 269

Koh-i-daman, 271

Kokaran, 270

Kokcha, 269

Laghman, 269

Murghan h., 270

Oxus, 269

Wakhan, 269

Zarzamin, 269

Zerzumen, 269
Anam, Cambodia, Co-
chin China, and
SiAM, 271-2

Bangkok, 271, 272

Bang Taphan, 271

Battambong, 272

Korat, 272

Krabin, 272

Laos, 272

Lenye, 272

Ligor, 272

Matabong, 271

Muang-Kabine, 271

Pak-Chan, 272

Quedah, 272

Three Hundred Peaks,
271

Tonquin, 271

Xumphon, 271
Arabia, 272-3

BcEtius, 272

Hazramant, 273

Littus Hamma'um, 273

Medina, 273

Midian, 273

Muwaylah, 273

Sockta, 272

Yemen, 273

A s I a — con tin iied.
Assam, 273-80, 843

Aka h., 277

Bargang, 277

Bhairavi, 277

Bhoroli, 277

Bhramakhund, 277,

Boongawn, 277 [278

Borpani, 277, 278

Brahmaputra, 274, 276,
277-8, 279, 280

Buri Dihing, 279, 280

Burigang, 277

Burrowgawn, 277

Cachar, 273

Darrang, 273, 277

Debong Mukh, 277

Desue, 280

Dhaneswari, 280

Dhunsiri, 280

Dibong, 277, 278, 279

Digara, 277, 279

Dihong, 277, 278, 279

Dikrang, 277, 278

Disoi, 280

Datla h., 277, 278

Garo, 273

Goalpara, 273

Gurumora, 278

Jaintia, 273

Jaipur, 279

Jangi, 280

Joglo, 277, 279, 280

Jorhat, 280

Jugla, 279

Kanirup, 273

Lakhimpur, 273, 277-

Lohit, 277 [80

Manipur, 280

N-iga h., 273, 280

Ningthee, 280

Noa Dihing, 277, 279,

Nowgong, 273 [280

Pakerguri, 280

Parghat, 277, 278

Pisola, 278

Sadiya, 273, 277, 279

Seedang, 274

Sibsagar, 273, 280

Sisi, 277, 278

Sittang, 274

Subanshiri, 277, 278

Sylhet, 273

Tengapani Mukh, 277

Tezpur, .'!77
Banca, 281

Cape Bonga, 281

Kajoe-Bessi, 281

Mindim, 281

Pangkal-Pinang, 281
Borneo, 281-91, 460,
838, 839, 841, 843,
844

Banjar-Laut, 283

Banjarmassin, 281, 287

Batang Lupar, 288, 289,

Batu Bulat, 285 [290

Bau, 288, 289

KiWRi^SVl

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

1203

Asia — ron tinued.
Bidi, 289
Bongaii, 285
Bow, 288
Brunei, 281
Coti, 284-5, 287
Duku, 287
Gambang, 289
Guming Pandan, 285
Kapuas, 287
Kirsan, 287
Kunpang, 289
Kutching, 2S/, 290
Landak, 281, 284, 285,

286 [287

Larak, 283, 284, 285,
Macassar Straits, 287
Malikin, 289
Mampawa, 284, 285,

286, 458
Manday, 287
Mandor, 284, 286
Mangidara, 287
Marup, 288, 289, 290
Matan, 286, 841
Montradak, 281, 283,

284, 286, 460
Muntuhari, 284
Ombak, 283
Paku, 289, 290
Passier, 285, 287
Piat, 288
I'ongole, 286
PontiaiKik, 281, 283,

284, 286, 287
Sadong, 289, 290
Salakao, 284, 286, 287
Samarahan, 289
Sambas, 28 1, 283, 284,

28s, 286, 287
Sanga, 283, 284, 286,
Sapan, 284 [287

Sarawak. 281, 287,

288, 288-91
Selingok, 287
Siminis, 284, 285
Siniawan, 288
Sintang, 284, 286
Sirin, 289
Solu, 286

Sukadana, 285, 286
Tampasuk, 286
Trian, 288, 289
Tunjong Mora, 285
Burma, British, 291-3
Burma, Upper, 293-4
Bamo, 294
Bamoo, 294
Banman, 294
Baw-ga-ta, 292
Bhamo, 294
Caugigu, 294
Coloman, 294
Great Tenasserim r.,

291. 293
Henzai, 293
Hukong, 293 [466

Lawadi, 291, 293, 294,

A s I A — continued.
Kamthi, 293
Kannee Myo, 293
Kapdup, 293
Ket-zu-bin, 294
Kyen-dwen, 293, 294
Laos, 294
Mogaung, 294
Moniein, 293, 294
Monmagon, 292
Moot-ta-ma, 291, 292
Moulmtin, 293, 294
Moung-ma-gan, 292-3
Nam Kwan, 293
Pegu div., 291
Ponline, 294
Ponnah, 294
Prome, 291
Re, 292

Shan States, 292
Shuay-gyeing, 291
Shuaygyeng, 291
Shwe-gyeng, 291, 294
Sittang, 291
Tavoy r., 291, 293
Tenasserim div., 291-3
Tenasserim r., 291, 293
Thingadhaw, 294
Tsit-toung, 291
Yay, 292

Camrodia. See Anam.

Ce'-£1!Es or Macassar,
Gorontalo, 295 [294-5
Kema, 295
Mamoodjoo, 294
Mandbar, 294
Minahassa, 295
Palos, 29s
Pavigi, 294
Toniini bay, 294, 295

Ceylon, 295-7
Adam's Peak, 295
Anuradhapura, 295
Balangoda, 296
Colombo, 297
Ded«ru-oya, 296
Dolosbage, 296
Galle, 296
Gettyhedra, 297
Kadayim-pota, 296
Kunmegala, 296
Mahaoya, 295, 297
Maskeliya, 297
Nanu-oya, 296
Nawalapitiya, 296
Nuwara Eliya, 295
Pussellawa, 296
Rakwana, 29'/
Ramboda, 296
Rang-galle, 297
Ratnapura, 297
Ru.inwelle, 297
Theberton estate, 297

China, 297-303, 841
Atenze, 300
Barkaoul, 297
Brius, 300, 301
Burga Bulak-tae, 302

A s I A — continued.
Carajau, 300
Chang-pan-shan, 298
Chang-sha-foo, 298
Cliang-teh-foo, 298
Chefoo, 300, 303
Che-kiang, 298
Chia-t'i-kou, 301
Chi-Ii, 297
Ching-tu-foo, 297
Chin-chow, 298
Chin-ch'uan, 301
Chin-ho, 301
Chi i-sha, 301
Chin-sha-chiang, 301
Chinsi, 297
Chi-paou-shan, 297
Choo-chow-foo, 298
Chung-chow, 298
Chung-king, 299
Chung-king-foo, 298
E-chaou-foo, 297
Foo-chow-foo, 298
Formosa, 298
Fu-chow-foo, 298
Fuh-chow, 298
Fuh-kien, 298
Fung-shan-hien, 298
Fung-sin-hien, 298
Hae-yang,303
Hala, 302
Han, 297

Han-chung-foo, 297
Hang-chow-foo, 298
Han-ying-ting, 297
Hin-ngan-foo, 297
Hoh-chow, 298
Ho-king, 302
Ho-kin-ho-shan, 298
Hoo-nan, 298, 299
Hopoota, 302
Hou-kwang, 299
Ho-yuen-hien, 298
Hu-pih, 297
Hwae-tsih-hien, 298
Hwang-chaou-foo, 297
Hwang-chow, 298
Hwang-kang-tien, 297
Hwang-king-tsih, 298
Hwang-lung-shan, 297
Hwang-ngan, 297
Hwuy-chQW-foo, 298
Jaou-chow-foo, 298
Kae-ho, 297
Kae-kien-hien, 298
Kalhwa, 302
Kan-chow-foo, 298
Kan-suh, 297
Keae-chow, 297
Kiang-si, 298
Kien-che-hien, 297
Kien-chow, 297, 298
Kiendien, 300, 303
Kih-yii-shan, 29S
King-chaou-foo, 297
Kingshe, 303
Kin-ho, 299
Kin-kung, 298

Asia — continued.
Kin-ngoh-shan, 298
Kin-sha-kiang, 298,

299, 302, 303
Kin-shan, 297, 298
Kin-tsung, 298
Kirin, 301
Koohien, 303
Kowtow, 300, 303
Ku-chow, 297
Ku-hien, 300
Kung-chang-foo, 297
Kwang-ning-hien, 29
Kwang-si, 298
Kwang-tung, 298
Kwang-yue.;-hien, 298
Kwei-chaou-foo, 298
Kw^i-chow, 298, 299,
Kwci-hien, 298 [300
Lae-ping-hien, 298
Lai-chow, 300, 303
Lan-chow, 303
Laii-chow-foo, 297
Lan-shan-hien, 297
Lansze, 303
Lan-sze-shan, 300
Lan-tien-ta, 298
Lan-tsan, 298
Lantsau-kiang, 300
Le, 297

Li-kiang-foo, 298, 299
Lin-chow-foo, 298
Ling-tse-hien, 298
Lin-kii-hien, 297
Lin-tung-hien, 297
Lo-ngan-hien, 297
Lou-tsze-kiang, 299
Lu-chow, 298
Lu-lung-hien, 297
Lung-ngan-foo, 298
Lung-iseuen-hien, 29
Lu-ting, 301
Ma-koo, 302
Manchuria, 303
Manso, ■!03
Maou-chow, 298
Mei-chuw, 298
Miew-chow, 298

i Min-chow, 297
Mi-jun-hien, 297
Mongoha, 303
Nan-chang-foo, 298
Nan-ning-foo, 298
Newch*ang, 300, 301
Ngan-hien, 29S

I Nipg-hai, 300, 303
Ning-po-foo, 298
Ning-)uen-foo, 298
Pa-chow, 298
Pang-hien, 297
Pang-shwuy-hien, 298
Paou-ning-foo, 298

, Paou-shan, 297

! Peking, 297
Pih-kia-shui, 298

I Pihya, 302

I Pin-chow, 298

' Ping-lo-foo, 298

4 H 2

;»:

I204

GEOGRAI'IIICAL INDEX.

As I A — continued.
Ping-l6-hien, 298
Ping-tu, 300, 303
Ping-woo-hiun, 298
Poissiet, 303
Pootsaou, 302
Po-yang-hien, 298
Se-tchucn, 299
Shang-chow, 297
Shang-liug-hien, 298
Shan-tung, 297, 300,

303
Shaou-chow-foo, 298
Shaou-king-foo, 298
Shen-si, 297, 300, 302,

, 303

Shi-jou-shan, 297
Shi-nan-foo, 297
Shin-kin-hien, 298
Shui-ching-pu, 301
Shun-tien-foo, 297
Sian-kiang, 299
Si-hcang-hien, 297
Sin-chaou-foo, 298
Si-ngan-foo, 297
Si-ning-foo, 297
Si-niiig-hien, 297
Sin-ting-foo, 298
Suh-chow, 297
•Sung-che, 298
Sung-shan, 297
Suiig-yang-hien, 298
Suyhae, 302 [303

Sze-chuen, 297-8, 299,
Sze-ngim-foo, 298, 303
Ta-chien-lu, 301
Tang-go-la, 301
Tang-king-shan, 297
Ta-tsoh-hien, 298
Ta-yaou, 298
Ti-chi, 298
Tieh-hwa, 302
Tsang-kia-shan, 297
Tse-hia, 303
Tsien-kian;_;-hien, 298
Tsien-ngan-hien, 297
Tsi-hya, 300
Tsing-chaou-foo, 297 |
Tsing-kiang, 298
Tsing-chow, 298
Tsoo, 297

Tsuh-liiung-foo, 298
Tsuh-hiung-hien, 298
Tsun-e-foo, 298
Tsung-king-hien, 297
T'ung, 301
Tung-chaou-foo, 297
Tung-chuen-foo, 298
Tung-jen-foo, 298
Tung-ting, 299
Tung-ting-shan, 297
Tung-tsz-hien, 298
Tunhwang, 302
Uikitla, 302
Uroumtsi, 302
Usoo, 302
Wan, 299
Wang-kiang-hicn, 297

S.%\\— continued.
VVSn-hien, 297
VVan-hien, 298
Wa-ssfl-kou, 301
VVeisce, 300
Woo-cliaou-foo, 298
Ya-chow, 298
Yang-hwa-slian, 297
Yangpih, 302
Yangtsz-kiang, 299,

301, 302
Yangtzu, 301
Yaou-chow, 298
Yen-chow-foo, 298
Yen-shan, 298
Yen-yuen-hien, 298
Ying-teh-hien, 298
\'o-cho\v-foo, 298
Yuen-chow-foo, 298
^'ung-chang-foo, 298,
Yung-hien, 298 [299
Yung-pih-ting, 298
Yung-ping-ibo, 297
Yung-tsang-hien, 298
Yun-nan, 298, 299,

300, 302, 466
Yu-yang-cliow, 298
Zu-gunda, 301
Cochin China. See

Anam.
CoREA, 303 4
Gensan, 304
Pieng'an, 304
India, 304-48, 804, 806,
819, 822, 833, 841,

Aclini, 343 (845

Aji, 319

Alakananda, 344

Amangarh, 345

Ambagarh, 321

Amballa, 346

Amborah, 321

Anandapur, 332

Annamalais, 342

Arabhanga, 332

Asantoria, 329, 331

Assuntullea, 331

Attikupi)a, 310

Attock, 348

Bagalur, 308, 309

Bairagi, 333

Bakaruma, 333

Balaghat, 319, 322

Balla Raj, 310

Balwi, 343

Bamni, 328

Bankura, 315

Kaniiu, 346

Bar.i B.izaar, 327

Baraniahal, 308

Barapura, 344

liareilly, 345
^ Baritopa, 331

Bashahr, 348

Bastar, 323

Buswana, 309

Bear reef, 3jS

Jiednur, 307

Asia— continued.
Belgaum, 316-7
Bellary, 307, 334
Bellibetta, 310
Belowuddi, 316
Bengal pres., 315
Benigunga, 344
Beriki, 308, 309
Betmangla, 340, 341
Beypur, 307, 335
Bhadrachelhun, 323
Bhagmundi, 327
Bliandara, 321, 322
Bliaramgarh, 323
Bharari, 333
lihaita Honadar, 313
Bias, 347
Bijari Gudda, 312
Bilaspur, 320
Bisahir, 348
Bolingbruke, 306
Bombay pros., 316-9
Bonai, 323, 324, 345
Brahmaputra, 306
Bralimini, 324, 332,
Budikote, 340 [345
Bunjar, 319, 322, 347
Bunnou, 346
Byl Hongul, 316, 317
Calicut, 335
Camvehully, 334
Carcmbat, 336
Cargury, 340
Caspatyru-;, 314
Cavern reef, 338
Cavery, 313
Central prov., 319-23
Chaii)assa, 328
Champaran, 343 [313
Chamrajnuggar, 310,
Chanda,- 322
Cliandi, 344 [324

Chang Bhakar, 323,
Chatisgarh, 319-22
Chattanhulle, 311
Chigarulgunta, 309
Chik Mulgund, 317,
Chikop, 317 [319

Chinnagherri, 313
Chinnataghery, 310
Chutia Nagpur, 323-

33. 345
Coimbatore, 310, 335
Coondoor, 307
Coopal, 336
Coopum, 308
Cossye, 315
Dalkissur, 315
Dalina, 328
Danibal, 317, 31S
Damoh, 322
Damul, 317
Uardistan, 347
Darjiling, 342-3
Dauerkondanee, 309,

310
Dawson's reef, 338
Delhi, 306, 307

Asia — continued,
Deo, 322
Deoghar, 306
lievala, 306
Devikopa, 312
Dhalbhum, 329
I^hansua, 322
Dhar, 343

Dharwar, 316, 317-9
Dhela, 344, 345
Dhenkanal, 345
Dhipa, 329, 332 [806
Dhoni, 317, 318, 319,
Dindigul, 334
Dwarasatnudra, 307,

Eastern Ghauts, 307
Ebe, 320, 324, 325, 326
Eddacurra, 306
Gairsoppa, 307
Gandak, 344
Ganges, 344
Gangpur, 323, 324,

326, 332, 841
Garhwal, 344
Girnar h., 319
Godalore, 305, 333
Godavari, 305, 319,

323. 333
Goodda, 334
Goodloor, 333
Goolgunta, 309
Gorakhpur, 344
Gowd-siianie, 308
Great Gandak, 344
Guduk, 317
Gukluck, 317, 806
Guludegud, 319
Gumta, 346
Gumti, 346
Gungavelly, 307
Gurgaon, 347
Halebid, 306, 307, 311
Hampe, 307
Hamslade reef, 338
Haripur, 347
Harnhalli, 311
Hassan, 307
Hati Kati, 318
Ilazara, 346-7
Hazaribagh, 323, 324
Heera-Khoond, 320
Heggadevenkota, 310
Hemagiri, 313, 341
Hemavati, 313
Himalayas, 306, 345,

347. 801
Hingir, 326
Hira-Khuda, 320
Hcnnali, 311, 312,

313. 341
Honnavalli, 313
Honni Kambli, 313
Honnu-llole, 313
Huliyurduga, 341
Hurha, 343
Hurti, 317, 319
Huttee Kuttee, 318

GEOGRAl'lIICAL INDEX.

1205

As I A — continued.

Hyderabad, 323, 333
lb, 320, 325
Icha, 324
Icha^arh, 327, 328
Ikkeri, 307
Iiidravati, 323
Indus, 346, 347, 348
Jabalpur, 319, 322
JageracuUy, 334
Jamargi, 333 [332

Jashpur, 323, 324-6,
Jhilam, 346, 347
JIninan, 319, 320
Jong, 320
Jonk, 320, 321
Kalabagh, 346, 348
Kaladgi, 316, 319
Kalka, 346
Kameraia, 329, 331
Kamhar, 333
Kanara, 307, 311, 312
Kanchi, 326
KangM, 347-8
Kaiigundi, 308
Kanjah Mallia, 342
Kapan, 343
Kapargadi, 329, 331
Kappatgode, 317, 318,

806
Karambaut reef, 338
Karkal, 312
Karkari, 328
Karo, 332
Karrar, 346
Kasai, 315, 328
Kasipur, 345
Kattywar, 316, 319
Kedernath, 344
Kembly, 340
Keonjhar, 345
Khandrajah, 333
Kliari, 348
Kliarsawan, 329, 331
Kheloioli, 345
Kinai'sani, 323
Kistna, 307
Kod, 319
Koel, 332

Koh, 344 [339, 341
Kolar, 307, 308, 313,
Kolegal, 310
Konye, 323
Kor, 319
Korea, 323, 324
Korija, 333
Korumba reef, 338
Kotdwar, 344
Kot Kadir, 344
Kowari, 328
Kulu, 347, 842
Kumaun, 344
KummametCircar, 333
Kumsi Honnal', 312
Kunawar, 348
Kunda mts., 335
Kuthari, 323
Kutri, 323

\'i>\S.— continued.
Lahul, 347 _
Lakher Gliat, 344 5
Landu, 329, 3,41
Lanji, 322

Lohardaga, 323, 326
I.iuii, 348

Mabar, 306 [42

Madras pres.,jo8, 333-
Madura, 334, 845
Mahanadi, 319, 320,

321, 841
Mahratta country, 316
Maini, 333
Malabar, 307, 310,

334-9
Mallapakondah, 308
Manbhum, 315, 323,

324, 326-8
Mand, 326
Mandia, 319
Manigatta, 340
Marcurpam, 340
Marigudem, 323, 333
Mariguram, 323, 333
Markunda, 346
Maroo, 321
Mau, 322
Melukote, 310
Midnapur, 315, 331
Monarch reef, 337
Moolgoond, 317. 806
Mooiidabetta, 311
Moradabad, 344-5
Mudu Badari, 311
Mulgund, 317, 806
Mungapet, 305, 333
Munipur, 310
Murgur, 316, 317
Murkombi, 317
Mysore, 306, 307, 310,

3'2. 313.339-41.843
Naggar, 323
Naginah, 344
Nagpur, 319, 322
Nagur, 307, 3U
Nahan, 346
Nahr, 32?
Namra, 328
Nandidrug, 341
Narbada, 319
Narsipur, 313
Nellacottah, 306
Nepal, 342-3
Nilambar, 335, 336
Nilgiris, 310, 335
North-west Provinces,

344-5
Nowagarh. 321
Nulloor, 307
NundymoduU, 309
Nungungowdah, 309
Nunjanaud, 310
Nyaniti, 311, 312
Ooregaum, 340, 341
Ophir, 334
Orissa, 305, 345
<Hili, 305, 345

As I A — continued,
I'achnad, 343
I'actyica, 313
Pairi, 321
Palakaauth, 334
Palamow, 326
Palani h., 334
I'al Lahara, 345
Palni h., 334
Panchera, 322
Pangumpilly, 341
Part|udhur, 323
Partabpur, 323
Patiala, 348
Patkuni, 328
Patli Dhun, 344
Peermerd, 342
Peshawur, 346, 348
Pharsabahal, 324, 325
Phikanadi, 345
Pindar, 344
Polygonuth, 334
Ponaar, 307, 309, 313
Poni-aiir, 340
Poonpillay, 307
Porahat, 329, 331
Pratappur, 323 [338
Prince of Wales' reef,
Pulvanhulle, 311, 312
Punjab, 345-8
Purtheguttay, 308
Rabkob, 331, 332
Raigarh, 326
Raipur, 321, 348
Rajim, 321
Rajkot, 319
Rajoo, 321
Rajputana, 348
Ramasamudra, 340
Ramgunga, 344, 345
Ramnagar, 343
Ranglieer Circar, 333
Ravi, 345

Rawalpindi, 346, 348
Royacottah, 341
Sagar, 322
Sagramgarh, 348
Sakarapatani, 311
Salem, 307, 308, 341-2
Salka, 333
Salt range, 346, 347
Sambalpur, 319, 320
Sangul, 333
Sankerrydrug, 342
Sarunda, 329, 331
Seoni, 322-3
Seraikela, 329
Serhend, 313
Shainsi, 347
Sheakdi, 344
Siieikdih, 344
Shemoga, 307, 311,

313. 341
Sheonathpur, 345
Sholagherry, 308, 309
Sidhua-Jobna, 344
Sikkim, 342-3
Sinilapal, 327

Asia — continued.

Singhbhum, 315, 323,

324, 328-32, 841
Sirguja, 323, 324, 332
Skull reef, 336, 337
Sogul, 317
Solnia, 347
Son, 322
Sona, 344, 347
Soiiabera, 322
Soiiai, 326, 331
Sonakhan, 320, 321
Sonapet, 329, 331
Sonnala, 321
Sonpur, 320
Soortoor, 317
Sopeithes, 313
Sourekha, 319
Spiti, 347
Subah Lahore, 346
Subanarekha, 328, 331
Sunk, 332
Supur, 328
Surhona, 312
Surtur, 317, 318, 319,
Surunpally, 340 [806
Survana, 313
Survana-niukhi, 313
Survana- vati, 313
SutleJ, 348
Suttergul, 341
Tahud, 320
Talchir, 305, 320, 345
Thirora, 321
Tikaria, 345
'I'ravancore, 342
Tutko, 328
Udupur, 323, 324, 326,

331. 332-3
Urigam, 340, 341
Utchalam, 307
yt-igei, 334
Vijayanagar, 307
Vyteri, 306
Waiiiganga, 321, 323
Wardha, 323
Western Ghauts, 307
Wright's level, 338
Wullur, 340
Wurigam, 340
Wynaad, 306, 307,

308, 310, 334 9
Yale Kotay inulla, 310
Yeldur h., 340
Yerra Uateriue h., 340
Zangskar, 348
Japan, 348-60, 804, 839,

841, 842, 845
Aikawa, 355
Akita ken, 353
Akita kori, 353
Birs, 356
Chikuzen, 352
Chingkombe, 352
Esashi, 352
Hakodadi, 356
Ilitaka, 352
Honiuia, 357

I2o6

GEOGRAPllICAl, INDKX.

A s I A — conliiiueJ.

Iburi, 351

Ikuno, 354, 35G

Iiinai, 356

Kagiishiina, 354

Kanaba, 353

Kiushiu, 352

Kosiiu, 356, 357

Kudo, 352

Kuwabaia, 354

Matsumai, 352

Musa, 352

Musoyama, 354, 355

Nagano, 354

Nippon, 356

Okuzo, 353, 354

Ooguzu, 357

Oshima, 352

Sado, 355-6, 839

Satsuma, 357

Serigano, 357

Shiribeshi, 352

Tagholin, 356

Tajima, 356

Tofui, 356

Tokachi, 352

Tokeby, 356

Toshibets, 351, 352,

L't'o, 357 l3S3

Uiagawa, 352

Uzen, 356

Yamagano, 354-5, 357

Yamanokamiyama, 354

Yesso, 349, 351-3,804
Kashmir, 360, 465, 470

Gilgit, 360

Gulkut, 360

Kargil, 360

I'admaiti, 360

Puckely, 360, 361
Ladak, 305, 360-1, 466,

Balti, 360 (819

Indus, 360

Kio, 360

Markha, 360

Shayock, 360 [-6

Malay Peninsula, 361

Ayer Chamhi, 362

Ayer Kuning, 362

Banara, 365

Basut, 365

Battang Moring, 361,
362

Baaang Moung, 362

Beiinjin, 362

Bidor, 365

Braugh, 362

BukitChimendras, 362

Bukit Raya, 362

Chimendras, 362, 363,

364- 365
Cliindrass, 366
C'liundagon, 362
Deddam, 362
Gominchi, 362, 363
CJunoiig Ledang, 361
Jellye, 362, 363, 364,
Johok-, 362, 363 1 365

A s I A — continued.

Jongi, 362

Kaddam, 362

Kalantan, 362, 364,

Kamamang, 365 [365

Kamoyan, 362

Kayo Arro, 362

Kedanon, 362

Klubi, 365

Moung, 362

Naning, 362

Opiiir, 361, 362, 363,
364. 365. 3^6

Pactidalum, 362 [366

Pahang, 362, 364, 365,

Pcrak r., 365, 844

Plus, 365

Poggi Baru, 362

Reccan, 362, 363, 364

Rejang, 362

Sadile, 365

Selangor, 366

Tanong, 362

Taon, 363, 364, 365

Tapa, 365

Terring, 362

Tringanu, 362, 364,

Ulii Pahang, 362 [365
Moluccas, 366

Bachian, 366
Persia, 366

Carniania, 366

Zengan, 366
Philii'I'ines, 366-9

Camarines, 367, 369

Caraballo, 367

Caraga, 367

Dallas, 369

Longos, 367

Malaguit, 368

Massana, 366

Mindanao, 366, 367

Misamis, 367

New Ecija, 367

Paracali, 369

Suyuc, 366

Tulbin, 366

Zebu, 367

Russia, 369-455, 785,

787, 804, 809, 816,

819, 836, 840, 841,

843, 844, 845, 846

Abakan, 411

Abrek bay, 420

Achinga, 424

Agda, 418

Agdila, 380

Agiana, 411

Agnekan, 419

Asjul, 378, 412

Akchedil, 389

Akchelik, 3S9

Akna, 424

Aktolik, 379, 383, 389,

390, 391. 392, 396
Alatau, 411
Alexandrof, 403, 444
Aicxeicfsky, 452, 454

As I A — continued.
Aley, 373
Algiaka, 410
Almanokon, 382
Alokeha, 419
Altai, 370, 371, 372,

373. 438. 439. 440,

441, 801
Altyn-lagh, 372
Ama/ar, 415
Ainba-bira, 421
Ambo-bellu, 421
America bay, 420
Anigun, 415,418, 419,

422, 424
Amila, 378, 410
Amu-Daria, 374
Amur, 414-25, 442
Amursky, 415

gulf, 421

Angara, 378, 401,402,

408, 409, 410
Angyra, 397
Aral, 374 [439

Archangel, 369, 431,
Argaiti, 375
Argun, 414, 415, 422,
Artik, 418 U23

Askold, 421, 424
Assejina, 416 [442

Atchinsk, 378, 410-1,
Aushkul, 370
Ayakta, 389, 398, 400,

405, 406, 407, 844,

845
Ayaktinsky, 389, 400,
Bachatsk, 373 [407
Bagalannak, 417
Baikal, 410, 412
Bakadja, 417
Balakai, 419
Baldijak, 416
Baldja, 420
Barabinsk, 373
Barguzinsk, 413, 442
Barnaul, 372, 373
Bashkir, 435
Begin, 417
Beha, 418
Behring sea, 424
Beltagan, 406
Berdi, 373
Beresof, 836
Beriozoika, 428 [439
Beriozofsk, 369, 428,
Bez, 4H

Bezimianka, 382, 406
Bezimiannaia, 404, 40S
Bi, 373

Bidjan, 415, 418
Bieluha, 371
Bilimbayewsk, 843
Bira, 418

Biriussa, 378, 411, 412
Bissersk, 843
Bitki, 419

Black Vuss, 378, 410
Blagodat, 426, 428

A s I A — continued.

Blagodatny, 403 [416
Blagoveschensk, 403,
Bliamika, 410
Bogoslofsk, 426, 427,

428, 843
Bokhara, 374, 378
Bolon, 418
Bomnak, 417
Borissoglebsk, 403
Borovaia, 404, 405
Borzeya, 424
Brianka, 388, 405
Briansk, 393
Brianta, 417
Brucc-Lanytch, 380
Burehya, 415, 416,

418, 422, 424
Burgali, 416
Burinda, 415
Burukunsky, 419
Buruma, 406-7
Bysk, 372
Caspian, 378
Caucasus, 376, 436
Chacha, 424
Chan, 418
Chang-pe-ghan, 421
Cliapa, 380, 381, 382
Chatkal, 377
Chen-hen, 420
Chibejeka, 41 1
Chichatka, 415
Chikil, 404
Chilcha, 406
Chilika, 418, 419
Chinaz, 377
Chingasan, 382
Ching-cheng-su-ai, 420
Chin-san-sahoi, 420
Chin-tuikan, 420
Chirchik, 375, 376,

377. 378. 804
Chiriata, 379, 386, 389
Chirimba, 388, 389,
Chita, 412 [393,405
Chlia, 418
Chorny, 411
Chorny Yuss, 378
Chukotsky, 422, 424
Chumbukli, 404
Constantinofsky, 391
Dador, 415
Dambikeh, 417
Danilofsky, 384
Danilof Spring, 394
Daria, 374
Dashkina, 408
De Castries Straits, 419
Depak, 416
Dichuna, 418
Ditin, 383, 386
Diubkosh, 382, 383,
Djagdu, 416 [386

Doktorofsky, 381
Dulijmo, 388, 400
Dundas Island, 422
Dvortsovaia, 401

GEOGKAl'HICAl. INDEX.

1207

As t A — coHtintMd.
Ehvoron, 418
Ekaterinburg, 369,370,
371, 426, 428, 429,

439. 836
Elaii-Uira, 418
Eldogoga, 420
Eldugu, 420
Elga, 418
Endolugn, 420
Eno, 406
Erdogu, 420
Eruda, 384, 389
Expedition bay, 421
Finsk, 420
Fish r., 399
Fomiha, 373
Fonga, 420
Gariofka, 382, 391, 392
Gavrilof, 387, 395, 436,
Gilni, 416, 417 [845
Giliui. See Gilni.
Golden Horn bay, 422
Golctz, 400, 404
Gonama, 415
Gorbilka, 399, 406, 407
Goro Blagodat, 426,

428
Greater Chichatka, 415

Iskai, 419

• Mogocha, 415

Murojnaia, 397,

399. 400, 401, 404,

405, 409
Oldoi, 415

Penchenga, 388,

399, 400, 406, 407,
409

Peskino, 403

Pit, 379,380,388,

396. 397. 399. 400,
405, 406, 407, 409

Shaargan, 401,

402, 403, 404

Sicha, 420

Talaia, 408

Gromof, 402

Gurakhta,383,384,389

Hanka, 415, 419, 421

Herpuchi, 418, 425

Hingan, 416, 418

Holy Trinity placer, 39 1

Hon, 418

Horma, 378, 412

Hubutu-Ulatu, 421

Hi, 372, 374

Ili-ho, 421

Iliinsky, 404

Ilikana, 417

Ilmen, 370

Ilynika, 415

Indigla, 398, 408

Ingagli, 416

Ini, 373
Inkan, 417
Innokenty, 402
Irkutsk, 378, 408, 412,
431, 432, 442, 443

A s I A — continual/.
Irtish, 374, 376
Ishimba, 403
Iskai, 419
Jsset, 369, 429
Ivanofka, 406
Ivanofsky placer, 400
Jaghini, 418
Jakda-Ulaghir, 417
Jalinda, 415, 4'6. 417.
Jebb, 41 1 [424

Jeltulak, 417
Jjinjur, 411

Jochimo, 380, 388, 393
Joloka, 419
Kada, 418 [407

Kadni, 389, 391, 405,
Kaitba, 388, 405
Kalami, 383, 384, 385,

386, 389, 395, 397
Kalaminskaya, 379
Kalmir, 389
Kamchatka, 424, 425
Kameuka, 388, 400,

401, 40s
Kamero, 391, 407
Kan, 378, 411, 412
Kansk, 41 1-2, 442
Kapuri, 415
Kara Kispak, 377
Kavikta, 415
Keni, 369
Kerbi, 418
Kezir, 378, 410, 411
Kharabofka. 418, 422
Khingan, 372
Ki. 391

Kinlianjaku, 417
Kirghiz steppe, 433,

,434. 435. 436
Kirgichan, 419
Kirkuna, 424
Kischtrinsk, 843
Kiuna, 406
Kizi, 418
Kizil-togoi, 375
Kogai, 389
Kogni, 389
Kognia, 406, 407
Kogotun, 420
Kokand, 375
Kokoko, 389
Kolichikana, 383
Kolivan, 373
Kolivansky, 373
Kolivan-Voskresensky,

373
Kanaka, 418
Kongarnun- Ulaghir,
Kongonza, 420 [417
Kondom, 373
Kondomskaia, 373
Kopa, 411
Korbohik, 373
Koto, 388
Krasnoyarsk, 443
Krestofka, 416
Krivliajnaia, 400, 408

Asia — lonliniitJ.
Kuenga, 424
Kukana, 418
Kukrci'i, 375
Kuldja, 372, 376
Kulla, 415
Kumatch, 370
Kundusuk, 41 1
Kunghur, 431
Kuntuyakicha, 398,

407. 450
Kupchul, 418
Kupuri, 417
Kur, 415, 418
Kurepa, 380
Kurite islands, 425
Kushvinsky, 428, 843
Kuznetsk, 372, 373

Ala-tau, 372, 373

Ku/netskofsky, 381,

Kyna, 41 1 I384

Kyr, 424

Larba, 415

Lebed, 373

Lena, 412, 413, 414,

Lendakha, 388 [442

Lepsa, 374

Lesser Hingan, 416

Iskai, 419

Mogocha, 415

Morkol, 406

Murojnaia, 400,

407, 409

Oldoi, 415, 416

Penchenga, 397,

398, 400, 401, 406,

407

Peskino, 399, 403

Shaargan, 402, 408

Lifantieva, 392, 393
Lob, 372
Loktefka, 373
Lophiisky, 418
Lower Mina, 417

Ud, 411

Lozva, 427
Lujka, 408
Lukachok, 417
Madura, 380
Maeh-ho, 421
Magdalene placer, 394
Maiha, 421
Malmijsky, 418
Mamon, 399, 401, 403
Mana, 378
Manchuria, 421, 423
Manguhai, 421
Mara, 417
Megu, 417
Melannir, 417
Meskokh, 420
Miask, 370, 371, 429,

430, 441. 787, 796,

843
Miass, 370, 373, 429
Miasskaia, 373
Mina, 417
Mindu, 419

Asia — continncJ.

Minusinsk, 378, 410-
II, 442, 816, 819

Mitrofanof, 401

Modolakan, 416

Mogocha, 415

Mogota, 417

Molodan, 416

Mongoli, 416

Mongolia, 410, 412,

Morkol, 406 (423

Morok, 389

Mostovaia, 401 .

Motigin, 408

Mungaisky, 373

Murojnaia, 397, 399,
400, 401, 404, 405,
407, 409, 453, 841

Murtijak, 417

Nahodka IJay, 420

Naiesdnik, 421

Narkizofsky, 384

Nazimof, 391

Nemchana, 380

Nemileu, 419

Nemtsofsky, 400

Nemunia, 388

Nercha, 424

Nerchinsk, 414, 422,

423, 424. 425. 439.

440, 441, 442
Never, 416
Neviansk, 370, 373
Newjansk, 439, 843
Nijneudinsk, 41 1-2,

442
Nijny Tagilsk, 843
NIka, 417
Nikolaiefsky, 384, 385,

402, 419
Niman, 418, 424, 425
Ninchami, 382
Nogotd, 380, 381, 392
Noiba, 380, 381, 382,

396
Novo-Mariinsky, 396
Nurali, 370
Obi, 372, 373
Ogne, 379, 38a 382,

383, 385, 385, 387,

389. 394. 39S. 397
Ogniofka, 394
Okhotsk, Sea of, 415,

419, 422, 424
Oldoi, 415, 416
Olekma, 413, 415, 442
Olekminsk, 413-4, 442
Olga, 390, 418, 421,

42s. 433
Olgakana, 418
Olinchimo, 388
Ollonokon, 381, 383,

386, 387, 400, 406,
Omsk, 431 [407

Omudichi, 415
Onon, 424
Orenburg, 426, 435,

436, 438. 439

1208

GEOGRArillCAL INUKX.

Asia — tontinued.

(Jriol, 418

Osinovy, 400

f)sliankn, 399, 408

OstrofGull, 420

Ostrofny cape, 422

Otradny, 386

Otrolkha, 391

Oxus, 374, 378

I'ni-hoi, 426

I'arni, 380

I'eclun, 389

I'cnchenga, 397, 398,
399. 401, 404. 406
-7, 408, 409, 845

I'erm, 426, 428, 436,

438. 439
I'eschanka, 427
Peskino, 399, 403, 404
I'estsi, 421
I'etchora, 426
I'etrufr, 421, 422
I'etropavlofsk, 370,

402, 453
Pezassky, 373
Pijktun, 400
Pinkan, 420
I'insan, 420
I'it, 379. 3S0, 388, 389,

391, 393. 396, 397.

399, 400, 405, 406,

407, 409
Plastun, 419
Platonof, 390, 433
Podgaleshmy, 397
Podgaleihnaia, 399,

400, 404, 408,
Podkamenny Tungus-

ska, 378, 379, 380,
Pogadaief, 393 [405
Polkan, 37<
Ponimba, 379, 388,

389, 391, 407
Possiet Gulf, 421
Potaheza, 421
Preobrajenip, 385
I^rimors:!:y, 415, 422
Putic^tin, 421
Py.hma, 428, 429
Riinovo, 422
Reft, 429
Rino, 406
Riskofsky, 381
Rojdestvensky, 454
Russky Island, 422
Rybnaia, 399, 400,

408, 409
Sabas, 417
Sadingo, 420
Saghalien, 425
Saiba, 410, 41 1
Salair, 372, 373
Salairs.iaia, 373
Salairsky, 373
Salara, 418
Sargu, 418

Sayan, 410, 411, 412
Selimdja, 424

Asia — eontinutd,

Scmipalatinsk, 374, 435
Scmirctchia, 374, 375
Semircicliian Ala-tau,

372, 374

Scrali Yuss, 410

Seraphim, 399

Sergiefsky, 403

Sevaglikon, 379, 383,
384. 38s, 386, 390,
392, 393. 394. 395.

Seveiza, 420 [407

Severny, 391

Shaargan, 400, 401,

402, 403, 404, 408
Shallow liay, 420
Shalokit, 400, 401, 403
Shamagher, 418
Shantar, 425
Shartash, 429
Shaulkaii, 400, 402
Shekshauii, 416
Shevaiid k, 389
Shevli, 41 S, 419
Shiyor, 426

Shilho, 419 [424, 425
Shilka, 414, 422, 423,
Shinda, 411
Shisa, 420
Shitakiia, 420
Shitun, 421
Shkotovo, 421
Shu-su-ho, 420
Sian-su-tsz-ho, 420
Sicha, 420 [422

Sihotu-alin, 418, 419,
Silimji, see Siliniji
Siliniii, 417, 418, 425
Singak, 420
Sio-su-su-ta-sio-si-hor,

420
Sisima, 378, 410, 41 1
Sistikema, 41 1
Sivagli, 416 [sky

Sophiisky, see Lophii-
Sophiisky, see Soplin-
Soplinsek, 418 [sek
Sosulinsky, 387
Sosva, 426, 427
Sovremionny, 454
Spassky, 373, 399,

403, 404, 437
Stanovoi, 414,

416, 424
Stepanof, 402
Strelok Straits,
Suchan, 420
Suchou, 420
Su-du-ho, 420
Suengu, 373
Suidengu, 421
Suifun, 415, 421
Sukhoi Pit, 398, 400,
Sungari, 415 [405

Swan r., 373
Syr-Daria, 375, 377
Taidon, 373
Taidonskaia, 373

415.

420,
[421

Asia — continued.
Taktagaika, 398, 402,

404, 407
Taktulaiefka, 399, 401,
Tala, 399, 400 [402
Talaia, 404, 405, 408
Talas, 376, 377, 804
Talmak, 418, 425
Tanda, 417
Targanka-Taschku,
Tasaieva, 411 [787

Tashkend, 372, 377
Tatar, 397, 398
Tatarka, 400, 401, 404,

408, 409
Tatarsky Gulf, 419
Ta-Udmi, 420
Ta-vai-tsa, 420, 422
Tavda, 427
Tavrik, 389
Tavrikul, 388, 389,

391, 405, 407
Telctsky, 373
Tentek, 374, 375
Tersi, 373, 375. 376,

377. 804
Tersinskaia, 373
Tsrsinsky, 373
Teya, 380, 381, 382,

388, 392
I'ian-tundza, 420
Tiksan, 415
Tiksiana, 417
Tinian, 426
Tin-ha, 420
Tin-ho, 420
Tinkhet, 41 1
Tirida, 380
Tiss, 382, 391, 392
Tiurepina, 404
Tobol, 370, 427
Tobolsk, 431
Tochilny, 388
Toen-Olga, 418
Tom, 373
Tomirol, 415
Tompo, 406 [431

Tomsk, 371, 372, 373,
Topko-Bira, 418
Trans- Baikalia, 413,

422, 433, 442
Tnins-Caucasus, 436
Tr.ni>y Placer, 389, 391
Ti>ar..(ro-Alexandrol"sk,

429
T ' arevo-Nikolaifsky,
Tsiniaha, 421 [373
Tuba, 378
Tugur, 415, 419
lujimo, 406, 407
Tukolonghi, 387
Tukuringir, 416
Tulbo-bai, 422
Tumen-ula, 421 [405
Tungusska, 381, 397,
Tu-su-uga, 420
Ud, 411, 415, 416,

419, 424

Asia — conlinued,

Uderey, 397, 399, 400,
401, 402, 403, 404,
408, 409, 432, 437

Uilikit, 416

Udil, 418

Udini, 420

Udorvuga, 408

Udsk, 419

Udsky Bay, 419

Ufa, 370, 426

Ugakan, 415, 419

Ugana, 417

Ui, 370

Ukakyt, 419

Uksigli, 389

Ulaghir, 417

Uldicichi, 416

Ulenkit-Ulaghir, 417

Unda, 424

Unma, 418

Untuguna, 398, 407,

Upper Hon, 418 [452

Mina, 417

Oldoi, 415

Podgaleslinaia,

Ur, 416 [404

Ura, 416

Urals, 369, 370, 371,

373. 425-30, 435.
436, 438, 439, 440,
441, 444, 796, 801,

8'3. 833. 835. 843
Uralsk, 426
Urka, 415
Urkan, 416
Uromka, 401, 403, 404
Ursky, 373
Urulmutti, 415
Urum, 424
Urunluingui, 424
Urushi, 415
Ushakda-Ulaghir, 417
Usiakannir, 417
Usolka, 41 1
Uspensky, 373, 395,

401, 450, 454
Ussuri, 414, 415, 419,
Ust Briansk, 405 [420
Kalami, 383

Pit. 393. 405

Utain, 415
Utchugei, 418
U Volga, 381
Vangaaha, 389, 390,

395- 396
Vassiiiefka, 415
Veguda, 379, 388, 391
Velme, 380, 381, 382,

388 [442

Verkho-Lensk, 412,
Verkhoturiye, 436
Verkneudinsk, 412,

432. 435. 442
Viatka, 391, 431
Viktorofsky, 385
Vishera, 426
Vitim, 413, 442

GEOGk.U'HICAl. INDEX.

1209

Asia — eontinutd.
Voitsk, 369
Vologda, 431
Volokovo, 392
Voskresensky, 392, 401
Vostok (iiilf, 420
Vychegda, 426
Vyg, 369

Wereh-YsseUk, 843
White Vuss, 410, 41 1
Woitzkisch 439
Vablonnoi, 415 [423
Vablounuvoi, 412, 415,
Yakutsk, 413, 415, 442
Valami, 388
Vamishcvo, 374
Vanchi-ho, 421
Vankan, 415, 416
Yarkand, 374, 378
Yegoriefsky, 373
Yeiiashimo, 380, 382,

383. 385. 386, 387.

388, 394. 395. 396,

397
Yenisei, 378, 379, 380,

391. 393. 397. 400.

405, 409, 410
Yeniseisk, 378-410,

431, 432, 436, 441,

442, 443, 804, 840,

841, 842, 843, 844,

84s
Yuss, 378, 410, 411
Zavitaya, 415
Zlataust, 370, 426, 429
Zehya, 415, 416, 417,

422, 424
Zimoveinoye, 418
Zimoveisky, 400
Zirianka, 401
Zmeinogorsky, 372,
Zmeiofka, 373 [373
Zolotoi cape, 419
Siam, see Anam.
Siberia, see Russia.
Sumatra, 455-61
Achen, 455, 456
Achiii, 456, 460, 461
Batang Asei, 456
Bencoolen, 460
Dili, 460
Elout, 461
Indragerie, 460
Jambi, 283, 456, 460
Kotanopan, 461
Lampong, 458
Limong, 455, 456
Limun, 456
Mandeling, 461
Menangkabau, 456,

45S, 460
Moco-moco, 458, 459
Nalabu, 456, 458
Naital, 458, 460
Ophir, 460

Padang, 456, 459, 460
Pakalang Jambi, 456,
Palembang, 283 [459

j Asia — (oniiHued,

Kan, 461
I Siak, 460
' Slleda, 459
TimiKT, 461-8

ISrahmaputra, 467, 468

Caspatyras, 463, 465

Chang, 468

Chojoioi, 462

Debang, 464
I (Jangri, 463

(iarchethol, 468

Gartokh, 467

Gobi, 463

Gulan-Sigong, 466

Gunjee-Thok, 465

Hundes, 463

Janglache, 467

iung Phaiyu-Pooyu,
:ham, 468 [465

Kombo, 468
Leh, 466

Lhasa, 463, 464, 466,
I.ithang, 466 [468

Manasarovara, 463
Mehal, 463
Makchdng, 467
Nakchangpontod, 46S
Pactyica, 463
Phaiyu-Pooyu, 465
Pruang, 463
Kamoche, 464
Rudok, 464, 465
Sar Chaka, 463
Sarka, 464
Sarka Shyar, 467
Shigatz^, 467, 468
Sigoshur, 468
Su-chow, 468
Sutlej, 463
Takpo, 468
Tallik, 468
Tang Jung, 167
Taso mts., 466
Thok, 464 [467, 468
Thok-Daurakpa, 466,
Thok-Dikla, 465
Thok-Jalung, 464, 465,

466, 467
Thok - Maroobhoob,

465
Thok-Nianmo, 465
Thok-Ragyok, 465
Thok-Sarkong, 465
Thok-Sarlung, 465
Thok-Thasang, 465
Toti-phu, 464
Tzang, 468
U, 468
Un-des, 463
Trans-Caucasus, 468-
70, 804
Araxes, 469
Bambak, 469
Colchis, 468, 470
Dambluda, 469
Delijan, 469
Dioscurias, 470

A s I A — continHed.

Ganja-chai, 469

(Georgia, 469

Grusin, 469

llas->an-sii, 469

Imeritia, 469

Karaklis, 469

KarLwkha, 469

Kantais, 470

Khrain, 461;

Kokcha, 469

Kuban, 469

Kuma, 469

Kur, 469

Malka, 468

Miskalga, 469

Mozdok, 468

Phas, 470

Phasis, 470

Quirilla, 470

Kion, 468, 469, 470

Shamkhor, 469

Stavropol, 468, 469

Tanz, 469

Terek , 468, 469

Tertei, 469
Turkestan, 374-8, 470

-3. 833. 836
Ayulla, 472
Bukharia, 472
Chagrin-gol, 472
Chang-p(S-shan, 471
Cherchen, 472
Cherchen-Daria, 472
Chira, 470
Chuen-chang, 471
Dzungaria Ala-tagh,
Gartokh, 471 [473

Girin, 471
llchi, 472
Hi, 472, 473, 836
Kaitanak, 472
Kansu, 472
Kappa, 471
Karakash, 471
Karangotak, 470
Kara-tagh, 473
Kashgar, 472
Khinka, 470, 471
Khotan, 465, 470, 471,

472
Khotan-Daria, 471
Khutel, 833
Kinchau, 471
Kiria, 470, 471, 472
Kiun-Lun, 470, 471
Kuldja, 472
Manas, 472
Manchuria, 471
Nicolaif Cape, 471
Py-li, 471
Rudok, 471
Takla Makan, 471
Tekess, 472
Tobolsk, 472
Tsziu-fehi, 471
Urumchi, 472
Yarkand, 472

Asia -confimwd.

Yarlin-gol, 472

Yurung-KAsh, 472

Zerafshan, 472
TURKicv, 473-6

Abydeni, 473

Abydos, 473

Amathos, 474

Astyra, 473, 475 6

Balgar-d;igh, 474, 842

Bouz-dagh, 473

(^abaila, 473

Cybclc, 473

Cyprus, 474

Cyriuni, 474

Dardanelles, 475

Divrigi, 473

Dumbu-Dagh, 473

Giiniischkhann, 474

Gumushane, 474

llyspiraiis, 473

Kaletath, 475-6

Khutel, 473

Pactolus, 473

Sardis, 373

Scrdjiller, 475-6, 836

Soli, 474

Syspiritis, 473

Tainasus, 474

Taurus, 474

Tmolus, 473, 474

Trebizond, 474

Troad, 473

Troy, 475

AUSTRALASIA.

Australasia, 476-697,
747. 780, 782, 783,
785, 796, 846
New Caledonia, 476
-7, 804, 841

Bonde, 477

Diahot, 476

Fern Hill, 477

Manghine, 476

Noumea, 477

Oubatche, 477

Poebo, 476, 477
New Guinea, 477-9,

833
Astrolabe int., 478
Fairfax Harbour, 479
Fly r., 477
Goldie r., 478, 479
Hall's Sound, 478
Kupaloioko r., 478, 479
Moresby is., 479
Owen Stanley mt., 478
Pitt bay, 479
Port Moresby, 478
Redscar bay, 478
Vetura mt., 478
New South Wales,
476, 479-517. 819,
822, 831, 833, 836,
840, 842, 845, 847,
876, 932. 949

I2I0

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

Australasia — eontJ.
Adelong, 482, 483,

484, 488, 489, 490
Adelong reef, 484
Anderson reef, 493
Araluen, 487
Arundle r., 498
Back creek g.-f., 491-8
liaird and Hlade's reef,
Bara creek, 488 [494
Barmedman, 517
Barney's Gap, 507
Barrington g.-f, 491-8
r., 491, /V94. 49S.

498
Bathurst, 481, 482,

483, 484, 488, 489,
Belubula, 486 [490
Big Hill reef, 4S4
Bingera, 485

Black Jack gully, 498
Black lead, 487, 516
Bland co., 516
Bogany nit.. 511 [484
Bonnie Dundee reef,
Bowenfels, 8''S
Bowman r., 491, 496,

498
Braidwood, 486
Britannia lead, 487,

513. 514 ,
Brown's Ci-eek, 486
Brown Snake reef, 484
'iulladelah, 484
iuUock Head creek,

499, 505
Bundawarrah, 516
Burneal creek, 495
Burrunguijugge r., 508
Caledoiii.in reef, 484
Caloola, 486
Canadian, 487
Carcoar, 484, 485, 4S6
Centennial reef, 492,

493
Charcoal reef, 505
Clarence, 482, 483,

484, 487, 488, 489,
490, 836

Clough's gully, 51S
Cobar, 487

Cobark, 486, 495, 498
Coolongolook reef, 484
Copeland, 486
Corunna, 485
Crudine creek, 485
Cudgegong, 488 [484
Dangera Creek reef,
Dark Corner reef, 484
Delgree Delgree creek,
Denison, 840 [498
Doubtfi'l creek, 507,

508, 511
Doust's claim, ^'93
E^medary int., 485
Dubbo, 487
Duffer gully, 498
Dungog, 486, 496

Australasia — eontd.
Eclipse m., 487 [506
Eight-mile diggings,
Eldorado reef, 517
Emperor claim, S04>

505, 506, 507
Eiii])ress claim, 499,

503,504, 51ft SIX
Emu creek, 479
Enterprise reef, 484
Eucuiiibene r., 499,

501, 505. 507, 845
Falhon's claim, 493
Fifteen-mile diggings.
Flat reef, 484 [5o€ '
Foley's Folly reel, 484
Foley's reef, 484
Forbes, 512, 513, 514,

517,944
Four-mile diggings,

499- 502, 506, 836
Garibaldi reef, 484
Georgiatia co., 514
Gladstone reef, 496
Gloucester, 491
Golden Crown reef, 493
Golden Spur reef, 496
Govett's Leap, 516
Grasset's lead, 513, 514
Grenfell, 484, 831, 932
Gulf, 485

Gulgong, 503, 5x6, 517
Harnett's Gap, 507
Hartley, 835
Havilah, 488 [516
Hawkesbury Rocks,
Hawkins' Hill, 479
Hawkins' Hill reef,

484
Hidden Star reef, 5x7
Hidden Treasure, 492,
Hill End, 484 [493
Home Rule, 487
Homeward Bound reef,

484, 487, 504
Honeybogle, 487
Hume r., 499
Hunter, 482, 483, 484,

488, 489, 490, 840
Illawarra, 492
Ironclad reef, 5x7
Junee, 485

Kerriput, 486 [836
Kiandrag.-f., 498-51 x,
LaLh'an, 481, 482, 483,

484, 488, 489, 490,

5XX-.1, 837, 840,931
Lady Belmore reef, 493
Lady Mary reef, 5x7
Lady Matilda reef, 493
Lincoln reef, 484
Lifer., 486
Lob's Hole, 502, 507
Lucknow, 486
Macleay, 482, 483,

484, 488, a.89, 490
Madman's lead, 513,

S14

Australasia— f(7«/(/.
Main Dividing ridge,

5.14-5
Major's creek, 484,
Maneero, 498 [486
Mechanics' reef 494
Melbourne, 494
Meroo, 488
Milburn creek, 485
Milljr's reef, 493
Mitchell's creek, 484
Mitchell's Creek reef,

484
Montreal, a.82, 485,
Moonie mt., 495 [49X
Morning Star reef,

493. 496
Mosquito reef, 484
Mountain Maid reef,

492, 494, 495
Mount Browne, 482
Mudgee, 481, 482,

483, 484, 487, 488,

489, 490
Murray r., 498, 508
Murrumbidgee, 498
Napoleon reef, 484
Narraburra creek, 516
New Chum h., 499,

504,505.506,508,510
New England, 482,

483, 484, 488, 489,
490

Nine-mile diggings,

499, 503-504, 506,

507, 508, 509
North lead, 512
North Shore, 5x6
Nowra, 484
Nundle, 484, 840
O'Brien's Hill reef, 484
O'Brien's Lease reef,

484
Old Line of Reef, 484
Old Tallawang, 5x5
Opossum reef, 484
Orange, 486
Ournie reef, 484 [4S4
Outward P'und reef,
I'arkes, 484
Peel, 481, 482. 483,

484, 485, 488, 489,

490, 840
Pinnacle m. , 487
Pioneer m., 487
Pollock's gully, 505
Poverty Point, 487, 836
Rainbow reef, 492,

494, 495

Red Hill reef, 517
Rock Holes, 487
Ro;ky Cation, 505
Rose and Thistle, 492,

493
Royal Beng?.! Tiger

reef, 493
Russell's Corner, 499
Russell's Gap, 507

Australasia — contii.
Scotchman's Tunnel,

,04
Scott's gidly, 509
Shoalhaven. 487
Shotover, 'ji3
SnowVr'.e, 499, 507,

508. -.oj
Snowy r., 498, 508
Solferino, 484
Southern gold-field,

48 X, 482, 483, 484,

488, 489, 490
South lead, 5x2, 513,
Star lead, 487 [514
Sugarloaf range, .496
Surface h. , 505
Sydney, 516
Tabletop mt., 499,

501, 509
Tallawang, 487,5x5-6,

8x9
TamlDaroora, 482, 483,

484, 485, 488, 489,
490, 491

.Temora, 482, 491,

516-7, 833
The Forest reef, 484
Thomson's h., 513
Three-mile diggings,

499, 505-6
Tindayrie, 487
Town and Country,

492, 493
Township h., 499, 506
Trigalong creek, 516
Tuena, 484
Tunibarumba, 484
Tumut, 482, 483, 484,

488, 480 490, 498,

499. 501. 502. 506-7
Turon, 482, 483, 484,

485, 488, 409, 490,
Two Creeks, 496 [491
Upper Bingera, 485
Upper Meroo, 488
Uralla, 481, 482, 483,

484, 485, 488, 489,
Victoria reef, 484 [490
Wagonga, 485
Wallaga lake, 485
Wantiol, 485
Warnford's reef, 5x7
Washington reef, /.'';.
Wellington, 484
Werong mt., 485,

514-S, 844, 845
Westmoreland CO., 5x4
Whipstick Flat, 505

reef, 505

Williamstown reef, 484
Wilson's Downfall, 48
Windeytr, 488
Yalwal, 487
New Zealand,476, 516,

517-74, 73', 732,
736, 796, 809, 816-
9, 820, 834, 838, 840,

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

121 1

Australasia — contd.
842, 843, 84s, 847,
854,879-81,893,963
Abbey Rock, 569
Adams' Flat, 818
Advance Peak, 519
Ahauia, 524
Alburnia claim, 567
Alexandra, 528, 529,

S30, 531
Alliance claim, 567
All Nation's claim, 567
Alpine Co.'s m., 526,

527
Arm Chair creek, 574
Arrow r., 526, 529,

530. 534. 540, 54',

549, SSI
Anbnr mt., 521
Ashley claim, 567
Auckland, 520, 521,

526, 527. SSI
Ballarat and Rising

Sun claim, 567
Batow r., 809
Beaumont, 816
Beehive claim, 567
Belfast claim, 562
Bell Hill, 570
Bendigo, 530, 531,

532, 540, 549
Bendigo Independent

c'aim, 567
Berkeley Castle claim,

562, 567
Best Wrinkle claim,

567
Better Luck claim, 567
Birch Hill creek, 574
Black Angel claim, 567
Black Ball creek, 570
Black Swan claim, 559
Blue Duck claim, 548
Blue Spur, 519, 525,

542, 544. 549. 550,

551, 816-9
Boatman's, 527
British claim, 567
Butcher's err .^k, 570
Caledonian claim, 567
Canada reef, 530, 531,

540, 542
Candlelight claim, 567
Cape ColviLe, 517
Cape Farewell, 523
Cape of Good Hope

claim, 567
Cardiona, 551
Carrick range, 528.

529, 530, 533. 540
Carricktown, 533
Cement town, 569
Charleston, 520, 526,

893. 895.904 6

claim, 568 [567

Christmas Box claim,
City of Dunedin claim,

562, 567

Australasia — contd.
City of Glasgow claim,

.567
Cityof Hamburg claim,

,567 [567

City of London claim,
Clutha, 549, 886 [567
Clyde and Tyne claim,
Cock-a-Doodle claim,

567
CoUingwood, 520
Conroy's gully, 530,

531
Coombe's claim, 818
Cornish reef, 534
Coromandel, 517, 518,

521, 526, 552, 567
Coulabah claim, 567
Count von Bismarck

claim, 567
Cromwe!', 526, 53c
Crystal Palace claim,
Cure reef, 561 [567
Darkie's creek, 906
Dauntless reef, 561
Dawn of Hope reef,

556 [559

Diggers' Rest claim,
Dilman's town, 524
Dixon's reef, 556, 567
Drybread diggings,

548. 550
Duke of Edinburgh

reef, 536 [985

Dunedin, 530,538,540,
Dunston range, 549
Eight-mile diggings,

SSI
Eldorado claim, 567

Elliot vale, 818
Evans' Flat, 819
Eveline claim, 567
Excelsior claim, 567
Flying Cloud cl., 562
Gabriel's gully, 525,

530, 540, 551, 7JI,

736, 816-9
Giant claim, 567
Gibraltar claim, 567
Globe claim, 567 [567
Golden Anchor claim,
Gold'jn Crown reef,

556, 560, SC-, 565,

567 1.559

Golden Horn claim,
Golden Point, 573
Grahamstown, 551,561
Great Barrier range,

541
Great Britain and
Brunswick claim,

567
Green Island, 530
Greenland mt., 570
Greenstone claim, 570
Greymouth, 519, 893
Hand of Friendship

claim, 562, 567

AUSIRALASI a— £•()«/(/.

Hape, 552, 554, 558
Harbour View claim,
Hastings, 558 [567
Hauraki, 551, 554
Havelock, 526, 549,
Hawke's bay, 521 1551
Hindon, 526
Hit or Miss claim, 554
Hokianga, 558
Hokitika, 520, 570
Hunt's reef, 552, 556,

560, 562

Idaburn, 540 [567

Imperial Crown claim,

Inangahua, 568

Indomitable- claim, 567

Inverness claim, 562,

563. 567
Jackson's Head, 573
Junction claim, 567
Just-in-time claim, 562
Kaitangata, 818
Kaituna, 574
Kakanui, 816-9
Kanieri, 570
Ku aka, 551, 552, 554,

555, 557. 558
Kawaeranga, 552, 554
Kawarau, 548
Kerry claim, 567
Kumara, 524, 985
Kuranui, 551, 552,

557, StJO, 562, 567
Kyeburn, 879-81
Ladybird claim, 562,

567
Lady Bowen claim, 555
Lambert's gully, 574
Langdon's creek, 519,

839
Lanky's gully, 569
Last Chance claim, 567
Lawrence, 526, 530,

549, 816-9, 886
Little Jessie claim, 555
Little Nell claim, 562
Little Republic claim,

567 [542

Logan's reef, 531, 532,
Long Drive reef, 560,

565, 567
Lord Derby claim, 557
Lovell's Flat, 818
Lyell, 526. £2/
McDonald's creek, 570
McDonald's lease, 567
Macetown, 526
Macrae'sFlat, 530,536,

549
Madman's gully, 557
Manuherikia, 540, 549,

5SO
Manukaureef, 561, 567
Maori r., 893
Mapourika lake, 5/0
Mariner's Reef claim,

562

Australasia — contd.
Marlborough, 521,522,

526, 571-4
Marquis of Hastings

claim, 554
Mary Ellen claim, 567
Mata, 552, 55.^
Middle Island, 523
Middle Star reef, 556,

567
Milford Sound, 523
Miller's Flat, 549
Milton, 549
Misery mt., 818
Moa claim, 567
Moanataiari, 552, 557,

562, 567
Mohaka, 521
Molvnoux, 548, 736,

816-9, 886
Montgomery Brothers

claim, 567
Moonlight, 569, 570
Mount Ida, 879-81
Multum in Parvo

claim, 567
Munroe's gully, 551
Murray creek, 568
Naseby, 524 [819

Nelson, 519, 521, 522,
New May Moon claim,
Nian, 558 [567

Nile r., go6
Nine-mile beach, 895
Nonpareil claim, 567
North Beach, 893
North Island, 538
Nugget reef, 534 [540
Old Man range, 528,
Onehunga claim, 562
Opitomoko. 558
O P Q reef, 530, 531
Orvvell creek, 524
Olago, 517, 519, 520,
521, 522, 523, 526,
527, 528-51, 731,
732, 736, 838, 842,
845, 879-81, CiOI,

909 isS9

Panama Routp claim,
Pascall's claim, 81S
Pelora, 571 [537

Peninsula reef, 530,
Picton, 571, 573, 885
Pohue, 552 [568

Point Russell claim,
Ponga Flat, 557
Port Gore, 573
Ponobello, 528, 530,

537, 838
Poverty claim, 568
Pride of Karaka claim,

568 [567

Pride of York claim,
Providence claim, 568
Pukehinau, 552
Puriri, 551, 552, 553,

559-60

I2I2

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

Australasia — contd,
I'uru, 552
Queen Charlotte

Sound, 571, 573
Queen ol Beauty cln.im,
Queenstovvn, 549 [568
Kainy creek, 568
RavensclilT, 573
Red Rose claim, 568
Red, White, and Blue

claim, 568
Reefton, 519, 526, 527,

568, 569, 570, 980
Roariny liilly, 551
Rodger's gully, 541
Ro-s, 527, 528, 568,

570
Rough Ridge, 530,

531. 532, 540
Rover claim, 568
Royal Charter claim,

568
Royal Oak cliiim, 568
Royal Standard claim,

554 [539. 540

Saddle Hill reel, 530,
St. Hathan's, 550
Scaiilan's t;ully, 541
Scuitish Chief claim,

562
Separation inlet, 573
Seven mile creek, 570
Seventeen mile beach,

893
Shag valley, 530, 536
Sliamrock claim, 562
Shortland, 551, 552,
553. 554. 555. 556,
557, 55«. 559. 560
Shotovcr claim, 568

>••. 529. 541. 548,

549 l5^5

Silver Crown claim.
Sink to Rise reef, 561
Skipper's creek, 526,

529. 530, 534. 535.

540, 541, 546, 548
Somerset claim, 818
Souihberg's reef, 534,

546
Southern Cross claim,

559
South Island, 517, 519,

553
Specimen Point, 541
Spencer's claim, 568
Swedish Crown claim,
Taieri, ' \ 549 [568
Taipo i^iigCL!, 569, 570
Tapu, 552, 553, 555,

558-9, 560
Tapu Gold claim, 5C8
Tararu, 552, 553, f-',
Te Anau, 816 [558
Te Aroh ., 521
Te Ko'-ii claim, 568
TereMakau, 524
Tf.awhiti, 521

Australasia— d-o«/(/,
Thames, 518, 520, 523,

526, 5:8, 539. 551-

68, 83., 838, 840,
Tinker's, 54S, 550 [842
Tobiii's Poin , 541
Tokatea claim 568
Tokomairiro, 1 30, 540,

818-9
Tookey's claim, 568
Totara r. , 893
Tuapeka, 519, 525,

540, 731, 816-9,820,

898, 901
Tweedsidc claim, 568
Twelve-mile creek, 541
Una claim, 562, 568
Union claim, 568
Upper Taieri, 540, 549
Vale of Avoca claim,
Waikowhau, 553 (568
Waimangardha, 819
Waiohanga, 553
Waionau, 552
Waiotahi, 552, 554,

557, 561, 568
V>uipori, 530, 531,

55'. 816-9
Wairaii, 571, 574
Wairahuna Flats, 549,

551. 817-9
VNaitemata, 562, 568
Wakamarina, 571,

572, 573. 574
Wakatipu lake, <,!%

521
Wanaka, 816-9 [5^2
Wandering Star claim,
Wealth of Nations

claim, 568
Weatherstone, 549,

551, 816-9
Wellington, 521
West Coast, 521, 522,

526, 568
Westland, 519, 520,

527, 568-71
Westpnrt, 907 [568
Wild Missouri claim.
Young American

claim, 562
Queensland, 476, 516,

574-615, 755, 775,

809, 816, 819, 820,

822, 832, 834, 838,

840, 841, 842
Albion reef, 599, 609
Alexandra reef, 582,
Barcoo r. , 819 [589
Black Snake diggings,

591. 592, 837
BlulT, 582, 589 [592
Bongmillerer creek,
Boundary creek, 593
Bowen, 593, 598, 610,

611, 612, 613
Boyne, 574
Broken r., 598

Australasia — contd.
Brook's, 577, 589
Brou^htcn, 574
Broughton r., 576, 577,

579, 585
Burdekin r., 579, 580,

755. 756
Burnett, 574, 590
Byer's creek, 615
Caledonian reef, 595
Calliope, 574
Cananoo, 574, 837,

838, 842, 843
Caper., 574, 580, 837,

838, 998
Ca -dwell, 574
Carpentaria gulf, 575
Cattle creek, 580
Charters Towers, 574,

576-90, 837
Clarke range, 593, 598

r-. 576, 577

Cloncurry, 574
Coast range, 576, 597
Cockfield's, 580
Comstotk reef, 581, 585
Cooktown, 574
Dart r., 598^599, 613
Dillon's reef, 602
Dinner creek, 580
Dividing Range, 579
Don r., 593, 598
Dreghorn reef, 589
Dry creek, 577
Eight-mile gully, 57^
Emu r., 598
Enterprise reef, 609,
Etheridge, 574 [610
Fenian gully, 576
Fitzroy Downs, 819,

820
Flagstone creek, 598
Flattop mt., 612, 613
Garibaldi's creek, 602
General Wyndham

reef, 589
Gilbert, 574
Gladst. ne creek, 57"
GluoS House mts., 390
Glastonbury creek, 591
Glengarry reef, 606,

608
Golden gully, 837
Gooroonijam, 832
Grace Darling reef,599.
Grant range, 598 \(io6

r., 609

valley, 600, 608,

610
Great Britain reef, 579
Great Star r., 578
Green creek, 599, 607,

608, 611, 614
Green's reef, 838
Gympie, 574, 590-3,

816, 832, 840, 1103
Happy Valley dig-
gings, 600, 933

Australasia— w«/rf.
Havilah, 599
Hayman's road, 579
Hibernia gully, 599,

605

reef, 599, 609,613

High mt., 612, 613
Hodgkinson, 574

r., 615

Hungry gully, 599,600,

611
Imperial creek, 578

reef, 582, 589

Jack's creek, 598 [596
James Frankie reef,
Jimna, 574
Jus -in-time reef, 589,

6;i, 613, 614
Keelbottom, creek, 755
Kilkivan, 574, 592
Lardy da reef, 611
Ley burn, 574
Little Red Bluff, 578
Little Star r., 577, 578
Lucky valley, 574
Mamelon, 598
Manchester reef, 595,

59". 597
Man-ngo, 503-8, 837
Marie vale, 59 j
Mariners' reef, 1 103
Maroochydore r., 590
Marquis creek, 602
reef, 599, 600, 601,

602, 604, 608
Maryborough, 574
Mary r., 590, 591
Melon creek, 578, 580
Merry Monufch reef,

589
Mexican reef, 584
Mid Brother, 595, 596
Millchester, 578, 582,

583. 588
Mitchell r., 615
Moonstone reef, 586
Mosman's creek, 577,
Nanango, 574 [578
Newton Butler reef

585. 589
New Zealand gully,

599, 600, 604
New Zealand reef, 601,

602
Norman by. 574, 593,

597. 598-614, 842
North Australian reef,

585. 589
North Grace Darling

reef, 608
North Kennedy, 755
Nuggety gully, 837
Oakey creek, 599, 6l0,

612, 614
Old Identity reef, 582
Old Warrior reef, 582,

589
One-mile mt., 596, 597

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

213

>*'"

Australasia — contd.
Pacific reef. C82
Paddy's gully, 837
Palmer r., 574, 580,615
Papuan reef, 589
Peak Downs, 516, 574
Pelican creek, 598
Perseverance reef, 612
Pikedale, 574
Pint-Pot creek, 615
Plant's mill, 579
Pretty Bend, 595
Puzzler reef, 589
Pyle reef, 589
Pyramids, 580
Queen reef, 583, 589
Queenton, 588 [589
Rainbow reef, 584,585,
Ravenswood, 574, 604
Rise and Shine reef,
Rishton, 576 [592

Rochfort reef, 589
Rockhampton, 574
Rose, Shamrock and
Thistle reef, 579, 589
Ross r., 576
Roundback mt., 598
Rouu'i h., 598
Running creek, 837
St. George r., 615
St. Patrick reef, 584,

589
Sandy creek, 577, 585,

586
Scrubby creek, 577, 580
Selina creek, 593
Seventy - mile creek,

576, 580, 581, 585,

589
Seymour's reef, 593.594
Sharkeytown, 603
Sharper's gully, 837,

842, 843
Sons of Freedom reef,

582
Southern Cross reef, 589
Specimen guUv, 837
.Spring creek, 608
St.ir of Hope leef, 599,
Star r., 755 [602

Stockholm rtef,58i, 589
Stuart mt., 576
.Swan's reef, 580, 581
Talgai, 574
Tate r., 615
Tenningering, 574
Toomey's reef, 593,

595. 596
Towers h., 584, 585
Townsville, 574, 580
Tunnel reef, 83S [577
Two-mile gully, 576,
Union Jack, 589
Venture reef, 594, 595,

609
Warden reef, 585
Warwick, 574
Washington reef, 582

Australasia — contd.
Welcome reef, 586, 599,

603, 605, 608, 614
West Brother, 595, 596
Western creek, 574
Wide bay, 590
Widgee creek, 591
Wild Scotsman reef,

612
South Australia, 476,

615-29, 841
Adelaide, 615 [621
Barossa, 615, 616-7,
Bell's Point lead, 621,

622
Blumberg, 617-21
Bridge creek, 627, 628
Britannia, 627
Burru Burra m., 625
Chapel h., 621 [622
Chapman's gully, 621,
Chinaman's Rush, 627
Christmas lead, 621
Criterion reef,6i7, 619,

620
Driffield, 626. 627
Echunga. 615, 621-3
Extended Union, 627
Felthouse's Flat, 621,
■ 622

Fountain Head, 627
German reef, 618, 620
Rowley, 627
John Bull, 627
Jupiter creek, 615, 622,

623-5
Lady Alice m., 616,

627
Long gully, 621, 622,

623
Margaret r., 628, 629
Northern Territory,

626-9
Old Echunga, 621, 623
Onkaparinga r., 623,
Palmerston, 6i6 [624
Pedlar's h , 621, 622
Pine creek, 627, 629
Poorman's lead, 621
Port Darwin, 626, 628
Sander's Rush, 629
Spike's gully, 616, 617
Stapleton, 626, 627
Sterling reef, 623
Torrens r., 615, 620
Twelve-mile Rush, 628
Ulooloo, 625-6
Ulooloo creek, 625, 626
Wankaringa, 616
Yam creek, 627, 629
Tasmania, 476, 516,

629-3'. 775. 819
Anderson's rivulet, 631
Arthur mt., 630
Beaconsfield, 630
Brandy creek, 630, 63 1
Cabbage-tree range,
Fingal, 630 [631

Australasia — confd.
Hohart Town, 516
Lille, 630

Middle Arm creek, 630
Pieman r., 630
T.asmania reef, 630, 63 1
West Tamar, 630-1
Yorktown, 631
Timor, 631-2
Victoria, 476, 513, 523,
527. 536. 539. 541.
542, 543. 544. 545.
616, 619, 626, 627,

632-96. 754. 757.
758. 763. 769. 774.
775, 786, 807-15,
821-2, 822-30, 832,
831. 834, 835, 838,
839, 840, 842, 844,
845, 847, 849, 851-
4. 855, 901, 909-'o.
912, 914, 917-31.

932, 948-9, 1052,
1 102-3

Accident reef, 642-3

Albert reef, 695

Albion, 648, 684

Alexandra, 642-3, 645,
775. 986

Allan's Flat, 985

Amalia reef, 656

Amherst, 642-3

Anderson's creek, 839,
1054, 1058-9

Ararat, 634-41, 642-3,
645, 649-58, 1019

Ararat lead, 651

Argylp, 648

Armstrong's, 654

Ashe's lead, 663

Avoca, 645, 749, 823

Bacchus Marsh, 659,
660, 754, 758

Back creek, 825

Hagshot, 824, 942

Balaclava h., 691, 695

Ballan, 644, 754

Ballarat, 513,627,633,
634-41, 64" 3, 644,
648, 658-74, 749,
753. 757. 776, 786,
813, 821, 822, 823,
824, 825, 827, 834,
839. 849, 896, 907,

933. 939. 949. 1019
Band and Albion Con-
sols, 665, 666, 673

Band of Hope reef,

642-3, 664
Barker's creek, 648,826
Barkly, 645
Bay of Biscay, 825
Bealiba reef, 642-3
Beaufort, 633
Beechworth, 634-41,

642-3, 645, 674-5,

767, 824, 825, 841,

1019

A USTRALASIA— f£>«C(/.

Belltopper lead, 825
Rem r., 680
Bendigo, 616, 619, 647,

692, 749. 753. 823,
923. 942
Bennis(jn Flat, 684
Bethanga, 834 [680
Big river, 642-3, 645,
Bird's reef, 672
Black h., 627, 664, 672
Black le.ad, 653, 665
Blackman's lead, 651
Blackwood, 642-3,644,

646, 839
Blink Bonny gully, 812
Blue mountain, 642-3
Boggy creek, 642-3,

645. 679, 680, 681,

809-15
Boiler plain, 677, 678
Bonang range, 646
Bonshaw, 662, 663, 665
Boiirke's reef, 652
Bridal h., 652
Bright, 645
Britannia lead, 667
Brown Hill, 664
Brown's reef, 649, 656
Buchan r., 679
Buckland, 642-3
Buffalo range, 693
Bul'j;ana, 658
Bulldog, 644
Buninyong, 642-3. 644,

659, 661, 665, 666,

670, 673
Burra Burra reef, ^.72
Burren's gully, 692
Burrumlieep, 650, 653,

665, 668
Bushman's lead, 932
Butcher's gully, 693
Butler's reef, 642-3
Caledonia, 839
Caledonian lead, 653,

664, 665 [667, 684
California gully, 656,
Cambrian Hill, 665
Campaspe, 825 I829
Campbell's creek 616,
Campbell's reef, 052,

657, 658
Canadian lead, 660,

663, 665, 932
Canton lead, 652
Cape Liptrap, 687
Cape Otway, 687, 758,

759

Cape Patterson, 758

Carisbrooke, 825

Castle Lonely lead, 691

Castlemaine,6l6, 634-
41, 642-3, 644, 647,
649, 823, 897, 907,

Cathcart h., 652 [1019

lead, 65 1

Catherine reef, 642-3

til

I2I4

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

Australasia — contd.
Cattle's reef, 642-3
Cement h., 684, 686
Cemetery lead, 692
Cherry-tree Flat, 692
Chiltern, 645, 674, 681
Chinaman's Flat, 691

HiU, 693 [3

Church Hill reef, 642-
Clayton's h., 659, 660
Clifton, 681, 682
Clunes, 542, 619, 642-

3, 644, 766, 776,

813, 825, 896, 999,

1031, 1058-9, 109s-

iioo, 1 102-3
Cobbannah creek, 811
Cobbler's lead, 665
Cobungra, 676, 677,
Cockatoo, 693 [678
Cohen's reel, 642-3
Coliban, 825, 828,923
Columbia reef, 684
Combyingar creek, 680
Concongella, 654
CosterScld, 839
Coy's diggings, 644,

646, 692, 696
Crawfish lead, 665
Creswick, 642-3, 644,

666, 667, 749, 931,

941
Crooked r., 642-3, 645,

646, 67s, 676, 679,

680, 815 [775

Crossover, 684, 685,
Cross reef, 642-3, 688-
Crystal reef, 812 [90
Daisy h., 626
Dargo, 675, 676, 677,

678, 680, 815, 821,

923
Dauntless m., 667
Daylesford, 644, 813,

839. 923
Deadhorse Flat, 664

gully, 685

lead, 667, 668

DeenicuU creek, 651,
Delegete r., 680 [653
Dinah Flat, 907
Dirty Dick's gully, 906
Dividing Range, 650,

65?, 815
Donkey gully, 906
Donnelly's creek, 645
Donovan's creek, 839
Dowling Forest, 662
Dry gully, 680
Dundley, 616 [646

Dunolly, 642-3, 644,
Durham lead, 665, 666,

938-9

Ea^ichawk reef, 643,

Eddington, 825 [657

Elaine, 659 [824

Eldorado, 674, 681,
Emperor m., 666

Australasia — contd.
Epsom Flat, 826, 827

lead, 826, 827

Eureka lead, 663, 664,

reef, 647-8 [665

Excelsior reef, 643
Fellmonger's, 668
F"erron's reef, 642-3
Flint h., 652
Fontainebleau, 693
Ford's reef, 642-3
Forest creek, 826
Forty-foot lead, 897,

907
Foster, 683, 685, 687
Four-post lead, 651
Freestone, 679, 812
Frenchman's lead, 665,
F'tiesland, 693 [667
Fryer's crejk, 642-3,

644, 826, 829, 923
Futter's range, 674
Gaffney's creek, 642-3,

645
Gallo V reef, 642-3
Garde; 1 ' ■• *" 642-

3. 649
Gaiibaldi t. 670

(jerman reef, 1^.2- 3
Gibson's lead, 651
Gippsland, 634-41,

642-3, 646, 649,

675-90,754.809-15.

821, 823, 834, 1019
Gladstone r., 8io
Gleeson's Lease, 642-3
Glenalladale, 810
Glengower, 825
Glenmaggie, 821,927-
Glenorchy, 681 [8

Golden Bar, 683
Golden gully, 907
Golden II ope reef, 656
Golden Point, 659,

660, 661, 662, 665,

666, 669, 670, 939
Gong-gong creek, 668,

669
Good Friday creek, 693
Good Luck creek, 680
Gooley's cretk, 649
Gordon, 1,44, 668
Gorrinn creek, 653
Gouli)urn r., 692, 693,

834. 851
Granite Hill, 682
Grant, 646 [663, 693
Gravel Pits lead, 662,
Great Western, 645,

654
Green h., 653,671, 825
Green Leek gully, 666,

667
(liowler's gully, 691
Guddford, 824
Gum-tree Flat, 663
Haddon, 671, 681
Hard Hills, 659, 931

Australasia— f<7«/(/.
Hardie's h., 661, 666
Hardscrabble gully,
Harrietville, 645 [692
Haunted Hill, 686
Heathcote, 642-3, 644,

646, 839 [825

Hepburn, 642-3, 646,
Hiscock's reef, 642-3
Homeward Uound reef,

642-3
Honeysuckle reef, 656
Hopkins r., 653
Hundredweight h., 907
Huntley, 942
Hurdle Flat, 897
Hustler's reef, 643,

649, 775, 1000
Iguana creek, 682,

810-S
Inglewood, 644, 646
Inkerman lead, 662,

665, 668
Jackson's creek, 653
Jatiiieson, 642-3, 645
Jenkin's gully, 667
Jericho, 645
Johnson's reef, 649
Joyce's creek, 825
Kaffir's h., 683, 685,
Kamarooka, 644 [835
Kangaroo range, 651,

653. 92s
Kilmore, 644
Kingower, 644
Kitty's, 664, 665, 670
Koh-i-noor, 662
Kyneton, 642-3
Lal-lal, 660, 669
Landsborou^h, 645
Land Tax reef, 642-3
Langridge's gully, 685
Lauriston, 646
Leigh grand junction,
Leigh r , 659 [671

Lexington, 656
Lindenow Flat, 809-15
Little I?endigo, 664,

668, 672
Livehorse gully, 685
Livingstone gully, 685
Loddon, 823, 824, 825,

828, 925
Long Pat's gully, 812
Long Tunnel m., 683
Lower Wet lead, 650
McAlister, r., 679
Magdala m., 649 [653
Main Cathcart lead.
Main gully, 691, 692
Main Hopkins, 653
Main Range, 651
Main Trunk lead, 662
Malakofflead,665
Maldon, 633, 644, 767,

826, 829, 836, 839,
Malmsbury, 825 [897
Marong, 644

Australasia— <rc«/(/.
Maryborough, 634-41,

642-3. 644. 646, 753.

757. 776, 824, 826,

839. 897, 913, loig
Maude, 652, 659, 660
Maximilian creek, 679,

809-15
Mayford spur, 675, 676,

678, 821
Mercer mt., 659, 666,
Meredith, 659 [926
Miners' Rest, 668
Mitchell r., 642-3, 679,

681, 682, 809-15
Mitchell's reef, 654
Mitta Mitta, 645, 834
Moitun creek, 681
Moorabool, 652, 659,

660, 665, 668, 669,

919
Moore's reef, 655, 656
Morgan's reef, 656, 657
Morning Star reef,

642-3
Mornington, 645, 844
Morris's, 676, 677
Morrison's, 659, 660,

668, 669
Morse's creek, 645
Mount Alfred, 679

Baldhead, 815

Hlack, 693

Buffalo, 815

Buninyong, 671

— — Lookout, 679, 682

Mercer, 938-9

Pisgah, 667, 668

Rowan, 662, 664,

668 [678

Table-top, 675,

Taylor, 679, 682

Moyston, 645, 652, 657
Mullock Bank, 651
Murray r., 674-5, 834.

919-23
Myrtleford, 645
Napoleon, 659, 661,

664, 665
Newcastle, 839
New Cemetery, 664
New Chum reef, 642-3
Newstead, 644, 826
Newtown h., 926-7
New Year's reef, 655
New Zealand h., 684,

685, 686
Nicholson r., 681, 682
Nightingale lead, 665
Nil Desperandum lead,

653 [693

Nine-mile creek, 692,
Noah's Ark, 655
North Park claim, 662
North Spring creek, 693
Northumberland lead,

668
North Warjinga, 690-6

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

I215

AVSTRALASIX— could.
Nufgety gully, 691,

693, 694

reef, 836

Old lead, 693
Old Ned's gully, 691
Omeo, 64s, 680
Ophir m., 667 [651
Opossum Gully lead,
Ovens, 646, 674-5,

815, 828, 897
Parkin's reef, 642-3
Pennyweight h., 659,

660
Phillip's leap, 651, 653
Pioneer claim, 685, 821
Pioneer reef, 655
Pleasant creek, 646,

648, 649

Point Castries, 652
Policeman's creek, 680
Port Curtis, 651, 6j2,

656
Port Fairy Gap, 655
Port Phdlip m., 1006,

loii, 1019, 1031,

1035, 1058-9, 1095-

iico, 1 102-3
Prince of Wales claim,

662, 672
I'yke's creek, 678
kaylan, 645
Kailway reef, 642-3
Kaywood, 644
Redan lead, 665
Redbank, 645, 646
Rcdcastle, 644, 646
Red h.. 645, 663, 907
Red Streak lead, 663
Reedy Swamp, 691
Reform reef, 642-3
Rhymney, 652, 656
Rich Hiil, 668
Ringwood, 839
Rotky Point lead, 651
Rodney, 662, 667
Rosse's creek, 665
Rotten gully, 664
Rushworth, 644, 646,

691, 692, 693, 694
Russell's creek, 645,

684, 685
Rutherglen, 839
Ryrie's creek, 931
Sailor's Flat, 826
St. Andrews, 644
St. Arnaud, 645, 646,

757, 842, 844
Sandhurst, 634-41,

642-3, 644, 646, 648,

649, 670, 690-6, 757,
775. 776, 824, 826,
839, 842, 896, 902,
907, 942, 999, 1019,
1 130

Sandy creek, 826, 834
Sawpit Flat, 650, 653
Scarsdale, 776

Australasia— f(7«/(/.
Scotchman's Flat reef,

642-3, 659, 661
.Scotchman's lead, 665,

670, 671, 673 [90
Scotchman's reef, 688-
Sebastopnl, 662, 663,

664, 669, 671
Shady creek, 680
Shamrock claim, 649
Shelback reef, 648
Sheltord, 659, 661
Siberia, 693
Six-mile cieek, 658
.Slaty creek, 670, 673,

931
Slaughterhouse h., 659
.Smythesdale, 644
Snowy r., 679 [648
.South Scotchman m.,
Sovereign claim, 672
.Spring Hill lead, 930
Staffordsliire reef,

642-3
Stawell, 645,651, 652,

688-90, 807
Steiglitz, 642-3, 644,

646, 659, 660, 670
Stewart's gully, 812
Stockyard creek, 645,

686, 835 [927-8

Stony creek, 659, 811,
Sttiiiger's creek, 642-3
Stuanmill, 645
Suburban lead, 668
Suffolk lead, 665 [668
Sulky lead, 666, 667,
Sultan r •(, 642-3
Surface h., 652
Sutherland's creek, 659
Swift's creek, 680, 832,

998
Sydney Flat lead, 651
Synnot's claim, 821
Tabberabbera, 809-15
Talbot, 644, 826
Tambo r., 680
Tangil, 684, 685, 821-

2, 823, 935
Tar.ilale, 642-3, 644,

807, 825
Tarnagulla, 642-3, 644
Tarraiigoner, 642-3,

749. 753 [687

Tarween r., 684, 685,
Tea-tree creek, 919
Teiiiplestowe, 839
Thomson r., 687 [653
Three-mile creek, 650,
Tiddle - de - addledee

reef, 642-3
Tooborac, 644
Tubbarubba creek ,844
Tucker creek, 680
Tunnel reef, 838
Turton's. creek, 683,

684, 685, 687 [678
Twenty-fivc-mile creek ,

AUSTRALAS I A — COnfJ.

Union Jack lead, 652
Union lead, 691, 692
United Gravel Pits, 665
United Kingdom reef,

642-3
Upper Wet lead, 651
Vaughan, 826, 925
Victoria reef, 649, 672
Wahgunyah, 674
Walhalla, 645, 683,

775. 1019
Wallaby, 933
W.ingaratta, 674
Wa.anga, 642-3,690-6
Warayatkin, 651, 653
Warrenheip range, 659,

660, 669
Waterloo, 648
Wattle gully, 642-3,

648, 649, 656
Wedderburn, 644
Welcome lead, 681

reef, 642-3

Wendouree, 662
Wentworth r., 680,

810-5
Werribee, 754, 756
Wheal Terrdl m., 648
Whipstick gully, 684
White Hills, 616, 692,

695, 823, 824, 826,

827 [664, 665

Whitehorse range, 660,

reef, 666

Whroo, 644, 646, 691,

692, 693, 839
Williamson's creek,

659, 670 [646

Wilson's Promontory,

reef, 642-3

Wimmera, 651, 654
Winter's claim, 665,

666, 670

creek, 662

Wombat Hill, 669
Wood's Point, 642-3,

645. 775. 834. 839.

849, 986
Woolshed lead, 665,

666, 939
Yackandandab, 642-3,

645. 985
Yandoit, 644

Yarra, 839
Yarrowee, 660, 663,

664, 665, 666, 669
Yea, 644
Westkrn Australia,

696-7, 834
Blue mts., 697
Esperance bay, 696
Eyre range, 697
Great Bend, 697
Irwin r., 696
Jerdicart r., 697
Mount Barren, 697
Murchison r., 696, 697

Australasia— fo«/(/,
Peterwangy, 696, 697
Phillips r., 697
Stirling range, 697
Tallering, 697
Weld range, 697

EUROPE.

Europe, 698-745

AUSTRO-HUNGARY,698-

709, 820
Abrudbanya, 703
Adriatic, 702
Alt-Albenreut, 706
Aquileia, 702
Aranyos, 703
Arletzgriin, 701
Austria, 698
Bakabanya, 707, 708
Bannat, 703, 706, 707,

750, 820
Beszterczebanya, 698,

699, 700
Bohemia, 700-2, 835,

839. 841, 843, 845
Boitza, 704, 705
Bosnia, 702
Bulla- Pest, 699, 700
Carinlhia, 702-3
Ciclowa, 750
Colchis, 706
Csertes, 705
Csetaiye, 838
Dacia, 703
Danube, 707
Deva, 704
Eule, 700, 701
Fclsoljanya, 703
Friesach, 709
Gastem, 708, 709
Goldau, 700
Goldbiiindl, 700
Gotteshab, 701
Graslitz, 701
Griiii, 700
Hohen Tauern, 701,

839. 843, 845
Hungary, 539, 698,

699, 700, 703-9, 820,
822, 831, 833, 83s,
838, 840, 842, 843,
844, 1052

Joichimsthal, 700, 701
J.aschau, 698
.Conigsberg, 708
Kremnitz, 700, 703,

707, 708
Lend, 113S
Libeten, 708
Maros, 704 [1139

Nagya^, 705, 707, 844,
Nagybanya, 698, 699,

700, 703
Neusohi, 698, 699, 700,
Noreia, 709 [70S
Noric Alps, 701
OfTenbanya, 844, 1 139

I2l6

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

^VROVTi.— continued.
Oravicza, 698, 699, 700,

750
Ostrow, 704
Phas's, 706
Flatten, 701
Pless, 700
Porta Ferrea, 704
Prague, 701
Pribram, 700, 702
Rauris, 708, 709, 1138
Rhsetian Alps, 701
Salzach, 709
Salzburg, 698, 708-9
Schemnitz, 700, 703,
706, 707, 708, 822,

.833
Siechenbach, 709
Stechowitz, 700
Styria, 702, 709
Szepes Iglo, 700
Teschelwitz, 700
Tilu, 708
Transylvania, 539, 698,

699, 700, 703-9, 786,
822, 831, 833, 838,
839, 842, 844

Travnik, 702
Tyrnaw, 707
Tyrol, 698, 709
Unter-Rothau, 700
Verespatak, 838
Zalathna, 698, 699,

700, 703
Zell, 709, 1138
Zillerthal, 709
Zips, 703

France, 709-10, 820
Alps, 709 ,820
Arcachon lake, 710
Ardeche, 709
Ariege, 709
Arve, 709
Brittany, 750
Cevennes, 709, 710
Ceze, 709
Condrieu, 709
Doubs, 709
Galatic gulf, 710
Gardon, 709
Garonne, 709
Gascony, 710
Gex, 709
Givors, 709
Grave, 820
Haute-Savoie, 710
Herault, 709
Huelgoet, 750
Isere, 709
La Gardette, 709
La Voulte, 709
Lod^ve, 710
Lyons, 710
Michaille, 709
Mirabel, 709
Mont Clairgeon, 710
Moye, 710
Narbonne, 710

E U ROPE — continued.

Pyrenees, 709, 710

Rache-de-Glun, 709

Rhine, 709

Rhone, 709

Rumilly, 710

St. Pierre-de-Boeuf, 709

St. Quentin, 710

Salat, 709

Tain, 709

Toulouse, 710

Tronquoy, 710 [842
Germany, 71 1-4, 841,

Aar, 711

Altenhauer Hiitte, 711

Andreasberg, 750

Baden, 711, 713

Bale, 711

Bavaria, 711

Bingen, 711

Black Forest, 711

Brunswick, 711

Carlsruhe, 712

Clausthal, 711

Coire, 711

Daxland, '/12

Fichtelgebirge, 839

Freiberg, 774, 1139

Geisswasser, 712

Goldberg, 711

Goldkronach, 839

Halle, 711

Hanover, 711

HI, 714

Istein, 712

Jura, 711

Kaiserstuhl, 711

Kehl, 712

Lautenthaler, 711

Lowenberg, 711

Mannheim, 711

Mayt-nce, 712

Mayenfeld, 711

Nambsheip": 712

Nieflern, 712.

Oberliarz, 711

Petit-Kembs, 712

Prussia, 711

Reichenstein, 711

Rheinwiller, 712

Rhine, 711-4, 843

Saxony, 705, 711

Seltz, 713

Silesia, 711

Vieux-Brisach, 712

Vosges, 711

Waldhut, 711

Wiesbaden, 711
Greece, 714-5

Cyprus, 714

Dclphos, 714, 715

Naxia, 714

Naxos, 714

Sidherukapsa, 715

Siphanto, 714

Siphuos, 714

Thasos, 714
Iceland, 715, 750

Europe — continued.
Italy, 715-9, 721, 833,
841, 842, 84s

Alogna, 717, 718

Alessandria, 719

Antigorio, 717

Antrona, 717

Anzasca, 717, 718

Aosta, 717, 719

Battigio, 717, 718

Cani, 717, 718

Casaleggio, 719

Cisalpine Gaul. 716

Corsente, 716, 719

Crodo, 718

Dora Baltea, 715, 719

Duria, 715

Fomarco, 718

Gallia Transpadana,

Genoa, 717, 719 [715

Graian Alps, 719

Ictimuli, 716

Ischia, 716

Lago Maggiore, 717

Ligurian Apennines,
717, 719

Lombardy, 716

Loreto, 719

Luogo d'Oro, 716

Macugnaga, 718

Marmazza, 717

Mont Blanc, 717

Monte Rosa, 716, 717

Novi, 719

Ollomont, 717

Orba, 719

Oreo, 719

Ossola, 716, 845

Padus, 721

Pennine Alps, 719

Pestarena, 718

Piacenza, 716

Pie-di-Mulera, 718,845

Piedmont, 715, 716,

Pithecussae, 716 [719

Placentia, 716

Po, 719

Riviera, 719

Sardinia, 716

Sesia, 717, 718, 719

Sestri-Levante, 719

Simplon, 716, 717

Ticino, 719

Toce, 717

Toppa, 717, 718, 845

Transalpine Kcltica,
716

Valsesia, 716

Vercelli, 716

Victimolo, 716
RouMANiA, 706, 708,
719-20

Ardgfeche, 719

Bacau, 719

Carpathians, 719, 838

Nianitzo, 719

Olto, 719

Rucar, 719

E u ROVE— continued.
Suciara, 719
Tergoviste, 719
Russia, 720
Archangel, 720
Finland, 440, 720
Ivalo, 720

Kalquief is., 720

Kanin cape, 720

Keni, 720

Kola, 720

Lapland, 720

Nova Zembla, 720

Olonetz, 720

Tana, 720

Timan, 720

Torneii, 720

Uleaborg, 720

Vaigalch, 720

Voitsk, 720

Vyg, 720

White Sea, 720
Servia, 720
Spain, 702, 720-4, 841

Almaden, 720

Andalusia, 721

Asturia, 723

Cadiz, 721

Cenfes, 724

Cevennes, 721

Constantina, 720

Cordova, 721

Cotillas, 720

Cotinoe, 720

Daro, 724

Gallsecia, 723

Genii, 724

Granada, 724

Guadalquiver, 720, 721

Huetor, 724

Jaen, 724

Kemmenus mts., 721

Lusitania, 723

Monachil, 724

Pyrenees, 721

Real del Monte, 1125

Riotinto, 722, 1 104

San Domingos, 1 105

Santander, 724

Seville, 721

Simancas, 724

Tagus, 721

Tamaya, 723

Tharsis, 1 104

Turdetania, 720

Vega, 724

Vercellae, 723

Viclumuloe, 723

Yei delaeneina, 1125
Sweden and Norway,
724, 750, 835

Ehnareh lake, 724

Ivalajoki, 724

Ivalo, 724

Kongsberg, 750

Lapland, 724

Lappmarken, 724

Luttajoki, 724

GEOGRArillCAL INDEX.

I 2 I 7

E u ROPE — continued.

Palsioja, 724

Tana, 724

YtteraMi, 1105
Swnv.iiRLANi), 724

J5ale, 724

Calanda mt., 724, 820

Chur, 724

Constance, 711

Emnien, 724

Feldsberg, 724

Graubiinden, 820

Reuss, 724

Rhine, 724
Turkey, 725-6

Abdera, 725

/Egxan, 726

/Enyra, 725

Amphipolis, 725

Balukkioi', 726

Cara Soui, 726

Cavalla, 726

Clirysa, 725

Coenyra, 725

Contesa, 726

Datum, 725

Despoto-Dagh, 726

Dysorum, 725

Hebrus, 721

Kilik, 726

Kinyra, 725

Neapolis, 725

Nestus, 725

Olympus, 726

Orphani, 726

Pactolus, 726

Poeonia, 725

Pangaeus mt., 725, 726

Philippi, 725

Rhodope mt., 726

Salonica, 726

Samothrace, 725

Scapte-Hyle, 725

Scomius, 725, 726

Slatica, 726

Strymon, 725, 726

Tempe, 726

Thasos, 725, 726

Thrace, 721, 725 [45
United Kingdom, 726-

Aberdeenshire, 733, 734

Abington, 731, 732,

739
Acharvadale, 738
Afon-wen, 741, 742
Angus, 734
Annan, 731, 735
Annandale, 733
Ansdale Burn, 738
Ardvoirlich, 734
Argyleshire, 733, 734
Aughrim, 728
Avoca, 728
Ayr, 733
Ballinvalley, 728
Ballycreen, 728
Ballymurtagh, 729
Ballynacapogue, 728

Euro p e — continued.

E u V.OVZ— continued.

EvKOVV.—con/inihd.

Banff, 733

Clonal inond, 734

Nithsdale, 733

Barmouth, 740, 742

Glencapie Burn, 731,

North Dol-y-frwynog

Bellgall Burn, 731

, 735

m., 743

Beriedcle, 738

Gleiiesk, 734

Ord Burn, 738

Berthllwyd, 743

Glengaber, 735

Peebles, 733

Berwick, 733

Glcngonner, 731, 735

Penmaen, 742

Birmingham, 728

Glen Lediioch, 734

Perthshire, 733, 734

Bisliop's Hill, 735

Glenciuoich, 734

Pigswch, 741

Braemar, 734

Glut, 738

I'ollimorc, 728 [743

Braemore, 738

Gold-mine brook, 728

Prince of Wales ni..

Breadalbane, 734

Golspie, 73S

kuvenglass, 728

Britannia m., 728

Grampian h., 726, 734

Rhaiadr Mowddach,

BromsgroveLickey, 728

Gwynfynydd, 745

742, 744

Broughton-in-I"'urness,

Haddington, 733

Rhobell-Kawr, 741

Huarth, 741 [728

Halkirk, 738

Ross, 733

JSurn of Haster, 738

Harlech, 740

Roughtor, 727

Caegwian, 743

Hartfell, 735

.St. Mary's Loch, 735

Caerwernog, 743

Helmsdale water, 734

Scar.nbin Hills, 738,

Caithness, 738, 739

Invercauid, 734

739

Caledonian Canal, 733

Inverness, 733

Scotland, 730-9, 750,

Cambrian m., 743, 744

Ireland, 72830, 845

.Seathwaite, 728 [842

Cefn-mawr, 741

Kildonan, 736, 737

.Selkirk, 733

Clattering, 735

Kincardine, 733

Short Cleugh, 735

Clevedon, 728

Kinnesswood, 735

Somerset, 728, 819

Clogau, 740, 743, 744

Kinross-shire, 735

Soutii Gogofan, 739

Clova, 734

Kircudbright, 733

Stirling, 733

Clyde, 731, 735

Lachfraith, 743

Strathearn, 734

Clydesdale, 731, 733

Lidock, 727

Strathm )re, 738

Cornwall, 727-8, 816

Lamington Burn, 735

Stronsian, 750

Crawford, 731, 735

Lammermuirs, 733

Suisgdl, 737

Crawfordjohn, 739

Lanarkshire, 731, 733,

Sutherlandshire, 733,

CroghanKinshela,728,

739

734, 736, 737

730

Lancashire, 728

Tay, 733. 734. 735

Croghan Moira, 728

Langcleugh Burn, 731,

Thurso river, 738

Cummer Abbey, 744

732

Torrish, 737

Cwm Eisen, 741, 742

Langwell, 738

Trawsfynydd, 742

Cwmheisian, 739, 743

Lathern, 738

Tweed, 731, 735

Davidstowe, 727

Lathernwheel Burn,

Tweeddale, 733, 735

Dee, 734, 844

738

Tyddyiig-wladis, 743

Devonshire, 728

Leadhills,730,73i,732,

Tyne, II 27

Dobbs Linn, 735

733. 735. 736, 739

Tyn-y-Ben-rhos, 741,

Dolan, 741, 743

Llandovery, 739

Tyn-y-groes, 742 [743

Dolgelly, 739, 740,744,

Llanfachreth, 743

Tyn-y-llwyn, 742

Dol-fawr, 743 I745

Loch Earn, 734

Ullie, 737

Doly-clochydd, 741

Loch Earn Head, 736

Unst, 737

Dol-y-frwynog, 741,

Loch Leven, 735

Upper Clydesdale, 731

742, 743

LochTay, 734

Victoria m., 743

Dumbarton, 733

Lomond, 735

Vigra, 743

Dumfries, 733

Lyndrum, 734

Wales, 739-45, 806

Dunbeath water', 738

Manod, 740, 742

Wanlockhcad, 732

Dunoon, 734

Manor water, 735

Wellington m., 743

Earn, 734

Meggat water, 735

Wen, 743

Ech, 735

Merddyn Coch'r aur.

West Lomond Hill, 735

Edzell, 734

742

West Prince of Wales

Elvan, 731

Merionethshire, 739,

m., 743

Elvanfoot, 732

740

Weydale, 738

Elvanwater, 735

Moel Cynwch, 741

Wicklow, 730, 835

England, 727-8

Moel - Hafod - Owen,

Widnes, 11 26

Eskdale, 733

741, 742, 743

Wigtown, 733

Ettrickdale, 733

Moel Ispri, 742

Windgate Burn, 731

Festiniog, 740

Moelwyn, 740, 742

Winilygate Burn, 731

Fifeshire, 735

Moffatdale, 735

Winloch, 735

Forfarshire, 733, 734

Mowddach, 739, 740,

Wooden-bndge, 728

Forth, 735

741. 742. 743. 744.

Worcester, 728

Gelli-gain, 742

745

\' arrow, 735

Gelli-gamlyn, 743

Newborough, 742

Wali.achia, 706, 708,

Glasdin m., 743

Nith, 731

719-20

4 I

( 13(8 )

GENERAL INDEX.

AiiiRS rubra, 1003
Advantages of hydraiilicing,

950 I
Agates, 226, 290, 463, 554, 555,

739
Age of gold, 803-38

in reefs, 754-8

of quartz reefs, 754-8

Agricultural interests opposed

by hydraulicing, 993-6
Agtfe's gold-washing machine,

444
Alkaline salts dissolving sul-
phide of gold, 773, 785-6,

793
Allen on atmospheric cylinders,
885-6

on river dredging, 886-7

Alluvions, cost of working, 41,

43. 46, 69

yields from, sec " Yields "

Almocafre, 240, 241, 242, 1 144,

1 186
Amalgam, retorting, 1142
Amalgamated plates, 543-4,

865-6, 892, 902, 1031-5
Amalgamating barrel, 544, 1060

pans, 1035-52

Amalgamation, 865-6

affected by antimony, 565,

1 106
* affected by arsenides and

sulphides, 564, mo
— - affected by copper sulphate,

565

affected by protosulphate

of iron, 564-5

affected by water, 563

Amalgamators, 186-7

Amas lichin, <S:c., 456-7, 458

Amerikanka, 448-55

Ammonites, 819

Amurang, 1 1 86

Anatase, 844

Andesite, 831, 833

Angling leads, 88, 92

Anna, 1 186

Antimonial ores, 135, 208, 228,

287, 289, 290, 356, 519, 556,

565. 649, 704. 706, 763. S02,

(summary) 838-9

treatment of, 1 106-10

Ants digging gold, 313-5, 461-

2, 465, 466, 721

Apatite, 80, 840

Apitascudes, 722

Aquamarines, 226 [8-9

Arab method of utilizing water,

Aragonite, 840

Archaean rocks, 55, 162, 801,
804, 805

Areng, 284, 11 86

Arenilla, 264

Arrastras, 102, 104, 128, 368,
103s, 1 1 86

Arresting gold, 1029 54

Arioba, 1 186

Arrugiffi, 722

Arsenical ores, 72, 76, 77, 91,
95, 154, 160-2, 196, 198, 199,
201, 202, 203, 204, 208, 220,
227, 228, 289, 290, 357, 532,
556, 586,649, 683, 705. 711,
717, 734, 737, 751. 763, 767,
802, (summary) 839

treatment of, ino-25

Aruppukarans, 334

Arvali rocks, 347, 348

Asbestos, 214

Assaying gold, 364

Assays of gold, 30, 96, 247, 283,
292, 293, 325, 332, 338, 397,
520, 714, 745, 810

of jacutinga, 229

of ores, 16-7, 20, 21, 55,

80, 112, 121, 175, 196, 255,
338,474, 475, 1 102-5

of tailings, 268, 562

Associates of gold, mineral, 838

-45.
Association of gold in ores, 1 105
Astarte, 652

Atmospheric cylinders, 885-6
Augite, 684, 749, 775
Auriferous ores, 1 102-41
^^ antimonial, 1 106-10

arsenical, 1 1 10-25

association of the gold,

1 105

bismuth, 1125

cobalt and nickel, 1 125-6

composition, 1 102-5

copper, 1126-36

• definition, 1 102

iron, 1 136-7

lead, 1 137-9

silver, 1 139

tellurium, 1139-41

Auriferous ores — treatment,
1 105 41

zinc, 1 141

Auriferous vemstuff, 997-1 lOI

amalgamated plates, 1031-5

amalgamating pans, 1035

52
arresting the metal, 1029

barrel amalgamation, 1060

• blaaket-strakes, 1052 4

bosses, 1009

buddies, 1080-2

cams, 1014-5

cam-shaft, 1015-6

character of blow, 10 12

classification, 1061-70

coffers, 1004-6

collars, 1012-3

complete mills, 1090 iioi

concentration, 1070-90

crushing, looo

dies, 1009

dimensions, 1019

duty, 1019

— — false bottoms, 1009

feeding, loi 7-8

foundations, 1002-3

frames, 1003-4

gratings, 1006-9

guides, 1013-4

height of drop, 10 1 1-2

labyrinths, 1064

mercury, 1 030- 1

mortars, 1004-6

order of drop, 1012

■ percussion-tables, 1070-5

props, 1016

pulverizers, 1026-9

pyramidal boxes, 1064-7

roasting, 1054-60

• rotating tables, 1075-80

screws, 1006-9

sections of veins, 997-1000

settlers, 1062-4

shaking-tables, 1070-5

sieves, 1064

sizers, 1064-70

special forms of stamp,

1019-26

speed, 1012

spitzkasten, 1064-7

spitzlutten, 1067-70

stamping, 1000-26

CiKNERAl. INDIA.

1219

Auriferous veinstulT — stamps,
studs, 1016 [10C9-11

tables of dimensions and

duty, 1019

• tappets, 1012-3

treatment of blanket-sand,

1060
treatment of tailings, 1061-

treatment of veinstuff,

1000-60

triangular double troughs,

1067-70

water, 1018-9

^ weight of stamps, loii

wipers, 1014-5

Aurum graphicum, 706

paradoxum, 706

prob'ematicum, 706

Austrian process for lead, 1 1 38

-9
Automatic feeders, 1016-8
Aventadero, 1 186

Bahar, 1 186

Baluce, 723

Banatite, 270

Bar, 1 186

Barakar rocks, 305, 345

Barrancos, 262, 263

Barrel-amaltjamation, 1060

Barrel quartz, 92, 216, 997-8

Basalt, 485, SOI, 506, 508, 509,
514, 516, 537, 578, 649, 650,
65I1 653. 658, 659, 661, 662,
663, 664, 666, 667, 668, 669,
671, 672, 673, 675, 676, 677,
690, 777. 781, 793. 794. 821,
823, 824, 825, 833, 917-41.
999-1000

Basaltic pipe cutting lead, 924-5

Batea, 195. 211, 217, 223, 230,
234, 240, 241, 242, 254, 268,
350, 368, 858, 881

Battery, 1000, 11 86

Battu-uji, 364

Batu-kawi, 457

Beach-box, 893-4

combing, 891-5

diggings, 151-3, 181, 356,

421, 520, 526, 570, 681, 891-5

Becker on gold crystals, 764

Bed-rock, auriferous, 42, 53, 68,
70, 138, 142-5, 164, 165, 169

inHuence of on deep leads,

939
influence of on shallow

placers, 850-1, 855

Bejuco, 242

Belemnites, 819

Benches, occurrence, 52, 54, 57,
58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 165,
168, 169, 232, 349, 351, 511,
512, 513, 659, 661, 665, 669,
910

working, 878-9

Beneficio, 11 86

Berdan pans, 544, 1038

Deresite, 428, S36

Beting, 363

I'.ibliography, 1153 85

Hidu, 457 '

liiliong, 363

Bischoff on gold in solution, 762,

766, 767-8, 785, 814
Hismuth o' cs, 83, 223, 252, 379,

582, 743, 835, (summary)

840

treatment of, 1125

Black gold, 765, 837, 842, 843,

931
Blankets, 713, 1052
Blanket-strakes, 544, 545, 547,

1052-4

in hydraulicing, 980

Blasting, 978-80
Blocking-out deep leads, 042-5
Block-paving, 974

reefs, 11 86

rifHes, 864

Blowing iron-sand, 857

Blowing-machines, 881-2

Blue lead, 139, 509, 936-7

Bolivar, 1 186

Bonanza, 1 186

Bongkal, 1186

Bongsal, 363

Booming, 992

Borlase's buddle, 547, 1080-2

Bos sondaicus, 293-4

Boss, dimensions, 1019

Bottom, 1 187

Boulangerite, 839

Boulders, removing, 979, 981,

987
Boxing, 878
Box-sluice, 862-5
Bradford's jig, 1082
Britten's pan, 1038
l?road-tom, 860-2
lirookite, 844
Brovvnstone, 581, c,'<2, 584, 585,

587. 589, 593. K-i' 595. 597.

599, 600, 601, 60.', 603, 604,

605, 606, 607, 60S, 610, 611,

612, 613, 1187
Buck quartz, how recognized,

583. 6c5
Buddies, 443 55. 544. 547. 872,

1080-2
Burial of gold, 12, 34, 238, 248,

285
Burke rocker, 188, 860
Burning quartz, 20, 3c i, 1054-

60
Butea frond osa, 363

Cache Creek group, 40, 50, 55

Cacho de bateador, 240

Caco, 220

Cajon, 1 187

Calcite, 76, 80, 92, 115, 494.

555. 684. 744. 840
Calcium compounds, 840
Calcspar, 77, 83, 405, 591, 592,

649. 701. 724

('alifornian high mortar, 1005

pump, 873-4, 884

Cambrian rocks, 85, 87, 740,
741, 744, 747, 748, 753, 804,
(summary) 806, 836
Cams, 542, 1014-5
Cam-shaft, 1015 6
Canalicium, 722
Canaliense, 722
Candareen, 1187
Canga, 221 2, 224, 1187
Canoa, 230

Carboniferous auriferous rocks,
40, 50,83,89,90-1, 114, 169,
178. 305. 320, 360, 410, 412,
515-6, 521, 590, 728, 735,
754. 755. 758. 813, 815, (sum-
mary) 816-9, 835
Carga, 1187
Cascajo, 261, 263, 264
Cascalho, 214, 216, 219, 225,

226, 230
Cash, 1 187
Casing, 1 187
Cassiterite, 844
Catty, 1 187
Causes of loss in gold working,

510, 544, 547-8, 564-6, 902
Caxon, 1 187
Celyphina McCoyi, 821
Cement, auriferous, 16S, 216,
219, 221-2, 493, 502, 515,
519. 549. 569. 622-3, 630,
650, 652, 659, 677, 685, 692,
693. 737. 801, 816, 817, 818,
819, 821, 897-901, 987
Cervantite, 839
Chacra, 1 187
Chadous, 8

Chalcedony, 555, 685, 739, 843
Chalybite, 602, 606, 744
Chaiigkul, 457

Chapman's processes for ar-
senical ores, nil -3
Character of stamp blow, 1012
Characters of deep leads, 669,
670, 689, 917-41

of gold, 27, 140-2, 152-3,

163, 171, 179, 188, 216, 278,
289, 296, 347, 365, 397, 471,
478, 514. 515. 516-7. 534.
556. 557. 559. 569. 581. 584.
592, 594. 595. 597. 613-4,
616, 620, 621, 626, 652, 654,
676, 679-80, 691, 732, 735,
736. 755. 758, 762, 781-2,
i 783. 786, 797. 810, 828

I of nuggets, 783

of shallow placers, 847-51

of veins, 229, 497, 517.

518-9, 528-39, 541, 555, 560,
561, 579-85. 586-9. 590-1,
593-7. 599-613. 614. 641-9.
652, 672-4, 682-5, 686, 687-
90, 694-6, 744, 746-803, 804-
20, 831-8
, Charcoal, gold in 777
, in roasting, 1057 8, 11 17

4 I 2

I2 20

C.ENKKAI, INDKX.

Cliaicoal, precipitation of gold

Ijy. 794

Chauilion's shaft-sini<ing ma-
chine, 942

Chiastulitic schist, 40

Chihan mill, 1038, 1119, 1125

Chinese pump, 282, 874

C'hiniia, 1187

Chlorination, 1S6, 711, 1130 6

Chlorine as a gold solvent, 795

Chloritic schist, 14, 18, 19, 21,
37, 40, 64, 79, 80, 85, 189,
305, 316, 317, 318, 399, 405,
428, 496, 512, 528, 570, 596,
608, 609, 701, 740, 742, 743,
744, 804, 805, 806

Chocque, 1 187

Chonkole, 363

Chrysoberyl, 296

Chud miners, 373

Cinnamomum polymorphoides,

675. 821
Classifying tailings, 1061-70
Claudet's process, 1126-7
Clavo, 1 187

Clay, breaking up, 979-80
Clay-slate, 18, 21, 26, 65, 103,
164, 222, 252, 261, 357, 379,
3S0, 381, 383, 384, 386, 387,

3^S>. 3S9. 390. 392, 403, 405.

406. 408, 412, 428, 701, 709,

754, 804, 805, 806
Cleaning up in hydraulicing,

982

up sluices, 866-7

Coal-measures, gold in, 515-6,

5C9. 631, 754. 818, 819, 820
Cobalt ores, 227^ 270,271, 820,

840, II 25-6
Coffers, 542, 1004-6
Cold water hindering amalga-

ma'ion, 547-8
Collars, 1012-3
Collegium aurariorum, 703
Color de oro, 264
Colour, 1187
Combined cradle and puddling-

machine, 870-2
Complete mills, 1090-1 101
Composition of ores, 1102-5
Concentrating blanket-sands,

563

tailings, 1070-go

Concholheca turgida, 821

Condensing fumes, 1 109

Conditions affecting shallow
placers, 854-5

Conduct of hydraulicing opera-
tions, 980-2

Conglomerate,auriferous, 515-6,
517, 652, 758, 818, 819

Contorted veins, 997-8

Contour-race, 1187

Copat, 274-5, 276

Copper, auriferous, 25, 55> 7^,
99, 101, 104, 109, 112, 196,
200, 207, 283, 331, 400, 458,
667

Copper carbonates, 14, 83, 228,

232, 581, 585, 594
ores, 24, 76, 117, 154, 190,

204, 205, 206, 208, 228, 270,

35^'. 372, 399. 404. 474. 477.
507, 556, 581, 591, 592, 593,

595. 59''. 597. 599. f'oo, 601,
602, 603, 605, 608, 610, 611,
613, 625, 711, 751, 763, 767,
794. 795. 800, 802, 820, 841

ores, treatment of, 1126-36

plates, amalgamated, 865-6,

892, 902, 103 1 -5

sulphate, effect of, on amal-
gamation, 565

sulphides, 14, 79, 83, 91,

160-2, 19s, 228, 232-3, 255,
353. 649. 685, 701, 716, 717,
7«9. 739. 741. 742, 743, 835

Cornelians, 226, 554, 555, 739

Cost and profit of working a
Co., 339

of amalgamated plates,

1034
• of deep workings, 41, 43, 46

of hydraulicing, 510-1,

982-S

of river mining, 226

of shallow workings, 69,

197, 282-3, 454-5, 896-7
of treating gravel by pan,

&c., compared, 951
of treating mineral, 130,

131-5, 171, 185, 186, 188,

354, 474, 1059

of treating pyrites, 1 1 1 7-8

of vein-mining, 106, 185,

188, 353. 534

of water-races, 499, 524,

638, 962
Costerfield Co.'s treatment of

antimonial ores, 1 107
Cotton ore, 705
Country-rock, aurifero'js, 87
Covered tail-raceS; 879-81
Cows' horns for catching gold,

293-4
Cox's pan, 899-900
Coyoting, 881
Cradle, 188, 278, 299, 301, 318,

858-60
Craig's monitor, 967
Cranston's elevator, 987-90
Crcadero, 1187
Cretaceous gold, 269-71, 306,

521, 781, 818, 819, (summary)

820, 832, 833
Crevicing, 1187
Crinoids, 495

Cross reefs, 646, 656, 688, 604
Crusade, 1187
Crushers, lOOO
Crystallized gold, 87, 141, 143,

15s. 216, 371, 494, 719, 729,

759. 766, 778. 779. 795
'"ueilleurs de paillettes d'or, 709
Cupressinites sp., 822
Curi, 1 187

Dacian gold-workings, 703

Dacite, 831

Daintree on the age and origin

of (luarlz reefs and their gold,

754-8, 814
Dalama, 1188
Dams, 957 9
IJard gold diggers, 461-2
Daric, 11S8

Decline of shallow placers, 847
Deep Irads, 41-5, 135-51. 665-

71, 687, 719, 724, 824 5
— or dead rivers, 908 49

• apparatus, 948

detinilion, 908-10

■ • formation, 910-7

modes of working,

941-8

peculiarities, 939-41
sections, 917-41
ventilating.', 947

yields, 948-9

Definition of deep leads, 908-10
of shallow placers, S46

Denny and Roberts' pan, 1036-

Denny's concentrator, 1082

furnace, 1137

Denounce, 1 188

Deposition of gold from solu-
tion, 756-7, 759-61, 784-95.
814

Depth, influence on veins, 92,
95-6, 117, 131, 184, 232-3,
486, 497, 532, 536, 560, 586,
590, 619, 649, 656, 657, 672,
779-80, 787, 809, 832

t f auriferous lied-rock, 142

Depths of cement, 519, 569, 817

of deep leads, 41, 42,

44, 512, 616, 652, 653, 654,
667, 668, 675, 678, 685, 686,
691, 692

of shallow placers, 30,

44, 56, 58, 69, 158, 164, 165,
178, 226, 247, 254, 282, 284,
287, 294, 318, 324, 325, 340,
351. 352. 362, 367, 381, 382,
383, 384. 389. 390. 394. 401,
402, 404, 406, 407, 421, 422,
423, 425, 468, 506, 515, 569,
620, 702, 714

of vein-workings, 14,

42, 77, 90-7, 104-5-6-7-8-9
-10-11, 116, 131, 142, 161,
178-9, 183-4, 258, 267, 270,
306, 337, 356, 366, 484, 492,
493. 494, 496. 505, 506, 518,
531. 568, 573. 579, 592, 593-
7. 599-613, 641-9, 652, 656,
657, 672, 689, 694-6, 70s, 708
Derrick, water-power, 873
Designolle's process, 1 1 10
Devonian rocks, 410, 477, 496,
513. 521, 590, 591. 682, 727,
754. 755. (summary) 809-16,
835. 836
Dhoni rocks, 317

GENERAL INDKX.

I22I

Dhoras, 328, 329
Diabase, 744, 775
Diameter of boss, 1019

of die, 1019

of shoe, 1019

of stamp-stem, 1019

of tappit, 1019

Diamonds, 130, 214, 215, 217,

219, 286, 287, 320, 324, 841
Dickson's anialganiator, 1040
Dicynodon strata, 24
Dies, 1009

dimensions, 1019

Diorite, 24, 64-5, 68, 76, 79,

80, 83, 112, 267, 316, 317,

318. 370, 377. 392, 398. 399.
400, 405, 410, 412, 417, 427,

473. 477, 516. 539, 553. S^o.
585, 673, 682, 683, 684, 772,
775. 7^7. 804. 806, 807, 809,
819, 820, (summary) 831-4,
998-9
Dip of veins, 14, 17, 31, 72-3,

74. 79, 83, 91, 92, 95, "2,
129, 130, 131-S, 160, 161,
176, 182, 190, 201, 207, 215,
222, 229, 258, 261, 262, 267,

318. 353. 354. 392. 477. 484.
492, 493, 494, 496, 505, 533,
536, 553. 568, 579. 590. 591,
592, 593-7. 599-613, 618-9,
642-3, 646, 648, 656, 657,
683, 684, 688, 694-6, 708,

744. 755. "88
Dirty gold, 837
Discovery of gold in California,

123-4

in Georgia, 170

=- in Japan, 348

in Moluccas, 366

in New Zealand, 517

in (Queensland, 574

in Russia, 369

in Virginia, 187

Discs, 542

Distribution of gold in placers,

798
Ditch companies, 952
Ditches, 959-62
Dodge's concentrator, 1082-3
Doilia, 1 188
Dokhras, 328, 329
Dolerite, 116, 554, 560
Dollying, 368, 496. 595, "88
Dolomite, 76, 80, 136, 744, 840
Donnell's mortar, 1006
Dorongee, 275, 278
Double sluice, 867
.Draining alluvial workings,

873-5
Draining river claims, 883-4
Drake's cement-mill, 898-9,

987
Diap de Souabe, 713
Drawbacks to hydraulicing,

993-6
Drawing slabs, 878
Dredging, 395, 525, 886-91

Drift, 51, 82, 89, 118, 153, 157,
215, 216, 217, 219, 222, 224,
570, 754. 755. n88

Drifting, 876 8, 945, 1188

Drop-box, 976

Drop of stamps, 130, 131-5, 258,
268, 542, 638-40, 1011-2,

Drop ripples, 543 [1019

Dry wash in;,', 177, 88 1-3

Dubois' mercury feeder, lOlS

Ducks as gold seekers, 271

Duin, 325, 332

Dulan, 284, 288

Dunham's stamp, 1019-21

Durocher and Malaguti on ab-
sorption by plants, 791

Dunmi, 275, 278

Dutch box-sluice, 863

Dutch long-torn, 862

Duties, 430-8, 523

Duty of stamps, 131-5, 258, 268,
542, 638-40, 1008-9, IOI9

Dykes, 647-8, 649, 657. ' s8,
673, 680, 682, 683, 6S S6,
687, 690, 696, 740, 741, 775,
807, 924-S, 998

Earth glaciers, 157
Egleston on formation of gold
nuggets and placer deposits,

783-95

Electro-silvered plates, 1033-4

Elevators, 525

Elvan, 201, 261, 606, 621, 657,
658, 685, 690, 998

Embolite, 844

Entada PursKtha, 368

Eocene rocks, 820

Eozoic rocks, 219-20

Erecting sluices, 973

Erzgold, 702

Essential conditions for hydrau-
licing, 951-2

Eucalyptus, 502

Eureka concentrator, 881-2

Evans and PVey's sluice, 868

Evaporation from ditches, 961

Fairy balls, 736

P'aiscadores, 230

False bottoms for batteries, 1009

False bottoms for sluices, 863-5

Fantail-sluice, 867

Fat quartz, 705

Feather-edge, 1 188

Feeding stamps, 543, 1016-8

Felspathic rocks, 76, 86, loi,
104, 195, 214, 290, 325, 342,
361, 379, 384. 390, 392. 400,
428, 502, 53S, 553, 581, 590,
593, 604, 621, 624, 684, 705,

737. 741. 749, 753, 831, 832,

834, 836, 841
Filones, 261

Fine gold, saving, 901-6
Fineness of gold, 25, 30, 55, 96,

98, 99, 104, 100, no, 112,

116-7, 128, 135, 140-2, 153,

also

164, 172, ./9, iRo, 1 98, 227,
238, 249, 255, 267, 27S, 283,
284, 287, 304, 341, 3()i, 364,
366, 368, 397, 4S8, 467, 557,
559. 5^''°. 589. 6H0, 691, t.92,
700, 709, 718, 729, 786, 810

Fisher's knuckle-joint monitor,
968

stamp, 1021 3

Fissure- veins, S02 3

Fixing amalgamated plates,

, 1031 3

Fleece, golden, 470, see

" Hides"
Float-gold, 1S8, 239
Float-gold, saving, 901-6
Floating reef, n88
Florin, 1 188

Flour-gold, saving, 901-6
Floured mercury, 546,

564-6, 1030, 1094
F hide's furnace, 1 1 13-5
Flumes, 962-4
for transporting timber,

895-6
Fly-catching, 904-6
Forbes on igneous gold rocks,

832-3. 835-6
1' ormation of auriferous gravels,

746-803

of auriferous veins, 746-803

of deep leads, 910-7

of gold nuggets, 746-803

of shallow placers, 846

557.

Forms of nuggets, 781, 783, 785

P'ossicking, 1188

Fossil remains in gold strata,
388, 495, 502, 503. 513. 515,
516, 554, 590. 631, 652, 660,
661, 663, 67s, 747, 754, 758,
783. 792. 819, 821, S22, 823,
826, 828

Foundations of batteries, 1002-3

Frames of batteries, 1003-4

Freigold, 702

Frost drift, 157

Frue vanner, 1083-8

Fuang, 1 188

Fumes, condensing, I109, 1 1 15

Furnaces for roasting pyrites,
1107-S, 1113-S, 1 116,' 1 118,

1137
Furnaces for roasting quartz,
1054-60

Gabhro, 261

Gamellas, 225, 230

(Tamclleira, 230

Garimpeiros, 213

Garnets, 81, 152, 163-4, 169,
214, 296, 379, 387, 400, S41

Gauge of gratings, 543, 638-40,
1006-9, 1019. 1092

General arrangement for hydrau-
licing, 976-8

Geographical distribution, I-745

Giant powder, 979

Gipsy gold- workings, 703, 706-7

1 222

(;kneral inukx.

IJlacial gold drift, 51, 82, 89,
118, 153, 157, 215, 216, 217,
219, 222, 224, 570, 732, 737,
818

Cilossary, 1186-92

(Uossopteris, 515

Gneiss, 19, 53, 55, 80, 81, Ko,
170, 214, 218, 219, 227-8,
260, 296, 305, 327, 328, 337,
348, 368, 379, 380, 381, 383,
386, 391, 508, 577. 5«o. S'J3.
680, 701, 709, 717, 734, 737,
755, 804, 806, 834, 830

Clogo, 368

Gold bluffs, 151-3

Gold coinage supported by
Soudan in 14th century, 37

Golclgriinde, 713 4

Gondwana rocks, 305, 323, 325,

345 ,
Goose-neck monitor, 907

Gouge, 1 188

Grade of sluices, 862-3

Granite, 15, 21, 25, 27, 29, 65,
77,79, 80, 85, 113, 129, 131-
5. 137. 159. '73. 214, 218,
252, 260, 287, 292, 296, 319,
327. 328, 334. 337. 344. 348,
361, 370, 379. 3^3. 3S4. 3«f'.
389. 391. 397. 398. 399. 400,
407, 408, 410, 412, 417, 418,
428, 429, 463, 466, 473, 487,
500, 502, 505, 506, 508, 509,
512. 513. 514. 5'6, 528, 578,
582, 583. 585, 586, 588, 591.
593. 594. 596. 597. 598, 604,
610, 612, 613, 651, 652, 653,
654, 656, 671, 674, 680, 682,
683, 686, 688, 690, 696-7,
701, 720, 727, 728, 729, 730,
734. 737. 799. 804, 805, 809,
815, 819, 820, 831, 832, 833,
(summary) 834-7, 998-9

Graphitiferous schist, 50

Gratings, 258, 543, 1006-9

Gravels, auriferous, 135-51.
167-70

Greda, 261, 264, 265

Greenstone, 18, 24, 64-5, 68,
76, 79, 80, 83, 112, 116, 134,
267, 316, 317, 318, 370, 377.
392, 398, 400, 405, 410, 412,
417, 427. 473, 477, 516, 539,
554. 559. 560, 621, 6S0, 6yo-
7, 740, 741, 744, 807, 831,

^32' »33 ^. , , ^

Gritliiis guardmg gold, 462, 721
Grizzlies, 976, 987
Ground-sluices, 868-9
Ground-sluicing, 524, 868-9,

950-96
Growth of gold, 761, 782, 783,

787
Gua, 1188

Guacas, 241, 243, 244
Guides, 1013-4
Guija de oro, 105
Gulduck rocks, 317

Gutter, 1 1 88
Gtittler's process, 711
Gypsum, 582, 583, 596, 832,
835. 840

Hade, 1188

lland-\vhi|), 872

Hart's puddling-machine, 870

I latter, 1188

Head-box, 965-6

Headings, 1 1 89

Head-race, 1189

Height of boss, 1019

of die, 1019

of screens, 258

of shoe, 1019

of tappet, 1019

Hcmma, 1189
Henderson's process, 1 1 -/
Hendy's concentrator, loSfJ-g

ore-feeder, 1018

Hepburn and Peterson's pan,

I 040- I
Herrenschmidt's furnace, 1 107- 8
Hide buckets, 207
Hiiles for catching gold, 227,

361, 470, 706
Hippuritic limestone, 269-71,

820
Ilite Mining Co.'s mill, 1090-1
Hocking and Oxland's furnace,

111S-9
Hollway's process, 1127-8
Honna, 11 89
Hornblende, 18, 76, 77, 80,

195, 214, 260, 379, 392, 502,

505. 538. 539. 559. 577. 593.

598, 603, 604, 605, 680, 755,

775. 805, 809, 831, 832, 834
1 lorns for catching gold, 293-4

for pickaxes, 36 1, 466

Horn spoon, 858
Horn's pan, 1041
Horse-whim, 873
Horse-whip, 872-3
Hoskins' nozzles, 968-9
Howitt on origin of gold-quartz,

814
Howland's pulverizer, 1026-8

rilfle, 865

Hungarian bowl, 1041-5, 1119-

25
Hunt and Douglass process,

1128
Hunt on auriferous veins, 756-7
Hunter's rubber, 1045-6
Huronian rocks, 79, 82, 84,

188-9
Hushing, 992
Hydraulic elevators, 525, 987

-91
Hydraulicing, 185, 487, 503,

508, 510-1, 524, 548-9, 678,

703. 723. 758. 950-96

advantages, 950-1

blasting, 978-80

booming, 992

cleaning up, 982

Hydraulicing — conduct of
operations, 980 2

cost, 982-5

crushing process, 987

dams and reservoirs, 957-9

ditches, 959 62

— — division of the subject,

952 3

• drawbacks, 993-6

drops, 971 -8

erecting sluice, 973

essential conditions, 951 2

Humes, 962-4 .

general arrangement of

sluice, &c., 976-8

grizzlies, 971-8

head-box, 965 6

hydraulic elevators, 987-91

losses, 985- 6

mercury, 982

miners' inch, 953-6

nozzles, 967-9

origin, 950

paving sluice, 973-5

l)ipes, 964-7

precautions, 980- I

seam diggings, 986 7

- — - securing water-supply, 957

sluices, 971-8

' tail-sluices, 978

tunnels and shafts, 969-

under-currents, 971-8

utilizing river-curtents for

sluicing, 992-3

water consumed, 972-3

water-supply, 952

working results, 982-5

yields, 983-5

iGNEOtrs auriferous rocks, 51,
52,513. 538-9.684, 715,802,
814, (summary) 831-8

Iguana Creek beds, 682, 81 1,
812, 815

Iju. 457

Imlay concentrator, 1089-90

Importance of shallow placers,

846
Inca gold workings, 209, 234,

235. 249
Inch, miners', 953-6
Indications, 560
Iodine as a gold solvent, 793-4
Iridium, 223, 841
Irid-osmium, 223, 841, 843
Iron carbonate in mine-water,

690
—— cylinders in shafts, 878
- — —ores, treatment, 1136-7
oxides, 14, 18, 152-3, 159,

194, 214, 216, 296, 31S, 337,

389. 397. 399. 40;), 401, 405.
478, 494, 505, 557, 579, 592,
618, 691, 69s, 696, 708, 729,

734. 745. 763, 764. 765. 771,
794, 805, 826, 837, 841
phosphate, 653, 690, 842

GENKRAL LNDKX.

12 23

Iron protosulphate, effect of, on
amalgamation, 564-5

rail pavinf, 974 5

sancf, removing, 857

sulphides, 14, 18, 37,47.

72, 76, 79, 80, lot, 114, 117,
178, 208, 220, 228, 232, 252,
255, 262, 264-S, 308, 353,
357. 372. 477. 494. 49^. 502,
504. 514. 532. 553. 55f'. 579-
85. 591. 592, 594. 598. 605,
608, 609, 615, C18, 619, O20,
622, 649, 657, 683, 701, 716,
717, 730. 734. 735. 739. 742.
744. 751. 757, 762, 703, 794,
800, 802, 805, 813, 819, 823,

835. 841
Ita, 350, 358-60
Itabirite, 220, 221, 260, 806
Itacolumite, 221, 222, 223, 229,

806
Itambdmba, 227

JACUTINGA, 220, 221, 222, 223,
229, 841, 843

Jasper, 263, 503, 555, 739
Jharas, 329
Jhoras, 325, 328, 329
Jordan's hydraulic amalgamator,

1046

pulverizer, I02J-

Joren, 358-60

Judd on the Schemnitz volcano,

822, 833
Julgars, 311, 312, 316, 317, 318,

319
Jurassic auriferous rocks, 50,
113, 756, 801, (summary)
819-20, 840

Kadapah rocks, 323

Kamthi rocks, 305, 323, 333,

345
Kappatgode rocks, 317
Katouti, 344
Kermesite, 839

Kerr on rock decomposition, 793
Kisye, 363
Kopeck, 1189
Kua, 358-60

Labyrinths, 1064
Lacustrine deposits, 549~5°.

578
Laminiie, 1 1 89
Laminated reefs, 647
Lapis-lazuli, 271
Latta and Thompson's furnace,

1 1 16-8
Laurentian rocks, 62, 81, 87,

228, 8oi, (summary) 806, 836
Laurite, 843
Lava, see "Basalt"
Lavaderos, 209, 250, 251
I.avras, 218
Le, 1 1 89
Lead, 1189
Leadings, 1189

Lead ores, auriferous, 37, 47, 72,
79, 80, 83, 91, 1 14," 1 1 7. 129.
154-5, 160 2, 172, 173, 199.
208, 22S, 252, 347, 353, 35(),
257. 372, 399. 403. 470. 474.
475. 493. 495. 532. 539. 581.
383. 585. 588, 592. 649. 658,
695, 701, 705, 708, 711, 717,
736. 739. 742. 743. 744. 745.
75'. 763. 767. 795. 802, 820,
842

treatment, 1 137-9

Leaf-beds, 502, 503

Lea:^ue, 1189

Leang, 1189

Length of stamp-stem, 1019

Lepidodendra, 754

Ley de 010, 1189

Lias, 820

Lifting rivers, 883 5

Lift of stamps, 130, 131-5,258,
268, 542, 638-40, 1011-2,
1019

Lignite, 502, 503, 504, 510, 675,
685, 792, 818, 821, 823

Lilin kalulut, 364

Lime, 840

Limestone, 113, 173, 176-7,
201, 269-71, 288, 289, 290,
360, 370, 379, 380, 381, 382,
387. 398, 399. 408, 412. 5 « 2,
555, 582, 705, 728, 735, 756,
799, 809, 819, 820, 826

Lingula-flag, 85, 39, 740, 741,
744, 806

Little giant monitor, 969

Localities, 1-745

Logan on auriferous veins, 756

Long-torn, 197, 6:6, 860-2

Losses of gold in hydraulicing,
985-6

in working, 96, 268, 287,

292, 452, 510, 534, 544, 546,
561, 562, 902
Lower Cache Creek group, 40
gold drift, 823-5

Marayes, 200, 1145

Marco, 1 1 89

Marine deposit', 578, 650, 660,
68 1, 743, 758, 931

Mark, 1 1 89

Marmoris glarerc, 722

Masacotc's, 1144

Mas niuda, ivc, 1189

Mats for catching gold, 35S-
60

Mears' process, 1 128 9

Measuring water, 148, 953 6

Mechanical origin of jjlacers,
798

union of nuggets, 783

Menaccanite, 844

Mercury, chemicals for quicken-
ing, 1033-4

dulled by coldness of water,

547-8

effects of various bodies on,

564-6

flouring, 1030

in hydraulicing, 982

— in the battery, 1030

— lost in stamping, 638 40,
1019

• ores, 290, 843

Lucop's pulverizer, 1029
Lydian stone, 739, 749

McCone's pan, 1046-8

McDougall's gold-saving appa-
ratus, 902-3

Mace, 1 189

M aerobian Ethiopians, 4

Mactra sp., 554

Made hills, 682

Magnesia, 84, 327, 328, 590,
690, 800, 842

Maitai slates, 553, 569, 570

Maldonite, 840

Mammillary form of nuggets,

785, 794. 795
Manganese, gold coated with,

65. 837, 843, 931
oxide in gold-veins, 95,

117, 203, 400, 763, 802
Mantas, 118, 1 144-5
Maori bottom, 548

ripples, 1030, 1094

troughs, 1030-1, 1094

used per stamp, 638-40,

1019

Mergulhar, 230

Mesozoic rocks, 40, 50, 687,
688, 754, 758, 910

Metamorphic auriferous rocks,
iO, 83, 131-5, 138, 192, 222,
247, 292, 305, 306, 317, 320,
321, 522, 323, 325, 326,
327-8, 332, 337, 341, 345,

35'. 352, 377. 379. 39'. 397.
400, 403, 406, 407, 412, 468,
528, 570, 579-85. 614. 617,
619, 631, 652, 657, 680, 684,
737. 739, 756, 800, (sum-
mary) 804-6

Meteoric waters holding gold in
solution, 761, 762, 769, 785,
814

Miam, 11 89

Mica-schist, 21, 50, 55, 64, 76,
79, 170, 189, 215,222, 227-8,
260, 327, 379, 380, 381, 383,
384, 392, 399, 406, 476, 477,
528, 529, 535, 577, 593, 598,
604, 617, 618, 619, 620, 717,
734. 749. 755, 804, 805, 816,
8^6, 838

Middle gold-drift, S25-7

Mills, 96, 268, 542

complete, 1090-H01

Milreis, 1189

Mimetile, 842

Mineral associates of gold,

838-45

waters holding gold in

solution, 759, 769. 774
Miners' inch, 148, 953-6

1224

GENERAL INDEX.

Mine waters, constituents of,
757-8, 776

Miocene, 98, 176, 521, 652,
660, 675, 676, 677, 685, 763,
764, 820, (summary) 821- i,

833. 909, 9'9. 925-7
Moco de hierro, 264, 265, 266,

84.2
Molinari, 1035
Molybdenum, 843
Monitors for hydraulicinj^, 967-9
Monnier's process, 1129-30
Monton, 1190
Mortars, 542, 1004-6
Mouse-eaten quartz, 318
Miihlgokl, 702
Mule-power mill, iioo-i
Mulgund rocks, 317
MiiUcr on Freiberg ore deposits,

774
Mullock, 1 190
Multiple sluices, 867
Munday's buddle, 1080-2
Mundic, 1190
Murrhison on age of gold, 755,

780, 781, 801
Mutu, 1190
Myrmeces digging gold, 313-5

Nagyagite, 844

Nahar wood, 276

Napal, 362, 363, 457

Nariyas, 344, 345

Native methods, 8-9, 12, 15,
20, 26-7, ii, 29, 31-S, 36,
55, 100, 121, 122, 178, iqi,
ly;, 2i2, 217, 225, 226, 227,
229, 230, 240-4, 247, 252-3,
254-S, 269, 271, 274, 275-6,
279, 280, 2!S2, 284, 287-8,
291, 293-4, 299, 301, 318,
320, 324, 325, 329, 337, 346,

yA 350. 356, 357-360, ^61,

362-3, 364, 366, 367, 368,
378, 457, 463, 703, 706,
712-3, 721-3, 1 143-5

Nekoza, 358

Newberry on the genesis and dis-
tribution of gold, 795-803

Newbery on deposition of gold
in veins, 773-9. 814

on introduction of gold to,

and formation of nuggets in,
auriferous drift, 761-8

Newbery's process for iinti-
monial, iVc, ores, 1108-9

l^ew Red Sandstone, 754

Nickel ores, 270, 271, 820, 843,
1 125-6

Nozzles fir hydraulicing, 967-9

Nuclei of nuggets, 759-6J, 764,

770, 779
Nuggets, 25, 26, 34, 55, 'jg. 02,
68, 69, 87, 94, 100, 102, 123,
129, 140, 154-5. 170. 179.
191, 195, 215, 216, 218, 238,
247, 249, 264, 265, 266, 270,
27s, 288, 289, 292, 296, 300,

301, 312, 325, 329, 335, 343,
362, 365, 366, 367, 368, 371,
382, 402, 404, 419, 429, 461,
463,464,495, 505, 515, 576,
594. 597. 6«4, 631. 654. 664,
669, 672, 693, 702, 709. 710,
719, 721, 723, 724, 725, 729,

732. 734. 735. 736. 739. 840
in quartz veins, 796

Object of placer-mining, 855-6

Ocean placers, 151-3, i8i

Oitavo, 1 190

Omorotchi, 419

Onfa, 1 190

Oolitic rocks, 819, 832, 833

Ophir, 13, 25-6, 334, 361-6,

460
Orang gulla, 456
Orayas, 251

Order of stamp drop, I0I2
Organic matter reducing gold

from solution, 756-7, 759-61,

763, 778. 779. 785-95
Origin of auriferous gravels,

137-40, 65S-64, 669, 671-2,

674, 746-803, 847-51
■ of auriferous veins, 1 73-4,

558, 614, 746-803

of hydraulicing, 950

of nuggets, 746-803

of shallow placcri, S47 5'

Oro corrido, 241
Orpailleun;, 709
Osmiridiuvii, 223, 843
Osmium, 843
Ovis Vignei, 361
Oxidation of gold, 797
of silver, 797

PADnOCKING, 878

Paddocks, 878

Paint-gold, 923

Pakulefs washing system, 448-

Palacurnae, 723 [55

Palas, 721

PaJKozoic auriferous rock=, 50,

180, 410, 679, 747, 780, 799,

801, 806, 809, 812, 813, 814,

815, 909
PalagK, 723
Palagonite, 715
Palas, 363
PalladiuiT;, 223, 843
Pan, 856
Panella, 230
Panning, 28, 33, lOO, 121, 212,

215, 856-8
Pans, amalgamating, 1035-52
Paret, 1 190
Parrish's claim against the

French government, 36
Patach, H9C

Patterson's stamp, 1023-6
Patton's pan, 1048
Paul's process, 1 130
Paving sluices, 973-5
['ay chimneys, 646-7

Pay-dirt, 1 190

Peck's amalgamator, 1048

Peiia, 243, 244

Pepita, 1 190

Percussion-tables, 1070-5

Percy on auriferous lead, 767

Perjong, 363

Permian gold rocks, 819

Perry's elevator, 525, 990-1

Peso, 1 1 90

Pet tee's gold specimens, 782

Phiitang, 11 90

Phi'ikpa, 466-7

Phymatocaryon Mackuyi, 821

Piastre, 1 190

Picul, 1 190

Pie, 1 190

Piedra niorada, 263

Piedra negra, 264

Piling alluvions, 877-8

Pillah, 1 190

Pinus Lambertiana, 1003

Pinus Sabiniana, 974

Pipes for hydraulicing, 964-7

Pismires digging gold, 313-5,

463
Placers, sections of, 68, 197,

246, 263-4, 289, 382, 503,

504, 510, 667, 707, 851-4,

917-41
Placerville Co.'s mill, 1091-5
Plaintain-leaf charcoal, 364
Plants absorbing gold, 791-2
catching gold, 227, 274-5,

279, 368, 723

Platinum, 51, 52, 130, 152,223,

228, 236, 280, 315, 341, 470,

7H, 843

Plattner's process, 11 30-6

'.'latycoila SuUivani, 821

Piayas, 210

Pleistocene beds, 822-31

Pliocene gravels, 135-51, 502,
503. 509. 521. 616, 631, 649,
650, 651, 652, 660, 65<5, 686,
6qT, 692, (summary) 82'' 31

J'olvillos, 1 190

Pon, 1 191

Porfiro, 263

Porphyrite, 40, 261, 290, 831

Porphyry, 79, 113, 114-5, 162,
182, 252, 353, 370, 398, 400,
410, 412, 528, 533, 553, 578,
581, 582, 584, 590, 596, 598,
599, 602, 603, 604, 605, 606,
607, 608, 609-14, 657, 679,
680, 708, 739 S09, 810, (sum-
mary) 837-8

Port Phillip Co.'s furnace,
11; 6-8

mill, 1095-1100

Pot-holes, 850

Potsdam beds, 162, 180, 801,
804, 805, 806

Power required for stamps, 638-
40, 1019

Pozo, 1 191

Pratt on solubility of gold, 797

GENERAL INDEX.

1225

Precautions in hydraulicing,

980-1
Precipitants of gold solutions,

759-61, 763-4, 770, 791-5
Preparing amalgamated plates,

Prites current, 45, 47, 1 19,

179
Principle of gold- washing, 856
Preps, 1016
Prospecting, 539-41. 551, 572

det-p leads, 674-5, ^^S

Pteris esculenta, 503

Pud, 1 191

Puddling machines, 869-72

Pukotah, 361

Pulverizers, 186-7, 1026-9

Pumps, 8, 42, 207, 226, 282,

361, 573. 873-4
Puttis, 335
Putty-stones, 794
Pyramidal boxes, 1064-7
Pyrites, see " Auriferous ores,"
"Copper sulphides," "Iron
sulphides," "S"bhurets"
Pyrites defined, I!

Quartz, see " Auriferous vein-
stuff"

burning, 20, 301, 1054-60

fluids in cavities of, 814

varieties, 220, 655, 695,

701

Quartzite, 88, 91, 94. "3. Ii4.
164, 182, 215, 305, 327, 328,
342, 354. 577. 579. 598, 625,
717. 730. 756, 75<5. 799, 80s,
806, 823

Quartzo morado, 263

Quebec group, 84, 86, 215, 806,
838

Quebrada, 1191

Quinto, 1191

Race, 1191

Raising wash-dirt, 525

Rang, 1191

Ratrang, 1191

Readwin's amalgamator, 1048-

Reduction of metals from solu-
tion, 756-7, 791-5

Reduction works, 96, 186-7,
1090-1101

Reefing, 1191

Reef-wash, see " Benches "

Refining gold, 276

Regas, 215, 217

Regulations, 430-8, 476, 479,
523, 628, 7i'J, 895

Rei, 1191

Reservoirs, 957-9

Respaldo, 1 19 1

Retorting amalgam, 1 142

Revell on beach-combing, 893-4

on iiycatching, 905-6

Reverberatory furnace, iu6

Revolving barrel, 544, 546

Revolving furnace, 1118-9
Rhine washing-apparatus, 712-3
Rhodium, 843
Richmond process 1 139
Riffles for sluices, ■363-5
Rio Grande mill, iioo-i
Ripple, 1 191

Rittinger's percussion table,
1070-5

rotating table, 1075-80

River currents, utilizing, 992-3

deposits, 713-4

lifting, 883-5

mining, 226, 525, 572, 883

-91

■ turning, 883

Roasting pyrites, 563, 592, 604,

1 106-41

quartz, 1054-60

Robinson on covered tail-races,

879-81
Rock, 1 191
Rocker, 188, 278, 299, 301, 318,

858-60
Rocks supplying waters with

mineral contents, 774
Roman gcld-mining, 703, 723,

742
Rosales' mechanical process,

1 1 19-25
on origin of auriferous

quartz veins, 746-54
Roscoelite, 845
Rose on gold precipitants,

763-4
Rotating tables, 1075-80
Round z/. square stamps, loii
Rubies, 407, 844
Ruble, 1 191
Rupee, 1 191

Russel amalgamator, 152
Russian gold- washing apparatus,

443-55 ^
Rusty gold, 843
Ruthenium, 843
Rutile, 844

Saddle reefs, 694, 808, 999-
1000

Saga, ngi

Sana-birro, 27-8

Sana-ku, 28

Sana-manki, 27

Saua-mira, 28

Sandstone, 68, 179, 219, 281,
290, 305, 306, 320. 322, 347.
379. 380, 389, T)i, 398. 418,
496, 512, 515, s ,-, 570, 591.
651, 675, 679 680, 692, 696,
740

Sap'^hires, 296, 514, 844

Sarshoo, 1191

Sart miners, 378

cSass, 713

Saving fine, flour-, and float-
gold, 901-6

Saving gold from tail-races, 526

t'axum metalliferum, 705

Scad, 1 191

Scheelite, 845
Schiff, 713
Schlichgold, 702
Schwabentuch, 713
Screens, 258, 543, 1006-9
Seam diggings, 142-5, 986
Sea water, gold in, 769, 785,

793
Section mortars, 1006
Sections of beach diggings, 153
of deep leads, 504, 667,

917-41
of shallow placers. 68, 197,

246, 263-4, 289, 382, 503,

510, 707, 851-4

of veins, 997-1000

'^'"g'-c^r.ted veins, 800-2
Segullo, 721
Segutilum, 721
Seismic, vertical, 588
Selenium, 582, 583, 596, 832,

83s. 840
Self-feeders, 543
Selwyn on gold in solution, 759,

762, ;68, 769, 7:2
Sepe, 241
Serjeant ir.d Tlude's furnace,

1 1 13-5

Serpentine, 64-5, 68, 84, 134,
370, 427, 508, 509, 510, 592,
593, 598, 603, 605, 631, 719,
772, 809, (summary) 838

Sesmariaf, 214

Setting out -ams, 1014-5

Settlers, 1062-4

Shafts and drives in alluvions,
876-8

Shaft sinking, 485, 878, 942

Shafts, hydraulicing, 969-71

Shaking-tables, 544, 546, 1070-5

Shallow placers and live rivers,
846-907

amalgamation, 865-6

atmospheric cylinders,

885-6

batea, 858

—— beach-mining, 891-5

block and zigzag

riffles, 864-S

boxing, 878

box-sluice, 862-3

buddies, 872

■ Burke rocker, 8t,J

■ Californian pump.

873-4

"ement, 897-901

ciiaracters, 847-51

Chinese pump, 874

cleaning up, 866-7

• combined cradle and

puddling machine, 870-2
— conditions, favour-

able and unfavourable, 854-5
copper plates, 865-6,

902

cost of alluvial min-

ing, 896-7

1226

GENERAL INDEX.

Shallow placers — covered tail-
races, 879-81

Cox's pan, 899-900

■ cradle or rocker, 858

-60

decline, 847

definition, 846

draining the work-
ings, 873-S

■ Drake's cement-mill.

898-9

■ drawing slabs, 878

- dredging, 886-91

- dry washing, 881-3
Evans and Frey's

sluice, 868

false bottoms and

riffles, 863-S

■ flume for transporting

timber, 895-6

flycatching, 904-6

formation, 846

ground-sluice, 868-9

hand-whip, 872

Hart's puddling-

machine, 870

horn spoon, 858

■ horse-whim, 87J

855

horse-whip, 872

• Rowland's riffle, 865

importance, 846

■ intinence of bed-rock.

• iron cylinders, 878

lifting rive's, 883-5

lon^; lo.ii, 860-1

McDougall's machine

for saving fme gold, 902-3
-• — • modes of working

alluvions, 875-81

multiple sluices, 867

object, 855-6

paddocks and pad-

docking, 878

pans and panning,

856-8

piling, 877-8

• — — principle of gold-
washing, 856

puddling - machines,

869-72

removing iron-sand.

857

river mining, 883-91

— saving fine, flour-,

and float-goL', 901-6
— sec. ions of strata.

851-4

-7

slabbing a drift, 876

sluices, 862-5, 867-9

sluicing, 879

stamping cement, 898

stripping alluvions,

875-6
Sublett s process for

saving fiiiegol I, 903-4
syphons, 874 5

Shallow pla;ers — toms, 860-2

torpedo, 862

under-current sluice,

867-8
-91

873

vacuam-dredges, 887
• water-power derrick.

water unfit for gold-
washing, 902

whips and whims.

872-3

■ working by shafts and
drives, 876

-working reef-washes.

878-9

working results, 869
- yields from cement,

901

yields of shallow

placers, 906-7

ShoU's pneumatic stamp, 1026

Shoots of gold, 646-7, 657, 670,
672, 683, 686, 774, 808

Siberian gold - washing appa-
ratus, 443-55

Sickened mercury, 546, 557,
564-6, 1030, 1094

Sieves, 1064

Silica, 843-4

as a medium for introduc-

tion of gold to reefs, 766-7,

794. 814

Silicate of gold, 767, 814

of iron coating gold, 843-4

Silting up of rivers and bays by

hydraulicing, 993 6
Silurian rocks, 64-5, 71-2, 84,
215, 247, 251, 252, 370, 477,
478, 497. 502, 503, 506, 508,
509. 510, 512, 513, 516, 521,
579-85. 631, 647, 650, 653,
656, 659, 660, 661, 662, 663,
664, 665, 668, 671, 673, 674,
679, 680, 682, 687, 688, 728,
734. 737. 739, 740, 744, 747,
748, 753. 754, 756, 757. 759.
801, 804, (summary) 806-9,
S09, 810, 813, 815, 821, 823,
826, 832, 835, 836, 838
Silurian, upper and lower, com-
parison of reefs in, 644-9, 774,
807
Silver, auriferous, 37, 47-8, 53,

79, lOO-I, IIO-I, 112, 114,
129, 160-2, 172, 190, 196,
199, 201, 204, 205, 206, 207,
208, 283, 289, 290, 341, 347,

349. 356, 357, 372, 397. 399.
403, 458, 468, 470, 474, 475,

477, 539, 581, 59', 594, 597,
610, O49, 680, 701, 705, 707,
708, 714, 715, 717, 736, 757,
758, 767. 768, 770, 771, 78'',

795. 797. 802, 810, 812, 820,
844

replaced by gold in nug-
gets, 772

Silver, separating from gold,

"39

Singpiio washing-dish, 27S

Sinking and driving on deep
leads, 944-5

Siwalik rocks, 306, 343, 347,
822

Size of gold, 140-2

Sizers, 1064-70

Skey on formation of gold nug-
gets in drift, 76S-73

Slabbing a drift, 876-7

Slate, 500, 505, 506, 507, 508,
509, 510, 512, 514, 516, 517,

553, 559, 560, 569. 570, 579,

584, 590, 592, 593, 598, 615,

623, 625, 655, 656, 675, 679,

680, 683, 705, 708, 727, 729,

743, 755, 756, 757. 799. 805,

87.0, 833, 834, 835
Slime labyrinth, 1064
Sludge, 1 191

Sludge channels, 524, 978
Sluice-fork, 863
Sluice head, 1191
Sluices, 862-5, 867-9, 045-6,

971-8
Sluicing, 225, 247, 252-3, 279,

287-8, 324, 337, 358-60, 361,

448-55. 485. 503. 510-1. 514.

524, 548, 549, 552, 570, 572,

574, 594, 617, 626, 678, 720,

723, 817, 879
Sluiii, 1 191

Sodium amalgam, 1106
Solanum sp., 227
Solvents of gold, 773, 785-6,

788-95, 797
Sonjharries, 323
Sonstadt on gold in sea-water,

769, 785
Sorby on fluids in vein-quartz,

814
Spanish goldsmiths' weights,

1192
Speed of stamps, 130, 13 1-5,

258, 268, 542, 625, 638-40

1012, 1019
Spirifer, 495, 590
Spitzkiisten, 1064-7
Spitzlutten, 1067-70
Spondylostrobus Smythii, 821
Spoon for testing, 117
Spotted, 1 192

Sijuare v. round stamps, loii
Stamp batteries, 96, 130-5,

542-6, 1000-26, 1096
Stamp-head, loio
Stamper-box, 1192
Stamping, 1000-26

cement, 8g8, 947

Stamps, 542, 1009-11

special forms, 1019-26

Stamp-ihoe dimensions, 1019

fastening, loio

Siamp-stem, dimensions, 1019
Stanford's ore feeder, 1017
Staratelsky, 452

GENERAL INDEX.

1227

Statistics of production, export,

mint, &c. : —

Achin, 461

Achinsk, 410, 411, 442

—— Africa, 3

Alabama, 123

Alaska, 126, 127

■ Altai, 440

Amur, 415, 416-25, 442

Angara, 410

Arizona, 126, 127

Ashanti, 29

Assam, 274

Atlantic States, America,

123

• Austro-Hungary, 698-700

— Ayakta, 407

— Barguzinsk, 413, 442

— Beriozofsk, 369, 428

— Bogoslofsk, 427

— Bohemia, 700

— Bolivia, 209-10

— Borneo, 281, 286, 287, 460

— Brazil, 213, 228

— British Columbia, 38,

56-64, 66-7

— British West Africa, 35

— Burma (Upper), 293

— Butte CO., 130

— Calaveras CO., 130

— California, 126, 127, 153-4

— Canada, 80

— Carinthia, 702

— Carson Hill, 130

— Cassiar (B. C), 48, 59

— Cherchen-Daria, 472

— Chili, 231, 234

— Colombia (United States
of), 23s

— Colorado, 126, 127, 160-2

— Costa Rica, 98-9

— Dakota, 126-7, 162
Finland, 440

Eraser River (B. C), 49

Georgia, 123, 126, 170-1

Germany, 711

Guatemala, 99-100

Guayana, 256-60

— — Guiana (Duich), 246

Guiana (French), 247

Guinea, 35

Hayti, 196

Honduras, 102

■ Hungary, 698-700

Idaho, 126-7, 171-2

Iliinsky, 404

India, 306, 307, 311, 312

Indian Archipelago, 460

Innokenty, 402

Italy, 716

• Japan, 34S-9, 355,

Kalami, Russia, 384

■ • Kansk, 412, 442

— — Kong mts., 28

• Kootenay (B.C.), 47

■ Kushviusky, 428

l.achlan, 512

Lakhimpur, 277

Statistics — Leech River, 73

Lena, 414

■ Lightning Creek (B.C.),

43-4
Lydenbu.g, 22

Malay Peninsula, 362,

363. 365
Mariposa co., 131

- - Mexico, 102 3, 1 14-6

Mia^k, 370, 429

Minusinsk, 411, 442

■ Mitrofanof, 401

■ Montana, 126, 127, 128,

172-3

Mozambique, 13

Murojnaia, 404, 405, 409

Nerchinsk, 425, 4^0, 442

Nevada, 126-7, 173, 177

— Nevada co., 131-3

— New Caledonia, 477

— New Mexico, 126, 128,
178

— New South Wales, 476,
480-4, 488-91

— New Zealand, 476, 521-

3. 526, 527

— • Nijneudinsk, 412, 442

— Nikolaief, 402

— North Carolina, 123, 126,

157-8

— Nova Scotia, 90-7

— Ohio, 181

— Olekminsk, 413, 442

— Ollonokon, 406

— Omineca (B.C.), 47

— Oregon, 126, 127, 181
— • Pahang, Malay Pen.,

365

— Penchenga, 407

— Pennsylvania, 181

— Peru, 248
— - Peschanka, 427

— Peskina, 403

Petropn ' Ok, 402

— - Philipi . 369
— ■ Pit, 407, ( M

Placer co., t J,y4

Plumas CO., 134-5

— • Queensland, 476, 574 -
Reccan, Malay Pen., 3O3

Richmond mine, 177

Ri's>;':. ni Asia, 369, 370,

372, 379, 383, 3*^4, 390, 391,
392, 394, 401, 402, 403, 404,
405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410,
411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416,
417, 422-5, 427, 428, 429,

430-43

Rybnaia, 409

Salzlnirg, 709

— - Sambas, Borneo, 287
• San Francisco, 125

— Shaargan, 402, 403
• Shalokit, 403

Sierra Nevada gravels,

'45 51
So(ala, 13, 16

Soudan, 37

Statistics — South Australia, 476,
616, 628-9

South Carolina, 123, 126

Spain, 724

Spassky, 403, 404

Stepanof, 402

Sukadana, Borneo, 286

Sumatra, 458, 460, 46 1

— — Sweden and Norway, 724

Taktagaika, 402

Talaia, 408

Tasmania, 476, 629-30

Tatarka, 408, 409

— — • Taurus, 474

Tennessee, 123

Tete, 17

Thames, 567-8

Thibet, 467

Transvaal, 24

Tripoli, 4

Uderey, 404, 409

• United Kingdom, 727, 729

United States, 125-8

Urals, 427, 440

Uromka, 403

Uspensky mine, 401

Utah, 126, 127

Vancouver Island, 49

Venezuela, 256-60

Verkho-Lensk, 412, 442

Verkneudinsk, 412, 442

Victoria, 476, 632-43

Virginia, 123, 126

Voskresensky, 401

Washington Ter., 126,

127, 190

West Africa, 27, 35

Wi"'am's Creek (B.C.),

Wyoming, 126, 128

Yenashimo, Russia, 383

• Yeniseisk, Russia, 379,

394, 409, 410, 442

Zamliesi, 16

Steam-boiler incrustations, gold

ill, 776

Stcatitic rocks, 86

Slibnito, 838-9

Stone paving, 973-4

Strike of veil . 14, 17, iS, 20,
21, 65, 72- j, 74, 79, 80, 112,
129, 130, 131-5, 159, 160,
161, 176, 182, I9(' 201, 202,
215, 22-,, 229, 254, 25S, 261,
262, 21 1;, 267, 270, 29O, 309,

318, ; 7. 353, 354, 477, 484,

492, 4'M. 494- 496, 505, 533,
553, 555, 560, 568, 569, 579-
85, 591, 593-7. 599-'n3,
618-9, 624, 6;i 642-3, 644-
6, 648, 683, 064, 688, 694-6,

717, 741 ..J
Stripping .iiiuvioiis, 217, 226,

586, 875-6
Strophomena, 495
Studs, 1016
Sublett's gokl-saving apparatus,

903-4

1228

GENERAL INDEX.

Sulphurets, proportion of, in
veinstuff, 77, 129, 131-5, 186,
268

reducing gold from solu-
tion, 770-3

• rela'ive auriferous character

of, 220, 233, 262

value, 78, 114, 160-2, 185,

186, 487

Sulphuretted hydrogen dis-
solving gold, 773

Sulphuric acid from pyrites,

"'3-5

Suljihurized gold not amalgam-
able, 566

Superstitions regarding gold,
12,462, 464, 632, 70s

Surface origin of gold veins,
779-80, 787

Surfacing, 581, 586, 627

Surtur rocks, 317, 318

Suvarna, 1192

Syenite, 32, 65, 77, 134, 191,
192, 19.?, 19s, 227, 252, 269,
377. 410, 412, 417, 473, 475,

553. 584, 585. 593. 594. 598.
604, 680, 705, 804, 820, 834,

836, 837
Syphons, 874-5

Tabaii, 457

Taconic auriferous rocks, 155

Tael, 1 192

Tailings, assays of, 268, 562

—— classifying, 1061-70

■ concentrating, 1070-90

• definition, 1061

■ disposal of, 524, 854-5,

993-6

— ^ general principles of treat-
ment, 106 1-2

^-^ value of, 1095

Tail-races, 545, 572, 978

covered, 879-81

saving of gold from, 526,

904-6

Talchir rocks, 320

Talcose slates, 15, 18, ig, 21,
37, 40, 64, 77, 86, 134, 136,
142-5, 185, 192, 193, 386,
399, 405, 406, 410, 412, 417,
428, 720, 741, 742, 743, 799,
800, 804, 805, 806, 836

Talulium, 721

Tambang, 456

Tambikir quali, 363

Tan, 1 192

Tapanhuacanga, 221-2,224

Tappets, 1012-3

■ dimensions, 10 19

Taxes, 430-8, 464, 479, 523

Tellina alba, 554

Tellurium ores, 154, 187-8, 475,
706 707, 795, 802, 832, S35,
844

treatment, 1139-41

Tertiary igneous gold rocks, 51,

Tertiary rocks, 82, 89, 162, 276,
306, 343, 344. 345. 347. 512,
515, 516, 519, 578, 631, 650,
652. 65s, 658, 660, 669, 674,
681, 682, 724, 758, 762, 779,
780, 781, 802, 819, (summary)
820-31, 908

Tetrahedrite, 839

Tharu, 343

Thompson's pulverizer, 1029

Tial, 1192

Tical, 1 192

Tiena de flor, 261, 264, 265

Till, 732

Timber transporting, 895-6

Timbering deep leads, 43

Timbers of mines, gold in, 776

Tin, 287, 293, 365, 366, 400,
727, 729, 743, 832, 835, 844

Titanium, 379, 400, 734, 745,
832, 844

Toise, 1 192

Tola, 1 192

Tolumas, 267

Toms, S60-2

Topaz, 226, 844

Toras, 329

Torpedo for toms, 862

Tortunia, 242

Tosca, 244

Touchstone, 364

Tourmaline, 296, 400, 407, 596,
598, 599. 602, 603, 604, 60s,
606, 607, 608, 609-14, 688,

844-S
Trachyte, 162, 537, 538-9, 553,
^ 559. 560, (summary) 838
Transporting timber, 895-6
Transport of gold by water, 686

of ore, 71S

Treatment of blanket sands, 546,
1060

of cement, 817, 897-900,

Ulex for catching gold, 723
Ulricli on meteoric waters, 762-3

on st'.'.dy of rocks, 774

on the Victorian gold-

987

of pyrites, 547, 1 105-41

of tailings, 1061-90

of veinstuff, 96, 102, 104,

121, 12S, 223, 254-5, 268,

301. 337. 350. 36(J. 3<^'7, 49('>.

S41-6, 561, 625, 708, 1000-

60
Tree saturated with gold, 757,

769, 797
Triangular double troughs, 1 1 167-

70
Triassic auriferou> rocks, 50,

113, 412. 756, 801, (summary)

820
Truniao, 1144
Thuru, 358

Tulloch's ore-feeder, 1017
Tungsten, 729, 832, 845
Tunnels, hydraulicing, 969-71
Turl)o sp., 554
Turning rivers, 883
Tyes, si'e " Buddies "
Typha sp., 554
Tyrolese mill, 1041-5, 1119-25

drifts, 823-30
Under-currents, hydraulic, 975-6
Under-current sluice, 867-8
Underlie, 1192
Unio shells, 828
Upper gold drift, 827-30
Ural gold-washing apparatus,

444-55
Uranium, 734
Utilizing river currents, 992-3

Vacuum-predges, 887-91

Valentinite, 839

Value of gold, 25, 34, 59-61,
67, 179, 180, 191, 198, 271,
283, 285, 287, 290, 323, 332,
343. 348. 366, 368, 460, 470,
483. 575. 584. 604, 606, 613,
629, 676, 6gi, 692, 932

Vanadium, 845

Vara, 1192 [88-9

Veins, characters and varieties,

Venero, 1192

Ventilating deep workings, 947-8

Venus intermedias, 554

Vindhyan rocks, 305, 320, 321,
322, 325

Vivianite, 842 [780, 781

Volcanic activity of gold regions,

origin of fissure veins, 802

outlet-pipe, 674

Volost, 1 192

Von Cotta's ore carriers, 774

rules concerning shallow

placers, 847

Wadworth's examination of

nuggets, 782-3
Walls, auriferou= Zj, 654, 655

^'' :. „..., 1.92

Washing-bowls, 10, 28, 33, 275,
27S, 280, 284, 300, 324, 325,

329. 335. 344. 348, 350. 358-
60, 712-3

niacliines, 443-55

tables, 8, 280, 291, 350,

35S-60, 703, 706-7, 712-3

Washoe process, 1136

Water, consumption for hydrau-
licing, 972-3

consumption for stamping,

543. 545-6, 625, 638-40,
1018-9

dams, 957-9

getting rid of, 8, 207, 211,

282, 361, 457
impurities in, 202 3, 513,

544, S(.3, 690 . ^
level in veins, 690

measuring, 14S, 953-6

power derrick, 873

price of, 14S, 983

ra>. 497 8, 499, 507-8,

510-1. j24, 572, 638, 959-64

GENERAL INDEX.

1229

Water reservoirs, 497-8, 499.
507-8, 510-1, 9S7-9

supplying, 497-8, 499,

507-8, 510-1, 952, 957

transport of gold by, 686

unfit for gold washing, 902

utilizing, 8-9, 197

Wax used by Malay gold

assayers, 364
Weight of die, 1019

■ of shoe, 1019

of stamps, 96, 130, 131-S,

258, 268, 542, 638-40, ion,

loig

of stamp stem, ^019

of tappet, 1019

Wheel-dredges, 886-7
Wheeler and Randall's pan,

1051-2
Wheeler's gib-tappet, 1012

pan, 1050-1

Whims, 872-3
Whips, 872-3

Whitney on metalliferous ores,

779-83

Width of veins, 14, 15, 17. 18,
20, 21, 55, 72-3, 79, 80, 87,
91, 103-4, 116, 129, 130,
131-5, 160, 161, 176, 182,
190, 201, 202, 254, 258, 262,
263, 270, 308, 318, 356, 475,
477, 484, 487, 494, 505, 506,
531. 533. 534. 536. 555. 593-
7. 599-613. 619, 624, 642-3,
647. 648, 654, 655, 657, 684,
694-6, 701

Wilkinson on formation of
nuggets in drift, 759-61, 765,

770, 785
Wilkinson's quartz furnace,

1054-60
Winnowing-machines, 88i-2
Wipers, 542, 1014-5
Wolfram, 845
Woods suitable for implements,

&c., 43, 230, 240, 454, 706,

974, 1003, 1042, 1045, 1070

Working beach sands, 891-5
benches, 878-9

cement, 229

deep leads, 41-5, 485, 678,

723, 941-8

jacutinga, 229

reef- washes, 878-9

results of hydraulicing,

982-5

results of sluicing, 869

rivers, 226, 230, 240-4,

361, 712-3, 883-91

shallow placers, 31-3, 121,

225, 240-4, 252-3, 268, 271,
274, 275-6, 279, 280, 282,
284, 287-8, 291, 293-4, 299,
318, 320, 324, 325, 329, 337,
346, 348. 350, 356. 357-60,
361, 362-3, 366-8, 378, 430-
55. 457. 463. 464. 577. 581,
625, 703. 706-7, 721, 875-81,.

1 143-5
■ veins, 42-3, 55, 229, 269,

337. 362-3. 457. 624, 627,
722-3

veins by hydraulicing,

986-7

Yields from alluvions, 22-3, 34,
41-2, 43-4. 54. 56-64. 66-7,
68-9, 145-9. 164, 165, 166,
167, 169, 177, 182, 208, 211,
241, 246, 277, 278, 279, 280,
282-3, 291. 292, 293, 294,
301, 318, 323, 325, 331, 332,
340, 342, 343. 344, 346, 348,
349, 351. 352. 355. 358, 375.
376, 378, 381. 385, 386, 387,
388, 390, 392, 401, 402, 403,
404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409,
410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415,
416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421,
422, 423, 424, 425, 426, 428,
429, 434, 454, 464. 468, 469.
477. 479. 481. 485. 489. 504.
506, 510, 512, 513, 514. 515.
586, 636, 67s, 692, 693, 7",
906-7, 948-9

Yields from beach diggings,

151. 893. 895
from cement, 515, 637,

689, 693, 817, 901
from pyrites, 634, 637, 656,

717, 1099, 1117
from river mining, 226,

505. 714
from veinstufr,.i4, 15, 16-

-, 19, 20, 21,24,37,47-8.55.
>4, 72-3. 79. 80, 84, 88, 90,
91.92-3.96.97.99. loi. 104.
105, no, ni, 112, n6-7,
n9, 120, 121, 128, 129, 131-
5, 142-4, 145-9. 160-2, 171,
173, 177. 180, 181, 182, 183,
186, 187-8, 191, 196, 198,
199, 202, 203, 205, 206, 208,
255, 258, 268, 289, 300, 301,
338. 339. 341. 342, 349. 350.
353, 354, 356. 365. 475. 479.
482, 484, 486, 487, 490. 492.
493, 494, 495. 496. 505. 506,
518, 526, 527, 529, 531. 532.
534. 535. 536. 537. 5/. 558.
569. 575. 579-85. 587. 593-
613, 619, 627, 629, 630, 633-
4, 636, 642-3, 654, 65s, 656,
657. 689-90, 695-6, 705, 709,
723, 728, 729, 740, 744. 839,
1098

Zigzag riffles, 864-5

Zinc blende, 72, 80, 91, n4,
154, 160-2, 199, 208, 228,
334. 353. 357- 474. 532, 556,
581, 583, 649, 701, 705, 717,
739, 742, 743. 751. 763. 767.
802, 845

Zinc ores, treatment, 1141

Zircons, 296, 387, 407, 478, 502,
505, 514, 845

Zolotnik, n92

Zone of intermittent saturatio.i,
586

of permanent saturation,

586, 587, 588 .

LONDON: FRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.