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Stl. J. (Giigc 1^' €o.'s (Ebucatioitrtl ^eriea.

THE VERBALIST:

A MANUAL

DEVOTED TO BRIKF DISCUSSIONS OF THE RIGHT AND THE
WIIONG USE OF WORDS,

AWD TO SOME OTHER MATTERS OF INTEREST TO THOSE WHO
WOULD SPEAK AND \VaiTE WITH PROPBIETY.

We remain shackled by tinfldity till we have learned to speak with
propriety.— JoiiNHCJ*.

As a man is known by his company, so a man's company may be
known by his manner of expressing himself.— Swin.

Bt ALFRED AYRFS. T^it i^<^ »^*~

FIITH EDITION.

TO WlllCa IS ADDKD A

PRIMER OF ENGLISH LITERATURE

By Jou.v Millar, M.A., St. Thomas CoUet/iate Institute.

i'llICK, COMP'IL.KTIi;, 30 OKISTftJ.

TORONTO :
W. J. GAGE & COMPANY.

VICTORIA COLLEGE

LIBRARY

VICTORIA, B, C.

rnEFATOEY ISTOTE.

TriE title pnj^e sufficiently sets forth the end this
liule book is intended to serve.

For convenience' sake I have arranged in alpha-
betical order the sul)jects treated of, and for economy's
sake I have kept in mind that "he that uses many
words for the explaining of any subject doth, like the
cuttle-fish, hide himself in his own ink."

The curious inquirer who sets himself to look for
the learning in the book is advised that he will best
find it \n such works as George P. Marsh's "Txrtures
on the Eiiglish T,anguage," Fitzcdward M.-dl's "Recent
Exemplifications of False Philology" and "Modern
I^nglish," Richard Grant White's "Words and Their
Uses," iul ward S. Gould's "Good En;:;!! ;h," William
Mnthews' "Words: their Use and Abuse," Dean
Alford's "The ()ueen s I'<nglish," George Washington

4 PliKIATonV XoTIC.

Moon's "B;id English" and "I'he Dean's Knylish,"
Blank's "Vulgirisms and Other iMrors of Speech,"
Alexander Bain's "English Composition and Rhetoric,"
Bain's "Higher English Grammar," Bain's "Com-
position Grammar," Quackenbos' "Composition and
Rhetoric," John Nichol's "English Composition,"
William Cobbett's "English Grammar," Peter Bullions
"English Grammar," Xioold Brown's " Grammar ot
English Grammars," Graham's "English Synonymes,"
Crabb's "English Synonymes," Bigclow's "Hand-book
of Punctuation," and other kindred works.

Suggestions and criticisms are solicited, with the
view of profiting by them in future editions.

If "The Verbalist" receive as kindly a welcome as
its companion volume, "The Ortho.pist," has received*
I shall be content.

A A.

Kbw Yoek, iJctoOer, 1831.

KsfjiiKW flue wdi'ils as you wouM rouge, — (Iap.b.

Cmt is properly a douljle ilistillo.l lie ; t!ic aeconil power
of a lie. — C\RLYL8.

If a j^oiitleman l)o to study any language, it ought to bo
that of his own country. — LouKE.

In language the unknown is generally taken lor the mag-
nilicent. — Rrcir.vuu Gua.n't White.

He who has a superlative for everything, wants a measure
for the great or small. — Lavateb.

Inaccurate writing i.s generally theexpres'siou of inaccurate
thinking. — Riciiauo iJraxt White.

To actjuire a few tongue.* is the lahor of a few years ; but
to be eloquent in one is the labor of a life. — Asonymocs.

Words and thoughts are so inseparably connected that an
artist in words is necessarily an artist in thoughts. — Wilsox
Flaoo.

It is an invariable maxim that w^rds which add nothing
to the fcitnso or to the clearness must diminish the force of the
exprc-jsiou.— Cami'Ijell,

Propriety of thought and propri:)hy of diction are com-
monly found together. Obscurity of expression generally
aprinjs from confusion of ideas. — Macal'i.ay.

Hg who writes badly thinks badly. Confusodness in
worda can proceed from nothing but confuseduess in the
thoughts which give rise to them. — Cobbett,

vs
II
a
1<
li
a

J
I

THE vi:nn.\Tj:sT.

A— An. The secuml form of tlie indefinite articl«' is iis( d
for tho sake of euphony only. Herein evcryl-u ly ii^^'ieeM, inio
what eveiyboily does not agree in is, th;it it is eu[»honion.s i.)
use an before a word he -inning with an ii»i)irated /«, when tlu;
accented ayllahle of tiie word is the second. For niyseh, ^ >
long as 1 continue to aspiiate tlio h'n in such words as licrui-,
linntiKjue, :iu(lhi.st(jfica/, I sliall cDntinne to use n !)ef()re them;
and when 1 ach^pt tlie C<jckney mode (d pionuuncing such
words, then I shall use an before thein. To my ear it is just
as euphonious to say, " I will crop off from the top of his
young twigs a tender one, and will plant it upon an high
mountain and eminent," as it is to say «/; harangue, an heroic,
or art historical. An is well enougli before tiie doubtful
British aspiration, but before the distinct Ann-rican aspiration
it is wholly out of place. The reply will perhaps be, '* IJut
these h's are silent; the change of accent from the first syllable
to the second neutralizes their aspiration." However true
this may be in Kngland, it is not at all true iu America;
hence we Americans siiould use a and not an before such ns
until we decide to ape the Cockney mode of pronouncing
tiicm.

Errors are not unfrequently made by omitting to repeat
the article in a sentence. It should always be repeated when
a noun or an adjective referring to a dislSnct thing is intro-
duced ; take, for example, the sentence, " He has a black and

THE VKHBALIST.

wliito Iiorso." If two horses are nifjint, it is clear that it
shdiilil III', " llcihas a black ami n whitts liorsc," Sco 'I'm;.
Ability Capacity. 'J'li'' ilistinctidus bctwiun tht"s«

two woiils air. not ulwayH oli>trvt!il l»y tlioso vvlio use them.
"Cd/xtrittf i^ tlio power of receiving and retaining knowleiigc
with iacility ; 'ilniiti/ is tlie power of applying knowledge to
practical pim)o;ji'S. llotii tiicjc facultie.'uire rciiiiisite to form
a great cliaractcr : capacity to conceive, and ability to execute
tlcsigns. Capacity ia aliown in (piicUncs.s of api)rclicn.sion.
Ability supposes aonietiiing done ; stjnietliing by which thrj
mental power is exei'cised in executing, or performing, wliat
has been perceived by the capacity."— lirahain., "English
Synonynics."

Abortive. An outlandish use of this woi-tl may bo oc-
casionally m3t with, especially in the new ^papers. " A lad
was yestertlay caught in the act of (I'i'ffau/i/ appropriating a
pair of slioes." Tluit is abortive that is untiniely, tiiat has
not beon Ijornc its full time, that is imni;iture. We often
hear <ihorlion used in the sense of failure, but n(!ver by those
that study to express tiiemselves in eiiaste I'jiglish.

Above. There is little authority for using this wor<l as an
adjective Instead of, "the altove statement," say "the
fore<jo'i)}{i statement." Above is also used very inelegantly for
more tlian ; as, "above a mile." "above a thousand"; also,
for beyond ; as, "above his strength."

Accident. See Casualty.

Accord. " He [the Secretary of the Treasury] was shown
through the building, and the information he desired was
accorded iiim." — Keporters' English.

"The heroes prayed, and Pallas from the skies
Arcordu their vow." — Pope.
The goddess of wisdom, when she granted the prayers of her
worshippers, may be said to have accorded ; not so, however.

Tin: VK HUM. I ST. 9

when tlie>-l<rkH of our Sub-Treii»my answer the infjiiiries of
their cliiuf.

Accuse. See Br.AMK it on.
Acquaintance. Sou litiKNu.

Ad. J iii ' ;il '1 viiitifjii for tlie Monl :iih'( rtixnnint is very
justly cf)n.sitliTcil a jOss vult^'iirisin. It is doubtful whether
it is ptriiiisaihle i "d- r any eircuiustances.

Adapt T^ramal.'.Ze. In Hiieaking .in<l in wilting of
stage luiittriH, the.su words are often inisiHed. To ndnjit a
play is to modify its oonstiuctioij witii tlio view of iuiprovin^^
its foiin for r-prr'sentation. i'l.iy.s ti.in.slated from one lan-
guage into another are usually more oi less atla/itnf ; i.e.,
altered to suit the taste of the i)ulilic before whieh thv' trans-
lation is to l)e repiescnted. 'J'o dr 'ii,,iiiz(' is to chan,(e the
form of a stojy from tin; narrative to the draniiitic ; i.e., to
make a drama out of a story- In the first instance, the
product of the playwright's labor ia called an adaptutlon; in
the second, a (Iramidizu'.'wn.

Adjectives. ** Very often adjectives stand where ad-
verbs miglit be expected; as, 'drink dtrp,' 'this h)ok3
M)-anf/r,' 'standing erect.'

" We have ^iso exanii)le3 of one a<ljective qualifying an-
other adjt-ctive ; as, ^ vide open,' 'red hot,' ' tlie />'i/f liliie
sky.' Sometimes the corresponding adverb is useil, but with
a dill'crent meaning; as, ' I found the way C(H<y — fngihj'; 'it
appi-ars vlenr — c/rnr/i/.' Although there is a propriety in the
emiiloynient of the adjective "in certain instances, yet sucii
forms as 'iiidhi'irrnt well,' ^e.ilrdnc bad,' are griiuuMiitical
errors. 'He was interr(>gatcd rehUivp to that circumstance,*
shouhl be ri'latu'ehi, or in relation to. It is not unusual to s<iy,
'I wouhl liave done it iiid( pendent of that circumsLance,' but
indejieni/ent/i/ is the proper construction.

THE VERBALIST.

*' The employment of adjectives for adverbs ig accounted
for by the following considerations : *

"(1.) In the classical languages the neuter adjective may
be used as an adverb, and the analogy would appear to have
been extended to English.

"(2.) In the oldest English the adverb was regularly
formed from the adjective by adding 'e,' as 'soft, softer' and
the dropping of the 'e' left the adverb in the a<ljective form;
thus, 'clcene,' adverb, became 'clean,' and appears in the
phrase 'c/eara gone'; 'fxde, fast,' 'to stick fast.' By a false
analogy, mKny adjectives that never formed adverbs in -c
were freely used as adverbs in the age of Elizabeth : ' Thou
didst it excellent,' 'equal {ior equaU;/) good,' 'excellent well.'
This gives precedent for such errors as those mentioned
above.

" (3.) There are cases where the subject is qualified rather
than the verb, as with verbs of incomplete predication, ' being,'
'seeming,' 'arriving,' etc. In 'the matter seems clear,' ' clear'
is part of the predicate of 'matter.' 'They arrived 'safe':
'safe' does not qualify 'arrived,' but goes with it to complete
the preilicate. So, ' he aat silent,' 'he stood firm.' 'It comes
heaud/ul' and 'it comes heantifulhi' have diflorent nu-nnings.
This explanation applies especially to the use of participles as
adverbs, as in Southey's lines on Lodoi'e ; the participial
epithets applied there, although appearing to modify 'came,'
ar.} really additionul predications al)out 'the water,' in elt
faiitly sliortened form. 'Tlio cliui-ch stood (I'mininrf through
the trees' : 'gloaming' is a slu)rtene<l predicate of 'cluirch';
and the full form would be, ' tlie church stood and fjlenmed.'
The parciciple retains its force as such, •while acting the part
of a coordinating adjective, complement to 'stood'; 'stood
gleaming' is little more than 'gleamed.' The feeling of ad-
verbial force in 'gUvmiing' arises from the subordi ate parti-

THE VERBALIST.

cipial foi-m joined with ' verb, 'stood,' that seems capable of
predicating by itself. ' Pat^niiKj strange' is elliptical : 'passing
(surpassing) whiit m strange.'" — liain.

"The coinparutivo adjectives ivispr, better, la^'gi'r, etc., ami
the contrasting adjectives tlifferont, olJier, etc., are often so
placed as to render the construction of the sentence awkward ;
as, 'Tliat is a much hefiej' statement of the case t/ian yours,'
instead of 'That statement of the case is much belter than
yours' ; 'Yours is a lim/er plot of ground thnn John's,' instead
of, 'Your plot of ground la lai-jer than John's' ; 'This is a
different course of proceeding /7-om what I expected,' instead
of, ' This course of proceeding is (fifferent from what I ex-
pected ' ; ' I could take no other method of silencing him than
the one I took,' instead of, 'I could take no method of
silencing him other than the one I took.'" — Gould's "Good
English," p. GO.

Administer. "Carson died from blows administered by
policeman Johijson." — "New York Times." If policeman
Johnson was as Itarliarous as is this use of the verb to ad'
minister, it is to be hoped that he was hangeil. Governments,
oaths, medicine, affairs — such as the affairs of the state — are
admin I. s/e red, l)ut not blows: the;/ are dealt.

Adopt. "^'''I's word is often used instead of to deride
vpou, and of .0 t(tk' ; thus, "The measures adopted [by
Parliament], as the result of this imniiry, will be productive
of good." Better, "The measures dei-hled, upon," etc. In-
stead of, "What course siiall you adopt to get your pay?"
say, " NV'hat course .shall you A/Zv," etc. Adopt ia properly
used in a sentence like tlds : "The course (or measures) pro-
posed by Mr. lUank was adopted by the conunittee." That
is, what was lilank's was adopted by the conunittee — a correct
use of tlie word, as to adopt, means, to assume as one's i/wn.

Adopt is sometimes so misuseil that its meaning is inverted.

THE VKRliALIST.

"Wanted to adopt," in the heading of advoi'tisomentg, not
unfrequontly is intended to mean tiiat the a<lvertiser wishes
to be ri'Uc.rcd of the oai'e of a cliild, not that ho wislies to
asHUiue tliu oare of one.

Agijravate. This word is often used when tlie speaker
means to provoke, irritate, or anger. Tiuis, "It an'jravaUs
[provokes] mo to be eontiunally found fault with"; "He is
easily ci'jijravaled [irritatcil]." To iKj'jravate meaua to make
worse, to heighten. We therefore very properly speak of
a'jjravatiiiif eireumstances. To say of a person tliat he is
aj(jriiviitp(l is as incorrect as to say that lie is jutHhttid.

Agriculturist. This word is to be preferred to agri-
cultnriUiiit. See Coxveuhatiomst.

Alike. This word is often most bunglingly coupled with
both. Tiuis, "Tiiese bonnets are batli alike," or, worse still,
if possible, "I)f)th just alike." This n-niinds one of tlie story
of Sam and Jem, who were vei'y like each other, especially
Sam. ^

All. See Universal.

All over. "The disease spread all over the country."
It is more logical and more emphatic to say, "The disease
spread over all the country."

Allegory. An elaborated metaplioria called an allcfjori/ ;
both are figurative representations, the words used signifying
something beyond tiieir literal mi.'aning. Thus, in tlie
eightieth I'salui, the Jews are roprcscuteil under the symbol
of a vine :

"Thou liast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast
out the heathen, and planted it. Tiiou preparodst room
bef(jre it, and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled
tlic land. Tlio hills were covered witli tlie shadow of it, and
the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out
her boughs unto the sea, and her branches unto tlie river.

THE VLIiBALIST.

Wliy hast thou then bvokeii down her hedges, so that all they
wiiich pass by the way ;lo pliiok her? The hoar out of the
wood doth waste it, and the wild beast oi' the fi<jld doth
devour it."

An allcgoi-y is sometimes so extended that it makes a
volume; as in the ease of Swift's "Tale of a TuJ)," Arbuth-
not's "John liull," Bunyiui's "Pilyrims I'roLjrc.ss," etc.
Fables and paraldc i are sliort allegories.

Allow. Tbis word in frei^uontly misused in the West
and South, where it is ma le to do service for (is.^ert or to be oj
opinion. Tiius, "Ho allows tliat he has t'.ie finest horse in the
country."

Alludo. The treatment this word has received is to be
specially regretted, at- its misuse has wellnigh robbed it of its
true meaning, wl ich is, to intimate delicately, to refer to
without mentioning directly. Allude is now very rarely used
in ar.y other sense than tliat of to speak of, to mention, to
name, which is a long way from being its legitimate significa-
tion. IThis degnidation is doubtless a direct outcome of
untutored desire to be fine and to use big words.

Alone. This word is often improperly used for only.
That is (ilonc which is unaccompanied ; tliaL is onh/ of wliich
there is no other. "Virtue alone makes us happy," means
that virtue unaided suffices to make us happy; "Virtue onbj
makes us hiqipy," means tliat nothing else Clan do it — that
that, and that only (not alone), can do it, "This niPins of
conunnnication is employed by man nloiip." Dr. Quackenbos
should have written, "V>y man onh/" See also OxLY.

Amateur —Novice. Tliero is much confusion in the use
of these two words, although tliey are entirely distinct from
each other in moaning. An anuiteur is one versed in, or a
lover and practicer of, any particular pmsuit, art, or science,
but not engaged in it prof<'s^^i"na]ly. A noric- is one who ia

THE VERBALIST.

new or inexperienced in any art or business — a beginner, a
tyro. A professional actor, then, who is new and nnakilled
in his art, ia a novice and not an (tmatcKr. An amateur may
b'i an avtist of great experience and extraordinary skill.

Amclioiilte. "Tlie health of tlie Empress of Germany
is greatly (di^liurated." Wliy not say improved?

Among. See Bktwkkn.

Amount of Perfection. The observant reader ot pe-
riodical literature often notes forms of expression which are
perhaps best characterized by the word bizarre. Of tliese
queer locutions, amount of per/eclioii is a very good example.
Mr. G. F. Watts, in the "Nineteenth Century," says, "An
amount of prrfectlon has been reached which I wa^ by no
means prepared for." What Mr. Watts meant to say Wiis,
doubtless, that a deijree o/excel/eucehad b»en reached. There
are not a few m'Iio, in their prepossession for everything
transatlantic, seem to be of opinion that the English language
is generally better written in England than it is m America.
Those who think so are counselled to examine the diotion of
some of the most noted English critics and essayists, begin-
ning, if they will, with Mattliew Arn<}ld.

And. Few vulgarisms are more common than the use of
and for fo. Exdinples: "Come and see me before you go"" :
"Try and do what you can for him"; "Go a/ht see your
brother, if you can."' in such sentences as these, the proper
participle to use is cli';:vly tn and not (oid.

And is sometimes improperly used instead of or; thus.
"It is obvious that a language like the Greek and Latin"
(langua.^'c?), etc., should be, "a language like the Greek nr
the Lathi" (language), etc. There is no such thing as a Grecl:
and Latin language.

Answer— Reply. These two words shouhl not be used
indiscriminately. An aniwer is given to a question ; a reply,

THE VERBALIST.

to an assertion. When we are addressed, we anstcer ; when
we are accused, we rephj. We aiXMoer letters, and reply to
any argiiiaents, statements, or accusations they may contain.
Crabh is in error in saying that replies " are used in personal
discourse only." Iicjilirn, as well as answers, are written.
We very properly write, "I have now, I believe, ansivei-er^ 11
your (jucstions and replied to all your arguments." A
rejoinder is mixtXQ to & replii. "Who goes there?" he cried;
and, receiving no anf^iner, he fired. "The advocate replied to
the charges made against his client."

Anticipate. Lovers of big words have a fondness for
making this verb do duty for expect. Anticipate is derived
from two Latin words meaning before and to take, and, when
properly used, means, to ta! beforehand ; to go before so as
to preclude another; to get the start or ahead of ; to enjoy,
possess, or suffer, in expectation ; to foretaste. It is, there-
fore, misused in such sentences as, "Her death is hourly
anticipated" ; " J ?y this means it is anticipated that the time
from Europe will be lessened two days,"

Antithesis. A phrase that opposes contrarfts is called
an antithesis.

" I see a chief wlio leads my chosen sons,
All armed with points, antitheses, and puns."

The following are examples :

*• Though gentle, yet not dull ;

Strong, without rage; without o'erflowtng, full."
** Contrasted faults through all their manners reign ;
Tliough poor, luxurious ; though submissive, vain ;
Though grave, yet trifling ; zealous, yet untrue ;
And e'en in penance planning sins anew."
The following is an excellent example of personification
and antithenis combined :

Iti TIIK VElUiALIST.

'* 'I'uleiit convinces; (jicnius i)nt excites: /

That tasks the reason; this the soul (leliiTlits,
Talent from sober judgment takes its birth,
And reconciles the pinion to the earth ;
Genius unsettles with desires the mind,
Contented not till earth be left behind."

In the following extract from Jolinson's "Life of Pope,"
individual peculiarities are contrasted l)y means of antitheses :

"Of genius— that power which constitutes a poet; that
quality without which judgment is cold, and knowledge is
inert ; that energy which collects, comlnncs, ampliiies, anfl
animates — the superiority must, with some hesitation, bo
allowed to Dryden. It is not to be inferred that of this
poetical vigor i'upe had only a little, because Dryden had
more; for every other writer, since Milton, must give place to
Pope; and even of Dryden it must be said that, if he has
brighter paragraphs, he has not better poems. Dryden's per-
formances were always hasty, either excited by some ext' mal
occasion pr extorted by domestic necessity; lie com] oie I
without consideration and pul)lished without correction.
What his mind could supply at call or gather in one exciirsion
was all that he sought and all that he gave. Tlic dilatory
can lion of Pope enabled him to condense his sentiments, to
multiply his images, and to accumulate all tliat study might
produce or chance might supply. If the flights of Dryden,
therefore, are higher. Pope continues longer on tlie wing. If
of Dryden's fire the blaze is brighter, of Pope's the heat is
more regular and constant. Dryden often surpasses expecta-
tion, antl Pope never falls below it. Dryden is read with
frequent astonishment, and Pope with .purpctual delight.
Dryden's page ia a natural field, rising into inequalities, and
diversified by the varied exuberance of abundant vegetation;

Till'] VEUliA LIST.

Pope's is a velvet lawn, shaven by tlic scythe, and leveled by
the roller."

Tliere are forms of antithesis in ■which the contrast is only
of a secondary kind.

Any. Tliis word is somctinu'S made to do service for at
a'l. We say properly, "She is not unif I)etter"; but we
can not properly say, " She does not see any" meaning that
she is blind.

AilJ'body else. ''Public School Teachers are informed
that auyhody e/ae'-s is correct." — ^"Xew York Tunes," Sunday,
July 31, ISSl. An l"]n dish writer says: "In such phrases as
anybody else, and tlie like, c'xi' is often put in the possessive
case; as, "anybody else's servant'; and some grammarians
defend this use of the possessive case, arguing that somebodji
else, is a compound noun." It is better grammar and more
euphonious to consider elae as being an adjective, and to form
the possessive l>y adding the apostrophe and n to the word
liuit else, tpudilica; thus, anybody's else, nobody's else, some-
Ijody's else.

Anyhow. "An cxceelingly vulgar phrase," says Pro-
fessor Mathews, in his "Wor^ls: Dunr Use and Abuse."
"Its use, in auy manner, by one who profcssos to write and
speak the English tongue with purity, is unpardonable."
Professor Matiiews seems to Iiave a special dislike for this
colloquialism. It is recognized by the lexicographers, and I
think is generally accounted, even by the earcfid, permissible
in conversation, tliough incompatible with dignified diction.

Anxiety of Mind. See EQO.vxiMtTv of Mind.

Apostrophe. Turning from the person or parsons to
whom a discourse is addressed and appealing to some person
or thing absent, constitutes what, in rhetoric, is called the
aponlrophe. The following are some examples :

THE VEIinALIsrr.

" O gentle sleep,

Nature's soft nurse, liow have I friglited the?,

That tliou no moi-e wilt weiyh my eyelids down;

And steep my senses in forgetf illness?"
" Sail on, thou lone impisrial hird

Of quenchless eye and tireless wing!"
"Help, angels, nrike assay !

Bow, stubborn knees! and lijart witii strings of steel,

Bo soft as sinews of the new-boi-n babe :

All may yet be well ! "
Appea*. See Ski.m.

Appreciate. If any word in the language ha^ cause to
''omjilain of ill-treatment, this one has. Apprecintv means, to
estimate _/(/«</// — to set the true value on men or tilings, their
worth, beauty, or advantages of any sort whatsoevei'. Thus,
an overestimate is no mare appreciation than is an under-
estimate ; hence it follows that such expressions as, "I
appreciate it, or her, or him, /li'jhli/," can not be eorr^-ct. We
value, or ])ri~.e, things highly, not a"predate them highly.
This word is also very improperly made to do service for
rise, o" increai^e, in value; thus, "Land appreciates rapidly in
the V'est." Dr. L. T. Townsend blunders in the use of
apprer\ale in hie " Art of Speech," vol. i, p. 142, tluis : "The
iawr '^i harmony . . . may allow copiousness ... in parts
of a discourse ... in order that the condensation of other
parts may lie the more hiijlily a j)reciateil,"

Apprell3nd— Comprehend. T!ie English often use the
first of tlicHe two words where wo use the second. Bath ex-
press an effort of the thinking faculty; but to apprehend is
simply to take an idoa into the mind — it is the mind's first
effort — while to comj>rehend is fii^ii/ to understand. We are
dull or (piick of appre.'iension. Children apprehend much that
they do not comprehend. Trench says : " VV« apprehend many

THE VERBALIST.

tnitlia wliloli we do mt comprehpinL" "Apprehend," says
Cnihl), "uxpro-nui tiie wuikest kind of holicf, the having [of J
the ly:v.st i(le;i ot' t\ui [)fowi».^(j oi a thitii;."

Apt. Often niHinoil for li/cfJi/, aul so:netimo-i fo; /Idhlr.
"Wluit is he apt to \m doing?" "Where shall I be «/;< to
find him?" "If properly dii'ected, it will be <(/d to reach
me." In sucli sentences as these, /iL-c/;j is tiie prf)pcr word to
use. " If you go there, you will be apt to get int> trouble."
Hero cither fike/i/ or liable is the proper word, aecurdiiig to
the thought the speaker would convey.

Arctics. See RuiinERS,

Artist. Of late years this word has been appropriated
l)y tlie members of so many ou.iffcs, that it had wellnigh been
despoiled of its meaning. Vour cook, your barber, your
tailor, your boot-maker, and so on to satiety, are all arliMtn.
Painters, sculptors, architects, actors, and singers, nowadays,
generally prefer being thus called, rather than to be spoken
of as artitita.

As. "Not as I know": read, "not that I know."
" This is not as good as tlie last" : read, " not .so good." "It
may be complete so far as the specificatiou is concerned " :
correctly, "a» far as."

^l.s, preceded by such or by same, has the force of a rela-
tive applying to persons or to things. "He offered me the
same conditions a.s' he ofifi-red you." " The aame couditioii.,
that " would be equally proper. See, also. Like.

Ascribe. See iMiurii.

At. Things are sold bif, not at, auction. "The scene is
more beautiful at night tli.wi l)y day ": .sa\', " hi/ night."'

At all. "It is not strange, for my uncle is King of
Denmark." Had Shakespeare written, "It is not at aH.
strange," it is clear that his iliction would have been much
less forcible. "I do not wish for any at all"^ "I saw uo one

HIE VERBA LIST.

utall": "If Jk! hnd uny desire nt all to see me, he would
couKj where 1 am." The at nil in scntenc-os lilio tlieso is
auporlluous. Yet there are instances in wliicli tlio phrase is
certainly a very convenient one, and seoins to be unobjection-
able. It i.s ninoli used, and by good writers.

At ba.'^t, Instnid of nt bed and at word, wo fdiould say
at tlif ))est and at llie worst.

All last. See At length.

At least. Tiii.s adverl)ial phrase is often misplaced.
"'The liomans understood liljorty at least as well as we.'
This must be interpreted to meiui, 'The Romans understood
liberty an locU as we understand liberty.' Tlie intended
meaning is, 'that whatever things tlie iJuinans failed to
understand, they understood Uhfii;/.'' To express this
meaning we might put it tlnis : 'T!ie Ronrins understood at
lend libert}^ as well as we (/o'; liberty, at least, the Romans
understood as well as we do.' 'A tear, at lead, is due to the
unhappy'; 'at lea,d, a te ir is due to t!ie unhippy'; 'a tear is
due a< /«««< to the unhappy' ; 'a tear is due to the unhappy
at lead ' — all express diiTorent meanings. ' This can not, often
at least, ha ([qwq'; 'this can not bo done oz/r^rt, at leat^t.' (1.
' It often happens thai this can not be done.' 2. 'It does not
often happen that this can be done.') So, 'man is alica'fs
capable of laughing'; 'man is capable of laughing alinauii.^ "
— F3ain.

'At length. This phrase is often used instead of at last.
" At leii'jtk we muiaged to get away " : read, ''at lad." "At
le.ii'jth w-i heard from him." To hear from any one at length
is to hear fully; i. e., in detail.

Authoress. Witli regard to the use of this and certain
other words of like formation, Mr. Gould, in his "Good
English," says: "Poet means simply a person who writes
poetry ; and a.ui>lioi\ in the sense under consideration, a penion

TIIK VERB A LIST.

say

who writes poetry or prose— not a inn:i who writes, but a
^lio writes. Xothincj in oitliur word indicates

pt'lSOll wl

sex :

and eveiyh'idy knows tlmt tlio t'uii(.'tions of iMjtli pouti and
authors are common to l)oth sexes, lleiiuc, auf/iorci-H and
poefcM are supurUnous. And they are supt-rihious, also, in
another respect — that they are very r.ii'ely used, indeed they
hardly c'a« be used, in Icpijndantly of tiie iiamn of tiie writer,
as Mrs., or Miss, or a female Christian name. They arc,
besides, pliilologioal absurdities, buLiiiisj they aro faljrioated
on the false assiiinptioii tliat their pi'imiries inilieate vieii.
They are, moreover, liable to the cliarge of affectation and
pretline s, to say nothing of pedantic pretension to accuracy.
" If the ess is to be permitted, there is no reason for ex-
cluding it from anji notiii tha.t indicates a p;;rson; and the
next editions of our dictionaries may be made complete by
the addition of torlfress, ojjicei'd-'i.'i, ///, '//'/-.y.'/vsv, .-tnpei'inteml'
enfc'ii, t<eci'etarijes.i, treaxuri'.re'is, loalkircid, lathcrtiiis, aud so uu
to the end of the vocabulary."

Avocation. See Vocation

Bad cold. Inasmucli as colds are never rjon'f, why say a
6a(Zcold'/ We miy talk about stij/U colds and serere colds,
but not about bud colds.

Basgago. See Litgoage.

EalailCO. This word is v. -y frcrpiently and very erro-
neously used [,\ the sense of n-st, reinnituler. It properly
means th/f c; ••^'.^■.s of one. fh'm;f orcr another, and in this sense
and in no ot'icr should it be used. Hence it is improper to
till; about the hafitiic' of the edition, of the evening, of the
money, of the toasts, of tlie men, etc. In such cases we
should say the rent or the jrm.i!/i'/r.r.

Barbarism. Dctincd as an offence against good usage.

Ity the use of an impiopor word.

I.e.

a word that is anti-

THE V/:R/iArJST.

([uatcd or iinpropiidy formed. Prerruttitive, eiifhmte, agri-
eii/tui'dHHf, iloiuite, at:., an: l)irl)irisnH. Soo also Soi-KCISM.

Bjsn to. Wo not uiifiuMjuoiitly liear a supurlliious to
taokutl to a sfiituucu ; tlms, " Whero have you been to?"

Beg. We often see letters be^in with the words, "I beg
to a(.kno\vleil','e the receipt c)f your favor," etc. We should
write, " I lirtf Ipitm to acknowlod;^e," etc. No one woulil
bay, " Ibe;^' to toll you," instead of, "I beg leave to tell you."

Begin — Commence. These words have the .same
meaning ; careful .speakers, Iiowever, generally prefer to use
tlio foi iiier. Indeed, tliero is r.uely any .f:jood reason for
givin ,' the preference to the latter. Sec al.so Co.MMENCK.

Being built. See Is j-.kiv! i;rn.T.

Eelongi"UJ3. Au old idiomatic expression now coming
into use again.

Beside— Ee.'sides. li^ the hiter unabridged editions of
Webster's dictionary we find the follnwing remarks con-
cerning the use of th' n two word^: '* Bi'-<hle and Ih.miI<:4,
whetlier used as prepositinas or adverbs, have been considered
synonymous from an early period of our literature, and have
bacn freely interchanir- 1 by our l>edt writers. Tiiereis, how-
over, a tendency in present usage to make the following
distinction between tliein: 1. Tliat J>c.-<i'ic be nseil only aiid
always as a pre])ositiu)i, witli the original n.c'.iiing hij the side
of ; as, to sit Inside a founlain ; or witli tiie closely allied
meaning asidajrom, or out of ; as, this is hmidc our pre-eiit
purpo.se: 'Paul, thoii ai't />f'.s7"f/(; tliy.self.' The ad vorl)ial sense
to bo wholly transferred to the cognate woi'd. 2. Tiiat
besides, as a pieposition, take the remaining seiit.e, in addition
to ; as, besid 's all tliis ; besides the consideration here ollered*
'Tiioro was a famine in tlio land besides the tirst famine.'
And that it also tal'.e the adverbial sense of moreover, beyond,

THE V Kit IIA LIST.

etc., which had ht'cii dividuil hotween the words; as, hpmles,
there arc otlier considerations whidi holon;^ to tliis case."

Best, ^ce At bkst.

Between. 'I'his word is often misused for nmnnrj ,• thus,
" Tiic word yi //»»/•, liowcver much in use it may he licfir'Hi
men, sounds very ohjccti<»iiahle from tlic \i\r^ of women." —
" Loudon Queen." Sliouhl he. amoiiL;-'' men." llftwcen is
used in referenc(! to two things, parties, or persons ; atnoiiff,
in reference t<j a greater nund)er. "Castor and Pollux with
one soul hrtmcu them." " Von have amon;/ you many a
purt:hased slave."

Blame it on. Here is a gross vulgarism which we some-
times hear from persona of considerable culture. They use it
in the sense of iicchmc or susperf ; thus, "He hltinK'^i it on his
hrother," meaning that he amines or suxprcts his brother of
having done it, or of heing at fault for it.

Bogus. A colloipiial term incompatible with dignified
diction.

Both. We sometimes hear such absurd sentences as,
" 'I'hej- l)(j//i resemble each other very much " ; "They are f>oth
alike"; "They hol/i met in the street." Both is likewise re-
dundant in the folhjwing sentence : "It performs at the same
time the ollices fioth of the nominative and rd)jective eases."

Bound. The use of this word in the sense of (Irternunnl
is not only inele-ant but indcienslKle. "I am hound to have
it," should be, " I am ifi fi rniiiK d to have it."

Bravery Courage. '1 he careless often use these two'
wonls as though they were interchangeable. Drarrrt/ is in-
born, is instinctive ; co'irai/e is tlie product of reason, calcula-
tion, 'i'here is much merit in being cour igenus, little merit-
in being brave. Meti who are simply brare are careless,
while the courageous man is always cautious. Braveri/ often
degenerates into temerity. J/wn.V courage is that firmness of

THE VERBA 1. 1 ST.

principle which eiuiblos a in;ui to do \vh;it he deems to be liis
duty, although his action may subject him to adverse
ci'iticisni. True montl coiirw/c ia one of the rarest and most
admirable of virtues.

Alfred the Great, in resisting tlie attacks of the Danes,
displayed bravery ; in entering their camp as a spy, he dis-
played couraije.

Bring — Fetch — Carry. The indiscriminate use of these
three words is very common. To brimj is to convey to or
toward — a simple act ; to fetch means to r/o and bring — a com-
pound act; to cvov// often implies motion from the speaker,
and ia followed by aivay or off, and thus is opposed to biinr/
and fetch. Yet one hears such expiessions as, "Go to Mrs.
D.'s and briiKj her this bundle; and here, you may fetch her
this book also." We use the words correctly tlms : " letch,
or go briivf, me an apple from the cellar"; "When you come
home brimj some lomojis " ; ^^ Carry this book borne with you."

British against American English. "The most im-
portant peculiarity of American English ir; a laxity, irregu-
larity, and confusion in tlie use of particles. Tlie samo
thing is, indeed, observable in England, but not to the same
extent, tliough some gross departures from idiomatic pro-
priety, such as (liferent to for different from, are common in
England, which none but very ignorant persons would be
guilty of in America. ... In the tenses of the verbs, I am
inclined to think that well-educated Americans conform more
closely to grammatical propriety than the corrcupoiuling class
in England. ... In general, I tlunk we may &ay that, ii?
point of naked syntactical accuracy, the English of America is
not at all inferior to that of England; but we do not dis-
criminate so precisely in the moaning of words, nor <lo we
habitually, in either conversation or in writing, express our-
selves so gracefully, or employ so cla^^ic a diction, as the

TJIE VERBALIST.

Knc,'li3h. Our taste in language is less fastidious, and our
liconses and inacuuracics are more fre(incntly of a cliaracter
indicative of want of refinemont un<l elegant culture than
tliose we hear in educated society in England." — (Jeorge P.
^larsh.

British against American Orthoepy. "The causes

of the didercnccs in pronunciation [Ijctwcen the English and
tlie Americans] are partly physical, and therefore diiUcult, if
not impossible, to resist ; aiul partly oM'ing to a dilFerence of
circumstances. Of this latter cla.-s of innuenccs, the univer-
sality of reading in America is the most oljvious and
important. The most marked diiTerence is, perliaps, in the
lengtli ov prosodical quantity of the vowels ; and l)otli of the
causes I have mentioned concur to produce this effect. We
are said to drawl our words by protracting the vowels and
giving them a more diphthongal sound than the English.
Now, an Englishman who reads will habitually utter hi.;
vowels more fully and distinctly than his countryman who
does not; and, upon tlie satrtc principle, a nation of readers,
like the Americans, will in'onounce more deliberately and
clearly thaii a people so large a proportion of whom are
unable to read, as in Eugland. From our univei'sal habit of
read in:, there results n>)t only a g'.'eatcr distinetuess of
articulation, but a strong tendency to assimihite the spoken
to the written language. Thus, Americans incline to give to
every syllable of a written word a distinct enunciation ; and
the popular hal)it is to s;iy dic-tion-ar-}/, mil-it-ar-y, with a
secondary accent on the penultimate, instead of siidving the
third syllable, as is so common in Enghmd. There is, no
doubt, something disagreeably still' in an anxious and affected
conformity to the very letter of ortliography ; and to those
accustomed to a more hurried utterance we may seem to
drawl, when we are only giving a full expression to letters

THE VERBALIST.

which, though etymologic.iUy impo; hint, the English i)abit-
ixally slur over, Rputtering out, as a S^vedish satirist says, one
half of tlie word, and swallowing the other. Tiio tendency to
make tlio long vowels diphthongal is noticed by fon;igners as
a peculiarity of tlie orthoepy of our language ; and this
tendency will, of course, he strengthened by any cause
which produces greater si )Wnesb and fullucaa of articulation.
Besides the inlluence of ttiu Jiabit of reading, there is some
reason to tliink tliat climate is atloctiug our articulation. In
spite of the coldness of our winters, our Ho:a shows that the
climate of even our Nortiierii States belongs, upon the wliole,
to a more southern type than that ol England. In southern
latitudes, at least within the temperate zone, luticulatiou is
generally much more distinct than in the ncn'thern region".
Witness the pronunciation uf Spanish, Italian, Turkish, as
compared with English, Danish, and German. Participating,
then, in the physical influences of a southern climate, we have
contracted something of the more distinct articulation that
belongs to a dry atm()s[)here aud%a clear sky. And this view
of tlie case is confirmed by tiie fact that the inhabitants of
the Southern States ineline, liko the people of t;outhern
Europe, to throw tlie accent towaril the end of the word, and
thus, like all nations that use that accentuation, bring out all
the syllables. This we observe very eonunoiily in the com-
parative Northern and Soutliern pronunciation of proper
names. I might exemplify by citing familiar instances ; but,
lest that should aeeni invidious, it may suflice to say that,
not to mentio. more important changes, many a Northern
member of Congress goes to W'a^ihii.gton a dactijl or a trochee,
and comes home an amphlhrack or an imnhiis. Why or how
external physical eaiLses, aw climate and modes of life, should
afl'ect pronunciation, we can not say ; but it is evident that
material intluencea of some sort are producing a change in our

rilE VKRIiAlJST.

one

bodily constitution, and we are fast acquiring a distinct
national Anglo-American type. That the delicate organs of
articulation should participate in such tendencies is alto-
gether natural ; and the operation of the c;iuscs which give
rise to them is palpable even in our handwriting, which, if
not uniform with it-tlf, is generally, nevertheless, so unlike
common English script as to be readily dislinguitihcd from it.
" To the joint operation, then, of these two causes —
universal reading and cliniatic influences — we must ascribe
our habit of dwelling u[ion vowel ami diplithongal sounds, or
of drawling, if that term is insisted upon. . . . But it is
often noticed by foreigners as both making us more readily
understood l)y them when speaking our own tongue, and as
connected with a flexibility of oi L:an, which enables us to
acquire a better jironunciation of otlier languages than is
usual with I'^ngliylimcn. In any ca.se, as, in spite of the old
adage, speech is given us that we may make ourselves under-
stood, our drawling, however prolonged, is preferable to the
nauseous, foggy, mumbling thickness of articulation which
characterizes the cockney, and is not unfrcquently allected by
Knglishmen of a better class." — George P. Marsh.

Bryant's Prohibited Words. See I.vdex Expuroa-

TORIUS.

But. This word is misused in various ways. "I do not
doubt hut he will be here" : reail, doubt ///'(/. "I sliould not
wonder />»<" : read, *7". "I have no doubt hiil that he will
go": suppress 6«/. "1 do not doa))t but that it is true";
suppress but. "There can be no doubt but that the burglary
is the work of professional cracksmen." — " Xlw York
Herald." I^oubt t/nif. and not hut that. "A canMul canvass
leaves no doubt hut that tho nonunation," etc. : suppress but,
"There is no reasonable doubt but that it is all it professes to
be": suppress hut. "The mind no sooner entertains any

THE VERBALIST.

proposition 6m< it priisiMitly liMstcns," etc, : vea.^ than. "No
other resource but tliia was allmvod him" : read, than.
By. See At.

Calculate. This word means to ascertain by computa-
tion, to reckon, to estimate ; and, say some of the purists, it
never means anything else when properly used. Jf tluH is
true, we can not say a thing is cnkuhUod to do harm, but
must, if we are amhitious to liavo our Kii<,'lish irreproachable
choose Fomc other farm of expression, or at least some other
word, likely or apt, for example. Cubhett, however, says,
"That, to Her, whoso great exampfe is so well calculated to
inspire," etc.; and, "Tlie first two of the three sentences are
well enough calculated for uslioriug," etc. Calculate is some-
times vulgarly used for Infrnd, jnwpose, expect ; aa, "He
calculates to get ofi" to-morrow."

Caliber. This word is sometimes used very absurdly ;
as, "Brown's Essays are of a nmch higher caliber than
Smith's." It is plain that the proper word to use here is
order.

Cant. Cant is a kind of affectation ; affectation is an
effort to sail under false colors ; an eilbrt to sail under false
colors is a kind of falsehood ; and falsehood is a term of Latin
origin vdiich we often use instead of the stronger Saxon term

LYING 1

"Who is not familiar," writes Dr. William Matthews,
"with scores of pet phi-asos and cant terms which are re-
peated at this day apparently without a thought of their
meaning ? Who ever attended a missionary meeting without
hearing 'the Macedonian cry,' and an account of t-ome 'little
interest' and 'fields white for the harvest'? Who is not
weary of the ding-dong of ' our Zion,' and the solecism of * in
our midst' ; and who does not long for a verbal millennium

THE VERBALIST.

wiien Christians siiall no longer ' feel to take ' and ' j,'!nnt to
Sive'?"

"How inuch I reyiet," says Coleridge, "that so many
religious persons of the present day tliiak it necessaiy to
adopt a certain cant of manner and pliraseology [and of tone
of voice] as a token to each other [one anotlier] ! They Im-
prove this and that text, and they must do so and so in a
prayerful way ; and so on."

Capacity. SeeAiiinTY,

Caption. This word is often used for hcafHu^, bnt, thus
used, it is conilenmed by careful writei's. Tlie true meaning
of caption is a seizure, an airest. It does not con:e from a
Latin word meaning a head, but from a Latin word meaning
to « ize.

Caret. Col )bett writes of the caret to his son: "The last
thing I shall mention under this head is the caret [a], which
is used to point upward to a part which has been omitted,
and which is inserte;! between t!ie line where the caret is
placed and tlie line above it. Things should be called by
their right names, and this shouUl be called the blunder-mark.
I would have you, my dear James, scorn the use of the thing.
Think before you write ; lot it be your custom to ii'rife. cor-
rectly and in a }i(ain hand, lie careful that neatness, granmiar,
and sense prevail when you write to a blacksmith about
shoeing a horse as when you write on the nio-t important
subjects. Habit is powerful in all cases; but its power in
this case is truly wonderful. When you write, bear con-
stantly in mind that some one is to ri-ad ai\(\. io nmh'ratand
what you write. This will make your hand-writing and also
your meaning plain. Far, I hope, from my dear James will
be the ridiculous, the contemptible affectation cf writing in a

THE VEUnALlST.

slovenly or illegible hand, or that of signing his name other-
wise tlian in pkiia Utters."

Carry. >^ee Biuxo.

Case. Many persons of considerable cnlture continually
make mistakes in conversation in tlie viso of the cases, and we
sometimes meet witli gross errors of this kind in tlie writings
of authors of repute. Witness the following: "And every-
body is to know him except /." — George Merideth in " The
Tragic Comedies," Eng. ed., vol. i, p. 33. "Let's you and /
go " : say, me. We can not say, Let / go. Properly, Let's
go, i. e., let us go, or, let. yoii and mc go. *' He is as good as
me": say, as /. " She is as tallas liim": say, as Ae. "You
are older than me'''' : say, tlian /. "Nobody said so but he" :
say, but////M. "Every one can master a grief but /ic that
hath it": correctly, but /dm. "John went out with James
and /" : say, and me. "You are stronger than /ihn" : say,
than//'. "Btrtween you and 7": say, and me. "Between
you and (hc)/" : say, ami fhem. " Ho gave it to John and /" :
say, and tiic. "You told John and /": say, and mc. "He
sat between him and /": say, and me. "He expects to see
you and /" : say, and mc. "You were a dunce to do it.
Who? ?«('/" say,/. Supply the ellipsis, and v/e should have,
Who ? me a dunce to do it ? " Wiiere are you going? Who?
mef say,/. We can't saj^ me going. " )l7/odo you ni "an?"
say, v'hnm. "Was it t/i'-m?'' H;iy, iJic//. "If I wa-i him, I
would d(j it": say, were he. "ii 1 lOita her, I would not go":
say, were i<he. "Was it hh/i.'/'' sjay, he. "Was ib hcri"' say,
ahe. " For the benelit oi those whom he thought were his
friends" : say, irho. This error is not easy to detect on ac-
count of the pareiitht'tic il words tliat follow it. If we drop
thtMii, the mistake is very ajiparent; thus, " For the beuetit
o til >i50 whum were his friends."

THE VKHnAfJST.

"On the siippnsitioa,"gays llain, " that the intorrogativo
mho has whom for its ohjoctive, the foUawiii',' arc errors :
who do you take ine to be?' '?«/to should [ meet the other
day?' 'who is it V)y?' ' ir'io dii' yoii give it to?' ' viho to?
'who for?' But, onsiU'riiig that thes»e expressions occur irith
ilia best inriters and Hpeaker.-<, that tliey are more, eacrtjctlc tlian
the other form, and that they lead to no ainlji'ju'di/, it may be
doulited whether grammavians liave not exceeded tlieir
prov'nce in condemning them.'

Cobbctt, in writing of the pronouns, says : " When the re-
latives are placed in the sentence at a distance from their
antecedents or verbs or prepositions, the ear gives us no
assistance. ' Who, of all the men in the world, du you think
I xdiv to-day?' ' ITAo, for the sake of numerous ser sices, the
office was given to.' In both these cases it should be whom.
Bring the verb in the first and the preposition in the second
case closer to the relative, as, irfio I snir, to who (he ojJire teas
(jlrcn, and you see the error at once. I'ut take care I ' Whom,
of all the men in the world, do you thiidv, wa-s chosen to be
sent as anamba.ssador?' ' Whom, for the sake of his numerous
services, hail an otfice of honour bcatowe I upon him.' These
are nominative cases, and ouglit to liave who ; that is to say,
who wan chosen, who hail an qlflce."

"Most grammarians," says Dr. Bain, in his "Higher
English Grammar," "have laid down this rule: 'The v^erb to
be has the same case after as before it.' Macaulay censures
the following as a solecism : ' It wa^ hhn that Horac^Walpole
called a man who never made a bad ligure but as an author.'
Thajkeray similarly adverts to the same deviation from the
rule ; ' "Is tliat him?" said tlie lady in quei^tionable grammar,''
But, notwithstanding this," continues Dr. Bain, "we certainly
hear in the actual .speech of all classes of S" ■iety such ex-
pressions w *it was me,' 'it was him,'' 'it was her,' uiore

'•- (<l

.33

THE VERBAUST.

fiocjuoiitly than the prescribed form.* .'This shy creature, my
l)i()tlit'r say.«, is me'' ; 'were itme., I'dsiu»whiin the ditierence.'
— Clarissa Harlowc. 'It i.s not ?//ft you are in hive with.'
— AildisoM. 'If tliere is one chnraetor tnorc base than auotlier,
it is /(///i who,' etc. — Sydney Snuth. 'If I were ///'??i' ; ' if I
ii:>il been /<£'/•,' etc. The authority of good wriLcis is .strong
(/ii tlie side of objective forms. Tiicre is also the analogy of
ilie French langna/,'e ; for while 'I am hero' in jc xiiin ici, the
answer to ' who is there?' is moi (me) ; auvl cc.it moi (it is me)
is the legitimate phrase — never ccntjt (it is I)."

But viol, according to all French grammarians, is very
often in the nominative case, j/oj is in the nominative case
when used in reply to "Who is there?" and also in the
phrase "C'est moi," which makes "It is /" the correct trans-
lation of the phrase, and not "It is me." The French
equivalent of "I! I am here," is "Moi! je suis ici." The
Frencliman uses moi in the nominative case when ;e would be
inharmonious. Euphony witli him is a matter of more im-
portance than grammatical correctness. Besclicrelle gives
many examples of mot in the nominati\e. Here are tM'o of
tlicni : "Mon avocat et moi sommcs de cet avis. Qui vent
aller avec lui ? Moi.'' If we use such phra.seology as "It is
me," we must do as the French do — consitler vie as being in
the nominative case, and offer euplionij as our reason for thus
using it.

When shall we pnt nouns (or pronouns) preceding verbal,
or participial, nouns, as tliey are called by some grannnariaus

* If til is is tr\ie in Kni,'laiid, it is not true in Amcicn. Nowhere in
thie UtiitL'il St.atcs is sucli " (lucbtionaljlu gnuiiniar" as tliis frcquciitiy
heard in cultivaieJ circles.

t " It may be conndontly allirnieil tliat witli ffood speakers, in the
paso of neji'ution, not im- is the ii.sual practice." — Bam. This, 1 confldenlly
aflinii, is not true in America.- A. A.

Tin: VLi:

-- inriiiilives in iinj^ as tlicy are culicil liy others- in the posv
HLai~i\ e caso ?

*' ' I am surpiisecl at Johns (or ///>-, your, etc.) re/using to
go.' ' I am siirpiised at John (or /iliti, i/ou, etc.) reJuKinr/ to go.'
[In the latter sentence rcjii.^uH/ is a particii:)le.] Tl)e latter
construction is not so coiiiiiidn uith pronouns as with nouns,
Cbpccially ^vith such noun.s as do not readily take the possessive
form. 'Tliey prevented hi/n j/oi/zf/ forward ' : better, ' Tliey
prevented his (jo'auj forward.' 'lie was di.smisse<l without
any rc.dson heimj assigned.' 'The boy died through his
clothes heinrj burned.' ' Wc hear little of any connection being
kept up between the two nations.' ' The men rowed vigor-
ously for fear of the tide turning against us.' But most
eo:ampl('s of the construction tril/iout the possessive form are

OBVIOUSLY KOE TO MERE SLOVENLINESS. . . . ' In case of

your being absent': here being is an infinitive [vtrbal, or
participial, noun] q\ialified by the poi-se-sive your. 'In case
of you being pre-ent': here being woidd have to be construed
as a participle. The 2>os<cssive construction is, in this rase, the
primitive and regular construction ; the othek is a mere
LAPSE. Tlie dilUculty of adhering to the po.-hessive form
occurs when the su])ject is not a person: 'It docs not seem
safe to rely on the rule of demand creating supply': in
strictness, 'JJenumd's creating supply.' 'A petition was pre-
sented against the lict^nse being granted. But for the awk-
wardness of extending tlir posscs.^ive to inipersonal sidijects,
it would be riglit to say, 'against the lh( line's being granted.'
'lie had conducted the ball without any complaint being urged
against him.' The possessive would be suitable, but unde-
sirable and unnecessary." — Profossc^r Alexander Bain.

"Though the ordiiianj syntax of the possessive case 18
sutRciently plain and easy, there is, pcihaps, among all the
puz/liiig and tlisputable points of giainuiur, nothing iaoie

rnic vicnuALi^T.

liilficult of decision than art; some (|uo*tions tlmt occur rr-
spccting tho right management of this case. The observations
that have been iTuide show that pc): .-('strives before participles
are seltUmi to ])c api'iiriA'ctl. The foHowing example is mani-
festly incoiiiiibteut with itself; and, in my opinion, the three
-pos-icsKivea are all wron(j: 'The kitchen, too, now begins to
give dreadful note of preparation ; not from armorers accom-
pb'shing the kni<.rhts, but from the RhojniuiiiVs chopping force-
meat, llie (tp/irenfi'-i^'a cleaning knives, and the j'/itr/iei/incni's
receiving a pracru al lesion in the art of waiting at table.'
' The daily instances of men's dying around us.' Say ratlicr,
'ijijnen dying around us.' Tlie leading wor d in(Sense>ugh t
1 1 o t,,to J.'e J nade t he ad junct in ^construc tioit.'j ' — ^'O'lTlTl Urow n .

Casualty. This word is often heard with the incorrect
a<Mition nf a syllable, rr(.s««//7//, wliich is i.ot recogni/ed by
the lexicographers. Some writers ol) ject to the word casualty,
and always use its synonym accidtnt .

Celebrity. "A number of celc/jritie.i w'ltnoHscd the first
representation." 'J'his word is frequently used, especially in
the newspapers, as a concrete term ; but it woidd bo better to
use it in its absti'act sense only, and in sentences like the one
above to say di.-itl n'jniaJi ed peri<on s.

Character— Reputation. These two words are not
synonyms, though often used a.y such. C/i<ir<ir/t r mcan.s the
.sum of disti guishing qualities. "Actions, looks, words,
steps, form tlie al|ihabet by wliich you may spell cliaracters."'
— Lavater. Rojuttation means the estimation in which one is
held. Or.e's reputation, then, is what is thought of one's
character ; consequently, one may have a good reputation and
a bad character, or a good character and a bud reputation.
Calumny may injure reptttat'on, but not r]i(irnc1rr. Sir Peter
does not leave his clturacUir behind him, but his reputnlion—'
his r/ood name.

THE VERBA LIST.

Cheap. Ill" dictionaries define tliis adjective us nie<aning,
bearing a low price, or to Ijo had at a low piii;o ; l)Ut nowa-
days good u.'i;ige makes it mean tliat a tiling niay he had, oi
has been sold, at a bargain, i fence, in order to make sure of
being undeistood, it is better to say low-prkal, when one
means Iom -priced, than to use the word cheap. ^\'liat is low-
priced, as everybody knows, is often dear, and what is high-
priced is often ehcap. A diamond necklace miglit be chrjip at
ten thousand doUa! s, and a pinchbeck necklace dear at ten
dollars.

Cherubim. The Hebrew plural of chnnih. "We are
authorized," says Dr. Campbell, "both by use and analogy,
to say either che.ruhft and nera}>/is, according to the English
idiom, or chcnihlm and nrraphirn, according to the Oriental.
The former suits better the familiar, the hitter the solemn,
style. As the words cherubim and seraphim are plural, the
terms cheruhivit> and ftfrajihinis, as expre^^sing the plural, are
quite improper.'' — " Pliilosophy of Rhetoric."

Citizen. Tliis word properly means one who has certain
political rights ; when, therefore, it is used, as it often is, to
designate persons who may be aliens, it^, to say the least, be-
trays a want of care in the selection of words, ' ' Several
citizens were injured by the explosion." Here some other
word — personti, for example — should be used.

Clever. In this country the word cleirr is most impro-
perly used in the sense of good-natured, well-disposed, good-
hearted. It is properly used in the sense in which we are
wont most inelegantly to use the word smart, though it is a
less colloijuiul term, and is of wider applicatioa. In England
the phrase "a rlcrer man" is the equivalent of the Fiench
phrase, " uu /loiniiie f/V',s;^/v7." The word i.s propeily used in
the following sentences : "ICvery work of Archbishop Whately
must be an ol/ject of interest to the .odjnirer>- of clever reason-

Till'] VF.IHiALIST

ing"; *'Col)l)ott'8 letter . . . very e.Vfvr, but very tni*?olu*ev-
ous"; "llon.'ipMitc \\ :is"oitainly as direr a man na ever lived."
Climax. A cliuise, a f tiitcnce, a iiniagriiph, or any liter-
ary coniposiLioii wluitsoever, is said to end .'th a climax
when, by an artistic arranyeinent, the more efTc ;tivc is made
to follow the less efT-jctive m regular gradation. Any great
departure from the order of ascending strength is calloil an
anti-dimax. Hero are some examples of climax :

"Give all diligence; add to your faith, virtue; and to
virtue, knowledge ; and to knowledge, temperance ; and to
temperance, patience ; and to patience, godliness ; and to
godliness, brotherly kindness; and to brotherly kindness,
charity."

"What is every year of a wise man's life but a criticism on
the past ! Those whose life is the shortest live long enough to
laugh at one-half of it ; the boy despises the infant, t!ic man
the boy, the sage both, and the Christian all."

" What a piece of work is man ! how noble in reason ! how
infinite in faculties ! in foi-m and moving, how express and
admirable ! in action, how like an angel J iu apprehension,
hoT7 like a god ! "

Oo. The prcfiec rn sliould be used only when the word to
which it is joineil begins with a vowel, as in co-cval, co-
inddetitf co-operate, etc. Con ia used when the word begins
with a consonant, as in con-temporary^ con-junction, eto. Co-
partner is an exception to the rule.

Commcnco. Tlie Britons use or misuse this word in a
manner peculiar to themselves. Tliey say, for example,
"commenced merchant," "conu)U!nce<l actor," "commenced
politician," :nid so on. Dr. Hall tells us that commence has
been empKiycd in tiie sense of "begin to I'O," "become," "set
upas," by first class writers, for more than two centuries.
Careful speakers make small use of commence in any sense ;

THE VKUIiAUST.

they prefer to use its Saxon equivalent, begin. Sco, 'bo,

Compcarison. When only tAVO objects are comiiared, the
conip;n :ai\(; iiuil not the suiiuilative degree slinuM Ijc u.soil ;
thuH, " Mary is the older of the two" ; "John id the ulronr/er
of the two" ; " Brown is the richer of the two, and tlie riches
man in the city''; "Which is tlie more desirai)le, health or
wealth?" "Whi-h ia the mo'^t desirable, healtli, wealtli, or
genius?"

" Of two siuh lessons, why forget
The Dohfer and the manlier one ?"

Completed. Thhs word is often incorrectly urcd for
fnished. Tliat is "omii'ctc which lacks nothing ; that is
finished wliich lias iiad all duiio to il, that was intended. The
builder of a house may Jinisk it and yet L .0 it very ».»-
complete.

Condign. It is safe to say that most of those who use
this word do not know its meaning,, wl;ich is, suitible, de-
serv" \ merited, proper. " J"^ endeavors shall nut lack con-
dlijn praise" ; i. c, his endeavors oliall not lack proper or
their merited praise. "A villain condljnJy punished" is a
villain punished nerording to hU deserts. To use condign in
the sense of severe is just us incorrect as it would be tt use
deserred or meri/id in the sense of severe.

Confirmed Invalid, 'ilwa plu-a-^e is a convenient mode
of expressing the idea it conveys, b it i'. is dilllcult to defeid,
inasmuch as confirmed me;ino strcngt!i«med, established.

Consequence. Tins word is sumetimes used instead of
imrortiiiu'e uv moment ; as, "They were call persons of more
or less consequence"', read "of more or less importance."
" It is a matter of no consequence" : ri;ad, "o. no moment."

Consider. "Tliis woril,'' says Mr. Richard Grant White,
in bis "Words and Their Uses," "is pcrierte 1 from its true

THE VERBALIST.

meaning by most of those who use it." . Consider means, to
meditate, to deliberate, to reilcct, to revolve in the mind ;
and yet it is made to do service for think, suppose, and regard.
Thus : "I consider his course very unjustifiable" ; "I have
always considered it my duty," etc. ; " I consider him as being
the cleverest man of my acquaintance."

Contemptible. This word is sometimes used for con-
temptuous. An old story says that a man once said to Dr.
Parr, "Sir, I have a contemptible opinion of you." "That
does not surprise me," returned the Doctor; "all your
opinions are contemptible." Wiiat is worthless or weak is
contemptible. Despicable is a word that expresses a still more
intense degree of the contemptible. A traitor is a despicable
character, while a poltroon is only contemplible.

Continually. See Perpetually.

Continue on. The on in this phrase is generally super-
fluous. "We continued on our way" is idiomatic English, and
Id more euphonious than the sentence would be without the
particle. The meaning is, "We continued to travel o/i our
way." In ST.ch sentences, liowever, as "Continue o«,'' "He
continued to read on," "The fever continued on for some
hours," and the like, the on generally serves no purpose.

Conversationist. This word is to be preferred to co»-
versntionaiist. Mr. Richard Grant White says that conversa-
tionalist and apriculturalist are inadmissible. On the other
hand. Dr. Fitzeilward Hall says ; "As for conversniiunid and
conrrrsafionaHst, agricu/furi^t and nijricii'lnraliAt, as all are
alike legitimate formations, it is for cyiiveutiun to decide
which we are to prefer."

Convoke— Convene. At one time and another there has
been some discussion wilh regard to the correct use ot these
bwo words. According to Craltb, " There is uotiiing impcra-
Livo on the part of those that assemble, or convene, and nothing

THE VERBALIST.

bi'idi'ng on those asscmh/etl, or convtnvl : on'? as-icmhfen, or
conveiii'S, by invitation or request ; one attenda to the notice
or not, at pleasure. Convoke, on the other ham], is an act oj
aiithorifi/ ; it is the call of one who has the authority to give
the call ; it is heeded by those who feel themselves hound to
attend." Properly, then, President Arthur convokes, not
convenes, the Senate.

Corporeal — Corporal. These adjectives, though regarded
aa synonyms, are not used indiscriminately. Corporal is
used in reference to the body, or animal frame, in its proper
sense ; corporeal, to tlie animal substance in an extended sense
— opposed to spiritual. Corporal punishment; corporeal ov
material form or substance.

" That to por/5or(?a/ substances could add

Speed most spiritual."— Milton. ,

" What seemed cor/)oral

Melted as breath into the wind." — Shakespeare.

Couple. In its primitive signification, this word does not
mean simply two, but two that are united by some bond ;
such as, for example, the tie that unites the sexes. It has,
however, been so long used to mean two of a kind considered
together, that in tliis sense it may l)e deemed pernu'-isible,
though the sulistitution of the word two for it would often
materially improve the diction.

Courage. See Bkavkky.

Crime— Vice— Sin, Tlie confusion that exists in the use
of these words is due largely to an imperfect understai tUng
of their respective mcfinings. Crime is the violation of the
law of a state ; hence, as the hiws of states ditfer, what is
iitime in one state may not be crime in another. Vice is a
course of wrong iloing, and is not modified either by country,
ioli.;ion, or condition. As for sin, it is very dilKoult to deline
•. 1 it it is, as what is sinful in the eyes of iie man may not

THE VERBALIST,

be sinful in tlie eyes of another ; what is sinful in the eyes of
a Jew may not be sinful in the eyes of a Cliristirin ; and what
is sinful in the ej^es of a Cliristian of one country may not be
sinful in the eyes of a Christian of another country. In the
days of slavery, to harbor a runaway slave was a crime, but
it was, in the eyes of most people, neitlun n oice nor a si>i.

Cruslied out. "The rebellion vy ■ ^i- .• -r crushed out."
Out of what? We may crush the life ./\it ui a man, or crush
a man to death, atid crush, not crush out, a rebellion.

Cultured. This word is said to be a product of Boston
— an excellent place for anybody or anytlr.Dg to come froin.
Many persons object to its use on the ground that tiicre can
be no such participial adjective, because there is no verb in
use from which to form it. We have in use the substautiv«
culture, but, though the dictionaries recognize the verb t/
culture, we do not use it. Be this objection valid or be itnac,
cu'fured having but two syllables, while its synonynx cuUiru ^d
has four, it is likely to tind favor with those who i-ui/zloy
short words when they convey their meaning as wc" ;i long
ones. Other adjectives of this kind are, moneyed, ^ -'s'.e. '.h1,
slippered, lettered, talented, cottaged, lilied, ,.' .\*,';«d,
gifted, and so forth.

Curious. Tids word is often used instead of stri(/.j". ;
rcviarhthle. ^' A curious iAcV : better, " a ?vm(u-''H(Ve fact."
"A curlohs proceeding" : better, "a strunr/e proceeding."

Dangerous, "lie is pretty sick, but not dani/crous."
DangerouH people are generally mo.st dangerous when they arc
most vigorous. Say, rather, "lie is sick, but not in dmujer."

Deare.st. *' A gentleman oiieo began a letter to his bride
thus: 'My deepest Maria.' The hidy repliii. 'My dear
John, I beg that you will mend eitlutr your iii> '. ' ov your
grammar. Vou call mo your " dcdrcst iNIarla'"; am 1 to
understand tliat you have otlier Marias?'" — Moon's "Bad
Kuglish."

THE VERBA us T.

41'

Leceiving. "You are decfimnfjme.^' Not unfreqnently
''•reiving is used when the speaker means trijinrj to deceive. It
(i wlicn we do not expect deception that we are deceived.

Decimate. Tliis word, meaning as it properly does to
• ithe, to take tlic tcntli part, is hai'dly perinissible in the
dense in which it is used in such sentences as, " The regiment
lield its position, though terribly decimated by the enemy's
irtillery." " Tliongh toiribly tithed " would })e ecjually correct.

Demean. This word is .sometimes erroneou.--ly used in the
sense of (o dchciAe, to dis/jrace, to hianhle. It is a reflexive
verb, and its true meaning is to behave, to carrii, to conduct ;
as, "He demeans himsej/in a gentlemanly manner," i.e., He
behaves, or carries, or conducts, himself in a gentlemanly
manner.

Denude. " The vulture," says Brande, "has some part
of the head and sometimes of the neck denuded of feathers."
Most birds might be denuded of the feathers on their heads ;
not so, however, the vulture, for his head is always feather-
less. A thing can not be denudul of what it does not have.
Denuding a vulture's head and neck of the feathers is like
denudinff an eel of its scales.

Deprecate. Strangely enough, this word is often used in
the sense of disapprove, censure, condemn ; as, " He depre-
cates the whole proceeding"; " Your course, from first to last,
is universally deprccited." But, according to the authorities,
the word really means, to endeavor to avert by prayer ; to
]U'ay exemption or deliveranoo from ; to beg off; to entreat ;
to urge against.

" Daniel kneeled upon his knees to deprecate the captivity
of his people." — Hewyt.

Despite. This word is often incorrectly preceded by in
and followed by of; thus, " fn despite o/'all our efforts to de-
tain him, he set out"; which should bo, "Despite all our
effVjvts,"' etc.. or, " In spite oj all our eCuits," etc.

THE VERBALIST.

Determined. See Bound.

Diction. This is a general term, and is applicable to a
single sentence or to a connected composition. Bad diction
may be due to errors in grammar, to a confused disposition of
words, or to an improper use of wox'ds. Diction, to be good,
requires to be only correct and clear. Of excellent examples
of bad diction there are very many in a little work by Dr. L.
T. Townsend, Professor of Sacred Rhetoric in Boston Univer-
sity, the first volume of which has lately come under my
notice. The first ten lines of Dr. Townsend's preface are :

"The leading genius ^ of the People's C(dlege at Chautauqua
Lake, with a [the?] view of providing for las coui'se a text
book, asked for the publication of the following laws ano
principles of speech.^

" The author, not seeing sufficient reason •• for witlilaolding
what had been of much practical benefit '' to himself, con-
sented. s

"The subject-matter herein contained is an outgrowth
from ' occasional instructions* given ^ while occupying the
chair'" of Sacred Pk-hetoric."

1. The phrase /^'ff/iwf/ gniitis is badly chosen. Founder,
projector, head, organizer, principal, or president- -some one
of tliese terms would probably have been appropriate. 2.
What course? Race-course, course of ethics, ajsthctics,
rhetoric, or what?* 3. "The following laws and prin-
ciples of speech." And how came tht'sc ]a\v.s iind principles
in existence ? Who made them ? AVe are to infer, it would
fiecm, that Professor Townsend miule tlieni, and tiiat the
world would have had to go without the laws that govern
language and the principles on which language is formcil had
it plea.sod Professor Town.icnd to withhold tlieui. 4. ".S' Jji-

* Should bo, a ti^xt-book for his courac, lind not, for his ciiinti' a t.-x''
boo'r.

• THE VERBALIST.

dent reason" ! Then there were reasons why Professor Towns-
end ought to have kept these good things all to himself ;
only, they were not snffiricnt. 5. "Practical beneiit"! Is
there any such thing as impractical beneiit? Are not all
benefits practical ? and, if they are, what purpose does the
epithet practical serve? 6. Consented to what? It is easy
to see that the Doctor means acceded to the reqvcist, but he is
a long way from saying so. The object writers usually have
in view is to convey thought, not to set their readers to
guessing. 7. 7V<e oi/Z;//-o?<;</t o/ would be English. 8. "Occa-
sional instructions" ! Very vague, and well calculated to set
the reader to guessing again. 9. Given to whom? 10. " The
chair." The definite article made it necessary for the writer
to specify what particular chair of Sacred Rhetoric he meant.

These ten lines are a fair specimen of the diction of the
entire volume.

Page 131. "To render a fiiven amhirjuous orunintelligible
sentence transparent, the following suggestions are recom-
m( iided." The words in italics are unnecessaiy, since what
ia ambiguous is unintelligible. Then who has ever heard of
recommending suggestions ?

Dr. Townsend speaks of mastering a subject before pub-
lishing it. Publishing a subject ?

Page 133. " Violations of simplicity, whatever the type,
show either that the mind of the writer is tainted with aH'ect-
ation, or else that an effort is making to conceal conscious
poverty of setitimnil under loftiness of expression." Here
is an example of a kind of sentence that can be mended in
only one way— by rewriting, which might be done t'.uBs :
Violations of simplicity, whatever the type, show either that
the writer is tainted with afl'ectation, or that ho is making an
effort to conceal poverty of thought under loftiness of expres-
sion.

44 . THE VERBALIST,

l';i''t; 143. "This (/iia/iti/ is fully .^tatiHl and recoininondeil,"
etc. Who h;is ever hou'il of .^fnfiiiij ii i/mi/iti/ /

On page IK") Dr. Townsoiid says : "A peisoii c;iu not rtiiul
a single book of poor stylo witliout having his own style
vitiated." A book of poor n(>//p. is an awkward expiession, to
say the least. A sinij!e hadhi-ti'ritttn book would have been
unobjectionable.

Rigo 1(50. "The presented picture produces instantly a
deiinite eil'ect." Why this unusual disposition of words?
Why not say, in accordance with the idiom of the language,
"The picture presented instantly produces," etc. ?

Page 161. "The boy studies . . . geography and hates
every tiling connected with the sea and land." Why the boy?
As there are few things besides seals and turtles that are
connected with the sea and land, the boy in question has few
things to hate.

On page IT-J, Dr. T(jwn.-end heads a chapter thus: ** Art
of acquiring Skill in thf^ use oi Poetic Speech." This reminds
one ot the nuin who tried to lift himself over a fence by
taking hold of the scat of his breeches. ''How to acquire
skill" is probal)ly what is meant."

On page '23'J, "Jeremy Taylor is amour;; the best models of
long seutences wliich are both clear and logical." Jeremy
Taylor is a clear and logical long sentence ? ! True, our
learned rhetorician says so, but he doesn't mean it. lie
means, " In Jeremy Taylor we lind some of the liestcxauiples
of long sentences which are at once clear and logical."

Since tlie foregoing was written, the second volume of
Professor Townsend's " Art of Speech" has been pul)lished.
In tlic brief preface to this volume we lind this characteristic
sentence: "The author has felt that clirijurnfii more than
tliOAi of other professions will study this treatise." The ante.
: edent of. the relative (hone hmhig clerj'piK'ii, the sentence, it

THE VERBALIST.

will bo porceivetl, says: "Tlie author has felt that clerijyraen
uioro iluin cler(/!/infn of other profta.-iions will study this
treatise." Coniincnt on such "art" aa Professor Towusend's
is nut nccesanry.

I find ijeveral noteworthy examples of bad diction in an
article in a recent numljcr of an Australian magazine. The
foUiiwing ixre some of them : " Lartje atpUal always manages
to make i!.S'^'//' master of the situation ; it is the small capitalist
and the small lamiholdor that would sulTer," etc. Shoul»ll>e,
" The htrife cap'Uali-it . . . himself," etc. Again: "The small
farmer would ... he despoiled ... of the meagre profit
which ii(renuou.s labor lia 1 conquered from tlie reluctant soil."
Not only are the epitiiets in italics superfluous, and conae-
([Uently weakening in tlicir effect, but idiom do(!S not permit
strenuon.'^ to bo used to qualify labor : hard lahov iind strcmtous
(sliort. Again: "Capital has always the choice 0/ a large
field " Should be, "the choice offi-red hii a large field."
Again: "Should capital be witlulrawn, tenements would
soon prove insutiicient." Should be: "//ic number 0/ tene-
ments would," etc. Again: "Men of wealth, therefore,
would find tlicir I'ifth Avenue mansions and their summer
villas a little more Inirdened with taxes, but with this in-
crease happily balanced by the exemption of their bonds and
mortgages, tlieir plate and furniture." The thought here is
so simple tuat wo easily divine it; but, if we look at the
Bentence at all carefully, wo find that, though we supply the
ellipses in the most charitable mamiur possible, the sentence
really says : "Men would find their luansiuus more burduned,
but would find them with this increased burden happily
balanced by the exemption," etc. The sentence should have
been framed somewhat in this wise : "Men . . . would find
their . . . mansions . . . more burfloned with taxoKj, but
this increase in tlie taxes on their real estate would lie happily

THE VERBALIST.

i'llivnced by thn exemption from taxation of their bonds,
iiiortgages, plate, and furniture." Again : " Men generally
. . . would bo inclined to laugh at the idea of intrusting the
modem i)olitician witli such gigantic opportunities for en-
riching his favorites." We do not intrust one another with
oppurlunUies. 2'o enrich would better the diction. Again:
"The value of land that has accrued from labor is not ... a
just object for confiscation." Correctly : " The value of land
that has resulted from labor is not jnsUji ... an object of
confiscation." Accrue, is properly used more in the .sense of
apontaneoiis (jrowth. Again: "If the state attempts to con-
fiscate this increase by means of taxes, either rentals -(vill
increase correspondingly, or such a check will be put upon
^/te growth of each place, and all the enterprises connecUU with
it that greater injui-y would be done than if things had l)een
left untouched." We have here, it will be observed, a con-
fusion of moods ; the sentence begins in the indicative and
ends in the conditional. The words in italics are worse than
superfluous. Rewritten: "If the state should attempt to
confiscate tliis increase by means of taxes, cither rentals it'ouhl
increase cornspondingly, or such a check would be put upon
gL-owth and enterprise that greater injury would," etc.
Again: "The theorij that land . . . i;< a boon oi Nature, to
which every person has au iualienalde right equal to every
other person, ia not new." The words theorij and boon are
here misused. A flieori/ is a system of supposi lions. Tlie
things man r-eceives from Nature are i/i/ts, not boons: the gift
of reason, tlio gift of speech, etc. The .sentence should be :
"The declariition (or (issrlion) that land ... is a gift of
Nature, to which every person has an inalienable right equal
to that of anij other person, is not new." Or, more simply
and ([uite as forcibly : "... to which one person has an in-
ilienable right equal to that of ar\other, is not new." Or,

THE V Eli B'A LIST.

more simply still, and more, forcibly: "... to which one
man has as good a riglit as another, is not new." By sul)sti
tilting the word man for person, we have a word of one
syllable that exjiresses, in this connection, all that the longer
word expresses. The fewer the syllables, if the thought be
fully expressed, the more vigorous the diction. Inalienabilit v
being foreign to the discussion, the long word iiialienabla only
encumbers the sentence.

" We have tlius^ passed in review the changes and im-
provements'' which the revision contains ^ in the First Epistle
to tlie Corintliians. It has", not, indeed,'' been possible to re-
fer to" them all ; but so many illustrations have been given
in » the several classes described that the reader will have i" a
satisfactory " survey of the whole subject. Whatever may
be said of other portions" of the New Testament, we think
it will be generally admitted that in this Epistle the change-s
have improved the old •* translation. They are such asi-*
make the English version'-' conform more completely'^ to the
Greek original. If this be^' true, the \evisers have done a
good work for t!ie Cl-arch." If it be true '^ with regard to
all the New Testament bouks, the work which th(;y have
done will remain "o a blessing to the readers of those books
for 21 generations to come. But the bies-;ing will be only in
the clearer presentation of the Divine truth, and, therefore,
it v'ill be only to the glory of God."

This astonishin;.jdy slipshod bit of composition is from the
pen of the Rev. L>i-. Timothy Dwight. If the learned Pro-
fessor of Divinity in Yale College deemed it worth while to
give a little thought to manner as well as to matter, it is
probable that his diction would be very dillercnt from what it
is; and, if he were to give a few minutes to the m.'iking of
verbal corrections in the foregoing paragrnph, he would per-
haps, do something like this : 1, cliange thus to note ; 2, write

THE VERBA IJtiT.

80w?3 o/" the changes ; .), strike out and improrcmcnf.H ; 4, for
contains clu..i(je8 substitute souic otiier form of expression ; 5,
instead of has bcciiy wri*-"' iras ; (i, strike out indeed; 7, in-
stead of 7'e/er to, write c'e ; 8, cliMuge i/lusuir./iun-'^ tr rampfa^ ;
9, instead of in, write of ; 10, instead of the readt-r idll have,
write the reader will he able to r/cf ; l\, chatigo satis/dctoy'ij to
tolerable; 12, cliange jwHons to jh .tr ; 13, not talk of tlie
old translation, as we have no pew one; 14, strike out iirj
superfluous tlic M'ords are yueh oi ; 15, cliange ver.-ion to te i ;
16, rubstitute nearly for comptetr^lif, wli'.ch docs not adniit
of comparison; 17, substitute the indicative /or the condi-
tional ; IS, end sentence with the word zvork ; 19, introduce
also after be ; 20, instead of remain, in the sense (;f be, use be;
21, introduce the after for. As for +hc hmt sentence, it re-
minds one of Mendelssolin's ' Songs withr it Words," though
here we have, instead of a song and no words, words and no
song, c: rather no meaning. x\s is often truo of cant, we
have here simply a syntactical ari-angemcnt of words signify-
ing — nothing.

Ti Proressor Dwight were of tliose who, in common with
t' J Addisons and Macaulays and Newmans, thiidi it worth
while to give some attention to diction, the thought conveyed
in the paragrapli under consideration would, perluips, have
been expressed somewhat in this wise :

"We Lave now passed in review some of the changes that,
in the i^evisioii, have been made in the Firbi Epistle to the
Corintliians. It was not post-'blc to c:te them all, but a suffi-
cient number of examples c*" the several classes described
have been given to enable the rcadc to get a tolerable survey
of the whole subject. Whatever i.my be said of the other
parts of the New Testament, we think it will be generally
admitted tbat in this Epistle thr chnnges have improved the
transliition. 'i'iuy uv.\\:i- tiic lv';.!i.>!i lc:;t c'ir;nii;i in' r?

77/ A' VERBALIST.

nearly to the Crci^k. This being true,. the revisers have done
a good work ; and, if it he also true with icgard to all the
New Testament hooks, the v.'ork \vhi^;h tliey have done Mill
be a blessing to tlie readers of those books for the generations
to come. "

Die with. Man and brute die of, and not ?'///', fevera,
eonsiiniption, the plague, pneumonia, old age, and so on.

Differ. Writers i\\\ic\- from one another in opinion with
regai'd to the partiele we should use with tin's veib. Snme
say they diller icllh, others that tliey differ from, their neigh-
bors in opinion. The weight of authority is on the side of
always using /'rora, though A may differ irllh C from D in
opinion witli regard, say, to the size of the fixed stars. "I
differ, as to this matter, from Bisliop Lowth.' — Cobbett.
Different to is heard sometime.-* instead of lUff'rent from.

Directly, Tlie Britons have a way of ushig this word in
the sense of when, ns soon as. This is quite foreign to its true
moaiung, whicli is immediately, at onee, straightway. They
say, for example, ^'D/rcrth/ he readied the city, he went to
his brother's." "Directly [the saint] was dead, the Aral)3
sent his woollen shirt to the sovereign." — "London News."
Dr. Hall says of its use in tlie sense of no soon as: " But, after
all, it may simply anticipate on the Englisli of the future."

Dirt. This word means tilt or anytiiing that renders
foul and unclean, and meai^s nothing else. It is often im-
properly usol for earth or loam, and sometimes even for sand
or gravel. We not uufroque:uly liear of a dirt road when an
unpaved road i.n meant.

Discommode. Tlii;i word is rarely used ; incommode is
accounted the better form,

Disromembor, This is, a woi-d vulgarly used in the sense
offorgrf. It i? said to bn more frequently hcai'd in tiia South
tii;\u in fhc Ni'ith.

rHK VEliliALlST.

Distinguish. Tliis verb ia sometiiues impntiierly used fot
discriininate. We didinguiKh by means of tlie senses as well
aa of the uiidei;jtaiuliiig ; we diKrriminnle. by means of the
understanding only. "It is <litficult, in some cases, to dU-
tin <i Utah hctwcen," etc.: sliould be, "It is dillicult, in some
c.'ises, to d Incriminate betuieen," etc. We difttiiii/uis/i one thing
froiii another, and discrintinate bclicecn two or more tilings.

Dock — Wharf. Tlic fust of these words is often impro-
perly nsed for the second. Of docks tlier re several kinds :
anaval dock is a place for the keeping o "1 stores, timber,

and materials for ship-lmilding ; a dri/ uv/. « is a place where
vessels are drawn out of the water for i ejKiirs ; a ivct dock is a
place where vessels are kept alloat at a certain level while
they are loaded and uidwadcd ; a nc'-t.lonnl dork is a contriv-
ance for raising vessels out of the water on a series of air-tight
boxes. A dock, then, is a place into which things are re-
ceived ; hence, a man might fall into a dock, but could no
more fall off a dock tlian he could fall off a hole. A ir/nir/ is
a sort of quay .)uilt l)y tlie side of th(; wat'-r. A similar
structure built at a right angle with the shore is generally
called a jner. Vessels lie at wharves and piers, not at docks.

Donate. This word, which is detined as meaning to give,
to contrilnitc, is looked upon by most champions of good
English as being an abomination. Donation is also little used
by careful writers. "^ Donatf," says Mr. Gould, "may be
dismissed with this remark : ;o long as its place is occupied
by 'jive, hcftoir, grant, present, etc., it is not needed ; and it
.should be unceremoniously bowed out, or tliiust out, of the
seat into wiiich it has, temporarily, intruded."

Done. This past participle is often very inelegantly, if
not improperly, used thus: "lie did not cry out as some
have done against it," which should road, " lie did not cry
out as Ronie have against it" ; i. e., "as some have eric! Of.l.
a:fainst it.'

THE Vh-nn.i/JST.

" Done 19 fre(|nently a very ;j;r(-iit olVjiuler atjainst v;r;un-
mar," says ("ol)l*ett. " To 'In is the act of doin;/. We seo
people ^\•rite, '1 did not spoak yesterday so well as I wished
to have done.' Now, what is meant by the writer? lie
mean« to say that ffb did not s])oali so well as he tlu.n wished,
or was wishinir, to speak. Thuiefore, the sentence should be,
' I did not spoak yowterday so well us I wished to do.^ 'J'hat
is to say, ' so well ; I wished to tlo it ' ; that is to say, to do
or to perform the act of speakinrj.

" 'fake groat care not to be too free in your use of tlie
verb to do in any of its times or modes. It is a nice little
handy word, and, like our oppressed it, it is made use of very
often when the writer is at a Iouk for what to put down. To
do is to act, and therefore it never can, in any of its parts,
supply the place of a neiitpr verb. 'How do you do?' Here
do refers to the .state, and is essentially passive or neuter.
Yet, to employ it for this purpose is veiy common. Dr.
Blair, in his 'J3d Lecture, says : * It is somewhat unlortunato
tliat tiiin number t)f the ".Spc'jtator" did not (ml, as it mi^it
have duite, witli the foimor beautiful period.' That is to say,
done it. Antl then we ask. Done what ? Not the act oj
endiii'j, because in this case there is iio action at all. The
verb means to come to an end, to cea.ic, not to ijo aii>f further.
This same verl) to end is sometimes an active verb : ^ 1 end
my sentence'; then the verb to do m:^y supply it^ place; as,
'I have not ended my senten-^e so well as I might have done\-
that is, done it ; tiiat is, done, or perforir..- :1, the act of ending.
lint the Nund)er of the ' Spectator' was no actor ; it was ex-
pected to perform nothing; it was, by the Doctor, wi-lied to
have ceased to proceed. ' Did not end as it very well might
have ended. . •' This Mould have been coirect ; but the
Doctor wished to avoid the repetition, anil thus he fell into
bad grammar. ' Mr. Speaker, I do not feel, so well satisfied

THE VERBALIST.

aa I should have dont if the Right Houoi-able Geiitlomaii . „d
explained the matter more fully.' To feel satisHed is— when
the satisfaction is to arise from conviction produced by fact
or reasoning — a senseless expression; and to supply its place,
when it is, as in this case, a neuter verb, by to do, is as sense-
less. Done what ? Done the act of feeling I ' 1 do iwt feel so
well satisfied as I should have done, or exccnle.d, or performed
the «c'. at feclintf^ ! \Vha^ inconiprehen8il)lo words !"

Don't. Everybody knows that don't is a contraction of
do not, and that doeHn''t is a contraction of does not ; and yet
nearhj everybody is guilty of using don''t when he should use
doesn't. "So yuu don't go ; Jolin doesn't either, I hear."

Double Genitive. An anecdote of Air. Lincoln— an anec-
dote of Mr. Lincoln's. We see at a glance that these two
phrases are very dilFui-cnt in meaning. So, also, a portrait of
Brown — a portrait of Drown's. No precise rule has ever been
given to guide us in our choice between these two furms of
the possessive case. Sometimes it is not m{i*-,erial which form
is employed ; where, however, it is material — and it generally
is — we must consider the thought we w i^h to express, and
rely on our discrimination.

Dramatize. See Aoai-t.
Drawing-room. See 1*arlor.

Dress— Gown. Within the memory of many persons the
outer garment worn by women was pi'opirly called a ;fown by
everybody, instead of being improperly called a dress, as it
now ia by nearly evet yboely.

Drive. See Ride.

Due — Owing. These two words, thongli close synonyms,
should not be used indiscriminately. The mistake usually
made is in using due instead of oirimi. That is due which
ought to be paid as a debt ; that is oic'iifj wjiich is to be re-
ferred to as a source. "It was oivlng to his exertions tliat

THE VERBA LIST.

the scheme succeode.l." "It wa.s oiiHiif/ to your negligcixi
that tlie accident happened." "A certain nspect is due !■
men's prejudices." "'iliia was oicb)<j to an indiifcrcnce toth.
pleasures of life." "It is due to the public tliat I should tr!!
all I know of the matter."

Each other. "Their great a ithors address theniselvL-i.
not to their country, but to each other." — Buckle. Ear.',
other is properly applitid to two only ; one another must 1<
used when the number considered exceeds two. Buciii'
should have w)'itten one another and not each other, unless i.(-
nieant to intimate that the (jermaus had only two gn-..
authors, which is not probable. - ,

Sat. Grammarians diljcr very widely with regard to t: .■
conjugation of this verb ; there is no doubt, however, th..
from every point of vew the preferable forma for the prcterr..
and past participle are respectively ate and eaten. To ri
fined ears the otiier forms smack of vulgarity, although sup
ported by good authority. "I ate an apple." "I have eatfi'
dinner." "Jo)in ate su[)per with me." "As soon as yoi:
have eii/i-n brc-akfast we will set out."

Editorial. The use of this adjective as a substantive is
said to be an Americanism.

Education. Iliis is one of the most misused of words. A
man may be well ac 'Uiinteil with the contents of text-l)Ooks.
and yet be a pcrs' 'i of little education ; on the other hand, a
ii.an may bo a person of good education, and yet know littU'
of the contents of text-books. Abraham Lincoln and Edwin
Forrest knew comparatively little of what is generally learncil
in schools; still they were men of c\ilture, men of «/HCrt/«o//.
A man may liave ewr so nnich book-knowledge and still be a
boor ; but a man can not be a pc ison of good eilucation and
not be — 80 far as manner is concerned — a gentleman. Educa-
tion, then, 18 a v.'hole of which Instruction and Breeding are

THE VERBALIST.

the parts. The man oi' tlie woman — even hi this democratii:
country of ours — who dcstrve/t the title of gentleman or lady
is always a person of education ; i. e. , he or she has a sufficient
acquaintance with books and witli the usages of social inter-
course to acquit himself or herself creditahly in the society of
cultivated people. Not moral worth, nor learning, nor wealth,
nor all three comhined, can unaided make a gentleman, for
■with all three a man miglit he vnediirated—i.c., coarse, un-
bred, unscliooled in those things which alone make men
welcome in the society of the refined.

EffectuatO. This word, together with raCwcivate an<l
eventuate, is said to be a great favorite w ith the rural members
of the Arkansas legislature.

EfiBuviura. The plural of this word is effluvia. It is a
common error with those wlio have no knowledge of Latin to
speak of "a disagreeable ellluvia," which is as incorrect as it
would be to talk alnjut "a disagreeable vapors."

Eifort without Effect. " Some writers deal in exple-
tives to a degree that tirca the ear and ofTeuds the under-
standing. With them everything is excessive/y, or immensely,
or extremely, or vadly, or i<ui-i>yidu[)hf, or vmnder/ully, or
ahniHlitnthj, or the like. Tlie notion of such writers is that
thcKe woi'ds give strength to what thty are saying. This is a
great error. Strength nuist be found in the t/tomjlit, or it will
never be fouml in the words. Big-sounding Avords, without
thoughts corre.s{)onding, are efTort without ellect." — William
Cobbett. See FuKCinLE-i'tKJJLE.

Egoist. "One of a class of philosophers who professed
to be fcuio of nothing but their own existence." — iieid.

Egotist. "One who talks much of himself."
" A tribe of etjolislH for whom 1 have always had a nioi tul
aversion." — "Si.cctatoi-."

THE VERBALIST.

Iff

Either. This word means, strictly, the one or the other
of two. Unlike hnth, wliich means two taken collectively,
either, like each, may mean two considered separately ; but in
this sense each is the better word to use. "Give me eUlier of
them" means, Give me tlio one or the other of two. "He haa
a farm on either side of the river" would mean that ho lias
two farms, one on each (or either) side of the river. "He has
a farm on both sides of the river" would mean that his farm
lies partly on the one side of the river and partly on the
other. Tlie use of either in the sense of each, thougli biblical
and defensible, may be accounted little if any better than an
affectation. Neither is the negative of either. Either is re-
sponded to by or, vdlher by nor; as, "ei/Acr this or that,"
^^neither this nor that." Either aiv] m it her shouhl not — strictly
— be used in ri ' ion to more than two objects. But, though
both either ami " if'ier are strictly applicable to two only,
they have been fui a very long time used in r( lati^n to more
than tAVoby many good wi Jiers ; and, as it is often convenient
so to use them, it seems prol>a'ilo that th ustom will prevail.
When more than two things are referred to, anij and none
sliould be used instead of either and nrither ; a-;, " (inij of the
tlirf'o," not, ^^ either of the tiiree"; '' -h*/ of the four,'" not,
"neither of tlie four."

Either Alternative. Tlie word aitrmntitv. means a
choice olicred boUvecu two things. An < ''rnatire writ, foi
example, offer.s the alternative of chooii' between the doing
of a specified act or of shoM ing cau.^c why it is not done.
Such propositions, therefore, as, "You are at liberty to
c\\oo&(.\ either alternative," " Tiro alternatives are preseutc<l to
me," ".S'ercra/ alternatives presented themselves, "and the like,
arc not coi'rect Kuglisli. The word is correctly used tlius : "I
am confronted with a hard alfernalire : I niu^t either denounce
a frieml or betray my trust." ^^'e rarely hear the word alteV'
naff or any "f ':■ ■\ riAntivrs (oirertly proiKtunoc<l.

THE V En B A LIST.

ijlder. See Olt»kr.

Elegant. Professor Pioct«r says : " If you say to an
American, 'This is a fine morning,' he is likely to reply, ' It
is an elegant mornin;^,' or perhaps oftener by using simply the
\\ord eh'f/fuit. This is not a pleasing use of the word." This
is not American English, Professor, but popinjay English.

Ellipsis. The omission of a word or of words necessary
to complete the grammatical consti'uction, but not necessary
to make the meaning clear, is called an rl/ipsis. We almost
always, whether in speaking or in writing, leave out some of
the words necessary to thoju/l expression of our meaning. For
example, in dating a letter to-day, we should write, "New
York, August 25, 1881," whicli' would l)e, if fully written
out, " I am now writing in the city of New York; this is the
twenty-fifth day of August, and this month is in the one
thousand eight hundred and eigl\ty-fir.st year of the Christian
era." " I am going to \Vallack's"' means, "I am going to
Wallack's theatre." "I shall spend the summer at my
aunt's"; i. e., at niy aunt's /louse.

By supplying the elfipfcs we can often discover tlic errors
in a sentence, if theio are any.

Enjoy bad Health. As no one has over been known to
enjoi/ bad hcaltli, it is better to employ some other form of
expression than this, iaay, for example, he is in J'eMe, or
delicale, health.

Enthuse. This is a word that is occasioiially heard in
conversation, an<l is sometimes nift with in print ; i)ut it has
not as yet made its ppe irauoc in the dictionari(!S. Wlmt its
ultimate fate will Ik;, of course, no one can tell ; for the
present, however, it is studiously shunned by those who arc
at all careful in the selection of their langua^fc. It is said lo
be most used in the 8ontli. Tl\e writer lias oever spcn it

THE VERBALIST.

anywhere in the Xorth but in the cohimns of the "Boston
Cuijgr;;;j,ationalist. "

Epigram. "The wonl epi'jram signitied originally an
inscription on a nioumueut. It next came to mean a short
poem containing some single thought pointedly expressed,
the subjects Ijcing very various — amatory, convivial, moral,
eulogistic, satirical, humorous, etc. Of the various devices
for brevity an<l point employed in such compi)sitions, es-
pecially in nujderu times, the most frequent is a play upon
worda. ... In the cp'njram the mind is loused l)y a conllict
or contrailiction betv,-een the form of the language and the
meaning really conveyed." — Dain.
Some examples are :

"When you have nothing to say, say it."
"We can not see the wood for tlie trees"; that ia, we
fan not get a general view because we are so engrossed with
the details.

" Verbosity is cured by a large vocabulary " ; that is, he
mIio cunnnands a large vocabulary ia able to select words
that will give his meaning teisely.

"By indignities men come to dignities."
" Some people are too foolish to commit follirs."
"He went to his imagination for his facts, and to his
memory for his tropes."

Epithet. Many persons use this word who arc in error
with regard to its meaning ; they think that to "apply epi-
thets " to a person ia to vilify and insult lum. Not at all.
An ejnthc.t is a word that expresses a (pudity, good ov bad ; a
term tluit expresses an attribute. "All adji-ctives are r/iit/ufs,
but all ej'it/uts are not adjectives," says Crabb ; "thus, in
Virgil's Pater .Eneas, tlie jxiter is an ej'itlut, but not an ad-
jcclirc." Eji'tthti is the technical term of the rhetorician ; ad-
jrclive, that of the grannauiiau.

THE VERB A LIST.

Equally as well. A redinulant form of expression, as
any one will »ee who for a moment consiJe s it. As well, or
cqiid'/i^ we/l, expresses quite as much as e'/nalli/ as icclL

Equanimity of mind. This phiaso is tautological, and
expresses no mure than does eqi(animU;i (literally, "equal
mindedness") alone ; hence, of mind is superfluous, and con-
sequently inelegant. Avjictij of mind is a Kcarcily le.-s re-
dundant form of expression, A caj^ricious mind is in the
same category.

Erratum. Plural, errata.

Esquire. An csquirri was originally the shield-bearer of
a knight. It is much, and, in the opinion of s(;me,Tat!ier
absurdly, used in this country. Mr. Ividiard firant White
says on the subject of its use: "I have ' jt to discover what
a man means wlien he addresses a letter to John Dash, E!«jr."
He means no more nor less than when he writes Mr. (master).
The use of E,'<q. is quite as prevalent in Eiiglaml as in
America, and has little more meaning there than here. It
simply 1)elongs to our stock of courteous epithets.

Euphemism. A description which describes in inofTen-
sive language that wliich is of itself ofT'ensive, or a iigure
which uses agreeable phraseology when the literal would bo
offensive, is called a ciiphemism.

Eventuate, i^ee Ki-kkctuate.

Everlastingly. Tliis adverb is misused in the South in
a manner that is very apt to excite the risilility of one to
whom the peculiar misuse is new. The writer recently visited
the upp(>r part of Xew York with a distinguished Soutlicrn
poet and journalist. It was the gentleman's lir.st ride over
an elevated road. When we were fairly under way, in ad-
miration of the rate of si)eed at which the ears were moving,
he exclaimed, "Well, they do just eirrluatiu;//// aliuot along,
don't they!"

THE VERBALIST.

Every. Tins word, which means simply each or all t<aken
sepanitcly, is of late years frequently made, by slipshod
speakers, to do duty for perfect, entire, great, or all po!-siMe.
Thus we have such exjjressions as every pains, every con-
fidence, every praise, every charity, and so on. We also have
such diction as^ ^^ Every one has this in common"; meaning,
*^ All of us have this in common."

Every-day Latin. A fortiori : with stronger reason. A
posteriori: from the cflPect to the cause. A priori: from the
cause to the elTcct. Bo?ia fide : in good faith ; in reality.
Certiorari: to be made more certain. Ceteris parihvs: other
circumstances being equal. i^fyJu'^o; in fact; in reality. De
jure: in right; inlaw. Ecce homo: behold the man. Ergo:
therefore. Et cetera: and the rest; and so on. Excerpta:
extracts. Exempli gratia: byway of example; abbreviated,
e. g., and ex. gr. Ec officio: by virtue of his ofiice. Ex parte:
on one side; an ex parte statement is a statement on one side
only. Jbidevi: in the same place; abbreviated, «7j<(Z. Idem:
the same. Id est: that is; abbreviated, i.e. Imprimis: in
the fir.st place. In statu epio: in the former state ; just as it
was. In statu epio ante helium: in the same state as before the
war, in ^nizi.s^Vi/ .• in passing. Index expurgatoriiis: a purify-
ing index. In extremis: at the point of death. Inmemoriani:
in melndry. I})se dixit: on his sole assertion. Item: also.
Labor omnia vincit: labor overcomes every ditUculty. Locus
si:/illi: the place of the seal. MuHum in jmrro: much in
little. ]\[utatis mutandis : after mivking the necessary changes.
Ne }>hts ultra, : nolliing beyond; the utmost point, isolens
volens : willing or unwilling. Kota bene: mark well ; take
particular notice. Vmnrs: all. O tcmpora, O mores! O the
times and the manners! Otiutn cum dignitutc : ease with
dignity. Oliwm sine dignitate: ease without dignitj'. Parti-
cep8 criminis: uu accomplice. Peccarl: I have sinned. Per

THE VERBALIST.

se: by itself. Prima fat' ic: on the tirst view or appearam-e :
at first siglit. Pro bono publico: for tlie public good. Quid
nunc: what now? Quid j/ro quo: one thing for another; an
equivalent. Quondam: formorly. J'ara avis : a i"ire bird ;
a prodigy. Jicsnrjam: I shall rise again. Seriatim: in order.
Sine die: without specifying any puticular day ; to aTi in-
definite time. Sine qua non: an indispensable condition. Sui
generis: of its own kind. Fade meciim: go with me. IVr-
batini: word by word. Fersun : against. Vale: farewell.
Via: by the way of. Vice: in the place of. Vide: sou. Vi
et armis: by main force. Viva voce: orally; by word of
mouth. Vox populi, vox Dei: the voice of the people is the
voice of God.

Evidence— Testimony. These words, though difTcring
widely in meaning, are often used indisi.triminately by careless
speakers. Ecidence is that which lends to convince ; testi
many is that which is intended to convince. In a judicial in-
vestigation, for example, there might be a great deal of
testimony — a great deal of ie.'(fi///ini/~and very little eri'lcnce ;
and the evidence might be quite the reverse of the ttstimony.
See Proof.

Exaggeration. "Weak minds, feeble writers and
speakers, delight in superlatives." See IiIffout without
Effect.

Except. "No one need apply excrpt lie is thoronizhly
familiar with the business," should be, "No one need apply
unless,'" etc. • ■

Excessively. That class of persons who are never con-
tent with any form of expression that falls .'^hortof the super-
lative, frequently use excessirch/ when cxceedin;fli/ or even the
little word very would serve their turn better. They say, for
example, that the weather is eJLrfi.'},si('e/)//<o^, v/hen they slujuld
content themselves with saying that the weather is very

THE VKHHAIJST.

warm, or, if the word suits tliem better, hot Internpennee
ill tlie use of languiigc is aa much to bo ccnsur(;<I as int<:iiipor-
ance in anything else ; like intemperance in other things, ita
effect is vulgarizing.

Execute. This word means to follow out to the end, to
carry into eflfect, to accomplish, to fulfil, to perform ; as, to
execute an order, tooxeoute a purpose. And the dictionaries
and almost universal usage say that it also means to put to
death in conformity with a judicial sentence; as, to execute
a criminal. Some of our careful speakers, however, maintain
that the use of the word in this sense la indefensible. They
• say that laws and sentencrs are executed, but not crlniinals,
and that their execution only rarely results in the death of
the persons upon wliom they are executed. In the hanging
of a criminal, it is, then, not the criminal who is executed,
but the law and the sentence. The criminal is liawji'd.

Expect. This verb always has reference to what is to
come, never to what is past. We can not crpfcf, backward.
Instead, therefore, of saying, " I expi'ct, you thought I woul 1
come to see you yesterday," we should say, "I suppose," etc.

Experience. "We experience great difficulty in getting
him to take his medicine." The word liave ought to be big
enough, in a sentence like this, for anybody. " We ea^ye/v'-
enced great hardships." Iktter, "We siifered.'"

Extend. This verb, the primary meaning of which is to
stretch out, is used, especially by lovers of big words, in con-
nections where to give, to show, or to offer would be prefer-
able. For example, it is certainly better to say, "They
shoived me every courtesy," than "They extended every
courtesy to me." See Kvkuy.

False Grammar. Some examples of false grammar will
show wliiit every one is tlie better for knowing : that in litera-
ture nothing should be taken on trust ; that errors of gi'ammai'

THE Vt'RnAL/ST.

even are founrl where we should least expect them. "I<1'
not know whether tlie imputation ircrc just or not.'"
Emerson. "I prooeciled to inquire if the 'extract' . . . Kcrc
a v^ritahle quotation." — Emerson. Should be was in bol :
cases. "How sweet the moonlight sleeps I" — Townsend, " Av
of Speech," vol. i, p. Hi. Should be fiweeUn. *' There is n •
question fc«< these arts . . . will greatly aid hiin," etc. — Ibid.,
p. 130. Should be (!/<(f^. "Nearly all who have been disti:;-
guished in literature or oratory have made . . . the generoi;
confession that their attainments hai^e been reached tlirou ,' i
patient and laborious industry. They have declaT'cd th.'.l
speaking and writing, thougli oiico difficult for tlu-m, har
become well-nigh recreations." — Ibid., p. 143. Tlie hare hft- ,
should be twere, and the haoe become should be became. " Many
pronominal adverbs are correlatives of each other." — Hark
ness'a "New Latin nrammar,"p. 147. Should bo one another
"Hot and cold springs, boiling springs, and quiet springs lie
within a few feet oi each other, but none of them are proper';:
r/eusers." — Appletons' "Condensed Cyclopaidia," vol. ii, p
414. Should be one another, and not one of them is proper'i/ '••
geyser. "How much better iov you as seller and the natio ■
as buyer . . . tlian to sink ... in catting one another' .
throats." Should be each otJi^rs, "A minister, noted f(. ■
prolixity of style, was ouce preacliing before the inmates oT
lunatic asylum. In cue of his illustrations he painted a BCf
of a man condemned to be h\ing, but reprieved under t'
gallows." Tliese two sentences are. so faulty that the o-;' ,
way to mend them is to rewrite them. Tliey arc from a wo, '
that professes to teach the "art of speech." Mended: " .'
minister, noted for nis prolixity, once preached before ti
inmates of a lunatic asylum. By v/ay of illustration 1
painte;! a sctsne in wliich a nKin, wJio Itad been condemned lu
be hanjcd, was reprieved under the gallows. "

Till-: VEL'nMJST.

Female. The terms Duile and Jemnh aro not unfre-
(juently used wliere good tasto would su.'.'gest some o'ther
word. For example, wo see over the doors (jf schooldiousos,
"l']iitrance for males," " l-iUtrauce for females." Now bucks
ami bulls are males as well as boys and men, and cowa and
sows are females as well as girls and women.

Fetch. -See BuixVO.

Fewer. See Lkss.

Final Completion. If there wore such a thing as a
plurality or a. scries of completions, there would, of course, be
such a thing as \.\w. final completion; but, as every completion
is final, to talk about a final completion is as ab.iurd as it
would l)e to talk about a,fiinalfinalitij.

First rate. Tiiere are people who object to this phrase,
and yet it is well enough when properly placed, as it is, for
example, in sucli a sentence as thi.s : "lie's a 'first-class'
fellow, and I like him A>.s^ I'ate; if I fJidn't, 'you bet I'd just
give liim 'hail Columliia' for 'blowing' the thing all round
town like the big fool tliat he is."

Firstly. Goorgo Washington Moon . aaya in defense of
firnth/: " I do not object to the occasional use oi Jird as an
adverb; l)ut, in sentences whore it would be followed by
secoiidli/, lhii'dl;i, etc., I think that the adverbial form is pre-
ferable." To this, one of Mr. Moon's critics replies: "How
ever desirable it may be to employ the wordytV.s^ y on certair
occasions, the fact remains that the employment of it on any
occasion is not the best usag(!." Webster inscvtH firstly, b\it
remarks, "Improperly used iov first."

Flee — Fly. riiese verbs, though near of kin, aro not
iuterchangca))le. For example, we c;«i not say, "He//e?'; the
city," " \\<.i ileto from his enemies," ^'llcfieio at the approacn
of dan,L,'or,".//e((' being the imperfecf tense of to fiij, whiea is

THE Vr.lH'.M.ir.T.

properly used to express tlie notion of bird.-} on tlie winj^, ol
kitt!>», arrows, etc The imperfect tense of to Jh'<i ia Jled ;
liCMiee, "\]vj'r>/ tliL' i.'ity," etc.

Forcible-feoble. This la a "noviey" kind of diction in
which tlie wonld-he fcreihle writer defeats his object by the
overuse of expletives. Examples : " And yet the (jreat cen-
tralization of wealth is one (if the [great] evils of the day.

All thiit Mr. iif/cr- [says] np.jri this point isy'^/v il/le and

just. Tliis cenlrali/ation is due to the eiinrinous reproductive
P'lwor cf capital, to the vH)ntn,'^e advantage that '■o.<i/i/ and
com/illcated mtich'xuLry <^ives to great [large] est blisliineuts,
and to the markal dilFerencc of personal force auiOiig men."
The first (jrcal is misplaced ; the woi'd utters is misused ; the
second yrent is ill-chosen. The other words in italics only
enfeeble the sentence. Again : "In countries wlicre immense
[largo] estates exist, a breaking up of these vast demesnes
into many minor freeholds would no doubt be a [of] very grvat
advantage." Substitute lanjc for immtnse, and take out vant,
many, and vary, and the language becomes much more forc-
ible. Again: "The very fngt eO'eet of the taxation plan

■would be destructive to the interests of this ijreat multitude
[cl.ass] ; it M'ouhl impoverish our iiinmneralde farmers, it
t';oi<A/ confiscate the earnings of four] m'/?i.s^/'Jo?t.s' tradesmen
and artisans, it icould [and] paralyze the hopes of strti'/y/.in(j
millions." AVhat a waste A portly expletives is here ! With
them the sentence is high-ilown and weak ; take them out,
and introduce the words inclosed in brackets, and it becomes
simple and forcible.

Friend — Acquaintance. Some philosopher has said that
he who has half a dozen friends in tlie course of his life may
esteem himself fortunate; and yet, to judge from many
people's talk, one would suppose they had friends by the
Bcore. Ko man knows whether he has any friends or not

TIIK VEIWALIST.

until he has "their adoption tried''; hence, he who is de-
sirous to call thinga by their right names will, as a rule, use
th'j word arqi<aiii(a)i(X instead of frieuil. "Your friend" is a
favorite uiul very objectional)le way nriny people, especially
young ])eople, have of writing themselves at the bottom of
their letters. In this way the obscure stripling protests him-
self the iruiENi.) of the first man in the land, and that, too,
vf'.icn ho is, pcrhfips, a comparative stranger and asking a
favor,

Galsome. ' Here is a good, sonorous Anglo-Saxon word —
meaning; malignant, venomous, churlisli — that has fallen into
disuse.

Gantleman. Few things are in worse taste than to use
the term (jmflaman, wlicther in the singular or plural, to
designate the sex. " If 1 wiM^a-ijentltman" says Miss Snooks.
*^ (linlLnicn have just as much curio.'^ity as Iwliej*," says Mrs.
Jenkins. '■^Gentlemen have so much more liberty than we
ladies have," says Mrs. Parvenue. Now, if these ladies were
ladies, they woidd in each of these cases use the word man
instead of ij u'lcnmn, and voman instead of lady; further,
Miss Snooks would say, "If I were." Well-bred men, men of
culture and refinement — gentlemen, in short — use the terms
lady and <jmtlcman comparatively little, and they are especially
careful not to call themselves uriil/emcn when they can avoid
it, A gentleman, for txiunple, does not say, " I, with some
oi/icr gentlemen, went," etc. ; he is careful to leave out the
word other. The men who use these terms most, and
especially those who lose no opportunity to proclaim tiiem-
selveb <jciifU:mcii, belong to that class of men who cock their
hats on one side of tlicir heads, and often wear them when
and where gentlemen would remove them ; who pride them-
■elvet on their familiarity with tiie latest slang ; who proclaim

THE VERBALIST.

their intiependence by showing the least possible considera-
tiou for others ; who laugh long and loud at their own wit ;
who wear a profusion of cheap finery, such as outlaudish
watch-chains liookcd in the lowest button-liole of their vests,
Brazilian diamonds in tlieir shirt-bosoms, and big scal-ringa
on their little fingers ; who use bad grammar and interlard
their conversation with big oaths. In business correspond-
ence Smith is addres^sed as Sir, while Sr.iith & Brown are
often addressed r.s Gentlemen — or, vulgarly, as G'cnti. Better,
much, is it to address tliem as Sirs.

Since writing the foregoing, I have met with the following
paragraph in the London publication, "All the Year Ifound":
"Socially, the term 'geutloman' has become almost vulgar.
It is certainly less employed by gentlemen tlian by inferior
persona. The one speaks of 'a man I know,' the other of 'a
gentleman I know.' In tlie one case the gentleman is taken
for granted, in the otiier it seems to need specilication.
Again, as regards the term 'lady.' It is quite in accordance
with the usages of society to speak of your acquaintance th*
duchess as 'a very nice person.' People wlio wouhl say
* very nice lady* are not generally of a social class which has
much to do with duchesses ; an 1 if you speak of one of these
as a 'person,' you will soon be made to feel your mistake."

Gents. Of all vulgarisms, this is, perhaps, thtj most
ofi'ensive. If wo say (jcnts, why not say /at/cM .''

Gerund. " ' I have work 1.0 do,' ' there is no more to say,'
are plirases where the vei b is not in tlie common infinitive,
but in the form of the (ji'rinul. ' lie is the man to do it, ovj'or
doing it.' ' A house to let,' 'the course to ^leer by,' 'a place
to He in,' 'a thing lo be done,' 'a city to take refu;40 in,' ' tlje
moans to do ill ileeds,' are adjective gerunds ; tiiey nuiy be
expanded into clauses: 'a liouso that the owner lets or will
let'; 'tiio cf)urse that wc should steer by'; 'a thing that

THE VERBALIST.

should be done '; ' a city wherein one may take refuge '; ' ♦■)?<.!
means whereby ill decls niny hi.' done.' ^Vlien the to ceased
in the twelftli century to he a ilistinctive mark of the dative
infinitive or gerund, ybr was mti'oduced to make the writers
intention clear. Hence the familiar form in ' what went yc
out/or to see.?' 'they caineybr to ahow him the temple.' " —
Bain.

Get. In sentences expressing simple possession — as, "I
have got a book," '• What has he got there?" " Have you got
any news?" "They have got anew house," etc. — got is entirely
superfluous, if not, as some writers contend, absolutely in-
correct. Possession is completely expressed by hare. "Foxes
have holes ; the birds of tlie air have nests "; not, " Foxes
have fl^o^ holes ; rhe birds of the air have f/o^ nests." Formerly
the imperfect tense of this verb was gat, which is now ob-
solete, and the perfect participle was gotten, which, some
grammarians say, is growing obsolete. If Wiis be true, there
is no good reason for it. If we say eatfin, inritten, striven,
foi'gotten, why not say gotten, where this form of the participle
iB more eupiionious — as it often is — than got?

Goods. This term, like other terms used in trade, shonfd
be restricted to the vocabulary of commerce. Messrs. Arnold
h Constable, in common with tiie Wasliington Market huck-
t.t'^r. very properly speak of tlieir wares as their goods; but
Mrs. Arnold ami Mrs. Constable should, and I doubt not do,
speak of their gowns as being made of fine or coarse sil/c,
cashmere, mu-iliii. or whatever the material may be.

Gould against Alford. Mr. P^dward S. Could, in his

review of Dean Alford's " Queen's English," remarks, on page
131 of his "Good English": "And now, ns to the style* of
the Dean's book, taken aa a wliole. He must be held respou-

THE VfU/!AL/.sr.

sible for every error iu it; because, as has been shown, lie ha«
had full leisure for its revision.* The errors are, iievertiie-
less, num'TOus ; ami the sliorte.st way to exjiibit them is i' in
tabular f<nm." In several instances Mr. Could would not
have taken the Dean to task had he known l.hjgli;ih better.
The following are a few of Mr. Gould's corrections in which
he is clearly iu the ri^ht :

Paragraph

4. '"Into another laud (/lait,"; should be, "into a land
other than."

H). " We do not follow rule in spelling other words, but
custom"; sliould l)e, "we do not follow rule, but custom, in
spelling," etc.

IS. "The distinction is ob^erveil in French, but nerer
ajtpciirs to have been made," etc.; reail, *^ appears never to
have been made."

61. "/»'f(Y/t(2>' to a?!pirate more ^/ta7i less "; slunild be, "to
aspirate more rather than less."

9. "It is said also uiiii/ to occur three times," etc.; read,
occur only three times."

41-, "This doubling only taken place in a syllable, etc.;
read, '•'■taken place only."

142. "Which can only bo decided when those circum-
stances are known"; read, " can be decliled only when," etc.

106. " I will 6»M/y say that it produces," etc. ; read, "Iwill
eay only," etc.

170. "It is said that this can only be lillod in thus";
read, " can hojUled in. only tlius."

308. "I c:in only deal with the com])laint in a general
way"; rc.nd, " deal icith the conijilaint only," etc.

80. " Jn so far as they are idiom;itic," etc. What is the
use of in '/

171. "Try the exporiment"' ; ''tried tlio experiment."
Read, 'ninliC and made.

345. "It in mont generally used of that very jvct," etc.
Why inont f

.%'2. "The joining together two clauses witii a third,"
etc.; read, "q/' two clauses," etc.

•Belter, "to revise it."

\ "Id Iu jiiit lluin ill tiibulixi- I'nnn."

THE V En DA J. I ST.

Gown. See DxiESS.

Graduated. Students do not (jnuhiate ; they are gradu-
ated, llunce most writers nowadays say, "!*'■«<, he ■was, or
they verc gniduated"; and ask, " When icere yuu, or itas he,
graduated ?"

Grammatical Errors. "The correctness of the expres-
sion grammatical errors has been disputed. ' ilow, ' it has been
asked, ' can an error be grammatical ?' How, it may be re-
plied, can we with propriety say, grammatically incorrect?
Yet we can do so.

"No one will question the propriety of saying granimrdi-
cally correct. Yet tlie expression is the acknowledgment of
things gramviaticallji iscorrect. Likewise the phrase ijram-
madcal correctness implies the existence of gra.nmatical iscor-
rcctness. If, then, a seutenco is gram,maticaUij incorrect, or,
what is the same* tiling, has grammatical incorrectness, it
includes a grammatical krrok. GrammaticaUtj incorrect
signifies inx'ouiiect with relation to the RrLEs oii-
OUAMMAR. Llrammutical errors signifies Eituous witic uiiLA-

TION TO THE RULES OF GRAMMAR.

" They who ridicule the phrase grammatical errors, and
substitute the pliraso errors in grammar, make an egregious
mistake. Can tlicre, it may be asked with some show of
reason, be an error in granunar ? Why, graramar is a science
founded in ournature, refci-ablo to our ideas of time, rclatiun,
metliod ; imperfect, doubtless, as to the system by wliiL'li it is
represented ; but surely wu can speak cf error in that which
is crror'tt criterion ! All tlus is hypercritical, but liypercriti-'
cism must be met with its own weapons.

"Of the two expiw-sions— rt graiuntalical error, nvd an
error in grammar — tiio former is preferable. If one's judg-
ment can accept neither, one must reliiujuish the belief in the
possibility of tersely expressing the iilea of au oU'ence again.st

THE VERBALIST-

gramtnatical rules. Imleerl, it would be difficult to express
the idea even by circumlocution. Sliould some one say, 'This
sentence is, according to the rales of giammar, incorrect.'
'What!' the hypercritic may exclaim, 'incorrect! and ac-
cording to the rules of grammar !' 'This sentence, then,' the
corrected person would reply, ' contains an error in grammar.'
*Non.^en?e!' the hypercritic may shout, 'grammar is a
science ; you may be wrong in its interpretation, but prin-
ciples are immutable !'

** After this, it need scarcely be added that, grammatically,
no one can make a mistake, that there can be no grammatical
mistakes, that there can be no bad grammar, and, conse-
quently, no bad English ; a very pleasant conclusion, which
would save us a great amount of trouble if it did not lack the
insignificnnt quality of being true." — •' Vulgarisms and Otlier
Errors of Speech." . •

Gratuitous. There are those who object to the nee of
this word in the sense of unfounded, unwarranted, unreason-
able, untrue. Its use in this sense, however, has the sanction
of abundant authority. " Weak and gratuitous conjectures."
— Person. "A (jrafvifons assumption." — Godwin. "The
gratuitou'^ theory." — Southoy. "A gratuitous invention."—
De Quincpy. "r.ut it is needless to dwell on the improba-
bility of a hyp'tljesis which has been shown to be altogether
gratuitous," — Dr. Newman.

Grow. This verb originally meant to increase in size, bnt
has normally come to be also used to express a change from
one state or condition to another: as, to j/r"o?« dark, to grow
weak or strong, to grow faint, etc. But it is doubtful whether
what is large can properly be said to groo) small. lu this
eense, become would seem to be the better word.

Gums. See RuBBKUs.

THE VERBALIST.

Had have. Nothing could be more incorrect than the
bringing together of the-e two auxiliary verbs in this manner;
and yet we occasionally find it in writers of repute. Instead
of "Had I known it," "Had you seen it," "Had we been
there," we hear, "Had I haix known it," ''Had you have
seen it," "Had we have been there."

Had ought. This is a vulgarism of the worst desovip-
tion, }et we hear people, who would be highly indignant if
any one should intimate that they were not ladies and g(;ntle-
men, say, "He had ought to go.." A fitting reply would be,
"Yes, I think he better had." Oayht says all Xhut had oujht
says.

Had rather. This expression and had better are much
used, but, in the opinion of many, are indefensible. Wq hear
them in such senteneea as, "I had rather not do it," "You
had better go home." "Now, what tense," it is asked, "is
had do and had ijoi If we transpose the words thus, " You
had do better (to) go home," it becomes at once apparent, it
is asserted, that tae proper word to use in connection with
rather and better is not had, but would ; thus, "I would rather
not do it,' " You would better go home ." Examples of this
use of had can be foimd in the writing of our best authors.
For what Professor Uaiii has to say on this suhjcot lu his
"Composition Grammar," see Subjdxctive Mooo.

Half. "It might liave been expressed in one half the
space." We see at a glance that one here is superfluous.

Hanged — Hung. The irregular form, hnmj, of the past
participle ol the verb to hawj is most used ; but, when the
word denotes suspension by the neck for the purpose of de-
stroying life, the regular form, haujtdf is always used by
careful writers and speakers.

HasLo. -iSee Hl'KRV.

Heading. See CArrioN.

THE VERBALIST.

Healthy — WholesoniO. Tlu- first of these two •words iH
of U u iinpropcily used for tlie second; as, "Onions are a
heidlhy vegetable." A ma.i),if he is in good health, is JicaJtliif ;
tl»e food he eats, if it is nut 'lelcterious, is wholesome. A
healthy ox Aiakes wholesome food. We speak of healthy sur-
ronmlings, a healthy climate, situation, employment, and of
wliolf^ome food, advice, exinn^ilcs. llea'riu'id is generally
used in the sense of conducive to health, virtue, morality; as,
healthful exercise, the heu'thj'ul spirit of the community —
meaning that the spirit that prevails in the community is
conducive to virtue and good morals.

Helpmate. The <licli<)naiies suggest that this word is a
corruption of help and meet, aS we lind these words used in
Gen. ii, 18, "I will make him a help meet for him," and that
the proper word is helpmeet. If, as is possible, the words in
Genesis mean, "1 will make him a help, meet [suitable] for
him," then neither helpmate nor helpmeet has any raison d'etre.

Highfalutin. This is a style of writing often called the
freslnium style. It is nmch indulged in by very yonng men,
and by a class of older men wlio instinctively try to make up
in clatter for what they lack in matter. Examples of this
kind of writing are abundant in Professor L. T. Towns'.'iid's
"Art of Speech," which, a.? examples, are all the better fcu"
not being of that exaggerated d^ scription sometimes metwitli
in the newspapers. Vol. i, p. 131: "Very ofter. adverbs,
prepositions, and relatives drift so far from their moorings as
to lo.-,;e themselves, or make attachments where they do not
belong." Again, p. 13"): "Every law of speech enforces the
statement that there is no excuse for such inflated and defec-
tive style. [Such style !] To speak thus is treason in the
realms and under the laws of language." Again, p. 175 :
"Cultivate figure-making habitudes. This is done by asking
the spiritual imp(nt of every physical object seen; also by

THE VERBALIST.

forming the habit of constantly metaphorizing. Knock at tho
door of anything inctwhich intei'ests, and ask, 'Wlio lives here?'
The process is to look, then close the eyes, then look within.''
The blundering inanity of this kind of writing is equalled only
by its bumptious grandiloquence. On p. K)7 Dr. Townsend
quotes this wholesome admonition from Coleridge: **If men
would only say what they have to say in plain terms, how
much more eloqtu'iit they would be!" As an example of
reportorial higlit'alutin, I subnut tlie followir*;,': "The spirit
of departed day had joined communion with the myria'l
ghosts of centuries, aiul four full hours fled into eternity be-
fore the citizens of many parts of the town found out there
was a freshet hero at all."

Hints. "Xever write a'-ont any matter tlmt you do not
well understand. If you clearly understand all about your
matter, you will never want thoughts, and thoughts instantly
become words.

"One of the greatest of all faidfs in writing and in
speaking is this : the use of many words to sny liftle. In
order to guard yourself against this fault, inquire what is the
82ibsta)ice, or amount, of what you have said. Take a long
speech of some talking Lord and put down upon paper wliat
the n mount of it is. You will most likely iind that the
amount is very snrdl; Itut at any rate, when you get it, you
will then be able to examine it and to tell v/hat it is worth.
A very few exanunations of the sort will so friglitcn you t'uit
you M'ill be for ever after upon your guuiJ a-ainst ta!J:i,{j a
great f/^d/ and i<ni!ii'j /HUe.'" — Cob'ucil.

" Be sininlo, bo unaffected, be honest in your speaking and
writing, ±Sevor use a long word where a short one will do.
Call a spade a spade, not a well-known od'oiii/ Indrument or
mayiiial hitubanflr)/ ; let home he home, not a resilience; a placo
a place, not u locality; and so of the rest. W lere a gho..u

TJIE VElUiALlST.

word will do, you always lose ])y using a long one. i'ou lose
in cleanicsss; yon lose in lioncst expicssiou of your meaning ;
and, in the esthnation of all men who are qualitied to judge,
you lose your reputation for ability. The only true way to
shine, even in this false world, is to be modest and unassuming.
Falsehood may be a very thick crust, but, in the course of
time, truth will find a place to bi-eak through. Elegance of
langunge may not be in the power of all of us ; but simplicity
and straiglitforwardness are. \Vrite much as you would
speak ; speak as yoti think. If with your inferiox's, speak no
coarser than usual ; if with your superiors, no finer. Be what
you say ; and, within the rules of prudence, gay what you
are." — Dean Alfurd.

"Go critically over what you have written, and strike out
every word, ^jhrase, and clause which it is found will leave
the sentence neither less clear nor less forcible than it is
without them." — Swinton.

"With all watchfulness, it is astonishing what slips are
made, even by good writers, in the employment of an inap-
propriate word. In Gibbon's 'Rise and Fall,' the following
instance occurs: 'Of nineteen tyrants who started up after
the reign of Gallienus, there \\ as not one who enjoijed a life of
peace or a natural death.' Alison, in liis 'History of Europe,*
writes: 'Two great sins — one of omif^slon and one of commis-
sioi> — have licen comnullod by the states of Europe in modern
times.' And not long since a worthy Scotch minister, at the
close of tlie services, intimated his intention of visiting some
of his pef>ple as follows : ' I intend, during this week, to visit

in Mr. M 's district, and will on tliis occa.-ion take the

opportunity of embracinrj all the servants in the district.*
When worthies such as these od'end, wlio shall call the bell-
man in quc-^tiou as he cries, ' Lost, a silver-handled silk lady's
parasol ' '

THE VERBALIST,

"The proper arrangement of words into sentences and
paragraplis gives clcariitss and strength. To attain a clear
and pithy style, it may he necessary to cut down, to re-
arrange, and to rewrite whole passages of an essary. Gihhon
wrote his 'Memoirs' six times, and the first chapter of his
'History' three times, llcginners are always slow to prune or
cast away any tiiought or oxprcssion wliich may have cost
labor. They forget that brevity is no sign of thoughtlessness.
Much consideration is needed to compress the details of any
subject into small compass. Essences are more difiicult to
prepare, and therefore more valuable, than M'eak solutions.
Pliny wrote to one of his friends, 'I have not time to write
you a short letter, therefore I have written you a long one.'
Apparent elaborateness is always distasteful and weak.
Vividness and strength are the product of aii easy command
of those small trenchant Saxon monosyllables which abound
in the English language." — "Leisure Hour."

"As a rule, the student will do wtdl to banish for the pres-
ent all thought of ornament or elegance, and to aim only at
expressing himself plainly -and clearly. Tlie best ornament
is always that which comes unsought. Eet him not beat
about the bush, but go straight to the point. Let liim re-
member that which is written is meant to be read ; that time
is short; and that — other things being equal— the fewer
words the better. . . . Repetition is a far less serious fault
tlian ol)scurity. Young writers arc often unduly afraid of
repeating the same word, and recjuire to be reminded tliat it
is always better to use the right word over again tlian to
replace it by a wrong one — and a wonl which is liable to be
iuisunderstood is a wrong one. A frank reptftition of a word
has even sometimes a kind of charm — as bearing the stamp of
truth, the foundation of all cxcellunce of stylo." — Hall.

"A young writer is afraid to be simple ; he has no faith

THE VKUBAIJST,

ill beauty unailnrnotl, hence he crowds his sentences witli
su}H;i'lativ(!H. In hi.s cstiinatioii, tiU'giiliLy passes for elo-
(juuiKjo, ai!<l sini])lii;ity is hut anotlier iianu- for that whicli ia
weak and unnu;aniiig." — (lef)rge Wasihington Moou.

Honorable. See Revkkknd.

Hov/. "I have hoard hoio in Italy one is beset on all
siilos by Ijcggai , read, *' hcar(W//rr<." "I have heard Ao»'
some critics have been pacilieil with claret antl a suj)])t:r, and
others laid asleep with soft notes of flattery." — Dr. Johnson.
The how in this sentence also should bo that. JIoio mcuns the
manner in which. We mJiy, therefore, say, " I have heard
how ho went about it to circiunvent you."

"And it is good judgim'nt alone can dictate hoin far to
proceed in it and ichcti to stop." Cobbett connnents on this
sentence in this wise : " Dr. Watts is speaking here of writing.
In such a case, an adverb, li'u; how far, expressive of longi-
indinal space, introdui;o3 a rlictorl-al fujure ; for the plaiji
iiii'iiningis, that jiiilgment will dictate hoivmiich to write, on it
a hi not how far to procai'.l in it. Tiie ligure, however, is very
proper and much better than the literal words. But wlicu a
li-iire is heijun it should be carried on throughout, wliieh ia
i:ut the case here; for tlie Doctor iK'gins with a ligure of
longitudinal space and en Is with a figure of time. It should
hue Ijcen, ichcre to stop. Or, how /on;/ to proceed in it and
v ',, /t to stop. To tell a man how fur he is to go into the
Wistern countries of America and when he is to stop, i.-i a very
di.i'crent thing from telling him Itow fir lie is to go and where
ill! is to stop. I have dwelt tlius on this distinction for tlie
pa, pose of putting you on the watch and guarding ymi against
oiiufoundhig figures. The less you use them the better, till^
yni understand more about thom."

HiimanitarianiRm. Tliis woid, n its original, thco-

lo^iorJ sen^e, mcaar^ the d'K'liine tint denies tlie godhead of

THE VERBALIST.

■Tcsus Clirist, and nvcvs that he was possessed of a hiiman
ii.iture only; a fi>nn<iii!faritni, tlicrclore, in tlie tlioological
souso, is one wlio beiiisvcs this d(>ctrinc The void and its
derivatives are, liowever, now.iduyd, both in this country and
ill England, most used in a humane, iiliihintlu'opic sense;
thna, "The audience entliusiastically endorsed the humani-
tarhtnhrii of liis eloquent di^courso." — Ilattou.

Hung. i:>t'i! llAN(ii;D.

Hurry. Though wi<lely differing in meaning, both tlie
v< I'll and the noun hurrif are continually used for haste and
hanlcn, Ihirrij iniplii^s not ')nly hante, but iiaste with con-
fusion, fl'iiry; wliilo hn-^l'' implies only rapidity of action, an
eager desire t(i make pi'o;;iess, and, unlike h/irri/, is not in-
compatible with deliberation and dignity. It is often wise to
hasten in the uiriirs of life ; but, as it is never wise to proceed
without forethought and method, it is never wise to /<(/n7/.
Sensilde people, thon, may be often in ItaMc, but are never in
a hurri/; and we tell others to mab' Iui'<l<', and nut to humj up.

Hyperbole. Tlie m;i;:i;nifying of things beyond tlicir
natural limits is called hyperbole. Language that signifies,
literally, more than the exact truth, more th^in it* really in-
tended to 1)0 n presented, by which a thing is represented
greater or less, better or M'or.-c, than it really is, is said to be
hyperhnlical. Hyperbole is exng^ei'ation.

"Our common forms of compliment are almost all of them
extravagant Iiiiperhokx." — Blnir.

Some examples are the following
"lliver.s of blood and hills of slain."

"They were s^vifter than eagles; they were stronger than
lions."
**Tlie sky shrunk upward with unusual dread.
And tr. ,,Ml)liiig Til)er div'd l>ene;ith his bed."
"So frowned the mighty comb.acints, that hell
Grew d;-,i ker a their froM'D." •

THE VERBALIST.

"I saw their cliicf t:ill as a rocU of ioe ; hia spear tho
I)lasteil fir; his sliield tin; rising moou; he sat on the ahore
like a cloiul of mist on a liill."

Ice-cream — Ice-water. As for ice-cream, there is no
sucli tiling, as ice-crcani would l)o tliu product of frozen
oreani, i.e., cream made from ice by melting. What is called
ice-cream is cream iced ; hence, properly, ici'il cream, and not
/r«-cream. Tlic product of melted ice is <Vv'-\va.ter, whether it
he cold or warm ; but water made cold with ice is had water,
and not Kv-watcr.

If, "1 doubt j/this will ever reach you"; say, "I doubt
whether this will ever reach you."

111. See Sick,

Illy. It will astoiiisli not a few to learn that there is no
anch word as Uhj. Tho form of the adverb, as well as of the
adjective and the noun, is ill. A thing is ill formed, or ill
done, or ill made, or ill constructed, (jr /// put together.
" 111 fares the land, to hastening ills a prey.

Where wealth accumulates and men decay." — (goldsmith.

Immodest. This adjective and its synonyms, iiid.cci'.nt
and indelicate, are often used without proper discrimination
being made in their respective meanings. Indecenn/ and iiii-
modesty are opposed to morality : tho former in externals, as
dress, words, and looks; the latter in conduct and ilisposi-
tion. "///c/(C(7»7/," says Crabb, may be a partial, iminode.f/ij
is a positive and entire breach of the moral law. Indecency
is less than immodesty, liut more tlian indelicacy" It ia
//)//■ cent for a man to marry again very soon after the death
of his wife. It is inde/ii^'ife for any one to obtrude himself
uiion another's retirement. It is indecent ior women to exposei
their persons as <lo some whom wo can not call immodest,
" immodest words adnut of no defence,
For want of deceacy is want of sense."

!" ill n!' Itowenmmon.

THE VEIUIALIST.

Impropriety. As a rhetorical tonn, rl'-fined as an error
in using words iu a sense dillerent from their recognized
sigiiilication.

Impute. Non-painstaking writora not iinfrcc;uently use
impute, instead of aacribe. "The numbers [of bhinders] that
have been impiifpd to him arc endless." — "A])pletons' Jour-
nal." The use of impute in this connection is by no means
indefensil)le ; still it would have been better to use ascribe.

In our midst. TIhj pliraae in our midnt and in their miiUt
arc generally supposed to bo of recent introduction ; and,
though they have been used by some respectable writers, they
nevertheless find no favor with those who stiidy propriety in
the use of language. To the phrase in the mhlt^f no one
objects. "Jesus came and stood in the midst." "There was
a hut in the midst of the forest."

In respect of. "Tiie deliberate introduction of incor-
rect forms, whothe- liy the coinage of new or the revival of
obsolete and inexpressive syntactical combinations, ought to
be resisted even in trifles, especially wlx^ie it loads to the
confusion of <listinet ideis. An example of this is the recent
use of the adverbial phrases in renjn-rt of, in rrr/ctrd of, for in
or roifh respect fo, or regard to. This innovation is without
any syntacical grouiul, and ought to be condemned and
avoided as a more grammatical crochet." — George P. Marsh,
"Lectures on the Ii)uglish Language," p. 000.

In SO far as. A phrase often met witli, and in which
the in is siipt'r{luoas. " A want of proper op]i irtunity would
sufiice, in so far as tlio want could be shown."' "We are to
act up to the extent of our knowledge ; but, in so far as our
knowledge falls short," etc.

Inaugurate. Tiiis word, which means to install iu office
with certain ceremonies, is made, by mar.y lovers of big
words, to do service for begin ; but the s"oncr these rnetorlicu

THE VI':RHALIST.

high-fliers stop innnijurnling and content themselves with
shnply hcglnnhifi the tilings they are tallcil npon to do in t!io
ordinary routine of daily life, the sooner tlicy will cease to
set a very bad cxanipln.

Indecent. See Imatopkst.

Index expurgatorius. William Cullon I'.ryar.t, who
was a careful student of English, Mdiilc he was editor of the
" New York Evening Post," sought to prevent the writers
for that paper from using "over and above (for 'more than');
artiste (for 'artist'); aspirant; authoi-ess; beat (for 'defeat');
bagging (for 'capturing'); balance (for 'remainder'); baii(|*iet
(for 'dinner' or 'supper'); bogus; casket (for 'coffin'); claimed
(for 'asserted'); collided; commence (for 'begin'); compete;
cortege (for 'procession'); cotomporary (for 'contemporary');
couple (for 'two'); darky (for 'negro'); day fiefore yesterday
(for 'tlie day before yesterday'); debut; decrease (us a verb);
democracy (applied to a political party); develop (for 'expose');
devouring element (for 'fire'); donate; employ^; enacted (for
'acted'); indorse (for 'approve'); en ruale; cs'|.; graduate
(for 'is graduated'); gents (for 'gentleiucu'); 'Hon."; House
(for 'Ho'.isu of Representatives'); hunduig; inaugur.i'e (for
'begin'); in our midst; item (for ' particle, extract, or para-
graph'); is being done, and all passives of this fiuni;
jeopardize; jiiltilant (for 'rejoicing'); juvenile (for 'l>oy');
lady (for 'wife'); last (for 'latest'); lengthy (for 'long');
lenieuoy (for 'lenity'); loafer; loan or loajied (for 'lend' or
'lent'); located ; majority (relating to places or circumstai.ces,
fur ' most'); Nhv,. President, Mrs. Governor, Mrs. Cjencrrd,
and a!l similar tiLlos; mutual (for 'common"); official (lur
'oiliccr'); ovation; on yesterday ; over his signature; pants
(for 'pantaloons'); parties (for 'persons'); partially (for
'partly'); past two weeks (for ' last two weeks' and all similar
expressions relating to a dcliiute time); poetess; portion (for

THE VERBALIST.

'part'); pivted (for 'informed'); pro^^ress (for 'advance');
reliahle (f<>i 'tni.:iwortliy '); rendition (for 'performance');
repudiate 'for 'reject' or 'disowtr); retire (as an active verb);
Rev. (for 'the llev.'); role (for 'part'); roughs; rowdies;
seeesl) ; sensation (for 'noteworthy event'); standpoint (for
'point of view'); start, in the sense of setting out ; state (lor
'say'); taboo; talent (for 'talents' or 'ability'; talented;
tapis ; the deceased ; war (for 'dispute' or 'disagreement'),"
This index is offered here as a curiosity ratliei' than as a
guide, tlu»ugli in the main it may safely be used as .such. No
valid reason, iiowevcr, can be urged for discouraging the use
of several words in the list; the words aspirant, banquet,
casket, compete, decrease, progress, start, talented, and
deceased, for example.

Indicative and Subjunctive. "'I nfe Uie signal.' is

unconditional; ^ifl s^'c the signal,' is the same fact expressed
in the form of a condition. The one form is saiil to be in the
indicatirc mood, the mood that simply statrfi or iinlifatoh the
action ; the other form is in the .•<ul>J)nirtlve, comditional, or
conjunctive mood. 'J'here is sometimes a slight variation
made in English, to shr>w tiiat an allirmation is made as a
condition. The mood is called 'sul)junrtive,' because the
affirmation in xiihjouKd to another allirmation. '' Ij I std tlip
tiirjmi/, 1 v.'ill call out.'

" Such forms as ' I may see,' 'I can see,' have sometimes
been consl(UM'ed as a variety of niooil, to which the name
'Potential" is given. lUit tins can not properly be main-
tJiincd. There is no trace of any inilcction corresponding to
this nifaning, as wc^ find witii the subjunctive. .Moiei.Vi'r,
such a mood would have itbclf to l)o subilividcd into indic.itive
and subjunctive forms: '1 may go,' 'if I may go.' And
further, we might proceed to constitute other moods on the
same analogy, as, for example, an obligatory mood ' I mu-t

TJ!E vi:iu:ai.ist.

go,' or •! ought to go'; a mood of resolution — 'I will go, you
shall go'; a mood of gratification — ' 1 am dolighteil to go'; of
deprecation — 'I am grieve I to go.' The only difrereiKx; in
the last two instances is tlio use of the sign of the intinitive
'to,' which does not occur after 'niay,' 'can,' 'must,' 'ought,'
etc.; but that is not au essential diHerence. Some gramuui-
riaus consider the foiin ' I do go ' a separate mortd, and term
it the emphatic niootl. r»ut all the ahove ohjectiuns apply to
it likewise, as well as many others.'" — Bain. See SuiiJU^c-
TiVE Mood.

Individual. This word is often most improperly used
for person; as, "The in i livid ual I saw was not over forty ";
"There were several i)i.(liri(hiii!,^ on honvd that I had never
seen before." Indiridwd means, etymologif.-ally, that which
can not be divided, and is used, in speakiiiur of things as well
as of persons, to express unity. It is opposed to the whole,
or that wliich is divisilile into parts.

Indorse. Careful writers generally discountenance the
use ol indorse in the sense of sanr/ion, npprow, ap}>laud. In
this signitication it is on tiie list of proliibited words in some
of our newspaper otlices. '" The following rules are indorf<ed
by nearly all writers upon tliis subject." — Dr. Townsend. It
is plain that the right word to use here is approved. "The
public will heartily indorse the sentiments uttered by the
court."— New York " Evening Telegram." "The public will
heartily apjirove the sentiments exjjres/itd by the court," is
what the sentence siioiild be.

Infinitive Mood. When we can choose, it is gcncnilly
better to use tlie verlj in the inliiiitive tliftt in the pai'ticipi-l
form. " Ability being in general tiie power o/" r/ot//*/," etc
S.'iy, fn do. "I (jesire to reply ... to the proposal of snh-
Stitudu'j a tax upon land values . . . and m-iLi/i;f tliis tax, as
near [nearly] as may be, cijual to rent," etc. Say, fo .vdi>,li-

THE VERBALIST.

tiite and to vmki'. " This quality is of prinir importance when
the chief object is </ie imparting of knt-wlcdgc." Sayj to
imjiart.

Initiate. Thia is a prctf^ntions word, which, with its
derivatives, niatiy persons — especially those who like to be
grandiloquent - use, when homely English would f-erve tliuir
turn niucli better.

Innumerable Number. A repetitional expression to be
avoided. We may say imiami'vable times, or iimnhcrlanH times,
but we should not .say an innumerable number of times.

Interrogation. The rhetorical figure that asks a ques-
tion in order to em|)hasize the reverse of what is asked is
called inlfrroi/ation ; as, "Do we mean to subniit to this
measure? Do we mean to submit, and consent tliat we our-
selves, our country and its rights, shall be trampled on?"

"Doth God pervert judgment? or flotii the Almighty
pervert justice?"

Intro''"ce. See Pkesent.

Irony. That mode of speech in which what is meant is
contrary to the literal meaniiig of the Avords — in which praise
is bestowed when censure is intended — is called ircntij. Irony
is a kiiid of delicate sarcasm or satire — I'aillcry, mockery.

^^h\ writings of humor, figures nre sometimes used of so
delicate a nature that it shall often happen that some people
will see things in a direct contrary sense to what the author
Rud the majority of tiie rea'lers understand them : to wuch
the must innocent irouij may appear iircligion." — Candjridgo.

Irritate. >' • Aucuavatk.

Is being bulit. A t()lerable idea of the st.ite of the dis-
cw-siion re .u'diiig flio propriety of using the locution is hei>icj
huiU, and all Wo; expressions, will, it is hoped, be obtained
fi.nn the following extracts. The Rev. Peter Bullions, in hia
" Ijirannnar of the En.:;Iif>h T;anguage," says:

o4r

TJIE VEUDALIST.

" There is pi'oporly no passine form, in English, corre-
syjoudiv'j to the. jn'o;/re.mve form in the actire voice, except
■wiicre it, is mailc by tlie participle in;i, in the passive scn.se,
tiins, ' Tiie house is buiklia^'; 'The ga;nients are niuking';
•Wlieat is selling,' etc. An attempt lias been made by .some
grammarians, ol' late, to banisli such expressions from the
language, thongii they have been used in all time past by the
licst Mriters, au'i to justify and defend a olumsy solecism,
wiiich has been recently introduced chiefly through the news-
]«p(!r prc^s, bat wiiioli lias gained such currency, and is
bec<pming so familiar to tlie ear, tliat it seems likely to pre-
vail, with all its uncouthness and deformity. 1 i-efir to such
expresoions as ' The iiouse is being built '; ' The letter is being
written"; 'The mine is being worked'; 'The news is being
telegraphed,' etc., etc.

" This mode of erpression /lad no existence in the language
till loit/dn the last f ft y i/ejirs.* This, indeed, would not make
tlie expression M'rong, were itotlierwise unexceptionable; })ut
its recent origin shows that it is not, as is pretended, a ncces-
.sa/v' form.

'• This form of expression, when analyzed, is found not to
express what it is intended to express, and would be used
only by such as are either ignorant of its import or are t -a-
less and loose in their use of language. To make this mani-
fcot, let it be considered, first, that there is no :>uv;;rc.s.s/? •
yo/v/i of the verb to ht and no need of it; hem" . 're is uo.
su.'h expression in English as is hrliKj, Of cour.-' Uie ex|U'e3-
si:ia ' /.s hihnj l)iiilt,' for example, is not a conijMinnd of is hehuf
ami hni't, but of /-and he'in[i haVt ; that iy, of the verb to be
and the jn'eaent lyrth'tple }Ki)<um. Now, let it be obsi'rved
thai: the oidy verbs in wiiicli the present ])articiple passive
expresses a continued action are tlio.se mentioned al)ove as tlie

•Bullions' "Graininar" wns published in 1.07.

THE VERBALIST.

firf *; class, in M'hich the regular passive form expresses a con-
tinuant c oi the ucfion ; as, is lorcd, is desired, etc., and in
which, of cotirse, the form in que.slion {is hdn<i haiJi) is not
r<'(|nireil. Noljody would think of saying, 'lie is being
luved'; 'This result is being desired.'

" The use of this form is justified only by condewnirKj an
estahiis/icd usaije of the language; namely, the passive sense
in some verbs of tlie participle in inrf. In reference t.) this it
is flippantly asked, ' \Vhat docs the house build?' 'Wliat
doe-, the letter write?' etc. — taking for grauteil, without
attempting to prove, that the participle in incj can not have a
passive souse in any veib. The following are a few examples
from writers of the l)est reputation, which this novelty would
condemn: 'While the ceremony was pcrfuruung.' — Tom
Brown. 'The court was then holding. '-.Sir G. McKenzie.
' And still be doing, never done.'— Butler. 'The books are
selling.' — Allen's 'Grammar.' 'To know nothing of what is
transacting in the region* above us.' — Dr. Blair. ' The s]iX)t
where this new and strange ti'agedy was acting.' — K. Everett,
' The fortress was building.' — Irving. 'An attempt is making
in the I'luglish Parliament.' — IX Webster. 'Tlie church now
erecting in the city of New York.' — 'N. A. Review.' 'Tliese
tiungs were transacting in England.' — Bancroft.

"This new doctrine is in o/tjiosition to the almost J/w/n'/noH.*
jiidf/nievt of tlie most diMintini-<}ied ijriimmanans and critics,
w ho iiavc considered the subject, and expressed their views
concerning it. The following art- a specimen: * Exprci;sions
of this kind av(,' condcnnu'd by some criiics ; but the usage is
unquestionably of far better aiahority, and (according to my
apprehe:ision) in far better tisto, than the more complex
phrajieology which some late writers adopt in its stead ; as,
••T'»> books a! e i.ow -being sold.'" — (Joold Brown. ' A& to
tiiu notion of mtroaucing a new and nioic complex pa.-ai\e

THE V EBB A LIST.

form of conjugation, aa, "The hvulge h being hnilt" 'T\\e
bridge was being built," and so forth, it is one of the most
absiu'd and monstrous innovations ever thought of. "The
■work is now being ))iih/ifi/ied," is certainly no better English
than, "The work was being publitihed, has been being jmb-
lixhed, had 1)een being published, shall or will be being jnib/ished,
shall or will hare been being jmblislied," and so on through all
the moods and tenses. Wliat a language we shall have when
our verbs are thus conjugated!' — Brown's 'Gr. of English
Gr,,' p. 301. De War observes : ' The participle in ing is also
passive in many instances; as, "The house is building," "I
heard of a plan forming,"' etc. — Quoted is 'Frazee's Gram-
mar,' p. 4!). ' It would be an absurdity, indeed, to give up
the only way we have of denoting tlie incomplete state of
, action by a passive form (viz., by the participle in ing in the
passive sense).'— Arnold's 'English Grammar,' p. 40. 'The
present participle is often used passively ; as, "The ship is
building." The form of expression, i$ being built, is being
conii U(d, etc., is almost universally condenmed by gram-
marians, but it IS sometimes met with in respectable writers;
it occurs most frequently in newspaper paragraphs and in
hasty compositions. Hee Worcester's " Universal and Criti-
cal Dictionary.'" — Weld's 'Grammar,' pp. US and 180.
'When we say, " The liouse is building," tlie advocates of the
new theory ask, " Building Mluit?'' We miglit ask. in turn,
wlien you .say, "The field ploughs well," — "Tlouglis what?"
"Wheat sells well,"— "Sells what?" If usnge allows us to
say, "Wheat sells at a dollar," in a sense that is rot active,
why may we not .say, "Wheat is selling at a dollar," in a
sense that is not active?' — Hart's 'Grannnav,' p. Hi. ' 'i'!u)
jirevailing practice of the best autiiors is in favor of the
simple form ; as, " The house is building." ' — Wells' ' School
Grammar,* p. 148. 'Several other expressions of this sort

THE VERBA LIST.

now and tl;en occur, such rh the iicw-faiigh.d and most un-
couth sohi'cisin, "/« hr'ntij (/oiic," for the good old English
idiou' "is doiiKf" — an absurd periphrasis driving out a pointed
and pithy turn of the Englisli language.' — *N. A. Heview,'
quoted by Mr. W.-lls, p, 148. 'Tlic phraso, "i** being built,"
and others of a similar kind, have been for a few years in-
sinuating themselves into our language; still they are n^t
English.' — Harrison's 'Rise, Progress, and Present Structure
of the English Language.' 'This mode of expiession [the
house is being built] is l)eeonung quite common. It is liable,
however, to several important objections. It appears formal
and pedantic. It has not, as far as 1 know, the support oi
any respectable grammarian. The easy and natural expres-
sion is, "The house h building.'"— Prof. J. W. Gibbs."

Mr. Richard (irairt White, in Ins "Words and Their
Uses," expresses his opinion of the locution is being in this
wise: " In bad eminence, at the head of those intruders in
language which to many persons seem to be of established
respectability, but the right of which to be at all is not fully
admitteil, stands out the form of speeoli is being done, or
rather, is being, wiiich, about seventy or eighty years ago,
began to affront tiie eye, torment the ear, and assault the
common sense of tlie speaker of plain and idiomatic English."
Mr. White devotes thirty pages of his book to the discussion
of the subject, and adduces eviilence that is more than suffi-
cient to convince tliosc who are content with an tv parte
examination that " it can hardly be that such an incongruous
and ridiculous form of speech as is being done was contrived
by a man who, l)y any stretch of the name, should bo included
among grammarians."

Mr. (George P. Marsh, in his " Lectures on the English
Language," says that the deviser of the locution in question
was "some frrammaticnl pretender," and that it is " ii

THE VEnnAIJST.

iiwkwanl ne.oln'j;ism, wliicih neitlier convotiir'K!*', intelligi-
bility, nor syntactical t'OMLcruily (Icniandn."

To tho;=e geiitlcm(!n, and to those wlu) iuh; of tln-ir way of
thinking. with regard to in lichnj, \)i\ I'it/cdward il.ill ivplics
at some length, in an article puhlishud in "Scjil)uer's
Monthly," for April, 1872. Dr. Hall writes:

" 'AH really well educateil in tiic J-Inglish ton,L'ue lament
the many innovations introduced into our language from
America ; and I doulit if more than one of these novelties de-
serve acceptation. That one is, aubstitnting a compound
participle for an active verb nsed in a neuter .signilication:
for instance, "The house is hrliKj biii't," instead of, "The
house is buildiiuj." ^ Such is the assertion and such is the
opinion of some anonymous luminary,* who, for his liberality
in welcoming a supposed Aineiicanism, is somewhat in ad-
vance of the herd of his countrymen. Almost any popular
expression which is considered as a novelty, a IJriton is pntty
certain to assume, oll'-hand, to have originated on our side
of the Atlantic. Of the ai-.sortion I have quoted, no proof is
offered; and there is little probability that its antluir iiaduny
to oifer. 'Are being,' in tlie plvrase 'are being thrown up,''>
is spoken of in 'The Novth American ileview'i as 'an out
rage upon English idioin, "to be detested, abhoried, exe
crated, and given over to six thousand" pcnny-p'i per editors',
and the fact is, that phrases of the form here pointed at have
hitherto enjoyed very much leys favm* with us than with the
Knglirih.

*"L. W. K., CLK., LUD., EX. S,.H., T. O. U. 0( IU\. luvorcii.i
;;i,'iitk'iiiaii',s |iii~i)hiiiity I know iiotliiiii,'. lie lidcs not say cxae- ly « h,it
lu! iiiiaiis; l)iit what ho mciiis is, vol;, uiinii-iukaijio. Tlio uxtraci. j^iicu
abovu is t'ruiii •Puidic Uiiiiiioii,' January id, l>tiO."

t ''Tin; aiialyiMS, taken for jiiantcil in tliis (niDfatidii, of 'are I'n'iij;
brown up' into 'aio bcin^' and 'thrown up' will be dealt witli in vlxa
fcqucl, and .siiown to be untenable."
,;' I'Vol. .\iv, p. nOi (U:,37).'-

Tin: vnujiALisT,

"As lately as ISOO, Dr. Worcester, referring to /« hcinq
Jmilt, etc., wluli! acknowledging that ' tliis new form has Leen
used l)y Koim' respo'tahlo writers,' speaks of it as having
'been introduced-' 'within a few years.' Mr. Ricluird Grant
White, by a most pccuiar process of ratiocination, encleavors
to prove tli;it what J>i-. W'urccyter calls 'tliis new form' came
into o.xisteuee just Iifty-8i\ years ago. He premises that in
Jarvis's trannlatinn of 'Don Quixote,' publiiih^d in 174'2, tliere
occur.s 'were carrying,' and tliat tiiis, in tiie edition crt' ISIS,
is sojildstieatud into 'wei'o l)oing carried.' 'Tliis change,'
continues our logician, ' and the appearance of w Ih'.Iu'J with a
perfect particijile in a very few books publlslied between
A. D. ISIT) and 1820, indioatc the former period as tiiat of tlie
origin of thi;i pliraseology, wliich, altliungh more than half a
century old, is still pi'onounced a novel Ly as well as a
nuisance.'

"Who, in the next place, devised our modern imperfect
passive ? The question is not, originally, of my asking ; but,
as the harned are at open feud on the suVtject, it should iiot
be passed by in silence. Its deviser is, more tlian likely, as
undi.scoverable as the naiiit; of the valiant antediluvian who
fii'st tasted an oyster, liut the deductive chai'ucter of the
miscreant is another thing ; and hereon there is a war be-
tween the philosophers. Mr. G. P. Mar.sh, as if he had
actually spotted the wretched creature, passionately and
categorically denouiu;es him as 'some grammatical pretender.'
'IJnt.' ri'plies Mr. White, 'that it is the work of any gram-
marian is more than dou])tful. Grammarians, with all their
faults, do not deform language with fantastic solecisms, or
even s^eck to em'ich it with new and startling verba! ccinbina-
tioni;. They rather resist novelty, and devote themselves to
formulating that which use has already established,' lu the

THE VERBALIST,

same pngc with this, Mr. White compliments the groat
unknown as 'soipe precise and foi'hle-minded soul,' and
else%vi)L'ie calls him ' aome ijcdantic writer of tlie hist genera-
tion.' To add even one woi'd touiird a solution of the knotty
point hero indicated transcends, I confess, my utmost
competence. It is painful to picture to one's self the agonizing
emotions with which certain philologists wouhl cont(;ni|-)late
an authentic elligy of the Attila of speech who, by his i.s Ix imj
built or is beiiuj done., first oll'ered violency to tiie whole circle
of the proprieties. So far as I liave observed, llie first
grammar that exhibits them is that of Air. Jl. S. Skillern,
M.A., the first edition of wiiich was pnl)lislic'd at (Jlcuceater
in 1802. Ivohert S(jutliey liad not, on tlie 9tli of October,
1795, been out of his miuority quite two months when, evi-
dently delivering himself in a way that had already become
familiar enough, he tvrote of *a fellow whose uttermost
upper grinder is belthj lorn out, by the roots by a iniitton-n«ted
barber.'* Tliis is in a letter. But repeated instances of the
same kind of expression are seen iu Southey's graver writings.
Thus, in his 'Colloquies,' etc., f we read of ' such [nunneries]
as at this time are bein(j re.'^stabH-^hed.''

*' 'Wliile my hand was hein<i (/rest by Mr. Young, I spoke
for the first time.' wrote Coh-ridge, in March, I7!)7.

"Cliarlos Lamb speaks of realities Mhich 'tire beiufj acted
before us,' and ot 'a man who is beimj stranijted.'

" Walter Savage Landor, in an imaginary conver.sation,
represents Pitt as saying: 'Tlie man wiio possessed tlicin may
read Swcdenborg and Kant wliile lie in hein;/ tossed in a
blanket.' Again: 'I have seen nobles, men and women,

•'"The Life and CcrrcRponilciicc of the late Robert Southey, vol. i,
p. 24!)."

t"Vol. i, p. 338. 'A stu(i(;iit, who tx licniri craiiiDfd' ; 'that vcr)) ia
eternally beiiuj declined.' —' Tliu Doctor,' pp 38 and 40 (uionotonie td.)."

Tin: VKUIiALIST.

kneeling' in tl'r- street hcfore tliesehisliopH, when no ceremony
of the {';ith"li ■ Chiirrh t/'«.s hchnj ji< rj'dnin d.' Also, in ;i
translation from Catullus : •Some criminal is beiii'j tried for
nuinler.'

•' Nor (looa Mr. Do Qnincey scruple at such English as
' made and In in;/ mri'/p,' 'the bi ide that tcan hriiKj married to
him,' and 'the shafts of Floaven urro even now hpuuj for'icd.''
On one occasion lie writes, ' Not done, not even (according to
modern purism) be'mg done^ ; as if 'purism' meant exactness,
rather than the avoidance of neoterism.

"I need, surely, name no more, among the dead, who
found ts hcimj built, or tins like, acceptalde. 'Rimple-mimled
coiiunon pedido ami those of culture were alike protected
against it hy their attachment to the idiom of their mother
tongue, with which they felt it to be directly at variance.'
So Mr. White informs us. But the writers M'hom I have
quoted are formid ible excejitions. Even Mr. White will
scarcely deny to them the title of ' people of culture.'

" So much for oUcnders past repentance ; and we all know
that the sort of phraseology under consideration is daily he-
coming more and more common. The best written of the
English reviews, magazines, and journals are perpetually
maiked by it ; and some of the choicest of living English
writers eiiiplny it freely. Among these, it is enough if I
specify liishop Wilhirl'orce and Mr. Charles Keade.*

" lOxtia.cts from liislu.p Jewel downward being also given,

^ Lord Macaiihiy, Mr. Dickens, *Tho Atlantic Monthly,' and

'The liruoklyn Eagle' are alleged by Mr. \\'lute in pioi-f

that people still use such phrases as 'Cheh.ea Hospital !(•((.-•

buihliii:/,' and 'the train tnia prcpariii'j. ' licuce we see,' he

* '111 'Put Yourself in his I'lace,' cliajitor x, lie writes: '.She ba.skoi
In the present ilelij;hr, and looked as if sh^j wan bcinj taken to lica\cn by
an an''cl.'

^>.

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TUK VI':!!1:MJST.

aiMs,* 'that the foiin h hi'liiij ilouf, is hfiiit/ matff, i-ihrinij
l)ni/t, lacks tlie support of autlmritative usag(^ from the period
of the earliest chissioal English to the presint day.' I fully
concur witii Mr. White in regarding 'neitiier "Tiie Brooklyn
Eagle" nor Mr. Diekens ;i3 a very high authority in the use
of language"; yet, when he has renounced the aid of tliese
contemned straws, wliat has he to rest his ii.ference on, as to
the present day, but the practice of Lord Maeaulay and 'The
Atlantic Monthly'? Tiiose who think fit will bow to the
dictatorship here prescribed to them ; out there may be tho.se
with whom the classic sanction of Southey, CoU'rilge, and
Landor, will not V»e wholly void of weight. All scholars are
aware that, to convey the sense of the imperfects pa.'-sive, our
ancestors, centuries ago, prefixed, witli In, etc., in, afterward
corrupted into a, to a \erbd substantive. ' Tiie iionse in in
hitihroKj' co\\\{\ be taken to mean nothing but a'dci ndijirantur;
and, when tlio in gave place to a,t it was still manifest
enough, from the context, that hui/dlnij was governed by a
preposition. The second stage of change, however, namely,
when the a was omitted, entailed, in m.iny cases, gnat
danger of confusion. In the early part of the last century,
when English was undtirgoing what was then thought to bo
purification, the polite world sul)stantially resigned is
a-huihliiuj to the vulgar. Toward tiie close of tlie same
century, when, under the intluence of free thought, it began
to be felt that even ideas had a right to faithful antl une-
quivocal representation, a just re.sentment of ambiguity was
evidenced in the creation of is hrimj built. The la?H( nt is too
late that the instinct of reformation did not restore the old
form. It has gone forever; and we are now to make the best

•"'Words,' etc., p. 340."

t"Thi'iiias Fuller writt's: 'At his arriv.il, the la.st Htiike of Ww Chris*
Hans \v;i8 (in losimj,'—' The llistorie of the Holy Warre,' \k 21"^ (. d. I(il7.)

77//; ''ERHALIST.

9.1

of its Ruccessora. ' "Tlie Imisa is/onfiii;/," ' in the opinion ut
Dv. Johnson, is 'a vicious expression, probalily cunuptfjd
from a plirast! ni(jro puro, })nt now .snnuu hat oh.«oh.'ti;, . . .
"tiie brass <.s (i/oi'<jiutf." ' Yet, with a true Tory's timidity
and aversion to chim^e, it is not surprising that he went on
preferring what he found isfjildishiil, vicious as it confessedly
was, to tiie end. But was tlie expression ' vicious' solely l)e-
eauso it was a corruption? In 1787 William li(,>ckford wrote
as follows or tiic fortune t'Olors of Lisbon : '/ sun) one (/r"jiii)i;/
intoiifi/it, a-i 1 passed by tiie nii;is of a palace thrown dt)wn
by tlif uarthquake. Whetiier a fanuliar of the Inquisition
was ;;rii)ing iier in his clutches, or wIulIk r alif wan Idkhni to
acrouiit by som (iMi/'puiiilc/ volnnj, I will not pretend ;o
answer.' Are the expre-^siona here italicized either pei-
spieuous or graceful? Whatever we are to iuive in tiieir
place, we shouhl be thankful to get quit of thein.

" Inasnuich MS, concurrently with liiiildiiuj for the active
participle, ami hi iixj built for the corresponding passive puti-
ciple, we possessed the former, with m prefixed, as the active
present imperiect, it is in rigid accordance with tlie symmetry
of our verb tliat, to construct the passive present imperfect,
we pretix l-i to the latter, producing the form in beiit;/ liuUt.
Such, in its greatest simplicity, is the procedure which, as
•will be seen, hab provoked a very levanter of ire and vililica-
tion. I'ut anything that is new will be excepted to by minds
of a certain order. 'I'lieir trenudous and impatient dirad of
removing ancient lanchuarks e\cn disijualitiis them for tliur-
onghly investigating its cliaiacter and pretcnsicns. In liiis
built ami iri/f bii'tl, we lind tlie active participle perfect and
the active inlinitive s\ibjoincd to auxiliaries ; and m), in /lu.-i '
been luii/l ami «•/// bi- built, the passix e particiidc perfect and
he pudve inlinitive arc subjoined to auxiliarios. In /x
buililiiKj and in beinj built, we have, iu strict harmony with

TllK VElinALLVr.

tlm cnnsti'tiition of the perfect and future tenses, an auxiliary
followerl by the active participle present and the pafisive
p:irtiriplo pi-esi-nt. Bit'ilt is detcrmiiieil as active or passive
l>y the verbs wjiicli (lualify it, have and be : and the gram-
marians arc rigiit in consiilering it, wlien embodied in haa
hnilt, as active, since its aniil();4Uc. emhndied in hiu Iicpii built,
is the exclusively passive beoi buiU. J^»cside8 this, has befit +
hitUt would signify something like has existed, built,* which is
plainly neuter. We are dcb.'irre<l, therefore, from such an
analysis ; and, by parity of reasoning, we may not resolve is
being built into is bdn'j-\- built. It must have been an inspira-
tion of analogy, felt or unfelt, tliat suggested the form I am
discussing. Js b<in;i + built, as it can mean, pretty nearly,
only cists, built, would never have been proposed as adequate
to convey any but a neuter sense ; wliereas it was perfectly
natural for a person aiming to express a passive sense to
prefix is to the passive concretion bdnfj biti/t.f

"The analogical justification of is beiii'j built which I have
brought forward is so obvious that, as it occurred to myself
more than twenty years ago, &o it must have occurrcil spon-
taneously to hundreds besides. It is very singular that those
w'lo, like Mr. Marsh and Mr. Wiiite, have pondered long and
painfully over locutions typified by is heinfj built, should have
missed the real ground of their grammatical dcfensililoness,
and shoul I have warmed themselves, in their epposition to
them, Into uttering opinions wliich no calm judgment can
accept.

* "I express mysi-lf in this manner because I dlstinguisli between be
and (xi>it."

t"S;imufi1 Ixi" hnrdson writr^ : '.lonny, who attends me here, has
more than onro hitiiid to mo that Miss .Iirvis loven to Hit tip late, either
v'Milin;,' or liri,i<;i mill to by Antif. who, thoii'.'h she reads well, ia not lond
ol thtraHk.'— ' Sir CbarleN Craiiilisoii,' \ol. iii, p. 4ti (.d. 1754).

"The transition is very aliKht by wtiich we pa>8 from 'nits belnjj nad
to' to 'Ubtiin^ read to.'"

THE VEfUlA LIST.

"'One who fa heinf] henfen* is, to Archbishop Whatcly,
'iiiicouth English.' ' "The bridge hi being huiff," and other
nlirasoH of tlie like kind, hixva piiined tlie eye' of Mr. David
Booth. Suoli pill acH, according to Mr. M. Harrison, * are
not Hngli^ih,' To l*iofos-or J. W. Oibbs 'this mode of ex-
pression . , . appears formal and pedantic'; and 'the easy
and natural expre-^sion is, "The house ?.s huihliiuf." '* In all
this, Httle or nothluL; is discernible! beyond sheer prejudice,
thf prejudice of those n-ho resolve to take their stand against
an innovation, regardless of its utility, and who are ready to
find an argument against it in any random epithet of dis-
paragement provokeil by unr2asoiiing aversion. And the
more recent denouncers in the same line have no more reason
ou their side than their elder brethren.

•'In Mr. Marsh's estimation, is Iicinrj built illustrates
'corruption of language' ; it is 'clumsy and uuidiomatic'; it
is 'at best but a philological coxcombry'; it 'is an awkward
neologism, which neither convenience, intelligibility, nor
syntactical congruity demands, and the use of which ought,
therefore, to be discountenanced, as an attempt at the artificial
improvement of the language in a point which needed no
amendment.' Again, 'To reject' is building in favor of the
modern phrase ' is to violate the laws of language by an
arbitrary change ; and, in this peculiar case, the proposed
stibititute ia at war with the genius of the I']ngli3h tongue.'
Mr. Marsh sicms to have fincied that, wiierever he points
,>ut a bi'anty in i)* hnildlnj, he points out, inclusively, n.
blemish in in being built,

" The fervor and feeling with which Mr. Whitf advances
to the charge are altogether tropical. ' The full absurdity of

•"I .1.11 horo itidobted to the last edition of Dr. Worcester's 'Dio*
tiouary,' preface, p. xxxix."

THE VL'/iiiA/JST

t'ii-< phrase, tlie essence, of its noiisiinse, Keeins not to havt
lioen hitherto poiiitnl out.' It is not N'onsLsteiit with reason';
iinl it is not ' confoniiL'd to tin; nonuHl (levt'Iopnicut of the
hingiiage.' It is 'a n;uiistrosity, tiie illogioai, cotifu-,ini;, in-
r tciir.ito, uniilionintic ch iractcr of whicli 1 have at Honio
1 n^tli, but yet iniiM'i-fuotly, set fuiili.' J'iiuilly, 'In f.ict, it
i;ie:in8 notiiiny, and is tlie most iiieongruous eonil)ination of
words and idt'as tliat ever attained respectable >isai;e in any
I :vili/(;d lan^'ua;,'e.' 'J'in.'se l)e 'prave 'ords" ; and it seeins B
i'lty that so niucii sterling vituperative uniiiiiuiiti'.n should bo
lApeniled in vain. And that it is so expended thinks Mr.
White himself ; for, though passing sentenee in the spirit of
!i .lelFieys, he is not really on the jiid_'iMcnt seat, but on the
lowest hassock of de8i)air. As comerns the mode of expres-
sion exeniplilied bj' i« brln'j hiti/f, he owns that 'to check its
tlillusion would be u hdjude-ss undeitaking.' If so, why not
reserve hini-,«. If for service against some evil not avowedly
beyoml remedy?

"Again we read, '.Some precise an<l feeble-minded soul,
having been taught that there is a pass^ive voice in KnglLsh,
and that, for instance, biiUili/nj is an active participle, and
li.ii/<l(i/. or Ijiiil/ a jias-^ive, felt consiicntious sernplcs at saying
"the liouse «s /^«t/(/i/(r/." For m liat could the house liuild?'
As children say at play, Mr. White burns here. If it had
occurred to him that the 'conseiehtio^.^ 8cruj)les' of his
hypothetical, 'precise, ami feei)l('-minded soul ' were roused
by hbcii huiU, not l)y hiii/f, I suspect his cliapter on is being
hii'iH would li;ive been much .sliorter than it is at present, and
very different. ' The fatal absurdity in this phrase consists,'
he tells n-!, 'in tlie combinatifm of is with bdinj ; in the
making of the verl) /o he a Hiipplenunt, or, in gi'animariau'H
phrase, an auxiliary to itself — an alisurdity so palpable, bo
monstrous, so ridiculous, that it should need f)nly to b«

THE VKIWALIST.

•7

pf)iiiti'(l out to 1)C scouted.'* Lastly, 'The qucf.tiou ia thus
niinowoil simply lo thlK, Does to he filing (esse enx ) mean
uuvtliii •' nil r<; o:' otln-r than to ht?^

«r O

" Jlaviuy eoiivicted Mr. Wliito of a mistaken analysis, I
am not eoncernoil with the ohservutions which ho founds on
hi.s mistake. lIo\Vf\«;r, even if his analysis hail been correct,
bome of his ar^nmcnta would avail liim notiiing. For in-
stance, in lii'lixj hiii't, on his unilorstanding of it, that is to .say,
ix hcimj + huilt, ho represents by ens a'dijicatus est, as 'the
BUppo.sed toire.^ponding I^atin phrase. 't The Latin is ille-
gitimate ; and lie infers tliat, therefine, the ICnglish is the
name. Ikit adijic'ina ctt, a transhition, on the model which
ho oilers, of the active in huililiiKj, is quite as illegitimate as
t'DH (niijIciituH ent. By [)arity of nonneiiuitur, we are, there-
fore, to surrender the active w hui/iUmj. Assume that a
phrase in a given language is inilefensiblc unless it has its
counterpart in some other language ; from the »ery conception
and definition of an idiom every i<liom i^ illegitimate.

" I now pass to another point. * 7o be. and to exist a e,' to
Mr. White's apprelu nsion, 'perfect synonyms, or more nearly
perfect, perhaps, than any two verbs in tiie language. Ju
some of their meanings there is a shade of dillerence, but in
others there is none whatever ; and the latter are those which
serve our present i>urpi)se. When we say, "Ifc, htiinj fore-
warned of danger, lied," we say, "lie, ejusfiiKj forewarned of

♦ " • Words ami their Uses,' n. :!Vl."

^" ' It ill hfiifi is i-iin|i]y t(jf..'i; to it is. Aiitl, in llio siuijioscd rorre«

FJiOlidiliK- I,.'itJi JillKl-^fs ,iit:J((rli'ii int. riin tvtlinfiiliiii txt (lilt.- idj-nlt'tCMCsV
of (//J* nn a |ia'ti<ii>le 111 illy "^liiiildl', tlio iiiDiistn s ty in not iii tlic use <f
riis w'uU liifiiiy, hnt in t lint i f <7ix «illi 'x/. Tlii' ulir'iiKlitv is, in i.a'i",
jiist «liiit. it. is ill Iv ;; j.sii, tlic ii>i' of i.< wiih liiiitij, tlic iiiukiii); of the vcib
to ( r ac(;iii|i;cMiii'iit to itu'lf. — //''i'., (>]> .">.•, lij'\

" Ani'iui'Mtly. Mr. Whilr roro ;ii'Zo-< no more difcrtMire Iirtwceii si/n-
plt'Vhvl iiU'l •■■■iniiitiiii'tii ili.iii li rtirouiiizcs lii;twci:ii l/v ui.il '\L<tt. See the
«Ktruct I liaM ni.'id'" iil)'i>i.', fioin p ;{,');t."'

THE VERBALIST.

(lanjrer, fled." When we say that a thing is clone, we pay
that it exUtu (lone. . . , Is heimj done is ssiniply exiMi^ exiKthnf
done.' But, since is and exists are equipollent, and so beimj
and existinif, is hriiiij is the same as the unimpoaohiible is
e.ristin(}. Q. non E. 1). Is (:iisli-^(j ouj^ht, of course, to])o no
less ol)jcctional)le to Mr. Wliite than i.s hein'j. Just as absurd,
too, should ho reckon tlio Italian sono stato, era stato, sia
etalOy/ossi stato, snro stato, sarei stato, essere stato, and ess'ndo
stato. For in Italian both esspre an., stare are required to
make up the verb substantive, as in Latin botli esse and the
ofTspriag oi fuere are required; ami stare, primarily 'to
stand,' is modified into a trnc anxiliary. Tlie alleged 'full
absurdity of this phraso,' to wit, is bein'j hui't, ' the essence of
its nonsense,' vanishes tinis into thin air. So I was about to
comment bluntly, not forgetting to regret that any gentle-
man's cultivation of logic should fructify in the shape of
irrepressible tendencies to suicide. But this would be pre-
cipitate. Agreeably to one of Mr. White's judicial placita,
which I mcake no apology for citing twice, ' no man who has
preserved all his senses will doubt for a moment that " to
exist a mastiff or a mule " is absolutely tlie same as "to be a
mastiff or a mule."' Declining to admit their identity, I have
not preserved all my senses; and, accordingly — though it
may be in me the very superfetation of lunacy — I would
caution the reader to keep a sharp eye on my arguments,
hereabouts particularly. The Cretan, who, in declaring all
Cretans to be liars, left tlie question of his veracity doubtful
to all eternity, fell into a pit of his own digging. Not unlike
the unfortunate Cretan, Mr. White has tuml)led headlong
into his own snare. It was, for the rest, entirely unavailing
that he insisted on the insanity of Lhoso wlio should gainsay
fundamental postulate. Sanity, of a crude sort, may
accept it; and sanity may put it to a use other than i s
propounder's.

THE VElinALIFiT.

"Mr. NFarsh, after setting forth the all-sufliiioncy of i»
hnUdhirj, in the passive souse, goes on to say : 'The reformers
who object to the pliraso I am defending must, in consii^tency,
employ tlie proposed substitute witli all passive participles,
and in other tenses as well as the present. They must say,
therefore, "The subscription-paper is beimj r/i/xsw/, but I
know that a considerable sum is bfin<j wanted to make up the
amount"; "the great Victoria Bridge ha~<< been bpiiifj built
more than two years"; "when I reach London, the ship
Leviathan will be beiiiff built"; "if my orders had been fol-
lowed, the coat would hme. been beiiKj made ifesterday " ; "if
the house had then been beiwj but t, the mortar would have
been bciixj mired."' We may reply that, while awkward in-
stances of the old form are most abumlant in our literature,
there is no fear that the repulsive elaborations which have
been worked out in ridicule of the new forms will prove to
have been anticipations of future usage. There was a time
when, as to their adverbs, people compared them, to a large
extent, with -er and -est, or with more and most, just as their
ear or pleasure dictated. They wrote plainlier and plainliest,
or more plainli/ and most plalnhj ; and some adverbs, as early,
late, often, seldom, and soon, we still con>pare in a way now
become anoninlous. And as our forefathers treated tlieir ad-
verbs we still treat many adjectives. Furthermore, obliijing-
ness, preparedness, and deslijnedly seem quite natural ; yet we
do not feel that they autliorize us to talk of ' the seeinrjuess of
the eye,' * the understoodne<s of a sentence,' or of 'a statement
acknowled(jedly correct.' 'The now too notorious fact' is
tolerable; but 'the never to bn suHiciently execrated monster
Bonaparte' is intolerable. The sun may be shorn^oi his
splendor; but we do not allow cloudy weather to s//e«r him
of it. How, then, can any one claim that a man who prefers
to say is beimj built should say has been beinij built? Are not

100

rut: y 1:1: II A LIST.

a wk\\nril iiixtiiiiccH of tin- (i|«l Imin, ty|>ini-d by i» biiiklhuj, ai
I'uwily to l)c pickod out of cxtaiil litciatiiu' an bucIi iimtaiiuef
of tlie new foiin, liktly evir to lie iim il, ;uf to ha iiivfiitu<l ?
And 'tlio rt'fii niers' liuve not f i«?\voru their ears, Mr.
Marsli, nt p. \\\b of ]iis U(lniini,l)lu * I^eeturcs,' liiys tluwii that
'thcailjcclive reHnbtc, in the tenve of v-oilhy vj coiijidmc, U
altoyetlier nni'lionmtic'; jukI yet, at p. ll'J, he wiites
'reliable evidence.' Agidn, at p. liW* uf the fame work, lie
rules that w/ionf, in '1 pii.s»ed a house u7jo.s<! wintlowa were
open,' is ' by no nuins yet fully estaljlished': ami at p. 1 15
of his very learned * Man and Nature' he writes 'a nuadran-
gular pyramid, the perpi;M<lii.'ular of vhosr. sides,' etc. lU'ally,
if his own judgments uit so very Icjosc on iiis praetioal con-
science, M'e may, without being cljargeable with exaction, ask
of him to relax a little the rigor of his rt<iuireinents at the
hands of his neighbors).

"Beckford's Lislion fnrtunc-teller, befoit; had into court,
was UlnujijiiKj into liglit,' and, pticliance, ' wnn taLiinj to ac-
count.' Many moderns would say and write '/^<'//(_7 f/n»,'/f/»'/
into light,' and ^ nan beiiHj taken to account,' But, il' wc aio
to trust the conservative criticn, in Cfinii>ai ison with expres-
sions of thj foimer pattern, tlntse of the latter are 'unrontli,'
'clumsy,' 'awkwai'd neologisms,' 'philological eoxcomiuies,'
•formal and ptTlan tic,' 'incongruous and ridiculous forms of
speech,' 'illogical, confusing, inaccurate monstrosities.' More-
over, they are neither 'consistent with reason' nor 'conformed
to the norniMl development of the language'; tiiey are 'at war
with the genius of the l^iiglish tongue'; they are 'nnidioma-
tic'; they are 'not Englisii.' In passing, if Mr. ^b^rsh will
Bo define the terni uniiliomalic us to evince that it has any
aijplicability to the case in hand, or if he will uncst and
photograph 'the genius of the J'liMjIish tongue,' so that wo
may know the original when we meet with it, he will confer

VICTORIA COLLEGE

LIBRARY

VICTORIA, B. C.

THE VEltli..,.iy>T.

101

a public favor. Ami now I 8ul)mit for consideration wliothnr
tiio m)U) Htnjiigth of tho.sc who dfcry in heimj hiii/t, iiml ita con-
j^cnors (lo('.s not con.sist in their tiilont for cjilling hard nunius.
If they havo nut an uneasy suhconHcioustjeas tliat their cause
Im weak, they would, at least, do well in eschewing the vio-
lence to which, for want of aon>ething better, the advocates
of weak cauaea proverbially resort.

"I once had a friend who, for some niicroucopic penumbra
of heroay, was cliarged, in the words of his accuser, with 'as
near an apprwich to the sin a^^ainst the Holy Ghost as is
practicable to liuman infirmity.' Similarly, on one view, the
feeble potencies of philological turpitude seem to have ex-
hibited tiieir most consummate realization in engendering is
beinrj built. The supposed enormity perpetrated iu its pro-
duction, provided it liad fallen witliin the sphere of ethics,
would, at the least, havo ranked, with its dcnunciatois, as a
brand-new exemplitication of total depravity, liut, after all,
what incontestable defect in it has any one succeeded in
demonstrating ? Mr. White, in opposing to the expression
objections based on an erroneous analysis, simply lays a
ph.antom of his own evoking; and, eo far as I am informed,
otiier impugners of in hpiiuj hui't havo, absolutely, no argu-
ment whatever against it over antl beyoml their repugnance
to novelty. Subjected to a little untroubled contemplation,
it would, I am confident, havo ceased long ago to be matter
of controversy; but the dust of prejudice and pasdon, which
80 distempers the intellectual vision of theologians and poli-
ticians, is seen to make, with rutiiless impartiality, no excep-
tion of the perspicacity of philologists.

"Prior to the evolution of in hci/nj built and was hpincj builtf
■we possessed no discriminate equivalents to (jetlijicalur and
tedijicabatur ; is built and vhis built, by wliich they were
rendered, corresponding exactly to ndijicatus eM and cedijica-

lO'i

THE VERBALIST.

tua erat. Cum adificaretnr was to us tlie same as cedificnhatnr.
On the wealth of the Greek in expressions of imperfect passive
I need not dwell. With rare exceptions, the liomans were
satisfied V ith the prcHeiit-iinperfcct and the past -imperfect;
and we, on the comjuiratively few occasions which present
themselves for expressing other imperfects, shall be sure to
huve recourse to the old forms ratlier than to the new, or else
to use periphrases.* The purists may, accordingly, dismiss
their apprehensions, especially as the neoteriats have, clef.i.y,
a keener horror of phraseological ungainliness than them-
selves. One may have no hesitation about saying 'the house
is beinrj huiU,' and may yet recoil from saying that 'it should
have been hehvj hiiilt last Christmas'; and the same person —
just as, provided ho did not feel a harshness, inadequacy, and
ambiguity in the passive 'the house is huildlnfj,' he would use
the expression — will, more likely than not, elect is in prepara-
tion preferentially to is being prepared. If there are any who,
in their zealotry for the congruous, choose to adhere to the
new form in its entire range of exchangeability for the old, let
it be hoped that they will find, in Mr. Marsh's speculative
approbation of consistency, full amends for the discomfort of
encountering smiles or frowns. At the same time, let them
be mindful of the career of Mr. White, with his black flag
and no quarter. The dead Polonius was, in Hamlet's phrase,
at supper, 'not where he eats, but where heis eaten.* Shake-
speare, to Mr. White's thinking, in this wise expressed him-
self at the best, and deserves not only admiration therefor,
but to be imitated. ' While tho ark ions built,' 'while the ark

* '"But tliosc thintrs which, being not now doinij, or Jiavijijr not yet
bpcn done, h;ivo a natural aptittnlo to exixt hereafter, may lie properly
said to appertain to the fuliiro.' — Harris's ' Horiiies,' book J, chap, viii (p.
l.'iri, footnote, ed. 1771). l''or Harris's beimj not imw (huwi, whieh is to
translate (u.t) yivofxeva, the n»odern school, if they pursued unifoiinity with
more of fidelity than of taste, would have to put beiu'j not now beinij done^
There is not much to choose between the two."

TIIK V Eli n A LIST.

to»

wofi prepnrrd,^ writes Mr. Wliite himself.* Shakespeare is
coniiiiumlcd for his ainhi),'U(»u3 in ca/en, th()u;;h in eatiiKj or an
euliiKj wuuM h;ive lu'cu •. only correct in iiin (hiy, but, whrro
they wouM have coiiio in hi- sentence, univocal. WiUi • qiiiil
reason a man woultl l»o ■'nt tied to coniinendation tor tearing
hia uiutton-chops with hitj HngerH, when lie mi;,'lit cnt them
up witli a Unite and fork. '/«<//«'«,' say^ Mr. Whit.;, 'does
not mean Ikih been eaten.* V« ry true ; hut a contiiii:niis un-
linislied passion — rolonius's still undergoini^ nianducation, to
speak John.soneso — was in Sliakespeare's mind ; and hi« w ords
describe a pa.'-sion no longer in generation. The King 'f
Denmark's lord ciiandjerlain had no precdUnt in Ihrod,
when 'ho was eatin of worms'; the original, yFvoiifi'u-,
dicaoXf^KufS/jGDroi, yielding, but for ics participle, 'he became
worm-eaten.'

" J laving now done with Mr. White, I am anxious, before
taking leave of him, to record, with all emphasis, that it
would be the grossest injustice to write of hia elegant ' Life
and Genius of Shakespeare,' a book which does credit to
American literature, in the tone which I have found unavoid-
able in dealing with h.d 'Words and their U.'^es.' "

Tlie student of English who has honestly weighed the
arguments on both sides of the questiiai, must, I believe, be
of opinion that our language is the richer for having two
forms for expressing the Progressive Passive. Further, he
must, I believe, be of opinion that in very many cases he con-
forms to the most approved usage of our time by emi)!oying
the old form ; that, however, if he were to cmi)loy the old
form in all cases, his meaning u'ould sometimes be uncertain.

It. Cobbett discourses of this little neuter pronoun in
this wise: "The wo-d it is the greatest troubler that I know
of in language. It is so small and convenient that few are

• " 'Words ami their Uses,' p. ^4;$."

104

THE V EBB A LIST.

careful enough in using it. Writers seldom spare this word.
Whenever tliey are at a loss for either a nominative or an
objective to their sentence, they, without any kind of cere-
mony, ofcip in an it. A very remarkable instance of this
pressing of poor it into actual service, contrary to the laws of
grammar antl of sense, occurs in a piece of composition, where
we might, with justice, insist on correctness, This piece is
on the subject of grammar ; it is a piece written by a Doctor
of Divhiity and read by him to students in grannnar and lan-
guage in an academy; and the very sentence that I am now
about to qiiote is selectetl by the authoi' of a grammar as
testimony of high autliority in favor of the excellence of his
work. Surely, if correctness be ever to be expecteii, it must
be in a case like this. I allude to two sentences in the
' Charge of the Reverend Doctor Al)ercrombie to tb.e Senior
Class of the Philadelphia Academy,' published in 1806; wliicft
sentences have been selected and published by Mr. Lindley
Murray as a testimonial of the merits of his grammar ; and
"which sentences are by Mr. Murray given to us in tlie fol-
lowing words : 'The unwearied exertions of this gentleman
have done more toward elucidating the obscurities and em-
bellishing the .structure of our language than any other lorittr
on the subject. Such a mark has long been wanteJ, and from
the success with which ii ia executed, can not be too highly
appreciated.'

•'As in tiie learned Doctor's opinion obscurities can be
elucidated, and as in the same opinion Mr. Murray is an able
hand ac this kind of work, it wuuld not be amiss were the
grammarian to try his skill upon this article from the hand of
liis dignified eulogist ; for here is, if one may use the expres-
sion, a constellation of obscurities. Our poor oppressed it,
which we find forced into the Doctor's service in tiie second
Renteuctt, relates to 'such a work,' though this work is nothing

THE VERBALIST.

105

that has an existence, notwithstanding it is said to be
* executed.* In the first sentence, the 'exerti<>n3' become, all
of a Hiuldcn, a *u'rUer\' the exerllons have done more than
'any othei' writer' ; for, mind yon, it is not the (jentleman that
has done anything; it is 'the esertiona^ that Aat>e done what
is said to be done. The v/ord (jciithman is in the possessive
case, and has nothing to do with the action of the sentence.
Let us give the sentence a turn, and the Doctor and the
grammarian will hear how it will sound. 'This gentleman s
exertions have done more than any other writer.' Thia is on a
level with ' This gentleman's f/0.7 has killed more hares than
any other sportt<man.' No doubt Doctor Abercrombie meant
to say, 'The exertions of this gentleman have done more than
those of H.ny other writer. Such a work as thia gentleman's
has long Ix^en wanted ; his work, seeing the successful manner
of its execution, can not be too highly commended.' Meant!
No doubt at all of that ! And when we hear a Hampshire
plougliboy say, 'Poll Ciierrycheek have giv'd a thick hand-
kecher,' we know very well that he means to say, ' Poll
Cherryclieek has given mo this handkerchief; and yet we
are too apt to laurjh ut him and to call him ignorant; which is
wrong, because he has no pretensions to a knowledge of gram-
mar, and he may ,ery skillful as a plougliboy. However,
we will not laugh at Doctor Abercrombie, whom I knew,
many years ago, for a very kind and worthy man. But, if Me
may, in any case, be allowed to laugh at the ignorance of our
fellow-creatures, that case certaiidy does arise when we see a
professed grammarian, the author of voluminous precepts and
examples on the subject of grammar, producing, in imitation
of the possessors of valuable medical secrets, testimonials
vouching for the efficacy of his literary panacea, and when, in
those testimonials, we find moat flagrant instances of bad
grammar. , , --

106

THE VERBALIST.

"However, my dear James, let this strong and striking
instance of the misuse of the word it serve you in tlie way of
caution. Never put an it upon paper witliout tliinking wdl
of what you are about. When I see many its in a page, 1
always tremble for the writer."

Jeopardize. This is a modem word which we could
easily do without, as it means neither more nor less than its
venerable progenitor to jeopard, which is greatly preferred by
all careful writers.

Just going to. Instead of "I axiijust going to go," it is
better to say, "I am just about to go."

Kids. "This is another vile contraction. Habit blinds
people to the unseemliness of a term like this. How Mould
it sound if one should speak of silk gloves as silka 'f" ,
Kind. See Polite.

Knights Templars. The name of this ancient body has
been adopted by a branch of the Masonic fraternity, but in a
perverted form — Knights Tcm-jilar ; and this form is commonly
seen in print, whether referring to tlie old knights or to their
modern imitators. This doubtless is due to the erroneous im-
pression that 7^empl(ir is an ailjective, and so can not take
the plural form ; wliile in fact it is a case of two nouns in
apposition — a double designation — moaning Kn'ghts of the
order of Templars. Hence the phiral should be Kiiighfs
Templars, and not Avighl.'i Templar. Members of tiie con-
temporaneous ordei of Ht. John of Jerusalem were conniionly
called Knights Hospitallers.

Lady. To use the term la<hj, MJictlier in the singular or
in the plural, simply to des-igiiate the sex, is in the worrt
possible taste. Tlurei.sa kind of fin-frather gentility which
seems to have a settled aveision to Ui-ing the teruis riuai and
woman. Gmtlcmcn and ladies e.«tiiblish their cl.iims to being
called such by tlitir beating, and not by uiiogating to thtni-

THE VERBALIST.

107

selves, even indirectly, the titles. In Eiiglancl^ the title Imhj
is proppi'ly correlative to lord ; but there, as in tliis counti y,
it is used as a term of complaisance, and is appropriately
applied to women whose lives are exemplary, and who have
received tl)at school and home education which enaldes them
to appear to advantage in the better circles of society. Such
expressions as "She is a fine lady, a clever lady, a well-
dressed lady, a good lady, a modest lady, a charitable lady,
an amiable Uidy. a liandsome lady, a fascinating lady," and
the like, are studiously avoided by persons of refinement.
Ladies s.ay, "we u-omen, the women of A nerica, ivomen'a
apparel," and so on; viilf/ar women talk about "us ladies,
the ladies of America, ladies' apparel," and so on. If a woman
of culture and refinement — in short, a lady — is compelled from
any cause soever to work in a store, she is quite content to be
called a sales- w'OJ?(a?i; not so, however, with your young
woman who, being in a store, is in a better position than ever
before. She, Heaven bless her! boils with indignation if she
is not denominated a sales lady. Lady is often the proper
term to use, and then it would be very improper to use any
other ; but it is very certain that the terms lady and gentle-
man are least used by those persons who arc most worthy of
being designated by them. With a nice discrimination worthy
of special notice, one of our daily papers recently said : "Mis^s
Jennie Halstoad, daugliter of the proprietor of the 'Cincin-
nati Commercial,* ia one of the most brilliant young ivomen
inOliio."

In a late number of the "Loridon Queen" was the follow-
ing: "The terms ladies and (jeutlemen become in themselves
vulgarisms when misapplied, and the improper application of
the wrong term at the wrong time rnnkes all tlie diirerence in
the world to ears polite. Thus, calling a man a gentleman
when he should be called a man, or speaking of a man as a

108

THE VERBA LIST.

man when he shouM be spoken of as a <jenfhman ; or alluding
to a lady as a looman when she should be alluded to as a
ladt/, or speaking of a woman as a laili/ when slie sliould
properly be termed a icoman. Tact and a kcuhc of the litness
of things decide these points, tliore being no fixed rule to go
upon to determine when a man is a iikdi. or wlien he is a
gentleman; and, althongli he is far oftener termed the one
than the other, he does not thcrcl)y lose his attributes of a
gentleman. In common parlance, a man is always a man to a
man, and ne\ev a, gentlemin ; to a woman, he is occasionally
a man and occasionally a gentleman ; but a man would far
oftener term a woman a icoman than he would term her a
lady. When a nian makes use of an adjective in speaking of
a lady, he almost invariably call-) licr a icoman. Thus, he
would say, '1 met a rather agreeal)le woman at dinner las*
night'; but he wouM not say, 'I met an agreeable lady'; but
he might say, 'A lady, a friend of mine, told me,' etc., when
he would not say, 'A womnn, a friend of mine, told me,' etc.
Again, a man would say, 'Which of the ladies did you take
in to dinner?' He would certainly not say, 'Which of the
women,' etc.

"Speaking of people en ma-<f>e, it would be to belong to a
very advanced school to refer to them in conversation as '!""n
and women,' while it would be all but vulgar to style them
•ladies and gentlemen,' the compromise between the two
being to speik of tliem as 'ladies and men.' Tims a lady
wouhl say, '1 have asked two or tiiree ladies and several
men'; she would not say, *1 have asked several men and
women'; neither wouhl she say, 'I have asked several ladies
and gentlemen.' And, speaking of numbers, it would be very
usual to say, 'There were a great many ladies, and but veiy
few men present,' or, 'The ladie? were in t'- ' majority, so few
men being present.' Again, a lady would not say, 'I expoct

THE VERBALIST.

109

two or three men,' but she woiiM say, 'I expect two or three
gentlcuicn.' Wlion people are on ceremony with each other
[one another], tlicy niiglit, poihaps, in spc.ikingof a man, call
him a (jeidlenutn; but, otherwise, it would be more usual to
speak of him as a num. Ladies, when speaking of each other
{one another], usually employ the tenn vr.mnn in preftreiice
to that of /(/(/y. Thus they wo\dd say, 'She is a very good-
natured voni'in,^ 'Wiiat soit of u tvoman ia eheV the tcim
lady being eutinly out of place under such circumstances.
Again, the term young ladi/ gives pla«e as far as possible to
the term >fir/, although it greatly depends upon the amount
of intimacy existing as to wliich term is employed."

Language. A note in Worcebtcr's Dictionary says:
'^Language is a very general ' "m, and is not strictly con-
fnied'to utterance bj' words, as it is also expressed by the
countenance, by the eyes, and by signs. Tongue refers
especially to an original language; as, 'the Hebrew tongue.'
Tht modern languages are derived from the original tongues.^'
If this be correct, 'then he who speaks French, German, Eng-
lish, Spanish, and Italian, maj' properly say that he speaks
five languages, but only one tvitgue.

Lay — Lie. Errors are frequent in the use of these two
irregtilar verbs. Lnj/ is often used for lie, and He is some-
times used for lay. This confusion in their use is due, i"» some
measure, doubtless, to the circumstance that lay appears in
both verba, it b( ing the imperfect tense of to lie. We say,
"A mason l((i/s bricks," "A ship lies at anchor," etc. " 1
must lie down" ; "I must hi;/ myself down "; "I must la;/ this
book on the table"; "He lien on the grass"; "He/a.vshis
plans well"; "Ho lay on the grass"; "He laid it away";
"He has /«//? in bed long enough"; "He has laid tip sums
money," "in a stock," "dori'ii the law"; " He is /a^tiV.gr out
the grounds"; "Shi|is He at the wharf"; "Ilcns/oy Pggs";

110

THE VERBALIST.

'1 h 3 ship lay at

' The hen laid an

ItwiU

anc/ior

bo SL-eu that lay always expresses transitive action, and that
tie expreSfies rest.

•'Here lies our sovereign lord, the king.
Whose word no man relies on;
He never says a foolish thing,
Nor ever does a wise one."
— Written on the bedchamber door of Charles II. by the
Earl of Rochester.

Learn. This verb was long ago nsed as a synonym of
teach, but in this sense it is now obsolete. To teach is to give
instruction; to learn is to take itistruction. "I will leaiti, if
you will t:ach me." See Teach.

Lsavo. There are grammarians who insist that this verb
shouM not be used without an object, as, for example, it is
used in such sentences as "When do you leave?" "I leave
to-morroAV." Tiie object of the verb — home, town, or what-
ever it may be — is, of course, under -tood ; but this, say these
gentlenrm, is not pormissiijlo. On this point^^opinions will, I
tliink, differ; they will, however, not differ with regard to
the vul'^'arity of u^ing /acre in the sense of let; thus, "Leave
mo l)e"; '' Li-rrr it alone": ^' Leave her be — don't bother
her"; " Lea ir \ui' fnv. it."

Lend. See Loan.

LeiiSthy. I'hlr-! word is of comparatively recent origin,
and, tliDUp'i it JH f-aid to bo an Aniericanism, it is a good deal
usj,l in Ivigia 1 I. Tiie m.).-;t careful writers, however, lioth
here and elsewhn e, mi 'h prefer the word louj: ''a. long dis-
cnsyion,'' "a ionj <liscour.-e," etc.

Lcilien.'^y. ^Tr. Gould calls this word and lenience "two
].;i;lf)lij^ioal ab irtions." lenity is undoubtedly the proper
Wild til u-e, though both \Vel):5ler and Worcester do rccog-
ni^e Icuieui'ii and lenience.

THE VERBALIST.

Less. This word is much used instead of fewer. Le«s
relates to quautity ; /ewer to number. Instead of, "There
were not less than twenty persons present," we should say,
"There were not fewer than twenty persons present."

Lesser. This form of the comparative of little is ac-
counteil a corruption of less. It may, however, be used in-
stead of less with propriety in verse, and also, in some cases,
in prose. We may say, for example, "Of two evils choose
the less," or "the lesser." '''he latter form, in sentences like
this, is tlie more euphonious.

Liable. Richard Grant White, in inveighing against the
misuse of this word, cites the example of a member from a
rural district, who called out to a man whom he met in the
village, where lie was in the habit of making lalle purchases :
"I say, mister, kin yer tell me whar I'd be Wble to find some
beans?" See, also, APT.
Lie. See Lay.

Like — As. Both these words express similarity ; like
(adjective) comparing things, as (adverb) comparing action,
existence, or quality. Like ia followed by an object only,
and does not admit of a verb ia the same construction. As
must be followed by a verb expressed or understood. We
say, "He looks like his brother," or "He looks as his brother
looks." "Do as I do," not 'Uike I do." "You must speak
as James does," not ''like James d(.es." "He died as he haa
lived, like a. dog." "It is aa blue as indigo"; i.e., "as in-
digo is."

Like, To. See Love.
Likely. See Ai-t.

Lit. This form of the past participle of the verb to light
is now obsolete. "Have you %/t<e(/ the fire?" "The gas is
lighted." Uet for heated is a similar, but much greatei ,
vulgarism.

112

THE VF.nUALIST.

Loan — Lend. There are tliosc wlio contend that there ie
no such verb as to loan, although it has been found in our
literature for more than throe hundred years. WJietlior there
is properly such a verb or not, it is quite certain that it is
only those having a vul.L;ar penchant for big Avords wiio will
prefer it to its synonym ieml. lietter far to say '^Lendme
your umbrella" than *'Loan me your umbrnlla."

Locate — Settle. The use of the verb to locate in the
sense of to settle is said to be an Americanism. Although the
dictionaries recognize to locate as a neuter verb, as such it is
marked "rarely used," and, in the sense of to settle, it is
among the vulgarisms that careful speakers and writers are
studious to avoid. A man settles, not locates, in Nebraska.
"Where do you intend to settle?" not locale. See, also,
Settle.

Loggerheads. "In the mean time France is at logrjer-
heads t/iterHa////."— "New York Herald," April 29, 1881.
Loggerheads internalhi? !

Looks beautifully. It is sometimes interesting to note
the difference between vuhjar bad grammar ahd ijoileel bad
grammar, or, more properly, between non-painstaking and
painstaking bad grammar. The former uses, for example,
adjectives instead of adverbs ; the latter uses adverbs instead
of adjectives. The former says, "This bonnet is trimmed
tshockinif] the latter says, "This bonnet looks shockingly."
In tho first sentence the epithet qualifies the verb is trimmed,
and consequently should have its adverbial form — shockingly;
in the second sentence the epithet qualifies tlie appearance —
a noun — of the bonnet, and consequently should h.ave its ad-
jectival form — shocking. The second sentence means to fcay,
"This bonnet presents a shocking appearance." The bonnet
certainly docs not really look; it ia looked at, and to the looker
iti appearance is shocking. So we say, in like manner, of a

THE VERBALIST.

person, that ho or she looks /twept, or charminp, or heauti/uf,
or hamhoine, or hon'ld, or i/ntcefu/, or timid, and so on,
always using an adjective. "Alisa Coghkui, as Laily 'J'cazle,
looked duinnimjlij." Tlie grammar of the "Xcw York
Herald" would not have been any more incorrect if it had
said that Miss Coglilan looked gladli/, or ncidli/, or madi/, or
de/i'jhtedli/, or pleaxcdly. A person may look skk or aichli/,
but in both cases the qualifying word is an adjective. The
verbs to smell, to feel, to souivl, and to a/ijirnr are also found
in sentences in which the qualifying wonl nuist be an atljec-
tive and not an adverb. We say, for example, *' The rose
smclla sweet" i "The butter biiells good, or bad, or fresh";
"I feel glfid, or snd, or bad, or de-^pntidrM, or uniwyed, or
neruous"; "Tliis constructiou sounds /ttt/v<A "; ** hiuw deli'jhl'
/«i the country appears !" <

On the otiier hand, to look, to f€e\ to smell, to soimd, and
to appear are found in sentences where the qualifying word
must be an adverb ; thus, "He feel.; his loss keenly"; "The
kinj;; looked gracioiinl;/ on lier"; "I smell it faintly." We
might also say, "He feels sad [ailjoctive], because he feels hia
loss keeidy" (adverb); "IIo appc.irs well" (adverb).

The expieasion, *"■ Slie sprmtd confusedly, or timidly," is not
a whit more incorrect tha:i "HAe looked beautifuUy, or charm-
ing)/." See AuJECTiVES.

Love — Like. Men who are at all careful in t!)e selection
of langna^'o to express their thouglita, and have not an undue
leaning toward tlu aupcrlativo, love lew things : their wives,
their Bweetlieartd, tiicir kinsmen, truth, justice, and their
country. Women, on the contrary, aa a rule, love a multi-
tude of things, and, among their loves, tiie thing they per-
haps love moot id — tttiT'y.

Luggage— Ea^iiago. The former of these worda ia
generally uiicd in lin^^land, tho latter in America.

4«

THE VERBALIST.

Lunch. This word, wlicn nsod as a substantive, may at
the best be accounted an inelegant abbreviation of luncheon.
The dictionaries barely rcro(;nize it. The proper pbraseology
to use ia, "Have you lunckcd?" or, " Flave you had y w
hmchi'on^" or, better, "Have you bad luncheon?" as we may
in most cases presuppose that the person Addressed would
hardly take anybody's else luncheon.

Luxurious — Luxuriant. The lino is drawn much more
sharply between these two words now than it was iornicrly.
Luxurious was once used, to some extent at least, in the sense
of rank growth, but now all careful writers and speakers use
it in the sense of induhjhifj or deliffjuing in luxury. We ta'k
of a luxurious tabic, a luxurious liver, luxurious ease, luxurious
freedom. Luxuriant, on tlie otlier hand, is restricted to the
sense of rank, or excexdie, growth or production; thus,
luxuriant weeds, luxuriant foliage or bxauchciif luxuriant
growth. •

" Prune the luxuriant, the uncouth refine,
But show no mercy to an empty line." — Pope.

Mad. Professor Richard A. Proctor, in a recent number
of "The Gentleman's Magazine," says: "The word mad in
America seems nearly always to mean anjry. For mad, as
we use the word, Americans say crazy. Herein they have
manifestly impaired the language." Have tiiey ?
"Now, in faith, Gratiano,
You give your wife too unkind a cause of grief )
An 'twere to me, I would be mad at it."

— "Merchant of Venice."

"And being exceedingly mad against them, I persecuted
them even unto strange ciiieg." — Acts xxvi, 2.

Make a visit. The phrase "make a visit," according to
Dr. Hall, whatever it once was, is no longer English.

Male. See Female. ■'-■■■

THE VERBALIST.

115

Many. There has boen some discussion, nt one time and
another, with regard to the use of this wonl. Is John Joncf;
married to Sally Brown or with Sally TJro\rn, or are they
married to each other? Inasmuch as the woman loses her
name in that of the man to whom she is wedded, and becomes
a meml)or of his family, not he of hers — inasumch as, witli
few exceptions, it is her life that is mor^'-d in his — it would
feem that, properly, Sally Brown is married to John Jones,
and that this would bo the proper way to make the announce-
ment of their having been wedded, and not John Jones to
Sally Brown.

There is also a difTorence of opinion as to whether the
active or the passive form is preferable in referring to a per-
son's wedded state. In speaking definitely of the act of
marriage, the passive form 's necessarily used with reference
to either spouse. "John Jones was married to Sally Brown
on Dec. 1, 1881"; not, "John Jones 7na?*ricrZ Sally Brown" on
such a date, for (unless they were Quakers) some third person
married him to her and her to him. But, in speaking in-
definitely of the fact of marriage, the active form is a matter
of course. " Whom did John Jones marry?" "Ho married
Sally Brown." "John Jones, when he had sown his wild
oats, married [married himself, as the French say] aud settled
down." Got married is a vulgarism.

May. In the sense of can, m itj, in a negative clause, has
become obsolete. " Though we may say a horse, we viay not
say a ox." The first may here is permissible; not so, how-
ever, the second, which should be can.

Meat. At table, we ask for and olfor beef, mutton, veal,
steak, turkey, duck, etc., and do not ask for nor ofFcr meat.
which, to say the least, is inolegant. "Will you have [nnh.
take] another piece of hcef [not, of the beef]?" not, "Will
you have another nit CO of ??j.''i7.''"

116

THE VERBALIST.

Memorandum. Tho plural is m?nJoron</(», except when
the singuliir liicaus a book ; then the pluiiil is inemorandumn.

Mere. This Monl is not unfreqiicntly misplaced, unci
soinutiiucs, as in the follow i:ig senteme, in consi-fjiience of
being njispliiied, it is clian;.'o(l to an advi'il' : "It is time of
iiK'n as of Cod, that words iiitrcly meet with no response."
What the u liter eviilently inteiidcd to say is, that mere
words meet with no respfiiisr.

Metaphor. An i-ni/>/!i il comparison is called a metaphor;
it is a mure terse fnnii uf expression tlan a simile. Take, for
cxami)le, this sentence from iSpenacr's "Philo80])hy of Style":
" As, in passing tlivongh the crystal, beams of wiiite light are
decomposed into the colors of tlie raiidiow ; so, in tiaversing
tlie soul (>f the poet, the cohnUss rays of truth are trans-
forn\e(l into Itrightly-tiiitcd poetry." Expressed in meta-
phors, this bceomei : "'J'Ih! white light of truth, in traversing
the many-sided, transparent Boul of the poet, ia refracted
into iris-iiued piH'try."

Woro.'stei'"s dchnition of a r/ufa/ihor is: "A figure of
speech founded on the re8eml)laiiee which one ol)ject is sup-
posed to bear, in sonie rcsj ect, to another, or a Hgure by
which a \ ord is transfeirod from a subject to which it pro-
perly lielongs to another, in such a manner that a comj'cuuson
t« imjiliul, (houijh not jhrirml/i/ e.r/iroo'ed ; a comparison or
iniile comprised in a word ; as, ' Tiiy word is a idriip to my
eet.'" A ;H»/a////or iliflers from a *i»i</r in being expressed
with -'.it any si^:n of comparison; tiius, " the ,s>Vr<;/- moon " is
a vu'ta/'lior; "the Uioon is l)riglit as silver" is a simile.
Examples:

"But look, the morn, in russet mantle clad,

Walks o'or the dew of yon high eastern hill.'*
"Canst thou not minister to a mind diseased —
Pluck from tiie memory a rooted sorrow?"

THE VEIinALlST.

117

" At Icngtli Eiasinua
Stemmod the wild torrent of ii baihaions ago,
Anil flrovo tlio.si; lioly Vandals off the stai^c'

•'Ccnsiiic is tlie tax a man pays to the ijublic for being
eminent."

Metonymy. Tiie rhetorical figure that puts the effect
for tiie cause, the cause for the elFcct, tlie container for the
tliinii contained, tiio sign, or symbol, for tho thing signilied,
or tiu! in-itrument for the agent, is called ;ni/(»ii/ni,i/.

"One very common species of metoni/nnj is, when the
badge is put for tlie office. Thus we say the miter for the
priesthood ; the crown for royalty' ; for Jnilitary oi(nipation
we say the Hironl ; and for tlie literary professions, tliose
especially of theology, law, and physic, the common exjprea-
sion is the (jown" — Campbell.

Dr. Quackenbos, in his "Course of Composition and
Rhetoric," says: '* Mttoni/in;/ is the exchange of names be-
tween tilings related. It is founded, not on resemblance, but
on the relation of, 1, Cause and effect; as, ' They have vl/osi?*
and the ])roj)hels,' i.e., tlmir writings; 'Cray /«a/r,'} should be
respected,' i.e., old age. 2. Progenitor and posterity; as,
'Hear, Israel !' i.e., descemlants of Jarael. <i. Subject and
attribute ; as, * Youth and beauty shall be laid in dust,'
i.e., the youncj and beautiful. 4. Place and inhabitant; as,
•What land is so barbarous as to allow this injujtice?' i.e.,
•w\\i.\.t people. 6. Containerand thing contained; as, ^Owv ships
next opened fire,' i.e., our saj/ora. G. Sign and tiling signi-
fied; as, 'The .<icep(er shall not depart from Judah,' i.e.,
kin (fly T^owor. G. Material and thing made of it- as, 'His
filecl gleamed on high.' i.e., his suwd."

"Petitions having proved unsuccessful, it was defc*<imined
to approach the throne more bohlly,"

Midst, The. See In ouu midst.

111

THE VERBALIST.

Mind — Capricious. "Lord Salisbury's mind is capri
dons." — "Tribune," April 3, 1881. See Equanimity op
Mind.

Misplaced Clauses. In writing and speaking, it is as
important to give each clause its proper place as it is to place
the words properly. The following are a few instances of
misplaced clauses and adjuncts: "All these circumstances
brought close to us a state of things wliich we never thought
to have witnessed \to ivitness] in peaceful England. In the
sister island, indeed, ive had read of such horrors, but now they
were brought home to our very household hearth." — Swift.
Better: "We ha<l read, indeed, of such horrors occurring in
the sister island," etc.

"The savage people in many places in America, except
the government of families, have no government at all, and
live at this day in that savage manner as I have said before."
— Hobbes. Better: "Ihe savage people ... in America
have no government at all, except the government of
families," etc.

"I shall have a comedy for you, in a season or two at
farthest, that I l)elieve will l)e worth your acceptance." —
Goldsmith, liottered: "In a season or two at firthest, I
shall have a comedy for you that I believe will bo worth your
icceptance.'

Among the following examples of the wrong placing of
words and clauses, there are some that are as amuwing as they
are instructive : " 1'liis ortlingtapiiy is regarded as normal la
England." What the writer intended was, " in England o.s
normal" — a very different thought. "Tiie Normal School is
a commodious building capable of accommodating three
hundred students four stories high." "II()f.sK,Ki:i;i'i;i:. — A
higldy rc^pcctal)le middle-aged Person wiio lias been iilling
the above Situation with a gentleman for upwards of eleven

THE VERBALIST.

119

years and who 18 now deceased is anxious to rr.eet a similar
one." "To PrAN-o-For.TE Makers. — A lady keeping a first-
class school requiring a good piano, ia desirous of receiving a
daughter of tlie above in exchange for the same." "The
Moor, seizing a bolster boiling over with rage and jealousy,
smothers her." "The Dying Zouave the most wonderful
mechanical representation ever seCn of the last breath of life
being shot in the breast and life's Mood leaving the wound."

"Mr. T presents his compliments to Mr. H , and 1

have got a hat that is not hi?, and, if he have a hat that is
not yours, no doubt they are the expectant ones." See OxLT.

Misplaced "Words. "Of all the faults to bo found in
writing," says Cobbett, "this is one of the most common, and
perhaps it leads to the greatest number of 'misconceptions.
All the words may be the proper words to be used upon the
occasion, and yet, by a mUplacing of a part of tliem, the
meaning may be wholly destroyed ; and even made to be the
contrary of what it ought to be."

"I asked the question with no other intention thnn to set
the gentleman free from the necessity of silence, and to give
him an opportunity of mingling on equal terms witli a polite
assembly from which, however unea^ii, he could not then
tscnpe, by a kind infrnthiction of tlie only su])ject on which I
believed him to be able to s[;eak with propriety." — Dr.
Joiinson.

" Tliis," says Cobbett, " ;■ a •rry bad sentence altogetl.er.
* However luiciiHn^ applies to t a^ )t}hly a,\v\ not to (jentleman.
Only oljsorve how easily this nii,i;ht liuve bc'ii avoided. 'From
wliioh he, hixrevcr taieas-i/, could not then escipe.' Afti-r tliis
we have, '/i« could not then ei^rnpe., bi/ a Icvid introduction.^
We know what is meant ; but the Doctor, with all his
commas, loaves the sentence confused. Let us see wl'.ether
we can not make it clear. 'I asked the quc.tion with no

120

THE VERBALIST.

other intention than, by a kind introdaf"tion of the only snb-
ject on which I believed him to be able to speak with pro-
priety, to set the gentleman free from the necessity of silence,
and to give him an opportunity of mingling on equal terms
with I polite assembly from which he, however uneasy, could
not then escape.*"

*' Reason is the glory of human nature, and one of the
chief eminences Avhereby wo are raised abovu our fellow-
creatures, the brutes, in this loiver loorld." — Doctor Watta'
"Logic."

"I have before showed an error," Cobbett remark?, "in
ihe first sentence of Doctor Watts' work. This is the second
sentence. The words in this lower world are not words mis-
placed ovXy ; thoy are wholly unnecesnary , &x\(\. they do great
harm ; for they do these two things : first, they imply that
there are brides in the higher world ; and, second, they excite
a doubt whether we are raised above those brutis.

"I might greatly extend the number of my extracts from
these authors ; but hero. I trust, are enough. I had noted
down ah'iut troo hunure I errors in Dr. Johnson's ' Lives of the
Poets' ; but, afterward perceiving that he had revised and
corrected 'The Rambler' with erlrnnrdiiiarii care, I chose to
make my extracts from that work rather tlian from the
'Lives of t!ie Poets.'"

The position of the adverb should be as near as possible to
the word it qu;ditles. Sometimes we place it before the aux-
iliary and fcouietinins afto*- it, according to the thouijht we
wish to ex'rcss. The di ,renco between "Ti)Q fish should
proper h/ be broiled" and "The fiaii should be properly
broiled " is apparent at a glance. " The colon may be properly
used in the following cases": should bo, "may prnperli/ be
used." "This mode of expression rather s'lils a familiar than
a grave style": sliould be, "suits n familiar rather than a

THE VERBALIST.

121

grave style.'' "It is r, frequent error in the vmtmi/s even of
some g(jo(l authors": slioulil be, "in the writings of even-
some fjood aiitliors." "Both the circumstances of contingency
end futurity are necessary": bliouldlje, " Tlie-circuniatancea
of contiimcucy and futurity are both necessary." "He has
made chart,'os . . . wliich he has failed ulfcr/i/ to sustain." —
"Xew Yoik Tribune." Here it is uncertain at first sight
which verb the adverb is intended to (jualify; but the nature
of the case makes it probable that the writer meant "has
utterly failed to sustain."

Mistaken. "If I am not imxtal-m, j'ou are in the wrong":
say, "If I midahe not." "I tell you, you are mistaken." Here
miiiiaJcen mcimH, " Yuu are wron^r ; you do not understand";
but it might be taken to mean, "I m'lMake you." For "you
are mistaken," say, "you mistake." If, as Horace and Pro-
fessor Davidson aver, usage in language makes riglit, then
the graminaiians ought long ago to have invented some theory
upo 1 which the locution you are m/s^i,'vft could be defended.
Until they do invent such a theory, it will be better to say
1/ou mistake, he mistakes, and so on ; or you are, or he is — as
the case may be — in error.

More perfect. Such expressions as, "the more perfect
of the two," "the moat perfect tliinL,' of the kind I have ever
seen," "the most complete cooking-stove ever invented, "and
the like, can not be defended logically, as nothing can be
more pei''ect than perfection, or more complete than com-
pleteness. Still such phrases are, and probably will continue
to be, used by good writers.

Most. "lOverybody abuses this word," says Mr. Gould
in hia "(loud English"; and then, in another paragraph, he
adds: "If a man woiild cross out most wherever he can find
it in any book in the English language, ho would in almost
every instance improve the style of the book." That this

122

THE VERBALIST.

statement may appear within bounds, he gives many ex-
amples from good authors, some of which are tlie following :
"a moat profound aileiice"; "a most just idea"; "a mo.s< com-
plete orator''; "this was mo.s< extraordinary"; "an object of
mont perfect esteem"; "a niont extensive erudition"; "he
gave it mofit liberally awiiy"; "it is, moat assuredly, not be-
cause lvalue his services least"; " would ■)iiost seriously affect
lis"; "that such a system nnist mod widely and most power-
fully," etc.; "it is ino>it etlectually nailed to tlie counter";
"it ia most undeuiable that," etc.

This word ia much, and very erroneously, used for almost.
"He comes here most every day." The user of such a sen-
tence as this moans to say that he comes nearly every day,
but he reallji says, if he says anything, that he comes more
every day than he does every night. In such sentences almost,
and not most, is the word to use.

Mutual. This word is much misused in the phrase "our
mutual friend." Macaulay says: ^^ Mutual friend is a low
vulgarism for common friend." Mutual properly relates to
two persons, and implies reciprocity of sentiment — sentiment,
be it wha: it may, received and returned. Tims, we say
properly, "Jolin and Junes have a mutual affection, or a
lautiiaJ aversion," i.e., t'uey like or dislike each other; or,
"John and .James are mutually dependent," i.e., they aic de-
pendent on eauh other. In usiug tlie word mutual, care
should be taken not to add tijo words for each other or on
each othi'r, tlic thought conveyed l)y tliese words being alreaily
expressed in the \V()rtl mutual. " Dependent on eacli other"
is the exact e(|uivalent of "mutually dependent"; honco,
saying that John and James are mutually ilependent on each
other is as relunda.it in form as it would be to say tliat the
editors of "Tiie Oreal Vililier" are the biggest, greate.'jt mud-
slingera in America.

THE VERBALIST.

123

Myself. This foi m of the personal pronoun is properly
uped in the nominative case only where increased emphasis is
aimed at,

'' I had as lief not be a live to be
In awe of such a thing as I myself."
"I will do it mi/scljy "I saw it myself." It is, therefore, in-
correct to Kay. "Mrs. Brown and myself were both very
much pleased "

Name. This word is sometimes improperly used for
mention; thus, "I never named the matter to any one":
should be, "I never mentioned the matter to any one."

Neighborhood. See Vicinity.

Neither. See Either.

Neither — Nor. "He would neither give wine, nor oil,
nor money." — Thackeray. The conjunction should be placed
before the excluded object; "neither j/ii-e " implies neither
some other verb, a moaning not intended. Re-arrange thus,
taking all the common parts of the contracted sentences to-
gether: "He would give neither wine, ?Jor oil, 770/' money.''
So, "She can neither help her beauty, ?!or her courage, noi
her cruelty" (Thackeray), should be, "She can help neither ^^^
etc. "He had neither time to intercept nor to stop her"
(Scott), shouLl be, "He had time neither to intercept," etc.
"Some neither can for wits nor critics pass" (Pope), should
be, "Some can neither for wits nor critics pass."

Never. Grammarians diflcr with regard to the correct
ness of using never in such sentences as, "He is in error,
though never so wise," "Charm he never so wisely." In sen-
tences like these, to say tlie least, it is better, in conunon
with the great majority of writers, to use ever.

New. This adjective is often misplaced. " He has a
neti) suit of clothes and a new pair of gloves." It is not tho
suit and the pair that are new, but the clothes and the gloves.

124

THE VERBALIST,

Nice. Archdeacon Hare remarks of the use, or rather
misuse, of this word: "That stupid vulgarism l)y wliioli wo
use the word nice to denote ahnost every mode of appiobation,
for almost every variety of quality, and, from sheer poverty
of thought, or fear of saying anything (.^finite, wrap up
everything indiscriminately in this characterless domino,
speaking at the same breath of a nice cheese-cake, a nice
tragedy, a nice sermon, a nice day, a nice country, as if a uni-
versal deluge of niaise.rie — for nice seems originally to have
been only nitm — had wlielmed the wliole island." Nice is as
good a word as any other in its place, but its place is not
everywhere. We talk very piopeily about a nice distinction,
a nice discrimination, a nice calculation, a nice point, and
about a person's being nice, and over-?j/ce, and the like ; but
we certainly ought not to talk about "Othello's" being a nice
tragedy, about Salvini's being a nice actor, or New York bay's
being a nice harbor,*

Nicely. The very quintessence of popinjay vulgarity is
reached when vicrfi/ is made to do service for well, in this
wise: "How do you do?" *^ Nicely." "How are you?"
"Nicehj"

No. This word of negation is responded to by nor in
sentences like this: "Let yonr meaning be obscure, and no
grace of diction 710?" any music of well-turned sentences will
make amends."

"Whether he is there or no." Supply the ellipsis, and
we have, "Whether he is there or no there." Clearly, the
Wurd to use in sentences like this is not no, but not. And yet
our best writers sometimes inadvertently use no with whether.

*The posHessive construction here is, in my judgment, not impera-
tively demanded. Tliere is curtaiiily no lack of authority fijr ]iutting ttio
tlirce substantives in the acuusative. The possessive construction teems
to nie, however, to be preferable.

TUB VERBA LIST.

125

Example: "But pciltups some people are quite indifferent
ivhfdher or no it is said," etc. — Richard Grant White, in
"Words and Their Uses," p, 84. Supply the t'Uip.sis, and we
have, "said or no said." In a little Ijook entitled "Live and
Learn," I fuid, "No Ipss than (ifty persons were tliere ; No
fewer" etc. In correcting one mistake, the writer himself
makes one. It should be, ''Not fewer," etc. If we ask,
"The.e were iifty persons there, were tliere or were there
not?''' the reply clearlj' would be, "There were?;,o< fewer than
fifty." "There was no one of them who would not have been
proud," etc., shoi.#l be, "There was not one of them."

Not. The correlative of not, when it stands in the first
member of a sentence, is nor or neither. "Not for tiiy ivory
nor thy gold will I unbind thy chain." "I will ?to( do it,
neither shall you."

The wrong placing of not often gives rise to an imperfect
negation; thus, "John and James were not there," means
that John and James were not there in compuni/. It does not
exclude the presence of one of them. The negative should
precede in this case: "Neither Jolin nor James was there."
" Our company was not present" (as a company, ])ut some of
us might have been), should be, "No member of our company
was present. '

Not — but only. "Errors fiequently arise in the use of
not — but onli/, to understand whieli we must attend to the
force of the whole expression. ' He did not pretend to extir-
pate French music, but onli/ to cultivate and civilize it.' Here
the not is obviously misplaced, 'He pielended, or professed,
wo< to extirpate.' " — IJain.

Notorious. Though this word can not be properly used
in any but a bad sense, we sometimes see it used in:r'tead of
noted, which may be used in eitiier a good oi l.iad sense.
Noloriouti characters are always persons to be shunned,

126

THE VERBALIST.

whereas noted characters may or may uot be persons to be

shunned.

" This is the tax a man must pay for his virtues — t^iey
holtl up a torch to his vices and render those frailties notoii-
cis in him which would pas? without observation in anothei."
— La'^on.

Novice. See Amateur.

Number. It is not an uncommon thing for a pronoun m
the plural number to be used in connection with an ante-
cedent in the singular. At present, the following notice may
be seen in some of our Broadway omnibuses: "Fifty dollars
reward for the cunvictiou of any person caught colhciing or
keeping fares given to tkem to deposit in the box." Should
be, to 1dm. " A person may be very near-sighted if they can
not recognize an acquaintance ten feet off." Should be, it he.

The verb to he is often used in the singular instead of ii»
the plural ; thus, " There u several reasons why it would be
better": say, ara. "How many is there?" say, are. "There
w four": say, are. " Ifas there many?" say, xo^re. "No
matter how many there was " : say, were.

A verb i^hould agree in number with its subject, and not
with its predicate. We say, for example, "Death is the
wages of sin," and "The wages of sin are death."

"When singular nouns connected by and are preceded by
each, every, or no, the verb must be singular," We say, for
example, " Eaclt boy and each girl studies." " Every leaf, and
every twig, and every drop of water teems with life." "No
book and no paper was arranged."

EacU being singular, a pronoun or verb to agree with it
must alsf> be singular ; thus, "Lot thorn depend each on hits
own exertions"; "Each city has its peculiar privileges";
" Everybody has a riglit to look after hit own interest."

Errors are often the result of not repeating tlie verb ;

THE VERBALIST,

127

thus, "Its significance is as varied as the passions"; correctly,
"as are the passions." "The wonls are as incapa])le of
analysis as the tiling signified"; cuireutly, " aa u the thing
signified."

Observe. Tlie dictionaries authorize tlie use of this word
as a synonym of say and remark; as, for exiunple, "What
did you o/"" ri'e.''" for "Wliatdid you sa//, or re mark?" In
this seui-e, liowevcr, it is better to leave observe to tlie exclu-
sive use of those who delight in being fine.

O'clock, "It is a quarter to ten o'clock.' What does
tliis Ktateniont moan, literally ? We understand by it that it
lacks a quarter of ten, i. e., of being ten ; but it does not really
mean that. Inasmuch as to means toward, it realiy means a
ouarter after nine. We should .say, then, a quarter of, whicli
means, literally, a quarter out often.

Of all others. "The vice of covctousness, of all others,
enters deepest into the soul." This sentence says that covet-
ousness is one of the other vices. A thing can not be another
thing, nor can it be one of a number of other things. The
sentence should be, "Of all the vices, covctousness enters
deepest into tlic soul"; or, "The vice of covctousness, of all
the vices, enters," etc.; or, "The vice of covetousuess, above
all others, enters," etc.

Of any. Tliis phrase is often used when of aV is meant ;
thus, "Tliis is tiie largest 0/ oh »/ I have seen." Should be,
"the largest of all," etc.

Off of. In such sentences as, "Give me a yard q,(fo/ this
piece of calico," either the o//'or the o/is vulgarly superfluous.
The sentence would be correct with either one, but not w ith
both of them. " The apples fell y// o/the tree": read, "fell
q/Tthe tree."

Often. This adverb is properly compared by changing
its terinii ition: often, oftener, oftenest. Why some writers

i THE VEnUALlST.

use more nnd inont to compnre it, it is not easy to so, , this
UKule of coiupaiiii;^' it is cortiiiily not eiiplumious.

Oh — 0. It is only liie most careful writers who use these
two iiito;j(cl.ioiib A. itii proper iliscrimiimtion. The distinc-
tion between them is said to l)e modern. Oh is simply an
t xchimation, and sliouM always lie followed hy some mark of
pnnetuation, usually hy an exclamation point. "Oh ! you
are come at last." "(Jh, help him, you sweet heavens!"
"Oh, woe is mo !" "Oh ! I die, Horatio." O, in addition to
being an cxelanintiou, denotes a calling to or adjuration;
tlius, "ilcar, O heavens, and give ear, O earth !" "0 grave,
where is thy victory !" "0 heavenly powers, restore him !"
" sh;ime ! where is thy blush ?"

Older -Elder. "He is tlio oUlor man of the two, and
the old tat in the neighborhood." "Ho is the elder of the
two sons, and the cUkst of the family." "The elder son is
heir to the estate; he is older than his brother by ten years."

On to. We got on a chair, on an omnibus, on a stump,
and on a sprue, and not on to.

One. Certain proneuns cf demotistfative sip'nification
are called indeiinite because they refer to no particular sub-
ject. This is one of them. Jf we were putting a supposition
by way of argument or illustration, we nii'^ht say, "Suppose
1 were to lose my way in a wood"; or, "Supjiose yow were to
lose your way in a wood"; or, "Suppo.se one were to lose
one's way in a wood." All these forms arc used, but, as a
rule, the last is to lie preferred. The firpt verges on egotism,
and the second makes free witli another's person, whereas the
third is inaiiierent. "If ohp'h honesty were impeached, what
should one tlo?" is more courtly than to take cither one's self
or the person addressed for the example.

One should be followed by one, and not by he. "The
better acqual..'.ted out is witli any kind of rhetorical trick, the

THE VEliliA LIST.

129

l<«a liable he ia to be misleil by it." Should be, "the less

liable one, is to be mislctl by it."

In tli« pliiuse, "any of the little ones" one is the numeral
employed in the manner of a pronoun, by indicating some-
tiling that lias gone before, or, perhaps, has to come after.
"I like pi'achus, but I nnist have a I'ipe one, or ripe ones."
Professor liain says, in his "Composition Crammar":
"This pioiionn continually landa writers in difficulties.
Enf,'lish idiom requires tliat, when the pronoun has to be again
referred to, it sliDuld be used itself a second time. The cor-
rect usage ia shown by Pope: ^One may be ashamed to con-
sume half oiie'n days in bringing sense and rliyme together.'
It would bo against idiom to say ' half hin days.'

"Still, the repetition of tlie pronoun is often felt to be
heavy, and writers have recourse to various substitutions.
lOven an ear accustomed to the idiom can scarctdy accept with
unmixed pleasure this instance from Browning :

" ' Alack ! one lies oneself
Even in the stating that one's end was truth,
Truth only, if une states so much in words.'
"The representative '1' or 'we' occasionally acts the part
of 'one.' The following sentence presents a curious alterna-
tion of 'wo' with 'one' — possibly not accidental (George
Eliot) : 'It's a desperately vexatious thing that, after all o»«'«
lellections and quiet determinalious, ive should be ruled by
moods that one can't calculate on beforehand.' By the use of
'we* here, a more pointed reference ia suggested, while the
vagueness actually lemains.

" Feniniore Cooper, like Scott, is not very particular ; an
example may be quoted: ' Mod'i-jty is a poor man's wealth ;
Imt, as we grow sul)-.tantial in the world, patroon, one can
niford to begin to speak truth of ////Use// as well as of his
neighbour.' Were Cooper a carefiil writer, we might per-

130

THE VhlULMJST.

siiaile our«olvo3 that lie chose 'we' and 'ono' with u paii>oso :
'we' ini<;lit iiidi-vito that tho spi';iUor had liiiiH.;lf iiiid the
patrodii dii'cjlly iu his eye, altljougli at the sumo time lio
.vautod to put it geiu!i\dly ; ami 'one' inij^ht hint vluit Mod-
esty succocdod in gottiiij^ the better of him. T'ut 'himself
and 'Iuh' would alone show that buoh speoulation.} are too
.efined for the occasion.

"The form ' a n\aii,' which was at ono time common, seems
to be revivin:^. lii 'Adam Kc le' wo have, * A man can never
do anytliiii .,' at variance with hia own nature.' Wo migiib
substitute * one.'

"'Men' was moivi l"roqn(!ut in good writing formerly tliaji
now, ' Xfcithor do vusit, light a candle, and put it under a
buyhol.' 'Do 7n<'ii. gither grap'js of tlionis?' JIume is fouJ
of expressing a gLUcud subject by ' men.' *

"'Sniill hir.ls are jnuch more e\pos<Hl to the cold than
large o;)e«.' Tiiid usage is hanlly * iudeiinite'; and it iiecua
no lurtiicr cxomplilication."

On'y. Tliia word, whci. ''sed as an adjective, is more
fiefjueiUly nii.spiaced tlum any other word in the luiguiii^c.
Indeed, I aiu coniident that it is not correctly placetl half the
time, either in conversation or in writing. Thus, " In its
pages, papers of sterling merit [oidy] will onhj ai)pi ar " (Miss
Braddon); "Tilings are getting dull down in Texas; they
o«/^ shot [only] three men down there last wock"; "I have
oidif got [only] three." Only is sometimes improperly used
for exrejit or unless ; thus, " The trains will not stop o)if;/ when
the bell rings." The meaning here is clearly *' ejc.ctpt Vf'iicn
the bell rings."

Dr. Bain, in his *• iTigher English Graminir,' speaking of
the order of words, Bays :

"The word requiring most att.mtion is on/y.

THE VKRUALIST.

131

•• Accordiivc; to the i)a-,ition of onhj, thd same wordi m.-i;
be mailc to oxpresa very difTtront nicanings.

" 'He onhi lived foi- their sakoa.' Hero orJfi must be hcV'
fts qu'ilifymg * limd for tiieir saUes,' the cmphasia being o;.
lived, ilio word immediately adjoining. The meaning then i
' he lived,' but. did not work, did not die, did not do any othe;
thing for their sakoa.

" • He livoil onhj for their sakes.' Onhj now qualifies ' fo;
their sakes,' and the aentence means he lived for this oiio
reason, namely, for their sakea, and not for any otlier reason.

'b'He livod for their sakcs onhi.' The force of the worn
when placed at the end is peculiar. Then it often has a
diminutive or disparaging signification. ' Ho lived for their
eaken,' and not for any more worthy reason. 'He gave six-
pence onhj,' is an insimiation that more was expected.

"By the use of alone, instead of only, other meanings are
expressed. ' He a/oH'' lived for their sakcs'; that is, he, and'
nohodff else, did so. ' He lived for their sakes alone,' or, ' foi
the sake of thcni ahne ' ; tliat is, not for the sake of any other
persons. * It was n'onp by the help of tlie Confederates that
any such design could b'3 cai-ric I out.' Bettor only.

" 'When men grow virtuous in their old age, they on/?/ make
a sacrifice to CJod of the devil's leavings.' — Pope. Here onli/
a rig'itly plficed. ' Think only o: the nast as its remembrance
give-} you pleasure,' should be, ' think of the past, only as its
remembrance,' eto. 'As he did not leave his name, it was
only known that a gentleman had called on business ': it was
known only. ' I can 07i!y refute the accusation by laying be
fore you the whole': this would moan, 'the only thing I am
able to do is to refute ; I may not retaliate, or h^t it drop, I
' must refute it.' 'The negroes are to appear at ciuirch only u<
boots'; that is, when the negroes go to church they are to
I'.T" no cl'ithin'T but b'^i' =. ' T'm i\(^r,ycf:^ ,^re to appear only

132

THE VERBALIST.

at church in booty* miglit moan that they are not to appear
anywhere but at church, whether iu boots or out of them.
The proper arrangomtnit would be to connect the advcibial
adjunct, in boots, with its verb, appear, and to make only
qualify at church and no more : 'the negroes are to appear in
boots only at cliurch.' "

It thus appears very plain that we should look well to our
onlys.

Ought— Should. These two woi-ds, though they both
imply obligation, should not be used indiscriminately. Ought
ia the stronger term ; A\hat we onfjht to do, we are morally
bound to do. We ought to be truthful and hontst, and should
be respectful to our elders and kind to our inferiors.

Overflown. Floion is the past participle of to Jly, and
floviod of tojioxo. As, therefore, a river does not fly over its
banks, but flown over tlieni, we should say of it that it lias
overflowed, and not that it has u\Grfloicn.

Overly. Tlds word i& now used only by the unschooled.

Owing. See Doe.

Pants. This abbreviation is not used by those wlio are
careful in the choice of words. The purist doc-s not use the
y/ovi^ panialoouH even, but trousers. Pants are uorn by (jents
who eat lunches and open wine, and trousers are woiii by
(jentlemen who eat luncheons and order wine.

ParapliernaHa. This is a law term. In Roman law, it
meant the goods which a •woman brought to her hiii-ljaiid be-
sides her dowry. In English law, it me.uis the goi.ils which
a woman is allowed to have aittr the death of hor ininband,
besides her dower, ooiisisting of her apparel and urnanients
fcuitable to her i ank. When used in spo;dving of the afl'aira
of every-day life, it is geneiaUy miaused.

Parlor. This word, in the sttnso of drarvinej-room, ac-
cording to Dr. Hall, except in the Uidted States and some of
the English colonies, is olisoleto.

THE VERBALIST.

133

Partake. This is a vory fine word to use for eat; just
the wonl for yoiiog wDiaeii wlio hobble on Frencli heela.

Partially — Partly. "It is only partia'h/ done." This
use of the adverb partiaUij is siinotioned by hig'h authority,
but that does not make it correct. A thing done in part is
partly, not partialfif, done.

Participles. When the present participle is used sub-
stantively, in sentences like the following, it is preceded by
the definite article and followed by the prepositio.i of. The
omitting of the preposition is a common error. Thus, "Or,
it is the drawhuj a conclusion which was before either un-
known or dark," should be, " tlie drawing of a conclusion."
"Prompted by the most extreme vanity, he persisted in the
writing bad verses," should be, " in writing bad verses," or
"in the writing o/bad verses." " There is a misuse of the
article a which is very common. It is the using it l)efoi-e the
word most." — Moon, Most writers would h ive said " the
using of it." Mr. Moon argues for his construction.

Particle.3. " Nothing but study of the best wrlter.s and
pr.actice in composition will enable us to decide what are the
propositions and conjunctions that ought to go with ooi'tain
verbs. The following examples illustrate some common
blunders :

"• it was characterized w;7// eloquence' : read 'by.' ^

"'A testimonial of the merits of his grammar'; read,
*to.'

"'It was an example of the love io /or»» comp.irisoas ' :
read, 'of forming.'

" 'Repetition is always to be preferred hcfore obscurity':
rend, 'to.'

" 'lie made an clToi'tformi-etiiuj them' : rea 1, ' to meet.'

•* 'Tiiey Ikivo no o/!//cr object but to oonxo' read, 'other '
object than,' or omit ' other.'

134

THE V EBB A LIST.

•'Two verb=! are not unfrequently follov.ed by a single
preposition, vLieh hccoids vitli one only ; e.g., * Tliis duty
is repeated and inculcated vpon the reader.' ' Eepcat tipon^
is nonsense ; we nnu?t read 'is icpenteu to end inculcated
upon.'" — Kicliol's " Knglish Coni};oi~i 'on, :> 3!). We often
see for used with the subs^tantive i-r , ; ' , the best prac-
tice, hoM'ever, u?es n-ilh ; thus, "Wordci can not express the
deep sympathy I fceliiv^A you." — Queen Victoria.

Party. This is a very good \\on\ in its place, but it is
very much out of its place mIkh us^^d — as ic often is by the
vulgar — where good taste would use the word person.

Patronize. This word and its derivatives would be
much less used by the American tradesman than they are, if
iio were better acquainted with their true meaning. Then ho
\. ould solicit his noi;:,dil)or3' cuMovi, not their patronage. A
man can have no 2Mtron8 without incurring obligatinns —
without becoming a pntrr/^ ; while a man may have cu^ toniers
innumerable, and, instead of placing himself undT obliga-
tions to them, he may place them under obligati' • to Mm.
Princes are the pat7'P)is of those tradesmen who.v ■ • i 'low
ti call tliemselves their purveyors ; as, "John Suiii i, -?;',er-
. lasher to H. R. 11. the Prince of Wales." Here the I'-ir e
j'ulronizes John Smith,

Pell-mell. This adverb mpans mixed or mingled to-
gether; as, " Men, horses, chariots, crowtled pclf-mell." It
can not properly be applied to an individual. To say, for
example, " ]\o rushed pell-mell down the stairs," is as incor-
I cut as it woulil be to bay, " He rushed down the stairs niLced
lo'jither."

Per. This LaHn preposition is a good dv >i' -nd in Fng-
lish, as, for examplu, ia such phrases as per day, p r man, per
pound, per ton, and so on. In all such cases it is better to
uge plain Englidi, n\n\ say, a day, a man, apound, a ton, etc.

THE VERBALIST.

ISS

Per is coiTcct before Latin nonna only ; as, per annum, per
(lii'in, per cent., etc.

Perform. "Shejoer/ovH^ on the piano beautifully." In
how much better taste it is to say simply, "She pluiis the
piano well," or, more supe.latively, " exoeedingly well," or
"admirably"! If we talk ab'^ut per/onairif/ on laasical in-
struments, to be consistent, we siioiild call tiiose who perform,
piano-performers, coruet-performers, violiu-performcis, and
so on.

Perpetually. This vvord is sometimes misused for con-
(inualhi. Dr. William Mati)ew.-, in his " NVords, tlieir IJ.se
and Abuse," says : " Tlie Irish are per/ ctualhj using 8h ' I for
voill." Perpetual means never ceasing, continuing without
intermission, uninterrupted ; while conliniial nh ans that
which is constantly renewed and roonning with perliaps fre-
quent stops and interruptions. As tiie Irish do something
besides misuse Hkall, the Doctor should have said that they
contlnuaiUf use shall for will. I might perhaps venluro to in-
timate that ferpdiial/y is likewise misu!^ed in the foUowing
sentence, which I copy from the ** Luudon Queen," if I M'ere
not conscious that the monster who can write and print such
a sentence would not hesitate to cable a thuiiderbolt at an
offender on tlie slightest provocation. Judge, if iny fears are
groundless: " But some few people contract the ugly habit
of making use of these expressions unconsciously and con-
tinually, perpetually interlarding their couversatiou with
them."

Person. SeePAUxY; also, Individual.
Personalty. This word does not, ai some person!? think,
mean tlie articles worn on one's person. It is j)roperly a law
term, and means peraunal proper! if. " There is but one case
ou record of a peer of England leaving over .$7,500,000
personalty."

THE VERBALIST.

Personification. That rlietorical ficrure wliich attributes
sex, life, or action to inanimate ohji-cts, or ascribes to o])ject3
•and brutes the acts ami qualiliua of rational beings, is called
2ie.rsornJication or prosopopoeia.

"The uioiiiitains .■iimj iogelher, the hills rejoice and dap
their hmi'ls." "The v/unn, aware of his intent, harangued
him thus."

" See, Winter comes to rule the varied year.

Sullen and sad with all his rising train." — Thomson.
"So saying, her rash hand, in evil liour,
Forth reaching to the fruit, she phu;ked, she ate 1
Earth felt the wound; and Na' are from her seat,
Sighing through all her loorks, gave signs of woe,
That all tons lost.'" — Milton.
" War and Love are strange compeers.
War sheds blood, and Love sheds tears ;
War has swords, and Love has darts ;
War breaks heads, and Love breaks liearts."
" Levity is often less foolish and gravity less wise than
each ot them appears."

" Tiie English language, by reserving the distinction of
gender +'or living beings -that have sex, gives espei'iu,! scope for
personification. Tlie liighest form of personitication should
be used seldom, and only when justilled by the presence of
strong feeling." — iiain.

"Knowledge and wis'dom, far from being one,
Have ofttimes no connection. Knowledge dwells
In heads replete with thoughts of other njen ;
Wisdom in minds attentive to tiieir own.
Knowledge ia proud that he has loaru'd so much;
Wisdi'in is humble that he knows no more." — Cowper.
Phenonianon. Plural, phenomena.
Plead. Tlie imperfect tense and the perfect participle of

THE VERBALIST.

the verb to plead are both pleaded and not plead. " He
pleaded not guilty." "You should huve pleaded yonr cause
with more feivor."

Plenty. In Worcester's Dictionary we find the following
note: '^ Pleiitif is much used colloquially aa an adjective, iu
the sense of plentiful, both in this country and in England ;
and this use is supported by respectalile authorities, though
it is condomned by various critics. Johnson says : 'It is used
barbarously, I think, ior 2^teiiii/id' ; and Dr. Campbell, in his
•Philosophy of Rhetoric,' siya: ' Pleat n for plenli/al appears
fco me so gross a vulgarism that I should not have thought it
worthy of a place here if I had not sometimes found it in
workf of considerable merit.' " We should say, then, that
money is plentifut, and not that it is plenty.

Pleonasm. Redundancy or pleonasm is the use of more
words than are necessary to express the thought clearly.
"They returned back at/ain to the same city from whence
they came forth": the five words in italics are redundant or
pleou' 'tic. " The different departments of science and of art
?ni<<i:f(//y reflect liglit on each other'": either of the expressions
in italics embodies the wliole idea. "The 2mj,';er.sai{ opinion
of all men" is a pleonastic expression often heard. "I wrote
you a /c<<er yesterday": here a ZeWer is redundant, ■»

Redundancy is sometimes permissible for the surer convey-
ance of nisaning, for emphasis, auvl in the language of poetic
embellishment.

Polite. This word is much used by persons of doubtful
culture, where tliose of tlie better sort use the word kind. AVe
accept kind, not polite, invitations ; and, when anj' one has
been obliging, we tell him that ho has Ijeen kind; and, wlicu
an interviewing reporter tells us of his having met with a
polite reception, we may be sure that the person by whom ho
has been received deserves well for his considerate kindueea.

138

THE VERBA LIST.

"I thank you and Mrs, Pope for my kind reception." —
Attei'bury.

Portion. This word is often incorrectly used for fart.
A porlion is properly a part assigned, allotted, set aside for a
special purpose; a share, a division. The verb to portion
means to divide, to parcel, to endow. We ask, therefore,
"In what jiurt [not, in what pnr/i'i)i\ of the country, state,
county, town, or street do you live?" — or, if we prefer
grandiloquence to correctness, reside. In the sentence, "A
large portion of the land is untilled," the right word would be
either part or proiwrlion, according to the intention of the
writer.

Posted. A word very much and very inelepjantly used
for informed. Sucli expressions as, "I will post you," "I
must post myself up," "If I had been better posted" and the
like, are, at tlie best, but one remove from slang.

Predicate. This word ia often very incorrectly used in
the sense of to base; as, "He predicates his opinion on insuffi-
cient data." Then we sometimes hear people talk about
predicating an action upon certain information or upon some-
body's statement. To predicate moans primarily to speak
before, and has come to be properly used in the sense of
assumed or believed to be the consequence of. Examples:
"Contentment is predicated ol viriwi" \ "Good healtii may
be jirediraled of a good constitution." He who is not very
er.re that he usoj the word correctly would do better not to
use it at all.

PrejUrUce — Prepo??'?egs. 3?oth these words moan, to in-
cline ill one direction or the other for some reason not founded
injustice; Imt by cnmnion consent prejudice has come to be
used in an unfa\ orablc sense, and prepossess in a favorable
one. Thus, we say, "He is prejudiced against him," and
"He is prepossessed in his favor." We fcunictimes iiear the

THE VERBALIST.

I8»

expression, "He is prejvdiced in his favor," but this can not
be accounted a good use of the word.

Prepositions. The errors made in the use of the prepo-
sitiona are very numerous. " The indolent cliikl is one who
[tliat?] has a rtrong aversion from action of any sort." —
(Jraham'3 "English Syuonymes," p. 230. The prevailing and
best modern usage is in favor of to instead of from after averse
and aversion, and before the object. " Clearnesis . . . enables
the reader to see thoughts without noticing tlie hmguiige
y:Uh which they are clothed." — Towusend'a "Art of Speech."
We clothe th9ught3 in language. "Shakespeaie . . . and
the Bible are . . . models for the Englisli-siieakiiig tongue."
— Il)id. If this means models of English, then it should be
of; but if it means models for English organs of speech to
practice on, tiion it should be /or; or if it means models to
model English tongues after, then also it should be /or. "If
the resemblance is too faint,* the mind is fatigued tvhiie at-
tempting to trace the analo'^des." " Aristotle is in error while
thus tiescribing governments." — Ibid. Here we have two
examples, not of the misuse of the preposition, but of the
erroneous use of the adve; b n-hi/e instead of the preposition
in, "For my part I can not think that Siielley's poetry, ex-
cept b>/ snatches find fragments, has tiie value of the good
work 01 Word:^ worth or Byron."— Matthew Arnold. Shuuld
be, "except in snatches." "Taxes with us are collected
nearly [almost] solely from real and pergonal estate." — ■
"Appleton's Journal." Taxes ai'e levied o/i estates and col-
lected j'rom tlie owners.

"Ir I am not coMunen'ied for the beauty of my works, I
may hope to be pardoned for their brevity." Coliliett com-
ments on this sentence as follows : " Wo may conmiend him
for the lieauty of his works, and we may pardon hiui ;br their
brevity, if wo deem the brevity a fault; but this is not what

140.

THE VERBALIST.

he means. He means that, at any rate, he shall have the merit
of brevity, 'If I am not conimonded for the bcauly of my
works, I may hope to be pardoned on account q/* their brevity.
This ia M'hat tlie Doctor meant; but this would have marred
a little tiie antithesis: it would have unsettled a little of the
balance of that secaaio in which Dr. Johnston so much de-
lighted, and which, falling into the hands of novel-writer.:
and of members of Parliament, has, by moving unencundieied
with any of the Doctor's re,i.son or se-iso, lulled so many
thousands asleep! Dr. Johnson created a r.ice of writers and
speakers. '!Mr. Speaker, that the state of the nation is very
critical, all men will allow ; but that it is wliolly depeiate,
few will believe.' When you hear or see a sentence like this,
be sure tliat the person who speaks or writes it has been
reading Dr. Johnson, or some of his imitators. Dut, ol)serve,
tliese imitators go no further tb.au tlie frame of the sentences.
They, in general, take care not to imitate the Doctor in know-
ledge and reasoning."

Tlie rhetoricians would have us avoid such forms of ex-
pression as, "The boy went to and asked the advice 0/ his
teacher"; "I called on and had a conversation with my
brother."

Very often the preposition is not repeated in a sentence,
when it should ha. We say properly, *' He comes from Ohio
or from Indiana"; or, "lie comes e'Uher from Ohio or
Indiiina."

Prepossess. See Prkjodtcr.

Pre^ient— Introduce. I'V-w errors are more common,
especially among those v/ho are always straining to bo tine,
than that of using ]irestiit, in the social world, instea<l of
introduce. PreM'nt means to place in tlie presence of a
superior; hitrorluce, to l)ring to be aecjuainted. A person is
presented at court, and on au ofiicial occasion to our I'resi-

THE VERBALIST.

141

(luiit ; but persons who are nnkiKiwii to each other are intro-
duced by a common acquaintance. And m tlie?e introductions,
it is the younger who is introduced to the older ; the lower to
the higlier in place or social position; the gentleman to the
lady. A lady should say, as a rule, that Mr. Blank was iu-
ti'odnced to her, not that she was introduced to Mr. Blank.

Presumptive. This word is souietimea misused by the
careless for presumptuous. ,

Preventive. A useless and unwarranted syllable ia
sonictinic^ ad<l d to this word — precciitafivc.

Prev.OUS. rhi.s adjective is much used in an adverbial
sense; thus, ••y-'rew'o/w to my return," etc. Until previous in
recognized as an advcil), if we would speak grammatically,
we must say, *^ PntviouHly to my return." '* Prevtousli/ to my
leaving England, I cali> <1 on his lord.siiip."

Procure. This is a v.-nrd much \i8e(l by poople who strive
to be (Inc. "Where did you <jcl it ?" witli them is, " Where
did you procure it?"

Profanity. The extent to which some men habitually
interlard tlieir talk witli oatlis is disgusting even to many
wiio, on occasion, do not themselves hesitate to give expres-
sion to their feelings in oaths portly and unctuous. If these
fidlows could be made to know how ofTensive to decency they
make themselves, they would, perhaps, be less profane.

Promise. This word is sometimes very improperly used
for assure; thus, "Ipromitie yen I was very much astonished."

Pronouns of the First Person. "The ordinary usea

of 'I' an! 'we,' as tlie singular and plural pronouns of the
first per.':.!)!!, wouhl appear to be a'love all atnl)iguity, uncer-
tainty, or ihripate. Yet when we consider the force of the
jilural 'we,' we are met with a contradiction ; for, as a rule,
only one person can speik at the same time to the same
audience. It is only by some exceptional anan emcnt, or

•142

THE VERBALIST.

some latitiulo orliceuso of expresrjion, that several persons can
be conjoint speakers. For cxumplo, a plurality may sing to-
gether in olijnn, and may join in the respDnncs at church, or
in the siiniiltaneons repetition of the Lord's Prayer or the
Creed. Again, one person may be the autiiorizcd spokosinan
in delivoriny a judgment or opinion heUl by a number of
persons in common. Finally, in written compositions, the
'we' is not un8uit:il)le, because a plurality of persons may
append their naiues to a document.

"A speaker using 'wo' may speak for himself and one or
more others ; commonly ho stamls forward aa the repiesenta-
tive of a class, more or less comprehensive. 'As soun as my
companion and I had entered tlie field, tee saw a man coming
toward «s',- 'we like our new curate'; 'you do us poets tite
greatest injustice'; 'we must see to the elTiciency of our forces.*
The widest use of the pronoun will be mentioned presently.

'"We* is used for 'I* in the decrees of persons ia au-
thority ; as when King Lear says :

' Know that we have divided
In three our kingdom.'
By the fiction of phirality a veil of modesty is thrown over the
as.-umption of vast sup:uioiity over human beings generally.
Or, 'we' may be regarded as an official form wherel)y the
s))oaker personally is magnified or enabled to rise to the dig-
nity of the oc(;a.sion.

"Tiie editorial 'we' ia to be understood on the same
principle. An author using 'we' appears as if he were not
alone, but sharing with oi^iier person.^ the responsibility of his
views.

"This representative position is at its utmost stretch in
the practice of using 'we' tor human beings geneially ; as in
discoursing on the laws of human nature. The preacher, the
novelist, or tlio iihilosonher. in dwelling unon thu prndi'^ritv

THE VERBALIST.

143

of our cotrmon constitution, being himself an example of what
he is speakinff of, associatea the rest of mankind with him,
ami speaks collectively by means of ' we.' ' We are weak and
fallible'; 'toe are of yesterday'; * we are doomed to dissolu-
tion.' ' Here have we no coutiiiuing city, but we seek one to
come.'

"It is not nnfrequent to have in one sentence, or in close
proximity, both the editorial and the representative meaning,
the effect being ambiguity and confusion. 'Let us [the author]
now consider why we [luimanity generally] overrate distant
good.' In such a case the author should fall back upon the
singular for himself — ■ / will now consider — .' ' We [speaker]
think we [himself and hearers together] should come to the
conclusion.' Say, either '/think,' or ''you would.'

"The following extract from Butler exemplifies a similar
confusion : 'Siipjiose xcp, [representative] are capable of happi-
ness and of misery in dcgiees equally intense and extreme,
yet tof, [rep.] ai'o capable of the latter for a much longer time,
beyond all com pari. son. We [chmge of subjoet to a limited
class] see men in the tortures of pi.in — . Suoh is our [l)ack to
representative] make that anythintj may bec;ime tlie instru-
ment of pain and sorrow to us.' The ' we ' at the commence-
ment of the second sentence — * 11 V see men in the tortures' —
could be advantai;cously changed to 'you,' or the passive
construction cnuM be substi'cated; the rem.iining tee's Wuuld
then l)e consistently representative.

"From the greater emphasis of singularity, energetic
pponkers and writers sometimes use 'I' as representative of
mankind at hu'ge. Thus : 'The current inip.essions received
throu;.;h the senses are not voluntary in origin. What /see
in walking is seen because / have an organ of vision.' The
question of general moral obligation is forcibly stated by
Vaiey in tiie in lividuil fcirin. 'Wliv a'n /'nbli'Td to keep m^-

144

Tilt: VKRUALIST.

word?' It is Houu'tiiiuis well to cdiifine the attention of the
hearer or reader to liia own relation to the matter under con-
sidoiation, more especially in dillicult or non-popular argu-
ment or exposition. The speaker, by using *!,' does the
action himself, or mnkea himself the example, the hearer
being expected to put iiimself ia the aume position." — Bain 8
•• Composition ( 1 ramnuir. "

Pronouns of the Second Person. "Anomalous usages
have sprung up in connection with the? nronouus. The
plural form has almost wholly supersei He singular ; a

UBage more than five centuries old.*

"The motive is courtesy. The sitigling out of one person
for address is supposed to be a liheity or an excess of
familiarity ; and the eiloct is softoned or diluted by the fiction
of taking in others. If our address is uncomplimentary, the
sting is lessened by tlio plur.d form ; and if tlie reverse, the
shock to modesty is not so great. This is a reiinemcnt that
was unknown to the ancient languigts. Tiie orators of Greece
delighted in the strong, pointed, person.al appeal implied in
the singular 'thou.' In modern (Jerinan, * thou' ((^/j/) is the
address of familiarity and intinacy; while the ordiimry ]iro-
noun is the curiou-;ly indirect 'they' (Sie). On solenni occa-
sions, we may rovert to 'thou.' Cato, in his meditative
soliloquy on reading I'lato'a views on the immortality of the
soul before killing himself, says; ' Plato, thoii reasonest well.'
So in the Comniaii'lmeiits, 'tiiou' addresses to each imiividiial
an unavoiilable appeal : 'Thou shalt not .' But oar ordi-
nary means of making the personal appeal is, ' yon, sir,' 'you,

madam,'' 'my Lord, you ,' etc.; we reserve 'thou' for thb

special caf-o of addressing the Deity. Tlio appiication of the

• "The use of tlio plnral for the sincrulav was t'stabli-hed as early ag
tba bejflnnins of the fouitocHth century."— Morris, p. 118, I IbA, •

Tin: VKIiliAUST.

motive of coiirte«y is l>(;i"« reversed ; it would be irreverent
to merge tliis va-t personality i.i a proniiscuous nsseinblagft.

"'Voii' isnotiinfi (luently tniploycd, lilie ''vvo,' us a repre-
sentative pronoun. The action is represented with great
vividnosa, wlieii tlie person or persons addressed may be put
forwiird as tlie performers : 'There is such an echo among the
old ruins and vaults, that if yon stamp a little louder than
ordinary, you lioar tl ■ sound repeateil'; 'Some practice is re-
quired to see these animals in the tliick foieat, even when you
hear them close by t/oh.'

"There should not be a mixture of 'tliou' and 'you' in
the same passage. Tlius, Tliackcray (Adventures of Philiji):
'So, as thji sun rises, friend, over the humble hoiise-tois round
about your home, shall you wake many and many a day to
duty and labor.' So, Cooper (Water- Witch): 'Tliou hast
both master and mistress? You have told us of the latter,
but we would know !-omething of the lormtr. Who is Ihy
master?' Shakespeare, Scott, and others might also be
quoted.

" 'Ye' and 'you' were at one time strictly distinguished as
diflferent eases ; 'ye' was nominative, 'you' olijcctive (dative
or accusative). But the EliLahethan dramatists confounded
the forma irredeemably ; and 'you' has gradually ousted 'ye'
from ordinary upc. 'Ye' is restricted to the expression of
strong feeling, and in this employment occurs chiefly in the
poets." — Bain's "Composition Grammar,"

Proof. This word is much and very improperly used for
evidence, which is only the medium of proof, proof being the
eil'ect of evidence. " What ei idence have you to offer in proof
of the trutli of your statement?" See alyo Evidence.

Propose— Purpose. Writers an 1 speakers often fail to
discriminate jiroperly between the respective n.caninga of
tliege two verbs. Propoie, correctly used, means, to put for-

#*■

146

THE VEnBALIST.

ward or to offer for the cGnmlp.ration of othern; hence, a
jiropnaal is a scheme or design offered for acceptance or con-
sideration, a proposition. Purpose nit>ans, to intend, to
design, to resolve ; hence, a purpose is an intention, an aim,
that which one sets before one\'i sell. Examples : "What do
you purpose doing in the matter?" "What do you propone
that we shall do in tlie matter?" "I will do" means "I
purpose doinpf, or to do " "I purpose to write a history of
Kngland from the accession of King James the Second <]own
lo a time which is witliin the memory of men still living." —
Macaulay. It will he observed that M.caulay says, "I pur-
pose ^o wri^c," aii^l not, " I purpose uvv'i'c'/;^," using tlie verb
Ml the infinitive rather than in the participial form. '*()n
which he purjiosed to mount one of his little guns." bee

IVFIN'lTtVE.

Proposition. This M'ord is often used when proposal
would be better, for tlic reason tliat pro}>osal lias but one
meaning, and is shorter by one syllable. " He demimsl rated
;.lie proposilion of Euclid, and rejected the jiroposal of his
iriend."

Prosaist. Dr. Hall is of opinion that this is a word we
•shall do well to encourage. It is used by good writers.

Proven. This form for the past participle of the verb to
/rove ia said to bo a Scotticism. It ia not used by careful
writers and speakers. The correct form ia proved.

Providing. The present participle of the verb to provide
is sometimes vulgarly used for the conjunction proridi-d, as in
this sentence from the ''i.ondou Queen": ''Society may be
congratulated, , . . prorif/j//;/ that," etc.

Provoke. See Aqguavate.

Punctuation. The importance of pnnctuntion can not
be overestimated ; it not only helps to make plain the nicaninir
of what one writes, but it may prevent one's being miscon-

THE VERBALIST.

147

«triie(l. Though no two writers could \)Q found who punctuate
just alike, still in the main tliose wlio p;iy attention to the
art put in their sstops in essenLially the san\e manner. Tiie
difference that punotuaticju may make in the meaning of lan-
guage is well illustrated by the following anecdote:

At Ramessa there lived a bene\'ol-?nt and hospitable prior,
who caused these lines to be painted over his doc
"Be open evermore,
thou my door !

To none be shut — to honest or to poor !
In time the good prior was succcetled by a man as solfish
as his predeccosur was gcMUUMUS. Tiie lines over tlie door of
the priory wei'e allowed to remain ; one atop, however, was
altered, which made them road tlius:
"Be open ..\e."more,
thou my door !

To none — be shut to honest or to poor !"
He punctuates best who makes his punctuation contribute
most to the clear expression of his thought; and that con-
struction is best that has least need of being punctuated.

TiiK Comma. — Tiie chief diiferenco in the punctuation of
different writers is usually in their use of the comma, in regard
to which tlicre is a good dc il (^f latitude ; much is left to in-
dividual taste. Nowai'ays tiie be-t pfuctice uses it sparingly.
An iilea of the exlout uJ which opinions differ with regard to
the use of ♦he com :.ia may bo fornuid from the following
e.x.c.3ipc fconi a papor pie[).irod lor private u-e :

" in tlie following examples, gathtr<;d from various sources
— chieliy from s taudard bi/oks — the supciiluous commas are
inclosed in parentheses :

"1. 'It remanis(,) perluips(,) to be said(,) that, if any
lesson at all(,) as to these tlclicato maLters{,) is needed(,) iu
tills period, it is not so muL;h a lesson,' etc. 2. 'The obedi*

148

THE VERBALIST.

ence is not due to the jiower of a right authority, but to the
spirit of [ear, and(,) thcrofore(,) is(,)in rc;.lity(,) noobedience
at all.' 3. 'Th(! patriot distill bailees in Canada . . . awakened
deep interest among the j/eople of the United Statc.s(,) who
lived adjacent to tho frontier.' 4. ' Observers(,) who have
recently investi^Lrated this pointf,) do not all agree,' etc. 5.
'The wind diil(,) in an instant(,) wliat man and steam toge-
tlicr had failed to do in hours.' 6. 'All the cabin passenger.s(,)
situated beyond the center of the boat(,) were saved.' 7. 'No
other writer has depict(il(,) Mith so much art or so much
accdfacy(,) the habits, tiio manners,' etc. 8. 'If it shall give
Batisfaetion to Ihos-e w ho h;ive(,) in a?iy way(,) befriended it,
—i author will feel,' etc. 9. 'Forme<i(,) or consisting of(,)
.-ay.' 10. 'The subject [witchcraft] grew intirresting; aud(,)
to examine Sarah Cloyce and Kbzabeth Proctor, the deputy-
governor(,) and five other niaijistratesl,) went to Salem.' 11.
'The Lu.sitaniansf,) wiio had not left their home(,) rose a* a
man,' etc. 12. 'Vague reports . . . had preceded him to
Washington, and his Mississippi fricnds(.) who chanced to be
at the eapital(,) were not backward to make their boast of
him.' 13. 'Our faith hasac'juirod a new \i^'-or(,) and a clearer
vision.' 14. 'In ISIO',) lie nniovcd to Cambridge.' 15.
' Dore was boin at Strawburg(,) in IS.S'i, and labors,' etc.
16. ' We shouhl never apply dry compresses, chaipie, or wad-
din^(,) to the wound,' 17. ' — to stand idle, to look, act, or
think(,) in a lei.«ure]y way. 18. ' — \ ortraits takPn from the
fanmrs, schoolmasters, and pea^aiiti'y(,)of the neighborhood.'
]!>. ' — gladly welcomed painters of I'landers, Holland, and
Spain(,) to their shores.'

"In all llie.-e cases the clauses between or following the
inclosed comuias are :'0 clctjcly connected griuniiiatieally with
the immediately preceding words or phrase':, tiiut they should
be read without a perceptible pause, or witli only a slii,'ht

THE VERBALIST.

149

one for lireath, without change of voice. Some of the com-
maa would grossly pervert the meaning if strictly construed.
Thus, from No. 3 it would appear that the people of the
United States in general lived adjacent to the frontier ; from
No. 4, that all ob:^eivor3 have recnitly investigated the point in
question ; from No. 6, that all the cabin passengers were so
situated that they were saved, whereas it is meant that only a
certain small proportion of them were saved ; from No. 10
(Bancroft), that sonn^body whose name is accidentally omitted
went to Salem 'to examine Sarah Clcyce and Elizabeth Proc-
tor, the deputy-go-'ernor, and five other magistrates'; from
No. 11, that none of the Lusitanians had left their home,
wliereas it was the slaught-^r by the Romans of a great number
of them who had left their home that caused the rising.

"Commas are fivquently omitted, and in certain positions
very generally, v t- the .sense and correct reading ref|nire a
pause. In the follov/ing examplis, such coinmas, nuiLred in
the woiks from wliich thoy weie taken, are enclosed in
black ets :

" 1. 'The modes of thong!it[,j and the types of chfyacter
which those modes prudiice[,] are Cisentially and niversally
transformed.* 2. 'Taken by itself[,] tlii.v doctrine could have
no effect whatever; iiidecdf,] it wouhl fi.iuunt to nothing but
a verbal pi'oposiiion.' 3. 'Far belo\v[,J the little stream of
the Oiler foamed over the rocks.' 4. ' Vv'h> the day re-
turned[,] the professor, the arti3t[,] and T ,d to witiiin a

hundred yards of the shore.' 5. ' Proceed ' j; into the interior
of Indiaf,] tliey passed tlircugli Eelgauin." (3. 'If Loriug is
defeated in the Sixth l>>i>itriet[,] it can be Ijoriie.'

"In No. 3, the veaMcr naturally enunciates 'the little
stream of the Oder 'as in the oliiectivo case alter 'below*;
lint there he comes to a predic ite which compels him to go
back and read diti'erently. In No. 4, it appears that 'the day

150

THE VERBALIST.

leturned the professor,' and tlu-u ' tho artist and I rowed,'
etc."

All clauses should generally be isolated by commas ; where,
liowever, the cimueotion is very close or the clause ia very
short, no point may be necessary. " But his pride is greater
than hia ignorance, and wliat lie wants in knowledge lie sup-
jilies by sulHcienoy," " A man of polite imagination can con-
verse with a picture, and lind an agreeable cnipuuion in a
statue." "Though he slay nie, yot will I trust him." "The
prince, hia father being dead, succeeded." "To confess the
truth, I was nnich at fault." "As the Iieart pantcth after
tlie water-bvooks, so pantotli my soul after thee." "Where
the bee sucks, there suc.c 1." "His father dying, he suc-
ceeded to the eatato." "Tlie little that is known, and tho
circumstance that little is kiiuwn, must bo considered as
honorable to him."

The comiiia is used before and after a phase when co-ordi-
nating and not restrictive. "The jury, having retiiud for
half an hour, brought in a verdict." "The stranger, unwill.
iiig to ol)tnule iiiinsclf on our notice, left in the morning.'
"lie!'"'", tho city of the Emperors, became the city of tho
Pope ' "His stories, which made everybody laugh, were
often made to order." "He did not come, wliich I greatly
regret." "The younger, wlio was yet a boy, had nothing
striking in iiis appearance." "Tliey passed the cup to tlie
stndiger, who <lrank licartily." "Peace at any price, wliicli
these orators seeni to advocate, means war at any cost."
" Sailors, wlio are generally superstitious, say it is unlucky to
embark on Friilay."

Adverbs and .■^' irt Murases, when thnj break the connection,
should be between commas. Some of the most common words
and plirasessous' I are the following: Alas, tno, theie, indeed,
perhaps, s-nrcly, moreover, likewise, however, tinally, namely.

THE VERBALIST.

>-.

151

therefore, apparently, meanwhile, consequently, unquestion-
ably, accoi'dingly, notwithstanding, in truth, in fact, in short,
in general, in reality, no doubt, of course, as it were, at all
events, to be brief, to be sure, now and then, on the contrary,
in a word, by chance, in that case, in the meantime, for the
most part. "History, in a word, is rcple e with moral les-
ons." "As an orator, however, he was not great." "There
is, rcnicmber, a limit at which forbearance ceases to be a
virtue." "Our civilization, tlierefore, is not an unmixed
good." " Tliis, I grant j'ou, is not of great importance."

If, however, the adverb does not break the connection, but
readily coalesces with the rest of the sentence, the commas
are omitted. "Morning will come at last, however dark the
night may be." " We then proceeded on our M-ay." "Our
civilization is therefore not an unmixed good." " Patience,
I Bay ; your mind perhaps may change."

Adverbial phrases and clauses beginning a sentence are set
off by commas. " In truth, I could not tell." "To sum up,
the matter is this." "Everythirg being ref.dy, they set out."
*'By looking a little deeper, the reason >vill be found."
' Finally, let me sum up the argument." "If the premises
were admitted, I should deny the conclusion." "Where
your treasure is, there will your heart be also."

Words used in apposition should be isolated by commas.
"Newton, the great mathematician, was very modest."
"And he, their prince, shall rank among my peers." In
sncli sentences, however, as, " The niathematieian Xewton
was very modest," and " Tlie Emperor Napoleon was a great
so ier," commas are not used.

Tlie name or designation of a person addressed js isolated
by commas. "It touches you, my lord, as well as me."
"John, come here." "Mr. President, my oi)ject is penoc."
"Tell me, boy, whrre do you live?" "Yes, sir, I will do as
you say." "Mr lirown, wiiat is your niuiil.'cr?"

152

THE VERBALIST.

Pairs of words. — " Old and young, rich and poor, wise and
foolish were involved.' " Sink or swim, live or die, survive
or perish, I give my hand and heart to this vote." " Interest
and ambition, honor and shame, friendsliip and enmity, grati-
tude and revenge, are the prime movers in public transac-
tions."

A restrictive clause is not sepai'ated by a comma from the
noun. "Every one must love a l)oy who [that] is attentive
and docile." " lie preaches sublimely who [tliat] lives a holy
life." "The things wliich .[that] are seen are temporal.
"A king depending on the support of his .subjects can not
rashly go to war." "The sailor who [tiiat] is not supcsti-
tious will end:)ark any day."

The comma is used after adjectives, nouns, and verbs in
sentences like the following :

" Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoila
Shrunk to this little measure ?"

" He lills, he bounds, connects and equals all."

*' Who to the enraptureil heart, and ear, and eye
Teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody."*

" He rewarded ids friends, chastised his foes, set Justice
on her seat, and ma<Ie Ids conquest secure."

The comma is used to separate adjectives in oppos^ition,
but closely connected. "Though deep, yet clear; though
gentle, yet not dull." "Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's
hand." "Though black, yet comely; and though rash,
benign."

Alter a nominative, where the verb is understood. "To
err ia human; to forgive, divine." "A wise man seeks to

*"SoTho writers omit tlie comma In cas s where the eonjunclioii ig
used. But, as the conjunction is jj^onorally emi'.l lyuii in siioli cii-^cjfor eui-
phaais, oomnuw ouglit. to be uaad ; althougli, where tlio words are very
eloscly ooniiected,-or whore tliey constitute a clause in tin; midst of a lonj'
teiiteiico, they umy be omitted. '—Ligelow'g " ilaiidbooli of I'aiictuation."

THE VERBALIST.

153

shine in himself; a fool, in others." "Conversation makes a
ready mau ; wriMng, an exact man ; reading, a full man."

A long subject is often separatod from the predicate by a
comma. "Any one that refuses to earn an honest livelihood,
is not an obj'.cb of charity.* "The circumstance </£ his
being unprepared to adopt immediate and decisive measures,
was represent'jd to the Government." "That lie had per-
sisleuUy disregarded every warning and persovcfcd in his
reckless couise, liad not yet undermined his credit with his
dupes." "That the work of forming and perfecting the char-
acter is diilicult, is generally allowed "

In a series of adjective:! that precede their noun, a comma
is placed after each except the last ; there u^age omits the
point. "A beautiful, tidi, willowy, spiigl^lly girl." "A
quick, brilliant, studious, learned man,"*

A conuna is placed between short members of compound
sentences, connected by and, but,jo)\ nor, or, itccause, tv/tereca,
that expressing purpose (so that, in order tliat), and otlier
conjunctions. " Be virtuous, that you may be respected,"
" Love not sleep, lest you como to poverty." "Mau proposes,
bu tiled disposes."

A comma must not be placed before that except wliou it
is equivalent to in order that. "He says that he will be
hero."

A comma must not be placed before and when it connects
two wuriis only. "Time and tide wait for no mau." "A
rich and prosperous people." " I'laiu and honest tiutli wants
no artiticial covering."

A comma is sometimes necessary to prevent ambiguity.
"He who pursues pleasure ouly defeats the object of his

*"TliiH usa<ro violates one of tlie fumlamoiital piiiunplc' of punctua-
tion; ii, indicates, very iiuiroin r y, tiiat the noun man is more closely
coaiii'ctc: 1 with It'll I lied than with tlio oclier ailjcotives. Analogy aud
pttrs)ncuity roqairc a conniiu after leufned."—ilmu:kenhos.

154

THE VEliBALIST.

creation." Without a comma before or after only, the mean-
ing of this sentence is doubtful.

The following sentences present some miseellaneous ex-
aniplea of the use of the eoniiua hy writers on puncLuntion:
"Industry, as well as genius, is essential to the production of
great works." "Prosperity is fee. mod to a state, not by tlia
acquisition of territoiy or riches, but by the encour.'iyenient
of industry." "Your maunerd are allable, anil, for the most
part, pleasing." *

"However faudy a bad niun mtiy a]ipear to act, we dis-
trust hiu)." "Why, this is rank injustice." " Well, follow
the dictates of your inclination." "The conniia may be
omitted in the case of too, «'.so, thrrofore, and perluipx, when
introduced so as not to'interfere with the luirnionii u.s How of
the period; and, particularly, whcti tlie sentence is short." t
"Robert Horton. W. D., F. 11. S." "To tho.se who labor,
sleep is doul)ly ])leasant"; " ^jleep is doubly pleasant to those
who labor." "Those wlio iu'r;seveie, succeed." "To be
overlooked, slighted, and ne;4lecte<l; to be misunderstood,
misrepresented, and slandered ; to be trampled underfoot by
the envious, the ignorant, and the vile ; to be crushed by
foes, and to be distrusted and betrayed even by friends — such
is too often the fate of genius. "She is tall, thougli not so
handsome as her sister." "Verily, verilyj I f-ay unto you."
"Whatever is, is right." " Wiiat is foreordained to be, will
be." "The Emperor Augustus was a patron of the line arts."
"Augustus, the Emperor, was a patron of the fine arts."
"United, we stand; divided, we fall." "(Jotl said, Let there
be light." "July 21, 1881." "President CJarlield was shot,
Saturday morning, July 2, 188 1 ; he died, Monday night,

• Many writers would omit the last two coinnias in this pentonco.

♦ The commas before and after iiarticaLarlt, aie hardly necessary.

THE VERBALIST.

155

Sept. 19, 1S81." "I nm, sir, very respectfully, your oberliejit
servant, John Jones." "New York, August, 1881." •'Room
20, Equitable Building, Broadway, New York."

" WJcen you are in doubt en to the pro]irut>/ of in/^erting
commas, omit tlirvi; it is ketter to have too fi:w than
TOO Mi NY." — Quaokenbos.

Thi. Semicolon'. — Reasons are preceded ))y semicolons;
"Economy is uo disgrace ; for it is better to live on a little
than tc outlive a great deal." Clau.ses in opposition are
separated by a semicolon when the second is introduced by an
adversative : " Straws swim at the surface ; Init pearls lie at
the bottom"; "Lying lips are an abomination to the Lord ,
but they that deal truly are his delight." Witliout the ad-
versative, the colon is to be preferred: "Prosperity slioweth
vice: adversity, virtue." Tiie great divisions of a sentence
must be pointed m ith a semicolon wlien the minor divisions
are pointed with commas : "Mirth should be the embroidery
of conver.sation, not the web ; and wit the ornament of the
mind, nut the furniture." The tilings enumerated nmst be
separated by semicolons, when the enunciation of jwrticulars
is preceded by a colon ; "The value of ajnaxim depends on
four things : the correct ness of the ])rinciple it embodies ; the
subject to which it niates ; tlir; e.\teiit of its application ; and
the ease with wldoh it niny be practically carrictl out." When
as introduces an example, it is preceded by a semicolon.
When several successive clauses have a connnon connection
with a preceding or following clause, they are separated by
semicolons; as, "Children, as they gamboled on tiie beach ;
reapers, ns they gatlicred the harvest; mowers, as they i-ested
from using the scythe; mothers, as tlicj' bu. iecl themselves
about the household — were victims to an enemy, who dis-
appeared the moment a blow wan t^truck." "Rea:>on as we
may, it is impossible not to read in such a fate much that we

156

THE VEIiUALIsr.

know not how to intoiprcfc ; much of provocation to cruel
deeds and deep rcsentiuont ; much of apology for wrong and
poifi'ly; muuh of doubt and miagiving aa to the past; much
of p:iinfid rejoUoctioiis ; much of dark foreboding." "Phil-
03op!iorj assert that Nature is unlimited ; tliat her treasures
are endless; that the iucre is:e of knowledge will never oia^e."

The Colon. — This point i.s l«ss used now than formerly ;
its place is supplied by the period, the ar-micolon, or the dash;
and sometimes, even by the comma. The colon is used very
differently by difl\!rent writers. "He was heard to say, *1
have done with this woild.'" Some writers would put a
colon, some a comma, after my. " When the quoted pah;s ige
is brought in without any intio luctory word, if short," says
Quackenljos, "it is generally preceded by a comma; if long,
by a colon ; as, 'A simpleton, meeting a pliilo.opher, asked
him, "Vvhat ailords wise men tiie greatest pleasure ?" Turn-
ing on his heel, tlie sage replied, " To get rid of fools." ' "

Formal enumerations of particulars, and direct quotations,
when introduced by such plirases as in Ihesa words, nsjo/loia,
the. fo'lowtiuj, name/)/, IhK-i, ihfse, thus, etc., are propei'ly pre-
ceded by a colon. "Wo hold thq-se truths to be telf -evident:
that all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by
their Creator with certain inalienable rights ; that among
these are life, liberty, and the jiursuit of happiness." "Loid
Bacon has summe<I up the wliole matter in tlie followin'^;
words : 'A little philosophy inelir.eth men's minds to atheism ;
but depth in philosophy bringcth men's minds to religion.'"
" The huniiu family is composed of five races : fir.it, tlio
CauCiT iian ; second, the Mongolian; third, the," etOt
"All were attentive to the godlike man,
When from his lofty couch he thus began :,
'Great queen,' " etc. — .Drydcn.

"When the ijuotatiou, or other matter, b.\5;:in3 a new paia-

THE VERBALIST.

157

pT'^pli, the colon is, by rnaiiy writfvs, follcnvod v ith n dnj-li ;
as- "The cloth Ijeing removed, the I'rciiclent rose and said: —

" 'Ladies and gentkinen, we fire,'" etc.

The colon is used to mark the qriater brcaka in sentences,
when the lesser breaks are muiked by semicolons. "You
have called yourself an atom in tlie universe; you have said
that you are but an insect in the solar blaze : is your prer cut
pi-ide consistent with these professions ?" "A clause is citlMT
ipdcpcndent or dcpcndrnt: indepeiKlent, if it forms an asser-
tion by itself ; dependent, if it enters into some other claune
with the value of a part of spci ):." A colon is sometimes
used instead of a period to sejaiate tv»o thort fentences,
whifih are clo:?ely connected. "Never flatter people: leave
that to such us mean to betray them." "Some tilings we
can, and others we can not; du: ^vc can walk, but v/e can not

fiy."

The Pkhtoi"). — Corii])lete senteneea are ahvnys followed
either by a period, or by an exclamation or an infemigation
point.*

Tiie period is also used after abbreviations ; as, R. D. Tan
Nostrand, St. Louis, Mo.; Jno, B. ^lorris, M. D., F. R. S.,
London, I'.n^'.; Jas. W. Wallack, Jr., New York City, N.Y.;
Ja3. B. lloberis, Elocutionist, Phila., Pa.

iNTKKHOfiATiON-PoiNT. — Tlus point is used after qnestiors
put by tlie writer, and after (jncstions reported directly.
" What can I do for you ?" " Whereare vou •'oint'?" "What
do you say ?" cried the Coneral. "The child slill lives ?" Jt
ehould not be xwd when llie ijiic^tion is reported indirectly.

■He askeil me where 1 was uoin''.

The Judge asked the

witness if he believed the man to be guilty

ICxCI.AMATION-rOlK

T. — Tiiis mark is placed after interjec-

* Tilt! only ( vcciitii.n to this nilo is t)in rrr:i';-oral use of the colon
separate two shoit si^utonccs that are clooly coiiiiectci'.

I6S

Tin: VERBALIST.

tions, aftor Renten'ca and clauises of sentences of pfissionate
import, ami arbn'sohjiun invoeiitions nml a<l(lresgc3 "Zounds \
the man's ill eana'st." "Rsliaw! wli at Ciin we do?' "IJah!
wliat'a that to nic?" "Tndeuil ! then I inu.yt look to it."
"Look, my lord, it coiiic-i !" "Re.st, rest, pertnrhed spirit!"
"0 huat, dry up my ))i-aiii3 !" " i)i)ar miid, kind sistei',
Bwoct Ophulia !" " While in this part of the country, I once
more rc^'isited — and, alas, with what melancholy presenti-
monta ! — the homo of my youth." "0 ro'^e of May !" '* Oh,
from this time forth, my thoui^lits bo bloody or lie nothing
M'orth !" "O heavens ! dio two montha ago, anil uot Jfor-
~ gotten yet?" *

*' Niglit, sable goddess ! from her ebon throne,
In rayli'ss majo;^ty now strctclies fortli
Ifer leaden scepter o'er a slnml)crii)g world.
Silenoo, how dead 1 and darkness, how profound !**

' --Young.

"ITail, holy light ! offspring of heaven just born !" — Milton.
•'But tliou, O hope I with eyes so fair,
Wliat was tliy deliglitcd measure ?" — Collins,
It will be observed that the interjection O is an exception
to the ride : it is often foUoweil by a I'.onima, but never by ati
exclamation-point.

An exclamation-point sometimes gives the same words
quite another mcinin^'. Tao ditferciice betweea " VVliat's
that ?" and " Wiiat's that !" is obvious.

Tiir. I)\Sii. — CoUb.)tt, did not favor the use of this mark,
as wo see from t!ie fjllowing: " Let me caution you against
the use of what, by soai o, is calle I the ihuk. The d ish is a
ptroke al >iig the liii;;; tiuis, 'I am rich — I. was poor— I shall
)>e p'lor a^'iiii.' Tiii-; i'< wil I work indeed ! Who is to know
wliab is intcadeil by thj.io d't'iknx? Thoso who iiave thought
p.-jiur. like Mr. Lin Hoy Murray, to place the dash amongst

e«
f;|

THE VERBA IJ ST.

159

mgsfc

the (jrnmmatical points, ought to give ua some rule relative to
its cliU'iTcnt loiigitudiual <limonsiou3 in flifl'oreut cases. Ihe
inch, tiie thrac-'inttrter inc/i, tlio hal/'-iiir/i, the i/u<irter-inc/i :
these would be .soiuuthing dotoriuinato ; but ' t/ic dash,' with-
out ineaHure, must be a perilous thing for tlie young gram-
marian to handle. In short, 'tkc dash' is a cover lor ignorance
as to the use of points, and it can answer no other purpose."
This is one of the few instances in which Cubbett was
wrong ']"he da^h is the proper point with which to mark an
unexpected or emphatic pause, or a sudden break or transition.
It is very often preceded Ijy another point. " And lluitzilo-
poclitli — a sweet name to roll und'ir one's tongue — for how
many years lias tliis venerable war-goil blinked in the noonday
Buu !" "Crowds gathered about the newspaper bulletins,
recalling the feverish scenes tliat occurred when the President a
life was thouglit to bo hanging by a thread. ' Wouldn't it be
too bad,' said one, ' if, after all — no, I won't allow myself to
think of it.'" "Was there ever — but I scorn co boast."
"You are — no, 111 not tell you what you arc."
"He suffered — but his pangs are o'er;

Enjoyed — but his delights are lied;
Had friends — his friends are now no move ;

And foes — his foes are dead." — Montguiucry.
"Greece, Carthage, Rome — where are they ?" "lie ciiastens;
— but he chastens to save."

Da.shes are much used where parentheses were formerly
employed. *^ In the days of Tweed tlie expres-siou to divide
fair — forcible, if not grammatical — acquiretl much currency.'
" In trutii, the character of the great chief was liepicted two
thousand five hundred years before his birth, and depicted —
such is the power of genius — in colors which will be fresh as
many years after his death." "To render the Constitution
perpetual— wliicli God grant it may bo I — it is necessary tliat

160

THE VERBALIST.

its benefits shoxiid be practically felt by all parts of the
country."

Parkntiiksis. — This mark is comparatively little u'led
riovi-aday.}. The dash is preferred, probal'ly because it dis-
ji;.;ures the page less. The office of the parenthesis is to isolate
« plirase which is merely incidental, and \vhicl\ miglit be
oiuitt'.Ml without detriment to the grammatical construction.
" Know thi>ii this truth (enough for man to know),

Virtue alone is luippinoss below." — Pope.
" Tiie blis' of man (could pride that Idcssing find)
Is not to act or think beyond mankind."

Brackets. — This mark i& used principa'ly to inclose words
improperly omitted by tlie writer, or words introduced for the
purpose of explanation or to correct an error. Tliebtacket is
often used in this book.

The Apostrophe. — This point is used to denote the omis-
sion of letters and sometimes of figures ; as, Jan'y, '81 ; Fve.
for / have; yoiCli, for yoa will ; ^tis for it is; don't for do not ;
can t for can not; It Avas in the year '93 ; the spirit of '76 ;
It was in the years 1812, '1.3, and '14.

Also to dcnot'3 the possessive case ; as, Brown's house ;
the kiir^'s command; Moses' staff; for conscience' sake ; the
boys' garden.

Also with s to denote the plural of letters, figures, and
signs; as, Cross your ^'s, dct your i's, and mind your j)'s and
q\ ; make your H's better, and take out tlie k's.

Capitals. — A capital letter should begin every sentence,
every line of verse, and every dir(.'ct quotation.

All names of tlie Deity, of Jesus Christ, of the Trinity,
and of the Virgin Mary must begin with a capital. Pronouns
are usually capitalized wlien they refer to the Deity.

Proper names, and nouns and adjectives formed from
pioper names, naineo of streets, of the months, of the <iays of
tiie week, and of the holidays, are capitalized.

THE veuda list.

161

Titles of nobility and of liigh office, when used to dosig-
nate particulur poi s'liis, are capitalized ; as, the Earl of Dun-
raven, tlie Mayor of liodtou, tiie Baron replied, the Cardinal
presider'.

Tjik J^AiiAGRArn. — In writinvr for the press, the division
of mn t i i; . into paiJi'^raplis is often quito arbitrary; iu letter-
wi'itiiig, on the contraiy, tlie several topics treated of aiiould,
as a rule, be isolated by paragrapiiic divisions. These divi-
eiona give one's letters a slia(:)ely a.ppearauce that tiiey other-
wise never luivc.

Purchase, This Avord is much preferred to its synonym
bu)/ by that class ai people who ]ir<>fcr the word residv. to lin',
procure to ijct, inawjaraie to bajin, and so on. They are
generally of tljose who are great iu pretense, and who would
be greater still if they were to pretend to all they have to
pretend to.

Puryjose. See Propose.

Quantity. This word is often improperly used for
number. QuanfH;/ rihonld be used in speaking of what is
measured or weiglied ; ituviher, of what is counted. Ex-
amples: "What quantity of apples liave you, and what
nninbsr of pineapples?" " Delaware produces a large quantity
of peaches and a large number of melons, "

Quit. This word means, properly, to leave, to go away
fro.;', to forsake; as, "Avaunt ! y(.'i7 n,y siglit." Tliis i.^ the
only sen.e in whicli tlie English use it. In America, it is
generally n. '.nl in the sense of to leave oil', to stop ; as, "Quit
your nonscise"; "(^>«/Maughing"; *'(^ia7 your noise "; "He
has qitJ. smoking," and so on.

Quite, 'this word originally meant comi)letcly, perfectly,
totally, entirelj'. fully; and tliis is the sense in which it was
used by the early wi il.ers of Englisii. It is now often used in
the nciiHO of ?v(///<r. as, "It is ^/mU' w.iini','; " iSlie X!, quite

162

THE VERBALIST.

tall": "He is iiuite proficient." Sonietimea it is incorrectly
used in the sense of covsidcrKhlp ; as, quite an amount, (jitite a
number, iiuilc a fovtune. Quite, according to good modern
usa»j;e, may qualifj"^ au adjective, but not a noun. " 8he is
quite the lady," is a vile pluase, meaning, "Slie is very or
qnile ladylike."

Railroad Depot. Few things are more offensive to
fastidious ears than to hear a railway .'<latio)i called a dfpot.
A depot is j)roperly a place whcie goods or stores of any kind
are kept; and the places at whicli the trains of a railroad —
or. better, raihray — atop for passengeis, or the points from
whicii they start and at which they arrive, are, properly, the
etations.

Riailway. The English prefer this word to railroorf.

Raise the rent. An expression incorrectly used lor
incnase the, rent.

Rarely. It is no uncommon thing to see this adverb im-
properly used iu sucli sentences as, "It is very rarely that the
puppets of the romancer assume," etc. — "Appletons'.Iournal,"
February, 1881, p. 177. "lint," says the defender of this
phraseology, ^^ rarely qualities a verb — the verb fo he." Not
at all. The sentence, if written out in full, would be, " It is
a very rare thing tluit," etc., or *' The cireuni«tance is a very
rare one that," etc., or "It is a very rate oc'curi-ence that."
etc. To those who contend for " it is very rarely that," etc., I
would say. It is very -^cif//// tli it persons of culture will write
and then defend — or rather try to doiend — f^uuh grammar.

Ratiociiiafce. i^ee Ekkictuatk.

Real. This adjective is often vulgarly used in tlie sense
of tlie adveib vary; thus, real nice, re(d pretty, real angry,
real cute, nud so on.

Reconiniend. This word, whieli means to c<immend or
praise to another, to declare wijrthy of esteem, trust, or favor,
is Boniutiuitis put to strange uses. Example: "KesolveU,

THE VEUnALIST.

163

that tlie tax-payors of the county bf recommpnth'd to iii(?et,"
etc. Wliat the resolvini^ gcntloincn meant was, tiiat the tax
payers shouM be c.ovn>-eled to meet.

Redundancy. See Pleonasm.

Reiiable. This is a modern word which is often met
with ; bill it is not used by our careful wrilgrs. They prefer
its synonym trvdworthy, and argue tiiat, in consequence of
being ill-formed, refiahle can not possibly have the significa-
tion in wliicli it is xiscd.

Remainder. See Balance

Rendition. Tlii.-< word is much misused for rnidoring
Example : "The excellence of Mr. Ciilhert's rendUion of cer-
tain characters, Sir I'eter and Sir Antot;y, for inytance, is
not equaled." etc. Rendition means the act of yielding pos-
session, surrender, as the rcndifioii. of a town or fortress.
Tlie sentence above should read, "The excellence of Mr.
(TJlbert's rcnderiaij," etc. Rendition is also sometimes im-
properly uised for pr.r/onnnnce.

Reply. See Answek.

Reputation. See Chai'.acter.

Reside. A big word that Mr. Wouldbo uses where Mr.
Is uses the little word live.

Residence. In i-peaking of a man's domicile, it is not
only in l)etter taste but m>re correct to use the term house
than riHidrnce. A man has a rr.^idence in New York, when
he has lived here long en)iigh to have the right to exerci.so
the franchise hero; and he may liave a /idiixe in Fifth Avenue
where he /jjv'.s. People who arc live in houses; people M'ho
icoidd he reside in resideiK-es. Tiie former bu>/ things; the
latter iiiin'/iiise them.

Roiit. See Balaxok.

Restive. Some of the diction.iries, Ridi.'ird (Jrant White,
Gud some other writers, contejid that t.'ii.s wuni, wiicu properly

164

Tin: vi:i:nALisT.

ustMi nicaii" tmwilliiig to go, .stiiiidiiig still stubbornly, obsti-
nate, stubborn, ami uotliing clsi,'. In combating this opinion,
Fitzt./wurd Hall says: "Vory few instanct'S, I apprcliend,
can b.; produced, from our literature, of this use of rcdice."
Webs^r gives impatient, uneasy, as a second meaning ; and
this is (he sense in which the woixl is nearly always used.

Reliire. It is only the over-nice who use retir? in the
sen.se of go to bed.

Rev^jrend — Honorable. Many persons are in doubt
whether they should or should not put the before these adjec-
tives. Emphatically, yes, they should. See " Words and
Their Usos," by Richard (irant White, for a full discussion of
the question ; also, "Goinl English," by Edward S. Gould.

Rhetoric. The art which lias for its object the rendering
of languag*., ellective is called rhetoric. Without some study
of the art Oi cojiiposition, no one can expect to write well, or
to judge the witeraiy work of others.

" True easLi in writing conies from art, not chance,
As those move easiest who have learned to dance."

Ride — Dl'We. Fashion, both in England and in this
country, says mat we must always use the sec(;nd of these
words wlieu we speak of going out in a carriage, although
rhlp means, ueconiing to all tlie lc.\icogra|)iier8, *'(,o l»e carried
on a liorse or otlier animal, or iu any kind of vehicle or
carriage."

Right. Singu!;ir!y enough, this word is made, by some
per pic, to do service lor oiitjhf, in- duty bound, under obi'ii/nlloa
to; thus, "You had a rij/d to tell me," meaning, "You
should have told me." "Tlio Colonibts contended that tiiey
had 110 rl'iht to pay taxes," meaning, "They were under no
vh'h/a/lon to pay taxes," i.e., that it was uujvist to tax them.
Right liere. The expucs-^ioas "right here" and "right
there " ar" \mericanisms. CoirecMy, ' ii'st here " and * 'just
theio."

THE VLRUAUST.

Ifif)

Rolling. The usG of this participial adjective in the sense
of undulating is said to be an Americanism. Whether an
Americanism or not, it would seem to be quite unobjcclion-
able.

Rubbers. This word, in common with (jiim!^ and arctics,
is often, in defiance of gooil taste, used for overshoes.

Sabbath. This term was first used in Englaml for Sun-
day, or Lord's day, by the Puritans. Nowadays it is little
used in this .sense. The word to use is Sunday.

Sarcasm. I'ain says that xarra^m i.s vituperation soft-
ened in tlie outward expression by the arts and figures of
disguise— epigram, innuendo, irony — and embellislud with
the figures of illiisti'ation. Crabb say;, tliat sarcasm is tlie
indulgence only of peisonii resentment, and is never justifi-
able.

Satir*?. The holding up to ridicule of the foll'e^ and
wealcnesses of mankind, by way of I'ebuke, is called aatire.
Satire is general rather than inlividual, its object being the
reformation of abuses. A lftm/ioo)i,, which lias been defined
OR a personal satire, attacks the individual rather than his
fault, and is intended to injure rather than to reform.

Said Sheridan : "Satires and laujpoons on particular
people circulate more by giving copies in cnnfidtuce to the
friends of the parties than by printing them."

Saw. The imperfect tonse of the verb to see is carelessly
used by good writers and speakers when they should ixse the
perfect; tliua, "I never saw anything like it before," when
tiie meaning intended is, " I /lare never [in all my iif'] unn
anything like it before [until nowj." We say properly, "I
never saw anything like it when I ivas in Paris'^; but, when
the period of time referred to extends to the time when the
.statement is made, it mu/st be haw seen. Like mistakes are
made in the ust of qjhor verbs, but they are iuirdly aa

166

THE VERBALIST.

common ; yet we often hear such expressions as, " I was
never iu riiiliuklphia," "I never went to the theatre in my
life," instead of liave been in Pliiladelphia, and have gone to
the theatre.

Section. The use of this word for region, neighborhood,
vicinity, part (of the town or country), is said to be a West-
ernism. A section is a division of tlie public lands containing
six liundred and forty acres.

Seem — Appear. Graham, in his "English Synonymes,"
says of these two words: " What seems is in the mind; what
a/tjifurs is external. Things appear as tliey present them-
selves to the eye ; they ncem as they are represented to tlie
mind. Things appear good or bad, as far as we can judge by
our senses. Things fieem right or wrong as we determine by
reflection, rerceptiou and sensation liave to do with appear-
ing ; reflection and comparison, with seeming. When things
are not what they appear, our serises are deceived ; when
things are not wliatthey seem, our judgment is at fault."

"No man had ever a greater power over liiins-elf, or was
loss the man he itemed to be, wliich shortly after apj^tareil tq
everybody, when he cared less to keep on the mask."—
Clarendon.

Seldom or ever. This phrase should be "seldom ij
ever," or •' seldom or never."

Seraphim. Tiiis is the plural of Heraph. " One of tlio
neraphim." "To Thee cherubim and seiaphim continually
do <:ry." See CiiEKUiUM.

Set — Sit. Tlie former of tliese two verbs is often incor-
rectly used for the latter. To set; imperfect tease, set;
participles, seldiuj, set. To sit; imperfect tense, sat; parti-
ciples, sitii/Kj, sat. To set means to put, to i)laco, to plant; to
put in any place, condition, state, or posture. We say, to set
al)oiit, to set against, to .se^ out, to seagoing, to set apart, to

THE VERBALIST.

167

upt asido, to nrj down (to put in writing). To sit means to rest
ju the lower part of tlie body, to repose on a scat, to perch,
as a bird, etc. We say, "6'i< up," i.e., rise from Ij'iug to
sitting; "We will sit up," i.e., will not go to bed; ^^ Sit
down," i.e., place yourself on a seat. We sit a horse and we
nit for a portrait. Garments nit M'cll or otlierwise. Congi'oss
sits, so does a enurt. "I have sat up long enou;i;h," "I have
»et it on tlie table." We H<'t down figures, but we sit down on
the ground. We '>//. a hen, and a hen .svVs on eggs. We
should say, therefore, "as cro.-s as a sitting [not, as a settiixj]
hen."

Settle. This word is often inelegantly, if not incorrectly,
used for pa}/. We pui/ our way, pa;/ our fare, p'li/ our hotel-
hills, and the like. See, "also. Locate.

Shall and Will. The nice distinctions that slioukl be
made between these two auxiliaries are, in some parts of the
English speaking world, often disregarded, and tiiat, too, by
per.-ions of high culture. Tlie proper use of shall and will fan
much better be learned from example than from precept.
Many persons who use them, and also should and icoiild, with
well-nigh unerring correctness, do so unconseiouyly ; it is
simply habit with them, and tliey, though their culture may
be limited, will receive a sort of verbal shock from Biddy's
inquiry, " Will I put the kettle on, ma'am?" when your Irish
or Scotch countess would not be in the least disturbed by it.

Shall, in an offirmntirc, scvlenre, in the first person, a)i(i
WILL in the second and third /^a'sons, merely announce future.
fiction. Thus, "I shall go to town to-morrow." '^Ishall not;
I shall wait for better weather." "Wo shall be glad to see
you." "I shad soon be twenty," "We shad set out early,
and shall try to arrive by noon." "You will l)e pleased."
"You will soon be twenty." "You will find him honest. '»
"He will go with us."

16S

THE VERDALrsr.

SiMLL, in an ajjirni'illre t^entence, in the aecoml and third
person.'^, aiuiotinces the, speal-rr'K intention to control. Tims,
•'You s7«(// hear iiie out." "You .s/(«// go, sick or well," "He
shall be my heir." "They shall go, whct.'ier they waiifc to go
or not."

Will, in thejlr-'it person, exprcssoi* a pronviie, aniwtniccs tht',
spcakcr'ii intciif/on to controU iirac'ainis a, dclciniinutioa. Thuis,
"I %viU [I promise to] assist j'ou." "I will [I am determitieil
to] have my right." "We will [we promise to] cuine to you
in the morning."

Shall, in. an interroijatii'c sentence, in the Jird and third
per.ions, con.-ndt.H the tci'l or judgment of ctn other ; in the ■<ecoii'!
person, it in(ptir&H concerning the intention or future action of
another. Thus, ^^ Sludl I go with you?" "U'heti shall wt
see you a.ii;aiu ?" "Wlien shall 1 rectuvc it?'' " When jhat'i
I get well?" "When shad we got there ?" "Shaft he conu;
with us?" ''Shall you demand imlomnity ?" ''Shad you go
to tdVvu to-morrow ?" " Wliat shall you do about it ?"

WiLL, in an interrogative sentence, in the second person,
asks concerning the wish, and, in the third })erson, concerning
the 2^ii>'P"S^ or future action of others. Thus, " Will you have
an applij ?" " Will you go with me to my uncle'a ?" " Will
ho be of the party?" " 11/7/ they be willing to receive us?"
"When will he be here?"

Will can not be used interrogatively in the first person
bingukir or plural. We can not say, " Will I go ?" " Will I
help you ?" " Will I be late ?" " Will we get tliere in time?"
" Will y-c see you again soon?"

Olficial courtesy, in order to avoid the fiemldaiue of coin-
luliiou, convoys its commands in the you-wil form instead of'
the strictly granunatieal you-shatl form. It .says, forexanipltt
"You tvlU proceed to Key West, where you will dial furthe»*
instructions awaiting you. '

THE VERBALIST.

169

A clever writer on the use of s^hall and ir'dl says that what-
. .er concerns one's bolitfs, hopes, fears, likes, or dislikes,
r, in not be cxpresaed in conjunction with I will. Are there
no excciDtions to this rule? If I say, "I think I shall go to
tMiiladel|iliia to-morrow," I convey the impression that my
poing depends upon circumstances beyond my control ; but if
I say, '• I think I vill go to Philadelphia to-morrow," I con-
vey the impression that my going depends upon circumstances
within my control — that my going or not de])ends on mere
imlinjition. We certair.ly must say, "I fear tliat I shall lose
it"; "I hope that I nhall be well"; "I believe that I shall
have the ague"; "I hope that I nhall not be left alone "; "I
fear that we shall have bad weather' ; '"I ahall dislike the
lountry"; "I shall like the peii'ormance." The writer re-
ferred to asks, "How can one say, 'Ivn/l have the headache'?"
I answer. Very easily, as every young woman knows. Let us
!^ee : "Mary, you know you promisiid John to drive out with
him to-moiio\v ; how shall you get out of it?" "Oh, 1 will
have the headache !" We request that people will do thus or
so, and not that they shall. Thus, "It is requested that no
one vifi leave the room."

Slitill is rarely, if ever, used for will; it is icill that is used
for shiiJl. Expressions like the following are coinniou :
"Wjiere will you be next week?" "I will be at hom.e,"
" Wc tvill have dinn^;r at six o'clock." "How tvill you go
alfoutit?" "When ivi/l yoi\ begin?" "Wh^'U iri'l yon set
out?" "What will yvU do with it?" In all sueli expres-
sions, when it is a question of mere future action on the part
of the person sneaking or spoken to, the auxiliary must be
shall, and not loi/l,

tShnuld and tvould follow the regimen of shall and vHll.
]Voiil(l is often used for should; should rarely for irntild.
(/orrect speakers say: "Ishvuld goto town to-morrow if I had

■li

170

THE I'L'RHA/JST.

hoi

so,

'I .'■Ji.o"hl not; I x/ion/d wait for hotter wentlier.

"We shniild he <;l.'nl to see yoii." *' Wo xhouhl have started
earlier, if tlie weather hul been clear." "I k/ioiiIiI like to go
to town, and itjovld go if I couhl." "I would assist you if I
could." "I Khnvhl have been ill if I had gone." " I would I
were home afr-iin !" "I nhould go fi.sliiiiij; to-day if I weie
home." " I '»/(/ so like to go to Europe!" "I .s/iou/d
prefer to see it lirst." '^Ishoufd be delighted." "I should he
glad to have you sup with me." "I knew that I should he
ill." "1 feared tliat T should lose it." "I hoped tliat I should.
see him." "I thought I nhonld have the ague." "I hoped
that I .should not bo left alone." "I was aiVaid that we should
have bad weather." "I knew I should dislike the country."
" I should not like to do it, and icill not [determination] unless
coin pi lied 'to."

Shimmy. " We derive from tl.e Ficneh language our
word di(ini:<c — '(>Yo\\o\\ncci\.shtinmcezp.. In French, tlie woid
denotes a man's shirt, as well as the under garment worn by
women. In this country, it is often pro:iounced by people
who f^liould know better — shli)i7nij. Rather than call it
shinimy, resume the use of the old Encdish words s/il/t and
smock. Good usage unqualifiedly condemns (jenfs, priuts, Hds,
fjunis, and shhnmi/." — "Vulgarisms and Other Errors of
Speech."

Should. See OuonT.

Sick — 111. These wordp arc often us'cd indiscriminately.
Sicky however, is tlie stronger Mord, and generally the better
word to use. /// is used in ]''nijland nioi-e th.aii with us:
tliCic .s(V/.; is generally limited to the expicbsing of nausea; as,
"sick at tlie stomach."

Signature, over or under? A man wiites vvdcr, not
over, a signature. Charles Dickens wrote under the siirnaturo
of "Boz"; Mr. Samuel L. Clemens writes under the sigiiatiiie

THE VERliALIST.

171

of "IMark Twain." The reason jfiven in Webster's Dictionary
for proton'ing the use of under is al)Biu'(l : viz., that tlio paper
is viidcr the liaml in writin;^'. The expression is elliptical,
and has no reference to the ponition either of the signature or
of the paper. "Given under my hand and seal" means
" under the guarantee of my signature and my seal." "Under
his own signature'' or "name" means "under hi.s own cliar-
acter, without disguise." " Under the aigntiture of Boz"
means "under tl>e di-guise of the assumed name I'oz." We
always write under a certain date, though the date be placed,
as it often is, at the bottom of the page.

Signs. In one of the i>rincii)al business streets of New
York tliere is a sign which reads, "German Lace Store."
Now, whetlux this is a store tluit midies a specialty of Ger-
man laces, or whether it is a store where all kinds of lace are
.sold, kept by a German or after the German fashion, is some-
thing tliat the sign doubtless mi.ans to tell us, but, owing to
Lne absence of a hyphen (" German-Lace .Store," or "German
L ico-Store "), does not tell us. Nothing is more common
than erroneous punctuation in signs, and gross mistakes by
the unlettered in the wording of tlie simplest printed matter.

The bad taste, incorrect punctuation, false grammar, and
ridiculous nonsense met with on signs and placards, and in
advertisements, are resdly surprising. An advertisement tells
us that "a pillow which assists in procuring itleep is a bene-
diction "; a placard, tliat they hive " Charlotte de Kusse " lor
sale within, which means, if it means anytlu'ng, that they
have for sale somebody or something called Charlotte of
llussifin ; and, then, on how many signs do wo see the pobses-
sive ease when the plural number is intended !

Simile. In rhetoric, a direct and formal comparison is
called a siviile. It is generally denoted by like, as, or so; as,

172

THE VERBA LIST.

" I have ventured,
IAh)> littlo wanton hoys tli.it swim on bladders,
Tliew niiuiy huiiuiici's in a sea of ^;loi-y."
" Thy NDiile is as the dawn of vernal day."— Shakespeare.
'• Ai'. down in the sunless retreats of the ocean.

Sweet llow'rets are Niirm^ing no mortal ean see;
So, «U^<'p in my hoaoin, the piayer of <levotion,

Unheard l)y the world, rises silent to tliee." — Moore.
" "Tis with onr judgiuonls aa with our watches; none

Go just alike, yet (.acii belu'ves his own." — Popo.
" (irace abused l)i inp;3 forth the foule->t deeds,

As richest smII the most luxuriant weeds." — Cowper.
" J.S no roads are so rou:di as those that liave just been
mended, .so no sinners are so iutulerautaa those who have just
turned saints," — "Lacon."
Sin. !^ee Crimk.

Since- -Ago. T)v. Johnson says of these two adverbs:
" Reckoning time toward the present, we use fiiiire; as, 'It is
a year since it happened' : reckoning from the present, we
use a;jo ; as, 'It is a year cajo.' Thia is not, perhaps, always
o])scrved."

Dr. Johnson's rule will hardly suflTioe as a sure guide,
Shice is often used for ogo, but ago n(;ver for since. Ago is
derived front the participle agone, while since comes from a
pi'cposition. We saj' propei'ly, "not long" or " tjonie tiifle
I. -'/y [agone]." Since requires a verbal clause after it; as,
" Since I saw you* ; "Since he was here."

Sing. Of the two forms — ■'inng and rjing -for the imper-
fect tense of the verb to sing, tlie former — sang — is to be
preferred.

Sit. See Skt.

Slang, Tlie slang that is heard amonef respectable people
is mado up of gcuuiue worda, to which an arbitrary meaning

THE VERB A LIST.

1-3

is given. It is always low, generally coar??c, ana n«t unfre-
queiitly foolish. Witli the exoeptioti of rant, there is nothing
that is nioi'c to he sliunnnd. Wc soniotiincfi meet with persons
of conideifiblo onlturc wlio intcilard theii- talk with :-l!ingi'>
prcsisions, but it is safe to assert that tliey arc always peroom
of eoiuse natures.

Smart. S-e Clkvku.

Smell of. S>;" 'I'.'-stk ok

So. fSe<! Art ; Srou : That.

So much so. " Ihrt shijiinf-nts by tlie coast stoamers are
very laryc, .so iiiuch .so [lar<^i'?J as to tax the capacity of the
rliffcrent lin'.s."'— "Telcgiani," September 10, 1881. The seu-
touce should l)e, **Tlie shipnicnta by the coast steamers are
very large, .so tar(je as to tax," etc.

Solftcism, In rhetoric, a solecism is defined as an offense
a,t,'ainbt tlie rules of granunur by the use of words in a wrong
construction ; false syntax.

"Modern grammarians dcsignnte by solecism any word or
expression which does not agree with the establislied usage of
writing or speaking. But, as customs cliange, that whicli at
one time is considei'cd a solecism may at nnother be regarded
as correct language. A solecism, tliercfore, dilFers from a
barhnrism., inasmuch as the latter consists in tiie use of a
word or expression which is altogctlier contrary to the spirit
of the language, and can, properly speaking, never become
csLabllslicd as coirect language." — "Fenny Cyolopicdia." See,
also, r)A)a:Aia.s,M.

Some. This word is not unfreqnently misused for some-
what; tluis, "Slie is some better to-day." It is; likewise often
misu.sed for about ; thu.s, "I think it is some ten miles from
here ": read, ^'^ about ten miles from hero."

Syecialty. Tins form iiaa witiiin a rcjont p.rioi! i-.i-eu
generally .substituted for ^fiecinlif.it. There ii n:^ ai.piirtiit

174

THE VERBALIST.

reason, lio'>vovor, why tlie i should be dropped, since it is re-
quirc'tl liy tlu; ttymology of the word, and is retained in nearly
all otiicr WDi-'l.-; of the same formation.

Specious Fallacy. A fallacy is a sophism, a logical
aitiiicti, a doceitiul or ialso appearance ; while s^pccious means
having the appearance of truth, plausible, Hence wo se«
liiat the very essence of a, fallacy is its specioiisneKH. Vve may
very properly say tliat a, fa'lacy is mijro or less upeciotis, but
we can nut properly say that a fallacy ii specious, since with-
out speciou.-;iK'.T>s we can have no falhicies.

Splendid. Tliis poor word is u-<e;l i>y the gentk-r .sc-: to
qualify well-nigh everything that has their approval, from a
sugar-plum to the national capitol. In fact, i^p'oulld and
a)rfitl seem to be about the only adjectives some of our super
lative youug women have in tlieir voealiularies.

Sta'ndyoint. This is a word to wliich many students of
Phiolish seriou-ly object, and among them are the editors of
some of our daily papers, who do not allow it to appear in
th'.'ii- columns. The phrase to which no one objects is, puint oj
vkw.

Slate. This word, which properly means to make knnvn
f-Mi'cilieallj'', to explain particularly, is often misused for *•«//,
When «(('/ says all one wanla to say, why use a more prctcn-
1 ill IS Avuro f

Stop. "Wliere are yen stopj>l.iii ?'' "At the ]Metro-
poMtun." The pro|»'r worl to use h: re is .s/.'/('//f/. To fto))
iM an,s to eease ;,o go lurwanl, to leave (.1; and to stay m.'ans
to al>ide, to tarry, to dwell, to siijnurn. We .siu.v, no;. olup, uL
h.uie, at a hotel, or with a friend, as the c;t.se may be.

StOiTil. Many p r.-jons imlulue in a caieh .ss umo of this
w;i;-u, u^■ing iu wlien, tlu-y mean to say simply that it li'ins or
vinAvs. To a. >ilonii a vioh nt eoinmotion uf the atuio.-piuu-e is
i:iilis[>i'n.-abie, A very hi .rU v.iud constitutes a storm, thoiigh
it bi; dry.

THE VERBALIST.

175

Straight vv'^y. Hern is a good Anglo-Saxon word of two
eyllabloa wiio.-<' plav.c, witlioiir any good reason, is being
u.sur[ied l)y tlie I^atin woi-d iDij^^'diiir/i/, of //re syllables.

Street;, ^^'e live in, not oii-iuc.ct our acquaintances in,
uitt ON — things occur in, not on — iioi'scsare built i/i, not o«,
the street, and so forth.

Style. This is a term that is used to cliaracterize the
lii.Tuliarities that di8tin.c;uish a writer or a conijiosition. -Cor-
rectness and clearness properly belong to the doinidn of
dielion; siinpiicity, conciseness, gravity, elegance, difi'usene?s,
lloridity. force, feebleness, coarseness, etc., belong to the
domain of stijle.

Subjunctive Mood. Tins mood is unpopular with not a
few now-a-iliiy giumiiiarians. One says that it is rapidly
falling into disuse; tliat, in fact, there is good reason to sup-
pose it M'ill soon become obsolete. Another says tliat it
woulil, perhaps, be better to abolish it entiix'ly, as its use is a
continual s^ourco of disjuite among gramnuii ims and of per-
plexity to schools. Another says that it is a univorsai
sunnblingiblock ; that nobody scenic to understand it, al-
tiiough almost evcry])ody attenijits to use it.

That the subjunctive uiok i is utueu le.-s uS' d now than it
was a humired years ago is ecrtnin. l)ut that it is ob'v'>le>eent
is very fisr fi'oni certain. It wouhi not 1u' easy, 1 v' ■ ':. to
fhid a single conti n ) . .ly v.iiter wl;n dees not rso k. 'i'iiat
it is not alwayr. easy t t deternu!;" whnt form of it we shoiitd
employ iu very t^ue ; b;it if wo ai'c jusLilied in abolishii'', it
altogelher, UR Mr. Cliandler sugge.'it's, because its conect use
is not ahviiys easy, then we are also jiistitied in abolishing the
use of tiliall and iriU, and of the prepositions, for surely their
right use is likewise at times most ^puzzHng. Meanwhile,
most per.s(jns will (hink it well to learn to use the subjunctivo
mood pro; eriy. \V Hi iln<- plj'et in view, one can not, per*

I7R

Tllh: VKHnAUT.

iiaps, do bettor tliaii to attcti-l t<j ul!,;.t Dr. Alexanilcr L'uin,
Professor of Logic in the University of Aberdefn, says upon
the subject. In Professor Ikiii^ "Higiier English <''r;iinmar"'
we liiid :

**In .subordinate cliiu.ses. — In a olau.'-e expressing a con-
dition, and introduced by a conjunction of conditiijii, tlie verb
ia somotiincs, but not :dw;tys, in the snl)junctive v.uuA : 'If
I be able,' 'if I ici'rc strong enough,' ' if thou .should eome.'

••The subjunctive inflcixions have been wholly lost.. Ti)o
sense that something is wanting appears to have led many
writers to use indicative forms whore the sul)junctive might
be expected. The tendency appears strongest in the case r»f
'wert,' which is now used as indicative (for 'wast') only in
poetical or elevated language,

•'The following is the rule given for the use of the .sub-
junctive mood :

" When in a con<litional clau.-,e it ia intended to express
doubt or denial, use the subjunctive mood.* 'If I vcerc i>ure
of wliat you tell me, I would go.'

*' VViien the conditional clause is afftrmative and certain,
the verb is hrJU'dlice: 'If that w tli'^ case' (a.s you now tell
me, and as I believe), 'I can understand you.' Tiiis is equiva-
lent to a clause of assumption, or supposition: 'That being
tfcie case,' ' ina-unieh as that is the case,' etc.

"Aa/u'm-Uif is by its nature uncertain, the subjunctive is
e"Ktv.nsively used Tor futiue eonditionality: 'If it ?•*(/», we
Bhall not be able to go'; 'if I be well'; 'if ho come .shortly '5
'if thou ntnni at all in peave'; 'though be nluy me, yet will
I trust in him.' Tliose events a)e all in the uncertain futiirr,
Rud are jtut in the sul)junctive.+

• " Pr, An-ufl on ttic ' i;ni;!i'<!i Tnndiip,* art. r.27."
f " In tlic (oll'jvvit!^ jLas^in «■(•«, tlic iiMiirntnf uir.cd wniilil \u move •■■\ilt;.
tlbit tliuii tlie subjiuictive : ' til thou <■( tiiu h^ii ol UoU, conuiuuiil li;ut tiiti»«

THE VKniiM.lST.

177

'A future result or coii^uMjuenco is expre'-setl by the sub-
junctive iii such instances as thi^se : 'I will wait till he
return''; ' no i'c:;)- l-t iiii.in-!- coo/' ; 'tiiou .-.aialt :-.tono liiiii with
stones, that he f/ic'; 'take liccil lest at any time your heartH
be overchurgeti with surfeiting.'

" Uncertainty aa to a past event may arifio from our own
ignorance, in which case the suhjunctive is properly »'ni])loyeil,
and serves tiio useful purpose of diKtinguish.ing our ignorance
from our knowledge. 'If any of my readers /<i(s looked with
RO little attention npo.i the world around him'; this would
mean— -'as I know tlint they liavc.' The meaning intended
is pr(jl)ably — 'as i do nob know wliether they have or nut,'
and therefore the .subjunctive 'havo' is prefeiaijle. 'If ignor-
ance M Idiss,' which I (ironically) admit Hud (iray been
iipeaking seriou.-sly, he would have said, 'if ignorance 6e bliss,'
he iiimself tUssenting from the propositi' m.

"A wibh contrary to the fact takes the sniijunctive : '1
wish he were here' (which he i.j not).

"An i .'ntion not yet carried out is al.'^o subjunctive:
' The sentence is tiiat you be imprisoned.'

"The only correct form of tlie future subjunctive i.s — ' ill
should.' We may say, ' I do not know whctlier or not I shall
come'; liut ' if 1 shall come,' e.Kpres>ing a contlition, is not au
l']ng!ish construction. 'If he will' has a real meaning, as

8to!ie» be made bn-nd ;' ' if thou he. the Son of Ood ccme down from the
cros-i.' For, alth iti;;h the uillic^s «;ts not s iioltb oh th'.' p.trt of tlie
hpt'.'ikora, they nally nifatit to inuke th« suii p-ition orto.;iaht tlmt hi!
WHS tliu iion of CJiiii ; ' -fiiiiji; t u', thoa lOt tho Son of Ooik' F^iki wi^o in
till! f' II iwiiijf; ■ N'ovv if L"lu i8t be piearhcd, that He rose from the dead,
how .-ay 8oiue uii\oii^' \ovi tlint th«it' is no riMU-ivction Iroiii thciIiutiV
The i'.iij.uiiiiijt Im. 'Si'eiiiu' ii'W tli.it « iiri-tt /< prciH-.'iod ' In the eonthuia-
tioii, the coiiditioual oiuuM js .in- o.' a diiii-rent cli.ii.trti.-r, atid ' lio ' i-- uiipic-
priule: ' JJut if liiuri; he in res'.n-ii!i.ti!Jt) from the dtad, then is Christ not
ris>en. -And II Clu'lnt ,te not ri-fu, then H ctu- priMcliin),' vain, and your
faitli is ftiso vain.' A^'.iin, If Miuu hriii i tiiy jjiit to tl-,o altar, ;ind there
r^n;cll'horl'''^' etc. (Jonslstt-i fj and ci'rie.-hn;!!* requho ' ixiucniber.'" —

IlarrUon on tho " F, ■

'^ttiUfU.aije," p. y57.

178

THE VERBALIST.

being the present subjunctivo of the verl) 'will' 'if he be
willing,' 'if ho have the will.' It is in accordance with good
usage to express a fuliire Rultjunctive iinaning by a present
tense; but in that case tho form must bo strictly 8u]>jiinctive,
and not indicative. 'If any mmnber ahitr.ntt^ liimself, he shall
forfeit a pennj' for the use uf the club'; this ought to be either
'absent,' or 'shoidd absent.' 'If thou neglectcst or doent un-
willingly wliat I command thee, I will rack thee with old
cramps'; better, 'if thou /((v/'Vy^ or f/o unwillingly,' or 'if thou
should neglect.' The indicative would be justified by tlio
speaker's belief that the supposition is sure to turn out to be
the fact.

"The past subjunctive may imply donial ; as, 'if the book
were in tlie lil)rary (as it is not), it .-ihould be at your service.'

" 'If the l.)Ook lip. in tiie library,' nieans, 'I do not know
•whether it be or not.' We have tiius tlie power of discrimi-
nating three different suppositions. 'If the book is in the
library' (as I know it is) ; ' if it he' (I am uncert an) ; 'if it
were' (as I know it is not). So, 'if it rains,' 'if it rain,' 'if it
rained.' 'Nay, and the villaiiis march wide between the legs,
as if they had gyves on,' implying that they had not.

" The same p )wer of the past tense is excmplilied in * if I
could, I would,' wiiich mcan>*, 'I can not'; wlicieas, 'i'i I can,
I will,' moans 'I do not know.'

"The past subjunctive may be expressed by an inversion:
' I/ad I the pouor,' 'wivx I as I liave been.'

"In Principal Clau.-'C3. — The principal clar a, a condi-
tional stat-jment also takes the subjunctive Dm when it
refers to what is futui-e and contingent, and v/hen it refci's to
what is past a-.ul uncertain, or denied. ' If he should +iy, he
woidd Siiccecd'; 'it I had seen him. I should have asked him.'

"The usual ftnuns of the subjunctive in the principal
clau.se are 'would,' 'should,' 'would have,' 'sluiuld luive';

THE VERBALIST.

179

.11 1 it 13 to be noted that in this application the seco'i'l por-

Kon.-< take the inflexional ending of the indicative : 'sliouldst,

■ wouldst.*

" 'If 'twere done when 'tis done, then 'twere (wouhl be) well
It were (should be) done quickly.'
"The English idiom appears sometimes to permit the use

i>f an indicative where we should expect a subjunctive form.

Many acts, that had been otherwise blamable, were em

i>[tjyed'; ' I had fainted, unless I liad belioveu,' etc.
•' ' Which else lie furled and siitouded in tlie soul.'
"In 'else' there is implied a conditional clause tiiat would

- iit 'lie'; or the present may be regarded as a more vivid
•irm of expression. 'Had' may be indicative t just as wo

•i >ir.etimes find pluperfect indicative for pluperfect subjunc-

• iv « in the same circumstances in Latin. We may refer it to
1 ! general tendencj', as already seen in the uses of ' could,'
a'ould,' *Nhould,* etc., to express coudit.ionality by a past

•Mde; or the indicative may be used as a more direct and

.\ id mode. 'Had' may be subjunctive; * I /kuZ fainted' is,

I construction, analogous to 'I should have fainted'; the

. )id for futurity, 'shall,' not being necessary to the sense, is

withdrawn, and its past inflexion transferred to 'lave.'

C 'lupare Germ, loiirde haben and hiitte."

In addition to the foregoing, we find in Professor Bain's
'• Cumpo&ilion Grammar" tlie following:

"The case most suited to the subjunctive is coutimjent
'' diinty, or the expression of an event unknown absolutely, as
luiing still in the future: 'If to-morvow he tine, I will walk
•.. iih you.*

" ' Unless I t/v/r prepared,' insinuates pretty strongly that
I am or am not prepared, according to the manner of the
rincipal cluuise.

ISO

THE VERBA LfST.

" ' What's a tall man unlcr^s hafght ?'

*' ' The sword hath ended him : so shall it thee,

Unk'tffi thou yield tlico as my prisoner.'
" 'Who lint niust laucrh, if snch a man llif-rc he?
"Who wonhl not wcc'iv if Atticns ircj-e lie?'
"'I am to second Ion if heya//'; the failing i.^ loft quite
doubtful. * I shouhl very inipei fcctly execute the tnsk wliich
I luiA'e undertaken if I verc merely to trt-nt of battles and
sioKes.' Macaulay thus iuqilie?! that the scope of hiss M'ork is
ti) he wider than more iiattlos and sieges.

"The subjunctive appears in some other constructions.
'T hope to sec the cxhihilii.n before it chi-^r'; 'wait till lie
ri'tfirn''; 'thou slialt stand by the river's brink against lie
cmae''; 'take heed lest passion s"Y(// thy judguient'; 'sjicak
to me, though it be in Avrath'; 'if he )<mile hiu> with an iu-
slrnment of iron so that he die, \w is a murderer'; 'beware
this night that thou (/•o«.« not my footsteps' (Shelley).

"Again. ' Whatever this ?;?'; 'wlioever he 6e'; 'howe'ar
It be' (Tt iiiiys'iu) ; and such like.

" ' A lid as loiiij, O (lOil, 'T* she
Have a grain of love for me,
So long, no doubt, no doubt,
Siiall I nurse in my dark heart,
However weary, a spark of wUl
Not to be trampled out.*
"Tlie Future SubjiuKJliio is given id oh. son em n of tha
verb as '.should' in all pers-oiis : ' Jf I should, if ilmu slionld,
if he sliould.' in old Ki glish, we liave ' th()U ,s/(0«/f/,vf ' : *it
thou, Loni, alinuldxt mark iniquities.'

"An inv<'; Lfd conditional form has taki n ooep mot in our
language, and may be regarded aa an elegant and forcible
variety. While dis-pcn-ing Miili the conjunction, it doc.=* noV
cause ambiguily ; nevertheless, conditioiKilit y is ut.ll marked

THE VERBALIST.

181

" 'If yon shouhl aliandon your Peneiopu aii'l your l/ome for

Calypso, ' : ^should you abaiidou .'

" *Oo not my horse tlie Ijctter,
1 imi&t become a borrower oi' the night
For a dark hour or twain.'
*• ' lU'V'j! had we now our country's honor roofd

Wcra the graced j)ersoM of our Jjauijuo pru>,eni;.*
" * Be thou a spirit of hoaltli or goblin danin'tJ,

Brht'j with thci' ;i,ir.s from heaven or l)la£ts irom hell,
J-e thy intents »viekud or chaniablu,
Thou com'st ii. sueli a questionalih^ shape
That I will speak to tlieo.'

" ' Come one, comf-: all, this rock sh;dl fly
From its firm base as soon as I. — .S<.'ott.
' The following examples ai-e given by .Miitzner:
"'barney's eoniintinications, be they wliat they miulit,
were operating in his favor.' — >Scott.

" 'C-ioverning persons, tvere tlu;y never so insiguiiloint in-
tiinsically, have for most part plenty of Alemoir- writers.'—
Carlylc.

" ■' Even irere I disposed, I could not gratify the rc<!.ilor.'—
U'arren.

Bring tiieni i)aok to me, cost, what it may,' — Coleridi'o,
' W'allenstein.'

" ' And wiU you, «(V/you, T will marry you '—'Taming
tiie Slirew.'

" IVera in used in tho principal claii<e for 'should be' or
'•,vould bo.'*
" 'i w,r. ( = s!ioMld 1)(.') a fool, not less than if a p;uither
. W< re panie-slricken by the anteiope'a eye,
If she escape me." — Shelley.

* "So, in O.'nn.ui, imhY iov mHnIr i^'in. ' llatf,' ich Sohwin-. n, h.M
i 1 I'lii^ei, lucli dun Uimolii :oj' k'li liiu, for ' u-.tr ■i icli aeiicii.' "

182

THE VERBALIST.

•• *Wero you Icat tilling forth to air yourself,

Suoli parting were, too potty.'
" ' JIc were (=wou)(l \w.) no lion, were not Romans hinils.'
"* Should he be roused out of ins sleep to-ni;^ht, . . .
It wera not well; indceil it were, not well.' — Slielley.
"Had is sometimes used in tlie ptincipal clauae foi'
'.-liould have' or 'would have.'*

"'Had I knov/M this before we set out, I think 1 had
( = would have) remained at Imme,' — Scott.

" ' lladst thou been kill'd wiieu first tliou d'dst ^resuiac,
Thou hadst uot liveil to kill a son of mine.'

" 'If he
Had killed me, ho h'fl done a kinder deed.'
" ' For once lie had been ta'en or slain,

An it had not been his i linisLry.' — Scott.
" ' If thou hadst said him nay, it Jiad l)eiii ain.'f
" ' J/ad better, rather, best, as lief, as well,' etc., is a form
that is explaineil under this lio.sdini;. 'Had' stand;* lov
'would have.' The exploded notion tiiat 'iuid' is a corrupted
' would ' must bo guarded against.

" 'I had as lief not be.' That is — 'I irouhl as lief hai'e
not {(o) be.'=:'I would as williiipdy (or as soun) have non-
existence.'

"'//a'iyou rather C;T}S!ir were living ?' * Would you

rather have (would yon prefer that) Ci''^;i.r were living?'

"'He Itad better leconsider the nialter' is 'iie would
better liave (lo) reconsider the niattei*.'

* " So, in Ccrmati, Aa//^ oci'iirs for vuLrdc. hnheii. ' Wiire er da
(;;wcsen, so lidll/'u wir iliii jn :-ilit;n,' lur 'so ivdnUn. wir ihii ^;c.sfhuii
luihtn.' //iVi'^cit is still crj'iilitional not iM(iic:iti\ o. !ii l.;i,i in, tlm jiluju^r-
ft'(! , indicati.ee is occu»ionally used ; wliicli ia exiiLiinetl us a more vivid
forin."

t " In nrinci I ml c\M\'^(i-i tlip iiiflcot.ion of the stcliuI pcr.-on is alwiiys
rc'riincd: 'thou hai!.';',' Ihui woiiidx', slanildx',' uir. In thoeviunplc, tiie
s.iliuiilill.'itd cI.iU!-' ■ ''hoU;j;)l bliltjUIJCtivC, sllijWS, ' lliul.ji.' And tllis USUjff

is iiscLcdinyly coi tn i."

THE VERBALItiT.

183

•* • I had rather be a kitten and cry mow

Tlian one of these same metre halla' ; mongers ;
I liad rather hear a hrazcn canstick turned.'
" Let us compare this form with anotlicr that appears si'l''
by side with it in early writers. (Cp. Lat. 'habco' and 'mi hi
est.')

"Tlie construction of ' had ' is thus illustrated in Chaucer,
as in — Noniie I'restes Tale, 300:

" 'By God, I hndde Icvere than my sclierte,
Tliat ye hadde rad his legend, as I liar*.'
" Compare now :

" 'All me were hvere with laM'e /oo.sv my lyf

Then so to futo h.-m./J^/A'.'— Wright, ' Polit. S.'
"Here 'were' is un(iui:stiouai)ly for 'would be'; and ^he
whole expression might be given by 'ha.l,' t'.ius : 'Ah, I limit] e.
Jevere ,' '(to) foo.sfi' and '(to) j'nile,'' olianging from sub-
jects of ' were ' to objects of ' liadde.'

"So, in the Cliaucer example above, if we .substitute 'be'
for 'have,' we sliull get the same meaning, thus : 'By God,

me iccre lovcre .' Tlie iuteroiiange lieips us to see more

clcaily that 'hadde' is to be explained as subjunctive for
•would have.' " See Indicative and Subjunctive.

Such. " I have never before seen suvli a large ox.'* By a
litthi transposing of the wuvds of this sentence, we have, "I
have never before seen an ox such hirge," whicli makes it quite
clear titat we should say so large an ox and not such a lanjn
or,. As proof tli;it tliis error in the use of such is commoiv, v.-e
find in Mr. (icorge Washington .Muou's " J)eau's English and
Bad Knglish," tlie sentence, " Witli ; II due deference to such
a liigli authority on such a very important matter." Wiih a
little transposing, this sentence is nuule to read, "With ;ill
duo deference to an autliority sncli higli on a nuittor tuirh very
important." It is clear that the sentence should re-vi!, " WitK

184

THK VKIUULIST.

all due Wefurence to so high an authoiity on ho very iiuportaiit
a mat tor. " Tlie phrases, .>;»(7/, a liami inmu, ,sm'7* a lovely
s'f<c/< a long, .s«(7i naiTovv, tto., ai'e incorrect, and should he ho
hund-oiiif, ,S'0 lovely, m Ici'.j, ;nul ko on.

Sumuion. This vorli <oiiics in for it.=5 !"ull share of maul-
incj. Wo (■Fti.'n iioar snch exi)res.sioii3 a:^ "I will i^anDdon.i
him," instinul of .mininon him; and "He was :iUiamon.ii'U,^' in
stead of Kninniou^d'.

Superfluour? Words. " Whenever I try to write well, I
alivdi/s fiiul i eaii do it." "I shall have finished by tlie liUter
end of the week." "Iron .sinks f/o/r/i in water. " " He com-
bined (oiicthcr all the facts." "Aly brother called on mo, ajid
we both took a walk." " I (mh do it equally as well ms he."
«' We could not forbear/row doing it." " lijfore I '^o, I must
fir-'it be paid." " Wn were coiupellcd to return firui;." "We
forccii them to retreat bock fully a mile." "His conduct was
approved q/'by everylKxly." " Th 'y conversed to'icthar for a
long linie." "Tiie balloon rose <//' very rapidly." "(!ive
me aiioUier one." "Come hmio as soon as c'rcr you can."
"Who linda him in money?" "He c;ime in last 0/ vU."
"He has (jot all he can carry." "What have you go/.'"'
"No inatl 'r what I have ;/o<." "I ha\e (lof. the headache."
" Have you jot any brother."* ?" " No, but I have ijut a sister.."
All tite W(v.\ls in ita ics are superlluous.

Superior. This word is not unfrequently naed for able,
excellent, gifted; as, " hiio is a sti/x-.rcor w(jm:in," ni"aning an
excellent woman; "Ho is a Kiiperior man," mi'aniii^' uu ahk-
man. Tiie expi.-i.bsiou an aijcrior mun i.s not less ol)jecti('n-
uble.

SuppOoititicU.S. This wurd is j>ro'peybi u.sed in tiie ircnj^o
of put by a trick into ti;c pli 'o or cliaraetcr Ixdonging to
another, spuriou.s, counterftut, not genuine ; and imjtro/'prly
ill t!;e se.i':0 oF conjccituial, hypothetical, imaginary, presump-

TflE V Eli HA LIST.

185

tivc; as, "This ,.i n sii/ipof<ititiona case," moaning an imafjlnari/
or ju'CMiim/ilive case. "Tlic Knglish critic dfM'ivciI his m.Tloriiila
from a stray copy of some siiji/io.-<iti'i(jiis iiidoxtg duvi.sed by
one of tho 'Post' roportora." — "Nation." Here is a correct
nse of the woi-d.

Swosh. Tlicro in a kind of illd)a]ancod hr.iin in which
the rc.tli'ctive and tlie inia,i;i native ^ci y nmoh ()iit\wi;,dit tlie
))(n-(;cptivf. j\Icn to wlioni tlii.s l<ind (tf an orj^'anizalion haa
lii'L'n given pcntrally liavc iicti\ u niiiuls, hut thru* minds never
present nnytliing clcai'ly. To tlieir mental vi;,i(ni all i.s ill-
dclinod, ciiaoLic. 'i'ii'-y sec everything in a lia/o. Whotlier
such men talk or v.iite, tlioy arc veritose, iHo,L;ic>,I, inta;igil>le,
will-o'-tlia-wi.-pish. Their th(Hi'_dtts are pliiuitoinlike ; like
ahadovv'-, tlwy continu illy escape their gra'ip. In tlioir talk
they will, after lonj,' di-serlations, tell j'ou thiit tiicy have not
Hind ju.st M'hat they would like to say; there is always a
suhtle, Inrkinj; sounjthing still unex]ire.s-ed, whu-h synscLhing
is tiic iT'al csst-nce of tlie matter, ami whi> h voiir jienetration
is expci:ted to divine. In tlrir writings tiicy are cc.eutric,
vague, laliyrinthine, pretentious, transcendental,* and fre-
(luentiy nngr.nnniatical. These men, if write tliey nm t,
idi'juld CMiiline t'lcinselvcs to tlie deicriptive ; for when tliey
enter th-; e-.s)yi^sL's (h nru'u, wliich they are very prune to do,
tluy wiitc wh.il I v. dl vculuic to call .sicofth.

Wo find exainnl.'i in pleutj' of this kind of writin:/ in the
e^:.s:lys of Mr, i;ai[ih Wal'lu iMnorsun. Indeed, tin; nnpurtial
critic who will t.iho tr.c tionl)!'j to exanuncany of Mr. Emer-
Sju's e- •.y.s at all 'jarefrdly, i.s quite sure to come to the cun-

* To iliose who arc not Tiiiloolcir as to wluit tran«con<lentil'^>ii is, the
foil ".vinu lueiil (Itilinition will hy welcniiic: "It is thes)>liitii.il coinK 'cpcu
I'f psyrlid;. '.i."il ii-rc'fra'_';iliility cohiiL' tul wltli coii(--iiUi;nli in.!uiii(_aiyii of
i)K'nii!imlcii sjiiiit;i;ilil..v anii o liureiilii; il eont''iii ion of siih-\il'orv con-
cifti.iii " 'ri\\iis':itril by ii .New Ynili l.iwyer, it .>it:\ii(is tiiu-; : " Tiaii.si'cn-
ilcMl,!iJisrn is f,v(i liolf-i ill a s;iiii-i'aiil\ : a storm washes away the saiidbiiiik
NwUi'jut, U'jimliiiiL;' tl'.u h 'va."

^>.

lAAAGE EVALUATION
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186

THE VERilALlST.

elusion that Mr. Emerson has suen everything he has ever
made tlio subject of Iiis essays very much as London is seen
ironi tlie top of St. I'luil's in u fog.

^.Ir. I'-inerfion's delinition of Nature runs thus: •'Philoso-
phically considered, th'.' •uuivcrsu is uoiiiiii-cd of Nature and
the Soul. Strictly speuking, therefore, all that is separate
from us, all wliioh philo*op!iy distiiij^uidlies from the Sol Me
— that is, hotli Nature and Art, and all other men, and my
own l>o(ly — must he ranked under this name 'N.vruiiK.' In
enumerating the values of Nature and casting up their sum,
I shall use the word in hotli senses —in its common and in its
philo.sop'iical imj)urt. In in(jniries so {general as our present
one, the inaccuracy is not material; no confusi(jn of thought
will occur. Nature, in the common sense, refers to ossencea
unchanged by man; space, tlie air, the liver, the leaf. Art
is applied to the mixture of his will with the same things, as
in a hou.^e, a canal, a pictnie, a statue. Ikit his operations,
taken together, are so insignilicaut — a little chipping, l)akiiig,
patching, and washing — tluit in an impression so grand as
that of the world on the human mind they do not vary the
risult."

In "Letters and Social Aims" Mr. Emerson writes: "Klo-
<|nence is tlie power to translate a truth into language per-
fectly intelligible to the person to whom you speak. He who
would convince the worthy Mr. I'underhead of any truth
which Dunderhead iloes not see, nuist be a master of his art.
Declamation is common ; but such possession of thought as is
hero re<juired, audi practical cliemistiy as the convcn-ion of af
truth written in (iod's language into a truth in Dunderhead's
language, is one of the mo.-,t beautiful and cogent weapons
that is forged in the shop of the divine Artificer."

'I'he lirst paragraph of Mr. JOm. rson's "Ks^ay on Art**
reads: "All departments of life at the present day— I'rade,

THE VERBALIST.

187

Politics, Letters, Science, or Religion — seem to feel, and to
labor to cxpiess, tlie identity of tlieir law. Tiiey are rays of
one Eun ; they translate each into a new language the sense of
the other. They are sublime when seen as enKinutions of a
Necessity contradistinguished from the vulgrir Fate by being
instant and alive, and dissolving man, as well us his works, in
ita flowing beneficence. This influence is consjiicuously
visible in tlie principles and history of Art."

Another paragraph from Mr. Emerson's "Essay on Elo-
quence" : "The orator, as we liave seen, must bo a suljstan-
tial per.sonality. Tiien, first, he must have power of state-
ment — must have the fact, and know how to tell it. In a
knot of men conversing on any subject, the person who knows
most about it will have the ear of the comn.inv, if he wishes
it, and lead the conversation, no matter wliat genius or dis-
tincti<inot)iermen there present may have; and, in any pul)lic
assembly, him who I»as the facts, and can and will state them,
people will listen to, though he is otiierv.ise ignorant, though
he is hnai'so and ungrateful, though lie stutters ai.d screams."
Mr. Emerson, in his 'Essay on I'rudence," writes: "There
are all dogrees of proficiency in knowledge of the M'orld. It
is suflicient to our present purpose to indicate three. One
class live to the utility of the ^vinhol, esteendng health and
wealth a final good. Anotht r cl;iss live above this mark to
the beauty of tho symbol, as the poet and artist, and the
naturalist and man of science. A third class li"o above the
beauty of the symbol to tlie beauty of the thing signified ;
tliese are wise men. The first cIi.vh have common sense ; tlie
second, taste; and the third, spiritual pi^roeption. Once
in a long time a man traverses the wliole scale, and sees and
enjoys the symbol solidly ; then, also, has a clear ej'o for its
beauty; and, lastly, wlulst he pitcl-f^s his tent on this sacred
volcanic isle of nature, does not oiTor to build houses and barna

188

ThlE VERBALIST.

thereon, reverencing the splendor of God whieh he sees bui;-t-
iug throu<(l» each cliink an<l cratmy."

ThobC who are wont to ueeopt otlier.s at their self-asdea?-
ment and to seo things through utlier pi-ople's eyes -and tliei >
are many such— are in danger of thinking tiiis kind of writii. ^
very fine, wlieu in fact it is not only the veriest .sfffWt, b; c
that kind of swosh that excites at least an occasional doul s
Avitli regard to the writer's sanity. We can make no greatt c
mistake than tosuppo.se tiiatthe reason wo do not. nndeistuii i
these rlictorical contortionists is because they are so subi. a
and profound We understand them quite as well as th::y
understand themselves. At their very best, tliey are L.it
incoherent diluters of other men's ideas. They have but one
thing to recunnuead them — honesty. They believe in tiitiu
selves.

"Whatever is dark is deep. Stir a puddle, and it is
deeper than a Avell," — Swift.

Synocioche. The using of the name of a part lor lliat
of the whole, the nanie of the whole for that of a pi'.t, <.r the
using of a definite number for an indefinite, is ealle.l, i:i
v\n'Xov\Ot synecdoche. "The bay wis covered with A-'fi/.s" ; i. i. ,
with sii'ips. "The man was old, careworn, and gray" ; i. e.,
literally, /i/.s i'lr/i/', not the man, was gray. '■'Siitc (eiiths ol
every man's happines^s depends on the reecption he meets witli
in tlie world." "llo had seen seventy n-infii-f." "Thus
spoke the ttnintcr" ' here the part of the chaiactcr is named
that suits the occasion.

"Ilis roof was at the service of the outcast; the unfor-
tunate ever found a welcome at his threshold."

Take. I copy from the "London Queen" : "The verl
to lake, is open to being consitlered a vulgar verb when u^ed
in reference to dinner, tea, or to refrediments of any kiiid.
Will yoa .';i/'e' is nofc considered comvia il J'aut; the verb in

77/ A' . l-:!lliAIJST.

180

ifor-

f'vor for the oH'tTin;^ of C'viliiica lieiiig to hare." ^\ccor<.ling
ti "The Qiiovii," then, we must say, "Will you Aa re same
u..iiier, tea, c>^ile(', uiiie, ii.-li, Ixef, mlad," etc.

Taste of. Tlie leilundant of, often used, in this country,
ii! connection v.ith the transitive verbs to taste and to smell, ia
• i <'ankeeism. We tnxte oi" fime'l a thing, not taste of nor
HI. cU 0/ a thin;^. The neuter vorljs to taste and to midl are
hIkti followed by of. "if butter tastes 0/ brass." "For a^'o
In. t tastes of pleasures."

" ifou shall stifle in your own report,
And smeJl of calumny." — Shakespeare.

Tautology. >\mong the things to be avoided in writing
is I'lntokniy, which is fhercpe.afiinj of the sanie Ihoujht, whether
in hhe fame or in diflfcrent words.

ifautopliony. "A regard for harmony requires us, in
tlie prugiea.-: of a sentence, to Jivoid repeating a sound by em-
])loyiiigthe same word mo;'e than once, or using, in conti^^'uous
wordn, similar eombiuati ns of letter's. Tins fault is known
us taido/o(ifi.'' — L)r. G. 1*. Quackenbos, "Advanced Course of
Composition and Ehetoric," p. 3CU. Dr. Quackeiilios is in
error. The repetition of the same snt.-n; is tautology, and the
repetition of tlie tame sound, or, as Di". Quackenbos has it,
"the repcutin;:,' of a Bound by employing the same word more
than once, or by u.'-ing in coiitii;uous words similar combi-
nations of letters," ia laniophovi/.

Teach. To impart kno\\]e()ge, to inform, to instruct; as,
*'Teach me how to do it"; " Tccvh metoswini"; '■^Wetaught
mo to write." The uncultured often misuse leai-a for teach.
See Leabn.

Tense. The errors made in the use of the tenses ava
manifold. The one most fiequently made by persons of cul-
ture — the one that everyliody inakes would, perhaps, be
nearer the fact — is that of utliig the mj^erject instead of the

190

THE VERBAL I fir.

perfect tense; thus, "1 never saw it played but once": say,
have seen. "He was the largest man I ever saro": say, havf.
seen. "I never in my life had such trouble": say, have had.
Another frequent error, the making of which ia not confined
to the uiischooloil, ia tliat of using two verba in a past tense
M'hcn only one should bo in that timo ; thus, "I intended to
have gone'''': say, to go. "It was my intention to /(arc come";
Bay, to come. " I expected to have found you here ": say, to
find. " I was very desirous to have gone": say, to go, " He
was better than I cxi)ected to have found him": gay, to find.

Among other common errors are the following: "I seen
him when he done it": say, "I saw him when he did it." "I
should have v^ent home": say, gone. "If he had irent": say,
gone. "I wish you had went": say, gone. "He has icenl
out": say, gone. "I come to town this morning ": say, ctme.
"He come to me for advice": say, came. "It begun very
late": say, hrgmi. "It had already began": say, begun.
'' The foll(nviiig toasts were drank": say, drunk. " His text
was that (io.l v^an love ": say, w love. Another error is made
in sucij sentences as these : " If I had have known ": say, had
known. "If he had have come as he promised": say, had
come. " If you had have told me ": say, had told.
Testimony. 'See Evii>ence.

Than. Than and as implying comparison have the same
case after as before them. " He owes more than me": read,
than / — i. e., more than / otoe. "John is not so old as her '' :
read, as she — i.e., as she is. We should say, then, " He is
stronger tlian ,^he," "She is older than he," "You are richer
than /," etc. But it due^ not always happen that the nomina-
tive case comes after than or as. "I love you more tlian him, "
"I give you more than hiin," "I love you as well as him";
that is to say, "I love you more than / love him," "I give
you more than / give him," "I love you as well as / love hitn.'

THE VERBALIST.

191

Take away him and put he in all these cases, and the grammar
is just as good, Sut the meaning is quite different. **I love
you as wuU iis him," means that I love you as well as I love
him ; hut, " I love "ou as well aa /*«," means that I love y(3u
as well as he loven yo\i.

Than whom. C()l)Ijctt, in his "Grammar of the English
Laiio^uiige," says: "Tliere is an erroneous way of employing
»/•- m, wliich I must point out ta your particular attention,
bee. i.se it is so often seen in very good writers, and hccauso
it is . ly deceiving. ' The Duke of Argyll, Uian whom no man
was ui')re hearty in the cause.' 'Croniv.cll, Umn whom no
man was better skilled in artifice.' A hundred such phrases
miglit he collected from Hume, Blackstone, and even from
Drs, Blair and Johnson. Yet they arc hal grammar. In all i;,
such cases who sliould be made use of : for it is nominative
and not objuctive. ' No man was more hearty in the cause
than he was'; ' Nu man Mas better skilled in artifice than he
was.'* It is a very common Parliament-house phrase, and
therefore presumably corrupt ; but it is a Dr. Johnson phrase,
too: "Pope, thaji whom few men liad more vanity.' The
Doctor did not say, 'Myself, than whom fi^w men have been
found iiiore base, having, in my dictionary, descril)ed a pen-
sioner as a slave of state, and having afterward myself become
a pensioner.'

"I differ in this matter from Bishop Lowth, who says
that 'The relative ivho, liaving ret'erence to no verb or propo-
sition understood, but only to its antecedent, when it follows
thuii, is ahpni/H in the ohjextive case ; even though the pronoun,
if substituted in its place, would be in the nominative.' And
then he gives an instance fi:om Milloa. ' Bi.'(jlzcbub, than
whom, Satan except, none higher tat.' It is curious enough

• "Cromwell — f/ian /c nn man w,is more skilled in urtiiice ; or, Cvoin-
well- -no man was luoro skillud in aiiillcc than he {wta}."

192

TflE VFJillM.lST.

tliat this sentence of the Bisliop is, itself, tincrnminatical!
Our poor unfortunate il is so placed as to nmke it a matter of
(luubt whctlier the Bi.'-hop meant it to ii late tu iiho or to Us
OAitkcpdeiit. However, we know its meaning ; but, though he
.-ays that vho, when it foUowh than, is always in the objtctive
ca-.*t, he gives wa no reuh^oii for this departure froni a clear
general principle ; unless we are to regani as a reason the
example of Milton, who has committeil many liunJreds, if not
lhous?.nila, of grannnutical errors, many of which the Ijishop
himself has pointed out. Theie \s a sort of side-wind attempt
at reason in tlie words, having reference to no verb or ]»repo-
nitioii understood.' I do not sett the nason, even if this eould
be; but it a|. pears to me imposf-ible that a noun or pronoun
can exi:^t in a giaminatical state without having reference to
some verb or pre/iosiiiov, either expre.'-scd or understood.
What is meant by Milton? ' 'J'lian licelzelnib, none sat higher,
except Satan.' And when, in order to avoid the repetition of
the word Beelzebub, the relative becomes ntces^ary, the full
construetion must be, 'no devil sat higher than who sat, except
Satan'; and not, 'no devil s-.at higher </(aji u^Aovh sat.'* The
supposition that there can be a noun or pronoun which has
reference to no verb and no piei omikm, is certainly a mistake."

Of this, Dr. Fitzedward Hall lemarks, in his "JJecrnt
Exemplilications of Fabo i'hilology ": "That any one but
Cobbett would abide this as English is higlily improbable;
and how the expression — a quite ch'usical one — which he dis-
cards can be justified grammatically, except by calling its
than a preposition, others may resolve at their leisure and
pleasure."

Thanks. There are many perpons who think it in quea*
tionable taste to use thanks for thank you.

' No devil sat higher than he eat, except Satan.

nil-: vn:n.r..!P.T,

193

Tlia.t. The best writers :)ften aj^oar to grope after a
51 [uirate eiiipioyimiiit for tlie several relatives.

" 'That' is the proper restrl live, expliczt**>^ M^niiing, cr

rl- ii»iii{i relallwf.

"T/ta^'tlio neuter of the cU^fiiiito article, was early In
US'; af5 a neuter relative. All tlie other oldest relatives grad-
ually (Iropfc away, and 'that' came to bo applied also to plural
;iiitct'("Ii'iiN, and to iiiaseidiues and femiuiues. When 'as,'
'whii-'h,' and 'who' came forward to !;liare the work of 'that,'
there aeenis to have ari'seii not a little uneertainty about t!ie
relatives, and we Hnd curious double forms: 'whom that,*
'winch tiiat,' 'which us,' etc. Gower has, 'Venus wAox'?
priest tliat I am"; ('haiicer writes — 'This Abbot irh'ich that
was an holy man,' 'iiis love f./ie wfiii/i t'm/, he oweth.' By the
'•]li;'.ab'.'than perioil, tiiese double for us have di?:appe.'>red, and
all tlie relatives are used .singly wiili>)Ut hesitation. From
then till now, 'that' has been btai(.'i:!ing with 'who' and
'wlii.'h' to rc;:;:i:i .superior favoi', with varying success.
' Who' is used for peison.s, 'which' for things, in both num-
bers; 80 is 'that"; and the only opportunity of a speoi.al
applicntiou of 'that' lies in tiic; imp )rtantdisiiuction biitweeu
coordination and restriction. Now, as 'who' and 'which' are
most commoidy preferred for co '>rdination, it would be a cloav
gain to eonline tliem to this sense, and to reserve 'that' for
the re.-jtrictive application alone. This arrangement, tlien,
wunld /all. in with the moH ijenpral w?e of 'that,' &aptdaUy
bei/omf the limits of formal composition.

"Tiie use of ' that ' solely as restrictive, with 'who' and
'which' solely aa coordinating, also avoids am'/i'j/titks that
often attend the indisciiminate use of 'who' and 'wliich' for
coordinate and for restrictive clauses. Thus, wluii we say
'his conduct surprised his lOnglish friends, >'-ho had not known
him ion^,' we may m'>an either that hi.s Englisli friend*

194

TITE VEnBALiST.

generally were surpiisetl (the rel.itive being, in that case,
coordinafitfj), or that only a, portion of thcrii— namely, tlia
particular portion that hail not known li'm lorg — were sur-
prised. In t Ilia last case the rclativo is niciuit to define or
explain the anteoeloifc, and tli(!<lonl't would lio roinovcil l»y
writing thus: 'liis lOiUjliuh friL'uds l/tal liotl not kM'-v. n iiini
lonj^.' So in the foiluwiiig scntonco tlicro is a siniihir jinihi-
giiity in the use of 'wiiiuii' : 'the iioxt wint< r ''•/o'V/t \ou will
spend in town, will j,dvo you opptjrtiinitio.s of niakin;^ a more
jirudent choice.' This may mean, either 'you willspi'nd next
winter in town' ('wliiiili' Im-Iu'; coordinatin;^), or 'the next ol
rhe winters wlien you arc to live in town,' let that comu when
'*■ 'nay. In tiie former case, 'wliieh' is the })roper relative;

he latter ca^e, tiie nieaidn;^ irf re.stri<;tivo or dermiiv.^, and
..ould be best bron^^Iit out by 'that' : 'the next winter that
you will spend in town.'

•*A further consideiation in favor of employinnr 'that' for
eyplicative ehuises is tiio iiiijih asant ell'cet arising from the too
I'/^.quent n /irfit'toii of * icho' and 'which.' Grammarians often
raoommcnd ' tliat' aa a means of varying the style ; but this
o>\<i ought to be sought in subiervienoo to the still greater end
Ol perspicuity.

"The following exaniMloa will porve further to illustrate
tUit distiactiou beLv\oeu lliul, oa the ouc ban I, and who and
ioA\ch, on the oilier:

-■' 'In general, Mv. IJiircliell was fondest of the compnny of
• Miidren, ir/torn he u.-.ed lo rail hi' ml. <i Httlc men.' •W'iinni'
a rere iilii.niiitiealiy used, Lc*ng tue ei^uivaleut of *audCheiu
\k--- 'ised lo eail,' etc.

*• 'Bacon at Inst, a mi(j;hty man, arose,
Wi'iom a wise king and nation choso
Lord ClianceUor of both their laws.'
li ,«. also, 'whom' is e(|n;d to 'and hi >

Till: n:/:tiAiJST.

la-.

"In the following,' iii«t;ui('»f the relative is rcptrictivo o:'
definiii;^, juul 'that' wuiiM ho pr<;f«'t;U)le : 'the conclu.sioii < f
the "lliiul" is like the exit of a great man out of coinp.iiiy
luhom he has ontertaincl matjnirtcciitly. ' Compare another of
AiMison's sentences: 'a man of polite imagination is let intoa
great many pleasures that the vulgar arc not capable of re-
ceiving.'

"Both relatives are introrluced discriminatingly in this
passage: — '.She had learned that from Mrs. Wood, who bad
iieard it from her husband, who had heard it at the public-
house from tlie landlord, ivho li;id l)een let into the secret by
tiie boy that caiTied the beer to some of the prisoners.'

•'The following sentences are amliiguous under the modern
system of using 'who' for both purposes: — 'I met the boatman
w'ho took me across tiic terry.' If 'who' is the proper relative
]iore,tiie meaning i.s, '1 met thcboaf nian.a/a/ Ac took mi' across,'
it being supp.'Sed that the boatman is known and dellnitc.
IJut if there be several boatmen, and I wish to indicate one in
particular liy the circumstance that he had taken mo across
the ferry, I should use 'that.' 'The youngest boy who has
learned to dance is James.' Tiiis means either 'the youngest
boy is James, and he has learned to dance,' or, 'of the boys,
the youngest that has laarned to dance is James.' This last
Reuse is restrictive, and 'that' sliould be used.

"Turning now to 'whicii,' we may have a peries of par-
allel examples. 'The coui't, ichldi gives currency to manners,
should be excinphiry' : here t!ie meaning is 'the court should
be exeiiipliiry, for the court gives currency to maimers.'
'Which' is the idiomatic relative in this case. 'The cat,
%vhkh you despise so much, is a very usefid animal.' The
relative here also is coordinating;) and not restrictive. If it
were intended to point out one individual cat specially des-
pised by th"} person addressed, 'that' would con\ey the seaeoA

196

TiiK vi:i;nMJST.

'A throry n-hiffi does tiot t^ii'I to tin* improviTiient of pnictice
ia uttcily uiiwoi thy of rt\g;ir(l.' 'I lio iiic.iiiing i« icstrictivc ;
'a theory ///a' (loos not tend.' The following sfntcnce is one
of many from (joUlsmitli tliat givo 'that' instea*! of 'which' :
— 'Age, ilmt Itsacns thocnjoynifint of life, increases onr desire
of living.' Thackeray also was fond of tliia u:jago But it is
not very common.

" 'Their faith {•tended to mako thorn improvident ; but a
wise instinct taught them that if IIkm e was one thing whirh
ought not to be loft to fate, or to the proccpts of a ileceased
prophet, it was the artillery' ; a case M'luue 'that' is the
proper relative.

"'All words, irhlrh are signs of complex iileas, furnish
matter of mistake,' This gives an erroneous impression, and
should be 'all words (hat are signs of complex ideas.'

" 'lu all cases of prescription, the uiiversal ))vactice of
judges is to direct juries by analogy to the Statute of Limita-
tions, to decide against incorporeal rights which have for many
vears been relinquished ' : say instead, 'incorporeal rights that
have for many years,' and the t^ense is clear.

"It is ne jes^ai y f >r the proper understanding of 'which'
t.> advert to its pecidiai- fiinctioi! of rcfening to a whole clause
'IS the antecedent: 'William ran 'ulong the top of the wall,
I'kich alarmed his mother very much.' The antecedent is
obviously not the noun 'wall,' but the fact expressed by the
entire clau.5a— -'William ran,' etc. 'He by no uie;',n3 wants
sense, which only serves to ag.^ravate his former folly ' ;
namely, (not 's'^iise,' but) the circumstance 'that he dc^es nob
want sense.' 'He is neither over-exalteil by prosperity, nor
too much depressed by mi.ifortune ; vhirh you must allow
mai-ks a great mind.' 'We have done many things which we
ought not to have done,' might mean 'we ought not fo hare
'hnc many thinys ' ; that is ' we ouylit to have done tew thinga.

■#

'^;^>'/»

THE VEIUiALIST.

10"

•That' wotild ri'vo the exact sen ;o intended: *\vc have done
ni my thing's th d wo. ou/^ht nut Id have ilonc.' 'llf licyan to
look after hia alFaird hiiuaclf, which waa tlie way ti>iiiake t'icm
proyper.

" We must next aKudo to the coses whci-. lie le'at vc is
governed by a prepositi )n. We can use a 'i"c;io3ition bjforo
' \\ ho ' an<l 'whioli,' but '.vheu the relati.e is 'that,' the pre-
position must be tlirown tt) tiie end of ilie clanae. Owing to
ni imperfect appreciation of the genius of our language,
offenae was taken at this usage by some of mir leading writers
at the beginning of hist century, and to tills circunistance we
must refer the disuse of 'tliat' us the relative of restriction.*

'"It is curious that the only circumstance connected
with Scott, and related by Lockhart, of wJikk I was a witness,
is incorrectly stated in the " Life of Sir Walter." ' — Leslie's

• "SncaV.itip of Dryiion, Ilall.iiu 8.iy3, ' Hn " I'.ssay on Dramatic Poesy,'*
pul>lishuii in IWJS, wa-i reiiniiieiJ bixieeii yii.i s iifturwavi!, ami it is curious
to observe the tli:\ii,'.;3 wtiicli Dr\deii iikuIu in thuex;ircision. Jliiloiie 1i;ih
curofully ii-ti'd all lluso; t icy show b"th tli« tare t.'iij author toil; wirli
hi.s own tiiyle aii'l t!ie I'iiaiiijo wli.cli \>a- ;,iaUnally worlaii'^- in ilie Eiitrli>.i
lan;;Mauo. The A!i;;lici>ni of tiiniinatii ;,' the aeliteine \>\\\\ a jirrpoisitiiii
ii lejt'C'ted. Thus, " I can nut think so conienii«til)ly of the a.'-j 1 l;\t' in,''
is tM-lian^'eiJ for "the a^'e in which I live." "A iloeper uxinLSsion of be-
lief than a.l tlieactot cm jiersuade us t;.," is altered, "tan indinua'e into
us." And, thoux'h the old form cnniinned in us^ luiipr airer the time of
Urydcn, it has of late year^ been leukoi ed inuleKatit, and jnoscrihed in all
(■:>Hi;s, perhaps \\\\\\ an u ii,;ce-sary fa^tidic)u•^nes3, to wiiicti 1 have not
tinifornily dt'fe; red, since oiu' lan^ua'^e is (jf Teiiti'iiio stn.ct..ve, and t(!c
rules of Latin and I'romh };ranunar uic not always to i'nd ns.'

"The following; examples, taken from ila^^in;,'cr's '(iimid Pu'ie c
t'loi cue,' will .-^how what was the usajre of the I'.li/.alieilian filters: —
'"For I tiuist use the tree lom / was ouin i tth.'
" ' In thai dumb rheloiic uhnii yon »;iw.'.-c usr m'.'

" ' if 1 had bieii heir

Of all the globes and sceptre* mankind hmvs tu,'

•' • ;iie name of friend

Which you are pleased to.'/'inv iiif ir.th.'

•' ■ wilfully i;rnoruut in ni\ opiTiicn

Of what it did inrite /liiii to.'
*" I iocik to li-r a-i <i;i a jMnicess
J dare not be ambciimii of.'

"' a duty

'dhat I was born uillt."

198

THE VERBALIST.

' Memoirs.' The relative sliould be restrictive: *that I was a
witness q/l'

" ' There are many words rvhich are adjectives which have
iKjtliing to do with tlie qualities of the nouns to rvhich they are
put.' — Colibett. Better: 'there arc many words ^hal are
adjectives that have nothing to do with tlie qualities of the
nouns (that) they are put lo.'

" 'Otiier objects, of which we have not occasion to speak
so frequently, w^e do not designate by a name of their own.'
This, if amended, would bo : 'other objects UuU we have not
occasion to speak o/so frequently, we do not,' etc.

" ' Sorrow for the dead is the only sorrow ./ro??j which we
refuse to be divorced': ' the only sorrow [tluit) we refuse to
be divorced /;*owi.'

•"Why, there is not a single sentence in this play that I
do not know the meaning o/.' — Addison.

"'Originality is a thing we constiuuly olamor /or, and
constantly quarrel with.^ — Carlyle.

•• 'A spirit more amiable, but less vigorous, than Luther's
would have shrunk b.iok from the dangers which he braved
and surmounted ' : ' that he braved'; ' the dangers braved and
surmounted by him.'

" ' Nor is it at all improbable that the emigrants had been
guilty of tho.ia faults J'rom tchich civilized men who settle
among an uncivilized people are rarely free.' — Macaulay.
' Nor is it at all improbable that the emigrants had been
guilty "f the faults that (such faults a.s) civilize! men that settle
{■■«'tlliir/, or settled) among au uucivilized people are rarely free
/'rem.'

" ' Prejudices are notions or opinions which the mind en-
tertains without knowing the grounds and reasons of them,
and which are a-sented to without examination.' — Berkeley.
The 'which' iii both cases should be 'that,' but the relative

THE VERBA LIST.

199

may be entirely dispensod with by paiticipial conversion ;
* pi'cjuclicea are nocioiia or opinions enler/alncd by the niiml
witliout knowing tlie groumls and roasoua of tlioni, and
assenled to without exaniination.'

" Tlie too frciiuunt repetition of 'who' and 'which' mny
be avoid'id by resolving them into the conjunction and per-
sonal or other pronoun: 'In sucii ciccunisiauces, tho utmost
that Bo>(|aet could bo expeoted tu d^ was to iioKl his ground,
{which) and this liQ did.'" — Bain's "Higher English Grammar."

Thi? word is sometimes vulgarly used for ,so; thus, "I was
that nervous I forgot everything"; "I was that frigiitened I
could hardly stand."

The. Bungling writers som'^times write slieer nonsense,
or say sometliing very different from what tl)!:y have in their
minds, by tlie simple omission of the deiinite article ; thus,
" Tlie indebtedness of the English tongue to the Frcni;li,
Latin and Greek is disclosed in almost every sent'^uice framed."'
According to this, theie is such a thing as a French, Latin
and Greek tongue. Professor Townsend meant to say: "The
indcl)todncs3 of tlie English tongue to the French, the Latin,
and the Greek," etc.

Then. The use of this word ;is an adjcotive is condemned
in very emphatic terms by some ut our grammariaus, and yet
this use of it has tlie sanction of such jmiuont writers as
Addison, Johnson, Whatcly, and Sir J. Hawkins. Johnson
says, " Li his then situation," wliich, if brevity be really tlie
soul of v/it, certainly has much more soul in it than " In the
Eituation he then occupied." However, it is doubtful whether
theiif as au adjective, will ever again liud favor with careful
writ ITS.

TilOllce. See WiiEXCB.

Think for. We not unfreqnently hear a superfluous /or
tacked to a sentence; thus, "You will liud tliat he knows
more about the affair than you think ybr."

200

THE V !:/:::. I LIST.

Those kind. ^* Those kind of apples (ire lipst": read,
" That kind of apples j.v hcdt." It i.-, tndy remarkable that
many por.sons who can justly lay claim to tlie pu.sdessiiju of
Cdiisiileniblc culture use this hatbaroiiri c(*mbination. It would
be just aa correct to say, "Those Hock of geei,e," or "Tliose
drove of cattle," as to say, "Tiio.se sort, or kiml of people."

Those V/ho. This phrase, applied in a reatrictive .sense,
is the modern substlliite fur'the ancient idioip. they that, an
idiom ill accordance with ihe uiie moaning of that.

" ' The]/ that told me the story said' ; 'Blessed are theij that
mourn'; 'and Simon ixnd they that were with iiiai'; 'I love
thoii that love me, and the;/ that sock me early aliall find me';
' they that ate whole Iiave no ncc'l of a physician '; 'how sweet
is the rest of the/ii that labor !' 'I can not tell who to com-
pare them to so fitly as to th'vn that pick p>ocket.s in the
presence of tin- judge "; 'thn.y that enter into tlie state of mar-
riage ciist a di<> of tiie greatest contingency' (J. Taylor).
" ' Thaf man hath p.-rtect blessedneas
Who walketii not astray.'
if e.xpres-ed accoidiug to the old idiom would be, '<//cman
hath — that walketh.'

"'That' and 'those,' aa demonstrative adjectives, refer
backwar.i, and are not therefor.' well suited for the forward
reference implied in making use of 'that wiiich' ami 'those
who' as restrictive relatives. It is also very cunii);'Miy to
say 'that case to which you allude' for 'the case {that} yon
allude to.''

"Take now the following: 'Tho Duke of Wellington is
not one of those w/io interiere with matteis oirr which he lias
no control': 'the Duke is not one of them that interfere iu
matters that they have no control over (matters that they can
not control, beyond their control, out oj' their province).^ Jf
'them that' aouuds too antiiiuated, we may adopt as a coi:-

■

THE VERBALIST.

201

venient compromise, * tho Duke is not, one of iho>*e thai ; or,
'the Duke is not one to iiitrr/rre in matters out of his pro-
vince'; 'the Duke is nr.t one Ihat iiUerjHre.s with ichdt he has
no control oi'er. ' " — liain.

Threadbare Quotations. Among the tilings that are
in bad taste in spoakini^ aii'l writiiv^, tlie use of threadbare
quotations and expressions is in t!ie front rank. Some of
these iiKCn tt ras.^f's old-timers are the following : "Their name
is legion''; " ho.sts of friends "; " tiic upper ten "; "Variety
i.s the spice of life"; "Distance lends enchantment to the
view"; "A ciiiiig of ])eauty is a joy for ever"; "the light
fantastic toe"; "own t!ie soft inipeacMinent"; "fair wom^m
and ])rave men"; " revelry by night '"; " A rose by any other
name would smell as sweet."

To. it is a well-established rule of grammar t!iat to, the
si;n of the iidinitive mood, should not be used for 'h(^ innni-
tive itself ; thus, "He lias not done it, nor is he likely to."
It should he, " nor is he likely to do it."

AVe often find /o, \v\wi\ the sign of the infinitive, separated
by an advcib from the veib to which it belongs. rr;)fcs3or
A. P. I'eabody says that no standard English writer makes
this mi>t;'.ke, ;uid that, so far as iie knows, it occurs frec^ue itly
with hut one respectable Ani"ricaa writer.

Very Oi'ten ^) is used instead of at ; thus, "I have l)ecn to
the tiieatre, fa chur h, to my un ;lu's, lo a concert," and so on.
In all these cases, the preposition t«) Vise is cleaily at, and not
to, See, also, Amu.

To Lhe Foro. An old idi jmatic phrase, now freely usoj
again.

Ton^T'-IO. "Much (o.'ji'r and much jud.^mcnt seldom go
togel'ier." — I/avstrange. S^e L.VNc.UAiiK.

Toward. Those who profess to know about such thinrs
Bay that etymology furnishes no pretext for the adding oi" n to

202

THE VERBALTf^T.

ward ill such words as backward, forward, toward, iipicard
onward, downward, afterward, heavenward, earthward, and
the lilu'.

Trau.'jferred Epithet. This is tlie sliifting of a qunlify-
ing word from its proper aubjcob to some allied subject.
Examples :

" The little fields made green
By husbmdry of many thrift;/ yrara"
" He plods his weary ivai/." " llenoe to your idfe bed !" By
this fig-.no the diction is rendered more terse and vigorous ; it
is much used in verse. For the s.ike of conciseness, it is used
in prose in such phrases as the lunatic aHylum, the criminal
court, the condemned ceU, lihe Iilind aainum, the cholera hospi-
tal, the founilimj a-'iylum, and the like.

"Still in iiarmonious intercourse they lived
The rural <lay, and talked the flowing heart."

"There be some who, with everything to make them
happy, plod their discontented and melancholy way through
life, less grateful than the do^ tliat licks the hand that feeds
it."

Tranfspire. This is one of the most frequently misused
words in the language. Its prim iry mouiing is to evaporate
iiisfiisibly through the pores, l)at in tiiis sense it is not used ;
in this sense wo use its twin sis'^er /jcrspire. Tran-^pirc is now
properly used in the sense of to escape from sccrec}', to be-
come known, tc leak out ; and impiopi-rly used in the sense
of to occur, to hapien, to come to pass, and to elapse. The
word is correctly used thus : *' You will not let a word con-
oerning tlie matter tranxjyire "; "it tr(tn.-tj>ire-i [leaks out] that
S. & B. control the enterprise"; "Soon after th« funeial it
trant/iired [became known] that the dead woman was alive";
" It has Iranftpired [leaked out] tliat the movement originated
with John Blank "; " No report of the proceedings was al-

THE VERBALIST,

208

io\Ve(l to tratmjnre"', "It hag not yet transpired who the
canditlate is to l)e." The word is incorrectly used thus :
"The Mexican wav h-ansf tired in 1847 "; "The drill will tran-
spire under shelter "; "The accident travsjiirtd one day last
week"; "Years will transpire before it will be fii)i.>lied ' ;
"More than a century transpired before it was revisited by
civilized man."

Trilling Minutiae. The meaning of trifc.saml of minutim
is so nearly the same that no one probably ever uses the
phrase triJIiiKj minuluH except from thoughtlessness.

Trustworthy. See Rkmable.

Try. This word is often improperly uaed for malce. We
make experiments, not try them, wiiich is as incorrect as it
•yould be to .'uiy. Iri/ the attempt, or the trial.

Ugly. In England, this word is restricted to meaniijg ill-
favored ; with us it is often used — and not without au-
thority — in the sense of ill-tempered, vicious, unmanageable.

Unbeknown. This word is no longer used except by the
unschooled.

Underhanded. This word, though found in the dic-
tionaries, is a vulgarism, and as ^uch is to be avoitled. The
proper word is underliand. Au underhand, not an under-
/,aii(l<'d, prooee.ling.

Universal— All. "He is ^imrermlly esteemed by all
who know him." If he is niiircrsn/ii/ esteemed, he must be
esteemed l)y alt who know him; and, if he is esteemed by all
who know him, he must be iiiiircr.<al'i/ esteemed.

Upward of. This phrase is often used, if notimjn'opcrly,
at Ica-.t inelegantly, for wore than; thus, "I have been hero
for u}iu\tril of a year" ; " For vpicard of three tinaitcis of a
century she lias," etc., meaning, lor mora than three quarters
of a century.

Utter. This verb is often misused for say, er press. To

204

TflE VERBALIST.

utter meana to spealc, to projiouiice ; and its derivative utter-
ance means the act, manner, or pouoi' of utteiiiig, vocal
expression; as, "the nttoninco of articnlatc sounds." ^Ve
utter a cry; exprci-i a thought or sentiment ; Kjvak our mind ;
and, tliough pi ayers are nuld, they may bo ntlcrctl in a certain
toiiC or nKinner. "Mr. Blank i« right in all he nfJers": read,
sa{/s. " Tlie court uttered a sentiment that all will applaud":
read, exprei^sed a fcentimcnt.

Tlie primary meaning of tlic cdjoctive utieris outer, on the
outside ; but it is no lon^'ci' used in this sense. It is now
u^el iji the sense of coniplete, total, perfect, mere, entire;
but he who uses it indiscriminately as a synonym of these words
will frequently utter utter nonsense— i. e., he will utter that
w'iiich is witiiout the pal j of sense. For example, we can not
s.iy utter concord, but we can say utter discord — i. e., without
the pale of concord.

Valur^ble. The following sentence, which recently ap-
peared in one of the more fastidious of onr morning papers, is
offered as an example of o\-treme slip.shodness in the use of
language: "Sea (taptains are among the m)st raluah/e con-
tnbutois to the Park aviary." What the writer probably
meant to say is, "Sea captains are among those whoso contri-
butions to the Park aviary are the most \aluable."

Vast. Tlas word is ofti'n met with iii iorcible-feeldo dic-
tion, where it is used instead oi ijrccU or larye to qualiiy such
words as number, major«ty, multitude, and the like. Pdg
words and expicLives should be used oidy where they aro
really needed ; wliei'o they are not really needed, they go
wide of the object aimed at. The sportsman that huntd siuall
game with buck-shot comes home empty-handed.

Veracity. The loss M-ould be a small o;;e if wo were to
lose tins word au'' its cli riviilivcs. Truth and its derivatives
would supply all our n< el^. In the phra.-e so often heard.

THE VERBALIST.

205

•'Aman of truth ami veracity," veracily is entirely super-
fluous, it having precisely the same meaning as truth. The
phrase, "A big, large man," is equally good diction.

Verbiage. An unnecessary profusion of worda is called
verbkKje verbosity, wordiness.

"I lliouglit what I read of it verbiage," — Johnson.

Sometimes a better name than verbiage for wordiness
would be empthies.^. Witness: "Clearness may be developed
and cultivated in three ways, (a) By constantly practicing
in heart and life the thoughts and v/ays of honrsty and frank-
ness." The first sentence evidently means, " Clearness may
be atla'nn il in three ways"; Imt what the second sentence
Ujcans — if it means anytliing — is more tlian I can tell. Pro-
fessoi- L. T. To'vnsend, "Art of Speech," vol. i, p. 130, adds:
"This may bo logarded at the surest path to greater trans-
parency of style," The transparency of Dr. Townsend's style
is peculiar. Also, p. \\\, we find: "The laws and rules^ thus
far laid down' furnish ample foundation for' the general
statement that an easy and natural * expression, an exact
verbal incarnation of one's thiidcing," together with tlie power
of using appropriate figures, and of making nice discrimina-
tions between approximate synonyms," each being an impor-
tant factor in correct style, are attained in two ways.' (1)
Through moral* and mental discipline. (2) Through continu-
ous and intimate* ac([uaintance with such authors as best
exemplify thone attainments."'"

1. Would not lai':s cover the whole ground? 2. En paF(fiant
I would remark that Dr. Tovvnsend did not make th°se laws,
though he tio intimates. 3. I suggest the word ,/"•■••'■[/»/ instead
of these four. 4. What is natural is easy ; eush, therefore, is
superfluous. 5. If this means anything, it does not mean
more than thft adjective ckar would express, if properly used
in the sentence. tJ. Appro.iimate synonyms ! I ^Vho ever

206

TUM VERBALIST.

heard of any atitngouistic or even of dissimilar synonyms ?
7. Tlie transpiii ency of this sentence is not unlike the trans-
parency ()f coi iu:,'a(ed glass. 8. What has morality to do
with correctness ? 9. An intimate acf|uaintance would sutlicb
for most people. 10. Those attainments ! Wiiat are they ?
Dr. Townscnd's corrugated style makes it hard to tell.

This paragraph is so badly conceived throughout that it is
well-nigh impossible to make head, middle, or tail of it; still,
if I am at all successful in guessing wiiat Professor Townscnd
wanted to say in it, then — when sho*'n of its redundancy and
high-flown emptiness — it will read somewhat like this: "The
la\v> thus far presented justify the general statement that a
clear and natural mode of expression — together with that art
of using appropriate ligures and that ability' properly to dis-
criminate between synonyms which are necrjssary to correct-
ness — is attained in two ways. (1) By mental discipline.
(2) By the study of our best authors.'

The following sentence is from a leading magazine: "If
Ave begin a system of interference, rejjniating men's galii.^,
bolstering here, in order to strengthen this inlei'eftt, [andj re-
pressing elsewhere [there], in order to equali;:e wealth, we shall
do an [a] immense deal of mischief, and without bringing
about a more agreeable condition of things than noic [we] shall
simply discourage enterprise, repress industry, and cheek
material growth in all directions. ^^ Read without the eighteen
words in italics and with the four inclosed.

''Nothing disgusts sooner than the empty pomp of lan-
guage."

Vice. See CniJiK. "^

Vicinity. This word ia sometimes incorrectly used with-
out the possessive pronoun ; thus, "Washington and vicinity,"
instead of " Washington and its vicinity. The primary mean-
ing of vicinity is nearnes?, proximity. In many of the cases

THE VERBALIST.

207

in which vicinity is used, neirjhhorhood would be the better
\Tord, though vicinity is perhaps preferable where it is a ques-
tion of mere locality.

Vocation — Avocation. These words are frequently
confounded. A man's vocalion is his proffsiion, liis calling,
his business; and his avocations are the things that occupy
him incidentally. 'Mademoiselle Eernliardt's vocation is act-
ing ; her avocat ions arc painting and sculpture. "The tracing
of resemblances amon'^ the objects and events of tlie world is
a constant avocation of the human mind."

Vll\'Tar. By the many, this word is probably more fre-
quently used improperly than properly. As a no ni, it means
the common people, the lower orders, the multitude, the
many; as an adjective, it means coarse, low, unreHnod. as "the
V!</(/(7r people." The sense in which it is misused is that of
immodest, indecent. The wearing, for example, of a gown
too short at the top may be indecent, but is not vulgar.

Was. "He said he had come to tlie conclusion tliat there
«»rts no God." " The greatest of Byron's works teas his whole
work taken together." — Mattliew Arnold. "\^']iat is true at
all times should bo expressed by using the verb in the present
tense. Tiie sentences above should read is, not icaa.

■VVharf. Hoc Dock.

"What, "lie woulil nut bnlieve Imt what I did it" : read,
hut t/i at, "I do not duxxht but what 1 shall go to Boston to-
morrow" : read, doubt that. ^Ve say properly, "I have
nothing hut irliat you see" ; "You liave brought everything
hut ii-lidi I wantetl."

WiieilCG. As this adverb moans --una io X—from what
place, source, or cause, it is, as Dr. Johnson stykcl it, "a
vicious mode of speech" to say from whence, Milton to the
contrary notwitlistanding. Nor is there any more propriety
tullif I'liv^se fr>m thnice, as thence means— -unaided — Irnu)

•208

THE VEknAl.lsT.

tliat place. "Whence do you como?" ju^t *^From irh' :!'■'• fh<
yon oome?" T^ikewise, "He went hcnce,^' not ^'/rom/icin-e."

Whether. This conjunction is often iinpropeily rcpwitud
in a sentence; tluis, "I have not (Icciilod whether I bhall go
to Boston or vhclher 1 shall yo to Phila>l(>loliia."

Which, 'J'his pronoun as an in/erra;/ itivii applies to jxr-
sons as well as to thiii'js ; as a relative, it is now niaJo to r-'ti t
to things onhj.

" Which is eniphiyed in coordinate sentences, wliere it, ox
they, and a conjunction might anywor the puipo.so; tliuH, "At
school I studied geometry, wlildi (and it) I found useful after-
ward.' Here tlie new clause is something independent added
to the previous clause, and not limiting that clause in any
way. So in the adjectival olauao ; as, 'He struck the poor
dog, ivhich (anil it, or altlionyh il) iiad never done him luirni.'
Such instances represent the nifi.st accurate miviiiing of which.
Who and wJdch nnght be tci nied the ootuiDiNATiiVO kki.ati vK.s.

•' Which is likewise u.<cd iu r,Klriclive clauses that lisiiit nv
explain the anltcedeut ; as, 'Tiic hoi'.so vhich he built citi!!
remains.* Here tiic clause iiiiioduced by ich'cch siiecifics, or
points out, the licune that ia t!io 8ubje';t of the Ktatenii'iit,
namely, by the circum.straice tliat a certain icr.-on buiU ir.
As reiharl.rd with regard to ivho, our luodt idiomatic writers
prefer that in this particuhiv apilicatiou, and would say,
•Tiic ho'upp. (h-ti he built still remains.' "

*' \yhich honietimes has a special reference attaching; to it,
as the neuter relative: * Cicsar crossed the Rubicon, mulch
was in cifcct a declaration of war.' Tlie antecedent in this
instnnce i.s not llnhicon, but the entire clause.

•'There ia a peculiar uvago where ich:-ch may srnn to be
still regularly upod in reference to persone, as m '.Tiiln is a
Boldier, v^/nch I should like to be,' that ia, 'And I siiOid(i like
to be a ifoltlier.^ " See Tii/.T.

TiiK v/:i:::alist.

200

Who. There are fuw persons, even ;uiiopv; the most, wil-
tivHtcd, who do not make iVequent mistaken in the use of tliis
pronoun. Tlicy say, *' Who did you seu?" " !l7/o did you
jneet?" " llVto did hu many?" II'Ao did you hear?" "Who
did he know?" " Whu are you writing to?" " Who are you
looking at?" In all tliese sentences the intoiTogative pronoun
is In the objective case, and sliould be used in the objective
form, which ia u-hom, and not icho. To sliow that tlieso
sentences are not correct, and are not defensible by supposing
any ellipsis whatsoever, Ave have only to put tiie (|ue3tioiis in
another form. Take the first one, and, instead of "Who did
you see?" say, "Who saw you?" which, if correct, justifies us
in saying, "Who knew he," which is tlie equivalent of "Who
did he know?" But "Wiio s-aw you?" in tin's instance, is
clearly not correct, since it says directly the opposite of what
is intended.

Who was little used as a relative till about the sixteenth
century. Bain says: "In modemi use, more eypecially in
books, irho is frequently employed to introduce a clause in-
tended to restrict, define, limit, or exjdain a noun (or its
equivalent): as, 'Tiiat is the man who spoke to us yester-
day.'"

"Here tiie clause introduced by ivho is nece9>;ary to define
or explain the antcuedc:it the. man; without it, we do not
know who the man is. Such relative claupes are typical «(7/ec-
<jvc clauses — i.e., they have the same etieot as adjectives in
Un)iting nouns. This may be called the p.estrictivk use of
the relative.

"Now it will be found that the practice of our most
idiomatic writerd and speakers is to prefer tho.t to wJto in this
application.

" Who is properly used in such coordinate sentences as, *I
met tho watclimau, loho told n\Q tli«re had been a tire.' Hero

210

THE VEniiAIJ^T,

the two clanaes are diatinct and independent ; in such a case,
and he niiglit \w substituted for who. »

" Another form of the s:nno use is when the second clause
is of tin; iciiid termed advcrhial, where we may le-.olve n'ho
into a jieiHon il or dem )ii.-jtr.iliv(! j)roiiouii ."lud conjiiiiotion.
'Why slumhl we consult Charles, who (/or he, sefiinj that he)
knows notiiing of the matter ?'

"117(0 m;iy be regiiruod as a modern objective form, side
by side with nhom. For many goo I writers and s|ieakcrs say
* vho are you talking of?' ' who does the garden belong to?'
*who is this for ?' ' who from ?' " etc.

If this b'? true — if loho may be regarded as a modern ob-
jective form, side by side witli ivhoui — tlien, of cour.e, such
expressions as " l)7(o did you see?" " Who did you meet?"
•< llViO did he marry ?" " II7/o were you with ?" '* 117/0 will
you give it to?" and the like, are correct. That they are
used colloquially by well-nigh everybody, no one will dispute;
but that they are correct, few grammarians will concede. See
Tjiat.

Whole. This word is sometimes most improperly usetl
for all; thus, "The «?/io/c Germans seem to be saturated with
the belief that they are really the greatest people on eartli,
and that they would be universally recogni/cd as being the
greatest, if they were not so exoeediu'/ modest." "The
whole Russians are insMired with the belief that their mission
is to conquer the world." — Alison.

Wholesome. See Health v.

Whose. Mr. Geoij^o Washington Moon discountenances
the use of tvhose as the possessive ot vhit/i. He says, "The
best writers, when speaking of inanimate objects, use o/ivhich
instead of irho-n'.." The correctness of this statement is doubt-
ful. 'J'lie triitii is, I think, that good writers use that form
for the pof^.scssive case of whkh tluit in their judgment is, iu

THE VKni'.AfAST.

911

(•a(;h particular case, the more <iipliontous, givin^^ the prefer-
cnce, peiliaps, to of w/ii<h. On this sulijcct I)r. Caiiii)l)cll
says: "The po.ss(!<3ive of who is prnpcrly ivliose.. 'i"ho [iio
noun whu'h, orij,'inaIly in<h;oliu<il)le, liad no possessive. This
was supplied, in the conunon periphrastic manner, by tlie
liolpof the preposition and the article, iiut, as tliis could not
lail to enfeeble the expression, when so iiiucli time was given
to mere conjunctives, all our best authors, both iu prose and
verse, have now come regularly to adopt, in such cases, the
possessive of who, and thus have substituted one syllable in
the room of three, as in the exam ilu following : ' I'iiilosophy,
vihosi' end is to instruct us in the knowledge of nature,' foi
' Pliilosophy, the. en<l o/whlchh to instruct us.' Some gram-
marians remonstrate ; but it oug'at to be remembered that
use, well established, must give law to granuuar, and not
grammar to use."'

Professor Bain says: " Whose, although the pos.^ossivo of
who, and practically of which, ii yet fre(|ue!itly enipluyel for
the purpose of restriction : ' Wo are tlio more likely to guard
watchfully againft those faults lohose deformity wa have seen
fully displayed in others.' This is better tlian 'the (b.'formity .
of which we have seen.' ' Propositions of whose truth we
hav£ no certain knowledge.' — Locke." Dr. Fitzodward TTall
says that the use of lohose for of which, wliere the antecedent
is not only irrational but inanimate, has had the support of
high autho; ity for several hund'-ed years.

Widow Woman. Since widows are always women, why
say a widow woman ? It would bo perfectly correct to say a
widowed woman.

Widowhood. There is good authority for using tiu3
word in speaking of men a? well as of women.

Without. This word is often improperly used instc'id of
unless; as, "You will never live to my age without you keep

212

THE VERBALIST.

yourself in breath and exercise"; "I shall not go without my
father conscuts": pr()i)in'ly, unless my father consents, or,
wUhoiit my father's cuUKOiit.

Worst. We should say at the worst, not at worst.

Wove. The past participle of the verb to weave is woven.
" Where was this cluth looveii ?" not wove.

You are mistaken. See Mtstakkn.

You was. Good usage does, and it is to be iiopcd always
will, consider you was a gross vulgarism, certain grammarians
to the contrary uotwitiistanding. You is the form of the
pronoun in the second person plural, and nnist, if we wouM
speak corrt'ctly, bo used with the coiTcspunding form of the
verb. The argument that we use ]/on in the singular number
i.i so nonsensical that it does not merit a moment's considera-
tion. It is a custom wo have — and have in common witii
other peoples — to speak to one another in the second peison
plural, and tliat is all there is of it. The Germans speak to
(uic anotlicr in the third p(;rson plural. The exact equivalent
in German of our How are you? is, How are they? Those who
would say you was should be conaistent, and in like manner
aay i/oii has and you does.

Yours, &C. The ignorant and obtuse not unfrciiucntly
profess tli':'mselves at the bottom of tlieir letters "Yours, itc."
And so forth! fortli what? Few vulgarisms are equally
offensive, and none could be more .so. In printin,' corre-
spondence, the newspapers often content themselves vxitli this
sho- t-hand way of intimating that the writer's naine was
preceded 1)y son-.e one of the familiar forms of ending Iett<'r8;
tins an occasional dunderhead seems to think ib suliiciont
cmthority for writing hinis(df. Yours, die.

T U U M N D.

PRIM ER

ENGLISH LJTEIUTURE

AND ITS

DEI'AIITMENTS.

JOHN MILLAR MA.,

Princ'iml of St. Thuni'is CoUejiate Imtitut*.

tESIflNKD FOR H'll'DKNTS PRKrARIXO FOP, OFriCIAfc
lA AM IN ATI ON*

W. J. CACE & CO.,

INTRODrjCTIOK

I. LITERATURE AND ITS DEPARTMENTS.

1. Literature in its widest sense embraces all kinds of
literary productions which have been preserved in writ-
ing ; but is generally restricted to those works that come
within the sphere of the literary aH or rules of rhetoric.

2. Classification, — Literature, in regard to its foririf
IB divided into (1) Prose and (2) Poetry. In regard to
mailer, it has three divisions : (1,) Composition, designed
to inform the understanding by description, narration, or
exposition ; (2) Oratory ; (.3) Poetry.

3. De'jcription, or tiescriptive composition, is of two
kinds ; (1) Objective, wliore ihe observer pictures wliat he
describes as it is percc^ived by his senses or realized by
his fancy ; (2) Subjective, where the observer, referring
to the feelings or thoughts of his own mind, ^ .es his im-
pressions as they liave been excited by the outward scene.
v'cott is a good example of an objective, and Byron of a
mibjertire writer.

4. Narration is tliat kind of composition which gives
an account of the incidents of a series of transactions or
'•v(>ntg. It may also be subjective or objective.

INTkODUCTiON.

6. Exposition includes those literary productions
whore facts or principles are discussed r,nd oonclusiona
reached by a process of reasoning. It embraces vari-
ous treatises, from tlie brief editorial, or essay, to the
full discussion in extensive works. To this class bclongB
the phil<>so](hic jinem.

G. Oratory is that kind of composition in which argu-
mejits or reasons are oti'ored to ijilluence the mind. It
admits of the followincr divisions : (1) Judicial, (2) Politi-
cal, (3) Religious, and (4) ]\Ioral suasion.

7. Pro :o compositions are those in which the thouiirhts
are arrangi.'d in non-motrica! sentences, or in the natural
order isi common and ordinary language. The principal
kinds kA prose composition are narrative, letters, memoirs,
history, biography, essays, phflosophy, sermons, novels,
■peeches, &c.

8. Sentences are divided grammatically into simple^
complex, ctimpormd, and also into declarative, inter roi^ai'u-c,
imperative, and erchimative. Rhetorically, they are di-
vided into looic sentences and periods.

9. A loose sentence consists of parts which may be
separated withmit destroying the sense. It is generally
adoi^ted by Addison.

10. A period is a sentence in which the complete
sense is susixMided until tlie close. Tlie first sonteimc of
Fara'lisr Lost, ami al^o the tirst sentence of the Timk,
Book III, furnisli examples.

11. Poetry is that sj^ecies of composition in which the
words are metrically arranged. It also ditlera from prose
\\\ (1) having a greater nuuiber r>[ Jhpirts of speech, (2) em-
ploying numerous a?r/)aic, or non-coll<Kpiial tei'ms, (3) pre-
ferring o])itheta to extended exprcssicma, (4) using short
and euphonious words instead of what are long or Jiarsh,
and (6) permitting deviation* from the rules of grannuar.

INTKODUCTKtN.

12. Metre is defined as " the recnrrenco within cer-
tain intervals of syllables similarly airooted." This may
arise from (1) alliteratitm, (2) (luantity, (3) rhyme, (4)
accent, or (o) the number of syllables.

13. Alliteration, which svaa the cliaracteristio of Old
Enc^lish poetry, consisted iu the repetition of the same
letters.

14. Quantity has reference to the length of vowels or
syllables. In the classical languau'es, (pi;;nt!ty \v.n inca-
Bured by the length of syllables; in English, by the length
of the vowels.

15. Rhyme is & similarity of sound at the end of
words ; its essentials being (I) vowels alike in sound, (2)
consonants before the vowels unlike, and (3) consonants
after the vowels alike in sound. Poetry without rhyme
is termed blank vcrne. IJIank verse usually consists of
five, or five and a half, feet.

IG. Accont, which forn)s the distinguishing feature of
English verse, is the stress on a syllable in a word

17. Rhythm.— .When the words if coniposition are so
arranged that the succes.^ion of accented syllables pro-
duces harmony we have rinjihm. Vv'hen the accents occur
regularly we liave itj.s«, or in.pf.re.

18. Couplets, triplets, &c. , are used to designate two,
three, etc., ver.sew taken together.

10. Stanza is a term aj^plied ton p:Mt of aimem con-
Bisting of a number of verses regularly adjusted to one
jinother.

20. Foot. — A poitioo of a verse cf poetry eor'sisting of
two or nuu'e sylia'ol'.-H t'<'!U'.i:n('il according to accent is
called i\.f(>')l. Two ^•^'ll,li)Il's thus combined is called ndh^-
tijlhibir foot, which Jiiay be (1) .•iii inrnlni.^, when tlie accent
i.H on the pccond fyllaljie, or (2) a frorlir«', when tin; acceii!
*a uii the lii'st syllubitj, or (o; i4 f;>oiidtn, whv-'ii both am

lii

fOL

INTRODUCTION.

vii

accented, or both unaccented. Tliree syllables combined
form a trl-ayllabic foot, which may be a dactyl, an amphi-
brach, or an anapaest.

21. Moaomotor, dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, penta-
meter, arui lu'..n(i)u't.cr, are terms that indicate tlie number
of feet or medr.nres in the verso. Thus tivo iambic feet
are called ianihic pentameter. This is the metro of the
J)i":)crted Villmje, TJ<-e Tusk, and alsi) of the principal
epic, dramatic, philoav^phic, and doscriptive poems. From
its use in epic poetry, whore heroic deeds are dt-scribod, it
is called heroic measure. An iambic hexameter verse is
called an Alexandrine.

22. The Elgiao stanza consists of four pentameter
lines rhymina: alternately.

23. The Sponserian stanza consists of eight heroic
lines followed by an Alexandrine.

24. Common Metre consists of four verses, the first
and third being iambic tetrameters, and the second and
fourth, which rhyme, iambic trimeters.

2.5. Short Metre has three feet in the first, second, and
fourth lines, and four in the third.

26. Long Metro consists of four iambic tetrameter
lines.

27. Ottava Rima is a name apjdiod to an Italian
stanza consistiiii^ of eii^ht lines, of which the first six
rhyme alternately, and the hiat two form a couplet.

28. The Rhyme Royal consists of seven heroic lines,
the first five recurring at intervals and the last two
rhymiu','.

29. The Ballad Stanza consists of four lines, the first
and third l>ein<^ iambic tetrameters, and the second and
fourth iambie trimeters.

30. Pauses. — Besides the \isual pauses indicated by th«
punctuation and called sentential pauses, there are in poetic

•j-m

INTRODUCTION.

diction the Final panse at the end of each line and the
Cifsural pause.

31. The Ccosural Pause is a suspension of the voice
somewhere in the line itself. It is not found in short
linys, and in long verses is movable. It sjenonilly occurs
uv'ar the middle, l)ut may come after the 4th, 5th, 0th, or
7ih syllahlo. It in often found in the luidille of a foot, but
never in tlie middle of a word. Sometimes a secondary
pause called demixotsura' is found before and also after the
ciBsJiral.

32. Scansion is a term applied to the division of a
verse into the feet of v/hich it consists.

33. Classification of Poetry. — In respect to form and
mode of treatment, poetry may bo divided into (1) Epic, (2)
Dramatic, and (3) Lyric.

34. Epio poetry is that variety in which some groat
event is described, or where the exploits of heroes are
treated of. The leading forms of Epic poetry are these : —

(1) The Great Epic, as tlie Iliad, the /Eiieid, Paradise Lost;

(2) The Romance, as the Faerie Queene, The Lady of the
Lake; (3) The Ballad, as Chevij C]iase, JMacaulay's LayoJ
IToratius; (4) The Historical Poem, as Dryden's Aiutus
MirnbUis ; (5) The Tale, as Byron's Corsa/r, Enoch Ardan;
(G) The IMixed Epic, as B-yron's ChUde Harold; (7) The
Pastoral, Idyll, Arc., as iae Cntfer'a Sat}ird(iy Xidtt, tlie
Exi'.nrsion ; (8) Prose Fiction, incbidiiig sentimental, comi-
cal, pastoral, historical, philosophical, or religious novelsi,

35. Dramatic Poetry deals also with some important
events, but dillers from Epic poetry whore the author him-
self narrates the events forming its subject, in having the
various charar ters represent, in action or conversation,
the story to be described. Dramatic poetry is of two kinds,
[^i) Tragedy, where the human passions and woes or mis-
fortune! of life » ' 'n such a manner as to ex<

INTRODLXTION.

eitepityjaaShalcespearo's Mnrhdh or Hamlet ; (2) Comedy,
where the lighter faults, passions, action*, and folliea are
repreaeiitcMi, as the Merchant of Venice.

30. Lyric Pootry is so called because oric^inally writ
ten to be auiig tu the Lyre. Its principal kui'Js are : (1)
The Ode, as riray's Uard ; (2) The Hymn, as those of
Cowjier ; (3) The Si)ng, as those of Burns or Moore ; (4)
The Elegy, as Gray's ; (5) Tlie Sonnet, as tliose of Shake-
speare or Words vortbi ; (G) The ainiple Lyric, as Burns'
Mfriintnin Daiay.

37. Further Clas?siflcation as to object will embrace ;
(1) Descriptive poetry, as Thomson's Seasons; (2) Didac-
tic, as Wordsworth's Excursion; (3) Pastoral, as Kam-
say's Gentle Slifpherd ; Satirical, as I>utlor'B Ilydibrat; (5)
Humorous, as Cowi^er's John Gilpin.

n. FIGURES OF SPEECH.

38. A Figure is a deviation fnjm the ordinary form or
consti-7iction or application of word.s in a sentence for the
pnr])o30 of greater precision, variety, or elegance of ex-
pression. There are three kinds, viz., of Etymology, of
Syntax, and of Ilhctoric.

3!). A Figure of Etymology is a departure from the
us\ial forni of words. The principal figures of etymology
are: AphtTresis, 7Vos//i^,s/,s, Syncoj^e, Apocojte, taraguye,
l>i<vrevs, SinKPresis, Tmests.

40. Aplirerosis. — The elision of a syllable from the
beginning of a word, as 'mzatli. for l}eneatli.

41. Prosthesis. — The prefixing of a syllable to a word,
as agoing for going. If tlie letters tu'e placed in the middle,
Epentheais, && farther ior farcr.

42. Syncope.~Tho elision of a letter or syllable from
the body of a word, a:, m-ed'cine for medicine.

INTRODUCIION-.

43. Apocope. — The elision of n letter or syllable fro i
the end of a word, as tito' for though.

44. Paragoge. — Tho annexing of a syllable to the end
of a word as deaiij for dear.

45. Diaeresis. — 'I'he divison of two concurrent vowels
into dillei'ent syllables, as (•(>-< > pern h:.

46. Synooresis. — The joinin;^ of two syllables into one,
in either orthography or pronunciation, as dost for daeat,
loved for lor-ed.

47. Tmesis. — Separating the parts of a compound
word, as " n7w<time soever." When letters in tho same
word are interchanged, as6r?/7ii for hiu-nt, nostrils iov nose-
thirles, tho tigure is called Metathesis,

48. A Figure of Syntax is a deviation fro.n tho usual
coiifctrucHon of a sentence for greater beauty or force.
Tho principal figures of syntax are : Ellipsis, Pleonasm,
Syllepsis, Enalla'je, Ilyperbaton, Periphrasis, Tautology.

49. Ellipsis. — An cmiission of words with a rhetorical
purpose, as " Impo.ssible I" Atynddon is the omission of
connectives.

50. Pleonasm. — The employment of redundant words,
as " Tliy rod and thy stafl', they comfort nie. "

51. Syllopis. — An inferior species of pcrsonijication, as
" The moon gives hrr li<;ht by night."

52. Enallngo. - The subalitution of one part of speech
for another, a.s —

" Whether charmer aivjier it or saint it

If folly grow romantic I must paint it." — Pope.

53. Hyperbaton. — The transposition of words in a
Bentence, as " A man loe was to all the countrj' dear."

54. Periphrasis or Circumlocution. — The euiploymont
of more words than are necessary to convey the sense, as
She use of a deOiiition or descriptive phrase instead c^f a

tht

INTKUDUClKm.

i\»

!ecb

tidun, as " He was ehanne<l with the uUo of taking up
arms tu tfui ao-vice of hit ciniyitni."

65. Tautology. — The repotition of tlie Biime aenr^e u*
dili«rent words, us —

•' The cla'\>'n is overroast — the mornino; lowers,

And heavily in -jluuds hriiigs on the day. " — Addi^-on.

56. A Pigiiro of Rhetoric is a form of qioech art-
fully varied from the direct and literal mode of oxrires-
sion for the purpose of ureator c!rect. llhetorical figures
may be divided into three classes.

67. I. Fig^ires of Relativity. —.^n<i"//ims, Shnile.
Metaphor, Allegory, Personijicaiion, Apostrophe, Vision,
Allusion, Irony, Sarcasm, Siinecdoche, Mttonymy, Etiphtm,-
ism, Litotes, Lpith.et, Catadiresis.

58. n. Fig^ires of Gradation. — Climax, nypcrhole.

59. IIL JTigures of Emphasis. — Jjj)izenxis,A)iaphora,
EpipJinro, Anadiplof^ii*, Epamdfpsis, Alliteration, Anacolu-
Vion, Apoitiopesis, I'aralsijjsis, Ervtesis, EpanorlhosiSy !Syl-
lepsis, Eiphoupsis.

GO. Antitho.si?. — TIip st.itemontnfacnntrastof thoughts
and words, fis '* The wicked llee when no man pursueth,
but the rip:hteou3 are bohi as a lion."

Under tliia figure may bo mentioned Cb'iimoroti, or a
Contr:idicti(m of terms, as " a pious fraud '" ; Anfiniftaholey
where the words are reversed in each memlicr of the anti-
thesis, as '* A wit with dunocs, and a dunce with wits."

()1. Gimilo or Comparison. —A formal oxpressitm c
resemblance, as : "Mo Kiiall bo like a tree pJaiited by tJ
rivers of water."

(52. Metaphor. — An implied comparison or a mmih
mthout the sign, as " Pitt was ihp. pillar of the State."

63. Allegory.— A continuation of ■mviaphnrs,t)v a story
having u li^,'urative meaniii;,' and designed to c(»iivey in-

xii

IN! M)l»L"Ci IC.V,

Btruction of a moral character, as liunyan'a I'ilyriui's Fro-
gresH

04. Porsoniflcation. — A figure in whicli some attri-
bute of litH is ascnboci to iiiiuiiiiiite objects, aa " The
niouiitains .sijc/ Un]e.>hvi\ the hills rejoice uikI cinjt hands."

(Jo. Apostropho. — A turninu oil" from tlie subject to
acMress soiuutliiug absent, as " Death is swallowed up iu
victurv, () Death, wliere is thy sting T'

60. Vi.sion. — The narration of past or absent scenes aa
thoUL,'h actually preaoiit, as "I see before mo the gladia-
tor lie," etc.

<)7. Allusion. — That flfjuro by which some word or
phrase in a seiitenc« calls to mind somethin'^' whicli is not
nientiouu 1, as "It may bo said of him that he came, lie
.saw, hi' conquered."

08. Irony. — A figure by which we me.an to convey a
meaning the contrary of what we say, as where Elijah arl-
dresaes the W(jrshipper8 of liual, " Cry aloud, for he la a
god."

<Ii). Saxcasm. — A mode of expressing vituperation
under a somewliat veiled form, as tlie Letters uf Junius.

70. Synecdoche. — A figure where —

1. A part is put for the whole, as '• A fleet of twenty
sail."

2. The species for a geii.'.s, as "our daily bread."

3. The concrete for the abstract, as "The patriot
comes forth in hia politics. "

4. The wliole for a part, as ** Belinda smiled and all
</te T(,-or^/ was gay. "

5. The genus for the species, as '* The creature wa»
sad."

8. The abstract for the concrete, as —

** Belgium's capital had gatliered then
llcv beauty -And her clnvaliy.'

76.

from

thini

vr.ia 1

70.

IHIROUUCTION.

XIU

id."
patriot

and (iU-

ure wa*

Antonomana is a form of synecdoche wliuro a proper
noun is used to dosiLMiate a cl.iss, an —

" Soino vill;v.,'e Jlamj^lcn., that with danntlftsa breast,
Tiie little tyrant uf his fields with.stodd."

71. Metonymy. ~A lj;4ure whero ono thinji ih described
by another thing in suhfjtituting —

1. The cause for the etiect, as

" A time tliere was, ere Eiii^land's griefn hp>an,
When every roofZ o/ l/ctnnuZ maintained i!.; man."

2. The eil'ect fur tho cause, aa '* Uray /uzua should be
respected."

3. Tho si,!,'n for tho thing Bi;;nified, as " IIo carried
away the ■p<ilm.'*

4. The container for the thing contained, as " 'Ine
toper loves hla botllc."

6. Tho instrument for tho agent, as "The pen is
mightier than the sword."

6, An author for his works, as **We admire Addi-
son."

72. Euphemism. — A figure by means of which a hars!\
expression is set aside and a softer one substituted m its
place, as " The merchant prince has sfopped paymi'nt.'"

73. Litoto^^.. — A fiv'uro in which by denying the con-
trary, more is implied than is expressed, as

" Immortal names,
Th.'it were tLutboiin, iodic."

74 Tr&n'^fevrcd Epithet. — An e]>ithet joined to an-
dthei tc (iXjilain its character, as "Tho sunmj South "

75. Catachresis. — A ilLrure where a word is wrested
from its original application and made to express some-
thing at variance with its true meaning, as ** Her voice
was but the «/mciow) of a «oun(Z. "

70. Climax. — An ascending series of thoucihts or state-
meats increasing in strength, as " What a piece of wor'<

tlv

INIRUUUCIION.

is inan ! how noble in reason ! how infinite in faculties i
in f(irn\ and moving, how express and adinirul^Io ! in ac*
ti<m, !in\v like an ant^el ! in aj'imdierision, liow likoaGod ! —
Jlduilrt. Wlioro till) sorios is doHcondiii'^ we have an Anti-
ditnay, an " U once a man indulges himself in niurdor,
v-^vy sDdii ho conies to think Uttle of robbing ; and from
robl.ii!!,' ho conies next to drinking and Sabbath-breaking,
and fium that to incivility and prociustiiiiitioii." — Do
Qiiiiicy.

77. Hyperbole. — A figure by which more is expressed
than tlie truth and wliero the Gxaj-jf^eration is not expected
to bo taken literally, as '* They were swifter than eagles,
thf.y were stronger than lions." (lief erring to David's
sratement concerning S.iul and Jonathan.)

73. Epizeuxis. — Tlio iniuiediato repetition cf voxne
word or words for the sake of emphasis, ns —

'^ Restore h\)n, msfore him if you can from the dead."

79. Anaphora. — The rcpetititxi of a word or phrase at
rhe beginning of each of several Bontences or parts of a
sentence, as —

** No more the fr.r'.'ner'8 news, the barber's tale,
No more the wo(,(linan'H ballad shall prevail,
No more, the smith his dusky brow shall clear."

80. Epiphora. — Where tlie repetition is at the end, and
Anadiplosis. — Where the repetition is in the
middle :

** Has he a gnst for hlondl Bloof! shall fill his cup."

81. Epanalepsis. — Where there is a repetition at thy
end of the sentence of the word or words at tlie beginning.

82. Alliteration. — Tiie rejietition of the same letter
or letters, as " Apt alliteration's artful aid."

83. Anacoluthon. — A ligure by which a proposition is
(eft uniinisbed and something else iiicroduced to fi^utih
the sentence, as—

INTRODIJCIIOM

'*Tf ihou bo*Rt Jic -but oh, how fal'en, how changed
'roin him \vh<i," otc.

;■ . Aposioposis. — A fiiiildfcn pauec iu a sentence by
'vhich thu fonclusiou is left uiif-aished, as —

" For thoro I picked up on the heather,
And tliero I put within my breast,
A moulted featlior, aii eagle's feather —
Well — I forget tlie rest." — Browning.

85. Paraleipsis or omission. — A figure by which a
•peaker pretends to |)aa9 by what at the same time he real-
ly nieiitioHB, aa *' 1 do not speak of my adversaiy's scan-
dalous venality and rapacity ; I take no notice of his bru-
tal conduct."

86. Eroto.sis.— An animated or passionate interroga-
tion, as —

" Hath the Lord said it ? and will He not do it ?
Hath Ho sjiokcn it ? and shall He not make it good?"

87. Epanorthosis. — A figure by which an expres-
sion is recalled and a etronsror one substituted in its
place, as " Why should T npoak of liia neglect — neglect did
I say ? call itrdfhcr contempt."

88. Syllopsi.s, — The use of an expression wlxich is
taken in a literal and metaphorical sense, as —

" Lie heavy on him, Earth, for he
Laid manj' a heavy load on thee."

89. Ecphonosis. — An animated exclamation, as—

Othello. — O, my soul's joy,

If after every tempest come such calms,
M:iy the winds blow till they have wakened death."

90. Other figures are often found, as zeugma, whereby
a verb, etc. , applicable to only one clause does duty foi
two, as — ^ *

"They wear a garment like the Scythians, but a laii'
guagA peculiar to themselves." — Sir J. Mandovilld.

svi

INTRODUCTION.

Anaecmosisy where the speaker appeals to the judg<
mentof his audience on the point in debate, as if they had
foolings common with his own. The Eniqma or riddle.
The Epigram, where the mind is roused by a conflict or
ccntradiction between the form of the language and the
meaning to be conveyed, as " The child is father of the
man. " Personal Metaphor^ where acts are attributed to
inanimate objects, The Paronomasia or pun. The Para-
ble, Proverb, Repartee, eta

III LIST OF PRINCIPAL WRITERS.

Dryden, John (1630—1700). Annus Mirabilis, Absa-
lom and Ahitophel, Mac Flecknce, TJie Hind and Panther,
Translation of Virgil, Ode for St. Cecilia's Day, Alexan-
der's Feast.

Locke, John (1632— 1704). Estay on Human Under-
standing, Letters concerning Toleration, Treatise on Oivil
Government, Tlurughts conceminr Education.

Newton, Sir J. (1642 — 1727). Princijna, Optics.

Wycherly, William (1640-1716). Several immoral
Oomedies.

De Poe, Daniel (1661—1731). Besides editing The Re-
new, wrote Robinson Crusoe, Moll Flanders, History of the
Great Plague, Captain Singleton, Mrs. VeaVa Apparition.

Bentley, Richard (1002—1742). Editions of Horace,
Terence, Phoedrns, and other classical works.

Piidr, Mathow, (1GG5— 1721). The Toum and Country
Mouse, Solomon.

Swift, Jonathan (1666—1745). Tale of a Tub, Drapier's
Letters, Chdliver's Travels, and poems including Morning
The City Shower, Rhapsody on Poetry, Verses on My Own
Death.

Congreve, William (1600—1728). Several comedies of

INTRODUCTION

XVll

« very immoral tendency, and the tragedy The Momiivg
Bride.

CibDer, Colley (1G71— 1757). The Comedy Careless
Uuiihand.

Steele, Richard (1G71— 1729). Besides writing for the
Tatter, iipectatvr, Guardian, Urujtishinan, etc., he wrote
comedies — T/ie Funeral, Tlve Tender Husband, Tli^ Lying
Lover, The Conscioics Lovers.

Addison, Joseph (1G72— 1719). Contributions to tlie
Tatler, Spectator, Guardian, Whig, Examiner, etc. Poems
— Letter from Italy, Campaign, Hymns, lioiamond, Tlu
Drummer, Cato.

Vanbrugh, John (1072—1726). The Provoked Wife.

Bowe, Nicholas (1G73— 1718). The Fair Penitent and
Jane Shore.

Watts, Isaac (1674 — 1748), Uymns, Logic, 27ie Im-
provement of ike Mind.

Philips, Ambrose (1G75— 1740V The Dlatressed Mother.

Philips, John (1G7G— 1708). The SiAmdid Shilling.

Parquhar, Geo. (1G78— 1707). TU liccruiting Officer,
The Beauv^ Stratagem.

Parnell, Thomas (1679—1717). The TTermit.

Young, Edward (1681—1730;. Mght Thoughts, The
Revenge, The Love of Fame.

Berkeley, George C1G84— ir.53). Theory of Vision.

Tickell, Thoinaa (168G— 1740). Besides wntinj,' for
Spectator and Guardian, wrote the ballad of Colin and
Lucy, and the poem Kensington Gardenx.

Gay, John (1688—1732). The Shepherd's Week, Trivia,
The Fan, Black-eyed Susan, Beggars' Op>'ra.

Pope, Alexander (1688 — 1744). Essay on Criticism,
The Messiah, Ele-gy on an Unfortunate Lady, The Rape of
the Lock, The Epistle of Bioisa to Ahelard, The Temple of

XVll!

INTKODUCTION.

Fame, translation of Iliad and Odipscy, The Dunciad, h
«a?/ on Alan, JVirtdsor Forest.

Richardson, Samuel (1G89— 1701), Pamela, Cla/ris*
Harlotcey Sir Charles CrTandivm.

SavagG, Richard (KJOC— 1743). The Wanderer.

Thomson, James (1700—1748). Seasons, LiheHy, Th
Castle of Indolence.

Wesley, John (1703—1701). Hymm and Sermoiu,
J carnal.

Fielding, Henry (1707 — 1754). Joseph Andrews, Tom
Jones, Jonathan Wild.

Johnson, Samuel (1709-1784). Wrote foi the liaiK-
hler, Idler ; and A Life of Savage, Dictionary </' the EnijUsk
Laiujuage, London, Rasselas, Journey to f/ie H\ . < ides, Lives
of the Poets.

Hume, David (1711—1776). A Treatise of.luman Na-
ture, Alorul and Philosophical Essays, Political Dlaconrses,
History of Etujlayui.

Sterne, I^awrence (1713—1708). Tristain Shimdy, The
8entim.en tal Journey.

Shenstono, William (1714—1703). The Schoohmstresa,
The Pastund Ballad.

Gray, Thomas (1716- -1771). The Eleyy, The Progrer,s
of Poesy, The Bard, Ode tv Spring, Ode to Adversity, Ode
on a Distant Prospect of Eton.

Walpoie, Horace (1717—1707^. Ltiters aiwl Memoirs,
The Castle of Otranto.

•[Uomns, William (1720—1750). Odes to Liberty and
Ei'enina, The Passions, Oriental E(loyu.es.

Akouside, Mark (1720—1770;. Pleasures of Imagiiux-
tion.

Robertson, William (1721—1770). Histories of Scot-
land, Charles the Fifth ofCennany ar.d A ■nericn.

Sraoilett, Tobiaa (1721.-1771). Poderich ' -Atym,

INTRODUCTION.

/^eregrine Pickle, Humphrey Clinker, History of England.
Edited Critical Review.

Warton, Joseph (1722—1800). Ode to Fancy.

Blackstone, William (1723—1780). Commentaries on
the Laws of England.

Smith, Adam (1723—1790). The Wealth of XationSf
The Theory of Moral Sentiments.

Goldsmith, Oliver (1728—1774). Tlie Traveller, The
Deserted Village, Retaliation, The Vicar of Wakefield, TJie
Good-Natural Man, She Stooj^s to Conquer, Animated Na^
ture, Histories of Uiigland, Rome, Greece, Citizen of tlu
World.

Percy, Tliomas (1728-1811). Published a collection
■yf ballads entitled Reliqnes of English Poetry.

Warton, Thomas (1723—1790). Tlie Pleasures of Mel-
ancholy, Hi&iory of English Poetry.

Burke, Edmund (1730—1797). The Vindication of
Natural Society, Essay on the. Snhlime and lieautiful, Re-
flection on the Revolution in France, Letters on a Regicide
Peace.

Falconer, William (1730—1709). The SJiipioreck.

Cowper, William (1731—1800). Truth, Table-talk, ^,iv.
postulation, Error, Hope, Charity, John Gilpin, The Task
translation of Hom^r, Letters.

Darwin, Erasmus (1732—1802). The Botanic Garden.

Gibbon, Edward (1737—1794. The Decline ai\d Fall of
the Raman Empire.

Maophorson, James (1738— 1790). Fingal and Temora,
*:wo epic poems, which ho represented he had translated
from materials discovered in the Uiffhlaiids.

Junius, (Sir P. Francis) (1740— 181b). LetUrs of
Junius.

Boswoll, James (1740—1795). Life ofJohmon.

Paley, William (1743-18051 Elements of Moral and

INTRODUCTION.

Folitical FhHosophy^ Hora Paulinae, Emdeneu of Chrii*
tianity, Natural Theology.

Mar>Pnaie, Henry (1745—1831). The Man of Feeling,
The Ma t ^ World.

Benthau. Jeremy (1747 — 183??). Fragment on OoverU'
ment, and numerous writings on Law and Politics.

Sheridan, Richard B. (1751—1817). 27k! JiivaU, The
School for Scandal, The Duentui, Tlie Critic.

Chatterton, Thomas (1752—1770. Wrote the tragedy
of Ellat Ode to Ella, Execution of Charles Batudin, and
other poems which he represented he found, and said had
been written in the 15th century by Rowley, a Monk.

Stewart, Dugald (1753—1828). Fhilosophy of tlui Hu^
man Mind, Moral Philosophy.

CrabbeGeorge (1754—1832). TheUhrary, TheViUmge,
The Pariah Register, The Borough, T!ie Tales ofth^ Hall.

Bums, Robe^ (1759—1796). Tarn O'Shanter, To a
Daisy, To a Mutue, The Cutter'* Saturday Night, Th^ J My
Beggars.

Hall, Robert (1764—1831). Sermons.

Clarke, Adam (1760—1832). Commentaries on the Bible.

Bloomfleld, Robert (1766—1823). Th« Farmer's Boy,
Rural Tales, May-day with th* Muses.

Edgeworth, Maria (1767^ 1848). Castle Rackrent, Popu-
lar Tales, Leonora, Tales of Fa^iionahle Life, Patronage.

Opie, Amelia (1769— 1853). Father and DaughUr, Tales
of the, Heart, Temper.

Wordsworth, William (1770 -1850). An Evening
Walk, Descriptive SketcJves, TJie Excursion^ Hie White Doe of
Bylstone, Sonnets, Laodamia, Lines on lieinsiting the Wye.

Scott, Sir W. (1771—1832.) Border Minstrelsy, Ttie Lay
of the Last Minstrel, Marmion, The Lady of the Lake, Visum
qf Don Roderick^ Iiokeby. Life and Works of Dryden ; no-

INTRODUCTION.

XXI

rels, including Wafmiey, Rob Roy, Itanhoe, KeniliDoriJtf
Woodstock ; Life of Napoleon.

Montgomery, James (1771-:-1854). Oreenland, The
Pelican Island, The Waiiderer in SvntzerUmdt Prison
Amusements, The World before the Flood.

Coleridge, Samuel T. (1772—1834). Ode to the Depart-
ing Year, Tlie Rime of the Ancyent Marinere, CJiristahel,
Genevieve, Lectures on Shakespeare, Biographia Literaria.

Llngard, John (1771—1851). History of England.

Southey, Robert (1774—1843). Wat Tyler, Thalaba,
The Curse of Kehama, Roderick, Vision of Judgment, Lives
qf Wedey, Cowper, &o.

Moore, Thomas (1779—1852;. Irish Melodies, LaOa
liookh. The Fudge FamUy in Faris, The Epicurean,

,<2*

€.

v^\'

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH

POETRY.

'jpoetry as a Mirror. — The literature of a nation
bears an intimate relatimi to its history. The poets of a
period fairly express its prevailing thoughts and senti-
nisnts. Great eras in a country's rise and progress have
always been found to corres])ond with the great intel-
lectual eras of its growth. WJien questions of a political,
social, moral or religious importance have stirred men 8
minds, then have arisen authors whose works have re-
t'eotod the prodom.i.ant features of the times in which
they lived. Tlius th ) heroic greatnciss of the JTcllonio
race is marked by Ilonj m*, not only rich in poetic thought,
but clearly the outcome of tlie mental life and character
of ancient Greece. The ago of Pericles, brilliant in poli-
tical achievements, was no less illustrious for its intellectual
vigor. The Augustan era, foruiing the lofty climax of
Unman inlluence and power gave to the Latin language
Virgil and Horace, Citu^ro and Livy. A review of
English literature, and e8i)ecially I^.j^Iish pov'ry, exhibits
still more clearly this intiujaterelaticHi.ship. Z 'xo writings,

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH POETRY.

of Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare, Milton, Dryden aix?
Pope as well as Oowper, Burns, Scott, Tennyson and
Browning reflect, as with a magic mirror, the genius of the
periods of which they are distinguished representatives.
Chaucer belongs to a period when the darkness of
the Aliddle Ages was passing away. New languages
were forming on the continent, and the happy fusion by
courtly influence of Anglo-Saxon and Norman-French,
terminated a long struggle for ascendancy, and produced
our noble English tongue. It was the age of Dante, of
Petrarch, and Boccaccio. — when Wyclifie by his writings,
translations and discourses was creating a ferment in the
religious world, — when Crecy and Poictiers were gained,
and Edward III. was encouraging the settlement of
Flemish artisans and extending the trade of the English
merchants over every sea of Europe, and thus paving the
way for that commercial supremacy which should subse-
quently add to the nation's glory. With Chaucer is well
exemplified the fact that the poet to be successful must
live ivith and /or his generation, must suit himself to tho
tastes of his public, must have common sympathies with
his readers and must adopt a style that accords with the
emotions by which he is actuated. The Canterbury
Tales, his greatest work, vividly represents that gaily
apparelled time when king tilted in tournament,
and knight and lady rode along with falcon on wrist, and
when friars sitting in tavern sang war songs quite in
harmony with the nation's victories on the continent, but
little in keeping with their sacred calling. With the
"father of English poetry", every character is a perfect
study elaborated with a careful finish and minuteness of
touch ; the beautiful and grand objects of nature are
painted with grace and sublimity ; and results are thu^
oombined which are unsurpassed by any English poet that

THB DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH POETRY.

lived before his time. He became the acknowledged in-
ventor of the heroic line, characterized not by quantity
as tha4; of Greece and Rome, but by accent which thus
became a recognized feature of English versification. The
legacy left to our literature has not been unproductive in
the hands of a long succession of heirs. His influence
had its effect upon all the great poets that followed him,
and upon none more evidently than those of the present
century.

Spenser. — The breaking np of old systems, the
revolts of the people, and the furious struggles between
the Houses of York and Lancaster darkened for a time as
with a mist, the lamp of English poetry, but it possessed
sufficient vitality to enable it to blaze forth under favor-
able influences with greater brilliancy than before. The
invention of printing ; the interest in classical literature :
the study of Greek philosophy, and, especially, the freedom
with which religion was discussed, aroused a spirit of
activity which added powerful impulses to the growth of
the national intellect. The translation of the works of
modem Italy, and tho?,e of France where letters received
an earlier revival ; the circulation of the Scriptures pre-
senting a variety of incidents, images, and aspirations
connected with oriental life and manners ; the study
of the allegorical tales and romances of chivalry and the
fostering influence of a learned queen who surrounded
her court with men qualified to shine in every department
of learning, ushered in a period which is appropriately
termed the Augustan age of English literature.

It is not 'Uificult to understand how, with such
knightly spirits as Raleigh and Essex, the essential spirit
of chivalry, "high thought and a heart of courtesy" aa
Sidney puts it, found a fitting exponent in Edmund
Spenser. Amonsr the poets who flourished exclusively in

lilB DEVELOi'MENl OF KNOLlbH POEiKJr.

the reign of Elizabeth he fltands without a rival. No
niastcr-pieco of the j^roat paiiitora evor glowpd on canvas
with more reality than the Fuirie Quv.c.ne, uiul no poet
s lys Wilson, " h.is ever had a more exijuisite sense of t,,o
■ .lutiful" than its author. lie deenied himself tlio
p )otijal t>ou of Chaucer, and was, in his own times, taunted
vviih "afi'ecting the ancients," and with engrafting on his
own language the "old witliercd words and exploded
persons" of a former period. If guilty, so may Virgil and
Milton, Scott and Wordsworth receive similar condennia-
tion. At all events succeeding generations have paid
homage to the richness and pathos of his strains, and the
author of FaradUe- Lout, and the authdr of the SeasoiLs, as
well as Scott and Tennvbon have been essentially indebted
to this " Rubens of English poetry. "

Shakespoare. — The new impulses by which the
hiunan mind began to be stirred, mark the early part of
the sixteenth century as the great frontier-lino which
divides the Literary History of the Middle Ages from
wiiat we call Modern. The Revival of Clasfsioal Learning
opened up to a peo[»lo zealous for enriuiry the rich mintia
of knowledge of the Greeks and Romans. Theological
discussions aroused a spirit of research and investigation.
The exten.^.ive circulation of the Scriptures and other
works decided the que.stion of a national tongue. Under
Shakespeartj, the greatest writer the world has ever seen,
the drama reached its highe'i perfection. But the
"myriad-niiiided" writer of tragedy and comedy with all
his depth, snl)limity, creative power and relinemont was
inspired by that same love of nature and truth that pre-
vades tlie works of Chaucer, Spenser and the great
modern points. Nature wn.s his groat preceptress from
whoso inspired dictates ho spoke — " warm from the hojirt
and faithful to its iiven" — and in his disregard of rules he

THE DB tCLOPMENT OF ENGLISH POETRY.

pursued at will his winged way throiv^'h all tl
labyrinths of fancy and of the human heart No writv
has exhibited such a deep acf^uaintunce wilh tlie human
heart, its passions, its powers, its weaknesses and its aspira-
tions. From his works may be i^utiiered precepts adapted
to every condition of life, and to every circumstance of
human alliiirs, and no writings exce[tt the Bible have been
more closely interwoven with tlie language of every-day
life.

Milton nobly closes that rich poetry of the imagina-
tion which marks the age begun by Spenser. With a
uiind stored with invaluable treasures of the mines •^f
Liieece and Home, and an extensive acquaintance with
the older English poets, many j^ears actively employed in
the keen struggle for civil and religious liberty, well
qualified him for undertaking a theme lofty in its con-
ception, and intimately cf)nnected with everything im-
portant in the circumstances of human history. In the
crash which shattered the regal and hierarchic institutions
of the couniry, his majestic, unwordlyand heroic soul saw
only the overt lirow of false systems, and the dawn of a
bright p"riod marked by private investigation and
individual liberty. All the higher influences of the
Renaissance are summed up in Milton. That puropoetrjr
5f natural (.'escription which ho began in LAUajro, and II
Fenieroiio lias no higher examples to produce from the
writings of Wordsworth, Scott, or Keats. Living in a)>
ago when skilful criticism, though it puriliod Knglish verse,
gave rise to false C(jnceits and extravagance, \l\.% knciw-
ledge of good classical models enabled hhu to free iiia
works from the advancing inroads of a rising school.

Not only did he create the English epic and place him-
self by the side of Homer, Virgil and- Dante, but he [)Ut
now life into the masque, sonnet and elegy, the descriptive

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH POETRY.

lyric, the aong and the choral drama. Though untrue i>.
his descont from the Elizabctlians in a want of humo;^
and of tlie dramatic faculty, we can forget these defects
while we listen to the organ ring of his versification, the
stately march of his diction, tlie beautiful and gorgeous
illustrations from nature and art, the bri^'htly coloure<)
pictures of human happiness and innocence, and the lofty
sentiments of Paradise Lost. Blank verso, which Surrey
had introduced into our literature, is managed by Milt(m
with a skill that shows its power in the construction of ar
heroic poem. The depth or sublimity of his conception
finds a corresponding expressiveness in his numbers ; and
his power over langua^'o was not in its variety due to a
musical ear, but had its source in the deep feelings of n
heart influenced by the conscientious spirit of Puritanism.
The Restoration. With the return of the English
people to monarchical government they were sadly disap-
pointed in their expectations of a return at the same time
to their ancient nationality and modes of thought. The
exiled Charles and his royalist followei-s had rubbad oflf by
their friction with the men and manners of other nations
much of those external habits and customs, which, if not
of the most commendable description, possessed a spirit of
nationality and patriotism. They returned with strong
predelictions in favor of French literature, being fully im-
pressed with the belief of its superiority over that of every
other country. It was not the first or last inatiince when
a foreign literature exercised a marked inlhioncc upon our
own. Chaucer, though plainly the poet of ch»r etoi' and
of practical life, writes largely after the maimer of the
I'rovingals, but improved by Italian models. Spenser's
manner is also that of the Provingals, bnt guided by the
authors of a later Italian school. The character of (Jerman
literature influenced Scott, and in our own day, Oarlyio,

THE DEVELOPMENT OP ENGLISH POETRY.

Milton, aa we have wen, was the great represeniAtive
of the Classical school, now to be followed by the
writers who moulded their works after the tastes of Paris,
riie social mischiefs ct' the Restoration were the worst
fruits of the French influence. The Court and the societ)'
of the metropolis began to exercise a powerful influence ob
the various departments of literature. The corrupt and
profligate manners of the Court tainted too easily a people
whohadfeltthe restraints of Puritan I ile. The lighter kinds
of composition mirrored faithfully the surrounding black-
ness, which required no short period of time, no little
•xertion and a religious revival to clear it away. The drama
sank to a frightful degree of shame and grossness. Other
forms of poetry were marked by no higher object than
that to which satire aspires. Writing verse was degraded
from a high and noble art to a mere courtly amusement,
or pander to the immorality of a degenerated age.

The Artificial School of Poetry. The poets already
considered belonged to the ' ' school of nature. " Influences
were now at work which gave rise to another phase of
poetic genius. The Gothic and llomance literature of
the Middle Ages gave its inspiration to Chaucer, Spenser,
Shakespeare and Milton. The study of the Greek and
Roman Classics gave an impetus to a class of writers who,
influenced by causes of another kind, developed a new
style of poetry. The great masters possessed artistic as
well as natural powers. The secondary poets of the
Elizabethan period, though fresh and impassioned, as a
result of the strong feelings that inspired them, were ex-
travagant and unrestrained because of their want of art.
When the national life grew chill, the poets inspired by no
warm feelings became lavish in the use of "far-fetched
»aeanings," and fanciful forms of expression. With poetry
/Ktravagant in words and fantastic in images, the senM

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH i\>ETK'r,

became often obscure. The natural style mirer^iilatf i h-y
art assumed an unnatural character. Blilton, in a</iit:ion
to the inspiration derived from Gothic and Kom;iiK 3 litei-^
ature, by his kno\vled.,'e and imitation of the grea' classic.;)
models, gave the first example in England of a pure, C^-
ished and majestic stylo. Those who felt during the
Restoration period the power of his genius were also
influenced by the "school of inquiry," which all over
Europe showed its work in science, politics and religion.
[n France this tendency to criticise was well rojircsented
*n poetry by Boiloau, LaFontaine, and others, whoso ell'ort
after greater llnish and neatness of expression told on
Ensjliah writers at a time when French tastes beiran "even
to mingle with tlie ink that dropped from the poet's pen."
The new French school was founded on classical models,
which had already become fashionabla in England. The
admirers of Charles II. were also admirers of that great
nation so friciidly to the Stuaru, which under Louis XIV.
had reached the highest point of civilization then attained
by any European state. It would be a mistake to con-
clude that the Restoration was the origin of the "artificial
school." The Wf)rk had already been begun and had made
much nrogress before the death of the Protectf)r The
accession of tlie "mcr'7 monarch" gave it a mighty im-
pulse, and in accelerating the adoption of "cold, glittering
mannerism, for the sweet, fresh light of natural language"
added at tlie same time the poisonous colouring of an
immoral court.

Dryden. Milton the threat leader of the netting age,
had scarcely given to tlie world his I'aradinc Lost, when
Drydon, the leaden- of the rising age, appeared before the
public. As a poet liia is the groat name of the period that
followed the Restoration, lie had fallen upon evil times.
The pcflt nnuut refieet hia age. There wa« little noble to

■HH

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH POETRY.

reflect. The poetry of the pasaions of the human heart,
the poetry of the affection, and the poetry of religion had
shown -evident indications of dec'ine, Sadre, didacticand
philosopliical poeti'y ranxo to tlie front. Living in a most
infamous period of Er-ijlish lii.story when the moat flagrant
Corruption was rampant in church and state, Dryden, in
want of better subjects turned satirist. There liis wit and
sarcasm turned against his oppoiients rendered him unsur-
passed by Horace or Juvenal. Our literature possesses no
more vigorous portrait-painter. His choice of words and
forms of expression are most appropriate. In versification
he is one of our greatest mastevs. Ho was a diligent
student of the best models. He carried to the highest per-
fection the rhymed heroic couplet of ten ayllabujs Ey the
occasional introduction of a triplet and the skilful use of
the Alexamlrino at the end of a paragraph, he knew well
how to break the uniformity of the couplet and give to
his versification that

" Long-resounding march and energy divine."

which gave to his poetry of this metre such vigour, eonor-
ousnoss and variety.

Pope. The glitter of Dryden's poetry dazzled the
public mind from the death of ^[llton till his own in 1700.
His most distinguished pupil was *' lexander Pope, who
as a poet surpasses his master in the most characteristic
features of the artificial school. In mechanical executit>n
Pope is without a peer. His neatness and correctness of
expression, pointed and courtly dicti<m, harmony of versi-
fication and mel(»dy of rhyme r.ink him fxir ^rcelinw^. the
artist of pneLic style. In his polisiied uoroic cou(»lot8 are
found sparkling wit, strong hense. j^iiod t.-vste and terse
and vigorous command of the choicest English. Wa fiiid,
ViPwever, that cold'tyss of sentiment atut disrog.ard of the

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH POETRY.

emotions and passions of the soul which Dryden had ob<
wr^ed, carried to such perfection by Pope that the
public soon after longed for a return to nature. The age
was not designed to cultivate the highest poetic genius.
Matter was regarded of les3 importance than the form ot
the words by M'hich it was expressed. We look in vam
through Pope's elaborately polished verses for those qual-
ities that would place him among the greatest masters of
the lyre. He has none of the universality of Shakespeare
or sublimity of Milton. Of the varying shades and
gradations of vice and virtue, wisdom and folly, he was a
»iice observer and an accurate descnber Had 'ha studied
the great English poets more, and paid less attention to
the school of Horace and Boileau, his memory would have
been hallowed with still moie aflfectionate and permanent
interest. His great object was to express himself smooihly.
Attractive and lucid utterance was h;s aim. With a desire
«o "set" gems rather than create them, to make 'correct"
rerse his '* study and aim," it is no wonder that ** truth "
was often " cut short to make a sentence round," In the
first half of the eigiitcenth century no name is more bril-
liant than that of the author of The Rape of tlui Lock,
Windsor Forest, The Temple of Fame, The Dnnciad and
the translation of Homer. In his Epistles and Essay on
Man we have numerous passages that have supplied to
our current literature more phrases 3knd sentiments re-
markable for their mingled truth and beauty than are to
be found probably in any other pieces of equal length.

Decay of tho Artificial School. The greater part
)f the eighteenth century was, in a literary point of view,
cold, dissatisfied and critical. It valued forms more than
substance. Warm feelings, grand thoughts and creative
genius, ;vere less esteemed than elegance of phrase and
iymme<»v of proportion. In a period when philosophy

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH POEIKY.

wras essentially utilitarian, and religion a system of prac-
tical morality, "it is not surprising that poetry was largely
didactic and mechanical. With such attention to form,
an active criticism rendered our English prose, when
employed by such masters as Addison, for the first time,
absolutely simple and clear. For similar reasons during
the same period, Nature, Passion, and Imagination de-
cayed in poetry. But matters wore coming to a crisis.
Hume and Robertson were beginning their career aa
hi.storians. Richardson, Fielding and Smollet aroused a
taste for light literature. In moral philosophy Jonathan
Edwards and Joseph Butler were laying the foundations
of systems on a sounder basis. New thoughts moved men.
The poets felt the impulse of the transition period. The
publication of Wartoa's History of Poetry and Percy's
Belique^ revived a taste for the bol ree style of our earlier
writers. The inspiration seized the vriters of verse, and
a return from the cla8si..al to the romantic, from the arti-
ficial to the natural, soon began to manifest itself Pope's
name stood highest unti' his death in 1744, but the most
distinguished of his contemporaries departed widely from
the style of their great mas'er. Thomson made no
attempt to enter the school of polished satire and pungi at
wit. Equal originality is shown by Young in his startling
denunciations of death and judgment, stirring appeals ind
choice epigrams. Gray and Collins in aiming at the da. '
ing imagery and magiiilicence of lyrical poetry show the
•*new departure." The former is not without the polish
and exquisitely elaborated verse of Pope, but as well as
Collins, he shows the freshness, the spirit of imagination,
and the sprightly vivacity of the older poets. Akenside iii
strains of melodious and original blank verse, expatiated
on the operations of the mind and the associated charm
of tAste and genius. Johnson alone of the eniin«»i»»

TIfl? DEVELOl'MENT OF ENGLISH POETRY.

authors of this period seems to have adopted the style of
Dryden and Pope. But his ponderous Latinized composi-
tion was cuunteracted in part by the simplicity of Gold-
smith and Mackenzie. Many of the poets of tlie transi-
tion period show tiie didactic tendency of tlxo i inies. It
required in some cases an ell'ort to break oft' from whai;
had beoa popular. To sucli a low ebb liad the public
taste betui reduced that Gray was ridiculed and Collins was
neglected, 'i'ho spiritof true poetry was not, however, dead.
'I'he conventional style was destined to f-dl, leaving only
tl)at taste for correct lanj.(uage and polislied versilication
which Fnpt) had established. The seed was sown and tJie
next generation was to see under Cowper tliat work com-
pleted which Thomson had begun.

The System of Patronage. During the Elizabethan
period and coiK^ideral)Ie time afterwards the social stand-
uig of literary men wn.s far from encouraging. Tde names
of Spenser, iiutler and Otway are sufliijient to remind us
that warm contemporary reLognitiou \v.is not enough to
secure an autlior from a position of want Farali'e Lent
yielded its author during elevva yoirs only £10. Ben
Johnson in the earlier, uid Dryden m the latter part of
the seventeenth century found the laureate's pittance
scarcely suthcient to keep tlieir luvids above water. The
first few years of the ne.\t itentury showed signs of
improvement. In the reign of Charles II., Dorset had
intvodnocil the sy.stem of patronage, which, under i\Ion-
tague, Karl of Halifax, became sultse<iui;ntl}- so scjrv;cfal)K>
to men of literature. 'I'he polit lans who came into
power with the Revolution weri> willing for a iime to
share the public patronage wiiu men of intellectual
eminence. Addison, Congrevc, Swift and other aul liora
tit leas note won by their i)en;-- not only temporary piohts,
buc uermaiient places. I'nor, (iay, TicUull, llowo and

THE DEVELO'MENT OF ENGLISH POETRY.

Steel© held offices of considerable emolument, and Locke,
Nevv'tuii and others were phiced above indigence by the
same system of priiicely favor. Before Pope was tliirty
the fruits of his pen amounted to over £G000, and by the
popular mode of subscription he received £8000 for his
translation of Homer, Such rewards indicate a readiness
amon;^' both political parties to patronize literature with a
benuticence honourable to those who gave, and advantage-
ous to tliose who received. In one respect at least the
periixl may be termed the Augu-stan age of literature.
Its patrons were in high [liaccs and were prepared to give
it substanti;!,! rewards. Fortiinately for the cause of litera-
ture, th(»ui;li painfully inconvenient for many writers of
the "transition pericd," this system of patronage was
doomed tth(jrily after the accession of the House of
Hanover.

Declino of Patronage. The reigns of William TIL
and Anne are mitcd for the encouragement given t(>
literature by those in authority. After the accession of
the Hou.se of Hanover, there was a marked chan.;e. The
reign of George II., though productive of much progress
in science and literature is marked by no indication of
originality. Still it had many authors who deserved
better treatment than tliey received. Aa the sj-Htem of
party government developed, the political })artisans were
sufficient to absorb all the sinecures at the disposal of the
leaders. Authors were rewarded by no munificent pa-
tronage from the Crown or ministers of state. Harley
and Bolingbroko were 8uccood»:d by Sir Jlobert Walpole, a
wise tactician, but a man with no taste for learning, no
admiration of s^enius. His liberality to the extent of
£50,000 was exteu'led only to obscure and unscrupuloug
partisans, the supporters of a corrupt government, wlio.so
names might have passed into oblivioi; buf' for the satire

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH POETRY.

of Pope. Scribbling Vor a party in pamphlets and news*
papers was rewarded, while genius wan neglected. The
considerable sums apont on literature were given for ser-
vices equally degrading to giver and receiver. Men of
talent, who would not stoup to the "dirty work" of
sustaining with their pens a base administration, might
starve in Grub Street, or be pilloried in the Buvciadf
although had they lived thirty years before, they might
have been entrusted with an embassy or appointed Com-
missioners, Surveyors or Secretaries. Men like Churchill,
who turned their pens to political satire, were well re-
munerated. Young obtained, in time, a pension, and
Thomson, after tasting the worst misexies of authov-life,
was rewarded with a sinecure. But Collins, Fielding, and
even Thomson and Johnson, were arrested for debt, and
the wretched and precarious lives of many, have niad«
Grub Street, in which they horded together, suggestive
of rags, hunger and misery. The age of dedication was
intolerable to men of independence of spirit. Authors by
profession must either starve or become parasites. The
reading public was very limited, and the booksellers, in
consequence, were not to be blamed for the small siuns
given to authors. A better day was dawning. The right
uf the Press to discuss public affairs created a class of
writers of higher moral and literary qualifications. Tho
time was rife for the emancipation for ever, of literature
from the " system of flattery." The letter of Johnson to
Chesterfield gave the "knock-down" blow. It was, as
Carlyle calls it, "the far-famed blast of doom proclaiming
into tho ear of Lord Chesterfield, and through him, of the
liltening world, that patronage should be no more." The
period between the old and the new system, was one of
much privation and sutlering. In that period lived Gold'
auuta.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH POETRY.

Revival of the Natural School. From about the

middle of Pope's life to the death of Johnson, was a time

of transition. The influence of the didactic and satiric

poetry of the critical school, lingered among the new

elements which were at work. The study of Greek and

Latin classics revived, and that correct form for which

Pope sought, was blended with the beautiful forms ol

" natural feeling and natural scenery." The whole course

of poetry was taken up with greater interest after the

publication of Warton's History of English Poetry, and Dr.

Percy's Reliques of Ancient English Poetry in 1766.

Shakespeare was studied in a more accurate way, and the

chill-likeness and naturalness of Chaucer began to give

delight. The narrative ballad and the narrative romance,

afterwards perfected by Sir Walter Scott, took root in

English verse. Forgeries such as Fingal, an Ancient

Epic Poem, by Macpheraon, and the fabrications of Cliat-

terton,

" the marvellous boy.
The sleepless soul, that perish'd in his pride,"

indicate the drift of the new element. It was felt that the
artificial school did not exhibitfully the noble sentiments,
•motions and thoughts of the human soul. INIan alone had
v>(uiitreiit(ylof by the poets. Nature now was taken « p. The
polish and accuracy of Pope is fully preserved by such writers
as Gray, Collins and Goldsmith, but their verse is also
" instinct with natural feeling and simplicity." Natural
description had appeared already in the poems of the
Puritans, Marvel and Milton ; but Thomson, in the
Seasons, was the ** first Poet who led the English people
into the new world of nature in poetry, which has moved
and enchanted us in the works of Wordsworth, fcihe'.Itjy,
Keats and Tennyson, but which was entirely impossible
for Pope to understand." The real and actual were, as

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH POIj-TRY.

Bubjfictg of song, to be substituted for the abstract and
remote. The increase in national wcaltli and pojudation,
led to the improvement of literature and the aits, and to
the adoption of a more popular style of composition. The
human intellect and imagination, unhampered by the
conventional stidness and classic restraint imposed upoti
former authors, went abroad upon wider surveys and with
more ambitious designs.

The age of Cowper. Of all poetical writers of the
last twenty years of tiio eighteenth century the name of
Cowper casts the greatest iliusti-ation upon the period in
which he lived. The hard artiticial briiliancy of Vo\)e
standing r ' tlio head of that list, which included Gibbon
and Hume, Chesterfield and Horace Waljiole had scarcely
ceased to da/;zle the poets of the Joluisunian era. I'he
death of "king Samuel" in England, like that of Voltaire
in France, was not followed by the accoasion of another
to the throne of literature, 'i he reaction which followed
the licotoration did not readily subside, and the a])proach
of tlio French Revolution was marked by movements of
ereat social as well as of great, political importance. In
England the forces which had been silently gathering
strength ushered in a revolution no less striking than that
which convulsed the continent. The attention of the
comnmnity was arrested by changes of a moral and re-
ligious character, which are still running their course.
The earnestness of tlie puritan had almost disappeared,
and the forms of religion were found with little (jf its
power. ►Scepticism Avidely pervaded the wealthy and
educated classes. The progvcsn of free inquiry had
produced a general indillerence to (he great questions of
Christian .sjieculation. It arose paitly frmu an aversion
to theological strife, a.s a result of the civil war, and
partly from tha new intoUtfctual and material chwinela

TH DEVEt.OPMENT OF ENGLISH POETRY.

ko which human energy was directed. The spiritual
decay of the great dissenting bodies liad gone hand in
hand vvitli tliat of the establishment. It was an age of
gilded sinfuhietis among the higher elasses, and of a sin-
fuhieas ungilded, but no le^s coarse, among the lower
classei'!. Druulcenness and foul lav\guai.^e wore not sulilcient
to reudur the [lolitioian guilty of them unlit to be prime
minister. The {)urity and fidelity of woman were sneered
at, as out of fashion. The vast increase of population
which had followed the growth of tov.iis, and the rapid
development of manufactures had bean met by little
ell'ort to improve the moral or intellectual condition ol
the masses. Without schools the lower orders were
ignorant, and brutal to a degree w^hich it is hard to
conceive. Tic rural peasantry who were fast being
reduced to a state of pauperism by the abuse of the poor-
law had in many cases no moral or religious training ot
any kind. Within the towns matters were worse. There
was no etFective police to withstand the outbreaks of
iguoi'ant mobs. It was the age of th\i old criminal law
when cutting a pear-tree or stealin',' a. hare, was re-
gardod as a capital crime, while the "gentleman" might
with impunity be guilty of duelling, gambling, or outrages
on female virtue. It was the age of the old system of
prison discipline, whicli aroused the philanthropy of
HoAvard. It was a period which has associated with
it fagging and Iniilying in school and the general applica-
tion of the rod as the most potent aid in the process of
instraction. It was the period with whioii the names of
Walpole and Newcastle are identified, and which has
associated with it rotten boroughs, political corruption,
part3' without princii)le, and all the rancourness of faction
warfare. The sights that indicate cruelty and hardness
of heart, such as bull-rings, cock-pits and whipping-posta

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH POETRY.

vrere quite an common an the fumes that indicate intem-
perance. It was the age of great reforms. Johnson had
left his impress on the improved tone of society and had
overthrown the 83'3tem of patronage ; Wilbcrforce and
Clarkson were coming forward to abolish the slave trade.
Burke and Pitt were to restore the higher principles of
statesmanship, and to redeem the character of public men.
A more important reform and one which gave an impulse
to all the others, was of a religious character.

In the middle classes, the piety of a former period had
not completely died out. From that quarter issued the
" Methodist movement," which awakened a spirit of moral
eeal, that softened the manners of the people, called forth
philanthropists and statesmen who infused clemency and
wisdom into our penal laws, reformed our prisons,
abolished the slave trade, gave to popular education its
first impulse, discussed measures for arresting the evils of
intemperance, and adopted various methods of a Christian
character for bettering the social condition of the humbler
classes. (See Green's English History.) The enthusiasm
of th i Wesleys and Whitefield was not kindled against the
rules of the Church or State, but only against vice and
irreligion. The results of their zeal are not confined to
the denomination which owes its origin to the movement,
and no body is more ready than the English Church to
acknowledge the great advan^^ages of the religious revival
of the last century.

If Wesley came to revive reliQ;ion and impress upon his
followers that Christian worsiiip was "of the heart,"
Cowper, who was imbued with the spirit of the movement
came to regenerate poetry, to Christianize it, to elevate it,
and to fill it again with feeling and with truth. If the
ballads of a nation have, as in the case of Burns, a lasting
effect in arousing patriotism, the religious poems of Cowper
may be regarded no less influential in extending " thut
religion which exalti and ennoblei man."

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These elementary ideas arc reduced to regular form by means of careful
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practice. The learner is made acfjuaintcd, in moderate measure, with tht-
most important of the older fonns of English, with the way in which words
are constructed, and with the clomonts of which modern l^nglish is made
up. Analysis is treated so far as to give the jjowor of dealing with sen-
tences of plain constmotion and moderate diiiculty. In the

English Grammar

the same subjects arc presented with much greater fulness, and carried to
a more advanced and difllcult stage. The work contains amj)le materials
for the roiiuircments of Competitive Kxaminallons reaching at least the
standard of the Matriculation ICxamination of the University of London.

The Shorter English Grammar.

is intended for learners who have b\it a liniilod amount of time at their dis-
posal for English studios ; but the experience of schools in which it has
been the only English Grammar used, has shown that, when well mastered,
this work also is suflieient for the London Matriculation Examination,

a J. (i5iTj)t & Cos. iXtijj iHhwcaiionixi eiioihs.

, lii:ST AUTIIUUIZKU ELEMENTAllY TKXT liGOK!) IN (iHAMMAU.

Revised Ed. Miller's Language Lessons.

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Its t'i/iri:i'Jiia Halts

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Miller's Switil ill's is iUiliiorizcd by tho Kiluc.iliuii iJopartiiuct ior uhu in
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A tamiAHill UXAMi.SATIO.V OiVE.N.

Ta the Prciirlenl aiii SIr.i.hcn :t 'Jk; Ccimty of I'lcjin Teachers' Associa-
tion : /n accordance trth a li-i.ti'.ii ;ia'jsc;d at the last rr;jnl,ir iritt;tini?of the
As;Jo:iatijri, a;);)i.,r,j;i(.<; th'j u,:d T«i:jnid a Coir.tr.ittce to coniiider tlio rc-
spu^iiv? :.ifr>L3 1.1 i;i£i\i ijt K'r^hiih Grair.nuir;-, v,i!h a view to 3ii,';?;cst the
moit suital 1 ■ m.c Si,r I'lii.iit Sf.hocls, wc br<; leave to rt; ort, tiiat, after ful-
ly co;'ii;r'.ri:i;!^ the v.'iJ'itU'j edltiun.'j that have bccfi reccrn.ncndcd, we believe
that "Mller's ..'wit;to:ra I,avj:ua<;e l.cs.suti.i" i:; tlio best adapted to the
wants of ju.'ii'.f f.upih, and we wciild urffc its auilu ri/ation on liic Govern-
nie.-it, ar.d its nlrc.laL'tio:) ir.to our I'uLIio .'VIiocI.s.
Signed, A. K. lit tl;:"., LV> Inspector. J. .M:I.k.\n, Town Inspector.

J. M.LLAU, M. A., IJeaJ Master V.i, 'I'licmias (.'ollcffiate Institute.

A. SvKhLh, M, A, " (>raii;,'rvi;ie High School.

N. Ca.M!'k..ll, " Co of Kl[;iii Model School.

It was moved and seconded that the rcjiort be received and adopted. —
Carried unaniiuuuGly

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To avoid mistakes, ask fur Miller's Swinton's.

Q-atlines of English Grammar.

Al'TlIORIZED FOR USE l.S' SCHOOLS.

Now and Improved Edition. For the u:-,o of Junior (Mas.ses, by C P
Mas:i.n-, li. A., F, C. P., Fellow of University CoHc^je, London.

Sixth Eiierllsli, and foui'th Canadian Edition, price 45 eta.

From the Dailv Glorr, Toronto.

Mr. V: P. ."*.Iason, v.hy.'io excellent " Enfrlish Grammar" is !iow the author-
ized text l)0/< in the !«'!;. )ols of Ontario, lias ]->roi''an'd and if:;«ied a more el-
ementary and mui.Ii-ncedcd work entitled "Outlines of Fnj^lish Granunar."
' The to.\t of this work is sul):stuiitially the same a.s that of the !ar;;cr tn'atise
in both matter and form, cxccjjt tliat tho very elaborate notes in the latter
arc cither omitted or very nnich reduced in c.xtcnt.

K
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(Lit ^. (Saye & ^o'e. |TcU) Q;bncatiouiil 5itorIi!3.

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I Hamblin Smith's Arithmetic.

An Adva^iccfl treatise, on the' Unitary System, li.v* J. II AMni,iv SMITH,

M. A., of (;oi:\ illo anil Cains CollcprcH, and lato leetnrer of St. Peter's Col-

h'^c, CamliridjiC. Adajitid to Canadian Seliools, \>y 'I'lionias KIrkland,

M, A., i-'ji( nee Master, ^'o^nlal Scliool, Toronto, and William Scott, U. A.,

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12Lh Edition, Price, 75 Cents.

KEY. — A complete Key to tlie above Aritlnnetic, by the Anthors.

Price, $2.00.

! Hamblin Smith's Alfrebra.

An Klementary Altjchra, liy .J. IIamums Smith, M. A., with Appendix
by Alfred iiaker, 15. A., Mathematical Tutor, rnivcrsity CoUefce, Toronto.

Otii Edition Price, 90 Ce.jts.

KEY.-

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Hamblin Smith's Elements of Geometry.

OontaiiMns: Books I, to VI., and jwrtions of Books XI. and XII., of Kuelldi
v.kh Kxerciseaand Notoi, by J. IIamiimn Smith, M. A., &■(•., a:.d I'.XLUuina-
fi^ I! Papers, from the Toronto and McUill Universities, and .Nomial School,

'i'' iriito.

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M. J. ^age ^ Cos. |lclu (gbucationnl ^orks.

THE BEST ELEMENTAllY TEXT-BOOK OF THE YEAR.

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