IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) % A*^ 5< /. I/. ^o 8 1.0 I.I Ik ISO [if 124 2.2 Id IL25 i 1.4 2.0 1.8 i.6 V /] Photogr^hic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ^< ■c^^ ^ r^ V <> CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHIVI/iCIVIH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques .-^--.-xiJ Lti^. Technical and Bibliographic Notes/Notes techniques et bibliographiques I The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibliographically unique, which may alter any of the images in the reproduction, or which may significantly change the usual method of filming, are checked below. D D D D D D Coloured covers/ Couverture de couleur I I Covers damaged/ Couverture endommag6e Covers restored and/or laminated/ Couverture restaurie et/ou peliicul^e □ Cover title missing/ Le titre de couverture manque □ Coloured maps/ C artes gdographiques en couleur Coloured init (i.e. other than blue or black)/ Encre de couleur (i.e. autre que bleue ou noire) I I Coloured plates and/or illustrations/ D Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur Bound with other material/ Relid avec d'autres documents Tight binding may cause shadows or distortion along interior margin/ La re liure serr6e peut causer de I'ombre ou de la distortion le long de la marge int^rieure Blank leaves added during restoration may appear within the text. Whenever possible, these have been omitted from filming/ II se peut que certaines pages blanches ajouties lors d'une restauration apparaissent dans le texte, mais, lorsque cela dtait possible, ces pages n'ont pas 6i6 filmdes. Additional comments:/ Commentaires suppl6mentaires: L'Institut a microfilm^ le meilleur exemplaire qu'il lui a 6t6 possible de se procurer. Les details de cet exemplaire qui sont peut-Atre uniques du point de vue bibl^ographique, qui peuvent modifier une image reproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger une modification dans la mAthode normaie de filmage sont indiquis ci-dessous. □ Coloured pages/ Pages de couleur □ Pages damaged/ Pages endommagdes □ Pages restored and/or laminated/ Pages restaur6es et/ou pelliculdes r~/\ Pages discoloured, stained or foxed/ D D Pagtis d6color6es, tachetdes ou piqu6es Pages detached/ Pages d6tach6es Showthrough/ Transparence Quality of prir Qualit^ indgaie de I'impression Includes supplementary materia Comprend du materiel supplementaire I I Pages detached/ r~> Showthrough/ I I Quality of print varies/ |~~| Includes supplementary material/ Only edition available/ Seule Edition disponible Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata slips, tissues, etc., have been refilmed to ensure the best possible image/ Les pages totalernent ou partiellement obscurcies par un feuillat d'errata, une pelure, etc., ont 6t6 film^es d nouveau de fapon A obtenir la meilleure image possible. This item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document est film6 au taux de reduction indiqu6 ci-dessous. 10X 14X 18X 22X 26X 30X J 12X 16X 20X 24X 28X 32X The copy filmed here has been reproduced thanks to the generosity of: Yoric University Toronto Scott Library The images appearing here are the best quality possible considering the condition and legibility of the original copy and in keeping with the filming contract specifications. Original copies in printed paper covers are filmed beginning with the front cover and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, or the back cover when appropriate. All other original copies are filmed beginning on the first page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impression. The last recorded frame on each mScrofiche shall contain the symbol — ^ (meaning "CON- TINUED"), or the symbol V (meaning "END"), whichever applies. Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: L'exemplaire film* fut reproduit grAce A la ginirositA de: York University Toronto Scott Library Les images suivantes ont it* reproduites avec le plus grand soin, compte tenu de la condition at de la nettet* de l'exemplaire film*, et en conformit* avec les conditions du contrat de filmage. Les exemplaires originaux dont la couverture en papier est imprim*e sont film*s en commen^ant par le premier plat et en terminant soit par la derni*re page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration, soit par le second plat, salon le cas. Tous les autres exemplaires originaux sont filmte en commen9ant par la premiere page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration et en terminant par la dernidre page qui comporte une telle empreinte. Un des symboles suivants apparaftra sur la dernlAre image de cheque microfiche, seion le cas: le symbols — »> signifie "A SUIVRE ". le symbols V signifie "FIN". Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent Atre film*s A des taux de reduction diff*rents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul clich*, il est film* * partir de Tangle sup*rieur gauche, de gauche * droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images n*cessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la m*thode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 8 v.- ^, \ v-»\ ^' 't , V * >, *•■ )"--'-ir: y - t/ M / yw* *■ ** ^ ! ■■■i.'f.r SKE TCHES OF THE HISTORY OF MAN, CONSIDERABLY IMPROVED IN A THIRD EDITION. IN TWO VOLUMES. ■;« 1 i lO 41- ,%■ '>. t;' J5 '■ h \ J -i SKETCHES > . ?, O P T H E O F V HISTORY M A R f , K-^ tJ CONSIDERABLY IMPROVED IN A THIRD EDITION* IN TWO VOLUMfeS. VOLUME I. ^■;'s'^'i MUMMMM ..^ttSvN DUBLIN, Printio by JAME S WILLI aMS, No, 2I3 Skinni:&=ro\y> M.DCC.LX.VU: c^ > "T 'N ^f^ll f^ • T :t i' ? f> o I H ■J t.) X 9 • ' ..M. A fl. V . . K i*. X ' 'li/'VJ r ■ • f •^; (,s X- ' *^' ■TV- *y^ * A, Vi X i Si * •» :) .;i CONTENTS I') •» • • •% • I * OF THE \ <:>. ^ ". * I ' ( '. * •■it" t *, », I t • ! V T \ f ' •x^ I •> I r • I r ( ■'. ' FIRST VOLUME. V > IT t>; Page i RELIMINA'RY Bifcourfe concerning the origin of Men and ;of Languages. 2 :;: ..BO 6 K I. ; • .. -.,,1 ')'.-l# . Progrcfe of Men ihdcpcndcnt of Society. Sketch I. Progrefs of food and population^ 48 i. Frogrefs ^property, 65 3. Origin and progrefs of comnnce^ 71 4. Origin andprogrefs of arUy 92 Sed. 1. Ufeful arts^ ' ibid. 2. Progrefs of tafie and of the fine arts, 1 1 2 5. Frogrefs of manners, 181 6. Frogrefs of the female fsx, 287 Appendix, Concerning propagation of animals , and care of progeny, 343 7. Progrefs and effeds of luxury, 350 BOOK CONTENTS. BOOK II. Progrefs of Men in Society. D Sketch. ~ Page I . Appetite for fociety. — Origin of national fo- cictieSf 277 3. General view of government, 413 3. Different forms of government compared, 417 4. Progrefs of Jiates from fmall to great ^ and from great to fmall, 434 5. Great andfmaltflates compared, . 1 ^ '-44* . 6. War and peace compared, 453 ,.,7. Rife and fall of pat riot if m, 465 ,;.8. Finances, , 485 ' \ff^ r. General confiderations on taxes f 486 "**' 1. Power of impoJir\g Taxes, ; ^ : 49<^ » I i > Different forts of taxes, with their d4- , ■ . / 'vantages and difadvantages, '* ' " 495 4. Mafiner of levying ta^^s, .. "" 502 5. Rules to be' 'obferved 'in Taxing, 504 6. ^.vrj examined with refpe£t to their : ' " 7. Taxes for advancing indu/iry and com' mcrce. ■U- \r, ■;; r> I ■ 1 1 1 .. . '.,1 t j?r, \» V;' * r , ' ■'(■;'.' :■'■.'■'? ♦..! .u ...--> i"; " ;> " i • I' / ^ • • H-"' i«i 519 P ' R B F A C ' E. T, H E following work is the fubftancc of vari- ous fpcculations, which occafionally occupied the author, and enhvened his Icifure-hours. It is not intended for the learned ; they are above it : nor for the vulgar ; they are below it. It is intended for thofe who free from the corruption of opulence and depreflion of bodily labour, are fond of ufeful knowledge ; who, even in the delirium of youth, feel the dawn of patriotifni, and who in riper years enjoy its meridian warmth. To fuch men this work is dedicated ; and that they may profit by it, is the author's ardent wifh ; and probably will be while he retains life fufficicnt to form a "wifli. May not he hope, that this work, child of his grey hairs, will furvive, and bear teftimony for nim to good men, that even a laborious calling, which left him not many leifure-hours, never ba- nifhed from his mind, that he would littk defervcto be of *he human fpecies, were he indifferent about his fellow- creatures: Homo f urn : hwnani nihil a me alicnum pulo. Moft of the fubjeds handled in the following fheets, ;idmit but of probable reafoning ; and with refpeft to fuch reafonings, it is often difficult to fay, what degree of convidion they ought to produce. It is eafy to form plaufible arguments j but to form fuch as can ftand the tefl of time, is not always eafy. I could amufe the reader with numerous examples of conjectural arguments, which, fair at a diftant view, vanifh like a cloud on a near approach. Several exapiples, not to go l^rtber, are; mentioned via PREFACE.. mentioned in the preliminary difcourfe of this book. The hazard of being mifled by fuch arguments, gave the author much anxiety ; and after his ut- mod attention, he can but faintly hope, that he has not often >vandered far from truth. Above thirty years ago, he began to collect materials for a natural hiftory of man ; and in the vigour of youth, did not think the undertaking too bold even for a Angle hand. He has difcovered of late, that his utmoft abilities are Icarce fufficicne for executing a few imperfe^ (ketches. !; .f;» r ,y. K r, / ;t1 Edinburgh J Feb, 23. 1774. I ... ' /."■> . L -r^^ i^ J^n. yl ,.^ - .^^^ Vi/.' To THE READER, c^ r .Vv.^ A S one great objeft of the Editor is to make this a popular v;ork, he has chiefly with a view to the female fex, fubjoined an Englilh tranflation of the quotations from other languages, f'' 1 >. ffi . '£ i U i. i I ■"« ',! * V i .' ( .." i ' 1 i ^ i ' 'i '.. . ' ■ • t i . ' )^ '1. ' 1 4, ',W ' I : 1 > * • 1 - ) ., . ; ;:; ■ ' . r. << '•/ •■••u J : '"iji.'O -M'ii • .tV T ,'i » ' •. r .. •.., 'i SKETCHES «' ;;i ;irvr : ;n ■! - i r JV■»^;i4, IX :» ..; •/ r> f *\* r •'.ur ) ■;•; '^ r^r- ' ;T liti ,'Ait^'' HISTORY OF MAN. V' ; ,-, '■ ': A H E Human Species is in every view an in- tercfting fubjedt, and has been in every age the chief enquiry of philofophers. The faculties of the mind have been explored, and the affeflions of the heart ; but there is ftiU wanting a Hiilory of the Species, in its progrefs from the favage flate to its highefl civilization and improvement. Above thirty years ago, I beg^n to colled materials for that niftory ; and in the vigour of youth, did not think the undertaking too bold even for a fingle hand : but in the progrefs of the work, I found my abilities no more than Sufficient for executing a few Sketch- es. Thefe are brought under the following heads. I . Progrefs of Men independent of Society. 2. Pro- grefs of Men in Society. 3. Progrefs of Sciences. To explain thefe heads a preliminary difcourfe is ne- ceflary j which is to examine. Whether all men be of one lineage, defcended from a fmgle pair, or whether there be different races originally dillliict. Vol. I. B Preliminary ' ,\^> il m Preliminary Discourse, concerning the Origin -^ ' of Men and of Languages. ,' Wi HETHER there be different races of men, or whether all men be .of one race, without any difference but what proceeds from climate or other external caufe, is a queftion that philofophcrs differ widely about. As the queftion is of moment in tracing the hiftory of man, I purpofe to contribute my mite. And in order to admit all the light poffible, a view of brute animals as divided into different races dr kinds, will make a proper introduftion. As many animals contribute to our well-being, and as many are noxious ^ man would be a being not a little impcrfeft, were he provided with no nieans but experience for diftinguifhing the one fort from the other. Did every animal make a fpcciea by itfelf (indulging the cxpreffion) differing from all others, a nian would finifh his courfe without acquir- ing as much knowledge of animals as is neceffary tvcn forfelf-prefervation : he would be abfolutely at a lofs with refpeft to unknown individuals. The Deity has left none of his works imperfeft. Ani- mals arc formed of different kinds, each kind having i figure >nd a temper peculiar to itfelf: great uni- formity is difcovered among animals of the fame kind ; great variety among animals of different kinds. And to prevent confulion, kinds are diftinguifhed externally by figure, air, manner fo clearly as not to cfcape even a child *. Nor does divine wifdom ftop here ; to complete the fyftem, we are endued with an innate conviftion, that each kind has properties pe- culiar to itfelf ; and that thefe properties belong to every individual of the kind (a). Our road to the •- ' -f ;, ; . . .. knowledge * « And out of the ground the Lord God formed every bead of the field, " and •very fowl of tlie air, and brought them unto Adam to fee what he would " call them. And Adam gave names to all cattle, and the fowl of the air, "•and'toeverybeaft of the field." Cm. il. 19, («) 8c« Elements of Criticifm, vol. a. p. 490. edit. 5. k' Prcl. Difc. of Lancuviges. knowledge of animals is thus wonderfully fhortencd : the experience we have of the difpofition and pro* perties of any animal, is applied without hefitation to every one of the kind. By that conviction, a child, familiar with one dog, is fo^d of others that refemble it ; an European, upon the firfl: fight of a cow in Africa, ftrokes it as gentle and innocent ; and an African avoids a tiger in Hindoflan as at home. If the theory be well founded, neither experience nor argument is required to prove that ahorfe is not an afs, or that a monkey is not a man (a). Some animals indeed are fo fimilar, as to render it uncer* tain whether they be not radically of the fame kind. But in fuch inilances we need not be folicitous ; for I venture to affirm, that both will be found gentle or fierce, wholefcai^ food or unwholefome. Such quef* tions may be curious, but they are of little ufe. Whether man be provided by nature with a faculty to diflinguifh innocent animals h'om what are noxious, feems not a clear point : fuch a faculty may be thought unneceilary to man, being fupplied by reafon and experience. But as reafon and experience have little influence on brute animals, they undoubtedly polTefs that faculty *. A bead of prey would be ill fitted for its ftation, if nature did not teach it what creatures to attack, what to avoid. A rabbit is the prey of the ferret. Prefent a rabbit, even dead, to a young ferret that never had feen a rabbit : it throws itfelf upon the body and bites it with fury. Abound ha$ the fame faculty with refpe6t to a hare ; and moft dogs have it. Unlcfs directed by nature, innocent animals would not know their enemy till they were . S 2 Ul {a) See M. Buffbn's natural hiftory. * Brute animals have many inftinds that are denied to man j becaufe the want of them can be fupplied by education. An infant muft be taught t9 walk ; and it is long before it acquires the art in perfeAion. Brutes have no teacher but nature. A foal, the moment it fees the li^h^ walks no lef; perfectly than its parents. And fo does a partridge, lapwing, &•, : Dente lupus, cornu taurus petit \ unde nifi iatus MonAratum. I^oa a#&. Of Men, and Prel. Difc. tn its clutches. A hare flies with precipitation from the firfl dog it ever faw ; and a chicken, upon the firft fight of a kite, cowers under its dam. Social animals, without fcruple, connedt with their own kind, and as readily avoid others *. Birds are not afraid of quad- rupeds ; not even of a cat, till they are taught by ex- perience that a cat is their enemy. They appear to be as. little afraid of a man naturally ; and upon that account are far from being (hy when left unmolefted. In the uninhabited iiland of Vifia Grand6, one of the Philippines, Kcmpfcr fays, that birds may be taken vnth the hand. Hawks, in fome of the South-fea iilands, are equally tame. At Port Egmont in the Falkland Iflands, geefe, far from being Ihy, may be knocked down with a IHck. The birds that inhabit certain rocks hanging, over the fca in the iiland of /\nnabon, take food readily out of a man's hand. In Arabia Felix, foxes . and apes (hew no fear of man ; the inliabitants of hot countries having no notion of hunting. . In the uninhabited ifland Bering, adjacent to ICauilkatka, foxes are fo little fliy that they fcarce go out of a man's way. Doth not this obfervation liiggeft a final caufe ? A partridge, a plover, a pheafant, would be loft to man for food, were they naturally, as much afraid of him as of a hawk or a kite. The divifion of animals into different kinds, ferves another purpofe, no lefs important than thofe menti- oned ; which is, to fit them for different climates. We learn from experience, that no animal nor vege- table is fitted for every climate ; and from experience we alfo learn, that there is no animal nor vegetable but what is fitted for fome climate, where it grows to perf.3:ion. Even in the torrid zone, plants of a cold cHmate ♦ The populace about Smyrna have a cruel amufement. They lay the eggs of a hen in a ftork's neii. Upon feeing the chickens, the male in amazement calls his neighbouring ftorks together ; who to revenge the affront upon them, cef^roy the pQor innocent female } while he bewails t:is misfortune in heavy Jamfntation. • . Pfcl. Difc. of Languages. Climate are found upon mountains where plants of a hot cU' e will not grow ; and the height of a moun-- tain m., / be determined \vi;:h tolerable precifion from the plants it produces. Wheat is not an indigenous plant in Britain : no farmer is ignorant that foreign- feed is requifitc to preferve the plant in vigour. To prevent flax from degenerating in Scotland and Ire- land, great quantities of foreign feed are annually- imported. A camel is peculiarly fitted for the burn- ing fands of Arabia ; and Lapland would be uninha- bitable but for rein-deer, an animal fo entirely fitted for piercing cold, that it cannot fubfift even in a tem- perate climate. Arabian and Barbary horfes degene- rate in Britain ; and to preferve the breed in forac degree of perfedlion, frequent fuppiies from their original climate are requifite. Spanifh horfes dege- nerate in Mexico; but improve in Chili, having more vigour and fwiftnefs there, than even the Andalufian race, whofe offspring they are. Our dunghill-fowl, imported originally from a warm country in Afia, are not hardened, even after many centuries, to bear the cold of this country like birds originally native : the hen lays few or no eggs in winter, unlefs in a houfe warmed with fire. The deferts of Zaara and Biledulgerid in Africa, may be properly termed the native country of lions ; there they are nine feet long and five feet high. Lions in the fouth of Africa to- ward the Cape of Good hope, are but five feet and a half long, and three and a half high. A breed of lions tranfplanted from the latter to the former, would, rife to the full fize ; and fink to the fmaller fize. if tranfplanted from the former to the latter *. . . * ■■■ » ■ ft • * That every fpecies of plants has a proper climate where it grows to per- fcftion, is a faft uncontroverted. The fame holds in brute animals. Bile- dulgerid, the kindly climate for lions, would be mortal to the bear, tlic wolf, the deer, and other inhabitants of*a cold region. Providence has not only fitted the produdtions of nature for different climates, but has guarded thefe produc- tions againft the extremities of the weather in the fame climate, M^oy plants tiofe ^ Of M£N, and Prcl. Difc. I To prefcrvc the different kinds or fpccics of ani- mals entire, as far as neceifary, Providence is careful to prevent a mixed breed. Few animals of different fpecies copulate together. Some may be brought to copulate, but v^'ithout eSe& ; and fome produce a mongrel, a mule for example, which feldom pro- creates, if at all. In fome few inftances, where a mixture of fpecies is harmlefs, procreation goes on without limitation. All the different fpecies of the dog-kind copulate together ; and the mongrels pro- duced generate others without end. < ' M. BuiFon, in his natural hiftory, borrows from Ray {a) a very artificial rule for afcertaining the dif- ferent fpecies of animals : "Any two animals that can *' procreate together, and whofe iffue can alfo procre- *' ate, are of the fame fpecies {b)." A horfe and an afs can procreate together ; but they are not, fays he, of the fame fpecies, but their iffue, a mule, cannot procre- ate. He applies that rule to man ; holding all men to be of the fame fpecies, becaufe a man and a woman, however different in fize, in ffiape, m complexion, can procreate without end. And by the fame rule he holds all dogs to be of the fame fpecies. With ref- peft to other animals, the rule (hould pafs without op- pofition from me ; but as it alfo refpeds man, the fubjeft of the prefent enquiry, I will examine it with attention. Providence, to prevent confufion, hath in many inftances with-held from animals of different fpecies a power of procreating together : but as our author has not attempted to prove that fuch reftraint is ■t])." Is not this the fame with faying that the carnel and the dromedary are different fpe- cies of the fame genus ? which alfo holds true of the different fpecies of men and of dogs. If our author will permit me to carry back to the creation the carnel and the dromedary as two diftin£t races, 1 defire no other conceflion. He admits no fewer than ten kinds of goats, vifibly diftinguifliable, which alfo pro- pagate together ; but fays, that thefe are varieties only, though permanent and unchangeable. No dif- ficulty is unfurmountable, if words be allowed to pafs without meaning. Nor does he even iidhere to the fame («) Vol. 10. p. 138. (i) Vol. 10. p, 1, Of Men, and Prcl. Difc fame bpihion : though in diflinguifhing a horfe from an afs, he affirms the mule they generate to be bar- ren ; yet afterward, entirely forgetting his rule, he admits the dircft contrary (a). At that rate a horfe and an afs arc of the fame fpecies. Did it never once enter into the mind of this author, that the human race would be ftrangely imperfeft, if they were un- able to diftinguifh a man from a monkey, or a hare from a hedge-hog, till it were known whether they can procreate together ? But it feems unneceffary after all to urge any ar- gument againft the foregoing rule, which M. BufFon himfelf inadvertently abandons as to all animals, men and dogs excepted. We are indebted to him for a remark, That not a fingle animal of the torrid zone is common to the old world and to the new. But how does he verify his remark ? Does he ever think of trying whether fuch animals can procreate together ? " They are,'* fays he, " of diiferent kinds, having no *' fuch refemblance as to make us pronounce them *« to be of the fame kind. Linnseus and Briffon," he adds, " have very improperly given the name of the camel to the lama and the pacos of Peru. So ap^ parentis the difference,that other writers clafs thefe animals with (heep. Wool however is the only circumftance in which a pacos refembles a fheep : nor doth the lama refemble a camel except in length of neck." He diftinguifheth in the fame manner, the true Afiatic tiger from feveral American animals that bear the fame nam.e. He mentions its fize, its force, its ferocity, the colour of its hair, the ftripes black and white that like rings furround alter- nately its trunk, and are continued to the tip of its tail } " charaders," fays he, " that clearly diftin- " guifli the true tiger from all animals of prey in the ** new world i the largeft of which fcarce equals one of ecially thofe in the mountains, are the fafec;uard of the ifland j and it was by their means chiefly that a number of rebelious negro flaves were fubducd in the year 1760. Prcl. Dlfc. of Languages. >3 our |ua- is a It |fco- )me the nng |e ne- and Iwere following faft. The inhabitants of the kingdom of Scnaar in Africa are true negroes, a jet'black com- plexion, thick lips, flat-nofe, curled woolly hair. The country itfelf is the hotted in the world. From the report of a late traveller, they are admirally protedl- ed by nature againft the violence of the heat. Their flcin is to the touch remarkably cooler than that of an European ; and is fo in reality, no Icfs than two degrees on Farhcnheit's thermometer. The young Women there are highly prized by the Turks for that aualitv. ' "'^'''' '''' -•'■•■'■*''♦'• ' '• unm r.^iM vvki. • Thus it appears tfiat there are different races of men fitted by nature for different climates. Upon examination another fad will perhaps alfo appear, that the natural produftions of each climate make the mod wholefomc food for the people who are fit- ted to five in it. Between the tropics, the natives live chiefly on fruits, feeds, and roots , and it is the opinion of the moll knowing naturalifts, that fuch food is of all the moft Wliblefome for the torrid zone; comprehending the hot plants, which grow there to perfeftion, ind tend greatly to fortify the ftomach. In a tentperate climate, a mixture of animal and ve- getable food is held to be the moft wholefome ; and there both animals and vegetables abound. In a cold climate, animals are in plenty, but few vegeta- bles that can ferve for food to man. What phyfici- ans pronounce upon that head, I know not; but if we dare venture a conjefture from analogy, animal food will be found the moft wholefome for fuch as are fitted by nature to live in a cold climate. M.Buffonvfroriithe rule. That animals which can procreate together, and jvhofe progeny can alfo pro- create, are of one fpecies, concludes, that all men are of one race or fpecies, apd endeavours to fupport that favourite opinion, by afcribing to the climate, to food, or to other accidental caufes, all the varieties that are found among men. But is he ferioufly of opimon, that any operation of climate, or of other accidental 14 Of Men, and Prcl. Difc. »l f accidental caufe, can account for the copper colour and fmooth chin univerfal among the Americans, the prominence of the pudenda univerfal among Hotten- tot women, or the black nipple no lefs univerfal among female Samoidcs? The thick fogs of the ifland St. Thomas may relax the fibres of the na- tives, but cannot make them more rigid than they are naturally. Whence then the difference with ref- ped to rigidity of 6bre8 between them and Euro- peans, but from original nature ? Can one hope for belief in afcribing to climate the low flature of the Efquimaux, the fmallnefs of their feet, or the ovet - grown fize of their head ; or in afcribing to cliniato the low flature of the Laplanders *, and their r'y vifage. Lapland is indeed piercingly cold ; but fo is Finland, and the northern parts oi Norway, the in- habitants of which are tall, comely, and well propor- tioned. The black colour of negroes, thick lips, 6 at nofe, crifped woolly hair, and rank fmell, diflinguifh them from every otner race of men. The AbyfHnians, on the contrary, are tall and well made, their com- plexion a brown olive, features well proportioned, eyes large and c^t a fparkling black, lipe thin, a nofe rather high thm fit i. There is no fuch difference of climate between Abyffinia and Negroland as to pro- duce thefe ftriking differences. At any rate there mull be a confiderable mixture both of foil and cli- mate in thefe extenfive regions ; and yet not the lead mixture is perceived in the people. -^w;, '-..,;: , ,. If the ciimate have any commanding influence, it muft be difplayed upon the complr- .on '^b'cfly j and in that article accordingly our author cr y}\i <( Ma (« cc (< fays he, " white in Europe, bla( Ataca, yellow in Afia, and red in America, is ftill the fame ani- mal, tinged only with the colour of the climate. Where the heat is exceifive, as in Guinea and Se- • . . I . " negal, .-. 1.... ... ,; >. '^ '. ^■■ *■ By late 2cccunts It appears that the Laplanders are originally Huns. Pf re Hel, an Hun^iiian, made lately this difcoveryj Yrh«n f«At to LapliOid for maK'/i{ astronomical obfervationt. rel. D'lfc. Of Lanouaoes. »5 pc, It and am- iate. Sc ral, tuns. Id for " ncgal, the j'-opic arc pcrfcftly black ; where Icfs " cxcelTivc, as in Abylfinia, the people arc Icfs black ) •* where it is n >''etempcfAtc, as in Barbary, and in •* Arabia, thty arc brown; and where mild, as in «* Europe aiiu Leffer Afia, fhey arc fair {a}.** But here he triumphs without a vidory . he is forc'd to acknowledge, that the Samoidrs, Laplanders, and Greenlandcrs, are of a fallow complexion ; for which he has the following falvo, that the cxt cmities of heat and of cold produce nearly the fame t^ti^t on the (kin. But he is totally fdcnt upon a tad that alone overturns his whole fydiem of colour^ viz. that all Americans without exception are of a copper co- lour, tho* in that vaft continent there is every variety of climate. The fouthern Chincfc arc white, tho* in the neighbourhood of the torrid zone ; and women of faihion in the ifland Otaheite, who cover them- felves from the fun, have the European complexion. Neither doth the black colour of fome A ricans, nor the brown colour of others, correfpond tot le climate. The people of the defert of Zaara, common ly termed Lower Ethiopia, though expofed to the vertical rays of the fun in a burning fand yielding not in heat even to Guinea, arc of a tawny colour, far from being jet- black like negroes. The natives of Monomotapa are perfedly black, with criljaed woolly hair, tho* the fouthern parts of that extenftve kingdom are in a temperate climate. And the CafFres, even thofe who live near the Cape of Good Hope, arc the fame fort of people. The heat of Abyffinia approacheth nearer to that of Guinea ; and yet, as mentioned above, the inhabitants are not black. Nor wiJ our author's ingenious obfervation concerning the extre- mities of heat and cold account for the fallow com- plexion of the Samoides, Laplanders, and Greenland- ers. The Finlanders and northern Norwegians live in a climate no lefs cold than that of the people mentioned ; and yet are fair beyond other Europeans. T I Prdi Difc. I fay more, there are many inftances of races of peo-i pie prcfcrving their original colour in climates very differ. :i Prel. Difci of Languages. 17 are continually at work, and have been for ages, to darken their complexion; but that operatioa has no eticd: on their children. From the adion of the fun is it polhble to explain, why a negro, hke a Euro- pean, is born with a ruddy (kin, which turns jet-blacl^ the eighth or ninth day * ? H.-. v . -if ; ;|?jji.r/ifih.~'« uii, Different tribes are diftinguifhable, no lefs by in- ternal difpofition than by external figure. ]^ations are for the moft part fo blended by war, by com- merce, or by other means, that vain would be the at- tempt to trace out an original character in any culti* vated nation. But there are favage tribes, which as far as can be difcovered, continue to this day pure without mixture, which adt by inftind not art, which have not learned to difguife their paffions : to fuch I confine the inquiry. There is no propenfity in hu- man nature more general than averfion from ftran- gers, as will be made evident afterward (a). And yet fome nations mufl be excepted, not indeed many in number, who are remarkably kind to ftrangers ; by which circumftance they appear to be of a fingu- lar race. . In order to fet the exceptions in a clear light, a few inftances ihall be premifed of the general propenfity. The nations that may be the moft relied on for an original character, are iflanders at a dif- tance from the continent and from each other. Among fuch, great variety of character is found. Some iflands adjacent to New Guinea, are inhabited by negroes, a bold, mifchievous, untracta^le race ; always ready to attack ftrangers when they approach the iliore. The people of New Zealand are of a large fize and of a hoarfe voice. They appeared fliy according to Tafman's account. Some of them how- ever ventured on board in order to trade ; but find- ing opportunity, they furprifed feven of his men in a Vol. I. . G .„,.- ihallop, * Difterent flowers derive their colour from nature, and rvefervc the fame colour in evnry climate. \V!iat re;iK>n is there to believe, th.it climate HieuW have greater influence upon tli«; colour of men than ot tiowcrs ? ■» |[yor(hipped the French, providing them with neceflaries, and in return thankfully receiving knives, hatchets, fmali looking-glaiTes, and other fuch baubles- In apart of California the men go naked ; and are fond of feathers and fhells. They are governed by a king, with great mildnefs ; and of all favages are the mufl humane, even to ftrangers. An ifland difcovered in the South fea by Tafman, 2.ifl: degree of fouthern la- titude and 177th of longitude well from London, was called by him Atnjierdam, The natives, who had no arms oiFenfive or defenfive, treated the Dutch with great civility, except in being given to pilfering. At no great diflance another ifland was difcovered, named Aunamocha by the natives, and Rotterdam by Tafman ; poiTefled by a people refembling thofc lalt mentioned, particularly in having no arms. The Dutch, failing round the ifland, faw abundance of cocoa-trees planted in rows, with many other fruit- bearing trees, kept in excellent order. Commodore Roggewein, commander of a Dutch fleet, difcovered, anno 1721, a new ifland in the South fea; inhabited by a people lively, active, and fwift of foot ; of a fweet and modeft deportment : but timorous and faint-hearted ; for having on their knees prefented fome refrefliments to the Dutch, they retired with precipitation. Numbers of idols cut in ftone were placed along the coaft, in the figure of men with large ears, and the head covered with a crown ; the whole nicely proportioned and highly finiflied. They fled for refuge to thefe idols : and they could do no better ; for they had no weapons either offehfive or defenfive. Neither was there any appearance of government or fubordination ; for they all fpoke and a<5^e(l with equal freedom. This ifland, fit ;ated -28 degrees 30 minutes fouthern latitude, and about 1 15 decrees of longitude well from London, is by the C ?. ' Dutch il I i I' . I 10 Of Mek, and Prcl. Difc. Dutch called Eq/ler or Pafch IJland * » The Com- modore direfting his courfe north-weft, difcovered in the fouthern latitude of 12 degrees, and in the lon- gitude of 190, a clufter of iflands, planted with va- riety of fruit trees, and bearing herbs, corn, and roots, in plenty. When the fliips approached the Ihorc, the inhabitants came in their canoes with filh, cocoa-nuts, Indian figs, and other rcfrefhments ; for which they received fmall looking-glafles, ft rings of beads, and other toys. Thefe iflands were well peo- pled : many thoufands thronged to the fliore to fee the (hips, the men being armed with bows and arrows, and appearing to be governed by a chieftain : they had the complexion of Europeans, only a little more fin-burnt. They were brifl^ and lively, treating one another with civility ; and in their behaviour exprefs- ing nothing wild or lavage. Their bodies were not painted ; but handfomely cloathed, from the middle downward, with filk fringes in neat folds. Large hats fcreened the face from the fun, and collars of odoriferous flowers furrounded the neck.. The view of the country is charming, finely diverfified with hills and vaiiies. Some of the iflands are ten miles in circumference, fome fifteen, fome twenty. The hiftorian adds, that thefe iflanders are in all refpeds the mod civilized and the beft tempered people he difcovered in the South fea. Far from being afraid, they treated the Dutch with great kindncfs ; and exprefl'ed much regret at their departure. Thefe illands got the name of Bowman's i//ands, from the captain of the Tienhoven, who difcovered them. In Commodore Byron's voyage to the South fea, while he was pafling through the ftreights of Magellan, fome natives approached in their canoes ; and upon invitation came on board without fear, or even ihy- nefs. They at the fame time appeared grofsly ftupid; -r":- 'r::t':r,- - :..... ,and ■ i\ * The women were very Ic^vlne;, enticing tlic Dutclimen Iiy every female 4r( to tlie nioft intimate familiarity. Prcl. Difc. of Languages, ftl and particularly could not comprehend the ufe of knives, offered to them in a prefent. In another part of the ftpeights, the natives were highly delight- ed with the prefents made them. M. Bougainville, in his voyage round the world, defcribes a people in the ftrcights of Magellan, probably thofe laft menti- oned, as of fmall (lature, tame and peaceable, having fcarce any cloathing in a climate bitterly cold. Com- modore Byron difcovered another ifland in the South fea covered with trees, which was named Byron ijland. The inhabitants were neither favage nor fhy, trafficking freely with the crew, tho* they feemed ad- didcd to thieving. One of them ventured into the Ihip. After leaving Otaheite, Mr. Banks and Dr. Solander, failing weflward, difcovered a duller of iflands, termed by them Society ijlands : the natives were extremely civil, and appeared to have no aver- fion to ftrangers. The ifland of Oahena, north-weft from that of Otaheite, is a delightful fpot ; the foil fertile, and the ihores adorned with fruit-trees of va^ rious kinds. The inhabitants are well proportioned, with regular engaging features j the women uncom- monly beautiful and delicate. The inhabitants be- haved with great hofpitality and probity to the crew of the (hip in which thefe gentlemen lately made a voyage round the world. To find the inhabitants of thefe remote iflands dif- fering fo widely from the reft of the world, as to have no averfion to ftrangers, but on the contrary (liowing great kindnefs to the firft they probably ever faw, is a fingular phenomenon* It is vain here to talk of cli- mate ; becaufe in all climates we fmd an averfion to ftrangers. From the inftances given above, let us feleft two iflands, or two clufters of iflands, fuppofe for example Bowman's iflands inhabited by Whites, and thofe adjacent to New Guinea inhabited by Blacks. Kindnefs to ftrangers is the national charac- ter of the former, and hatred to ftrangers is the nati- onal character of the latter. Virtues and vices of in- dividual 9^ Of Men, and^ r. Prel.Difc. dividuals, depend on caufcs fo various, and fo varia- able, as to give an impreflion of chance more than of defign; We are not always certain of uniformity in the condud; even of the fame perfon •, far lefs of different perfons however intimately related : how fmall is the chance, that Tons will inherit their father's virtues or vices ? In mod countries, a favagc who has no averfion to flrangers, nor to neighbouring clans, would be noted as Angular : to find the lame quaUty in every one of his children, would be (till more fo, were it dift'ufcd widely through a multitude of bis de- fcendents. Yet a family is as nothing compared with a whole nation ; and when we find kindnefs to flrangers k national charadter in ccrtatn tribes, we rejeft with difdain the notion of chance, and perceive intuitively that effects fo regular and permanent mult be owing to a conftant and invariable caufe. Such effefts cannot be accidental, more than the unifor- mity of male and female births in all countries and at all times. They cannot be accounted for from edu- cation nor from example ; which indeed may con- tribute to fpread a certain faihion or certain manners, but cannot be their fundamental caufe. Where the greater part of a nation is of one character, educa- tion and example may extend it over the whole ; but the charafter of that greater part can have no foun- dation but nature. What refource then have we for explaining the oppofite manners of the iflandcrs fibove mentioned, but that they are of different races ? . . The fame doftrine is ftrongly confirmed upon find- ing courage or cowardice to be a national charatler. Individuals differ widely as to thefc ; but national character of courage and cowardice muft depend on a permanent and invariable caufe. I therefore pro- ceed to inftances of national courage and cowardice, that the reader may judge for himfelf, whether he can difcover any other caufe for inch Heady uniformity but diverfity of race. ;,: .• - ' The PrclPifc. Of Languages. »3 The northern nations of Europe and Afia have at all times been remarkable for courage. Lucan en« deayours to account for the courage of the Scandina- vians from a firm belief, univerfal among the tp^ that they would be happy in another worjd. i ■ r t: Vobis qu6lqribus^ umbra, [i,. vior-,-.'.' Non tacitas Erebifedes, Ditifque profun4i Pallida regna petunt ; regit idem fpiritus artus :.yj., Orbe alio : longa (catiitisji cognita) vita Mors media eji, Certe populi, quos defpicit ArSlsSf, Felices ^rr ore flip ; quos tile, iinioruni .., Maximus, baud urg^t leti metus, hide ruendi .z > :,.• Inferum mens prona yirht animaque capac£s if j.fj :;; Mortis, *{a) ■{.,.. .\,im-'n ■'■■■ -^ •);ij|>'rliv/ bj;-' Pretty well jreafoned for a poet! but among all na- tions the ibul is believed to be immortal, tho' all n^<* tions have not the courage of the Scandinavians. The Caledonians y/ere eminent for that virtue ; 5^nd yet had no fuch opinion of happinefs after death, as to ma^e them fond of dying. Souls after death were believed to have but a gloomy fort of exifleace, like what is defcribed by Homer (^j. Their courage therefore was a gift of nature^ ppt pf faith. The * " Jf dying mortals dooms tliey fing ansfa^ ** No ghoAs defcend to dwell in endlefs night ; • ■ : « No parting fouls to grifly Pluto go, " Nor feek the dreary filent [hades below ; " But forth they fly, immortal in their kind, ! ** And other bodies in new worlds they find, '* Thus life for ever runs its endlefs race, " And, like a line, Death but divides the fpace ; ** A ftop which can but for a moment laft, 1 " A point between the future and the pall. ** Thrice happy they beneath the northern (kles, " Who that worft fear, the fear of death, defpife ; " Hence they no cares for this frail being feel, ** But rufh undaunted on the pointed fteel ; ** Provoke approaching fate, and bravely fcom ' " To fparetliat life which muftfofoon return." [a) Lib. I. {b) Odyfley, b. Ji. T r 1 ■ i/ M-<)i. li:r;b- ■'ll.'ll' .y\y ti.n Rows. # I ■'W i! M ^4 Of Men, and Prel. Difc.V people of Malacca and of the neighbouring iilands, who are all ot the fame race and fpeakthe lame Ian-' guaj^e, are fierce, turbulent, and bold above any other of the human fpecies ; tho' they inhabit the torrid zone, held commonly to be the land of cow- ardice. They never obferve a treaty of peace when they have any temptation to break it j and are per- petually at war with their neighbours, or with one another^ Inftances there are, more than one, of twenty-five or thirty of them in a boat, with no ©ther weapons but poniards, venturing to attack a European (hip of war. Thefe men inhal")it a fertile country, which Ihould naturally render them indo- lent imd etfeminate ; a country abounding with va- riety of cxquifite fruits and odoriferous flowers in cndlefs fucceflion, fufficient to fink any other people into voluptuoufnefs. They are a remarkable excep- tion from the obfervation of Herodotus,' " "^Fhat it is *' not given by the gods to any country to produce ** rich crops and warlike men.*' This inftance, with what ar6 to tollow, Ihow paft contradiction, that a hot climate is no enemy to courage. The inhabi- tants of New Zealand are of all men the molt intre- pid, and the lead apt to be alarmed at danger. The Giagatj are a fierce and a bold people in'the midft of tbe toifrid zone of Africa : and fo are the Anfieki, bordering on Loango. The wild Arabs, who live moftly within the torrid zone, are bold and refolutc, holding war to be intended for them by Providence. The African negroes, tho' living in the hotteft known country, are yet (tout and vigorous, and the moll healthy people in the univcrfe. 1 need fcarcely men- tion again the negroes adjacent to New Guinea, who have an uncommon degree of boldnefs and ferocity. But I mentipn with pleafure the ifland Otaheite, dif- covered in the South fea by Wallis, becaufe the inha- bitants are not exccededby any other people in firm- nefs of mind. Tho' the Dolphin was probably the firft fliip they had ever feen, yet they refolutely . marched Prcl.Difc. of Lancuacls. as marched to the fliore, and attacked her with ^ (hower of Hones. Some volleys of ftnall Ihot m*. j them give way : but returning with redoubled ardour, they did not totally lofc heart till the great guns thundered in their ears. Nor even then did they run away in terror ; but advifmg together, they aflumed looks of peace, and fignihed a wiUingnefs to forbear hoftilities. Peace being fettled, they were fingularly kind to our people, fupplying their wants, and mixing with them in friendly intercourfe *, When Mr. Banks and Dr. Solander were on the coaft of New Holland, the natives, feeing fome pf our men fifhing near the Ihore, finglcd out a number of their own equal to thofe in the boat, who marching down to the water-edge, challenged the ftrangers to fight them ; an inftance of true heroic courage. The peo- ple in that part of New Holland muft be of a race very different from thofe whom Dampier faw. A noted author (a) holds all favages to be bold, impetuous, and proud ; aliigning for a caufe, their equality and independence. As in that observation he feems to lay no weight on climate, and as little on original difpofition, it is with regret that my fubje^ leads me in this public manner to differ fronv him with refpeft to the latter. The character he gives in general to all favages, is indeed applicablje tcy many favage tribes, our European forefathers in par- ticular ; but not to all. It but faintly fuits even the North-American favages, whom our author feems to have had in his eye ; for in war they carefully avoid^ open force, relying chiefly on ftratagem and furprife. They value themfelves, it is faid, upon faving men ; but as that motive was no lefs weighty in Europe, and indeed every where, the pronenefs of our fore- fathers to open violence, demonftrates their fuperi- ority in aclive courage. The following incidents reported .r« ■:i. * It is remarkable tliat thcfe people roaft their meat with hot ftones, as jthe Caledonians did in the days of OfTian. ' (a) Mr. Ftrsufon, t «w Of Men, and J Prtl Difc; h Mi reported by Charlevoix give no favourable idea of Nottli-A'ncrican boldnefs. The fort de Vcrchcres in Canada, belonging to the French, was in the year 1690 attacked by fome Iroquois. They approached filcntly, preparing tofcale the palifade, ^yhcn a mwf- kct-f])pt or two made them retire. Advancing a fep cond time, they were again repulfed, wondering that they could dilcover none but a woman, who was fecn .eypry where. This was Maoanic tic Verchercs, who appcaicij as rt.folutq a6 ii lupported by a nu- merous garrilba. The hopes of (lorming a place without men to defend it, cccafioned reiterated at^ iiizk"]. After two days fuge, they retired, fearing to be inttrc( picd in tiieir rttreat. Two >: ars after, a party of the fame naiion app^ arcd beloic the fort fo unexpectedly, that a girl of fourteen, daughter of the proprietor, had^ut time to (hut tht; gate. With the young woman there was not a, foul but one raw foldier. She Ihowed herfelf with her alliflant, fome- times in one place, fonictimes in another ; changing' her drefs frequently in order to [ ive fome appearance of a garrifon, and always firing opportunely. The faint hearted Iroquois .decamped without fuccefs. JJat if the, Americans abound not with adive <'Ourage, their pallivc courage is beyond conception. Every writer expatiates on the torments they endure, not only patiently, but with fingular fortitude ; de- riding their tormentors, and braving their utmoft cruelty. North-American favages diifer indeed fo widely from thofe formerly in Europe, as to ren- der it highly improbable that they are of the fame rr.ce. Paflive courage they have even to a wonder; but abound not in adive courage : our European forefathers, on the contrary, were much more re- markable for the latter than for the former. The Kamfkatkans in every article refemble the North- Americans. In war they are full of ftratagem, but never attack openly if they can avoid it. When vic- toriousj they murder without mercy, burn their pri- foners Prcl. Diiiil of Languages. foncrs alive, or tear out their bowele. If they be furrounded and cannot efcape, they turn defperate, cut the throats of their wives and children, and throw thcmfelvcs into the midft of their enemies. And yet thefe people are abundantly free. Their "want of active courage is the more furprifmg, becaufc they make no difiiculty of fuicide when they fall into any diftrefs. But their paflivc courage is equal to that of the Americans : when tortured in order to ex- tort a confellion, they Ihow the utmoft firmnefs; and feldom difcover more than what they freely confefs at their firft examination. »' 's...-; i . . . . -^ .. The favages of Guiana arc indolent, good-na- tured, fubmifiive, qikI a little cowardly ; tho' they arc on a footing with the North- Americans in equa- lity and independence. -The inhabitants of the Ma.- rian or Ladrone illands live in a ftate of i^rfeft equa- lity : every man avenges the injury done: to him- felf ; and even children are rcgardlefs of their pa- rents. Yet thefe people are great cowards : in bat- tle indeed they utter loud fhouts ; but it is more to animate themfelves than to terrify the enemy. The negroes on the flave-coaft of Guinea are good-na- tured and obliging ; but not remarkable for cou- rage *. The Laplanders are of all men the moft timid: upon the (lighteft furprifc they fall down in a fwoon like the feebleft female in England : thun- der deprives them of their five fenfes. The face of their country is nothing but rocks covered with mofs : it would be fcarce habitable but for rein-deer, on which the Laplanders chiefly depend for food. ' The Macaffars, inhabitants of the ifland Celebes in the torrid zone, difl'er from all other people. 'J'hey have adive courage above even the ficrceft European favages j and they equal the North-Ame- rican , ■.».■ V }„■ * The Cormantees, a tribe of negroes on tlie Gold coaft, aro indeed brave and intivpid. When kindly treated in the Weft Indies, they make excellent feivants. The negroes of Senegal art: remarkable in the Well Indies for fide- !;tv and tjcod under/' niidine. •zS Of Men, and Prcl. Difc. rican Rivages In palTive courage. During the reign of Cba Naraya King of Siam, a fmall party of Ma- cafiars wlio were in the king's pay having revolted, it required a whole army of Siamites to fubdue thcin. Four Macaifars, taken alive, were cruelly tortured. They were beaten to mummy with cudgels, iron pins were thruft under their nails, all their finger* broken, the flelh burnt off their arms, and their temples fqueezcd between boards ; yet they bore all with unpaialleled firmnefs. They even refufed to be converted to Chriftianity, tho' the Jefuits offered to intercede for them. A tiger, let loofe, having faf- ttned on the foot of one of them, the man never once offered to draw it away. Another, without uttering a word, bore the tiger breaking the bones of his back. A third fuffered the animal to lick the blood from his face, without fhrinking, or turning away his eyes. During the whole of that horrid fpcflacle, they never once bewailed thcmfelves, nor were heard to utter a groan. ," The frigidity of the North-Americans, men and women, differing in that particular from all other favages, is to mc evidence of u feparate race. And I am the more confirmed in that opinion, when I find a celebrated writer, whofe abilities no perfon calls in queftion, endeavouring in vain to afcribe that circumftance to moral and phyfical caufes. Si Per- ^ama ciextra defemii pojfct. In concluding from the foregoing fafts that there arc different races of men, 1 reckon upon ftrenu- ous oppofition ; not only from men biaffed againft what is new or uncommon, but from numberlcfs i'edatc writers, who hold every diflitigui filing mark, internal as well as external, to be the effect of foil and climate. Againfl: the former, patience is my only fliield j but 1 cannot hope for any converts to a new opinion, with- out removing the arguments urged by the latter. Among the endlcfs numbers of writers who afcribe fuprcme efficacy to the clijiiate, Vitruviu* fliall take the Prcl. nifo. of L-ANOUAfiEJ. 29 the lead. The firll chapter of his fixth book is en- tirely employed in delcribing the inihicncc of cli- mate on the conftitution and temper. The follow- ing is the fubftancc. " For the fun, where he draws * out a moderate degree of moillure, preferves the body in a temperate ftate ; but where his rays arc more fierce, he drains the body of moidure. In very cold regions, where the nioilturc is not fucked up by the heat, the body fucking in the dewy air, rifes to a great fize, and has a deep tone of voice. Northern nations accordingly from cold and moif- ture, have large bodies, a white ikin, red hair, grey eyes, and much blood. Nations, on the con- trary, near the equator, are of fmall fixture, tawny complexion, curled hair, black eyes, flen- der legs, and little blood. From want of blood they are cowardly: but they bear fevers well, their conftitution being formed by heat. Nor- thern nations, on the contrary, fink under a fever ; but from the abundance of blood, they are bold " in war." In another part of the chapter he adds. From the thinnefs of the air and enlivening heat, , fouthern nations are quick in thought, and acute in reafoning. Thofe in the north, on the contra- ry, who breathe a thick and cold air, are dull and flupid." And this he illuftrates from ferpents, which in fummer-heat are active and vigorous j but in winter, become torpid and immoveable. He then proceeds as follows. " It is then not at all " furprifing, that heat (liould fliarpen the under- ftanding, and cold blunt it. Thus the fouthern nations are ready in counfel and acute in thought; but make no figure in war, their courage being exhaufted by the heat of the fun. The inhabi- tants of cold climates, prone to war, riifli on with vehemence without the lead fear; but are flow of underflanding." Then he proceeds to account, upon the fame principle, for the fuperiority of the Romans in arms, and for the extent of their em- pire. (( <( Ci << (( ! ce cc cc cc pire. " For as the planet Jupiter lies between the " fervid heat of Mars and the bitter cold of Saturn ; ** fo Ttaly, in the middle of the temperate zone, poflefles all that is favourable in dther climate. Thus by conduct in war, the Romans overcome the impetuous force of northern barbarians ; and by vigour of arms confound the politic fchemes of her fouthern neighbours. Divine providence " appears to have placed the Romans in that happy " fituation, in order that they might become maficrs " of the world.*' 'Vegetius accounts for the dif- ferent characters of men from the fame principle : *' Omnes nationes quse vicinas funt foli,. ni- ** micidfcalore ficcatas, amplius quidem fapere, fed " mirWs habere fanguinis dicunt : ac propterea con- " flantiam ac fiduciam cominus non habere pug- nandi, quia metuunt vulnera, qui fe ^xiguum fanguinem habere noverunt. Contra, feptentrio- ** nalcs populi, remoti a folis ardoribus, inconfulti- " ores quidem^ fed tamen largo fanguine redun- *^ dantes, funt ad bclla promptiflimi* (a)." — Ser- vius, in his commentary on the iEneid of Virgil (^), fays, " Afri verfipelles, Graeci leves, Galli pigrioris " ingcnii, quod natura climatum facitf." Mal- let, in the introdutlion to his hiftory of Denmark, copying Vitruvius and Vegetius, ftrains hard to de- rive ferocity and courage in the Scandinavians from the climate : " A great abundance of blood, fibres ftrong and rigid, vigour inexhauftible, formed •- the temperament of the Germans, the Scandina- vians, and of a!l other ptople who live under the. *' ing wounded, as confcious of their want cf blood. The northern people, " on the contrary, removed from tlie ardor of the fun, are lefs remarkable for " the powers of tie mindj but abounding in bloodj they aieproneto war." (ij) Lib. r. cap. 2. De re militari. {i) Lib. 6. ver. 724. " (t ) " The Africans arefubtleand full of ftratagem,thc Creclcs are fickle, " the CauU flow of parts, all which diveilities are occafiyned by the climate," It Prel. Difc. of Languages. 31 •* the fame climate. Robuft by the climate, and " hardened with exercife ; confidence in bodily " flrength formed their charafter. A man who " relics on his own force, cannot bear rcftraint, " nor fubmillion to the arbitrary will of another. *' As he has no occafion for artifice, he is altogether " a ftranger to fraud or diflimulation. As he is al- " ways ready to repel force by force, he is not fuf- " picious nor diftruftful. His courage prompts him ** to be faithful in friendfliip, generous, and even " magnanimous. He is averfe to occupations that " require more afliduity than adlon ; becaufe mo- " derate exercife affords not to his blood and fibres " that degree of agitation which fuits them. Hence *' his difgufl at arts and manufadlures ; and as paf- *' fion labours to juftify itfelf, hence his opinion, that " war only and hunting are honourable profeflions.'* Before fubfcribing to this doftrine, I wifh to be fa- tisfied of a few particulars. Is our author certain, that inhabitants of cold countries have the greateft quantity of blood? And is he certain, that courage is in every man proportioned to the quantity of his blood * ? Is he alfo certain, that ferocity and love of war did univerfally obtain among the northern Eu- ropeans ? Tacitus gives a very different charafter of the Chauci, who inhabited the north of Germany : " Tarn immcnfam terrarum fpatium non tencnt tan- *' turn Chauci, fed et implent: populus inter Ger- ** manos nobilHTimus, quique magnitudinem fuam ", malit * At that rate, the lofs of an ounce of blcod may turn the balance. Cou- rage makes an Cirential ingredient in magnanimity and heroifm: are fuch elevated virtues corporeal merely? is the mind admitted for no (hare ? This indeed would be a mortifying circumftance in the human race. But even fuppofnig courage to be corporeal merely, it is however lar from being pro- portioned to the quantity of blood : a greater quantity than can be circulated freely and eafily by the force of the heart and arteries, becomes adifeafe, termed aj.icthora. Bodily courage is chiefly founded on t'.ie Iblids. When by tlie vi- gour and elafticityjof the heart and arteries a brilk circulation of blood is produced, a man is in good fpirits, lively and bold ; a greater quantity of blood, inQead ot raifmg courage to a higher pitch, ncvu fails to produce fluggiflinefs, and depreflion of mind. ,. , i 'if 1'' ' 1 ' ', 4 , J i! 3» Of Men, and Prcl. Difc. cc «c the ancient practice of expofing them. The 3tfc£lion of the motiier commences with the birth of the child ; and had 0x9 a vote, no infant would ever be deftroyed. But as the affedllon of the father begins much later, the praAice of deftroying newrborn infants may be thought not altogether incredib'e in a vMnderihg nation, who live by rapl.-ie, and who can provide themfelves with children more eafily than by the tfidiout an4 precarious method of rearing the(n. 3« Of Men, and PreKDIfc. . ' r)cr that has not a parallel in any other part of the world ; it would be thought inconfiftent with human nature were it not well vouched. Others wreak their refentment on the perfon who affronts them ; but an inhabitant of Japan wreaks it on himfelf;. he rips up his own belly. Kempfer reports the fol- lowing inftance, A gentleman going down the great flair of the Emperor's palace, pafTed another going up, and their fwords happened to clafli. The perfon defcending took offence: the other cxcufed himfelf, faying that it was accidental 9 adding, that the fwords only were concerned, and that the one was as good as the other. I'll fhow you the diffe- rence, fays the perfon who began the quarrel : he drew his fword and ripped up his own belly. The other, piqued at being thus prevented in revenge,, haftened Up with a plate he had in his hand for the Emperor's table ; and returning with equal fpeed, he in lil^e manner ripped up his belly in fight of his an^ tagonifl, faying, " If I had not been ferving my prince, you fhould not have got the flart of me : but I fnall die fatisfrea, having fhowed you that, my fword is as good as yours." The fame author gives an inftance of uncornmon fefbcity in the Japa- nefe, blended with manriers highly polifhed. In the midfl of a large company at dinner, a young wo--^ man, flraining to reach a plate, unwarily fuffered wind to efcape. Afhamed and confounded, fhe raifed her breafts to her mouth, tore them with her, teeth, and expired on the fpot. The Japanefe are equally fmgular in fome of their religious opini- ons. They never fupplicate the gods in diflrefs ; holding, that as the gods enjoy uninterrupted blifs, fuch fupplications would be offenfive to them. Their holidays accordingly are dedicated to feafls, wed- dings, and all public and private rejoicings. It is delightful to the gods, fay they, to fee men happy. They are far from being fingular in thinking that a benevolent deity is pleated to fee men happy ; but nothing cc Prel. Difc. of Languages. 39 nothing can be more inconfiftent with the common feelings of men, than to hold, that in diflrefs it is wrong to fupplicate the Author of our being for re- lief, and that he w" be difplcafed with fuch fuppli- cation. In, deep affliction there is certainly no balm equal to that of pouring out the heart to a benevo- lent deity, and cxpreffing entire refignation to his will. In fupport of the foregoing dodlrine, many parti- culars (till more extraordinary might have been quoted from Greek and Roman writers : but truth has no occafion for artifice ; an^d I would not take ad- vantage of celebrated names to vouch fa£ls that ap- pear incredible or doubtful. The Greeks and Ro- mans madean illuflrious figure in poetry, rhetoric, and all the fine arts ; but they were little better than novices in natural hiftory. More than half of the globe was to them the Terra Aujiralis incognita ; and imagination operates without controul, when it is not checked by knowledge : the ignorant at the fame time are delighted with wonders ; and the moft wonderful ftory is always the mod welcome. This may ferve as an apology for ancient writers, even when they relate and believe fafts to us incredible. Men at that period were ignorant in a great meafure, of nature, and of the limits of her operations. One cpnceliion will chearfuUy be made to me, that the writers mentioned, who report things at fecond* hand, arc much more excufable than, the earlieft of our modern travellers, who pretend to vouch end- lefs wonders from their Qv.^n knowledge. J*?atural hiftory, that of man efpecially, is of late years much ripened : no improbable tale is futfercd to pafs with- out a rtri(5V examination ; and 1 have been careful to adopt no faCts, but what are vouched by late tra- vellers and writers of credit. Were it true, what Diodorus Siculus reports, on the authority of Aga- tharchidcs of Cnidus, concerning the Ichthyophages on the eall coail of Afric, it would be a more preg- naa II 40 Of Men, and Prcl. Dilc ■I' *:: n^^nt proof of a diflinft race of men, than any I have difcovcrrd. I'hcy arc defcribcd to be fo flupid, that even when their wives and children are killed in their fight, they itand infenfible, and give nofigns cither of a?iger or of compaliion. This 1 cannot believe upon fo llight a teltimony ; efpecially as the Greeks and Romans were at that time extremely credulous, being lefs acquainted with neighbouring nations, than we are with the Antipodes. Varro, in his treatife De re rujika, reports it as an undo btcd truth, that in Lu- fitania mares were impregnated by the weft wind ; and both Pliny and Columella are equally pofitive. The Balearic iflands, Majorca, Minorca, Yvica, are at no great diftance from Sicily j and yet Diodorus the Sicilian reports of the inhabitants, that at the fo- Jemnization of marriage all the male friends, and even the houfchold lervants, enjoyed the bride be- fore the bridegroom was admitted. Crcdat Judaus Appella, It would not not be much more difficult to make me believe what is faid by Pliny of the Blem- myans, that they had no head, and that the mouth and eyes were in the bread ? or of the Arimafpi, who had but one eye, placed in the middle of the fore- head ; or of the Aftomi, who having no mouth, could neither eat nor drink, but lived upon fmelling ; or of a thoufand other abfurdities which Pliny re- lates, with a grave face, in the 6th book of his na- tural hiilory, cap. 30. and in the 7th book, cap. 2. Thus upon an extenfivc furvey of the inhabited parts of our globe, many nations are found differing fo widely from each other, not only in complexion, features, (hape, and other external circumftances, but in temper and difpofition, particularly in two capital articles, courage, and behaviour to ftrangers, that even the certainty of different races could not make one exped more ftriking varieties. Doth M. Buffon think it fufficient to fay dryly, that fuch varieties may poffibly be the effed of climate, or of other accidental caufes ? The prcfumption is, that the Prcl. Difc. of Lakguacc»« 4t the varieties fubfifting at prcfcnt have always fubfift» cd ; which ought to be held as true, till pofitivc evi- dence be brought of the contrary : inftead of which we are put off with mcrefuppofitions and poflibilitics. But not to reft entirely Upon prcfumptivc evidence, to me it appears clear from the very frame of the human body, that there muft be difierent races of men fitted for different climates. Few animals arc more affeded than men generally are, not only with change of feafons in the hmt climate, but with change of weather in the fame feafon. Can fuch a being be fitted for all climates equally ? Impoflible. A man muft at leaift be hardened by nature againft the flightcr changes of feafons or weather : he ought to be altogether infenfible of fuch changes. Yet from Sir John Pringle's obfervations on the difcafes of the army, to go no further, it appears, that even military men, who ought of all to be the hardieft, are greatly affected by them. Horfes and horned cattle fleep on the bare ground, wet or dry, without harm ; and yet are not made for every climate : can a man be made for every climate, who is fo much more delicate, that he cannot fleep on wet ground without hazard of fomc mortal difeafe ? . But the argument I chiefly rely on is, That were all men of one fpecies, there never could have exift- cd, without a miracle, different kinds, fuch as exift at prefent. Giving allowance for every fuppofable variation of cH mate or of other natural caufes, what can follow, as obferved about the dog-kind, but endlefs varieties among individuals, as among tulips in a garden, fo as that no individual fliall refemble another ? Inftead of which, we find men of different kinds, the individuals of each kind remarkably uni- form, and differing no lefs remarkably from the in- dividuals of every other kind. Uniformity with- out variation is the offspring of nature, never of chance. . , . . There 4» Of Men, and Prcl. Difc. ).': I I It i tfc < There is another argument that appears alfo to have weight. Horfes with refpeft to fizcr, Ihapc, and fpirif, difffr widely in dillercnt cUmatcs. But let a male and a female of whatever climate be carried to a country where horics arc in pcrfeftion, their progeny will improve gradually, and will ac-« quire in time the perfedion of their kind. Is not this a proof, that all horfes are of one kind ? If fo, men are not all of one kind; for if a White mix with a. black \n whatever climate, or a Hottentot with a Samoide, the rcfult will not be either an improve- ment of the kind, or the contrary ; but a mongrel breed differing from both parents. It is thus afcertained beyond any rational doubt, that there are different races or kinds of men", and that thefc races or kinds are naturally fitted for dif- ferent climates : whence we have reafon to conclude, that originally each kind was placed in its proper climate, whatever change may have happened in later times by war or commerce. There is a remarkable fad that confirms the fore- going conjpdures. As far back as hiftory goes, or tradition kept alive by hiflory, the earth was inha- bited by lavages divided into many fmall tribes, each tribe having a language peculiar to itfelf. Is it not natural to fuppofc, that thefe original tribes were dif- ferent races of men, placed in proper climates, and left tp form their own language ? Uponfumming up the whole particulars mention- ed above, would one hcfitate a n^oment to adopt the following opinion, were there no counterbalancing evidence, viz " That Go4 created many pairs of *^ the human race, differing from each other both **" externally and internally ; that he fitted thefe pairs for different climj^tes, and placed each pair in its proper climate ; that the peculiarities of the origi- nal pairs were prefcrved entire in their defcend- ents; who, having no affiftance but their natural talents, were left to gather knowledge from ex- perience, ti *t <( (C Prcl. Difc. of Lancuaoes^ 43 (C tt (( ** pericncc, and in particular were left (each tribe) to ** form a language for itfcif ; tliat figns were fufficicnt " for thcorigiruii pairs, without any language but what nature fuggells ; and that a language was formed gra- dually,,as a tribe increafed in numbers and in differ- ent occupations, to make fpcech ncccflary ?" But this opinion, however plaufible, we are not permitted to adopt i being taught a different Icffon by revela- tion, viz. That God created but a finglc pair of the human fpccies. Tho* we cannot doubt of the au- thority of Mofes, yet his account of the creation of man is not a little puzzling, as it fecms to contradidl every one of the fadls mentioned above. According to that account, different races of men were not formed, nor were men framed originally for differ- ent climates. A.11 men muff have fpokcn the fame, language, viz. that of our firfl: parents^ And what of all ieems the mofl contradictory to that account, is the Hivage ftate ; Adam, as Mofes informs us, was endued by his Maker with an eminent degree of knowledge ; and he certainly muff have been an ex- cellent preceptor to his children and their progeny, among whom he lived many generations. Whence then the degeneracy of all men unto the favage ftate ? To account for that difmal cataftrophe, mankind, muft have fuffered fome terrible convulfion. That terrible convulfion is revealed to us in the hiftory of the tower of Babel, contained in the 1 ith chapter of Genefis, which is, *' That for many centuries after the deluge, the whole earth was of one language, and of one fpeech ; that they united to build a city on a plain in the land of Shinar, with a tower whofe top might reach unto hea- ven ; that the Lord behold mg the people to be one, and to have all one language, and that no- thing would be reftrumed from them which they imagined to do, confounded their language that they might not underftand one another ; and fcat- tered them abroad upon the face of al! the earth." Herp a it iC « (C C( (C t( (( i • I'! 44 Of Men, and Prcl. Difc. • I Here light breaks forth in the midft of darknefs. By confounding the language of men, and fcattering them abroad upon the face of all the earth, they were rendered favagcs. And to harden them for their new habitations, it was neceflary that they fhould be divided into different kinds, fitted for different cli- mates. Without an immediate change of bodily conltitution, the builders of Babel could not poflibly have fubfifted in the burning region of Guinea, or in the frozen region of Lapland ; cfpccially without houfes, or any other convenience to proteft them againft a dcftruftive climate. Againft this hiftory it has indeed been urged, " That the circumftances *' mentioned evince it to be purely an allegory ; that *' men never were fo frantic as to think of building *' a tower whofe top might reach to heaven ; and *• that it is grdfsly abfurd, taking the matter litc- ** rally, that the Almighty was afraid of men, and ** reduced to the neceffity of faving h'mfelf by a mi- ** racle." But that this is a real hiftory, muft ne- ceffarily be admitted, as the confufion of Babel is the only known faft that can reconcile facred and pro- fane hiftory. And this leads us to confider the diverfity of lan- guages *. If the common language of men had not been ^fi ■«!' I) < .\ * As the foclal ftate Is eiTential to man, and fpeech to the focial Aate, the %>ifdom of providence in fitting men for acquiring that neceffary art, deferves more attention than is commonly beftowed on it. The Or^n Outang has the external organs of fpeech in perfeAion ; and many are puzzled to account why it never fpeaks. But the extenial organs of fpeteh make but a fmall part of the neceflary apparatus. The faculty of imitating founds is an ef- fential part ; and wonderful would that faculty appear, were it not ren- e fo as to emit a found of any elevation, which enables it with an ear to imitate the fohgs it hears. But above all the other parts, fcnfe and underlVanding are eflential to fpeech. A parrot can pronounce articulate founds, and it has frequently an inclination to fpeak ; but, for want of underllanding, none of the kind can form a fmgle fentence. Has an Oran Outang underAanding to foi m a mental propofltion ? has he a faculty to exprefs that propofition in founds * and fuppofmg him able to exprefs what he fees and hears, what would lie m^ke of the conne£live and dii>iun£live particles ? Prel. Difc. of LaWOUAG£S* 4J been confounded upon their attempting the tower of Babel, I affirm, that there never could have been bu( one language. Antiquaries conftantly fuppoi'e a mi- grating fpirit in the original inhabitants of this earth ; not only without evidence, but contrary to all proba- bility. Men never defert their connexions nor their country without neceffity : fear of enemies and of wild beafts, as well as the attraction of fociety, are more than fufficient to reftrain them from wandering ; not to mention that favages are peculiarly fond of their natal foil*. The firft migrations were probably occaHoned by fad^ions and civil warS' j the next by. commerce. Greece affords inftances of the former, Phoenicia of the latter. Unlefs upon fuch occafions^ members of a family or of a tribe will never retire farther from their fellows than is ncceffary for food > and by retiring gradually, they lofe neither their connedions nor their manners, far kfs their lan- guage, which is in conftant exercife. As far back as hiftory carries us, tribes without number are dif- covered, each having a language peculiar to itfclf. Strabo (a) reports, that the Albanians were divided into fcveral tribes, differing in external appearance and in language. Csefar found in Gaul feveral fuch tribes ; and Tacitus records the names of many tribes in' ' ■ * . * With refpeAto the fuppofed migrating fpirit, even Bochart muft yield to Kempfer inboldnefs of conje^ure. After proving, from difference of lan- guage and from other circumltances, that Japan was not peopled by tjie Chi- nefe, Kempfer without the lead hefitation fettles a colony thereof thofe who attempted the tower of Babel. Nay he traces mod minutely their route to Japan ; and concludes, that they miift have travelled with great expedition, hecaufe their language has no tinfture of any other. He did not think it neceffary to t xplain, ' what temptation they had to wander fo far from home ; nor why they fettled in an idand, not preferable either in (oil or climate to many countries they muft have traverfed. An ingenious French writer obferves, that plaufible reafons would lead one to conjedlure, that men were more early polilhed in iflands than in conti- nentij as people crowded together foon find theneceflity of laws toreftrain them from mifchief. And yet, fays he, the manners of idanders and their laws are commonly the lated formed. A very fimpie reflection would have unfolded the myftery. Many, many centuries dd menexi^ without thinking of navigation. That art was not invented till men, Araitened in their quar< tcrs upon the continent, thought of. occupying adjacent iflands, . (o) Book 2. Mn 4i f ill' ill ' ■■, < ■■;'■■ s $ • w m m I- !■ PI 'f.K 'I •'jy 46 Of Men, and Prel. Difc* ■^ s I ! in Germany. There are a multitude of American tribes that to this day continue diilindt from each other, and each have a different language* The mo- ther-tongues at prefent, tho' numerous, bear no pro- portion to what formerly exifted. We find original tribes gradually enlarging ; by conqueft frequently, and more frequently by the union of weak tribes for mutual defence. Such events leflen the number of languages. The Coptic is not a living language any where. The Celtic tongue, once extcnfive, is at pre- fent confined to the highlands o*^ Scotland to Wales, to Britany, and to a part of Ireland. In a few centu- ries, it will fhare the fate of many other original tongues : it will totally be forgotten. If men had not been fcattercd every where by the confufion of Babel, another particular muft have occurred, differing no lefs from what has really hap- pened than that now mentioned. As paradife is con- jcftured to have been fituated in the heart of Afia, the furrounding regions, for the reafon above given, muft have been firft peopled ; and the civilization and improvements of the mother-country were un- doubtedly carried along to every new fettlement. In particular, the colonies planted in America, and the South-fea iflands, muft have been highly polilhed ; becaufe, being at the greateft diftance, they proba- bly were the lateft. And yet thefe and other remote people, the Mexicans and Peruvians excepted, re- main to this day in the original favage ftate of hunt- ing and fifliing. Thus, had not men wildly attempted to build a tower whofe top might reach to heaven, all men •would not only have had the fame language, but would have made the fame progrefs toward maturity of knowledge and civilization. That deplorable event reverfed all nature : by fcattering men over the face of ail the earth, it deprived them of fociety, and rendered them favages. From that ftate of degene- racy, they have been emerging gradually. Some nations. Prel. Difc. of Lanouaoes. 47 nations, ftimukted by their own nature, or by their climate, have made a rapid progrefs ; fome have proceeded more flowly ; and fome continue favages. To trace out that progrefs toward maturity in dif- ferent nations, is the fubjed of the prefent under- taking. -'-- X', :) J , ,^t Jl. ■• / n f I *.. !* ^. SKETCHES ■) ' O ^0^ luiiJ i il i '■ t.ivY/ ;t^v ^/,,; ,{ ,Ji.;^ .;■{;:.. -^ti Ii-rT i^'ii.^.- i 1 ovU'.tV^^ >*■ u w m ««« ^«. •■ u •V: ' f * * - f? .ti .-'<-f ■^ i ' '"''v/^T^' : S. K J& T C HE .s / • «.- •»- .. '&,: I t.«j OF THE HISTORY OF MAN. BOOK I. Progress of Mem independent of Society. SKETCH I. iiiii ■'ill; i- t , ■ » IS : ' Progre/s cf Food and Population, I N temperate climes, men fed originally on fruits that grow without culture, and on the fleih of land- animals. As fucK, animals become Ihy when often hunted, there is a contrivance of nature, no lefs fimplc than efFeftual, which engages men to bear with chearfulnefs the fatigues of hunting, and the uncertainty of captire ; and that is, an appetite for hunting. Hunger alone is not fufficient : favages, who aS by fenfe, not by foreilght, move not when the flomach is full ; and it would be too late when the $k. I. Food and Population, 49 the ftomach Is empty, to form a hunting-party. As that appetite is common to all favages whofe food depends on hunting ; it is an illuftrious inllance of providential care, to adapt the internal conftitutlon of man to his external circumftances *. The appetite for hunting, tho' among us little neceffary for food, is to this day vifible in our young men, high and low, rich and poor. Natural propenfities may be ren- dered faint or obfcure, but never are totally eradi- cated. Vol. I. , , Z .. . - Fifh * It would be an agreeable undertaking, tp collcA all the Indances where the internal confcitution of man is adapted to his external Arudture, and to other circumftances ; but it would be a bold undertaking, as the inftanccs are extremely numerous ; and in the courfe of this work there will be occa- fion to mark feveral of them. " How finel) are the external parts of ani- " mals adjufted to their internal difpofitions ! That Arong and nervous leg " armed with tearing fangs, how perfeftly does it corrcfpond to the fierce- " nefs of the lion ! Had ic been adorned like the human arm with fingers " inftead of fangs, the natural en rgies of a lion had been all of them de- " feated. That more delicate flrudlure of an arm terminating in fingers fo " nicely diverfified, how perfedUy does it correl'pond to the pregnant inventi- " on of the human foul ! Had thefe fingers been fangs, what had become of *" poor Art that procures us fo many elegancies and utilities ! 'Tis here we ** behold the harmony between the vifible world and the invifible (a)." The following is another inftance of the fame kind, which I mention here becaufe it falls not under common obfervation. How finely in the human fpecies are the throat and the ear adjufted to each other, the one to emitmufical founds, ■:he other to enjoy them ! the one without the other would be an ufelefs ta- lent. May it not be juftly thought, that to the power we have of emitting mufical founds by the throat we owe the invention of muficat inflruments ? A man would never think of inventing a mufical inftrument, but in order to imitate founds that his ear had been delighted with. But there is a faculty in man ftill more remarkable, which ferves to corredl ti— organs of external fenfe, where they tend to miflead him I give two curious inftances. The image of every vifible objcft is painted on theretwa tunicay and by that means 'he objedl maks an impreflion on the mmd. In what manner this is done, cannot be explained ; becaufe we have no conception liow mind afts on body, or oody on mi:;d. But as far as we can conceive or conjcfture, a vifible ob- j;ft ought to appear to us inverted, becaufe the lma3;e pointed on the ret'wa. tunica is inverted. But this is corrected by the faculty mentioned, which makes us perceive the objefts as they really exifl. The other inflance fol- lows. As a man has two eyes and feeiwith each of them, every objeft natu- rally ought to appear double ; and yet vylth two eyes we fee every objedl fingle, precifely as if we had but one. Many philofophers, Sir Ifaac Newton in par- ticular, have endeavoured to account, for this phenomenon by mechanical principles J but evidently without giving fatisfaftion. To explain this phe- nomenon, i-: appears to me that we lirtuft havi; Tec jurfc to tlie ficulty menti- ©nedadlingagainft mechanical principles... ;'i.>, ..• :. h L. <.;:)-».. i! ,;:; :.. ('.ture. V/hilc the French poHefTed Port D.iuphin in the ifland of Madagaf- c.;r, they raifed excellent wheat. That ftation was deferted many years ago j ajid wheat l^ tl.is day grows naturally among the grafs in great vigour. In the Sk. I. ' Food and Population, 51 where corn will not grow, make bread of the inner bark of trees ; and Linnaeus reports, that fwine there fatten on that food, as well as in Sweden upon corn. Plenty of food procured by hunting and fifliing, promotes population : but as confumption of food in- creafes with pop'.iation, wild aninials, forcly per- fecuted, become not only more rare but more Hiy. Ivlen, thus pinched for food, are excited to try other means for fupplying their wants. A fawn, a kid, or a lamb, taken alive and tamed for amufement. fuggefted probably flocks and herds, and introduced the Ihepherd-ftate. Changes are not perfeded but by flow degrees : hunting and fifliing continue for a long time favourite occupations ; and the few ani- mals that are domeft^icated, ferve as a common fl:ock to be dift:ributed among individuals, according to their wants. But as the idle and indolent, tho' the ieaft: deferving, ar^ as the greatefl: confumers of the common fl:otk, an improvement crept in that every family fliould rear a Itock for themfelves. Men by that means being taught to rely on ib Mr own induf- try, difplayed the hoarding-principl which multi- plied flocks and herds exceedingly. And thus the ihepherd-ftate was perfeded, plenty of food being fupplied at home, without ranging the woods or the waters. Hunting and fifliing, being no longer ne- ceffary for food, became an amufenient merely, and a gratification of the original appetite for hunting. The finger of God may be clearly traced in the provifion made of animal food for man. Grameni- vorous animals, perhaps all, make palatable and wholefome food. I except not the horfe : fome na- tions feed on it ; others do not, becaufe it is more pro- fitable by its labour. Carnivorous animals, gcne- E 2 rally Mi ■if HI I/" M ■\':^l: the country about Mount Tabor in Paleftine, barley and oats grow fponta- neoudy. In the kingdoin of Siam, there are many fpots where rice grows year after year, without uuy culture. Diodorus Siculus is our authority for laying, that in the territory of Leoiitinum, and in other parts of Sicily, wheat grew wild without any culture, A::t! it dc;s fo at prefen: about Mount Etna. i i- >l '! ^a Men independent of Society. B.I, rally fpeaking, make not wholdbme food nor pala- table. The firft-mentioncd animals arc gentle, and ■cafily tamed: the latter are fierce, not eafily tamed, and uncertain in temper when tamed. Grafs grows every where in temperate regions ; and men bcfide can multiply animal food without end, by training domeftic animals to live on turnip, carrot, potato, and other roots. Herodotus adds the following ad- mirable refle<5lion : '" We may rationally conjecture, *' that divine providence has rendered extremely " prolific fuch creatures as are naturally fearful, and •' ferve for food ; leO-. they fhould be deflroyed by " conftant confumption : whereas the rapacious " and cruel are almofl barren. The hare, which is " the prey of beafts, birds, and men, is a great " breeder : a lioncfs, on the contrary, the ftrongeft " and fierceft of beafts, brings forth but once." The (hepherd-ftate is friendly to population. Men by plenty of food multiply apace ; and in procefs of time, neighbouring tribes, itraitened in their paf- ture, go to war for cxtenfion of territory, or mi- grate to land not yet occupied. Necellity, the mother of invention, fuggefted agriculture. When corn growing fpontancoafly was rendered fcarce by confumption, it was an obvious thought to propa- gate it by art : nature was the guide, which carries on its work of propagation, with feeds that drop from a plant in their maturity, and fpring up new plants. As tlie land was poiVelfed in common, the feed of courfe was ibwn in common ; and the pro- ducl: was Rorcd in a common repofiiory, to be par- ' celled out among individuals in want, as the com- mon (lock of animals had been formerly. Wc have for our authority Diodoras Slci^lus, that the Ce!ti- berians divided tlicir land annually among individu- als, to be labourfd for the uie of the public; and that the product was ftorcd up, and diflributed from time to time among the neccffitoas. A lading divilion of the land air.ong the members of the ftate. Sk. I. Food and Population, 53 new , the : pro- e par- com- c have Ce!ti- ivkUi- antl buted adino; r the ilutc. • > ftate, fecuring to each man the product of l>is own fkill and labour, was a great fpur to induftry, and muhiplied food exceedingly. Population made a rapid progrcfs, and government became an art ^ for agriculture and commerce cannot flourilh with- out falutary laws. Natural fruits ripen to greater perfedion in a temperate than in a cold climate, and cultivation is more eafyj which circumftances make it highly probable, that agriculture became firft an art in temperate climes. The culture of corn was fo early m Greece, as to make a branch of it3 fabulous hif- tory : in Egypt it mull have been coeval with the inhabitants; for while the Nile overflows, they can- not fabfift: without corn {a). Nor without corn could the ancient monarchies of Aflyria and Baby- lon have been fo populous and powerful as they are faid to have been. In the northern parts of Eu- rope, wheat, barley, peafe, and perhaps oats, are foreign plants: as the climate is not friendly to corn, agriculture muft have crept northward by flow degrees ; and even at jTcfcnt, It requires no fmall portion both of fkill and induftry to bring corn to maturity in fuch a climate. Hence it may be inferred with certainty, that the fhepherd- ftate continued longer in northern climates than in thofe nearer the fun. Cold countries however are friendly to population ; and the northern people, multiplying beyond the food that can be fupplied by flocks and herds, were compelled to throw off many fwarms in fearcb of new habitations. Their frequent migration li were for many years a dreadful fcourge to neighbouring nations. People amazed at the multitude of the invaders, judged, that the countries from whence they iffued muft have been exceedingly populous; and hence the North was termed ^cina gentium. But fcarcity of food in the fliepherc^ (a) Hiftorical Law trafts, iraft i. It, h PI! l f '!|i 54 Men independent of Society. B. I. fliepherj.ftate was the true caufe ; the north of Eu- rope, in all probability, is as well peopled at j)re- fent as ever it was, tho' its migrations have ceafed, corn and commerce having put an end to that terri- ble Icouige*. Denmark at prefent feeds 2,000,000 inhabitants ; iSweden, according to a lid made up funo 1760, 2,383,113; and thcfe countries mult be much more populous than of old, when over- run with Immenfe woods, and when agriculture was unknown. Had the Danes and Norwegians been acquainted with agricuhure in the ninth and tenth centuries when they poured out multitudes upon their neighbours, they would not have ven- tured their lives in frail veifels upon a tempefluous ocean, in order to diilrefs nations who were not their c^nemies. BL:t hunger is a cogent motive ; and h.'nger gave to thcfe pirates fupcriority in arms above evtry nation that enjoyed picmy at Jiome. Luckily fuch depredations muft have inter- vals ; for as they n'-ceflariiy occafion great havock even among ihe vidors, ihe remainder finding fuf- ficicLcy of food at home, reft there till an incrcaf- ing population forces them again to action f. Agriculture, which fixes people to a fpot, is an invincible obftacle to migration j and happy it is . - . . • r.= : •.. .for * Aliquando bonus dormltat Ilomtrus. Montcfquleu accounts as follows for tlie great fwarms of Barbarians that overwhelmed the Roman empire. " Ces " elTaims de Barbaras qui foitirent autrefois du nord, nc paroillent plus au- " jourd'hui. Lcs violences des Remains avoient fait retirerles peuples du *' niidi aunord: tandis que U force qui les contenoit fubCfta, ils y refte- " rent; quand elle fut affoiWie, ils fe repandirent de toutes parts " Gran- " diur Jei Romains, c. id.— —In Englijh thus: " The fwarms of Barbarians " who poured foimerly from the north, appear no more. The violence of *' the Roman arms had driven thofc nations from the fouth towards ther " north : there they remained during the fubfiftence of that force which rc- *' lained them ; but that being once weakened, they fpread abroad to every ** quarter."] It has quite efcapcd him, that men cannot, like water, be damm'd up without being fed. f Joannes Magnus, in the 8th book of his hiftory of, the Goths, mentions, "that a third part of the Swedes, being compelled by fa- mine to leave their native country, founded the kingdom of the Longo- bards in Italy. 6k, I. Food and Population. 55 for Europe, that this art, now unlverfally diflfufed, has put an end for ever to that fcourge more de- ftruftive than a peflilence: people find now occupa- tion and fijbfiftence at home, without infefting others. Agriculture is a great blclling : it not only affords us lood in plenty, but fecures the fruits of our induftry from hungry and rapacious in- vaders*. That the progrefs above traced mufl: have pro- ceeded from fome vigorous impulfe, will be ad- mitted, confidering the prevailing influence of euf- tom : once hunters, men will always be hunters, till they be forced out of that ftate by fome over- powering caufe. Hunger, the caufe here afligned, is of all the mod overpowering ; and the IJamc caufe, overcoming indolence and idlenefs, has in- troduced manufadures, commerce, and variety of artsf. The progrefs here delineated has, in all temperate climates of the old world, been precifely uniform ; but it has been different in thp extremes of cold and bllows for * Mahomet Bey, King of Tunis, w.-u d*^hrcned by IiIs fubje^s ; but having the reputation of tlie phiJofophei 's ftone, lie was reftored by the Dcy of Algiers, upon promifing to communicate the fecrct to him. Mahomet witli pomp and fol.emnity fent a plough j inti,mating, that agriculture is the ftrengthof a kingdom, and that the only philofopher's ftone is a good crop, which may be eafily converted into gold. •f- M. Buffon difcourlmg of America, " U it not fmgular," fays he, " that in a world ccmpofed almoft wholly of favages, tliere never Should " have been any fociety or commerce between them and the animals about " them ? There was not a domeftic animal in An eiica when difcovered by " Columbus, except among the ploifhed people of Mexico and Peru. I« " not this a proof, that man, in his favage ftate, is but a fort of brute ani- " mal ; having no faculties but to provide for his fubfiftence, by attacking " tiie weak and avoiding the ftrong ; and having no idea of his fuperiority " over otlier animals, which he never once thinks of bringing under fubje(5li- ** on ? This is the more furprifing, as moft of the American animals are by ** nature docile and timid," Our author, without being fenfible of it, lays a foundation for a fatisfaftcry anfwer to thefe queftions, by what he adds, That in the whole compafs of America, when difcovered by the Spaniards, there were not half the number of people tiiat are in Europe; and that fuch fcarcity of men favoured greatly the propagation of wild animals, which had fcw enemies and mucli food. Was it not obvious to conclude from theCe premifes, that while men, who by nature are fond of h^pting, have game in {.^lenty, they npver think of turning fhepherds. 56 Men iridc'pdtidcnt of Society. B.I. and hot climates. In very cold regions, which pro- duce littlf vegetable food for man, the hunter-ltatc was originally cflential. In teaiperatc regions, as obferved above, men fubfiftcd partly on vegetable food, which is more or Icfs plentiful in proportion to the heat of the climate. In the torrid zone, natural fruits are produced in fuch plenty and perfeOion, as to be more than fufficient for a moderate population : and in cafe of extraordinary population, the tranfiti- on to hulbandry is cafy. There are found according- ly, in every populous country of the torrid zone, crops of rice, maize, roots, and other vegetable food, raifed by the hand of man. As hunting be- comes thus iefs and lefs necefl'ary in the progrefs from cold to hot countries, the appetite for hunting keeps pace with that progrefs: it is vigoro.is in very cold countries, where men depend on hunting for food : it is Iefs vigorous in temperate countries, where they are pardy fed with natural fruits ; and there is fcarcc any veitige of it in hot countries, where vegetables are the food of men, and where meat is an article of lux -ry. The original occupation of favages both in cold and temperate climates is hunting, altogether eflential in the former as the only means of procuring food, llie next flcp of the progrefs in both, is the occupation of a fhepherd ; and there the progrefs ftops (hort in very cold regions, unfit for corn. Lap- land in particular produces no vegetable but mofs, which is the food of no animal but the rain-deer. This circumllance folely is what renders Lapland ha- bitable by men. Without rain-deer, the fea-coafls within the reach of fiih would admit fome inhabi- tants; but the inland parts would be a dclert. As the fwiftncfs of that animal makes it not an eaiy prey, the taming it lor food muft have been early attempt- ed; and Its natural docility made the attempt fuc- ceed. It yields to no other animal in ufefulnefs : it is equal to a horfc for draught : its flefh is excellent food;' and the female gives milk more nourifliing than \ 11 rj. Sk. I. V • Food and Population, SI than that of a cow: its fur is fine; and the leather made of its Ikin, is both foft and durable. In Tar- tary, though a great part of it lies in a temperate zone, there is little corn. As far back as tradition reaches, the Tartars have had flocks and herds ; and yet, in a great meafure, they not only conti- nue hunters, but retain the ferocity of that ftate : they arc not fond of being fhepherds, and have no knowledge of huibandry. This in appearance t; fingular; but nothing happens without a caui... Tartary is one continued mountain from well to eaft, nfmg high above the count ies to the fo ith j and declining gradually to the northern ocean, without a fmgle hill to intercept the titter blafls of the north. A few fpots excepted, a tre< above *'ic fize of a Ihrub cannot live in it*. In Europe, >e mountains of Norway and Lapland are a con lort- able fcreen againft the north wind ; w' v'^ce it is, that the land about Stockhehn («) prt^duces both trees and corn j and even about Abo {b) the cli- mate is tolerable. Great Tartary abounds with paf- ture ; but extreme cold renders it very little capa- ble of corn. Through all Chinefe Tartary, even as low as the 43d degree of latitude, the frofl: conti- nues feven or eight months yearly ; and that coun- try, though in the latitude of France, is as cold as Iceland. The caufes are its nitrous foil, and its height without any fhelter fr'^m the weft wind that has pafTed through an immc: * continent extreme- ly cold. A certain place near the Iburce of the ri- ver Kavamhuran, and within 80 leagues of the great wall, was found by Father Verbeift to be 3000 geometrical paces above the level of the fca. Thus the Tartars, like the Laplanders, arc chained * May not a fimilar fituation In feme parts of North America, be partly tlie occaiion of the cold.tliat is I'eU there, bt^yond what Europe feels In the fame I.ttitude ? {a) Latitude 59. \b) Latitude 61, !?-■ k I: .^8 Men independent of Society. B. I# chained to the Ihepherd-ftate, and can never ad- vance to be hulbandmen. If population among them ever become fo confidcrable as to require more food than the Ihepherd-ftate can fupply, migration will be their only refource. In ev,„ry ftep of the progrefs, the torrid zone dif- fers. We have no evidence that either the hunter or fliepherdrftate ever exifted there : the inhabitants at prefcnt fubfift on vegetable food ; and probably did fo from the beginning. In Manila, one of the Philippine iflands, the trees»bud, bloifom, and bear fruit, all the year round. The natives, driven from the fea-coaft to the inland parts, have no particular place of abode, but live under the fhelter of trees, which afford them food as well as habitation ; and when the fruit is confumcd in one fpot, they remove to another. The orange, lemon, and other Euro- pean trees, bear fruit twice a year : a fprig planted bears fruit within the year. And this pifture of Manila anfvvers to numberlcfs places in the torrid zone. The Marian or Ladrone iflands are extremely populous ; and yet the inhabitants live entirely on fiih, fruits, and roots. The inhabitants of the new Philippine iflands live on cocoa-nuts, falads, roots, and fifli. The inland negroes make but one meal a day, which is in the evening. Their diet is plain, confift- ing mortly of rice, fruits, and roots. The ifland of Otaheite is healthy, the people tall and well made ; and by temperance, vegetables and fifh being their chief nourifhment, they live to a good old age, almoft without any ailment. There is no fuch thing known among them as rotten teeth : the very fmell of wine or fpirits is difagreeable j and they never deal in to- bacco nor fpiceries. In many places Indian corn is the chief nourifliment, which everv man plants for himfelf. The inhabitants of Biledulgerid and the defert of Zaara have but two meals a day, one in the morning, and one in the evening. Being temper- ate, and ftrangcrs to difeafes arifing from luxury, they Sk. I. Food and Population, 59 they generally live to a great age. Sixty with them is the prime of life, as thirty is in Europe. An in- habitant of Madagafcar >\'ll travel two or three days without any food but a fugar-cane. There is indeed little appetite for animal food in hot climates ; tho' beef and fowl have in fmall quantities been intro- duced to the tables of the great, as articles of luxury. In America are obfervable fome variations from the progrefs ; but thefe are refervcd for a feparate iketch (a). With refpe£l: to population, that plenty of food is its chief caufe, may be illuftrated by the following computation. The fouthern provinces of China pro- duce two crops of rice in a year, fometimes three ; and an acre well cultivated gives food to ten pcr- fons. The peafants go almoft naked ; and the bet- ter fort wear but a fmgle garment made of cotton, of which as much is produced upon an acre as may clothe four or five hundred. Hence the extreme populoufnefs of China and other rice countries. The Caifave root, which ferves the Americans for bread, is produced in fuch plenty, that an acre of it will feed more perfons than fix acres of wheat. It is not then for want of food that America is ill peo- pled. That Negroland is well peopled is paft doubt, confidering the great annual draughts from that country to America, without any apparent di- minution of numbers. Inftances are not extremely rare, of 200 children born to one man by his differ- ent wives. Food mufl be in great plenty to enable a man to maintain fo many children. It would re- quire wonderful fkill and labour to make Europe fo populous : an acre and a half of wheat is barely fuf- iicicnt to maintain a fmgle family of peafants ; and their cloathing requires many acres more. A coun- try where the inhabitants live chiefly by hunting, mufl be very thin of inhabitants ; as 10,000 acres, or double that number, arc no more than fufficient for ((?) Book 2, (ketch 12, tm :i 1 1:1 i it m 6o Men independent of Society. B. I. T ■» i '! 1!;'!' for maintaining a fingle family. If the multiplicati- on of animals depend chiefly on fecundity, wolves would be more numerous than flieep : a great pro- portion of the latter are deprived of the procreating power, and many more of them are killed than of the former : yet we fee every where large flocks of fheep, fcldom a wolfj for what reaibn, other than that the former have plenty of food, the latter very little ? A wolf refembles a favage who lives by hunting, and confumcs the game of five or fix thoufand acres. Waving the queilion, Whether the human race be the ofl^':^pring of one pair or of many, it appears the intention ot Providence, that the earth fiiould be peopled, and population be kept up by the ordinary means of procreation. By thefe means a tribe foon becomes too populous for the primitive flate of hunting and fifhing : it may even become too popu- lous for the fhepherd-ftatc ; but it cannot eafily be- come too populous for hufbandry. In the two for- mer fl:ates, food mull decreafe in quantity as con- fumers increafe in number : but agriculture has the lignal property of producing, by mduflry, food in proportion to t:he number of confumers. In fad: thegreatcfl quantities of corn and of cattle are com- monly produced in the mod populous diflricls, where each family has its proportion of land. An ancient Eoman, fober and induflrious, made a fliift to main- tain his family on the produd; of a few acres *. The bounty given in Britain for exporting corn is friendly to population in two refpecls ; firft be caufc liufbanc' y requires many hands; and, next, becaufe the bounty lowers the price of corn iit home. To give a bounty for exporting cattle would obftrudt population ; becaufe paftur*^ requires few hands, and exportation raifes the price of gattle at home. From the * Scotland mnft have been ver>' ill peopled in the days of its fifth James, svhen at one hunting in the high country of Roxburghlhire, that prince killed ''tree hundreti and fixty red deer ; and in Atliol, at another time, (ix hundred, befide roes, wolves, foxes, and wild cat'., Sk. I. Food and Population, 6i the fingle port of Cork, an. 1735* were exported 107,161 barrels of beef, 7379 barrels of pork, 13,461 cafksof butter, and 85,727 firkins of the fame commodity. Thus a large portion of Ireland is fct apart for feeding other nations . What addition of ftrength would it not be to Britain, if that large quantity of food were confumed at home by ufeful manufaflurers ! No manufacture contributes more to population than that of filk. It employs as many hands as wool ; and it withdraws np land from tillage or pafture. Lapland is but thinly inhabited even for the fhep- herd-ftate, the country being capable of maintaining a greater number of rain-deer, and confequently a greater number of the human fpecies, than are found in it. Yet the Laplanders are well acquainted with private property : every family has tame rain-deer of their own, to the extent fometimes of four or five hundred : they indeed appear to have more rain-deer than there is a demand for. Why then is Lapland fo thinly peopled ? Either it muft have been but lately planted, or the inhabitants are not prolific. I incline to the latter, upon the authority of SchefFer. Tar- tary is alfo but thinly peopled ; and as I find not tliat the Tartars are lefs prolific than their neigh- bours, it is probable that Tartary, being the moft barren country in Afia, has not been early planted. At the fame time, population has been much retard- ed by the reftlefs and roaming fpirit of that people : it is true, they have been forced into the ihepherd- ftate by want of food ; but fo averfe are they to the fedentary life of a lliepherd, that they truft their cattle to flaves, and perfevcre in their favourite oc- cupation of hunting. This difpolition has been a dreadful pell to the human fpecies, the Tartars hav- ing made more extcnlive conquefls, and deftroyed more men, than any other nation known in hiftory : more cruel than tigers, they feemed to have no de- light ■iiif ^t Men independent of Society. B. t light but in blood and maflacre, without any regard either to fex or age *. Luckily for the human fpe- cies, rich fpoils dazzled theii eyes, and roufed an appetite for wealth. Avarice is fomctimes produc- tive of good : it moved thefe monfters to fell the conquered people for Haves, which preferved the lives of millions. Conquefts, however fuccefsfu!,. cannot go ov, fo'" ever ; they are not accompliihed without grcvt iofs of men ; and the conquefts of the Tartars depopulated their country. But as Ibme centuries have elapfed without any confiderable eruption of that fiery people, their num- bers mufl at prefent be confiderable by the ordinary progrefs of population. Have we not reafon to dread new eruptions, like what formerly happened ? Our foreknowledge of future events extends not far ;- but in all appearance we have nothing to fear from that quarter. The Tartars fubdued a great part of tne world by ferocity and undaunted courage, fup- ported by liberty and independence. They acknow- ledged Genhizkan as their leader in war ; but were as far from being Haves, as the Franks were when they conquered Gaul. Tamerlane again enjoyed but a fubftjtuted power, and never had the boldnefs to affume the title of Chan or Emperor. But the Tar- tars have fubmitted to the fame yoke of defpotifni that their ferocity impofed upon others ; and being now governed by a number of petty tyrants, their courage is broken by flavery, and they are no longer formidable to the reit of mankind \. Depopulation ♦ When the Tartars under Genhizlxan conquered China, It was feriourty deliberated, whether they (hould not kiil all thsi inhabitants, and convL'it that vaft country into pafture-fields for tlieir cattle. f " Gallos inbellis flor\iiire accepimus," fays Tacitus in his life of Agri- cola; " mox fegnities cum otio intravit, ainilfa vlrtute paritcr ac libertatc." \ In En«;Up tliui : " We have heard that the Gauls fonntrly made a tisriire in '• war ; but becoming a prey to indolence, the conlequence of pc.ice, they " lolt at once their valour and their liberty."] Snain, whicii defended it- felf with great bravery againft the Romans, became an eafy prey to tlie Van- dals in the tifjh century. When attacked by the Romans, it was divided i;ta many ficellates : when attacked by the Vandals, it was tneivated by (lavery under Roman defpotifm, Sk. I. Food and Population, ^f Depopulation enters into the prefent fketch as well as population. The latter follows not with greater certainty from equality of property, than the former from inequality. In every great ftate, where the people by proiperity and opulence are funk into voluptuoufnefs, we hear daily complaints of depopulation. Cookery depopulates like a pef- tilence ; becaufe when it becomes an art, it brings within the compafs of one flomach what is fufficient for ten in days of temperance ; and is fo far worfe than a peftilence, that the people never recruit again. The inhabitants of France devour at prefent more food than the fame number did formerly. The like is obfervable in Britain, and in every country where luxury abounds. Remedies are propofcd and put in practice, celibacy difgraced, marriage encouraged, and rewards given for a numerous offspring. All in vain! The only effectual remedies are to encourage hufbandry, and to reprefs luxury. Olivares hoped to repeople Spain by encouraging matrimony. Ab- deram, a Mahometan king of Cordova, was a better politician. By encouraging induftry and procuring plenty of food, he repeopled his kingdom in lefs than thirty years *. Luxury is a deadly enemy to population, not only by intercepting food from the induftrious, but by weakening tlie power of procreation. Indolence ac- companies voluptuoufnefs, or rather is a branch of it : women of rank fcldom move, but employ others to move them ; and a woman enervated by indolence and intemperance, is ill qualified for the fevere labour of child-bearing. Hence it is, that people of rank, where luxury prevails, are not prolific. This infir- mity [ i \:4 litM^ m V|; 'ESI ■ ' 1 K'. i'^ ^'l il * A fouiidlinj-hofpital is a greater enemy to population, than liberty to efpofe infants, wliicli is permitted to parents in China and in Ibme other countries. Hotli of tliem indeed encourage matrimony : but in fuch hofpi- tuis, thoiifands pcrifli yearly beyond the ordinary proportion ; whereas few in- fants ]ierifl» by the liliercy of expofini; thern, parental alfeflion prevailing; com- incnly over the diitrefs of poverty. And, upon the ^holC; population gains more by thu: liberty than it itfes. 1 1 ■'. a |J!J (j4 M N independent of Society. B. I. mity not onl) prevents population, but increafes luxury by accumulating wealth among a few blood- relations. A barren woman among the labouring poor J is a wonder. Could women of rank bt per- fuadcd to malic trial, they would find niore felt en- joyment in temperance and exercil", th:\n in the mod refined luxury ; and would have no rauf(°; to envy others the bleliing ol a numerous and hcaithy offspring. Luxury is not :\ greatt:r enemy to population by enervating men in a women, than defpotifm is by re- ducing them to flavery, and deft:fN>yii\^ induftry- Dcf- potifm is a greater enemy to the humnn fpeci' ' than au I Egyptian plague ; for by rei;dtring it'cn luifer- at Ic;. it weakens both the appetite for procreation and the power. Free Jflates, on the contrary, are always populoj-; : a man who is happy, longs for children to make them alfo happy ; and induflry enables him to accomphfh his purpofe. This obicrvation is veri- lied from the hiftory of Greece, and of the LelTer Afia : the inhabitants anciently were free and nu- rnerous : the prefent inhabitants are reduced by fla- very toafmall number. A peftilence deftroys thofc only who exift, and the lofs is foon repaired ; but defpotifm, as above obferved, flrikcs at the very root of population. An overflowing quantity of money in circulation, is another caufe of depopulation. In a nation that grows rich by commerce, the price of labour in- creafes with the quantity of circulating coin, which of courfe raifes the price of manufadures ; and ma- nufadlurcrfi who cannot find a vent for their high- rated goods in foreign markets, muft give over hu- finefs and commence beggars, or retire to another country where they may liave a profpe^l of fuccefs. But luckily, there is a remedy in that cafe to pre- vent depopulation : land is cultivated to greater perfedion by the fpadc than by the plough ; and the more {plentiful corpa produced by the former, are 3 fuily 'ff m ^k. II. .jj..w>i 'Thpcrty,l ■'(^' ^- •^^■ 65 fiilly fufficicnt to defray the additional cxpehcct This is a rclburcc fot employing fhofe who canhot make bread as manufadtilt'crs ; attd dclcrves \<^dl" thd attention of the legiflature. The advantage of th(t fpade is confpicuotis with rcfpeft to war ; it providevurf rfuiii 7a:i: i;;f:%vf>ry;jxii •U'J iiAir - :- 1 \ h I'M.: ,;.r' ">(> .MONG the fenfcs inherent in man, the fenfe oi property is eminent. ' Thatienl'e i& the fojundatiori o'^ yours and w/>/^, a diftint^lionwhidiiiQ human bc^ ing is ignorant dL. By that iiccifc wild animah caught with labour or ait, at^e perceived to belong to the hunter or fiihev : they become his prsperty. In the Ihephcrd-ftate, thci^ is the /fauie perception ot' property with refpe^ to .wiid» animals tan\ed t^or uft\ and with reipc*!:^ ;to their pJrogeny. It takes, |^kcc alfo with reipctil ^0 a held ieparatcd tVoiu the com-, inon^ -and cultivated by a man for bix^ud to hin\f(cit and fan\ily (a)^ ,.,, Jhe feulc ^4' prvN^^erty is flower in its growth to- ward' mjttui lv» than the external lenila, which are perfect cwn lu childhood ; but it ripens more early thasi the iculc of congruity, of ivwimetry, \^i dignity, of grace, and ^he other retuK\\ fenfes, which fcurce make an\ hgure before the age of manhood. Chil- dren discover a , )effen tlie hazard of famine : thei commerte of corn through a large kingdom, fuch as France or Britain, lelftns it Itll iiune. Extend that commerce through Europe, through the world, and th.ie will remain fcarce a veftige of the inequalities of chance : the crop of corn may fail in one province or in one kingdom j but that it fliould fail univtilally ii licyoiid iht vaiietiesof chance. The fame obferva- tion holdi in every other matter of chance : one's gain or lofs at game for a night, for a week, imy he confiderable ; but carry on the game for a year, and fc little of cliance remains, that it is almoft the fame whether one play for a guinta or for twenty. Hence a (kilful infurcr never ventures much uj)0t> one bottom ; hut multipliui hi<> hai^ains as much as poiTible : the more bar- gaini heiii engaged in, tlie {icatcr i:> the probability of gain. kiife g to tears, almoft time, many d com- i the Britain, ugh tlie hance t that it obferva- ne for a a year, ne play ch upon ore bar- Sk. 11. . ^ Property, 67 return to their fidring next ebb of the ti Je, whether it be day or night, foul or fair ; for go they mull, or ftarve. In fmall tribes, where patriotifin is vigor- ous, or in a country thinly peopled in proportion to its fertility, the living in common is agreeable: but in a large (late where felfilhnefs prevails, or in any (late where population requires extraordinary cul ture, the befl method is to permit every man to fhift for himfelf and his family : men wifli to labour for ^jicitifelvcsj ; and they labour more ardently for themfeltcs, than for the public. Private property became more and more facred in the progrefs of arts and m^nnfadures : to allow an artifl: of fupcrior ikill no ptoht above others, would be a fad difcou- rage(iife|}| tp induftry, and be fcarce confident with jultice* 'ITie fenfc of property is not confined to the hu- man fpccics. The beavers perceive the timber they llore up for food, to be their property ; and the bees fcem to have the fame perception with rcfpcdt If) their winter's provifion of honey. Sheep know when they are in a trefpafs, and run to their own pafture on the firft glimpfe of a man. Monkics do the fame when detefted in robbing an orchard. Sheep and horned cattle have a fcnfe of property with refpeft to their refting-place in a fold or inclo- lure, which every one guards againft the incroach- ment of others. He muft be a fceptic indeed who denies that perception to rooks : thieves there are among them as among men ; but if a rook purloin a itick from another's neft, a council is held, much chattering enfues, and the lex talionis is applied by demoiilhing the nefl: of the criminal. To man are furniflied rude materials only : to convert thefe into food and cloathing requires induflry : and if he had not a fenfe that the produft of his labour belongs to jiimfelf, his induflry would be faint. In general, it is pleafant to obferve, that the fenfe of property is F 2 always ' ¥ ill ■ m I 1 •; ' I n 68 MiiN independent of Society. B. t. i«ii; H. a ii a always given where it is ufcful, and never but where it is ufet'ul. An ingenious writer, defcribing the inhabitants of, Cuiana, who coritinue hunters and filhcrs, makes an, eloquent harangue upon the happinefs they enjoy, in, having iew wants iind delires, and little notion of private property. " The manners of thefe Indians *' exhibit an amiable pifture of primeval innocence; *^. andhappiiiefs. The eafe with which their few, *^ wahts aceTuppllcd, renders divifiou of, land unne- ceil'ary ; nor dots it aftbrd any temptation to, fraud or violence. That prpnenefs to vice» which- among civilized nations is cfleemed a . propenfity^ of nature, has no cxiflence in a country where . every man enjoys in perfeftion his native freedoir^ and indcpendJence, without hurting or being hurt *' by others. A perfect equality of' rank, banifliing, " ail fliflinclions but oTage and, pergonal werit,. pro- " motes freedom in converlation, and firiurtefs In. *^ aftipn ; and fug^efls no defircs but wHat may, bej; " gratified with innocence. Envy an^ dijfcontent;, " cannot fubfifl with perfeft cquaUty,; wq fcarce, *' even hear of a difcontcnted lover,, as there is no di&rence of rank and fortune, the common ob"- lta(tles that prevent; fruition, Thofji who have been unhappily accuftomcd to the refinements of luxury, will fcarc be able to conceive, that an Indian, with no covering but what modefty re- *'" "quires, with no flicker that deferves the name of *' a houfe, and with no food but of the coarleft kin^d painfully procured by hnnting, can feel any happinefs : and yet to judge from external ap- pearance, the Iiappiiiefs of thefc people may be envied by the ealthy of the mofl refined nati- ons ; andjudly, becaufe their ignorance of ex- travagant defires and endlefs puriuits that torment the, great world, excludes very wifli beyond the juefent. In a word, tlie inhabitants of Guiana are an example of what Socrates jufUv obfcrves, « that ii i.i i< ii (( (i (< ii « ii Sk. II. Property, 69 " that tliofe wlu .vant the leaft, approach tlic ♦* neareft to the gods, who want nothing." It is admitted, that the innocence of favagcs here p«!nt- cd in fine colours, is in every refped more amiable, than the luxury of the opulent. But is bur au- thor unacquainted with a middle (late, more fuita- ble than either extreme to the dignity of human nature ? The appetite for property is not beflowed upon us in vain : it has given birth to many arts : it is highly beneficial by furnilhing opportunity for gratifying the moft dignified natural aiyc(Skions ; for without private property, what place would there be for benevolence or charity (a) ? Without pri- vate property, there would be no induflry j and witliout induftry, men would remain favagcs for ever. The appetite for property, in its nature a great blelling, degenerates, I acknowledge, into a great curfe when it tranfgrefles the bounds of moderati- on. Before money was introduced, the appetite feldom was immoderate, becaufe plain neccffaries were its only objedts. But money is a fpecies of property, of fuch extenfive ufe as greatly to inflame the appetite. Money prompts men to be induftri- ous ; and the beautiful produftions of induftry and art, roufing the imagination^ excite a violent de- fire tor grand houfes, fi.ne gardens, and for every thing gay and fplendid. Habitual wants multiply: luxury and fenfuality gain ground : the appetite for property becomes headftrong, anil mud be gra- tified, even at the expence of juftice and honour. Examples of this progrefs arc without number ; and yet the following hiftory deferves to be kept in memory, as a ftriking and lamentable illuftration. Hifpanioia was that part of America which Co- lumbus firft difcovered amio 1497. He landed upon the territory of Guacanaric, one of the prin- cipal 1 1 I I : -1 p '^ ■.'i ,1 (e) Hiftorical Law trafts, traO 3. ■) i n:: I I ^ 7© Men independent of Society. 3. I. cipal Caclcs of the ifland. Tliat prince, w'lo liad nothing barbarous in liis uianncrs, received liis gucfts with cordiality ; and encouraged his ^^coplc to vie with one another in obliging them. I'o cratify the Spanifii apjjctitc for gold, they p^irtcd freely with their richelt ornaments; and in return, were fatisfied with glals beads, and fuch baubles. The Admiral's (liip having been dalhcd againll the rocks in a hurricane, Guacanaric was not wanting to his friend on thatoccahon: he convened a num- ber of men to aflid in unloading the (liip; and at- tended himftlf till the cargo was fafely lodged. The Admiral having occalion to return to Spain, Iglt a part of his crew behind •, who, forgetting the lellbns of moderation he had taught them, turned licenti- ous. The remonftrances of Guacanaric were fruit- Icfs: they fcized upon the gold and wives of the In- dians; and in general treated them with great cruel- ty. Such enormities did not long pafs unrefented : the rapacious Spaniards, after much bloodlhed, were fluit up in their fort, and reduced to extremity. \Jn- happily a reinforcement arrived from Spain : a long and bloody war enfued, which did not end till the iflanders were entirely fubdued. Of this ifland, about 200 leagues in length and between fix- ty and eighty in breadth, a Spanifii hiltorian bears witncfs, that the inhabitants amounted to a million when Columbus landed *. The Spaniards, relcnt- lefs in their cruelty, forced thefe poor people to a- bandon the culture of thcij fields, and to retire to the woods and mountains. Hunted like wild beafts even in thefe retreats, they fled from mountain to mountain; till hunger and fatigue, whicli dellroyed more than the fword, made them deliver them- felves up to their implacable enemies. Ihere re- mained at that time but 60,000, who were divided among * The numhers pofTibly are ex.icrperated. But wliethcr a million, or a iiall of titat number, the moral is the fame. II Sk. III. Commerce* 71 among the Spaniards as flavcs, ExcefTive fatigue in the mines, and want even of neccflarics, reduced them in five years to 14,000. Confidering them to be only hearts of burden, they would have vielded niprc profit had they been treated with leUs inhu- manity. Avarice frequently counter;^£ts its own end : by grafping too much, it lofes all. The Em- peror Charles refolved to apply fomc remedy •, but being prevented for fome time by various avoca- tions, he got intelligence that the poor Indians were totally extirpated. And they were fo in reali- ty, a handful excepted, who lay hid in the moun- tains, and fubfifted as by a miracle in the midft of their enemies. That handful were difcovered many years after by fome hunters *, who treated them with humanity, regretting perhaps the' bar- barity pf their forefathers. The pqpx Indians, do- cile and fubmiflive, embraced the Chriilian religi- on, and afl'umed by degrees the manners and cuf- tomsof their mafters. They ftill cxift, and live by hunting and fifliing. Affedion for property! Janus double-faced, pro- dudive of many bleflings, b^it degenerating often to be a curfe. In thy right hand, Induftry, a cornuco- pia of plenty : in thy left, Ayarice, a Pandora's box of defidly poifon* ■\ ;%f: I ( ■il SKETCH m. 4' Origin and Progrefs of Commerce, X H E few wants of men in the firft ftagc of fo- ciety, arc fupplied by bfivter in its rudeft form. In barter, the rational confideration is, what is wanted by the qne, and what can be fparcd by the other- Bu :i Pt -iiM li yi Men independent of Society. B. I But fayages arc not always fo clear-lighted : a fa- vage who wants a knife, will give for it any thing that is lefs ufefu|tohim at the time ; without con- fidering either the preftnt wants of the perfon he is dealing with, or liis own future wants. An inha- bitant of Guiana will for a fifli-hook give more at one time, than at another he will give for a hat- chet, or for a gun. Kempfer reports, than an in- habitant of Puli Timor, an ifland adjacent to Ma- hcca, will, for a bit of coarfe linen not worth three half pence, give provifions worth three or four (liil- lings. But people improve by degrees, attending to what is wantf^d on the one fide, and to what can be fpared o I le other; and in that leflbn, the American fava^e.s in our neighbourhood are not a little expert. Barter or permutation, in its original form, proved miferably deficient when men and their wants mul- ti})lied. That fort of commerce cannot be carried on at a diftance ; and even among neighbours, it does not always happen, that the one can fpare what the other wants. Barter is fomcwhat enlarged by covenants : a bulhel of wheat is delivered to mc, npon my promifing an'equivalent at a future time. But what if I have nothing that my neighbour may have occafion for ? or what if my promifc be not relied on ^ I'has barter, even without the aid of co- venants, proves ftill defecVive. The n umber !cfs wants of men cannot readily be fuppiicd, witliout feme commodity in general eilimation, tliat will be gladly accepted in exchange for every other. That comuiodity ought not to be bulky, nor be expenfive in keej)ing, nor be confumable by time. Gold and fdver are metals that poflefs thefe properties in an eminent degree. They are at tlie fame time per- fc(^lly homogeneous in whatever country produced : two maflt's of pure gold or of pure filver are al- ways equal in value, provided tliey be of tlie fame weight, Thefe metaL are alio diviiible into fmall 3 ' P''ii-t^> i f Sk. III. Conuncrce, 73 parts, convenient to be given for goods of finall value*. Gold and filver, when introduced into comrtierce, were probably bartered, like other commodities, by bulk merely. Rock-falt in Ethiopia, white as Ihovv and hard as ftone, is to this day bartered in that manner with other goods. It is dug out of the mountain l/afta, formed into plates a foot long and three inches broad and thick ; and a portion is bro- ken off equivalent in value to the thing wanted. But more accuracy came to be introduced into the commerce of gold and filver : inftead of being given loofely by bulk, every portion was weighed in fcales : and ^his method of barter is pradtifed in China, in Ethiopia, and in many other coun- tries. Even weight was at firfl difcovered to be an imperfect ftandard. Ethiopian fait may be proof againft adulteration ; but weight is no fecurity againft mixing gold and fiver with bafe metals. To prevent that frvud, pieces of gold and filver are imprelT- ed with a public flamp, vouching both the purity and quantity ; and fuch pieces are termed coin. This was a notable improvement in commerce ; and was probably at firft thought complete. It was not forefeen, that thefe metals wear by much hand- ling in the courfe of circulation ; and confcquent- ly, that in time the public ftamp is reduced to be a voucher of the purity only, not of the quantity. Hence proceed manifold inconvenirncies ; for which no other remedy occurs, but to rellore the former method of weighing, ■trufting to the flamp for the . ,. . ' purity * Orlgo cmen \\ vendendicjue a pcrmutationibus coepit. Oiim enim non Ita erat nummus : nequc aliud mux, aliud pictium vocabatur : fed unufquil'- que, fetundum nete/lHatem tetr.porum, ac rpmrn, utiliSus inutilia perrmita- iiat, quando pleiurnque evenit, ut, auod ai;?ii fnperert, alteri defit. Sed quia noil feinper, nee facile conc/.irrebat, ut, c '.i tu haberes quod ego defi- dtraren, invicem haberem, quod tu accipeu 'dies, ehf^a materia eft, cujus puhlica ac perjjerua xilimatio difRr ultatious permutationum, aequalitatc quantitatis fubveniret : ea [que] matv,;ia forma publica pcrcufla, ufum do- mlnmriique non tam ex fubftantia pf ••' ■?\ rjuain -.'x quantitate; nee ultra nierx utrunKj.ie, fed alterum pittium vocvur. /. i. D'lgtji, De contrabeMaa w^ a r . i ilii i'M ;i;:if 'i '■■'!' if- I Ijy-'' Ih iiij 74 Men independent of Society. B. I. purity only. This proves an embarraflVnent in (tommerce, "which is remedied by the ufe of paper- money. And paper-money is attended with ano- ther advantage, that of preventing the lofs of much gold and filver by wearing. Formerly in China, gold and filver were coined as among us ; but the wearing of coin by handling obliged them to recur to fcales ; and now weight alone is relied on for determining the CjUantity. Copper is the only metal that is circu- lated among them without weighing; and it is with it that fmall debts are paid, and fmall purchafes made. When gold or filver in bullion is exchanged with other commodities, fuch commerce pafles under the common name of barter or permutation : when current coin is exchanged, fuch commerce is termed buying 2.nd/eIIing; and the money exchanged is term- ed the price of the gooch. As commerce cannot be carried on to any ex- tent without a ftandard for comparing goods of dif- ferent kinds, and as every commercial country is poflcfled of fuch a ftandard, it feems difficult to fay by what means the ftandard has been eftablifhed. It IS plainly not founded on nature ; for the diffe- rent kinds of goods have naturally no common meafure by which they can be valued : two quar- ters of wheat can be compared with twenty ; but what rule have we for comparing gold with broad cloth, or either of them with gold, or gold with filver or copper ? Several ingenious writers Jiave endeavoured to account for the comparative value of commodities, by reducing them all to the labour employed in raifing food ; which labour is faid to be a ftandard for mcafuring the value of all other labour, and cpnfeqpently of all things produced by labour. ** If, for example, a bufliel of wheat and an ounce of filver be produced by the fame quantity of labour, will they not be equal in value?" This ftandard is imperfeft in many re/pe^^s. 1 obfcrvc, firft, thut to give it a plau- fiblc <( (C (( Sk. III. Commerce, 7$ of fiblc appeaiance, there is a necelTity to maintain, contrary to fad, that all materials on which labour is employed are of equal value. It requires as much labour to make a brafs candleftick as one of filver, though far from being of the fame vahic. A bufliel of wheat may fometimes equal in value an ounce of fiver; but an ounce of gold docs not al- ways require more labour than a bufliel of wheat ; and yet they differ widely in value. The value ot labour, it is true, enters into the value of every thing produced by it ; but is far from making the whole value. If an ounce of fdver were of no greater value than the labour of procuring it, that ounce would go for payment of the labour, and nothing be left to the proprietor of the mine : fucli a doctrine will not rclilh with the King of Spain ; and as little with the Kings of Golconda and Portu- gal, proprietors of diamond-mines. Secondly, The Itandard under review fuppafes every fort of labour to be of ecjual value, which however will not be maintained. An ufeful art in great requefl:, may not be generally known : the few who are Ikilful will jullly demand more for their labour than the common rate. An expert hufljandman beftows no more labour in raifmg a huudre.;. jufhels of wheat, than his ignorant neighbour in raifmg fifty : if labour be the only ftandard, t.h(^ two crops ought to afford the fame price. Was not Raphael intitled to a higher price for one oi his fine pidlurcs, than a dunce \& for a tavern-fign, fuppofing the labour to have been equal i" Laftly, As this ftandard is appli- cable to things. only that require labour, what rule is to be followed with refpeft to natural fruits, and other things that require no labour ? Where a pound of one commodity gives the fame price with a pound of another, thefe commodities arc faid to be of equal value ; and therefore, what- ever rule can be given for the price of commodities, that rule determines alfo their comparative values. Montcf- m ^ -1 76 Men independent of Society. B. I. Montcfquieu {a) attempts to account lor the price as folIo^vs. He begins with fuppofing, that there is but o*ie commodity in commerce, divifiblc Hke gold and filver into parts, the parts like thofe of gold and filver uniform and equally perfcft. Upon that fiippofition, the prictf, fays he, of the whole commodity colled'ed into a mafs, will he the whole current gold and filver; and the price of any particular quantity of the former, will be the cor- refpondiiig quantity of the latter, the tenth or twentieth part of the one correfponding to the tenth or twentieth part of the other. He goes on to apply the fame computation to all the variety of goods in commerce ; and concludes in gene- ral, that as the whole mafs of goods in com- merce correfpor.Js to the whole mafs of gold and filver in commerce as its price, fo the price of the centh or twentieth part of the former will be the tenth o" :wentieth part of the latter. According to this computation, all different goods mud give the fame price, or which is the fame, be of equal value, provided their weight or meafure be the fame. Our author certainly did not intend fuch an abfurdity ; and yet I can draw .10 other infe- rence from his reafoning. In the very next chap- ter he admits the negroes on the coall of Africa to be an exception from the general rule, who, fays he, value commodities according to the ufe they have for them. But do not all nations value commodities in the fame manner ? Rejefting then the foregoing attempts to ac- count for the comparative value of commoditiej-, I take a hint frojn what Vvus lafl laid to inaintain, that it is the demand chiefly which fixe? the value of every commodity. C^antity beyond the demand renders even necefTaries of no value ; of which \vater is an inflance. It may be held accordingly as a general rule, That the value of goods in com- •• ' inerce fj) Liv. -,v. cl'. -. I ^ Sk. III. Commerce, n ac- merce depends on a demand beyond what their, quantity can fatiai'y J and riles in proportion to the' excefs of the. demand above the quantity. Evea water becomes valuable in countries where the de- mand exceeds the quj\ntity : in arid regions,; fjbrings of water are highly valued; and in old times were frequently the occafion of broils and blqod-flied. , Comparing next difi'erent commodities with refpe£t to value, that commodity of which the excefs of the demand above the quantity is the greater, \yill be of the greater value. Were utility or intrinfic value only to be conrideVed, a pound of iron .v^uld be worth tea pounds of gold; but as the excefs of the demand for gold above its quantity is much greater thiin th*^t of iron, thi- latter is of lefs -vahie in the market. A pound of opium OP of Jcfuitsbark '.is, for its falu'taiy clFe^ls, more valuabjc, thaUgoJd; and yet, for the reafon mud? of quantity is tiie Itandarr" ih.qit, chiefly fixes the mercantile value of commodities*. Interefl is th^e pFioepr- premium, giycn for the loan of iponey ; and the rate of intereit, like the prices of other commodities, is regulated by the demand. Many borrowers and few lenders produce high in- terell : many lenders and few borrowers produce. low interefl: +. , . ' The caufec that make a demand, feem not fo eafily afcertained. One thing is evident, that the demand for necelfiiries in any country, mud depend on •1 W m i 1 • l!1 * In a voyage to Arabia Fcelix, ann. 170S, the King of the territory where t!ie crew landed, give thc^ni an ox weigliing a thoufand or twelve hundrfd puund., for a fuffc, and three Icore pound- weiglit of rice for twenty-eight ounces of gun-powder. The goods bartered were eftimated according to thii wants of each party, 01,. in other words, according to the demand above the cjiiantity, f I-"rorn wliat is fa:d in the trcatife Des curpi p-j'Ulquei (liv. 6. ch. 8.) it appears doubtful whether high ur law interefl be the inoft friendly to com- Oiurce, 78 Men independent of Society. B. I. t, s • 1 \'\m 1 "i ' 1 on the number of its inhabitants. This rule holds ndl fo ftridly in articles of convenience ; becaufe fome people are more greedy of conveniences than others. As to articles of tafte and luxury, the demand appears fo arbitrary as not to be reduci- ble to any rule. A tafte for beauty is general ; but fo different in different pciffons, as to make the demand extremely variable : the faint repre- fentation of any plant in an agate, is valued by fome for its rarity ; but the demand is far from beinff univerfal. Savages are defpifed for being fond or glafs beads: but were fuch toys equally rare' among us, they would be coveted by mary : a copper coin of the Emperor Otho is of no intrinfic value j and yet, for its rarity, would draw a great price. The value of gold and filver in commerce, like that of other commodities, was at firft, we may be- lieve, both arbitrary and fludluating ; and, like other commodities, they iound in time their value in the market. With refpedt to value, however, there is a great difference between money and other commo- dities. Goods that are expennve in keeping, fuch as cattle, or that are impaired by time, fuch as corn, will always be firft offered in exchange for what is wanted ; and when fuch goods are offered to ' falc, the vender muft be contented with the current price : in making the bargain the purchafcr has the advantage ; for he fuffers not by referving his mo- ney to a better market. And thus commodities are brought down by money to the loweft value that can afford any profit. At the fame time, gold and filver fooner find the" value than other com- modities. 1 he value of the latter depends both on the quantity and on the demand ; the value of the former depends on the quantity only, the demand being unbounded : and even with refpeft to quan- tity, thefe precious metals are lefs variable than other commodities. Gold in. Commerce* 79 Gold and filvcr, being thus fooner fixed in their value than other commodities, become a ftandard for valuing every other commodity, and confequently for comparative values. A bufhel of wheat, for ex- amj)le, being valued at five /hillings, a yard of broad cloth at fifteen, their comparative values are as one to three. A ftandard of values is eflential to commerce j and therefore where gold and filver arc unknown, other ftandards are eltabliflied in practice. The only ftandard anaon^ the favages of North Ameri- ca is the fkin of a beaver. Ten of thefe are given for a gun, two for a pound of gun-powder, one for four pounds of lead, one for fix knives, one for a hatchet,, fix for a coat of woollen cloth, five for a petticoat], and one for a pound of tobacco. Some nations in Africa employ Ihells, termed courics, for a ftandard. As my chief view in this fketch is, to exa- mine how far induftry and commerce are aifeded by the quantity of circulating coin, I premife the following plain propofitions. Suppofing, firft, the quantity of money in circulation and the quantity of goods in the market, to continue the fame, the price will rife and fall with the demand. For when more goods are demanded than the market affords, thofe who offer the higheft price will be preferred : as, on the other hand, when the goods brought to market exceed the demand, the ven- ders have no refourcc but to entice purchafers by a low price. The price of filh, flefti, butter and cheefe, is much higher than formerly ; for thefe being now the daily food even of the l0weft people, the demand for them is greatly in- creafed. Suppofing a Hu6tuation in the quantity of goods only, the price falls as the quantity increafes, and riles as the quantity dccreafes. The farmer whofe quantity of corn is doubled by a favourable feafon, muft !! *! So Men independent of Society. B. I. rnuft feff at lialf the ufual price ; becaufe the ptr- chafer, who lees a fupeffluity, will paj no mor6 for it. The contrary happens upon a fciwity crop :' thofe who want corn muft ftarve or give the mar- ket-price, however high. The manufidtures 'of wool, flax, and metals, arc much cheaper than formerly J for thpugh the demand h^s increal^cd, yet fty /kill an^ induftry the quantities produced Kave increafed in a greater proportion. More j)^- heros are confiimed than formerly : and yet by fklW ful culture the (|uantfty is fd mtich greater in pro-' {portion, as to have lowered the price to lefs than orie^ i'alf of vvhat' it was eighty years' ago. it IS e'afy to combine the qil.^ntity ahd* demand,' funWfiri*^ a fluctuation in both. Where the qudn-' ti/y' exceeds the ufual cjeinandi' more peopfe will be tempted to purchafe' by t^Iie M 'pi\t'e ; a'nd wher^' the demand rifes gonfiderably above the' quar^t'il'y,' t]ie price will rife" in proportioh.' In maithem^ti- caUanguage',thcfc prbpolitions may be thus exprelfef/;' that the price is dir'cdly as the demand, and inverfelf as t|ie quantity. ' . ' A variation in the quantity of circulating coin W t^ie moft intricate circumftahce; becaufe it riei^er' happens without making a variation in the demand for goods, and frequently in the quantity. 1 take' the liberty however to fuppofe, that there is no va-' riati'on but in the quantity of circulating coin; for- though that cannot happen in reality, yet the re- fult of ^he fuppofition will throxv lieh' Upon what' really hiippeiis : the fubje(fl is involved, and I wi'lh' to make it plain. I put a llmple cafe, that the' half of our current coin is at once fwcj^t away by' ibme extraordinary accident. This at firft will' em-* barrafs our internal commerce, as the vender will' infill fen the ufua! price, which now cannot be af- forded. ' But the error of fuch demand will foon be difeQvercd ; and the pi Ice or CQmmodities, after fome \\ Sk. III. Commerce, 8i fome flu^luation, will fettle at the one half of what it was formerly. At the fame time, there is here no downfall in the value of commodities, which cannot happen while the quantity and de- mand continue unvaried. The purchafmg for a fixpence what formerly coft a fliilling, makes no alteration in the value of the thing purchafed ; becaufe a fixpence is equal in value to what a fliil- ling was formerly. In a word, when money is fcarce, it muft bear a high value : it mufl in par- ticular go far in the purchafe of goods ; which we cxprefs by faying, that goods are cheap. Put next the cafe, that by fome accident our coin is inftantly doubled : the refult mud be, not inftan- tancous indeed, to double the price of commodi- ties, l/pon the former fuppofition, a fixpence is in tfl*e£l advanced to be a fhilling : upon the pre- fent fuppofition, a fliilling has in effed: funk down to a fixpence. And here again it ought to be obferved, that though the price is augmented, there is no real alteration in the value of com- modities. A bullock, that fome years ago, could have been purchafed for ten pounds, will at prc- fcnt yield fifteen. The vulgar ignorantly think, that the value of horned cattle has arifen in that J)roportion. The advanced price may, in fome de- gree, be occafioned by a greater confumption ; but it is chiefly occafioned by a greater quantity of money in circulation. ' ' Combining all the circumfl:ances, the refult is, that if the quantity of goods and of money con- tinue the fame, the price will be in proportion to the demand. If the demand and quantity of goods continue the fame, the price will be in proportion to the quantity of money. And if the demand and quantity of money continue the fame, the price will fall as the quantity incrcafes, and rife as the r.uantiiy diminiflies. Vol. I. G Thefe 11 • !►* ';M m 'IP ^I'n; ii ir i^i'i 82 Men inJcpcnacnt of Society. B.I. Thcfc fpeculative notions will enable us with ac- curacy to xaminc, how induftry and commerce arc aftcfted bv variations in the quantity of circulating coin. It IS evident, that arts and manMlucures can- not be carried on to any extent without coin. Per- fons totally employed in any art or manufacture re- quire wages daily or weekly, bccaufc they mult go to market for every necelliiry of life. The clothier, the tailor, the flioemaker, the gardener, the farmer, mufl: employ fervants to j)repare their goods for the market ; to whom, for that reafon, wages ought to be regularly paid. In a word, commerce among an endlefs number of individuals, who depend upon each other even for necelfaries, would be inextricable without a quantity of circulating coin. Money may be jufUy conceived to be thj oil, that lubricates all the fprlngs and wheels of a great machine, and pre- fetves it in motion *. Suppofmg us now to be pro- vided with no more of that precious oil than is barely fufiiciiii\!: for the eafy motion of our indullry and maruiiiiures, a diminution of the neceflary quantity jn:vi: ret ird them : our induflry and manufadures muO decay ; and if we do not confine the expence of livnig to our prefent circumitances, which feldom happens, the balance of trade with foreign nations will turn againfl us, and leave us no recourfe for making the balance equal but to export our gold and filver. And when we are drained of thefe metals, farewell to arts and manufadlures : we fhall be re- duced to the condition of favages, which is, that each individual mull depend entirely on his own labour for procuring every neceflary of life. The confequences of the babnce turning for us, are at firft * Money cannot be juflly faid to be deficient where there Is fufiiciency to purchafe every commodity and to pay for every kind of labour, that is wanted. Any greater quantity is hurtful to commerce, as wiU be feen afterward. But to be forced to contract debt even when one deals prudently and profitably, and confequently to be fubjefted to legal execution, is a proof, by no means ambiguous, of fcartity of money ; which till of late \vi»3 remarkably the cafe in Scotland. * ^ther folid improvc- \ hands and ma- cd by the additi- whofe wages arc Sk. III. • Commerce, 83 firft diredly oppofite: but at the long-run come to be the fame : they are fvvcet in the mouth, but bitter in the (lomach. An influx of ri- hes by this balance, roufes our adlivity. Plenty of money elevates our Ipirits, and infpires an appetite for pleafure : we in- dulge a talte for (how and embellifliment ; become hofpitable, and refine upon the arts of luxury. Plenty of money is a prevailing motive even with the moft fedate, to exert themft^h' s in building, in huf- bandry, in manufactures, ni ments. Such articles r( terials, the prices of vvhlc onal dc.nand. The labour- 1 thus raifed, is not fatisfied with mere neceiTarics ; but infilts for conveniencics, the price of which al- fo is raifed by the new demand. In fliort, increafe of money raifes the price of every commodity; partly from the greater quantity of money, and partly from the additional demand for fupplying ar- tificial wants. Hitherto a delightful view of prof- perous commerce : but behold the remote confequen- ccs. High wages at firft promote induftry, and double the quantity of labour : but the utmoft ex- ertion of labour is limited within certain bounds ; and a perpetual influx of gold and fdver will not for ever be attended with a proportional quantity of work: The price of labour will rife in proportion to the quantity of money; but the produce will not rife in the fame proportion ; and for that reafon our manufaftures will be dearer than formerly. Hence It difmal fcene. The high price at home of our ma- nufaftures will exclude us from foreign markets j for if the merchant cannot draw there for his goods what he paid at home with fome profit, he mufl: abandon foreign commerce altogether. And what is flill more difmal, we Ihall be deprived even of our own markets ; for in I'pite of the utmofl: vigilance, foreign commodities, cheaper than our own, will be poured in upon u>. The laft fcene is to be de- G 2 prived If '^ ti jf',:* ^UP.. f^ ^ '< Ja ' JJ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^/ A 1.0 I.I |i5 1^ m. 2.2 - Ii£ ill 10 11.25 ■ 1.4 M a Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 873-4503 \ A ^9) :1>^ :\ \ V .1^\ o\ k'^^^<* - ^^ MP i/.. ^ 84 Men independent of Society*. B. I. privcd of our gold and filver, and reduced to the fame mtferable Itate as if the balance had been againft us from the beginning. However certain it may be, that an addition to the quantity of money mult raife the price of labour and of manufaftures, yet there is a fa£t that feems to contradid the propofition, which is, that in no other country are labour and manufadures fo cheap as in the two peninfulas on the right and left of the Ganges, though in no other country is there fuch plenty of money. To account for this Angu- lar hd:, political writers fay, that money is there amafled by the nabobs, and withdrawn from circu- lation. This is not fatisfadory : the chief exporta- tion from thefe peninfulas is their manufadures, the price of which comes firft to the merchant and ma- tt ufafturer ; and how can that happen without raifing the price of labour ? Rice, it is true, is the food of their labouring poor ; and an acre of rice yields more food than five acres of wheat : but the cheap- nefs of neceflaries, tho* it hath a confiderable influ- ence in keeping down the price of labour, cannot keep it conftantly down, in oppofition to an over- flowingr current of money. The populoufnefs of thefe two countries is a circumftance totally over- looked. Every traveller is amazed how fuch fwarms of people can find bread, however fertile the foil may be. Let us examine that circumftance. One thing is evident, that were the people fully employed, there would not be a demand for the tenth part of their manufafturcs. Here then is a country where hand- labour is a drug for want of cmplbyment. The people at the fame time, fober and inclining to induftry, are glad to be employed at any rate ; and whatever pittance is gained by labour makes always fome addition. Hence it is, that in thefe peninfu- las, fuperfluity of hands overbalancing both the quantity of money and the demand for their manu- fadurcs, fervcs to keep the price extremely low. I What Sk. III. Commerce* 85 What is now faid difcovers an exception to the proportion above laid down. It holds undoubtedly in Europe, and in every country where there is work for all the people, that an addition to the circulating coin raifes the price of labour and of manufadures : but fuch addition has no fenfible efFcft in a country where there is a fuperfluity of liands, who are always difpofed to wprk ^hen they find employment. From thefe premifes it is evident, that unlefs there be a fuperfluity of hands, manufadures can never flouriih in a country abounding with mines of gold and filver. This in efFe£t is the cafe of Spain : a conftant influx of thefe metals, raifrng t|ie price of labour and manufactures, has deprived the Spaniards pf foreign markets, and alfo of their own : they are reduced to purchafe from flrangers even the necclfa- ries of life. What a difmal condition will they be reduced to, when their mines come to be e^haufled ! The Gold coaft in Guinea has its name from the plenty of gold that is found there. As it is wafhed from the hills with the foil in fmall quantities, every one is on the watch for it ; and the people like gameflers defpife every other occupation. They are accordingly lazy and poor. The kingdQm of Fidah in the neighbourhood, where there is no gold, is popu«> lous : the people are indudrious, deal in many branches of manufacture, and are all in eafy circum- (tances. To illuftrate this obfervation^ which is of great importance, I enter more minutely into the condi- tion of Spain. The rough materials of filk, wool, and iron, are produced there more perfect than in any other country ; and yet flouriihing manufactures of thefe would be ruinous to it in its prefen^ ft^et Let us only fuppofe, that Spain itfelf co\iId furnifh all the commodities that are demanded in its American territories ; what would be the confequence ? The gpld and filver produced by that trade ^ould circu- late ^1 85 Men independent of Society. B. I, \m\U late in Spain : money would become a drug : labour and manufactures would rife to a high price ; and every ncceifary of life, not excepting manufactures of filk, wool, and iron, would be fmuggled into Spain, the high price there being fufficient to over- balance every rifc : Spain would be left without in- duftry, and without people. Spain was adlually in the flourifhing ftate here fuppofed when America was difcovercd : the American gold and filver mines enflamed the difeafe ; and confequently was the greatcft misfortune that ever befcl that once potent kingdom. The exportation of our filycr coin to the Eaft Indies, fo loudly exclaim'd againft by fhallow politicians, is to us, on the contrary, a molt fubltan- tial bleffing : it keeps up the value of filver, and con- fequently leiTens the value of labour and of goods,, which enables us to maintain our place in foreign markets. Were there no drain for our filver^ its quantity in our continent would fink its value fo much as to render the American mines unprofitable, Notwithftanding the great flow of money to the Eaft Indies, many mines in the Weft Indies are given up^ becaufe they afford not the expence of working 5 and were the value of filver in Europe brought much lower, the whole filver rr* ti V i in -•'H 9% Men independent of Society. B. L ■W gulatcd by the ftate, permitting coinage as far only as is beneficial to its manufactures f Let the regif- ters of foreign mints be carefully watched, in order that our current coin may not exceed that of our in- duftrious neighbours. There will always be a de- mand for the furplus of our bullion, either to be ex- ported as a commodity, or to be purchafed at home tor plate : which cannot be too much encouraged, being ready at every crifis to be coined for public fervice. The fenate of Genoa has wifely burdened porcelane with a heavy tax, being a foreign luxury ; but it has no lefs wifely left gold and filver plate free } which we moft unwifely have loaded with a duty *, -niThe accumulating money in the public trcafury, anciently the praftice of every prudent monaich, prevents fuperfluity. Lies there any good objedion againil that practice, in a trading nation where gold and (liver flow in with impetuofity ? A great fum locked up by a frugal king, Henry VIL of England for example, lelTens the quantity of money in circu- lation : profufion in a fucceffor, which was the cafe with Henry VIIL is a fpur to induftry, fimilar to the influx of gold and filver from the new world. The canton of Bern, by locking up money in its treafury, pofTefTes the miraculous art of reconciling immenfe wealth with frugality and cheap labour. A climate not kindly, and a foij not naturally fertile, enured the inhabitants to temperance and to virtue. Pa- triotifm is their ruling paffion ; they confider them- felves as children of the republic ; arc fondoffcrv- ing their mother ; and hold themfplves fufHciently re- compenfcd by the privilege of ferving her. The pub- lic revenue greatly exceeds the expence of govern- ment : they carefully lock up the furplus for pur- chafing land when a proper opportunity offers; which is a fliining proof of their difintereftednefs as well as of their wifdom. By that politic mea- fure, much more than by war, the canton of Bern, from ♦ That duty is wifely taken away by a late *ft. Sk. III. Commerce, .(f » 8$ from a very (lender origin, is now far fupcribr to any of the other cantons in extent of territory. But in what other part of the globe are there to be found minifters of flate, moderate and difmterefted like the citizens of Bern ! In the hands of a Britiih nii- niftry, the greatefl: treafure would vaniOi in the twinkling of an eye ; and do more mifchief by aug- menting money in circulation above what is faiutary, than formerly it did good by confining it within mo- derate bounds. But againfl: fuch a meal'ure there lies an objection ilill more weighty than its being an ineffectual remedy : in the hands of an ambitious prince it would prove dangerous to liberty. If the foregoing meafures be not reiimcd, I can difcover no other means for prefcrving our ftation in foreign markets, but a bounty on exportation. The fum would be great : but the prefcrving our induftry and manufadures and the preventing an influx of foreign manufactures, cannot be put- chafed too dear. At the fame time, a boimty on exportation would not bean unfupportable load : on the contrary, fupcrfluity of wealth, procured by a balance conftantly favourable, would make the load abundantly eafy. A proper bounty would balance the growing price of labour and materials at home, and keep open the foreign market. By neglecting that falutary meafure, the Dutch have loft all their manufactures, a negleCt that has greatly benefited both England and France. The Dutch indeed aCt prudently in withholding that benefit as much as poiTible from their powerful neighbours : to pre- vent purchafing from them, they confume the ma- nufactures of India. - ". '"■■"■ iuM>m .^ The manufactures of Spain, once extenfive, have been extirpated by their gold and filver mines. Au- thors afcribe to the fame caufe the decline of their agriculture ; but crroneoufly : on the contrary, fu- perfluity of gold and filver is favourable to agricul- ture, by raifing the price of its productions. It raifes rK; l' tjo Men independent of Society. B. I. rail'es alfo, it is true, the price of labour ; but that additional cxpencc is far from balancing the profit made by high prices of whatever the ground produ> ces. loo much wealth indeed is apt to make the tenant prefs into a higher rank : but that is eafily prevented by a proper heightening of the rent, fo as always to confine the tenant within his own fphere. As gold and Alver are eflential to commerce, foreign and domeftic, feveral commercial nations have endeavoured moft abfurdly to bar the exporta- tion by penal laws ; forgetting that gold and filver will never be exported while the balance of trade is on their fide, and that they muft neceffarily be ex- ported when the balance is againfl them. Neither do they confider, that if a people continue induf- triousy they cannot be long afflifted with an unfa- vourable balance j for the value o£ money, rifmg in proportion to its fcarcity, will lower the price of their manufadures, ^nd promote exportation : the balance will turn in their favour ; and money will flow in, till by plenty its value be reduced to a par with that of neighbouring nations. It is an important queition. Whether a bank upon the whole be friendly to commerce. It is undoubt- edly a fpur to induftry, like a new influx of money : but then, like fuch influx, it raifes the price of labour and of manufactures. Weighing thefe two fafts in a jud balance, the refult feems to be, that in a country where money is fcarce, a bank properly con- ftituted is a great bleifing, as it in effedt increases the quantity of money, and promotes induftry and. ma- nufadtures ; but that in a country that poifetles mo- ney fufficient for extenfive commerce, the only bank that will not injure foreign commerce, is what is creeled for fupplying the merchant with ready mo- ney by difcounting bills. At the fame time, much caution and circumfpeftion is neceflary with refpe£t to banks of both kinds. A bank erefled for difcount- ing bills, ought to be confined to bills really granted in •Sk. III. Commerce, " 91 in the courfe of commerce i rcjefting fi£titious bills drawn merely for procuring a loan ot money. And with refpc6^ to a bank pur pofely creded for lending money, there is great danger of extending credit too far ; not only with rcfpe£t to the bank itfclf, but with reipcft to the nation in general, by raifmg the price of labour and of manufaftures, which is the never-failing rcfult of too great a plenty of money, whether coin or paper. The different effeds of plenty and fcarcity of mo- ney, have not efcaped that penetrating genius, the fovereign of Pruflia. Money is not fo plentiful in liis dominions as to make it neceflary to withdraw a quantity by heaping up treafure. He indeed always retains in his treafury fix or feveu millions Sterling for anfwering unforcleen demands : but beitig fen- fible that the withdrawing from circulation any lar- ger fum would be prejudicial to commerce, every farthing faved from the neccffary cxpence of go- vernment, 15 laid out upon buildings, upon operas, upon any thing rather than cramp circulation. In that kingdom, a bank eftablifhed for lending money would promote ind^ftry and manufactures, ' ''\^_ r» ,' 'i ■■d ■"■ • ' ■ r ' >; :,1> • ■' .. h ^u\ ■ '■<■ • -. ^{Wv:' •■ ;. - .■■*■■'■.' ',.. '• v^^'iii' 'Fiiji ^''- SKETCH i 92 Men independent of Society. B.I. ■ u Wl i iJ/, '■J. ■■>!/:!Uv 1 SKETCH IV. Origin and Progrcfs of Arts. SECTION I. V(j!; •'1 .h,.lv iy^«/ i^r/j, \ri\in '.. OOME ufcful arts muft be nearly coeval with the human race ; for food, cloathing, and habitation, even in their original funplicity, require fome art. Many other arts are of fuch antiquity as to place the inventors beyond the reach of tradition. Several have gradually crept into exiflence, without an in- ventor. The bufy mind however, accuftomed to a beginning in things, cannot reft till it find or imagine a beginning to every art. Bacchus is faid to have invented wine ; and Staphylus, the mixing water with wine. The bow and arrow are afcribed by tradition to Scythos, fon of Jupiter, though a wea- pon all the world over. Spinning is fo ufeful, that it muft be honoured with fome illuftrious inventor ; it was afcribed by the Egyptians to their goddefs Ifis ; by the Greeks to Minerva ; by the Peruvians to Mama Ella, wife to their firft foverei^n Mango Capac ; and by the Chinefe to the wife ot their Em- peror Yao. Mark here by the way a connection of ideas: fpinning is a female occupation, and it muft have had a female inventor *, r^ In •'•' " '" : / '. ' ■ * The Ilinou are incIuAricuj above all their American neighbours. Tliely women are neat-hainJtd : they fpin the wool of their horned cattle, whicn isaii fine as that of th*; Englifli Hieep. The fluffs made of it arc dyed bbck, yellow or red, and cut into {garments fewed v/ith ros-buck finews. After drying thefe finews in the Uin, and beating them, they draw out tlireads as wliitt" and fine as jiny tl.;it are made of flax, but much tougher. Sk. IV. I. Arts, 93 In the hunter-Aate, men are wholly employed upon the procuring food, cloathing, habitation, and other necelfaries ; and have no time nor zeal for (lu- dying convcnicncics. The cafe of the (hepherd- flate ad'ords both time and inclination for ufeful arts ; which are greatly promoted by numbers who are relieved by agriculture from bodily labour : the foil, by gradual improvements in hufbandry, ailbrds plenty with lefs labour than at firft ; and the furplus hands are employed, firit, in ufeful arts, a^d, next, in thofc of amufement. Arts accordingly make the quicked progrefs in a fertile foil, which producer plenty with little labour. Arts Houriihed early in Egypt and Chaldea, countries extremely fertile. When men, who originally lived in caves like fome wild animals, began to think of a more com- modious habitation, their firfl: houfes were extremely fimple ; witnefs thofe of the Canadian favagcs, than which none can be more fimple, even at prefcnt. Their houfes, fays Charlevoix, are built with lefs art, neatnefs, and folidity, than thofe of the beavers; having neither chimneys nor windows : a hole only is left in the roof, for admitting light and emitting fmoke. That hole mufl be flopped when it rains or fnows; and of courfe the fire is put out, that the inhabitants may not be flifled with fmoke. To have palTed fo many ages in that manner without thinking of any improvement, (hows how greatly men are influenced by cuftom. The blacks of Ja- maica are itili more rude in their buildings : their huts are erected without even a hole in the roof ; and accordingly at home they breathe nothing but fmoke. Revenge produced early hoflile weapons. The club and the dart are obvious inventions : not fo the bow and arrow ; and for that reafon it is not eafy to fay how that weapon came to be univerfal. As iron differs from other metals, being feldom found pure, it was a late difcovery : at the fiege of Troy, fpears, darts, and arrows, were headed witji brafs. Mc- neflhcus, 'V "1. ,!'«.: 94 Men independent of Society. B. I. nefthcus, who fuccecdcd Thefcus in the kingdom of Athens, and led fifty fliips to the fiege of Troy, was reputed the fird who marfhailed an army in battlC" array. Inllrumcnts of defence are made neccflary by thofe of offence. Trunks of trees, interlaced \yith branches, and fupported with earth, made the firft fortifications; to which fuccceded a wall fiuilh- cd with a parapet for (hooting arrows at bcfiegers. As a parapet covers but half of the body, holes were left in the wall from fpace to fpace, no larger than to give paffage to an arrow. Beficgers had no remedy but to beat down the wall : a battering ram was firft ufed by Pericles the Athenian, and perfcft- cd by the Carthaginians at the fiege of Gades. To oppofe that formidable machine, the wail was built with advanced parapets for throwing ftones and fire upon the enemy, which kept him at a diftance. A wooden booth upon wheels, and pufh- ed clofe to the wall, fecured the men who wrought the battering ram. This invention was rendered ineftcttual, by furrounding the wall with a deep and broad ditch. Befiegers were reduced to the neceffity of inventing engines for throwing ftones and javelins upon thofe who occupied the advanced parapets, in order to give opportunity for filling up the ditch ; and antient hiftories expatiate upon the powerful operation of the catapulta and balifta. Thefe engines fuggefted a new invention for de- fence 5 inftead of a circular wall, it was built with falient angles, like the teeth of a faw, in order that one part might flank another. That form of a wall was afterward improved, by raifing round towers upon the fahent angle; and the towers were impro- ved by making them fquare. The ancients had no occafion for any form more complete, being fuffici- ent for defending againft all the miflile weapons at that time known. The invention of cannon re- quired a variation in military archetefture. The firft cannons were made of iron bafs, forming a con- cave Sk. IV. Arts, ')$ cave cylinder, united by rings of copper. The lirfl cannon-balls were of Hone, which required a very large aperture. A cannon was reduced to a fmallcr fizc, by ufing iron for balls inllead of ftone ; and that deilrudivc engine was pcrfedcd by making it of calt nnctal. To refift irs force baflions were invented, horn-works, crown-works, half-moons, &c. &c. ; and military architrtflure became a fyftem governed by principles and ge- neral rules. But all in vain : it has indued pro- duced fortifications that have made lieges horridly bloody; but artillery at the fame time has been carried to fuch perfcdion, and the art of attack fo improved, that no fortification, it is thought, can be rendered impregnable. The only impreg- nable defence, is good neighbourhood among weak princes, ready to unite whenever one of t' 'rm ig attacked by fupcrior force. And nothing tends more effeftually to promote fuch union, than con- ilant experience that fortifications cannot be relied on. With refpeft to naval architedure, the firft vef- fels were beams joined together, and covered with planks, pufhed along with poles in (hallow water, and in deep water drawn by animals on the fhore. To thefe fucceeded trunks of trees cut hollow, termed by the Greeks monoxyles. The next were planks joined together in form of a monoxyle. The thought of imitating a fifli advanced naval architedure. A prow was conftrucled in imita- tion of the head, a ftern with a moveable helm in imitation of the fins. Sails were at laft added, which invention was fo early that the contriver is un- known. Before the year 1545, fhips of war in England had no port-holes for guns, as at pre- fent ; they had only a few cannon placed on the upper deck. When Homer compofed his poems, at leafl: during the Trojan war, the Greeks had not ac- quired ■:&i 96 Men independent of Society. B. I. quired the art of gelding cattle ; they eat the flefh of bulls and of rams, Kings and princes killed and cooked their viduals : fpoons, forks, table-cloths, napkins, were unknown. They fed fitting, the cuftoni of reclining upon beds being afterward copied from Afiaj and, like other favages, they were great eaters. At the time mentioned, they had not chimneys, nor candles, nor lamps. Torch- es are frequently mentioned by Homer, but lamps never : a vafe was placed upon a tripod, in which was burnt dry wood for giving light. Locks and keys were not common at that time. Bundles were fecured with ropes intricately combined {a) ; and hence the fa- mous Gordian knot. Shoes and ftockings were not early known among them, nor buttons, nor fad- dies, nor (tirrups. Plutarch reports, that Gracchus caufed (tones to be erected along the high-ways lead- ing from Rome, for the convenience of mounting a horfe 5 for at that time ftirrups were unknown iu Rome, though an obvious invention. Linen for ihirts was not ufed in Rome for many years after the government became defpotic. Even fo late as the eighth century, it was not common in Eu- rope. We are informed by Herodotus, that the Ly- dians were reputed to be the firft who coined gold and filver money. This was probably after the Tro- jan war ; for during that war the Greeks and Tro- jans trafficked by barter, as Homer relates: Priam weighs out the ten talents of gold which were the raniom of his fon's body. Thales, one of the feven wife men of Greece, about fix hundred years before Chrift, invented the following method for meafuring the height of an Egyptian pyramid. He watched the progrefs of the fun, till his body and its Ihadow were of the fame length J and at that inilant mcafured the fliadow of the \' ;•( J i ( ». i* {a) Odyffejr, b. 8. 1, 483. Pope's tranflation. Sk. IV. I. Arts* 97 the pyramid, which confequently gave Its height. Amafis King of Egypt, prefent at the operation, thought it a wonderful effort of genius ; and the Greeks admired it highly. Geometry mud have been in its cradle at that cime. Anaximander, fome ages before Chrift, made the firft map of the earth, as far as then known. About the end of the thirteenth century, fpeftacles for afliding the fight were invented by Alexander Spina, a monk of Pifa. So ufeful an invention cannot be too much extolled. At a period of life when the judgement is in maturity, and reading is of great benefit, the eyes begin to grow dim. One cannot help pitying the condition of bookifli men before that invention : many of whom muft have had their fight greatly impaired, while their appetite for reading was in vigour. The origin and progrefs of writing make a capital article in the hiftory of arts. To write, or, in other words, to exhibit thoughts to the eye, was early attempted in Egypt by hieroglyphics. But thefe were not confined to Egypt : figures compofcd of painted feathers were ufed in Mexico to cxprels ideas ; and by fuch figures Montezuma received intelligence of the Spanifli intafion : in Peru, the only arithmetical figures known were knots of va- rious colours, which ferved to caft up accounts. The fecond ftep naturally in the progrefs of the art of writing, is, to represent each word by a mark, termed a letter, which is the Chinefe way of writ- ing : they have about 11,000 of thefe marks or letters in comnion ufe; and in matters of fciencc, they employ to the number of 60,000. Our way is far more eafy and commodious : inftead of marks or letters for words, which are infinite, we repre- fent by marks or letters, the articulate founds that compofe words : thefe founds exceed not thirty in number, and confequently the fame number of marks or letters are fufficient for writing. It was a lucky Vol. I. H move- \U' :->:^l ,i; II H-:;! ■ m i (M.r!- H'l' Men independent of Society. B. I. movement to pafs at one ftep from hieroglyphics, the mod imperfeft mode of writing, to letters re- prcfenting founds, the moll perfect ; for there is no appearance that the Chinefe mode was ever prac- tifcd in this part of the world. With us, the learn- ing to read is fo eafy as to be acquired in child- hood ; and we are ready for the faiences as foon as the mind is ripe for them : the Chinefe mode, on the contrary, is an unfurmountable obftruftion to knowledge ; becanfe, it being the work of a life- time to read with eafe, no time remains for flu- dying the fciences. Our cafe was in fome meafure the fame at the reftoration of learning : it required an age to be familiarized with Greek and Latin ; and too little time remained for gathering know- ledge from books compofed in thefe languages. The Chinefe (land upon a more equal footing with i.fped to arts ; for thefe may be ac- quired by imitation or oral inflruflion, without books. The art of writing with letters reprefenting founds, is of all inventions the moft important, and the lead obvious. The way of writing in China makes fo naturally the fccond ftep in the progrefs of the art, that our good fortune in ftumbling upon a way fo much more perfeft cannot be fufficiently ad- mired, when to it we are indebted for our fuperiority in literature above the Chinefe. Their way of wri- ting will for ever continue an unfurmountable ob- ftrudlion to fcience ; for it is fo rivetted by invete- rate praftice, that the difficulty would not be great- er to make them change their language than their letters. Hieroglyphics were a fort of writing, fo miferably imperied, as to make every improvement welcome ; but as the Chinefe make a tolerable fhift with their own letters, they never dream of any im- provement. Hence it may be pronounced with great certainty, that in China the fciences, though Itill in infancy, will never arrive at maturity. There Sk. IV 1. Arts. 99 fo Thv 1, is no appearance that writing \^s known in Greece fo early as the time of Homer ; for in none of his works is there any mention of it. This> it is true, is but negative evidence j but negative evidence muft always command our affent, where no pofitive evidence Hands in oppofition. If it was known, it muft have been newly introduced ; and ufed probably to record laws, religious pre- cepts, or other (hort compofitions. Ciphers, in- vented in Hindoftan, were brought into France front Arabia about the end of the tenth century. The art of printing made a great revolutiori in learn- ing. In the days of William the Conqueror books were extremely fcarce. Grace Countefs of An- jou paid for a colleflion of homilies two hun- dred (lieep, a quarter of wheat, another of rye, and a third of millet, befide a number of martre {kins. ..■ ^ .1- • ' ^ ■■) ■- t'.<.i "'* ii'^i.~ Hufbandry made a progrefs from Egypt to Greece^ and from Afric to Italy. Mago, a Carthaginian General, compofcd twenty-eight books upon huf- bandry, which were tranflated into Latin by order of the Roman fenate. From thefe fine and fertile countries, it made its way to colder and lefs kindly climates. According to that progrefs, agriculture muft have been praftifed more early in France than in Britain ; and yet the Englilh at prefent make a greater figure in that art than the French, inferio- rity in foil and climate notwithftanding. Before Iiuft)andry became an art in the northern parts of Europe, the French noblefle had deferred the coun- try, fond of fociety in a town-life. Landed gen- tlemen in England, more rough and delighting more in hunting and other country-amufements, found leifure to pradife agriculture. Skill in that art proceeded from them to their tenants, who now proiecute huft)andry with fuccefs, though their land- lords have generally betaken themfclves to a town- life. H 2 When \ > ,! !i m 100 Men independent of Society. B.I. .'If; vt: i I ' n ■■;! <( «( (C (C (C (C ;i' |;4':'|: When Casfar invaded Britain, agriculture was un- known in the inner parts ; the inhabitants fed upon inilk and flcih, and were cloathed with ikins. Hol- linfhed, who wrote in the period of Queen Ehza- beth, dcfcribes the rudcnefs of the preceding gene- ration in the arts of hfe : " There were very few chimneys even in capital towns : the fire was laid to the wall, and the fmoke iffued out at the roof, or door, or window. The houfes were wattled and plaiftered over with clay; and all the furniture and utenfils were of wood. The people llept on ftraw-pallets, with a log of wood for a piilow.*' Henry II. of France at the mar- riage of the Duchefs of Savoy, wore the firft filk ilockings that were made in France. Queen Eli- zabeth, the third year of her reign, received in a prefent a pair of black filk knit (lockings ; and Dr. Howel reports, that ihe never wore cloth hofe any more. Before the conqueft there was a timber bridge upon the Thames between London and South- wark, which was repaired by King William Rufus, and was burnt by accident in the reign of Henry II. anno 1 176. -At that time aftonc bridge in place of it was projefted, but not finiflied till the year 1 2 12. The bridge Notre-Dame ^vcr the Seine in Paris, was firft of wood. It fell down anno 1499 ; and as there was not in France a man who would undertake to rebuild it of ftone, an Italian corde- lier was employed, whofe name was Joconde, the fame upon whom Sanizarius made the following pun : Jocundus ^eminum impofuit tibi, Sequana, poniem ; . Hunc injure potes dicere pont'ifice?n. Two Genoefc, Stephen Turquet and Bartholomew Narres, laid in the 1536 the foundation of the filk- manufacture at Lyons. The art of making glafs was imported from France into England anno ■-■■ I 674, y^Miii! i Sk. IV. I. Arts. 101 In I- 674, for the ufe of monaftcries. Glafs windows in private houfes were rare even in the twelfth century, and held to be great luxury. King Ed- ward III. invited three ciock-makers of Delft in Holland to fettle in England. In the former part of the reign of lienry Vlll. there did not grow in England -cabbage, carrot, turnit, or other edible root ; and it has been noted, that even Queen Catharine herfelf could not command a falad for dinner, till the King brought over a gardener from the Netherlands. About the fame time, the artichoke, the apricot, the damalk rofe, made their firft appearance in England. Turkeys, carps, and bops, were firft known there in the year 1524. The currant-fhrub was brought from the ifland of Zant anno 1533; and in the year 1540, cherry- trees from Flanders were firft planted in Kent. It was in the year 1563 that knives were firft made in England. Pocket-watches were brought there from Germany tf««o 1577* About the year 1580, jQoaches were introduced ; before which time Queen Elizabeth on public occafions rode behind her chamberlain. A few-mill was cre£ted in London anno 1533, but afterward demolifhed, that it might not deprive the labouring poor of employ- ment. How crude was the fcience of politics even in that age ? Coffee-houfes were opened in London no fooner than the year 1(652. ... People who are igiwrant of weights and meafures fell upon odd fhifts to fupply the defed. Howel Dha Prince of Wales, who died in the year 948, was their capital lawgiver. One of his laws is, '^ If any one kill or fteal the cat that guards the Prince's granary, he forfeits a milch ewe with her lamb ; or as much wheat as will cover the cat when fufpended by the taij, the head touch- ing the ground." By the fame law-giver a fine of twelve cows is ena^ed for a rape committed lupon a maid, eighteen for a rape upon a ma- tron. cc M CC '. '^ i ■ ' i if i 'i i ' 'A B a 'f . '. I'l 102 Men independent of Society. B. I? tron. If the faft be proved after being denied, the criminal for his falfity pays as many ihillings as will cover the woman's pofteriors. The ineafiire of the mid ft ream for falmon among our fpre-fathers is not lefs rifible. It is that the mid flream fhall be fo wide as that a fwine may turn itfelf in it^ without touching either fide with its fnout. of tail. The negroes of the kingdom of Ardrah in Gui-» nea have made great advances in arts. Their towns for the moft part are fortified, and conneded by great roads, kept in good repair. Deep canals from rivjsr to river are commbply filled with ca- noes, for plcafure fome, ind many for bufmefs. The vallies are pleafant, producing wheat, millet, yams, potatoes, lemons, oranges, cocoa-nuts, and dates. The marftiy grounds near the fea are drain- ed J and fait is made by evaporating the ftagnat- ing water. Salt is carried tp the inland coun- tries by the great canal of Ba, where numberlefs canoes are daily feen going with fait, and returning with gold duft or other commodities. In all countries where the people are barbarous and illiterate, the pirogrefs of arts is wofully flow. It is vouched by an old French poem, that the vir- tues of the loadftone were known in France be- fore the yeai: 1180. The mariner's compafs was exhibited at Venice ^«/2(? 1260 by Paulus Venetus,, as his OTyn invention. John Goya of Amalphi was the firft whoi'many years afterward, ufed it in navigation ; and alfo pafled for being the inventor. Though it was ufed in China for navigation long before it was known in Europe, yet to this day it is not fo perfeft as in Europe. Inltead of fufpend- ing it in order to make it aft freely, it is placed upon a bed of fand, by which every motion of the fhip difturbs its operation. Hand-mills, termed querns, were early ufed for grinding corn ; an4 when Sk. IV. 1. ^rts. W 11 103 when corn caine to be raifcd in greater quantity, horfe- mills luccecded. Wattr-niills for grinding corn are defcribcd by Vitruvius (a). Wind-mills were known in Greece and in Arabia as early as the fe- venth century ; and yet no mention is made of them in Italy till the fourteenth century. That they were not known in England in the reign of Henry VIII. appears from a houfchold book of an Earl ot Nor- thumberland, cotemporary with that King dating an allowance for three miil-horfes, " two to draw *' in the mill, and one to carry (luff to the mill and " fro." Water-mills for corn muft in England have been of a later date. The ancients had mir- ror-glaifes, and employed glafs to imitate cryftal vafes and goblets : yet they never thought of ufmg it in windows. Jn the thirteenth century, the Ve- netians were the only people who had the art of making cryftal glafs for mirrors. A clock that ftrikes the hours was unknown in Europe till the end of the twelfth century. Apd hisnce the cuftom of employing men to proclaim the hours during night; >yhich to this day continues in Germany, Flanders, and England. Galileo was the firft who conceived an idea that a pendulum might he ufe- ful for meafu ring time ; and Hughens was the firft: who put the idea in execution, by making a pendu- lum clock. Hook, in the year i66o, invented a fpiral fpring for a watch, though a watch was far from being a new invention. Paper was made ho earlier than the fourteenth century ; and the in- vention of printing was a century later. Silk ma- nufaclures were long eftabliflied in Gfecce before filk-worms were introduced there. T{ie manu- facturers were provided with raw filk from Pprfia : but that commerce being frequently interrupted by war, two monks, in the reign of Juftinian, brought eggs of the filk-worm from Hindpftan, and taught their ^j) L. 10. cap. lo. 5ii "i' Hi if K« 104 Men independent of Society. B. I. lit their countrymen the method of managing them. The art of reading made a very flow progrefs. To encourage that art in England, the capital punifh- ment for murder was remitted if the criminal could but read, which in law language is termed Oene/it of clergy. One would imagine that the art muft have made a very rapid progrefs whcQ fo greatly favour- ed : but there is a fignal proof of the contrary ; for fo fma-U an edition or the Bible as fix hundred co- pies, tranflated into Englifli in the reign of Henry Vlll. was not wholly fold off in three years. The people of England muft have been profoundly igno- rant in Queen Elizabeth's time, when a forged claufe added to the twentieth article of the Englifli creed pafled unnoticed till about forty years ago *. The Emperor Rodolphus anno 1281 appointed all public ads to be written in the German language, inftead of Latin as formerly. This was imitated in France, but not till the year 1539. In Scotland to this day charters, feifins, precepts of C/arg con^at, and fome other land-titles, continue to be in La- tin, or rather a fort of jargon. Ignorance is the mother of devotion, to the church and to lawyers. The difcoveries of the Portuguefe in the weft coaft of Africa, is a remarkable inftance of the flow progrefs of arts. In the beginning of the fif- teenth century, they were totally ignorant of that coaft beyond Cape Non, 28 deg. north latitude. In the year 141 o the celebrated Prince Henry of For- ,f! fill * In the aft i^th Elizabeth, a^no 1571, confirming the thirty-nine arti- cles of the church of England, thefe articles are not engroiTed, but referred to as comjjrifed in a printed hook, intitled, Articles agreed to by the luhole clergy in rr-KTocathn holfien tit Lontirn 1 562. The forged claufe is, " The church has " power to decree rites and ceremonies, and authority in controversies of *• faith." That claufe is not in the articles referred to ; nor the Highteft hint of any authority with refpedl to matters of faith. In the fame year 157 1, the articles were printed both in Latin and En^iHi, precifely as in the year J 562. Hut foon after tame out fpurious editions, in which the faid claufe was foifted into tl>c twentieth article, and continues fo to this day. A for- gery fo impudent woulH not pafs at prcfent } find its fuccefs Ihows great ig- norance in the people cf England at that period. Sk. IV. 1. Arts, 105 Portugal fitted out a fleet for difcovcrlcs, which proceeded along the coafl to Cape Bojadore in 26 deg. ; but had not courage to double it. In 1418 Triflran Vaz difcovered the ifland Porto Santo ; and the year after the illand Madeira was difcover- ed. In 1439 a Portuguefe captain doubled Cape Bojadore ; and the next year the Portuguefe reach- ed Cape Blanco, lat. 20 deg. In 1446 Nuna Trif- tan doubled Cape Verd, lat. 14°. 40'. In 1448 Don Gonzallo Vallo took pofleflion of the Azores. In the year 1449 the iflands of Cape Verd were difco- verqji for Don Henry. In the year 1471 Pedro d'Efcovar difcovered the ifland St. Thomas and Prince's ifland. In 1484 Diego Cam difcovered the kingdom of Congo. In i486 Bartholomew Diaz^ employed by John II. of Portugal doubled the Cape of Good Hope, which he called Cabo Tor- mentofo, from the tempefl:uous weather he found in the paflage. More arts have been invented by accident than by inveftigation. The art of porcelain is more in- tricate than that of glafs. The Chinefe however have pofTefled the former many ages without know- ing any thing of the latter till they were taught by Europeans. The exertion of natural fpirit upon any particu- lar art, promotes adivity to profecute other arts. The Romans, by conftant ftudy, came to excel in the art of war, which led them to improve upon other arts. Having in the progrefs of fociety ac- quired fome degree of tafte and polifh, a talent for writing broke fprth. Nevius compofed in verfc feven^ books of the Punic war ; belide comedies, replete with bitter raillery againfl: the nobility (a). Ennius wrote annals and an epic poem {b). Lu- cius Andronicus was the father of dramatic poetry in (a) Titus Livius, lib. 7. c, a. {b) Quintilian, lib, 10. c. i7» I ■j ij_ 1 '■"■* J S ,.r i ; " if If' il ■ <'?l i 106 Men independent of Society. B. I. in Rome (c), Pacuvius wrote tragedies (^). Plautus and Terence wrote comedies, l.ucilius compofcd latircs, which Cicero elleems to be llight, and void oi erudition (t;. Fabius Pi£lor, Cincius Alimentus, Pifo Frugi, Valerius Antias, and C^to, were rather annaiifts than hidorians, confining themfelves to naked fa6ls, ranged in order oT time. The genius of the Romans for the fine ?rts was much inflamed by Greek learning, when free intercourfc between the two nations was opened. Many of thofe who made the greateft figure ip the Roman ftate, commenced authors, Caefar, Cicero, &c. Sylla compofcd memoirs of his own tranfacti- ons, a work much eftc^med even in the days of Plutarch. The progrefs of art fcldom fails to be rapid, when a people happen to be roufed out of a torpid itate by fome fortunate change of circumftances : profperity pontrafted with former abafement, gives to the mind a fpring, which is vigoroufly exerted in every new purfuit. The Athenians made no figure under the tyranny of Pififtratus ; but upon re- gaining freedom and independence, they became heroes. Miletus, a Greek city of Ionia, being de- itroyed by the King of Perfia, and tjie inhabitants made (laves ; the Athenians, deeply affected with the mifery of their brethren, boldly attacked that King in his own dominions, and burnt the city of Sardis, In jcfs than ten ytais after, they gained a fignal viftory over him at Marathon ; and under Ihemilkocles, made head againfl a prodigious army with which Xerxes threatened utter ruin to Greece. Such profperity produced its ufual tffed : arts flou- riflied with arms, and Athens became the chief theatre for fciences as well as fine arts. The reign of Auguflus Csefar, which put an end to the rancour of (1) Cicero Dcoiatore, lih. a. No. 72. (d) De oratore, lib. 2. No. 193, (<•) De finibus, lib. i. No. 7. cc fc (( «( « cc C( (C C( (C cc to t ans, gart mer defi on Sk. IV. u Arts* 107 of civil war, and rcftorcd peace to Rome with the comforts of focicty, proved an aufjVicious ajra for literar.re ; ai»d produced "x cloud of Latin hiftori- ans, potts, and philofophcrs, to whom the mo- derns are indebted for their taflc and talents. One who makes a figure roufes emulation in all : one catches fire from another, and the national fpirit llourifhcs ; clailical works are conipofed, and ufe- ful difcoverics made in every art ^nd fciencc. This i airly accounts for the following obfervation of Velleius Paterculus («), that eminent incn gene- rally appear in the fame period oi tinic, '• One ' age," fays he," produced Kfciiyhi:, Sophocles, and ' Euripides, who advanced tragedy to a great height. In another age the old conudy flourifli- ed under Egpolis, Cratitius, and Arillophanes ; and the new w^s invented by Menandcr, and his cotcmporaries J3iphilas and riiiicinon, whofe compofitions are fo p<:rfect that ihty hpeared ail about the time of Plato and Ariftotle. Aiid ys to rhe- toric, few excelled in that art before Ifocrates, ■ and as fe\y after the fecond dcfccut of his fcho- lars." The hiflorian applies the fame obfervation to the Romans, and extends it even to grammari- ans, painters, flatuaries, and fculptors. With re- gard to Rome, it is true that the Roman govern- ment under Auguilus was in ciTcd defpouc : but defpotifm in that lingle inflance made no obilructi- on to literature, it having been the ])oruic of that reign to hide power as much as pofliblc. A hmi- lar revolution happened in Tufcany about three centuries ago. 'I'hat country was divided into many fmall republics, which by mutual hatred, ufual between nations in clofe neighbourhood, became fe- rocious i^nd bloody. Thefe republics being united under "1 ■■ 111 it, A..- n-' , ,f ' '. ' ! (i5 finding out their real parents. The Orphan of China, coinpofed in the fourteenth century, furpafles far any European play of that early period. But good writing has made a more rapid progrefs with us ; not from fuperiority of talents, but from the great labour the Chinefe mull undergo, in learning to read and write their own language. The Chinefe tragedy is indeed languid, and not fufficiently in- terefting ; which M. Voltaire afcribes to want of ge- nius. With better reafon he might have afcribed it to the nature of their government, fo well contrived for preferving peace and order, as to afford few ex- amples of furprifing events, and little opportunity for exerting manly talents. A nation cannot acquire a tafte for ridicule till it emerges out of the favage ftate. Ridicule however is too rough for refined manners: Cicero difcovers in Plautus a happy talent for ridicule, and peculiar delicacy of wit ; but Horace, who figured in the court of Auguftus, eminent for delicacy of tafte, declares againfl: the low roughnefs of that author's raillery (rt). The fame Cicero, in a letter to Papi- rius Foetus, complains that by the influx of foreigners the true Roman humour was loll:. It was not the influx of foreigners, but the gradual progrefs of manners from the rough to the poliflied. The high burlefque ftylc prevails commonly in the period between barbarity and politeneis, in which a tafte fomewhat improved difcovers the ridicule of former manners. Rabelais in France, and Butler in Eng- land are illuftrious examples. Dr. Swift is our latelt burlefque writer, and probably is the lait. Emulation among a multitude of fmall ftates in Greece, was enflamed by their public games : by that means, tafte ripened, and the fine arts were pro- moted. Tafte refines gradually ; and is advanced 1 2 toward {a) Element? of Criticifin, chap. a. part z. f,l^ ii6 Men independent of Society. B.I. toward pcrfcclion by a diligent fludy of beautiful produdions. Kome was indebted to Greece, for that delicacy of tafte which flione during the reign of Auguftiis, efpecially in literary compofitions. But tade could not long flourifh in a defpotic govern- ment : fo low had the Roman tafte fallen in the reign of the Emperor Hadrian, that nothing would pleafe Iiim but to fupprefs Homer, and in his place to inftall a filly Greek poet named Antimachus. The northern barbarians who defolated the Ro- man empire and revived in fome meafure the favagc ftate, occafioned a woful decay of tafte. Pope Gre- gory the Great ftruck with the beauty of fome Saxon youths expofed to fale in Rome, alked to what country they belonged. Being told they were Angles, he laid that they ought more properly to be denominated angels ; and that it was a pity fo beau- tiful a countenance fliould cover a mind devoid of grace. Hearing that the name of their province was Deih, a divifion of Northumberland, " Deiri !" replied he, " excellent : they are called to the mercy *« of God from his anger \_de ira]." Being told, alfo, that Alia was the king of that province, " Alleluia," cried he, " we muft endeavour that " the praifes of God be fung in their country." Puns and conundrums pafled in ignorant times for Sterling wit. Pope Gregory Y\\. anno 1080, pre- iented to the Emperor Rodolph a crown of gold with the following infcription : Petra dedii Petro, Petrus d'uidcma Rodolpho. Miferably low muft tafte have been in that period, when a childifli phy of words was retiftied as a proper decoration for a fe- rious folemnity. Pope Innocent III. anno 1207. made a prefent of jewels to John, King of England, accompanied with the following letter, praifed by Pcrc Orleans as full of fpirit and beauty. " Confider this prefent with refped to form, number, matter, and colour. The circular figure of the ring denotes eternity, which (( (C (( Sk. IV. 2. Arts* "7 which has neither beginning nor end. And by that figure your mind will be elevated from things terreftrial to things celcftial. The num- ber of four, making a fquare, denotes the firmnefs of a heart, proof againfl both adverfity and profperity ; efpecially when fupported by the four cardinal virtues, judice, ftrength, prudence, and temperance. By the gold, which is the metal of the ring, is denoted wifdom, which ex- cels among the gifts of Heaven as gold docs among " metals. Thus it is faid of the MelTiah, that the fpirit of wifdom (hall relt upon him : nor is there any thing more neceflary to a king, which made Solomon requeft it from (Jod preferably to all other goods. As to the colour of the ftones, the green of the emerald denotes faith ; the purity of the faphire, hope j the red of the granite, cha- rity ; the clearnefs of the topaz, good works, ** You have therefore in the emerald what will in- *' creafe your faith ; in the faphire, what will en- courage you to hope ; in the granite, what will prompt you to love ; in the topaz, what wijl ex- cite you to adt ; till having mounted by degree^ to the perfedion of all the virtuesi you (cqn^e ^t lad to fee the God of gods in the celeftial Siqn." The famous golden bull of Germany, digefted anno 1356 by Bartolus, a celebrated lawyer, and in- tended for a malter-piece of compofition, lai replete with wild conceptions, without the leaft regard to truth, propriety, or connection. It begins with an apoftrophe to Pride, to Satan, to Choler, and to Luxury : it afferts, that there muft be feven eledlors for oppofmg the feven mortal fms : the fall of the angels, terreftrial paradife, Pompey, and Caefar, are introduced ; and it is faid, that Germany is founded ori'the Trinity, and on the three theological virtues. What can be more puerile ! A fermon preached by the Bifhop of Bitonto, at the opening of the council of Trent, excels in that mode of compofition. He proves^ tc C( cc a li (C «( (C ti with money, and indecent flattery in circumftanccs that require fincerity and truth, could not long (land againft improved tafte. The yearly feafl o^ the afs that carried the mother of God into Eg)pi, was a moft ridiculous farce, highly rcliflied in the dark ages of Chriftianity. Sec the defcription of that fcaft in Vohaire's General Hiftory {a). The public amufements of our forefathers, fliow the groflhcfs of their tafte after they were reduced to barbarifm by the Goths and Vandals, The plays termed Myjieries, becaufe they were borroAy'd from the fcriptures, indicate grofs n>anners as well as infantine tafte ; and yet in France, not farther back than three or four centuries, thefe Myflteries were fuch favourites as conftantly to make 4 parj: at every public feftival. In a Spaniih play or myftery Jefus Chrift and the devil, ridiculoufly dreffed, cntej: into a difpute about fome point of controverfy, are in- flamed, proceed to blows, and finifh the entertain- ment with a faraband. The reformation of religion, which roufed a fpirit of enquiry, banifhed that a- mufement, not only as low but as indecent. A fort of plays fucceeded, termed Moralities, lefs indecent indeed, but little preferable in point of compofi- tion. Thefe Moralities have alfo been long banifh- ed, except in Spain, where they (till continue iri vogue. The devil is commonly the hero : nor dp the Spaniards make any difficulty, even in their more regular plays, to introdiice fupernatural and allegorical beings upon the fame ftage with men and women. The Cardinal Colonna, carried into Spain a beautiful buft of the Emperor Caligvjla. In the war about the fucceflion of Spain, after the death of its king Charles IL Lord Gallway, upon a painful fearch, found that buft fervi^g as a weight to a church-clock. ^ In the days of our unpolimed forefathers, wljo fvere governed by pride as well as by hatred, prin- ces (*) Chap 78, K i I, I W9fl . i-V. I20 Men independent of Society. B. f. CCS and men of rank entertained a changeling, dif- tinguiihed by the name o( fool ; who being the butt of their fiily jokes, flattered their felf-conceit. Such amufement, no lefs grofs than inhuman, could not fhow its face even in the dawn of tade : it was rendered lefs infipid and lefs inhuman, by entertain- ing one of real wit ; who, under difguife of a fool, was indulged in the mod fatirical truths. Upon a further purification of tafte, it was difcovered, that to draw amufement from folly, real or pretended, is below the dignity of human nature. More re- fined amufcments were invented, fuch as balls, pub- lic fppclacles, gaming, and fociety with women. ParaiiteSy defcribed by Plautus and Terence, were of fuch a rank as to be permitted to dine with gentlemen ; and yet were fo defpicable as to be the butt of every man's joke. They were placed at the lower end of the table ; and the gueiis diverted themfclves with daubing their faces, and even kick- ing and cufBng them ; all which was patiently borne for the fake of a plentiful meal. They refembled the fools and clowns of later times, being equally intended to be laughed at : but the paralite profef- fion Ihows grofler manners ; it being fhockingly in- delicate in a company of gentlemen, to abufe one of their own number,, however contemptible in point of character. Pride, which introduced fools, brought dwarfs alfo into fafhion. In Italy, that tafte was carried to extravagance, " Being at Rome in the year 1556," fays a French writer, " I was invited by Cardinal *' Vitelli to a feaft, where we were ferved by no *' fewer than thirty-four dwarfs, moft of them hor- *' ribly diftorted.'' Was not the tafte of that Cardie «al horribly diftorted ? The fame author adds, that Francis I. and Henry II. Kings of Frapcc, had many dwarfs : one named Great John was the leaft ever had been fecn except a dwarf at Milan, who was carried about in a cage. Sk. IV. 1. Arts, 12> In the eighth and ninth centuries, no fort of coni- tncrcc was carried on in Europe but in markets and fairs. Artificers and manufadurcrs were difperfed through the country, and fo were monafterics ; the towns being inhabited by none but clergymen, and thofe who immediately depended on them. The nobility lived on their eltate, unlefs when they follow- ed the court. The low people were not at liberty to dcfert the place of their birth : the villain was an- nexed to the eftate, and the J/ave, to the perfon, of his lord. Slavery foftered rough manners ; and there could be no improvement in manners, nor in tafle, where there was no fociety. Of all the polite nations in Europe, the Englifli were the lateft of taking to a town-life ; and their progrefs in tafte and manners, has been proportionably flow. Our celebrated poet Ben Johnfon lived at a time when turgid conceptions and bombaft language were highly relifhed; and his compofitions are in the perfedlion of that tafte, witnefs the quotations from liim in Elements of Criticifm (a). He was but too faithfully imitated by Beaumont and Fletcher and other writers of that age. We owe to Dryden the dawn of a better tafte. For tho' the mode of wri- ting in his time led him to the bombaft, yet a juft imitation of nature frequently breaks forth, efpecially in his later compofitions. And as nature will always at laft prevail, the copies of nature given by that eminent writer were highly rehflied, produc- ed many happy imitations, and in time brought about a total revolution of tafte ; which kept pace with that of government, both equally happy for this na- tion. Here is a fair dedudion of the progrefs of tafte in Britain. But according to that progrefs, what ftiall be faid of the immortal Shakefpeare, in whofe works is difplayed the perfedion of tafte. "Was not his appearance at leaft a century too early ? Such !■ (a) Vol, 1. p. 244, edit. 5. -1 1 /! I M '■ I |:, n 122 Men Independent of Society. B. I Such events happen fomctlmcs contrary to the ordi- nary progrcls. 'Jills was the cafe oF Roger Bacon as well as ot Shakcfpeare : they were blazing ftars that gave but a temporary iuftre, and left the world as void of light as before. Ben Johnfon accordingly, and even Beaumont and Fletcher, were greater na- tional favourites than Shakefpcare ; and in the fame manner, the age before, Lucan was ranked above Virgil by every critic. By the fame bad ta(tc, the true fublime of Milton was little relUhed for more than half a century after Paradifc Loll was pub- iiihed. Ill-fated Shakefpcare ! who appeared in an age unworthy of him. That divine writer, who, merely by force of genius, fo far furpafled his co- temporaries, how far would he have furpafled even vhimfelf, had he been animated with the praifcs fo jullly bellowed on him in later times ? We have Dryden's authority that taftc in his time wa^ cpnfif dcrably refined ; " They who have befl: fucccded on the ftagc, ** Have Itill conform'd their genius to their age, *' Thus Johnfon did mechanic humour fliow, ** When men were dull, and converfation low. '' Then comedy was faultlefs, but 'twas coarfe : ^* Cobb's Tankard was a jeft, and Otter's Horfe. *' Fame then was cheap, and the firft comer fped ; ^' And they have kept it fmce by being dead. *' But were they now to write, when critics weigh Each line and cv'ry word throughout a play, None of them, no not Johnfon in his height. Could pafs without allowing grains for weight, If love and honour now are higher rais'd, It's not the poet, but the age is prais'd : Wit's now arriv'd to a more high degree. Our native language more refined and free. Our ladies and our men now fpeak more wit In converfation than tliofe poets writ.'* The C6 «f n cc t i Sk. IV. 2, Arts. nj The high option Dryclcn had of hlmfi*lf and of hi^ age, breaks out in every line. Johnlon probably had the fame opinion of himfelf and of his a^c : the prcfent age is not exempted from that bias ; nor will the next age be, though probably maturity in tallo will he (till later. We humble ourfelvcs before the ancients who arc far removed from us ; but not to foar above our immediate predecen<)rs, would be a fad mortification. Many fcenes in Dryden's plays, if not lower than Cobb*s Tankard, or Otter's Horfe, •arc more out of place, In the Wild Gallant^ the hero is a wretch conflantly employed, not only iii cheating his creditors, but in cheating his miltrcfs, 2^ lady of high rank and fortune. And how abi'urd is the fcene, where he convinces the father of his mif- trefs, that the devil had got him with child ! Iha character of Sir Martin Marall is below contempt. The fcenes in the fame play, of a bawd inftrucling one of her novices how to behave to her gallants, and of the novice praftifing her leflbns, arc perhaps not lower than Cobb's Tankard, or Otter's Uorfe, but furely they are lefs innocent. It is common to fee people fond of a new fafliioa, vainly imagining that tafte is greatly improved. Dif- guifed dilhes are a fort of baitard wit, like turrets jut? ting out at the top of a building. Such difhes were lately in high fafliion, without having even the flen- der merit of being a new fafliion. They prevailed in the days of Charles II. as we learn from one of Dryden's plays. " Ay, it looked like variety, till " we came to tafte it ; there were twenty feveral dilhes to the eye, but in the palate nothing but fpices. I had a mind to cat of a pheafant, and lb foon as I got it into my mouth, I found I was chewing a limb of cinnamon ; then I went to cut a piece of kid, and no fooner had it touched my lips, but it turned to red pepper : at lalt I began to think myfelf another kind of Midas, that every thing I touched fljould be turned to fpicc." Portugal « (( (C (( ,irijl ii » jii : '■ -jf m ''i -1 » 124 Men- independent of Society. B. I. Portugal was rifing in power and fplendor when Camoens wrote theLufiad ; and with refpcft to the nuilic of verfe it has merit. The author however is far from ihining in point of taile. He makes a llrange jumble of Heathen and Chriftian Deities. *' Gama," obferves Voltaire, '* in a florm addrelfes " his prayers to Chrilt, but it is Venus who comes " to his relief." Voltaire's obfervation is but too well founded. In the firft book, Jove fummons a council of the gods, which is defcribed at great lengih, for no earthly purpofe but to (how that he favoured the Portuguefe. Bacchus, on the other hand, declares againft them upon the following ac- count, that he himfelf had gained immortal glory as conqueror of the Indies ; which would be eclipfed if the Portuguefe fhould alfo conquer them. A Moor- ifli commander having received Gama with fmiles, but with hatred in his heart, the poet brings down Bacchus from heaven to confirm the Moor in his wicked purpofes; which would have been perpe- trated, had not Venus interpofed in Gama's behalf. In the fecond canto, Bacchus feigns himfelf to be a Chriftian, in order to deceive the Portuguefe ; but Venus implore s her father Jupiter to protcd: them. And yet, alter all, I am loth to condemn an early writer for introducing Heathen Deities as adors in a real hiffory, when in the age of Lewi^ XIV. celebrated for retinement of tafte, we find French writers, Boi- leau in particular, guilty of the fame abfurdity (a). At the meeting an. 1520 near Calais between Francis I. of France and Henry VIII. of England, it is obferved by feveral French writers, that the French nobility difplayed more magnificence, the Englifh more tafte. If fo, the alteration is great fince that time : France at prcfent gives the iaw to the reft of Europe in every matter of tafte, garden- ing alone excepted. At the fame time, tho' tafte in 2 France fjt) Elements of Criticifm. cliap. «' dieti the ;r is es a ties. eiFes mes too ns a reat at he her Sk. IV. 2. Arfj. 125 France is more correct than in any other country, it will bear Hill foine purification. The fcene oF a clyfler-pipe in Moliere is too low even for a farce ; and yet to this day it is acted with a few foftenings, before the moft polite audience in Europe *. In Efements of Criticifm (A) feveral caufes arc mentioned that may retard tade in its progrefs to- ward maturity, and that may give it a retrograde motion when it is in maturity. There are many biaffes both natural and acquired that tend to mif- lead perfons even of the belt talte. Of the latter, inftances are without number. I fele^t one or two to fliow what influence even the fiightell circumftan- ces have on tafte. The only tree beautiful at all fea- fons is the holly : in winter, its deep and ftiining green intitles it to be the queen of the grove : in fummer, this colour completes the harmonious mix- ture of ihades, fo pleafing in that feafon ! Mrs. D — is lively and fociable. She is eminent above moft of her fex for a corrcdl tafte, diiplayed not only within doors but in the garden and in the field. Having become miftrefs of a great houfe by matri- mony, the moft honourable of all titles, a group of tall hollies, which had long obfcured one of the ca- pital rooms, foon attracted her eye. She took an averfion to a holly, and was not at eafe till the group was extirpated. Such a bias is perfedly harmlefs. What follows is not altogether fo. The Oxo- nians difliked the great Newton becaufe he was edu- cated at Cambridge ; and they favoured every book writ againft him. That bias, I hope, has not come down to the prefent time. Refinement -• Ko nation equals the Frei-u:h in drefs, houlhold furniture, watches, fnuff- boxes, and in toys of every kind. The Italians have always exfellcd in architefture and painting, the r.r;;ii(}i in gardenini?. How are fiicli national differences to be explained ? A nation, like an individual, may be dllpofed to grand objeds, which fvveil the mind. A nation, like an individual, m^y reli(h things neat, pretty, and ekjant. And if a tafte of any kind happen once to preyijl aniong men of figuie, it foon turns general. The verdure of the fields inEngland invites a pohOiing hand, (i) Elements of Criticifm, cliap. 25. «1 -A ! 126 IVIkn independent of Society. B. I. Refinement of tafte in a nation, is always accom- panied with refinement of manners: people accuftom- cd to behold order and elegance in public buildings and public gardens^ acquire urbanity in private. But it is irkfome to trudge long in a beaten track, familiar to all the world ; and therefore, leaving what is faid above, like a ftatue curtail'd of legs and arms, I haften to the hiftory of the fine arts. Ufeful arts paved the way to fine arts. Men upon whom the former had beftowed every convenience, turned their thoughts to the latter. Beauty was ftu- tlicd in objeds of fight ; and men of tafte attached themfelves to the fine arts, which multiplied thei^ enjoyments and improved their benevolence. Sculp- ture and painting made an early figiire in Greece ; wliich afforded plenty of beautiful originals to be copied in thefe imitative arts. Statuary, a more fimple imitation than painting, was fooner brought to perfe£lion : the ftatue of Jupiter by Phidias, and of Juno by Polycletes, tho' the admiration of all the world, were executed long before the art of light and Ihade was known. AppoUodorus, and Zeuxis his difciple, who flouriflied in the fifteenth Olym- piad, were the firft who figured in that art. Ano- ther caufe concurred to advance ftatuary before painting in Greece, viz. a great demand for ftatues of their gods. Architedure, as a fine art, made a flower progrcfs. Proportions, upon which its ele- gance chietly depends, cannot be accurately afcer- tained but by an infinity of trials in great buildings : a model cannot be relied on ; for a large and a Jinall building even of the fame form, require differ- ent proportions. Gardening made a ftill flower pro- j>refs than architecture : the palace of Alcinous, in the fcventh book of the Odyffey, is grand and highly ornamented ; but his garden is no better than what we term a kitchen-garden. Gardening has made a great progrefs in England. In France, na- ture is facriliced to conceit. The gardens of Ver- i failles If!*'?' Sk. IV. 2. Arts, 12* failles deviate from nature no lefs than the hanging gardens at Babylon. In Scotland, a tafte is happily commenced for neat houfes and ornamented fields ; and the circumftances of the people make it proba- ble, that tafte there will improve gradually till it arrive at perfeftion. Few gentlemen in Scotland can afford the expence of London ; and fuppofmg them to pafs the winter in a provincial town, they return to the occupations of the country with re- doubled ardor. As they are llife from the corrup- ti6n of opulence, nature will be their guide in every plan J and the very face of their country will oblige them to follow nature ; being diverfified with hills and plains, rocks and rivers, that require nothing but polifliing. It is no unpleafmg profped, that Scotland may in a century or fooner compare with England ; not indeed in magnificence of country- feats, but in fweetnefs and variety of concordant parts. The ancient churches in this ifland cannot be our own invention, being unfit for a cold climate. The vaft fpace they occupy, quantity of ftone, and gloominefs by excluding the fun, afford a refrefhing coolnefs, and fit them for a hot climate. It is highr ly probable that they have been copied from the mofques in the fouth of Spain, ereded there by the Saracens. Spain, when poffeffed by that people, was the centre of arts and fciences, and led the fafhi- «>n in every thing beautiful and magnificent. From the fine arts mentioned, we proceed to li- terature. It is agreed among all antiquaries, that the firft writings were in verfe, and that profe was of a much later date. The firft Greek who wrote in profe, was Pherecides Syrus : the firft Roman, was Appius Cjecus, who compofed a declamation againft Pyrrhus. The four books of Chatah Bhadc, the fa- cred book of Hindoltan, are compofed in verfe ftan- zas -, and the Arabian compofitions in profe followed iong after thofe in verfe. To arcouut for that fm^ guiai; !ii m^ m.. I I I !l i,s m i <6 At il8 Ml N independent of Society. B.I. gular fact, many learned pens have been employed ; but without fuccefs. By fome it has been urged, that as memory is the record of events where writ- ing is unknown, hillor^ originally was compofed in verfc for the fake of memory. This is not fatisfac- tory. To undertake the painful talk of compofmg in verfe for the fake of memory, would require more forefight than ever was exerted by a barbarian ; not to mention that other means were ufed for pre- ferving the memory of remarkable events, a heap of Itones, a pillar, or other objed that catches the eye. The account given by Longinus is more ingenious. In a fragment of his treatife on verfe, the only part that remains, he obferves, *' that meafure or verfe belongs to poetry, becaufe poetry reprefents the various pallions with their language j for which reafon the ancients, in their ordinary difcourfe, delivered their thoughts in verfe rather than in profe." Longinus thought, that anciently men were more expofed to accidents and dangers, than when they were proteded by good government and by fortified cities. But he feems not to have confi- dered, that fear and grief, infpired by dangers and misfortunes, are better fuited to humble profe than to elevated verfe. I add, that however natural poe- tical diftion may be when one is animated with any vivid paflion, it is not fuppofable that the ancients never wrote nor fpoke but when excited by paffion. Their hiftory, their laws, their covenants, were cer- tainly not compofed in that tone of mind. An important article in the progrefs of the fine arts that writers have not fufficiently attended to, will, if I millake not, explain this myftery. The article is the profeflion of a bard, which fprung up in early times before writing was known, and died away gradually as writing turned more and more common. The curiofity of men is great with refpeft to the tranfaclions of their forefathers ; and when fuch tranfadipi^s are defcribed la verfe accompa- nied iSk. IV. 4. Arfi, .\'\ 129 nicd with mufic^ the performance is enchanting* Aft icar, a voice, (kill in inftrumental mufiC) and above all a poetical genius, are reqiiifite to excel in that complicated art* As fuch talents are rare, the few that pofleffed them were highly efteemed ; and hence the profeflion of a bard, which, belide natural ta-» lents, Required more cultljre and cxercile than any other known art. Bards were capital perfons at every folemnity. Their fortgsj which, by recording the atchievements of kings and heroes, animated, every hearer) muft have been the entertainment of every warlike nation. We have Hefiod's authority, that in his time bards were as common as potters or joiners, and as liable to envy. Demodocus is men* tioned by Homer as a celebrated bard {a) \ and Phemius, another bard, is introduced by him de- precating the wrath of Ulyffcs, in the following words* «: '|i, f 1 1 ^ 1 't '■ 1 ,> ■■ i --1 . ; '.: ■> ■ J ,: .y ■ ,■■■" cer- 3i poetry is fit to be accompanied with mufic, but what is (imple : a complicated thought or defcrip- tion requires the utmoft attention, and leaves none for the mufic ; or if it divide the attention, it makes but a faint impreffion (a). The fimple o* peras of Quinault bear away the palm from every thing of the kind compofed by Boileau or Racine. But when a language, in its progrefs to maturity, is enriched with variety of phrafcs fit to exprefs the mod elevated thoughts, men of genius afpire to the higher drains of poetry, leaving mufic and fong to the bards: which diftinguifhes the profeflion of a poet from that of a bard. Homer, in a lax fenfe, may be termed a bard ; for in that character he ftroUed from feaft tofeaft. But he was not a bard in the original fenfe : he indeed recited his poems to crowded audiences : but his poems are too com- plex for mufic, and he probably did not fmg them, nor accompany them with the lyre. The Trova- dores of Provence were bards in the original fenfe; and made a capital figure in days of ignorance, when few could read and fewer write. In later times the fongs of the bards were taken down in writing, which gave every one accefs to them withi out a bard ; and the profeflion funk by degrees into oblivion. Among the highlanders of Scotland, reading and writing in their own tongue is not common even at prefent ; and that circumftance fupported long the bard-profeflion among them, af- ter being forgot among neighbouring nations. Of- fian was the molt celebrated bard in Caledonia, as Homer was In Greece*. K 2 From {a) See Elements of Criticifm, vol, 2. Appendix, article 33. * The multitude are ftruck with what is new and fplendid, but feldom continue long in a wrong tafte. Voltaire holds it be a llrong teftimony for tii'i Gierufaleme Libirata, that even the gondoliers in Venice have it molUy by heart ; and tiiat one no fooner pronounces a ftanza than another carrica it on. Offian has tlie fame teftimony in his favour : there are not many highlanders, even of the loweft rank, but cm repeal long palfages out of bis works. II ' 'it ilH i| !■ ■tr / ,■ ■■ i t 'It li: J3» Men independent of Society. B. L From the foregoing hiftorical deduflion, the rea- der will difcover without my afliflance why the firft writings were in verfe. The ibngs of the bards, being univerfal favourites, were certainly the firft compofitions that writing was employed upon : they would be carefully coUc^Ved by the moft ikrlful wri- ters, in order to preferve them in perpetuad remem- brance. The following part of the progrefs is e- qually obvious. People acquainted with no written compofitions but what were in verfe, co^mpoCed in verfe their law», their religious ceremonies, and e- very memorable tranfaftron.- But when fub]e£ts ok"* writing multiplied and became more and moFC in- volved, when people began to veafon-j to teach, anct to harangue, tliey were obliged to defcend to hum-^ ble profe: foF to confine a writer or Speaker ta verfe in handling fubjefts of that nature> would be a burden unfupportable. The profe compofitiems of early hiftoriaris are" all of them dramatic* A writer deflitute af art is naturally prompted to relate fafts as he faw them performed : he introduces his perfonages as fpeak- ing and conferring ; and rdates only what was aft- cd and not fpoken *. The hiftorical books of the Old Teftamcnt are compofed in that mode ; and fo addicted to- the dramatic are the authors of thefe books, that they frequently introduce God himfelf into the dialogue. At the fame time, the fimplicity of that mode i» happily fuited to the poverty of every language in its early periods.; The drama- tic mode has a dehcious effeft in exprefling fentr- ments, and every thing that is timple and tender {a). Take the following Inftance of a low incident becoming by that means not a little interefting.; .Naomi having loft her hufband and her two fons in • Low people to this day tell their ftory In dialogne as ancient writer* did, and for the fame reafon. Th«y relate things is they faw and hearTi foreign parts, and purpofing to return to the land of her forefathers^ faid to her two daughters in law, *' Go return each to her mother's houfe : the " Lord deal kindly with you, as ye havp dealt ** with the d,c:iu, and with me. The Lord grant you that you may find reft, each of you in the *^ houfe of Ijer hulband. Then flie kificd them : *' and they lift up their voice and wept. And they *' faid unto her, Surely we wil^ return with thee ** unto thy people. And Naomi faid. Turn again, *' my daughters: why will you go with me ? are ** there yet any more hu{bands in my womb, that *' they may be your hulbands ? Turn again, my daughters, go your way, for I am too old to have an hulband : if I jhould fay, I have hope, if I " ftipuld have a hjlband alfo to nigl)t, and Ihpuld ** aifo bear fons j would ye tarry for them till ♦* they were grown ? would ye ftay for them from " having hulbands ? nay, my daughters t for it ** grieveth me much for your fakes, that the hand " of the Lord is gone out againll me. A'^d they lift up their voice and wept aeain : and Orpah kiffed her mother in law, but Jluth clave unto her. And fliC faid, Behpld, thy fifter in law is ** gone back unto her people, and to her gods-: ** return thou after thy fifter in law. And Ruth *' faid, ifltreat me not to leave thee, or to return •* from following after thee : ' for whither thou *' goeft, I will go ; and where thou lodgeft I will ♦* locjge J thy people fhall be my people, and thy " God my God : where thou dieft, will I die, ana " there will I be buried : the Lord do fo to me, ^ and more alfa„ if ought but death part thee *^ and me. When fhc faw that flie was ftedfaft- ^* ly luiwded tq go with her, then Ihe left fpeaking "' unto her. *' So they went until they came to Bethlehem. ** And it came to pafs when they were come to ^ l^ethlehcm, that all the rd hath brought me home again empty : why then call yc me Naomi, feeing the Lord hath teftified againfl ** me, and the Almighty hath alHicled me ? So Na-s •' omi returned, and Ruth theMoabitefs her daugh- *' ter in law with her, which returned out of the *' country of Moab : and they came to Bethlehem " in the beginning of barley harveft. *' And Naomi had a kinfman of her huroand's, a " mighty man of wealth, of the family of Elime- " lech ; and his name was Boaz. And Ruth the " Moabitefs faid unto Naomi, Let me now go to ** the field and glean ears of corn after him in ** whofe figh.. I fliall fmd grace. And (lie faid unto *' her. Go, my daughter. And flie went, and came, *' and gleaned in the field after the reapers : and her " hap was to light on a part of the field belonging *' unto Boaz, who was of the kindred of Elimelech. " And behold, Boaz came from Bethlehem, and ^* faid unto the reapers. The Lord be with you : " and they anfwered him. The Lord bltfs thee. ^* Then faid Boa7!^nto his fervant that was fet over *' the reapers, Whofc damfel is this ? And the fer- " vant that w^as fet over the reapers anfwered and " faid. It is the Moabitilh damfel that came back "with Naomi, out of the country of Moab : and " fhe faid, I pray you, let me glean, and gather after the reapers, amongft the fli eaves : fo flie came, and hath continued even from the morning until now, that (lie tarried a little in the houfe. Then faid Boaz unto Ruth, Heareft thou not, my daughter ? Go not to glean in another field, neither go from hence, but abide here fall by my maidens. Let thine eyes be on the field that they do reap, and go thou after them: have I not charged the young men, that they fhall not touch " thee? a C( (( Neftor in Pylus, telling him the caufe of his coming ; which when Neftor heard, he begun to exclaim, how Antenor durft fet his foot in Greece, feeing the Greeks were firft injured by the Phrygians. " When Anten*. jund that he had obtained no- " thing, and that Priamus was contumelioufly treat- " ed, he went on ftiipboard, and returned home.'* The Roman hiftories before the tir '^ of Cicero are chronicles merely. Cato, Fabius i, 7, .'S |i!. ¥ ¥i< ;>]w^tl' 146 Men independent of Society. B. 1, The dry narrative manner bein-g very little in- terefling or agreeable, a tafte for embellifhment prompted foine writers to be copious and vcrbofe. Saxo Grammaticus, who in the 12th century com- pofed in Latin a hiftory of Denmark, furprifmgly pure for that early period, is extremely verbofe and full of tautologies. Such a ftyle, at any rate unplea- fant, is intolerable in a modern tongue, before it is enriched with a ilock of phrafes, for exprellmg apt- ly the great variety of incidents that enter into hif- tory. Take the following example out of an endlefs number. Henry VII. of England, having the young Queen of Naples in view for a wife, deputed three men in character of ambalTadors, to vifit her, and to anfiver certain quejiions contained in curious and exqiiifite tnji ructions for taking afurvey of her perfon, complexion^ ^c. as cxprelfcd by Bacon in his life of that pri-nce. One of the inftrudions was, to pro- cure a pifture of the Queen 5 which one would think could not require many words ; yet behold the inftrodion itfclf. " The King's faid fcrvants fhall alfo^ at their comyng to the parties of Spayne, di- ligently enquerc for fome conynge paynter having good expevier;ce in making and paynting of vi* lages and portretures, and fuche oon they fhall take with them to the place where the faid Quuins make their abode, to the intent that the faid paynter maye draw a pidure of the vifage and femblance of the faid young Quine, as like unto her as it can or may be conveniently doon, which pidure and image they fhall fubftantially note, and marke in every pounte .and circum- flance, foo that it agree in fimihtude and like- neffc as near as it may pofTible to the veray vi- fage, countenance, and femblance of the faid Qjine ; and in cafe they may perceyve that the paynter, at the furll or fecond making thereof, hath not made the fame perfaite to her fimily- tude and likeneffe, or that he hath omitted any " fcture k( it <( €i V *^ i [ r'ii' lit K '\ 148 Mew independent of Society* 'B. I, (C {« " Richard Duke of York, but Richard the Fourthj ** King of England." He dcfcends fometimes fo low as to play upon words : witnefs the following fpeech made for Perkin to the king of Scotland. High and mighty king ! your Grace may be picafed benignly to bow your cars to hear the tragedy of a young nun that by right ought to hold in his hand the ball of a kingdom, but by fortune is made himfclf a ball, tofled from mifery to mifery, and from place to place." The foi- lowing is a ftrangely forced allufion. Talking of Margaret Duchefs of Burgundy, who had patro- nized Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck, he fays, *' It is the.llrangefl: thing in the world, that the Lady Margaret Ihou Id now, wheti other wo« men give over child-bearing, bring forth two fuch monders, being, at birth, not oi nine or ten month, but of many years. And whereas other natural mothers bring furth children weak, and not able to help themfelves, fhe bringeth furth tall ftriplings, able, foqn after their coming into the world, to bid battle to mighty kings." I fhould not have given To many inftances of puerilities in compofition, were they not the performance of a great philofopher. Low indeed mufl have been the tafie of that age, when it infeded its greatefl genius. '- - .- -• ' ■ . • i . ■ The perfeftion of hiftorical compofition, which writers at lad attain to after wandering through various imperfect modes, is a relation of interefting fads conncfted with their motives and confequences. A hiflory of that kind is truly a chain of caufcs and etfeds. The hiftory of Thucydides, and ftill more that of Tacitus, are fhining initances of that mode. There was not a book written in France correct in its llyle before the year 1654 when the Letires Provincia/cs appeared ; nor a book in a good hiftofi- cal ftyle before the hiilory of the confpiracy againft A^enice by the Abbe St. Heal, 1 A Ian- nander and his cotemporaries ; though we muft re- ly upon collateral evidence, having very few remains of them. Their works however were far from f;er* fedion, if we can draw any conje6:ure from their imitator Plautus, who wrote about a century later. Plautus was a writer of genius ; and it may rcafonably be fuppofed that his copies did not fall greatly ihort of the originals, in matters at leaft that can be faith- fully copied. At that rate, they muft have been extremely defedive in their fubjcds, as well as in the conduct of their pic^^s ; for he fliews very little art in either. With refpeft to the former, his plots are wondrous fimple, very little varied, and very little interefting. The fubjed of almoft every piece is a young man in love with a mufic-[^irl, defiring to pur - chafe her from the procurer, and employing a fa- vourite flave to cheat his father out of the price ; and the different ways of accomplifhing the cheat, is all the variety we find. In fome few of his comedies the ftory rifes to a higher tone, the mufic-girl being difcovered to be the daughter of a free man, which removes every obftruction to a marriage between her and her lover. With refped to the conduft of his pieces, there is a miferable defeft of art. Inftead of unfolding the fubjed in the progrefs of the adion, as is done by Terence, and every modern writer, 3 Plautus f I i IS6 Men independent of Society. B. I. Plautus introduces an ador, for tie other purpofe but to explain the ftory to the audience. In one of his comedies, a houihold-god is fo obliging, as not only to unfold the fubjed, but to relate beforehand every particular that is to be reprcfented, not excepting the cataftrophe. Did not Plautus know, that it is plea- fant to have our curiofity raifcd about what will hap- pen next '' III the courfe of the a6tion, perfons arc frequemb' iatroduced who are heard talking to themfelves on the open ftrcet. One would imagine the Greeks to have been great babblers, when they could not refrain foliloquies even in public. Could Plautus have been fo artlefs in the conduft of his pieces, had a more perfed model been exhibited to him by Menander, or the other authors mentioned ? It is obferved in Elements of Criticifm (e owing to genius that Te- rence excels in purity of language., and prc}>riety oi dialogue ; but hr w account ior liis iuperiority over Piautus In the conftrudtion and c )ndu6 of a .; ly. It \*'ill not certainly be thought, that Piuatus would copy the w<:>rft models, leaving the beft to future wvkcrs. This difficulty has not occurred to any of the cs)mmentators, as far as I can recoiled. If it be fair to judge of Menander and of his cotempo- raries from Piautus their imitator, the talents of Te- xence muft have been great, to excel all of them fo much both in the conftrudlion and conduft of his plays. Homer for more than two thoufand years has been held the prince of poets. Such perfection in an author who flourilhed when arts were far fhort of maturity, would be furprifing, would be miraculous. An author of genius (a) has endeavoured to account for this extraordinary phenomenon j and I willingly acknowledge, that he has exerted much indultry, as well as invention ; but in my apprehcnfion without giving much fatisfadion. The new light that is thrown above upon the Greek theatre, has em- boldened me to attempt a criticifm on the Iliad, in order to judge whether Homer has io i^r anticipated the ordinary progrefs of nature, as in a very early period to have arrived at the perfedion of his art. To 4A- i («) Eflay on the life and writings of HorRer, Sk. IV. 2. Arts, >59 li .' To form a good writer, genius and judgement mufl concur. Nature fupplies the former ; but to the latter inilrudion and imitation are eifential. Shakefpeare lived in an age that afforded him lit- tle or no opportunity to cuhivate or improve his judgement ; and though inimitable in every article that depends on genius, there are found many de- feds in the condud of his plays, and in other parti- culars that require judgement ripened by experi- ence. Homer lived in a rude age, iittle advanced in ufeful arts, and ftill lefs in civilization and enlarg- ed benevolence. The nations engaged in the Tro- jan war, are defcribed by him as in a progrefs from the fliepherd-ftate to that of agriculture. In the Iliad, many eminent men are faid to be ihcpherds. Andromache in particular (a) mentions feven of her brethren, who were flain by Achilles as they tend- ed their father's flocks and herds. In that flate, garments of woollen cloth were ufed j but the ikins of beads, the original cloathing, were ftill worn as an upper garment : every chief in the Iliad appears in that drefs. Such indeed was the fimpli- city of this early period, that a black ewe was pro- mifed by each chief to the man who would under- take to be a fpy. In fuch times literature could not be far advance^! ; and it is a great doubt, whether' there was at that time a lingle jx>em of the ^ic kind, for llouKr to imitate or improve upon-. Ho- mer is undiH^btcdlv a wonderful genius, perhaps the grcatci\ thxit c\\ r exifted : his fire and the boktnefs of his c\MKX\>tions» are inimitable. But in that ear- ly age, it would fal' little (hort of a real miracle, to find fuch ripcnefs of juilgement and corrednefs of execution, as in modern wviters are the fruits of long experience and progreilive improvements, during the couri'e of many centuries. Homer is far from being fo ripe, or fo corred. 1 Ihall mention but two or three («) Book 6. I ^'.1 i *-■■ ■i \'l u I Co Men independent of Society. B. I» three particulars ; for to dwell upon the imperfefli- ons of fo illudrious an author, is not pleafant. The firll is, that he reduces his heroes to be little bet- ter than puppets. Not one of them performs an adion or eclat, but with the afliftanee of fome deity : even Achilles himfelf is every where aided by fuperior powers. It is Jupiter who infpires Hec- tor with boldnels to perform the heroic aftioiis i'o finely dcfcribtd in the 15th book ; and it is Jupiter who, ( liiiiipin^ fides, fills his heart with dilinay. (ilauciis, dtfperately woundeij, fupplicates Apolloi is iT]tr;^culoufly healed, ana returns to the battle per- fedly itiiiihl. Ih'^fcnr firurk fo the ground and ik the point of giving up the gholt. Is eured by Apollo, and feptback to the battle with redoubled vigour. Homer rffflnibles a fed ot Chridiaiis, who linid, that a man can do nothing of himlelf, and that he is merely an inflrument which God employs, as we do a fpade or a hatchet. Can Homer's admirers be fo blinded as not to perceive, that this fort of ma- chinery dtJtrads from the dignity of his heroes, renders them lefs interelling, and lefs worthy of ad-* miration? Homer however is delfivf*dly liith a fa- vourite, that we are prone to admit any eKculr. In days of ignorance, people are much addided to the marvellous. Homer himfelf, it may be jnflly fuppofed, M'as infefted with that wer/v-ntls ; and ho certainly knew, that his hearers would be en- chanted with every thing wonderful and out of the common courfe of nature. Another particular is his digreflions without end, which draw our at- tention from the principal fubjeft. I wifli fome apology could be made for them. Diomedes («), for inltnncr, meeting with Glaucu.s in the field of battle, and doubting from his majeftic air whe- ther he might not be an immortal, enquires who he was, declaring that he would not fight with a god. (a) Book 6. \ Sk. IV. 2. Arts. i6i () o a god. Glaucus lays hold of this very flight opjior- tunity, in the heat of action, to give a long hiftory of his family. In the mean time the reader's pati- ence is put to a trial, and his ardor cools. Aga- memnon {a) defiring advice how to refill the Tro- jans, Diomedes fprings forward ; but before he of- fers advice, gives the hiftory of all his progenitors, and of their characters, in a long train. And ahcr all, what was the fage advice that required fuch a preface ? It was, that Agamemnon jhould exhort the Greeks to fight bravely. At any rate was Dio- medes fo little known, as to make it proper to fuf- f)end the adion at fo critical a juncture for a genca- ogitd) hilinry? A third particular is an endlefs num- ber of minute circumltances ; efpecially in the de* fcrlptlUU of battles, wliere they are the leaft tolera- ble. One capital beauty of an epic poem, is the felection of fuch incidents and circumfiances j U8 make a deep impreflion, keeping out of \ievf every thing low or familiar (^b). An account of a fmgle battle employs the whole fifth book of the Iliad, and a great part of the fixth ; yet in the whole there is no general adion ; but warriors, whom we never heard of before, killed at a diftance with an arrow or a javelin ; and every wound defcribcd with anatomical accuracy. The whole feventeenth book is employed in the conteit about the dead body of Patroclus, fluffed with mi- nute circumftances below the dignity of an epic poem : the reader fatigued has nothing to relieve him but the melody of Homer's verfification. Gra- titude would prompt an apology for an author who affords fo much pleafufe : Homer had no good mo- dels to copy after ; and without good models wc cannot exped maturity of judgement. In a word. Homer was a blazing liar, and the more to be ad- VoL. I. M raired. {a) Book 14, 'yi) Elements of CritUiftn, vol. 1. p. 232. edit. 5 wmv 162 Men independent of Society. B. 1. mired, becaufc he blazed in a obfcure age. But that he Ihould in no degree be tainted with the irn- perfeftions of fuch an age, is a wild thought: it is fcarcc pofTible, but by luppofing him to be more than man. Particular caufcs that advance the progrefs of fine arts, as well as of uftful arts, arc mentioned in the iirlt part of this Sketch, and to thefe I refer. Having traced the progrefs of the fine arts to-* ward maturity in a fuinmary way, the decline of thcfc arts comes next in order. A ufeful art fel- dom turns retrograde, becaufe every one has an in- terefl to preferve it in perfedion. Fine arts de- pend on more flender principles than thofe of uti- lity ; and theretorc the judgement formed of them is more fludluating. The variety of form that is ad- mitted into the iine arts by fuch fludluation of judgc-i ment, excites artifls to indulge their love of novel- ty. Rclllefs man knows no golden mean, but will be attempting innovations without end. Such in- novations do well in an art diltant from perfeft'on ; but they are commonly the caufe of degeneracy in arts that are in perfection ; for an artift ambitious to excel, aims always to be an original, and cannot fubmitto be an imitator. This is the plain meaning of a florid pall'age of Velleius Patercuius (Roman hiftory lib. 1,) "■ Naturaque, quod fummo ftudio *' petitum eft, afcendit in fummum ; difticilifquein *' perledo mora eft ; naturaliterque, quodprocedere *' non poteft, recedit." Which may pafs in a learn- ed language^ but will never do in fimple Englifh. The idea," lavs Winchit man, " of beauty could not be made more perftd ; and thofe arts that cannot advance fardier, become retrograde, by a fjitaiity attfiiding ail human things, that if they cannot UiOunt, tiu^y muft fall down, becaufe fta- bility is not a quality olany created thing." 1 fhall *' endeavour «t a ii a. (.t Sk. IV. 2. Arts. 163 ey a- all !ur endeavour to iliuitrate the caufe aftigned by me a- bove lx)r decline of the fine arts ; beginning with ar- chitecture. The Ionic was the lavouritc order when architecture was in its height of glory. The Corinthian order came next ; which, in attempting greater perfedion, has deviated from the true limpii- city of nature : and the deviation is ftill greater in the Compofitc order {a). With refpeCl to literary productions, the firfl: cf- fays of the Romans were very im per feCt. We may judge of this from Piautus, whofe compofitions are abundantly rude; though much admired by his co- temporaries, being the beft that exifted at that time in Rome. The exalted fpirit of the Romans hurried them on to the grand and beautiful ; and literary productions of all kinds were in perfection when Auguftus reigned. In attempting Hill great- er perfection, the Roman compofitions became a itrange jumble of inconfiftent parts: they were tu- mid and pompous, and at the fame time full of antithefes, conceit, and tinfel wit. Every thing new in a fine art pleafes ; and for that reafon fuch compofitions were relifhcd. We fee not by what gradual fteps writers after the time of Auguftus deviated from the patterns that were before them j for no book of any moment from the death of that Emperor is preferved till we come down to Seneca, in whofe works nature and fimplicity give place to quaint thought and baftard wit. He was a great corrupter of the Roman tafte 1, and after him nothing was reiiflied, but brilliant ftrok.L? of fancy, with very little regard to fentimcnt ; even Virgiland Cicero made no figure in comparifon. Lucan has a Itrained elevation of thought and ftyle, very diffi- cult to be fupported : he finks often into puerile re- flections ; witnefs his encomium on the river Po, M 2 which (.1) Elements of Criticifm, vol. i. p. 206. edit, 5. '. ■^\ ,i '. 164 Men inJepemlent ot" Sociciy* B. I. II '■ill . ■ which, fays he, would equal the Dan;. ,c, had it the lUme number of tributary (beams. QuinrHian, a writer of true claflical tallc, who was protc£ked and encouraged by Vefpafian, attcin| ted to ftem the tide of falfc writing. His rhetoric is compofcd in an elegant (lyle ; and his obfcrvations contain every de- licacy of the critical art. At the fame time flouriflied Tacitus, po lie flit g a more cxtfinfivc knowledge of human nature than any other ancient or modern, if Shakcfpcarc be not excepted. His (tyle is original, concife, compad, and comprehenfive ; and in wiiat is properly called his hiftory, perfcdiy correcl and beautiful. He has been imitated by fcveral, but never equalled by any. Brutus is faid to be the laft of the Romans for love of liberty : Qiiintilian and Tacitus may be faid to be the lafl: of the Romans for literary genius. Pliny the younger is no exception ; liis llyle is atlecled, turgid, and full of childilh bril- liancy. Seneca and Pliny are proper examples oC writers who fludy Ihow more than fubilance, and who make fenfe yield to found. Whether mulic be or be not on the dechne, fecms a doubtful point, as the virtuofi are divided about it*^ In Greece, celebrated for tafle, mufic was a theatri- cal entertainment ; and had a dignified office, that of enlivening or enforcing the impreflions made on the audience by the action. In that office, harmony being of little ufe, was little cultivated : nor did the mufical inftruments at that time known, afford great fcope for harmony. Among us, harmony is brought to perfedion ; and in modern compofitions, it com- monly is the chief part. To have melody and har- mony both in perfeclion, they can never be united in the fame piece. The heart fwoln by a melancholy drain, is averfe to the pleafure of harmony ; and when fubdued by a delightful ilrain of whatever kind, it has no leifure for comlpicatcd harmony. Rich har- mony, on the other hand, ingrolling the whole attenti- ^ OP, III L Sk. IV. 2. Arts* >6j on, leaves tlie heart in a meafure vacant*. The Greeks excelled in melody : the moderns excel in harmony. Ajufl comparifon between thcfe with refpcd to their cfteds on the hearer, will give inftriK5tio\i ; and per- haps may enable us to determine whether mufic be or be not on the decline. Nature, kindly to its favourite man, has furniflieJ him with five external fenfes, not only for fupporting animal life, but for procuring to him variety of en- joyments. A towering hill as an objet^ of light, a blufliing rofe as an objed of fmell, a pine-appk as an objeft of tafte, a fine fur as an objed of touch, do, all of them, produce a pleafant feeling. With rcf- pcd to the fenfe of hearing in particular, a pleafant feeling is raifed by concordant founds, and a feeling of the fame kind, by certain founds in fucceflion ; the former termed harmony^ the latter melody. The plca- fure of harmony, like that of tafte or of fmell, va- nilhes with its objeft ; but melody, piercing to the heart, raifes an emotion of gaiety, of melancholy, of pity, of courage, of benevolence, or fuch like, which iubfifts after the mufic ceafes, and even fwells into a paflion where it meets with a proper object {a). An air, fweet and melting, raifes an emotion in the tone of love ; and readily is elevated to the paflion of love on the fight of a beautiful object* An air (low and plaintive, produces an emotion in the tone of pity or grief; which on the appearance of a perfon in dif- trefs, becomes a paflion. A lively and animating llrain produces an emotion of courage : the hearer exalted to a hero, longs for an opportunity to exert bis prowcfs. Spumantcmquc ciari, perora inter in£rtia, voils Optat apru?n, aut fuhum defcendere monte konem. , . Can * Corelli excels In combining harmony with melody. HI* melody could rot be richer without impoverifliing lu« harmony} nor his harmony jlcher without impovcrirtjing his melody, (<;) Elements of Critisifm, chap, i, part j. feft. 4, I ■! Il • i66 Men independent of Society. B. I. Can harmony produce an efteft in any degree fi- milar ? The greateft admirer of harmony will not affirm that it can. The emotion raifed by harmony has no affinity to paffion or fentiment more than the fmell of a tuberofe or the tafle of an ortolan ; and it vanilhes inftantaneoufly with the concordant founds that produced it. Hence it may fairly be concluded, that as far as melody is fupcrior to harmony, as tar was Greek mufic fupcrior to the generality of what is now in pra6lice. Exceptions there are undoubtedly that rival whatever could be performed by the ancients : but they arc not many in number : the talent of com- pofmg mufic ir '''e tone of a j^affion, feems in a great meafure to .'•" « Drmanr. The Italian opera refem- blcs in form the Greek tragedy, from which evi- dently it is copied ; but very little in fubftance. In the latter the dialogue maintains its fupcrior fhition; and mufic, confined to its proper place, has the (Irongefl: effed that mufic can produce. In the for- mer, mufic ufurjnng the fu])reme ftation, commands attention by a llorm of found, leaving the dialogue languid and unintercfting. This unnatural disjunc- tion of found from fcnfe, has introduced a fort of baftard mufic, termed recitative. Suffering the words to pafs, though abundantly flat and languid *, I objecl to the exec'ition, an unnatural movement be- tween pronouncing and fmging, thit cannot be agreeable but to thofe who have been long ac- cuflomed to it. Of one thing I am certain, that graceful pronunciation, whether in the calm narra- tive tone or in the warm tone of pallion, is far more pleafant. "What puts the preference of the Greek model far beyond a doubt, is, that the tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides were for a long courfe of time the delight of the molt refined nation that ever cxifled : an Italian opera, on the contrary, never runs * No perfon will fiifpcil thai i!ndi;r tliii ceofure is comprehended tiie te- !e!>rated Mttaftal'io. I. IJ Sk. IV. -2. Arts, 167 runs above a feafon ; and after being once laid afide, is never revived. But this flight and fuperficial tafte for harmony againft melody, cannot be lading : na- ture may be wrcfted, but always foon or late refumesi its empire. Sentimental mufic will be ferioufly cul- tivated, and reflored to the place in the theatre it anciently poflefled with dignity and propriety. Then it is that we may hope to rival the Greeks in mufic as in other arts. Upon the whole, mufic undoubtedly is much improved with rcfpeft to its theory, but with refpeft to the pradical part there appears as little doubt of a woeful degeneracy. I lay hold of this oj)portunity to add a fmall article concerning the hiftory of mufic, which regard to my pative country will not fuft'er me to omit. We have in Scotland a multitude of fongs tender and pathetic, expreffive of love in its varieties of hope, fear, fuc- cefs, defpondence, and defpair. The ftyle of the mufic is wild and irregular, extremely pleafing to the natives, but little relilhed by the bulk of thbfe who are aceuftomed to the regularity of the Italian flyle. None but men of genius, who follow nature and break Iqofe from the thraldom of cullom, elteemthat mufic. It was a favourite of the late Geminiani, whofe compofiiions fliow delicacy of tafte equal to the fuperiority of his genius ; and it is v/armly praifed by Aleflandro Talfoni, the celebrated author of Sec- chia Rapita. Dicourfing of ancient and modern mufic, and quoting from various autliors the won- derful effeds produced by fomc modern compofiti- ons, he fubjoins the following pafiage. " Noi an- cora pafliamo connumerar tra noftri, lacopo Re dc Scozia, che non puv cofe facre cpoipofe in tanto, uia trovo da felleffo una nuova rnufica la- mentevole e mefta, differente da tutte I'atre. Nel che poi e ftato imitato de Carlo Gefualdo Principe di Venofa, che in qucfta noftra eta lia illuftrata anch' egli la mufica con nuova mirabili invenzio- cc emulate thofe fcjperior models, fo when " once Sk. IV. 2. Arts, J73 The decline of an art or fcience proceeding from the foregoing caufe, is the mofl rapid where a flricl compariTon can be inftituted between the works oF different maflers. The fuperiority of Newton above every other mathematician can be afcertained with precifion ; and hence the fudden decUne of that fcience in Gfeat Britain. In Italy, a talent for painting continued many years in vigour ; becaufc no painter appeared with fuch fuperiority of genius, as to carry perfection into every branch of the art. As one furpalfed in defign, one in colours, one in graceful attitudes, there was ftill fcope for c- mulation. But when in theprogrefs of the art there was not a fingle perfedtion but had been feized by one or other mafler ; from that period the art be- gan to languifh. Architecture continued longer in vigour than painting, becaufe the principles of com- parifon in the former are lefs precife th..n in the latter. The artifl who could not rival his predecef- fors in an eflabliflied mode, fought out a new mode for himfelf ; which though perhaps lefs ele- gant or perfect, was for a time fupportcd by no- velty. Corruption of the Latin tongue makes a proper appendix to the decline of the fine arts in Rome. That the Latin tongue did not long continue in pu- rity after the Emperor Auguftus, is certain ; and all writers agree, that the caufe of its early cor- ruption, was a continual influx into Rome of men, to whom the Latin was a foreign language. The reafon is plaufible ; but whether folid may be doubt- ed. In all countries, there are provincial dialects ; which however tend not to corrupt the language of the capital, becaufe they are carefully avoided by all who pretend to fpeak properiy j and accordingly the m \m'* Si (I " once w€ have loft tl>e hope of excelling, or even of equalling them, our " anihition fails tii with our hopes : we ceafe to pu^-fue what we cannot " ariiin, and neglefting that ftudy in which w*.- ar;; (i;;barred from anivinj "* ai '.'xcellence, we fcarch fcr a different fteid ot emulation*" ;PJ 174 Mln indcj)endent of Society. B. I. the multitude of provinrhils M'ho flock to Paris and to London produce no ci\'c<:i on the language, fhe fame probably was the cafe in old Ronir, efpeclaily with rcfpcdt to Itrangers whofc native tongue wa-s totally different from that of Home : their impcrfc^tt manner of fpcaking Latin might be excufed, but cer- tainly \\ as not imitated. Slaves in Rome had little converfation with their mafters, except in receiving orders or reproof ; which had no tendency to viti- ate the Latin tongue. I'hc corruption of that tongue, and at lafl its death and burial as a living language, were the refult of two combined caufes f of which the early prevalence of the Greek lan- guage in Rome is the firft. Latin was native to the Romans only, and to the inhabitants of Latium. The languages of the rtfl: of Italy were numerous : the Meifapian was the mother-tongue in Apulia, the Hcrrufcan in Tufcany and Umbria, the Greek in Magna Grsecia, the Celtic in Lombardy and Li- guria, &c. &c. Latin had arrived at its purity not many years before the reign of Auguftus ; and had not taken deep root in tliofe parts of Italy where it was not the mother-tongue when Greek came to be the fafhionablc language among people of rank, as French is in Europe at piefent. Greek, the ftore- houfe of learning, prevailed in Rome even in Cice- ro's time ; of which he himiclf bears teftimony in his oration for the poet Archias : " Grceca Icguntur " in omnibus fere gentibus : Latina fuis finibus, *' exiguis fane continentur." And ^br that reafon Atticus is warmly folicited by hini to write the hif- tory of his confulate in Greek. Thus Latin, juftlcd by Greek out of its place, was left to inferiors ; and probably would have funk to utter oblivion, even though the republic had continued in vigour. But the chief caufe was the defpotifm of the Roman go- vernment, which proved the deftruftion of the fine arts, and of literature in particular. In a country of Sk. IV. 2. Arts. ^75 ,, r of fo many difierent languages, the Latin tongue could not be prefcrvcd in purity, but by condant perufal of Roman claflics : but thefe were Jcft to rot in libraries, a dark cloud of ignorance having over- fpread the whole empire. Kvery perfon carclefsly fpoke the language acquired in the nurfcry ; and people of different tongues being mixed under one government, without a common ftandard, fell gra- dually into a fort of mixed language, which every one made a fliift to underftand. The irruption of many barbarous nations into Italy, feveral of whom fettled there, added to the jargon. And that jargon, compofed of many heterogeneous parts, was in pro- cefs of time purified to the tongue that is now native to all the inhabitants of Italy. In a hiftory of the Latin tongue, it ought not to be overlooked, that it continued long in purity among the Roman lawyers. The fcience of law was in Rome more cultivated than in any other country. The books written upon that fcience in Latin were numerous; and, being highly regarded, were the conltant ftudy of every man who afpired to be an eminent lawyer. Neither could fuch men have any bias to the Greek tongue, as law was little cultivated in Greece. Thus it happened, that the Latin tongue, as far as concerns law, was preferved in purity, even to the time of the Emperor Juftinian. Greek was preferved in purity much longer than Latin. The fame language was fpoken through all Greece, with fomc flight varieties in dialed. It was brought to great perfedion and firmly rooted during the profperoiis days of Greece. Its clalTics were nu- merous, and were ftudied by every perfon who pre- tended to literature *. Nowtho' the free and manly fpitit of the Greeks yielded to Roman defpotifm, yet while any appetite for literature remained, their invaluable I 'if i^i I- * Tlice ftill rBmain about three thoufand Greek books ; not above Tixty. of Latin books (;;;-■■ ill: r.; 176 Men independent of Society. B. I. invaluable claflics "were a flandard, which prefcrv .-d the language in purity. But ignorance at Icn^vb because univcrfal ; and the Greek dailies ccn^'il to be a iuiiidard, being buried ifUibrarii J, as the Ro- man claflics had been tor centur«ef^. In that flate, the Greek tongue could not fail to degenerate among an ignorant and fcrvile people, who had no longer any ambition to aft well, write well, or fpeak well. And yet after all, that beautiful tongue, far beyond a rival, hasfuffered lefs alteration than any other ever did in fimilar circumltances ; one caufc of which is, that to this day the Greeks live feparate from their mailers the Turks, and have little commerce with them. . . ! - ''-■ I- ? From the fate of the Latin tongue, an obfcrvatlon i? drawn by many writers, that all languages are in a continual flux, changing from age to age without end. And fuch as are fond of fame, deplore it as a heavy misfortune, that the language in which they write will foon become obfolete and unintelligible. But it is 1^- common error in reafoning, to found a general conciufion upon a fmgle facl. In its progrefs to- 'vauU perfeftion, a language is continually improv- ivig. and therefore continually changing. But fup- poi.ng A language to have acquired its iitmofl per- fedion, I fee nothing that fliould necefiarily occafion any change : on the contrary, the claihcal books in that language become a ilandard for writing and [peaking, to which every man of talte and figure conforms himfelf. Such was the cafe of the Greek tongue, till the Greeks were brutified by defpotifm. The Italian has continued in perfeftion more than three centuries, and the French moic than one. The Arabic has continued without change more than a ^houfand years : there is no book in that language held to be in a ftyle more pure or perfed than the Koran §. The Englifti language has not yet acquired all § 1 am far from thinkiog, tbat the lansuajs cf the Arabians, an IJliterate *k. IV. a. Artu K7 all the purity it is fufceptible of ; but >vhen 'there is no place ior further impiToveinents, there feems little d6ubt of its becoming (Ittionary, like the languages now mentioned. I bar always fuch a revolution as eradicates knowledge^ and reduces a people to a ftate of barbarity. In an event fo dlfnial, the dedruclion of clailical books and of a pure language, is not the grcatcft calamity: tjicy will be liitle regretted in the univerfal wreck. In the mean tin e, to a writer of genius in a jx)lilhed nation, it c' '^ut be a charming profpc^^ that his works will \ fall with his country. To make fuch a wi i his talents for purifyinjr his mother-tongue, aiiU ta adding to the number and reputation of its dailies, what nobler incite- ment, than the certainty of being tranfmitted to poderity, and welcomed by every perfon of taftc through all ages ! As before the invention of printing, writers could have nothing in view but reputation and praife, they endeavoured to give the utmoll perfection to their compiifitions. They at the fame time ftudied bre- viryj in order that their works might be difiufed through many hands ; for the expence of tranfcrib- ing great volumes, could not be afforded by every reader. The art of printing has made a great revolution c the opportunity it furniflies to mul- tiply copies has degraded writing to be a lucra- tive employment. Authors now ftudy to fwdH their works, in order to raife the price ; ami being in a hurry for money, they negleft the precept of Horace, Nonum prc?natur in annum. Take for example the natural hiftory of Aldro- vandus, in many folio volumes. After filling hii Vol. I. N - -> common ( w m'. ; .J ': '■■ *^/r HI people in the days of their prophet Mahomet, was at shat time carried ^.fuck purity and perfedHon as not to be fufceptible of impio/ement. The fixiof that language was undoubtedly owing to the Koran, which was held the word ot God delivered to Mai)omet by the anyel Gabriel, and confiBquentl/ was inoufly judged to be the Itandard of perfoftion, ^. i.1^ "w^a IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) A ^ .5^^^. .^' ^%^ ii. 1.0 I.I 1^ IM 1^ 1112.2 Mi Ui Hf US, 2.0 .8 1.25 1.4 1.6 ^ 6" ^ Photographic Sciences Corporation m 4 \ V \\ ^ imtli&r jnftanice from a:; Gc^roan lor .P'^tch -tfh jpiit*;N^|j;^Jn af 'trniiftatioii fi^onri the l^atin^ to prcv^f jit IjIac M'^. that one has for a learned language. " ga^miW wa^ ,t,he M -.fame with thc"Tlieb']Mi Herciiles j • whiich tipptars fronl the!a«!irined,isi'aidtOfhave ftjfibcated the N^niean lion, f:S''"ait1b a- ftjiicfezjeicf. hi-Sjar ms- : : Samfon unaf mf'cl did •"i^rtherJfem'e; by:teiinng!a liontof pieces.;; and. joje^ ■^Sophu-s fays; thatjicdidi«)tjte;ir t|;^.liQrJy but pwt out f^ bis breiitli wuha fquee^e ; whi-qb CQiCtM be done, -*F! atidoAvasi'donct by ScUtiJius tlie wi^fticrr, •a^.-reT ^fc poirted by S-ui^asrj David allcx', unarmed, tor.^.to R*3 .pieces aflioii, i Samud; «l]ftip. 1.7.,; ajid.Benaiah tera.tor 'from ' degenerating imi> a brute. The gn exer- iiii^i or giiniusj as wfeU ^s of invention, »^,quired \ii grouping Tig^r^s, and in, imitating htimari ac- tion$r, tend?} to invigorate thefe fi^cnlties with ref- \>e&. to cv^ry fiibjcft, and of coutfe t0 forp, a man ef parts. n,'^r . -1 '• . 1 i... . 1 . 1. . p ( fYM.Xj . - , , ,-, , . U ■}• <^'*;^'>'l. ?'?:'> ■i , .liV < ■> f -J! 1 ff y;V"Si-;j ■ .If -"r^, '• - t / ,,,, 1 <:)' < III!' •iM CH (-U^ I i/Iii.' ; A- l}.;-t ■u- ■'■■■ y, '^ t '■• '-#!: KETCH V. ,^<^t.r^^. ...;./*'.>' •]r;UJ'iMi(i:'>.) toi « iti't* '-.ii- '^.Vtiii > There is a thi'rd caule for crothlh'^', which isi the pleafiirc it affords. A fine w6m:in feen naked once in her life, is made a defirable obi f ft by nb* velty. But let her go naked for a mohth ; how much more charming will fhe appear j when dreflcd with propriety and elegance ! Cloathing isfo cflcn- tial to health, that to be lefs agreeable than naked- nefs would argue an incongruity in our nature. Savages probably at firft thought of cloathing As a |)rotc£i:ion only againft the weather ; but they foon difcovered a' beauty in drcfs : men led the way, and women follo\yed. Such favages as go naked, paint their bodies ; excited by the fame fbndncfs for ornament, that our women fhew in their party-coloured garments. Among the Jews, the men wore ear-rin^s iis well as the women {a). When M^di'ci was governed by its own kiri^s, the men 'were fbmptuous in drefs : ihey wore loofe robes, floating in the air ; had loiig hair covered with a rich bonnet, bracelet??, chains of gold, and precious flo^es : they painted their face, and mik- ed artificial hair with that of nature. As authors^ are Alert about the womenj they probably made* no figure in that kingdom, being fh'ut iip, as *at prefept in ftraglios. Very difi'ercnt was the cafe of' Athenian lAdies, after polygamy was bahilhed frbirt; Greece, 'ihey ponfUmed th^ whole morn'ing at th'e^ toilette t eittploying' paint, iind every drug fbr' cleafung -and whitening" -the fkih : they laid red even upon their lips, a^id took great care of their .... , . teeth.;. L .-.-■■ . 'i; a i< '• . i ■■■■' , ■ .,..•-. -v. i !»! they have licarce any covering. Breis gives play to; . ' the ♦ Yoang women in Athens appeared frequently in public, but always by themfelves. In feftivals, facriAces, Sec. they made part of the fliovv, crowned with flowers^ chanting hymns, and danaing in knots. ':IM Sk. V. Manners. •irr ■85 the hnagtnatioa ; 'which pictures to itfelf man^ fccrct • beauties, that vaniih whea rendered famtlbir by • fight : if a lady accidentally difcovcr half a leg, ima- gination is inftantly inilamed ; though an . a£brefs, • appearing in breeches, is beheld with indifference: a naked Venus makes not fuoh an imprejriony ai; Kvhen a garter only is difcovered.- • **' s'at : t* '!)kh\v. Cleannefs is an article in external) appearances Whether cleanlineft be inherent in the natpre e£ man, or only a refinement of polifhed nations, tnay at iird fight appear doubtful. What pleads for' the former is, that cleannefs is remarkable in feveral na« tions, that have made little progrefsinthearttof life. The favagQS of the Caribbee iflands, once a numerous- tribe, were remarked by wrrters as neat and cleanly. In the ifland of Otaheite, or King Georgc'si iiland, both fcxcs arc cleanly : they bathe frequently, never eat nor drink without wafliing before and after, and their garments as well as their perfons are kept free of fpo^ or blemiih. Ammianus Marcellinus defcribN ing the Gauls, fays, that they were cleanly ; and that even the poorcft women were never feen with dirty garments. The negroes, particularly thofe of Ardrali in the ilarvc-coaft^ have a fcrupulous regard -ta clean- nefs. They wafti morning and evening, and per- fume themfelv^s with aromatic herbs. In tlic city of Jknin^ women arc employed to keep the freotd clean ; and in that refped they are not outdone by the XKitch. In Corea, people mourn three years , for tlic death of their parents *, during whidi time • they never wafh. Dirtinefs niui^ appear idifmsl to that people, as to us *. But inftances are no lefs numerous that, favour the other fide of the queftion. ; Ammianus Marcellinus reports of the Huns, that they ^ wore a coat till it fell to pieces with dirft and rot-^ tenefs» Flan Carpin, who vifited the Tartar? anno ' < ^ 1246, ,,___. ...,.■. . ' ■ . * Many animals are- remarkable for ckantMfs. Baavers are (o, imi fo are rats. Thismuftbe natural. Tho' a taAe for cleanneAi is not remarkablo. lu ^logs, yet like men they learn to be cleanly; . , -, . 1,1 I ,1' !f:- ^f >:; <' *k' ! I I? m. 1 I }M 'ty- j86 Men independent of Society. B. 1. 1246, fays, " That they never wafli face nor hands ; *' that they never clean a dilli, a pot, nor a gar- ♦♦ mem i that like fwinc, they make food of every ** thing, not excepting the vermin that crawl on ** them." The prcfcnt people of Kamikatka anfwcr to that defeription in every article. The naftinefs of North-American favages, in their food, in their cabin?, and in their g{\rn>ent8paffes all conception. As they never change their garments till they fall to rags, nor cvcf think of walhing them, they arc cat up with vermin. .The Kfquimaux an^l many other tribes are equally nafty. • » "?':.«:•>'•• m- ' As cic" cfs requires attention and induftry, the cleanncls of fomc favages muli be the work of na- ture ; and the dirtinefs of others mud proceed from indolence counterading nature. In faft, cleannefs is agreeable to all ; and naftinefs difagreeable : no pcrfon prefers dirt ; and even thofe who are the moft accuflomed to it, are pleafed with a cleanly appearance in others. It is true, that a taftc for cleanneC , like that for order, for fymmetry, for con- gruity, is extremely faint during its infancy among favages. Its ftrongeif antagoniit is indolence, which favages indulge to cxcefs: the great fatigue they undergo in hunting, makes them fond of cafe at home ; and dirtinefs when once habitual, is not cafi- ly conquered. But ckannefs improves gradually with manners, and makes a figure in every induftrious nation. Nor is a taiie for cleannefs bcftowed on man in vain : its final caufc is confpicuous, cleannefs being extremely wholefomc, and naltinefs no icfs unwhoielome '■■ f i< • ->. • > Thus -f The plagu«, peftilantial fevers, and other putrid difeafes, were more frequent in Europe formerly, than at prefent ; efiiuvjally in great cities, wh-jre multitudes were crowded U)«;ether in fraall hdufes, fcparated by narrow ftreets. Paris in the days of Henry IV, occupied not tlie third part of its prefent fpace, andyer contained nearly the fame number of inhahitants j and in London the hoiiils are much larger, and fhe itreets wider, than before the great fire, j666. Theic i.i iMo a remarkable alteration in point oTdiet. .. . :...,.;. . •-. y ' •. . •• •■ •'■!.'•.• - Formerly, Sk; V. Manners, 1/ 187 Thus it appears, that a tnftc frtr cleanncfs is in- herent in our nature. I lay more : cleanntls is rvi- dcntly a branch of propri<^i:y, and confequcntlya felF- ;ff ..*■.. 'i» ;•. • '-uu '•" , a..).' ■> ■••■.'t: iio .a. Enplirn rormcrljr, peoplp of rank lived on ftlt njeat the greater part of the year ; at prefent, fiefh meat is common all the year roynd, l'ot-i.eil)S ant! rcof are rtow a confiHcrable article of food : about London in particiilar, the ton- fumptjon at liie Revolution was not tlie f-xth part of v/liar it is now. Add the great confumption ot tea and fugar, which 1 .i:.; told by phy!';ci;in3 to bo iio inconfiderablc antifeptics. B'jr ihc chief cauft; cf all is clfunr.cf;, \vl;icl» is groxying more and more gcueral, efpecially in the city of Lomlon. lu Conttantinople, putrid difeafcs reign as much as ever j'ot from uiiheaithi- hcl3 in the climate, hut from the narrow:Tjf3 and na!\lnefs of the rtrccts. How it comes that Turkilh camps differ io muc!i from the metropfclls, I cannot fay. Pufbcquius viiUed a Turkifli camp in the clays of S-v^lypian tha Mapihincent. The ordure was carefully buried ur.>!i.r giound ; nor any nui- lome fmcU .- in every corner it was clean and neat. Tlie extrcuierts, which ;+ppcar every where in our camps when rtationary, create a fort of plague a- mong the men, Captain Cook lately made a voyage roui.d rhe world, and .\ci(i but a fmgle manby difeafe, who at the fame time was Hckly when he en- tered the ihip. One main article that prefrrved the hsakh of the crswwas cleanncfs. The Captain regularly one morning eve'-y week reviewed \\h (hij'fs company, to fee that every one of them had clean linen j ar.d hebsftowcd the lame care with refpe«ft to their cloaths and bedding. [ti) Sec rkments of Critivifm, c4^!a;.-, jo, m 1 1 ,1 '■ h\. m a. I ■■va J" *!^ UsJ 1 1 88 Men iuUcpcndcnt of Socitty. B. L lingiifli had to the Danes, was tiicir cicanncfs j they combed their hair, and put on a clean fhirt once a week. It was reputed an extraordinary ellurt in Tiionias a Becket, that he had his par* lour iliewed every day with clean Itraw. The ce- lebrated Erafmus, who vifited England in the reign of Henry VIII. complains of the naUincfs and flo- venly habits of its {leople ; afcribing to that caufe, the trequent plagues which infe(\ed tliem. ** Their lloors," fays he, " arc commonly of clay ftrewed ** with ruflies, under which lies unmolclted a col- " leftion of beer, grcafe, frrtgmcnts, bones, fpit- ** tie, excrements of dogs and cats, and of every ^ thing that is naufcous (ay* And the ftrcwing a floor with Araw or ruHies was common in Queen Elifabeth's time, not excepting even her prefcnce- chamber. A change fo extraordinary in the talle and manners of the fjiglifli, roufes our curiofity ; and I flatter mylelf that the following caufe will be latisfadtory. A favage, remarkably indolent at home, tho' not ini'enlible of his dirtincfs, cannot roufe up adivity fufficient to attempt a fcrious pur- gation ; and would he at a lofs where to begin. The induftrious, on the contrary, are improved in neat- flcls and propriety, by the art or manufacture that conftantly employs them: they are never reduced to purge the (table of Augeas ; for being prone to adion, they fufFer not dirt to rell unmolefted. In- dullrious nations accordingly, all the world over, are the mod cleanly. Arts and induflry had long flourilhed in Holland, where Erafmus was born and educated: the people were clean above all their neighbours, becaufe they were induflrious above all their neighbours; and upon that account, the dir- tinefs of pLiigland could not fiiil to ftrike a Hollan- der. At the period mentioned, induflry was as great a ftranger to England as cleannefs: from which («) ipift. 4i«.. Sk. V. Manners* :u 189 which confidcration, may it not fairly be inferred, that the Engiifh arc indebted for their cleanlinefs to the great progrcfs of induftry among them in later times ? If this inference hold, it places induftry ia an amiable light. The Spaniards, who tire indo- lent to a degree, arc to this day as dirty as the Englirti were three centuries ago. Madrid, thrir capital, is naofeoufly na'fty: heaps of uninolefted dirt in every ftrcet, raife ni that warm climate a peftifcrous llrcam, which threatens to knock down every ftranger. A purgation was lately fet on foot by royal authority. But the people habituated to dirt arc not eafily reclaimed: to promote induftry is the only cftcaual reihedV*. llie naftincfs of the ftreets of Lift)on before the late earthquake ^yas intolerable ; and fo is at prcfent the naftincfs of the ftreets of Cadiz. "' • ''■•'•^•" ^'V ,•...;* n., The' Induftry be the chief promoter of clean - nefs, yet it is Icidom left to operate alone : other caufes mix, fome to accelerate the progrcfs, fome to retard it. The moifture of the Dutch climate has a confiderablc influence in promoting cleannefs*> and, joined with induftry, produces a furprifing neatnefs and cieannefs among people of bu'finefb': men of. figure and faftiion, vvho generally refort to the Hague, the feat of government, are not fo clean- ly. On the other hand, the French arc lefs cleanly than the Englifli, tho* not lefs ind\iftrious. B-it the lower clalTes of people, being in England more at their cafe than in France, have a greater tafte for living well, and in particular for keeping themfdves Clean. ' .n-... • Till the ye«r 1760, the« was not a privy in Madrid, though it is plen- tifully fupplied with water. The ordure, during night, was throM^n from the Miindowf into theftreet, where ,it wn^ sather«d into heaps. By a t<^yal {>rocl3ination, priVies wore ordered to be built. The inhabitants, though tin}? :;cciiftomed to an arbitrary gotcrnmetit, refentcd this prodamaitldn ai an infringement of the common rights of rw.^nkincl, and flrugglcd vigoroufty againft it. The phyficiuns were the moil violent oppofcrs : they remcnftrat- «d, tli^t if tlie hlth was noc thrown into the Itrecti, a fatal iicknsfs would enfue; hccaufe the putrefccnt paiticks of Air, which thf Alth attra^ed, woul.i fccimbibed by thQO,; nnd,. fpecch piofQ , jth^n . ; any > o^ ther part. In Elements of CrlticifiT? ia) it is Obt ferved, that an emotion in many, indance^ bears a refi^ipablanice tgU^ Caufe. The like holds, univer- iaUy in: all: th?' natural; fpunds prompted, by paflion. -li^iet a paflion36.boid, rough,, checrfiul, tender, , or -humble, ftill it holds, /that, i the rnatural founds prompted by it, arc in thie fame , tone ;'.aojd; hence th^ reafort why thejc founds ,^r€. tihefa'me in all il^P^ages, SoHfid-ilight i?^t)nblapce of the ikme Kind, is difcOveri^bie .in. many artificial ; founds, ffhe I'languagfJ !t)f;,a fava'^e, is h^rfh J of polite people, fn^odib ;; and of; «'omen,, foft, and muficah This Jtongues jQf ijava^e J nations abpAind in guttu- ral^^j : pr ia I nafj^ls *, yietj on^ wp\*M ,*'it?igine th at fuch .Y(0jcds> rb^ng,prj9nounc?d .witl\/c][j)ffi^vj]tyj Ihpuld be i voided by lavages, as they are by children. But .temper iipfrev^iU, ahd fuggefts .t» favages harfli founds^ conforr/vablt tP the; languages of the ftorlhern. European, nations, ar? not rcmarka-bly fmopth^r, ; Thq ; .Scotch peafants , j^re a frank , and plain people ; and their, dialect, .is iu the tone ol" theif ; chara^cr. The; Huron . tongue , ,hath ftateli- R^aild energy above moft kno,vKiv languages; 9;hjch is more Qon^itiable to the elevation of their lenttments than tOj l;l>eir, iprefept - . Jp\Y . condition^ Thus the manners of a people, may in fome mea- fure be gathered from their language. Nay man- ners may freqiuently he gathered !: from fuigle words. The Hebrew word lbchqm, 'Unifies both /W and f^htingi and TtREPiil Jigjfiifti^s \io\^\ foo;i ,o; ^.. .and A (<») Chap. 1. part 6:., ii I'i m % : vHi i 1 ( ■ i ' i ,;'- J- /, 1- ,1, - , m. 19a MiiN independent of Society. 'B. I. amd plunder, Karab fignifies to draio hear fd oM, and fignifies alfo ufighu The Greek word lei a , >^ich fignified originally ^^/ /rMittnf^ hy war er piracy, came to Signify wealth* And the great variety of Greek ^words fignifylng pod^^d^hetur^ fignii^d originally ^re«^ and-v/o/cw/. -Mv^.x^. fi^ „r:u; r>ii: Government, actording to itis difidftetit kinds, hath confiderable influence in forming the tone of a iangtiage. Language In a 4eaiocriacy is com- monly rough and coarfe ; in an ariAiocracy, «nanly and plain ; in a monarchy, courte^ius and itifitiu- ating ; in derpbtifm, impeHous withte^^t to ifife^ riors, atid humble with xt^Qi to fuperiors. The government of the Greek ctiipi« i« well ttept«- icntcd in Juftinian'a cdifts, teiwed i^w//x &«- fiituf tones ; the ftylc of -tt^iitb isftift^ femal, and this to«e form^ the >ttia-^ tader of the Iangtiage 4n gene^l, fo as ev^en 16 reg4ila(e the f One of ^hd few who han'e oooa|fi(Ht t<> fpeak with authoi^ity. The freedom of the £ng^KAi government itAmt the mannvrre of the people : t^ Englifli language is accordingly move manly an4 nervous than the French, and sCbounds more witH rough fouf>ds. The Laeedemonians of oid« ^ proud . and audete people, affeffced to talk with brevity, in the tone of conman4 more than of advice ; and hence the Laconic l^te, dry but maf- culine. The Attic ftyle is more dUficult to be ac- counted for : it is fweet and copious ; and had a remarkable delicacy above the ftyle of any other 2 nation* sk.ir. > t*^. t. MAfifiltrs^^ .' » r 1 1 1 195 natiort/ And'^ct the democracy of AfhcnJ pro- duced rough .mncri ; wftttefs the comedies of Ariftophartcs, . yd the oratiotls 6f Efchincs and De* mofthcnes. We are not fo' intimately acquainted with the Athenians, as to accbiint for the difference between their language and 'their manners. We are equally at- a lofs about the Ruffian tongue, which, notwithftandirig*^ the barbarity of the people, is fmooth^atidfonorous r and though the Malayans are the fisrteft people in the univerfe, their lan- guage is the fofteft of all that are fpokeh m Afia* AH that tan-tjc faid is, that' the- operation of a ge- neral caufeJ may be difturbed by particular drcum- ftafrtces, tianguagcs refcmblt tides : the influence of the moon, which is the general caufe of tides, is in feveral inftances overbalanced by particular caufes afting in oppofition. ' -^ •'*-* /; *. ; rv .,. Th . if. r. 0/ ^ ^In' eiriy times, people lived in a very fimple manner, ignorant of fuch habitual wants as are ccimmon-ly termed luxury. Rebecca, Rachel, and th?: - daitghters of Jethro, tended their fathers flocks : they were really fliepherdeffes. Young wo- men "of fafhion- drew water .from the weH' with tfeir own hands. The joiner who made the bridal bed of Ulyflcs, was Ulylfes himfelf (^). The Erin- cfefs Nailficaa waflies the family cloaths ; and the Princes her brothers, upon her return, unyoke the car and carry in the cloaths (b). X^eens, and even Vol. L -^ ' • Q. - - - female {a) Odyfley, b. aj, \b) Bouilc 6. an4 7- >|1 If fj M^^ 1 94 Mem independent of Society. , B. L female deities, are employed in fpinhing (c}. Is it from this fafhion that young women in England are denominated fpinjiers f Telemachus goes to council with no attendants but two dogs; , ..... •:i^ «* Soon as in folemn form th* affembly fat, • " From his high dome himfclf defeends in ftate; •* Bright in his hand a pond'rous jav'lin ihin'd j ♦' Two dogs, a faithful guard, attend behind." ; ! .. .... Odyssey, book 2. m; Priam's ear Is yoked by his own fons, when he goes to redeem from Achilles the bo4y of his fon Heflor. Telemachus yokes his own car {a),- Ho- mer's heroes kill and drefs their own victuals (^), Achilles entertaining Priam, flew a fnow-white flieep ; and his two friends flea'd and drefled it^ Achilles himfelf divided the roafted m^eat among his gueils *.- The flory of Ruth is a pleafing in- stance of fimplicity in anticnt times ; and her lay- ing herfelf down to flecp at the feet of Boaz, a no lefs pleafing inftancc of innocence in thefe times. No people lived more innocently than the antient Germans, though men and women lived together without referve. They flept promifcuouf- ly round the walls of their houfes j and yet we never read of adultery among ihem. The Scotch Highlanders to this day Jive in the fame manner* In Sparta, men and women lived familiarly toge- ther : public baths were common to both ; and in certain games, they danced and combated to- gether naked as when born. In a later period, the Spartan dames were much corrupted ; occafioned, as m Jt': (f) Odyfley, book lo. \a) Book 15. • . • I . . / \b) Book 19. and 20. * Pope judging it below the dignity of Achilles to a(5l the butcher, fup- preflTes that article, impofing the tafk upon his two friends. Pope did not confider, that from a lively pifture of ancient manners, proceeds one of th« capital pleafures we have in perulin^ Homer. Sk,V. Manners, «9S as authors fay, by a fhameful freedom of ititcri courfe between the fexes. But remark, that cor- ruption was not confined to the female fex, men having degenerated as much from their original manhood as women from their original chaftity ; and I have no difficulty to maintain, that gold and filvcr admitted contrary to the laws of Lycurgus, were what corrupted both fexes. Opulence could not fail to have the fame efFe£t there that it has every where ; which is to excite luxury and fenfua- lity. The Spartans accordingly, fliaking off aufte- rity of manners, abandoned themfelves to pleafure : the moft expenfive furniture, the fofteft beds, fu- pcrb tapeftry, precious vafes, exquifite wines, deli- cious viands were not now too delicate for an ef- feminate Spartan, once illuftrious for every manly virtue. Lycurgus underftood human nature better than the writers do who carp at him. It was his intention, to make his countrymen foldiers, not whining lovers : and he juftly thought, that fami- liar intercourfe between the fexes, would confine their appetites within the bounds of nature *, an ufeful leffon to women of falhion in our days, who cxpofe their nakednefs in order to attraft and en- flame lovers. What juftifies this reafoning is, the afcendant that Spartan dames had over their huf- bands while the laws of Lycurgus were in vi- gour : they in effe£l ruled the ftate as well as their own families. Such afcendant cannot be obtained nor preferved but by ftri6t virtue : a woman of loofe manners may be the object of loofe defire • but feldom will (he gain an afcendant over any man and never over her hulband. Not to talk of gold, filver was fcarce in Eng- land during the reign of the third Edward. Rentj were paid in kind ; and what money they had, was locked up in the coffers of the great barons. Pie- ces of plate were bequeathed even by kings of O 2 England i : fi '■[■ •?'■ ii; '";1 196 Men independent of Society. B. I. England, fo trifling in our cftimation, that a gentle- man of a moderate fortune would be aihamed to mention fuch in his will. Next of aftion. Man is naturally prone to mo- tion; witnefs children, who are never at reft but when alleep. Where rcafon governs, a man re- drains that reftlcfs diijpofition, and never a6:s with- out a motive. Savages have few motives to aftiort when the belly is full: their huts require little workj and their covering of Ikins, ft ill lefs. Hunting, and fifhing employ all their aftiVity. After mucn fa- tigue in hunting, reft is fweet ; which the favage prolongs, having no motive to a^ion till the time of hunting returns. Savages accordingly, like dogs, are extremely ad;ive in the field, and extremely in- dolent at home*. Savages in the torrid zone are in- dolent above all others: they go naked; their huts coft them no trouble ; and vegetables, that grow fpontaneoufly, are their only food. The Spaniards who lirft landed in Hifpaniola, were furprifed at the manners of the inhabitants. They are defcribed as lazy,» and without ambition ; palling part of their time in eating and dancing, and the reft in deep; having no great ftiare of memory, and ftill lefs of underftandin^. The charadcr given of thefe fava- ges belongs to all, efpecially to favages in hot cli- mates. The imperledion of their memory and judgment is occafioned by want of exercife. The fame imperfection was remarkable in the people of Paraguay, * Quotiens bella non ineunt, non moltum venatibus; plus per otium tranfigunt, liediti fomno, ciboque. Fortiirjmus quifque ac bellicofiflimiis nihil agens, delegata domus et penatiutn etagrorum cura feminis fenibufque, et infirmiflimo cuiqiie ex familia, ipfi hebcnt; mira diverfitate natura, cum iidem homines fic ament inertiam, et odeiint quicreni. Tacitus, De morilus, Cerntanoum, cap. !<;, [In En^Ii/Jj thus : " While not engaged in war, they " do not often fpend their time in hunting, but chiefly in indolence, minding *' nothing but their fleep and food. The bravefl and moft warjikc among " them having nothir? to do, pafs the time in a lluggifh ftupidity, conimit- " ting the care of the houfe, the family, and the culture of the lands, to •' 'vomen, old men, and to the moJt weakly. Such is the wonderful diver- " lity of human nature, tlut tlie/ are at once the moft indolent of beings, *' aiiJ the moft impatient of reft,'"j Sk.V. Manners, 197 Paraguay, wheft under Jcfuit government ; of which afterward (a). We now take under confideration, the progrcft of fuch manners as are more peculiarly influenced by internal difpofition ; preparing the reader by a general view, before entering into particulars. Man is by nature a timid animal, having little ability to fecure himfelf agairift harm : but he becomes bold in fbciety, arid gives vent to paflion againft his enemies. In the hunter-flate, the daily pradice of flaughtering innocent animals for food, hardens men in cruelty: more favage than bears or wolves, they are cruel even to their own kind. * The calm and fedentary life 'I n 111 (ii)Booka, iketch i. • Though it is beyond the reach of conception, that blood, flefh, fibres, or bones, can be a Jubjlratum for thought, for will, for paflioni or for any mental quality j yet certain philofophers boldly undertake to derive even the nobleft principles from external circumftances relative to tlie body only. Thus courage and cowardice are held to depend on the climate by the cele- brated Montefquieu and feverai others. Sir William Temple afcribes thefe qualities to food, maintaining, that no animal which lives on vegetables is endued with courage, the horfe and cock alone excepted. I relifti not doc- trines that tend to degrade the mod refined mental principles into bodily properties. With refpefl to the point under confideration, a very acute phi- iofopher, taking a hint from Sir William Temple, derives from the difference of food the menul qualities of cruelty and humanity, {a) " Certain it is, " (fays that author,) that the people who fubfift moilly on animal food are " cruel and fierce above others. The barbarity of the Englifh is well ** known : the Gaures, who live wholly on vegetables, are the fweetefl- " tempered of all men. V/lckcd men harden themfelvcs to murder by *' drinking blood." Even the moft acute thinkers are not always on their guard againft trivial analogies. Blood and flaughter are the fruits of cruelty j and hence it is raftily inferred, that the drinking blood and eating flefh tend to infpire cruelty. The Carribees, in the fame way of thinking, abftain from fwines flefh j " which, (fay they), would make our eyes fmall like thofe of " fwine." Before venturing on a general rule, one ought to be prepared by an extenfive induftion of particulars. What will M. RoufTeau fay as to the MacafTars, who never tafle animal food, and yet are acknowledged to be the fierceft of mortals ? And what will he fay as to the negroes of New Gui- nea, remarkably brutal and cruel ? A favourite dog, companion to his mafter, lives commonly on the refufe of his table, and yet is remarkably gentle. The Englifh are noted for love of liberty : they cannot bear opprefTion ; and they know no bounds to refentment againft opprefTors. He may call this cruelty if he be fodifpofed : others more candid will efteem it a laudable property; But to charge a nation in general with cruelty and ferocity, can admit no ex- cufe but ftubborn truth. Ignorance cannot be admitted ; and yet he fhows f rofs ignorance, as no people are more noted for humatlity : in no other na- tioA («) Emile liv. i. i f \m u • my^\ 198 Men independent of Society. B. !• life of a fhepherd, tends to foften the harfh manners of hunters ; and agricuhure, requiring the union of many hands in one operation, improves benevolence. But here the hoarding appetite ftarts up to difturb that aufpicious commencement of civilization. Skil«> ful hulbandry, producing the neceffaries of life in plenty, paves the way to arts and manufactures., Fine houfes, fplendid gardens, and rich' apparel, arc defireable objects : the appetite for property becomes headftrong, and to obtain gratification tramples down every obftacle of jullice or honour (a). Difl'erences arife, fomenting difcord and refentment : war fprings up, even among thofe of the fame tribe ; and while it was lawful for a man to take revenge at his own hand (^), that fierce pafTion fwallowed up all others. Inequality of rank and fortune foflered diifocial paflions : witnefs pride in particular ; which pro- duced acuflom, once univerfal among barbarians, of killing men, women, dogs, and horfes, for the ufe of a chieftain in the other world. Such complication of hateful and violent pafTions, rendering fociety un- comfortable, cannot be ftemmed by any human means, other than wholefome laws : a momen- tary obflacle inflames defire ; but perpetual re- llraint deadens even the molt fervid paflion. -iM •;••''.■ .>' -• • ' ■ . • * 1 ' ,• '„: "^ ,„' ^,; , .The tion do fympathetic afte£lions prevail more : none are more ready In cafes of diflrefs to Aretch out a relieving hand. Did not the Englifli, in abolish- ing the horrid barbarity of torture, give an illuftrious example of humanity to all other nations ? Nay his inftance of butchers being excluded from be- ing put upon a jury, the only particular inAance he gives of their cruelty, is on the contrary a proof of their humanity. For why are butchers excluded from being judges in criminal trials ? for no other reafon than that being inured to the blood of animals, they may have too little regard to the lives of their fellow-fubjefts. Flefh is conapofed of particles of different kinds, In the Aomach as in a Aill, it is rufolved into its component particles, and ceafes to be flefh before it enters the la£leals. Will M. RoufTeau venture to fay, which of thefe com- ponent particles it is that generates a cruel difpofition ? Man, from the form of bis teeth and from other circumAances, is evidently fitted by his maker for animal as well as vegetable food j and it would be an imputation on pro- vidence, that either of them fhould have any bad effeA on his mind niore than on his body. {a) See Iketch 3. {i) See HiAorical Law-traOs, traft 1. ' SV V. Monners, 199 The authority of good government gave vi- gour to kindly allcdions ; and appetite for fo- cietyi which adts inceflantly, though not violently, gave a currency to mutual good omccs. A circum- llance concurred to blunt the edge of diifocial pafli- ons ; the firft focieties were fmall ; and fmall dates in clofe neighbourhood, engender difcord and re- fentment without end : the jundion of many fuch ItatexS into a great kingdom, removes people farther from their enemies, and renders them more gerftlc(a)# In that fituation, men have leifure and fedatenefs to relifli the comforts of fecial life : they find that ftlfifli and turbulent paflions are fubverfive of fociety j and through fondncfs for focial intercourfe, they patiently undergo the fevere difcipline, of rcftrain- ing paiTion and fmoothing manners. Violent pafli-^ ons that difturb the peace of fociety have fubfided, and are now feldom heard of : humanity is in fafhion, and focial aifedions prevail. Men improve in urbanity by converfing with women ; and how* ever felfifli at heart, they conciliate favour by aifum* ing an air of difmterellednefs. Selfiihnefs, thu^ re- fined, becomes an eSedual caufe of civilization. But what follows ? Turbulent and violent paflions are buried, never again to revive ; leaving the mind totally ingroflfed by felf-interefl. In the original ftate of hunters and fifhers, there being little connec- tion among individuals, every man minds his own concerns, and felfifhnefs governs. The difcovery that hunting and fifhing are beft carried on in com- pany, promotes fome degree of fociety in that flate : it gains ground in the fhepherd-llate, and makes a capital figure where hufbandry and com- merce flourifh. Private concord is promoted by fo- cial affeOion ; and a nation is profperous in propor- tion as the amorpatria prevails. But wealth, ac- quired whether by conqueft or commerce, is pro- du^ivc (a) See this more fully handled, book a. flcetch r. :J aoo Men independent of Society. B.l; du£livc of luxury and fenfuality. As thcfc increafc, fecial aff'cdlions decline, and at lafl vaniih. This is vifiblc in every opulent city that has long flouriihcd in cxtcnfivc commerce. Selfilhncl's becomes the ruling paflion : friendfliip is no more; and even blood-relation is little regarded. Every man fludies his own intereft: opulence and fenfual pleafurc are idols worfhipped by all. And thus in the progrets of manners, men end as they began : felfilhncfb is no lefs eminent in the lafl: and moft polifhed flate of fo» cie^y, than in the firft and moft favage ft ate. Fi' .in a (general view of the progrefs cA' manners, we dcfccnd to particulars. And the firft fccne that preicnts i(!tlf is, cruelty to ftrangers, extended in procefs of time againlL members of the fame tribe. Anger and refent merit are predominant in favages, who never think ot rt-ilraining paflion. But this character is not lit.iverlal : fome tribes are remarka- ble for humanity, as mentioned in the firft fkctch. Anger and refentmii it formed the charafter of our European anceftors, and rendered them fierce and cruel. The Goths were fo prone to blood, that, in their firft inroads into the Roman territories, they maflacred man, woman, and child. Procopius re- portsj that iH one of thefe inroads, they left Italy thin of inhabitants. They were however an honeit people ; -end by the polifti they received in the ci* vilized parts of Europe, they became no lefs re- markable for humanity, than formerly for cruelty. Totila, their king, having maftered Rome after a long and bloody ficgc, permitted not a fingle perfon to be killed in cold blood, nor the chaftity of any woman to be attempted. One cannot without hor- ror think of the wanton cruelties cxercifed by the Tartars againft the nations invaded by them under Gcngizcan and Timor Bee. A Scythian, favs Herodotus, prefents the king with the heads of ttie enemies he has killed in bat- tle ; and the man wlio briugs i^ot a head, gets no 3 iharc Sk. V. Manners, •t,.'t, I/. 20I fhare of the plunder. He adds, that many Scy- thians clothe thcmfclvcs with the Ikins of men, and make ufc ot the fculls of their enemies to drink out of. Diodorus Sicuhis reports of the Gauis, that they caary home the heads of their enemies llain in battle : and after fembalming them, depofit them ibr cherts as their chief trophy ; bragging of the fums ofFcrcd for thefc heads by the friends of thedcccafed, and refufed. In fimilar circumftanccs men 'arc tlw fame all the world over. Tlie fcalping of enemies,' in daily ufe among the North-American favages, is- equally cruel and barbarous. No favages are more cruel than the Greeks and Trojans were, as defcribed by Homer ; men butch-, ered in cold blood, towns reduced to afhes, fo- vercigr>8 expofed to the moft humbling indignities, no refpeft paid to age nor to fex. The young Adraf- tus (rt), thrown from his car, and lying in the duft, obtained quarter from Menelaus. Agamemnon up- braided his brother for lenity : " Let none from de- " ftrudion efcapc, not even the lifping infant in the " mother's arms : all her fons muft with Ilium fall, " and on her ruins unburied remain.** He pierced the fupplicant with his fpear ; and fetting his foot on the body, pulled it out. He£fcor, having ftript Patroclus of his arms, drags the flain along, vowing to lop the head from the trunk, and to give the mangled corfe a prey to the dogs of Troy. And the feventeenth book or the Iliad, is wholly employed in defcribing the conteft about the body between the Greeks and Trojans. Befidc the brutality of pre- venting the laft duties from being performed to a deceafed friend, it is a low fcenc, unworthy of heroes. It was equally brutal in Achilles, to drag the corfe of He£tor to the fliips tied to his car. In a fccne between Hedtor and Andromache (^), the treatment of vanquilhed enemies is pathetically def- cribed; Pill t .;;.' {a) Book 6. of the Iliad. {b) Iliad, book 6. ^01 Men independent of Society. B.I. ■1^ * cribcd ; fovercigns mafTacrcd, and their bodies left a prey to dogs and vultures ; fucking infants dalhed againii the pavement ; ladies of the tirft rank forced tp perform the lowed ads of flavery. Heftor doth not diflcmble, that if Troy fliould be conquered, bis poor wife would be condemned to draw water like the vilcft flavc. Hecuba, in Euripides, la- ments, that fhe was chained like a dog at Aga- memnon's gate ) and the fame favage manners are dcfcribed in many other Greek tragedies. Prome- theus makes free with the heavenly fire, in order to give Hfe to man. As a puniihment for bringing rational creatures into exiflence, the gods decree, that he be chained to a rock, and abandoned to birds of prey. Vulcan is introduced by Efchylus rattling the chain, nailing one end to a rock, and the other to the bread bone of the criminal. "Who but an Anterican favage can at prefent behold fuch a fpeftacle, and not be fhocked ? A fccne reprc- fenting a woman murdered by her children, would be hiffed by every modern audience ; and yet that horrid fcene was rcprefen^vl with applaufe, in the Ele£tra of Sophocles, Stobceus reports a faying of Menander, that even the gods cannot infpire a foldier with civility: no wonder that the Greek fol- dicrs were brutes and barbarians, when war was waged, not only againft the ftatc, but againft every individual. At prefent, humanity prevails among ibldiers as among others j becaufe we make war on- ly againft a itate, not againft individuals. The Greeks are the lefs excufable for their ^ **'»/» as they appear to have been ienfible that hiira- /'^,'^v is a cardinal virtue. Barbarians are alw. ..aii.ted by Homer as cruel ; poliihed nations a§ tender and compaflionate: " Ye ^:):hl ^he crif^d) upon what barren coaft, lij whJit uew rerrion is Ulyffes toft? « PoflefsM (( »sj-. Sk. V. Manners, 103 " Poflcfs'd by wild h irbarians fierce in arms, ** Or men wnol'c boluri tender pity warms? ' * " Odyssiy^ bo(fk 13. 241. Cruelty is inconridcnt wif^ true hcroifm; and accordingly very litnc of the Kittcr is difcovcrable in any of Homer's warriors. So much did they retain of the favage character, as, even without bluOiing, to fly from an enemy fupcrior in bodily iircngth. DiomcJrs, who makes an illuilrtuus fi^ ^rc ir. the fifth book of the Iliad, retires when Hector appears : " Diomcdcs beheld the chief, and Ihud- •' dcred to his inmoft foul." Antilochus, fon of Neftor, having flain Mclanippus (a), rufhcd for- ward eager to feizc his bright arms. But feeing Hedtor, he fled like a beafl of prey who fhuns the gathering hinds. And the great Heftor b'mfelf, ihamefuUy turns his back upon the near ap|)roach of Achilles: " Periphetes endowed with every " virtue, renowned in the race, great in war, in ** prudence excelling his fellows, gave glory to " He£tor, covering the chief with renown." One would expedt a fierce combat between thcfe f wo bold warriors. Not fo, Periphetes ftumbling, fell to the ground ; and He£tor was not afliamed to transfix with his fpear the unrefiding hero. In the fame tone of character, nothing is more common among Homer's warriors, than to infult a vanquifhed foe. Patroclus, having beat Cebriones to the ground with a huge flqiie, derides his tall in the following words. . ^.: «. (C (C cc Good heav'ns ! what a6\ive feats yon artift (hows, What Ikilful divers are our Phrygian foes 1 Mark with what eafe they fink into the fand* Pity \ that all their pradice is by land." The « IJ I' ii {a) Book 15. m ^'^ ao4 Men independent of Society. B. I. The Greeks arc reprefented (^) one after another llabbing the dead body of Hedor : " Nor flood an *' Argive near the chief who inflicted not a wound. *' Surely now, faid they, more cafy ot accefs is ** Hedor, than when he launched on the ihips •* brand.s of devouring fire.*' When fuch were the manners of warriors at the fiege of Troy, it is no furprife to find the heroes on both lides no "ijsfs intent on flripping the flain than on vidory. They are every where reprefented as greedy of fpcTii. : -'. ; The Jews did not yield to the Greeks in cruelty. It is unneceffary to give inflancesj as the hiflorical books of the Old Teftament are in the hands of every one. I fhall fcled one inltance for a fpecimen, dreadfully cruel without anyjufl provocation : " And " David gathered all the people together, and went to Rabbah, and fought againft it. And he brought forth the people that were therein, and put them under- faws, and under harrows of iron, " and made them pafs through the brick-kiln : and ^' thus did he unto all the cities of the children of *♦ Ammon (b)." That cruelty was predominant among the Ro- mans, is evident among every one of their hillorians. If a Roman citizen was found murdered in his own houfe, his whole houfhold flaves, perhaps two or three hundred, were put to death without mercy, unlefs they could detedl the murderer. Such a law, cruel and unjuft, could never have been enaded among a people of any humanity. BrutaHty to their offspring was glaring. Children were held like cattle, to be the father's property : and fo tenacious was the patria poiejlas^ that if a fon or daughter fold to be a llave was fet free, he or flie fell again under the father's power, to be fold a fecond time, and «ven a third time. The power of hfe and death over cr cc !a) Book 22. {v) 2 Samuel, xil. 29, Sk. V. Manners, 205 over children was much lefs unnatural, while no public tribunal exifted for punifliing crimes. A ion, being a flave, could have no property of his own. Julius Csefar was the firft who privileged a fon to retain for his own ufe fpoils acquir'!d in war. When law became a lucrative profeffion, what a fon gained in that way was declared to be his property. In Athens, a man had power of life and death over his children ; but as they were not flaves, what they acquired belonged to themfelves. So late as the days of Dioclefian, a fon's marriage did not diflblve the Roman patria potejlas (a). But the power of felling children wore out of ufe (b). When powers fo unnatural were given to men over their children, and exercifed fo tyrannically, can there be any doubt of their cruelty to others * ? During the fecond tri- umvirate, horrid cruelties were every day perpe- trated without pity or remorfe. Antony, having or- dered Cicero to be beheaded and the head to be brought to him, viewed it with favage pleafure. His wife Fulvia laid hold of it and ftruck it on the face, uttered many bitter execrations, and having placed it between her knees, drew out the tongue, and pierced it with a bodkin. The delight it gave the Romans to fee wild beafts fet loofe againft one another in their circus, is a proof not at all am- biguous of their tafte for blood, even at the time of their ^1' ■i :,. ■ 'fiij (fl) 1. 1. Cod* cap. De patria poteftate. (t) 1. lo. eod. * The effeft of fuch unnatural powers, was to eradicate natural affeftion between a man and his children. And indeed, fo little of nature was left in this connedion^ that a law was found neceflfary j>rohibiting a man to difin- herit his children, except for certain caufes fpetifiec, importing grofs ingrati- tude in the latter ; which was done by Juitinian tire Emperor in one of his rorels. But behold what follows. A prohibition to exheredate children renders them independent ; and fuch independence produces an effeft ftill more pernicious than defpotic power in a father. Awe and reverence to parents make the only effectual ch«?ck againft the h«ad-ftrong paflions of youth : remove that check, and young men of fortune will give the rein to every vice. It defcrves to be ferioufly pondered, whether the fame encou- ragement be not given to vice, by a pradice general in England among men of fortune in their marriage-articles j which is, to veft the eftate in truf- tees, for beiicof of the heir of t!ie marriage. ao6 Men Independent of Society. B. I. Ml k m ' their higheft civilization. The Edile Scaurus fent at one time to Rome 150 panthers, Pompey 410, and Auguftus i:j2o, for the pubhc fpedacles. Their ^ladiatorian combats are a lefs evident proof of their ferocity : the courage and addrefs exerted in thefe combats gave a manly pleafure, that balanced in fome meafure the pain of feeing thefe poor fellows cut and flafli one another. And that the Romans were never cured of their third for blood, appears from Caligula, Nero, and many other monfters, who governed the Romans after Auguftus. There is no example in modern times ot fuch monfters in France, though an abfolute monarchy, nor even in Turkey. Ferocity was, in the Roman empire, confidera- bly mollified by literature and other fine arts ; but it acquired new force upon the irruption of the barbarous nations who cruflied that empire. In the year 559, Clotaire, King of the Franks, burnt alive his fon, with all his friends, becaufe they had rebelled againft him. Queen Brunehaud, being by Clotaire II. condemned to die, was dragged thro* the camp at a horfe's tail till flie gave up the ghoft. The ferocity of European nations, became bound- lefs during the anarchy of the feudal fyftem. Many peafants in the northern provinces of France, be- ing forely opprefled in civil wars carried on by the nobles againft each other, turned defperate, ga- thered together in bodies, refolving to extirpate all the nobles. A party of them an?io 1358, forced open the cafile of a knight, hung him upon a gal- lows, violated in his prcfence his wife and daugh- ters, roafted him upon a fpit, compelled his wife and children to eat of his flefli, and terminated that horrid fcene with maflacring the whole family, and burning the caftle. When they were afked, fays Froiflard, why they committed fuch abomina- ble adions, their anfwer was, " That they did as " thev faw others do ; and that all the nobles in " the Sk.V. ' Manners, r n 207 " the world ought to be deftroyed." The nobles, when they got the upper hand, were equally cru- el. They put all to fire and fword ; and mafl'a- cred every peafant who came in the way, without troubling themfeives to feparate the innocent from the guilty. The Count de Ligny encouraged his nephew, a boy of fifteen, to kill with his own hand fome prifoners who were his countrymen ; in which, fays Monftrelet, the young man took great delight. How much worfe than brutal mult have been the manners of that age ! for even a beaft of prey kills not but when inftigated by hun- ger. The third a£t of dealing from the lead-mines in Derby, was, by a law of Edward I. puniflied in the following manner. A hand of the criminal was nailed to a ,table ; and in that condition he was left without meat or drink, having no means for free- dom but to employ the one hand to cut oiF the o- ther. The barbarity of the Englifh at that period made fevere puniihments neceflary : but the pu- nifhment mentioned goes beyond feverity ; it is brutal cruelty. The barbarous treatment of the Jews during the dark ages of Chriftianity, gives pregnant evidence, that Chriftians were not ihort of Pagans in cruelty. Poifoning and aflaflination were molt licentioufly perpetrated, no farther back than the lafl: century. Some pious men made vigorous eftbrts in more than one general council to have af- faflination condemned, as repugnant to the law of God : but in vain *. I wilh to foften the foregoing fcene : it may be foftened a little. Among barbarians, puniihments muft * It required tlie ferocity and cruelty of a barbarous age to give currency to a Mahometan dodlrine, That the fword is the mod efFedual means of con- verting men to a dominant religion. The eftablifhment of the Inquifition will not permit me to fay, that Ciiriftians never put in pradfice a doftrine fo detertable : on the contrary, tliey furpaflTed the Mahometans, giving no quarter to heretics, either in this life or in that to come. The eternity of hell-torments, is a dodrineno lefs inconfiftent with the juftice of the Deity, than with his benevolence. I' u fl- If ): n m «o8 Men independent of Society. Br h mufli be languinary; as their bodies only are fenfible of pain, not their minds*. The reftorationof art&and fciences in Europe, and a reformation in religion, had a wonderful eifcft in fweetening manners, and promoting the intercfts Of focicty. Of all crimes high treafon is the moft in- volved in circumftances ; and the moft difficult to ht defined or circumfcribed. And yet, for that crime are referved the moft exquifite torments. In Eng- land, the punifliment is, to cut up the criminal a- live, to tear out his heart, to dafti it about his ears, and to throw it into the flames. The fame punifh- ment continues in form, not in reality: the heart indeed is torn out, but not till the criminal is ftrangldd. Even the virulence of religious zeal is confidcrably abated. Savotiarola was condemned to the flames as an impious impoftor ; but he was firft privately ftranglcd. The fine arts, which hu- manize manners, were in Italy at that time acce- lerating toward perfection. The famous Laitimer was in England condemned to be burnt for herefy : but bags of gunpowder were put under his arms, that he might be burnt with the leaft pain. E- ven Knox, a violent Scotch reformer, acknow- ledges, that "U ifhart was ftrangled before he was thrown into the fllames for herefy. So bitter was the late perfecution againft the Jeiuits, that not only wtre' their perfons profcribed, but in many places their books, not e^'cn excepting books upon mathematics, and other abdraft fubjed^s. Ihat perlecution refembled in many particulars the per- fecution agaiprt the knights-templars : fifty -nine of the latter were burnt alive : the former were reallv ' J Icfs innocent j and yet fuch humanity prevails at *• prefent. «-' in * The RofT'tms are far from I'efinem^rt ci«^ber in irianriers '6r {tkUn^i. The Baron de Manftein talking of the fcverity of Count Mi'nich's milita- ry difcipline, obfervcs, tiiat it is indifpanfa'ole in RufTia, v. 'ifre mi!d- nefa makes no impreflion j and the Kufiians are eoverned by fear not by love. Sk»V. Makers* i®9 prefent, that not a drop of Jefuit^blood has been ihed. A bankrupt in Scotland, if he have not fufFered by unavoidable misfortune, is by law con- demned to wear a party-coloured garment. That law is not now put in execution, unlefs where a bankrupt deferves to be ftigmatifed for his culpable mifcondud. Whether the following late inflance of barbarity do not equal any of thofe above mentioned, I leave to the reader. No traveller who vifited Pe- tcrlburg during the reign of the Emprefs Eliza- beth can be ignorant of Madam Lapouchin, the great ornament of that court. Her intimacy with a foreign ambaflador having brought her under fufpicion of plotting with him againft the govern* ment, fhe was condemned to undergo the punifh- ment of the knout. At the place of execution, (he appeared in a genteel undrefs, which heighten- ed her beauty. Of whatever indifcretion (he might have been guilty, the fweetnefs of her countenance and her compofure, left not in the fpe^ators the ilighteft fufpicion of guilt. Her youth alfo, her beauty, her life and fpirit pleaded for her. — But all in vain : (lie was deferted by all, and abandoned to furly executioners ; whom flie beheld with a- ftonilhment, feeming to doubt whether fuch prepa- rations were intended for her. The cloak that covered her bofom being pulled off", modeftytook the alarm, and made her ftart back : flie turned pale, and burfl; into tears. One of the executi- oners {tripped her naked to the waift, feized her with both hands, and threw her on his back, raif- ing her fome inches from the ground. The other executioner laying hold oF her delicate limbs with his rough fids, put her in a pofture for receiving the punifli'.nent. Then laying hold of the knout, a fort of whip made of a leathern Itrap, he with a fingle ftroke tore otf a flip of Ikin from the neck down- ward, repealing his ftrokcs till all the ikin of her Vol. I. P back M -f if 1 l^i' :■ •■I 'i^ilA V I'iii ; mi 110 Men independent of Society, • B. I. back was cut off in fmall flips. The executioner fi- nifhed his tafk with cutting out her tongue j after which (lie was baniflied to Siberia*. The native inhabitants of the ifland Amboyna arc Malayans. Thofe on the fca-coaft are fubjeft to the Dutch : tliofe in the inland parts are their de- clared enemies, and never give quarter. A Dutch captive, after being confined five days without food, is ripped up, his heart cut out, and the head fevered from the body, is preferved in fpice for a trophy. Thofe who can Ihow the greatcfl number of Dutch heads are the mod honourable. In early times, when revenge and cruelty trampled on law, people formed affociations for fecuring their lives and their poffeffions. Thefe were com- mon in Scandinavia and in Scotland. They were alfo common in England during the Anglo-Saxon government, and for fome ages after the Con- queft. But inftead of fupportingjullicc, they con- tributed more than any other caufe to confufion and anarchy, the members protecting each other, even in robbery and murder. They were fupprefled in England, by a (latute of Richard II. j and in Scotland by reiterated ftatutes. Roughnefs and harfhnefs of manners are gene- rally connedled with cruelty ; and the manners of the Grcelcs and Trojans, are accordingly repre- fented in the Iliad as remarkably rough and liarlh. "When the armies were feady to engage (a), Me- nedheus King of Athens, and UlyiTcs of Ithaca, are bitterly * The prefenf Emprefs lias laid an excellent foundation for civilizing her people; which is a Code of laws founded on principles ot civil lihcrt;; bani/h- ingflavery and torture, and expreflmg the utmoft regard for the life, proper- ty, and liberty, ot all her fubjeds, high and low. Peter I. reformed many bad cuftoms : but being rough in his ov^n manners, he left the manners of his people as hcfcjnd them. If this Emprcfs happen to enjoy a long and profperous reign. (]\e may pofTibly accompli Hi the moll diflicult of all un- dertakings, tha: ' ' ;jolilhing a barbarous people. No talk is too arduous for !a woman ot fuch fpirit. {a) Book 4. Sk. V. Manners* ^li h bitterly reproached by Agamemnon for lingering, while others were more forward. " Son of Pcleus^ *' he faid, and thou verfed in artful deceit, in niif- •' chief only wife, why trembling fhrinlc ye back ** from the field j why wait till others engage in *' fight ? You it became as firfl in rank, the firft " to meet the flame of war. Ye firfl to the ban- *' quet are called, when we fpread the feaft. '* Your delight is to eat, to regale, to quaff un- *' (tinted the generous wine." In the fifth book, Sarpedon upbraids Hedor for cowardice. And Tlepolemus, ready to engage with Sarpedon, attacks him firft with reviling and fcurrilous words. Be- caufe Heftor was not able to refcue the dead body of Sarpedon from the Greeks, he is up- braided by Glaucus, Sarpedon's friend, in the fol- lowing words : " Hedor, though fpecious in " form, diflant art thou from valour in arms. " Undeferved haft thou fame acquired, when '* thus thou fhrinkefl from the field. Thou fuf- ** taineft not the dreadful arm, not even the fight " of god-like Ajax. Thou hafl fliunned his *' face in the fight : thou dareft not approach *' his fpear.'* Rough and harfh manners produced flavery ; and flavery foftered rough and harfh manners, by giving them conflant exercife. The brutality of the Spartans to the Helots, their flaves, is a re- proach to the human fpecies. Befide the harflieft ufage, they were prevented from multiplying by downright murder and maffacre. Why did not fuch barbarity render the Spartans deteftable, in- ftead of being refpe^lcd by their neighbours as the mofl virtuous people in Greece ? There can be but one rcafon, that the Greeks were all of them cruel, the Spartans a little more perhaps than the refl. In Rome, a Have, chained at the gate of every great lioufe, gave admittance to the guefts in- P 2 vitedE \' w 'y< [' -ill 212 Mkn independent of Society* B.I. vitcd to a feafl : could any but barbarians behold fuch a fpeclacle without pain ? Whence the rough and harfli manners of our Weft-Indian plaiuers, but from the unrcftrained licence of venting ill humour upon their negro Haves* ? Why arc carters a rugged fet of men? Plainly bccaut'e horfcs, tlicir Haves, fubmit without refiftance. An ingenious writer, defcribing Guiaua hi the fouthcrn continent of America, obferves, that the negroes, who are more numerous than the whites, mud be kept in awe by fcverity of dif- ciplinc. And he endeavours to juftify the pradice ; urging, that bcfide contributing to the fafety of the white inhabitants, it makes the flaves themfelves Icfs unhappy. ** ImpoHibility of attainment, fays " he, never fails to annihilate dehre of enjoyment ; '* and rigid treatment, iui)prefiing every hope of ry hope •' liberty. * te'ft ci« cet efclavagc cics negres, qu« les Cieofcs tirent pcut-etre en par»i« i^n certain caraftere, qui les fart paroitre bizarrcs, faniafques, et H'line fc«;ietc peu goiitee en Europe. A peine pciivent-ils marciier dans I'enfAnce, qirih voitiit autour d'cux des iionimvs grands ct robuites, dellines a devinfr, a prevcnir Iciir volontc. Cc premier coup d'a-il doit leur donner d'eux-mdmes I'opinion la plus cxtravagantc Rarcnient exposes a trouver de la rcfiilaiice dans leiirs (antaifics niCme iiijurtes, ils prcnnent uii cfprlt de prefonijjiion. de tyrannic, et d-; inepiiii exucnie, pour une pr indeprcporticn ti» genie huniain, Kien n'eil jikis infolent que I'liomme qui v,r prdque tou- jours avec I'es ir.ferieurs ; mais qviand ceux-ci font des cfclaves, accoutumesa fcrvir des cnfans, a tVaindrc jufqu' a des cris qui doivtnt leur attirer des <;'ia- liniens, que pcuvent dcvenir ties maitrcs qui n'ont janiaii jbei, des medians qui n'unt. jamais cte p^nis, des f(/jx qui niettcnt des homines .a la chai'ne > UiJioUe Plii.foph'tqiic it I'c'Uir.ic tic: t!abHjf,ii.^ni Jis F.ui.pc'n.i 'a/ts ta Deux Indcif I, 4. /\ 201. — [/•; F^yiijh thus:'] " It is from tliis i',.:-iv^ of tlie nc- " groes, that the Creoles derive in a great meafuie that cluratter v'iiicht " makes tlccm apjjear capricious and lanraltita!, and of a rtjie of maniicrs " wliicii i-, nut leliilifcd in Kuiope. Sitarcely Ir.ve the cliu^rn learned to " walk, when they fee aruund tlieni ralJ and loburtmen, whofc province it is *' to gueO their inchnaiions, and to pi event their wilhes. Tiiic fiift obferva- " tion mull give theni tlie molt extravai^snt ojMnian of themfelves, From " beinf feklom aci-ullomw-d to nieet witli any oj)i:ofit:on, even in their moll *' unreufonahle whiinS; tiiey acquire a p-ef mipruous ari 1 tyrannical difpoli- " tion, and entertain an extreme curtempi lor a great j)art of the human '* race. None is fo infolent as the man wlio Jives almoll always with his " inleriors ; but when tlitfe inferiors are fla/cs acci'.domed to ferve inf;»nts, " and to fear even liieir crying, for which tliey melt futfci prniihment, wliat " can be expttied of thofe inaAers who have never uiityed, profligates who • h4ve never met with ch:il\ifement, and madmen who load tticir fdlow-crc*- •' ruref with chains '" Iff' ■:vho are generally fo well drefled as not t,o be diftinguifli- able fix)m thofe who are frce^ Many political writers are of opinion, that for crimes inftigated by avarice only, Ilavery for life and hard work, would be a more adequate }>uniflinient than death. J[ v.'ould fubfcribe to that opinion but for the following coniideration, that the having fuch criminals perpetually in view, would harden our hearjts, and eradicate pity, a capitai moral paflion. Behold the behaviour of the Dutch in the illand of Amboyna. A native who is found guilty of theft, is deprived of his ears and nofe, and made a flave for life, William Funnel, who was there aimo 1705, reports, that 500 of thefe wretches were fe- cured in prifon, and never fuffered to go abroad but in order to faw timber, to cut Hone, or to carry heavy burdens. Their food is a pittance of coarfe rice boiled in water, and their bed the hard ground. Whiit is Hill worfe, poor people who happen to run in debt, arc turned over to the fervants of the Eaft- India com])any, who fend them to work among their 'W * In England flavery fubfifted fo lare as the lixceentli qentury. A com- niiliionwas iifued by in tiitiii- lMn'l>, .1. if tliey faid, W'iiat will you give mu for- '■ '.''i? '"I I r V. v i m K-s ! !■ I ^i8 Men independent of Society. B. 1, ill and fcized him by the hair. The ruffian drew his dagger, and gave the King a wound, of which he immediately expired. How lamentable would be our condition, were we as much perfecuted as our forefathers were with omens, dreams, prophecies, aftrologers, witches, and apparitions ? Our forefa- thers were robuft both in mind and body ; and could bear without much pain what would totally overwhelm us. Even after the revival of letters the European manners were z long time coarfe and indelicate. In the year 1480 the Cardinal Bibiena exhibited the Calendra, a comedy of intrigue upon a good model, but extremely licentious, as all compofitions of that age were. The Mandragora of Machi- avel is equztlly licentious ; and confidering the author, the Queen of Navarre's tales worll of all. Swearing as an expletive of fpeech, is a violent fymptom of rough and coarfe manners. It pre- vails among all barbarous nations. Even women in Plautus ufe it fluently. It prevailed in Spain and in France, till it was baniflied by polite manners. Our Queen Elizabeth was a bold fwearer * ; and the Englifh populace, who are rough beyond their neighbours, are noted by ftrangers for that vice. John King of England fwore commonly '* by the *' teeth of God." Charles VIII. of France " by God*s day." Francis I. " upon the faith of a gentleman." And the oath of Lewis XII. was may the devil take me.** Though fwearing, in order to enforce an exprelfion, is net in itfelf im- moral ; it is however hurtful in its confequences, rendering facred names too familiar. God's beard, the a t{ (C * Writing to lier fifter tlie Queen, begging that flie miglit not btiimprifun- ed in the tower, (lie concludes her letter thus. " As tor that traitor Wyat, he " might peradventure write me a letter : but on my faith I never received " any from him. And as for the copy of my letter fent to the French King, " I pray God confound me eternally if ever 1 fcnt him word, nieffage, token, *♦ or letter.' W Sk. V. Manners, 219 the common image of oath of William Rufus, fuggefls an our maker as an old man with a long beard. In vain have acts of parliament been made againll fwearing : it is eafy ^o evade the penalty, by coining new oaths ; and as that vice proceeds from an overflow of fpirits, people in that condition brave penalties. Folifhed manners arc the only eiledual cure for that malady. ><: h ^- _ When a people begin to emerge out of barbari- ty, loud mirth and rough jokes come in place of rancour and refentment. About a century ago, it was ufual fqr the fervants and ret?iiners of the court of feiTions in Scotland, to break out into riotous mirth and i^proar the laft day of every term, throw- ing bags, dud, fand, or ftones, ?ill around. Wc have undoubted evidence of tha^ difprderly pradice from an a£l of court, prohibiting it under a fevere penalty, as diflionourable to the court, and unbe» coming the civility requifite in fuch a place {a)» And this leads me to the lownefs of ancient man- ners ; plainly diflinguifliablc from fimplicity of man- ners : the latter is agreeable, not the former. A- mong the ancient Egyptians, to cram a man was an ad: of high refped. Jofeph, the King's firfl: mi- nifter, in order to honour Benjamin above his bre- thren, gave him a five-fold mefs (b). The Greeks in their feafts diftinguiflied their heroes by a double portion (c). Ulyfl'es cut a fat piece out of the chine of a wild boar for ncmodocus the bard (J). The fame refpedful politcncl's is praclifed a- niong the American favagcs ; ib much arc all men alike in fimilar circumllances. Telcmachus complains bitterly of Penelope's fuitors, that they were gluttons, and confumcd his beef and mut- ton. i:1 {a) Aftof Sederunt, 2 ift February 1663. [b) Gen. xliii. 34. (f) OdyflTey, b. 8. v. 513. b. 15. v. 156. (rt') Odyflcy, b. 8. v, 519. [c) OdylTey, b. 2. f.20 I Men independent of Society, B. I. ton. The whole fourteenth book of the Odyfley, (Containing the reception of Ulyfles by Eumaeus the i\vine-hcrd, is miferably low. Manners mull be both grofs and low, "v^-hcre common beggars are admitted to the feafts of princes, and receive fcraps from their hands (a). In Rome every gucft brought liis own napkin to a feaft. A flavc carried it home, (illed with what was left from the entertainment. Sophocles, in his tragedy of Iphigenja in AuHs, reprefcnts Clytemneftra, ileppirig down from her car ; and exhorting her fervants to look after her baggage, with the anxiety and minutenefs of a lady's waiting woman. In the tragedy of Jon, this man, a fervant in the temple of Delphos, is repre- i'entcd cleaning the temple, and calling out to u ilock of birds, each by name, threatening to pierce them with his arrows if they dunged upon the offerings. Homer paints in lively colours the rich- es of the Phoeacians, their fkill in navigation, the magnificence of the king's court, of his palace, and of the public buildings. But, with the fame breath, he defcribes Nauficaa, the king's daughter, travelling to the river on a waggon of greafy c.'oiitlis, to be wallied by her and her maids. ]^o1Ilbly it may be urged, that fuch circumftances, however low in our opinion, did not appear low ii! Greece, as they were introduced by their chief !;xK^t ; and the greateft that ever cxifted. I ac- knowledge the force of this argument : but what l M ^34 Men independent of Society. B.I. countrymen. Seroclius Galba, another Roman ge- neral, perfuaded the Lufitanians to lay down their arms, prcmiling them a fruitful territory inftead of their own mountains ; and having thus got them into his power, he ordered all of them to be mur- dered. Of the few that efcaped Viriatus was one, who, in a long and bloody war againit the Romans, amply avenged the mailacre of his countrymen. Our author Appian reports, that Galba, furpafling even Lucullus in covetoufnefs, diftributed but a fmall ihare of the plunder among the foldiers, con- verting the bulk of it to his own uie. He adds, that though Galba was one of the richeft men in Rome, yet he never fcrupled at lies nor perjury to procure money. But the corruption was general : Galba being acculed of many mifdemeanors, was acquitted by the fenate through the force of bribes. A tribe of the Celtiberians, who had long ferved ;." Ptolomy King of Egypt was de- throned cc C( (C (C cc pafs with impunity. But he had fecured the lead ig men by money, and was proteded by Pompey. The following inftance is, if poflible, ftill more grofs. Ptolomy, King of Cyprus, had al- ways been a faithful ally to the Romans. But his gold, jewels, and precious moveables, were a tempt- ing bait : and all was confifcated by a decree of the people, without even a pictext. Money procured by profligacy is not commonly hoarded up j and the Remans were no lefs voluptuous than avaricious. Alexander ab Alexandro mentions the Fanian, Or- chian, Didian, Oppian, Cornelian, Ancian, and Ju- lian laws, for reprelling luxury of drefs and of eat- ing, all of which proved ineffectual. He adds, that Tiberius had it long at heart to contrive fome cfFeclual law againfl luxury, which now had fur- palTed all bounds ; but that he found it impradica- ble to ftem tho tide. He concludes, that by tacit agreement among a corrupted people, all fumptuary laws were in efl'e£t abrogated ; and that the Roman people, abandoning themfelves to vice, broke through every reftraint of morality and religion (u). Tremble, O Britain, on the brink of a precipice ! how little diftant in rapacity from Roman fenators are the leaders of thy people * ! Riches (a) Lib. 5. cap. II. * Down on ymir knees, n'y countrymen, down on your knees, and render God thanks from the bottom of your hearts for a minifter very different from his immediate predecetTors. i;ntaint>^d with luxury or avarice, his talents arc dedicated to his King and his cou itry. Nor was ever a period in Rritain wlien prudence and dil'cernment in a ininifter were more necelTary than in the prefvnt year 1775. Our colonics, pampered ^ith profperity, aim at no lefs than independence, and have broken out into evei7 extravagance. The cafe is extremely delicate, it appearing equally dangerous to pardon or to punifh. Hitherto the iTioft falutary mcafures have been profecuted } and we have great reafon to hope a happy iifue, equally fatislaftory to both parties. But tremble Sk.V. Manners. 237 Riches produce another lamentable effeft : they enervate the poiTeflbr, and degrade him into a cow- ard. He who commands the labour of others, who eats without hunger, and refts without fatigue, be- comes feeble in mind as well as in body ; has no confidence in his own abilities, and is reduced to flatter his enemies, becaufe he hath not courage to brave them. Selfifhnefs among the rude and illiterate is rough, blunt, and uiidifguifed. Selfiflinefs, which in an opulent kingdom ufurps the place of patriotifm, is fmooth, refined, and covered with a veil. Pecuniary intereft, a low object, muft be covered with the thickeft veil: ambition, lefs diflionourable, is lefs covered : but delicacy as to charader and love of fame, are fo honourable, that e-^^n the thinned veil is held unneceffary. Hiftory juftifies thefe ob- fervations. During the profperity of Greece and Rome, when patriotifm wa; the ruling paflion, no man ever thought of employing a holtile weapon but againft the enemies of his country : fwords were not worn during peace, nor was there an inllance of a private duel. The frequency of duels in modern times is no flight fymptom of degeneracy : regardlefs of country, felfiflinefs is exerted without difguife when reputation or character is in queilion ; and a nice fenfe of honour prompts revenge for every ima- gined affront, without regard to juftice. How much more manly and patriotic was the behaviour of The- miftocles, when infulted by the Lacedemonian ge- neral in deliberating about the concerns of Greece! " Strike,'* fays he, " but firft hear me *." When tfc ^ ■> 4.;; ?i ■■;J\ tremble ftill, O Britain, on the brink of a precipice ! Our bold of that emi- nent minifter is fadly precarious ; and in a nation as deeply funk in felfiflinefs as formerly it was exalted by patriotifm, how fmall is our chance of a fuc- ceflbr equal to him ! * Is duelling s crime by the law of nature? A dirtinflion is neccfiary. If two men, bent to deftroy each of them the other, meet armed, and one or both be (lain, the aft is highly criminal ; it is murder in ilic (Irifteft fcnfe of the word. If they appoint time and place to execute their niurdaoui pur- poiti^ lit i: ■!, ]l I" : 238 Mi:n independent of Society. B. I. When a nation, formerly in profperity, is deprefled by luxury and felfifimcfs, what follows next ? Let the h:- ■ for civil fociety. Jionour, wlic. <]i(Tereiit. I < jf the perfon poTe, fuc'i agreement will not be more innocent than an agreement among a band of lobbcrs to attack every pairenger : tliey will be abliorred as unfit A Juel which an affront forces a man upon vindicating his ^ fatisfadlion is offered, or no proper fatisfa£lion, is very ot fee tliat the perfon affronted is guilty of any crime ; and > z.'. e the affront have offered what he thiniate ; but tliat if two men, waving that pretention, agiee to end the dlfpute 3by fmgie combat tiie flate lias no concern. There is nothing inconfiftcnt nvith the laws of foclcty, that men in an affair of honour Ihould rcferve the privilege of a duel ; and for that reafon, the privilege may be jurtly under- rflood as refei-ved by every man when lie enters into fociety. I admit that the ufmg the privileee on every flight occafion, cannot be too mujh difcou- xaged ; but Oich d,.couragement, if duelling be not criminal, belongs to a court of police not to a court cf law. What tlien fliall be faid of our fta- tutes, which punilh with death and confifcation of moveables thofe who iiglit a fingle combat without the King's licence ; and which punifli even the giving or accepting a challenge with banifhment and confifcation of move- ables ? Where a man thinks his honour at ftake, fear of death will not deter 3iim from fecking redrefs : nor is an alternative left him, as the bearing a ^rofs affront is highly diflionourable in the opinion of all the world. Have we not inltances without number of men adhering to the fuppofed ortho- doxy of their religious tenets, unawed by flames and gibbets ? How abfurd ther. is it in our legiflatu'-e, to punifli a man for doing what is indifpenfable if he wifli to avoid cotitcnipt ? Laws that contradift honeft principles or even hcnclt prejudices, never are effedlual. ; nature revolts againft them. And it is believed that tiitfe Hatutes have never been effeftual in any one inftance, un- lefs perhaps to furniiTi an excufe for declining a fingle combat. As duelling falls under cenforian powers, the proper cenfure for raflinefs or intcmpcance in duelling, is difgrace, not death or confifcation of moveables. In that view the following or (ome fuch plan ought to be adopted by parlia- ment. Wj-.cre a man fuffiTS an affront fo profs as in his opinion require a duel, I take r. hint fiorn the Aatutc firft mentioned j which is an application to his MaJEi'ly to authorife a duel- In Britain formerly and through all Eu- rope, fmHlc combat was a legal method of determining controverfies even in matters of i.f:iit and wrong; and there is great reafon for continuing that law, with rerpeifl to matters of honour. If the King have any doubt whe- ther otlier reparation may not be fufiicient, he is to name three military offi- cers who have fcrved witii honour for twenty years ; granting to them full powers as a ciurt of honour to ji;dgc of the application ; and upon calling tiie I'arties before t!;t!n to pronounce fcntence. If a duel be judged neceffary, it niift be done in prefcnce of the court, wilii projier foltmnities. Obedience vill of ccuifc Ic given to this judgment ; becaufc to dcchn^ it would be at- tended with iujIIIc infainy. If other reparation be enjoined, the party wlio f^ands out fl': 11 be declared infaiiious, unwcrtliy for ever the privilege of a oiiei; wliicli oi:y,ht to fatisfy t!ie oihcr party, as he comes off with honour. if, notwithltanc'ir.p tlie pichiijilion cf the c(>\irt, they afttrward proceed to a duel and both Lc IJlkd, tl'C public g-iins by hnvin^ two quariflfome nxnrc- jiiC»tJ cut cf the v.av, 11 one of tt'.iin be killed, the lui vivor fliall be inca- pabh- :i'.xa2insft»ii'«is- f " Sk. V. Manners. *j9 «c gn -i Sk. V. Manners, i M3 paralleled in the mofl cultivated nations. Such manners among a people in the firfl: llagc of focie- ty, acquainted with no arts but hunting and making war, would, I acknowledge, be miraculous. And yet to fuppofe thefc manners to be the invention of an illiterate favage, is really not lefs miraculous : I ihould as foon expert from a favage a performance equal to the elements of Euclid, or even to the Frincipia of Newton. One, at firft view, will bold- ly declare the whole a modern fiction ; for how is it credible, that a people, rude at prefent and illite- rate, were, in the infancy of their fociety, highly refined in fentiment and manners ? And yet upon a more ac- curate infpe£lion, many weighty confiderations oc- cur to balance that opinion. From a thoufand cirrumftances it appears, that the works of Ollian are not a late produ£lion. They are compofed in an old dialeft of the Celtic tongue ; and as, till lately, they were known only in the highlands of Scotland, the author mufl have been a Caledonian. The tranflator {a) faw in. the Ifle of Sky, the firft four books of the poem Fin- gal, written in a fair hand on vellum, and bearing date in the year 1403. The natives believe that poem to be very ancient : every pcrfon has palfagcs of it by heart, tranfmitted by memory from their forefathers. Their dogs bear commonly the name of Luat/jj Bmn, &c. mentioned in thefe poems, as our dogs do of Po?npcy and Cafar ** Many ether particulars might be mentioned : but thele are fuflicicnt to prove, that the work mud have ex- ited at leafl: three or four centuries. Taking that for granted, I proceed to certain confiderations R 2 tending w ill 1 ' ''^1 II n '1 Jlfil if 1 I r m 1 li f I ! (fl) Mr. MacpIiPi for). * In tlie llle ol Sky, tlie ruins of the caAle of Dunfcaich upon an abrupt rotk haop!i\g over tlie ft.i, arc fllll vllible. That caitle, as vouched by tra- dition, btioiiged to CuohuUin Lord of that Iflc, whofe hirtory is recordcu in the Poem cf Fingal. Upon the gieen before the cafHe tliere is a great rtonc, to v'hith, according to the f'a^)U' truditiort, his doj I.uathwas chained, :i, m 244 Men iiiclepcnJcnt of Society. B. I. tending to evince, that tlic manners clifcribcd in Oilian were Caledonian manners, and not a pure fidion. And after p^Tufing with attention tliefc confiderations, I am not afraid that even the mofl incredulous will continue altogetlicr unlhakcn. It is a noted and wcll-foumled ohfcrvation, Tiiat manners arc never pnintcd to the fife by any one to whom thcv are not familiar. It is not diilicult to draw the ouilines of imnginLu y manners ; but to fill np the picture with all the variety of tint:; that man- ners all'umc in dilRrent circnmfhinccs, unilitig all eoncordantly in one whole, — /vV hfhi\ hoc ofais cjl. Yet the nianncrs here fuppofed to be invented, are delineated in a variety of incidents, rd fentiments, of imagei:, and of allufions, making .t ? From what fourre then did Ollian draw the refined manners fo delicioully painted by him r Suppofmg him to have been a traveller, of vhich we have not the Highted hint, tlie manners at that period of France, of Italy, and of other neighbouring nations, were little lefs barbarous than thofe of his own coun- try. I can difcover no fource but infpiration. In a woril, wiioever ferioufly believes the manners of Oilian to be fictitious, may well fay, with the % religious 246 Men indcpcndGnt of Society. B.I. 9 i: r 1 ' Hi i' ^^^ 1 1 i I religious enthufiaft, " Credo quia impojjibilc ejl : I be- " lieve it becaule it is impomble." But further : The uncommon talents of the au- thor of this work will chearfully be acknowledged by every reader of tafte : he certainly was a great mafler in his way. Now, whether the work be late, or compofed four centuries ago, a man of fuch talents inventing a hiftorical fable, and lay- ing the fcene of adion among favages in the hun- ter-ftate, would naturally frame a fyftem of man- jiers the beft fuited in his opinion to that Hate, Wh?.t then could tempt him to adopt a fyftem of manners, fo oppqfite to any notion he could form of favage manners ? The abfurdity is fo grofs, that we are forced, however reluctantly, to believe, that tliefe manners are not fiditious, but in reality the manners of his country, coloured perhaps, or a little heightened, according to the privilege of an epic poet. Aid once admitting that faft, there can be no hefitation in afcribing the work to Of- iian, fon of Fingal, whofe name it bears : we have no better evidence for the authors of feveral Greek and Roman books. Upon the -fame evi- dence we muft believe, that Offian lived in the reign of the Emperor Caracal la, of whom fre- quent mention is made under the defignation of Caracul the Great King\ at which period, the fliep- lierd-ftate was fcarce known in Caledonia, and huf- bandry not at all. Had he lived fo Ir^te as the twelfth century, when there were flocks and herds in that country, and fome fort of agricul- ture, a poet of genius, fuch as Offian undoubt- edly was, would have drawn from thefe his fineil images. The foregoing confiderations, I am perfuaded, would not tuil to convert the moft incredulous ; were it not f6r a confequence extremely improba- ]ble, that a people, little better at prefent than fa- vages, were in their primitive hunter-ftate highly 3 refined j ■>**: Sk.V. Manners* 247 refined ; for fuch Offian dcfcribes them. And yet it is PD lefs improbable, that fuch manners fhould be invented by an illiterate highland bard» Let a man chufc either fide, the difficulty cannot be folved but by a fort of miracle. What fliall we conclude upon the whole T for the mind cannot for ever remain in fufpenfe. As dry reafoning has left us in a dilemma, tafte perhaps and feeling may extricate us. May not the cafe be here as in real painting ? A portrait drawn from fancy, may refemble the human vifage ; but fuch peculiarity of countenance and expreflion as ferves to diftinguifh a certain perfon from every other, is always wanting. Prefent a portrait to a man of tafte, and he will be at no lofs to fay, whether it be copied from life, or be the produft of fancy. If Oflian paint from fancy, the cloven foot will appear : but if his portraits be complete, fo as to exprefs every peculiarity of character, why fhould we doubt of their being copied from life ? Ill that view, the reader, I am hopeful, will not think his time thrown away in examining fome pf OfHan's ilriking pictures. { fee not another re* jource. Love of fame is painted by Offian as the ruling paffion of his countrymen the Caledonians. War- riors are every where defcribed, as efteeming it their chief happinefs to be recorded in the fongs of the bards : that feature is never wanting in any of Offian's heroes. Take the following inftances, " Kingof the roaring Strumon, fait! the rKing joy of Flngal, do I behold thee in arms after thy ftrength has failed ? Often hath Momi (hone in battles, like the beam of the rifmg fun, when he difperfcs the ftorms of the hill, and brings peace to the glittering fields. But why didft thou not reft in thine age ? Thy renown is in the fong : the people behold thee, and blefs the departure of mighty Momi {a)," " Son of Fingal, he faid, why burns the foul of Gaul ? My heart beats high : my fteps are difo) dered ; and my hand trembles on my fword. When I look toward the foe, my foul lightens before me, and I fee their fleeping hoft. Trennble thus the fouls of the valiant, in battles of the fpear ? How would the foul (a) Lathmon. Pi! f tn U •' , ■ iif M ! i ! ' '(' si m 14^ Men independent of Society. B. I. ..K ** of Morni rlfu, if we (liould lufli on the foe ! Our renown would grow in ** the fong, and our Heps be ftately in the eye of the brave * [a)." That a warrior has acquired his fame is a confola- tion in every diftrcfs : ** Carrll, fald tlie King in fecret, the ftrength of CuchuUin fails. My days " are with the years that are part j and no morning of mine Ihall arife. They " fhall feek me at Temora, but I fliall not be found. Cormac will weep in " h»s hall, and fay, Wher« is Tura's chief ? But my name is renowned, my *' fame in the fong of bards. The youth will fay, let me die as Cuchul/in " died : renown cloathed him like a role } and the light of biifame is great. Draw " the arrow from my fide j and lay CuchuUin below the oak. Place the *' fhield of Caithbat near, that thsy may behold me amid the arms of my •* fathers (^)." Fingal fpeaks : *' Ullin, my aged bard, take the /hip of the King. Carry Ofcar to Selm.i, ** and let the daughters of Morven weep. We fhall fight in Erin for the " race of fallen Connac. Tlie days of my years begin to fail: I feel the " weaknefsofmy arm. My fathers bend from tlieir clouds to receive their " grey-haired fon. But, Trenmore ! before I go hence, one beam of my ** fame fhall rife : in fame (hall my days end, as my years bpgun : my lif? Ihall be one ftream of light to other times (f)." ' « Offian fpeaks : ** Did thy beauty laft, O Ryno ! ftood the ftrength of car-borne Ofcar f f *' Fingal himfelf paffed away, and the halls of his fathers forgot his fteps. " And flialt thou remain, aged bard, when the mighty have failed ? But my " fame /hall remain j and grow like the oak of Morven, which lifts its broad ** head to the ftorm, and rcjoiceth in the courfe of the wind ( But flqep thou I'oftly on Lena, Fingal (hall foon behold r!-i««. Scon fliall my voice be heard no more and my footfteps ccafe to be fecn. The bards will tell of Fingal's name ; the Hones will talk of me. Bur, Ryno ! thou art low indeed, thou haft not received thy fame. UUin, itrike the harp for Ryno ; tell what the chief would have been. Farewell th'')U firft in every field. No more Ihall 1 dircdt thy dart. Thou that halt been fo fair; 1 behold thee not. — -Farewell .()." Lamentation for lofs of fame. Cuchullin fpeaks : ** But, O ye ghofts of the lonely Cromla ! ye fouls of chiefs that are no " more! be ye the companions of Cuchullin, and talk to him in ti.e cave of " his forrow. For never more fliall I be renowr.ed among the miglity in the " land. I am like a beam that has flione; like a mift that ficd away v/hen *' the blaft of the morning came, and brightened the flKiggy fide of the iiili, ." Connal, talk of arms no more; departed is my fanif, Aly figlis /h;iU be " on Cromla's wind, till my footfteps ceafe to be feen. And thou wliite bo- " fom'd Bragela, mourn over the fall of my fame; for, vanquiflicd, never ** will I return to thee, thou fun-beam of Dunfcaich (<:)." Love of fame begets heroic actions, which go hand in hand with elevated fentiments : of the for- mer there are examples in every page j of the lat- ter take the following examples. ' " And let him come, replied the King. I love a fee like Catlimor : M', " foul is great j his arm ftrong; and his battles full of fame. But toe little ** foul is like a vapour that hovers round tlie niarlhy lake, which never lifes •* on the green hill, left the winds meet it there () Croma. (i) Fingal, {d) Latlimon. (?) Temora. Sk. V. Manners, 251 V joiced in tlie prcfence oi' ftrangers, when my fon flione in the hall. But, ** Oflian, he is a beam that is departed, and left no ftreak of light behind. " He is fallen, fon of Fingal, in tlie battles of his father.— ——Rothmar, " the chief of graflTy Tromlo, heard that my eyes had failed ; he heard that " my arms were fixed in the hall, and the pride of his foul arofe. He came *' toward Croma ; my people fell before him. I took my arms in the hall ; .** but what could fightlefs Crothar do ? My fteps were unequal ; my grief *' was great. I wiftied for the days that were part, days wherein I fougljt ♦* and won in the field of blood. My fon returned from the chaw, the fair- ** haired Fovar-gormo. fi9 had not lifted his fword in battle, for his arm " was young. But the foul of the youth was great ; the fire of valour burnt " in his eyes. He faw the difordered fteps of his father, and his figh arofe. " King of Croma, he faid, is it becaufe thou haft no fon ; is it for the weak* ** nefs of Foyar-gormo's arm that thy fighs arife ? I begin, my father, to feel ** the ftrf ngth of my arm ; I liave drawn the fword of my youth ; and I hav» " bent the bow. Let me meet this Rothmar with the youths of Croma : " let me meet him, O my father ; for I feel my burning foul. And thou '* /halt meet him, I laid, fon of the fightlefs Crothar ! But let others advance " before thee, that I may hear the tread of thy fept at thy return ; for my *' eyes behold thee not, fair-haired Fovar-gormo ! He went, he met the foe ; he fell. The foe advances toward Croma. He who flew my (on is near, with all his pointed fpears («).'* ti The following fentiments about the fliortnefs gf human life are pathetic, *' Defolate is the dwelling of Moina, filence In the houfe of her fathers. ** Raife the fong of mourning over the ftrangers. One day we muft fall j ** and they have only fallen before us. ^Wliy doft thou build the hall, " fon of the winged days ! Thou loqkeft from thy towers to day : foon v/ill *• the blaft of the defert come. It howls in thy empty court and whiftles *' over thy half-worn (hield {h)," " How long fliall we weep on Lena, or " pour our tears in UUin ! The mighty will not return ; nor Ofcar rife in his ** ftrength : the valiant muft fall one day, and be no more known. Where « are our fathers, O warriors, the chiefs of the times of old ! They are fet, *' like ftars that have ihone s we only hear the found of their praife. But " they were renowned in their day, and the terror of other times. Thus " fliall we pafs, O warriors, in the day of our fall. Then let us be renowned " while we may ; and leave our fame behind us, like the laft beams of the " fun, when he hides his red head in the weft (f)." In Homer's time, heroes were greedy of plun» der; and, like robbers, were much difpofed to in- fult a vanquiflied foe. According to Oflian, the ancient Caledonians had no idea of plunder : and as they fought for fame only, their humanity over- flow'd to the vanquiflied. American favages, it is true,* are not addided to plunder, and are ready to Dcftow on the firft comer what trifles they force from the 'i^ m. 1;. tji ■■';r ■ i'i :i ''ik \ I' I. I {■ ' ml ii pi fir i ■iil {(t) Croma. {h) Carthon. (r) T^mora, ; I '1 252 Men independent of Society. B. I. the enemy. But iliey have no notion of a pitched battle, nor of ftii;;!'* combat : on the contrary, they value tiicmfelvcs upon flaughtering their enemies by furprize, without rifking their own fweet perfons. A: reeabli' to the magnanimous character given by Oilian of his couii'-rymen, we find humausty bltud" cd with courage in iill their actions. " Fingal pitied the white-r.i-med maid • he ftayed tite uplifteci fwoid, Tiie ** tear was in the eye of tlie King, as ben 'lag forw..rd he fpc".*' : King ot " ill camy Sora, fear not the ^vord of Fing.ii ; it was never rtained with the " blood of the vanquiftied j ir iiever pierce '. a fallen foe. Let thy people *' rejoice along the blue water? o> Tora : kt the maids of thy luv< be glad. " Wliy Ihould'tt thou fall in thy youth, King 01 rtrea.uy Sora U) ! " Fingal fpeaks : i « « ■ « 1 (( {■ « K <( y (C ■ ..);'i>fnnr g*!?, that my foul may rejoice over my fon, who " lenews vh^ rtru-wn jf our fathers. OflTian ! be thou a florm in battle, <• but mild wt'jf 'he foe^i arc lew. It was thus my fame arofe, O my fon ; " and by thou )il-:c Selma"> chief. When the haughty come to my hall, my ** eyes !)," " O Ofcar ! bend the ftimg in arm, but " Ipare the feeble hand. Be thou a Aream of many tides again A the foes of " thy people, but like the gale that moves the grafs to thofe wlko a(k thy aid. " Never fearch for the battle, nor (hun it when it comes. So Trenmor lived j " Suc.f Trathal wasj and fucli has Fingal been. My arm was the fupport " of tli;^ injured j, and the weak refted behind the lightning of my fteel (c ).'* . Humanity to the vanquifhed is difplay'd in the fol- lowing paffages. After defeating in battle Swaran King of Lochlin, Fingal fays, " Rjiife, Ullin, raife the fong of pcce, and foothe my foul after battle, " that my ear rnay forget the noife of arms. And let a hundred harps be ." near to gladden tlie King of Lochlin : he muft depart from us with joy : " non« ever went fad from Fingal. Ofcar, the lightning of my fword is agaipd the llrongj but peaceful it hangs by my fide when warriors yield in battle (d)" " Uthal t'cli bcncatli my fword, and the fon of Berrathon fled. It was then I faw him in liii beauty, and the tear hung in my eye. Tliou art fallen, young tree, I faid, with all thy budding beauties round thee. The winds come from the defert, and there is no found in thy leaves. Lovely art thou in death, fon of car- borne Lathmor (e)," After perufing thefe quotations, it will not be thought that Oliian deviates from the manners re- prefented « <( (( (( a t( « (,j1 Cnrric-thura. [d) Fiuaal, hooU 6, (/.) Calthon and Colmal. (f) Berrathon. (c) Fingal, book 3. ii Sk. V. Manners. ^53 prefented by him, In defcribing the hofpitality of his chieftains : " We heard the voice of joy on the coaft, and we thought that the mighty " Cathmor came ; Cathmor, the friend of ftrangeis, tlie brother of red-haired " Cairbar. But their fouls were not the fame ; for the light of heaven was *' in the bofom of Cathmor. His towers rofc on tlie banks of Atlia : feven " paths led to his liall : feven chiefs ftood on thefe paths, and called the " ftranger to the feaft. But Cathmor dwelt in the wood, to avoid the voice •' of praife («)." " Rathnior was a chief of CUitha. Tlie feeble dwelt in " his hall. The gates of Katiunor were never clofed : his feaft was always ** fpread. The fons of the ftranger came, and blelTed the generous chief of " Clutlia. Bards raifed the fong, and touched the harp: joy bi.ghtened on " the face of the mournful. Dunthalmo came in his pride, and ruftied into " combat with Rathmor. The chief of Clutlia overcame. The rage of " Dunthalmo rofe : he came by night with his warriors j and the mighty " Ratiimor fell; he fell in his hall, where his feaft had been often fpread fey " fti angers (/!.)." It feems not to exceed the magnanimity of his chieftains, intent upon glory only, to feaft even their enemies before a battle. Cuchullin, after the firlt day's engagement with Swaran, Kingof Lochlin or Scandinavia, fays to Carril, one of his bards, " Is this feaft fpared for me alone, and the King of Lochlin on UHin's " fhore ; far from the deer of his hills, and founding halls of his feafts ? Rife, " Carril of other times, and carry my words to Swaran; tell him from the " roaring of waters, that Cuchullin gives his feaft. Here let him liftsn to " the found of my groves amid the clouds of night : for cold and bleak the " blurttiing winds ru(h over the foam of his feas. Here let him praife the " trembling harp, and hear the fongs of heroes (r )." The Scandinavian King, lefs poli(hed, refuft d the invitation. Cairbar f^^eaks ; " Spread the feaft on l.ct>a, s!^1 M iift^' hundred bards attend. And thovv " rtd-haited OUa, take the h^v^Cf tKe King, (io toOfcar, King oJ'twof.i\, " and bid him to o*»; tea<^, 1\>-<^y we feaft and hear the fong; to moru^w " break the fpean- ^,i\" '*^ <.HUv«me with his fongs. Ofcai went to C.iir. " bar's feaft. Three Wnrfrt«d heroes attended tlie chief, and the dane v f " their arms is terri-^te. Th^gray dogsbvjund on the ht;,Hthj and theii ^\V\\i- *• in^ is frecjueut. Finj;al (aw the departure of the h^xo ; the K>vil of the " King was fad. He Uivads the gloomy CairbOi^ ; Wt who of \\\t race uf •' Ti cnmor fears the ft?« (t) ?" Cruelty iv< every whore condemned ^s z\\ ^\famous vice. Speaking of the bards. [a) Temora. (,ions rofe in the fong(fl)," But, King of Morvcn, if I (hall fall, as one time the warrior mull fall, laife my tomb in tlie midfl, and let it be the greateft on Lena. And fend over the dark'blue wave the fword of Orla, to the fpoufe of his love ; that (he may (how it to her fon, with tears, to kindle his foul to war (i)." " I lifted my eyes to Cromla, and I faw the fon of generous Semo. — Sad and (low he retired from his hill toward the lonely cave of Tura. He faw Fingal ** viflorious, and mixed his joy with grief. The fun is bright on his armour, W ijir)d Cnnnal (lowly followed. They funk behind the hill, like two pillars •' btihe ^rnof night, when winds purfue them over the mountain, and the " flaming lieatli refotinds. Befide a (^ream of roaring foam, his cave is in a ♦• rock. One tree bends above it j and the rufliing winds echo againft its f/ fides. There refts the chief of Dunfcaich, the fon of generous Semo. His " tliniiglits are on tlie battles he lo(\ ; and the tear is on his check. He ♦' mourned the dejjarture of liis fame, that fled like the mift of Cona. O II Bragsla, thou art too far remote to cliter the foul of the hero. But let liini fee ll/y l)»|g|(> form in his foul j that his thoughts may return to the lonely fun-hearfi of limi/( aich (f)." " 0(rian King of fwords, replied the bard, thou heft raifeft tlie foiig, Long liaft thou been known to Carril, thou ruler of battles. Often have I touched the harp to the lovely Everal- lin. Thou, too haft often .iccompanied my voice in Branno's hall of (hells. And often amidft our voices was heard the mildeft Everallin. One day (lie fung of Cormac's fall, the youth that died for her love. I (aw the tears on her cheek, and on thine, thou chief of men. Her foul was touched for the unhappy, though (lie loved him not. How fair among a thoufand rtiaids, was the daughter of the generous Branno(rf)." " It was in the aays of peace, replied the great ClelTammor, I came in my bounding (hip to riiilciutha's walls of towers. The winds had roarqd behind my fails, and " Clutha's (Ireanis received my dark bofomed ve(rel. Three days I remained " In Reuthamir's halls, and faw that beam of light, his daughter. The joy " of the (hell went round, and the aged hero gave the fair. Her breafts were ** like foam on the wave, and her eyes like ftars of liglit ; her h.iir was dark " as the raven's wing : her foul was generous and mild. My love for " Moina was great : and my heart poured forth in joy (e)." " The fame of ** 0(rian (hall rife : his deeds fliall be like his father's. Let us rufli in our *' arms, fon of Morni, let us rufh to battle. Gaul, if thou (halt return, go to " Selma's lofty hall. Tell Everallin that I fell with fame ; carry the fword " to Branno's daughter: let her give it to Ofcar when the years of his voutli " (hallarlfe(/)." Next to war, love makes the principal figure: and well it may; for in Oflian's poems it breathes every thing fweet, tender and elevated. " On Lubar's gralTy banks they fought ; and Grudar fell. Fierce Cairbar " came to the vale of the echoing Tura, where Bra(rolis, falreft of his fifters. all alone raifed the fong of grief. She fung the actions of Grudar, the " youth If i ■'%• (a) Fingal, book 5, {J) fingal, book 5, (t) Fingal, book ^. (e) Carthon, (fj Lathmon, (.) Fingal, book 5. ?■* 4, t. t iJi' •256 Men independent of Society. B. I. *' youth of her fccrct foul : (he mourned him in the field ofhtood j but ftill ** fhc hoped his return. Her white hofom is fecn from her robe, as the moon " from the clouds of night 5 her voice was fofter than the harp, to raifc the " fong of grief : her foul was fixed on Grudar, the fee ret look of her eye was " his ; — when wilt thou come in thine arms, thou mighty in war ? Take, *' BralFolis, Cairbar (.lid, take ti i» rtiield of blood ; fix it on Iii^h within my *' hall, the armour of my foe. Her foft heart beat againd her fuie 1 diAra£l> " ed, pale, fhe flew, and found her youth in blood. — She died on Cromla's •' heath. Here refts their duO, Cuchullin ; and thcfe two lonely yews, fpiung *' from their tombs, wifh to meet on high. F;iir was Bralfoiis on tlic plain, " and Grudar on the hill. The bard (hall prclervc their names, and repeat *• them to future times (a)." " Pleafant is thy voice, O Cairil, faid th« " blue-eyed chief of Erin ; and lovely are the words of other times s they are *' like the calm fhower of fpring, when the fun looks on the field, and the •' light cloud flies over the hill. O ftrike the harp in praife of my love, the *' lonely fun-beam of Dunfcaich : Arike the harp in praife of Bragela, whom " I Uft in the ifle of mifi, the fpoufe of Semo's fon.— Doft thou raife " thy fair face from the reck to find the falls of Cuchullin > the fca is rolling *' far dillant, and if. white foam will deceive thee for my fails. Retire, my " love, for it is night, and the dark winds figh in thy hair ; retire to the hall " of my feafts, and think of times that are pad ; for I will not return till the " florm of war ceafe.— () Connal, fpeak of war and arms, and fend her from *' my mind ; for lovely with her raven hair is the white-bofomed daughter of " Sorglan (i)." Malvina fpeaks. ** But thou dwellcfl In the foul of Malvina, fon of mighty Ofllan. My *' fighs arife with the beam of the eaft, my tears defcend with the drops of " tile night. I was a lovely tree in thy prefence, Ofcar, with all my " branches round me; but thy death came lil;e a blaft from the dcfert, and " laid my green head low : the fpring returned with irs (howers, but of me " not a leaf fprung. The virgins law me filent in the hall, and they touched '■' t!is harp of joy, Tiie tear wa-i on the cheek of Malvina, and the virgins •' beheld my grief. Why art thou fad, they faid, thou firft of the maids of " Lutha .' Was he lovely as tiie beam of the morning, and ftately in thy " fight (0?" "Fingalcame in his mildnefs, rejoicing in fecret over the " ailions of his fon. Momi's face brightened with gladnefs, and his aged *• eyes looked faintly through tears of joy. We came to the halls of Selma, " and fat round the feall of fhells. The maids of the fong came into our " prefence, and the mildly blufliing Evcrallin. Her dark hair fpre.ids on " her neck of fnow, her eye rolls in fecret on Oflisn. She touches the harp '■' cfniulic, and we bid's the daughter of Branno (rf)." Had the Caledonians made flaves of their wo- men, and thought as meanly of them as favages commonly do, Oflian could never have thought, even in a dream, of befluwing on them thofe num- berltfs graces that exalt i. c female fex, and render many of them objects ot pure and elevated afTcdli- on. (it) Flngal, bock t, (JJ i-athniun. [h] Finsal, book J. (r) Crcma, Sk:.V. Manners, 257 on. I fay more : Supj .ing a favagc to liave been divinely infpircd, manners fo inconfiflent witli their own, would not have been relilhcd, nor even comprehended, by his countrymen. And yet that they were highly rcliflied, is certain, having been dillufed among all ranks, and prcfervcd for many ;\ges by memory alone, without writing. Here the i\rgument mentioned above ftrikes with double force, to evince, that the manners of the Ca- ledonians muft have been really fuch as Ofliaii defcribes. Catharina Alexowna, Emprefs of Ruflia, pro- moted aflemblies of men and women, as a means to polifli the manners of her fubjeds. And in or- der to preferve decency in fuch affemblies, flic publifhed a body of regulations, of which the fol- lowing are a fpecimen. " Ladies who play at for- feitures, queftions and commands, &c. lliall not be noify nor riotous. No gentleman mufl: attempt to force a kifs, nor ftrike a woman in the aflcni- *' bly, under pain of exclufion. Ladies are not to ** get drunk upon any pretext whatever ; nor gen- " tlemen before nine." Compare the manners that required fuch regulations with thofe defcribed above. Can we fuppofe, that the ladies and gentlemen of Of- fian's poems ever amufed themfelves, after the age of twelve, with hide and fcek, queftions and commands, or fuch childifh play ? Can it enter into our thoughts, that Bragcla or Malvina were fo often drunk, as to require the reprimand of a j^ublic regulatior- ? or that any hero of Oflian ever ftruck a woman of Vu^hion in ire ? The immortality of tlie foul was a capital article in the Celtic creed, inculcated by the Druids (,inal tribe, who may be fuppoled to have had maimers peculiar to themfelvcs : they were a branch of the Celtae, and had a languaj^c common to them with the inhabitants of Guu!, and of England. The manners probably of all werv: the fame, or nearly fo ; and if we exped any light for explaining Caledoniri^ manners, it mud be from that quarter : we have indeed no other refourcc. Diodorus Siculus (a) reports of the Celtaj, that though warlike, they were upright in their deal- ings, and far removed from deceit and duplici- ty. Csefar (Z>), *« Galli homines aperti minimeque *' infidiofi, qui per virtutem, non per dolum, dimi- *' care confueverunt *." And though cruel to their enemies, yet Pomponius Mela (c) obferves, that they were kind and companionate to the fupplicant and unfortunate. Strabo (d) dtfcribes the Gauls, as ftudious of war, and of great alacrity in fight- ing ; otherwife an innocent people, altogether void of malignity. He fays, that they had three orders of men, bards, prielts, and druids ; that the pro- vince of the bards was to lludy poetry, and to compofe fongs in praife of their deceafed heroes ; that the pricfts prefided over divine worfliip ; and that the druids, befide fludying moral and natural pliilofophy, determined all controverfies, and had S 2 fome ' !^r'i: i (a) Lib. 5. {h) Dc bello Africo. * " The Gauls arc of an open temper, not at all ififidious 5 and in fielt f' tlit-y rtly on valour, not on liratJgein." (<) Lib. 3. (.1) Lib. 4. 1 *..• 11 26o Men independent of Society. B. I. fomc dire£lion even 'u\ war. Csefar lefs attentive to civil matters, comprehends thefc three orders under the name of di'uids ; and obferves, that the druids teach their difciples a vafl number of verfes, which they mull get by heart. Diodorus Siculus fays, that the Gauls had poets termed bards^ who fung airs accompanied with the harp, in praife ol' fome, and difpraife of others. Lucan, fpeaking of the rfiree orders, fays, ** Vos quoquc, qui fortes animas, belloque peremp- tas, ** Laudibus in longum- vates, dimittitis aevum, " P'urima fecuri fudi' , carmina bardi *." With refpeft to the Celtic women in particular, it is agreed by all writers, that they were extreme- ly beautiful {a) j and no lefs remarkable for fpirit than for beauty. If we can rely on Diodorus Si- culus, the women in Gaul equalled the men in cou- rage. Tacitus, in his life of Agricola, fays, that the Britifli women frequently joined with the men, when attacked by an enemy. And fo much were they regarded, as to be thought capable of tiie high- eft command. " Neque enim fexum in imperiis " difcernunt *,*' fays the fame author {b). And accordingly, during the war carried on by Carac- tacus, a gallant Britifh King, againft the Romans, Cartifmandua was Q^ieen of the Brigantes. Boa- dicea is recorded in Roman annals as a Queen of a warlike fpirit. She led on a great army a- gainft * " Yoii too, ye bards ! whom facred raptures fire, " To cliaunt your heroes to your country's lyrej " Wlio confecrate in your immortal llrain, *' Brave patriot fouls, in riehteous battle flain. " Securely now the tuneful tafk renew, " Ajid noblert themes in cieathlefs fongs purfue."— — — Rowf, (tf) Diodorus Siculus. lib. 5. AtlienW^ ' alone remaincji to engage with ?nc in Jingle coiiibat. It is 71010 thy turn' to feci the kecnnefs of my /word. Their fabres, like dark and threatening clouds, hang dreadful in the air. Grymer's weapon darts down like a thunderbolt : their fwords fu- rioufly fl;rike : they are bathed in gore. Gry- mer cleaves the cafque of his enemy, hews his armour in pieces, and pours the light into his bofom. Grunder fmks to the ground ; and Grymer gives a dreadful fliout of triumph." — This picture is done with a mafterly hand. The capital circumftances are judicioiifly felecled ; and the narration is compact and rapid. Indulge mc with a moment's paufc to compare this picture with one or two in Oflian's manner. " As autumn's dark llorms pour from two echoing hills ; fo to each other approach the heroe?. As from high rocks two dark flreams meet, and mix and roar on the plain ; fo meet Lochlin and Innis- fail, loud, rough, and dark in battle. Chief !'«Sl i68 IVTtn Independent of Society. B. I. mixc3 his ftrokeswith chief, and man with man; (( (< it it fteel founds on fteel, helmets are clef*^ on high. Blood burils, and fmoaks around. Strings mur- mur on tlie poliflied yew. Darts rulli along the iky. Spears fall like fparks of Hamc that gild tlie ilormy face of night. As the noifc of the trou- '* bled ocean when roll the waves on high, as the laft ** peal of thundering heaven, fuch is the noifeof *' battle. Though Cormac*s hundred bards were " there, feeble were the voice of an hundred bards ** to fend the deaths to future times j for many " were the heroes wlio fell, and wide poured the " blood of the valiant." Again, " As roll a thou- *^ fand waves to the rorks, fo came on Swaran's *' hod : as meets a rock a thoufand waves, fo Innis- *' fail met Swaran. The voice of death is heard all " around, and mixes with the found of fhields. '* Each hero is a pillar of darkncfs, and the fword a beam of fire in his hand. From wing to wing echoes the field, like a hundred hammers that rife by turns on the red fun of the furnace. Who are thofe on Lena's heath, fo gloomy and dark? thev are like two clouds, and their fwords lighten abos^e. Who is it but 01Ii^n*s fon, and the car-borne chief of Erin ?" Thefe two defcrfp- tions make a deeper impreflion, and fwcll the heart more than tlic former : they are more poetical by Ihort fi miles finely interwoven ; and the images arc far more lofty. And yet Offian's chief taient is fentiment, in which Scandinavian bards re far inferior : in the gencrofity, tendernefs, and huma- nity of his fentiments, he has not a rival. The ancient Scandinavians were undoubtedly a barbarouf) people, compared with the fouthern na- tions of Europe ; but that they were far from be- ing grofs favages, may be gathered from a poem ftill extant, named Havaviaal ; or, The fublime dif- ccurfe cf Odin. Though that poem is of great amiquity, it is replete with good leflbns and ju- dicious ec cc cc cc « c« JIN I 'IJ^ aj-iLi ' ii V 11. e e Sk. V. Manner^, 269 dicious reflexions ; of which the following are a fpecimcn. Happy he who gains the applaufe and good will of men. Love your friends, and love alfo their friends. Be not the firfl to break with your friend ; fur- row gnaws the heart of him who has not a fingle friend to advife with. Where is the virtuous man that hath not a fail- ing ? Where is the wicked man that hath not fome good quality ? Riches take wing : relations die : you ) mrfelf fhall die. One thing only is out of the reiu:h of fate J which is, the judgement thjit pafTes on the dead. There is no malady more fevere than the being dlfcontented with one's lot. ., Let not a man be over-wife nor over-curious : if he would lleep in quiet, let him not feek to know his deftiny. While we live, let us live well : a man lights his fire, but before it be burnt out death may enter. A coward dreams that he may live for ever : if Sit fliould efcape every other weapon, he cannot ef- cape old age. , , The flocks know wlien to retire from pafture : the glutton knows not when to retire from the fcaft. The lewd and diffblute make a mock of every thing, not coiifidering how much they deferve to be mocked. The bed provifion for a journey, is ftrength of underftanding : more ufeful than treafure, it wel- comes one to the table of the flranger. Hitherto the manners of the Scandinavians refem- ble in many capital circumftances thofe delineated in the works of Oilian. I lay not however great itrefs i'M !;i' ii \r I ,■*■<]; lyo Mi,N independent of Society. B. f. ftrcfs upon that refembhince, becaufe luch man- ners are found among feveral other warlike nations in the firfl fla e of fociety. The circumftanre that has occafioneil the greateft doubt about ("'Hian's fydcm of manners, is the figure his wom.u make. Among other favage nations, they arc held to be beings of an inferior rank ; and as fuch arc treated vvitii very little rcfpecl : in Oflian they piake an iU luftrious figure, and are highly regarded by the men. I have not words to exprefs my fatisfadion, vhen I difcovered, that anciently among the bar- barous Scandinavians, the female fex made a fi- gure no lefs illuftrious. A refemblancc fo com- plete with refpcdl to a matter extremely fmgular among barbarians, cannot fail to convert the moft obftinate infidel, leaving no doubt of Oflian's vera- city. — But I ought not to anticipate. One cannot I)afs a verdidt till the evidence be fummed up ; and to that talk I now proceed, with fanguine hopes of fuccefs. It is a fid afcertained by many writers, That women in the north of Europe were eminent for refoluti'jr- an?) courage. Csefar, in the firft book of his Conjusentaries, defcribing a battle he fought with the Helvetii, fays, that the women with a warlike fpirit exhorted their hufbands to perfift, and placed the waggons in a line to prevent their flight. Florus and Tacitus mention that feveral battles of thofe barbarous nations were renewed by their women, piefenting their naked bofbms, and declaring their abhorrence of captivity. Fla- vius Vopiitus, writing of Proculus Caefar, fays, that a hundred Sarmatian virgins were taken in battle. The Longobard women, when many of their hufbands were cut oft' in a battle, took up arms and obtained the vidlory {^a). The females of the Gala6lonhagi, a Scythian tribe, were as warlike (a) Paiilus Diaconus. wfrmamm Sk. V. Manners, 271 warlike as the males, and went often with tlicin to war (b). In former times, many women in Den- mark applied themfelves to arms (c). Jornandcs defcribcs the women of the Goths as full of cou- rage, and trained to arms like the men. Joan- nes Magnus, Archbifliop of Upial, fays the fame ; and mentions in particular an expedition of the Goths to invade a neighbouring country, in which more women went along with the men than were left at home (t/). Several dinavian women cxercifed piracy {e). Th< ^'■*' were always attended with their wives their diilant expedition , and were more .n^n. of their re- proaches than of the blows of the enemy. The Goths, compelled by famine to furrender to Beli- farius the city of Ravenna, were bitterly reproach- ed by their wives for cowardice (/). In a battle be- tween Regner King of Denmark and Fro King of Sweden, many wqmen took part with the former, Langertha in particular, who fought with her hair flowing about her (houldcrs. Regner, being vic- torious, demanded who that woman was who had behaved fo gallantly ; and finding her to be a vir- gin of noble birth, he took her to wife. He afterward divorced her, in order to make way for a daughter of the King of Sweden. Regner being unhappily engaged in a civil war with Harald, who afpired to the throne of Denmark ; Langertha, o- verlooking her wrongs, brought from Norway a body of men to affiil her hulband ; and behaved fo gallantly, that, in the opinion of all, Regner was indebted to her for the viftory. To find women in no inconfiderable portion of the globe, rivalling men in their capital property of 'j"i'' t-l'.i' ' '-. ii (b) NicoIaiH Damafcenus. ' (c) Saxu Gra;ninaticus. {d) Book I. [e) Olaus Magnus. (/) Procopius, Hiftoria Gcthlca^ lib. 2. !ft,.\ I : :i, I'vM ^ w, '■» ^. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // 1.0 tii, |2£ 1 2.5 |50 '■^" H^H »" lii mil 2.2 :!f m 2.0 11.1 f.-^B Ii.25 11.4 iii.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80 (716) 873-4S03 m \ V \ ^ :\ [V 6\ "<*) fjJre(Ii6^'W Tacitus*? oeautiful ; " Ai matres, ad conjuges, " ^niliter^ ferUnt t nee iUie nutnerare (tut cxfugere plagas pavent : cibofque " et hortamina pugnantibus geftant." [In Eng/i/h thus: " When wound- " ed, they find phyficians in their mothers ana wives, who are not afiaid *' fo count and fu«k their wounds. They carry providons for their fons and " hui]>and$, and animate them in battle by their exhortations."] . f " Tliey believe that there is foniething facred in their charaflcr, and that '• they have a forefightof futurity : for this reafon their ccunfels arc always •* rs'pe^tjsd; norarethnp<4.inionsevc«idilic2ardcd.". Sk. V. Manners* a73 mark in the twelfth century, gives not the flight* eft hint of polygamy, even among kingg and princes. Crantz, in his hiftory of the Saxons {a)^ affirms, that polygamy was never known among the northern nations of Europe j which is con- firmed by every other writer who gives the hiftory of any of thefe nations. SchefFer in particular, who writes the hiftory of Lapland, obfcrves, that neither polygamy nor divorce were ever heard of in that country, not even during Pa- ganifm. We have the authority of Procopius (^), that the women in thofe countries were remarkable for beauty, and that thofe the of Goths and Vandals were the fineft that ever had been feen in Italy ; and we have the authority of Crantz, that chaftitywasin high eftimation among the Danes, Swedes, and other Scandinavians. When thefe fads are added to thofe above-mentioned, it will not be thought ftrange that love between the fexes, even among that rude people, was a pure and elevated paffion. That it was in fa£t fuch, is certain, if hiftory can be credit- ed, or the fentiments of a people expreffed in their poetical compofitions. I begin with the latter, as evidence the moft to be relied on. The ancient poems of Scandinavia contain the warmeft expref- fions of love and regard for the female fex. In an ode of King Regner Lodbrog, a very ancient ,boem, we find the following fentiments. ** We fought " with fwords upon a promontory of England, " when I faw ten thoufand of my foes rolling in the ** duft. A dew of blood diftillcd from our fwords : " the arrows, that flew in fearch of the helmets, " hifled through the air. The pleafure of that day " was like the clafping a fair virgin in my arms." Again, ** A young man ihould march early to the Vol. I. ■• ' : T . .'^ " conflia ; f! (i>) Lib. t. up, 2. {%) HIAorIa CAtkica, lib. 3. ^74 Men independent of Society. B.I. II cQ ** conflift of arms ; in which confifts the glory of " the warrior. He who afpires to the love of a " miftrefs, ought to be dauntlefs in the clafli of •' fwords.*' Thefc Hyperboreans, it would appear, had early learned to combine the idea^ of love and of military prowefs ; which is ftill more confpicuous in an ode of Harald the Valiant, of a later date* That prince, who figured in the middle of the ele- venth century, traverfed all the feas of the north, and made piratical incurfions even upon the coafts of the Mediterranean. In this ode he complains, that the glory he had acquired made no impreffion on Elillir, daughter to Jariflas, King of Ruflia. "I hive " made the tour of Sitily. My brown veffel, full " of mariners, made a fwift progrefs. My courfc I " thought would never flacken— and yet a Ruilian ** maiden fcorns me. The troops of Drontheim> « which I attacked in my youth, exceeded ours in " number. Terrible wag the conflift. I left their *' young king dead on the field — and yet a Ruffian ,.,-... : , According «c ex ce cc (( ti it ti it a it (C a (( I '\r\ h i\ ' '' 278 Men independent of Society. B. 1. According to the rude manners of thofe times, a lover did not always wait lor the confcnt of his mif- trefs. Joannes Magnus, Archbifhop of Upfal, ob- fervcs in his hiflory of the Goths, that raviihing of women was of old no Icfs frequent amonjT the Scan- dinavians, than among the Greeks, lie relates, that Gram, fon to the King of Denmark, carried oft' the King of Sweden's daughter, whole beauty was celebrated in vcrfes remembered even in his time. Another inltance he gives, of Nicolaus King of Denmark (a\ who courted Uluilda, a noble and beautiful Norvegian lady, and obtained her confent. Nothing remained but the celebration of the nuptials, when me was carried otf by Suercher King of Swe- den. We have the authority of Saxo Grammaticus, that Skiold, one of the hrft Kings of Denmark, fought a duel for a beautiful young woman, and ob- tained her for a wife. The author relates many duels of the fame kind. It was indeed common among the Scandinavians, before they became Chrif- tians, to fight for a wife, and to carry off the defired objed by force of arms. No caufe of war between neighbouring kings was more frequent. Fridlcvus, King of Denmark, fent a folemn embaffy to Haf- mundus, King of Norway, to demand in marriage his daughter. Hafmundus had a rooted avcrfion to the Danes, who had done much mifchief in his coun- try. " Go," fays he to the ambafladors, " and dc mand a wife where you are lefs hated than in Nor- way." The young lady, who had no avtrfioi^to the match, intreated leave to fpcak. " You fcem,'* faid ihe, " not to confultthe good of your kingdom in rejecting fo potent a fon-in-law, who can carry by force what he is now applying for by intrca- ties." The father continuing obltinate, difmiiled the ambafladors. Fridlevus fent other ambaifadors, redoubling his intreaties for a favourable anfwct. . '"■;■'■ ' ' llalinundub (C C£ «C CC , i ;., ..,.// »r)u,> The figure that women made in the north of Eu- rope, by their courage, their beauty, and their chaf- tity, could not fail to produce mutual elleem and love between the fexes : nor could that love fail to be purified into the mod tender affedion, when their rough manners were fmoothed in the progrefs of fo- ciety. If love between the fexes prevail in Lapland as much as any where, which is vouched by ScheiFer in his hiftory of that country, it muft be for a reafon very different from that now mentioned. The males in Lapland, who arc great cowards, have no reafon to defpife the females for their timidity ; and in every nation where the women equal the men, mutual efteem and aifedion naturally take place. Two Lapland odes, communicated to us by the au- thor mentioned, leave no doubt of this faft, being full of the tendereft fentiments that love can infpire. The following is a literal tranflation. ,..(.. .' t FIRST ODE. Kulnafatz ir/ ;dn-deer, We have a k;ij; journey to go j The moors are /aft. And we muft hafte ; Oiir ftrength, I fear, WiJl fail if we are flowj And fo f • . Our fongs will do. ' ,t f i|: :i U. ! '-S-'t y)< ■ ', I Kaig^, the watery mOor, Is pleafant unto me. Though long it be; Since it doth to my miflrefs Icid, Whom I adore : The Kilwamoor I nt'er again wili tread. .•MM' m III 'Thcuf^h:'. mm 2^0 Men independent of Society. B. I. ■.> m .1 m, ■ Thoughts All'd my mind Whilft I thro' Kaigc pall Swift as the wind, • - And my defire, Wint'd with impatient Are, My rein-deer, let us iiafle. f' IV. C ! •■"'• ■ 'A So (hall we quickly end the pleafing pain : Behold my miftreft there, With decent motion walking o'er the plain. Kulnafatz my rein-deer, I^ok yonder, wlierc She wa(hes in the lake : - ;,, u See while Hie fwims, The waters from her purer limbs , i New cleamefs take. ■ - i , ,.,< y. • ^' SECOND O D E. I. " Wttii brightcft beams let tlie fun (hine ' On Orra moor : Could I be fure That from the top o' th' lofty pine, I Orra moor might fee, , I to its higheft bow would climb, And with induftrious labour try Thence to dcfcry My miftrefs, If that there (he b«. II. .►.•*''!• ■' Could r but know, amid what flowers, ... 'Jr-:;l-^ Or in what (hade (he ftajrs, ■ " '' . ., >, .„. The gaudy bowers, . '.,.'•, ,-^; '*■ ' ■ " With all their verdant pride, y,[t. /' , /7v, Their blonbms and their fprays, ' t'. '. .-, ..• y f -, .'^^. Which make my nu(lrefs difappear, ij.;. :'.'. - •, '^ '' And her in envious dacknefs hide, •( ' ' /•. :i iTJI I from the roots and bed of earth would tear, ; Upon the raft of clouds I'd ride, ..n *J* .' \- Which unto Orra fly : U :.. ^i.«J G' th* ravens I wouh ■ tjiub would borrow wings, u(,- And all the feathcf'd inmates of the Iky {."^ -. But wings, alas, are me deny'd, i he flork and fwan their pinions will not lend, There's Sk. V. .i^su>r' : Manneri.""^' ''^' There'l none wl»o unto Orra brings, Or will by titat kind conduct me befriend. 2S1 IV. Enough, enough ! thoa hift delny'd ' So many fummers days, The beft of days that crown the year, Which light upon the eye-lidi dart, And melting joy upon the heart : But Hnce that thou fo long halt Aay'd, They in unwelcome darknefs dlfappear »' Vet vainly doft thou me forfalte ^ I will purfue and overtake. y ... ,'. t ;..i,.» > What Aroi\ger is than bolts of fleel f , , What can more furely bind f Love Is ftronger far than it ; Upon the head in triumph (he doth fit ; Fetters the mind. And doth control ■ f'^ ' The thought and foul. VI. A youth's defire is the defire of wlnd.^. All liiseflays .r Are long delays i No ilTue can they find. . T Away, fond counfellors, away, ', , No more advice obtrude s - . : j I'll rather prove . » The guidance of blind love ; To follow you is certainly to ftray : One Angle counfel, tho' unwife, is good. In the Scandinavian manners here defcribed, is difcovered a ftriking refemblance to thofe defcribed by Oflian. And as fuch were the manners of the Scandinavians in the Hrd ftage of fociety, it no longer remains a wonder that the manners of Ca- ledonia fhpuld be equally pure in the fame early period. And now every argument above urged for Oflian as a genuine hiftorian has its full weight, without the lead counterpoife. It is true, that Ca* ledonian manners appear from Oflian to have been iliil more poliflied and refined than thofe of Scan* dinavia \ but that diiTerence may have proceed- ed ■<> • fi i f ! I' n W ! ;. . I'ilk M 'I I 1 i J .1 •I' r \i 282 Men independent of Society. B. I. rd from accidents which time hus buried in ob- livion. I make no apology for infifling fo largely on Scan- dinavian manners ; for they tend remarkably to fup- port the credit of Oflian ; and conlcqucntly to af- certain a fa^ not a little interefting, that our fore- fathers were not fuch barbarians as they are common- ly held to be. All the inhabitants of Britain were of Celtic cxtradion ; and there is rcalon to believe, that the manners of Caledonia were the manners of every part of the ifland, before the inhabitants of the plains were inflavcd by the Romans. The only circumftance peculiar to the Caledonians, is their mountainous fituation : being lefs expofed to the op- prcflion of foreigners, and farther removed from commerce, they did longer than their fouthern neighbours prtferve their manners pure and untaint- ed. I have all along confidered the poems of Ofllan in a hillorical view merely, in the view of criticifni they have been examined by a writer of diftinguifli- cd tafte («); and however bold to enter a field where he hath reaped laurels, I imagine that there ftill remain fome trifles for me to glean. Two of thcfe poems, Fingal and Tcmora, are regular epic poems ; and perhaps the fmgle inftances of epic poetry moulded into the form of an opera. We have in thefe two poems both the Recitativo and Aria of an Italian opera ; dropped indeed in the tranflation, from difficulty of imitation. Oflian's poems were all of them compofed with a view to mufic ; tho' in the long poems mentioned, it is probable that the airs only were accompanied with the harp, the reci- tative being left to the voice. The poems of Oflian are fmgular in another refpeft, being probably the only regular work now remaining that was com- pofed in the hunter-ftate. Some fongs of that early 'r. '.', "i ■ - .i)-^:^. -••,. •. ^> ■■' ■ period (a) Doftor Blair, profeflbr of Rhetoric in the college of Edinburgh. Sk. V. Manners* ^83 '1 period may poflibly have cfcapcd oblivion ; jiit no other poem of the epic kin J. One may advance a Itcp farther, and pronounce, with a high degree of probability, that Fingal and Tcmora arc the only epic poems that ever were compofcd in that ftatc. How great mull have been the talents of the author, bcfct with every obdrutVjon to genius, the manners of his country alone excepted j a cold unhofpitablc climate ; the face of the country fo deformed as fcarcc to afford a pleafing objed ; and he himfelf abfolutely illiterate ! One may venture boldly to aifirm, that fuch a poem as Fingal or Tcmora never was compofcd in any other part of the world, under fuch difadvantageous circumdances. Though permanent manners enter not regularly into the prefent Ocetch, 1 am however tempted to add a few words concerning theinflu ,ccof thcfoil ujjon the manners of men. The ftupidity of the inhabi- tants of New Holland, mentioned above, is occa- fioned by the barrcnnefs of their foil, yielding nothing that can be food for man or bead. Day and night they watch the ebb of the tide, in order to dig fmall filh out of the fand ; and fleep in the intervals, with- out an hour to fpare for any other occupation. Peo- ple in that condition, mud for ever remain ignorant and brutifli. Were all the earth barren like New- Holland, all men would be i^jjnorant and brutifh, like the inhabitants of New Holland. On the other hand, were every portion of this earth fo fertile as fpontaneoufly to feed all its inhabitants, which is the golden age figured by poets, what would follow ? Upon the former fuppofition, man would be a meagre, patient, and timid animal : upon the latter fuppofition, he would be pampered, lazy, and effe- minate. In both cafes, he would be ftupidly igno- rant, and incapable of any manly exertion, whether of mind or body. But the foil of our earth is in ge- neral more wifely accommodated to man, its chief inhabitant. It is neither fo fertile as to fuperfcde labour. Hi I ^ ''; ! ff 11 ; i '! i ! , . 1 n;, • I nil a84 MfiN independent of Society. B. 1, labour, nor fo barren as to require the utniofl: la- bour. The laborious occupation of hunting for food, produced originally fonie degree of induftry : and though all the induftry of man was at firft neceffary for procuring food, cloathing, and ha- bitation J yet the foil, by (kill in agriculture, came to produce pjcnty with lefs labour ; which to fpnie afforded time for thinking of convenien- cics. A habit of induftry thus acquired, excited many to beftovv their leifure hours upon the arts, proceeding from ufeful arts to fine arts, and froRi thefe to fciences. Wealth, ac<;umulated by in- duftry, has a wonderful influence upon manners : feuds and war, the offspring of wealth, call forth into action friendlhip, courage, heroifm, and every focial virtue, as well as many felfiffi vices. How like brutes do we pafs our time, without once re- ffecling on the wifdom of providence vifible even in the foil we tread upon 1 Diverfity of manners, at the fame time, enters into the plan of Providence, as well as diverfity of talents, of feelings, and of opinion?. Our Maker hath given us a tafte for variety j and he hath pro- vided objects in plenty for its gratification. Some foils, naturally fertile, require little labour: fome foils, naturally barren, require much labour. But the advantages of the latter are more than fuiHcient to counterbalance its barrennefs : the inhabitants arc fober, induftrious, vigorous ; and confequently cou- rageous, as far as courage depends on bodily ftrcngth*. The difadvantages of a fertile foil, on the contrary, are more than fufficient to counter- balance • That a barren country is a great finirto induftry, appears from Venice and Genoa in Italy, Kurembergjn Germany, and Limojes in France. The fterilicy o£ Holland lequired all the indullry ot its inhabitants for procuring the neceflVtries, of life ; and by that means chiefly thsy became remarkably induftrious. Cambdcn afcribes the fucccfs of the town of Halifax in tha. cloth nianufa^urc, to its barren foil. A feft of pampered F,ngli(hnn?n, it -U to be hoped rot many in number, who centre oil their devotion in a lu^tu- riiiui board, defplfc Scotland for its plain f^re ; and in bit'.-T contymcly, cJu- raftcrize it as a poor country, 5. 1. Ja. for fry: Ifirfl ha- ire, pich jien- fited irts, I'OBl in- Sk. V. Manners, balance its advantages : the inliabitaiits arc render- ed indolent, weak, and cowardly. Hindoftan niay feem to be an exception ; for though it be ex- tremely fertile, the people are induftrious, and ex- port manufaftures in great abundance at a ver}'- low price. But Hindoftan properly is not an exception. The Hindows, who are prohibited by their religion to kill any living creature, muft abandon to animals for food a large proportion of land ; which obliges them to cultivate what remains with double industry, in order to procure food for themfelves. The popu- loufnefs of their country contributes alfo to make them induftrious. Aragon Was once the mod limited monarchy in Europe, England not excepted : the barrennefs of the foil was the caufe, which render- ed the people hardy and courageous. In a pream- ble to one of their laws, the ftates declare, that were they not more free than other nations, the barren- nefs of their country would tempt them to abandon it. Oppofed to Aragon ftands Egypt, the fertility of which renders the inhabitants foft and effeminate, and confequently an eafy prey to every invader *. The fruitfulnefs of the province of Quito in Peru, and the low price of every neceffary, occafioned by its diftance from the fea, have plunged the inhabi- tants into fupine indolence, and exceflive luxury. The people of the town of Quito in particular, have abandoned themfelves to every fort of debauchery : the time they have to fpare from wine and women, IS ♦ Fear imprefled by ftran^e and unforefeen accidents, is the moft potent caufe of fuperftltion. No otlier country is Icfs li:ible to Itrange and unfore> fecn accidents than Egypt : no thunder, fcarce any rain, pcrfeift regularity in the feafons, and in the rife and fall of tlic river. So little notion had ths Fpyptians of variable weather, as to be furpiifed that the rivers in Greece < ul not overflow like the Nile. They could not comprehend how their fields were watered: rain, they laid, was very irregular; and what if Jupiter (hould take a conceit to fend them no rain ? What then made the antient Egyptians fo fuperftitious ? The fertility of the foil, and the inaftion of the inhabitants during the inundation of the river, enervated both mind and bo* ^y, and lemlci'jd them timid and pufillanimou^. Superftition was theoff- 1; ring of this chararter in Erypt, as it is of Arange and unforafecn accidents i:i',;:hcr ccuntfiri. " '" ^' • 5!i|f WA '"4; > i i%6 Men independent of Society. B. I. is employed in cxceflive gaming. In other refpeds alfo the manners of a people are influenced by the country they inhabit. A great part of Calabria, formerly populous and fertile, is at prefent covered with trees and ihrubs, like the wilds of America ; and the ferocity of its inhabitants qorrefponds to the rudenefs of the fields. The fame is vifible in the inhabitants of Mount Etna in Sicily: the country and itj inhabitants arc equally rugged. • •\ -• t f > ' $ SKETCHES '••,jqo!'"j t. 'J- ' : ■,.•■'• i ■ . .1- ' ■■ .- , -■■■ ■■ ^^ — ■ ■ ■ : .-.■ U;: h;?jf.-V-,/'> n-iiW r if-jn! 'f'^^ -:'•'■' ' ' * f . . .; » • ,• 1 11 ■; .> . uf-y^' -bc:', :''-'■'<'•! ,-:;f\;ri" '>•<". «''yi"; r-). vi ;»■;•, 1!i•J0^(. ■\ ■ j. ',\'.vf-i\' I * " §:*£ E T c H E s ;y; •'lO'fi, •';■*' i ^'^ ;•■: .. >\.A ^ult i.ju G F T H £.•. M.-.,.,;,,. .,. f . r.: /'^r . 1:^^ HISTORY OF MAN. BOOK I. Progress of Men independent of Society. SKETCH VL Progrefs of the Female Sex, T, HE progrefs of the female fcx, a capital branch of the hiftory of man, comprehends great variety of matter, curious and interefting. But (ketches are my province, not complete hiftories ; and I propofc in the prefent Iketch to trace the gradual progrefs of women, from their low ftate in favage tribes, to their elevated ftate in civilized nation. With regard to the outlines, whether of internal difpofition or of external figure, men and women arc I in 'Mr '■'.tViv mM 288 Men independent of Society. B. I. are the fame. Nature, however, intending them for mates, has given them difpofitions different but concordant, fo as to produce together delicious har- mony. The man, more robuft, is fitted for feverc labour and for field-exercifes : the woman, more delicate, is fitted for fedentary occupations ; and particularly for nurfing children. That difference is remarkable in the mind, no lefs than in the body. A boy is always running about ; delights in a top or a ball, and rides upon a fi:ick as a horfe. A girl has lefs inclination to move : her firft amufement is a baby ; which Ihe delights to drefs and undrefs. I have feen oftener than once a female child under fix getting an infant in its arms, careffing it, finging, and walking about ftaggering under the weight. A boy never thinks of fuch a paflime. The man, bold and vigorous, is qualified for being a protedor : the woman, delicate and timid, requires protedli- on *. The man, as a protestor, is direded by nature to govern ; the v/oman, confcious of inferiority, is difpcr#3 to obey. Their intellectual powers corref- pond to the dcftination of nature : men have pene- tration and folid judgement to fit them for govern- ing : women have fufficient underftanding to make a decent figure under good government ; a greater proportion would excite dangerous rivalfliip. Wo- men have more imagination and more fenfibility than men ; and yet none of them have made an eminent figure in any of the fine arts. We hear of no fculptor nor fi:atuary among them ; and none of them have rifen above a mediocrity in poetry or painting. Nature has avoided rivalfliip between the fcxes, by giving them different talents. Add another capital difference of difpofition : the gentle and infmuating manners of the female fcx, tend to foften the roughnefs of the other fex ; and whcre- . . • ' • . ■ ever » Frc~v which it appears to proceed, that women naturally are more care- itl of :.'f".r reputatlcn fan .r^en, arrf more hurt by obloquy. Sk. VI. Fejnale Sex* 189 ever women are indulged with any freedom, they polilh fooner than men *. Thefe are not the only particulars that diftinguifli the fexes. With refpcd to matrimony, it is the privilege of the male, as fuperior and proteftor to make a choice : the female preferred has no privi- lege but barely to confent or to refufe. Nature fits them for thefe different parts : the male is bold, the female bafhful. Hence among all nations it is the pra£tice for men to court and for women to be courted : which holds alfo among many other ani- mals, probably among all that pair. Another didinftion is equally vifiblc : The maf- ter of a family is immediately conneded with his country : his wife, his children, his fervants, are im- mediately connefted with him, and with their coun- try through him only. Women accordingly have lefs patriotifm than men ■, and lefs bitternefs againfl the enemies of their country. The peculiar modefty of the female fex, is alfo a diftinguilhing circumflance. Nature hath provided them with it as a defence againft the artful folicitati- ons of the other fex before marriage, and alfo as a fupport of conjugal fidelity. A fundamental article in the prefent (ketch is ma- trimony ; and it has been much controverted, whe- ther it be an appointment of nature, or only of mu- nicipal law. ' Many writers have excrcifed their ta- lents in that controverfy, but without giving fatisfac- tion to a judicious enquirer. If 1 miftake not, it may be determined upon folid principles ; and as it is of importance in the hiftory of man, the reader, I am Vol. L .. ,',..U...... /. hopeful, • The chief quality of women, i^iys RoufTeau, Is fweetnefs of temper. Made by nature for fubmiflion in the mairieil rtate, they ought to learn to fuffer wrong even without complainin!^. Souriicfs and ftuhbornnefs fcrve but to increafe the hulband's unkindnef s and their own diftrelles. It was not to indulge bad humour, that heaven beitowed on them mannert infmuating and perfuafive : they were not^madeweak in order to be imperious : a fwcet voice fuiti ill with fcolding; delicate fcature!> oue;ht not to be disfigured with palFion. They frequently may liave reafon for complaints i but never to utter them publicly. U i n r ''iW i' ;l - I I', i 190 Men independent of Society. B. I. hopeful, vf'xW not be difgufted at the length of the argument. . Many writers hold that women were originally com- mon ; that animal love was gratified as among horfes and horned cattle ; and that matrimony was not known, till nations grew in fome degree to be order- ly and refined, 1 feled Cicero as an authority : *' Nam fuit quoddam tempus, cum in agris homi- " nes pafiim, beftiarum more, vagabantur, et fibi " viftu ferino vitam propagabant : ncc ratione ani- ** mi quicquam fed pleraque viribus corporis admi- " niftrabant. Nondum divinse religionis non human! " officii ratio coUebatur. Nemo legitimas viderat *' nuptias, non certos quifquam infpexerat liberos * *^ («).*' Pliny, in fupport of that doftrine, informs us, that the Garamantes, an African nation, male and female lived promifcuoufly together, without any notion of matrimony. Among the Aufes, a people of Libya, as Hercdotus fays, matrimony was not known, and men cohabited with women indif- ferently, like other animals. A boy educated by his mother, was at a certain age admitted to an affem- bly of men, and the man he clung to was reputed his father. Juflin and other authors report, that before Cccrops, who reigned in Attica about 1600 years before Chrift, marriage was not known in Greece ; and that the burden of children lay upon the mother. Before entering diredly into the matter, it is pro- per to remove, if poflible, the bias of thefe great names. The praftice of the Garamantes and of the Aufes is mentioned by Pliny and Herodotus as fin- gular ; and were it even well vouched, it would avail very little againft the pradice of all other natibns. Little weight can be laid npon Pliny's evidence in particular, • *• For there wns a time, when men, like the bnites, roamed abroad '* over the earth, and fed like wild hearts upon other animals. Then reafon " bore no fway, but all was ruled by fuperior ftrength. The ties of religion, " and the obligations of morality, were then unfelt. Lawful marriage was " unknown, and no father was certain of his offspring," (/i) De Ijivcntione, lib, i. Sk. VI. Female Sen, agt particular, confidering what he reports In the fame chapter of the Blemmyans, that they had no head^ and that the mouth and eyes were in the breaft. Pliny at the fame time, as well as Herodotus, being very deficient in natural knowledge, were grofsly credulous ; and cannot be relied on with refped to any thing ftrangc or uncommon. As to what is re- ported of ancient Greece, Cecrops poflibly prohi- bited polygamy, or introduced fome other matri- monial regulation, which by writers might be mif- taken for a law appointing matrimony. However that be, one part of the report is undoubtedly er- roneous ; for it will be made evident afterward, that in the hunter-ftate, or even in that of Ihepherds, it is impracticable for any woman, by her own induftry alone, to rear a numerous ifl'ue. If this be at all poflible, it can only be in the torrid zone, where people live on the fruits and roots, which are pro- duced in plenty with very little labour. Upon that account, Diodorus Siculus is lefs blameable for liftening to a report, that the inhabitants of Tapro- bana, fuppofed to be the ifland of Ceylon, never marry, but that v/omen are ufed promifcuoufly. At the fame time, as there is no fuch cuftom at prefent in the Eaft-Indics, there is no good ground to be- lieve, that it ever was cuftomary ; and the Eaft-In- dies were fo little known to the ancient Greeks^ that their authors cannot be much relied on, in the accounts they give of that diftant region. The au- thority of Cicero, however rcfpcftable in other matters, will not be much regarded upon the pre- fent queftion, when the paflage above quoted is dif- feCled. How crude mufl his notions be of the pri- mitive ftate of man, when he denies to favages any fenfe religion or of moral duty I Ought we to rely more on him, when he denies that they have any notion of matrimony ? Cscfar's account of the ancient Briton's approaches the n^^reft to a loofe commerce with women, though in the main it is good evidence U i againft iii I IfiM ir 1 it m' 111 if \ 292 Men inilcpendent of Society. B. 1. againfl Cicero. It was common, he fays, for a num- ber of brothers or the other near relations, to ufc tlieir wives promifcuouily. The offspring however were ilot common ; for each man maintained the cliildren tliat Were produced by his own wife. He- rodotus reports the fame of the Maffagetac. Laying thus afidci the great names of Cicero, He- rodotus, and Phny, the field lies open to a fair and impartial invcftigation. And as the means provided by nature for continuing the race of other animals, (nay probably throw light upon the oeconomy of na- ture with relped to man ; I begin with that article which has not engaged the attention of naturalifts fo much as it ought to have done. With refpedt to animals whole nouriHiment is grafs, pairing would be of no ufe 1 the female feeds herfelf and her young at the fame inftant ; and nothing is left for the male to do. On the other btmd, all brute animals whofe young require the nurfmg care of both parents, are dircded by nature to pair ; nor is that connexion dif- folved till the young can provide for themfelves. Pairing is indifpenfable to wild birds that build on trees ; becaufe the male mult provide food for his mate while flie is hatching the eggs. And as they have commonly a numerous iffue, it requires the la- bour of both to pick up food for themfelves and for their young. Upon that account, it is fo ordered, that the yOung are fufficiently vigorous to provide for themfelves, before anew brood is produced. What I have now opened fuggelts the following queilion, Whether, according to the ceconomy above difplayed, are we to prefume, or not, that inan is diredcd by nature, to harmony ? Tf analogy Can be relied on, the affirmative mud be held, as there is no other creature in the known world to which [)airiu;.'_ is fo neceflluy. Man is an animal of iong life, aiul is proportionally How in growing to ni.'iturity: he is a hclplefs being before the ngc of {it'iecn or fixiecnj and there may be in a fauiily ten i- or 1. Sk. VI. Female Sex* »93 or twelve children of different births, before the eldeft can ihift for itfelf. Now, in the original ftatc of hunting and hlhing, which are laborious occupa- tions and not always fuccefsful, a woman, fuckling her infant, is not able to provide even for herfclf, far lefs for ten or twelve voracious children. Matrimony therefore, or pairing, is fo neceffary to the human race, that it muft be natural and inftin^ive. When fuch ample means are provided for continuing every other animal race, is it fuppofable that the chief race is negledled? Providential care dcfcends even to ve- getable life : every plant bears a profufion of feed ; and in order to cover the earth with vegetables, fome feeds have wings, fome arc fcattered by means of a fpring, and fome arc fo light as to be carri- ed about by the wind. Brute animals which do jiot pair, have grafs and other food in plenty, enabling the female to feed her young without needing any affiftancc from the male. But where the young require the nurfing care of both pa- rents, pairing is a law of nature. When other races are fo amply provided for, can it be feriouf- ly thought, that Providence is lefs attentive to the human race ? If men and women were not im- pelled by nature to matrimony, they would be lefs fitted for continuing the fpccies, than even the humblell plant. Have we not then reafon fairly to conclude, that matrimony in the human race is an appointment of nature ? Can that conclufion be re- filled by any one who believes in Providence, and in final caufes *. To confirm this dodrine, let the confequences of a loofe commerce between the fexcs be examined. . . , , ;, The * It appears a wife appolntniept of Providence, tliat women give over child-bearing at fifty, while they are Aill in vigour of mind and body to take care of their offspring. Did the power of procreation continue in wo- men to old age as in men, ciiildren would often be Uit in the wide world without a mortal to look after tliem. h %\ .,/i 494 Men independent ot Society. B. I* The carnal appetite, vfhcn confined to one objeft, feldoin tranlgrcffts the bounds of temperance. But itcrc it encouraged to roam, like a bee fucking ho, ncy froni every flower, every new objed would in- flame the imagination ; and fatiety with rcfpeft to one, would give new vigour with rtlpedl to others: a generic habit would be formed of intem- temperance in fruition (a) ; and animal love would become the ruling paflion. Men, like the hart in rutting-time, would all the year round fly with im- pctuolity from objed to objcft, giving no quarter to women even fuckling their infants: and women, a- bandoning thepifclvcs to the fame appetite, would become altogether regardlefs of their offspring. In that ftate, the continuance of the human race would be a miracle. In the favage ftate, as mentioned above, it is beyond the jower of any woman to provide food for a family of children ; and now it appears, that intemperance in animal love would render a woman carelefs of her family, however eafy it might be to provide for it*. I fay more. The promifcuous ufe of women would unqualify them in a great meafure to pro- create. The carnal appetite in man refembles his appetite for food : each of them demands grati- fication, after fhort intervals. Where the carnal appetite is felt but a (hort fpace annually, as among animals who feed on grafs, the promif- 5 cuous {a) F.lements of Criticifm, chap. 15. ♦ I have often been tempted to blame Providence for bri nglnj; to per- (u ' i » u ifii g Sk. VI. Female Sex* 295 cuous ufc of females is according to the order of nature : but fuch a law in man, where the carnal appetite is always awake, would be an effectual bar to procreation; it being an undoubted truth, that women who indulge that appetite to exccfs, fel- dom have children ; and if all women were com- mon, all women would in effe^ be common pro- (litutes. If undifguifed nature (how itfelf any where, it is in children. So truly is matrimony an appoint- ment of nature, as to be underftood even by chil- dren. They often hear, it is true, people talk- ing of matrimony ; but they alfo hear of logical, metaphyfical, and commercial matters, without un- derftanding a fyllable. Whence then their no- tion of marriage but from nature ? Marriage is a compound idea, which no inflrudion could bring within the comprehenfion of a child, did not na- ture co-operate. That the arguments urged above againft a pro- mifcuous ufe of women, do not neceffarily con- clude againft polygamy, or the union of one man with a plurality of women, will not efcape an attentive reader. St. Auguflin and other fa- thers admit, that polygamy is not prohibited by the law of nature ; and the learned Grotius pro- feifes the fame opinion (a). But great names ter- rify mc not ; and I venture to maintain, that pair- ing in the ftri£left fenfe is a law of nature among men as among wild birds ; and that polygamy is a grofs infringement of that law. My reafons follow. I urge, in the firft place, the equal number of males and females, as a clear indication that Providence intends every man to be confined to one wife, and every woman to one hufband. That equality, which has fubfiiled in all countries and at {a) De juro bell! ac pads, lib. a. cap. 5, §. 9. riHr ':X'\^\ :fi y. H 296 Men independent of Society. B. I. w/j 'i I at all times, is a fignal inftance of over-ruling Pro- vidence ; for the chances againft it are infinite. All men are by nature equal in rank : no man is privileged above another to have a wife ; and thcrc- lorc polygamy is contradiftory to the plan of Providence. Were ten women born for one man, as is erroneoufly reported to be the cafe in Bantam, polygamy might be the intention of Providence j but from the equality of males and females it is clearly the voice of nature, as well as of fli' ' 1. rf ( fcripture, " That a man (hall leave hi'; lather anil ** mother, and cleave to his wife j .md :hty fhall « be one flefh.'V. Confider, in the next place, thai however nlau- fible polygamy may appear in the prefent Itatc of things, where inequality of rank and of fortune have produced^ luxury and fenfuality ; yet that the Taws of nature were not contrived by our Maker for a forced ftate, where numberlefs individuals arc degraded below their natural rank, for the benefit of a f<^w who are elevated above it. To form a juft notion of polygamy, we muft look back to the bri- ;^inal llate of man, where all are equal. In that flatc, every man cannot have two wives ; and con- fequently no man is intitlcd to more than one, till every other be upon an equal footing with him. At the fame time, the union of one man with one woman is much better calculated for con- tinuing the race, than the union of one man with many women. Tliirk rf a favage wlio may have fifty or fixty children bv 'JivFc^-ent v'*""% al! uepend- ing for food upon i- .iUi .iry : chance mull turn out indeed in his favour^ iP the half of them perifli not by hunger. How much a better chance for life have mfants who are diftributed more equally in dif- ferent families ? Polygamy has an effecl ftill more pernicious, with rcrpeft to children even of the mod opulent iamilies. Unlcfs aft'cQion be reciprocal and equal, ■ ' there Bg3Jg!3B3E?age 1. 1. *ro- lite. is :re- of |an, I in.! )all Sic. VI. Female Sex. 297 thpre can be no proper focicty in the niatrimoniil Hate, no cordiality, nor due care of offspring. But fuch afttdt )n is inconfiltcnt with polygamy: a woman in that ftatc, far from being a oompanion "' . to her hulband, is degraded to the rank of a fervant, a mere inllrumcnt of ple;ifure and propa- gation. Among many wives there will aluays he a favourhc : the rell turn peevilh j and if t v rcfcnt not the injury againfl: their hufband, . d againft their children as belonging to hirr;. ilu / will at lead be difheartened, and turnnegligrnt of them. At the fame time, fondnefs for the fa ou^ rite wife and her children, makes the holband n- diffcrcnt about the reft; and woeful is t' c coi Ti- tion of children who arr neglected by noth pa- rents (a). To produce fuch an cffcdt, is certainly not the purpofe of nature. It merits peculiar attention, that Providence h; provided for an agreeable inion, among all crea- tures who are taught by n.ture to pair. Aniir»al love among creatures who pair not, is confined within a narrow fpace of time : while the dam is occupied about her young, animal love Les dor- ••mant, that Ihe may not be abftrafted from her "duty. In pairing animals, on the contrary, ani- mal love is always awake : frequent enjoyment en- dears a pair to each other, and makes conftancy a pleafure. Such is the cafe or the human race ; and fuch is the cafe of wild jirds (b). Among the wild birds that build on trees, the male, after feeding his mate, in the neft, plants himfelf upon the next ipray, and chears her vith a fong*. There is ftill greater enjoyment provided for the hanian race in the matrimonial ftatc, and ftronger incite - ments .if i (a) L'efprit des loix. Hv. 16. chap, 6, (b) 'Buffon, liv. 5, p. 359. odlavo edition. * A male canary bird, Tinging to bis mate on her ne(l in a breeding cage, fell down dead. The female alarmed left her ncA and pecked at him : find- ing him immoveable, (he refufed nouriHiment and died at his fide. i' M i I i^. I 293 Men independent of Society. B. 1. mcnts to conftancy. Sweet is the fotety of a pair fitted for each other, in whom arc colleded the aft'edlions of hufband, wife, lover, friend, the ten- dered affc£lions of human nature. Public govern^ ment is in perfedion, when the fovcreign com- mands with humanity, and the fubjeds are cordial m their obedience. Private government in conju- gal focicty arrives at ftill greater perfe£lion, where hulfband and wife govern and are governed reci- proc^ly, with entire fatisfadlion to both. The man bears rule over his wife's perfon and conduft ; {he bears rule over his inclinations : he governs by law j ihe by perfuafion. Nor can her authority ever fail, where it is fupported by fweetnels of temper, and zeal to make him happy *. The God of nature has enforced conjugal fo- ciety, not only by making it agreeable, but by the principle of chaftity inherent in our nature. To animals that have no inflind for pairing, chafi. tity * L^emplre de la femme eft un empire de douceur, d'addrefle, et de com- plaifance 3 fes ordres font des carefres, fes menaces font des pleurs. £lle dolt regner dans la maifon comme un m'niAre dans I'etat, en fe faifant commander ce qu'elle veut faire. £n ce (ens il eft conftant que les meilleurs menaget font ceux ou la femme a le plus d'autorite. Ma!s quand elle meconnoit la vojx du chef, qu'elle veut ufurperfes droits et commander elle-meme j il ne refulte jamais de ce defordre, que mifere, fcandale, et deftionneur. Bcuffeau F.milc, li-u, 5, />. 96.— [/« Efglijh thus: " Tiie empire of the woman is an " empire of foftncfs, of addrefs, of complacency j her commands are carefles, " her menaces are tears. She ouG;ht to reign in the family like a minifter •• in the ftate, by making that which is her inclination be enjoined to her " as her duty. Thus it is evident, that the beft domeftic teconomy is that " where the wife has moft authority. But when (he is infenfible to tlie voice " of her chief, when (he tries toufurp his prerogative, and to command alone, " what can rcfult from fuch diforder, but mifery, fcandal, and di(honour ?"] ——The Emprcfs Livia being que(iioned by a married lady, how (he had obtained fuch afctndant over her hu(band i;y. '!'lt 302 Men independent of Society. B. I. . y '■■' A,] I, !■ once univerfal j and next, from voluptuoufnefs in warm climates, which inftigates men of wealth to tranfgrcfs every rule of temperance. Thefe two fources I purpofe to handle with care, becaufe they make a large branch in the hiftory of the female fea. With refpcft to the firft, fweetnefs of temper, a capital article in the female charafter, difplays itfclf externally by mild looks and gentle manners. But filch graces are fcarce difcernible in a female favage ; and even in the moft polilhed women, would not be perceived by a male favage. Among favages, itrength and boldnefs are the only valued qualities : in thefe females are miferably deficient j and for that reafon, are contemned by the males, as beings of an inferior order. The North American tribes glory in idlenefs: the drudgery of labour degrades a man in their opinion, and is proper for women only. To join young perfons in marriage is accordingly the bui» linefs of parents; and it would be unpardonable meannefs in the bridegroom, to ihew any fondnefs for the bride. Young men among the Hottentots, are admitted into fociety with their feniors at the age of eighteen ; after which it is difgraceful to keep company with women. In Guiana, a woman never eats with her hufband ; but after every meal attends him with water for wafliing. In the Ca- ribbee iflands, llie is not permitted to eat even in the prefence of her hulband ; and yet we are affured (a)^ that women there obev with fuch fweetnefs and re- fpeft, as never to give their hufbands occafion to re- minds them of their duty ; " an example," adds our fage author, " worthy the imitation of Chriflian wives, who are daily inftruQed from the pulpit in the duties of obedience and conjugal fidehty> hut io icj-y little piu'pofe.'' Dampicr obfcrves in general, that among all the wild nations he was ac- quainted with, the women carry the burdens, while the men walk bclbre, and carry nothing but their arm*;. {a) Labjt's vcyaije; to the American Iflar.ds. (C <( cc ai b IV.4 ■rsjafssasjaHK^sssBir!!?! Sk. VI. Female Sex* in arms. Women even of the higheft rank are not better treated. The fovereign of Giaga, in Afri- ca, has many wives, who are literally his flaves: one carries his bow, one his arrows, and one gives him drink; and while he is drinking, they all fall on their knees clap their hands, and fing. Not many centuries ago, a law was made in England, prohi- biting the New Teftament in Englifli to be read by women, 'prentices, journeymen, or ferving men (a). What a pitiful figure muft the poor females have made in that age ! In Siberia, and even in Ruflia, the capital excepted, men treat their wives in every rcfped as flaves. The regulations of Peter I. put marriage upon a more refpe£table footing among people of rank ; and yet fuch are the brutal man- ners of the Ruffians, that tyrannical treatment oF wives is far from being eradicated. . . The low condition of the female fcx among fava- ges and barbarians, paved the way to polygamy., Savages, excited by a talle for variety, and ftill more by pride which is gratified by many fervants, de- light in- a multiplicity of wives. The pairing prin- ciplCj though rooted in human nature, makes little figure among favages, yielding to every irregular ap- petite ; and this fairly accounts why polygamy was " once univcrfa!. It might indeed be thought that animal love, were there nothing elfe, fliould have raifed women to feme degree of eftimation among the men. But male favages, utter ftrangers to de- cency or refinement, gratify animal love with as little ceremony as they do hunger or third:. Hence appears the reafon of a pradice that will furprife thofe who are unacquainted with ancient cultoms ; which is, that a man purchafes a woman to be his wife, as one purchafes an ox or a fheep to be food. Women bv marriage became flaves ; and no man will give his daughter to be a flavc, but for a valuable confideration. The pradice was univer- fal. (a) 34th and 35th Henry VIII, cap. 1. ) l': '' I JiiiiS It ^r \ fir im r "la f . I-; 3<54 Men independent of Society. B. I. fal. I begin with the Jews. Abraham bought, Re- bekah, and gave her to his fon Ifaac for a wife (ay Jacob having nothing elfe to give, ferved Laban fourteen years for two wives (b), Scchem demand- ing in marriage Dinah, Jacob's daughter, faid, " Afk *' me never fo much dowry and gift, and 1 will give " according as ye fliall fay unto me : but give me the damfel to wife (c)." To David demanding Saul's daughter in marriage, Saul faid, " The king de- fireth not any dowry, but an hundred foreikins of the Philiftines (^j." In the Iliad, Agamemnon offers his daughter to Achilles for a wife ; and fays, that he would not demand for her any price. Paufanias reports of Danaus, that no fuitors appearing to de- mand any of his daughters, he publifhed, that he would give them without dowry. In Homer, there is frequent mention of nuptial gifts from a bride- groom to his bride's father. From terming them gifts, it is probable that the former method of pur- chafe was beginning to wear out. It wore out before the time of Ariftotle ; who infers, that their fore- fathers muft have been a very rude people. The ancient Spaniards purchafed their wives. We have the authority of Herodotus and of Heraclides Ponti- cus, that the Thracians followed the fame practice. The latter adds, that if a wife was ill treated, her re- lations could demand her back, upon repaying the price they got for her. In the Roman law men- tion is mTidt o( n\2itYimony per as et iibra?n, which was folemnized by laying down a quantity of brafs with a balance for weighing it, underftood to be the price paid for the bride. This muft have been once reality ; though it funk down to be a mere cere- mony, after it became cuftomary for a Roman bride to bring a dowry with her. The Babylonians and the AiTyrians, at dated times, colleded all the mar- riageable (.-jI Cfiicfis, xxiv. 53. (b) Gvorld over, "with liberty to return them if they proved not agreeable. The bride's parents retained the dowry, and her chance for a huH^and was as good as ever. The fame cuftom continues among barbarous nations. It continues among the Tartars, among the Mingrclians, among the Samoides, among the Oftiacs, among the people of Pegu, and of the Mo- lucca iflands. In Timor, an Eaft-Indian ifland, men fell even tlieir children to purchafe more wives. The Prince of Circaflia demanded from the Princa of Mingrelia, who was in fuit of his daughter, a hundred ilaves loaded with tapeftry and other houfe- hold furniture, a hundred cows, as many oxen, and as many horfes. We have evidence of the fame cuftom in Africa, particularly in Biledulge- rid, among the negroes on the fea-coaft, and in Monomotapa. Among the Carribbees there is one inflance where a man gets a wife without paying for her. After a fuccefsful war, the viftors are entertained at a feaft, where the General ha- rangues on the valour of the young men who made the beft ligure. Every man who has marriageable daughters, is fond to offer them to fuch young men without any price. The purchafing of wives is univerfal among the wild Arabs. When the bar- gain is concluded, the bridegroom is permitted to vifit the bride : if flie anfwer not his expedations, he may turn her off; but has no claim for the price he paid. In Arabia, fays Niebuhr, a young marri- ed woman fufpefted of not being a virgin, is fent back to her father, who muft reftore the price that was paid for her. The inland negroes are more polifhed than thofe on the coaft ; and there are fcarcc any remains among them of purchafmg wives : the bridegroom makes prefents to his bride, and her fa- ther makes prefents to him. Tliere are remaining traces in Ruflia of purchafing wives, 'Even fo late as I. as Sk. VI. Fcnwle Sex. ' • 307 as the time of Peter I. Ruflians married without feeing each otlier ; and bci : folemnization, the bride received from the bridegroom a prcfent of fvveetmeats, foap, and other little things. The purchafing of wives made it a lawful prafticc, to lend a wife as one does a flave. The Spartans lent their wives to their friends ; and Cato the elder is faid to have done the fame. The Indians of Cali- cut frequently exchange wives. If brutiih manners alone be fufficient to degrade the female fex, they may reckon upon harfli treat- ment when purchafcd to be flaves. The Giagas, a fierce and wandering nation in the central parts of Africa, being fupihely idle at home, fubjedt their wives and their Haves to every fort of drudgery, fuch as digging, fowing, reaping, cutting wood, grinding corn, fetching water, &c. Thefe poor creatures are fuftered to toil in the fields and woods, ready to faint with excefllve labour ; while the monfters of men, will not give themfelves the trou- ble even of training animals for work, though they have the example of the Portuguefe before their eyes. It is the bufinefs of the women among the wandering Arabo of Africa, to card, fpin, and weave, and to manage other houfehold affairs. They milk the cattle, grind, bake, brew, drefs the viduals, and bring home wood and water. They even take care of their hufband's horfcs, feed, cur- ry, comb, bridle, and faddle them, They would alfo be obliged, like Moorifli wives, to dig, fow, and reap thtir corn ; but luckily for them the A- rabs live entirely upon plunder. Father Jofeph Gu- milla, in his account of a coantry in South Ame- rica, bordering upon the great river Oroonoko, de- fcribes pathetically the miferable flavery of marri- ed women there ; and mentions a practice, that would appear incredible to one unacquainted with that country, which is, that inapried women fre- X 2 (juenly \ :'}. ,1 I" H • ^'Jl fH: i:^ i t : ill ■ I! I' 1:1 m iSl'' 111' m Mt , , ■! 'J ' km ll' 308 MtN iiulcpcndcnt of Socictj'. B. !♦ qucntly dcftroy their female ii)fants. A married woman, of a virtuous character and good under- fl-anding, having been guilty of that crime, was rcproacded by our author in bitter terms. She heard him patiently with eyes fixed on the ground ; ^nd anfwered as follows. " I wifli to God, Fa- " ther, I wilh to God, that my mother had by ** my death prevented the manifold diftrcflbs J " have endured, and have yet to endure as long as " I live. Had Ihe kindly ftifled me at birth, I had " not felt the pain of death, nor numberiefs other *' pains that life hath fubjefted to me. Confider, *' Father, our deplorable condition. Our hufbands go to hunt with their hows and arrows, and trouble themfelves no frinher. We are dragged along, with one infant ac the breaft, and ano- ther in a baiket. They return in the evening ^* without any burden : we return with the burden " of our children ; and, though tired with a long *' march, are not permitted to lleep, but muft la- " bour the whole night, in grinding maize to make " chica for them. They get drunk, and in their *' drunkennefs beat us, draw us by the hair of the " head, and tread us under foot. And what have ** we to comfort us for flavery that has no end ? *' A young wife is brought in upon us, who is ^« permitted to abufe us and our children, bccaufc " we are no longer regarded. Can human na- " ture endure fuch tyranny ! \Vlr4t kindnefs can wp Ihow to our female children equal to that of reUeving them from fuch oppreilion, mo.e bit- ter a thoufand times than dtath ? I fay again, ** would to God that my mother had put me under " ground the moment I was born." One would readily imagine, that the women of that country should have the greatefl abhorrence at matrimony : but all prevailing nature determines the contrary ; and the appetite for matrimony oveibatances every, rational confideration. Nations (( «c f. 305 ►he Nations polifli by degrees j and, from thv l^wefi ftate to which a human creature can be duccd, women were reftored to their native dip, At- tention to drcfs is the firll; lyniptom ol tin pro- grefs. Male favages, even of the grolled kind, arc fond of drcfs. Charlevoix mentions a young Ame- rican hired as a rower, who adjulled his drcls witli care before he entered the boat, and at in- tervals infpecled his looking-glafs, to fee whether violence of motion had not difcompofcd the red upon his cheeks. We read not of paffion for drefs in females of fuch favage nations : they arc too much difpiritcd to think of being agreeable. A- mong nations in any degree humanized, a diiferent fcene opens. In the ifthmus of Darien govern- ment has made fome progrefs, and a chieftain h clefted for life : a glimmering of civility appears among the inhabitants ; and as fome regard i« paid to women, they rival the men in drcfs. Both fexes wear rings in their ears and notes ; and are adorned with many rows of (hells hanging from the neck. A female in a fultry climate fubmits to fry all day long, under a load of twenty or thirty pounds of (liells ; and a male under double that load. Well may they exclaim with Alexander, " Oh Athenians ; what do I not " endure to gain your approbation ?" The fcmalci Caribbeans and Brafilians, are no lefs fond of or- nament than the males. Hottentot ladies drive to outdo each other in adorning their kroffes, and the bag that holds their pipe and tobacco : I'Ji- ropcan ladies are not more vain of their filks and embroideries. Women in L/apland arc much addidted to fmery. They wear broad girdles, upon which hang chains and rings without end, commonly made of tin, fomelimes of lilver, weigh- ing perhaps twenty pounds. The Greenlanders are nady and llovcnly, cat widi their dogs, make I tood ) i ■ t i' '\¥ liJ i i I-.- ; I '4 li ■I r I 'i MH I f;i 1 !:l : 1 ! 1 p '! ' ■ nil 3!0 ML^J indcpciuicnt ct Society. B. I, food of the vermin tlmt make food of them, fcl- doiii or never wafli tlicmrdvcs ; and yet the wo- men, who make fome figure among the men, are j;audy in their drefs. Iheir chief ornaments are pendants at their ears, with glafs beads of various eolourii ; and tliey draw lines with a needle and black thread between their eyes, crofs tlic lorehe.id, ui)on the chin, hand;, and leg.^. The negroes of the kingdom of Ardrah in eiuinea, liave made a confiderablc progrefs in police, and in the art of living. Iheir women carry drefs and fmery to an extravagance. They arc cloath- ed with loads of the fmelt fatins and chintzes, and are adorned with a jirofufion of gold. In a lultry climate, they gratify vanity at the expence of eafe. Among the inland negroes, who are more polilhcd tlian thofe on the fea-coall:, the women, befide domeitic concerns, fow, [)lant and reap. A man however fuffers in the elteem of his neighbours, if he permit his wives to toil like flaves, while he is indulging in cafe. From that aufpicious commencement, the female fex have rifen in a ilow but Heady progrefs, to higher and higher degrees of eltimation. Converfation is their talent, and a difplay of delicate fentiments : the gentlcnefs of their manners and winning behavi- our, captivate every fenlible heart. Of fuch rehne- nients, lavages have little conception : but when the more delicate fenfes are unfolded, the peculiar beau- ties of the female fex, internal as well as external, are brought into full light ; and women, formerly confidered as objc^t.soi animal love merelVj are now valued as faithful friends and agreeable conijranions. Pvlatrimony afVumes a more decent lorm, being the union, not of a mailer and Have, but of two perfons equal in rank uniting to form a family. And it con- tributes greatly to this delicious refinement, that in temperate climes animal love \i moderate, and wo- men r. Sk. VI. Female Sex. 3" men long retain good looks, and power of procrea- tion, 'riuis marriage became honourable ariionjj polifticd nations : which baniflied the barbarous cul- tom of purchafing wives ; for a man who wilhcs to have his daughter advantageoufly matched, will gladly give a dowry with her. Polygamy is intimately conneded with the cuftom of purchaling wives. There is no limitation in pur- chahng Haves : nor has a woman purchafed as a wife or a Have, any jufl: caufe for complaining that others are purchafed as (he was : on the contrary, addition of hands for performing the fervile offices of the fa- mily, is fome relief to her. Polygamy accordingly has always been permitted, where men pay for thei- wives. The Jews purchafed their wives, and w . indulged in polygamy (a). Diodorus Siculus fays, that polygamy was permitted in I'gypt, except to priefts (/;). This probably was the cafe originally j but when the Egyptian manners came to be polifhed, a man gave a dowry with his daughter, inftead of receiving a price for her ; witnefs Solomon, who got the city of Gazer in dowry with the King of Egypt's daughter. When that cuftom became uni- verfal, we may be certain that it put an end to poly- gamy. And accordingly Herodotus affirms, that polygamy was prohibited in Egypt (c). Polygamy undoubtedly prevailed in Greece and Rome, while it was cuftomary to purchafe wives ; but improved manners put an end to the latter, and confequently to the former. Polygamy to this day obtains in the cold country of Kamlkatka ; and in the ftill colder country round Hudfon's bay. In the land of Jeffi^, near Japan, a man may have two wives, who per- form every fort of domcftic drudgery. The negroes in general purchafe their wives, and indulge in po- lygamy: and this is alio law in Monomotapa. Poly- gamy and the purchafmg wives were cuftomary among ti 1 ,. ■I {41) Le\it!cu<;, xvUi. 18. (i) Lib. I. (t) Lib. 2. § 9: !B :i ■ 31* Men independent of Society. B. I. among the original inhabitants of the Canary iflands, and among the people of Chili. The low condition of women among barbarians introduced the purchafing of them for wives, and confequently polygamy* The juft refpeft paid to them among civilized nations, reftored the law of nature, and confined a man to one wife* Their eq^uality as to rank and dignity, bars the man from taking another wife, as it bars the woman from taking another hulband. We find traces in ancient hiltory of polygamy wearing out gradually. It wore out in Greece, as manners refined ; but fuch was the inidu^ cnce of long habit, that tho' a man was confined to one wife, he wacj indulged in concubines without limitation. In Germany, when Tacitus wrote, very few traces remained of polygamy, " Sevcraillicmatri- monia,nec uUam morum partem magis laudaveris i nam prope foli barbarorum fmgulis uxoribus con- tenti funt, exceptis admodumpaucis, qui non libi- *' dine, fed ob nobilitatem, plurimis nuptiis ambiun-^ tur*." As polygamy was in that country little pradifedj we may be certain the purchafing wives did not remain in vigour. Tacitus accordingly, mentioning the ge- neral rule, ** dotem non uxor marito, fed uxori ma*- " ritus oifert *," explains it away by obferving, that the only dos given by the bridegroom were marri- age-prefents, and tha,t he at the fame time received 'iiarriage-prefents on the bride's part (a). The equa- lity of the matrimonial engagement for the mutual- benefit of hufband ai\d wife, was well undcrltood among the Gauls. Casfar (b) fays, " Viri quantas *•* pecunias ab uxoribus dotis nomine acccperunt^ " tantas cc (C (( * " Marriage is tlicre rigidly refpeiflcd ; nor Is tliere any pa.t of tlieif " morality more laudable ! for tliey are almod tiie only race of barbarians " wlio are contented with a fini^lewile; a very few excepted, wlio, not from " incontlriency, but from an ambition of nobility, take more wives than " one." • " The hurtiand gives a dowry to the wife, but the vvifc brings none to " thehufljand." () Lib. 6. cap. If). iX- bcllo Gallito, - i*J, Sk. VI. Female Sex. 313 t his own cficd^i. An aci.-ount is kept of tliis joint rtock, '• .'inJ tiie tniits of it are prcftrvcd. Upon the death of uirher, the fiirviving " fpouff !iJ- '.hcpioptrty of both tlie (h..i(-,s, with the fiuiu or profits.'' . 3«4 Men Independent of Society. B. I, i'.^^ many other nations, is an invincible proof of their depreflion, even after the cuftom ceafed of purchaf- ing them. It is wifely ordered by Providence, that the aft'e£lion of a woman to her children commences with their birth ; becaufe during infancy all depends on her care. As during that period, the father is of little ufe to his child, his affection is but flight, till the child begin to prattle and fhew fome fondnefs for him. The expofing an infant therefore Ihows, that the mother was little regarded : if (lie had been al- lowed a vote, the pradice never would have obtained in any country. In the firft book of the Iliad, Achilles fays to Agamemnon, who threatened to force from him his miilrefs Brifeis, " Another thing I will tell thee : record it in thy foul. For a woman thefe hands fliall never fight, with thee nor with thy foes. Come, feize Brifeis : ye Argives, take the prize ye gave. But beware of other fpoil, which lies flowed in my fliips on the fhore. I will not be plundered farther. If other be thy thoughts, Atrides, come in arms, a trial make : thefe very flaves of thine fliall behold thy blood pouring around my fpear *." The comedies of Menander, Philemon, and Diphilus, are lofl; but manners mufl have been little poliflied in their time, as far as can be conjeftured from their tranflators or imitators, Plautus and Terence. Married women in their comedies are fometimes introduced, and treated with li a 6i ti cc (C cc cc a u << CI « * • Pope cilfguires that fentlment as follows. Seize on Biifeis, wliom tlie Grecians doom'd My prize of war, yet tamely fee refum'd ; ' Anc! feize fecure ; ro more Achilles draws • His conqu'ring fword in any woman's caufe. Tlie gods command iiic to forgive the part; " But let this firft invafion be the laft : '■' For know, thy blood, when next thou dar*ft invade, *' Shall rticnm in vengeance on my reeling blade." Such contempt of tlic female fcx as exprelled by Achilles was perhaps thought too giofi for a modern car. But did not Pcpe difcover, that one capital beauty in Homer, is the delineation of ancient manners i* At that rate, had it fallen to his fliareto dcfcribe Julius Cfefar, he would have drelfed him like a modern beau. And why not ? for in a genttel airemhly, wliat a favagc Would he appear, without breeches, and without linen ! ...la B. I. J their (chaf- that •nces |»ends is of ,, till \s for that aJ- [ined lilies Sk. VI. Fejiiale Sex* 315 with very little refpect. A man commonly vents his wrath on his wife ; and fcolds her as the caufe of the mifconduft of their children. A lady, perhaps too inquifitive about her hufband's amours, is addrcfied by him in the following words. " Ni mala, ni ftulta, fis, ni indomita impofque a- cc mini. (( Quod viro efle odio videas, tute tibi odio habeas. " Prseter hiic fi mihi tale poll hunc diem *' Faxis, faxo foris vidua vilas patrem *." So little formerly were women regarded in Eng- land, that the benefit of clergy was noi extend- ed to them, till the days of William and Mary, when an a£t of parhament was made beftowing that privilege on them. One will not be furprized, that women in Greece were treated with no great refped by their hufbands. A woman cannot have much attraftion who paiTes all her time in folitude : to be admired, {he mufl: receive the polifli of focie- ty. At the fame time, men of fafliion were fo much improved in manners, as to relifti fociety with agreeable women, where fuch could be found. And hence the figure that courtezans riiade at that period, cfpecially in Athens. They ftudied the temper and tafte of the men, and endeavoured to gain their aft'eclion, by every win- ning art. The daily converfations they liftcned to on philofophy, politics, poetry, enlightened their underftanding and improved their tafte. Their houfes " Would you be iitld a wife and virtuous fpcufe, " An tof difcrcrion due, obfervethiscounfd: " Wlutcver I, your lord, blame or approve, '' Still let your praift orcenfure be the fame. " But hearkce, be this reprimand the laft : " Jf you again offend, no more a wife " Within thefc walls; — your father has you back." ■. '^i ,!' t ■m !•, i :1 i. 1 k i \ » ' 5 1 ff '. )' i ,1 ' m i'M ^M 3i6 Men independent of Society. B. I. houfes became agreeable fchools, where every one might be inftrufted in his own art. Socrates and P.?ricles met frequently at the houfe of Afpa- fia ; from her they acquired delicacy of tafte, and in return procured to her public refped and re- putation. Greece at that time was governed by orators, over whom fome celebrated courtezans had great influence : and by that means entered deep into the government. It was faid of the fa-, mous Demofthenes, " The meafure he hath medi- " tated on for a year, will be overturned in a day by *' a woman." It appears accordingly from Plautus and Terence, that Athenian courtezans lived in great fplendor. See in particular Heautontimorpumenos, aft 3. fcene2. I proceed to the other caufe of polygamy, viz. opulence in a hot climate. Men there have a burn- ing appetite for animal enjoyment j and women become old and lofe the prolific quality, at an age which carries them little beyond the prime of life in a temperate climate. Thefe circumftances dif- pofe men of opulence to purchafe their wives, that they may not be confined to one ; and purchafe they muft, for no man without a valuable con- fideratiottj will furrender his daughter, to be one of many who are deftined to gratify the carnal appe--! titc of a fingie man. The numerous wives and concubines in Afiatic harems, are all of them pur- chafed with money. In the hot climate of Hin- doltan, polygamy is univerfal, and men buy their wives. The fame obtains in China : after the price is adjufted and paid, the bride is conduct- ed to the bridegroom's houfe, locked in a fedan, and the key delivered to him: if he be not fatisfied with his bargain, he fends her back at the ex- pcnce of lofing the fum he paid for her : if fatisfi- ed, he feafts his male friends in one room, and fhe hrr female friends in another. A man who has little B. I. Sk. VL Female Sex. 317 re- Id by izans tered fa. ^icdi- lyby lutus VIZ. little fubftance, takes a wife for his fon from a hof- pital, which faves him a dowry. -■: ; ..i u'mi\ It has been pleaded for polygamy in warm cli- mates, that women are fit for being married at or before the age of ten ; that they arc paft child-bearing at twenty-five, while men are yet in the prime of life ; and therefore that a fecond wife ought to be permitted who can bear children. Are women then created for no other purpofe but procreation merely, to be laid afide as ufelcfs animals when they ceafe to bear children ? In the hotteft climates, a woman may be the mother of ten or twelve children ; and arc not both parents ufefuUy employed, in rearing fuch a number and fitting them to do for themfelves ? After this impor- tant tafk is performed, is not the woman well in- titled, for the remainder of life, to enjoy the con- jugal fociety of a man, to whom fhe dedicated the flower of her youth ? But even attending to the male fex only without paying any regard to the other fex, it ought to be confidered, that a man, by taking a fecond wife, prevents fome other man from having any. The argument for poly- gamy would indeed be conclufive, were ten females born for one male, as is faid to be the cafe in Bantam : but as an equality of males and females is the invariable rule of nature, the argument has no force. All men are born equal by nature ; and to permit polygamy in any degree, is to authorife fome to ufurp the privilege of others. Thus in hot climates women remain in the fame humble and dependent ftate, in which all women were origirially, when all men were lavages. Wo- men by the law of Hindoftan are not admitted to be witnefles, even in a civil caufe; and I blulh to ac- knowledge, that in Scotland the fame law has not been long in difufe. • -^ > In contradidion to the climate, Chriftianity has banifhed polygamy from Etliiopia, though the \^1% !'■ t" H i! S (■' ■ II, ' :' 318 Men independent of Society. B.I. judges are far from being fevere upon that crime. The heat of the climate makes them wifh to indulge in a phirality of wives, even at the ex- pence of purchafing each of them. Among the Chriitians of Congo polygamy is in ufe, as for- merly when they were Pagans. To be confined to one wife during life, is held by the moll zea- lous Chriitians there, to be altogether irrational : rather than to be fo confined, they would renounce Chriftianity. Bcfide polygamy, many other cuftoms depend on the nature of the matrimonial engagement, and vary according to its different kinds. Mar- riage-ceremonies, for that realbn, vary in different countries, and at different times. Where the prac- tice is to purchafe a wife, whether among fa- vages pr among pampered people in hot cli- mates, payment of the price completes the marriage without any other ceremony. Other ceremonies however are fometimes praftifed. In old Rome, the bride was attended to the bridegroom's houfe with a female Have carrying a diftaff and a fpindle, importing that fhc ought to fpin for the family. Among the favages of Canada and of the neigh- bouring countries, a ftrap, a kettle, and a fag- got, are put in the bride's cabbin, as fymbols of her duty, viz. to carry burdens, to drefs victu- als, and to provide wood. On the other hand, the bride, in token of her flavery, takes her axe, cuts wood, bundles it up, and lays it before the door of the bridegroom's hut. All the falu- tation ihe receives is, " It is time to go to reft.]' ■"llie inhabitants of Sierra Leona, a negro coun- try, have in all their towns a boarding-fchool, where young ladies are educated for a year, un- der the care of a venerable old gentleman. — When their education is completed, they are car- ried in their beft attire to a public aflcmbly ; which B.I. that wifh W cx- the for- fined zea- )nal: uncc Sk. VI. Female Sex. 319 which may be termed a matrimonial market, be- caufe there young men convene to make a choice. Thofe who fit themfelves to their fancy, pay the dowry ; and over and above, gratify the old fuperintendant for his extraordinary care in edu- cating the bride. In the ifland of Java, the bride in token of fubjedlion, waflies the bridegroom's feet ; and this is a capita' ceremony. In Rulfia, the bride prefents to the bridegroom a bundle of rods to be ufed againft her when flie de- ferves to be chaftifed ; and at the fame time flic pulls off his boots. The prefent Emprefs, intent upon reforming the rude manners of her fub- jeds, has difcountenanced that ceremony among people of fafhion. Very different were the man- ners of Peru, before the Spanifh conquefl. The bridegroom carried fhoes to the bride, and put them on with his own hands. But there, pur- chafing of wives was unknown. Marriage-cere- monies in Lapland are dirc6ted by the fame principle. It is the cuftom there for a man to make prefents to his children of rein-deer ; and young women, fuch as have a large flock of thefe animals have lovers in plenty. A young man looks for fuch a wife, at a fair, or at a meeting for paying taxes. He carries to the houfe of the young woman's parents, fome of his relations ; being folicitous in particular to have an eloquent fpeaker. They are all admitted except thd lo- ver, who muft wait till he be called in. After drinking fome fpirits, brought along for the pur- pofe, the fpokefman addreifes the father in humble terms, bowing the knee as if he were introduced to a prince. He flyles him, the worfliipful fiuher, the high and mighty father, the bcfl and moft iUulhi- Gus father, &c. fire. In viewing the chain of caufes and efl'eds, in- .fiances fometiines occur of bizarre facts, flaniniT: 1 froiM I;., m I- i V'i '• J» 20 Mi-.N independent of Society. B.I. h\. .i' :: > i from the chain without any caufc that can be difco- vercd.. The marriage-ceremonies among the Hot- tentots are of that nature. After all matters are ad- jufted among the old people, the young couple arc ^hut up by themfelvcs j and pafs the night in (Irug- gling for fuperiority, which proves a very ferious work where the bride is reludant. If fhe perfeverc to the lalt without yielding, the young man is dif- cardcd ; but if he prevail, which commonly happens, the marriage is compleated by another ceremony, no lefs fmgular. The men and women fquat on the ground in different circles, the bridegroom in the centre of one, and the bride in the centre of ano- ther. The Suri, or mafter of religious ceremonies, pifl'es on the bridegroom ; who receives the ftreain with eagernefs, and rubs it into the furrows of the fat with which he is covered. He performs the fame ceremony on the bride, who is equally refpedfuj. The ceremonies of marriage among the prefent Greeks are no iefs bizarre. Among other particu- lars the bridegroom and bride walk three rounds ; during which time they are kicked and cuffed hear- tily. Our author Tournefort adds, that he only and his companions forbore to join in the ceremony ; which was afcribed to their rufticity and ignorance of polite manners. Marriage ceremonies among the Kamlkatkans are extremely whimfical. A young man, atifer niaking his propofals, enters into the fer- vice of his mtended father-in-law. If he prove a- grceable, he is admitted to the trial of the Jouc/j, The young woman is fwaddled up in leathern thongs ; and in that condition is put under the guard of fomc old women. Watching every opportunity of a flack guard, he endeavours to uncafe her, in order to touch what is always the moft concealed. The bride muft rcliit, in appearance at lead ; and therefore cries out for her guards ; who fall with fury on the j^ridegroom, tear his hair, fcratfh his face, and ^tt in violent oppohtion. The attempts of the lover prove Sk. vt* Femak Sex* 321 prove fometlnies unfuccefsful for months j but the moment the iouch is atchieved, the bride teflifics her fatisfaflion, by pronouncing the words A7, Ni, with a fo^*^ and loving voice. The next night they bed together without any oppofition. One marriage- ceremony among the inland negroes, is fmgular. As foon as the preliminaries are adjufled, the bride- groom with a number of his companions fct out at night ; and furround the houfe of the bride, as if intending to carry her oflf by force. She and her female attendants, pretending to make all poiTible refinance, cry aloud for help, but no perfon ap- pears. This refembles ftrongly a marriage-ceremony that is or wascuftomary in Wales. On the morning of the wedding-day, the bridegroom, accompanied with his friends on horfeback, demand the bride. Her friends, who are likewife on horfeback, give a pofitive refufal, upon which a mock fcuffle enfues. The bride, mounted behind her nearefl kinfman, Ik carried off, and is purfued by the bridegroom and his friends, with loud fhouts. It is not uncommon on fuch an occafion to fee two or three hundred fturdy Cambro-Britons riding at full fpeed, crofling and joftling, to the no fmall amufement of the fpedators. When they have fatigued themfelves and their horfes^ the bridegroom is fuffcred to overtake his bride. He leads her away in triumph, ajnd the fcene Is conclud- ed with feafting and feftivity. The fame marriage- ceremony was ufual in Mufcovy, Lithuania, and Li- vonia, as reported by Olaus Magnus (^?) .-,-■■. ,-. Divorce alio depends on the nature of the matri- monial engagement. Where the law is, that a man mud purchafe his wife as one does a Have ; it follows naturally, that he may purchafe as many as he can pay for, and that he may turn them off at his plea- fure. This law is univerfal, without a fingle excep- tion. The Jews, who purcliafed their wives, were . Vol. L ,. \;. .,..,, X^ ; , privileged .1 :f r^' 'hv. ■'ii (11) Lil', 14. cliap. 9. 't; It'M, 32a Men independent of Society. B. t. privileged to divorce them, without being obliged to allign a caufe {b). The negroes purchafe their vrivcsy and turn them off when they think, proper. The fame law obtains in China, in Monomotapa, in the idhmus of Darien, in Caribeana, and even in the cold country round Hudfon's bay. All ^he fa- vagea of South America who live near the Oroonoko, purchafe as many wives as they can maintain ; and divorce them without ceremony. Very different is a matrimonial engagement be- tween equals, where a dowry is contracted with the bride. The nature of the engagement implies, that neither of them (hould difmifs the other, without a juit caufe. In Mexico, where the bride brought a dowry, there could be no divorce but by mutual con- fent. In Lapland, the women who have a flock of rainal reftraint, and cftablifhed female fucceflion in land, as formerly in moveables *. The barba- rous • JuAInian, or more properly the lawyers employed by him upon that abfurd compilation the Panciedts, is guilty of a profs error, in teachintj that by the Twelve Tables males ?vs\ ftiiiales of the fane , 6, M/. 15.} vouches the Ccntrary. And one cannot fee without pain, Sk. VI. Fetnah Sex* 3'^S rous nations who cruflicd the Uoman power, wtn- not late in adopting the mild manners of the con- quered : they aidmittcd women to inherit land, and they exadcd a double compofition for injuries done to them. By the Salic law among the Franks, women were exprefsly prohibited to in- herit land ; but we learn from the forms of Mar- culfus, that this prohibition was in time eluded by the following folemnity. The man who wanted to put his daughter upon a footing with his fons, carried her before the commiflary, faying, " My *' dear child, an ancient and impious cultom bars " a young woman from fucceeding to her father : ** but as all my children equally are given me by " God, I ought to love them equally v therefore, *' my dear child, my will is, that my effects fliall *' divide equally between you and your brc- ** thren,** Jn polilhed, dates, women are not ex- cluded from fucceeding even to the crown. Ruf- fia and Britain afford examples of women capa- ble to govern, in an abfolute as well as in a limited monarchy *. What pain, Juftjmaii''s error, not only adopted by an Illurtilous modern, but a caufe ifTigned for it fo refined and fubtile »:> to go quite out of fight, L'ei'prit de /oiv, /ki. %'r. chnp. i. I venture to affirm, that fubtile reafoning never h:id any influence upon a rougli and illiterate people ; and therefore, at the time of the Decemvirs, who compofcd tlic twdve tables of the law, the fubtile caule affigned by our author could not have been the motive, had the Decemvirs introduced female fuccefTion in land, wliiclj they certain- ly did not. * Tlw kingdom of Cuiralj in Hindoftan wa^ governed by Queen Dar- goutte, eminent for (! irit and beauty. Small as that kingdom is, it contain- td about -0,000 towns and villages, the tffedl of long peace and prof- periry. Being inv^^f^ed by Afaph Can, not many years ago, the Queen, mounted en an ek )i\ant, led her troops to battle. Her fon Rajali Eicr Shaw, being wounded in the heat of a^ion, was by her orders carried from tiie field That accident having occafioned a general panic, the (|ueen was left with but 3C0 horfemen. Adhar, who conduced her elepliant, exhorted her to retire while it could be done with fafety. The heroine rejected the advice. " It is true," faid flie, " we are overcome in battle; but not in " honour. Shall I, for a lingering ignominious life, lofc a reputation that *' has been my chief ftudy ! Let your gratitude repay now the obligations you " owe me; pull out your dagger, ind five me from flavery, by putting an " end to my life." The kingdom of .'lijoina in Guinea was governed by t queer, wlicn Sofman wrote. ^■11 I I f ;. y'i V \ t R S t m' iii: !"l»!3i '''11 t liil H id 326 Men independent of Society. B. X What I have faid, regards thofe nations only where polygamy is prohibited. I take it for granted, that women are not admitted to inherit land where polygamy is lawfwl : they are not in fuch eftimation as to be intitled to a privilege fp illuftrious. Among the Hurons in North America, where the regal dignity is hereditary, and great regard paid to th^ royal family, the fucccllion is continued through females, in order to preferve the royal blood pntainted. When the chief 'dies, his fon fuc- cceds not, but his fifter's fon ; who certainly is of the royal blood, whoever be the father : and when the royal family is at an end, a chief is cled- ed by the nobleft mairon of the tribe. The fame rule of fucccifion obtains among the Natches, a JDeople bordering on the Miflifippi ; it being an ar- ticle in their creed, Th^* their royal family are children of the fun. On the fame belief was foundeid a law in Peru, appointing the heir of the crown to marry his filler ; which, equally with the law mentioned, preferved the blood of the fun in the royal family, and did not encroach fo much upon the natural order of fucceltion. Female fucccflion depends ip fome degree on the nature of the government. In Holland, all the chil- idren, male and female^ fucceed equally. Hol- landers live by commierce, which women arc ca- pable of as well as men. Land at the fame time is fo fcanty in that country,' as to render it im- pradicablc to raife a family by engroffing a great eftate in land; and there is hotting but the am- bition of railing a family, tjiat can move a man tp prefer one of his children before the reft. The lame law obtains in Hamburgh, for the fame rea- Ibris. Extehfivc eftates in land fuppojrt great fa- milies in Britain, a circumftance unfavourable to younger children. But probably in London, and other great trading towns, mercantile men provide ! nly for srit in Ifo Sk. VI. Female Sex* i^7 ill, provide againft the law, by making a more e^ qual diflr'ibution of their eficcls among their chil- dren. '^ ■ After traverfmg a great part of thp globe with painful induftry, would not one be apt to conclude, that originally females wtrc every where defpifed, as they are at prefent among the favages of Ame- rica ; that wives, like ilaves were procured by bar?* jter ; that polygamy was univerfal ; and that di- vorce depended on the whim of the huiband ? But no fort of rcafoning is more fallible, than the drawing general concluftons from particular fads^ The northern nations of Europe, as appears from the foregoing iketch, muft be excepted from thefe conclufions. Among them, women were from the beginning courted and honoured, nor was polygamy ever known among them. We proceed now to a capital article in the progrefs of the female fex ; which is, to trace the different degrees of reftraint impofed upon married women in different countries, and ^t different times in the fame country ; and to ^ffi^ the caufes of thefe differences. Where luxury is unknown, and where people have no wants but whajt are fuggeft- ed by uncorrupted nature ; nien and women live to- gether with great freedom, and with great inno- cence. In Greece antijcntly, even young women of rank mipiileredto men in bathing. " While thcfo officious tend the rites divine, *' The laft fair branch of the Neftorian line, " Sweet Polycaft^, took the pleafant toil ♦* To bathe the Prince, and pour the fragrant oil (ay* C( Men and women among the Spartans, bathed pro- mifcuoufly, $in4 vrellied together (lark naked. Tacitus («) 04j(Cef, bo0k }. See alfo bof k 8. line 491^ •i -il. 318 Men independent of Society. B. I. Tacitus reports, that the Germans had not even fe- parate beds, but lay promifcuoufly upon reeds or heath along the walls of the houfe. T'uc fame cuftom prevails even at prefent among the tenm- perate Highlanders of Scotland ; and is not quite worn out in New-England. A married woman is under no confinement, becaufc no man thinks of an a6t fo irregular as to attempt her chaftity. In the Caribbee iflands adultery was unknown till European Chriftians made fettlements there. At the fame time, there fcarce can be any fewel for jcaloufy, where men purchafe their wives, put ihem away at pleafure, and even lend them to a friend. But when by ripening fenfibiU^y a man feels pleafure in his wife's attachment to him, jea- Joufy commences ; jealoufy of a rival in her affec- tions. Jealoufy accordingly is a fymptom of creafmg efteem for the female fex ; and that o?/- fion is vifibly creeping irt among the natives of Vir- ginia. It begins to have a real foundation, when inequality of ra^k and of riches takes place. Men of opulence ftudy pleafure : married women be- come objedts of a corrupted tafte ; and often fall a facrifice, where morals are imperfect, and the climate an incentive to animal love. Greece is a delicious country, the people handfome ; and when the ancient Greeks made the greateft figure they were miferably defective in morals. They became jealous of rivals j which prompted them, according to the rough manners of thofe times, to exclude women from fociety with men. Their women ac- cordingly were never feen in public ; and if my memory ferve me, an accidental interview of a man and a woman on the public ftreet, brings on the cataftrophe in a Greek tragedy. In Hecuba, a tra- gedy of Euripides, the Queen cxcufes hcrfelf for declining to , vifit Polymcftor, faying, *« that it Is ^* indecent for a woman to look a man in the face." In thp Elcdlra of Sophocles, Antigone is permitted by I. Sk. VI. Female Sex, 3^9 by her mother Jocafta to take a view of the Argian army from a high tower ; an old man who accom- panies her, being alarmed at feeing fome females pafs that way and afraid of cenfure, prays Anti- gone to retire ; " for," fays he, " women are '* prone to detraction ; and to them the mereft ** trifle is a fruitful fubjeft of converfation *." — Spain is a country that fcarce yields to Greece in finencfs of climate ; and the morals of its people in the dark ages of Chriftianity, were not more pure than thofe of Greece. By a law of the Vifigoths in Spain, a furgeon was prohibited to take blood from a free woman, except in prefcnce of her hufband or neareft relations. By the Salic law (a), he who fqueezes the hand of a free woman, fhall pay a fine of 15 golden fhillings. In the fourteenth century, it was a rule in France, that no married woman ought to admit a man to vifit her in ab- fence of her hufband. Female chaflity mufl at that time have been extremely feeble, when fo little truft was repofed in the fair fex. « • , To treat women in that manner, may polTibly be neceffary, where they are in requeft for no end but to gratify animal love. But where they are intended for the more elevated purpofes, of being friends and companions, as well as affedionate mothers, a very different treatment is proper. Locks and fpies will never anfwer ; for thefe tend to debafe their minds, to corrupt their morals, and to render them con- temptiblofc By gradual openings in the more deli- cate fenfes, particularly in all the brc iches of the moral fenfe, chaflity, one of thefe branches, ac- quires a commanding influence over females ; and . . . , becomes • Women ^re not prone to dctraftlon, unlefs when .denied the comforts of foclety. The cenfure of Sophocles is pnobably juftwith refpeft to his coun- trywomen, becaufe they were locked up. Old maids have the charadter with uj of being prone to detraftion J but that holds not unlefs iliey retire from fociety. («) Tit. 22. !;(• i 1 M 1 i.'ii mu 'Jim ' i Hi. i: :l i i 'i- -Hi 330 MeN" independent of Society. B* I. becomes their ruling principle. In that refined ftate, women arc trufted with their own conduct, and may fafely be truded . they make delicious compa- nions, and uncorruptible friends ; and that fuch at prefent is generally their cafe in Britain, I am bold to affirm. Anne of Britanny, wife to Char- les VIII. and to Lewis XII. Kings of France, in- troduced the falhion of ladies appearing publicly at Court. This falhion was introduced much later in England : even down to the Revolution, wo- men of rank never appeared in the ftre^'ts without a. maik. In Scotland the veil, or plaid, continued long in falhion, with which every woman of rank was covered when flie went abroad. That fa- ihion has not been laid aftde above forty years. In Italy, women were much longer confined than in France ; and in Spain the indulging them with fome liberty is but creeping into falhion. In A- byilinia polygamy is prohibited ; and married wo- men of falhion have by cuftom obtained the privilege of vifiting their friends, though not much with the good-will of many hufbands. It ^ere to be wilhed, that a veil could be drawp over the following part of their hiftory. The growth of luxury and fenfuality, undermining eve- ry moral principle, renders both fcxes equally dif- folute : wivjss in that cafe deferve to be again locked up ; but the time of fuch fe verity is paft. In that cafe indeed* it becomes indecent for the two fexes to bathe promifcuoufly. Men in Rome, copying the Greeks, plupged together into the fame bath ; and in time rnen and women did the fame {a), Hadrian prohibited that indecent cuftom. Marcus i^.ntoninus renewed the prohi]bitis)n ; and Alexander Severus, a fecond time: but to fo little purpofe, that even the primitive Chriftians made no difficulty to follow the cuftom : fuch appetite there is for be- U) Plutarch, Life of Cat*. Sk. VI. Female Sex. xyt bate, and ant Ihar- ing nudus cum nuda, when jullificd by fafhionf This cuflom withftood even the thunder of general councils ; and was not dropt, till people fiecaitia more decent. ' ' In days of innocence, when chaftity is the ruling paifion of the female fex, we find great franknefs iri external behaviour ; for women above fufpicion, are little folicitous about appearances. At the fame period, and for the fame reafon, we find great loofe- nefs in writing : witnefs the Queen of Navarre's tales. In the capital of France at prefent, chaftity, far from being pradifed, is fcarce admitted to be a female virtue. But people who take much freedom in private, are extremely circumfped in public : no indecent exprefl»on nor infinuation is admitted, even into their plays, or other writings. In England the women are Icfs corrupted than in France j and for that realon arc not fo fcrupulous with refpeft to de- cency in writing. Hitherto of the female fex in temperate climes, where polygamy is prohibited. Very different is their condition in hot climes, which inflame animal love in both fexes equally. In the hot regions of Afia, where polygamy is indulged, and wives are purchafed for gratifying the carnal appetite merely, it is in vain to think of rcftraining them otherwife than by locks and bar , after having once tafted en- joyment. 'Vhere polygamy is indulged, the body is the only objeft of jealoufy ; not the mind, as there can be |io mutual afFedion between a man and his inftruments of fenfual pleafure. And if women be fo little virtuous as not to be fafely truftcd with their own conduft, they ought to be locked up j for there is no juft medium between abfolute confinement and abfolute freedom. The Chinefe are fo jealous of their wives, as even to lock them up from their relati- ons ; and fo great is their diffidence of tlie female fex in general, that brothers and fifters are not per- mitted to converfe together. When women go abroad, :• 1 ,:■ ! if Jli.' I -f, ■<*. 33* Men independent of Society. B. I. ^■ it:. abroad, they arc fliut up in a clofe fedan, into which no eye can penetrate. The intrigues carried on by the wives of the Chincfc Emperor, and the jealoufy that reigns among them, render them unhappy. But luckily, as wonnen arc little regarded where po- lygamy is indulged, their ambition and intrigues give lefs disturbance to the government, than in the cqurts of European princes. The ladies of Hin doflan cover their heads with a gauze veil, even at home, which they lay not afide except *n company of their ncareft relations. A Hindoo buys his v*lfe; and the firft time he is permitted to fee her without a veil, is after marriage in his own houfe. In feveral hot countries, women are put under the guard of eunuchs, as an additional fecurity ; and black eunuchs are commonly preferred for their uglinefs. But as a woman, deprived of the fociety of men, is apt to be inflamed even with the appearance of a man ; fome jealous nations, refining upon that cir- cumftance, employ old maids, termed duennas, for guarding their women. In the city of Moka, in Arabia felix, women of fafliion never appear on the llreet in day-light ; but it is a proof of manners re- tincd above thofe in neighbouring countries, that they are permitted to vifit one another in the even- ing. If they find men in their way, they draw afide to let them pafs. A French furgecn being called by one of the King of Yeman's chief officers, to cure a rheuniatifm which had feized two of his wivt , was permitted to handle the parrs afi'ccled ; but he could not get a fight of their faces. I proceed to examine more minutely the manners of women, as refulting from the degree of reflraint they are under in different countries. In the warm regions of Afia, where polygamy is indulged, the education of young women is extremely loole, being intended folely for animal pleafure. They are ac- compliihed in fuch graces and ailurements as tend to inflame the icnrual appetite : they are taught vocal ; and I :> n J. I. Sk. VI. Female Sex. 335 iin IS and inftrumcntal niufic, with various dances that cannot (land the tefl: of decency : but no culture is beftowed on the mind, no moral inftruftion, no im- provement of the rational faculties j becaufc fuch education^ which qualifies them for being virtuous companions to men of fenfe, would infpire them with abhorrence at the being made proftitutcs. In a word, fo corru''*ed are they by vicious education, as to be unfit objefts of any defire but what is merely fenfual. Afiatic wives are not truded even with the manage- ment of houftihold affairs, which would afford op- portunities for infidelity. In Pcrfia, fa)s Cbardin, the ladies are not permitted, more than children, to chufe a gown for thcrafelves ; no lady knows in the morning what fhe is to wear chat day. The educa- tion of young won»en in liindoftan, is lefs indecent. They are not taught mufic nor dancing, which are reckoned fit only for ladies of pleafure : they are tc*. qIU all the graces of external behaviour, particu- larly to converfe with fpirit and elegance ; they are taught alfo to few, to embroider, and to drefs with tafte. Writing is rcgletted ; but they are taught to read, that they n have the confolation of ftudy- ing the Alcoran ; which they never open, nor could underftand if they did. Notwithftanding fuch care in educating Hindoltan females, their confinement in a feraglio renders their manners extremely loofe : the moft refined luxury of fenfe, with idlenefs or with reading love-tales ftill worfc than idlenefs, can- not fail to vitiate the minds of perfons deprived of li- berty, and to prepare them for every fort of intem- perance. The wives and concubines of grandees in Conftantihople, are permitted fometinies to walk abroad for air and cxercifc. A foreigner ftumbling accidentally on a knot of them, about forty in num- ber, attended with black eunuchs, was in the twink- ling of an eye feized by a brifl; girl, with the reft at her heels : ihe accofted him wkh loofe amorous ex- prcffioRs, attempting at the fame time to expofe his nakedncfs. it )> : /».) ir4i • 334 Men independent of Society. B. I, nakednefs. Neither threats nor intrcaties availed him againd fuch vigorous aflailants ; nor could the Ychemencc of their curiofity be moderated, byrc- prefcnting the fliame of a behaviour fo grofely immo- deil. An old. Janizary, ftanding at a little diflancc, \i'as amazed: his Mahometan bafhfulnefs would not fufFcr him to lay hands upon women ; but with a Stentorian voice he roared to the black eunuchs, that they were guardians of proftitutes, not of mo- deft women; urging them to free the man from fuch harpies. — All in vain (a). Very different are female manners in temperate climes, where polygamy is prohibited, and women are treated as rational beings. Thefe manners how- ever depend infome meafurebn the nature of the go- vernment. As many hands are at once employed in the different branches of republican government, and a ftill greater number by rotation ; the males, who have httlc time to fpare from public bufmcfs, feel nothing of that languor and wearinefs which to the idle make the moft frivolous amufcments- welcome. Married women live retired at home, managing fa- mily affairs, as their hufbands do thofc of the ftate: whence it is, that fimplicity of manners is more the tone of a republic, than of any other government. Such were the manners of the female fex during the fiourifhing periods of the Greek and Roman commonwealths; and fuch are their manners in Switzerland and in Holland. There will be occafion afterward, to difplay an important revolution in manners, refulting from chi- valry (/;). One branch of it muft be handled at prefent, that which concerns the intercourfe be- tween the fexes. The Crufades were what firft gave a turn to the fierce manners of our ancef- tors. The combatants, fighting more for glory . ^,. ;» ;:^; ■ ' ' /:» thaH ' Sk. than («') Obrervatinns on therdigion, laws, SiC. of the Turks {i>) Book 2. litctc!\ 6. Sk. VI. Female Sea* 335 than for revenge or intcrcft, became eminent for magnanimity and heroifm. After fo aftivc a life abroad, they could not bear idlcnefs at home, ef- pccially when there was fuch demand for their prowefs. Europe had never been worfe governed than at that period: diifenfion and difcord were u- niverfal ; and every chieftain bore deadly feud a* gainft his neighbours. Revenge was the ruling paffion, which was licentioufly indulged, without the leaft regard to juftice. The heroes who had fig- naliz'd themfelves abroad, endeavoured to acquire fame at home: they entered into bonds of chival- ry, for redreffing wrongs and protecting widows and orphans. An objea fo noble. and humane^ tempered courage with mildnef^ and magnanimity with courtefy. The proteftion given to widows and orphans improved benevolence ; and female beau- ty, which makes the deepeft impreflion on the be- nevolent, came to be the capital objeft of proteftion. Each knight took under his peculiar care, the beauty that inflamed him the moft ; and each knight was difpofed to elevate the goddefs of his heart above all rival beauties. In his heated imagination, ihe was perfeftion without frailty, a paragon of nature. Emulation for the fame of a beloved objeft, has no bounds, becaufe there is nothing feififh in it : (he is exalted into a fort of divinity: the lover defcends to be a humble votary. And mark, that devotion to a vifible deity, always flames the higheft. This con- nexion, which reverfes the order of nature by eleva- ting women far above men, produced an artificial fort of gallantry, that was carried to extravagance: the language of devotion became that of love, and all was bombafl and unnatural. Chaftity however was a gainer by this mode of love: it became necef- farily the ruling principle, to be preferved in purity without fpot or blemilh; pofleflion diflblves the charm; for aftci furrer\.dering all to a lover, a female cannot hope to maintain her angel", character a mo- ment. If ^. 33^ Men independent of Society. B. U t "I <{ <( (C it mcnt. Duke John de Bourbonnois, anno 1414, caufed it to be proclaimed, that he intended an ex- pedition to England with fixteen knights, in order to combat the like number of Englifli knights, for glorifying the beautiful angel he worlliipped. In- fiances of this kind without number, ftand upon re- cord. Rene, ftyied King of Sicily and Jerufalem, obferves in writing upon tournaments, that they are highly ufeful in furnifhing opportunities to young knights and efquires to difplay their prowefs before their miftrcfles. He adds, " that every ceremony regarding tournaments, is contrived to honour the ladies. It belongs to them to infped the arms of the combatants, and to diftribute the rewards. A knight or efquire who defames any of them, is beat and bruifed till th<^ injured lady condefcend to intercede for him." Remove a female out of her proper fphere, and it is eafy to convert her into a male. James IV". of Scotland, in all tournaments, profefled himfelf knight to Anne Queen of France. She fummoncd him to prove himfelrher true and va- lorous champion, by taking the field in her defence againfl Henry VIII. of England. And according to the romantic gallantry of that age, the Queen's fum- i^ons was thought to have been James's chief motive for declaring war againfl: his brother-in-law. The famous Gafton de Foix, general of the French at the battle of Ravenna, rode from rank to rank, call- ing by name feveral officers and even private men, recommending to them their country and their ho- nour ; adding, " that he would fee what they would •' perform for love of their miflirefles." During the civil wars in France, when love and gallantry were carried to a high pitch, Monficur de Chatillon, rea- dy to engage in a battle, tied round his arm a gar- ttrr of Mademoifclle de Guerchi his mift:refs. De Liques and d'Etrees were both fuitors to Mademoi- felle de Fouquerolles for marriage. De Liques prevailed, and the marriage day was fixed. But that very day, he was taken prifoner by his rival in a a battle I. Sk. VL Female Sex. 337 battle anno 1525. The lady wrote a letter to d'Etrecs demanding her hufband ; and d'Etrces inftantly fent him to herwithout even demanding a ranlbm *. In peaceable times, the lovereign power having acquired more authority, the neceflity of private protection ceafed. But the accuftomcd fpirit of gal- lantry did not ceafe. It could not however fubfift for ever againft nature and common fenfe : it fubfi- ded by degrees into mutual affability and politenefs, fuch as ought always to obtain between the fexcs. But obferve, that after a moft intimate connexion, matters could not fall back to the former decency and referve. The intimate connection remained ; and a more fubflantial gallantry took place, not al- ways innocent. This change of manner was firft vifible in monarchy. Monarchy employs but a few hands; and thofe who are not occupied in public af- fairs, find leifure for gallantry and for defires that are eafily gratified. Women of rank, on the other hand, laid open to corruption by opulence and fu- perficial education, are more ambitious to captivate the eye than the judgement; and are fonder of lo- vers than of friends. Where a man and a woman thus prepared meet together, they foon grow particu- lar : the man is idle, the woman frank ; and both equally additted to pleafure. Unlawful commerce between the fexes becoming thus common, hi;^h gallantry vaniflies of courTe : the bombaft ftyle appears ridiculous, and the fenfual appetite is gra- tified with very little ceremony. Nothing of love remains but the name ; and as animal enjoyment without love is a very low pleafure, it foon finks into difgufl: when confined to one objed. What is not found in one, is fondly expcded in ano- VoL. I. Z ther ; • We are indebted to Brantom for what follows. In the time of Francis T. of France, a young woman having a talk.iiive lover, orJeicd him to be dumb. His obedjiince for two long years, made all the world believe that he was funk in melancholy. One day in a numerous affembly, the young woman, who was not known to be his miltrefs, undertcoh to cure him ; and did it with alinu'!e word, S^tji, "f ^1 I I r B I' . If Jii '/ "li' ■} mil. (I I" 1 ,.^i;!l ■ ■ pi t'HfM hi!'! ;i| '^H Iv ' ''- lip ■ -I 11 Ir'i 'k\ 1 I* • ^ . ! "ll'i 338 Men independent of Society. B. L thcr ; and the imagination, roving from objeft to objcft, finds no gratification but in variety. An attachment to a woman of virtue or of talents, appears abfurd : true love is laughed out of coun- tenance ; and men degenerate into brutes. Wo- men, on the other hand, regarding nothing but fcnfual enjoyment, become fo care'cfs of their in- fants, as even, without blufliing, to employ mer- cenary nurfes *. In Perfia, it is a common prac- tice among women of fafhion to ufe drugs that caufe abortion ; becaufe after pregnancy is advanc- ed, the huiband attaches himfelf to other women, it being held indecent to touch a woman who is pregnant. Such a courfe of life cannot fail to fink them into contempt : marriages are diflblved as foon as contraded ; and the ilate is fruflrated of that improvement in morals and manners which is the never-failing produft of virtuous love. A ftate enriched by conqueft or commerce, declines gradually into luxury and fenfual pleafure : man- ners are corrupted, decency banifhed, and chafli- ty becomes a mere name. What a fcene of rank and difTolutc pleafure is exhibited in the courts of Alexander's fucccflbrs, and in thofe of the Roman emperors ! Gratitude • Les femmes d'un certain ctat en France trouvent qu'elles perdent trop a faire des enfans, et a caufe de cela mSme, la plOpart vivent celibataires, dans le fein mcme du mariage. Mais fi I'envie'de fe voir perpetuer dans une branche de defcendans, les porte a fe conformer aux voeux del'hymen, la population, dans cette clafTe, n'en eft pas plus avancee, pars que leur deli- catefle rend inutile leur propagation } car, parmi les femmes du premier et fecond rang en France, combien y en a-t-il qui nouriflent leurs enfans f II fMoit facile de les compter. Ce devoir indifpenfable de mere, a cefTe chez nous d'en etre un. Les intents de la France, vol. i. p. 134.— [7« Englijh thus : " The women of a certain rank in France find they lofe too much " by child-bearing ; and fcr that reafon live in a ftate of celibacy. But po- " puRtion is not advanced, even by thofe who, from adefire of feeing them- " fclvcs perpetuated in their defcendants, conform to the purpofe of mar- *' riage ; for their delicacy counterbalances their fertility. How few of the '* tirii and fecond rank of women in France fuckle their children ? It would " be eafy to count the number. This indifpenfable duty of a mother has " now ceafed to be one with us."] ' As fuch woful negleft of education is the fniitof voluptuoufnefs, we may take it for granted, that the fameobtains in every opulent and luxurious capital. to n Sk. VI. Female Sex, Gratitude to my female readers, if I fliall be ho- noured with any, prompts me to conclude this (ketch with a fccne, that may aflbrd them inftruc- tion, and cannot fail of being agreeable ; which is, the figure a woman is fitted for making in the matrimonial (late, where polygamy is excluded. Matrimony among favages, having no objcd but propagation and (lavery, is a vf : humbling ftatc for the female fex : but dclic. *; organization, great fenfibility, lively imagination, with fwcctnefs of temper ibove ill, qualify xvomcn for a more dignified r)ciety with men ; which is, to be their companions and bofom-fricnds. Jn the common courfe of Europea \ eduction, voung women are trained to make an agreeable •<5ure, and to be- have with decency and proprijiy : very little cul- ture is bellowed on the Vead ; and fti'' lefs on the heart, if it be not the at cf hiding paifion. Such education is far from feconding the purpofe of na- ture, that of making women fit companions for men of fenfe. Due cultivation of the female mind would add greatly to the happinefs of the males, and flill more to that of the females. Time runs on ; and when youth and beauty vani(h, a fine lady, who never entertained a thought into which an admirer did not enter, furrenders herfelf now to difcontcnt ar»d peevi(hnefs. A woman on the con- trary, who I-' merit, improved by virtuous and refined education, retains in her decline an influence over the men, more flattering than even that of beauty : (he is the delight of her friends, as former- ly or her' admirers. Admirable would be the efiects of fuch refined education, contributing no lefs to public good than to private happinels. A man who at prelent muit degrade himfclf into a fop or a coxcomb in order to pieafc tlie women, would foon dlfcover, that their favour is not to be gained but by exerting eve- Z 2 ry f.; I 340 Men independent of Society. B.I. ry manly talent in public and in private life ; and the two fexes, indead of corrupting each other, would be rivals in the race of virtue. Mutual efteem would he to cach^a fchool of urbanity; and mutual defire of pleafmg, would give fmoothnefs to their behaviour, delicacy to their fcntiments, and tcndernefs to their pafficns. Married women in particular, deftined by na- ture to take the lead in educating children, would no longer be the greateft obllruftion to good edu- cation, by their ignorance, frivolity, and diforder- ly manners. Even upon the breail, infants are fufceptible of impreflions * ; and the mother hath opportunities without end of infilling into them good principles, before they are fit for a male tu- tor. Coriolanus, who made a capital figure in the Roman republic, never returned from war with- out meriting marks of diftinftion. Others behaved valiantly, in order to acquire glory : he behaved valiantly, in order to give pleafure to his mo- ther. The delight (he took in hearing him praifed, and her weeping for joy in his embraces, made him in his own opinion the happiefl: perfon in the univerfe. Epaminondas accounted it his great- cll felicity, that his father and motler were ftill alive to behold his conduft, and enjoy his viftory at Leuftra. In a Latin dialogue about the caufes that corrupted the Roman eloquence, injudicioufly afcribed to Tacitus, becaufe obvioufly it is not his ftyle, the method of education in Rome while it flouriflied as a commonwealth, is defcribed in a lively • May not a hahit of chcarfulners be produced in an infant, l>y being trained up antonv; chearful people ? An agieeable temper is held to be a prime qualitication in a nurfe. Such in the connedVion between the mind and bouy, at tliat the features of the face are commonly moulded into an expref- iion of the internal difpofition ; and is it not natural to think, that an infant in the womb may be afte^ed by the temper of its mother ? Its tender parts nukes it fufceptible of the flighted impreflions. When a woman is breed- ing, ^\ober : it continw\>s for three weeks ; dutiwg which time, the male runs from female to fe- male without intermiflion. Fhe female brings forth m May, or beginning of June ; and the female of the fallow-deer brings forth at the fame time. The jhe-afs takes t^ male the beginning of fummer ; but ihe bears twelve months, which fixes her delivery to fummer. Wolves and foxes copulate in December : the female carries five months, and brings forth in April, * I have It upon good authority, that ewes pafturing in a hilly country chufe early fome fnug fpot, where they may (".rop their young with latety. And hence the rifle of removing a flock to a nev/ field immediately before de- livery ; many lambs perifh by being dropped in improper places. ' 1' h 348 Men independent of Society. B. 1. 'I April, when animal food is as plentiful as at any other feafon ; and the (he-lion brings forth about the fame time. Of this early birth there is one evi- dent advantage, hinted above : the young have time to grow lb firm as eafily to bear the inclemencies of winter. Were one to guef what probably *would be the time of rutting, fummer would be named, efpecially in a cold < JiiiiHle. And yet to quadruprrjg whq carry but four or five pionths, that economy would throw the time of deljvety th an improper feafon, lor vvaMuih, an well as for food. Wifely is it order- ed, that the delivery Ihould conllaiilly be m( the beft feafon for both. Gregarious quadrupeds that ftore up food for winter, differ from all other quadrupeds with refpcd to the time of delivery. Beavers copulate about the end of autumn, and bring forth in January, when their granary is full. The fame economy probably obtain}) among nil other quadruptdH of the fame kind. One rule ta^rs plnro among all brute animals, without a fingle excepHon, Thv refolved on. The .iinbafllidors ag tin fup with Achiller. on pork-grifkins, (/,« 271.) Achilles rejed>s A?ameninon's oifc tnd th(r f:ime ni!;hr L ly!!es and Diomcd fet out on their txi edition to . • Trojan camp : leturiiing b.-fore day, they had a third fupper. sk. v'^ Luxury* 351 fwallowcd large cups to their gods, and to fuch of their countrymen as had fallen bravely in battle. Wc learn from the 25th fable of the Edda, which was their facred book, that to hold much liquor was reputed a heroic virtue. Contarini the Venetian ambafl'ador, who wrote ann. 1473, fays, that the Ruflians were abandoned to drunkenncfs; and that the whole race would have been extirpated, had not ilrong liquors been difcharged by the fovereign. A habit of falling long, acquired as above in the hunter-ftate, made meals in the (hepherd-ftate jefs frequent than at prefent, though food was at hand. Antiently people fed but once a-day, a falhion that continued even after luxury was indulged in other refpeds. In the war of Xerxes againft Greece, it was pleafantly faid of the Abderites, who were bur- dened with providing for the King's table, that they ought to thank the gods for not inclining Xerxes to cat twice a-day. Plato held the Sicilians to be glut- tons, for having two meals every day. Arrian (a) obfervcs, that the Tyrrhenians had the fame bad habit. In the reign of Henry VI. the people of Eng- land fed but twice a-day. Hedor Boyes, in his hif- tory of Scotland, exclaiming againft the growing luxury of his cotemporarics, fays, that fome perfons were fo gluttonous, as to have three meals every day. Luxury, undoubtedly, and love of fociety, tended to increafe thenumbd of meals beyond what nature requires. On the other I and, there is a caufe that kept down the num'v.!r (or fome time, which is, the introdudion of machines. Bodily ftrength is elTen- tial to a favage, being his only inftrument j and with it he performs wonders. Machines have rendered bodily ftrength of little importance ; and as men la- bour lefs than originally, they eat lefs in proportion *. Liftcn {a) Lib. 4. cap. i6, * Before fire-arms were known, people gloried in addrefs and bodily ftrength, and ccmmcnly fought hand to hand. But violent cxercifes Ls- coming lefs and lefs n«"ceflary, went jnfcnfibly oiit cf fafhion. ■\ ;, I \-l nail 'ii' 'I i 352 Men incici n kr.; dF Society. B, I. (( cc »inc, 1000 ftieep, 104 oxen, 304 calves, 304 fwine, 2000 geefe, 1000 capons, 2000 l)igs,- 400 fwans, 104 peacocks, 1^00 hot venifon paf- ties, 4000 coldj 5000 cuitards hot and cold. Such entertainments are a picture of manners. At that early period, there was not difcovered im fociety any plcafure but that of crouding toge- ther in hunting and feafting. The delicate plea- sures of convcrfation, in communicating opinions, fcntiments, and defires, were to them unknown. There appeared liowevcr, even at that early period, a faint dawn of the fine arts. In fuch tcails as are mentioned above^ a curious dcflert was fome- times exhibited, termed /«//«•///>, viz* paflc mould- ed into the fhape of animals^ On a faint's day, angels, prophets, and patriarchs, were fet upon the table in plenty. A feaft given by Trivultius to Lewis XII. of France, in the city of Milan, makes a figure in Italian hillory. No fewer than 1206 ladies were invited ; and the Cardinals of Narbon and St. Severin, with many other prelates, were among the dancers. After dancing, followed the feall, to regulate which there were no fewer em- ployed than 160 mafter-houfeholds. Twelve hun- dred officers, in an uniform of velvet, or fatin^ carried the viduals, and ferved at the fide-board. Every table, without diftindlion, was ferved with filver-plate, engraved with the arms of the land- lord ; and befide a prodigious number of Italian lords, the whole court, and all the houfehold of the King, were feafted. The bill of fare of an entertainment given by Sir Watkin Williams Wynn to a company of 1 500 perfons, on his coming of Vol. I. A a age» :i' 1 (») Collai'tansa, I ''Mi ^ 354 1\Iln uidcpeiulent oi Society. B. I. age, is a faniple of ancient Englifli hofpitality, which appears to have nothing in viijw but crowd- ing and cramming merely. The following paffage is from Hollinflicd : " That the length and fump- " tuoufncfs of fealU formerly in ufe, are not to- " tally left oiT in England, notwithftanding that " it proveth very beneficial to the phylkians, who " moft abound where moft excefs and mifgovern- ** ment of our bodies do appear." He adds, that •claret, and other French wines, were defpifed, and ftrong wines only in requell. The belf, he fays, were to be found in monafteries : for " that the merchant would have thought his foul would go **■ ftraightway to the devil, if he fliould ferve " monks with other than the bell." Our forefa- thers relifhed ftrong wine for the fame reafon that their forefathers relilhed brandy. In Scotland, "fumptuous entertainments were common at mar- riages, baptifms, and burials. In the reign of Charles II. a ftatute was thought neceflary to con- fine them within moderate bounds. Of old, there was much eating, with little vari- ety : at prefent, there is great variety, with more moderation. From a houfeliold-book of the Earl of Northumberland, in the reign of Henry VIII. it appears, that his family during winter, fed moftly on fait meat, and fait filh , and with that view there was an appointment of i6o gallons of muf- 'tard. On flefli days through the year, breakfafl for my Lord and Lady was a loaf of bread, two manchcts, a quart of beer, a quart of wine, half a chine of mutton, or a chine of beef boiled. On meagre days, a loaf of bread, two manchets, a quart of beer, a quart of wine, a dilh of but- ter, a piece of fait filh, or a difh of buttered eggs. During lent, a loaf of breads two man- cl'.ets, a quart of beer, a quart of wine, two pieces of fait fiih, fix baconed herring, four -2 white I. I'd. ?vhkc' herring; ;X)F $ difh of fproife. There wa? att iittie variety in ijbei oth^r ntcals, cxecpC oh fcUVval* 4»ly», That way,bf liviiig /was at: the time hi^jii Ujxury ,: a lady's . waiting^woman. at prden^, would never have dime with grurablitoa? at fuch a table. We jcatn from the fairic book, that the Earl had b«1^ two cooks for dreflingp victuals to more thaa two hundred domeftics*. In thofc days, .hen» iChick- co, capiQn, pigeon, ployet, partridge, were reckoned fuch delicacies^ >a^ to be prohibited except at my I^ord-fi table. (4). . ' . •But luxury is^ always creeping 'on, And dcHcacica become more (familiar, HolHnflied obferveg, thafc white meats, jnilky butter^ iahd: checfe, foi'- incrlfythe chief fcbodiof his countrymen, were in ^is tir^Cy degraded to he the fbfod of the Iqw^x fort;- and' that 'the iwcahhy fed Upon flcfli and fifli. By a roll of the King of Scotland's houfe- hold expence^^wno 1378, w^e findi that the art of gelding cattlie was knk)»m.; The roll is in Latin, and the gelt hogs arie termed porcelli eunuchi. Mention is a)A)r m:ade of chickens, which were not common on EngUfli tables at that time. Olive oil is alfo mention^di ' . rv ii'. . In this progrefs, cooks, ve may believe, came to make a figure. HolHnflied obferves, that the no- bility, rejcfting their own cookery, employee^ as cooks mufica' -headed Frenchmen and ftrangers, as he terms them. He fays, tha.t c\';n merchants, when they gave a feaft, rejeded butcher's meat as unworthy cf their tabic ; havmg jellies of all colourb, and in all figures, reprefenting flowers, trees, beafts, fifh, fowl, and fruit. Henry Ward- law Archbifhop of Si. Andrew's, obferving the re- finements in cookery introduced by James I. of Scotland, who had been eighteen years a prifoner in England, exclaimed againft the abufe in a par- A a 2 liamcnc {a) Houfehuld -bowk alovo mentioned. i « ■1 1 .1., 1i;M 't ';* r *».- [' (' it 1 i M«'' ■'■I i ' *•! ,1. ' m m '!^^ Men independent of Society. "^lB.¥« liaineftt' held at Pcttli 1433 * ^^ obtained a law, teftratning fuperflu^iis diet ; and prohibiting the life of baked meat to any under the degree or gentle- men, and permitting it to gentlemen on feftival- days only ; which baked meat, fays the biftiop, was Aever before feen in Scotland. The peafants in Sicily regale themfclves with ice during fummer. They fay, that fcarcity of fnow would be mote grievoQs to them than fcarcity of corn or of win«. Such progrefs has Iiixury made, even among the populace. People of fafhion in London and iii Pa- ris, ^vho enfjploy' their whole thoughts on luxuri- oas living, wiuld be furpriawd . to be told, that they are iUll deficient in that art. In order ro advance luxury of the table to the ^rw^ of perfec- tion, there ought to be a cook for every diih, as'in ancient Egypt there was a'phyficiah for ev©* ry ■difeafe. '' '! -': V> i: : ; -■ [ .M^ Barbarous nations, being great eaters; are fond of large joints of iridat ;. and Ibve «f flibw retains great joints in falhion, > even after meals become more moderate : a wild boar was roaffted whole for a fupper-dilh to Antony and Cleopatra ; and ftuffed with poultry and wild tow!, it was a favourite difti at Rome, termed the Trojan boar, in allufion to the Trojan horfe. The holpitality of the Anglo- Saxons was Ibmetimes exerted in roafting an ox whole. Great joints are left oft' gradually, as people become more and more delicate- in eating.' In France, great joints are lefs in ufe than formerly ; and in England, the enormous furloin, formerly the pride of the nation, is now in polite families baniHied to the fide-board. In China, where manners are carried to a high degree of refine- ment, diihcj are compofed entirely of minced meatj.. .'•! ■■^e; v:- 1>:(. eiJ. ;. jti^rxi-.-dh ,•*!,. ,.i . ; ,• .i..is x^t •, v**;^ ' . t'j '3" l.^- •»rf' (Cm ■T ■: I , . • r. I. -' : •' . ,., ^ '■ : • ^■- '.ifr "t The Cite of an animal may he abridged by fpare tJict ; feut its firength \nf our icalt.> were added linging girl ■, le male player-, on the lut*', and morris, dancers > greater care and expentu wtrc hctl'owed upon our entertainments . the cook, whom our tprcfatherb rtckoned the meaptlt llavt, b'*tame now m high efteem. and requeft ; and what was Jormtrly a fervilc empli.yment, was now exahed into a fcitnce. AW thefe ho\v*ver ft'au tly diJerve to be reckoned the i;edb (jr buds of thu luxury of afttctinyss." , . ,.; . . ^^4} Tit. Liv, hb, '^(), cap. 6. ^^ Sk. VII. ryy..-'^ ' Luxurppi.,.. If! 361; ma, for dating as articles of luxury what are |io more but decent for a tradefnnan and his wife. John Muffo, a native of Lombardy, who alfo wrote in the fourteenth century, declaims againfl: the luxuiy of his cotemporaries, particularly againfl that of the citizens of Placentia his countrymen. " Luxury of the table," fays he, *^ of drefs, of houfes an»i houfhold furniture, in Placentia, began to creep in after the year 1300. Houfes have at prcfcnt halls, rooms with chimneys, portico's, wells, gar- *5. dens, and many other ccnveniencies, unknown to our anceftors. A houfe that has now many chim- (( cc C( (C cc cc cc cc <( cc neys, had none in the lafi: age. The fire was placed in the middle of the houfe, without any vent for the fmoke but the tiles : all the family fat round it, and the victuals were drcffcd there. *5 The expence of hpuihold-furniture is ten times greater than it was fixty years ago. The tafte for fuch expence comes to us from Flanders, and f^ from Spain. Eating-tables, formerly but twelve f inches long, arp now grown to eighteen. They f' have table-cloths, with cups, fpoqns, and forks, *' of filyer, and large knives. Beds haye filk co- " verings and curtains. They have got candies of ** tallow or wax in candlefticks of iron or copper. " Almoft every where there are two fires, one for *' the chamber and one for the kitchen. Confcdi- ons have come greatly in ufe, and fenfuality re- gards no expence." Hollinllied exclaims againll the luxury and effeminacy that prevailed in his time. In times pad,'* fays he, " men were contented to dwell in houfes buildcd of fallow, willow, plumtrce, or elm ; fo that the ufe of oak was de- " dicated to churches, religious houfes, princes pa- ** laces, noblemens lodgings, and navigation. But " Jiow, thefc are rejected, and nothing but oak any whit regarded. And yet fee the change ; for when our houfes were builJed of willow, then had we oaken men j but now that our houfes 3 " arc a cc cc it 1( (C (C cc 1 I" •Ji' I '■ ii'i II ,:. ( I'i! •» ;,'! m I ;' ?! ;i fi If J w 362 Mkn independent of Sodewy. B. I. cc C( cc ** arc made of oak, our men arfi not only become ♦' villow, but many, through PerOan d<;!kacy crept '* iti among us, altogether oi (traw, which is a fore " alteration. In tnofe days, the courage of the " owner was a fufficicnt defence to keep the houfe ** in fafcty ; but now, the afltirafice of the timber, " double doors, locks and bolts, muft defend the min from robbing. Now, have we many chim- neys, and our tenderlings complain of rheums, catarrhs, and pofes. Then, had we none but " r'erc-doffes, and our heads did never ake. For aij " the fnioke in thofe days was fuppofed to be a fuf- " ficient hardening for the timber of the houfe j fo " it was reputed a far better medicine to keep the " good man and his family from the quack or pofe, ** whertjwith very few were then acquainted." Not many more than fifty years ago, French wine in Edinburgh taverns, was prcfcntcd to the guefts in a fmall tin veffel, meafuring about an Englifli pint. A Tingle drinking-glafs ferved a company the whole evening ; and the firft perfons who infiOed for a clean glafs with every new pint, were accuff d of lux- ury. A knot of highlanders benighted, wrsppetl themfelves up in their plaids, and lay down in the inow to fleep. A young gentleman making up a ball of fnow, ufed it for a pillow. His father (a), ftrrking away the ball with his foot, " What, Sir," fays he, " are you turning effeminate?" Crantz, def- cribing the kingdo*^. of Norway and the manners of the people, has the following reflection, llobulliili- " mos educat viros, qui, nulla frugum luxuria mo- " lit!, ftcpius impugnant ahos quam impugnantur *." In the mountainous ifland of Rum, one of the wcflcrn iflands of Scotland, the corn produced ferves the inhabitants but a few months in winter. The reft {aj Sir Evan Cameron. . v/ . ' ■ • " • *' It pxpduces a^moft rohuft race of men, who are enervated hy no *• luxury ot fotrd," strtd' are more prone to attach and hurafs their ncighbouis '• th*n luHjeited to ihrir attacks." 1 1. oine Tcpt fore the oufc ber, the im- Sk.VlI. - •'" • Luxury. •"' ' 363 reft of the year thty live on flcfh, fifh, and milk ; and yet are healthy and long-lived. In the year i'^6Bf a man died there aged 103, who was 50 years old before he ever tafted bread. This old man fre-' qu'^itly harangued upon the plain fare of former tinges*; finding fault with his neighbours for indulg- ing in bread, and upbraiding them for toiling like flavcs to produce fuch an unneceflary article of lux- ury. The tnhabitantK of Canada before they were known to Europeans, wcr ■ but thinly cloathed in a bitter coid climate. They had no covering but a fmgle fkin, girded about them with a belt of leather. The coarfe woollen cloaths which they were taught to wear by the French, raifed bitter lamentations in their old men for increafe of luxury and decline of manners. -' ■■ '' •'*'''■*- " :■• • • "'a Thus, every one exclaims againft the luxury of the prefent times, judging more favourably of the paft ; as if what is luxury at prefent, would ceafe to belu3?ury when it becomes cuftomary. What is the foundation of a fentiment fo univerfal? In point of dignity, corporeal pleaH'vcb arc the lowed of all that belong to our nature ; and for rhat reafon perfons of delicacy diflemble the pleafure they have in eating and drinking (a). When corporeal pleafure is in- dulged to excefs, it is not only low, but mean. But as in judging of things that admit of degrees, com- parifon is the ordinary ftandard ; every refinement in corporeal pleafure beyond what i^ cullomary, is held to be a blameable extefs, below the dignity of human nature. For that reafon, every Improvement in Ir- ving is pronounced to be' luxiry while recent, and drops that character when it comes into common ufe; For the fame reafon, what is moderation in the capital, is efteemed luxury in a country-town. Doth luxury then' depend entirely on cotriparifon ? is there no other founaation £ot diflinguifliing mo- . ;.. . . derition (*) Element* of Critlclfm, • ol. i. p. 356. edi'.. 1;. iLij t< \m\ i 564 Men independent of i'MKicty. . p. I^. deration from txccfs ? This wiil hardly be rj>ain.. This fubjccl is Veneered obfcurftt>y giving different meanings to the :cr.u luxury. A French wiiter holds every fort ol food to be luxury but raw flcfli and acorns, -vjhich were the original food of favagesj and every fort of covering to be luxury but (kins, •which were their original cloathing. According to that definition, the plough, the fpadc, the loom, are ^11 of tjiem inftrumtnts of luxury ; in which vie\y, jde juflly extols luxury to the ilucs. We are jjorn naked, becaufe we can clothe ourlclves ; and artlft-' cial cloathing is to man as much in the order of nar ture, as hair or fcatliers arc to other animals. But whatever accords to the common^ nature of man, is right ; and for that rcafon cannot in a proper fenfc be termed luxury. Shoes are a refinenjent frpiii walking barefoot ; and Voltaire, taking this rcfinc- jnent to be luxury, laughs at thofe who declaim a- gainfl: luxury. Let every man enjoy the privilege of giving his own meaning to words : hut when a man deviates fo far from their ufual meaning, the negled to define them is inexcufablc, In common language and in common apprehenfion, luxury always implies a faulty cxcefs ; and upon that accoijnt, is condemn- Cjd by all writers, fuch pply excepted a:; afTccl to bj; fingular. .,„ .,),,.,.• ..,,,,!♦ ir> »,,.- ■ Faulty excefs is clearly one brancl^jpf the defini- tion of luxury. Another is, that;tlieexce(s mufl be l^abitual : a fingle a«^ of int^emperar^ce, Ijowevpr faul- ty, is not denominated .luxury; rpii^era^ion mull be ip frequent, as tp, becpmi? a confirmed habit. Nor are thefe p^^;^i(cular^ all tbat enter into the dc- , §jiition of luxury. Tl)ere are many pleafurcSy how- eyer, intemperate or habitual,. that ^ar^^not. bfandrd with .that odi^.yq, na.me. JVIeiital pj|cafnr^ fuch^as , arifes.from fentimcnt or rcafoninc, falls not witnin , th,^ verge or luxury, to whatever excels indulged. It 'to relieve merit in diflrefsbe luxury, it is only fo in a mctapliorjca! >j ' I r s^.vii. ...'.y Luxury, 36s rem loldb and a metaphorical fcnfe : nor is it deemed luxury in a damlcl ot fiftcc 11 to perufc love novels from morning till 'Evening. Luxury is confined to the external fenfes: nor does it belong to every one oft hcfe : the tine arts have no relation to luxury. Amr.nisnot even laid to be luxurious, merely for indulging in drcfs, or in fine furniture. Hollinlhed inveighs againft drin^-ing-gialfes as an article of luxury. .1 that raf' '>ufe adorned with fine pi£\ures o fh* - tties, u "^.n imputation on the prop wior. Thus, p tevicw every pleafurc of extern;*! fenfe, we uuu that in proper language the term luxury is not applicable to any pleafurc of the eye or ear. That term is confined to the pleafures of tafte, touch, and fmell,. which appear • as exiiling at the organ of fenfe and upon that account are held to be merely corporeal {a). • Having thus circumfcribed our fubjedt within its proper bounds, the important point that remains to be' afcertained isi Whether we have any rule for: determining , what excefs incorporeal pleafure may juftly be denominated faulty. About that point ive are at no lofs* Tho* our prefent life be a ftate of trial, yet our Maker has kindly indulged us in every pleafure that is not hurtful to the mind nor to the body ; and therefore no excefs but what is hurt- ful falls under the cenfure of being luxurious : it is faulty as a tranfgreffion of fclf-duty ; and as fuch is condemned by the moral fenfe. The moft violent declaimer againlt luxury will not affirm, that bread is luxury, or a fnow-ball ufed for a pillow : thefe are innocent, becaufe they do no harm. As little will it be affirmed, that dwelling-houfes more capacious than thole originally built, ought to be condemned as luxury; feeing they contribute to chearfulncfs as well as to health. The plague, fome centuries ago, made frequent vifits to London, promoted by lir ; •■ ^ . ftagnathig (a) See Elements of Crlticifin, liuroduilion. ,1,1 "1 m ;:i; -> IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /. i- C/j 1.0 I.I 1.25 ■ii Ki |2.2 S us 110 1.8 U 1 1.6 ? PhotDgraphic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 (716) 872-4503 m i\ ,v <^ \\ o\ 4|06 Men independent of Society. VtYB* J. ft ogn^ting in narrowitreetd ami fmall -boufeSr . , {¥in>m the greal: fire uano 1 666, \r hen the liou£r& afkd lObeotb iw^re enlarged, the plague has not once becii iftLoirii-' Man confifts of foul' and hodfi fo intitaaitedyjiCoiiH neded that the one cannot be 2ut/eatfe while thet other fuflfers. In order to have mensfAna. in arpore [0^94'^ ianeceflary t6 Hudy the health of hotht c ' boilily lleaii^ {upports the' mind;; and ktotbiikg tends motier thati cheerfulnefs to Cuppoct the bodyi^ einen iitader z^-^-k eaiib. To pre&rve this complicated machirie in ordetl^ certain exercifes are proper for the body, andcerjUain for ihe mind$ wbich.ought never jto encroach theijone on the other. Much motion andbodijy e^eercife tend to make us robuft; but in the. mean' time ithe. mind is ftarved: muchi^reading and Deflection fordfyrthe mind, but in the mean time thd llaiody-j is ftanvedi Nor is.' this jdln'i cxcefs fin ckheffalsidefWuifitJird to both.; for : exercifQ too ^lolent^ :i«hether of; mind orbody^ wears the roachitie; ItiddleQce^T on thd other hand, relaxes the machihe, and 1 renders , it iveak or u&lefs. . Bodily indoleaceibreeds the gont^ the gravel, and many tsther dlifeafesc inor is mental indolence lef& pernicious, for it breeds: peeyiilmc& and pufiUanimity.^ Thus, heah^ both of mind-snrd body is bcfb pceferved by imoderato exercifei And hence a general priipofition ^i That every indulgenod in corporeal plcaiUre^ nvhich favours either too viq* lent or too: languid exercife, Avhether of mind or body, is^hurtfuU and confequently isi luxury in its proper fcnfe.. It Jj fcarce nece&ry ta be added, that every fuch .indulgence is condemned by the moral feni'c; of whichi every man: can bear teftimo-*- ay frora.what he himfelf feels. Too great indulgence in corporeal pleafurc feldom prompts violent exercife ; but inftances are without number, of its relaxing even that moderate degree of -exercife which is healthful both to mind and body. This in particular is the cafe of too great in* dulgcnce Bvl. SkllVlI. :''no2 i Luxuryi, ;n .M' ^7 dulgence in eaicmg or drinking: fifch induligefkco, cccating a habitual appetite for more than nature re- quiretf, loads- the (lomach, depre(&s the fpiri€s$t lii'yw'.- '..'...' ^ \ lay « ^joii; u .ry.i :}hii ..'.Jfi' * Luxury and f^UiAiners render men covywds. People who are attached to riches or to fenfital ^leafure, cannot think without horror of abandonln; them. A virtuous man considers himfelf as placed here in order to obey the will of liis Maker .: ; he j>er(y}riP' his duty, . and .is ready to quit his poft. upon tI]ie.|ir(^(ummons. v. . [i I: ti ojfis Men independent of Society. ''^ B»'4, 1 ftrjr it with regrfet, but muft fey it, tfiat a luxurlbts table, corered with every dainty, feems to be their favottrite idol. A minifter of ftate never withftands irfeaft ; and the link that. unites thofe iiioppofiti6n» M. the cramming one another*. I (hall not befur- pAM to hear, that the cramming a miftrefs has be- come the moft faihionable mode of courtihip. Lux- Airy in eating is not unknown in then: univerfitiesi; the only branch of education that fieldom proves tiibbttive.' It has not, efcaped obfervation, that be- tweech the 1740 and 1770 no fewer than (ix mayors of London died in office, ^ greater number thin in the preceding 500 years : fuch havock doth luxury in eating make among the fons of Albion f. How differisnt the manners of their forefiathers ! Bonduda their Queen,:. ready to engage the Romans in a |>itched battle^ encouraged her amw with a padietk fpeech, urging iir particular the follbwing coniidera- tion : ** The' great advantage we have over them isj that they cannoti like us, bear hunger, thirft, heat, nor cold. They muft have fine bread, •'-wine, and warnfi houTcs: every hc*b and root fatisfies our hunger; water fupplies^^ the want of wine y and every tree is; to us a warm houfe (», ^.The indulging in down-beds, foft pillows, .;. a eafy feats is a fpe|ies;of luxury ; becaufe it tends to enervate the body^ and: to render it unfit for fatigue. Some London ladi^ employ an operator for pairiiig their naiis. Two young women of high quality, k ;^-.:- ..,^. ..,:.. >;■..:.. , ^, ■■ yf]x0 •^ f» This was compofed In th« year 1770.- X /-UI U: 3 ^iln^-^ JC*^ -^^ f Suicide is not influenced by a foggy air; for I^ is not more frequ«nt rh the fens of Lincoln or Eflex, than in other parts of England. A habif of daily exccfs in eating and drifiking, with intervals of downy eafe, rebx every fitental fpring. The man flags in his fpirits, becomes latriguid and low : nor thing moves him : every connexion with the world is dilTolyed : a tadium 'vhfF enfit.es; and then— ——•• ■''■*^' ■• -'--^^U^ -.; "^- ' • -•- «( the early ages of lipmcy women ilaves were the oftjy phyfici;^ns, beeaufe vegetables were tl^e ipUef foo^^f the, people ;, who befide were con- .ftajuly employed in war or in huibandry* When luxury pri;yai|pd among the lloiTians, their difeafes niultiplied^ and phyfic beca.me a liberal profeflion. * "^ith, refpeA to exercifiw, the various machines that h^ve been .invented for executit.g every fort of wprk, render bodily ftrcngth of lefs importance than formerly*; llus .change is favourable to mental ope- rations, ^k'ithout.hurting bodily health. The travel- ling on horieback, though a lefs vigorous exertion o£ flrength than walking, is not luxury, becaufe it is a 'hea|thful^xercife. I dare not fay fo nFHich for wh^el-carrlages : a fpring- coach rolling along a finooth road, gives no exercife ; or fo little, as to be preventive of no difeafe : it tends to enervate the body, and in fome meafure alfo the mind. The in** creafc of wheel carriages witliin a century, is a preg- nant proof of the growth of luxurious indolence. During the rcigh i&f James I. the £ngli(h judges rode to Weftminfter on horfeback, and probably did fo for rnaiiy years after his, death, Charles!. ilTued a proclamation,' - prohibiting haekncy-coaches to be Vol. I. Bb ufei M i\l r I' I' :i' V- . )l M.: 111 ! i: i !> : :! 1 ■i. '370 M£N independent of Society. >•> B. I. vfied in London, except by thofe who travel at Icaft three miles out of town. At the Reftoration, Charles 11. niade hts public entry into London on horieback, between his two brothers, Dukes of York andGloucefter. We have Rufli worth for our vo^icher, that in London, not above a hundred years ago, there were but twenty hackney-coaches j which did not ply on the ftreets*, but were kept at home till called for. He adds, that the King and council pub- lifhed a proclamation againil them ; becaufe they raifed the price of provender upon the King, no- bility, and gentry. At prefcnt, looo hackney- coaches ply on the flreets of London ; befide a great number of ftage- coaches for travelling from -London to all parts of the kingdom. The firft coach with glaffes in France was brought from Bruffels to Paris, anno 1660, by the Prince of Cond6. ' Sedan-chairs were not known in Eng- land before the year 1634. Cookery and coach- es have reduced the military fpirit of the Engliih nobility and gentry,, to a languid ftate : the former, by overloading the body, has infe£ted them with difpiriting ailments ; the latter, by foftering eafe and indojence, have banifhed labour, the only an- tidote to fuch ailments *. Too great indulgence in the fine arts, confumes part of the time that ought to be employed on the important duties of life ; but the fine arts, even when too much indulged, produce one good effcd, which is, to foften and humanize our manners : nor do they harm the body, if they relax not that degree of cxercife which is ncceifary for fupporting it in health and vigour. i .. . ^ .,1.,,. ♦ J'ai toujours va ce»x qui vojrageoient dans de bonnes voitures \?im douc^s, reveurs, triA«s, grondahs ou fouftrans ; et les pietons toujours gais, 16gers, et contcns de tout. ^ Combien le coeur rit quand on. approche du gtte I Combien an repas groffier paroit favou^eux ! avec quel plaifir on fe. repofe ir table ! Qtisl bon ibmmeJl on fait dans un niauvais Vn ! Honj/ean Bmiit. ago, hdid he till pub- thcy no- The Sk;VlI. . ^.x.". , 1 1 LuHury, m ' The enervating cffe&s of' luxury upon the bo- •^jt are above all remarkable in war. The officers of Alexander's army, were foon tainted with Atia- tic manners. Moil of them, aft«r bathing hadfcr- vants for rubbing them,^hd inftead of plain oil, ufed precious ointments. Leonatus in particular com* miflioned from Egypt the powder he ufed when he wreftlcd, whicn loaded feveral camels. Alex^ andcr reproved them mildly: •* I wonder that *' men who have undergone fuch fatigues in war, " are not taught by experience, that labour pro* " duces fwccter and founder fleep than indolence. *' To be voluptuous, is an abjed and flavilh flate. *^ How can a man take care of his horfe, or keep *^ his armour bright, who difdains to employ his *' own hands upon what is deareft to him, his own « body (fl)?" With reiped to the mind in particular, mani- fold are the pernicious effects of luxury. Corpo- real pleafures are all of them felfifli ; and when much indulged tend to make felfifhnefs the leading principle. Voluptuoufncfs accordingly, relaxing every fympathetic affeftion, brings on a beaitly felfiinnefs, which leaves nothing of a man but the external figure. Luxury bcfide renders the mind fo effeminate, as to be fubdued by every diftrefs : the flightcft pain, whether of mind or body, is a real evil : and any higher degree be- comes a torture. The French are far gone in that difeafe. Pictures of deep diftrefs, which attract Englifli fpeftators, are to the French unfupporta- ble : their averfion to pain overcomes the attractive power of fympathy, and debars from the ftage eve- ry diftrefs that makes a deep imprefllon. The Bri - tilh are gradually finking into the fame weaknefs : Venice preferved collcfts not fuch numbers as it did originally ; and would fcarce be endured, were not V''^ "'■ ' '■ ""■ B b ^. ••^•'■•'•' •^' • ^••■^'- our ,1 i. m 1.' ■"C..' (a) Plutarch. 372 MiM independent of Society. '"B, I. ill J f!,stl; our fympathy blunted by familiarity : a new play in a fimilar tone v/oM not take. The gradual decay of manhood in Britain, appears from their funeral rites^ Fovmerly the deceafed were attend- ed to the grave, by relations and friends of both fexes ; and the day of their death was preferved in remembrancej with folemn lamentation, as the day of th^ir birth was with exhilarating cups. In England^ a man wa3 iirft relieved from attending his deceafed wife to the grave; and afterward from attending his deceafed children ; and now fuch ef- feminacy of mind prevails therc^ that upon the laft groan^ the deceafe^i abandoned by every, re- lation, is delivered to an undertaker by profeili-^ on, who is left at leifure td ,mimick the funieral rites. In Scotland, fuch refinement has not yet taken place : a man is indeed exciifed from attend- ing his wife to the grave ; but he performs that duty in perfon to every other relation, his children not excepted J I am,. told, that people of high fafliion in England^ begin to leave the care of their fickTclations to hired nucfes; and think they do their duty in making, {haftvifits from ^ime to time. '.V n .■ ;,., Ti,r'»!' .-•■r, :•►.:•-.:,, pf, , .^ \_ 't... -.;■• ;'. ■:>r. Hitherto I have confidered luxury with refpefl to thofe. only who ar^ infc^ed with it ; and did its poifon fpread no wi^ef* the cafe would be the lefs deplorable. But imhappily, where luxury pre- vails, the innocent fufl'er with the guilty. A man of oeconomy, whether a merchant or a manufac- turer, lays up a (lock for his children, and adds ufcful members to the ftate* A man, on the con- trary,, who lives above his fortune, or his ptofitSyac- cuiloms his children to luxury^ itnd abandons them to poverty when he dies. Luxury at the fame time is a great enemy to population: it enhances the ex^pencc of living, and, confmcs many to tlie bat- rhclor-ftate. Luxury of the table in particular is Ti^mirkable for that eife^k ; ** L'homihe riche met " touts isk; viL lv>. ,•' Luxufyfinu'i *}/ 373 ** toute fa gtoire h. confommer, toute fa grandeur *' i pcrdrCi en un jour k fa table, plus de bicns *' qiill n'ltn faudroit pour fajrc fubfiilcr plufieur? " families. II abufe 6galement et des animaux et *' dds hqmme^ ; dont le refte demeure affame, lanr ** guit dans la mifere, et ne travaille que pourfatif- ** faire i I'appdtit immod6r6, et a la vanite encore *' plus infatiable, de cet homme ; qui detruifant les *^ auCres par la difette, fe detruit l^i•metne par Ics ** execs (;«) ^.*' ^rv:^.-^ ■^""Vw.y.w^n^ ■k.ih.jTiO Ztfi'^ To confider luxury in a politiqal view, no re- finement of drefs, of the table, of equipage, of ha- bitation, is luxury in thofe who can afford the ex- pence ; and the public gains by the cncouragcr ment that is giiren to arts, manu£ii^ures, and com- merce. But a mode of living abovp a man's an* nual income, weakens the (late, by reducing to po- verty, not only the fquanderers themfelves, but many innocent and induflrious perfons connected itrith them. Luxury is above all pernicious in a commercial flate. A perfon of moderation is fa^ tisfied with fmall profits : npt io the luxurious, who defpife every branch of trade but what rer turns great profits; other branches are engroffed by foreigners who arc more frugal. The mer- chants of Amflerdam, and even of London, with- in a century, lived with more oeconomy than their clerks do at prefent. Their country-houfes and gardens, make not the greatefl articles of their ex- pence. At firfl^ a merchant retires to his coun- try-houfc on , Sundays only and holydays : but be^ ginning to relifh indolent retirement, bufmefs grows 3 irkfome. •f ■» ' jy- T-" (a) Buffbh. • ** The Ible glory of the rich man i$, to. confumc and deftroy ; and hi'« *' grandeur confifts, in lavishing in one day upon the expence of His table ** what would procure fubfi of luxury above difplayed, are not the whole, nor indeed the moil deflrudtive. In all times luxury has been the ruin of every ftate where it prevailed* But that more important branch of the fubjed, is referved to particular (ketches, where it will make a better figure. In the favage ilate, man is almoft all body, with a very fmall proportion of mind. In the ma- turity of civil fociety, he is complete both in mind and body. In a itage of degeneracy by luxury and voluptuoufnefs, he has neither mind nor body *. . -J - i- >...•' ... • " Ccfaror nothing." * In ancient Bgypt, execution againft the perfon of t debtor was proht. bited. Such a law could not obtain but atnong a temperate people, where ^okrupKy happens by mitfortun^s, and leldom by luxury or cxtravajitQce. Ii.-J? \1 ;..vt^'{V:.!.':.v.. V. j,,--l-^^ ,.;, . ;^ i r: C%i ..A [ ' T ' ' ' ' ' V ■ • ■ ^ • ■■-..-,- , , 'j \ . • i fc - V» - ■ ^ ,.. I * v. ^- t ^ • -• . n 'w <^" . > .'tf '■'*,■ • * y • - *■'-.*-.«(► ;- IJ'l SKETCHES V < . , ■ , „ OF TH e ! I .V:. ».'■ SKETCHES L *"v,, V* "* • ;.V^ V'- HISTORY OF MAN. .1 ■ « . I.I. 41 ^ -'-t ■ -.■<•• BOOK II. ^^ J, V ti ••:/•• Progrem of Men in Society. ' JU -"''i '■ I* . . P R E F A C E. *' , 'I' jr ^ /i&tf cottrfe of explaining this fubje fly no opportU' nity is omitted of fuggefting an important doilriney That patriotifm is the corner -fione of civil focieiy ; that no nation ever became great and powerful withou* it ; and when extinguijhedy that the mojl powerful nation will totter and become a ruin* But I profefs only to flate fails, Frm thefe the reader will not fail to draw the obfervation : and what he himfelf obferves will fink deeper, than what is inculcated by an author, however pathetically* I'l -1 •/■ •, SKETCH - fc - A .i .,.: J': m mmmmm ^tr iivjiuM. v^u-^^rj I J'd T C r I '<\ • }> , Appetite for Socicty,-^Origin of National Sociciia*\^u ,. ■■ ^' ■ ■ ill" T "«-'"•■ " ■■ ' ' 'V ";:;; .. ......»...,, HAT tlicre is in man an appetite for fociety, never was galled in qucftion *. But to what end the appetite ferves, whether it* erfibracc tbc wholf: fpccies or be in any manner limited, whether men be naturally qualified for being ufeful members of civil fociety, and whether they are fitted for being happy in it, are quedions that open extenfive views into human nature, and yet have (teen little attend- ed to by writers. I grieve at the neglcd, becaufc in the prefent enquiry, thefe queftions, however ab- llrufc, muft be difculTcd. . .^/ /Viooi ru' i:::^'1(m.- • This appetite is not denied by Vitruvlus j bnt it fi-eirt* fo have beert ' overlooked in the account he gives (hook 2. cU. i.) ot the cotnini-ncenient ot° ■ fociety, which is as follows. ♦' In ancient times, men, like wild bewfts, lived *' in cavos and wood;, feeding on wild fond, In a certain place it happened, " that the trees, put in motion by tempeAuoiis winds, and rubbing their .' " branches one againll another, took Are. Thofe in the neighbourhood " Hed for fear t but as the flame abated, they approaciied i and (inding the " heat comfortable, they threw wood into the Are, :ind preferred it from b«* ^ " ing extingui/hed. Thiy then invited others to take benefit of th« Art;. '' Men, thns alfombled^ endoavo6red to exprefs' their thoughts by alYicu- '' late founds ; and by daily practice, certain founds lignifying things in fre- ' *' quent ufe, cametobeeA'ablinied. From that caAial event, language arofe. *' And thus, Are having attraAtd many to ope place, they foon difcovered *' that they were by nature fuperior to other animals, diil'ering from them " not only in an ercdl poAure, which gave them oppprtunity to behold tite '* beauties of the heavens as well as of the earth } but alf6. ifi their hands " and Angers, Atted fof executing whatever they could invent. They there- ' *' fore began to cover their habitations with the bous;hs of trees : fqme dug " caves in the mountains ; and, in imitation of a fwalluw's nelt, fome (hel- " teredthemfeives with fprigs and loam . Thus, by observing each other's " work and turning their thoughts to Invention, they by duj^rees improved *' their habitations, and became daily more and more ikilfuk" Uiudorus Si- cuius (lib. I.) fays, that men originally led a favage life, without any focie^ ty j that fear made them join tor mutual dc tenee againfl beafls of prey ; thdt cultoci by degrees made thcin focial ^ and that each fociety formed a language Kk itldf. Has nut the celebrated Ruuireau been guilty of the fame , overligiH in his clfay on the inequaijty of nwn ? Thefe authors fuggeft to me the butcher, who nude diligent fearch tor his knife,, svhich he he!d In hii trcth. i M Sk. I. Origin of Nations* 377 focial, As many animals, bcfidc man, are lociai, it ap« peared to me probable, that the focial laws by which I'uch animals are governed, might open views into the focial nature of man. But here I met with a fecond difappointment; for after perufing books without end, I found very little fatisfadtion ; tho' the laws of animal fociety make the moft inftru£live and mod entertaining part of natural hiftory. A few dry fads, collected occafionally, enabled me to form the embryo of a plan, which I here prefent to the reader : if nis curiofity be excited, 'tis well ; for I am far from expefting that it will be gratified. Animals of prey have no appetite for fociety, if the momentary adt of copulation be not excepted. Wolves make not an exception, even where hunger makes them join to attack a village : as fear prevents them fingly from an attempt fo hazardous, their ca- fual union is prompted by appetite for food, not by appetite for fociety. So little of the focial is there in wolves, that if one happen to be wounded, he is put to death and devoured by thofe of his own kind, Vultures have the fame difpofition. Their ordinary food is a dead carcafe ; and they never venture, but in a body, to attack any living creature that appears formidable. Upon fociety happinefs fo much de- pends, that we do not willmgly admit a lion, a tir^T, a bear, or a wolf, to have any appetite for fociety. And in with-holding it from fuch animals, the good- nefs of Providence to its favourite man, is conipicu* ous : their ftrength, agility, and voracity, make them fingly not a little formidable : I fhould tremble for the human race, were they difpofed to make war in company*. , .,,, „.,.,,.::,. '<': l^ i) i -, J '<^j ■ m * The care of Providente In prote(A!nK the human race from animals of prey, is equally vilibie in other particulars. I can difcover no fa^s to make tne believe, that a lion or a tigrr is afraid of a man ; but whatever fecret niean$ areetnploy'd by Providence to keep fuch fierce and voracious animals at adiHance, cuiain it is, that they Hiun the habitations of men. At pretbnt there is not a wild l^m in Europe, Even in Homer's time there were none in f: f T If m m 378 Civit Society. B. U. -Such hacnilcfs animals as arc unable to defend themfelves ftnglyj arc provided with an appetite for fociety, that they may defend themfelves in a body, bheep ave remarkable in that refpeft, when left to nature : a ram feldom attacks ; but the rams of a tlock exert great vigour in defending their females and their young *. Two of Bakewell's rams, brought to Langholm in the Duke of Buccleugh's cilate, kept clofe together. The one was taken ilU and died, the other gave clofe attendance, ftood be- Tide the dead body, and abllained from food for fome days : nor did it recover its fpirits for a long time. : ;. .■/'.■. ;, ,;tv';^:, ' ;-,' The WJ ■If f! ; in Peloponnefus, though they were frequent in Thrace, Macedon, and Thcflaly, down to the time of Ariftotle : whence it is probable, that thefe countries were not at that time well peopled. And the fame' probability holdswithrefpe^ to feveral mountainous parts in China, which even ||it pre>> A nt are inf« Buffon obfervcs, that the bear, though far from being cowardly, never is at cafe Ibut in wild and dcfart plaees. The great condor of Peru, a bird of pr?iy of an inimenre fize, bold and rapacious^ is never feen but In lance. But if men, like Iheep, were the natural prey of a lioti or a tigerj, rlieir utmofl vigour and fagacity would fcarce be fufflcient for felf-defence. Perpetual war would be their fate, without having a Hngle moment for any other occupation ; and they mu,^ for ever have continued in a brutifh ftate. It is poflible that a few cattle might be proteAed by armed men, continually on the watch; but to defend flocks and herds covering a hundred hills, would he impra^icable. Agriculture could never have exiAed in any Aiap^. * M. Buft'on !ia& bedewed lefs pains than becomes an author pf his cha- Ira^er, upon the nature and inOin£ts of animals. He fcarce once flumbl^ upon truth in his natural hiAory of the fheep. He holds it to be Aupid, and Incapable to defend Itfelf againd any beall of prey ; maintaining, that tht race could not have fubfiilcd but under the care and protection of men. Han tliat autiior forgot, that (Tieep had no enemy more formidable than men in tlieir original hunter-date ? Far from being negledlcd by nature, there are liuw animals better provided for defence. They have a fort of military in- (HnA, forming a line of battle, Ukefoldiers, when threatened with an attack. The rams, who, in a natural (late, make half of the flock, join together j and no lion or tiger is able to relift their united impetuofity, A ram, edu- cated by a foldier, accompanied his njafter to the battle of CuUoden. When a cannon was fired, it njoiced and ran up to it. It adlually began the bat'tlc, advancing before the troops, and attacking fomq|logs of the highland ariiiy, . . \l t'V^ \. VL Sk. I. Orl^n of Nations, i79 The whole focicty of rooks join in attacking a kite, when it hovers about them. A family of wild fwine never feparate, till the young be fufficicmly ftrong to defend themfelves againft the wolf ; and when the wolf threatens, they all join in a body. The pccary is a fort of wild hog in the ifthmus of Darien : if one of them be attacked, the reft run to allift it. There being a natural antipathy between that animal and the American tiger, it is not uncommon tb find a tiger (lain with a number of dead pecaries round him. ;. ; The focial appetite is to fome animals ufeful, not only for defence, but for procuring the neceffarie's of life. Society among beavers is a notable inftance of both. As water is the only refoje of that inno- cent fpecies againft an enemy, ihw'y inftinftivcly make their fettlcment on the brink of a lake or of a running ftream. In the latter cj^fe, they keep up the water to a proper height by a dam-dike, con- flruded with fo much art as to withftand the greateft floods : in the former, they fave themfelves the la- bour of a dam-dike, becaufe a lake generally keeps at the fame height. Having thus provided for de- fence, their next care is to provide food and habita- tion. The whole fociety join in ereding the dam- dike ; and they alfo join m erecting houfes. Each houfe has two apartments : in the upper th^^re is fpace for lodging from fix to ten beavers : the under holds their provifions, which are trees cut down by united labour, and divided into fmall portable parts (a). Bees are a fimilar inftance. Ariftotlc (b) fays, " that bees are the only animals which labour in common, have a houfe in common, eat in common, and have their offspring in common." A fmglc bee would be ftill lefs able than a fingle beaver, to build a houfe for itfclf and for its winter- food. (a) Sev the works of the beaver defcrlbed mod accurately by M. Buffon, vol. 8. (i) Hiftory of animals, b, 6. c, 40, (( cc r ^ i ii 4 'I 1 k : y; p I.f ^ Ji 1: 380 Civii, Society. ' B. it food. The Alpine rat or marmoui nas"rib be- cafton to ftore up food for winter, bccailfe it lies benumbed without motion all the cold mottths. But thcfe animals live in tribes j and each tribe digs a habitation underground with great art, fuf- ficiently capacious for lodging the whole .tribe ; covering the bpttom with withered grafs, whlcjh fome cut, and others carry. The wild dogs of Congo and Angpla hunt in packs, waging per- petual war againft other wild beafts. They bring to the place of rendezvous wh?itever is caught in hunting; and each receives its fliare*. The ba- boons are fociai apimals, and avail tliemfelves of that quality in procuring food ; witnefs their ad- drefs in robbijjg an orchard, defcribed by Kolben in his account of the Cape of Good Hope. Some go into the orchard, fome place themfelves on the wall, the reft form a line on the outfide, and thp fruit is thrown from hand to hand till it reach the place of rendezvous. Extending the enquiry to all known animals, we find that the appetite for fo- , ciety is with-held from no ipecies to which it is ne- ccffary, whether for defence or for food. It ap- pears to be diftributed by weight and meafure, in order to accommodate the internal frame of animals to their external circumftances. ' ,f " . , On fome animals an appetite for fociety is be- ftowcd, though in appearance not neceffary either for defence or for food. With regard to fuch, the only final caufe we can difcover is the pleafure of Jiving in fociety. That kind of fociety is found a- niong horfes. Outhier, one of the French acade- micians employed to meafure a degree of the uie- ridian toward the north pole, reports, that at Tor- . iieo all bulky goods are carried in boats during fummer j ■> ''hj (.11 .f>i)') V \t :h .^/■■»firf*( t f7<".f * • ■" r* firf'.oi ♦ Holivevet fierce with refpeft to other animalj , ya fo fuhmlrtive are thefe «io(;s to men, as to fuffer their prey.to betalicn troni them.\^'lthput ieUll44tci^< rrr<.>fw'^i s flit for their flavfs what they thus procure, ^ I *ii oc- c it mhs. tribe ,ruf. ibe ; vhlcjh gs of pcr- Dring htin e ba- df Sk..:I. Origin of Nationr. .38' fujnmcr ; but in win^c hen the rivers arc frozen and ^hc ground coverc v;ith fnow, that ■ they ufe fledges drawn by horfcs j that when the fnow melts and the rivers are open, thehorfes, fct loofe, ^'endezvous at a certain part of the forcft, where they feparate iiito troops, and occupy different paftu re-fields ; that wlien thefe fields become bare, they occupy new ground in the fame order as at ifirft ; that they return home in troops when the bad weather begins ; and that every horfc knows its own ftall. No creature ftands lefs in need of • fociety than a hare, whether for food or for de- fence. Of food, it has plenty under its feet ; and for defence, it is provided both with cunning and fv^iftnefs. Nothing however is more common in a moorulight night, than to fee hares fporting toge- ther in the. moft focial manner. But fociety for pleafure pnly is an imperfect kind of fociety ; and far from being fo intimate, as where it is pro- vided by nature for defence, or for procuring food * With refpe^k to the extent of the appetite, no facial animal, as far as can be difcovered, has an appetite for aifociating with the whole fpecies. Every fpecies is divided into many fmall tribes ; and thefe tribes have no appetite for affociating with each other : on the contrary, a ftray fliecp is thruft out ■ _,. ; .- ^, ..,.-. '.■ ' »''-■• ■— *--* • ■•• ■•-"_-■ oi * Pigeons nwft be ejccepted, if their ibciety be not oecefTary either for food ' or habitation, of which I am uncertain. Society among that fpecies Is ex- tremely intimate ; and it is obfervable, that the place they inhabit contributes ta the intimacy. A crazy dove-cot moved the proprietor to transfer the inhabitants to a new hpufe built tor tiiem; and to accuftom them to it, they ^^^^e kept a fortnight within doots, with plenty of food. When they ob- tained liberty, they flew dir«£lly to their old houfe ; and feeing It laid flat, walked round and round, lamenting. They then took wing and difappeared, . without once catling an eye on their new habitation. Some brute animals ■ ite fufceptlble of affe^ion even t6 thofeof a different fpecies. Of the aflTe^i- , oil a dog has for his martcr, no perfon is ignorant, A canary bird, fo tame as to be let out of its cage, perched frequently on another c»ge in the fame . room by a linnet ; and the birds became good friendt. The linnet died : the c«nary bird was inconfolable, and fof bore linging above a year: It recove/ed its fpirits, and now chants as much as ever. •il i !l i ■' Jl ■■■ 382 Civil Society* B. IT; v?ll of the flock, and a ftray bee muft mflantly retire, or be flung to death. The dogs of a family never fail to attack a flranger dog, bent to deflroy him. If the flranger fubmit, they do him no harm \ Every work of Providence contributes to fome good end : a finall tribe is fufficient for mutual defence ; and a very large tribe would find difficulty in fubfiflence; ^' • How far brute animals are by nature qualified for being. ufeful members of civil fociety, or for being happy in it, are queflions that have been totally overlooked by writers. And yet, as that branch oif natural hiflory is alfo neceffary to my plan, I mufl proceed; though I have nothing to lay before the reader but a few fcattered obfervations, which oc-^ curred when I had no view of turning them to ac-* count. I begin with the inflindive Conduct of animals, in providing againfl dangerw When a flock of fheep in the flate of nature goes to rcfl, centineU are appointed ; who, on appearance of an enemy, flamp with the foot, and make a hifling found ; upon which all take the alarm : if no enemy appear^ they watch their time, return to the flock, and fend out others in their ftead. In flocks that have an ex- tenfive range in hilly countries, the fame difcipline obtains, even after domeflication. Though mon*^ keys fleep upon trees, yet a centinel is always ap' pointed ; who mufl not fleep under pain of being torn to pieces. They preferve the fame difcipline when they rob an orchard : a centinel on a high tree is watchful to announce the very firft appearance of an enemy. M. BufFon, in talking of a fort of mon- key, which he terms Malbroucky fays, that they are . fond of fruit, and of fugar-canes ; and that while they arc loading themfelves, one is placed centinel on a tree, who, upon the approach of a^man, cries, ' ■ ■■■"*■ :^- .?'. ■ -^' ' Houp! * Cclumella, trpating of goats, obfcrves that it is better to purchafe an entire Hock, than Koats out of different flocks, that they may not divide into ' different parties, but feed cordially together. . 11; Sk. I. Origin of Nations, 3^ Hottp / Houp / Houp / loudly and diftlnftly. Tliat moment they throw away the fugar- canes that they hold in their left hand, and rim otF upon that hand with their two feet. When marmouts are at work in the field, one us appointed to watch on a high rock ; which advertifes them by a loud whlflie, when it fees a man, an eagle, or a dog. Among beavers, notice is given of the approach of an ene- my, by lafliing the water with the tail, which is heard in every habitation. Seals always Jleep on the beach ; and to prevent furprife, centinels are placed round- at a confiderable diftance from the nu^in body. Wild elephants, who always travel in company, are lefs on their guard in places un- frequented : but when they invade cultivated fieldSf they march in order the eldeft in the firont, and the next in age clofmg the rear. The weak are placed in the centre, and the females carry their young on their trunks. They attack in a body ; and upon a repulfe, retire in a body. Tame elephants retain fo much of their original nature, that if one, upon being wounded, turn its back, the reft inftantly follow. Bell of Antrimo- liy, in his journey through Siberia to Pekin, men- tions wild horfes that live in fociety, and are pe- cuUarly watchful againft danger. One is always ftationed on an eminence, to give notice of an approaching enemy; and upon notice given, they all fly. Next in order is the government of a tribe, and the conduct of its members to each other. It is not unlikely, that fociety among fome animals, and their mutual affection, may be fo entire as to prevent all difcord among them ; which feems to be the cafe of beavers. Such a fociety, if there be foch, requires no government, nor any laws. A flock of fliecp occupies the fame fpot every night, and each hath its own refting- place. The fame is obfervable in horned cattle when folded. And as we fiud not, that any one ever I? \ Si£l: i\L- i: "■ 'I 384 Civil Society. B. II. ever attempts to diflodge another, it is probable that fuch redraint makes a branch of their na- ture. But foclety among brute animals is not al- ways fo perfect. Pervcrfe inclinations, tefiding to dillurb fociety, are vifible among fome brute a- nimals, as well as among rational men. It is not uncommon for a rook to pilfer (licks from ano- ther's neft ; and the pilferer's neft is demolifhed by the lex talionis* Herdns have the fame fort of government with rooks, in preferving their nefts. They are Angular in one particular, that there is no fociety among them but in hatching their young. They live together during that time, and do not feparate till their young can provide for themfelves. Perverfe inclinations require go- vernment, and government requires laws. As in the cafes now mentioned, the whole fociety join in infliding the punifliment, government, among rooks and herons appears to be republican. Apes, on the contrary, are under monarchical 'govern- ment. Apes in Siam go in troops, each under a leader, who preferves lirict difcipline. A female, carnally inclined, retired from the troop, and was followed by a male. The male efcaped from the leader who purfued them ; but the female was brought back, and in prefence of the whole troop received fifty blows on the cheek, as a chaflife- ment for its incontinence (a). But probably, there are not many inftances among brutes, of government approaching fo near to that of men. Government among horned cattle, appears to have no other end but to preferve order. Their go- vernment is monarchical ; and the eledion is founded upon perfonal valour, the mofl folid of all qualifications in fuch a fociety. The bull who afpires to be lord of the herd, mufl fight his way to preferment j and after all his rivals arc beat U), Mcmoifc cf Count ForWn, >? •s?. p- Sk. 1. Ortj^ln of fTathfis, 3S5 'beat off the field, the herd tamely iubinit. At the ikme time, he is not fecured in the throne for life ; but muft again enter the lifts \vith any bull that ventures to. challenge him. The fame fpirit is ob- fervable among oxen, in a lower degree. The mafter-ox leads the reft into the ftable, or into the fold, and becomes unruly if he be not let firfl out : tiay, he muft be firft yoked in the plough or wag- gon. ' Sheep are not employed in work } but in every other refpeft the fame economy obtains among them. Where the rams happen to be few in proportion to dther (hecp, they fometimes divide the flock among them, inftcad of fighting for pre- cedence. ' Five or fix feore of fheep, two of thent rams, were purchafed a few years ago by the author of this work. The two rams divided the flock be- tween them. The two flocks paftured in common ; being fliut up in one inclofure : but they had differ- ent fpots for reft during night} nor was it known, that a ftieep ever defertcd its party, or even changed its refting-place. In the two fpecies laft mentioned, I find not that there is any notion of punifliment ; nor does it appear to be necelTary : the leader pre- tends to nothing but prudence, which is never dif- puted. Every fpecies of animals have a few notes by which the individuals communicate their defires and wants to each other. If a cow or a calf give the voice of diftrefs, every beaft of the kind runs to give help. If a ftranger utter the voice of defi- ance, many advance for battle. If he yield, he ob* tains a certain rank in the herd. If a colony of rooks be fiiffered to msike a fettlement in a grove of trees, it is difficult to diflodge them. But if once diflodg- cdi they never return, at leaft for many years ; and* yet numbers muft have beeti procreated after banifli- niettt. How is thi^ otherways to be accounted for, but that rdoks havie fome faculty of conveying in- ftrU^on to their young ? Voi,. I. C c In II [' I , I: - u if \ If ii Si 1 ■-. 111 fir 386 Civil Society. B. II. In fomc animals love of liberty is the ruling pafli- on : fome are eafily trained, and fubmit readily Vfxth- out oppofition. Examples of the latter are com- mon : of the former take the following inftance. A brood of ftonechatters taken from the neft, were in- clofed in a cage. The door was left open to give admiffion to the mother, and then was fhut upon her. After many attempts, finding it impoffible to get free, fhe firft put her young to death ; and then daihed out her own brains on the fide of the cage. I blufh to prefent thefe imperfed hints, the fruit of cafual obfervation, not of intentional enquiry : but I am fond to blow the trumpet, in order to raife cu- riofity in others : if the fubjed be profecuted by men of tafte and enquiry, many final caufes, I am perfuaded, will be difcovered, tending more and more to difplay the wifdom and goodnefs of Providence. But what at prefent I have chiefly in view, is to ob- ferve, that government among brute animals, how- ever fimple, appears to be perfect in its kind ; and adapted with great propriety to their nature. Fac- tions in the irate are unknown : no enmity between individuals, no treachery, no deceit, nor any other of thofe horrid vices that torment the human race. In a word, they appear to be perfedly well qualified for that kind of fociety to which they are prompted by their nature j and well fitted for being happy in it. Storing up the foregoing obfervations till there be occafion for them, we proceed to the focial nature of man. That men are endued with an appetite for fociety, will be vouched by the concurring tefti- mony of all men, each vouching for himfelf. There is accordingly no inftance of people living in a fo- litary ftate, where the appetite is not obftruftcd by fome potent obftacle. The inhabitants of that part of New Holland which Dampier faw, live in fociety, though lefs advanced above brutes than any other known favages -, and fo intimate is their fociety, that they Sk. I. in- Origin of Kations, 387 they gather their food, and eat, in common. The inhabitants of the Canary iflands lived in the fame manner, when firfl feen by Europeans, which was in the fourteenth century j and the favages men- tioned by Condamine, drawn by a Jefuit from the woods to fettle on the banks of the Oroonoko, muft originally have been united in fome kind of fociety, as they had a common language. In a word, that man hath an appetite for food, is not more certain, than that he hath an appetite for fociety. And here I have occafion to apply one of the obfervations made above. Abftrading altogether from the pleafurc we have in fociety, fimilar to what we have in eat- ing ; evident it is, that to no animal is fociety more neceffary than to man, whether for food or for de- fence. In fociety, he is chief qf the terrcftrial crea- tion ; in a folitary flate, the mofl helplefs and for- lorn. Thus the firft queftion fuggefted above, viz. To what end was a focial appetite bellowed on man, has received an anfwer, which I flatter myfelf will be fatisfaftory. The next queftion is. Whether the appetite em- brace the whole fpecics, or be limited, as among other animals, to a fociety of moderate extent. That the appetite is limited, will be evident from hiftory. Man, as far back as they can be traced, have been divided into fmall tribes or focieties. Moft of thefe, it is true, have in later times been united into large ftates : fuch revolutions however have been brought about, not by any appetite for a more extenfive fo- ciety, but by conqueft, or by the jundion of fmall tribes for defence againft the more powerful. A fo- ciety may indeed be too fmall for complete gratifica- tion of the appetite ; and the appetite thus cramped welcomes every perfon into the fociety till it have fufficient fcope : the Romans, a diminutive tribe ori- ginally, were fond to aflbciate even with their ene- mies after a victory. But, on the other hand a fo- ciety may be too large for perfed gratification. An C c 2 extenfive r41 M II :i I I' H: I r 392 Civil Society. B.1I. J; 1 1 1:3.1^ other. Plan Carpin, who vifited Tartary in the year 1 246, obferves of the Tartars, that, though full of veracity to their neighbours, they thought thcm- J'elves not bound to fpcak truth to ftrangers. The Greeks anciently were held to be pirates : but not properly ; for they committed depredations upon ftrangers only* Caefar, fpeaking of the Germans («), fays, *' Latrocinia nullum habent infamiam quae ** extra fines cujufque civitatis fiunt *." This was precifely the cafe of our highlandcrs, till they were brought under due fubjeftion after the rebellion 1 745. Bougainville obferves, that the inhabitants of Otaheite, named by the Englifh King George's ijland^ made no difficulty of ftealing from his people ; and yet never fteal from one another, having neither locks nor bars in their houfes. The people of Benin in Negroland are good-natured, gentle, and civilized ; and fo generous, that if they receive a prefent. they are not at eafe till they return it double^ They have unbounded confidence in their own people ; but are jealous of ftrangers, though they politely hide their jealoufy. The different tribes of Negroes, fpeaking each a different language, have a rooted averfion at each other. This averfion is carried along with them to Jamaica ; and they will rather fuffer death from the Englifti, than join with thofe of a different tribe in a plot for liberty. Ruffian peafants think it a greater fm to eat meat in Lent than to murder one of another country. Among the Koriacs, bordering on Kamfkatka, murder within the tribe is fevcrely punilhed : but to murder a ftranger is not minded. While Rome continued a fmall ftate, neighbour and enemy were expreffed by the fame word {b). In England of old, a foreigner was not admitted to be a witnefs. Hence it is, that in ancient hiftory, wc read (a) Lib. 6. c. 23, debcllo Galileo. * " They hold it net infamous to 10b without the hounds of their " canton." (h) Hoilis. Sk.T. Origin of Nafions. 393 reudof wars without intcrmiffion among fmall ftates in clofe neighbourhood. It was fo in Greece ; it was fo in Italy during the infancy of the Roman re- public ; it was fo in Gaul, when Csefar commenced hoftilities againft that country (b) ; and it was fo all the world over. Many iflands in the South fea, and in other remote parts, have been difcovered by Eu- ropeans ; who commonly found the natives with arms in their hands, refolute to prevent the ftrangers from landing. Orellana, lieutenant to Gonzales Pifarro, was the firft European who failed down the river Amazon to the fea. In his paflage, he was continually aflaulted by the natives with arrows from the banks of the river : and fome even ventured to attack him in their canoes. Nor does fuch averfion wear away even among po- lifhed people,. An ingenious writer (a) remarks, that aliTioft every nation hate their neighbours, with- out knowing why. I once heard a Frenchman fwear, fays that writer, that he hated the Englilb, parce qWils verfent du beurefondufur leur veau roti *. The populace ofPortugalhaveto this day an uncom- mon averfion to ftrangers : even thofe of Lifbon, though a trading town frequented by many different tiations, muft not be excepted. Travellers report, that the people of the duchy of Milan, remarkable for good-nature, are the only Italians who are not hated by their neighbours. The Piedmontefe and Genoefe have an averfion to each other, and agree only in their antipathy to the Tufcans. The Tuf- cans diflike the Venetians ; and the Romans abound not with good-will to the Tufcans, Venetians, or Neapolitans. Very different is the cafe with refpe6l to diftant nations : inllead of being objefts of aver- fion, {b) Lib. 6. c. 15. debello Gallico. {a) Baretti. * *' Becaufe they pour melted butter upon their roaft veal," ■• !i-i H !, j I.,;! . It.! i| 1; i|lii ;: y M m 394 Civil Society. B. II. '1^. . 1 m > .V* h\ fion, their manner, cufiioms, and Angularities, amufe us greatly*. Infants differ from ^ach other in averfion to ftrangers ; fome being extremely fhy, others lefs fo ; and the like difference is obfervable in whole tribes. The people of Milan cannot have any a- verfion to their neighbours, when they are fuch favourites of all around them. The inhabitants of fome South-fea iflands, mentioned above («), ap- pear to have little or no averfion to ftrangers. But that is a rare inftance, and has fcarce a pa- rallel in any other part of the globe. It holds alfo true, that nations the moft remarkable for patriotifm, are equally remarkable for averfion to ftrangers. The Jews, the Greeks, the Ro- mans, were equally remarkable for both. Pa- triotifm, a vigorous principle among the Englifh, makes them extremely avcrfe to naturalize fo- reigners. The inhabitants of New-Zealand, both men and women, appear to be of a mild and gen- tle difpofition : they treat one another with affecti- on i but are implacable to their enemies, and never give quarter. It is even cuftomary among them to cat the flefh of their enemies. To a perfon of humanity, the fcene here exhi- bited is far from being agreeable. Man, it may be thought, is of all animals the moft barbarous ; for even animals of prey are innoxious with ref- peft to their own kind *. Averfion to ftrangers makes IF'* * Voltaire, (Unlveifal Hiftory, ch. 40.) obfervlng, rightly, thatjealoufy among petty princes is produftive of more crimes than among great mo- narchs, gives a very unfatisfa£tory reafon, " That having little force, they " mull employ fraud, poifon, and other lecret crimes ;" not adverting, that power may be squally diftributed among fmall princes as well as among V;rcat. It is antipathy that inftigates fuch crimes, which is always the moft violent among the neareft neighbours. (a) Preliminary Difcourfe. * " Denique ca;tera animantia in fuo gencre probe degunt : congregari " videmus et ftate contra diffimilia ; leonum feritas inter fe non dimicat : " ferpentum morfus non petit ferpentes j ne maris quidem bellua: ac pifces, •' nili in diverfa genera, fsviunt. At, Hcrculc, homini plurlma ex homine " funt mala." Plhy, lib. 7. Vnamium, [In EngliJ}} thus ; '* For other a- " nimals liilf Sk. I; Origin of Nations*: 395 to lefs hole ly a- fuch ts of that makes a branch of our nature: it exifts among in-* dividuals in private life : it flames high between neighbouring tribes ; and is vifiblc even in in- fancy. ' Can fuch pcrverfity of difpofition promote any good end ? This queftion, which pierces deep into human nature, is referved toclofe the prefent Iketch. From the foregoing deduction, univerfal bene- volence, inculcated- by feveral writers as a moral duty, is difcovered to have no foundation in the nature of man. Our appetite for foeiety is li- mited, and our duty rauft be limited in proportion* But of this more diredly when the principles of mo- rality are, taken under cqnfideration.' ; We are taught by the great Newton, that at- traftion and repulfion in matter, arcj bya,lteTati- on of circumftanecsi' converted one into the ^ther- This holds alfo in afFedion and averfion, which may be • termed, not improperly, mental attrailion and repulfion^' Two nations, originally ftrangers to each other, may, by commerce or other favourable cir- cunfiftarice, become fo well acquainted, as to change from averfion to affeftion. The oppofite manners of a capital and of a cpuntry-town, afford a good illuflration-. In the latter, people, occupied with their .'domeftic concerns, are in. a manner ftran- gers to each other: a degree of averfion pre- vails, which gives birth to envy and detraftion. In the former, a court and public amufements, pro- mote general acquaintance : repulfion yields to at- traftion, and people become fond to aflbciate with their equals. The union of two tribes into one, is another circumftance that converts repulfion into attrat^tion. Such converfion, hovitvcr, is far from :■ ■ r ■ ; i \l " nimals live at peace with thofe of their fpecies. They gather themfelves " in troops, and unite againft the common enemy. The ferocious lion fights " not ai;ainft his fpecies : the poifonous ferpent is harmlefs to hi^ kind : the " monfters of the fea prey but on thofe fiflics that differ from them in nature*. " man alone of animals is foe to man !"] 396 Civil Society. B. IL I m from being inftantaneous ; witnefs the difFcrent fmall dates of Spain, which were not united in afFedion for many years after they were united under one monarch ; and this was alfo the cafe of the two kingdoms of England and Scotland. In fome circumflances the ccnyerfion is inftanta- neous ; as where a flranger becomes an objed of pity or of gratitude. Many low perfons in Bri- tain contributed cheerfully for maintaining fome French feamen riiade prifoners at the commence- ment of the late war. It is no lefs inftantaneousy when ftrangers, relying on our humanity, truft themfelves in our hands. Among the ancients^ it was hofpitality to ftrangers only that produced mutual affection and gratitude : Glaucus and Dio- mede were of different countries. Hofpitality to ftrangers, is a pregnant fymptom of improving manners. Cxfar, fpeaking of the Germans (a), fays, *' Hofpites violare, fas non putant : qui, quaqua de caufa, ad eos venerunt, ab injuria prohibent, fanftofque habent; iis omnium do- mus patent, viftufque communicatur *." The ancient Spaniards were fond of war, and cruel to their enemies ; but in peace, they palTed their time in fmging and dancing, and were remarkably hofpitable to the ftrangers who came among theim. It (hews great refinement in the Celtse, that the killing a ft ranger was capital, when the killing a citizen was banifliment only (^). The Circaffi- ans, defcribed by Bell of Antrimony as barbari- ans, are hofpitable. If even an enemy put him- felf under the protedion of any of them he is fe- cure. The Swedes and Goths were eminently hofpitable to ftrangers; as indeed were all the northera <6 CC €6 • " They hold it facrllege to Injure a Aranger. They prot-jfl from ouN " rage, and venerate thofe who come among them : their houfes are open to " them, and they are welcome to their tables." (o) Lib. 6. c. 23.de bello Callico, [i) Nicolaus Damafcenus. ^ Sk. I. Origin of Nations, 397 northern nations of Europe (^). The negroes of Fouli, are celebrated by travellers for the fame quality. The native Brazilians are Angularly hof- pitable : a ftranger no fooner arrives among them, than he is furrounded by women, who waih his feet, and fet before him to eat the beft things they have : if he have occafion to go more than once to the fame village, the perfon whofe gueft he was, takes it much amifs if he think of change ing his lodging. There are caufes that for a time fufpend enmity between neighbouring dates. The fmall dates of Greece, among whom war never ceafed, frequently fmothered their enmity to join againfl the formida- ble monarch of Perfia. There are alfo caufes that fufpend for a time all animodty between fadions in the fame ftate. The fadions in Britain about power and pre-eminence, not a little difagreeable during peace, are laid alleep during 3^ foreign war. On the other hand, attraftion is converted into repulfion by various caufes. One is, the fplitting a great monarchy into many fmall ftates ; of whicn the Aflyrian, the Perfian, the Roman, and the Sa- racen empires, are inftances. The amor pairia^ faint in an extenfive monarchy, readily yields to averfion, operating between two neighbouring ftates, lefs extenfive. This is obfervable between neighbouring colonies even of the fame nation : the Englifh colonies in North America, though they retain fome affedion for their mother-coun- try, have, contra^ed an averfion to each other. And happy for them is fuch averfion, if it pre- vent their uniting in order to acquire indepen- dence : wars without end would be the inevitable confequence, as among fmall ftates in clofe neigh- bourhood. 3 Hitherto (}) Saxo GrammadciM. Crantz. ix r^ ft ■!( '•■1 IL- 'i 398 Civil Society. B. II. ?ih Hitherto the road has been fmooth, without ob- ftrudtion. But we have not yet linifhed our jour- ney J and the remaining quellions, whether men be qualified by their nature tor being ufeful mem- bers of civil fociety, and whether they be fitted for being happy in it, will, I fufpeft, lead into a road neither fuiooth nor free from obftrudion. The focial branch of human nature would be wo- fully imperfeft, if man had an appetite for fociety without being qualified for that ftate : the appetite, inflead of tending to a good end, would be his bane. And yet, whether he be or be not qualified for fociety, feems doubtful. On the one hand, there are fads, many and various, from which it is natural to conclude, that man is qualified by nature for being an ufeful member of a focial (late, and for being happy in it. I inftance firft, feveral correfponding principles or propenfities, that cannot be exerted nor gratified but in fociety, viz. the propenfities of veracity, and of relying on human teftimony j appetite for knowledge, and defire to communicate knowledge ; anxiety to be pitied in diftrefs, and fympathy with the diftreffed ; appetite for praife, and inclination to praife the deferving *, Such correfponding propenfities, not only qualify men for the focial ftate as far as their influence reaches, but attract them fwcetly into fociety for the fake of gratification, and make them happy in it. But this is not all, nor indeed the greater part. Do not benevolence, compaflion, magnanimity, heroifm, and the whole train of focial affedions, demonftrate our fitnefs for fociety, and our happi- nefs in it? And juftice, above all other virtues, promotes peace and concord in that ftate. Nor ought the faculty of fpeech to be overlooked, which in ♦ Appetite for praife is inherent even in favages : witnefs tliofe of North America, wlio upon that account are fond of drel's, I mean the men ; for the women nre fuch mifenble flaves as to have no fjiirit foi or- nament, f Sk. I. Origin of Nations, 399 in an eminent degree qualifies man for fociety, and is a plentiful fource of enjoyment in it. 1 have referred one other particular to be the concluding fcene ; being a ftriking inftance of pro- vidential care to fit men for fociety. In reading a play or in feeing it afted, a young man of tafte is at no lofs to judge of fcenes he never was engaged in, or of paflions he never felt. What is it that direds his judgement ? Men are apt to judge of others by what they have experienced in themfelves : but here, by the fuppofition, there has been no antecedent experience. The fa£t is fo familiar, that no one thinks of accounting for it. As young perfons, without inftruftion or experience, can judge with to- lerable accuracy of the conduft of men, of their va- rious paflions, of the difference of charafter, and of the efficacy of motives ; the principle by which they judge muft be internal : nature mufl be their guide, or, in other words, an internal fenfe. Nor is this fenfe confined to fo low a purpofe as criticifm : it is a fenfe indifpenfable in the conduct of life. Every perfon is connected with many others, by various ties : if inftrudion and experience were neceflary to regu- late their condud, what would become of them in the interim ? Their ignorance would betray them into endlefs inconveniencies. This fenfe has man for its objedt, not this or that man : by it wc per- ceive what is common to all, not what diftinguilhes one individual from another. We have an intuitive convidion, not only that all men have paflions and appetites which dired their actions ; but that each palfion and appetite produceth uniformly effedls proper to itfclf. This natural knowledge is our only guide, till we learn by experience to enter more mi- nutely into particular chara^ers. Of thefe we ac- quire knowledge from looks, gefl:ures, fpeech, and behaviour, which difcover to us what pafles internal- ly. Then it is, and no fooner, that we are fully qualified ; ! I' m mk II?:. 400 Civil Society. B. II. T ? s * , ■I' 1 i qualified to a£l a proper part in fociety. Wonderful is the frame of man, both external and internal ! On the other hand, there are fa^ls, not fewer in number nor lefs various, from which it is equally na- tural to conclude, that man is ill qualified for fociety, and that there is little happinefs in it. What can be more averfe to concord in fociety than diiTocial paf- fions ? and yet thefe prevail among men ; among whom there is no end to envy, malice, revenge, trea- chery, deceit, avarice, ambition, &c. &c. We meet every where perfons bent on the deftrudion of others, evincing that man has no enemies more for- midable than of his own kind, and of his own tribe. Are not difcord and feuds the chief articles in the hiftory of every ftate, fadions violently bent againft each other, and frequently breaking out into civil wars ? Appian's hiftory of the civil wars of Rome exhibits a horrid fcene of maffacres, profcriptions, and forfeitures ; the leaders facrificing their firmeft friends, for liberty to fuck the blood of their ene- mies ; as if to flied human blood were the ruling paflion of man. But thf^ Romans were far from be- ing fingular : the polite Greeks, commonly fo cha- rafterized were ftill more brutal and bloody. The following paflage is copied from a celebrated au.- thor (rt). " Not to mention Dionyfius the elder, '* who is computed to have butchered in cold blood *' above 10,000 of his fellow-citizens j nor Agatho- *' cles, Nabis, and others, ftill more bloody than ** he; the tranfadions even in free governments ** were extremely violent and deftruftive. At " Athens, the thirty tyrants, and the nobles, in a ** twelvemonth, murdered without trial about 1200 of the people, and baniftied above the half of the citizens that remained. In Argos, near the fame time, the people killed 1 200 of the no- bles, and afterward their own demagogues, be- " caufe («) Effay ofthepopuloufnefs of ancient nations, by David Hume, Efq; (C cc cc <( Sk. I. Origin of Niitiom, 40 i re na. caufd they had rcfufed to carry their profecutions " farther. The ptople alfo in Corcyra killed 1500 ** of the nobles, and banilhed 1000. Thefe num- " bers will appear the more furprifing if we confidcr " the extreme fmallnefs of thole ftates. But all an- " cient hiftory is full of fuch inftances." Upon a revolution in the Saracen empire, a?ino 750, where the Ommiyan family was expelled by that of the Amballians, Abdolah, chief of the latter, publiflied an a£t of oblivion to the former, on condition of their taking an oath of allegiance to him. The Ommiyans, eml)racing the condition, were in ap- pearance cordially received. But in preparing to take the oath, they were knocked down, every one of them, by the Emperor's guards. And fully to glut the monlter's cruelty, thefe princes, ilill alive, were laid clofe together, and covered with boards and carpets ; upon which Abdolah feafted his officers, " in order," laid he, " that we may be exhilarated " with the dying groans of the Ommiyans.'* Dur- ing the vigour of the feudal fyftem, when every gentleman was a foldier, juftice was no defence a- gainft power, nor humanity againfl: bloody refent- ment. Stormy paflions raged every where with un- relenting fury ; every place a chaos of confufion and diftrefs. No man was fecure but in his caftle ; and to venture abroad unlefs well armed and well attend- ed, would have been an ad of high temerity. So little intercourl'e was there among the French in the tenth century, that an abbot of Clugni, invited by the Count of Paris to bring fome monks to the abbey of St. Maur, near that city, excufed himfelf for de- clining a journey through a llrange raid unknown country. In the hiftory of Scotland, during the minority of James II. we find nothing but barbarous .and cruel manners, depredat'ons, burning of houfes, bloodflied and maftacre without end. Pitfcottic fays, that opprellion, theft, facrilege, ravifliing of women, were but a dalliance. How fimilar to Vol. I. D d beafts I ;i"l M> . i' i i^*J 402 GivlL Society^ B.IL \m beads of prey let loofe againft each other in the Roman circus ! Men are prone to fplit into parties upon the flight- eft occafions ; and lomctimes parties fubfiit upon words merely. Whig and Tory fubfifted long in England, upon no better foundation : the Tories profefled pallive obedience ; but declared, that they ■would not be flaves : the Whigs profeiTed rcfiftancc ; but declared it unlawful to refift unlefs to prevent the being made flaves. Had thefe parties been dif- pofed to unite, they foon would have difcovered^ that they differed in words only. The fame obfer- vation is applicable to many religious difputes. One fcft maintains, that we are faved by faith alone ; another, that good works arc neceflary. The dif- ference lies merely in words : the firft acknowledges,) that if a man commit hn, he cannot have faith $ and confequently under faith are comprehended good works : the other acknowledges, that good works imply good intention, or, in other words, faith 5 confequently, under good works faith is compre- hended (.a). The following inilance, folemi 1/ lu- dicrous, is of parties formed merely from an inclina- tion to differ, "Without any caufe real or verbal. No people were lefs interefted in the late war between the Queen of Hungary and the King of Pruffia, tl^an the citizens of Ravenna. They however fplit ii.to two parties, which abjured all fociety with each other. After the battle of Roflaach, a leading par- tyman withdrew for a month, without once fliowing his face in public. But our catalogue is hot yet com- plete* Differences concerning civil matters, make no figure compared with what concern religion. It is lamentable to obferve, that religious fedls rcfem-^ ble neighbouring fl:ates ; the nearer they are to one another, the greater is their mutual rancour and ani- mofity. But as all hiftories are full of cruelty and defolation let) Se< Knox's EcclefiafticalHiftory of Scotland, p. 13, Sk. t. Origin of Nations, 403 dcfolation occafioned by differences in religious te- nets, I cannot bear to dwell longer upon I'uch hor- rid I'cenes. What conclufions arc wc to draw from the fore- going fads, fo inconfiftent in appearance with each other ? I am utterly at a lofs to reconcile them, otherwife than by holding man to be a compound of principles and paflions, fome focial, fome dillocial. Oppolitc principles or paflions, cannot at the fame inftant be exerted upon the fame objeft (a) ; but they may be exerted at the fame inftant upon diflerent objedls, and at different times upon the fame objed. This obfervation ferves indeed to explain a feeming inconfiftency in our nature, as being at one time highly focial, and at ano- ther time no lefs diffocial : but it affords not a folu- tion to the queftion, Whether, upon the whole, men be qualified for fociety, and be fitted fbr being happy in it. In order to a folution, we find it ne- ceflary to take a fecond view of the natural hiftory of man. In a nafcent fociety, where men hunt aild fifh in common, where there is plenty of game, and Avherft the fenfe of property is faint, mutual affeftion pre- vails, becaufe there is no caufe of difcord ; and dif- focial paffions find fufficient vent againft neighbout** ing tribes. Such is the condition of the North- American favages, who continue hunters and fifhers to this day ; and fuch is the condition of all brutc animals that live in fociety, as mentioned above. The iliand Otahcite is divided into many fmall can- tons, having each a chief of its own. Thefe can- tons never make war on each other, though they are frequently at war ivith the inhabitants of neigh- bouring iflands. The inhabitants of the new ~' Philip. pine iflands, if Father Gobien be credited, are bet- nation. Sweetnefs tcr fitted for fociety than any other knbwn Dd {a) Elements of Ciitlcifm, vcl. i.p. 143. edit, 5. I ,1 i •4 404 Civil Societv, B. II. lilt * Swcctncls of temper and love to do good, form their tliaradcr. They never commit adts of violence : war they have no notion of; and it is a proverb among them, '1 hat a man never puts a man to death. Plato places the feat of jufliee and of happinefs among the fird men ; and among them exifled the golden age, if it ever did exi(t. But when a nation, be- coming populous, begins with rearing flocks and herds, proceeds to ajjpropriate land, and Is not Satisfied without matters of luxury over and above ; felhlhncfs and pride gain ground, and become ruling and unruly paflions. Caufes of dif- cord multiply, vent is given to avarice and refent- ment ; and among a people not yet perfedly fub- milFive to government, didbcial paiTions rage, and threaten a total dilTolution of fociety : nothing indeed fufpends the impending blow, but the unwearied, though filent, operation of the focial appetite. Such was tlie condition of the Greeks at a certain period of tlieir progrefs, as mentioned above ; and fuch was the condition of Europe, and of France in par- ticular, during the anarchy of the feudal fyftem, when all was difcord, blood, and rapine. In general, where-ever avarice and diforderly paflions bear rule, I boldly pronounce, that men are ill qualified for fociety. Providence extradls order out of confufion. Men, in a focitty fo uncomfortable, are taught by dire ex- perience, that they mud either renounce fociety, or (jualify themfclvcs for it — the choice is eafy, but how difficult the performance ! After infinite ftrug- ^ilc>-., appetite for fociety prevailed ; and time, that '.i/'iverfal conqueror, perfeded men in the art of fubduing their paflions, or of dilTembling them. Finding no enjoyment but in fociety, they are folici- tous about tlic good-will of others ; and adhere to jufl:ice and good manners : diforderly paflions are AipprclTed, kindly aflV:dions encouraged; and men now arc better qualiiicd for fociety than formerly, though far from bcin^^- pcrfcCilv qualified. But II. « , the nations difperfed, an'l population dead : his happinefs is ruined, and his powtr is reduced to notiiina;. " (Jreat Cto<1 ! whofe fole prefence furtains the creative power, " and rules the harmony of nature's laws ! who from thy permanent celeftl- " al tlirone belioldeft the motion of the nether fpheres, all-perfe£l in their ** courfe, vvliich knows no change ; who broiigiueft from out the womb of " reft by endlefs reprodus. trail r, * An ingenious writei obfervcs, that as our American fettlements are ncwfo profptious, banifhnient to tlieft. fcttkmentj is fcarcc a punilhinenr. ' H 1 SKETCH III. Different Forms of Government compared. O, T all governments, democracy is the mofl: tur- bulent : defpotifm, which benumbs the mental facul- ties and relaxes dvery fpring of action, is in the op- polite extreme. Mixed governments, whether mo- narchical or republican, ftand in the middle : they promote aftivity, but feldom any dangerous cxcefs. Pure democracy, like that of Athens, Argos, and Carthage, is the very word form of government, if we make not defpotifm an exception. The people, in whom refides the fovereign power, are infolent in profperity and timid in adverfity, cruel in anger, blind and prodigal in afFedtion, and incapable of em- bracing fteadily a prudent meafure. Thucydides relates {a), that Agis with a gallant army of Spartans furrounded the army of Argos ; and, though fecurc of victory, fufFered them to retreat, upon folemn af- furances from Thrafyllus, the Argian general, of terminating all differences in an amicable treaty. Agis, perhaps juflly, was bitterly cenfured for fuflfer- ing viftory to flip out of his hands : but the Argians, dreaming of viftory when the danger was over, brought their general to trial, confifcated his effefts, and would have floned him to death, had he not taken refuge in a temple. Two Athenian generals, after one naval viftory being intent on a fecond, de- puted Theramenes to perform the laft duty to the Vol. I. E e dead. He therefore propofes, that criminals be tranfported to Hudfon's Bay, or to fome other uncultivated country. My doubt is, that in proportion as man* ners improve, the feverity of punifliment ought to be mitigated. Perhaps, the tranfportation to any of our American colonies, though lefs dreadful ckan formerly, may however be now a fuffici^nt punifhment for.theft, or other crime of no deeper dye. («) Lib. 5. '.. I' K I 1 *■ \ ' H m 4iS Civil Societv. B. II. 1 V r m dead. A violent florm prevented Thcramcncs from executing the triifl repofcd in him ; but it did not prevent tne people of Athens from putting their two generals to death, as if they had neglcded their duty. The fate of Socrates is a fad indance of the change- able, as well as violtnt difpofition of a democratical ilate. He was condemned to death, for attempting innovations in the eftabliihed religion : the fentence was grofsly unjuft : he attempted no innovation ; but only among his friends, exprcfled purer notions of the Deity than were common in Greece at that time. But his funeral obfequics were fcarce over, when bitter rcmorfc feized the people. His accufers were put to death without trial, every perfon banidied who had contributed to the fentence pronounced againil him, and his flatue was ereded in the mod pub' lie part of the city. The great Scipio, in his camp near Utica, was furrounded with three Carthagi- nian armies, which waited only for day-light tt> fall upon him. He prevented the innpending blow, by furprifmg them in the dead of the night ; which gave him a complete vidory. This mif- fortune, for it could fcarce be called bad con- dud, provoked the democracy of Carthage, to pronounce fentence of death againft Afdrubal their general. Great trading towns cannot flou- rilli, it they be not faithful to their engagements, and honeft in their dealings : whence then the ^cics Punka f A democracy is in its nature rafli, violent, and fluduating ; and the Carthaginians merited the reproach, not as individuals, but as a democratical (late. A commonwealth governed by chofen citizens, is very different from a democracv, where the mob rules. The folid foundation of fuch a common- wealth, is equality among the citizens. Inequality of riches cannot be j^revented in a commercial ftate ; but inequality of privileges may be pre- vented, by excluding no citizen from the opportu- nity Sk. III. Different Forms of Covernmenf, 4/9 ftity of commanding as well as of obeying. The invidious diftindion of Patrician and Plebeian was a grofs malady in the Roman republic, a perpetual iburcc of difTcnfion between two bodies of men, equally well born, equally rich, and equally fit for war. This ill-pgifed government would have put an end to the republic, had not the Plebeians prevailed, who were the more numerous. That reformation produced to Home plenty of able men, qualified to govern both in peace and in war. A commonwealth is the beft form of government for a fmall ftate : there is little room for inequality of rank or of property ; and the people can ail in a body. Monarchy is preferable for a large ftate, where the people, widely fpread, cannot be cafily colleiled into a body. Attica was a kingdom, while its twelve cantons were remote from each other, and but llenderly connefted. Thefeus, by coUefting the people of figure into the city of Athens, and by a general aflembly of all the cantons held there, fitted Attica to be a commonwealth. When a nation becomes great and populous, it is ill fitted for being a commonwealth : ambition is apt to trample upon jufticc, lelfifhnefs upon patriotifm, aud the public is facririccd to private views. To prevent corruption from turning incurable, the only remedy is a (bid rotation in office, which ought ne- ver to be difpenfed with on any pretext *. By fuch rotation, every citizen in his turn governs and is governed : the highefl ofTice is hmtted as to time, and the grcateft men in the Itate muft fubmit to mc facred law of obeying as well as of cointnanding. A man long accullomed to power, is not happy .n a private Ihition : that corrupting habit is prevented by an alternate rucceilion of public and private life ; K e 2 which • A commoinvealrh with fuch a rotation m ':i-l '■■ i-^i Pt ■ 1 ■- 4^ 1 • I 'i T' .1 '■' 1 i 3 •''it 'S 1 i 1 I.' ii if^ -I? :• 1 1 424 Civil Society. B. II. if 'in il: that fertile country : hiftorians /itteft, that in the middle of the fixteenth century, above a thoufand foreign fliips frequented its port annually. But the King, tempted by fuch riches, endeavoured to en- grofs all the commerce of his country j by which means he anr* 'dilated fucceffively mines, manufac- tures, and e.cn agriculture Tlw kingdom is de- populated, and few remain there but beggars. In the ifland Ceylon, the King is fole proprietor of the land ; and the people are fupinely indolent : their huts are mean, without any thing like furniture : their food is fruit that grows fpOntaneoufly ; and their covering is a piece of coarfe cloath, wrapped round the middle. The fettlement of the Dutch Eaft-India company at the Cape of Good Hope, is profitable to them in their commerce with the Eafl Indies ; and it would be much more profitable, if they gave proper encouragement to the tenants and poflfeflors of their lands. But thefe poor people are ruled with a rod of iron : the produd of their land is extorted from them by the company at fo low a price, as fcarce to afford them common neceffaries. Avarice, like m«ny other irregular pafTions, ob- llruds its own gratification : were induftry duly en- couraged, the product of the ground would be in greater plenty, and goods be afforded volunta- rily at a lower price than are at prefent obtain- ed by violence. The Peruvians are a fad example of the effefts of tyranny; being reduced to a ilaie of flupid infenfibility. No motive to a£lion in- fluences them ; neither riches, nor luxury, nor am- bition: they are even indifferent about life. The fmgle pleafure they feel, is to get drunk, in order to forget their mifery. The provinces of Molda- via, Walachia, and BefTarabia, fituated between the 43d and 48th degrees cf North latitude, are defended on three fides by the Neifler, the Black fea, and the Danube. The climate of that region, and the fertility of its foil, render it not inferior to 11. Sk. III. Different Forms of Government* 425 to any other country in Europe. Its paftures in particular are excellent, producing admirable horfes, with an incredible number of fheep and horned cattle; and corn, wine, oil, honey, and wax, were formerly produced there in great plenty. So populous was Walachia in particular a few cen- turies ago., that iti- Prince was able to raifc an army of fevcnty thoufand men. Yet, notwithf landing all thefe advantages, the wretched policy of the Turk- ifh government has reduced thefe provinces to be almoft a defert. A defpotic government ftifles in the b\rth all the bounties of nature, and renders the fincft fpots of the globe equally fterile with its barren mountains. When 9 patriotic king tra- vels about to vifit his dorpinions, he is received with acclamations of joy. A defpotic prince -iares not hope for fuch reception ; he is locked up in his feraglio, ignorant of what paffes ; and indolent- ly fuffers his people to be pillaged, \ 'ithout even hearing of their diftreffes. A defpotic prince ac- cordingly, whofs >vants are all fupplied with pro- fufion, and who has nothing left him to wifh for or defire, carries on a moft languid exiftence. Rouf- feau fays well, " Tout Prince qui afpire au defpo- " tifme, afpire a I'honneur de mourir d'ennui. Dans tous les royaumes du mpnde cherchez vous rhomme le plus ennuy6 du pays ? AUcz tou- jours diredlement au fouverain ; furtout s'il eft " tres abfolu. C'eft, bien la peine de faire tant de '* miferables ! ne faudroit-il s*ennuyer a moindres « fraix." At ♦he fame time, defpotifrq, tho' calculated to elevate the fovereign above the rules of juftice, and to make him the only free perfon in his domi- nions, tends above all other governments to ren- der him infecure. He becomes odious by opprefii- on ; and every hand would be raifed againft him, but for the rcftraint of fear. A fituation fotickliih, lays him open to every bold fpirit, prompted by 2 revenge cc (( (( 1 1 ■. - yA i m -'!. )-^:i i air ? 1 'it- l!' I is ' r I f ' ^\l 1 i\ m I" 4^S CtviL Society. B, II. ".?•: if' revenge to feek his ruin, or ambition to ufurp his throne. In that refpcft, Ruflia and Turky are pre- cifely fimilar : confpiracics againft the fovereign are equally frequent, and equally fuccefsful. The moment an ufurper feizes the palace, all proflrate themlielves before him, without enquiring about his title. In f t manner was the prefent Em- prefs of RuHia itibliihed, notwithftanding a ve^y unfavourable circumftanee, that of dethroning her own hu/band Peter III. No free fpirit regrets fuch events m a defpotic government : the only thing to be regretted is, that they concern the monarcn only; not the people, who remain abjefl: flaves as formerly. The preftnt Emprefs, fewfiblc of her precarious fvtuatit i, is intent to humanize her people, anid to ftioderate the dcfpotifm. In that view, fhe has publiftied a code of laws fit for a limited monarchy ; and expreffing great re- gard to the lives, liberties, and property, of her iubjccls. But a monarchy with all the moderation that defpotifm can admit, is inconfiftcnt with the liberty of the prefs. Political pamphlets, and even news- papers, are no lefs ufefui for inflruding the King, than for fecuring his fubjefts. In France, the mr- niftry arc deprived of that means of acquiring knowledge ; and are reduced to the neceflity of trufting to infmuating men, who cunningly creep into favour, with a view to their own intereft» After the late peace 1763, a plan was concerted for efiablifhing a colony in Guiana ; and no fewer than twelve thoufarid perfons were landed there all at one fime. But fo grofsly ignorant were that mi- riftry of the preparations neceffary for planting a colony ii) the torrid zone, that contagious difeales, occalioned by unwholefome food and want of ac- comniodation, left not a fingle perfon alive. This could not have happened in England : every arti- cle of management would have been canvaffed, and M ■ 'I II. Sk. III. Different Forms cf Government. 427 atid light would have broken in froirx every garter. Government is eflential to a focicty of any ex- tent ; and both are equally the work of nature. With a view to government, nature has fitted a; fmall proportion for being leaders, and a grea^ proportion for being led. The form cf govem- ment accordingly that is the moll confonant to na- ture, is that wLich allots to each the' . proper ftar tion. Democracy is contradictory to nature, bc- cauft. the whole people govern : defpotifm is not lefs fo, becaxife government rcfts in a fmgle per- fon. A republic or a limited monarchy is the beft form ; becaufc in thefc every man has an opportu- nity to aft the part that nature deftipcd him for. I have infilled upon the deplorable efFefts of defpotifm, longer perhaps than is neceflary ; but f was fond of the opportunity to juftify, or rather applaud, the fpirit of liberty fo er^' \ent in the inha- bitants of Britain. I new proceed to compare different fo^rms of government, with refpe£l to va- rious particulars; beginning with patriotifm. E- very form of government muft be good that ir fpiri^s patriotifm : and the beft form to invigorai^ that noble paflion, is a commonwealth founded on. rotation of power; where it is the ftudy ofthofc in office, to do good, and to merit approbation from their fellow citizens. In the Swifs Cantons, the falaries of magiftrates and public officers, are fcarce fuiiicient to defray their expences and thofe worthy perfons defire no other recompfenfe, but to be efteemed and honoured *. A republic fo mo- delled. ■ k n •iU, A*' Is ii I If! • No human work can be everla(Wng. Tlie feventy two ba'^'iages of the Axtenfivc canton of Bern, threaten ruin to the republic. Thefe lucrative of- fices, which the great council appropriates to its own members, occafion .t conftant influx of riches into the capital. Patriotifm is obferved of late years to be on the decline among the citizens of Bern; and no wonder, con- fideting that luxury and felfiflinefs are the never-failing offspring of opu- lence. When felfilhnefs becomes the ruling pafTion of that people, thofe in pover ' i m •1' a ' I M^ I u 428 Civil Society. B. II. ,1 MM ill' delled, infpircs virtues of every fort. The people of Switzerland feldom think of a writing to confirm a bargain : a law-fuit is fcarce known among them ; and many there are who have never heard of an advocate nor of an attorney. Their doors are ne- ver fhut but in wincer, It is patriotifm that Mon- tefquieu has in view, when he pronounces virtue to be the leading principle in a republic. He has reafon to term it fo, becaufe patriotifm is conned- ed with every fecial virtue ; and when it vanifhes, every virtue vanifhes with it *. Democracy will never be recommended by any enlightened politi- cian, as a good form of governmer.t ; were it for no other reafon but that patriotifm cannot long fubfifl where the mob governs. In monarchy, the King is exalted fo high above his fubjecls, that his miniflers are ftill fervants, however much raifed above other fubjeds. Wealth being the only remaining purfuit, promotes avarice to be their ruling paffion. Now if patriotifm be not found in minifters, who have power, far lefs in men who have no power ; and thus in monarchy, riches are pre- ferred before virtue, and every vitious oiTspring of avarice has free growth. The worfl fort of mo- narchy is that which is ele£live ; becaufe patriot- ifm can have no flable footing in fuch a flate. The degeneracy of the Poles is owing to an eledlive mo- narchy. Every neighbouring ftate being intereflcd in power will pilfer the public treafure, which is immenfe and enrich thcm- felves with the fpoils of the republic. Confufion and anarchy muft en- fue, and the ftatc will fettle in ? monarchy, or piore probably in an odious democracy. • Induftry and frugality may in fome meafure have the fame efFeft with patriotifm, where riches are gained by labour, not by inheritance^ Man- chefter is one of the greateft manufafturing villages in England. Induftry there flourilhes, and with it frugality and hcnefty. It is remarkable, tl)at its numerous inhabitants, amounting to above 40,000, are governed by a magiArate of no higher rank than a juAice of peace conAable : and by his au- thority, fmall as it is, peace and good order are preferved. The beA citizens are not unwilling to be conAabies ; and fome are ambitious of the office. There are in England many other great manufadluring villages that are go- verned pictty mucii in t!-e r:imc ir.anncr. an Sk. III. Different Forms of Government, 429 in the cledion, money is the great engine that in- fluences the choice. The eledors being tempted by every motive of intereft, lofc fight of the pub- lic, and endeavour each of them to make the beft bargain he can for his own advantage. This rea- foning is verified by the late war of the Ruffians in Poland. Baron de Manftein, in his memoirs of Ruffia, fays, that though the Poles were a match for the Saxons, yet that feldom did three hundred Ruffians go a ftep out of their way to a- void three thoufand Poles. Without piercing to the foundation, one can have no juft notion of the various forms that go- vernment aflumes in different (tates. Monarchy is of many different kinds, and fo is a republic. Rome and Carthage, the two great rival republics of ancient times, differed widely in their original conftitution. Much has been laid of thefe repub- lics by hiftorians and political writers. There is one point of comparifon, that will fet in a clear light the difference of their conflitutions with ref- pe6t to peace and war. Carthage, advantageoufly fituated for commerce, became a great and tiouriih- ing trading town. The Carthaginians having no obje^ but riches, admitted none into a participa- tion o^ their privileges. War was agiiinft their genius : but they made war in order to load their new fubjects with taxes. Rome, on the contrary, was ill fituated for commerce: its inhabitants were from the beginning employed in war, either defenfive or offenf-ve. Their great object accord- ingly was power ; to which end, they were al- ways difpofed to adopt as citizens the bed of thofe they conquered. Thus Rome became a city of warriors, Carthage of merchants. The fubjects of the latter were always ripe for a revolt, while the fubjedVs of the former were always faithtul. Be- tween two fuch dates, there could be no equality in war; and had the Carthaginians been as iliilfnl in politic)* "11 it 43-^ Civil Society. B. ir. SUfl'iJ f)olitics as they were in commerce, they would lave avoided^ with the ftriftefl: circuml'peftion, every occafion of difference with the Romans* Rome employed its own citizens in war : Car- thage had none to employ but mercenaries* In an ofFcnfivc war, the objeft of the latter was riches ; that of the former was power and glory, motives much fuperior, and more animating. In a defen- five war, the difference is infinite between mer- cenaries, who have no intereft but to receive pay, and citizens, who fight for their country, and for their wives and children. What then are we to think of Hannibal, who carried on war againft: the Romans with an army of mercenaries, was fuccefsful in every engagement, and puflied them to the very brink of ruin ? He certainly was the grcatell General the world ever faw. If any one is to be excepted, it is the prefent King of Pruffia *. I next compare different forms of government, with rcfpeft to the influence of opulence. Rich- cs, which joined with ambition produce bold at- ' tempts for power, are however not dangerous in monarchy, where the fovereign is fo far fuperior, as to humble to the duft the moft afpiring of his fubjefts. But riches joined with ambition are dan- gerous in a republic : ambition will fuggeli: the poflibility of fowing diflenfion among the leaders : riches will make the attempt fuccefsful ; and then adieu to the republic. Wealth accumulated by commerce in Carthage and in Athens, extingu.ff)- cd patriotifm, and rendered their democracies un- juft, violent, and tyrannical. It had another bad eff'ea ; « I «< ( « (( vcr produced extcnfivc commerce, and confequently riches : riches again, beftde luxury, infpired the Athe- nians with a high opinion of their power, and made them ralhiy engage in every quarrel a- mong their neighbours.*' Supprefs the names, and one will believe it to be a cenfurt* on the con- dud of Britain. Succefsful commerce prornpted the Carthaginians, againfl their natur&l interell;, to make war for gain. Had they been fuccefsful againft the Romans, both nations muft have fallen a facrlfice to the ambition of Hannibal : what Car-^ thaginian durft have oppofed that glorious con- queror, returning with a vidorious army, devoted to his will ? That event was long dreaded by Han- no and the wifer part of the Carthaginian fenate ; and hence their fcanty fuppUcs to Hannibal. But what is only a fuppofition with refpeft to Carthage, proved to be the fate of Rome. Inequality of rank, opulence, and luxury, relaxed every principle of the common-wealth, particularly rotation of power, which ought to have been their palladium. Con- queft at a diftance led them unwarily, in fome in- Itances, to fufpend that fundamental law ; of which Csefar availed hiinftlf in his Gallic war, by de- bauching from their duty the befl difcipUncd ar- my of the republic : and it was that army, under a leader little inferior to Hannibal, which deter* mined the fate of Rome. A itatc with a fmall territory, fuch as Hamburgh or Holland, mry fubfift long as a commonwealth, without much hazard trom the opulence of indi- viduals. But an extenfive territory in the hands of a few opulent proprietors, is dangerous in a com- monwealth ', becauic of their inilucnce over num. bers !■ I; i I ■t I'll i "(.► !ti; % M 43* Civil Society. B. II. r T \H ft Jt ; ■I M bers urho depend on them for bread. The ifland of Britain is too large for a commonwealth. This did not cfcape a profound political writer {a), who is an honour to his country ; and to remedy the evil, he propofes an Agrarian law. But fondnefs for a fyftem of his own invention, mado him o- verlook a defeft in it, that would not have ef- caped him had it been the invention of another ; which is, that accumulation of land can never be prevented by an Agrarian law : a trud-deed is a ready fcrecn for covering accumulation beyond law : and dark tranfa£fcions are carried on without end ; fimilar to what is pradifed, mod diiho- neftly, by thofe who eleft and are eleftcd mem- bers of parliament. V7hen fuch comes to be the condition of land-property, an Agrarian law will be ripe for diiTolution. In early times, greater variety of charafter is feen than at prefent ; among fovereigns efpecially, who are not taught to govern their paffions. Pe- rufing the hiftory of Spain in particular, one is ftruck with an amazing variety of character in the Moorilh Kings. In fome of them, outrageous cruelty ; in others, mildnefs and afFeftion for their people : in fome unbounded ambition furmount- ing every obftacle of juftice and humanity ; in o- thers, ftridk attention to commerce and to every mo- ral virtue ; fome heaping up treafure ; fome fquan- dering all upon voluptuoufnefs ; fome cultivating peace ; fome fond of war. During the nonage of iociety, men exert their natural bias without re- ferve : in the progrefs of focicty, they are taught to moderate their turbulent paflions : at laft mild and courtly behaviour, produced by education and imi- tation, give an air to men of figure as if they were all copies from one original ; which is peculi- arly the cafe in France. The mildnefs of exter- nal [a] Harrington. ^^g' 11. Sk. in. DiffiTcnt Forms of Govcnwieht, 433 nal behaviour, iiiufl have a confiJerablc influence on the internal part ; for nothing tends more to foftcn or to lupprcls a pafiion, than never to give it vent : for which rcalon, abfolutc monarchy in France is far from being fo dreadful as it was for- nurly : it is at prefent far from being violent or fanguinary ; the manners of the people having the fame influence there, that laws have in a free coun- try. The King, delicate with refped: to his con- du61-, and dreading the cenfure of the world, is guilty of few exccflfes ; and the people, tame and fubmifTive, are eafily kept in order. To be d f- charged the court tor any mifdcmeanoilr, or to be relegated to his country-feat, is to a gentleman of rank more terrible than a capital punifliment. We finifli this fliort effay with a comparifon of different governments as to the execution of laws. Laws relative to property and pecuniary intereflt, are every where preferved in vigour, bccaufe the violation of them hurts many.— Laws refpefting the public, are kept alive in a monarchical government ; becaufe the King, to whom execution of law is intruded, feldom bene- fits by their tranfgreflion. I'or a (leady execution of fuch laws, a democracy has nothing to rely on but patriotifm ; and when that fubfides, fuch laws fall afleep. The reafon is, that the pow- ers both of legiflation and execution center *?"> the people ; and a multitude, frequently no bettc* Ikiu a mob, will never with condancy dired execution againll thcmftlves. Vol. I. F f S K E T C H ■ •I (• I If;: il H '> '41 I .1 5 ; ,' i I SKETCH IV. i M; Trogrefs of States from f mall to great, and from great to fmalL Wi HEN tribes originally fmall, fpread wider and wider by population till they become neigh- bours, the llighteft differences enflame mutual a- verfion, and infligate hoftilities that never end. Weak tribes unite for defence againft the power- ful, and become infenfibly one people : other tribes are fwallowed up by conqueft. And thus ftates became more and more extenfive, till they be con- lined by natural boundaries of fcas or mountains. Spain originally contained many fmall ftates, which were all brought under the Roman yoke. In later times, it was again poffeffed by many ftates, Chrif- tian and Mahometan, continually at war, till by conqueft they were united in one great kingdom. Portugal ftill maintains its independency, a bleffmg it owes to the weaknefs of Spain, not to advantage of fituation. The fmall ftates of Italy were fub- dued by the Romans ; and thofe of Greece by Philip of Macedon, and bis fon Alexander. Scotland efcaped narrow'y the fangs of Edward 1. of England ; and would at laft have been con- quered by its more potent neighbour, had not con- queft been prevented by a federal union. But at that rate, have we not reafon to dread the union of all nations under one univerfal mo- narch ? There arc feveral caufes that for ever will prevent a calamity fo dreadful. The local fitu- ation of fome countries, defended by ftrong na- tural barriers, is one of thefe. Britain is defend- ed Sk. IV. Ptogrefs of States, 435 ed by the fea ; and fo is Spain, except where di- vided from France by the Pyrencan mountains. Europe in general, by many barriers of feas, ri- vers, and mountains, is fitted for dates of mo- derate extent : not fo Afia, which being divided by nature into very large portions, is prepared for extenfive monarchies *. Ruflia is the only excep- tion in Europe ; a weak kingdom by fituation, tho* rendered formidable by the extraordinary talents of one man, and of more women than one. A fecond caufe is the weaknefs of a great ftate. The ftrength of a ftate doth not increafe with its bulk, more than that of a man. Ai o- vergrown empire, far from being formidable to its neighbours, falls to pieces by its weight and unwieldinefs. Its frontiers are not eafily guard- ed : witnefs France, which is much weakened by that circumftance, though its greater part is bounded by the fea. Patriotifm vanifhes in a great monarchy : the provinces have no mutual connexion : and the diftant provinces, which mu(t be governed by baihaws, are always ripe for a revolt. To fecure Nicomedia, which had fre- quently fuffered by fire, Pliny fuggefted to the Emperor Trajan, a fire company of one hundred and fifty men. So infirm at that period was the Roman empire, that Trajan diirft not put the pro- je£t in execution, fearing dillurbances even from that fmall body. F f 2 , The * En Afie on a toujours vu de grands empires ; en Europe ils n'ont ja- mais pu fubliftcr. Cell que I'Afie que nous connoiflons a de plus grandea plaines : die elt coupte en plus frands niorceaux par les montagnes et les mers ; etcomme elle ert plus au midi, les fources y font plus aifement taries, lt;s niontaf pes y font moins couvertes des nfeges, et les fleuves, moins grof- fis, y forinent des moindres harriers. VEfprit dfs Loix, liv. 17. c, 6. ■ ■ [/•; Er.yJ-jb thus : " In Afia there have always been great empires : fuch •* could XKvvx fubfiR in Europe. The reafon is, that in Afia there are " larger plains, and it is cut by mountains and feas into more extenfive di- " viiions : as it lies more to tiie fouth, its fprings arc more eafily dried up, " the nioiirtains are lefs covered with fnow, and the rivers proportionally " fmailer form lefs confidcrable banier»."J \ ijn:; ' »u !l \ 43^ Civil Society. B. 11 The chief caufe is the luxury and effeminacy of a great monarchy, which leave no appetite for war, either in the fovereign or in his fubjeds. — Great inequality of rank in an extenfive kingdom, occalioncd by a conflant flow of riches into the capital, introduces fliow, expcnfive living, luxury, and ienfuality. Riches, by affording gratification to every fcniual appetite, become an idol to which all men bow the knee ; and when riches are M'or(h!pped as a paffj^ort to power as well as to plcafure, they corrupt the heart, eradicate every virtue, and foller every vice. In fuch diffolution of manners, contradidions are reconciled : avarice and meannefs unite with vanity ; diffimulation and cunning, with fplendor. Where fubjeds are fo corrupted, what will the prince be, who is not taught to moderate his pallions, who mcafures juftice by appetite, and who is debilitated by cor- poreal pleafures ? Such a prince never thinks of heading his own troops, nor of extending his do- minions. Moflazen, the laft Califf of Bagdat, is a conlpicuous inftance of the degeneracy de- fcribed. His kingdom being invaded by the Tar- tars in the year 1258, he fhut himfelf up in his leraglio with his debauched companions, as in profound peace ; and ftupified with floth and vo- luptuoufnefs, was the only perfon who appeared carelefs about the fate of his empire. A King of Perfia, being inf( ^med that the Turks had made themfelves maflers of hi^ befl provinces, anfwer- ed, that he was indifferent about their fuccefs, provided they did not difturb him in his city of Ifpahan. Hoatfang, the lafl: Chinefe Emperor of the Chinefe race, hid himfelf in his northern pro- vinces, and Liltching, a rebel mandarine, was wreftling from him the remainder. The EmpreiV (Irangled herfelf in her apartment ; and the Empe- ror, making a lafl effort, followed her example. The ninth Chinefe Emperor of the blood of Gen- hizcan, Sk. IV. Progrefs tf States » 437 hizcan, addidcd to women and priefls, was dcf- pifed by his people. A perfon without a name, who had been a fervant in a convent of Bonzes, put- ting himfelf at the head of fome robbers, de- throned the monarch, and extinguifhed the royal family. The Tonquinefe, after a long fubje£lion to the Emperor of China, regained their independence, and were governed by kings of their own nation. Thefc princes having by long peace become indo- lent, luxurious and effeminate, abandoned the go- vernment to their minifters. The governor of Co- chinchina, being at a great diftance from the ca- pital, ;revoIted firft, and that country became a feparate kingdom. The governor of Tonquin, in which province the King refided, ufurped the fo- vereignty : but refpe^ing the royal family, he only locked up the King in his palace ; leaving to the King's defcendents the name of RGva, or King, with fome Ihadow of royalty. The ufurper and his fucccflbrs content thcmfelves with the title of Chova, or Generaliflimo ) which fatisfies the people, who pierce no deeper than what eye- iight difcovers. A revolution of the fame kind happened in Japan. Similar caufes produce fimi- lar effefts. The luxurious and indolent fucceflbrs of Charlemagne in the kingdom of France, truit- ing their power and authority with the mairs of their palace, were never feen in public, and were feldom heard of. The great power of thefe offi- cers, inflamed them with an appetite for more. Pepin and his fucceffors w^re for a long time kings dc faBo^ leaving to the rightful fovcreign nothing but the empty name. Charles Martel reigned for fome time without even naming a king. And at lail Pepin the younger, anno 751, throwing oft' the mafk, ordered himfelf to be proclaimed King pf France. BuibequiuSj ■If ^.H A Irli I '1 fVm I I f^fffl' ^1 . 438 Civil Society. B. II. C6 de- prived by the Tarru^'S, wi)o put an end to thatoncp illuflrious nricuiarchy. Ihe fame would have been the fate of the Perhan empire, had it not been fub- ducd by Alexander of Macedon. But after his death k fubmiticd to the ordinary fate : his generals af- fumed regal power, each of them in the province be governed. Had not the Roman empire been dif- membered by the barbarians, it would have been dif* mciiibered by the governors pf its provinces. The weaknefs of Charlemagne's luccerfbrs, hatched in France and in Germany an endlefs n.umber of petty fovereigns. About the time that a palfage to the Eaft Indies by the Cape of Good Hope was difcover- ed, the great peninfula beyond tjie Ganges was comprehended under the powerful empire of Bif- nagar. Its firfl monarchs had eltabliflied themfelves by valour and military knowledge. In war, they headed their troops: in peace, they direded thciv minifters, vifited their dominions, and were punc- tual in rendering jufticeto high and low. The peo- ple carried on an extenfive and lucrative commerce, which brought a revenue to the Emperor that ena- bled, him to maintain a Handing army of 100,000 foot, 30,009 horfe, and 700 elephants. But prof- I perity Sk. IV. Prognfs of States, 441: perity and opulence ruined all. The Emperors, poifoned with pride and voluptuoufncfs, were npw contented with fwelling titles, inltead of lolid fame. King of kings, and Hufhand of a thou fund wives, were at the head of a long catalogue of fuch pompous, Init empty epithets. Corrupted by flattery, they -.u'-'efted divine honours, and appeared rarely in public ; leaving the care of their dominions to their juiniftcrs, and to the governors of their provinces. At tlie beginning of the fixteenth century, neigh- » ;:)uring princes encroached on all fides. In the 1565, Bifnagar the capital was taken and facked by four Moorilh kings. The governors of the pro- vinces declared themfelves independent -, and out of that great empire, fprung the kingdoms of Golcondii, Vifapour, and feveral others. The empire of liin- doflan, once widely extended, is now reduced to a very fmall kingdom, under a prince wljo no longer is intitled to be defigned the Great Mogul ; the go- vernors of his provinces having as ulual, declared themfelves independent. Our North- American colonics are in a profpcrous condition, increafing rapidly in population, and in opulence. The colonifts have the fpirit of a free people, and are enflamcd with patriotifm. Their population will equal that of Britain and Ireland in lefs than a century ; and thev will then be a match for the mother-country, if thev chufc to be indepen- dent : every advantage will bv' v\n their lide, ab tlie attack mult be by ica h\>m a very great diitance. Being thus deliverevi fiwm v\ foreign yoke, their firfl: care will be the choice of a proper government ; and it is notdillicult to forefe« what governm(.^>t will be chofen. A people animated with the new blellmgi of liberty and indcix^ndence, will not incline to a kingly gover«mem» The Swifs cantons joined in a federal union, fov proteftion again It the potent houfe of Auftria ; and the Dutch embraced the like pnion, tor protedioii againft the more i-otent king of '. v J !l" -h ■ s *i ' W ill' % 442 Civil Soch-tv. B. II. of Spain. But our colonies will never join in fuch a union j bccaufe they have no potent neighbour, and bccaufe they have an avcrfion to each other. We may pronounce with aifurance, that each colony will chulc for itfcif a republican government. And their prefent conllitution prcjiares them for it : they have a fcnate ; and they Jiave an afl'embly reprefent- ing the people. No change will be necedary, but to drop the governor who reprtfents the King of Britain. And thus u part of a great (late will be converted iijto many hnall Hates* SKETCH V, i.y. J.- Great and Small States compared* N, ElGHDOUllS, flCcofdliig to the coinmon fay- ing, mull be fweet friends or bitttr enemies ; pa- triotifm is vigorous in fmall Hates ; and hatred to neighbouring Hates, no Ifefs fo : both vanifli in a great monarchy. Like a maximum in mathematics, emulation hri leave iiis land unculrivated. And thus agriculturg " and population diminish daily : t!i-n which notliinj worfe can b«fal a " flite." '• ^_m ,3k. .V. Great and Small States, 449 torian baods were the Janifaries of the Roman em- pirii, who never fcrMpipd to dethrone the Emperor on tjje ilighteft dif-obUgation. But as there was no royal family, they commonly carried the crown to ni^rket, .and beftowed it on the highell bidder. With refped to the latter, the governors of diftant provinces, accuftomed to aft without controul, be- come greedy of power, and put no bounds to ambi- tion. Let them but gam the affeftion of the people they govern, and boldnefs will do the reft. 'Ihe monarch is dethroned before he is prepared for de* fence ; and the ufurper takes his place without op- pofition, Succefs commonly attends fuch under- takings ; ,^Qr thefovcrcign has no foul, and the peo- ple have Jio patriotilm. In Hindoftan formerly, iome /difcontented favourite or fouba took up arms to avqjfige fancied, or; perhaps afFeded wrongs : ven- .turing inot. however , upon independence, he fcrcened himfi^lf.with fetting up .fome perfon of the royal bipod, ^whom he proclaimed fovereign. ^ The volup- tuo.ufnefs. and effeminacy of the late kings of Per- fja, has rptldercd tl^at kingdom a prey to every bold invader. Np great , (late ever lay fo open toad- venturers, as Perfia has done of late years. In the fifth place, a nation corrupted with Iu:c-» ury and.fenfuality is a ready morfel for every inva* der: to attpmpt the cdnqueft, and to fucceed, are almoft the fame. The potent Aflyrian monarchy, having long fubrift4;d in peace without a fmgle ene- my, funk into floth and effeminacy, and became an eafy prey to the kings of Media and Babylon. Thefe two nations, in like circumftances of lloth and eifeminacy, were in their turn iwailow'd up by Cyrus King of Perfia. And the great empire of Perfia, running the fame courfe, was fubt'.ned by Alexander of Macedon with a fmall an.^.y of thn- ty-five thoufand mm*. ' Vol. I. • ^*g . . . ■' ' And * In Europe, nelghboiirine; nations- differ little in manncis, oi in torti- t».iu-:. ■:ii ;i m ?:i' 45^ Civil Society. B. ir. ^^: i * J And this leads to a fixth difad /antage of a' great empire, which is, the difficulty of guarding its fron- tiers. A kingdom, like an animal, becomes weak in proportion to its cxcefs above a certain fize,. France and Spain would be Itfs fitted for defence, were they enlarged beyond their prcfent extent: Spain in particular was a very weak kingdom, while it comprehended the Netherlands and the halt of Italy. In their prefent extent, forces are foon colleded to guard the moft diflant frontiers. Months are required to aflfemble troops in an overgrown kingdom like Perfia : if an army be defeated at the frontier, it mufl: difperfc,' fortified places being fel- dom within reach. The viOor, advancing with celerity, lays fiege to the capital before the provin- cial troops can be formed into a regular army : the capital is taken, the empire diffoired ; andthecorv- queror at leifure difputes the provmces with their go- vernors. I'lie Philippine iflands made formerly a part of the extenfive empire of China ; but as they were too diflant to be protefted or well governed, it fhowed confummatc wifdom in the Chinefc govern- ment to abandon them, with feveral other diflant provinces. ■> i^ .. . , ;; ■ ?:- . A fmall (late, on the other hand, is cafily guarded. The Greek republics thought them- fclves fufficiently fortified againfl the Great King, by their courage, union, and their patriotifm. The Spanifh Chriftians, abandoning the open coun- trv to the Saracens, retired to the mountains of Auftria, and elefted Don Pelayo to be their King. That warlike prince walled none of his towns, nor did he fortify a fingle pafs ; knowing, that while his people were brave they would be invincible ; and that walls a«d flrong-holds ferve but to abate cou- rage. luffc. In Afia, we rtep Jnftantly from the fierce Tartars, '►nhaliiting a colrf and barrtn country, to th" efteminate people of countries warin and fertile. Hence in Afia perpetua.' « onqiieds from north to foutli, to which even llf l(;u*i wail ul Cliind maivca fcarcf any obAack. ■I Sk. V. Great and Small States, 45' rage. The Romans, while circumfcribed within Italy, never thought of any defence againfl: an ene- my but good troops. When they had acquired a vaft empire, even the Rhine appeared a barrier too weak : the numbcrlefs forts and legions that co- vered their frontiers could not defend them from a panic upon every motion of the barbarians *. A nation, in which the reciprocal duties of fovereign and fubjed arc confcientioufly fulfilled, and in which the people love their country and their go- vernors, may be deemed invincible ; provided due care be taken of the military branch. Every par- ticular is reverfed in a great ennpire : individuals grafp at money, per fas aut nefas^ to lavifh it upoa pleafure : the governors of diltant provinces tyran- nize without control ; and, during the fhort period of their power, negle£i: no means, however oppref- five, to amafs wealth. Thus were the Roman pro- vinces governed ; and the people, who could not figure a greater tyrant than a Roman proconful, were ready to embrace every change. The Romans accordingly were fenfible, that to force their barrier, and to difmember their empire, were in effe£t the fame. In our times, the nations whofe frontiers he open, would make the moll refolute oppofition to an invader ; witnefs the German ftates, and the ^^wifs cantons. Italy enjoys the ftrongeft natural barrier of any country that is not an ifland ; and yet for centuries has been a prey to every invadev. Three plans at different times have been put In execution for fecuring the frontiers of an extenfive empire, building walls, laying the frontiers wafle, and eflablifhing feudatory princes. The firft was the ancient practice, proper only for an idle people without commerce. The Egyptians built a very ex- tenfive wall for protedling themfelves againft the G g 2 wandering ♦ The ufe of cannon, which place the weak and ftrons: "pon a level, U tUg only relbuite of the luxurious and opulent againft the poor and hardy. I, V i % \ ■ : f f-ur I -I' 452 Civil Society. B. 11. ■ f B ■ I wandering Arabs. The famous wall of China to pro- tect its effeminate inhabitants againil the Tartars is known all the world over ; and the walls built in the north of England againft the Scots and Pi£ls, are known to every Briton. To protect the Roman territory from German invaders, the Emperor Pro- bus conftrucled a ftone wall ftrengthened with tow- ers. It ftretched from Ratifbon on the Danube to Wimpfen on the Necker ; and terminated on the bunk of the Rhine, after a winding courfe of two hundred miles. To a low ftate indeed muft the Gi^ek empire have been reduced in the reign of the Emperor Anafhafius, when to reprefs the Bul- garians., it was neceffary to build a wall, at no great- er diftance from Conftantincple than ten leagues, abandoning all without to the barbarians. Such walls, thougb ereded with ftupendous labour, prove a very weak bulw .\; for a wall of any ex- tent is never fo carefully guarded, as at all times to prevent furprife. And accordingly, experience has taught that walls cannot be relied on. This in mo- dern times has introduced the two other methods mentioned. Sha Abbas, King of Perfia, in order to prevent the inroads of the Turks, laid wafte part of Armenia, carrying the inhabitants to Ifpahan, and treating them with great humanity. Land is not much valued by the great monarchs of Afia : it is precious in the fmaller kingdoms of Europe, and the frontiers are commonly guarded by fortified towns. The other iTontiers of Perfia are guarded by fciidatory princes ; and the fame method is prac- tifed in China, -n Ilindoflan, iind in the Turkifh empire. The princes of Little I'artary, Moldavia, and Wallacliia, have been long a fecurity to the Grand Signior againfl his powerful neighbours in Europe. S K E T C II SKETCH VI. !! War and. Peace Compared, N, O complaints are more frequent than againft the weather, when it fuits not our purpofe : " A " difmal feafon ! we fhall be drowned, or we fhall " be burnt up." And yet wife men think, that there might be more occafion to complain, were the weather left to our own diredion. The wea- ther is not the only inftance of diftruft in Provi- dence : it is a common topic to declaim againft war ; " Scourge of nations, Deftroyer of the hu- " man race, Bane of arts and indullry ! Will the " world never become wife ! Will war never have " an end !" Manifold indeed are the bleflings of peace ; but doth war never produce any good ? A fair romparifon may poflibly make it doubtful, whether war, like the weather, ought not to be refigned to the condud of Providence : feldom are we in the right, when we repine at its dif- penfations. The bleffings of peace arc too well known to need illuftration : induftiy, commerce, the fine arts, pow- er, opulence, kc. &c. depend on peace. What has war in ftore for balancing bleflings fo fubftantial ? Let us not abandon the field without making at Icaft one effort. Humanity, it mufl be acknowledged, gains no- thing from the wars of fmail flates in ciofe neigh- bourhood : fuch wars are brutal and bloody; be- caufe they are carried on with bitter enmity a- gainfl individuals. Thanks to Providence, that war at prcfent bears a lefs favage afped : we fpare individu- als, '" \ 1 '■' 'i,|'!>: V:^ ■ilrliillli'Wtt 454 Civil Society. B. II. als, and make war upon the nation only: barba- rity and cruelty give place to magnanimity j and foldiers are converted from brutes into heroes. — Such wars give exercife to the elevated virtues of courage, generofity, and difintereftednefs, which are always attended with confcioufnefs of merit and of dignity *. Friendfliip is in peace cool and lan- guid ; w * In the war carried on by Louis XII. of France againfl the Venetians, the town of Brefcia, being taken by ftorm and abandoned to the foldiers, lutfticl for feven days all the dirtreifes of cruelty and avarice. No houfe ef- caped but that where Chevalier Bayard was lodged. At his entrance, the miftrcfs, a woman of rank, fell at his feet, and deeply fobbing, " Ch ' my " L.'id, fave my life, fave the honour of my daughters." Take courage, Madcm, faid the Chevalier, your life and their honour fliall be fecure while I have life. Tlie two daughters, brought from their hiding-place, were pre- lented to him } and the family reunited bertow'd their whole attention on their deliverer. A dangerous wound he had received gave them opportunity lo , , efs their zeal j they employ 'd a notable furgeon ; they attended hin» '>y lurn day and night ; and when he could bear to be amufed, they entertain- ed him with concerts of mufic. Upontheday fixed for his dejiartu re, the mother faid to him, " To your goodnefs, my Lord, we owe our lives ; and " to you all we have belongs by right of war: but we hope from youriignal " benevolence, that this flight tribute will content you ;" placing upon the table an iron cort'er full of money. " What is the fum," faid the Cheva- lier. " My Lord," anfwcred (he trembling, no more but 2500 ducats, all " that wehave,-~but if more be necelVary, we will try our friends." — " Ma- " dam," faid he, " your kindnefs is more precious in my eyes than a han- " dred thoufand ducats. Take back your money, and depend always on " me."————" My good Lord, you kill me in refufmg this fniall fum: " tr.ke it only as a mark of your friendship to my family."———" Well," " f.iid he, " fince it will oblige you, 1 take the money 5 but give me the fa- " tiifadion of bidding adieu to your amiable daughters." They came to him with looks of- regard and affedtion. " Ladies,' faid he, " theimpreflion " you have made on my heart, will never wear out. What return to make •• I know not ; for men of my proieflion are feldom opulent : but here ai-e " two thoufand hve hundred ducats, of wiiich the gcnerofity of your nio- " ther has given me the dilpofal. Accept them as a marriagc-prefent ; and " may your happinefs in marriage equal your merit." '• Flower of chival- " ry," cried the mother, " may theCod who fuffered deatli for us reward " you here and hereafter." Can psace afford fo fwec^ fcene ? The foUowmg incident is ftill more interefting : it is of a late date amon^ onr countrymen; and will, for that reafon, make the deeper impreflion. The fcene of adion was in Admiral Watfon's fliip at the (lege of Chanderna- pore, where Ciptain Spcke, and his fon a youth of fixtetn, were both of them wounded by the fame fl'iot, Th« hiftory is related by Mr. Ives furgeon oftliefliip; which tollows in liis own words, only a little abridged. Tiie Captain, whofe leg was hanging by thcfkin, faid to the Admiral, " Indeed, *' Sir, this was a cruel fliot, to knockdown both father and fon." Mr. Watfon's heart was too full fc-ra reply ; he only ordered both to be carried clown to ihcfuigeon. The Captain, whov\r»s fitft brought down, told me how Sk. VL War and Peace. 455 ^uid ; but in a war for glory, exerts the whole iire of its enthufiafm. The long and bloo(;ly war fuftained by the Nethcrlanders againfl: ,the tyrant •of Spain, made even Dutchnaen heroes : they •forced their way to the Indies during the hotteft period of thd war j and gained by commerce what fupporte^ how dangeroufly his Billy had been wounded. Piefently after the bravt youth himfelf appeared, witii his eyes overflowing with tears, not for hi m- felf but for his lather. Upon my alfurance that his father's woiinl was not •dangerous, he became calm; but refufed to be touched till his fatlier's wound (hould be fit ft drefTed. Then pointing to « fellow-fufferer, '* Pray, " Sir, drofs alfo that poor man who is groaning fo fadly hcfids rne." I toid him that tlie man had already been taken care of; and bessed, that I now might have liberty to examine h« wound. He fubmiited ; and calmly faid, " Sir, I fear you muft amputate above the joint," I replied, " My dear, I " muft," He clafped his hands together ; and lifting his eyes toward hea- ven, he ofljeied up the following fliot^ hut earneft petition : " Good -God ' " do thou enable me to behave in my prefent circumftanccs wortl^j' of my " father." He then toldjne hewas allfubmifficn, I performed the opera- tion above tlie joint of the knee; and during tiiev^-holetime'the intrepid youth never fpoke a word, nor uttered a groan that could be heard at the dif- tance of a yaid. It is eafier to imagine than to cxprefs the feelings of the fa- rther at this time ; but whatever he felt, tears were the only expreflion. Both -of them were carried to Calcutta : the father was lodged in the houfeof his brother-in-law j and the fon was placed with me in the hofpital. For the firft week I gave comfort to both, carrying good tidings to them of one ano- ther. But, alas! all the good fymptoms that had attended tlic yowng man, ■began to difappear. The Captain perceived all in my countenance ; and fo vnwiliing was he to add to my diftrefs, as feldom to fpeak about his fon. One time he faid, " How long, my friend, do you think my Billy may re- " main inaflate of uncertainty ?" I replied, that if he furvived the fifteenth ■day after the operation, there would be ftrong hopes of his lecovery. On •tlie thirteenth he died; and on the fixtecnth, the Captain, looking me fted- faftly in the face, " Well, Ives, how fares it with my boy ?" Difcoverint^ the truth from my filcnce, t;.; cried bitterly, fqueezed my band, and begged me to leave him for one half hour. When I returned, he appeared, as ht; ever after diy fcene that can compare witl:i tliis ia taoving our fympathetic fvtlings i" ' 1 ^( m :. ).; M, ' hI^^kw .")■ ":i.iV ; ' IffI TT' ra OBW 'iA T fMflT'-*ft ' , *"; •J |fl|lK{m ' ' r^ P.^W»>'« »,'^'- '■..'I wl ':!: Hii ( > i(ffl|i ^lii d' ! Mm * ''^^ '1 '^^ fl| ■1 E- ! 45<^'' Civil Societv. B. If. p*f fupportcd thcni againfl: their ferocious enemy.— Wliiit have they gained fincc by peace ? Their im- inciifc coinineree has eradicated patriotifm, and every appetite but for wealth. Had tlieir violated rights been rellored witliout a flrugpje, they Would liave continued a nation of frogs and filhennen. The Swifs, by continual iirugglcG for liberty a- gainft the potent lioul'e of Aufiria, became a brave and active people, feared and courted by neigh- bouring princes. Their federal union has fecured to them peace and tranquii'ity j which, notwith- ilanding their mouniainous fituation, would have funk, them ifito etfeminacy, but for a commerce they carry on of hiring out their men for fol- diers. Monks are commonly pufillanimous : their way of liic, which removes them from danger, enervates the mind, and renders them fpiritlefs and covvr.rdly. Indudry, manufactures, and wealth, are the fruits of peace ; but advert to what follows. Lux- ury, a never-failing concomitant of wealth, is a How poifon, that debilitates men, and renders them incapable of any great effort : courage, magnani- mity, hetoifm, come to be ranked among the miracles that are fuppofed never to have exifted but in fable ; and the falhionable properties of fenfuality, avarice, cunning, and diffimulation, en- grofs the mind. In a vVord, man by conftant prosperity and peace degenerates into a mean, impotent, and felfiih aninval'. An American fa- rage, who treafures up ttu fcalps of lii-. enemies as trophies of his prowels, is a bt'n^ far rjperior. Such arc the fruits of perpetual peace with refpett to individuals. Nor is the (fate itfelf lefs debilitated by it than its members. Figure a man wallowing in riches and immerfed in fenfual pleafure, but dreading the in- fedion of a plague raging at liis gate : or figure him in Sk. Vi. War and Peace. AS1 in tontiiiual dread of an enemy, watching every opportunity to burn and dellroy. This man repre- knts a commercial ftate that has long enjoyed peace withoiK difturbance. A ftate tliat is a temptincj obje^ft to an invader, without means of defence, is in a ^A^oful fituation. The republic of Venice was once famous for the wifdom of its conftitution, and for being the Chriflian bulwark againft the Turks ; but by long peace it has become altogether effemi- nate. Its principles of government are conformable to its charader : every caufe of quarrel with a neighbour, is anxioufly avoided ; and dirturbances at home prevented by watchful fpies. Holland, fmce the days of King William, has not produced a man fit to command a rr jnmcnt : and the Dutch have nothing to rely on for indcpeiidence, but mutual jealoufy among their neighbours. Hannibal ap» peared upon the fUge too early : had the Romans, after their conqucfi of Italy, been fuffered to ex- change their martial fj/irit for luxury and voluptu- oufnefs, they would have been no match for that great general. It was equally lucky for the Ro- mans, that they came late upon Macedon. Had Alexander finiihed his conqueft of Greece and the Romans thci^ii of Italy, at the fame period, they would probably have been confined, each of them within their own limits. But Afiatic luxury and ef- feminacy, which had got hold of the Greeks and Macedonians before the Roman invafion, rendered them an eafy prey to the invaders. It was the con- It ant cry of Cato the Cenfor, '* Dclcnda eft Carthu' " go.^''- Scipio Nafica was a more fubtile politician : his opinion was, to give peace to Carthage, that the dread of that once powerful republic, might pre- ferve in vic^our the military fpirit of his country. What happened afterward, fets the wifdom of that advice in a confpicuous light. The battle of Acli- um, after a long train of cruel and civil wars, gave peace to Rome under the Emperor Auguftus. Peace had (i> j!^i 458 Civil, Society, B U. Sk tli'l had not fubfiftcd much above thirty years, whcu a Roman army, under Quintilius Varus, was cut to pieces in Germany, The confternation at Rome was unfpeakable, as there was not a fortified town ^o prevent the Germans from pouring down upon Itaiy. Inflant orders were given loi levying men j but i"o effeminate had the Romans already become, that not a frnglic man would enlill voluntarily. And Au- guftus was forced to ufe fevere meafures, before he could coUeft a fmall army. How different the mi- litary fpirit of the Romans during the fecond Punic war, when feveral Roman armies were cut off, great- er than that of Varus. The citizens who could bear arms were reduced to 137,000 ; and yet in the later years of that war, the Romans kept the field with no fewer than twenty-three legions (a). The Vandals, having exj^elled the Romans from Afric, enjoyed a peace for a century without feeing the f^ice of an enemy. Procopius (/>) gives the follow- ing account of them. Charmed with the fertility of the foil and benig?)i-y of the climate, they abandon- ed thcmfclves 10 iir.ury, fumptuous drcfs, high liv- ing, and frequent laths. They dwelt in the theatre and circus, amufistg themfclvcs with dancers, panto- mimes, and every gay entertainment : their villas were fplcndid ; and their gardens were adorned with water-works, beautiful trees, odoriferous flow- ers : no regard to chaftity, nor to any manly virtue. In that effeminate ftate, they made fcarce any refifl- ance to Belifarius with an army far inferior in num- ber to their own. The Saracens of Afia, corrupted by profperity and opulence, \vere able to make no head agninft the Turks. About that time, the Spa- niar*ls, equally corrupted, were ovv^^rpowered by the i5aracens of Afric j who, remote from the diffolute manners of Afia, retained their military fpirit. The wealth of the kingdom .of Whidah in Guinea, from fertility (a) Titus Livlus, lib. c6. cap. |, {''I Hiltoija Vandalica, lib. 2. Sk. VI. IVar and Peace. 45$ ta if rtil'ity of foil, great induftry, and cxtcnfivc com- merce, produced luxury and cireminacy. The king gave himfelf up to fenfual pleafures, leaving govern- ment to his miniftcrs. In tliat ftatc: was Whidah in the year 1727, when the king of Dahomay re- qucfted accefs to the fea for trade, offering to pur- chafe the privilege with a yearly tribute. A haughty denial furnifhed a pretext for war. The king of Dahomay invaded the territories of his enemy with a difciplined army, and pierced to the car'* I with- out rtfillance. The king of Whidah '^ wo- men had fled to an ifland, and his peo all difperfcJ. It amazed the conqueror, tL olc nation, without ftriking a blow, had thus del rted their wives, their children, their gods, their pofl'elh- ons, and all that was dear to them. The Japanefc became warlike during long and bloody civil wars, which terminated about the end of the fixteenth cen- tury in rendering their Emperor defpotic. From that period, no opportunity has occurred for exer- cifmg their military fpirit, except in the education of their youth : heroifm with contempt of death arc inculcated ; and the hiftories of their illufl:rious he- roes, are the only books tHat boys at fchool are taught to read. But the profound tranquillity that the em- pire now enjoys in a ftrid and regular government, will in time render that warlike people effeminate and cowardly : human nature cannot refift the poi- fon of perpetual peace and fecurity. In the war be- tween the Turks and Venetians anno lyi^y the latter put great confidence in Napoli di Romania, a city in the Morea ftrongly fortified, and provided with every necClTary for an obftinate defence. They had not the jeaft doubt of being able to draw their whole force together, before the Turks could make any progrefs in the fiege. But, to their great aflonifh- ment, the taking of that city, and of every other fortified place in the Morea, was the work of but a lingle campaign. So nnuch had the Venetians de- generated ■' ' ' ■ ' It IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) :/_ t/j 1.0 I.I 11.25 If 1^ 1^ 12.0 Its. 1.8 U III 1.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4S03 A^* :/j i^-? Ciya SOCIEITY. B. II. generated by long peace, from the courage and pati'iotijfni of their forefathers who conquered that country from the Turks. In fomc late accounts froniGhina, we arc told, tjhiat the King of Bengala or Bracma, having invaded Yunnan, an opulent pro- vince of China, obtained a complete victory over the Emperor's army, commanded by his fon-in-law : the inhabitants of that province wereftruck with fuch a panic, that multitudes, for fear of the conqueror, hanged and drowned themfelves. To what a torpid ftate by this time would Europe have been reduced, had the plan for a perpettial peace, proje^ed by Henry IV. of France, been carried into execution r Conqueft, in a retrograde motion, would have di- reded its progrefs from the eaft to the weft. Our fi- tuation in an ifland, among feveral advantages, is fo far unlucky, that it puts us oflf our guard, and ren- ders us negligent in providing for defence : we ne- ver were invaded without beinc^ fubdued *. Montefquieu, in a warm panegyric on the Englifh conftitution, has overlooked one particular, *.n which it is fuperior to every other monarchy ; and that is, the frequent opportunities it affords to exert mental powers and talents. What agitation among the candidates and their electors, on the approach of a new parliament : what freedom of fpeech and elo- quence in parliament ; minifters and their meafures laid open to the world, the nation kept alive, and in- fpired with a vigour of mind that tends to heroifm ! This government, it is true, generates factions, which fometimes generate revolutions: but the golden ftf^e, fo lufcioufly defcribed by poets, would to man be worfe than an iron age. At any rate, better •, / : '! i'.- •;! >i-^-v, :.ij:v, * The 'ituation of rhe King of Sardinia, environed on all fides with power • fill monarchs, obliges him to aft with the greateft ch-cumfpeftion j which circumflance feems to have foriried the charafter of the princes of that houfe. The/e princes have exerted more fagacity in rtcering their political veifel, and more dexterity in availing themfelves of every wind, than any other race of fovereigns that figure in iiiftory, Robertfuns lififry of tlic £»;- ferer Ctur/es V, Sk. VI. better t( feekTor '.."Law-i cnt* flat vent toe free go\ people, their lib( fovereig manner: Britifli people j every ei , f her not to I: to dtain nocient, years ,i 'ftance, dem^ec tiie en ^undi;e ♦ On Rome) avbient tc li'grandd les tumud ces.guerr| itre bier dis dans j et pour dans unl libertenl " Many! ** RomeT «* ceflTar " thegj « civil ■ " faftic « all b^ " inpe " arei^ *' impc " profJ " peaci Sk. VI. War and Peace. ^i better to'hav^ a government liable to ftprn^s^, tha^ tp feek'for quiet in thp dead calm of defpotifrp *f ■? Xaw-fmts" within a^ftate, Iikc war betwieen 4»ff^r- ent' ilates, , accuftom people to bppofition, ap^^prq- vent too ,gr«at foftncfs and facility ^ pf manner^* li;^ ^ free government, a degree of Jtubborphqfs .ip 'i]j[^ people, is requifitei for refiftlng encroachment^' qh their liberties. The fondnefs of the French for their fovercign, an^ the eafinefs and politeness of thdr manners, hjfve corrupted a good conllitution. Ifhle firitifli coriiditution has beenjpreferved entire, by,'; people jealous of their prince, and refolution a^alj^ every encroachment pf regal power,^ '^^^ :,,,;^' ^^^ V^^ There i? another advantage of war, that pugl[t riot to be overlooked, though rot capital. It ferves to dtain ihe country QjF idlers, few otf whom are, in- nocent, aivd niany'liot a! JittiiC raifcfeiet^^us. In ' t^ years ,17 yit|i *Firance,' t^i^fP ^exe;;fewf ^en^jr-ninejcrinainajs^^^^^^^ "demneal at" the ' OM /fiaily. In the ycai?s "i'770'^nd 1 77 ? > VliQn we ^werie at peace with all the wortq, the criminals, condemned there amounted to one 1^undri€;i!^nd fifty one.', ^j^^^, .,a.dq^n b,r. ,« .^. '*" On !it*fehtfend parier dans lei> aut^uirs qlie ^es dt^4i(k>ns qui per^lrMit Rome} maisoQ^ne voitpi^squecesdiYiAons y etdtent neceflaires^-qu'el^y avbienttoujotirsete, et qii'elles y devoient toujours etre. C« fut unlquement U'granddbride'latlvpubliqae'q'ui 'fit'le maly et qui changea ^n gtie^A clviles les tum]alte& pppulaires. II falleit bien qu'it y «ut a R^edes divifionsj «t cesguerriets fi 'fiers, fl audacleux,- fi terriGles au dehors,, ne pouvoicri? pas 2tre bleri mod^s aa 'd^ans. t>eit)ander dans un ebt^Db^e des grn'.s tiar- dis dans )a guerre, .et timides danslapaix, c'0vouloirdesk:hofeS:impoOibles \ et pour regie generale, toutes les fois qu'onvtira tout le monde tranquiHe dans un stat qui fe donne 1^ nom de republique, *on peiit etre afTurc que )a liberte n'y eft p^s. MontthuitUi grattHeur des Romains, c£»,.9.— [/« Englijh thus : *' Many writers have uid a great deal of thofe fadions which deftroyed **■ Rome ; but they want the penetration to fee, that thofe faAions were ne- " ceflary, that they had always ftthfiAed, andever mu(l have fubfifted. It was " the grandeur of the ftate which alone occafioned the evil, and changed into "civil wars the tumults of the people. There muft of necefflty have been " factions in iRome ; for how was it poflible, that thofe who abroad fubdued all by their undaunted bravery and by the terror of tlieir arms, (hould live in peace and moderation at home? To look for a people in a free ftate who are intrepid in war, and, at the fame time, timid in peace, is to look for an impoffibility ; and we may hold it as a general rule, that in a ftate which profeffes a republican form of government, if the people are quiet and peaceable, there is no real liberty,"] I ■ !■ shi ] .4(62 Civil Society. B. II. But though I declare againft perpetual pcac?., per- petual ^ar is ftill more my avcrfipn. The conditio)) of Eiirope ivas deplorable in the dark ages, when valTals aifumed the privilege of waging wa): without confent of the fovercign. Deadly fciidS prevailed ujiivetfally, and threatened diflblution of all govern- ment : the human race never were in a taorc wofiil condition. But anarchy never fails foon or late to rcdify itfclf, which effeminacy produced by long peace never does. Revenge and cruelty, it is true, are the fruits of war : but fo are likewife firmnefs of iTiind'and undaunted courage : which are exerted with better will in behalf of virtue than of revenge. The crufades were what firft gave a turn to the fierce maCnners of our anceftors. A religious en- terprife, uniting niimbers formerly at variance, en- larged the fphere of focial affe6lion, and fweetened the mariners of Chriftians to one another. Thefe crufades filled Europe with heroes, who, at home, 'Mftrc ready for any new ehterprife that promifed laurels. Moved with the horror of deadly feuds, they joined in bonds of chivalry for fuccouriilg the diftreffed, for redreff)ng wrongs, arid for protefting widows and orphans. Such heroifm enflamed every one who was fond of glory and warlike -"■'^hieve- ments : chivalry was relifhed by men of I ; and even kings were proud to be or the order. An in- ftitution, blending together valour, religion, and gallantry, was wonderfully agreeable to a martial people : and humanity and gentlenefs could not but prevail in a fociety, whofe profcffion it was to fuc- cour every perfon in diflrefs. As glory and honour were the only wifhed-for recompence, chivalry was efteemed the fchool of honour, of truth, -and of fi- delity. Thus, truth without difguife, and a fcru- pulous adherence to promifes, became the diftin- guifliing virtues of a gentleman. It is true, that the enthufiafm of protcding widows and orphans, degenerated fomctimcs into extravagance j witncfs I ; ^ ' ' knights Sk. VI. War and Peace, 463 knights who wandered about in qucft of adventures. But it would be unl'air to condemn thj^ whole prder^ becaufe a few of their number were extravagant* The true fpirit of chivalry, produced a fignal refor- mation in tiie manners of Europe. , To what other caufe can we fo juftly afcijibe the point of honour, and > that humanity inwary which Azharafterize mo* dcm manners (d) ? Ate peace, luxury, and felfifhneCi, capable of produciog.fuchcffeas.?,:, .^rr ft ;;••/!*> . That man fhouldi beihe only animal that make? war upon his own kind) may appear llrange and unaccountable.. Didmen liften to cool re^fon, th(?y never would make war. Hear the celebrated Houfieao on that fubjed. " Un prince, qui poux reculer fes frontiers, perd autant de fes anciens fujets qu* il en acquiert de nouveaux,^s' afibiblit en s* aggrandilTant ; parce qu'ayec un plus grand efpace a defendre, il n'a pa|' plus ddfenicurs. Or on ne: pcut ijgnorer, que par la n^aniere dpnt 1^ guerre fe iiiw aujourd'hi^i, 1^ moindre depopulati- M on qu'elle produit eftcell^ qui {e- fait dans jes armies : c'eft bien-la la perte apparente e^ fcfj- fible : mais il s'en fait en m6me terns dans tbut l*6tat une plus grave ct plus irreparable que cclle ** des hommes qui meurent, par ccux qui nc naif- fent pas, par I'augmentation des impots, par I'in- terruption du commerce, par la d6fertion^ des campagnes, par I'abandon de I'agriculture ; ce mal qu'on n'appef9oit ^oint d'abord* fe fait fcfttir " cruellement dans la fulte : et c'ertalors qu'on eft *' 6tonn6 d'etre fi foible, pour s'6tre rendu fi puif- " fant. Ce qui rend encore les conqu6tes moins in- •* t6reffantes, c'eft qu'on fait maintenant par quels ** moyens on pent doubler et tripler fa puiffance, ** non fculement fans 6tendre fon territoirc, mais quelquefois en le refferrant, confime fit tres fage- ment TEmpereur Adricn. On fait que ce font les cc cc ft eeloi qui o^cupe une *' moindre fitcndu deterre, eft'tcefllenleiit le plus •* puiflant. C-'eft done par dc 'bonnes Joixj.paTi une (age police,' par dc grandes ^wcs^dconomiqties, qu'un fouvcrain judicieux var may forhetimes take place. To- rely upon Provrdcneje in the govprpmeAjt of- this ^orid, is -the Ififdqm.^of man'i^-' *V" ■«-■-•-.• tfi-s':." j-fi •rii.-?vi;,-'.n..". ^'-'" Upon the - whole, perpetuiji^ar is baj^, b^cftufe if 'Converts''; 'ineh' 'iff([o he^^ -lof pr«y : ^^perpwull •peace. is- "^orfe, bcciiife, it converts men -into^^afts W,l^tt<'dt;ii To jsrefent^ych'-w^u^ degeneracy oh *^bpth ihari^s, "mr atid pe^jW»^'Ii».«itend5j^ bb tenrUnrips ^fJ^sikKlpfingfji&iminy '*f;pfhi«rp^'f^^je|Sis•as..he acquires. .ne\v, yv'paK^ns in fadlbis power vr^^e ** !)♦ aims at ftrengtKenlrig it I'ihe.lncreiafeS the territoiy to be defenrfcd, while *^ the irarnlief ^f'ffefendert/i»not.lncr«aied. ..'Who dtn^s i)Ot'.JI(no(W, :diat in ^ Hf jhe/w'rts")^ W*P"*f pf «>*Wng war, the |;reateft dppopulatiQn is not fro/ti ** the havocic itiade m. the armies ? Tha^ Indeed is tWe obVfciuSiiftd apparent '" dcfb-uAion ; but,th#reJs, at'the &nie xime, inthe/latealoismuch more '.' '^. ifev^re and j^ep^})^; dot •'that |houfand$.Are cut off, but tliat .ti)oufandi >" are not bom •• pop^lat7on is wounded by .the irtcreife of t^Xe$,'by'thein- ' •♦ terroptk>n of comrtfcrte; by the defertioh of the couptry,. and by tlie ftag^ ^filiation of agriculture;- the misfortune v^lu6h is overl<)oked at iirft, is fe- " ,verely felt in the event ; and.it is then t^it we are aftohi/hed to fijid we *' have been growing weak, ^hile tncreafmg our po\ver. What renders " every new conqueft ftill the lefs vali|abie, is the confideratioti of the pofli- .'f^bility of doubling and tripling a iia\ioit's power, v^ithout extendiag its '' *' territory, nay, even by diminilhing it.' Th<9 Binperor Adriart knew this, aod vvifely praftifed it. The numbers of the fubjedls a'ry tlie ftrength of the prince : and u confequence of what I have faid is this propoTition, That of two Aatet equal in the number - \^f)^ 7">.'<8ioH •ih -V imI . '^\:n) hip^ihs'^- Vimmoff asl " s K E T ,p,.,n . vu. ",";„;:: ioa y;.'v .r... , ♦ ;,' ■y';-''i:r*:?f--.-,w^\ rjrn^/fr' ** ''!'l-.'i- tf y„ .i^ -** ; H E members of a tribe in their original ftate of hunting and fifhing, being little united but by a common language, have no notion of a patria ; and fcarce any notion of fociety, unlefs when they join in an expedition againft an enemy, or againft wild beafts. The fliepherd-ftate, where flocks and herds are poffeffed in common, gives a clear notion of a common intcreft ; but ftill none of a patria* The fenfe of 2i patria begins to unfold itfelf, when a people leave off wandering, to fettle upon a territory that they call their own. Agricul- ture connefts them together ; and government ftill more ; they become fellow-cittzens ; and the ter- ritory is termed tht patria of every perfon born in it. It is fo ordered by Providence, that a man's country and his countrymen, are to him in conjunftion an objeft of a peculiar affedion, termed amor patri(^, or patriotipn ; an affeftion that rifes high among a people intimately connedled by regular government, by hufbandry, by commerce, and by a common in- tcreft. Cari funt parentes, cari liberi, propinqui, " familiares ; fed omnes omnium caritates patria *• una complexa eft : pro qua quis bonus dubitet " mortem oppeter^ *?" In a man of a folitary difpofition who avoids fo- ciety, patriotifm cannot abound. He may poflibly have no hatred to his countrymen ; but were he de- firous to fee them happy, he Would live among them, and put himfelf in the way of doing good. : Vol. I. Hh The • " Our parents are dear to us j fo are our children, our relations, and our " friends : all thefe our countr/ c«inpT«^«nd» ; and '>! ',U\i' Hi .c-iJi/..^ (), that a perfon of fuperior genius who damps emulation in others, is a fatiil ob{lrii<5tion to the progrcfs of an art : witnefs the cc.'tbrated Newton, to whom the decay of mathematical knowledge in Britain is juftly f ■ >• {a) Cicero's letters, b. i. letter 30. '^b) Book I. flcttch 5. § I. attri- ■ ti'K IS Sk. VII. Patrtotifin, ■4?' attributed, llic obfcrvation holds equally with icfpctt to action. Thofc anions only that ilow trom patriotifm arc deemed grand and heroic ; and fuch adions, above all others, roufe a nati- onal i'j)irit. But beware of a Newton in hero- ifm : indead of exciting emulation, he will damp it : defpair to equal the great men who arc the admiration of all men, puts an end to emulati- on. Alter the illuftrious atchievcments of Milti, ades, and after the eminent patriotifm of Arillides, we hear no more in Greece of emulation or of patriotifm. Pericles was a man ot pjirts, but he i'acrificed Athens to his ambition. The Atheni- ans funk lower and lower under the Archons, who had neither parts nor patriotifm ; and were re- duced at laft to llavery, firll by the Macedonians, and next by the Romans. The Romans ran the fame courfc, from the higheft exertions of patrio- tic emulation, down to the moll abject folfiihnefs and effeminacy. And this leads to other caufes that cxtinguifh patriotifm, or relax it. FaOious diforders in a ftatc never fail to relax it ; for there the citizen is loft, and every perfon is beheld in the narrow view of a friend or an enemy. In the contcflj between the Patricians and Plebeians of Rome, the public was totally difregarded : the Plebeians could have no heart-affedion for a country where they were opprefled ; and the Patricians might be fond of their own order, but they could not fincerely love their country, while they were enemies to the bulk of their countrymen. Patriotifm did not Ihine forth in Rome, till all equally became citi- zens. Between the union of the two crowns of England and Scotland and that of the kingdoms, Scotland was greatly deprefled : it was governed by a foreign king ; the nobility, tyrants, and the low people, poor and difpirited. There was no patriotifm » • i ». m 47* Civil Sdciett. B. IL patriotifm among the former j and as little among the latter. Hence it appears, that the oppofition in Scotland to the union of the two kingdoms, "was abfurdly impolitic. The oppofition ought to have been againft the union of the two crowns^ in order to prevent the government of a foreign prince. After being reduced to dependence on ano- ther nation, the only remedy was to become one people by an union of the kingdoms. To fupport patriotifm, it is ncceffary that a peo-* pie be in a train of profperity : when a nation be- comes ftationary, patriotifm fubfides. The ancient Romans upon a fmall foundation eredted a great empire ; fo great indeed that it fell to pieces by its unwieldinefs. But the plurality of nations, whe- ther from their fituation, from the temper of their people, or from the nature of their government, are confined within narrower limits j beyond which their utmoft exertions avail little, unlefs they hap- pen to be extraordinary favourites of fortune* When a nation becomes thus ftationary, its pufh- ing genius is at an end : its plan is to preferve, not to acquire: the members, even without any example of heroifm to damp emulation, are in- fected with the languid tone of the ftate : patri- otifm fubfides ; and we hear no more of bold or heroic anions. The Venetians are a pregnant inftance of the obfervation. Their trade with A- leppo and Alexandria did for centuries introduce into Europe the commodities of Syria, Egypt, A- rabia, Perfia, and India. The cities of Nurem- berg and Augftjurg in particular, were fuppUed from Venice with thefe commodities ; and by that traffick became populous and opulent. Venice, in a word, was for centuries the capital trading town of Europe, and powerful above all its neigh- bours, both at fea and land. A paffage to the Eaft Indies by the Cape of Good Hope was indeed an V ! Sk. VII. Patriotifm, 473 an animating difcovery to the Portuguefc; but it did not entitle them to exclude the Venetians* The greater diftance of Venice from the Cape, a trifle in itfelf, is more than balanced by its proximity to Greece, Germany, Hungary, Po- land> and to the reft of Italy. But the Portu- guefe at that period were in the fpring of prof- perity ; and patriotifm invigorated them to make durable eftabliihments on the Indian coaft, over- powering every nation in oppofition. The Ve- netians, on the contrary, being a nation of mer- chants, and having been long fuccefsful in com- merce, were become ftationary, and unqualified for bold adventures. Being cut out of their wonted commerce to India, and not having refo- lution to carry on commerce in a new channel, they funk under the good fortMne of their rivals, and abandoned the trade altogether. The Ruffi- ans became a new people under Peter the Great, and are growing daily more and more powerful. The Turks on the contrary have been long in a declining ftate, and arc at prefcnt a very de- generate people. Is it wonderful, that during the late war the Turks were no match for the Ruffians f No caufc hitherto mentioned hath fuch influ- ence in deprefling patriotifm, as inequality of rank and of riches in an opulent monrrchy. A continual influx of wealth into the capital gene- rates fhow, luxury, avarice, which are all felfifli vices J and felfiflincfs, enflaving the mind, eradi- cates every fibre of patriotifm *. Afiatic luxury, flowing int6 Rome in a plentiful ftream, produced an univerfal corruption of manners, and meta- morphofcd into voluptuoufnefs the warlike genius of • France Is not an exception. The French arc vain of their country, becaufe they are vain of themfelves. But fuch vanity muft he diftinguifh- ed from patriotifm, which conflfts in levins ^^^ country independent of ourfelves. f' - '1^1 i I 474 Civil Society. B. ir. of that great city. The dominions of Rome were now too extenfive for a republican government, and its generals too powerful to be difmtereft- cd. Pailion for glory wore out of faihion, as auf- terity of . manners had done formerly: power and riches were now the only objects of ambition : virtue fcemcd a farce j honour, a chimera ; and fame, mere vanity : every Roman, abandoning liimfeif to fenfuality, flattered himfelf, that he, more wife than his forefatliers, was purfuing the cunning road to happincfs. Corruption and ve- nality became general, and maintained their ufur- pation in the provinces as well as in the capi- tal, without ever lofing a foot of ground. Pyr- rhus attempted by piefents to corrupt the Ro- man fenators, but made not the llightell imprcf- jlon. Deplorable was the change of manners in the days of Jugurtha : " Pity it is," faid he, " that there fliould not be a man fo opu- *' lent as to purchafe a people fo willing to be ♦' fold." Cicero, mentioning an oracle of Apol- lo that Sparta would never be deftroyed but by avarice, juftly obferves, that the prcdi£tion holds in every nation as well as in Sparta. The Greek empire, funk in voluptuoufnefs without a re- maining fpark of patriotifm, was no match for the Turks, enflamcd with a new religion, that promifed paradife to thofc who fhould die fight- ing for their prophet. How many nations, like thofe mentioned, illuftrious formerly for vigour of mind and love to their country, are now funk by contemptible vices as much below brutes as they ought to be elevated above them : brutes fel- tiom deviate from the perfection of their nature, men frequently. Succcisful commerce is not more advantageous by the wealth and power it immediately bellows, than it is hurtful ultimately by introducing luxury and voiuptuoufiiels, vyhich [eradicate patiiotifni. In 1 the Sk. VH. the capital Patrioiifm, 475 I'eat :hy, the poifon of feldoni monarcl fudden • caufe acquired by repu* ole means : the poilbii of com- mercial opulence is ilow, bccaufe commerce feldom enriches without induftry, fagacity, and fair dealing. But by whatever means -acquired, opulence never fails foon or late to fmother patriotiim under fcn- fuality and felfiflmefs. We learn from Plutarch and other writers, that the Athenians, who had long en- joyed the funfliine of commerce, were extremely corrupt in the days of PhiUp, and of his fon Alex- ander. Even their chief patriot and orator, a pro- feffcd champion for independence, was not proof againll bribes. While Alexander was profecuting his conquefts in India, Harpalus, to whom his im- menfe treafure was intruded, fled with the whole to Athens. Demofthenes advifed his fellow-citizens to expel him, that they might not incur Alexander's difpleafure. Among other things of value, there was the King's cup of mafl'y gold, curioufly engrav- ed. Demolthenes, furveying it with a greedy eye, alked Harpalus what it weighed. To you, faid Har- palus fmiling, it jfhall weigh twenty talents ; and that very night he fent privately to Demofthenes twenty talents with the cup. Demofthenes next day came into the aflembly with a cloth rolled about his neck ; and his opinion being demanded about Har- palus, he made figns that he had loft his voice. The Capuans, the Tarentines, and other Greek colonies in the lower parts of Italy, when invaded by the Romans, were no lefs degenerate than their brethren in Greece when invaded by Philip of Macedon ; the fame depravation of manners, the fame luxury, the fame paflion for feafts and fpedacles, the fame in- teftine faQions, the fame indiiference about their country, and the fame contempt of its laws. The Portuguefe, enflamed with love to their country, having difcovered a pailage to the Indies by the Cape of Good Hopej made great and important fettlements in 1 -i* ' I t i Mil ^ ' :J"S:i t , '. i' ' Alp CiviL Society. B. XL in that very dlilant part of the globe ; and of their iuimcnfe commerce there is no parallel in any age Or country. Prodigious riches in gold, precious flones, fpices/ perfumes, drugs, and manufacture^, were annually imported into Lifbon from their fettlcments on the coafls of Malabar and Ck)ro- mandel, from the kingdoms of Camboya, Decan, Malacca, Patana, Slam, China, &c. from the iflands of Ceylon, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Moluccas, and Japan : and to Lilbon all the nations in Europe rc- forted for thcfe valuable commodities. But the downfall of the Portuguefe was no lefs rapid than their exaltation ; unbounded power and immenfe wealth having produced a total corruption of man- ners. If fmcere piety, cxtaltcd courage, and in- defatigable induflry, made the original adven- turers more than men; indolence, fcnfuality, and effeminacy, rendered their fuccelTors lefs than wo- men. Unhappy it was for them to be attacked ^t that critical time by the Dutch, who, in defence of liberty againft the tyranny of Spain, were enflamed with love to their country, as the Portuguefe had been formerly *. The Dutch, originally from their fituation a temperate and induftrious people, became heroes in the caufe of liberty ; and patriotifm was their ruling paflion. Profperous commerce diffufed wealth through every corner ; and yet fuch was the inherent virtue of that people, that their patriotifm refided very long the contagion of wealth* But as appetite for riches increafes with their quantity, pa- triotifm funk in proportion, till it was totally ex- tinjjuifhedj and now the Dutch never think of t :{t»v-t ■i^^fi!i'':)f;fj«i •*'! r H'lcJh^^i^H i-their =fii 7i'?^; :;f?( -iHondt^T- , dtfirj^ io\ 1'J'S H'^s, :nn :nft ,t-: * While patrlotifiii was the ruling paHion of the Portuguefe, thetr lUuftri- «us ecnefral Don Alplionfo d'Albuqtitrque c;4n led all before liim in the In- Hies.' He adhered to the ancient frugality of his countrymen, and notwith- rtanding his great power and wealth, reinained uncQrrupted. Though li- beral in praifing his officers, lie never preferred any who attempted to gain hit favour by ftaittty. ' 1ft pfivatt life lie was of the flridclt honour ; but a* jufticv is little regaid(^d k)etwrti) nations, it was no obflruAioi} to hi* tnibi- tiouk views oi extending thv* dominions of rcitugal. Sk. VII. Fatriotifm, 477 their country, uiilcfs as fubfcrvient to private in- tereft. With refpeft to the Dutch Eaft-India com- pany in particular, it was indebted for its profpe- rity to the fidelity and frugality of its fervants, and to the patriotifm of all. But thefe virtues were undermined and at laft eradicated by lux- ury, which Europeans fcldom refift in a hot climate. People go from Europe in the fervice of the com- pany, bent beforehand to make their fortune per fas aut nefas'f and their diftance from their maf- ters renders every check abortive. The company, eaten up by its fervants, is rendered fo feeble, as to be incapable of maintaining its ground againft any extraordinary (hock. A war of any continu- ance with the Indian potentates or with the Eng- lifh company^ would reduce it to bankruptcy. Is the Englilh Eaft-India company in a much better condition? Such is the rife and fall of patriotifm among the nations mentioned; and fuch will be its rife and fajl among all nations in like circum- ftances.' 'j^^ .j^^--i-f. -cv^nnriV? o^ -;:.:-.?• y^'V' ' It grieves me, that the epidemic diftempcrs of luxury and fclfifhnefs arc fpreading wide in Bri- tain. It is fruitlefs to diflfemble, that profligate manners mud in Britain be a confequence of great opulence, as they have been in every other parr of the globe. Our late diftradtions leave no room for a doubt. Liftcn to a man of figure, thoroughly, acquainted with every machination for court-prefer- ment. " Very little attachment is difcoverable in " the: body of our excellent conftitution : no re- ** verence for the euftoms nor for the opinion of '' our anceftors ; no attachment but to private in- " tereft, nor any zeal but for felfifh gratifications. ** While party-diftindions of Whig and Tory, high ** church and low church, court and country, fub- ** fiftcd, the . nation was indeed divided, but each " fide held an opinion, for which they would have " hazarded every thing ; for both aO:ed from 2 , . « principle : !'j 478 Civil Society. B. II. (C ^ivity j and he may be trained gradually from left tb trtore by the fame means. Aftivity at the fam^ tin^e produces bodily ftiength ; which will ref- tore courage and boldnefs. By fuch means a na- tion rhay be put in motion with the fame advan- tages it had originally j and its fecond progrefs may prove as fuccefsful as the fir ft. Thus naH- orts go round in a circle : the firft part of the pro- grefs is verified in a thoufand inftances ; bqt the world has not fubfifted long enough to afford any clear inftance of the other*. Vol. I. -^^'^ ^' i;i li if'->U U'l ■■' I dofc * T^e followihg letter I had {torn a gentleman, who, though atLUboA for the fake of health, neglect no opportunity to increafe his (lock of know- ledge^ ** Nothing but ocuhr demonflration could have convinced me that " the human fpecie«m|»ji('b« depraved to the degree that is exemplified In *• this country. Whcifier with regard to politics, morals, arts, or fecial in- " tefcourfe, it ive^^ially defefVive. In fhort, excepting the mere elementa- *' ry benefit»^f earth and air, this country is in the loweft Aate. Will you *' believe that I found i^ot a fmgle man who could inform me of the price of "'land, very few who had any notion to what value the produdt of their " country extends, or of its colonies. No one able to point out the means *' of reviving Portugal from its prcfent defponding condition. With refpeft " to a general plan of legiflation, there is nonej unlefs the caprices ox an " Ignorant defpot maybe called fuch, or the projects of a defigning mi- " nifter, conftantly endeavouring to deprefs the nobility arnd to beggar the " other orders of the ftate. This the Marquis Pombal has at length corn* *' pleted. He has left the crown poflTefTed of a third part of the iMid-pro- " perty, the church enjoying another third, the remainder left to an indi- " gent nobility and their vafTals. He has fubje61ed every branch of com- " merceto minlAerial emoluments; and fixed judicial procQ^dingt, both " civil and criminal, on the fiu£luating bafis of his own intereft or incllna<> *' tion. I'ake an indance of their law. A fmall proprietor having land " adjoining to or intermixed with the land of a greater proprietor, is obliged "to fell his ppflefTion, if the other wiflies to have it. In the cafe of feveral " 'competitors to the fucceflion of land, it is the endeavour of each to feizt *' -the poiTefTion, well knowing that poflelFion is commonly held the beft tl- " tie ', and at 9ny rate, that there is no claim for rents during the time " of litigation. ^ All the corn growing in Etlremadura muft be fold at Lif- « ton. A tenth of ail fales, rents, wages, &c. goes to the King. Thefc *' inftances are 1 think fudicient to give a notion of the prefent ftate of the ** kingdom, and of the merits of Pombal, who has long had the reins in " his hands as firft minifter, who may. juftly boaft of bavjng f^eed his " countrymen from thf dread «f kec^min| more wretched |j^fA they are at • *' prefent. "tv|» 'fV 1! I ') tilt^ ■'{■4 J ,r■^^•' li w m -M ^11 ^ f liiif ,# J : f ir 4t« CfviL Society* B. 11. I clofe this ikctch with two ill aftrious exam- ples of patriotifm ; one ancient, one modern ; one among the whitfcs, one among the blacks- Arif^- tidcs the Athenian is . famed above all the anci- ents foir love to his country. Its fafety and honour were the only objeds of his ambition ; and his fig- nal diQntcreifeduers made it the fame to him, whe- ther tfficlc ends were accomplifhed by Hmfclf or by othjers, by his friends or his focs» One, con- fpicaqiis ir>ftanc« occurred before tl>e battle of Ma-. raOionr Of the ten generals clK^fen to command the Athenian army, he was one : but fenfible that a divided cotT^mand is fubje£^ed to manifold incon- veliiencies, he excTted all his influence for Milti- ades to- meet the Perfians in the field. His dif~ rntcrefledncfs was ftill more confpicuous with re- gard to- Thcmiftoclcs, his bitter enemy. Sufpend- ing all enmity, he cordially agreed with him in every operatiou of the war ; aihfting him with his Gounfd and credit, aftd yet fuffering him to en- grof«$ all the honour. In peace lie wa,s the far^ie, yielding to Thcmiftocles in the adminiltration of government, and contenting hrmfelf with a fubor- diViate i^a<:e.^ In the fcnate and m the aflcmbly ©f the people,, he made many propofals in a bor- rowed name, to^ prevent emry and oppofitioiiv He retired from public bufmefs at the latter part of his liJfc ; pafling his time. in trainmg young men for fcrving the ftate,, inftilling into them princi- ples of honour and virtnCy and infpiring them with love to their country. His death unfolded a fignal proof of the contempt he had for rich- es : he, who had' been treafurer of Greece during ' the hiviihment of war, did not leave money fuf- fieicHt 10' defray the cxpence of his funerals : a ^vr /;■;>;':',.:.:,,, '.vr'".-' ....-.'' .:;-',.. Britifl> if .Oi^i^ ;. i*t^ t'j i\ t a " p'f feht. tt gave me fatisfaiftron to find the dcEh-Ines of the Sketches finely «'i;iuftrif«ljtt the hiftorybf-thiifinfular kingdom. I am," &c, •. S,^ Y\l' ]?aiiti9lifin. ,,:) 4^5. BritHb c^«nmi(raFy, iiv TiHq circuinft»nc«, acquires tji|?ricb> ,,Thq liqcnc ©rthc other ^«inpl# i« Foi»lia ?v. n^grp kinf^dom in Africa. Sucli regard ii pa^ tl^fQ ta royal Ul)qod,.th»t nq !i>an< v^i) ;.fr>f;tcfl4. tp ^hc prpwr), l>ut wb^ is conne^eU wj^h thfl; firft nwwarcU, by an nwntcryp^fd dmin gf Ct?-« n^aWs ;, q <;oninc^iow,by inale* WoyW giTft.nt^.ftp-f curity, as the wonn^n of that wvin^ry.ftrci pJ9n«? to gallantry. In the ib It'- '».'l '•( r \ii\ j,.^'T ,\ . • f * T *• 1 • ' ' < • I ■» • • I * ' • • <1 • V . ^ • ' 1 • > I 1 1 I ' • ' i » I ' ; , , . » ; ^I J . . 1 [_■' •:: ,1'. t n !. •/:■ •.': *: ■ '^'.'^'l '.' 4 .• f l.ll 1 ( M , , ,,■• f . • ,1 ■"'ii.{ ! 1 ' > > < ; t V .'1 }' .^v,. < ..1 14 S K E T C H • i I 1 4 ' J . 1 ' ; 1 )l 4 1 ; . ' J . . .- 1 J 4 ( :-'!l; ' i-r,,,V,^l"' It r , ' «' i SKETCH v>n. ' ■ « 'i'l >'f M" ji !';l ;.|"r ' ■^ll P ■^1 ''- '^'^ f' finames, R E ,^; * r F A 4fir««<«<#* i, ' i / * •'•'•♦ C g. ".'" \ .;.v •* ./.v^ lIv' following Jlight ejfay^ intendtd for novices ^ff'y, ii fatisfies my ambit ion, ta rival certain pains - taktng authors, who teach hijiory in the perfpicuous mode of queftion (ind anfwen Among novices it would ce unpardonable to ra?ik fuch of my fellow -citizens, as are ambitious of a feat in parliament ; many of whom facrifice the inl^^ritance of their anceftprs, for an op- portunity to exert their patriotifm in that auguji affem- bly» Can fuch a facrifice permit me to doubt, of their being adepts in the myflerles of government, and of taxes in particular f they ought^at leaji tg be initiated in thefe my fl cries. n // is of importaiue, that taxes and their fffe3s he underjlood, not only by the members of our . pariiamentp but by their eledors : a reprefentative will not readi- ly vote for a dejiru6iive tax, when he cannot hope to difguife his condu6l, The intention ofthfiprefentfketch^ is, to unfold the principles upon which taxes ought to be founded, and to point out what are beneficial, what noxious. I iMve endeavoured to introduce fome light into afubje^ involved in E^tian darknefs ; and if that end be attained. JJhall ^faith hav^ not been an unprofitable fervant td my country » • I III ' Finances, t r: mi I i; ^^i'1 1' I'l w Firmnce:. .J A HIS fubjeft confifts of many parts, not a littltj intricate, A proper diftribution will tend to perfpi- cuity ; and I think it may be fitly divided into the fol- lowing ieftions. ift, General confiderations on taxes, ad, Power of^ impofing taxes. 3d, Different forts of taxes, with their advantages and difadvantages. 4th, Manner pf levying taxes. 5th, Rules to be obr fervcd in taxing. ' pth. Taxes examined with refpeft to their effefts. 7th, Taxes for jidvancing indulhy and co«imerce. . ' < ' > . i S E C T I O N I: General Confidcratms on faxes. As opulence is not friendly to ftudy and know- ledge, the men beft qualified for being generals, ad- miral?, judges, or miniders of ftate, are feldom opu- lent ; and to make fuch men ferve without pay, ■would be in effe^ to cafe tlie rich at the expence of the poor. With refpedt to the military branch in particular, the bulk of thofe who compofe an army, if withdrawn from daily labour, muft ftarve, unlefs the public which they ferve afford them mainte- nance. A republican government, during peace, may indeed be fupported at a very fmall charge, among a temperate and patriotic people. In a mo- narchy, a public fund is indifpenfable, even during peace : and in war it is indifpenfable, whatever be the government. The Spartans carried all before them Sk.VIII. I. Jlf»an£es. ''' 487 them in Greece, but were forced to quit their hold, having no fund for a ftanding arrny ; and :the other Greek ftatcs were obliged to oonfedci-:4±e with the Athenians, who had a public fund, and who after the Perfian war became m:afters at fca. A defe£t fo obvious in th? Spartan government, did alTuredly not efcape Lycurgus, the mofi: profound of all . legifla- tors. forjefecing that conquefl: would be deflruftivc ty his jcountrvmen, his fole purpofe was to guard them from being con<|uered ; which in Sparta re- quired no public fund, as all the citizens were equals and equally bound to defend themfelves and their country. A ftate, it is true, without a public fuiid, is ill qualified to oppofe a ftanding army, regularly difcipliiied, and regularly paid. But in political mat- ters, experience is our only fyre guide j and the hiftory pf nations, at that early period, was too bar- ren to aifof4 inftrudion. Lyrurgus may well be excufed,- confidc^ipg ho^ little progrcfs political knowledge had luade in a much later period, Charles VII. of France, wa« the lirft in moderi^ times who eftabliflied a fund for a ftanding army. Againft that dangerous ipnovatipn, the crown-vaflals had no refourcc but to imitaj:e their fovereign ; and yet, without even dreapning of a reCpurcp, they fuf- icred themfelves to be undermined, and at laft over- turned, by the King their fuperior, Thus, Qi) the one hand, a nation however warlike that has not 4 public fund, is no match for a ftanding army enured to war : exteniive commerce, on the other hand, enables a nation to fiipport a ftanding army ; but by introducing luxury it eradicates pianhood, and ren- ders that army an unfit match for any poor and war- like invader. Hard may feem the fate of nations, laid thus open to deftrudion from every quarter. All that can be faid is, that fuch viciffitudes feem to enter into the fcheme of providence. The ftability of land fits it, above all other fubjefts, for a public patrimony. But as crown- 3 lands !.(?;! 488 CiviL Society. B. IL : lands lie open to the rapacity of favourites, it be- comes neceffary, when thcfe are diflipatcd, to intro- duce taxes ; which have the following proper- ties, that they unite in one common intercft the fovereign and his fubje£ts, and that they can be augmented or diminiflied according to exi- gencies. * ' The art of levying money by taxes was To .lit- tle underftood.in the fixteenth century, that after the famous battle of Pavia, in which the Prench King was made prifoner, Charles V. was obliged to dilband his vidorious army, though confiding but of 24,000 men, becaufe he had not the art to levy, in his extenfive doiniuiofis, a fum necef- fary to keep it on foot. So little knowledge was there in England of political arithmetic in the days of Edward III. that L. i : 2 : 4 on each pa- rifh was computed to be fufficient for raifing a fubfidy of L. 50.000. It being found, that there were but 8700 parilhes, exclufive of Wales, the par- liament, in order to raife the faid fubfidy, affefled on each parilh L. 5, 16 s. In inipolVng taxes, ought not the expence of living to be deduced, and to confider the remain- der as the only taxable fubjed: ? This mode was adopted in the flate of Athens. A rent of 500 meafurcs of corn, burdened the landlord with the yearly contribution of a talent : a rent of 300, bur- dened him with half a talent ; a rent of 200, bur- dened him with the fixth part of a talent ; and land under that rent paid no tax. Here tlie tax was not in proportion to the eftate, but to what fould be fpared out ot it ; or, in otlier words, in pro- portion to the ability of the proprietor. At the lame time, ability muft not be eflimated by what a mau: actually favcs, which would exempt the profufe and profligate from paying taxes, but by what a man can< pay whb lives with economy according to his rank. This rule is founded on tlie very nature of govern-; mcnt : iC Sk.VIII. I. Finances, 489 cc (C mcnt : to tax a man's food, or the fubjeft that af- fords him bare ncccflarics, is worfc than the denying himproteftion : it ftarvcs him. Hence the follow- ing propofition may be laid down as the corner-ftone of taxation-building, " That every man ought to contribute to the public revenue, not in propor- tion to his fubftance, but to his ability.'* I am forry to obferve, that this rule is little regarded in. Britilh taxes ;. though nothing would contribute more to fweeten the minds of the people and to make them fond of their government, than a regu- lation fraught with fo much equity. Taxes were long in ufe before it was difcovered, that they could be made fubfcrvient tq other pur- pofes, befide that of fupporting government. In the fifteenth century, theftatesof Burgundy rejeded with indignation a demand made by the Duke, of a duty on fait; though they found no other objefti- on, but that it would opprefs the poor people, who lived moftly on fait meat and fait fifli. It did not occur to them, that fuch a tax might hurt their ma- nufaftures, by raifmg the price of labour. A tax of two (hillings on every hearth, known by the name of hcavth -money y was granted to Charles II, his heirs and fucceffors, for ever. It was abrogated by an a6k of William and Maty, ann. 1 688, on the following preamble, " That it is not only a great opprefliou upon the poorer-fort, but a badge of flavery upon the whole people, expofing every man's houfe to be entered into and fearched at pleafure, by per- fons unknown to him." Had the harm done by fuch a tax to our manufadures been at that time un- derllood, it would have been urged as the capital reafon againfl it. Our late improvements in com- mercial politics have unfolded an important doftrine, That taxes arc feldom indifferent to the public good % that frequently tlicy are more opprcflive to the peo- ple, than beneficial to the fovereign ; and, on the other hand, that thn' niav be fo contrived, as to ri- val (C (C eledling members of parliament, empower none to tax them : yet they are taxed like others ; and fo are the vaflals and tenants of peers, Add to thefe an immenfe num. ber of artifans, manufadlurers, day-labourers, do- ,meftic8) &c. &c. with the whole female fex ; and it will appear, that thofe who are reprefented in par- liament make not the hundredth part of the taxable people. But further, it is acknowledged by our au- thor, that the majority of the Lords and Commons muft bind the minority. This circumftance might have opened his eyes : for furely the minority in this cafe are bound without their confent ; nay, againft their confent. That a Hate cannot tax its fubjefts without their confent, is a rafli proportion, totally fubverfive of government. Locke himfelf has fug- gefted the folid foundation of taxes, though inad- vertently hfc lays no weight on it. I borrow his own words : *^ That every one who enjoys his (hare of " proteftion, (hould pav but of his cftate his propor- «'• tion !!( m iiii m 49? Civil Societv. p. n. " tioB for tjnc maintenance of tlie government.** The duties of fovcrei^n and of fubjoEk are recipro- -cal ; and commpn pftice requires, that a fubjedt^ or any perfon who is pr,otc£t^d by a government, pught %o pay for that protcdion. Similar jnftances without jnumber of fucb rciciprAcal duties, occur in the l^wg of every civilized nation^. A man calls for meat and drink in a tavern j is he not bound to pay, though he ma^e no agreement before hand ? A man wafted pver a river in a fer,ry-boat, muft pay the common fare, jhoughhemade nopromife. Nay, it is every man's interred to pay for protection ; government cannot fubfift without a public fund ; and what will become of individuals, when left open to every rapacious invader ? Thus tAxes are implied in the very nature pf government ; and the interpofition of fovereign -authority, is only neceflary for determining the expediency of a tax ; and the quota, if found e^« pedient. ^ Many writers, unified by the refpeclable authority of Locke, boldly maintain, that a Britifh parliament cannot legally tax the American colonies, who are not represented in parliament. This propofition, which ha? drawn the attention of the public of late ye^rs has )ed me to be n)ore explicit on the power of imppfing taxes, than otherwife would be pe- ceflary. Thofe who favour the independence of our colonies urge, " That a man ought to have the difpolal of what he acqyires by honeft induftry, fubje£l to no control : whence the neceflity of a parliament for impofmg taxes^ where every in- dividual is either perfonally prcfent, or by a re- prefentative of his own eledion. The aid accord- ingly given to a Britifli fovereign, is not a tribute, but a free and voluntary gift." What is faid above will bring the difpute within a very narrow compafs. If our colonifls be Britifli fubje^s, which hitherto has not been controverted, they arc fub^ jedcd to the Britifh legiflature in every article ot" .. government ; it iC « « i Difadvantagei, r ' ' ** ■ * ... I /• J ■ .> ■■ V LL tax6s are laid upon pferfons ; but' in dif- ferent refpc€ts : a tax laid on a man pcrfonally, for' himfelT and family, is termed 2l capitation-tax ; a tax laid on him for his property, is termed a tax on goods. The latter is the only rational tax, becaufe it" may bis proportioned to the ability of the proprietor. It has only one inconvenience, that his debts mull be overlooked ; becaufe to take thefc into the account, would lead to endlefs in- tficacics. But there is an obvious remedy for that inconvenience : let the man who comp ains free hlmfclf of debt, by felling latid or moveables ; which will fo far relieve him of the tax; Nor ought this mcafurc to be confidered as a hard- fhip : it is feldom the intereft of a landholder to be in debt ; and with rcfpeft to the public, the meafare not only promotes the circulation of pro- perty, but is favourable to procuring them pay* ment. A capitation-tax goes upon an erroneous principle, as if all men were of equal ability.— What prompts it is, that many men, rich in bonds and other moveables that can eafily be hid from public infpedion, cannot be reached other- wife than by a capitation-tax. But as, by the very fiippofition fuch men cannot be diftinguifhed from the mafs of the people, that mode of taxing, mife* rably unequal, is rarely pradifcd among enlightened nations, Ruflia labours under a capitation-tax. Some years 'S iin lilt 49<5 Civil.. SocItTY. B. If. ' 1 years ago, a capitation-tax was Impofed in Den- mark, obliging even day-labourers to pay for their wives and ckildren. ' Upon the tmi^^abl'urd plan, a tax was impoicd on marriage. One would be tempted to think, that population was intended to be difcouraged. The Danilh minillry have been fenfible of the impropriety of fuch. taxes; for a tax impofed on thofc who obtain titles of honour from the crown, is applied for relieving hufband- men of their capitation-tax. But a tax of this kind lies open to many otljer objeftions. It cannot fail to raifc tlie price of labour, a poifonous etfefl: in a country of induftry j . for the laboure]: will re- lieve himfelf of the tax, by heightening his wages : more pruden; it would be to lay the tax diredly ,on the employer, which would remove the pretext for heightening wages. The taxing of day labourers, whether, by capitation or in any other rnanner, has befidc an efteft contrary to what is intended: inftead of increafmg the public reve- nue, it virtually leflens it, by raifing the pay of fol- diers, failors, and of every workman emp)< ' ' ^ ■■ V the .»->( iji. (a) L'Efprit dffs loix. liv. i^. ch, to, Sk. VIII. 4. Finances, l<^3 the duty remains with the collcftor ifhree y6ars, in order to be repaid to the importer, if the good* be exported within that time ; but by the mode propofed, the duty would be paid to the treafury as goods are fold, which might 'be with-' in a month from the time of importation, perhaps a \veek ; and the treafury would profit, as well: as the fair trader. There are public warehoufes ad- joining to the cuftom-houfe of Bourdeaux, where the fugars of the French colonies are depofited^ till the importer finds a market ; and he pays the duty gradually as fales are made. It rejoices me, that the fame mode is adopted in ttiis ifland with refpeft to fome foreign articles necelfarv in our trade with Africa : the duty is not demanded, tilt the goods be fhipped for that continent. It is alfo adopted with rcfpeft to foreign fait, and with refped to rum imported from our fugatr- colonies. Befide the equity of what is here propofed, which relieves the importer from advance of money and from rilk, many other advantages would be derived from it. In the firft place, the merchant, having no occafion to refei've any portion of his capital for anfwering tlie duty, would be enabled to com- mence trade with a fmall ftock, or to encreafe his trade if his ftock be large : trade would flojij\j. rifli, and the pubEc revenue would encreafe in pro- portion. Secondly, It would leflen fmuggUng : many who commence trade with upright intenti- on, arc tempted to fmuggle for want of ready mo- ney to pay the duty. Thirdly, TUis manner of levying the duty, would not only leflen the num- ber of officers, but remove every reason for claim- ing difcount on pretext of leakage, famples, and the drying or lhrink,ing of goods. In the prefent manner of levying, that difcount muft be left to the difcretion of the officer : a private underftand- ing is thus opened between him and the mer- 1 chur.t. .■I' ■' H m- 5<^4 Civil Societv. B. II Sk. chant, hurtful to the revenue, and dcllruftive to morals. Fourthly, The ..merchant would be ena- bled to lower his prices, and be forced to lower them by having many rivals ; which at the fame time would give accefs to heighten importation - duties, without raifing the price of foreign com- modities, above what it is at prefent. But the capital advantage of all would be, to render in ef- ieh every port in Britain a free port, enabling Englifli merchants, many of whom have great ca- pitals, to outftrip foreigners in what is termed a commerce of /peculation. This ifland is well fituated for fuch commerce ; and were our ports free, th^ produdions of all climates would be (lored up in them, ready for exportation when a mar}iet offers j. an excellent plan for encreafing qui: fliipping, and for producing boundl^fs wealth, ■. ■ . S E C T. V. I ' 1 *■ Rules to be ohflrved in Taxing, '....,. I.. '\ X H £ diftercnt objefls of taxes' and the intri- cacy thereby occafioned, require general rules, not only for directing the legifiature in impofing them, but for enabling others to Judge what are benefici- al, and what hurtful. The firft rule I Ihall fuggeft is, That where- cver there is an opportunity of fmuggling, taxes ought to be moderate ; for fmuggling can never be cfFe^ally rcftraincd, where the cheapnefs of imported goods is in effedt an infurance againfl the rilk; in which view. Swift humoroully ob- fcrves, that tv;o and two do not always make 3 " four Sk. Vlll. 5. Finances, 505 four. A duty of 15 per cent, upon printed linen imported into France, encourages funuggling : a lower duty would produce a greater fum to the public, and be more beneficial to the French ma- nufa6lurer> Bone-lace imported into France is charged with a duty of 20 per cent, in order to favour that n^anufadure at home, but in vain ; for bone-lace is eafily fmuggled, and the price is little higher than before. The high duty on y^^ftfj Uquoritia imported into Britain, being L. 7 : 2 ; 6 per hundred weight, was a great encouragement to fmuggling ; for which, reafon it is reduced to 30s. per hundred weight (a). Smuggling ofti^a, which draws great fums from Britain, is much encouraged by its high price at home. As far as I can judgCj it would be pro- fitable, both to the public and to individuals, to lay afide the importation-duty, and to fubftitute in its ftead a duty on the confumer. Freedom of importation would enable the Eaft-i"dia company to fell fo cheap, as efFedually to banifli fmuggling ; and the low price of tea would enable the con- fumer to pay a pretty fmart duty, without being much out of pocket. The folloviring mode is pro- pofed as a hint merely that may lead to improve- ments. Let every man who ufes tea be fubjefted to a moderate tax, proportioned to his mode of living. Abfolute precifion cannot be expefted in proportioning the tax on families ; but grofs ine- quality may eafily be prevented. For inftance, let the mode of living be determined by the. equi- page that is kept. A coach or chaife with two horfes, fliall fubjeft a family to a yearly tax of L. 10 ; heightening the t'ax in proportion to the number, of horfes and carriages; two fervants in livery, without a carriage, to a tax of 40s. j tvc- ry other family paying 20s. Every family where tea :': 1--S: U t WW, ilH [a) 7 Cpc. Ill cap. 47. 5o6 Civil Society. B. II. tea is ufcd mull be entered in the collcftor's books, with its mode of living, under a heavy- penalty ; which would regulate the coach-tax, as well a« that on tea. Such a tax, little expei)five in levying, would undoubtedly be efFc€lual : a mafter of a family is impnidetit indeed, if he put it in tlK: power of the vender, of a malicious neighbour, or of a difguilcd fervant, to fubjeft him to a heavy penalty. This tax, at the fame time, would be the lealt difa^eeablc df any that is levied without difguife ; being in effe£t a vo- luntary tax, as the mode of living is volunta- ry. Nor would it be difficult to temper the taXj fo as to afford a greater fum to the public than it receives at prefent from the importation-duty, and yet to cofb our people no more for tea than they pay at prefent, confidcring the high price of that commodity. To favour our own cambrick manufacture, the importation of it is prohibited. The unhappy cir- cumftance is, that fine cambrick is eafily fmuggled : the price is great and the bulk fmall. Would it not be more politic, to admit importation under a duty fo moderate as not to encourage fmug- gling ? The duty applied for promoting our own cambric-manufadure, would in time fo improve it, as to put us above the hazard of rivalfliip, with refpeft at leaft to our own confumption. It is pleafant to trace the progrelfive effetts of fuch a plan. The importation-duties would at firft be confiderable ; and yet no higher than neceflary for nur4ing an infant manufafture. As the manu- facture improves, more and more of it would be oonfumed at home ; and the duty would fall in pro- portion. But then, this fmall duty would be fulfi- cient to encourage a manufacture, now approach- ing to pexfe^ion.. High duties on importation are imtuoral, as well as impolitic 3 for is i: not unjuflifiable in a legifla- turc. " ,.1 Sk. VIII. 5. Finances* 507 ture, firft to tempt, and then to punifh for yielding to the temptation ? A fecond rule is. That taxes expenfive in the levying ought to be avoided j being heavy on the people, without a proportional benefit to the revenue. Our land-tax is admirable: it affords a great fum, levied with very little expence. The duties on coaches, and on gold and filver plate, are fimilar ; and fo would be the tax on tea above propofed. The taxes that are the moft hurtful to trade, and manufactures, fuch as the duties on foap, candle, leather, are expenfive in levying. A third rule is. To avoid arbitrary taxes. They are difguftful to all, not excepting thofe who arc favourably treated ; becaufe felf-partiality feldom permits a man to think, that juflice is done him. A tax laid on perfons in proportion to their trade, or their opulence, muft be arbitrary, even where ftri£l juflice is intended ; becaufe it depends on vague opinion or conjecture : every man thinks himfelf injured ; and the fum levied does not ba- lance the difcontent it occafions. The tax laid on the French farmer in proportion to his fub- ftance, is an intolerable grievance, and a great engine of oppreffion : if the farmer exert any ac- tivity in meliorating his land, he is fure to be doubly taxed. Hamburgh affords the only inftancc of a tax on trade and riches, that is willingly paid, and that confequendy is levied without op- preffion. Every merchant puts privately into the public cheft, the fum that in his own opinion he ought to contribute ; a fmgular example of in- tegrity in a great trading town, for there is no fufpi- cion of wrong in that tacit contribution. But this Hate is not yet corrupted by luxury. Becaufe many vices that poifon a nation, arife from inequality of fortune j I propofe it as a fourth rule 'I II 5o8 Civil Society. B. II. rule, to remedy that inequality as much as pofli- ble, by relieving the poor, and burdening the rich. Heavy taxes arc lightly borne by men of overgrown cflates. Thole proprietors cfpecially, who wound the public by converting much land from profit to pleafure, ought not to be fpared. Would it not contribute greatly to the public good/ that a tax of L. 50 Ihould be laid on eve- ry houfe thdt has 50 windows ; L. 1 50 on houfes of 1 00 windows; and L. 400 on houfes of aoo windows ? By the fame principle, every deer-park of 200 acres ought to pay L. 50 ; of 500 acres L. 200; and of 1000 acres L. 600. Fifty acres of pleafure ground to pay L. 30 ; 100 fuch acres L. 80 ; 150 acres L. 200 ; and 200 acres L, 300. Such a tax would have a collateral good effeft : it would probably move high-minded men to leave out more ground for maintaining the poor, than they are commonly inclined to do. A fifth rule of capital importance, as it regards the intereft of the ftate in general, is. That eve- ry tax which tends to impoverifh the nation ought to be rcjeded with indignation. Such taxes con- tradi£fc the very nature of government, which is to protect, not to opprefs. And fuppofmg the in- tereft <)f the governing power to be only re- garded, a ftate is not meafured by the extent of its territory, but by what the fubjefts are able to pay annually without end. A fovereign, however rcgardlefs of his duty as father of his people, will regard that rule for his own fake : a nation im- poveriftied by oppreflive taxes, will reduce the fo- vereign at Jaft to the fame poverty j for he cannot levy what they cannot pay. Whether taxes impofcd on common nccefla- ries, which fall heavy upon the labouring poor, be of the kind now mentioned, deferves the moft fcrious deliberation. Where they tend to pro;- 5 . M n^otc I Sk. VIII. 5. Finances, 509 mote induftry, they are highly falutary : -where they deprive us of foreign markets, by raifing the price of labour and of manufactures, they arc highly noxious. In fomc cafe's, induftry may be promoted by taxes, with( uc raifing the price of labour and of manufadlures* l^obollki in Siberia is a populous town, the price of provifions is ex- tremely low, and the people on that account are extremely idle. While they are matlers of a far- thing, they work none : when they are pinched with hunger, they gain in a day what maintains them a week : they never think of to-morrow, nor of providing againft want. A tax there upon ne- ceffaries \fDuld probably excite fome degree of induftry. Such a tax renewed from time to time, and augmented gradually, would promote induf- try more and more, fo as to fqueeze out of that lazy people three, four, or even five days labour weekly, without raifing their wages or the price of their work. But beware of a general rule. The cffcd would be very different in Britain, where moderate labour without much relaxation is requifite for living comfortably : in every fuch cafe, a . permanent tax upon neceffarics fails not in time to raife the price of labour. It is true, that in a fingie year of fcarcity, there is com- monly more labour than in plentiful years. But fuppofe fcarcity to continue many years fueccf- fively, or fuppofe a permanent tax on neceifaries, wages muft rife till the labourer find conrforta- ble living: if the employer obftinately ftand out, the labourer will in defpair abandon work altoge- ther, and commence beggar ; or will retire to a country lefs burdened with taxes. Hence a falu- tary doftrine. That where cxpencc of living e- quals, or nearly equals, what is gained by bodi- ly labour, moderate taxes renewed from time to time after confiderable intervals, will promote in- duftry, without raifing the price of labour ; but that i;to CjvIL SoCIEtY. B. IF. Sk. that permanent taxes will unavoidably raife the price of labour, and of manufadtures. In Hol- land, the high price of provifions and of labour, occafioned by permanent taxes, have excluded from the foreign market every one of their ma- nufadurcs that can be fupplicd from other nati- Heavy taxes have annihilated their once ons. flourifhing manufactures of wool, of filk, of gold and filver, and many others. The prices of labour and of manufadures have in England been immo- derately raifcd by the fame means. To prevent a total downfall of our manufafturcs, feveral political writers hold, that the labouring poor ought to be difburdened of all taxes. The royal tithe propofed for France, indead of all other taxes, publifhed in the nanne of Marefchal Vauban, or fuch a tax laid upon land in England, early impofed, might have produced wonders. But the expedient would now come too late, at lead in England : fuch profligacy have the poor-rates produced among the lower ranks, that to relieve them from taxes would probably make them work lefs, but affuredly would not make them work cheaper. It is vain therefore to think of a remedy againft idlenefs and high wages, while the poor-rates fubfift in their prefent form, Davenant pronounces, that the Englifli poor-rates will in time be the bane of their manufactures. He computes, that the perfons receiving alms in England amounted to one million and two hundred thoufand ; the half of whom at lead would have continued to work, had they not relied on parifli- charity. But of this more at large in a feparate Iketch. Were the poor-rates aboliflied, a general a£t of naturalization would not only augment the ftrength of Britain by adding to the number of its people, but would compel the natives to work cheaper, and confequently to be more induftrious. '.■'••■.■•■ If Sk. VIII. Fi/inncef, 5*' If thefe expedients be not reliflicd, the only one that remains lor prefcrving our manut'aftures, is, to encourage their cxportatioii by a bounty, fuch as may enable us to cope with our rivals in foreign markets. But where is the fund for a bounty fo extenfive ? It may be raifed out of land, like the At! enian tax above mentioned, burdening great proprietors in a geometrical proportion, and freeing thofe who have not above L. loo of land-rent. That tax would raife a great fum to the public, without any real lofs to thofe who are burdened ; for com- parative riches would remain the fame as formerly. Nay fuch a tax would in time prove highly beneficial to land proprietors ; for by promoting induftry and commerce, it weutd raife the rent of land much above the contribution. , The fums contributed, laid out upon intereft at five per cent, would not produce fo great profit. To make land-holders cm- brace the tax, may it not be thought fufficient, that unlefs for fome bounty, our foreign commerce mull vaniih, and the land be reduced to its original low value ? Can any man hefitatc about paying a (hil- ling, when it prevents the lofs of a pound ? I (hall clofe with a rule of deeper concern than all that have been mentioned, which is. To avoid taxes that require the oath of party. They arc deftruftive to morals, as being a temptation to per- jury. Few there are fo wicked as to hurt others by perjury : at the fame time, not many of the lower ranks fcruple much at perjury, when it pre- vents hurt to themfelves. Confider the duty on candle : thofe only who brew for fale, pay the duty on malt liqupr; and to avoid the brewer's oath, the quantity is afcertained by ofHcers who attend the procefs : but the duty on candle is op- preflivc, as comprehending poor people who make no candle for fale ; and is fubverfive of morals^ by requiring their oath upon the quantity they mjake for their own ufc. Figure a poor widow, burdened 1 1- 5'2 Civil Society. B. ir. burdened with five or fix children : fhe is not perniiued to make ready a little food for her in- fants by the light of a rag dipped in greafe, without payir ,; what (he has not to pay, or being guilty of perjury. However upright originally, poverty and arxicry about her infants, will tempt her to con- ceal liic truih, and to, deny upon oath — a fad Icflbn to her poor children : ought they to be punidj.td for copying after their mother, whom they loved and severed ? whatever fhc did appears right in their eyes. The manner of levying the falt- tax in France is indeed arbitrary ; but it nas not an immoral tendency : an oath is avoided ; and every mafter of a family pays for the quantity he is pre- fumed to confume. French wine is often import- ed into Britain as Spanifh, which pays lefs duty. To check that fraud, the importer's oath is re- quired ; and if perjury be fufpefted, a jury is fet upon him in exchequer. This is horrid : the im- porter is tempted by a high duty on French wine to commit perjury ; for which he is profecuted in a fovereign court, open to all the world : he turns defperate and lofes all fenfe of honour. Thus cuftom-houfe oaths have become a proverb, as meriting no regard ; and corruption creeping on, will become univerfal. Some goods imported pay a duty ad valorem ; and to afcertain the value, the importer's oath is required. In China, the books of the merchant are trufted, without an oath. Why not imitate fo laudable a practice ? If our people be more corrupted, perjury may he avoid- ed, by ordaining the merchant to deliver his ^oods to any who will demand them, at the rate ftated in his books ; with the addition of ten per cent, as a fufficient profit to himfelf. Oaths have been greatly multiplied in Britain fince the Revo- lution, without rcferve, and contrary to found po- licy. New oaths have been invented againft thofe who are difaifefted to the government ; againft fictitious Sk. VIII. 6. Finances, 5^3 fiditious titles in clcding parliament members ; again ft defrauding the revenue, &c. &c. They have been To hackneyed, and have become fo fa- miliar, as to be held a matter of form merely. Per- jury has dwindled into a venial tranfgrciTion, and is fcarcc held an imputation on any man's cha- rader. Lamentable indeed has been the condud of our Icgiflature : inflead of laws for reforming or improving morals, the imprudent multiplica- tion of oaths has not only fpread corruption through every rank, but, by annihilating the authority of an oath over conicience, has rendered it entirely ineti'cdual. ir a SECT. VI. Taxes examined with refped to their effe^s. N< O other political fubjed is of greater impor- tance to Britain, than the prefent : a whole life might be profitably beftowed on it, and a large volume : but hints only are my tafk. Confider- ing taxes with regard to their efFeds, they may be commodioufly diflinguifhed into five kinds. Firft, Taxes that encreafe the public revenue, without producing any other efFed, good or bad. Second, Taxes that encreafe the public revenue ; and are alfo beneficial to manufadures and co imerce. Third, Taxes that encreafe the public revenue ; but are hurtful to manufadures and commerce. Fourth, Taxes that are hurtful to manufadures and commerce, without encreafing the public re- venue. Fifth, Taxes that are hurtful to manufac- tures and commerce ; and alfo \<:[\cxi the public Vol. I. ,-.,., LI revenue. 5^4 Civil Society, B. IL revenue. I proceed to inftances of each kind, drawn chiefly from Britifh taxes. Our land-tax h an riliiflrious inftance of the firft kind ; it produces a revenue to the public, le- vied with very little cxpence : and it hurts no mortal; for a landholder who pays for having^ himfelf and his cilate prote^ed, cannot be faid ta be hurt. The duty on coaches is of the fame kind. Both taxes at the fame time are agreeable to found principles. Men ought to contribute to the jDubUc revenue, as far as they are benefited by be- ing protcfted : a rich man requi-res protedion for his pofleflions, as well as for his perfon, and there- fore oi.ght to contribute largely ^ a poor roan re- quires protection for his perfon only, and therefore ought to con'^ribute little. A tax on foreign luxuries is an inftance of the fe- cond kind. It encreafes the public revenue : and it greatly benefits individuals ; not only by rcftrain- ing the confumption of foreign luxuries, but by encouraging our own manufaftures. Britain en- joys a monopoly of coal exported to Holland ; and the duty on exportation is agreeable to found policy, being paid by the Dutch. This duty is another in- ftance of the fecond kind r it ratf^s a confiderable revenue to the public ? and it enables us to cope with the Dutch in every raantifafture that employs coal, fuph as dyeing, diftilling, works of glafs and of iron. And thefc manufa£kutes in Britain, by the dcarncfs of labour, are entitled to fome aid. A tax on horfes, to prevent their increafe, would be a tax of the fame kind. The incredible number of horfes ufed in coaches and other wheel- carriages, has raifed the price of labour, by doubling the price of oat-meal, the food of the labouring poor in many parts of Britain. The price of wheat is alfo raifed by the fame means; becaufc the vaft quan- tity of land employed in producing oats, leflens ■ the Sk. Vlll. 6. Finances, sis the quantity for wheat. I would not exempt tvfen plough-horfes from the tax ; bccaufe in every view it is more advantageous to ufe oxen *. So little regard is paid to thefe confiderations, that a coach, whether drawn by two horfes or by fix, pays the fame duty. As to the third kind, I am grieved to ob- ferve, that we have many taxes detrimental to the (late, as being more oppreflive upon the people than gainful to the public revenue. Multiplied taxes on the neceifaries of life, candle, foap, leatherj ale, fait, &c. raife the price of labour, and confe- quently of manufactures. If they fliall have the effed to deprive us of foreign markets, which we have reafon to dread, depopulation and poverty mufl enfue. The fah-tax in particular is eminently de- trimental With refpeft to the other taxes mention- ed, the rich bear the greateft burden, being the great- eft confumers ; but the fhare they pay of the fait -tax is very little, becaufe they rejeft fait provifions. The falt-tax is ftill more abfurd in another rcfpeft, fait be- ing a choice manure for land. One would be amaz- ed to hear of a law prohibiting the ufe of lime as a L I 2 manure : * They are preferable" for hiifbandry in feveral refpefts. They are cheapi er than horfes : their food, their harnefs, their ftioes, the attendance on Them, much lefs expenfive : and their dung much better for land. Horfes arc more fubjeft to difeafes ; and when difeafed or old are totally ufelefs : * Hock for a farm, muft be renewed at leaft every ten years } whereas a ilock of oxen may be kept entire for ever without any new expence, ai ttiey will always draw a full price when fatted for food. Noi is a horfe more docile than an ox ; a couple of oxen in a plough, require not a dri- \r!r more than a couple of horfes. The Dutch at the Cape of Good Hope plough with oxen ; and exercife them early to a quick pace, fo as to e- qual horfes both in the plough and in the waggon. The people of Malabar ufe no other animal for the plough nor for burdens. About Poridicherry no bcafts of burden are lo be feen but oxen. The Creeks and Romans anci- ently ufed no hearts in the plough but oxen. Tlie vaft increafe ol horfes of late years for luxury as well as for draught, makes a great confumption of oats. If in hufljandry oxen only Vvere ufed, which require no oats, ma- siy thoufand acres would be faved for wheat and barley. But thcadvan- i.igcs of oxtn would not be confined to the farmer. Beef would be much cheaper to the manufadlurer, by the valt addition of fat oxen fentto market; and the price of leather and tallow woulJ fall ; a national benefit, ai evsiy vne ufes (hoe; iind candle?. ! ft 31 i'^ .i! v^n ;i6 Civil Society. i;, B. IL manure : he would be ftill more amazed to hear of the prohibition being extended to fait, which is a manure much fuperior : and yet a heavy tax on fah, which renders it too dear for a manure, furprifes no man. But the mental eye refembles that of the body : it feldom perceives but what is directly belbre it : confequences lie far out of fight. Many thoufand quarters of good wheat, have been annually with-held from Britain by the falt-tax. What the treafury has gained, will not compenfate the fiftieth part of that lofsc The ab- furdity of with-holding from us a manure fo pro- fitable, has at lalt been difcovtred ; and reme- died in part, by permitting Englifli foul fait to be ufed for manure, on paying four-pence of duty per bufliel {a). Why was not Scotland permitted to taflc of that bounty ? Our candidates, it would appear, are more felicitous of a feat in parliament, than of ferving their country when they have ob- tained that honour. What pretext would there have been even for murmuring, had every one of them been rcjeded with indignation, in the choice of rcprefentatives for a new parliament ? The window-tax is more detrimental to the peo- ple, than advantageous to the revenue. In the firft place, it promotes large farms in order to fave houfes and windows ; whereas fmall farms tend to multiply a hardy ' and frugal race, ufeful for every purpofe. In the next place, it is a difcou- ragement to manufadures, by taxing the houfes in which they are carried on. Manufacturers, in order to relieve thcmfelves as much as poflible from the tax, make a fide of their houfe but one window ; and there are inftances, where in three ftories there are hut three windows. But what chiefly raifcs my averfion to that tax, is that it burdens the poor more than the rich : a houfe in a paultry village that affords not five pounds of yearly {a) i" Geo, III. cap. 15, X Sk. VIII. 6. Finances. 5»7 yearly rent, may have a greater number of win- dows than one in London rented at fifty. The plate-tax is not indeed hurtful to manufactures and commerce: but it is hurtful to the common in- terfjft ; becaufe plate converted into money may be the means of faving the nation at a crifis, and therefore ought to be encouraged, inftead of be- ing loaded with a tax. On pictures imported into Britain, a duty is laid in proportion to the fize. Was there no intelligent perfon at hand, to in- form our legiflature, that the only means to roufe a genius for painting, is to give our youth ready accefs to good pidures ? Till thefe be multiplied in Britain, we never fhall have the reputation of producing a good painter. So far indeed it is liicky, that the mod valuable pi£l:ures are not loaded with a greater duty than the moll paultry, Fifh, ^^'^th fait and frefli, brought to Paris, pay a di -^ f 48 per cent, by an arbitrary eftimati- on 01 aie value. This tax is an irreparable in- jury to France, by difcouraging the multiplication of feamcii. It is beneficial indeed in one view, as it tends to check the growing population of that gi*cat city. Without waiting to rummage the Biitifli taxes for inllances of the fourth kind, I Ihall prefent my reader with a foreign inllance. In the Auf- trian Netherlands, there are inexhauftible mines of coal, the exportation of which would make a con- fiderable article of commerce, were it not abfo- lutely barred by an exorbitant duty. This ab- furd duty is a great injury to proprietors of coal, without yielding a farthing to the revenue. The Dutch, many years ago, offered to confine them- felves to that country for coal, on condition of being relieved from tlie duty ; which would have brought down the price below that of Britiih coal. Is it not wonderful, that the propofal was rejcd- ed ? But minifters feldom regard what is beneficial to '!«' I i'''' ii £18 Civil Society. B. II. to the nation, unlcfs it produce an immediate bc^ ncfit to their fovereign or to themfelves. The coal-mines in the Auftrian Netherlands being thus fliut up, and the art of working them loft, the Britifli enjoy the monopoly of exporting coal to Holland. . \d it is likely to be a very bene- ficial monopoly. The Dutch turf hi wearing out. The woods arc cut down every where near the fea ; and t\\e expence of carrying wood for fuel from a difiance, turns greater and greater cyery day. The duty on coal water-t^rne is an inftance of the fifth kind. A great obflruclion it is to many ufeful manufactures that require qoal ; and indeed to manufatlures in general, by increafing the ex- pence of coal, an effential article in 4 cold coun- try. Nay, one would imagine, that it has been intended to check population ; as poor wretches benummed with cold, have little of the Carnal ap- petite, it has not even the merit of adding much to the public revenue ; for, laying afide London, it produces but a ipere trifle. But the peculia- rity of this tax, which intitles it to a confpicu- ous place in the fifth clafs, is, that it is not lefs delrimental to the public revenue, than to indi- viduals. No fedentary art nor occupation, can fucceed in a cold climate without plenty of fuel. One may at the firft glance diftinguifli the coal- countries from the reTl of England, by the ip- duflry of the inhabitants, and by plenty of ma- nufaftqring towns and villages. Where there is fcarcity of fuel, fome hours are loft every morn- ing ; becaufe people cannot work till the place be fufficiently warmed, which is efpecially the cafe in manufadures that require a foft and delicate finger. Now, in many parts of Britain that might be provided with coal by water, the labouring poor are deprived of that comfort by the tax. Had "Sk. VIII. 7. Finances^ 519 Had cheap firing cncoiuraged thefc people to prxa- fecute arts and inanufaflures ; it is more than probable, that at this day they would be Qontri- biuing to the public revenue by other .duties, much greater fuins than are dra>yn from them by the duty ;., ^. • .( . / SEC T. MI. t .-■■ .' . ^< V ^axes fir advanc'mi hidujiry and Corimcrce. KJ F all fcienccs, that qf politics is ):he moll •intricate; and its progrefs toward maturity is flow m proportion. In the prefent feftion, taxes pn exportation of native commodities take the lead ; 5^^ Civil Society. B. II. Sk. and nothing can fet in a ftronger light the grofs ignorance of former ages, than a ma^iini univcr- fally adopted. That to tax exportation or to pro- hibit it altogether, is the belt means for having plenty at home. In Scotland we were not fatisfi- ed with prohibiting the exportation of corn, offifli, and of horfes 'le prohibition was extended to ma- nufaftures, 11' .1 Hoth, caijdie, butter, chc^fc, bark- ed hides, fhoes * (ia). Duties on exportation are in great favour, from a notion tha,t they are paid by foreigners. This holds ibrnetimes, as in the above-mentioned qafe of coal exported to Holland : but it fails in every cafe where" the foreign market can. be fupplied' by others ; for what'^ver b6 the duty, the merchant mufl: regulate his price by the market. And e- ven ..fupporirig the market-price at prefcnt to be fufiicicnt for the duty, with a rcafonable profit to the exporter ; fhofe who pay no duty will Itrain every riei^ve of rivallhip, ' till they cut us out by low prices. The duty on French wine exported, from' France, "is in eneft a .bounty to'thewiiles of neighbouring' countries. The duty is unllvilfulTy impofed, being the fame upon all wrnes export- ed, without regard to flavour or ftrtngth ; which bars the commerce of fmall wines, though they far exceed the flrong in quantity. A moderate duty on exportation, fuch a§ fmall wines can bear, would add a greater fum to the revenue, and alfo be more beneficial to commerce. To improve the commerce of wine in France, the exportation ought to be "free, or 'at jnoft charged with a u ■ ii^ode- * Oil was the orly connnodity tliat by the law^ , jof Solon was permitted to l6 expbrte(J from Attica, The fi^s of that country, which are delicious, came tot:be yttOducU in fuch plenty, that there wa* not cbn&mption for thftni at liome ; &n4 yet the law prohibiting ejqportation was not abro- gated. " Sycbj)haht' denotes a perfon who informs againrt tiie exporter oflftgct httcJtlia^ prohibition appearing abfurd, fycophant became a term o|k, reproach. {a) Adt 59. pari. 1573. Sk. VIII. 7. Finances, 521 moderate duty ad valorem. In Spain an cxccfiivc duty is laid upon the plant barrile when exported ; from an opinion that it will not grow in any o- thet country. It is not confidered, that this tax, by >lclVening the demand, is a diicouragement to its culture. A moderate duty would rail'e more money to the public, would employ more tends, and would make that plant a permanent article of commerce. The excelfive dut^ has let invention at work, for fome material in place of that plant. If fuch a material lliould be difcovered, the Spa- iiifli miniftry will be convinced of a falutary max- im, That it is not always fafe to interrupt by high duties the free coiirfe of comnierce* Formerly in Britain^ the exportation of manufadured. copper was prohibited; That blunder in commercial po- litics, was corrected' by a ftatute in the reign of King William^ permitting fuch copper to be ex- ported, on paying a duf" of four Shillings the hundred weigjit. - The ex^jortation ought to have been declared free ; which was done by a ftatute of Queen Anne. But as the heat of improve- ment tends naturally to excefs, this ftatv =i per- mits even unwrought copper, a raw matei. a to be exported. This probably was done to favour copper-mines: but- did it not alfo favour foreign copper-manufaftures ? Goods and merchandife of the produft or manufafturc of Great Britain, may be exported duty free (rt).' A few years ago, the Eait India Company procured an a£t of parlia- ment, prohibiting the exportation of cannon to the Eaft Indies; which was very Ihort fighted : the Dutch and Danes purchafc cannon here, of which they make a profitable trade by exporting them to the Eaft Indies. A cannon is purchafed in Scotland for about L. 14 per ton, and fold to the Nabobs of Hindoftan for between L. 50 and ; ( U! ( nor would any other nation. We proceed to foreign cornmodities. The nriea- fures laid down for regulating their importation, have different views. One is, to keep down a rival power ; in which view it is prudent to prohibit im- portation from one country^ and to encourage \% froni another. It is judicious in the Britifli legi^fiS- ture, to load French wines with a higher duty than t))ofe of Portugal; and in France, it would b^ a proper meaiure, to prefer the beef of Holftein, or of Kuflia, before that ol' Ireland; and the tobacco of the Ukraine, or of the Palatinate, before that of Virginia! But fuch meafures of government ought to be fparin^iy excrciled, for fear of retaliation. There is no caufe more cogent for regulating im- portation, than an unfavourable balance. By per- mitting French goods to be imported free of duty, the balance againft England was computed to be a M m 2 million iii'li lii< i' a i ill 53- Civil Societv. B. IK million ftcrling yearly. In the year 1678, that im- portation was regulated; which, with a prohibition of wearing Eaft-lndia m-tnufadures, did -n twenty years turn the balance of trade in favour of Eng- land. Mofl of the Britifli rer ulations concerning goods imported, arc contrived tor promoting our own mii- nufaftures, or thofe oF our colonies. A ftatute, 3° Edward IV. cap. 4. inti^led, " Certain merchandifes ** Tiot lawful to be brought ready wrought into the ** kingdom," contains a large lill of fuch merchan- difes ; indicating the good' fenfe of the Englilh in an early period, intent on promoting their own manu- fa^urcs. To favour a new manufacture of- their own, it is proper to lay a duty on the fame manu-' failure imported. To cn Sk. Vlll. 7. Finances, ' -^ 533 and cotton to be imported ; intended for encou- raging a manufa<5lure of printed cottons projected in Catalonia and Aragon. The Spanifli miniftry have been ever fingularly unlucky in their com- mercial regulations. It is eafy to forefee, that fuch a prohibition will have no eftedV, but ' to raife the price on the fubjeds of Spain ; for the prohibit- ed goods will be fmuggled, difcouraging as much as ever the intended manufacture. The prudent meafure would have been, to lay a duty upon printed cottons and linens imported, fo fmall as not to encourage fmuggling ; and to apply that duty foe nurfing the infant manufadure. A foreign manufac- ture ought never to be totally prohibited, tilljthat at home be in fuch plenty, as nearly to fupply the wants of the natives. During ignorance of political priu;- ciples, a rtew manufadlture was commonly encou- raged with an exclufive privilege for a certain num- ber of years. Thus in Scotland, an exclufive pri- vilege of exporting woollen and linen manufac- tures, was given to fome private focicties («). Such a monopoiy is ruinous to a nation ; and frequently to the manufacture itfelf (^). I know no mono- poly can be juftified, except that given to authors of, books for fourteen years by an aft of Queen Anne*. Exemption from duty, premiums to the . „ .^ . ,. ■■'.■■ belt (tf) Aft 42. pari, 1661. (/-) Sec Elements du Commerce, \o.t\. i. p. 334. * That aft is judicioufly contrive^i,' not only tor tlic benefit of authors, but for that of learning in geneial. It encourages men of genius to write, and multiplies books both of inftruftion and amufunient ; which, by concurrence of many editors after tlie monopoly is at an end, are fold at the clieapefY r^ite. Many well-difpofcd perfons compjain, that the ex- clufive priveieje beftowed by the flatute upon authors, js too jhqrt ; and that it ought to be perpetual. Nay it is afferted, that authors havs a perpetual privilege at common law ; and it was fo determined lately in tlie court of king's benchi Nothing more frequently happens, than by grafping at tlie fliadow, to lofe the fiibftance ; for I have no diffi- culty to maintain, that ^ perpetual monopoly of books, would prove- more deUruftive to learning, and cven'fo auiiiors, than a fecon<;l irrupti- on of Goths and Vandals. 'It is tlie natiirc of a monopoly to raife the price of comttiodities ; and by a perpetual monopoly in the commerce of books, tlie •prk* of coed Aooks woitld bo ralfed far beyoutl tlic".n;ai.h of moit readers :.. •■•ir'i.. 5.H Civil 'Society. B. II. bcft workmen, a bounry on exportation, joined with a duty on goods of the fame kind import- ed, and at laft a total prohibition, are the proper encouragements to a new ivianufadure. '^ ••' »• ru The i.iportation of raw materials ought to be encouraged in every m-nufaduring country, per- mitting only a moderate duty for encouraging our own rude materials of the fame kind. By a Fre:i( h cdidl 1654 for encouraging: fhip-buiidmg, fhip-tin. ber imported pays no duty. But jv rhapj; a mo- derate duty would have been better, in order to ^rncourage fuch timber of the growth of Fravjce. Deal limber accordingly and other timber, import- ed into Britain from any part of Europe, Ittland excepted, pcy; a moderatf^ duty. And oak-bark imported pays .1 cluvy, which is an encouragement to pro}>agate or]: at home. The importation of Iran cattle froii^. ireiand, which in effect are raw materials, is, by a ftaiute of Charles II. declared a public nuifance. What grofs ignorance ! Is it not evident, that to feed cattle, is more profita- ble than to breed them ? The chief promoter of that notable ftai^'Ute, was Sir John Knight, famous, or rather infamous, for an infolent fpeech in King WiUiam's reign agi>inft naturalizing foreign Pro- teftants, and propofii>g to kick out of the king- dom thofe already fettipd. Experience hath made evident they would be fold like piauies of t.*»e great marters. The works of Shakefpeare, for example, or of Milton, would be ften in very few li- braries. In (hort the only purchafersofgopd books would be a few learn- ed men fuch as have money to fpare, and a few rich men, who buy out of vanity, as they buy a diamond, or a line coat. Fafhionj at the fame time are variable j and books, even the 'Jioft fplendid, would wear out of fafhion with men of opulence, and be dcfpifcd as antiquated furniture. And with refpt"^ to men of tafte, their number is fv fmall, as not to afibrd encouragement even for the moft frugal edition. Thu« bookfellers, by grafp- ing too much would put an end to their trade altogvther. At the lame time, our prefent authors and bookfellers would not be Jtiuch benefited by fuch a monopoly. Not many books have fo long a run a"S fourteen years j and the fucccfs of a book on the firft publication, is fo uncertain, that a book-feller will give little more for a perpetuity, tiian frT the tempo- rary privilege of the ftatute. This vas forefeen by the leginat'i'rei «nd'thc privilege was wifely confined to fourteen ye^s, equally beneficial fo the pub- lic and to authors. Sk. VIII. 7. Finances, S^S evident the advantage of importing lean cattle into England ; witnefs the vaft quantities iniported yearly from Scotland. Diamonds, pearls, and jewels of every kind, paid formerly upon importation a duty of ten per cent, ad valorem ; which by aft 6® George II. cap. 7. was taken off, upon the fal- lowing preamble, " That London is now become *' a great mart for diamonds and other precious *' (tones, from whence mod foreign countries are " fupplied ; that great numbers of rough diamonds *' are fent here to be cut and polifhed ; and that ** a free importation would encreafe the trade." Sorry I am to obferve, that feveral of our duties on importation, are far from being conformable to the foregoing rule ; many raw materials ne- ccflary for our manufactures being loaded with a duty on importation, and fome with a heavy du- ty. Sarilla, for example, is a raw material ufed in the glafs-manufafture : the exportation from Spain is loaded with a very high duty : and to raife the price ftill higher, we add a duty on im- portation ; without having the pretext of encou-r raging a raw material of our own growth, for barilla grows not in this iiland. Hair is a raw material employed in feveral manufadures ; and yet every kind of it, human hair, horfe hair, goat's hair, &c. pavs a duty on importation; which con- fequently raifes the jviicc of our own hair, as well as of what is imj\H"tC\U Nor l\is this duty, mor^ than the forma> tho |M>etext of being an encou- ragement to vvui' own pvodud ; for furtly there will not on that account be reared one child moi>e, or foal, or kki. The fame ohjcvtion lies agamft the duty on foreign kelp, wHich is very high. Rancid oil of olives, fit for foap and woollen ma- nutadurcs, pays upon importation a high duty : were it free of duty, we Ihould be able to fervc ourfclves with Caftile foap of home mannfadure ; and likevvife our colonies, which are partly iUpplied 3 ^y \ ■ t Si^ Civil SocirrY. E. Hi by the French. Each of the following raw ma- terials ought in found policy to be free of duty on importation; and yet they are loaded with a duty, fonie with a high duty ; pot-afhes, clc|)hant'3 teeth, raw filk from the Eail Indies, lamp-black, bridles drcfled or undrefled, horns of beeves. Un- drefl'ed Ikins, though a rude uiaterial, pay a duty on importation ; and French kid ikins are ho- noured above others with a high duty : to rejcft i\ great lifiii lit tn ourlelves ratjier than Al^nl A fmall benefit to a rival natioUi fsyopf^ \\\Lfjp qf peeviflinefs than of puidenrpt ' < *• ■ For encouraging our colonies, uulftft' h jjenillt- ted to be iniported from the plantations free of duty, while other cofl'ee pays fix pence pfi poiuid. The heavy duty on whalebone and whale oil iui- ported, which was laid on for encouraging our own whale filhing, is taken ojf with refpc 7 d^ of which is. drawn back iipoi\ exportation. The intention of the draw -back was to encourage the comjTiercc of quick.filvcr ; without adverting, that to afford quick-filvcr to foreign manufa^urcrs cheaper than to our own, is a grofs blander in comnnerqial poVitics. . A^'aiti, when qifick-filver is manufadured into vcr million or fabtiiVjate, na drawback is allowed ; wliich effedlually bars their exportation ^, we ought' to be aihamed of" fuch ii regulation. In the reign of CJue<-ii Elizabeth, dyers were prohibited to ufe logwoodj which was ordered to be openly burn^. But the Englifli dyers having acquired the art of fixing colours made of logwood, it was permitted to be import- ed (^), every ton paying on importation L. 5 j L. 4 of which was to be drawn br\ck upon ex- portation. That law, made in the days of igno- rance, was intended to encourage the commerce of logwood i and had- that cffed : but the blunder of dllcouraging our ./own manufa(51ures, by furnifh- ing logwood cheapef to our rivals, was overlpok- cd. Both articles were put upon a better footing (^},. giving a greater encouragement to the com- merce of logwood, by allowing it to be imported duty-free ; ajid by giving an advantage to our own manufadures by laying a duty of 40s, upon every hiindrcd weight exported. Lallly, Still more to,, encourage: thi; cpinm^rce pf logwood \^c .^ the duty upon exportation is difcontinucd. It will {u) Aif\ 1.3. and 14. Charleii II. pap. »i. ^ 26. 27, - (>) .\^ 8 Gtorjje I, cip. 14, (t) 7 Geo, 111. cap. 47. 1 I! I ; ■ i ' 542 Civil Society. B. II. will have the efFeft propofeH : but will not that benefit be more than balanced by the encourag'e- ment it gives to foreign manufadures ? By {he It^te peace, we have obtained the monopoly , of gum-fenega J and proper meafures have been taken lor turning it to the beft account : the exportati- on from Africa is confined to Great Britain; and the duty on importation is only fix-pence per hundred weight : but the diity on exportation from Britain is thirty fhillings per hundred weight (t) ; which with f'-eight, commiffion, and infurince, makes it come, dear to foreigners. Fojrmerlyj eve- ry beaver's Ikin paid upon importation Iteven- pence of duty j and the exp-^-ter received a draw- back of four -pence j as '^ v. had htin the pur- pofe of the legiliature, to make our ov^n people pay more for that ulcful commodity than fo- reigners. Upon obtaining a .monopoly of beaver- fkins by the late peace, that abfurd regulation was altered : a penny per fkin of duty is laid on importation, and ieven-pence on exportation {d). By that nieans beaver-ikins are cheaper here than in any other country of Europe. A fimi- lar regulation is eftablilhed with refpeft to gum- r^rabic. A hundred weight pays on importation fix-pence, and on exportation L. i, los. (e). As the foregoing articles are ufed in various manu- factures, their cheapnefs in Britain, by means of thefe regulations, will probably balance the high price of labour, fo as to keep open to us the fo- reign market. James I. of England iffued a proclamation, pro- hibiting the exportation of gold and filver whether in coin or plate, of goldfmith's work, or of bul- lion. Not to mention the unconftitutional (lep of an Englifh King ufurping the Icgiflative power, it was a glaring abfurdity to prohibit manufafturrd work froni being exported. Gold and lilver, coin- ed ^<- ; 5 Ceorgelll, cap. 37.— (^0 4 George III, cap. 9,— -(0 % George III. cap. y. Sk. VIII. 7. Finances* 543 cd or uncoined, are to this day prohibited t© be exported from France ; a ridiculous prbhibition : a merchant will never willingly export gold and filver ; but if the balance be againft him, the ex- portation 'm unavoidable. The only effeft of the prohibition is, to fwell the merchant's debt ; for he muft bribe a fmuggler to undertake the exportation. A French author remarks, that in no country are commercial regulations better contrived than in Britain: and inftances the following particulars. 1 ft, Foreign commodities, fuch as may rival their own, are prohibited, or burdened with duties. ad. Their manufadures are encouraged by a free exportation. 3d, Raw materials which cannot be produced at home, cochineal, for example, indi- go, &c. are imported free of duty. 4th, Raw ma- terials of their own growth, fuch as wool, fuller's earth, &c. are prohibited to be exported. 5th, Every commodity has a free courfe through the kingdom, without duty. And laftly. Duties paid on importation, are repaid on exportation. This remark is for the moft part well founded : and yet the fafts above fet forth will not permit us to fay, that the Englifli commercial laws have as yet arrived at perfedion. Having thu?. gone through the fe\e''al articles that enter into the prefent Iketch, I Ihall clofe with fome general reflections. The management of the finances is a moft important branch of govern* ment ; and no lefs delicate than imncrtantc Taxes may be fo contrived as to promote in a high de- gree the profperity of a ftate ; and unlefs well con- trived, they n.ay do much mifchief. The latter, by rendering the fovereign odious and the peo- ple miferable, efFeClually eradicate patriotifm : no other caufe is more fruitful of rebellion ; and no other caufe reduces a country to be 1 more eafy prey to aa invader. To that caufe were the Mahometans chiefly indebted, for their conqueft of the Greek empire. The people were glad to change their 1 '!i m H Hi P i I 544 Civil Society. B.II. their mailer j becaufe, irtftead of multiplied, intri- cate, and vexatious duties, they found thcnvfelves fubjefted to a fimple tribute, eafily colleded, and eafily paid* Had the art of oppreiJive taxes been known to the Romans, when the utmod perfidy and cruelty were pradifcd againftthe Carthagini- ans to make them abandon their city, the fobcr method of high duties on exportation and iinpo r- tation. would have been chofen. This method, be- fide gratifying Roman avarice, would infallibly have ruined. Carthage* ' From the union of the different Spanifh king^ doms under one monarch, there was reafon to ex- pe£t an exertion of fpirrt, fimilar to that of the Romans when peace was reftored under Auguftus. Spain was at that period the mofl: potent king- dom in Europe, or perhaps in the world ; and yet, inftead' of flourifhiing in that advantageous condi- tion, it wab by opprelTive taxes reduced to poverty and depopulation. The political hiftory of that kingdom with refpeit to its finances, ought to be kept in perpetual remembrance ; that kings, and their miniiters, may fnun the deftru(Slive rock upon which Spain hath been wrecked. The cortes of Spain had once as extenlive powers as ever were enjoyed by an Englifh parliament ; but at the time of the union their power being funk to a ihadow, the King and his miniftcrs governed without much control. Britain cannot be too thankful to Providence for her par- liament. From the hiftory of every modern Eu- ropean niition, an inftructive leffon may be gather- ed, that the three eftates, or in our language a parliament, are the only proper check to the ig- norance and rapacity of minifters. The fertility of the Spanilh foil, is well known. Notwithftand- ing frcfjuent droughts to which it is liable, it would produce greatly with diligent culture ; and in fad, during the time of the Roman domination, pro- duced corn fuflicient ior its numerous inhabitants, and a great furplus, which was annually exported to Sk. VIII. Finances. 545 to Italy. During the domination of the Moors, Arabian authors agice, that Spain was extremely populous. An author of that nation, who wrote in the tenth century, reports, that in his time there were in Spain 80 capital cities, 300 of the fecond and third orders, befide villages fo frequent that one could not go a mile without meeting one or more of them. In Cordova alone, the capital of the Moorifh empire, he reckons 200,000 houfes *, 600 mofques, and 900 public baths. In the eleventh century, another author mentions no fewer than 12,000 villages in the plain of Seville. High mufl tiave been the ptirfection of agriculture in Spain, when it could feed fuch multitudes. "What was the extent of their internal commerce, is not recorded ; but all authors agree, that their foreign commerce was immenfe. Befide many ar- ticles of fmalier value, they exported raw filk, oil, fugar, a fort of cochineal, quickfilver, iron wrought and unwrought, manufadures of filk, of wool, &c. The annual revenue of Abdoulrahman III. one of the SpaniHi califs, was in money 12,045,000 dinares, above five millions Sterling, befide large quantities of corn, wine, oil, and other fruits. That prince's revenue mull indeed have been im- menfe, to fupply the fums expended •"' him. Be- fide the annual charges of government, fleets, and armies, he laid out great fums on his private amuic- ments. Though engaged continually in war, he had money to fpare for building a new town three miles from Cordova, named Zebra after his favourite miftrefs. in that town he ereded a magnificent palace, fufficiently capacious for his whole feraglio of 6300 pcrfons. There were in it 1400 columns of African and Spanifh marble, 19 of Italian marble, and 140 of the finefl kind, a preient from the GiVixk Emperor. In the middle of the great faloon. Vol. 1. N n were t ■ • Dwdlin»-liiji fc'j at that tini^ weic not fo hrje nor fo expcnfivc, as tliqr v^iue iu hi, in l;«ifi iiiii(?> 1 546 Civil Societv. B. n. were many images of birds and beads in pure gold adorned with precious ftones, pouring water into a large marble bafon. That prinee muft have had immenfe (tables lor horfcs, when he entertained for his conilant guard, no fewer than i ?.,ooo horfc- mcn, having fabres and belts enriched with goid. Upon the city of Zehra alone, including the pa- lace and gardens, were expended annually 300,000 dinares, which make above L. 100,000 Sterling; ?; d it required twenty-five years to complete thefc works *. The great fertility of the foil, tht induilry of the Moors, and their advantageous fituation for trade, carried on the profperity of Spain down to the time that they were fubdued by Ferdinand of Aragon. Of this we have undoubted evidence, from the condition of Spain in the days of Charles V. and of his fon Philip, " *ng efteemed at that pe- riod the richeft country in the univerfc. We have the authority of Uftariz, that the town of Seville, in the period mentioned, contained 60,000 filk looms. During the fixttenth century, the woollen cloth of Segovia was efteemed the fmcft in Eu- rope ; and that of Catalonia long maintained its preference in the Levant, in Italy, and in the ad- jacent iflands. In a memorial addrefled to the fccond PhiHp, Louis Valle de la Cerda reports, that in the fair of Medina he had negotiated bills of * A prefent made to ^bdculrahrwan hy Abdoulmelil*, when chofen prime vizir, is a fpccimen of tlu' riches of Spain at that period, ift, /MU 55^ Civil SocieTv. B. 11. vouvable to hulbiindry at lead ; but by exorbi- tant taxes, a voracious monfter, which, after fwal- lowing up the whole riches of the kingdom, has kft nothing for itfclf to feed on. The following pidture is drawn by a writer of that nation, who may be depended on for veracity as well as know- ledge (a)^ " Poverty and diflrcfe dif- people a " country, by banifhin^ ail thoughts of marriager *' They even dellroy facking children ; for what " nourifliment can a woman affard to her infant, '• who herfclf is reduced to bread and water, and *'■ is overwhelmed with labour and defpair ? A greater proportion accordingly die here in in- fancy, than- where the labouring poor are " inorfe at eafe ; and of thole who cfcape by If rength of conilitution^ the fcarcity of cloathing and of nourifhrnent makes them couunonly fhort ** lived." So blind however arc the Spp.niards in the ad- miniitrati-on of their finances, that the prefent mtniftry are following out the fame meafures in Amerrea, that have brought their native country to the brink of ruin. Cochineal, cocoa, fugar, &c. imported mto Spain d-uty-free, would be a vail fund of commerce with other nations : but a heavy duty on importation is an abfolute bar ta that commerce, by forcing the other European nations to provide themfelves elfewhere. Spanifh oil exported to i^merica would be a great arti- cle of commerce, were it not barred by a htit^vy duty on exportation, eqvial almofl: to a prohibiti- on : and the Spanilh Americans, tor want of oily : '-'' are cc ii From Cafiik few gn to America-, a^nd >Tt Caflllcis the worft peopled coun- tivmSpam. The northern provinces, Gallici a, Atturia, Bifcay, &c. fend jiiore people to Mexico and Peru than all the other provinces ; and yet t.f ill are the moft populous. He afcrihes the depopulation of Spain to tha ruin of tire ntawufarturCT by cppreilive taxes ; and aiferts that the Weft- Indieo tend rather to people Spain -. many return home laden with riches ; and of thofe who do not return, many remit money to their relations, which- -nablcs them to marry, andtoreax children. (.■:) Don Gicrviirmurie Uliariz, 6k. VIII. "Finances* SS^ are reduced to ufe fat and butter, very improper for a hot climate. The prohibition oF planting vines in Mexico, and i\\^ excellive duty on the importation of Spanilh wines into that country, have introduced a fpirit drawn from the fugar- canc ; which being more deftrudive thaui a pefti- Icnce, is prohibited under feverc penahies. The prohibition however has no cffeft, but to give the governors of the provinces a monopoly of thefe Ipirits, which, under their j>rotedion, are fold pub- licly *. But this fubjed feems to be inexhauftible. The filver and gold mines in the Spanifli Wefl: Indies are by improper taxes, rendered lefs profitable, both to ihit King and to the proprietors, than they ought to be. The King's fliare is the fifth part of the filver that the mines produce, and the ♦ tenth part of the gold. There is, befide, a duty of eighty piaftres upon every quintal of mercury employed in the mines. Thefe heavy exactions, have occafioned all mines to be given up but of the riehcft fort. The inhabitants pay 33 per cent, on the goods imported to them from Spain, and they are fubjefted befide to the alcavala, w';',ch is 14 per cent, of everything bought and fold within the country. The mofl: provoking tax of all is what is termed Im cruciade^ being a fum paid for indulgence to eat eggs, butter, and cheefe, during Lent, which is yielded by the Pope to the King of Spain. The government it is true, obliges no perfon to take out fuch an indul- gence : but the priefts rcfufe every religious con- ' folation to thofe who do not purchafe j auddiere is • It gives me pleafure to find for the fake of my fellow creatures, that the Spanish miniftry begin to perceive the fatal confeqi^encep of thefe impolitic ineafuies, in the year 1765, the trade to the iflands of Cuba, HJfpaniola, PoiioRico, Margarita and Trinidad, was laid open to merchants in every province in Spain ; who were rcleafed from the oppreffive duties on good* exported to America, by paying; only C\xpcr cert, on commodities fent from Spain. It is probable that the beneficial efted^s of this meafure may open the eyes of the Spanifli minillry to further improvemeiits. The power of the Spinilhinquilitorj i-^ reduced wit!iin moderate bounds. Maywe not indulge the ^ope,. that Spain will agr.in become both a learned and ccmnictcial country ? 55^ Civil Societv. a n. is not perhaps a fingle pcrfon in Spanifli America who is bold enough to Hand out againfl fuch conipulfion. There is recorded in hiftory, another example of dcfb unlive taxes fnnilar to that now mcntioTxd. Aui^ultur, on his tonquefl ol £gypt, having brought to Konic the trcaiurc of its kings, gold and filver overHowed in Italy ; the bulk of which found its way to Conliantinople, when it became the feat of empire. By thefe means, Italy was fadly impo- verilhed : the whole ground had been covered with gardens and villas, now deferted ; and there? was neither corn nor manufadures to exchange for money. Gold and fdver became as larc in Italy as they had been of old ; and yet the fame taxes that had been paid with eafe during plenty of money, were rigidly exaded, which ruined all. The duchy of Ferrara, in a narrower compafs, af- fords a later example of the fame kind. It was one of the richeft and rnoft po])ulou8 diftrids in Italy, when gcvcrsied by its own princes -, but at prefent, under uic Papal defpotifm, it is reduced to poviTty unu depopulation. There may be feen extenfuc in-adows whhout a hand to cut down the graiV, or a bcall to cat it. The wa- ter-palfages are not kept open : the flagnating wa- ters are putrid, and infecl the air with a j)oifon- ous fleam. In a word, that duchy is approaching to the unwholefome ilate of the Campagna di Ro- ma, and foon like it, will become uninhabitable. Well may it be faid, that cpprellive taxation is a monfler, which after devouring every other thing, devours itfelf at laft. Bologna furrendered to the Pop° upon terms, referving mar.y of its mod va- luable privileges. Bologna continues a rich and populous city ; and by moderate taxes the Pope draws from it ten times the fum that can be fqueezed out of Ferrara by all the engines of op- preflion. END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.