IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) A 1.0 ,f i^ I I.I 1.25 2.5 tik i^ 2.2 U III 1.6 V] <^ /i A '/ Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 873-4S03 V ^^ N> '% V t \ ^^^' V CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHIVI/ICIVIH Colfection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques ^ Technical and Bibliographic Notes/Notes techniques et bibliographiques The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibliographically unique, which may alter any of the images in the reproduction, or which may significantly change the usual method of filming, are checked below. □ Coloured covers/ Couverture de couleur I I Covers damaged/ D D D D D n Couverture endommag6e Covers restored and/or laminated/ Couverture restaurie et/ou pellicul6e I I Cover title misblng/ Le titre de couverture manque I I Coloured maps/ Cartes g^ographiques en couleur Coloured ink (i.e. other than blue or black)/ Encre de couleur (i.e. autre que bleue ou noire) l~~| Coloured plates and/or illustrations/ Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur Bound with other material/ Reli6 avec d'autres documents Tight binding may causa shadows or distortion along interior margin/ La reliure serr^e peut causer de I'ombre ou de la distortion ie long de la marge intirieure Blank leave.: added during restoration may appear within the text. Whenever possible, these have been omitted from filming/ II se peut que certaines pages blanches ajouties lors d'une restauration apparaissent dans le texte, mais, lorsque cela itait possible, ces pages n'ont pas 6t6 fllmies. Additional comments:/ Commentaires supplimentaires; L'Institut a microfilm* le meiilcur exemplaire qu'il iui a At* possible de se procurer. Les details de cet exemplaire qui sont peut-Atre uniques du point de vue bibliographique, qui peuvent modifier une image reproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger une modification dans la mithode normals de filmage sont indiquAs ci-dessous. I I Coloured pages/ 1/ D Pages de couleur Pages damaged/ Pages endommagies n Pages restored and/or laminated/ Pages restaur^es et/ou pelliculAes Pages discoloured, stained or foxed/ Pages d6color6es, tacheties ou piquies n Pages detachod/ Pages d6tach6es HShowthrough/ Transparence Transparence Quality of prir Qualiti in^gale de I'impression Includes supplementary materit Comprend du materiel suppldmentaire I I Quality of print varies/ r~| Includes supplementary material/ □ Only edition available/ Seule Edition disponible Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata slips, tissues, etc., have been refilmed to ensure the best possible image/ Les pages totalement ou partiellement obscurcies par un feuillet d'errata, une pelure, etc., ont 6X6 filmAes A nouveau de fa^on d obtenir la meilleure image possible. This item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document est film* au taux de reduction indiqu6 ci-dessous. 10X 14X ^8X 22X 26X 30X y 12X 16X 20X 24X 28X 32X The copy filmed here has been reproduced thanks to the generosity of: National Library of Canada The images appearing here are the best quality possible considering the condition and legibility of the original copy and in keeping with the filming contract specifications. Original copies in printed paper covers are filmed beginning with the front cover and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, or the back cover when appropriate. All other original copies are filmed beginning on the first page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impression. The last recorded frame on each microfiche shall contain the symbol ^^> (meaning "CON- TINUED"), or the symbol V (meaning "END"), whichever applies. Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: L'exemplaire film6 fut reproduit grSce d la g^n^rosit^ de: Bibliothdque nationate du Canada Les images suivantes ont 6t6 reproduites avec le plus grand soin. compte tenu de la condition et de la nettet^ de l'exemplaire filmd, et en conformity avec les conditions du contrat de filmage. Les exemplaires originaux dont la couverture en papier est imprimie sont filmes en commenpant par le premier plat et en terminant soit par la dernidre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration, soit par le second plat, selon le cas. Tous les autres exemplaires originaux sont filmds en commenpant par la premidre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration et en terminant par la dernidre page qui comporte une telle empreinte. Un des symboles suivants apparaltra sur la dernidre image de chaque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbole — ► signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbole V signifie "FIN ". Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre filmds d des taux de reduction diffdrents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul clich6. il est film6 d partir de Tangle sup6rieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas. en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. 1 2 3 4 5 6 T i Essays of an Americanist. I. Ethnologic and Arch^eologic. II. Mythology and Folk Lore. III. GPw\phic Systems and Literature. IV. Linguistic. BY DANIEL G. BRINTON. A. M., M, D, V AN.A, ■„, SM„.NT ,„. TMH N. M,SMM„ AN,, ASTIn, A,„AN S,.. ,K TV O- VU .".A, >.,<.S„,RN, ,u: nw AM, ,< „ A N r.M.K-M.HH SO, ,U,V. MFMK.K OP • A.MI.H.. A.N ANT„,,A.<,AN SOCK.V, TMF. AMXX,, AN P,, M.OSO.H ., Ar SOCIETY, THK SOl I,;tK HOYAl.H DKS ANTIoirAIKl-S I., No,,,. THU SOCIl-TK AMnmCAINl; l>E M(AN. K, Till. liM;. I.INI.R ANlHKOI'OKK.IsrUK (iF.SFI.I.Sl MAI I, Till.: HI. \1, \i Alil MIA UK Ills- UiHIA, MAURI II, KTI ,, KTl . I ll-.NNSVI.. I. A II 1. 1.- II K PHILADELPHIA. PORTKR cS: COATKS. 1890. /^ Clil'VUICHT I'•^■ I). <;. liKIN'roN. w FHF.FACE. ''I"^ PHI-: wcnl •• I-Nsays" apiuMis on Hr. titir ..f this Ixx.k in lla- MiiSL' in uliic-h .,1,1 M.mtai-nr cniplov c-,1 ii at- tempts, endeavors. Tlic ailicks w hirli make np the vohmie haw hcvn (-ollected from many scattered souives. t.. which I liave from time to time eonlrihnleil them, for the .iefmite purpose of endeavorin,- to vindicate certain ..pinions ah.,nt dehated sul.jects concernin,- the ancient popnIati..n ..f the Anieiican continent. In a numher of points, as lor example in the anti.piitv of '"^"1 upon this continent, in the specific <listincti.,n of an American race, in the .-eueric similarity ..f its lan,-ua,-es. in reco-ni/in,- its niytli..l,,c;y ,as often abstract an.l svml,."lic, in the phonetic character of some. .fits on.phic metlu.ds, in he- lievin- thai its tribes ix'ssessed consi.lerable p.,etic feelin-, in uiaintainin,- the absolute aut..chthony..f their .■nlturc m these and in many other p,.inlsreferre<l t<. in the f..ll.,uin,.; pages I am at variance with m..st m<.<lern anthr..p..lo:;ists ! and these essays are to sIk.w nu.re fnllv and c.nnectedly than couhl their separate publication, what .are my .^rounds for such opini.)ns. There is a prevailiti- ten.lency among ethnologists ni l.,- (iii j IV I'Ki;i' ACI'. •lav to un.VnaU. tlK. psyrlH-lo^y of .ava.;. lit.. Tin. error anscs partly lrn„, .,„ ....uillin^.u-.s t., ^o l.^v..,,.! „,,rclv I'l.ysK-al n.vcsti.alinns, partly Inm, ju,l^i„. of th. and.nt c-ond.fnu of a trilK. I.y Hut <,f its „,o,ic-r„ an.l .k-.,c.,Krate rcprc.sc.ntatnvs, partlv tn.„; i„,l,i,iiv t.. speak its Inu^u. an.l t<. ^;am the- real s.ns. of its expressions, partlv iVon, prcvn,,- cvnvl tiK-orics as to what a savage uu^^hi W- .xpcvt.-l to know and led. As against this error I have- cssave-<l to show timt amo„. very nule tril.es we lln.l sentiments of a hinh ^■I'araeler, provi,,. a mental nature of excellent ca,,aeitv"in certain directions. Several ,.f the- l^ssays have not previouslv appeared in pnnl, and others have l.een snhstantially re-writteu, so as t.. l>rin,L; them up to the latest researches in their .s,,ecial fields. Nevertheless, tile rea.lerwill find a certain amount of repeti- tion in several of them, a defect which I hope is compeusated l.y the greater clearness which this repetition gives to the si)ecial subject discus.sed. Philadelphia, l-'tbruarv, iSijo. I I CONTENTS. I'i<i:i'Acic 'r\iu.i: (u- C(>\ti:nts . . . . I'Ai.i; iii, i\- .V Ml PART I. liTllXOUH-.IC AM) ARCILllOI.ocic Intkodictokv . . . 1 7 1 9 A KKv.Ku- (,. ruv i,.vTA roK tmk Srrnv ... rin. Vhv. li.s- TOUR- Clll<()\(ii,(„,v ,,,,• A.MIOKKA ClMssilln.lio,, nl-nata. I. /.r,r,u/,>y: nf unrih^rn tribes- 'J"'' IVnniaMS, Mcsi.aMs ami Maya>; li,„iu..l ran^.. 11. J/o„„. »'n>/a/: pu.hl,.s of Xc.v Mcxic; st..,,. a.nl l.n.-k stnu-turos of Mexico, Central Aiiieriea a.ul IVn, ; ruins of Tialiuanaeo • artificial shell heaps; the sandH,guis of Hra/il. Ill /;,,/,,,. fnal: paUeulilhic iniple.nents; early polished stone iniple- "K-nts; .nsseinination of cultivate,! foo.l plants. IV. / i>,ou- /.v//< .• multitude and extension of linguistic slocks; lenacitv "f huKUistic form ; similarities of internal form ; stu.lv of in- ^-■'-" form. V. nnsical: racial classillcations; traitsofthe American type; permanence of the tvpe. VI. Cro/ooic- •late of the olacial epochs in Xo,-th ami South America ■'\he c'arhest Americans inimij^rants; lines of migrations l„,. portaiK . of archieoloKical studies. (v) VI C<>.\'|-i.;\']\s. »s-,s,s On I'm, i;oi.itiis, Amiuk an and ()ri{i:i< . . Tlic ••miin- instnini. Ill ;,s tl.r st.m.l.ml of cullmv ; tlu- Hint- " A^vs •• nf Stuiic. i;r,,ii/( ,11,, I lr,,„ ; MilM|ivi>inM-. ..f the A«f "I" StcplU' i„to I',.l;i.,,lill,i. aipl .\\-,.!itln.-; .. tn.r "l':,la-..- lilli"; MilMliviMun c.rnu- IVil.u.liihi.- puin,! int,. ||„ .-i,.,. |,,.,f ••sinii.lc" ,ni.I "<-.>iii,„ tnd" i,ii|,l.ui(nls; ].,il;i.,,lnlii. iin,|s ■■il'Hi;; llir D.lawMiv river; lUr ,t,.l.u i;,l inriul i„ \„uri>a; f.irlic-,! ajiiicnMiicr cif tii,in in Aiiurici. ON Tin; Ai.i,r,,,i:i, M..n,;ui.ian Ai . imtii.s uv Tin; Amiukvn I'^\^i .f ff .S'> '"> A ])r,.rti.Ml (|U(slinn; Cuviir's tripU' division of tin- Ininian spirits; allr,-(.l .M(Hi;^(.lian ,irfiniliis in lan-u,i-r ; Mipposnl allinitir. in mllurv ; ini.i-inr,! phvsir.il ns,.nil,l,in.r>, as «'"l<.r, cnini,-,! .uialo-ics thr nl,li,pu. ,,r ■ Mnn:^nU,u['- .sv. ,W. In^^nllicii niy ol' all iIum'. Tm; I'K,,i;\;:i.i: Xatk.xai.itv ,.|. tiii;-Muim. Hi ii.im.ks." . (,7 S2 Wl.n u,-,v ilu- ".M,.nn.|-l.niMrrs".^ Known IrilK- ,-.s cnn- strn.-t,.r>c,r nn.nn.ls, tlu. Irn.,u..i., Al.^nnkin., Clu n.kvcs an,l CliahtiMn.koUi laniily. I iisiriplions fn.ni D^. Solo's v\- p.'.liti..n ; iVoin llu-nvnols in I'lori.Li ; from iMvn.Ji uritrrs on I.oui>i,iiia; ;;ic,it si/r of tlir sonllurn nionmls; prolul.K- IniiliKr-, of ( )!iio mounds. Till. Tnl.TiuS \M) T'M.iU I'AIUI.OI.S liMl'lUi; .Svio^t St'iU'iniiit ol liu- (|iK-.tioii ; til,, curnnt o])inion ; tin- adviTsu opini.-n; Tula as an liisloric. sit^ ; thr Svrpml-l lill ; tlie- A/- U-i- k-rnd. .ilioiit Tula ; .latr oftlir desertion ol'Tula ; niian- iii.14 of Ihi- nann- Tnl.a or Tollaii ; Uk- inylliical ry(hi> of Tula ; liirtli of Iluii/ilopoclitli ; myth of (jnvl/aK-.Kitl at Tula ; his suhjrets, Ihf TolU-cs; puivly faluilous narratives couixriiin- Ihfni. A'^-SS S-^ - itxt t."<>\'n:\Ts. I • A U T II. MN'Tltoi.or.N' AND idJ.K l.dRi;. VII I.NTIsi III! I I'l pj<\- I'll I..^ Till.; S\iuii. Nami.s i\ (h k ,,|, MvTiini,.„,v Tlu- <.M.i.lu> ..iC.ualnil;.!,,, ..,,,1 tluir I. l.itin„sl,il. ; soMnvs "'■ '"'"nMiiinM. Til, . if S,Hr,-,l r„„,k, il„. /',,/„,/ I >,/,: it^ "I'^'iin.o unnis; Tlir n.nnc llu„ \1,,,„ Vu.l., il.r C,.,.! .,1 I.i.ylit : I lull MiiMiIiMi; Niiii ..k.iluC.nat n..n ; .\i,nt/\i/; ''■'I'^n; Cu,,,,,,,.,!.; (jus rl„ , aiM ( lux-,,,,lo ; .\lM.,N,.-l.,k .M,! Ml iiNa -.,1; Xpiyai-oc ,iini X iiiiir.iiir, til,- ptiiii.il pair; e. 'Lull, a ; IFuraraii an. I C'al.iakan ; Cl.iiakaii, the .m.,| ..f ,1,,' Stnnn ami thr i;artl,.|uakc.; Xhalaii.,.,.. ai„l his jo.uu.v to XIImIIki, nr 111,. IH-M cut ilUn Ilrll. ■'■'"■ ""^" <■""-" Tin .\l...nNKlN.ASAt„.:ATAN,.I,,vu. , ,„ ,,, Mir.na. .1,,,.,. ,,,• ,;i„„|,,,, „,.. ,,.^„.. ,,„. (^.,.^.,. ._,.,„, ,,^^. jj^, ^viv..,-; Mi.haL,, a,„i 1... Iri.k. ; ,..v..1i..1o.um1 M;,„i,l..aiH-c <il siii-li stoiii.s. Till-; JiUKM-A.- ni- ■|-||i: Sni i 1.15 1 17 (i.-iu ral iKlic fiu a .,,,,1 ; I.Vv,4ian tlunrv ol" it. lair ; i, M„ks illlil Il^o uilh llu- Ml U ; llUo.atidll t.. (t^iI•i^; svilllMik of tllC ruu-. tlu. l„.at, tlu. .1.,^, an,! tli. ^a.•u•,l nuiiila-r. ; mumiiro ot llu.M. >viMl,.,ls inCrck, \\.,!aiUi.. aiul Xorx- l„liH. ; ll,c .\/l.r acvHum ,,r tlu- M.ul's jouriu.y f. I'aia.liM.. ()rioi„ of llH- >.Mi.b..lir i.anativr> lr..„, llu. a,,,,a.x„t ,lail v r.„u-sc. ..f llu- Sun. 'I'm; SAiKi;ii Ss MliiU.S IN .\.Mi;kKA Tlu- i.mr >y,nl,„l. ..f n,,. Ta Ki, tlu- Triskc.U.s, tlu- Svastika an,l llu- Cn.-s; tlu- ,,u.^ak,uv ..f the Tvx^Avs in llu. ()1,| NV.uM; tlu. nuaniii.^ ,.f ih. Ta Ki in CI,inc..sc. plnln..,,,h v llu- \in au.l VauKi llu- SvaMika ; „rij;i„ illn.UaU-,1 1, ' ' i-l'S- 162 roiii Vlll Cf»N"l'i:\TS. AiiiciiiMii pit lim uiiliii;^ ; llu- tci|Mii stciir : tin- 1 irili |il:iiii ; till WIUC'I-ITOS?, ; willttT Cllimts ^llld \<Mr CXcUs ; tillll' uliii's ami still iii<itii)ii> ; llic Imit Av^i s .iml '\'\vr nl' l.ili'. I'm. I'lii.K I.iiKi. (u N'ri \r\\ Kiv in<> .Mnital .Htivily nl' tlic M,i\.i-, ; th,. dixinris; tlic ' I'u LI iMas>"; iiivoiatinii in the ram ynils ; lin- unrslii]) ; prni;- iinslics ; ttaiislnriiiatiniis nT sntccict-. ; iiaujualisin : a Mav.i will-ll stnly ; the i'.alallls ; \]\v Mm ,,1' tin W'nnds ; stnliis nf dwarfs and iiiiiis ; Ciiiiali' din i\rrs ; ralndniis birds and siiaki's. I'oi.K I.iiKi.. Ill' Till, Miiiii.kN I.i'.N.vn; |Si u^j Sniircc nl' iiirnrtiialinii ; iiiiiiii isfriii'is nf tile ti ilii' ; Missiaiiii' linins ; nliis of llu- Slniir Ai^r ; niiilinds nl' Imiiliiii^ and lishiiii^; iiUiisiis, lin.iis ;iiid liniisfs ; llu- iiallvi- .liaiiUs ; llu- swial Indite ; tlii-ir taiituns, and llu- <lri iv.it inii nl' llu- U -nn ; liU'dical knnwlcd'j.i- ; cun I'nr rallk-siiakc liiu-s ; nativf tn-- liliinini; ; iinsilinn nl llu- IaH ipr as " j^r.indrallu-rs"; \saiii|inni lulls; Inl'.tnii' divisions ; pi-i uliarilii s nl' Hr- diak-rl ; lA'iMpi' j^iaimnar. '9i P A F^ T Ml. (•■RAl'IIIC SVSTi:.MS WD I.ITI-'.K ATIR !■;. I NTl-tohlX'Ti ikN 11^^ loj 'I'm l'ii()M-.TK' I':i.i-.Mi-;.\Ts IN Till, ( ". KAi'ii ic S\sti-:ms 01-- Tin; Ma\\s ami Mi;.xrc' \ns U)S :!i-' IMaU'fial I'nr llu- slndy ; wrri- llu- nalivf hicro.iLjlvplis phn- iK-lir ? CliararU-r and arran.m-nu-iil of phonetic ^\ mhnls ; llu- failuri,' nf I, alula's aljihahrl ; iiliniu-iii' siy;ns in Mava MSS.; liit-rnolypli of llu- lirnianiL-nl ; jilinnclic terminals; sii^iis of I ardiiial ]ininls ; Mt-xican iilmiutii- (.■U'nu.nts ; ])rincipU' nf the rc'hns ; cxani])k's; tlu- ikonnmatii' sxstcm. to (.■<i\"i-i;.\'i's. IX cf C "1 lK..N.,M\,h Mllllnl.,., I'llMMTU W U III N, •. , . , . ., , , , .., ■n.nuv..l,t \V,ili„y ,n,| Son. Ml Writing;; ll„. ,k.,„nMlMli.- "i"l""l'^I'I:m:..l, illuMr.iiin,,, |,.„„ I.;^v,,ti,,n i.,.., iptim,. ; rnMntlur.,nti..;;;,nnsi„ l„,,,M,v ; IV,.,,, tl,.. m, ,,.-,m ,„rt„r... Wrilill;^: v;,lu<s nl |,,,.iti.,M .,l.,| . nlnls , ■ Ut, I 111 ,11, , I , V , . .umI i'U-Kr.mi. HI A...... mss ; hi.lli.r ill,is,r.„i..M. n,,,,, .M.,v., IlilT(..t;l\|ill>; Cllipcu.iv pi.l.r^r.ipliv. Till. UKiriN.; AM, u,.o,NiK..i nii. An^iknt AFwvs . j;,, ,5, '• ll'trn.lllrt,.,v I'll.MUli.iMI, in M.,,., ,,,„i ^.trr uriti,,.. 2. Disniplinii. l.ySiMiiisli uriics: |,y iv,. , Maiivr; l,y I.^s C..-.,.; l.v AIniiso V„urr: l.v l.i.,n,.. ; l.v AK.iil.u-; l.v i:,i,.'„., Wnturi; l.v Cu^olh,.]..; l.^ S.lnM,.v,.r; Lv I,a.M;,; l...- MniiK.ori.,„„l,V..l,,h,lH.l; .nti.lM.sn,. it; ...llH Usin,,.. ,. KHcTnuc.s rn,,,, .utu.. ..nr...; .M,,,, ,,„,,,, ,;„. ■• ,, , itiiiu, • •■'"•"l<.""raU.,„L,r/ Hr.; ,•, pn .pL.Tv of Alikul Clul trans '•""'■ I Tlu.c-MMin,i. c.»li.vs; th.. l..vs,I.,,c...|..x ,1,.. C... ■l-v IVuManu.; th.. C.-U-x Tn.ai.o ; ll... C.hx Crtr.ia.uis ; till' imiial |Miiitiii--,aii.| iiisoriptioiis. I'm. HoMKS ()|.' C'llll. w 1! \i \M 25!^ -^TX ll.^h civili/ati..„ nfanruiit M.iyas ; ,KMnu-lio„ ,.f thnr litn- aunv; „,„.Un, llnnks of Cliihm lialan. ; si^nilin.ti..,, of this •-•'-">■ ;o.MU, Its of ,h.H„nks; s,HvinK.,l of ih. pn.phc.i.s ■ l'>>.^>nstir val.K.; opiiii,,,, of Pi,, iVnv; U'li^th ..f tlir Mava ><airyrlcs; hier„-lyphs ..f thc' iiu.iiths and .lavs; tlu- '1, • '//>!/, /:>,//u/s- iiudi.al i-„ntiiits<.|- tlu- l,„„ks. <»-N Tin; " Stom-: (,i M-: '>!' Tin; Ciants." ''"-'^i"" "<"tlu. StoiH. .u.ar..nxaha;itsn«.,rc.s;n.(Vrto. 'lau- in FH.niary, ,5.,.; translation .,r tlu^ h,Vr....|vphs and >'l^.,t>llc.ation ,.f th. ,lat. as that of th. doatli of the rinipcn-r Ahiiil/.,,t/,in ; th.stciKa s.puhhral tal.lvt, X.vTivi; A.mi:kkan I'(.|.ri<\ .. . -''^t >au,rc ul p.„.try; piindpK. of .vp.tilion ; Kskinio nith- 71 j> 1 I ,VM c()N"n;\Ts. sdiiys ; otliir i{skiiii(> scMiijs; ,i I'.iwiin ^011,1,'; Kiowav love Seniles; ;i Clii]ii\s;iy si-rinadi- ; .\/li>' Iom- souths ; w.ir-siiii^s of tlu' Otoiiiis; (if ihr \/tiH-s; .A' tlir n(|iiicliua> ; iJiMphclio cliaiil-' (if llic .Mayas. I'atiilly of |)(ntr\ imivrisal. I i! I P A ,^ T IV, I.INCriSTIC. l.\ri<()i)rcT()R\' V',1 ,1<'/ Ami:rk\.\ I,.\N(,rAi'.i;s, and Win- ui'; Siior.M) Srinv Thm.m. v''^ Indian .i;x ()j;rai>liif names ; lan,!.;iia,!^a- a .uuido to i'llinolo.L;\- ; rc- vi-als till' ,L;ro\\lli of arts and ihv ])syt lioloi^ic jn-orrssi'S of a jn'opk' ; illustration from tlu' I.rn.:]ic lon,L;U(,- ; striu-lurc' of lan.i^uam' lust stndied in sava.m' tun.^ucs ; rank of Anuriran tonuuts; cliarai'li'ristir traits; ])ronominal forms; idra of personality ; ]:ol\ synthesis ; ineoriioration ; lioloplirasis ; ori- <fi\n ol these; lucidity of American tonj^ues ; llu'ir voralnilar ies ; power of ( xpressiiiL; alistraol idi-as ; eoiulusion. \\ii,iii;i.M \(i.\ IIiMiioi.iiT's Ri;si; AKciii;s in Ami;rk'an I.an- '■iA(;ics 328- What led Humholdt toward the American ton.i^ues ; ])ro,t;ress (il his studii'S ; fun laniental doctrine of his ])hiloso])hv of lan.nua.i^e ; his theory of the evolution of lan.i^uai^es ; opinion on American laniiua.^es ; his criterion of the relative perfec- tion of lan,^ua,L;<.'S ; not ahundance of forms, nor vi'rlial ricli- ness ; American ton.i^jues not de.nenerations ; I luniholdt's classification of languages; psychological ori,i;in of Incor])or- ation in lani^ua.nx' ; its shortcominiis ; in simiile sentiences; in comixnn'd sentences; ahsonce of true formal elements; the nature of the American verb. vSoMIC CllAKACTI.KISTlL'S 1)1' AMI;K1CAN LAXCIACI'S . . . .3(9 vStudy of the human species on the gcoji;rai)hic system ,vh^ ;vS9 4 -¥ h; i .' loVl- n.ns of • ,>"5 ,i<'7 M. ,ViN-32 7 y ; rt'- s (if a lire of L'rirau Ua of > ; ori- Inilar I.AX- i.i^rL'SS hy of )iiii(m lurfi'O- l ridi- fiMt's )r] )()!•- lux's ; K'lits ; have C(i\'ri:.\Ts. Aiiuriran lan^ua^cs an v r„nnn.,n trait > I )„,,n,uva..-s throrv <•! I-IvsvmluM.; n,„„l,..l,|io„ I-olvsymlu.sisan.l rM.-.,r,H,ra- tinn; Franris I.i.l.c r on llnlnphrasis ; I'mi: Stcmtl.al „„ the i.U-or,H.rative plan ; I.u.iu. Aua.n's oitiri.n, of it ; Prof. Miilln-s i„a,k,,uat.. statcUKUt ; Majnr l-nwrH's „nn^M„n to ^■•.nsi.kT i, ; .K..i„i,i„„s nl- ,,„ly.vn,lu.Ms, iiu.orpnratiun a.xl l'..!o,,l,rasi>; ill.-trali„„s;..riti>.ala,.,,Ii.atu.„,.rtlu.tlu.orv to llle Oiiioiui !ai 'I'l'.p'"* 'iiarani XI '.^".'i.Vi': to ilR. I'.ri-l.ri lan-ua-c : to the '"■il'--t-'; to tlu' .AIutMin; conclusion^ ; ad.k-n- -Itnii; critique I,y M. .\,iatn on this essay. run J^AK,.,,:sr Fukm ,.,. n,.,,vx Sr,.:Ke„ as Rkv,: v,,,,,. „v AmIKHAN 'I'd.NCI |.;s The //,.;.„ „A,/.v or speechless., an, a ron.ance ; li„..nisUc stocks; the phonetic elen.ent. si;;niilcant: exan.pKs; l.m not <-f same s,on„icance ,n, liferent stocks; notion orv,vVan.l "/^v,-prononnsa late -ievelopnen. ; alternating co„.,.,.,„ts . -"'l--'"-t^'''l™els;exan,ples;phonetic,sn,ina,le,,nate- <l>ll.cnll,es thus crc'ale.l ; ctnUer-ense i, 111 lani;iiaL;i' ; notion ';' ''""-^"■•'^"'•"-"^^:i'— -l-nition; sentence wonis- no '•^•1-''-^ 'lauses; no tenses; noa.ljecives; no ,„„„,,;.ls- "«;l"»' -r Animate and Inanimate; classillcatorv particles' pnmilive man a r/\/tii/'/ ,: ' TlU: Ci)\ <'.i;,s , ^■'^i'T.OX OK J.,,v.: IN S,.MK Am.ricax I.ax.wa- Si^nihcance of love-uonls ; varions <,ri.in.. ,, M^J'-^,'^^ '•'vc-^v.,nls; varions senses; highest lorms. ,,, N,,i,„a,l '• — .nis ; poverty of the ton.ne ; ,na,le np hv lerminations • -.nls l,v iViemlship. ,,,. Maya h.ve-wonls ; singular deri' -'I""-; the llnasteca .lialect ; the Cakchi.pu.l ,li,lecf -"•Pansons. 1 V. n,,„i.,„„ ,ove-wonls ; ahimdan, ; v arions "'""""-^- ^' ''■"I''-'->™l"Ve-wonIs;meanm,of. Con- elusions. 11'^ XI 1 COXTICXTS. Tin.; Ijxi-Ai, MHASfRKs ok run Skmi-Civii.izki. Nations of MlCXICO AND CKNTKAI< AmKKICA I--I-, Metrical standards a criterion of pro,<,n-ess ; tliosc of the Mayas; of the Cakchi<,uels ; of the .Alexicans or A/tecs ; of tlie :SIouiid-I?uiIdcrs of ( )hio. Conclusions. Thk Ci-Kiors Hoax ok tiiic Taknsa Lanciac-.i.; 452-467 How it lu-an ; the deception exposed ; absurdities of the in- vention ; a u..n.lernd calendar ; a yet more won.Ierful niar- ria^'e-souK; a second Psalnianazar ; rejoinder of the editor; reply to that ; final verdict. In'I)i;x ok AiTiroRS and Aithoritik.s IxDicx OK Sriijia'T.s 469-474 47.5-4''^9 I .: I m ■' , !; I )XS ()!•• • • 4,xi -451 )f the OS ; of • 452- -\<^1 LIr' iii- , iiiar- ilitor ; , 469^ 474 • 475- 489 F»ART I. ETHNOLOGIC AND ARGH/EOLOGIC. J^\'KR since AniL-rica was discovered, tlie question about -^ It which lias excited tlie most general interest has ])een, \Vlience came its inhal)itants? The inquirv. Wlio are the American Indians? has been the theme of many a ponder- ous folio and labored dissertation, with answers nearly as various as the number of debaf;ers. I'ew or none of them have reflected on the unphilosoph- ical character of the inquiry as thus crudel>- put. Take a precisely analogous question, and this will be apparent- W'hence came the African Negroes? All will reph— From Afnca, of course. Originally? Yes, originallv ; thev con- stitute the African or Xegro sub-species of Man. The answer in the case of the American Indians is en- tirely parallel-their origin is American; the racial tvpe was created and fixed on the American continent : ihev a.n- stitute as ti true and or the White Race. distinct a sub-si)ecies as do the Al ncan '7 T !i;:ii IS ESSAYS OF AN AMICKICAXIST. Kach of the great continental areas nionlded the plastic, primitive man into a conformation of body and mind pecu- liar to itself, in some special harmony with it5 own geo- graphic features, thus jiroducing a race or sub-species, subtly correlated in a thousand ways to its environment, but never forfeiting its claim to humanity, never failing in its parallel and progressive development with all other varieties of the species. America was no exception to this rule, and it is time to dismiss as trivial all attempts to connect the American race genealogically with any other, or to trace the typical cul- ture of this continent to the historic forms of the Old World. My early studies inclined me to these opinions, and they have been constantly strengthened by further research. Yet they are not popularly accepted ; the ver\- latest writer of competence on the pre-history of America says, "It is now generally held that the earliest population (of the continent) was intruded upon by other races, coming either from Asia or from the Pacific Islands, from whom were descended the various tribes which have occupied the soil down to the present time."-'= It is true that this opinion is that generally held, and for this reason I have .selected for reprinting .some articles in- tended to show that it is utterly fallaciou.s— devoid of any respectable foundation. The first two papers treat of tlie arch otologic material, and its value for a.scertaining the pre-historic life of the Ameri- can race ; the third, on its pretended affinities to Asiatic *rrof, n. \V. H.ayiR's, in ///,■ .\ar>„/hr and Ciilual I/i.slo)y of Amn ha, p. 3.-9. Editfd by Justin Wiiisor. liosloii, iSSy. IXTROnrCTORV. ic plastic, ind pecu- owii geo- b-species, inent, but 111,^ in its • varieties 19 peoples. These are followed In- two pai>ers respcctix-el>- on the Toltecs and Monnd Builders, setting aright. I hope' the position of these senii-niythieal .shapes in the eulture-hi.storv of North Anieriea, nuiintaining that for neither do wc have to call in as cxjilanation migrations from Asia, Juin.pe Oceanica or Africa, as has .so often been attempted. is time to ■ican race lical cul- the Old ions, and research. .'st writer It is now jutinent) rom Asia nded the n to the , and for tides iu- :1 of any ■rial, and ^. Ameri- > Asiatic i/i-a, p. 229- I w A REVIEW OF THE DATA FOR THE STUDY OF THE PRE- HISTORIC CHRONOLOGY OF AMERICA;^= T^ARLY in this century the doubt was expressed In- ^^ Alexander von Hunil)oldt r whetlier it is philosophical to inquire into the ori^i,nn of any of the human races or sub- species. Although he expressed this doubt with particular reference to the American race, I believe I am right in as- suming that the hesitancy he felt in pushing inquiry so far should now diminish in view of new methods of research and a wider range of observations. We may not, in fact we shall not, be able to trace the American or any other sub- si)ecies directly back to its origin in place or time ; but by rexiewing all the data which have been offered in solution of such a problem, we may preceptibly narrow the question, and also estimate the relative value of the means proposed. It is to such a review, applies", to the American race, tiiat I 1)1 >w invite your attention. The data upon which theories of uie antiquity, the genealogy and the affinities of this race have been con- structed are varied. For convenience of treatment I shall class them under six heads. Thev are : ^ This paper was my address as vice-president of the .\merican Association for the Advancement of Science, before the Section of Anthropology, at the meeting in is^7. I liave added the foot notes, and revised the text. t I'urs (frs Con/i7/:-irs. et .'^ ton ion ens (fcs n-iifles fti,iiii;-!irs dc r Amcn'i/iie. Intro- duction. (20) I ! f t .' DATA I'OK AMKRICAN I'KIMIISTOKV. 31 I. I.i.iinidijyy^ iiiclu(lin,ir the traditions of the native trihc-s and tlieir own statements of tlieir history. II. .Jo,iin„ni/af, where we have to do with those struc- tures whose a-e or character seems to throw hght on the question. III. huiuslriaL under which headin- we mav in^inire as to theori.uin of hoth the useful and the dec.rative arts in the New World. I\'. A/;/;'7^/,sV/,-, l,roaohin<r the immense and important questions as to the diversity and aninities of languaKa-s. \. rhy^ia^L which takes into consideration the anatomic and morpholo-ic peculiarities of the American race; and finally, \\. Ccolooir^ where its position in tlu.- oeolouie jiorizons is to he determined, and the infiuence upon it of i],.. phvsica! KeoKH-aphy of the continent. I.roouhuy. Turnin- to the first of these, the k-endary data, I cmless to a Icdin- ,.f surprise that learned scholars should still hold to the opinion that the native trihc-s. cNen some of the most .savage of them, retain t<. this dav tradi^ turns which they had brought from their supposed Asiatic Homes. Thus the mi.ssi.maries, Jiishop Henrv I.\araud and the Abl,e Kmile Pctitot, hoth entirely familiar with the Cree and the Athajxiskan lan-uaoes and lore, insist that the myths and leoends of these tribes bear such stron- re- semblances to the Semitic traditions that both nuist "have hacU conunon origin.::^ Xo (me can deny the resend.lance : *See P. Mi...,, J>,..,,„a ,.s 0.,: ... ....„,.. ,.„„,,, „ ,,^^^„_^ _,^; ll'ans, 1S76J. ' ■ i .: II 33 IvSSAYS OF AN AMI:kiCA.\IST. but the scientific student of niyth()lo,i;y discovers such identities too fre(iueutl\', and at ])oints too remote, to ask any other ex])lanatiou for them than tlie connnon nature of the human mind. The (|nestion has been often raised how hnvj; a savai^e tribe, it^norant of writini,;', is bkel\- to retain tlie niemorx' of ])ast deeds. Imoui a .ureat man\- examples in America and el^ewiiere, it is ]M'ol)able that tlie lai)sc of five ^generations, or say two centuries, coini)letel\- obliterates all recollection of historic occurrences. Of course, there are certain events of continuous influence which may be retained in memory longer — for example, the federation of prominent tribes; and l)erhaps a ij;eneal(\y;y may r|in back farther. My friend. Dr. Fran/, Boas, informs me that some tribes on Vancou- ver's Island pretend to preser\e their i^^enealogies for twelve or fifteen i;enerations back : but he adds that the remoter names are clearly of mythical purport. It appears obvious that all efforts to establish a jire-historic chronoloi;y by means of the legends t)f savage tribes, are and must be vain. The case is not much better with those semi-civilized American nations, the Ma>as and Xahuas, who ])ossesscd a partiall\- phonetic alphabet, or with the Quichuas, who j>re- served their records I)y the ingenious device of the (|uipu. Manco Capac, the alleged founder of the Peruvian state, floats before us as a vague and mythical figure, though he is placed in time not earlier than the date when Leif, the son of I-lrik, anchored his war-.ship on the Nova Scotian coast. ••■ * I'roft'ssor Ciushiv Storm lias rciKkTcd it probable that tlic \'iiiclaiul of the Northtiien was not further south than Nova Scotia. See his S/iu/ifs mi tlie I '/«<•- /ami I '<M(ji;v',<, in Miins. cle la Socictc Royale dt's .iiilii/iiaii cs dii .Vc'i/., iS~5S, I.KGKMlAKV DATA. j, Historiatis aa- -A^rvvd tliat the Ion,-; lists of Incas in tlu' pa^cs (.f MoiiiLsinns, cxtL-iKliiio about two tliousand years anterior to tlie Con(iU(.-.t, are spurious, due to tlic iinaKina- tion or tile easy credulity ( '"that writer. The annals of Me.xieo fare no better before the fire of criti- cism. It is extremely doubtful that their earliest reminis- cences refe to any event outside the narrow valley i.anvlled out between tl-.e petty states of Tenochtitlan, Tezcnco, and Tlacopan.- The only fact that bears out the lonn- and mvsteri<.us journey from the land of the Seven Caves, Chi- como/.toc, in the distant northwest, by the -reat water, is tliat the learned and indefatigable Hu.schmaun has conclu- sively shown that the Hmr lanj,nia.i.es of Sonora and all the dialects of the Shoshonian family reveal marks of amtinued aud deep impressions of the Xahuatl ton-ue.r ]iut the chronicles of Mexico pro])er contain no fixed date prior to that of the nmndin- of the city of Tenochtitlan, in the year 1325 of our era. I am aware that there are still .some writers who maintain that both the Me.>cican and the Maya a.strouomic cycles assume a commencement for their records centuries, even thou.sands of years, before the l)et;inuing of our era. These opinions, however, have not ol)tained the as.sent of other students. We are too ignorant both of the a.strouomy and the methods of writin- of these nations to admit such claims ; and the facts advanced are capable ol' <piile other interpreta- tion. *Suchwas tl,e opinion of the I.te J„s,.^ I.-c-rnando Rann'rcz, one of ,1,0 n.o.t acute an.llcarne.lofMeNicananti.,naries. See his wonls in oro.co v liena's Intr.„lurtion to Uie Cioiuru of Tezozonioe, p. 21,^ , Mexico, is^s,. t /».■ Spu,.n <1n A.trkncI,,-,, Sp,a.l,r i„ y,,dl,,hc„ M,x ,i;,, ete. .nerlin. ,s,y.) w A: »4 I'SSAYS ()!■ A\ AMIsKlC ANIST. I! '.] It is, on the wliok', raiv lor Ww AiiKTii-aii Irihfs to declare tlRiiisehes autochlhoiioiis. The Ma\as, on the ])cninsula of Yucatan, stated tliat tlieir earliest ancestors came there from hexond the sea •;, some from the far east, others from the west. So the Toltecs, under Ouet/.alcoatl, were fabled to have entered Mexico from bevond the ICastern Ocean. The Creeks and Choctaws ])ointed to the west, the Ali^on- kins j.,a'nerall>- to the east, as their i)rimal home.''- These legends are chiefl\- mythical, not nuich truer than those of other tribes who claimed to ha\e climbed up from some under-world. Siilinj.,^ them all, we shall find in them little to enlighten us as to the pre-historic chronology of the tribes, though the>- may fiu'uish interesting vistas in comi)arative m\thol{)gv. That in which we ma\- expect the legends of tribes to be of most avail is their later history, the record of their wars, migrations and social develojjment within a few generations. The spirit of the uncivilized man is, however, very careless of the ])ast. We have means of testing the exactness of such traditions in some instances, and the result is rarely such as to insjiire confidence in verbal records. Those of you who were i)resent at the last meeting will remember how diverselv two able students of Iro([Uois tradition esti- mated its value. ICven when remarkable events are not for- gotten, the dates of their occurrence are generally vague. The inference, therefore, is that very few data, dependent on legendary evidence alone, can be accepted. I *I w<>\il<l rofir the rcadir wlui i.aies to pursue this hraiicli of tlie siiliject to my analysis of those stories in 'Ihr Myllis of t/ir .\f:c ll'i»/ii isecoiid eil., New York, 187'), and Aiiici iaui lliio-Mvlhs il'hiladelphia, iS!S2). I DATA TKOM AIONTM IINTS. () (kchire )ciiinsula iiiL- tliL-rc icrs from re fal)k-(l 11 Ocean. v.- Ali;<)ii- ■• These lllose of mi some em little le tribes, iparativc es to be L'ir wars, erations. careless ?tness of is rarely Phose of ■member ion esti- not for- vague. ident on iject to 111}' <c\v York, 25 J/o///fw< „/<,/. When we turn to the monumental data, to the architecture and structural relics of the ancient Ameri- cans, we naturally think lirst 01 the MiiposiuK stone-built fortresses of IVru, the n.assive pyiamids and temples of Yucatan and Mexico, and the vast brick-])iles of the Pueblo Indians. It is doubtful if :iny of these notable monuments supi)ly pre-historic dates of excessive anticpiity. The pueblos, both tho.se now occupied and the vastly greater number whose ruins lie scattered over the valleys and mesas of \ew Mexico and Arizona, were constructed by the ancestors of the tribes who still inhabit that region, and this at no distant day. Though we cannot assign exact dates to the development of this ]>eculiar civilization, there are abundant reasons, drawn from language, physical geography and the character of the architecture, to include all these structures within the period since the commencement of our era.- There is every reason to suppose that the same is true of all th.- stone and brick edifices of Mexico and Central Amer- ica. The majority of them were occui)ied at the j>eriod of the Dmque.st; others were in process of building ; and of others the record of the date of their construction Avas clearly in memory and was not distant. Thus, the famous temple of Huitzilopochtli at Tenochtitlan, and the .spacious palace —or, if you prefer the word, '•communal house "—of the ruler of Tezcuco, had been completed within the lifetime of many who met the Spaniards. To be sure, even then there were once famous cities fallen to ruin and sunk to oblivion * The results of the recent " Ilemenun, South-western i;.xplon„,/;^,H.,n„on - do not in the least invali.hUe tliis statement. hi'' 2^) KSSAVS <)l' AN AMI.KIC Wisr. in till- tropii-al toivsts. .Siicli \v;i-. rakiwun.-, wliii'li could not have fniU'il to attract IIk- attciilidii (if CniU'> had it hivii inliahikd. Such also was T'llo, on [hv siU' of the pres- ent v\{y of MOrida, Yucatan, where thi- I'arlicst ex- plorers louiid loftx- stone mounds and temples co\ered with a forest as hea\\- as the primiti\-e mrowlh around it.'' Mut tradition and the ])resenl condition of such of these old cities as ha\e been examined, unite in tiie prohahilitN' lli.it they do not antetlale the Conipiest more than a few centuries. lu the opinion of some oliser\ers, the eui^^matical ruins on the ])lain of Tiahuanaco, a few lea,L;ues from the shore of Lake Titicaca, in Peru, carr\- us far, ver\- far, hexond any such modern date. " Ivven the memor\- of their huilders," says one of the more recent visitors to these marvellous ^C'lics, C.eueral liartolome Mitre, "even their memor\' was lost thousands of years before the discover\- of America, "i' Such a statement is neither more nor less than a confes- sion of i,nnorance. We ha\'e not discovered- the jjcriod nor the ])eo])le concerned in the ruins of Tiahuanaco. It must be remembered that the\- are not the remains of a ])o])ulous city, but merely the foiuidations and be.u;inninij^s of .some vast relij^ious edifice which was left intomi)lete, probably owing to the death of the ])rojector or to unforeseen difficul- ties. If this is borne in mind, much of the obscurity about the origin, the pur])ose and the position of these structures will be removed. They do not justify a claim to an age of *.V biUr but ini>st interesting iltscriptidii of these monuments is preserved in a letter In the I'.niperur Charles V. by the I'riar I.i>renz(i ile Hienvenida, writlin fnjni Yucatan in i^i'^. flMs Riiifuis ilr riiihiiuiiiuo. I'or Hartolonu- Mitre. (lUieiios .^yres, I'^rg.) Kl'rsS IN I'C.KI- AM) OHIO. i could not 1(1 it hec'ii tlu- prcs- iiiii'st L'x- \civ<l with I it.:^ Hut r iilil cities lli.it tliey ituriis. tical ruins R- shore of L>-oU(l any builders," iiarvcllous jnior\- was erica.""!" II a confes- period nor It must I ])0])U1()US s of some , i)rol)al)ly -'U dinicul- rity about structures I an a.i^e of >reserved in n , written from s, i>i79.) 27 n ss thousands (,f years beferc the Conquest; hundreds will mu hcc. X(.r i> it necessar> to assmt to the opiiuon advanced b\ (uneral Mitre, and .supported by sonic other arclueolo K'^^ts, that the iiiusi ancient niMiuinunts in Aiiierit'a are those of most perfect n.n->tructicMi, and, therefore, that i thi-^ continent there has been, in civili/alion, not proKre.« l>ut failure, not ad\aiiee but retro-n ssion. The luicertainty whi. h rests over the a,L;e of the strnctiu-es ;it Tiahn.uiaco is scarcelv -ivater than that which still shrouds the ori-in of the mounds and earthworks of the Ol'i" :«iid rpper Mississippi vallevs. Vet I venture f. say that the opini-.n is ste.idily .^ainin- oround that these inter- esting memorials of vanished nations are not older th.an the mediaeval period of J.hiropean history. The con.lition of the arts which they reveal indieates a dale that we must place anion- the more recent in Anieiiean chronology. The simple fact that tobacco and niai/e were cidtivated plants is evidence enouij^h for this.-^^ There is, however, a class of monuments of niiieh -rcater anticpiity than any I have mentioned. These are the artifi- cial shell-heaps which are found alon- the shores of both oceans and of many rivers in both North and South America, 'i'hey correspond to the kitchen-middens of J';uroi)ean arclueolo^y. lu several parts of the continent they have been examined by competent observers and the (picstion oi their date ap- ])ro.ximately ascertained. J need not say this differs widely, *Tl,is assertion «ms .Itack.,! l,y Or. C. C. .\I,l„„t, in an a.l.lrcss Wfuv. tl,. Anuncan .\ss„dati„n in ,-^ ,/V.,v,,/,.,,, v„I. XNXvil, ,.. ,;„s,, ,u,t irw..assnn>e tin- n,...!u.val ,K.,i,„l of Hnropcan history to hav. 1,..^„„ uKI, the .all of ,!„• West- ern I'lini.irc, I do not retire fmni rny po-iiion. "S w I II' ' 1 1 ' 28 icssAvs oi- A\ a.mi:kicamst. for these refuse heaps of ancient villat^es or stations were of course 1)e!4:un at wide intervals. I.oiii;- as;() I called attention to the sin-^nlar si/.e and anti- (luity of those I found in i-lorida and alont; the Tennessee River :•:• and the later researches of I'rofessor Jeffries Wynian would, in his opinion, nieasinx- the a,t;e of some of the former by tens of thousands of years, r I'urther to the south, in Costa Rica, Dr. I-arl I'lint has examined the extensi\e artificial shell (le])osits which are found aloni;- the shores of that republic. They are many feet in heii;ht, covered In- a den.se forest of primeval a])i)ear- ance, and are undoubtedly of human orii^in. In Hra/.il such shell-heaps are called sanilnhpiis. and they are of frequent occurrence alons;- the bays and inlets of the coast. vSome of them are of extraordinary dimensions, rising occasionally to more than a hundred feet in height. The lower layers have been consolidated into a firm, stonv brec- cia oi shells and bones, while the surface stratum, from six to ten feet thick, is composed of sand and vegetable loam supi)ort.;ig a growth of the largest trees. Vet e\en the lowest layers of this breccia, or .shell-conglomerate, yield tokens of human industry, as stone axes, Hint arrow-heads, chisels, and fragments of very rude pottery, as well as human bones, sometimes split to extract the marrow. The shells are by no means all of modern type. Many are of * n. (-,, liiiiitciii, ■/■//,■ ll„u,iuni I'niiiisHla, its I.ilriaiyJlisliny, hidian Tiihr.s mni A,it„ii,iti,s, p. 177.1s, irliilacU-lphia, iSm,). The slKnUc.-ips alcii.i. tlu' Tcmiossce Kivcr I (k-SL-iihc.l in \.\w .l„<nu,l h'rp,,, t 0/ ll„- S>iiilli.s,„ia„ /,isliti(/,„i,. for im,(i, 1>. ,vV.. t n is accounts wiTc principaUy in tlu- l-ourtli and Scvcntli h',f,„l.s ,</ thr /-rabuily Musiiim. I i AKTIFICIAI. SHi;i.r. IIl'APS. 29 ions were of X' and anti- -• Tcnnc'ssce sor Jeffries • of some of -1 l'"linl has i wliieli are .' are many .'val ajjpear- '.V. and the\- nlets of the iions, rising ■ight. Tlie stony hrec- n, from six •tal)le loam t e\-en tlie ■rate, \iehl Tow-lieads, as Well as ■row. The Ian\- are of ilDI 'J'l i/h'S illlll till' TtiniL'Sscc 'iilinn. for iMid, • n/lhr I'rah.nly speries now wholly extinct, or extinct in the locality. This iact alone carries ns hack to an anticjnity which i)rol)al)ly should he counted hy thousands of years ])efore our era. At that remote ])eriod not only did a fishing and hunting race dwell along the Hrazilian coast, hut this race was fairly advanced on the path to culture; it was a-(iuainted with pottery, with conii)ound implements, and with the polishing of stone. We further know that this race was m)i that which occupied the land when the whites discovered it; for the human skulls disinterred from the samhacpiis are, crani- ologicali\-. almost diametrically opposite those of Ihe Jioto- cudos and the Tui)is. Vet if we can trust the researches of Dr. Lund in the caverns of Hra/il, the oldest skulls in these deposits, found in inniiediale connection with the hones of extinct manunalia, belonged to the ancestors of these tribes. Markedly dolichocephalic, the>- ]iresent an entire contrast to the brachyce])halic tyjK- from the sambatpiis.-- This class of moiunnents, therefore, supply us data which prove man's existence in America in what some call the "diluvial," others the " (luaternary," and others again the "pleistocene" epoch— that characterized by the presence of some extinct species. Industrial. Let us now turn to the industrial activity of the American race, and see whether it will furnish us other data concerning the ])re-historic life of the Xew World. We may reasonably look in Hiis directi..n for aid, since it is now nniversally conceded that at no time «lid man si)ring into ' -ing fnlly armed and cpiipi-ed for tlie struggle forexisl- ite *Scc till,- t , i/iuiuilHiii^ni ,1, ' l:,ilni., l„:„UMluiJt nil .(«//// „/.„/,,i,./,-, issr,, 1SS7, ,3o KSSAVS f)K AX A:\IKRrCAXIST. I' m' iK-' : f: encc. but everywhere followed the same path of painful effort from absolute ignorance and utter feebleness to knowledge and power. At first, his only weapons or tools were such as he jKxssessed in common with the anthro])oid ai)es : to wit, an unshapeu stone and a l)roken stick. Little by little, he learned to fit his stone to his hand and to chip it to an edge, and with this he could shar]K-n the end of his stick, thus providing him.self with a spear and an a.xe. It was long before he learned to shape and adjust the stone to the end of the stick, and to hurl this by means of a cord attached to a second and elastic stick— in other words, a bow ; still longer before he discovered the art of fashioning clay into vessels and of i)olishing and boring stones. These simple arts are landmarks in the progress of the race : the latter divides the history of culture into the pakeolithic or rough stone period, and the neolithic or polished stone period; while the shaping of a stone for attachment to a handle or shaft marks the difference between the epoch of compound implements and the earlier epoch of simple im- plements, both included in the older or palaiolithic age.=:= With these princii)les as guides, we may ask how far back on this scale do the industrial relics in America carry us? I have spoken of the great anticjuity of some of the American shell-hea])s, how they carry us back to the dilu- vial epoch, and that of numerous extinct species. Yet it is generally true that iii the oldest hitherto examined in lira- *I have hnniKht out tlic .listiiKti.,,, IkIw^i. Ihc ci,„ch of simple- impUMnL-nts ami that of cumi)oumi iinpltmcnts in an article which is reprinted in this colkc- tion. The expressions '■ early " and ■■ late " applied to these epochs do not refer to ahsohite periuds of lime, but are relative to the progress of individual civiliza- t ons. ^ i TIIK AXCIKXT T.AKK DKPO.SITS. 31 li II fill effort kiunvledji^e ere such as les: to wit. )y little, he to an edge, stick, thus adjust the means of a er words, a fashioning ^s. These race: the neolithic or ;hed stone nient to a _' epoch of ■iniple ini- thic age/^- kV far l)ack rry us? lie of the the dilu- Yet it is 2d in Bra- ■ iinpUMiiL-tits in this cdlk'c- o not refer to liual civiliza- zil, Guiana, Costa Rica and Florida, fragments of i otterv, of polished stone, and compound implements, occur even in the lowest strata. ^^^ \'eneral.le though they are. t]ie\- supply no date older than what in h;ur()i)e we should call the neo- lithic period. The arrow-lieads wliich have been exhumed from the loess of the ancient lake-heds of Nebraska, the net- sinkers and celts which have been recovered from the aurif- erous gravels of California, prove by their form and fuiLsh that the tribes who fashioned them had already taken long strides beyond the culture of the earlier paktolithic age. The same is true, though in a less degree, of the chipped stones and bones which Anieghino exhumed from the lacrn.stine deposits of the Pampas, although he proves that these relics were the products of tribes contemporary with the extinct glyptodon and mylodon, as well as the fossil horse and dog. In the very oldest station which he exam- ined, there appears to have l)een found a (piartz arrow-head ; yet he argues that this station dated from the pliocene divi- sion of the tertiary, long anterior to the austral glacial epoch.!- This leaves another such open conllict between geology and the history of culture, as Professor Ran has already pointed out as exi.sting in Californian arclueology. There is, however, one station in America which has furnished an am])le line of specimens, and among them not *Kxceptionsaro s.,nK- of the Moriclian slulllu.aps and a linu.cl number.:.- where. + H,,ren.i„oAn,e.hino,/,.,.,.,,,,,,,w,/,.//A,™A,,-,.„,.//y.A,,To„,oII.p 4,4 ,t <'/. Uiuenns Ayres, ,ss,, The l,„u- an,l arn.u, l,ein« a eon,po„n,l in.plen.ent' no- where he.onKed t,. theearlie.t ^ta,e on„„„,.„, ,„u,ne. See aI>o U. NV, Uavne.' arfcle, •■The i:ow an.l Arrow unknown to I'al.eoluh.e M.n.' in /.„. ,v,/,„,., „/ Jivstiin .\i,\ .Wi/. //i^/oi y, Vol. X.\I]1. 11:1 i II, '\>'\ .11 'i 32 KSSAYS OF AN AMKRICANIST. one, so far as I know, indicating a knowledge of compound implements. This is that of the " Trenton gravels," New Jersey. There we appear to be in face of a stage of ( nlture as ])riniitive as that of the stations of Chelles and vSt. Acheul in iMance, absolutely without pottery, without iwlished stone, without compound implements. ^•• Assuming that these jiost-glacial gravels about Trenton suiii)l>' one of the earliest authentic starting ])oints in the history of culture on this continent, the later develo]mients of industry will furnish a number of other data. This first date was long before the extinction of the native American horse, the elephant, the mammoth, and other animals im- portant to early man. There is nothing unlikely therefore in the reported discoveries of his pointed flints or his bones in place along with the remains of these quadrupeds. Not only the form but the material of implements supplies us data. If nuxn in his earliest stage was, as some maintain, quite migratory, it is certain that he did not carry his stone implements with him, nor did he obtain l)y barter or capture those of other tribes. All the oldest implements are manu- factured from the rocks of the locality. When, therefore, we find a weapon of a material not obtainable in the vicinity, we have a sure indication that it belongs to a period of de- velopment considerably later than the earliest. When the obsidian of the Yellowstone Park is found in Ohio, when the black slate of Vancouver's Island is exhumed in Delaware, it is o1)\-ious we must assume for such extensive transits a very noticeable cvsthetic and conunercial development. *l)r.C. C. AliliiiU, till.- (liscDVL-rcr and i)riin.ii)al cxiiIdilt of tliosf yiavcls, rujxirtcd liis (iisci)vtiii.'S in nutnciDns p:ii)LTS, ami especially in liis w.irk /'iiinitni' hidiishy, chap, .\x.\ii. f eonipotmd ivels," New e of ( ulture vSt. Acheul lit ]-)oli.slied ut Trenton )i'.its in the \elo])nients This first e American ninials itn- y therefore r his bones 2ds. Its supplies -' maintain, y his stone or capture are manu- erefore, we le vicinity, "iod of de- When the , when the Delaware, transits a lent. ivcls, reported PRIMITIVK AMKKICAX ACKICri/rrRK ll,') I can but t(mch in the li-htest maimer on the data offered by the vast realm of industrial activity. The return it oAIts is a])undant, but the harvesting delicate. In the dissemina- tion of certain kin.ds .^f arts, certain inventions, certain deco- rative (lesions and aesthetic conceptions fnmi one tri1)e to another, we have a most valuable means of tracing the pre-hi.storic intercourse of nations: but we must sedulou.sly discriminate such borrowin- from the s>nchronous and similar development of independent culture under like con- ditions. In one department of industry we shall be lar-ely free from this danger, that is, in tlie extension of a-riculture. One of America's ablest ethnologi.sts, Dr. Charles Pickering, as the result of a lifetime devoted to his science, finally settled uiK,n the extension of cultivated plants as the safest guide in the lal^yrinth of pre-historic migrations. Its value is easily .seen in America when we reflect that the two tropi- cal plants, maize and tobacco, extended their area in most remote times from their limited local habitat about the Lsthnuis of Tehuantepec to the north as far as the vSt. Law- rence ri^•er and to the south (piite to the Archipelago of Chiloe. Their presence is easily traced l)y the stone or earthen-ware implements required for their use. How many ages it must have required for these plants to haxe thus extended their domain, amid hostile and savage tribes, through five thousand nu'Ies of space! The scjuash, the bean, the potato and the mandioca, are native food-plants of- fering in a less degree sinuur material for tracing ancient commerce and migration. Ilund.oldt and others have claimed as much for the banana {A/nsa panniLsiaraK but tli. 3 ■1", 34 I'SSAvs OF AX ami:kicanist. recent researches of Dr. Karl von den Sk-inen have removed that valned frnit from tlie list of native American ])huits. Both species of banana {.U. paiadis/aca and J/, saf^intliiim) were nndonbtedlv introdnced into the New W'orhl after the discovery.- Indeed, snmming np the reply to an incpiiry which has often been addressed to the indnstrial evolntion oi the indii^eiies of onr continent. I slionld say that they did not borrow a sin^^le art or invention nor a single cultivated plant from any i)art of the Old World previous to the arrival of Columbus. What they had was their (.wn. develo])ed from their own .soil, the outgrowth of their own lives and needs. /.inoidsfir. This indi\-iduality of the race is still more strongly expres.sed in their languages. Vou are all aware that it is upon linguistic data almost exclusivelv that American ethnology has been and must be I)a.sed. The study of the native tongues becomes therefore of transcen- dent importance in the i^re-historic chronology of the Conti- nent. But to ol)tain its best results, this study must be conducted in a nuich more thorough maimer than has hitherto been the custom. In America we are confronted with an astoni.shing multi- plicity of linguistic stocks. They have been placed at about eighty in North and one hundred in vSouth America. It is stated that there are that many radically diverse in ele- ments and structure. To appreciate the vista in time that this fact opens to our thoughts, we must recogni/e the tenacity of life manifested by these tongues. vSome of them have scores of dialects, spoken by tribes wandering over the * Expedition Jurch Cenifal-Biasi/ien, pp. 310-314 (Leipzig, 1886). a\-e removed ricaii ])latit.s. , sapioiliii})! ) rid after the ) an iiKHiiry ial e\-()luti()n hat tliey (hd le cultivated () the arrival 1. develojjed ill lives and s still more re all aware Lisivel\- that based. The of transceii- if the Coii'u- dy must be r than has liing multi- red at about merica. It rerse in ele- n time that :'oj;ni/.e the •me of them ing- over the , 1886). Tin- XfMI.RorS NATlVi: I)Iam:cts. ^1^ wi<lest areas. Take the Allia|.,isoan or Tinue, for example, found in its greatest purity amid the tribes who dwell on the Arctic sea, and alon- the Mackenzie river, in liritish America, but which is also the ton-ue of Hie A])aches who carried it almost to the valley of Mexico. The Al-onkin was spoken from Hudson Hay to the Savannah river and from Xewfoundland to the Rocky Moiuitains. The (Hiarani of the Rio <le la Plata underlies dialects which were current as far north as Morida. How, then, in spite of such tenacity of American lanoujiofs. have .so many stocks come into existence ^ This was the question which my iiredeces.sor in this chair last year under- took to an.swer. His suoge.stions ap])ear to me extremely valuable, and only in one point do I widely differ from him', and that is, in the lenstli of time required for these numer- ous tongues to (.riginate, to .sever into dialects and f. be carried to di.stant regions.- According to the able linguist. Dr. Stoll, the difference which is presented between the Cakchicpiel and Maya dialects could not have arisen in less than two thou.sand years :t and any one who has carefully compared tlie earliest grammars of an American tongue with its i)re.sent condition will acknowledge that the ch.anges are surprisingly few. To me the exceeding diversitv of lan- guages in America and the many dialects into which these have .s])lit, are cogent proofs of the vast anti<iuitv of the race an antiquity .stretching back tens of thousands of ^■ears *The reference is t„ Mr. Uora.io Uale's Address '.o,, the Ori^i,, ,„ I an..,Moe and the Antiquity of S,,eaki„K MM,,." See /. ,. . „A ,^,, . ,„,. ,,,,„, ,,„ u,,- l,,'^,,^ Sciciue, vol. .\.\xv., ]). j;9, s(|. i . ' I :f'': 3f' J'SSAVS OF AN AMI'KICAMST. Nothiiij; less can explain these multitudinous forms of speech. rnderlyini; all these varied forms of icxpression, however, I think future in\-estigation will demonstrate sf)me curious identities of internal form, traits almost or entirely jieculiar to American lan.y;ua,u;es, and never (piite absent from any of them. vSuch was the opinion of the two earliest philosophical in- vestiL;ators of these tonoiies, P. S. Dujionceau and Wilhelm von Ilumholdt. They called these traits po/ysvii/hcsis and ithoifioratioii, and it was proposed to apply the term incor- pornfizr as a distinguishing adjective to all American lan- guages. Of late years this opinion has been earnestly com- batted by M. Lucien Adam and others ; but my own studies have led me to adopt the views of the older analysts against these modern critics. I do not think that the student cau compare any two stcjcks on the continent without being im- pressed with the resemblance of their expression of the re- lations of Ik'ing, through the incorporative plan. Along with this identity of plan, there coexists the utmost independence of expression. An American language is usually perfectly transparent. Nothing is easier than to re- duce it to its ultimate elements, its fundamental radicals. These are few in numbers and interjectional in character. The Athapascan, the Algonkin, whose wide extension I have referred to, have been reduced to half a dozen particles or sounds exjiressive of the simplest conceptions. •'= I'pon these, by condoination, repetition, imitation and other such processes, the astonishing structure of the tongue has been * Sec Ikiwsc, Ciiannihi) <>/ tin- Cx-il.ani^uai^c, p. 143, siiq. I I ': !!!l THI' SCIICNTIITC STTDV (W I.ANCI'ACK. 37 s forms of 1, however, line curious •ly jicculiar rom any of ;opliicaI in- d Wilhclm n//i(sis and term incor- erican lan- lestly com- iwn studies sts against Indent can being- im- 1 of the re- the utmost nguage is than to re- I radicals, character, xtension I n particles s.-'= Upon :>ther such ; has been ^1 I erected, every pdrtion „f it disi)Iaying the mechanism of its origin. It is this transi)arency which renders these tongues so attractive to the i)liilosophic student of human expression, and so valuable to him wlio would obtain from them tiie record of the progress of the nation. A thorough study of such a language would end)race its material, its formal and its i)sychologic contents. Its ma- terial elements include the i)eculiarities of its vocabulary : for example, its numerals and the sy>tem they indicate, its words for weights and measures, for color and direction, for relations of consanguinity and afhuity, for articles of use and ornament, for social and domestic conditions, and the like. Few studies of American languages go beyond this ma- terial or lexicographic limit; but in truth these are merely the externalities of a tongue, and have nothing to do with linguistic science proper. This concerns itself with the forms of the language, with the relation of parts of speech to each other and to the sentence, and with the historical de- velopment of the granuuatical categories. Jieyond this. again, is the determination of the psychical character of the tribe through the forms instinctively adopted for the ex- pre.ssion of its thoughts, and reciprocally the reaction ex- erted by these forms on the later intellectual growth of those who were taught them as their only means of articulate ex- pression. The.se are data of the highest value in the study of prehis- toric time: but .so far as America is c.Micenied, I c-uld name very few .scholars who have pursued this promising line of research. Tf f t .V^ I;SSAVS OF AN AMICKICANIST. /'//]. \/i(i/. Murli inort' attention lias ]kvu jiaid to the l)li\sical than the lini;iiistic data of tin- nati\c Anic-ricans, hut it may fivc-l}- ht- said, uitli not nioru satisfactory results. This failure is i)artly o\vin.i; to the preconceived notions which still j4<>\ern the stud\- of elhnolo^w Linnjeus offered the cautious (li\ision of the human sjiecies into races named from the five i;reat j;eo},;rai)hical areas it iidiabited ; Hlumen- bacli pointed out that this rouj^hlv' corres])oiuled with the division into fi\e colors, the white, black, >ellow, brown and red races, occu]\\inj;- respectivel\- Ivurope, Africa, Asia, Poly- nesia and America. Unfortunately, Cuvier chose to sim- l)lify this scheme, by merlin}; the brown and red races, the Polynesian or Malayan and the American, into the >ello\v or Monjj^olian. The latest writers of the ImvucIi school, and I am sorry to add various Americans, servilely follow this .uroundless rejection of the older scheme, and speak of Ma- la\ans and Americans alike as Mongolians or Mongoloids. Neither in language nor ethnic anatomy is there any more resemblance than between whites and Mongolians. It is gratifying to see that the more accurate (German in- vestigators decidedly reject the blunder of Cuvier, and de- clare that the American race is as independent as any other of those named. Thus Dr. Paul Ivhrenreich. who has lately jniblished :ui admirable monograjih on the Botocudos of lira/.il, a tribe often cjuoted for its so-called "Mongoloid" asjtect, declares that any such as.sertion must be contradicted in positive terms. Both in osteology and anatomy, in for- mation of the hair and shape of the skull, the differences are marked, permanent and radical. What is true of the Botocudos is not less so of the other Till' iMivsif.M, i'i:.\'n-Ri;s. ^9 laid to the Americans, tory results. \e<l notions lens ofiered aces named d ; lUumen- (1 \vitli the , hrown and Asia, Poly- Dse to sim- 1 races, the the yellow school, and follow this eak of Ma- longoloids. e any more ^)ernian in- er, and de- s any other ) has lately itocudos of [ongoloid " 3ntradicted my, in for- ercnces are f the other American tribes which are claimed to present Mongolian traits. Such assertions arc based on the superficial obser- vations of travellers, most of whom do not know the first princi])les of ethnic anatomy. This is sulhciently shown l)y the importance they attach to tlie obli(|ue eye, a slij^ht malformation of the skin of scared'.- an\- wei>;ht.-'- The anatomy and ])hysioloj;y of the various .American tribes ])rcsent, indeed, great diversity, and yet, beneath it all is a really remarkable fi.xedness of ty])e. We observe this diversity in the shape of the skull, which may be, as among the Hotocudos, strictly dolichocephalic, while the Araucan- iaiis arc brachycephalic : the nasal inde.\ varies more than in the exliemest members of the white race ; the tint of the skin may be a dark brown with an under-color of red, or of so light a hue that a blush is easily ])erceptible. The Jjcard is usually absent, but D'Orbigny visited a tribe who wore it full and long.t The height varies from an average of six feet four inches for adult males in Patagonia to less than five feet among the W'arraus of Guiana ; and so it is with all the other traits of the race. There is not one which is not .sub- ject to extensi\e variation. On the other hand, these variations are not greater than can be adduced in various members of the white f;r black race. In si)ite of them all. there is a wonderful family like- ness among tribes of American origin. Xo observer well acquainted with the ty].e would err in taking it for another. Darwin says that the Fuegians so closely resemble the Bo- *Tliis inKstimi is ilisi-iis-cil in nuw detail in tlif ru-xt (.■ss.-iy. U://om„u-.l,„r,,..,n,. Tcnu- I, p. ,.,,. The tribe is the (;uaray„s, an ..rfshoot of Uu" ('■n.iranis. I 40 KSSAVS nl' AN AMI'.KK' WIST. f, tocudos thai tla-y scciii iininliLi> nt" llic s;unc' tribe. I have seen Arawacks fiom (iiiiaiia who in the northwest would have passed for Sioux. In spite of the total dissin\ilarity of climate and other j)h>sical surronndinj;s, the tribes of the tropics differ no more from those near the Arctic circle than the> <lo among themselves. This is a striking lesson how independent of environment are the e.ssential characteristics of a race, and it is a sweejjinj; refutation of those theories which make such characteristics dependent u])on external agencies. A still more remarkable fact has been demonstrated by Professor J. Kollmann of liale : to wit, that the es.sential l)hysical identity of the American race is as extended in time as it is in sjiace. This accurate student has analyzed the cranio.scopic formulas of the most ancient American skulls, those from the alleged tertiary deposits of the Pam- pas, those from the caverns of Lagoa vSanta in Brazil, that obtained from Rock Hluff, Illinois, the celebrated Calaveras skull from California, and one from Pontemelo in Puenos Ayres of geologic anti(piit\'. His results are most intere.st- ing. These very ancient remains prove that in all import- ant craniolo'gic indicia the earliest Americans, those who were contemporaries of the fossil hor^e and other long since extinct (quadrupeds, possessed the same racial character as the natives of the present day, with similar skulls and a like physiognomy. •'■ We reach therefore the momentous conclus- ion that the American race throughout the whole continent, and from its earliest appearance in time, is and has been <w<', as distinct in type as any other race, and from its i.solation * Ziiliclin'fl fih l-:ih>i(ilii\iii\ \'^^■^. p. iSi. nroT.ocic Acr: oi.- m.w. ic trihc-. I J iiortliwi'st • and oIIrt "s (liflVr IK) y do aiiKiii^ IC'pL'IldcIlt (if a race, and t'hicli make ncies. iistratc'd In- ic fsscnlial xtendcd in IS analyzed . American f tlie Pam- Brazil, that 1 Calaveras in Ihienos ist interest- dl import- tho^e who long since laracter as and a like IS conclus- continent, 5 been our, i isolation 4' I l>n>l.al.lv the ptuvsl ..f all in its racial trails. This is a fact "I" the Ihst order in eslahlishinK its prehistoric eliron<.lo;.y. ^'toh'ii/r. I have left the Kcoh-Kic data to the last, as it is these which carry ns with reasonable safety to the remotest periods. X,, ,Mie who examines the evidence will now deny that man lived in both Xorth and S.mth America dnrin^ an.l after the glacial epochs, an.l that he was the cntem- porary of many species of animals now extinct. As you are aware, the attempt has several times been made to fix the .late for the final retn.cession nf the glaciers ..f North America. The estimates have varied from about 12.000 years ago up t<. .v'.oc... with a majority in favor of about 35,()(H) years. There have also been various discoveries which are said to place the human .species in America previ.ms to the appear- ance of the glaciers. Someremainsof man's indu.strv orof his skeleton have been reported' from interglacial, others fn.m tertiary deposits.- rnfortuiiately, these finds have not al- ways been sunicient, or not of a character to convince the arclueologist. I have before a<lverted to the impo.ssibilitv for instance, of an arclueologist accepting the <liscoverv of a finely-poli.shed .stone implement in a tertiarv gravel 'ex- cept as an intrusive deposit. It is a violent anachronism which IS witlKHit a parallel in other countries. Ivven the discovery of :ij^ipouncMmplement, as a stemmed arrow- * Si,u.e this a,i,hess was ..clivere.l Mr. ^^:^^r.:.^n^.::::~n.a^,,,, n„-,i„, ,:f ch^po. .„,p,c.„e„ts „.ac,e ...ar^ini.. in a •■.posit of „,i...«lacial aK. o„ the „a„Us skeletons c,„„plete.y converted into lin.onite have been exhil.ite.l at the Aeaden.v of Natural Se.e,,ees, .-hihulelphia, Iron, a deposit in Horida, M.:. one eontainin, the remains of the e.xtinct t;iant hison. '-"innv. mv 42 i;SSAYS Ol' AX AMI'KICAMST. ' :;i 1 "i< head, in strata of tertiary date, is, with our present knowl- edge, (iiiite out of the ([Uestiou. Although there are well recogtiizcd signs of glacial action in South America, it is not certain that the glacial epoch coincided in time in the two continents. That there was a reasonable aitjiroximation is probable from the appearance of later dej^osits. We may suppose therefore that the habit- able area of the New World was notably less at thrtt period, and that the existing tribes were confined to a much narrower space. This would force them into closer relations, and tend powerfully to the production of that uniformity of tyjie to which I have before referred. We might also expect to di.->cover in the tropical regions of America more frequent evidence of the primitive Americans than in either temperate zone. This has not been the case, probably because the geologic deposits of the tropics have been less investigated. Throughout the West Indies there is an entire absence of pahvolithic remains. Those islands, were first peopled by tribes in the polished stone stage of culture. In the valle}- of Mexico human remains have been disinterred from a volcanic deposit of supposed tertiary age, and you have all heard of those human footprints which Dr. Earl Flint has unearthed in Nicaragua. These are found luider layers of compact volcanac tufas, .separated by strata of sand and vegetable loam. There can be no doubt of their human origin or of their great antifjuity ; but no geologist need be informed of the difficulty of assigning an age to vol- canic strata, especially in a tropical country, subject to earthquakes, subsidence and floods.-'^ * i have distnissfil this fully in a papiT in the /'i(h,r(/iiit:.s a( Ihv Amer. rhiUisoph. Soc. for i-^;, cntitUil " on an .\ncicnt Ihinian I'lmlprint fnmi Ni(.-aiaL;nii.'' I iii I ' ■ i '' i ; ■sent knowl- lacial action lacial epoch there was a appearance at the habit- thftt period, to a much ier relations, mi^orniity of al regions of e Americans en the case, trojiics have Indies there 'hose isLands. one stage of IS have been tertiary age, :s which Dr. e are found ed by strata Dubt of their ;io geologist 1 age to vol- subject to iiier. rliiUisopli. MAN NOT AiTocnTnoNors i.v a:\I!;rica. 4^ It \\(,'ii-: not be in accordrnice with my ])resent purpose to examine tlic- mimerous alleged r,„(ls ,,f human remains in the strata <.l the tertiary and (|uaternary. All such furnish data for tlir prediistoric chronology of America, and sh(mld l)e carefully scrutiiii/.ed by hini who would obtain further light upon that chronology. I „,„st hasten to some other considerati.Mis which touch the remote events to which I am now alluding. Since a comi>arison of the fauna of South America and Africa, and a survey of the sea-bottom between those c.Miti- nents, have dispelled the- dream of the ancient Atlantis, and relegated that land coiniection at least to the eocene period of the tertiary, no one can sui)pose the American man to liave migrated from Africa or southwestern l-:uro])e. I^or other and equally solid reasons, no immigration of Polynesi- ans can be assumed. Vet zo.Uouists, perfectly willing to derive man fnmi an anthropoid, and polygenists to the ut- most, hesitate to consider man an autochthon in the New World. There is too wide a gap between the highest mon- keys and the human .species in this continent.- Di.scoveries of fo.ssil apes might bridge this, but none such has been re- ported. If we accept the theory that man as a species .spread from one primal centre, and in the higher plasticitv of his early life separated into well defined races, which became unalter- ably i]xvi\ not much later than the clo.se of the glacial epoch -and this theory appears to be that now most agreeable to anthropologists-then the earliesc Americans made their a<i- *Ma„ ,,„,., h.v. .Uso.n,l,.,l .,„,„ tl>;^a;;,rrhi,u. clivisi.,,, „r tlu- .„„,n„„.,ls n^.iK.>l which oc«„-i„„,.x,„,v,„M. Sc.Uanvin, 7V /v., , „/ ,/ .,A,„, p. „,, ' I' I 1 111' 1 "<<' '!;..:-■ .1, t I 1 1. 44 ESSAYS OF AX AMKRICAXIST. vent on this continent as immigrants. This is our first fact in their pre-historic chronology ; but before we can assign it an accurate position on the scale of geologic time, we must await more complete discoveries than we now have at our command. We must also wait until our friends the geologists have come to some better understanding among themselves as to what took place in the pleistocene age. You have heard me talking freely alwut the glacial epoch and its extension in America ; but geologists are by no means of one mind as to this extension, and a resjicctable minority of them, led by Sir J. William Dawson, deny the existence or even possibility of any continental glacier. What others point out as a terminal moraine they explain to l)e "nothing but the .southern limit of the ice-drift of a period of submergence. "-•= It is clear that when we speak about the migration of the Americans at a time when the polar half of each continent was either covered with a glacier thousands of feet thick, or submerged to that depth beneath an arctic sea, we have to do with geographical, conditions totally unlike those of to- day. T call attention to this ol)vious fact because it has not been obvious to all writers. In your archttological reading yo i will rarely come across a prettier piece of theoretical history than Mr. Lewis A. Morgan's description of the gradual peopling of the two Americas by tracing the lines of easiest subsistence. He begins at the fishy rivers of the northwest coast, and follows the original colony which h-e assumes landed at that point. * Address at the Uritish Association for tlie .\dv. ofScience, 1SS7. I.IXKS OI- MICKATIOX. our first fact can assign it nie, we must have at our ilogists have nselves as to ave heard me extension in e mind as to hem, led by sn possibiHty nt out as a ing l)ut the mergence. "'•= ration of the ch continent feet thick, or , we ha\-e to those of to- ise it has not ■ come across r. Lewis A. ■ of the two istence. He , and follows t that point. 45 all the wa>- to Patagonia and Florida/^^ But how baseless 1)econies this visiryn when we consider the geography of America as it is shown b>- geology to have been at a period contemporary with the earliest remains of man ! We know to a certainty that the human race had already spread far anr: wide over both its continental areas before Mr. Morgan'.s lines of easiest nutrition had come into existence. Properly employed, a study of those geologic features of a country which determine its geography will prove of ^•ast advantage in ascertaining the events of pre-historic time. These features undoubtedly fixed the lines of migra- tion and of early connnerce. Man in his wanderings has always been guided l)y the course of rivers, the trend of mountain chains, the direction of ocean currents, the position of deserts, pas.ses and swamps. The railroad of to-day fol- lows the trail of the primitive man, and the rivers have ever been the natural highways of nations. The theories of Morgan therefore remain true as theories ; onlv in their ap- plication he fell into an error which was natural enough to the science of twenty years ago. P^^haps when twenty >-ears more shall have elapsed, the post-tertiarv geologv of our continent will have been so clearlv defined that "the geography of its different epochs will be known sufficientlv to trace these lines of migration at the various epochs of man's residence in the western world, from his first arrival. I lune now set before you, in a su])erficial manner it is true, the various sources from which we mav derive aid in establishing t^ie pre-historic chronology of America. I have ce, 1SS7. * His article, which was first printed i„ the ^■o,f/> ^^„,e>Z. A^-JvVt found in Beach's Mnu, M,s.ella,n, p. ,58 ..vibany, .S77,. 1^70, may l)e T^ 46 p:ssavs of a\ ami:kicanist. also endeavored, to a limited extetit, to express myself as to the relative value of these sources. Xone of them can be neglected, and it will be only from an exhaustive study of them all that we can expect to solve the numerous knotty problems, and lift the veil which hanjj^s so darkly on all that concerns the existence of the American race before the sixteenth century. We are merely beginnint; the enormous labor whic^' is before us ; we ha\-e yet to discover the methods l)y which we can analyze fruitfully the facts we already know. But I look forward with the utmost confidence to a rich return from such investigations. The daj- is coming, and that rapidly, when the pre-historic life of man in both the New and the Old World will be revealed to us in a thousand mi- expected dccails. We have but to turn backward about thirty years to reach a time when the science of pre-historic arcluiiologj' was unknown, and its early gropings were jeered at as absurdities. Already it has established for itself a position in the first rank of the .sciences which have to do with the highest of problems. It has cast a light upon the pathway of the human race from the time that man first deserved his name down to the commencement of recorded history. Its conquests are but beginning. Year by year masses of new facts are brought to knowledge from unex- pected quarters, current errors are corrected, and no\el methods of exploration devised. As Americans by adoption, it should be our first interest and duty to study the Americans by race, in both their pres- ent and past development. The task is long and the oppor- tunity is fleeting. A century more, and the anthropologist I: ! ; myself as to them can be ■^tive stuch' of leroiis knotty Iarkl\- on all ace before the bor ^vllic^ is ])y which we now. Bnt I a rich retnrn ig-, and that loth the New thousand un- kward about f pre-historic 'opings were ;hed for itself :h have to do fht upon the at man first t of recorded ear by year '■ from unex- , and novel PROMPT ACTION XKKDKD. ,^ 4/ will scarcely find a native of pure bh.od ; the tribes and Ian- images of to-day will have been extinguished or corrupted. Xor will the arclucolognst I)e in better case. Every day the progress of civilizati.m, ruthless of the momiments of ])arbar- ism, is destroying the feeble vestiges of the ancient race: mounds are levelled, embankments disappear, the stones of temples are built into factories, the holy places desecrated. We have assend)led here to aid in recovering something from this wreck ofa race and its monuments: let me urge upon you all the need of prompt action and earnest work, inasmuch as the opportunities we enjoy will ne\-er again present themselves in sucli fulness. first interest :h their pres- d the oppor- ithropologist TT- ON PAL/EOLITHS, AMERICAN AND OTHEB/-^= ,};- i !! i 'T^HKRE has been much talk in scientific circles lately ■*• about Pakt'oliths, and much misundcrstandinj^^ al)()ut them. Let me try to explain in a few words what they are, what they tell, and what mistakes people make about them. Since man first appeared on this planet, his history has been a slow progress from the most rudimentary arts up to those which he now possesses. We know this, because in a given locality those remains of his art which are found un- disturbed in strata geologically the oldest are always the rudest. The exceptions to this rule are in appearance otdy, as for instance when a given locality was not occupied by men until they had already acquired considerable knowledge of arts, or when a cultivated nation was overrun by a barbar- ous one. The general line of advance I have indicated shows, wherever we can trace it, many similarities— similarities not necessarily dependent on an ancient intercourse, but simply because primitive man felt everywhere the same wants, and satisfied them in pretty much the same manner. *The subject of an address before the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science in loSS, with revision. (4«J ■■I. J^: Till' THKKIC ACES. 49 [HER/^= ' circles lately :anclinj.^ al)()ut ■ds what they e make about lis history has tary arts up to s, because in a are found un- re always the pearance only, t occupied by ble knowledge n by a liarbar- icated shows, s — similarities tercourse, but ere the .'•-anie same manner. 11 for the Advance- He folt the need of defence and attack, and everywhere a stick and a stone offered themselves as the handiest and most effective weajions ; he used both wherever he was, and adapted tliem to like shapes. In casting about for some standard wherewith to measure the long progress from tliis simple beginning to the present dav, anti(|uaries have hit upon a very excellent one- the choice of a material employed at any given eixicli for obtain- ing a cutting edge— for manufacturing /' insfrinnfi/f ha,i- chaut. Man con.quers nature as he tlcjes his en inv-l)y cutting her down. The world at present uses iron, or its next product steel, for that i)urpose ; before it came into vogue many nations employed bronze ; ])ut in the earliest periods of man's history, and to-day in some savage tribes, stone was the substance almost exclusively wrought for this purpose. These distinctions divide the progress of man into the three great periods; the Age of Iron, the Age of Bronze, and the Age of vStone. Do not make the mistake of supposing that the remains of human art reveal this seciuence in every lccalit>- ; I have already hinted that this is nc.t the case. And do not make that other mistake of supposing that all three are fomid in chronologic sequence over the whole world. On the con- trary, they are synchronous even to-day, as there are now tribes in Brazil in the Age of Stone and nations in Asia in the Age of Bronze. The word "Age" in this connection does not mean a definite period of time, but a recognized condition of art. In Western Kurope, however, where these terms origi- nated, the three Ages were chronologic. Previous 'lo 4 4 50 KSSAYS ()!• AN AMI'KIC ANIST. about two thousand years l)C'forc' the Christian era, all the nations in that rej^ion employed stone exclusively to manu- facture their cutting implements; later, hntu/.e was preferred for the same jiurpose ; and still later, iron. I say "jire- ferred," for do not imagine that the implement of stone or of bronze was straightway discarded when the better mater- ial was learned. We know that stone battle-axes were used in Ireland and Germany^ down to the tenth century, and bronz.e was employed by Romans and Ivgyptians long after they became accpiainted with iron. Kach of these three Ages has various subdivisions. Those of the Age of Stone are particularly imi)ortant. They are two, based upon the manner in which the stone was Ijrought to an edge. All the specimens in geologically the oldest deposits have been brought to an edge by a process of chip- ping off small pieces, so as to produce a sharp line or crest on a part or the whole of the border of the stone. This artificia process leaves such peculiar traces that a practiced eye car.nnot confound it with any accidental chipping which natural means effect. The later deposits of the Age of Stone show that the early workmen had acquired another manner of dressing their material : they rubbed one stone against another, thus grind- ing it down to a sharp polished edge. These two methods give the names to the two periods of the Age of Stone, the Period of Chipped Stone and the Period of Polished Stone. Do not suppose, however, that the workmen in polished stone forgot the art of chipping stone. On the contrary, they continued it side by side with their new learning, and you will find on the sites of their m. Ji c-ra, all the fly to inami- ivas i)rc'fcrre(l I say "])re- t of stone or better mater- le-axes were ^iith century, yptians long lions. Those . They are was l)r()nglit y the oldest cess of chip- line or crest itone. This t a practiced ^ping which at the early essing their thusgrind- 3 periods of le and the wever, that )f chipping y side with ^es of their SIMPI.I' AM) COMl>f>l-Nr) IMIT.i:mi.;\TS. 51 workshops ])lenty of stone implements in form and technical I)roduction like the chi])ped imi)Ienients of the older ])erio(l. We know that the ])olished or ground-stone implements came into use later than the earliest chipped implements, for in the oldest beds the latter are found exclusively. Hence the time when they were used exclusively is called the older stone imi)lement period or the Paheolithic period ; while, the time when both chii)pe(l and polished stones were used, metals were yet unknown, is named the newer stone iniide- ment period, or the Xeolithic period. A true " Pakeolith '" is a typical chipped stone implement, the position of which when found leads us to believe that it was manufactured in the older of these i)eriods. We are not entirely dependent on its position to decide its antiquity. The kind of .stone it is, U,e an.ount of weather- wearing ox pa(i„c it .shows, certain 'haracteri.stics of shape and size, the indication that the chipping was done in a peculiar manner, all these aid the .skilled observer in j.ro- nouncing definitely as to whether it is a true Pakeolith. Nor is iw.sition always a guarantee of antiquitv. A gen- uine Palacolith may have been washed into newe'r strati, or beexpo.sed by natural agencies on the surface of the ground, and in such cases it may not be possible to distingui.sh it from the products of X.oHthic industry. A recent product of art may have sunk or been buried in an ancient stratum and thus become what is termed an "intrusive deposit." The Paheolithic period itself is advantageouslv subdivided lurther into two Kpo^dis, an earlier one in which men ma<le "simple" implements only, and a later onein which thev man- ufactured "compound " implements as well. I was thefirst \ 52 KSSA\S ol' AN AMliKICAMST. ;l! t()])()iiit out this {lislinction, and as I liaw fouiid it rcall>- use- ful, and as oIIk IS liaxc also (.'xiMVssfd to nic the value which it has lictu to them in this line ol" restari'li, I will explain it fur- ther. •■• A " eoni])<)Und " iniplenieul is one composed of sev- eral parts ada])ted to each other, as the how and the arrow, the spear with its shaft and hlade, or the axe with its head and hehe and the means of fastening; the one to the other. These were not early accpiisitions. Duriuij^ l<>n,n aj;es man con- tented himself with such tools or weajjons as he could frame (if a sini^le piece of wood or stone, sini])l\- holding it in his hand. When he found he could increase its effectiveness by fitting it to a handle, the (lisco\er\- marked an era in his culture. He may indeed in his rudest ages have lashed a stone to the end of his club, or have inserted a si)all of flint in the sjilit end of a stick : hut these are not compound implements in the proper .sense of the term. The expression means an art-product which clearly shows that it was hut one part of a mechanical api)aratus. The arrow-head with its stem, barbs and body, the stone axe with its grooves or drilled per- foration for the handle, are incomplete in themseh'es, they disclose a preconceived jdan for the adjustment of parts which man in his earliest and rudest condition does not seem to have posse.ssed. The most ancient strata in which the remains of human art have been found, either in luirope or America, yield "simple" implements only ; "compound" implements are a conquest of his inventive faculty at a later date. *TIn' earliest publication I luaile on this subject was in an article on Tre-liistoric Archaeology, contribiiteil to 'I he Icono^i apliic luu ycli'pcrilia (Vol. II, p. »>■, I'liiladel- phia, iSS6). II, lll'''lll!i.i 1 it really usc- vahic- wliicli it (-•Nplaiii it fiir- iiposc'd of SL'V- thc arrow, the I its head and other. These 4es man con- e could frame liny it in his fectivencss by in era in his led a stone to :)f flint in the d implements on means an It one part of ith its stem, )r drilled per- nselves, they ent of parts loes not seem in which the in Europe or compound " Itv at a later Ic oil rrc-liistoric I, p. ;S, I'liiladel- ICXTI'NSION (tl- I'\I..i:(ir.ITinC MAN. c^ ^ So far as Anierica is concermd it is ])rol)al)le that the old- est remains of man yet diM-overed on the northern continent have I^een those exhumed in the valley of the Delaware River, in the states of Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Dela- ware. Accordini; to the most careful nv"l".i;i<--al observers that lar.i;e dejiosil of j^ravel coverini; about Ihe thousand acres on both banks of the river l)elow Trenton is a jiost- glacial deposit not less than twelve or fifteen thousand years old. Imbedded in this at various dei)ths a larye number of true palaeoliths lia\e been discovered b\ Dr. C. C. Abbott, Professor 1'. A. Putnam, myself and others. Ivvery one of them so far as I am aware belongs to the class of "simjde" im])lenients. not an arrowhead nor .grooved axe nor stemmed scrajjcr havini; been rejiorted. Anothe.- deixisit of gravel further down the Delaware River is niucli older: The best authorities in such matters believe that it was deposited, not after the recession of the great glacier which once covered Canada and the norlheni portion of the United States, but while that tremendous pheiumien was at its height, and when all the .streams of the central Ignited States were periodically choked with vast mas.ses of ice and snow. In this, which is called the Col- umbian gravel, chipped stone implements have been found by Mr. Cre.sson, all of the "simple" variety, and at such depths as to preclude the theory of an intrusive deposit. The.se di.scoveries carry the age of the appearance of man in the Delaware valle>- back to a dale which is po.ssibly o\-er a hundred thousand years ago. The great glacier left its mass of boulders, pebbles and broken stone, which it pushed before it, or carried with it. 54 I'.SSAVS Ol" AN AMI'.KIC WIST. ■ r:.t,:. ; il i ^ifi-. ill a lonj; liiK- of sn-calkd "moraines," (.•xtciulinj;, r()iij;lil\- spcakiiij;', from N'lw York to vSt. I.oiiis. In this mass, at its tdiifs wIkr thf };rcat wash from the HKltiiij^ icv i)otirc(l down, pahiL'oliths liave been fonnd in nndistnrhed jjosilion, ])roviny: that also there man had strnj4i;led witli the inelem- eiu'v of the iee-a},;e, and, poorly provided as he was, had eonie out \ietorions. Here too all the implements he left are of the "simple" t>i)e, indieatinj^ at onee the vast anli(|nity of the jieriod and the presence of a raee snhstan- tiall_\- the same as that to the east at the same date. No tribe has been known to history which was confined to the knowledj^e of " simjde" implements, or which mannfac- tnred stone imj)lementsexclnsi\ely in the Pakeolithic forms. Wherever, therefore, t' e are fonnd without the admixture of artificially ground (. shed stones we may besure we face the remains of a time whose anticjuity camiot be measured by any chronology applied to the historic records of human- ity. This enables us in a mea.snre to define the limits of the re- gion known to the human race at this, its earliest epoch ; with our present deficient knowledge we can do so only par- tially and by exclusion. It is safe to state that \n Ivurf)pe Pakeolithic man did not occupy the central alpine area of Swit7.erland and its surroundings, nor the i)lains of Russia, nor any part of the Scandinavian peninsula, Scotland, Ire- land, nor Iceland. In North America he had no habitations north of the forty-first parallel of latitude except perhaps chwe to the shores of the two great oceans ; "■■ it is not prob- *A possible txciptioii may liave liccn alDiig tlu' Hik' <if tlif Mississippi River, where a palieulitliic workshop appears to have 1)eeii discovered al)Ove St. Paul, by Miss Habliitt. '^:^' u.. liiiK. roiijrhly is mass, at its ig ice poured rhed position, ^h the iiiclein- Iie was, had 'ineiits he left lice the vast race substan- :hite. IS confined to lich nianufac- olithic forms, he admixture le sure we face be measured ds of human- i:.\ti;nsi()\ oi' i'M.I'OI.itiiic man. 55 al)le that his foot prosfd the soil of any of tiif West Indian Islands : hut when the ^reat Austral ('.lacier was in its re- cession depositing,' the fertile loam of the pam]>as of I',uenos Ayns human beinj^s with their rude l'aheolilh> were follow- ing; up the retreating' line of ice, as in the Northern Hemis- phere. A.uts uncounted and uncountable have passed since then, but man has left indestructible evidences that even in that early morn of his existence he had ex])lor(.(l and con- quered that continent which a late generation has cho.scn to call ••the New World." lits of the re- irliest epoch ; 1 so only par- tt in Kurope ilpine area of IS of Russia, icotland, Ire- 3 habitations :ept perhaps is not prob- lississippi Kivcr, l)ovf St. I'aul, by i i,r' ON THE ALLK(;F,I) MONGOLIAN AFFINITIHS (JF THF vn \\\A<\: thr (HKslion lain about to (lis(-uss one ..f nicMvIy tlu'oivtic-al l)fariii,i;s, I should not approach it; but the wi.irspna.l belief that the Aiuerieau tribes are -enealooically ronueete.I wit;, the Nb.n-ohans is constantly directin- and '.•"l'"in.L; the studies of many Americanists, very much as did at one lime the belief that the red men are the present repre- sentatives of the ten lost tribes of Israel. Jt is practically wortli while, therefore, t.. examine the Ki'-unds on which the American race is classed by these anthropolouists is a I'lauchofthe .Mon-oli.,n, and to incpiire whether the ancient culture of America betrayed any positive si-ns of MouKoliau inlluence. Von will permit me to avoid the discirs.iou as to what constitutes rac-es in anthropolo-y. To me they are zor.looic.;,! sid.spivics, marked by fixed and correlated characteristics, impressed s,, r,,-,„ly thai they have suffered no appreciiible alteration within the historic period either throu-h time or cnvironmenl. In this sense, I'.lunienbach, in the last cen- tur\ , reco-ui/ed h\e rac( s. correspoudin.i;- to the five j^reat hind-areas,,f the k1'>I>c'. and to their characterisLic faunal and *Tl,is I'apr, was ,cad lKl,„vll,r At.uMKan AsMH-iati,,,, lor thr A(!va,u-.nK nt of Si-itlUf, al ils liicctilii; in (.'Uvrlaiid, isss ( 3^> ) .1 Cr\Ti:K S CI.ASSIITCA'riON ol- MAX. 57 Mf of nicivlv 1 it ; but the nc.'il()_<4icall\- irec'tinj^ and iiiurli as (lid rt'Sfiit R'pre- > prat-tirally s on which 'los^ists IS a ■ the ancifiit I Moiii^oliaii ns to what C Z()(")1()0 it-;il raclcristirs, appreciable li^h time or le last cen- ■ li\-e j^real faiinal and >(!v:uui UK lit of # floral centres. This dixi^ioii was an eininentl\- scientific one, and still remain^ the most in accord with anatomical and lin,i;nistic reasearch- About twenty >ears after the a])- pearance of IJlnmenbach's work, however, the eminent natnralist Cn\ier published his -re;it work on "The Animal Kin.<;(lom," in which he rejected P.lnnienbach's classification, and proposed one di\idin,L; the hnmaii s])ecies into three races, the white or Cancasian, the black or Ivthiopian, and the yellow or ^^on,^()lian. In the latter he inclnded the Malays and thc' American Indians. This triple division has been very popular in h'rance, and to some extent in other comitries. It is not, and it was not in Its inception, a .scientific deduction from observed ficts, l)nt was a sort of r/ priori h\potliesis based on the ])h\siolo,L^- ical theories of llichat, and at a later day derived support from the i)hilosopliic dreams' of An,L;uste Comte. I'.ic-hat, for instance, had recognized three fundamental plusioloui- cal s.\ stems in man <he ve.netaliveor visceral, theosso inus- eular, and tlie cerebro-spii-;.!. 'IMie anthropol.,.;ists, in turn, considered it a happy thou-ht to divide the human species nito three races, each of which should show the jiredomi- nance of one or other of these systems. Thus the black race was to show the predominance of the \e,i.;etative s\stein ; the \eIIow race, the os.so-muscular system; the white race, the nervous system. ^^ As Ihchat had not discovered any more l)h\siol()oical sy.stems, so there could ])e no more human races on the earth : ,111. 1 thus the sacred triplets of the Coni- tiau philosophy could be xindicated. ^ How little value attaches to an\ such Kvnerali/.ations y<.ii "Sec lM,ky, Ih-i Tu.is (,,aHd,s A'„, , > Ihnnai,,,-,. I'mis, iSM. >l \ I ' 'I 5R KSSAVS OK AX AMICRICAMST. will readily perceive, and you will be prepared, with me, to dismiss them all, and to turn to the facts of the case, inquir- inti^ whether there are any traits of the red race which justif\- their being callled "Mongolian" or "Mongoloid." Such affinities have been asserted to exist in language, in culture, and in ])hysical peculiarities, and I shall take these up iicriatim for examination. P'irst, as to language. The great Mongolian stock is divided into the southern branch, speaking monosyllabic, isolating languages, and the northern branch, whose dialects are polysyllabic and agglut- tinating. The latter arc .sometimes called Tiu'anian or I'ral- Altaic ; and as thej- are geographically contiguous to the Eskimo, and almost to the Athabascans, we might reasonably expect the linguistic kin.ship, if any exists, to be .shown in this branch of Mongol .speech. Is such theca.se? Not in the least. T*o prove it, I think it enough to quote the posi- tive statement of the best European authority on the Ural- Altaic languages, Dr. Heinrich Winkler. He emphatically says, that, in the present .state of linguistic science, not only is there no connection apparent between any Ural-Altaic and any American language, but that such connection is shown to be highlj' improbable. The evidence is all the other way.-'- I need 'not, therefore, delay over this part of my subject, but will proceed to inquire whether there are any American affinities to the monosyllabic, i.solating languages of A.sia. * I'lalallaischi' I'dlkt'i tauf Sf>ituhi'ii . p. 16- I do not Uiiiik that tlio verbal coi;?- cideiiccs i)oiiitc<l out by I'otitot in his Moiiogi apliie ties 1),')U- Dhuijr, and by I'latz- niann in his Aiiiri ikaiim li-.isitilistlu- I'.lymoiai^ii'n, merit serious consideration. RKI.ATIOXSHIP OK I,.\X(".r.\r,K,S. 59 with me, to case, inquir- vliicli justify d." language, in 11 take these :he southern ges, and the • and agghit- lian or I'ral- (uous to the it reasonably be shown in ise ? Not in lote the posi- on the Ural- ^mphatically ice, not only Ural-Altaic •onnection is ce is all the my subject, iiy American es of Asia. t the verbal coi;?- dji\ and by I'latz- considcratioii. There is one prominent example, which has often been ]nit forward, of a supposed inouosyllabic American language ; and its relationship to the Chinese has frequently been as- serted — a relatioiishi]), it lias been said, extending both to its vocabulary and its grammar. This is the Otonii, spoken in and near the valley of Mexico. It requires, however, but a brief aralysis of the Otomi to see that it is not a nionosyllal)ic language in the linguistic sense, and that in its sentence- building it is incorporative and ])olysynthetic, like the great majority of American tongues, and totally unlike the Chinese. I may refer to my own jniblished .study of the Otonii, and to that of the Count de Charencey, as proving what I .say. ■'•'■ Some have thought that the Maya of Yucatan has in its vocabulary a certain number of Chinese elements ; but all these can readily be explained on the doctrine of coinciden- ces. The Mexican antiquary Mendoza has marshalled far more coincidences of like character and ecpial worth to show that the Xahuatl is an Aryan dialect descended from the San.scrit. t In fine, any, even the remotest, linguistic con- nection between American and Mongolian languages has yet to be shown ; and any linguist who considers the radi- cally diverse genius of the two groups of tongues will not expect to find such relationship. I .shall not detain you long with arguments touching sup- *I!rint(iii, in /'i,>r,Y,l„/xs of thr Am,-,,, an Philosof,/,,,,,! Socrtv. for ^^^5 ; Cliar- eiicey, M.'Ui„m,-s ,/,• I'lnlol,,,^,,' ,-l /\,/,!.:„,^,:7p/n,' A ,„ci „a,„r, p, No . Paris, ih,S3), Set- also a later T^ssay in this vohitne. tThis example of misdirected erudition may be seen in the A„uU:s cic-l .\fuseo .\a, ii'iiii/ ,/,• .\h\iito. Tomo I, I I #': !:, n't 60 ESSAYS 01* AN AMKKICAXIST. posed Mongolian elements of culture in ancient America. Any one at all intimately conver ant with the progress of American archceolog}' in the last twenty years must see how rapidly has grown the conviction that American culture was homebred, to the manor born : that it was wholly indigenous and had borrowed nothing — nothing, from either Europe, Asia, or Africa. The peculiarities of native American culture are typical, and extend throughout the continent. Mr. T^ewis Morgan was perfectly- right in the general outline of his theory to this effect, though, like all persons enamored of a theory, he carried it too far. This typical, racial American culture is as far as possible, in spirit and form, from the Mongolian. Compare the rich theology of Mexico or Peru with the barren myths of China. The theory of governments, the method of house-construc- tion, the position of woman, the art of war,-'- are all equally diverse, equallj' un-Mongolian. It is useless to luring up single art-products or devices, such as the calendar, and lay stress on certain similarities. The doctrine of the parallel- ism of human development explains far more satisfactorily all these coincidences. The sooner that Americanists gen- eralh', and especially those in Europe, recognize the abso- lute autochthony of native American culture, the more valuable will their studies become. It is no longer in season to quote the opinions of Alex- ander von Humboldt and his contemporaries on this subject, * Prof. Morse has also poiiicd out to me that the Monjrolian arrow-release— one of the most characteristic of all releases — has been iu)\vliere fouiiil on the American continent. This is nn imijurtant fact , provnijj; that neither as hunters nor con- (juerors did any stray Mongols leave a mark on American culture iMi Till' COI.OK OK TIIK SKI.V. 6i lent America. ;ie progress of must see how iti culture was Uy indigeuous itlier Europe, icrican culture It. Mr. Lewis )utline of his !namored of a \v as possible, pare the rich •ths of China. )use-construc- -e all equally to bring up idar, and la}- the parallel- satisfactorily 'icanists gen- ize the abso- e, the more ons of Alex- tliis subject, rrow-relfase— one 1 1)11 the AiiieriL-;\ii liuiitcis nor eoii- e as I see is done in some recent works. The science of arch- aeology has virtually come into being since they wrote, and we now know that the devcloi)ment of human culture is governed by laws with which they were tniac(iuainted. Civilization sprang up in certain centres in both continents, widely re- mote from each other; but, as the conditions of its origin were e\er>where the same, its early products were much alike. It is evident from what I have said, that the asserted Mongolian or Mongoloid connection of the American race finds no support either from linguistics or the history of cul- ture. If anywhere, it must be in jihysical resemblances. In fact, it has been mainly from these that the arguments have been drawn. Let us examine them. Cuvier, who, as I have said, is responsible for the confus- ion of the American with the Mongolian race, l)a:-^ed his racial scheme on the color of the skin, and included the American within the limits of the yellow race. Cuvier had .'^een ver^- few jnu-e ^Mongolians, and perhajjs no pure- blooded Americans; otherwise he would not have main- tained that the hue of the latter is yellow. Certainlv it is not. You may call it reddish, or coppery, or cinnamon, or burnt sugar, but you cannot call it yellow. Some individ- uals or small tribes may approach the peculiar dusky olive of the Chinaman, but so do some of the European peoples of Aryan descent; and there are not wanting anthropologists who maintain that the Aryans are also Mongoloid. The one position is just as tlefensible as the other on the gromid of color. Several of the most prominent classifications of mankind mi j\ 62 KssAvs ui" AN ami:kica.\ist. are l)a.sed upon the character of the hair ; the three great divisions beinjjf, as you know, into the straij^ht, the curly, and the woolly haired varieties. These external features of the hair depend upon the form of the individual hairs as seen in cross-section. The nearer this approaches a circle, the straij^hter is the hair. It is true that both Mongolians and Americans belong to the straight haired varieties ; but of the two, the American has the straighter hair, that whose cross-section comes nearer to a perfect circle. So that by all the rules of terminology and logic, if we are to call cither branch a variation from the other, we should say that the Mongol is a variety of the American race, and call it " Americanoid," instead of tvVv zrrsa. The color of the hair of the two races is, moreover, dis- tinctly different. Although superficially both seem black, yet, observed carefully by reflected light, it is .seen that the ground-tone of the Mongolian is bluish, while that of the American is reddish. Of positive cranial characteristics of the red race, I call attention to the interparietal bone (the os Inac), which is found in its extreme development in the American, in its greatest rarity among the Mongolians ; also to the form of the glabella, found most prominent in American crania, least prominent in Altaic or northern Mongoloid crania ; and the peculiar American characteristics of the occipital bone, flattened externally, and internally presenting in nearly forty per cent, of cases the " Aymarian depression," a^ it has been termed, in.stead of the internal occipital protuberance.-^' ' Hovelacqtie et Herve, A>ithiopologii', pp. 2;,t, 234, 2,-/1; and on the Inca boue, ste Dr. Wasliington .Maltlii'ws in the Aiiu-i nan .t iit/n ii/i<i/iii;ii/, vol. II,, p. ,5,^. !i'.| THK SH.M'K OF TIIK SKIIJ.. 63 le three fj^rcat :lit, the curl\-, lal features of idnal hairs as aches a circle, :h Mongolians varieties ; but Ler hair, that ct circle. So :, if we are to ve should say race, and call noreover, dis- i seem black, seen that the le that of the ■d race, I call lar), which is erican, in its o the form of ?rican crania, ;oloid crania ; the occipital ting in nearly ion," a.-, it has rotuberanco.-'- on the Incn boue. ■oi- n., p. J37. The shape of the skull has been made another ground of race-distinction ; and, although we have learned of late years that its value was greatly over-estimated by the earlier craniologists, we have also learned that in the averagL', and throughout large nund)ers of jieoplcs, it is a very i)ersistent characteristic, and one potently indicative of descent or relationship. Xow, of all the jx'oples of tlie world, the Mongols, especially the Turanian branch, are the most brachycephalic: they have the roundest heads; and It is in a high degree noteworthy that precisely the Ameri- can nation dwelling nearest to these, having undoubted con- tact with them for unnund)ered generations, are long-htaded, or dolichocephalic, in a marked degree. I mean the Ivski- mo, and I cannot but be surprised that such an eminent anthropologist as \Mrchow,=^= in spite of this anatomical fact, and in defiance of the linguistic evidence, should have re- peated the assertion that the ICskimo are of Mongolian descent. Throughout the American continent generally, the natives were not markedly brachycephalic. This was abundantly illustrated more than twenty years ago by the late Prof. James Aitkins Meigs, in his " Ob.servations on the Cranial Forms of the American Aborigines." They certainly, in this respect, show no greater Mongoloid affinities than do their white successors on the .soil of the I'nited States. If color, hair, and crania are thus shown to present such feeble similarities, what is it that has given rise to a notion of the Mongoloid origin of the American Indian ? Is it the so^aHed^Mo.^roiiaii eye, the oblique eye, with a seeming *ln VerhandlnngcmU, BeHnu; .lnl/n.,f,. Ccsell,clu,Jt. 16S1 S2. 64 KSSAVS OI' AN AMI'KICANIST. > I droop at its inner canthns? Yes, a ^ood deal has been made of tliis by certain writers, es])eciall\- !)>• travellers wlio are not anatomists. The distinguished ethnoloj^ist Tojiinard says the Chinese are very often lound without it, and I can confirm this opinion 1)y those I ha\-e seen in this country. It is, indeed, a slii^ht deformity, affectin;^^ the skin of the eyebrow only, and is not at all infrecpient in the white race. Surgeons know it under the name rfyianif/iiis, and, as with us it is considered a disfigurement, it is usually removed in infancy by a slight oi)eration. In a few American tribes it is rather jirevalent, but in most of the pure Indians I have seen, no trace of it was visible. It certainly does not rank as a racial characteristic. ■•'■ The nasal index has been reconunended by some anato- mists as one of the most persistent and trustworthy of racial indications. The Mongolian origin of the red race derives faint support from this (piarter. From the measurements given in the last edition of Topinard's work t the Mon- golian index is So, while that of the b.skimo and tribes of the I'nited vStates and Canada, as far as ob.served, is 70, that of the average Parisian of to-day being 69 (oniitting frac- tions). According to this test, the American is much closer to the white than to the yellow race. Most of the writers (for instance, Av^-Lallemaut St. Hilaire, Peschel, and \Mrchow) who have argued for the *l)r. I'ran/ Ho.ts, whose accurate studies of the Indians of the Northwest coast are well known, informs me that he has rarely or never noted the obli(me eye anions them. Vet precisely on that coast we should look for it, if the Monjroliati theory has any foundation. Dr. Kanke's recent stuilies have proved the oblique eye to lie merely an arrest of develo])ment. ^ lihnifn/s iV Aiilhi opiilDgie, \i. 1003. !ii SI PI' R i' ic I A r, K i:si: m iu..\ nc !• -;. has been made ellers who are ii^ist Topinard t it, and I can 1 this country, he skin of the -he white race. V, and, as with \\y removed in ■rican tribes it ndians I have does not rank )y some anato- orthy of racial d race derives measurements ■k t the Mon- and tribes of ■ed, is 70, that omitting frac- is much closer .allemnnt St. rgued for the le Northwest coast L'd tlic ii1)li(itic cyo t, if the Moiijjoliaii [)rovcd the oblitiuc 65 Mongol, ,i,l character of the Americans, have(|Uoted someone tribe whicli, ii is asserted, shows marked Chinese traits. This has especially been said of the natives of three locali- ties, the I'.skinio, the tribes of the North Pacific coast, and the Hotocndos of IJra/.il. So far as the last-mentioned are concerned, the IJotocudos, any such similarity has been cate- gorically denied by the latest and most scientific traveller who has visited them, Dr. Paul Ivhrenreich. It is enough it I refer nou to his p;;per in the /.citsdni/t/ur litlnioioi^ic for 1SS7, where he dismisses, I should say once for all, the no- tion of any such resemblance existing. I have already pointed out that the I'skimo are totally un-M(mgolian in cranial shajie, in nasal index, and in linguistic character. They do i)osscss in some instances a general physiognomical similarity, and this is all ; and this is not worth much, as against the dissimilarities mentioned. The same is true of the differences and similarities of some tribes of the north-west coast. In estimating the value of resemblances observed in this part of our continent, we should reniemher that we have sufficient evidence to believe that for many generations some slight intercourse has been .going on between the ad- jacent mainlands and islands of the two continents in the re- gions of their nearest proximity. The .same train of events led to a blending of the negro and the white races along the shores of the Red Sea : but any one who recognizes the dis- tinction of races at all-and I am aware that certain eccen- tric anthropologists do not-vvill not, on that account, c\aiin that the white race is negroid. With just as little reason, it 5 66 I'SSAVS OI" AN AMl'.KICANIS'P. i I seems to iiK', has il been argued lliat lite native Amerieaiis as a race are Monj^oloid. ''• An acute philosopical writer has stated that the superficial observer is a]>t to be inijjressed with the similarities of ob- jects : while the i)rofounder student finds his attention more profitably attracted to their differences. ]W this maxim we may explain this theory of the affinities of the Ameri- can race as well as manv another which has been broached. * WlR-ii Uiis i):ii>ir ;ii)i)car(<l in .S', /(Vn ,• iStpUiubir iilli, i^>m, il U<1 to ji reply from Dr. 11. 1'. C. Tin Kate, of l.( yiltii, who liiid ])iilili;-ln(l various sliulics iiidiiiv oriTiK to prove tlie Moiifjoluid cliaractc'r of the .\iiii ricaii race. Mis arj;utiuiits, however, were merely a re])itilioii of those whieh 1 believe 1 have refilled in the nliove arliele, and for that reason 1 do nol include Ihe diseiission. Live Americans the superficial lilarilies of ob- atteiitioii more this maxim we of the Anieri- l)een broached. >SM, it U'd to ii ri'ply rious sliidics iiidiiiv cc. Ili^ iirj;utiutits, havi- nfiili-d in the THE FHOBABLE NATIONALITY OF THE " BUILDERS." IJ- I'l'hf tnllowiiiir Ivss.iy is rcpriiitid witlKuit alliTatioii. It iijiiK'/iriMl 111 thf .liiitiiiaii Aiitiqnaiiau for Octohir, iSSi, and has c-eilain (k'Kiif of historir valiu' as ilhi^liatiiit; tlu- pro.-^'rfss of ardufoloj^ic study ill tlif rnitf.l States. It is, I lulic.vf, tlu- liist nasoiud aiKU- iiiLiit thai thf i-oiistniitois of thf iiioiiiids of tlif Ohio X'allcy were thf ancestors of tribes kiuiwii and nsidtiit not riiiiotf from the sites of these aiu-ient works. Thoii-h this ojiiiiion has not yet been fnlly acoeiiled, the temleiiey of hiter studies is iiiiquestioiiaMy in its favor.] ''Pi lie question, Who were the M()und-l)uil(Ieis .' is one that ' .still remains open in American arclueoloj;y. Amoiio- the most recent e.xjM-essions of oiiiuion I may (juote Prof. John T. Short, who thinks that one or two Ihou.saiul years may have elapsed since they deserted the Ohio valley, and prob- ably ei^ht hundred since they finally retired from the Gulf coast. =■= Mr. J. P. Maclean continues to believe them to have been .somehow related to the "Toltecs."-) Dr. J. W. iMjster. making a tremendous leap, connects them with a tribe "who, iu times far remote, ficmri-shed in P,razil," and adds: "a broad chasm is to be si)anned before we can link * The Xotlh Amn i,\iin of .\ ii/i'i/iii/w p. in6. i iss,,.) t Till' AfDidui /.'«//,/,;,,, c'lui]). xii. (Ciiui., iS;,^.) ( 67 ) ! ,! r.s i;ssAv,s oi' AN \.mi:kicam.st. p. i \ tlic Mound builders to IIr- North Aiiicrican Indians. Tlu'v were essential !>■ different in their form of ^()\ernnient, their habits anrl their (lail>- jjursuits. The latter were never known to ereet structures whic-h should survive the laj'se of a j;*. IK' rat ion." '■'•' On the other hand, we haw tin- recent titterance of so able an ethnolo);ist as Major J. \V. Powell to the effect that, "With reL!;ard to the mounds so widely scattered between the two oceans, it ma\- be said that niound-buildiuL; tribes were known in the earl\' histon- of disco\erv of this conti- nent, and that the vestiges of art discov'ered do not excel in any res])ect the arts of the Indian tribes known to history. There is, therefore, no reason for irs to search for an extra- liniital origin through lost tribes for the arts discovered in the mounds of North America." t Ik'tween oj^inions so di.scre])anl the student in arclueology ma\- well be at a loss, and it will therefore be worth while to in(|uire just how far the tribes who inhabited the Missis- sii)pi valle>' and the Atlantic sloi)e at the time of the discov- ery were accustomed to heap u]) mounds, excavate trenches, or in other ways leave upon the .soil permanent marks of their occui)aiicy. Beginning with the warlike northern invaders, the Iro- (piois, it clearly apjK-ars that they were accustomed to con- struct burial mounds. Colden states that tl:e coqxse was ]ilaced in a large round hole and that "they then rai.se the iCarth in a round Hill over it.":|: Further particulars are !l >! " I'l r lli^tii} H h'arrs af III,' I'm'trtl Shilcs of .[ inn i<a , ]>]). iSN. ,v}7, iCliicaiio, 1S73,) t Tiiin.siuiiaiis of th,' Anl/ii o/ioloi;i,it! Societv of ll\isliiii,Kloii, />. ( '., p. 116, (iSSi.i t //istoi y of /III' i'iiY .Wilimis, Introduction, p. 16 (London, 1750). C(»MMt\.\I, HI KIAI, M(»IM>S. i(li;ms. They .•niiiKMit, tlii'ir 1 utrc never e the laj'Se of Lteraiu'e of so he effeet that, Lered hetween iiihlin.i,^ tribes of this eoiiti- () not exeel in ,vn to history. 1 for an extra- discovered in n archicology ' worth while •d the Missis- of the discov- vate trenches, lent marks of dcrs, the Tro- tonied to con- l:e coqxse was then raise the )articiilars are 7, I Chicago, 1K73.) JK ( '., p. 116, (iSSi.i '<) Kiven I.y Lafitau : the Kiav^' was Uncd with hark, and ihr hody rooffd ill with hark and branches in the >hai)e of an arch, wliicli was then covered with eartli and >tones so ;is t,, form an <^.C,C'' ^n- him ii!ii .•<:-■ In ihfsc- instances the nmund was erected over a sin-le cori)se ; hnt it was also the cust,,in .'inion- the H in.ns and In.(|nois, as we are informed hy Charlevoix, to collect the hones of their dead every tuj years, and inter them in one mass to-ether. r The slain in a battle were also collected intooiie ])lace and a lar-e nionnd heapc.l <.ver them, as is state.l by Mr. I'anl Kane, | and that snch was an ancient custom of the Iro.iuois tribe., is further shown by a tradition handed down fnmi the last century, accordin- to which the Irocjuois believed that the Ohio mounds were the memorials of a war which in ancient times they wa^ed with the Cherokees. || Mr. ]•;. (\. S.|uier, who carefully examined many of the earthworks in the country of the ancient Inxjuois, was inclined at first to suppose the remains he found there were parts of "a s> stem (,f defence extending from the source of the .Mleohenv and .Sus.p.e- liam.a in New York, diagonally accross the cuntrv throuj-h central and northern Ohio to the Wabash," and hence <Ircw the inference that "the j.ressure of hostilities [upon the "•••^•'"MniildersJ w.s from the north-east. "Ji This opinion has been repeated by .some recent writers; but Mr. S.piier i./'llO 11,1/ ///still ii/K,', p. ;;;. I S,S9 //' Aiiirihu, p. ;i (I, on, 1(111 : H. K Sc.„„„,cn.ft, .Xoirs „„ ,/,. /,„,u„n. pp. ,6., ,6,, cMnpave pp ,,. .- .,S.l..u.ra„.l Davis, A,u,.:l Mo.nu.r,,,, ,^ u.r M,ss,..,f,f„ rallry, p. ,4." 70 l';SS.\VS Ol' AX AMICKICAMST. liiinsrlf sul)slaiitiall>- ix'tracti'tl it in a later work, and reached the convirlioii that wliatrwr ant-ieiit ren.ains there are in Western New V(iri< and l'enns\l\ania are to be attril)Uted tn tlie hder Indian tribes and not to the Nb)und-bnihlers."'- The nei,i;hbors of the Inxpiois, the \arious Al.^oidcin tribes, were oecasionalK' eonstrnctors of mounds. In coni- paratiw 1\- recent times we ha\e a descrii)lion of a " \ictory tnonnd " raised by the Chippeways after a sncvessfnl en- counter with the v'^ioux. The women and chihh-en tluew up tlu' adjacent surface soil into a heaj) about fixe feet hii^h and eiuht or ten feet in diameter, u])on which a i)ole was erected, and to it tufts of t;rass were Innii;, one for each scalp taken, t Robert He\erly, in his //isfoiy of' \'iroi)iia, first pid)lished in i7i>5, describes some curious coustructioirs by the tribes there located. He tells us that they erected " i)\ramids and cohunns" of stone, which the\ painted and decorated with wampum, and jKiid them a sort of worshi]). They also con- structed stone altars on which to offer sacrifices. I This adoration of stones and mas.ses of rock.s- or rather of the genius which was su])posed to reside in thenr pre\ailed also in Massachussetls and other Algonkin localities, and casil\- led to erecting such ])iles.|| Another occasion for mound building among the \'irgin- ian Indians was to celebrate or make a memorial of a .solenm *.(/•<'< /i,''"'"' Mi'inniu-iifs <\/ /III- Stiili- t>t' .\<':f )'<>i k . \i. ii. t Ml'. S. 'ravlor, .l»in iiiiii Imii luil of Si ii>ii i\ voK \liv, \). 22. ( llistiiiy <;/ / 'iif;i>n\t, book ii, I'luip. iii, cli. viii. I; St'o a wt'll-prcnarcd arUoli' on this subject by I'rof. riiicli, in Ihf .1 iiiii nan Jou) lilt! 0/ Si ii>!Ci\ voK vii, p. i,^,<. 'pKiiU'S oi' 'iMii; c.n.i' s'r.\Ti:s. :, and reached . IIkmv arc in • aUril)nk'd to .lildcrs/'- )us Ali;()id<in ids. In coiii- ot" a " \icl()rv succc'ssfnl cn- liildrcn tliivw fixe led high h a i)()k' was one tcr each Irsl published 1)\- the tribes l)\raniids and lecorated with Miev also eon- ices. This rather ol" the MU — prexailed ocalities, and i;- tlie \'irt;i;i- al of a .solenui , in tlif Ainii iitui trcalN . ( )n suc-li an oct'asion lhe\ pert'ornied tl;e linie hon- ored c-erenion\ of "binNin- the hatt-hel," a tomahawk be- ini; literall\ ])nt in the ground, " and the\- raise a pile of stones o\iT it, as the Jews did o\er the bod\ of Absalom. '"•= I am not aware of an>- e\ideiice that the Clierokees were mound builders : Imt they apprci-iated tlie conveniences of such structuies, and in one of their \ilIaL;es William bartram foinid their council housi^ situated on a larj^e mound. He adds : " Pnt it ma\- ln' |)roper to obser\e that this mount on which tlie rotunda stands is of a much an- citnter date than the buildini;, and perlia])s was raised tor another purpose. "i I,ieutenant 'rimberlake is about our best earl\ authorit.\- on the Cherokees, and I believe he nowhere mentions that llie\- built upon mounds of artificial constriu-tion. Adair, however, states that they were accus- tomed to heap ui) and add to i)iles of loose stones in memory of a departed chief, or as monuments of ini])ortant e\ents.:]: The tribes who inhal)ited what we now call the (uilf v^^lates, em])raciny, the le.^ion between thr eastern border of Texas and the Atlantic ( Kvaii south of the Savannah ki\er, belon.L;e(l. with lew and small exceptions, to tlu' s^reat Cliahta Muskokie famil\ , embracing; the tribes known as Choctaws, Chikasaws, Muskokees or Creeks, Seniiiioles, Allibanions. Xatclie/, and others. The lan,uua,s;es of all these lia\e numerous and unmistakable allinities, the Choc- taw or Chahta i)rescntin- probably the :nost archaic form. It IS anion,-; them, if an\ where within our limits, tliat we *///>/,<; r<|/' /■//;•//•/,/, hk iii, i-liap vii. t I'l.ir.is, ]). .51,7 iDiililiii, i;.,;! \ll,^t.„vnni,r \..,ll, Ann., .an l,„lun,s,xy iS.,. Sc,- i..,t.- at .lul „f this I^ssav. M 72 KSSAVS Ol' AN AMlvKICAN IST. must look for the (Icscuiidanls of the mysterious "Mound- builders." No other tribes can approach them in claims for this distinction. Their own traditions, it is true, do not ])oint to a nii>,Malion from the north, but from the west; nor d(j the>- contain any reference to the construction of the great works in (juestion ; but the.se people seem to have been a building race, and to have reared tumuli not con- temptible in compari.son even with the mightiest of the Ohio Valley. The first explorer who has left us an account of his journey in this region was Cabeza de \'aca, who accom- panied tl)e exposition of Pamfilo de Xarvaez in 1527. He, however, kei)t close to the coast for fear of losing his way, and .saw for the most part only the inferior fishing tribes. The.se he describes as generally in a miserable condition. Their huts were of mats erected on piles of oyster shells (the shell heaps now .so fretiuent along the .southern coast). Vet he mentions that in one part, which I judge to be some- where in Louisiana, the natives were accustomed to erect their dwellings on steep hills and around their base !o d/'o- a ditch, as a means of defence. '•■ Our next autlu)rities are very important. They are the narrators of Cajitain Hernando de vSoto's fammis and ill •starred expedition. Of this we have the brief account of Biedma, the longer .story of "the gentleman of IClvas," a Portuguese .soldier of fortune, intelligent and clear-headed, and the poetical and brilliant composition of Garcilasso de la * A'l'hi/i'iiii,' i/Ki' /irr A/tuio .Xiiirz, delta C\i/>o di raica, Ramusio, l'u.'i;,i;i. ton., iii, fol- .V7, 3-.^ (Venice, 1556.) w AiorxDs IN Till'; c.ri.i' statics. 73 )us " Mouiid- jiu in cUiiins s true, do not Llie west ; nor Liction of the ;eeni to have niiH not con- htiest of the :count of his who acconi- in 1527. He, ■;ing" his way, ishing tribes. )le condition, oyster shells .ithern coast). ;e to be sonie- )ined to erect • base /(' (//i,'' ''' They are the minis and ill ef acconnt of of IClvas," a clear-headed, arcilasso de la o, / 'u.'i;i;i. toiw. iii, Vega. In all of these we find the sonthern tribes descri])ed as coiistrncting artificial nioinids, using earthworks for de- fence, excavating ditches and canals, etc. I (]Uote the fol- lowing passage in illnstration : "The town and the house of the Caci(iue Ossachile are like those of the other caci(|ues in Florida. ■'■ ■■' '■■■ The Indians try to place their villages on elevated sites : but inasmuch as in Florida there are not many sites of this kind v/here they can conveniently build, they erect elevations them- selves in the following manner: They select the spot and carry there a (juantity of earth which Ihev form into a kind of platform two or three })ikes in height, the sunnnit of which is large enough to give room for twelve, fifteen or twenty houses, to lodge the caciipie and his attendants. At the foot of this elevation they mark out a square ])lace ac- cording to the size of the village, around which the leading men have their houses. ■■- ■■- ■■■ T(j ascend the elevation they have a straight pa.ssage way from l)ottom to top, fifteen or twenty feet wide. Here steps are made by mas- sive beams, and others arc planted firmly in the grt)und to serve as walls. On all other sides of the platform, the sides are cut steep. "■^- Later on La Vega describes the village of Ca])aha : "This village is .situated on a small hill, and it has almut five luuulred good houses, surrounded with a ditch ten or twelve cubits (brazas) deep, and a width of fifty paces in most i)laces, in others forty. The ditch is filled with water from a canal which has been cut from the town to Chicagua. *I,a VLjia, llist.iiia d,ta Il,„ida, I.ib. ii, cap, .\xii. firf M ! 'I 74 ICSSAVS (Jl" AX AMI'RICAMST. The canal is three leagues in length, at least a pike in (lei)th, and so wide that two large boats could easily ascend or de- scend it, side by side. The ditch which is fdled with water from this canal surrounds the town except in one spot, which is closed by heavy beams jjlanted in the earth.'"'' Hiedma remarks in one passage, si)eaking of the i)rovinces of Ycasqui and Pacaha : " The caciques of this region were accustomed to erect near the house where they lived ver\ high mounds {fr>/irs iirs-rh-vt'cs), and there were some who placed their houses on the top of these mounds, "t I cannot state ])recisely where these provinces and towns were situated ; the successful tracing of De vSoto's journcN has never yet been accomplished, but remains as an inter- esting prol)lem for future antiquaries to .solve. One thing I think is certain; that until he crossed the Mississippi he at no time was outside the limits of the wide spread Chahta- Muskokce tribes. The proper names preserved, and the courses and distances given, both confirm this opinion. W'f find them therefore in his time accustomed to erect lofty mounds, terraces and platforms, and to ])rotect their villages by extensive circumvallations. I shall proceed to incjuire whether such statements are supported by later writers. Our next authorities in rjint of time are the Frencli Huguenots, who undertook to make a .settlement on the vSl. John River near where St. Augustine now stands in Florida. The short and sad history of this colony is familiar to all. *n)i<l, I.il). vi, c.Tp. vi. St-c fur oilier ixaiiipU-s frciii this work: l.ib. ii, caj' XXX, I,i1). iv, cap. .xi, 1,11). v, cap. iii, clc. t Krhiliiiii ill' II' ijiii III I i; a pi'nii.int Ir I 'i'\iIl;i' i/ii C 'api/.tiiii' Suln, p. ><S i Ivl. Tcrnnu\ Coiiipaiisi. liill :\IorXI)S IN I'l.oKIDA. pike ill depth, ,' ascend or de- led with water t in one spot, ,e earth. "•■■ )f the provinces liis rej^ion were hey lived ver\- were some who -ls.'"t aces and towns Soto's journey us as an inter- One thing" I ississippi he al ipreacl Chahta- ■rved,, and the s opinion. We 1 to erect lofty :t their villages :eed to in([uiie ter writers, ire the Freiicli ment on the vSt. mds in Florida, familiar to all. i work : l,il). ii, c;ip. to, p. SS (Kil. Tcnin\ix 75 The colonists ha\-e, however, left us some interesting descrip- tions of tlie aborigines. In the neighhorliood of St. Augus- tine these belonged to the Titiiu(|iiaiia tribe, specimens of who.se language have been i)reser\ed to us, but which, ac- cording to the careful analysis recently i>ublished by Mr. A. S. Cat.schet,"'- has no relationshii) with the Chahta-Musko- kee, nor, for that matter, with any other known tongue. Throughout the rest of the peninsula a Muskokee dialect probably ])re\ailed. The "Portuguese gentleman" tells us that at the very spot where De Soto landed, generally sujjposed to be .some- where aI)oui Tampa Hay, at a town called Ucita, the house of the chief " stood near the .shore ujion a very high mound made by hand for strength." Such mounds are also sj^jken of by the Huguenot exi)lorers. They served as the site of the chieftain's house in the villages, and from them led a broad, smooth road through the village to the water, r These descriptions correspond clo.sely to those of the remains which the botanists, John and William Bartram, discovered and reported about a century ago. It would also appear that the natives of the peninsula erected mounds over their dead, as memorials. Thus the artist Le Moyne de Morgues, writes : " Dcfuncto alicpio rege ejus proviciic, magna .scjlemnitate .sepelitur, et ejus tuimilo crater, e quo bibere solebat, imponitur, defixis circum ipsum tumulum imiltis sagittis."+ The picture he gives of the "tumulus" does not represent it as more than three or four */'!(>,, Yd h^Ki oHhv .■\nicnc;m rliilusdphical Society, 1^79-1880. f///\s/,>iiY .XoUihIr ,lr la J'/,,i nl,\ pp. iiS, i6.|, etc. : /In-, is .\a,nit,„, in I)f Dry, n>ri;,nuil,o,ic^ in Amriicam, I^^rs. ii, Tab xl, 1 rv,i.) w^ 76 I'SSAVS OI" AX AMICRICANIST. feet in height ; so that if this was intended as an accurate re- presentation, the structure scarcely rises to the dijjjnity of ;i mound. After the destruction of the Huj^uenot colony in 1565, the Si)anish priests at once went to work to plant their missions. The Jesuit fathers established themselves at various iK)inls south of the Savannah River, hut their narratives, which have been ])reserved in full in a historic work of i^reat rarit\ , describe the natives as broken uj) into snudl clans, waj^ini.; constant wars, leading vagrant lives, and without fixed hale itations.-i- of these same tribes, however, Richard Blonies, an Ivnglish traveler, who \-isited them about a century later, .says tliat they erected piles or pyramids of stones, on the occasion of a successful conflict, or when they founded a new village, for the purpose of keeping the fact in long rt- membrance.t A])out the same time another Ivnglish tra\- eler, by name Bri.stock, claimed to ha\-e visited the interior of the country and to have found in " Apalacha " a half- civilized nation, who constructed stone walls and had a developed sun worship ; but in a di.scussion of the authenti- city of his alleged narrative I have elsewhere shown that it cannot be relied upon, and is largely a fabrication. ;|; A cor- rect estimate of the constructive powers of the Creeks is given by the botanist, William Bartram, who visited them twice in the latter half of the last century. He found tlK\ had "chunk yards" surrounded by low walls of earth, at *.\lcazar, I'lnoiht-llistuia dr la ('uni/tjiiid </,- Jrfiis rii la /'inviiitia (//■ V'n/i:/,) Tom. ii, Dec. iii. cap. vi, (Madrid, 1710.) t '/"//(■ /'irsriil Sla/i- 11/ His .\fdji:\/ii''s /sirs a)id Vri > i/iii iis in .Inwiiia, p. 1311, ([.im- don, 1667.) I J'/ir J'loiiiiiiii I'cniiisiila, p. 95, .scjci. (I'liila. 1859 ) MOfXDS IN I.OITSIANA. / / IS an accurate rc- tlie (lij^nity of a ony in 1565, tlic t their missions, t various points irrativcs, wliicli : of ji^reat rarit\ , 1 clans. waj^inL,^ :hont fixed hab- :ichard BloniLs, a century later, f stones, on the :liey founded a fact in long' rc- T I'*nti:lisli trav- .ed the interior lacha " a half- 11s and had a )f the authenti- .' shown that it ation.:|; A cor- the Creeks is 10 visited them He found the\ lis of earth, at Piovhnia dr 'I'uhdn. 'mciiia, p. 156, ir.ou- one end of which, sometimes on a moderate artificial eleva- tion, was the chief's (Kvellini; and at the other end the public council house. =i= His descriptions resend)le so closely those in La \'e,oa that evidently the latter was descrihint; the same objects on a larger scale—or from magnified reports. Within the present century the Seminoles of Florida are said to have retained the custom of collecting the slain after a battle and interring them in one large mound. The writer on whose authority I state this, adds that he " oI)servcd 'on the road from St. Augustine to Tomaka, one mound which must have covered two acres of ground,"! but this must surely have been a connnunal burial mound. Passing to the tribes nearer the ]\Iississii)pi, most of them of Choctaw affiliation, we find cofisiderable testimony in the French writers to their use of niouiids. Thus M. de la Harpesays : "The cabins of the Vastms, Courous, Offogoula and Ouspic are disjiersed over the country on mounds of earth nuule with their own hands. "+ The Natchez were mostly of Choctaw lineage. In one of their villages Dumont notes that the cabin of the chief was elevated on a mound. J^ Father I,e Petit, a nu'.ssionary ^vho labored among them, gives the particulars that the residence of the great chief or "Brother of the Sun," as he was called, was erected on a mound il'Nt/i) of earth carried for that purpo.se. When the chief died, the hou.^e was destroyed, and the .same mound was not used as the site of the mansion of his successor, but *Iiannnn MSS.. in Uk- I.ihrary of Uu- Pennsylvania Historical Socic-ty. ^.\a,,alnr o/,kr,./a .\a-Ka,„nln: J',i,ur of /.o,nl,a/l,., hy his .u.anlian, p 71-2, ( I.oiuion, is.!i.i lAinials. in Louisiana I/is/. CoUs., p. 196. ■a Mr, „.„,,; //,.'./,„, ■,/,„■.., f./c, ;M„,,,a,„: Tnnio ii, p. ^oc,. pp. iMi I ■; 78 KSSAVS OF AX A.MI'RIC WIST. I 1 was left vacant and a new one was constructed/^- This intii estinj; fact goes to exjilain the great nuni1)er of mounds 111 some localities ; and it also teaches us the im]K)rtant truth th:it we catniot form any correct estimate of the date when a mound-building tribe left a locality !)>■ counting the rings in trees, etc., because long before they departed, certain tunnili or earthworks may have been deserted and tabooed from superstitious notions, just as many were among theXatclu/, We have the size of the Natchez mounds given approxi matcly by M. Le Page du Pratz. He observes that the om on which was the house of the Great vSun was " about eight feet high and twenty feet over on the surface. "t He add- that their temple, in which the jierpetual fire was kej^t burn ing, was on a mound about the same height. The custom of conununal burial has been a'^'-'erted U>. At the time of the discovery it appears to have prevailed in most of the tribes from the Great Lakes to the (lulf. Thi bones of each phratry or gens — the former, i)r()bably — wc-r collected every eight or ten \ears and conveyed to the spot where they were to l)e finall\- interred. A mound \v;b raised over them which gradually increased in size with eacli additional interment. The particulars of this method of burial have often been descril>ed, and it is enough that I refer to a few authorities in the note.t Indeed it has not * l.illii s I'.diliantis ,■/ Cm imsrs, ToniL'. i, p. 2'ii . ^ Ifistiit y (>/' /.'iiiisiiiiui. vol. ii, p. iss, i l.;iiir. Trans, I.diuloii, 17(1,^) {Adair, llislmy of llir Xm/li .1 iiiii iitiii fiitliiiiis. pp. iSj, 1S5 :— William Hartr;nii 'J'icnr/.K, p. .sCu : Dumoiit. .'ifriiioii t's llistm ii/iii-s dr la /.oiiisia>ii\ Tonic i, pp. 2.16, . >; et al. ; Hcriiunl Romans, .\atiiial and Ci;'il Ifislai y of I'loi ida, pp. SS-yo, (a good ac connt.j The A'i'/a/ions des /,'sui/s describe the custom among the Xorlherii Indians. i il:)„, sorTiii'.KN TKiiii:s AS .Mor.vn-iirii.Di'KS. 79 L'(l/^= This inki- er of niouiuls ill imi^ortaiit truth ■ the (late when a itinj;- the rin^s in (1, certain tumuli lul tabooed from ong the Natchez, s given ajiproxi rves that the oiii /as " about eight ice."T lie add- L' was kejit bum ,?en a'^'-erted to, ia\-e prevailed in > the Gulf. TIk I)r()bably — wen eyed to the spot A mound w;b in size with eacli this method of s enough that I ideed it has not .S :— WiUiiiin I!;irtr:\in »■, Tome i, ])i). 2,^6, -■ u !, ])]). SS-yo, (ii jjood ;k' )rUicrii Iiidiatis. been pretended that such mounds necessaril\- dale back to a race anterior to that which occupied the soil at the advent ot the white man. I ha\e not included in the above survey the important Dakota stock who once occii])ied an extended territor\- on the upper Mississii)i)i and its aflluents, and scattered clans of whom were resident on the Atlantic Coast in \'irginia and Carolina. Hut. in fact, I have nowhere found that they erected earthworks of any i)retentions whatever. From what I have collected, therefore, it would ai)i)ear that the only resident Indians at the time of the discovery who showed any evidence of mound-imilding comparable to that found in the Ohio valley were the Chahta-Muskokces. I believe that the eviilence is sufllcienl to justify us in ac- cepting this race as the constructors of all tho.se extensive mounds, terraces, i)latf()rnis, artificial lakes and circumvalla- tions which are .scattered over the (iulf vStates. Georgia and Florida. The earliest exi)l()rers distinctly state that such were u,se(l and constructed by these nations in the sixteenth century, and probably had been for many generations. Such too, is the opinion arrived at by Col. C. C. Jones, than whom no one is more comiietent to .sjieak with authority on this point. Referring to the earthworks found 'n (korgia he writes: "We do not concur in the oi)iiii()n so often ex- pres.sed that the mound-builders were a race distinct from and superior in art, go\ernnient, and religion, to the Southeii Indians of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries." It is a 15aconian rule which holds good in every depart- ment of .science that the simplist explanation of a given fact or series of facts should ahva\s be accepted ; therefore if we So i:SS.\YS OI" AN AMI'.KICANIST. •'ill!'; )■ can point out a wt-ll known racv of Indiinis who, at the tinir of tlic disci iwry, raided uionnds and other earthworks, noi wholl>- dissiniihir in character and not nuich inferior in si/e to those in the Oliio vallew and wlio resided not \'er\' fir awa\- fron\ that rej^ion and directl>- in tlie line which Uw Monnd liuilders are helieved 1)\- all to have f lUowed in their enii.t^ration, tlien this rnle constrains ns to accejit for the pres- sent this race as the most probable descendants of the Mound Tribes, and seek no further for Toltecs, Asiatics or Hrazil- lians. All these conditions are filled by the Chahta tribes. •■ It is true, as I ha\-e already said, that the traditions of their own ()rii;in do not point to the north but rather to the west or northwest ; but in one of these traditions it is notice- able that they claim their origin to have been from a lart^e artificial mound, the celebrated Xaiii/i W'aiva, the vSlopin.i; Hill, an inuncnse pile in the valle>- of the liig Black River;* and it may be that this is a vai^ue reminiscence of their re- mote mii;ration from their majestic works in the north. The size of the southern mounds is often worthy of the descendants of those who raised the \'ast piles in the north- ern valle>s. Thus one in the Ivtowah Valley, Georgia, has a cubical capacity of 1,000,000, cul)ic feet.;|: The Messier Mound, near the Chatahoochee River, contains a1)out 700,000 cid)ic feet. J? Wholly artificial mounds 50 to 70 feet in height, * A II till II nil's of till' SiiiHii'iii hiilimis. ])nrtlctilarly tlu' Ovorj;;!;!!! Tribes, p. i ;; I New York, iS;,;,] t I'or particulars of tliis sec my Mytlis of tlic .Wr.' Il'm id, pp. 241-2, ^^■c\v York iS76.) I C. C. Jones. Mull mill iilal Ixiiiiaiiis of (irm \i;iii, p. ,?2. in)i<l. .\nliiiiiilits 11/' till Siiulliriii l>nliaiis,x>. 169. '^r SI/i; OI" MOINDS. 8r vlio, at the tiiiu' cartluvorks, iiol 1 interior in si/r x-d not very far line which tlu' followed in their :u]-)i for the pres- its of the Mound iatics or lira/il- Chahta trihes.- •he traditions of )Ut rather to the ions it is notice- en from a larLVe il'ii, the SlopinL,^ ^ Black River;! .Mice of their re- the north. 1 worthy of the les in the north- -■y, Georgia, has :|; The Messier ns about 700.000 •o feet in height, )rjii;ui Tribes, p. i :; pp. 241- 2, i^Xcw Viirk With li.ise areas of almul joo hy jiMiieet, are hv no means unii>tia! ill []\v river \alle\> of llie ( uilf .S'.atfs. \\ itli Ihe-e figures \w mav eoinpare the (liiiun-.ioiis of the norlhcni iiioiiiid-^. The mas-.i\e one near Miamishur-, ( Jjiio, 6.S \vv{ hi-h. has l).en ealeulated to contain ;,i 1 ,;,5. . ctihic feel alioni half (Ik' si/r of iIr. Mc'ssier .Mdiiiid. .\l Clark's \Vork->, Ohio, thc' eiiiliaiikiiK. u^^ .md mounds to<;ellier con- tain aliout ;,,""".' 00 euhic feet ;•■■ hut as Ihf emliankmeiit is three miles long, mo-«t of tlii- is not in the mounds them- selves. (;ie,iter than aii\- of ihoe is the truncated i.\ramid atCahokia, Illinois, which has an altitude of (jo feet and a ba.se area of;, o hy 5, „ , feet. It is, howe\er. douhlful whether this is wlioll\ an arliiicial construction. Professor Spencer Smith has shown that the once famous "big mound" of St. lyouiswas Largely a natural loniiation ; and he expresses. the opinion that many of the mounds in Missouri and Illinois. poptdarl\- su])posetl to he artificial constructions, are wholly. or in -reat ].art, of geologic ori-iu, r There is ap])areutly therefore no such gival difference between the earth struc- tures of the Chahta tribes, and those left us by the more xiorthern mound-builders, that we need supjiose for the latter any material superiority in culture over the former when fir.st they became known to the whites ; nor is there any impro- bability in assuming that the .Mound-builders of the Ohio were in fact the progenitors of the Chahta tribes, and were driven .south probably about three or fotu" hundred years be- fore the di.seo\ery. Such is the conviction to which the above reasoning leads us. *S<iinLr N: I);ivis, . (;„ „•„/ .U,, „„„:,■ >,/.■. of the Ar,.-.s,.y-,f>pi I allrv^.T^ t O, ,Mn, of, he n,s Mound of.S/. /,„„., a puf>e, ,md hrfne the SI. Louis Academy Oj Science. 83 I'.SSAVS Id' AN AMI'KICAMST. Ill llic course of it, I li;i\(.' said iiotliiiii; about thf condi- tioii of llu- arts of the Mound builders coniparfd with that nf the (.aiix' southern Indians ; nor ha\e I spoken ol' llieir suji- |K)sed peculiar relij^ious beliefs which a recent writer thinks to point to "Toltec " I'onuections ;• ■ nor ha\e I discussed tin.' comparative crauiolo,i;\- of the Mouiul builders, upon wlii( li some \er\- remarkable li\potlleses lia\e been erected ; nor iln I think it worthwhile to do so, for in tlie present state of aiitliropolo},ric science, all the facts of these kinds relatiii!:; to the Mound-builders which we lia\e as \et learned, can have no ai)precial)le weit;lit to the inxestij^ator. *'riii)in;i> 1'',. riiki'll, Iln- '1',-stimiuiy ,<t llir M^uiiids : I'misnlri i :l :■ illi rsfici uJ i , h i- eni )■ III l/ir I'l rliisli'i I, .In lid'clnj^y of' Kiiilin ky a ml lli,- . liZ/niuiiii; .S/n/r.s, \)\>. 'i, j^. (Maysvillc, is;*..) I liivc'sti;;aticnis CDiiiliKticl simc tlii' above Ivssay w.'i-; i)iiiitt(l ri'i|iiiii' .•^diiu- iiiddi ficaliims in its slMtiimiits. 'I'lu' riscaic-lKN of rn)l'i.s-.(ir Cxiiis 'rimnias ihikUi it liki'ly Uiat tlii- CluroUtcs wcru also MiiuiKlliiiililcrs, anil Uial tluy oc-tupiiil jjni- tioiis of \Vt-.t<.in I'Liiiisylvaiiia and Utslirn Vii>i''ii!i 1<-'-'^ lluin two CLiitMriis a,;."! (Sti- also my work '/'//,■ /.,i/,ipi'' iii/i/ Ihrii /.ixriu/s, \>\>. if)-iS. I'liilaiklpliia, is^5, I'rohalily the i )liio Valley Miiunil-liuiUKrs wire llic antcstors ol :-onn.' ol'tlH'Cliir- okfL'S as will as ol' tlu' Clialita-Muskoki Irilics. Craniolo^ic data (rnui llie oliiu numiids are still too va^jiie to permit inferenees from lliem.] i ' !; )i)Ut the c'oiidi v(l willi that i'\ (.11 (if their s\\])- t writir thinks I discussed tilt.' •rs, upon \vhi( li L-iV(-ted ; nor do ])r(.'S(.'nt state (if kinds relatiii;^^ et learned, can )r. ('(/ 7i'i//i r>fii'i II, I III, I- iiiiiK .SVi/ZcA, lip. I), J^, 1 ni|iiiii' .'^oiiu- iiiocli iw 'riiimia'- viikKt it t tluv oc-cllpil'il ]iu; :iii Iwo c'cnliirii'S ii,;;'i I'liiliiik'lpliiii, is^5, (if i-i)iii(.' of till' c'lii :■ .' (lata frcjiii llio ( iliin HK TflLTHL'S AM) THMH FABULOUS EMFIHH. JX Ihe first .iddiii,,,, ,,f ni\- J/i/Z/v «/' ///<■ .W;.' \\\>iU: pub- lished in is^s, I asserted that the stor>- of the eilyofTiila and its inhal.ilantr the Toll(_es, as enrreiitly related in an ciciit Mexican history, is a myth, and not history. 'J'jiis opinion I ha\e sinee rejieated in \ arious ])iil.lieations,T I.iit writers on pre Colninhian Aiiieriean eivili/.atioii have been very unwiiiin-- to -ive np their Toltecs, and lately M. Charnay has C(.nipo>ed a laborious nionograpli to defend theiii.t I,el nie state the (jiiestion S(iuarel\ . Theorthodo.x opinion is that the Toilers, eoiiiin- from the north (-west or -east), founded the city of Tula (about forty • Mylli- nflhr .\-,..v //•,.,/,/. Ily 1). ,,. IlriiUon. clu,,. vi. f,„<si,„. tr>lHciaUy in .(»„,„„„ //,,„ M„/is, a .W„dy ni ,1,, Satiir Krli^ioin of Ik, lle.t em C.,nli,i,iit, PI). .;,s, Cn.s.', etc, i I'hila.l.lphia. iss.,) tM. Cl,ar.,ay, i„ his essay. /.„ Cnilisalin,, ;;,//,>,;„,., ,,uhlisl.c<l in the h'rrur d' J-Jl.„o„„p,u,: T.iv., p. .s,, ,ss,, states his thesis as follows: "Je veux pronver rcMst.ncc ,h, Tolt-,i,u. que certains onl ni,-,. ; jo vcnx p,o„v.r .pu- Ics civilisations Am.r,ca.ncs „e sont .p.nnc scale ct niOnie civilisation ; cnf.n, jc vox pronver ,,„,. cettc civilisation est toUe.,ne." I consider each of these statcn.ents an ntt. r error In Ins A,u„:in,-. r,llrs dn .\,un,„u Monde, M. Charnav has ijone so far as to ^ivc B map showing the n.iKrations of the ancient Toltecs. As a translation of this work, with this map. has recently been pnhlishe.l in this conntrv, it appears to me the n.ore nee.lful that the baseless character of the Toltec leKcn.l be distinctly stateil. (S3) » 'i iff 84 i:SSAYS ')!■ AX AMI'RICAXIST niik'S norlli of the pivsent city of Mc-xicoi in the sixth ecu tnr\-, A. I).; tli;il the'.- State llotirishcd for about fu'c hun (bed \-cars, until it nunihcrcd uca!i\- lour millions of inhali itauts, and extended its swav from ocean to ocean over the whole of central Mexico :■•■ that \l reaclied a remarkalil\- hi;;h stii.ue of culture in the arts; that in the tenth or ele\enth cenUn\- it was alniosL totall\- destroyed 1)\- war and famine;! and that its fraL;nients, escapiuL; in SLi)arate colonies, carried the civilization of Tula to the south, to Tal)as(-o ( Paletuiue'), Yucatan, Ciuatemala and Xicara,L;ua. Ouet/alcoatl, the last ruler of Tula, himself went to the south-east, and reapjears in Yucatan as the culturcdicro Cukulkan, the trailitional founderof the Ma>a civilization. This, I sa\-, is the current opinion alx ut the Toltee\s. It is found in the works of Ixtlilxochitl, \'eitia, Clavii;^r(», Prescott, Brasseur de I'ourbourt;-, Orozco y Perra, and .scores of other ri'i^utable writers. The disjiersion of the Toltecs has been offered as the easy solution of the orii;in of the ci\ilization not oni\- oC (j^.ntral America, but of New Mexico and the Mississippi valley.;,: ' iNllilxntiiiU, in his h'r!,ir/ii>/rs I li.^/oi iia\ (in I. old Kin.s'shoi.niyli's . l«//(//;;7//-,! of M, i!f), \'ul. i.\., p. ,\i.O. says that ihiiiipj, Uic rri.un of ■riipillziii, last kiiii; nf Tula, tlic Tultcc Sdvciti.mily txUiicliil a tluiusaiul IcaRiics from uoiUi to soutli ami eiylit Iniiultc'd from cast to west : anil in the wars that atlcntlctl its downfall fivi.' million six Inindix-d thousand persons were slain ! ! ■j-Sahauun (His/, dr la .Xiirrit I'.sfHiria. I.ili. viii, cap. s') places the destruction of Tula in the vear 310 P.. C. ; Ixtlilxi v.liitl [Hislaiia CA/(//«.vv(7, i i, cap. .)) '" '"Jis it down to 1/9 .\. 1). ; the ( >'(/(■ r /\aiii!i('.~ (p. 25^ to 1 u'..S ; atul .so on. There is an equal variation about the date i.T founding the city. X Since wri'ing the above 1 have received from the Comtc dc Charcncey a reprint of his aiticle on Ailnll'ii, in which he sets foitli the theory of the late M. I, .\n grand, that nil ancient Anurican elvilizatu n \\ as due to two '' cr., 11 nts " of Tol- tecH, the western, straight-headed Toltecs, who entered Anahuac by land from tlie i'Ai!i,i;i) iiisToKV oi" rri.A. •^5 lie sixtli cell lout five Inin Diis (if iiiluili c'c-an over lli</ :iark;ilil\- lii.'^li Lli (ir cle\X'nlli ami faininc ;i lollies, carried •() ( PaleiKineX coall, the lasl and leapi'ears lie traditional cToltccs. It ia, Clavi,i;ero, ■ra, and scores if the Toltecs orii^in of the f New Mexico ii.iuyh's . \ nliqiiitirs lillzin. l;i!-l kiii.u nf no! Ill to s<iiitli aiul •il its downfall five the lU'stniction nf i i, cap. .]> Ill iiigs it There is an equal :liarcticcy a reprint the late M. I.. An- '■ er.irints" of Tnl- ac 1>}- land from the The o])iiiioii that I ojjpose to this, and which I hope to estalili-^h in this article, is as iollows : 'I'lila was nierel\- one of the towns htiill and occnipied by that Ij-ihe of the Xalm.as known as .l:/rr<r or .'A tvV;/, whose trihal i;()d was Huil/ilopochtli, and wlio tinall\- settled at Mex- ico-'renochtillan i the present cit\- of Mexico ) ; its inhabitants were called 'i'oltecs, Imt there was never aii_\' sncli distinct tnlie or natioiialit\- ; llie\- were nierel\- the ancestor^ of this braiRi! ot the A/kca. and when Tula was destroxed by civil and foreiL,Mi wars, these sur\i\-ors reino\ed to the valley of Mexico and became merged with their kiiulred ; the_\' en- joyt-d no sii])reniacy, either in ])ower or in the arts; and the ToUt-c "eniiiire" is a baseless iable. What s^'ax-e llieiii their sin.milar fame in later le;;end was ])artl>- the teiidenc\- of the human mind to ^lority the "L;(iod old times" and to mert;e ancestors into tli\-iiiities, and e-;peciall>- the sii,;nificaiice of the name Tula, "the Place of the Sun," lea(lin,u- to the con- foundiiiL; and identification of a llalf-for^dlten le,L;eiid with the e\er-Ii\iiii; li-hl-and-darkness ni\tli of the i;ods Oiietz- alcoall and Tezcalliiioca. To snpport this \-iew,-let ns iiujiiire what we know about Tula as an historic site. Its location is on one of tlie great ancient trails leadiiiir from the north into the \'alle}- of Mexico/^- The ruins of north-west, and the eastern, llat-lieaded Toltees, ulio eaine l;y sea foni Id.irida. It is to eriticise sneh vayne llieori/.in.L; that I have wrillt-n this paper, * Mntohnia, in hi-, //,./,„ ,\i ,/,■/,,, /„■./„,, ,/,- .\-„, ,-,/ /\/,,,,;,. ,, :;, e.-illstlie loealilj- " el pueilo ll.nn.iclnT..llan," the jiass or o;Ue ealled Tollaii. 'Ihron-h it, he >t:ites, pas.-ed fust the Collma and later the Mexica, thon.^h he adds lli,-it some niainlaiii these weie the same people. In fa.-t. Colliua is a form of a word whieh means " ance.stors : " ,o//i, forefather; luirolltiiaii , my forefalliers; C.illiiia,aii, "the place 9 86 TCSSAVS OF AN AMIC KICAMST. s ill the old town are upon nn ek'\ali()ii about loo fcr-t in Irmj^IU. whose suiuniil ])resc'nls a lex'cl surface in the slia])e of an irrt'i^iilar Irian.nle some Soo wards lon<;, with a central width of 3< lo yards, the a])ex to the south-east, where the face of the hill is fortified hy a rou,t;h stone wall.-- It is a natiu-al hill, oxerlookini;- a small nuidd\- creek, called the A'l'o dc Tula A' Yet tliis unpretendin,<;' mound is the eelehrated Co-iti pcti, Serjient-Mount, or vSnake-Hill, famous in Xahuall legend, and the central fii;-ure in all the wonderful stories about tlie Toltecs.;|; The remains of the artificial tumuli and ol'tlu- fdrtfallit'is," ulurc tlu-y Iiv(.-<1, In Aztec ])ictiui- writinii tlii-. is ruprcsciitc il l)y a Iiill with a btnt top. on the " ikoiioiiintic " svi-teiii, tlie verb (iilnii, 'iieaniiijr h) lieiul, to stoop. Those Me.xiea who said the Colhua proceeded them at Tula. sini])ly iiuaiit that their own ancestors ilwelt tlnre. 'I'hc .i ini/r.s i/r ('/iiiii/i/t//ti>i i\.'^ .,, T,},) distinctly states that what Toltecs snr\-ived the wars which drove them south- ward liec." me inersed in the Collnias, .\s these wars largely aro^e from civil dis- sensions, the account no doubt is correct which states that others settled in Acol- hnacan, on the tasteru shore of the principal lake in the Valley of Mexico. The name means "Colhuacan by the water," aiul w;is the State of which the capital was Tezcoco. *This description is taken from tlie map of the location in M. Charnay's .-)»</■ /•nn-s I'iilis tin .\'i)ii7i\iii Moinir, p. K.^ The measurements I have made from the map do not agree with those state<l in the text of the book, but are, I take it, more accurate. 1- Sometimes called the Rio ilr .^/nn/r^Kiiid . and al.o the Tollanall, water of Tula. This stream jjlay.s a cons])icuous ])art in the Ouetzalcoatl myths It appears to be the same as the river .\li\\ai- ( flowing f)r sprca<lini; water, (///. /ii\iiiitt\, or .\'//;i- loyaii I where precious stones are washed, from i iiiiU. fiiini, \ti>i\, referred to liy Sahagim, ///.v/. (A' A; .\/i<';\! J-:^f>ii>:<i , \,\]). i\ . ca]). .'ti. In it were the celebrated '■ liaths . '■OMctzaiLo.it!" called Alri ftananim lim, "the water in the tin i>alaee " probably from being adorned with this nietal < . Iiiii/i\< (f<- ( 'iniiihlitlaii'i. I See the ( /«// r /w;;«/;(:. p. .^]. W'liy called Snakr-llill the legend says not. I neeil not recall how prominent an obju. i is the se.'peut in .\ztec mythology. Thi' name is a comiionud of ma/I, snake, and Irfuil. hill oi- uiounlain. b\it which may also may mean tow 11 or city, as such were iisuuilv built on elevations. Thefniiii ( V)i;A'/)»'(- is this word with the postposition r, and means "at the snake hill," T perhaps, "at Snake-town. " AKCiirri'CTrKi': oi- 'iti.a. '^7 cet in liei;j;ht. L- shape of an central width IV the face (if t is a natural j(l the Kio di he eelebrateil us in Xahuatl ulerful stories ial tumuli ami this is represented 1) , iilim, 'iicniiiiiK to Kill at 'I'ula. simply ( 'uaulilithiu (p':'. _-i, 1 flrove them sodtli- TD^e from civil <lis- liers settled in Acul- ey cif Mexico. The if which the capital M. Charnay's Ann- lave made from the ; arc, I take it, more 'iiaU. water of Tula. IS. It ajjpears to be ///, /(iniiiii\, or ,\7/,i- Kiii), referred to liy «ere the celebrated in the tin palace " hlitlain. leijend says not. I .ec mytholojry. Tlic tain, Init which may lev;itions. Thefnini the snake hill," -r walls, whicli are al)un(lantl\- scattered over the summit, .slitiw that, like tlie puelilns of New Mexico, they were built of lari^e sun baked bricks minified with stones, roni^h or '.rinimcd, and both walls and floors were laid in a firm ce- ment, wliit-h was usnall\- i)ainted of different colors. Hence probable the name I'iilp'Ui, "amid tlie colors," which tra- dition sa\> wa^ a]i])lied to these strncture-- on the C<iate])etl.''" The stone- work, re])re.-cnti.'d by a few broken fra.^nients, a])pe;.rs eijual, but not sn])crior, to that of the X'alley ot Mexico. Iloth the free and the attached column occur, and fij;ure-car\inL; was known, as a few weather-beaten relics testily. The houses contained man\' rotans, on different levels, and. the roofs were Hat. They were no dtnibt mostly cotnmnnal structures. At the f i;)t of the Serpent-IIill is a level ])lain, but little abo\c the ri\'er, on which is the modern villaj^e with its corn-fields. These geo.nraphical ])articulars are necessar>- to under- stand the ancient legend, and with them in iniiul its real purjxirt is e\ident. t That legeiul is as follows: When the A/.teca or Mexica *Or to one of them, 'I'he name is i)reserved hy Ixtlil.\oeliitl, Rihutoti,'^ J/is- ton(\i\\\\ KinK>horont;h, .lA- 1 /I .<, \'ol, ix,, p. ;jt.. Its derivation is tVoni /),t//i,^ color (root /<in, and the iio>tiio'-iti. Ill /',(;/. II is notewortliy that this U-yeiid states that Onet/.aleoatl in his avatar as ()■ Arull was born in the I'alpan, " House of Color-,;" while tile usual story was that he came from Tla-i>allan, the place of cohn>. Thi- in die, it es that the two accounts are versions of the same in\ tli. t Tin re are two ancient Codices ixtant, uivin.y in iiicture-wrilin;..; the migrations of the .Ml xi. 'I'liey have been repeatedly publislu d in part oi' in whole, with Viiry- ing <lei;recs of accuracy, oro/co y Herra .nivcs their bibli.ioraphy in his //n/on'u Anil':;! a , I,' .lAi /,-;, 'I'oin. iii. i),i.i,note. These Codices dillVr widel\, and -c. in contradictory, but orozci> y lierra has reconeihd lluni by the liapi)s sn;;.L;e>lion that they rider to se(iiieiit and not synchronous events. 'I'heie is, however, yet llliu h to ilo before tlieir full nieaiiiiig is a cert.iiiKd 88 I'SSAYS OF AN A.Ml'KICANIST. f: ': — for IIrsc names were applied to tlie same Iribc''' — lel'l llieir early home in A/.llan--\\liicli Ramirez locates in I.ake Chaleo in the \'alle\- of Mexico and ( )ro/.co \- Ik-rra in Lake Cha])allan in Michoacani - they ])nrsned their course for some .generations in harmonx- : hut at a certain time, some- where between the eis^hth and the ele\-enth centnr_\- of our era, the\- fell out and se])arated. The lej^end refers to thi'- as a dispute between the f )llowers of the tribal .mxl Iluitzil- opochtli and those of his sister Malinalxochitl. We nia\- understand it to have been the separation of two "totems." The latter entered at once the \'alle\- of Mexico, while the * 'I'lic iianu' A/tlaii is tliat nf a place anil :\l(_\ill lliat ofa pi-rsoii, aiiil fmiii Uic-c arc (Icrivcd .{■./ifall, |ihiral, .t./mi, aii<l Miwini/I. \i\. MitiHi. '\'\\u Aztcca an- saiii til liavc K-ft A/.IIan niiilcr tin' miiilanct' nf Mixitl i ( 'mir i h'auui ,■■: Tlic raiH cals of biith wiirils liavu imw lucDinc siniiiwliat obst'iircil in \.\\v XalmaU. M\ own opinion is that I'atlur I)\iran •Ili^l. dr .\iii\\i /-.s/inrui. 'I'lini. i. ]). n,i was li.nlit in translating Aztlan as " tin- jilacr of \\ liitcncss." cl !iii;,i> ilr bluih tiia. from tlir radical /:A;r, wliitr. 'I'liis may ri. fir lo tin- Mast, as the place of the ilawn ; Iml tlurc is also a tmiiilalion to look upon Aztkiu as a synco]H' nf n-i-Ui-IIaii,- " \)\ tlic salt water." Mixicatl isa lumuii i^nilil,- i\qi\\vi\ from .!/,■ i ///, \\ liiih was anotlier name for the trilial .i.;i il or ta: ly Uailer I hiilzilipuelitl' as is positive ly stated by 'l'ori|Uemaila i,Mi»itii quia /iiiliiin,:. I, lb. viii. cap .\ii. Salia.nun explains .Mexitl ;is a eom])oun'l lit iiiii/, the ma.nney, and r////, which means "haii." and " grandmother " > ///>/. ,/. .\'ni-:ii /-'^ptiiia. \.i\). X. Vii\). 2~ii. It is noteworthy that one of the names of Oue'/- alcoatl is .''■/i; c)iii/-/ii son of the ma.L;uey (l.\til.\oehill. A',/. ///>/., in Kin,i;sboroneli Vol. ix. p. 2;,Si. 'fhoe two j;ods were ori,;;inally broilers. tlio\ii.;h laeh had divei> itiytlncal ancestors tOn.izcoy lierra. //istm in Aiitn^iia i/r Mrviai. 'I' in. iii, ca])..). lint .\lbert ('.allatiii waslhcfir.st to place .Aztlan no further west th.aii Michoacan : /') i.';,'>. .1 ntfiimn ICtliiiiilDfi. Smirty, \'ol. ii, ]). ..nji. ( ir<;zro thinks .Azlla.n was the sm.all islaml called Mexcalla in I. ake Chapallan, apparently because he thinks this name means " houses of the Mexi :" but it may also sinnily " where there is abundance of ma- guey leaves," this delica.cy beini; called "/(Ik;/// in Xalir.atl, and the t( rmin.il .( si.^nfyin.i; location or alniiidance. iSee Saha.mm, f/isloi la <tr \iii-7a lisftafui, I.ili vii, cap. 9. J At present, one of the smaller species of maguey is called miwcalli. WANDICRINCS "I- Till-; A/.TI'.CS. Sq ic lril)L'''' — Ict'l Dcates in I.akc Berra in Lake L-ir course fur in lime, soiuc- ■enlnr_\- of our refers to this I .mxl Iluitzil- itl. We may wo "totems." :ieo, while the III), ami friiiu llu -r /. 'rill' Azteca an- tuinii--: . The vaili I Uu' XaliuaU. My 11. i. ]). Hi! was li.nlit blaiii III a . frmii tlir • of tlif <lawn ; but of tii~Ui-lla>t , - " bv iiillirr iiaiiu- for tlic 111 liy 'l'or(|Ui.'ninil:i iitl as ;i (.'iiMip'iuinl iliii'iUur " . ///a/. ,/ Ik- iiaiiK'S ofouct/ , in Kiii,i;sb(irinii.-li i^li I ach had divi i ~ liut Albi-rtCallatiii 1 I Ti i:iis. . I iiin /iiin ;s t]u- sii'.all ishiiiil ks this naiiK iiit-aiis • abiiiuhiiK-c of iii.i md the t( rniiiial ; .\/iiwii lisfiafui, I. ill i called ini'.vcalli. followers of I[uit/.iloi)i;c'hlli passed on 'o the ])lain of 'I'nla and settled on the Coatepell. Here, sa>s the narrati\-e, the\- constructed hou-es of stones and of rushes, htiilt a tenipli- for the wor>hi]) of IIuitzilo])ochtli, set up his iiiia,L;e and those of th.e fifteen dix'inities (;_;entes?) who were subject to him, and erected a lar^e altar of scailptured stone and a court for their hall pla\-.'--- The le\el i^roiind at the foot of the hill tlie\- partl\- Hooded !)>■ daiamiuj; the ri\-er, and used the remainder for jtlantiuL;' their .-roi)S. After an indeter- minate time thee aliandoned Tula, and the Coatepetl, dri\-en out li\- ci\il strife and war ike nei^hbois, and jonrne_\'ed southward into the \'alle\- of Mexico, there to found the famous cit\- ol' that name. I'liis is the simple narratix'e of Tulan, stripiied of its con- tradictions, metaphors and confusion, as handed down by tho^e hii^hc-.st authorities the Code.\ Ramirez, Tezozomoc and I'athc! Dunaii.v It is a ])lain statement that Tula and its vSnakellill were nierel\- one of the stations of the Azteca in their mii.;ratioiis an important station, indeed, with nat- ural strength, and one that tiiey fortified with care, where for some .ueiieratious, proltahlx-, the_\- maintained an inde- *U is c|uiU- likily thai tlu- stoiu- inia^e li.ijim-d by Chaiiiay, An, ; iiius fillisilii Noiiii-aii .U.)ii,/,\ \K :j. and the stone lini; used in tlu lUuhtli, ball play, whieh he- figures, ]). 7;, are those refered to in the historic legend. t'l'he i.',,d,\\ l<aniii,\, ]>. :\, a most e.xeellent anthority. is c|iiite clear. 'I'lu- pic- ture-\vritiii«-\vhieh is really phonetic, or, as I havi- termid it. //,,.)/..«/,///,- repre- sents the Coatepet! by the .siKll of a hill (/,-/.,-//! iiicl.isin.i; a serpent •..,all^. Te/.j/o- nioc. in his < ;,.;,/,,, .1/, 1 /,,;)/„, cap. j. presents a more detailed but more confused account. Dui.-in, lht.:,ni d. Ins /minis dr .\i„:v /■:^/.„r,„, cap. ;„ is worthy ofconi- paris.m. •flu- artilici.il inimdatioii of the plain to which the accounts refer proba- bly nuans that a ditch or nio.-it was constructed to protect the foot of the hill. Uer- rera says: ■Cercaron de ayna el cerro llamado Coatepec," Ih.adas di- /iidias, IJcc. iii. r.ib. ii. cap. 1 1. 9() i;SS.\VS OI" AX AMI'KICAMST. V':\ I :'i'^ ms] pt'iuknt (.xistciK-L-, and wliicli the story-tellers of the tribe recalled with i)ride and exatij^eration. How lon,<; they <)ccii])ied the site is nneertain.-'- Ixtlilxn- chitl t;i\-es a list of eii^ht sneeessive rulers of the "'roltecs, " each of whom was eoniinited to reii;ii at least fdl\-two years, or one e\cle : but it is noteworthy that he states these rulers were not of "Tollec" blood, but imposed u])on them by the "Chiehimecs." This does not reilect ere<lilably on the suji- posed sint;ular culti\-ation of the Toltees. Probably the warrior Aztecs sid)iected a number of neij^^hborini^ tribes and imjiosed upon them rulers. t If we accei)t the date i;iven by the Ccx/fv /\(i)///ni for the departure of the A/tecs from the Coatejietl — A. I). ii6S~- then it is quite possible that they mij^lit have controlled the site for a cou])le of centuries or loui^er, and that the number of successive chieftians named by Ixtlilxochitl should not Ixj * The Ainniho/ i'liaiililitlan. a cluoiiick- wiittcil in thu Xahuatl laiiKiiagc, Rivus 309 years from the fnundiiiij to the <Uslruclii)n of Tula, b\it nanus a dynasty of only four rulers. Veitia puts the rounilini; of Tula in the year 71,5 .V. I). { llislona iir .\una J'.sfiaria, cap. 2,vi I,et us suppose, with the laborious au<l critical oro/co y Herra (notes to the i'mi, x A;ii/iiit-., p. 2101 that the Mexi left .\zllau .\, 13, 'T Thesetlirce dates would fit into a rational elironoloKy, renieniberinK that there is an ackuowledKed hiatus of a number of years about the eleventh and twelfth cen- turies in the .\zte( records lOro/co y lierra, notes to I'ndiv h'a in i ii:~ , p. 2i.;l. Tile Aiiali-s dr ( iiaiilitillaii dates the fouudin- of Tula ((//'( that of Tlaxeallan, lluex^it- zinci) and Cuauhtillan ip. 2>)i. + .\s nsiuil, I.\tlil.\oeliitl contradicts himself in his lists .,f iulii>. Those },'iven in his llistiii III ( hiiliiiiii'ia are by no means the ^ameas those en\imerated in his l\,!a- lioihs //is/oiiui.s (KiuKsboroii.uh, .!/-■ i/m., Vol. i.\, contains all of l.vtill.xoehitl's « i it- iuRsi. I'Utirely difl'erent from both is the list in the . / '/.//'.^ i/- CHaiihlilUui . Huh comi)letcl y cuhcmeristic Ixllilxoehill is in his inlcriirctalions of Me\iean msllinl- oiiy is >ho\vn by his speaking of the two leading NalniatI diviuitits 'l'ezcatliii'ic;i and lliulzilopochtii as "certain bold warriois" 1 'ciertos cabalkros uniyvaKr- osos." h'liaciiiiuw Jlisloi iidi, in Kiiisisb,)rouf{li, Vol. ix, p. .i-.''>).l w i)i:sTRrcTi()\ oi" 'ni.AN. 91 rs of tlic trilic in.-^- Ixtlilxii he " 'roltecs, " Ifty-two years, es these ruler> )ii them l)y [hi- Ay on the sup- I'rohahly tin lihorini; Irihts (i////r( -J for thi- -A. I). 1 1 68^ controlled tlif lat the nunilKT 1 should not lie uatl laiiKiuigi.-, nivfs Ks a dynasty of only , A. I). I //lifonii ,!•■ ml critical ( )ri)zco y ft Azllaii A, n., (^r ilniiiiK that there is nth and twelfth eeii- ,ii)i/ir-, p. 2i.;l. 'I'lu- Tlaxeallan, llilex "t lers. Those ^iven in nnerated in liis A'./.;- if l.\till.\oehit^s\vllt• ( iimiltli/laii . Iluu (if Me.\iean myth"! viiiitie> Tezeatliirici alialk rcis nuiv van 1 far wroii.i;. The destrncti\e battles of which he speaks as precedin.i; tlair departure -battles resultini; in the slau,i;hter of more than fixe inillion souls we may rej^ard as the gros>l\ overstated account of some reall\- desperate contlicts. Tliat the \varrior> of tlie A/,teca, on leaxini;- Tula, scat- tered o\er Mexico, Yucatan and Central America, is directls- contrar\- to the assertion of the hii^h authorities I ha\e (|Ui)te(l, ;ind also to most of the mythical descrii)tions of the event, which declare they were all, or nearly all, mas- sacred. ■•■ The a1)o\e I claim to he the real history of Tula and its- Serpent- Hill, of the Toltecs and their dynasty. Now comes the (juestiou, if we accept this \ie\v, how did this ancient town and its inhabitants come to ha\-e so wide a celebrity, not merely in the myths of the Xahuas of Mexico, but in the sacred stories of Yucatan and Guatemala as well— which was unquestionably the case? To explain this, I must have recourse to .some of tlio.se curious princii)les of lant^uaj^e which have had such influ- ei)ce in building the fabric of mytholoi;y. In such incpiiries we have more to do with words than with things, with names than with per.'^ous, with phrases than with facts. First about these names, Tula, T(jllan, Tol tec— what do *See tlie ;i.>te l.ii)aKeS.i. lim it is nut at .all likely that Tula was ahsrilntelv de- serted, (in the contrary, Ilerrera a.s.serts that „■/;',•) the lonnd.ition of Mexico and the adjacent eitieSKlespnes de la fnndacion de Me.Nico i de toda la ticrrai it leached its greatest celebrity for skilled workmen. JhraJa, ,!,- f uli.is. Dee. iii, I.ih. ii, cap. II. The K.-neral statement is that the sites on the Co.atepetl and the adjacent meadows were nnoccui-ied f.r a few years-the ./«,/A-.v </,•(»„„/,/,//,;,/ says nine years -after the civil strife and massacre, and then were settle.l a,L;ain, Tlie His- toria d,- l„. .1/, 1 „■,;</.<,/,,„ ,,„> i;,itnuis. ca].. 11, says, -y ansi fneron muertos todoi lo.sdeTula. (|ne no (|ned..i iiin,i.;uno." 3- '( • .■ T';" 92 ESSAYS Ol" AN A:\n'.KICA\!ST. Ihcy iiicaii? Tlifv are cvidciilly from tlu- saiiic root. Wlial idea did it convey? We are first struck with the fact that the Tuhi I have hciii descrihin.Li; was not the only one in tlie Xaluiatl (Hstrict (if Mexico. Tliere are other Tuhis and Tolhms, one near ()a>- cini4<), another, now San Pedro Tnhi, in the .State of Mexico, one in ( lUerrero, San Antonio Tula in Potosi,-'- etc. The name ninst liave been one of common ini])()rt. Ilerrera, who spelK it '/'///(>, bv an error, is just as erroneous in his sut^i^estion of a nieanin_i;-. lie says it means " ])lace of tlie tuna," tliis he- int;- a term used for the ])rickly pear.t P)Ut //n/n was not a Nahuatl word; it l)eh)nj;s to the dialect of I laiti, and wa> introduced into ]\Iexico by the S])aniards. Therefore Iler- rera's derivation nuist be ruletl out. Ixtlilxochitl ])reten(l- that tlie name Tollan was that of the first chieftain of thc Toltecs, ami that they were named after him ; but else- where himself contradicts this assertion.]; Most writers follow the C'tx/rx Ram in-:, and maintain that Tollan — of which Tula is but an abbreviation — is from A'//;/, the Xahuatl word for rush, the kind of which they made mats, and meaii> " the place of rushes," or where the>' L;row. The respectable authority of Buschmann is in favor of tlii- derivation ; but according to the analo.gy of the Xahuatl laii guage, the " ])lace of rushes " shoidd be 7'o/ti//a)i or '/'o/iitaii. and there are localities with these names. J5 li *SfC liuschiiianii, I'ti'cr du' Azlrkischrn (>i tsiuiiiii-ii , ss. 6S2, 7SS. Orozco y Ben:! Crnf^iofui ill- his f.i'iii^iiasdi' I'^rrjiio, pp. 2.1S, 255. f ///s/i>>/\i (/•■ lit.s /ill/ill.'. <>,! a/,-ii/ii/,s. Dec. iii, I.il>. ii. e;ip. 11. I A'r/a,iciiii-s //i.s/d: leas, ill Kiii^>boioiii,'lrs A/i rno. Vol. ix, ]). ,;£).'. Compare li> llisliii id C'/iii/iiiitiici. jilUi.sclimanii, I'i'hci- dii' A:lfkisilii-n (h /.siianirn, ss. 6S2, 797. i*:v« lie- root. Wliat ula I have 1)ch ii mall district df ■;, OIK- near < )iii- ■>tatL' of Mexici), ■ L'tc. The naniL- •rcra, who sjjlIK as suL;t;estion of tuna,"" tliis he- lu»a was not a Haiti, and wa> Therefore Ikr- :ochitl ])retenil- chieftain of the him ; but eNe ist writers ibllnw A\\\\\ — of which e Xalniatl wonl ats, and nieaib ^ in favor of thi- he Xahuatl hui 'thai or '/'ol ill a II. , 7SS. Orozco y Rltki ]). ,v)j. Compare li> I)i:kiv.\ti()\ oi" TCI. a. ^t, Withmit diiulit, I Uunk, we nni--l accr])t the deri\alion of Tollan i^i\cn 1)\ Tezo/onioc, in his Lioitint Mi ximiut. This writer, tlioron,L;hl\ faniili.ii- with hi'^ naliw ton,L;ue, i'on\-e\s to 11-^ it> ancient form and real stnse. .'^iieakini; of the earl\- Aztecs, he >a ys : " Tin.\ arriwd at the spot called Coatepec, on the l)or(ler> of lonalini, llu fihui of tlh s/i/i.'"'' 'JMii^ name, Tomdlan, is still not unusual in Mexico. Buschmann enumerates Ibur \illa,i;es so called, besides a mill in- town, 'l\'iialL:it :\ " Place of the sun" is a literal renderiuL;. and it wotdd be e(iuall_\- accurate to translate it ".siniUN >i)iil," or "warm ])lac\'," or " sununer-place." There is nothiui; \ei->- peculiar or dislincti\e about these meanin.i^s. The warm, sunn_\- ]>lain at the foot of the Snake- Hill was (.-ailed, naturall\- enou.i^h, Tonallan, s\ ncopated to Tollan, and thus to Tula.;;; *Ci'i»:,ti .lA'i /,,;)/,;, cap. i. " rarticron (If alli y vinii ron ;". la iiailc (HU' Hainan ConUi)r(.-, I. : miiiM- dc Ton.-ilaii, lii;,rar del si.l." In Naiui.-itl t.ntalhiii n-iially inc-ins sunmur, -nn tinu. It i>^ -> lu-niKitid (Voni /■■;/,//// ami lUiii ,■ tlif lallcT is t lie l.nalivi- terniinaliiMi ; t.niaHi means w.arniUi, a/(;////h-... akin to hniatiiili, snn : lait it al^o means Mini, -pivit. e- iieei.illv when eomliimd uilli the pus-^e^sive prcjnonns, as ti,- tonal. or,r -Mnl, onr inimateiial es-enee. liy a fnrtlu r syneope InmilUui was redneed to Tollan or Tnllan. ami by the eli^on oi' the terminal -emi vowt 1, thi, .i-ain hc- came a'nla. This name may therefore mean '■the place ol' -..nl-,' an aeee-nry signiru ation which dcmbtle.ss had it.s iiillnence on the j^n-owth olthe myths concern- ing the loialily. It may be of s.ane importance to note that Tnia or Toll.m was not at lir,-l the name of the town, but of the locality -that is, ofthe warm and lertile nuadow-lands at the forjt of the Coatepcll, The town was at .Grsl called Xocntitl.an, the pl.aee of fruit, from x,,,,,tl, fniit, //, crmneetive, and tiaii, locative endin,-. iSic Saha;;nn, Huloru, ,/,• Xiirra /•;./,„«<?, I.ib, x, cap. 29, .^ecs. i and 12.) This name was als,, applied to one of the ((iiarters of the city of Mexico when conquered hy C(n-les, a.s we learn IVoni the same anthorily. tHuschmann, frhn itw A -J,kis,iirH Orlsncimni, ss. 79,1, 797, (lierlin, iS,,j.) rriic verbal radical is /,.„„, to warm (hazer calor, Molina, Im-^ilmhirw d,- la Len.KuaM<x,;u„u,>^.y:); from this hmA come many words signifying warmtli, fer- .-.l.. . f Traf <M KSSAYS Ol" AN AMl'.KIC ANIST. .:n::,.; l>ut tlir lilLial iiicaniii^f of Tolliiii ■' IMiiev of UifSuii"- l)rotii;lil it ill latLT (la\ s into intiniali' c inimclion willi iiiaiiv a until of li^lil and of solar diviiiitics, until this aiu-iuil A/t(.(,' ])in.lilo het-aim.' a])otlR'o-.i/,(.(l, its iiilial>itaiits traiw foniK'd into magicians and dcinij^ods, and the corn- fields ni Tula stand forth as fruitful jilains of Paradise. In the historic frai^nieiits to which I haw alluded there i- scant reference to miraculous e\ents, and the ,uods i)lay in jiart in the sober chronicle. lUit in the ni\thical c\ clns \\\ are at once translated into the si>liere of the sui)ernal. TIk vSnake-IIill Coatejiell hecoiiies the Aztec Olympus, On it dwells the great s^oddess "Our Mother amid the Serpents,' CoalloJi '/'oiian/^' otherwise called "The vSerpeiit-skirted,' C<'a///( lie, with her children, The Mxriad .Sai;es, the C'i///:oii lh(it:)taliHa:\ It was her dut\- to swee]) the Snake-IIir. tilily, aliiin<hiiu'i.\ llu' 'ini, llu' la^l, tlii' suiiiiiKr, tlir day. ami oUris cxpri'-^-iii: Uiu soul, the vil.'il priiR-iplc, cti:. SiuHnii. lint, dr la /.iiiii^iir .Wi/nni//. s. v. tututHi .\s ill till' .AlKonkin diakLts the winds fur cold, uiKht and ilcatli aiv from the saiiu mot, so in Naliuall are those lor waniith, day and life. (Ci>nii). Dnpontx:!!! M,»ii>! I !■ Mil A'.v /.iDiiiiiis lir I ' .{i)i,'i K/Ki- (III .\(i)it. p. ,\2~. Turis. is,;i>.) ♦ ( iialld)/. /o-iKiii. from hhi//. ser])enl ; //iin. anions ; tit-iian. o\ir mother. She \v:i- the K"'l'less of (lowers, and the florists paid her especial devotion (Sah;i,i,'un, //; • to) III. I. ill. ii, ea]). .'-'l. .\ jireciiict of the city of Mexico w.-is named after her, an. also one of the edifices in the Kreat ttniplc of the city. Here captives were sacrifice' toiler and to the Iliiil/.nahn.i. illiid., I,il). ii, Appendi.x. See also Toriineiiiail:; Miiiiiiniiiiti linlitiini. l.ih. \. cap. u.) \ l)iil-i<iii lluit-.iiahiia. "tile I'onr Hundred Diviners with Thorns." I'onr liuii <lred, however, in Nahiiatl means any indetcrininalc l.'irtje niimlicr, and heiue !■ liroperly traiishited niyria<l, le,i;ioii. .Wiliiuill iiieans wise, skillful, a diviner, liuti- also the ]iropcr name of the N'ahuatl-siieakiufj; trilies ; and as the Nahuas ikrivci: their word for south from /iiiit:li, a thorn, the lluitznahua may mean "the south ern Nahuas." Saha.uun had this in his mind when he said the lluitznahua wen goddesses who dwelt in the .-outli [Iti^/oini c/r .\iii:ii /■Ispiiiiii, I.ili. vii, cap. 5). Tin word is taken by rather Duraii as the proper nanic of an individual as we shall ,-e in a later note. ■ of iIr- Sum " - •lion uilli mam ilil this aiu-i( iii habilaiils traiw- .lie c'orn-lkl(l> m alliukd llifiX' i^ w i;o(ls play m lliical t'Nclus \\\ sui)c-nial. 'rik )lyini)us. Oil ii 1 the Serpents," KT])cnl-skirt(.'il," i^c'S, the ( '( iif:on the Snake- Ilii; mill (iUris fxi)n.~-iii: ' .WlllKtill. S. V. IlllUllh :itli niv from the s;iim (,0(1111)). l)iii)(nut:iu , 1^,^".) iiur incitlur, Slu' u:i- cvcitiiiii (S;iliai,'uti, //.' • iiaiiKil al'Ur lii'v, .in . .'iiptivcs wcix- sat'iilico. Sec also Toniuciiiaila 1 Thorns." I'oiir Iniii iiiiiiilicr, and lieiui' i- kilU'iil. a diviner, lull ;• [IS the Nalllias delivu: may mean " the south I the lliiitznahua wen ', l.ili. vii, eap. 5). Tin lividual as we shall .-tt HiKTii oi' Tiir: ni:K(tt;i'i). 95 C'Verv (la\ , that it iiiii;lit In- kept eleaii lor her thihheii. ( )iie (hi> while thii> eli,i;a,t;e(l, a little liiiiieh of featllei^ fell upon her, and >he hid it nndci her loln'. It ua•^ the deseeiit of the >]iirit, the (li\iiK' Anniiiuiatioii. When the M\riad Sa.nes .saw that tlkir iiiotlKr was prei^iiant. IIk\ were en- rasped, and set about lo kill her. Unt the nnlioin hahe spake from her woiiih, and pro\i(k(l for her safitv, until in due time he eanie forth armed with a hhie jaxelin, his llesh painted hhie, and with a liliie shield. IIi> left le.^ wa> thill and eo\xred with the plnniaj;e o|' ilu' hnmmini; liird, lleiiee the name was>;i\cn to liini " ( )ii tl;e left, a hninmiiij; hird," Hn:tzilo]dehtIi. ■ l-'onr times around the Serpent .Moiintaiii did he drive the M\riad Sa.^es, until nearl\- all had fdleii dead helore his dart, and the remaimler lied far to the south. Then all the Mexiea chose IInit/ilo])oehtli for their i^od, and paid honors to the .Serpent- Hill by Tula as his hirthiilaee.i * lliiil-ihipiiihlli, lidiM hitil-.ilin. Iinmmini.; liiiil. n/„„li/l,\ the lelt >.ich- oi- liand. This is the usual deii\atioii ; Init I am quile Mire tlial it is an error ari Oii.i; I'diii the ikonomatie reineseiil.itioii oi the ii.iiiie. The n.iiiie of his l.rotlier. Iliiitzii.ihua. in- dicates stroii,yl> Ih.il the prefix ..fhoth naiiie> i- ideiilieal. Tliis. | d,,ul,t not. is from huit-.-lla>i. the .mmUIi ; //,/. is from il„a. to turn ; this^ives u> the iiieaniu.u "the left hand turned toward tlie soulli." Orozeo y Herra liiis pointed out 111, it the Mex- Icn regarded left h.-mded warriors as tin- more formidable (///.>/..//,; .iiilr^iui d,- Mil I,,', Tom, i, p, I..V. .\loim Willi tins let it Ik- reiiiemliered thai llie U-eml slates that IIiiit/ilDpoehtli was horn in Tula, and insisted on leadin.n the Mexiea toward the south, the opposition lo whieh by his brother led to the ma.s.saere and to the destruction of the town. tThis myth is recorded by Saha,i,Min. //i./oiia ,/,• \i,r:a /•,»/.„/?„, I.ib. iii. cap. i. "On the Ori.niu of the ('...ds." It is preserved with s,,me curious variations in the Hhl.nut drius .\/,-,/,,iii,.s/.,„ m, ■. I'mlmoK cap. ii. When the .yods created the sun they al-o formed four hundred nun and hve w.micn for him to eat. At the death of the women their robes were preserved, an.l when the [leople carried llice I., the Coalepcc. the five women came a,uain into beiii,-. One of tlu-si. u:m eoatlicue, an untouched vii-iii. wlK, after four years of f.istiuK placed a bunch of while fealhers \ '•'■'■ f. ■ '' v\ IMAGE EVALUATrON TEST TARGET (MT-S) A ^ A. 1.0 I.I 128 |30 :: 1^ 12.0 1 2.5 1-25 ||U 1.6 ^ 6 ► O^/A Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MSBO (716) 872-4503 [1 F'^ '^^ 96 i:S.S.\VS Ol" AN AMl'KICANIST. An c(iuall\- aiKMciil and aullRiitic niytli makes Hnil/ilo ])(icl;lli nuv (if r<inr hrotlicrs, born ;!l one tinif of tlie nnd' ak(I, l)i-'L\n;'l (li\init\-, tin.- 'i<i(l of onr Life, Tnnacatecnt'.i, who looms (liml\- at llie head of tlie A/.lee Tanllieon. Ili^ l)rothi.r> were tlie lihick a.nd while Tezealliix ca and the fait skinned, liearded (Jnetzaleoall. \'el a Ih.ird m\lh i)la(\- the liirtliplaee of (Jnet/.aleoatl direc-tly in Tnhi, and nanii- his m)ther, Chimahnan, a vir.^in, divinel\- imprei^naU'! like Coallieue, 1)\' the deseetidini^' si)irit of the I'ather of All Tula was not onl\- the hirlhphice, but the seene of tin hii^he^t aetivit>- of all tlie.se i^reatest divinities of the aneitr.'. Nahuas. Around the Coate])etl and on the shores of t!it Tollanatl — "the Water of Tula "--as the stream is c/illui which laves the hiise of th.e hill, the mi,i;hty strui;i;les of tin gods took place which form the themes of almost all Azlu m\tlioIoi;y. Tulan itself is no longer the handet of n;>!i houses at the foot of the Coalepec, surmounted 1)\- its ])Uii>li' of rough stone and baked brick : it is a glorious city, foundeii and go\-erned by yuet/.alcoatl himself, in his first a\-atara- lineman, ihe strong-handed. "All its structures wciv ill lur l)'i-i)iii. ;ui(l I'li-.lliwilli liLcaiiU' ])n',y;ii:int. Slic lirmi.ulU I'ortli Iliiil/iloiicK h'.! C(ini])kti.Iy aniud. wlioaloncc ilc-stioycd llic Ilnilzualuia. l-allKr Diiran tiaii^laU- all 111' this into pl.iiii lii-torv. His account is tli.it wlicn tlic A/tccs liail occnpii .1 'I'ollan lor ; onu time, and liail I'orlilicd the hill and cidtivatcd the plain, a dis-i n .sion arose. One p;.rty. lollowcrs of IIuit/iIo]i()clilli, desired tc^ move on ; the otlu r headeil by a chieltaiii. Huit/nahna, insiste<l on remaining. The (brmer atlackii the latter at niuht, ma^ .-.icred tliem, destroyed the water-daius and bnildin^s, atnl marched away tZ/i.^/oi i\i (/<■ /n.s fiiituis dr .\ii<:u /■'s/<a>ltt, 'I'oni. i, pp. 25, 26). Accnni ilig to .several nccounts, Iliiit/nahua was the brother of Ilnilzilopoclitli. See iv,\ Anu'iiran Hero Myths, p. Si. * I have discussed both these accounts in my Amcticati Hero Myths, chap, iii., ain; need not repeat the anthori'les here. -K t'.i.nRii:s <»i" rri.AN, iiakcs Huilziln uv (if till.' uiu;i . 'riinacak-cut'.i, ranUicDii. 11:^ i.ca and the lair 1(1 iiulli i)la(\- 'ula, and nanii- \- inipiX'^inaU'l .• Falhtrof All. lie scene ol" tin js of the am it i;: le shores of tlu stream is c;ilk('; stnit;i;les of tin almost all A/tu hamlet of n>!i ed 1)\- its ])m dI" Ills city, fonndeii is first a\'atar a- structures \vti\ forth Iluil/iliii)cK h'.!: illicr Diirati tnui^laU- .■ A/tfcs liail ocvniiii il ■(1 till.- iilaiu. a (li>-i n () iiiovi- on ; tlic otluT The foriiKr atUnkii lis and bniMiny^. an^l i, J)]). 2,S, 2h). ACCnVii ilziloiioclitli. ScL' i;i\ I) Myths, chap, iii., ii!u: statel\ and uracions. ahonndini; in ornaments. The walls within \\\\\- incrusted with precious stones or Iniished in btautitui siiux'o, ine-cntiii!^ the appearance of a rich mosaic. Most woiKkiful of all \va> the temple of Ouet/alcoatl, It had iDiirt'hamliers. (,ne toward tlieea>t linished in pure t;old. another toward the we>t lined with tunpioi^e and emeralds, a third toward the .-^outh decorated with all manner of deli- cate sea->heil>, and a fourth toward the north resplendent with red jasper and shells."- The descriptions of other build i 11- --, e(|uall\- wo!idrous, have heeii lo\ ini,dv i)re.served by the ancient soii-s. i What a ,i;rief that our worthy friend, M. Ciianiay, dig^inj; awa\- in iSSo on the Coatepee, at the head of a .^aui; of forty-lhe men, as he tells us, |: unearthed nosit^n of tlie.se ancient .^lories, in which, for one, he fully believed: Ihit, alas! I fear that they are to lie soui^ht nowhere out of the .^<.lden realm of fancy and mythical dream in.L;-. Nor, in that happy at,^-, was the land unwortli\- such a glorious cit>-. Where now the nej^lected corn-patches sur- ♦Tlu' n„,-i i,ii;l,ly o.Ioi.a ,k-ciii.tion- ..Itla' mylhieal Tula are to he lonnd in tliu third ,n,.l t.nth hook of Saha:4Uirs //,,/..,,„ dr \,o:a /. s/.,;/;.,. i„ Hu- ./„„/,, ,/>■ Cuaul,l:fl,ni. ,-uid in the various wriliii.^s of I.Mlil.vm hill, I.aler .•iiiUi,,rs, sneh as Veitia. Tor.iMeniada, ele.. have e.^pie.! from tlu-i. I.Mlilxoehitl .-peaks of the "lenion-of fahUs' about Tulaii and ynet/aleoatl wliieh even in his day were still current r-otra^ treseienlas fal.uhw .pie anu to lavi.a e.,rren." h\ia,,.>,„-s /It.'.lunats, in Kinnshiironi;!), M,\hn. Vol. ix. p. •,,?-m. tin the eolleetion of A,u„;il .Wilnuill /Urm.s. which forms the seventh volume of my /,;A-.;,. ,'/. I ^,n^nu,/. I „„>,.,,„ IMnalnic, p. ,„.,, I have ,.rinte.l the oriKinal text of o,R. of the old ..onus reealliuK the glories of Tula, with its '• house of beams ■' huaHl.alh. and its ■■hou-e of plumed serpents,'' c,Hilhu,urlr.alU, attribute.! to Quctzaleoatl, t/.<-i Am, nines filU, </„ .\ou:,mu MoiuIc. p. .s.i (Paris, iS.Ss). '*"'^F w^ 98 IvSSAYS OK AN AM 1:kICANIST rouiul the shabby huts of Tiihi, in tht- j^ood ohl time "the crops of maize never failed, ami each ear was as long as a man's arm : the cotton bnrst its i).)(ls, not white only, but spontaneously ready dyed to the hand in brilliant scarlet, green, blue and yellow: the i^ourds were so lart;e that they could not be clasped in the arms; and birds of brilliant pluma<;e nested on every tree I" The su1)jects of Ouet/alcoatl, the Toltecs, were not less niar\(.'lously cpialified. They knew the virtues of jilants and could read the forecast of the stars ; they could trace the veins of metals in the mountains, and discern the de])osits of precious stones by the fine vapor which they emit ; they were orators, i)oets and majj^icians ; so swift were they that they could at once be in the place they wished to reach ; as artisans their skill was mnnatched, and they were n(jt sub- ject to the attacks of tlisease. The failure and end of all this goodly time came about by a battle of the gods, by a contest ])etween Tezcatlipoca and Huilziloiiochtli on the one hand, and Quetzalcoatl on the other. Quetzalcoall refused to make the sacrifices of human beings as retpiired by Iluitzilopochtli, and the hitter, with Tezcatlijioca, set about the destruction of Tula and its jjcople. This was the chosen theme of the later Aztec bards. What the siege of Troy was to the Grecian p(,ets, the fall of Tula was to the singers and story- tellers of Anahuac^an inexhaustible field for imagination, for glorification, for lamentation. It was placed in the re- mote past — according to Sahagun, perhaps the best atithor- ity, about the year 319 before Christ. -^^ All arts and sci- * J/htona (/<■ .\iiiia /•..v/>(;«<i, I.il). viii, cap. 5. 3 r.\Ml-: oi' Till; Tni.Ti:CS. ')9 tiK'is. all kiic)\vlc(lt;e a.ul culture, were ascribed to this wonderful mythical ])c<)i>lc: and wherever the natives were as ked concern iii.tr ilif origin of ancient and unknown struc- tures, they would reply; "The Toltecs built thctn."=''= They fixedly believed that some (la>- the ininiorlal Ouet/- alcoatl would appear in another avatar, and would bring attain tt> the fields of Mexico the exuberant fertility of Tula, the i)eace and I'.apiMiiess of his former reii^n, and that the departed j^lorics of the ])ast should surround anew the homes of his votaries.)' What I wish to pf)int out in all this is the cotitrast between the dry and scanty historic narrative which shows Ttda with its vSnakc-IIill to have been :ni early station of the A/.teca, occupied in the elcventli and twelfth century by one of their clans, and the monstrous myth of the later jiriests and poets, which makes of it a birth])lace and abode ofthet^ods, and its inhabitants the semi-divine cotujuerors and civili/ers of Mexico and Central America. I'or this latter fable there is not a vesti.^e of solid foundation. The references to Tula and the Toltecs in the C/noniclrs of tlie *I';illKr Duiaii iilatis. " l^viii t<i tliis day, « Iicii I a--k the Imli iiis, ' Wlio criatcd Uiis ])a^s ill llir iiii)Uiitaiii> ,' Who uijciicd tliis -jiriii;,^ .' Who di-^ nvirid lliis i avi- ? or. Will) hiiilt this cdificT ? ' Un.-y ri.])ly, ' Tlie 'I'uUics. the di-ii])lc> of I'apa.' " ///>- ttiiia df /ii'. /ii,ii<i.s df Xiit'ru I'sfnifiii. cap. 70. /';/*</, IVdiii /i,//i,i, ///;,-, Uif tiushyliairoil w.is o!R- ul' till' nanus of ouL'tzalc'iiatl. Itiit tin.' i arliir inis..ii)iiary, I'aUiur Moliliiii.i, ili'<liiict!y statis th,il the Mcxica iiuiiiU'.l tluir own arts, and owrd iiotliin;; to any itiKi.ninaiy tcat'licrs, Toltecs or others. ■ lla\ cntic todos los Indiijs iimchosolicios, y lie todos diccn (/)((•/'/(»•).'<( /(/.v//A;/.A /.<» M,.\i,an,);." Iltstinii.i d'- Ins lndhi\drla .\iii';\i J.s/iiulii, 'I'ratailo ''i. cap. viii. t Oiittzalcoatl announced that hi>- rt turn slionld taki- pl.ice n.i _> years after hi-- fjii.il ilepartnre, as is nientioiied by I\til.\ochitl ( in Kint,'slioroni;li, Mfxim, Vol i.\, p. .Vi'';. This nniiibcr has probably some mystic relation to the calendar. mm • ■•hi " V'. ,. J ■m • V I'liJ m /'mi mfw > ,1 KM > I'SSAVS OI" AN AM1:kIC ANIST A/iiurs and the . liiihi/s of' tlu KakchiijUih arc- loans from the later nivtholoj^y of the Xahu.is. It is hi,L;li time for this talk ahont the Toltees as a nii^litx- |)e(t])le, ])reeursors of the Azteia. and their instrnetors in the arts of eivili/ation, to disa])i)ear from tlii' pai^cs of historw The residents of ancient Tida, the Tolteea, were nothini; more than a sept of the Xaluias themsehes, the ancestors of those Mexica who built Tenochtitlan in 1,^25. This is stated as plainly as can be in the Aztec records, and should now !>e conceded by all. The mythical Tula, and all its rulers and inhabitants, arc the baseless dreams of poetic fancy, which we principally owe to the Tezcucan iioets.-^- * Amriiran Hi-k> Myths, \>. :■,% The only writer on ancient American history be- fore nie will) has wliolly njiettd the 'rollecs is, I helicve, Alhert (ialtatiii. In his able and eiiliial sliidy ol Uu' (niyiii nf Anuriian eivili/alioi {'/'lunsin/niin, of the .iiHiiiiiiii /'Jhiuiloi^ail So( illy. Vol. i, p. i".K) he llisnli^^-L■(l Iheni iiitirely from histor ieal eonsiileration witli the words: " The tradition rispectint; the 'foltecs aseends to so remote a date, and is so oliyi. lire and intivmixed witli m\ ' holo.tjiial fal)les, lliat it is •nipossible to (Usi.;,jii.ili- eitlu r tlie loeabty ol' tluir piiniitive aliodes, llie time whi-n tliey first appe.r.vd in the vieinity of tlie N'alley u'i Mexieo, or wliether ttiey were J)reeeded by natioirs spe.ikinj^ the same or difierenl lanyuaues." Had tliis well-.Lcrounded sl<^|)tiei^m ;4;iiiU(l tlu- e:irs of writers sinee r\i5, when it was iHlb- lished, wi- should have been saveil a vast amount of rubbish whieh has been lieaped lip under the name ol' hi--tory. Dr. otto Sloll {(,'ii(i/rn!(i/ii : A',/mii iinJ Srhi/i/ri uiii;i'n. ss, 40S, .)o(), Leipzig. 1^^')) has joiue<l in rejeetin.n the ethuie existence of the 'roltees. As in later Nahuatl the word /ii/livti/l meant not only "resident of 'I'oUan," but also "artificer" and "trader," Dr. StoU thinks that the Central Anieriefin le.njends which speak of " Toltees " should be interpreted merely as referring to foreign mechanics or pcd lers, and not to any particular n •liouality. I nuite agree with this view. I PART II. „. *• .. ' '/^ •** «. MYTHOLOGY AND FOLK-LORE. I^ASIIIOXS in the study of mythology coint- and i;o with * sonic'thinj^ like the rapidity of chan<;e in costume femi- nine, subject to the autocracy of a Parisian man-modiste. Myths have been held in turn to be of some deei) historical, or moral, or physical ])urport, and their content has been sought through psychologic or philologic analysis. Just now. all these methods are out of fashion. The newest theory is that myths generally mean not'iing at all ; that they are merely funny or fearsome stories and never were much more; and that at first they were not told of anybody in ])articular nor about anything in particular. As for philologic analysis, it is accused of failures and con- tradictory results: the names which it makes its material are alleged not to have belonged to the original story ; and Iheir el\ niology casts no more light on the meaning or the source (if the myth than if they were Smith or Ih-own. According to this facile method, the secret of all mythol- [ loi ; ':'',i:%<f % \:\)^' ':'':m -}0 w p? m 1 02 KSSAVS Ol* .\\ ami: kIC. WIST. ()g\' is an opfti out', because tlRTc is no sccrt-l at all. Xn painful ])rc'liniinary study of lan}.(ua^c is necessary to the .science, no laborious tracing of names tliroui;li tl'eir various dialectic forms and phonetic changes to their first and orig inal sense, for neither llieir earlier n«)r later sense is to the pur])ose. This new method goes still further. Some former myth oh)gists had su])posed that even in the sa\age state man feels a sense of awe before the mighty forces of nature and the terrible mysteries of life ; that joy in light and existence, dread of death and darkne.^s, love of family and countr\-, arc emotions so intimate, so native to the .soul, as nowhere to be absent — .so potent as to find expressions in the highest imag- ative forms of thought and .speech. Not so the latest teachers. They sneer at the po.s.sibility of such inspiration even in the divine legends of cultivated nations, and are ready to brand them all as but the later growths of "myths, cruel, puerile and ob.scene, like the fancies of the savage myth-makers from which they sprang.'"'- lyike other fashions, this latest will also pa.ss away, be- caii.se it is a fashion only, and not grounded on the ])erma- neut, the verifiable facts of human nature. Ivtymology i,< as yet far from an exact .science, and comparative mytholo- gists in apjilying it have made many blunders : they have often erred in asserting historical connections where none existed ; they have been slow in recognizing that ])rimitive man works with very limited materials, both physical and mental, and as everywhere he has the same problems to .solve, his physical and mental productions are necessarily * .Andrew I.aiij;, I hsIidii and Myth, p. 28. Kl'.M, Si:.\SI'; (»!•• MVTIIS. K'.^ \ 1. llll rv similar. Tlasf art- ohji-clioiis, iiui a.^ainst the inctlKul, I aj;aiii>l tlic inaniicr of its applicaliDii. Tliosf who lia\c sliidicMl >a\a;4i.' ratvs most intii'.;atL'l\- and with mo>t utihiascd miiuls h.wu iK\cr found their religions lani-ics merely "])iierile and oUsLenc," as some writers snp- Iiuse. l)nt sij;nificant and didactic. vSavagc symbolism is lich and isex])ressed both in object and word ; and what ap- pears cruelty, puerilitx or obscenit\- assumes a very difierenl aspect when re.y^arded from the correct, the nati\e, i)oint of view, with a full knowleds^e of the surroundings and the intentions of the myth-makers themselves. In the sections which follow I have endv.avored to illus- trate these ojjinions by some studies from American myth- OlO^V I have cho.sen a .series < .f unpromisini; names from the s acred books of the (Quiches of Guatemala, and endeav- ored to ascertain their exact definition and orij^inal iiur])ort. I have taken up the most unfavorable aspect of the AIjl^ou- kin hero-j;od, and shown how j^arallel it is to the tendencies of llie human mind everywhere ; in the Journey of the .Soul, the strikinjj^ analogies of ]"!gy})tian, Aryan and Aztec myth have been brought together and an explanation offered, which I believe will not be gainsaid by any com])etent stu- dent of Egyptian .symbolism. The Sacred Symbols found in all continents are exi^lained by a similar train (jf rea.soning; while the modern folk-lore of two tribes of semi-Christiani/.ed Indians of to-dav reveals some relics of the ancient usages. ;v'.!?] ■•v^'^i •i >. 1.^A'.,':^*' :• IT THE SACHFJ) NAMHS IN (JU1CHFJ1YTH0L()GY.=== 'it ill: Confcuts. — Tlu- (Juirlu's of (iii;itiiiial,i, iiiid lluir ril;itioiis1ii|p 'riii'ir Saiird Hook, tin- /J'/>('/ /'////— Us (>])ciiiii.i; words 'l"lu' iimiiu lluii.\li])ii-\'uc1i — IItiii-.\li]iii-riiu -- Nim ilk — Niiii-t/yi/. — Ttiicii- (iiicimiat/.— Onx-i'lio and (Jiix |ialo- Ali-iaxa lak and Ah-raxasil- X])iyai(n- and Xmuram — Caknllia — Ihirai-au— Cliirakan — Xl)alan(|ii( and liis Joumfv to Xil)all;a. r\\' the aiicitnt races of Anicriea, those whieli ai»])roache<l ^-^ the nearest to a ci\ili/e(l coiKlitioii spoke related (liak'cts o'.' a toiii^iie, which from its principal nienihers has been called the " Ma\a-Oniche " lin.onislic stock. I'.ven to-(la>-, it is estimated that ahont half a million pers(;ns tisr these dialects. The\ are si-attered over Vncatan, (inate mala and the adjacent territory, and one branch formerl\ occupied the hot lowlands on the (inlf of Mexico, north ot Vera Crn/. The so-called "metropolitan" dialects are those sjjoken relatively near the city of (iuatemala, and include the Cak chi(|uel, the Ouiche, the Pokonchi and the T/.utuhil. The\ are (|uite closel\- allied, and are mutually iutellii;ible, re- seniblini; each other about as much as did in ancient (ireece *Rcvi'C(l i-Mvact^ fnun iiii M'.lii'k- read tu'lorc tlic .Anurican I'liil.isniiliifal Smiii^ in iHSi. \ i('4 ) : m rui: roi'ui. VI 11. lo"; llif Attic, lotiic and Doiii- diaki'ts. Tlicsc clostly ulatcd iiiiiiilitrs of tin.' MaxaOuii'lK' faniilv- will In.- Rllrrcd to iiiidc-r tilt' Mili-titk- nf tlu' Oiiitlu' C;!kc'lii(iutl dialects. Tiif civilization of tlusi- ]n(i|iU' was sncli that tluy usi-d variotis innfinonir si.uns, a])i)n)acliini; oiir alplialn't, to ncdid and ncall tlicir ni\ tliolo^y and histoiN . I'Vaijnictits. luiiiv or less conii)kti', of these traditions have hccn juv- >ir\cd. The most notable of them is the National I,e>;en(l of the Oniches of (lUateinala, the so-c-alled /''/>(>/ I'/i//. It \\a> written at an unknown date in the Oniche dialeit, !>>• a native who was familiar with the am-ieiit iec<ii<ls. A Sjianish translation of it was made earl\- in the last centnr\- h\- a Spanish i>riest, k'ather l-'rancisco Xinieiie/, and was tir-^t ])uhlished at X'ieiina, iSs;.- In iShi the original text was printed in Paris, with a iMeiich translation 1)\ the Al)l>e Hrasseur fde lionrhour^ ). This orij;inal cowis about 175 octa\() iia,i;es, and is therefore his;hly important as a lin- <;uistic as well as an areh;eolo.i;ir niomnnent. Hoth these translations are open to censure. It meds but little studx to see that the\- .are both stroiiL;l\- colored by the \iews which the res])ective translators entertained of the ])ur pose of the orii;inal. Ximeiie/ thou.i;ht it was i)rincipall\' a satire of the devil on Christianit\-, and a surne spread 1)\- liim to eiitra]) souls ; Ihasseur belie\ed it to be a history of the ancient wars of tlie nuiches, and fre(pieiitl\' carries his euhemerism so far ;is to distort the sense of the original. What has added to the dillicultN' of correctiui; these er- roneous inii>ressions is the extreme paucity of malirial for >:4-: 'm 1, -M # m :r«!;' i ihH '■■^';' Pm .»?*! r I' I'taiicisci) XinKiit./. sta /'; 1/ ill (,/ui/i iiiii/ii. V'lV l1 K Ij ■ W^t: m ''.iV 'mi^ii< w^ lllft i:ss\vsni \\ wii.KU' wisi". stiiih mil; the <Jiii( lir A r.i.imiii.ii wiitliiiliv \muii(/li:is iniKt'il lucii |iiilili -III (I, lull iio iIk tKm.ii \ i^ ,i\ .nl.ihK , ii Wf t'Mi pt .1 Inill " \'<h'.|Imi1,II \ <i| lllf I'llIHIlul Ivniit," ot IIh -r ili.ili lis |i\ till saiiu- ,mllii>i. wliuli is .ilinnsl nstltss Inl I I llli .ll pill piisi'S. It Is lliil snipllsJUi;, lluil Inlr, lll.lt sdllU Wlltils l|:|\f If- ^.'..iiiliil this IcjM'iitl with siispii idii, .iml Ii.im spi.Kin ul it ;is hilt llttli' 111 tt<'l til, III ;l l.lli' Hilll.llh r rmirorlt <l li\ ;is|lli\Vi| ii.itiM. who lini tnwril iii.iin III Ilis inridi ills Innii I'lii istim lr;icllitii;s. Siirli nil opiiiimi will p.iss ,iw;i\ wluii the i>iiv;iii.il is .11 Till. itch ti.msl.iiid. '|'i> mu' l.iiiiili.ii with ii.iti\r Aiiu'i iciiii ni\ths. this oiir Iumis iiiKUiiiaMr marks ni its ahoi ii;iiial oii^iii. Its Intnuiit (iltsi-iii itirs and inaiiitiis, its v;ciu'iall\ low and narrow raii,i;r nl" thiiiiL',lit ami i\ ])U"^si,in, its (H'lMsional lottiiU'ss of Imlh. its slraii.m,' nu'ta ]>lit)is, and tlu' piomiiKiu't.- ul" sti icily luatlun nanus and l>oti'm.M(.s. Iiiim; it into unmistakalik' n.latiiMi>hip to tlii' tiiK- nativr ni\th. 'Phis isprriallv holds i;ood of tlu' hist two Ihiids ot" it, wliii'h an.' <.'iilirrl\ iii\ llioloi;iral. As a I'oiiti ihnlion lo tlu' stiid\ oi this iiilt'ri.'stiii)4 iiionn nu'iit, I shall umUitaki.' to analvvt.' sonu' of Ihr proper naiiU'S ot' llu' di\ initirs w hirh ap]K'ar in its pa,i;c's. TIk- (.spi'cial tacililii's ihal 1 haw tor doiiij; so ari' tuniislKil l)\ two MS. X'tiiMlml, nil's oT ihr Cakciiiqm.'l <lia!i'i.-t, pri.si.nUd to llii' lihiaiN ol' the Anii'iiiMii riiilosophic-al Socii'l\ l)\ llu- (lov iTiiiM of (uiakniala in l,'^,^('. Oik- ot iIksc was w ritU'ii in i(>5i, hv h'alher Thomas Coto. and was based on the pre- vious work ol" l'\itlur iManeiseo \"aiea. It is Spanish-Cak- chiipiel onl> , and ihe linal pa.i;es, toj^ether with a i;rammaf and an essay on the nati\e ealendar, ]>roinised in a hod)- ol I TIIK I'lti'di, \i II. he UMik , ;iif iiiilniliiii.ili |\ iiii'.sin^; Wli.it n in;iiiis, 1 \i'\\ . \ I I , in.ilsi s ,1 |i ilm \ nliiiiK (i| I)/.' <l(Hilili' (iiliimiiiil |i.i>;fs, ,111(1 cntitiili-^ :i ni;iss III iiilm iii.iliiiii iilmiil the l.iliv^lliiv;t' 'I'lu' st((iii(l MS. is ;i (n|i\ (i| tlif l.";ilstlii(|ii( I S|'.iiiisli \'(i I .1 lull. II \ I' I \';ii< lli;ii|i li \ l''i;i\ l''i,iiiris( (( C'timi ill I'l')'). It is ;i i|ii,ill<> <i| |.) ; IiiiKi'>>. I I i;i\ f ;i1mi III iiu |iiis^is~,|(i|i (pilsdl lIlC {\<lllf<, llili,< il, Xiillll'li \ I II I illi'JIil ( illi flh/lll /, |(\ I'. Iv l';illl:iltiiii (Ic ( ",ii/iil;ill ' i 71 | 111 i)| tilt' , 1 1 li y I'lUiil'iildi lt< (/i /ii I <iiv,iiii I ii/:i /ill/Ill /, l>\ llic U. I'. I'". I'l Ilito lie \'ill.u:iri;is, t(im|ins(i| aliiuit 1 S'^< '. I'".ltlut t'ntn (ilisn \ls (||;it t||c liativis |()\i(| to It II I'MI^ slniiis. iiiwl tu if]K:it chants, kiipiii^; tiiiii' In tluiii 111 tluir 'I'lu'si' cliaiits Uiic caiiid iiiiyjuii I ill, ^ai lands nt aiifis. whuIs, Ik tin / ///, u<i|il, and ////:,', to iasti'ii llowtis into wiiatli.s, to sil III onkr a daiicf, lo aiian^;i' tlu- luad^ of a disiDiiisi', (.tc. As luisii \(.il to Us ill till' /('/'('/ / nil, tlu- I li\ lliniii';il loiin is iiiostl\- lost, Imt Iku' and tluic oin linils |>assaj;i's, ri'taiiK'd intact 1)\- nunioiv no donlit, when- a dis liiict halaiu'c in dii-lion, and an illoit at liannoiiy .lu- iioti-d. 'riic nainc /'('/>('/ \'iili j;ivcn to this work is thai apiilicd li\- the natives thi'insilvi'S. It is traiislatt<I li\ Xiincncv. liluo (Kl (oinnn," 1)\- lirassinr " li\rc national. Tl K' word />('/)('/ is a])i)lii.<l to soinclhiii}.; ludd in ( oininoii ouiicr- sliii> 1>> a niiinliii" ; thus food lRloin;iiiM to a niiinhcr is /'c/'c/ Niiiin : a task to l»c worked out 1)> )\\,\\\\, /><>/>(>! tn/iiirli .- []\v nali\c co'iiH'il whiii' the cldiis iiul to discuss ])nl)lic alfaiis was />('/>('/ /;///, llic coiinnon speech or talk. Tlie woid /'('/> means the mat or riij^ of wo\-en rushes or hark on which the family or eompaiiN' sal, and from the commiinily of interests thus lypified, the word came lo tnean anything; in eominon. «_.-'! M \"ii, ^^F ! I I<\S I'SSAYS OI" AN AMllKIC WIST. l'///i or ia<// is ill Oiiirlu" and Cak(.'lii(|Ut.'l the word Oir fnxp>() and /'('(>/•. It is an original term in tlit-st' aii<l coii- nt'Ctc'd dialicts, tlii' M;iya liaxinj; uooh, a k'ttt-r, wrilin.u; , iioili , to write. TIk'Iv is a school of writrrs who depivratc such ivscaivhcs as ! am ahoiit to make. TIk'N' are of o])inioii that the ap|)el- hitioiis of the natixe i;ods weri' derived from trivial or aeei dental eirciimstanees, and had no reeondite ov sNinholic meaninii. In fact, this assertion has hieii made witli refer eiiee to the \er\- names which I am ahoiit to disenss. I do IK t share this o]>inion. Many of the saered names amoiii; tlie American trihes I fi'el sure had occnlt and meta l)hoiical si^nillcance. This is i)ro\ed 1)\ the ])rofoiiiid re- searches ot Ciishini; anion;.; tlu' Znnis : of Horsey amoii'; the Hakotas; and others. lUit to reach this hidden imrport, one must sliid\- all the ideas which the name connotes, esjiec- iall\' those whicli are archaic. I i)ei;in with the in\ sterioiis o|H'nin>; words of the /''/>(>/ / 'nil. 'riie\- introduce lis at once to the iiii.L;ht\- and manifold di\tnit\ who i^^ IIk- source and cause of all thiniis, and to the ori.Liinal couple, male and female, who in their persons and their powers t\ pif\- the ;;exual and reprodiictixe ])rinciple'^of oriranic life. These words are as (oUows : ■Si I n;ii .1111 111. " 1 Inr lni;ins llu' reoiird of what iLippciU'il in old liiiu-s in llie hind ot" llu' (jiiirlu'S. " IKii- will \\i' lii'i^iii anil sel forlh tlu' sloiy of past tiiiU', llu' onl- Sfl and slartiii.u point of a'! thai took pl.n'i' in thr i-ity of (Jiiiolu', in till' dwclliniL; oIiIr' (Jniolu' jJi'opU'. " Hiri \\L' shall brini;; to knowkufs^e the explanation and the disclo- snre of ihe Disappearaiue and the Reajipearance throiii;li tlu' ini.nht 'nir: n.\mi{ ihn aimt \rcii. It K) .1 llu liiiilili T'- ami iir.ilois, {hv licani s ol' chililriu ami tlic lui^'rltits ii iliiliinn, \Nlii"-r iiaiii III ipii \ tirli, Ilim ali|iu uliii. /aki- niiiia t/'\i/. 'l\]nii, ( lUruiiiat/, u (Mis ilio. u <Jii\ j'ali'. Ah ia\,i lak, Ml ra\a t/il. " And aldti.i; with tliisi' it is suni; ami nlatid of the .t;iamliii<''.l.> r- \;iatitir.itlu r, uliosf iiaiiU' i< \|iiyai(H' and Xiiiuc.inr, the (.'niiciakr iiid I'lntntor ; two In Id dimitl itr ami two lol.l j;i.im llalh tllr\ ralKd ill tlu' lri;rnds cit the (jiiich II will l)c' hvw ()l)S(.r\(.(i that tin.' (U'claralioii of tlu- at- tiiluitc'S of llu' lli>'lu■'^t (li\iiiit\- srls h.rlli disliiu-llv srstial idras. and, as was oUcn tlii' (.'asc iii (itviaaii, !•; ^Npliaii aiK i> (.nihiai - ( JiJLtilal niytli<il()o\-, tins dixiiiity is ninvstiitcd iiij; llir powcis and ttiiR-lioiis of holh .sexes in liis (tun pl'lsc) II ; and it is ciiriotis that liotli luiv and in llu- second liaraj^raph, Uw /i ///<r/i altrilmtes aiv natned //;.\/. I'irst in the s])erii'ic names of (li\init\ idwii is I liiii alihn- \h. To derive any aiipropi iate si^nifnation for this h: IS Itatlled stndeiits of this invtholo'-v. IIidi is tin- ntinieral out lint wliirh also, as in most ton<'ties, has the other mean- iii,L;s ^^i first, foremost, self, iinii|tie, most inomineiu, "the one," etc. .l/i f^ii is derived both 1)\' Ximeiie/ and lirassetir fnmi the prefix a/i, uhitdi is used to si>;nify kno\vled,<;e or possession of, or control o\er, mastership or skill in, ori.i;in from or jnactice in that to which it is ]irelixed : and i(/\ or f^nb, the sailHuaini or l)lowpii)c, which these Indians used to /// /'/^ therc- th e cliase. enii)loy as a weapon m war aiu fore, thev take to mean, lie who uses the sarhacane, a w* •i :h •n' 'Sec Hv. Ollii Slolt, l'tli>ii.i;>tif<liii- liii h'ipiil'ii 1^ (i iiiit,iihii,i . p li"-, I ni^iit t' ilillir IVdiii this al>lf wrilir, wli • stiiiliis of llif (Juiilii' mill Cakcl n>|Ui 1 all liicist llnji(Ui>;li yit iiiaiK-, iiiiil Imin wluisi' viisioti tlir alnivr liaii-lali nlHiiiiij; litus ut'ttn.' /ti/i()/ /■/(/( is takuii. tli< il tin u ■^r I r|r*|r^'-' TT" ■sssannm I II) i:SSAYS <)!• AN AMIlKICANIS'l'. 'I.. Ill hunter. / '.••v//, tlic last iiiciiiIkt of this coniijoitnd naiiR', is uikKtsIooiI hy hotli to iulmii the opossum. In ;u\-i)nl:im\' with thcs.- dcriviations the name is trans- lated "an opossum hunter." Sneh a name hears littU' nieanint;- in tliis relation ; little relexanev to the natnre and fnnetions of deity ; and if a more apjiropriate and not less plansihle comjjosition eonld he sni; .jested, it wonM have intrinsic claims for adojition. 'i'here is sneh a compo-;itioii, and it is this: The derixation of Ahjin from ah [■^itb is not only nnnecessary hnl hardly defen- sihle. In Cakchiipiel the sarhacane is pub, hnl in Oniche the initial /> is droi)])ed, as can he seen in man\' ])assaj;es of the /'('/)('/ \'i(h. The true conqjosilion of this word I take to he all -/->!(:, tor f^ic has a sij^nifieation associated with the m\ sleries of relii;ion ; it expres.sed the divine power which the native priests and ])roi)hets claimed to have received from the j^ods, and the essentially supernatural attributes of divinit\ itself It was the word which at first the natives ap])lied to the ]iower of for,<;ivint; sins claimed hy the Catho- lic missionaries; hut as it was associated with so many he.ilhen notions, thj clergy decided to drop it altoi^ether from reli.uious lani;uaj4e, and to leave it the meaning of necromancy and uvdioly power. Thus Colo gives it as the Cakchi(piel word for iiiai^irov iuiivniann\''- * In \\\- MS. />i(/it'>i,ii 1 is the lolLiwiiv; c'litry ; " I'm UK : ; f:tiii^.i/\i/, vil : /:iitt,i^i7hi/ : ck-stc iioiubic iisn la Cail:U,i I'li t-1 Crtil" paiM ik\'ii iiiir ohia vcl poilir di'l Spirito Santo. W pock'r i\\\i: licncii los Sacurdoti^ lie pt rdima; pccaiU):- y dar sacratiiciitDS, st> llanian, o an Uaniado, />/(-, luiiial. .\si (.■1 I'll. \'.in\i 111 Ml / >ii , unuii /!> y ol Sanctc) Vico fii la '/'/iri>/i>i;ici hidoiinn nsa fii nuii'lias paitos di-slos vdoalilos on osti.- scntido. Va no cstan tan un iisn, piu- inlii-'ncliii por il luiinhrc fimft-i y -.Iziiilii^ihal ; y son vocalilos ([Uc anli.;natncMiti apliialian a siis idolos, y oy so procma (pic vayaii olliidaiulo todo aipicllo con ipic si let! pncdc liaccr iiKinoiia dcllos." AN oroSSlM MV'l'M. I I I nilg oi . a s Uic tital. A"-! i»i \isa I'll iiso, t)\ic-- 'TIk- word f^iir istisid in \:iri<iiis passa.msdl the Popi'l \'uli m 111 I' U<) (Is aii<l juifsls to t'XpRSS tin- supfniatiiral ])<)\V(.i- lull pri)l»al)ly by llic time lliat Xinuiuv \vn»ti\ it had, in tlii' ( iinriit dialrcl of his parisli, lost its liii;h».'st sii^nification, and henci' it did not sni;,i;fsl itself to him as the line deriva- tion of the name I am disenss;nJ.,^ The third Utiii, \'iiilt or I'ln'/i, was chosen accvjidinLr to Ximeiie/. hei-anse this animal i> notoiioiisK- eniiiiiiii 'A •t>r sit \/mi<i . This nia\- he eorreel, an<l we nia\ ha\e here teiiiiniseeiiee of an animal m\ tli. Ihit the word has several other si};nifiealions which should he considered. It was the name of a sacred dance; il expressed the Iriiiihlini; in the a^iie chill ; the warmth of water ; and the darknesN which mines before the dawn.''^ ( )f these varions meanings one is tempted to lake the last, and connect IInn-ahpn-\iich with the anroial .^nds, the fore- ninners of the lis^ht, lih.e the " Kichigoiiai, those who make tile da\-," of Algonkin inylliolog\'. Tlure is a curious passa.ge in the Pof^ol I 'iili which is in support of such an o])inion. Il occurs al a certain p(.'riod of the hislor\- of the mythical hero Ilunahim. The lex. reads: "Are nil t;i elii r'ali /akirii " Clii /.aktariii, "r xec'.ili ea x.Kjiiimichie. " Aiiia \ u ili'iix ri Viuli ? "Ami iio\s it was alioiil to l)(.(i)iiie white, And the (lawn canu', The (lay ojieiied. • Is the / ■//(// alionl to he? ' *Ci>l()Miys, " I'll,!;// ,■ iiota i\\n.- t>ta tm-Miio iimnliii.' tinn.Mii ^ciRn) ik' hailf in tiiic iiiii !(ps pirs ilaii l>iulta-ia iiii pain ; laliibiin siyiifua tl Uinhlni lU- UK rpo (|iu- ila i.ili l:i t(.-ri.iatia, o la iiiisiiia cis.-^idil ; siKiiiln-'a a--i iiu -iiki iiuaiidi. (|uii: c ya ainam-txr :ic|\ul pDiU'i.c cscuio (.■! ciclo ; taiiilai ii <iuaM<lc) ^iiiU- i- 4a; 1 1 at,Mia ili 1 i in 'i la;.;ima, pnr aiiti]ia:a; tassis, calii-MiU', al tal (.alut^ill'i Hainan / 'iit;Ji." S>,'! "jm 1 ■* ^iD 'K .■';. 'ji'i J^ .% .It i*i; T-^P" N'i IIJ I'SSAVS <>1' AN AM1;UH. ANISI " \'('. \ (In ti m,im;i. 1,1 I 111 \,i(|nniu' , " (.Mi.ilc t.i I'lii !M kuiii.ii I lii( " r:ilitniil \.ic|iiiii 1 1 tninii.i. \'t^, ;m%\\( l( il the old iiimii. Tin II Ik '-int. el .i|Mrl liis 1< •j;'^ ; \l;,uii the il.li kill ■•■. .ippr.iM il ; I'l'lll linn ■• tlir iiM 111, III s]il( :|il his " C'.i x.iijiiiti \iiih," I'.i ili.i \ iii.iU "Niiu tile 11)1(1 .sum i ///,// 1 s|iic.iils x.ii.iiuir. Ills Kl;s," s,i\ the )iii>|>lr \(1 I iiu.miiii; tli.il llic (l;is ap proiulu-s). As till' saiiit,' word I'lhh imaiit Imtli the ii]»nssinn iind the .ittiinsplu rii- cli.m^i' wliicli in that cliiuatt.' pnci'ik's the tlawn, tlu' tt'xt ina\ 1h' tianslatcil ritlur \va\ , and IIk' Iidiu iipli(Mi\ woidd i;ivi' rise In a dnuhU- nicaiiini; ot tlu' nanu'. This hoinophonx contains, indrrd, rirli niatnial for thr dr wlopnirnt of an atuni.d nnth, idrntil\ int; thr \ nJi with the Ciod ot' I.ii^ht, jnst as the siniilarit\ o| thr Al_i;onkin ;r(tii /'isih, thr dawn, and :r,!/i/','s. {]\v i.ihhit, ^av*.' oixMsion to a wliolr r\ I'll' oitMU ions ni\ ths in which the (iical Han.' oi the Mii^litx Ralihit lii^nirs as the Ciratoi oi' the wtuld, llu' Pa\ M.\kir. and the rhiet' ( lod ol" the wi(k'I\ s])read Alison kin tiilns. • In tile second name, 1 1 ini alif^u ii/iii, the last iiK'Hilier itf/ti means ihi- co\ oti.', the native woll, an animal which plays an import, lilt ^\ niholic jiarl in tin.' cosmo.^onical ni\ ths of Calit'oi nian, Mixican and Central American tribes. It aj) * 1 li.ivi- liMii-il tlu- u low 111 ill' I his 111 \ 111 ill ilit.iil ill I'hr Mvtlis ol the Sr-.t M'otUi. ,i /'ti;}/iM- lit! Ill:- SwibiiliKti iitui M\t>i,>l,\i^\ ,\t' III,- A'.'..' A'cii c .>/ . I Wi'Mi .;, i'Ikii). vi.lNcw York, ^'^7(^ ^ Dr tlltn Stoll iti lit.'; most n-i-oiU ilisiussion of the inylli of HiiiimIiiui • loos not ni\i;c the im-Mniiii; " opos.smn Inmtiv." anil niiiai ks that in the rokiiiii'lii liiiiloot /)^';,W)/'.i nuans "moon man," and "month," rcl'iMi inj; tlicii Ion- to a iii,i;ht i;>iiV /'lh>ii>/,\i;h' lii'i hiiiuiiiii Sl^iiyiow : (^>i (lUiiltiiui/t!, p..;.', ^I,ovlk'n i.'iSi).) :'*» ■nil". HOC. AS \ col). ' 1,^ •r lit ill l)l;iys Ihs of lit ap I vi, (Ncu |IiiiimIi)iii (ikoiK'l\i ]n .lis i;cin'ra!l\ tu icpicst'tit tlic iiii-Jit, ami I vvoiiM icnikr ilir (soUiic sc'tisc (il tile tun names l'\- " Master ol tlic \i;;lil," ami " Mastei ()| tile .\]>]iii >.i( him.; Dawn." 'I'lii s.imc conicalrd sriisc sic ins to link in tlic m\t tianic. /i\ki iiiiihi I vi , litcialh, "'i'lic ('.nut Wliitc I'isote," the pisiitc liiini; till' |iri)l)(isri(li;in known as Wisini innini, I,. 'Plu'sc iKimcs an- icpralid in ,i lalrf |)as.s;im- oj' the /!'/>r'/ I iill i 1>. Jo). " M.ikf ktinwii \(inr ii.imc, I Inn .ili|pii \ iirli, I iim ,;li]iu iitiu. Iwo- Idlil lii'.lK T (il cllildllll, twdlnld lic;.;( tt< I oC cliilili (11 , \itll .ik, .\illl l/\i/, iil.istrr III till' ciilcf.ilil, etc. 'I'lii- naiiK' Xiiii nk is (.'Isi'wlii rr i^ivi'ii /.aki iiiiii dk. 'I'lie luiiiRT iiK'ans "(ileal Hi'i;," the latlir "White, (ireat lloi;." Ihassenr translates ^f/' as wild hoar ( saiioiici), hut it is the eoiiinioii name for tin- native lion, without distine- tidii of si'x. In a later passant', •^- wi' are inlonned that it was the n.iiiie of an old man with white hair, and that Zaki- iiiiiia t/> i/, was the naini' of an old woman, his wile, all heiil and doubled up with ai;e, hut hoth l)eiii,L;s of maiAilous nia;^ic power. Thus we I'md here an almost uni(|ue example of the deification of the ho.i; ; for once, this useful animal, Lieiierally despised in mythology and anathematized in re- ligion, is i^iveii the hij^hest pedestal in the Pantheon. I*erha])s we should understand these and nearly all similar hinte .i^ods to he relics of a ])rim'ti\'e form of totemic woishij), such as was found in vi^or amonj.; some of the northern trihes. \'arious other indications of this can he discovered amonj; the branches of the Maya family. The * /■'/)(// / 'nil, 1). 41J. m ■:---i^-y-m V<1' i^ !' 114 KSSAYS OK AN AMKK ICANIST. Cakchiquels were called "the jjcople of the bat" (•3'<v/'), that animal beiiij^' their national .si<;n or token, aiul also the symbol of their j^od. •■• The tiicuy owl, chan or r/////(i/~ siiv- pent, bala))i tiger, and ,;'>// deer, are other animals whose names are Applied to prominent families or tribes in these nearly related m>ths. The priests and rnlers also assumed frequently the names of animals, and some pretended to be able to transform them- selves into them at will. Thus it is said of Oucumatz Cotuha, fifth king of the Quiches, that he transformed him- self into an eagle, into a tiger, into a serpent, and into coagulated blood, t In their dances and other .sacred cere- monies they used hideous masks, carved, painted and orna- mented to represent the heads of eagles, tigers, etc. These were called coJt, as cohbal iiivi cot, the mask of an eagle; cohbal riivi balaui, the mask of a tiger, etc. In Maya the same word is found, koli, and in the Codex Troano, one of few original Maya manuscripts we have left, the.se masks are easily distinguished on the heads of many of the persons represented. Recent observers tell us that in the more remote parishes in Central America these brute-faced masks are .still worn by the Indians who dance in accompanying the processions of the Church ! % Even yet, every new-born child among the Quiches is solenudy named after .some beast by the native "medicine man" before he is bapti/.ed by the padre. || ♦ Ibid. pp. 225, 249. \ Ibid. p. 314. * Die Indianer von Santa Catalina Istlavacan ; ein neitiae; :iir Cultiitgeschichlt dtr L'rbeuohner Central Amerikas. Von Dr. Karl Scherzer, p. 9 (Wien, 1S56). 1 /*/■(/., p. II. "'J i ■ '38 THE nrSKASl'l) DIVINITY. "5 Tliis l)iinj;s iir- to a name which has vc-ry curious incaii- iiiLjs, to wit, 7)/>i/t. It is the ordinary word in these dialects j'iir lord, ruler, chief or kiiii:^. Its i'orni in Cakchiiiuel is 7')/><\\\ in Ma\a V't/^t/, and it is jirohahly fiom the adjective rnot //■/), filled up, supjilied in abundance, satisfied. In Ouiclie and Cakchiquel it is used synonyrously with ,i,'<7/<V «ir. ;''(;'<'/ and aJiau, as a translation of Seiior or Cacique. But it has another definite meaning'-, and that is, the disease s\pliilis\ and what is n<jt less curious, this meaning' extends also in a measure to,i,'vci,>/// and alian. This extraordinary collocation of ideas did not escape the notice of Ximenez, and he undertakes to explain it by suj^- gcslion that as syjjhilis arises from cohabitation with many different women, and this is a jirivile^e only of the great and powerful, so the name came to be a])]jlied to the chiefs and iiol)les, an<l to their god.-'- Of course, syjihilis has no such origin ; but if the Indians thought it had, and considered it a proof of extraordinary genetic power, it would be a plausible supposition that they applied this term to their divinity as being the t\ pe of the fecuiulating princii)le. liiU the original sense of the adjective /'/) (l("s not seem to bear this out, and it would rather ap- I)ear that the employment of the word as the name of the disease was a lal^.-r and secondary sense. vSuch is the opinion of Father Coto, who says that the term was applied jestingly to those suffering from .syphilitic .sores, because, like a chief- tain or a noble, they did no work, but had to sit still with their hands in their laps, as it were, waiting to get well.f * I'.sfitlios. a his Iliitoiias tie! Oi ij;i'H lA' /o.s Imiins, p. 157. tTi) (juolc his words : "lirius; i^alfl vcl tif>i\x-. * * (Jii.tihId ,Tii j)as;iilo <liccii .1 /« (V(/r.'/M///i/«<//<v«, , •'■>v V;*! . ^- '■' %iA li'ii'r m 1 -K' •!t-<n Wf i I ■ 1 1(> i;ss\vs<»i \\ \mi:nh.' wisi' M 'riir ^.iiiic sti,iiiv;i' ('(iiimclinii '.ccm^ ill ntlur Aiii.i iiMii lll\ tlliilii;.;iis. Tints ill tln' .\/t(.(' tullL',lU' A'(M/.r///^</// llllMIls ;i ptisoii siiU'ii ill;; limii s\|iliilis: it is ;i|su, in ;i m\tli pn siiAid li\ S.ili.ii;mi, tlu' ii.mir nl tlir Sun (hpiI. .iiul il is w I;iU(i (ij liitii tli.ll .is ;i s.uiilirr, In inu' 1 net mi illi; tiu' Mill, In lliiiw iiitii tlic s.u'i iliiial llaiiics, not |iuti(iiis ,i;itts, ;is tin oiistdiii w.is, hilt tlu' sr,il)s lium liis siiics. • Sn ;iIm» Cini iMi.troI, ;i pioiniiunt li,i;nu' in Il.i\ti.iii in\ tlinluijv , is n.i)n.' S(.'iit(.'(l as siinriiiii; Inoii snii'sor Imhoivs. 'V\\v ii.iiiu' (iiiiUiiuil is coin'i-th' stattd I>\ Xinu'iuv to In rapiiMr ol' two (Ki i\ ations. 'Plir I'list lakrs it I'loiii !,•''''A''''■'''^ a tl.itlKT ; /ill i^ia; Kiihilt. 1 I'liihroidrr oi covit \\ illi Ira tin- is. Tlu' Si(.'oii(l (Krixalioii is iVoiii c'^'C. iVatlar, and ddih)/:, the ^(.'iKiii' iianu- tor st'ipnit. Tlu- liist of tlust' is that wliirli tlu- wtitc'v ot till' /('/','/ / 'ii/i pnli'i ird. as appears lioiii hi-, I'xpri'ssion ; " 'Ph<.'\ ww loldid in thr iVathirs (.i,'/ci,'), Ihr ^ri'i'ii oiu's : thiTi'loir thrii naiiK' is (in,i;ninat/ ; \v\\ wisr indcrd an- tho\ " i p. (ti. 'iMic hrilliaiil plniiiai;c' ol" Uk' tro]> ioal hirds was constantly ns^d by iIksc tiilK's as an ornaiiK'iit tor tluir clolliiii!^ and tlu'ir idols, and llu' posst-'ssion ol" inan\ ottlusc c'Minisitc tcatluMs was a iiiatt(.r ot"])rid(.". TIk' nauK's // On \ <//,>. (h(\ f^(i/i\ iiK'an " tlu- Heart of tlir Lako, the 1 Irarl ol' thr Si.;!." To them inaN- he added k (hi \ ill est, y.i ail I'l-jailo sii !-cruiii;i. i)iii<|iii,' cl qui- las tiiiu- so r^la si-ntado, ,sin liaci i cosa, I'oiiio si I'm'sc scunr .' si'Tuna. " Si siiK A : I ,\i:,i/i,n/ ,■ Sinoiia, i(\!;i'/ttUin>iiii. * * Dcsto iiiitiibii" i <ii,'<>/m/< vsaii tiu-taplioiicaiiu'iitt" para ilociv iiiio una iiuij;ir tiio/a lii-iu' Imlias ; (xiKiiu' so osta sin Iiai'i'i iMsa, inaiiii sciliic iiiaiiii, * * y qiiaiiili< a aiiailo lU' la ciilVi iiu'ilail, dii'i'ii, >-i OS vaioii : 1 ;(< .'/,j// t,i/uiitiiii'm ,ii/ii > umal trfi,- 1 . Tt'f'r i is la iiifi'iiiudad lU' buhas " * Salia.ciiii, //'>/•'' '.I (i"!- A'//('.ii /V/^ii'; I, I.il). vii, ca]i. :. Ilo translatts .\,nii!/n/,i tzili, " cl buboso, " Colli]). liiHiiiini, hli\i (/;• una .\ut-ua lliiti'iia tie A; .tinrnHi. pp 37. .v"^- III. \in' \ Ml son, 117 llu- tlir llciill (if tluSk\," ;ili(l // (hi\ iiL I It . the IIlMit it till' l'",;iilli," IiiuihI tl'.( w Ikic ill llu' /',•/>,>/ I'n/i, Mini .ip p|ir<l til (li\illit\'. Tllc lili l.ll sense of \\\v wold licilt U.'lS, IliiWt \-ei , lint that wliieli was iiil( mled ; in iIkisi' dialtcts lliiswdiil liatl a niiieii iiclui nietaiilKii u al mcaiiin il that 1 III iiin tmij^iU'; in them it st'iod Int all the |is\(hi(al powers, tiieiiidiy, will anil nasi mill"; laciilties, \\\c \\\v, the spirit, (lie siiMl.'" Il wmilil lie nmre eniteet, then lull', til remlci these names tin "spirit" or "soul" of the lake, etc., than the "liiart." Tlle\ Il plX'SiIlt lilo,i(lly the (loetlilie o|' " ailimislll " .IS held li\ lliesi' |)eo|)le, and ^eiu't all\ li\- in.in in his laily stages of nlii;iiins d(.\'elopnunt. Tliex- indicate' also a diml\- itnder- stdod siiise of IIk- nnitxdi" s])irit Of em'i"i;\- in tlu- diiieri nt iii.inirestations oi ori;anir and iiiiii^anie ixisteiiee. This was not ptcnliar to the trilus nmU'r <'onsiiUtalioii. The heart was \i'r\ |L;enerall\' looked upon, not onl\ as the seat of life, lint as the source' of the lee!ini;s, intelkct aiul ])assions, the \i.'r\' soul itself. I Hence, in sacrificing; \ic- tiitis it was torn out and offered to the i;o(l as rejireseiitin^ the iiiinialerial part of the indixidual, that which sur\i\e(l tlie death of the body. The two names Ah-mxa-lak and Ali-iaxasil literally ■M \ f,ntH • • ^^ '' ' ■■ < i • .' ' ''■< . '■m Il:ni 1 in VSilll sl;\ sill lioi'ti. si )\ili;>s." /.If, PI' * Tlu- MS, Iliiliiiiwiiv lit' Coll) s.ivs, s. V. Ciiriizdii : " Atli iliiii iili- IihIds Ins iifl'i c Ins ill 1,1'i |)iiliiui;is, iiuiiiin iii y I'litiiiiliiiiiiiili) y volimlMil, " * iiiiili- (;//.!,•» 1 , <1 nii ilailn-n. I'lilciididii, tiuiiiiii ioso " *; ti)III;il\ isle tiiiiiilirr i; » 1 |iiil rl mIiiii i'.c I:i pi rsuiiu, y jioi- I'l S])ii ilii vil.-il (If toilti viviilitc, V. i;. \ il 1 11 iiii 1 I'ldm. imii i'l I'l ili d, M'l, s:ili(i fl iitiu.T lit' I'll 111), * * doll' IK mil 110 i,w/ 1 .'-f l'i)Mii:i el vi rlici //// ,»;/( r A;//, p ii priis:ir, I'liiilar. inKi;;iii;ir." '< ' l)f ;iiloiiili-," rctiiiirks C,i ;iii,iiliis \' dalviz, " vii'iic qui- mis oloiiiitc^, <lc una lni^llla maiura llamaii A la alma iiiic at curazim. apliiaiidoks A tiilramliDs la vip/ mm." '/',ii({i-s .i niii iciiiicis, TiWilc \v. \i. mi. I Mtxiio. 177^.) ■•'-'ij .u^l- !^r^ ii« IISSAVS OI" AN A.Ml'KICAMST. mean. " llv of the ^^rtrn dish," " lie of the p:recn cup." Thus Ximeiiez j^ixx'S them, and adds that forms ol speccli with yvM signify thiiit,^s of beaiitN-, fit for kings and lords, as are hrij^htly colored cups and dishes. A'tr x is the name of the colors hlue and j.ijreen, which it is said hy many writers cannot l)e distinj^uished apart l)y these Indians; or at least that they ha\e nf) word to express the difference. AVm , hy extension, means new, strong, rough, violent, etc. '■■■ Coming immediately after the names "Sold of the Lake," "Sold of the Sea," it is possible that the "blue plate" is the a/.ure surface of the tropical sea. In the second ])aragraph I have quoted, the narrator in- troduces us to "the ancestress {ivoni), the ancestor (///awo/n), by name Xpiyacoc, Xmucanc." These were prominent figures Ml Quiche mythology ; they were the end)odiments of the paternal and maternal j^owers of organic life ; they were invoked elsewhere in the /*>/><>/ l'//// to favor the germ- ination of seeds, and the creation of mankind ; they are addressed as " ancestress of the sun, ancestress of the light." The old man, Xpiyacoc, is spoken of as the master of divina- tion by the /'.rz/'r, or sacred beans; the old woman, Xmucanc, as she who could forecast days and seasons {afii>ih) ; they were the parents of those mighty ones "who.se name was Ahpu," nmsters of magic, t From this ancient couple, Ximenez tells us the native magicians and medicine men of his day claimed to draw their inspiration, and they were especially consulted touching the birth of infants, in which they were still called upon to assist in .spite of the efforts ni •Ximcncz, (hiinialuii ,ie In /.riix'ni (Jiiii/ir. p. 17. t/V/'l'/ I'll/l. pp. 1^, 2(1, .•,^, 69. flC. Till". coNci; \m;i) coddi'ss. 1 1«) ivina- lUcaiK', ; Ihcy iL' was men I if V WLTC whicli 'orts (I I tliL' i)a(lrcs. It is rk-ar tliroi.^^lKuit that tlii'V represented mainly the iieculiar functions of the two sexes. Their names ]ierha])s heloujiied to an archaic dialect, and tile Oniches either could not or woidd not explain them. All that Ximene/ says is that Xmucane me;. .is /(>/)//> or i;/(i:'i\ derivinj; it from the \erl) //;/ //////.•, I hurv. In most or :dl of the lan^ua^es of this stock the root >/////^' or w/^c" means to cover or co\-er u]). In M;i\a the passive form of the verbal noiui i -i i)ii(((t(in, of which the /h'rr/\'>i(i> to (/, Motul-- j^ives the translation "something;- co\'ered or buried," the second meaning- arisini^ naturally from the cus- tom of covering the dead body with earth, and indicated that the mortuary rites among then\ were b>- means of in- terment : as, indeed, we are definitely informed by IHslioj) T<anda. t The feminine i)refix and the ternnnal euphonic c t;ive precisely X-;;:i(caan-i\ meaning " vShe who is covered up," or buried. Hut while ctymologically satisfactory, the ap])ropriateness of this derivation is not at once ajjparcnt. Can it have reference to the seed co";ereci by the soil, the child buried in the womi), the egg hidden ir the nest, etc., and thus typify one of the principles or ])l;ases of reproduction? I'or there is no doubt, but that it is in the category of divinities ])re- siding over rejiroduction this deity belongs. Not only is she called "primal mother of the sun and the light,"!' • " Cosa ([uc f- ..T encubiitta li cntfirada." Thi.' Iiiitimiai in di- Mnlnl is the most complete (licli'iiiarv of till" Maya tvir made. It dalrs from about 1511.1 ami has its iKimp from .he town of Motul, Viicatan, wlit-re it wa^ written. Tlu- autlior i-, iin- ktiowii. (/nly two copies of it are in existence, one. very carefully made, with numerous notes, by Dr. Ikrendt, is in my possession. It is a thick ^toof 15' >> paj,'ps. \ h'tliiiiiiii (if his ('osiis i/r )'iirii/ii>i. \ \.\.\II!. t" Katit zih, r'atit zak," ropnl t'lili. i)p. 1"^, 20. V'itv ■^■sm tyt~ If. . .', "# ft' % •;.<!;.t.ul 5'-,^ •if k''. . => wis -a% ■a T I ^it KSSAVS n|- AN A M i:K IC A NIST. l>ul it is sIk' who cooks tlu- iiouiidcd m;ii/.c fioiii wliitli tlu first of iiKii wiiv lorimd. ]{otli iiaiiKs ni;i>- \)v iiiti rinilcd with approin iali'iK-ss to tl." sjjhfrc and liiiirtioiis of their su|>]io-t(l |io\v(.ts, tVoiu radicals coiniiioii to the Ma>a and Onit lit.' dialects. .\'f>//i tdiii ina>- l>c composed of the fcniininc invtix \ 'the same in sound and meaninj^^ as the Iuij;lish pronominal adjecti\e s/ir in such terms as s/ii-/'/<r/, s/um/^: and nin/ctiiiil, vi};<»r, force, power. .\'/>n(Hvr is not so eas\- of solution, hut I helicve it to he a deri\ati\e from the root i/A, the male, whence .\//>/>/7, niasciilinit>-, -i- and (V or <'r('r, to enter, to accouple in the ael of ;;enerati()n. t W'e can readily see, with these meaninj;s hidden in them, the suhtler sense < f which the nati\es had i)rol)al)l>- lost, that these names would he difiicult of satisfactory ex])lana- tion to the missionaries, and that the>' woidd he left h\- Ui m as of undetermined oriiiin. The second fratrment of (.)uiche mvtholo''\- whit'li I shall analyze is one that relates to the (lods of the .Storm. These are introduced as the three manifestations of O/ix-i/ia, the Soul of the Sky, and collectively " their name is Ilinakan :" " Ciikulhii Hurakan is the first; Chipi-cakulha is the second ; tlu' third is Kaxa-r.ikulha ; and these three .are llie .Soul of the .Sky." Elsewhere we read : * l\s|)fci;il!y tlu- iiii'iiihi ii»i riii/i\ I'ii) I'lTiz, / liK iniidi m ili la /.t'liaiui Mii\.i. s v. t"Miit;iir. juiilarsi' cl inaclio (.on I:i luiiihra." llra-^-it-ur, I'DniluiUiii r M.na I <iiii tus, s. V. '% 'nil", con fii' rm: iokn ado. 121 "Siniili lliiTrlnri- niif iMiiic, liniinf vniii iiiiillnr, Miiir f.illur; ( alt V. ii|iiiii lliiniUaii, Clii|)i('akiilli:i, Raxacakiillia, Soul of tlir I'.itlh, .siuil lit' tin- Sky, Criator, Maker, Iltr wlm lpiiii.i;s Imtli, Iliin ulm f't'ls ill II spc.ik, call Upon lis, salute ii (akullut I C:ikchi(Hicl. lokolluiy) is tlu' orditiarx- word for tlic li^liliiiiiK ; Kaxacakiillia, is Riidind Iiy Cnlo as " tlif tlasli i>r till' lij^lilniiiK " ^'1 ii sp/dmiiir ild fini": Clii])!- cakullia is stal-vd hy Hrassftir to iiiran " Ic silJotuKimnt di- Iri'lair ;" <////> is used to dcsi^iiati' tin.' latest, xoimncst or It. 1st of c'liildrcii. or fm.ncrs, ftc"., and tlu- i\])it.ssinii tlKTi'- iMii- is "tin- track of llii.' liL;litiiiii!^. " Tlicrc rciiiaiiis tin- naiiif Huiakaii, and it is (•(intl-si.(ll\- (litlK'nlt. I'rassunr snys tl;at no (.xplanalion of it can he fdund in the Oniilic or Cakclii(|iicl dictionaries, and that it iiiitst lia\c been hronj^lit from tlic Antilles, wluie it \\:!s the name applied to the terrible tornado of the Wist Indian latitndes, and, horrowed from the IIa\tians hy earl\ navi- i^alors, has nnder the forms (>///in;(if/, ///n<n(r//, linn i(aiu\ passed into ICnropean lan.^na.nes. I am cominced. however, that the word Ilurakan helon.^s in its et\nioloL;\ to the .Ma\a j^roup of dialects, and mnst he analw.eil 1)\- them. ( )ne such et\ inoloj^y is indeed offered 1t\ Ximeiiez, hut an alisurd one. He suj)])osed the word was componndi'd of liiDi, one; m his; and rakaii, foot, and translates it "of one foot." This has very ])roperly been rejected.. On collating the proper names in the /''/><'/ / 'n/i there are se\eral of them which are e\idently allied to Ilurakan. Thus we have CuOidkan, who is rei)resented as the i^od of the earthquake, he who shakes the solid earth in his mi.nht * /'ilpiil I 'nil . ])]). ^, I ). (^ ,.< /I.J.J . 122 KSSAYS oi" AX ami;kicanist. h.\ :iii(l t<)i)i)k'S owr tlic lotty inoinitaiiis. His naiiR' is tlu comniDii word for (.artlKiuakt.' in tluse dialects. Ai;aiii, oiir of the titk'S of Xiiiucarc is Chii(ik\])i .\'ii//i((i)/i\ The k'niiinal idkini in these names is a word nsed to e\ ])ress j;reatness in si/.e, heij^ht or hii^ness. Many examples are found in Coto's I'onibii/in /,>.'•'- For a person tall in stature he i;ives the expression foi^nDi t(ik-()ii : for lar^e in body, tlie Cakchi(|uel is iia/il rakati, and tor j^^ii^antic, or a j^iant, Itu )aka>i . This idea of strength and mii;ht is of course ver\- appro priate to the deity who jiresides o\er the a])pallinj; forces of the tropical thunder-storm, who Hashes the lightniui;' and hurls the tlumderholt. It is also germane to the conception of the earth([uake i;()d. The fust syllahle, cal\ means twice, or two, or second ; and apparently has reference to Iiidi, one or first, in /iNiakan. As the thunderstorm was the most terrifying display of power, so next in order came the eartlupiake. The name Cliimkan as ai)plied to Xmucane may ha\-e many meanings ; chi in all these dialects means ])rimarily woiitii : hut it has a vast number of secondarv meanings, as in all languages. Thus, according to Coto, it is currently * 1 tiiko iiK' ri)llo\viii); i-iitrios iVdiu Ciil,)'s .l/.s'.S'..- "I.Aki.A (.(ISA : I.i) oriliiKirii) c> ]iiiiur lakan |);ira si^jiiiluMr la hiv.mira di' i)nln. oonli'l, ell.'. " C.ii. AN II'. : liii lapah lakaiithi •.itiak.hti ilini^tili iaf:ini:ln Tiiinik : csti' luinilur so nsa (k' tmlo aniiiuil (|1k- 1.11 sii ^I)^•^■i^• cs lua-- alto qiu' Ins citrus. .\Uo. 1" S.i, serm. <k- li renin sci^s, diic iltl Cij^aiiti' (".nlias : liii^otu if;^iii i, laktin 1 hi a, hi Cii^aiili dtfli.ts." I^iio!atit, aiiiiani'tly, ul' this nuaniii:.;, Dr Sti>ll i-cuitiiuK's in liis latest work t' iiitir|iit.'t Iliirakan "with one loot. " /';> I'lhiiolnf^ir ,/,■> /nJ/,iiiii Sl.'immr : 01: (iiiii/rm,i/,i. |). ,ii. li.eiileii. iss.i.i The eliajiteron niylholo.4y is the least satisfaetoix ill til is iiiiiiortaiit work. Till' I)i;sci:nt int<» hiu.l. ij ha\r uirih IS, as .■ntlv iidinl'ii !"■ S.i, usrd to (k'sit;nak' tlR' inoulh i>f a jar, the cra'c-r of a \-olcani), till' (.'>(.' of a ncfdk', tlic door of a liousf, a window, a .^aU- to ,1 Ik'ld, in fad, almost an\- opcninj; whatLAcr. I suspect that as lifrc nscd as ])art of llic nanic of tlic- nuthii'al niotlur (if lilt' race and the representation of tlie female ])rinciple, it is to he nnderstood as referrinj; to the (>s///t/// -.■iri;///i/\ from which, as from an immeasnrahle vai^/iia ^rHliidii, all animate life was helievid to have drawn its existence. If tlie derixation of llurakan here ])resented is correct, we can hardly refnse to ex])lain the word as it occnrs elsewhere with the same meaning; as an evidence of the early inthience of the Maya race on other tribes. It wonld appear to have Ixen throui^h the Carihs tluit it was carried to the West India islands, where it was first heard by the Muropcan navii;ators. Thns the /h'dionaiir (ialihi (Paris, I74,v > i;ives for "(liable," irouran, /(iviittDi, Iivorokdii, ])recisely as Coto ^ives the Cakchicpiel eciuivalent of " diablo " -as ii it ra ka n . This j;od was said by the Caril)s to have torn the islands of the West Indian archijielaj^o from the mainland, and to have heai^ed up the sand hills and bluffs alont; the shores. -■• As an a.ssociate or "ca]itain" of the hurricane, they spoke of a hu<;e bird who makes the winds, by name Sararoit, in the middle syllable of which it is ]>o.ssil)le we may recognize the bird vaku, which the Ouiches spoke of as the messen,L;er of Iluiakan. I now pass to the m\ th of the tk'scent of the hero i^od, Xbalancpie, into the uiulerworld, Xii)alba, his \i(.-tor\ o\er ♦Dc lii Heinle, RrlatiKii if,- /'m i\;iiii\ ,■/,.. (//> I \i i <ii/',s. \>. 7, (Paris, Hi;.).) m p /»>? im :i ■ ■•■• '*"'»; '•-:■■ m- 1. V w I ' 1 1 ! i 124 ESSAYS OF AX AMERICANIST. I 5 h '■ the iraabitants, and triumphant return to the rcahn of li.^hl. The exploits of this deniit:;od are the ])rinci]ial theme of the earlier portion of the /'(>/}o/ J 'idi. It was the vague similarity f)f this nuth to the narrative of the descent of Christ into hell, and his ascent into heaven, to v.hich we owe the earliest reference to these religious beliefs of the Guatemalan tribes ; and it is a gratifying proof of their genuine antiquity that we have this reference. Our authority is the Bishop of Chiapas, Bartolonie de las Casas, with other contemporary writers. The Bishop writes that the natives a Guatemala alleged that Xbalanque was born at Utlatlau, the ancient Quiche capital, and having governed it a certain time with success, went down to hell to fight the devils. Having conquered them, he returned to the upi)er world, but the Ouiches refused to receive him, so he passed on into another province. '■" As related in the Popol \ 'ii/i, the myth runs thus: The divine jxiir, Xpiyacoc and Xnuicane had as sons Hunhun-Ahpu and Vukub-IIun-Ahpu ( Ivach-one-a-Magi- cian and Seven-times-a-Magician). They were invited to \isit Xibalba, the Underworld, by its lords, Ilun-Came and Vukub-Came (One-Death and vSeven-Deaths), and accejjting the iu\itation, were treacherously nun-dered. The head of IIunhun-Ahi)u was cut off and suspended on a tree. A maiden, l)y name Xcpiiq, (Blood.) passed that way, and look- ing at the tree, longed for its fruit; then the head of Ilun- hun-Ahpu cast forth spittle into the outstretched palm of ..A the ,il ilu * I.as Casas, Hi^tniia Af^nh'ii'/iia (tf /iis /inliiis (h, n/rnfii/rs, cap cxxiv 1 Madrid icUtiou): r. K. .\l()iizo l"(.Tnaiuk/., //i.^/oi/a /uilrsiii.s/ira de .Xn'slios '/'lenifxis, p. i,^; ('I'oltdo, 161 1;. THK STORY OK TlIIv Hl-.KO COD. 125 1>- i.C the maiden, and forthwith shu i)c-canR- prcj;nant. Antjcred ,t licr condition, her father set a])ont to shiy lier, hut she v-caped to the upjier world and tliere brou.^ht forth the twins Ilun-Ahi)n and Xbalaniiue. They t;rew in strens^th, and I'erfornied various deeds of prowess, which are rehited at K ii^th in the Popol I '////, and were at last invited by t'.ie lords of the I'nderworld to visit them. It was the intention of the rulers of this dark land that the youths should meet the same fate as their father and uncle. But. prepared by warninji^s, and skilled in magic power, Xbalanque and his hrother foiled the murderou.s designs of the lords of Xib.alba ; pretending to he burned, and their ashes cast into the river, they rose from its waves unharmed, and by a stratagem slew I Inn-Came and Vukub-Came. Then the ir.habitants of the Inderworld were terrified and fled, and IItui-Ahi)u and Xbalancjue relea.sed the prisoners and restored to life tlujse wiio had been slain. The latter rose to the sky to become its countless stars, while Hunlum-Ahi)u and \'ukub-IIun- .\hpu ascended to dwell the one in the sun, the other in the moon. The portion of the legend which narrates the return of Xbalanque to the upper world, and what befell him there, as referred to in the myth preserved by Las Casas, is not preserved in the ]\\t>ol Viiii. The faint resemblance which the eat'.y missionaries noticed in this religious tradition to tliat of Christ would not lead any one who has at all closely studied mythology to assume that this is an echo of Christian teachings. Both in America and the Orient the myths of the hero god, born of a virgin, and that of the descent into Hades, are among the most !# .' ■:;'.!;• ■•■ w ' * ■ ,4i' .- '.'.('.'■■-.■ ' .' )'•'- ■ :-.rf^ ■ >?-<i'; ,•■•.■ ;'.• ■ '■' i'V. m ii 126 ESSAYS or AN AMlvKICANIST. cnniinon. Their explanation rests on the universality and prominence of the processes of nature which are tyiiified under these narratives. It is unscientific to attempt to de- rive one f'oni the other, and it is not less so to endeavor to invest them with the character of history, as has been done in this instance by the Abljc Ikasseur and various other writers. The Abb6 maintained that Xibalba was the name of an ancient .State in the valley of the Usumasinta in Taljasco. the capital of which was Palenque.''- He inclined to the belief that the original form was t-iialba, which would mean painted moh\ in the Tzendal dialect and might have refer- ence to a custom of painting the face. This far-fetched deri- vation is unnecessary. The word Xibalba, (Cakchiquel Xiba/bay, Maya Xibalba, Xabalba, or Xiibalba) was the com- mon term througliont the Maya stock of languages to de- note the abode of the spirits of the dead, or Hades, whicli with them was held to be under the surface of the earth, and not, as the Mexicans often sujiposed, in the far north. Hence the Cakchiquels used as synonymous with it the expression "the centre or heart of the earth. '""•' After the conquest the word was and is in common use in Guatemalan dialects to mean iuil, and in Maya for llir devil. Cogolludo states that it was the original Maya term for the ■:vii * Diisri lalion stii /r.s Myllus ile I' Ayitujuite Anu-i naiir. ?. S d'aris, 1S61) ; soe also his note to the I'oftol I'uli. p. 70. t ('//'/( ipi r iilrii, "ill its heart the earth." (Coto, lh\r. s. \.) Ci)to adds that the aiuient meaning of tlie word was a ghost or vision of a de- parted spirit — " aiitigiianiente este nomlire .\7Ai7//'<;i' signifieaha el deinonio, vel los difVuiilds o vi^iones (jiie so les apcreseian, y asi deeiau, y aim alHiiiios ay ([lie lo di- ceii oy \ i4(jul:ii xiholhay > i irt:i!»i clii >iu 7n</i, se nie apereeiu el difl'iinli)." ,i"3 Till". NATINIC IIADI'S. 1 27 Ivvil Spirit, luul tliat it iia-aiis '" Ik- who disapjiears, or \a\\- i-hes."''- He evidently derived it from the Maya verb, \/7>/7, iiiul I believe this deri\ation is correct ; Imt the signification lie K'^'-^ '^ incomplete. The original sense of the word was ■ to melt," hence " to disappear." i' This became connected with the idea of disappearance in death, and of ghosts and specters. 1 1 is interesting to note how the mental pnjcesses (jf these seclnded and semi-barbarous tril)es led them to the same association of ideas which our greatest dramatist expresses in Hamlet's soliloquy : " O, that this too, too solid flesh would molt, Thaw, and resolve itself iiUo a dew;" 1 ■ " V ■ 1 .• ■^..'^^^■k ' and which Cicero records in the phrase dissol/tfio natutir, in the sense of death, j; The natural terror and fright with which death and ghosts arc everywhere regarded, and especially, as Landa remarks, by this people, explain how this .secondary meaning be- came predominant in the word. The termination ba means in the Ouatemalan dialects, where, whence, whither, bry, a path or road ; Xibilbay thus signifies, in the locative sense, "the place where they (/. c. the dead) disappear," the * " Kl Deinonio sc Uain.iba .Vi/'i///(7, (iuc(iiiieie decir el JiUf so dcsparcoe n (k'shmi- ccf," HistDiia lie \'in\itlia)i, I.ih. iv. cap. vii. C(),u:o11ik1o had livcil in Vin.itaii tw-fiity-oiie years when he was inakiiii; the final revi.-,ion of his llislDry, and was innderately well acquainted with the Maya tonyue. fThe Diccionai to di- Motiil, MS., j.;ives : " .Klllll,, r/Vi/, .v/Vi/i- .■ eundir coino Rota de aceita ; cspareiise la coniida en la di- gestion, y deshacerse la sal, nieve o yelo, hnnio o nielila. Item : (!■■ '^areeeise una vision o fantasnia. //fin ; tcniblar de niiedo y e-^pautarse." J De Legibus, I,ib. ii, cap. 2, ^'\\ ■.'•;■, ...'.si 1 *dl RPP I2,S KSSAYS <)1' AN AMICKICANIST. il ,11 Hack's, the Iii\i>il)l<j Rc-alm, wliicii was supposed to he under the .^n'ound. It was a coninion belief amoiiL;- many tribes in America, tliat their earliest ancestors emerged from a world whicli underlies this one on which wc live, and in ancient Cakchi- (juel legend, the same or a similar notion seems to have pre- vailed. The name of the hero-god Xhjhiiiq/ic is explained by the Abbe Brasseur as a compound of the diminutive jirefixi. balam, a tiger, and the jilural termination que. '■• Like so many of his derivations, this is quite incorrect. There is no plural termination que, cither in the Quiche or in any re- lated dialect; and the signification "tiger" (jaguar, luli.x mica Lin. in Mexican ocdotl \ which he assigns to the word balavi, is only one of .several which belong to it. The name is compounded of the prefix, either feminine or diminutive, v,- balam, or, as given In' Guzman, balau ,-t and (]Uih, deer. This is the composition given by Ximenez, who tran.slates it literallv as "a diminutive form of tiger and deer. ...|. The name balaiii, was also that of a class of warriors : of a congregation of priests or diviners ; and of one of the inferior orders of deities. In composition it was applied to a .spotted butterfly, as it is in our tongtie to the "tiger-lily;" to the king-bee ; to certain rapacious birds of prey, etc. None of the significations concerns us here ; but we do see our wa>- when we learn that both balam and queh are names * " I.cs pctits Tidies," Mytlws de V Aiitiijuitc Avu-iicanr, is viii, Pofiol t'u/i. p. ;,.). note. ^ O'liifii'iidio ill" Xomhu's t'li t.riiiiiia CiJkiliiqiii'l, MS. X I.as //i.s/iii ius di'l <'>i ii;rii dr los fiidios. p. i6. TIIIC DIVINITY OI' I.ICHT. i2g of a ifcrior lotted lo the ..f (la\s ill the Ouiche-Cakc'liiiiiul ealeiuUir. The t'onner \nn(\ for the twelfth, tlie latter for the stxeiilh in their week ..! twenty (la\s. ■•■ I'.ach of the <la\s was saered lo a par- '.icnlar divinity, hut owint; to the inadecjiiate' material i)re- -ci ved for the stndy of the aneiunt calendars of Guatemala, i\i; are mneh in the dark as to the relationship of these iii\inities. SniTiee it to say that the hero-i;od whose name is thus ciiniiiounded of two si>;ns in the eakndar, who is horn of a \iri;in, who jierfornis many surprisinj; feats of prowess on tlie earth, who descends into the world of darkness and sets free the sun, moon and stars to perform their daily and n!i,ditly journeys through the heavens, presents in these and other traits such numerous rcscmhlances to the Divinity of hii^ht, reappearins^ in so many American myths, the Day- maker of the northern hunting tribes, that I do not hesitate to identify the narrative of Xbalanqne and his deeds as one of the presentations of this widespread, this well-nigh uni- \ersal myth — guarding my words by the distinct statement, however, that the identity may be solely a psychological, not a historical one. * I'atlicr Varca, in his Cali'fihio dr la /.rtiQita Oil.-r/iit/u/'l. MS., pivcs the following (.•ntiics : " liAi.AM : tl tiLCrc, r.akbahim, tigrc pcqiRno <ic' sii tiatiirclczo ; f;aua halum.cl i;ramlc, tambciii sii^" mi siiriio dc los Iiidios. .^faci'ia! t^ili /^ hulam, u Mutia xhalam. Jialaiit se llama cl ecliizcro." " Quell ; el vciiado. Sijf^ >in cicrto dia ; otras veccs dos dias ; otras veccs cs signo (Ic tiL'Cc, otras veccs eiiico o scis dias ;i la queiita dc los Indios : xa liun quch v(V fiih, o, cay qiti'h, vait quch, raliaki, 6, oxlahuh quch. X-i'.} »•■■ ■ ■ .s.'-r ■ \T -m ■Pi' U lit m: HF,HG-GOI) OF THE ALGONKINS AS A CHEAT AND LIAH;^= TN thu i)lcasanl volume wliicli Mr. Charles (i. Lelaud has -^ written on the snrvivinij; al)original folk-lore of New ICns;" land,!' the chief divinit>' of the Micniacs and Penobscots aj) pears under what seems at first the outraj^eously incongruous \\o.\\\^ oi (i/iiskap, tlic /.iar ! This is the translation of the name as i;iven by the Rev. vS. T. Rand, late missionary among the Miemacs, and the best authority on that lan- guage. From a comparison of the radicals of the name in related dialects of the Algonkin .stock, I should say that a more strictly literal rendering would be "word-breaker," or "deceiver with words." In the Penolxscot dialect the word is divided thus, — (ilus-Ciii/ilu', where the component parts are more distinctly visible. ;|; The exi)lanation of this epithet, as quoted from native sources by Mr. Leland, is that he was called the liar 1;ecause "when he left earth, like King Arthur, for fairy land, he promised to return, and has never done so." It is true that the Algonkian Hero-God, like all the Amer- cnii culture-heroes, loskeha, Quetzalcoatl, Zannia, Bochica, * I'liblisliL'd ill Ihc .liiiri iidii .lii/ii/iiiti I'liii. for M.Tv. I'^'^.S. f 'J'/tr .i/s^iiiii/uiii /.(';'(V((/.s ()/'.%■(■."<■ I'ii[;la>id, vI)o-;toii, I'^V).) J The Miciiiac word A-c/dd.Uuiftitui-. niciuis " he is a clicat," probably one who chLal> by lying. See Kaiid, Mionac Dutioinii y, s. v. .\ cheat. (130) I 3 .'onl arc ilivc he cli<.'at> Tni" cin:\TiNc, divinitv i.V Niiat'ocha, mid tlio rest, <lisa])|Karc(l iti sr)nn.> invstcrioiis \\a\', ])ro]nisin^ aj^aiii to visit liis iH.'()i)k', and has Itm^ de- l;i\L(l his coining;. lUil it was not for that reason that he wasealk'd the "deceiwr in wonls." Had Mr. I.ehand made hiinselt" ac<iuaiiited with Alj^tnikin inytholoj^y in j;eneral, he wiiuld ha\e fomul that this is but one of several, to our lliinkini;, ojiprobrious names they ajiplied to their highest <li\inity, their national hero, and the rejnite<l saviour and III iiefaetor of their race. Tlie Crees, Iivin<; northwest of the Micniacs, call this di- \iiie ])ersouagc, whom, as leather Laconibe tells tis, they rc.uard as "The principal deil\' and the founder of these nations," by the name Wisakkc/Jdk, which means "the Irit-kster," " the deceiver. " -^- The Chii)eways a])pl\- to him n similar term, XtnaboJ, or as it is usually written, Xoiial'o- /i>(', and XaiiabosJioo, "the Cheat," ])erhaps allied to iWni- <iba)iisi, he is cheated.! This is the same deity that reappears under the names J/(U/^il>oz//<>, MicJiabo, and Mcssok, amont:^ the Chipeway tribes; as Xapi:^' among the Blackfeet ; and as W'^iiuks aiiionj;' the New I*)ni;land Indians where he is mentioned by Roi^er Williams as "A man that wrought great miracles among them, with .some kind of broken resend)lanee to the sSoiine of (iod." + * Dii lidiuiiH- (!)• lu i.iiii,i;iir drs C'l i.^. sub. votx- It'isitkk-rljak-. " Hiilinm' f:il)ul"U.\ (ks (HffiMLiitos lril)us (111 Nonl, jnuiucl <.lks aUtilmciil uiic puisMiiicf surnatuiclk', avtc nil uraiid iioinhre ik' nist'S. dc tours, ct ik- fulics. l\ tsl re^'nrili- L-diniiK' k- i)iiiicipaT K'^nie it K- foiulatfur (le CCS nations. Cluz ks SaiiUiix on V\\\i\-n.\\i; .\,iiaboj,c\\e:i. l(s rifds-Noirs. .\<'i/>in\ II'i.^iif./:i//iUi/:i\ C'tst iin foiiilif, un troiii]icnr." t liara.ua, ( >/t /i //>7cc Diilimiai v. \ Ki'Y inlt) the laiii;uii);;c of Aiiit-ihii, p. 24. M ',«* ii'-l ^;i^^•:•: ^^'?' . ■ ■ V I !^f^ >.\.? i:ss\Ns i»i' \N \Mi,i<n wisr. TIUSC .Ippi II;ltin1U. |l;l\( \ ill ii 'H'- "-iiMii ("h .1 1 ii ■11'- 'I'ln l;r I nuntii'in il i'. .ipiMnntlv Iimhi ..I m r';;//, t.itlni, willi tin pi I li \ ,, ;/, w li'i 11 I I >n\ I \ '. I 111 s( ii'.r " III I I 'iniiinn " ( ii " jm ii (i.il " llcnti il wmilil In " I Ik ( (iiiiiiii'ii IiIIhi " Muhilh,'. t nil •l.illlK tl ;ill-I.ili il li\ Willi I . ' till ('.K.il 1 1, Ml," lis it linn I 'I III 'til i)i;, III . i; u ,it , ,niil ,i wA '», liiii , i . H,ill\' ;i \i'lli;il Imin limn i)>;,lii ;ini| ::>il'i. wliili , ;iliil ■linilM lu' ll.m-l.lti il. " III! ( ', U ,lt W'llilr ( »llc " 'I'll! K 1 1 II IK I I'. Im tlu- wliiU lli;lll 111 tllr ihwtl, lie, llKr llln^l i>l tin ntlni Ainriiiaii lu 10 imuIs, Ik ini; an iniprr.iiii.ilinii nl the lii; hi 'riu' n.inu- 11 ,'v.'/!/( /'./v, llmujji (ntn(l\ AljMmkin 111 ii'^prct, i>l1i 1 s set inn^ « t\ ninliirjtal ilillii nil u ^, '-u nnnianari aMr iiiiKiil lliat inw nl tlir ln'-t atillim il it ^, M C'uni|, al'andnn^ llu' atUnipt. lis nu'^t appai* nl nut i^ ;>'isii/,\ wliirli iiin\r\s the sm^c n| ainin\anrr, linil m liil li t lu-s^, aiiii llir nanir wmilil tlui'^ mciu ti> \iv applinl to mu' wlm c.iU'-c'' tlu'-r tlisai;! ri.iMr scnsalion^. \\\ all tlu- puu- ami atu-icnt Alumikin cnsniniMiniral lcv;».'iuN, tlii'^ (li\init\ < uali'- llu- wmld li\ liis inai'jc pll\\('l'^, propli-s it willi iL^anu' ami aniniaK. plans man npnn il, tcarhcs his laxoiilr proplc tlu' ails ol tlu' chasr, ami i;i\(^ Ihnu tlu- coxw aiul luaiis. His woi k is distni In il 1)\ tiuinii s of \aiiinis kimls, siMiutimrs his own lnolhcis, soimliims In a iovinidahU' scrpiiU and his minions. Tlu-sc imllis, wluii analy/t.(l thion,i;h tlu- proper nanus tlu-v contain, aiui oi nipau-d willi thosi- of the lulU 1 known tn> tholo^ies of llu- old world, sliow plainl\ that llu-ir orii;inal purjioit w.is to ivcouiit. undi-r nu-ta]duiiical laiii;nav;r, on llu * I^ivqur lif la Lanauf .MfionQuitif, p. 44,",. (Moiiticwl, iSSfi.) mil .il i\\ ii--. (Ml It, i;i\*^ KUlil. s IC'S li\ mil's now n in:il til till MK II \l!<» ■! Ill' -j IMCKS'II'.K. r ', \ I. Ill Ii.iihI III! inn I ;r.i!i)', '■•li iirj-lr nl (|:i\ with nirlit, lip.lit Willi 1 1,11 k 111 ^•■', .linl I III I III I .1 In I , t ||:it IK I |i . , I III I I'll 1,1 lit ' (ill llic t w III! Ii I-. I \ ( I w.iriii); lutwiiii ill' I'll 111 iihI Miiisliiiir, llii wiiiti I .iihI --iiiiiiiiri , till 1,111! iinI till I |i ,11 s|<\-. W'lllrls wlin^r k in i\\ liil^M nl 1 1 I P.', Ii ills \\';is iii||(ili''l to lli.it III till' Si'lllilii nice, ;is 11 |>ii SI nil i| III mil I'.ilili', Ii;i\T 111, Hill. liiiiil lli;il tin stiii\ 111 Mil liiliii's li:itt|is Willi tin scr I'l lit, wlm is 11 it.iinh i< pit -i nti i| ;is ,i iii.ish i <,\ miij-ii ;iinl iililli t\ , ;iliil Ik III I i|;iiii'riiiiis tu tin Iiiiiii:in i,i' i', mil t li.ivc (Mine linlll I ii|ll;irt uilll tlir in I . <ii ili;i l lis, AmimIiiI stil'lv III tlir iii\ til will ilis]irl ,ill iluiilits on till . |iiiiiit \'( ;iis ;ij^;(>, Ml I'", ( '. Sipiiri siniw'i il til, it lliis Ict'i ml w,i, iiii(|iii 'slidii ,ilil\ 111 ,iliiii irjiKil siiiiKc, Imt III lull i| In |iii( livr its sij^ iiirnimr. 'riir s(i|i(iit, t\|iii.il nl tin .iniidiis li^ililnin^^, s\ niliiili/cs llic slui III, tlic I ;i ills ,111(1 till' \\ ;ili'l . I'liit 111 It till II tu t 111' ikiss (i| 11,11111". \\ il 11 w II i( li we Ik ;;;iii. Till stiin;^ks 111 Mil IiiiIki with iIksc \;iiniiis pdwilnl till mils I h;i\'i' jiisl ikiiiiciI, t (iii-^l it iiIc llic |ii iin i|i;il tiniiu' (i| tlif I'DiintU'ss talcs w'hii h .irc tnhl ol him li\' the iiati'.x- s|iii\ ti'Iltis, milv a sm.ill p.nt nl whiili, .iiid tlmsc mm h ilislii^nird, laiin' iimlrr tlir ii(ili( c dl Mi, !/ l.iinl, aimitii^ the Imii; i'i\ili/ril raslrni trilics. ,Mi. Si li'i'ih i,irt ficpnntly n Iris III llu'sr " iiinniin r.ihic talcs of pci^diial .n hit a( iin nf, s.i,i;a(it\', I'liiliii aiicc, iniiaclc ami ttii k wliii h |i!a(c him in a hi Hist c\'ci'\' scene I if deep intirc-l u liii h (an he imai;iin (1, " i These winds CXpH'ss tile .pilit III the iMcitci nilllllK T 'it tllCM- liL',i.iids. Micliahn dues not i oinpu r lii^ em niiis I)\- hrnti- ' SI (• lii> :il liclc in / /n- .1 iini i, ,iii /\'r: i,-., . iur i ■ ;■. i lit it li i! .M,iii,ilii,/l,ii ,in'l Ilic I'.lcMl Si l|utlt, nil .\l^;iilli|inil li;;( nil," I l/c'i /\'iM(ll(/li\, \'n\. I, p. IV}. .^^ 1 1 ■':i "■fi 'A »■'' r .4 . 7 .-. ' .---is ' il .^t / 1 *- ss f '.U i:SS\VS Ol" AN \MI:KIC AMST. fort'f, 111)1 l»y sii|Kri(>r slit'ii>^tli, Imt lt\ ct.ilt ;iinl iiisi-s, Iiv IraiisroMiiiii^ liiiiiscir into uiimisiucIkI sliapis, li\ iiiiiniii^ hikI .str:iUK> • "'^" llnis coiiu-s In In.' u |)risciiU<l as lla- aicli (Ktiivti; Imt in a ^nnd siiisf, ms liis iiuniit.^ (Hi ulmm In piattic'C'S llitsi' wills ;iii' also llinsi' of tlu' Iiuiiiaii laic, atnl 111' cNi'ivisi'S Iiis ptiwcTs with a hiiuv nlciii iiit«iili(>ii. Tluis it rdiius to pass that this hi);hist <li\ iiiit> nl ihi^c nations, Ihi'ii cliiif ^od and inlliui' hiro, hiais in raniiliai uanativi' thi- surprising; titles, "tilt- liar," " thi- clKat," aiKJ " Ihf drivi\cr." It would 111- an ii lcivslin,i; literary and psNclioloj^ical stiidv to i-oin|)aiv this foriii of the Mii'liaho iii\ th with some in liir old world, which eloseh- ivseinhk- it in what artists rail iii<> /ill'. I would naiiic i)articularly the stor\ of the "\\il\ Ulysses" of the Ciieeks, the " trausfonnations of h'hu .Seid of vSeru^" and the like in Arabic, and the famous tale of Reynard the I'ox in medieval literature. The same spirit breathes in all of them ; all minister to the delight with which the mind contemplates mete phvsical strength beatni in the struggle with intelligence. They are all peans sun;; for the victory of mind over matter. In none of them is there nuich nicety about the means used to accomplish the ends. Deceit by word and action is the j^eneral resource ol the heroes. Thev all act on the Italian maxim : "() ]H'f fortiin.'i, o per inj^aiio, II vc'iuir SL'iiipre c l;ui(l;il)il oosa." TlIF, ,l()l)H\F,Y (IF TIIF S(ll)L/^= I AM .ilidiil to iinitf nuiii ;ilt( iilidii t<i ntu- dl' llir iii;m\ ( iirinii^ ii^uUs of coniiciialix I' iii\ tlidlo^y. 'I'liis yciiix i', which is still in its iiiraiuv, iii;i\ ]iv rii^aidid Ii\' mihk' nf Mill, as it is 1»\ {\\v wotld at lai^;^, as diu nt JillU- piactical iinportaiuv, and (|iiitc' niiidlr Irniii tlu' iiitin^ts <i| ilail\- lili' :iiiil tlmiiuht. lint sdiiu' III" till' nsiilts it attains aiv so slartliiiK. and throw smli a sinj^nlar li};ht on \aiioiis faiiiil- iar (•iistoins and popular bi'licfs, that tlii' liinc- i> not I'ar olT whin it will hi- icc-o^ni/cd as om- of tin.' most potent sohviits ill the cnu'ilik' of int(.'lli,nciK'f. TIk' ])oiiit to which I shall address inystlf to-ni^lit is tlie opinion entertained 1)\- three aneient nation^, v<.'r\- wide apart ill space, time and blood, concerning; the journey of the soul when it leaves the hodw These nations are the ancient Iv^yjitiaiis, the ancient Aryans, and the A/tecs or Xahua of Central Mexico. All these ]-eoi)le believed, with ecpial faith, in the exist- ence of a soul or spirit in man, and in its coiitimiiii}; life after the death cjf the b()d\-. How the\- came b>- llii^ belief does not eiaicern m\- present thesis; that they held it in iiiKluestioning' faith none can (len\- who has studied even su])erficially their sur\-i\inj; uk numents. They siij^poserl *Aii adilriss (Iclivt 11(1 ;it tV.i- ainui.'il inn tin;; i>l' ilic Niinii^iiiiitic and .\iitir;niiii.'in Sociily ol" rliiladclpliia, and piilili.dRd in it I'l m i,ili>ii;s for i^w (' '35 ) >' '^'" "4 ■■•I PPF 136 i:SS.\VS <»I" AN AMI'KICAMST this asstiimd aWw lill- was lontiiiiK'd under \-ar\iiii; con (litions in sonic- oIIut localitN than this pusi'iit woild, and tliat it ifiiiiiivd a jouiiKv of sonic Iint;th for the discin hddicd spirit to rcaili its destined al)odc. It is the events which were snpixiSL'd to take i)hice on this jonniey, and thi- j^oals to wliicli it led, that I am ahont to narrate. It will hi' seen that there are several cnrioiis similarities in the opinions of these \videl\- di\erse peoples, which can only he explained !)>■ the snpi)osition that tlie\' based their theories of the sonl's journey and i;()al on some analoj;\ familiar to them all. I l)e,i;in with the ICi;yptiaii theory. It appears in its most complete form in the se])ulchral records of the \ew Kingdom, after the Ioiil; period of anarchy of the v*^heplierd Kin.L;s had passed, and when under the iSth, U)tli and jutli dxnastii's, lv4\pt nia\- be said to have risen to the \ery i)innacle of her j^reatness. The collection of the sacred funerar\- texts into the famous ritual known as "iMie Hook of the Dead," dates iVoiii this time. Many n[ its chapters are, indeed, \ery nuudi older; but lvi;> ptian religion, which was not stationarx , but con stanll\- prot;ressi\'e toward higher inte.lk'ctual forms and jjuier ethical standards, can iiesi l)e judi^ed as it was in this periixl, that of the 'riieiian d\nasties of the New Kin_L;doin. To a^-ii;n a date, we ma\- sa\- in round numbers, two thou sand \ears before the Christian era. Imoiu that iinaluable dotninieiit, therefore, the "Hook of the Dead," we learn what this ancient jieople expected to happen to the soul when it left the bodw Of l^'c millions of mummies whi(di were zealousl\- prepared in those a.^es, none was coni])lete unless it had folded with it one or a loin. llDU ions iir a 'nil'; SIN AND Till'; son,. «37 niiiiiln.'r (if cliapUrs of this ]\n\\- luiok, tin.' tiniiiulas it' wliii-li \\(H.' sall-.nuanls and J)as^\V()rlls to llif s])trit on its niriloiis iiiiiiiK-\'. Tin.' ,L;c'n(.ral statenifiit i^^; that llif soul on l(,a\in;4- tic iiiipsf passis toward tlu' West, wIktc it (k'sc-cnds into \hv ili\iiR- inilrior ivi;ion callfd AiiKnli, owr whitdi pRsidt's ()~^iIis, " (.-liicf of chiefs dixiiK," who rc])it.S(.'nts the ,Snn ^od in liis ahsciK'c, in other words the snn at nii;ht, tlu' snn wliii'h has stink in the west and sta\s somewhere all ni^lit. In this ])laee of darkness the sonl nndei"i;(tes its \arions te-^ts. The dee<ls done ill the llesh, the words spoken in lite, the thott^hts of tlu' heart, are l)roiii;ht up at;aiiist it l>y (hrietent aeensei's, who appear in the form of monsters of the (kep. As the snn has to eoinhal the <larkness of tln' nii;lit :itiil to overcome it before it can attain rise, so the soitl has til Cdiuhat the record of its sins, and con(|iier the l'ri>;litt"nl imam'S which represent them. This was to he d(.iK' in the Iv_;\]'lian, as in almost all relii^ions, by tln' power of ma^ic fniimilas, in ollu'r words hy ])ra\ers, and the iiuiu-ation of hi)l\' names. Ilaxiiii; snccieded, the sonl saw the ni,i;htl\' c-oiistellatioiis .111(1 the hea\enl\- stars, and reMched the ,i;reat ctleslial luer, whose name was Xitn. 'I'his was the self created, primordial element. Imoiii its i;re'en (k'pths all created thiiii^s, e\en the i;'"''" thenisel\i.'s, took their origin, it is calk'd ill the texts, " father of all <;o(ls. " I'idiii it rose' Ra, till' .Siiii-.i;<)d, in his liri|..;litiie-s. In its dark depths lies 'huiikI in chains of iron the se'i|Kiit Ke-fiel', the- s\ mln 1 of <.\il, olhe'rwise called AjKip. ISiit, tliotii;li lioinid, 'his r.ioiisler eiideaxors to seize eaedi sold that crosses the- ri\er. « •»'. '* p ■I -■^><t ^''1 , ^■■ ..." V ■:i] J': PPPM «3S i:SS.\VS Ol' AN AMI'KICAMS'r. The tnrUinatt.' soul repels the ser])eiil by blows mikI iiieauti tions whirh destroy its power, hut the mifortiinate one i> swallowt'd 11]) ar.:l annihilated. This dani;er passc'd, the soul reaehes the farther slniiid, ;uid rises from the waters, as Ilorus, who represents the sim at dawn, lises iVom the eastern waves. This is the purpoM' of all the riles and pra\(.rs to h;i\e the soul, as the expre-- siou is, "rise at day" or "ri^e in the (la\ time." In othei words, to rise as the suii and with the sun, or, to use ai;aiii the eoiistant ioiimila of the " Hock of the Dead," to "eiitii the bo.'il of the vSnn ;" for the vSnn was siipi)o.sed to sail tliroui;h et'leslial ;ind trauslueeiit waters on its };rand jouriu y hoiii hori/on to /eiiith and /.eiiith to hori/on. Startini; at dawn as the ehild Horns, .sou ol' the slain and lost Osiris, the orb of lii;lit beeaine at midday the mighty Ra, and as even iui; ai)])roached, was transformed into Khej)-Ra or liar niaehis, ai^aiu to beeoine Osiris when it had sunk beiiealli the western ver.i;e. So striet and absolute was the analoi;y supposed by tliv I{j;yptiaiis to exist between the eoiirse of the sun and the destiny of the .soul, that every soul was said to beeoiiK' Osiris at the niomeiit of death, and in the eo])ies of the "Hook of the Dead," eiielosi- 1 in a mummy, the ])ropt.i name of the ilefunet is alwa\s preeeded b\' the name "()Ni- ris," as we inii;hl say " Osiris Rame.ses " or " Osiris ,Seso,-> tris." To illustrate further what I have said, I will translate a few i)assai;es from the most reeent and correct version of the " lk)ok of the Dead," that published at Pans a few inontli- ai;<\ and made by Prof. Paul Pierret, of the Ivgyptiaii Museum of the Louvre. TIIIv INVOCATION 'I'o OSIRIS. KV) 'I'Ik' folhtwinj; is an cxlrait froiu tlif first c-liiii)tcT of this Rilnal : "() \x' wlio open tilt' roads! () \i' who iiiaki- smooth the |)atli> to the souls in the al)o(U' of ( )siiis ! Make smooth the jMtlis, open the roads to ( )siris Smli aoiie that he ma\' enter, li\ the aid ol this ehapli'i, into liie abode of ( )siris ; that hi- may etittr with zeal and emerge with joy; that this ()siiis Sneh a-oiie lie not repulsed, nor miss his way, that he may enter as he wishes and lea\e when he wills. Let his words hi' made trne and his ordiis ixicnled in the abode of ()siris. "This ( )siris Sneh-a-one is jouriuNinj; toward tlu' west with j;ood fortune. When weij^hed in the halanee he is tdund to he witlioiit sin ; of iiumerons months, none has roiidemned him; his sonl stands ereet heffne Osiris ; out of his month when on cartli no imjiurity proeeeded." I Here the soul speaks:) " I i)lace myself before the master of the gods ; I reaeh the divine abode ; I raise myself as a living ^od ; I shine amoni;; the };ods of heaven; I am beeome as one of \-on, () \e .t;()ds. I witness the progress of the lioly stars. I cross the river Nun. I am not far removed from the fellowshiji iif the j^ods. I eat of the food of the j^ods. I sit among Uiem. I am invoked as a divine being ; I hear the ])ra\ers offered to me ; I enter the boat of the sun ; m\' soul is not far from its lord. Hail to thee, Osiris! Orant that I sail joyously to the west, that I be reeei\'ed by the lords ol' the west; that they say to me, 'Adoration, adoration and jieace he tliine;' and that they prei)are a place for me near to the chief of chiefs divine." Through the rhetoric of this mystic rhapsody we see that Mi «. .' ■(,..< .■\'-, T^-l .,.J ii mm^ 11 ' I' l.'SS \\ ;. 1 1| \\ \ All i; H \ Mj.r lllr '.nul iMic. 1(1 thr ;|li(ii|( ii| ( t'-lir,. is piilrc il ,llli| !('.(( i| ,i to ll- nil n1'., .\\\t\ ll ;l|i|i!ii\i (1 i |ir..( . Ml '.illt l\ llli' ll\< I Nllli ;incl 111 ( mill '. ;i', onr n| llic jmhIs IIu iir.» l\t s , ;i n i|ii|iniin hi n| » >MI1'. .111.1 Kil Suill, 111 Imo.hI Klltlmc, \\.\-. \\\r i>l I lli>i|(i\ I'li'.V |it l.lll ill H llinr Tlnir W ,1'. ;1 \.\'.) .minlllll "I :1ci(',mi|\ IIIiMiI ;II1i1 1\1\ '.n. I'.lll :1«1.1( ll \n till', '.iiilplr '.|;ltrllHllt, lull Illi litllllii^i liiMi I'. ,il\\ w ■- 1 lir •..line To Kill oi two |>iini|s I will 1 ;lll ;lUi lllimi |iM l.llil U l( I c\\yt' 111 llir- p.i|'ri 111 1 111- I Ull V."h;ll>lri ol till- " Hi'oK ol 111! I >i :l(I, " I llr i!( llilirl r- '.iippi v.i',1 i,> i(-|\r.i| tlic tnllnwnir. loinmii : 1 ,iin\r .!>. :i h.iwk, 1 ill )>:iil ,1'. ;i |iliriii\ I .nil lln (^ni l^| till- lUiMium' I li.nr lini-lu ll llir loiiiiuv iiul wm "-lii]>iMil \\\c '-nil 111 (lir lowi'i wmlil llr.ix il\ hi.iiilril i'. tin li.iu iM (V,\n^ 1 .1111 mil nl tlu" iliM','- nl lli>iir> i liinc liii r-liril tlu- iiMiini-\ .uhl w oi '.InpiHil *''-niN Tlu- ulruiu-i- til till- li.ni ol ( >sn i^ .iiul tlir 1i .m^lni iiLilimi iM thr ^i>ul iiitii .1 iIim;. .itr iihuK ut'^ ti' wliirli I '-li.ill u In ni .uiiMhri i-iMUUiMion, .\iiotlui lutru'-t 111;.; t.ui r- tlir lu'iimnt ii rni iciiri- ol llii uuiuIhi -- tiMii .Mill rii;lit in tlir l^'.v pti.iii tlu'ni in- ol llirspn itn.ll WimIiI In tlu- u-tli (.'iLiptil ol tlu- " llnok nl till l>i-.ui," It 1^ iMi.-'-i-nlH'il til. It liMU I'lrliiii's .is SI i Imtli sluMilil 1\- ]^.Unt^-^l .m tlu- s.lU-i>lill.l;.',lls. lU iMilri tll.lt lllr siUll Ill.lV I'^.iss tluonch tlu- liMU .i|H-itiiu-- iM tlu- skw Tlu- eli.iiiti'i uicnt!lu-s tlu-si.' with tlu- i-.iuliii.il imiiit-- tuMii w liirli Mow the I'lHu wuuls. In i-h.ii'tt-i i7tli, wliu-li i^^ mu- ol' tlu- oliK'si 'a-\;s in tlu- book, n'ti-u-iu-r i'^ in.uK- to tlu- rii^lit ;4ihN ol llonii.i|''olis . (.'Isowlu-u- tlu- munlH-i is nu-iilioiu-d. 'I'liis ( .1 fc illn 'I III', ui • \ i) 'If I II \ i>i:s. .ti.il( ■. till' I .i'.y li;iir.l('i i,\ III. tihiii (i| t( I M .tii 141 y."<y. I ipii\ Id I ll;ll < ij I III '.|i|l ll ImI \M iI r.l .-.III!; HI i\\ 111 III' III \ I linln;; \ n| t ln A I \ III li;i I |i H I ., U f liiiil lli.il I 111 I lili I ); K ;it ( \ I ll ', III ll', |iiii ll \' . tin I 111 1 1, 111, till' I ,ii I I , .mil I 111 \i i| .1. ;ijMi r I |i 1 .1 l\ 111 t III 11 ii|iiiiiiiii • |lMll(• <|l .1 iiiiln 111 III tin .1 HI I Mill ilr;llll, ;iri I ll illlir. In tin 11 Ik In I, ll|( miIiI (|(M(||i|i'I mill .1 wmM IkIhU I lir ■ 111 i;l( I ni till iillll '!' I ir ' ',| ( (Us I illi i| ll llir K illlll 111 11, nil'., Iimil tlir li;illli' 111 lis llllri, (illiiiur.c kiinwii ;r. riiitfi 'I'Ih laltii ii.iiik ^i;;iii(ii s IIh- Wi .lllln , li(t;lll^c MMiiii 1 111 I.ltri ;ill tlir 1 lll|i|li 11 ni llli 11 ;ilir| ill Illlll |inss( ^sioiis ciiliic liinli 1 Ills |iii\\( I . The llici 11 111;; 111 I l;|il( s IS llllKin i\\ II, ,r. its i|( 1 l\ ;il idli llnin inili'\, nil ( (11, I . imw r.ciHi ,ill\ (Iiiiilil(il li\- IIh lies! (■,i(( k s( IkiIjus. 'I'Ik ( iiti;iii( ( til lliis i(;iliii \\;is sii| >| k i^( d to In (Mi;ii(|i i| liy twii iliij'.s, lilt' iiiiiic i;iiiiiiiis ()| wIikIi, (.( 1 Ik'i lis in ( ",11 ( 1; , is in till' \'((l;is sjinkcn ni |(\- the smnc iniiin , (.';ii \ :ii ;i. 'i'lic mil iiiirt |);ii il\ tin sc (l(it;s mnl p.iss tin 111 uilli'iiil injniv il II wniilii (iijiiv tin' «l( lij'.lits llint l;i\' lic\iiinl. W'ltliin tin.' I'.ili s sticti licil ;i I)i(i;iil (l(s(it tliinii)'li wlii( ll lli.wcil the ii\(i ,\(lni(in, wliicli in hitci ni\ tlr. ( ;iiiic tn li.ivc \;iii(iiis liiiiiH'Ins, tlii'SlNx, i/tlic, l'iii\ pln'i'.nniii, etc, 'iMii. w.is to I'c Classed in till' liii;il uj C'li.iKiii, tlicsihnt l(ii\ni;in, who s|i;ilsi' nil Wind lull cx.n'tcd o| cin li ^'Jiosl ;i toil, Tlu' d;iik ii\('i ciosscd, the s])iiit .'ipiKiiKd liiloic tin,- |iidi,;rs, and l)v tluiii its fntim' Intc \v;is dtcidtd. Anad- M'lsc decision (■(iiidciniii'd it to wandti joiiclv in tlicdaik- lu ss, lint ,1 lax'oialik' x'lrdicl aiitlioii/i<l itscnliaiKr into llic lia|i|)\ lu'ld,s of ]'"ly,sitnn. 'I'liis joyous ahock' was in the far west, in tlial land hcN'ond the shining waters and tin.' ])nr])le v!'^ .-. t <' .' ■i i '•if w 14: i;ssAYS oi" AN a:\ii;kicanist sutisct si'.'i, wIktc the orh of lii;lit jjjocs to ivst liiinsclf at nij;lit. Us lii^lit is ctcnial, its joys i!(.-Rinii:il, its happiness jK-rfc'ct. With litlk' (hftVrciici', this faith was shatcd by aiicifiit In (lians and ancient XorscnuMi. The hitter often huried witli the dead a t-anoe or boat, destined to convey tlie soul across the waves to the ha])l\v hind l)cyond. l"!ven the ani'ient Kelt of Cornwall or Hrittany had this same myth of the Islands of the Hlessed, lyini; somewhere far out in the Western Sea. What to the (ireek was the (iarden of the llesiterides with its fruit of .golden cpiinces, was to the Kelt the Isle of A\alon, with its orchards of apples. Thitlier was conveyed the nohle Arthur when slain on the field of Lyoness. lie was borne away in a royal boat by the fairy women of the strand. There Ogier the Dane, worn by the wars of a hundred ye;u-s, was carried by his divine t;od- mother to be restoreil to youth and stren<;th, and to return again to wield his battle-axe luider the Orillamme of I'rance, Wherever we turn, whether in the most ancient chants of the \'edas, in the graceful forms of the (ircek religious fanc\-, in the gaunt and weird imaginings of the Norse i)oets, or in the com]-)lex but brilliant pictures of niediieval romance, we find the same distinct ])lan of this journey of the soul. I jiass now to the Xew World, almost to the antijKKles of India, and take u]> the doctrines of the Aztecs. We have sufficiently ample accoinits of their notions, preserved by various early Vv-riters, especially by Father vSahagun, who took down the words of the priests in their own tongue, and at a date when their knowledge was not dinnned or distorted 1 » V f'wt 'nir: i-atu to micti.an. 143 1)\ Christian U-aeliin^. vSoiiR'thini; may also \k- Icaniid from '|\ /()/<iiii()c, a nali\c' c'lironick-r, and oUrts. I'loni tlu'Sf it ai)i)far that thi' Aztcc-s hchl that alk-r (k-alh tin- •-ouls of all jjc'opk- pass downwanl into thf nndcr-world, tM Ur- pi at'c (.-ailed .'//V/A^^/. This is translated !)>■ the mis- siniiaries as " hell " or "inferno," hnt !)>• derixation it nR-ans simply " the ])lace of the slain," from an active \erl) nRan- iiiL; " to kill." To explain this fnrtlR'r, I add that in all ])riniitive AnR'r- ican tribes, there is no notion of natnral death. Xo man "dies," he is always "killed." Death asa neeessar\- incident in the eonrse of natnre is entirely nnknown to them. When a ])erson dies by disea.se, the\- snjjjiose he has been killed ])y Sduu- sorcery, or .some nnknown \-enonions creature. TIr- jonrney to Mictlan was lont; and jierilous. The soul first pas.sed thron,t;h a narrow defile between two nioinitains which touched each other, where it was liable to be crushed ; it then reached a path b\- which lay in wait a serj)ent; next was a sjx)! where a hu,<;e j^reen li/ard whose nauR' was "The I'"lower of Ilcat," was concealed. After this, ei^ht deserts stretched their wild wastes, and beyond these, eight steep hills reared their toilsome sides into the rei;ion of snow. Qvvv their summits blew a wind .so keen that it was called "The Wind (jf Knives." Much did the ])oor .soul suffer, expo.sed to this bitter cold, unless many coats of cotton and other clothing were burnt upon his tond) for use at this lofty pass. These lulls descended, tlie shixering ghost reached the river called " By the Nine Waters." It was l)road, and deej), and swift. Little chance had the send of crossing its dark \^i\ ;:;V' ■■■:/\.'>' .*J J pifl^F"!»" III i;SS.\VS HI." AN AAII'.UK' AMS'l". t-umnt. \\;is llu' aid liir lliis iniipnsr Im^dttiii diniiiL; liir, m| Ii\ llu' 111(1111 lurs. Tlii^ aid was a <l<i,u, ol tlir spirirs traiiu A 1)\ IIk' A/Urs and luld in lii.u'i (.'^liiiii 1)\ tluin. lUil IIk' do,!-; innsl hi' nl' a ]iai tiinlar culnr ; w liitf wniiM not answif, ilsf lie wonltl ^a\ , wIkii hioni^lil In \.\\v brink. "As lor IIK', I am aluadx waslifd." lUark would fail ,1-. iniiili, lor iIr' animal would sa\ , " I am too hlat-k nivx-'lf l^ 1k'1]> aiiolluT wash." Tlu' onl\ I'olor was ird, and lor llii> it-'asoii iL^rcat nnmlRTs of nddisli i-iirs wiic iostcud 1)\- llic A/kTS, and one was sarriliced at caili tiiiU'ial. Clin^iii;; [n it, llu' soul rrossfd the riwr and ivaidud the further hiiiik in satety, heini; i)uri;ed and cleansed in the transit ol' all that would make it uniU for the worlds l)e\ond. Tluse worlds were threefold. One was called " 'I'lie nine Abodes of the Dead," where the ordinar\- mass of mankiinl were said to i;o and forever abi<le. The second was ])ara disc, Tlalocan, the dwelling-place of the Tlalocs, the y,^)^\s of lerlilit>- and rain. It was full of roses and fruits. Xo jiain was there, and no sorrow. J^corchiiiL; heat and cold were alike unknown. Cireen fields, riiiplint; brooks, balmy airs and ])eriietual jo\ , filled the immortal da\s of the happ\ souls in 'IMalocan. Those who were destined for its elysian veais were divinelv desi<>nated bv the di.sea.ses or accidents .-> . , of which they died. These were of sinj^ular variety. All struck b>- lightnin;; or wounded, the leprous, the t;outy, the dropsical, and what at fir.st sight seems curious, all those who died of the forms of venereal di.seases, were l)elieved to pass directly to this Paradise. The third and highesl reward was reserved for the brave who died upon the field of battle, or, as captives, perished by 'IMIl', I.OKM ( >l' I'lli: SI. \IV. »45 I 3\ K', i>\ mil von I )1 nil ■fir I. )>• tin in;' ti 1)1 nn .r al nnn' nUnid para Ni l)alni\ hapi.v llvsian ick'Uls 11 H' lh( red lo hravc ed i)V i1k- inilicf of pnMii' (ir-'niir-, and I'nr wonuai wlm died in , liildliirtli. 'I'lu-st- \\( nl til llir snn in llic sk\ , an<l ilwrii ni) ( .11 llic bright lKa\(.'n'^. Aitci luni \rai> tlu\ nturntd to ill, and iindn tlir lorin ol' Iiri;^lit i)lnina.m.(l sin^iiiL; liirds s ot nun, an.l xwir a,i;ain ^iirctatois of li inlixd tlir luail luiiuan liir. In this A/tic doctrine tlir nilcr oi' tlir nmlci world is •-|j(iki.ii ol as Mi(lliniti( iilll , wliicli the ohtii.M"- ini.s^ioiiarifs |u i'-i--triitl\- rciKki' as tiic (kvil. Tlu' naiiK' iiKaiis sini|il\- " I.ord of tlic Aliodf of the Slain," or of the dead. In se\eral ol in\th^^ he is hroindit mui ( /aieo lose relation with the .\/.ti c national lieio il^ikI, (Juet- ill. Like ( )siris, Onet/aleoatl was said to he aliseiit, to lia\'e -one away lo the home of the siiii, that honn' wlu-re llu' snii lots at iii,i;lit. More spccifieallx , this was said lo he niidii" llif earlli, and it was spoken of as a ])laee of deli.L'Jils, like Tlaloeaii. Its iiaiiie was ('/i/Ki/ai, wliieli iiKans tin- Ilonst' n\ Ahiindaiiee ; for no want, no dearth, no hnn,L;er and no suffering, were known there. With him dwell the sonls of his (liseipks and the 'I'ollees, his peo]ile, and al some da\ or (illier he and the\ wonld relnrn to t-laim the hind and lo le- ^liitv it to its ]>risline slate of perleelioii. 'idle 11h)U,!l;1iIs in lhe.se faiths wliieli I ha\e deseril)i.'d are the same. In each of llieiii the siipjiosed hislor\- of the (lestin\- of the soul follows thai of the sun and the siars. In all of them the S])irils are l)elie\ed lo descend into or under the surface of the earth, and llien, nfler a certain lapse ot time, some forluunle ones are released to rise like the orbs of lij^lit into the heavens above. lO i w^ '}" I'SSANS i>|- AN \M1;kK' AMhP. Slrikiit!-', .iii.'il'iL^ii's I'xisl MiiKinj; tluiii ;ill. 'V\\v v'ww wliii-Ii in each llii\\>, tliriiUL;li llu' iiinK i \\ni Id, i> iiotliini^ tlse tliaii tlic i^rcat w iirld-strtam whirli in llu' ]>riiiiiti\ i- ,L;(.ii,L;ra ]ili\- <il t\(.r\ iialinii is Inlirx iil In sminiiiiil llu- IiaI>ital)K land, and IkvuihI uliicli Iht.' sun >inks al ni,L;lil. 'I'n vrarli tlir aliiidr ol' till' suii ill til'' wrsl this v'ww mu^[ l>r i-ni-srd. 'V\\v luunhii'^ I and S which nccur in ihc Mi^xpliaii and A/tcc ,L;cti<;ra|)li\- dt' the uiuka woild, arc icHcs (it the sactcil ncss attached to the cardinal points. The ruler of the realm ot" shadows is not a nia!e\-olent heinj;. Osiris, Hades or I'lnto. Mictlanleculli, Oiiet/al coatl, all (>rii;inall\- represented the sini in its absence, and none of theni in an\ \va\ eoirespon<ls to the niedi;i.\al or modern notion of the de\il. As ( )siris, who is nncineslion al)l\ the departed v^un-t^od, was represenUd with liea\\' and braided hair, so his A/tec eoiielative was also named V'uu/- /i/Ni't\ which me. ins, lie ot" the almndant fallint; hair. In each case the analoi;\' was lo the Ions; slanlitii; ra>s of the setliiiL; sun. The role ol' the do'' in these nivllis is ;i curious one. He appears as a j;uar(lian and ])reserver, I'!\eu Cerherus i- Odd to tlu lod soul. It has been ariiued b\- the eminent vSanscrit anti(piar\- Rajeiidalala, in his late \(ilunie on the Indo Aryans, that this is a reminiscence of an ancient custom ol' Ihrowiiii; the dead bodies to the do.us to be consnnieil, rather than ha\e them decaw This lo me is not a \'er\ sntist'actor\- explanation, but I ha\e none other to olTer in its place, and i therefore merely call attention to this sinL;u lar similarit\- of notions. Tlu)Ui;li I lia\e confined my compari.sou to these three W ll>i; Sl'KI'.Al) WAI.OCII'.S. »47 nu'u'iit iiatii)iis, you would tii wiik 1\ if yn\\ inia^iiU' llial it r lack III' luatirial !(» txttiid it. I loiild rasiK suiiiiii<iii H 1" mm 111 ilii rk'NS (itluT aiial()!L;ic's Ifdiii I'kissif, Imni I'ci^iaii, tmiu aiiiaii, I'lDiii Sciiiitir soiircis, lo show that llioc uoliotis Wklf almost iiniwrsal to tlic race of man. 'l1ic\- carried thcinscKcs into iarl\- Cliri->tiaii tcac liiiijL^s, iiid to (l;iy tlic uordiiii; ol this ancient Sun ni\tli is ixpi-atid in n lost of tlic cliurclics of Chri.stcndon. W'c liavc lUt t. imtilion tlu' " ii\cr of (k'atli " which is su])])oscd to hmil liiinian lik'; \\c ha\c hut to k)ok at the |ilirasi(iki,L;\- of the Xicene vSyndiok whert' it is said that Christ "descended into liell ( Hades)," and after three (ki.\s rose fiom the dead and ascended into hea\-en, to sei' liow |)ersislentl\- the old iikas have retained their sway over the relij^ions sentiments :uid expressions of man. m. •n." ■ ;■ I ; ._. ..■.•4- .' »(w-t nrr^ TiiF, sAciiHi) sYMiidi.s i:; hmm:' \ \ ' 1 1 A'r 1:1111 .1 111 lit tit s,i\ is, tt> ;i ii.rt;iiii ilii^iii', iiuliini * * r,ll. M\ illttlltinll i> In ('()lllli;lt tlU' iiliilliiill> nl llldM w 1 iliis w 111", likr Dr. II;iiii\, M. I'.inin nis ;mil main ntlRTs, • assiTt that lu'i-ausr ci rtaiii will kiinwii ( )riiiilal syiulidls, a-- []\v 'i\i Ki, tlu' Ti iskrks, till' ,S\astika and llir C'mss, an loinul amoiii; tlti' AuKiii-an aluir.niins, tluN air «.\i(kiu'i' nl Mnni;nlian, litiddliislic, Cluistiaii nr .\r\an iiiiiiiiL^iatiniis |>H'\iniis In ttu' (lisi-nxi'i V Ii\ Cnliuiilius ; aiid 1 shall also li\ to sllnw thai tlu' linsitinli is rnniunlis i>\ tl will), likr Williain II. IlnliiKs, nf tin.' lliinau nl' l'',llmnk.-, . , iiiaititaiii thai "it is iiniins'-ilili,' to ^i\L' a satisfactniv t\])laiiatinii nl tile uli.L^inns si_i;iiiiicaiK\' nl' tin.' t'loss as a iclii;i()Us s\ uilinl ill .\iiKi ica." I 111 nppnsitinll tn lintll IIksi' vic'WS I plnpiisc to sllnu lllal tlu' iiriiiiarv siuiiifuaiKX' nl all tlusr \\i<k'l\ (.•xtciidrd s\ in * 'riii>- luiur \\ as 1 i;ul lulnH' llu' Aliu i ii'aii I'liili- I'lihii al Smiily ill Dt ii lulu : iSSS, .-iiiil was piiiiua ill iN /'i k, ,it/i)ii;s. \ IM I!, 'I', llaiiiy, .III /ii.'i I /'I i/ii/i, III ii/' iinr ii/' //ir ( '''/ui II Moiniiih ills, \\\ Juki mil ,'f Ihc .\>illni</^ii;,f;ual liisliliilc, rilMiiafy i^^7 ; also, l\i i ik- d' l-llino\:,ial'liii\ iSN., p /,v; ; saiiu' aulluir, /.»• Siaslika li la Rmir Suliinr rii .1 niri i./m: A'rriii' d' I'.lhiio f;i ii/'/iii\ isss, p. jj. !•;, Iti-mv'iis, in Ainuilrs ,tr I'liiluMt/'lii,- CIn liii iiiif. \^~~. ami in v.iriiMis latiT pnliliiMtlous. T'liraz tie Mai'fiUi, i..\saii i ilujin' siii Irs .\iiis I'l rlii>li'i u;hi\s di- Hii.sil, I.ishdii, i'-~^;-, (.tl-. J Sfi- his arlicU', " .\it in Shell ollhc .Xiu'icnt Anit-rii-'aiis," Snoiul Aiiinial h'lfx'H oj'llir />iii(\iii ii/ /J/iiiti/iii: y. p. 2-0. (i-lS) Tin: 'I'UMfill'.TNMM. 1 1') on III tlllinl tli;il .inln : llhll ■' SM.. |i / 111 II anil i': , /// ; lulls is (|iiilr cUiir ; ;iiiil tluit llu \ i .m Ic slinun 1m Im\c .11 isi II 111 mi ((rtiiiii liscil i(I,itiiiii> nt m.iii In his tin irmmK nt, t 111' s;iiiu' c\t.i \ u luTr, ;mil luiur sul^l;! stini^ tlir s.mu' i;i,i|iliic ii |iKsiiil atiitli^ iiiiinll^ tiilns iiinst divi iv^i ill ill liii .iliiiii ;iiii| rur ; ;illil, lluirlnli', tll;it sin li svinliuls ;iil' nl lltlli' \ illlir ill tMiiiiL; ctliiiic ;iHiiiiti(.s di llu iiii nuts ol Civ ili/.ilinn ; Imt ol niiirli iiii|ii)rl ill iin (.stii^alini; tlu' i \|>ris,i(iiis (,{' \\]v iilii;- imis Iri'liiij^s. 'I'luir wide piiA aUiu r ill tjir ( )1(1 Wmld is luiniliar to .ill siiKlrnts. Tlu' llinr kj^s (livrr^iiii; irniu one ctiitn-, which i-- now till' well known ,inns of the Islr of M;iii, is tin- .ni- (iiiil /) /y/c<///^/-i/, or, ;is ( )lsh;insiii iiioic |irii|nrl\ tiinis it, tlic / 1 /ski /( s,' ■>riii on tlu' oiliest Siiiliiii coins :inil on those ol I.\cii, in .\si,i Minor, struck inon.> th.m ii\c hniidnil \cii> licfoic' the hc^innin;^ ol'oiir . i.i. \\\. •~\\<.\\ is tlu' ptr- .sistciicc oi s\ inholic loi Ills, tlK-tt;i\cKr in tin- kittcr n.L;ioii slill liiiils it li-iiinini; on the nioikm felt wi:i]is tisril 1)\ the native inhiliitiiits. • As a (kcoiativ'e niotiw, or perhaps with a del. ])er sii^iiilieanee, it is ixpeatedlv loiind on .iiiciciil Sla\ie and 'rentonit- \ases. disinterrid from nioniids of the hroii/e w^v, or earlier, in Lkntral an<l Xoithein l'",nro|A-. l''rei|nentl\- the h.!L;nre is siinpl\- that of tliiee straight or tiUAed lines sprini^ini; from a central point and siirronnded !)>■ a circle, as : * Sir his iiiliili- ill /i ilx In ill Jill l-JIniiilniiir. i-''>, ]>. j:',; f\'iiit I.iuiian, ill /., ils, In ill Hit I'.llnitilni^i,-, jssi,, ]>. •^n\. •# ^IW! '■■% A'./. •I wppp !=;<> K.SSAVS OI" AX AMICRICANIST. I'lC. I. I-IC. 2. Ill the laller we have the jirccise form of the Chinese 'l"a Ki, a s\iiil)olic figure which plays a ])roiiiineiit ])art in iIk- in\slical wriliiig, the divination and the decorative art d China. •:= As it is this sxnihol which, accordint;- to Dr. Hainy, tin- distingnished ethnoh)gist and Director of the Museum of thi. Trocadero, Paris, indicates the preaching of lUiddhistic doc Iriiies in America, it merits close attention. The Ta Ki, expressed by the signs. ^\ K I'K.. is jiroperly translated, "The C.reat I'liiter'' (A/, great: // to join together, to make one, to unite); as in modern Clii nese i)liilosophy, expressed in Platonic huiguage, the (Vie i> distinguished from the Many, and is regarded as the basis i 1 the numerical s\stem. JUit as the Chinese believe in tlu * Sec Diiniiiutit r. /.r Sr,ii/itii d la Kom' Sulaiiiiii C'/nni\ in AVrvc i/' I'llinn!"^ 1 ciiiNi'Si-: I'lin.osDi'iiv I SI uivslic powers of mnnbfis. and as thai which R^hiccs all nuilliplicN' to uiiitN' naturally controls or is the snniniit ot"all the Ta Ki expresses the coni])letest and lliinus, therefore highest creative force. In Chinese ])hiloso])hy, the I'niverse is made np of o]v posites, hea\en and earth, li,t;ht and darkness, da\- and ni''ht, land and water, concave and convex, male and female, ■tc, the hi''hest terms for which are ) '/;/ and )'<! >/c Tl lese are held to he bron^ht into fructif\im' nnion 1)\- Ta Ki. Abstractly, the latter wonld be regarded as the synthe-is of the two universal antitheses which make up all phenomena. ■•• 'iMie s\ inbolic rejiresentation of Yin and \'an,L;' is a cir.dc (lixided by two arcs with opposite centres, while the .symbol of 'J'a Ki adds a third arc from abo\e unitimj these two. :-X':i ^^ V V y O^ i-i(...i. I'K It is ]iossibie that these symbols are of late ori;;Mi, de\ised to ex])ress the ideas abo\e named. ( )ne Chinese scholar Mr. .S. Culin) tells me that it is doubtful if the\- occ-ur L.irlier than the twelfth centur\-, A. I)., and that the\ were ]irol)- ai) ly introduced for purposes of (li\ination. In this ca.-e, I ielie\'e that tlR\- were iutr oduced iVom the ^oULh, and that the\- orisjinalK- had another ;ind concri_-le si'>nilicanc(.\ a> I hall exniaui later, •■ I cnn inilililuil Inv siiiMf III ll-.i r t siil.mat-'in^ to Mi . K. SnnyiiM.il i, :in iiili'lli i;i n! JapaiR'M.' L,i_'iitli. man. \\v\l aiquaiiUi il uitli C!iiin--T, laK ; c iiiinl in i'luaHk'l- liliui. ■| M '5- i:SSAVS Ol" AN AMI'RIC WIST. ( )llirrs coiisickr these- syiiibuls ;is cssmliallN Moiiiidli.ni Tlic 'l';i Ki or Triskflcs is to tluiu the Mdiii^dliaii, whik- ihi Sxaslika is thi- cthiii'- .\i\aii s\iiih(il. Such writers sus])(.i t Iiidd iMiropeaii iiiiini^raliou where they discox (.r the lattei, Chinese immigration were' the\- ilnd the former emhleni. The Sxastika, I ni,e(l liar<ll\ sa\', is tlie hooked cross oi ^annnaled c-ross, usuallx' represented as follows: h the four arnrs of (.(nial leni;th, the hook usna!1\- I'ointiiii; from kit to rii^lit. In this form it occurs in India anil on \-er\- ear]\- MR-olithici (dec-o- Italic and Iherian remains. So nuu'h Ikis been written u\<(\n the- S\astika. h(A\e\er, that I nee-d not ente-r upon its arclue-olo^ical distriluition. Its primar\- sii^nificance has keen \-ariously explained. Some' have re'L^aide'd it as a L;raphie- repre.sentation of tlu li^htniui;, others as of the two fire-stieks useel in oktaininL; lire !)>■ friction, and so on. Whatever its si^nifiar.ce, we are- safe in e'onsideriiii; it a form of the' Cross, and in its s]:ei'ial foim oktaininj; its s} ni- bolic or sacred association from this origin. 'iMie widel\-spread mystic jiurport of the Cross s\nd)ol ha^ loni; keen matter of comment, rndouktedlx' in man\- ])art,- of Anierie'a the natives re_i;arde(l it wi'h rexeieuce antei ioi te) the arrival of I'hin.peans ; as in the ( )ld World it was lonu a sacred sxnd.ol kefo.e it lecame the dislinctixe emklem of Christianitw il ;i 111- li;i- ■AV{> I ior ihil; n (it oKic.ix oi' ■nil'; 'i"A Ki. 153 As ill jiU'viotis \vritiii,i;s I li;i\f l)n)U,i;lit tn^cllKr the evi- duui.' <'i llu- \ciRTati(iii in wliicli il was luld in America, I -liall not n|i(.at llic rtfcrc'iues Ik-iv. I lalicxc wc ii!a\' ^o a sk]) rurllur and n-^ard all llircc of lln-c s\iiil)iils, the Ta Ki nr 'i'riskrks, the ,S\astika, and the L'inss as ()rit;iiiall\- the same in sii^nifuatiiin, or, at least, el(.sel\- allied in nieanini;. I heliexe, fnrther, that this can ln' shown irom tlie relies of ancient Amerieaii art so elearl\' that 110 one, free from ])reju(li(.'e, and whose mind is n\xu to roiixielion, will den\- its eoneetiiess. M\ tlieorx- is that all of the s\ nihols are t^raphii- re])resen- tiilioiis of the moN'emeiits of the siiii with lefereiiee .o the fiuiire of the earth, as nnderstocd by ])rimiti\e man e\(,i\ - where, and hence that these symbols are found in \aiions parts of the jjlohe without necessarily inii)l\in;^ an\' historic c(inii(.c-tions of the ])eo]iles nsin;j, them. This explanation of them is not eiilirelv new. It has \n\- \iiin->!\- been ])artl\- sns^i^ested by Professors W'orsaae and \'ir- cliow : bnt the (kiiioiistration I shall offer has not hiretofore liceii snbmitted to the st-ienlif:c world, and its material is l!e!-;innini; with the Ta Ki, we find its primarx elements ill the s\nibolic jiictnie ^vritiiit;' of the North Aiiieiican In- dians. In tliat of the ( >jibwa\ s, for example, we hr.ve Ihe fnllowiim three characters: I'm.. 7. iMi-.. >-. l-"ir;, .j. Of tl;ese, the I''ii;". 7 re])n.sents the snnrise ; I'ij.;-. 9, suii- . ."II ,'•'-■* • '--■■ ' ' '4' ■ i ft^ 154 I'.ssws III' AN \-\i ;;k K' WIS'l" l : I'i''. s, ii(ion(l;i\ . 'Plu' la^l nuiUiniud is llir lull ila\ its lu i''lil, ■ Wl UTr, 111 lock writini' or scr;it(liin<' nii un llu' rur\ r I'diili 1 not (.■itiUHiiii'iith lif Used, slr;ii<'lit lih would lie ,\(lo])t(.(l l-ii;. I. thus L;i\ iiii; tlir or<liii;ii\ tnriu nl' llir 'I'liskrUs. I'ut tin iiU'UtiiMl fni 111 ot" IIk' Ta Ki is fouud in tlir calnidar srioll altai'lK'il 1(1 tlu' Cndi'N rniiisrtt, au uiipulili^lu'd ori.^iii il Mrxit-au MS., mi ai^aw i)a]Hr, in tlu' lilnarx <i|" ilir Aiiuii can 1 nuosoi) lical vS()ci(.'t\ . A liin.' tVoui ll lis st'ioll is as lows '(^) .^ '^""^ ^ ■^y V_y 'v_7 I'll'.. 11. Hore each c-irclc UKaus a daw and those with the 'Priskcl culiuiualiuu da\s. i' "Ci'dvm' Co|i\\ ay /■,■.;,;',• //!.'/.'! I ol Ih, Oiib:,ay \itli.<.i. |> !,;|. It will a Ili.U intlu ^i.^n I'l ir Mur. i>i' Uu- -Iraiulil liiu-nurl^ lluiui it ils /, // I'.oiiiitv . ailii l'i>-.- --uii-rt .it its;.':,'/,/. I'hi'. 1 1— ult . 1 ■ 'I r.U'in.; tile ^lUilll i.illui than tlu iii.'.lli. loin llir Mii)i'i ■ tiliuus lui'li Ti'iu •i 'I'lu' t: i]>lii.'.iti' i'iui-.lll','.ti.iii nl' thin;- i-- ,i ir. . iinim nl fi atir. c ul the aiu'i( n( \U \ i 111 ]iliil.i-.>iiili\ , I -]m'i.il!\ 111, It T.'.'i'iii Tlu \i ilili wuilil ua- ilivilcil li: ttiric pai 1-. Ilu' I avlli li.l. >« , t lu' lu .i\ i n- .ilin\ i , and man' . .iIumIc IhIu . i ii tlu mi. Thi' wluiU'W.is .iiiUMiilicI li\ M liixU' ilivldr.l iiiln tliirr |iails tlu niilid p.; 1 ]),ii iitia Mm . tlu Ic'wi v I'li'w 11. ilu- ..-i nil i' \\ liiti' iSii I iniaii, I l:-.:,u :,i . l.am. i^'' !■ i an cxanipU' . \'..w\\ Mr !lu.'.'«i' tliirr p. ill- was > nlnliviiii .1 iiiln t Im i' ii.nl-. .mi th..; wlU'il IIr' 'I'l'/iMU'an kinn Iniilt a town a- a syiiiluil nl llic iinivii sr. liccalUi! i I'lio 'I'liw I'l o; Niiu' St. nil niv . I' Will ltd tl l\uli 1 . Intii i.liu'liuii, ]) 'nil', coi'W s'l'oxi:. 155 Xii'itlicr fnrm of npH'Miitiiii; (l;i\s is sti'ii in tlir X'.iticiii \I( \ii';m Coilc'X, puI)li.slK(i in K in.i;>li(in)iiKli '^^ JA i/Vv, \ m1. iii : 9 © I'll,. T.'. This is iKit fur IVoin tlic iimiir (iii llic stone ;il Cii|i;m, 'U'- s<iili(.(l in Ih. Il;nn\ 's |i,i]nr, uinii' tlir (ksi;4n is .is tollous: ii \i. •. 11 111' 1 |. •:ilK ■iv,'' ■ I- II.. IT,. ■.4. vfM 14 PPF '5^' ESSAYS oi' A\ ami;kicamst. This does not rc'SL-inl)lc Uk- Ta Ki, as Dr. Ilainy sup l)osfs, but rallicr the Vin-Vaui^- ; yet differs from this in havin<4 a eentral eirele (ai)i)arentl\- a eup-sha])ed (le])ressio'.i . This central circular fi.nure, whether a boss or nave, or a cu])-shaped ])il, has been ex])laine(l by Worsaae as a con xentionali/.ed form of the sun, and in this he is borne oni by primitive American art, as we shall see. The twent\ elexations which surround tlie stone, corre.s]M)ndin.n in nuni ber to the twenty days of the Maya month, indicate at oik\ that we have here to do with a monument relatinji; to the calendar. Turninj:;; now to the development of this class of fi_u;ures in primitive American art, I i;ive first the simjilest representa tions of tlie sun, such as those i)ainted on buffalo skins b\- tin- Indians of the Plains, and scratched on the surface of rocks. The e.\an]ples are selected from many of the kind i)ublishe<l 1)\' Col. (larrick Mallerv.-'- %> l''ir.. I). The desi<;n is merely a rude device of the human face, with four rays proceedint;- from it at riL;ht ans^les. The>e four rays represent, accordint;- to the unanimous inter|)reta tion of the Indians, the four directions defined by the appar * !\I;il1rr_\', ri( liii^i af'liy of tit f Xoi III Aiiii'i iraii /lu/ii! >/.'■, ill I'rmi lit Anitiial h'f/>o) I • ////■ lUiiriiii t>/ J'.llitiiilniiy. \). _>,;y. i ■;. tup: i*()rK-sii)i-:i) i:.\kth-i'I,.\i\. »57 t f- ^"i^. (Ill nidlions of the sun, the ]''.a--t ;r.nl West, tlie Xoiih and >muIIi. ])\- these directions all trawl and all alisjinnents of iiiildjn.us, cerj se.^ (led etc., Mere defined and hence the e arth WIS regarded as four-sided or four-cornered; or, when it was i \]iiessed as a circle, in accordance with the appearance of the \isil)le I'.ori/.on, the four radia were drawn as inipiui;inj4' (111 Its four sides : i'i^i %a ■ ii .- ace, K>e reta )ar ^—D u I'lC. 15. I'll,. i''>. {•ii;. 15 is a design on a vase from Maraja, Hra/.il, and i> of ciiinniou occurrence on the pottery of that region. •■■ Fii;. I'l rei>resents the circle of the visible horizon, or the earth- pl.'iin, with the four winds rushing into it when suniuioned h\ a magician. It is a figure from the Meday Magic of the ( )iil)wa\s.i' Dr. h'errax. de >hicedo has claimed that such (le\-icesas h'ig. 16 "show Chinese or Ivgyptian inspiration."! It is certainly unnecessary to accept this alternative when both the origin and significance of the s\ inhol are so plain in nati\e American art. When the s_\-ml)ol of the sun and the four directions was inscribed within the circle of the xisible horizon, we obtain the figure representing the motions of the sun with reference to the earth, as in : f l)r I'erraz (.c M.-iccdo, /Cssiii Cn'/iqid' suf li'S Af;rs Pirhi:stiniqnr dr Hiesil, p. .vS il.i^liiiiiiif, i^N-), '■ ( 'ii/i/i: i/y ami Ailri'iitiiirs n/julni Taiitiii , pp. ; < 1]). cit., p. ,^S. ;6o. ••> :', . ■ .f'. S L';^m:^'.v«i) 5i' . •";., -r' i*' fy.->'- l.vS I'.SSAVS (il- AX AMI'.KICAMST I'K., 17. This is wliiit (k'nnaii arcliji'ologisls call the whce-l-cross, h'luJkiiic, (listiiij^uishc'd, as W'orsaac poiiik'd nut, \)\ tin. iJivsc'ticc of the central boss, cup or ua\c, from the rin^ cross, h'iu^kiritr, I'ij;'. iS : I'm;, is. I"ic., 19. in which, also, the arms of the cro.ss do not reach to the cir- cumference of the wheel. Worsaae very justly laid much stress on the presence of the central boss or cup, and cor- rectly explained it as indicative of the siui ; but both he and \'irchow, who followed him in this explanation, are, I think, in error in sui^posin};' that the circle or wheel represents the rolling' sun, die rolIr)idc Soinw. My proof of this is that this same figure was a familiar syriil)ol, with the signification stated, in tribes who did not know the mechanical device of the wheel, and could have had, therefore, no notion of such an analogy as the rolling wheel of the sun.-'- * Si-c Wcirs.'iao, /\})u.sli .ti/s. ;\iul Viri'liow, in v.uinus iimiiliris (if llic Xril\( In i/l fill I'./lnioliiiiir. Tlic rins-crc^s is a (.■oiinnon fiiviire in Anuiican syniliolisni runl (Kcorativc art. U fic(|iK'ntly occurs on Uu" shields depicted in the Holoijna Coilcx. ami the two coiliccs of the \'atican ( Kin,;{S boroiigli's .■Iii/iijiii7/i\s of .lA' i/Vo, Vols, ii Till'; N.\'n\-i-, \i:AK-c(>rN'i"s. 15') Wlu'ii ;i]'i)li(.'(l to tiiiK-, tln' s\ n!l)()l iA' ihv rirck' in priniitiw :t ivtliTL'd til Uk' ivtuni (if tlir >c;:is<iiis, imt tn an idea ( if inlidii in s])acf. This is vltn' |il:iiiil\ seen IkiIIi in art and aliLiua.ijr, In ll K' NLarnonnts nr \vinti.r c-cmnts of tin.- AnK I'i- 111 Irilirs, the \fars were \(.r\- sjrni. rall\ sisjiiil'icd Ii\- circle- aii.in.ncd ni rows or s]in-al>. ji I snows the Dakota wink r-connt, as dcpit'lcd on llK-ir Imffalo rolic; > '*:! I'K. 'rilis count is to lie read from rij^lit to left, hecanse it is wiilten from left to rii^lit, and hence the _\ear last recorded i^ at the end of the line. I'recisel\- similar series of circles occnr on the A/lec and Ma\a codices, with the same signification. .Moreo\er, the year-cycles f)f hoth these nations were reiiresented Ii\- a circle 1)11 the border of which the \ears were inscribed. In Ma\a this was called //</:/( (IW// kal ini , the turninL; about a<jain, or re\'(i lution of the katun^ The Aztec rii;nre of the \ear-c\cle is so instructixe that I ;i\e a sketcli of its jirincipal elements ( Iml;'. 21 \ as jiortraxed in the atlas to Duran's Ilistorv of Mexico. A iiii. Dr. I' iW y\:\ (1.: ivs that till' lili>-t r.iinilii i!i (1< i-iiiati M- (ll -i'^ll ull '"'Ih aiK'iiiit anil ninili in native lira/ilian imttiiv i> tlif lin;; ciip» in tin- Icivni nla 'I'lililc vpi-.al. as in V'\\i. i' I \ l\.s>ai ( 1 iliijiic SHI !,s .1: I'l :lii>tiii iiiiir </,■ III i-sil. \i .y A v( r\ -iniihir form will he round in the liolo^na CmUx, jil. .wiii. in Kinpjslioriiii.nh's .1/ 1//.'. \'i>l. ii. ■ Si I.- Mallury, I'ii loi^i af'liy a/ Ihr .\i<illt Aiiiiiuaii Indians, pp. ^-n, "-i, u■^, etc. 'I'liis name is j;iven in I.amla, A'. ,/-■ las ( \is,:s ll, ) It, a/an. p. ■, i/ \Hisiinia ill- hi .\Ht-,a l\ypa Tiat. HI, cap. i, ii 11 m ]()n i-ssANS oi' AN a.mi;kicamst I'Ki. 21 111 this R'liiavkahlf figure \vc obscrxc the (levclopiiicnl and primary sigiiificalion of lliose world-wide SNiiibols, tin- S(|iiare, the cross, the wheel, the circle, and the svastika. The last-ineiitioiied is seen in the elements of the broken circle, which are : I'll.. 22 Tnii;-\viii;i:i.s and si'n-motions. i6i These, cotivcntiotinlized into rectilinear fi,i;ures for scratch- iii<' on stone or wood, became; I'K,. In the Mexican time-wheel, the years are to be read from rit;ht to left, as in the Dakota winter-counts; each of the (luartcr circles represents thirteen years ; and these, also, are to be read from rij^ht to left, be^iiniinj; with the top (^f the figure, which is the ICast, and proceeding to the North, vSouth and West, as indicated. The full analysis of this suggestive and authentic astrono- mical figure will reveal the .secret of most of the rich sym- bolism and mythology of the American nations. It is easy to .see how from it was derived the Nahuatl doctrine of the nahua olUn, or Four Motions of the Sun, with its accessories of the Four Ages of the world. The Tree of I^ife, .so con- stantly recurring as a design in Maya and Mexican art, is but another outgrowth of the same symbolic expression for the same ideas. That we find the same figurative symbolism in China, India, Lycia, Assyria and the valley of the Nile, and on ancient urns from Ktruria, Iberia, (killia, Sicilia and vScytliia, needs not surprise us, and ought not to })njnipt us to as.sert any historic connection on this account between the early development of man in the New and Old \V(jrld. The II B' ..'• 'if! ■ » ' 1 K :>v'';.:v-,i| m^ ..■ •11 If) J I'.SSANS (tl' W AMIIKKAMST. h ' path of ciiltiiii is iKiiiow, t's])(.c'iall\ in its rarl\ sla;^is, aii'l null r\<.T\ u luri.- lia\i- trodden uiiciniMinuslN in (.acli otlur's fooLsli'ps ill ad\aiuin}; iVoiii Uic darkiKss of haihaiism to Uk li^lil ol civili/aliou. THF, FOLK-I.DHF, OF YUCATAN.* .'hi \ TCATAX prc'Sfllls a straii,t;c' sprctadr l<» llir (.■lliliiil()j;i>t. TIk- iiatiw laci.', wliit'li in marl\- i'\t.r\ otlui' part oi tlic' AiiKricaii coiitiiKiit lias (Iis;i],]n.ar(.<l lulmr tlir white iiixadcTs (ir else Ijcc-ohu' llKar ackuow Kd;^!, d inil'iior, has thrif i;aiiK(l the u|i])(.r hand. Tht,' nati\r hinj;iiaj.;c has oiisU'd lh(.' .'Spanish to that t.\lrnl thai whnlr \iIIaj;i'S of whiles spcal M i\a onK', and thi- torUuK"- ol war in ihr la-. I jrcMKialion liavL- sided so nuudi with Ihe naliw hraves llial lhe\- ha\'e R'i;ained undisputed ])()s>e>si(iii of h\ lar llie lar,L;er part of tlie ])eninsnhi. Is there to he reco^iii/ed in this a re\i\al of that iidierenl enerL;\' wliitdi proni])ted their Meestors to tlie constrnetii in (if the most remarkable s])eeimens of natixe arihilii-ture oil the continent, and to the de\el()pnient of a ripe siK-ial and juilitical fabric? It can scarcely doul)ted : but, however that ma\- b such considerations cannot fail to excite our interest in all that relates to a race of such i)luck\- persistence. As throwiu'j: a side-li^ht on tlieir mental constitution, their superstitions and folk lore merit attention. I h; ippen * rriiitcd nriK'Hiilly i" '//'«' l-'nlk-l.inc Jn ;/. I.iiiKldii, i-s,^ i !l .ijn- .-. /li .^la^i TfWn^^^ 164 i;SSAY,S OI- AN AMlvKICANIST. to have sotue material on this which has never heeti ])ul> lished, atul some more which has only ajijicared in medinnis (juitc inaccessible even to (lilij;ent stndcnts. Of the former are a mannscript by the Licentiate Zetiua of Tabasco, a native of Tihosnco, and some notes on tlu' subject by Don Jose Maria Lopez, of Merida, and the late Dr. Carl Ilermami Ik'rendt; while of the latter a rejiort by Don IJartholotm.- Oranado de Baeza, a/rn of Vaxcaba, written in 1S13, and an article of later date by the learned cnra, I'<stanislao Carrillo, are ])articularly noteworthy. 'i- I'rom these sources I have gathered what I here present, arranj^inj; and studying the facts they give with the aid of several dictionaries of the tongue in my possession. These Mayas, as the natives called themselves, were con- verted at the epoch of the con<juest (about 1350) to Chris- tianity in that summary way which the Spaniards delighted in. If they would not be baptized they were hanged or drowned ; and, once baptized, they were flogged if they did not attend mass, and burned if they slid back to idol-wor- ship. They were kept in the densest ignorance, for fear they should learn enough to doubt. Their alleged Chris- tianity was therefore their ancient heathenism under a new name, and brought neither spiritual enlightenment nor intellectual progress. As a recent and able historian of \\(, * /it/'di iiir </<■/ Sifiin I'liiii i/f )\i 1 1 iif'i'i, \h\n I!ai'toU)iiic dvl (irniimli) lUieza, in tlir kif^i.stio ) Hi c; /(•('», lonu) i, pp. i(>5 rl siy. The Kcv. l-;staiiisla() Carrillo was ciini of 'I'icul, where he dieil in I'^i^. lie was a zealous arelKei)liii;ist. and is fretniently mentioned by Mr. Stei)hens in his lravel> in ^'nealan. He is deservtdlv inehided in the Mii> il ill' Ji/iii;iii/ii! )'ii, ii/i-iii of Don I'raneisco de 1". Susa (Meriila, is((i). Uis artiele on the siihjeel ol'the text appe ill the AVi'7.v/;o >'«(<!/iVii, lonio iv. p. lo,;. ired TllK DIVININC. STONK. 16,S ViK-alan lias said, "the only difft'iciKv was that the natives were chan.^ed from paj^an idolat'Ts to Christian idolaters."-'^ To this day the belief in sorcerers, witchcraft and magic is as stron.y; as it ever was, and in various instances the very same rites are observed as those which we know from early authors ol)tained before the concjuest. 'i'he dixiner is called h' iiini, a male personal form of the verb inni, to understand, to do. He is one who knows, and who aceomiilishes. His main instrument is the ia~ti<n, "the clear stone" (c<?7, clear, transparent; iiiu, stone). This is a <juart/ crystal or other translucent stone, which has been duly sanctified by Inirning before it gum co])al as an incense, and by the soienni recital of certain magic formulas in an archaic dialect i)assed down fnjui the wise ancients. It is thus endowed with the power of rellecting the jjast and. future, and the soothsayer ga/es into its clear dej)ths and .sees where lost articles may be recovered, learns what is happening to the absent, and by wlujse witchery sickness and disaster have come upon those who call in his skill. There is scarcely a village in Yucatan without one of these wondnms stones. The wise men have also great innuence over the growing crops, and in this direction their ehiefi-st jjower is exercised. l)y a strange mixture of Christian and pagan superstition, they are called in to celebrate the misd Diilpita, the "field mass" iw/sd, vS])anish, "mass" ; j///7/)<ja, a word of Aztec derivation, from milpa, "cornfield";. In the native tongue * '■ Do iildatras patjaiios <\\\v tian, solo si' Im coiisffjiiido (|ir- sc cotivicrtaii en iilolatras iristiaiios," — Apolinar (laicia y Oania, Hi.\liiiia (if ia (,uei>a ili: i aitas m )'iuitlini, I'roloyo, p. x.viv (Mcrula, I'^ds). I'.-. ;.:'.■ rf •■.•1- "■ ■ i \ !li npr^ 1^') i:ss.\\s oi" AN .\aii;kic \.\is'i\ tlii'^ is c.ilU-il {]](■/////, uliicli nu';ms tlu' ollVriiiy, or siK-rincc, II i'^ a distinct snr\i\al ol a ritt' iiKiiliinird li\ I)irL;i) di I.aiida, tiiK' III tl)i- 1 aiiii'St hisliops of llir dioci'st.' ol N'lU'atati.' 'IMir cririnonN is as Inlli i\vs : ( )n a soil of altar r<iii>lnui(d (if slicks of i.'(|iial U'11.l;11i llu' itati\(.' piit^st places a fowl, and, liaviiiL; throw II on its licak sonn'of tlu' Icrnicnlcd liipior ol llu' c-onnli\-, the /'//in / :7/i/, ]\v kills it, and his assistants C'cok and ,-i.'i\\ it with c(.'rlain niai/<.' cake's of lar.;;c si/c- ami ,sp(.'(.Mal puparalion. W'lun the least is read\', the prit-st aiipntaches the tahle, dips a l)iaiu h of !l;i\i n lea\es into a jai iif /v'/(j /////.:. and aspeiL;es tjie fonr t-ardin;il points, at the .s,nne time calling on the lliret' persons of the Chiistian 'I'rinit\ , and the sacred fonr of his own anciLiit reli.nion, the /]r// ah liDi. These ni\slerious lieini^s were hefort' the c-on (jnest and to this day remain in tlu' !iati\e belief the ,i;ods of rain, and In. nee of fertility, 'riiex' are identical witli tlie WMids, and the fonr cardinal points from which they Mow. 'i'o eat~h is sacied a particniar color, and in modern limes cacli has heen idenlifKd w ilh a saint in tlie Catholic c-alendar. Thus leather i'.ae/a IlIIs ns that tlie red Tahahlnn is placed al tlie l'!ast, and is known as Saint Dominic; to the Xorlli tlie w hilt.' one, whois,*saint (lahriel; the hkuk, toward tlie West, is Saint James ; the \ellow is toward the vSontli, and is a female, called in tile Ma\a ton^ne X' Kcnihox, "the >ellow i;oddess," and hears tile Christian name of Mar\ Magdalen. The name raJiahtiiii isofdiiricnll derivation, l)iit it ])ro l),dil>- means " stone, or pillar, set up or erected," and this *l..iiula, l\i-!iU iitii ilf Ids Co.\ii.\ ,i,- ]'n,iit,iii, J)]). JoiS (7 .»(•(/. 'riu' woilviil' I.;iii(l;i wa- (T'.-l pi iiiUil al I'a; i- in i>i>.|. 'I'lii'; \'()\H ci,ori)-c<»Ai!M:i,i.i';i-!S. \ftj t.illii'S (jiiiU- c'x;u-tl\ with ;i loni; (Itsciiplion of tlu' .iiniiiit ! iU s cntiiicclcd with tlu' Wdislii]) (if llior iiiiiioi t.iiil (li\iiii- tii.^ in tlu- (iM times. TliiiX' ;iir ^diiU' (lis( ri|);iii(i(,> in the I nlnrs ;issi.L;iieil the (litfcrtiit iiiiint>(il' tlie ('i)in]);iss, Imt tliis Mjipears to h;i\e \;irie(l eoii^idci ;il il\ ;iiii(iiil; Ihi' C\iiti;il Aiiiei ieaii natiims, thmi'^h niaii\- ol" tlieiii united in ha\in^ --(inie Mieli ^\nili()!isni, A enriou-i >ttid\ nf it has luan niadi' li\ tln' well known areha iil<)i;isi, Uie C'niint de (.'hareiicey/'' 'Idle in\(ieati(in to tht-^e lonr iioinl^ of the compass in its modern form was foilimatelx- ohtained and prest. rvid in the oiiL;inal tongue 1)\' thai indef.iti.^ahk' -Indent, the late Ahhc Hidsseiir de liotirlMiurn, while on a \i^il to tlu- plantation of Xeanehakan, in the interior of \'neatan. > 'i'he translation of it runs as lollows : — "At the rising of the Snn, Lord of the Ivist, ni\' word i;(ies forth to the four rorni,rs ot' the lu a\tii, to tlu- lour eor- iiers of the' earth, in the name of Cod the l'"ather, Cod the ,S(in, and ( iod the Holy Chosl. "When the clouds ri^e in the east, when he c-()mes who sets in order the thirteen lormsof tin- elouds, the \ellow lord of the hurrieane, the hope- of the lords to come, he who rules the pie])aratiou of the (li\ine li(|Uor, he wlio Io\es the .guar- dian spirits of the llelds, then I pra\- to him for liis pri'cious fa\(ir; for I trust all in the hands oi"(io(l the h'ather, (iod the Son, and (iod the Holy (ihost." Such is an example of the strange mixture of heathen and * CluiniKiy, /lis ('(III fill IS loiisidei ci!^ iiinimr Svinhiihsilrs /'nitils dr V lliii ir.nn rliez hs l',iif>l,\\ tlu .\'(iiaraii-A/ii>it/i\ in llic Ai/rs dr la Sitiicld l'liHi>liiy,iijni\ tome vi (Octo- liu- iS7f,). t I'hiistomalliir dr l.ilri aliiir Mayn, \i. loi, in tlic Sfcoinl voliinic of tlic /.liulrs siir Ir Syslhiir diafihiqiic il hi l.aiii^iii- di s Mayas (I'.'iri.s, iS7(j). WW K.S I'SSANS <>I' AN AMI'.NIC AMS'I" Cliiisti.in siipiTstitioii wliirli li;is hctii tlu' oiitcciiK' of llirc( (.'(.'11 til I lis (i| so i';ilk(l CMiiisti;ui iiislnu'tKHi 'I'lui'i' slill coiiliiiiK- to lit,' lilies of ;m aiuiriit I'onii o|" iuc woisliip wliiili oiii'i' pri'vailid roiiiiiioiiI\ tliroii^lioiit llir piii iiisiihi. lir inissioii;!! ii'S irfir to il as "tlii' lrsti\al o lire," ■ i)tit till' I'xaet rites ])erl'oriiK(l weti' so eari'lii!I\ eon eialeii llial we lia\i- no disei iptioii ol ilii iii. 'I'liat tlii\' aie not \ et out of (late is a]ipaiiiit fioiii a eop\ ol a native ealendai lor iS.p j, obtained 1)\- Mr. .Stephens wlieii in Vneataii. in it the days are inaiked as lueky or tinliieky, and ai;aiiist eertain ones siieli entries are made as " now tlu' burner lii;lits his rue," "the burner .i;ivi'S his lire seo])e," "the burner takes his lire," "the buriiii puis out his fire." This burner, ti// /i<t\ is the niodi^ru ri'pri'Si'iitali\e of the aneient priest of the lire, and we find a few obseure relereiiees to an iinpoilaut rite, the //«'/'/' /vr/', I'x tiiietioii of thi' fire, wliieli was kejU uji louj; after the eoii(|Uest, and probably is still ei'libiated in Ihi' n iiioter villaue; le saeri'd firi' in aneient M i\a la ml is said to lia\e been guarded b\- ehoseii virsjiib and it ai>pears in some way to ha\e bieii identified with the foree whieh .i;i\es life to the animal and \eL;etabli' world. .Another of the modem eeremonies whieh is imbued with the old notion, eommon to them as to all ])riniiti\e ])eople, oi A soul with material wants, is that ealled "the feaslof ll v food of the soul." vSmall eakes are made of the llisli of hens and piHinded maize, and are baked in an uiidert;rouiid o\eii. Of these as many are plaeed on the altar of theehureh as the person makiiii; the offeriiii; has deeeased relatives for whose * l.;i I'u'st:! lie liKuii, iiiii' li.i^l.i Mhiua ill i'>la (ii oviiuia si' iKui.i." \'v. l)it I.ojii'z eiii;olhulo, lli.\loii\! i/V ) luiifiiii, li.iiu) i, \i. .|^,; (,-,il cil. Miiiila, \>t\). Tui'. i.oui) (>]■ i)i;.\Tir. \r, >') \M >v\uy. \\V IS SollCltDUS. Tl icse cak cs .[vv caiK-fi /(H/(t I /' / \(iii , till' I'ood of tlif soul. I'',\i<Uiitl\- 11k'\' an- iiittiHkd til icpivsciit till' iinurisliiiKiil (ItstiiK'l ior \\\c soul on its JOl ii!u>' tliroU);li tlif slia<lowy lands ofdc-atli. Alon.i; with tliisi' then ic nian\- minor supi rslitions con- luitrd fsijccially with tiic Ki')\vtli o|' ciops ami fruits. Tlius it i-^ \vi(K'l\' l)(.'lit\cd that llir truit known as tlu- white zapotc- [Siif't>/(i (k/ikis, in Maya, i/iodn will not ri])(.n ofilsclt. ( )ni: t tap it liuhllv .several times as it approaches maturity, ruisi repeatnii lie lormula /A'/'c7/, (lirdii ■ir Idluni I)(|);irt, j;i(( inicss : ciiU r, ripciKss The owl is looked upon as an uncanny hird, jjresaj^inj.^ (Kalh or disease, if it alights on or e\(.n flies o\er a house. Another hird, the cvt, a spicies of ])lKasant, is sai<l to predict the approach of hi^h northerl\- winds, when it calls Iiiiidl\- an<l IVi'(pientl\- in the woods; though this, accordinj.^ Id oni' w riler, is not so much a superstition as an ohservaticjn (if nature, and is usuall\' correct. A sin_i;idar ceremouN' is at times ])erformed to jirevent the death of those who are sick. The dread beini,^ ^ho in iiK(li;eval s\ inholism was represented by a skeleton, is known III the Ma>as as )'itiii ('/iiii/, Lord of Death. He is sup- ]i(ised to lurk around a house where a ])erson is ill, ready to enter and carr\' off his life when opportunity offers. He is, however, willing; to acce])t something.; in lieu thereof, and to W\\\\.'] about this result the natixes pel form the rite called ki\\ or "barter." Tlie\- han<; jars and nets containing.; food and drink on the trees around the hou.se, repeating.; certain i 17" ni\ in'.iluMr-, ;ii I:SS \N S I M' \\ AM i;i<K' AMSr Hl lllf\ liclicxf lll.ll nlh II lllc I.Mld n\ \h.\\\ 11 t W ill I'c ■•ili'.lud Willi llu-.c .mil tliiis .illiiw lllc iii\ .linl li U'liU (1 111 1 -> ill\ lllCl s 111 W ll' >iii I li.i\r .illmliil ;iU' l;miili;iil\ kunwn .1'. /,'■/ /, //, I'.nliU l'',icc, .iinl /.i/,i l\'lni, |),iiM\ il, .1 u I 111 lire, 1 '.ii--]ui'l , 111 ,1 Diiir t,niiill;ii li.inif n I'liii t ilt\ mil \ . I\ :>! ,'r //, tlir i.irr ( < H r\ c i n| the (l;i\ , /. ( . I In Sun A ]iii\\(i imi\ri^.iil\ ,i'-i'i ili( il tit llic^e m.iv,iri;ms is tli.it ni ti .m^loi mm;; llunisrhis iutn ln-.i^t-.. W'cir it ni>l lui n ni.m\ i'\.mi|ilrs 111 (Klii^inns m i iiliijiliiuil l.iiuN, il umiM lu' ililluull ti> c \pl.iiii tlu' miinu'slinimii.; ln'.ul wliirli pii \,iiN nil tln> siilijrrl lliinii'' luuil (.'riiti.il Anuiici. l'".illiu ,ir,',i U'laUs tli;it otu' i>l llu ill siHiTU'is (kTliirnl 111 il\ ill;.; rnnlrssioit til, it lu' li.ul iipr.itrilU rli.m.L^ril liiiii'-i II into \,iiii>us wilil luMsts. Till' !'',n;.'jisli |iiirst, 'I'lmiii.i- li.im', \\lii> li:iil ,1 I'urr in ( 'iiMtrin.ihi aliDiil i'>;i'. li'lN with all M,i iiMi-^ius-- a iiniiilKi ol mumi instaiux's. ,\i'n ill oui ow n (la\ s tlir liMiiu'd Alilu' jlra-sian dr rnuii Im mi i; i^ not (.iiliirK ^atisluil that animal ma;;iu'tism, \i iiti il<)i|iiiMii, and siu'h tiii'kiTN , <.\\\\ t.'\iilaiii thr lUNsti'i iis n| ii,i^ nd/i.Mii , as tlu' (.'riitial Anuriraii s\ stnu nl thr hlai'k aits is ti.'riiuil. IK' Is lint i-iilaiii that wr iuilJiI to (.Niludr llu' assistaiicr nl the in\ isihU- dialuilir amauars ! "'• Tl u- saru'd luniks nt tlu' (hiirlu'S, a trihr li\iii'' in (lUati mal.i iilatcd to tin.' M,;\as, asnilu.- this pnwiT l<i oik' (il'llir * rh.>iii,i~ I'.at;!'. I Ai.. Sui:,\ oi thr ll,\\/ />:,fi,s, p\t. x;~ ,/ sr,/. (Ii'mli'ii. ii''i'i'. riu' Alil'r Hi .■,■.--1 111 is williiii^ In inii'-iilii tlusi- lali'S liii iliolls. "Mi]iiMrc qii il> nl■llS^^•nl I'll. Ill n .iliti. .iiu'iiiir iMiiiiiiiiiiual inn .i\ii' li-. piiissaiuis aiiliiMn.U' ni sibli', " abiMit « liiih, li< 111' is i'\ ilk iill\ iii>l allii^'i'lli / Mi/lV uii '/.».'''( »/(■ ,!<• il p. 17.-, ^^al i.-, iM)j). ^V 'IK- WSI ( IK M \TI< IN INK i I'.l, \S'I": IV I 111' I ((l(lil:ilr(l kill'.' •II illiistiiiliuii llir |i;isha,i;c i W , . I t 1 1 ( I 1 I M I III • 'I'lllh I hi. ( '.IK lllll.lt/ li(r;illlc ,1 wniuhl llll kill'.'. I'aciv S(\ ' 11 I l,i\ . In :isi( 11(1(1 1 Id I lie .1, \ , ;ili(| r\ i\\ s( Adl (Ll\ •. lie nll'iWCi I lie p.ll ll Id I ll( :ili(i(|( ( il I Ik (|i ,i(| ; (■;■( i \ ■,( \i ll (kl\ s hi |>iil (ill IIk- iiitiiic (i| ;i '.( i|i(iit ,111(1 Ik Ik (.iiik link. ,i ,(i |i( III , I \(l\ ■-( \('ll i|.l\s lie |illl (III III! Il.illllc ()| ,111 ( .ll'Jc .111(1 ;i'.',iiii (i| ;i ti;.',! I, ;iii'l In- 1i((,iiik Iiii1\ ,iii c.r.'.k iiikI ,i lii-ri'; r\ci\ ^(Aili <ki\^ .'ilsd lie pill on IIk n.itnic <il ('o.'ii'jikilcd llldod, IIIKJ till II lie W.I . lldlllill':', ( k( kill ( ( M;',Ilkll( (I l»ldd(l."-l' Mill ;iikI wciiicii ;ilikc inij'.lil pdssis-, tliis iii.i;.'j( pdwcr. 'j'lii^. i^ ."'Ikiwii ill .'1 iiiiiiiiis lilllc ii:iti\c stoi \' IicimI k\ I )i . ill M iidl ill llic wilds of N'ncit.iii lidiii ;i \ki\;i w din.iii , \\ lio jdld il Id |ild\c the Willie di •■//// ;is ,i cdniitci ( li.iiiii td the miiliiii.ilidiis d| llu'sc iiiN .'^h ridii'-. li(iii;js. 'idle (kid'H uidic ll ildWii with SCI ii|)iildils lidcliU, ;iii(l iiddcd .'i \(ili;il ti:iiis- kitidii. As it li;is iu\ci Iiccii luiklishcd, .iiid ;i ^ il i-^ .it once ;iii iiiti ri'sliii!', kit dl .■iiithciil ic lulk Imc ;iiid .-i \ .ilii.iklc in ;mi|ilr di' the M;i\;i l;iii.i;n:ii;c, I i;i\i' it hen- in IIk- <iii:'jii;il 1' 111'.' lie with ;i litciiil, iiiU rlinc;ir tr:itisl,'itidii ; - mm .jt>-'i ; \ MAN A Wl'l (.11 S'l( IKS'. Iliinlii livili I'-coriilicI vctcl jimiliil \( Imp ; iii.i In \ (ilicll.ili ii.iix .\ iiiiiii lii.'iidiil ullli A u"lii;iii II'. I <li'l III' I. ii'.w ' III I f :i . u;i\. Ilimpt' kill In y.ikilili: "IIikIh- (■.•i|i(1 unit l.-ilili," Tii luii'li (Mil (hi\ III ';iiil|.iliii ' ,Mi\ tun nil. I im - ".I ■■.ill ^lii- lull li.ill |i:iilic, ( ;i III k;it;i]i : "l':i:i\ li.il t((ii.-'" iliilipcl ^ik.il) nil \ '1 M III Ml I 111 • I . I 111 11 ' III- .1' 1.1 ll 'Win I his i u i In -I i I Ii'.ii ' ' ' iin ni:;Iil l>i\.iaii lixiiic c'l 111 \i]:ili ii liokol ll \.it;iii. C';i tii ( li.i.ili ii iii.i/( ,il)C \\ii\.r llir iiiiiii iiiiil 111' .-iiw y,<i I. Ill hi', uili 'I In ii lir inol, his ;i\c I'.l til iiiiicul tliiill (kill III I .K ll ti k.ix. (.'a kinlliddli ti (hi(li;iii .iinl Miiitly liilli.Udl l:iliiiiil ilu 1 ) liil 111 vM.iiil. Will II 111! V .11 lisi <l al .i lilllc * I'ofntl lull, Ir 1 .1 i 1 1- Siu ti- ,1/ \ (<Huliis, |i. .;i.s ' r.'ilis, l*-'-!). ik 172 KSSAYS OI" AN AMI':KICAMST. I? (.'liakan, van ii /.a/.il uh, vn lii imu-ulia hxih tu booy iiolicnh iih'.kIow, tliiTf I)i.'iiin!i lniRlit iiKxui, Uh'II hill liiiiistirilH- innii in tlicsliadfol;! k^' it yaxolu'. C.i In ])iu'ali u nok xcluip tii i)arh, uaaii xinahuc tu scitia till', 'r lie 11 111 lew In i uariiuiits llir wiiiiiiiii luliitiil iliii i, stimditi),' iiakuil in ihr tan nil : la In sipali n xollul, ra rnllii rlu-nihac. Ca I'aiT 111 tlu' iiKMiii; tliiii she slri|>])til (i(V luT >kiii. ami n iiiaiiu'il iiuii' tioiU'S. Tin n iiaci ti raan. Ca I'lni Incaten, i-a tn yalalii : /.a.'.ili.t slu' roM- tntlic sk.\ . Will' 11 '.lu- call 11' dinvii aKiiiii, then slic saiil to liiiii : "WimliKl lliuii star i-aan ? " lU'inac ma ni'lnu- n nacal lucaUn, tnmt'n In tluiniil riatli to tlusky .'" Hut not icnilil she asciinl a};ain, lucausc ol the tlitoujn;^ taal). (of I salt. To llif^ Maya, the woods, the air, and the darkness arc niiL'd with luysterioiis l)eings who arc ever ready to do liiin injury or service, but generally injury, as the greater nuni- l)er of these creations of his fancy are malevolent sprites. Of those which are well disposed, the most familiar are the lyo/anis (Maya, /fbalaiiiob, masculine plural form of ba/nNi). This word is the conunon name of the American tiger, and as a title of distinction was ajiplied to a class of priests and to kings. The moilern notions of the Balams are revealed to us by the Licentiate Zetina of Tihosuco, in his manu.scripts to which I have previously referred. He tells tis that these beings aie sitpposed to be certain very ancient men who take charge of and guard the t(nviis. One stands north of the town, a .second .south, a third east, and the fourth to the west. They are usually not visibk- during the day, and if one does see them it is a sign of ap- proaching illness, which suggests that it is the disordcrt-d vision of some impending tropical fever which may occasion- ally lead to the belief in their apparition. At night the Balams are awake and vigilant, and prevt.iit many an accident from befalling the village, such as violent ru]'] 1'Kii:ni)i.y kai.ams. '7,^ ruins, tornadoes, and pestilential diseases. They suininon t.,!(li other by a loud, shrill whistk'; and, thoiiKh without \vinj;s, the>- (\y throuj^h the air with the swiftness of a bird. Occasionally they have desperate conflicts with the evil IKiwerswho would assail the town. The sij^ns of these noc- linnal struj^^j^les are .seen the ne.xt day in trees broketi down ami ujirooted, the ground torn up, and large stones split and tliiown around. .\nolher of their duties is to protect the cornfields or vii'.pas. It seems jirobable, from com]>ariiig the authorities before me, that the lialams in this capacity are identical with the /'</ alitinis, whom I have ref(>rred to above, and that both are lineal descendants of those agricultural deities of the ancient Mayas, the C/iac or Ihxcab, which are described by lii.shop Landa and others. No Indian on the ])eninsula neglects to l)r()i)itia.^ the Jialam with a suitable offering at the time of c(irn-planting. Were he so negligent as to forget it, the crop would wither for lack of rain or otherwise be ruined. An instance of this is told by Senor Zetina. An Indian near Tihosuco had paid no attention to the usual offering, perhaps being infected with evil modern .skeptical views. His crop grew fairly ; and as the ears were about ripening lie visited his field to examine them. As he approached he saw with .some dismay a tall man among the stalks with a large basket over his shoulders, in which he threw the ri]ien- ing ears as fast as he could pluck them. The Indian saluted him hesitatingly. The stranger replied, " I am here gather- ing in that which I .sent." Resting from his work, he drew from his pocket an immen.se cigar, and, taking out a flint and steel, began to strike a light. But the sparks he struck X' \ '::%M !i. '7't I'SSAvs oi' AN \mi:nu' AMsr Will' ll,islu'> III' lij;litiiiiii4, .iiul llu' soiiiid <it his blows was U'trihlr llniuiK i('l;i])s wliirli shook ih*.' \cv\ I'Mith. Thi' |"hii Iiidi.iii Irll to Ihi' ground uin'oiiscions with iVii^Iil; iiiid ulun hi' canir to liiinsilt" a hail stonii had d(.str(t\ I'd his corn, .iml as >oon as lir n-u'luil hoiiU' hi' hiinsL'lt' was S(.i/.i'd with a few r whirh iii.Lih cost him his litV. TIk' I'lalains an' v^\v:\{ siiiokiTS, and it is a i;i'tK'ial hiliii ainoni; tlu' Indians that llu' shootiiij; stars arc nothiiij; i Isi than tlu' stnnips of tin.' huj^c cigars thrown down tlu' sk\ liy these yiant hcin^s. SonKtini(.'s IIr'v c-an\- off childix-n for iiurposrs of llicii own. W'Ikii Di'. IVirndt was cxplorinj; tlu' (.ast n>a>l nl 'nt-alan hr was told of snch an ot'c'nrr(.ncv on Ihr Islai 1(1 I.I Jsan IVilro, north of Ikli/r. A litlk- boy of tbiu' \iai> waiukird to soini.' (.-aiao hnsliis not nioiv than lil't\- \ai(K from tin.' hotisi', and iIktv' all Iraci.' of him was lost, 'i'lit iv was no sii^ii of wolf or tiiicr, no footprint of kidnappci'. 'f 1k\ son,i;lil him the whole (la\ in \ain, and ihen i;a\<.' np tin Search, tor llu\- knew what had ha]ipeni'(l the I'.alam li.id taken him I The Halams have alsd the reputation of inctdeatini;- a le speet for the ])roprieties of life. Zetina tells this sl(ir\- wliicli he heard amoni; his natixe friends : One da\ an Indian ami his wile went to their eorii-i)ateh to slather ears. The man kft the field to i;el some water, and his wife threw oil" the t;own she wore lest it should he torn, and was naked. ,Sim1- (leiily she heard some one call to her in a loud voiee, /Vw a:iii\ Mio/i I /:/>/, which Zetina translates literally into vS] ish, 7'ti/^.! ta (uhK i^raii d/'ab/o .' At the same time she ceived twi) smart blows with a cane. vShe turned and bel >aii- IX U 111 I'm". lUNii oi •nil. wiMis. ;i I. ill in.in with ;i loiii; ImukI, mid ;i ^owii wliicli it .uIhiI to 111-. li.ct. 'I'lii-^ \v;is the ll;il;iin. I If L;;i\r Iici two liKHr sill, lit Mows nil llu' pait (i| tlir |nisiiii lo uliicli lir li;i(l \v Idiiil, :ill(l tlicii (lis;i|i|;(.:iinl ; Imt tlir iiiaiks nlllir lidll liliiws nni.iimd ;is l<)n,i; :i.s slu' livi'd. It is \;iiii lo ;itl(.'iu]it to |)ur,s\i;i(K' tin- Indi.iii that such iiuiioiis air i'alsr and (aiiiiot \\v lafts. IIi- will not tr\ to nasoii with \ (111. I Ic coiiti iits hiiiisiir w ith a paliint >;ls- linr and tlu' d(.s])aiiin}; exclamation, /.Vi ///a lialutl .' " 11 ow 11 it !)(.• othirwisf than triR' /)'/ 1 , how, iihi, not, liiilidl. tllir. I Tlusr i'ahinis an- in tact Ihi' ,uods of ihi- cartMnal points iiinl oj the winds and rains which jnocicd iVoin thciii, ami ;iu thus a sni\i\al of sour' o| iIr' central fimins ol' the an I icDt mythology. The wind still holds its pn' tniincncc a> ;i --iipiinaluial occnntncc in tin.' iiati\(.' mind. ( )nc da\ 1)1. Ilcrtiidl was lra\clin.i; with -onic natixcs tluouL'.h the InKsts wlun tln' sonnd ol a tropical tornado was hi.ird ap ])niachin,i; with its i'oiniidalilc roar through llu' trees. In awc-strnt~k accents one of his guides said, " Ih ailtil iio/nu/i xikiil iioltodi Uil : Here comes the miiL^ht}' wind ol' the (ii\-at l''alher." I hit it is onl\- in an nn,i;n aided mom en I that in the ]>iesenceora while man tlu' Indian lielra\s his helitl's, and iKMjnestionin.i;- conld elicit fnrther informalion. A hint i^ siipjilied by vSefior Zelina. I le nieiilions that the w hi^tliiii; (il the wind is called, or atlribnled lo, htl (u;;:o. word> which can leather Slronsj l)ird. 'i'his suyuests man\' analoLiio 111 fnmi ihe m\lholo,L;ies of other races; for Ihe notion of the priinexal bird, at once lord of the winds and father of the race, is found in numerous American tribes, and is di>liiicll\ ciuitained in Ihe melaphors of Ihe hrsl chapter of (kiiesis. '.'i ' 176 i;SS\NS HI' AN AMI'.KICWIS'IV 'PIk' lui/itiii, MS I haw said, is I'skciiUfl a kiiiill\- and piu ti'i li\f Iti'iii^ ; \\v is aflVfti(iiiatc'l\' ri'lVrriMl \.n as vkiii lui/din, I'atlicr Halaiii. IK' is said to liavi' a Iminaii ("1)1111, that of an old man with a lonj; hi-'ard and ample llowin.n mhcs. I'.m thi'iv aiv ollur ^imantir sjKrtri's of tcrribk- aspict and tiiuu k'lit liniiior ( )iK' ol' IIr'si' is so tall that a man cat Hint ivach his km-cs. Ik' stalks into Ihi' towns at midiiij^ht, and ])lantinj^ his Ict-'t like a liii^c Colossus, oik' on caidi sidc' di the roadwiiN', he sci/cs soiiii' iiuaiitioiis ])ass«.'r-l)y and hixaks liis k'^s with his teith, or loncintrs him with a sudden faiiit- nc'ss. The name ol' this terror of late walkers is (iiant (ir III, ( It Kil p.u/i. Another is the l7ii- I'iiiir, the Man of the Woods. ealKM by the vSpanish poi)nlation the Salonj;e. lie is a hn^e lei low withonl hones or joints, h'or that reason iflie lies down he cannot rise wilhont extreme diflknilty ; heiiee he sleeps leaninj^- against a tree. His feel are reversed, the heels in front, the toes behind. He is larger and stronger than a bull, and his color is red. In his long arms he carries a slick the si/.e of a tree-trunk. He is on the watch for those who stray through the woods, and, if he can, will .sei/.e and devour them. Ikit a ready-witted man has always a means of e.scajK'. All he has to do is to pluck a green branch from a tree, and wa\'ing it before him, begin a lively daiuc This invariably throws the Wood Man into coiivulsioii> nf mirth. He laughs and laughs until he falls to the ground, and once down, having no joints, he cannot rise, and tlic hunter can ])roceed leisurely on his journey. It is singular, .says Dr. Uerendt, how widely distributed is the belief in precisely the same form this straime fane v. It recurs in in Yucatan, in Peten, in Tabasco, around Paleiujue, etc. MAI.ICInl s IMIS. Aipitlur ii'jK' cn~.t<im(r i^ ilu' ('nl,,t//:ii Tlii- \\i>i<l tin aii*^ " llif pi ii>t w illmtil 1U'( nunc IS (It ^ci HUM as :\ luini' u i ntid llu' til luail (111 IIIH •olillU so c\rli Willi till' sli(itil(Ki'^, wild \vaii(l(.is arniiinl tlir \illa;^t'S at iii;^Iit, I'l ii^liti iiiuv. III' II aii'l cliililn II. In I (iiiliast to tlir j.;iatU^ air tlic dwailV ami imp-- w lii( li in r(.a<l\- in tin ir nialicioii-- \\a\-. lo soiii tip pKasiir(.s of lilr. TIk' nio^t (diiinioii ot tlu-^i' an- tlu- //'/<' i , (tr more t"iill\- li' /,< \h'(i/(>l<, which mean- the stroll'. a\- iina,L;cs, hcv arc, indeed, lielie\'ed lo he tin- actual idoU and i'ij,;ure-^ in cla\- which are I'onnd ahonl IIk' old U'iiii)k-^ and lonili--. and luiicc an Indian hreaks 11ks(.' in jiiece-^ wlKiiewi he finds lllclll, to Uk' 'real detntiKMil areh.'eolo^icai riseareli. Till \ oiil\' appear after snnsel, and Iheii in tin- shap(.- oi a (Iiild of three <tr four \ears. or someliines not o\er a s])an in height, naked except wearing a lar,ne hat. 'l'lie\ are swift ol loot, and can run hat-kwards as fast as forwards. Ainoii.i^ (itlu'r pranks, the\' throw stones at the do.i;s and causi- them to howl. Their touch jjioduces sickness, especiall\- chills and fe\(.r. It is best, tlierefori-, not to attempt to catch tllelll. ( )f similar niale\'olent disposition is the i'/iini /'//, Little llii\-, who lurks in the woods and is alle-ied to hrini; the >nia Ihpox into the villa,i;es. Others are merels' teasint^' in character, and not ])ositi\eI\' Till- iliTivalioii uf Uiis won! w IVuiii /■(//, wliiili in the /'/(i Md\ii l^^fnthitl ',■1 (. : 'ilii ill- Miiliil, MS. of iilionl I--, i-^ (U'liiK'il ii-; " I.i lii-;:a v li.i:ii> dc hi iillii:!-.," liiit u liicli I'l . (■/ in hi oiimiIi i ii M.i\ .'i ilirliuiia; \ li.iu-hili ilhiH M liiMir.'i;^ .),■ h nro"; nh, is the plural ti; iiiinatinn : Am. is sIvoul;. m' llu- s'miylli nl' anv- il liii,:,' ; //' or ,ili. as It i> Iti-ii wiilU-ii. i- tlu- -.-Mii-rh lin.-ithini , liiili ill Ma\ .a in ilii-aUs Uk- nia-tulint.' ^ciulc ; 12 I s I'ss w •■ 1 ii \ \ \ MI I ii WIS r li n mini T!mi'. i 1i( m i- I lir \ •)/ /'',i/,', /,' \\ 111 1 In I . in III l\.>M-i Willi tin limih. niil Ii^..lr. :lt Ili'Jil llii \,iiImii '.OIIMil - > >l iliMIU ■! h l.lluij W llK ll ll,|\ . Ill < II IIMili illll III" I III "h< WiMil I-- .ipi'lu il ti ' I 111 ■-Miiiiii tin I 1 1 H 1 M 1 n t • I > 1 1 1 1 1 1 < 1 1 \ I ' 1\ I n r. HI I I . '.li.ill . A ''I I'. mill . .1 nmni'i I w-^ 1 1 I \ I >i 1 ^1' 111 IIIH 1 1,1 I I \ 1 ill ' ■ 1 . I Ml 1 1 t I ,1111 PlU .)' wliili llii iimImI \ ■Imw- lli,il llii imp c iij lli. Ii'mmiur '.',( Mill I , Thi n.iiiii I In u li •!(■ --ir, mlu •> " t lir li m.ili imp \\ 111 > m.i;', in III - tile ■-mi Mil 111 t In ■.|iniilli ' ' ( >l In i .in li hiMr-i holil mip'. .n. ihr />'.'■!,•/ /,■',■/,■, /■ Sin lln 1 liii I ■( , W 11' ■111 i> ' luiiK 1 tin ill mi ■ Mill m.iUi '. .1 iii'i -I 111,1 In 111 im' ,1 (■ ii I 111 -^I'.Mi. l!u' iiiiii.ili •■ . I lie ) I'llrln I I mp, w In « (I .i\\ I into j.M ^ ,in<l pi; .nil llir \\ .n ,.','. W Hill liM.l. w In. 1 nil. iM\ 1 M lull Mil I W .' , nil I i| 1 1 >]>'• '.ti Mil '- nil p.l-.'-ll s |i\ 'riu' Irm.ilr -.i \ n- Ini tin I 1 1 pi i -i iili il m I In \l.i \ ,i h ill Inu 1>\ .1 pi I '-iMi.i;,;r \\ liii li.i . ,i rtn n MI'. '-I m I l,i I 1 1 ^ li > li ;•( ml .11 \ hnlir^- i>l llir nlil wnilil, '.iii m.. iiii iiminl ■. tin I, mi P .nut I'i ill I ■-, .^ li n- r,l I 11 il ',l.\l.\ t llf I liin.llr ' I K ri l\ 1 I llri liKiMi,' iv miiKi sli.nlv hi'Wii-. in llir Inu.h-. ,nnl lln tlu' .Uiu 111 linr, U I ■-mlili'iiK r--pii ^ In i , i Inllu-l . ,nnl fi mil nil: \\ Il h ,1 1.1 1 cr I'l'tiin 1 I .>. ';, lu i Imi;.', ,mm l-r,nil ilnl li.iii . \ . \\c .ii^pio.irhcs --lu' luiii'- .Mil! lliis. lull iinl willi iln.n uii .nMii;: Ihi-'lr, i.illui III '-nrli ,1 m.Mniri .iinl with 'iii li lMiki\.iiil Cl.llUX"^ .I-' In 11I\ iU' plll^nil. Ill' ^nnil i >\ CI 1 ,1 k is lli I, lull iU'-t .!■- lU' I'l.l'^p-^ lui 1h'. Mill nil-- liiim ill lllsslpHl;; iIII 1 U ,irr, hri l~oil\ i.-li,iU''os inlo a llimiiv 1mi--1i, ,iinl lin liit lui-niiu cl.iw^ iki. till '^i.- I'l ,\ wilil ii>\\l. Till 11 .niil Mtrilim.' Iir liiiii >,ull\ liiMiuw ,iiii, .uiil MHMi .^ui-i'inr.lis to ;iii .ill, irk nl li'\ w ith iicln imn. Atiii'ili'. r W'lx ^iniil.ii" orcitnix' is A' /'/!,<// (7/n//.'i>/. Mi MI'/. i'< )i-. ii I III ,1 ( I-. i:s. '■/') h >\\ li\ I ,i|i|iin!' "11 III' l"iii Ml III >l< I mil III till < nil III iii|il \ |,ii w li ii li li' I 1 1 1 P Imi I Ik |iiii |iM I I ii II t Ik |< 'Mill I I IimIkI 111 I l|i 1 iJlK I l\ 1 I II \ I 1.1 I lull Ik ' 1 1 '. I \' i\ I .111 I 111 w 1 11 III , \\ Ik 1 1 I Ik iiik i| 1 ill | iii i mm iik i I , I il: ..i|i|ii iiiil nil 111 .iiiij ,1 I Mil III ,kI I. ill .1 . I III V |i I nil mI III \ /,,/: III.IV III I Ijljll 1 .' l| , III. Ill' lljil I I il ii ill I lili;' .lldlllKl 1 1 IIIIIIMl \\ < i| ii I l',.ii I I .III 1 |i 111 I il Mil III ll . 1 III';', lAll'l 1 11 li . ,llli| I 111 i!' I I 1 1 Iw I II I Ik I nil |i| lilt p I Ii.i I ■ iii:i •, t I III i I II . I r.' Ill . \ II I ml I. Ill |i il'l III 111 1 1 ikIi I ImI 'iIk i ii|iii|i I I nil ,1 llMllli I Willi I ", 1 I i|i i;' , |i illn'M i| .1 Ii:i |i I III') .1 1 .l\ '■ IM II In l< illlHl .1 l;il :'i Ik iji il ;kIiii" MIkIi i ; lie I .11 Il II' 'I I I I III II ' I . ,1 l||| I .IIIK' In I Ik In',', II 111 t |i- l;:i|i Till \ ^-I'i/i 'I liiiii .iii'l III . ijii'.' ., :iiii| liii.ii;'lil I. nil III |iii' Hi . III!' , Mini II w ,1 . in I ( ;i .\ iii.itti I I'll liiiii In I'l I 'ill Ir. 'lint |i|i ill ',1s :ii|(| liii Hill .(■ Tllt n .III' :iImi t.llcs 'il tin Sli;i\\ i'.ii'l 111 IMiiiiiiiiM I'.ii'l Till liiiiili 1 iiinxiii ( !'(|l\ Ml'. ;i jiiiini 'iiii' hii 'I 'ill ;i 111 -111' Il III lull' llllll. ill h \ .11 lie • .lll'l lllissc-.. Ill 11 |ii ;it , hi. Ii'it 111 II. ,\ III 1 .1 W lull il lull , ill ll I II, ;ili'l |il'i\ '■■, In 111- lint 1 1 Miv, lull ;i ciil'iK (| Il iillici. Tin II In l.iniw . tli.it In lin^ I till ill i| li\ t In /(ilh'l I Ith II . ,( < n .\ II llllll < I n| inin ll ili( :nl i . tin iw.n T;iil l:lo,n,l III nil; ''iiiiii \' siKiIsc Willi ;i lil;i(l.. Ih'ckI. .-nnl I'liki'l t.-iil. <.;liili'.s iiili > In III SI s ;it iii'j lit w In ic ;i mil - iii'.' Ill' ll In I 1-. ,'i-.l'»]) iiinl, riiMriii'' In I HnstiiK witli hi-, t.iil. -in k-^ tin milk liiilll llci l)i(;ists. 'i'JH'M' lire ]>r(il);ililr Imt ;i mii.iII iKiilinii nt tlif -iijhi -titi' iii \ iiiinl tin .'^Inin in .iii\ w .III , ,11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ill' \ 1 1 1 I ; ' I 1 1 K \' III n III' MIS s( I III'' ; 1 1 1 1 . n I I \ I •. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 In i w , 1 1 i h I . 1 1 1 1 1 1 i lS.> p:ss\\s oi' w \-\ii:ku' wisr «>i till' niiulini M;i\ns. 'I'lu\- :iic too uticiiit hi s| •cik 1. 1 llii'sr suhjirts ollii 1 than 1 i\ accK Irllt to tile U ll'lr lliail. I 1. is (piilr cci l.iiiwitlu'i [o inlicii!c oi to i(|)io\- lUncrs. l?iil what is .iliovf collirtrd plrlr, and ct i tainl\ , a> lai as it tlicii lolk loic. r such conli i^ a model ;iti'l \ ('( nil iirs, an .uciiiaU notion o •I ■HLK-lilllF, IIF TIIF, MIlllFHN LWArK, N Aii-jiist iss(. ;ill(l Si |it( llllicl 1 h;ii| iii;ili\' ('< iiivt r iilKHis Willi llir I\( \ 'luit S ci|;ii|kiii!ii Antl i(iii\ :lll lin;ih )rl;i\\;ilr Iinll.il!. tlicli •is-.i^tMiil iiii^^ii iii;il \' to 111 Six \;iti<>iis, ill ( )iit;it ii I, C':iii.i(l;i. ( liii iiiiiiH ili.itc Im^iiicss u:i'^ tlir n'\isioii <ii llic " l/iMpi- J'.iil'Ji^Ii I ii( 1 1' iti:ir\\" u hull li.is since bcin |iii Misl Ui| l)\ til.' llivt 111 i(;i 1 Sin'i<t\- ol iiiisN I\ :mi;i • luit in tin iiitrr\:iK <>! tli;it i.illici" ;n< lunil'' I .111(1 (liv l;i!)i>r, \vi' Miii.i;lit nci«;itii)ii in InoMilir snlijic ts of lIiiinL;lit, ;in(l our (lisconisf oluti Icll on tin- ;iii<i(nt tiadi lions, l()lk lore, and customs ol the J,eii.i|>i', now i;ist (lis;ip- peaiini;. Ml. Aiillioiiy was on liis latlui's siik' a I)(lawaic, or I/ii .ipr, ol' llu' Miiisi tfilic, while his j;raii(liiiother was a Shauiu (.'. 1 ie hiniseli was born on the ( )iitario ]\(.st i \alioii, ,111(1 u]) to his thirteenth N'ear s]ioke nothing; hut pure lA'iiiipt'. Ili."^ memory cairits him li.ick to the loiirth de- cade ol this cttii.ury. ( )iK' ol' his e.irliest rt.'inini,sceiices was of tlie Last sur\i\inL; ( niii;ianl from the natiw Iioiik' of his .ancestors in J'",asterii remi.-^\ Iv.inia a xeiKaahle siju.iw ( lu/n/iii/i, woman, hen), siipjioscd to lie a hundred years old. At the time herp.ireiits lel'l the mounlains between the Kelii.^li and Susiitichanna *l-'runi {.hi.- Join iiiil o/ .\>ii,-i iiiiii Ji>ll liiii\ inhH. ( 1«' ) rW 1.S2 I",SS.\VS ol" A\ AMl'.KICAMS'i n\cr: SllC W.IS .1<1 (.■nnu,L;li In c';irr\' a \)ac i\w\\ >-L-ars, ])r(ilialil\- his must lia\-c l)t(,ii about 17(10, as atli 1 tlic !"i\ lU'li War (17: lie- uatixTs rapi(ll\- rU'sertcd tl l:it R<4!(lll. I was surprisLMl to fiud how c-orrc-(-tl\- tla- ohl UKai of thi- trihc' hail I)1VS(.t\'c-(1 ami liaiuk-d down iX'iniiiis(.'Lau'(,'S of tluiv foniK-r homes aloiiu; the Dc-lawau- I\i\ci TIr' llat mar,- .\</ck," south of l'hila(k-!])hia. hctwcL-ii the I)claw;ii-(.' aiii'i vSchu Ikil ri\crs, was poiuted out to me i)\- Mr. Antl lOIU (who had ue\'er seen it hetore 1 as tl le si)o t where the triln preferred to ^atlier the rushes with which i1k-\- mamii tures ru''S and mat- le recoLinized \'arious trees, not sieii ill Canada, \>y the descriptions he had heard of tliem. .Sueli narrati\'e> firmed the themes of man\- a loU"' tale h\- tl le winter fire in the olden tim ,ike most Indians, tl th e 'J 1 1( )( I old I,enJ])c are, or rather were 'or, ala; are uearl\' all '''one inexhanstiMe )iUO)ilf 111 s. Th custom e\' IKHI not onl\- semidiistoric traditions, hut numlierless fanciful tale- of s])irits and sprites, <;iants and dwarfs, with their kith a 11(1 :in. Such tale'- were called loiiioiuaii , which me ins " t; lor leisure hours. 'rhe\ relate the decvl.-- of jxitent net ro- mancer.' ind tluir power o\'er the iiuichlajilia , " those wlii are hewitched It ^reath- interested me to learn that se\eral tl iC'c ile> ieferr(.d distincth to the culturedie ro ol the t rihe, thai ancient man who taught them the arts of life, and on lii< disappearanci. — these heroes do not die - jiromised to ret urn at some tutnre daw and re^lore his fax'orite ])eople to power and hap])!ne^ 'idiis Messianic hope was often the cent! idea in American native religions, as witness the worship and Wl'.ii ■nt; il Till': IK n'l'.i) i'( t'A ii):r( >-(•,( )i). i'^;. I )ULt/alc(iatl in Mi.'\i;'o, o!' Knkulcan in \'iu'atan, nf \'iia niclia in l\rii. Mr. Anllmnv- a>stiiv(l iiiu that il \\a-> ]ii.-r- kcll>' familiar to tin.- did Dulawarrs, and added llial in his iipinion thvif win- nanir, l.i)htf^i\ conwxs an (.'.-.(ik-rii' nie-an- Iiil;, Id wit, " tlii.' man c'iinK->," willi ilIcixik'L' Id tin.- si^tund .id\(.-iU dfllici; ciiUuR'diLTo.-'- This is sinL;uIar (-dnliiinalidn iiftln.- lV,i,i;in(.iilar\- m\lhs (.'dlkTlLil 1)\- the S\\X'di>li cn;4inec? I.ind>trdm in I'l.so, and hy the- .Mdiax'ian liislid]) lUtwcdn alidnt a (.'(.•iiturv later. These I ha\e colleeted in "'Idie I.enApe and tlieir I.e.nends" ' l'hiladel]ihia, 1NS5), and Iia\-e <li.--i'ns-cd the general suhjeei at sueh len;^tli in in_\- " Amer- iran IIero-M\ths" 1 I'hiladeliihia, iss^jthat the reader will prohalily he satisfied td eseape Inrther expansion of it here. ( )nl\- in traditidns does the " Stdne A^e " snr\i\'e anionj.;' the Delawaies. In Mr. Anthdn\'^ xonth, tlie how and- arrow was still oeeasidnallN' in nse Idr hunting; ; hut he had iK\er seen em])l()ye<l arniw-points of .-^tdne. Tlie\' were either of deer's horns o;- of shar])ep.ed l)(>nes. The name for the compound instrument " how -and-ariow " is iihiii/ilit/i/, the hrst ii lieiuL; na>al ; and from this word. Mr. Anthon\ >tates, is deriwd the name Minihitlltni , ])roperl\' iihuiiilui/i Idiik, "the place where the\ leather the wood to make hows." The l)ow-.-trin^ is /sdi/pdii: the arrow, alliDilh. Thes;eneiic name lor stone wea])ou is ,4ill familiar, <u/i^hi- hinDi, and the word iVom which we deri\e " tomahaw 1<.," r nid/iifdii , is slrictl>' aj)plie(l to a stone hatchet. War-idnhs Were of several \arieties, called apt ill' lit and iin Ii/'/Zi/ik /// , which were different from an ordinar\- stick or cane, hUikuuii . ■■'■Tlir 101 111 IVciiii wliiili Ik- ili-rivr-, it \^ Iriiin l>i ii. ip^-l iS4 J'SS.WS Ol' AX A.MI'.IilCANIST Tlioii^h tlif war-whoop is lieanl no nioiv, its name rc-niains, kohui' ii/i>. and tradition still recalls their ancient contests with the Iioiinois, their crnel and hated enemies, to whom t1 K\- a])]ilied the ojjprohrions e pithet lll( Hi that is, '^hnis p. 1)1/^ IlnnliiiL; is scarcel\- wortli the name an\- lon,L;er on tlie Canadian reser\ations. The deoated (piest'on as to \\ hc-tlier the I.en.ipe knew the bnlTalo attra(~ted me. Mr. Antlionx' assured me that the\- did. It was called sisi/ili was called sisi////, wiiicli he e\])lained as "the animal that drops its excrement when in motion," walkinj^' or runnin,;:; ; thon.^h he added that another ]Kissil)le deri\-ation is from ■/, SIS) I (din II . to hutt auainst, tVoii which comes sist'/d/ini, to break in jiieces 1)\- hnttini;'. In formi.'r times a favorite method of hnntinu in theantu mil was for a lari^e number of hunters t;) form a line and dri\e the i^anie before them. This was called f^' niotlilaj^iii . Thi> answered well for deer, but now little is left sa\e the nni^k- rat, eh lias sk III the uround-hi nioiuu 'li''(U, the wdiite ral bit. t/\if/i/ij ll( s. th e weasel Ilia II I 'I oh II III I Si ■ll. and tl le httl chipmunk, porlnjuaf^iitli (literally. "1 le ■^its upri;4ht on h'l if such small ,L;ame, it is scarcc-ly worth while runniuL;- the risk of the bite of the blow-addc'r, f^( thho- so metl iini tal:, and the much-feared )loodv-moiithed lizard. )/v/, iiiolcaoiiiiis thout;h I suspect both are m ire terrible in tale than in fact. In li^hinu,", the\- a])pear to ha\e known not onl\- the brusli net and the si)ear, but the h ooK-a nd.line as well. The lim 'IIK {aiiiakaii, was twisted from the strands of the wild liei lip. af/i/i(i//(i/\ or of the milk-weed, piclilok niiia and tlu liool- was armed with a bait, ah •a IK Ilk ON, W Inch miuht be r.vv// ('(SO, the •'rouud-woini, literati v, "he who extends and retract- HorSI'lS AM) I'l'IASII.S. 1 8: liiiii'^t.'i or tlu Uikclulaili ( i.\ irrassiiopi lt lil cr;iii\- DllC tUlllil (lri\t.- ml)- Mtlk- on laK ■mi) llool raot thai hops." This conx'spoiids uilli what tlic old Swedish ti i\-fkr, I'ctcr Kahu, rclatc's in {\\v Inst liall" ol' thf hist ciiiiurw I If d(.'sc-ril)(.s the iiati\L' liooks as made of hoiie or mI the s])ur of a fowh TIk'n- still .^atlier for food the /'////[■>//////,'. w.'.lniit, literal!}-, "round nnt ; " \\\<.- i/N/i/oki/it/iii , butti-'rnut, litcrallx', "oblonj;- mil;" and \-arious herrits, as the li(hloililtilli th. the red rasp- ! ell}-, Iiterall\-, "the l)err\- that falls to pieces." .\mon.n utensils of ancient date and ahori.ninaj inxention -•eeni to ha\-e been wooden dishes or howls, :it>!iak(i)i(S, made ironi the elm-tree, 'iColUikiDialntiij^i ; wo(,den mortars, ill which corn wa> jionnded, iaijinuhluikaii : and /^i \ /in/. cu])S with handles. The art of potter\-, which the\ once ])os- sosed, has been entireh- lost. .Mthongh now resident inland, the\- remember the manu- lacture and use of canoes, aiiioc/iiii. Some were of birch bark, :,i\/iia, and were called :^'/(/iia-aiiio< ho/ ; others were dug- outs, for which lhe\- preferred the American ^\camore, dis- tincti\-el\- named canoe-wcod, aiuo(/io/-/u\ The ordinar>- word for house is still ui'/r^raii/. wit;wam, wliile a brush-hut is cal'ed f^iiiioa/caii . I was particular to iiKluire if, as far as now known, the Leiiiip*^' exer occaqiied coinmunal houses, as did the Iro(iuois. Mi-. Anthon\- as- sured me that this was ne\-er the custom of his nation, so far as an\- recollection or tradition ,i;<)es. I{\-er\- faniiK' had its own lodge. I called his attention to the disco\'er\- in an- cient village sites in Xew Jerse\- of two or three rire-])laces in a i(i\v, and too clo.'^e to belong to different lodges. This has been adduced bv Dr. C C. Abbott as exitlence of communal - -li •,' ' ¥ 1 86 I••.SSA^•S <>I' AN AMi;kIC WIST (hvcll 111U>. IK' ri.-i)Iic(l thai IIk'Sl' wltc tlir sites of tlit- \il 1:il;\' c-(iuiK il-IiousL's ; lie liiiiiM.II' could i\niL-nil)cr soiiit.' with tw o or tln\r liixs : luit tlu-ii'oiil\ prriiiaiirnl oc'cu])aiit> \\v\\- low 11 the head ihiel'with hi-^ \\i\e,'- and eliildreii. Tlioir^h lllo■^l of tlu- iiatioiial ,i^anusare no loip^er ki to the ri-'iii^; ,t;i'neratioii, in iii\ iiifoiiiiant'.^ l)o>liood tlie\ si ill li^nied eoii>i)i(.'iion>ly liy the nali\e firesides, wlieiv now |iid''re>M\-e eiielire IlKl tlu like Mold s\\a\' ( >1K sueii \\a~ I (///(/ '/ ///. In this a hollow hone is attache 11 ii\ a strin.L; t i a ])oinled stick. The >lick is held the hand, the hone is tliiow n iij) 1)\- a ra])id inovenieiit, and the l is to catch the hone, while in motion, on the iiointed en and aiiie ,1 the stick. It was a ,L;anil)lin.n i;an.ie, ol'teii plased li\' adult- /fS. ana \ e,- ill (1 Willi ih A ver\- ])o])ular sport was with a hoop, laiitni spear or arrow, alliiiilh. The plaxers arranged ihenisei two ])arallel lines, some fort\' feel apart, eatdi one anne a reed spear. A lioo]) was then rolled r;ipidl\- at an eiin;il distance between the lines. I'.ach pla\er hnrled hiss])ear;it it, the ohjecl heitiL; to sto]) the hoop hy casting; the spe ir within il,-> run. W len sloi)i)ed tl le shall ninsl lie witliiii the liooii, or the shot did not count. A third uanie. occasional 1\- see n, is ii/a/iii//iii'd/. Th Is 1- l)la>ed with Iwehe Hal hones, usnall)' those of a deer, and a howl of wood, constructed for the ])urpose. One side of eat h hone is wli ite : the oilier, colored. The^" are placed in tl howl, thrown into the air, and cauL;ht as Uiey desceiul. Tho.se with the while side np])erinosl are the winnini^ piecL>. I'ets nsuall>- accompan\' this L;ame, and il had, in the o!'l da\s, a ]dace in the nali\e religions riles : prohal)ly a-- a means of lellin.i; fortunes. Tin; swi-A'r-i.niic.i'. \m» cvnticos. IS: Tilt. I 'il a wares on llir ( )nlari(i R(. -t i \atiiin haw Ii>ii,u siiui H . 11 (11 iiwrtul III Chnsliaiiitv , and tluiL' u link' lr:Hv \v I ol tl'( ir InniK-r |iaL;aii in'actirL- i- ill tluir imdical ritL--.. 11 ihi. \ !l nia'.ii aii\ w In ix-. it iii<|iiiit(l ]:ai licnlailx it llicu- art.' iii\ R-innaiils iif llKcmion^ addi'alic'ii m|' ilu' .-ac'i<.'l Iwc-hc 'lie: (Irscnlicil l)\- Zei' ln-ij^er a ruiiturv ami a (|uarler a,i.',ii 1 idUinl llial ll'.t tustditi 111" till.' " -wi-il-lod'^i.' a siiial hill mill liir lakiiii; sweal-lialli'^, --till prrx'ail ;(. lu lak-d \>\ piiurin;;' waler on Iml >ti)m->. iR- '-ti.ani IS lll> is (J ilK' i)\ llK' tiKdu'iiu man, w lio Is kiidwn a- ijIlK Ilk'Stt' f^ii Hi inii.^s in OIK- <t(inf alUi' aiKitluT. and ixinr-- waliT njinn il iiiilil It ccasi.-.' In Sim and in\ariai)l\ lu- ns(.> jnwi >(.•!>■ /,-, v/:v stdii cs. rrobahh- snnu' of the niorf l:enii.'liU(l still sc t k In iiisuR- the snccfss (li their crops liy ofH-rin >' loo( 1 to th e III Mil k. This is a false face, or mask, rmlel\- cnl from wood to reprc' sent the linman x'i'^aj^e, with a lar^e month, 'idle xietnals are pnshed into the monlh, and the t;enins is snppused to he tin is led ( )nr wo rd itui/nv. a pplied to a jollilication, and I)\- some et\ iiiolo"ists, naturalK' eiioueh, traeed to the I.alin laiiUui ill realit\- is deriwc 1 P. (ini tUL th .eiri] le ''( II tk'liii. I o Sim and (lance at the same time. This was their most nsnal re li'jions eeremoiiw and to this d .i\' iiilloina means "tobeuiii religious .services," eitlier Christian or heathen; and 'V lU /• At. vv/ sis^nifies "to be a worslii]iper. Tl rd lese (lances were (ifteii connected witli sacred feasts, toward which each ]i;ir- ti('i])ant contrihnted a ])ortion of food. To e\])re iimminal reliu'ions haniuiet the\- nsed tiie term ss sncli a I III' lid hi. and for inviline to one, 7,7'ii<!i>/ili/i ; and the\- were ckarlv li lS8 I'SSAYS Ml' AN AMICKIC AMST. (listint,MiislK(l froni an (irdinarv- na-al in coininon, an c-atiiij^ together, laclujiiipitin or taclujuipoa^^iut. My inforniant fully bclifvcs that tlieMv is \ft much nuil; cal know kdi;*.' luld scc'H.tl\- 1)> tla- old nun and women, lie has known persons bitten li\- the rattlesnake who wen- ])roni])tl\' and painlessly enred li\- a specil'ic known to tlioc nati\e ])raetiti<»ners. It is iVoni the \e.L;etal)le iihihiia iiit(/i((i, and is taken internall\'. Thex- also ha\'e some -ni- ^ieal skill. It was interesting to learn that an operalimi similar to /r< pliii/iui^ has been ])raetieed amon^ the I<en;i])r time out of mind for severe headat-hes. The scalp on (li- near the vertex is laid open hy a erncial incision, and tin. IxMie is scraped, 'i'his ])erhai)S explains those trepamied skulls which ha\e been been disinterred in I'eru and other parts oi" America. The national le,L;'ends luu'e mostl\- faded out, but llie I,ena])e perfectl>- remember that they are the "grandfather" f)f all the Alj^onkin tribes, and the fact is still recoi;iii/.ed liy the Chipeways and some others, whose orators emplo\- the term iihiiio/i'/ioiuks, " m\- i;randfather," in their formal ad- dresses to the Lenape. The old men still relate with ])ri(lL' that, in the j^ood old times, before an\- white man had landed on their shores, "the Lenapc had a strint;' of white waminnii beads, :rapak((k</\ which stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and on this white road their envoNS travelled frnm one great ocean to the other, safe from attack." There are still a few among them who pretend to some knowledge of the art of reading the wampum belts. The beads themselves are called kcckif ; a belt handed forth at a treaty is >ioc/ikiiinii(-u'oaoaii, literally, "an answering;" and T()T1:MS AM) DI AI.I'C'I'S. rs,, ' ■' 1 " '.1 at'l'i tlir trfat\- has bct-ii r.ilitud tlir htll is i-allrd df^lini- uviiiui)/. \hv (."oxfiiant. 'I'liL- Irilial and totcinic dixisidiis aic liarth- retiifinlnri.'d, nii'I llu- aiiciml jjioliihitioiisahoiil iii(lii,i;ani(iiis niairiai^c haw falkn coinplL'tc'ly into dc'SiH-'Uidf. Mr. Anlliony's Icriii tor Idl'.in, or sub-tritif, is 7c' ti/oi/i'k( : as, Itilf^i )uilo(li ki\ the TiiiIIl' tott'Ui. The iianir Miiisi, he l)elie\es, is an al)l)ir\ia- timi n{ iiiiiiiK/isiviiik, the place of broken stones, refenini; to till' nionntains nortli of the Lehigh ii\er, wliere his aneestors had their homes. Tlie 1/ '('/'/(/A/r///';'(' of tlie earl\- historians !u' identifies witli tlie Xantieokes, and transhites it "])eoi)le following the waves;" that is. lixdn^ near tlie ocean. The chieftaincy of the tribe is still, in theory, ln-reditary ill one family, and in the female line. The ordinar>' term sdkiiiia, sachem, is not in nsc amon.y; the Minsi, who call their chief kikay, or kiisc/iikikay ( kitsr/ii, ^reat ; kikav, old, or old man: the cldoiiiaii, or alderman, of the Saxons). Some peculiarities of the lansnage deserve to be noted. The German alphabet, emjdoyed by the Moravians to re- duce it to writinjj^, an.swered so well that the Moravian iiiis- siunary, Rev. Mr. Hartmann, at ]ire.sent in charj^e of the New Fairfield Reservation, Ontario, who does not under- stand a word of Delaware, told me he had read tlie books [iriiited in the native tongue to his congregation, and they imderstood him perfectly. But I soon detected two or three M)niids which had e.scapcd Zeisberger and his followers. There is a soft //i which the German ear cf)nld not catch, and a /'/// which was etjually difficult, both of fre<iuent iiaurrence. There is also a slight breathing between the possessive-s n , my, X'', thy, ~u'\ his, and the names of the • y- ■ V IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) A ^ A. :/. r/. fA 1.0 I.I l^|2£ |2.5 Hi IL25 i 1.4 1.6 '/} <? /i / Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. M580 (716) 872-4503 ^* # \ V N> % V <i- o^ o^ ir I^o I'.SSAVS (II W AMIlklCAMST tilings ])()ssfsM'(l, whirl' llic- iiiissionarir-^ .sDiiK-limcs di-iv j;;ink'il, and MiuK-liiiR'S wiotf as a lull \<i\\(.l. lint afki i littU- ]iraclifi' I had rai(.l\- aii\ diiricult\ in iirinuuincin^ V.k wi'id^ ill an inklli;4il)l'.' inaniuT. This 1 wa'^ (il>li,L;rd Id <In with the- whok' dictioiiar\-, for altli<)Ui;h Mr. Anllioiix -^in. iks lii> laii.miaim.' with jurtlcl eaNc, he docs nni ixad or wriu- it. and has no an|iiaintaiu\- with (kriiian or it^ alphaliL-t. ( )ii one jioint I cross-exaiiiiiK-d him caivi'ulK . It is wi'l known to lin,iL;uisls thai in Al;-;iiiikiii ,L;raiiiniar the wrh nnder^ois a \'owel c'liaii.L;e ot' a ])tcnliar c-liaratlcr, whicli ii--iiall\- throws the sentence int* > an iiidelinile or duhitaliw foriii. 'I'his is a \er\' marked trait, recoi^ni/.cd earl\' 1)\ t!k- missionar\- I'.liot and others, and the omission of all lefi r- eiiee to it 1)\' /eisl)er.i;er in his ( irammar of the Iaim]"' li.i>- heeii coniiiieiited on as a sc-rions owrsit^ht. Well, afti'r all ni\' (|uestioiis, and after e\])laiiiin!.,' the jioiiit fully to Mr Authoiiw he insisted that no such eham^e takes plaec in Helaware xeibs. I read to him the forms in /eislurm] > ( iraminar whieli are supposed to indicate it, hut he e\]>lair.i.(l tluin all 1)\' other reasons, mere irre,i;ularities or erroneous expressions. 'Idle intricacies of the I.eiiApe \-erl) ha\e ne\er > et been sohed, and it is now doubtful if the\ e\er will be, for t!ie lanL;uaL;e is fast chan.i^iiii; and disap])earin,>;', at least in bo'di re-er\ation^ in Canada, and also amon,L; the represeulati\ c^ of the tribe at their settlement in K.iusas. It is not now , and Mr. Autlion\- assured me that. .so lar as he :uew ne\er was, a )eakim tl le custom for parents to correct their children ;n anunaue. I'robabK' this is true of most mi- ci\ili/.ed tribes. The children of such learn their excec CnMI'ofM) \\( "KIiS. rui iiijlv roini'liiMtid I;niL;ti:i';r> with a t"acilit\ aii<l accur.icv- \\:;iili is siir]irisiiio td Uu' i-Mlti\'atcii mind. I can sa\- tV<ini ixjiiriumx', that noihild I(.arn-- [<> -|ii:ik ]inir I'jp^lisli with Mill iiictsv;iiit t'linii tion iVdni patrnts and t<.a'-lu'is. TIk- m-iu ral ix-nll nl in\ ciini i>ali(ins witli Mr. .\ntlii>n\ nil tin- ,<;rannnar ( 1' lii> ]anj;naL;r kd nit.' to oliniati,- at a liAM-r valm- tin- know k(!i;c- of it di-|,!a\t(l in tin.- works of /i 1- licri^Li'. Ivtlw cin, and I Iickiwchki'. Tlit.- tiist and List ii.iiiU'd no (loid)t sjidki.- it l1ni.ntl\' in >onu- fashion : Iml [\\v\ li id not the |:o\\(.r to anah/r it, nor to (Utrct its tnur slinks oi niianin:^, nor to a]i]>rc ciatt.- nianx iilnieiiunls in it- wiird linihh;!^, mr to (.atth nian\ of its «i nii note >. 'I'o i_;i\r an iNain])lt.' : I Kckcwtldcr ,^a\r I )n|ioiux an a t-onipoinid u hirli has nfttii lull quoted as a siiikin;.^ instamc- of wrhal svnijusi^. It is I'/ii'/'-^d/sr///.''. and isanaJN/ed h\ 1 H;] i nci an thus: /■, posers- si\(.- proiiotin, s^e', I'd pUMiii sin,i;ular; /'/'/, ahhrrv iation of ,■,/////, Jiivltv ; ;'('/. hist svllahk'of :,/i//i^tf/. toot or jiaw : <///>, iliininnti\L' tc-nnination : in all. "th\- ]irrtt\ littk- paw." Now . tht-n.- is no siuh word in I,i-napf as :, /, //•^■ii/. "Ilis flint" is :,■' //i//.</i/. wJR-iX' iIk- initial .'.' is thv ]iossL'ssi\c-. mid lines not liflonii in the wonl for foot. I'.nl in all like'ihood this was not in IIr- ( nnnionnd luard h\ 1 kckrwchkr. W'^'at lu heard was // :,/////tiii///,\' .'.s, from, /'. ]ios>(.--si\i.- ; unlit, l'Ktt\' : )ia<lik\ hand, or paw of an .minial : ;,■/<. diminnti\e U riuination. 1 le lo>t tin | i.cnliar w histkd ,-, ,iiid tluii.isal- i/ed )i . sounds unknown to (kiniaiis. Pupoiu'eaii's stati. Hunt that v^/ is the last syllahle of the word for foot is tniall\ erroneous. I am i'on\ inced that nnuh of the excis- si\e s\ iiila-sis. so eallevl, in the I.enape arises tVom a lack of ■A ■■ •;:!■ pp^ I(»2 I'SS.ws <»i' AN ami:ric.\nist ai)])rfciati<iii on tin.' ])arl of tlir whiles of (kliratc ])1im!u;' (.k'liKiiN. 11 I lia<l lK-ai(l iitaii\ iiioiv dI' Mr. Aiitli(iii\ iiial\>(.> III (.•oniixauKls, I 1)l licw I slionld liaw R-acli Vl\ l.H I'oiu-lusinii thai s\nUK>i> in I,(.n.i])r nu-ans lilllt.' \k\ jn\la]M).->ili()n with cnphoiuc elision. 011( t l'AK»T III. '■ 'i GRAPHIC SYSTEMS AND LITERATURE. IM "•'UHY. ^i"^ |"^III'. iiiklk'clual (l(-\\l()])nKnt of a natidii attains it> fullest * cxpixs-idi) in lan!4Ua,i;e, oral oi wiittLii. 'IMiis "divine ;irt " as Plato calK it, claini> tlRixfuu- fniui llu' student of man ill the ai;\L;R-nate a prolnnsj^ed attt-'Ution and the uio^t jiains- likiui; analxsis. Ton freiiuentlN one hears aiUdUL; anthro- piiluL^ists the elainis of lin,i;ni>tic-s deeried, and the many hhniders and ()\'er-hast\' i^enerali/ationsot |)hil(iliiui>ls (lunteil as ;^i)<)d reasnn^ fur the n<.\i;leel or di>tru>l of tlkii- hraneh. Tl'.e real rea>()n if tliis attitude I helieAe to he nut so iinuh the mi->lakes of the liiij^uists, as a ^tron,l; a\er>ion wliieli I lia\e noticed in man\- disliui^uislied teaehers of ]ili>>ieal science to the .^tud\- of lan.nua^e and the philosophy iif expres-^ion. The suhject is diiricult and distasteful to llicin. Ilaviiii^ no a.ptitude for it, nor real ac(iuaintauce with it, the\- condemn it as of snudl value and of douhtfn! results, I ha\-e never known a scientific man who was ieilly a well-reael philologist who thu.s under-estimated the 13 ( "y^ ) y- ■ i ' i ; /rt "n MSSAVS oi" AX AMI'.KICAMST ])()siti()ii of liii^uislics in tlic scliinic nf aiitliropoloux' : l)iil I liaw kiinwii m;in\- who, not. haviiii; such thorough kiiowl- (jdi^f, (kpRiialecl its vahie in otlicrs. 'Vhv third and fourth i)arts of thi-- xdlunic arc dL\-otcd l.i lanL;uaL;r, the- third as it a])]>i.ars (.'spccialh in its \vrilti.n forms, the fourth ])artic'ularl\- to tlic p'nfoundtr (lucstion^ (if lin;,^uisti(' ])liiloso])liy. Ikivaj^ain I shall he found in o]i- jiosilion to the niajorih- who haxe written on these snhjiet-^. 'Vhv claim I make for tlie larj^ely phonetic character ol' the M ex;can an( 1 M; \a hieroglyphs is not ^enerall\' accepteii and the ];oetical spirit which 1 art;ue exists in man\- ])1m duclions of the al)ori,i;'inal muse will not he faxored 1)\- tho-e who deii\- the hiuher sentiments of humanitv to nnci\ili/.e(l man. I ha\e endeavored by frecjuent illustration, and reference to the liest sources of information, to put the reader in the po-ilion tojiid.i;e for himself; and I shall leel highly grati- fied if h ■ is pi-om])te(l to such iuvesti.^ations 1)\- what I may sav, wiietlier nis th final conclusions ai Mce with mine or not THE PH0;;ETIC F.LFAIFATS in THF, CHAPHirSYSTF^iSOF THF ^lAYAS AM) :^lFXirA\S;^= - 1 \ I,I< ulio haw Had tlif uindni'iil stdrxdf tlif ."^jKiiiish " * (.MiKiULsl (it Mixifoainl Ct-iilial Anitric a w ill r(.nKiiilicr that tlif I'lunipcaii iiuadcrs caiiif \\\u>u xaiiuus I'atioiis who U(.iv well ac(iuainlrd with souk- iirIIkhI of wiiliiiL;, who wiiv skilk'(l ill IIr- luamitacttiR' (if paichiiKiit and pain.-r, and who tilled l!;(iiisan(N of \dlunK> iniuKdnf tlK"~(.' n!at(.iials with tin.' records ofllifir hi^lor\-, iIk' th(.(iri(.-- ol' llK'ii sciences, and the traditions ot' tlu-ir tlRolnL;ies. Aiming at ;^rrater ]i(. rinanencx- than thesi.' ]i(.rishalik' niat<.rial> would ottl-r, tJKV also inscribed on ])linlhs ot' stime, on >]a!)s ot' hard wiiod, and on terra cotla taldets, tlie di.-iL;ns and tl,L;nres which in the sxsteni the\- adopted served to convey the ideas Ihey wi i\v(\ to transmit to posteritx'. In s])ite c)f the (ielil)L'rate and wlmlesale destrnclion of these records at the con(inest, and their complete neglect for C(.nturies afterwards, there still ri.niain enough, were they collected, to form a respectaldx' larL;e i'oipHs />is( r/f^t/ointin Adi, riuiinn mil . Within the jiresent centnr\- many Mexican and Maya M.SS. ha\e lor the first time heen published, and ' Kc.-id li(.'f(iic tlic Ant1iriii)oliii;ii.-nI Section iif tlu' Aiucriiati Asxiciatioii for the Ailv.uKciiKMit (if Siitnci'. at liiilValo, Aiin'i^t, i^*^''. "ii'l IiuhliMlicd in tlif American Anil /iiii) uni ill NovliiiIk.!' of the same year. '/. i:SS\NS 111' AN AMI'.KICWIST tlu- iii--(i i]iti(iii-> fill tin- Uiiiplis (if sotilluiii Mixit'o and N'lU'ataii lia\r lurii Iir<nv;Iil to llir lalilt.s of sltidiiit-, li\ |ili(itnL;ra|ili\ ami i a->t>, iiu llimls u liii li pi miil iiti dnulil a-> 111 lluir failiit'nliU'^s. Niir Iii\r tluiil;iui lackiii'' tlili''(.iil r-liKKiils who 1 \:i\\- a\aiKil tlnniscK i> ol' llu-^i.' lacilitirs to >t.ari'li lorllir Id^i kr\ III llu-'f i!i\ -'trrioiis iriiHils. It i> a ])kasuri' tn iiKiitimi llu- iiaiiu s ( i| liiiiii; md I Idldiii in IIk- \ iiitrd Slatr: K Ki.-~n\ Aul '111 and di' L hari. lu (.a- m I'lanci.-, ol I'lilStC niann. Srki' and St'lulllia'> in (Kinianv, ot Raniiivz ar.d { )ro/c'o in NUxico. I'.til it nuf-t lrankl\ lir c'onli.-S(.(l that the i\-nlt-> olitaiiKil ]\:\w \\\u ina(k(|nati' and nn'-ativlartorw \\\- \\:\w not \ it ]>a'->rd []\v llnvsliold ol' inxc^tij^ation. Tlir (HK-tion wliit'li toivcs it-'L-lf npon onr attention as (k'- ]>!>• at llu-\i.r\ ontsi-t, i> wlKtliLr the A/tcc and nianinnv a it. Ma\a r-> stems of writing were or were not, in nhok' or in part, /'//.v/^ //r s\stenis .•' Did lhe\- appeak in the i'lrsl in stanee, to the niiiviithj, of the wonk or to the M'll lit / of th word If to tlK- Iatl(.r if, in other words. the\- weri pliiMR lit', or (. Aeii ])artial!\- ])lionetie then it is \ain to at^ tun]it an\- interprt.tation of these records without a prelimi- nary stnd\- of th.e lani^naj^es of the nations who were the writers. These lanunaL^es ninst moreover he studied in the form in whieh they were spoken at the period of thee on- qu'-sl, and the course of natiw thouuht ;is e.xprer.sed \\\ the primitive L;ramniatic-al strnetnre nni^t be nnderstood anil taken into aceonnt. I hasten to add that we have abundant materials lor such studies. This essential jMelinunarx- (juestion. as to the extent of the phonetic element in the Mexican and Maya systems of writ- ill \KK WC.l'.MI'.N'l' ftl I'lKiM/nC SK'.NS. "»: iiii;, i'^ tli;il wliicli I pMipnsi' id piu at pn-'i'iit. aii<l t" aii->\\i i it, SI) far a^ iiiav l>v. Ilitlurin, tlu- nrratc-^l (Ii\rr-'it\' nl lininii alidtit it has ])rr\aikil. SoiiU' alilr wriln-^. >ti(li as \' Illilli iilld Holdrll, lia\(.' (|lK"-ti<HK(l lllr rxi^-liticr ol aiiv plimutic" c'kmciits ; hut nmst Iia\r I)(.\n willing; l'> coin't iK' that thcic aiv siu-h juvstnl, th(in,L;li lluir (|iiaiitit\- and i|iialit\- arc- 1)\- nil means cl(.arl\' <hrinid. Wc- ina\- assunic that both s\>ti.-nis nnik-r i-nn^iik ratinu arc |i:irtl\' iik'o.s^raphic. l'!\cr\' system nl phiMutic writing in- timhux'S iik'ouranis ti> sonic extent, mu^ own anionL- the- nuinlier. Tl le ([iKstiiin is, to what cNtent lint liet'iuv we arc ])!V])aR-d to answer thi-- i|iie'-lion aliont the extent of the phonetic ekanent, we iini-t -^eik to a^ix-r- W'e are all aware that a jilionctic s\niliol lain Its character. ina\- express the sonnd either of a whole word of mw lal ■11 s\nai)ies, o r of a sinnle sxllahk-, or a Mniiile aemistic ekinent. A.L;ain, a sini.;le ])honetic symhol nia\- exjiress se\eial qnite di\'erst- sounds, as is finiilarl\ exenii>lilkd in the fir>t letter of the luii^lish al]ihahet, uhicli represents tin ce \er\- different sounds ; and, on the other han 1 1, We nia\- Inn I three, four or more s\ inhols, no wise alike- in form or ori-jin, he-arni''' o ne and the same ])honetie- \alue, a faet ojieeially fnniliar to IvL;\ptolo,!,;ists. We- nnist further hear in mind that the arran;^eme-nt to the e\e- of phonetic semhols is alto;j,ether arliitrarx . I'.eran-e a prefix is pronounced hr-^t in the order of time and a ^idlix last, it 1)\' no means follows that the order in >]iae-e of their cnrrespondin'j' s\Mnhols shall hear au\' analovou I'e-lation. is a wlioie-, anil The idea awakened he the sound of the word one; and se) that this sound is re])resunled, the disposition of f li:! f^RI'f I9S I'SSANS 111" \\ AMl-KIC WIST its coiiiiMimiit parts is, jiliiln'^Dpliirallv spiakiii;;, indiflVi ciil. W'luMi it is riim'inliiTt.(l that in iiio^t Anuiitaii Ian Riia-cs, and iiniaMv in lln' .Mi'\ii'an or Nalmatl, tlurr 1- .1 U'IkU'IU'v In cuiisdlidalc lat'li jilira-'f into a sim^lr word, tin iniporlancc nl tlii-^ cnnsiiU ration i-^ .L;r(.'atl\ incnaM-d. A-^ tin- pi»ilion of tlk' ]>Iionilit' parts of ilu- plirasr Willi nia\- llin -; \)v ilisrr!jar(k(l, \i.'t \un\\- indirHttiil is tiif onU'r o Si'inunri' 01 ll K- s\iniioi-^. Tl U'rc is no d /^//(>// ri-ason win this slinnld 1)t' tVoni Icil to ri^Iit as in Ivni^lisli, or from ri^lit to kft as in Ilclircw; altcrnatilv, as in tlii' lionslroplirdon of the Cireck ; or iVoni top to l)ottoni, as in Chinese. In such an txaniinalion as tlic iirtsent one, wc ninst rid our minds of llic t-xpi't-lation of finding; the- plionctic (.K nicnts in soini.- familiar form, and simjily ask whether the\ are to be fonnd in any form. We are not without a trustworthy miiide in this quest. It is agreed amonj; those who ha\e most carefull\' studied the siibjeet that there is hut one path by which the human mind couhl have originally ])roceeded from ])icture-wril iiii; or thoui^ht-writint^ to phonetic or sound-writint;. This was throui^h the existence of homophones and honioio )hones in a humuaue, of words with the same or siniil; I .sounds, l)nt with di\erse sij^nifications. The deliberate analysis of a lan.mia.t;e back to its i>lionelic elements, and the construction \\\nm those of a series of sxinbols, as was ac complishe'i lor the t^Mierokee b\- the half breed Seiiuoyali, has e\er been tlie product of culture, not a ])rocess of i)r nn itue evolution. In this i)rimiti\-e ]irocess the sounds which were most fie (juently repeated, or were otherwise most prominent to tlu UN M\V\ l'Ilu\l"riCS. H)t) ,11 wiiiiM lie thnsr fnvt n ])M-.t.iitii 1 li\ a fiLiuri' ; iiii! tin- -ilUr lljilUi.' Wniild cniiif to \>v I 111 ] ili i\ id :i^ ,111 ii|lll\,iKut !• r llii>' ><»uii(l ami wilu r> (■ln>il\ akin t<> it, i\ i ii w in n tliiy li.id iitlur 11 itiiurti')ii-> ami Imir ntlui sivjiiifcatiniis. ] Ii iiiv iH i\fs, stilhxfs, and lib ini'>,\ lialiic wcniN, aii' llniNr u, win h \\r I ini->t Innk asolkiiip' ilk' t:niii->.t i\ idi iu\~> nt a innmi tmii !){' rr^tnc w itli ^nmid. Arcoidin;,; t<> tin- tluniv lun.- \ it\ liiirtl\ indicatid, I -li.ill i\ iiniiK' tlu' M,i\ a and N,ilinatl s\-<tt.iiis n[ u riling, to .iMirtain if t!K\- |)H.>(.iit aii\ plmm tic iKimiit-, and (ifuliat natini- IIk'Sc aiv. 'riirMin.L; ^l^^t ti) the Ma\a, I ni,i\ in ]>a^-ini; rH r tn tlii' di>a])|)iiintnKiit wliirli n.>-ult(.d tVoin tlu' ])nlili(ati'in (if I. an (la's al|)lial)rt 1t\- tlic .\l)l>r liiasseur in iSf>(, 1 Kn. \\a•^ w hat '.(.■t.nu<l a conipk'tc i)lu)n(.tic- alplialut, wliicli ^lionM at oiK't' imldfk the ni\ stc'iifs of tlie in.-ciiplidns on thr tiiinilrs of N'lu-atan ami Chia])as, and cnahk' ii-> to intci]iril tin.- m ripl (if tlir 1 )riS(Un and otluT Codi»x-'. I'!x])t.i iriicr prowd tlu- iittiT lallacy of an\- snch lio])c'. lli^work i> no kix to tin- Ma\a srrii)l ; hnt it do(.s indii-atc.- tiiat thi.' Ma\a x rili(.s wciv ahk' to assign a tdiarat'trr to a soniid, cAcn a sonnd mi iiK'an inj^k'ss as thai of a sin,L;k' k'll(-i'. 'iMic- failnRMifihe I.anda alphabet kft nian\- si'liolat> total >k(.]itics as to the ])l'.()i!elie \alne-> ('fanN- of []\v Ma\a tliar- aclirs. To n.inie a (.diisjtii nons and leceiil example, I'rof I.eon de Rosii\-. in lii'^ (.dilioii of iIk' Codex Corle>ianns, pi'.Mi.shed in iS.S;, ,i])])(.ii (i> a aliiilai\- ot liK' hieiMlu si;4iis as far as known : Imt does not inelnde aiiioiiL; tlKiii any |ilionetie sij;ns other than I.anda s. lint if we turn to the most i\e(^nt and closest >tndeiits of *l i ' ■< ^Ffi C?( V ) i;SS \NS oi' \\ \ Mi; NIC \\!ST llii-f minds. \\c iMiil nninii;; llu ni ;i (•iiii-.i-ii->u^ >>\ i>|iiniiiii tli;it :i cirl.iiii ilr^rif, tlmn.uli ,i >iii,ill ilt'i^ii'i-, <i| |)li( piniii i^in mii-t lie :ic(i ptril. Til 11- 1 itir 1 1\\ n alilr u ]irc>i'iil;itiw in tl'.N Iniiiu'li, I'll if. L"\ni-. 'I'liniii;!--, aiiiinuni id ill i ssj. in lii>- Slii,/\ ol till MS. //i'.///<',' tli:il SI. \i r;il 111' ilu' il.i\ .mil iii' iiilli rli.ii ■ ;K't(.Is ;irr, 1r\i)I1i1 ilmilit, nirasiuinlly |tlliiilLlit\ I'liif. I'lirstiiiinim, lit' 1 )nsilin, w Iiiisi.- wmk mi tin,' Pn siUll Cnilix li;i'> ;i|i]ir,iriil i|nitr iKviitly, Miiiimiiurs his ci.n rhisimi tliiit tlir M,i\a script is (.ssintially iiK ii,iir:ii>liic : • Init iiiniK iliiiUly .iiMs ih.it tlir iiuiiKniUs small !i,l;iiii.> alt;u'lit.'(l tn till- inaiii si;^ti an- In he- rinisiiKit il plimntic, aii'l IK) inallrr in what local it lalimi tluy iiia\- stand tn this sii^ii, tlK'\- aiv to hf n-^arikd titlur as lurllxis m- stillixi-s ot' tlii wind. 1 1 1.- dni-s lint attain I it tn wmk mit tluir pussiliU' mean ini;. I'lit, as he says, leaves that tu the t'ntiire. Alniiisl iikntit-al is the euncliisidii ot" 1 )r. SeluUhas, wlm-r essa\- mi the Dresden Cudexj i-> a ninsi imritnriuuN sliid\- His I'mal deeisinii is in th;;se wnrd- Th.' M.i \ a writin.L^ is idei>,L;i'a]'lne in priiuiple, and innlialilx- a\ails itst.)!', in link ]• ti) emiipleli.' its iden^i.iphie liii.in^l\ phs, ul' a tin 111 lie]- nf li.\i. d phmietie siL^ns." JsmiK' 111 these siL;ns lia\e heeii sn earefnlls- st i ntini/ed that their plmiutie \alne nia\ he emisideii-d to lia\e !n-eii detei niiiieil wilii re.ismialile ceiLiintx . An inleH'Stiii'' exainiili. is slinwii in I'i'. I, Id r the analvsis nf w hieh we are indehtei tn I )r. Selullhas. The (inadrilateral ll.i^nre at the tup lepre st'tits the ririnanienl, ( )iie ot the squares into which il is * Stllll\ llj' /Ih- MS. V'l :l,llfll. \). i|i. \ l-i l.'iiil, I ii)i„,ii ,1,1 .\/,i\a l/,iii,i-M In I n. (.tc, ] ). J. I DK mk .■11, !-"-:■. ^ J /'.•,■ .l,',/i,; ll.!iul-s,liii/l ,1,1 AV /!ih. /h,s,l,- 1 \\v\ lill. 1^M). I II! nil. i«>i. I.N I'll ••! rill. 1 ii<\i \mi;nt. 20 1 r , '['kJi ■*i^-<. I'll,. I. -'rlll- M:iy;l nil rci;.;1y]pll II. l!u' linil.lIlK lit (li\iiK(l |)(i!lr:i\s iIk- ^ky in \\]c d.w, timr, llir dtlur, \]\v •>l;irr\- >k\- ;il iii^lil. Ilnivalli (.adi :\vv wliiu- .iml M.i'k oli- jn't-, siL;nityin.i; tlic cIdikIs, I'ldni wliii'li t'.ilIitiL; r;iiii i-- imli- rak'il ])>■ ](>U'^ /,i,^/a.n liiK-s. I'ulwiiii tlif ilmid-- en tin- Kfl 111 tilt.' t'imnx' i> till- \\\\\ known idro^vani of Uk- --iin, nu thf ir^hl llial of [hv nioon. In tlir Ma\a l,ini;ua.L;i' tlif --un is c.ilKd /■///, tilt.' nioon //. and tin."-!.' Il^nrrs aiv fonnd i.N(.-- wliriv, nol indii'atinu iIk'm- txlotial hodirs, Imt nuiiK- llir jilmnclii,' \-ahK'^. llir onr of [\\v >\ llildv /{■■//. llir ollur of [Iw k{[vY //. 'Idu- Iwo >ii;ns ^iiwn in kaiuki's alplialiit tor [\\v klti.r // aiL' rc-all\- one, M.-])arat(.(l in lran--( riiilioii, and a variant of the fii^nR' for tlir moon willi tlu' w a\ \ line ki in. atli til R' word // \\\ Maya is the possessue ad)ec'liw ot Uk- i;SS.\VS Ol" AN AMl'KICANIS'r third iKTson, and as such is c-niploNrd in c(injni;alin,L; \irl) the Ma\a wrhal hc-iii'' ri.';ill\' a ixissi-ssiw. A \ I. r\ I'nninion tcrniinal s\llal)lc in Ma\a is //. h i> calk'd ii\- ''lainnianans "(1k' (k'ki ininaliw cinlm ,!i anil (.■ni]il()yi.(l l<) indicate tlic ^cnilixL- and ablatiw rclalidii" Dr. .SrlicHlias couskKis tlial this i> ici)rcscnlcd 1)\- the si-u aflixed lo the main 'iieni.i;i\]>lis shown on Imj;. 2/-- l'"l('.. _'. — M;iv:i riicHKli.' 'rL;iuitl:iN he n])])e r figure lie reads /v'y/// the lower ('///-//. Tlic two sii;iis are the title to a jiietnre in the Codex Trr.aiin representing a storm with destruction of human life. 'I'lk- two words kin-il ciiii-il ma\- he translated "At the time ni the killin Tl le s\ Hal lie fiiii IS expres.sed in .seve ral * />/> Ma\a ll.ind-sJnifl. etc., p. .(: ^I.\^•.\ I'lKtxi-Tics. 20 3 ii;i Ills in till' Codicx's, i'x;ini]iks (if two of which, from the I)u-Jt.ii Codex, aiv ])if^<.'iil(.(l in I" s- .■>■ jii; \ <,- f r Hi 'Ml I'IC. -M:iv;i rhoiulii.- 'I'l riiiiiuils The sij^ns for the fonr cardinal jioinls a])pcar to ])c ex- pressed phonetic-ally. Thex' are rejjresented in Fi.^s. 4 and 5. The words are for North, yaiiuni. Ivi^t, /akin, vSonlh, '/('////, West, iliiki)!. ()f these the syllable kin appears in '.■ik'.)! and cliikiii , and is represented as alio\e described. The word for North has nt.t been anal wed ; th.at for South ha.s heell traaslated b\- Prof. I.onde Kosn\- as ma ya. the won t>i,i nieaninu nands o r arms, the lower as either a frnit or the iti:isenline si_L;n, in either case the phonetic' \ahie bein.n alone intended. I'oth the name and the et\niolo.L;\- are, howcxer, ilniibtful, restin;^- npon late and im])ert"ect antliorities. -? I| ».< J. -.} i;ss.\ss oi' AN .\-\ii:kkams'i' n\- ]inrsuiii,i;" tlu' ])l;in liiTr imlicitcd, tlial is, li\- nssniuin- that a liL;inv wlidsi.' ri]irt.M iitatiw xaliii' i> kiuiuii, lia^ also a nuirl\ |ilniiKti(' \aliu' in otlur coiiih'maliiiiis, a iiiiiin iiuihIh r nf plioiu'tic ikainiits o." \hv Ma\a tinp^iU' liax'r Iii(.ii itlculirii'il. I'idt. C\iiis 'i'luMiias, in an aitick' pnblisluil in Noilh ■■ilii. i::isl. W. si. I'l(.>. 1 ami s. -Simis iil'tlu- Canliiial roint> in Ma\ a. OUL' of our nroniiiR'nl journals, slatt-s that lic lias "inttr p'xl.'d s.itisractoril>- to hiniSL-lf twclw or firiecu (.'onipoiuni characlcrs which appear to lie phoni.'tic." '•• It is ol)\ious, ho\\c\L-r, that small proi;ivss has hfL'U niaiir in this (liixclion coniparud to the labor e\])Ln<k(l. V>y lai liiiii/,(iii .1 ii/i\/iii!i itiii. Maivli. I'^^d. '^i \Ii:\R'.\\ riKiM'TK.' WWI'l'INC. 205 til. jii ;it(.|- llU11ll:ir 111' tllr li\ul ^\Illliils(i| {\\v M;i y;i ;H f \ it uiii'i I'ii'luixd. It i> ackiinw I((lL'r<i Ia ;i1I rici-tit sliKknt^ til, it tlu\ camiDt ])v nprr-iiitatix (.•, ;is llu \ i\(iir tmi lix'- ijiu nth'. 'I'll (.-xi)!;!!!! tlimi, lluix' i> Imt dik' miic t(inr>c, .iiiil tlinl is, li\' ;i cldsr iiiialN-is of tlir M,i\a l;Mimia,u<-' to t^i't at il\' n.latii>ns n|' icKa^ in llu- ualiw iiiiii<l as (.xiirr-scd jn tlk il M\\ 11 ]!ll()IUtic s\-tflll. \\ Inn \\r turn to tin- Mi'xican sN^tinio'' writiii;,^, nindi !ii()U ikl'init(.' and txtrnsi\ (_■ inti 'i matinn as to its pliointir iliiiii Ills awaits ns. It is ])os>iI)|(,- that at liot'om it has ;v,ill\- no liiitlKT phoni lit- dial actc! , luit si \iTal facts lia\r oniiliiiK'il to Ltiw us a l>(.tU-r undirstandini; of its sliuilnrc-. In tin- first jilai'v, nioii' t\ani])ks of it haw ln-t-u iir's,.i-\,-(^-(l^ -diiu: of tlRsi' with more- or Uss arc ai rati' translations. A'-;ain, iIk- caihcr wriU rs, those- w honi \w look ujjon as our historical aullinrilics, haw lic'cn inoix- (.'Xiilicil and ample in thcii' lie- s' li pi ion of Mixican native literature' than ol that ol' N'ucatau. r'inally, and niosl iinpoitaut, the Mv'xica.n lan^ua^e, the Naliuall, \vasstudi(.d at an eail\' dale, and with surprisin,!; lliortiui;hness, 1)\- the Catholic jiriests. Within a .generation after Ihe t'oncpiesl lhe\- h;'(l coinijleUd a (piite accurate aiiah'sis of its ,L;rannnatic-al slruelure, and had printed a \almatl-v*si]»anisli dielionar\- containin,^; more words than arc- In hi,- fouuil in any I'".u,L;lisli diclionar\- for a ci'Utnrv later. These intelli,!L^cnt missionaries ac(piainte<l ihenisehes with llie ]'i"iiu'i])les of the Me.\ic\au script, and to a limited exknt made n-e of it in their religious iusti uctious, as did al~o the Spanish seriw'Uers in their lei^al docunuuls in transactions with the nalixes. Tlie_\- lotuid ll'.e native jdiouelic uritin.sj; piUlly .syllahic and partly ali)hal)eUi- ; and il was eas\- for the f i-lJ 206 I'SS.WS ()!■ AN AMl'.KIC ANIST jjiirsts to (k'\is(.' a wliollx' alphali'.lir scrijit on IIk- ^:\n\i plan, All iiilnr^Un^ cxaiupk' <>!' lliis is ini-SLiAcd in Uii \V(l rk ot" X'alaik'-, (.'nlitk'd A'Z/i /,>>/'(/ i'ln isliaiid , alinnt I aniiliar olijc'rls aif rr|m.srnU(l wnlUii I'aii()|n.an inlioduition. Ivu'h \\\\> thc' piinnclic \ ahu- niiK ofllir I'lrsl IrttiT of its Xalmatl name'. '\'\w plan is(.'\li(. nith siiii])k', and indnd tliv lorn is and nanio of tlir I kku \v ktlriv SLTin to indiratt.' that tlux' aro>v in tlif same waw .\p]il\ \\v^ it to kaii^lisli, \vr should spell the word <<// li> a pic tun of a t'liair. otan axi'. and ot' a talilr, each of l hoe beiii;^ llu ivc(\L;ni/rd sxinliol ol' its first ])hoiKtii' (.knunl or initial lit Ur. ( )fl(.n an\- oik' of sewral objects whose iiaiiKS he 'in with the same letter conld he n^ed, at ihoice. 'I'liis i;- ai-o illnstiated in X'alade; al])lial)<.'l, where or instance, llu (1 ,11 letter /-,' is re])resented l>y four different ohjii-ts. As I ha\e I il)ser\ed, the nalne t^cnins had not arrive a complete anal\sis of the phonetic elements of the lan,i;naL;e hut it was (listiiKtl\- pro^ressiniL;- in that direction. ( )f iIk ll\e \()wels am! fourteen consonants which make up tin Nahnatl aljihahel, lhi\e xowels certainlx', and ])rohal)ly tl consonants, had reached th.e sta<'e where thev were often llu e\- pres.sed as simple letters h\- the method ;il)o\e desiril Tl le vowels were u. for which the siun was all, water r rep- reseiiled by a bean, ell : and o 1)\ a footprint, or path, otii : the consonants were />, represented either by a Hai^, f'^an . nr a mat, f^ill; /, b\- a stone. A//, or the lips, Iriilli ; and :\ b\ a kiiicel, :<>. These are. however, excej^tions. Most of tlic Nalmatl ])hoiietics were s\ llabic, somelimes one. sonieliim^ two syllables of the name of the object beini;' emplo>e(l. When the whole name of an object or most of it was used i- I'KiNCii'i.i; (ii- iiii; Ki;ius. 2r)7 a ' ill ' (■( il'K > I>1 iRtic valtU', IIr' sdipl uni;iiii> liul\ plu iuti(\ 1 ul li 111 1- tlii- imluit.' Ill' a nhiis. ainl tlii> i> tin.- cliarai'ttT (if -I iiltlK- ]>lii)iutic Mexican wiitiii;^. i;\ii\ oiif i> taniiliar with lliu ]irin( ipli' nf the ic'luis. It Ik re a plira-i- is u])n.--uiti d li\' |iiitim'^ nl (iIjJu'Is whose ii,i;;;i '' hear M>'iie r<.'-'eiiil)hmee 111 m unul li > tln' \\i ir(l-~i.-iii])l( i\ i. d A t. ck exaiinile i> tliat nf tlie ''allaiil wIid tu tt-^tifv h's (]v 111 In tile la(l\- n f liis heart, u h ii--e raiiie \va^ Ki -e lia.i eiiihidideied eii WisudWii tlu- ]>iittH(.-- < il' a Ki^e, a IiiU, r hi(.'a(h and a \\\\\. wliich wa,-^ \i> he inter ail e\L', a Inat n pleU (1 11 I low We In niedie\at lu raldr\- tl lis s\ >te in was in exleii'-iw ti^e. Aiiiiinial Iitaiin^s ULie sekcted, thi' nanie><ii' the >.knient^ (it \\ liieli e\] n s--i(l that <il the laniilx' w h;i l.oie them, 'riiu-- l'n|ie Adrian i\', wliest- iianu' was Niedl;;-- Hit ake'-jii' \rc allied the de\ ice ( 11 a s' )ear with a hiokeii shait ; tlu tiiii>(il' ]'',ni;land wear aims repre-eiitiiiL; a cask or ///// pierc ii\- a cross i)(iw shall or /'c// : etc. Sneh arms \\\ie called (III/ //!/■• arms, tlu- term heiiisj derived tVoni tl.e I.atin laiilay, tii >ini; or chant, the arms them>el\'es chanting; or anuoinu-- 'wvz, the tamil\- snrname. \\"e have, so tar as I am aware, no seientiiu- term to ex- ires> this manner of phonetic writini and I ]a"o] o-e tor it tl Kixfore the adjectix'e ikoih'iiiatic, Irom the(iiX(.'k i/kcir a li,-;ur(.' or ima.<;e, and oiwiiiii 1 .L;(.aiiti\'e, (>//('///<i/i>.\ > name, — 1 writing;' hy means of the names of the ri!,;ures or ima,i;es rep relented he corresp.ondniL; n<iun udi dd he ikoihnialo- i.p/iy. It differs radieall_\- from pictnre-writin.L^ 1 liihlir- iliiif/,) for althoui.;li it is comjjosed of pitlnres, these were V< f'' pppff 21 )S I'SSAYS <)I" AN AA1I:KIC ANIST. used sdKIy uilli rffcrnu'c to tlic- sound of their iianics, nui llicir ol)JL(.li\c' si,i;iiilk'aii(.'e. A ^ I-"l<; . (^— Ml \iian I'lidiutic.- I Ii>-nn;l\ pliir^ nl' tlir naiiu' of Moiik-zuina. TIk- Mi. xicaiis, in IIkmi phoiiLtic writini;', were ncNcr far ivmo\(.(l iVoin this ikcMonuitic stage of (leveloi..aeul. Tliev conihiiied, lio\ve\er, witli it eel taiii clearl\- delnied nioii()>\il,i- )ic si! ;iis, and tlie se]>aiate a]])lial)etie elements wliieli I 1 ia\' alread\- noted. An examination of the MSS. proves tli at there was no si)eeial disposition of tlie ])arts of a word. In other \\()rds, tlie\- miL;ht l)e arranged from right to left or Irom left to right, from below upwards or iVom alxn'e down wards: or the one ina\ he placed within the other. It will easil)- he seen that this greatly increa.ses the dillicultN- ui deciphering these figures. • *■ I . I ' Mi:\ic.\N i;na .ii'i.Ms 2ih) .\> ilhistraliniis of the idnnRticisni of Mexican writing; I vliciu two coiiipouiuls, (|iiotL(l l)y M. Aul)in in his well- known essay on the snhject. The lirsl is a ])ro]Hr nonn, that of the eniperor Monte/.nnia i Imj;-. ()). It slionld he read fmin ri.^ht to left. 'IMie pietnie at the rit;hl represents a iimnse traj), in Xahnatl, iiio)i/h\ with tlie ])honetie \alne we, or moil : tlie head of the eagle has tlie \alne i/zkn///. from qiiaiilitli \ it is transfixed with a lancet, re,- and snrnionnted with a hand, DiaitI, whose ])honetic valne is nut : and the.se \, lines combined j;ive iiio-(/iuai/i-:o-i)ui. l'"ic.. 7.-Mcxioaii rinnulic niuonlx phics of llio iiaiiR' of a Strpont. The second examjile is a common nonn, the name of a .ser- pent Aw/// /A^(':v?/^//c//// ( Fii;\ 71. It is also read from ris^lit In left ; the head with the i)ecnliar band and frontal orna- ment is that of one of the noble class, fn/i/if/i ; at the base of the left figure is a familiar sign for //a. and represents two teeth, t/aiilli ; the\- are snrmoiniled by ajar, coiiiitl with the value CO ; and this in turn is pierced by a lancet, which here 14 B^ •. ."- ^■'■i ; i' j« 11 2I() i;SS.\VS OI" AN AAII.KICANIST. has ot'.ly its alpliahctir vahn.- :. TIr- ivmaiiKk-r (ifUic W'^ul was not c'xpiV'SC'd in the wriliiij;, the ahovc siL;iis l)(.iii.; (Ic'ciiR-d sunk-ii.nl to t'oincs- the i(k-a t<> thf ivailcr. In ])R'ScntinL; these examples I do not hrinj^^ forward aii\ thinj; new. Thev are iVoni a!i essay which hasl)een in piim nearly forty years. ■^- Man\- other examples are to lie seen in the j;reat work of Lord Kin<>sl)orouj;h, and later in ])ul)lu ,i- tions in the cit\' of Mexico. The learned Ramirez undn took a dictionary of Xaluiatl hieroi;lyphics which ha> in l^art keen ])uklished ; ()ro/co y Ik-rra in his "IIistor>- of .\ii- cient Mexico" j^athered a j;reat man\- facts illustrative of iIr' phonetic character of the Mexican scrijit ; and within a \e,ir Dr. PenafR'l has issued a (piarto of considerakle size Ljiviii^ ancient local Mexican names with their phonetic representa- tions, f l!'l * 'I'Ir- nr-t (if M. Aiihiiis MiiiKiiis ;iii]iiaii(l in i^;ii. and \va> tilt.' icHiilt dl' '■tu.lit ^ licgiin in i*^;,". .V iiiw and inlaimil iclitidn 1ia> lately bun i'diU(' by Dr. !lain\ .Mi'iiioii I s .'III la J'l'iiiliii I' JUtitit lii/iii' 1 1 I' I iiihiii' l'ii:iiiiiliri' ili-s .hni ii.\ lA i /. .;///'. I'ar. J. M. .\. .Xnbin (I'aris i^s^.) Hut Dr. Ilainy lia> traviUil very I'ar btycmd llu- lim itsol'a sillier a])i)rfeiatiiin of M. .Aubin's resnlt.-; wlien lit- writes : " I.es rielien lir^ de M. Anbin <int re\issi .'i resmidre presiine tiintes lesdifTienltis i\\\c presintait la lie tiire des IneroKlMdus nalinas. " (Intrdihictinn. p. viii.) Ue is also in error in siiji posinijiin a note to same paj^e) tltat Anbln's tlieorv is not well-known to .Xnierii an- ists. lUassenr popnlari/ed it in his introdnetions to liis ///aAi/) ,•</// .1/»m /</;(/•. Aiiliin, in fact, fjuiclfd by the Spanish writers of the 16II1 ctntnry and Ulc ann<jtators of tliu Codices, first clearly expressed the j^eiieral principles of the jilionetic pictnre writ in>; ; but his rnlesnnd i<lentification.s are entirely inadeciiiate to itsconi])leteor even partial interpretation. tOrozcoy UL-rrii. //I's/oi III .Iti/i'xiKi <fi' .'A 1/1 o, (Mexico, i.'^^o). xi;c .\tlas to tills work contains a lai^c number of of ])r(. posed identification.'' nf hier( (^lyphics. See also by the s;inie writer. l:iisa\i>ili- Ih'Si il'i m imi (n-infililiid in tl'.e A inih's lU! M 11 'fo .\iiiioiuil, ton\. II. Mnch of this is fo\inded on Kamirez's studies. wl:o. howevii, by his own admission, knew little or nothins; of the Nahnall lan)j;na)j;e i;is he st.ili- in his introduction to .he ( Ix/,' 1 ( '/liiiKil/ynftntd or Aiiati's ilr (Jiuiiili/iUnn). Dr. IMi- afiel's praisewcMthy collection is entitled I'lihilni^a .M/\ih,-tiii> i/r liisiinmhiisiltl.n- i>aiesjii'il<->iiiif>il<-sal/di(iiiiii .Wi/iioi/l. J-'sliulio Jri •n^li/ii o. (Mexico, i.vss.i DII'lIcn.TIMS ol' INTI'.KI'UiyrAl'IoN. I I if -In. His lliiniy : ii tinis, :lu' litn- luii hiv it la Itr- ill >\\\< It ricaii- Auliin. nl" the ire wril- (ir ivcii tdtiiis Sec ■ / Musfo Kiwevtr, K' stalls Dr. I'lii- . A ,/, l.u- Witli llic'Sf aids at coinniand, \vli\' has not our pm.iiivsN in lliL' iiitc'ipivtatioii nf tlic aiK-itiit records on stone and iminr luiii inoiL- rai)id? \\'li\- ilo we stand now almost at tlic >anK- |Miint as in 1X50 ? TlieiX' can he hnt one answer, and lliat will imniediatelx su;4,nest itself from the natnre of the ])honetieism in the Mex- ican writini;. W'luit I have called the ikonotiialit sxstem ol wiilint; ."an he elucidated only 1)\' one who has a wide coni- iiiand of the \-ocal)ulary of the lanj^uaj^e. Consider, for a uiiuuent, the dilTiculty which we experience, with all oiir km iwledije of oin- native toni;ue, in solvini; one of the re- huses which ai)i)ear iti the i)U/./.le cohunns of i)erio(licals for children ; or in interpretini;- the cantin.y; arms in armorial t)earinL;s. Not only must we recall the various names of the (ilijects represented, and select from them such as the sense (if the context re«iuires, but we must make allowance for ex- tcnsi\e omissions, as in one of the examples above (pioled ( l'i,^^ 7), and for mere similarities of sound, often (piite re- mote, as well as for the abbreviations and con\entionali>ms of practiced scribes, familiar \vith their subject and with this method of writing the sounds of their language. vSucli difficulties as these can only be overcome b\' long- continued application to the tongues themselves, and by ac- (Hiainting one's self intimately with the forms, the methods, and the variations of this trul>' puzzling graphic s\stem. Ivvery identification is solving an enigma ; but once solved, each illustrates the method, confirms its accuracy, and facil- itates the learner's ])rogress, and at the same time slinuilates him with the jovous sense of difficulties concpiered, and with the vision of discovered truth illuminating his onward path. ■I' m 212 IvSS.WS <)l" AX AMIvRICANIST. Altliouj^li, as I have stated, tlie vieiic-ral |iriiR'ii)ks of tlii^ im-lliod were ])(»iiite(l nut forty \ears as^o, tlie i)revailiii!^ ignorance of the \ahiiatl lanj;uaj;e has prevented aii\ oik' from siK'cessfi'lly deeipherin}; the Mexiean script. 'riii> i^noranee has had e\en a worse effeet. Men wlio did nut know a dozen words of Xahnatl, who were nnahle to imhi strne a single sentence in the lani^na^e, ha\e taken upnn themselves to condemn Anhin's explanations as vision;ii\ and nntrne, and to deny wholly the jihonetic elements of iln Mexican writint;. Lackinj; the essential condition of toliii- the accuracy of the statement, they have presumed blankly to condcnui it ! HE IKONOMATIC MHTllOl) OF l'[in::F,TIC WHITING.-^^ i M .'i M Mi All mclliods (if RTonliii;^ idi^as lia\c' lucti divick-d into two classfs. Thon.nlit \\'ritiii<; and v*^(>uiid Wriliiii;-. 'PIr- first, sini])k'st and oldest is Thouj^ht W'ritinj^. This ill Inrn is snbdividcd into two forms, Ikonoj^rapliic and S\ inl»olic W'litintj;. The fornit-r is also known as Iniitatixc, Representative or Pictnre Writing. The ohject to he held in memory is represented by its ])ictnre, drawn with sneh skill, or lack of skill, as the writer may i)ossess. In vSym- lidlic W'ritinj;, a sin^de charaeteristie part or trait serves to represent the whole object ; thus, the track of an animal will stand for the animal itself; a representation of the M'uliar n^und impression of the wolfs foot, or the threc- h.ied track of the wild turke>-, bein.i;" ami)ly sufficient to desii,Mmtc these creatures. ICven the rudest sava.t;;es practice both these forms of writinj;-, and make use of them to scratch on rocks, and paint on bark and hides, the record of their deeds. It will be observed that Thou.^ht W'ritini; has no refer- ence to spoken language ; neither the picture of a wolf, nor the representation of his footprint, conveys the slightest *Tliis paper was orijfinally reail before the Aiiiericau Philusophical Soeiety in Octobtr, 1!>S6, ami was published in their /';<(. in// «t,'S. (213) •ly I ■ i xn 214 i;ss.\vs oi" A\ .\mi:kic AMS'i" ii'ilidiinl" i1k' sipiiiid (if tlK'\\(ir<l ,"iii//. IIiiw \v;i>> llu' inm- iiiim> \vA\) iiiikK' Iroiii Uk' lln'U^lil to tin.' ^otiml in ntlni A\iii<ls. from ;iii iilcot;r;ii)liic lo a |)lioiRlir iiii.lli(i<l of w lit ill;.; ' 'I'liis (|iK>tioii lia-^ RTiiwd coiisid*. r.ililc atti.ulioii iVoiii siliolais witli rI'i. n iK'f to tlif (l(.\tlt>i)iiKiil of tlu' twoiiin-^l iiii]iorlaiit alplialicts of thr worM, llic l\i;\-ptiaii ami the CliiiKsc. Hotli tlK^c I)c';.;aii a> siniiiU' iiirturi' \v1itiip4, and holli pidi^ri'^t-d to alino->l coiupUtt.' i)lioiKlici>ni. In lioih c'a>(.'>, lioutAcT, tlic carlii'sl sttps arc- lost, and i-an lit.' n- ti;u\<i o 111' li\- indiralions ivniainiii'' aftir a liii:li di'Liivi.' o plioiK'tic- pdwrf had Imn iwulicd. ( )ii llii' other hand, in thf Mexican and itrobal'lN in tlic' Ma> a hicro.^l) pliirs, wi.' Iiiid .1 iiKtliovl of writiii!^' which is intcniK-diatc hctwciu tlir two ntxat classes I have mentioned, and which illnstratcs in a slrikijij; manner the phases throni^h whiidi liotli the ]'",i;\ l)lian and vSeinitic ali)hal)ets jKissed somewhat heloie the dawn of history. To this niethoil, which stands midwa\- 1)etween the ikoiio <;raphic and the alphal)etic methods of writini;, I ha\e j;i\eii the name ikouoiiialir, deri\-ed from the (iieek t .'A(.)/-orr/r, an ima>'e, a liuiire :vn,ut-uruv, a name. That which the fi^uiv )r pictnre refers to is not the object represented, Imt the iiiiiii of that ohject- a S(>////i/, not a /// /j/i. I5nt it does not refer to that soniid as the name of the ohject, hnt ])ree'isel\- the contrai\- it is the .sonnd of the name of some other )ject or ulea. M; my ideas ha\e no oiijectne represent tioii. and others are mnch more simj)!)- expressed 1)\- the use of ll^nres who^e names are familiar and of similar sonnd. Tims, to .i;i\e a simple example, the infinitixe "to hide" could he written hy a fii^ure j, and the pictnre of a skin or ^■f*- rKi\v.'ii'i.i: <n' Tin: ki'.ius. -IS ono- ;ivLii , an Uk' iml isfly •Ilia mini. in ur liidc. It is this \)h\\\ im wliiili llmx.' t.nniliar i>u/vlt.s ;uv I r,n>'lrurtc'(l wliiili aiv calk'd iihnsis, and w^aw nilur (lian llii-. wliicli S(.T\i.(l l«i liiidi^r (iwr \\\v \\'u\v ^ap hi Iulch Tlioiivilit ii'iil Sound writing;. It is, Imui \if, imt cui nil to sa\ llial it is a wiilinj; 1)\ l/iiii^s, " iihiis:" hul it i> li\- the ii.iiiisi)'( thin.!-;s, and hiMicc I ha\f cuinrd \.\\v word ik,<tio- iiititi(\ l<> c'Xpivss this clearly. I -hall mKi'I M\-(.Tal illn^-trations from two widely diverse xiurces, the one the hieroL;lyi)li> of l",^\]«l, the other ihc lKraldr\- ot' the Middle .\>;es, and tVoni lhe>e more taniiliar luld- olilain M>nie hints of >ir\i('e in unra\i.lin.>; the inliiea- i'ie> of the Mixiean and Ma\a srrolls. The general |)riiiei])le w hieh underlies " ikononiatie writ- in;^ " is the presence in a laui^ua^e of word> ot difierent iiieanini; hul with the same or similar sounds ; that is, of lioiiiof^fi('i/<>/is words. The figure whii-h rei)resents one of these is used phonelicallN- to sij;nif\ tlie other. There are homophones in all lan.miaj^es : hul llie\' ahonnd in some more than in others. Vur ol>\ious rea>ons, they are more ahnnda.nt in lant;uai;es which leml toward monos\ll;ihism, such as the Chine-e and the Ma\a, and i' a less (ie.uree the ancient Coptic. In these it is uo uncommon oi-currence 1(1 find four or fixe quite different meanings to the same word ; that is, the same sound has serxed as the radical for that man\- different names of di\erse ol)jecls. The picUuv of an\' of these ohjecls would, lo llie speaker of the lan- gua.^e. recall a sound which would ha\e all these sionifica- lions, and could l)e enii)lo\ed indifferently for an\- of them. This circle of nieanint;s would he still more widel\- extended when mere similarity, not strict identit>-, wa.-. aimed at. il ■I() i:ss\NS oi" AN ami:kic WIST Siu'li u.is pl.iinl\- ilk' (iri,!.',iii nt |)lioiKtiii>iii in tlir I'!l;\ ptiin lii<.i(i;_;l\ pliir iusi-i iplioiis, Takr [\\v woid n.hi. ItsniM^t c'diiiiuiui (.■omii.'tt.' >i^iiit'u-;iti(>ii \v;i-> " ;i hiti-," .md in \\\v ])irtm\' writini; pio]>t,r llir Inli' is irpii--rnt(.(l 1>\ ils liL;ii;i Hut 11(1(1 had >(.\rial oIIkt sii^nitiialioiis in L'dptir. It lurant, a k'//, a (('K'Sdif^f ,s,i/(/,w. a lUh^i . and tlir adirrli\r 'In.' picluu' (if iIk' \\\W \\\(.\\U\w was nsnl In >ii;nit\ ■,/. t.'\ii \ oni' of tlu'Si'. It will lie III I'-iTwd lliat this is an rxanipk' of a pnii' ikonn i;iaph tln' piitun.' is that of tlir ohjirl in lull, a lutr : Init ]nvcisi.ly in thf sanii' \va\ tin.' srroud class of li^iurs m piotnii.' writing, thost' which arc wliollx s\ inliolic, Mia\ in' (.■nijilov (.(1. This, too, finds aniiilc illustiation in tin.' I';;\ j't iau hit^To^lyphii's. Instead of the jnctuiv of ,i house, the n^nic of ,1 -^ipi.tit' was eniploM.(l, w ith one side ineonipUle IMioni. tit"all\-, this eonve\-ed the sound f^i i\ which nic.uis Itonsi, ami sewi.d otluT things. It will nadily be seen th.it where a fi,i;urc represent > ,1 nnnuK'r ol honiopiionons words, t-ousuleranle (.•ontnsion ni,i\ result from the dilhcnlt\ !■■>[ ascertaining; which >.■>[ these is i'!ti.nded. To meet this, we I'lml both in h'.i^Nptian and Chinest.' wrilim: seiiis of siiins which are wriltt.n but not jirononnced, called "determinative; These indicate tlk class to which ,i word has reference. The\- are ideoj^ra] MllC and ot tixed nn.',inin>. hus. alter the word //t7<'>\ when u-c for conscript, the determin.iti\ e is the picture of a man, et< * riu' I'.ilKiw iii;4 I K iiu-Ml- oi-i \u ill llu' oM r!i^> i>li,in u litiiii; : 1. liUo,^i,iiiliii'. y,t ' riitilU's or ikoiinijiMplis. {/<\ Sylllliol-i. ^i ) Dctcitiiiuativcs I'f.vi'Ti \\ I'lii >M;'rics. : I Tlkii' is litllr (loulit l>ul 111, It all the !■ ,i;\ iiti.in s\ll.il>i(.- ;ii:ii .ilplialiclii' w I itini; was (Kiixrd 110111 thiscailv pliast.', \\lui(.' IIk' ^nxcrniiiL; piitui|ik' \va> llial nl' tlir irluis. At tin ilali' (>l till' laiiir^t iii>i'ii|ili( Mis, most ol tlir nhoiU'tirs \\(,u' iiiiiii(i>\ Uahii' ; luil in sixrial iii'^laiirt. s, as //i/<>. almw i;i\iii, >/(/<>. uliii'li ixpirsriits ;i Imiuu 1 , aiKi li\ li(iiiin|)li(>ny, a ■.Mul, ami otlurs, tlu- lull (li'-\ Itahic naiiu' \va> pUMi \ rd til tlu' lati'^l tiiiK's. 'Plu' iiiiiii(i>\ llalui' --iL^iw urn.' iKiixi'il I'loiii till.' initial and tin.' ari.\'iitt.(l >\llaliK> of llir Imnu) jilKims; and tlii' alplial rt, (icalkd, hut lUAri irr(iv;ni/i.(l a> -^lU'li, 1)\ till' l'",.i;\ |)liaiis, (.itlin tic ni niniiulitrial wnids, (1! li'Mii initial sunnd^. At im inaiod ol aiiririit 1'",l;\ ptiaii lii->ti)r\- was oiK' sniind roii'-tanlK u■|)u■■^( nti d ii\ (uir "-iv;!!. Ill till' so c-alk'd i{i;\ ptian alplialu t, IIkk.' an- loin (|nilr dit' liirul silins tor tin.' .'/, tour tor tin.' /', tlmi.' tot tin.' A', ,ind soon. 'IMiis is oli\i()n>l\ ow inn to l'"-' ind(.i:i. iidriit lUiixa tion ol' tlK'~-i' plioiK'tii" (.KiiKnts tVoiti ditlruiil liv;nirs iin^ |ilo\ 1,(1 ikonoiiiaticallx'. 'riurc aiv otluT piouliai itits in tlu' ]'",i;\ pliaii srri]>t, wliuli air to ])v (.'xplaiiK'd 1)\- tlii.' >aiiK' lii^toiic nason. l'"or in -taiuT, i.\rtaiii plioiK'tio sii;ns I'aii \)v usi.'d oiiK in drtiniti' (.'tiiiiliniation.s ; olluas must !)(.■ a>^ij;iK'd tix^d positions, as at tlk li(.'i;iiinin_n or at the (.aid ot' a j;ioup; and, in ollu 1 ias(.>, two or molt.' diltlivnl sij^ns, with tlir saim.' plioiulic \ aluf, li'Uow om.- anotlar, thr -t'lilx.' ihinkinu that it tlir nadcr w.is u:<[ at'ipiaintL'd with om.', lir would hcwith throllKi. I note llioc pcculiai iti(.'s, l)(.c'aus(.' llu\ ma\ lir (.s petted to it-cui in ."■. If'. <. .> rllniulii' ,M Wiilil.-. I /'I S\llaliU-> [_, 1 I.ittiis. 2l8 I'SSAYS oi* AN ami;kica\ist otlitT s\sk'ins of ikoiumialic writint;', and may serve as liii;ts in inter]>ixtint; tlieni. Iv\iikntl\-. one of the earliest slinuili In llie (le\elo]mu iit of l)li()nelies was the wish to reeord proper names, whieli in themselxes had no deiinite si_nnification. sncli as those (hawii from a foreign hui<;uas4e, or tliose wliieh had lost Ihnui:;!! time their ori.n'inal sense. In savaj;e conditions e\erv proper name is siunifieant ; btit in conditions of social life, as devel- oped as that of the l'!i;\j)tians of the earlier dynasties, ;iiid as that of the Ma\as and Mexicans in th.e New World, tin re are fonnd man\- names withont nicanini;' in the cnrrtiit toni^iie. These coidd not he represented hy an\- mode of pictnre writins^. To he recorded at all, they mnst he writ- ten phonetically : and to accomplish this the most ol)\ious plan was to select ohjects whose names had a similar sound. and hy poi traxing the latter, represent to the ear the former, The Creek names, .l/rKJ/zi/r/- nnd .U( xaiidn'a, occnrrini:; on the Roselta .Stone, were wholly meanin<;less to the Kgyptinn ear ; hut their scribes succeeded in expressinii them \e r\- near dv 1) )>• a series of signs which in origin are rebuses. This inception of the ikonomatic method, in the eff >rt tn express phoneticall\- proper names, is admiral)l\- illuslraleii in medice\al heraldry. \'er\- earh' in the histor\- of armori;d bearings, we find a class of scutal de\ices called in I.atiii Otllht CiUI laiitia, in luiijlish canti //■' (iinis. in h'rench arm, par/aiif( s. The I-'.nglish term (aii/hii; is from the I.atin ((Ill- fair, in its later .seu.se oi (/iaii/iii<> or aiiiuuduiiii. Armorial bearings of this character present charges, the names of whii. resemble more or less chiselx' in sound the l)roper names the famil\- who carrv them. • .-V:. CANTI.NC, AKMS. 219 Si'iiR- writers on ]icral(lr\- liave asscrtrd thai l)L'ariiiL;s of tlii- cliaractcr should be considered as what are known as (7.v>7(' ;;//'//:>' (iniis, those whieli ]ia\elieen (fss/iiuai \)\ families, w itiiout just title. ]'<\eellent authorities, howexcr. sueh as \\iM.(lliani and Lower, ha\e shown that these dexiees were iVLMiuent in the remotest ai;es 01 heraldr\/'- I'or instance, in llie earliest h'.nj^lish Roll of Arms extant, recorded in the ni^nof the third Henry, about the \ear 1240, nine such diaries occur, and still more in the Rolls of the time of I'.dw ard t^ie vSecoiid. They are also abundant in the heraldry (if S]iain, of Italy and of vSweden ; and analos^ous examples !ia\e been adduced from ancient Rome. In fact, the jilan is Ml obvious that instances could be <| noted from ever\- (juar- Icr of the i;lobe. In later centuries, such ])unninL; allusions tn]ini])er names became iini)o])ular in heraldr\-, and are now ciiu^idered in bad taste. To illustrate their character, I will mention a few which are of ancient date. The welbknown Ivn.ulish famil\- of /h'l'i//s carr_\- a /laitpassai/i, anil three bells arot j//, thus ex- piv^sin^ very accuratel_\- their name, doi -lu'/ls. The etjually ancient family of IV)ltons carr\- a dexice representin^u^ a cask or tini, transfixed by a crossbow or /'('//. I'ew cantins.; arms, liii\ve\er, are so perfect as these. The .Swinburnes, who are amoni; those men'ioned on the Roll of i2_io, alread\- ret'erred to, hear three boardieads, syndxilical af .vrcvV/^ ,• the I>ole\nes carr\- three bulls' heads, which reminds us of Cardinal \\'(ibe\'s ])ronunciation of the name in Shakespeare's Henry ■* S< I- >r .\. I.ciwi-r, ( III tt<M'//i < "/ /!,iu!ili\. Cliii]). vi i I.ui.dnii. i--(;'. .\ii apijvo- I'l'iU iiKitt'i ufiiiic uf these heiiripi.us was : '■ Ncm verbis sed irhii^ IcKjiiinnii-, ' • 1 ; 'i ..'■?f ■ •.;>'-■• ■ '-■f:'\ X: ,'it^t„ i-'i "M 220 KS.SAYS oi" AX ami;kica\ist. "Aniu' Hulkii? No; I'll no Aiinc HulUns for him ; 'I'licrc's niori' in't tliaii fair visayi.'. — Hr.Ilcn I No, \v(.''ll no r.nlkns." — /\7//i,' //tiny / ///, .U/ ///. Xi)t rarely tlic anti(|uily of sucli Ijuariiigs is ox-idcnccd \\\ tlie loss of the allusion in the current lan.tiua<i;e, and reeoiir-L- must be had to ancient and obsolete words to appreci.ite it. The ICnglish Harrisons (lispla\- in their shield a hedgelidi;, which is to be exi)lained by the Ivrench //rr/'sso)/, and testifies to their Xornian ori.<;in. The vS\kes of the north of ICn.uland show a fountain in their shield, whose si<:^nificance is first ascertained on learning that in the Xortlunnbrian dialect .s;i'/v means a flowing spring or stream. The celebraleii Jiti(rs-d—/vs of the ro>al house of l-'rance are traced back to the first Louis, whose name was pronounced Lo]s, and from the similarity of this to the common name of the flower, llie latter was adopted as the charge on his shield. Hundreds of such e.\am])les could be adduced, and the ta.sk of examining and analyzing them would not bean alto- gether vain one, as the principles upon which they wei applied are the same which control the devek)pnient of ik nomatic writing wherever we find it. lUit I pass from the consideration of these facts of general knowledge to the le» known and much misunderstood forms of this writing which are presented in American arclueology. These are best exemplified in the so-called Mexican pic- ture writing. For many years scholars have been divided in opinion whether this was piu'ely ikonographic or partly phonetic. About forty years ago M. Aubin wrote an essay maintaining that it is chiefly phonetic, and laid down ruk> for its interpretation on this theory. But neither he nor aii\ ■le o- WRITlNCi I'KOI'I'.R XAMI'S. 221 wliM iiiulertook to a])])!}- his tcacliiii^s succeeded in ofTeriiii^ nuv acccjitable reiuleriiij^s of the Aztec Codices. I am ])er- MUi'led, lio\ve\-er, that tlie cause of this faihiiv hiy, not in tile llie(»r\- of Auhin, but in the two facts, first, that not ()!!(. of tile students who a])|)roache(l tliis subject was well oii'Unded in the Xahuatl lantiua.^e : and, secondly, that the |iiiiici])les of the interpretation of ikononiatic writint;' have iR\er been carefully defined, and are extremely difiknilt, ;iinbiL;uous and obscure, enouj^h so to discourat^e any one not specially i^ifted in the solution of eini;nias. At first, (.•\ery identification is as pu/zlinj; as the effort to decipher ail artificial rebus. There are, indeed, some able scholars who still deny that any such phoneticism is to be found ill Mexican pictognqihy. To convince such of their error, and to illustrate the methods cnii)loyed by these natixe American scribes, I will present and analyze several typical examples from Aztec manu- scripts. Hei^inning with proper names drawn from other lan- guages, we find that the Xaliuas had a number of such, which, of course, had no meaning in their own tongue. One of their documents speaks of the town of the Huastecas, called by that tribe Tawucli, which means in their tongue "near the scorpions," and by the Aztecs, in imitation, Tdiiiiioc.-'- As the Hnasteca is a Maya dialect, totally dis- tinct from the Xahuatl, this word had no sense t() the ears of '■■ -11 ■.■5tf*:j :'fl . i- V '■ *■/;;«/. iu;ir ; »i7/, sc.irpioii. Pu'iuiiai in /tiiaslria-l'sfHUml, MS., in my jiu'-sfS- siciii. This and most nf'tli. ..,;■ - ''tslanccs (pinUd an.' to be fi)un<l in I,<inl I<ini,'>'- liiiriin^jU's jircat ucirk cm McNic-o, and also in Dr. I'l-fiatii I'.s ( (//.i/nc" .M/ahi'lim Jr 222 KSSAVS (»!•• AX AMICRIC ANIST. the A/.lc'CS. To com-fv its sound, tlic>- portraxed a man holdinj,^ in his hands a nicasurinii^ slick, and in the ad df nicasnrint;-. Now, in Xahnatl, the wv)) "to measure i> tamacliiitu ; the nieasurin<r stick is octoaitl ; and to make Uk- I'lc. I. — Tainuiic. 'atter plainer, several foot-prints, xoctii, are painted u]iiin the measuring stick, giving an exami)le of the repetition nf the sound, such as we have already seen was coninioii among the I'<gyptian scribes. In another class of proper names, in their own tongue. although they had a meaning in the Nahuatl, the scrihc preferred to express them by ikonomatic instead ot ikoiio- graphic devices. Thus, Map.uhtcpcc, means literallw I'm. 2. — M:i])aclite])c'C. "badger hill," or "badger town," but in place of dcpictini,^ a badger, the native writer niade a drawing of a hand gni>i)- *t '•« ■ SIC.Ml-ICANCI' OI" POSITION. 22,-^ iii'^ a bunch of S])aiii.sli moss, the Tillandsid ksiko/iIis. Till- hand or arm in Xahuall is ii/ai//, the moss /'(^///// ,■ and t.iKini; the first syHahlcs of tliese two words we obtain »id piiih: the word tcpii, locati\e form of /<f>(il, hill or village, is ex])ressed 1)>- the usual conxeiitional ideographic or de- teiininative sign. Ill other names, the relative /)(>s//io//s of the objects are significant, reminding us of the rebus of a well-known town in Massachusetts, celebrated for its educational institutions: Mass. which is to be read, " Andover, Massachusetts;" so in the A/tec scrolls, we have //:/>//(/ ///7/>a>/ represented by an obsidian knife, //:///, and an edible ])lant, ijiiilitl, which are placed above or over { pa)i i, the sign for ctdtix'ated land, ;//////, thus giving all the elements of the name, the last syllable by position only. rO, 0^^ '' 'I 11 n 11 :m' ■' 1 ' '! 31, rm nunri a II II II II II ii ii If 1 1 1 , I'lO. ,v — U/iiii(niil])aii. In one respect I believe the ikonomatic writing of the Mexicans is peculiar; that is, in the phonetic value which it assigns to colors. Like the Egyptian, it is pol\chromatic, but, so far as I know, the Ivgyjitian polychromes never had a phonetic value; they were, in a general way, used by that pe()])le as determinatives, from some su]iposed similarity of hue; thus green indicates a vegetable substance or In'on/e, / fv>*. Hi 2 24 I'lSSAYS Ol" AN AMI'.KICANIST. yellow, ccTtaiii woods and sonic animals, and so on. [n lieraldry the colors arc \cry important and li:i\c wcU-dctiind si<;nirications, bnt very seldom, if e\er, ])lionetic niics. (^uite the contrary is the case with the Mexican scri])!. Ii jircsents abnndant instances where the color of the ol)je( t ;i> l)ortra\ed is an intes^ral phonetic element of the suuiid desijj^ned to he con\-e\e(l. To (piote examples, the Xahnatl word for \ellow \sr/i://i- or co'.ti(\ and when the hieroi^lxphics exi)ress i)honetic,illy snch ])n)])er names as Arozpa, (\':ai>ia/oapaii , Co:/iitipili,ni^ etc., the monosyllahle co: is exi)ressed solel\' by the yellnu color which the scribe la\s \\\m\\ his ])ictnre. A^ain, the name Xii(/ii(a<aii, "the place of grass," is represented by a T'lC. 4. — Acozpa. (A vcIIdw center surroiiiKkd liy water drojis, atl. a.) circle colored pale blue, .viu/id'c. The name of this lint snpi)lies the phonetic desired. The name of the villai^e 'f/apnii is conveyed by a circle, whose interior is ])ainted idl, tlapalli, containiuf^ the mark of a human foot-])rint. Sin h exam])les are sufficient to jirove that in undertakin.i; In decipher the Mexican writing we must regard the color as well as the figure, and be prepared to allow to each a definite phonetic value. A/Ti:C riloNl'.TK' SVMliOI.S. ^J.S II imisl not !>.■ uikKtsIhoiI ilial nil tin.' A/.tct- wriliiiL; is iii:iili.' uji lit ]ili(iiKlit- >ynili(ils. Tlii^ i-^ l,ir iVniii lieiui; lla- cM-i'. W'c (liscdwr aniDiii^ llir luni(In.(ls of tnirioiis lii;invs wliirli il pRSLiits. (kl(.riiiiii:iti\(.->, as in tlic I',,l;\ plian in- Ik;. 5.— 'ri;uiiai)a. sc:i])ti()ns, and nnmerons iclc(\<^ranis. v'^onietinies tlic ideo- f^rani is associated with ibc jihonetic symbol, actini;- as a sort of (Ictenninativc to the latter. An inlerestinj; example of this is given at the beginning of the " Manuscrito Ilier- 15 PFF I* 226 I'.SSANS OI' AN \Mi:i;lC WIST aticii," rri\'ntl\ lMl!lli^h(.(l 1)\- lln.- S]i;i!ii>li .-MiwrniiR'iil. • It is []\v iii<ii\' \;ilii;i!iU' ;is ;ni ivaiiipir, as tin- ])i( UiiX' writili.i; i> tiaii-'IaUd iiild Xalmatl ainl wrilku in Spanish cliaracivis. 'I' I If daU' of I !'.(.• ilni nnu nl, [--.:(<. k'a\i.s tm ddulit tliat il i- in tlir saniL' sl\ ](.• a-- tin.' ancient Cudiri'S. TIr' ])a,!:;i.' i> hcailrd with lIiL' ]iii'it;i(.' of a c'lmrcli (.(liticL' ; nn<li.rni.'alli is IIk' iml- line of a hnnian arm, and lliu k-^md in Xaluiall is: /// .lllipiitl r Sdii/d (in: '/7(nii(if^,i. TIk'SL' words nu an, " tlic' town of Santa Cm/, 'IManiajri." TIk- nam*.' '' tU\iiiii[^a" means "on llie liillsi(k." and doulil- kss ori.^inally ivkrR'd to the position in wliicli tlie \ill: was situated. I'.nt the pa fix '" IliHini" n>uall\- siL;nil r'c to do sometliinn with the .irms or hand dernx-d tiniii III liilL hand or arm. Ilenee, the li''ure of the extenckd aim i^ixes this dis\llahk', t/aiiia, which was suilicient to recall tile iKime of the town. The A/.lecs 1)\ no means confined the ikonomatic s\>leiii to ])roper names. The)- compo>eil in it words, sentence-, and treatises on \'arious snhjects. In ])roportion a.s it is aji- ])lied to these connected and len!.;tli\' i.()ni])ositions, its pm ces-^es lieconie more recondite, curious and diflicult of intci- pretation. \\"itliout a kno\\led;^e of the spoken lanmi,i',4e consideralilv- more than rudimentar\-, it woukl he hopek-> tor the student to attempt to soh'e the eni.unias whit'li he meets at e\erv step. Vet e\er\- well-directed effort will c lU- vince him that he is on the riuht track, and he will con- U is i;ivi.ii ill tile a])|)i'ii(li\ to Uic I:iimi\(i Mihii' ia li'/i 1 f'l r/iu imt ilr hi I\miiIiii„ llii'i iiliiii i/,- III . t III, I It it ( iiiliiii liv 1)L- KdSin-, IranshiUcl li\ D. |ii,-ui dc Dios ili' l.i Rada y DL-lyada (.Mailiid, i>\i). Till': AIANA HIl'KOCI.YI'HS. ■.triiith I'l' clic'iTid and >tinnilali'<l to furtlKT iikUmxih 1i\ Uu' VK torn-s lir will win (la\- li\- dav 'I'lu.' aiialo'ny which is ]in'Mntf(l in -n nian\ iiartiinlars hitwicn Mexican and Ma\a ci\ ili/ati<in would Icail u> to iiilu thai the Ma\a wiilin^, of which wt.' ha\c a nnniluT ot' cxamjiks well ]»rcscr\ed, should \)r nnlo'ke'd li\- the ^a\\\c ki \ which has been sutvcssfnlly a])i)licd lo the A/.lcc Cmliccs. The latest wriliis on {\\v Ma\a niannscriiils, while ai^reeitii;' th;il the\- are in )>arl, al least, in iihonetii- cliaiacters, consider them niosil\- i(k'ot;ra])hic. lint it is to he noted that not one ot these writers had an\ prai-lital ac(|uainlance with the sonn<ls dl' the Ma\a lan,i;naj;e, and scaii'el>' an\ with its \()cal)nlar\ . hroni this it is evident that even were these codiees in ikoiioniatic wrilini;, snch in\esli>;al()rs could make \er\- little |)ro.u;ress in deciiiherinj^ them, and nii^hl rea(lil\- i-onie to the conclusion that the lij^ines are not ])honetic in any siiise. ri'ecisel\- llie same ]i(!sition was taken \>\ a numher oi" students of l",L;y])tian anliijuilN loni; alter the announcement of the dist'o\trN' of Clianipollion ; and ewn within a few \ears works ha\-e been iniiiled (len\in,L; all jihoneticisni to the Nilotic ins, ri])tions. What induces me to beliexe that nnich of the Ma\a sciipt is (if the nature of the Mexican is the endea\or, undertaken ftir a \er\- diiTercut ])ur])ose, of Professor X'alenlini to ex- phiin the orij^in of the so-c-alled Ma\a alphabet, ])!eser\ed li\ bishop I.anda, and ])rinted in the editions of his cele- brated " J)escripticMi of Yucatan. "•■• Professor X'aleutini f "M. * Vak'iitilii's I'^siiy ii))l><.aif<l in lllc /'hk r,(f/)ii;.\ nf' tin- Aiiiri i\ an .1 ii/ii/Hiii /,iii .S'l}- c/i'/i. April, ivN>. I.;ui(la's wdik \v;is ()iii;iiially ]iiitilislu'<l hy Uu- .Milic Hia-'SiMir (dc Umuliiiiirj;) at I'aris, iMi.), aixl iiiiirc arruratt-ly at Mailiid, j^~.;, muUr llu' .suiRivi- iiuii ul'Diiii Jiiaii df Dios dc la Uada y Iifl.t;ada. wm 22S 1-;SSANS (il- AN ,\Mi:i;lC WIST sliows li\- ;ir''iiiiKnts Mild illustiMtioiis, uliitli I lliiiik ,ir I U) till' iiiiiin tdriri't, ill, it wluii tln' UMlivc-s \\\vv ;i--k(.il to ixpu sent llu' xiuiuU ti\ tlir Si>;iiii'-Ii li.tUr-> in liirir iiKtluii! nt \\ riliii;^, i1k\' Mkctid (ilijc cl> to (K pii-l. w Imix.' ikiuii.'^, <>v \\<<- li;il sduikIs, or lir>t >\ IImMls, wnx' tlir ^.inir, or ;ikin, In iIu Soinids (if llx' SlKini^li \<i\\\l or (■i)ii-<nu;iiil luaid I)\ tin:;; SoiiRliiiK's lilt.) umild .uive scwral word-^, with lln'ir cniu > poiuliiij; ]iiclinvs, for llif >auk- soiukI ; Jti>l :is I ]\a\\- >1io\vii \\;is llic I'listoiii of llu' :nu-iiiil I'".u;.\ ])ti:iiis. Tliii^, lor il;^ souiul /' 11k\' <lr<.\v a foot inint, wliirli in llii'ir tou;4iK' \\.. • called /v; for the sound (/ an ol)>idian knifr, in M:iy;i, <^/,'. do. X'alentini thinks ;d--o that the kttrr r was d(.'lini;iti,il by hlark siiots, in Ma\arf/\ intanini; hkirk, w hii-li, ifprowd l)y further restarch, would show that the .Ma\as, like tin.- Mexie;ins, attributed pliouetie \alues to llie eolors the\ em plo\-ed in their painted serolls. Out-'ide of the two nations mentioned, the nalixes of tln' Anieriean eontiiunt made little advance towanl a phoui lir We h:i\e no ])osili\e evidence that e\en thc' eulti- K MI' .s_\ ->tem. vated Tarascas and Zapotees had ansthinj; better than iki grajihs ; and of the (Juiehes and Cakehi(|uels, both 1 relali\"es of the Ma\as, we onlv- know thai the\- had a writ leu literature of considerable extent, but of the phni l\ which it was preserxed we have ouIn- obscure hints. Next In these we should probabl\- ])lace the Chipewa\' iMcl()i;"raphy, as p.reserved on their ///ii/d sticks, bark recortls, and ad/iJ- y/(r//i,' or i;ra\e-p()sts. I ha\e examiueil a number of s]»c('i- luens of these, but ha\e failed to find any e\idence that thi,' characters refer to sounds in the lan.nua^ne ; however. I might not consider it improbable that further researclus \VKn'I\<; OI" NiiKTItl'K^ TNIIU'S. !2<) lui'^Iil (lisclosc siitur ,i;\'inis ot" tlK' iki>n(iiii;ilir iiutltdil of wtitiiii; i.\ 1-11 ill tlit-st.' primitiM' t. \.ini|ik> of tlic' (K -^iiv nt' tlu' liiiiii:in iiitc'lIiTl III |»i. i|n'tu;itr it-> ;n ([iii>ilii in>, iiiul liatid llii. iii <ln\\n ti) .i;t.'iuialiiiiis yd mihniii. f w^ THE WHITING AND HECOHDS OF THE ANCIENT MAYAS, /. — luf)odu(torv. ONI'! of the ablest liviiii;' ethnologists has classified tlk- means of recordini;' knowledt^e under two <;eneral lieiid- ings — 'JMi(nit;ht-\vritini; and i^oiind-writint;. <" The foniKr is attain dix'ided into two forms, the first and earlie>l nf Avhich is by pictures, the second b\- pictiu'c-writiiiL;'. The sujieriority of picture-writint;- over the mere de])iclin;^ of an occurrence is that it analyzes the thouj^ht and ex- presses separately its component parts, whereas the i)ietinv l)resents it as a whole. The representations familiar aiiKniL; the North Anieric;in Indians are usuall}' only pictuiv>, while most of the records of the Aztec communities are in picture-writinj;-. The i;enealoi;ical development of v*~^ound-writint; bet;in> by the substitution of the si_n'n of one idea for that of anolhei whose sound is nearly or v|uite the same. vSuch was llie early graphic s\ stem of F.gypt, and such sul)stantiall\- to-d;iy * Originally i)ulili--lKil a.- an inlioihution to Dr. Cyrus 'I'iKinias' SInd .■ nf Ihr yLin- iiiiiif'l /V.'i((/.', i:-.-^util !■ till' r. S. Ofiigrapliical and i '.inloyii-al Survey nl'tlic Ut.rky Mdnn'.ain Kri^inn, \Vashint;t(in, r'^sj, iicvi-id with ailililions Inrllu' pn-rnl vohinu' . + I)r, I'riidrirh Miillcr, (.ii iniili i.--s drr Sf'iiUlniis.-'iiulnitl, lianil i, pp. isi-l.s^. ( 230 ) if > } I'Vt.i.rTi' .N oi- •nil' Ai.i'iiAiiirr. .>i i-. tliat i)f tlic CliiiK-sc. Al)(i\f stands s\lla!i:c \vrili11j4, this .1- t''.at of the Ja])fiU'so. ami the seani svllaMc sii^iis of tin.' did Smiitic alpliabct • wliik-, a-^ the iKTie-ctcd iv<ult of iIk-sl' vaiiiius attrini)ts, \w rcarh at la->t the in\cntii)ii of a true alphaliet, in whicdi a deilnite li.^nre corresimnds to a definite ileinentar\- sound. It is a ininiarv (juestion in Anuiica.n aieh;eoloL;\', How- far did tlie most cnltix'ated nations of the uesteni continent aseenil this seale of v,raphie de\-elo])ment ? 'iMiis (|ue->tion is as \et unansweredi. All a^ree, ho\\'e\er, that the hij;hest evolution took jtlaee auK.iiL; tlu' Xahnatl speakii.L;- tribes of Mexico and the Maya race of Yucatan. I do not L'.o too far in sa\ ini; that it is ])ro\-ed that the A/tecs used to a certain extent a phonetic s\>tem of \\■ritinv^ line in which the fiL;ures refer not to the thou;;ht, hut to the sound of the thought as expres.-ed in sjioken lan^uaj^e. This has been demonstrated 1)\- the resea''ches of M. Auhin, and, of late, hy the studies of Senor ( )ro/.co y I'erra.'" Two evolutionar>' ste])S can he dislim;uished in the .\/tec wrilin;^. In the earlier the ])lan is that of the rehus in com- bination with ideo,L;rams, which latter are nothiuL; more than the elements of picture writing;;. ]',xami)les of this plan are the familiar "tribute lolls" and the names of towns and kin^s, as shown in seveial of the codi(.-es i)ublislK(l b\- Lord Kinn'sborout^h. The second step is where a con\en- tional ima.ge is employed to represent the sound of its first * Auliin, Mriii.'iii- Mil 1,1 I'iiiliiif i/t./ih /i./iir ,/ !'/■', i i/,ii ,■ iIl::ii ,i//:,- r//> iiii,ii-ii\ .V»- 1 /, i;/;(,v, ill tJK' iiitici'li'.i.ii )n tn Ilr,-i->i.iir <i\i.- liiMiilinnrL; ''■■ llnl'Hir (li-\ .Witimis ri: ///.(. v'f till .1/,' I !i/iii , t (/, / . I iiir. /,/in ( ', :ifi,i/,\ tcjin. i ; Manuel i H'l/c-n y I!i i : .1 / 11 <<n'> i/r /)rs<i/iiii i"ii M''''.''/'.''"'. ^^^ ''"■' .('/.//-■.> if,-/ Mii>,,i mi, nnitu' ./,■ M,\i,<>. tmii i. ii. .■■'i : -J 2.V I'.ssAvs oi' AN ami;ricanist. syllable. This aihanrc-s acluallx to the k\x-l of the sxlhiliic nlphahcl ; hut il is duuhtful if lluij are an\- Aztec reeouls eiitirel\-, or e\en larnel\-. in this form of writin;.;. The)- had only reached the coniniencenient of its deNelopnient. The t^raphic sxsteni of the Maxas of Yucatan was \xi\ difTerent from that of the A/tecs. No one at all familiar with the two could fail at once to distinguish between tin.' manuscrijits of the two nations. They are plainl>- in dependent developments. \Vc know much more about the ancient civilization uf Mexico than of Yucatan : we ha\e man\- more Aztec than Maya manuscri])ts, and hence we are more at a loss to speak with ])ositiveness about the Ma_\a sxstem of writing than al)()ut the Mexican. We must depend on the brief and un- satisfactory statements of the earl\- .Spanish writers, and <in what little modern research has accomplished, for means id form a correct opinion ; and there is at present a justifialik- discrepancy of oiiinion about it amoni; those who have ^^iwn the subject most attention. 2. — /h'srr/f^//oiis hv S/yanis/i Wn'lcis. The earliest exploration of the coast of Yucatan was \.\v.\{ of iM'ancisco Hernandez de C'ido\a, in 1517. The \ear fnl lowinj;, a second ex])e<lition, mider Juan de C.rijalva, visiied a number of ])oints between the island of Cozumel and ihr Hahia de Terminos. Several accor.ntsof ( 'irijaha's \-o\a,i;e have been preserwd, but they make no distinct reference to the metliod of wrilini; thev found in use. vSome native books were obtained, how AKi.v si'/rr ■AIK\' IN vicata: siiiiR' of which he ha<l scxii in Rdiir-. I le supjioscs lliat they onitain llie laws and ceremonies oi" the ])e()])le, astronomical c;ilcnlalions, the deeds of their kinL;s, and other e\enls of tlieir historw He also speaks in commendation of the neat- 1K--S of their i^eneral apj-earance, the skill with which the (li:iwint4" and i)aintin!^- were carried out. He further mentions that the natives used this method of writing or drawing in R- affairs of common life.-'- llu- affairs of common life.-'- llu- aftau's ot common lue.-- .\lthoui;h \'ucatan became thus earl\- known to the .S])an- iards, it was not until 15.11 that a i)ermanent settlement was effec'ted, in which year h'rancisco de Montejo, the \-oun,L;er, aiKanced into the central province of Cell I'ech, and estah- li>hed a city on the site of the ancient town called /i/i(<n/://u\ liich means "the fi\e (tenijiles) of man\- oracles 'or ser- iilsi," to which he L;a\e the name .'//■//(/(Z, on account of (■ inaL'iiificent ancient edifices he found there. li w tl ]ieiu^ ', Lw \\ un. 11 in. L;a \ ij lihj iiauie .'/ < i nui , on .ki^iuuiu wi the maj^iiificent ancient edifices he found there. Previous to this date, howe\er, in 1534, h'ather Jacoho de Testera. with four other missionaries, proceeded froiiiTahas- cn np the west coast to the neii^hhorliood of the liax' of Caiii- peacliy. They were recei\-ed amical)l\- by the natixes, and i'.i-^tructed them in the articles of the Christian faith. Thev' al<o obtained from the chiefs a submission to the Kin,!.; ot Spain ; and I mention this earl\- missionary expedition lor the fact stated that ea^-h chief signed this act of submission "with a certain mark, like an auto^raiih." This dot-unieiil * I'tter .Martyr, I)ria<l. iv, oap.viii ' -''^^iiii i.'^\ a. I ICSSAVS <)]• AN A:\Ii;KICA\IS'r was sul)sc(iutiitl\' taken to Spain 1)\' the celebrated I)i>!inii I. :is Lasa:' It is clear from the account that some d-. Imite form of signature was at that time in use amou'j; the c ik'l It mi.L;ht he ohjected that these sii^iiatures were noli iiir. more than rnde totem marks, such as were found even aniMHi; the hunting tribes of the Northern Mississijipi \'alley. Dm Las Casa^ himself, in whose jiossession the documents wi.re, here comes to our aid to refute this ojjinion. lie was famil- iar with the picture-writing- of Mexico, and reco.-'uizcd in the hiero.nlyiihics of tlie Mayas soniethini;' different iiii'l superior. He s;iys expressly that these had inscriptions, writings, in certain characters, the like of which were lound nowhere else.i One of the early visitors to Yucatan after the con(HiLst was the Pope's connnissary-.u;eneral, Father Alon/.o Ponce, who was there in i^''^''^. Many natives who had grown in adult years in heathenism must have been living then. He makes the followin.g interesting observation: " The natives of Yucatan are, among all the inhabitants of New vSpain, especially deserving of jiraise for three things ; First, that before the vSpaniards came they made use ot char- acters and letters, with which the\- wrote out their histories, their ceremonies, the order of sacrifices to their idob mil their calendars, in books made of bark of a certain tivc. • Si' sujclarnii (It- -II ] III!) Ilia V'-Iiiiilad al SciHirid (k' Ins Kiiis (k- Ca-ljlla, n rilii- ciulo al IlmiRiailDr, coiiio R •1 ik' I .-]iana, ]):iv Siimv sii])toin(i y imivf i-sal.c 1 lu'icnm I'lanci^ cicrtas scfiak'S, idiiKi I'inii;!-- ; la- iiiiali'.. (.cm li'-tinionio ^\v los Kc-lijii cos, (luc alii I'- taliaii, Ik \ ii coiisi^d l\ liiu'ii ( )bisi!ii dr Cilia pa, D'lii I'V. ISartor .iih .Ic mhos, (|ii;m(l<) sc nii' .1 Mspai" •|'. ■■ir las Casas, aiiiparo, y (kl'riisa ik' cstos Ii luaila, .y/'iiiiiii/niii /iii/iiiiiii. lib. xi.\, cap. xiii. f " I.tlii. rosdc cicrlos caractcrcs que cii ot:a iiiii,i;iina parte." Las Casas, //mAkm .l/>i)/iii;i/i( ii i/i' /iii liiiiids I hi ii/i ii/ii/i's. cap. c.wiii. HOOKS OI" Tin: MAVAS. 235 TIksc were on very lout;- strijis, a (niarter or a third of a vanl ' in width, doubled and folded, so that they reseiuMed a lidund hook in (jiiarto, a little Iari;er or smaller. These ktUrs and characters were understood only 1)\- the priests of the idols (who in that lauj;ua.i;e are called Ahkinsi and a few ]irinci]»al natives. Afterwards >ouie of our friars learned 1(1 understand and read them, and e\en wrote them."-'- Tlie interestin<;- fact liere stated, that some of the early missionaries not onl\- learned to read these characters, hut Liiiiilo\ed them to instruct the Indians, has been authenti- eal(.(l !)>■ a recent discoxery of a de\()tional work written in tlii-- way. Tile earliest historian of Yucatan is I'V. Hernardo de Li/ana. r Ihit I do not know of a single com])lete co])y of his work, and onl\- one inijierlect copy, which is, or was, in die cit_\- of Mexico, fioni which the Ahhe lirasseur (de lidurhour^) copied and republished a. few chapters. I.izana was himself not much of an auticpiary, but he had in his hands the manuscripts left b\- leather Alonso de vSolana, who o;une to Yucatan in 1565, and remained there til his death, in 1599. vSolana was an able man, accpiirini;- thorout^hly the ^hiya tonL;ue, and left in his writinj^s man\' notes on ll'.e anlitpiities of the couutr\-.:j; Therefore we may put ■ k'lliuinii /!i,:r \ I ',■! ifii,f('iu iti- A!t:iiinis (.'ii>a.y ilr /,is wnclms qui' yiiti'dirioii al /'•hli r J 1,1 \ .l/iii/Mi /'mill-, l'iiiiniii.\sni i" < ii'inml. rii las /'i uriiii iiis dr la .\Hi\a I'.s- /■:;>iii. \\\ \.\\i: i'liliicioii ifr / iiiniiihuli.s /'III a l,i lli^lmia di I'.sIhuui ,U\\\\. U iii. Ji. ,"v)2. Tlu' (itlK-r tniits he praisi-s in tin.' iialivi s nlNiu ;ilan arc tin ir rnL-dnni In mi ^>iili>iiiy .nul i-aiiiiilialisni. il'cir tin.' ttxl mc laU i-. ii. .'■",;,. i + I'.iriianlu <lc l.i/ana, lli^lm ia ilr )'nni/,iii. /)i : mii'iiai lo di' Siu^lia Siihna di' l-'iiiiiil. y I'l'ih/iii.sla I'.^fiii iliial. "-vn. l'iiui;i.' ; \'a11ailiili(l i, id,;,;. 1 I'liV tlicsc (acts see I)ic,i;c) I.opc-z CDi^dlliicln. l/i^loi ut dr )'ii,a/,iii. HI) ix. cap. xv. Ciiyiilliulo adds thai in his time ll6,su-'6c.i Sulaiia's MSS. eoidd not he loiliid ; I.i/aiia iiiii) have sent them to Spain. • < V -1] •1 23^> I'SSAvs oi" AX a>ii:kica\ist. CDii^idcTabk' coiifukMRv in what IJ/.ana writes on ilusc matters. The referemv which I fitul in liis work to the Maya writ- inj;s is as follows : " Tlie most celebrated and revered sanctnar\- in this land, and that to which they resorted from all i)arts, was tlii^ town and tenijiles of Ytzamal, as they arc now called ; ainl that it was fonnded in most ancient times, and that it i> -~till known who did fonnd it, will be set forth in the iiexl cha])tcr. "III. The history and the authorities which we can ciic are certain ancient characters, scarcel\- understood by many. and explained by some old Indians, .sons of the ])riest-- of their t^cids, who alone knew how to read and ex])oun(l tlieiu, and who were believed in and revered as much as the ^(h1,-> them. selves, etc.'i-"' \\'e have here the positive statement that the.se liiein- t;l\phic inscrij)tions were used !)>• the i)riests for recording; their national history, and that by means of them the\- pa- served the recollection of events which took place in a vcr\ remote past. Another valuable early witness, who testifies to the same effect, is the Dr. Don Pedro vSanchez de Ai^uilar, who was cKia of \'alladolid, in Yucatan, in I5t/^ and, later, dean nf the chapter of the cathedral at Merida. His book, too, !> extremely scarce, and I have never seen a co])y ; ])Ut I have IS * I aiM Uk' oric;in[il nf tlic ninst iniiKirtaiil prissa.Ljc ; " I.a liistoria y aiilnn.- qiu podeiiiDS ak'j;ar soa \in<is auli.mios cai actcrcs, iiial eiUfiidiilo.s de niiicuis, y i^li-- ados do iiiuis iiidios aiili.;4:ii()S, ([uc ?^()ii hijo.'^ dc los saccrdotcs dc .sus dioscs. qm -^ ii h)S iiiu' siili) saliiaii kiT y adivinar, y a iiuicn crciaii y rcvcrciu'iavan cuiini .i Dii-r- dc.slo.>.." coNTi'N'PS <)i' Tin-: M \\A ki'Cokhs. .1/ C'l' idU-' c'x tracts fniiii it, niaiK' 1)\- tlu- late I )r. C. IK-iniaiin lUiLii'll fiDin a c()])y in \'iu\il:iti. .\;4ui!ar writes <>!' tin.' M.ivas: • 'I'licN' had books made from the liark of trees, co.ated with a white and (Uu'ahle \arni>h. 'l'lie\- were ten or twel\"e y.irds I'lni;-. and w\re ;-;atheied lo,i;eth(.i- in fohls, I'.ke a ]);ihii leaf. On tlie-e lhe\ ])ainted in colore th.e reekonin;^ of llieii' \ears, wars, iie-lilent'es, hurricanes, inun(hilions, t'iini.ne-, and otlier e\ents. l'"rom one of these book^, wliicii I ni\>eh"took Irom some of tlie-e idokiters, I saw and k'arned that to one i)estilence tliex' ,i;a\e the n:ime M<r j( ii)iil , and to anollier (\iiiikitiliil , which mean 'sudden deallrs ' and 'Uine-' wlien the crows enter tlie lionses to eat the coi pses.' And the inun(Uition tlie\' called I liinvail, the submersion of tree>."'" The writer leaves it uncertain whether he learned these wolds directly from the characteis of the book or tlu'ous^h the explanations of some n \ti\'e. it has sometimes been said that the earl\- Spanish writers drew a broad line between the i)icture-writinL;" that they tound in America and an al];hal etic script. Thi^ ma\- be true of other i)arts, but is not so of Yucatan. 'I'hese sij^iis, or Mime of them, are repeatedly referred to as "letters," hlraf. This is ])ointedly the case with I'ather Gabriel de vSan Huena\enlura, a I'rench l''ranciscan who served in Yucatan about ir);o-'S(). He i)ublished one of the earliest .grammars of the lans;uaL;e, and also comp.osed a dictionar\- in three I'Liln) Saiiclu/ di- .\;4>iilav, liijai ine loiilui Idoim nm i iilloits dil Ohnptuii' tir >'«- tiitdii. 4to. Maclriil, i'j.vi, fi- i.'-t- ■'.;■:?' ■ .• ?! ■1 23H I'SSAVS Ol' AN AMI'.KICAMST. lar^L' \(iliiiiRS, which was not ])rintc(l. I''alhc'r I'dlraii i\- vSanla Rosa (luotcs iVoni il an inlcivstiiit^- Iradilidii pi\S(. r\(.(l by lUiciiavciitura, tlial aiiion,L; the in\c-iili()iis oflhi' in\l!iii:il hv-To-i^od ol llic natix'C'S, ll:aiiin(t or h'/i/idi hIkui. was lh.it .if "the k'tlcrs of llif Ma\a laii,miat;c," witli wliicli kltcr-^ tIu-\ wi'oU' tlK-ir hooks. ■■• It/ainiia, of c-otirsc, (hilcs hack \u ;i inist\- aiili(Hiil\-, l)nt the legend is ot\\aluc, as sliowiiiL; th.it the characters used by tlic nati\'cs did, in the opinion of tin.- earlv missionaries, (k-serve the name of /(7A7\. h'ather I)iet;o Lopez Co_n'olhido is the best-known histnri i;i of Yucatan. He h\ed about the middk' of the seventeenth century, and sa>s himself that at that time there was HUr' more to 1)e k'arned about the anticjuities of tlie race. IK a(hls, therefore, substantially nothint^ to our knowled.m, >a the subject, although he repeats, with positiveness, the staU- ment that the natives "had characteis b\- which the\- could understand each other in writing, such as those \et seen in great numbers on the ruins of their buildings." I" This is not very full. Vet we know to a certainty that there were (juantities of these manuscripts in use in \'uc;it;ni for a generation after Cogolludo wrote. To l)e sure, thu-:, in the Christianized districts had l)een destroyed, where\ir the priests could la\- their hands ow them ; but in the south- ern part (jf the ])eninsula, on the islands of Lake Peten and * " V.\ priiiKro i|\U) hall.', his IctiMS dc la k'lii^ua Ma\ a r hiz 'icl conputcKli- Ins .iT. 1-, iiic'scs y c(la<ks, y Id iiisi'Tii) to'lii ;i los Iiuliiis (1<.' csta I'roviiicia, (tu- nil Iiulin- II. 1- liiailo A'///.//i;//ii«. y ])(>r olro nDiiilirc 'I'zanuia." I'r. I'cdro l!'-llran dc Santa K -a JIaria, ./)/<■ drl Idiitiiia Maya, p. iii u'll cd., Mi-rida di.' Vncatan. |->5i|i. fDii'.Hii I.ijpcz C'l.miillndo. ili^toiia dr y'luaUtii. lit), iv, ca]). 111, Ttu' (iri^inal :- " Ni) ai.MsUinil)rat)au cscriliir tns ptcitos. ann(|ni- tciiian caractcrt-'S con inic .-.c intrii- dian, di- iinc su vun ni\Ktios en las rninas dc Ids (.dilk-iDS." Till'. i»i;s'i"Kre"i"i(>\ nv tiii-; it/as. 2,v) aili'iniii.i; tcnilniy, ll.t.- iK.wcitnl tliiil', CaiR-k. luKd a lar;;^ iiiili in-iiikiit Irilic tit Il/.as. 'D'an' hail ix-nni\i.(l iVcni the i;Milhi.Tii I'liiN iiK'i-s (it Ihc- |Kiiiii>uhi Miincw Ik iX' alidiit 115", ]niilial)l>' in c"()n--(.(HK-iK'(.' dt'thi.- \\ar> which liill<i\V(.<l llir dis- sdhiliiiii 111' the cniitV-ikTai'V' whoM,- c'a]iil.il \\a> ihc aiuicnt a[\ lit' MaNapan. Thiir hiiii^tiat;*.' was puiv Ma\a, and [\\vy had linm^ht with thi'iii in their nii.uraliiin, as niie i.t' llirir :^r(.'ati.>t taa- suix>, thr sacR'd hcnks which c-iuitair.cd their ancient his- imv , their calendar and ritnal, and the iimiihccics nf lluir t'uture fate. In the > ear I'u;; the\- were attacked li\' the Sp.iniard.'^, under (icneral Dun Martin de I'r~-na ; their ca])- ilal. on the island of I'"l(ires, in Lake I'eteii, taken li\- >tnnn : great nninhers of them slanj;htered nr dri\eii into the lake tn (irown, and the twenlN-nne temples Ahich were on the i>Iinid razed to the t^ronnd. A minute and trnst\V(irth\- account of these e\ents has lieeu s;i\en by Don Juan de \'illa.L;ntiene .Solo-M;i\ or, in the cnur.-e of which occur se\eral references to the sacred l)ooks, which he calls . h/di'/rs. The kini; (.'anek, he tells us, in readin,u- in his . li/d/Zt-s, hail found notices of the northern ])ro\inces of \'ucatan .and uf the fact that his ])re(lece>sors had come thence, and had cmmnunicated these narratix'es to his chiefs. •■■ These hooks are describee^ as sliowinj.; " certain char.icters ami liL;ures. painted on certain barks of trees, each leaf or *■ rcir(i\K' 1o Ui;i Ml Kt-y (.-n mis Ar.r.lUlii-. Uiiiaii NntiiKis i\v acimllab I'rciviiK'ias lit ViuMtaii Mine .\ii.iltt!n >. '• ni^lll^ia:■, cs una iiiisiiia i.'o>a I y ilr ci'"- -"■" I'a-ailos avian ^ali^ll) dc ^llas." Hi\lin hi d,- l,i ( '■injiin/a lir la I'm: i>u id dr rl It :a. Krd union y /'),ii:irssi}S (/(• /ii (/(■ li I.aanidnn. lU'., iI'cjUo, Madiiil, \~>'\'\ lib. vi. cap. iv. •f'}i^W '•' I:' :■ ■■:■.. il «Si IvSSAVS nl" AN AM IlK IC AMS'P t.'iMrt alxitil ;i (itiartcT (of a xard < widi', and of llir Ihirk IK- of a pitiL- of (.ii^lit, folded al one (.■d,L;r and llir oIIili in lli nianniT of a mtcth, called 1)\ llKin . I //i!//i /tis."'-'' When till' inland ol I'doixs \\a^ eaplured Ukm- honk w eiv fonnd >loiL(l in the house of llie kin'- Canik, eonlainui'' U aecMtunl of all lliat had liai)pene(l to the Irih )e. t Whal in>- lo.silion was made of llieni we are not infornied. itlnll I ha\-e reserxed uiilil now a di-eu>sion of the deseri] of the Ma\a writing- presented in the well known work (i| I)ie.iL;o de I/inda, the second hi^hop of \'ucalan. l.anda at- rixed in the pro\ince in Ant;iist. 154*;, and died in Apiil, 1571J, ha\inu; i)assed most of the inter\eninL( tliirtx \Lai> there in the discharm' <•' Ids reliuious dutie^ II e hei'aiiie well ac(iuainted with the lanyuaiic, which, for that mall •-■r, is a c()m])arativel\' easy one, and thou.L;h harsh, illiberal, and l)itteri\- fanatic, he paid a certain amount of attention to llie arts, reliuion, and historv of the ancient inhabitants. The notes that he made were copied after his deatl 1 aiKl reached Spain, where the\- are now i)reserved in the library of the Royal Academy of IIistor\-, Mrulrid. In iS()4iliey were published at Paris, with a ImvucIi translation, b\ llii.' Abbe Brasseur (de Uourbourg j. Of all writers Lauda conies the nearest tellint^ us how llie ]\Ia\as used their system of writing ; but, uufortunatel\-, lie also is so superficial and obscure that his words have L;i\eii ri.se to very erroneous theories. His description runs as follows : * //'/r/., HI), vii, c:!]), i. t V en sii ca!-a Uiin1)ic'ii tenia ilc cstos Iilolos, y Mc.-ia dc Saciificius, y Ins Aniir telios, u Ilislorias dc lodo (jnantu los avia .succilido." /bit/., lib. viii, cap. .\iii. Tin; Ai.riiAiii;'!" oi' i.anda. P '■ Tlii"^ l'i.n])lf ;il-() u>c'(l ici t;iin charai'kTs oi U'U(.rs, willi wlikli IIk'N' wrntc- in llK-ir Imoks llkir aiK'iiul luattLis and tliiii scic'tuvs, and with llKiii i /. w illi llR'ir t'liarai'lt IS (ir IcllLi'S', and lltiurcs (/.<., (lra\\in<;s or ])iotinvsi, and sunn- >i''iis in till' ll-iURs, tlic'N- nndcTslodd llK-ir matters, and CnUlil t xiilain tlifin and leach iIkiu. \\\- timnd 'Jival nnni- liLi-- in thtsr k'ttcTs, hnl as llic>' i-ontaincd nothint; that did iKil sa\()r dl' sui)ci">tiliiin and lies of the drvil, we hnrnt them all, at wliieh tlie natixes <;rie\ed most ke(.nl\- and weie i;Rall>- i)ainc'd. " I will L;ive here an a, /', r, as their clnmsiness does not alliiu more, because the>- nse one character for all the aspira- tions of the letters, and for markini; the i)arts another, and tlui> it conld ^() on in iii/iiiiiiini, as may he seen in tlie i'ollow- iiiL; exam])le. /.( means a noose and to hunt with one; to write in their characters, after we had made them nndersLand that there are two letters, they wrote it with three, <;i\inj; to the aspiration of the / the vowel /■, which it carries before it; and in this they are not wrons; so to use it, if the\- wi>h to, in their curious manner. After this the\- add to the end the c<ni ipound part. 1 need not pursue the (piotation. The above words show ck;ul\- that the natives did not in their method of writinj4- analyze a word \.o its primitive phonetic tlements. " This," said the bishop, "we had to do for them." Therefore they dill not have an alphabet in the .sense of the word as we u-^e it. Uii the other hand, it is e(piall\' clear, from his words and examples, that they had figures which represented .sounds, * Dicjjo de Laiida, RcUicioii Je ha Cosas tie i'uia/aii, pp ;,i6, 31S, sa/. 16 ■-' ■ ■■»* 4- I'.SSANS i>l' W A Mi: NIC WIST iiiid 111, it tlK\ c'oiiihiiKMl iIks- ;ni<l ,i(l<k(l :i (Kuriiiiiiativ r nr all iiko.nrain to Rpii'sriit wDids nr phrases. ^^-w^A j^i^U h^th*^ l-it^t a A *vi.fe c(i. H U, \M'..r^. e//«i ^ fit * ^ t C* ■"■^<-*^/fM«.VV»». (^0 3S'^f <^Ja4 I« UlA 'j^ ,vwl-v«-t-«Vc--j_ ,Y TTA- .vi* 'wt*-^ t^vi/ZA vw*v6 •y y>u -vi* 'wt*-^ |>»i/zA vvxvU*. t^ <Vr I''l(.. 1. l''ac Sitnilc' III' I.inwla's Maiiui-Liipl. The aljihabet whicli lie inserts lias been engrax-ed aiii! jirinled several times, hut nowhere with the hdelit) de-'irahU lor so importaul a nionunient in American aivluLolo^y. I'm that reason I insert a phoioj^raphic rejirodnction of it Inmi the urii^inal MS. in the lihrarx- of the Academia de la Iii> toria of Madrid. A coin])arison oi'this with the alphabet as <;i\en in llra- .seur's edition of lyanda discloses several variations ot iin- m II } 'M cki'iMcisMs (iN i.\N!>\s Mi'ii \Hirr \^ jMii'i iiU'L'. TllUs llir Alilic plans till' first Iniin (if tlif k'ttir (■ Ii(iri/i)iitally iiislLad of u|)ri.L;ht. .\;^,iin in thr MS., llu' {\\<> li; [uvv^ liir the kttt r / slaiid, tin.' lirsl at tlif nul of hik' liiK tlir second at llu' hc^iiiiiiiiL', ot" tlu' next. I'lom tluiv xtiniii;- aii;do,i;\ witli llir ^i;.^ll ol llu- sk\ at tli-Iit, I am ot' (ipiiiioii tliat i1k'\- ItcloHiL; toL;cilu'r as nKiiilur-- ot oiir foiu [Ml iU' si};ii, not scpaiati^ly as lirasstiir i;i\c'S tluni. i'.iilli in it and in the- inTiiptions, nrinusc-rii>ls, and jiaint ill''- IIk- loiiiis ol tlu' k'tttis air roiindrd, and a low of lluni m-cnls the o th utlin es ol a mil inln-T ol ]n.Iil)les cut in two. lUiicc the SNstem o| uritur^ has been c-alled " calciililorin, Iruiii Ki huh /s. a i)ehliie, he e\i)iession ha>< i)een iMilicised Imt I ai;ree\\illi J)r. iMirsleniami in lliinkinL; it a Mryaj)- |iriipriale olK'. It was snj;^ested, J l)elie\e. 1)\ llu' Ahhc Ira- II r ( de ]>()url)onru This alphabet of course, can not he used as the Latin (r, />. r. It is .surprisiii;^- that any scholar should ha\e e\er lhou,i;ht so. It would le an exception, e\en a contradiction, to the histor\- <if the e\iiluti()U of human intellii^euce, to find suih an alpha l)et anion"'' nations of the staue of enltixalion of tlu- Ma\ i^ or A /.I e(.'S. The M'verest criticism \vliich I/anda's lii^ures haw nut has lieen from Dr. Phillip j. J. X'alenlini. I le discovered that iiiaii\- of the sounds of the S])anish alphabet were re]U"esented lis or pictures of objects whose names in the Ma\a 1)\- .si'. \k'^\\\ with that sound. Thns he supi>oses that Landa asked an Indian to write in the native cliaracter the Spanish letter a. and the Indian (h'ew an obsidian knife, which, sa\s Dr. \'akntini, is in the Ma\-a ach ,• in other words, it bei;iiis w ith the xowel a. So for the sound /'/, the Indian t;ave the .sii;n u\ the (lav named k/nit/i. f m^ ^11' :m. li jm^ 244 KSSAVS Ol" AN A:\II:rIC ANIST. Such is Dr. X'ak'iitini's thuovN- of llu' tonnalioii of I.anila's alphabet : and not salistk'd with hi>hiii;; with ci)n>i(!(. i.ihlc sharpiK'S-; ^h()'^L■ who ]ia\f cii(lca\-oivil 1i\- its aid to (k^iiilici tliL' inamiscripts and mural inscriptions, he .i;ol\s so tar a> id term it "a Spanish fabrication." I shall not enter into a close examination of Dr. \'alentini's sui>posed itlentification of these fii^ures. It is (.xidenl thai it has ])een done 1)\- runninj; over the Ma\a dictioiiarv in find some word be^inniuj; with the letter under critii i-in, the lii^uratixe representation of which word mii;ht bear souk- resend)lance to Landa's letter. When the Ma\a fails, >U(.li a wdr<l is soui;ht for in the Kiche or other dialect of iIil stock ; and the resemblances of the pictures to the supiiii-(.Ml originals are sometimes j;reatly strained. Hut I pass by these dubious methods of criticism, as well .1- several lexicographic objections which might be raised. 1 belieN'c, indeed, that Dr. \'alentini is not wrong in a miiiilm of his identifications. lUit the conclusion I draw is a difUi- cnt one. Instead of proving that this is picture-writing, it indicates that the Ma\as used the .second or higher giade (.1 phonetic sxllabic writing, which, as I have before obserxeil. has been shown by M. Aubin to ha\e lieen de\elopeil t^ some t'xteiit b\- the Aztecs in some of their histories aiiil connected compositions (see above, page 231 ). Therefoie the importance and authenticity of I.anda's alphabet are, 1 think, vindicated by this attempt to treat it as a " fabric, i tion."='= •'■Dr. \';iliiiliiii's ;U tick; M'... \iiilili>licil in the I'l ii,iiiiiiii;s i>t llir Ai:iri inti! -\i:li (jiiiii mil Sih i,!\ . i^.^ci. Moil' ixi-ciitlx' llv. I'M. SiUr liascciinkiiiiRil the I.and.i alpli.i hct as " cin Vcrsiu li von l.aiHuos, von in die SpauiscKi. WissiiiM-'hart iin>;i_ wi ihtfii srMiMAKV oi" Till': onisTiox. 45 «»!», ^ ! i« I,,imla also j;i\-cs some intLivsliiii; details about their ln.oks. He writes : "The sciences that they taiit;ht were the reekonin,:^ ol the ▼e.irs, months, and da\ s. the leasts and tvremonics, the ad- iiiini'-tration of tlieir sacraments, the fatal da\s and seasons, lluir methods oldivination and ])rophecii'S, e\ents ahont to iKippen, remedies for diseases, their ancient history, to,^ether witli the art of readini;' and writing their l)ooks with characters which were written, and pictmes which rei)resenti.'d the tilings written. "Thev wrote their l)oi)ks on a lar>'e sheet doubled into loUlS, W hich was afterwards inclosed betwet'U two hoards. w hR h the\- decorated handsomcK-. ThcN were written from siile to side in columns, as the\- were Iblded. 'i'he\- manu- factured this ])aiier from the root of a tree and .ua\e it a liitc surface on which one coi dd write. Some ot tin- principal nobles cultivated these sciences out of a taste for them, and althou.uh the\- did not make jmlilic use of iheui, as did the priests, yet the\' were the more hi,!L;hl\ esteemed fur this knowlech^e." '■' lM<im the abo\e extracts from Spanish writers we may in- fer that — I. The Ma\a i;raj)hic system was recognized iVom the fust to l)e distinct from the Mexican. .?. It was a hieroi;l\'phic system, known onl\- to the ]iriests and a few nobles. 1 iiu I I'lii m II in ilii Art, \\ ic .-.ir di aniir iliM- rrllrni \ ri wfinlfii ':iluii m\u li mil iKii r:iiiL;i'lHinuii i;rl.iul'n;rn I'.ililiiii iiiul Cli.iiaklirn /.u liai;. n n. / hanJiuiii^iii dii luiliiifi aiitlii opi'li'-^is, hrii 1,'i-m ll\, Ini I/, i"- .I'liipliiiL; this ^wnpiiij; sliitciiu-iit, wliiih I lulicvc i- ii tn;..! <il' I,;iii(la'.>i words a lid llif ti-stiiiinii\ nl .illn i \vi ilc r- ■■7. s. .'.'7' I am r.ir lioiii ill''adiilid li\ llu' whole 11 ' liiiyu df I.aiida, AV/id ;'»« lA' An ( i'mis ii'r l/n ,//,/«, [>. .|.i 24^) KSSAVS «)I' AN AMICKICANIST. T,. It was cinploycd for a varic'l\- of purposes, promiiietit among- which was the ])rcstT\ati()n of tlieir history ,iii<l cak'ndar. 4. It was a composite system, coiitainiiii;' i)ictures ' //';■. ///■as). i(leo,i;rams ((a>v/t/'irs ), and j-honetic sii^ns {/<//</.<. .> ■ - A'// t/i ///■/. \' fioiii X//lix'C S(>//rcfs. We might reasonal)l\- expect that the Maya hmgua^re should contain terms rehitin,g to their 1)0()ks and wriiin^s whicli wouhl throw li.ght on tlieir methods. vSo, no dnilii, it did. Ihit it was a jiart of the narrow and cru^liiu:.; policy c)f the missionaries not t)nly to destroy ever\lliino that related to the times of heathendom, but even to dnip all words whicli referred to ancient usages. Plence the dictJDn- aries are more sterile in this respect than we might have sup- posed. The verb "to write" is dz/d, which like the Caek iiHio.^n: meant also to draw and to paint. From this are de- rived the terms (/:/7'(?.'/, .something written; drji'bal, a signa- ture, etc. Another word, meaning to write, or to paint in black, i^ 'aha/-. As a noun, th's was in ancient times applied to a black fluid extracted from the .zabaccf/r, a species of tree, and used for (heing and ]nunting. In the sense of "to write," r.alu// is no longer found in the language, and instead of its old meaning, it now refers to ordinar\- ink. The word for letter or character is //('('//. This is a ])i-iini- ti\e root found with the ^ame or a closel\- allied nieauiiiL; in other branches of this linguistic stock, as, for instance, in llie Kiche and Cakchiipiel. A-^ ;i \'erb, pret. //00th. fut. i/ooli\ it WOKDS I'OR HOOK AM) NVKITINC. -M7 • , ■4 al-ii means lo form letters, to write: and from the ])a^si\e fiiriii. iii'ohiiL we have the |nirliei])ial noun, iiooIhdi. some- tl.inu written, a manuseri])t. 'file onlinar\- word for Ixiok, iia])er, or letter, is liii/ni, in wiiieh the as])irate is almost mute, and is drop] ed in the I'dMUS denf)tini;' jiossession, as 11 iiiiii, \\\\ hook, yiniiii/ /h\K<, llu; l)ook of (lod, // heiuL;" the so-ealled " determinati\e" (.■nilins;". It oecurs to me as not unlikel\- that /am, hook, is a >\ neopated form of iiooliaii. soniethini;' written, ,i;i\'en aho\'e. 'I'd re, id a hook is xtu/i/iii, lilerall\- to (Oitiit a hook. Aeoirdins^ to \'illaj,':utierre Soto-Mayor. the name of the sacred hooks of th.e It/as was luiallr. In the printed Pic- (ionario dc hi /.oii^i/a .Uaya, hy Don Juan Pio I'ere/, this is sjielled aiia/iti\ which seems to he a later form. 'Idle term is not found in several early Ma\a dictionaries in m\- iiossession, of dates previous to ijfx). The Ahhe Ih'as- seur indeed in a note to Landa. explains it to mean "a l)(i(ik of wood," hut it can have no such si_L;n"rication. Per- haps it should read /iiiin7f<\ this heing' composed of /nniil, the "determinative" form of Inatii, a hook, and the termin- ation //•, wdiich added to nouns, .gives them a s])ecific sense, (.;'. aiiiavt(\ a stpiare figure, from ai)iay, an angle: liuniblr, a pro\-ince, from l:ii(\ a portion s(.*parate(l from the rest. It wtiuld mean especiall\- the sacred or national liooks. The i)articul;\r class of liooks which were occ-u]>ied witli the calendar and the ritual were called l-.o!a)ih\ which i> a ]nuticipial noun from the \-er]) l-ol, passive l:olitl. to set in (irder, to arrange, with the sulTix A'. \\\ these hooks were set in order and arranged the \-arious festi\aK and fi-ls. Wdien the concjuest was an accomplished facl and the -..*>s';; ;,.• ■ -ai 24S I'SSAvs or AX A:\n:Kic WIST. priests had i^oi tlit' ujiper hand, the natives did not daiv u-^ their ancient cliaracters. Tlie\- exposed themselves to iIk- susi)icion of lieresy and the risk of beinj; burnt ali\e, a> more than once happened. Hut tlieir stronj; ]iassion for lit- erature remained, and they ^t^ratified it as far as the\- daad by writint;' in their own ton.mic with the Spanisli alpliahct vohtmes whose contents are very similar to those descriliL-d by Landa. A number of these are still in existence, and offer an inlti- estinii^ field for anticpiarian and linguistic study. Althoui.^li, as I say, they are no lons.!;er in the Mava letters, they contiiin quite a number of ideot;rams, as the sij^iis of the da\s and the months, and occasional cartouches and j^aintings, wliirli show that they were made to resemble the ancient maau- scrijjts as clo.sely as possible. They also contain not infrequent references to the "writ- ing" of the ancients, and what are alleged to be extrails from the old records, chiefl\' of a m\stic character. Tl.e same terms are empdoyed in sjieaking of the ancient grajiliit- system as of the present one. Thus in one of them, kn<i\vn as "The r.ook of Chilan Halam of Chumayel," occurs thi-^ phrase: /k^' c/ ://>(! ///'/ tioiiosci /:':ui//i:t//s/(ts vttti p)-of(ia Ha- lai)i — " as it was written I>y the ]{vangelisls, and also by the prophet IJalam," this Ikdam being one of their own cele- brated ancient seers. Among the ])re(lictions ]ireser\-ed from a time anterior in the Conquest, there are occasional references to their bonks and their contents. I (piote, as an example, a short proitliei) attributed to Ahkul Chel, "])riest of the idols." It is found in several (jf the oldest Maya manuscripts, and is in all pm ■ w A MAYA l'K()l>in:CV. 24c) li.iliility aiithcnlic, as it contains notliint;' which wonld kad u> I') suppose that it was one of the "j)ioiis frauds" of the nii-'^ionaries. " liiihi (ibfc kalioir yitiiu\ inaix/aii a uaalr ; I \ttac II tall I. mar bin ca hthac In (V> pop : k'lttidu yiiDic bill iili(i\ lioloiii nil liicaf va : Tali ti xaiiian, fali ti c/iikiiu' : alikiiiob nil vane Yiinir : Mar to alikin, mar to ahbohat, bin alir n t/iaii noolir ; yiiril liolon .l/ian, inaivtan a iiaair/" "The h)r(l of tlie e\cle has heen written (U)wn, but ye will not understand : " lie has come, who will give the enrollinj;- of the years ; "The lord of the c_>ele will arri\e, he will come on ac- count of his h)ve : "Pie came from the north, from the west. There are ])riests, there are fathers, "lint what priest, what projjhet, shall ex]ilain the\\(ird> of the books, " In the Ninth Ahau, which ye will not understand ?" •^• * I add a few notes on tlii-; test : /■.')//// is the preterit of tlie irre.i^ular verli, lial, to In', \>:v{. r)ilii. '\it. iiiuu . h'liluti i»w, father or lord of tlie Katun or eyele. l-'.aeh Katun was under the iirmeetion iifasi)eeial deity or lord, who eontrolle<l the iveut-- wliieh oeeu;'<,d in it, 'I'ltn" /"/ , lit., ■' for the rollini; uj) of I'o))," whieh was the lirst umnlli in tin- M.T\a year. //.'/.'W is an arehnic future from ///(/ ,■ this form \n mii is lueuticmed hy lUKuaviii- tura, . (1 A' (/(' la /.riiKiiii M(i\ii. i6^.|, and is l're(|Ueut in the saericl lani;u i.;;e. hut iloes licit nceiir elsewhere. 'I'mal \a. nil aieniint of hi-. Icjve : hut \a means also " .-nHVi - \n-^." "wound," and " strenyth. ' and there is iniehie whieh of thc^e sinnilie ation- is meant. Alikiiinh ; the ori.i^inal lias //(/■/;('. 'A, whieh I su>iieet is an el mr : it woiiM :dUrtlie phrase to mean " In llial day there are lathers" or lord-, the word mdii. fitlur. heiug constantly used lor lord or ruler. 'I'lie ,i/il;iii \\:\- the ]irie.^l : tile .//i,'''.i''i;/ was a diviner or iimiihet. 'I'hecith .\liau Kalun wa.-- the juriod oijoyeai-^ uliieh lie.ivan in l,=;.ii, aeeordin^ to most native autliors, but aeeoidiu.v; to I.,-inila's recUoiiiui;- in the year 1561. -:■:?<■ 2SO KSSAYS ()!• AN AMl'KICANIST. If Imoiii tliis (k'si.i;iif(lly obscure chant \vc jK-rccivc lliat (lie ancient ])ric--ts inscribed their ])redicti()ns in Ixxiks, wliirli were afterwanl exphiined to the ])eo])le. The expression I'in alir II tluui //('('//^—literally, ''he will s])eak the words ol' iIk- letters" -seems to point to a ])honetic writini^-, bnt as it luav be used in a figuratix'e sense, I shall not lay stress on it. /. — Tlw /^xis/zi/^ Codices. The word ("('(/ci ont^ht to be confined, in American aicli- ieoloi;\-, to niamiscripts in the ori<;inal writing- of the na- tives. .Some writers have spoken of the "Codex Chinial])(i- l)oca," the "Codex Zumarraga," and the "Codex IViv/, " which are nothinj;- more than nianu.scrii)ts either in the na- tive or Spanish ton<i;ues written with the Latin alphabet. Of the Maya Codices known, only four have been pub- li.shed, which I will mention in the order of their appear- ance. 'J'hc Drcsihii Codc\. — This is an important Maya niann- scrijit preserved in the Royal Library at Dresden. How or when it came io Europe is not known. It was obtained from some ludcnown jK'rson in \'ienna in 1739. This Codex corresponds in size, ajijiearance, and manner of folding- to the descri])tions of the Maya books which I ha\-e ])re.sented above from vS])anish sources. It has tliirly- nine leaves, thirtv-five of which are colored and inscribed nii '■■ In <iui)tm_,' anil cxi'l.-iininL;- Maya \- oni-; and ii lira ''is in tliis articii', I li.-ivf in ^ill instailci'S liillDwi'd llu- / >ii i innai in .1/,/ ii/- /■'.>/>(('/»/ thi I 'nn: fi/Zn </,■ Mn/iil i Viualaii ; a copy (if wliicli in nianiisoript ioni.-ci;' tin.' only tuo in i'\isU'niH-i . ' ■\ my p'i-- scssinii. H was conll)ll^■l•cl alicmt i.-^'-i'. The still oldci- Maya dictii>nai-y I'I'I'allur Villalpandci. ])iinlcd in Mexico in 1571, is ycl in existence in 011c or two eopie-. liiil I have never seen it. •■» Till". MAYA C(iI)ICi:S. ^51 1.1, til sides, and four on one side onl\-, so that tlRtv arc onl\- -( >. (.!it\-fotir pa.ycs of matter. 'iMic total kns;th of tlir sIklI i-, ;.5 meters, and the heis^lU of each pa.<;e isu.2c)5 meter, the w ii'illi I >.< )N,S nieter. The first ])nl)lication of an>- jiortion of this Codex was by Alexander \'on Hundioldt, who had fixe pai;es of it copied I'nY his work, I '/ns dcs ('(>/i//7/,r( s 1/ Mo)ni))it iis (i( s /'i/if>/is laai^t-iKS df /'. liiii'r/(/iit\ issued at Paris in iSi :; 1 not iSio, as the title-])ai;e has it). It was next \er\- carefull\- co]M(.(1 in lull i)y the Italian artist. A.^ostino Ai;lio, for the third vohnue of Lord Kin(.;sl)orous4h's great work on Miwicaii .liiti(/iii//(S, the first volume of which a])peare(l in iS;^i. From Kinj'sborou'rh's work a few pai^es of the Codex have been from time to time rei)uhlished in other books, which call for no special mention ; and two ])ai;es were copied from the original in Wutlke's ( it sr// /<///(■ dcr Sclirift, Leipzig. i'S72. Finally, in iSSo, the whole was very admirably chromo- photographed by A. Xaumann's establishment at Leipzig, to the number of fifty copies, forty of which were placed on sale. It i.s the first uork which was ever published in chromo-photography, and has, therefore, a high scientific as well as antiquarian interest. The editor was Dr. IC. iMU'steniann, aulic counselor and lihrarian-in-chief of the Ro\al Library. He wrote an intro- duction (17 pp. 4to.) gi\-ing a histor\' of the manuseri]>t, and hihliographical and other notes u])on it of nuich \alne. ( )iie o]Mnion he defends must not be passed l)y in silence. It is that the Dresden Codex is not one, but parts of two original manuscripts written by diff-rent hands. :1I '::'\ -ii' »»; ■,. .•■.«;. la m '■s fl ■ t 25- MSSAVS oi' AN AMIsKIC WIST. It ri])i)(.ars tlial it lias al\va\s hfcn in two unc'(|Ual Tim'^- incuts, wliicli all ]>R'\i()US writiTS have attributed tu ;m accidental injury to the orii^inal. Dr. iM'nstetnann ,L;i\(.s;i nuniher of reasons for belieN'inj; that this is not the coir^ i cx])lanation, hut that we have here ])ortions of two difRrciit books, ha\ini;- .general siinilarit\- but also nian>- ixiinl^ of (li\ersity. This se])aration led to an erroneous (or jjcrhaps erroneinis . se(|ucnce of the ])a^es in Kint;sb()rou<;irs edition. Tliu artist A;_;lio took first one frai^nient and co])ie(l both si(K •>, and then i>roceeded to the next one ; and it is not certain that in eitlier case he bei;ins with the first i)a.t;e in thi, original order of the book. 'I'lif Codex /Vrisianiis, or Codrx M( vicaiiiis, Xo //, of ihi- niNiotlirqid- .\'(ilio)ialr of Paris. — This frai^meiit — for it In unfortnnatelx' nothiui;- more — was discovered in iS^ij h\ Prof. Ia'oii de R()■^ny amon;^' a mass of old jvipers in the National Library. It consists of eleven leaves, twenty-twn pai;es, each <) inches lonj^ and s '.(. inches wide. The wril- intj; is very much defaced, but was evidently of a highly artistic character, probably the most .so of any manuscript known. It untpiestionably belonj^s to the Maya maim scrijits. Its ()rii2,'in is unknown. The papers in which it was wrapped bore the name "Perez," in a vSpani.sh hand of llu' seventeenth century, and hence the name " Peresianus" wa■^ given it. liy order of the Minister of Public Instruction, ten photoj;rapliic copies of this Codex, without reduction, weic prepared for the u.se of scholars. None of them were placed on sale, and so far as I know the only one which has fouiul Tin- Cni)i;\ TRoANo. '■5^ il- \va> til till.' I'liiUMl Statc> is llial in iii\ own lihraiN'. An (iiilinar> lilh<)^rai)liio ivpnuhulinn \\a> .L;i\t.n in llu' . // i///; I s /^(//■'(>X /'(i/^///'//tt ■< (/>/'( h /I /// tl (/( I' .\i)h I iijiti . Idinr 1. i I'.iris, iS(.9-'7i ). riu Coiit \ '/'id, or 'fivinic. 'I'lir puMiration of tlii> \aln- alik' Co(k\ \vc owe- lo tlif L'ntluisiasni of IIk- Al'hf llras- s uf ' (k' Uoui'Ixiurg ). ( )n his ivlnrn tVoni \'iualan in iS()4 Ik \ isitt-'d Ma(lri<l, and found this Maniiscriiil in llif ]iossls- sidii of I )on Juan du Tro >• ( )rtolano, jirofcssor of |)akiiL;ra])li\-, ami himself a dL-sccndcnl of llcrnan CoiIls. The- ahhc iiaiiK'd it 7 lotuio, as a couiijound of the two names of its (i\vii(.T ; hut hitcr writers often content tlienisehes hy refer- rin.u to it simply as the Ox/r.i Tro. Il consists of thirty-five lea\es and sevent\- jiat^es, each of which is lar.^er than a pai;e of the Dresden Codex, hut less lliaii one of the Codc.x /\ iisiaiiiis. It was ])ul)lislK(l hy clironiolitho.^raphy at Paris, in iShy, i)refaced 1)\- a study on die graphic system of the Ma\as hy the ahhc, and an at- lein]it at a translation. The reproduction, which was carried mil under the efficient care of M. I.eonce An,i;rand, is ex- tremely accurate. '/'//(• i'oth.v Coii(S/(i;:its. — This Codex, puhlished at Paris, 1SS3, under the editorship of Professor Leon de Rosny, pre- sents the closest analoj^y to the Codex Troano, of which, in- deed, it probahly formed a i)art. It has forty-two leav s, closely written in the calculiform character. There is no evidence that it was l)rout;"ht to .Spain hy Cortes, Ijut from a tradition to that effect, it has received its name. All four of the.se codices were written on ])aper manufac- tured from the leaves of the maguey plant, such as that in X' \ ^^rC ^54 KssAvs oi" AN a>ii;kicamst. (.■oiiiuKui use in Mc'xii'o. Ill Ma\a tla- iiiai;uc>- is c-alk(l ,/, tlif \ariclic'S 1)C'iii,i; (listiiij;uislK(l li>- various invfixcs. I; j^rows lii\uriaiitl\- in nmsl jjarts ot" \'ucalaii, and altliniiMii llif l"a\(irik' li])])!*.' oI'IIr- ancient inhabitaiils was mead, llu\ were 111)1 nnae(inaiiited willi llie inloxiealiiii^ /^/ili/ii( . tin li([iii)r t'roiii llie nia,!^ue\-, itwe can jud.i^e fiDin their unrd inr a dniiikard, ci-riiiir ( viiiii-- wvawk The old writers werr pidhahlv in error when tlie\ s])oke ol'liie hooks heiiii^ iii;i(lc of the harks of trees; or, at least, the>- were not all o|' ili ;i material. The ahove-ineiitioned Maiinserii)ts are theonl\dnes wliii'ii have heeii puhlished. I shall not enumerate those wlmh are said to exist in ])ri\-ate hands. So loiii; as the\- are uilh- held tVom the examination of seieiitihc men the\- can adii nolhiii!.;' to the i;eiieral stock of knowledge, and as stateiiKiiN ahout them are not verifiahle, it is useless to make an\-. In addition to the Manuscripts, we have the mural ]>aiiil inj^s and inscri])tions found at PalciU|ue, Co]kui, Chiehni Itza, and various ruined cities within the boundaries of the Ma\a-.speaking races. There is no mistaking these inscri]) lions. They are uiuiuestionably of the same character ;i- the MauuscriiUs, although it is also easy to percei\e \aria- tions, which are partK- owing to the uecessar_\- differences in tecliiii(iue between painting and sculjiture : partK-, no doubt. to the .separation of age and time. I'hotograph.s and ".scpieezes" have reproduced man\ of these inscriptions with entire fidelity. We can also depend upon the accurate pencil of Catherwood, whose delineation-^ have never been ecpialled. But the pictures of Waldeck ami .some other travelers do not deserve any confidence, and should not be quoted in a di.scussion of the subject. THF, HOOKS OF CHILAN P.ALAM/^= fK ■ / ■" I \II,I/A'ri( )X in aiiciciil Aiiurica rn>r to iis liiL;lK^t ^ kwl aiiioiiL; IIil' Ma\a> of N'turilaii. Ni>l In si>(.ak of llii; arcliikclural iii<)iiuiin.nls wliich >{\\\ itniaiii lo allot liiis, \vc liax'c llic L\i(lciux' of llic c;uiir>l iin>>ii)iiariL-> to llu' tact that tlicv aloiic, of all the iiali\i.s of tlir N\\v World, pnsSL'SS a litLTatinv writtc-ii in "letters and cliaiaclcTS." pivsciAx-d in \-olnnifS neatl\ honnd, the paoLi' niannfactuix-d finin th.e material derixed from fdiron.s plants, and sized with a durable white varnish, i' ■ Uiad licfori.' the Niiliii--iiiatii' and Aiiti(|uariaii Soiicty of I'liil.uli Ipliia, at il-« tuiiity rtiurth aiimial iiicctiii.i'. January slli, i-^-^j, ami pulili.^linl in ///( /',iiii Mnillili. f I illln luniu ii>us autliiiiitiL'-- u liitli coulil lie c|iiot(,-il mm tlii- ii'iinl. I >liall y,\\t.- llic uuvcl^df but cmo, r'atlKT .\1(iii--c) I'micc. tlir I'upc'-- eiin\nii^>aiy-i '., nr: al. who travrUil throui;!! Vncalan in \s^i\ ulan niaii\ nativi"^ utTu ."till liviu:; ulm hail Im n liiirii ln.rDi-(j Uic CdiiiiiKst 1 15|| i. I'alhct I'unic had lia\x-Ird tinM\i;^li Mivici), aii'l. Ill' tdiirsL', had k-aiiiLd almul tlic Azlic ijicUiri.- u liliii,^. which lu di-timllv cuiitrasl.-^ with Uil- wrilinj; o!' Uk' Maya--. ( u' the hitter, he -ay.-: ".'«'// i;A//'i.'i/". i/i' ///,> i"".m;s iii/i I' /iic/ds Ins ili'iiuis ilr hi .\ iii :\i J^fHin^i, hi mm ilr i/iir iii \ii ini/ii; 'i''i/il'/ li II id II iiiitii /I'l is y lili (TV, ci')/ qiii' rsi i ihiaii mis /us /hi i\is r /ii\ i ii iii:i>iihi\ i niili ,i (/•' /os Sill I i/iciiis ill' .\IIS iiliiliis 1 sii i\i/i Ill/ill III. I II tihi IIS liii Ims dr < oi li'.a dr i in In ill hnl, III) I lui/rs nail iiinis /I'l as iiiiiv liii i^ns ,/,• ,jiuiila ii In n\i ni diu Jin, i/iis si dnh.'alhiii v I II ni; III II, 1 riiiiii li i/iiidfi ,'i iiniihia ,A iiii lihn nn lui i dnunln ni i iiai lilhi, fnun iinis b nil iins. /'.slas liiiiis y lai iii In sis im Ins i iilnnliiiii , siiin Ins siiiiiilnl,'^ d,' ln.\ idnlns. u/iii' ni ii/iir/lii lnii;iiti sr Ihiiiiaii ' alikiihs,' \ \ iil,^nii iiidin /u iiii i/nil. Jhsfiiiis I, is ni- liiitlii'inii vsii/iitinii Icn- a II; II II lis J III ill s iimslins i aiiii Uis isn ildni." ~{" h'lldi imi I 255 ) iv W0''-: ii » ■23^' IvSSAVS C)l' AN \MI;kK' ANIST. A frw of tlusi.' hooks slill iviuaiti, pivsL-iAfcl to ti-i 1)\- nrci- (k'lil ill llu' i;r<.Ml l",uro|iL':iii lihiariiv^ ; hut most of tluiu \\( tv (k'slroMd li\ IIk' monks. Thfir contents wdf touud to i\ hitr I'hicll) to the i»a,i;:in ritual, Ut tia(Htions of the hiallun tiuK'S, to astrological suin-Tstilions, and the like. IIiik^, tlK\- \\t re eoiisideied deleterious, and were hurtled wlieivwr discovered. This annihilation of tluir sacred hooks affected the iiali\is most keenl> , as we are ]()iiitedl\- informed h\- Ihsla.p I.aiida, himself one of the most ruthless of X'andals in this re^pul.'^' lUit alreadv some of the more inlelliL-ent had learned llie vSpanish alphahet, and the missionaries had added a suHi- cieiit miuiher of si^ns to it to express with tolerahle accuracy the phonetics of the Maya tongue. Relyinj^ on their iiKin- ories, and no douht aided hy some manu.scripts secrells l)reser\-ed, many natives set to work to write out in this m\v ali)hahct the contents of their ancient records. Much was adiled which had heeii l)roU}.;ht in hy the Muroiieans. ami much omitted which had hecome unintellii^iljle or oh^okte since the Coiupiest ; while, of cour.se, the different writers, varyinj;" in skill and kno\\ledi;e, i)roduced works of very various merit. Nevertheless, each of the.se hooks hore tlie same name. lUi'Ti' y I ii ihitlri ii lii' .Miiiniiis C'umix clihts Miiilitts ijtii- Siiiiiiiiinii al I'aiii ii'ia\ Aliiiisi) I'liihi', C'oiiiiMii iii-(,',>ii'iii/ III A;,v l'iii;iiin'a> lir la \iir:ii I'sftafm," l):ii;c ,Vi-'i. I know til) otlK T mitliDr who iiuikis tlic iiit<.rcstiii(.j statftnciit lliat tlusi- cluiraiii i> wore aclually u^^(.■ll by the inissiniiaiits to iiiii)ait instruction to Uio n;itivis; Imt I have licaril thai an L'.\anii)lc of one such manuscript has hccn di.scovcrcd, auil i> now in llic ham's (if a wcU-kniiwn .Americanist. * " .SV hs i/iiriiniiiiiKs tinio.s," he writes, " In ipial ,i iiiiiiin'i/la srii/iaii v/c.v ctin:i />riiii." — " KfUitioii ill' las Cosas lie i'lualait," pajfc jitj. CINKirS I'.NISTINC ui:c<»Ki»s. Ill wlialt-'Vi-'r \'illaj4\' il was u t iiu n, df li\ w liati \ «. r IkiikI, it alw i\ ■> was, ;m<l tn (la\ siiH i-, culli.d ''riir I'.nnk nf Clii 1,111 I'lalaiii," 'I'd <li.sliiij;iii-.li tluin aparl, tlu- iiaiiif d' llu' \iII:iL;f wluir a copN was Idiiiiil or wiilUii. is ai'ul'.fl. 1'ki- IiaM\, in iIr' last iiiiluiN, aliiinsi r\<.T\- \illn.i;(.' IkmI (HU-, wliiili was lifasurcd uilli sMl)t.Tstilinu> \ (.iKTaliiiii. Iliil llir (i]iliusiti()ii (if tlu' />'?(//< s In llii-, kind <il' liUialnn.', llu.' (kfay (i| atiricnl s\iupalliics, and ts|)i'cM;illy ilu' Ion;,; war n\ raix-s, li sinc'L' 1S47 lias (ksiilak-d so nuuli o|' llir jicninstila, W IIH haw dfSlro\c(l most ol' ll'Ain. Tl WW itinaiii, llo\\r\iT, (.■ill'.iT norlions or dcscriiition.s ol" nol Ii.s>, thiin si\t(.(.n o Uust.- rurioiis nconl.s. 'riic\- aix- known iVoni tin,- nan KS o llii' \ilhii;cs rc'Si)fC'li\L'l\ as the J5ook of Cliikni llakini "f NaKiila, ol' Cliiiina\(.d, of K.uia, of Mani. ( )\kut/'('al), ol Ixil, of Tihosnco, of Tixcoi'ol), ctr., tlic.-r Iicmi.l; llir names (if \arioiis native towns in tlie jieninsnli. WIrii I add that not a sin.i;le one of tlust,- lias ewr been printed, or even entirel\' transhiled into an\ I'and]ieaii lon,L;ue, it will he evident to e\'er\- areli;eoloi;ist ; nd liii^^uist wli.it a rich and tinex])lored mine of inlorniation ahonl this iiili r(.stini; ])eoi)le the\ ina\- i)resent. It is m\ int<.nlion in this ailitde merely to toiah upon a few sali(.iit ]ioinls to illustrate this, leavin.i; a tl;oroUL;h disenssion of their origin and contents to the future editor who will lirin<' them to the ;ii(iw led<'e of till' learned wdrld. Turnint;' first to the nieaninj; of the name " Cliilai Hah itDl , it is not difficult to find its derixation. Ch iian , ;a\ s liishop Landa, the second liishop of \'ncatan, whose kscription of the native customs is an in\alual)le soince to Is. "was the name of their priests, whose dutv it was to r 258 liSSAVS OI' AN' AMl'KICAMST tench IIr- sciences, lo fip]i()int h()l\' da\s, to treat the vjcl; lo oUcr sac T ririces, and especiall\' to utter the oracle- 'I' Uk WLre so hi,i;hl\- honored by tlie people lluu iisualK thi>' were carried on litters on the shonlders dl tht de\olL-es. '■■ " interpreter, vStrictly speakinj;', in Ma\a itl niontn-piece, fr. oni cliij , chih. "tl f)i iiK.ins le nioinh," and in this ordinar\- sen.sc tre(iuentl\' occurs in other writ- iiius. Tlie word, bah am -literally tiuer, ■ — was applied to a class of ])riests, and is still in use anion:; iIk- nati\-es of Yucatan as the designation of the prole cUw spirits of fields and towns, as I have shown at leni^tli it pr evious study of the word as it occurs in the nativ 1 a e nulli- o f (■ uateniala. r 'C/ii/aii /hc/!?///," .therefore, i s not a ]M inn.'!- name, but a title, and in ancient times desi<;iiated the juiest who announced the will of the gods and explained the sacred oracles. This accounts for the uniyersality ot the name and the sacredness of its associations. The dates (.)f the hooks which ha\e come down to us are various. One of them, "The ]5ook of Chilan lialani dl Maui," was undoubtedly composed not later than 15 .^ii- is pro\ed by internal evidence. \'arious passages in iIil ■ /\\ l,lii<ill di- ,\l.\ ( ' ,/,• )•, ti/ciii. i)ai;i' iiii t Sit-- aliovi-. pp. 1 .."^ and i ; The t(,'nniiial kltrr in Imtli tlicsc wimU ,//;- Lilt, ■ baliiiii," — nuiv !>■ illlLT ' ;/ " or " III ,'' till- c'lian.:;!.' luini; imc ol'iliaKxl ami Uical piimnnciatidn. I liavc tnlloucc! lliu oUki- anllmrilii^ in writini; " C'ii.\iii Inildiii." tlu- nicuk-iii pniL-ninu " I'/iilaiii Ihi!ciiii." Scfior rUii;ii) Anrnna. in hi- ix-ccnlly pnhlislicil lli.\t,i ,/,■ )■, dldii. i\'()l. i., pa.nc J411, iioU-, Mcriil ilUi- tlH-al>snnl su;.;L;c'Slii)n that tlu' name ' hiiluiii " was ijivcn to llie nativi Mmtli-ayii- hy tlu- larly nii-..-.ii)nari<.'S in liiliciiU'. (kri\ ini; it I'mni tlu- will knnwn pi r-'iiia^c ju till- olil 'rotaniiait. It is snrprisiii.n tliat Sormr Aiiinna, wiitint; in Miii.l.i Ii.nl never aiiinaintiil liiniselt with the I'erez niaiinsiMipts, inir with those in posM— inn ol" liisliup Canillo. Indeed, the riost of his ttcatnicnt of the iincieiit history ullii- comitiy is disappointingly snpeilieial. CONTENTS ()!■ Till' BOOKS. J 59 /'H wi'iks of I.aiula, Liznna, .Sanclicv, At;uilar and Cogolludo — ;ill iarl>- historians of Yucatan--]n-i)VL' lliat inaiu' of iliusc ]i:iti\c' niaiuiscrii)ts existed in tlie sixtcentli ceutun-. .*^ev- (.r.il ivscrijits date from the sexenteenth ceiilurx, -iiio^t from {\w latter half of the eighteenth. The names of the writers are j^enerally not .<;iven, iMohably lux'ause the books, as we ha\e them, are all eoi)ies of older iiKiimseripts, with merel\- the oecasional addition i>\ cnrrent items of note by the eo]nist ; a>, for instance, a malij^nant e]>idemic wliich prevailed in the ])eninsula in 167:; is men- tioned as a i)resent <xxurrence b\- the copyist of " The 15ook <(t Chilan lialani of Xabula." [ e-ome now to the contents of these cnrions works. What they contain may conveniently be classified nnd-. r fonr headings : Astrological and prophetic matters ; Ancient chronology and history ; Medical recipes and directions; Later history and Christian teachings. The last-mentioned consist of translations of the " /W- tr/im." ]5ible stories, narratives of events after the Con<|nest, etc., which I shall dismiss as of least interest. The astrology ai)i)ears ])artl\' to be reminiscences of that nf their ancient heathend(jni, partly that borrowed from the J',nroi)ean almanacs of the centnr\- 1 ^^o-i^so. These, as is well known, were crannned with ])redit'tions and divinations. .\ careful analysis, based on a comjjarison with the Sjianish almanacs of that time, would doubtless rexeal how nnicli was taken from them, and it would be fair to presume that the remainder was a survival of ancient native theories. ^;ur >f*. 3;' h %1't 2C-)n ICSSAYS OI" AX AMICRICAMST. I)iil llierc arc- not wantiiit; actual i)n)i)lK'cies of a imicli iiKirc strikint; character. These were attributed to the aiii itnt ])riestsan(l to a date loni^' ])recedin,L; the ad\eiit oi"Christi;iiiiiy, Some of them lia\e been ])rinted in translations in tl;e " ///,- /or/ffs" of Li/ana and Co^olludo. and of some the I'li-i- lials were ])id)lished 1)\- the late Abbe lirasseur de llnur- bouri;", in the second volume of the reports of the " .I//>v/,v,' Si it )itil'iti]iir ail .U.w/i/iu el dai/s /' . I ii/ri /<//ii Ciii/idh." Their authenticity has been met with considerable skepli' ism l)y Wait/ and others, ])articularly as the\- seem to pr^ilict the arrival of the Christians from the ICast and the intnuhK- tion of the worship of the cross. It appears to me that this incredulity is uncalled for. U is known that at the close of each of their lari^er divi-^iuns of lime (the so-called " /vcZ/c-'/.v," ) a "f///7(r//," or inspireii di- viner, uttered a prediction of the character of the war or epoch which was about to bei^in. Like other w^ndd he l)ro])hets, he had doubtless learned that it is wiser to piei'.ict evil than good, inasnuich as the probal)ilities of e\il in ilu- worried world of ours outweii;"h those of t;x)od ; and wlieii the evil conies his words are remembered to his credit. while if, perchance, his j^loomy forecasts are not reali/cd, no one will bear him a s^rudge that he has been al fiull. The temi)er of this ])eople was, moreox'er, ;^loom\-. and it suited them to hear of threatened danger and destruction by foreign foes. Hut, alas! for them. The worst that the b^ cl- ing words of the oracle foretold was as nothing to the dire event which overtook them — the destruction of their naliiiii. their temi)les and their freedom, 'neath the iron heel ol llie Spanish contjueror. As the wise G(;ethe .says: A xA'ri\-i' i'R()i'iii;cv. j6i " Si;'/.\,iii/ is/ /'ri>/>//f/i-i///r(/, Pocli Dulii scllsaiii :i\i\ ^,-sr/ii(-lit." A^ to 111*-' snpjioscd refcTcnc'c to the c-ross and its worship, it iniiv he ivmarked that tlie native word translated "cross' by tlie missionaries, simply means "a piece of wood set np- rii^ht," and may well have had a different and s])ecial sii;- nifii ation in the old days. ]lv way of a specimen of these projihecies, I ([note one froTn "Theliook of Chilan Balam ofChnmayel," sa> ini; at once thai for the translation I have depended njjon a com])arison of the Spanish version of Li/.ana, who was l)lindl\- preju- diced, and that in h'rench of the Al)l)e Ihasseur de IJour- l)(ini>;', 'vho knew next to nolliini;- about Ma\a, with the (iri:^inal. It will he easily understodd, therelbre, that it is rather a paraphrase than a literal rendering;-. The oriL;in;\l is ill >hort, aphoristic sentences, and was, no doulit, chanted with a rude rhvthm: '.'■;•» ' x " Wh:il liiiie llie sun sliall liri.vlili'sl shine, 'rearful will ]iv the e\es oftlu- kiiii;'. I'our a^t.'s \el shall lie insi'filR'(l, Then shall ei)nie the hol\- jiriesl, \.\\v hoh- .uoil. With ,nrief I sjieak what now I si'c. Walc-h wi'll the roail, ye iKwIKts of li/.a. The master of the earth shall e-onii' to ns. 'I'hus ])roi)hesits Xahan I'ech, the sfL-r, In tile <lays ofthr fourth a;^!.-, At the time of its I)i^iniiin<;'." 1 .> '. • .<•; ' Such arc the obscure and ominous words of the ancient (iiacle. If the date is atitlieiitic. it would lie about 14S0- the "fourth age" in the Ma_\a system of computint; lime beiiiL^ 262 ICSSAVS Ol" AX AMKKICAXIST. -.* a ])crio(l of cither twenty or twenty-four years at the close of the fifteenth century. It is, howe\er, of little importance whether these are accu- rate cojjies of the ancient jjrophecies; they remain, at least. faithful imitations of them, composed in the same spirit aiKl form which the native priests were wont to employ. A num- ber are given nuich Ioniser than the above, and containiuL; various curious references to ancient usages. Another value they have in conunoii with all the rest of the text of these books, and it is one which will be proiieiiy appreciated by any student of languages. They are, l)y conunon connent of all competent authorities, the gemiiuL- productions of native minds, cast in the idiomatic forui> of the native tongue by those born to its use. No matter how fluent a foreigner becomes in a language not his own, he can never use it as does one who has been familiar with it from childhood. This general maxim is ten-fold true when we apply it to a European learning an American language. The flow of thought, as exhibited in these two linguistic families, is in such different directions that no amount of practice can render one equally accurate in both. Hence the importance of studying a tongue as it is employed by natives; and hence the ^■ery high estimate 1 place on these " Books of Chilan Balam" as linguistic material — an estimate nuich increased by the great rarity of independent compositions in their own tongues by meml)ers of the native races of this continent. I now aj^proach what I consider the peculiar value of tlie-e records, apart from the linguistic mould in which they are cast; and that is the light they throw upon the chronoloi;!- cal svstem and ancient historv of the Mavas. To a limited Hi A.NCIlCN'r MAVA HISTORY. ^(^?, cNtL'tit. tliis has already been Ijioui^Iu before the ])ul)lie. The late Don I'io Perez s^ave to Mr. .Sicpheiis, wlicii in \'n- cal:in, an e.ssay on tlie method of coniputins;' time anions the amient Mayas, and also a Ijrief s\nii]isis of Ma\a history, apjiaiently i^ointa; back to the third or lonrth eentnr\ of the Christian era. lioth were ])ublished li\- Mr. Stejihens in the apjiendix to his " Travels in \'ueatan." and have a]i])eared repeatedly since in ]vn;.;^lish, Sjianish and I''reneh.-'- 'l'he\- ha\e, n]) to the ])resent, constituted almost our sole sources (if inlormation on these interesting; jioints. Don I'io Terez \\a> rather \a,i;ue as to whence he (leri\ed his kno\vledi;e. He relers to "ancient manuscripts," "old authorities," and the like; but, as the Abbe llrasseurde 15ourbouri;' justlx' com- plains, he rareh- (piotes their words, and kIncs no de>crip- tiuns as to what they were or h.ow he <;ained access to them. i In tact, the wlude of Senor Perez's informati()n was derived fniin these "Books of Cliilan Ihdam;" and without wishini;' at all to detract from his reputation as an auti(piar>- and a Ma\a scholar, I am oblii^ed to say that he has dealt with them as scholars .so often do with their authorities; that is, luuini;- framed his theories, he (|Uoted what he found in their l"a\iirand nei;leeted to refer to what he obser\ed was a.i;ainst llieni. '■For example, in the AVi;'-''''" )'iiiii/,i i>. 7't>mc III : Jliti ininn ii> t iii: , i j-,:/ ,.',■ III.. !'iiit! \ l,',iii;i(!/i(i. I'liiii,' \'lll. 'Mtxii'D, i>^-,i; I hnii'itai ii> I listm im di' )jii(ll,u.' hiiiie A (Mi.ridii, l~^^l)l; in the appcinlix to l.aiiilaS ( '"v;a iI,- )/(. ,;A/)/ i Pari--, \^i:\K itc Tlu- e]>Mcli<, 111" (ii/iiii.s. Ill' y];i\;\ hi-l(iiv liavr liicn intntls' a;;ain ar.il\/cil !i\ II:, l''eli]ie N'aleiithii, in an c.-ay in liie lurnian ami I!i;L;li^li Ian.uua,;i >, tln' lalUiin the /'iik rniii/L:.'' ii\ \.h<. Anu-iicaii Aiitii|Uaiian Sotiity, r ^". tTla Alilii-'s i-rilioism (nfin^ in lliciiDtc iri pai;'. ,;"'> mI' lii> i.litinn (j!' I.andaS ( ".'i/\ (/(• )'i(t a/iiii. ', Si . ♦ . J ? 1^^ fW«i It I- ' !^'H:r ■<* (i ' * . x ?r,4 I'.ssAvs <)i' AN a:\ii;ricanis'i 'i'luis. il is a cardinal (HK'Stii)ii in Vuratccan arclui' (iiii'i\- as ti) \\li(.-tli(.r llR-(.i>(ich or ai^c li\' whirli the s^rcal cvclr tli,,- aliait katioi, ' was reckoned, embraced t\venl\' or Iwenh tmir / (U- \ears. Contrarx' to all tlie Spanish authorities, I'ere clared for twentN-fonr \ears, su])i>orlinL;' himself 1)\- " il manuscripts.' Chilan IJalan It is true there are three of the " I'ook -th ose ( ) f M; nil, •vau I and Oxkut/.cal),— which are distinclK- in faxor of twentv-four vear; liut, nil the other hand, there are four or hx'e others which are cl eaiiv ,11(1 for the i)eriod of twenty years, and of these Don i'ere/, nothinij, alLhou''li coiiies of more than one of them were in his lil)rar\- vSo of the epochs, or ka/ni/s, of Ma\a lii^l or\- there are three or more copies in these hooks which Ik- dn(.> not seem to ha\-e compared with the one he funii'-lieil Stephens. Ilis labor will have to he repealed according; lo the methods of modern criticism, and with the addilioiial material obtained since he wrote. Another \aluable feature in these records is the liiiit> tli ev furnish of tlie hieroylvphic s\^^tem of the Ma\a.- Alniii>l our oiil\- aulhoritv heretofore has been the essav of I, inda, uffered somewhat in credit because we had no me; ins It has s of verif\iiiij, his statements and coinpariuii; the characleis Ik uixes. Dr. X'aleiitiui has e\en sjoiie so far as to attack ^ohk o f his assertion s as fabrications." 'n lis is an amount m skei)ticism which exceeds lioth justice and probabilitw The chronological portions of the " liooks of Chilan Halaiii " are partl_\- written with the ancient signs of the da\>, months and epochs, and the\' furnish us, also, deliiiealion> of the "wheels" which the natives used for computing time. The Ibniier are S(j important to the student of Ma\a liieiu- ini'.Koci.vi'iiic cii.\kacti;ns. jA: ;l\lillics llial liavL- added ])lii)tnL;ra])liU" R|)ii diK-l \i)\\> of Uu 111 to lliis jJaiuT, j^ix'iiiL; alsi) R'pivM'Utalioiis of ihosc of I, iiida for comparison. Il \vi 11 \)V oh ■-(.•r\c(l thai tiK' si'' IIS of tl r I la \s an.' disliiicllv similar in the inaioritN' of casc- )nl that those of the months are hardl\- alike. he liieroi4]\])hs ol th e (la\s tal en li'o m the " ( 'ix/iv 7)<'ii//i>," an ancient Ma\a book written before the Con(inest, ])rii!iabl\- abont 1400, are also adckd to illustrate the \'ari- ali'iiis which occurred in the hands of different scribes, from the " Hooks of Chilan Jialam " are copied from Tll: ise a iiianuscrij)! known to Ma\a scholar> a> the " ('('(//n I (if undoubted aulhenticit\- and auti(|uil\." '■■ (It 1 he result oi the coni])anson I thus institute is a tnumpli- niL refutation of the doubts and slurs which ha\'e been cast nil bishop Landa's work, and \indicate i"or it a \er\- hij.',h (If 'lec- 01 accuracN' and hU! The hiero,L;l\i)hics for the month.s are (|uite complicated, in the "Hooks of Chilan Ualam" are rudel\- drawn; for all that, two or three of them are e\-i(lenll\' identical with those in the calendar i)reser\-ed by Landa. .Some \ear.s a''o. roiessor de Rosuy expressed liimseli ni j^reat doubt as to the lldeiitN- in the tracin<; of these hiero,L;l\iihs of the iiioiilhs, priiicipall>- because he could not find them in the twi) codices at his connnand. > As lie obserxe--. tlie\- are ' It IS (k-crilii-(l at Irii;_;lh by Dun Crcsciiuii) Cal rillo y Aiuima, ill lii~., /ii^iitii' :il'i, Id lli\l,ii 1,1 </, la A, .1/.; ^;^^illa, p i"Ji (/ii/.s (l,:/iiiii ^/iii- riwaiihii i/iii/^ /'Ills liiii s (t,!iii! ■L.hI,- 1 I , H-^nn: ity iii in: ill' ill- la Ja^aii lit jii IIS .V ; h IIM' ,, II Lli rpiri , I' llihlll' it dii Ml: Ills, t'llll il II mm lis ail pmnl di' : iir i/r I'ia ai tiliidi' di' li in /i ai •-. i/ii' a: ri iiiir i ii taiih' ;. 1.1 .11 lie RcJSlW ~ai siiy /(.' Di'i iiil/i I iiliiil dr !' I:i i ilii ir / Ih i alii/iir dr I A iii,i li/ii liii/ia/i\ l)a;iL- Ji il'aiis, 1--71.1. lly tile "( '•■./. 1 I'. 1 .-■.laiiiis.'' hciliifs iiol iik:iii tilt- ■' (■',//,(• /'rii:." hill 11k- Ma\a nianii-c: ijil in tin- Iiilili'<llir(|Ui.- NaUonalu. Thu iikmitv 1)1' Un.' names is oiiifnsiiiLL and unrnrtiinatt.-. 266 KSSAYS OF AX A:\n;KIC.\MST, i;i in V ^<?/ z/inCL^ yjc/uO /tartne^ /f^Aiaf o. Jo e ' /^ine-Xjo Cceft- 2/ JeyO - 2.S-- ^pcry xu2:Z4 ockjL '2VoL?=zfi Cocoa, TJTjo/z 3zT)izieJ7i cfC^en. : 2 3 Maya.6: ^• j.-jc, I,— si.uiisof the Months, from the liook ofChilan Halaiii of Chiiiiiayil. IlcU ycU<x/n.ccLii. OLOIC •4' vSrONS OK Tim MONTHS. .'67 FOP. JuJUo 16 uo. ZOO UECoZEEC OctoLrcs.'f YAXRIN MOL Di.ctle7ixtrc3 X[ XD M XF X^ X\l OT mn YAX n^s."^ Ervcro ll ZAC Tehrero 1. CEU Fe')»*eTO 21 MAC iAarzJO 1$ KANKIN MOAN '/ AlrrCLil RAYAB •I ]''u;. 2.— Signs of tlic Moiitlis, ;\s hivlii 1>y liishoi) I.nnda JuillO i CUMRU JUTVLO Z( ■■"'V* pp aAs I'.SSAYS Ol" AN A:\n:RIC AMST (Oinposih' si.niis, and this j^ocs to c\])laiii tin- (liMTcpai for it iiia\- l)(j R'.yardc'd as fstahlislicd that the Mav lc\- ])L'rmittc'd ilic use- of several sii^iis Inr tlie same souiiil. .iiul the seuljjtor or serihe was not ohlijLjed to represent the >aiin.' word alwa\s h\- the same fi.nure. In close relation to ehronolos^y is the s\stem of nniinra- tion and arithmetical sij^ns. These are disiaissed with ' mh- sideraMe fnlness, espeeiallN- in the "Hook of Chilan lial iin of Kana." The numerals are represented 1>>- e.\aell\ the same fi.nures as we llnd in the Maya manuscripts of iIk' libraries of Dresden, Pesth, Paris and Madrid; that i>, li\ points or dots up to fix'e, and the Ihes 1)\- sint;le slraii;lil lines, whit'h nia\- he in(liserimiiiatel\' drawn \erlieall\ (n horizontallw 'IMie same hook contains a table of mullipli- cation in Spanish and Ma\a, which settles some di-^puUil points in the use of the vit;esimal s\stem !)>• the Max as. A curious chapter in several of llie hooks, especiall\- ihn-.i. of K;uia and Maui, is that on the thirteen ahaii kalii )l<. nr epochs, of the j^reater c>cle of the Mayas. This cycle nii- hraced thirteen ])eriods, which, as I ha\e before remarked, are computed by .some at twent\' \ears each, b\- (-i.her> al tweut\-four years each. Ivich of these ka/niis was jire- over b\- a chief or kin.y;, that being the meanini;' of the Kk'd wiiid aliaii. The books above mentioned tiive l)oth the name aiu the i)ortrait, drawn and colored l)y the rude hand of tin.- native artist, of each of these kiui^s, and the>- sugi^est sewral interestini;' analoj^ies. They are, in the first jilace. identical, with one exception, with tho.se on an ancient native painting, an engraviii.n ni which is given bv I'ather Cogolludo in his " IIistor\ "t Till', AIIAr K ATINS. 2f)i) '\'iir;itaii," and txplaiiud li\ him as lln.- ivprotiitatinn iilnu or* unciuT wliiili took ])latx- al'Uf the Spaniards ani\fd in [\\,- ]niiinsnhi. Mxidmllw ihv naliw in who-r hands thr \\.i]ih\ l"alh(.r Innnd it, traiini^ llial ]\v ])ailni)k n\ [\\v tanalii' i-iii whith had k-d \\\v missinnariis li> llie- (ksli uction mI so iiiaiiN' Rccirds of ihcir nation, dcixiwd him as to its pnrport, and .U''^'*-' '•'"' •'" <.'Npkniation whiili imparled to thr sc-foil thi cdiarartiT ol" a liarmkss hislorw 'I'hr onr (.'xiTiJtion is ihu last or tliirtrrnth cdiitf. Col;o1- llilo ;i |)nc'nds to this the name an Indian w lio prona l.k (hd tall a \ic-tim to his lViendshi]i to the Spaniar< Tl us name, as a sort of LJiiarantee for the rest of his stor\', tlu iiali\e serihe inserted in i)lace o f tlu rennnie one Tlu pei.uliaiit\- of tile fi.^ure is that it has an arrow or dai^ner Not onl\- is this mentioned Ii\' Coijol- (hi\en nito its eve. hido's informant, hut it is represented in the i)aiiitiiiL;s in liutli the " iiooks of Chilaii I'alam " above noted, and also, !i\ a fortunate coiiieideiiee, in one of the ealeiidar i>a.i;es of the " C'lu/t.v TroaiuK" plate xxiii., in a reiiiarkahle eartonehe, wliieh, from a \vholl\- indeiieiideiit eonr e of reasonill,^, was some time since ideiitilled 1)\' tlie well known anti(inar\-, I'mfLssor C>rns Thomas, of Illinois, as a eartonehe of one of the .\liait /ca/iiiis, and prohabl)- of the last of them. It ,i;ives me iiuieh pleasure to add such conclusive proof of the sagacity of his supposition. ■^• There is other evidence to show that the eii,<j;ra\iiii; in Cdgulludo is a relic of the purest ancient Maya .synibolisin — * " The Maiiuscri])t Troaiio." juililislud in '/ lir . I »/(■/ /r an \iiliii ali^l. .XUKUvt, i^'^i , piii;c i.|u. 'I'liis lUiimisciipl or t(ii!i\ u:i> ] ul.livl'.id in tl:r( nii.-litli"!,iai.li, 1 ans, 1^/1, liv Uif I'lcncli CiOVCTnUKiit. ,.-«ji 27(t JCSSAYS t)l' AN AMI'.KICANIST, 5 < -. a- ^ ^ f^ ^ ^ '^ -'- CO c>J Ed B0@HS@aHB J I ^ r« n ^ ,< V £^ ^ 1 -^5 1 ^ \0 /^^S QQ O^ 130 ^ ^0 I 00 ^Pl /> — «o ij.? Q Si ^ s. SHINS nv 'nil', I)\VS. I 3 3 j CO OS 3E 5L |7^ [71 |\I1 gri g^ o ^ 4 ^ ^ -a ; s o ~ ~ ■s. ~ O i: •" ft% o <>^ i^@0!EB@HSffi r a- -,. 3 I e< fj I Mil c3 ^ ^ 4 >o ^«- «Q <>> i3a HSHSSffl i I ICSSAVS Ol' AN AM :iCAMS'r oiu- of llu' ni(i-t iiitcTc'sliiii; wliicli li;i\f lK<.'n i>n'S(.TW(l Inn Imt U) (.iitri" uiHiii iis (.'Xiilanation in this ci miU't'tii )ii wnuli! Ir' ton |;ir t'lcni 1H\' pITSrllt l(i])ic'. A ;i\(inU' llunn.' with llit.' wriUis ol tlif r.ook Cllil: I'nhini " \\,i> tlir v\]]x- of distiiM.--. I .lollop ;mil;i (.xi nil- tlu I iihiiii, ;is ' ' .sorcc'RTS ami doctc w: and add> tlial 'ilK- ol lluir iiromuK'iit dtitir^ was to (lia.L;iiosi.' di>c'aSL" niM iMiMii om llirir a])]>ro])riati.' rniirdic: A S Wf lin,L;llt (.■\lart, t lu-i\loi\', c'onsidi-ral proniiiR'iKX' !:■ 'U'cai to tlK' dc-trii ti<in of syiu]itoiiis and suL;i,;<.'stioiis for lluar alK\ ialnjii. Ilkt'diiiL; and llic adiiiinistratioii of prriiaralions of naliw- plants aiv tlic usual ]in.'srri])lio!is ; hiil lIrtc ai\' otlur-' wliieli lia\r ])robal)l\- liccii bo'rowi'd from soniu doinolir nK'diriiK' liook of luiropcaii orii;in. TI K- late Hon I'io IV'iX'Z >'a\c a <'rcat (k'al of atlciitinn b collLc-tiii;; tlK-sc uatixT n.'ii]ics. md his niaiu isnijits wiiv caR'fulK c\ainiuc'<l I)\ Dr. r>L'ivndt, who coniluiud all tlu iK'CL'Ssai V knowli'd u)lanical, Imuuislic and nR'dical w ho has k l"i a lari^c nianuscrii)!, (.-ntilk-d "A' \( (i III r/i's di k' consi(k-r,> IIr- hidios,'' whioli ])r(.'S(.ails 11r' suhjccl fullw scii.n'.ilic xaluc of IIr-sc rcUR'dies to he next to nothiii'. ami the la.iL;na^L' in winch 11r'\- are recorded to he (li>lni> llv inferior to that of the remainder of the " IJooks of Cliilin r.al; 1111. Hence, he kelieves that this portion of tlu- anciuil records was siii)i)lanled some lime in the last ceiilnr\ li\ medical notions introduced from luirone ui .sources. Siuli. in fact, is ihe slatenR'Ul of the copxists (>f the hooks ll u-iii- /),vA mil uis II Uhlit- V sns I nil, ■du. Rhi d,- h IS C I pa^v I'Hi. I.iki.' much of I.aiulMs Spaui.^li, tliis usruf llu woril ' ti,- IcKiuial, and nut ^ias^i(.•al. S(.'l\ '.■•^, \o Til!' HOOK oi' nil' ji'AV. 2-jT, as these H'ci])fs, dr., are sdUietiines found in a sei)a- luiiie, entitled " 'I'lie I'onk of the Jew," /•.'/ /./7>ri> ,/,/ ///(//<>." W'lio this allej;e(l Ji wish ])h\>ieian was, wlio lilt so wi<le spread and (huahk- a renown ainon;^ tlie ^'lu atiean natiws, none of the .ireliuiiloi^isls has lietn able t(i lind out. \v huiijuaue and st\le of most ol" tliese I xioks are aolior- istl elhptit'al and ohseure. The Ma\a hini;ua;;e has ii;ilinall\ underi;()ne eonsiderahle aUeration since tlie\- were wiilUn ; therelore, even to eonijietent rividers of onhnary ^^l\a, tlie\- are not readily intelli^il)le. h'ortunately, how- (.■\ci, there are in existence exeellenl dii'lionarii'S, whieh, weie they ])ul)lished, would he suflieieiit for this purpose. • .\ Mi'iliiiini /)oi)ii-sli( ,1 . iiiidir the iiaiMc (if "Dun Uiianlo Ossado, (alias, fl Jii:hf.\" •vas ])iili1i.'lu'(l at Miiii!,i in i'-;]; Iml tlii-- aii|)i:ii> l-i liavi- luin nu'icly il liiiuk-i Ik I" s ikvicc 1(1 aid llif sak' ol IIk- liuuk by atli ilmtni;^ it In llic "j^rcat un- kllnU M." 18 ON Till', "STONF, OF TllF (ilANTS. A T llu' la'^t iiKitiui; nt" this Soi-ir'y, ;i jili(it<i;;i,i|ili \\,i- ^ ' U'l'iix rd ot' till.' riiiiiii ii( /,'s (,i-'<n n " Stoiir III 1] ( H,m!s." imw >ilu;it(.<l ;U I'Niniiul.i, lu ar llir i'il\ ol ( » Mr\i^-('. It was (>l)li<'in>'l\ lor •vankd l)v llir M 1 i/.iiia. I Mf.UI aiili(iuar\ , I''allK'r Dainaso SotmnaN oi , and ua^ rclnnd \\\ tlif Soi'irtN to iiK' lor a possiMi' iutti pirtatioii of llir liL;llu^ rcpR'scnti.(l. 'rill.- siiukr acvoinpaiiK'il tlic (.'ti\()\ with a copy of a ik\v>-- P.llH 1 puMislu'd in ()ii/al>a, (.iititlr /•;/ .sy.'/,' <//!( . liiihi w lii I'll ro utaiiicd a U'iiL;tli\ iiitirpixlation of llii.' I li-Ulr h\ l''allu'i v'^oloinavor in arrordaiu'i with till.' piinc-i|il(.s lai down in his m-(.aUl\- puhhshcd work on the (U'ciphi. umiit )! X/Wc I ui.'i()'' i\ niiios. Iir alhrf sic'S 1 n tl ir nisi'Mliril t"i'jni\'s a ni\slical allnsion to tl H' coumiL; ol L hrist to ila (icntiks, and to llio orrnrn-aux'S snpiniSL'd in IK'l)i(,\v iiixlli to ha\ I' taken pia'.T in the (larden of I'",d».'n. As I i,'amint aL;i(.(.' in the nanotesl with his h\ jiothesis, I shall sa\ nmli ini; lurlher ahonl it, Imt i)roi\'ed to L;i\e what I consider llu tin I.' si^nilieance ol the mscnoed ii^nies. 1 shonld inet'ace ni> remarks hy nienlioninj; thai this si OIK * Rciid hi loll' tlu' Nniiiisiua'.io aiiil AntiiiuMi i.ui Smiiiydl I'liil.uli liilii.i in t/.. . I --/(•. ii.v, Mi'xici). i.->SS. I -'74 ) rosiTKiN (>i 'nil". s'poM'.. iv nut ;i vcciiil <lisc<)\'(r\ in .Mc.\ic;m .irclianlos^v, It \\;is i -..^iiiinnl li\ C';i]il;iin I )ni);ii\ in tlic \«.;ir iS< >.s, ami is li.i;ui( <1 III iIk illn^tiatinns tn his vdlnniinous nai latiw. ■ Tin- i"i.i;iin' li. ■•I \ IS is li<i\V(\«'t so riionmns tlial it \ iclds Imt a lain! idi'.l []\v nal cliarailvr and nicanin; the iliau in 'J U Dim Is llir ornanuiil on the lii< ast, ami aKo the lines alun',' tlit- ii..'!it o| llic giant's lacr, ulmli as i shall show aic<lisinK' li\i' liaits. It v,i\<s him a l;iii1U' wIhk none is lU limatid, and lln- i(lati\c si/c and |iio]ioi tions nl ;dl the lliii>- tii.;nirs ale 1] u\\v distovtrd I) n]iai,\ niiomis ns, li« rv\(.\ ci , ol s(.\iial pal lienlars whirl) thi' \\i\. Solinnaxur oniilli.d to slutc. I'loin tlu- loinKT's d(s( I i])tion \\c- liarn that llu- sIoik', or lallu r Kick, on uliiidi tlir inscrijition is lonnd is ion.L;hl\- tri aiii^nlai' in shapr, prt-srntini; a mai 1\ stai,i;ht hordci' ot' lliirly I on rat h sidf. Il is hard and nnil<iini in lixlnrc and ol a dark coloi-. 'JMic kai^lh or hcii^ht ol the ]iiinci])a! iii;nii' is twiiilN' seven leel, and llu- incised lines uhi( h desiL;nale the xaiions oliji'cts are dee'iil\ and cleailx cnl. Jn the ])iesent jiiisilion ol the stone, which is the same as that staled by Ca]>lain J)njiai.\, the head of the jaincipal liL;nre, called " the Liianl," lies toward the east, while the ri''hl hand is ex t(.nd(.<l toward llu' north and the l<Jt toward the west. It is(i]Kn to <loul)l whether this disix jsition was accidental or iiilenlional, as there is reason to helitw that the stone is not !lniiMi.\, .1 ii/j(/uj/i\ .1A I ''I I'.xjiril , ]) ;■, \') \ i, V ii lii; .\l tliiil I mil' Ihc ll.il siiiiiici' <il tlu tin U \\.i, I 111- II'"i; III .1 < aliiii Imill njinnil At ]iiiciit llu r.il.iii li.i'- ilis;i]i|ii aicil. .Ml llaiiili lii i i|ii< -. iinl mi hi In 1i;im vi^ili il llii^ ■■tunc will II III- wii?. ;il < 11 i/;il)a .;il'. 1iiiiil;Ii lu ii li i s In I inii.ii \ \ t \ |iliii .il i' iiis A'./.// / .(/ iin Ai,li.,;J,i II ill I tin I 111 Mr \ It n III 1^^ 1 , 1 1 .lUnsliill. I -I' N'"" 'I"' - M II slirhrl, lliiiii,;li lu :i1m) It'll' is lu it, ;;iM' ally IVrsIi iiilciriiiiitinij aliiiul it. Si i hii . /// .1/ i /Xt li.iiul I, .s. ;ii. :\\ 27'' i:ss\NS 111' AN \mi;nic wisr iimv ill it^ oiij^iii.il |>i>Mtiuii, or nut iii lli:it lui uliirli it was illUuilcd. Aldir^ llu' li.i^riil llic ^tdiii'. wliicli i^ m tlnckiU'^s hiik' l\l' |C( 1, :ll lllr I. (lir L'i.nil, llun' ;nc .1 ^rrii'^ n\ \]y \U{\ iiisi rilud wliicli ,in' imw .ilninst dlililci .itid ; ;it Icisi ilu phi iliiLM .l|'llS srllt lllc StHU't\ i;i\i.' IK II iik;i 111 lliciii. Mill tlU' rilt-> n|' I)l1|>;li\ ;1U' pl.lillK li >! lllr lllnst jiait l.lllrillll, 'riu'ir iMr^i'iicc tluic. liii\\(\ir. prmrs lli.it llirlilnck w.i^ imi iiitniiKil to ii.ni.' luiii srt up mi I'll^r, nr iiisritiil \uli imIK into ,1 w.ill, .1'. citlui 1)1 tlu'-^t' an .in.L;i.iiU'nls wmiM oli-riiinl tlicsr liin ()l;1\ plis. '■ II \\v 1 now ;i|)pio.irli tlu' lUriplu'i nu ill oi' llir iiisi-riptions. A n\ owv \risril in tlu- sij^ns ol tlir Mrsicin caKiiil;!! will at that it roiit.iiiis tlu- il.itcol ;i ccitnin \i.;ir ;in (111 !■ 1 1 iia\ pc'li'i. l\ I.' ()ii tlu' K'tl ot tlir ''i'l'it i-- sirll ;i laliliit stii i onniKil will) li ii ciuMil.ii <K'pir-sion>. 'PIu^c' iKpu-sions an.' tlu' well k ill i\\ 11 A/t til.' (.'O 111.11 lor iitiiiuvils, ami tlir rah hit ]\\ ri.'sriits (iiu lur a^lioiioiuio si''ii,s h\ which iIua ailiusti'il lluii ihruii olo''ii.~ I \ cli.' ol' lil'lN two \ cats. Tin.' llm'c oIIk rs wear a h' uisi.', a ii.'cil, ami a lliiit. h". uli oik' ot'ilnsj r(.'i,auri.'(l lliitU'i.M ti IIUS in llKir rxrU', iiiakiiii;, as 1 ha\r said, a In in oi' lil'tN tu" ^^.•a^s in all. A way was iKsi''nak'(l h\ om.' of thr Imir nanus with U' appropiialc nninh(.r; as " ;; hoiis,-," ' i j flint," ".| uvil," vli,'. , tin.' scipKau'r he'iii;,; ic^nlaiiy pix'sn \ rij. 'iMio il,i\ s wnv arianm.'(l in /oiU's or wxrks of tw\ nl\ tlu' (lit'llicnl scrirs hiiiii; nninhcii'il, ami also iianu'ii hon 1 a c Mil- MpiHMi s to 1«' .1 .ui;;anlii lull r.uc ; atinllur an animal liki' a fin;;, ui'.loA- li'naca U two otlu'i s an- iimliii-.il ili-i;n--. llu- lUitlini- iil' uliiili Ikim i vi- cUntl> Ihi'U inculU lusl-.iiua \\ Uh a ^-tiil iiupU iiu-nt l-iiliirc nlisci vci - ^li-iilil lie nil their Jill, ml lli.il llii> iiiiH'iiliUf shall mil have iiuililatcil the I'aily wdiUr.i.in- shiji. r\i\: ,\/.ii,i' (, \i.i;mi \w. ••77 M.|ii(iiic (>l cifjiiccii aslKiii'iinic ;il sii^ns cilli'd "wind," "l'/,iiil," "siKiki'." " (K (I , " etc. 'IMic ti\ r (l;i\ s I;i<kin;', to ( I .!n]ili't<' till' ,;'is well- iiitcK ;il;il((l. A si coiid (H ;ilu;d s\ s- te Ml li:id tllilttrll \Vt( ksdt |\\( iit\ d;i\s ( ;i(Il ; l)|it ,1s llliit( ( II Iniirs iwciitN iii;ds( s oiiK luc nnndicd anil si\t\, in this (■i.ni|iii(atiiiii tlirii' tiiiiainrd I'lS da\s to lie iiaiiiid and nniu Ih iid 'I"lu ii ill \iri' to ari(iiii|ilisli tins was siii'pU': they iiu ul\' M rniiiimiuxd till' iininlin iiii; and naming; <>\ Hit* uii ks jnr this icinaindii , addini; a third siriis nf a|ip(Il;i li(.ii> drawn iimn a list ni iiiiir sit;ns. i alKd "iiiUts oi the ni'.Jit." At tlu'i'nsrnl t he si ilai \ ra r t 111 \' I ici till iiunccd as al llir hrt^iiiniiii; ul tlir pnx imis \iar. ■ With tlu'sr lads in oiir inind, w r ran apinnarh oiir task with riiiiiidtlUH'. The stmir lirais a lai rlnlK dati d. iirnnl, with tlir M'ai and ila\' rUailv' srt Imth. Tlif \rar is u|iit" Mlitid to tlir Irit 111 the rp^nrc, and is that nniiihiTi-d "trii" uiiikr the sii;n ni llu' rahhit, in Nahnatl, xiliu'tl inttlliuHi l,'i li//i ; tlir da\- 111 tlir year is iiiiinlit ixd "onu" under llie si^ii 111 till' lisli, (!■ I ifiiii ///. Tlu'si' pn'iisr dalfs riTurrrd niirf, and miK- hiht, r\ii'y lilt\ twn Nfars; and had nrnrnd miK niiir hrlwitn the vrai' III luir (.'la i | si i and tlu' S]:anisli riini|iust nl Mcxiru in i^ii) ji). \\\- nia\ l)c,i;in mir imcsti^alinns with that niic i,|iiHh, as Iriiiii iillur I'iicuinstanci's, such as Imal traditiniij t' ■ II i- Ul (ilN ' ^ In ( \|p.ni<l 1 lii^ ( \|'l;in;il ic .11 ',. the A/h i I. :ilrMil:ii ; lull il is um; I li uli'Ii IciuMiii I 111- stilili 111 I.I I 111 siiliji c I lli:il I Ik |iim1j!c 111 i^.iii in! lii ,ilr 'lUr .i ml li.i . Ill \( I \ ( I I urn '-.il isl.iilnrily ^'ilvnl. In i :iii i I In iiili.i iii.il mil p: i -.■ iili i| i> Iml II iiu iiiii|ilrli' :ini| (iinl 1 ailii till V. I (iin>-ii|rt iIh- iiin-l iiisliurli\r ijisi n^^inn ul Ihc I'm K 111 1.11 is I hat in i lln/ru \ lli ; la. ////..;/./ \ iih:; ii,i il, .\r, \ i, ■' l.ili i-. . t:i]p. i '<. I I at liii Siitiiiinunr, in tin in \\ -p.iiirr .in 'Hiiil almvi nil 1 1 mI tu, i-lali ^ I li.it tr;i ilili'in a'-sii;iuil the iiiM ri|il ion tu I In- linn ul I'm Ir^' iii.inli tu tin tit y u! .Mi xiiu; a 278 icssAYS oi' AX \mi:kicanist. and the cliaracttT of ihv work, it is not likt-ly that tlu- in- scription was ])rcvioti^lo tlie niiddk' of tlic Iftccnth (.\ntur\. W'itliin tlic period named, the year " 10 raliliil"' of llie A/kr calendar corresponded with the war 150201" the ( ire^m ; m calendar. It is more dinicult to fix the da\', as tlu' mat'iK- matical iirohlem-. relating to the A/.tec dinrnal reckoning-. art.' e\tremel\- coinplieati-d, and ha\e not \et heen s.iti-^fu- torih' worked onl: hnt it is, I think, --ale to sa\-, that accMr,]. ni''- t( )th the most proha 1)1 e c 'ompntatioiis th e (ia\- ii!K- le \r.ir fish"--vv cv/'(^^/// -occairred in the nr>l mouth of ll iS'i2, which montli coincided in whole or in ])art with 'Hir l'\l)rnar\-. Such IS the date on the niscription. Now. what is nili X( mated to ha\e occurred on that date? The clue to th 1> IS furnished 1)\ the fii^ure of the i^iant. On looking at it clo,sel>' we jjcrceive that it represent> an ot;re of horrid mien with a death-head .^rin and forniidahle teeth, his hair wild and loni.;-, the locks fdlin;; down upun the neck ; and suspended on the breast as an ornament is the houe of a human lower jaw with its incisor teeth. Tlie left lej;' is thrown forward as iti the act of walking, and the arms are uplifted, the hands open, and the fnigers exlemled, as at the moment o ■i/inu' the i>re\- or the \'ictim. T lines ahonl the und)ilicns rei)resent the knot of the <'in which suiil)orted the niaxtli or l)reecli-clolii tli .th There is no donht as to which personage of the A/lec pantheon this fear-inspiiiiii; h.mire re])reseiits ; it i> '/":.v/ (laic wliicli Ik- i|uilc in'iipiily ridiciiU- as iinpiis-ihir. 'l"lu- vicinity ul i iri/.ilia nil I'.c liver, not a p. rl (>l the McNican Stiilc nntil sonu- tiiiU' after the miiMlc cil' I'lit; istli century. See liandelicr, .li c liirKlni^iml 7i nil in .!/<■ I ; lA' VV '<1'1- tfj '"l' 4 Till'; TWO c<ii)ici:s. 279 1 2S( KSSAVS OI' A\ AMI'RICANIST ,*' t(iiio( Mirthnilrdttii, " tlu- Lord of llu' Rcaliu t)f llii' 1 1. i,l He of tlic l-'alliiin,'' Hair," llic divad j^od of (U-alli aini th (lead His distinctive marks are there, the death III. 1(1 the falliiit; Iiair, the jaw hone, the terrible aspeet, tlie s.;i;mt si/e. There can be no rinestion bnt that the Picdra dr /os (,'/\ >'i//i- estabhshes a date of death; that it is a necr()h)ij^ical taUkt, a mortuary monument, and from its size and workniai i^l'iii. sniiH- that it was intended as a memorial of the decease of very important personai;e in ancient Mexico. Provided with these dednctions from the stone itseU. Kl us turn to the records of old Mexico and see if lhe\ cur roboratc the opinion stated. Fortunately we possess se\ n il of these venerable documents, chronicles of the eniiiiir before Cortes destroyed- it, written in the hieroj;lyi)hs which the inventive genius of the natives had devised. Takiii;^ two of these chronicles, '.he one known as the C'odti 'I'llln- -h laiio-hfiiinis is, theother as the C'odix I 'afi(aniis/\' and tur lllUL to the ye.u- numbeivd "ten" inidjr the sii.^n of tlij raMiil, I find that both present the same record, which I c.)pv in the foUowinti' fiuure. * 7':i)ii/riiiiy(\ ;i crmipomiil n\' /.niilli . hair, ami /riiiii.i. to fall; iniillaii. Iik'.iUm' IV mi miitli, ti> (lii ; t,\iitli, liird, imtile. I'or a (U'S.iipli.m ol' tlii-^ deity set- Sali,i,:.;ii,i , llislKiia tir /ii .\niTii /■'.s/Hn'ia, I.il). iii, .\i)i);ii(li.\, chap. I. I liavc (.-IsrulK-.i' --ii'.;- m-Ntril lli.it the laliiii^ hair hail rtliifiKX' to Ihi.- h>ni; .slaiiliii,^ ra\>cir thf .^cttiiix Mill. Sn' ahovc, p. I i'>. t liiitli an- i('i)i()iliK-fil ill Kin;4-ili(ii()U,;irs M, i icaii .hi.'i</tii/ii:s. lUit I UMuld w.iiii a;.4aiii'>t llu- t'\plaiiali.)ii'> in Sliaiii'-h of llu- I'm/ri Tiilii iii>iii-l\'iiiiiii\is. 'I'lus aii- llu- W'lrk iilMniu- i,;;iH):aiil and caick-.-;:-. cU-ik, wlui Dftcii applio llu- cxplanali'ia ..!' oiu- plate and d.ite to auotlu r, throw:.;!! shc-er iu-^^li,:,'L-iu:L'. ^ i:.\ri..\NATl<)N oi' lIII-.KoC.I.VI'Il; 2Sl Liiniin'4 raliliil, MllV ill livr 1. r.u S; ll:l una , lu -V *ir4- K' ,-.< '.tiiix >',I 1<1 w.r.n ■1 lu \ a:r Ml ali ..a ,.| l-'li..J. I'Atiai'l liDin till- \aluan CimUx \'(>ii will observe the si,i;ii of the year, the rahhil, ^liowti iikrIn- by his head fur l»re\il\'. The ten <l(»ls whieh ,!L;i\e iis number are beside it. Iniinediately t)eneath is a niiimi-- (|uadrupetl with what are intended as water drops (hipping; from him. The animal is the hedi;e hot; and the fimne is to I)e eoustrued itoiioiiialidilly , that is, it niu--t be read as a rebus throu.i^h tlu' medium of the Xahuall Ian ;^iiaL;e. In. that lan;-;ua!L;e wale, is all, in eoniixisitioii ,( , and liedL^edio;;' is iii/:i>//. Combine these and \ on i^et uliiiilii't/, or, with the re\'erenlial teriMinatioii, tihitit-.<'l\i;:. Tlii'^ was the name of the ruler oi emperor, if \ on allow the word, of ancient Mexico before the accession to the throne ;S2 ICSSAVS OI' A\ AMI'.KIC ANIST of that Mi)iitt.'/,iinia wlioiii llif Spatiisli (OiK/iiistoifor C'^iti's ]iut to (U-alli. His liicT(it;I\|)li, as I Ikul- (k-scribud ii, is well kiiiiwii in Mexican codicc-s/'" kc'lnininL; to the- i>a.nc from llir clininick'. wc ohstTxi' that thr liicroLilv pli of Aliuit/ot/in is phu'cd iinnu'dialfK- o\ ti- ^ ror])si' swallird in its niuniin\- i-lollis, as was the ctistdm di" nilcrnu'Ul with the liiuhesl (.'lassfs in M L'NK'O. Thi S >>1''11! fics tliat IIk' (k-atli of Alinit/ot/.iii look plarc in that \(:ir. Adjacent to it is the fi.^nrc of his snci-cssor, his naiiu' icunii ni;iticall>- represented 1)\- the head-dress of the iioMes; lln.' /((■/i/i///\ <'i\-in''' the middle ssUahles of '" Mo-Aw^/'-zoiiia." v Iieiiealh is also the fiunre of the new ruler, with the out Die- of a ilower and a honse, wdiit'h wonM be translated b\ the iconoinatic s\stein xor/iicaf/i or xodr.ca/co ; bnt the si^iiifi cance of these does not concern ns here. This i)a,ne of the Codices gives ns therefore a record nf a death in the year " lo /oc/il/i" — 151)2— of the utmost import ance. Xo iirevious ruler had broui;ht ancient Mexico tn such a lieij^ht of i;lor>- and power. "In his reij^n," sa\s Orozco \' Herra, " Mexico reached it-; utmost extension Tributes were levied in all directions, and fabulous ri(- poured into the capital city The death of the ruler was therefore an e\-ent of the ])rofoundest national si;j,nificaiu'e. We ma\- well beliexe that it would be commemorated l»v -ome artistic work commensurate with its iiiii)ortance ami * I uMiilil 1-1.11 I' til Mil i-X])liiirilii)n I if tlii , •.,>>; r!ii )iiiMi-lu'.l by iiu- in I In- /';.>. , v/- iiiii.s 11/ III,- .\ iihi ii iiii l'lii!(i\cf>lih al Si>, iilv. for i^-^i.. + 'riK- iilidiu-tic si.niiilk-aiu'i- nf this syiiilml is will cslalilisluil Sli.' Auliiii in \.\\^■ liitniiliu'tiiiii to li.assL'ur. //i.^lc/i,- </,s .\:ilhi>i.\ c'/ri/i.\,'rs dr la .lA i /i/zd, 'I'ciiiu I, p. Ixix. XJ/islii)i(i .1iilii;ii(i ill' Mi'.iiii). Tdimi III. p. 42ri. A NlX'Ki >I.O(.K' 'I\\i;i.i:'r. ^•^,^ tlii-, i claim was the i)nri)i)sc nt" the I'itdia di /os (i/^iiiilis ot" I'.M ,iula. I'.iil we may add furllur and imix inriiii; testini(iii\ tn this ink I I'll, latioii. 'IMie (la\ ofthe iiiDiitli // ^//)f^///, i l'"i>li, i> eii- nra\i d til the l"iL;llt of the limine as eotmeeted willi the (,\elit cdiiiuieiiiorated. Now, although I haviiint loiiiid in tlic re- (■(iid-^ the exaet da\- of Ahuit/tit/in's drath, I do ['\\u\ that the iialu r Idsltiriaii I xtlilxneliitl a^->inn> thi-^ \'er\' da\-, <i i /f^<n ///\ I I'i-li. as that of the aeeessioii dI' Mdtite/uiua; ami aimihiT ii;iti\t. liistnriaii, Cliimalpaliiii, states distiiutlv tliat liiis tiMik pi u'e " iiiiniediatel\" after the death of hi-> pixdrctssDr 1,11 tlir throne.! It nia\- possihlx havehem on the \i i\ ilay dt" Aliuit/.ot/in's dei-ease, as still an<ither native wiitrr, 'W-/.- (i/(iinnr, informs ns that tliis was not sndden, hnl tin.' slow ixsull of a wound on the head.]: It is indeed remarkable that we should find the jiieeise dates, the year and the da\- of the \ear, depieted on this stiiiie, and al.so recorded 1)\- \arious native writers, as con- nected with the demise of the emperor Ahuit/nt/in. These oiiuidences are of such a nature tliat the\- leaw no doubt tliat / .11 l^iidra dc /(>s (i/o(t////s oi' I'Ncaniehi is a necrolo;.;ic talilct eommemoratiuL;' the death of the emi)eror Aliuit/o- l/in some time in I'ebruarv, is<>-. ■ UllilX'uliill, ///.\/'ii ill Clih liiiihid , c:\\->. '■>. Ilrcn^ in M-.-^iuiiin,; il t'l tlu' yi-ar ]:-;. n'- Mil Uk' (illui- 11:11 rativis nl' iiiiiinrlaiici- -aw a_;ain'-l him. + . II/)/,;,'. > il,- I'liniiiilfhiliiii . p 17,; \V.\. Siiii'iiii, Paris, i^^ii. Ilis wm-a-i air ■■ aiili .;Miiiiian ilK'iiac oiK'aii in luial iiiDtlalui'alli in Mutiulu ruiiiat/iii," uliicli Siiiuini viml^r^ ■ IniinriliatLiiunt apiL-," etc. JTti^'iZDiiiiic, C'iDiiiiii .1/c 1/1 !(//(/, cai). Si. T'lis wiitir adds tliat tin i.iiipinir c.v- IMttiil liis appniacliiiitf ciul, ami iiiadu a tiiiiiilicT of prcpaiatidiis with repaid to it. Tin .liiii/t'f ill' ( luiiihliHuii . p. ^o, places llu- cvi-iit^ of id In, lilli nmU 1 the f.illowiiij.; \i.ni 11 luall, iu\i\ the rcvcrsf. It reads " iiiiirio cl scfior <k' 'fcuoclititlan. .\liuitzo- tziii. U siitcdio immediataiucntc Motcitczoiiiat/iii." IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) h / i/.. V. 1.0 I.I 11.25 ^ |2£ 12.5 1^ 12.2 t 1^ I m U 1111.6 '# Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. I45B0 (716) 872-4503 ^ V iV 4? \\ % # % NATIVE AMEHICAN \m\\l'- TN our nu»(leni civilization \vc arc ai)t to consider that a ■^ taste for poetry is a mark olhitjli culture, something uliii!i belonj^s exclusively to trained mental fibre and cdin.i'aii percei)tions. It causes us, therefore, some surprise wIru wx study the psychology of sava.ne tribes, to find them ahim^t ever\'\vhere i)assi()nate lovers of verse and measure, of imi^u and son*;. This fact, well established by the researclK> nl' ethnolo.ny, was recoi^nized by more than one keen tliiiikir before ethnolo,t;y was born. In the last century that eii,iiit genius, Ilamann, known in (icrman literature as llic niaj^ician of the north," ])enne(l the memorable wiikK. " poetry is the connnon mother-tongue of the human r.nv, and insisted that to attain its noblest flight/^, " wi mn-t u- turn to the infanc\- of the race, and to the simi)licit\ nl a childlike faith," a ilictum Wcirndy espoused by the jiliil'is,, phic Herder and by the enthusiasm of the y<4uii; (iutlk Later on, that jtrofoundest of ])sycholoi;ists. W'ilhelni \nii Humboldt, retlecting on the ])roblems presented li\ tin. origin of languages, expressed his conviction that man !- i zoological species is a singing animal, like man\- bird>; liuit * Sckclioiis rioiii an .\iUlrcss riiul tiL-foii' Uu' Nmiii>in:itic :uul .\iiliini:ii i;iii ~ ':'l> of I'hilMdilpliia, in iNS6. (284) vil^ ki:i'i:titi()N in i'oi;tkv. JS: XT that ill'' wliich (.■(llUMll-ll wIku ui .■111 ahiinst , dl" inu>K L-ari'lu'^ nt' n lliiiikc-r lal (.•nalir as ■'ilu' WiimIs. an racv,' iiin-t R- icit\- I if ;i ]llllln-n C.iLtlK-. K-llU \i<\\ ll\ tlk iiiaii a- a rdM that iiiiiii ~ '> iit> 111- .'lal oruaii^ turn to son;^ ns tliiir appropriak- function u;''. a like >])()ntancit\' as lii> niiiiil turns tn tluiu,<;lil or his c\t - :>' tlK" lij^lit. Ii WL- iiKiuiiv into tlu' psxa-liolo^ical priiu'ipk' wliic-li makes rli\ihiii ai^iceabk- to the ear. we sliall find tliat this jjriiu-iple •s that of /,/><////(>>/. I oaild i-arr\- the anal\>i^ still further, aihi (leiiioiistrate to you that the ])h\-icloL;ical principle of all pleasure is e.\])resse(l in the foniiula "niaximnin aition with ininiimun effort ;" and that the mi \es of audition are iiiii^t successful ly acted upon in accordance with this law hy liimled repetitions with harmonious inter\ als. All metres, all rli\ thin, all forms of alliteration and assonance, are l»ut varied ap])lications of the ])rinciple of harmonious repetition ; and the i)oet, as a poet, as an artist, must be rated, and |iraelic.illy ahv.iys is rated, hy the skill with which he eiii- jijd} s the resources of repetition. I,oft\- thouj^ht--. heautifnl metaphors, delicate allusions, these are his extraneous aids, ami 1)\ no means his exi-lusi\-e ])roi)ert> ; hut the form i^. his MWii, he it (piantity, rhyme, alliteration or accent. I hax'e felt it neces-iary to state \er\' hrielly these .general principles, in order to place in its pro] er lit;ht that form of p'letry which is most prex'alent amon.n tlie native tribes of America. Vou will not find amon;4 them an\- develo])ed ex- amples of either rhyme or alliteration; their dialects do not admit of fixed vocalic (ptantity, like the Latin; e\en accent and assonance, which are the more imperfect resources of the pn.iic art, are jj^enerally absent. What, then, in a literary analysis, constitutes their poetic foriu ' I answer, npttilion in its simjdest ex])ressions. These are Iwn. The same verse may be repeated over and over a^ain; #1 ^■^ w 286 i:ssAvs oi" AN ami:kicanist. or the wording of the verses may be ehaiij^ed, but eaeli innv be ace()ini)aiiie(l b\ a burden ur refrain, which is rejjeaixl 1,\ tlie singer or the eliorus. These are tlie two fuudaniuiial characteristics of aborij^inal jioetry, and are found r\(.vv- where on tlie American continent. The refrain is ti-uallv interjectional and meanini;less; and tlie verses aiv dfun repeated without alteration, four or fi\e times o\er. We may, if we choose, begin our survey of the contiiniit with its extreme northernniost inhabitants, the ISkmid. whose abode is along the inhospitable shores of the .Xaiic sea. One might think that the eternal snows wliii h Mir round them, the vast glaciers which chill the air for mik> beyond their limits, would also freeze out and kill all linnf ])oesy. Quite the contrary. I doubt if throughout the Aiiui ican continent I ccmld quote you a more thoroughly jxnije pcojjle, one taking a greater delight in song, than these >;iiiic boreal, blubber-eating, ice-bound Ivskimo. Their grtal di light is in long tales of magic and a<lventure, and in inijiri) visation. An Ivskimo hunter, with a ready ])ower U> srriu;^ together verse after verse of their peculiar poetry, soon ex tends his fame beyond the confncs of his native village, and becomes known for man\' a league up and down the slinn.. Often in the long winter nights, genuine tourneys nl" >(in<; are organized between the champions of villages, not unlike those which t<K)k jilace in fair l'ro\ence in the palni\ (la\> of /(I ,i,'ir\< S(it net'. More than this, I have been assured liy Dr. Franz Hoas, who recently passed two years among llie Ivskimo of Baflhi's Land, living with them as one of lliein, that it is nothing uncommon for downright hostile feeliii,L;>, personal grudges, to be settled by the opponents meeting nn POKTKV oi' Tin: ISKIMo. 287 cncli iiiny Hlaiiuiii.il iitl i\vy\. i> u-ua!ly ai\- (ituii t'Kiitiiniit ■ Iv'-kiiiKi, kliiili Mir tnr niik's I all liix- 111 the- Aiini- [hly ]iin.iic IIkx.- >aiiic 1 ,ni"t.'al ilc- iii iniim*- Iti >lriiii; soon 1.x- aL;t.-. and R- >lnilf. > t it Mill;.; (il unlike ni\ ita\- ■^MiR'd liy 111" Ills; UK' of lliL'ni. tlx'liii.L;-. JClillL; nil ;, iKtd occasion and siiis^iii^ >aliii(.-al ami al)iisi\(. -oiij^s at ^ J, '; (ill. jr. Ik- who I'diiiL-s out l)(.st. rai.siiin the- iiio^t laii^li- tti il Ids aiita}.;;onist's c\])(.iis(.', is t(iii>i(kird to have (.■(in- line ud, and his (.iRiiiy aixx-pts iIk' (ktlat. 'l'lR•>^l■ rdiilKixir- sial -iiii<;s hav(.' l)c-(.n calkd li\ tli(.' Danish \vrit(.Ts "iiith sdii^s," from tlK- word //////, which is also old I'",iii;li>h. am! nit ins cnisinj; and contention. The distingnislied trawler. Dr. lleiiirich Kink, who has ]):i--t.d nineteen winters in (iieenland, has furiii--lied iiie the iiri:-;iiials, with translations, ot se\eral ot th.ese nilh smi^s. .\s an ex.nnple, I will read yoii one which took place he- tweiii two rivals, Sai'dlat and /'ii/<iiiiiit Siss(>k. Savdlat IJMil to the north, Pnlan.^it-.Sissok to the sonth. To ap- ptxciate the satire, you must know that an iCskiiiio ^I'litle- in.m prides himself chiefly on two jioints: first, that he speaks his own tonj;ue with ])recisely the ri,L;lit accent, which, I need not say, he considers to he the accent of his (iwii village, wherever that may be; and secondly-, that he is a skillful boatman. Sa\(llat be<.;ins the poetic duel in these words : SAVDLAT AND PULANCIT-SISSOK. S AVIil.AT — 'I'lie Soiitli slidvi', \ ( s, tf.c Siiiitli >liciii\ I know il ; ( ince I liviil llu re and nnl l'ulan,t;il-SisMik, .\ fat {"(.lliiw who \\\\'\ on iKililiul ; 1 ) \t.>, I know liiin. Tliose Soulli-shore folk lanl lalk : Tlu'v (lon'l know how lo indnouiui.' onr Ian)^ua}.jc ; Truly ihey are dull fillows ; They don't eviai talk alike ; Some have one aceenl, some auolher ; ■Ilf WIM I 2SS I'.SSAVS Ol" AN AMl'KICANIST. NriJiody ciii iiiidiTstaiiil tliiiii ; 'riiiy (';m si;ircil\ llll(ll■t•^l,•l1l(l caili otln-r. ri l.ANCi r-sissuK— () \ cs, Savillat ami I aii- old af<niaiiil.niri's ; Ilr wi^liid iiir txtrc'iuh will at linu's; ( )iuf I know 1k' wislud I was llu' )n ^l 1 oatiiiaii on the -iiiiri-; It was a roiiyli da.v. and I in nuiix ti-ok his lioat in tow Ila I lia 1 .Savdlat, tlion didsl iTV most )>itirnl ; 'I'lion wast awl'iilly aliaiid ; In tnilli, llion wast niaily it])sit ; And liadst to kii|) linM of my l>oat stiini^s, And give nif ])ait of thy load. () vfs, Savdlat and I arc oM af(|naintatn'es. A similar htiniorous strain is very marked in most nf the Ivskimo sf)iit;s. Indeed, I know no other tribe in Aimriia where the i^ennine ftm-lovini!; s])irit I)td)l)les forth so turl\. In Mexico and Central Anieiiea, in the midst of l)e:iulilul scenery and where the flowery earth basks in the lap of an eternal s])rini;, the lone of most of the son.i^s is sad and lu.c:ubrioiis ; or, if hnmorons, with a satirical, bitter, un- healthy humor, a S(/iod< ii/'icNdc, which is far from wluik- some merriment. Dr. lierendl, who si)ent se\eiileen \eais in stndyitit; the langnaij^es of Central America, has i)oiiiUilly called attention to the great predominance oi words in lluni expressinij painful, over those expressing pleasurable emo- tions. It teaches us how little the happiness of man depends upon his environment, that the merriest of the Ameriran nations is found precisely where according to om- usual notions almost every cheering and eidivening element is withdrawn from life, where darkness, cold, and destitution have undisputed rule. 'M \.()\V oi' NATlKi:. 2S9 I'.r.l I will not continue with mhIi v;tii».'rnli/;ttion'^, iittracl- i\. iliou.uli 11k->' ;iiv. I,Lt UK.' irliuw tluir drvniss by a lit;',. l'">kinio -oni;, tin- full l>kiniu text of which you will fir, i inintcd in Dr. Rink's work entitled "'I'alcs of the I'M, lino." As usual, each line is followed hy an interjec- tii>;i.!l hurden, which I shall repeat only in i)art. Tiie song is c ailed THT SONG OF KUK-OOK, THE BAD BOY. This is tlie S(.ii;4 of Kuk-ook, ihi- had boy. Iiiiakayah— li.iyah, Iinakayah — hah -hay ah. I .iiii t^oiii,^ lo rini away frniii home, h.ivah, 111 a !L;rial hii; boat, h.ixah. To hunt for a swict littU- i^irl, liay.ih ; 1 sliall i;el lier ^otiir luad-. lia\ah ; Till' kind tlial look likr hoiUd oius, liayah ; Then alter a uliile, li;i\,ih. I shall come hack home, hayah, I sliall eall all my relations to'^flher, hayah, .Xiid shall i^ive Ihem all a i^ood thrashin;^, liay.ih ; 'J'lun I shall j,^) .and ^l married, h.iyah, I shall marr\- two .uii'!'^ ;il oiue, h.iyah ; One of the sweet little darliii'^s, hayah, I shall drt'SS in sjiotteil sc.il-skiiis. hayah, .And the other dear little pel, hayah, Shall we.'ir skins of the hooded seal only, hayah. Hut yon must not derive the idea from these .sjiecimcns that the ICskimos are triflers and jesters only. Some of their jioetical prcxUictions reveal a true and deep a]5i)reciatioii of the marvgllous, the iinpressi\e, and the beautiful scenes which their land and climate present. Prominent features 19 <i; ppr 29(1 KSSAYS oi' AN' AMI'.KICANIST. in tluif l;iks and cliaiil^ arc the- lla^liiii.u. varicj^atcd airuni, wliosL- sliootiiit( strt-aiHcrs tlicy fablt- to \k- tlic xmU (,| departed Irtocs; tin.' milk\ \va\-, ^k-aininu; in lli. -till Arctic ni.ulit, wiiicli tliiv- tV!L;ar(l a-^ IIk' hrid.i^c hy whii ',; Uk sonls 111" iIk' j;(»id and ltia\f ninuiit Id IIk- placv t)i j(i\ , Uk- va'-t, j^littcrini;, sonndk-ss snowliclds; and the nn-Iitv, nasliini; i;laciLr, s])lint(.Tin.i; tVnni his shoivward rlill- tin.- icv nionntains whifh lloal down to tlie i^ivat oixan. As an instance of this a])i>rcciation ot" natnral Mvnii\ 1 shall read > on a soni; obtained by Dr. kink, at the -111, ill tradini; station of Ar>nt on the southern coast of (ireeiilnul, near Krcderickshaab. Clo-e to Arsnt stands Mt. Kunnak. whose precipitons sides rise fnlly fonr thousand feet ahoxi ilu- billows of the Atlantic which dash aj;ainst its foot. Il .- the play of the clouds about the mountain which inspires llu- poet : MOUNT KOONAK: A SONG OF ARSUT. I look toward tlu' south, to i^reat Moiitil Koouak, To j^ri'al MoiiiU Koonak, iIutl' to llii' south ; 1 watch the clouds that leather louud hiui ; I contemplate tlieir shiuiu.tj l)ri,:.^htucss ; They spread al)roail niioii !.;;real Koonak ; They ciinih uj) his seaward Hanks; Sec how they shift and chau.;e ; Watch them there to the south ; How tile one makes l>eaiiliful the other; How tliey mount his southern sIojjcs, Ilidini; hiiii from the stormy sea, ICach lendin.-j; beauty to the other. No doubt there were and are nuinv histork-al or traditional "17 i .w IlISTOKICAI. SONCS. 291 •n. - iiiiion^ the natives; Imi I sliould ha\c' little hope of , ; iiiij iVoui tliem imieh intonnaliou of a realh- hixtofiral •ter. Their referenees to ( leeunvnees are \er\- \a>'Ue, 111': i.ither ill the form of >iis4^estion than narration. The in. ;ors are supposed to he f.iinili.ir with the slor\ , and a ,iii-;Ie name or ])roiiiiiient uoid i>, «. imn.i^h to recall it to iluir nin. I may illustrate tlii> 1)\ a ^hoil Tawiiee soiiil; sent nie hy Ml l)iiiil»ar, \vho.-.e intimate aeiinaiiUaiiee with the laii.nuage ati'l ( ustonis of that trihe lends entire aiithoril\' to all he uiiu> ahont them. Alx/al iSjo the Pawnees eajjtured a yonn^ .i;irl iVom their viKiiiies the Paducas, and accordinj; to eustoin, prejjared to liuni her alive. On the ai)p<)inted day she was fastened to llie >lake, and the villaj^e gathered around in order to eoin iiieiiee the tortures which were to ])recede her death. At tliat iiu)ment a young Pawnee hrax'e, hy name Pitah'Sharu, wliosf heart had been touched with pity and i)erhai)s with l(i\e. dashed madly into the ring with two lleet horses. In a iiionieiit with his ready knife he had slit the thongs which fastened the girl to the stake, had thrown her on one horse, liimself on the other, and was speeding away on the prairie tdward her father's village. The Pawnees were literally stricken dumh. They retired silentl>- to their cabins, and when, three days later, Pitale-Sharu returned to the village, no man challenged his action. All regarded it as an act ol divine inspiration, even to iiupiire about which would be .sacrilege. This act is remembered to this day in the tribe, and commemorated in the following song : * ■ i'ff: is- if 292 i;SS.\VS dl' A\ AMIvUICANIST. A PAWNEE COMMEMORATIVE SONG. Wi'll, hv (ontnM thi^, Will, h' ruirt..M ihi., N'l'', he lull tnlil ihi-, ; I, I'll iU-S]i:ini. Am :ini\icl liiri'. Will, lu- Iniitiilil this, Vis, lu' HiriloM lliis, I, l':t;ili-Sli;ini, .\tii .irriMil lull'. One of tlic I'awjR'C' \var-M)iii;s lias a eurious inclaplis >ir;il turn. It is one which is siinj,; \vhi.n a warrior un(k-rlaki.> u> perform sonic ])articularly dariiij; indivichial i'N]>loit, wliidi may well t-ost him his life. The words seem to cill upuii the gods to decide whelher this mortal life is ohIn an illusion, or a divine truth under the guidance of (H\iiie intelligence. PAWNEE WAR-SONG. I, ft 11 ' Sfc, is this rial, Lit lis st'i', is this real, I, it us si'f, is this real, I, ft us sff, is this real, This life I am liviiuj;? Ve ,!j:oi1s, who dwell everywhere, I,et us see, is this real. This life I am livln.y;? The so-called Indian medicine-.songs cannot be underslood witliout a thorough insight into the habits and superstitinns cd" these peoples, and it would only fatigue you were 1 to repeat them to you. I prefer to turn to some of the less esoteric productions of soMi: i.<»\r: S'iNds. 293 tl). ;: itivc tmisf, l<) sonn- of its fxpivssioiis of those finotiotis \\'.\.^'\ arc coinnmii to mankiiul «.\i r\ wIkr', and wliicli (.■\i ; wlurc sc'fk tluir t.\]nvssinii in natiT and rliytliiii. A utviit CiiTinan trastkr. Mi. 'I'luoddiv IJaki-r, funiisI'.t'H tin Aitli a loii])!!.' ol siiuiik-, luiinvti iiditiL,^ hut j^iimiiifly aliHi Initial soiii^s which he heard ainoiii; the Kiouay In- (hauN. One is a SONG OF A KIOWAY MOTHER WHOSE SON HAS CONE TO WAR. Vomit; iiu-u tlii-ri' atr in pit iity, Hut I lovr Diily «iiu- ; lliiii I'vr iii>l stcii for Ion.;, 'I'liouyh hi- is my onl\ son. Wluii lie idiius, I'll li I'-ti' to nil it liim, I tliiiik of liim .ill iii:;lil ; lie loo will he .ylail lo sic nif, I lis exes \sill ^liani with clili.i;lit. The second exanipk- frDiii the Kioways is a soni; of trtie love in tlie ordinary sense. .Sueh are rare anioni; tlie North AiiKiican Indians anxwhere. Most of their i-lianls in re- lation to the other sex are erotic, not emotional; and lliis liolds e(|nall\- trne of those wliirh in some tribes on certain occasions are a(kh'es-ed hv the women to the men. The one I "ive you from the Kioway is not open to this c-eiisurc A KIOWAY LOVE-SONG. I sat and wfpl on the hiil-siile, I wept till the darkiu-.s fill I wept for a inaiiliit .ifar off A mai<len who loxes me no \l' X' '■3 A m 294 KSSAYS ol' AN AMICKICAMST. 'I"lu' iiioDiis ,irr |i.ivsiiii;, ami ■^miu' iikhui I '^liiill scr iii\ home luiiy lust, Ami olall llic )^r«-iliii,ys that tiiitt iiic, M\- IliaiilfU's will ;,'lail<li-Il lllc lllnst. A spi-ciiiKii (>i ;i cli.'inu'kTistic- Cliiju'Win lovc son- is given in ciK- III till' works ttf llii' \i\W \huvy R. Sclionli 1 ift It was c'liantfd !»>• tin- jowr, al ni,i;lit, in ItDnt of tin.' ilui !) liiij; of the ^irl Ik- unnld c-ajilivatc. Tin- sun^ is in imr verses, and it u ill be nolicid that lai-h vi-rse ai)])r(i:ii Irn nearer and nearir the final re(|ne>t. It shonhl he uii'Iit stood that eaeh verse was to he repeated se\eral times, mi as to jj^ive the fair one an opportunity to exjjress her aj'pinval f)r (hsap])roval by some of those sij^ns whieh belong to tln' freema.sonry of h)ve the world over. If the sij^jn was nega- tive and repellinj4, the sinji^er abrui)tly eeased his chant and retired, concealed by the darkness of the nij;ht ; but if 1k' was encouraged, or heard without rebuke, he contintud, in hope that at the close of the sonj^; timid finjj^ers woidd jiar- tially draw aside the curtain which closes the lod.ne ilndr, and that his prayer would be granted. The serenade runs as follows : SERENADE SONG OF A CHIPEWAY LOVER TO HIS MISTRESS. I woulil walk into sdnuliody's dwi'lliiiv,'. Into S(iruli<i(ly's (Iwellint^ wdnld 1 walk. Inld ///!■ (laikrnid dwi'lliiiv;, my helovicl. Sonic ni.nlit wcuild I walk, woidd I walk. Sonic ni,i.;hl at this season, my beloved. Into thy darkened dwelling wonld I walk. MORI' I.(i\ !■: SONCS. 395 On tlii> .ir\ ui^lr, iii\ 1 ilnxiil, Into tli\ il:iik<n«<l dwillini; wuiiM 1 walk \'. !iik' tkaliiij; with IIkm.' amatuiy firiisioiis, 1 will aild (III' v t\v<i from aiiotlKr part <•!' tin- iii,i|i, tVnin tlif tiiln.^ who till . lluir Ikhik' in tuir ^i-ti r n |iulilir, Misiio. N'miaiv ;i\\ ;:i thai IIkii' ail' lu.iiix tiihis tliitt.' haiiK tiii;^i(i wilh I\M'"i><.'an I'ulturc nr rilis^ioii. Tin \ ulain Ihr atui'Nlral liiii^iRs and inoiU's (if ihiiiii^ht. Tlir swnrd and whipofthi* Spiai.ml c-nnijadk'd an cxUinal nlicdii-nci.' U> chunh and -t.ii iiut thf dc'lLTiMu-i' to lillur \va> ixlurtant, and in thf iiii'iininm dt^nvc. Consftinciilh', thiTi- al>o the fuld lor n^i luh i> rich and i)rac-tirall\- uiicnltivalt-d. 'I'o ciniijov a iKitivi' metaphor, frcciutiit in tlic A/.tcr juit-ts, I u 111 catisc yoti to sini'll the fragraniv of a few of ihe n(»uxr> I have ijatlKred from those meads. .\1\ late friend. Dr. Herendt, ])ersonally known. I donht not. to some ])resent. obtained a eurions Aztee love sonj; t'tniii the lips of an Indian j^irl in the Sierra of Tamaulii)as. It i>^ ])artietdarly noticeahle from the strange, mvstical eon- ait it contains that to the person who lrtd\ lo\es. the mere l)(>(lily ])resence or absence of the beloved object i> nnim- purtant, nay. not even noticed. The literal translation of this sont; is as follows: 1 know not wlu tlur tlioii ha^i luiii alist nl : I 111' down uilli line, I ii-.r n]) willi tlui-, In my dixani^ thou ail wiili nif. If in\' lar ilrop^ tn niMi- in in\ t'ars. I know it i>. tlinu nioxin;^ wiUiin ni\ luart. This ront-h rendering has l)een ])nt into metrical Inrni ;.s follows: .,il 2i)(i I'SSAVS OI' AN" AMI'.KICAMST. A MODERN AZTEC LOVE-SONG. 1 knew it lie t tli.it thou li;ul>l alsmt lii'fii. So full thy |ui ]\\- iii''ht, l)v <hi\ in'i' all my ^^oul li.ul k-lt; ill (iiiiit or ilian ;iir4 sih lu- Tis lluc alom- I si'i.', S(.n-.i.' of all i'l->t' hiixlt. And wlun Ihr tiiikl inj^ ])rnil.nitr> sway and rin;. 1 is thou who in in\- IumiI dost niovi. and siii'. Ill another love-.soiij; in the same laiioitai:;e I ha\e im t a conceit wliieh I distitietly reinenther to liave read in >'in\v old ICtii^lisli ])oet, that of a lover who eoinjilains tliat liis heart ha.s been oathered in along with her llowers hy a maiden ])iekino; rose.s. The literal trani-lation oithis .son'' reads thus: On a I'l'i tain luonntain side, Wlit'ic llu'\ i)liuk (louors, 1 saw a Jill' ;tv niai leu. Who )iiui-kid tViiin 111',' my licait. Wlullur tin )U "Dt'St, Th CIC LIO I. As a nielr v'al expansion of this eotiplet tlie followiii<^ 1 been snooesteil : las AZTEC LOVE-SONG. I)o \(in know that moitntain si.lo Wli r'.c li'.i'\- ''a' luT ro-ii-.-i TIkti.' I stii.lk'd on,' (.■\\nli<k' In the ,v;.inkn idoscs. So. Ill I iiKl a lowdy m li 1 I'airiT liiaii all laiu-ii'.-^, Ouirk slu' i.;a'dui(.'d in mv lifait Willi luT Imds and jiansics, :\i):xic.\\ WAR SDNc.s. 21)7 Hilt takr lutil, iii\ ]ii\;t\ inav, III HM|iiiiv; and in -.dw in ,;, • Oiu'i' w itli llicf. riKvi T Slav, And ,^0 wluii' tliDU ait .i^xini^. iViliaps llic R'HiKiiK'tit of soiiif of tlicsr si'iilinu'iit^ may txcitr skepticism. It is a faxorilf (hRtriiir amoiii; a ccTtaiii tla-s (if writers that (k-licacy of srxiial iVidini; is (|tiilr uii- kiit'wn amoiii;: savai^e tribes, that, imleed, the universal law is thai mere bestiality prevails, more or less kept in botuids In -upcrstition and tribal law. I am well aequaintejl with this theory of several pojnilar i)hilosiiplK'rs, and do not in the least aeeent it. Any surh doL;niati(- assertion is unsci- eiililie. Delicacy of sentiment bears no sort of constant relation to cnltnre. I'.verv man present knows this. I le rail name amonjj;' his accpuiintances men of tuuisual cnltnre who are coarse voluptuaries, and others of the humblest i-diicalion who have the delicac\- of a relined woman. So it is with families, and so it is with tribes. I haw illustrated this latel\- by an analysis of tlu' words meanint; " to Io\e " ill all its senses in li\e leading; American linguistic- stocks, and lia\e shown by the irrefra,i;able jHoof of lau^ua'^i.' how luucli they differ in this respect, and how much also the same tribe may differ from itself at \arious ])eriods of its j;ni\\tli. As the result of this and similar studies I may assure \oti that tliere is no occasion for (pustioniiiu the existence of hi;^hl\- delicate .sentiments amoiii; some of the American tribes. .\s I found the .Mexican lo\e jioems the most (klicate, so I lia\e found their war soiil^s the most stirriu!.;. We ha\e a innuber of specimens written down in the nali\e toii;-;uc vi! . I ^1 2'..S ESSAYS OF AN AMERICANIST. shortly after the conquest. They have never l)een t- ms lated or published, hut I will give you a rendering i>\ mih- in ni\ ]H)Ssession which, from intrinsic evidence, wa> wrii ten about 1510. I say wrilltii advisedly, for the nation win, sang these songs possessed a ])honetic alphabet, and widtt- many volumes of j)oeihs b\- its aid. Their historian, IIlt- nardino de vSahagun. especially mentions that the ui.iks used for the instr ction of youth in their schools conlaiiad " poems written in antique characters." The first of my selections is sup])osed to be addre-'Si.d 1)\ the poet to certain friends of his who were unwilling to go to war. A WAR-SONG OF THE OTOMIS. 1. It grieves iiie, dear friends, lliat you walk not with me in spirit. that I have jiot your coinj)auy in the scenes of joy and pleasure, that never more in union do wo seek the same j^atlis. 2. Do yon really see me, dear friends ? Will no Ciod take the liliiid- ness from your eyes? What is life on earth ? Can the dead retinn' No, they live far within the heavens, in a place of joy. 3. The joy of the Lord, the ('river of Life, is where the warriors siiii,,', and the smoke of the war-fire rises uj); where the (lowers of the shii. Ms spread abroad their leaves; where deeds of valor shake the lartli; where the fatal flowers of death cover the fields. 4. The battle is there, the beginning of the battle is there, in tlu- oj)en fields, where the smoke of the war-fire winds arouml and ruii> uj)uar<l from the fatal war-flowers which adorn you, }c friends ami warriors of the Chichiniecs. ,S. Let not my soul dread tliatoiien field; I earnestly desire the he ginning of liie slau,y;hter, my soul longs for the murderous fr;i\. 6. ( ) you who stand there in the battle, I earnesllv desire tlu' het^iii- ning of the slaughter, my soul longs for the nuirderous fray. .#sij MORI' WAR SONC.S. 299 -. Tlie war-cloud rises upward, it rises iuto thf hluo 'kv wliiri' ilu. ' till' (liver of I, iff; in it blossom forth the flowers of prowess aii'i alor, beneath it, in the battle field, the childien ri])en to niatn- rit \ . s ivejoiee with me, diar friinds, and do \e ri'joiee, yi' I'hildreii, ^(.i'i.- hnih to the o])en field of ba'.lle ; kt n> rejoiei' .and rixel amid tilt ' >liielils, tlouiTS of the mnrderous fr,i\-. The soni,^ which I have jtist read, like most which I hriii'j^ belme you, lias no iiainc of author. The ])oct has jiassed to an etenial ohliviou, thoiit^di his work remains. More fortu- nate is the composer of the next one I shall read \()U. It is a ]i()eni by an A/.tcc prince and liard who bore the sonorous a; pellation, 'J\l/apa>i Oiutza)iit:in . I can tell you little about him. At the time Cortes entered the City of Mexico, Tetlapan Quetzaiiitzin was ruler of one of its suburbs, Tlacopan or Tacuba. At the interyiew when the darinji^ Spaniard .seized upon the person of Montezuma and made hini a cajitive, this Tetlapan was one of the attendants of the Aztec monarch, and it is recorded of him that he made his escape and disappeared. I hav*.' found no mention of his sulxsefpient adventures. This war-.sonji^ is one of two of his poems which have survived the wreck of the ancient literature. It is hij;hly metaphorical. Vou mij;ht at first think it a drinkino song; but tlie drunkenness it refers to is the intoxication of battle, the /nrscrktiiciil/i of the Norse \'ikings; the flowers which he sint;s are the war-shields with their ^ay ornaments; and the fertile plains which he lauds are those which are watered with the blood of heroes. I-'inally, I should tell \')U that the white wine he sjjcaks of was a sacred be\erage t ■) L«r .U:i ■ '-.i i;SS.\VS Ol' AN AMI'KICAMST jiindii'' till' Mi'xicatis, set lortli ;il ('(.'rtniii solrmii list i\,il I.iki' the ivst of llicir wiiK', it was iiKniur.iclMird linin il iiiau'iiv A WAR- SONG OF TETHPAN OUtTZANITZ!N il5l<Ji Mill I "IllC I. \\"li\- iliil it .i;iicvi' \i)u, <) I'lini Is, win did it |m'ii \i>ii, tliii wiMc iliutik with the wiiit'.-' Aric Imtn \(iiir stipxif, () liiiiHN liitlu ;• Mild siiiu; ; K'l us st'i'k lor lioiiu's in Sdiiir lluui ry l.iiicl ; |..il;i1 your ilniukriiiu'ss. J. 'l"lu' ])iTci]il is old tli;it oui- sliould (|ua(l" thr stroiit; w liilr w nu in tlu' mouu nt olMilVu-ulty, ;is wlun oiu' iiilris tlu' hattU pLiin, win n li r '.'Oi's forlli to tlu' ])l;u'i' of sliatliTi'd slour^, when' tli f pi ( 1 ;i)iN sloius Avr s])lintiii'd, tlu' I'nu'ialds, tlic tur(|uoisrs, the \oiitlis, i| diildrin. 'I'lu'ifloit', iViinils and lirotliirs, (juall' now tlu' lln\Mi white w ine. I, it us drink lo'-etluT amid tlu- llowi is, let us luiild our Uiiii'-i'. Minon;; the Mowers, where the iVa'^rant hlossoiiis east ahroa'l (Ik u () lots as a touulain its waters, wlure the luiath oi" the lUw luKn flowrr-^ makes sweet the air ; tluTr it is that uoliilit\' and sticii'^tli will make elo ions our jiouses, there tin- llower:^ ol" war hloom oxer tiU' laud. 1. ( ) frien forth the white wiue, the stroiv; wine of l),ittle ; Ut us drink tlu wii Is, d t h o \-ou not In ar nu 1,1 t us 'JO, hi us eo, lit Us iMiiir hiel wuiell is as swei t as tlie dew of rosi-s. k>t it iutc >\ieate our souK, Ki our souls lie stee]K'd in its di'li;.;hts, Ul tlu'in lie riirieheii as in --i o]iuleul plaee, some fertili' laiul. Wliydoes it trouhle von.-' Ci with me, and listiii to m\- sen''. Alongside ot" these sjiecimeiis iVom Mexico, I ]uit a war .soii<; of the Pertiviaiis. Il is iVom the ilfaiiia of (VlauUi, a pi'oihictioii (latiiij; tVoiii shortly l)c'lurc the coiKiitest, aiul ot" the most inleivstiii'' iiioimiiieiits of Ainericaii iia line live liteiatmv. Tlie hefo, Olhuita. a warrior of renown hut el luiiiiblc parentage, had, on the strength of his sueeesse; rK<ii'iii;iK- (.11 w'l's. .V»i a-.misl llu' fiuniN , nppliiil Imi \\\v li.ind ol" tlic Itica's (1,111 'lilrr, ;iiiil li.nl Imii icjiclril with scoiu. All lii-> 1m\;i1iv mill .ilki^iiiiu'c tuiii t<i lialiid, ;inil lie Niii.U"^ '''"^ W'" ^""K ;r.;:ini->l liis n;iti\(.' coiiiitiN mid il> mUi in tlusc WdKN : A W\H-S()N(i OF OLLANTA. ( I (. ll/((i, lie, lilt ilul I It \ , I hlici Ini wind I sli ;11 lie lli\- cnciiiw I sll.lll Imilk llu \\..lls i,\ llu lin^olll, I sli;ill tear (Pill \\\ lu .11 1 Anil Mill',; i! to the \ iiltiiics. 'I'liy crml kiii.L; sli il wiliusc. !My tlidiis iiids cii w.iii iMis, Aiiiud iiikI 1( i| Ii\ nil , ( lallitr, like .i rlDini nl I nr^cs, A-aill-1 tli\ r:l,iiii 1. 'i'lii' sky ^ll,ll] l)r i(il with tli\' luiMiini,', I'.lniiily shall th\ i ullrh lie, And thy kin- shall ]i(rish with Hue. (ias])in,!^ in lUalli, \\ !tli ni\ haml on his Ihio.il, Wc shall sir ila'^ain he will s.iy : "'I'lion ait iniWDitliN nf my ilaii.^;lil(.r, NtviT shall slu- l.i' t!;iiic." A xaricty of ixKtic jjiodiictioii of fn-ciucnl occuirciicc aiiU'iiL; Uic al)<)rii;iii(.',s i.s Ur- ])r(,])heli(.\ \'(Ui aiv aware that it is by no iiK^'aiis iifculiar to lliciii ; the oiack- at l)(.l])lii, tlic sjhylliiR' k'axx's ill tht- Capitol, the- woids of tlR- Ik'hicw SL1.1S, v\L-n IIr- forer; .st.s of Xo.stradaimis, wxtc Usinll\- cast ill ]>oc'tic form. TIr- tdTnit to liit llu- veil of fiituritv is one imi;ulica])l(; froiii the hiiiiian Ineast, and faith in its jios.si- l>ilit\- is universal. Tliose ])ro])hels who are wise, those au;..;tirs who pa.ss the wink to each other, favor great ^4^jl 302 KSSAYS OF AX AMICKICAMST. obscurity ami ainhi.miitx in llicir coiniiiunicatioiis, oi dm- express llR-niSL-hcs in such conunonjilaccs as that ni ;m !> mortal ; that all beauty fadcth ; that i)()\vcr is traiivHnry and the like. We find both kinds (lourished in ar.t j(,m America. N'ou ma\- remember that Monte/.uma in In- uy^\ inter\ie\v witu Cortes told the vSpanish inxader tli.il ilu arrixal of a white and bearded con(iueror from the l"„i->t h.ul Ion;;- been jiredicted by Mexican .soothsaxers. Similar prophecies were current in \'ucatan, in Peru, an<l in nihcr portions of the continent. They are all easil\- expl.iiiied, ai'id there is no occasion either to (piestion the fail, ny u, seek for them any sui)ernatural inspiration. It would Knd me away from my theme to enter into a discussion ol tlkir meaning, but I should like to read you two brief exaniiilo of them. Both are from the Maya language of Vucalan, and I have no doubt both antedate the conquest. The rn>t, according to an expression in the poem itself, was coniposid in the year 1469. It was the ])redicti()n of a Maya ])riesi at the clo.se of the indiction or cycle which terminated in that year of our chronology. THE PROPHECY OF PECH, PRIEST OF CHICHEN-ITZA (1469). Ve men of It/.;i, hearken to the lidin.i^s. Listen to the foreeastc of this cycle's end ; I'onr have heen the a;.;es of the worhl's jjioj^ressiiii;, Now the fonrth is endinL^. and its end is near. A niit-hty lord is comin.tj, sec yon ,uive him honor; A potent lord apjii-o.-iehes, to whom all mnst how ; I, the prophet, warn yon, keej) in mind my hodin;.^-, Men of Itza, mark it, anil await your lord. MVTIIOI.OCIC I'OIOIS. 303 T ;(.' second cxaini)k' of llit-si.' iii\>lit' chants wliiili 1 >liall ^1 Miuisfroni a cnrion^ naliw- pnxhu'linn calkd, " Tlie sen]' )l" Chilan Halani," a ivpLrldrx of wild iniat^inini^s and of ancient and modern nia.nical lure, wliicli i> the \ery 1;;' 'iiifthe Maya Indians. .\ltlinui;li 1 lia\e a copNof it, I li;r r been unahle to translate an\- larj;e imrtion of it, and ni\- c(ii!i>|)ondents in Vncatan, thon.^h sonienf iheni >])eak Maya as i\,i(lil\- as .Spanish, lind the expie^imis too archaic and oh-ciiie to he intellij^ihlc. This partic-nlar m)1il; i> that of tin priest and sootli^axer Chilan. fnmi whom the sacred 1mi ik takes its name. There is e\er\- reason to believe that ild.ites from the fifteenth cxnlnre. RECITAL OF THE PRIEST CHILAN. Ivit, eat, wliile thc-rc is hteail, Drink, drink, while tlicrt- is uatcr; .\ (lay cMinics when iln^l shall ilarkin Ihi- air, When a hli.uhl shall willur ihr land, When aeloudshall ari>c-. When a mountain shall he lifted u]). Wlu'n a stroll.'^ man shall .-ei/e the c-ity. When ruin shall fall u])()n all things. When the tender leaf shall he destroyed, When eyes shall he elo>ed in de.ilh; When there shall he three j-iii'is on a tree, I'allier, son and ,c;randsoii haui^in,:.; ika^l on the same trie; When the hatlle fla;^ shall l)e rai-ed, And the }:eoi)le scattered ahroad in the forests. vSucli poem.s properly belong to the mythologic class. This class was ftilly represented in the productions of the 3«M i:SSAYS Ol" AN AMKRICANIST. priniilixi' h.mls, 'mil thicfly owinj^: to the prcjiulicts i.i tin. early missi()nari(.'S, tlic L'xann)li.'S ivmaiiiini; aiv few. I c'oiild roiilimic to l)rin>4 l)L'r()R' you spuciiiKii-^ mi tlii> quaint and anc-ieiit loiv. My j^ariR-r is !)>• no nitauv emp- tied. IJnt ])rol)al)ly I liaxc said fuou.nh tor ni\- ]nii|>(i>c. Vou sec that the stud)- of the abori.uinal ])oetry of our iniiti neiit ()i)ens nj) an unexpectedly rieh field for invesli^.itioii. It throws a new lij^hl not (ail\- on the folk son,i;s nf dilar nations, but on the general history of the t;rowlh i>\ thu poetic faculty. MtJie than this, it elevates our opinion i if the nations whom we are aceiistoined to call by the lenns siuaj^u and barbarous. We are tau<;lit that in much which \\r aiv inclined to claim as our special prerogatives, they too have- an interest. In the most precious jiossessions of the race-, in its aspirations for the infinite and the forever true, thev also have a share. They likewise partake, and in no iiKaii de- gree, of that .sweetest heritage of man, the glori(nis git'i of song, "the vision and the faculty divine." F»AK>T IV. LINGUISTIC. I '"'"^IIlC ])rocesses. psychical and l(),y;ical, wliich lie at the basis and modify the forms of articulate speech, have yet to be defmcd and classified in a manner to secure the {gen- eral acceptance of scholars. While these processes are ojier- ati\e and recognizable in all lan<;uaj;es, it lias ever seemed to me that they are more apparent and trans])areiil in the unwritten ton.<>ues of savage tribes. As the stream is more (liaphanons near its source, as the ])rol)lem of organic life i.s more readily studied in the lowest groups of animals and vegetables, by such analogies we are ])rompted to select the uncultured speech of the rudest of our race ti. disco\er the laws of growth in human ex])ression. 'riiough such laws are not precisely the same throughout sjiace and time, they uiKpustiouabK- partake of tl'.e ^ame unifnrniity as we note in other natural plieiionieua, and no language has >et been reported which staiuls alone in its tnrniation. IV-rhaps the general laws under whicli languages should 20 ( ,ivs I .4i 'lis?' f ^:'m i:SSAVS OI' AN AMi'.NIC WIST \k- j;riilllKil ]\A\v ,ilrt;i(l\ \kv\\ (IlIIiuiI ;i> closely as tli -iil jcct ])Lr.!iil-. Tlio I:il)<>i>> of Willirliu \tiii IIuiiil Mil. It, t'xi)an(K(l 1)> I'rotosdr Slriiitlial, would appear to pi^tm the iiio>t c-oni]irrlK'iisi\ ■. ami sali^fat'toi > ilassilU'ali' ii \ii attempted. SiK'li is the v-(!iieiu>ioii to whii'h iii> own >.iiiliiv .f tl le ^.ll hieel ha\e led iiie, and in the first three e >'>,l\ S (I this I'art, I ha\e set forth in considerable detail llu ipiilj cation of this opinion to the hmj;iiaK<-'s of America. l>]iei.- ially in the second essay, I ha\e altemjjled to p()i)ul,iii/i.' a profoiinder ph'lo.s()i)hic analysis of these t()n}.;ues than li.is heretofore ai)peared in works on the subject. The essay on "The Ivarliest I'orm of Unman S]ue(li olTers a series of inferences drawn from the study of Anui i( ,m tongues as to the general characteristics of the arliiulati utterances of the s])ecies when it first became p.ossessed liv some slow e\"olutionar\' ])rocess -of the power of conwyiii;^ ideas b\- intelligible soun*ls. It is an ap])lication of f,nt> drawn from a limited nv.nd)er of languages to the linmii^lii' status of the whole species at an indeterininatel\- reuinU- pen od, but is, I think, a fair use of the materials offen The anal\sis of words for the affections is the tlKim- ni' the essa\- on "The Concei)tion of I<o\-c in some .Vnuiicaii Language: It is an example of the use to which 1 tics Hia\' be put in the science of racial ])s\cholog\- in''ui- w ink' the essa \- on the words for lir.ear measures in certain t olP'lKs illustrates what knowledLje as to the condition of a nal mil arts ma\- be olit. lined by a scrutiu\- of its lexicon. The next essay, on the curious hoax perjielrated mi some lCuroi)ean and American linguists by the manufactuR of a no\el American tongue bv some French students, i-- an (•I in\c\ 111'. (•,i;ni;k \i,i/ \r\< in i>iscrssi:i). ,V>7 iii-l ,Miv, ii"l \vliiill\ un]iit.i'(.(l(.iilt. (1, (if iiii>i'hu\il iiv^iiiuity idt.', ;ni(l ca>\- tTiiliiliU- on tludllur. ll Ix-lmp's oil llir iilK' s ail' the " ruriii'^iiic's (if lili r;iluit.." l';MtL'»i<in;il lin.i;ui>t'^ will piuli ilil\- ri)ii->i(k'r tlu' must iiup-v idiiiti tint .<;<.-iu rali/alioii (khatrd in tlii-. I'atl that nf ilic Iv or (liv(.'i>il\' of tliL- a;4i;lnlinati\i- and iiu'oriioralivo nnni.>scs oi loii^UL'S. These two |)roi\»cs atv considt.iid as tnrm^ of hut out- 1)V most of tin.' pivscnl Imviu'Ii school ; hut I h ivr m uulaincd llicir rachcal (h'^timlion, tollowimj the Cii, rina 11 writers ahoxe mentioned ; and I h.a\e further in- si.sled that the ineorijoralixe phin is that e^pieiallx' proiniiuut in American hini;uai;x'S. \' Zi \ uuifactiiR- M'r AMERICAN LANGUAGES. AND WHY WE SHOULD STUDY THEM/^= Ci»ilr>//s. -h\i]\i\n f,'c'ojfr.'i])1iir naiiu-s— I,;in^'ua,i;o a i^iiidc tn dluu)- loj;v - Rc'voals tho i^rowth of arts ami tlu' psycholoj^ic jinn^sx', df ^ |)t'()])lc -Illustration from tlif LiiifiiK' toii.v'iit^' S. '■m-lurc of laii.;iiam' l)esl stiuliiil ill .avage lontjiU'S— Rank of Anuriraii toiij^ues—Charac- terislic trails; pronominal forms; idra of personality ; polys\ ntlitsi^; incorporation; holophrasis ; origin of these — Knridity of Aim linm lonj^ues ; their vocalnilaries ; power of exjjressinj^ al)strart iiKas- Conclusion. T APPIvAR !)cf()re you this evening to enter a plea fur one * of the most nei^lected branches of learnirig, for a study usually considered hopelessly dry and unproductive that of Americaji aboriginal languages. It might be thought that such a topic, in America and among Americans, would attract a reasonably large munher of students. The interest which attaches to our nati\c --oil and to the homes of our ancestors might be sup])(isi.(l to extend to the languages of those nations who for uncimnk-d generations possessed the land which we have occupied relatively so short a time. * All A(Mrc',-s (lilivi led by it(i\u>t liiHnc tliu IIi>loiic:il Sncii'tiis ul' rtiri-\ Iv.iiii.i Htul .New York, in iS'^s. U \v:is pviuUil in Ihc /'I'liii^i/itiiiui A/cii;ii.7iiii- /•/ intviy ami /.'.(■',;■ >.;/i//.i' fur thai year. (308) MOTINI'.S lOK I.IM.IIS'IIC i<i:si:.\Kcii. .yxj Ti;:s supl'<isiti<in wmiM ^n iii \\\v \\\i>w ivasomibK' iti \ ic \v ; . tail tliat ill niii' >(.nsc' llu-i' l;mi;u:i>;t'S have \uA died OUI illHill^ lis. 'rm-, llu\ air iin Imimr iiudi i of inU r cdi;- f. lull tlicy >ur\iw in tli(.u-an(l> <.! .L;i.<i,i;raiilii''al names allM.r<)ur land. In tin- - 1 iti m|' i^'cuim » lit nt almn.' Juc ;u\ 'i\\r six hiindivd, and ewn nmii.' in IV nns\ K mia. C itaitdv il won Id ni<i-l U'^ilinialc anxiilv wliii'li Itnl,!. 1 direct it'eli" l<t ll;e' |iie>c , \ alii n n|' llu' <iii ix ( I luiitis and prccist' niianini^s ol tln-i. ininKiMii'^ and inailiarly iiatiMiial di'si.L;nali<>iis. ( )nr unnM tliink thai this alone \vi iild n<il fail to I'Xi'itc sonu lliin^; nion than a lant;tii(I tan iiisit\- in Anuiican linL;ni-~li(s, at l<a^t in our iiislilutions ■)l' 1( irnin.i; and j-ociclics lor hi>toriral iiMauh. 'I'lial this suliject has ivtcixed Mislii^hl alteiilion 1 altii Iiulr to llif coniparalixeh ivreiil undcisiandiii;^ of the- value oi' [\\v stnd\- of lan.nuai^es in neiKial, and nion- partictdarly to tlu lad that no one, so far a^ I know, has ^e I t't ith llie jmr po-cs I'df whieh we shoidd in\e>li.:^ate these tongues, and the ie"-iills whieh we exjieet to re aedi 1)\ means of them. Thi.s it is luy inesenl pnipose lo alteni]il, so far ;is il can he ■accoiiiplished in the sco])e ol'an e\enin,L^ address. The lime has not loni; pas-ed when the onl\- l;(;oiI reasons tor sludyini; a lan,i;na.L;e were held to he either lh,il we mij^ht llR;eh\- acipiainl onrsehes with its literalnre'; or that certain husir.ess, Iradini;, 01 political interests mi;^ht he snhserved ; (ir that Ihe nation speakini; it m:,!;hl he made accpiaintcd uilh Ih.e hlessings of ei\ili/.alii>n and ChristianilN . These were all t;e)od anel .snfl'ieienl reasons, hnl I eanuot addncc any one of them in snpporl of m\ plea loniL;hl: for the lan- guages I shall speak of have no literature ; all transactions ■>■' 3" i;ss.\vs i>i" w .\mi:kica\ist vvitli llKir iH-()])li.' fail ]k- carried on as \\c 11 or he a:- 111 ]■ iiro]Kaii toii;_;u(.-s ; and, in fact, iiian\- of llicsi.- ] Ki i; .i\\- no lonLitr in cxi^tencr thcv a\'(.- (lifd out or ai;i. nia'.cd wi'.li ollirrs. What 1 liaxr to arL;uc lor is iIk- -luilv of 'dii.- d'vad hmunauL-s of ixtiiu-t ar.(' liarharoiis tribes. \' on will rcadih' sru tli:U in\- ar^niiK-nts innsl >v drawn fioin otlitr fonsi(k-rations than tlio-c of ininu'diatc nlihlv 1 nin-t tluiii in the hroack-r lie-Ids of (.■thno aid j)hilo>(>|ihy ; I nui'^l appeal to your interest in man as a raee. as a nieinher of a eoinnion species, as possessiiiL;" in all Ins faniilie.- and trihes the same mind, the same sold. I,.iii- gna;_:e' is almost our o'd\- clue to disco\-er the kin-.hip nl th. mntl e>s ^'.Mlteivd hordes w ho roamed the forest-- n thii hroad conliiK'nt. 'iMieir traditions are \-ajne or Im^i, written re'cords llie'\- had none', their eaistoms an 11 ar' are r.i! |ia<l ill''", tlie-ir le-li'jions mi-^uiiderslood ; their l,ni''ua''es al< IK' re-main to teslif\- to a oiie-ne- )f hlood often ^■eniiii Vepu.lialei 1 h an inlenieciiie- hostililx- I a.iii well aw.ire- of llie limits which a wise caution a-' imis to ll; e emiMo\nie-nt ol linentstu: -.11 eIlinolo<'\- and mi onl too lam liar with the- maii\- loolish, nn-eaentiric a'. tempts to einidoy il with le-fereiice to the Aniericai 1 rare. lint in S'nt.- ol al Ih I repeat th:il il is the .^ui-e-l ami almo-.t our onh nieaii'- to trae-^ 11 le ancient coniiee'lion .nn ini'.^ rations of nations in Anu-ric.i 'riiroU'.;li it-- aid alone we- ha\e reached a ]iosili\'e knowl C(l that most of the area of Sontli America, ine'liidim' tli who! the West Indie s, was ot-cnpied Iw three ''real families of nations, not one of which had fr.rnied aii\- iiii- ])(',{ant setllemeiil on the iiorlliern cgiitinent. 1»\ similar LAMUAC.l-S Ri:\i:\|, Ki;i. \TI< 'NSIlll'. 311 (.■\ i". iici.' wc know that tlit Irilic w liicli ^iwtL-il IV-nn, wIk'H 111' '. :ii(k'(l nil tlR- .-it(.' Ill this v'Wy wlic-ic I imw ■-pL.ik, was a i!u';ilirr of the 'lui.' \-asl fauiilv tli;- .■^ixat .\!,u( Mikiii ^turk wii' -V \ar;iius fkms L'xti luUd iVnin ihr palim ltd ■-w anip-^ of Cii'iliiKi to llif ^iiiiW '-kid liill-. Ill' I.aliradnr. ami tVdin the i..i-:, I iiiui ist VA\x- (il N\'\\ Inuiiillaiid to llii.- ]'(.-ak< <if Ihi- Km k\ Mountains, o\(.t jo .,t" kitiliuk' and 50 of lonL;itnd(.'. W'r al>o know that thr ;^rncral tirnd of nii-ration in tliL' iini •.'iRa-n rontincnl has ]k\]) from noith to >outh, and tli.it thi- i^ tiau- not onl\- of thr nioiv saxa^t.- trila's. as tla- Al- ^(inkins, Iro(inois, and Athajuix-a'^, l.nt also of thoN(. who, ill iIk' faxort'd sontlKTn lands, appioat lu-d a f(Min of cixiii/a- tioii. the Aztecs, the Ma\as, and the (Jniehes. 'l'he>e and ni;ni\ minor ethnoloi;ic tacts lia\'e adiead)- been obtained by tile slnd\- of American lam;nat;es. but sm.'h external info.niation is onl\ a small jiartofwhat llie\ are capable of disclo>ini:;. XW vaw tnrn tlK-ni, like the rLtk'ctor of a microscope, on tin.- secret and hidden m\steries (if tlie aborii^inal man, and disco\'er his inmo.-i motives, lii^ impulses, his concealed hopes and fc-ars. those tliat ;,.;ave ri-e to his customs and laws. hi-> schemes of social life, liis -iq^a^titious and his reli.^ions. IV-rsonal names, fimil\' names, titles. form> of salutation, iiKtlinds of adihx'ss, terms of eud.earment, respect, and re- ]ir<'icli, words expressin,L;" the emotion^, the>e are what infal- liM\ rex'eal the dail\- social famih' life of a commnnil\-, and llic way in whitdi its nuinbers re.uaid one auothei'. They are precise))' as correct when a] jdiid to tin.- iu\e~ti.uation of the American race as else-when.', and the\' are the more- val- irible just there, l)ecause his deep-.^eated distru>t of the ■ h.',. . . > 31 : ESSAYS OF AX AMKRIC WIST wliitr iiuadcTS- for wliicli, k-t us atkii()\vk(li;c', he liad ;t' (Ia:it ('au--c - k-'l llic Indian to practice conccalnRn'L C(iui\"()catii)n on llicsc pLTSonal topics. In no other \va\- can the histor\- of tlic (kvclonniciil (.; '.n- 111(1 ll'.S arts be reaclied on are (lon')l]vss aware tli;il dniL^eiit -I u- (knts of the Ai'van lan''ua>'es haw sncceeik'd in fail: iluliv (k'j)ictin!^' the arls ami liahits ol that ancient conininiiit\ in whicli the connnon ancestors of (ireek and Roman, iVi-ini and Dane, Hrahniin and Irishman, dwelt loijether a^ ot nlK blood and one speeci Tl lis has lieen done bv asceitamiii'. what househohl words are comiiion to all these toni^ues, .md therefore must h;ive been in use anioiii; the priniexal iK.ide from which the\- are all descended Tl le method is comlii si\-e, and yields positive results. There is no reason \\i)\ it should not he addressed to American lauiruaues, and wc na\- he sure that it wou.ld be most fruitful. How v iluahle it would be to take even a lew words, as maize, tobacco, pilie, b(AV, arrow, and the like, each representing a wide- spread art or cirstoin, and trace tlieir derivations and nffmi- t;c- tl iroiuj II th anviuaues ol tl le whole continent W ma\- be sure that striking' and unex]:ected results would \k- obtained. These lantiuaj^es also offer an eutertaiuint;- laid to the ps\cholo,nisl. On account of their transiiarenc\-. as I ina\ call it. Uie clearness with which they retain the ])rimiti\e foriii^- nf their radicals, thev allow us to trace out the ''rowth of W( )rds, and thus reveal the op.erations of the iiati\e mind bv a series of witues-es whose testimonv cannot be (ii les- tioneil. Often curious a.sscciations of ideas are thu s UlS- '■r^i^ THK DI'I.AWAR!; l-RONolN I. , > • ^ cl..- I, vcr\- instnK-ti\-c to llu- stink'iil of niaiikiiid. Maiiv ilii; ■! ilioiis of this caiild 1;^ oiwii, Iml I (Id iMt wi-li to ;[,-. ,'i \(iur cars hy a 1 lost of unkiiow n souikU, >o I ■-lull con ten; ni\-sclf with oi:c, and that taken tVoni the hnn^nai^c of till l.ciiapc, or Dcdawarc Indian^. 1 -iiall endeavor to trace out one >;n-le radical in th;il Ian- ou::-;c, and show x-cn how nianw an'l how >tranL;el\- dixcrse i(K I- were built up upon it. 'ri'.e radical which I sekct is the personal pnuioun of the fir>t jerxin, /, Latin /■/;'(', In Delaware this i> a sin.i;lc svllahle, a slis;ht nasal, \<\ or .\V. I, el nie premise !)>• inforniini; \(iu that thi^ is hoth a per- sonal and a possessive pronoun: it means hoth / and ////f/i\ It i> l.'oth singular and plural, both / and r.v, //////(■ and I'/i/ . The changes of the ap])lication of this root are made hy adding suflixes to it. I begin with iii' liiUau , literallv, "mine, it is >o," or "she, it, !•- trul\- mine," the accent being on the l"ir>t s\ liable, iii' , mine. ]5ul the common meaning of thi> verb in i)elawarc is more significant of ownership than this tame (.•xjirc'-.sion. It ;■> an active, animate \-erb, and means, " I beat, or strike, souKbody." To the rude minds of the frainer^ of that ttmgue, ownership meant the right to beat what one owned. We might hope this sense w.as confined to the' lower animals; but not so. Change tlu' accent iVom the Ih'-l to tlk' -econd syllabic, iii'/ii/Idii. to xihil'lan^ and \(in ha\c the aaniiate actix'c verb with an inter.siw force, which signifies " 1(1 beat to death," "to kill >omeper-dn:" ami from this, by another sufiix, you haw ;//////'/(',•. v;/, to murder, and niliil'- ,'1; r .V4 ICSSWS Ol" AX AAIl'KrC ANIST. /('<"<>/, inuK'.fivr. The bad sense of the root is here ] iu-!iu( to lis ulu rinost. I'.ul the root al-o (kA'eloi)e(l in a noMer (hreetion. AiM Ui n/'/i/7/(i)/ {]\v lerniination (ip(\ whieli means a niaK.ain, \(in liaxi' II ill a hi [^t literallv It IS true, a man. w ll'.C'll, as an adjective, means free, independent, one's own nn-li,]-, am ni\- own man. iMoni this are derived li le inmu, ri) /// 'liillal^t r. ■/;/ , to 1 )e IV ei-: auil iiiliilhipi u'il, a freeman; the \e tlie abstract, ii//ii//asou'a^(iii , iVeedom, liberie, inde]>eniKiice. These are I'lorious words; l»nt I can '•() e\en fartl ler, Ml nil this same ll lenie i> (leru'ed tree, to hl)erale, to redeem; and h'om tins tlie missioiiaii the verb iiiliillapciK'lu u , tu s(.'t th framed tl; vSax'ionr, W( ird iiiliiUa[>t-wlioalid, the Redeemer, llir Here is an unexpected antithesis, the words for a nun- derer and the Sa\iour both from one root 1 It illnslr,itL> liow .>>tran_L;e is the concatenation of lunnan thoui^hts. These aie bv no means all the deri\ati\es from the nutl ;//. I. When re(lu])licated as iiiiit it has a plural and streni^tli ened form, like " our own." With a pardonable and \\\1!- nii;ii universal weakness, which we share with them, llie nation who spoke the lan,L;ua;4e believed themselves the fir.-l created of mortals and the most i'avored bv the Criiilor. Hence whatever Ihev desiunated as "ours" was bo th ihier and better than others of its kind. Hence luinii came tn jueau ancient, primordial, indigenous, and as such it i> a frequent prefix in the Delaware language. Agai-i, as lliev considered themselves the first and oiilv true men, nijicrs being barbarians, enemies, or strangers iinnio was niuter- stood to be one of us, a man like ourselves, of our nation. scdi'i: oi' i.i.NcrisTics. i'5 l!! llicir (liffcR'nl (lialcL'ts tlic sound s III ;/, /, a I 1(1 ; wnv aUi! ii.ilud, so llial wliiU' 'riiiuiias Caiiipaiiiiis. \\\u> Iran at. U'l '! till.' Cali-c-liisiii into Di-lawan ail i'i.|5, wioU- lliat ! rhnniiis, lalci' wrilti-s lia\r ijiwii il hit no, and Irai is- \:\\v il '■man."' Tiiis i> Ihu word wliirli \w find in IIil- nirii I.riini lAiiapc, wliicli, !iy it> (kai\aliMii, iiK-aiw " \\r, wiiaeii." 'I'Ik' ;inU'CL-(kail Av/;// is suiicrllnons. 'riK'])rn]ier iiaiat.- (if lla^' Drlawaix- ualidii was and slill is /.(?/ ,'ipr, "\vc iiKii." (U" "our iiiLMi," and llu is(.' (a'ilic-^ w Im haw niainlaiiird llial llii' was a inisnonKr, inlniducL-d 1)\ Mr. I In'kc-ua-lika-, haw- li(-'tai inislak(.'n in llieir lads. '■■ I liaw nol doiiL- willi IIr' mol ih . I iiii;;hl l;o on and shdW yon how il is al tlic l)as(.' ot" ihc ikinonslraliw iiro- iKiuiis, lliis, Ihal, those, in Dclawaix-; liow il is ihr radical lit" Ur' words lor IhinkiuL;, relk'cliny, and iiK-dilaliii!.; ; how il al-o L^iws risL' to words (.■xjai'SsinL; similarity and i(knlil\-; I'.iiw il means to he loreiiiosl, to stand ahead of others; and fill ill\', 1m\v it sili.nil'ies to eoiiie to nie, to unify or (•on;.;re- i^ale to.^elher. lUil doulitless 1 lia\e trespassed on vourears lull- i.iion,i;h with unfamilar words. SiK'h snL;i;estions as these will K'^'*-' >''*ii some i(ka of the \aliie of Anieriean lau_i;na;^es to Anieriean ethiiolo.ux'. lint I sluiiild lie doiiiLi" injustii'e to m\- sulijeet were 1 toeoiiliiie my arnumeiits in fa\air of their stud\' to liiis horizon. If the\' are e>senlial to a comprehension of the red race, not less so are ihey to the .science of lin;,;uislics in j^eiieral. This .science deals not with lan^uai^es, hut with /(i//i^ //m^r. It liH'ks at tlie idiom of a nal''"' not as a dr\" catalogue of wdids and i;ranimatical ru!e>, hut a.s the li\in;4 exprosion 1- I'dr aiuitlu I tU riviiliiiii. sii'w«/i', \> isj. . 1 .- i f 4 316 I'SSAVS Ol" AN AMi;uiCANIST of the lliiiikiiiLr powcT nf man, as the lii''lK>l inanik of thai spiritual L'iicTt;y uiiich has lifted him tVoiii I' of the hnite, the complete definition of which, in it- tlnll le I \x\ and e\() the intc nlion lution, is the loftiest aim of uniwrsal hist (ir\ i~;iii ()| al tl IS tile li speech is the expression of th(iui;hl, ;iu(i nal purpose of all thinkin.L;' is the discoxery of liulli. so the ideal of lan,L;uaL;e, the point toward which il stii\(.> is the absolute form for the realization of inlelki lual function. In this hi,i;h (piest no ton.^ue can be overlooked, noin can be left out of account. One is just as imi)ortaul as aunllKr. Gctthe once said that he who knows but one lani^uai^c- knows none; we may extend the apothet;!n, and sa\- that so lou<'' as tl'.ere is a siu<'le lan>'uat;e on the "lobe not under stood and analv/ed th e science o f I uu'uaue w ill he iiKiiiii- plete and il usory. It has often proved the case that the iiu'esti^ation of a sint^le, narrow, obscure dialect ]ia> chanj^ed the most important theories of historw What lia> done more than anythinj;- else to overthrow, or, at le,i>l, serion.-l\- to shake, the time-honored notion that the Whitu Race llrst came iVom Central Asia? It was the stud\- of iIk Lithuanian dialect on the Jialtic Sea, a lans;ua.<;e of ]Kas- ants, without literature or culture, but which displa\s form> more archaic than the vSauscrit. What has led to a complete change of views as to the prehistoric population of .Southein ICin'ope ? The stud> of the Bastpie, a laiiL;uai;e unknown out of a few secluded \alle\s in the I'yreiices. There are many reasons why unwritten lau,>;uat;es, like those of America, are more interesting, more i)roniisini; in results, to the student of liniiuistics, than those which fir VAUM', oi- S.WAC.I', TMNC.ri'S. "'k O'/ gci!- rations have been cast in the conventional moiiMs of wnitcn speech. TIiL'ir structnrc is more direct, sini]ilc, transparent; they r.\i .il more clearly the laws of the lini^nistic jiowers in llieir (l:iil\- exercise; they are less lied down to hereditar\ forinnke anil ineanin.^less repetitions. Wunld we explain the c()m])licated strnctnre of hi^hly- ()ri;;ini/.ed tontines like onr own, wonld we le.arn the laws wliieh have a.ssi«;-ned to it its material and formal elements, we innst tnrn to the naive speech of sa\at;es, there to >ee in their nakedness those processes which are too oliscnre in om own. If the much-debated (jueslion of the ori.^in of lanLiuai-e eui;ai.;es us, we must seek its solution in the simi)le radicals of savage idioms; and if we wish to institute a comparison between the relative powers of lant^uaj^es, we can 1>\- no means omit them from our list. They offer to us the raw material, the essential and indispensai)le re([uisiles of articu- late conununication. As the structure of a lant^iiai^e reflects in a measure, and as, on the other hand, it in a measure controls and ilirects the mental workings of those who speak it, the studt.nt of psychology nuist occupy himself with the speech of the most illiterate races in order to luulerstand their lheor\- of things, llieii' notions of what is about them. 'l''he\' teach him the uiidi>turi)e(l evolution of the untrained mind. As the biologist in i)ursuit of that inar\el!ous .Miniething wlii(.-h we call "the vital principle" turns from the- complex (iri;anisms of the higher animals and jdants to life in its simjilest expression in microl)es and single cells, ^o in the ■>;•>•*'. '% 3'^ I'.SSANS OI" AN \MI:kIC WIST lutiiix' will tlir liii^ui>l liiid thai Itr i> m'art.'>l tlir sulmiMii ,,f tl K' ninsi uxioliiy pnilik'ins dl liis M-iriirc whin he (lin.(.l» lii^ aUnitioii to IIk' Um-'I culli\atL(l lani^ua^x'S. C<)ii\itKX'(l as I am n{' [hv rorivcturs-^ of thi-> anal NL'iUurc to predict, that in the fuluiv the anal\sis ( American lantruai'cs will he ix'ua nlc-d as one o f til e must important fields in linj^uislic stud>', and will modify m.ist niaterialh- the tindint,rs of that science. And I make thi> jirediction the more confidently, as I am sni)i)orted in it by the ''reat antlioritv of Wilhelm von Ihnnholdt, w lo Inr twenty vears devoted himself to their iiuesti'-ation. As I am advocating' so warml\- that more attention sliduld he dexoted to these lant;uai;es. it is hnt fair that Non slinuld re(inire me to say something; descriptive about them, U\ ex])lain some of their ])eciiliarities of structme. To dit ilii> properl\- I shonld refpiire not the fai; end of one lecture, luu a whole course of lectures. Vet ])erhai)S I can sa\ ennun], now to show you how much there is in them wnitli studx iuL;. I'efore I turn to this, however, I should like to comlial a prejudice which I fear xou may entctain. It is that saiiie ancient prejudice which led the old (ireeks to call all tliM>e who did not speak their sonorous idioms lun />(ir!i!ii>: for that Wold meant uothinj; more nor U'ss than hahhlers > ;.//- ,;<;/. ./\ i)eo])le who spoke an uniulellij;il)le touj^ue. MiMJeni civilized nations hold that prejudice \et, in the sen--e thai each insists that his own lan,L;ua_L;e is the best one extant, the highest in the scale, and that wherein others differ tVom it in structure the_\- are interior. jSo unfortunately placed is this prejudice with reference tu CNI'l'l'.KI A ( II' I, \\i ,r \(,i:S. :>i'> iir. •iihjci.'t, that ill llu- \(.r\- Vdhinic i-^-^iud 1)\ nui ^iiMin- iik::' al \\'asliiii,<;t(iii [n i.iu'(Uiia.ur tlir >1U(1\ nf tin.' Indian lan:^na|:;cs, Uiltc is a InniL; c's^ax to pin\i,' thai I-ai-Ii-ii i-. tin.' nii'*'ii.'>t, must ])frii.x't lan;^tiam' i" l'"-' \\<'il<l. while all the- iiativx' laiii;uat;c'S aiv, in oini])at i-^mi. ol' a win- In\\ ^ladf iiKkfd !•■• The e.ssaxist draws liis ari^utnt nS chielly front the- ahsriux' <i|' inllfctioiis in ]'!ii.<;lish. \\[ nian\ nt' tla- piDlonndt-^t lin,L;ni>ls of tliis century haw niaintaiiu-d tlial a fully inllit'lfd hui<;ua,m\ like the Creek or I,-ilin, is for tliat ver\ reason ahead of all others. We may sus])eel that when a writer hauls his nali\e ton^tie at the expense of (ithers, he is iniluenced 1)\- a prejudice in its faxor and an al»ence of facihty in the others. Those best accjuainted with American tonj^uo ])raise duin most hii^hly for lleNibilily. accurac\', and roonrcis of (.\pres>ion. The\- i)lace some of them al.o\e an\ Ar\an lan.nna^e. ]5ut what is this to those who do not know ihenK-' To him who cannot bend the bow of I'Insscs it naturally seems a useless and awkward weapon. I do not ask \()U to accept this o])inion eitlur; but I do ask that \()U rid \-our minds of bias, and that \ on do not oiudenui a tonj^ue because it differs widel\ iVom that which xon speak. .\merican tongues do, indeed, differ \er\- wi(kl\ iVom thnsc' fimilia'' to Ar_\an ears. Not that the\- are all alike in structure. That was a hasty i;enerali/ation, datini^ lioin a lime when the\ were less known. Vet tlie ,L;re.it majority ^ lull ndii, liiiii III till- sillily iif Indian / .a iii; ii a :: i:^ . lly J. W. ruwi-U i-it'oiiil cdi- tinii, W;i-hiiii4ti)ii. iVSdi. 'W I.-. _^2(i I'SS.WS Ol' AN AMI'.KICAMS'IV of tlicm liavc ri-rtaiti characteristics in cotntnoii, suffi t !■ lit [i place tlKin ill a liiii;iiislic class by themselves. I shiili iin tlu lie and c'\])lain some ol lliese As of the first iiii])(irtaiue I would meiitinii tlu \ lumi lU'iice tlie\- assign to pruiioiiiis and pronoiiiinal loiiii- In- deed, an eminent linguist has been sn impro-'ed wit'n tins feature that he lias proposed to classify tlKin distinctu rl\- as ])r(iiuiniinal lanj^uaj^es. The\- liax'e maii\' classe s ()i pni- nouns, sometimes as man\- as ei.yhteen, which is ninn than twice as man\- as the (".reek. There is dfleii no di>liiuii(,ii lietweeii a noun and a \erl) other than the jiroiKniii whirli governs it. That is, if a word is employed with oiU' lijini of the pronoun it becomes a noun, if with another ])r(iii(inu, it becomes a verl). We have somethinir of the same kind in iCntrlish. In il IL' phrase, "I love," love is a verb; but in "my love," il is ,i noun. It is noteworthy that this treatment of words as either nouns or verbs, as we jilease to employ them, was carried further by Shakes])eare than by an>' other lviii.;lisli writer. lie seemed to divine in such a trait of lani^iuij,^' vast resources for varied and pointed ex])ression. If I may venture a sugj.(estion as to how it does confer i)ecnliar stren.u^th to expressions, it is that it brings into espcrial prominence the idea of Personality: it directs all subject'- df discour,->e by the notion of an individual, a li\ini;-, per-niial unit. This imparts \ividness to narrati\es, and diieclr.css and life lo pnijiositioiis. ()f tliLSL- i)ronor.ns, that of the firsi. person is usiiall\ the most developed. Im'oui it, in ni:iny dialects, are derived the demonstratives and relatives, which in Ar\an lan>'ua''es I.nNC. CttMl'iJlND WiiKHS. \Vi A. >\ V. 11,11 iikcii fiiini tl;c' lliitd ](.r>-i.ii. This |,i( iniiuii<( (>( {]]<■ lis Cdtlll'U III <-• 111 M' ;i tr;iit tl ){.• r;nf \\r :is \v >\(xi'\\. It Invnis ];:irt (!' lliiil >.;i\;i,m' imlt jn ikK iuh- .irac'ir wliitli jut \ i n't-d tlum ((i;ili>tin;; iii!ii ;,;ri;it :is, ;i ii'l Ud I'liiiii tti iiic'lVr (!i.;itli Id -I r\ iludc .\,'-illHr iliaiark rislir, wliicli at niir tinn,' was ^\]\.\ um(1 to I,!.' iMii\ir-al cii this cuntimnt, is wlial Mr. I'cUr \'\\ l'ni:((.aii iiaiii' SL\' .1 /><-/ \ sy)i/lh m's IK iiK ant li\ tlii> a pnwi r nf nmiiiii!, il wiirds in'.o mu', drdpijiiiL; parts di' iluni and irtainini. u s di a 11 (iiih die sii^iiificaiit >\ llaMis. I.ihil; (kstripliw nan (^1.;, cS dt' ci\ili/(.(l lite iK \v td tie Indians \\i u- tl'.i:- idimd uilli tl.c !.;iLatt.sl ca-t.'. Sdnn- df tlusc- arc curidUs iiidiiitli. Tin. Tax-ant Iiidian.s call a silicdl liou-f 1)\ diR' Wdid. wliirli means "a st(,]:i)iii;-;-|)lari.' wIkic s( \\\\\ is juat t'Ci.d;" llicir iintidii r.i liddk Ic-aniing liL'iiii; tlial it licldii^ts to llu- uncanny art-. The Dcdawa.rc word lor hdisc- means "tin.' Idur lodtcd anuiiaw aiinnal uliuii carries on li'.s l)at'k. This nicth(!(l df cdiiiini; woi (Is b iuii\tr>al in A] nicncan lair'naitcs. lidwcxcr, l)\ lid iiKaiis It iiiwails in nidsi df tl'.ii in liritisli America and tlie rniled Stales, in A/lec and \a rions Sdiith American id ldln^ Imt in dtJKis, as the liiakcts fcund in Yucatan and (lUalemala, and in the Tn])i (if lira/il, tlie ( )tdini of Mexico, and tlie Klamath df the I'aeiric coast, il is scarcel\- or iK t at all present. Another trait, howexer, which was conrdunded uitli this Mr. Dn rciiceau, luit re ill\ 1 eldiius in a dilTercnt cate- i^Mi V of ,i;rammatical structure, is truly distiuctixe of the laii- miaLtes of the continent, and I am imt sure that aiix- one of tlKHi lias hecii shoxx'U to he xxliolly dex'oid of it. This is what is called inioyporation. It includes in the xeib, or in the verhal expression, the ohject and manner of the action. 21 322 I'SSAVS <)l' AN AMllK'K" WIS'I" ■iiiMi ,il»lr Dii. fix, and 1)\ i1l■^(.■|•lillL^ hilwrrii it and ll 111 ll v«.'ti il-rll', or MiiiK'liiiK's tliivt'th in ili,' laii rV IkI\wi.ii ll- -Ml, I l)ks, iIk' oIijcTl. direct or ivaioU-, and tlir pailii Ir-. nidira tiii;^ moik'. Tlu- liiiK' of irii-i.' parlii'K>, on llir ollu i hunl, will !>(.• phuxd at ont.' riid ot llii-- lonipoiind, lillni ,i- \i\v- fi\r-> oi' >uiri\i.'S, llin> jilacinL; llu- u IioK- c■\p!c■^^sio^ v;iiiil\ within the limits ot a \crl)al toiin ol'^pect-h. i'.olh thr al)o\L' char,n'ti.aislic->, 1 iiKan ToKsn ntl U--1- ami I- u'oipoialion, ail' luu'onsrious ti'l'orts to caiiA out a t'LT I liiud lain IhcoiN ot spcccdi which has ai)tl\' cnoui:;!! hicii I //(>/(>/)/// (is/s, or the puttiu}; the w hole ol" a phrase into a >iu;4li- word. This is the aim of each oi' them, th(tni;h lacli eii dea\'ors to accomplish it !)>■ dirfer(.nt means. Iiicoi])iiiaUim coiitines itself exclnsivel\- to \erl)al forms, while i thesis emhraies both iioniis and verbs. )ol\ -VII- .Siip])ose we carry the anal\sis t'urther, and see if we can obtain an answer to the (pierw Why did this effort at blendinj; forms of si)eech obtain so widel\ ? vSnch an iiii|uirv will indicate how valnable to lin,i;iiistic search wonid pruw the stud\- of this i^roup of lani^ani^es. I think there is no donbt but that it points unnii>takalily to that \er\' ancient, to tluit primordial ])eriod of liuiuaii 'utterance when men had not yet learned to connect wonN into sentences, when their utmost efforts at articulate >petcii did not i;() beyond sini;le words, which, aided b\ L;estuiv> and signs, .served to conve\- their limited intellectual mn verse. vSuch sin.nle vocables did not belonj;' to any partii ular part of speech. There was no grammar to that antiiiuc tons Its di.- i.sconnec tences in theni.selves. ted exclamations mean whole sen- TKAiTs or i.\Nc,r.\(',i:s. ,^2.^ •!• .Ill in till will •< iu'lica Kl ll.ltlil, r .1^ I lu- ll -liirlly u-^i- .iiul lit ,1 (.'L-r .■n U nuid ,(i ;i ^in;4K' VAv\\ (.11 )r|)iil.llinll ' lMtl\-yn U ur ran (.I'lnM at ;i ini|uir\ 1(1 \)yn\\' ii>lakalily )t" Innwan .■cl \\iir(l> ilr >lKccli •lual rnn )arlii ular U anliiiui.' UoIl- si-n SI\r A ! iriiii' l>;iit <•! tlu' luini.m rati,', iiniaMx , but not i.\rlii tlir al><iriv;iiR'^ of llii'^ rdutiiu iit. iMHitiniKil llir tm (lit!. 11 of tlii^ iiHtdi' t)t (.•xpta.'^-'iiiii ill iju' -^t^lI^tllr^ i>\ lliiir tni!, iii-s, Iiiul; altir llir unicii n| tli<iu,i;lil auil ><iuii(i iii aU'i'''l<.' >|ict.'(.'li IkuI liccii liHiui;lil lo ;i liii;Ii (U u;!*.*.' < i| jut .\itliiiii.i;li I llni> ni;ai(l diK' (it tin. iuu>t ludiiiim iil ]nt.\\ liai iiif 1)1" Aliiviic-nu l.iii''iiaL;<.s as a siii\i\,il iKnii an fx .■n(lm,L;l\ low sI;i.il;i' <it liuinau di Aclojiiiii, lit, it li\ no nn.an> n||..W thill this is an (.vidincr ollluii- inluioiitN Tin- Chinc'Sf, who in.-uL- no rJVort to t'oniliiiK- llu- piiiiii U\\ \(i<.-aI)Us into one, i)nt iain;i- tluiii nakcilh side- hy sKlr >uc'«.-Lv(k<l no hcttiT than thr Anuiicin Indians; and llii.li is not ninc'li li(.'\oiid asMilion to ]iio\t ih.it tli*.' AiA.iiis, ulio, lhroiii;h tlKir inlkclions, niarla'd ihc relation (il l.M< h word in Ih*' ,S(.nt(.'iux' li\ iiniii<.'ion> I; i| case. ;4(.inkr, Hiiiiilicr, etc., .l;oI an\ nearer the iileal ])eileelion of laii.mia,L;e. If we apjily what is certainl\- a ver\ fair test, to wit : the u^c^ to which a lanj^uaxe is and can he put. 1 taiiiiot see llial a well(le\eio])e(l Auiericaii loiinue. siu'li as the .\/l(.'C uv the Al'-onkin, in aii\- wa\ falls short of, sa\ I'"nneh oi I'.ii-lish. Il is true thai in nunn- of these tongues then IS no (lis li> tiiulinii made between exjiiessioiis, wliii'h with Us are care- fnll\ se])arated, and are so in thought, 'riius. in the 'I'upi <it llra/il and elsewhere, there is hut one word for the three .xnixssioiis, " hi.s father, lie is a lather," and " he has a fitlier;" in many, the simple form of the xerh iiia\ convey tlirie different ideas, as in I'te, where tlu' word for "he f 1 Iffr- 324 i:SSAVS ()!• AN AMl'RIC \\ISI\ SL'i/c'S " means also " the sci/t'i-," and as a dr^i-riplixr iviuii " a iK'ar." the animal wliirh seizes. ins nas heen (.•liar''L(l a; ainst these lan'j"ua''es ark of " (lirierentiatiiin. ( UMmniatieallv, this is si I'M', t same eh;'.ri ;e ajiniKS w i'Ji ahnost eipi; fiiive to tile 1' :i:^llMi amjua'-'f wliere the same wnrd ma\- l)elo a''" to ::n\ !"Ur, ti\-e, even >i\ parts of :-i)eei'h, dependent entiv I'onneetion in wliieli it is nse(h el\- (1 As a set-off, Iht.' Ameriean lani'iiasje s a\'oi(l eontn'^ioii-; expression whieh prevail in !• nro])ean tom;ne: Thus in none (^)d, amour ue these latter, when I Dieu," "amor Dei, sav the 1. i\'e n| can \dn niuler- stand what I mean. 01; do not kno.\' wli ■tl ler niteii' the low which we ha\-e or should have toward ( God's lo\e towar A d us. Vet in tiie Mexican l,am.vu; tin nV ami many otlier American tonj^ucS' these two cpnte o]i])ii^iu idc: are .-o clearh- distiu'-uished that, as leather C u-iu-lr. warns the reader^ of his Mixiraii (ii\iiJii)m>\ to confuuul them would not merel\- he a .grievous solecism in spe hut a f irmidalile heres\- as well. Anolh.er example. What can you ma.ki, out of thi^ tcnce, wh'.eh is strictlv correct 1)\' I{n''li;di uranunar: ecu. ~en told K iiert s son that he nuist he Ipl 11m \' 01111 on can make uothinu out of it. It mav have anv one of six diffeivnt tncanuij^s, depending;' on 1 ihe persons referred to h\- tli C PVD- noinis ne ■ml iim. 1 Xo such lamenlal)le confii-ioii could occair in an\' American toiiiiuc known to me. TIk Cliippewa\', for instance, has three pn )nouns o f the t!;in person, which designate the near and tlie remote antece- dents with the most lucid accuracy. I'XTi'N'i" oi- y c.\r,r!,.\Kii;s. ur"^ Tl'i.tv is aiiotlRT point lliat I luu-t nuntidii in ihis con iKi'lioii, l)ccau-;c I hud thai it lia> almost al\\a\s hrcii o\x'r- (t or niisuiukastood li\ taitirs of tlusi.' laiv't ia''(.'S. lu-^ liavc \'w\] \\\\.' in con(kinnin'4 IIr' >\ ntlKtu lornis oi 0(1 11 -liiuiion. Hit tlicv SLL'in t( 't.l\' o ptiona 1. Tl ms, 111 M he i,L;iiorant that tiKir use exican, oin.' can arranuc llic aiiic aiMi scntciKv in an anah tic or a s\ ntlictic 101111, and this i.>- tiic case, in a less dc'ree, in thi Ah. .oiikiii. W Uu> iiK'.ni,- a reinarkahle riclniess is athled to llic hiiij;nai;e. TIr hii;her the tirade of s\nlhe>is eniplo\c(h the more stiikiiii;. ele\ate(h and pointed hecoiiies the (.■\pie>->ion. In (.(iiiiiiion life Ions;' comp.oniids are rare, while in the nativi- Ml \i(-an poetrx' eatdi line is ofltii hut oik- woid. 'i'liriiinu now from IIk- .^li iictiiie of the-i.' lanmi: i''es 1(1 111 eir \-ocahularie>, I iiiu>l correct a \vi(k-picatl iiolinn that IJicx are ^callt\■ in ext^ait and deficient in the iuean> to e\iness lolly or ah.stiact ideas. ( )f course, there are niaii\- lia.ct-- of lh.oU''lit am irniiii faiiiliar to us now which wue nlteiK unknown to ilu- Aiiarican alioriuiiies, and not k --^ '-o to our ow u |o;clatl;eis a kw cciitniie.' a-'o. It wouid 1 (-■ wr\ uuiair lo ciiupare W ^' dictioiiarx- of an Indian laiimiam.' w ilh llic la--t i,'d;tioii of ehster'^ riialirid.<;(.(l. Hut l,d-:e tlie k'li^li-h dicliou,nie> f tlu: >i\Uciilli i\ntiii\, li(.lore Sp*-'"'*-' if Ihe l;;lt.,r lial ami Shak(.'Spcare wrote, aii<l c( nipaii' tlu 111 with ihe Mexicin VI calmlarN' ol Molina, which couiaius ahoul i;,((ii word.^, ir with ihe Ma\a \dcaoulai\ of ih.e coincut of Mol iiR-ciils ox'er 2( ui, w men o, hdtli prcjiaixd at tint date. ,iiid xnni |in ccilure will he ju.'-t. and \ ou will find it not di>ad\an- lai;cllU^ to the Aiiierican ^ide of tin.' (HKslioii, 326 ICSSAVS f)I' AX AMERICANIST. Tlic (k'ficicncy in abstract terms is s^cnerally true <ii (1^.,^ la.'ii^uat^cs. They did not nave them, Ijecause tlv-y li ul no use for them — and the more blessed was their eoii'inidn luiropean hin,^uat;es have 1)een loaded with sex'eral ihon-^and such in- meta])hysics and mysticism, and it has nijnirt(l nian\- t^eneralions to discover that the\' are empt\ wind- bags, tuU of soinid and si<;nilVin.u^ nothinj^-. Yet it is weH known to students that the power of funn- inj2: abstracts is possessed in a remarkal)le degree b\' uinny native languages. The most recondite formula' of dogmatic religion, such as tiie definition of the Trinity and th.e cliffer- ence between consubstantiation and transubstantiatioii. have been translanted into many of them without intHxhuin^ foreign words, and in entire conformity with their ,<;raiii matical structure. Indeed, Dr. Augustin de la Rosa, of ilie University of Guadalajara, says the Mexican is pecuharly adapted to render these metaphysical subtleties. I have been astonished that some writers should brins; uj) the primar\' meaning of a word in an American language in order to infer the coarseness of its secondary meanin,!^^ This is a strangely unfair proceeding, and could be directid with ecjual effect against our own tongues. Tluis, I nad lately a traveler who spoke hardly of and Indian tribe I)e- cause their word for "to love" was a (knvative iVoni that meaning "to buy," and thence "to prize." Hut what did the Latin ai>nin\ and the k'nglish fo /ovr, first mean ? Car- nally living together is what tliey first meant, and this is not a nobler deri\"ati()ii than that of the Indian. l{\en yet, when the most polislied of luu'opean nations, that nnc which most exalts la ^ ramie passion, does not distinguish in '.rT. VAI.ri' Ol' Till-. STl'DV. 327 laii- :;a,<;e bc'twfcii lovins^^ their \vi\-cs and likiii;;- tlicir diii- ,n-- l>ul iiM-s tlic same word for lioih eiiiolions, il is ^caic-cly wi- for us to iiuhili;t' in niucli latiludc of intlixncc- t'loni sm 1; i.-t>in(>lt lilies. Such is Uk' gcn'jial character (if American lani^nai^c^, and surii arc tlic rcas(.ns \\\\\ \\\c\ ^lionld he ]ireser\ed and ^tuiiicd. The fiehl is \-ast and demands man\- hihoreis to aaji all the fruit that il ])romises. It is leheNed at present that there are about two luuidred wholly inde])en(lent stocks (if lani;uai;es amont;- the ahori.^ines of this continent. They \ar\ most widely in vocabulary, and seemingly scarcely less Mt in grannnar. Desides this, each of these stocks is sululivided into dia- lects, each distinguished by its own series of jihonetie changes, and its own new words. What an opportunity is thus oflcrcd for the study of the natural evolution of lan- j^uage, unfettered by the petrifying art of writing ! This is the case which I present to you, and for which I earnestly solicit your consideration. And that I may add weight to my appeal, I clo.se by ((noting the words of one of America's most distinguished scientists, Profes.sor William Dwight Whitney, of Yale College, who writes to this effect : "The study of American languages is the most fruitful and the most important branch of American Arclueology." li IB1 WILHELM VON HUMBOLDT'S HESEAHCHES IN AMEHICA^ Ct)>//i i//s. — \\hiii led Ihunboldt toward the American tnii'ins— •I'] hy ot I'ro.i^ress of liis studies — I'liiidaiiiental doctrine of iiis jihilf) lanj^iia'^e — His thec^-y >i' tlie evolution of lannuai^es — Opiuimi <>n American lan.i^ua.^es — His criterion of the relative ];erfeclion nf !:in- j^ua,!j;es — Xot alnnidance of fornix — N'or vi'r''al richness — Anni;i tii tongues not dei;enerations I luml)ol(ll's classilicaticni ol' laiii;irr4e>— I'SVClK oloL;ical ori;4Ui ol UicoriM Inc oration in lauLiaa 'e - lis sli ortcuiniiiL — In simple sentences — In conuionnd sentence.' — Ahsenci- of inuj l"ormal ekinents— Th'. nature of the American verb. /"O IIIv loiiiulalii)iis of the PhilosDpliy of I^aiimini^c were laid 1)\- W'illielin von IluinhoUlt ihorii Jinie' jj, i-'i-, (lied April S, iS_:;5). The ])riiiciiiles lie adx'ocaled fre(|iieiill\- heeii misinulerslood, and some of iheni haw- ! have )ee!l * '\'\n> c>>Liy 1-; c-\Uacti'il In Jin a ill in- miuT.iI (li>cii-~i m uf 1 In nil > >liU'- liii ;iii~ lie pliilii"' ■iili\' uliie'h 1 nad l>(.-r.)ri' Uu- An u-iU an I'liiln>i>|)liii.-al Sik irl\ in r-' - , .uhl wliic-li u a^ pi inlnl ill lliiir /'/.i( ,v<//.7,' . f .r lliat yi ar. I IninliiMl'^ i^ixat \v n ;, u.is liis InliiMliu'iciii til liis i->~a> nil till' KaHi laii'.;iiaL;c nmli i" llif title: I'lhriili, !,!- srlni<li iil'i it ih s III! iiM lilii h, II Sf'i i!i ,'ihtiiii •■ mid ih;,ii /:iii:lii.\< iiiil tlir .:,''7>/.;'.' //,■/• 7iiii/^i/ii i/j^ t/i\s Miiisi/iiK^iWiiiliiii/-.. rrnl'. Adli i' tran>lati.~ this, " 'riu- slnuli..,il DilVi It net - uf II inn an Spi'ich ami tin ir Iiiiliuiux- on I la- I nt-.-lKotual I k vl 1 .pau r.t of llu- I liiiiiLiii Kai 'I'lu- word ri'if.'ivr. however, iiuiiidcs cni il ion; intclUrtual lliin^s. ol'tlu' inaii\- t'oininriitatoi~ on this masterly jn odrat: i:i. I have n>ed pal iieulaily tln' following; Z/ir 1. 1, nil III,- del I'liilii.M^fihisiiiiii Sf-idilniissrusrha/t ll'illi,liii ;oii llnnihi i.ll'^- ( 3-^S ) Mwm ilii-ci li\- of jpiiii'iii (,11 ion cf !,in- -Anu liiMii oiU'i iiH'iiins (.'(' of llUi_' age \\\R' • ' ( / • aw litvii lU'-^ lin :;n-- ■ in 1'-^-, .mil al \v 11 '., wa-- hri ,1;. .' ,;- ,7>/,a,',' /',■/- ' StnulUial )t vcl.il>au!'.t a^ u . '.I a^ iVi'ilra!'. •'.!. I iiuiiih.ijr^. iir.MnoT.DT s 'i-iii;()Rv oi- laxciaci:. :>2c) iiKiiitlcd, or c'\cn (.'onlniwrled, hy luoiv uxtfiKled research ; Iiui a careful surve\- of llic teiukiieiLS of nuxlein t!i()U;-;lil in tlii- lielil will sliDW tiial IIr- pliilos; i])liic scIruk (if IIk- nature anil :-;r(i\vth of lauouai;\> wliicli la- M.-t Inrlli, i> t^radually rc:i-erlint;- its s\va_\- after lia\inL; liecii nei^k-eted and denied lhi"n-li the preponderance of tiie so-called "naturalistic" scIiomI (luring the last ([uarler of a cenlurw The time seems ripe, therefore, to bring the general prin- ciples of his philosophy to the knowledge of American scholars, as applied hy himself to the analysis of American languages. Tlu.-e languages (X'cui)ie(l Ilund.oldt's attention earnestly and for nian_\- years. He was lir.-l led to llieii studv li>- his bro'.her Alexander, who pn-.-^enied him with the large lin- ;^ui--lic culleclion amas-ed during hi> travels in .S mlh a.nd Xiirdi America. While Prussian Minister in Rcuie iiSoj-Si Wilhclm ransacked the lil)rar_\' of the (/(>//,-^/(> /Wuiiaiui for rare or uu- luiMi-hcd works on Americ.m Inngues; he oi/iaiued fi'om the ex-Jesuit l-'orneri all the infirmalion the lat'.er could ^i\e about the Vurari, a tongue spnken on tlie Mela ri\er, III ,M ^',-ii.i!iM'''/fr /Cii/u'iii/iiiii: il:i 1 1;. s',111 II lid k) i/im // ,i l.iiil, 1 1, v.ni In Max >>h.i-- Icr. Ik rliii. I'- 17. /'•. Sl>:,uliui.ssnis, Inift Ifil/irhii mii t Imiihi.ldr s mid dir ll,-,r>ili,- PliiUi-uphi', vinl);v U. S'.;an!li.il, H.T'ii.i, I'^p. 'riif >anK' iininiiit lin ;tii~t tr. a'.s c .pnially nC lliiiiili .iiil— tL'acliiin;s ill (ii aiiiiimlik. /.i'i:il mid /'> i.7/'i.'in.v.', i/n,' /'; iiit i,'-;/ ii mid fill i\i'idl'iii.\.s -11 i/iiiiiidii , ]>]i. 1 -',;-i.;5 I i'filin, i^>^); in lii^ wa I! InIhas ii \ ilunu' Cluiuulri i.dik dri Ihiiit<t>d,',ili,listiii Tvpi'ii d,' S'>ia. Iil;iiir>. ]i]i .-.i; ilkilin.i '.ii; ill hi- ur.ili 111 /',''ir H'l/Z/i/ii/ run UmiihnhU liiilin. i'^;, : ami t l-v\vluu\ W'llh.-'.in -.III llunibiddl s /.iir^ii i>ii,al Sliidi,^. 1!\ C^ J. Ailln A M Ni « Nnik. h' 1. 'I'lii-^ i> IIk' iiiily atU-nii)l In- iU- my uu n, - i tar ,i- I kiMu , l i pia -i I'.t llum- b iMl-- iiliilisophy ii( laii,uiia'4f to r'.iiL;li~li u aiK i-. It i- imiit<.riui;-, In a lait.iiiily ill .- iiiK' puhsa.i^L'S I'rof. .\dki- i'aik'il in caUh llnnitiuliU's lm.imin.^. i; »ii'^ ?'^(^ i;SSAVS OI" AX AMERICANIST. New Granada :''' and lie secured accurate c<ii-)ies of ,,:i tlx- manuscript material (>u these idioms left by the <li,i'^(.iit collector and linguist, the Al)l)e Her\'as. A lew years later, in 1S12, we find him writin;_; \>> \\\< friend ISaron Alexander von KLiinenkamptT, then in St. Petersbur.n' : "I ha\e selected the American lanL;uaLc^ as the special subject of my in\'esti;^ations. The\- ha\i Uic- closest relationshi]) of any with the ton.^'ues of north (.a-krii Asia ; and I bej;' yon therefore to obtain for mc all ihu dictionaries and L;rannnars of the latter which >-ou can. ' i It is ])rol)al)le from this extract that Humboldt wa-- !1kii studying;' these languaj^es from that limited, ethnographic point of view, from which he wrote his essay on the Ila^(HK- tongue, the atniouncement of which appeared, indeed, in that year, 1S12, although the work it.self was not issued until 1S21. Ten years more of .study and reflection taught him a far loftier flight. He came to look upon each language as ai\ organism, all its parts bearing harmonious relations to each other, standing in a definite connection with the intellectual and emotional development of the nation speaking it. l^acli language again bears the relation to language in general that the species does to the genus, or the genus to the onlLr. and by a comprehensive i)rocess of analysis he hoped to arrive at those fundamental laws of articulate s]K'ech which * /'rf'i-i ifir I 'i-i Si //ii(frii/iri/, etc., lid. vi, S. J71, iicilc. I may siiy. iuki' forull lluil my rclVrcii-.-cs. unless ntherwise staled, :irc to tlie editimi of lliiiiilM.Ult > r,, >,i«- nii'//,' ll'i-iki-. I'diteil liy liis brotlu'r, lierliii. is.|i~is,.>, t.(/(.v ll'il/iiiiii :■(>>/ I liiiubohir s l(i-Ji-it I .ilh-m-jalii ni. tunc Millltt'tlH)rj, hisli:'i uv.- hckatnili'i J>>it-/,\ von 'riicodor Distel, \i. m ll.eipzi.i;, i^^,^). v.M.ri' <)!• .\mi:kic\\ i.\NC,r.\c.i;s. 331 f 11;: ihu Philosophy of Lanj^u.i.m,', and which, as thc-\- an- ;;1-M thf laws of human thou.^hl, at a txTtaiti ])()inl cdiiu-idt.-, 1k' '>i.li(.\(.'(l, with those of the I'hilos(i])h\- of Ilistorv'. Ik the completion of this vast scheme, he contined to atl.nh the utmost imi>ortance to the American lan.^iiaj^es. ili> illustrations were constantl>- drawn from them, and tlu N were ever the subject of his earnest studies. He prized tlu 111 a> in certain res])ects the most valuable of all to the pliilnsophic student of human speech. Tlius, in 1X26, he announced before the Picrlin Academy that he was preparinj; an exhaustive work on the "Orj^an- isiii of Lan<j;^uai;e," for which he had .selected the American !uii;ua^es exclusively, as best suited for this iiurpose. ••'riie languages of a great continent," he writes, " jieopled by numerous nationalities, probably never subject to foreign influence, offer for this branch of linguistic study specially favorable material. There arc in America as many as thirty little known languages for which we have means of study, each of which is like a new natural s])ecics, besides many others who.se data are less ample.""'' Ill his memoir, read two years later, " (.)n the Origin of (irainmatic Forms, and their Influence on the Development of Ideas," he chose most of his examples from the idioms of the New World ; t and the year following, he read the mnii()grai)h on the Verb in American languages, which I refer to on a later page. > V S|j * I'loiii his iiuiiiciir I'lhri tins :i'ii;lri,hniiir Sfuii, listmliiiin ni lli':ii iiiiiii; niif die f'l.^, Iiu'ilniin I'.f'i'iliiii dii Sf'i lU liriil:, it hliiiii^. l!il. iii. s :\'i. till draws ixaiuplfs fiMiu tin- Cniili, I,uU . 'rupi, Mliaya. Ilua-Uia, Naliu.'itl, ianumai'a, AI)iponc. and Mixtoca; I 'rhri lUi.s I'.nlslchni d,> i^i animatis, Ihii /'uiiiiin, tiiid ilui'H Juiijliiss aii/dir Idi;'iieiil:iuklung, lid. iii, ss. 2119-31)11. ^•1 >•)>■>- ICSSAVS ()!• A\ AMI'.UICAMST In I stil)Si.<|ucnt coiinuunicatioii, he aiin<)um\ (1 lii- U'l;il study of lliis ,i;r<)Ui) as still in incparatioii. It was, ln.wi wt. iRAcr coinpletL-d. His eariK'^l desiiv to ixacli \.hv fm iiKMital aws o f lanunasJL- k-d him into a lon<. <i.rK ■ i'!:i- '! Ill- xx'Sti^i^alions into the systems of recorded s]!eeeli, iiliutietic hien\nlyphics and alphabetic writing, on whieli Ik- read memoirs of yreat aciiteness. Ii 1 one o f tl lese he auain mentions Ir.s s tndi es .,1 llii American tongues, and takes occasion to vindieale iliuiii frotn the current change of heins. oi a low grade in 11 guistic scale. It is certainly uniust." he write to (■; sava'-e, dtl uinouu ii lleir the American languages rude or structure is widely different from those jjcrfecllx- inMiU(l."=i^ In iSjS, there is a ])ul)lished letter from him making ;in appointment with the Abbe Thaxenet, missionar\ U> llx Canadian Algonkins, tlieii in Paris, " to lujon- the pk;.-uix of con\Lrsing with him on his interesting studies of Uu Algonkin language." i And a i)rivate letter tells us tlial in iS_v he a])])lied himself with new zeal to mastering llic intricacies of Mexican irammar. All these \ears he was working to com[)lete the rtser.rcl'.o which led him to the far-reaching generalization which is at the basis of his linguistic philoso[)hy. Let me state in a few words what this ])liilos()pliy teaclics. It aims to establish as a fundamental truth that //i( *■ I'lhii tlii'Jlii,iisUil''ritstlniJ/i()uli/nrii /iisuniiiii iilitt:i'^ nut liriii Spini 'iliin. I'.il vi, s. 5Jti. t 'I'liis ktlcr IS i)riiitc'<I in Uic iiK'inoir of IMof. ]•;. '\\-/.a, hthunn iv^li Stiidi dit Tlur.riirl siiUa /.iiii;ua .l/i^iiiu/iiiu!, in Uic Aiiiiali deilc Cxnii si/u /oitniir. 'I'lim xviii ( ri>a, iSSio). J Compare rroC. Adlcr's ICssay, above nientioned, p. ii. i,.\\('.r.\c.i". AM) i:\()i.r'i'i().\. ^^^ //.. ilv of s/nic/iiir i)i /aw^ iia'^is /^ both tli I' iiti'(SS(irv a)! l ir III J Ihr iitns.uiry roiisa/iu a! of //i, iiv/iilioii of Un liiinian mi' ! ■■■■ I:; ilic (.•stililislniK'nt nf tlii^ tlK>i-^ he hf.yiiis willi a sul.tlf -is nf iIk' iialuiv <if sjn'C'i'li in ,>.;X-iKTal, ami tluii yvn- lo (k-iliK' IIk' R-ciirocal iiitluLiKTS which lh<)iii;hl ,ni:ii Cfi'ir^ fxi-rl- upDii il, and it u])(>n thought. Il will icadilx- he sein that a c'iii(illar\- ot" this thccRMn is thai tilt.' SciL'Uce (if Lan!4Ua.L',c is an<l must hr tlic uu)>{ in- stiMu'ti\x-, tlu- in(lisi)Lii-al)k' miidc in tin- >lu(l\- of the !iK!ital e\-oliUi()n of the human ratw IlumlMildt ai'noni/cd thi-- IuIIn-. He lau.ulU that in its hi,uhe>t -ense the jihil- nsoplix I'f lan,i;ua,L;e is one with the philosophy ol' history. Til-- '-cieuee of lan^uaj^e misses its i)nrpo-e unle^-- it sieks its chief end in explaining; the intellectual i^mwll of the race.'!" I'.ach separate ton,u;ne is "a thou,<;lil-wi >rld 'n tones" cstnhli>hed between the minds of those who speak it and the ohjective world without.:!; Ivach mirrors in itself the spirit of the nation to which it heloni-s. lint it has also an earlier 1 1 -il m 'rill - 1- found i'\|):l-..-.i(1 imwhcii' t!sr -o clia.ly :is ;it llir 1> liir,;' I if i 13, ivlu :l' lliL' niiUmr Uiitfs: " I )it /.wn-k <lir~(i I ', nltiliiim, die Siirai'lu n, in der Vir- ■.tiutcli_na:'lii;kiit ihrfs i;ant-s, als iliu nnlluvinilinc i ■.nnidl:i;;r drr l-urlliildnni; drs iiu u-c'iiiiclu-n I'.cisu^ dar/iisti lli-ii. niid dm Wkcli-rl-i ilii;in lanlln-N di s I-'.incn iiifilas And.ic zn < iTjitrrn. Iiat niicli ;4i ii.'illii;;!. in dit' Naturdc: S]ivailu' iilicrlian|it ■iiizu'^i lirn," ltd. vi, .s. md. t ■■ l)a~ Slndinni dcr vi'i>'.cliif(k'nen Si>rat'lu;n des lu'dlmdi iw vii ftldt ^riiic lii'- ■^liinnumii, wunn i-s nicdit ininu-rdtai C.an^' (K-r i,'(.'i-ti;4iu l!ildnn>,' ini .\n,i.;r Ijiliiill, ■nul ('.alin srincii ci,u;intlii.lKn /.wcc k -ncht " I'-bi-t doi yiisumiiii iilnitii; dr> Stint// iiiil ilri Spiiii l/i\ ltd, vi. .s. 4.-?S, ; " I'.ino (■ic<lanki.'n\vcU an Tiiuc fjchcftit." I 'i-Im'i (//.' lluclislabi'USilnifl uinl Hire /.liiitmmcniiang mil dim Spiinhhaii. lid. vi. s. j.^o. m 334 icssAvs oi" AN ami:kicanist. atul iiKk-pL'iKk'iit orij^iii ; it is Ur- product of tliu (.oiux I'lim]*; of aiitcTfdcMit .i;c'ii(.'r:itioiis, and thus cxL-rts a fornialivi md directive iunucuce on the uational uiiud, au iuflueiii > nn\ sli^lit, hut more poteul tliau tliat whicdi the uati(Ji];il Miind exerts upon it.-'- lie full\- recogiii/ed a i)r()};ress, an or^anie i;ro\vl!i jn human speeeli. 'ri)i> i;ro\vth ma\- lie iVom two ^ourn. - nm. the cultivation ol' a tonj^ue within the nation hy emit lun'^ its N'oeahulary, separatini^ and elas^ifv inj; its element-. \\\- in<; its expressions, and thus a(lai)tin.t; it to wider usi> ; ihc- second, hy forcihle amalgamation with another tongue. The latter exerts alwa\s a more prolound and olun a more heneficial influence. The organism ol' both toii-iRs may he destro\ed, but the dissolvent force is id.so an orL;,ini( and vital one, and from the ruins of both constructs a >in\ali of grander plans and with wider views. " The seemingly aimless and confused intertninglings of i)rimiti\e tril)(.s sowed the seed for the flowers of speech and song which flourished in centuries long jjosterior. " The immediate causes of the imi)!ovenRnt of a lant^uagt through forcible admixture with another, are: th.at it i.s obliged to drop all lUHR'ccessary accessory eleuRuts in ;i proposition ; that the relations of ideas must be expre-SL-d by conventional and not significant syllal)les ; and that tliL limitations of thought imposed b\- the genius of the lan- guage are violently broken down, and the mind is tliusgiwn wider play for its faculties. Such influences, however, do not act in accordance with * Tliis Ciiidiiial point in ]Iunil)ol(U',s philo.sopliy is very clearly set loith in lii^ essay, Uebcf die Aufgabe de& GescUichlsc/iicihen. Uil, i, .s. j.i, and <.1.>^lw1i(.il- ^1 TRAITS <»1' A.M1;kkAN i'nNC.rivS. 335 I'lXLu laws oi 1l;|()\v11i. 'I'Ikit aiv no >ik1i la\\>i wliiiii aw of uiiiMTsal aiiplicalioii. Tlu- lUwlnpuKiil nt tlir Mdtii^nliaii o;-.\i>aii l<)iit,aii.'S is iiol at all thai (il th^' AiiKiiraii. Tlif .Mil i-, oiK- and the saiiK-, l>ut tlu- iiath-- to it an- inliuitr. \'n: iliis ivasou carh ,i;roii|i or cla--' of laii;4ua;^t.> iiiu>l In.' stii'ii'.il Ii>- it.-^c-lf, aii<l its own peculiar (k \ (.lopiiKulal laws ho asLUtainc'd I)\- st^'arcliiii;^ it> lii>lor\ .•■• W itli ivfc'ivncc' to ihr i;ro\\th ol' AnKiican lanj;nai;cs, it wa-- 1 Inuiholdt's \icw that thuN nianik-t {\\v ntniosl i\tVac- t(iriin.>s hotli to fxtL-rnal inlhuiu\> and to intimal r.iodirR-a- tinu-.. They reveal a niar\ellous l(.iKu-il\ of traditional \V(irds and forms, tiol onl\- in dialects, hnt t.\en in paitit'idar c'la>-es of the coniniunity, men ha\in,<; diiterent expressions tViiin women, the old from the Minn)^, the higher from the jdwer t'lasses. These are maintained with srrnpnloiis ex- actitude throui^h "generations, and three centnries of dady coiinninj^linj;' with the while race have scarcel\ altered their j^rammar or phonetics. Nor is this referable to the contrast between an Aryan and an American lan,i;nai;e. The same immiscibility is shown between Ihemsehes. " Ivven where man\ radically different lanj4uat;es are located closel\- toL;elher, as in Mexico, I lia\e not found a siuj^le exanijile where one exercised a constructive or fonnatixe influence on the other. I'ut it is hy the encounter of t;reat and contrasted differences that laiii;iiai;es gain strength, riches, and completeness. ()nl\- thus are the perceptive i)()wers, the imagination and the feelings inqielled to enrich and extend the means of expres- '■• >' ' 'I'liisrL'asoiiiilg isdevclopcil in I he c-ssav, / VA.'/ (/.;> / ',i i;/,'i( ///■ii</r S/'i<ii h^lmliuin. etc.. (,'i:\aiiimrl/r ll'cikr, \M\. iii.ss. Jii-jdS; ami sec Il)iil, s. 270. '/ .y V i rH;^il .r^fi I'.SS.WS OI" AN A MI. NIC. WIST sidii, wliicli, if lit'l 1(1 tl'.i.' l.i'xir-- <il" tlic iiikU r^tandiii;^ an.' lialiK' lo K- lait nuau;!!.' and avid." ■•■ I Iiiiidiiildi'-- DiK' ciilt. rinii <)l" a 1 iiiL;ua''i' wa^^ its U] I'MIC, I I IK'V to I// ,i llliki II (11/ ■! S! I III II / ihiL I' nil II till lUlioii . I k' niaiutaiiKd t! mt this is Si.{'iin.d jii'-l in ]>rn]iiirli(iii a- llii' L'.raniiiialical -tiiK'- tin\- r,i\(ir-< rUar (k'fmilii Ml nl" llir individual idia apait iinni its ndatidii'^ : in hUkt unrds, a'^ il M-'paralcs tlu' nialiiial triiin I Ik- iulU rtinnal clrnuail^ ni" ^pi-t'ch. Ck^ar tliiukiu'j, lie ari^iU'il, means |)riiL;n.s>ww tliinkin,:; 'I'lRnfiirr \\v av-iji Kd a Imwr pnsitidn liotli tn tlin-f Innmu'S wliirli iiiMi-aralily c-onnul llie' idea with its ixlatmim, as nm 4 A iiRTi' an Ian- ;na.ms, a nd ti) thdsi.- whii'h, liki' Ihr ChiiK'Sc and ii 1 a U-ss (k';j,ivc- llir ui()(ki"n I",ii;_;h-^h, haw scarc'cl\- aii\ ionnal tk- iiK'iits at all, kill (kiifiid njioii the jxi^ition of wordis ipl.uv- niL'iit ) ti> si'^iiily tluir R'lali( ■ of iniportancL- to ncoj^ni/c I)Ul h(.' warns us ll'.al il is tliat Lrrannnat K-a! I)!in- ciplrs dwell latliLT in the- niind of the siicMki-r than in tin.- niatc'iial and nicclianisin of his lan^ua^c, ind that ll ])owcT of cxprfssiiiL; ideas in an\' tonma' dc'iKiids iiuuli nuiiv on the intellectual eapat'ilx' of the speaker than the slni'luiv of the toii'-ue itself. Ih e'eeii'-uies the coninion error (eoinnion now as it was in his (la\- ) that the abundance and regularity of forir.s in a lani^ua.^e i> a mark of excellence. This very multiplicily, this excessi\e suiJcrtluity', is a burden and a. drawback, and obscures the iutesjratiou of the thought bv attachiniJ to il a <[uantit\' of needless (lualification )ronoun of the Abipoucs, the \ Thus, in the lant;i is dilTerent as the jie r.soii ■' See the e.-is;iy I'lhrr dir /liulisltihriisfhii/l mid ihtiu '/usatiimrnli S:>i iii/ibau, (Jcs. II i>kf, lid. vi, s.s. .551-2. I III; nil! iii'iii KXAMl'I.KS (H- ANALYSIS. 3.17 spnki 11 of is conceived as i)iv,sciil, absent, sittinjj, \valkiii>r^ lyiiiy, i>r rujujinj; — all (luite unnecessary specifications. '•= In ^onie languages mncli apjiears as form which, on clo.se scnitiiiy, is nothinj; of the kind. This niisntuler.standinj; has rei^Mied almost universally in tin luatnient of American toiijrucs. The KriHii'ii^irs which liavi liceii written u])on them proceed >,a-nerally on the primiples of Latin, and apply a .scries of ^grammatical names to the forms explained, entirely ina])proi)riate to tlicm. and misleading. Our first duty in taking up such a grannnar as, fnr instance, that of an American language, is to <lismi.ss tlic whole of the arrangement of the " i)arts of si)eech," and by .111 .inalysis of words and ])hrases, to ascertain 1)> what collocation of eliincnts they express logical, significant relations, t Fur example, in the Carih tongue, the grammars give airiiidaco as the .second per.son singular, subjunctive im- icrfcct, "if thou wert." Analyze this, and we discover that a is the i)o.s.se.ssive pronoun "thy;" vciri is "to be" or "Ix'ing" (in a place); and daco is a particle of definite time. Hence, the literal rendering is "on the day of lh> being." The so-called imperfect subjunctive turns out to be a verbal noun with a preposition. In many Ajuerican langtiages the * '.'I'bi'i (fiis I'lililtlun der ^laiiinialisi liiii /■'<iiniiii, etc., Il'riir, lid. iii, s. 29J. t Spi.ikiiiK of such "imperfect" latinuiiKCs, lie j;ivis the following wi.-e suji>;es- ti(jn lur their study: " Jhr tinfaches C.eheiinuiss. welches deu \\e},' :m/ei).;t, auf wtkiiciu uiau sie, init giiuzlicher Vcrjjes.seiiheit uuserer Granmiatik, iininer zuerst zu enuiithseln vcrsuchcn muss, ist, das in sich Iledciitciule unmittelhar an einan (lev zii reihen." icbii das l'i>glciclictuit:Sf»iuli.\liid!ui>i,v\.c., ll'i)ki\ I'd. iii, s, 2.S5; anil fur a practical illustration of his method, see tlie essay, frtri ifii^ l-.nlstihin dfrgiiiiiiiinjtisc/ien /•'otmcn, etc., Ud. iii, s. 274. 22 \** •.I ,0.*; W.' in !f3 i! ' 338 icssAvs OK AN a:\ii;kicanist hypothetical siip])()siti()!i expressed in tlie Latin suhjiinoi is indicated by the same circumlocution. Arain, the infinitive, in its classical sense, is nn \w <ii"\\n 111 most, ])rol)al)l\- in all, American lant;ua,u;es. In the Tn Ih'azil and freipiently elsewhere it is simpl\-a noun I'l nt hotl 1 "to eat and tood (I/// (j/-/>(>/(!, " I ; "'I /t \- eat," literally "mv tood I wish. Manv writers continue to maintain that a crile Mini (if ;l lainjuasje is its lexicouraphic richness the numhe r (it Wold- it possesses. h'veii recently. Prof. Max Miiller ha s a])i>ln.u such a test to American lauirnaues, and, findini'- ihal I nil.- Ill the Fuegian. dialects is reported to have nearly thirtv rmm sand words, he maintains that this is a proof that llie^e >.iv- ai;es are a dej^euerate renniant of some much more liii^lih developed ancestry. ]*\)undin;j; his opinion lar<;ely on sim- ilar facts, Alexander von Hmnboldt applied tlie expiv^-inii to the American nations that they are " des debris echa]iiK> a un naufrage commun." Such, however, was not the ojfinion of his brother \\"il helm. He sounded the depths of linguistic ])]nlosopli\ far more deepl>- than tt) accept mere a])undance of woi proof of riclniess in a language. Many savage lang have twenty words signif\ing to eat particidar thins; (IS as no word meanini to eat" in ueneral ; the I'lskimo lai ml imiauc has different words for tishiu''' for each kind of fish, but im word "to lish. ni general .sen.se. vSuch apparent ricliiK- is, in fict, actual poverty. IIuml)oldt taught that the (pialitN-, not merel\- the (inan- ity, of words was the decisive measure of verl)al we.iUli. Such (jiiality depends on the relations of concrete wonl^, vu ci.ASSivieA'riux ni' ToNC.ri'S. 339 il>)iiii^'iivL- ikn.rau ill u- Tupi (if 11 ; ' n h is 1 wInIi III (-■ridii (if a r lit wiiid- as ;i])]ilicii lial (iiif (if lirly llidu- tliL>t.' ^-av- oR' lii,L;lil\ ■1\- (111 >im- )tlicr Wil IS(l]lll\ t.l!' WDi'ds as aii.uiKi.i^o iiiij;s, liul laiii;iia,s;i.- \\. hut liii it riclniL-'- tlu- (luaii- il wcmIUi. tlu "lie hand, io priniilivc objective iierct-ptioiis at their iiMil, and, oi! tlie otlicr. to tlie a])straet general ideas of wliu'li they are particuhir representatives; and besides this, on ilie rehitio'.is which the spoken word, the articnlate soinid, Ikmi^ to the philosopliic hiws of the formation of hin.gnage in ,L;riierah-'- In his letter to AlK-l-Reninsat he di^cnsses the tliet)r\ th.at tlu- American languages point to a once higher condition of ci\ il'^ation, and are the coirnpted idioms of deteriorated ra(\>. He denies that there is linguistic e\idence of anv such theory. These languages, he says, possess a remark- able regularity of structure, and very few anomalies. Their graiiiiiiar does not present an_\ xisible traces of corrupting iiitennixlnres.j" lIunil)oldt's classification of languages was based on tlie relation of the word to the sentence, which, ex])ressed in logic, would mean the relation of the simple idea to the proposition. lie tau.ght that tlie jilans on which languages coniliiiie words into sentences are a basic character of their structure, and dix'ide them into classes as distiiu't and as de- cisive of their future, as those of \ ..rtebrate and in\crlebrate aninials in natural history. These ])lans are foiu' in number ; 1. \\\ Isolation. The words are placed in juxlaiiositiou, without change. ' ni^ UaoliiiiKS oil tliis pciinl. of « liicli I L;i\i' llif li.m-t oiitliiu-. art- lU vi lirjicil in -ictioiis \i iiiid \,\ of liis I iiliodiiilinii, I'l-h,! ttir In •■ihiiiliiilnil. I'Ic.-. Stiiii tlials critical ifiiiaiks on these s<.Htion> lin his Cluii iUlii ishi: il,-i liiiiif>l. 'I\['in d,i Spidi hhiiiirs) sctiii to nic imsati^faitorv. and he ivcii does not appear to jrrasp llu < h.iin ol' M u III lioli It's rea-oiiiiii;. t /,//!, J .1/. .■l/',/-A',nii<sii/. U'eike. IM. vii, s. .;5.;. 340 ESSAYS OF AN AMERICANIST. Their relations are expressed by their location only jilace- ment). The typical example of this is the Chinese. 2. By Ags^lutination. The sentence is formed by suffixing to the word exjucssive of the main idea a number of others, more or less altered, expressing the relations. Kxamples of this are the llskinio of North America, and the Northern Asiatic dialects. 3. By Incorporation. The leading word of the sentence is divided, and tlie ac- ces.sory words either included in it or attached to it with abbreviated forms, .so that the whole sentence assumes the form and sound of one word. 4. By Inflection. Each word of the sentence indicates by its own form the character and relation to the main proposition of the idea it represents. Sanscrit, Greek and Latin are familiar ex- amples of inflected tongues. It is possible to suppose that all four of these forms were developed from s^'ne primitive condition of utterance un- known to us, just as naturalists believe that all organic species were developed out of a homogeneous protoplasmic mass ; but it is as hard to see how any one of them /;/ i/s present form could pass over into another, as to inulcrstand how a radiate could change into a mollusk. Of the four plans mentioned. Incorporation is that char- acteristic of, though not eonfined to, American tongues. The psychological origin of this plan is explained rather curiously by Humboldt, as the result of an exaltation of (he imaginative over the intelleetual elements of mind. By this method, the linguistic faculty strives to present to the un- ON INCORPORATION. 34 > dei>t;UKling the whole thou<;ht in the most compact form po>-i'Mle. thus to facilitate its comprehension ; and this it cl(ie-, because a thought presented in one word is more vivid and siiniulating to the imagination, more individual and picuiasciue, than when narrated in a number of words/'' Incorporation may appear in a higher or a lower grade, but its intention is everywhere the effort to convey in one won! the whole proposition. The verb, as that part of sptccli which especially conveys the synthetic action of the nKiital operation, is that which is selected as the stem of this wonl-sentence ; all the other parts are subordinate acces- sories, devoid of syntactic value. The higher grade of incorporation includes both subject, object and verb in one word, and if for any reason the object is not included, the scheme of the sentence is still maintained in the verb, and the object is placed outside, as in apposi- tion, without case ending, and under a form different from its original and simple one. This will readily be understood from the following exam- ples from the Mexican language. The sentence ni-naca-qua is one word, and means "I, flesli, eat." If it is desired to express the object indepen- dently, the expression becomes ni-c-qua-in-nacail, " I it eat, the flesh." The termination //does not belong to the root of tlie noun, but is added to show that it is in an external and, as it were, unnatural position. Both the direct and remote object can thus be incorporated, and if they are not, * " Dalier istdas Eiiischliesseu jti Kin Wort inelir Sache der Eiiibildungskraft, die 'I'lt uiiiiiiji mchr die des Verstandes." Leber die I'o achicdcnltcit, etc,, s. 327. Coiiijinrc also, s. 326 and 166. ;. ■■•:■'■';>'!. :.~^;;■'^'i 342 E.SSAYS or AX AMERICANIST. but separately appended, the scheme of the sentence i- >till preserved; as iii-te-t/a-iiiaca, literally, "I, to sonu'iHidy, something, give." How clo.sely these accessories arc wwox- porated is illustrated by the fact that the tense-augmciiN are not added to the stem, but to the whole word ; o-iii-c-tc- viara-c, where the o is the prefix of the perfect. In these languages, every element in the sentence which is not incorporated in the verb has, in fact, no syntax al all. The verbal exhausts all the formal portion of the lanmia^e. The relations of the other words are intimated by their posi- tion. Thus ni-f/a(otla~-neqida, I wished to love, is likrallv. "I, I shall love, I wished." Tla(otlaz is the first inrsun sitigular of the future; ni-ncquia, I wished; which is divided, and the future form inserted. The same expression mav stand thus : ni-c-ncquia-tla(o-tlaz, -where the c is an inter- calated relative pronoun, and the literal rendering is, "I ii wished, I shall love." In the Lule language the construction with an infinitive is simply that the two verbs follow each other in the same person, ^<< caic funnr, "I am accustomed to eat," literally, "I am accustomed, I eat." None of these devices fulfils all the uses of the infinitive, and hence they are all inferior to it. In languages which lack formal elements, the deficiency must be supplied by the mind. Words are merely placed in juxtaposition, and their relationship guessed at. Thus, when a language constructs its cases merely by prefixini; preposit^ions to the unaltered noini, there is no grammatical form ; in the Mbaya language c-tiboa is translated "throngh me," but it is really "I, through ; " rcmani, is rendered "he wishes," but it is strictly, "he, wish." COLLOCATIONS OI' WORDS. ^^43 In -nch lan^iiaj;c'S the same collocation of words often cor- r(.>iM.:i(ls to (luitc different nieaninj^s, as the i)recise relation ,if iIk thoughts is not defined hy any formal elements. This is \v 11 illustrated in the Tni)i tons^ue. The word itba is "father;" with the ])ronoun of the third jierson ])rerixed it is //"''^ literally "he, father." This may mean either "his falliir." or "he is a father," or "he has a father," just as tliL ^t^ use of the rest of the sentence reciuires. Certainly a lan<;uat;e which thus leaves confounded to- oftlKi- ideas so distinct as these, is inferior to one which dis- criniiiiates them ; and this is why the formal elements of a l()ii.i,nie are so important to intellectual }.,n-owth. The Tupis iiuiv be an energetic and skillful people, hut with their Ian- ^niai^e they c;mi never take a i)osition as masters in the realm of ideas. The absence of the passive in most American tongues is suiiplied by similar inadequate collocations of words. In Huasteca, for example, nana /aiiin ialijal^ is translated "I am treated by him;" actually it is, "I, me, treats he." This is not a passive, but simply the idea of the Ivgo con- nected with the idea of another acting upon it. This is va.stly below the le\el of inflected .speech ; for it cannot be too strenuously maintained that the grammatical alatidus of spoken language are the more perfect and faxor- able to intellectual growth, the more closely they correspond to the logical relations of thought. vSometimes what appears as inflection turns out on exami- nation to l)e merely adjunction. Thus in the Mba\a tongue tliere are such verbal forms as daladi, thou wilt throw, nUabiiih, he has spun, where the d is the sign of the future. •U: <'!-• ! a*» 11*' ■ 344 KSSAYS OF AN AMERICANIST. and the ;/ of the perfect. These look like inflections : Iml in fact, ^/ is simply a relic of ^w/rt'r, hereafter, later, and n >t,uid,s in the same relation to qiihw, which means "and also. ' To become true formal elements, all such adjmu l^ must have completely lost their independent signification ; btcausL' if they retain it, their material content requires qualilKation and relation just as any other stem-word. A few American languages may have reached this >ta,i;e. In the Mexican there are the terminals ya or a in llu- im- perfect, the augment o in the preterit and others in tin.- future. In the Tamanaca the present ends in a, the piviirit in i\ the future in c. "There is nothing in either of iliLse tongues to show that these tense-signs have indcpLndLiu meaning, and therefore there is no reason why they slioulil not be classed with those of the Greek and Sanscrit as tine inflectional elements. " -i- The theory of Incorporation, it will be noted, is to express the whole proposition, as nearly as possible, in one word; and what part of it cannot be thus expressed, is left witliout any syntax whatever. Not only does this apply to individ- ual words in a .sentence, but it extends to the various clau-es of a compound sentence, such as in Aryan languages show their relation to the leading clauses by means of prepositions, conjunctions and relative pronouns. When the methods are analyzed by which the major and minor clauses are a.ssigned their respective values in tliesL' tongues, it is very plain what difficulties of expression the * " DtT Mexikanischen kanii man am Verhum, in wclchem <lic Zcitoii duich eiiizclne luulbuchstaben iind /.'ini Thcil ofTenhar symhoHsch bczeicluut wcrckn, Flexioneii und etn gewisses Strebcn nach Sanskritisclier Worteinheit iiiciit ah- Bpreclien." Icber die I'cischicdrnhcit, etc., ll'eikc, Bd. vi, s. 176. ^ i' ORIGIN OV PRKPOSITIOXS. 345 svsii.ni of Incorporation involves. Few of them have any triK' connecting word of either of the three classes above iiK'.itioned. They depend on scarcely veiled material words, siiiiply placed in juxtaposition. [I is probable that the prepositions and conjunctions of all languages were at first significant words, and the degree to which they have lost their primary significations and have become purely formal elements expressing relation, is one of the measures of the grammatical evolution of a tongue. In m<i>t American idioms their origin from substantives is readily recognizable. Frequently these substanti\es refer to parts of the body, and this, in passing, suggests the an tiquity of this class of words and their value in comparison. In Maya hz/i means in, toward, among; but it is also the breast or front of the body. The Mexican has three classes of prepositions — the first, whose origin from a substantive cannot be detected; the .second, where an unknown and a known element are combined ; the third, where the su])stan- ti\e is ]5crfectly clear. An example of the last mentioned is i//<\ in, compounded of //e, belly, and the locative particle c: the phrase illmicatl itic, in heaven, is literally "in the bell\- of heaven." Precisely the same is the Cakchiquel puiiua/i, literally, "belly, heaven "=in heaven. In Mexican, noti- pot:co is "behind me," literally, "my back, at;" this cor- responds again to the Cakchiquel chui/i, behind me, from r/ii, at, /^ my, vi/i, shoulder-blades. The Mixteca prepositions present the crude nature of their origin without disguise, cliisi hualii, belly, house — that is, in front of the house ; sata liualii, back, house — behind the hou.se. The conjunctions are equally transparent. "And" in '*' 346 KSSAYS CiV AX AMI'KICAMST. M H Maya is iv7r/, in Mexican iliitaH. OnL' would suppo^. !ii;,j sncli an indisjjcnsahle connective would loui; since li;i\( \kk:\\ worn down to an insoluble entity. On the conlrar\ inili these words retain their jjerlect material nieanini;. )'(/Wis a compound of i', his, el, companion, and r/, the (Uimitc' termination of nouns. Iliitau is the possessive, /, and ii\,\n, a.ssociate companion, used also as a termination to fdim a certain class of j^lurals. The deficiency in true conjunctions and relative proiinuiis is met in man\- American lani;;uaij;es by a reversal of tin- iilaii of exjiression with us. The relative clause beconus ili^ j)rincipal one. There is a certain los^ical justice in thi^ : tur it we reflect, it will ajipear evident that the major ])n)p()>i- tion is in our construction presented as one of the conditions of the minor. " I shall drown, if I fall in the water," means that, of the various results of my fallinj;- in the water, one of them will be that I shall drown. " 1 follow the road wliicli you described," means that you described a road, and one of the results of this act of yours was that I follow it. This explains the plan of constructing compound sentences in Qquichua. Instead of saying "I shall follow tlie road which you describe," the construction is, "You descrilie, this road I shall follow ; " and instead of " I shall drown if I fall in the water," it would l)e, " I fall in the water, I shall drown." The Mexican language introduces the relative clause by the word i)i, which is an article and demonstrative pronoun, or, if the proposition is a conditional one, by i)itla, wliieli really signifies "within this," and conveys the sense that the major is included withiu the conditions of the minor clause. J1 TIIIC AMHKICAN VHKIi. 347 Tlu i';ikchi(iuel c()iulili()n:il iKirlick- \s :■///•, if, which appears t(i 1 I ^iiniily the particle of atrinnatioii " >c-s," (.-niiildNcd to ui\t extension to the minor chiuse, which, as a rule, is pla-ed first. Or a conventional arrani^emeiit of words ni;iy he adoi)te(l \\]\\r\] will convey the idea of certain dependent clauses, as lli(.~r expressing similitude, as is often the case in Mexican. .\l>out 1S22 Ilnmholdt read a memoir hefore the Herlin Aciidemy on "The American \'erl)," which remained un- published either in German or ICnglish until I translated and piiiiled it in the Proceedings of the American Philoso])hical .Sdciely in 1SS5. At its close he siuns uj) his residts, and this siinnnary will form an a])i)ro])riate conclusion to the pre-ent review of his labors in the field of American lin- tjiiistics : •■ If we reflect nil the stnieture of tlie various verbal tbriiis here ;malv/.eil, oerlain ),a'iier;il coneUisions are re.aelied, whieli are ealeu- laU-il lo throw light ui)oii the whole or.Ljanisiii of these laii,!^uai;es. " The leatlitij^ and goveriiint^ part of speech in tlu in is tlu' I'rononn; tviTN subject of discourse is connicted with the idea f)f I'ersonalitv. '• Noun and Verb are not sejjarated ; they first become so throuj^di the pronoun attached to them. "The emi)loynient of the I'rononn is two-fold, one a])])lyint^ to the Xduii, the other to the Verb. Hoth, however, convey the idea of be- Idiiiiintf to a person — in the noiui ajiiJi'ariiij^- as Possession, in the \erb as luiertjy. But it is on this j)oint, on whether these ideas are con- fused and obscure, or whether they are delined anil clear, that the uranunatical perfection of a langna}j;e depends. The just discrimina- tion of the kinds of pronouns is therefore conclusive, and in this rcs])ect we must yield the decided ])re-ennnence to the Mexican. " It follows that the .speaker must constantly make up his verbs, . fi "■'■: 41. m i 348 KSSAYS OF AN AMERICANIST. instead of usini^ those already on hand ; and also that tlu- --Uiu uiri of the veil) inii^-t lie ideiitieal thronj,dioiit the lan^uaj^e, lli.ii Hufi. ninst he only one eonjnj,Mtion, and that the verhs, exeejit a t. w ir- rej^nlar ones, can possess no peeuliarities. "This isdifTerent in the (ireek, I.atin and ancient Indian. In tlasc ton,i,'ncs many verbs nmst he stn<lied sejjarately, as they have niiiiiur- ons exceptions, jihonetic chanj^es, deficiencies, etc., and in oUicr respects carry with them a marked individnality. "The difference between these cnltivateil and those rnde l.ui;.;u,i-Li. is chief!}- merely one of time, and of the more or less forlnn.itt mix. tnre of dialects; thou.t(h it certainly also depends in a measure on llu orif^inal mental powers of the nations. "Those whose lan,nna<.;es we have here anaUzed are, in s])e,ikiiii.;, constantly pnttint; together elementary parts ; they connect iioiliinj; firmly, because they follow the chanj^injj; reqnirements of the nmnu lu, joining together only what these reqnirements demand, ami nticn leave connected throngh habit that which clear thinking would iiuc- essarily divide. "Hence no jnst division of words can arise, snch as is demaiukil by accnratc and appropriate thonght, which recpiires that each word must have a fixed and certain content and a defined grammatical form, and as is also demanded by the highest phonetic laws. " Nations richly endowed in mind and sense will have an inslimt for snch correct divisions ; the incessant moving to and fro of cli- mentary parts of speech will be distasteful to them ; they will seek true individnality in the words they nse ; therefore they will connect them firmly, they will not accnmnlate too mnch in one, and they will only leave that connected which is so in thought, and not merely in usage or habit." mm SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF AMERICAN LANGUAGES/^ nv/Zcw/.v.— study of tlic luitnan species on the j^cojfra]>liic svstcm— Hiivc Ainericaii laii,i,nia.i,H's any roiiiiiion trait ?—niij)()ni-C'airs tlu-ory of ixilysyiithc'sis — Iluniloldl on rolysyntliesis ami Incorporation— iTanris Lichcr on Holo])lirasis— Prof. Stcinthal on the ineorporative jilaii - I.ncieii Adam's criticism of it— I'rof Miiller's inadecpiate statc- iiictit — Major Powell's omission to consider it— Definitions of poly- synthesis, incori oration and holo])hrasis— Illustrations— Critical ap plication of the theory to the Othomi lanji^uajje — To the liri-bri laniiua.ue — To the Tupi-C".uarani dialects — To the Mntsiin— Con- liusions — Addendum : criticpie by M. Adam on this essay. AS the careful study of the po.sition of man toward hi.s sur- roundings advances, it becomes more and more evident that like other members of the higher fauna, he bears many and close correlations to the geographical area he inhabits. Hence the present tendency o^ anthropology is to return to the classification propo.sed by Linnaeus, which, in a broad way, subdivides the human species with reference to the continental areas mainly inhabited by it in the earliest his- toric times. This is found to accord with color, and to give five sub-species or races, the White or European, the Black *Rfailbefore the American rhilosophical Fociety in 1SS3, and rtviscd from the Pincefdi/if^s of that year. (349) ■f n .■^5" ICSS.WS ol' AN AMl'UICAMST (ir AlVii'nii, llu' \\'ll()\v nr Moiij^oliaii ( Asiatic i, the lit .wiinr Mala>aii ( ( )cvaiiii' >, and llic K<(1 or Aincricaii Kacis, X(» tlliii()l()};ist ii(>\va(la\s will seek to t-^talilisli |'i\, ,1 im,! ahsolnlf liiKS lalwccii tlicsf. They shade into one .l^ntll^t• in all their peeuliarilies, and no one has traits entiii 1\ uii known in the others. \'el. in the mass, the eharaeli ijsti^., of each are '])roniinent, permanent and iinmistakaM. ; n\\,\ to den\ them on aceoiuit of oceasio'ial exceptions i> tu ln- tra\ an inahility U) estimate the relative \alue of scirinifu lacts. Does this racial similarit\- extend to lanj^ua^e ■' ( )ii tin, surface, ai)])arentl>- not. Only one of the races nanud tin Malayan — is monoj^lottic. All the others seem to -ptak tongues with no genetic lelationship, at least none in>li( aUij by ».t\molo};y. The i)rofonnder study of lanj^ua.ue. howrvrr. leads to a different conclusion — to one which, as cautill^l'^l\ expressed by a recent writer, teaches that "e\-er\ lar^i-, connected, terrestrial area developed oiil\ one, or scarcch more than one, fundamental linj^niistic t\pe, and thi-- u illi such marked indixidiudity that rarely did an\- of il> lan- guages dei)art from the general scheme."''" This similarity is not to he looked for in likeness hetwiLii words, but in the inner structural develo])ment of tongius. To ascertain and estimate such identities is a far more (kli- cate undertaking than to compare cohnnns of words in vocabularies; but it is proportionately more valuai)le. *"l)iis(.- th.'ilyjicliuii scliiiiK'H (laiauf liiii/iuliiitcii. (lass ji-diT nir.ssiic in -kh zusamiiKiilKin:;tiulc riiulorcoinpkx luir citicn oiler ilocli iiiir aiw/. wciiiyf -]ir:nli- pnindtylK'n luraiishililct, sii oi-icnarti.!.;, class scllcii cine s])iaclii.' K'T'z an- iKin allj^cinciiun lahnicu licraiistiitt." Dr. Ileiiiricli Witikk.-r, I 'i ahilUiinlii I' iko iitid Spiiii lii>i . s. 1,(7 ^l)c■rlill, 1SS4). I'l'ATlKI'S <tl- I, WC.I- KCV. .S.M or sraii'cly lid Ihi'- willi |- niori- ilcli- > >r shdiild wc ».\i)fi't il lo lit.' ahsoluU'. Tlu' (.■xaiiipU' ot' till llas'.iiK' in a pniv wliiu- nation in Wc-stL-ni I'.niopt.' w.uiis 11- 111 it iIr'IV arc cxi'L-|)tion> wiiiili, ilioip^li 11h\ ma\ timl a lii^i .lii- c-xi)lanation, forhiil ns all ilo>;malic assi.'rlioii. Tlu'v 1 k\v, liowiAL-r, that 1 iiiintt. 1 )r, WinkUr's \voi(N as olivet expression ot llii.' lalrst linmiistic" sricmv, ami 1 that SOUR' iini-sliuiator would niaki' it tlir motto ot lii> an tlu w 1 - 1 1 stiiii\ of Amcricati lonj^ucs. 'IIr' task — no lij^Iit oiif wliidi Midi an in\<.'sti.!.',ator winild liave, would \k\ lir>t to ascertain what structural traits toriii the ground jilaii or plans lif there are more than (iin. of the lani;nai;es ot" the New World, rpmi this Hldiind plan lie wonld Inid \er\ dilTeieiil edilu'es lia\e het'li erected, which, ne\'ertlieless, can he classil'ied into i^ronps, (.■ai'li ,uioup marked )>>• traits t'omiiioii to e\er\- nu iiilur i>\ it. Tlkse traits and i;roni)s lie imist carel'iili\- dciine. Tlieii wmild collie the separate (piestioii as to whether this coni- lutiiiitN' ol" traits has a i^eiietic ex])laiiation or not. li" the (ktisioii were ari"iriiiati\'e, we ini>;lit expect I'oiiclnsions that wmild carr\- ns iinicli further than etymoloi.;ical compar- isons, and miifht form a scienlillc basis for the classilieation (if .\merican nations. l'nssii)ly some one or two features mit;lit he discoNcred which tlionL;h not peculiar to American tongues, nor t'iill\- ]ircscnt in every one ot them, \ et woiiUl extend an iiithieiice nwr them all, and impart to them in the aggrei^^ate a certain aspect which could fairly i)e called distincti\'e. vSnch fea- tures are claimed to have been found in tlie i;rainmatic ]ir(ices.ses o{ polvsy)it/usis and /:uorpo)atio)i. I'eler Stephen Duponceau, at one time President of the LA' .V-1- ESSAYS OF AN AMERICANIST. w.- American Philosophical Society, was the first to asstri that there was a prevailing unity of gramniatic schtnus in American tongues. His first published utteranc- was in 1S19, when he distinguished, though not with dt>-irah!e lucidity, between the two varieties of synthetic constnuiion, the one (incorporation) applicable to verbal forms of ex- pression, the other (polysynthesis) to nominal expres^oi-.s. His words are — "A poIysMithctic or syntactic construction of language is that in which the greatest number of ideas are comprised in the least number of words. This is done principally in two w'ays. I. By a mode of compounding locutions wliicli is not confined to joining two words together, as in Greek, or varying the inflection or termination of a radical word as in most ICuropean languages, but by interweaving together tliu most significant sounds or syllables of each simple word, so as to form a compound that will awaken in the niiiul at once all the ideas singly expressed by the words from wliicli they are taken. 2. By an analogous combination [of j ilie various parts of speech, particularly by means of the verb, so that its various forms and inflections will express not only the principal action, but the greatest possible number of the moral ideas and physical objects connected with it, and will combine itself to the greatest extent with those con- ceptians which are the subject of other parts of sjKxch, and in other languages require to be expres.sed by separate and distinct words. Such I take to be the general character of the Indian languages. "•'- *■ Kfpni t of the Corifi/xiiidinij; Srcictaty to the Committee, of his piofiress ni I'lf In- vestigation committed to him of the Geneial Chatactei and Forms of llie /.<i ii-^ inif^rs in'Miioi.D'r s ( )i'i\i()N. ,\l.S Iiiilioiiccau's opinion foinid an ahlr su}>|)()rtfr in W'illRlni Vdii IluniboUlt, who, as alrcadx sliown. placed the Ameri- can Iangnai,a'S anioni;- lliose actin.L; on the incorporative plan iias J-j')i:rr/iihiiiio<sysl(iii. The spirit of this system he (Klines to be, "to inii)ress the nnily of the senlenc-e on the uiulerstandiiii;- by treatinj;- it, not as a whole composed (if \arinns words, bnt as one word." A jierfect t>pe of in- corjioration will s^rou]) all the elements of the sentence in and aroinid the verbal, as this ahme is the bond of nnion between the Several ideas. The desii;nalion of time and maimer, that is, the tense and mode sii;ns, will include both the nbject and subject of the xerb, thus subordinating- them c,; the notion of action. It is "an indispensable basis" of this s\ stem that there should be a difference in the form of \v(ird> when incorporated and when not. This a])iilies in a measure to nouns and verbals, but especiallv to ])ron()uns, and Ihnnboldt names it as "the characteristic tendenc\- " of American langnaj;es, and one directl\- drawn fn.m their in- corpuralive jilan, that the personal pronouns, both subjective and objective, used in connection with the \"erbs, are of a diflerent form from the independent ];er.sonal pronouns, cither t;reatl\' abbreviated or from wholly different roots. ( )nt>ide of the verbal thus formed as the central i)oint of the >enlence, there is no s\ntax, no iidlectious, no declension of noniis or adjectives. -•• Ihnnboldt was far from saxins;' that the incorporative Iti !^ '- i[f tit,- Am, 1 1,: ;ii /ill/ It! II. K Uf:icl ( ijUi Jan., i"^!'.! in tile 7'. idimu lioir. nf l/ir lli\tiu i,,il and l.tliiaiy i'timinillt,- ,</ llir .1 iiiii i,tiii I'll ilnu^pkini! Stuitlw \i>\. i. i--:'i. Jip, XXX. \.\.\I. *j^if I'tifi tiie \'e> St hit'tiiiilwil , (.'tc, \ix>. \~i^-\~}~. U','i--t>, t-'tc. 23 ;54 ivSSAvs oi' AX ami:ricaxist. systL-m was fxclusi\'cl\- seen in AnRrican l;m,L;u;i more than tlial of isolation in. Chinese, or flexion in speech. On the contrary-, he distinctlx' slates tl:.ii hin''na<"e he had examined sliows traces of all thin am ■ \r\aii e\i.r\ i'laii- l)Ut the i)re|)onderance ol one plan oxer the otlui is s,, nuu'ked and so (listincti\-e that the>' afford ns the liol iiK-aib known for the niorpholoij,ical classification of 1 iii,L;na;.;e>. es])eciall\' as these traits arise from i)sycholo<;ical o|ii i.ujdii-. \videly di\erse, and of no small inllneiiceoii the dc of the intellect. VelupnU;llt Dr. I'rancis Lieber, in an essa\- on "The Plan off n American Lan.<;uaj.ies."-'- objected to the terms /','/i ind iiicorf^oia/ioii that "they bei;in at the wroii^' e ///, SVHl/li sis I!(| tor these names indicate that that which has been se paiakd i> put together, as if man be,<;an \v ith anahsb whereas Ik ends with it." He therefore i)roposed the noun liolohh )asi> \\ ith its adjectix^e lio/ofy/iras/ir. not as a snbstitule fnr ll; terms he criticised, but to express the nieaniii"' ( ir inirpiise of these ])r()cesses, which is, to convey the whole of sentence or proposition in one word. I'olxsyntliesis, 1 explains, indicates a ])nrely etymolos^ical ])roce^ phrasis "refers to the meaning;- of the word consi philosoiihical point of view." If we regard incorporation and polysynthesis as str lldlo- Uered m tural proce.s.ses of languaj;e aiminj; to accoiii])lish a ceilaiii theoretical form of s])eech, then it will be ctimeiiieiU l" have this word Iio/o/^/irasis to designate this theorLlical ^- I'lililisliLil in 11. K. Si'luiuk-iari's //is/mv and Sliili^lns oj lite liuluui liilii'\l till' liiilid Slates. Vol. ii, pp. .vjii- .:;.19 i,\Vasliiiij;tc)ii, i\So). Ildidil I'l l/(> •'! STi:i.\TlIAI,'S OPINION. 355 for' . which is, in sh(jrt, ihu cxprussioi; ot" the wliole iMDpo- siii''!i ill a sin.^le word. Tlic-L-ininent lingui.st. Professor H. Stcinlhal, has (k-vclnped tin Ur'oi'v of incorporation moiv full\- than aii\-oUKr wrilrr. IK expresses himself without reserve of tlie oi)inioii that all American laiii4Uai;cs are constructed on this same plan, more or I'ss developed. 1 need not make loiii^ quotations from a nork so well- kii'iwn as his l'/iai'u/d<i is/ik d<y Iiaiip/siiHi/ii/is/i ii 7'v/^( n t/(s Sf>iii(/ilHiii<s, one section of which, aliout thirt\- ]'aL;e.> in leii.L;th, is devoted to a searchiiii;' and admiial)le i)resenlalion of the characteristics ot the incorporalive plan as shown in American languages. But 1 ma\- gi\e with l)re\it\' what he regards as the most striking features (jf this \i]\\\\. These ar. especially three : — 1. The construction of words by a mixed sy>tem of deriva- tion aiul new formation. 2. The objective relation is treated as a species nf jiosses- sioii : and _V The po-ssessive relation is regarded as the leading and suhstantial one, and controls the form of explosion. The first of these corresponds to what I should call po/v svutlusis ; the others to i)icot poralio)! in the limited sense of the term. .Soiiie special studies on this subject have been published by M. Lucieii Adam, and he claims for them that they have rehited and overturned the thesis of Dupoiiceau, Humboldt, and Steinthal, to the effect that there is a ])rocess called iii- (Wpoyativc or po/vsviil/u tie, which can be traced in all Ameri- can languages, and though not in all ])oints confined to "m f-t inr .vS^' i;SSAVS OI" AN AMIvRICAXIST. I'i tliL-in. nin\- fairly and jirofitably he lakun as cliaractiri- •ic of tliL'iii, and indicatix'c of llie jxsycholosrical processes whieh underlie them. This opinion M. Adam si)eaks ui as a " slereot\])e(l phrase which is alsolutely false. '"■^- vSo rude an iconoclasm as this must attract our careln! con- sideration. Let us ask what i\I. Adam understands li\ iji^ terms /'('/i',\ 17////'. v/.v and i)i(orpoyatio)i. To otu' surpiisc, ux- shall find that in two works puhlished in the same xear. Iil- ad\'ances definitions hy no means identical. Thus, in liis " ]v.\amination of vSixteen American Lani;iiat;es," he savs. " fi'/rsyiiZ/u'sis consists essentially in the aflLxing of siilior- dinate personal ])ronouns to the noun, the ])reposition and the verh." In his " »Study of vSix I.anj^uat^es," he writes; " \]y />i>/i'sj'/////is/s I understand the exjiression in one word of the relations of cause and effect, or of sulyeel and ol)ject."i" Certaiid\- these two definitions are not convertible, and we are almost constrained to suspect that the writer who .i^ives them was not clear in his own mind as to the nature of tlie process. .\t any rate, they differ widely from the ])l;in or method set forth by Iltunboldt and vSteinthal as character- istic of American languages. INI. Adam in .showini; that * ■■ Ji- sui- dinR' iiuti>riso n cdiicliirt- (iii'il f'aiit tciiir pmir ribvciluiiu-nl raus.-.L' ictU- priiposiUiiii (Icvftiuc fautc d'y avoir rcRariK- do prcs .iiic soiU- ilf cliclu'-: ([uc ^i Irs lan.mu'S Anil rii-ai lies (lifTirfiit ciitrc c-nt'S par la Icxitiuc, cllcs posscikiil ip-an- itioiii- til ('111111111111 lino sunk' ct nu'iiio graniinairc " /■' xtinnii t^i aiiiiiialKul (nm full •■ (fr mi: I- /,nii;iii.\ Aniii ica hit's, in I he Coniple-rciuln of the Conj^n's iiilirii,iti'in,il <lcs .Ainrriianistcis, 1^77, Totiie ii, p. -'4J. As no one ever iiKiintained the iniilyni Atneriean ,i;ianiinar outside of the luiii't'i It ibiiiii^.ssysltiii . it must be to this theory only that M. .Vdaiii alludes. \ l-y mil's sill Si \ l.iiiix^iit's Aiii,'-i iiiiiiit::, p. .^d'aris, i^7S): and emnpare his A. 1 .(////■)/ (iiiiiiiiiititii III above ([noted, p. .4, J.),;, M. >i)AM s currion- 35: -•ri-~tic ot <il a> a vtu! fou- ls 1>V tilt.' i)risc, wx- year, Ik- lis, ill hi-, \\v savs, 1)1 MllidV- .iliiiii and ic wrilL-s ; oiu' wiinl >]Lx\. aiii-l c, and \vt 'id ,ui\X'S W 1)1" till' e plan or hai'ack-r- iipj, llial Ihu^M' i( tU- ir: iiuc -i 1' ■- ck'iit U'-an- nihilii III ■ "III nitciu.ai'iii.il llir unity 'ii .1, this tlii'irv ■ his l:K.llllill fim vnthcsis ill his iiiKkTstaudiui; of Hr- Utiii is imt ron- lo or cliaraclcrislic of AtiKricau loiimic^, n 11--M.(I llu iiiiil, and ill fell into an /I'lioia/in rh )uli: I',<iuall>' narrow is Ins (kliiulion of incorporation. Ik' When thcol)JL*ct is inlfivalatcd hctwccn the snlijtrt and the vcrhal theme, there is iuroi h^ralioii . be understood as an eNi)lanati()!i of the (/erinan ex] If this i> to )re,^>ion, /: nivn Icibu "L the 11 it has been pared down until nothing 1)11 I llie stem is left. As to Dr. Lieber's siij^i^eslion of lioloplnastic as an adjecti\'e LNiiressini; the plan of tlioii,<;lU at the basis of i)ol\s\iitliesis and incorporation, M. Adam siinimarily dismisses it as "a pedantic siicccdancum " lo onr linunistic vocabnlarv. I cannot acknowledge that the propositions so carefnlly worked up by Humboldt and vSleinthal have been ivfuUd b\- M. Adam; I must say, indeed, that the jejune significance lie a'taches to the incorporative ])rocess seems to show that he did not grasp it as a structural inoti\e in language, and a wide-reaching psychologic process. Professor iM'iedrich Miiller, whose studies of American languages are among the most extended and profitable of the present time, has not given to this peculiar ieatiire the al- teiilioii we might reasonably expect. Indeed, there ai)pears in the standard treati.se on the science of language whicli he has published, almost the same \agiieness as to tlie nature of incorporation which I have pointed out in the wriliiigs of M. Adam. Thus, on one i)age he delines incorpoiating Ian- tillages as tho.se which "do away with the distinction l)el\\eeii the word and the .sentence ;"" while on another he explains incorporation as " the including of the object within the body .t )rtii (.• WVl). I'.SSAVS Ol" AX AMI'UICAMS'I Ik' calls it "a pcciiliaritv of most At iH Mean Innmiasjcs, hut not of all. TlKit the stnu-tural nrnc iiK'orporalioii is 1)\' no lufaiis exhausted hy the ucipii^ ,11 df the ohjec't within the hody of the veil), even that this \~. nut re(|uisite to ineorjjoration, I shall endeaxor to show. iMuallw I nia\- close this brief re\iew ol the hi^t III \ (it tl lese ( loetr uies \v ith a refcRMn-e to the fact that neil K r ol them appears anywhere mentioned in the ofllcial " Intinilnc- tion to the Stti(l\- of Indian Lan^ua.^es," issued l)\ the- Tnited States Hmvau of Ivthnolo,t;y I IIow the antlmr of that work, Major J. W. Powell, Director nf the liiuiiu, could have written a treatise on the stud)- of American l:m^ tiuaLres, and have not a word to sa\' about these doctrims, the most salient and characteristic features of the .uroiip, IS to me as inexplicable as it is extraordinarw He certaiii]\- could not have sui)])o;.ed that I)u|)onceau's theor\- was coin pletely dead and laid to rest, for vSleinthal, the most emiin iii phil(>sophic linguist of the at;e, still teaches in lierlin, and teaches what I have already (pioted from him about lliese traits. What is more, Major Powell does not even refei lo this structural ])lan, nor include it in what he tc rm> the " i;rammatic processes" which he explains. "i" This is ii the i>lay of " Ilandet" with the jiart of Planilel omittei UhVtl 1 bclie\c that for the scientific stiuh- of lanmiai and es- Ib peciallv o .f A inerican lan<'uaees, it wil he pr()fital)le to restore and elearlv to differentiate the distinction between * (,'i iii/if/ iss i/ii S/'uii /i:c/i.\iiisi/ni//, Von Dr. I'riidiicli Miilltr. Cumparr l!<l i., s. (>S, iiiul 1!(1. ii. s. 1S2. \' liitiixliii tidii fn t/ir S/iufv 0/ liulitin /.h//!;iuil;<5. liy J. W. Towcll, p. ,^s, S< > cnul t'dilion. Wasliinijtoti, iSSo. Di.i'ixn'ii )\s. 15') \ ntlu'^i-^ and iiici>r])(ir;iti()ii, <liiiil\ pciviiwd 1)\ I hi III ami c\])r(.'SSL-(l 1)\- liini in ilii.' words ;dr(:id\ ([uoUd. !i.'l)i.r, //I'/i'- Wil.i IIk'Sc- iiia>- ])v Rtaimd ll; /"' /,-/\, aiul the three dc Inu il (.■ ni-iiiii''i>iii 111 \< il|( i\\ s /'.i'rsrii/iii>/s IS a iiK'thud nl wnid lnuldni'. aiiplKMlik' (ili:<i til niiiiiiuals or xerhals, whiih imi ouK' einplnNs ju\ lapii-ilioii with aphiL'ivsis, s\ iicnpi.-, apm-opr, itc., luit alsn wiiids, luniis (ll words and si,;.;niriranl ]i]ii Mut ic eUiiienls \\li:rli liave no separate exi-.lciue a]>arl Tioni --neli coni- iil'l" allosjclher tVoni i»iini(i>. ll ll' proc This hitter peeiiliaril\- marks it esses of aL'<'hitinalioii and eoHin alion. urotess v< iiiliiied liuo)poiaHoii , liin:u 1 1( ihiDi;^ ,i>a slrncliiral Id \rrlials, hy wliieh the nominal or ])r(. nominal eU im-nts (if the proposition are sul)ordiiial(.'d to the wrlial eknK-nts, c'iuicr in loi'in or ]iositi(in ; in the ioiiiKr easc' Iia\ iii;^ no iiKkiieiideiit existence in the lan'-nane in the rinn re(|iiired l)\ iIr' \-eri), a I' nd ill the latter ea>e lieimj iiudiidc-d within I' le stu'eilie xerhal siuns of tense and mood. In I iiill\- 111(1 iriio- ra ti\e laim"iia>'e the \erl)al exhaust- the •^\■lllax ot' tlu 'ramniar, all o ther l)art s oi speech r(.inainiii; HI isolation and without structural connection. I li'loplnasis doi^'S not ivfer to structural ]ieciiliarit;vs of laii- ;;li;i,L;e, Imt to the ])sycholo,i;ic inipuls.- wlii(.h lies at the n.dt of pol\s\iithesis and iiicor])oratioii. It is the same in lidtli instances -the effort to express the whoU- ]iro]iosit.i(iii ill one word. This in turn is instigated li\- the slroiii^er stiimilus which the iina.niuation recei\es from an idea con- veyed in one word rather tliau in maiiw A few illustrations will aid in im])ressiii,L; these dennitions. (Ill the mind. 3^0 icssAvs oi" AX ami:kicanist. As /Jc/i'-N 17/ ///cY/V- elements, we have the iiiseparahk- i..s>cs- sive i)r()ii()Uiis which in many hint^uages are attache 1 t., tin.' names of tlie parts of the hnman Ijody and to tlie w^kI- im- near rehitives ; also the so-called " t^eneric foniiaiiw-s," particles which are prefixed, sulTixed, or inserted to iiiiljcaic to what class or material objects beloni^ ; also the "luiimral terminations" aflixed to the ordinal nund)ers to indiciiv ih^ natnre of the oljjects counted ; the nei;ati\'e, diminuli\i and amplificative particles which couvcn- certain conceptions df a general character, and so on. These are constantl\- u~i.<l in word-building, but are generall>' not words tlienischis, having no independent status in the language. Tlii.\ may be single letters, or even merely \-()wel-changes and con- sonantal substitutions; but the\- have well-defined signifi- cance. In iiKvrporafioii the object nia\- be tniited to the \(.rl)al theme either as a prefix, suffix or infix ; or, as in Xaluiall, etc., a ]>ronominal represenlati\'e of it nia\ be thus attaclieil to the verb, while the object itself is placed in isolated ap- position. The subject is usually a pronoun inseparably connected, or at least included within the tense-sign ; to lliis the nominal subject stands in apposition. Both sul)je(,'ti\e and objective ])r()nouns are ai)t to have a diflierent form fniiii either the independent personals or possessives, and this difference of fijrni may be accepted as a priori exitkncc of the incorporative plan of structure— though there are other possible origins for it. The tense and mode signs are generally separable, and, especially in the compound ten<e, are .seen io 'MH'b' ii^t only to the verb itself, but to the wlmle I.INCns'l'lC .MIX'IIAMSM. .-^fil SCO] ■. nf its action, tlic teiisi- si^n for iiistamx' pivccdiiiL,^ tlu SUliJ c-t. S'liiR- furtlit-r ()l)S(jrvati()tis will >,ct tlicsc peculiarilirs in a yd I Irarc-r lij;lit.. Although in jiolysxiithcsis wt- siK-ak f)f iircfiNCs, sulTixes, ami jn.\tai)osili()n, wc arc- not to understand tlicse tcrnis as tin --an'.L- as in connection with the Aryan or with the aj;i;lutinativc lan.i;uaj;cs. In ])ol\s\nthctic touj^ucs tlic\- arc no cnccs ; not to cx- t intended to form words, hut sl'uI nn-^ an idea, Init a ijrojjosition. This is a I'undanienlal |()''i('a 1 distinction between tlie two classes of hmiiuayes. With certain })refixes, as tho>e indicatinL,^ j)ossession, the tnnn of tlie word itself alters, as in Mexican, ainall, Ixxik, ;/(', 11 ill line, but iiai)iaii/i, ni\- .k. I sullixes n a siniilar manner or post-positions affect the form of the words to wliicli the\- are added. As the liolophrastic method makes no jJioNision tor the sviilax of the sentence outside of the exi)res'^ioii of action (/. ('., the verbal and what it embraces), nouns and adjectives are not declined. The "cases" which ai)i)ear in many L;raiiiiiiars of American languas;es are usually indications of space or direction, or of possession, and not case-en(bni;s in the sense of Afyan grammar. A further consequence of the same method is tlu- absence of true rehitive jironnuns, of co])ulative conjunctions, and ,i,reiieralh- of the machiner>- of dependent clauses. The devices to introchice subordinate propositions I ha\e referred to in a previous essay (above, p. ,^4^ij- .\s the effort to .speak in sentences rather than in words entails constant variation in the.se wortl -.sentences, tliere arise '. i ■Mi V>2 l-SSAVS ol' AN AMIvKIC WIST. hotli Mil I'lKinuoiis iiicivnsc in \-(.t1);i1 fnnns ami ii ninlt'! iica- tioii (if i.\|)ivssii)iis fur i(Uas c'l(isL'l\ allie'd. Tliis is ili. m^^^. of IIk' appaiviillx- I'lidk'ss r()iijiij;ati(tns of many Midi Imm mi^.^, and also of iIk' cxiibcTaiu'c of tlirir \dral)ularics in \\Mr,is(,t' fl(istl\ similar si^nififatioii. Il is an aiu-it.nl iTror wlivh, liowcAcT, I tind iv])L'al(.'(l in tlic olVicial " Introdtu'lioii t i ihr Slnd>- of Indian Laiij^ua.^xs," issued hy onr Ihiivan u\ I'/Ji- nolos^N llial IIr- ])rimili\L' condition of lan,mia.!m> i-- (Hr- " wlicTc iVw ideas aiv l'.\])1vssl(1 1)\- tVw words." ( )ii tli^ coiilrar\-, laiii;iia};L'S slrnctiirall\- al tlie ItoUom of llu Mal^ ha\c an enormous and nsck-ss cxc-ess of words. The siuii^f tribes of the plains will call a color 1)\- three or four dilfnini words as it ai)l)ears on dilfereiit objects. The I^kiiiin ha> about twent\- words for fishiiiL;', depeiidini^' on the naluiv (if the I'sli pursued. All this arises from the " holoplnaslic " plan of lhoui;lit. It will be seen from these explanations that the definilidii of Incorporation as i^iven b\- M. Lucieii Adam (jniiteil above) is erroneous, and that of Professor Miiller is inade (piate. The former reduces it to a mere matter of ]i(i>iti(iii or placement; the latter either does not (listintj;uish il timii l)ol\s\nthesis, or limits il to ()nl\- one of its sexeral ex- ])ressioiis. In fad, Incorjxiration may lake place with an\ one of the six i)ossil)le modifications of the i.;rammatical forimila, "subject -f \-erb • object." It is (piile indifferent lo il> theory which of these comes first, which last; althoUi;li Ilk' most usual formula is either, subject -|- object + verb, or, object 4- subject -j- verb ; 1 J ■ i:\ AMi'i.i'. (II' Nor.vs. tlic \m1i licMiit; uiulfrstoocl to lie till- vrrhal tl ^<'^^ www f)Ill\ tldt ii-i- ;iii(l iiKxk' sii'iis. \\1 WW cillKT (if Ilk' alidw ar ;iii--niciits (Kvurs, \\i' iiia\' con^iiK.,- it t.i \iv an indication of [\\v iac'(ir|)(irati\c' t(.'n(kiu'\- ; hut cwui vv'\(\v\wv, Inciirpdfatidn ;i vaii'.;i.in(.'nt> (if 1]k' (.•luuK'Hts (if tl a^ nicir iKisitiiin is in-^nlli iia\ ]tv ]n\s(.iit in (illur ar u- i>i(i|)(i'-tti(in. A- a lair (.'xaniiik' (if pdlx s\ ntlnsi> in n(ini >uk(l the Wdrd fdr " itoss" in []w Cww 'V\w I it !i\ •■ ])ra\-in.^-stick " or "hdl\- wddd (lUi ]ira\inj4-.slicks " (crossi.'Si is : A ' I' iiya 1)1 i In Ik'i'i 1 1 i h mil i It t'nia k . Thi^ is anrd\zed as fdlldws : ;/'/', iidsscssixx' jjninonn, ', inrsdn |ilural. avivi//\ sonietkin^;- ivlatin^ to ivli^idii. Ik, indicatixc terniinatidn (if th(.- f(HVL;(iini;. r,', a C(innc'cti\-c\ (/////•, suffix indicatiii.L; \V()d(k'ii (ir df uoock IS, \\v ina\- ndiaii'^ i\n(l(.T and tk(,ir wdrd fm //, a (,•(! nii(.'Cli\X'. III. si,L;n of ])()sscssi()ii /, a i.'()nnL'ctivc\ U'tll , tcnnination of '. ])(.TSdn iilurak dk. tcTininatidii of animate ]ilnral (the- (.-mss i> siidk(.'n df - aiiiniat(.' ky a fit^ure (if spc-ccli). X(it a sinj^dc oiu- of tlir ak(i\ e ekancnts can k(.' (^anjildwd as 1 i!i(k-])L'n(k'nt wonk '1Mr'\- atv all onl\- tlK' raw iiiat(.'.rial In weave into and make u]) words. As a cliaracteristic s])e(.Mnien of incorixiration we may -eket tins Nahuatl \v(jrcl-sentence : >iiirftiinua(\ M H 3^14 I'SSAYS Ol' AN AMJ'KICAMST 1 liavi- j;i\iM sniiiuliiii;; to soiiuljody : wliifll is ;iii;il\/cil as folUi US (', aii.mmiil 111" llic itivtc-rit, a U'lisc si^ii. iii, prdiKiuii, MihJL'cl, isl pcTstiii. (\ " si.iiii-])roii<)Uii," dIpJl'i'I, ;,i1 person. ti\ " iiiaiiiiualf s(.iiii proiiimii," ohjci'l, y\ person. iihuit, tlicnir of tlu' wrl), " lo j;i\-i.'." i\ suHix of tlir ])rcU'rit, a tense si.t^n. Here it will be observed that between the ten^' >ii;nN, hieli are loi;ieall> the essential limitations of the ik licn, are irielnded both the a,L;eiil and the near and renmle nh- jects of the action. In llie modifications of meaninja^ they underj^i^o, .\iiutit;m verbal themes ma\- be (li\ided into two threat classe>, ciilur as the\- express these niodil'ications ( i ) by snlllxes to ;m uii- cluin^ini; radical, or ( j) ))>• internal chan.t;es of their radiial. The last mentioned are most characteristic of sNutlielic w tonuuc." In all pure dialects of tlie Ah'onkin th e \'iiwel II the verbal root under^Lfoes a ])ecnliar change called "llattiii when the ]>roposition passes from the " po>iti\e ' tu nij. tlu suppositive" moo in le same i)rinci])le i- ^l^ik- ingl>- illustrated in the Choctaw language, as the follnuiii,: ing example will show ■.'■■'- /aki/ii, to tie (actix'e, definite). t-Akdii, to be t\ing (actix'e, distinctive). * Tliis obsL'urc IValnic in AlKmikin ('.raiiiiiiMr has nut yit bcun sali>rai.li>i il> i \ plaincil. Compare HaraKa, (iiiniuinii a/ llic iHiliipui' /.(in,i;ii(ii;L\ ]>. nd (Miiiuri.;!! ].'^7M an<l A. I.aixjnihc. di tiiiiiiniin' dr /u /.aiiniii- di's C'l i.\ t See (,'i (iiniinii of the Cli'nlau' lAi)iiiiiai:i ]). 155 (Montreal, i^:; liv the Kev. Cvr\is livin.LilnM. Ivliu liy I). Ci. lirinton, pp. 36 (I'hiladelphia iS7(i). CIIOCTWV Vl'.RHAI.S. .V) = viimlc oil- if. iMnlllHal ;liiii. Ivlik.l ink' (hi, to tic factivf, finpliatict. liiiitL-flii. to tic tij;litl\- (acliw, iiiti'siw). Iiilhihlii, to kcv]) tyiiiK i :u'ti\i.', iVi'iimntatiw). t(ilil:r/ii, to til' at oiici- (acliw ininirdialc i. litlhtkcJii. to l)c- tied (pas^iw (k'liiiitf ». I(i/iii/:(lu\ to l)c tlif oiR' tied (])assi\L' distiiiftiw i, ilc, itr. Tlii-' vxani])lc is, Iiowcvct, left far hfliind hv llu' (J(itii(.'liua )! I'nn, wliic-h 1)y a sc-rics of so-callid "wilial parlirlLs" it1iN<-'I to the verbal tluaiK- ( on lias an almost eiidk'ss \-a- rit. t\ of iiiodification on it> xirl Tims Amlioivna in hi- Cr.mnuar i^ixcs tin.- totni and shades of nicaniuLj of (i iiiniliru\itions of the N'erb diiduiy, to lo\e.''' Tluse VLa'bal i)aiticles are not other words, as aihcih lIi'., (jualifyiui;' the nieanin.i; of th /.T e \erh and niereh' added 111 il, hnl have no inde] endenl existenee in the lani;iiat;e. \'(iu 'rseluidi, whose admirable anah sis of ihis intt restini; liiiiijue cannot be too hiL;hl\- ])raised, exphiins them as 'Wilial roots which ne\er reaihed independent de\el<ii> nieiit, or fra.ninents handed down from some earlier ijxich of U' iMilution of the langua.i;e. ll ' ' -!• '1^ riiev are thereiore true s\rillietic elements in the sense of Dnponcean's delniition, and not at all examples of collocation or juxtaposition. While the genius of American lant,Mia,nes is sncli that the\ rinit and manv of them favor the formation of lomj com- pi- piiuiids which express the whole of a sentence in one word, this is by no means necessary. Most of the examples of wiirds of ten. tweutv or more svllables are not ''t-nuiue ' f,'i,ii>hi/ii i! (Jiiiilnia, ('• dil Idiitma dri liiipiim di- los /iim.s. I'or cl Dr. Jost- Diuni-iii AiK'luirciia, pp. i",;-!;; il.iiiia, \^-:\). \i>ii;itinsmi(s di-> KliitsuaSfnaihi. \'i)ii |. J. vdh 'rscliit'li, ]). ','1^ l.fip/.i;;, is><;). 4 366 I'.SSAVS OI" W \Mi;KrCAMST. ( ' nali\L* words, hut noxx-Uies luanufactuivd l)y llu- ;; >si,i,i. aric'S. In ordinarx- intercourse sucli coin])oitnds ar nni in use, and llie speech is coin])arati\'el\- simple. ( )r two of the most synthetic lans^uai^es, the Al^nnkin aini the Xahuatl, we ha\-e express testimon\- IVom expc ii- ili;,^ tlie>- can he emploxed in sim])le or compound toiiii^, ,1- iIk .speaker jirefers. Tlie Al)l)e Lacomhe observes that in Cae "sometimes one can emplo>' ver>- lou^^' words to e\pns>;i wliolc phrase, alllioui;h llie same ideas can be ea>ii\ wii- dered b\- jieriphr.asis. "••' In tlie syHabus of the leclinx^dii the Xahuatl 1)_\- Prof. As;ustiu de la Rosa, of the rni\e!>it\ of Ciuadalaxara, I note that he explains when the Xaliii.iil i> to be emplo_\e(l in a synthetic, and when in an aiiahlic form.t I shall now proceed to examine those American toni^iK- wliich ha\-e been authoritativel\- declared to be exceplioii.- to the <;eneral rules of American grammar, as beini,; (U\(ii(; of the incorjjorative and ])olys\iithetic character. Till' oi ii():\ii.:!; As I have said, t!;e Othomi was the stumblini; blnek nf *," Ccs i-xcnii)li'S fiml C(iini)iiii(lrc i.'i)ii!l}ii 11 qiK'UiiR-fnis on ]>c\it iciulif iKs niut? tros li)ii_i;s, pniir (.xpiinui tmiU' \nK' iiliiaM-, iiimiiiu' aiissi mi ]iiii~-c la.iliiium ix-iidrc ks iiu'iiKS idir?, par do pii i]ilirast-s.'' I.aidinliL-, ( ii am iiuin r tl, la /.,.■)/;•;„ til's L'l i.s. p, 11 iMon'iifar i'-;)). t " Sc c\]ilicai"a la razoii lilu^'MK'a ik- Ins dos modus dc ll^aI" las jKilaliras en ^k\i cano. luio ciiinpiiniiaidii di. viiiias i)alalira> iiii'i sulci, y (lUii di jaiidnlas si'iiar idas \ cnlazaiid' ilas suln ixir ic.t;iiiu-ii.' I'ldiu the p'(ij;raiiinu- (if I'lul. .A.dchi Kmsi^ couist. in is;!' X The ov'iJLiiiial aullio;ilic-> I havt- cunsulUil .iti the ( )thonii arc: h'lii/as (/<• ('; l/iii.;) ap'ii I, / )i\ < iaiiai in, r .(;/(' d,i Idiiyiiid OUionti . liy I,ui- di N\ vi y Mciliiia i MesicM, \~i\\. Dr /.I lit; II II Otlioiinti)! inn Ihs^ii Uilio. l',y kminamiLl Xaxcra i I'hiladclpliia. r,;5. Culcii Sinn I'll /.rni^iiii (>liinii. liy I'raiicisci) rcre/, i. Mexico, is_;4i. Till', oTiK >Mi ic )\c,ri;. 367 y\\ DuvoucvdU. ami led Inn! to aljaiiddii hi-- iIkmix of \>iA\- svt:;'.--i> as a cliarac'k-ri^lic ot' AuKTicaii loii,mie^. .\Uh()ii,i;li ill '.;-; caiiic-r \vriliiit;s 1k' t\]nv^s|y iiauK-s it a><iiR-i)t' the- illi'~lralii)ns sti]>(irtiii.n his tliuorx-, lale.i- in lil'i.- tlu- intumia- tidi. lie (kTi\L-(l tnmi Sefidr ]\ninianni.-l Xaxcra k-(l liini to n-.iid it as an isolatini; and nionos\ llahic lani;na.Lj,(.-. (luite on 1 par with the ChiiK-^e. Ik- expressed thi> elian^e ol' vitu in the frankest manner, and -ince tliat time writers lia\e spoken of the ( )thonii a> a marked e\(e]ition in strnc- luie to the t;enera] rnles ot s\iiihe-isin American toni;ue>. This continues to he the t-ise e\en in tlie latest w I'itini^s, as, for instance, in the recentl_\- jmlilislR-d .\nlliiof^oL>;^ii' dii .]/, \ii/iii\ (/f !)r. Hani\-.''- l.el lis examine the ;-;ronn(ls of this opinion. The Otiiomis are an ancient and extended fimilv, who from the remotest traditional epoedis occupied tin.- txiitrai \alle\s and mountains of Mexico north of the A/tecs and Te/cncans. Their lan'j,iia''e, called li\ thenisehcs ii/iiiin * He j-]H';\ks (if llu' oUiiiiiii in tln-t- triin-: -' I'liu laimuc ;ni\ :i11ii;rs toiiU->. ^pl■(■i;lk■s, fdiidaiiu iilaU iiu lit cli~tiiKtr di- Umli-- Ic,^ lani;ui - (|iii ;i ]iaiUiit au- jdutil' liui .-ur Ic I'liiitiiKiit aiii'iicaiii.'' A/im,iii Si ii iilili./nr an M' \i.;ii,\ I'l. i. .\iuliini)(il(i;4ii-, p. -s' I Talis, i^^.| '. 'I'liis i> llu' pixii-i' ii]iiiiion. >li"iii^ly cxir.i s-cd, tlml it i> my iilijcct to cciutrovert. .Many 1 >lln 1 u ; itn -^ li.i\i iiiaiiilaiiu ■! it, 'riiii" i"uiiiit IMccoldiuiiii in t lie /'/(i/r ;■''/)// »,/ !■> Iii>- vii-iniiol .\\sr> (iiliomi C.ianmiai sav^- ■■ I.a lo-.cj liii;.;ii;i cIk' ri'ii iu--.nna allra (|i 1 nimi'lo i. jiic.-rnil 1 lia la iiniiciiii.i •iiial ii;i.i, L- M-inplicL-. * * I.a runuaziniu- ilii l.iin vi ilii, 11 ■mi id alti 1 lUiiv.iti h.i ilMlta SL'llllikcita," ftc. ( ,1 .111:111 i/h<i d.lla /.iii^iia I'luiii. p ; I'lnma, \^\\i Till-- u liter alw) dITcis an illn-tralioii di' liuw iiii]in ic etly Dupaucaii ~ tlu ii\ ol liuly^Mithoi-. Iia^ h'jiii ninlrrstiM id. Xot niily d.n> I'ii ,:iilciiiiiiii dim il lor llu- otciiui, but lie (kiUL-s that it is aiiytliiiiLi iiidil- lli.iii iiKTity innniir-; -cvcial uiir(l>- tiijjxllRr with sonic pliDiK'tic syiU-ijpatidii. See the . I »/(('/i(/^'/// at tlu elose ol his- Otlinmi C.iaiuniar, adelphi.i 1^55- ;r,s I'SSAvs oi'' AN a.mi;ricanist. ////?, Uk' i'lXL'il or curreiil spcecli''' {ii/i/d;!, s])ecch, /i 11/ . I'lU'. fixed ), presents extraortlinar)- ])h()netic ( iilTiculti es nil ac- count of its nasals, gutturals and cxplosixx-s. It is one of a t^roup of related dialects which ni i\- iie ar- ranged as follow.- I The ( )thonii. i The Ma/.ahua. I The Panie and its dialects. ' The Meco or Jonaz. It was tlie opinion of M. Charencey, that another iiuinlier of this gronp was the I'irinda or Matlazinca ; a pi ^ition tuiu I)atted bv Scnor Pinientel, who acknowledges some coiiiiiKin opert\' in words, bnt considers them mereh' horrowet prope Xaxera made the statement that the Mazahua is niMnn<\l- labic, an error in which his copyists have obediently tollowtd him ; but Pinientel pointedly contradicts this assertion ami shows that it is a mistake, both for the Mazahua and lor ihc Pame a id its dialects.! We mav begin our studv of the language with an ex nn- iiiatioii of til. Tl'NSI'.-.SlC.NS IN O'l'lKmi. PRK.SP:nT TllNSlC 1 . I wi.sh, 2. Thou wishest, 3. He wishes, di H' 'H/ )lt(' ll('l\ *Tliis is llic ()ilhi)>;ra|)hy of" Ncvc. TIr- terminal vowels arc hulli is iVom tlic radical lii.i. to hrcatlic, brcalli. 11 isais . II hhlll tScL ;lie Coinijaracion < Id otluimi con cl Mazahua v cl I'irinda, " in the Ciiiuln> /)rsi lifttit " y C'iiiif),tiiiti:i> <li- A;.* /.t'ii.;"ii^ nidi^t'inis c/r Mcxii", por l-'rami-cu rinicntcl. 'I'oino 'ii. j))). .t,^i-.(,|S (Mexico, 1S75). J See I'inientcl, I'luuiio lh\n ij<livo. etc. 'I'onio iii. \\\>. 4^6 and .i.s.s. OTIIOMI VKRHS. ,V'9 I . i WIS hed, on wished, ' . WIS hed, I'AST AOKIST. dn Hi'C. an //( b >i )ii(\ 1'I':ki-i;c'i\ I have wished, 'I'liou hast wished, He has wished, .\/a ncr. xca )iit xpi >/(•(' ri,riM;Ri-i:cT. I. I had wislied. \/a >u 11)1(1. 'I'hdU liadst wished, He had wished, \<<i lur Iniia. .xpi >i( (■ Inn a. I'IRST IT "Ri;. 1. I shall wish, 2. 'J'hoii wilt wish, ;. He will wish, i^a INC p /// )n'(\ d< (I iicr. an c-xaiii- Sl'X'OXn ITTTRIC I shall have wished, ana .\/(i 11 Thou wilt have wished, eiia xoi ( ( . ih f. He will have wishetl, Tht ptrsona he ^inr .\ pi lice. ipl()>ed are neither the ordinary [thoug-h the Olliunii admits of a iiDSSess ail [llogOU pronouns r possessives onjugation), but are verbal jironouns, strietly J those found in various other American Ian ;uag es. The radicals are : 111 tlR- ( 'lUI,lli' 1)1 l'i;niii-r.' Thou, ,1,' — . He, it, /»— . In the ]>reseut, the first and second are ])reli\t.(i to what i,- 24 37<> ESSAYS OF AX AMKKICAMST. w rcall\- tlic simple concrete form of the verb, y-inr. in 1]^. ]iast tenses the ])ersonal signs are variously iniite>i \\i;'i Y'Ax- ticles (lenotini;; i)ast time or the i)ast, as a, the end, 1m iinish, 1)1(1 and /iii/d, \ester<lay, and the iirefix i, which i^ \\-x\- note\vorth\- as beins^- precisely the same in sound nwl u-c which we find in the Cakcliitpiel ])ast and future tcnsv- u is pronounced s/i (as in .sV/ovei and precedes the wliuli- ver- bal, including subject, object, and theme ; while in the phi- perfect, the second sign of past time /una is a suffix lo Uic collective expression. The future third person is gi\-en by Xeve as (/a. Inil hy Perez as <//, which latter is apparently from the future. ]>;nti- cle ;// given by Xeve. In the second future, the dislimiivL- particle ,;'7/(? precedes the whole \'erbal, thus inclusiii- tl'.i- subject with the theme in the tense-sign, strictly aecunhui; to the principles of the incorporative conjugation. This incorporative character is still more marked in ilie objective conjugations, or "transitions." The ol)jetl, in- deed, follows the verb, but is not only incorporated with ii, but in the compound ten.se is included within the double tense signs. Thus, I tind in Perez' s Catechism, (// ihi-ba iiiaoctrji, He will i^ive-lht'in heaven. In this .sentence, di is the personal pron* an combined witli the ftiture sign ; and the verb is ihi-iii, to give to aiiollier, which is compounded with the ])ersonal bo, them, drop- its final S} liable, forming a true .synthesis. In the phrase, xpi I'ni-ba Iiiiia inaorf-ji, he hud give them (luu". ) heaven, ,.ft;j OTIIOMI CiiMl'orNDS. >•>/ l„i(;: -ubject and ol)ject, the- laltjr inclosed in n syntlR-sis w it':, tlic radical of the tlicnic, llic lornicr plionclit-allx aUeivd anil coaU-sct-d with a Icnsc ]);uticlc, are included in the dou- l)Ie tensc'-sign, .v-//>i/a. This is as real an exanijjle (if ineor- pDialion as can be found in any American lan;4uaj;e. Ordinary synthesis of words, other than verbs, is by no ine;ins rare in Othonii. Simple juxtaposition, which Xaxera stales to Ix; the rule, is not all unixersal. Such a statement ])y him leads us to sus])ect that he had onh- that elementary kii<iwle<lse of the tontine which Neve relers to in a forcible pa-'.-^aj^e in his /uo/as. He writes : "A i;<)0(l share of the difficulty of this tongxie lies in its custom of sNiicope ; and because the tyros who make use of it do uot syncopate it, their compositions are so roui;h and lackini; in harmony to the ears of tlie natives that the latter count their talk as no better than that of horse-jocke\s, as we would sa\-."''- The extent of this syeojnition is occasionally to such a de- gree liiat only a fragment uf the original w(jrd is retained. As; The charcoal-vendor, ?/a niatlihi. Here na is a demonstrative iiarticle like the A/tec /;/, and mathid is a conipotmd oi pa, to sell, and /hi/ii'id, charcoal. The expression, y maliny oqha, he loves God, is to Ix; aual5'zed, *'l';\ite tie la diticiiltad (If cstc idiiuiui idiisi^-lc fii la syiu'dpa, piles <1 no syiKcipar los piiiiciijiaiit^s artistas. cs causa di- (lui.- sus ijcrindds y ui aciciics Man tan iis])i(los, y laltdS dc liarnuniia, por cnyo niotivD los nativos los iiiunnuraii, y tii-iun (coiiu) vulgarnicntu (kciiiiosi, por iiuartrcros.'' /\Vi:/iis d, i >i //i^ix iii/)/iia, etc , p. 146. i^ !i _^72 KSSAVS Ol' AN' A.MIvKICANIST. V nuihd'i inniv oi//ia : hi.' loves him (n"! ; where wc perceive not only synthesis, but the object -taiul- inj; in ai)])osition to the pron(>un representing- it wliic h i. in corponited with the verb. vSo : yol-i^ua, \\g\\i here; from yo//i. to Mi^ht. v//o//,r. luiv These examples from many given in Neve's work mi m i,) me to ])rove beyond cavil that the Othomi exhibit-^, wIhmi properly spoken, ])recisely the same theories of incorpuiatidn and polysynthesis as the other American lant;ua,m--, al- though undoubtedly its more monosyllabic character and [W extreme complexity of its phonetics do not permit of a (K-. velojiinent of these ])eculiarities to the same degree as niaiu . Nor am I alone in this opinion. It has already btcii an- nounced by the Count de Charencey, as the result of hi-- cniu parison of this tongue with the JNIazahua and I'iiinda. "The Othomi," he writes, "has all the appearance of a Ian guage which was at first incorporative, and which, worn down by attrition and linguistic decay, has at lengtli ioiik- to simulate a language of juxtaposition."''^ Some other peculiarities of the language, though not directly bearing on the ([ue.stion, point in the same direciidii. A certain class of compound verbs are said by Neve to liave a possessive declension. Thus, of the two words />//^//;'/^/, he draws, and /im, breath, is formed the verl) bucliiii. uliicli is conjugated by using the verb in the indefinite third prr * " I,'OtIioiiii nous a tout I'air tl'une laiiRuc priinitivctncnt incorponintc, 1.I (nii. pan-tiui an (Icruior (IcKro d'usuro et dilabrt.in(.iit, a liiii par prLiulii: Us alliirts il'uu (lialcL'lc A juxtaposition." Milatii;es d,- I'l'iiloliif^ie i't de l'ul,'vf^i<i[>liii- hi/,it ciiinr. I'ar k- Couitu do ChafLMii'Ly, p. So (I'ari.s, l^\^). k-s alliirt'- 1//)'///' I III, 1 1 rwi: oiiioMi i.ANc.rAC.i". 373 sf)i; 111(1 insertiiiL;- tlu- ]M)ssL'ssiv(.'s ///a, )ii, >iti, my, thy, lii^ t'Mb j;> lai y bin Ilia /liiu I brcatlu'. ybucnilii.\ tlion hrealhest. yluioia/iia, Ik- l)RatlR-s.-^- Iv this would be " it-is-drawiiisj. ni\- breath," c-tr In llie Ma/alnia dialects there is a remarkable ehaii.ue in Uk Mbjective conjugtitioiis ( transitions i where the whole In! Ill of the verb api)ears to alter. In this lan,miai;e // -~- I ; /■/ i,r kill' = thou. I Lii\X', // II lie. T ^ive thee, // dal'kf. He will uive us, // vak nil . r The last example is not fully explained by my authorities )Ut it shows the verbal ehamre. Soinethiujr like this occurs in the I'.ime dialects Tl ie\- re veal a numifest indifference to the intc-ritv of the theme, characteristic of polysynthetic laut;ua,^es. Thus, our only authority on the I'ame. b'ather Juan (lUadalupe Soriano, gives tlie preterit forms of the verb " to aid :"' A'/f pait, I aided. Ki i>ait, thou aidedest. A'lt )iiaif, he aided. So, of " to burn:' A \ nil (I inn, I burned. Kiiddii dii tainii, they l)urned.|" A large uunil)er of such changes run throujji the fonjuga- * Ntvr, AV',t;7<;.( L'lc, pp. i59, l6o. t riiiuiitcl, Ciiadiii Dc.stiipti-rii, 'I'diu. iii. p .i.'.) J I'iiULiitcl, Ciauiiii /hwi I i/ilird, 'I'oiinj iii, p. .)62. 374 KSSAVS OF AN' AMI'.R ICAMST. tion. I'iniL'iitcl calls tlit'in jjlioiK-tic dians^es, but {]\> \ are certainly, in sonic instances, Inic syntheses. All tliese traits of the Othonii and its related di:ikTl-; ser\e to i)lace them un<|uesti()nal)ly within the i;eneral iijan of structure of American langua.y;es. Till'; MKI-IiRI I.ANC.rACI-:. The late Mr. \Vm. M. (iabl), who was the first to fniiii-.li any .satisfactory information about it and its allied diikvi^ in Costa Rica, introduces the Bri-Hri lanj;iia54e, spoken in the hi<;hlands of that State, 1)\- ([uotini^ the wonls df Alexander \H)n Humboldt to the effect that "a nudtiplicilv of tenses characterizes the rudest American lan,<4Ua,L;es." On this, Mr. (iabb connnents : "This certaiidy din.-^ imi appl>- to the Costa Rican family, which is equally remark- able for the simplicity (if its inflections."-'' This statement, offered with such confidence, has keen accepted and pas.sed on without clo.se examinatidii kv .several unusually careful linguists. Thus Professor lMie(k rich Miiller, in his brief description of the Hri-Bri i takiii exclusively from Gabb's work), inserts the oljservatinn- "The simple structure of this idiom is sulTicient to contra- dict the theories generally received about American kiii- guages."t And M. Lucien Adam has lately instanced its verbs as notable examples of infiectional simplicity. ;|: The *Wiii. M. t'.;il)1), (hi t/ir /ncliiiii '/'i ihrs ami l.ii>i,i:iuii;rs of (.'usti.! /\i,a. in tlio I'm- cccilinns <jr tlic Amcricim l'liil(>si)iiliio;il Society lor 1S75, p. 5;j. t " Dfsscn ciii'';u-lii.r liaii (Hl- iibir die AiiurikaiiisclKii Spraclien ini .\llj;tiiKiiKii vcrhrtitctcii Thcoricii zii wiilci Icycii iiu Staiulc i.st." Cii louii iss ilc'i Spnuln, i\mii- silid/l. ii lianil. s. ,;i>; (Wieii, 1.SS2). \l.r '/'iiiii.sd 1I-/-1/ ,■/,'■ Jiiit;,- (/,• toxtcs Pii'irs' Repoiise i\ M. Daniel (i. liriiilMii, Tar I.iicieii .Vdaiii, p. 19 (^I'aris, Maisunneuve etCie, i88,s). has liei.il nation hy ssor l'"rie(!- Bri I taken icTvatiitii— ti) t'diitra- M'ican lan- stantvd its 111 All.UlllKiUCll iii;l (".. Itriiiliiii, Till' r.KM'.Ki I..\N(,rA<iI' 375 ^tu.U of tliis ,i;r()U]) of toiiuius l.croiiics, thiTt-Tinv, of in-cii- liai impDitaiKV hi my piesriit tojiir. Smiv Mr, (ial)l) ])iil)Ii.sliL'(l In-, itKinoir, stuiK' in(U'])iai(knt in [itriial, i;raiiiiiiatical as well as le\i t'D^i'a pineal, has l.eiu fiir!ii>lu'<l hy tlie Rt. Rev. 15. .\. Tliiel, ]{i>li(.;. of C ostu Riea.-' and I liavc oh )taiiie(l, ill addition, sewr.d M.S. voeah- iilaiies and notes (in the lan;^iia<;e i)rei)ared h\- I'rol". 1'. J. J. \'aleiitini and others. The stock is divided into three .i;roiips of related diakets, ns liiiiows: — I. The IJrnnka, IJroiika or I'.onua, now in southwest erii Cn>la Rica, hut l)elieved hy C.ahh to ha\e heeii the earliest of the stock to occupy the soil, and to liave lieeii crowded out 1)>- later arrivals. II. The Tirihi and Terraha, principally on the head- waters of the Rio Telorio and south of the mountains. III. The Bri-15ri and Cahecar on the head-waters of the Kid Tiliri. The Biceitas (\'i/.eitas) or Cacliis, near tlie iiiiinlh of the same stream, are off-shoots of the Bri-Bris; .so also are the small trihes at Omsi and Tucurrique, wl lo we re leinoxed to llio.se localitie S l)\' the S| tanianls. orii The Bri Bri and Cahecar, althoui^h dialects of the same ;inal speech, are not suflicieiitly alike to he imitually intelligible. The Cahecars occupied the land hefore the Bri This, hut were coiuiuered and are now suhject to them. It is ]irol)able that their dialect is more archaic. The Bri-Bri is a lani;uaL;e of extreme poverty, and as Afiiiiih's f.evnoiiia/uos i/r A/v /.r 'lis y IHiilri Ins (If Iks /iiilr'ns ilr ( 'ittta-lxii I'nr I'.i-iiKirdo Augusto Thicl, t jliispo dc Co.^ta-Kica, iSan Jo.se dc Ci)sla-Kk"i, InipiLiua Naciounl). *V'> 37''^ i;SS.\Y.S Ol' AN A.Mi;UIC AMST. spokfii :it ])n.'si'iit is ])l;iiiil\ cornipl. (i.ilth (.'stim • - du- whole lumihcr of words il contains as prohahlv not t \ . .ijn,, fiftcfn lutndivd, .Sonic of these, though (lahh thiiiL- ii,,t vt'r\- nianw are borrowed from the Si)anisli; hut il i- -i.jijti cant, that anioiij,; them is the pronoun "that," the Spmi^h rsr. Let US now examine tlie Bri Ih'i \'erh, said to ht- so -inmi- lady sim])le. We are at once struck h\- Mr. (iahli'> ii m iik (just after lie has heen sjjeakin.sr of their un[)aralKkfl sim plicitN) that the inllectioiis he i;i\-es "have heen \\rili(.(l with as much care as the diniculties of the case would ad mit." I'<vi(leiitly, then, there were diUlculties. What Uk\ are, becomes a])parent when we attempt to analy/e the |(.^lu^ of the ei.v^hteen brief jjaradii^ins which he yjives. The personal prouoiins are /'(", I. sa, we. /h\ thou. //(^ you. IV, he, etc. J''''P''< they. These are both nominative and objectix'e, person, il and, with the sudix r/ia, possessives. The ten.ses are usually, not always, indicated 1)\- sufli\L> to the theme: but these var\', and no rule is ,i;iven for iheiii, nor is il stated whether the same theme can be used with them all. Thus, To burn, '/-norka, Present, i-)iyor-,',-(/-k(\ To cook, /-///. " '/-/i(k. To start, i-(yr-fc. " i-b,-fr. Here are three forms for the present, not explained. .\ie they thrcj c:>nju;j^atio;i-;, or d > they express three shade-- nf meanint;', like the three Ivnylish pres^'uts? I suspect the Tin; I'.Ki HKi \i;kii. l;,f 1, for iitKkT ikitiiKi, to want, CaM) Rniark>> that tl !(.■ l(.i: ill -(lk(\ nic;ni> " 1 I.' Uiiii/s you," /. ( ., is t-in]iliatit- Till.' past aiirisl has two tiriniiiations, our in ■//'', and nnt.' m about tlif USL'S and nK-.min (il wliirli wv ail' Irtl i((ii,ill\- in llif (lark. TIk' tuliuv is utt(.ti\- iiK'XDliciIik-. Dvcn Trot'. Mullrr, jii-i afliT liis Hole callin.:^ aUi.ntion to \\\v " ,L;rral >ini|iliiit\ " of tlir tongue, is obli.i-X'd to <'i\r iu> tlii-> tiais.- with thr )I)-.L rvalion, th c structural laws rrijulatin" tin.' lorni.ition .1 the- futur V arc still 111 oI)-.t'unt\- Was it not -oiiK-what pix inaturc to dwell on i\w siiiii)lit'it\ of a toiiL^iic whose siiiipk'St IcusL'S he- acknowledges liini>elt' nnahle to anal> v.e •' TIk' futures of some \erl)s will reveal the dilTiculties of this iL'iise: — 'o hurn, /-!n'(>/'-/c(i ( ) C( >l ) k, /-///' To start, /-/vA II w anl, i-ki-a)ta future, i-iiV(>r-uutih " i-b,/,. -/•< '\\) vi)\u\i, is/if ii /III i; : " ii//(r s///(i':i'f. In the last example iii/d is the future of the verlt iii/itt, to uo, a 11(1 is used as an auxiliar The explanation I lia\e t o suuu' est for these \ar\ imr form> Is, either that they represent in fiel that \-er\- " multi])lieity of tense-formations" which Ilumholdl alluded to, and wlii.'h were too subtle to be apprehended b\- Mr. (labb within the time he devoted to the stud\- of the lan.mia^e : or tiial they are in modern Ih'i-Iiri, whicli I have shown i-. noticeably corrupted, survivals of these forniatioiis, but are lliiW larirelv disreirarded b\- the natives tlienisel\e> .Signs of the incorporative i)lan are not wanting in the m IMAGE EVALUATSON TEST TARGET (MT-S) fe fA A K <" d> 1.0 I.I 1.25 Hi til |2.5 |50 ■^™ HI^H «« Ki 12.2 u U4 U 11 1.6 s> / v: W ■em A t> Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. I4S80 (716) 873-4503 iV a>' \\ ^> W o\ 5^ .1/ ' ICSSAVS <)!• AN AMl-.KICAMSr Thus ill the- uhjc-c'tivi- conjugation nol oi il\ tongue ol)ji-c-l ])1;k\(1 l)c'l\vc'i.'n suhjcTl and vt-rli, hul llic laU II III, IV undcTuo \isil)k- s\ iilliL-lic cliantro Thu' I th V silt IlLl cc sc-c, aiicl u- :<<n \W''.\- A'l jc he 7iUi/ sii-iia. Not I tlR'i.' (?) sc-c-did. In tlic- latter sentence ini is the sii;n of the i)ast aoii- tile \eii) in s\ ntliesis witli it<h-o])s its hist sylhihle. 'I'h (iahl) couhl not ex])hiin. It will he noticed that the ti\e ])reci(les the whole verbal lonii, tliiis indicatiiii; tint it is treated as a collective idea ( liolo])hraslically). Prepositions :dways a|)))ear as sufllxes to nouns, which, in coin])i)sition, may sutler elision. This is strictiv >inpl;ir to the Xahuatl and otlier synthetic t()ni;ues. Other examples of de\eloi)ed s\iitliesis are not unc;ni- mon, as — awa\-, iiii/hak, from iiiiir to .y;o, j(baK\ alieadw \er\- hot. pal ilia, from ha ■\- iliiiia. The opinion that the Hri-liri is at i)resent a coiisideraMy C()rrn])te(l and worn-down dialect of a .uroui) of oriiMiiallv hij;lil\- s\iithetic toui^ues is borne out by an examinalioti nt' the scanty materials we have of its nearest relation^. Thus in the Terraba we find the same sul)er^uou^ richness of pronominal forms which oc'curs in many .South Aineiiciii tonj^ues, one iudicatint; that the i)erson is .sittiiis;, anollier that he is standiui^-, a third that he is walkin.ii;.-'- The Urunka has several distinct forms in the iHeseiil teii-c: I eat, tha adcli, and at(jiii rliaii [alt/iii zz:i\). *('.iii)i). 111 Ulll .-11])1M. 1). S.VJ. Tui' nKixKA vi;kh. ."9 ■sent kii<c: AlilioUKli Hishop Tliic'l sui)|)liL's ,i ihiiiiIrt of veil, il inim, tiMiii this dialect, the- i)Iaii of llitir ronstruclioii i> u,,[ ohvi- ,111- This is scL'ii from a ('oni])arison of tla- i)ivs(.nt and pci: ct k-nses in various words. The ])roii()uiis arc - ( cr/t//{/, I. ' /'//'< \ \\v. I'or instance.' : UurxKA \'i;ki;\i, 1m)rms. To kill (radical, n/ k Present. I kill. ///<i atqiti i aim. Perfect, he has killed, a/^/- i a'u\ To die (radical, ivjt ]. Present. I die, (ojo diali. Perfect, he lias died, co// ,i,ili. To hear (radical, i/<>j ). Present, I hear, aari doj oinah. Perfect. I have heard, mjiii di>i dah. To forj^et. Present, I forget, asqid rliHa inh/^(i(t. Perfect, I have forj^olten. orhi/a Kiiiii;,,,. These examples are sunicitnl to sliow that the I'.ninka conjugations are neither rei;ular nor simple, and ^ucii is the (-■tnpliatic statement of Hislioj) Thiel. Ix.th of it and all tlK>e allied dialects. In his introduction he states that he {■> not yet ready to offer a grannnar of these toni;ues, though well Mipi)lied with lexicograjihical materials, and that "//idr :•( ii<s air cspccial/y difftcult. '"-'^ *' ISptcial (lilk'ultad DfiL't-.n los vitImis " Afiiii/is /y.vin>,i;i ,ifif>s. i.U\ Iiitioil. p iv. This fxpnssi.iii is coticlu-ivc ;is {>, tlu' iinorriL'tiios of tlu- .ii>iiii.m cf M All, nil, and I'l-of. Miillcr .-ih.ivc .|Ui>lcil, and slmws how vasilv iviii ju>U\ ciiiiiKiU «l U f.' li T,Ho I'SS.ws (II' AN .\mi:kicanist. Tlif Cal»C'(';u" (lialcTt, in which lie- skives sevc-ial ;. iii\i fuiRTal poL-nis, witlidut translations, is a|)i)auiit', nidrv coniplicatt-Ml tlian the- Hri-Hri. Tlic words of tlic so;;^^ ;,fv IfMiL; and stem ninch s\ ncopated. 'nil'. 'rri'i-(.i \K AM diai.i-cts. Sc-wral writers of the hij^liot ])osition have a^sriu li iliat these dialects, spoken o\er so lari;e a ])ortion ol the tri;itni\ of ]?ra/,il, are neither ])ol\s\-nthetic nor ineor])orati\e, Tliu- the late I'rof. Charles 1". Ilartt in his " Notes on the I,inL;i),i (k-ral or Modern TuiM," exjiressed himself: "I'nlikr ^ll^ North American Indian tontines, the lanj^uaj^es of the 'i'u]ii (inarani famil\- are not ])ol\synthetic in structure. "■■ Willi sca!i'el\- less ])ositiveness Professor I're<irich Miiller wiile^ "The ol.jective conju<;ation of the Tiipi-C luarani dmsnoi show the incorjioration usually seen in American lan;4ii,i;..;e-, but rather a mere collocation." I' It is, I acknowled,i;e, somewhat hazardous to \intiuv ,in o])inion contrary to such excellent authorities. Ihil I imi-t say, that while, no doubt, the Tupi in its structure diffei- widel\ from the Alt;()nkin or Nahuatl, it \et seems to pre .scut unmistakable sis^us of an incor])orative and ]iol\-\ii Ihetic character, such as would be difiicult to jiarallel oul-iik of .America. I am encouraged to maintain this by the recent exampk of the erudite Dr. Amaro Cavalcanti, himself well and piu liiiL;m>ls iii;i\- t)\]\ iiil.i i rnir mImhiI tmimR- cif wliiili tlicv liiivi limit, d iiu.iii- i' kiiiiwUdm- Till' iiinpiT ciiiiiM- iti Muii M li!--! i^ (viiUntly to Ivi. i-;nitinii> :ili'ii.l vttitiiiiii;,; piisitivi' MSMTtioiis. *'I'iaii.^iU liiiiis 1)/ III,- Aniri '• ,,ii l'liil<i!i>i;i\(il .Isun i,i/ici>i. iS;.?, ]>, sH. j (ii nii(/i ns </ii Sl'iih liuis^iii.^i luil'l, li<l. ii, p. 3S7. Till': Tl I'l I.ANCrAC.l'. ?Sl r.'u :..!livc itl. :i!iil\- SI 1' :.-- .IIX tiiM'^' versed in tlie sjjokeii Tuj)! of lo-dax'. who \\a^ i>-in(l a I. -vned treatise to prove tlial "lln.' Hra/ilian (liaK-et-^ ].re ,ciii muloubtedly all the sniipnsed charaeteri^lies ot' an aoj';;tinative language, and IilIoul; to the same s;roMi till ,unnerous other dialects or toiii^ues of Ainerii-a." > as 1)1 Ca\ :dcanti does not, indeed, distiiiij,uisli so elearl\- between itinative and incorporatixe laniL^uaLies as I sliotdd \vi>h, hut llie trend of his work is altoi;etlier parallel to the argu- iiKiits I ani abont to advance. l'i>rtiniately, we do not sntTer from a kuk of materials to siinK the Tuin, ancient and modern. There are plent\- of dictionaries, grammars and texts in it, and even an " Ollen- (liirtf's Method." for those who prefer that intellet'tnal ( I) >VStcHl.i' All recent writers agree that the modern 'Vu\)'\ h:\^ >^xn niatirially changed by long contact with the whites. The trailers and mi.ssionaries have exerted a disiiilegrating L'tllt't on its ancient forms, to some of which I shall have occasion to refer. * /■//'■ /iia-i/iiiii /.iiHi;H(ixi' "I"/ i/\ .■li:i;/iit/iiij/hi)i. liy .\in;iiM CavaU';iiiti. I.I.. 1! , itc ]>, 5 (Kill Janeiro. iSS,',). t'Du most valuable Cor liiiKuistic rcsean-lus arc tlic loHiiwiny : All, il,- ( ,' III III 1)1(1 f ica thi I.tiie:iia nuns iiMiifu iiii c'"^ i cA' /.';.; // l!y Jn-t-pli <lc \iuliiita. This i.s the oldest authority, .\uchiita h.iviii,.; iiinnii 'kiiI .i> Mii>-ioiiary I" tin- Tiijiis in 1556. Il/,-, I'liciihiihiiiiiy Ti'soio i/r hi f.fiis^iKi diKiiniii, o mas hn'n Tii^i Ily .\ntonio Ruizik- Montoya. .\ii aihnirahle work ."•cprtsentinjj the southern 'rupi as it was in :lic tn>l half of tlie sevei\teentli eentiiry Hnlli the ahove have been rcjiiihli-heil in recent years, of niodirti writint;-. I A'liilil particularly name : Ap"iildiii,-iil(i.<. sohi !• Il Abaiii't-iiii.i lanihiiii , hiiiitiitiii (iiitiiaiii "11 riif" Ily I)r II C. Il A. Noijueira i Rio Janeiro. 1^76^ i> .S,-i':iii;i'ni 1 L'iii.sk da /./iii-iiii firiii/. Hy Hr I'onto ile Mayalliai-s 1 Kio lie J:iiKiro, 1S76). ' i M' iii 3«^ ICSSAYS Ol" AN AMI'.KIC ANIST. Tuniint^ our attention first to its synthetic chanu i. r mik' cannot hut he suri)t"isc(l after ivachnj; Prof. llartl'> (.pininn ahove ([noted to luid him a few pa.nes hiler introfliuiii,; u^ (,, the followini^ e\ani])le of " wonl-hnihhnL;' of a niMp. 'Ji.u, lisuall\- ])! ilysynthetie character. " ■■• nkiivii, head; (fvit, had. (tkiivdvi'i, cra/.y. niiKikaviiyii , to seduce (make cra/y). .vayiiiiiNj.h-aravi'i, I make myself cra/y, etc. Such examples, ho\ve\er, are not rare, as may lie -eni li\ turnint;' over the leaves of M()nto>a's '/Vsoiv dr hi /.,)i_^ii,i (iiKiKtiii. The most noticeahle and most . I ///if /m// ]n,i,u- liarity of such comi)oun(ls is that they are not coUocatidiN of words, as are the ai;};lutinative comjiounds of tin- Iial- Altaic tons;ucs, hut of particles and phonetic elemenl> \vliii,li have no .sei)arate life in the languai^'j. Father ^h)ntoya calls si)ecial attc'Ution to this in the fii^i words t)f his .Idiri/i //da to his 7'rso/v. lie says: "'riic foundation of this lan.nua.^e consists of particles whit li fa- quently have no meaninj.;' if taken alone; hnt when cdiii- pounded with the whole or parts of others (for tluv lut them uj) a ^reat deal in composition) they form sij^niticaiu expressions; for this reason there are no indeiiendeiil wih^ in the lanjruage, as they are huilt up-uf these particles with nouns or jironouns. Thus, iIci/iIhw is composed of the three particles /'/r, ///o, <■. The /?<• is reciprocal: wean acti\e par- ticle; <■ indicates skill; and the wlK)le means "to e.\erci>e oneself,' which we translate, 'to learn,' or 'to teach,' iiide- termin;.lely ; hut with the personal sign added, a/zt/iibot, 'I learn.'" * yotc's on t/ir Liiifioa (ifiitl, as at)ove, p. 71. m TlIi: lll'l I.ANCr AC,!.. '^s.; '] >ii> aiialxsis, .which Mmiltiya I'arric-s iiiiirh turthc-r. nr.i'ids ii> tiiri-ibK i>t Iht- txlr.iindiiiarily acuU- anal\si^(it" thi Cu'i.' I Ali^onkiin 1)\- Mr. J,mR> House. ■■ I ■iu1(Mi1i1<.i11\ til, '.nil toll. i;iK-s liavf lic(.n luiiU uji troin si^iitiificaiil parliclo iiini words I in Ihc sank' luaiUKr. s. iiiK' ot these ]>artick'S (.diuev a peruliai turn to the \vli"le sentence, ditVirult to e\])ie->^ in our touynes. Thu'^ tlu' ekinent r allaelied to llu- la-^t -xlhihle of a eonipound ^i\i-> an op|)ositi\e sense to ihi- whole expre^^iou ; tor ex - ami'l'-'. "/'"'• " I come" siniplx ; l)ut if tlie ([uesiiou tollows; •Who ordered you toeonie.'" the answer nii.uht ])v. (/////y, "1 come ot ni\' own accord ; r.oliody onkred me."!" Cavalcanti obser\es tliat man\ ol" thesi- tormatiw elements wliiih existed in the old Tupi ha\e now talKn out ot' u>e.| Thi-- is one of sex'eral exideuce-^ of a ihan,<;e in >tructure in tin- lan^uaife, a loss of its more ])lial)le and creative powers. 'rhi> sxiithesis is also dis])la\ed in the 'rn]>i, a^ in tlie Cree, 1)\' the inseparable union of certain noun> >vith i)ro- iiouns. The latter are constantly united with term-^ of con- saiii^uinity and general y with those of members of the body, the form of the noun undert;-oini; material nioditk-ations. Thus : /i/i\ body ; oit\ his body : viii /t\ my body. //f/ui, father; o<;/il>a, his father; xtriilK my father. Diviiibaba, domestic animal -.^/nj/z/iui, his domestic atiimal, /(III, name ; ,!,'7Cf/vf, his name. ' I;mus Uowsc, .( (^ntiiniiai n/tlii- t'irr /.,;»ii,'hi;.C'' i I.oikIi'.'I. 1^41' A niiKukaMc ])niiliKti(iii uliicli li:i> never rtctivicl tin- ;iiuiiliuii fVuiii liiiyiii^l-> whi^li il incrili. t .\iKiiitta, Aitrilr (,'i tininutlii a. (.■Ic, p. 75, ; rill' Jliaziliaii /.tiiij^iKixt'. etc., pp. .p-y. ?^4 i:ss.\Ys ()!• AN \mi;kic.\nist :< >i ■ MlMl Ilnl P()st])()siti(»iis ari' in a similar niaiiiiL-r soiuctiiiuv i into tin.- iKiuns or pronouns wliii-li IIk-\ limit. Tliii- i>f/(/t, \kI\>yv ; X "' "'"''^' • l><.'t<"v Iiim. It ai)])(.ars to nic- that Ihc substratum, the strti thc'or>-, of such a lon.t;nf is dcc-idcdly ])olys\ntlu'tir a aj;',Miitinati\c', still less analytic. I.tt us now incinite whether there are an\- sij^ns of iln in- eorporalixe jjroeess in Tnpi. We are at oiiee struck with the ])eeuliarit\ that therr are two s])ecial sets ol" ])ronouns used with verbals, oiir --lI vnli jective, and the other objcclixe, se\eral of which ((/////,■/ h, (III 'ploy id ill any olliry < on shin lion / This is almost diai;- III! nostic ot" the holophrastic method ot sjieech. Tiu- nouns in such cases arc evidently rei^arded by the lan,i;n, faculty as subordinate accessories to the verbal, and w luthir they are phonetically merged in it or not is a secoi (|Ueslion. The Tupi pronouns (confining myself to the sin,: number for the sake of brevitv) are as follows: i''e- lUaiA niar hull iiciuli' lit iiiiSdiiaU /.I V or Xl' iiuir or iw l'()S-ii.'Ssivrs. .sv or iv, III or yi\ Vrrhal alVixt SuhjcLt. a. n , ycpi- ( iliiiit .\l\ 0I(>. no or 0. ao or /. Ol or /. The verbal affixes are united to the theme with vari(in> phonetic changes, and so intimately as to form one woni. The granunars give such example as: — a) 0(0, I hold alioiioi, I call ; ifyiio.i, I dispute hi i^iioro/v, Ihey hold him. xoronoi, thev call me. m oioai\ '., I dispute thee. * Sec .\ncliicta, .h/r i/r (,'xiniinuliiii, ftc, j). 52. 1 U'^ 1 A^-'\ Tlui-. :, //■ ^iMi. ; Ml-al Uv ,1 ,. Ihit of llu in- tlirlT arf If M,l •-nip III////,' ' /.,• Host (i i;i«- Tlu- pro- laiii;iia,L;i.-- (I ulutlur SfCOlK laiv '•■"'■ Ti I'l i.\N(;r.\c,iv. .<- .^ ,"> I, :lK'!]i-l prrsn,, si„.,;,i,,r. tl-.r tun ,,M,nnni,n:>l tonus ,v :hi.: ■ aivuM.ally nKi-c.l in tlu- m nll„,.i> , „ ,- as i„w,/^,;/ .\!,..t!i.Tllalinv iM-intin;. t., ll,. im..rpnrati\v pi ,„ j. tli..- l.KM:i..r.<.rtlu'n),jc-i. TluruKin llu-, ,1,1 la.i.i^ua.^.- u... f. pl.i > tlK-..l,j\-ct in all insta.uv. A/,,;, (i,,. vnh, that i., h,- tw. a Ihr \arl. an-l it. sul.jrrt whui thr Jattc,- ua. ..thrr till! .iper-malsnllix. Dr. Cavahanti .av. that ihi. i> nnw in I inraMiiv Hiaii.^v.l, s,. that ulun Hr. ,,l,icrl i- ,.f tin- tlnn! pLTM.n it i> pPuv.l alt, r tin- ual., a]thn„.h in tlir first ail.] -.r.'..n.l iRTs.Mls thr .,1,1 nilr s.MI hn],l> ,.,,.„1.- 'I'luis the- an. ivul Tn])!^ would sa\' : i'i>/ii irr i>-Si>//, sii.iki liini lu-liiirs, llii! in till.' nio.KiM t.,,UL;nL- it is : />!'/'/ (i-Mi// a,' siiak<' lir Lit,-, ]\'.\n. Willi iIk' olliLT p;i>,,us ihf ink' is >iil piv,\(k' ami to \k- attached to iIk- llKaiK- : .xroio/itr.:, I ihc.- kill. .\</^iii/ni, I you kill. xi ///,;iy,p, , ]nr kilk->t lliou. Many hi-li!y complex vcrh.il tonus s.viu L) uic to dlus- tratc a clo.c iiicorporativc tendency. Let us aual\/e lor iiistance the word, \i >< /iii//ih/( . wliicli means "Jiiui wlu.ai I teach" or " thai which I teach." Its theuK' is the verl.al /uKu\ wliich in ijie extract . >r the ohject to * '/'//(• /liii-ilian /.ini};i,ai:i\ clc , p. iii. -\-> ■III n ■..'■ t t' • :l*.* ,^sr) i:ss\\s oi- \\ \\ii;kic wisr I :U'-«1> thr 1 i^ i>\ till' []]\\r tlriiU'iitaiA paitii'ks /'/t . iih'. and r ; \, ;> pos^.f-.'-.iw Imiii (it" till.' pcTS'iual iiimikhiii, " iii\ ' i fnllduid 1)\ tin.' ]) irtici]iial (.■x|it(.>sinn A//// or liiiihi, which an iniliiiL; Id Mniiiox a, is r{|ui\aliiil to " illud (niml I u k, ; '• its Uiniiiial \<i\\i.I is sNiiropatrd uitli tin- ixlatiw i ,,i/ Mini, tt 11k- si/parat(.' patl> i>l Uk' c\pn->>ii)!i aii I ,'diall not pursiR' the fxaiuiiialiuii df [\\v Tupi hm] It \WR', of (.iiiirsL', casN- to iiiulti]il\- (.xanipks. lint I willinj; to Uaw IIk- imst as il stands, and to ask liii-ui>t> U'l .1111 ulK'tlur, in \it. u of tin.- aliow, it was not a pri-'in iiuic- jud.nnirnt that piononnccd il a tonj^nc- ncillur p(i!_\ >yiilht.ii nor mcoiiioiatuc, Till'; MrTSfN. This is also one- of the- I^MiLina-'X's whit'h ha s \k\]\ an nouni\il a- niithLT pol\s\nlhc-tit- nor inc-orporatiw. aiiil IIk' c'oiisli iiction of its \(.Ti)as "siin])U' to \\\l- last (k'l^iw. \\\' know Ihr ton'-iir onl\- throii'-li ihu dra miliar aii'i 1.U1J(.-S riirasi liook of l''alh(.T dv la CiRSta, who ackiiou hinisL'lf to 1)L' vrrx- inipci ft.c-ll\- at'ipiaintcd with it. • Willi its associated dialects, it was .spoken near the site (if llii.' jireseiit eit\- of San I'rancisco, California. Kriu ]ii]l\ >\ lltlu-i^ uiid killi. iipiiiiiliiiii," savs Dr. Ui-imiili WiiikU- (I ') ,il,iliiii>' hr I :i.'l-i iiiul S/^uiiliin. p. i.j<ii, who aiiparc iilly lias nlitaiiit ', ,ill lii- kiKiwliil.yr 111' it rniiii the luo pai;!--, divdlLil to il liy rroli— .ir I", iiil, ii li M.llUr. will) iuliiHliU'i s il I' 2.>7- ((s.^ttsl ciiifai-'li." (,i iiiii/i /.K\ i/ti Spi ill //, .iiai;. i;.l il f (,'iiiiiiiiiii/it,i Mii/^iiii ■ I'or i-l U. V. I". I'. .Arioyo ik- l,-i Ciusla : and /' Miil.-'Kii. liv till.' saiiR-, lintli ill Sliia's " l.ilirarv ol .Xnuriian I.iu'uislii- ' T!Ii: MITSIN- I.ANCi A,,|.;. 1 w™ l.H.kin^ first anlu-v.,!,, .N " rMiviuc simpluMtv ' ,s,„,, >n ., .parent as the slaUuKuls al.oul il unul.l lead us l<, f\! t't. IM llH^ fiisl placv, ilR. naknl nuIuI tl.enu- un,Ka-,K. a v.nutx ..r clian-es l.v iuscrli-.n an.l suHixrs. lik,. tl„,.,. ,.t tl,. nnu-]K- an.l (jM.uvhua, ul,irl, n.u.lilv its nuanin- Thus: . Irn, \i) j^ivc. ■ I'sn, to-ivc to many, or t.. -ivc nmdi. . lnt/>//, to j4i\c to on(->(.It'. .I)(7.\/. to ordci to L;i\-c', iir. , (_it- A.il; lin : (^/», to ca tell. ( h'i'n\ to con If to catch. (>iiii/i, to catch another, etc. The author cnunuM-ates thirtv-.aie fonns thus .lerived lioni L-ach verb, >im\v conjugated like it, snnie irrc-ularly. Witli re.u.ird to tenses, he oives ei.i;]il ],reterits ;,n<l lour fntnivs; and It cannot he said that thev are Inrn.ed siniplv hy adding adverl.s of time, as the theme itself takes a .lilTerent form in several of them, n n> „ , aras, aran/s, etc. In the rcllexive ociijnuation the prommn follows the verl. and is niiiied with it: As, arao)!((ti, I uive m\self wliere r<i is a suffixed form of run. I ; >,r represents m'liissni, oneself: the ,0; is apparently a connective: and the theme is <i>-a. This is quite in the order of the polysyiiLlutic theory and is also incoqiorative. vSuch syntheses are promiticut in imperative forms. Thus from the above-mentioned verb, oio, to catch, we have, n .^ss KSSWS OI- AN A'MItKK' WIST. >i.ii)iilyi(/s, ( I itlu I' tliMii lor nil ill \vlii( li ;/.'// is ;i])i);nriill\ (Ik- m'oikI |ii.rsiiii Din/ , tl; a p().sl]iM>iliMU /sii, iii!ii,'mi : wliilf iv/Zs is a wtImI i iVoni Vliviif<. wliicli tlu' MUtlliii (.xplaiiis t(i iilr 111 hIxiUI," (ir " to ml (Idilr," This iiii])ii;iti\r, llirni \itI);i1 iiniin in svnllusi^ with ;m iiiUiii.i lion, " .^ vvitli tli\ 'jatht. rill'. It :tiint , Hi 1- a Is ;i ni;n kill r.isf uj ]i(i|\s\ ir. A iimiiln.r of siuli ;iri' IkuikI in Ihf Mutsun lilna^r ■lie A-IS .111, HS \'/f'jr/i// 'fi//i.<yii/s ari/>//s, {)\\v iiic arrows. In this iN>iiii)i)iii 1(1 '(I/////S, is for III// -f ////./\, iiK' -\- fur : ]/i/< is iIk' iiii|)(.rati\T iiitriJLTtioii I'or iv/ivc/.s; tlif rniiiinik r nf the word is nnl I'kar. 'V\\v pliniSL' is <;i\rn ilsi-'whc ir Rif'tniilil, ( iiw- I llion ) iir armws. Without .^oini; rnrlhi,r into this hinj;na^(.', ofwhiih wr kiinw so liitlr, it will hi.- evident that it is wry far iVoiii siiii|ilr, .m 1 that il is cxitaiiiK' hi'jlilv svnthctic in \arions teati nx-s. CD.NCl.rSin.NS. The conchisions to which the above stii(l\' leads i na\ In- l>riell\' ,suiiiinari/.ed as iollows: I. Tile sinutural prceessts of incorporation and pnjy^Mi- thesis aie nmeh more innuential elements in the- inorplKi]- ogy ol" lanL;nai;e than has heeii c(Jiiee(]e(l hy some ixeeiit wr.ter: They are elearl\' a])i)arent in a nnmher ot" A nui'U'an lanLTUaues where their t)re.senee has been heret( )lore denied 3. Athon.^h .so loiii; as we are without the means ot'exaiii- in;4 all American tongues, it will be premature to as-erl that these 1 roce -es prevail in all, nevertheless il is safe lt> .-ay m Ci iNCMMt »\S. jSi, Ih llii'ir ilisiiiri' Ii.is lint litrii (K inoii-ti.iU (1 in ww n\ wl h uv Ii.i\i.' siilliiiriit .iihl .iiilln iilic iu,il(.ii.il "II whirl) t,, I),, I ik-i'ision. , TIk' "I'iui'iii "I" ! Miiiniut 111 iiu.l I Iiinilu.Mt tli.ur.ni. til llusi.' pmri'^rs luldii;^ tu ilu' -uniiid pi, ill nl Aiiu lii .iti l;ir.-,n;ii;c's, ami air IJKii Kadiii:; < li,irari(.ri>iit-«, i;iu>l >lill be KiLiardcd a^ a cmarl j;t.iurali/alii.ii. I MHilMil M, d iliqiii- l>v M . /id ii n . li/.ini mi thr <t>iKt'. Slii>rlly .ifUT till- aliovi' i-»ay ,ipiK;inil in ilu /'m,; </iir^s of llir Ann tii-;iii riiiliisn| IijcmI SixittN, il-- ii'^imu ir. ^ .iini ititiihi-^inii.-i wiTi' vi-"iiiu-l> att.iikiil liy M. I.iuii ii \d.mi in the A', : /i, ,/,■ / iiii^iii\.'ii/iif ,/ 1/, /'/ii7(>/i>i;ir ( ',ii)//',i/ ,\ '['i<\\\v \IX I'.iiw. rsd . Ill l'i-iii-> liy |iiiiiiliii^ mil that r\aiiiiiU--^ o! iiirtiriuir itinii m.iv li> rduiiil in tniiv^iu's of tile ( 111 1 W'lilld W llirll lia^ IKM r 1 i.( 11 (U'hinl --« i .ilin\ i , ]i]i. ',^ •, )V Il.lMli:^ ac'klliiulidi^ni till' jllrollljili tilU --^ nl' his nvstl drtintiiill ■. hi iiiliiiMtr-- that Ihosi' I ^;i\r an- c.ilcni.it d i.itlu i to ^n timi tii\ lhrnr\ til. Ill ti> inovc a liii;^ui^lit' trail. Ih- tin ii pnniid^ to K ii;4th\- .iinl niiiuito I litirisiii.s of llu' aiialx-rs I h.i\r iiLidr ni thr rs.iiiiiiK-. i^ivt n iiinK 1 till' SfviTal l.in,v;iia;4r-. ilisrus-.i ,|. 1 ,iiii ijiiiU' w illiii ■; to i oiuh dc lli.it \uth till' iiii]nrl(. rl i^raiiiiiiais :iiid U\ii(>ii> i .1" tin--... imi , lu -> su f.ir liiilili-lird, I may h.iw Iripi nl .it linn > in ■^luh aii.ilv -cs ; Imt I .im t'.ir 111)111 ackiiiiw K-ih^ini; ill, it all ihi)--!- n!' M. .Nd.iin an .(irrcit, ,i!id I am i|uiU' cirtaiii that in siniU' he is iiii;-',ik<.-ii. 'I'lu i|iusti(.ii, \\n\\ fvrr, is oiu' not po.ssihU' to disiais.s in this i>l.ni-, iiid I inn-t li.ivc it, but I would refff tin- tMriir^t ;-lniKiil to the .uiiU' .itnl h .iiiinl arlirli' of M. .\ilani, wliirh is iiiiuh llir most iliniou-h \ ul writUii in the lU;;,itiv(.' siilc of lllr dibaU'.J THE EAHLIF,ST FOIUI OF HuMA"; SPFFfH. AS liF VFALED BY AMERICAN TOXGUES;^^ \ RCILl':()I.n(;iSTS Ull ,ts that the- inainiiacluu i- nf tliosL- nulc stoiK' imiikaiR-iits callc-d ])al;i'()litlis \\.\n- (k'lVil lip a ml (1( th )ii(l own iiic world wnilc a period ol simKlluiii; Hill like two Imndivd tliousaiul vtars was iiiirolliin;- its (.■wnili. rc'iiluriL- Maii\' l)L-liL've tlial tlieSL- carh' arlisaii> ] l;l(l Unt the power of artieulate expression to convey tlieir (.laniinns or iikas : if Mieh tlie\- had, tliev were confined to iiiarlicu- ate ''innts ami cries. Ilaeckel i)i"oposed for the species at this period of ii- l\- ;teiice the desiuiiation /A >iiio a I a his ^pee :hl ess man. ilM- tomisls have come forward to show that the inferi or ni.ixil ir\' hones ( lisinterred in the c. ves of La XaulelU and vSchi])ka are so formed tliat their orit;iiinl possessors ciuiUl not have had tlie power of articnlation.f ]?nt the late-'t in vestij;ators of tliis point have reached an op])osile o 'ii elusion. We nuist, howexer, conceck' that the oral iMi!i- * Kt (1 hiiorc llu' Aimi ic.m I'hil s.iphii al Sooicty ill ami iml)li>luil \\\ l!uii diii'j:^ iiiiilir die title " 'I'lu- l,,iii;^iia;. if rahenlitliio Mai t " 1,'liiiniiiK- chillicii n' avait pas la paniK-," McntilU-t. lit I'l, lii>li'i :,;iir An- tiqiiit, •/' ll<m nil-, ]). j~.' 1 1'-"'~- 1^"",;^. 111-. II. Sti'iiitlial, ,'>*■; I I .^/'; m ,-i S/'iiti ct si(i. ; I'.i-rliii, i>^ ilio n licaisis tlu- <lisLii^~iiin uftlio point with sulTuiciit fiilliics ( 390 ) i:\Ki.N sri:i",cii. VI 1 bli^luil m llkir nm:iic:Ui<>n of nwu duriiiL: tluit Inii;^ i.]»iu-li \v,i^ of a wrv r!;i'iinKMit.irv c-li:irac'ar : il i> riiiiiiMr\ to i.\(.t>- tlu-Mi\ ot in tLTu''tii,il cvolulion III -niipci--^' thai iIkv ii(>s-^t.>sL-(l a >ii(.t\-h a]ii :Vi>arlnii,u; an> thiiii; irmv l-\imi iIk' l<i\w>t (M'^ati'.'t.-;! "1' ihr Hn^uislii.' sliick> imw in (.-xi^lvuro, I')\- an atUaili\'. r«in--til i-iMli'iii (if sonirol till.--*.' lii\vr-l --tnck^. can wr nul tumi a >Miiu\vlial convct (.'(mcciitinn i>\ wlial was tin- rliajaiiA-r of tlk ruilir.Kaitarx' tilkrano<.-> of ilu' larr .■' 1 think wrcan, Iml. a> I ivlicx'f 1 am the fir^t to alti.iniil siu'li a pii'tnn.-, I (ifki' it with lic'/oniin^ (linnkiiro. Tlk' ])h\"sioloj;ical |io>sil)iHt\- llial ])aki.'Mhthir man ])os- se--i.ll a lnn;;n:'..ue has. as I have saiik heen .ilieailv' viiidi- eateil ; and that he was inte]leenall\ ea]>a1)le of -pei-eh eonld, I lliink. scareeh' he denied h\- an\" one who wdl enntempkile the conee])lions of sxinnietrw the leelniie d -kiU, and the wi-i' aikij't ilioii to use, manife-led in -onie of the ohk'-l -peei nuns of his art ; as tor exampke the a\(.-s (h^intened trom tile ancient .strata of San Isidro, nrar Madrid, tho-i- found fii!l\ feel (k'e]) in the iuist-;.;laeia! i;ra\els near TientMn, New ler-ev. or some of those fi,L;tn"ed 1)\' 1 )e MottilKt a> deii\i.'d tVoni the beds of the Somme in I'lanee. ■■ We have e\ ideuee that at that ]>eriod man made u^^e ot fire; tli.it In- r,ii-ed --he!- ter- to protect himself from the weatlu-r ; lliat Ik- i)>i-.,(.'.>-,<.(i -onie means of uavii^atiui;' tlie stream- ; th.it he t-onld occa siwn.dlv overcome powerfid and lerocious he.i-ts ; th it he alreadv iniid some att<.'Ution to orn.unentim; hi- pei-on ; that he lived in communities ; and that his nn,L;r,ilion- weie ex- ■ Sii'. for iii.-laiK-i'. rl.iti X .>r M.iililtit. .V/o.v /•/ ,/i/.^/<o i //ir e.iMailli.u-, .(,i,"i /'.• ■i:s:.ii iijiirs dr r / >,''i;c "' . platr on ji .'7 ; -"I ■I m. p* ' ■ y)^ 1;SSAVS OI' AN AMICKICWIST tciisiw,''- III \-ii.-\v (if all this, is it iiol hi.uhh iiii]i;. -MMe that Ik- was dLslitutc (if an\- xdcal ikiwlts ol f\])iv--i'u lii> plans and (k>iivs? I maintain that wl- slinnhl (li-^:!i; - tin.- //(>///.) i!/(f//f.\, as a sci(.-ntilif ronianLX- which has >ii\\.| 1;.^ time-. More than this, I Ix^-Iiew that 1)\' a judicion^ sind\ n\\\- istini; lan^na.ives, (.'SpcciallN- ho-^c- which ha\c suHlixd luik- by adinixtn'.'- or 1)\- distant ivaiowds, wc can pictniv w ith R'asonalilc fidclitx' the character of tlie earliest tun-ik's sjjoken 1)\ man, the s])eecli of the raheolithic Ai^e. This ])iimiti\-e nlteran^v was, of c:)nrsj, n'lt tlK- srne everywhere. It varied indefinitely. I5ut fir all that it i> alnuf^t certain that in all locdities it jjroceeded on aiialn ^^ous lines of (le\elo])nieiit, jn>t as lair^naj^e- lia\e e\c!\- where and at all times since. Uy stndxinL; si'iiple an 1 i^d lated lan,i;na,<;es, those which lia\e suffered least li\' coni.ut with others, or by alterations in conditions of culture, \\e can catch some t;limpses of the character of man'^ earhe-t sij^nificant expression, the "baby-talk of the ra 'e," if I iii.iy use the expression. I ha\-e .^leaned a certain niiniSer nf such tiaits in the lield of American linguistic>, and ]ii\ -viit them to \dn as curiosities, which, like other iairiii-:tie>, have considerable significance to tho^e who will nla-^ter llieir fiill ])ur])ort. The (pie>tion I am about to consider, is, xdu will ob-er\e, (juiti.- different from that which concerns itself willi the orit^iu of /iiiiiiiislir s/orks. Many of these uni|ne-ti'in.iiy aro.se Ion;.;' after man had acipiired well-developed liii *I itavf I'oIk'L'lLil tlie evidence for this ill an l{ssay on l'relii?-tir,ie .\uii.e'il".'> in I lie /i,iiii>i;iiif>lui- /:iii viiiipiJiii, Vol. i'. li-:n; - llie Uil\ I if v\- V[\\i\- V, iUl ■t lull- IK'S Ihv s riK- llinl ii i> nil ail.lln- aw c\'vV\ - >k- an 1 !>()■ li\' I'liiiLu't .'iilturi.-, \\\- ir> LMriiL--t , " if I in.iy IIUIII'h'!' nf !1(I l)l\v,-lU curiu>;tiL'>, ia>k-r llicir ill (ili-L'VW-, : with Ilk- [iK'-tii 111 iiy lupL'd Ian- Au liiL-'ili..\ m Till': i'ii()m;tic i:i.i:Aii:N'rs. M)r-> i;iri.;c-s, and when ihc- cvR'liral e(iii\-ohUiiin> whosu arli\ilv is riaiiilVslcd in arlicnlaU- r\i)ivs>;i)n had aeMjiiircd a lii-li jriide (if (kAxdoiniicail tlnon-h Ikit lilar\- training, How siKii clucks iiia\- lia\-c arisun lia^ l)L-i.-n hicidlx' >lI fortli li>- ni\ IcaniL-d friend Mr. Ilnraiio H ik-. Ik' (k'niiiii>tralcs hy ni.iu\' examples thai in 'ilie |ll\-^enl ccix-liral evolnlinii c.f Ilia!!, infants dcvelMp an arliculale laii,:.;n i:j,e willi llie >aiiU' iialnral facility that an\- other specie^ of animal do.'S the vecal utterances jiecniliar to ii> kind.-'- lint in this essa\ I am c(>ntemi'latin;4" man as he was liefi^re hundreds of j^eaerationN of ^peakiii;,; ance:-lor-> had e\ol\eil such cerebral powers. I lie-in with some ol)Ser\ations on the phonetic eleiiK'Hts. Th^•■^e are lU) other than what we call the alphahel, the sim jile >nunds which cond>ined together make u]) the word- of a l.iii.nua,<j,e. In all luiropean lon.^ues. the mere letteis of the alphahet, hy themseh'o, h.a\e no iiieaniii;^ and con\e\- 11(1 ilka; furthermore, their \alue in a word i■^ fixed; and, lliii(ll\-, arrani^ed in a word, tlie\' are >ufrici^r.t to t-omcv- it.s sound and sense to one aci|uainled with their v'alue-. Jnd;;ed 1)_\' certain American examples, all iliiee of the>e SL'eiiiin,L;l\' fundamental ch;ira(, teristics of the i)honelic ele- iiunts were absent in ])rimiti\e speech, au^i lia\e become >t.il)Ie oiiK' b\' a Ions.;' intness oi" (.growth. We find toni;ues ill which the ])rimar>' sounds are thc'mseh-es sit;nilk- int, and yet at the same time are hii;hl\' \ariable; and we find ni.aii\- examples in which they are inade(piate to coiuey the ^ense i)f the articulate sound. '-■(■(■ liis ;i(l(l:-css on "riii.' ori'^iii of I.iiiimia;;!-; mid Uir .\tilic|nit\ n{ Siic-ikmir Mail ill llu- /'iiirii;/iiii;s aj III,- .\iii,iua\) .\^>"^iatiini Jn) llu Ad.aii. riuiiit of Sihll,,-. \'cil XXXV, p. 279. '1 f ft 394 i:SSAYS OF AN AMERICANIST. As cxLni])lir\iii,<^ these jjucniliarities I take the T •!■■ (ir Athapascan, si)(>ken widely in Hritisli America, andoi wlncii tlie Apache aiu) Xaxaho in the United vStates ;ire luaiulKs, Vou know tliat in iCntilish the vowels A, Iv I, ( ), \ 111(1 the consonants, as such, 1', S, K, and the others, coii\',\ [<, \()nr mind no meaninj^, are not attached to any idc.i 1 1; Unin of ideas. This is altoj^ether different in the Timii' Wv aw informed 1)\- liishop Farand,-'- a thorouj;h master oi' ili;it ton.nue, that its significant radicals are the fi\e priniii \'owei sonni Is, A, !•:, I, (), r U'L' Of the-^e A expresses uialUr, ]') existence, I torce or ener<'\-, () existence donl)lfiil imi existence absent, non-exi.stence. ne.i;ation or suct'c>-0(iii. These \-owels are "])n1 in action," as he i)hrases it, hv sjn- i;le or donhle consonants, "which ha\-e more or le^> xahk in ])roportion as the \"owel is more or less strong;." TIk-sc consonantal sonnds, as we learn at len''"th from the wurks on this lanuiia<'e 1)\- I'ather Petitot, are also mater lal nihcant. Th ev are numerous, heiny sixt\-three in and are duided nito nnie ( liffe rent classes, eat h of wlncli c(iii\\\> a series of related or associated ideas in the nali\e m iml Thus, the labials ex])ress the ideas of time and aa-. as aue, lenuth, distance, and also whitene: the I,i>t mentioned, ])erhaps, throus^h association with the wliiu liair ot aiie, or the endle snowfields of their wiiil vr, The dentals express all that relates to force terniinaliii!^, hence uselessness, inanitx', pri\ation, smallness, feeMeiuss: and also j^reatness, elevation, the motor ])ower. Tile iia>al> convex- the i^eiieral notion of motion in repetition ; Ikikv, rotation, reduplication, ,n'ra\itation, and, by a siii,i;tilaiiy ■ I)i v-htiil .his I //(•- /,\s .S,t :ir\ii;rs 1'. ^.S sicMi'icANT i.i:tti:ks. il association, onranii- lifi he ;iitturals indicate nil, lion incur\x's; liciicc, simiouMiess, flexihilitw eluilHlioii, i-diiii'IiR-ss, and liy a linear fij^ure different from that uiiieli iitnierlies the Latin ycctitudo. justness, correctness. Tiie II, citliu- as an asi)irate or an hiatus, introihices the ideas of nd and subjection, elevation and ])riistrati(in, and tl cimiina llKe, le \'()U will observe that in some of tl lese cases the sisjiiifica- UdU of a sound includes both a untior and its o])|)(isite, a.- -realne^s and sniallness. Tl wliicli I shall refer later. us i> an niterestiu'' feature, to Turn now to another lan^iia-'e, the Cree. ( jeo.<;ra|)hically !t 1> CO nti^uous to the Tinne; but. says Ihsjiop araud. who ke them both fluentlv, thev resend)lt. .tl e eacli oilier no more llinn the I'rench does the Chinese. Ne\erlhel e>s, we (Us- C(l\l er this same ]X'culiarity ol materiallx- sii^nillcant ])honetic ekiiieiits. IIow.se, in his C)rc Cnainniay, observes that the ral K and the labial W constitute the essential part ;ullu (il al intensive terms in that lanuii; lue. whether the same he attributi\-e, formative, or itersonal accident." Indeed, he niaintains that the articulate sounds of the Cree all express relative powers, feebleness or force, independent of their IHisitioii with reference to other sounds. \'ou may iiKjuire whether in the different ,i;rou])S( filler- lean tontiues the same or a similar sisjiiitication is attached in aii\- one sound, or to the s )unds of anv one or; ; ! n , If it were so, it woidd "ive countenance to those the ones w Inch maintain that there i.ssv)me fixed relation between sound and sense in the radicals of langua.u;es. I must rei)l\- that I have *rtlilut, Dutioiiuauidi: la Lan^m Dene Dindjii\ Iiilniihictioii. v/) i;ss.\vs oi' A.N ami:kicanist, foitiid wry link- (.Aickiicc for tlii> IIrotn' ; and \(i - ,iia. I''iir '.xani])!!.', iIk' X mhiikI vxpiLssL'S [hv iiDti'ni >>[ i!h ••^■,, (»r in\ >(-II"-ii(.ss. in a ^tcat nian\ ton^ncs, far apart .i^nrj-.i],!). icall\ and lin.uni>-lirall\-. Il is I'onnd at ihv l)asis of tl sonal pmiiDnn of tlic Inst person and of tin.' word- n-r- I'l;- ///,iii m nnnicinns dialcrts in .North and Sonlli Anicr lea. • iUl. the K >onnd i> almost as \\idel\- as>ocialfd with the i' >///! /-//i.v\ and is at llie l)ase of the personal ])ronouu (.; iIk. second ])er>on sin.i;ular and oi tlie expressions lor Mipt r un- man personalities, the di\ine existence.- denionstrati\-e in its power. It IS es>en'i.iall\ A- un, in a lonj; array ot tongues in \arious part- th w orld, tlie snhjeetive relation is expressed by the M muihI, as has heeii i)oiiited ont ])\- Dr. Winkler; and other ex: un])Ii.> conM he added. Many of these it is iini)ossil)le to attiilmU to deri\ation from a common .sonrce. Some writer-^ main tain th.at sonnds ha\e a snhjective and fixed relation {u ideas; o ther s cal sncli coincidences hliiKl chance, hut the-'C .shonld rememljcr that chance itseli' means nierels [\w action of laws not \et discoxered. Vou mis^ht suppose that this distinction, I mean tluit net ween '//■ and (' ///. net ween /, ///, 11 and In IS Imida- mental, that sjieech could not jtroceed without it. \'iiii would he mistaken. American laiii;uai;es t'urnish (oikIh si\-c e\ ideiice that for unnumhered generations mankind i;nl alonu well eiiouuh without anv such discrimination. ( )ik *( III till.' M^ii (k'lncin- tiativi? shinijh liiU' ili' trilmticiii cif Uio ;/ ami /■ soiitids .'is piitniliv , cc)in])ari- II. WiiikUr, I 'u>hill,ti>i !ir I'olki') iiiu/ S/tuulir (Ikrliii, i^\t). r'ur otluT coniiiarisoiis, sec Tnlinio and Dawstm. Vihuhiiii! l>ul.\ of III ill ill Col It 1)1 hi it. p. ijS. i:v<)i.i riox (11' I'RdNoiNs. :•>'): and tlie same iikhimsn ll.iIiK- -cvyul lor all tliixx- ]HT-on> and Iv* iiiinil:crs. Thf nu-anin.^ of ilijs iiic ,iim-,\ Ilahk' \\a> nil.; aiblcMlly "any li\in- human hcitiL;." ( );il\- at'ua" a loll, lime (lid it licc(,mr (liHVn.ntial(, d l.v lliu addition of locative parlieles into the notions, "I livin- auman heiii-," "Thoii - li'viii- Iniman hein.-," " lie - livin- hum in heiiii;." ;nul so on. I'Aen a lau-iia-e s[„,krn \>\ so cultured a people as the ancient I'eianian- hears inimi-tak iMe traces of this 'process, as ha> heen shown h\' \'on Tsc-hudi in his adimrahle analysis of that ton.-ue; ami the lan.L;ua.L;e of the Haures of liolivia still ])resenls exanijiles of verhs conju- i;ated without pronouns or ]>ronounna! affixes. ■•• The extraordinary development of the i.roiiouns in many American languages— .some ha\e as maiiv as ei.nhtceii differ- ent forms, as the jx-rson is contemplated as standin-, 1> ini;, in motion, at rest, alone, in compan\-, etc., etc. this multi- plicity of forms, I say, is proof to the scientific liui^uist that these ton.mies lia\-e hut recentl\- de\-eloped this .-rammatieal cate.nitry. \\'liere\er we find o\erL;rowth, l''e snil is new and the ero]) rank. In spite of the siLvnificance alt.ached to the phonetic ele- ments, the>- are, in nian>- American lan!^ua.L;es, siiii^ularly va,i.;ue and nucluatinj^-. If in hai^lish we wci'e to promamce * "I'.sliat ofrfiiliarciiic Zeit .!;cyilii n, in <\rr /:,i ;illi itii-rs l'r..n. (.its. I'li:- alU- I'.rci I'o-oiun \v:ir, cisl alliniihlii; t-:il\\iikt lUii sii.li ;"() in, ctio. k,i w. In, i,/ r. illi . ' J. J. V 111 TsL-lnuli, <>iL;iiiaMiniy d,i k'lnhua Shia,ln\ s. iS) (I.Lip/'.u. e^ii. Ui the laii:.4iia.^f of llic Dames 1)1 I'.olivia wlu-ii Uk' vrrh t.akes llie iic-ativc ti rir.inrai.iii ,(/./..', Uk' iiroii.iniiiial -iyiis arc .li~car.!cMl : tin:-. , ;<;, tn drink, ,i drink . .'„■//, ,. .1, tliuii. hr, uu, yon, tlu-y, do not drink. Ma:,'i ), Ait,- </.■ ,',; l.rir^im ,/,■ /.,, /)i,l:o\ /lii/iifi. \>. ,Sj (Tari;, i^soi. Tliis reveals;! liiiu- when Imth .alTirniative and ne-ative vcrhal.s (lijpetised with proiioims altogether. pf» .VJ'"^ I'SSWS Ol* AN AMICKIC WIST. tlnx'c- woids, /(>//, )i(>>\ roll, indiiTcrciilly as one or tin m'.Iki- \()it sft.' what violence wc should do to the Uk-ihv i; , m,- ali)hal)Lt. Vet aiialoL;otis examples are constant \\\ \\\\\\\ American lan.nna.i^es. Their consonants are " alteni,i;iiiy •• in lar.^e t;ron|)s, their vowels " i)ermutal)le." M. i'ltitut calls this ])henomenon "literal affinity," and show- Ui a ij, the 'i'inne it takes place not onl\' between consonant- ni ihi, same .ijroup, the lal)ials for instance, but of different ,s;inii]is as lal)ials with dentals, and dentals with nasals. Tlu-c differences are not merel\- dialectic : the>- are found in tin- sane villa,t;e, the same family, the same person. Tlu \ ,iu- not peculiar to the Tinne ; they recur in the Klanialh. Dr. Ik'hrenclt was pu/./.led with them in the Chapanec. X(, other lanL;uage," he writes, "has left me in such doiilil a> this one. The same person pronounces the sam.' wnrd differently ; and when his attention is called to it, will iii-jsi that it is the same. Thus, for dexil he will ,nive '/'ixiunhi and S/saiiiibiii : for hell, .\'ii/:iif>aj/i and Xakapt^H." '■■• Speaking of the (lUarani, Father Montoya says: "Tlu re i^ in tliis langua>4e a constant chaui^iuL;- of the letters, for which no sufficient rules can be j^ixen."!' And Dr. I)arap>k\ in his recentl\' ])ul)lishe(l study of the Araticanian of Chile gives the ft^Ilowing etjuation of permutablc letters in that tongue : The laws of the conversion of sounds of the one or;4aii into those of another have nt)t vet been discovered; biu the * .■t/>ii)i/rs .Mihir /<; /.riit^iiii C'/i<!/iti)ir<a, .1/.S'. j .1 1 /r (fr /ii /.niiiiiii (I'liiiitiiii, p. yj. t /,(/ /.riii,'uii .iiuiicana, p. \^(Siinlia,q;o dr C/iilt', iS8S). <-i'.siTRi-. si'i;i;cii. .V)i) alH.>\- cxampk-s, wliirli arc 1)\ n,, means isnhitnl niK>, ^cia\- I,, ;(lm()nish us that the plioiRlic ck'inciits of priniilive >[Hi 'li ])i"(ibal>ly had no lixcdtRss. There is aiiolhcr odditv al.inil Minif df these c-dnsonaiital (Is which I may iioliee in pas-^ino. Some nf them ,ire sdlllKI unl true eleuieutary sotuids ; the\ lanuot stand ahme, Iml iiui-t al\\a\s lia\-e another eousonant asx.eialed with them. Th'i--, the hd)ial />' is eon-mon in C.uaraui: hut it mu->t ahva>s he preceded hy an .//. In Xalinatl tlie h<|nid /. i> frequent : l)Ul it is the initial of no word in tlrit hin-na.i;e. The Xaliuas a|)])arently could not pronoinice it, unless some other articulate sound ])rece<led it. Alhorno/, in his (ikuii n/ar of llu L'lhif^oin; V'o//^ //,■.'■■• states that the natives cannot ]>rononnre an initial />', (,\ ) ', or /'. without utternit;- an A' sound hefore it. The third point in the ()honoloL;y of these ton,nnes to which I alhuled is the treciuencv with which the phonetic elements, as j4raphicall\- e.\]ire~sed, are inade(|uate to t'onvey the idea. I may (piote a remark 1)\ IIo\\>e in hi^ ('/k' liiti/iiiiiai\ which is true ])rol)al)l>- of all i)rimiti\e s[)eech, " I'hn])hasis, accent and modiiications of xocal expressicn ; which are inade([uately exi)resse(l in writiui^, seem to consti- tute an essential, perhai)s the \ital ])artof Indian lan.uua.Lie." In such modifications I include tone, accent, stre>s, \-ocal iullection, (piantitx- and pause. These are with much (lilTictdtN- or not at all includable in a s^rajdiic method, and yet are frefiuently significant. Take the pau.se or hiatus. I lia\e already mentioned that in Tinne- it correlates a whole series of ideas. M. IJelcourt, in his (ir;unmar of the .Mhunioz, .l> li- tir la l.ans:iia ( Via/Hiiii , ii. p. K. f ■ ,m to;) i;SS.\NS OI" AN AMI'KICANIST. Sautiux, ;m Al.nonkiii diaUi-l, stales thai tlu' i>ai'. :i ly ("omplctclv' rliaiiL^i- tlir iiiraniii^ of a word and ]il i i„ aiiDllifV cli-'S ; it is alsit cvsfiitial in thai hmirua;^i. ■ , i1)q. Ininialimi ni' llic lrii>i.s.-- 'IMiis i> ihi' casr in thi,' da i m of Si)nth AnK'iifa. M(>nt(i\a iUnsti itrs it I)\- tin.- I'x.ii./ilc ; riiii oil. IVttT alt- it; hiit l\>ii on, WWy (.-anit.' : ■ \\\w another thinu;, \<in will ohstaAi.T 'I'iir strev-'S laid on a \i»\VL'l-S)und ofUMi alk-r- il> nuMiiiiii;. Ill iIk' SanlL'tts, Ui-lconrt points out that thi> (■on>tiluti - llif onI\- distinciion l)(.-t\vt.'(.'n tlu' l"ii>t and second ])(.r-<oii. in |)artic-i])k'S. In the Xahnatl ihi-- aloiu' di>tinL^ni-lK-- niinv ])lnial t'oinis from their sin,L;ulars ; and nian\- simihu i.\- ani]>ks coidd he cited. With dilTiculties of this nature to eucnnnler, a ]Hr<Mn nccustonied to the dehnite ])honolo,i;\- of Ivnropean to!i-iu> is naturall\- at a loss. The Spanish scholar rricoeelKa ex- presses this in relatin;^ his efforts 'o learn the Chilnl! i u{ New Granada, a lon.^ue also charaeleri/ed 1)>- these' lliiclii- atins^' ])honeties. He x'i^ited the rei^ion where it i> -till .spoken with a .grammar and i)hrasL'd)()ok in his haul, and found to his disajipointnient that the\' eould not nnleistind one word he said. He then employed a nati\e who --jHikc vSpan.is]i, and with him ])ra:ticed some jjliras^'s until he be- lieved lie had them jierfeet. Another disappoiuLnient i;i)t one of them wa-; understood. He returned to his teaclicr and ai^aiu repeated ihem ; but what was his disnia\ wlien * I'l i/i(i/>r.s </i: la l.i!)ii;iii' clrs .S.ni:\i,'^rs iif>'>ii!,'> S iii.'rii v. liie.'Oil. f A rlr til' la /,i'ii,i;tia d'uaiaiii, o mas hieii I'lifii. I'.ir t'l I'. Anlunin Kui/ iIp Montoya, l>. i<»). <^"<>l NTI'U SI'NSH. )"" 11(1 rVLii his tculuT nvd-iii/rd ;i siii.i;lf word I AlUi- tliat \'\: .:ci'Iil;i j^aw uj) llu- atkni]it.-'= l,ca\ iii.L;- now llic doinaiii of ]>lionolo-\- and tninin- In til I of k'Nic().i;ra])liy, I will [.oinl ont to \"n a \( i \ cntions j.li, nonunon in priniitiw sp.rcli, I lia\o aluad\ alln'ad toll in (inolin.n M. Tctitol's ixniark that in 'I'innc a >otind oft. u means holli a notion and it^ opiiosilr : that, for in- slamv, lliL- same word may (.xpre^s <;oo(l and \),n\, and aiMilRT both hii;h and low. To nse M. IVtitot's (,\vn words, "a certain nninl.er of consonants have the ]'owi r of ex]Tessin.<; a i^iven order of ideas or thin-^, and al^o the nmtradiclorx- of this order." In 'I'inne, a ,i;reat man\' wolds for opjjosilc ideas are the vanie or nearK the same, (leiived from the same siirnificant element-. Thns, so/ j^ood, sdi/d bad; A:.', sweet, /riv// bitter; 1'7 immense, |v/ ver\ small ; ///Ar one lime, i)ilasiii e\er\ time : and so on. This nnion of ()i)])()site si.i^nifications reappears in the uhimate radicals of the Cree lan-nas^e. These, says Mr. II(.wse,t whose (,Kiiuii/ar I a,-;ain (inole, exi)re-s /A///;- in its ]iositiv(^ and n..';.':itive modes: "These opjiosile nio.les arc txpressed by modiil.'ations of the s.anie element, fnrnishin^i;- two clas.ses of terms widely different from each other in sii;- nilieation." In Cree the leadinj.; substantive radie.d i-. ,///, which originally meant both Heinj; and Xot-beini.;. In the pv sent language c/h remains as the current jxtsitixe, //// as t'.e current privative. // means within, /// without; .and like parallelisms run through many expressions, indicating 1; * (iiiiiiniuilua </<• la /.riit;u<i CInlhlia. Iiilnid. tSci' Uinv.si-. (haiiitnar of thf Cur /.iiiii;ii<iv<\ jip fi, i 54, 1 55, ifnj, etc. 26 'i: ■ .■'■''{• 403 i:SS.\VS <)|' AN AMl'KICAMSr li' lli;it nuiiKiiius sffii'-^ fit I i|i]H isiU' iiU^i-- aw <k w iMjunnty, tViiiii ilio - iiiK' iiiiMiual >(iuuils. I li.iw lumid :i luiiulKr of >«iu'li c■.\;llllI>U-^ in tl)( \ iliu.al M iXICM, ;ill(l ;im \K I >\ia(k'il tliat 11r\' .Wv mi \ ii-i; Aiiurii.iii liiiii;ii(.'S. I )r. Call Alul lia-> |"iinUtl unl iiiaii\ in tin' aiiii(.iil i.Ni])tii', aii<l I tloubl iml llay wur diaiai Iv ; i-.tic (if all pi iiiiilix t.- s]i(.i.c-li. 'I'd (.xjilain tln-ii [Hi-i-iuf wc iiiil>-t rc'lkct (III llu iial ir.i III llu- luiiii 111 iiiiiiil, and llif a>ri.i laiiud laws (if tliiiii;j,lil ( lll^. (if lli(.-.(.' !''.;iiilaiiiviilal and iKvv,-sar\ laws (if thiiiiL'hl, lli:,i Usnall\- calkd llir .si.i-(ind, wa^ (.'Xlircssvd li\ IIk- (i1(K t In-i cian> in IIk- plirasL' ()//////.< tl< lu iiiiiiatii^ is/ iiii^iifi'\ aiui li\ llu ir nioikiii f(ill()\\(.-i s in llir tdnnnla, " / is iidt iiol . I ." in (ttlKT wdi'ds, a (|nalil\ , an i(k'a, an (.'k iiRiil (if kimw U (i.L;r cm risi.' iiild co-'iiilidii oiiK hx Ir'III'' liniit(.(l li\' that w hull 11 i> iKit. 'Thai li\ whicli it is liiiiilL'd is kiidwn in ld;^ir as it-. ]iii\ ali\ (.'. in a work iinlilislu-d sdiiR' \ cars as^n I ])(iiiikil (nil lli.ii this ]iri\ati\c is iidl an ind'-iiiii'lnil llumyjit, as sonu.- haw inainlaiia-d, Imt thai tlic pdsitixc and its piixatiw air ixally \.\\i^ asiH'(.'t.s of the saiiK- ihoiij^hl. ■■ 'Idiis lii};lil\ ini|i(ii t.iiil distiiu'lidii L'\])lains lidw in ])riinili\c' speech, li(.fdi\- llRitka liad riM.li into vlviw Cd.^iiilidii, koth it and it- ]iii\aliw \\i.i\' f\i)ivssL'd k\ tlR' sanu- S(iU'.id: and when it did risi.- iiiiu siuli Cdiiiiition, and then into (.'Xpicssidn, the dii^inal nnily 'III,- h'rliiiiiiii.\ Sniliiihi. I : Its S. '11 1 . /■ ti HI I . [nil. . I I I'lili ihiilhoi t'l III, l\iiii:i"ii. Il\ II ('.. I'liiiti'ii, ]). ;i I N< \v N'ork. Tlu- sl:iUiiunt in llu U At imii 1)1' al;^cliia:i.':i!!y ilriiKiU' ! rati il in llu- inaUK-niatical rmiii ul' In^ica- ••i i l.vlli In rnif. ll'iolf, tlui-i : .1 nut Mint A', wl'it'li, in ib- niatlicniatiial t .\|iu --iiui In conii'S, r I '-'. WIu-iKi- \<\ tian>i>ii'^itiMn and .-iib'-til ntimi wr ili rivf, i-' i i!i whicli c(|iiali(iii i .(. Stc ItouU-. .1// fir.is/ii^alinii ni/n titr l.a:,s nl lln'ucl'i (I.oiidim, i\^.t). •fp" iNCi ikl'i )K.\TIi iN. 4f'3 1. , \Iiil.itcrl l.\ llir i.Uiilitx nfllK' i-,i.Iii:il. 'rilll^ it ll.ipp. IIS lli.it fioill -^U(•ll ,111 liiu xpn ImI (HiaiUi- ,1-, :iii .ili,il\ M> (.fClVi- ni.iiiunar do wi' ohlaiu ,1 rourn in, ilimi .,t" ihr ^.lartiii- \>n\\\{ i,\ tin.' Inj^ii'df IIcuil ill his iM..]iM-.iii,,ii ih.ii ilu i.kiuiix ..f ilu. /.';//;■ ;iii(l llu' .\;v /',/;/;■ i^ ilu iiltiin.iu- iiiu.ilinn ■.! lli. .ii-lil. Thr .unuliial <K\ vloi.iiuiil ,,r -iMitiniai i- sU ikiii.'.'lx illu- liitvil ill Ur'Sc l,m,^ua,-;i'>. Tluir iiiosl ihoiihih ut Ir.iil i-. wh.il is I'allfd iihoi f^i>nili,<)i . Snlijicl, wil.. diixrl nhjcrt ,iiiil ivuidlf (.l))t.rl, air a!l i.\])i\>vi.,l in ,,ik' \\u\a\. Sniiu- li,i\c' flainicil lli,il Ihciv ,u.,' Auuiiraii l,iii-iia.i;c> of w liirli lliis i> not Inif; l.ni I think I h.iw -Imu n in an r-.>a\ ].iih- hdicd SOUK' time ;i!l;o,'- thai ihi^ i,]iiiiion aii^i's iioin ,,ni iiiMillieii-nt know kd-,- ,,f Uil- alk-rd f\r<.').lioii^. At aii\ raU', this iiK'()r])oralioii w a> uiiiloiihtcdly a trail of ]>! iiiini\ (.• s]Knh in America and rl-iw heir. I'rimiliw iinn, s,ii(l lUrdcr, was like a lial)> ; he waiiud to s,i\- all at oiue. lie eoiiduised his wliok' M.iilcnee iiitci a single word. Areli (kaeoti llunter, in his /.^r////, o)i Ih, ('/,> /.,ij/l^//,i:^, , -i\-es as an e.Naniple the seriptnr.il |iliia,se, "1 shall ha\e \oti lor iii> disei])les," whieh. in that lon-iie. i> e\i>ie>>ed h\ one wind, i' .So lar as .1 ha\-e heeii al.le to analy/e the-e iiriniitiw sen- tence-words, lhe\- ;ilwa\s express /v /V/;' /;/ idiitioii: and liinee tlie_\- partake oi" the nalnie olAeihs r.ithei- than nonii>. Ill this conclusion I am ohli-i'd to dilVer with the (.iiiineiit liiii;uist Professor Sleintlial, who, in his jiroloiind exposition <it tl;e relations of p.s_\-cliolo,<;y to j^raiiiniar. ni.iiiUaiiis that ' I '/( I'liJviMitli'Wis iiiul /ii, OI f'iiiiilioii, ill I'l.uii-iliii:^-. u\ llu- Aiiurii-.in I'liilnMiphi ml Sdcicty, I'^ss. iScc tlii' ])H(ii|iiin i.-.>a_\.i T Oil the (jiiuinHitliiiil Cmisli in (mii nj tin' Ciir J.aiii:iiii:^i\ p. i -• i I.oiuloii, I'^rj}. H. \ 4<'4 l-SSAVS OI" \N AMICRICAMST V\ liili- {]\u ])rin!ili\X' sciiIlmicc was a .siiii;k' woiil, lli.ii w, nl was a iKuin, a ikmiil'. It is i.\-i(kiil thai tin.- jiriinitivc man did not conn cc; Ills tnuiiii- scntcnc'ts. ( )nc lollowcd tlic otlier disjointcdli iKc't(.(ll\-. Tliis is so ])lainl\ marked in Ann-iican. ton-iKs that th.r niachincTv for ronncctini;' senlL-ncc-s is absent. This inac'hini. r\- consists pro])CTl\' of the rchitix'c ]>rononn anil tht' conjunction. You will he sur])iiscd to hear that there i^ un American lan^ua^e, none that I kriow, which ]io-.r---es either of these parts of speech. That which does dut\ for the conjunction in tiie Ma\a and Xahuatl, for instant e, is noun meaniuL;' associate or comi)anion, with a prefix .ed j)ossessi\"c.T Ivpiall)- foreign to primitive s])eech was an\- expression nf /////(• in connection with verbal forms; in other words, tl Hie was no such thnv' as tenses. W" e are so accustomed t o link ac tious to time, past, present, or future, that it is a litll e (ht- licuit to understand how this accessorv can he oniilled in intelligible discourse. It is perfectly evident, however, the study of many Ai.'erican tonj^ues, tiiat at one ] of their growth they pos.sessed for a long interval nnin lenod olliV le tense, which served indifferentl\' for jKist, present, and oi futui uid even yet most of them form the jiast iuid hil uiv *-.-U inllial, (I'l ill/hi/; (:, /.I'l://.' iiiicf I'syrhnlni^ir, s. ,',2,i. )■ 111 M;i> .1 tlie ' iinjiiiutioii " Mini '' is rciuk-icd by iv//, :i colli ])iiiniil cif Itif |)ci~~t>- sivi' pv.iniiiiu, lliii-.l person siu_;iit;ir v, ;ui 1 /'.'/, c >iiip;uiii)ii. Tlu' \aliii:it!. t/iu.iti i.s precisely tlu- s:mio in coinpositimi. t " Die tiuish lurikaiii'-cln.'n SiiiaclKii li,il)cii die I'.ineiilliiinili^ liki it, il.i (Icr K(-;s< 1 (lie I I.iuptti. iii|imi:i in .ViiwelulutiL; komiiuii iiiul uiitcr (lii'.-eii lic^nti'li (l;is I'lli-eiis, ^e^l-t wemi von eiiier liestiiuititi ell, iHScilK lers aber von einer iniln--- tiiuiiiten \'trL;,in:_;eii licit ,ijis])nHlieii winl." J. j. von Tselnuli, ( '; 7,> Klirt.sUii Sf>iac lii\ INJ. The same tense is sl^u employed for lutmeoe cm u lu 1 ~ )f tlu- l)n>-iVS Iniritl. ilni.Di. ikril. i!:!--- Ill (.11 ln'-ntnli IS fiiR 1 \nilii-~- ,'ipr '»/(■ ill! • OCClllH lU'lS 4' '5 Till'. C.R \MM AIICAI. CA'l liCdRl I'.S. !i'. iniR-ly inakTial means, a-^ tlir aildilioii i>\ U:\\v, Iiy arccnl, <niaiilil\- o;- ivpL-lilioii, and in ( ti-n-c relation is still nnknuwn.''- In ^oniL' tiini;UL'S, tlir < )ina-na of tlir njipir () Lxanipk', tliL-iv is no surt nf ruiunrtinn lictw-LTii llir wrlial slcni and its si;,;ns n[' [vu-^l-. nimk- dr pLiMin. TIr-x liaw not an aihril) dl 1ki> till niiMii) l(ir iwii anv liNnl order. In 'iirii lan,L',na''cs thrrc- is no diller ciiOL' in sound lict\\\L-n the \vor( .r •• I niarr\ an( ni\ w lie: I eat, anl (lied and "in\- inod: .\nl will die lietweeli anl (iK" and "1' ml IS (lead 'rinoii-li such toui^iies \ve can di-^tiiu-llv iiei ceaw a tiiiU' w lie n the \'erl) had ueillier tense, i it was not even a \erl) nor \ el iio(k', nor person: when a Nerhal, hut an eiiiceiie SolllK 1 which could he adapted to aii\- seixice of speech II is also e\-ident that thin;. .s wre not tlioie'hl o|, .ir talked >nt of their natural relations. There are still in most .\i lencan tonsjues larue da- •s ot words, such a,' tl le art^ ot the hody and terms of kiiishi' , which cannot >taiid alone. TIkn- itUHl alwa_\s he accompanied h\- a pronoun expiw-.-^ini.; relation. I'ew American toni;ues haw an\- adjectives, the Cree, for iii-^tance, not a dozen in all. rre;>iisitions are eipialK' rare, and articles are not r>iuid. 'i'he.-^e fact^ testil\- that what are cilled " the .grammatical ca.teuori the priiniti\'e speech of man. es W(.te wiiol 1\ ahseiit in what ckissical .maniina; iaii,-- call ' tlir lii^tm iial p; i--tn(," will il!u~t; air tlii> i in liln\ nu-iit of a .•^inj.;k' tfUSi.' U>\ ]ia.-t ami talun t .iin . riic Chii|iiita of liolivi, I Is ,111 1 \ln. UK I'sanii iiiph I. a cli-liiut Mil .In ])A^- pl' -I lit it (111 liiliir ir(.\i>lc pas (1.1 lis 11. lie 'air.;iir (Irani;! ." . I < /»■ l I '!'■ til'ulai t,i (If Aj /j'ii,^iui ( '/ii,/iii/(! . I'or. 1.. .Xilaiii, \ \'. Il(iiiy. p. s ■ ( ''( ///,' / ■( ( A III . \llh-l I, III! /.Ill i;\ WillK liii v.ii lliiiiiIi'.Mt ■riaiisl.iti-,1 liy I). C,. Uriutoii, in /'iiiiiY</i)if;.s i>///ir .liiiii iniii I'ln/.'sf/'liiiul Sn, iil\, r ;i'i 1 ;f)'i I'SSAVS OI" AN AMI'IRIC ANIST Si 1 also WLMV those adji-cliws wliirli aiv calk-d )i inih I lu iv art' A iiRfu-an toU'-iK-s wiiK'li lia\-e no wont im :in\- inuiKTals whatLNLT. 'iMie iiuniciifal (.■oiK-L'i)ts oin-. ;\\,,^ three, four, cainiol l)e exiJi'essed in Ihe-^e lan''u;rje> \<<\ 1 of teinis with an\- siieh nieanin'. ill.-- was a Lii'eal im: H'K v.le to llie niis-^ionnries wlien tlu'V undertook to expound to lIi. ir II oe tile doetrine of the 'I'l'iuitw Tliex- were in worse e,i- e\en thai the nns^ionar\- to an ( )re''on trihi.-, who, t( I II lU- \\-\' the notion of .svv// to hi' Hearers, eoi lid find 1 lo Wdl'i HI their lau'' ii;iuc nearer to it than one whieh nieaiil "the li iWer •ut. A \'er\' interesting' eh.apter in th.e stud\' of the>e toii^ue^ i- that wliiel! i\-\'ea Is the e\-olution of >ee ihc (listiiietioii>, tl IMH- induelu'e generalizations under whieh ]iriiniti\e man el,is~i- ni.-d the ohiects of the uuix'erse about hiiii. Tl le-^e distiiutioii were either L;raiiiinatieal or lo''ieal that is. either firm 11 (If material That most \videl\- seen in Aineriea is a d I\l lull )f all existence into those which are considered lix'iii'. aiM those considered not lixini 'Idiis constitutes th e sec 111 (1 ivreal s.',eiierali/atiou of the i>rimiti\e mind, the first, a-- 1 lia\e s ud, ha\"iiiu' been that into lieinu' and Xot-1 )i.-lIU 'idle distiiu. tioiis of IJ\'iii'_' and Not li\"iii'. a\e rise to ilk ai/ii>/(i/( and iuiiiihiKilr coiiiiisj,ation^ A irammatUMl >eN distinction, which is the prexailiiiL;" one in the '"aMiiimar- the Arxaii toiimu doe- Mot exist ill an\- Ainerie.in di.iK-cl known to iiie. A stiikini; LWanipk' is \.\\v Chiciuit,! nf I'.iilivia. MIL- u- i-i itai- <1( IS, Irrs, I'uati-o, i-lc, iii ik-ci,- sc-iiuiulo, ti-rix-ni, i-ti-. .!(/,- 1 /■ 1 rl'.iijuil 1 p.i la I, >.-l;ii(1 i'iii;iiiltt. p. i^iil'ai'is, e I- 'I'lio.-i.- ilistiiK'liiiiis, iiii.ami llvor callid \<\ M. I.iui(-ii Aiiain tiii/'n ■■.'■h ainl III, iii II III I ii/>i, . (II I /i, III! -.iwA III till 1 1 liiin\\ I'c 111 11(1 iu n_-r lain Aiiu-riL-aii Ii>iil;iu-^. 1h 1 iii; m coMi'orxi) ti:rms. 4' It is tnu- llial al)slnK'l ;^<.iur;il terms aiv ah-riil nr r.iiv in t]i> iiin>l iiriniilivL' Inii-iK-^. On tlif other linnil, \w liml in llr-n a v,w:\i many clas-ilicatMiv inn-licles. 'Vhv-c Ci<y- ]\ ]u;u(\ (>nl\- r(.'m(ilL-l\- in anxlliin- known in .\r\an -jieecli, ;ui<l SCI--IU lar mi)!v ahslracl llian -iMU'ric nnnns. ! will illn — [y.iw what llu'V aiv hy an exami.k- taken t"n>m Ike lliilal-a, a (Halcct of the I )akota. Tlif word tor sU.(l in ihai dialerl is niidn inniiliitsivla . 'r;:e lirsl ]tarl of this I'omijonnil, ////,///, nuMii^- an\l]i;!iL; of uoiiil or into which wood enter--. Vwk- is /V//;/- heran.'-e il is kej'l np with wood. With the phonetic l.i.sitx which I li.ive hctore noted, the iir-l s\llal)!e //// ina\- as corre.tlx be liruiionnced /'/ oi' r.v'. It is a conunon nominal preiix, of \a,i;nc siL^nificance, knt seem> to clasdf\- okje'ts as di-,ii!ic- li\e>. Mti designates okjects whosj inmiediale- n-e i- not e.Npressed; /denotes in-tiaiment or material; d:i, con\-e\-s that the catise of the action i> not sMetailed ; 'mi intinrste-- the ration is that of separatin;^ : (/,^ that this is done ipdcklv I A■^(/;^ to slide ).-•• Tims by the jn\ta])osition of one- ckissificatorx ]>aiticle aKei' anoth.er, sewn in nnnikier, all of them lo;.;ical niiiwr- .■-ai-. the savai^e makes np the name of the s'pecific i-,b'c>t. This SN'slem was ])robabl\- the llr-t adopted b\- man when lie b(.';:;an to si^l in order hi-. i)cai\iit ions within the c Uc^ories ( : his nnder^landin^. with the aim of L'ix inu" Uuni '-.■oc.d e\- I" li'.f lIKltu-.ial, IMt till- ruiltlll IM.l 111' •.ll;- liill-ll.lm-, alltl, ,-l.iitl\ -ln.-.ilJll:;. aiv lii-liiu'liiiiis 11. >l vr.illv lia>c<l cm ,-(,\ual oiii-iiU Kiti in -, Sif .Xilaiu. l>n u. m .■ ,la^i\ ' ■ hiinyn i-iuv^iii's il'aiis; i-- -i. \V.i-hiu;tin MiUlu-.v-., (i .iiiiiii: tint Pi, .'hiii.ti v nf thr /.ii ii:: ii.::.- /•/ ///■• 11: i,it\ii ' .\i\v N'.irk. 1'--;' hi a li'.'.ri iroiv. .1 ■ iiK'i. till' rr.-l iiaMii. a;i Jii o this 1. -i-av , \)y. Matllu- ws xv. uc- Ilia I I In aiial> >i- in Uk li xl i- ipiia im; ici.;. 4* • 4oS i:SSAV,S OI* AX A:\ir,RICANIST pivssion. It is a plan wliich wc fiiul most hi.^^hly ck' in tliL' rudest lanmiaircs, and tlicrcTtH'c wc- niav ru IMi H;(l .M.', b'jlicxe that it characterized prehistoric speech. The (piestion lias been ]>ut 1)\- psNcliolo.nical .urannii: which one of the senses most heliied man in the creal lanj^nai^e— or t()exi)ress it in modern scientific ])arlan( priniiti\e man a lisiia/rc or an anditairt.' Did he i: ; ^l^ 11'. :i () was Ins so unds after what he heard, or what he saw- former o])inion has been the more popular, aiul has ;^!\eii rise to the imitative or " onomatonoetic" tlieor\- ( gua.ijje. No doubt there is a certain detiree of truth ii .in- ns. but the anahsis of American tonuues leans decidedh- t classin,!; primitive man anioui;' the vtsnar.rs th II owani IS eaihol .signilicant sounds seem to have been exi)ressive of iiiiitinii and rest, energy and its absence, sjiace and direction, colur and form, and the like. A different ()])inion has been laaiii taiiied by Darwin and by many who have studied the ])ni!)- lems ])resented by the origin of words from a nieivly physi- cal or ph\siological standpoint. Init a careful inve-tigalinn shows that it was the .sense of siuht rather than of heariiii; w Inch was the i)roiiii)ter to vocal utterance. Ihit ll le c'Mii- sideratioii of the .source of ])rimitive significant without the bounds of my present studw 'OUlKl lies It will be seen from these remarks that the priuiit l\e speech of man was far more rudimentar\- than any laiii uaije known t o us. It had no "'rammatical form ; so lliictiial nr. were its 'phonetics, and so much depended on goture, tone and stress, that its words coukl not ha\"e been reduced t( w riling, nor arranged in alphal)etic setpieiice ; these Wi.lU often simiified logical contradictories, and which of the aiiti Co.NCI.fSIONS. till uRaiiiiit^^s was iiUeiulL-d could h tlK 40q ;iR-ssL'(l (>iil\- tVtiiii ■ml or si_L,ni ; it p -■S>L-(1 no pR-po.-ii lions nor t'onjuiu tioi , no numerals, no i)ronoun> ol" any kind, no foruis t,, ex]'!.'ss singular or plural, inak- or tl-niak-, i)ast <ir prrsLMil : ll! iffcrcnl vowel sounds and llic different c'on> inanlal jrn,ni)S conveyed si)ecilie si-nifieance, and were of more ini V" llian the syllables which lhe\ fur med Tlu »ncepl .fiiinecame much later than that of si)ace, and f)r a hjnu ,vlnie was absent. THE CONCt'J'TIO^ OF LOVF, IN SO^!E A!i!E LA\(jUA(;ES/^= k^Z-IA III', words \\lii(-li (Ininlc' low. (k'St-rihin^- a si-ntinniu at oiK'c i)()\vi. rfiil ami ik'lica.te, rrwal {hv iiiiiii>-l !;i;irl of lluisu who civatcd IIkhi. 'V\\v \ilal iiiiiiortanci.- all, 1< IU;i| to tills srntinK'iit iriukTs llu'x.- ln.;nitil'ul words c'>]n.( i:ill\- adapk'd to iioiiil out tin.- cxcerdiiii^ \-aliK- of lan,mia;_',i. a> ;i true antol>ioLirai)Ii\- of nations." Tills <|Uolation Is from an LS^a>- 1)\' a tlioui^liUul wril vr. Dr. Carl .\I)fl, in which he ha> ''allKix-d from tov.r hiii- 'iia-'X'--, thr Latin, lur'Hsh. Ikhrcw and Russian. I new Lx- ]>ressions for this sweet emotion, and suhjeeted them Ida careful analxsis.i' The iK-rnsal of his artick' has k-d iiu in make some similar examina.tions of American lanL;uaL,;e> : hut with this diffeience in method, that while \)r. Ahil takes the lan.L;ua,i.;es named in the fullness of their dewlnp- ment and dees not occuiix' himsi.lf w ilh th.e ,L;ene-is of llic terms of affection, I shall .ui'.'e more particad.ir atlenlina [n tlu'ir hislor_\- and deri\at'on a-- furnishiuL;' illu-^lration-, of t!ie ori,L;in and .growth of tho.^e altruistic sentiments wliicli are rewaled in their stronL;est e.\])res>ion in the emotion-- df fi'iendshii) and lo\'e. r',\ti-:irl iVcjiii II paji t/./ A/;, /•;. ■;■ nad iKimf tin- .\i:uiiran rliilii-cii)liical Smiitx in 1>\- Carl AIk-1, Til, I), i I.iJiuiiiii. is^j). (4U Till'. I'(i\\|.;i; oi' i.ovi.; 41 1 r^ ill 11k'>c sfntinic-nls mv liji-cd those ;u'ts wliii-li nnik' mail lo man in aniicalik- lellcw -liip and imilual ink ichan-i- 11\- otTices, thus cualii I'J a \\n \vv social (~oiii]iacl than '!ial which rests niereh- on iiu-r ea^ed powtT ol (Ulcn ce of .^o,;,V..,1n 11. Tliese senlinieiils are tli I i>e \v iich ImikI ]>;irenl tiicliild and tdiild to ]iai\nt, and lliu-> ^-uiiiiIn- the foiiniialion apoii which the ianiii\- in tlie true si'.^iiilicaiu'e of the term dieuM rest. These are thix- which, <!irecte(l toward the niler tir tlie state, find e\]ire--ion in ] ei-.-onal h>\all\ and inlriotic (lex'olion. Snr])as>inL;- all in teixor and ]iotenc\-, ihe^c sentiments, when exhihited in low between the se\es. (II R',1 the L;reater i>art of tlie actixit \' ol (.acli ni(!i\idn;il lite, iiiop.hl tile lorm-- ot the setaal relations, and control tlu' |iLi]'elnation of the sjieeies. I''inall\ , in their li-t and lii',4l'.est manifestations, these seiitiineiit> are tl lovi^- wjnili iia\e >i i.U,L;'cste(l to the juirest and clearest intellects hoth tl le ;iiii-l exalted intellectual condition of man, and the most -iil'lmie ( lefmitioii of di\init> hese are 'oo(i reascins, tlieielore, \vh\- We should scan with more than usii.al cio>e- IK- the terms tor the conception ol" h )\e in tile lair'nai-e- nation- Another purpose which I sliall ha\e in \iew will he to illu--;rate be these words the wonikrfnl i);iralleli-ni wliieh c\er\ where pre.-euts itself in the- operatioii> df the human niimi and to show how it is !.M)\eriK-d )\' the same ,i>-ocia- tioiH of ideas both in the new and the old worhh 1 -imictIn iiLcil say Ui.il I 1 1 1. ;- t.illn iiuirvi- luii- wj-.-iN of St. p.lni. " '"/ ii]'i~(,'r. iiih ?;/■(,) Till- (),'ui'. ()-/ ■/ (),■(» ii-iiTii tnriv 11 Juliii iv, ^ , ainl to tlu- .ini.ii iiitiihi liialis. the j;i)l(ku ivciw 11 III' tlu- iihilii^.ipjiy 111 S|)iiio/,a a> il. \< 1 ijH'l in Ihf \\\-\ liuuk ol' his l-.lliica. M 4I- I'SSAYs ()!• AX a.mi;ricani.st. As a pixparatiiiu for the latter ohjcct. let u^ take ,i uIiikc at the (leii\ati()ii of the principal words eNi)re-;^iii- ],\x- in tl le Lr\ an lauLiuaj^es. The nui-^t prominent of ih ".••li !;iiv traced I)ack to one of two rnlin'' idea>, the on e intiih iiiii.i- siniilarit\- or likeness between the persons lo\-in_L;, V.y <r^wr a wish or desire. The former conveys the notion thit {hx feeling- is nuitnal, the latter that it is stronL;er on mi. than on the other. >iin.- These diverse origins are well illnstrated 1)\- the 1 miili xinur and the Ivnu'lish A '(':v'. - Unit i\ from the Lat uiiu. iiunv, both of which sprini. vSanscrit soiit ; from which in turn the (lermans ni ,1111, u, briny-s us to the (ireek Ud' 11 tl R' ;et liieir words sail/Ill/, alonti' with, .nid z/isaiinin n, toLiether; w lllL- we obtain from this root almost without chant;e otir words sii)i//ar and saiiir. ICtymoloi^ically, therefore, tho-^ wju, lox'e are alike; they are the saiiir in such respects that lluv are attracted to one another, on the proN'erbial princiiilu thai birds of a feather flock touether. X ow turnnie to tl le \v( )rd /, (>:u\ German l/<'!><\ 1 (u-'sian Iiibo:\ //ih/h\ we find that it leads us ([uite a <lifferent load It is traced back without anv material change to the San-ciil /('/'//(?, cox'etonsness, the ancient Cojitic /i ;.■ , to want, lo (k- sire. In this ori.i;in we see the i)assi()n ])ortraye( as a liiLilKr yearniui; to possess the loved ()I)ject ; and in the sense to enjoy the i)resence and s\nipathy of the beloved, in hold sweet communion with him or her. A cl iss o f ideas closely akin to this are conveyed in such words as "attached to, attraction. affection, aiul tile like, which make use of the fi.yure of speech that the lover is fastened to, drawn toward, or bound up with the belowd m ci.Assi;s oi- i,()\-i;-\voKi)S. 4'3 IWH' \\\' often cN])iv.s ihi^ incl;i])1i..r in full in muIi plir.i-i-'S as " the bonds of fiit-nd-liip," cti-. T!.is tliinl class of wonN, aUli,,n-li in the liist-rv of I;ui- trtia-r tlicy are fre(|uently n( lattr -mwlli tlian thr two foni.cr. probably express the siiitiuKiit which uiiderli^- both tlie-e. and that is a dim, nnconseious sense of the nnitv wlmli is revealed toman mo-^t perf^H-tly in tlie ])nrLst and lii.uhe-t love, which at its Md.liniest height does awa\- with llie anta.uonisni of independent ]iervonality, and bknd^ tlie / ,111(1 the //u>// in a oneness of c-xisteiiee. Alllion.uh in this, its eoinpktest expix-sion, we nin-t sci-k examples solel\- between persons of oppo.sitr sex, it will be well to consider in an examination like tlu' present tlie love hctween men, which is called friendshij), ih.il between ])ar- ent- and children, and that toward the j^ods, the fivers of , all '^ 1 thin<;s. The words convex inj;- sneh .sentiments will illustrate many features of the reli.^ions and social life of the nations nsinir them. bMi^dJl I. Tiir; Ai.c.oNKix. I bej,;in with this gron]) of dialects, once widelv si)rea(l lliou-hont the St. Lawrence valley and the regions adjoin- iii;4 ; and among them I select espe.-ially the Cree and the Cliipeway, partly becanse we know more abnnt them, and partly becau.se they probabls- rei)resent the common tongue ill its oldest and purest tyjK'. They are closely allied, the ^aiiie roots ajijiearing in both with slight phonetic \-ari.ilions. Ill both of them the ordinar\- words for love and friendship are derived from the .same niono.syllal.)ic root, sa/^-. ( )n this, aaurding to the inflectional laws of the dialects, are built up Ki; ,(■ ' 414 ICSS.WS (>V AN AMlJMCAMS'l" tlu- t^nll-^ l'i>r llir l<>\r nl" man tn woman, a Inwr, 1, M ll) ai>: •Irarl. tViriid, lVii.ii(l>lii|i, au'l llir like. It i ■> al ilC;i- siiiiially u>i,(l li\' llu' mi>>i(iuai ic's tor llic h>\c ulnian 1-. C,,,! and (if ( 'lod Id man.''' In llu' CIiiju-waN- this rout has Iml one t'diin, sn^;/ ,■ l.m j;, CiL'c il has two, a weak and a slmnL; Inrm, >(?/•/ and .,'{■/,■, 'V]\v niLanin.i; <il IIk' hillLT i-^ in(ii\' iiarticnlarl\ [<> t'a^iui in, to aUach to. h'rom it ai'e <kri\'c'(l tlK' \\ord,> for >iiiii:;.i;- cor(k thr Wilis "to tic," " to t'astcti," etc.; and also -i.iiu nf the (.'oaiM.'St words to express the >e.\iia] relation.' linih lhe.se roots are traeed baek to the ]irimar\ element n\ ih^. Ali^onkin lan,!^na,i;e expressed !)>• the letters s<r/,- or «■ /■, This eon\e\s the i^enerie notion of force or power excrtcii !>>■ one o\er another. ;|; and is apparentlx' ])recisely identic, il \vith the fundamental meanin.i; of the \A\i\n if/f/t/d, ''tn,iffi.,i one in some manner li\' acti\e as^eiicy,"^ fiom which wnri';, I need hardl\- add, were derived afhilxs ;in<l al'l\(tii> and mu affection :" thns we at once meet with an ab-olnlc | Mi-a: lelism in the working; of the Ar\an Italic and the .\ Aluonkin mind. iiiincaii The Cree has .sexeral words which are confined to i)aivnl. md I'dial lo\'e and that which the uods have for men. T :c~c •■ Clu]H-\\ ay: ///'/ saiiii: in. I li)\r; M!:;/ihr;, in. Uivc; MiiiiL:ii:t i\/. a luvi r. Cicc: Siikili i/ir.riii. iViiiulsliip; in iiiiili 17, i ,>,i<-///,,-i •/'.'. /(/, tlu- Icivi- iil ( '.n,r 'I'hi; ui!.!- t'nuii till- CliipLw.iy aro (roiii I!aia,u;,i's {>l(Jii l<:,r hhtiiDuu \ : l\\^^>': liom tlnCiii frciiu I.aroin l)c'> Huli III r ill- III la i/rw ( //A. ixcipt wIr-ii Cltl UlUI-'. IImU tCliilHway: Miyihicljii^iiii . a sUiiit; <ir cmd. dec: s,il:kiip/>il,\c. he fastens, he ties; .•.ii.':/:<i//i,i;iiii, a nail; a, ;/.■;<■/>// .iv/;-, enouit, c ipiilali --uiit. J See JoMph Ilowse, ( .'idiiniuiiol' tlh' (.i t'l' fiui,i:iiaiii-. \i. 1^15. ! See llie remarks ill .Xiulii l.aliii Liviiiiii, s. AI.i.i>NK|\ l.n\ i: WdUIi 415 Inv. r. ■.■ I'll nil the C11 lU 1 wi-l IhillV, / or '' V '• \\ '"' ii I'- ;in an iiiill iij) I'll the (li>.\ ll.iliic viulicil ^ ^^/^ in-.;iiiiKiil;il patlirli. si-nil\ in- '■!.>• iikhii-- of, with the ,ii.l 'riiWMid thi ;'"i>, Mich wi.nl- Mirr to th <i--r W ill I ;i|il 11^ toward cliil'hc'ii th(i-r whniii thrif paixiil^ aiil ; and I ehiidivii toward paivuls, aL;aiii, [\\,>^v iVoiii whom ai lolll riHi iwd I'm|- low h(.'lwi.i.ii iiK'ti, t'l iuuUliiii, thr Cirf iini nil thi- radical >,///.• Imt iiioic l'Ki|in.aitl\ tl (I is )!' >\ > sdiiK' Wi.l'ls li li i-^(.- Ci illl ■ iicaiis "111 VI ail |i(Hiiid(.-d with IIk' root re// or ;,//,//, which 1 paiix with,"'' aiul is the pucisc ;m,do-iK n\ the s\ llaMc ,(>/// [].jUu, iiu/ f in IIk' haii^li-h words coi;i]ianioii, c niiradc, I'oiii- ]iccr, c'oiilcderalc, l'W.; it coii\c\> tl U' nit a < it a-^iicialH ai 111 lilc and ai-lioii, and that asdciatioii a \(ilnntar\ and jiKa- ni\ ijuainj one, In the CliipcwaN- tlKie i> a series orexjiressioiis ioi' faniilv l(i\e and tVieiidshii) whiidi in their ori,i;in vavvx u- hack to tile same i)s>-elioloi;it'al jiroi'es,> which de\eloiied the I.atiii (iiiniit Iroiii the Saiistait siuii s(.e alioxa.'. Thev iiia\- he illustrated \^\ the nielcdioirs teiin, which in that dialect iiieans 1 1 otli iVit-aidslii]) and i\lati(aiship, /;/,/,-,,//,/,,,-, /y/. 'j'li Is leiiie I/! niii;iii. 1 resim- is an ahstrael verlial noun iVoiii the tl hie him, wdiicli is Iniilt np iVoiii the radicle ///. This jiarti- cle denotes a eertaiii ])re\-ailin<4 wa> or inaiiiier, and appears liiitli in Cree and Chipewa> in a \-ai;et\ oi' wia-ds.; Tl le ■ Crt-'c: /.'/i/Ai/w// ii/t-ii/,i>ii/<'. lor llir Ii>vt- uf Ci.d; , spurxniuilnl;. Inr llu- luvi ot tliL- cliiMirll. ICn r: iii r. iHiiuuKd ii . \n\ I'l iiinl; .. v'l lullii:, in. a i-cmrialiinity. or ^.airtv , tCliiiR'Vva.v: iua.iiiiia. I am his nlativi'. or, hi> fVifiid. Crri: ijiii.'ikitsr.t. lie lia^ ^luli an a|p)uaraiKT. Thi" iMilirli- ■>!' ^iinil.inlv i- loii. •ii^lLiul liy llnwsi- 111 lif '■ iiiif cil' tliu Inur |iiiiiiar\ i^iiui ir iiouiis" ,,1" llir Atyoiikiii l;iiii;ua!;c. (iuiiiniun nf Hi,- C: <;• [.aii^UiH;,-. ji. i^;5. 4"' I'.SS.WS <»1" AN AMI'KICANIST 'If liiiiuipir of -imil;iiit\ i^ tlii'.s fiilK (.xpii-ssiMl ;is ih iVic'iidsIiiit. 'I'd SLi" litiw appaiciil llii-. is \vl' Iia\i' 1 MU'mI)t.r llu' I',ii!;lisli, " I like liiiii," /. <., llictv is m.ii; ill him //,{■<■ iiK'. ii' nni'' TIu' i'nliK f sriiliimut dl' iiu Ti'ly likitij; a inTsnii nv liii;,- is ^\])l(.•^^^.■(i ill iIk' Cliii'iwav 1)\- a (k'livativr iVoiii llir tiw iiiiih\ i;n()(l, will, and signilks llial he nr il ."(.lid ■ I'MtT- 111 IIK' Tlu' hiuhcsl Infill t)l" ln\(.', howiAir, thai wliic li t.'!iii l.UVr ill UK-ii and all ln.iiiL;s, thai whose t'luu-eplidu isrniu (.A I III till' (' IXe k 11' 1/ ~/, We find e\])U-sed ill hoth llu' (liaK( t-- \\ deri\atii)ii lioiii :i lonl dilTeieiil iVnui aii\- I liaxc men '.1('1K-(| It i^ in its dialeetie roniis /v'.v, krtli, , ox ki/i, and in it > 111 1-111 It IS an inteiisue iiit(.-ijeeti(>iial expression ol plea^nii.', iiiihci tive ot what i;ives joN/i Coneretelv il sit^nifies what i-<rniii pleled. perinaneiit, poweil'iil, petieeted, peiieet. As tViriul shii) and love \ ield the most exalted nleasnie, iVoni t! Ill- It II it the natives drew a fund of words to express londiu--., at- taehmeiit, liosi)ilalit>-, eharit\-; and from the same wmiliy souree they selected that adjeeti\e which they a]>])liei! In tlif greatest an.l most hjiuvoleiit di\inity.| ' Cliii)t'\vay : iiiii diiiiiiiiiiki. I liki' (him, lui, iti. + Sic II DWSC, (,' I It III III III '/ til,- < 'li<- /..III:; ■ I' 1- Kit lif (kri\\ ;is ail inli :ji ili m il ])K .>iii f, h >iisiiUis in iiiitilhois to i;/' icniiitiaic ('•< riiiaii di //.'i i\^ an iiitrr jci'liiin 111 pain, and i-ili's alniiulanl txainiik ; eliiiu'way; iiiii kijihadis, I am aiiiK'ahk', ln'iRVdU'iit; i'l/V.'dti/i.si; 1 lianl\ bfiiovokncc, l)i"tii,i;iiity, compassion; Ai/r iiKiiiitouiii, ("ioiI-Ik'.iiI. ilivinc nalau Ctvv : ki.siilr 1k' is (livoUil to iliim, I'll /,/.v slic 1. I lu'i I Inlilii 11 kh •iilisiaiii , I'liarily, the lii.nlu'^t vii tnr ; ki\r ma in la, ",r esprit iliai ilaMi . hu u, ami iinnu lis otlicis. !■! M'lC \l.> I Kii\I iiii; A/riX', •i'7 II 'l"iir \ \in \Ti.. 'iiic Xaliu.itl, Mcsir.ii, ,„ A/Uv l,in,:;u;i-c' vv.is s,„,la>ti IN n>ivcl\ tlirMn.:;liMiii M,\irM:i„.l Cviitial A iiir: ira. ,nid IV. ^ tril.L' whn ns,.,l ii c',nM l,n:,.i , ,t ;, (K-tvr of rp.ltinv rnv HkTal.Iv alM.vr llial .,1 ;niv ni Hu- Al'^.mkiii r,,uuuum- tu- Siu-h luiu,:; tlR. can', it i^ ,,,tlur s„,,„i.ii,,. ;,, ii,,ti. '"•"' ^ ^livuK-lv 1 r in inii'i.ari-^im i> tl^. N,,l,i,,iil j,, m.li • puMcait ra(lical> (kiiotiii- I,,\r ,„■ alTr, tioii. In fail, [Iww i^n!lly niic won! ju []w la H- ua-.' w li ic'li iM„itivil\ Iia.llii^ >i,U!ii|]rati..ii, anil it, with iN dr, ivali v. ~, i. .mIU,! n]M,n t.. i\I.iv>s rviT> \ ariflx ol' l>w. junii ni ami dix inr, tai nal and i-ha-tr, bt.'t\V(.i.ii nuai and lutwciai llir .se\i..s, and l._\ jniniaii Umiil;^ toward inaniniatr lliin,L;>. Tlii> word is //a:.''//,i, hv \n\v^. It is i,,, e'a>v niattrr id tiaci- its histoiN-. Ily well kimwii law-. <>[' Xalinatl ilv nmlu-y \w knew- thai \hv uh>{ is :,', \\\. lia\-,. f,-,,,,, [\,\^ ^1,,^. ,.,„,^ svMial (itlu-i- WDrds of cnrion-ly diwi^^r nuanin-^. 'I'litis, /:.', to l>lr(.(l, to draw Mood, cailua U^v Iiraltli, or, a> was tlio cu-'toin ot those nation>, as a saniiirr hi-jorr idoU; /\'/////\ to urnw old, to wear out, a])])lii.d to ,i;arnirnts; lla\rti, to ofkr tor sde at a lii,L;li pricv; and ;(':,', to strin- to-etlivr, a-^ the iiati\e> (lid llowers, jjepper^, I)ead>, etc. Now, what ide.i MT\ed as the eoninion starlin,.; point of all these expussionN .' Till' answer is that we lind it in the word .o as a|)])lied to a >liarp-i)oinle(l instnmienl, a thorn, or a bone or stone awl, iiH-d in the earliest times for pnnetnrin- or transti\in^ oh- jt-cts. I''roin this came -.0:0, to transfix with snth an iiistin- iiR-iit, and strini;- on a cord; iw/i/ii, to he fnll of hole--, as if ri] iMtedly ptinclm-ed, and tluis worn onl: and /.,', to bleed, i ' 4T,S I'SSAVS Ol* A.\ AMKHICANIST. i •iV'-i ^ bccausL- thai was done !)>• j)nncluring the fl(.-sli with tlx' thorns (if the niai;uuy or sharp obsidian points.'^- Ihit how do \VL' hriiiL^' these into connection with thr -^^n- tinient of h)\e and its \erhal exjiression ? We niij^ht iii''..i.(l seek an ilhistralion of the transfer from chissical in\ thol...^y. and a(hhice tlie keen-pointed arrows of Cni)id. the daiS nf lo\e, as jxiintini; ont the cotniection. lUit I fear this would be crcditin.n' the ancient Xahnas with finer feelin,L;s ihni tlie>- deserxe. I t;ra\-ely (h)nbt that the_\- lelt tl:e shal'-- i,( the tender passion with any snch snsceptibility as to eiiiploy this niet;ii)hor. Mnch more Ukely is it that /Ac :/'//<?, ti> \<>\\-, is derixed direcllx' from tlie nonn /AfcvV/, which means >(iiik- thin^;- strnng with or fastened to another. Tliis Ijrin--; us directl\- back to tlie sense of "attached t(/ in lCni4li-.l1. and to that of the root sd/,-/ \u Algonkin, the idea of bein;^ ImhiihI to another b\ ties of emotion and affection. lint there is one featnre in this derivation which tclK -lt- ionsly aj^ainst the national ])sychol()gy of the Naluias ; llii^. their onl\- word for low, is not derived, as is the .\lL;onkin, frou; the i)rimar\' meanin;.;' of the root, bnt from a secoiiilarv and later ^ii^iiification. This hints ominonsly at the i>ni!i:i- bilit\- that the ancient tongne had for a lonj;" time no wnnl at all to express this, the highest and noblest emotion of the *Thc I". illiiuiii.L; wcivd^ ami i'ic:iiiiii;;s .iru from Ciiriii.lu's ( iiammar ami Mnhiia s DictioiKirv ntlhis toiiivui.- : (1), puii/ar, saii,!4iar. (11).', cii'^artaf, I'lHiin I'oifs, cuciilas, etc. (iiluti. cstar ciisartaila la cucnla, etc. //ii^o//, c.i<:i unsarlada. Tile ovii,iiial nu'aiiin;4 (W -.i. a ]).)iiitc'il tcml cir awl, is imt i^ivc ii li_\' Molina, Im! is ripLatiilly l■^l)^L•s^c■^l in tlic pliomtic pictinc-wiiliii.n ol'Uu- Aztci'S. ,lil ill''. A-d l>lllMl..-y, L' (l;irS 'if .lii^ wmild linv,-- Ui;in -■ shal'- of In eiiiiiliiv '(I. in \i)\\-, ; Iji'iivj,^ lis ii4li>li. ami ■ill'' 1)1 mild r ami Mnliiia'; Molina, I'U! M i.ovi'. i\ (;r\m:\i .r 4") liiinian heart, and that consecituntly this enidtion itself ha.l 11'. I risen to consriousiKss in the national I'liiid, lUit the omissions of tlu' fatl lers \ve'-L' more than al oncd I'uv by the efforts of their cliildivn. 1 k ti\c instance in the historx- of \, ;inal defects are amend •:no\\ no more inslruc- in,t^uai;e to illln-tratc Imw ed in ]KTiods n'i hisjlicr (aillurc hv i!k- linguistic facultw than tl lis ])rccise jioint in llic genesis the Xahuatl toiij^ne. Tlic Xal inas, wlicii tlK\- an- proached the u])per levels of emotional development, found llieir tongue singularly jxtor in radical s con\-e\ nil' sueli cou- ■ptions. As the literal and material portioi leech offered them such inadequate ineai IS ol their i> ol e\])re>sion. they turned toward its tropical and formal port ioii> ami ill those realms reached a dei ^ree ol develoi>iiieiit in this dire( tioii which far surpasses that in any (jtlier lai imiaiie known to me. iiage the\ were not --ati^ 111 the formal jiortion of the lans. tied with one, but adojjted a \ariety of de\ ice> to this end. Thus: all verbs ex])ressing emotion ma\lia\e an iuleii>ive termination suffixed, imji.arting to lliem adilitioual finv; ai^aiii, certain prefixes indicating ci\ility, resi>ect and affec- tum may 1k' employed in the iiii])erati\-e and oplatue iiinods ; again, a higher svnthetic couslnictiou ma\ lie em- ployed in the sentence, 1)\- wliicli the idea expres--ed is em- phasized, a de\-ice in constant use in their ]ioetry : and especially the strength of emotion is indicated b\- .suflixing a series of terminations exj)i"es,->iiig contempt, re\'ereiice or !o\e. The latter are wonderfully characterl>tic of Xahuatl s])eech. They are not confined to verbs and nouns, but may lie added to adjectives, pronouns, particijdes, and e\en to J i 420 i:SS.\VS OI" AX A.MI'.KICAXIST uKcrbs and ])()st])()>iti()ns. Thu. cAciA- word 111 til tciRX' i-> made- Id carr\- its Ijiirdcu of affcctidii to ll ic t 11 IC l)clo\x-(l ohR- ct Add to tliL'Sf facilitii-^ llic miKirkalilc powiT (i; •i;,. Naluiatl to impart tvopical and fii^nrativc sen-^cs to woni- :,v the fnipliiynKMil of rlictorical iX'sourcc-s, and to i>iv->L-nt li;e'.n as one i(ka l)y niuans (;f tlie peculiarities o and we snail not consKler as overdrawn tlie e\]ire )f it- til constnu'tiMii. VvoiX ir De la Rosa wliei lie writes Tl lere can He nil (piestion but that in the manifestation in words nf Uie \-arious emotions, the Xahnatl finds no ri\-al, nut o!il\- anioiii; the laiii;ua;4es of modern luirope, hnl in theC.ivik itself."- The Xahuall word for friendship is / ()//// /////. ln> 1-- a compound of the preposition /r, with ; the nonn-endiiii; //'/.• and the adverbial vii/i, nv iioviili, which means "of the same kind. The word, therefore, has the same fundamental conception as the Latin aiiiiti/s and the Cree hiaudihi. hut it was not develojted into a verbal to express the sufferiiii; of the passion il>elf '' III. Tin: Maya. The whole peninsula of Yucatan was inhabited l)\ the Ma\as, and tribes speakiui;- related dialect- of their t lUi^ue lived in Guatemala, Chii>apas, and on the Ciulf Slmiv '■■ /-'ffnJii (/<• /.; /■'i7<is,i/iti _)• A'/,//(i':ii lir la /.iin^na Mi' vitiUid. I'ar .\:4'>>tiii i!r l.i K ■a, p. lOiuuiaUijara. i'^:") + 'riuTc IS atiotlu-r wind in XalniatI of similai dvi ivation. It is />,i/;;; •, to inaki- luiK'h (if a iKisuii, to like oiio. Tlu' nxit is f>.>, whiih canifs witli it the iiliM .n .saiiuiiL'Ss, similarity iir L'(iiialit>'; as ili'!potii/'i>, a lioy like hiiiiscll'. (ParcU-, /'i iim/t/iun III Manual M,xiiii>ii\ J), l.to.) rxTi;s:ii CTIOXAI, CKIl'S. 421 iv.rth of \Vra Cruz. All Uk-sc (k-pL-iKk-d v]\\^-l]y on a-ricul- l;;re for subsistencL-, wurc ])iiil(k-rs ofsloiK- Iiousl-s, and made r-e of a system of written reeords. Tlieir ton-ue, thereloro, deserves special eon>ideration as that of a nation with >troni4- !i:itural tendencies to dex'elopment. In turnin.L;- to the word fir love in the Ma\a vocabulary, we are at once .struck with the iire-^eiice of a connected series ..f words ex])ressin,L;- thi- emotion, while at the same time tliey, or others closel\- akin to them and from the same root, :aeau i)aiti, injury difficidtw >ufferin-, wounds and mi-er\-. r.oth are formed 1)\- the u^ual rules from the mouosx liable i ■'.'■■ Were the ancieut Ma\as so scn>ili\e to lo\-e's wounds and the pan.u's of i)assion as to derive their very words for >ufferin,^- froui the name of this sentiment ? Xo; that solution is too unlikel\- for our acceptance. More probable is it that we iiave here an illustration of the dex'el- (ipment of laut;uas^Mj from interjectional cries. In fict, we nia>- be said to ha\-e the proof of it. for we discowr that this inonosxdlableivr is still retained in the lan,L;ua.ue as a xxab, with the signification "to feel an\thin,u' deeply, whether as a pain or as a i>leasure."v Its derixatives were d.exeloped 'Tims: i<; (ir uii7. Idvo; pain, sickm-ss. a wuimd; (lirtkult. lab. .rimis. \a/i\ to love. Veil Kiui/i, to love. ](u/i. painfully, labotioii^ly. \ii/i!/, to taste: to have relati"iis wiili a wnnian. ui/:i7, love, eharity; xiinetliin^ ililTieult orp;iiMr\il. 1 " )'i;: sentir nuieho una eosa. wiDUib: sin sentir [the »ui is the neyativel /till ioiiiii 10 M^iya-l-'.tpariol dii Con: ruto d,- M :lii'. MS. in niv possessionV 42: I'lSSAVS Ol' AN" AMlvRICAMST with ])()tli ineatiiiii^s, and as love and friL-ndsliiji arc lii^ highesl fdniis of pleasure, the word ]■!/ in its happier .'ii-vs became confined to them. It seems tc) have snfTiced to express the conce])tion in ill its forms, for tlie writers in the languai;e apph- it to tlk' luve of the sexes, to that between parents and children, ih.il among- friends, also to that which men feel toward Cod. and that which He is asserted to feel toward men."'- The .Mayas, therefore, were superior to the Xaluia-^ in possessing a radical word which expre.s.sed the joy of low ; and the\- must be ])laced above even the earl\- Aryans in that this radical was in significance purely psychic;il, refer- ring strictly to a mental state, and neither to similarity nor desire. It is noteworthy that this interjectional root, although he- longing to the substructure of the language, does not appear with the meaning of love in the dialects of the Ma\a sloek. In them the words for this sentiment are derived from other roots. Thus among the Hiia.stecas, residing on the Gulf of Mex- ico, north of \'era Cruz, the word for love is caiirzal. It is employed for both human and divine love, and also means anything precious and to be carefully guarded as of advanl- *Tluis: yalili'liihal call iumni Dios, we are loved by Cod. II yaciDuth Dins /iinii. the love of Oodto us. ya,Hiiiiliil />i(i.s. till' love with which God is loved. >}iilii-til'il \i'.i Kiiali , niiiil love. hakil \lu iinali, caiiuil love. All from the Diaionai io ile Moliil tMS.). To I'.rv AM) To I.OVI* 4-\ ) arc ;!ic s'aluias ill k' ()t low ; \r_\aiis in ,cal, R-R-r- ilaritv iior aya slock. "roni ulliLT a'c Tluiv is no (liiTu-ultN- in lnllo\vin<' it- iK \'' t ■ the posscssor (.■lopnietit when wc turn to the' Ma\a, wiiicl 1 iirt'SrrvL'S the most nnnieions ancient tonus and meanings of an\- ilia- U ct of this stock. In it \vc l|l>CO\ cr that the \-crl> (in/ means " to aflect another in .some \va\-, to i.;i\-e another either li\- ]ili\sical contact or ex,im]ile a \irtne, vice, di.sease or attri- liute,"''' Here as^ain we come upon the precise correlative of the Latin ('//lac. from which proceeds onr "affection," etc. The (lUatenialan trihes, th.e i)rinci])al of which were and are the Quiches and Cakchicpiels, did not accept either va i)V <-(!// as the root from which to huild their expressions for the .sentinien tofl ()\'e 1 n hoth these dialects the word lor to love is /(';'('//. It also means "to 1 mv and thi- has led a recent writer to hold uj) to ridicule the Spanish mission- aries who cho.se this word to express hoth linman and (li\-ine lo\e. Dr. vStoll, the writer referred to, intimates that it had no o ther nieaninu' than "to huv in tl'.e pure original t()m;ne, and that the only word for the jvassion is <?//, to wa nt, to desire.;}; In this he does not dis])lay hi s usual curac v, for we find /('!•<>// used in the sense " to like, ac to love," in the Au/iah of ilii- i'ak(/i/i/:u Is, written hv a native who had grown to manh(;od before the Spaniards first entered his country.?^ T\n\> tain caiir! i.vii//,', my licliivi'<l wifo. iiiii (I Kiiir-iil It lhii.\. ('.ii.'-t then Invc Ccd: I /iinai n> Itiia.^tiva /■^•■/<iii}i'/. ixir Carlos <k- 'rapi.i /I'litinn i Mix., 17(17). t .-X mil mhcr iirfxamnUs ari- yivrii in llio /'/. ; I.' i/r Miilii! MS). Del- bUwso liL'ijrilT (Icijcnim I.ii-l)c, wiK-lu: lias latciiii'-chc Ztitwurt tiiiian -liriiikt, (U-m Cakcliiijiicl liiilianci- iVcniil ist. Xnr JiZ/iiiuMi '!/•/' i' d,> h'-fiihlik lah'iiuila Vcni OtU) Stoll, M. D,, p. i f' i/nii.li, I'-'-.O, XiIi>X0.v ill I'/iii I I lima Akalhil rinak, " thi i.rc liivi'd I1V tin- .\kalial nu-n. /i • i \ \\l l\- 4^4 ICSSANS OI' AN AMI:KIC ANIST Thai lIk' \L-rl) /(';'('// nK':in>, Imih in oriLiin and 1; to 1 )U\- as \w\] as "lo I(.\(.'," is uii(l(iiil)tc'(ll\- tru root /,'«'// is idciiliral with the Ma\a /<>//. wliich ilL' iiR'aniii'. Id (.xt'han <'!.■, to Iniw to ixdccin, to (.■iiiaiu It was till.' won! srlrcti-'d 1)\- tht' iManriscaii inissi( 'liar:' ~ t( c'X])rL\ss tlk' rcdfiiiption of the- woild 1)\- Clirist, and was n])])lic(l to lliL' ic'dcinption of (.-aptixc'S ;ind shuus. It iiii-lit bi.' snu'-M-'stc'd Ihat it bears a RffiLiicL- to niania''i- h\ |iur- ciiasf ; consti iiu but I think that "to lup aiK 1 "to low,' ' n (1 as (k'VLdopnR'iits of the' same idea of /^ 1 1 ■ ■■/,■" /'/;'///(. Wdu'ii WL- sa\- that a person is af^[^i\< ial, d, weiiiHv sa\- tliat he lias had a projier juiee jml njion him. 'flu. Lati n (III Ks, which Cieero ea lis //S.N siiiii :\ I bum muoiis:'- iik:iii- costl\- in price as well as beloved ; a.nd the tender ]'',n.i;l!-li "dear" means (piite as often that the object is expeii'-ixe Id l)ii\-, a^ that we dote \er\- iiiuch ii])on it. Xor need We uo Diitside of American lan,<;uaL;es for ilhistrations ; in Xa]ii:;,il /Ac :(■'// means to offer for sale at a hii;h ])rice: and in Iluas- leca citi/i/, from the same root as caiu'-aL to lo\e, iiu.ais somethin;.; precious in a ])eciiniar\- sense, as well asaiio:ji.ct of the affections. ( )ther instances will jireseiit tliem--el\i.s \\ hen we come to examine some of the vSoutli Ai nencaii i, Jill Is, ]). ijim\'(i1. \'l <j| r.iiiiti Ill's l.il)i,u\ nl' Ali AiiiHxis of Ik,- ( ',/,! L-.-in I.iUiatuni. In llir ouirlu- /''/'"/ I'l/I/ ll'.c' W'lil liiis ll '1 iL:iiial Ann li K- !-:iiiu iiU'.iir.iiL;, ms (l);ii;r iiiji : ,////.. :c!i ll. lluiv l)t-li)vc<l Ihfi 111 fai t, 11k- uniil lir. StciU i.'ivis as that now n-ual anion;; tin (.'aki-iiii|iu 1- i'or "Id 1.i\ (p. ;,<vii Tlii. til lUsiic, in the /'f/tal I'nh is amilitil tn tlu' price ]>aicl Ic uiliii j'li iiiuil. the jnice nftluii- ilaii.uhlt rs. unl inav be a ckiivativc iKiin the Mava u/, almve nuntioneil. ' />t' .Wiflll ,1 /li.il III!/. I. It. tnv .m-s. ]>,ut rn.ni wlmi I 1,;,^ alrrndy -ivcii, il i> vvulvul [h. ! llR'iv is iK.tliiHK r..,iir,Kliri,,ry in the <hm\Av uniinin- nf ill' \x'rl) /(]l;<>//. l\'. 'i'lii-, (JijiicinA. The niicicnt rcnivi:iii> uli.. v,,,,];,. tliL- (J(|nirliu;i laii-na-r li,;.! oruani/rd ;-. system <.f -..wnniU'iil and a nmipU-x serial f.il.ric UHsur])assvd l.y anv m, tluTontinrnl, Tlu' uumwnu^ .priiiK-ns (.r tlK'ir arts uhirh havr l„vu pivsuvcd tc>tilv ^linii-ly t.) thr licx-iitiou-nvvs of ilKir inainicTs, .standin- in till- ivs]>Lrt in marked ceiilrast tc the .\/lirs, \vho<f art was pine. It nuist I.e re-arded as di>linellv in ronmrti.m with this Unit we find a similar omtrast in their lan-na-es. \\"e have seen that in tlie Xahn.atI there appears I., have heeii n.. \VM|-,1 with a primary si-nilieation "tc love" or anv sneli oiiieeption. The n(|uiehna, on the eoiitrary, is pmhal.ly llie liehest lanL;ua,i;e on the eoiitiiient, not only in separate words denoting alTeetioii, Imt in iiiodineatioiis of these hv impartin-- to tliem delicate shades of nieanin- thron.^h the nildition of i)arlicles. As an evidence of the latter, it is eiinn-h to cite the fact that Dr. Anchoreiia, in his -rammar nt the tons^ue, sets forth nearly six hnndred comhinatioiis of the word niiDiax, to lo\-e I''- 'I'he (Jquichua is fortnnate in other respects; it has some literature of its own, and its stnictnre has heeii carefully studied by competent scholars; it is jiossihle, therefore, to examine its locutions in a more .satisfactor\- manner than is tile case with most American laipL;na,L;es. Its niosl cele- hiated literary monument is the drama o( Olhnita, supposed - Uiaiiialna ijiit\liiui. pur Dr. J. \). .Vnchurena, \y\>. i'..; 177 LiiiKi, \>'~^t. 426 i;ssAYS oi" AN a:\ii;uicanist, to 1i;i\L' ]kvu c<)ni])()S(j(l al)i)ut llic tiiiK- of [hv n)n(|ii( _• jj lias lu'L'ii i\'])(.ak'(ll\- edited and Iraiislatid, most ar( m i;,iv l>v I'achcc'o Zi.-''arr; His text iiiav !)(.' (.•()ii>i(ki(.(l 1- th ii>e standard of the pure ancient toniiue. Of Otinicliua words for the alTections, tlial in wide is tile one al)o\e (|noled, niiDiny. It is as uni\er>:il m jis ai)i)lieatioii as its ]Cn,<;lisli e(|ui\alenl, beini; a])])lied to filial and parental love as well as to that of the sexes, to al'Iri limi 1)et\veen |)ersons of the same sex, and to the lo\e ot ('.ml. No other word of the class has such a wide si^nificaiui.' h ran_<;es from an expression of the warmest emotion dnwii in that faint announcement of a ])reference which is coii\i.\eil in the ICn.^lish, " I should i)refer."T On lookini^ for its earlier and concrete sense, we find lliat iiiin/ar expressed merely a sense of want, an ai>])etite and the accompaii>in,n' desire of satisfyinj^ it, hence the will, or \.\\c the wish, not subjectively, but in the objective maiiitesta- tion.;]; Therefore it is in orij^in nearly e(iui\aleiit lo tliu earliest meaning of " io\'e," as seen in the vSanscrit and Uil- Coptic. "• Olhiula ; Ihamc t)i vi'is (Jinrliiiiis dn Tiiiips drs liiKi^. 'I'mduit it iipiiniunl'- par C.inino I'mcIicco /oj;;iria (I'aris, i~^~^). \'['\i\\^. I'loiii the (V/tiii/d : Ollaiiliirtiiii niiiiun ( laiii/iii, thou lovcsl ollanla ' (line J77). iiiniuiiiisi<(i//iiy, my well helovcill (the Iiiea to his daughter, line .vi.)). iiiiui(iviii(!/i, I sh()\il(l i)refer (line i6ofi). Ilol^nin, in his I'm ahiiliii in lir hi /.nii^iid (J(//i/i /ikh. jjives : /)iux iiiiiiiny, the love of (lod. miimn intv, unchaste love. * noli;uiii (\i. s.l yives the ilefinitioiis : miinaini, la vohintad (jne es potenlia. niiuiiir, volnntad, el (inerer. el gusto, ajipetito n ;inior que csacto. QoriciHA i,<»\i;-\V()Ki)s. 4-7 iiit ut fDiniinnl'- \\ liile iiiiDKiy is thu^ to luw on n-asoiiahk' j^roiinds ;m<l wii'i (Icfiiiik' i)urp()S(.', hlind, mn(,;i-(iiiiiiw, nlisorhiii;^ jM^'-idii i> 1 -.lircsscd by liiiaylhtni. Tlii- is m-arly alwaxs coiitiiicd I,. -, xital love, and coii\(. \ ^ tin- i(k;i ,,f 1],^ M'lUinuiit show- in- itSL'll in action by those- ^uicl si^ns and marks of dcvo- tiini which arc so hi<;hl\- jjri/td by the loving heart. The ,,ri:.;in of this word illdicatc^ il> sentient and spontaneons cliaiacter. Its radical is the interjection lii(a\\ which anil mi; that i)eoi)le is an inarticnlate cry of tenderness and affection.''' The verb ////r////)' means literally to be tender or soft, as finil, or the younj;- of animals; and ai)])lie-d to the- >entinients, to l(i\-e with tenderness, to ha\-e as a darlini;, to caress lov- ingly. It has less of sexuality in it than the word last nieii- lieiied, and is applied by ^iils to each other, and as a term nf family fondness. It is on a parallel with the Ivnj^lish "dear," "to hold dear," etc.i In the later conii)()sitions in Oi|nichua the faxdrite W/rd for love is auyay. Orijrinall\- this expression meant to pity, and in thi.s sense it occurs in the drrnna of Ollanta ; but also even there as a term si_L;iiifyin,<4 the ])assion of love apart from any idea of compassion.;',: In the later son«;s, those • l-ioiM tlic (Ulanla : //mivnovui/iiy, Hiiay nnniiulhiv. Ay. hiujyllni nsiciiv nosallay. Oil. my (lueorl Oli my uioUht! oil, my InisliamI so belovedl {,v),=;. .VX'I. Tlii'Sc lines sliciw both tlic wnrd and its dci iv.itinn. T I'nmi the (Hhutta : Kit ///(//«,>/>,;, caress thee, are fi^iid ol'lhee (9,14). ; l-'riim the Ollanla : nuyiuriisialla*', my heluved one UTS**)- cciiwisku. compassionate UTfi.";). i 1 .Hi 4JS I'SSAVS oi' AN AAIl'KICANIST. whose cdinpositioii in;\\ he ])1;k'C(1 in this cc'iitufx , ii - pa- IIti'imI U)IU!iii.v as the iii()>t ai)i)ni|)rial(.- Iri'iii Ini il; !,,v^. hL'twcc'ii llu' sc-\L'S.'>- h'roin it alsn is (kriwd UKU(.iI fur charil\- and hciR'Xokncc. As Diinidv is c-i)nsi(k'R'(l tn rct'iT to nalural anirtiun |V^ witliiii the niiiKh iihtyliinty is that ostentations st-ni'i'ieiii wliieli displays itsehin words ot" tenderness and aet-- ni (.n. dearnient, hnt lea\-es it an o]ien ((nestion whether tlu-,r ;uv anytliinj; more than simnhited si!L;ns of emotion, i This hst is not exhanstixe of the tender word> in \\\. Qqnieluia: hnt it will ser\e to show that the ton.mu \\;is rieh in them, and that the ancient I'ernvians reeo-nized man\- dei^rees and forms of this movini; sentiment. What is also noteworthy' is the ])resence in this laiii;in-t.' of the most philosoi)hical term for friendship in its wnk-t sense that can he (pioted from an\ American lanj.;na.ne. Il is niiuKYNViiy, componnded i)'i (riiyain\ mentioned al)n\e, ;in(l nnia, man— the lo\"e of maid<.in<l. This componnd, \\n\\- ever, does not occnr in theOllanta drama, and it nia\ liaw' keen manufactured hy the missionaries. The usual leiin is iiiiu/'v, which means merely " as.soeiate," or korho)i!iui\\ a tahle-companion or auivivr. V. Tin: Tri'i-CxtAKAM. The lingtiistic stock which has the widest extension i:i vSouth America is that which is represented in Soutliern Ih'a/il h\- the C.uarani, and in Central and Northern li\ llii; Tupi or Lingua Gcral. The latter is spoken alouj; the Ania- * St'f till' Ocuiioliiia love soutjs. Iiaialitii i\\\(\ huayiiii. ;is thoy arc called, yisin \>\ AiR'hoieiia in his (.iiaiiu'ilica (Jiii\hiin, pp. ij;i-i,^5. t Sec lioV^w'wi , I'oi a h II Uiii u (Jcjii/i /iiiii, s. v. i/uiy/i luiy and i>iayhiiayi.(. iiiii. Tims : I iipa iiiiiidc niilin, (kkI Iuvcs \is. I itpa luuntr liatlui, the love which \vc have (or jhailiK, I hive her I him, ill. ealleil, yiseil li\ f 1,, ,itniha, friend ; eoiiipoiinileil of cdli, a <i\vtlliiiv;, and aim, to yo, a i;in-r to a liuelhiii;, a visitor. This, and the other (inarani words j;iveii, are taktn iVoiii Uni/ lU' Montoya's 'J'rsm a di' la /.rimiin (iiui)tnit ili\. X'ienna, is;(,i, ;,\iMtlier ])ossihle derivation won'd ln' Irnni aim. desire, ali]ietile iSi)anish, lonnin.L^. a hist, Old ///(, ill Ihi' seiisf oriieinu present. 'I'lii uijiilil extr.i'-.., a hke love isee above). I ilk'ftio:i IVU 1^ ■'t.-1l!!I!K'1lt I ;irt> n| (.-11. 1.1' IIk^i' aiv .■|ir(l> ill tlx- l<iii,L:iif \v;is ' IVfn-ili/.cd 111. lis l;iii,oin-c II its wkU-sI .iii;u;ioc. Il il al>ii\L'. dinl -<uiii<l. Imw- it iii;i\ have isual krin is 0('/ioiihiri\\ ,1 i.<i\i; AM, 1 RiiADsim-, ,11 ,11(1 its Irihutarii's lor a di^iaiux- df i\\«,iii 4^0 \ li\'i' luiiulixd iniu' [I is 1)\- 111) iikMii^ i'Kiilifal with llu' ( iiiarain lilt tin. arar ivlaliiiiislii]! nl' ilif iw,, is iiimii-^t.ikaMf Tlu' Cu.i- iiii i-ivstaits ihf ^illlllk•^ ami mmv priiiiilivc .'uniis, ,,ii,l iii;P lie lulll to lUrsctlt IIr' 111 'MX' ari-li,iic' ly| le. 'I'la.- word iur low in \\\v Cuaiaiii is ,n'Iiii, in aiintlur toriii hit mil . tilt.' initial // l;ciiio (lr'i|i| KM ill fii iii]iiisili()n. us I'X- ,a --11)11 IS Liiiplnx c (I inr al tlK' \ari(.-lit> i,|" llir '(.ntiiiKait, itlw^c'ii iiirii, hctwcfii Hr- sr.M.s, ami Inr that wliii'li i> w aniri 1 as .liviiK'.-'= I'or " a Iritiid," tlifx liaw iin illur I (.1111 Ii.ir. oiiL- wliK'li means a \'isil(d' or ''ik>1; ami iioiii tlii> llu-ir \' iiKaiis .'Xinession for " trRiidshii)" i> deriwd, uliitli icall ' liu-|)ilalit\-."t Wrbal coinhinations in (aiaraiii aiv ^l-^^lall\ siiii]ik', am 1 r iioi think we can lie far wroii.L; in looking utioii ,ti/iii as a Ullhdl o f the two i)riiiiar \' words III and Tl le loniier, <u. iiKMii.'- self or the same; and tin- latter, ////, is tl le \ei I, to liml or, to he ])resent. To 1 o\-e, in (iiiarani, tlieret'ore, wduld mean, "to find oneself in another." or, le.'-s meta- ])li\ sicalh', "to (lisco\er in another a likeness to one's self." Tlii> a.i^ain is ])reeisely the priiiiar\- siL;nifieatioii of the kaljii aiiuui ; and if tile seiitiiiieiil impressed in that way the har- 43f> KSSAYS <)!• W AAIl'RICANIST. llnl liaioii^^ aiK'ii'iit Ar\aiis, tliL-rt' is im R'asmi \vli\ il wouM haw >trurk IIk' (iiiaranis iti the saiiu' inaniicr. In Ihr Tupi or Liii.mia (ieral {hv word fur love j. ,.< j. (Ic'iitly l)iil a dialcrtic" variatimi of tliat in C.iiarani li i, ^iwn I)y .--onK' autliors as i.oi(ii, plaiiilx- a form >.){ Ihfilm , .m,; TIk'Sc forms raniiot he aiialy/cd in il )\ oUK Ts as caiicit ic Tupi ilsc-lf, wliich illustrates its more modern type. There are other dialeels of this widespread stem. Imt it would not he worth while to follow this e.xpre.ssioii UiiilK-r in its di\erse forms. It is interesting;, houe\-er. to noli iliai wliieh appears in the Arawack, spoken in (lUiana. In lli.n t()iiji;ne to lo\e is /ciiiiisiii, in whith the radical is diii i)v kiisI. Xow we find that ^?/'// means " of a kind," peculiar to, \k- lon.niuL; to, etc. Once more it is the notion of similarity, nf "birds of a feather," which underl' s the expression for iIk conception of love.f CoXCIJSlo.NS. If, now, we review the ground we have t;one o\er. ami classif\- the conception of love as revealed in the lan.mia;^e> under discussion, we find that their ori<;inal modes of ex- pression were as follows : I find (iivcii hy Dr. Coiito ilc Manclhais in liis ( 'i dii l.ii. liiiiiiilii ( i//riii/iii /' [Hio (If jaiK'iro, 1^7(1); siii\u liy Dr. Aiii.-iro CaviiUanti in //. Jliir.iliiiii /.inifiiidi^r tiiul il> .lL;i;/u/iit,i/iiiii (Kii) Jai i^\i): i/> liv 111,1- /;/, Kioinii I" (la l.iiiiiiui /V(/>r(I.ci])Ziij, iS.sSi, anil liy Dr. V,. \' . l"r;\ni;a in Iii< i //;.,'/>■ in a til ill (Id I.I t " ./'//.' i-s lt'()l ll'l /'IK II. .lulhlU kisi II Ihllh, III viii of till' lUhliotlii lit: lui l!iii.\iliiii (I.t'lp/JH;. I"<5ii). mliiht, ist vincn; lii aiu\ nacli siiinr .\rt. This (lictiDiiary. pulilisliud anonynuiusly at I'aris. in i^s.', in Tiiiir- liiinr .t»ii-i il tthir, i.s the proilitctiun of the Miir,ivi:iii (//((• /. iiii; iii.sni/ Missioiinrv. \<vv. 'I'. S. Sehuiiiiiann. Sec 7'/ir l.ilriaiv U'lHi-.^ i>f tlii- l-'iiii'i\:ii M:-- siiiiuiiirs lit' III r Moiir.iaii Clmuli. Ity the Uev. C. U. Keichell. 'rraiishiUil aii'i auiKitateil liv liisho]) I'.dnumd de Sehweinilz, p. i;, 1 Hethleheiii. i^.Mi). 1)Iim'i:r i:\ci; oi' onicin. 4;i' I Iiiarlifuhitc frit.> lit" cniiitiuii i Ci (.•».•, Ma\;i, ni|iii(liii,i .. ANScrtioiiN of ^anuiK'v-, ..r similarity (Civl', Naluiail, Ti; 'i, Arawack). Asm.'rli(>ns ol" cnnjuiulioii oi unimi i Civc, Naluiail. M,i\a I. j Assertions of a wish, <]v^\\\- ,,i- l(Mi.u;itit; iCrcf, Cak- clii'iufl, Ociiiiclnia, 'I'upi). 'riu'SL' catfi^oric'S arc- not i,\liaiisii\ <,■ of ili^ wmd- wliirli I li;i\\ l)n)U.';lit tor\var<l, l.iil tlu\ iinhuk' iii(»l ot' lluni, ami ]iiii1ki1)1\- \\\rc this in\i.-;ti.L;ali(iii cxlmikil to nnhracr iiii- iiuidiis other toni;U(.'S, we >hoiilil lind thai in tlii'm all the |iiinri|)al L'.\i)rc'ssions tor the >enlinienl nf low are drawn iVmu one or other of these fundamental noiidus. A must iu- ^lnu'li\e fact is that thesr udtious are those which underlie tile niajorit\- of the woru^ for lo\e in the i^ieat Ai>an funiK (if lanLi,uat;es. The\- thus re\eal the ])arallel ]ialhs which the human mind e\-er>where pur-ued in i;i\ in;.; articulate expression to the ])assions and emotions of iJK^dul. In this sense there is a oneness in all lan;^uaL;e>, which sjjcaks vnn clusively for the oneness in the sentient and intellectual at- Irihutes of the species. We may alsf) investii;ate the>e cate,L;(iries, thus shown to he ])ractically iuii\'ersal, iVoin another point of \iew. \\\- ina\- iu(|uire which of them comes the nearest to tliL' t-oirecl expression of love in its liiL;hest i)hiloso])hic meaning;. Was diis meauint;' ai)prehended, howe\'er dind\-, 1)\ man in the very infancy of his s])eech-iu\entin!4 facult> :" In another work, pulilished some \ears. a.^c, I ha\e al- teinpled a philosophic analysis of the sentiment of lo\e. ()uotin<j- from .some of the subtlest dissectors of luunan ' h' 432 i:SSAVS Ol' AX AMl'RICANIST. i iiiotix", I linw sliown that tlicy ])r()ii<)uncL' lo\'e lo \k- 'li,.^- volition of the c-iul," or "the ivstiiis^ in an object as an lUii. These rather ohsccire st'lmlastie rorninlas I lia\-e attenijiteil [<> explain !)>• the definition : " I,o\ e is the nier.tal inll);•e■^-il :i of rational aetion whose end is in itself."-'- As every eni! .r, purixi'-e of action implies the will or wish to that end, llii.-i- ex])ressions for lo\-e are most trnl\' philosophic which cx- pressthe will, the desire, the xearnin^- after the ohj^ct The fonrlh, therefore, of the abox'e catet^ories is that wlii' 1 ])resents the hi.i^hest forms of expression of this conceplicni That it also expresses lower forms is true, hut this niereh illustrates the e\-olution of the human mind as expressed ii languas^e. Love is e\er the wish ; but while in lower races and coarser natures this wish is for an object which in turn is l)Ut a means to an end, for example, sensual j^ratilicalion, in the higher this object is the end itself, l)e\'ond which llie soul does not si.'ek to t;(), in which it rests, and with which both reason and emotion find the satisfacli<Mi of bonndle>s activilN" without incurrins;- the danger of satiety. * '/'//(■ h'tiii^iiiiis Si'iilhiiiiit. i/s Stiin I /■ antl .Mm ; a i'nnti i/'iilhni /n lli,' Siiiiui ami J'.'ii/iiMi/>//y iij A',/i\;iiiii, p. ()i)(,Xiu- N'ork, l>76). ■ I ■. THE LINEAL MEASURES OF THE SEM!-CIVH,IZEI) NA- TIONS OF MEXICO AND CENTHAL A\IEH1CA;^= pOSlTn'K proj;rcss in constructive art can lie accnratL'l\- ' eslimalcd l)y llie kind and perfection of the instruments of i^recision eni])l()yed l)y the artists. A correct tlieorv of arcliitecture or of sculpture inirst have as its foundation a correct system of \veit;lits and measures ami reco-ni/ed units and stanchirds of gravity and extension. Wliere these are not found, all is i^uess-work, and a uh re or less hap- liazard rule-of-llunnb. In a study of the art-jircducts of Mexico and Central America, it has occurred to me that we may with ad\antaue call lin.gu.islics lo our aid, and altem])t to asceilain, l>y an anal>-sis of the words for weights and nieis;r.-"s, what units, if any, were emi)loye(I 1)\- these who constructed the m.is-^ive works in that rei^ion, which still remain for our .astonish- ment. The touL;nes I shall examine are the .Ma\a of \'uca^ t;ui, its related dialed the Cakclii(|uel of (Guatemala, and the Xahuatl or A/.lec of Mexico. The most strikins; monuments ot art in Xorlh America are found in the teiritories where these where spoken at the time of the Concpiest. The Cak^ chicjuel may be considered to include the (.)uiclie and the * I'rolll lIlL' /'/ oiri'it/'iii; s i.>C Ihc .Vniriii'aii I'liilo^npliical SuiirlN' liin-Ss. 2^ ( 433 ' 434 I'SSAvs oi" AX a:\iI';kica.\ist. l'^' Tzutiiliil, liotli of wliitli arc closclx- associated to it as dia- Ifcts of thf same mother tonyue. Tin i/eiienc \v Tinc :\[AVAS. ord ill Ma\a for l)oth iiu-asiiriiiLr and \\X'i,uliiii,i4', and for measnivs and wcii^lit-, is at prcsciu />/>/:, the radical sense of which is "to ])nt in order," "to arrange definite limits." Its apparent siniilarit\- to the ,S])anisli pisar, I'"rench f^cstr, etc., seems accidental, as it IS 111 M: i\a the root oi various words ineanin :•d^ lU t)a ttle, t( fiylit, etc., iVom the "order of 1 attk ol xserved on sncli occasions. Any -veight or measure is spoken of as ppi:il\ to measure land is f>pi'.-/iii(iii. a foot measure pp>i\-or etc Hut I am (|uite certain that the ori.<;iiial scojie of the word did not include weight, as there is no exideiu-e that the ancient Mavas knew anvtliiiiir about a S\'S telll of estimatiiiL;- (iuantit\- 1)V "lavitv If th e \\ ord is not from the ^■])anisli pisar, it has extended its meaning since the conquest. The Maya measures are deri\ed duectly, and almost ex- clusively, from the human body, and largely from the hand and foot. lh\ the foot: (li(ko(\ the footstep, the print or length of the foot, is a measure of length. Other forms of th e same are r'/zf/v/, (lukrl\ clu krb-oc. etc. aiK 1 tl lis ahuiKlance ot s\no nyms would seein to show that the nieasure of a foot was very familiar and fre([ueiit. The verb is ilukoc ( lah, /n, as in the phrase: ( '/itkoctr y oti'fli Kii. He measured hv IlcI His house CVud. :\I.\VA MICASrRKS. 4,i5 :y /. I. He inc-asured by feet tlie cliurch. l-roin this was distinguished — Xiikai', paces or strides, a word confined to t-lie i)ace> of man. The verb is Xnkab Uali, //•), to step off, to measure by paces. Quite a .series of measures were recoj;ni/cd frum ihc g-round (or, as some say, from tlie point of the fodt' to tlie ujiper portions (jf the body, Hun ral roy ti-xul {ow^t to the neck of tlie ankle it>-en(li. extending from the grour.d to the narrowest portion of ihr ankle. Hun ppuloc u-.\ul Tone calf-of-the-leg its-end i. from the ground to the highest portion of the calf of the leg. The word .17// means end or limit, and is used often aowrbially, as in the phrase uay u-.\u/, literally "here its cud," or *'thus far" (vSj)an. /i,is/a aqiii), JIuu pixH\ the distance from the grouufl 'or point of the toes) to the knee-cap, I'rom pii\\ the knee. Al-o called hun hoi piiw from lioi head, the kneecap beini^ called " the knee-head." I fun liiuluibfw one girdle, from the ground to the l)elt or girdle, to which the skirt was fashioned (from Intih, to tie, to fasten). The same measure was called Iudi tluih. the wonl ilutli being a]iplied to the knot of th.e girdle. Hun /cinani, from the ground to the border of the true ribs; from A?^/(?w, the liver. The /VVvaw*?/ /,• </, .//,-//// gives the exam])le, /luu lauani in ua/, one ianaiii i is) m\- corn, /. c, my corn reaches to my chest. It ailds that the mea-^ure is from the jjoint of the foot to the chest. Hun fzciu, a measure from the ground to a Vnw drawn from one mamma to the other. iff"] "i'f '! ^ 1 .-ii |i 4:/> KSSAVS OF AX AMICKICAXIST. I liti} cal u-\iil, one neck its-ciul, from the .u;rouiul to the bonier (upjicr or lower) of the neck. Ukii rlii, from the mouth, cJii, to the .<;round. Ilim holoii), one head, from the top of the head to the ground. This is also called Iiidi iialUth, one time the stature ();• height of a man, from a root meaning "to draw to a ])oint," "to finish off." The vSpanish writers sa\- that one iialliih was e(|ual to about three ra/'as, and was used as a .square measure in meting corn fields."- The vSpanish nira differed as nuich as the iCnglish ell, and to the writer in (piestion could not have represented (juite two feet. Ivlse- where he defines the rar.i as half a bra-ja or fathom. (See below, I'f/aJi.'' The hand in .\[aya is expressed by the word kab, which also means tlie arm, and is more correctly therefore trans- lated by the anatomical term " u])per extremity." This is not an unconnnon example in American tongues. When it is necessary to define the hand specifically the Mayas say it cliul kah, " the branch of the arm," and for the fingers u nil kal\ "the points (literally, noses) of the arm" or upper extremity. The shortest measurements known to them apjK'ar to have been finger-breadths, which are exjiressed by the phrase n )iii kith. The tluunb was called // itd kab, literally "the mother of the hand" or arm, and as a measure of length the distance from the first joint to the end of the nail was in use and designated b\- the same term. With the hand open .and the fingers extended, there were three different measures or spans recognized by the Ma^'as. * /h'li ioinii io del C onzi iiti) dr Mulnl, MS., S. v. f^ ^lANA MKASrRKS. 4,^; 1. Tlie ;/.//', from llie tip of the thumb to the tip of tlie niiddle finder. 2. Thv. >rn/af>, or littkw/,/7^ from the tip of the ihnmh to the tip of the index fm.oer. This is th,e span yet nu,>t in use 1)y the native inhabitants of Yucatan i Dr. liereu'll i, 3. The r/// ;/,//>, or the //,//> whicli extends to tlie ed-e, from the tip of the tlunnb to the tip of the Httle fm-er S'\o Perez). The /■('/• was a hand measure formed by elosin- tlie fni^ers and extendin- tlie tlnunb. Measurin-- In.m the outer lu.r- der of tlie hand to the end of the thumb, it would be alu.ut seven inches. The n/r or ?/of// cia (iioc/i is a term ap])lied to a bony prom- inence, in this instance to the olecranon) was the cubit, and was measured from the summit of the olecranon to the end of the inigers, about eighteen inches. The most important of the huii-er measures was the -:af> or :apa/. It was the distance between the extremities of the extended arms, and is usually put down at a fathom or six feet. The half of it was called Ma)i or/',7^?;^ nieanin.t;- "to the middle of the chest." Canes and cords were cut of the fixed length of the :ap and bore the name AapaU/,\ za[}- .sticks, as o\\\ yaid-^ti(k ( r/ir stick), and /////)/-/;, measuring rods (////, a species of cane, and />/>/;, to measure, /)/a-. ^fotuI). On this as a unit, the customary land measure was based. It was the kcuxn, one .shorter, hitn kaau :ali ox :npa/,/n\ a kaaii of three zap, and one longer, /in 11 kaaii lali <,ui za/yal- chc, a kaan of four :v?/). The former is st.iled to lie tliirty- %. U% ¥ -'(. IV 43« ICSS.WS OF AN AMKKICAMST. six fallioius s(niarc, the latttr tortx -t-i^lil falhotns s(niarc. 'rwc'iily hi(n/ inadc a rvV/zV, man, that aniotint of land bcini; considered the area re(|ui.site to support one family in maize. The uncertainty about this measure is increased 1)\- the evident error of Hishop Landa, or more pro1)abh- hiscojiyist, in makint; the :■/;//> ecpial to 400 s([uare feet, which e\en in the most favored soils would never support a frunily. He prohahl>- said ''400 feet stjuare," which in that climate would l)e suflicient. The hitiN is said l)y Spanish writers to he ecptal to the Mexican iincatr, which contains 31S4 scjuare feet. 1 acknowledt;e. however, that I have not reconciled all the statements reported 1)\- authors about these land measures. C.reater measures of length are rarely mentioned. Jour- neys were measured by liib, which the vSpaniards translated "leagues," but by derivation it means "resting ])laces," and I have not ascertained that it had a fixed length. The Mayas were given to the drawing of' maps, and the towns had the boundaries of their common lands laid out in definite lines. I have manu.scripts, some dated as early in 1542, which describe these town lands. In most of them only the cour.ses are given, but not the distances. In one, a title to a domain in Acanceh. there are distances given, but in a measure (piite unknown to me, s/riiia. preceded by the numeral and its termination indicating measures, /iii/iirpp/'-j sia'iia, eleven sicinas."^- The maps indicate relative position only, and were evi- dently not designed by a .scale, or laid off in proportion to distance. The distinguished Vucatecan anti(|uary, the Rev. * .tiain,'/i ('/11//1111. J'iliilo i!i- un m/tir v .^/oiiti' in .{caiui'li, \~h~, MS. MI'TKICAI, ST.WDAKDS. 4,V) Don CrcscLMicio Carrillo, in his cssa\- on the cartduiMphN of tliL- ancient M;i_\as/^- aiii)aivntly came to tin- same ronchi>ion, as he does not not mention any method of nieasinemeiit. I do not know of an\- measnremenls nndertaken in \'uca- tan to ascertain the metrical slan(hn<l emploved h\ the an- cient architects. It is trne that Dr. An.^ustns l,el'lon,i;eon asserts ])ositivel\- tliat the\- knew anil used the iiuhir s]\s/, ///, and that the metre and its divisions are the onl\- dimensions that can he applied to the remaiirs of the editlces. i I'.ut apart from the eccentricit>- of this statenu nt, I do not see from Dr. LePloni;eon's own measurements that the metre is in any .sense a common dixisor for them. I''rom the linguistic exidence, I incline to helieve that the 0(\ the foot, was their chief lineal unit. This name was also api)lied to the .se\-enth day of the series of twent\- which made up the Ma\a month; and there may be some connec- tion between these facts and the frecjuent recurrence of the number se\-en in the details of their edifices.;]; Tin- CAKCHIorivI.S. The root-word for measurini;- lent^th is, in Cakchi(|Uel, //. Its primitixe meaninj; is, a sii;n, a mark, a characteristic. From this root are derix'ed the \erbal (Ac//, to measure length, to lay out a ])lan, to define limits; c/a/, a si-^n, mark. ■■■ (ii'iii:! (I /ui .'/(Mc/. .\ iiiil, .^ il,i Miisi-ii .WuiiDial ii'' Mr- \ ii n, '{\i\\\n\\, )i. I ;5. t " Tlu' llKlrr is llic ,'iilv )ii,iiMiir,i/',/nii,iiMiiii wllii'li ai,nir~ « itli tli:il ihl^pti il liy tliese most aiu-itiit arlists and aicliiU'Cls."~I)r. l,v rli)iii;eoii, .\/ini!,fy<tii iiiid Mtiy<i fnsii ift/iiiii.--, ill /'i ,i,i,ilini;.s n({\\v .\iiKricaii .\iiliiniariaii Sotit-ly. .\|ii-ir i^-^i. t Nearly all tlir ninnunuiils ni Vucal.iii bi.ar i. \iikin-u that llir May.i^ liad a i)li'- <li1(.-cli> lor tliu iniiiibcr ^,-:;-ii." oto. I.u I'lonyroii, I'l-fli:;,':- n/' //,, M,na^. \t. 65 i,Nf\v Voik, iS'>i;. of cour.^c. this may have otlicr .symholic meanings also. 4+ A) I'.SS.WS oi' AX AMICUICAMST limit; (iahuL iiR'asiiriii'' lU'ld; (Itiiinili, In know, /'. to R' c'oi^ni/.c tliL' si,nns and characttis of tliinj^s; rla causL' to know, to tcacli, to instinct, etc. llhtUl.d //, t( M' uitlioritics do nol iiiinisli c\ddcucc ill it the Cakclii <|ncls used the foot as the unit of ineasnreinent, differing in tlii> from the Ma\as. Tlie>- had, ho\\e\er, like the latter, a series of measurements hom the ground to certain ])oints of the l)o(l\-, and the\ used a special teniiinal particle, /'<iii i])r()- I)al)I\' from hi\ to t;() , "up to" to indicate such nieasure- ments, as :■< v/'lu iii, up to the j^irdle i :> i , s^irdle, /, coiniecti\'e. /' vv;/, u]) to, or It roes to"). These hodv measures, as far as I have found them named, are as foil OWS (]ll((jl ■ b IK or III , from the "round to the kuee. ni-iarli it, iVoiu the ground to the middle of the thisih; lit- eral h its front, the thi<>h," ) u , it.- "(M ■It, f: ice, )nt. the muscles of the thii'h ). be ■'(■ \UHIII iVom the uround to the "irdle, rvi (/(Ui/</<i xibi III, from the .t;round to the first true ribs. k-iiliiii, from the t,Mn)Und to the neck [huh. The more exact Cakchiciuel measures were (lerix'ed from the upi^er extreinitw The smallest was the nni;er breadth, and was sjiokeii of as one, two, three, four fint;ers, liaii ca, lav ((!. i>.\ ra, call ca (ra^=^ finder). This was used in connection with the measure called /iivif, the same that I ha\e descril)ed as the Maya ko/c, obtained b\- closin;^' the hand and exteiidini; the thinnb. They combined these in such expressions as <a (ki'Ic laqiii haii ai, two iiivits with (jjIus) one fitij^er breadth. '^- 'Cnto, /lilt iiiiidi ill ill' !ii /.I'liciiii (all III MS. C AKClIKili:!. mi; ASIKIIS. ,,, Till- ^|);llI of the C;ikclii(HKl.s was S(.K1\- thai (.IiImiik,! l,y c-NUii(liii- Hk' tliiiii;!) and {]u<^vvs and iiK-ludin- Uu >],;u-e hchvcvn thr cxlivinitirs of the llnunl) and ////,/,//, fm-cf. It was calk'd ,//////, from llie ra<!ical .////, uhidi iii..an, to ^li,,\v, to maku manifest, and is Ik-irv akin in nicanini; to tin- ro,,t t/. nieiilionL-d a!)o\c. The fuliil, (■huiitay, was nic-asnivd from llir jioini of llir clI)ow to the extremities of the fm-ers. We are e\])Ie^^ly inf.irmed I)y I'atlier Coto that this was a eust(,niary hnihiin- nieasnre. "When they !)nild tlieir honses thev nse this cnl)it to nieasnre the len,i;th of the lo.<;s. Thev also nieasnre roi)es ill the same manner, and say, '/'/// rliuiitaili i,/a\/c yiijoDi, I hiy out in eiihits the rope with whieli I am to nieasnre." 'I'he different nieasnres (hawn from the arms were : chnnutw from the elbow to the end of the finders of the same hand. haln)ulil, from the elbow to the ends of the fin-ers of the oi)])osite hand, the arms bein,^- outstretehed. 1(1(11. from the i)oiiit of the shoulder of one side to the ends of the finj;ers of the ont'^tretehed arm on the other side. l-.ain /(/(•)/, from the ])oiiit of the shoulder to the ends of the rin,L;ers on the same side. 7':a:;: nie.ins nose, point, beak, ete. /■// :'(u7i (/NX, from the middle of the bre;ist to the end of the ontstretchetl hand. /ui/i, from the ti])s of the fnj^ers of one hand to tlio-e of the other, the arms outstretched. Another measure was from the point of the shoulder to the wrist. ;•:* ! I ■ ii ■J'! 442 KSSAVS Ol- AN AMI'.KIC WIST. . i'^'i;":;'-^'' The lidh, or fatlKiiu, \v;i> oui.' of tin- units of land iiK-asuiv, and tlic t-orn Ik-Ms and cacao plantations wciv surwvcd and laid out with ropes, (ja))i, marked off in fathoms. TIk' liclds are deserihed :is of ti\-e ro])es, ten ropes, etc., hut I ha\e not fonnd how man\- fathoms each rope contained. Another unit of land measure in frecpient use was the iiiiiaoli. This was the circumlereiice of the human fij^ure. A man stood erect, his feet to,>;elher, and both arms ex- tendt'd. The end of a rope was placed under his il-et and its slack passed over one hand, then on to]) of his head, then o\er the oilu-r hand, and finally hroni^ht to touch the he- ^innini;'. This t;i\es soniewliat less than three times the lieii;ht. This sini;iilar unit is described 1)\- both \'area and Coto as in common use by the natixes. There were no accurate measures of lons.^ distances. As amon.t;' the Mayas, journeys were counted 1)\- restini;' i)laces, <>alled in Cakchicpiel /rr/r^y/ //'(?/, literally "breathin<j^ places," from itxia, the breath, il.selt", a derivatixe of the radical >i.\\ to exist, to be, to live, the breath bein;^ taken as the most evident sij;n of life. There was orij^inally no word in Cakchi(|uel meaniui^ "to weii^h," as in a balance, and therefore they adopted the Spanish f^cso, as //;; ptsoi/i, I weitj;!!. \or, althoui^h they constructed stone walls of considerable heij^ht, did they have any knowledt^e of the ])lunib line or ]ihnnmet. The name they i;ave it e\en shows that they had no idea what its use was, as they called it "the piece of metal for fasteninj-- to- gether," supposing it to be an aid in cementing the stone work, rather than in adjusting its lines. •^■ * Colli, /)ii:n'iiiiai It), MS., s. v. " I'loliKi ilc albanil." ^ ■^1 MirniODS <»1' Ml'ASI RINC. u. li TlIK A/TKCS. In luniiiii; to tlif M(.'\ir;ins or A/ti'Cs, sonic intrn-lini,r pidhKins prc'SiMil IhcniSL'Kcs. As far as I can jml-c Ii\ \\\v Xahnatl lanj^uai^c, nieasuivs drawn from the nppcr cxirrni it\ were of sccondarx- importance, and were not tlii' liases o' their metrical staiuhirds, ;ind, as I shall show, this is horne ont by a series of proofs from other directions. The fm.i^ers, ///<//>////, .appear to lia\e heen cnsioniarv- measnres. 'l'he\- are mentioned in the earl\- writers as onc' e<|nal to an inch. The name jiiapilli, is a synthesis of W(?///, hand, and />////, child, offsprin}.,^ addition, etc, The span was called )»i:lill or nii:litl, a word of oh\ions derivation, meanint; "between the fingernails," from /:A//, finger nail. This si)an, howe\er, was not like ours, from the extremity of the tlmmh to the extremity of the little rini.;er, nor >et like that of the Cakchi(iucls, from the exlreiiiitx- of the tliunil) to that of the middle finger, hut like that now in use among the Mayas (.sec above), from the extremit\ of the thnml) to that of the index finger. •■- There were four measures from the point of the elbow ; one to the wrist of the same arm, a second to the wrist of the opposite arm, a third to the ends of the fingers of the same arm, and the fourth to the ends of the fingers of the o;)po- site arm, the arms always considered as exieiided at right angles to the body. The terms for these are given some- what confu.sedly in my authorities, but I believe the follow- ing are correct. I. From the elbow to the wrist of the same arm : aii/n/af- *"Cu;uit()Sc inidf con el piilgar y cl iiulicc." Mciliii.-i, I 'o.iihii/ai in </(■ /a /.ri/i;ii(i Af(A /I i!i/a. \',.l 444 ICSSAVS nl' W AMI'UrC WIST. 'V!. ■:o(:o/>af://\ " ;i link' arm lUfa^iiR'," iVoiii <t\ a, niu', ni<i iVnm '///, arm or hand, /rjotr.oco, sinall, iiillrior, /)(//:('(^ Ui makt- small, to (liiuiiiish. iii( lM"iim the tH)i>\v to till' wrist of \\\v oppositf arm. (I' III Hit IL an arrow a slia ft. Irom and nil //, arrow, this (h- l.anc'i' lain.!^ the approwd l(.ii,L;th of an arrow compare tln' ol W r ma\ ,n''li^n L'xnrr^sioii, a )tIi-\ an Iiall. l'"ioni tlu' (.Ihow to the (.ikIs of the rni'-frs of the sanu- arm, n nniiolii f^itl , oni' elbow, (t\ one, luolitf^ill, elbow. Tiii'' is the enbit. 4. I'rom the elbow to llie ends of the rin,i;ers of the op]io site arm. The follow inL; were the arm me.asures : Cii)ia(o!li, from the ti]) of the shoulder to the end of the hand one, iiiaroa, to extend the arm). L'( iiiiiid//, from the lip of the finL;ers of one liand to those of tile other. Allhoui;h this word is app,irentl\- a syiithe->i-, of ^v, one, nitull, arm, and means "one arm," it is unif(iinil\ rendered by the earl\- writers iiiht bin-jit , a fathom. C()iyolii>lli , from the middle of the breast to llie end of the fin.i;ers uv, one, vollotl, breasts It is known that the A/.tees had a standard measure of length wliieh lhe\- employed in layini;' out .grounds and eon- ■itrnclni'. )uild iuijs. It was called the ortacall, but neither tlie derivation of this word, nor the exact length of the measure it represented, has been i)osili\-el\- ascertained. The first syllable, oi\ it will be noticed, is the same as llie Ma\a word for fool, and in Xahuall xocof^alli is " the sole of llie fool. This was used as a measure h\ the decimal s\slem. and there were in Naliuatl two .separate and apparently A/.TiX" mi; Asrui'.s. 445 i)ri,iL,MM:il \\ni(U to t'xi)rcss a iiK-asuit.' of tin loot Ku^tlis. ( )in.' was : .Vj./iii xiu/^ii/lii/diiun /iiH<tli<iii, wliirli Iniiiiidalilt.' ^ylltllt■».i^ is aiiah/i'd as fullows: iiiiilla. In mi imitliutH, tin, \i',f^,tf, tinin \0(falli, fnot soil's, i(iiii(ii/ii/i/>t, to lui'asurr ' troni iinii lii,>//, a sij^n or mark, likr tlu' C:ikflii(|nrl > /a/ i, /, tm- /,», si^n oi' tlir jtassivc, c^//, a \iThal trrniination " i(nii\;iliiit to tlu' I,,iiiii hi/is or i///s. '"■'■■ Tims {\\v woid imans that wliii-li is nuism aI)lL' l)\- trii toolli iij^tlis. Till- sii'oiid wind was matlafyxilhilniiiai hiidtliuii . 'riic composition of this is similar to tlir lornirr, I'xri'pt that in thr placr o!" tin- prrliaps |or(,iL;n vim it i,-,, loot, ii ///, toot, is nsrd, wliirli sri'tns to ha\i hriii llic piopir Xaliuatl Ifrm. As llii'sc words provi- tbat llir fool Im^tli was otii- o|" thr standards of thr A/ti/cs, it n-mains to ln' srin whillur thc\- t.-nlij4litcn ns as to Ihi' odaiwll. I (pioli- in ronmrtion an in- terc'slin,^; passa.L;i.' 1>>- the natiw historian, I'rrnando dc .\l\a Ixtlilxochitl in his Histoiia ('/lidi/iiiKit , imblislud in I.ord Kinj^shoronnh's great work on Mi-xico (X'.il. i\., ]>. 2\2<. Ixllilxoi'hitl is (Ic'scril)inj4 the xast I'ommnnal dwillin- Imilt ])>• the 'I\v.iMU\in chieftain Xe/.ahua!eoyotl, eapalile of .ucom- modatini;; o\-er two thonsand persons. lie writes; " 'I'luse houses were in leni;!]] from east to west four hundred and eleven and a half [native] measures, whii-h reduced to our [Siianishj measures make twel\-e hundred and lhiil\-four and a half yards i .■^//v^.v), and in breadth, from north to south three hundred and twent\- six measiues, which are nine hundred and .seventy-eight yards." ♦Carochi, Ailrdrhi /.iih^iki Mr > n ami, l> u\i. TF^ i- 1''^. 44Ci 1-:SSAYS OI" A\ AMlvKICAMST. p. irL This j);iss;it;c' lias \k\:u analyx.vd 1)\- Uk- learned aiilicjiiary, vSc-nor ( )r()/.c() \ Berra.-^- The iinlixe measure referred to 1)\ IxtlilxDchitl was thai of 'iV/.eueo, which was ideiiUcal with that of Mexico. The yard was the nrjd dc /)',v;;i,'(',v, which had heeii ordered to he adopted throu,L;hoi'.t the colony 1)\ an ordinance of the \icero\- Antonio de Mendo/a. Thi^ \ara was in lenj^th o.S.^S metre, and, as accordin.^' to the chronicler, the native measnrement was jnst three times this (411'j X .1-- 1234'j, .nid 3j6 X ,1 -- '■)~,'^^^ it. ninst ha\e been J. 5 14 metre. This is e([ual in onr measure to 9.S4J feet, or, saw nine feet ten inches. 'iMiis would make the oihua/I identical with those loni;- nanied ten-loot measures, which, as I have shown, were multi])les of the leui^th of the foot, as is proved hy an analy sis of their comiionent words. This result is as interesting' as it is new, since it demon- strates that the metrical unit of ancient Mexico was the same as that of ancient Rome -the length of the f()()t-])rint. vSonie testimony of another kind ma\- he brous^ht to illus- trate this ]/oint. In iS()4, the Mexican j^overiunent appointed a connnission to sur\ey the celebrated ruins of Teotihuacan, ander the care of ! )on Ramon Ahnara/. At the su.n'.^estion of Senor Oiozco, this able en^L^ineer ran a number of lines of construc- tion to determine what had been the metrical standard of the builders. His decision was that it was "about" met. o.S. or, sav inches. i This is verv close to an even *()rozi'() y Ik'rni, //is/min Aiilitiidi lA- /<; (.'i>iii/in\/ii itr Miwica. TdDio i, pp (Mexico, is-M,i. \ Mfiiloiii! ilr Iks 'I'lalhiji^ ihii/r'.^ /'.ii la I iiiiti/ua di' I'iUli IK tt t>l fi ll'IU l''i I :\i( itNK-iu'u.Di; ks mi:.\si"ri'.s. 447 tliinl of ihv (>/ /(It (f//. and woiiM tlius lie a cnniiii.iii (li\i>()r of Irn,L;tIi> laid off 1)\- it. I iiia\- Iktc- turn aside iroin ni\- iiuiiiLdiak' t(i])ic' Id com - jiaiv these iiK'trical standa-ds witli that of the Mound I'.uild- ers of tlie ( )hio \allev. Ill tile .liJhiiiaii . I i///<//i(in'ii)i, A])ril, iSSi, I'lof. \\'. |. McC.ee applied Mr. I'etrie's arithiiietieal s\sleni of " induc- tiw iiielidlo,<;\' " to a lar.^e imiiiher of iiie,i>ureiiienl> of niounds and earthworks in Iowa, with the result of aseer- lainiiit.; a cf)Uini()ii standard of J5.7H) iiulies. \\\ iSS;,, Col. Charles \\'hittlese\-, of Clexeland, atialwed eij;lit> -se\eii iiieasureinents of ( )hio earthworks l)\ the iiK'thod of e\en di\-isors and ecjuehnled that tliiilx inches was ahout the len<;th, or was one of the innlti])le.s, of their inelrieal standard. ■•■ Moreover, liftN-seN'en per cent, of all the lines were di\isi- l)Ie without remainder 1)\- ten feet. How imieli of this iiia\- have been owinj; to the teiideiicx of hurried iiiea>nr(.is to a\era,ij;e on liws and tens. I cannot sa\ : hut lea\ inj; thi> out of the (inestion, there is a prohahilil)- that a ten foot leu,L;th rule was used 1)\- the " nioiuuhhnilders" to la\ out their works. It nia\ not he out of place to add a sui^^estioii lieie as to the ap]ilical)ilit\- of the niethoils of iuductiw nietroloo\- to American monuments. 'IMie inoporlions .i;i\en alio\e hv I\tlil\ochitl, it will he noted, are strikinsjK inesjular < M (Ir i^M. p. ,;57, i|ii(iUcl liv ()ici/i'ii. Aliiiarnz's \miI(I-. ai<- imt at .ill ipKii-f; "la imidad liiual, i-cm ]K(iucna-i iiKidiiKai iiini>, ililii' --i i t'cra dr •< in ■-. ■■ lualio palinus |)i.i\iniaiiu lilt'." * Jlir M,i I Kill .SI, 111,1, 11,1 0/ /lir Mi iniit-i:iii,',i,is. Ktdim-d l.y tin Mtlliud oll'.veii Divi.sors Ily Cnl. Clias. Wlilttksiy (Cli'vilaiitl, I^^.;J 'I ,i if 44.S ICSSAVS OI" AN A.MIvRICAMST. (411 '.. 26). \V IS tlli^ ac cidcnl or (ksiiiii? W-rv likeh- the latte-r, l)asf(l upon sonic superstitious or astrological nioli\-e. [t i> fr om a sohtarN' ex anipk where in the remarkable ruins of Mitla. It recurs every - "Careful atten- tion, sa\ s Mr. Louis II. A\i th e whole asNinnietncal ne, "has been paid to make Thi s asvmmetr\- 1 Mitla is not accidental, 1 am certain, hut made desi^nedlw M. Desire Charnay tells me he has (jl)ser\'ed the same tliiiiL.^ at I'alen(|ue." These exam])les should he a warnin;.; a,<.;ainst jilacin.i; implicit reliance on the mathematical procedures for obtaininj; the lineal standards of these for.uotten nations. ■•' Whatever the lineal standard of the Aztecs \\\\\ have been, we ha\-e ample evidence tliat it was widely recf),L;ni/,ed, \-er\- exact, and officially defined a.nd jirotected. In tlie great market of Mexico, to wliich thousands fiocked from the neigldtoring countr\- 1 se\'ent\' thousand in a day, sa\ s Cortes, l)ut we can cut this down one-half in allowance for the exaggeration of an enthusiast), there were regularly ap- ])ointed goxernment officers to examine the measures used l)y the merchants and compare them with the correct stand- ard. Did the\' fall short, tlie measures were broken and the merchant .se\erely punished as an enemy to the public weal.i" Tl ie road-me ;isures of the A /.tec s was l)y the stojis )f tl le carriers, as we have seen was also the case in (lUatemala. In Xahuatl these were called ihnii ////•. resting place or * .\ii/(:\ nil Mi/l,i. in I'l iu;-i'di)ii;s at' tlir A iini hiui .1 ii/i,/Htii /iiii Sni i< /\ . .\])ril, i^Si, tSic Uc cayi .wii. ■n, /'<'. i!(/(;.v (//• liiiliiis. I)c ii, I, ill. V 11, c'.'i]) XVI, am 1 I)v I. ill Ca'-tit;!ih:in iiiiicho alqiu' fat'ifah.-i nicdiii.-is, <licicii(li) i\\w era (.■iu'iiiij;i) tie lodos i ladiDii puliHcD," ct ^\■ I", I C. 1 1 TS T ■ N K XOW X . 449 ncllatolli^ sittiii": ])laccs ; and distances were reckoned nn- mcrically l)y these, as one, two, tliree, etc., restin- jdaces. Altli()Ui;h tliis seems a vague and inaccurate method, usa>;e had attached c()mi)aratively definite ideas of di-iance to these terms. I-ather Duran tells us that alon,<;- the hi-liwavs there were posts or stones erected with marks upon tliem showing how many of these stojxs there were to tlie next market-towns -a sort of mile-stones, in fact. As the com- petition between tlie various markets was verv active, each set up its own ])osts, giving its distance, and adding a curse on all who did not attend, or were led away by the superior attractions of its riwals.-'- vSo lar as I ha\e learned, the lineal measures abo\-e men- tioned were those a])plied to estimate superficies. In some of the ])lans of fields, etc., handed down, the si/.e is marked by the native numerals on one side of the idan, which are understood to indicate the scpiare measinv of the i'.icluded tract. The word in Xahuatl meaning to surve\- or measure lands is //a/poa, literally "to count laud," from /ht/// land, poa to count. The A/.tecs were entirel\- ignorant of balances, scales or weights. Cortes says distinctly tliat when he visited the great market of Mexico-Tenochtithui. he saw all articles .sold by number and measure, and nothing by weight.!' * " Uiiliiaii tiiiiiiiios st'fi.il.'idosdf L-u:uit;is k,i;ua> li;il]iuii lic acmlii A l.i~ iiu icado: ." etc. !)iv.;^> niHMli, ///\A</7(( (/,• A; Xnr: .i /■\,f>,i '',,1 , \-,,l. ji, ],],, :.m .;- i;,,tli li-f terms ill ihc ttxl arc tiansla.lc 1 /,\i:i:,i in M.iliiiaS V(>fabiilar> , -c tlial it i - ;-•..! ■.i],]i.- Uial Die rcslir.;; places wcic scmulliiny luar tuu ami a li.iirtu lliric mile-, ajjarl, f'Todo In vciiilcii p )r cuciila >■ mcdida, c\ccptii(nic la^'.,-i ay. na no -c lia vi-t,) vender co^a al-una par peso." I'ai t.i> y h',Kui,ni,\s ,1,- Ifri lui n (■../.',■>, ]i. r.s. \VA. (;ayan;;os. ) 29 Tn •|.*!ii 450 I'SSAVS OI" AX AMI'KICANIST .■I', The historian IlL-rrcra confinns this from other authorities, and adds that when t;rass or hay was sold, it was estimated l)v the len.<;tli oi" a ord which could he passed around the Ijundle/^' The ])luml)-line must ha\e ])eeu luiknown to the Mex- icans also. They called it /t///</-J(/>/M//, "the i)iece of lead which is huui;- from on hi^^h," from /r///i/://, lead, and /y/Axi, to fasten something high nj). Lead was not unknown to the Aztecs hefore the concjuest. Tliey collected it in the Provinces of Tlachco and Itzmiquilpan, but did not esteem it of much \'alue, and their first knowledge of it as a plum- met must have been when they saw it in the hands of the .Spaniards. Hence their knowledge of the instrument itself could not have been earlier. The conclusions to which the above facts tend are as fol- lows : 1. In the Maya system of lineal measures, foot, hand, and body measures were nearl\- ecpially i)romineiU, but the foot unit was the customary standard. 2. In the Cakchiquel system. han<l and body measures were almost exclusively used, and of these, those of the hand prevailed. 3. In the Aztec s\stem, body measurements were unim- portant, hand and arm measures held a secondar\- jiosition, while tlie f(jot measure was adopted as the oHicial ami obl'- gatory standard both in commerce and architecliue. '•■"Tfiiiaii UK- lula pa.a Imlas las cosas; lia'.ta la ieiv:i, (|1k- i-ra tanla, (|iiaiUa se l)().lia alar con una taurda ilc una l>raza por uu I'lUiin. " Ilc.Tira, />,(iif,is dc /iii/iii^, Dec. ii. I, ill. vii, cip. xvi. In .aimtlicr ])assa;j;^i.' wiu-.c llii.-; lu^lDnan speaks of wcifjUt-* (Dec. iii, l,il). iv, cap. x vii), it is one of lii.i not inlVciiucnt slips of l lie pen. wmt IXl'KRKNCES. 451 4. The AzAec terms for their lineal staii'lard liuiii<r appa- rently of Maya orij;i,i, snggest that their standard was de- rived from that nation. 5. Neither of the three nations was acqnainted willi a system of estimation hy weiij^l;t, nor with the use of Hie plumb-line, nor with an accurate measure of long distances. s • - ! I ,1 f i ■ -W m THE CURIOUS HOAX OF THE TAENSA LANGUAGE;^= I:. : I, !• OXK might think it a difficult task to tiianufacture a new language "from the whole cloth;" but, in fact, it is no great labor. We have but to rememl)er that within the last dozen years more than a dozen "world-languages" have been framed and offered for acceptance, and we at once per- ceive that a moderate knowledge of tongues and some lin- guistic ingenuity are all that is required. It is an iiuiocent anuiscment so long as no fraudulent u.se is made of the manufactured product ; but the temptation to play a practical joke, and to palm off a deception on over- eager linguists, is as great in languages as it is in archoc- ology — and every antiquary- knows how suspiciouslj- he has to scrutinize each new specimen. A curious hoax, which deceived .some of the best linguists of Ivurope and America, was perpetrated about a decade ago by two young French .seminarists, Jean Pari.sot and A. Dejouy. Interested by reading Chateaubriand, and by var- ious publications on American languages which appeared in i^'rance about that time, they made up a short grannnar and a list of words of what they called the Va/isa language, from a name they found in Chateaubriand's loraoc- c/i .liiu'riqiic, and into this invented tongue they translated the Lord's (452) ■■r N Till'- TAl^NSA SONC.-IJOOK 453 Prayer, the Creed, an Algonkiii hymn publi^licl in Paris, and other material. At first, the two students pursued this occui>ati..n nurely as an amusement, l)ut it soon oecurred to them tliat more conUl lie made of it; so M. Parisol sent a hatch of the al- leged "fragments" of the "Tansa" to the publishers, Maisonncuve ut Cie, Paris, for publication. The manus- cripts were i^asscd over to M. Julien V-inson, editor of the RrviK d( /./>iQiiis/iq/,(\ who addressed the young author for further particulars. M. Parisot replied that these pieces were copies of originals obtained many years before by his grandfather, from what source he knew not. and on the strength of this vague statement, they duly appeared in the Reviic. Their publication attracted the attention of the eminent French lingui.s! M. I.ncien Adam who had long occupied himself with American tongues, and he entered into corres- pondence with M. Parisot. The latter's stock meanwhile had considerably increased. He and his friend had pub- li.shed at Hpinal, apparently privately, a small pamph et, with an introductory note in bad Spanish, containing a num- ber of ".songs" in the "Taen.sa," as they now called their language. They claimed in the note that the songs lia<l been obtained by a traveler in America, in the year 1S27 or 1828, "in the Taeusa town, on the bariks of the Missi.ssijipi or the Alabama " ( ! j=^- *.\ copy or tlii-; curious proiluctiou called CuitciounoAiiiviitanox'^ \\\ tlic r.iljiavy of the liuix-au of Ktluiolosiy at Washington. The iiitroihictory note is .is follows: "Ksos cantos, cscoyi<los en el auo mil y oclio cientos veinte y si( te, o veintc y ocho, por \iu via.ucro en Anicnca, y desjiues hallados en sus jjapeles, no vinieron januis, siquiera por lo qtie [wdenios saber, coiux-idos del piil>lieo s;ibio. Ivstos son E '^ 454 KSSAVS Ol" AN AMlvKICANIST \l Willi lliis abuiHlanl inntcrial at liaiul, youii.y; I'arisot re- ])1ic(l tliL-cTtully to M. Adam, and sii]i]ilii.<l that scientist will) "c()])y" from the allci^ed ancestral M.SS. qnitc cnonj;h to nil a uoodK \-olume of s-rammar, sonijs, lexicon, and the vaiions ]iaraphernalia of a linj^nistic apparatus, all of which faL;cr M. Adam and his collaborator, Mr. A. .S. Gatschet, the expert linguist attached to our Bureau of I-Uhnolot^y. re- ceived in _t;oofl faith and without a sus])icion of the joker who victimized them ; and what is more singular, without li;'\ing a doubt excited by the many and gross l)lunders of the N ouu'-' setmnanst. *^i» riieir joint work reached the United .States in iSS^, and for two \ears was received both here and in ICuro])e as a genuine jiroduction. M\- attention was first attracted to it in 1SS3, and then I referred to it as a "strange" i)roduction; Imt I did not give it a close examination until the close of 1SS4. This examination led me to prepare the following article, which was published in the .liiKrican .\)itiqiiarian for March, iSSs : 1 ■■• Tlllv TAIC^SA CKAAniAK AM) DICTION AKV. ^/ I^cccption lixf^oscd. The student of American languages is under many obli- gations to the editors and publishers (jf the lUbHothrquc [.in- gnistiqid Ainaiaiiiu\ nine volumes of which have been is- li)s misiiios c.nitos! di 1 rutblo Tacnsa, para las orillas (Ul Mi isipi 6 ikl Alabama, tutlos isci itDS tti tl (liilic y palido ilialccto dc atiucl puclilo, Todos los aiuij^os dc la CKMicia ban dc s( iiUr cl prccio dc csta peciucMa collecciDii." It will be luitirc'd Ibat tlic Spaiiisb is fidl of (.-irors, as csos for rstos, lialhiiliKs for tiiciiu/iii(li/s, /xiia /tis HI ilhis for fxn las 01 ///as ,■ and snilii ,i f>> riio docs not mean ttpfircnafc, as the author would say, but " regret the price' Tin: t.\i:ns,\ c.kammak sued 1)\- tlR- finn of M;,i: (iiiiRinc- I t Cit'., I'ar 'I.s. Most <.-n;il thcsf oil. tain valuahle antlKiitic orij^iiial mat proved sources, and rdited with judunKiit. Tl ot to tliis rule is the vohinie last issued, whieli t"r tor deserx'es niori.' tliau a passiui; criticism. Irom a])- le e.\ce])li(in oni its cliaiac- This vcdume l;ears the loll o\vin<j; title: ( ,rtri>/i>Ku'), < / \ cabidairr dc la /.ai/o/ir '/'(tnisa, n:rr '/'c.v/rs '/'nu/ii/fs ,t ( vu'iitcs p(U /. J). I lain)io)it,\ Pari.sol /.. . /,/, 0)))- (1)11 . \ III. It 1>- 19, coutanis what professes to he a <'ranunar of tl near the haid^s of the 1 Taeusas Indians, who lixed ]Mississi])pi, in the jiarish of that name in L( it was first discovered, hut who luive Ioult since I ic ower )uisiana, when tinct. I'olldwin.ij- the grammar are tlie " Text- )ecome ex- a remark- able series of native son.«;s in the alle,ned Taeiisa tongue, with a I'rench translation, accomiiauied 1 \' a conunenlarv and a \-ocal)ular\- A this array has l)een received by scholars without (in es- tiou. It looks so extremely scientific and satisfactory that no one has dared assail its authenticity. .Moreo\er, the book ajqx'ars with an historical introduction by Mr. .Albert S. Gat.schet, of our liureau of bUhnol o.g\-, and one of the a .gentleman who stands at tl le moreover. editors is M. T.ucien Adam, head of ]{uro])ean Americanists. Mr. (iatschet, fully reco,t;tii/.es the authenticity of the whole in his latest work, and up to the ])resent I know of no one who has doubted it, eith er in this country or in lun'ope, It is, therefore, onlv after a great deal of cousiderati on and hesitation that I now give i)ul)licity to the o])inion I have long entertained, that a gro.ss decei)tion lias been somewhere practiced i.s the preparation (jf this book, and » lif.i in': mi M 45^> K.iSAvs oi" AN a.mi;kicaxist. that it is iiol at all what it purpDils to ]iv. Ixi it !)(.• ur.- (ItTstood tliat I distinctly cxrulpatf tlif i4ciitlcim.'ii I ha\L' named IVoni an\- sliaiv in this: tln.\- can only l)c cliarv^ud with the \cnial error of allow in.^ their enthusiasm lor know- ledge to ;4et the better of their critical acumen. I shall ])r()cee(l to .^iw with as much l)re\it\- as i)o^sihle the reasons which have led me to reject the pretended char acter of this work. And fir^t I ma\- note that both the history of the allejj;ed orit^inal m;.niiscri])t and the method in which it has been presented ar^- to the last de,L;ree unsatisfactory. About the former, M. Ilaumontc tells us that amou!:; the pa])ers of his i;;rand lather, who died as maxor of I'londyjl'res, in 1S72, he found a manuscri])t in Sp.uiish, without (late or name of author, and that it is this manuscript "translated and ar- ranged," which is the work before us. M. Adam adds thai for his jiarl he had revised this translation and advised the omi-^sion of certain passages not " ])rotUable to science." I ha\e been informed by a ])ri\-ate source that M. Adam was not shown the original Spanish manuscript, although he asked to see it. W'e are deprix'ed therefore of any expert opinion as to the age of the manuscript, or its authorship. W'e naturally ask, how did this manuscript come to be in vSpanish ? Xo one has t)een able to point out in the volumi- nous histories of the Spanish Missions a single reference to an\' among the Taensas. Moreover, this tribe was con- stantly under French observation from its first (lisco\X'ry by I.,a .Salle in i6.Sj, until its entire destruction and disappear- ance about 1730-40, as is minutely recorded by Charlevoix, who even adds the name of the planter who obtained the CR A.MM ATICAI, I MPOSSIIUMTII' S. 45: coiuv^Hoii ..f llR'ir lau(l>. Willi tla- knowlcd-u \vi- have- of the L-aiiy Louisiana colony, it wonld have lam nr\t to im- possible for a Spanish monk to have lived with tlnui Ion- eiion-h to have ae(|nirerl their lan-na-e, and no mention t,, have been made of him in the I'lvnch areonnts, 'I'hal a vSiianianl. not a monk, shonld have attempted it, woidd have excited still more attention from national di>triisi. This preliminary L;ronnd of skeptieiMii is not remo\ ed by tnniin-- to the .L^rainmar itself. As M. Adam remarks, ih..- languaj^e is one "of extreme simjilieity," siieh simplicity tluit it excites more than the feeliiiL; of astonishment. How mnch liberty M. Ilanniontc allowed himself in hi-, ir.iiisla- tion he unfortunately does not inform n^ ; but I suppose that he scarcely went ,so far as to offer ori,L;inal opinions on the |)ronnnciati()n of a lani^na.i^e which no m.in has luard spoken for more than a century. If he did not, tlaii the writer of the orit,nnal mdnu-cript must have been a ]>ivtty SO(k1 linguist for his day, since he explains the pronuncia- tion of the Taeusa by the iMench, the iCnj^lish, the C.erman, and the Si)anish I I (p. 4). I .snpi)o.-e the references on p. ri, to the Xahuatl. Kechua and Al«;onkin ton-ues are bv the translator, thouL;h we are not so told ; at any rate, the\- are by .some one who has given a certain amonnt of stud\- to American languages, and could get up one not wlioll\ un- like them. There is, however, just enough unlikeiiess to all others in the .so-called Taeiisa to make us accept it "with all reserves," as the French say. That an American lan- guage shcmld have a distinctively grammatical i^eiider, that it should have a true relative |)ronoun, that its numeral system should be based on the nine. units in the extraordi- :. N 45'^ i;SS.\YS Ol" AN A.MIiKICAMST ,1 i I'i'* narily simple niaiiiKT Ikiv pioposid, thai it sIiduM have tluvi' ioniis (if tlu' pltiral, thai it> \rrl)s slidtild present tlu- siiij^ular siiiiplic-it\ nt' tlusi', iIrm' traits aiv iiidird not ini possilik'. Iitit tiuA aiv tiKi unusual not to lUinand the le-^t of tvidcnec. Hut till- tA-idcnei- which leaves no <!oulit as to the luini- l)UL;!:;er\' in this whole business is lound iti the -^o I'alled "Caneionero Taensa," or Taensa l'( cms. There are eleven f llu'se, and aecordiu'' to M. Adam, " the\' '"i\'e us unex- o ])eeted inl'ormation ahout the 'iianners, I'ustoms and social condition of the Ti'.ensas. II' he had also added, still more unexi)eeted inlormation ahout the ph\sieal i;e()!L;raph>- of Louisiana, he would ha\e sjioken \et uk re to th.e point. I-'or instance, our botanists will he charmed to learn that the su,L;ar ma])le ilourishes in the Louisiana swamjis, and that it furnished a fa\'orite food of the nati\-es. It is rejieatedly re- ferred to ip]). 31, 34, 45, fy~ K They will also learn that tl;c su< ar cane was raised 1)\- the Taen sas, althouyfli the hooks say it was introduced into Louisiana !)>• the Jesuits in 1761 (]). 45). The ])otato and rice, ai>])les ami bananas, were also familiar to them, and the white birch and wild rice are de- scribed as llourishint; around the bayousof the lower Missis- sippi 1 It ma\ be urt;ed that these are all mislranslatinns of misunderstood native words. To this I re])ly, what sort of edilin.n is that which not onl\' could connnit such un- l)ard()nable blunders, but send them forth to the .scientific world without a hint that the\- do not pretend to be an\thing more than guesses? Rut no such ai^ology can Ije made. The author of this fabrication had not taken the simplest precaution to make A CI'RlOfS CAI.I'NDAK. 45») his stnkMiU'tits c-oincidt- with facts. I low (knsf w.is his i.Uiinraiur <if the chiiiatf ot' Louisiana is iiiaiiiti-^lrd in thr prcttMuk'd "Calendar of thf Tauisas," wliich i> piinlid .,ii I>. 41 of his I)(iok. Ik' trlls lis that thiir year Ir'l;;;!! at the vernal Kininox and eonsisted of twih e 01 tliii teen months natni d as follows : h. I • ,S. 6. ID. 1 1. Mill. II of the siit;ar iiiaplis .\pril). Mddii n| ll()\vir> ( Ma\). Miioii of str.iwlnri ies (Jhik). ;\I(i()ii 1)1' luat (July). ModU nf iVuits .Alli^USt^. Moon ofllu' siiimiur liiints (SejHctnher). IMooii ofk'aves, ifalliii;,' leaves) ((IcIoIht). IMeoii of cold (XoveiiilKfi. :\Iooii of whiUuess 1 i. c. olsiiowj 1 1 )ecciiil)crj. Alooti of foi^s t January ). .^loon i>r\\iuUT liunls 1 I'elii-iiarv). Moon ofljinls irituruint;i. i,V ^loou o(\i.,M-eiii rctuiniu,^ ,^reen». 1 -MarcIO How ahsurd on the face of it, such a calendar would he for the climate of Tensas Parish, La., need not l)e uri^ed. The wonder is that any intelli.y;ent editor would pass it over without hesitation. The not infre(|uent references to snc.w and ice niit^ht and out;ht to have i)ut him on his -uard. The text and vocabulary teem with such impossihilities ; Avhile the style of the alleged ori<4inal sonj^s is utlerlv unlike that reported from any other nati\e tribe. It much more clcsely rc.seni])les the stilted and tumid imitations of supj)osed savage simi^licity, common enoui;h among iMench writers of the eighteenth century. ■■! lU, ' li 460 l■;ssAv,^ oi- AX amI';kicamst. As ;i fair cxainple of the nonsetiSL- of tliu whole, I will translate the last soil'' "iveii in the hook, that called y . P'.' Till". .MAKRIACr; SONC. 1. TIu' c'hii.T of 1!k' C'liarlas lias t-oine to Ihe land of llie- w.irriors " I c-Diiif." " "''him coiiK^t." 2. Aroiiiiil his body is a lirauliful iianiU'iit, lie \M.-ars lari;e k'L;.^iii;4S, sandals, lalilfts of whilt' wood, iValluTS ln-liiiid his head and hehind his shoulders, on his head ihv antlers of a decT, a liea^'y war elnb in his riulil hand. ,,. What is the wish ot'tlu- i^ri'at w.arrior who has i-onu' ? .\. IK- \\i>hes It) speak to the ehief of the nuiiuTous and powerful Taeiisas. 5. I.t't the w.arrior eiiler llu' hi>\ise of the old men. The chief is seated in I'le midst ol' tliu old men. Uv will ceit.ainly hear thee. Ivnter the house of the old nu'ii. h. (ire. it ehiff, 1'.,'. ■nan, I enter. Thou coiiicst. luiter; brini; him in. What wishes the foreii^n warrior? ,S])f,ak, thou who hast come. 7. Old men, aneient men, I ,im the ehief of many men ; at ten (lavs' journey U]) the riv( r lluTe liis the l.nid of poplars, the land of the \',ild riee, which ')elonL;s to the l)r,a\e w.arriors, '.he hrotheis of the Tai'iisas. S. I'hey s.'iid to me — since thou hast not chosen :. bride, [j;n to the Taens.as our brothers, ask of them a brid'L ; for the Chaetas are stroML; : we will ;isk ;i bride of the Taensas. 9. 'fhat is well ; but s])eak, wa.rrior, arc the Chaetas uumerons? 10. Count ; they are ;.i\ hundred, and I ,1111 stron!.ier than ten. 11. That is \stll ; but s]ieak, do they know how to hunt the buifalo and the deer i' does the squirted run iu stnir j^reat forests? \2. ''he hand of the wild rici' has no Ljriat forests, but cows, states and cdks dwell in our laud iu .^ri.at numbers. 1 ^ W'liat ])l,iuts ,t;row iu \'our country? 14. I'oplar,-i, the slnpe tree, the myrtle grow there, wc nave the TAI'XSA AIAKKI ACIC SONC. 4^.1 I will sii,i;af iiiai>li\ I'lioiiy to luakf collars, thf oak IVoiii \\\\u-\\ to nuikr war rliihs; our hills have ina-iiolias whost' shiuiii.i; Ifavis vnwv our liousc's. 15- That i> well ; thf Tafusas have ncitlu'r llii' slupi' tr.c uor tho fhouy, hut thfv have the- wax Irw am! thf vitu': has tlu- l.iud of the wild rice thesv' also ? 1 6. The Tatiisas are stroii,-; and rich, the Cliartas are stroii.; also, they are the hrothers of the Tain-as. 17. The Taeiisas love the hravi' Chaetas, they will ^ive \du a hride; hut say, ilost thou eouie alone ? dost thou hrin-' hridal ])reseuts. iS. Twi^nly w.irriors are with nie. and i h'.'s d/\!;^„ mi;/. [<■). Let six, seven, Iwents Tai n>a warriors .i^o forth to meet those who eonie, h'or thee, we will let thee see the hride, s'le is my dau-hter, of me, the .ujreat idiief; she is yc.nn;,^; slu- is he.iutiful as the lily of the w.'iters ; she is stra'-ht as the white liireh ; h r e\xs .are like unto the tears of ,L;uni thiu distil from the trees ; she knows how- to ])re]),ire tlu' meat-- for the warriors and the sap of ilw sti-ai- ui,ii)le; she- knows how to knit the lishiui; nets and keej) in ordia- the weapons of war -we will show thei' the l)ride, 20. The straie^ers have arrived, the hulls have dra.LJXed uji llu' wain. Tlie warrior oilers his presints to the hride, ]),'iiiit for her e\es, fine woven sUd'f, scalps of enemies, collars, hi\intiful lir.ieelets, rin,i.;s for her feet, and sw athin:^-l)ands for her lirst horn. 21. The fatl'.er of the hride and the olil man receive skins, Ik. ins of (l-'er, solid hows and shar])eiK'(l arrows. 22. Now let tln' jH'ople rt'pose durin;^- the ni.^ht ; at sunrise there shall he a feast ; then you shall take the hride in marria-e. And this io the son;.;- of the marria''e. , ') < The a.'^sin-ancc which has offc'ivd this as a oeiiiiiiK' compo- sition of a Lottisiana Indian is only c(|iialk'(l hy the docility with which it has been accepted by Americanists. Tlie marks of fraud ii])on it are like Falstaff's lies --" -ross as a mountain, i)pen, palpable." The Choctaws are located ten ^ II 4^12 ESSAYS OK AX AMKKICANIST r ■ . I .'•: (lays' jf)iirne\- up llie Mississipj)! in Iht- wild rice rL'L;iciii about tlie licadwatL-rs of tliu slR'ani, whcTcas tlu-y were llie iniuiediale ncij^libors of llu- real 'i'aensas, aud dwelt when first (lisco\ered in the middle and soulheni i)arts of the preseut State of Mississippi. The su.L;ar ina])le is made to .Urow in the Louisiana swam])S, the broaddeaved nup^nolia and the ebony in Minnesota. The latter is descrilied as the land of the m\rtle, and the former of the \ine. The north- ern warrior brings feet-rin<;s and infant elothing as presents, while the southern bride knows all a.bout boilinL; ma])le sa]), and is like a white birch. Hut the author's knowledge of abori.<;inal customs stands out most prominently when he has the up-river chief come with an ox-cart ami boast of his cows! After that passage I need say nothing more. He is intleed ignorant who does not know that not a single draft animal, and not one kept for its milk, was ever found among the natives of the Mississippi .alley. I have made other ntUes tending in the same direction, but it is scarcel\- necessary for me to proceed further. If the whole of this pretended Taensa language has been fa- bricated, it would not be the hi.>t time in literary history that such a fraud has l)een perpetrated. In the last cen- tur\-, Cieorge Psalmanazar framed a grammar of a fictitious language in I'ormosa, which had no existence wliate\-er. So it seems to be with the Taensa ; not a scrap of it c .n l;e found elsewhere, not a trace oi' an\' such tongue remains in I^ouisiana. What is more, all the <:!'' writers distinctly den\- that this tribe had aiiy independent language. M. I)e Montigny, who was among them in i6yt;, b'ather (»ra\'ier, who was also at tbeir towijs, and Du Prat/., the historian, As soon as I could oI)tain iv])riiits of the above article I forwarded them to M. Adam and others interested in Amer- ican lan-uai^^cs, and M. Adam at once took measures to ob- tain from the now " Abbii " Parisot the ori.^iiial MSS. That youno- ecclesiastic, however, jM-olessed entire i-norance of their whereabouts; he had wholly fori,n)tten what disposi- tion he had made of this portion of his -randiather's papers! He also charoed M. Adam with havin- worked over iiTDiaiiir) his material: and finally disclaimed all re- sponsibility concerniuL; it. In spite, however, of his very unsatisfactory statements, iM. Adam declined to reco.i^iii/.e the fabricitiou of the toni;ue, and expressed hiu'self so at len.uth in a brochure entitle 1, l.r 7\inisa a-t-il /•.//■ foyor dc toiitrs /'/v .v / A'rf^jiisc C % 'I'KI' M.WfSCKIl'T I.OST. 4''.'. an all say positively that the Taeiisas spoke the Xatc-luv. la .mia-eand were i).irt of the same peoi)le. We have ample specimens of the Xatche/., and it is nothin- bke lhi> alle-ed Taensa. Moreover, we have in old writers the name, of the Taensa villa-es furnished by the Taeusas themselves, and tliey are nowise akin to the matter of this -ramniar. but ,ue of Chahta-Muskoki derivation. What I have now .said is I think sufficient to brand this granunar and its associated texts as deceptions i)racticed on the scientif;c world. If it concerns the editors .and intro- ducers of that work to discover who practiced and is respcm- sible for th.it deceiition, let the ori-inal nianu>crii)t be pro- duced and submitted to experts; if this is not done, let the book l)e hereafter pilloried as an imposture. '!■■.. ill vj: 464 ESSAYS OI' AX AMI'RTCANIST. <i M. naiiici (,. Ihiiiloii (pp. 22, Maissonncuve I'rcivs ct Cli. I.ccltTC, Paris, 1SS5). The arj^unicnt whic-li he made nsL' (if will be seen from the fDllDwiii};' reply wliieh I ])ul)- lislied in '/7i( . I dk > i((U/ .\)iliqiiariaii , September, iS'S5: Till'; tai;nsa ckaimmak axd dictionary. The eritieism on the- Taensa (irannnar pnblished in the . hiur/Km . iii/ii//i(iruni la.^t Mareh lias k-d to a rc'pl>- from M. Lncien Adam, the principal editor, nnder the fillowing title: " /.(' 7'it(!/S(i a-l-il-dr /or^r i/f /oiiii s /'/rccs /'' As the (piestion at issne is one of material importance to American arclueoloi;}-, I shall state M. Adam's ar^unients in defense of the (irammar. It will I)e rememliered that the criticism jinblished last March closed with an urgent call for the proiluction of the orij;inal MS., which M. Adam himself had ne\er seen. To meet this, M. Adam as soon as ]iracticablc ajiijlied to M. Parisot, wl'.o alle.^ed that he had translated the Grammar from the vSpanish original, to jiroduce that orii;inal. This M. Paiisot profes.scd himself nnal)le to do; althon.t;h only two or three years have elapsed, he caiuiot remember what he did wiili it, and he thniks it possible that it is lost or destroNed ! The investi;4ations, howex'er, re\'eal two facts (piite clearl.\- : first, that the orii^inal MvS., if there was one. was not in ,Spani>h as asserted, and was not in the hand- writing of M. Parisot's grandfather, as was also asserted, as the latter was certainly not the kind of man to occnj)}' him- self with any such document. lie kejit a .sort of boarding- house, and the suggestion now is that one of his temporary ^ ^ 1':ntrai'1'i.;i) mxciists. 465 :' . f guests left this supposL-d MS. at his Imusc. As its vxi>tuKx- is still in ,l„nht, this niu-crtainty nh.nil it^' ..li.^i,, ,,,,,1 ,„,i further foiicei-ii us. The 111.. IV ini])()rtant (lucstion is wlic-tlicT ihv lan-ua-e as pR-suitc<l in th.e (irannnar an<l tc-.xts hears inten.;.I^evuknce f)f autliciiticity or not. M. Achun I.L-iiis witli tlie texts, tlie s<;-ealle(! po.-ins. To "ly surprise, M. Adam, so far as thev pretend to l,,- native pr.Hhu'tions, to.sses them overl.oanl without the slioluest compunetion. "In niy own mind," lie write., "I have al- ways cnsidered them the work of some diseipR. of the Jesuit Fathers, who had taken a fancy to the Taenia poetry." This em])hatic rejection of their ahorininal ori-in lias le<l me to look over the volnme again, as it seemed to me that if such wa> the opinion of the learned editor he sl„,„ld cer- tainlv h.ave hinted it to his readers. Not the .sli.^htest inti- mation of the kind can he found in its pages. The origin.al M,S. having disappeared, and the texts liav- ing l.eeii ruled out as at hest the l..,tch-work ..f some luir..- pean, M. Adam takes his .stand ..n the (Grammar and main- tains its authenticity with earnestness. I named in iii\- critieiMii six points in tlie grammatical structure of the alleged Taen.sa, specifying them as so ex- tremely rare in American languages, that it demanded the best e\-i<leiice to suppose that the\- all were piv.seiit in this extraordinarx- tongue. These points are discussed with much acnleiios ;iiid fair- ness by M. Adam, and his arguiiieiit> witliin tlie.e limits are considered convincing by so eminent an aullioril\- a. I'ro- fe.s.^or Krie.lerich Miillcr, of \-ienna, to whom thev were 30 I' i 466 JCSSAYS or AX AMICKICANIST. .submitted, and whose letter coiiceniinj,^ them he puhlislies. What M. Adam does is to show that each of the ])eciiliarities named finds a parallel in other American t()nt;ues, or he claims that the point is not properl\' taken. As I never denied the former, l)iit mereh' called attention to tlie rarity of such features, the question is, whether the evidence is .sufficient to suppo.se that several of them existed in this tongue; while as to the correctness of my characterization of Taensa Granunar, .scholars will decide that for themselves. It will be seen from the above that, even if some sub- structure will be shown to have existed for this Taensa Granunar and texts (which, individually, I still deny), it has been presented to the .scientific world under conditions which were far from adequate to the legitimate demands of students. M. Adam in the tone of his reply is very fair and uni- formly courteous, except in his last sentence, where he can- not resi.st the temptation to have a fling at us for the sup- po-sed trait which Barnum and his compeers have conferred upon us among tho.se who do not know us. " Permettez- moi de vous dire," he writes, "que la France u'est point la terre cla.ssique Aw /iimibn^.''' Has M. Adam forgotten that George Psalmanazar, he who in the last century manufac- tured a langurge out of the whole cloth, granunar and dictionary and all. was a Frenchman born and bred? And that if the author of the Taensa volume has done the same, his only predecessor in this peculiar indu-strj- is one of his own nation? Tin.; HOAX ACK\(nvi,i:i)c.Kr). ,- _ ■4 / M. Adam continued his pmiscuorlhy cffurt> t,. unc;„ih the imaginary originals of the Abbe I'arisofs h..ax, l.m with the results one can easily anticipate— they were n..l forthcoming/^^ The discussion continued in a desultory manner for s(mie time, and Mr. Gatschet made the most strenuous efforts dur- ing his official journeys as government linguist in the south- west and in the Indian territory to fnid evidence showing that he had not been taken in by the ingenious Freneh seminarists ; but his continued silence was evidence enough that none such came to his ken. In 1886 Professor Julien Vinson reviewed the question for \.\i<i J'^ri'Hc de Lino/iis/iqiie, and delivered what may be con- sidered the final verdict in the case. It is to the effect that the whole alleged language of the Taensas-grauunar, vocabulary, prose and poetry— is a fabrication by a couple of artful students to impose on the learned. I ma>- close with the Professor's own closing words : " Que restera-t-il du Lxciisa ? A mon avis, unc nn-stifica- tion sans grande portee et wiicli ado about iio/hino:' *The (lisciisskm elicUed the following a.i,liti<,nal l.rocliMn-. fruni .M. Adam : ^ /.e 'n,n,sa n'a /,„s elc foyge de lo„trs pn-.;s. I.rthc ,/,• .M, l-;„dyuh MiilU; ,i I.ucirn Adam, p)), .). Dom Parisnl ne pioduini pa: Ic yhuiuscit Tacna. I.cttn- a M In'or 11,;,, v pp. ij- ■ ' |: '. J. j '_ mi OF AUTHDHS A,\|] AUTHOHITIHS. .Mill Rfiunsat, iS? V). AIh'I, C Arl III 4"2. I I. nr, laiiU'i ■1, -s. A. lam, I, lu'icii, v, AuMn, j. M. A. J^o, J.^i, 2S2. Ave I.alli'inaiit, 1 ir. R AyiiH', l,()iij> H., I |,s. U/), 201;, J Id, Ji _ ■ 1. :>; ^'^ l",S, |ii(i, 15.^. ■"/. Adlcr. C. J., :;2S, ;ijc A.i^lio, .\,t;()stiii(), j/;(). Aouiliir, l\.,li-,, Saiul K/. (Ii-, 2;(i "iriui/., R. 1' I'.al.l.ilt, I'raiiccs. liar/a. Harl. ( ',. ,\^ r>akir, Thfiidna', llandc'licr, A. 1'. i''l. i'''>. J'^. '>'>■ Alca/ar. I'ailrr, -<•>. Aliiiara/, RaiiKni, ) \(i. Aiiicv^liiiKi, Moniiiiiio, 31. AiiaKs (If Cliiiiial]! ihiii, jS: I'.arai^a, 1 rcdcric, 1 ;i, ;i,|, 1 1 I'.aru-ain, jdlin. 75. liarlraiii, W'illiaiii. 71. 71), 7,s. r>ia. li, W. W.. ir. I, ■'^'', 1)1 1, 2 III, 1 Anally lie Cuaiilititlai Aiiak's lUl Museo Xarioiial, 2U Aiuliifla, Jusciih df, ^^Si, st/. • i.ali\iii-,, I',., *di(iiitt, Vvv I IS. I'. .I'I'i. I' litii iidl, C. H. 179. ■':■,:• -^T-'- r.fVfrlv, Rolni ' i>i. i'>|. '71. 175 JSS, .'45, v^s. I'.ililidt Aiichorcii 1. lose I)., i( lli'lJlK- I,illL^lliNti(|lK- AllKII Aiu-it-iit Nahiiatl 1 15 4- )5. 425. .|js. ueiiis," U-. I! rliat, llicdiiia. 1 I!i (-■luniida, J Ancoiia, I'ili.nio, 2,58. Andrews, .|i.j. An,L;rand, ],e<)iiee, S4. i.s.v Aiin.als of tlie Kakehiijuels, ino, I'.da^, r'r Anthony, .\. S., iSi \i.j2. IIS narratu'; ori'iizd lie. j() ]lloines, I- 111 <H'lianl, -(>. unu iili.icli, ^^. ,v>. y. in/., 22, <i i, 2s'-, iUidks of till' Jew, .MS. rolessor. |d2. Arciiive-s ])aleo,^iaphi(ines de !'( )r Ronk'. M. de 1 ient et de I'Anicrique, 25;,. RdUiiini, II., jib. '. 4' "J ' Charluvoix, 1'. I-'. X., 69, 456. Cliiiniay, 1)., S3, >S6, 89, 97, 44S. CliaU'aul)riaii(l, 452. Chilaii I'.alaiii, Hook of, 21S, 254 Cliiiii;il])aliin, ]). 1'. df, 2.S3. Chroiiick'S of till' Mayas, 99, kkj. Cii'tTo, M. T., 127, 424. Clavi,iL;er(>, 1'"., S4. Codt'N liolo.niR'Usis, 158, Codex Chiiiialpoi)oca, 210, 221. Codex Corlesiamis, 19S, 253. Coilex Dresdoiisis, 199, 2(K), 250, .s^. Codex Mexicamis, No. II., 252. Codex rerosiaiius, 252, 265 Codex roiiiselt, 154. ■ I)ara])sky, Hi'., 7,<.)S. Darwin, Charles, 39, 4;^, 408. Dawsoji, J. William, 44. Dawson, (leorj^e M., ,^95. Dead, Hot)k of the, 136-140. I Dejouy, A., 452 .vi/. Dias, 430. j Dioc-i<inario llislorico de Yucatan, 1 263. I Diccioiiario Iluasteca - Kspanol, MS., 221. Diccioiiario Maya - kspanol de Motul, :\IS., sff Motiil. Dictioiiaire C.alihi, 123. j Distel, Theodore, 330. i D'Urbigiiy, Alcidc, 39. t 47" iM)i;.\ oi' .M'l'iioKs .\Ni> .\r'i'ii<iRi'rii:s. I'.cpiirlioiirj.;, Hras^enr de, m'i' liriis- senr. iJrassi'ur <de Iioiirhoiirj.;), C, S4. lo.S, ii>7, 120, 126, uS, 1O7, 1711, 199, 2 1(1, 227, 231, 2 13, 2(\\. 2S2. Hristock, his faliulmis iiarn.iivi', HiKnaxcntur.i, d.-ihrit! iK' San, -'.V. ^Vi- Hiischinaiin, J. C. IC, 23, 92, 93. Hyin,i,'lon, Cyrus, 36.^. Campanins, 'iMioinas, 315. Cancioneiii, .Xineric.ino, .]53. C.iroihi. llnracio, 325, .||S. Carrillo, Cresceiicio, 2,vS, 265, 439. Carrillo, I'.slanislao, i'')i. Cartailhac, ivniile de, 391. Casas, Darloloine de las, 12.|, 234. Calherwood, l"rederick, 254. Cavalcaiili, Ainaro, 3S0-3.S5, 430. Ciroii, i'raniisco, 107. Chaiupollioii, 227. Chareiicey, II. de, 59, S4, 167, 196, Codex Rainire/, tlu', S|, S<), 90, 91, 92. Codex Ti.lleriaiio-Keiiuiisis, 2S0. Codex 'rroaiio, 114, 2imi, 202, 230, 2,S3. 265. Codex \'alic;ilius, 155. 2S(>. Codex /nniarraya, 2,^0. Coditi I'lri/, 265. Co.i^ollndo, D. I,., 127, ifiS, 235, 23S, 2()S. Coldeii, C, 6.S. , Coleicioii <lc Doiuiiuiilos para la Ilisloria <le I'.span.i, j;-,S- Coiiite, .\n.niiste, 57. Cnpway, (iiorjie, 134. Cortes, II. de. 44S. 449. Coto, Thomas, 106, 107, iio, 11 1 S(/., 440 .sv/. Cresson, H. T., (i, ,S3. Ciiesta, .\rroyo de la, 3S6-3.S,S. Culiii, Stewart, 151. Ciioi|, J. .\., 132. Cusliin.L;. I'rank, loS. Cuvier, ('.., 3.S, 57, 61. M iM>i:.\ (»)•• Arriiuks and ArrnokrriHs. Dorscv, f, ( )., i,,s. I>iiiii(iiit, M., ;j_ -,s. I'liiiioiiiicr. .M,, 150. iMiiil.ar, (,,li,| li _ 2,^, iHip.iix-, C,i],!;iiii, 275, 276. 47' H.irtt. Cll.ulis 1-., -So, ;,,S2. ll.lllllloiitf. I. I)., 155 v^. I llayiu's. 11. \v., IS, ;i. Hfckcwclilir, J<iliii, 191, ',15, ""•'■""■^•■"'. !'■ S., .V,. ./I, lyi-.U^i, Il.nrv, v!, ,,,s ,6- , '^']'' •'^■^''- Hrr-l.T. 2.S,, .,ov ' Hc-rv.is, AIiIk', XV >. J'liniiicicli, j-a„i, 3,s, 65. Ivliot, John, iiyo. IvI Siulo (|iif \calia, 274. I'llluiin, j., IS:;, ,y, I'.iraiid, Ihiiry, 21, 394, 395 I'tTiiaiidc/, Aloii/.o, J24. I'i'ii'li. I'loC, 71). I'linl, I'ail, 2.S, 42. I'ok'v, Dr., 57. I'oriKri, R. 1'., .39 Ilcrvi'. ( 'ii'oi-j^H'S, 62. IIoMiii, 196, 197. Holjriiiii, R. ]'., 426, .p,s. IIoliiRs, W. H., I ,s. Hovelai(jiu-, Alu-l, 62. Ilow.se. JaiiK's, ,56, .vS;,. .^j.i, .^jy. 4'". 4' ). 415. Iluinholdl, AlfxaiKlcr von, 2t), -,-5, 6<', 251, .Vv\ ,^.74. .vr. IIUTIlJ)Ol(It, Willlollll voii, 36, 2,S4, !••• , -''''''• .i2.s-:,4.s, 35-,, .1,,; I'ostfniiaiin, Dr. ]•; 21m 51- -,-, ti,,,,. ,. \ 1 1 ,. , , '■''•. -J'Jo. 24,,, 2,-|i. lliiutfr, Arclidfacou, 4(,7 i'osU'r, J. \V., f)7. * -^ I'raiira. ]•:. I'., 43,,. Icoiioj^raphir ]viU'ycloj);LMlia, The, Oahl), William M., 374-378. Ca,<,a', 'I'iioiiias, 170. r.allaliii, AllRTt, ,SS, kk). Gania y Carcia, Ap. 165. OatsdiLt, A. S.. 75,454.V(7. Gayaii,i,^os, J', d,., 449. Oocthc-, J. W. von, 260, 2S4, 316, Graiiados y Cahx'/, I.J,, 117. Gravicr, I'., 462. Gii/maii, raiitalfoii dc, 107. 128. Ilaeckfl, ]•;., 390. Half, Horatio, 1,^, T,g-^ Hi IL- llxllil.xorhitl, l'.,.S4,87, 90. 92, 97, I 283, 445. [Jesuits, Relations des. 78. I Jones, C. C, 79, 80. j Knlin, I'c'ter, 185. ■' Kane, I'aul, 69. Kill,^fsboroul,dl, I.ord, 84. 87, g,,, i 99. 155. 210, 221, 231, 2.^1, 280, 445- I Kollniaiin, J., 40. iniaiui, 284. Lacondjc, Al. "v, ]•:. T., 148, 140, 210, 367. Harpe, M. de la, 77. Hartniann, \V., 189. Lafitau, J. r., 69 Landa, Ditiiod i.V, :,64, 366, 414. 199, 2: 43«- X<>(io, 119, 127, ,5y, ,66^ 24" St/., 256, 257, 265, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // s?. 1.0 ^1^ I I.I 2.5 1^ 2.2 I. 1.8 1.25 i 1.4 m i 1.6 ^ V] <5> ^ ^ /2 /a '3 /A w 7 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 5 <i 5^ ^.< >s 472 INDIA Ol' AITHOKS AND AITIK iR ITI I".S. t'^ ■I ■ 44 i I.aiii^f, Amlicw, inj. Lilaiiil, l.'liatl'.s ( ".., 1 ;;i 1, 1; ^ 1,1- ridiii^ciiii. A., IV)- I.k'lKT, I'l.lIH'is, v^S, .vS7. IjIlllNtrnlll. iSv I.iiniiiiis, C '. , ;,S, ; |<). l.i/.IIKI, l'.< lll.lt'lo (K', J,vS. 2>VK 2(i\. I.()\M.r, M . A., .'11). I,()]H/., |. .M., I'>|. ! uv'iMii. \<in. I |i>. I, unci, I )r.. j(), MariMli), I'. (Ir, 1 |.S, 157, 159. .M:u-I.r:m, j. I'.. (.7. Ma.iialliar--, I )r. Cotito ilf, ",S|,.|V). Mai;i(i, K. I'., ,',M7. MalUr\, (ianicU. 15'), 151). Mamisiiiti) Ilitralini, 2J,s. Martyr. I'lU'r. 2;;,. l\laUlu\s>, W'a^liiii'^loii, (12. .}o7. M.C.iT, W . I., 117. Mii.L;'-, Iaiiu> .\.. (\v Miinlo/a. ( iiniu >ini!(>, SM- Miclul. 1'., _M. Milrr, l'..irl(>I()iiK', 26, 27. Molina, .Mohsd iK', y_^, ^^25. .(iS, ■ll.v M(inlr-in(». II., 2;,. Mi):ili-n\ , M. «K', .\ii2. Narvai/. I'aiiililo i]v. 72. Naxtra. Ijiianiul, ,()'>. ,^71. Nc\i' \ Miiliiia. I,ni> iK-, v>'>, ,\~'k Nikkaiiiiilu', < tci-ola, lii^ ii.irr.ilivf, No-iuira, !». C. Da., ;,.Si. N'()>lrailaniii>, Miiliai!. v>i. ( )l]aiita, I)rama nf, v " >, I25 ^1/. < )lsliaiisi 11, I |i^ ()r()/i'() y JUrra, 2,^,, S), S7. ijn, ^.s, li)fi, 2Mi, 2,>l, 277, 2N2, .\\h. ( )>sad(>, kicariln, 27.V r.irnUs, R. I'., |2u. 1 arisnl, j., i,s2 NY/. rfna(K'l, Aiiti«ni(), 210. I'triz, l'iaiuiM."(), ,^(>(), }'<>. I'lri/., I'io, 120, 2(\:;, 26 1. 272. rcsrlirl. Oscar, '.|. I'llil, I'liv C, 77. I'llitol, ICmik', 21, ,s^, ;iMl, .V)''^. lul. I'clric, rroT., (17. I'icroloniini, Coiiiit, ;^(i~. I'irkiriui;, Cliarks, j^^. rii'kiU. Thoiiias Iv, S2. I'iirn^l, Paul, 1 ',s. ^Inntdy.i, Kui/ iU\ 3M 5, .V)'"^. 1' " 1, piimnUl, I'ranrisco, V>!^. .129. I'lal/inaun, Julius, 5S. I'oni't', .\l()ii/o, 2,^4, 2S.S. " I'oinil \'uli," llu'. ms Morjiau, I aw is .\., .\\, ,15, <v Moriiuc's, ].:■ M()\uc tU-. /.I- ,1 -^'i (/.. 17'. ^lon ( ... fill. I -(2: I'owi J. W., 6S, ;,iy, ;,5S. MorlilUl, (i. ill', ;,qo, ;^qi. Motoliui.i, 1'., N.s, MM- Molul, I )ii'iiouari'> <K-, MS., i U), I'mmoU, \V. II., Sj. I'rat/. I.c I'a'Jt.- 'hi, 7s. I -'7. 1: 2S'>. .U'.S, 421 .sv/., 4.VS Vf/. I'salniana/ar. (U-nrnc .}62, .}66. Miillir, iMitlcriik, 2,^: ,^7y. .v'^ii. ,i^<\ ■[<■>•>■ MiilliT. Max, ', ^S. vS7. 374. I'utiiaiu, 1'. A., 5,5 Rada y I)fl,i;a<la, J. lii' D., 226, 227. 47;^ •S..t(.IIl;,yoi-, [. ,1,. \-ill,, yilti.ru- (k-, S|iilln/,i, I!.^ I I I S<|iiiir. ]•:. c., (h), Si, i;,;. Sttiiun, Karl von din. ;j. Sti-intli,,l. H., ;,.g, ;,5^. \,^,, ,,,, >1>-I'Ihi1>., j, I,., H,|, lf>S, J6:;. Sloll, Dr. oil,,, -s. I...). r.K,, ,,,, i-'j, 42;,. Storm, Cu^tav, jj. StrtlHl, M. II., j;^. Siin.ijinioio, K., i;;. IM)!:X .)!• A.Tn..K,S .VNI, AITIK.KITIKS Na.it-iiilalala, 1 |6. Raininv. f, l',. ,.. ,s,s, ,,/,, 21.,. I<.inui>io. 7j. note. K.m.l. S. T., i.^o. Riinki-, iJr., ^.j, K.ui, Charles, .-,1. Kfiitarios .If IiiWios, M.^., j-, Kiiilult, C. II.. ),,,. K(.\ni>tro Viu-ati'co, i(,|, i^,-,. KiiiiKukaiiiprf, A. voii. .v,o. Kiiik. Ilciiiricli. 2.S7, 2,Scj. Koiiian>, r.iriianl. -S. I<'>s,i. .\,L;o^tin .le 1,1. ,;26. .^,66, ,2, . Kosny, I.idiidf, lyb, igy, 226. 2S2, 'I'ainur, [olni. 157. -■''■'• -''■''■ T:\])ui /Aiitiiio, Carlos <K-, .,2^. Km/ .k- .Montoya, Antonio. ;,s, S(/. 'I'aylor. S., 7,,. ^amtlhlanv.J. (;.,k, ,6,. T.stcra. lac-oho ,k >;^ Santa ko.a, Ikltran .k, 2,S. Tc-tlapan' ( inel/anu/in,' h,o Salia.-ini, Ikrnanliiio .k-, S,. ,S6. Teza. ]•;., ',^2 NS, M,v .,,. 97. i.p, 2S0. 2yS. ' TcvozonuH-: A., 2,,, S., .,,, ,,, ,s, Scliaskr. .AIax,.v^q. Thiil, I! \ ;-s ' ■-., Sc-hcllhas. I,r „6. 2<k., 202. Thon.as. Cyrn:,; nV ;,,6, 2..,, .., SHur/rr, Karl, , ,.,. , ,„ ,^,^^ ' -»• >Vl>.-..l.rali. II. R., ,,,, ,,, ,^^j Tin.hcrlak.. I.i.ntcnant, 7,, , ■;■"''■ Tolniie, \V. I'., :;(/,. S^lu.lunann, T. S.. .,;,o. Toj.inanl, I'anl^, vSe-lnvcnnl.. H. .k. .,,,0. Tonjunnada, I. d., .,, .,, ^^■l^r. I..d., ,cA 2,,,. Tro y Ortolan... [n.an.k' .^ Sc.|Uoyali, H,S. TsduKli, [. J, v " Sliakt'spran', W., ,,-, ^ly, 220, ''"". .Vi.T, ,^97, 4. i.j. ,i2<). Siua. J.)liii C., :^,sf,. Short, J.ilin T., 67. Siinton. Renii, 94, 2.S-,. Smith, SiKiu-ir, S|. Solana, Al.)nso dc, 2^^. Soriano. Juan (1., .:^73. Sosa, I", df 1'., 164. ^ vSotoiiiayor, Daina.so, 272, 277. rricoi'i'lua, I-;., 4.,,), 4.11. N'ai'a, Cahf/a i|c, 72. \'ala.ii-s, I).. j,,h. \'a!intini. 1'. J. J., u,- _,,- _,_,^_ J),;. 26 ^. ,:;7,:;. \ area. I'rancisfo. i..h, 110, I2(», .(42. \'<.'das, llu', I (2. \'t',t;a, Ciarc-ilass.) .1. |a, 75, --. Veitia, Iv., Sj, y, ,, t,-. I'; 'V '. J i li'ii 1 474 iXDicx or ArTiioKs and ArTnoRrriKs. Vijo, R. I'., no. I Winkler, Ildnrirh, 5H, „o ,c, Villacanas, licnito .k., ,07. | 3.S6 399 "'^ ' VilIali,an.l„,R ■].... ^„. i Winsor, Justin, ,8. \ iIlaKiitic-m- Solo-Mayor, Juan de, Woo.lhani, 219. y^^'^' ^y' . I ^Vorsaae, J. J. A., ,53. ,,s,S. \ msou, Juhon, 453. 467. | \v„ukc. Dr., 250, 252 V irchow, Ku.iolpl,, 63, 64, 153, ,58. ' Wyinan, Jeffries, 2,^ Wait/., TIko., 26fj. Waldec-k, li.aron de, 254. Whitney, William I)., 327. Whittlesey, Charles, 447. Williams, Roger, 131. Ximenez, Francisco, 103, hi, etc. Ze^jarra, O. Pacheco. 426. Zeisherger, D., i,S7, i.Sg. Zetiua, hie. ,164, 172, 175. t-; 3. 351, INDEX OF SUBJECTS. I, etc. AhafieeiiKa, lanj,niaKe, 381. A))ii)oiK-s, lanjrua,ire of. 3;/,. AImii(laiu-c, tlit- Iiousi' of, i4<5. AclK-roii, tlu- river of Hailfs, 141. Acolhuaeaii, ,S6. Acozpa, Iiiero)j;lyph of, 224. Adjectives, al.sciicc of, 405. Adji.ljiatij,', or j^rave posts of Cliip- eways, 22S. A^e of 'roil, Uron/e, and vStoiie, 49- Ag.i(lutination in languajre, 340, 361. Ahau katuns of Mayas, 264, 26S, 269. Ahkiil Chel, a Maya i)riest, 248. Alipu, niajricians, u.s. Ah-raxa-lak, a sacred name, 117. Ahraxa-scl, a sacred name, 117. Aluiilzotzin, Kmperor of Mexico, 28 1 -3. Akahal tribe, 423. Alj^onkin j,nammar, remarks on, JSK'. 364, 366. Aljronkin language, extension of, 35; radicals of, 36, 332, 400; "love words" in, 413. Al^onkins, hero-god of, 130-134. Algonkin stock, area of, 31 r. Algonkin tribes, their "grand- father," 184 ; as mound-builders, 70 ; legendary origin of, 24. (47 Alliteration, rare in primitive poe- try, 285. Allibamons, 71. Alphabet, of Cherokees, 199; of Valades, 2(X); in early s])eecli, 393 ; of Landa, 199, 24o-2.J5 ; of Chinese, etc., 214. Alternating consonants, 398. Anienti, the Egyptian Hades, 137. American languages, tenacity of, 35 ; diversity of, 35 ; trait.s of, 36; study of, 37, 308.?^/. American Indians, origin of, 17. Auahuac, 84. Analtes, sacred books of It/.as, 239. 247. Aiulover, a rebus of, 22 ^ Animals, transformation into, 114, '70, 171. Animate and inanimate conjuga- tions, 406. ! Animism, doctrine of, 1 17. Anthropoid apes, not found in America, 43. Anthropology, classification in, 349- .\pachcs, language of, 35. 394. Apalacha, fabulous description of 76. Ai)ap, god of evil, in Ivgypt, 137. Araucanian language, 398. Araucanians, skulls of, 39. 5) i :ir HI IIM 47'') iMii;.\ oi' srnji'CTs. |f- y"i! Ar.iw.uks, inlif, l<i; lan.i^ua^'c. JV'- Ari^illiU- iiii|iliHR-iits, ji. AiitlniH lie n\' .M,i\,is. j'lS. Ari/. •, ruin-- in, j.s. Arrluiiii- v>'"li''. !<>''• .\rn lu . ill I, in i|ii', 1S3. Arrow liiacU, nuii'nl forms of, V- Arniw-rt'lcasi', ilii- Anu'rican, (y>. Ar>ut, a --oiii^ I if Jv - Art, Anuriian, wholly iii'lii,;(.nons, lv>. Artlun-, KiiiL;. ''tory of, i;,i>, \\2. .Xrtifuial >lifll lu-ap^, aiio of jj. Aryan lani^naL^is, the, _\\2. '•■,2\. ,vll. .vS*^ ; (iialri-ts, alk'nvil, in Anurii-.i, 5<); nations, nntliol- o.ny of, I 1 1 . Assiun|ili\i' arni>, in luraldiw 2U). Asti()loi;y, nativf \'ni'ati I'.m, JS'). A>lroiioniif cviUs of Mixicans ami Mayas, j;. Asyininitry, intrntional, 1 jS. Athapascan lan,i;iia,i;f. the, 21, ,s'^. ,^(, i; ixti'Msion of the, ,^5; ck- nunts of, ;,(), At(.T])anani(>olu'o, Sh. Atlantis, thf fahk'd, .(;,. Atoyai', tlu- rivt-r, SfS. Auroral .i^ods, 1 1 i, 1 1 ',, Autoi'lUliony of Anarii-an cnlturc, (yy. Avalou, thr isU' of, i \2. Ayniari in drprtssion in .Xnu'rican skulls, f)J. A/.lL-oa .'/ .\/tf , S5, S;. 367. .A/.tti' I'aUudar cxjilaint-d, 2~(i t.) ; I'odii'is, JJI ; lo\i- solids, 2(.>,S 7 ; war souj^s, 2qS ; yt'ar i-yt-los of, 159, .s>v Nahuatl, Mi'\ioan. A/.tlan, dfriv.itioii of, .SS. Haiah. Ma\a diitiis, 17;. i'.al1in"s I, and, natiwx of, jsh, r.alani, intauiui; of, 1 jS, j^.S; ilu Maya ]iro]>lut, 2 \s. i'.alanis, .Maya diitit-s. 17J 17'). r..di ]ila\ in Mixiro, Sij. I'.anan.i, not an Anuiican plant. r.ascpu' laii.i^uavif, tin, u'l, ',51. I!at, as a totiniic .uiinial, 1 1 |. r.auri's, laii.miai^i- of, .v»7- I'liard in .\infriiau Iiulinns, v). I'.iiniL; and .Not-Ikini.;, in l.iiiv^'ua-f, |o|. I'.ii'titas, trilii', j,-^. Ilildi-isihrift. 207. liirds as wiuils, 12^, 175; svnitml i->ni of, 1(h), 1 71). I!i-si\u,d ilivinilii'S, (jh. log, I'.lai kfftt, ni\ tlis of, I u. lUai-k-tail, a lahulous sn.ikf. 17S. I'.lood, in ni\llis, 1 14, 121. llloWpipl', USl' of. ll K). I'.liK', as sat'rid rolor, i),s. 1 i'^. Boat of the Sun, i,:;s , of Cliaror, III- liokol k'otoch, a Mava ini]), 17S. Hones, colk-ttioii of, 7S. I')Ook, Maya word for, 2.17. I'looks of Chilan Halaiii, 2,SS m/c/. Hooks of Mavas (U-scriln-d, 2\2, ■?.i5. 2,:;7. Holivia, trihc's of, 397, [o.s. Horiu-a lan,niiai(c, the, .^75 v/. Uotoi'uilos, traits of, 3S. .^9, )o, (15. Uow-and-arri)w, iiunk'ru use of, ;i, Hrai'hyci]ilialisni in .\nicrica, fi;. Mra/.il, dLsij^ns of ])otli'r\- from. 157, 159 ; luound l)uildt.rs from. 67; ethnology of, 3S, .(o ; Ian- r r\i>i:x (II' si'iijix'Ts. 477 KUMKi's ..r, ;,S...sv., ,,,s s,/.- >lu.ll Cpalia. tlu' vill.,^,- ..f, ;•„ Iic.-.ps m. jS. C.na.Mia.oI. a IlaMiaii .livinitv. I'li-hn lan.yu.iL;c. the, ;; i sq. , |'). I!n.nka-ullninkalannna^.,,;75.^. Canlinal points, sncrni .lianH-tcr. ."■"T ■^"' "'"■ "•"'• '■=^»- ■"'• "^"' ''T. '7-'. .7s' liiunos .\yu>, anli;i„l.,^v ui'. ,,, , Caril. laii^na^f. ,v;., ,^^7. '"■ Carihs, ni\ tlidloi^M dt" M', nulTaln, Ixnip.' iiaiiir f,,,-, is,, Cirv.ra. thr d..^ , ,,' m.nal ruM.Mns. 75, 77, 7,s, , ,,, Catanhi.u- lunnUv^ „.,l r,,„„,l i„ Hunal luomulsin 1-lori.la, 75. Anurira. |,;. CalK'car laiimiai^'o, till', ;^75 ,vy, ,,, tmauiii, Cal.rakaii, ,n<,(l of e^arllKiuakts, Ci'vu,\ \,., ..; ,,i i,, ' ^-^ '•''•'1 \">t tic 1, |i(H'try of. :.SS. *-"«-'"t''<>ii Htiit/iialiiia, the, ()|. Ci rlK-ni'i, the .Id-, r ji. i 1'>. Cliiajia-^, ilialtcts ol", (jn I-M, IJJ. Cacliis, irilii', -,75. Caliokia. ]jyraiiii(l at. Si Cak. III. |tu!s, totcmic animals, I. 1: c;,,,.,! ■ ;., \. , • *• >. iiK alio. Ill A/tii- until i k • ■■ .'• • ' " -^l^' ei\ili/ali..ii, r<titir> oT (,i ,vl,. ,^7'>. p.;; luual nicas.ins Cliac, Mava -Kiti.s ,-; Chalita-Mii-kokic rainilv, tlir, 71 ,'». 1'. "*'• I.V^. 1,V; ; wriiiiio of, ji.s. Cakiillia-Iliirakan, a <juii lu- .^.,.1, ,,'■"'"' '"'■. Chahta tril.i>, t'lr, S ,, ,Si ■ v,-,- Calavc-ras^kull. ilu., ,0. Cli.utau. Calr,.l,|.,ni,uritiii.Mc.xpIaiiinl, >n. Chan Pal, a Mav.a ini].. 177. ,, "I""''', eliapallan, I.aki-, SS CaU.n.iar, mystir ivlalions of, <,.>, ciiapama- lanyna..v ;.,S ■-H,; „i Mexicans, -r, s ; the Chan.n, the fm■^n,an 1 L)uu-hc-Lakrhi,|uH, i.H,;„ttlu- CliHUs, ..hjccts Vn.ni v Jat'iisas, .ifi.i. ,.,,, ,. , . , , ,, ,.„ . . *^ iHiokiiN, wais with Ir.MMiui-, 6()- California, lan-ua.^vs of, ,;m, ; a. n.onii.l-l.nihkTs -, ,s . .j: annkroiis o,-,vcls of, ;,, ; re- ,,l,,,,K.t, u,s. ' ' "■ ' mains liom, .10. ,•,,,. ,••,,■ ,, , ' *-''i \ inir. a .Ma\ao"rc, 1 -(> Campeadiy, Hay oC :,,,,,. ChiiH-ha lan^na^c ,.k,. ' ' Canals, anciciU, in iqori.ia, 7,^ Chira.^na, a'villa..c -- Canck, chief of lt.,,s, 2,v,. Chicluii It/a, 2S T ^v .V Lannil.alis,,., nnknown in Vnca- ChichinKcs, tiil„M^,,, ..,j,s. ''"'• "'''• Chicoiiio/t w, lan.l .>f ", Canoes, maiinfacturc ..f, iS.s. Chikasaus. -i Cantico, meaning or 1S7. ciiilan, si^nilicati-n .,f j^s ^60 Cantin-anns. inheral.iiy, 2i,S. 27-^ " pn.pliecv .,f ;,,^, "'' ' ■ilf ''1; <;i> iili 47« i\i));x OF srnjKCTS. ^ ■? fo l.'-'v Chilaii r.iilaiii, Imoks of, 25,v Chill', liinmiai^'fs of, ,^t^S, Chiiiiahiiaii, llir viij^'iii, yf). CliiiU'Si', al|i]i.ilirt of, 211,215; 1'>"- j4iiaK<.', tlu', 32;,, T,T,(-> ; supposi'il ))rc'sc'iui- in AiiU'rica, 59; ])liil- (>S()])hy ;m(l syiiiholisiii, 150, 151. Clii])i-(akiillia, a (hiiilu' i,'o(l, 120. Clii])i'\viiys, build hiouikIs, 70; myths of, 1;, I. Chipeway ])ronouns, ,^24 ; picto- f^raphy, 22S. ChijH'ways, tliiir " j^'rand father, " ISS. Chii)L'\vay love soiij^, 294 ; love words, 41S, ("hi])ped Stone, period of, 50. Chicpiita lan.LCiiaj^e, 405. Chirakan Xniiuane, a yuiche j,;oddess, 122. Choctaws, 24, 71, 77, 461 ; srr Chahta. Choctaw lanjj;uape, the, 364. Chronoloj^ical system of INIayas, 263. Chumayel, hook of, 24S, 257, 291. "Chunk yards" of the Creeks, 76. Clark's Works, mounds at, Si. Classifieation of lanj^uages, 339. Coatepetl, the, .S6, S9. Coatlaii Tonan, an Aztec goddess, 94- Codices, the existing Maya, 2,50. Coatlicue, an Aztec goddess, 94, 95. Colhua, Colhuacan, S5. Color of American Indians, 39, 61. Colors in races of men, 38 ; pho- netic value in hieroglyphs, 223 ; symbolism of, 166, 167. Columbian gravel, relics found in, 53- Communal burial, 7s. Commuiial ihvillings, 1S5, )|^. Conjunctions, in .\niiriian l.m- guages, 3t,s, 4"b Contucticut, Indian n.imesiu, v"). CiiMsonants, .altcrnaling, 3i>S ; sig- nificance of, 394. Co])an, calendar stouc fioni, 155, 251- Co])tic, ancient, 215, 402. Cordova, Hernandez de, his ex- ]iedition, 232. Cortes, H., iiis con(|uest, I'So, 2S2. Costa Rica, age of slull-heaps in, 2S, 31 ; languages of, 374 vy. Counter-sense in language, 401. Courous, tribe, 77. Coyote, as sacred animal, 1 12. Cozumel, island of, 232. I Cranial characteristics of red race, 62, 63. Craniologic data from the mounils, .S2. Cranioscopic formulas of Anuri- can Indians, 40. Cree, language, 21, 363, 3S3, 395, 401, 403 ; love words in, 413. Crees, myths of, 131. Creeks, 24, 71, 76. 1 Criteria of languages, 336. Cross, as a sacred symbol, 14S si/i/. Cubit, as a measure, 441. Cukulkan, S4. Culcalkin, a Maya ogre, 177. Culture-heroes, American, 130. Cvcles, of A/tecs and Mayas, 159, '264. I Dakotas, 79 ; winter counts of, 159 ; dialects, 407. Dawn, master of the, 113. IXDKX OF SrilJKCTS. 47M r)ay-iii;ik(f, thf, 1 1 1, 129. Days, si^iisof, in Maya MSS., 270. Dfatli, ])ioj,'i.)i)stics of, 169 ; lord of, 170; ])iiiiiitivi.- iiulioii of, i-I,^ ; river of, 147. I)t'fr, as totrmii- animal, ii.|, 12.S. I)i-la\vari-, Slate, tlisrovcrit's in, i,j, Delaware river, relics from, 41, 5^ Delaware Imlians, scr I.enripe. Dene Diiuljic. trihu, 21 ; lan^uaKe, 395. Dependent clauses, 404. Determinatives, their use in writ- i»K. 216. Devil, wonls for, 126. Diluvial e])oeh, human remains in, 29. Divination, by hems, nS; hy thorns, 94 ; by stones, 165. Diviners, of .Mayas, 165. ! Do;,'s. as sacred animals, 140, 141, 144. 14ft- Dresden, the .Maya .M.S. at, 250. Dwarfs, fabulous, of Mayas, 177. Dyes used by tlie :Mayas, 246. I Ivskimo, skulls of, (1^ ■ physical traits of f)5 ; soiiys of, 2S(>-2(/) ; lan.trua.ue, 5S, 5vS, ;,),,. I'itow.ih valley, niound in. So. Ivye, obH(|ue or .Mon,-;oliaii, in .\mcrica. (it,, (•>{. Karth, the heart of the, 126. K,t;(>, ])honetic element of 396. Egyptian theory of the st)ul, 136- 140; hicrojrlyphicori^riijof^ 216; aljilinl et, 217. Ki^lil, as sacred number, 140, 146. Ekoneil, a fabulous snake, 179. Elci)hant, the .American, 32. r^lysium, fields of 141. Kpicanthus, in .\meiica, 64. En.ujlish lanj^rua.tfe, the, 336. Epochs of the raUcolithic Period, 51. Escamela, inscribed stone at, 274. I'ac-siinile of Land.i's .M.S., 242. l'"alher, the ^rvM, 175. I'eathers, as symluilic ornaments, I I r,. I'em.ile line, hereditary. i,S9. I'ire, earliest knowIed)j;e of, 391 ; festival of, anionjf M.ivas, 16.S. I'ish, the, ill .\ztec calendar, 2S3. I'ishinj,', ancient nuthoils of, (S4 l''leur-de-lys, origin of, 220. h'lores, island, caiiture of 239. I'lorida, ancient mounds in, 7^,, 7^, 77 ; >^Ih'11 heaps in, 2S, 31 ; Hm- i onite skeUlons from, 41. l'\)lk-lore of Yucatan, if)3 ; of I,en- :"ipe, iSi. I'ood-plants of native .\mericans, 1-oot, as measure of len<ith, 434 st/., 444- I'our. as sacred number, 140, 146, '57- I'our .\,t,a'S of World, 161. I'our hundreil, meanin,ii <>r 94. I'rieudshii), "iilive words for, 420, 42S. Eue;,Maus, ai)i)earance of, 39 ; lan- guage, 33,s. (iames, of Lenape, i,S6. Cieneratiou, gods of 120. C.eorgia, anti(|uities in, .So. (rhosts, sujierstitions about, 127. (Want bison, the American, 41, note. 4Ho IMii;\ 1)1' SfHjl'C'I'S. (li.llll <'.l.il(, |-fi; Stulic of till', "Iliiilt (if till- I.iiki'," K sirrnl u i -•71 >'/• C.l.iii.il .i.i^r ill N'liitli Aimrif I. il.iti- of, .|i, II, 51; ill Stiiiih AiiuiiiM. |j. ,ss. ( '.lllsk.lli the I,i;ir, ;l Miilliai' llrin I V '. ("iiaiiiiii.itir tnitii->, origin of, ;;i. ( iiMiiiiu.ilicil iMtii^iirio, till', |ips. ( ii;i]iliii' >\>liiiis, ]iliiiiirtii' iK' iiU'iit> of, ms ^</. ( rni])llic svsti'iii i\\' M,iy;is, J 15. (iR'i'k ]:iiil;ii:i'4i-, tllf, 5||, 5 |S, (rrcrll, .■|^^ a l'i)i(i|- ^ytllliol, I 1 S. ("iri'riilaiKl, |i<)ilr\- fnnii, jS- ji)(i. C.iijaKa. Juan iji'. ]ii> i\])i<liti(iii, //ou/ii ii/,i//is, Ihc, V)' ( iiKi'lalajara, 1 'iii\ iisilv < (iiiaraiii, laiiL;uav;f, ,^,S, 'i. '^-•'>. .i<>'^. .V)^), I'K'; li>\r Words in, ,1-'S. Ciiiarayos, luanliil Iinlians. p,^-). note. Ciiialrinala. iliaKfts ill, mt; tiihis of, I05, I J. I. (iiuuni,it/, ilrriv.ilioii ol', ii(); tiaiistoi Illations of, 171. (iiuiiniat/ Caliilia, a kiiij;, 1 1 |. (iiiiaiia, slKll-liraps in, ,^i ; ctli- iiolo,;4\' ot', ■,(/, |(). Clllf Stalls, .iiitiijllitirs ol", 72 .So. I ladi'S, (ki i\alioii of, i;i ; tlisrtnt to, I.'S '' Hair, \iiUMiraii Iiiilians, (>_• ; ol' till.' Suil-''0(i, MM. 1 \'K i-l'i ; lout;. as syinliol. I |(), j.So. Ilari.', till' (".ivat, 15J. Haniiai'his, I';>;yiiliainlivinily, 1,^"^- llalclu'l, liuryiii,!^ tlu-, 71. 1 Ia\li, iiu tliolo''\' of, II'), iji. iiaiiii', I I'l. Iiart, as a s\ iiihol, i 1 7, Iill, words for, \ jh, IJ7; drsiint. to, I 15 I ;o. Ii'iiii nu.iy l'Ai>lorin,u; I'!s]n'ditioii, Ii'ia!dr\ . int'tliods of, _mS, jjij Iriinajiolis, i'i;^lit ,L;ods nl', 1 jo. K'-|>i'ridrs, .iiaiili'ii ol'tlu', 1 [j. lidalsa laii.mia.i^r, .ln7, Iit'ro,;;ly])lis, Maya, jmi, jfi^ -7. loLj. till-, as a j.,od, I I V loloplirasis, I'Niilainrd, ,^jj. vSI loIllolillolU'S ill l.ill'^lla'^rs, IqS, J I 5, -M'). looks, used ill Cishiiii^, 1.S4. loriis, till' lv,^y])tian, iv^. lorsi', Di'lawart- word for. ,^21; fossil, ill .Xnu'riia, .;i, ^j. |j. lousi's. of liiaiiis, 1)7 ; coiiiniunal, i'\S. hiastri'a l.iii;.;na.':;i', tlu', JJl,,^,,!, VI 1 : loM' worcls ill, jjj. lui'iiiaii. an .\/tt.'i' liffo-.i^od, 1/1. hii^iunots, si-llU'iiU'iit of, 7 |. Iiiit/iloporlitli. an .\/li'i- "od, S.s, .S,S ; drruation ol, 1^5 ; lurlli ol. i/) ; ti.'iii])U' of, 25. hiil/iialiiia. A/loi- divinities, y|, M.=i. Iiiiiian s])i'iMC'S, divisions f)f, ;^S. Iiiiiior, anions; native .\niericaiis, JSS, Iiin-ali]iu, 1>irth of, i 35. Inn aliliu-iitiu, deri\atioii, 11 J. Iuii-ali|in-vm'li, derivation of, 109. Inii-eaiiie, a (Jnielie i^od, IJ|. Innliiiii-alipu, a (Jiiielie .Ljod, i,?.]. IM'i:\ oi- .sruj].;cTS. "tlllliiii;. .illciiiit llhtlindsnf iSi Tn.it-.r i lliifiiM, 1 .■ , .I'II''"Hm' uiitiii-, -SI. Ilun.iis. laiiial .list, mis f», II. ■ , '• J' ". i.iioK III Uu- 2-; '';;::;;:;:;;,-■'"■'''■ '-•■-■' i^-.-k.. .i,;;:..,. jtW. l!iiok nf llif, 27; Ii'lic;iii/ili,,, .iiuiciit iiaiii.,- ,,r .M,.,.- K'tiiii, l.,nl ,,rtlic, j ,,, ; ,,r .Mavis '<'". -J.vV JiHi. ' . • ■ • Mi'o.v^raiiis in ),li,„utir writintr, '■^•i""In, nf Max as, ,:;,,. '*>7 ; or .Mayas, j ,,s. ' ' Kan.,, li,,„k ,,f ciiilaii Ilalani ..f I'lolsol I.iIl.i]M-, l,S7; ,,rit,,.,s ^in- -'"''• J"''"l ""• -M^ ' Knit.u-ky, Mnhanl.,irv „,; s.r i'lols, MiiKrstiti..ns .(.mcniiii,',-. ''^•"l^".' l.n..;iia,';c, a,v' (j.jnicliua. '""■ j Kii-lK-s, .s,r Oiii, lies. Il«'.i..L;rai,l,ir uritin.ur. 21;,. ' Kirhi-oMai, '\l,;n,iki„ ,livi„it,Vs Ikoiioiiiatir iiutli,,,; ,,f ],l„„Kiii. '"• \Milin,^', .V,. Sy, 207. 2M. 21,V-22q, j l^"' ''l'. a M.lv,, ,|cilv l-u ,,''"■. iKinidialiaii, lu,.,.,,;! n|' Mavas Iinpli-'iiH'iits, simple aii.l c..m- ^iouavs, snnos ,,r .,^- 1'<">'-I. .v.. 5I02. Klaniall, lano,,.,.., „u; ,,. ;gS nc-a horn.. tlK-, 62, '<"">'al<, Mt., ,,.,.„, ah.nit ^n., i'H-as ol IVni, fals.. lists „f. 2-,. KilclRM.-ii.id.kns, in XincTica '- IiK-«.rj).)rativi- fliaiarlir of .\iiuri- " "'' can l.ni.oiia.t^fs, :;(,. 11, ^"'••"•I-.ali..n, explain.,!, 52, ,,., •;;'"■-•"■• "^"-s m; ,,,. '■"'"-Aryans, nivlli'sof 1,6 •''^'' ^^'••t^'-I<"lls tn,n,, ,0. I"'l-lnalarlinann.nt.Xnu.n.a, ':;„^;;'; ^^ n^^ 1 ''"•'' ''"• 29. ''ai'^iia,-^., (thnolo-u- valtii- ..f Iron, .\.i,.e „r. 40, .„ i ^""•-"•'«^-- 'I'-scussc-.l : .Siv /,//„/ It >iiUi/is. 2-. 24. 6^ .,;;...,,,. ,,,,„^ U'a.I, kn,)uii to .Mixi,;nis, 4,s.). lyeif Kriksdii, his \<na.!^(.', 22. I-i'fl han,!, as stnuii^ni-. c;^ Itza, town in Yucatan, 302. Itzanuil. lenipKs ,>(•, 236. Il/anina, luio-^ro,! „f :\i.jy,,j. _,^,.. It/as, the tribe of, 239. Iztini,jiiil],,,n, ]iiero,-ly].h of, 22-^. 31 I.t'.i^viHls. vaine in sava;^e tribes 2\ U-llape, r'„lk-l,.re ,,r the, iS, ; ' "Icrivati,)!! of, IS:;. 483 TMiIA' oi" SinilX'TS. I.ni'i])!' (li.ilcct, |ilcitlllll(i.ltiiill (if, .■\I;lIlll;ilt;lll, lit I i\:il'nll of, |S<. I^V; K''"!""'"' •'•. I'*". "Jl. 3I,V M^Mli, till' liiMik ul C'llil 111 nl, J^J, I.rlliTs, -.iii'^lc, ^iunirHiiiit, ,V||- Mainisi ripls in M,i\;i ili^naiiirs, J, ill', tile Till' of, IM, J.Sii. I.i.nlil, the iiiDtlicr ol', ih*; ili\iii- M.i]iaihU ]iic, liii m'^lv jili of, 2JJ. it\ of, I I J, I j( Maji^ of Ma\ a-', | V^ JJ.i^litiiiii;^, a> a lUilv, ui, i.Vv Markrls, Mi \iiaii, | |i). I, ill'. ,(>a ( U'la 1, ol Ilra/il, ;Ni Miirriayi- son;;, .\(r>. Masks, used in ritis, ii i, is; I.iiiioiiili' skik'loiis from lloiiila, Mass, tlir Tuld, i' •41 ,M i\a laiii'iia"i', llu\ IM, 1. I.iiual nicMsiiri-s, Atiii'iican, | v^ \voni> in, |j>i; (•i\ ili/at.on, s i A/7. I witch siorv, 171 ; \ car iiuiiit-' I.iu'^uiNtic >tock>, niiinlur of in America, 34 ; origin of, 3yj. J.illuianian diakcl, llic, ',16. J,()n.'k'i, an American, 17S. i.S'> ; phonctu' cli iraci( Is, h/i^ liiiroulv iiliic s\>.ti.ni, ->J7, jjS ■ M; )^i\ |piiic s\ s'.i'ni, .'J lyas, aiiciiiil, uriliii,!,,'s ;ind rci (Is of. 2 ,(f~2ri I ; larlust .iiici-,- J.OV c, son.^s f, 2U.V once])- tors of, J I ; llic, Iraililiniis ol". lions of in American lan,i;n.i,i;e>, 2' ; conversion of. M)(; folk 1< liii Si/., dclinition ol", .\:,j. J.nlc laii,:^ua,^e, ihe, ,v^ I , ;,,!- >f, 162 ; liiirial cusionis ot', i ii hncal incastiris ol ,1 ; map of .|,vs. ."Sill lya lan.mia.i^a', the, ,",,>'. .vl-J. Mayaciniil. nu:iiiin^ of. j: .^ l.v !Macken/.ie River, liilies of, Madrid, Mava M.-^S. at, 2s ' Mayajjan, am ient city of, 2.',i^ Maya-OniclR' liii,!,iiiistic stock. |n|. Ma/alma laii.yna.^e. \\iv, 3')S, ^72 u/. JMa,i;ney, llie, a saiMed plant, SS ; Mi co lan,':;u.i.i;e, the, V'"^. pajier, 2,S,'v Mai/.e, ori'dn and extension of. M; n race, tin-, ,^ 19. Mecoiut/in, a name of (Jiiet/al- i oatl, SS. Meday ma,i;ic, li,i;ures in, 1,^7. IMalinalxocliill, an .\/lic ,i^'oddess, Meda slicks of Chili :2s. Meilical jiractice amoii'^ llil.i- ss. "Mammoth, riin.iins of, ,^2. Maiialio/lio, a Cliipeuay henj, .Medicines of the .Max wares, 1S7 IS. 272. l.ll. 1. Mediiine-sonsjs. ii.ili\e. .:ii2. ]\Ian, not developid in .Xmi'rica, Meii.i^we, name of ]roi|u<iis, nu'aii- 1,1 ; oldest ninains of, in \nier- in.;.; of, iS). ica, 5,', ; a siiinni;^ aiiim.il. 2S ( ; Merida, .incieiil rniiis at, 2(1. 2,vi- siilidivisions of, .vjS. Manco Capac, his date, 22. Maiidiuca, a native food-plant, t,^i. 1S3. Messier .Mound, the. So. Messianic hope, anioii.i; n.itive^ IM»KX ()|. SI HjiicTS. Artssdii. „v Miiii,,!,,, ■M. t.i ii\tr, iiilu.s of, .J 4«,^ Mnt(llivi)|||;it/ii|, jS;. M"im.l llinl.lirs, tluiriiati..ii.,litv,« ■■• •■• I ■ n 1 , 11 iDi's III. ; 'ij \t . . II, • • M^tn..l Man.hnls, .ii ... ,,,, ^';' ""N;.nl.h.,s .hHr „ati..„.. M-v.-..lla. .„ isl.,,.1. ,s,s • " "'■ '-•-.u.tn..,-.l.t..„il,.nl, M.xi.;AK.i....,ss ,s-' •^'-„,U ,„ o,„.. ..,,.1 m,..,., cxuMM pliniiiiic writiiii, i()^ \t,.. i' ■ '"'■ M'l" ,S». .^U'Mio. .111(1. lit, ..;, Si ss .s. \i,„ i ' ' ' ' ^- •-..Miann.„,:.i„.i„,,.'' ' -' " ;"'" "-^"'^c-, ,,S. .^. Mc-NUMi, Kn.nimar, .Ji; .^,. ,,,,. •" ^^ ■'"'n'ritalinn...,-, „., ■'1^'. \r A/Uv, Nalmiiii. Afrxico r. n.,.litjti..,ii, ,ss. .■Miilll.UN, Illylll(,Io>.\ nC, I ;,, N'al>iila, Ur. ]„,i,k of, .x^i). NaKiialiMii, in C.iilr.il \Mhtic, I7< UM, MidiaU, aClii,,..av,Kiu, ,„. Nalina o„i„, „.., h... Mid..,ara.i SS. Naliuatl I>irr,.;,h ,,1,.. .H. i^Ii.tl.iii, tlir A/Uv ILulcs . tioiiiirv illfal IIUlM|ll>, ) ; m; ,1 . ,■ ' ' lineal iiuonns i i i ";•;'■■""•■'""■ '"'■ -'"- ""'■■■ ^ -H i....„,u„.. z... ..... „., Mi,si>,i|,|,i, „„, . Nh.,,,I,..j„„, „ Cl,i|„.„,„ 1„„, , ,, -Milln. „,i„.„r .: "■ "■■'"■•' '1. '■" A'!-. lu „,„>,,„, la, nuns of, .| js. N'.itiiii W.iiva, tin Sloiiin- Hill, MiM-a]a.i.„aK...tIu., ,„ ,,, ^ >•'-'• ui. Mo,,ni, , „11, ,Sii. M..n^..lia,u.vc,llK..i„Anu.ri<.a,6,. ^^:;;;',;;"'- *" •^■"™"."li.n... iM(iIl,l;ol(ii(l Hails .V*'. ,i9. ,V). '" Aimriraiis, X.iUIk/, ;,, ■;-_ -s, ,,,. Nav.ilii) l.in.i^iia.-e, _:;9(. M(.nusvllal.is„i i„ laiUMin-es .,- v , '■"'-"•'-^•- -^^^l' M.._,a.s.i ,,.,., -:,;:- -vr.„,(i, 1- 1 . -^^^^'oi'iKllaiK, natives ,,r -i, ";;:;'-• '"^■■•"^^^""^'•'••"■^'">-. >^--^n.na..a, tn.H.s,. ,;;;.:;.„,. <"i, on.i^iii of, 135, niiius, tlu- AiiKiif.i, 54. Moraines, tlu- line of, in Norili ""'JI '^"^'''' '"-^'''^^"'"^^ '"^ r.^- Xiw .Mexico, ruins in, 2^. 4.S4 iM)i:\ (11' sriMi'CTs. t Nv \\ Noik St. Iff, riith works ill. ( )s I UiM\ tile, in \ iiiii ir.ili-., (i ' ('<!, N\v.ilui.ilc.i\otI. a fliicr I t Kiri^, the |;l;\ pli.in ;;i>il, i ( »lillili\M l;m;4iiM.t;r, the, ;i\ I 1' Nii'.itiiuiM, .uiriitil luim;in loot Oth iiH"<'^, how cvimssi d, ;i|(i I'lniis in. ;.-. Ni.'^hi. in,i-ti r ol' tlic, i i Nun .ik, nil', mill'; oi', i i (>t(>nii-<, ,'/ (Utionii''. (lit ti 117: W.ll '•iMii. uN, Nun- \\ .It I I ■-, 1 1\ I'l i>l, 1 NiHi >onu;-~ (i| I .-^k imo, j.S- (>tonii knit;iia,i.^r. the ( tu'^pii'. Irihr. 77, Owl .S'l. ;'i'i \,r ■-iilu'lstit inns rnuiTi nnii;. No, SI nil 11, n I \ 1 1 1 s ( 1 1 , 1 I . Noit Noiil No\ .1 Sk'ot t n I ■ n , .".' Nnn. llir ( 1 1 •■ii'ilif I'li.ist, trilu's oi', (1 nn> n, \ o\ .im s ol noli' 1.1. (llsro\ t-t 11 I 1<\ Noitli V I I |. n»i. ai'iill.i, .1 pi ii\ uirr. 7 adtliMs, tt ilir ol, Jul . I'.ih ah tnn. Ma\ a lU-it us, Ihl-, [- Irstuil iu,i, I 57, 1^1). I'aldoliihs, Atncri >'.ni and ollui. NmnI HTs, s.u'inl or iiustu', i)ii. .\, I' n, Si'Ncn, I'wrlvi', v If I'.ihiolilliic pciiod, tl H-, ;o, SI. Nnnuv ils, drlu-irni-x ol, ;j(i ;i)o Ni nnuiation, Ala\,i si-ns ol, .>(vS ; p,il,i.,,lithi.' tn.ui, his h.il.iiat, ,s I oiils iiir, |i .ii»^iiai;c, ,;i|o Ohl r.ik'ni|iu', Ihf iiiins o|', jd, ,S|, i. U)iU'f\o.ts t.ut.il Halt, ;>), (1;, jt^i I |S. (>hsiili m lonml in ( H I'.ilpaii. a pl.uH' naiiu', S7, I'ainr Linj;ua;4r, ihi', .^iS, i>OiiiMt.il hour in Aiiurti-.in skiiUs, p.mipas, kuuislriiu- .lcp,vsits of. .knlls lioni. |o O^-olotl, ,./ ja.-nai, in nivlhs. uS. p,,,,,,, u,n,u.- ol (jMcl/aU-oall, Orn.ikiu'hil, nuaiiinu ol' j : >)'» r Osjii a '.ho It, ipii- of Alaya MSS. mr, 1 |. 01 lio, inoiuiii U'is in. :~. I-'- ,Si Paradise, the A/U r, 1 | Talaijonians, luiuhi >U, si(ii,in 111, ilnu', .IS .1 si'jn ol ai '•• .S> Ojil'w.iv pu-tmi- wiitin,-, 15,;, i,s|. rav.inl liidi.nis, thi'. ,^ji. I'awncrs, |>(Htr\ ol, 2q\ z. OHo.^onki, tiilii', 7 Oil. int. I, di.ini.i of, Oiii.i''n,i lainjiiaLir t".S. I't'i'li, a M.iya prii-sl, ,',(>-?• l\ iius\ Kaiiia, am-iiMil worU^ Oiirnt.il s\ niliols ill Anuiiia, i |S -,>; Indian 1 l.mU'S III, \in) ; ulu'S lonnd in (h-i.i;iii ol' l,iu.i;u.i.i;r, .;i7. Orinoco, irilK-s oi', jo-;. l")ii/,d).i, iiisi'iilntl stoiu- at, J71 Orosi, luUivi's ,ii, ;-s. I'l'iiohseots, in\ tliolot;\ ol', 1^1. IV-isoualitx , iili'a ol' in laii'-ua'. IViu, riiiiU'd i-itii's of, 26. M>i;\ (ir siHiixr; ,|X.s '''■'"'-'M''i. 'k.h ( •n/,il,,i, .~| •.All', 111., .1,1,1 ;^[ I "- ■'•>■ 'I . "Ill' ^'., ,,l,..,.,lt, , ,:, <-,ll|^, ...., „^ - IIMIII, ,,|, I,, I ,,^ I ,| • •j,.:, , I , I 7 ' : ill ili( ( (,| III,. , , ' """'■' I'lliMli.li;.'. tlir, -/.s .-, , ,„, , ' '""• "'!■ I".. i'lM.lr, IIh. ulntr ,,. ' ' "'■ "!■ '""'1 n„,,s,„.., '•"•-':• "■-"•"-•■•" .i.... ;i" :„;;:: ':r:V"' "" '■'"""■'I Mijunt., !„„,...,, I,,,.. ,„|"',',i; ^^ ■'" -•"■•'^ Mn;'n,.„. .,::■::"""•■•"" 11... 1^,, ""• ■' ■■" "'I n.iiii, , , I,,, ! .,, I'li.ln, tluC,,,.,-!. .,,,1. ,,, ■-"" ■'■''"■■'-"■'"ln,,n„, ,,,, !!*;""• "■"'^•^" — '.'-•Nnv IM, Hu-suii , ,.- ,, '"'^'""■'"'I'llxl, tl„, I,, I ,,. I- ,M„ "•• ""■ '••'^''--^i.nis, allr,.^r,| nn.^,M,i,„|. " k ,| ,„ ■■.„ ": Ol. IS I - --1 K.lk.MI, III, .|,||||,, ,,|^ , ,_, ''"'-v.;,i,::i., .,,,,,,„,„, ^, , '^_';"'--'--'.^'<-^.n„.. ,..,-, ,ss. ,;,SI w/. ' ■ ■' ■ '^''^^ '" •"",!„ •'"'ll'IIUlll, ,111, i, III sk I IS. iiif.iinii'' <> Ml, l'..pnl vuh, tl„. u,,s,; '-''"'■^•'"^■tl'-'lnlunliiinu ,, '•oti.'.v. ,l,.s,m,. -.' ';: .. '"■''• •'-^^"■'•'■'l.nl,,,. I,,. ,,,,, ,..,, I'liiii ni\ til. :"''v. .i.Mm.s ,,„ 1- •■ , ^'■"••"^ -"■'•'■'I -•-!.... I I'<'iiii,i llu.M.,iu.>, Aliss, 17,;. ''"■lii>t..nV.iiv|i,,,,i,,„^,^ .7,; ■J'l'Hivc [, ,,.,„,„„.. in ,\n„n..,i, ' I'l.UII.I!. 'It, Ihc, .),;. Rruuili.s, n,iti\c j- . 4S6 iM)i;x ni- sri!ji;cTs. l\(.])cliti()ii, ii) poi'trw 2S5. Kil)r<)iliuli\i' ])tiiici])lc-, worsliip of. I 11^ Rliyiiu-, unknown in n.itivi.- poi- try, 2S5. Rin.i^-cross, tlu', 15S. Rio (Ic MonUv.unia, .S6. Rio i\v Tul:!, Sh. Ritii:.! of till' (liMil. in I\i,fy|)l, i.;9. Ritr.ils of :M:iy;is, 247. Ri\(r, till' c'cli'Stial and . inlVrnal, i,i7-"45- Rock Illnir, sknlls from, 41). Ro-dta sloni.', the, 21.S. St. An.^nstint', I'lorida, 71, 75. 77. St. John River, 74. St. I.ouis, " liii.; mound " at. Si. S.in Isidro, stont- rtdirs from, ,V)i- Sai-rcd hook of Ihf OuiidiL-s, 105, 107. Saliv.i, in myths, 124. Salon.m-, an oi..;n.', 17ft. .Salt, nia,t;ic ])o\vfr of, 171. San>c'rit hin,nua,!4c, tht-, ,V}n, ^44, 415; alk'i;c'd aflinily with Na- huall, 57. Sanil)a(|uis, shidl heaps in l!ra/,il, 2S, 2y. Sarl)ai'anf, llic, loy. Sauteux, laiiuiuaiL^f of, 400. Savacon, a Carih dc'il\-, 1 2,v Si"hi])ka cavf, bones from, 390. Scieiu'i's of the- Mayas, 245. Siininidc's, 71. 77. Seniilio traditions, suppt)scd in .\nR'rie'a, 21 . ,Seri)Liit, as s,u-n.d animal, 1 16, Serpent mount, tlic, Sh. .Scrpfiit, fahuh)us, of ^hiyas, 179. Seven, as sacred nuinher, r2|, 129, 17". ■\?>9- Se've-n Caves, hin<l of the, 2V Sex distinctions in ".grammar, .\i)(-). Shelldiea])>, the at^e of, 27 ; in Idorid.i, Tennessee, Cost.i Rica, Ura/.il, 2.S ; in Ciidf vStates, 72. Shootini^ stars, in myths, 174. .Shoshoiiian family, lant.;n.i.L;is of, Si.ynatures of natives, 2,,^. Skin, e-'dor of, in .\nieriean In dians, .^9. Skull, shape of, in .\nurieans, 6^ Skulls, types of, in l!ra/il, 29. Sky, sold of the, 120. Snake-Hill, the, S6. Sodom\', not foimd in Yucatan, Sonora, hnmuaijes of, 2;^. Soto, Hernando de, his expedi- tion, 72, 74. Soul, seat of, 117; food of llie, 16S ; Journey of the, I,V5-I4.S. Sound-writinti, 213, 2;,(). S])an. as measure, .141. S])ee'ch, earlie'st form of, _^e/i.v/. Sjiee'idik'ss man, ^e/n ',92. S])iral, develoi)ment of the', 159, note. S])ittle, as j^enetic lluid, 124. Scpiaw, \vord for, iSi. Stars, orii4;in of, 125. Stature of American Indians. ;^i.). Stone, a,L;e of, its suhdi\isions, 50; smvivals of i.Sj;. Stone anil hrick edifice's, 2,5. Stone of the (iiants, 274 .si/. Stone implements, oldest speci- mens, ,^91. Stone, the clear, divination hv, 165. i.M)i:\- OF srnji.cTs. Stom.s, a.lnn.tion of, 40; col„,„„ 'IVnorhtiH.,,, state of >^ ,s^ "1. 71 >. ,,. ' ~'^' -",1- c. , • . ' *^"l''iiiai'aii, niiiis oi' 11/, vStonn, (juirlic J.0.IS of, n„ .,•..,,, 1 ''"''• Strawl.ini, ,lu,,;,, ' ' ^ Ij^'- — • n.nu, nuani,,,, „r, S.n,-^„.l, A.tor myll. of ..6; in Tm,'i„os, Hal.ia ,|. .-, .,, .. '. -M''ll<lill.l, ,6: Ic'/ciico, State of, 2; -•:; S(, ,,- ••hrotiKToiv ;;, ;s; the .nother -iv;:::;;,;:;;;..;";,;^'. ';„;;"• ■ -^ <»('lill\- 9.>. iitMtioii ol, 95; rays of i,, ,r,- r, 161, syiiiholisiii. I j6, 2.S(). 'i"'no, native iiaiiie of .Mcida 2f 'Ax-ittil-., fi, . ••■'. ""Lixe uanie o .\ ei S 0,^,0, u,,„,„, „.. Tluee-le^,<.,Ul,uas ,4 • S>nl.lM-h..netH-,„:;thesaere,l, Tialn.anaeo, n.ins „;„• ';, 111 Aiiienea, 1 10 v//// a-; . " Svn.holu.uriti,,/?^':' .p-. - totenne a„i,„a!, n ,, „S. e . """■■-—■.> '""'■. I'If-'a ol, absent joi ^>--.pe ,„ Ameriean Ia„j,ua,es, Tinu-svlu.!, ^lexiean, ,^;, ,,r. c ■", ■',. Timu(|uaiia tribe, -5 •Vplnlis, s.acre.l associations of Tin, use of ,Sf, """'•"'^- ''•■'- •-^-^.■. 35, 30.,, 4.K>. ^-.sa lan^ua^e, the hoax ,>r 45. Titieaea, Lak^ nun::,;:;.,',,, r, V-; ,•, • Tl.K'opan, Slate of, 2^,, 200 i. K,, a eh.nese syn.hol, ,4s .,,, Tlaloean, the A.tee V:JL ':•""";'"•"" 'Haloes. A.tee,ain-,o,ls , lainanaea lanona»e, the, v,r. Tainanhpas, Siem, of, 2y,sV Ta,,,],;, Hay, n,ou„,l at, 75. II Ml- Taniiieh, a Huasteea town, 221. 'i'ai-ascas, a tiahe, 22.S. Tat Aenio, a .May;! dfitv, 175. Tata I'olin, a .Maya sprite, '17.). Tat leh, a Maya spiite, 17.,.' Tennessee Rive,-, shell heai.s on 2.S. Teiiochtitlan, 25, S5, 1 (30. 'i"laniai,a. hieio-lypl, of, 22s. Tlap.allan, the plaee of c-njors, ,S7. I'lajiaii, hiero-lypli of, 22 |. Tohaeco, it^ori-ii, ;in,i ,^ unsi,,,,, I'ollan, 9:;. 'I'oliaiiall. tile, Sh, 96. 'I'oltees. si,i.poM-,l,,,nnn.i-l,„;i,K.,-s, "7 : Ihei,- fil,iil,,i,s historv, jj' 'V^ '"o; their nivthieal ho,ne M5. 4SS INDI'X <)1' SriiJl'CTS. 'rmii.'ili.iwk, word for, iS^ Toiii.ika, .! town, 77. ToUiiiMtccutli, ,111 A/tii' ,!,'<)(1, 96. Tonalaii, t'.ii- s\iiiiiy i)la(\-, tj,^ To]>iU/.iii, kiii.':4()r Tula, S|. 'I'dtciii marks, as aulo'^nvqilis, 2},\. 'rotrlllic (liMticv^, SS, I 1 :^, ii(; di- visions of lA-n;'i])'.\ \Sij. Tradition, jjirnianiiu'c of, in s;iv- a,t;(.'s, 22. Tr.'insitions in \(. rlis, 170. Trc'fof Kill', in Maya and Mt-xican art, i()i. Triiitou j;r,i\fl>, oliJL'cts discov- (.rc-d in. ,^2. 5;. Tn-pannc^l skull -i from IVrn, iSS. Trcphiniui;, auioni; \hv lAna])e, I SS. Tril)Uli.' rolls of ancient ;\I(.-\icans, 2.1 1 • TripliratL' constitution of tliinLjs, i.vf. 'l'ri])lc division of the linnian race, 57- Triiiuctrnni, as a syniliol, 149 s</(/. Triskcks, a sacred synikol, ].\<.)st/t/. Tncurrii|\K', trihcs at, ,i7,t. Tnki, the story of, Sv-ioo; derixa- tion, 93. Tnpi, the lan'^uai^t-, 32,;. _v|,^. .iSo M/.. 400; love wonls in, 42S. Turanian lan.'^ua.nes. 5S. Turtle totem of I.enape, 1S9. Twins, the divine, 125. Twelve, as sacred nnmher. ]S7. T/.endal dialed, 1 2f). Tzontenioc, A/tec deity, 146. T/.ontemoc n\ictlan tecutli, 27S-9. T/.uluhil dialcit, the, 104,434. Ti'ila, a town in I'lorid.a. 7,^. Cnderworld, the, in Ouiche myth. I2,s; in other tribes, 12S. I 'niter, tlic- (ire.it, i.so. I'liwritti'ii lan.'^ua.t^es, study of, ,V ',S • I'ral-AItaic l;in,mia.t;es, ,=;S. I'rsu.i, Cieiieral, expedition of, 239. rsumasiiita, river, 126. rte lan,nn;i;.ie. the, .^23. rtlatlan. a Oniche city, 124. \'akii, a (Juiche ,i,'od. 1 2,v X'alladolid. in \'iicatan, 2,^,6, \'ancouver's Inland, trihes on, 22 ; hl.ick slate from, ,,2. \';ira, .Spanish, leii,ytli of, 4,^6, 446. X'l'il), the American, ,^47, (05. N'erh, in Al,i;(pnkin .^laminar, 190. N'ineland, its position, 22. note. \'ir,iiinia, .inti(iuities of, 70. \"ir,<4inia. West, Cherokees in, S2. \'ir!L;in-inotlier, the myths of, 95, 96, 124, I2,S. \'isnaires, ])riiiiitive nu'ii were, 40S. \'i/.eitas, tribe, ,^i7,v \'owels, ijermutable. ,19s; si.t;nifi- caiice of. .V)4- X'lioh, the opo>snni, etc., ill. \'ukub-canie. a (juiclie .iind. 12). \'nkub-huii-alipii. a (Juiche .Ljod. 124. [ Wampum, use anioii,i; Lena])e, 1 SS. Warraus, hei.Lcht of, 39. War clubs, iSv War Son.^s of .A/tecs, 299 .sv/. War-whoo]). n.imc for, 1S4. I'a ua jiach. a M.iya ;;od, 176. Way cot, a .Maya imp, 1 7S. i.\i)i:.\ (II. sriijix'Ts. 4.S.., Wii ,,. *• ''-^'- . 119. l.-'2. I ') uest. as ahodf of souls, 1 11-11 1 \,„..,t,ti .„ 1 "•-■"■;-"v--"™.'i.^:.. x::i;;:::,::;;;j:t,:';r:r:s. ,1,1 ; native- tnlK's.if, ^,u v,,iv ,. .- .M"i "i, -.^2. «v.,„.ks.,.,„„„,„„i,;.„; ';■;;: " ■-""'"■ '''">• ■'■'^' ^';,;;'^;:"'■•'•™"■ '"' ' "-- ■^■i7T.iK:vi,,«i„ „„.>„„,„, Wl.i.,. -■ ';'•',• -\t''"l ^lialtun, a Mava sprite ,-,s W lute, as sacred color, 1 1 ^,, 1 :;.., " l"i>-'i/'^ iW), iSfS, i,S,S. N'iiicoiw.l- , -vi U iKwaiiis of I.eii.-,pc, i.s.s. Vasous, tribe, 7-' Winds, the -ods of, ,2;,, 175. Vcas,,ui, a province -, \\ niter-cnints, of Dakotas, ,,,c,. Year coinils. of n.-.iives, , S9 i6<, \\isaKketjak. a Cree hero, ,;,,, Vellow, symbolism of ,66, '167. ' '■''-• Viii ami V;mo, ,:;, Wu-es. Imyin. p^. Vucalan, ancient, ,03; (olk-Iore <KK en utcMisUs ol I.c„,,p., iS.s. -f ,(,, ; dialects in, ,0, • Hvili oods, the Man of the, ,76. nation of .S; ; niins in .. • ,'' Uonis, number of in .\nieri,-aii .^^'ii'lary peoplin^r of, 2 1. tongues, ?2t. Vnm ( imil ., -vr . ~^ i'- • ...... ,.','^ ^'""""iil. a .^[;iy;i divmilv, 160 \\ritni-, diikrenl inelhodsof 2n ^'"'•■'n, the lan-ua-e ^.q" 230. • . .- . ,-^~j. >^aki-nini-,d<, name of a ,<.;od, i ,;,. x-i 1 , .-.1.^1 null-, K, 11,' nie I Xha.ai,,ue, the Oniche liero-,od, Zaki-i.ami-t.vi., n, XboLthoroeh, a Mava imp , -s ""^C "''""^'^'"" ^'■"^■^■••' Xijiacoyaii, a river, ,S6. >^<>hol chich, aphamom bird, 179 ^nnis, the, loS.