IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) / ^ V <^A ^m #. o {/ //4 m^.. Qr i/i fA 1.0 LI "■' IIIM IIIIM I '2.2 „32 M 11112.0 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 -* 6" — ► ^m & //, e. %/ /. <^A 'm <5> m .V o 7 Photographic Sciences Corpomtion S ,V V :0^ ^\ '-ntire continent west iind north-west of Lake Superior as, "Like Q-reenland, a cold, harrcn country, thinly inhabited by Esquimiiiix anl other savages, and the soil so rocky and thin that only moss, shrubs and a li'w stinted trees can be yrown upon it." This description is aicompanied with .artoons of Esquimaux in Miow-liuts delen ling ihemselves with bone spears against huge beats, or standing on polar ice attacking walruses and seals. 'bie map, published by American immigration agents, cuts oil' 2f the Dominion will undoubtedly be doomed to eternal (^ sterility on account of the severity of the climate." To show what is meant by the northern portion of the Dominion the cydopedists .say in the next sentence, " The country on the lower Saskatchewan and on the Red River, it is believed, will lie long among the most fertile regions of the Dominion." The l)e8t part of that country is north o!' the lower Saskatchewan autl up to 700 milc\s north of it. James ("roll, of th.' (leological Survey of Scotland, in his Climate and Time (London 1M75), says: " The July temperature of Glasgow is til", while in Labrador on the same latitude and places to the west [how far west :" ) it is only 4!t\ Glasgow, during that month is 3' above the normal temperatiue, while America [how much of America ;• | is 9' below." (p. 72.) The most western locality given by Croll is Cumberland House (hit. .')4' !!i)'. long. 10:!'.) Croll leaves the impression that the climates of the entire north-west in the latitvides named are like Labrador. The (rlol>e Enri/ciopedin, by .1. M. Ross, LL.D., senior master of English language and literature, High School, Edinburgh (tl vols. Ed. 1876) contains half a dozen statements under the article Canada, all of which are wholly untriic or gross misrepresentations. ■ r ^ -r .-- - "Among the chief obstacles ' says the Encyclopedist "of the agriculturist, are the periodical plagues of grass-hopper.*' and mosciuitoes, the length of the winter, the want of means of communication, the pri'sence of ague-breeding-swamps, and the inundation of rivers on tin' melting of the snow. The / 4 PTIEKVCK. givat I'orests nC Ni'vv Bnmswick, Qui'Ih'c, Ontario ami parts of Maiiiioim consist uiaiiil) n| ivd nud wliiti' pin.'." Tho liighly rivilized nations aioiind llic shoics of the Mcditcviaiiran. in ilu- I'ariy history ol' tin- Jlonnui Kmpire, regardi'ieii of the maps and letin- press of tliis wtirk. Thev show that the ilimates and prodm lions of thi- Dominion arc similar to those of the western central and north-western parts of I'hirope. The maps are desiii'ned to illnstrate the pliysieal leatnres of Canada ; to •••ive the zones of the chief food-phmls : the forests and prairies; the hydroii'ruphy ; the geological formations, the summer isolher- malsofthe Dominion. Ik'-. By i)erHiission of the minister of the Interior, the Riirht Hon. Sir John Macdonald, the author has had the valuable assistance of ,1. .iuhnsun. .hief draftsman of the Department, in the |)re|)aration and printing of the maps. In addition to the information which the early explorers and officers of the Hudson liay Company have uiveii ns of th<> north-", esterii territories of Canada, we have tiow lli'' lull and delinite reports of the itailway, (ieoloaical and Surveyor tTenerar> OIHees. To thesi- the autlior has made constant vefereme in drawing the map> ami w riling liie letter press. These notes liave been miule as brielas po.ssible In referring to the maps of the zones of the various plants, tlie usual allowance must, of course, l)e made for rough mountainous districts, and for damp and poor soils. These are found in all countries and are local and exceptional. That many error,- will be found in the work as the eountvy becomes better known, none can be more convinced than the author. The subject is new. the country vast, and muclt of it imperfectly explored. But to point out error is one means to the discovery of truth. The phra.se " fertile belt " is no more ai)propriate to any i>art i>f North America than it would be to Europe. It conveys an erroneous imiiressioii, giving the ide.i that there is oul\ a luirntw belt lit for agricultural purposes in comparison with the vast areas uorth of the 4'.U.h parallel Ottawa. November. 1880. \\ ■ ri'd Mini wliitt' • hisliirv 1)1' thi' iiiimis ii( some UmII llic North i-rii II 11(1 iioitli- (if l.lii> WDfk. il' I lie wi'steni IK'S of till- chief uiuiiiT isolhor- thi' author has )r('|)iii:ili()ii and Itiiy Company leliiiito reports lie li'tter press. II. C O N T E ISr T S I.K'ITKi; I'ltKSS. Preface Iiitrodiictioii I. Provinces of thr Dominion I'M IK 'uvicn Is ol \ir mid < >( I'Mll 111 colllirctlon \\ I til Climali'N. Iteiiioii.'^ ol SiiHinni Itains am d Siimiui'r Dioiii^lii- in. Forest, Prairie and Di'srvi IV. Conifers and Mixed Foic.sts V. Hvdroii'rapliy of Canada VI. G-ras.sos VII. AVheat, liarley. Rye, Oats. Hool Crops. Vegetahifs VIII. Maize, (irapes IX. Orchard Fruits -.\pplc. I'ear. Peaeli. I'liuii Ciierry ; Smaller Kriiil.- X. Notes oil (leoloffieal Map 11 ItV 2;{ :n 38 • I, of cour.se, he in all countries M A. 1^ S I. r ■o\llU»'> ol Caliadii H. Currents of .\ir and (iicaii. h'ejiioiis of (Summer liaiiis and Summer Droughts, Sumiiie Isotherinals I'.Vdi:. 11 it would he to row hell lit for 111. I'orest. Prairie and Iteseil IV. ( oiiileis an( 1 Mixed Forests. V. llydiojiraphy ofCauada. VI. Z. th.' (i VII. Zone of Wheal, Iiarley. h'ye. Oats, I'ease, Root Crops, Veovtahles. VIII. Mai/e and ( i rapes IX. (hi hard Fruits; Smaller Fruit (^ 17 lf> 31 m Oeological Maj" •■57 / ■H w INTKOnUCTION. Thk DiFFiTsio.v UK I'LANTs oviT till' suiliici' ol' llic tniiili is logulalcd chiefly by climate, embraiiug in that word, tempenituii' iiinl Immidily. Ciimatos arc niodilird by lalituiU', by ocimu and acn-al cuircntK, viiiuily to or di.stainc from the ocean, position on ihc continenl.s, elevation abovt> the sea, &c Heat and humidity are the chiel" eleniciils I'avourahle to the growth and maturity ol' plants. In the tropics thcHc two elciiu'iits of rlinuile are at a niaxiniuin. In certain positions on both continents there are immense regions wiili liigli summer temperatures, but with a deliciency of rain. These regions, beginning on both conliiu!uts on western coasts nnd near the same latitude, extend in the din^ction ol' the prevailing winds, north-eastward in ihe northcin. and south-eastward in the southern hemispheres. North ol' these desert and semi-desert area.^ are (he zones of summer rains luul moderate summer temperaturcN, aiul heme the parts of the envlii yielding in the greatest abiuidaiicc ami in ihe highest excellence the staples of the teniperale zones, siieh as the grains, srasses, vi'getables, fruits and other food plants; and the home of those domestic animals most useful to man. These /ones are represented in the old world by western wnd north-western l']urope, and in the new by Cnnada. Till' plants of the temperate ..one iiavi' their nuilhiTii limits H.^cod ehidly by the uie;m temperature of till' summer nn)nllis: but the northern limits of many anninds eorrespoiid more closely with the isothermal lines of .Inly and .\ugust. Mai/e. fur I'Xiiniple. will not ripiMi in a summer under O.V with one month at 67' Fahrenheit. Agnin. the pohir ramie of i)erennials. such as the \ ine :ind peach, is decided by the temperatures in summer ;iiid winter, being limited in the north by the anuiunt of snmnu^r heat requisite to ripen their irnit. oi by the eold of winter being so great as to destroy the plants. Cultivation e.Ktends the limits ol plants o\ er a larger area under an e(iual cliiiiiile, and increases the capacity of the i)laut to mature umh'r varied dimatii- ( oiulitions, at Ihe same lime often increasing its ju'oductiveness. Amongst vegetables, cultivation has extended the potato over a wide area where it was not grown before; iind maize, a tropicnl jilant. has, under careful culture, advanced northward to the f)6th degree of latitmle in the interior of the continent. AVheat, which a century auo was a novelty at Edinlmrgh, now matures as high as Moray Firth. Flax is a summer crop in northern elinnites, but a winter ^;rop in dimntes like Egypt. The same is true of wheat. It is a summer irop in llie hiiiher temperate zones, anil a winter • rop in l'v4ypt. A>istralia, California, and countries ^i\>\\ luxuriiinlly 1ml will mit iirodiici- I'ruil in liiiiintcN III' irn'Ml Infill, --ni-li i-liiimtfN m> liiiiii \\u- pioliliihlc liiowlh ol' wli.'iii. Tlic (;ulti\ ntioii of lii>iiii!il jilaiiN ix liiiiili'd III llii- iii'itli liy llii' IV(i>In (»r wiiiti-r. Tin's \\ ill \ I'ut'lulc niul pniiliiti- iilmiuliiiKi' ol' lt'iivo.x, mil' li hcyi'iiil iIh' lini' wIumv ihcy will ii|>i'ii Ih.-ii IViiil Miii/.c will uiow liixuiiiintly in noitlu'in laiiiiiilfN in ;i liiuli >*uniiiirr licul w licii' tho season is too shoil to lipi'ii lis !,'rnin. The dnto pulni \h i>r()wn fur its lojiimi' on iln' nnrlli.'ni const of tln> M.'dili'ii'iini'an, wln-n' it will not prodnci' IViiit. T\w ci'Vi'ivls. uniins .tnd mnssi-s con.sliliUi^ tin' most iiniioilaiil urouji ol plants culli.atod as food, and those ol' the old world are identilicd niOHt closely with the civili/alion ol ilie hninnu nice. Tho rogions best adapted lo thi'«e are the iiiithlle and hij-her hititiulow oC the temperate zones. rniil ill rlimiitfx inn of tropiriil II r nhniidiini'i' oC iuxuriiintly in Tilt' diiti' i)nlni xluce IViiil. itoil as lood, und .•e. The rogions ^i € .^,7. . ■■'-':ini^->i-iviiftrr1'iT'Hfft' ■'^, I'v, "*-.. i, \ -v"i^^ / '• A^„ >'-^\ ■i/^% * ," C T I /. >• ;^>M '/,vS; '■ Ihn ''"I. >Uy\. ■V ea ,,)*»'"■''" jy^^ ■■I ■; Ni l^ / •(> ^'^ ■ •''h^ •V**V -''/:^ 7 "■% '^ ^ „~,Ft-*iiVi Sh ^y/ j-'^y-^wiis; W'liiiNinii.i \ I '/'^u. W') '"'^r ' ^'»"« Fi'iffl / m ^■•', >■- ^•Jii«. // r i-ir 1 v^ K'l''*. ^.; -,.■:/;, ""^S-^.';* Vfw/v* L>^ ■ •>* ■'/:: / '■'^ .-.•'/-i^* r-'V- -^% [»\^\'' •V.-.sV VV ACVt"'>'/ , «»^^""'H VA.tAA \ / J / l^- '^Cg^- \\'^7\- v'^' iHVA'.V/^5 4> M Jli^ /'"»<„ -TPv lif\ltM^nf t^.u'.l '\ UEPAHT.NfKNT nr the INTKHIOH: DoiMillioll l.niiils (>fl1cc. I" OCTOBER 1880. 7 -' ..uua^aa^' '^,. SURVEYOR 0th HAL V 'M f"»'-*, ri -/-- //.J S iiOn^itufl*' ritrift ...uif . It.. .I1...-11..,. f I. '.hit-. I n li-ff> ..I 'I.. 1t<' Sot* ■ -VtniHng tkt ftmal trtltrmtnt of thr i^utttu'n ttfl ,'ftinimi,' rfir .'I'rnti irfl/i.i'r /'. ,.r.r>i,-« ,iit/.t m^m mm \ .^* ^ -J^ ^'SHEWING THE '4*1.. >T'^ -^ ■^ ^ _^ ^>. t-.TrrirT;.-;.iliiiiTin.H-: OFTHE ..,■:..,. ..a:: ^ ^^•" A*: .->. ^/* PUBLISHED BT AUTHORITY OF THE R' HONtJ*. '-■--^x ;> fU'"^ ^''-^. v ^ *;" C Tj c o. ./: 'V. '^ Cfl. I..K'!'"' "■-e"-"' ,'hV '^ .^--\ . ^ W . ,,1'' //i^ "^^^^ii^;-,./ '1'...iimv .,,1 . . „, -^T^ " '• , >»- "'\'>tiinli< f i \ -< .V /••Si''*!-. S-1^.' /■'x-juiniifi:! h'ita I -\ i>. \ * "'';.,.. =^'' / \ \ n'"'^' -''' \ /?iif V •A *P V 1..KKK J^ 'W- ;;'^j*jt,i y^--^ o?r 7i A ^ .-r^\.^-'*s ^.:- '\ ,V' .L.Hl' ;n^- r \ Ui' ^^ ,>f- /;■;, ■!>to* JiJi..'..' 7 \ a .U ., \ ' / >. ~.>^N i';^->-' y \*K^ .t^'; >/ ,\ s-» „ ^ "■- 1\^ Vvm;^ ^ 1^ r'''^'^^v,/:3v ^ X 4^; ODm^, .P" >u::': ' J) J't'feki^"" ^ o- ^. ' \\ '.^ ^r? ■ ■if'.jJY '""/^ /» \'/ <^ , 5«»(.>«\ Tors ^-Jf-fV*"*' V,tf' // 1\5 V ■rfr'v III'/""'' "I"'""! «.fii"i"'ii'-' "<'*' ■>- '* ■""' "■"' "-"f'.'i'i:' ''.' .>.|...r,|l * r- Hbu i.l.t. M^'" ./ 10 line I'ROVINI'KS AND TKHRlTORIKpl OK CANAnv. t ocoivn to ocean thionsh the Dominion, yet Montreal, 88(5 miles iVoni the Atlanlic, is 2Hti2 .stalnto niileis from Bnrrard Inlet, hut New Voik is 33i>t) miles I'roni !^an Fantisco, and Boston 3448, bein!i'6-!8 mil.'s in the one easi", niul .">8ii in the oIIht. longer thiin the Ciuiiidian ronte. The CaniKliiin Pacifn', too, will cross the continent at a much lower level than iiny route I'rom the Pacific to the Atlantic throuuh the United Mates. The highest altitude of ihe Canadian I'lvc illc would he •!t)46 feet ahove the level of the sea, with a remarkahly uniform uralace, to 8240 feet or more than one mile and a half above the sea level, and, for i:!0(» miles, is (every- where higher than the highest point on the Canadian line. The entire distance from .lupan toLivi'rpool through San Francisco and New York is 12,08" statute miles; hut via Burrard Inlet, Montreal and iJelle Isle, ll,to2 miles, a ditference in favour of the Canadian route of 935 miles ; and via Ihirrard Inlet and Port Nelson, the distance would he !>,734 miles, or 2,353 miles shorter than through the I'nited States. This latter route might l)e used for freight at least from May till October, and although it is here referred to only as a possible routi', yet i+s realization at no distant day is by no means an improbabilitv. No climate is more healthy than the Canadian. The intellig.-nt reader will at once see the absurdity of the statements in the quotations given in the preface where fevers are a.s.sociated with frosts ami snows, and long winters. •' The ague-breeding-swanips " are quite south ol " lonu' winters," south of the frosts and snows of Canada ; the great forests of Canada are mixed forests of deciduous trees and < onifers, the former beiim' the more numerous in the provinces named ; the plaiiiie.s of grass-hoppers, excepting occasionally on the United States" bordei-, far west of old Canada, and mos(juitoes, interfering with farming for even one hour vvill lie new to Canadians : the .snows of winter give the best covering to the tender plants, winter grains and grasses ; these snows and frosts, too, make natural highwaysovcr iheunteclaimed swamps and woods, lakes and rivers, on which millions of tons an' transported at ihi lowest cost. Besides, Ontario has a greater length of railway in proportioii \o its population than any other conniry, and all Canada nearly three times greater than (treat Britain and Ireland, ami four times gn-ater than FraiKe in proportion to I)Oi)nlaiion. The agricultural capabilities of the Uominion are illustrated by the maps and letter press. In Janada. from 'he A,tlautic to the Pacific, the rains are in summer during the agricidiural months ; in the Dnited States, from the Pacific to the Mississippi, there is little or no rain in summer, 'fhis climatic defect extends from the .southern borders of Canada to Mexico, and in the north to Minnesota. Kansas, Missouri, and often to Illinois, and even to other States east of the Mississippi. The.se differences — the rains in summer in the one region — the Camulian. and their absence or delicieney in the other — make the one a fertile country, and leave the other mostlv a barren waste. Hi>2 slatuti' inili'N )oin!i'6'!8 milos in ilir, too, will ivoss rough the linitt'cl 1 of ihf .si'a, with The niilway IVom lih'hi. 1111(1, in one ) mill's, in cvt'iy- upiiii to Livi'rj)ool [onlrciil and ili'lli' kinavd Inlot and tho Unitfd SlateK. it is hcrt' iflont'd ibal)ility. see the absurdity 1 willi IVosIs and osts and SHOWN of tho Ibruicr beinii' tcasionally on tho lor even oin' hour mis, winter grains vamps and woods, les, Ontario has ;i nil Canada nearly ■ ill proportion to letter press. In al mouths ; in the er. This .limatie liinu'sota, Kausas, (• differences — the the other — uuike. rj* ■■■■ ■;>»^-; •'»;■ '' '■■■■'v^' ;"^%'- %^ V ...• ->«r / TF .<^3^- •■' 3RI HO . pi '} r i ao T^ HO . r* \/>" MAP II. > \- CUIUiENTS OF AIR AND OCEAN m CONNECTION WITH CLIMATES; ItEGIONS OF SUMMER RAINS AND SUMMER DKOUOHTS. Tins MVP is (l.'sigui'd to show iliii'lly ilir iriiioiis of smnmer rains und siimiin'r droughts in North Ami'rita ; tlio ellei'ts of the currents ol' the iiir and the oct'aiis on temperatures and rain falls; and the influence of these in produeing (climates I'nvounihle lor Ihi- produetions of the earth. The continent of North Anu'ricM, north ol Mexico, is nearly equally divided between Canada and the United States. Caiuula embraces that part having- moderate temperfitures. the most uniform rains during the aurieultnral months, and necessiirily the mosi lavourahle climates for the production of the chief plants used as lood. The arrows on ihe map iiidici-H' the direction of the great currents of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans; the warmer or tropical cnrniits llowing in a north-easterly direction, fall upon and raise the temperatures of western roasts; wiiile tin- polar map represeiiling the tropical <-urrent8 of water also givc^ the direction of the warmer aerial ctrrrents. With a constant movement nl the air in high altitudes from the S. W. there must be a return current from the north towards the S. W. as there are counter currents in the ocean; but these i polar winds near the surface of the earth blow from all points of the compass. The warm currents of air and water falling upon western coasts, and aerial current- passing over the contiiumt.s, elevate the temperatures of the wi'stern parts of the continents, while the cold currents pressing upon eastern shores, lower the temperatures there. ~ The mean temperature of the Crulf Str.'am in the Uulf of Mexico is 80' Fahrenheit; its maximum temperature is 86^ or 9" above the ocean temperature due the latitude. Increasing its latitude 10°, it lase.s two degrees of heat, and after rnnning :!.00i) miles towards the north, still preserves the temperattire of snmnn>r. With this temperature it crosses tht^ 40th degree of N. latitude, and spreading out for thousands of square leagues over the cold waters of the ocean, does much to mitigate the rigours of winter in l';uroi)e. When it strikes the British Islands U divides into two parts, the main current going to the Polar Sea, the other entering the Bay of Biscay. It has been estinnited that the (juantity of heat discharged over the Atlantic from the waters of the Gulf Stream ill winter, would be sulUcient to raise the whole column of atmosphere which rests upon France and the Briiisli Islands from the freezing point to summer heat. Every western wind which 1 REOIO mo mo \\ - fMamaiTOB'i t^iMioTiM.] OUTLINE CHART of NORTH AMERICA with part of EUROPE AND AFRICA. ^ SHKWINO THC REGIONS of SUMMER RAINS and SUMMER DROUGHTS, also CURRENTS of AIR and OCEAN, in connecUon with CLIMA1 A / .J 18 OMRllKNTN OK AIH AM) iM'KVN l\ ('OIVNKCTU'N WITH <'t,IMMKM. AT. I if] blown, (unci tho prcvniliim- s^ IiuIh lUf fiom thf went, or IVoiii *oiii(> poinl ii.ni ihr W orS.W. in Ihis |mrl of the oceun,) croMwes thi« (}ult'Str<-iun nnd t nrricH willi il it portion of iU hciit. diNilnirHfiiiu it in iis |)ai«Nii)(t> over ICnrni>c. Tin- iMithiTiintl lin*-N »{' tlO ' and 'i/i\ Ntartin^ I'roni the imnilli'l ol ()> on tin- Ann-riciiii ■ oiinI, run in u nortli-i-iiHlfrly diroctiou, retaining nt>iirly tlu' Nann- o<-ouni<- l<>m|mraliiii' on lin' l<]iiio|»Min Hide in Intitndo .'>'> iind iiiii' tlmsr in iFh' Aliuntic, nnd Ironi Mimiliir oaux's. Tlie .lupan Mln-am. or Kuro-Siwo black Ntroani — a nami' dt-rived IVoni iIk- <1i'i p lilur colnui of ilK waltn'H — lloWH Ironi Ihf i«onth-<>a«t of ANin in n norili-nistfrly direction, tailiuL! npon tin- western roaNt of North Amerii'i). TImn >tri'ani. Ilovvini; many thon8and niilcN I'urtln'r than lli<- Aliuntic tro|iii iiivK'nt, is not >o hot nor its littoral wftterx no cold a.-* lliosc in the Atlantic, l)ut ii spi ds o\ cr llic ciilirc I'ln ilii coa.^t of Canada. Tlnw two <'nrrcnt« in (lie Pacilic — the arctic and trojiical — prodnce similar cU'ecis to ihose in the Atlantic ; the one warminir ihi' \\e-ierii coast of North Anieriea, in liijfli latilndes. ami liie oihcr coolinu the ea>teni >liores of Asia Throutrh tho aL'cncy of theso two cnrrents in tho Atlantic, tho wcstcin ( imiitiies of Unrope arc nincli warmer than the caHtern parts of Ann'iica in similar latiindes ; the dilferenco lieinu aliont ciuht dct^rce!* in latitude 41 ; ele\en and a halt in lai 61 ; and twenty-live in hit. 58". Similar canses in operation in the I'aoilic ocean jrive an equal elevation of the temperutvu'e of the western coasts of Ameri<'a o\cr the t'lmtern coasts of Asia in the same latitudes — the antic currents chillintr the one and the tropical ciirn>nt» wiinnim;- th>' other. I'rom VaiicouNiT in hit. 41" to iSitka in 57 , the summer temperatures are as hiuh and as unilorm as in tho west ol Euroi)e. except whor«' the vicinity of mountains may niodily the normal ((imlitionn of climate. Sir John Richardson sas,^ '• the climate of Sitka " [on the Pacific coast] " is much warmer tlian that ol' iMiiope in the same i)aralh'l '' (Arc, Ex. Vol. 2 p. 'JTO.) 'I'ht> i.sotliernnil ot iin lor the three Kumnier mmiths rises as hiiili as latitude tI3 east of the Kocky Mountains in tin' \alley of Mackenzie ri' er. Youkon, west of Mackenzie river ami within the Arcti<' circle, lat. (IT . has a .Inly of ti.') T'. and an Auii'ust of (in . In iiMuparinu' the well known icirious oliln' old worhl with the less known coriespondinn' paits of the new ; western coasts with western ; oastorn with eastern ; ami interior divisions with interior, we find a rcuuirkahli' similarity in the climates of the two continents. The I'nited States are similarly situateil on the North American continent with China on the ICastern ; in iatitude. in position on the continent.'*, they are the same, and in climates similar. Canton, in <'hina, lal. 2'S ., has a siimimr tempera- ture of 8:i . an«l Key-West in l'l()ri |iUKNM^;(> oil till' \iiii>rii'iiii "M till' l'ilUll| II Hill I'roiii NJinJlMr •I'P liliii' ciiloiir ol' I 111- Wi'mU'III (OIIHt ■ tropir nirrriit, is iMitii-t' |iiirifii- coiiNt 'Hi'i'ts til ilidsi' ill 1''-. ami tilt' iithcr I I'liiropi' arc iiiiicli limit I'itiJit ilcfiTi'Cs ii8t'> ill Dpi'iulioii ill 1' Aiiifiiiii iiMT till' 111' tiopiciil runouts I ami as liniibl'lii as 91'ttiul i'oiulitioiit!i III' much wuinn'r lliaii I tio lor Iho thivi- valley of Mackenzie July i>r »).') 7', uml tho eautern confi«(Mit. Tin isoiliernial ofOfi , Im the llini' Miminev nll>lllll^, ciot-seH the Red river in liitiliulo T)*) , iiikI liMes on tin- Mackenzie tn luliliuli' lio . Th« Kitnuner ratnH, ton, Ihroui^hont Cuniuln. ure similar lo thosu in Euiope in iho Hamo Iatituile» from tht) Mediterranean ti> the Arctic, being somewhat uniform durinur the aifrioultiinil luoutlis, luil more copioUH in Canada, South of Ihi' houndarv hetweun Caiiadn iiml the United States west ol' tlu' MisBissipiii. are lh>' areaN of Hummer droughts — thu lighter shadeH on the maps— a rainless, treeless, desolate region, Mimilar in position on thin continent and in the thiiracter ol' the country lo the desert areim of thf old world — thu one beginninu on the wuHturn coitMls ol' Mexico and Calil'ornia and extending to Itritish Anierii a on Ihe north, and over hair thu oontineut eaittvvartl ; the other beginning on the vveitlern coast ol Al'rira near the Name latitude as the American desert, and extending north-eastward or east by north over AlVica, I'alefitiiie, Imlepemlenl Tiirtary and MMiishire Tartary, nine thousand miles in the diroitioii of the prevailing wimls. responding paits of IS with interior, we ■Elates ari' similarly . in position on the a summer ti'inpera- is a summer of 7<) . Maiiga.K-aka, .Tapaii. ilou, ill thi' West of ■inme m( :m summer' as a I'limale mmh ler ill summer and on both cnntinenis. e sarai- parallels on / 1 3 C- »* — -.T-*r -t-^ ,!^ » | p i m i»i i >|lgWIW(MilMt»MI<»WMIMWW / ly^ M ,.;j '^^o:^!^'^:^^^^' ' 'M., ^-"r^J't v: C'A IS.; ^ \ tj y ■ ^ :l.i cS^ i:^ ^^ ^Hl n <^'>i^ : f" ^ i'^. MAP in. FOREST, riUIKTE AND DESERT. From what ha> bcpii said in Ihe notes on the previous map, the physical features of this map are JTeadily inlerrcd. The nnifoim rainfall, during- the summer months, throughout Canada and the eastern [half of the United Stales with the summer temperatures varying from 50"' to80\ are conditions favourable [to the produ'tion :uul growth of forest trees. The absence of rain in the western half of tlie Uniti'd [States, is a sndiricnt cause for the absence of all vegetation except the cactus and artemi.sia or sage of the [desert, embb-ms of an mid region. This part of the <-ontinent, like the desert of Sahara, is rainless, [treeless, and (Icsdliilc It extends from ab>ut the 100th meridian to the western slope of tlie Paeilir, [whii h hitter, Miijor Emory, surveyor of the Mexican boundary, calls a narrow belt seldom exceeding 200 liles iu widili and .sonieiinics not more than ten. {Am. Ex. Doc. vol. 14, 1835-6.) Between this arid region and that of the regular summer rains to the north and east — the areas of le woodlands — lie the prairies In the.se grass zones there is not r.iin euougb to prodme trees. I>ut Buough to kei'p alive thr wild grasses. The tops of these jirairie grasses die during llie droughts of Bummer, but the roots have vitality enough to germinate again under the rains of s[)ring. Trees, which lay have ln'cu killed by drought, have no surh vitality. The part iiorih of the 49th parallel, marked in Mai) No. 3, as a continuation of the region of summer iroughts, is found, by recent explorations, to be good i)astun' laud, excepting that .south of the Cy])ress lills which is only of second (juality. North of the parallel of 4!'^, east of the Iioc' v Mountains, there are about 120,000 square miles of jl)rairie, an area equal to (Jreat Britain and Ireland. Between this and the North Saskatihewau the jrairie land predominates, but is inter8i)er8ed witli groves. North of the Saskatchewan the forests jredorainate, there l)eing not more iban iiiu'-tbinl i)rairie. Aionu' the eastern base of the !{ocky [ountains, and extending ui) into llie n-i-esses oC the mountains, is a belt of conifers, the principal itee seing the Douglas pine, (this tree is however an uhifs.} and the while ami Idack si)ruce. I'^ast of tliese lountains, the water sheds are mostly coven-d w itli lieavy forests of spruce, but the dry mound, where ^here are trees, with poplars (/mimhix Iremuloides.) In tiie damp forest lands near th«' mountains, balsam ;)oplar is fouud in some abuiulance. and this is the si>ecies which uiows to such an enormous size on the Lthabaska, Peace and Mackenzie rivers; all the islands in these rivers being covered with trees of this Japecies, often seven to ten feet in diameter and one hundred feet in height In the eastern parts of the territory the hanksinn pine is a small tree siddom attaining twelve inches [in diiuneter ; but on the soutlu'rn shore,- of Hudson Bav il is found twn feet in diameter and <>ni> ihtmdred feet in height. Another small pine {piniis ronlorln) rnnuvs IVom the head of tlie Athabaska ■ 'X ifitaM A^^i^i^r^«7>^^T .A'* ^'/.^ v/. 1| :n...';'' Li*'>r*''' \ ^ i^j^^^^. _^2^^ * -r 16 FOUEST, I'KAIltlK AM) DKSEllT. through th«> llo. ky Moimtains and lorms thick lorestN of iiiiiny niih-s in fxtoiit in nppor Ikilish Columbia west and north of tho Fra/.cv river. Tlu' forests of British Cohunbia, west of the Cascade Mountains, arc very line, and here the Dous^Ias- l)ine or DougUis-spruce (ahies Douglasii) and giant cedar attain their greatest dimensions. East of the Cascades the forest clings about the mc uitain tops, but the trees are much smaller. Vinus penUerora is in some abundance on the Thompson river, and has much the appearance of red cedar. On the western slopes of the Kocky Mountains are many species of fir and i)ine, which in the near future can supply the eastern plains with enormous iiuaiitities of lirst class timber. {Letter of Prof. Maroiin). The comparative value of prairie and woodland is a question often dicussed. TIk- absence of trees is undoubtedly caused by ■ limatic defect, and tliis eraie zone. Temperature and rainfall during the summer months are the conditions of climate most favourable to the produ.tious of the earth. The absence or deficiency of one of these elements must necessarily render climates less propitioirs to plants Forest lands are permanently most profitable and produce most uniform crops. No doubt the preference is given to prairi." lands in the first instance, from the greater ease in bringing them under culture ; but the chic! consideration should be the permanent quality of the soil and climate, and not the facility of beginning. Prairies in the higher latitudes, as in Minnesota and especially in and west of Manitoba, have a gn-ater rainfall and more humidity, and sufficient to produce line crops. Ihit these are on the northern limits of the prairie lands. MAP IV. CONIFERS AND MJXKD FOliE8T8. Tho cone bearing trees me foimd in a broad belt west of the llocky Monntains, 8^A'eepin^• around Ihe shores of the North Pacilic and Arctic seas, down the eoast oi' Hudson Bay and Labrador flhd across the St. Lawrence, ivci'ping in the coch'r and more humid eliniates of the Pacilie, Arctic, and Atlantii- oceans. These forests are also mixed with white birch and pophtr. In the interior of tlic < ontinenl, where tlic (summer leniperatures range from 60" to 80" with somewhat uniibrm Mininier rains, are found the great mixed forests of North .\merica, the most remarivttble forests of deciduous and coniferoivs trees on the globe. These forests are nuide up of some sixty to seventy trees and lorty to lifty shrubs. The greater part and much the most valuable part of » these lorests are in the Dominion of {'anada. In going norlhwiird Ironi the United States boundary at the Lake of the "Woods by way of Winnipeg river and lake, the Nelson ri\ ci and the sea-coast northward. Mr. Hell found the trees disappearing in the following order — ba.sswood, sugar maple, yellow bir< h, white oak, soft maple, grey elm, white and red pine, red oak, black ash, white cedar, serrated leaf poi)lar, mountain ash, balsam lir, white birch, banksian pine, buhn of gilead, aspen, tamarac. white and black spruce. (Geo. R. 1879, p. 28, cc). Black spruce is found some distance beyond Seal river, lat. 59^. long. 9tj\ Here Mr. Bell loi\nd black spnice three feet in diameter and 11 10 leet in heiuiit. (id. p 29 le). Balsam poplar (1 to 10 feet in duimeter is found on Peace river, and very abundant. White spriue three feet in diameter is also found at Fort Simpson, lat. 62° 6'. {Prof- Macouii.) Ill: I I y r H M i -■"-"' ! UL N?5 M A V y. IIYDIJOGKAI'HY OF CANADA The water in the hikes and rivers of a country is a somev liat ax uvmIc incuMuo ul the Mirplu.- rain- fall over the evaiioration. in Eniiliind from 40 to (iO per ci'ul. i>r t lie rain paMNt's olf in the lorm <>[' vapour, leaving tiO to 40 per cent, in the iake.s and rivers and soil of the country. In tlu' desert areas aiuiosl the entire, und in many i>artN, the entire deposition is evaporated. In svieii rejiions tjiere are Hw or no fresli water lakes and but small streams, as in ihe iireat desi rts of the earth, — the desert of Saiiara and lis eon- tinuation north-eastward throueh Palestine, Independent Tartary, and Manshire Tartary. liu- centre of Atistralifl, and over the vast regions of summer drouifhts, between the Missi.ssippi and liir I'aciiie, within the United Slates of America. These deserts are also called " riverleF.> regions." In such arid traets, where thi- evaporation exceeds the rain-fill, the lakes are salt, as the threat Salt Lidie of I'liili. iln' Dead Sea, the Caspian and the Aral. ICven east of the Mississippi there are lew lakes within the Unitetl States compared with those in (.'anada. exeept in the north and those coniieeicd w iih llie St. Liiwreuce. Even in the latitiuh' of Washington and Ualtiniore, the evaporation in summer is twice ih.^ rain-fall. Canada, situated in the middle and higher parts of the temperate xoiie, lie> in the region of snnimor rains and moderate summer temi)eratures. The numerous lakes and rivers over this vast territory, are the exi)ression, the index of the rain-fall over the evaporation. In any uood map of Canada one may count from 50i' to 1000 hikes, and lake-like expansions of rivers. These hikes and rivers not only give a more beautiful and varied aspect to Ihe scenery, but add to the .salubrity of the clinuite, the cool humid bree/es from which temper the heat of the long summer days, ami the lursrer ones, never freezing, soften the severity of winter. No country presents a greater variety of lovely and magnificent scenery than this land of a thousand lakes. The chief physical features which it is necessary to rel'ev to in considering tiie rivers of North America, are the liocky Mountains, the AUeghanys in the east, niul the Lmrentian between the St. Lawrence and Hudson liay. These are the great water-sheds of the river systems of the United iStates and Camidii. The continent, whieh is about two miles high in Mexico, and narrow from ocean lo oci'an falls lo a lower level northward, spreadinu out like a fan. Through the central i)arts of the I'nited States' Territories it still lelains an altitude of one mile lo a mile aiul a half, but north of 49' falls lo 1,000, SOO, 600 and even to 400 feel above the sea level. l^ake Superior, 2,000 miles inland, is but (500 I'eet above the ocean ; hike Winnipeg 700 ; Athabaska 000 ; and the country between lake Superior and Hudson liay, tiorth of the height of land, under 400 and oOO feet. Hence the general course of the great rivers of the Dominion, eaot of the Rocky Mountains, is north and north-eastward. •: ii ft; ^^yfTT^ ,.''"' -A ' .'fJt^. Jikl^'V[ .V"'"" f A ' .••>-' ,, 1 1 ii ** Li'^^M^ri^'^i \\ • \** %iwm\ Jii ■ ■"■'--J* r,. ^ M/^ : ^' •■ 5^ '■*•',:::'.'' A- 7> > •/ ^^ '^ \ V '■'"„/ '.^'"k,:- <■''" i"'-*^ j-/,*,i ..nllWll"!'" \^l l."'" \ \ A, ■^ ///,., 'A' \ >■ i \ C V \ \ ► ^\-^y (,.'" \ \ if O It ^ .vwi ^^:^J^ ^^ ^ T ''ki^T?:*^"-' |..).iA' ..i...)"'' \ ,.K- \ "¥ ,>^. •v" H-" \KK .™~.^, f» / HaiMvl.* •t ^ -v., /,.'>„ ^-^ ,. .1(4-rfS,„„yl. t' w .c>^ts .^^^ I>' iJ.^' v„^'" f:|v^.i^ >" O' '"^^ij :n y N '0 \ ■ y •V (\X r> Xij^ 0. /v--- :)V1 ^^ K if' K< \\*»M1 »rti' Ip'Si «>> Jj.'t Lonf^ilufl** West i)|0 frdin firfonwirh 3 JtlL A=^^ Wo \v«»»<»'t?' v^ I A (',. flirn,. |.,4). M'H •20 llYDIiiiOUAI'HY OK CANADA, . Tho livtMs und laki's of CaniulM arc its mosl rcinarkiible physical fentuvos. We notice chiefly Ihe three gTi'tit river nvsIi-ihn iis luoic inliiiiatcly loiiui'.tc.l with cur subject: — the St. Law iviice, "Winnipeg and Mackenzie. The lirnt and la.st of these drain areas of t'roni 500,000 to r)50,000 square miles, and the Winnipeg some 400.000, lo-rether I'orming water courses witli I'ew l)reaks i'rom the gulf ol' the St. Lawreme, on the Atlaniie, to the mouths (iltli.' Maekenzie on ilie Arctic ocean in latilu\ mountains are the water shed of the rivers of the interior a..a\. divides the waters falling into the St. Law rence from those llnwinu- nui-lhwiu-d into that hay. The St, Lawrence lielow ith. but no stream of any imporrance «'ntt»rs it from the .south, exceiit the St. John, St. Francis and Chaudiere 1>etweeu Montreal v.nd Quebec. Sir William i-ogan. in his (ieological llisports, gives tli- basin watered by the St. Lawrence at 630.000 square miles. — TO.OdO of these beinu in the United States. I*>ut including the gulf and the islands, which nuiy l)o considiicd a part of the valley of this tii-eat river, there would still be more than half a million s(|iiare miles in Canad.i: and (he lisliinu urouiids in and around the gulf are amouii' the most valuable |)<)sscssions of ilie Dominion. The ureal lakes of the St Lawrence are situated on lour plains or plateaux, rising one above tha other, from lake i iniario. the suvlace of which is l':!J feet above the ocean, to lake Superior, 600 feet abo\" that li'vel. 'i lie beds of these lakes I'orm the most lemarkabli' depressions oil the continent. Lake Ontario, havini; an average depth of (iiMI feet, has a basin Ws feet below Ihe level of the sea. and some parts of it l.ooo feel. Lakes Superior and Michiii.", if not Huron also, are HOO to LOGO feet deep the beds of which would l»c 300 to 400 feet below the surlace of the ocean. Lake Ontario, the snmllest of thes<' lakes, is oval shap'd. 180 mile.s long, and in the widest part 60 to 70 miles ; lakes Erie and lluron each 240 mih's long: Micliigau 320; Superior 400, ami in some places 20O miles from shore to shore, having a superficial area of .32,000 square iuiles. Michigan and Huron about 22,500 each. The waters of these lakes und rivei-s are remarkably transparent. It is not uncimimon for a voyageur to see the bottom to the depth of .")0 leet. and thosi- who have Ix'eu much on lake Sn])erior say to the dejith of 200 leet. The St. Lawrence and its lakes are estimated to contain 12.000 cnV)ic miles of w ater, or mon" than half Ihe fresh water on the globe. The water passinn' over the falls at Niagara is estimated sit twenty million cubic feet per minute, and as this does not repri'.sont more than half the rainfall upon the area drained above the falls, an etpial tjuantity must pass oil' in vapour. The chief rivers which poui their waters into lake Winnipeg, are the Saskatchewan and Assini- boine from the >vest, the Had river from the south, and Winnipeg from the east. The largest of these, HYDIiOOItAI'HY OF CANADA. 21 the Siiskatohewen (the water that inns rajiidly') rises in the llocky mounU'.iis in numerous streams, between 40" and 53" ncnth latitude. The conlluence of these tributaries fo- ins the two branches ol" the Saskatchewan, which, after diverging more than 300 miles, meet some 800, or following the course of the streams, 1,000 or 1,200 miles from their sources, M'hence the unito'J Saskatchewan runs 280 miles to its einbouchiaro in lake AViiinipeg. The Assiuiboiue has ii;s sources in the high lands between tln' parallels of 40" and 53" and between the 105th and 110th meridians West. The two thief branches of the Assiiiilioine — the Qu'appelle and Souris — unite 500 miles from their sources and 200 from the Red river, which the Assini.)oine joins iit the eity of Wiiiiiii>e0 miles ol' whieh from the bay is navigable for large steamers. The river at its mouth at hiuh tide hivs a breadth of (! or 7 miles, but it eontracts rapidly, and for the first ti'H miles the width is from three to four miles. Narrowing to the h.'ad ■•!' tide water, 24 miles up, it is one and a hnlf miles wide. Above this it varies from one half to one mil.', with 20 to 40 feet of water, and a velocity of 2i to :'. miles an hour. At the mouth ofihe river, spring tides miv about 12 lee* and neap tides 6 feet. In following the river downward. Mr. I!.'!! I'oniid another 150 miles in one place navigable for steamers. (Geo. R. 1877-8.) Thi^ Nelson river, however, .oul.l not piol)ably be used as a means of communication beiwen Hud.son Hay and hik.- Winnipeg. This rivr Mr. liell estimated to have four times ihe quantity of water ..I the Ottawa at the Chaudiere fails, which wouUl -ive it a volume equal to the St. Lawrence at the falls ol Niauara. This estimate would not be improbai)le as the Nelson is the outlet of an area mneh larger than Ihe St. Lawivn. e above the Niagara falls, with a somewhat similar rainfall, llelow Sipi-wesk lake, 120 miles from lake Winnipeg, all the waters of the Nelson unite for the lirst time after leaving Play-green lake near lake Winnipeg. The channel is here one-fotirth ol' a mile wide, and from 40 to 50 feet deep, with a . u.rent of three miles an hour. The Mackenzie is the largest river whieh contributes its wat<>rs to the .Xretic oe.>an in ihe western hemisphere. li is about 2,500 miles long, and following the windings of the stream, probably 3,000 miles, with 2,000 adapted to steam navigation. The area drained is 550,000 square miles. It takes its rise in the Rocky mountains chielly in the second and higher peak or the Cascade ranre. between latitudes 53" and 57 , and lonyitudes 117' to 127'' west. The chief branches whi<'h by their conlluence form the Mackenzie are Ih.' Teaci and Alhabaska rivers. The lirst, rising between the 54ih and 57lh parallels, ami 120th : I Jjg HYDIiOdUAl'lIY OF CANADA. iiii.l IJTth meridians west in th.> higli and imexploivd regions of th.- iiitorior, bivaks throu.tfh the oa«teni or Rocky Mountain chain, and ai'tcr a .ourso east by north ol' moro than a thousu.id miles, joins the Athabaska river, iioiih of Atlnibaska hike, near hititnde r)8\ Thence to Great Slave lake, the united stream is called Slave river. The .hief tributaries of the Pea(c rivr are the Pino, Sniokoy, Parsnip and Finlay- The sources of the Athabaska are near latitixde 53-, and between longitudes 117" and ll!i' in the eastern ranu-e of the Wocky Mountains ; its general course is north-eastward for 1000 miles to the lake of the same name. The Pembina, Slave. McLeod, Rocky and sevi'ral minor streams contribute their waters to the Athabaska. From Great Slave lake to the ocean the river bears the name of its discoverer, Mackenzie, who passed down it in 1703. From Athabaska lake to the Arctic sea, the Mackenzie is fed bv many large rivers and lakes, the chief being th du Liards, or Mountain, from the west, TaO to 1000 miles long: and the du Ko( her from the east, a tributary of Great Sla\ »• lake. The vast systems of lakes and riv(>rs centring in the Athabaska, Great Slave, and Great Bear lakes, also uive their water^ to the Mackenzie. The country on tht^ western, southern, ami eastern shores of Hudson Bay, which contributes its waters to that inland sea, is probal)ly twice th ■ area of the valley of the St. Lawrence. This vast region is but little elevated above the ocean, and is represented to be a level country with :in alluvial soil or loam and clay of good quality, well wooded and watered by numerous rivers. There are at least twenty to thirty large rivers, a dozen of which would, in Europ", be called first cla,ss : such as the Albany, Moose, Ai)bit.ibee, Harricanaw,aiKl Notaway on the south ; Rupert, East Main, Great and Little Whah- on the east, and the Nelson, Severn, Hayes, Churchill and Doobaunt on the west. The Churchill. 7n0 mih's lonii'. runs through 17 degrees ol longitude and is the outlet of numerous lakes and tributaries. The Albany is from .'>00 to 7nO mih-s long and drains a vast country over ten degrees of longitude lying south-west of James' Hay. • , Most of the grains and vegetables of the middle temperate /.one come to maturity wherever planted in the country to the south, east and west of James' Hay : but judging from the temperature and rain fall, no doubt that entire region would be best adapted for pasture and meadow lands. The jtarts of Hudson Uay around which this vast country lies, re nearer Liverpool than New York,— Port Nelson, on Hudson Bay, being 2.!i41 miles and New York 3,040 miles from IJverpool. Agricultural products would, by being shipped from that bay, save the cost of liOOO miles of inland carria^,*'. and agiicultural products are heavy of transit. The ports ur> oju-n from May till October, aiid ihat route has, for two hundred years, been used by the Hudson Bay Company. A charter for a Railway from Lake V\innipeg to Hudson Bay has ri'cently been obtained. t T I *?-g;%*s«.'. '.'^X n ±. * »— 3/- / \ OR \ -jsgm MAP VI. GRASSES. Tho region of the cultivated grasses (timothy and clover ohiefiy) ii* identical wiih thiil of the KnimntT rains, roughly sketched in the temperate zone of this continent by the presence of forenti. ; where ihe»a do not exist the cultivated turf cannot be produced, unless in the higher latitudes anul)ject. Blodget's Climatology of the United Stntes, Ch. XV. "Nearly all the cultivated forms of grasses," says Blodget, ' are derived from England. They find derided limitations in the (•Hmate consequently [of the I'niled States] and are very far from supplying the requirements here. Cultivable grasses are needed, whicii will bear a higher summer heat, and the summer aridity which is so general in the districts now occupied by native grasses only, which yet show no adaptation to the necessary re-seeding and frequent change required in all .ultivated districts. The cultival)le turf made up of some of the many varieties of grasses, belongs most decidedly to the districts of equally distributed rains above the 30th parallel, and it is rare from Baltimore [latitude 3H° 18'] to Washington [latitude 38' SS ] unless carefully preserved, as at all points near this latitude east of the Missi,Ksipi)i river. Within the area north of the 39th parallel there are many limitations, and it may be more precisely set down .-.s coincident with the great mixed forests, failing where these fail, either on sandy tracts or prairies. For the sandy plains of N.'W Jersey and in some parts of New England the English gra.s8es fail, though tho cause is not climatologioal (?) But on the prairies of some of the States east of the Mississippi the climate assists to limit them through high summer temperatures and long periods of drought. West of the Mississippi the climate is still less favourable, and as the soil has less of the retentive .haracter in receding from the Mississipin, the favorite cniltivable turf almost wholly fails. The prairies are more richly and variedly grassed in British America, and they doubtless merge gradually into humid climates and tenacious soils, l)oth east and west of the plains above the 49th parallel " Bl. p. 451. "The great prairies have many peculiar sp. ci.'s [of grass] of most tenacious hold until the turf is broken, but then almost incapable of r.'produclion as they randy produce seeds and nev.>r spread from the root. 'ij / :i., »f„,.'lli l,.l.' w \C \ •^ V -^^ % ■>. A^ 7> .A^*' V J^'W s;'^-*. ,.!,.'■■"" H~' >V J. """'\ ' ■ \m I1J> '■-f '/'"TK ^:^ov^ A' ;<"• ', » ;n, YORI re% 1 rJV-' ■ i.>«i'" „i''- \ \ '"'N. ../^ l...f- .iMlH «r \ ■> >, 1 JWi ....'i ■•V J *'"•!. fl.-K' ==:i'- \ ar*!-- », (if ..i'"' /:'■ y' ^\<^ w iW < TA . 'r \ >^ / ■* n . aJi- U'^ 4 }h'^'." \. w.-M ii;ii r,.,ii, 1,1 ,>M, I, s .1 94 OUASSES. '■ Thcif is no imrt ol llio United Statt'.> imjuuI (o Knsjlund in llic nuniln r iiiul fxu'llcufc ol' lln> g'liisHcs native or oxotio. On the wholo Atlantic plain at this iatitudo [89 to 40'] the cultivatucl Jinalisli grawscs arc with dilHiiilty niaintaincd. '■ In llii' niiddli' stairs tlicrc iirr si'vcral spi-cios of l)liif jjrasscs ( ptiu lomfirrssti) — Imt ihoy do not iippcar to 111' adapliul to tin- pronipi soi'ding and ready inltivation which arc so ni'ccsHary to a varied agricnUnrc — ni'xi to these on tlir soiilli there is a large nuniher ol' subtropical sorghums or iniiU't gransen. TIk- sugar eane is itsell i'retpientiv eultivatod as a grass with NXucesN." (id. pp. 441'-o"2.) Tlie prairie grasses make good pastures in thiir wild stale and grow where the timothy, clov er and even l)lue grasses will not. hut wlu'n the land is hrouulil under culture, the wild grasses cannot be reset in district- even jiarlially depiiMnl ol'suniniei rains. In no pari of the United States, west ol' the Mississippi, are the rains in tlu' summer. In tiir iiorlli and N. \V. of New Mexico they are nutinly in winter: in the soulh'vn parts ol Texas and New Mi-xieo th'-y are in autumn; aiul west ol' .^rk"ansas in spring. The pastures and meadows, with their accorai)anying flocks, herds and the dairy, have a value equal, il'not sui)erior, lo ilie cereals. From the meat and rapiilly increasing demand for horses, beefandmultou in the '.:re;it lentres of commerce and mnnul'actures on both continents, the pasture lands of C^anada must assume, in the near rnture. iui iinporiance scarcely to be o\ erestimated. The chief grazing region, ilie chiel memlow.- and pa-tures in North America, the home of the Hocks, herds and the dairy, must be in the Dominion of Ciimida. emliraiinu' as it does the zones of summer rains, and lying in latitudes and pi)sitioii.- similar to the western and central parts of Europe. Taking as our uiiide tin- tenipiTMiuii's ;ind iMinlall, the existence of native grasses, anil the analogy of Europe, we are .jvxstified in the inlereiicc that the cultivable gr.isses in t lie Dominion would extend over an area of more than two million square niile>, or more than l,200,000,(t(t»l acres. Deducting .such percentage of until lable lands as is usually found in countries — and Canada is made up chiefly »? m::' BLbS .-I • ■f"^ \ V MAP Vfl. WHEAT, IJARLKY, llYE, OATS, cVc; ROOT CRorS, VEGKTAllLKS. The Norl hern limit of wheat In abowt ")H north iiilitude ; in Norway it ripcnn as high as httitude 04", and in Swfdcn to ()'2 . h\\\ \h not muih cnitivatod beyond 00'. and Tails olf t-Tiidnally in tho east. In tho inti'rior ol' tht^ .onlinents it niainivs north of latitndo OOMvh.ro the snmnn'r temperatures are at 00" Fahrenheit, with on.' month at 63'. On western coasts, as at Aberdeen in Scot land, it ripens in a summer ol' 57' with one month at .">«; in England, at a temperature ol' 60' ; at Kasan in Russia (lat. 6(1°) at 60' W. On western .oasis, esp.'cially in the hiiiher latitudes, in addition to low temperatures, the growth .>!' wheat is restricted by a too humid atmosphere, and by tht. prevalen.'e of fogs and ilouds. The summers in Ih.' w.'st of l']ngland and Ireland have seven -tenths of the days cloudy. The preval- ence oldanip. fogs and .loudy weather, limits the profitable growth of wheat chiefly to the central and eastern parts of England, and often iitlicts Ih.' whole west ol Europe. , In warm climates, the humid tropical heat is destructive to the wheat plant, as along the Atlantic coast of the United States to lat. 37°, and in th.' int.'rior to lat. 3t^^ when' wheat cannot be grown ; below these parallels the temperatures are also too high for wheat, th.' sumni.'rs ranging from 73" to 82^ Vast territories even north of th.' line named ha\r tenr eratuves in the agricultural months quite too high for the profitable .uKure ol' this . . ival. the coarser grains and grasses. The summers of Illinois, Missouri, . Kansas, and Ih.' whole country east of ti>.' d-'s.'rt areas of th.' United States, are t.-n to fift.-.'U degrees higher than the best districts for the grains and grasses. C.-ntral Illinois has a sxtmmer of 74" ; Ohio. 70 to 74' ; Iowa, 72" to 78° ; Kansas and Missoixri, high.'r still. These temperatures are at least l..n degrees too high lor the profitable growth of wheat, barley, oats, rye, and the .ultivable grasses. Heme the b.'ginning of the summer heat is the end of th.! further growth of the.se plants. Add to this the droughts, arid winds olf the deserts, and other attendants of sxich prairies, and we hav.' a climate destructive to the great staples of the temperate zones. Great Britain, on.' of the most favoured regions for wheat, has a summer of about 60° to 62' : London has til 0' ; Glasgow 60' ; Swansea 62' ; Dublin 60' ; Liverpool 57' 6' ; and tho .central counties of England 62°. ■■?;■;..■■ j' ;. V- ■;::■■■" V.;- Canadian summ.ns, ne.essarily varied over such a vast region, have nearly the same temperatures as the best wheat districts of the old world-frora 60" to 70°. Halifax has 60" 8' ; IVdericton (New Rrunswick) 64 " 8' : (Quebec, 69" ; Montreal, 70" 8' ; Toronto, 6 ' ' .V ; Manitoba, 67" to 70" ; Vancouver, 61° 5'. The ctiltivated cereal grains and grasses oome to us through the cool, humid, equable climates of the D , Mil J; ' ^ ^ fix 2() WHEAT, IIAUI.KV, KYE, .VC wi'si of luirope, uiid thrive Ix'si and almosl i'xly in siniihir dislrifls on this > oiitiiient, wlii< li arc nortli ol the Unitod Stiih's. '\'\u- iiativi piiinls usc'l :is loud -as Indian corn, rici', &<•. — are ail tropical or sul)lri>pir!il. and ■annot l)(' eultivMt"d ill the north of the United .States nor in Canada — excepting Indian corn, whicii adapts itsoH'to the middle latitndes of the temperate zone, hut in all cases carries with it its seniitropiciil char- acter of reijuirinii ,i liii;h temperature — a summer oi'iJo" with o!ie month at il7'. Sir .lohn Richardson (Arc. Kx. vol. J, p. -Jtl?) si.ys that wheat is trrown with sriccess in latitude &)^ 5'. near the horders of < i real Sla\e lake, Hislioji Tache found it throwing up to 02' on the same lake, and further west it will niatuiv at a hiaher latitude: it <>rows Hwly on the Saskatchewan (lat. 54') and luxuriantly in the valleys of ihi' Assinihoine and Red rivers, iown in suicessivi' crops lor -0 years on the same fields. This region is, says Blodget, the seat of the ureaiest averaue yii-ld of wheat on the ,000 acres, over 3<)0,00it square miles ol wheat land in o]urer crops, in the liii;lier latitiuh's, and near their northern limits. Deducting from these S00.000,0()() a<;res the usual allowance for mountainous districts and cold .soils — (this latter to include all north o| the siunnier isothermal of •>;< , which reaches the parallel of 62" in the mierior) — there would still reinaiii a practically boundless area of the best wheat land on the contiiieiii In slating the northern limits of these plants, it is not, of course, assumed that they can be prolitably grown at such high latitudes, although they usually produce surer and better crops near their northern limits ; the reference is made t-) show the area adapted to their culture. ..; BAKLEY, UYE, &0. Tho statements uiiule in reference to wheat apply to barley, oats, and other Kiuall gruinK, ex(?ept that these go into colder and more humid climates by nearly live degreeis of mean temperature. They bear colder summers, poorer soils and shorter periods ol' growth. Barley is the most (lexibK ripening its grain in the shoit summers under the Arctic eircle on the west of Norway, and going nea.'y as ^ar on Mackenzie river in North Aii!"rica. Oats bear north of Scotland to the Shet lands, but seldom ripens properly. In North Anierii a barley ripens well ni Fort ^forman in latitude G")', 400 miles north of the Orkneys and the capital of Sweden, and iSAO miles north of the capitals of Norway and Russia. As barley will mature live degrees farther north than wheat, no doubt when these northern countries in Oanada shall have l>eeii cleared of the forests and the land drained, barley and othm' food plants will, in lht\ new ■world, l;o as far north as in the old. On the Peace river in latitude 58 ft', longitude lUr, barley sown on the Sth of May was cm on the (ith of Auunsi. ilO days. The grain was large and of beautiful colour. {Mneoun'i, Geo. Rep. IS75-t in the north-western territories of the Dominion. In Russia, Germany and imrts of Fiance, rye furnishes the bread ol at l.'ast onc-tliird ot the I>opulation. . , • BARLEY, RYE. OATS, &c : Oats an- uvowii io tlio oxtiem.- north of Scotland in latitude 58' 40'; in Norway to (;5" ; in Swedon to (^^' ; therelbvf not .niito so far north as ry<'. In Russia the Northern limits seem to loincide with thosi^ of rvf Th.'ir i ulUuv extends soutluvards to the northern parts ot France hut not niuc-li south of Paris. (JMlilude 48 •')()'). In North Anierira wild oats are found iiiowiuu' to near the northern limits of irrain culture. Macouii found oats in latitude 56' lour leet hi;rh, barley of nearly equal u'rowth, wild grass three 'eet. {G,v. I! . lS75-tl, // 1 U.) li' Scotlaiul. l/in. ashire. in NorLliern 0-ermany, and Westphalia, oaten bread or oatou cake still forms a staple in the food ol th" poor. l'ca>e and hops do not g'o ,so far north as oats, but the cdimates and .-oils o\ cr vast areas lu the North-w.-st of Canada, are favour:;ble for them, and wild vetches and pease are found at a very hi'.'li latitude. .Vt latitude,5U' • wild p.-ase «nd vetches i«ro\v to an amazing heiaht. Vetches, roses, willows, herb- and grasses of ife/te/a. /hiu. Irituum, and bivmus. have almost tropical luxurianci;' (GVo. Jl, lH7.')-ii, //. 1.".2. at Ilwhim Hope, Pence II.) I'rof IMl di-eo li. IxTT.) found at V\. .Moos,', near Kud.son Bay. "oats, barley, beans, peas, turnip-, beets, carrots, . abbages. onion-, tonndoes and potatoes growing without any more orts make no reference to their -rowth in th.- north-west.'rii terrilori.'s beyond the limits named, but from the posiiioii- in which they are nio-l . ultivated in Europe there can be no doubt that there are large area- in the norih-west of Canada with climates well-suited to their culture. Hop- of the linest .piality are^ ext''iisively grown in all the other provinces of the Dominion HOOT CROPS, &c, Vi'ge The poli.r limits oltlio potato arc lu-yond those ol bailoy in Scandinavia, and advanc- intu Iceland, ^vhero havlfy cannot lu- grown ■. bnt in 1. »dand the potato is said to 1... Utile lar-er than a wal.mt. In putting- the northern limits ot the potato and luniip a degree .,r so higher than l.arl.y we still keep within ti.eir . lin.atir range. Turnips will go to even a higher latitude than th. p..tato, l.ui the other egetables here named will n-.t grow s<, iar north. As these vegetables can be used wh.ii but i.artly grown, they may h" mltivaie,! ,n high latitudes, and in short summers, where they will not npen, and iarther north than even th. eoarser urains. Hen-e the immense areas in Canada ov.-r whi.h these food plants may be grown. Sir A. Mackenzie says 'that in HH.s a small spot was cleared [lat 5K 4.V lono, 117] at the Old Establishment [Fort Vermillion Vj and .sowed with turnips, potatoes, carrots and parsnips. The iirst grew larue and the ..(hers thrived well,' (IMi.H. 1H7i>. P. ^il.) On tin. Peace river near the Hockv Mountains at latitude .W W p,.tat.,es, onions, carrots, cabbages aiul other vegetables grow in the gardens, and at this date (:i2nd July) ' potatoes planted 2sth April were ot very lair si/e and lit lor use, growth ..xtreniely rapid-thermometer so^ at noon : was iniornicd that in 1S74 there was no Irost from 1st May iintil 15th Scpiombi-r. [1 Ylll. MAIZE AND GRAPEtS. Maize (Indian ;e zone and are. no doubt, inferior to the valley of the St. Lawrence for this cereal, but its culture has advanced norlhw.-ud from its native climates the nu)si rapidly of all the food plants, adapting iisell to the short summers of high latitudes where ii ripens in i)0 da\> instead of requiring seven months as in the tropi(\s. It may. there- tore, in time, he i^iown w ith protit in the interior of the continent south of the summer isothermal of 05 . On the reaci> river, latitude 5(1 12' aiul l,(i()() fed above the sea, Imlian corn had ripened three years in succession. (I'rof. Macouu's evidence before committee of House of Commons, March, 187(5.) TiiK (ii;.vi'K is here put uiiii maize because tlu' climatological limits northward an' nearly the sanu; — one map answering i'or both I'lie grape will usually ripen its fruit where Indian corn matures. Keith .lohnsoii puts the northern limit ol tlie grape-growing districts in Europe two degi'ees farther north than thai of maize, in latitude 51 in .-iuslria and 52 in G-ermany, .south-east of Denmark. These posi- tions aie under the most favourable circumstances. In the north-western Territorii's ol the Dominion. Dr. liichardson fouiul the wild vine in latitude 62', and I'rof Macoun found i on the ,\ssiniboiue. north of Fori EUice, west of the 100th meridian and as high as the 51n| parallel, where it produces excellent Iruit. Its northern limit in the new world has not been asei-rlained, and in giving it the same as maizo we are keeping within its known climatic range. The wild vine is usually found in Canada co-extensive with the maple ; and where a i:aiive plant has fastened itself without the care of man, we may infer that the climates are linouiablc loi- it. In the best wine-producing localitii's in Europe the grape is found to produce nunc fruit and Ix-llei wine under a summer temperature of tiT' than where the heat is greater. It is a fact of importance in this coniu'ction that both the vine and Indian corn produce better :/ wmm ^ J. '(■<" .^ v (!/'- X '}^' .X ex .J rji'i v,- -^v: 7 4 •A-/, cOw,. ';*.f< VJ ?/ / V- y^ \iy i" '''<. ,\\'i:< ^'^ >ii,/ 1 ;;vi;, X lUA t.^ ■!!:>i 'nfm \ ^'^X^ :v / **-.?■ <^. .■f^ / '^'%r«. <<" /S'-^ ■i.\ ''*:^ V' ^r, ^;>^ >: ■*>:< •*»;? ^'->-. /<>, / X )P: 'fcH^,, ""«/ (I ' //.A),,. '-"ft, *,R C i" C T I c C I << ' "->/■. r: r~y i i^-^.^' -■'/„ / r i/: v; l5^?> >?"" 5t „i',„.- '^^t^'xi I '•««:.» '■'"cV" VAW,„ /-///•i '!;X .v^*. XX:^)/- ^■ w / ■f(i A^&^ \ 7 /' -.../ ^f ""*/ J ' a. l"l*tyr^ , ••^ J!^'/*/,/i V\V"'i ifTe ;t}-*i(|l' f1 lioV."^ "/^ ''"/rJ M^'ii" //.)'■ X r^-vt*. >'■ on / i ^ r rt 1 7J '>( ■^ ■?;V >/^ / r '■J^' ./ f^' iZ'-'-s-'f.^i^ W-/ '> '7 .X '4 7t Z"'>i «V. .\^^ Kv, r^"-.. i/)^' .uv' ,v^' •ViisV-''' c^J' .( '4 . =1.: fVj, ;."■'• ^9 // y/x.y/kf:<: \ '^., / I W / vVn- Mis.' «*2 .7C^\- '.'0 ^47 -■ «.Ai ' X \' -/ "37 ■ :/£}. 82 VAV/.V. \N'I) (IHAl'KS. fruit and in moatri abuudaupo luntli ot' Ih.-ii- unlive olimiilen. In the Stiit.-s (.f N.'W York nnd MaHHa- chuNetts, iustuuc.'s are given of Indiau •i.•l th.' be^t i.arl> of the I'nion lor this « ,...al. In ilu- valley of Ih-- St. Lowrenc, too, in the Cauadas, Indian corn yi«'l<^ niore p.'v a( r.' than in Iliiuois or the ^outh-wostfrn Slates. The European varielie.s ol the i^rape seem not to he well adapted to the Canadian climate, hut grape- growers in Canada are getting hardy varieties by hybridi/nig and uning the native vino as the ntaudard. is «E :i;[K -aaiiiirt,. MMMMMlMaltMMIMM'MMa N9 9. II MAP IX. J? ORCHARD F1MIIT8. The apple, like the < tTcaiH, hiiN it« proper home north of the hunimer iBothernial of 70" in the cooler PrHb of the teiiiporate zone, Ihe areas of tmninier rainN In warmer climates the fruit is inferior in (jnnlity, although of tfood size. The Nouthern and south-eastern parts of Ihe United States are too warm for the apple; and the regions of summer droughts through all the eentral jiarts of the continent west of the Mis8issii)pi— the treeless region— have climates destructive to the apple-tree ; for a climate where deciduous trees will nnt urovf, ction of fruit from their respective countries to be ]•■. Soil '» •% & 'pJi^ .»-^^ ..«.c' .\»' X e. f l'' 7.5 ,,,. V i.i> % ^> yj / /■ /-m >"4/„- ^iRCTIC ClfCU \ ^w, '\ - '•ft' 0> , W"^ T.wyfNrtMi ■:. C ! A#:w'' >^' /y^ r ;^'« » ^ ihrll""' ^ iW" \- U;i! M V' .-' V ^<''' /* A.V >: ^••.•^ y 1 „>>'•' *i" VCi .':.,«,l. .5".. >'' 1\^ ",!Jv«.;f-" r*"!^- ,/C' '.>i'«r '\i rt^ftw-^7j > ^ -i'"* T'-ri ^'*fk 'A' . V, ,V, 'IS'J- 1 V^ %y< ^■fi'"".^ f'l^:!^ /Av-O-V^ -V. !''' Toi v>\\'\. /.» fVt • -C \ ' , vri ,< i*i^ mi 1>^ 'X 'j^ ( (^/v. > Vy \\ eing loo early in llii" season for that society to send the fruit, the loi nl Hurticultiiral Society of llamiltcn, a town at the head of Lake Ontario, 12ii0 miles from the Atlantic, .sent a collection. The olliccrs of the Royal Horticultural Society reported that thi.s show of apples was the tinest ihey had ever had from ;niy i>ne country, and the chief countries of Europe and the I'll i ted States had c-ol]ecli<>ns at tlie h'oyal llnrlicultural (i, miens in that year. In Kurope the api>l<' ripens in latitude "U and thrives well uj) to i!()'. The area in Canada over whi G-eolof-i.-ul Survey of Cauiida, is intended to show as n.-aily as is possible on so small a scah' the location ol the piiii.ipal economic minerals in Canada. Farther and .loser exploration will doubtless very largely in.rease the nnmi.er or these loeulities; but the map serves to indicate in the meantime that Canada is generally rich in viiluatde minerals, and that miuinu' industries may probably })e established sueeesslully in almost every part o! the Dominion. The abundant indi.atioua^.f workable coal-.seams throughout the great north-western grain growing region is. on aewmnt of the scarcity ..t timber over large areas, an especially ibrtunate eircumstame, and one which must materially promote its successful settlement. There are also in all probability, in the region between lakes Winnipeg and Athabaska, vast stores of salt and petroleum awaiting the enterprise and energy of future settlers for their development. - ,-t :^- ♦ |i-rniii ' \ llu •SiMllul :.-^' y <( :s> \ \ t iS;\ J- (In. '"ruf, "CTIC CIWOUlJ G-l ^">.. >*' \ 7i ■> \ c/ ;vi^- \ N ."'V A \ \ *^ '< 4ll ■ \ .\ / .. »' > \ (% "n ■k,..-. r ■\, fM"')- > •V \ \ \ i.^ \ // n<) t. s ■ T^i^'\--'^ asp-""...... ^ r"/^ \ >^^l 'r ! Ws -¥ /' o\\<^;jt \ / I \ 4, 2l JL 'rtTiM rir«>i»nwir!» ^15 ±r->N-"''»>"**' wo ('•l;ili|!. / /^^ /* J IVi lilt. > ftt-A.n l.lth M.x